Birds of Ethiopia and Eritrea: An Atlas of Distributioa 1408109794, 9781408109793

Table of contents :
Contents
List of Maps and Figures
List of Tables
Preface
Foreword
Acknowledgements
A General Introduction to the Region
The historical quest for birds in Ethiopia and Eritrea
Topographic regions and hydrography in Ethiopia and Eritrea
The geology and soils of Ethiopia and Eritrea
The vegetation of Ethiopia and Eritrea
The climate of Ethiopia and Eritrea
Bird habitats in Ethiopia and Eritrea
Bird and wildlife conservation in Ethiopia and Eritrea
Bird migration in Ethiopia and Eritrea
Breeding seasons in Ethiopia and Eritrea
General treatment of species and the atlas
List A. Species recorded in Ethiopia and Eritrea
List B. Hybrid species recorded In Ethiopia and Eritrea
List C. Additional species in Ethiopia and Eritrea mapping squares recorded over the border in Sudan, Djibouti, Somalia and Kenya
List D. Species not considered acceptable for inclusion in List A
List E. Endemic birds of Ethiopia and Eritrea
Appendix 1. Important Bird Areas in Ethiopia and Eritrea
Appendix 2. Threatened and Near-threatened Species
Appendix 3. Restricted-range species within Endemic Bird Areas of Ethiopia and Eritrea
Appendix 4. Biome-restricted species in Ethiopia and Eritrea
BIRD RINGING IN ETHIOPIA AND ERITREA
GLOSSARY
INTRODUCTION TO THE GAZETTEER
GAZETTEER Of LOCALITIES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INDEX

Citation preview

ERITREA Asmara

Gas h er R iv

are

M

tit Riv

er

b River

Axum

Gonder

Metema

mu R

gan River

Yavello Lake Chew Bahir

Warder

Negelle Arero Forest

ga

Galadi

reb Rive

r

SIMIEN MTS NP

Imi

Wabe S h

abe el

le R

Lake Afrera

Shilabo

iver Gode

Kalafo

er Riv Genale

Metema

Assab

Atbara River

Doumeira Gonder

Mustahil Dawa Riv e

Arero

Mekele

Lake Ashange

r

Fejeje

Sa

R r

Kelam

Bulcha Forest

Wadera Forest

Axum

Kebri Dehar

NECHISAR NP

Lake Chamo

Thio

ive

MAGO NP

Adi Keyih

ive r

Taca zze

Ghinir

Goba

er

Mui

Arba Minch Jinka

BALE MTS NP Harenna Forest

Riv

Lake Abaya

Maji

Awassa

Wondo Genet

GULF OF ZULA

bR

er Riv

Lake Langano Lake Shalla

Adi Quala

ti t Riv

Sheik Hussein

yb We

Omo

ETHIOPIA

Sittona

Degeh Bur

An

Lake Awassa Sodo

Mizan

Lake Zwai

Se

Biacundi

ARBOROBA ESCARPMENT

Nefasit Dekemhare

Mendefera M

er

Tepi

Boyo wetland

Harar

Om Hajer

Riv

i eR G ib G o je b River

Awash

AWASH NP

Lake Koka

Zwai Lake Arakit Lake Abiata Jimma

Metu, Gore, Tepi Forests

Debre Zeit

MTS

fen

Addis Ababa

ER CH ER CH

Lakes Alemaya Togochale and Adele Jijiga Fa

Dilu Meda wetlands Akaki wetlands

Dire Dawa

Ankober

Debre Zeit Lakes

Tokombiya

are

r i ve Didessa R

Riv er

Gewani

Meteka wetlands

iver

ve r

Metu Gore

OMO NP

Jem

ger

Sululta wetlands

Nekempte

Gok

Mu

Tessenei

DAHLAK ISLANDS

AKIL

River

Aligidir

Massawa

DAN

River Dab us

Debre Markos

Asmara

Barentu

Ga r ive

ile)

Lake Abbe wetlands

M

Agordat

Sebderat

Wikro

SE

Mrara ENAW IB AH Filfil RI Ghinda

R sh

eN

Aseita

r ive

Borkena wetlands

Fincha’a wetlands

Dembidollo Itang Gambela

Lakes Hayk and Ardibo

Dessie

Abay ( Blu

ERITREA

er

er Be

les

Riv

Bahar Dar

Afabet

Karkabat

Doumeira

Lalibela

Dangla

Asosa

Gilo R iver Ak obo Riv er

Lake Ashange

Lake Tana

Assab

DANAKIL DESERT

sh Awa R

Dinder River

r Baro Rive

Lake Afrera

er Riv

Atbar ver a Ri

Nakfa

Mekele

Barka R iver

er

SIMIEN MTS NP

eba Ans

Angareb R iv

er e Riv zz

Tac a

DES ERT

Se

Hasmet

Karora

Massawa

Bogol Manyo

Dolo

This map is not an authority on international boundaries.

Lake Turkana

Moyale

This map is not an authority on international boundaries.

Ethiopia endpapers.indd 1

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ERITREA Asmara

Gas h er R iv

are

M

tit Riv

er

b River

Axum

Gonder

Metema

mu R

gan River

Yavello Lake Chew Bahir

Warder

Negelle Arero Forest

ga

Galadi

reb Rive

r

SIMIEN MTS NP

Imi

Wabe S h

abe el

le R

Lake Afrera

Shilabo

iver Gode

Kalafo

er Riv Genale

Metema

Assab

Atbara River

Doumeira Gonder

Mustahil Dawa Riv e

Arero

Mekele

Lake Ashange

r

Fejeje

Sa

R r

Kelam

Bulcha Forest

Wadera Forest

Axum

Kebri Dehar

NECHISAR NP

Lake Chamo

Thio

ive

MAGO NP

Adi Keyih

ive r

Taca zze

Ghinir

Goba

er

Mui

Arba Minch Jinka

BALE MTS NP Harenna Forest

Riv

Lake Abaya

Maji

Awassa

Wondo Genet

GULF OF ZULA

bR

er Riv

Lake Langano Lake Shalla

Adi Quala

ti t Riv

Sheik Hussein

yb We

Omo

ETHIOPIA

Sittona

Degeh Bur

An

Lake Awassa Sodo

Mizan

Lake Zwai

Se

Biacundi

ARBOROBA ESCARPMENT

Nefasit Dekemhare

Mendefera M

er

Tepi

Boyo wetland

Harar

Om Hajer

Riv

i eR G ib G o je b River

Awash

AWASH NP

Lake Koka

Zwai Lake Arakit Lake Abiata Jimma

Metu, Gore, Tepi Forests

Debre Zeit

MTS

fen

Addis Ababa

ER CH ER CH

Lakes Alemaya Togochale and Adele Jijiga Fa

Dilu Meda wetlands Akaki wetlands

Dire Dawa

Ankober

Debre Zeit Lakes

Tokombiya

are

r i ve Didessa R

Riv er

Gewani

Meteka wetlands

iver

ve r

Metu Gore

OMO NP

Jem

ger

Sululta wetlands

Nekempte

Gok

Mu

Tessenei

DAHLAK ISLANDS

AKIL

River

Aligidir

Massawa

DAN

River Dab us

Debre Markos

Asmara

Barentu

Ga r ive

ile)

Lake Abbe wetlands

M

Agordat

Sebderat

Wikro

SE

Mrara ENAW IB AH Filfil RI Ghinda

R sh

eN

Aseita

r ive

Borkena wetlands

Fincha’a wetlands

Dembidollo Itang Gambela

Lakes Hayk and Ardibo

Dessie

Abay ( Blu

ERITREA

er

er Be

les

Riv

Bahar Dar

Afabet

Karkabat

Doumeira

Lalibela

Dangla

Asosa

Gilo R iver Ak obo Riv er

Lake Ashange

Lake Tana

Assab

DANAKIL DESERT

sh Awa R

Dinder River

r Baro Rive

Lake Afrera

er Riv

Atbar ver a Ri

Nakfa

Mekele

Barka R iver

er

SIMIEN MTS NP

eba Ans

Angareb R iv

er e Riv zz

Tac a

DES ERT

Se

Hasmet

Karora

Massawa

Bogol Manyo

Dolo

This map is not an authority on international boundaries.

Lake Turkana

Moyale

This map is not an authority on international boundaries.

Ethiopia endpapers.indd 2

11/1/09 15:33:38

Birds of Ethiopia and EritrEa

000 Ethiopia intro.indd 1

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000 Ethiopia intro.indd 2

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Birds of Ethiopia and EritrEa an atlas of distribution

John Ash and John Atkins

with contributions from Caroline Ash, Sue Edwards, Chris Hillman, Geoffrey Last and John Miskell Bird photography by Hadoram Shirihai

CHriStopHEr HELM London

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ContriBUtorS C.P.J. ASH PhD (Scientific Editor and Consultant) Address: 54 Rock Road, Cambridge, CB1 7UF, UK J.S. ASH PhD, DIC (Retired) Address: Paysanne, Godshill Wood, Fordingbridge, Hampshire, SP6 2LR, UK J.D. ATKINS MA (Education Project Manager) Address: Flat 7, Wickford House, 43 Sopers Lane, Christchurch, Dorset, BH23 1JF, UK S. EDWARDS MSc (Scientific Editor and Botanist) Address: Institute for Sustainable Development, P.O. Box 30231, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia J.C. HILLMAN PhD (Ecologist) Address: Granary Cottage, Dorstone, Hereford, HR3 6AP, UK G.C. LAST MA (Retired) Address: 19, Rue des Pyrenees, 31800 Labarthe-Inard, France J.E. MISKELL BSc (Senior Field Representative, CARE) Address: 99 Center Street, Geneseo, New York 14454, USA. H. SHIRIHAI (Ornithologist and photographer) Address: c/o A&C Black Publishers, 36 Soho Square, London W1D 3QY, UK

Published 2009 by Christopher Helm, an imprint of A&C Black Publishers Ltd, 36 Soho Square, London W1D 3QY www.acblack.com Copyright © 2009 text and maps by John Ash and John Atkins Copyright © 2009 endemic bird photographs by Hadoram Shirihai Copyright © 2009 habitat photographs by John Atkins and Jason Anderson Photographs of endemic birds have been contributed from the forthcoming projects: Handbook to the Birds of the Horn of Africa by Hadoram Shirihai; and Birds of the World: A Photographic Handbook by Hans Jornvall & Hadoram Shirihai (A&C Black, London). Photograph of Sombre Rock Chat © Nik Borrow The right of John Ash and John Atkins to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Design and Patents Act 1988. ISBN 978-1-4081-0979-3

e-ISBN 978-1-4081-3308-8

A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means – photographic, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping or information storage or retrieval systems – without permission of the publishers. This book is produced using paper that is made from wood grown in managed sustainable forests. It is natural, renewable and recyclable. The logging and manufacturing processes conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. Commissioning Editor: Nigel Redman Copy editor: Nigel Collar Design by Fluke Art, Cornwall Printed in China by C&C Offset Printing Co., Ltd 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Cover artwork by Martin Woodcock Front cover: Prince Ruspoli’s Turaco Back cover: Black Crowned Crane

ContEntS

Page

Preface (Professor Emil K. Urban)

7

Foreword (Professor Tewolde Berhan Gebre Egziabher)

8

Acknowledgements

9

A general introduction to the region (John Atkins)

11

The historical quest for birds in Ethiopia and Eritrea (Caroline Ash)

13

Topographic regions and hydrography in Ethiopia and Eritrea (John Atkins)

22

The geology and soils of Ethiopia and Eritrea (Geoffrey Last)

25

The vegetation of Ethiopia and Eritrea (John Atkins and Sue Edwards)

27

The climate of Ethiopia and Eritrea (John Atkins)

35

Bird habitats in Ethiopia and Eritrea (John Atkins)

38

Bird and wildlife conservation in Ethiopia and Eritrea (John Atkins and Chris Hillman)

44

Bird migration in Ethiopia and Eritrea (John Ash)

48

Breeding seasons in Ethiopia and Eritrea (John Ash)

57

General treatment of species and the atlas (John Ash)

59

Maps of the region (John Atkins)

65

Gallery of endemic birds (Hadoram Shirihai)

73

Species accounts and maps (John Ash)

81

List A. Species recorded in Ethiopia and Eritrea

81

List B. Hybrid species recorded in Ethiopia and Eritrea

372

List C. Additional species in Ethiopia and Eritrea mapping squares recorded over the border in Sudan, Djibouti, Somalia and Kenya

373

List D. Species not considered acceptable for inclusion in List A

373

List E. Endemic birds of Ethiopia and Eritrea

377

Distribution categories in Ethiopia and Eritrea (John Atkins)

378

Appendix 1. Important bird areas in Ethiopia and Eritrea

378

Appendix 2. Threatened and near-threatened species

380

Appendix 3. Restricted-range species within Endemic Bird Areas of Ethiopia and Eritrea

381

Appendix 4. Biome-restricted species in Ethiopia and Eritrea

382

Bird ringing in Ethiopia and Eritrea (John Ash)

387

Glossary (John Atkins)

396

Gazetteer of localities (John Atkins)

398

Bibliography (John Miskell)

426

Index

451

000 Ethiopia intro.indd 5

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LiSt oF MapS and FiGUrES

Page

Figure 1. A simplified map of the Dahlak Islands

23

Figure 2. Monthly distribution of nest records in Ethiopia and Eritrea

57

Figure 3. Breeding seasons of five groupings of birds in Ethiopia and Eritrea

58

Figure 4. Map of tetrad coverage in Ethiopia and Eritrea

59

Figure 5. The distribution map squares

63

Figure 6. Political and administrative maps of Ethiopia and Eritrea with main towns

65

Figure 7. Political and administrative regions of Ethiopia and Eritrea prior to May 1991

66

Figure 8. Topographical map of Ethiopia and Eritrea

67

Figure 9. A simplified map of major vegetation types in Ethiopia and Eritrea

68

Figure 10. A simplified geological map of Ethiopia and Eritrea

68

Figure 11. A simplified map of major soil regions in Ethiopia and Eritrea

68

Figure 12. A simplified map of rainfall regimes and climatic regions of Ethiopia and Eritrea

68

Figure 13. Simplified rainfall maps of Ethiopia and Eritrea

69

Figure 14. Wetlands, lakes and rivers of Ethiopia and Eritrea

70

Figure 15. National Parks and other protected areas of Ethiopia and Eritrea

71

Figure 16. Important Bird Areas and Endemic Bird Areas of Ethiopia and Eritrea

72

LiSt oF taBLES Table 1. Plant species typical of major vegetation categories

31

Table 2. Ethiopian climatic zones

35

Table 3. Summary of atlas data from Ethiopia and Eritrea

59

000 Ethiopia intro.indd 6

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7

prEFaCE The avifauna of Ethiopia and Eritrea, more than 870 species, is known for its endemics, many common and easy to see, such as Spot-breasted Plover, Rouget’s Rail and Thick-billed Raven. The waterbirds of the Red Sea coast and the Rift Valley lakes are spectacular in their beauty and numbers. The birds of the highlands and montane areas are often tame and easily observed, including the isolated and endangered population of Wattled Cranes, probably representing an undescribed subspecies. The avifauna of these two nations is indeed special. I had the good fortune from 1964 to l975 to reside in Addis Ababa, travel widely in Ethiopia and Eritrea and study the birds there. Over the years I have managed an ongoing interest in ornithological research in this area of Africa, and it now gives me great pleasure to see the publication of the definitive work, Birds of Ethiopia and Eritrea by John Ash and John Atkins. Both authors are eminently qualified to prepare this book. John Ash lived in Ethiopia from 1969 to 1977, working with the US Naval Medical Research Unit (NAMRU). Much of the information of this book comes from John’s studies at NAMRU on the role of migrating and resident birds in the dissemination of arboviruses. He spent weeks and weeks at a time working in the field observing and ringing thousands of Palearctic and Afrotropical birds and checking them for arboviruses. Co-author John Atkins, working at Addis Ababa University on an educational project from 1991 to 1996, became actively involved in the Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural History Society. He inspired students to become involved in conservation activities and studying birds. He also encouraged nearly every ornithological visitor to the area to make available their records for this book on the birds of Ethiopia and Eritrea. Land degradation in Ethiopia and Eritrea, as in many areas of Africa and the world, is expanding at an alarming rate. Many factors are contributing to this, including an increase in human population. In a part of the Rift Valley very special to me, the Abiata-Shalla National Park, where I spent many years studying pelicans, cormorants, ibises and wildfowl, the human population more than doubled in 30 years. In 1975 about 9000 people with 44,000 cattle, goats, sheep and equines lived in the park, while in 2000, 25,000 people with 77,000 domesticated stock lived there (Feyera Senbeta and Fekadu Tefera, Walia 22: 28–36, 2001–2). This expansion in numbers has resulted in a need to produce more food, which in turn has resulted in overgrazing, soil degradation, wetland loss, and woodland and forest destruction. These factors, aggravated by climate change, cause general habitat loss and a corresponding reduction, even possible extinction, of some of Ethiopia’s and Eritrea’s special birds. Since birds are often easily seen and easily assessed, they are good bio-indicators of the health of habitats. To monitor these habitats, a detailed knowledge of the range and status of birds of Ethiopia and Eritrea is essential. Ash and Atkins’ book will provide this information and in turn will be a key tool for conservation activities. Further, it will motivate ornithologists and tourists to visit and explore this fascinating part of Africa. Emil K. Urban

000 Ethiopia intro.indd 7

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8

ForEword The number of species of birds found in Ethiopia and Eritrea is high, and includes many endemics. This is to be expected in a situation where the plateaux of both countries are much dissected, producing a wide variety of ecological conditions. Altitudes range from 100m below sea-level to nearly 5000m above sea-level. This results in wide temperature ranges in an environment where rainfall varies from as high as 3000ml down to nearly none at all in a year. Among birds, francolins and guineafowl suffer from some hunting pressure, but no other species are hunted. I doubt whether any Ethiopian rural boy ever escaped from being smacked if he ever stoned birds or threatened them in any other way. Crop pests, such as queleas and weaver-birds, are the only birds frightened away from farmers’ crops. This positive attitude towards birds is unlikely to change in the future, provided current religious beliefs continue. The environments of both countries are relatively free from those pesticides which have a tendency to build up in the food-chain, so this increasingly common threat to birds of prey elsewhere is hopefully less likely to arise in our region. Nevertheless many species of raptors have decreased in recent years, and some, such as the impressive Lammergeier, once quite common, are now infrequently seen. In some parts of Africa overhead hightension wires have been recognised as causing alarmingly high mortality among some raptors. This situation may need more attention, although with a global ban on the manufacture and use of certain organochlorine pesticides being brought about by the Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) Convention, hopefully the situation will continue to improve in the indefinite future in the two countries here. I am not an optimist when it comes to other pollutants that could affect birds and other animal species. Both Ethiopia and Eritrea are trying to industrialise, and the risks of increased pollution are going to grow with time. On the other hand environmental awareness is also growing, and hopefully we will avoid the majority of pollution problems that have bedevilled the countries that pioneered industrialisation. Climate change, however, seems now to be globally inevitable. There is no doubt that substantive changes in climate will affect the distribution of birds, as well as the activities of man. Particularly vulnerable will be the very high mountain bird species since they would not have the niches that could sustain them, as there will be no higher ground to which they can escape. This present book showing the identity and distribution of the birds in our region will, therefore, serve two obvious purposes: it will allow us to see what future changes in bird distribution could be taking place and alert us to which factors may be involved, and challenge us to identify the corrective measures which will need to be taken to save endangered species from extinction. This, in turn, will force us to give the necessary attention our environment will require so that it can continue to sustain us. The book will also serve the obvious purpose of informing readers of what they see. Tourism is growing fast in Ethiopia, and this book will be invaluable to the ever-increasing numbers of nature-loving tourists, birdwatchers and ornithologists visiting our region. Both the authors are my old friends, and I thank them very much for this most useful reference book, which has taken many years of painstaking observation, reading, writing, and the immensely tedious task of checking and counter-checking. Tewolde Berhan Gebre Egziabher Addis Ababa

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9

aCknowLEdGEMEntS We are extremely grateful to the many people who have helped us in so many ways with the writing and production of this book. In particular various people contributed their specialised knowledge to our introductory chapters. We are grateful to Dr Caroline Ash for authoring the section on History of Ornithology in the region, Geoffrey Last for authoring the introductory chapter on Geology and Soils, Dr Chris Hillman for his contribution to the chapter on Bird and Wildlife Conservation, John Miskell for the Bibliography and Sue Edwards for her contribution to the Vegetation chapter and for her valuable comments on the Introduction, and the chapters on Topography, Climate, Bird and Wildlife Conservation and Habitats. We are also indebted to Hadoram Shirihai for kindly providing the gallery of photographs of Ethiopian and Eritrean endemic birds and to Jason Anderson for habitat photographs. Our grateful thanks are due to the following for their personal observations. In some cases, we have obtained information on their observations, but it has not been possible to ascertain whether we received them in correspondence or from the literature, or when the observers visited the region. We apologise if we have overlooked any observers: J. Alamargot (1972–74), D. Allan (1995), R.G. Allan (1971–72), P.M. Allen (1964–67), J. Anderson (2007–08), Dr C.P.-J. Ash (1969–77), Dr J.S. Ash (1969–77 and subsequently), J.W. Ash (1969–77), Prof. R.W. Ashford (1969–73, 1995), J.D. Atkins (1991–97 and subsequently), E.T. Azeria (1999–2005), Dr N. Baccetti (1998), M. & S. Baha El Din (1995), T. Baker (1996), L. Balisky (1992–93), A. Banwell (1995–96), Dr C. Barrau (1995–96), S. Bayu (1993–94), Prof. E.W. Beals (1962–65), J. Bech (1996), C.D. Becker (1985), G. Bennett (1997), N. Beylevelt (1990), Prof. H. Biebach (1995, 1998–99), J. Blower (1967), M. Bolton (1968–73), L. Borghesio (1993, 1995), N. Borrow (1995–2008), J. Boswell (1993–2006), L. Bozic (2005), Dr L.H. Brown (1966–77), Dr T.M. Butynski (1995), N. Buyckx, P. Camberlein (1995), F. Cassola (1999), D. Caudwell (1996), C.G. Cederlund (1990), A.S. Cheke (1966), Dr G. Chiozzi (2001–07), Prof. C.S. Clapham (1962, 1966–67), R. Clarice (1975), R. Clarke (1975), P. Clement (1991–92), Dr M. Clouet (1989–96), P.R. Colston (1963), Dr N. Collar (2006–08), G. Conacher (1970–76), R.F. Coumber, S. Craig (2006–07), A.J. Crivelli (1997), J. Cudworth (1985), J. Darch (1999), J.J. & M. de Castro (1988–89), A. de Faveri, (1998), S. Dejene (1996), A. Delestrade (1996–97), Y. Dellelegn (1994–97 and subsequently), G. de Marchi (2003–07), Y. Demeke (1992–94, 1998–99), R. Demey (1996), M. Desfayes (1971), C.F. Dewhurst (1995–97), L.J. Dijksen (1992–2001), J.W. Duckworth (1990), D. Duthie (1998–99), G. Dutson (1999–2000), J. Eames (1990), W. Earp (1973), J. Edvardsen, G. Edwards (1989), Dr C.C.H. Elliott (1998), Dr C. Erard (1968–71), W.M. Erickson (1977), M. Evans (1975), D.A. Ewbank (1996), M. Ewnetu (2005), M. Fasola (2004–05), S.J. Farnsworth (1993–98), J. Farrand (1972), B. Finch (2000), L. Fishpool (2006), J.E. Francis (1998), Prof. C.H. Fry (1984), Y. Gebrezgabhier (2001–07), K. Gedeon (2006), E. Gilbert (1953), T. Gullick (1989), M. Gunther (1993), T. Hagos (2001–07), Z. Haile (2001–07), K. Halberg (1996), J. Harjula (1989–2001), W.G. Harvey (1993–95), P. Hay (1966–67), P. Hayman (1995), C. Herrmann (1999–2001), Dr J.C. Hillman (1994), C. Hirsch (1993–94), A. Hivekovics (1997), D. Hoddinott (2006), L.G. Holloway (1971), D. Holman (1996–97), J. Holtam (1995), J. Hornbuckle (1996), M. Huxley (1967), B. Jacobsson (1970), Dr M.M. Jaeger (1976–77), R. Jelinek (1973), E. Johnson (1973–76), E.D.H. Johnson (1964–70), P. Jones, H. Kahl (1997), Dr S. Keith (1974), E. Krabbe (1996), R.E. Lambeth (1970–72), P. Lawson (2002– 03), J-M. Lernould (2002), W. Leslau (1952), I. Lewis, (1989), T. Lislevand (1997), S.M. Lister (1997), A-M. Lohding, (1993–95), S.C. Madge (1988–96), A. Magnani (1998), J.R. Malcolm (1976), Dr C.F. Mann (1962–67), R.L. Mathews (1974), P. & K. Meeth (1986, 1988), J. Meigh (1997), W. von Meisa (1968), D. Mills (1989), M. Milton (1997), J.E. Miskell (1999–2008), F. Moreau, Dr D. Murdoch (1998), L. Nagelkerke (1990–93), M. Nicoll (1996), G. Nikolaus (1998–2006), J. Oláh (2008), Dr C.S. Olson (1971–75), O.T. Owre (1958–59), H. Pain (1975–77), Dr D. Paulson (1958–59), Dr D.J. Pearson (1995), C. and F. Pelsey (2003–04), M. & M. Pennington (2003), F. Petretti (1988), A. Pierce (1995–96), J. Pilgrim (2000–01), H. Pohlstrand (1968–2008), G.R. Potts, S. Radnich, D. Reagan (1994), N.J. Redman (1989 and subsequently), C. Richardson (1993–95), D. Robel (1996), I.S. Robertson (1994–95), P.A. Robertson (1996), M. Rogerson (1998), S. Rooke (2000), D. Russell (2006), Dr R.J. Safford (1990), J. Schaefer (1997), D.A. Schlitter, Dr M.L. Schmidt (1966–71), V. Schollaert (1997, 2004–05), Dr C. Sekercioglu (2006–07), G. Seleba (2001–07), D. Semere (2001–08), I. Shanni (2003), F. Shiferaw (1995), A. Shimelis (1996–97, 2001), H. Shirihai (1999), H. Shoshani (2003), I. Sinclair (1995–96), K.D. Smith (1942–54), P.W. Smith (1996), S. Smith (1995), S.A. Smith (1996), S.W. Smith (1995–96), P. Smitterberg (1997), U.G. Sorensen (1996), C. Spottiswoode (2006), T. Starholm (1997), J. Stephenson (1978), S. Storaas (1996–99), D. Summers-Smith (1972), P.O. Syvertsen (1990–99), P.B. Taylor (1996–07), M. Telfer (1990), G. Thomson (1993), K.M. Thorogood (1972–76), J. Tiwari (2003), R. Tizard (2007), V. Trup (2005), N.A. Tucker (1984), D.A. Turner (1973–75), L. Tyler (1975), Dr S.J. Tyler (1973–76), Prof. E.K. Urban (1966–74), M. van Beirs (1997), J. Vaughan (1993–95), D. Vincent (1991), A. Vittery (1974–75), A.B. von den Berg, C.K. Wallace (1989), J.P. Wallace, R. Webb (1995–96), J. Wheatly (1996), Dr R.E. Whitcombe (1991–94), Asst. Prof. C.G. Wiklund (2001–03), R.T. Wilson (1994), R.G. Wolff (1968), J. Wolstencroft (1993–94), M. Wondafrash (1995–2008), J. Vermeulen (1999), M.W. & B. Woodcock (1995), Dr D.W. Yalden (1973), C. Zewdie (1995), Dr D. Zinner (1998).

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10 acknowledgements For assistance with the literature we thank: R.G. Allan, Dr N. Baccetti, G.C. Backhurst, Prof. E.W. Beals, Y. Bein, Dr W.R.P. Bourne, P.L. Britton, Dr N. Collar, Dr N.D. Coulthard, Y. Dellelegn, J. Diver, M.N.D. Fasola, Dr L.D.C. Fishpool, Dr H. Friedmann, Prof. C.H. Fry, A. Harding, C. Jackson, G.C. Last, A. Laurent, J.E. Miskell, Dr R.B. Payne, K.D. Smith, P.W. Smith, M.A. Traylor, Prof. E.K. Urban, L. Urban, J.L. Vivero, F.E. Warr, R. Webb, G. Welch, H. Welch, M. Wondafrash. For assistance with museum collections we are very grateful to: American Museum of Natural History, New York: Dr P. Sweet; Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago: M.A. Traylor, Dr D.E. Willard; Liverpool Museum, Liverpool: Dr M.L. Largen; National Museum, Nairobi: Dr L. Bennun, G.R.C. van Someren; Natural History Museum, Tring: M. Adams, P.R. Colston, S. Parker, Dr R. Prys-Jones, F. Steinheimer, M. Walters; Senckenberg Museum, Frankfurt: Dr D.S. Peters; Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.: J.P. Angle, J. Dean, B. Farmer, J. Farrand, R. Laybourne, Dr S.L. Olson, M. Reynold, K. Swift (Pruitt), Dr G.E. Watson; Zoologisches Forschungsinstitut und Museum Alexander Koenig, Bonn; Musée National Histoire Naturelle, Paris: Prof. C. Erard; Italian Museums: Dr N. Baccetti, Dr R. Poggi, C. Marangoni and all those from various Italian museums who have assisted us. For assistance with specimens we are indebted to: Dr L. Bennun, S. Bensch, Dr W.R.P. Bourne, J. Dean, J. Farrand, Dr M.M. Jaeger, E. Marangoni, Dr S.L. Olson, Dr R.B. Payne, Dr D.J. Pearson, Dr R.J. Safford, Dr D.W. Snow. For technical assistance we thank: R.G. Allan, C. Clem, Dr N. Collar, Dr F. Dowsett-Lemaire, H. Edwards, Prof. C.H. Fry, A. Gretton, Dr I. Izhaki, Dr M.M. Jaeger, A. Laurent, B.-U. Meyberg, C. Meyberg, Dr S.L. Olson, Dr R.B. Payne, Dr D.J. Pearson, Dr R. Prys-Jones, G.D. Russell, S. Rumsey, W. Scheller, Dr J.R. Schmidt, P. von Gasse, Dr G.E. Watson, G. Welch, H. Welch, Dr E. Yohannes and for scientific support: Dr J.R. Schmidt. For assistance with ringing we are grateful to: J. Blackburn, J. Clark, S. Craig, C. de Feu, L. Dijksen, Dr I. Dobrinina, W. Fiedler, W. Foden, D. Harebottle, T. Lislevand, Dr G. de Marchi, C. Mead, G. Nikolaus, K.D. Pedersen, Dr C. Sekercioglu, A. Shimelis, R. Staav, R. Wassenaar, G. Zink. For assistance with mapping: H. Edwards, M. Reynold, K.D. Smith. For assistance with the gazetteer: Dr J.C. Hillman, M. Wondafrash, A. Yemane, F. Tesfaslasie. For editorial assistance: S. Edwards, J.E. Miskell. For assistance with graphics for the figures: M.A. Bingawi, A.B. Hassan, R. Ventura. For other assistance: C.K. Wallace, W. Thiede. There have been many others who have helped in many ways and to all of them we are most grateful. We regret that we may not have listed everyone’s names that should be listed here. Figures 6-16 have been specially drawn for this publication to meet the needs of ornithologists. Reference has been made to a large number of original sources in order to produce the generalisations. Among the most useful have been Daniel Gamatchew (1977); Eritrean Agency for the Environment (1995); Ethiopian Mapping Authority (1988); Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (1997); J.F. Griffiths (1982); G.C. Last (1965); P. Mayaux et al. (2004); Mesfin Wolde Mariam (1969); R.E.G. Picci-Sermolli (1957); S. Tilahun, S. Edwards and T.G.B. Egziabher (eds) (1996); H. Yohannes and E. Bein (2006); various World Bank publications. We would like to thank Nigel Redman for his faith in the project, his patience and encouragement over its long gestation, and for overseeing it to its conclusion. We are also very grateful to Dr Nigel Collar for his meticulous editorial skills, and to Marc Dando for painstakingly redrawing all the species maps and Julie Dando for her considerable skills in designing and laying out the book. Special gratitude is due to Julian Francis for his very welcome sponsorship of the production of the species maps.

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a GEnEraL introdUCtion to thE rEGion Location The region comprising Ethiopia and Eritrea lies in the Horn of Africa. Ethiopia, previously Abyssinia, the land of the Habasha (Amharic for ‘mixture’), lies between 3° and 18°N and 33° and 48°E. It has an area of 1,133,380km2 and is bounded in the south by Kenya, in the west by the Sudan, in the east by Somalia and Djibouti, and in the north by Eritrea. In 2007 it had an estimated population of c.77 million, of whom c.4.5 million live in the capital Addis Ababa. Eritrea, named after the Red Sea (Mare Erythraeum in Latin), lies just to the north and along the west coast of the Red Sea, covering an area of 125,000km2. It is bordered to the north and west by Sudan and to the south by Ethiopia and Djibouti. Its estimated population in 2007 was 4,906,585, of whom c.500,000 lived in the capital, Asmara. The administrative regions and major towns of the two countries are shown in Figures 6a and 6b and the pre-1991 administrative boundaries in Figure 7. The international borders indicated on these and other maps have no official status.

topography This is a region of great geographical diversity, characterised particularly by altitudinal variation, from 110m below sea-level in the Dallol Depression to 4620m at Ras Deshen in the Simien Mountains. The plateau has many mountainous areas rising to higher than 4000m. The region contains more land above 2000m than any other African country (Yalden 1983), with two main blocks of high land, the western and northern highlands and the south-eastern highlands, separated by the Rift Valley. The main topographic regions of Ethiopia and Eritrea are indicated in Figure 8. In Ethiopia these are: the main highland plateau to the west of the Rift Valley and the Danakil Desert (also known as the Afar); the south-eastern highlands to the south and east of the Rift Valley; the western lowlands bordering Sudan and extending south to the Omo valley; the south-eastern lowlands of the Ogaden and the Somali border; the southern lowlands of Ethiopia including the lower Omo valley; the eastern lowland desert and semi-desert lands of the Danakil (Afar) south to the Awash river; and the Ethiopian Rift Valley. In Eritrea, the main topographic regions are the western lowland plain along the Sudan border, with the only year-round river, the Tacazze/ Setit; the central highland plateau below the Sahel in the north, extending south to the highlands of northern Ethiopia; the north-eastern desert plain and Danakil Desert; and the coast and offshore islands. The principal river systems, all flowing from the highlands, are the Tacazze/Setit/Angareb system, the Abay (Blue Nile) system, the Awash, the Wabe Shabeelle, the Genale/Dawa/Weyb system, the Omo/ Gibé system and the Baro/Gilo/Akobo system. In addition there are a number of large lakes in the Rift Valley, Lake Tana in the north-west and the northern tip of Lake Turkana in the south-west. The main wetlands, lakes and rivers are shown in Figure 14. See the Topographic Regions and Hydrography chapter for further information.

Languages and peoples The region is marked by ethnic and linguistic diversity, with estimates of up to 100 languages, but there are generally considered to be 70–80. Major ethnic groups in Ethiopia are the Oromo (40%), Amhara and Tigrean (32%), Sidamo (9%), Shankalla (6%), Somali (6%), Afar (4%) and Gurarge (2%), with c.70 languages being spoken between them, most of them either Semitic or Cushitic in origin. The language of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church liturgy, Ge’ez, gave rise to the Semitic cluster of languages, Amharic, Tigrinya and Tigre. Amharic is the official language of Ethiopia. However, many of its regions also use the dominant local language in local government and education, with Amharic remaining the lingua franca of the country. Cushitic languages are spoken in the south, the most significant being Oromigna, spoken by Ethiopia’s largest ethnic group, the Oromo. Further south is a range of c.25 Omotic languages. Arabic is spoken in many lowland areas and is widely used by followers of Islam. The main religions are Ethiopian Orthodox Christian (35–40%) and Islam (45–50%). There are nine main languages in Eritrea, the most common being Tigrinya in the highlands and Tigre and Arabic in the lowlands. The Tigray people comprise 50% of the population and the Tigre 35%. The population is half-Christian and half-Muslim. The Julian 13 months’ calendar is used in Ethiopia, but Eritrea has adopted the European 12-month calendar.

history The region has a significant place in pre-human history: hominid fossil bones, including the australopithecine ‘Lucy’, dating back 4.4 million years, have been found at Hadar along the Awash in Ethiopia and evidence of pre-humans dating back 1 million years has been found in the Buia region of Eritrea. Human presence is known from the eighth millenium BC with evidence of Pygmoid, Nilotic, Cushitic (Afar) and Semitic (Amhara and Tigray) peoples. The origins of the modern-day region lie in the emergence, by the third century AD, of the Axumite empire, which soon became officially Christian. In ensuing centuries the respective and often conflicting influences of chiefly Muslim interests on the coast and lowlands and Christian (Ethiopian Orthodox) interests in the highlands were not conducive to any state of unity. During a period of great instability in the sixteenth century the Galla people (the present-day Oromo) moved out of the south, up through the Rift Valley onto the higher ground of southern and central Ethiopia. During the mid-eighteenth century the region became increasingly restless as a result of feuding societies of Christians, Muslims and others, and their local rulers. Today’s Eritrea was sometimes ruled by the Ethiopian highland empires and at other times separated from them. The coast remained Muslim, and between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries was controlled by Ottoman Turks and Egyptians. Some degree of unification and modernistic development began to develop during the mid-nineteenth century. In the nineteenth century the region became a focus of Italian colonial aspirations, and in 1890 the colony of Eritrea was established. In 1935 Italy occupied Ethiopia, but was defeated by combined Ethiopian and British forces, who returned Haile Selassie to his throne following the outbreak of World War II. Eritrea was ruled by the British until 1952, when the UN declared the country a self-governing region under the mandate of Ethiopia. Haile Selassie’s reign was ended by a coup led by a military group, the Dergue, in 1974. However, its Soviet-style socialist policies were unpopular, and it collapsed after a long war in 1991, at which point a broad-based coalition was established in Ethiopia. These events also led to the end of Ethiopian rule in Eritrea and eventually to Eritrean independence in 1993, after 30 years of war.

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a general introduction to the region

Economies

The economies of both countries are predominantly agricultural and have been much disrupted since the 1970s by a combination of factors which have included accelerating population growth, drought and famine, war and internal security problems, land-reform programmes, nationalisation, and increasingly less favourable terms of trade. Coffee has traditionally accounted for the majority of Ethiopia’s exports. Explorations for oil and gas are taking place in Somali and Gambella regions in Ethiopia and both are expected to become major export earners. There are believed to be other substantial unexploited mineral deposits in both countries, particularly copper and potash. Important products of the Eritrean economy include salt and leather products, grain, cotton, fish, livestock, various minerals, etc. There are substantial tourist potentials, still largely untapped, especially in wildlife and ecotourism, in both countries. Infrastructure, transport and water supply all require urgent attention, but none of these tasks can be seriously tackled without effective population control programmes.

Governments

The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, established in 1995, comprises nine semi-autonomous states and two chartered cities (capitals or main towns in parentheses): Tigray (Mekele), Afar (Aseita), Amhara (Bahar Dar), Oromiya (Nazret), Somali (Jijiga), Beni Shangul-Gumuz (Asosa), Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples (Awassa), Gambela (Gambela), Harari (Harar), Dire Dawa and Addis Ababa (chartered cities). Executive powers are vested in the Prime Minister. Each state is divided into ‘woredas’, the lowest level of official government. Each woreda also carries one parliamentary seat in the House of Representatives. Local government organisation through locally elected officials resides with the ‘kebeles’. Responsibility for setting the policy environment for the conservation and sustainable use of natural resources falls under the Environmental Protection Authority at the federal level, but implementation is carried out by the regional bureaus and experts in each woreda. The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development has overall responsibility for the development of all the cultivated resources, wildlife and forests of the country. The government of Eritrea includes a national assembly and a cabinet responsible to the national assembly. There are six regional administrative zones or ‘zobas’ (main cities/towns in parentheses): Semenawi Keyih Bahri or Northern Red Sea Zoba (Massawa, Nakfa), Maekel or Central Zoba (Asmara), Debubawi Keyih Bahri or Southern Red Sea (Assab), Debub or Southern Zoba (Adi Ugri, Mendefera, Adi Quala), Gash-Barka (Barentu, Agordat, Tessenei), Anseba (Keren). Responsibility for the conservation of natural resources is under the Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministry of Fisheries and the Ministry of Land. Efforts are underway to develop government structures for implementing biodiversity conservation policies.

Environment

Throughout its history, the environment of the region has been under pressure. It is known that during the time of the Axumite Empire, from the third century BC to approximately the tenth century AD, special areas were designated for hunting, and wild animals and animal products were actively traded. However, little evidence of other forms of environmental conservation practices exists, and for centuries wildlife and forests have come increasingly under pressure from population movements and population growth. The causes of the drought, disaster and human suffering experienced in Ethiopia in recent decades lie partly in the natural environmental factors that have resulted in land degradation, partly in population growth factors that have in many areas resulted in populations exceeding the carrying capacity of the land, and partly in the neglect of smallholder farmers and their environments by the feudal government of Emperor Haile Sellassie, and the misguided Soviet-style development efforts of the Dergue, a deterioration which started in the deliberate undermining of the traditional land management systems of local communities during the periods when Ethiopia was without a clearly identified central authority in the ‘Era of the Princes’ as far back as the seventeenth century (Tewolde 1989, in Tilahun et al. 1996). As a result of these changes, in most areas of the region, farmers were only able to control access to the land they farmed during the growing season. After the harvest, land and the natural resources associated with it – water, grazing land, trees, etc. – were freely available to all members of the community, without any of the controls previously used. That these controls existed is still evident in remnants such as the controlled access to grazing land by different categories of domestic animals, with priority being given to plough oxen, found in some parts. The frequent redistribution of cultivated land under the Dergue mostly eliminated the little motivation that had existed for land improvement or for protection of indigenous vegetation. Now all regions in Ethiopia are issuing their farmers with landholding certificates giving them leasehold rights for at least two generations. In Addis Ababa the leasehold right is for 99 years. The impact on the attitudes of farmers to investing in their land can be seen in many parts of the country in the form of small private plantations of trees, mostly Eucalyptus, but increasingly involving other species including indigenous ones with special economic importance. The Orthodox Church and Islam have, however, always taught respect for flora and fauna, with the result that churches and mosques still offer small areas of environmental protection that are often unique in the area, while in areas such as Awi Zone and Guassa in Ethiopia local communities continue to manage communal resources, a tradition which enables more sustainable use of the environment. The concept of conservation of officially designated areas first emerged during the period of the Italian occupation in the 1930s. It has continued since that time, but has been implemented largely only half-heartedly and was until recently still viewed in terms that did not provide for the needs of local people and were never understood or fully accepted by them. It is therefore hardly surprising that substantial damage to national park infrastructure occurred in the period of instability preceding and subsequent to the change of government in Ethiopia in 1991. Present and future conservation policies in both countries should involve local communities more in decision-making and demonstrate tangible benefits to them in order to be accepted and effective. The region is rich in biodiversity. The highest level of biodiversity is found in the Ogaden in south-eastern Ethiopia (Gilbert 1986, Tilahun et al. 1996); the Afro-alpine areas of mountains in the region are home to many endemic plant and animal species; the highland plateau is rich in crop plant diversity (Edwards 1991) with races of indigenous crops that have evolved over thousands of years, looked after by farmers using traditional knowledge of how crops can survive in harsh conditions. However, the future of biodiversity throughout the region is unsure. It is at risk from continuing population growth, which brings, among other things, increasing pressure on land for cultivation, wood for energy and construction, grasslands, wetlands and fallow land for grazing. In recent years it has also brought demands for food-aid from elsewhere and the obligatory relocation of populations of indigenous people within the country. Various aspects of these problems are discussed within this book, particularly in the sections concerned with vegetation, conservation and habitats.

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thE hiStoriCaL QUESt For BirdS in Ethiopia and EritrEa Caroline Ash ‘The abyssins have many sorts of fowls both wild and tame, some of the former we are yet unacquainted with.’ Jeronimo Lobo (Gold 1985). The area of what now constitutes the modern countries of Ethiopia and Eritrea encloses a rugged plateau averaging 2500m wedged between the Red Sea and the River Nile. It is split to the south by the Rift Valley and dissected to the west by the tributaries of the Nile. Until the boundaries of the modern states were defined at the end of the nineteenth century, the mountainous region north of the Rift Valley inhabited by Christians tended to be known as the empire of Abyssinia. To the south lay the highlands of Shewa and beyond lay the Muslim lands of the Somalis and Oromo. Over the centuries Abyssinia’s borders have been fluid, but the precipitous mountains have always provided some form to the state (Marcus 1994), and attempts to gain access to the sea provided interactions with foreigners. This part of eastern Africa has long held an almost mystical attraction for explorers, not only because of its unique human cultures and natural resources, but also for strategic reasons. The people who undertook these expeditions were usually men and comprised an assortment of adventurers, fugitives, traders, tourists, mercenaries, diplomats, colonists, a few with more scholarly inclinations, and a smattering of professional ornithologists. Regardless of the primary motive for an expedition, amassing a natural history collection to some elusive point of completeness became a goal in itself. Apart from the past 20 years or so, the recorded history of bird observations in Ethiopia and Eritrea is primarily European, and extends from the early seventeenth century, through the ‘Age of Discovery’ to the claims of empire building, culminating in the volumes of live observations made by numerous amateur and professional expeditions in the twentieth century. The intention of this summary is to outline the procession of expeditions that contributed to knowledge of birds in the region within a sketch of broader context that is intended to help explain connections. The treatment is selective and there are omissions. Some of the expeditions have also been noted in Birds of Somalia (Ash & Miskell 1998), and much of the available literature has been cited in other chapters.

Lyons, unicorns and elephants There is a continuum of interactions between the Horn of Africa and Europe that pre-dates the ancient Greeks, but it seems that not until the Portuguese arrived in the sixteenth century were any detailed European natural history records made. The most notable of these were by Jeronimo Lobo (1593–1678), who arrived at the Jesuit house known as ‘Fremona’, south-west of Massawa on the Red Sea in 1625 (Gold 1985). In search of Cristavão da Gama’s remains, Lobo travelled extensively and eventfully in the northern highlands, inspecting the source of the Nile and reporting on the people, geography and natural history. He recorded few specific descriptions of birds, being more impressed by ‘lyons’, unicorns and stupendously huge elephants, but he did note at least two. The first Lobo explained ‘has instead of a comb, a short horn upon its head, which is thick, and round, and open at the top. The feitan favaz or devil’s horse looks like a man dress’d in feathers, it walks with abundance of majesty, till it finds itself persued, and then takes wing and flies away’. The second bird Lobo described is more recognisable, ‘But amongst all these birds, there is none more remarkable than the moroc, or honey-bird which is furnished by nature with a particular instinct or faculty of discovering honey’. Back in Europe, Lobo developed a reputation as an explorer, corresponding with Henry Oldenburg, the secretary of the Royal Society in Britain, about the sources of the Nile, and died a famous man in 1678. After the Jesuits left, there followed a period of quasi-isolation from Europe, broken only by a visit in 1699 from Charles Poncet, a French apothecary to treat the Emperor Iyasu I, but who left scant natural history observations. In 1771 James Bruce of Kinnaird (1730–1794) made his way to Gonder to discover the source of the Nile (Bruce 1790). Throughout his life, Bruce was embattled by personal loss and dispute. He disembarked at Massawa, noting the Barn Swallows and Northern House Martins, scaled the escarpment and travelled through Adwa and Axum to the Emperor Tekle Haimanot’s court. Bruce’s interests in Abyssinian avifauna were primarily biblical and he only made written records of a dozen or so recognisable species. He discriminated sufficiently among the birds to note the seasonal migration of the Black Kites, and recorded the raptors that followed the Emperor’s frequent punitive expeditions as he struggled to retain power. On his return Bruce gave some bird specimens, including an Abyssinian Roller and an Abyssinian Ground Hornbill, to Buffon, one of the founders of systematic ornithology, who added them to the cabinet du Roi (Farber 1997). Bruce’s account of his own journeys contains unacknowledged natural history drawings and paintings made by his companion, Luigi Balugani (1737–1770), who later died at Gonder. Balugani’s exquisite illustrations of plants have now been published (Hulton et al. 1991). Eight new species were described from these illustrations, some of which are now in the Royal Collection at Windsor, UK, and at Yale. The Yale Center for British Art holds 422 Balugani drawings of flora, fauna and natural history subjects. Of these, two sketchbooks containing 62 drawings are dedicated to birds. Other items from Bruce’s collections are in the Bodleian Library, Oxford, UK.

Collecting frenzy and museum rivalries After the Napoleonic wars, global travel escalated, fuelled by the industrialisation of northern Europe. Collections helped to map the distribution of precious antiquities and natural resources, and museums supplied the information by which territory could be claimed and commerce conducted. As the requirements grew ever more stringent for quality of preservation, discovery of new species, notes on distribution, sexual variation as well as life histories, the established museums began to see advantages in employing discerning professional collectors for expeditions (Whitaker 1996). Immediately after the British reclaimed Egypt from Napoleon, George Annesley, Viscount Valentia, attempted to survey the Red Sea in 1805 and make commercial connections with the Abyssinian hinterland. Valentia brought Henry Salt (1780–1827) with him as secretary

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14 the historical quest for birds in ethiopia and eritrea and artist (Manley & Ree 2001). Salt won considerable celebrity in England, and buoyed by this he sailed again for Abyssinia in the spring of 1809, bearing letters from George III. While waiting for permission to join the court at Gonder, Salt and his assistant Richard Stuart collected several new species of bird from the Red Sea, as well as making careful records of numerous parrots, sunbirds and thrushes on their ascent to the highlands. He returned to London in early May 1810, leaving behind Nathaniel Pearce and William Coffin, but taking 70 bird specimens and a bat. He was elected Fellow of the Linnean Society in London, which earned him the patronage of the mighty Sir Joseph Banks, and subsequently developed a career as a supplier of antiquities and exotic objects to museums; but his chaotic life precipitated an early death in penury. Although the museum in Paris had become foremost in Europe for distributing government funding and training for young naturalists, the new University Museum of Berlin also sponsored extensive expeditions, including those of Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg (1795–1876) and his companion Friedrich Wilhelm Hemprich (1796–1825). Alexander von Humboldt recommended them to the Prussian Academy of Science for exploration in northern Africa. In 1820–1826 they embarked on a hazardous journey, during which threequarters of their number died, including Hemprich. Apart from making massive collections of diatoms and plankton, they also wrote an account of birds (Jahn 1998). The Berlin museum received 114 boxes containing 46,000 plant and 34,000 animal specimens, plus Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg seeds, rocks, fossils and mummies (Stresemann 1954). The German state museums were noted rivals in their efforts to make the most comprehensive natural history collections. In competition with his Prussian rivals W.P.E.S. Rüppell (1794–1884), sponsored by the Senckenberg Museum in his home town of Frankfurt-amMain, started another gruelling journey (Klausewitz 2002). By 1830 Rüppell had traversed Abyssinia and mapped Lake Tana. His voluminous collections made during the 13 years he spent in the country contained over 100 new species of birds, as well as the iconic and now endangered Ethiopian Wolf. In his book, Travels in Abyssinia, he listed 532 bird species occurring in the region. The south-western slopes of the highlands appear to have remained unknown to European naturalists until in 1838 Antoine Thompson d’Abbadie (1810–1897) and his brother Arnaud Michel d’Abbadie were sent by the French Academy of Sciences on a geographic and scientific expedition that was to last for 12 years (d’Abbadie 1868). The French wanted to establish themselves strategically in Africa to undermine British influence. Several overlapping expeditions involving at least 30 French nationals coordinated their activities with the brothers (Jaenen 2003), but of all of them the d’Abbadies travelled the most. As well as in Kefa and the Omo River valley in the south-west they comprehensively surveyed central and northern Abyssinia and amassed major natural history and ethnographic collections, which eventually went to the natural history museum in Paris and brought the d’Abbadies Wilhelm P.E.S. Rüppell great acclaim in France. Apart from anthropological observations, the Lefebvre, Petit and Quartin-Dillon expedition of 1839–1843 (Lefebvre 1863) made a bird collection, which was later worked on by Florent Prevost and Marc DesMurs at the Paris museum. Théophile Lefebvre (1811–1860) was a French naval officer who visited Tigray (Tegray) in the northern massif, and was asked by Dejazmatch Haile Mariam to request arms from the French government in return for Red Sea access at Anfilla (now Anfile). During 1840–1842, Pierre Victor Adolphe Ferret and Joseph Germain Galinier (1814–1888) were also travelling in northern Abyssinia and made a significant bird collection that included 15 new species (Ferret & Galinier 1847). The Frenchmen were based on the Eritrean border at Intetchaou near Adigrat, travelled in the highlands beyond Gonder to survey Lake Tana and the source of the Nile, and coordinated with the d’Abbadie brothers at Adwa.

travelling incognito Richard Burton (1821–1890) was the shadow behind the British scramble for Africa, and as well as his own travelogues left a paper trail of opinion in the Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society. Burton travelled in East Africa with the mercurial John Hanning Speke (1827–1864), an obsessional hunter who made a huge personal wildlife collection including birds (Sclater 1864). After an initial trip to Somaliland, during which Burton was speared in the face, in 1855 he and Speke travelled in disguise to the holy city of Harar on the eastern borders of Abyssinia. After brief service in the Crimean War, Burton and Speke returned to exploration of the east African lakes, but in 1862 Speke contentiously claimed to have solved ‘the question of the Nile’, earning the abiding fury of Burton and nemesis at his own hand (Moorehead 1983a). As European interest in Africa spread, an Austrian diplomat, Theodor von Heuglin (1824–1876), started his career in northern Africa before he was sent to Abyssinia in 1852 to negotiate a treaty with the Webé of Tigray. In all, he spent 12 years in the northern

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highlands, the Red Sea and Harar, occupied by his fascination with the antiquities, landscape and wildlife. He sent his bird specimens to Leipzig to the prodigious collector Pastor Christian Ludwig Brehm. Brehm’s son Alfred had also made collecting expeditions on the western borders of Abyssinia during 1847–1852 (Brehm 1863). The Brehms’ collection became highly peripatetic: it was first bought by Lord Rothschild in 1900 and added to the Tring Museum in Britain, but many of the Tring birds were sold in the 1930s to the American Museum of Natural History in New York, and then in the 1960s some of them were redistributed to Bonn (Mearns & Mearns 1998). During 1861–1862 Heuglin returned to Abyssinia accompanied by Werner Munzinger, H. Schubert, T. Kinzelbach and Dr H. Steudner on an expedition searching for Eduard Vogel, a German explorer who had been missing since 1855. They travelled through Keren, Adwa and Axum, crossed the Tacazze River, and bypassed the Simien massif to reach Gonder. In May 1862 they left for the Nile tributaries en route to Khartoum, accumulating observations on the fauna and flora of the western slopes of the Abyssinian massif (Heuglin 1857–1877). In Khartoum, Heuglin met Samuel and Florence Baker, and the Dutch heiress and photographer Alexandrine Tinne. The Bakers were inspired to go hunting along the Abyssinian tributaries of the Nile for five years during the 1860s. Tinne joined Theodor von Heuglin Heuglin’s party and together they travelled up the White Nile. Heuglin returned to Europe in 1864, went to the Arctic but returned to Abyssinia in 1875. Unfortunately he collapsed and died in Stuttgart before he could realise his plans to investigate the island of Socotra. During his productive life Heuglin also worked on Antinori’s catalogue of 227 bird specimens collected between 1870 and 1871 from Bogos (now in Eritrea), as well as on Paul Wilhem von Württemberg’s collections made when he was Pasha (governor) of Massawa during 1842–1844 (Baldamus 1857). Heuglin remained the authority on birds of the region for nearly a century, having recorded 948 species. By the middle of the nineteenth century many European countries were playing out their rivalries along the Nile by employing an array of adventurers with uncertain allegiances. Carlo Piaggia (1830–1882) had a long career along the Nile and in Abyssinia, joining many of the major expeditions (Almagia 1932). He first arrived in Tunisia in 1851; five years later he was at Alexandria before travelling to Khartoum and spending two arduous years following the Nile. In 1861, when Samuel Baker was travelling upstream in an attempt to locate the lost and then presumed dead Speke, Piaggia had joined forces with the Perugian exile and ornithologist Orazio Antinori (1811–1882). Together they traced the Bahr-el-Ghazal. By 1865 Antinori and Piaggia reached the land of Niam Niam Samuel and Florence Baker (the Omo river basin).

an extraordinary campaign Emperor Tewodros only gained European attention when he imprisoned the British consul and other Europeans in the mountain fortress of Magdala. His action prompted Queen Victoria’s government to send the veteran of the Indian Mutiny, Lt-General Lord Robert Napier, to the rescue in 1868. The ensuing expedition was planned with an extravagance designed not to fail (Moorehead 1983b). The campaign cost £9 million, and recruited 36,000 people, including naturalists and collectors, as well as 20,000 mules, several elephants, 280 ships and a railway. It consulted Baker and Burton and attracted the adventurer Henry Morton Stanley on his first African trip as a journalist for the New York Herald (McLynn 1989). Several experienced explorers were recruited: Major James Grant, the military adventurer Captain Speedy, Werner Munzinger, who could speak Amharic and Arabic, Wilfred Thesiger’s grandfather and a miscellany of observers from various European governments. Frank James was the expedition artist. William Blanford (1832–1905) was appointed chief naturalist; he had joined the geological survey of India in 1855, and later became celebrated for his editorship of The Fauna of British India (1888–1891). His main responsibility was to ensure water supplies, but he was passionately interested in snails. In January 1868 Blanford had crossed the coastal plain from the expedition’s headquarters at Annesley Bay, Zoulla (Zula), south of Massawa via the hot springs of Komeylee, en route to Senafe in the highlands, while his colleague William Blanford William Jesse remained behind. The snails were poor, but by March Blanford had also collected 200 specimens of birds and mammals, including the endemic Thick-billed Raven Corvus crassirostris. He communicated his findings from the Abyssinian expedition in a series of letters sent to the Asiatic Society, culminating in a travelogue illustrated by Johannes Gerardus Keulemans (Blanford 1870). By Good Friday, 11 April, the expedition had completed

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16 the historical quest for birds in ethiopia and eritrea its task: after a brief and violent engagement that defeated the battle-weary Abyssinian troops, Tewodros killed himself and the British withdrew rapidly with the crown jewels. The departing British assisted Ras Kassai to become Yohannes IV, King of Kings of Abyssinia. As the final cut was made to the Suez Canal in 1869, Menelik became King of Shewa, under condition that he send tributes to Yohannes. The opening of Suez meant a need for coaling stations on the Red Sea, which together with the advent of quinine magnified the volume of European traffic to Africa. On the Arabian side of the Red Sea the British had already claimed Aden, on the opposite shore the French developed Obock as their port, and an Italian shipping company had bought the port of Assab (Aseb) north of Obock. Menelik wanted sea access for commerce to supply his growing territorial ambitions and to control European encroachment. Implementing his ambitions, as well as his need to pay tribute to Yohannes, meant taxing his subjects heavily: his raiding parties were a constant hazard not only to the Shewans but also to European visitors.

Chiarissimi naturalisti The new Italian state was keen to flex its unified muscle on the world stage, and under the auspices of the Genoa Museum in 1870–1871 the reinstated, and now Marquis, Antinori, with his companions the botanist Odoardo Beccari and Arturo Issel, was sent to Assab (Antinori & Salvadori 1873). Antinori stayed in Keren after his companions returned to Italy, and continued to work on his collection, comparing his records with those of the chiarissimi naturalisti Blandford and Jesse. In September–October 1871 he was in the Barka river valley, where he recorded large numbers of storks and ostriches, obtained specimens, and made notes on faunal distribution. Back in Massawa he resumed the cataloguing of Beccari and Issel’s fishes and waited for Piaggia. By this time Massawa was in Egyptian hands and the Swiss Werner Munzinger (1832– 1875) was governor (Pasha). In January 1872 the indomitable Piaggia, severely buffeted by circumstance, arrived with a beautiful collection of birds for Vienna. Seeing these the Pasha commissioned Piaggia to make another collection of animals and prospect for minerals (Piaggia 1875). In October 1872, Piaggia joined forces with I.M. Hildebrandt and headed off for Lake Tana. After a series of unfortunate events Piaggia finally found refuge in Yohannes’ entourage. With his companion, Mabruk, the resourceful Piaggia took the opportunity to complete a survey of Lake Tana in a papyrus boat, make natural history collections and visit churches, even at last finding traces of gold in a mountain stream. After an absence of nine years, in 1875 the Italian travelled down the Atbara river and arrived in Khartoum. The great ornithologist Tommaso Salvadori took charge of Piaggia’s collections, adding them to Orazio Antinori the vast Museum of Zoology at Turin. In 1876, the British Prime Minister, Disraeli, bought Khedive Ismail’s shares in the Suez Canal to buy off his debts, and Britain and France embarked on a shaky partnership to ‘manage’ the Khedive’s affairs (Pakenham 1998). Piaggia was among the first to take advantage of British interests in Egypt and joined Gordon’s miscellaneous retinue in their attempt to map and annex the entire length of the Nile for Egypt. Stimulated by a visit to Rome by King Menelik, the Italian Geographical Society despatched Antinori to the Shewan capital of Ankober to establish headquarters at the base of the escarpment at Let Marafeya. This became the hub for many subsequent Italian expeditions in the 1880s, including that of the famous explorer and collector Antonio Cecchi, who later became an administrator of Italian Somaliland (Cecchi 1886, Hess 1966). After the Mahdists annihilated Hicks Pasha in 1883, General Gordon arrived in February 1884 to organise the evacuation but became besieged in Khartoum. To ensure a clear passage for the retreat, Rear Admiral Sir William Hewett went to Abyssinia in June 1884 and made a treaty with Yohannes ceding territorial claims in return. However, the British did not want the port at Massawa to be controlled by the Abyssinians nor the French; Tommaso Salvadori instead they let the Italians become the gatekeepers on the Red Sea (Pakenham 1998).

Barbets, bush-shrikes and boundaries Menelik recruited several skilled Europeans to implement his modernisation plans, but his most significant appointment was the Swiss engineer Alfred Ilg (1854–1916). Ilg was the intermediary through whom Europeans gained access to the country, and with his support Menelik became adept at using foreigners to forge routes to the coast, establish boundaries, and sustain trade in armaments and slaves. For 20 years Ilg was ubiquitous, turning up to advise or chastise many expeditionaries; and among his many accomplishments he also managed to make collections of arthropods (Forel 1894). The Egyptian city of Harar, perched on the southern highlands and overlooking the eastern coastal plains, became the hub for the French and Italian trade to Menelik’s kingdom, as well as a stopping point for numerous expeditions. The renegade poet Arthur Rimbaud lived in Harar and Aden for eleven years as a trader (Nicholl 1997). He became friends with Jules Borelli, author of Ethiopie meridionale, was well acquainted with Alfred Ilg, and contributed an account of Constantin Sotiro’s trip to the Ogaden in June–July 1883 to the Comptes rendus of the French Société de Géographie. Apart from these sparse reports, Rimbaud made no other recorded contributions to natural history except for pickling an Abyssinian Ground Hornbill’s head and sending it home to his mother.

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To the south and east the British were penetrating Somali territory and probing the southern boundaries of Shewa. In November 1884 Frank L. James and his brother set off with Percy Aylmer and Godfray Thrupp through north Somaliland to reach the Ogaden in January 1885 (James 1885). This expedition could not have set off at a worse time: it overlapped the Berlin conference of November 1884, convened to carve up European spheres of influence across Africa, as well as the Mahdi’s siege of Khartoum – Gordon was beheaded on 26 January 1885. Telegrams from the British government fluttered after the explorers, ordering their return. Despite their many difficulties a major collection was made, including several new species of bird and a bizarre social mammal, the Naked Mole Rat. From this collection, the prolific ornithologist George E. Shelley identified 61 species of birds, of which seven were new to science, including barbets, starlings and bush-shrikes (Shelley 1888). At Harar the British team met the Austrian ethnologist Dr P. Viktor Paulitschke and the sportsman Dr von Hardegger. The Austrians travelled and collected in the Ogaden, subsequently making important contributions to the Museum für Völkerkunde in Vienna (Paulitschke 1889). By this time, Italian colonial interests had become more assertive; they gained control of southern Somaliland and occupied Massawa, supplied arms to Menelik and explored the hinterland. To support General Wolseley’s expedition to retake Khartoum, the young British diplomat Gerald Portal was sent on a secret and hazardous mission to Yohannes’ court disguised as a hunting trip (Portal 1887) in a vain attempt to persuade the Emperor to cede back the parts of Bogos that Hewett had handed over. Yohannes was killed in 1889 during a Mahdist incursion. Menelik did not hesitate to claim the thrones of Abyssinia and Shewa, and urged his Italian allies to penetrate inland from Massawa and take the highland city of Asmara. On 2 May 1889, Menelik as Emperor of Ethiopia signed the treacherously translated treaty of Wichalé with Count Pietro Antonelli and sealed the fate of Eritrea as an Italian colony and Ethiopia as an Italian protectorate.

Last of the unexplored territory In the final throes of the scramble for Africa, Lake Rudolf (now Turkana) acquired particular significance, as at the end of the nineteenth century this was the last ‘unknown’ fragment of the continent (Imperato 1998). Prince Eugenio Ruspoli’s and Captain Vittorio Bottego’s ill-fated attempt to reach Lake Rudolph by travelling up the Juba river ended in Ruspoli’s death 150 miles from his goal on 4 December 1893 during an elephant charge. He left his name in Tauraco ruspolii. The type specimen of this endemic species was found in the Prince’s collection when it was returned to Italy, but the bird’s locality remained a mystery until C.W. Benson observed the turacos in the 1940s. Hard on Ruspoli’s heels, and complaining about the Prince’s rash behaviour, came an American, Arthur Donaldson Smith, who was determined to fix the geographical position of Lake Rudolph (Smith 1897). Smith hired a professional taxidermist, Edward Dodson, to accompany him and his friend Fred Gillett. Menelik’s raiding parties constantly harried the expedition across Borana, but excited Smith’s admiration: ‘a braver, hardier, more energetic, though savage lot of men could not be found’. Smith was tough too: neither charging rhinos, Abyssinians, lightning, fever nor flooding rivers deterred him from methodically collecting and surveying until he reached Lake Abaya. By the end of May his party had reached Lake Stefanie (now Chew Bahir) and sighted Lake Rudolf on 14 July 1895. After a deviation north to Murle on the River Omo they crossed Marsabit and gained the coast at Lamu. Smith and his companions had collected 700 birds, among which Richard Bowdler Sharpe at the British Museum found 24 new species. Smith also accumulated specimens of 300 reptiles, 300 plants, more than 1000 butterflies, 3000 other insects, 200 mammals and some rocks. The British Museum received most of Smith’s type specimens; the remainder went to the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia, USA. Smith was an accomplished cartographer, very aware of the value of his maps, and used them to negotiate influence with the Royal Geographic Society in London.

Claiming the heart of the continent While Smith trekked to Lake Rudolf, tensions between Britain and France over Egypt were mounting. In 1895 Sir Edward Grey, the British Under Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs (and a dedicated ornithologist), declared the entire length of the Nile to be British territory, thereby provoking an expeditionary race that almost led to war between Britain and France. The focus was a small antislavery post, Fashoda (now Kodok), 100 km north of the confluence with the Sobat river. Menelik succeeded in trading access to the Nile among the European rivals to win guaranteed access to the coast (Lewis 1987). 1896 was a pivotal year from many perspectives. Shelley started writing The Birds of Africa, a project that was to take him 16 years and fill five volumes (reviewed in Oberholser 1913). Shelley not only produced the massive work covering all African species, including all those in the Ethiopian region (Shelley 1896–1912), but he also wrote a monograph on the sunbirds (Shelley 1876–1880), and another on the birds of the Horn of Africa (Shelley 1888). This year the Italians ignominiously lost to the Ethiopians at the Battle of Adwa; an event that was to foreshadow future calamities but had the immediate effect of boosting Ethiopian confidence in dealing with Europeans. This year also saw Kitchener retake the Sudan and galvanise the British to secure access to the Nile. While the British tried diplomatic manoeuvres the French decided in 1897 simply to march to the Nile. Aiming to meet at Fashoda, Captain Jean-Baptiste de Marchand (1863–1934) approached from the Congo, and Marquis Christian de Bonchamps (1860–1919), with his companion André Bonvalot, from Djibouti (Bonchamps 1898). To help install the newly appointed British representative John Harrington, the British gathered a group of impressively tall veterans from Napier’s expedition including Swayne, the scholarly Herbert Weld Blundell, Reginald Wingate and a squad of Sikh soldiers, all led by the poet and diplomat Sir James Rennell Rodd (1858–1941) (Gleichen 1898). Menelik ensured the French travelled only at his convenience. They endured appalling hardships, but apparently still made natural history collections, although it is not clear what happened to them. The result of Menelik’s manipulations was that Bonchamps and Marchand missed meeting at the Nile by two weeks. The French were outnumbered by Kitchener’s forces and Marchand retreated ignominiously to Djibouti. The British had gained the advantage because they granted Menelik access to the port at Zeila (Pakenham 1998). Although the outward journey had not permitted Swayne the time, on the return he could do what he enjoyed most and said he made ‘astronomical observations…; and every spare moment, while coming on slowly with the rearguard, was devoted to taking photographs, drawing, or collecting butterflies’ (Swayne 1903).

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Despite the circumstances Donaldson Smith tried hard to obtain funds from British institutions for another trip to Lake Rudolf. Denied money and access, he had to watch from afar: lending a medical hand in the Afghan wars and writing dispatches for the New York Sun. In 1898 Blundell was allowed to return to Ethiopia via Zeila, accompanied by Lord Lovat, the polar explorer and medical doctor Reginald Koettlitz (who was to travel with Captain Scott on the Discovery in 1902) , and the naturalist Mr Harwood. During a transect of 300 miles of Menelik’s empire, Blundell made maps and Lord Lovat shot 523 birds of 303 species, as well as confirming several of Rüppell’s type specimens (Blundell and Lovat 1899, Blundell 1900). Early in 1899 Baron Carlo Freiherr von Erlanger (1872–1904) asked Oscar Rudolf Neumann (1867–1946), a companion on earlier travels in Kurdistan and Armenia, to join him on a trip to Somaliland and Ethiopia (Neumann 1902d). They ended up separating: Erlanger headed south-east to Sheik Hussein, while Neumann went south-west to Lake Stefanie and the Omo River. The drought conditions were so severe that Neumann recorded children being sold in markets alongside livestock and grain. On reaching the slow-moving, crocodile-infested Pibor River, the combined effects of the drought, desertion of his porters, rinderpest and failing food supplies persuaded Neumann to jettison everything inessential into the river. He reported ‘the only part of my belongings which I contrived to bring safely home being my collections, photographs, diary, and route books’, including 2000 fossils, 700 rock specimens, a new species of hartebeest and several hundred plants – an astonishOscar Neumann (left) with Ernst Hartert ing burden for a desperate man. He was literally saved by the bell: at the moment Neumann (centre) and Erwin Stresemann (right) was burying his ivory in a hole in the riverbank Slatin Pasha turned up in a steam boat and rescued the expedition. Erlanger’s birds obtained on his trip formed one of the most important collections of the Senckenberg Museum at Frankfurt (Hilgert 1908, Naumburg 1931). Neumann’s went to the Museum at Tring, where he worked briefly under Rothschild’s patronage. Financial distress made Neumann return to Berlin, where he worked as a stockbroker until the Nazi regime forced him to flee to Cuba. From there he migrated to the Field Museum in Chicago (Stresemann 1947). Donaldson Smith finally succeeded in gaining support from the Prince of Baroda, who wanted specimens for his personal museum (Sharpe 1901). Eventually, the Prince donated 103 bird specimens to the British Museum. Smith reached Lake Rudolf on 10 December 1899, followed by J.J. Harrison’s and Percy Powell-Cotton’s (1866–1940) hunting expedition (Powell-Cotton 1902). One purpose was to hoist a flag at Murle between Menelik’s empire and British East Africa, but they also collected 300 specimens of 150 bird species (OgilvieGrant 1900), a new species of bat and an albino topi. Powell-Cotton kept a museum for his trophies, where he pioneered the use of diorama. The museum is still open at the family home in England, Quex House, Birchington, Kent. In 1901 the Royal Geographical Society awarded the persistent Donaldson Smith the Patron’s medal for ‘For memorable journey across the unknown parts of Lake Rudolf and the Omo’ [sic]. By the turn of the nineteenth century American industrialists with astonishing fortunes could afford to indulge their frontier spirit independently of European territorial concerns. In 1901 Oscar Terry Crosby, who had founded the Potomac Power Company, crossed Ethiopia. There seems to be a collection in the Smithsonian Institution in Washington D.C, USA, and his papers are lodged in the National Library of Congress (Krusten & Kerwin 2005). After the First World War, Crosby joined the US Treasury Department with particular interest in war reparations, wrote prolifically and resumed Baron Carlo Freiherr von Erlanger travels across Africa in the 1920s.

Surveying the abbai By 1902 Menelik renounced his claims on the Upper Nile as the British established the Uganda protectorate and Kenya colony. In September 1905, Sir Edward Grey, the British Foreign Secretary, was still anxious about control of the Nile and wanted it surveyed. William Northrupp MacMillan and his determined wife Lucie failed spectacularly in their attempts to navigate the Blue Nile (Abbai). MacMillan, a Scottish-born American industrialist and sportsman, had three steel boats built in sections that were reconstructed at the confluence with the Muger River. At the first cataract, one boat capsized, the other sank, and the expedition was aborted (Jessen 1906). Their political influence apparently undiminished, the MacMillans subsequently settled in British East Africa, hosting Roosevelt and Churchill on hunting

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trips. MacMillan persuaded his friend Burchart Jessen to try again in 1905. Jessen travelled some 200 miles along the banks of the Abbai from the Sudan frontier accompanied by Photious C. Zaphiro (1879–1933), who worked as an interpreter attached to the British Legation in Addis Ababa, and was also a collector on several expeditions (e.g. Ogilvie-Grant 1907b, 1913). Zaphiro is buried in the graveyard at the British Embassy in Addis Ababa. The Rothschild family became very interested in the Ethiopian Beta Israel communities at this time, because of their involvement in establishing a Jewish homeland. In 1904–1905, Maurice de Rothschild travelled with the collector C.F. Camburn, other scientists and two taxidermists from Paris to Djibouti and then to the highlands. The results of this expedition are dispersed in the literature: some of the non-avian specimens are in the museum in Paris and the birds went to Walter Rothschild’s museum at Tring (LeCroy pers. comm.). Oscar Neumann worked on part of the collection, but it was never reported on in full. The insects and reptiles are documented in specialist journals. The Tring birds were later sold to the American Museum of Natural History (AMNH) in New York. Records from the AMNH also disclose its possession of at least 1400 specimens dated 1914–1915 and 1919 originating from the Rothschild collection at Tring, with Ethiopian localities labelled in Hungarian by Odon Kovacs. There is no other documentation for these birds and the circumstances of their acquisition are mysterious. Wealthy Americans with a zeal for collecting continued to visit Ethiopia to seek trade and adventure. Childs Frick (1883–1965), the son of the Pittsburgh steel industrialist and art collector Henry Clay Frick, travelled to Ethiopia in 1911–1912 for Harvard’s Museum of Comparative Zoology. Edgar Mearns, Teddy Roosevelt’s companion on an African hunting trip in 1909, was the ornithologist. The expedition met in Djibouti, took the French railway to Dire Dawa and followed the Rift Valley south-west, stopping to collect intensively south of Lake Abaya before heading for the railway at Nairobi. Mearns was diabetic and suffered intensely on this trip; unfortunately he died in 1916 before he was able to complete his report on the astonishing collection constituting more than 5000 birds, nests and eggs now lodged in the Smithsonian Institution in Washington DC. Nevertheless, before his death he managed to name 88 species and subspecies (Friedmann 1930b). In 1913 Menelik died of a stroke, his consort Zawditu became Empress in 1916, and her cousin Ras Tefari asserted his authority as Regent (Marcus 1994). Subsequently, Egypt freed itself from the British in 1922, although they retained Sudan. The British pressed for a complete survey of the Abbai because of its significance to the irrigation schemes in the Sudan, and partly in response to France re-opening the arms trade to Ethiopia through Djibouti. A mission was sent to Lake Tana to investigate the prospects for a dam to regulate flow (Grabham & Black 1925), a project that was eventually turned over to American interests. R.E. Cheesman (1878–1962) was designated British Consul based at Lake Tana during 1925–1934, and part of his job was to survey 500 miles of the upper reaches of the Abbai. Funded by the Natural History Museum in London and Lord Rothschild, Cheesman Edgar Mearns collected 2000 bird skins and travelled over 5000 miles (Cheesman 1928). He was given the Gill Memorial Award by the Royal Geographical Society. As Ethiopia turned away from its uncomfortable relations with Europe, the Regent, Ras Tafari, made contact with India and the USA, and increasing numbers of American visitors made their way to the country. Between 1926 and 1927 the celebrated American wildlife artist Louis Agassiz Fuertes and his companion Dr Wilfred Osgood, sponsored by the Field Museum and the Chicago Daily News, crossed Ethiopia from the Bale Mountains to Lake Tana and the Simien Mountains. Fuertes’ series of colour plates changed the style and standard of wildlife painting; sadly this enthusiastic and talented man died only months after returning from Ethiopia (Fuertes & Osgood 1936). The Field Museum in Chicago holds many of Fuertes’ beautiful illustrations of birds. Baron Raimondo Franchetti, the headstrong scion of an aristocratic family who became known as il Lawrence Italiano, brought his interest in zoology to prospect for specimens in Ethiopia. Together with his friend Amedeo, Duke of Aosta, in 1921 they travelled across southern Ethiopia, and during 1928–1929 Franchetti crossed the Danakil from Gojjam to Eritrea to fill in another blank space on the Italian map of Africa. For his services he won an honorary membership of the Società Geografica Italiana. The majority of his collections were kept first at his property near Treviso and then donated to Museo Civico di Reggio Emilia (Ghigi 1931, Mondadori 1935).

Brief conquest 1930 saw the death of Empress Zawditu, the exile of Iyasu, and the ascendancy of the regent Ras Tefari to the Ethiopian throne as Haile Selassie. A spectacular ceremony was attended by a glittering selection of foreign envoys, journalists and guests, including the Thesigers and Evelyn Waugh. Wilfred P. Thesiger (1910–2003) was born at the British Embassy in Addis Ababa, and cut his expeditionary teeth exploring the Danakil in 1933–1934 (Thesiger 1998). He became renowned for his travelogues on the Arabian Empty Quarter, the marshes of Iraq and East Africa. Although his father taught Thesiger about birds, he was not very interested in them but did make one notable contribution to Ibis (Thesiger & Meynell 1935a). The Pitt Rivers Museum in Oxford holds a large collection of his photographs. While Thesiger was crossing the Danakil, Dean Hobbs Blanchard, a wealthy Californian, also travelled to the Awash River before veering south-west, collecting en route to augment his personal museum at Santa Barbara. Blanchard subsequently wrote extensively about his bird collection, annotating it with comments about parasites and migration (Blanchard 1969). During the 1930s Haile Selassie consolidated his empire and promoted a tenuous modern infrastructure. In 1935, thwarted Italian colonial aspirations reached a head as Mussolini came to power. Ethiopia was invaded and the monarchy exiled to Britain (Marcus 1994). The Italians maintained an uncertain grip, particularly in remote rural areas, and avenged insurgency with violent repression. Ornithology, however, thrived. Augusto Toschi made several important bird collections from Lake Tana, Kefa, the Omo river area, Ogaden and western

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Somaliland (Toschi 1959). Marchese Saverio Patrizi Naro Montoro (1902–1957) had already explored the Congo basin, and was a signatory of the 1933 London convention for the preservation of fauna and flora, which was instrumental in the establishment of national parks and reserves throughout Africa. He made large collections from the Rift Valley, the Didessa valley and the Juba river basin (Patrizi 1940a,b), which were distributed to the museums at Rome and Genoa (Ash & Miskell 1998). During 1940–1941 Toschi tried to consolidate all the specimens collected by Italian expeditions in the Laboratorio di Zoologia in Addis Ababa (Toschi 1959). Meanwhile, Edgardo Moltoni and Giuseppe Gnecchi Ruscone, based in Milan, compiled and succeeded in publishing four volumes on the birds of Italian Africa illustrated with over 150 illustrations by G. Galleli (Moltoni & Ruscone 1940–1944). It remained incomplete, as the Museum at Milan was burnt down during the European war.

the last emperor In January 1941 Haile Selassie with his patriots and a British force took advantage of the gaps in Italian control to retake Ethiopia. The demoralised Italians retreated to a few forts. Part of the natural history collections made by the Italians in the Bale Mountains seems to have been destroyed by Ethiopian militia, another part was plundered by British troops and some specimens were sent to the Coryndon Museum in Nairobi (Toschi 1959). In May 1941 Haile Selassie was restored as Emperor but the country remained under Sir Philip Mitchell’s British military administration for a further eight months while the Edgardo Moltoni remaining Italians in the Didessa valley were removed. As prisoners of war in British East Africa, Giulio Tartaglia worked on Toschi’s collection at the Coryndon Museum while Toschi worked for Louis Leakey at Olduvai Gorge. Many of the Italians’ specimens were sent to the British Museum at Tring, possibly after selection by Cheesman and R. Whalley. In 1955, Tartaglia seems to have restored some examples from the collection to Toschi in Bologna, and others were returned to Addis Ababa (Toschi 1959). After the war, a collaboration developed between Patrizi and Horatio M. Woodman, an American keen on hunting, who made many observations on arrival and departure dates of migrant waterfowl and of (mostly Great) Snipe (e.g. Woodman 1944c). Woodman hunted around Addis Ababa and shared a taxidermist with Patrizi. Between June 1941 and March 1942 Mitchell sent Constantine W. Benson (1909 –1982) to rout the Italians from their fort at Mega. In his obituary Stuart Keith (1985) wrote that, ‘It is said that his collecting gun was fired so often that the Italians refrained from attacking what they considered must be a large force.’ From Mega, Benson made extensive patrols along the border with British East Africa, during which he made a large collection of birds, later written up in Ibis. After a return trip in 1946 Benson retired from the colonial service and in 1965 started work on the bird collections at the Cambridge University Museum of Zoology. In a similar role K.D. (Ken) Smith worked for the British administration of the UN Protectorate in Eritrea between 1944 and 1950, and published 21 papers from his observations and collections, including the excellent Checklist of the Birds of Eritrea (Smith 1957). Haile Selassie consolidated his claims to the region as the British withdrew, keen to avoid annexation into British East Africa. After the war, a few years of relative peace and prosperity brought increasing numbers of foreign visitors to Ethiopia. The first class of students graduated from the University in Addis Ababa in 1954, and the science faculty grew in strength. By 1966 the Ethiopian Natural History and Wildlife Society was established. Despite US support, the country gradually became one of the poorest in Africa and the regime vulnerable, until finally in 1974 famine fuelled a creeping Marxist–Leninist revolution led by Mengistu Haile-Mariam that culminated in Haile Selassie’s death in August 1974 (Marcus 1994). In 1991 an insurrection in Eritrea marched on Addis Ababa and established a western-oriented government led by Meles Zenawi. In 1993 Eritrea became independent; however, the borders of Ethiopia continue to be bloodily disputed by the Eritreans, Tigrayans and Somalis, and famine threatens repeatedly. In spite of periodic turmoil, birds were watched and studied. Emil Urban, a professor at the university in Addis Ababa, co-authored a checklist of the birds with Leslie Brown (Urban & Brown 1971). Chris Hillman worked extensively in the Bale Mountains National Park (Hillman 1990). Stephanie Tyler became very familiar with the birds of Tigray and Eritrea when she and her family were held captive by guerillas in 1976. Melvin Bolton with C. Zewdie worked on a list of birds in the Nechisar National Park (Safford 1993). The taxidermist Svante Pohlstrand was an important pivot for collectors, and later his son, Håkan Pohlstrand, organised bird tours in the country with Kidane Biyadgo. John Ash had a particular interest in migrants, and travelled widely during his eight years in Ethiopia. His extensive observations on the distribution of birds in the region led directly to the development of the bird-mapping project, and to this atlas (and also to the publication of Birds of Somalia in 1998). John Atkins at Addis Ababa University coordinated record-keeping from many visiting ornithologists. Mike Jaeger worked on quelea control. In the late 1980s and early 1990s Tesfaye Hundessa and Yilma Dellelegn Abebe of the Ethiopian Wildlife ConserEmil Urban vation Organisation undertook valuable surveys of the status of some Ethiopian bird species

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and surveyed several lesser known areas. In the early 1990s the Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural History Society formed a partnership with BirdLife International to inventory Important Bird Areas. Sue Edwards, Solomon Tilahun and Tewolde Berhan Egzhiaber subsequently edited an account of these (Tilahun et al. 1996). Since the mid-1990s Mengistu Wondafrash has taken the reins for Ethiopian bird conservation, coordinating with BirdLife International, the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds and other organisations to find ways of protecting key sites for endangered species in the country. Mengistu Wondafrash, Yilma Dellelegn, Mihret Ewnetu, Anteneh Shimelis and others have also been running annual waterbird surveys for the International Wetlands Research Bureau. In Eritrea, Dawit Semere, Giuseppe De Marchi, Giorgio Chiozzi and colleagues carried out important research on breeding seabird populations on Red Sea islands between 2001 and 2007. The geographical region encompassed by Ethiopia and Eritrea has constantly been subject to human upheaval, drought and famine. Its fauna and flora are unique and extremely vulnerable, and have attracted fascination for centuries. Much has been lost, but much has been learnt over the centuries of acquisition. As the world enters an era of accelerating environmental change it is important to bring the accumulation of stored knowledge of birds to sentinel the areas of high biodiversity that sustain the delicate landscapes of these countries.

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topoGraphiC rEGionS and hydroGraphy in EritrEa and Ethiopia Ethiopia and Eritrea are characterised by great topographical diversity, particularly altitudinal variation, ranging from 110m below sea-level in the Dallol Depression to 4620m in the Simien Mountains. This has created two broad climatic regions, the cool highlands and the hot lowlands. The region also contains more land above 2000m than in any other African country, with two main masses of high land, the western and northern highlands and the south-eastern highlands, separated by the Rift Valley. The following account of the topography and hydrography of the region is based on Westphal (1975), Last (1965), Ethiopian Mapping Authority (1988) and Tilahun et al. (1996). Logan (1946) and Yalden (1983) have also been referred to.

topographic regions There is some disagreement in the literature on the names of the main topographic regions. For our purposes we identify the following: The Western Highlands (lying to the west of the Rift Valley and the Danakil or Afar Desert) The South-eastern Highlands (south and east of the Rift Valley) The Western Lowlands (bordering Sudan and extending south to the Omo valley) The South-eastern Lowlands (of the Ogaden up to the border with Somalia) The Southern Lowlands (extending across to the lower Omo valley) The Rift Valley The North-eastern Lowland Desert (desert and semi-desert lands of the Danakil, south and east to the Awash river) The Red Sea coast and islands These features are illustrated in Figure 8 and are described below.

1. the Western Highlands

The Western Highlands extend from Eritrea in the north to Kenya in the south and are considered here to include all land above 1500m, west and north of the Rift Valley and the Danakil Desert, and east of the Western Lowlands. Lowlands associated with the major rivers (e.g. Abay, Tacazze, Omo) are better considered for ornithological purposes as part of the Western Lowlands. The highest point is Ras Deshen, which at 4620m is the highest mountain in Ethiopia, in the Simien Mountains on the south side of the Tacazze river gorge. The eastern escarpment runs more or less north to south at an altitude of 2100–2400m. In the north it is characterised by high, rugged mountains that tower over the lowlands of Eritrea, the Danakil and the Rift Valley below, while in the south, nearer to the Kenya border, the average elevation is lower, at about 1500m. The central area of the eastern escarpment is broken by the Awash valley. The western escarpment is less well defined, and is interrupted by rivers, as the land falls gently towards the west (Westphal 1975). The plateau itself is a high tableland at an elevation of 1500–2000m, rising especially in the north to over 4000m, and dissected by steep-sided, deep valleys. Northern and southern parts of the plateau are separated by the impressive Abay (Blue Nile) river gorge, which in some places has cut down to nearly 2000m below the level of the adjacent plateau (Last 1965). Particularly in the northern and central parts of the region, erosion has created isolated flat-topped, steep-sided tables known as ‘ambas’ (Logan 1946).

2. the South-eastern Highlands

This refers to the highland plateau above 1500m east of the Rift Valley in Ethiopia, which creates an arc from the Kenya border to northern Somalia. It includes the Bale Mountains, the Arussi Highlands and the Chercher Mountains. Between 4° and 6°N the southern part of the plateau forms a section of the eastern wall of the Rift Valley at 1500–1800m. From 6°N the escarpment rises towards its highest area in the Chilalo Massif in the Arussi Highlands at 3000–4200m, with the highest point at Mount Kaka (4200m). As the escarpment curves eastwards, the elevation decreases steadily, falling to 1800m near Jijiga. The western face of the escarpment has heights ranging between 600 and 1200m above the surrounding area. The main south-eastern highlands have been eroded into a narrow chain of smaller mountain groups (the Harar, Ahmar, Chercher, Gugu and Chilalo Massifs, and the mountains of Sidamo) by river systems draining towards the south-east into the Wabe Shabeelle. From the escarpment the land slopes gently south-eastwards towards the Indian Ocean. Erosion here has resulted in a series of narrow plateaus running south-east, separated by the valleys of the Dawa, Genale, Weyb (Webi Gestro) and Wabe Shabeelle rivers. The main rivers have cut deep gorges into the plateaus, the deepest and most dramatic of which is that created by the Wabe Shabeelle river. The Bale Mountains, south of the upper Wabe Shabeelle river, form the largest area of very high land in the region, most of it being above 3000m, with several peaks, of which Mount Batu (4307m) and Tullu Deemtu (4377m) are the highest. An extensive, isolated highland region, it is separated from the main chain of the south-eastern highlands by the Wabe Shabeelle and the Genale rivers.

3. the Western Lowlands

The Western Lowlands are the plains bordering Sudan to the west of the Western Highlands, extending from northern Eritrea south to the lower Omo valley. The lowlands of the Abay and Tacazze rivers and their tributaries form part of this topographic region, where they penetrate into the Western Highland plateau. In Eritrea, between the Barka and Gash-Setit rivers, erosion has created wide lowland plains, while further south, between the Setit and the Abay, the plains are narrow and separated by long spurs of highland. In the south-western part of Ethiopia, the Baro–Akobo plains are structurally part of the Western Lowlands, while the Omo basin is part of the Rift Valley structure.

4. South-eastern Lowlands

This region includes the Harar and Ogaden plateaus, which slope gently away from the South-eastern Highlands escarpment towards the Indian Ocean. Erosion here has resulted in a series of narrow plateaus running south and south-east separated by river valleys. The main

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rivers have cut deep gorges into the plateaus, which are particularly dramatic where they cut through limestone beds. A notable feature is the long cave system of the Weyb river, starting at Sof Omar. The Harar plateau lies north-east of the Wabe Shabeelle at altitudes between 1500m and approximately 1000m, slopes gently south, and is drained by the Erer, Fafen and other rivers. South of this, at altitudes between 1000m and 500m, lies the Ogaden plateau, a very dry area with many wadis that also drain into the Wabe Shabeelle. This and the Southern Lowlands are known for their rich biodiversity, resulting from the high diversity in the topography and geology forming ecologically distinct ‘islands’ in these areas.

5. the Southern Lowlands

This region includes land below 1500m to the west of the Wabe Shabeelle. Thus it refers to Sidamo and parts of southern Bale below 1500m. The Sidamo–Borana plateau has an elevation above 1000m sloping gently to the south. Erosion here has resulted in a series of narrow plateaus running south-east, separated by the valleys of the Dawa, Genale and Weyb rivers. The Southern Lowlands also include the lower Omo valley.

6. the rift Valley

The Ethiopian–Eritrean region is bisected by the Rift Valley, which runs approximately north to south, and is enclosed east and west by the escarpments of the Eastern and Western Highlands. The narrowest part of the Rift Valley area, from approximately 5° to 8°N, has a width of 40–60km and contains a number of ornithologically important lakes, including Zwai, Langano, Abiata, Shalla, Awassa, Abaya and Chamo, and slopes gradually southwards from approximately 1600m at Lake Zwai to about 600m in the Chew Bahir area on the border with Kenya. The floor of this part of the Rift Valley is generally from 600 to 900m below the highest peaks of the escarpment which forms its walls. North of Lake Zwai the western wall of the Rift Valley turns due north, creating a wide plain between the escarpment and the Red Sea coast, until in Eritrea, north of Massawa, the foothills of the escarpment run parallel to the coast. The eastern wall of the Rift Valley turns to the north-east, and in this area the Rift Valley opens out into the Awash valley, the Afar Plains and Danakil Desert.

7. the north-eastern Lowlands

This region comprises the north-eastern lowland desert and semi-desert lands of the Danakil Desert and Afar Plains south to the Awash river and comprises sand and lava plains, which slope north-east, with altitudes in parts as low as 110m b.s.l. To the east of this area lie the Danakil Alps, a broken range of volcanic mountains parallel to the Red Sea coast.

8. the red Sea coast and islands

This area includes the Red Sea coastline of Eritrea, the adjacent volcanic and rock desert hills and the many offshore islands, including Dahlak Islands, the islands of Howakil Bay and the Assab Islands. Hamil

isra tu

norah Adasi Seil Adasi Azghar

Harat

Seil norah norah

dahret

dehil Sarad dur Gham dur Ghulla Kundabilu Entedebir Enteraia

Massawa

hirghigo

Enteara Shek Seyd

Madote dissei

nokra dahlak kebir Shumma

Um Al naym Museri

Gulf of Zu

Buri peninsula

la Howakil Bay This map is not an authority on international boundaries.

Figure 1. A simplified map of the Dahlak Islands (showing those referred to in the text).

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Coral beach and coastal vege­ tation, Dahlak Islands, Eritrea (Jason Anderson).

hydrography The general pattern of drainage in the region is the result of uplifting during the Tertiary period. The dome shape created by the uplifting would have drained north, south, east and west from the centre. However, the dome cracked and a rift valley was created, leaving the western highlands and eastern highlands on either side. The general slope of the western highlands is towards Sudan on the west and Kenya to the south, so drainage is north-westward and south, while the slope of the eastern highlands is towards the east and south-east, so drainage is in that direction (Last 1965). Even so, these highlands can be correctly referred to as the ‘water tower’ of the Horn of Africa. Interestingly, Addis Ababa is almost central in Ethiopia and central to the north–south watershed. Rain falling on the back of Entoto drains into the Muger and hence to the Abay, while rain falling on Addis Ababa drains south into the Awash. The Entoto ridge continues west and makes the divide between the Gilgil–Omo drainage south and the Guder, Fincha’a, Didessa and Dabus flowing north (S. Edwards, pers. comm.). River valleys are important corridor areas for birds; thus, for example, species typical of the western lowlands, but not the highlands, are found as far up the Abay system as the Jemmu river. The principal river systems, all flowing from the highlands, are: the Tacazze–Setit–Angareb system, the Abay (Blue Nile) system and the Baro–Gilo–Akobo system to the west and north, the Awash to the east, the Wabe Shabeelle to the south-east, the Genale–Dawa–Weyb system and the Omo–Gibé system to the south. These are illustrated in Figure 14. In order of total annual volume, the major rivers rank as follows (Last 1965): 1. Abay, 2. Tacazze–Setit–Angareb, 3. Baro–Akobo–Gilo, 4. Omo, 5. Wabe Shabeelle, 6. Genale–Weyb–Dawa, 7. Awash, 8. Mareb–Gash, 9. Barka, 10. Sagan. The westward drainage of the first three river systems into the Nile basin constitutes nearly half the total volume of water drained from the country and provides over 80% of the water in the River Nile. However, the flow of water in all the region’s rivers fluctuates considerably, being determined by the uneven annual distribution of rainfall (Last 1965). In the Western Highlands, the plateaus to the north of Lake Tana are drained westwards by the Tacazze–Setit, which flows as the Tacazze in a deep gorge round the Simien Massif. Together with the Angareb and Atbara rivers, the Tacazze–Setit forms the headwaters of the Atbara drainage system. Further north in Eritrea, the Western Highland plateau is drained to the west by the Mareb–Gash, whose seasonal floodwaters are lost in the desert, and by the Barka and Anseba rivers. Apart from the Tacazze–Setit, the other rivers of Eritrea are all seasonal. The central plateau of the Western Highlands in Ethiopia is drained south and west by the Abay (Blue Nile) river and its tributaries, which have carved deep and spectacular gorges, in places 1000–2000m below the general level of the surrounding plateau. Much of the water in the Abay comes from its left bank tributaries, particularly the Jemmu, Guder and Muger in the mid-Abay area, and the Didessa and Dabus in the high-rainfall region of western Ethiopia. The south-western highlands are also drained by the Baro–Gilo–Akobo system, which form the headwaters of the Sobat, and by the Omo–Gibe system. The south-western part of the Western Highlands is characterised by mature, broad river valleys, contrasting with the deep gorges of the northern plateaus. The Omo, the only river of any significance to the west of the Rift Valley which is not part of the Nile system, and known in its upper course as the Gibé, drains into Lake Turkana. The Sagan flows into Chew Bahir. Along the eastern edge of the Western Highlands a major watershed separates drainage westwards from drainage eastwards into the Red Sea and the Rift Valley. In Eritrea a number of small rivers, including the Felket, drain eastwards, but their seasonal floodwaters reach the Red Sea only in the rainy season. A number of small streams north of Dessie flow into the Kobar Sink in the Danakil Desert. The largest eastward-flowing river, the Awash, rises in the highlands west of Addis Ababa and drains into the Rift Valley before disappearing into the sands in Lake Abbé in the southern Danakil on the border with Djibouti. The Eastern Highlands slope generally south-eastward so drainage is towards the Indian Ocean. A watershed separates drainage eastwards from drainage westwards into the Rift Valley. The eastern part of the South-eastern Highlands is drained by the Wabe Shabeelle and the Fafen and their tributaries. The south-western part, the mountains of Sidamo and Bale, is drained by the Weyb, Genale and Dawa rivers, which join together at Dolo to become the Juba. The seasonal streams of south-west Borana drain south into an area west of the Juba drainage system and east of Chew Bahir. The Rift Valley and the Afar Lowlands drain into a number of basins of inland drainage, the largest being the Awash basin. Some lakes, for example Tana, Abaya and Chamo, have an important role in storing water which then feeds into rivers (Lake Tana drains into the Abay, Lake Abaya drains into Lake Chamo through the Kulfo river, and Chamo is the origin of the Sagan river) but most, especially several of the Rift Valley lakes, are closed basins with no rivers flowing from them.

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thE GEoLoGy and SoiLS oF Ethiopia and EritrEa Geoffrey Last All aspects of the natural and human environment of Ethiopia and Eritrea are characterised by their complexity and diversity. Contained within the borders of these two countries is the largest area of very high land on the continent of Africa and also the Kobar Sink in the Afar Plains, marking the lowest point on the continent at 110m below sea-level. The processes stretching over the long geological history from the Lower Precambrian formations of the earliest continents to very recent volcanic activity and alluvial deposits, and the dynamics of metamorphism, erosion and deposition, have created a geological map of great diversity. This complex pattern has had its impact on soil types and drainage patterns and has produced a wide range of environmental conditions for plant and animal life. The topography also contributes to variations in microclimates, with their diverse effects on all forms of life. These geological and topographical diversities and their related process of soil formation have influenced man’s occupation and use of the land, his modification of natural vegetation and his interaction with wildlife.

The significance of soils and geology for birds

Soils and geology help to determine the distribution and evolution of many species of birds. Vegetation is dependent on and modified by soils, which themselves are dependent on the underlying geology. Thus environmental conditions and available food sources are determined at least partly by these factors. Some species, especially larks, have even evolved to match the dominant shade of the soil in their preferred habitat. Thus the Collared Bushlark has evolved in such a way as to match the red Haud soils found in the Ogaden. The White-tailed Bushlark has evolved to match the dark vertisols (Black Cotton Soils) of the south Ethiopian plains. The race daaroodensis of Blanford’s Short-toed Lark has evolved to match the pale sandy soils of the short-grass open plains east of Jijiga. Similarly, races of the Desert Lark have taken on the colours of open, sparsely vegetated desert soils.

Geology The following is a brief account of the geological history of Ethiopia and Eritrea (see Figure 10). Ethiopia has its foundations on the preCambrian shield of Africa with a range of crystalline rocks. The original igneous and sedimentary rocks are interbedded with schists and gneisses and subsequent igneous intrusions in what is known as the Basement Complex. In the following Mesozoic era, the sinking of the landscape in north-east Africa and the resultant marine transgressions resulted in the deposition of early sandstones (Adigrat Sandstone) and limestones (Antalo Limestone). Then as the seas regressed there were younger deposits of sandstones and limestones, particularly in the eastern and south-eastern regions. At the end of the Cretaceous period only the Ogaden remained below sea-level. Following this, at the beginning of the Tertiary period, there was a massive uplift of the Horn of Africa and its hinterland, which was accompanied by the outpouring of very large quantities of lava. These plateau basalts (so called for the high, flat surfaces which they built up over all previous formations in a series of lava flows) increased to thousands of metres in thickness. The tensions in this unstable region, associated with an accelerating process of continental drift, resulted in major fractures and the creation of the tectonic formation known as the Rift System. The central portion of this system, which stretches from Syria to Mozambique, separated the Central and Eastern Highlands in the Ethiopian area, where differences in altitude between the floor of the Rift and the surface of the plateau exceed 2000 metres. Widespread fracturing, the new levels in the landscape and periods of extremely heavy rainfall at the beginning of the Quaternary Period resulted in the channelling of the plateau surfaces and the erosion of the hard protective Trap Series lavas. New rivers plunged through the softer, underlying sedimentary rocks to produce an ever-expanding system of deep gorges, which had their starting point in the Central Highlands along the higher rim of the Great Eastern Escarpment and combined to form the extensive Abay/Blue Nile drainage basin. East of the Rift, the flow was eastwards to the Indian Ocean to form what became the Wabe Shabeelle and the Juba systems. Volcanic activity has continued throughout the Quaternary period on both the high plateau and in the Rift Valley. On the plateau there are the eroded plugs of volcanic vents which were the focal points of recent lava flows. More importantly, on and near the present plateau surfaces are extensive areas of volcanic ash deposits, which in some areas overwhelmed early areas of forest on the plateau. Volcanic activity has been and remains most intensive in the geologically unstable Rift Valley region. Here a variety of features can be seen – volcanoes, calderas, cinder cones, fumeroles and hot springs – some active and many more dormant. Earth tremors are frequent. The Addis Ababa–Nazret area on the fringe of the Rift has some 500 minor tremors a year. This phenomenon is fortunate as the continuous adjustment of tension reduces the frequency of earthquakes with more destructive capacity. These have been experienced in the Rift Valley and its escarpment areas about once every 15 years over the last century, with major quakes at approximately 30-year intervals. A result of all this Quaternary activity, associated with the continuing drift of the African continent away from the Arabian peninsula, has been the build-up on the Rift Valley floor of a variety of lava (the Aden Series), cinder and ash deposits, mixing with alluvial deposits from rivers descending from escarpment areas.

Soils As a result of the above activity a wide range of soil types exists in Ethiopia and Eritrea. This complexity is accentuated by the wide range in climatic conditions experienced over geological time, from high pluvials to absolute desert and embracing the formation of local icecaps during the Quaternary. These have resulted in moraine deposits on restricted areas of the central plateau lands. Coastal movements over geological time have also produced changes in drainage and erosion patterns and finally – perhaps most importantly in some areas – the long history of human occupation with such practices as slash-and-burn agriculture, cultivation of steep slopes and widespread deforestation has had its impact on soil conditions.

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26 the geology and soils of ethiopia and eritrea Most tropical soils have a low lime, magnesium, potash and phosphorus content, are poor in humus content and organic matter and do not compare in fertility with soils in the temperate latitudes. The action of climate on soil creates a top layer which is either sandy or clayey and which tends to settle down as a hard surface. Soils which develop in this way are called ‘laterite soils’.

Broad soil regions of Ethiopia and Eritrea No nationwide survey of soils has been made, and present knowledge derives from a number of area studies (e.g. the US Department of the Interior surveys of the Blue Nile basin in the 1950s; various detailed studies of the Awash river basin, beginning with the FAO project documentation of the 1960s; the French Shabeelle basin survey in the 1970s) and the collection of soil samples including the work of the Soil Conservation Research Project (University of Bern with the UN University, Tokyo) initiated in 1981. There are three significant features of the soils in this region. a) The richest and most fertile of soils come from igneous rocks. These are found exposed in a belt on the eastern side of Africa associated with the Rift system. b) The richest soils tend to be the newest soils. Most of the soils on the continent of Africa are derived from the comparatively ancient rocks of the Basement Complex. However, the igneous rocks of East Africa and Ethiopia date from more recent Tertiary and Quaternary eras and, in many areas, the soils have just begun to form. c) The climatic conditions of the plateau lands do not naturally create the same rapid process of soil creation followed by soil destruction that is found in the warmer lowlands. The following is a simplified outline of broad soil regions of Ethiopia and Eritrea (see Figure 11). The reader should bear in mind that soil scientists employ a variety of alternative classifications, while the extremely diverse nature of the region leads to many local differences in soil types, which tend to be obscured by general statements about distribution of soil types.

1. the plateau soil region

This is the most extensive area. The parent rocks are basalt and other volcanic rocks of relatively recent formation. The rainfall over this region is high and the red soils which have been formed therefore tend to be laterites. The black vertisol soils (Black Cotton Soils) found in the badly drained areas are formed from the same materials but have the texture and quality of clay. They are more fertile than red earths but are difficult to farm since in the rainy season they are sticky and wet and in the dry season they contract and crack.

2. the crystalline highlands

In these regions (Eritrea, Harar and Borana), the parent rocks are the hard old crystalline materials of the Basement Complex which appear on the surface. The rocks produce poor thin soils, brown or grey-brown, which are acid and not very fertile.

3. the desert soil regions

These regions are arid and semi-arid. In the Afar Plain the soils are formed from very recent volcanic deposits but, since large areas are also represented by dried-out lake deposits, the soils tend to be saline. Soil-forming processes have not produced deep soils and they lack humus. Since they consist mostly of disintegrated rock material they are known as ‘lithosols’. In the Ogaden the desert soils are based on sedimentary rocks. Along the Red Sea coast are desert soils based on sedimentary materials and recent marine sediments and these are often potentially rich if irrigated. They are high in phosphorous and potash but low in nitrogen content.

4. ogaden dry steppe

Soils here are brownish or grey-brown and are based on limestone. They have been formed under conditions of limited rainfall and are therefore only slightly leached. They are rich in carbonates and, with irrigation, they can be very fertile.

5. the rift lakes

This is a complex soil region. Soils here are based partly on recent volcanic deposits (as in the Afar Plain), partly on lacustrine sediments from the previously more extensive lakes, and partly on alluvial material originating in the plateau regions on either flank of the Rift Valley. Rainfall is limited, especially in the northern part of the Rift lakes, so the soils are only partly leached. The soils of the central Rift and southern Rift are potentially fertile if they can be irrigated.

6. Alluvial plains

River plains often contain soils which are derived from materials transported from the watershed of the river basin. Such alluvial soils are often fertile since they consist of a mixture of materials. In addition, the fertility of alluvial soils is being constantly renewed (in the case of Ethiopia, by eroded top-soil deposits from the lava plateaus). In the formation of alluvial soils, the loss of some regions can therefore be a gain in the alluvial plains. The most important of these alluvial soil regions are found in the lower Abay, the Awash and the Omo valleys and in the more extensive plains of the Baro and Akobo rivers.

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thE vEGEtation oF Ethiopia and EritrEa John Atkins and Sue Edwards introduction Early surveys of Ethiopian and Eritrean vegetation are found in Engler (1910), Logan (1946) and Pichi-Sermolli (1957), the latter producing the first detailed geobotanical survey of Ethiopia. More detailed studies of the vegetation of the region aimed at developing a more objective classification of the region’s vegetation have been undertaken by the Flora Project, a collaborative study between the Department of Biology, University of Addis Ababa, and the Institute of Systematic Botany, University of Uppsala, with the Botanical Museum of the University of Copenhagen (vide references for the first six of seven planned volumes). Ib Friis of the Botanical Museum of Copenhagen University has been a main contributor to the study of vegetation in the region and Friis (1986) contains an important discussion of forest vegetation types in the region, which forms the basis of the treatment here. In addition, the following have also been referred to in the writing of this account: Last (1965), Mariam (1969), Westphal (1975), Wilson (1977), Chaffey (1979), Negere (1980), Friis et al. (1982), Gilbert (1986), Ethiopian Mapping Authority (1988), Tewolde (1988), Friis (1992), Hillman (1993a,b), Tilahun et al. (1996) and Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (1997). After a long period of modification by man, most of the natural vegetation of the region is indiscernible and the small, relatively untouched patches remaining in the highlands now mainly exist only around churches (Negere 1980). Furthermore, the earlier view that all land over 2500m was forested is now regarded as probably mistaken by Hillman (1993a), who argues that much of it was in fact grassland. Reduction of natural forest has come about both through commercial exploitation and by clearance for agriculture, and surviving forests everywhere are increasingly subjected to pressure for charcoal and firewood from the rapidly expanding human population, as well as for cultivation. Huge areas of forest and woodland have disappeared through uncontrolled destruction in recent years, especially close to new access roads. The enforced translocation into western Ethiopia of large populations of highland people during the 1980s has also led to immense losses of areas of forest, which must have resulted in declines in bird populations. The following eleven vegetation types are based on those in Friis (1986) and in Volume 1, the Natural Resource Base, of the Conservation Strategy of Ethiopia (Federal Democratic Government of Ethiopia 1997). 1. Coastal vegetation 2. Desert and semi-desert vegetation 3. Acacia–Commiphora, small-leaved/microphyllous deciduous woodland 4. Riverine vegetation 5. Wetlands and swamp vegetation 6. Combretum–Terminalia, broadleaved/macrophyllous deciduous woodland 7. Lowland semi-evergreen forest of Gambela 8. Evergreen bushland 9. Moist evergreen montane forest 10. Dry evergreen montane forest and grassland 11. Afroalpine and sub-afroalpine vegetation A much simplified distribution of these major vegetation types, except 4 and 5, is given in Figure 9. The map outlines the general bio-climatic regions in which the vegetation types here are distributed. The locations of individual forests and forest patches are only approximate.

1. Coastal vegetation

The main types of coastal vegetation are the plant communities of the coral beaches, sandy shores, deltas, estuaries, dunes and mangrove swamps of Eritrea (Westphal 1975). The basic vegetation of the Red Sea coast consists of scattered clump grasses. After rainfall, annual grasses and other herbs appear. In addition to the grasses there are some larger trees. The vegetation of the coral beaches consists chiefly of salt-tolerant plants, sometimes backed by stands of Tamarix nilotica. Panicum turgidum is found in coastal sands, and Suaeda fructicosa in the estuarine vegetation. On the moving dunes Scaevola plumieri, Calotropis procera, Blepharis persica, Eragrostis ciliaris and Sporobolus spp. grow. On fixed dunes a varied vegetation of Acacia, Commiphora, Grewia and others is found. Mangrove swamps occur in several coastal localities and sheltered bays, but only very locally, such as on Shek Seyd (Green) Island and at Hirghigo, both near Massawa, and near Assab. They are characterised by Avicennia marina and other salt-tolerant species. Plant species typical of the main types of coastal vegetation are listed in the Appendix.

2. desert and semi-desert vegetation

True desert—zones without plant growth—only occurs in a few limited areas in our region, on alluvial soils below 400m in areas of 18°C. Mean annual rainfall 680–2000mm. November–February generally dry.

Tropical climate 3 South-western Ethiopia, in Kefa and Illubabor and around Lake Tana. Up to 1850m. Vegetation typically evergreen forest. Temperature regime similar to previous category, but because of higher altitudes at which it often occurs, temperatures slightly lower. Mean temperature of coldest month >18°C. Higher annual rainfall and dry season shorter. Two rainfall maxima, with most rain June–September. Mean annual rainfall 1200–2800mm.

Warm temperate climate 1 Southern, central and northern highlands, the south-eastern highlands of Ethiopia at 1750–3200m. Areas of heavy rainfall are forested; in areas of moderate rainfall, grassland predominates. November–February generally dry. Temperatures lower than in surrounding lowlands; mean temperature of coldest month 10°C. Lowest temperatures November–February, highest April–May, because summers are very cloudy. Mean annual rainfall usually 900–1500mm, but distribution and amount vary considerably from area to area, thus affecting vegetation.

Warm temperate climate 2 Parts of the south-western and south-eastern highlands of Ethiopia. Suitable for abundant forest cover, as land typically has more soil moisture than previous category. Humid temperate climate; no dry season. Mean temperature of coldest month 3500m. Afroalpine vegetation. November–February dry. Temperature of warmest month 10°C or less. Mean annual rainfall 800–2000mm.

Climate change

Ethiopia and Eritrea are likely to be two of the countries in Africa most vulnerable to climate change, which will affect agriculture, water resources, biodiversity and ecosystems and hence the livelihood of the region’s peoples. It will also affect the habitats available to the region’s birds. The first impact of climate change will be a rise in temperatures. Mean annual maximum and minimum temperatures have been rising in the region by 0.1°C and 0.25°C per decade respectively (Demissie 2007). This trend is likely to have particularly strong implications in the future for both low-lying areas and the highest rainfall areas. In the lowlands increasing temperatures are already being coupled with more extreme rainfall events, including untimely rainfall, more extreme drought and floods. This will exacerbate water stress and increase desertification. In the highest areas, the afro-montane vegetation and its associated fauna are likely to encroach on the already highly vulnerable afroalpine areas, and flora and fauna species which cannot compete with this encroachment will be threatened with extinction. Although the amount of rainfall in the region has been more or less constant over the past 50 years, an overall decline has been noted in northern parts of Ethiopia and in Eritrea (Demissie 2007). This chapter has also noted the significance in the region of local variations in rainfall, caused by altitude and by microclimatic variations, created by local relief differences and prevailing winds. Climate change may be expected to lead to many changes in such local microclimatic conditions. The potential consequences of climate change for the region’s natural resource base are likely to be very serious and it will be important to develop local adaptation strategies to mitigate the worst effects.

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Bird haBitatS in Ethiopia and EritrEa introduction There is as yet no universally accepted system for classifying habitats (Carswell et al. 2005). For the purposes of this volume, we have chosen to use vegetation as the primary criterion for defining habitat as, while there are clear exceptions (areas of open water, deserts, some man-made habitats, for example), in almost all habitats plants form the key element. Britton (1980), Lewis & Pomeroy (1989), Carswell et al. (2005) and Wondafrash (2007) have all been referred to in the writing of this account.

Environmental factors affecting bird distribution and bird habitats While most birds depend directly or indirectly on plants, it is an oversimplification to think of bird distribution as being defined simply by vegetation. The entire environment shapes the organisms that occupy it. Old trees are attractive to woodpeckers; landscapes with very few trees provide security of vision for some bustards; thorny trees provide nesting security for Stresemann’s Bushcrow, while wells and huts perform similar functions for swallows. In some cases it is possible to be explicit about habitat requirements. For example, we can say that Heuglin’s Bustard is restricted to semi-desert plains, Yellow-bellied Hyliota to Combretum–Terminalia–Hyparrhenia savanna. However, in each case, it is not primarily the plants or other factors associated with the habitat which are the ultimate factor in determining the bird’s distribution and habitat preference, but the insects, seeds, fruits, rodents or other food sources associated with them, and for most species we have no clear idea what these are. Birds which occur at high altitudes have over millennia adapted to environmental factors such as low nocturnal temperatures, high winds, and low-density oxygen. However, it is not that they necessarily prefer high altitudes, but rather that the plants that occur at such altitudes make suitable food available. Aspects of rainfall such as quantity, seasonality and, crucially in Ethiopia and Eritrea, reliability act in the same way. An example of a species whose distribution appears to reflect rainfall is the Pale Prinia, found exclusively in areas of low rainfall. The unreliability of rainfall and lack of clear dry and wet seasons in lower altitudes of the region, i.e. mostly below 1500m a.s.l., mean that breeding seasons are thought to be less clear-cut than at higher latitudes (Carswell et al. 2005). Availability of large bodies of water, their extent, their depth, their type, their chemical make-up, all have impacts on the aquatic bird species associated with them, and changes in any of these may have positive or negative consequences for bird populations. Soil and associated rock types have a strong influence on the distribution of natural vegetation within a given geographical area. Some species, especially larks, have even evolved cryptic plumages which match the dominant shade of the soil. The next most important factor is moisture regime – rainfall as well as access to ground water. For example palm groves flourish around hot springs in the desert and riverine vegetation, attracting Palm Swifts and Red-necked Falcons. All these factors, as well as the influence of man, affect the presence or absence of bird species and they should be borne in mind when considering the following largely vegetation-based description of habitats below.

1. desert and semi-desert habitats

Extensive areas in the north, east, south-east and south of the region consist of semi-desert and desert, with various types of habitat including dry open sandy and stony plains, sparse grassland with scattered dwarf shrub and tree growth, and rocky hills. Some species typical of habitats in semi-desert areas include Egyptian Vulture, Little Owl, Greater Hoopoe-Lark, Fulvous Babbler, Heuglin’s Bustard, Desert Warbler, Desert Lark, Spotted Sandgrouse, Desert Wheatear, Kurdish Wheatear and White-crowned Black Wheatear, although some of these extend into other habitats. Nubian Nightjar and Desert Cisticola occur on the dry coastal plains and Panicum steppe in Eritrea, Ostrich and Arabian Bustard in semi-desert areas of the Awash Valley, and, in the Ogaden, Little Brown Bustard, Short-tailed Lark and Somali Sparrow. Very large numbers of Palearctic migrants pass over the relatively foodless desert and semi-desert areas in the north, east, south-east and south of the region on migration.

The northern Danakil desert, northern Ethiopia (John Atkins).

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2. Bushland, grassland and savanna habitats

Savanna habitats include all those where the ground flora is mainly composed of perennial grasses and succulents, with a flourishing of short-lived herbs and annual grasses after rains. There is great variation in the woody vegetation, from wide open, rolling or hilly grasslands with very scattered or no woody plants, to savannas with substantial numbers of trees and shrubs, including Acacia–Commiphora and Combretum–Terminalia, often forming thickets. Savanna habitats which include wooded grasslands, bushlands, tall Hyparrhenia grasslands and short-grass plains generally occur in areas of moderate rainfall and at a range of altitudes. The highland grasslands on the plateau, at 1800–2750m, are found in valley bottoms and are the result of the heavy black clay soil preventing the establishment of woody species, because the alternate swelling and cracking of the soil breaks the roots of woody plants. The 19 Sudan–Guinea savanna biome-restricted species recorded in Ethiopia and nine in Eritrea include several from savanna habitats at lower altitudes in the west, such as Red-pate Cisticola, which occurs sparsley in dry grasslands at low altitudes in SW Ethiopia. Ninetyseven Somali–Masai biome-restricted species are recorded from Ethiopia, including Erard’s Lark and Somali Short-toed Lark, which occur in once extensive grasslands within Acacia–Commiphora woodland at Negelle, where Pectoral-patch Cisticola is commonly found in rough tussocky grassland and also at higher altitudes on the central plateau; overwintering Pallid and Montagu’s Harriers frequent a wide range of highland and mid-level grassland habitats throughout the region; Red-faced Crombec, Emerald-spotted Wood Dove, Great Spotted Cuckoo and Tiny Cisticola all frequent different niches in acacia bush and savanna; Siffling Cisticola inhabits combretaceous savanna, where Redwinged Warbler is found in tall Hyparrhenia grassland.

The Ilala Sala plain, Awash National Park, Ethiopia (John Atkins).

3. Woodland habitats

In areas of higher rainfall, the tree canopy becomes more continuous, and wooded grassland, bushland and savanna merge into woodland with a continuous tree canopy covering more than 20% of the land area (Britton 1980). However, there is usually only one tree layer. Typical woodland genera include various species of Combretum, Terminalia, Acacia, Commiphora, etc. Woodland trees are not necessarily tall: Acacia–Commiphora woodlands have canopies 5–10m high, or lower, and are typically very open, with ground cover dominated by grasses and herbs. Acacia woodlands, for example, where undisturbed by man or grazing animals, can have particularly thick, grassy, scrubby or thicket undergrowth, as their thin leaves allow through more light than broadleaved woodland trees. At higher altitudes the

Acacia woodland, southern Rift Valley, Ethiopia (John Atkins).

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bird habitats in ethiopia and eritrea

Acacia woodland usually merges into forest of mixed Podocarpus, Juniperus and Olea. In lusher areas, particularly where there is good underground water and near wetlands, large figs occur. Yellow-bellied Eremomela and Pearl-spotted Owlet are two of the many resident species that occur in Acacia woodland and associated scrubby undergrowth. Striped Kingfisher, Four-banded Sandgrouse, Green-backed Eremomela, Gambaga Flycatcher, Bush Petronia and Black-faced Firefinch are typical of Combretum–Terminalia deciduous woodland. Dense thickets in dry thornbush are home to Grey Wren-Warbler. Where woodlands become thicker in lusher areas, forming dense evergreen thickets or merging into forest including gallery woodland, Narina Trogon, Gabar Goshawk and Brown Snake Eagle occur. Huge numbers of Palearctic migrants enter and leave Africa through the Acacia–Commiphora woodlands of the central Rift valley and the south-east, relying on the habitats they provide as a rich source of food.

4. Forest habitats

By comparison with woodlands, forest canopies tend to be multilayered, more closed and continuous, formed by taller trees, often 20–30m high, with the tallest having their crowns above the main canopy. The lower levels of vegetation are heavily shaded (Britton 1980). Typical tree species include Afrocarpus (Podocarpus) gracilior, Cordia africana, Ekebergia capensis, Croton machrostachyus, Juniperus procera, Pouteria adolfi-fredericii, various Olea and Ficus species. There is often a lower, more open storey of smaller trees and shrubs where ‘wild’ forest coffee is found. The ground vegetation is often open, with ferns, a variety of specialised herbs including orchids and lianas reaching up into the tree canopy, and often also growing as epiphytes on the trunks and branches of the trees. The forests at very high altitudes tend to have fairly open canopies. Within forests many bird species are restricted substantially to particular strata, with many typically preferring canopy habitats, a few occupying the mid-stratum, others the lower stratum and forest floor. The forests of Ethiopia and Eritrea were categorised earlier (pp. 27–30) as dry evergreen montane forest (on the highland plateau), dry evergreen forests (in Sidamo, Hararghe and Bale), moist evergreen forests (in the south-west) and lowland semi-evergreen Baphia forest (in Gambela). The broad range of habitats that exists in this vegetation type is reflected in the diversity of the Afrotropical biome assemblage, which is known to contain 56 bird species in Ethiopia, and 31 in Eritrea. Examples of Afrotropical Highlands biome bird species that occur, although not exclusively, in dry evergreen montane forests of the highland plateau include Black-winged Lovebird, Yellow-fronted Parrot, White-cheeked Turaco, Banded Barbet and Abyssinian Catbird. Prince Ruspoli’s Turaco is known from dry evergreen Juniperus as well as other forest in Sidamo. Species typical of moist evergreen forest include African Goshawk, African Olive Pigeon, Lemon Dove, Black-billed Wood Dove, Tambourine Dove, Yellow-fronted Parrot, African Emerald Cuckoo, Yellowbill, Scaly-throated Honeyguide, Red-shouldered Cuckooshrike, Yellow- Broadleaved forest, south­west Ethiopia (John Atkins). breasted Apalis, Red-capped Robin-Chat and Sharpe’s Starling. However, in fact, the avifauna of forests within the region is not particularly rich compared with similar habitats further south in Africa, with several genera, for example bulbuls, being poorly represented. Evergreen scrub, which occurs where forests have been degraded and as an ecotone with various kinds of woodland, contains important habitats for such species as Singing Cisticola, Cinnamon Bracken Warbler, African Yellow Warbler and Green Twinspot. The only population in the region of the very local Olive-bellied Sunbird, as well as a more widespread population of Yellow-throated Greenbul, occurs in habitats of evergreen scrub in the west and south-west of Ethiopia.

5. Montane habitats

According to Yalden (1983), 50.4% of the land in Africa above 2000m and 79% of the land above 3000m are found in Ethiopia and Eritrea. Thus our area has a much greater area of high ground and a much higher proportion of montane habitats than any other part of Africa. This ranges from Acacia savanna, broadleaved woodlands and subtropical humid forests, through Junipera–Podocarpus and bamboo forests to, at the highest altitudes, afroalpine and sub-afroalpine heaths and moorlands. Many bird species are restricted to a greater or lesser extent to montane habitats in the region. Moorland Francolin and Moorland Chat are associated with high-altitude moorlands. Rocky places, cliffs and gorges are attractive to a range of species, including White-collared Pigeon, Mocking Cliff Chat, White-winged Cliff Chat and Rüppell’s Black Chat. Ankober Serin is associated with precipitous cliffs and

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Moorland on the Sanetti pla­ teau, Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia (John Atkins). adjacent broken hillsides. The wetlands and moorlands of the Sanetti Plateau in Bale Mountains National Park are a breeding location for Spot-breasted Plovers and Wattled Cranes. Bale Mountains hold the world’s most southerly breeding populations known of Ruddy Shelducks, Golden Eagles and Red-billed Choughs. Chestnut-naped Francolin, Cape Eagle Owl, Brown Parisoma and White-billed Starling are other species typical of montane habitats. Highland areas are particularly rich in birds of prey, which are attracted to the large number of rodents that live in highland grasses.

6. Wetlands, larger lakes and rivers, marine habitats

Ethiopia and Eritrea have most, if not all, of the major types of wetland and aquatic habitats, including major and smaller rivers, lakes, swamps, marshes and seasonal ponds and marine habitats, notably islands, sandy beaches, estuaries and mangroves. See Figure 14 for the main wetland areas of the region. The Eritrean coastline is dominated by sandy beaches, with isolated patches of mangrove and a fringing coral reef in parts. Huge numbers of shorebirds use these coastal areas, and White-collared Kingfisher, Clamorous Reed Warbler and the avicenniae race of Eurasian Reed Warbler occur in mangroves, while sand-dunes and salt-flats with scattered Acacia bush or Suaeda thickets are inhabited by Graceful Prinia and migrant Desert Warbler. The Dahlak Islands are an important breeding area for many seabirds as well as Sooty Falcons. The various lakes and wetlands in the region differ considerably in size and composition. Some, like Lakes Chamo, Abaya and Awassa, are freshwater. Others, particularly Lakes Abiata and Shalla, are alkaline, mineral-rich lakes, supporting internationally important waterbird populations – especially flamingos, pelicans and wintering ducks and waders from the Palearctic. Chew Bahir is an extensive and important area of saline swamp. All the major rivers in the region, and thus effectively all waters for Ethiopia and Eritrea, originate in the highlands (EWNHS 1994). Three major Ethiopian rivers do not reach the sea: the Wabe Shabeelle normally disappears in swamps in southern Somalia before reaching the Juba river, the Omo ends in Lake Turkana on the Kenya border, and the Awash disappears into the sand in Lake Abbé on the Djibouti border. Other rivers of importance are the Abay (Blue Nile) and Tacazze in the north and the Genale and Dawa in the south-east. The Awash

The Abay (Blue Nile) River at Tississat Falls, near Bahar Dar, Ethiopia (John Atkins).

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Filwoha hot springs, Awash National Park, Ethiopia (John Atkins). river, which originates in the highlands north of Addis Ababa, is the only major river that rises and ends within Ethiopia. Eritrea has only one perennial river, the Setit/Tacazze, which rises in the highlands near Lake Tana in Ethiopia and forms the border between Ethiopia and Eritrea before flowing into the Atbara river in the Sudan. Highland forests have the important function of protecting water sources for these rivers, thus providing a steady year-round flow of ground water to lower, drier areas and helping to stabilise local climatic patterns. A wide range of bird species is associated with rivers and riverine vegetation; those in riparian woodland include Bruce’s Green Pigeon, Brown Parrot and Pel’s Fishing Owl. Increasingly riverine vegetation is coming under threat throughout the region. The bottoms of highland valleys contain permanent swamps, temporary marshes and edaphic grasslands, which serve as important grazing areas for domestic animals. However, in many areas of the region, for example around Lake Tana and in the west and south-west, swamps and marshes are being increasingly exploited for agricultural purposes. Throughout the region swamps and marshes feed into larger river systems and thereby play a part in providing water for other parts of the region. Swamp and marsh wetlands, both permanent and temporary, throughout the region provide important habitats for a huge variety of plants and bird species. Those in the highlands include various whydahs and widowbirds, Wattled Ibis, Blue-winged Goose, Wattled Crane, Rouget’s Rail, White-winged Flufftail and Abyssinian Longclaw. At lower levels swamps and marshy areas with long grass and reedbeds attract a range of species including White-browed Coucal, Blue-headed Coucal, Croaking Cisticola and Lesser Swamp Warbler. In the south-west, damp grasslands and evergreen scrub on the periphery of marshes attract African Yellow Warbler. Large areas of the north-west and north-east of Ethiopia and Eritrea, the highlands and lowlands of eastern Ethiopia and the southeastern lowlands of the Ogaden and Hararghe have relatively few sources of water. Water Dikkop, African White-winged Dove and Juba Weaver are three species restricted to the major rivers of the south-east, the Wabe Shabeelle and the Weyb–Genale–Dawa system, which becomes the Juba. The Juba and Shabeelle valleys are designated as an Endemic Bird Area, providing specialised habitats for the latter two species. In the western lowlands around Gambela, there are extensive seasonally flooded grasslands, caused at least partly by water feeding down from the highlands. Here long grass among bushes and lush scrubby areas along riverbanks and marshes attract species such as Foxy Cisticola.

7. Man-made habitats and habitat change

Here we can differentiate between man-made habitats, including urban development, roads, and associated power and telegraph lines, bridges and culverts, and habitats created by cultivation. Urban habitats, especially house and hotel gardens and parks, are usually extremely rich in bird species. Gardens and hotel grounds often contain artificial pockets of scrub, thicket and indigenous trees, which are attractive to a surprisingly wide range of species. Such habitats in Addis Ababa support endemics such as Rouget’s Rail, Black-winged Lovebird, Abyssinian Catbird, Banded Barbet and Goldmantled Woodpecker, all of which breed within the city. Even areas entirely devoid of vegetation, such as city apartment blocks, are popular for roosting and nesting. Roadside trees, poles and wires provide convenient vantage points for species such as Long-crested Eagle, Black-breasted Snake Eagle, bee-eaters and rollers; bridges attract species such as White-rumped Swift; and in rural areas culverts are used for nesting by Red-chested Swallow. Ethiopian Swallows breed in huts in southern Ethiopia and White-tailed Swallows are believed to do so too (Holtam 1998). The House Sparrow has spread across Eritrea from Sudan to the Red Sea, mainly along major roads. A special case, particularly in rural areas on the highland plateau, is that of Orthodox church compounds, where relict patches of natural vegetation, particularly woody species, are protected and provide habitats for a range of highland species. The term cultivated habitats can be used to designate a wide range of habitats from areas of intensive cultivation to plantations of Eucalyptus. With rising populations and population movements, more and more areas are being cultivated, resulting in a dramatic decline

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in natural vegetation throughout the region and this is continuing. All the vegetation types described in the previous section have been modified by man over time. Opening up land for agriculture or other purposes such as wood and charcoal-selling not only involves forest and woodland clearance but also increases the incidence of fire. Intensive grazing by domestic animals results in diminishing grass and other ground cover and reduces the chance for indigenous seedlings to survive. Opening up of roads into new areas leads to settlements and reduction of forest cover. All these modifications are likely to be causing a decline in numbers and diversity of birds. The present unlicensed cutting of trees for fuelwood and charcoal is likely to be having very substantial impacts on species such as hornbills, lovebirds, barbets and wood-hoopoes, all of which nest in holes in large trees. On the other hand some species, including Laughing Dove and Speckled Pigeon, have undoubtedly benefited from the opening up of cultivated land and associated villages and small towns. Increasingly, indigenous trees are being replaced by exotics. Exotic plantations are favoured by few bird species, although some, including Dusky Turtle Dove, African Hobby, Rufous-breasted Sparrowhawk and Great Sparrowhawk, roost and/or nest in them, and Blackwinged Lovebird has become adept at feeding on the unripened cones of Mexican Cypress, Cupressus lusitanica. The role that wetlands play in the livelihoods of people of the region has been taken for granted and modifications that threaten wetland habitats are evident everywhere. Many highland wetland areas are susceptible to drying up due to excessive pressure on forest areas for agricultural and grazing land. This may be having a negative impact on populations of species such as Rouget’s Rail and Blue-winged Goose. In the highlands of western and south-western Ethiopia, wetlands are also being over-exploited in efforts to promote food sustainability, to support the increasing human population from settlements in those areas. The Rift Valley lakes are vulnerable to a range of human activities around them, including irrigated farming activities next to Lake Zwai and the soda ash factory near Lake Abiata. The size of Lake Zwai is diminishing at an alarming rate due to diversion of water flowing into the lake for small- and large-scale irrigated farming, horticulture and floriculture. Lake Abiata, nominated as a possible Ramsar site, is under huge pressure from a range of threats, the most serious of which are establishment of settlements, siltation as a result of deforestation, degradation of watersheds and agricultural activities, overgrazing by livestock, unsustainable fishing, extraction of mineral salts, as well as commercial extraction of sand for construction and of soda ash (Wondafrash 2007). Thirty years ago Lake Shalla held a breeding population of up to 12,000 pairs of White Pelican, which used nearby Lake Abiata to feed. Since then, Lake Abiata has become shallower, there is decreased inflow from Lake Zwai, the chemical balance of the lake may have been altered by the soda ash project, and the fish population has substantially declined. Few pelicans now breed at Lake Shalla and feed at Lake Abiata, although it is still not clear which variables have determined this reduction. Lesser Flamingos, which have in earlier years built nests at Lake Abiata, apparently did manage to breed successfully there in 2006, when there was a large crèche of young at Abiata in mid-October among thousands of adults. Threats to nearby Lake Langano include clearance of surrounding woodland, overfishing and extraction of sand. The Awash river is dammed at Koka to provide hydro-electric power for Addis Ababa and other urban centres in the Rift Valley. It is also used lower down for irrigation purposes, for fruit-growing (Merti), sugar production (Metehara), and cotton-growing (Tendaho). The whole area is increasingly vulnerable to pollution from activities at Metehara, Merti and Tendaho. In common with many other wetlands Koka Dam is suffering severely from siltation due to increased run-off of soils caused by the destruction of vegetation in the highlands and absence of effective soil conservation measures there. However, while these modifications have reduced indigenous cover and have led to increased pollution, they have also created new habitats attractive to a wide range of species. Lake Ashange, Borkena wetland, Gudo flood plain, Berga wetland, Lake Arakit and Boyo swamp are all under pressure from intensive grazing. The vegetation surrounding Lake Aranguade (Green Lake) and Lake Chitu has been totally cleared, which may affect the number of flamingos they can support. The Akaki wetlands are heavily polluted by waste from Addis Ababa. Lakes Awassa, Ardibo and Hayk, Koka Dam and Chelekleka wetland face threats from intensive agricultural activities at the edge of the wetlands, causing siltation and damaging reedbeds that are important breeding habitats (Wondafrash 2007). Lake Alemaya has almost disappeared. Habitat change is a natural ongoing process, but the future for birds in Ethiopia and Eritrea now depends very substantially on man. Population growth looks set to put increasingly severe pressure on the environment and, as the impact of man increases, unless good conservation practices are speedily adopted, many habitats will decline perilously in species richness. An important purpose of our atlas is therefore to document bird distribution in a particular period, in order to provide a baseline against which the effects of future habitat changes can be assessed.

Barren agricultural plains near Senafe, Eritrea, at 2400m (Jason Anderson).

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Bird and wiLdLiFE ConSErvation in Ethiopia and EritrEa John Atkins and Chris Hillman introduction The following account of the history of wildlife conservation in the region, current issues limiting implementation of effective conservation practices, the ornithological significance of the region, and current efforts to determine the status of birds in the region and to conserve them is based on a number of sources, particularly Hillman (1993a,b), Tilahun et al. (1996), Wondafrash (2002, 2007) and Fishpool & Evans (2001). In addition the following have been referred to: Ash (1972a), Yalden (1983), Collar & Stuart (1985), Collar et al. (1994), IUCN (1994), Tedla (1995), Stattersfield & Capper (2000), Stattersfield et al. (1998) and EWNHS (2002, 2007). Figure 15 illustrates the protected areas in the region, while Endemic and Important Bird Areas are indicated in Figure 16.

a brief history of wildlife conservation in Ethiopia and Eritrea Information on the quality and quantity of the wildlife resources in Ethiopia and Eritrea in the past is scarce. In the highland blocks on each side of the Rift Valley relatively stable agrarian cultures became established over 5000 years ago, especially in the north, around Axum. It is possible that most of the larger species of wildlife in the highlands were considerably reduced or even exterminated early on, because they were in competition with cultivation and livestock raising. These highland areas, though extensively modified by man and densely settled, still represent large areas of unique ecological conditions. Yalden (1983) estimated that over 80% of the land in Africa at an altitude of over 3000m a.s.l. occurs in the Ethiopian highland massifs in extensive plateaus, and postulated that this may be why so many endemic animals and plants are found in Ethiopia and Eritrea. Smaller isolated mountain peaks are found elsewhere in Africa. The wildlife on the Ethiopian plateaus has adapted to very different conditions from the surrounding areas. The result is a rich diversity of endemic plants, mammals, birds and amphibians. The lowland peoples are pastoralists and hunter-gatherers, depending on extensive livestock herds and the use of wildlife for their livelihoods. These cultures came into less conflict with wildlife, were not permanently settled (because of shifting patterns in rainfall and resources) and existed at a much lower population density than did the highland cultivators. As a result, far more wildlife survived in these drier and less productive areas. On 5 Tekempt 1901, Ethiopian Calendar (16 October 1909 Gregorian Calendar), Emperor Menelik II passed the first legislative protection of wildlife, a proclamation to regulate hunting, especially of elephant. During the Italian occupation (1936–1941) various attempts at wildlife conservation, primarily aimed at game mammal species, were introduced (Petrides 1961). These included the delimitation of various wildlife conservation areas, including Handa and Let Marefia (Wof Washa). The Italian occupation also saw the compilation and publication of four volumes on the birds of Italian Africa by Edgardo Moltoni and Giuseppe Gnecchi Ruscone, and important bird collections by Toschi and Patrizi. In 1944, the Preservation of Game Proclamation Laws were passed, regulating various aspects of the hunting of animal wildlife species. The present Awash National Park was, at this time, an Imperial Hunting Ground and the numbers of animals in the park had been greatly reduced. In 1959, the British administration in Eritrea gazetted Gash-Setit, Yob and Nakfa Wildlife Reserves and they became part of the wildlife conservation areas system developed for Ethiopia in the late 1960s. However, in present-day Eritrea they no longer represent viable conservation areas and attempts are in hand to identify other areas of significance for wildlife conservation and management. Interest by the rest of the world, and by non-governmental conservation organisations, began in the 1960s. In 1961, Dr George Petrides, sponsored by the New York Zoological Society and the US-based Conservation Foundation, recommended the establishment of protected areas for the larger mammalian wildlife of the country. The UNESCO Mission of 1963, headed by Sir Julian Huxley, proposed the creation of a Conservation Board responsible for the conservation and development of natural resources; a Conservation Bureau to establish national parks and other conservation areas; the establishment of a system of national parks and controlled hunting areas, and measures to protect Ethiopia’s rare large wild mammals. The first Adviser and Senior Game Warden of Ethiopia, John Blower, was appointed in 1965 to act on these recommendations. A Wildlife Department was established which soon became the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Organization (EWCO). Subsequently expeditions and extensive fieldwork were sponsored by the Wildlife Department, and were carried out by Leslie Brown, Melvin Bolton and J. G. Stephenson. During the 1960s and 1970s expatriate wardens were employed in the earliest national parks to be established (Peter Hay and David Anstey in Awash, Clive Nicol in Simien, George Brown in Omo and John Bromley in Eritrea). The US Peace Corps provided young volunteers for several of these areas in the late 1960s and these people carried out inventory work in the proposed wildlife conservation areas. Other contributions in this period came from Swiss scientists in the Simien Mountains National Park (including Hans Hurni and Bernard Nievergelt) and Japanese scientists in the Omo National Park (including A. Mizuno and N. Fujioka). This period was followed by the return to Ethiopia of the first batches of Ethiopian trainees from the College of African Wildlife Management, at Mweka, Tanzania. These formed the core of the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Organisation (EWCO), working as assistant wardens, then wardens, before taking managerial positions at the Addis Ababa headquarters. Ethiopian nationals trained in wildlife management have provided the staff of EWCO ever since. From these simple beginnings were laid the foundations of the wildlife conservation system that exists today (see Figure 15). Currently wildlife conservation areas in Ethiopia consist of nine national parks (only two of which are gazetted), 11 wildlife sanctuaries and wildlife reserves and 17 controlled hunting areas. A number of these were quite extensively developed during the 1970s and 1980s with management plans prepared for Awash, Simien, Bale and the Rift Valley Lakes, and improvements made to the facilities for park staff and visitors (Hillman 1993). However, little was done to develop meaningful dialogue with the local people, or for them to gain any benefit from development in their areas. During 1991–1992 the government was ineffective and local communities expressed their frustration at not being properly consulted

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and involved in the formation or development of wildlife protected areas. This led to much destruction of both property and wildlife. Local people moved into and settled in many of the protected areas. Two examples will illustrate the problem. The Abiata–Shalla Lakes National Park and its surrounding area have been devastated by extensive tree-felling for the production of charcoal, which has become the main source of livelihood for many communities residing in or adjacent to the park. The park’s proximity to a major highway, providing easy access to central Rift Valley towns as well as to Addis Ababa, facilitates the destructive process. People have settled in the park, growing maize, keeping livestock, over-exploiting the fish resources and collecting the very salty sand from the shore of Lake Abiata to sell as salt lick. Deforestation, overgrazing by livestock and cultivation of the fragile alluvial soils are leading to severe wind erosion and desertification. Awash National Park has in the past 10 years been substantially occupied by pastoralists. Tedla (1995) estimated that over 50% of the park area had been occupied. Tree-felling for construction and charcoal has become common, and is exacerbated by the main Addis Ababa–Djibouti road passing through the park. Fires are commoner than in the past, with charcoal burners and pastoralists being blamed for most of them. The pastoralists see no benefit to them from the park’s existence and claim it limits their access to the Awash river for watering their cattle. They also contrast the lack of benefits from the park with their gains from the nearby Metahara Sugar Estate, which provides employment, land for cultivation and access to water. Outside protected areas, too, population pressures have impacted on the environment in many areas of the region. One example has been the Ethiopian government’s resettlement programme, initiated in 1984, aimed at moving about two million people from the 1984–85 famine area in the northern highlands to less populated and undeveloped areas in the west and south-west of Ethiopia. Considerable damage to forests and wetlands resulted from the initial movement of the first 600,000 highlanders. Major threats to wetlands are considered in the chapter on ‘Bird habitats’. The above examples highlight the scale of the problem being experienced throughout the region, as populations and demands on scarce natural resources increase. Biodiversity is under threat from all directions: population pressure, overgrazing by increasing livestock populations, urbanisation, road-building, expansion of agricultural land particularly for ‘modern’ estate-style farming and resultant reduction of grasslands, accelerating land degradation, desertification, deforestation, reclamation of mudflats, drainage and cultivation of wetlands, and invasion by alien species. Bird and mammal habitats are under threat and key sites holding globally endangered species are being steadily destroyed. Much of the region’s fauna is threatened and may eventually become extinct. These pressures, combined with economic difficulties, especially falling agricultural product prices, and unreliable natural ecological processes, particularly erratic rainfall, mean the region is in dire need of sound natural resources management. The concept of wildlife conservation as an activity carried out in national parks and conservation areas, devoid of human activities except those of management and visitors, is now generally agreed to be inappropriate, but that does not mean wildlife and environmental conservation is an unaffordable luxury. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church, Islam and the more animist traditions of the Oromo peoples have long instilled a basic respect for wildlife, and rural communities have clear perceptions of the relationship between the health of the resources around them and their own survival, although this appreciation is sadly being lost in urban centres. There is an urgent need to integrate environmental conservation with sustainable utilisation of the environment in the whole region, through the coordination of education, population control, land use and development activities. In Ethiopia a comprehensive Conservation Strategy was developed after 1993 and is providing the basis for the country’s environmental policy. Central to both its development and implementation is the full participation of the people of Ethiopia, from local communities through development agents to senior policy makers and managers, in the implementation of the policy. This goes alongside the government’s firm commitment to decentralisation of political and administrative functions. For wildlife, it has meant handing over the management of official protected areas to their respective regional governments, with EWCO retaining the mandate to coordinate policy and research, guide manpower development and generally act as a source of expertise and advice for the regions. EWCO has always been a unit in the natural resources department of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, but a new management structure being developed may change this. The Institute of Biodiversity is developing a unit for wildlife conservation. These are still relatively new developments and there is much to be learned at all levels. However, remembering the backlash from the local people when centralised ‘protection’ was removed in 1991 and 1992, a system which properly involves both the local administration and local communities needs time and support to develop. Constraints that currently limit implementation of effective conservation practices include inadequate funding, difficulties in coordinating conservation activities between government agencies, difficulties in implementing effective forest management, lack of data, limited awareness of environmental issues and the low level of participation in sustainable environmental activities at grass-roots level. The government is moving in the direction of opening up wildlife conservation in protected areas to private management. This is bringing new challenges. Ethiopia and Eritrea have developed strong population policy documents, but it will be at least two generations before a reduction in the birth rate can start to have an overall effect on the rate of its increase. Eritrea has developed along its own lines since its independence from Ethiopia in 1993. The country inherited no wildlife conservation infrastructure and little wildlife information from the previous regime, apart from the ‘paper parks’ of the Dahlak Archipelago and the gazetted but non-existent ‘wildlife reserves’ of Yob, Nakfa and Gash-Setit. Eritrea is now developing its own environmental policy, conservation infrastructure and system of protected areas. Currently there are no formally protected areas as legislation has not yet been developed, while the potential of various sites for protection is still under consideration. A Forestry and Wildlife Division has been established within the Ministry of Agriculture, and has been actively involved in the inventory of species and habitats over the whole country. Marine resources, including marine birds, are being inventoried by the Ministry of Fisheries. The Ministry of Land, Water and Environment is developing environmental policy. A National Environmental Management Plan (Eritrean Agency for the Environment 1995) outlines threats to wildlife, proposes a strategy for conservation of biodiversity, including the creation of a protected area system, the formulation of conservation legislation, and states the requirements for education, awareness-raising, training and local participation. A National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan was produced in 2000 (Department of Environment, Ministry of Land, Water and Environment 2000) and a survey of proposed protected areas and biodiversity conservation corridors was produced in 2006 by the Ministry of Agriculture (Yohannes and Bein 2006).

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46 bird and wildlife conservation in ethiopia and eritrea It is unclear which agency will be responsible for designating protected areas in future, although as many as 27 sites have already been proposed. Priority conservation status has been proposed for Semenawi Bahri, Buri Peninsula, Gash–Setit, Yob and the Dahlak Islands, and it is likely that other areas, including riverine habitats along the Gash and Barka rivers, will achieve protection too. Conservation and wildlife legislation, increased staffing levels and human resource capacity-building in relevant departments, particularly at regional level, are all essential if wildlife conservation is to develop effectively in Eritrea.

ornithological importance of the region Ethiopia and Eritrea have a rich avifauna (872 species) representing 39% of Africa’s bird species. Of these, 490 are known to breed in Ethiopia and 206 in Eritrea. A minimum of 200 are certain Palearctic migrants to Ethiopia and/or Eritrea, while a minimum of 89 are known to be Afrotropical migrants, nine of which are also Palearctic migrants. Ethiopia has 18 endemic bird species restricted to its geographical boundaries and shares another 14 with Eritrea, thus making a regional total of 32 species (see List E). The status of Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable or Near-threatened has been given to species of global conservation concern which are considered to be threatened with extinction (IUCN 1994). A total of 2 Critically Endangered, 7 Endangered, 14 Vulnerable and 21 Near-threatened species have been recorded in Ethiopia, while 3 Critically Endangered, 3 Endangered, 6 Vulnerable and 16 Near-threatened species are known from Eritrea (see Appendix 2). The Important Bird Areas (IBA) programme of BirdLife International aims to identify sites of international importance for birds. So far 69 IBAs have been identified in Ethiopia and 14 in Eritrea (Tilahun et al. 1996, Fishpool & Evans 2001) (See Appendix 1). To qualify as an IBA, a site must meet at least one of four categories: it should hold significant numbers of globally threatened species, or other species of global conservation concern (see Appendix 2); it should support a significant percentage of the population of two or more species whose breeding distributions define an Endemic Bird Area or Secondary Area (see below); it should hold a significant component of a group of species whose distributions are largely or wholly confined to one biome (see Appendix 4); it should support large congregations, usually more than 1% of the worldwide population, of one or more particular species, whether breeding, roosting or on migration. Three Endemic Bird Areas (EBAs) are recognised in Ethiopia (Stattersfield et al. 1998) (Figure 16). EBAs are areas where two or more species of restricted range occur together in breeding populations. Restricted-range species are defined as species with world distributions of less than 50,000km2. In our region the EBAs are the Central Highlands, the South Ethiopian Highlands, and the Juba and Shabeelle Valleys. Of these, the Central Highlands extends into Eritrea, while the Juba and Shabeelle Valleys EBA is shared with Somalia. In addition one Secondary Area (an area supporting one or more restricted-range species, but not qualifying as an EBA because fewer than two species are entirely confined to it) is recognised in the area of Awash National Park. In all, 12 restricted-range species occur in Ethiopia within these three Endemic Bird Areas and one Secondary Area. Four species are restricted to the Central Highlands, one of which occurs in Eritrea, five to the South Ethiopian Highlands, two are characteristic of the Juba and Wabe Shabeelle Valleys, while one species has a limited distribution in the area of Awash National Park (see Appendix 3 for species). Five major biomes, major ecological communities characterised by distinctive life forms and principal plant species (Tilahun et al. 1996), are recognised in Ethiopia and Eritrea. These are the Afrotropical Highlands, Somali–Masai, Sudan and Guinea, Saharo–Sindian and Sahel Biomes. Each has its own biome-restricted assemblage of bird species. Of the Afrotropical Highland biome-restricted species, 56 are known from Ethiopia and 31 from Eritrea; 97 Somali–Masai species occur in Ethiopia, 15 in Eritrea; 19 Sudan-Guinea species are known from Ethiopia, nine from Eritrea; nine Saharo–Sindian species occur in Ethiopia and 11 in Eritrea; six Sahel species are recorded from Ethiopia, eight from Eritrea. The richest assemblage of Highland biome species occurs in the Bale Mountains; high concentrations of Somali–Masai biome species occur in southern and south-eastern Ethiopia; the lowlands of western Ethiopia hold concentrations of Sudan–Guinea species, while the lowland desert and semi-desert areas of northern Ethiopia and Eritrea are suitable for Sahel and Saharo–Sindian species (see Appendix 4). The region’s diverse habitats also attract large numbers of Palearctic migrants, notably warblers, raptors and waterbirds, mostly on spring and autumnal passage, but also with many species overwintering. There are large concentrations of breeding and wintering seabirds on the Dahlak archipelago, other islands in the Red Sea, and coastal areas. There are significant concentrations of waterbirds in the Rift Valley lakes area and also along major rivers such as the Awash, Omo and Baro, and along the Red Sea coastline. Over 130 wetland congregatory species are recorded. These are species held to be vulnerable by concentrating at valuable or sensitive sites when breeding, overwintering or on passage.

the distribution map scheme To record distributional data on birds in such a large area, a reliable system was necessary. In 1969 John Ash of the Medical Ecology branch of NAMRU-5 developed a simple and uniform system for recording biological phenomena (Ash 1972). Originally designed for recording distributional data concerning diseases, their vectors and agents, with the aim of identifying possible reservoir hosts for viruses that might affect humans, this mapping scheme enabled systematic collation and analysis of existing material on birds and prepared the way for the collection and analysis of huge amounts of new data on the birds of Ethiopia and Eritrea after 1969. This mapping scheme forms the basis of the present atlas, which determines the status of all bird species in the region.

Bird conservation activities in Ethiopia Prior to 1995 almost all research on birds in the region, with the important exceptions of that undertaken by Yilma Dellelegn Abebe and Tesfaye Hundessa, had been carried out by foreigners. In 1995 the Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural History Society (EWNHS) commenced a collaboration with BirdLife International and the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Organisation, to implement the Important Bird Areas (IBA) programme, which aims to identify, document and protect a network of sites critical for the long-term conservation of birds and other biodiversity. Since 1995, led by IBA project leader Mengistu Wondafrash and supported by Yilma Dellelegn Abebe, Mirhet Ewnetu, Anteneh Shimelis and others, the society has been involved in a range of bird conservation activities.

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In the first phase, from 1995 to 1997, an extensive survey of the country led to the identification of 69 sites (see Figure 16), the training of a team of Ethiopian ornithologists and the production of a national directory of IBAs (Tilahun et al. 1996). A summary of these data, together with data from field and library research to determine IBAs in Eritrea, was published as part of a continent-wide directory of Africa’s Important Bird Areas (Fishpool & Evans 2001). In 1997–1998 collaboration with the Norwegian Ornithological Society (NOF) and Norwegian Agricultural Development Agency (NORAD) enabled EWNHS to conduct comparative quantitative bird surveys in three dry high montane forests, to undertake monitoring activities at sites critical for the breeding of the globally threatened White-winged Flufftail and to carry out waterfowl censuses at selected wetlands in the country (Wondafrash 2002). Since 1998 the EWNHS–BirdLife partnership has focused on prioritising IBAs, developing site action plans and initiating conservation activities through local partnerships. A subset of key IBA sites important for conservation of threatened species, including White-winged Flufftail, Erard’s Lark, Stresemann’s Bush Crow and White-tailed Swallow, has been identified and threats to the continued existence of these species are being assessed. A site action plan, emphasising local participation and benefit sharing, has been produced for Abiata– Shalla Lakes National Park, one of the most critically threatened national parks in Ethiopia, an important site for congregatory migratory species, and one of the strongest candidates for designation as a Ramsar site (Dellelegn & Wondafrash 2002), but the plan has yet to be activated. Efforts are being made to promote local people’s involvement in conservation and monitoring of key sites, including Berga and Menagesha, through site support groups. A site action plan has been developed to protect the Berga wetlands, an area critical for the breeding of the White-winged Flufftail (EWNHS 2002) and a site support group has been established to work with the local community there. The Berga site is also an important non-breeding area for Great Snipe and has traditionally attracted illegal hunters; no hunting of snipe has been reported in the area since the establishment of the site support group. The Berga initiative is being taken as a model for the involvement of local communities around other key sites. Conservation and management action plans for other high priority sites are planned, but progress in this vital work will be dependent on funding. EWNHS continues to participate in research with a number of agencies aimed at protecting other key species, including Northern Bald Ibis (with the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds) Stresemann’s Bush Crow, White-tailed Swallow and Erard’s Lark (with University of Cambridge, University of East Anglia and BirdLife International). Further species and sites which could be the focus of future flagship conservation and management action plans include Harwood’s Francolin in the Jemmu–Alem Ketema areas, Ankober Serin in the area north of Debre Birhan and in the Simiens, and Prince Ruspoli’s Turaco in the area south of Kibre Mengist. In cooperation with Wetlands International and various funding agencies, the society continues to conduct an annual African Waterfowl Census at wetlands in northern, central and southern parts of the country during December, January and February. EWNHS normally conducts counts at 21 wetland sites, most of which are already designated as Important Bird Areas (Wondafrash 2007). The purpose of the census is to assess the status of both resident and wintering waterbirds and these counts, which began in 1990, provide valuable information about distribution and populations over the years. The census is also an opportunity to monitor modifications to habitats and assess threats to the wetlands. The information collected can then feed into decision-making processes concerning the current and potential use of wetlands. EWNHS is recognised as one of the foremost BirdLife partners in Africa and an active NGO partner with various international institutions in national biodiversity conservation efforts, but in recent years its bird conservation activities have been severely hampered by lack of project funding and insufficient human resource capacity. It is essential that it secures long-term project funding to enable it to continue its important work. EWNHS is not the only organisation involved in bird-conservation activities in Ethiopia. For example in 2006 a project was started with the aims of educating Ethiopian students about birds, training interested students in bird research techniques, conducting scientific studies of resident and migrant Ethiopian birds with Ethiopian scientists and establishing collaborations with other countries. It is hoped eventually to establish the first permanent, self-sustaining, ringing programme, run by Ethiopians (EWNHS 2007).

Bird conservation activities in Eritrea Relatively little attention has been given to bird conservation in Eritrea since independence. However, a valuable study of the current status of breeding seabirds and waterbirds on the Eritrean islands was carried out between 2001 and 2007 by Eritrea’s Coastal Marine and Island Biodiversity Project, involving Dawit Semere, Giorgio Chiozzi, Guiseppe De Marchi from the Museo Civico di Storia Naturale in Milan, Italy, and a team of Eritrean researchers. They confirmed that the Eritrean islands deserve IBA status and identified 50 islands in need of special protection. Similar initiatives to those currently under way in Ethiopia will be needed in Eritrea to develop site action plans for these and other priority IBAs and to establish conservation activities through local partnerships, but there appear to be as yet no firm plans for how this will be achieved.

Conclusion The trend in both countries is towards over-utilisation of renewable resources. For wildlife, this results in both disappearance of species and concentration of remaining populations in relict and marginal habitats, or in wildlife conservation areas. This in turn leads to the disruption of complex communities that are adapted to local conditions, and also to the disruption of ecological processes. The inability of a species to survive starts a downward trend in wildlife habitats and populations, noticeable in the declines in numbers of many previously common bird and mammal species in the region. The conservation challenge in the region is to find innovative ways of maintaining ecological processes and ensuring the continuity of genetic diversity, while also benefiting people. Environmental conservation, including bird and wildlife conservation, has to be integrated with national development priorities and implemented with the support of the people. It will require efforts to reduce population, as well as improved access to resources and education in order to encourage the involvement of local people in sustaining natural processes and genetic diversity. Recent progress in both countries towards the development of national conservation strategies, biodiversity action plans, population policies, IBA programmes and the like may begin to help Ethiopia and Eritrea meet the conservation challenge.

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Bird MiGration in Ethiopia and EritrEa introduction The whole process of migration in birds has developed over a prolonged period of time, passing through a succession of adaptations to a series of adverse environmental influences. Initially, a given species developed these special adaptations in order to exist in a given area, resulting from adjustments to conditions acting against the species’ survival in that area. Gradually over a period of time those species or individuals which adopted the most suitable stratagems to counteract the adverse effects were the ones which survived. These adjustments must have developed into a genetically stable regime that enabled some species to survive without further need of immediate change. Others may have had to undergo continuous adaptations in response to frequent and possibly minor environmental changes to enable them to exist in areas providing adequate food availability, breeding facilities, and acceptable levels of interspecific competition. One of the factors required to ensure survival of some species will have included the need to move seasonally to alternative areas in order to satisfy their food requirements, etc. Adaptations of the last kind can thus be seen to have developed gradually into the establishment of a regular migratory pattern for some species, and clearly the adopted regime that provided the best chance of success is the one that produced the most viable breeding adults for the next generation. Such processes are also the ones which determine so many of a migrant’s abilities and attributes – the direction in which it departs on migration, or returns from it; the date on which it departs; the amount of premigratory resources in terms of fat for fuel and muscle protein for energy it needs to deposit/lay down before departure in order to sustain it to at least the next expected ‘refuelling’ point on the journey; its moulting pattern in terms of whether it is better to do so before departure, after arrival at the final destination, or during a stopover at an intermediate locality; whether it flies by night or by day, perhaps dependent on when the best navigational clues are present, such as stars at night, the sun, or topographical guiding lines by day. Other governing factors, which are also selected for, include the need for thermals, required by many migrants for soaring flight; the use of stable high-pressure regimes as an aid to migration, particularly over wide tracts of desert; the recognition of the existence of meteorological pressure patterns that offer the likelihood of such factors as persistent tail-winds as an aid to long-distance migration; the establishment of particular routes to take advantage of situations where there is an abundance of food, itself possibly a result of a particular pattern of weather, such as a rainy season, to stimulate the production of invertebrates or new vegetation. Such factors as these influence the establishment of inherent migration routes. The birds that adopt the advantageous factors are those which are successful and survive: literally the survival of the fittest. A recent survey of what is known about migration in Somalia in the eastern part of our region (Ash & Miskell 1998) already covers part of the situation in Ethiopia and Eritrea being discussed here. Twice a year our present area lies across the migration routes of millions of birds; many of these remain within it for the duration of their non-breeding season, but others move on to other areas in Africa. Of the 872 species of birds recorded in Ethiopia and Eritrea a little over one-third of them (280) are classified here as migrants. They include representatives from a wide range of avian families of seabirds, freshwater species, raptors, waders, etc. The largest proportion involves birds breeding in the Palearctic region in the north, which migrate south to Africa in the autumn and return north in the spring. At the opposite extreme are birds which breed in the southern Afrotropical region, or in areas even further south, which migrate north after breeding. Probably all these migrants are adapted to a greater or lesser extent, sometimes very finely, to various environmental conditions which effect them. Examples of this are the late arrival in eastern Africa of long-distance flights of Amur Falcons from the Far East whose departure coincides with the onset of a period of prolonged tail-winds during the north-east monsoon; and the northward spring and southward autumn migration of vast numbers of Palearctic migrants over eastern Ethiopia and Eritrea and Somalia following the end of the rainy seasons. These rains result in a lush growth of vegetation and production of insect life, providing an abundance of food to enable birds to lay down fat as an energy source for sustained migratory flight. Another important adaptational development has been the phenomenon of ‘step migration’. In eastern Africa this enables certain species such as Marsh Warblers and Thrush Nightingales to proceed to their final overwintering destination in two or more stages. The first stage may take them from their breeding grounds in the Palearctic to an area in the Afrotropics such as Ethiopia, where they may remain in a favourable habitat for 2–3 months to undergo a complete moult, and in at least some cases before refattening for the next stage of their journey. A similar procedure is not adopted for the return passage in the spring, and this seems to be a much more rapid progress, perhaps made possible by a more readily available food supply, but other factors are also involved. Even so, stopovers of a week or two for fattening can occur. This enables migrants to cross more easily the relatively foodless northern desert habitat with which they have to contend. In other words in spring only relatively brief stopovers are required to enable migrants to replenish their required energy resources. ‘Full tanks’ are required for flights across the Sahara on northerly flights, or for the Gulf of Aden and the deserts beyond on north-easterly flights. An alternative adaptation employed by another group of migrants enables them to reduce the overall distance travelled through the adoption of a semi-nomadic existence. Much less is known about these foraging movements used notably in our area by species such as Blackcap and Orphean Warbler, which have the ability to exploit a suddenly available food source, such as a group of berried bushes, and as this is depleted move on to an alternative site. Such exploitation seems to indicate that the birds involved have the ability to range about, perhaps over considerable areas, or alternatively they may be quite local in quest of fresh sources of fruit. The fact that every bird can evacuate a recently favoured feeding area suggests that they have not been merely part of a temporary gathering or concentration at a local food source, but that there may be some kind of coordination of action within the group. A similar movement to the above, still not to be classified strictly as a migration but more as a response to a new food source, is illustrated by Little Grebes in Ethiopia. Here, temporary inundations resulting from heavy rain can appear overnight in desert areas such as in the Danakil. An impressive feature of these, apart from their attraction to passing migrants, is the almost immediate arrival of Little Grebes, which frequently remain to (attempt to) breed. The circumstances of their arrival suggests that these birds, probably from the Rift Valley lakes, are reconnoitring the area (presumably at night) in search of new wetland areas.

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Any reference to migration tends to promote thought about flyways or migration routes. In general there is a widespread broad-front migration right across the region in both spring and autumn. In some areas this is concentrated into bands, which appear to be mainly unidirectional and contain concentrations of several species at any one time in the seasons of migration. The most important of these in spring extends up the Rift Valley, with another broader one between Negelle and Dolo (39–42°E) skirting the SE highlands, and moving on north to north-east towards the Harar highlands. In the Jijiga area this is evident as two arms, one of which probably links with Rift Valley birds to continue northwards and cross the Red Sea, where many have been found on the Farasan Islands (Nikolaus, Ash & Evans in prep.); the other arm continues north-east to cross the Gulf of Aden, where a large passage has been found in Dhofar in south Oman (Ash & Nikolaus in press), particularly involving Marsh Warblers. Further west in Ethiopia, although there is evidence of migration, no real concentrations have been found. However, the highland areas are not avoided, as evidenced by 327 migrants of 17 species ringed in 12 days, 24 March–5 April 1977 on a small island in Lake Tana (39a) at 1820m, which could only have been reached by migrants overflying surrounding much higher ground. These included 141 Blackcaps, 66 Common Redstarts, 11 Eurasian Wrynecks and a few unexpected species such as four Savi’s, two Grasshopper and one Marsh Warbler among the 68 Eurasian Reed Warblers. The total absence of Willow Warblers was of interest at a time when peak numbers were passing through the Rift Valley. Further west on the lower ground along the Ethiopian–Sudan border, in habitat judged to be highly attractive to migrants along the Baro river at Gambela (65d) at 751m, only 34 migrants of 10 species were ringed, of which 13 were Common Sandpipers, on 13 days, 17–29 March 1977. No clear-cut evidence exists for any definable flyway for autumn migrants. There are many data from various scattered sites and there is much information on weights, dates, relative numbers and seasonality, although little evidence for major concentrations beyond the regular general seasonal increases of a mixture of species resulting from widespread broad-front movements. One area in the southern Danakil desert serves as an example of the situation which can no doubt be repeated elsewhere: the Chercher highlands run along the southern edge of the desert, above which much migration takes place. At the end of the ‘big rains’ in September, south-bound flights of Gull-billed and White-winged Black Terns fly over the desert to gather briefly in wetland areas at the southern edge; at small pools forming in the desert along streams running down from the highlands, Common Swifts and Northern House Martins, normally unseen high overhead, descend to drink. Some 1800m higher up the hills these last two species come in at eye-level from across the desert. Newly arrived night migrants such as Upcher’s Warbler, Common Nightingale, White-throated Robin, Rufous Scrub Robin, Spotted Flycatcher, etc., congregate in the bushes in this region; raptors such as Pallid and Montagu’s Harrier and Booted Eagle cross the desert during daytime (Ash 1974c). One great enigma about autumn migration through this area concerns Marsh Warblers and Thrush Nightingales. Both these species arrive here in autumn in August–September, but almost completely disappear in Africa until they reappear on southward passage in Kenya some two months later. Although some Thrush Nightingales are seen in Ethiopia in the interim period, and could perhaps be widely and thinly scattered over much of the country, there has been little indication of where the huge numbers of Marsh Warblers spend this time. In addition to the above there are apparently local migrational and post-breeding dispersals by many species of birds, as well as altitudinal movements or migrations, but we are not dealing with these here. Another aspect of migration which also needs to be mentioned here is that of Ortstreue. This refers to the remarkable ability of at least some migrants to return to the exact locality visited on a previous migration, either whilst on passage or in their final stopover area. There are examples of this in Ethiopia, where Palearctic migrants have returned to even the very same bush at which they had been netted and ringed on their previous visit to the locality. For examples of evidence for this ability to orient themselves and to navigate over thousands of miles see the section on Ortstreue in the Bird Migration chapter. Besides the enormous value of bird-ringing, technology is opening up new possibilities for providing information on migration, behaviour and life-spans. Among the species for which we have obtained valuable migrational data from satellite-tracking for this volume are Northern Bald Ibis and Lesser Spotted Eagle, and it is certain that in future more information about migration in our region, particularly of smaller birds, will be acquired from this technology.

1. Waterbirds Palearctic origin Many Palearctic ducks overwinter in Ethiopia and Eritrea. A recent record of two Common Shelducks in Ethiopia presumably involved genuine migrants, and coincided with an influx in Oman in late 1999. Records of Ruddy Shelducks in both countries outside their known breeding area here in the Bale Mountains may refer to Palearctic migrants. Besides these there are 10 other species ranging from ‘very rare’ (Mallard), through ‘uncommon to rare’ (Gadwall), ‘uncommon’ (Common Pochard, Ferruginous Duck), ‘common’ (Tufted Duck), ‘common to abundant’ (Northern Pintail), ‘very common’ (Eurasian Wigeon, Common Teal, Garganey), to ‘abundant’ (Northern Shoveler). All occur as winter visitors, and some often as ‘non-breeding summer visitors’. The only certain evidence for Palearctic Greater Flamingos in the area is of two ringed birds in Ethiopia and one in Eritrea from Iran. Other visitors in the country may be of Afrotropical origin. Black Storks are present in October–March as overwintering Palearctic migrants and in recent years have become fairly common; there have been two recoveries of birds with Polish rings. European White Stork numbers have declined greatly throughout the area, both as passage migrants and as winter visitors: from a total of 56 ringing recoveries only five have been since 1970. Most originated from Germany (29) and Poland (12), and the others from 10 countries in Europe. Previously Northern Bald Ibis were common winter visitors in Ethiopia and Eritrea; there have been four post-1970 records of small groups of this critically endangered Palearctic species, three times in Ethiopia, once in Eritrea, including three tagged birds and one other in early October 2006; concerted international conservation efforts may be able to bring it back from the verge of extinction and more records may be expected in the region. Glossy Ibises are common Palearctic winter visitors and passage migrants, with the majority in September–April. Palearctic Eurasian Spoonbills might be expected here, but differentiation from the local resident race archeri is difficult and there is no certain record for it, although European ringed birds have been found nearby in south Somalia and the Sudan.

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Rare winter visitors from the Palearctic have included single Eurasian Bitterns in Ethiopia and Eritrea, although, by contrast, Little Bitterns are regular winter visitors, and are predominantly (75%) of the Palearctic race. Palearctic-ringed Black-crowned Night Herons have been recovered further south in Africa, so presumably pass through our area. There is a substantial autumn influx and passage from the Palearctic of Squacco Herons, Grey and Purple Herons and Little Egrets into Eritrea in September–October, which presumably also may extend into Ethiopia. A ringed Cattle Egret from Azerbaijan (from where there was also a ringed Squacco Heron) may provide a clue to the origin of the large overwintering population of this species. Great White Pelicans have been suspected of being Palearctic visitors, but the only evidence for this is from a radio-tagged bird tracked from Israel across Ethiopia to Lake Turkana; young ringed in Ethiopia have travelled to Sudan and Kenya.

Intra-tropical origin A number of species, partly or entirely breeding south of Ethiopia, move north in the non-breeding season, including White-faced and Fulvous Whistling Ducks (94% in February–October), Spur-winged Geese (72% in January–April), Comb Ducks (53% in January–February), Redbilled Ducks (most in November–May), Hottentot Teal, Southern Pochard, Lesser Flamingos (peak in May), Woolly-necked Storks (most in November–March) and Darters (largely absent June–August); Glossy Ibis are common August–May, Little Bitterns are Palearctic and intratropical migrants, the race payesii occuring February–July, while Great White Pelicans are resident, Palearctic and intra-tropical migrants. The interesting probable ‘in-country’ movements of Little Grebes have been mentioned above. Movements of other species must take place, but are poorly (if at all) documented: some of these species are only known in our area as scarce breeding or non-breeding species, but may occur commonly at other times. For example, African Openbills, possibly from the Sudd in south Sudan, visit the Baro river (65cd) in thousands, but only two rather small breeding colonies are known in Ethiopia. Abdim’s Storks undergo a north–south migration through the area, but this is difficult to understand because of variable regional breeding seasons and the overlap of breeding and non-breeding populations. Other species whose numbers fluctuate seasonally, but for which seasons are unknown, include African Pygmy-goose, Great White Egret, Black Heron and Western Reef Egret.

2. raptors Palearctic origin At least 22 species of Palearctic raptor occur in our region, of which all are recorded from Ethiopia and 20 from Eritrea. Among the eight species of falcon recorded in the area the common to locally abundant Lesser Kestrels mostly seem to continue to overwinter further south. They are commonest in our area in the autumn when they are most often seen in the central parts of both countries, where some at least may be present through October–May. Common Kestrels are also abundant and pose problems in identification owing to their tendency to form feeding swarms like the previous species, as well as with the local race of the same species. There are two modern records of Redfooted Falcon in October. Four of the five recent records of Amur Falcon are in the same area (84cd, 98a) and all five are at the same time of year, 26 November–2 December, suggesting that there is a regular overland passage for some birds of this species at an unexpectedly high latitude, although most cross the Indian Ocean directly from the Indian coastline. There are now six records of Eleonora’s Falcon (two in Eritrea and four inland in Ethiopia) between 21 October and 20 November, supporting our view that there is also an overland passage of this species from the Mediterranean to its winter quarters in Madagascar. Eurasian Hobbies, reported from both countries, are common on spring and autumn passage in March–May and September–November, usually migrating solitarily, but once 400 in April following behind a rainstorm. Saker Falcons overwinter uncommonly in both countries during October–May, and Peregrines also occur, but there is often difficulty in separating records of the latter’s local breeding race minor from overwintering and passage migrants, and old records would have included Barbary Falcon under the present species (see species accounts). European Honey Buzzards are uncommon as passage migrants in spring and autumn; Eurasian Griffons have been known as uncommon winter visitors until recently when a pair was found possibly breeding; migrant Palearctic Short-toed Eagles are winter visitors and passage migrants, with a recognised passage down the Rift Valley, but can be confused with immatures of the local race pectoralis, from which they may be almost inseparable in the field. The abundant Pallid Harrier and the common Montagu’s and Western Marsh Harrier overwinter in September–April, and are conspicuous on passage. There are six acceptable records of Levant Sparrowhawks in both countries in October and December, and several other records with inadequate supporting evidence to separate them from resident Shikras and migrant Eurasian Sparrowhawks. The latter are rare winter visitors in September–February. Common Buzzards are locally abundant passage migrants in September–November and March–April, especially at the Bab-el-Mandeb crossing at the southern end of the Red Sea, where there are many thousands, and scattered winter visitors; few are seen in the Rift Valley. Lesser Spotted Eagles are uncommon as passage migrants in September–October and March–April, mostly in the Rift Valley, whereas Greater Spotted Eagles are uncommon as scattered winter visitors in October–March, but again mostly in the Rift Valley and mostly in January. Steppe Eagles are common to locally abundant on passage, especially in autumn, and common winter visitors to both countries; they are (were?) in great numbers in Eritrea (Smith 1957), and further south huge numbers (>60,000 in nine days in October–November by Welch & Welch 1986) cross the Bab-el-Mandeb on the Eritrea–Djibouti border: but where do they go to? The large brown eagles pose special problems in field identification, in which Eastern Imperial Eagles, formerly very rare, are now being seen much more frequently in October–March, whether due to an increase in numbers, an improvement in field identification techniques or plain misidentifications is not known. Possibly all Booted Eagles entering our area to overwinter here in September–April cross the Bab-el-Mandeb from Arabia: 125 were seen doing so during 17 days in October (Welch & Welch 1986). They pass south through the country below 13°N, mostly NE–SW along the Rift Valley, and others are seen crossing the open Danakil Desert.

Afrotropical origin Scissor-tailed Kites are generally uncommon, but locally very common in Ethiopia and rare in Eritrea; they breed and are present in November–April in flocks up to 100+. As apparently largely non-breeding visitors Black-breasted Snake Eagles are fairly common.

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Grasshopper Buzzards are sometimes very common in Ethiopia and Eritrea; they have bred, and are present throughout the year, with large numbers in February–April and September–October. Red-necked Buzzards are locally common in Ethiopia, as breeding visitors from the south in December–May. Wahlberg’s Eagle is an uncommon to rare breeding visitor from the south to Ethiopia and Eritrea with some in all months, but peaks in February–May (52% of records) and September–November (36%).

Doubtful and mixed categories Sooty Falcons are intra-tropical and probably Palearctic migrants, also breeding July–September in the Red Sea. Ospreys are common, and possibly many are Palearctic migrants in October–April, especially in the Red Sea, where there is also a large breeding population. The nominate migrans race of Black Kite is an abundant Palearctic migrant in Ethiopia and Eritrea in October–April, although possibly only as a passage migrant in Eritrea; aegyptius is abundant, present to breed in November–April, and is a presumed intra-tropical migrant; parasiticus is an abundant resident throughout, with some in all months, and possibly also an intra-tropical migrant. There are seven records of African Marsh Harriers in Ethiopia, four between 7 November and 2 December, one in March, two in June, and they are also recently reported in Somalia and the Sudan, suggesting the possibility of regular migration. Twelve Shikras ringed in June in 12 days at one site in the Danakil Desert (51d), where never previously recorded in many visits, suggests the possibility of a migratory movement, but at an unexpected date. Long-legged Buzzards are uncommon presumed Palearctic visitors in September–April in Ethiopia and Eritrea; none has been found east of the Rift Valley.

3. Waders Palearctic origin Most of the following waders are winter visitors and/or passage migrants, and many of them remain as non-breeding summer visitors, mostly on the Eritrean coast, but also often occurring inland (indicated by * in the following text). Some passage is also partly coastal, but huge numbers continue overland and many must traverse the continent in that manner. To avoid much repetition, species that are regular winter visitors, with often some in summer, are merely mentioned below without any comments.

Thick-knees and stilts Stone Curlews* are locally common in both countries during October–March. Eurasian Oystercatchers* are common on the coast, but there have only been two unsubstantiated records inland. Black-winged Stilts* are rare on the coast and in Eritrea, where also only a few have been noted inland; they are much commoner in Ethiopia, but the relative status of local birds and Palearctic migrants is not known.

Plovers and sand plovers Sociable Plovers* were always rare, with four old (pre-1942) records in Ethiopia, but previously common in Eritrea, with only one since the 1950s. White-tailed Plovers* are rare winter visitors in Ethiopia and Eritrea, with seven records in 1994–2007. Pacific Golden Plovers* are very common in Eritrea in December–May, but vary in numbers annually; in Ethiopia, where previously rare, the latter have become common since the 1990s in September–March, with numbers up to 85 annually at Lake Abiata. Grey Plovers* are seen occasionally inland, but are common on the coast. Ringed Plovers*, Little Ringed Plovers*, Kentish Plovers* (but also there is the common resident race of this species breeding in coastal Eritrea) and Lesser Sand Plovers* are scattered uncommonly as passage migrants through and winter visitors to Ethiopia, but are commoner in Eritrea. Greater Sand Plovers* have been confined until recently to Eritrea, where they are abundant, but there is a recent record from Ethiopia. Caspian Plovers* are locally common in Eritrea in August–March, but vary in numbers annually.

Snipes to phalaropes A few Jack Snipe* overwinter in Ethiopia and there is one record from Eritrea. Great Snipe* are locally common autumn passage migrants inland in both countries in August–October; Common Snipe* are common in September–May. Black-tailed Godwits* are fairly common winter visitors in Eritrea and Ethiopia, but the Bar-tailed is so only in Eritrea. The following are common in winter and on passage, with a few in summer: Whimbrel* (but rare in Ethiopia), Eurasian Curlew*, Spotted Redshank*, Common Redshank*, Marsh Sandpiper*, Common Greenshank*, Green Sandpiper* and Wood Sandpiper*. There is one very old record of a Slender-billed Curlew in Eritrea. Terek Sandpipers* are winter visitors and passage migrants in both countries, August–May, and parties on visible migration move north along the Rift Valley. One ringed in South Africa in winter was retrapped in the following spring in the Rift Valley. Others species include Common Sandpiper*, Ruddy Turnstone*, Sanderling*, Little Stint*, Temminck’s Stint*, Long-toed Stint* (1–3 birds three times in January–February in Ethiopia), Pectoral Sandpiper (one in Ethiopia in March) and Curlew Sandpiper* (see Ringing Section). Dunlins* are rather uncommon winter visitors in Eritrea, and with only 14 records inland in Ethiopia in August–March, whereas Broad-billed Sandpipers* are rare in Ethiopia but were not uncommon in Eritrea. Ruffs* overwinter in Ethiopia in many sites, at one in tens of thousands; very few oversummer. Some northward movement in spring passes through the highlands, with flocks following the contours at close to ground level; a ringed bird was recovered in far eastern Siberia. Red-necked Phalarope* has been seen once in Eritrea, but is not uncommon in Ethiopia, October–April, and once on a desert rain pool. A Grey Phalarope in January 1973 and the irruption of Red-necked Phalaropes in the previous autumn followed an intense tropical cyclone on the Djibouti coast, an area important for large numbers of phalaropes.

Coursers and pratincoles Cream-coloured Coursers* are common winter visitors to Eritrea, but have been recorded only four times in Ethiopia in September–March. Collared Pratincoles* are locally common in both countries, and although they undertake movements these are not understood. Blackwinged Pratincoles* are rare on passage in Ethiopia in September–October, but there is also evidence of overwintering birds (500+) along the Baro river in two years in December and January.

Intra-tropical origin Crab Plovers are common Afrotropical visitors to Eritrea, commonest in winter. Egyptian Plovers are locally common breeding visitors to Ethiopia and Eritrea, where they presumably breed. Bronze-winged Coursers are very rare Afrotropical visitors to Ethiopia and Eritrea,

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March–September. A Madagascar Pratincole in Ethiopia in October was at the end of a direct line running from the species’ starting point in Madagascar through its main non-breeding area on the Kenya coast and southern Somalia.

4. Seabirds Palearctic origin Although included here as seabirds, the following are actually just as much inland birds here. Among the five species of migrant gull, Lesser Black-backed is locally common in Ethiopia and Eritrea, mostly overwintering, but also on passage, and up to 25 in summer (Scandinavianringed birds have been found in both countries). Heuglin’s Gulls are common winter visitors to coastal Eritrea, and in small numbers in inland Ethiopia since 1968. Great Black-headed Gulls are rare in Eritrea, but have been common inland in Ethiopia since 1973, and are found mostly in January–March in numbers in excess of 100 at Lake Abiata, with others elsewhere. Black-headed Gulls are most numerous on the Eritrean coast, but in smaller numbers inland in Ethiopia, where found mostly in the Rift Valley, with a few as far west as the Baro river. Slender-billed Gulls are uncommon in winter in Eritrea, with three records inland in Ethiopia in March, October and November. Among the 12 species of migratory tern occurring, seven are of Palearctic origin, and include Gull-billed, which is common in both countries as a winter visitor and passage migrant, also oversummering in Ethiopia, when up to 10–15 have been found. Caspian Terns apparently of both Afrotropical and Palearctic origin are present in both countries throughout the year, but mostly from the end of August to May. Sandwich Terns are rare and have only been recorded twice in Eritrea and once in Ethiopia. Common Terns are uncommon presumed winter visitors to Eritrea, and there are six certain records from Ethiopia in October, November and March, as well as several other unsubstantiated reports. There is only one certain record of Little Tern from Eritrea. Among the Marsh Terns, Whiskered is locally common over winter and on passage in Ethiopia; White-winged Black is abundant, on passage, and as a summer and winter visitor in both countries. Black Tern on the other hand is a very rare bird in East Africa, and although frequently reported from Ethiopia records are rarely substantiated (the authors saw only one between them in a total of 14 years!); there are only three acceptable records from Eritrea and five from Ethiopia. Very few skuas have been recorded. In spite of having recently been established as migrants off the Somalia coast (Ash & Miskell 1998), there are only five certain records from our area: a Pomarine Skua in spring in Eritrea, two coastal records of Arctic Skua from Eritrea, and two inland records from Ethiopia in summer and autumn.

Intra-tropical origin There is a single Audubon’s Shearwater in January and a single Jouanin’s Petrel in October, while Wilson’s Petrels occur occasionally, as well as other unidentified petrels/shearwaters. Red-billed Tropicbirds are breeding visitors to Eritrea during February–November and there is a Lesser Frigatebird in December from Eritrea. Grey-headed Gulls are common, non-breeding visitors to the Rift Valley in September–May, presumably from further south in the Indian Ocean; but some remain throughout the year. Lesser Crested Terns are very common residents and intra-tropical migrants in Eritrea, with numbers greatly reduced in December–February. There are only two records of breeding from the south-west of Ethiopia. White-cheeked and Bridled Terns are common breeding visitors to Eritrea in April–September, presumably from further south in the Indian Ocean, but some remain throughout the year. There are only two records of Sooty Tern, one in July in Eritrea, the other in November in Ethiopia. The situation regarding Little/Saunders’ Terns is confusing with many birds, believed to be Saunders’, present in coastal Eritrea throughout the year. Large numbers of ‘little’ terns are also present on Lake Turkana, where M. Fasola has recently found them breeding, and they are fairly common along the Rift Valley between these sites and all would seem on present evidence to be Saunders’. Similarly, the source of the fairly common non-breeding visiting Brown Noddies on the coast in summer is unknown.

5. other intra-tropical migrants Non-passerines Quails to doves Harlequin Quails are present in February–August, breeding April–June after arriving from further south. Because of their elusiveness little is known about the flufftails: Buff-spotted apparently arrives in June, presumably to breed; Red-chested is present in May–October; and White-winged is present in at least May–October and breeds in July–September. Probably all these birds migrate to areas further south in Africa; this is assumed because there are no records further north. African Crakes are rare breeding visitors to Ethiopia with three records in June–September. Purple Swamphens are uncommon breeding Afrotropical visitors in Ethiopia. Allen’s Gallinule is a common breeding visitor to Ethiopia and rare in Eritrea in June–November, with records scattered south of 12°N. Lesser Moorhens are generally very uncommon, but occasionally locally common intra-African migrants and residents in Ethiopia May–November, with one record from Eritrea. Black-crowned Cranes are common and locally abundant presumed intra-tropical migrants; thousands found along the Baro river in March may come from Sudan. African Skimmers are generally uncommon but locally abundant non-breeding visitors in October–June, especially in the Red Sea, along the Baro and Omo rivers, and occasionally among the Rift Valley lakes. Abundant post-breeding African Collared Doves from Eritrea move south as far as 8°N, to Nazareth (70a) and Meki (69d) in the east and Gambela (65d) in the west, mainly February–June and October–November, but movements are irregular.

Cuckoos Of the two recorded races of Jacobin Cuckoo, pica is common in Ethiopia and has two populations, one breeding along the southern Sahara, which moves south, and another from India, which moves west; serratus moves north from South Africa to reach Ethiopia, where it is common in March–September, and Eritrea, where it is common in June–September; the two races overlapping at least during March–June in Ethiopia (see species accounts). Red-chested Cuckoos are common in Ethiopia in March–July, but there are few in August–February and none in September–October; there are no breeding records. Black Cuckoos are uncommon in two races in Ethiopia and Eritrea, and are complex intra-tropical migrants present in March–September (breeding May–July). African Cuckoos are fairly common in Ethiopia and

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bird migration in ethiopia and eritrea

53

Eritrea, present in March–June, but there are no breeding records. There is a single record from Ethiopia of two Asian or Madagascar Lesser Cuckoos in late April (see List D). Klaas’s Cuckoos are common in Ethiopia and rare in Eritrea, breeding in September–October, and present throughout the year, although there is a major increase in April–October; Dideric Cuckoos are common breeding visitors to Ethiopia and Eritrea, present in March–October in Ethiopia, but arrive a month later in Eritrea; they probably also occur as passage migrants en route to Arabia.

Owls to swifts Grass Owls are very rare visitors twice reported from the south in January and May, and Marsh Owls have occurred nine times in Ethiopia in February, June, August and December, on one occasion six together, and have bred once (81b). There are three records of Swamp Nightjars in February, May and June, possibly vagrants or overshoots. Standard-winged Nightjar is uncommon in Ethiopia and Eritrea, breeds in Ethiopia in April–May and is present December–June, with most in January–February and mostly in the Lake Tana area and south-west Ethiopia. There are five records of Scarce Swifts in Ethiopia in March–September.

Rollers to kingfishers In Ethiopia Lilac-breasted Rollers are common intra-tropical breeding migrants (commonest in September; no records in February) and presumed residents, but with only one record from Eritrea. Grey-headed Kingfishers are very common in Ethiopia and Eritrea and are present in Ethiopia throughout the year, but there are no winter records from Eritrea; larger numbers occur in March–April and September–October, e.g. in spring 106 ringed at Aseita (43a) during 15–28 March, and in autumn 140 ringed 15 September–7 October. They are presumed to be passage migrants returning from and en route to the Arabian peninsula; two Ethiopian birds ringed in October were recovered in Kenya in March and November. Woodland Kingfishers are common and present throughout the year in Ethiopia, particularly along the Rift Valley, but only in June–September in Eritrea; they breed May–September. Records of the uncommon Collared Kingfishers are scattered through the year in Eritrea but there is none in September–November. Several records of Malachite Kingfisher in Ethiopia and Somalia in atypical sites suggest migration and a possible link with its recently demonstrated presence in Arabia (Ash 1994a). Pied Kingfishers are very common and present throughout the year in Ethiopia and Eritrea, but there are many fewer in May–July (when there are only 13% of all records); one ringed in July was in Uganda in November the next year.

Bee-eaters to pittas White-throated Bee-eaters are common in Ethiopia and Eritrea on northward passage in spring in April–June, and southward in September; they are present January–October. Green Bee-eaters are common to very common breeding residents in Eritrea, but uncommon in Ethiopia, where a local migration south to 8°N may only be post-breeding dispersal. Olive Bee-eater is a common breeding visitor in at least May– August, but see further details in the species accounts. Common Hoopoes are common intra-tropical migrants to Ethiopia and Eritrea (race senegalensis), breeding in January–June; race africana is recorded once in October in Ethiopia, but the situation is confused by the simultaneous presence of overwintering and on-passage nominate epops. African Grey Hornbills are common in Ethiopia and Eritrea, and although there is little evidence of migration compared with other regions in Africa, movements of flocks in May–August are indicative. The one record of an African Pitta migrant was a vagrant in July in 58d.

Passerines African Golden Orioles are uncommon Afrotropical migrants with 20 records in February–June (five of them in April), possibly as non-breeding visitors. Grey-rumped Swallows are locally common breeding residents and presumed intra-tropical migrants, present May–September. Banded Martins are residents and/or intra-tropical migrants in Ethiopia, most May–September, but scarce in Eritrea. Wattled Starlings are a very common nomadic breeding species in Ethiopia and Eritrea at any time of the year. Violet-backed Starlings are common to very common in three races: leucogaster in Ethiopia as a presumed resident, but as a non-breeding visitor in Eritrea in March–September; verreauxi is a non-breeding visitor from the south to Ethiopia in April–November; arabicus is a non-breeding visitor to Eritrea and NE Ethiopia. Magpie Starlings are common, but irregular, possibly breeding, visitors to southern Ethiopia at most times of the year except October–November. Red-billed Queleas are an abundant breeding species undergoing large-scale movements within the country and across borders (see species account). Bush Pipit is a rare visitor in south Ethiopia with eight records in July–February, which may have resulted from random post-breeding dispersal.

6. other palearctic migrants Non-passerines Common Quail to cranes Common Quails overwinter and are possibly passage migrants in Ethiopia and Eritrea; there are identification problems due to the presence of the local breeding race erlangeri and nominate migrants. Corncrakes are rather uncommon as spring and autumn passage migrants in both countries, and all are west of 40°E in September–October and March–May. Little Crakes are rare and of uncertain status with three in Ethiopia in April, September and October and three in Eritrea in September, November and December, whereas Spotted Crakes are fairly common in Eritrea but rare in Ethiopia, apparently only as passage migrants in April–June and September–October, and all to the west of 40°30´E. Common Cranes only occasionally occur in Eritrea, but are locally abundant in Ethiopia, where they are at the southern edge of their Afrotropical overwintering area at 7°N, in October–March (April), with the main arrival during 10–19 October, and with counts of up to 8500. Demoiselle Cranes are rare with three records in Ethiopia and two in Eritrea.

Turtle Dove to owls European Turtle Doves are uncommon to common as spring and autumn passage migrants, March–April and September–early November, possibly mainly via Arabia, with a small number of overwintering records in December–early March; they are concentrated in east Eritrea,

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bird migration in ethiopia and eritrea

down the Rift Valley and at Lake Tana (a roost built up to 245 birds on a small island in this lake in April); flocks of 40–50 migrate ENE over the Danakil desert in the third week of April. Great Spotted Cuckoo has an uncertain status: birds presumed to be the Palearctic race are on the Eritrean coastal plains in December–March, but the species is actually present throughout the year. Common Cuckoos are common on spring and autumn passage in Ethiopia and Eritrea in March–May and August–October, and overlap with African Cuckoos in spring, but probably not in autumn. Eurasian Scops Owls are fairly common winter visitors in Ethiopia and Eritrea in October–April, with probably a few on passage, but very few records are known from further south in Africa. Short-eared Owls overwinter irregularly in coastal Eritrea and southern Ethiopia below 10°N, usually singly, but occasionally up to six together, in October–April, mostly in November.

Nightjars to rollers European Nightjars are rare in Eritrea, with only five records, and fairly common in Ethiopia, as passage migrants in March–April and October–November. The Egyptian Nightjar is a rare winter visitor with four records in Eritrea and one in Ethiopia, in January–March. The Palearctic race tamaricis of Nubian Nightjar is common in Eritrea in August–May; of at least nine records in Ethiopia, probably all are the Afrotropical race torridus. Alpine Swifts are regarded only as probable Palearctic migrants among the many local residents. Common Swifts are apparently very common passage migrants with possibly some overwintering, but confusion with other species leads to problems for observers; they are present in July–May. European Rollers are generally uncommon, but locally common, passage migrants in Ethiopia and Eritrea in August–early November and March–early May. They are seen as large spread-out flocks flying south in autumn in Eritrea, but are not seen further south in this way. They apparently undergo a loop migration, which returns north in spring by a different route through Somalia (Ash & Miskell 1983).

Bee-eaters to wrynecks Blue-cheeked Bee-eater is a spring and autumn passage migrant in Ethiopia and Eritrea, but its overlap with migrant Madagascar Beeeaters makes certain identification of many of them difficult. European Bee-eaters are very common on spring and autumn passage in Ethiopia and Eritrea, with a few overwintering in the former, in August–May. Common Hoopoes are common passage migrants and winter visitors in Ethiopia and Eritrea in September–April; of a total of 93 netted in Ethiopia, 80 were nominate epops. Eurasian Wrynecks are fairly common spring and autumn passage migrants, and winter visitors in August–April, with most in March and October; fewer overwinter in Eritrea.

Passerines Shrikes to Grey Hypocolius Red-backed Shrikes are common to abundant spring and autumn passage migrants, which only rarely overwinter in the far south. Working on the basis of 183 records in a year (JSA), 40% were in October/November and 37% in April/May, suggesting a rather similar volume of passage at each season. There are huge concentrations in the south-east in April, e.g. 1000+ daily on 18–22 April in an area from Negelle (111b) to 76km to the east, and presumably this same movement is seen again further NE in the Jijiga area (62d). Isabelline Shrikes are common presumed passage migrants and overwintering visitors in Ethiopia and Eritrea, in September–mid-April, with a more westerly bias than the previous species; the race isabellinus outnumbers phoenicuroides by 2:1. Lesser Grey Shrikes are uncommon to locally very common on spring passage in Ethiopia and Eritrea, 28 March–12 May, but only few occur in Eritrea in autumn (extreme dates 21 August–30 September); a SW–NE flight-line in spring crosses south-east Ethiopia (i.e. between Negelle (111b) and Jijiga (62d), where in the third week of April 100–150/day/tetrad can be seen at either end, and 40 at Sauena (86c) half-way between). Southern Grey Shrikes are uncommon winter visitors, October–early March (aucheri, buryi, pallidirostris). Woodchat Shrikes are fairly common winter visitors in Ethiopia and Eritrea from the end of September to mid-May; usually solitary, but once 20 (one with a ring) along 4% of the estimated world population (De Marchi et al. 2006), but many are present throughout the year. A southward migration through the Bab-el-Mandeb (Welch & Welch 1986) in Oct–Nov coincides with a similar migration off eastern Somalia (A&M). Food-begging by attendant young is not necessarily an indication of local breeding, as this behaviour takes place among migrants as they fly in to rest from offshore. May be seen singly, in pairs, parties or flocks of up to 70. Breeding: colony of 83–89 occupied nests and 150 adults feeding downy young on Dahret Island (12b) in the Dahlaks in Jul 2001 (Chiozzi & De Marchi 2003); this conforms with fresh eggs at the end of May on Saad el Din island in north Somalia (A&M). Subsequently 30 colonies were discovered on 29 islands between 2002 and 2004; an estimated 24 colonies were simultaneously occupied May–Aug; the average size of 10 colonies was 205 nests each (De Marchi et al. 2006). 8660 pairs present on 21 Eritrean coastal islands including 1600 fresh burrows on Delgus Island (Semere et al. 2008). Favoured sites: Dahlak Islands (7d, 12b, 13ac), Howakil Bay (18a), Anfile Bay (18b). Tetrads: ER: 16 (11).

11/1/09 11:58:01

RECURVIROSTRIDAE, CHARADRIIDAE

Family: RECURVIROSTRIDAE stilts, avocets 211. Black-winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus

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151

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H.h.himantopus (ET, ER). Very common resident and presumed Palearctic migrant, at up to 3330m in Ethiopia and Eritrea. Found beside freshwater and alkaline lakes, streams, rivers, ponds and marshes, but rare on the coast, where there are only three records in Nov–Dec. Otherwise it is only known in Eritrea from 30 Aug–late Sep, and in spring, when scarce, Mar–early May. In Ethiopia it is much commoner, with at least 100 on occasions at Lake Basaaka (70b) in Jan, and Koka (70c) in Oct; over 200 at Abiata (83b) in Mar and Jul, and 500 at Lake Aranguade (69b) in Nov. A pure albino was at Gambela on 3–17 Dec 1972 to 30 Jan 1973 (Nikolaus p.o.). Breeding: surprisingly there are only two records with data, a first-egg date in Aug, and a flying juvenile on 9 May (83b). Favoured sites: see above text. Tetrads: ET: 91 (4); ER: 14 (-).

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212. Pied Avocet Recurvirostra avosetta

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Other names: Avocet; Eurasian Avocet A very rare visitor to salinas in Eritrea, where there are only two old and three recent records: 4 Jan 1951 1 Massawa 12a (Smith 1957) 14 Jan 1951 3 Massawa 12a (Smith 1957) 27 Dec 1970 1 Assab 26d (Ash p.o.) 6 Jan 2008 1 Adi Keyih 17a (Anderson p.o.) 10 Feb 2008 2 Adi Keyih 17a (Anderson p.o.) It is much commoner in Ethiopia, where most are concentrated along and close to the Rift Valley, except for a few elsewhere. 1000–2000 have been counted at alkaline Lake Abiata in Jan, Jun and Oct, where regularly there are hundreds. Other sites with counts of 150–200 include Lake Shalla (83d), Akaki (69b) and Basaaka (70b), and birds are present throughout the year, particularly round the lakes, at up to 2500m. Breeding: no records. There is no evidence that this species is of Palearctic origin in our area, and as there is no evidence of breeding either, it seems that they are intra-tropical migrants present here in their non-breeding season. Favoured sites: see above text. Tetrads: ET: 41 (-); ER: 3 (-).

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Family: CHARADRIIDAE plovers, lapwings 213. Long-toed Plover Vanellus crassirostris

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Other names: Long-toed Lapwing; White-winged Plover V.c.crassirostris (ET). An extremely localised resident which is known to have bred in the Baro/Ubela rivers area of western Ethiopia at and to the west of Gambela (65d). It inhabits the extensive swamps and marshes of this area, and occasionally visits river islets. The largest number recorded together is five, several times. It was first discovered along the Baro river in Apr 1967 (Blower & Huxley p.o.), when a bird was seen on a nest; then subsequently seen in 1970–1972 (Ash p.o.), 1970 (M. L. Schmidt), 1972–1973 (Professor R. W. Ashford), and also by G. Nikolaus who extended its range down the Baro to the Sudan border; and then in 1976 along the Ubela river (78b) (Tyler p.o.). There have been no subsequent observations. It was noted in Apr, Aug, Sep and Dec. Breeding: the only record is of egg-laying in Apr. Tetrads: ET: 4 (1).

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214. Spur-winged Plover Vanellus spinosus

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An abundant resident in Ethiopia, but much scarcer in Eritrea, where only found below 16°N, and only as a presumed resident. Not recorded above 1520m in Eritrea, but up to 2880m at Lake Arakit (82b) in Ethiopia. It generally prefers a dry patch of ground but always in close association with almost any wet area, either freshwater or alkaline. In Eritrea its distribution is mostly in the south-west, but in Ethiopia its densest population is down the Rift Valley, although it is also found to the west and east except in arid and wooded areas. Large numbers often occur in the same area, e.g. 350 at Abiata on 6 May, and flocks of 100 have been seen several times. Breeding: first-egg data from 72 records were in Jan (2), Feb (3), Mar (12), Apr (27), May (14), Jun (6), Jul (4), Aug (3) and Sep (1). Eggs are occasionally covered with earth when the incubating bird leaves the nest. Favoured sites: Akaki (69b), Koka (70c), Abiata (83b), etc. Tetrads: ET: 120 (14) +3 (-); ER: 13 (-).

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215. Black-headed Plover Vanellus tectus

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Other name: Black-headed Lapwing V.t.tectus (ET, ER); V.t.latifrons (ET). A locally common Afrotropical resident in Ethiopia; commoner in Eritrea. Found on open flat ground in grasslands, open thornbush and semi-desert, at altitudes up to 1940m, and also at sea-level on Dahlak Kebir Island (13a). It extends to 17°N in Eritrea, where its population is densest. Further south in Ethiopia it is much more patchily distributed, and there are very large areas in which it is unrecorded. Across the whole of Sudan between 10° and 14°N it is continuously distributed as far as the Ethiopian border (Nikolaus 1987), after which there is a break in distribution, except for a few round Lake Tana, as far as 40°E in central Ethiopia. It has been recorded in every month except Jul and Aug, but strangely only 16 counts are recorded, of which 10 involve 1–2 birds (63%), and six involve 3–10 birds (37%). Breeding: first-egg dates in 17 nests were in Feb (1), Mar (5), Apr and May (2 each), Jun (3), Jul (2), Aug and Nov (1 each). All three eggs hatched in a flooded nest in which the eggs were half-covered and standing vertically in mud which had set like concrete. Favoured sites: Bahadu (51d), Dolo (124c), near Dire Dawa (61b). Tetrads: ET: 46 (7); ER: 22 (4).

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216. Black-winged Plover Vanellus melanopterus

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Other name: Black-winged Lapwing V.m.melanopterus (ET, ER). A common, locally very common, Afrotropical resident in Ethiopia, but uncommon in Eritrea, on open grasslands, above 2120m in Eritrea and 1360m in Ethiopia, and up to 3000m. Records exist for every month; although there are movements which are not clearly understood, most birds move down to lower altitudes after breeding. In Eritrea it is found south of 16°N and on through central Ethiopia between 36°E and 43°30´E. Half the sightings consist of 1–4 birds in 44 counts; followed in 18 cases (41%) by flocks of 11–45 birds; and ‘120 once and at least 100’ and also ‘hundreds’ twice each. Breeding: nests may be placed on a grass tuft or in a scrape lined with pellets of earth or cow dung; first-egg dates in 18 nests were in Mar–Jul, viz: Mar (1), Apr (5), May (4), Jun (6), Jul (2). Favoured sites: Sululta to Mulu (58d), Langano (83b), etc. Tetrads: ET: 70 (9); ER: 4 (1).

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CHARADRIIDAE

217. Crowned Plover Vanellus coronatus

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Other name: Crowned Lapwing V.c.coronatus (ET); V.c.demissus (ET). A common to very common Afrotropical resident on open grasslands, open thornbush and semi-desert in Ethiopia. It is unrecorded in Eritrea, but there is an unconfirmed record on the Ethiopian side of 15d, which is some distance from the nearest record in Ethiopia. Its distribution lies mainly along the Rift Valley and in much of the rest of eastern Ethiopia, particularly in the Ogaden to the east, where the line 42°30´E separates demissus in the east from nominate coronatus in the west. All records are below 1970m, and to the west they are only scattered. Birds are present throughout the year, and in 48 counts were seen singly or in pairs in 30 (63%), 3–11 birds in 16 (33%), and once each in flocks of 20 and 50; flocking is therefore unusual here. Breeding: first-egg dates in 22 nests are in a protracted season in Jan (2), Feb (3), Mar and Apr (5 each), Jun (3), Jul (1), Aug (2) and Sep (1). Favoured sites: Rift Valley. Tetrads: ET: 133 (12).

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218. African Wattled Plover Vanellus senegallus

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Other names: Senegal Wattled Plover; Wattled Lapwing V.s.major (ET). An Afrotropical resident from 16°30´N south through Eritrea and Ethiopia. There is no proof of breeding in Eritrea, although it is presumed. In both countries, except for one record in Ethiopia, it is found entirely to the west of 40°E where it is common and widely distributed up to 2080m. It is usually seen alone or in pairs (in 58% of 69 counts), as 3–10 birds (37%), and three times in larger flocks of 29, 30 and 47 birds, and records exist for every month. Large numbers are found on sand-bars along the Baro river, e.g. 474 in 112km between Gambela (65d) and Jikao (64d) on 27–29 Jan 1973 (Nikolaus p.o.). In Eritrea it is rare and only recorded in May, Aug and Sep. Breeding: ten records of first-egg dates were two in each month Feb–Jun; one clutch of four eggs. Once on the day following the erection of a mistnet in a deserted cattle compound a bird was seen sitting on a clutch of four eggs which had not been seen the previous day, exactly beneath the bottom of the net, only 2.5cm above its head. Favoured sites: Bulcha (97c), Gambela (65d), Didessa (56c). Tetrads: ET: 81 (5); ER: 8 (-).

219. Spot-breasted Plover Vanellus melanocephalus

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Other name: Spot-breasted Lapwing ENDEMIC. An Afrotropical endemic resident occurring in Ethiopia only. It is numerous very locally on highland moorland and grassland, almost invariably near or at water, at 2420–3800m. Recorded in all months of the year except for Jul and Sep. There have been three times more records from 1970 onwards than there were in the whole period before – possibly indicating that there has not, at least, been a decrease. In 39 counts the numbers together varied greatly, 1–10 birds in 13 cases (33%), 11–25 in two (5%), 26–50 in three (8%), 50–150 in 17 (44%) and over 150 in four (10%). The largest count of 240 birds was near Mulu (58d) on 14 Dec 1997 (Pohlstrand p.o.). Breeding: first-egg dates are in Apr (1), and Aug (2); also twice birds were seen copulating in Apr. Favoured sites: Muketuri (58d), Sanetti Plain (98b), Mulu (58d), Dinsho (84d). Tetrads: ET: 18 (3).

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154 CHARADRIIDAE 35°

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220. Sociable Plover Vanellus gregarius

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It was previously common in Eritrea, but the numbers were variable, absent in some years, and it is unrecorded since the 1950s, except for one on 15 Oct 1998 at Saberguma (12a) by Zinner (p.o.). It was usually found in flocks of 10–20, and once 180 (in Feb 1952 at Karora (2a)), on Panicum steppe, coastal saltmarsh, moorland, ploughland and river-edge (Smith 1955a, 1957). A rare Palearctic winter visitor to Ethiopia with four old records of collected birds. The identification of the first five specimens below has been confirmed by D. Willard: 29 Nov 1925 1M Entoto 2800m 58d (Fuertes & Osgood 1936) 1 Jan 1927 2M, 1F Gebre Intala 1545m 72c (Fuertes & Osgood 1936) 15 Feb 1927 1F Salali 2576m 58b (Fuertes & Osgood 1936) 5/6 Feb 1941 1M Metehara 941m 70b (Italian Game Dept) Extreme dates are 15 Oct–10 Mar, and altitudes: 0–2800m. Favoured sites: none. Tetrads: ET: 5 (-); ER: 6 (-).

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221. White-tailed Plover Vanellus leucurus

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A rare Palearctic winter visitor with three recent records in Ethiopia and four in Eritrea, constituting the first records for each of them: Eritrea: 6–7 Jan 1995 7–8 Aligider res. 9d (Vaughan p.o.) 5–19 Oct 1997 4 Sembel dam 11d (Meigh p.o.) 9 Nov 1997 1 Sembel dam 11d (Zinner p.o.) 22 Nov 2007 2 Mendefera Dam 16b (Anderson p.o.) Ethiopia: 17 Oct 1994 1 Mekele 23a (Dijksen 1996b) 2 Nov 1994 1 Mekele 23a (Dijksen 1996b) 5 Feb 1996 1 Mekele 23a (Dijksen 1996b) Tetrads: ET: 1 (-); ER: 3 (-).

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222. Pacific Golden Plover Pluvialis fulva

ET/ER

Other name: Lesser Golden Plover Sometimes quite common Palearctic migrant in Eritrea, but numbers vary annually. Recently it has become increasingly common as a winter visitor in Ethiopia. It is confined to coastal sites in Eritrea on sandbanks and inlets, whereas in Ethiopia it is on lakeside grasslands and mud, up to altitudes of 1500m. Extreme dates in Ethiopia are 29 Sep–21 Mar, differing markedly from those in Eritrea (Dec–early May). Smith (1957) reported parties of up to 20 in Eritrea in the 1950s; Ash saw 38 at Assab on 29 Sepember 1974. In the 1970s in Ethiopia there were six records of 1–3 birds, but in the 1990s, commencing with 43 on 11 Nov 1990 at Abiata (83b) (Redman p.o.), there was an increase of birds and of sightings, with numbers up to 58 in Nov 1995, 85 in Feb 1996, and these kind of numbers for subsequent years, particuarly at Abiata. Favoured sites: Massawa (12a), Abiata (83b). Tetrads: ET: 3 (-); ER: 4 (-).

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002 Ethiopia 193-384.indd 154

11/1/09 11:58:20

CHARADRIIDAE

223. Grey Plover Pluvialis squatarola

ET/ER

Other name: Black-bellied Plover P.s.squatarola (ET, ER). A Palearctic migrant overwintering and on passage in both Ethiopia and Eritrea. In Ethiopia it is not uncommon with 24 recent records from Lake Tana (2), Aseita (1), Lake Arakit (l), and the Rift Valley lakes Abiata (9), Basaaka (1) and Koka (10), between 4 Oct and 20 May. In Eritrea it is only known, regularly and singly, from one inland site, Sembel dam (11d), otherwise commonly mid-Sep to mid-May on the coast (Smith 1957). In Ethiopia records are from up to 2880m, and always of singles or two together. Favoured sites: Massawa (12a), Assab (26d), Koka (70c), Lake Abiata (83b). Tetrads: ET: 10 (-); ER: 14 (-).

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224. Common Ringed Plover Charadrius hiaticula ET/ER C.h.tundrae (ET, ER). Common Palearctic winter visitor and passage migrant in both Ethiopia and Eritrea. A few oversummer in Eritrea, but are not known to do so in Ethiopia, where extreme dates are 29 Aug–24 May; large numbers in the first three weeks of May do not seem to remain for long and are presumably on passage from further south. They are common in coastal Eritrea, but also widely inland up to 2880m, especially along the edges of freshwater and alkaline lakes, in flocks at Koka of up to 70 birds in Apr, and 100 in Jan. Birds were calling overhead at night in a thunderstorm at Jimma in Oct. Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Abiata (83b), Assab (26d), Massawa (12a). Tetrads: ET: 53 (-); ER: 20 (-).

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225. Little Ringed Plover Charadrius dubius

ET/ER

C.d.curonicus (ET, ER). A common Palearctic migrant on passage and overwintering, mostly inland, in deserts and arid grasslands usually by lakes and large rivers, but also not rare on the coast; in Ethiopia and Eritrea. Found up to 2880m in highland areas. Widely distributed, in Ethiopia mainly in a broad band down the Rift Valley. Lack of records through the Ogaden may be the result of absence of observations at the appropriate period. Extreme dates are: 14 Sep–29 Apr; in 73 observations 42 (58%) involved 1–2 birds, 27 (37%) involved 3–10 birds, and there were 11–42 birds in four (5%). The two largest flocks were in complete desert at 19 and 29km west of Aseita (43a) in Feb and Dec. Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Aseita (43a). Tetrads: ET: 71 (-); ER: 17 (-).

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11/1/09 11:58:24

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226. Kittlitz’s Sand Plover Charadrius pecuarius

ET/ -

Other name: Kittlitz’s Plover Only doubtfully recorded in Eritrea but a common Afrotropical resident in Ethiopia, where they are concentrated in and close to the Rift Valley, a few in the south-east but only scattered elsewhere. They normally breed close to water, but at other times may be on flats and dry short grasslands far from water. Quite large numbers occur together in some areas, e.g. 250 at Koka in Jan, and frequently 100–150; and are found at altitudes as high as 2730m. Records exist for every month. Breeding: first-egg dates in 28 nests were in Jan–Sep, viz: Jan (2), Feb–Apr (1 each), May (12), Jun (6), Jul (3), Aug and Sep (1 each). Eggs are covered with sand or earth when the incubating bird leaves. Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Abiata (83b). It was not included for Eritrea in U&B, and there have only been two uncertain records since. Tetrads: ET: 40 (6).

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227. Three-banded Plover Charadrius tricollaris

ET/ER

C.t.tricollaris (ET, ER). A common Afrotropical resident, mainly in central areas of Ethiopia and Eritrea. It is found by freshwater and alkaline lakes, rivers, pools and especially rocky streams in hilly country, below 2800m. It is usually seen in pairs or singly (in 75% of 53 counts), or up to seven together in 25%; records are from throughout the year except Jul. Breeding: three first-egg dates are in May, Aug and Dec. Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Jemmu valley (49d, 58b). Tetrads: ET: 73 (8); ER: 12 (2).

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002 Ethiopia 193-384.indd 156

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228. White-fronted Plover Charadrius marginatus

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Other name: White-fronted Sandplover C.m.?tenellus (ER). A possibly rare breeding resident for which there are two records only, both in Eritrea: 13 Mar 1953 1F collected Thio 18b (Smith 1955a, 1957) 26 Dec 1994 2 Massawa 12a (Vaughan p.o.) Although recorded as uncommon to common in both Ethiopia and Eritrea there is possibly some confusion as to which species is being referred to, either White-fronted or Kentish Plover. Smith (1957) gave no mention of White-fronted breeding in Eritrea, but states that Kentish breeds there during Feb–May, when presumed passage migrants of this species are present, and U&B refers to breeding from Feb–Aug (?for both countries) for Kentish. It is possible, and even likely, that the breeding birds are actually White-fronted rather than Kentish, or even both species. The fact that White-fronted is now known to breed in localities along the Kenya coast (BoKT), the southern Somalia coast (A&M), and now further north and along its northern coast (Miskell in prep.), together now with its known presence in Eritrea, adds support to this supposition. See also 229 below. Breeding: no known record. Tetrads: ER: 2 (-).

11/1/09 11:58:28

CHARADRIIDAE

229. Kentish Plover Charadrius alexandrinus

ET/ER

C.a.alexandrinus (ET, ER). A locally abundant resident in Eritrea on the coast and islands, and a common, presumed Palearctic, migrant both on the coast and inland; but less frequently in Ethiopia by Rift Valley lakes, and a few others scattered elsewhere. Migrants are indistinguishable from residents. A few overwinter as high as 2880m. Extreme dates for migrants are 23 Sep–27 Mar, although there is a single late record on 7 May at Jijiga (62d). Migrants are usually single or in pairs, although once 10 new arrivals were together. See also 228 above. Breeding: in coastal Eritrea eight firstegg dates were in Feb–Jul, viz: Feb and Mar (1 each), Apr and May (2 each), Jun–Jul (1 each). 13 pairs recorded on seven Eritrean coastal islands (Semere et al. 2008). Favoured sites: Massawa (12a), Assab (26d), Koka (70c). Tetrads: ET: 16 (-); ER: 18 (7).

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230. Lesser Sand Plover Charadrius mongolus

ET/ER

Other names: Mongolian Sandplover; Lesser Sandplover C.m.pamirensis (ET, ER). An uncommon Palearctic passage migrant and winter visitor to Ethiopia with 11 records since 1970. In Eritrea Smith (1957) curiously only mentions Antinori’s reference to it as a Palearctic migrant at Assab (26d); U&B (1971) refer to it as common. It was certainly common at Massawa (12a) and Assab in the 1970s (Ash p.o.), but seems to be much less so nowadays, although numbers present are variable. However, nearby in Djibouti it is the commonest waterbird present (Welch & Welch 2001). In Ethiopia, occurrences are dated from 25 Aug–14 Mar, and consist of six records at Abiata (83b), and one each at Koka (70c), Lake Arakit at 2880m (82b), Langano (83b), Mekele (23a) and Mustahil (115d), involving eight single birds, three birds twice, and four birds once. Favoured sites: as above. Tetrads: ET: 9 (-); ER: 8 (-).

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231. Greater Sand Plover Charadrius leschenaultii ET/ER Other names: Greater Sandplover; Great Sand Plover C.l.columbinus (ER); C.l.crassirostris? (ET?). A common to abundant Palearctic migrant overwintering on the coast, and a presumed passage migrant, in Eritrea. There is only one record from Ethiopia possibly referable to C.l.crassirostris: 18 Oct 2004 2 Lake Abiata 83b (Borrow p.o.) Found mainly on sand- and mudflats, but also frequently on grasslands up to 2–3km behind beaches. Extreme dates range from 5 Sep to late May. Smith (1957) found that a few oversummered, and suggested they might perhaps breed on the Dahlaks. There are two records of C.l.crassirostris on the Kenya side of the border in 117d/118c, and several unconfirmed inland records of the species in Ethiopia. Favoured sites: Massawa (12a), Assab (26d). Tetrads: ET: 1 (-) + 3 (-); ER: 12 (-).

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232. Caspian Plover Charadrius asiaticus

ET/ER

Locally common Palearctic migrant overwintering and as a passage migrant in both Ethiopia and Eritrea. Found in a range of habitats, including grassy plains, weed-covered croplands, grasslands near lakes, and coastal areas including mudflats occasionally. Extreme dates are 13 Aug–10 Apr in Ethiopia and 5 Aug–end Mar in Eritrea. Numbers together range widely; in 16 counts, there were 1–5 birds in seven counts (44%), 11–30 in six counts (37%) and 50–100 in three (19%). Records are scattered widely. There is a tendency for birds to revisit traditional sites: in Mar in three consecutive years at Koka; in three years at Abiata; in two years at Langano, and in two years 50 years apart near Yavello. Favoured sites: Abiata (83b), Koka (70c). Tetrads: ET: 16 (-); ER: 7 (-).

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Family: ROSTRATULIDAE painted snipes 233. Greater Painted-snipe Rostratula benghalensis

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Other name: Painted Snipe R.b.benghalensis (ET, ER). A rather uncommon breeding resident in Ethiopia, and a rare visitor to Eritrea, viz: five old records from Ailet (12a), Ain (7c) and Menza (11b) in M&R, and one on 14 Aug at Aligider (9d). In Ethiopia there are about 25 records of which four are old and the remainder recent, from 1970 onwards, at 180–1670m, from marshes, lake- and riversides, floodlands, etc., throughout the year except for Jan and Feb. In 24 records, 17 were single birds, six were of two, and one was of a party of six. Distribution in Ethiopia is concentrated down the Rift Valley, with only scattered records to the west. Breeding: first-egg dates from seven records of single nests in Jan, Apr–Jul, Sep and Nov. Favoured sites: Gambela (65d) with seven records; Koka (70c) with five records. Tetrads: ET: 26 (2); ER: 4 (-).

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Family: JACANIDAE jacanas 234. Lesser Jacana Microparra capensis

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An uncommon and presumed very local resident in Ethiopia, with at least 23 records from only five sites, at Lake Tana and in the Rift Valley, where it inhabits freshwater lakes, rivers and streams with floating vegetation, at 1670–1830m. First recorded at Lake Zwai (83b) in 1962 (U&B), followed by one netted at Lake Abiata (83b) in 1970 (Ash p.o.), single birds at Adami Tulu (83b) in 1972 and Lake Awassa (83c) in 1973 (Ash p.o.), Lake Tana (39a) in 1974 (Keith p.o.), then 1–5 often at Zwai from 1995 onwards in Oct–Jun. Breeding: there are no records. Favoured site: Lake Zwai (south) 83b. Tetrads: ET: 4 (-).

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002 Ethiopia 193-384.indd 158

11/1/09 11:58:35

SCOLOPACIDAE

235. African Jacana Actophilornis africanus

ET/ -

Very common Afrotropical resident below 12°30´N in Ethiopia in freshwater wetland habitats of lakes, rivers and marshes in which vegetation grows, at altitudes of 180–2000m; it is uncommon in alkaline water habitat, and is mostly concentrated along the Rift Valley and to the west of it. It is present thoughout the year, but also undertakes movements, which are not understood, when birds move along rivers in compact, low-flying flocks numbering 8–30 birds. Quite often up to 50 birds may be seen in a scattered flock on one area of suitable habitat, and once one was watched feeding while following behind a slowly moving large tortoise. Breeding: first-egg dates in seven nests were in the period Apr–Nov, viz: Apr (2), Jun–Sep and Nov (1 each). Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Gambela (65d), Ricchie swamp (50b), Jimma (81b), Aseita (43a), all of which are sites with 50+ birds. Tetrads: ET: 57 (8).

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159

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Family: SCOLOPACIDAE sandpipers, stints, snipes, turnstone, phalaropes, etc. 236. Jack Snipe Lymnocryptes minimus

ET/ER

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An uncommon Palearctic winter visitor, with 11 records (six old and five new) in Ethiopia, dated between 9 Nov–28 Feb, and one from Eritrea: Nov 1950 1 shot near Asmara 11d (Smith 1957) Smith (pers. comm.) subsequently stated that the identity of this bird was without doubt, but being a first record for the country he decided at the time not to include it in the main list of his Checklist. It is a bird of lakesides, streamsides and marshes up to 2750m, two together once, but otherwise singly. All records were between 7°30´ and 15°30´N, at Akaki (69b), Alemaya (62c), Basaaka (70b), Dangla (38d), Dessie (41d), Entoto (58d), Koka (70c), Langano (83b) and Tefki (Dilu Meda) (69b). Tetrads: ET: 9 (-); ER: 1 (-).

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237. African Snipe Gallinago nigripennis

ET/ER

G.n.aequatorialis (ET, ER). A locally common breeding resident in highland bogs and marshes, around lakes and along streams in Ethiopia, but only known from two sites in Eritrea: mid-Jun, before 1955 a few Guna Guna 17a (Smith 1957) 13 Feb 1998 1 Maisrwa (Madrezien) Lake 11d (Baccetti & de Faveri p.o.) In Ethiopia it is widely distributed in highland areas from 1280–3800m. For all but the meticulous it presents difficulties in identification and separation from Common Snipe. It is found throughout the year, except that there are no records in Apr or May. Usually seen singly, or as 2–3 together, and once four. Breeding: in nine records first-egg dates were in Jun (2), Jul and Aug (3 each), Sep (1) (U&B). Favoured site: Dangla (38d), Sanetti (98b). Tetrads: ET: 42 (6); ER: 2 (-).

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002 Ethiopia 193-384.indd 159

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238. Great Snipe Gallinago media

ET/ER

Locally a very common Palearctic migrant on autumn passage in highland marshes, and in smaller numbers elsewhere inland. In Eritrea it is not uncommon in Sep–Oct according to Smith (1957), but only one square locality provided by him (pers. comm.) is known. In Ethiopia it was locally abundant in Aug–Oct in highland marshes and flooded grasslands near Addis Ababa at 1520–2730m (58d), where in the past bags of 172 and 144 birds per gun per day were shot, and where up until at least the 1970s Italian shooters obtained bags of up to 500–600 birds per day. There is only one spring record in Mar (81a), and only small numbers are known elsewhere in Ethiopia. Massoli-Novelli’s (1984, 1985, 1988a,b) study of this species in Ethiopia indicated a Sep population of Great Snipe passage migrants of 1300±300 birds/km² based on his two study areas, and an estimate of 10 million in Ethiopia each autumn. He concluded that numbers in the previous 70 years had not declined, and may actually have been increasing. Since 1900 there have been fewer than 20 individuals reported by non-sportsmen, compared with the thousands which were shot, but the very few reported nowadays does not necessarily indicate a reduction in numbers. The mean weight of 91 birds in Ethiopia was 162.9g compared with 86.7g for 175 Common Snipe (Ash & Pain). Favoured site: Sululta (58d). Tetrads: ET: 10 (-); ER: 1 (-).

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239. Common Snipe Gallinago gallinago

ET/ER

G.g.gallinago (ET, ER). A common Palearctic migrant, on passage and overwintering inland in Ethiopia, and in smaller numbers in Eritrea, at freshwater and alkaline lakes, streams, rivers, ponds and marshes, up to 2880m. Its distribution is widely scattered across both countries, although it is absent from arid areas, and particularly from the Danakil and a large area of south-east Ethiopia. Extreme dates range from 11 Sep–10 May. Frequently large numbers are found round Rift Valley lakes and elsewhere, for example in three weeks in Oct at Abiata, where up to 30 snipe per day were seen in one small area of c.12ha; altogether 64 were netted, all of this species. Similar numbers could be seen there and elsewhere throughout the winter. Favoured sites: Lakes: Abiata (83b), Koka (70c), Hayk (41d). Tetrads: ET: 60 (-); ER: 6 (-).

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240. Black-tailed Godwit Limosa limosa

ET/ER

L.l.limosa (ET, ER). Fairly common Palearctic migrant overwintering and presumably on passage on the coast in Eritrea, and inland by alkaline and freshwater lakes, rivers and marshes, both there and in Ethiopia. It occurs from sea-level up to 2880m, and is usually found in pairs or singly, but also in flocks of up to 30 birds in Eritrea, and 200 in Ethiopia. In 70 counts there were 1–2 birds in 54% of them, 3–10 in 24%, 11–100 in 17%, and 101–200 in 5%. Most birds in Ethiopia are close to the line of the Rift Valley, with a few more scattered localities to the east and west. Extreme dates are 13 Aug–6 May, with single birds in summer on four days at the end of May, Jun and Jul. Favoured sites: Lake Adele (6ld), Akaki (69b), Bahadu (51d), Lake Arakit (82b, 83a). Tetrads: ET: 31 (-); ER: 8 (-).

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002 Ethiopia 193-384.indd 160

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SCOLOPACIDAE

241. Bar-tailed Godwit Limosa lappomica

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L.l.lapponica (ER). Fairly common Palearctic migrant overwintering and presumably on passage on the coast and islands of Eritrea. There are four unconfirmed reports from Ethiopia, and one confirmed on the Kenya side of the border in 117b (a record accepted by BoKT). Extreme dates range from the last week of Sep to 23 May; there are no summer records. Also there are no counts, except for Smith’s (1957) mention of flocks of up to 40 throughout the winter on coastal mudflats. Although only recorded from two main sites on the coast, they are likely to occur along much of it. Favoured sites: Massawa area (12a), Assab area (26d). Tetrads: ET: - (-) + 1 (-); ER: 11 (-).

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242. Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus

ET/ER

N.p.phaeopus (ET, ER). A Palearctic migrant on spring and autumn passage and overwintering in Ethiopia, it is a rare passage migrant with only four records in Rift Valley sites, and one elsewhere. Prior to 1970 1 Tefki 69b (P.M. Allen p.o.) 14 Apr 1970 1 Bahadu 51d (Ash p.o.) 7 Oct 1972 3 Abiata 83ab (Ash p.o.) 8 Oct 1972 1 Abiata 83ab (Ash p.o.) 7 Sep 1974 2 Langano 83b (Ash p.o.) In Eritrea it is a common winter visitor and presumed passage migrant, widespread along the shore with up to 20 in a given locality from late Sep to mid-May, with a few oversummering. Thus extreme dates range from 7 Sep to mid-May. Favoured sites: Massawa (12a), Assab (26d). Tetrads: ET: 4 (-); ER: 13 (-).

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243. Slender-billed Curlew Numenius tenuirostris

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One old record from Eritrea, although the actual year may be one or two earlier than shown, at a time when the species was apparently a normal visitor to the southern Red Sea area (vide Gretton 1991). Aug 1858 present Massawa 12a (Heuglin 1859) Tetrads: ER: 1 (-).

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11/1/09 11:58:47

162 SCOLOPACIDAE 35°

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244. Eurasian Curlew Numenius arquata

ET/ER

Other name: Curlew N.a.orientalis (ET, ER); N.a.arquata (ER). In Ethiopia a rather uncommon Palearctic winter visitor and spring and autumn passage migrant in small numbers of 1–4 (55% were single). Only known from 28 records from eight sites in central areas, from 1 Aug–20 May, and once in summer on 16 Jul, with no indication of a peak. With one exception they are found by the larger lakes, mainly Abiata (83b) in the Rift Valley, and at altitudes up to 1820m. All except two records have been in and since 1970. In Eritrea, it is common on coastal mudflats and grassy plains, and once inland along the Tacazze river in Apr. Both races are known from both countries, but there is no exact information on their respective distributions. Favoured sites: Abiata (83b), Massawa (12a). Tetrads: ET: 9 (-) + 1 (-); ER: 13 (-).

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245. Spotted Redshank Tringa erythropus

ET/ER

A locally common Palearctic migrant overwintering and presumably on passage at alkaline and freshwater lakes, and at streams and marshes in both Ethiopia and Eritrea. Found from sea-level to 2880m. Distribution extends from 16°N south through both countries to 4°N, where records are rather scattered; it is mainly in the Rift Valley and absent from the more arid areas. It is usually seen singly or as two together in 42 out of 48 counts (88%), 3–9 birds four times (8%) and 20 and 117 once each (4%), the latter at Lake Arakit (82b) at 2880m, and extreme dates are 26 Sep–16 May; an oversummering bird in Jul. Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Abiata (83b). Tetrads: ET: 32 (-) + 1 (-); ER: 8 (-).

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246. Common Redshank Tringa totanus

ET/ER

Other name: Redshank T.t.totanus (ET, ER); T.t.ussuriensis (ET,ER); T.t.eurhinus (ER). In both Ethiopia and Eritrea, common, and more so on the coast, at freshwater and alkaline lakes, and by streams and in marshes. The first two races are known in both countries, and eurhinus from a single record in Dec in Eritrea (Smith 1957). Collected birds in the past have been variously identified as nominate totanus or eurhinus, but it seems more likely that most were ussuriensis. A few oversummer in Eritrea (Smith 1957). They are found from sea-level to 2880m, south through Eritrea and Ethiopia to 7°30´N, and mainly through central areas. Once on the Kenya side of 118c at 4°N. In 48 counts in Ethiopia there were single birds in 35 (73%), and 2–12 in 13 (27%). Extreme dates in Ethiopia are 24 Aug–15 May. Larger counts on the Eritrean coast in Dec have reached 50 in one area at Assab, and 60 at Massawa. Favoured sites: Abiata and Langano (83b), Koka (70c), Massawa (12a), Assab (26d). Tetrads: ET: 26 (-) + 1 (-); ER: 16 (-).

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SCOLOPACIDAE

247. Marsh Sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis

ET/ER

Common Palearctic migrant overwintering and on passage in both Ethiopia and Eritrea. It is found on coastal mudflats and by freshwater and alkaline lakes, ponds, marshes, streams and rivers. It occurs from sea-level to 2880m; in 95 counts, birds occur singly or as two in 52%, 3–10 in 34%, 20–50 in 13%, and flocks of 75 and 150 once each. Extreme dates are 29 Aug–27 May, but a few oversummer in Jun–Aug, including the largest flock recorded: 150 at Lake Abiata (83b) on 16 Jul 1972. They are widely distributed below 16°N, with the main concentration of records down the Rift Valley, and an expected absence of records in arid areas. Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Abiata (83b). Tetrads: ET: 58 (-) + 3 (-); ER: 8 (-).

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248. Common Greenshank Tringa nebularia

ET/ER

Other name: Greenshank A common Palearctic migrant overwintering and on passage in both Ethiopia and Eritrea. In almost identical habitat as the last species, on coastal mudflats and by freshwater and alkaline lakes, ponds, marshes, streams and rivers, hot springs and desert rain pools. It occurs from sea-level to 2880m; in 118 counts, birds occurred singly or as two together in 74%, 3–10 in 22%, 11–26 in 3%, and two flocks of 37 and 75±2 on 10 Apr 1976 at Langano (83b). Extreme dates are 12 Aug–24 May, but many oversummer in Jun–Jul. They are widely distributed in both countries, although there are fewer in both arid and more wooded areas, and as with the last species the main concentration is along the Rift Valley. There are records on the Kenyan side of five Ethiopian squares. Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Abiata (83b). Tetrads: ET: 82 (-) + 5 (-); ER: 23 (-).

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249. Green Sandpiper Tringa ochropus

ET/ER

Common Palearctic migrant overwintering and on passage at almost any inland wetland site in both Ethiopia and Eritrea, and occasionally at tidal inlets on the coast in Eritrea, and on the Dahlaks, from sea-level to 2730m. Extreme dates are 18 Jul–21 Apr in Ethiopia, and 25 Jul–22 Apr in Eritrea. They are usually solitary, and it is unusual to see more than three together: in 116 counts 68% were single, 21% in pairs, and 11% from 3–10 birds, and they are widely distributed in both countries, although there are fewer in more arid areas. Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Bulcha (97c), Sululta (58d). Tetrads: ET: 136 (-) + 2 (-); ER: 18 (-).

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250. Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola

ET/ER

A common Palearctic migrant overwintering and on passage in both Ethiopia and Eritrea. Only occasionally on the coast, but elsewhere at freshwater and alkaline lakes, pools, marshes, streams and rivers. It is found from sea-level to 4090m at Tullu Deemtu (98b); extreme dates are 2 Aug–16 May, but flocks appearing from 12 Jul and on through the month may be early returning migrants rather than oversummering birds. It is widely distributed through both countries, although absent from arid areas in the east and wooded areas in the west. In 122 counts single birds and two together were seen in 40%, 3–10 birds in 34%, 11–50 in 23%, and 100–200 in 3%. They eat alate termites which are dipped in water before swallowing. Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Abiata (83b). Tetrads: ET: 109 (-) + 3 (-); ER: 15 (-).

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251. Terek Sandpiper Xenus cinereus

ET/ER

A Palearctic migrant overwintering and on spring and autumn passage. Seasonally fairly common in Ethiopia, and very common to locally abundant on the coast in Eritrea, where rare inland. Inland birds in Ethiopia are usually on the shores of freshwater and alkaline lakes, and regularly occur up to 1530m. Extreme dates in Ethiopia are 22 Aug–27 May, and in Eritrea are almost the same at 22 Aug–22 May. In Eritrea records are grouped in the Massawa (12a) and Assab (26d) areas, and in Ethiopia are all, with two exceptions, in the Rift Valley. Usually seen singly in Ethiopia; in 27 counts single birds were seen on 74% of them, 2–6 birds on 22%, and a flock of 17 once. In Eritrea, flocks of up to 50 are normal, and once 100 together were seen. On one occasion one was seen taken by a Dark Chanting Goshawk. Diurnal migration has been observed in spring in the Rift Valley, and a bird ringed in South Africa 25 Feb 1973 was retrapped at Koka on 21 Apr 1976 (see Bird Ringing chapter for details). Favoured sites: see text above. Tetrads: ET: 11 (-); ER: 10 (-).

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252. Common Sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos

ET/ER

A very common Palearctic migrant overwintering and on passage on the coast and almost any inland wetland area, including temporary desert rain pools, in Ethiopia and Eritrea. Some birds oversummer. They are widely distributed through both countries, except in more arid areas, are found from sea-level to 2880m, and are usually seen singly; in 195 counts single birds were seen on 106 (54%), 2–10 on 75 (38%), and 15–60 on 14 (7%). Flocks of 15 or more are surprisingly common: numbering 15 (three times), 17 and 18, 20 (three times), 25 and 29, 30 (twice), 42 and 60, and are distributed throughout the year. From a flock of 60+ on 22 Apr four netted in the evening were very heavy, while the others took off and flew about high overhead at sunset. Extreme dates in Ethiopia are 2 Aug–16 May, but there are at least 19 records of oversummering, 11 Jun–27 Jul. Favoured sites: almost any wetland area. Tetrads: ET: 165 (-); ER: 27 (-).

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SCOLOPACIDAE

253. Ruddy Turnstone Arenaria interpres

ET/ER

Other name: Turnstone A.i.interpres (ET, ER). Common Palearctic migrant overwintering and on passage, mainly on coast, but twice at inland lakes in Eritrea. In Ethiopia, rather uncommon, with 15 records at inland freshwater and alkaline lakes, and floodwater, at up to 2050m. Although the records are concentrated in the Massawa (12a) and Assab (26d) areas, the species probably occurs along the whole coastline. It is confined in Ethiopia to a small area in the centre of the country in, or close to, the Rift Valley, with records consisting of 11 single birds, two parties of four, and once a flock of 19 which flew off due north at Koka on 1 May 1974 (all Ash p.o.). Extreme dates in Ethiopia are 6 Sep–7 Nov and 1–6 May. The only counts in Eritrea are 200 at Assab (26d) in Dec 1971, and 40 at Massawa in Dec 1972 (Ash p.o.). Favoured sites: Assab (26d), Koka (70c), Abiata (83b). Tetrads: ET: 6 (-); ER: 16 (-).

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254. Sanderling Calidris alba

ET/ER

C.a.alba (ET, ER). A common overwintering Palearctic visitor and presumed passage migrant in coastal Eritrea, where mostly found on sandy beaches. There are no data on arrival or departure dates, but birds are common until mid-May, with numbers up to 30/ day at Massawa, and 200+/day at Assab (Ash p.o.); a few oversummer. They probably extend along the whole coast and islands, and the largest numbers are seen in Dec. In Ethiopia it is a rare autumn passage migrant seen six times (two old, of which details of one in 69b are lost, and four recent records). There is also a record in 118c on the Kenya side of the border: 27 Aug 1966 1 Lake Abiata 83b (Cheke 1967) 27 Sep 1970 1 Lake Abiata 83b (Ash p.o.) 10&11 Oct 1970 2+1 Lake Abiata 83b (Ash p.o.) 23 Sep 1973 1 Tefki 69a (Ash p.o.) Winter 1993/4 1 Shire 16c (Lohding p.o.) Favoured sites: Massawa (12a), Assab (26d), Abiata (83b). Tetrads: ET: 4 (-) + 1 (-); ER: 9 (-).

255. Little Stint Calidris minuta

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ET/ER

Very common, locally abundant, Palearctic migrant in both Ethiopia and Eritrea, overwintering and on spring and autumn passage, and some oversummer. It is found in a wide range of habitats on the coast, and at wetland sites inland, both alkaline and freshwater. Most birds are seen along the shores of the larger lakes, but also by streams, rivers, marshes, and temporary rain pools in deserts, from sea-level to 2880m, and are widely distributed through both countries, except in arid areas. Numbers at any one locality are extremely variable: in 122 counts, there were 1–40 birds in 57% of them, 41–100 in 29%, and 101–1000 in 14%. The largest numbers are inland and were in excess of 1000 at Lake Basaaka in Feb. However, Dodman & Taylor (1996) give vastly greater figures for Lake Abiata in the African Waterfowl Census, with totals of over 36,000 and 32,000 in 1995 and 1996. Extreme dates are difficult to assess, because numbers up to 100 occur in Jun, but the large numbers are present from the end of Aug to end of May. Favoured sites: Lakes Basaaka (70b), Koka (70c), Abiata (83b), Akaki (69b). Tetrads: ET: 80 (-); ER: 20 (-).

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256. Temminck’s Stint Calidris temminckii

ET/ER

A locally common Palearctic migrant on spring and autumn passage in Ethiopia and Eritrea, and overwintering visitor to Ethiopia. It is absent from the coast, and entirely found inland, mostly on muddy areas by streams and freshwater and alkaline lakes up to 2400m. Extreme dates in Eritrea are 7 Sep–20 Oct and undated in Apr–20 May (once in early Nov); and in Ethiopia, 27 Sep–29 Apr. In much smaller numbers than the previous species; in 71 counts single birds were found in 48%, 2–10 birds in 46%, and 14–20 birds in 6%. Most records are scattered down the Rift Valley and to the north and west of it, with only a few sites to the east of it. Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Langano and Abiata (83b). Tetrads: ET: 44 (-) +1 (-); ER: 4 (-).

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257. Long-toed Stint Calidris subminuta

ET/ -

A vagrant Palearctic winter visitor with one old and two recent records in Ethiopia: 6 Jan 1964 1F Lake Abiata 83b (Broberg 1967) 4 Feb 1996 3 Lake Abiata 83b (Sørensen et al. 1996) 19 Feb 1997 1 near Yavello 120a (Schollaert p.o.) With other nearby records in Kenya (9) further ones may be expected in Ethiopia. Tetrads: ET: 2 (-).

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258. Pectoral Sandpiper Calidris melanotos

ET/ -

Other name: American Pectoral Sandpiper A vagrant Nearctic, or possibly Eastern Palearctic visitor, with one record in Ethiopia: 18 Mar 1971 1 Koka 70c (Ash 1973a) There have also been one or two other unconfirmed records. Tetrads: ET: 1 (-).

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SCOLOPACIDAE

259. Curlew Sandpiper Calidris ferruginea

ET/ER

In Ethiopia common and in Eritrea an abundant Palearctic migrant on spring and autumn passage, and as a winter visitor; some oversummer. On the coast and islands, and at freshwater and alkaline lakes inland; sometimes on grassland near water. Relatively few inland in Eritrea, but inland in Ethiopia they are mostly found in association with the Rift Valley, and other records are widely and thinly scattered to the east and west up to an altitude of 2880m. Extreme dates in Eritrea are 1 Aug–18 May (but some oversummer); in Ethiopia they range from 7 Aug–24 May, but flocks of up to 68 occur in Jun and Jul. A dyed bird ringed in South Africa during Jan–Apr 1976 was at Abiata (83b) on 14 Jun 1976 (Ash 1977c). The largest numbers occur on the Eritrean coast, 100–300 at one site, and at Lake Abiata in Ethiopia (100–500 per site); in 83 counts there were 1–10 birds in 69%, 11–68 birds in 27%, and 100–500 in 4%. Favoured sites: Massawa (12a), Assab (26d), Abiata (83b). Tetrads: ET: 39 (-): ER: 15 (-).

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260. Dunlin Calidris alpina

ET/ER

Either C.a.alpina or centralis is possible. Rather uncommon Palearctic non-breeding visitor to Eritrea. Distinctly uncommon in Ethiopia, with a total of only 14 records traced, mostly within the Rift Valley. Usually seen singly, and once two and three together. It is more plentiful in coastal Eritrea, especially on mudflats, with up to 30 seen in a day at Assab (26d) and 15 at Massawa (12a), in Dec. Extreme dates are 24 Aug–6 Mar inland, although a few oversummer on the coast (Smith 1957). Favoured sites: Koka (70c; few), Assab (26d). Tetrads: ET: 6 (-); ER: 11 (-).

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261. Broad-billed Sandpiper Limicola falcinellus

ET/ER

L.f.falcinellus (ET, ER). An overwintering Palearctic visitor and possible passage migrant to both Ethiopia and Eritrea. Occurs on the seashore, lakesides and seepage areas round hot springs. There are two records from each country. In Eritrea they overwinter and probably also visit on passage: 12 May 1953 2F Massawa 12a (Smith 1955a) 25–29 Dec 1970 & 14 Assab 26d/34b (Ash 1978d) 1 Jan 1971 (total at four sites) In Ethiopia there have been two single autumn birds, and three others unconfirmed: 22 Oct–1 Nov 1974 1 ringed Koka 70c (Ash 1978d) 14–15 Sep 1975 1 adult Koka 70c (Ash 1978d) Further observations are likely to prove them to be not uncommon in Eritrea, as they are in Djibouti (Ash 1978d), Somalia (A&M), and Kenya (BoKT). Favoured sites: Assab (26d), Koka (70c). Tetrads: ET: 1 (-); ER: 3 (-).

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262. Ruff Philomachus pugnax

ET/ER

A common Palearctic migrant on spring and autumn passage in Eritrea, where it overwinters in small numbers. In Ethiopia it is very common to abundant, overwintering and presumably on passage, with small numbers oversummering. Preferred habitat is short-grass plains near lakes, lakesides, marshes and the seashore. It is found at all altitudes up to 2880m, and regularly flies south over the highlands in flocks on autumn migration at over 3000m. Abiata was and still is a concentration point for many thousands, which disperse in flocks to feed over a wide area. In the African Waterfowl Census at Lake Abiata, 3814 and 7815 were counted in 1994 and 1995, from which estimated totals of 30,528 and 35,819 were obtained (Syvertsen 1991–1996). Over 10,000 were seen at Langano in an evening flight in Sep 1970 (Ash p.o.), of which one ringed bird was recovered in eastern Siberia (see Bird Ringing chapter). However, between 24 May and 12 Aug there are only two records of 20 and 25 birds. Extreme dates in Ethiopia 12 Aug–24 May, and in Eritrea 1 Aug–18 May. Favoured sites: Abiata and Langano (83b), Akaki and Chelekleka (69b). Tetrads: ET: 67 (-); ER: 14 (-).

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263. Red-necked Phalarope Phalaropus lobatus

ET/ER

Other name: Northern Phalarope An uncommon Palearctic visitor to Ethiopia, and one record of a single bird inland in Eritrea: 18 Sep 1951 1 Sembel dam 11d (Smith 1957) The 17 Ethiopian records are dated from 12 Oct–25 Apr, the first being on 12 and 14 Oct 1968 when three were collected at Lake Basaaka in 70b (Hay 1969). There were then seven records in 1972, and one each in 1974 and 1990; four records were single birds, and there were parties of 4, 6 and 11 birds (Ash & Ashford 1977), of which one was at Lake Zwai and the others at Abiata, all in 83b; then there were a further six at Abiata in 1990 (Redman p.o.), and between that time and 2001 a further 10 records of 1–15 birds, and a further flock of 30 at Abiata on 22 Jan 1994 (Atkins & Syvertsen p.o.). It was suggested that the 1972 influx may have been related to the rare occurrence of a very intense tropical cyclone on the coast at Djibouti on 27 Oct 1972, in an area where large numbers overwinter. A bird at Bahadu (51d) was on a desert rain pool on 25 Apr 1972. Favoured site: Abiata (83b). Tetrads: ET: 6 (-); ER: 1 (-).

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264. Grey Phalarope Phalaropus fulicarius

ET/ -

Other name: Red Phalarope A vagrant Palearctic migrant with one well-documented record in Ethiopia: 14 Jan 1973 1 Debre Zeit 69b/70a (Earp p.o.) Tetrads: ET: 2 (-).

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GLAREOLIDAE

Family: GLAREOLIDAE coursers, pratincoles 265. Egyptian Plover Pluvianus aegyptius

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ET/ER

Locally common intra-tropical migrant in both Ethiopia, where it breeds, and in Eritrea where it presumably breeds. It is mainly found along the larger rivers, Tacazze, Baro, Abay (Blue Nile) and lower Omo, on sandy and shingly beaches and islets, and even sometimes on dirt roads near water. It is involved in considerable movements, possibly mainly along waterways, and has occurred at a number of sites distant from its breeding areas as far as 40°E. Two birds ringed at Gambela (65d) were recovered 588km and 840km to the west in Sudan (Ash 1981d). Usually seen singly or in pairs, small parties and sometimes flocks of 10–20 birds at up to 1150m. The apparent lack of birds in Jun–Aug may be due to a lack of observers during the big rains, or because their riverine sites are flooded and the birds move elsewhere, a view supported by the above recoveries of ringed birds. Breeding: 10 first-egg records were in Jan (1), Feb (5), Mar (2) and Apr–May (1 each). Favoured sites: Gambela (65d) and see above text. Tetrads: ET: 23 (2); ER: 4 (-).

266. Cream-coloured Courser Cursorius cursor

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ER/ER

C.c.cursor (ET, ER). A Palearctic winter visitor, for which there is only one old record of a collected bird in Ethiopia, but there are more in Eritrea. In Eritrea common below 300m on gravel, short-grass plains and salt-flats, on the coast, Dahlak Islands, and inland in light acacia bush up to 600m. It is usually in small parties of up to 25 birds. Extreme dates are 29 Sep to undated in Mar. Ethiopia: 4 Oct 1810 1 Arequa River 22d (H. Salt, Toschi 1959) There are also some uncertain records which were thought to have been this species, but owing to their close proximity to the breeding distribution of the recently established split recognising the Somali Courser as far north as Djibouti, we provisionally include those records under that species. Tetrads: ET: 1 (-); ER: 10 (-).

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267. Somali Courser Cursorius somalensis

ET/ER

C.s.littoralis (ET); C.s.somalensis (ET, ER). There is one recent record of presumed C. somalensis from Eritrea: 6 Mar 2008 1 near Adi Keyih (2400m) 17a (Anderson p.o.) This bird, presumably a vagrant, was at an unusually high altitude. A common Afrotropical resident below 1000m in eastern Ethiopia (mainly the Ogaden) east of 42°E, but extending from where it breeds in Djibouti (Laurent 1990) to the west at 41°E, and across the south just below the Wabe Shabeelle river. Below this line C.s.littoralis extends across the south to the Omo river. Reasons for treating somalensis as distinct from C.cursor are given in Pearson & Ash (1996). The lines of racial segregation on the map should perhaps be regarded as provisional for the present. The species inhabits dry grassy plains in flatter, more open areas, semi-desert and desert, throughout the year, singly, in pairs, small parties and sometimes in flocks of up to 25–30. It is involved in movements which are not understood, and may merely be local. Breeding: there are six records, a first-egg date of nominate somalensis in May (91d), and pairs of littoralis with juveniles near Yavello (120c) in Nov (Borrow 1995, 1997) and 20km north-west of Mega in Jun (Collar et al. p.o.). Favoured sites: Ogaden (63c, 89a, 115c, etc.); Lake Turkana (117b, 118a). Tetrads: ET: 51 (5) + 4 (1); ER 1 (-).

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somalensis

littoralis

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268. Temminck’s Courser Cursorius temminckii

ET/ER

A common resident in Ethiopia, scarce presumed resident in Eritrea, on open shortgrass plains, moorland, open thornbush and semi-desert. In Eritrea it occurs south of 16°N and east of 38°30´E, and is scattered through central Ethiopia east of 36°E, but is absent from the hotter and drier areas of Dancalia, Ogaden, etc., to the east of 40°30´E. It is found up to 2450m. Whereas elsewhere it may occur in flocks, in Ethiopia and Eritrea not more than six have been seen together, and usually only 1–2. In 22 counts, 17 consisted of 1–2 birds (77%), and 3–6 birds in 23%; they are seen throughout the year. Breeding: first-egg dates in nine records were during Feb–Jul, viz: Feb and Mar (1 each); Apr (2); May (4), Jul (1). Favoured sites: Abiata and Langano (83b), Jijiga (62d). Tetrads: ET: 45 (5); ER: 4 (-).

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hartingi

raffertyi

269. Double-banded Courser Rhinoptilus africanus ET/ Other name: Two-banded Courser R.a.hartingi (ET); R.a.raffertyi (ET). A rather uncommon Afrotropical species in Ethiopia with two races: hartingi is found through the Ogaden eastwards from about 41°30´E, while raffertyi is further to the west, although some confirmation is required; and all are to the east of 37°E. There are no records in Mar or Jun. It inhabits dry open flats and dry grasslands, usually below 1000m but exceptionally up to 1570m. In some areas it is sympatric with either Somali or Temminck’s Courser and sometimes with both, and is usually seen singly, in pairs, or occasionally three together. Breeding: there are two first-egg dates, one for raffertyi in Apr, and one for hartingi in Jun. Favoured sites: Jijiga area (62d, 63cd), Allideghe Plain (60c), widely in the Ogaden. Tetrads: ET: 48 (2).

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mayaudi

270. Heuglin’s Courser Rhinoptilus cinctus

ET/ -

Other name: Three-banded Courser R.c.cinctus (ET); R.c.mayaudi (ET). A common to locally very common Afrotropical resident below 1700m in Ethiopia. Its distribution is south of 11°30´N and mainly concentrated close to the Rift Valley and through the country, particularly the Ogaden, to the east of it. In 37 sightings there were single birds in 65% of them, two birds in 24%, and 3–4 in 11%. It is mainly nocturnal and is most often seen in car headlights at night on bush roads – presumably because they have all been killed on the faster roads. Breeding: seems to take place through much of the year, with first-egg dates in 18 nests (without locality data) in Jan (3), Feb (1), Mar (2), Apr (3), May–Aug (2 each), and Oct (1). Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Abiata (83b), etc. Tetrads: ET: 63 (2).

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GLAREOLIDAE

271. Bronze-winged Courser Rhinoptilus chalcopterus

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ET/ER

Other name: Violet-tipped Courser It is uncommon in Eritrea with five old records: 2 Aug 1868 1M near Waliko 11b (Jesse 1869) 26 Jul 1953 1M Mansura 11c (Smith 1955a) 1 Sep 1953 1 Ailet 12a (Smith 1955a) Undated 1 Wadi Sciotel 11a (Smith 1957) Undated 1 Ad Arei 11a (BMNH) A very rare Afrotropical visitor to Ethiopia with only two recent records, although there is also another in the south on the Kenya side of the border in 118c: 5 Dec 1994 2 Jemmu valley 49d (Robertson 1995a) 26 Mar 2001 1 near Kurmuk 45a (Herrmann p.o.) These five dated records taken together fall within the period Mar–Sep and one in Dec. Breeding: there are no records. Tetrads: ET: 2 (-) + 2 (-); ER: 4 (-).

272. Collared Pratincole Glareola pratincola

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ET/ER

Other name: Common Pratincole G.p.pratincola (ET, ER) but presumed G.p.fuelleborni in the south, including the breeding record. The only race identified in Ethiopia and Eritrea is pratincola, which includes limbata. It is locally very common on open ground near lakes, rivers and marshes in both countries. It is only recorded between 5 Aug and 18 Oct and in Apr–early May in Eritrea, but in all months in Ethiopia, occurring from sea-level to 1820m, and once at 2880m at Lake Arakit. Two caught in Apr and Dec were confirmed as limbata. It is closely distributed across central Eritrea ‘in very large flocks, all altitudes’ (Smith 1957). In Ethiopia observations are more dispersed and mostly down the Rift Valley, with a few to the west, and none to the east. Large flocks of 800 at the mouth of the Omo (118ac) in Mar and 300 at Koka (70c) in Apr are the only numbers above 150. Breeding: the only records were from one colony of 15–20 pairs, with first-egg dates in Apr (2) and May (4), on bare close-grazed grassland near a lake (83b). Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Langano (83b). Tetrads: ET: 23 (1); ER: 16 (-).

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273. Black-winged Pratincole Glareola nordmanni

ET/ -

A Palearctic migrant in Ethiopia, rare on autumn passage, 21 Sep–7 Oct, and apparently overwintering along the Baro river close to the Sudan border in Dec–Jan: 3 Jan 1970 500+ Pu’kwo 65c (Ash 1977a) 7 Oct 1972 3 Abiata 83ab (Ash p.o.) Dec 1972 many Itang 65c (Farrand p.o.) 12 Dec 1972 150 Itang 65c (Nikolaus p.o.) 29 Jan 1973 5000 Jikao 64d (Nikolaus p.o.) 21/22 Sep 1975 2 Koka 70c (Ash p.o.) 19 Oct 1975 1+ Koka 70c (Tyler p.o.) The Pu’kwo and Itang birds were apparently all Black-winged and no Collared could be seen; the two sites are only 25km apart. The bird in Oct 1975 was identified in a flock of 20 pratincoles, all of which may have been this species. Tetrads: ET: 5 (-).

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274. Madagascar Pratincole Glareola ocularis

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A single record in Ethiopia of an Afrotropical vagrant, possibly involving a bird overshooting on its migratory flight-line from Madagascar–Kenya coast–south-east Somalia (the latter two areas are known to be important for large numbers of this species), since the line, if continued, would pass through Dubte: 29 Oct 1973 1 Dubte 43a (Ash 1977a) Tetrads: ET: 1 (-).

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275. Rock Pratincole Glareola nuchalis

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Other name: White-collared Pratincole G.n.nuchalis (ET). A rare Afrotropical resident along rivers with boulders and rocky islets in Ethiopia below 1820m. There are only five records (three old and two recent): Undated ? Gonder 29a (Heuglin) 21 Mar 1899 1F Didessa river 56c (Ogilvie-Grant 1900) Undated ? Lake Tana (south) 39a (Schüz 1968b) 21 Feb 1974 4 pairs Didessa 56c (Ash p.o.) 13 Jun 1975 6 Didessa 56c (Ash p.o.) What is probably the only known regular site, where presumably they breed and where they were found again after an interval of 75 years, lies just south of the bridge over the Didessa river (56c). Breeding: the record of breeding in Jun–Aug cited for Ethiopia in U&B is apparently in Sudan. Favoured site: Didessa (56c). Tetrads: 3 (-).

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Family: LARIIDAE gulls, terns 276. White-eyed Gull Larus leucophthalmus

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A common to very common Afrotropical resident along probably the whole of the Red Sea coast of Eritrea, south of 18°N between Sudan and the Djibouti borders. Previously, prior to 1957, recorded as abundant by Smith (1957), suggesting that there has been a population decrease. It is present throughout the year, but there are few records on which seasonality or movements can be assessed. There are counts of 80 in Jun 1970 on Kundabilu Island, and 40 at Massawa in Dec 1972, which compare poorly with 2000 in Mar 1958 not far away within the region at Berbera in northern Somalia. Breeding: apparently only on the islands; of nine records available, first-egg dates were in Jun (5), Jul (3), and Sep (1). 5900 pairs present on 49 Eritrean coastal islands including 300 pairs on Abeilat Island; breeding Jun–Aug (Semere et al. 2008). Favoured site: Abeilat Island (25b), Massawa (12a). Tetrads: ER: 18 (11).

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LARIIDAE

277. Sooty Gull Larus hemprichii

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Other name: Hemprich’s Gull Very common resident, presumably along the whole of the Eritrean Red Sea coast and the islands, but there is no mapping data from north of 16°30´N, although it extends north along the Sudan coast. Interestingly, this species was regarded by Smith (1957) as being only ‘fairly common’ prior to that date. It is present throughout the year, but there is little or no information on seasonal numbers or movements, except that on three days at the end of Dec 1972 at least 500 were present at Massawa. Breeding: Smith (1957) states that there are eggs in Jun and Jul; other sources include nine firstegg dates in Jun (2), Jul (3), Aug and Sep (2 each). 1067 pairs present on 67 Eritrean coastal islands; breeding Jun–Aug (Semere et al. 2008). Favoured sites: Assab (26d), Massawa (12a). Tetrads: ER: 21 (13).

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278. Lesser Black-backed Gull Larus fuscus

ET/ER

L.f.fuscus (ET, ER). In both Ethiopia and Eritrea a locally very common Palearctic winter visitor and presumed passage migrant, with a few oversummering. Found widely on the coast, and inland on alkaline and freshwater lakes. It is mainly on the Rift Valley lakes in Ethiopia, with smaller numbers in a few localities further west. In 38 counts 1–5 birds were found in 58%, 10–50 in 32%, and 71–100 in 10%. Many overwinter at around 1575m (Abiata), and with one as high as 2880m (Lake Arakit). Generally they only oversummer in ones and twos, through Jun and Jul, but there were up to 10 on 27 Jun and 25 on 28 Jun on Lake Abiata in different years; none has been seen in Aug either inland or on the coast. Ringing recoveries indicate Scandinavia as the place of origin for some birds in both our countries. There are two further records on the Kenya side of the border in 117d and 118c. Favoured sites; Massawa (12a), Lakes Abiata and Zwai (83b). Tetrads: ET: 15 (-) + 2 (-); ER: 13 (-).

279. Heuglin’s Gull Larus heuglini

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ET/ER

Until systematic stability is established within the Herring Gull complex and vis-à-vis the Lesser Black-backed Gull, we include here all records of birds named as Heuglin’s or Herring Gulls. Both collected and observed birds have been variously identified as the forms argentatus, heuglini, armenicus, cachinnans and taimyrensis in Ethiopia and Eritrea, and barabensis could occur. The possibility of other related taxa is not ruled out, but the taxonomic situation regarding the ‘herring’ gulls is still not entirely clear. Smith (1957) referred to small numbers in coastal Eritrea, U&B (1971) regarded it as uncommon, Ash (p.o.) found it very common at Assab in 1970, 1971 and 1973, and Vaughan (p.o.) found 100 (heuglini/taimyrensis) daily in Dec 1994–Jan 1995 at Massawa. The first inland was recorded at Lake Tana (Schüz 1968b), followed by up to four at Abiata on 20–23 Jan 1972 (Ash p.o.). There was one on the Baro river on 14 Oct 1972, and another undated in 1975/1976 (Nikolaus p.o.). Since then there have been only small numbers recorded frequently at Lakes Turkana (118a) (Lewis & Pomeroy 1989), Tana (39a) and Zwai, Abiata and Langano (all 83b). Extreme overwintering dates range from 14 Oct to 1 Apr, with one heuglini at Assab (26d) on 27 Jun (Atkins p.o.). Photographs of the 1997 birds at Zwai confirmed them as heuglini (W.R.P. Bourne pers. comm.), although one at Tana in Nov 1997 was thought to be taimyrensis (Borrow p.o.). So far all inland birds have been in Nov–Jan. Favoured sites: coastal Eritrea; Lakes Abiata and Zwai (83b). Tetrads: ET: 5 (-); ER: 12 (-). Note: Following the publication of recent DNA work in a report by the British Ornithologists’ Union Taxonomic Sub-committee in Ibis (Jul 2007), all the following should now be included under Larus fuscus: heuglini, taimyrensis and barabensis. Two other gulls, Caspian L. cachinnans and Armenian L. armenicus, might also occur in Eritrea.

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280. Great Black-headed Gull Larus ichthyaetus

ET/ER

A rare Palearctic winter visitor to Eritrea with three old coastal records during 1904– 1951 (Smith 1957), followed by 1–6 birds on five dates in Dec–Feb during 1994–1998 (Vaughan p.o., Baccetti & de Faveri p.o.). It is a locally common inland visitor to freshwater and alkaline lakes in Ethiopia with over 50 records since 1973, following a possible one in 1972. It has now been established as a regular winter visitor, with numbers in excess of 100 at one site. This was apparently a habit which commenced in the early 1970s, and was well established when first found in the winter of 1972/73 (Ash & Ashford 1977). The first records were at Lake Abiata (83b), and this has remained a regular wintering area and formed a concentration point from which the birds gradually extended into other areas. Extreme dates have been (undated in Oct) 11 Nov–6 Apr, with most in Jan–Mar. In 69 counts, 25 were of single birds (36%), 2–4 birds (26%), 5–20 birds (24%), 21–50 birds (6%), and the remainder (8%) in flocks of 71, 83, 96, 110 and 111 birds. Following the first in 1972/3, they occurred at Langano (83b), Chamo (108b) and Turkana (118ac) in 1974/5; Lake Chamo (108b) and the river Omo mouth (118ac) in 1975, and Lake Tana (39a) in 1976; Awassa (83c) in 1988/9; and Lakes Zwai (83b), Koka (70c), Hayk and Ardibo (41d) in 1996/7, etc. Favoured sites: Abiata (83b), Langano (83b), Tana (39a). Tetrads: ET: 11 (-); ER: 3 (-).

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281. Grey-headed Gull Larus cirrocephalus

ET/ -

Other name: Grey-hooded Gull L.c.poiocephalus (ET). Common on freshwater and alkaline lakes, and rivers in Ethiopia south of 12°N. Except for a very few records to the east and west its distribution is along or adjacent to the length of the Rift Valley, at altitudes between 370m (Lake Turkana) and 1830m (Tana). It is apparently not present throughout the year as there are no records between 24 May and 19 Sep, and the only breeding sites known were in the far south-west. Possibly most of those in Ethiopia are non-breeding visitors from further south in the Afrotropics. In 33 counts, numbers seen ranged from 1–50 birds in 24 counts (73%), and 100–300 in nine others (27%). The large numbers were all on Lake Abiata, except for 100 once on adjoining Lake Shalla. Birds frequently visit Koka at just above 8°N, but only in small numbers of 1–4. A bird ringed at Lake Abiata on 21 May 1973 was caught alive and released at Lake Zwai on 10 Jan 1994, when it was in at least its 23rd year. Breeding: only known from pre-1970 reports at Lakes Turkana and Chew Bahir, where first-egg dates were in Jun–Aug. Favoured sites: Abiata and Langano (83b). Tetrads: ET: 21 (2).

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282. Black-headed Gull Larus ridibundus

ET/ER

Other name: Common Black-headed Gull In Ethiopia common and in Eritrea very common Palearctic winter visitor and presumed passage migrant; some also oversummer. It is found along most and probably all of the coastline south of 16°N, with numbers at Massawa (12a) up to 500, and 50 at Assab (26d) in Dec; very few inland. It continues southward into Ethiopia, mostly down the Rift Valley, with some on rivers such as the Baro in the far west, and others at lakes such as Tana (39a) and Adele (61d). It occurs from sea-level in Eritrea to 2880m in Ethiopia, in all months of the year, but in low numbers (1–10 per site per day) in Jun and Jul, and mostly at Lake Abiata, where the largest number present inland was 300 on 6 May. In 72 counts there were 1–10 birds in 86%, 20–100 birds in 11%, and 120 and 300 in two flocks. Favoured sites: Abiata (83b), Massawa (12a). Tetrads: ET: 41 (-); ER: 18 (-).

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LARIIDAE

283. Slender-billed Gull Larus genei

ET/ER

Fairly common and regular in winter in coastal Eritrea, and four times inland in Ethiopia, where possibly overlooked. Previously regarded as scarce but regular between 11 Nov and 6 Mar at Archico (Hirghigo) (12a) and Zula (12d) (Smith 1957); one at Massawa (12a) on 27 Dec 1972 (Ash p.o.), and nowadays often until Apr, with peak numbers of 23 (twice) and 33 in Feb (Baccetti & de Faveri p.o.); also at Massawa where always up to eight per day in Dec 1993–Feb 1994 with Black-headed Gulls (Vaughan p.o.). The four records in Ethiopia consist of one old and three recent: 6 Mar 1969 1 Lake Basaaka 910m 70b (U&B) 11 Nov 1990 2 ads Lake Abiata 1565m 83b (Redman p.o.) 9 Oct 1995 3 Lake Tana 1824m 39a (Woodcock p.o.) Nov 2005 1 Lake Awassa 1550m 83c (Birdquest p.o.) There is also one other on the Kenya side of the border at Lake Turkana (118c). Tetrads: ET: 4 (-) + 1 (-); ER: 3 (-) + 1 (-).

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284. Gull-billed Tern Sterna nilotica

ET/ER

S.n.nilotica (ET, ER). A common Palearctic migrant in both Ethiopia and Eritrea, with a spring and autumn passage. Mainly coastal in Eritrea, with only a few at inland wetlands. Distribution in Ethiopia is mainly down the Rift Valley, with only a few to the west and east of it, at alkaline and freshwater lakes, rivers and marshes. Low-level migration over the desert in Dancalia was seen in spring and autumn (Ash p.o.). It is seldom found above 1590m (Koka), and those a bit higher at 1900–2100m at Debre Zeit, Akaki and Tefki (Dilu Meda) are very few in number. Extreme dates are: 29 Aug–25 May (although a number oversummer in Ethiopia in the period 12 Jun–2 Aug), viz: 1–4 at Koka, Langano and Basaaka in three years (1970, 1971, 1976), but at Abiata there were 2–4 twice and 10–15 three times in 1972, 1975, 1976. In 92 counts during the rest of the year, 1–2 birds were in 52% of them, 3–10 birds in 28%, 11–50 in 16%, 70–100 three times, and 500 once feeding on insects over grassland. Alkaline Lake Abiata is of prime importance for this species, having the six highest counts, as well as oversummering birds. Favoured sites: Lake Abiata (83b), Massawa (12a). Tetrads: ET: 42 (-); ER: 8 (-).

285. Caspian Tern Sterna caspia

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ET/ER

Present throughout the year in both Ethiopia and Eritrea, apparently consisting of Palearctic and Afrotropical migrants and Afrotropical breeding visitors. Main numbers are present 29 Aug–23 May; in 37 counts 1–2 birds were seen in 49%, 3–10 birds in 32% and 20–50 birds in 16%, with a flock of 72 on 12 Mar at Abiata (83b). Mainly coastal in Eritrea, but it occurs at alkaline and freshwater lakes and rivers in Ethiopia, where some oversummer, 14 Jun–3 Aug. Summer records consist of one at Langano (83b), and 1–3 birds on three days, and 10 birds on another, at Abiata (83b). Breeding: was recorded in Nov (U&B), and on three islands in the Dahlaks in Feb 1998 (Enteara, Entedebir-Baia and Dur Ghulla, all in 12b) (Baccetti & de Faveri p.o.). 103 breeding pairs present on 45 Eritrean coastal islands in winter (Semere et al. 2008). Favoured sites: Lake Abiata (83b), Assab (26d). Tetrads: ET: 12 (-); ER: 16 (4).

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286. Lesser Crested Tern Sterna bengalensis

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S.b.bengalensis (ER). Very common resident and intra-tropical migrant, present throughout the year on the coast and islands of Eritrea, but with numbers greatly reduced in Dec–Feb, although in the breeding season thousands are present among the islands. It is presumably also found along the whole coastline, as it breeds commonly to the north in Sudan and to the south in northern Somalia. Breeding: first-egg dates are in Jun, Jul and Aug; Clapham (1964) found thousands with newly hatched young on 23–30 Aug 1962 on Seil Wusta Island (7d). 63,000 pairs present on 32 Eritrean coastal islands including 8500 pairs on Seil Island in Anfile Bay (Semere et al. 2008). Favoured sites: Seil Island (18b), Seil Wusta Island (7d), Massawa and Dahlak Islands (12a). Tetrads: ER: 19 (15).

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287. Sandwich Tern Sterna sandvicensis

ET/ER

S.s.sandvicensis (ET, ER). In Eritrea: there are two acceptable and two other uncertain records: 13 Dec 1942 1 Massawa 12a (Smith 1953a) 4 Feb 1951 1 Massawa 12a (Smith 1953a) K.D. Smith, long resident in Eritrea, and a most alert observer, would not have overlooked this species if it had been common in the islands. In Ethiopia this is a rare Palearctic migrant with one record of a vagrant: 15 Apr 1993 1 Lake Zwai 83b (Syvertsen 1999) Tetrads: ET:1 (-); ER: 1 (-).

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288. Great Crested Tern Sterna bergii

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Other names: Swift Tern; Crested Tern S.b.velox (ER). Very common resident, present throughout the year on the coast and islands of Eritrea. Very few data on actual numbers, but some rather general statements exist regarding abundance. In the 1970s there were some brief reports including e.g. 500/day at Massawa in Dec, 20/day in Sep and 50/day in Dec Assab. Some postbreeding movement takes place, but it is not understood. Breeding: insufficient data are available for mapping breeding squares, except for two; first-egg data are known for Jun and Jul (2 each), and Sep (1) (U&B); breeding is reported from Lobo Island (13a) by Warthausen (1860). 2200 pairs present on 26 Eritrean coastal islands (Semere et al. 2008). Favoured sites: Massawa (12a). Tetrads: ER: 21 (15).

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LARIIDAE

289. Common Tern Sterna hirundo

ET/ER

S.h.hirundo (ET, ER); S.h.?tibetana. An unexpectedly uncommon Palearctic winter visitor and passage migrant in Eritrea, and at least seven inadequately substantiated records from Ethiopia: along the Baro river (58d etc.), Lake Zwai (83b), Bahadu (51d) and Gambela (65d) were most probably this species, but other rather similar terns were not entirely eliminated. There are six certain records: 14 Oct 1973 juv/1st-win Koka 70c (Ash p.o.) 10 Nov 1974 adult Boyo 83ac (Ash p.o.) 11 & 13 Nov 1997 1 Lake Zwai 83b (Farnsworth p.o.) 17 Mar 1998 1 Lake Zwai 83b (Farnsworth p.o.) 19 Mar 1998 4 Lake Zwai 83b (Farnsworth p.o.) Records in Eritrea are in or close to Massawa and the Dahlaks area in Oct, Dec–Mar and 17 May, usually as 1–2 birds, but also in small parties. Tetrads: ET: 4 (-); ER: 6 (-).

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290. White-cheeked Tern Sterna repressa

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Very common to abundant resident in coastal Eritrea, particularly in the Massawa, Dahlaks and Assab areas. Appears inshore in Apr, but soon after moves off to breed on the islands. Southward migration commences after breeding, although some are present throughout the winter. In general it spends much time feeding offshore out of sight of land, e.g. 30 at 33km north-east of Cape Guardafui in Somalia (P. Meeth in litt.), so it can be overlooked. However, presumably it comes in to rest on mainland beaches as it does in other parts of its range. It frequently accompanies whales when feeding. Breeding: there are six dates for eggs in Jun (1), Jul (3), Aug–Sep (1 each) for Dahlak (13a) and Fatmah (26d) Islands. 18,000 breeding pairs present on 69 Eritrean coastal islands in summer (Semere et al. 2008). Tetrads: ER: 16 (14).

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291. Little Tern Sterna albifrons

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S.a.albifrons (ER). This is apparently a scarce non-breeding visitor to Eritrea, with only one certain record, in the Dahlaks: 10 Apr 2007 2 Dur Gaam Island 12b (De Marchi pers. comm.) These birds were identified by De Marchi as Little Terns, and confirmed as such from the observer’s photographs by Ash and Pearson, both of whom have much experience with both Little and Saunders’s Terns. These birds have the characters of albifrons in adult breeding plumage. There have been many records of Little Terns in Eritrea, but these have been unsubstantiated and not differentiated from Saunders’s, the common species here, so have been unacceptable. The adults of the two species are inseparable in the field unless they are in full breeding plumage. There are only five records (four coastal) of Little in Kenya (BoKT), and most of those from Somalia and the numerous records of ‘Little’ Terns in the Ethiopian Rift Valley are also unsubstantiated. It is possible that Little Terns are overlooked in our area, because unless seen as adults in full breeding plumage they are inseparable in the field from Saunders’s Terns. Tetrads: ER: 1 (-).

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292. Saunders’s Tern Sterna saundersi

ET/ER

Included here are most of the terns identified in this area as Little, Saunders’s or Little/ Saunders’s, in Ethiopia and Eritrea. The records fall into three groups and the relation between them, if any, is unknown. Coastal birds in the north in Eritrea are fairly common and were all identified (confirmed by specimens) by Smith (1957) as Saunders’s Tern. They have been recorded in Jan, Feb, Jun, Jul and Dec, but no evidence for breeding has been obtained in Jun–Jul when birds were present on various islands. A further population is known as a non-breeding visitor to Kenya at Lake Turkana, where a flock of 750+, presumed to be this species rather than Little, was seen on its Ethiopian shore in the north on 18 Mar 1975 (Ash p.o.). Only one bird from this locality has ever been certainly identified, an adult saundersi collected in Kenya in Oct. Between these two localities in Kenya and Eritrea there are 12 records of ‘Little Terns’ from the Ethiopian Rift Valley lakes during 1976–1998, 54 birds in seven records during 16 Feb–30 May, and 11 birds in five records during 21 Oct–29 Nov. The suggestion is made here that the Turkana birds are S. saundersi, which arrive (and return) on a direct flight from the Red Sea down the Rift Valley, in which small numbers of birds fall out for brief visits to lakes en route. Breeding: in early Jul 2004 three nests with eggs of presumed Saunders’s Terns (but identification was uncertain) were found at Lake Turkana (Fasola p.o.). Fishermen report breeding on Fatmah Island (26d, 34b), where juveniles seen in Jul 2005; apparent breeding behaviour reported from Norah Island (7d, 8c) (Semere et al. 2008). Favoured sites: Massawa (12a), Lake Turkana (118ac), Langano (83b). Tetrads: ET: 4 (-); ER: 12 (-).

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293. Bridled Tern Sterna anaethetus

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S.a.antarctica (ER). Abundant summer visitor breeding in the Dahlaks and other offshore islands in Eritrea; as an intra-tropical migrant it is present from mid-Apr to at least Sep, and absent in winter. The only figure for numbers is a flock of 2000 off Massawa on 21 Aug 1962 (Clapham 1964). Breeding: there are 11 dates for colonies with eggs, viz: Apr (1), May (2), Jun and Jul (3 each), Aug (2). Clapham (p.o.) found that breeding had finished on Seil Adasi Island (7d) on 2 Sep 1962. 30,000 pairs present on 66 Eritrean coastal islands including 5000 breeding pairs on Gurna Island (34b); breeding May-Aug (Semere et al. 2008). Tetrads: ER: 16 (13).

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294. Sooty Tern Sterna fuscata

ET/ER

S.f.nubilosa (ET, ER). There are single records from both countries of a species not referred to in either U&B or Smith (1957). The juvenile in Ethiopia was found dead on an acacia tree in Awash NP and photographed. Eritrea: 4 Jul 1994 1+ Assab 26d (Richardson p.o.) Ethiopia: Nov 1999 juv Awash NP 71a (Pohlstrand p.o.) Tetrads: ET: 1 (-); ER: 1 (-).

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LARIIDAE

295. Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hybrida

ET/ -

C.h.?hybrida; C.h.?delalandei (ET). A locally common Palearctic migrant, overwintering and presumably a passage migrant in Ethiopia. There is no evidence for the presence of Afrotropical birds C.h.delalandei, although a bird in 117b may have been. Extreme dates are 10 Oct–19 May, and it is present throughout this period. There are no oversummering records, and it is found at freshwater and alkaline lakes, and along rivers, at 500–2880m. Its distribution is south of 12°30´N and is mainly associated with the Rift Valley; it has been recorded only once to the east of this line and with only a few others to the west towards its overwintering area in Sudan (Nikolaus 1987). In 32 counts single birds were most often seen (53%), 2–10 birds (34%), and 30–50 (13%). Favoured sites: Abiata (83b), Koka (70c). Tetrads: ET: 19 (-).

296. White-winged Black Tern Chlidonias leucopterus

ET/ER

Other name: White-winged Tern A very common Palearctic summer and winter visitor, and spring and autumn passage migrant; some may oversummer. In Ethiopia mainly on large freshwater and alkaline lakes, but also rivers and marshes, and in Eritrea on the coast when on passage. It is found from sea-level to 2880m at Lake Arakit, and in all months of the year. The main line of distribution is through the Rift Valley, with most of the other sites lying to the west, and to the north through Eritrea. In 127 counts, there were single birds in 20%, 2–60 birds in 52%, 100–500 in 19%, 800–5000 in 8%, and 8000 together once. It is a highly gregarious species, which indulges in spectacular mass aerobatics, involving thousands of birds, which may rise to such a height as to be only just visible to the naked eye; at other times similar large flocks indulge in mass feeding or bathing activity. Birds at Awassa (83c) have a propensity for sitting on overhead wires. They migrate in low-flying flocks over open desert in Dancalia in both spring and autumn. There is some indication of a decrease in numbers in recent years. Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Basaaka (70b), Lakes Langano and Abiata (83b). Tetrads: ET: 59 (-); ER: 12 (-).

297. Black Tern Chlidonias niger

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C.n.niger (ET). A rare Palearctic migrant apparently only very occasionally reaching as far east in Africa as Ethiopia/Eritrea. In a total of 14 years residence the authors only saw a single bird (see below). However, the situation is difficult to assess: U&B states it is found commonly on the Red Sea coast and islands, and uncommonly on rivers and freshwater and alkaline lakes. There are three published records in Eritrea, although Smith (1957) excluded them without comment: 13 Jun 1868 ? Zula 12d (Antinori & Salvadori 1873) 10 Sep 1871 1F Torrente Dari 11a (Antinori & Salvadori 1873) 22 Sep 1906 ? Ruba, Saganeiti 17a (Salvadori 1907) The situation in Ethiopia is complicated by the number of unsubstantiated reports of individuals, parties and flocks lacking supporting evidence, and the general unawareness of the scarcity of the species in the region. There are only five acceptable records: 19 Apr 1931 1 Lake Tana 39a (Cheesman & Sclater 1935–36) 8 May 1971 1 Bahadu 51d (Ash p.o.) 1 Dec 1993 5 Lake Awassa 83c (Vaughan & Wolstencroft p.o.) 29 Jan 1994 1 Lake Zwai 83b (Madge p.o.) Nov 1997 2 Lake Zwai 83b (Borrow p.o.) The first was shot from a group of a few, and the bird at Bahadu in breeding plumage was flying steadily north along the Awash river in the Danakil desert. Its rarity here is borne out by the few records in neighbouring countries: Kenya (3), Somalia (1), Sudan (0), Djibouti (‘small numbers’). In a recent re-examination of skins claimed to be of this species in Sudan all proved to be White-winged Black Terns (Nikolaus pers. comm.). Tetrads: ET: 4 (-); ER: 3 (-).

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298. Brown Noddy Anous stolidus

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Other name: Common Noddy A.s.pileatus (ER). Apparently common, sometimes many, as a summer visitor along the coast of Eritrea south of 17°N, but it is mostly well offshore and not seen from the mainland. Until the recent survey of offshore islands the only dated records were as follows: 19 Jun 194– 100s 5 miles off Beilul 26 (Smith 1951c) 6 Nov 1971 1 dead Madote Island 12b (Holloway p.o.) Breeding: 11,000 pairs in summer on 6 Eritrean coastal islands (Semere et al. 2008). It also breeds nearby off the north Somalia coast (A&M). Favoured sites: square 12b off Massawa. Tetrads: ER: 8 (3).

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Family: RYNCHOPIDAE skimmers 299. African Skimmer Rynchops flavirostris

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ET/ER

An Afrotropical non-breeding (?) visitor to the Red Sea coast and islands, rivers and alkaline and freshwater lakes. It is generally uncommon but locally abundant in Ethiopia, with at least 12 records from the Baro and Omo rivers and Rift Valley lakes (Boyo and Abiata) in every month Oct–Jun. In the seven counts recorded, five were of 1–3 birds, one of 40 at Berhanu Salem on the Baro river on 19 Mar 1976 (65c) and another of 1000+ in a compact flock at the mouth of the Omo on 18 Mar 1975 (118ac) (Ash p.o.). It breeds as near as the White Nile in Sudan and Lake Turkana in Kenya, which are the possible origin of our birds. It is rare in Eritrea, with only four records: Undated ? Dahlak Island 13a (M&R 1944) Jan–Mar 1952 1 Archico Bay 12d (Smith 1957) Undated ? ? 12c (Smith in litt.) 26 Dec 1970 3 Assab 26d (Ash p.o.) Breeding: reported in May and Jun without details (M&R). Favoured sites: Baro river (64d,65d), Omo mouth (118ac). Tetrads: ET: 10 (-); ER: 4 (-).

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Family: STERCORARIIDAE skuas or jaegers 300. Pomarine Skua Stercorarius pomarinus

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Other name: Pomarine Jaeger Extremely rare Palearctic migrant with one spring sight record only, in Eritrea: 5 Mar 1952 1 Dahlak Island 12b (Smith 1953a, 1957) This record was not included in the main list of the Eritrean checklist by the ultracautious author (Smith 1957), but was subsequently accepted by him after he had had more experience with the species (Smith in litt.). Tetrads: ER: 1 (-).

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PTEROCLIDIDAE

301. Arctic Skua Stercorarius parasiticus

ET/ER

Other name: Parasitic Jaeger A rare Palearctic migrant with two coastal records in Eritrea and two inland ones in Ethiopia: Eritrea: 14 Mar 1953 several Thio 18b (Smith 1953a, 1957) 27 Dec 1972 2 pale ads Massawa 12a (Ash p.o.) Ethiopia: Jul 1959 ad F Lake Awassa 83c (University Museum, Addis Ababa) 13 Nov 1966 ad F Langano 83b (Clapham p.o.) The first bird, examined and identified as an adult pale female by Ash in Jan 1983, had been shot at Awassa; the Langano bird, also a pale adult, had been found injured, and is presumably the specimen referred to in U&B as being from Abiata. A passage off the Somalia coast has been established recently for this species (A&M). Tetrads: ET: 2 (-); ER: 2 (-).

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P.e.exustus (ER); P.e.ellioti (ET, ER); P.e.olivascens (ET). Common to abundant resident in Ethiopia and Eritrea, in dry open country, open thornbush, desert and semi-desert, at sea-level up to 1530m. The distribution of the three races is approximately as delineated on the map. It is widely distributed throughout both countries, but there are large areas where it is scarce or absent, especially to the west of the Rift Valley. It is also present throughout the year, although there are some movements of which nothing is known, and it is frequently seen singly, or in pairs, and often in small parties of up to 20, and even 50 birds. The larger flocks mostly consist of birds congregating at water or flighting to it, and may number up to a thousand, and sometimes thousands. They are morning drinkers. Breeding: first-egg dates from 17 nests occurred widely through the dry season in Feb and Mar (1 each), Apr (4), May (3), Jun (1), Sep (1), Oct (4), Nov–Dec (1 each). Four were olivascens in Apr–Jun; and the remainder elliotti. Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Gewani (51d), Awash NP (71a), Massawa (12a). Tetrads: ET: 75 (12); ER: 19 (2).

303. Spotted Sandgrouse Pterocles senegallus

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exustus

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elliotti

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olivascens

ET/ER

Fairly common in Eritrea, where it is found as a resident mostly in the east, but there are only three records in the west; it also occurs on Dahlak Kebir Island. In Ethiopia it is restricted to a relatively small area in the north-east. It is found on dry open plains with short grass, and on old cultivations, below 600m. Very poorly known, and recorded in Dec–Jun only. Often 2–3 together, but larger flocks range from 30–80 birds. Breeding: no records, but there have been males with advanced gonads in mid-May; M&R state nesting is in Apr–Jul, but the source is unknown. Favoured sites: Massawa area (12a). Tetrads: ET: 7 (-); ER: 11 (-).

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Family: PTEROCLIDIDAE sandgrouse 302. Chestnut-bellied Sandgrouse Pterocles exustus

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304. Yellow-throated Sandgrouse Pterocles gutturalis

ET/ER

P.s.saturatior (ET, ER). A locally common resident in Combretum/Terminalia, savanna, thornbush and semi-arid desert. Previously well known in upland areas of Eritrea, but now appears to be absent from the country (Smith 1957). There were also old records just to the south in Ethiopia, but elsewhere there it occurs down the Rift Valley and in some areas to the west as far as 35°30´E in the south-west, at 580–2200m. The 14 counts for this species provide highly variable numbers, single birds in four of them, 2–10 in six, and 25, 250, 450 and 3000 in four others. At Blane (60c) there were only 10 in the evening of 4 Jul 1976, but a spectacular 3000 the following morning at 07h30–09h00. The absence of records in Apr–Jun and Oct may not be significant. Breeding: there are three first-egg records in Jul, Aug and Sep in U&B, but there is only mapping square data for one of them. Favoured sites: Gibé gorge (68d), Blane (60c). Tetrads: ET: 20 (1); ER: 4 (-).

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305. Black-faced Sandgrouse Pterocles decoratus

ET/ -

P.d.ellenbecki (ET). A locally common resident in southern Ethiopia, mainly restricted to the south-east between 41° and 45°E and below 8°30´N, but reliable records in the south and south-west (lower Omo river) extend its range to 36°E where, however, it is unrecorded on the Sudan and Kenya sides of the border. Found in bushed and scrubby arid areas at up to 1120m. Usually singly or in pairs (in 81% of 16 counts), and once each four, 50 and 200+ birds, the flocks possibly being gatherings at water. It is recorded between 29 Aug and 9 Mar, but its absence in Apr–Jul may be due to lack of observers within its range at that time of the year. Breeding: the only first-egg date is in Aug. Favoured sites: Gode area (114a), Kebri Dehar (103a). Tetrads: ET: 35 (1).

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306. Lichtenstein’s Sandgrouse Pterocles lichtensteinii

ET/ER

P.l.lichtensteinii (ET, ER); P.l.sukensis (ET). Common within its range and widely distributed in Ethiopia and Eritrea. It has a distinct preference for broken rocky ground with scrub and acacia at up to 1750m. It flies to water at early dawn and late dusk after skimming fast and low over bushes. Nominate lichtensteinii occurs in Eritrea and apparently extends south to c.8°N; sukensis is in the south-west and south, and probably in the south-east, but its exact range is unclear. Generally seen as 1–4 birds in 70% of 20 counts, otherwise in flocks of from 10–200 birds. Except for a single bird and a party of four in Jun there are no records in May–Aug, suggesting there may be some sort of migratory movements. Breeding: there are four first-egg dates for nominate birds, one each month in Apr–Jun, and two for sukensis in Jan and Jun. Favoured sites: Awash NP (71a). Tetrads: ET: 54 (5); ER: 20 (3).

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lichtensteinii

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sukensis

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COLUMBIDAE

307. Four-banded Sandgrouse Pterocles quadricinctus

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183

ET/ER

Locally common resident in Combretum/Terminalia woodland, and acacia savanna, widespread but with a rather fragmented distribution, at 510–1820m in both Ethiopia and Eritrea, all to the west of 41°E. Seen throughout the year, most often as 1–2 birds (67%) in 37 counts, as 3–4 in 14%, and 11–56 in 19%. Breeding: seven records for first-egg dates are in Dec (1), Feb (3), Mar (2) and Apr (1). Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Gibé (68d), Jemmu (58b). Tetrads: ET: 34 (4); ER: 7 (-).

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Family: COLUMBIDAE pigeons, doves 308. Rock Dove Columba livia

ET/ER

Other names: Feral Pigeon; Domestic Pigeon C.l.domestica (ET, ER). Feral birds occur widely in towns and some villages in both Ethiopia and Eritrea, but are under-recorded. Wild C.livia are not reliably recorded from either country. The few known records of feral birds are mapped here. Breeding: there are no records. Tetrads: ET: 11 (-) + 2 (-); ER: 4 (-).

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309. Speckled Pigeon Columba guinea

ET/ER

Other name: Rock Pigeon C.g.guinea (ET, ER). A widely distributed breeding resident found throughout most of Ethiopia and Eritrea south of 17°N. Found throughout the year, inhabiting towns, villages, bridges, rocky places, cliffs and gorges, feeding in open areas, on roads, markets, crops, etc., from close to sea-level in Eritrea up to 3030m in Ethiopia. West of 36°E, areas in the central-south and parts of Dancalia are only thinly populated. A southward movement over the Danakil has been noted between 31 Mar and 4 May, involving flocks of up to 100 birds, which rest at times to feed on the ground in the desert; a similar movement in the Ogaden in Oct: possibly long-distance feeding movements? Often seen singly as well as in flocks, with once 350 at a water-hole at Blane (60c) in Jul, and 500 roosting on an island in Lake Shalla (83c) in May. Breeding: first-egg dates in 24 nests were laid in Jan (2), Feb (3), Mar (4), Apr, Jun, Aug and Sep (1 each), Oct (6), Nov (2), Dec (3). Favoured sites: Addis Ababa (58d), and most towns. Tetrads: ET: 217 (29); ER: 25 (5).

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184

COLUMBIDAE 35°

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310. White-collared Pigeon Columba albitorques

ET/ER

ENDEMIC. Common to abundant breeding endemic resident. Only known from a restricted area at over 2120m in the Senafe (17a) area and on Mt Ramlu (25d) in Eritrea, while in Ethiopia it occurs up to 4240m, and breeds up to 3790m. It is found in towns and villages, on buildings, bridges, cliffs, gorges and other rocky places, and feeds in market places and other open areas, farmland, etc. Southwards through Ethiopia it extends in a broad band between 36° and 42°E as far as 6°N. Although seen singly or in pairs it also gathers in small parties of up to 15 birds, and sometimes in flocks of up to 150. Larger numbers are found in communal roosts, e.g. 250 in euphorbias in 85c, and over 1000 descending to feed from higher ground in the morning in 84d. Breeding: 16 nests with first-egg dates were in Jan (1), Feb (3), Mar (2), Apr (1), May (3), Jun and Aug (1 each), Sep–Nov (2 each), in buildings and bridges, and presumably also holes in cliffs. Favoured sites: Addis Ababa and Mulu (58d), Dinsho (84d). Tetrads: ET: 73 (14); ER: 2 (1).

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311. African Olive Pigeon Columba arquatrix

ET/ER

Other names: Olive Pigeon; Rameron Pigeon There are two recent records from Eritrea indicating a previously unknown population at 14°50´–15°40´N, far to the north of its distribution in Ethiopia. 24 Jan 2008 1 Filfil Solomuna Forest (1000m) 11b (Anderson p.o.) 14 Feb 2008 1 near Adi Keyih (2500m) 17a (Anderson p.o.) A locally common breeding resident in central and southern Ethiopia south of 10°N and west of 42°30´E. Recorded between 700 and 3400m, where records exist for every month except Sep–Oct. It is seen most often in the canopy of forest and woodland trees. In 15 counts six consisted of single birds, four of 2–4 birds, three of 8–16, and two of flocks of 50 and 60 birds. Breeding: records of five first-egg dates were in Jan–Mar (1 each), May and Nov. Favoured sites: Goba (84d, 98b), Did Tuyura (120a), Addis Ababa (69b). Tetrads: ET: 39 (2); ER: 2 (-).

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312. Eastern Bronze-naped Pigeon Columba delegorguei

ET/ -

Other name: Delegorgue’s Pigeon C.d.?sharpei (ET). Recently found in the poorly known south-western forests, where it is assumed to be this race. It may have been overlooked previously among the other darkish and fairly common Lemon Doves and African Olive Pigeons in this region. Alternatively it could be a vagrant visitor. Further investigation is required to establish status and positive racial identification: 11 Dec 1998 1F near Tepi 1200m 80c (I. Robertson p.o.) Tetrads: ET: 1 (-).

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COLUMBIDAE

313. Lemon Dove Columba larvata

ET/ER

Other name: Cinnamon Dove C.l.bronzina (ET, ER). A generally uncommon, but locally common, presumed breeding resident in a restricted area of Eritrea, but widely scattered in Ethiopia. It is essentially a sedentary species in the undergrowth of woodland and forest and forest-edge, with shy and reclusive habits, present throughout the year, at altitudes from 1220–3030m. In 20 counts single birds were seen 15 times, two birds five times, and three once. A small area round Massawa is the only known locality in Eritrea; in Ethiopia it occurs south of 13°N and west of 42°30´E, where it is widely scattered in the wetter part of the country. Breeding: there are no certain records. Tetrads: ET: 40 (-); ER: 3 (-).

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185

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314. European Turtle Dove Streptopelia turtur

ET/ER

Other name: Turtle Dove S.t.arenicola (ET, ER); S.t.turtur (ET); S.t.rufescens (ET). An uncommon to common spring and autumn passage migrant and overwintering visitor in Eritrea up to 2760m, where only S.t.arenicola recorded 18 Sep–late Oct, and in Apr, mainly in flocks in coastal Suaeda bushes and on the Dahlaks (Smith 1957). In Ethiopia, where all three races are said to occur (U&B) it is probably more numerous and scattered, 11 Sep–7 Nov and 28 Mar–27 Apr, up to 1820m, and five overwintering records of 1–50 birds, in early Dec to 8 Mar. One in summer with injured foot on 26 Jun. Records are concentrated in east Eritrea, down the Rift Valley and at Lake Tana. A roost on Debre Mariam Island (39a) in Lake Tana built up to 245 birds during 28 Mar–5 Apr (Ash p.o.), and a flock of 100 was nearby in another year (Olson p.o.). Diurnal flocks of 40–50 migrated ENE regularly over the Danakil, 15–26 Apr (Ash p.o.). One was seen at sea on 22 Sep 1966 (Cheke p.o) – see map. Some birds call in winter and spring, and also joined a large flock of roosting African Collared Doves. Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Bahadu (51d), Abiata (83b), Lake Tana (39a). There is no information on tetrads for the separate races. Tetrads: ET: 27 (-); ER: 15 (-).

315. Dusky Turtle Dove Streptopelia lugens

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ET/ER

Other name: Pink-breasted Dove A common breeding resident in Eritrea and Ethiopia, extending from 16°30´N down to 3°30´N; absent from a broad tract of country all down the western side and from Dancalia and the Ogaden and much other country in the south and south-east. Occurs at 250–1220m in Eritrea, but much higher in Ethiopia at 900–2730m; a few descend to visit lower elevations occasionally. Occurs in a variety of lightly wooded country, eucalyptus plantations, cultivated ground and gardens, and also visits acacia bush. Present throughout the year, and although common in an area is usually seen as 1–2 birds, occasionally 3–5, and only rarely in flocks in areas of croplands. Breeding: 30 first-egg dates were in Jan (4), Feb and Mar (5 each), Apr and May (1 each), Jun (4), Sep (6), Oct and Nov (1 each), Dec (2). Favoured sites: Addis Ababa area (58d), Butajira (83a), etc. Tetrads: ET: 107 (13); ER: 10 (1).

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186

COLUMBIDAE 35°

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Other name: Pink-headed Dove S.r.arabica (ET, ER); S.r.roseogrisea (?ET). A common to abundant breeding resident (down to 13°N) in Eritrea (called S.decaocto in U&B) and down to 8°N in Ethiopia. S.r.roseogrisea is indicated for both countries in BoA, and as abundant in U&B, but we cannot trace a single record of this race. The lines of distribution on the map are provisional. Smith (1957) identified collected birds as arabica on the Sudan border, where Nikolaus (1987) also indicates arabica. It is subject to irregular movements and post-breeding migration south to 8°N. Large numbers (1000+) reach south to Awash NP (60c) in Feb, and are sometimes seen in the Gewani area (51d) (up to 250 recorded) in Apr, Jun, Oct and Nov. Smaller numbers were in Mar, Apr and Dec in the Lake Tana area (39ac), and single birds in Jul twice and Nov in the Gambela area – in both areas possibly referable to nominate roseogrisea of Sudanese origin. Eight were seen at Nazret (70a) in Dec, and one at Meki (69d) in Sep. It frequents open woodland, thornbush, farmland, gardens, coastal mangroves, wadis with trees in semi-desert areas, etc., very rarely above 300m. Usually in flocks up to hundreds of birds, with very large numbers at roosts. Frequently calls at night. One released in Addis Ababa was still present over two years later. Breeding: first-egg dates were in Mar, May (2) and Dec. Tetrads: ET: 26 (1); ER: 14 (4).

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roseogrisea arabica

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316. African Collared Dove Streptopelia roseogrisea ET/ER

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317. African White-winged Dove Streptopelia reichenowi 15°

ET/ -

Other names: White-winged Collared Dove; White-winged Dove A common to abundant breeding resident, not included in U&B, in south and south-east Ethiopia below 7°N, and present throughout the year. By no means confined to palmfringed rivers as once thought, but commoner in total absence of palms in riverine woodland and acacia; nearly always close to water (most distant recorded was 3km away), and may be found along subsidiary wadis as long as some pools remain; below 1500m. Occurs along the Shabeelle from Mustahil (115d) to Imi (101c), along the Wabe Gestro (124a) near Dolo, along the Dawa Parma at Melka Guba (121a) and on the Kenya border (123d), and along the Genale (123b). Occurs in hundreds near Gode (102c), Kalafo (115a), El Koran (124a), Dolo (124c), etc. It is dominated by African Mourning Doves in nest-site selection. Breeding: four first-egg dates were in Jan, May (actually just across the border in Somalia), Sep and Oct. Favoured sites: see above. Tetrads: ET: 18 (5) + 1 (-).

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decipiens

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elegans

002 Ethiopia 193-384.indd 186

318. African Mourning Dove Streptopelia decipiens

ET/ER

Other names: Mourning Collared Dove; Mourning Dove S.d.decipiens (ET, ER); S.d.elegans (ET). A common to very common, and sometimes abundant, breeding resident in both countries. In Eritrea mostly concentrated in a central area, whereas in Ethiopia the greatest numbers are through the Rift Valley, but it also occurs in areas to the south and east. Found throughout the year, when seen singly, in pairs or parties and flocks, up to ‘hundreds’ in Ethiopia and ‘thousands’ at wells in dry weather in Eritrea (Smith 1957). The gaps in distribution are inexplicable. S.d.elegans is in the south-east and S.d.decipiens elsewhere, although from across the border S.d.perspicillata may reach the south in the Lake Turkana area, and S.d.logonensis may reach the south-west. Particularly numerous in wooded country, open woodland, acacia savanna especially in proximity to water, from near sea-level up to 1890m. As an indication of numbers, 469 were netted in 22 days on a visit to one site at Aseita (43a) in Sep–Oct. Breeding: first-egg dates in 42 nests of nominate birds were in Jan (3), Feb (1), Mar (8), Apr (6), May (2), Sep (7), Oct (9), Dec (6). Favoured sites: Koka (70c), and all down the Rift Valley. Tetrads: ET: 103 (17) + 1 (-); ER: 14 (-).

11/1/09 12:00:31

COLUMBIDAE

319. Red-eyed Dove Streptopelia semitorquata

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187

ET/ER

Other name: Red-eyed Turtle Dove Common to very common breeding resident in both countries, distributed almost uniformly from 17°N in Eritrea through Ethiopia to its southern border, and west of 43°30´E. Found throughout the year in almost any woodland, bushland and thickets, from 100–2490m, and usually seen singly, in pairs, or occasionally a few together, but may gather in flocks of 20–50, especially at water, and consort with other doves. Generally found in wetter areas, but also surprisingly common in the drier parts of the central-south. This is one of a group of ring-necked Streptopelia doves which present particular problems in field identification, resulting in considerable difficulties in mapping distribution. Breeding: first-egg dates in 20 nests ranged throughout the year: Jan (3), Feb (6), Apr (4), May (1), Jun (2), Aug–Oct, and Dec (1 each). Tetrads: ET: 183 (18); ER: 20 (1).

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320. Ring-necked Dove Streptopelia capicola

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Other name: Cape Turtle Dove S.c.somalica (ET); S.c.electa (ET); ?S.c.tropica (ET). A common to abundant breeding resident in Ethiopia, with two (?or three) races: S.c.electa is in the west (according to BoA), but from where we have no records of the species; and the only few we do have are in the Rift Valley (see map). Birds from the area east of a line through 109c to 73a are somalica, and those to the west of this line are tropica on the basis of 13 specimens collected by Erlanger and identified by Hilgert (1908). However, our comments and the lines of distribution shown on the map should be regarded perhaps as provisional. It is present throughout the year, and is very much an acacia bush species in Ethiopia, but is also found in a variety of wooded and bush habitat at 180–1530m. Distribution follows close to the Rift Valley, and most of the area to the east; a projection of distribution extends north from the Awash valley to 13°30´N, where it overlaps with Vinaceous Dove. Frequently seen singly or in pairs, and in flocks numbering up to a thousand, and even thousands, coming to drink in the early morning in Borana at Mega (120c) in Dec, and in the Ogaden at Warder (104a) in Jul. See also the comments under Vinaceous Dove below. Breeding: first-egg dates in 11 nests were in Feb (2), Mar (1), Apr (3), Jun (2), Jul–Sep (1 each). Favoured sites: Abiata and Langano (83b), Awassa (83c), Yavello (109c/120a). Tetrads: ET: 173 (13).

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tropica 10°

electa

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somalica

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321. Vinaceous Dove Streptopelia vinacea

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ET/ER

Common to very common in Ethiopia and Eritrea, where it is a presumed resident in the latter, but there is no breeding record in either country. It inhabits combretaceous and other dry open woodland, just reaching 40°E, and extends through both countries from 18°N south to 5°N. In Ethiopia it is confined, with one exception, to areas west of the Rift Valley where it overlaps widely with Red-eyed Dove, to some extent with African Mourning Dove, and slightly with (but is ecologically and altitudinally segregated from) Ring-necked Dove, with which it is otherwise almost totally allopatric in northern Ethiopia. In the Mekele area it is in dry hilly areas under 1800m, whereas Ring-necked Dove is above 1900m (Dijksen p.o.). In the lower Omo region in the far south-west this and the above three Streptopelia occur together, but Vinaceous is totally unknown in Kenya. Often calls at night with or without a moon. It is usually seen singly or in pairs, and although common in some areas, has not been seen, as recorded elsewhere (BoA), in flocks; it is present throughout the year. One netted at Koka (70c) is the only one known from the Rift Valley. Breeding: a single first-egg date in Mar. Favoured sites: Jemmu valley (58b), Gibé (68d), Gambela (65d). Tetrads: ET: 69 (-); ER: 11 (-).

002 Ethiopia 193-384.indd 187

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11/1/09 12:00:38

188

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322. Laughing Dove Streptopelia senegalensis

ET/ER

Other name: Palm Dove S.s.senegalensis (ET, ER). One of the most widespread common resident birds in both Ethiopia and Eritrea, although much less common to rare west of 36°E, and distribution is discontinuous over tracts of Dancalia, and in the south and south-west. Within its range it is present almost wherever there are trees and bushes, in towns, villages, cultivated land and bushland, from sea-level, including the Dahlaks, to 2120m. Present throughout the year, but is generally much less numerous than Red-eyed Turtle, Mourning Collared, Vinaceous and Ring-necked Doves, although it will consort with them at food and water; however, at some sites along the lower Awash as many as 200 have been recorded in a day at Hadar (42cd) and 50 at Aseita (43a). Breeding: 25 first-egg dates were in Jan (2), Feb (4), Mar (2), Apr (4), May (2), Jul (1), Aug (3), Sep (1), Oct (3), Dec (3). Favoured sites: Rift Valley lakesides, Awash NP, etc. Tetrads: ET: 199 (26) + 2 (-); ER: 23 (6).

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323. Emerald-spotted Wood Dove Turtur chalcospilos

ET/ -

Only known certainly as a common to very common resident breeder in southern Ethiopia south of 11°N and east from the Rift Valley and lower Omo as far as 45°E on the lower Shabeelle. Records exist for every month. North of this latitude there are many unresolved records for this species within the ranges of Blue-spotted and Black-billed Wood Doves as far as 16°N, but the species was not included for Eritrea by Smith (1957). It inhabits a wide variety of woodland, thickets and especially acacia savanna at 190–1480m. Usually seen singly or in pairs, and very occasionally in small parties of 3–6 birds. Breeding: there are single first-egg dates in Apr, May, Jun, Aug and Sep. Favoured sites: Awash NP (71a, etc.), Bulcha (97c). Tetrads: ET: 81(3) + 2 (-).

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324. Black-billed Wood Dove Turtur abyssinicus

ET/ER

A locally common bird of woodland and thick bush across Eritrea, west of 40°E and between 13°30´ and 16°30´N below 1500m, and also where rainfall is below 75mm. From here it extends south to 7°N in Ethiopia close to the Sudan border west of 38°E. In this area and further east there are several unconfirmed reports, some resulting from confusion with the also black-billed Emerald-spotted Wood Dove, and others from observers’ unawareness of the existence of this species within part of the range of Blue-spotted Wood Dove. At Gambela (65d), among 89 Turtur netted 85 were afer and four were abyssinicus, whereas a short distance away to the south-west in a more heavily forested area in 79a, of 33 netted 27 were abyssinicus. U&B recorded Blackbilled as abundant in 80c. There is a wide scattering of unconfirmed records to the south and east of the southern range shown on the map. Dated records are between Dec and Jul. Breeding: the only record is of an adult feeding a new-fledged juvenile on 16 Feb. Favoured sites: Godare (80c), Gambela (65d), Abol (79a). Tetrads: ET: 20 (1); ER: 20 (-).

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COLUMBIDAE

325. Blue-spotted Wood Dove Turtur afer

ET/ER

Other name: Red-billed Wood Dove A common to very common breeding resident present throughout the year in Ethiopia and Eritrea. Occurs in a wide range of bushed and wooded habitat; avoids dense forest and arid areas. Found only below 1220m in Eritrea, but up to 1820m (Lake Tana) in Ethiopia. All records lie west of 43°E, and it extends north to 16°30´N, rainfall probably being the limiting factor, e.g. in Eritrea it is only in areas with more than 75mm. However, the situation is unclear, since in similar waterside habitats ringing totals at Bahadu (51d) were three in 105 days and at Aseita (43a) 50 in 60 days in spite of similar conditions of habitat and cliamate (Ash p.o.). Breeding: first-egg dates for five nests were in Jan, May (3) and Jun. Favoured sites: Awassa (83c), Gambela (65d), Wolliso (68b), Gibé (68d). Tetrads: ET: 93 (5); ER: 10 (-).

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189

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326. Tambourine Dove Turtur tympanistria

ET/ -

A fairly common, and locally common to very common (i.e. up to 30 in a day), breeding resident present throughout the year in Ethiopia. It occurs in forests, dense woodlands, acacia bush and thickets at 700–2150m, confined to the south-west quarter of the country below 10°N and west of 40°30´E, and is usually seen singly or in pairs. Breeding: the only record indicates a first-egg date in May. Favoured sites: Bulcha forest (97c), Koka (70c), Didessa (56c). Tetrads: ET: 45 (3).

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327. Namaqua Dove Oena capensis

ET/ER

Other name: Long-tailed Dove O.c.capensis (ET, ER). A common to abundant breeding resident in Ethiopia and Eritrea, present throughout the year, but apparently engages in local and probably long-distance intra-tropical migrations which are not understood. Of all observations 11% are in the main rains in May–Aug, and 89% in Sep–Apr. It occurs in a wide range of more open habitat from sea-level in Eritrea, including the Dahlaks, to at least 2430m, in towns (including Addis Ababa), villages, mangroves, acacia bush, scrub, thickets, cereal crops, light woodland, reedbeds, etc. It is found throughout the country, but there is a large area in the west between 35° and 37°E with few records, and it is patchily distributed in some south-central areas below 8°30´N. Frequently seen in large flocks of 50–100+, and once 500 at a desert pool in the Danakil (51d) in Nov. Breeding: apparently throughout most of the year, but mostly Feb–Aug; egg-laying recorded in Feb (2), Mar–May (3 each), Jun (4), Jul (1), Aug (3), Oct and Nov (1 each); nests often placed close to the ground, and often exposed to sun. Favoured sites: Gewani area (51d), Koka (70c), Gambela (65d), etc. Tetrads: ET: 207 (9) + 2 (-); ER: 31 (2).

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11/1/09 12:00:50

190

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328. Bruce’s Green Pigeon Treron waalia

ET/ER

A common resident, locally numerous, and widespread in Ethiopia and Eritrea, south of 17°N, west of 43°30´E in the former and of 40°E in the latter, with the exception of one near Assab in 34b. Often flocks to fruiting trees, when up to 25 together, and once over 40. Usually very shy and inconspicuous among green leaves. Found throughout the year in mesic and riparian woodland, and particularly associated with figs – especially for food; at near sea-level up to 1890m. In Eritrea also feeds on Ziziphus fruit (Smith 1957). Local movements for food may take usually only a few individuals far out into the Danakil and south-eastern arid areas, and the species is absent from the Ogaden. Breeding: seven records spread through the year for first-egg dates were in Jan, Feb, Mar, Aug (1 each), Nov (2) and Dec (1). Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Bahadu (51d), Debre Zeit (70a), Gambela (65d), Jemmu valley (58b). Tetrads: ET: 110 (8) + 1 (-); ER: 14 (2).

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329. African Green Pigeon Treron calvus

ET/ -

Other name: Green Pigeon T.c.uellensis (ET). Uncommon resident in its rather restricted range in central-west Ethiopia in wooded country between 6°30´N and 10°N and 35–37°E. A few unconfirmed records to the south and west of this area may indicate local movement. It is usually seen singly or in small parties of up to 5. There are no figures in excess of 10 birds in a day at any locality. It is found at 1230–2020m along forest edges, in fragmented forest patches and combretaceous savanna, and it is allopatric with regard to Bruce’s Green Pigeon, which is found close to it on three sides, although it has also been recorded twice, perhaps doubtfully, in 67c and 81a. The absence of records in Apr–May and Oct–Dec may result from the absence of observers in those periods. Breeding: there is one record, a collected female with egg-in-shell on 18 Feb at Didessa. Favoured sites: Didessa (56c), Tepi (80c), Bonga area (81abc). Tetrads: ET: 12 (1).

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Family: PSITTACIDAE parrots, lovebirds 330. Rose-ringed Parakeet Psittacula krameri

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ET/ER

P.k.parvirostris (ET, ER). A presumed resident, not uncommon in Eritrea south of 17°N, and uncommon to rare in the extreme north and north-west of Ethiopia, extending along the border down to the Blue Nile at 10°N; found in most months. It is recorded from a variety of woodlands, and wherever there are some trees, including mangroves and acacia bush, but it is particularly associated with Hyphaene palms and baobabs, mostly between 640 and 1940m. It is absent from the eastern lowlands except for once near sea-level at Massawa. There is almost no information on numbers, but up to 10/ day in Agordat/Keren/Tessenei areas. About half the records are of collected specimens in the period 1870–1931. Breeding: there are no records. Favoured sites: Mareb valley (16d), Tessenei (9d), Agordat (10b). Tetrads: ET: 15 (-); ER: 17 (-).

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002 Ethiopia 193-384.indd 190

11/1/09 12:00:54

PSITTACIDAE 191

331. Red-headed Lovebird Agapornis pullarius

ET/ -

A.p.ugandae (ET); A.p.?pullarius (ET). An uncommon, apparently non-breeding visitor to Ethiopia, with 12 records (five old, seven new) in Nov and between 8 Jan and 15 May during 1901–1940 and 1969–1998, and in numbers of 1–3 birds. There are other recent records from Gambela (65d) and Mago NP (107ac) lacking dates and numbers. The records are confined to woodlands in a relatively small area west of 37°E and between 5° and 8°30´N. Over most of its Ethiopian range at 500–950m it overlaps with the Black-winged Lovebird on the evidence of sight records of the latter. Identification of the present species is confirmed by several collected specimens, and although both races are recorded confirmation is desirable for A.p.pullarius. Breeding: no records. Favoured sites: Mago NP (107ac), Gambela (65d), Ghemira (80d) and Giamo (94b), Gok (79a). Tetrads: ET: 11 (-).

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332. Black-winged Lovebird Agapornis taranta

ET/ER

ENDEMIC. A common endemic breeding resident, extending from 17°N in northern Eritrea to 5°N in southern Ethiopia, in a variety of mountain woodlands and forests up to at least 2580m. Except for an apparently isolated population in the Harar area its range does not extend east of 41°E, and mostly not west of 37°E. However, in the south-west it apparently extends westward to become sympatric with the Red-headed Lovebird over a large part of the range of that species; but as all the Black-winged in this area result from sight records, there is possibly an element of doubt concerning their identification and separation from the closely similar Red-headed. In 55 counts it was usually seen as 1–2 birds in 53%, as 3–6 in 38%, and 10–20 in 9%. Breeding: first-egg dates from three nests in Ethiopia were in Apr (1) and Oct (2); breeding in Eritrea is only presumed. Favoured sites: Addis Ababa (British Embassy compound) (58d), Lake Abiata (83b), Bahar Dar (39a), Dinsho (84d), etc. Tetrads: ET: 87 (7); ER: 9 (-).

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333. Brown Parrot Poicephalus meyeri

ET/ER

Other name: Meyer’s Parrot P.m.meyeri (ET, ER); P.m.saturatus (ET). A presumed resident in both Ethiopia and Eritrea, where it is a species of riparian woodland. In Ethiopia only known from part of the lower Omo where it is common, and a small area of north-west Ethiopia. In Eritrea it is particularly associated with baobab and tamarind trees. The northern population is nominate P.m.meyeri, occurring at below 2200m, and those in the south are P.m.saturatus, occurring at about 450m. Breeding: stated to occur from Apr–Oct, but neither we nor Smith (1957) could trace actual records. Favoured sites: Mui (106b), Keren (11a). Tetrads: ET: 22 (-); ER: 14 (-).

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meyeri

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002 Ethiopia 193-384.indd 191

saturatus

11/1/09 12:00:58

192

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334. African Orange-bellied Parrot Poicephalus rufiventris

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rufiventris

pallidus

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Other names: Orange-bellied Parrot; Red-bellied Parrot P.r.rufiventris (ET); P.r.pallidus (ET). A fairly common breeding resident in Ethiopia south of 12°N, and down the Rift Valley and to the east of it. The distribution of the eastern race P.r.pallidus, which extends from Somalia into the Ogaden, is quite unclear; nominate birds lie to the west of it. An Acacia–Commiphora bushland species, which spends much time in fig trees, below 1720m and records exist for every month; it is usually seen singly or in pairs and occasionally 2–10 together. Breeding: P.c.rufiventris: three first-egg dates were in May, Jun and Sep, and ‘a pair breeding’ in Aug. Favoured sites: Yavello (120a, 109c), Arba Minch (96d), Afdem (61ac). Tetrads: ET: 103 (4) + 3 (-).

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335. Yellow-fronted Parrot Poicephalus flavifrons

ET/ -

ENDEMIC. Uncommon to common endemic breeding resident in Ethiopia, between 5°30´ and 14°30´N, and 35° and 41°E. Found between 1150m and 3200m in acacia bush, lightly wooded country, Ficus and other tall trees at lower elevations, and Podocarpus, juniper and Hagenia woodland at higher levels. Breeding: the first nest of this species, where the adults were watched changing over in a hole 18m high in a Ficus at Langano (83b, 1576m), was found on 31 Oct 1997 (Pohlstrand p.o.). Favoured sites: Wondo Genet (83d), Menagesha (69b), Harenna forest (98b). Tetrads: ET: 50 (1).

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Family: MUSOPHAGIDAE: turacos, go-away birds, plant-eaters 35°

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leucotis

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donaldsoni possible records

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002 Ethiopia 193-384.indd 192

336. White-cheeked Turaco Tauraco leucotis

ET/ER

T.l.leucotis (ET, ER); T.l.donaldsoni (ET). A locally common to very common resident in a mixed range of relatively dense woodlands, but also occurring in more open habitat, from 17°N in Eritrea south to the Kenya border in Ethiopia; recorded between 900m in Eritrea and 3650m in the Simien mountains in Ethiopia. Except for a small extension into the Boma hills in Sudan the species is endemic to Ethiopia and Eritrea. The race donaldsoni (Donaldson Smith’s Turaco), in which the blue nape of leucotis is partly replaced by red, is found east of the Rift Valley in the Din Din forest (71abc) and Bale mountains, where in the latter at least it is found alongside nominate leucotis supporting the view for its specific separation. T.l.donaldsoni is known from 60d, 61cd, 84d and 86ad. Although widespread it is absent from areas west of 38°E in Eritrea, in drier areas east of 40°E in north-east Ethiopia, and similarly further south to the east of 42°30´E. It is almost invariably seen singly or in pairs, and only occasionally as 3–6, and once 14 together at Ghedo (14c). The population was estimated at 100 birds in a survey in the Din Din forest by Pohlstrand in 1998. For hybridisation with Prince Ruspoli’s Turaco see List B. Breeding: first-egg dates are in May (2), Dec (1), and as ‘breeding’ in Oct. Favoured sites: Bonga/Jimma (80d, 81d), Bole valley (58d), Bulcha (97c), Gelemso (71ab, donaldsoni), Anseba (11a), etc. Tetrads: ET: 126 (7); ER: 11 (1).

11/1/09 12:01:04

MUSOPHAGIDAE

337. Prince Ruspoli’s Turaco Tauraco ruspolii

ET/ -

Other name: Ruspoli’s Turaco ENDEMIC. A rather uncommon presumed resident endemic confined now to relatively small areas of forest in central-south Ethiopia close to the Genale river, and at least until recently still also present close to Arero (120b). Previously considered to be a species restricted to Podocarpus forest, it is now usually seen as 1–3 birds in mixed broadleaf woodland with scattered acacias (dominant), gardenias, Ficus, etc., at 1080–1830m. It is also found in degenerated secondary woodland, and even in scattered trees in cultivated areas. Much habitat destruction is likely to pose a threat to its survival. It was discovered by Prince Ruspoli, who was killed by an elephant before his specimen was described, and the record of the original locality was lost. Although the species was quite well known in the 1970s, a report on its distribution was not submitted for publication owing to incidences of over-collecting for specimens and live-trapping for export. Subsequently an excellent survey was undertaken by L. Borghesio in 1995. Breeding: no records except that an unconfirmed nest was reported by local people on 22 May 1995 at 10km north of Arero (Borghesio 1997a), and a turaco’s egg was taken by a local person on 28 Jan in 110b – a square in which White-cheeked has not been reported (Sørensen et al. 1997). See also List B for hybridisation. Favoured sites: Arero area (120b), Wadera area (110a), Kebre Mengist area (110ab). Tetrads: ET: 7 (-).

338. Bare-faced Go-away-bird Corythaixoides personata

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193

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ET/ -

C.p.personatus (ET). An uncommon breeding resident in Ethiopia south of 10°N, and mainly close to the Rift Valley, but with an additional extension of range eastwards in the Harar area, in open woodland, thickets, acacia bush and riverine scrub, at 1360–1850m. Recorded in most months throughout the year, and usually seen singly or in pairs, but seven and nine have been seen together on two occasions. Breeding: the only dated record is of a first-egg date in Mar. Favoured sites: Yavello (109c,120a), Sodere (70c), Shashamene (83d), Arba Minch (96d/108b). Tetrads: ET: 30 (3).

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339. White-bellied Go-away-bird Corythaixoides leucogaster

ET/ER

An abundant resident in thornbush and thickets in Ethiopia, and a single recent record in Eritrea: 9 Nov 1997 1 Mai Aini 17a (Zinner p.o.) In Ethiopia south of 13°30´E it is thinly and widely scattered to the west of the Rift Valley, but to the east it is almost uniformly distributed over the whole area below 1500m. It is most frequently seen singly or in pairs, but occasionally in parties of up to 6–7 birds. Birds make a familiar sight as they sit conspicuously on trees and bushes, from which their frequent calls are heard. Twice a single bird visited Gambela (65d), far from any other occurrence, for two days in Jul in 1972, and for four days in Apr in 1974. Breeding: 12 first-egg dates are in Feb (2), Mar (2), Apr (4), May and Jun (2), Jul (1), but no tetrad data. Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Awash NP (71a), etc. Tetrads: ET: 166 (7) + 1 (-); ER: 1 (-).

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002 Ethiopia 193-384.indd 193

11/1/09 12:01:09

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340. Eastern Grey Plantain-eater Crinifer zonurus ET/ER A common resident in Ethiopia and Eritrea, present throughout the year almost entirely to the north and west of the Rift Valley; there are only a handful of records to the east of this line. It is found in a wide range of riverine open woodland, acacia savanna, and bushy areas at 450–1630m, widely distributed below 16°30´N in northern Eritrea and southwards to 5°N in southern Ethiopia. Usually seen singly or in pairs, and occasionally 3–4 together, but often larger numbers may be seen in fairly close proximity. Breeding: the four first-egg dates are: two each in Feb and Mar. Favoured sites: Sodere (70c), Jemmu valley (58b), Bahar Dar (39a), etc. Tetrads: ET: 75 (-); ER: 15 (-).

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Family: CUCULIDAE cuckoos, coucals 35°

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002 Ethiopia 193-384.indd 194

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341. Jacobin Cuckoo Clamator jacobinus

ET/ER

Other names: Black-and-white Cuckoo; Pied Cuckoo C.j.pica (ET, ER); C.j.serratus (ET, ER). Records of the migratory Indian form are actually C.j.pica according to their wing-lengths. Races pica and serratus are both common in Ethiopia, but except for two pica (specimens in MSNG by Antinori) only serratus is known from Eritrea; both are intra-tropical migrants, with one population of pica breeding across sub-Saharan Africa, and later migrating south, and another from north-west India visiting eastern Africa, although the relative status of the two populations in our area is unknown. C.j.serratus breeds in southern Africa, and then migrates north, where it is recorded in Eritrea in Jun–Sep (Smith 1957), and in Ethiopia between 10 Mar and 15 Sep. C.j.pica also breeds in Ethiopia, where it has been recorded 10 Mar–19 Jun, but may remain for longer, as U&B report egg-laying for this race in Jul and Oct. The status of the few birds present in Nov–Feb is unknown; possibly they are of Asian origin. It seems likely that it is only in Mar–Jun that birds from the Afrotropical populations occur together in Ethiopia. Birds have been recorded at 200–2700m in a wide range of bush and wooded habitats, where Rufous Chatterer and White-rumped Babbler, their main hosts, occur; usually seen singly or in pairs. The data on this species is somewhat confused, particularly nomenclaturally, so some caution may be needed in the interpretation of this account. Breeding: first-egg dates are in Mar, Apr (1 each), May (3), Jun (4), Jul and Oct (1 each). Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Awash NP (71a, etc.). Tetrads: ET: 54 (7); ER: 12 (-).

342. Levaillant’s Cuckoo Clamator levaillantii

ET/ER

Other name: African Striped Cuckoo Apparently a rather uncommon breeding Afrotropical resident; its intra-African migratory status, if any, is quite unknown in our area. Birds have been recorded throughout most of the year in Ethiopia, except for Feb and Oct, but there are only two records in the period 27 Nov–23 Mar, which suggests an absence of migrants. After a period when there had been none at Bulcha (97c) during 1–26 Mar, there were two next day and one the day after, one of which was of very light weight (70.2g) and was caught by hand – possibly an indication of newly arrived migrants. In Eritrea it is only recorded in Jan, May, Jul (breeding) and Nov. It is invariably seen singly skulking alone in thick bushes and dense cover. Records are widely but rather thinly scattered across both countries as far east as 44°E, and north to 16°30´N. Breeding: there is an old first-egg date from Kokai (11b), Eritrea, on 11 Jul 1868, where breeding is given as being in Jun–Sep in MP&G, but is not included in Smith (1957). Favoured sites: Bulcha (97c), Awassa (83c), Gambela (65d). Tetrads: ET: 57 (2); ER: 8 (1).

11/1/09 12:01:13

CUCULIDAE

343. Great Spotted Cuckoo Clamator glandarius

ET/ER

The status of this species, like Levaillant’s, is difficult to assess. It is present throughout the year, but there are more in Feb–Aug, when from an annual total of 44 counts 34 (77%) occurred, whereas in Sep–Jan there were only 23%. Adults are heard calling and immature birds seen, but there is no indication of breeding (although this occurs commonly nearby in northern Somalia in Jan and in May/Jun). Probably both Palearctic and Afrotropical migrants occur, and the presence of considerable numbers on Eritrean coastal plains in Dec–Mar suggests overwintering (Palearctic?) birds. Usually seen singly, occasionally 2–3, but up to six roost together communally in trees, and found especially in acacia savanna, but also in any open country with scattered trees. Breeding: no records. Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Abiata (83b), Massawa area (12a). Tetrads: ET: 46 (-); ER: 11 (-).

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195

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344. Red-chested Cuckoo Cuculus solitarius

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Common in Ethiopia south of 14°30´N and west of 43°E in almost any habitat with trees; the densest population is in the south-west. Most birds are present 1 Mar–7 Aug, with counts totalling 237, compared with only 15 between 8 Aug and 28 Feb, while there were none at all in Sep–Oct. They have been found between 380 and 2500m, and are usually seen singly, or very occasionally 2–4 together. Their familiar and distinct A-B-C calls heard in the day and at night are regarded in some areas as indicators of rain. Breeding: there is only one record, which lacks details. Favoured sites: Mulu (58d), Bulcha (97c), Didessa (56c), Langano (83b), Gambela (65d), etc. Tetrads: ET: 80 (1).

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345. Black Cuckoo Cuculus clamosus

ET/ER

C.c.clamosus (ET, ER); C.c.gabonensis (ET); C.c.‘jacksoni’ (ET). Some uncertainty surrounds this rather complex intra-tropical migrant. In Ethiopia, except for one at 14°N it is only found to the south of 11°N where it is widely scattered, and there is none east of 43°30´E. There is only one record in Eritrea, of C.c.clamosus, which contained a well-developed egg (M&R): 26 Jul 1871 1F near Angaba (Bogos) 6a (Antinori & Salvadori 1873) C.c.gabonensis is found in the south-west of Ethiopia in higher-rainfall and especially forested areas; C.c.clamosus is in the drier east, especially in thornbush, and although its distribution vis-à-vis the preceding race is uncertain, it also extends in a broad band through central areas with a few north to 17°N, where the only record in Eritrea is shown above. An intermediate form between these two races, once named ‘jacksoni’, is found in the central-south. The species’ distribution on the map does not necessarily indicate its breeding area. It is only recorded between 8 Mar and 26 Sep, but clamosus dates are from 27 Apr–26 Sep, gabonensis from 12 May–1 Jul, and ‘jacksoni’ from 8 Mar–26 Jun; usually seen singly or in pairs, but 3–5 occasionally when newly arrived, at 530–1820m. Breeding: two collected female clamosus contained single developed eggs on 22 May in Ethiopia (48a), and the above Eritrean bird on 26 Jul (6a). Favoured sites: Negelle (110bc), Bulcha (97c), Fafen river (62d). Tetrads: ET: 51 (1); ER: 1 (1).

002 Ethiopia 193-384.indd 195

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11/1/09 12:01:18

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canorus canorus or gularis

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346. Common Cuckoo Cuculus canorus

ET/ER

Other name: Eurasian Cuckoo C.c.canorus (ET, ER); C.c.subtelephonus (ET). A common spring and autumn passage migrant in Ethiopia and Eritrea. Most records date from before the African Cuckoo was specifically differentiated from Common. Definite nominate canorus and two birds answering the description of subtelephonus on 4 Sep 1971 at Metehara (70b) and on 29 Sep 1973, at Awassa (83c) (Ash p.o.) are shown as open circles on the map, and non-differentiated birds (i.e. those which may be either Common or African) are shown as triangles. Extreme dates for identified Common are 13 Mar–21 May in spring and 18 Aug–14 Oct in autumn, scattered widely throughout the region from sea-level to 2120m. It occasionally calls in spring with its typical call. Smith (1957) thought it occurred in Eritrea only in autumn. This species overlaps with African in spring, and on present evidence it would seem that African is not present when Common-like birds move through during 18 Aug–14 Oct. Favoured sites: Negelle (110c/121a), Kalafo/ Godere area (115c), Abiata (83b), etc. Tetrads: identified canorus: ET: 20 (-); ER: 3 (-). Non-separated canorus/gularis: ET: 50 (-); ER: 9 (-).

347. African Cuckoo Cuculus gularis

ET/ER

A fairly common Afrotropical migrant recorded visiting Ethiopia between 9 Mar and 29 Jun in 33 dated records. Distribution is scattered below 1350m to the west of 40°30´E in Ethiopia, and although calling is often heard there is no evidence for breeding. In Eritrea it is known as a regular visitor during the rains, but there are only three mapping square records. Found in any woodland area in the west and south below 900m. Breeding: there is no indication of breeding in either country. Favoured sites: Gambela (65d), Negelle area (110c), Langano/Abiata (83b). Tetrads: ET: 27 (-); ER: 3 (-). See also Common Cuckoo above.

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348. Klaas’s Cuckoo Chrysococcyx klaas

ET/ER

A common resident and presumed partial Afrotropical migrant in Ethiopia, widespread and mostly below 13°N. Rather rare in Eritrea, and in both countries it occurs in less wooded country than African Emerald Cuckoo, but it is also generally less conspicuous and is found in denser cover than Dideric Cuckoo, at 180–2070m. The drier areas of Dancalia and the Ogaden are avoided. In counts throughout several years, birds were recorded on 134 days in Apr–Oct, and on 41 days in Nov–Mar, suggesting that there may be an influx of birds during the main rains. They are usually seen singly or in pairs. Breeding: five first-egg dates were in Sep (4) and Oct (1); host species in four nests were Grey-headed Sparrow race swainsonii, Variable Sunbird and Buff-bellied Warbler (2). Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Gambela (65d), Bahadu (51c), Bulcha (97c). Tetrads: ET: 96 (3); ER: 6 (2).

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11/1/09 12:01:24

CUCULIDAE

349. African Emerald Cuckoo Chrysococcyx cupreus

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197

ET/ER

Other name: Emerald Cuckoo C.c.cupreus (ET, ER). A locally common, apparently breeding resident in Ethiopia south of 12°30´E and west of 43°30´E, with the possibility of some degree of intra-tropical migration. Populations seem to be stable in Jan, Feb and Jul–Oct, much higher in Mar– Jun, and absent in Nov–Dec (although possibly just silent). Found between 510 and 2500m in a variety of forests and woodland. Much less common in Eritrea, where it has decreased rapidly. Breeding: no certain records, and its host species are unknown in our region. Favoured sites: Menagesha (69b), Gore (66d), Wondo Genet (83d), Harenna forest (98b), etc. Tetrads: ET: 55 (-); ER: 3 (-).

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350. Dideric Cuckoo Chrysococcyx caprius

ET/ER

Other names: Didric Cuckoo; Diederik Cuckoo A common intra-tropical migrant and breeding visitor in both Ethiopia and Eritrea, in almost any habitat with bushes or trees, at 180–2280m, except in very dry and higher montane areas. It is found as far north as 16°30´N. Bearing the above exceptions in mind it is fairly evenly distributed over large parts of Ethiopia, and in both countries is closely associated with weavers as their main hosts. Except for three records of single birds in Dec and one in Feb they are absent 23 Oct–28 Mar from Ethiopia, and do not return until late May in Eritrea. There is probably also some passage of birds to breeding areas to the north-east in Arabia. Usually seen singly, sometimes in pairs, and occasionally up to 10 in restricted areas where weavers are plentiful. Breeding: there are only two first-egg dates, in Sep (2), with no information on host species. One was noted feeding its own young in a Black-headed Weaver colony in Addis Ababa (69b). Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Gambela (65d), Bahadu (51d), Abiata (83b). Tetrads: ET: 90 (2); ER: 8 (1).

351. Yellowbill Ceuthmochares aereus

ET/ -

Other names: Green Coucal; Green Malkoha C.a.?australis (ET); C.a.?aereus (ET). An apparently elusive, seldom seen, and possibly very rare presumed resident in Ethiopia with one old and at least four recent reliable records, all from a restricted area of the south-west. These birds are generally attributed to the race australis, but they are perhaps more likely to have been nominate aereus, or possibly even a new race: 24 Jan 1942 M & F 48km N of Gardulla 96d (Benson 1945–1948) 15–29 Mar 1973 1 Bulcha 97c (Farrand & Ash p.o.) Jul–Sep 1990 frequent Nechisar NP 96d/108b (Safford & Duckworth p.o.) 1 Jan 1996 1 Nechisar NP 96d/108b (Webb p.o.) 15–17 Nov 1998 2 Nechisar NP 96d/108b (Pohlstrand p.o.) In addition there were at least 12 other records from other observers during 1969–1997 which are not supported with substantiating details: 66d (2 records), 80b (1), 80c (2), 81c (1), 83c (1), 107a (2), 107c (1), 108b (1), 108c (1). Until more information is collected on the distribution of this species in Ethiopia it is deemed wiser to hold these 12 other records in abeyance for the time being. Outside the Lake Abaya area intensive collecting in the past has provided no records, and the bird is totally unknown in north-west Kenya and adjoining Sudan. Additional uncertain records were those found ‘commonly in thornbush along the Omo river in unusually arid habitat’, contrasting for example with the Bulcha bird ‘in a characteristic site for this species in a thickly creeper-clad tree in forest on the river-bank at 1280m’. Breeding: there are no records. Favoured sites: Nechisar NP (96d, 108b). Tetrads: ET: 3 (-).

002 Ethiopia 193-384.indd 197

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11/1/09 12:01:28

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352. Black Coucal Centropus grillii

ET/ -

Other name: African Black Coucal Inexplicably rare, although possibly overlooked, in marshes with high vegetation and scattered bushes in south-west Ethiopia. There are eight records of this very furtive species, of which four are old and four recent, lying between 5°30´ and 9°30´N, and to the west of 38°N; there are several others lacking details. The confirmed records have been in Jan, Jul, Aug and Nov, and have been single birds except for once when there were two. Breeding: no data. Favoured sites: Lake Abaya/Nechisar NP area (96d, 108b), Omo (94d, 106b), Didessa (two birds together). Tetrads: ET: 7 (-).

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353. Blue-headed Coucal Centropus monachus

ET/ER

C.m.fischeri (ET); C.m.monachus (ET, ER). Of the two races, monachus is recorded almost to the Sudan border in the west, where it meets fischeri (Nikolaus 1987): this western population in Ethiopia is probably the latter. A common to very common resident in Ethiopia, but rare in Eritrea, where respectively breeding and presumed to breed. It favours higher elevations at 510–2730m, along streams and rivers, in marshes, forest and woodland edges, thickets and bushed areas. Its range in Ethiopia lies mainly to the north and west of the Rift Valley, where it is widespread and has a continuous range over large areas. In Eritrea it is confined to central areas below 16°N, at 1500–2420m. It is present throughout the year, and is most often seen singly or in pairs. The separation of this species in the field from Senegal Coucal presents special problems. Breeding: the only record is of a juvenile on 3 Jul (38d). Favoured sites: Bulcha (97c), Gambela (65d), Bahar Dar (39a), Jimma (81b), etc. Tetrads: ET: 88 (1); ER: 6 (-).

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354. Senegal Coucal Centropus senegalensis

ET/ -

C.s.senegalensis (ET). A locally common resident in western Ethiopia, but much uncertainty surrounds its status and distribution. This is largely due to difficulties in separating it from Blue-headed Coucal. Among over 50 claimed records of Senegal in an earlier analysis, only 26 were regarded as satisfactory. With subsequent evidence there are now acceptable records from 29 squares. However, all uncertain records are also plotted on the map, including one from Eritrea, from where there is no other record. It occurs in a variety of habitats, including combretaceous woodland with Hyparrhenia grassland, woodland edge, thickets, etc., between 7° and 14°30´N, all to the west of 38°E. Breeding: there are no records. Favoured site: Dembidollo area (66a) and Jimma area (81c). Tetrads: ET: 28 (-) + 1 (-).

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TYTONIDAE 199

355. White-browed Coucal Centropus superciliosus ET/ER C.s.superciliosus (ET, ER). A common to very common breeding resident in Ethiopia down to the southern border, and a presumed resident in Eritrea south of 16°30´N, including the Dahlak islands. It is unknown in northern Dancalia, the Ogaden and a large area in the west. It occurs along rivers, and in marshes, bushy areas, thornbush savanna, thickets, woodland edges, etc., from sea-level up to 1820m. Usually seen singly or in pairs, and often in numbers of up to 10 or more in fairly restricted areas. Breeding: eight first-egg dates are known from Ethiopia: Mar (1), Apr (3), May (2), Jun and Sep (1 each), but only the one clutch of five eggs is noted. Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Massawa (12a), Bahadu (51d), Dolo (124c). Tetrads: ET: 118 (7); ER: 15 (1).

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Family: TYTONIDAE barn owls 356. Barn Owl Tyto alba

ET/ER

Other name: Common Barn Owl T.a.affinis (ET, ER). An uncommon breeding resident in Ethiopia and also previously in Eritrea, where now apparently very rare. Widespread in Ethiopia south of 14°30´N, and mostly in central areas and along the Rift Valley, but widely scattered and a few extend to 43°30´E. It is found throughout the year in a wide range of habitats, and is particularly associated with lakes, marshes and riversides (and the nests of Hamerkops), also towns (Addis Ababa, Gewani, Gambela, Jijiga, Debre Zeit, Massawa, etc.), at altitudes ranging from 530–2420m. Besides being absent from the arid Ogaden and Dancalia, it is also unrecorded from the south-east and much of south-west Ethiopia. Smith (1957) stated there were no recent records for Eritrea, and there have only been two since: a single bird found in Massawa (12a) in Jan 1995 (Vaughan p.o.) and a single at Elabered (11b) in Jul 2008 (Anderson p.o.). Almost invariably seen singly, with only 3–4 instances of 3–4 together. Breeding: first-egg dates in three nests were in Nov (1), Dec (2). Favoured sites: Bahadu (51d), Koka (70c), Abiata (83b), Gambela (65d), etc. Tetrads: ET: 47 (5); ER: 6 (1).

357. Grass Owl Tyto capensis

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Other names: Cape Grass Owl; African Grass Owl T.c.capensis (ET). A very rare Afrotropical visitor to Ethiopia with two recent records 70km apart, which possibly could refer to the same bird. The second was photographed in Jan 1975 after it had been present for several years: 9 May 1973 1 Tefki 69a (Turner 1974) Before 23 Jan 1975 1 Debre Zeit 69b/70a (Head 1975) Tetrads: ET: 3 (-).

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Family: STRIGIDAE true owls 358. African Scops Owl Otus senegalensis

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ET/ER

O.s.senegalensis (ET, ER). A common and rather widespread breeding resident in Ethiopia, although only presumed to breed in Eritrea, from where no records have been traced in the last 90 years. Distribution extended from 16°30´N south to the southern border of Ethiopia, but there are several inexplicable gaps, notably in the west, but also in drier areas in the east. It is present throughout the year: the 111 records are fairly uniformly distributed geographically within its distributional limits. An interesting difference in behaviour between Eurasian and African Scops Owls is that when netted the former fights and struggles ferociously, whereas the present species is utterly placid, and sometimes feigns death. It is found at elevations up to 1910m. Breeding: the three first-egg dates are in Mar (1) and Apr (2). Favoured sites: Awash NP (71a, etc.); Bulcha (97c), Gibé gorge (68d), Filwoha (51d/60b), Hadar (42cd). Tetrads: ET: 77 (3); ER: 7 (-).

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359. Eurasian Scops Owl Otus scops

ET/ER

O.s.scops (ET, ER); O.s.pulchellus (ET). Almost certainly commoner in both Ethiopia and Eritrea than records suggest, as these are largely based on collected or netted individuals. It is distributed south of 16°30´N in Eritrea, and within Ethiopia between 3° and 12°N; it is unrecorded east of 42°. The 31 dated records fall between 13 Oct and 17 Apr, and probably all refer to overwintering birds as there are so few records further south. It is frequently found near rivers and lakes in acacia and riverine woodland, forest edges, and often where woodland occurs in small patches in deserts; between 250 and 2120m. All collected birds have been identified as nominate scops, except for one record of a male O.s.pulchellus from Moulu (60d) on 17 Dec 1911 (Friedmann 1930b). Favoured sites: Bulcha (97c), Koka (70c), Bahadu (51d), etc. Tetrads: ET: 21 (-); ER: 6 (-).

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360. Northern White-faced Owl Ptilopsis leucotis ET/ER Other names: Northern White-faced Scops Owl; White-faced Scops Owl A rather uncommon breeding resident in Ethiopia, and apparently even more so in Eritrea. The fewer than 50 records in Ethiopia are widely distributed below 14°30´N, extending south to 3°30´ between 34°30´ and 44°30´E, and found from near sea-level up to 2120m throughout the year. They are mostly found in large acacias, almost invariably singly, very occasionally two together, and once four in one tree. Breeding: seven first-egg dates were in Feb (2), Mar (1), Jun (2), Sep and Nov (1 each); there was one clutch of two eggs. Favoured sites: Abiata (83b), Koka (70c), Awash NP (60c), Bahadu (51d), Yavello (120a). Tetrads: ET: 30 (2); ER: 3 (2).

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STRIGIDAE

361. Desert Eagle-Owl Bubo ascalaphus

- /ER

Other name: Pharaoh Eagle-Owl There are two records for this species in Eritrea, 128 years apart, one old and one recent: 11 Apr 1868 1M Senafe 17a (Jesse 1869) 11 Mar 1996 1 near Hasmet 7c (Dewhurst p.o.) The latter, from which a wing feather was collected, was confirmed as being this species at the BMNH. It was found in a rocky desert area on the maritime plain of Eritrea about 11km from the sea. There are also two records on the Sudan side of Eritrean squares (Nikolaus 1987). Tetrads: ER: 2 (-) + 2 (-).

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362. Cape Eagle-Owl Bubo capensis

ET/ER

B.c.dillonii (ET, ER). There is one recent record of an injured bird from Eritrea: 1 Apr 2008 1 near Adi Keyih (2400m) 17a (Anderson p.o.) This is a breeding resident in Ethiopia found down the central highlands between 38° and 40°E and 6° and 14°N, where it is thinly distributed between 2720 and 4240m in rocky hills, although it may be greatly overlooked given that it was found to be common in the Bale mountains in a survey by Leslie Brown in 1963. Breeding: the only record is of an empty nest found at 3000m in Jan at Goba (98b). Favoured sites: Goba/Dinsho (98b/84d), Menagesha (69b). Tetrads: ET: 14 (1); ER: 1 (-).

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363. Greyish Eagle-Owl Bubo cinerascens

ET/ER

A fairly common resident in both countries, breeding in Ethiopia and presumed to do so in Eritrea, in a remarkably wide variety of habitat – from rocky desert, dry open woodland, towns, villages, cliffs, holes in trees, islands in lakes (Lake Tana), highland woodlands, etc., at 380–2500m. It extends throughout both countries between 3°30´ and 18°N, and eastwards as far as 43°E, and is present throughout the year. Usually seen singly; occasionally two together. At least 15 were sitting on a 1–2km stretch of road at night in Oct near Gibé (Atkins p.o.). Birds have been reported with yellow eyes, which are characteristic of the Spotted Eagle-Owl B. africanus, of which our Greyish Eagle-Owl was formerly considered to be a race, but their identification is uncertain and a bird of this species in Ethiopia would be a long way north of its breeding range in Kenya (BoKT), but non-breeding birds there occur at least north to the border with Ethiopia. Breeding: three first-egg dates were in Jan (1) and Feb (2); nests have been found in a hole in a tree, on the ground at the base of a cliff and of a tree, a cliff ledge, and beneath a large stone in the desert. Favoured sites: Aseita (43a), Gambela (65d), Didessa (56c), Abiata/Langano (83b). Tetrads: ET: 67 (5); ER: 12 (-).

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364. Verreaux’s Eagle-Owl Bubo lacteus

ET/ER

Other name: Giant Eagle-Owl A fairly common breeding resident in both Ethiopia and Eritrea. Characteristically it is found in clumps of large, often dense trees, frequently acacias, in more open country, although in Eritrea figs and Hyphaene palms are said to be preferred. It has been recorded at 180–1820m very widely over much of both countries, and is usually seen singly, or occasionally in pairs. Breeding: 10 first-egg dates are in Jan and Feb (2 each), Mar (3), Apr, Jun and Jul (1 each). Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Abiata (83b), Dolo (124c), Didessa (56c). Tetrads: ET: 81 (3); ER: 11 (1).

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365. Pel’s Fishing Owl Scotopelia peli

ET/ER

There is a single old record from Eritrea: 8 Apr l908 pair near Biacundi, Tacazze river 15c (Zedlitz 1910–11) It is locally common in Ethiopia, where there are at least 24 records of presumed residents, of which 11 are prior to 1970. It is recorded throughout the year, and all birds, except for two at lakesides, were in forest or woodland along various rivers at 370–1890m. Along some rivers, such as the Gidabo (97c) and Omo, they may be seen or heard daily over periods of several weeks. They are easily called up by a vocal imitation of their calls. The most northerly record is on the Tacazze river on the Ethiopian/Eritrean border, with others extending close to the southern border and then east to 42°30´E. Breeding: there are no records. Favoured sites: Bulcha (97c), Omo river (95ab, 106b, 107c). Tetrads: ET: 16 (-); ER: 1 (-).

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366. African Wood Owl Strix woodfordi

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S.w.umbrina (ET). Apparently a rare presumed resident in Ethiopia, with only about 30 records, of which 24 are since 1970, and others unsubstantiated. Records exist for every month, between 5°30´ and 14°N, and east to 43°E. Records exist for every month. It is an inhabitant of a variety of types of highland and lowland forest, from 800–2580m, and once surprisingly in a dense area of euphorbia near Jijiga (62d). It is possibly overlooked as there are relatively few nocturnal visits by observers to woodland suitable for this species. Breeding: there is one record of a juvenile with down in Addis Ababa in Jul 1947. Favoured sites: Addis Ababa (58d), Didessa (56c), Harenna forest (98b). Tetrads: ET: 23 (1).

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STRIGIDAE

367. Pearl-spotted Owlet Glaucidium perlatum

ET/ER

G.p.licua (ET, ER). A locally fairly common resident in Ethiopia and Eritrea, present throughout the year. They are both nocturnal and diurnal and found in acacia bush, other mixed bush and open woodland, but always in the absence of dense ground cover, at 180–2430m. They extend from 17°N south through both countries to along the border with Kenya in the south. The most easterly birds were at 43°E. Almost invariably seen singly, although very occasionally two together. They are intriguing birds with their two yellow eyes in front, and two false dark ones behind! Breeding: no breeding details. Favoured sites: Awash NP (71a), Jemmu valley (58b). Tetrads: ET: 60 (2); ER: 9 (-).

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368. Little Owl Athene noctua

ET/ER

A.n.spilogastra (ER); A.n.somaliensis (ET). A common presumed resident in two races: A.n.somaliensis in south-east Ethiopia, east of 41°30´E and mostly in the Ogaden; and A.n.spilogastra, in eastern Eritrea along the Red Sea coast. It is a thornbush and semidesert species, particularly associated with termitaria, at sea-level to 1630m: heaps of stones on desert graves provide popular perches, as well as probable nesting sites. Breeding: there are no records. Favoured sites: Warder area (104a, etc.), Hirghigo (12a), near Aischia (53c). Tetrads: ET: 28 (-) + 1 (-); ER: 5 (-).

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369. African Long-eared Owl Asio abyssinicus

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Other name: Abyssinian Owl A.a.abyssinicus (ET). A generally uncommon, but locally common, presumed resident in Ethiopia, distributed in central highland areas between 6°30´ and 14°N, and 37° and 40°30´E at 1820–3940m. The type specimen for this species was most probably from Ethiopia, rather than Eritrea (Smith 1957). We have information for 50 sightings, of which over 30 are since 1970 and 18 are old, and include 31 where numbers are given: 17 of single birds, 11 of 2–4 birds, two of five birds, and one of 30 roosting communally in a grove of Philippia at 2425m in the Bale mountains (99a) (Yalden 1973). All have been found in trees, including casuarinas, except for a population near Addis Ababa which lives on the ground among grass and boulders on small hills, and from which a female was collected (58d). Records exist for every month except for Apr and Jun. Breeding: there are three records: a pair nested near Dinsho (84d) in 1984 (Webb p.o.); a dead juvenile on 24 Nov 1995 in a churchyard at Fiche (2700m) in 58b (Woodcock p.o.); and a bird with a nest at Koffele (83d) in Nov 1996 (Farnsworth et al. 2000). Favoured sites: Dodola area (83d, 84c, 98a), Lake Tana (39a), Bale mountains (84d, 98b, 99a). Tetrads: ET: 17 (3).

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11/1/09 12:01:56

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370. Short-eared Owl Asio flammeus

ET/ER

A.f.flammeus (ET, ER). An irregular Palearctic winter visitor to coastal Eritrea, where also once inland, and in southern Ethiopia below 10°N, where at least 22 records. Always in open country, including grasslands, marshes and lakesides. Usually seen singly, once two, and six at Lake Tana (39a) on 7 Jan; extreme dates range from 28 Oct–6 Apr, with most records in Nov. Altitudes range from sea-level to 2430m. Favoured sites: none, although twice recorded at Lake Tana. Tetrads: ET: 11 (-); ER: 8 (-).

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371. Marsh Owl Asio capensis

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A.c.capensis (ET). There are nine records (one old and eight recent) in Ethiopia of this Afrotropical species, for which there are two unconfirmed breeding records. It has been recorded in Feb, Jun, Aug and Oct–Dec, but it is not known whether these have been short-term vagrant visitors, part of a regular migration, or even members of a small resident population. The records lie within two areas, one around Lake Tana and the other across the Rift Valley and the Omo valley between 5°30´ and 9°N and 35°30´ and 40°30´E, at 700–2730m. They were in open wetland areas, usually singly, but once six together at Mui (106b). Breeding: they possibly bred at Shebe (81b) during the period 1989–1993 (Harjula p.o.), and elsewhere a pair was mating at dusk in 84d (Bayu p.o.). Favoured sites: none. Tetrads: ET: 14 (-).

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Family: CAPRIMULGIDAE nightjars 35°

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372. European Nightjar Caprimulgus europaeus

ET/ER

Other name: Eurasian Nightjar C.e.europaeus (ET, ER); C.e.unwini (ET). Rare Palearctic passage migrant in spring and autumn with only five records in Eritrea, of which three were nominate birds, and one offshore was possibly unwini: Sep 1858 1 Dancalia coast ? (Heuglin 1859) Undated ? Cheren 11a (Reichenow 1900–1905) 29 Apr 1907 1 Gibdo 34b (Madarász 1915) 20 Jul 1963 1 Offshore ? (Colston p.o.) 21 Oct 1987 1 Doumeira 35a (Welch et al. 1992) Apparently also uncommon in Ethiopia where, in eight years during which there was much intensive netting, there were only 18 personal records of this species (Ash p.o.), including the only record of C.e.unwini (26 Oct 1971, Abiata, 83b), compared with nine nominate birds from all other sources in over 100 years. Extreme dates in spring are 25 Mar–29 Apr (8) and 9 Oct–24 Nov (18) in autumn. Passage may be concentrated in time, e.g. the Erlanger expedition collected seven in four days along the Mane river (99bd), 25 Mar–1 Apr. Favoured sites: Mane river (above); Bahadu (51d), Abiata (83b). Tetrads: ET: 13 (-); ER: 4 (-).

11/1/09 12:02:00

CAPRIMULGIDAE

373. Sombre Nightjar Caprimulgus fraenatus

ET/ER

Other name: Dusky Nightjar A fairly common resident in Ethiopia, with some indication of intra-tropical migration, although records exist for every month of the year. Its distribution is below 16°N, south through central and south-western areas down to the Kenya border. In Eritrea Smith (1957) found it to be not uncommon round Asmara (11d), but besides this there are only two other records, from Massawa (12a) and Adi Keyih (17a), and just beyond the border there is an isolated record in northern Ethiopia (16d). Between 530m and 2300m it inhabits open bush and scrubby areas, and also utilises eucalyptus plantations in Eritrea. Breeding: the only evidence is based on a collected male with advanced gonads on 20 May (11d), and two nests on the Somalia/Ethiopia border (63a) with first-egg dates in May (Archer & Godman 1961). Favoured sites: Bulcha (97c), Asmara (11d), Yavello area (120a), Abiata (83b). Tetrads: ET: 32 (1); ER: 3 (1).

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374. Egyptian Nightjar Caprimulgus aegyptius

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C.a.aegyptius (ET, ER). A rare Palearctic winter visitor to Ethiopia and Eritrea. From Eritrea there have been four records, of which three are old and one recent: 4 Mar 1898 ad F Salamona 12a (Hilgert 1908) Undated ? Massawa 12a (Reichenow 1900–1905) 29 Jan 1908 1 Massawa 12a (Zedlitz 1910–1911) 27 Feb 1996 1F Derhema 7c (Dewhurst p.o.) There is one record from Ethiopia: 30 Jan 1971 1 Koka 70c (Ashford p.o.) Tetrads: ET: 1 (-); ER: 2 (-).

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375. Nubian Nightjar Caprimulgus nubicus

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C.n.torridus (ET); C.n.tamaricis (ER). Common in Eritrea as overwintering Palearctic C.n.tamaricis, of which six are dated as follows: 21 Nov, 21 Feb, 27 Mar, 17 May, 4 and 5 Aug. Of at least nine records in Ethiopia, at least the following three were C.n.torridus, and probably all were Afrotropical visitors, between 18 Jan and 28 Jul: Feb 194– present Dobie valley 43b (Guichard 1950) 28 Jul 194– 1F Addis Ababa 69b (Guichard 1950) 18 Jan 1974 1 netted Bulcha 97c (Ash p.o.) Breeding: there is no evidence for torridus breeding in our region. Favoured sites: Eritrean coast; Awash NP (71a). Tetrads: ET 7 (-) + 5 (-); ER: 3 (-), including four torridus on the Somalia portion of Ethiopian border squares, where this race is resident (A&M).

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376. Donaldson Smith’s Nightjar Caprimulgus donaldsoni

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A locally common Afrotropical breeding resident in Ethiopia. It is found at heights within the range 180–1370m in open thornbush below 8°N and west to 37°E. Curiously it is commonest in the far south adjoining an area in Kenya where it is unrecorded. The lack of records in Ethiopia in May and Aug–Oct may not be significant, for this is the main breeding season in adjoining Somalia. Breeding: the first-egg date in the only record was in Mar. Favoured sites: Bulcha (97c), Filtu (111d). Tetrads: ET: 18 (1).

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377. Abyssinian Nightjar Caprimulgus poliocephalus ET/ Other names: Mountain Nightjar; Montane Nightjar A rather uncommon breeding Afrotropical resident in Ethiopia. It is a montane species present throughout the year at 1370–3030m, in well-wooded areas south of 13°30´N through central areas. It is likely to be found in highland Eritrea, but has not been found there yet. Usually seen as 1–2 birds. Breeding: there are three first-egg dates in Jan (1), May (2). Favoured sites: Sululta and Bole (58d), Bahar Dar (39a), Dinsho (84d). Tetrads: ET: 30 (4).

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378. Swamp Nightjar Caprimulgus natalensis

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Other names: African White-tailed Nightjar; Natal Nightjar C.n.natalensis (ET). A rare Afrotropical visitor with three records, two old and one recent, in Ethiopia to the north and east of its known range, possibly as a result of overshooting on a local intra-tropical migration: 15 Feb 1904 1F Baro river, near Jikao 64d (Ogilvie-Grant 1907b) 11 Jun 1968 juv M 5km SE of Agaro 81b (Erard & Prévost 1971) 8 May 1971 1M Challa, Kaffa 81a (Desfayes 1975) Found in wet grasslands and swamp edges. The Baro river bird was on the Sudan/ Ethiopia border. The last two records were only three years and 34kms apart, which suggests that further search in this area could be rewarding. Breeding: no record. Tetrads: ET: 3 (-).

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CAPRIMULGIDAE

379. Nechisar Nightjar Caprimulgus solala

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ENDEMIC. The only known example of this recently described species is as follows: 3 Sep 1990 1 Nechisar NP 108b (Safford et al. 1995) No trace of a living bird of this distinctive species has yet been found, either in the park or elsewhere. Tetrads: ET: 1 (-).

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380. Plain Nightjar Caprimulgus inornatus

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A rather uncommon bird in both Ethiopia and Eritrea. In the former it is a breeding resident present throughout the year between 6° and 14°N and to the west of 42°30´E. In Eritrea it is possibly an intra-tropical migrant, and mapped records show a distribution in the north-east and on the coast, with a breeding concentration further south in Ethiopia in the mid-Awash area. However, they are also reported from Dancalia in Smith (1957). There are two plumage colour phases, from grey to chestnut, with a range of intermediates, from near the coast in Eritrea and at 380–1530m in Ethiopia; from subdesert, thornbush and open woodland. Breeding: four first-egg dates from Ethiopia are Apr (1), May (2), and Jun (1). Favoured sites: Aseita (43a), Koka (70c), Bahadu (51d), Bulcha (97c). Tetrads: ET: 22 (4); ER: 10 (-).

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381. Star-spotted Nightjar Caprimulgus stellatus

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A rather uncommon presumed breeding resident, with over 30 records (13 prior to 1970). It occurs in the central Rift Valley, and two other sites nearby, and should be expected in the far south between 36° and 42°E in areas adjoining its distribution in Kenya (BoKT). Formerly two races were recognised in Ethiopia, with nominate birds north of 8°N and simplex to the south The records refer to single birds or pairs at up to 1620m, found in rather bare and stony ground with scant cover; and they have been found throughout the year except in Mar–Apr. Of 21 dated records 12 (57%) were in Nov–Jan. Care is required in separating this species from Plain Nightjar in the field. Breeding: there are no records. Favoured sites: Awash NP (59d, 60c, 70b, 71a). Tetrads: ET: 12 (-).

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208 CAPRIMULGIDAE 35°

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382. Freckled Nightjar Caprimulgus tristigma

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Other name: Rock Nightjar C.t.tristigma (ET). A rather uncommon breeding Afrotropical resident in Ethiopia. The main population is concentrated along or close to the line of the Rift Valley, with a few others in scattered sites, all south of 13°30´N, in the range of 350–1970m. It is essentially a species of rocky slopes, banks and hills, with or without the presence of trees; records exist for every month, and is usually seen singly. Breeding: only two first-egg dates are known, in Feb and Apr. Favoured sites: Arero (120b), Sodere (70c), Langano (83b), Yavello (120a). Tetrads: ET: 27 (1).

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383. Long-tailed Nightjar Caprimulgus climacurus ET/ER C.c.nigricans (ET, ER). Common to fairly common resident or breeding visitor within its restricted range in western Eritrea, and parts of western Ethiopia north of 8°N, but most lack the locality details necessary for mapping. It is mainly found in acacia bush at 500–750m and once at 1850m, and enters small towns, attracted to street lamps, for food at night. Further south, especially in the Baro river area, many are in combretaceous woodland; 45 were counted on one evening in Oct (Nikolaus p.o.), and 43 in Dec, all believed to be this species, along 5km of the riverside track at Gambela (65cd). There are no records between Jun and Aug, suggesting there may be an intratropical migration. Breeding: a male collected from a pair found in Eritrea (9d) was in breeding condition on 4 May; and one was incubating two eggs on a mislaid date (65d) in Ethiopia. Favoured sites: Tessenei (9d), Gambela (65d). Tetrads: ET: 5 (1); ER: 1 (1).

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384. Slender-tailed Nightjar Caprimulgus clarus

ET/ -

A common to very common and locally abundant breeding Afrotropical resident present throughout the year in Ethiopia. Found in open areas, usually near water, in semi-desert, grassed and lightly bushed or wooded areas (especially acacias) at 190–1530m. It is continuously distributed through the length of the Rift Valley, south from 12°N to the Kenya border, where it approaches the range of Long-tailed Nightjar. Eastwards it extends along the southern border, but is only thinly scattered through the rest of the eastern part of the country to a little north of the Shabeelle river. It is usually seen singly, or as 2–5 birds, but in some areas along the Awash river 10–20 may be seen at one time at Aseita (43a) or Bahadu (51d). Breeding: 10 first-egg dates were in Feb (1), Mar (2), Apr (5), May and Jul (1 each). Favoured sites: Bahadu (51d), Koka (70c), Nechisar (96d, 108b). Tetrads: ET: 52 (5).

5°

002 Ethiopia 193-384.indd 208

11/1/09 12:02:15

APODIDAE

385. Standard-winged Nightjar Macrodipteryx longipennis

35°

40°

45°

35°

40°

45°

35°

40°

45°

209

ET/ER

An intra-tropical migrant in both Ethiopia and Eritrea at 750–2030m. It has bred in Ethiopia, but there is only one record (in Oct) between 4 Jul and 6 Dec, and the largest number are in Jan–Feb. Except for two records just to the east in central Ethiopia it does not occur west of 39°30´E in either country. There are six records from a fairly restricted area in Eritrea between 15° and 16°30´N, and in Ethiopia it is mostly concentrated in the south-west. Usually seen singly, or up to 3–4 together; 20 at Lake Tana in Mar were exceptional. Breeding: three first-egg dates were in Apr (1) and May (2). Favoured sites: Gambela (65d), Didessa (56c), Bahar Dar (39a). Tetrads: ET: 36 (3); ER: 6 (-).

15°

10°

5°

Family: APODIDAE swifts, spinetails 386. Scarce Swift Schoutedenapus myoptilus

ET/ -

S.m.myoptilus (ET). A rare intra-tropical migrant found on five occasions (one old and four recent) in central Ethiopia in Jun–Sep, feeding above medium-level and highland forests at 1280–3030m: 10 Sep 1886 juv F Let Marefia 59b (Salvadori 1888) 5 Jun 1971 10+ Bulcha forest 97c (Ash p.o.) 7 Jun 1971 5 Bulcha forest 97c (Ash p.o.) 5 Jul 1972 6 Bulcha forest 97c (Ash p.o.) 26 Aug 1990 1 Lake Chamo 108b (Safford p.o.)

15°

10°

Breeding: there are no records. Favoured site: Bulcha (97c). Tetrads: ET: 3 (-).

5°

387. African Palm Swift Cypsiurus parvus

ET/ER

C.p.parvus (ET, ER); C.p.laemostigma (ET); ?C.p.myochrous (ET). A common resident wherever palms (Borassus and Hyphaene) occur at 0–1350m in both Ethiopia and Eritrea. The distribution of the two races which occur is based on a few collected specimens (a third race myochrous probably occurs in south-west Ethiopia but has not been confirmed with a specimen) and on the situation in adjoining countries (Kenya, Somalia and Sudan). C.p.parvus is widespread in Eritrea between 14° and 17°N, where it breeds, and in adjoining north-west Ethiopia. The species is present throughout the year, extending south through Ethiopia, as parvus in the north-west, presumed myochrous in the south-west and laemostigma in the south-east. The race of birds in the northern Rift is unknown. Colony size varies greatly, i.e. up to 50 at Gambela (65d), where regularly harassed by Red-necked Falcons in riverside palms, 100 at Massawa (12a) in coastal palms, and hundreds in Awash NP in palms at the Filwoha (59d) hot springs. It also wanders far from palms. Breeding: first-egg date in Jan in Eritrea, where there was also a male with advanced gonads on 3 May. Eggs are gummed into nests with saliva; these in turn are gummed to the underside of palm leaves. Favoured sites: Awash NP (59d, 60c, etc.), Massawa (12a), Gambela (65d), etc. Tetrads: ET: 56 (4); ER: 19 (4).

003 Ethiopia 385-576.indd 209

15°

parvus

10°

?

5°

myochrous

laemostigma

11/1/09 12:07:31

210

APODIDAE 35°

40°

45°

15°

africanus

10°

archeri?

388. Alpine Swift Tachymarptis melba

ET/ER

T.m.africanus (ET, ER); T.m.archeri (ET). Locally very common presumed resident, intra-tropical migrant, and possibly Palearctic migrant, in both Ethiopia and Eritrea. Although more numerous than Mottled Swift, its distribution is very similar, and the two are very frequently together in mixed roaming flocks, sometimes with other species of swifts. It may be seen almost anywhere where Mottled Swift occurs, including feeding frequently over forests, and avoiding the same areas as that species. Although it is assumed that Palearctic melba visit our area there is no evidence at all that they do so; moreover, there is a major reduction in numbers in Oct–Jan, which suggests that local africanus may emigrate from this area. There are records along the border with Somalia within the range of A.m.archeri. Breeding: single first-egg dates in each of Ethiopia and Eritrea are both in May. Favoured sites: Addis Ababa (58d), Bulcha (97c), Gambela (65d), etc. Tetrads: ET: 92 (1) + 1 (-); ER: 7 (1).

5°

35°

40°

45°

389. Mottled Swift Tachymarptis aequatorialis

ET/ER

T.a.aequatorialis (ET, ER). Common to locally very common presumed resident in both Ethiopia and Eritrea. Probably only breeds in cliffs at high elevations, but wanders widely and is likely to be commoner than the numbers of records suggest, owing to doubts over the field identification of the larger dark swifts. Recorded from 16°N south through both countries to the Kenya border, all except a very few being between 37° and 41°E. Present throughout the year, but not seen over arid areas such as Dancalia and the Ogaden; however, there are also other large areas in the south and west of the country where they have not been seen. Breeding: there are no records. Favoured sites: Addis Ababa (58d), Harar (62cd), Keren (11a), Yavello (120a), Abi Adi (23a). Tetrads: ET: 49 (-); ER: 5 (-).

15°

10°

5°

390. Common Swift Apus apus 35°

15°

10°

5°

003 Ethiopia 385-576.indd 210

40°

45°

ET/ER

Other names: Eurasian Swift; Swift; European Swift A.a.apus (ER); A.a.pekinensis (ET). An apparently very common Palearctic passage migrant, with some possibly overwintering, but difficulties over identification and confusion with Mottled, Nyanza and possibly Pallid Swifts lead to problems in assessing its true status. From two collected specimens there is one of each race in Ethiopia and Eritrea, otherwise racial distribution is unknown, although 300+ over Harenna Forest on 27 Jan 1996 (Sørensen et al. 1996) were possibly pekinensis: A.a.apus 6 Aug 1868 1 Anseba valley 6c (Smith 1957) A.a.pekinensis 12 Aug 1974 1 Addis Ababa 58d (Ash p.o.) Sometimes there are large numbers together, e.g. 1000+ on 22 Sep feeding on alate termites (58d); and through Apr up to 500 a day arriving high from the south-west and dropping down to drink from the Baro river at Gambela (65d). From a sample of 31 sight records claimed to be of this species in Ethiopia, there was an exactly similar number of uncertain ones; in the first group extreme dates are 25 Jul–15 May, but there is none in Dec, and most are in Mar–May. At Abi Adi (23a), where Dijksen regularly counted the many swifts he considered to be this species, they were present 5 Feb–21 Mar and 16 Aug–12 Nov. Swifts considered to be this species are associated with migrating House Martins in spring and autumn, e.g. hundreds on 8 Mar (84c) and 10 Oct (70d). It occurs widely between at least 7° and 16°30´N, east to 43°30´E. Favoured sites: Gambela (65d), Koka (70c), Jimma (81b), etc. Tetrads: ET: 35 (-); ER: 14 (-).

11/1/09 12:07:36

APODIDAE

391. Nyanza Swift Apus niansae

ET/ER

A.n.niansae (ET, ER); A.n.somalicus (ET). A common Afrotropical breeding resident widely distributed in Ethiopia and Eritrea, from 03°30´N on the Kenya border to 16°30´N, but not east of 43°E (and only a few east of 40°E). A species of cliffs and gorges in the highlands and also of towns, where presumably mostly nominate niansae, from sea-level to 2730m. Presumed A.n.somalicus of Somalia is only known from 62b; records of possible Pallid Swifts A. pallidus may belong here (see D29 in List D). The field identification of the ‘brown’ swifts presents great uncertainty, and is often not much easier with the bird in the hand. In particular, pale A.n.somalicus in the field is probably inseparable from Pallid Swift; a large northerly migration of what were believed to be Common Swifts in the Rift Valley proved to be A.n.niansae when handled; and A.a.pekinensis has been provisionally identified in the region as both A. pallidus brehmorum and A.berliozi. Distribution of niansae is almost certainly greater than shown on the map. Hundreds may gather to feed over forest canopy, and 1000+ together can be seen together over Addis Ababa. Breeding: 13 first-egg dates are in Apr (1), May (3), Jun–Aug (2 each), Sep–Nov (1 each). Favoured sites: Addis Ababa (58d), Gambela (65d), Rift Valley (70c, etc.). Tetrads: ET: 70 (2); ER: 6 (2).

392. Little Swift Apus affinis

35°

45°

15°

niansae

somalicus

10°

5°

ET/ER

A.a.galilejensis (ER); A.a.aerobates (ET); ?A.a.affinis. A locally common breeding resident in Ethiopia and Eritrea in two races, but their respective distributions are not clearly defined, and nominate affinis could occur in the region close to the southern border. Records exist for every month and they are widely scattered from 17°N south through both countries to the Kenya border. It mostly avoids arid country, but when not breeding in towns, villages, cliffs, caves and under bridges, it wanders widely from sea-level to 2580m. In 49 counts, 1–3 birds were seen in 37%, 4–10 birds in 31%, 11–30 birds in 24% and 31–100 in 8%. Breeding: there are no records or precise published data on breeding seasons; but there is evidence of breeding activity in Eritrea in Mar–May, and in Mar, Jul–Aug in Ethiopia. Favoured sites: Dire Dawa (61b), Kalafo (115a), Langano (83b), Aseita (43a), Assab (26d), Didessa (56c). Tetrads: ET: 69 (4); ER: 13 (7).

40°

211

35°

40°

45°

galilejensis 15°

aerobatas

10°

5°

393. Horus Swift Apus horus

ET/ -

A.h.horus (ET). A locally common breeding resident in Ethiopia, associated with steep banks near lakes, rivers and roadsides, and often found in numbers in excess of 100. Usually in open country, but sometimes under or close to trees, at 910–1890m (Debre Zeit). Records exist for every month. Its main distribution is concentrated along the Rift Valley, with only a few to the east; further north between 11° and 14°30´N in the combined Abay (Blue Nile), Lake Tana and Tacazze river areas there is a smaller concentration of birds, from which there have been no breeding records yet. Breeding: nests are placed in nests of burrowing species in banks, or excavated by the swifts themselves; five first-egg dates were in Jun (3) and Sep (2). Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Abiata/ Langano (83b), Debre Zeit (70a). Tetrads: ET: 40 (10).

35°

40°

45°

15°

10°

5°

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212

COLIIDAE 35°

40°

45°

394. White-rumped Swift Apus caffer

ET/ER

Other name: Caffer Swift A common breeding species, with records for every month in Eritrea, but only recorded in Ethiopia 10 Mar–31 Oct (and once undated in Nov). It is particularly associated with bridges and culverts over rivers and streams at 410–2290m because of the retort nests of swallows which they take over (these may be as little as 76.5cm above the ground or water below them). Its distribution extends as far as 16°N, south to the Kenya border (but is not known there until at least 250km further south), and east to 42°30´E. Usually only one or two pairs occupy a particular breeding site below a bridge, but up to 20 pairs may frequent a large bridge; numbers up to 25 have been seen feeding over marshland. Breeding: the birds from Akaki (69b) by Erlanger are actually this species and not horus as was recorded. Except for twice in nests of Red-rumped Swallow all others have been found breeding in those of Lesser Striped Swallow; three first-egg dates were in Apr (1) and Jun (2); clutch-size two eggs. Favoured sites: Didessa area (55d, 56c), Gibé gorge (68d), Jemmu valley (58b), Awash (60c). Tetrads: ET: 55 (12); ER: 8 (3).

15°

10°

5°

35°

40°

45°

Family: COLIIDAE mousebirds 395. Speckled Mousebird Colius striatus

15°

leucotis

hilgerti 10°

5°

mombassicus

35°

15°

40°

45°

macrourus

10°

griseogularis abyssinicus

ET/ER

C.s.leucotis (ET, ER); C.s.hilgerti (ET); C.s.mombassicus (ET). Abundant resident in three races in a wide range of woodland habitat, thornbush and thickets, in both Ethiopia and Eritrea. Its preference for less arid areas than Blue-naped Mousebird results in its absence from large areas of Dancalia, the Ogaden, and part of western Ethiopia. Otherwise it is widely distributed from 17°N south to the Kenya border, and it occurs from 180–2430m. It can be a major pest in gardens. C.s.leucotis extends through much of both countries, with hilgerti round Djibouti and in north-west Somalia in the east, and mombassicus from southern Somalia in the SE, but accurate mapping of the races concerned is not possible. Often seen singly or in pairs and in parties of up to 10; larger flocks and loose assemblages may often amount to 20 birds, and up to 50 occasionally. Breeding: 17 first-egg dates were in Feb (2), Mar (1), Apr (5), May (2), Jun–Aug (1 each); Sep (3), Oct (1). Favoured sites: Addis Ababa (58d), Koka (70c), Gambela (65d), Asmara (11d), etc. Tetrads: ET: 198 (16); ER: 16 (2).

395a. White-headed Mousebird – see p. 371 396. Blue-naped Mousebird Urocolius macrourus ET/ER U.m.macrourus (ET, ER); U.m.abyssinicus (ET); U.m.griseogularis (ET); U.m.pulcher (ET). A common breeding resident in Ethiopia and Eritrea in thornbush and semi-arid woodland; a drier-country bird than the Speckled Mousebird. Records exist for the four races for every month and are distributed as follows: macrourus in north-west and north-east Ethiopia as well as in Eritrea; abyssinicus in central and eastern Ethiopia; griseogularis in west Ethiopia; pulcher in southern Ethiopia. The divisions shown on the map between the races are only approximate. Birds are found at 450–2000m, but are presumably lower than this on the coastal plains; they share the habit with Speckled Mousebirds of forming compact ‘balls’ of up to 20 birds when roosting, and also at times during the day. Usually seen singly, in pairs, or in parties of up to 10 birds; a flock of 50 in Sep (114b). Breeding: seven first-egg dates are in Apr (3), May (2), Jun and Jul (1 each). Favoured sites: Bulcha (97c), Awash (71a, etc.), Koka (70c), Gewani (51d), near Lake Turkana (118a). Tetrads: ET: 132 (2); ER: 19 (-).

5°

pulcher

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11/1/09 12:07:46

TROGONIDAE, CORACIIDAE

Family: TROGONIDAE trogons 397. Narina Trogon Apaloderma narina

35°

40°

45°

35°

40°

45°

35°

40°

45°

213

ET/ER

A.n.narina (ET, ER). Fairly common to locally common presumed breeding resident with records for every month in Ethiopia, but rare in Eritrea, and elusive and seldom seen at any time. It is a woodland species, sometimes found in forest-edge scrub, thornbush in dry riverine acacia, and wet evergreen woods, at 490–3400m. It is not found in the drier parts of the east and south-east or near the western borders. Usually seen singly, occasionally two together, and sometimes 4–5 in a relatively small area. Breeding: there is no breeding site data, but birds with advanced gonads have been found in Jan, Mar and May (1 each), and Jun (2). Favoured sites: Bole valley (58d), Yavello (120a), Bulcha (97c), Hadar (42cd), Harenna forest (98b). Tetrads: ET: 72 (2); ER: 6 (-).

15°

10°

5°

Family: CORACIIDAE rollers 398. Rufous-crowned Roller Coracias naevius

ET/ER

Other name: Purple Roller C.n.naevius (ET, ER). A common breeding resident, apparently non-migratory, mainly in Acacia–Commiphora bush, but also present in other dry woodland, and where there are scattered trees from 180–2120m. Widespread in both Ethiopia and Eritrea below 16°N and south to the Kenya border. Most densely distributed in the Ogaden, but absent from more arid Dancalia. Curiously, except in the south, almost entirely absent from all the country west of 37°E. Records exist for every month and it is usually seen singly, ocasionally in pairs, and 3–4 only rarely. Breeding: two first-egg dates were in Apr–May, and a pair carrying food were apparently returning to a nest with young under a bridge on 13 Apr, and others were found breeding in the eaves of lakeside cottages at Langano (83b) in Apr. Favoured sites: Negelle (110cd), Bulcha (97c), Abiata (83b), etc. Tetrads: ET: 127 (4); ER: 9 (1).

15°

10°

5°

399. Lilac-breasted Roller Coracias caudatus

ET/ER

C.c.lorti (ET, ER). A common intra-tropical breeding migrant and presumed resident in Ethiopia. There is one record from Eritrea of a vagrant collected and deposited in the British Museum: Aug 1942 1 16km W of Keren 11a (MacNair 1946) It is very much a species of acacia bush and woodland at 180–1700m, with its main distribution along the Rift Valley and throughout the country to the east of it; only a few extend further west and none at all, except for the above bird from Keren, north of 12°N. The situation in Ethiopia is complicated but appears to conform with that in Somalia: most birds are in the south in Nov–Dec, only a few in the Rift Valley in Jan and none anywhere in Feb – a time when presumably most birds are further south. Numbers increase in Mar–Oct, when there is breeding in the south, which only occurs in the north of its range in Mar and May. It seems to be commonest and most widespread in Sep. Breeding: seven first-egg dates were in Mar (3) and Aug–Sep (2 each), in nests in holes in trees and cliffs. Favoured sites: Abiata (83b), Ogaden, etc. Tetrads: ET: 118 (3); ER: 1 (-).

003 Ethiopia 385-576.indd 213

15°

10°

5°

11/1/09 12:07:51

214

CORACIIDAE 35°

40°

45°

400. Abyssinian Roller Coracias abyssinicus

ET/ER

Locally common breeding resident in Ethiopia and Eritrea, and probably an intratropical migrant to an unknown extent. Occurs throughout the year at 180–2430m in a wide range of open woodland, open areas with scattered trees, acacia bush, etc. It is found down the spine of Ethiopia from 17°N south to the Kenya border, to the north and west of the Rift Valley; further east it is much less common and is not found beyond 43°30´E. It is also absent from or scarce in large areas of the rest of the Ogaden and Dancalia. Usually seen singly, or in pairs, but often 8–10 together, especially when alate termites emerge. Breeding: a prolonged season with 16 first-egg dates in Apr (2), May (1), Jun (6), Jul–Sep (2 each), Oct (1). Favoured sites: Awash NP (71a, etc.), Bahadu (51d), Abiata (83b), etc. Tetrads: ET: 120 (9); ER: 22 (1).

15°

10°

5°

35°

40°

45°

401. European Roller Coracias garrulus

ET/ER

Other name: Eurasian Roller C.g.garrulus (ET, ER). A generally uncommon but locally common Palearctic passage migrant in Ethiopia and Eritrea. In spring extreme dates in Ethiopia are 11 Mar–27 Apr, mostly along the Rift Valley and areas to the east, whereas in Eritrea there are very few records, only between late Apr and early May in the Assab area (26d). In the autumn there is a large passage in mid-Aug to late Oct in Eritrea of many birds in large spreadout flocks, but this is not apparent further south in the country where in one year at least there were only a few scattered widely over eastern Ethiopia during 6 Oct–7 Nov. Only a few overwinter in the south in Dec–Feb. It would seem that in this area of eastern Africa there is a large loop-migration of this species passing south through Eritrea (Smith 1957) and northern Somalia (A&M) in the autumn, and a large passage to the north in spring in southern Somalia (Ash & Miskell 1980): there is no northern passage in Eritrea, and only a relatively small southern one in northern Somalia in autumn. It has been recorded at 190–1370m. Favoured sites: none. Tetrads: ET: 39 (-); ER: 19 (-).

15°

10°

5°

35°

15°

10°

40°

45°

402. Broad-billed Roller Eurystomus glaucurus

ET/ER

E.g.afer (ET, ER). A fairly common intra-tropical breeding visitor with records for every month in Ethiopia, but only recorded from May to autumn in Eritrea. It is found in a wide range of habitats, provided there are trees, from forest (with breaks from rivers and glades), baobab savanna, acacia woodland, particularly in proximity to water, at 900–1910m. Distribution is mainly westerly, extending from 12°30´ to 16°30´N in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia, and then, except for one record, only south of 10°N and west of 42°30´E in the rest of Ethiopia down to 4°N. Usually seen singly or in pairs, and the large gatherings seen in other regions have not been found in Ethiopia – the largest number being 14 together over forest in Jul. Breeding: egg-laying in the four records was in Mar, Apr, Oct, Nov (1 each month), in holes in trees and a bridge. Favoured sites: Bulcha (97c), Didessa (56c), Negelle (110b). Tetrads: ET: 60 (2); ER: 9 (-).

5°

003 Ethiopia 385-576.indd 214

11/1/09 12:07:56

ALCEDINIDAE 35°

Family: ALCEDINIDAE kingfishers

40°

215

45°

403. Grey-headed Kingfisher Halcyon leucocephaha ET/ER Other names: Chestnut-bellied Kingfisher; Grey-hooded Kingfisher H.l.leucocephala (ET, ER); H.l.hyacinthina (ET). Abundant resident and intra-tropical migrant in Ethiopia and Eritrea, in thornbush, riverside woodland and relatively open country, near water but not necessarily closely associated with it; nominate leucocephala is widespread through both countries, but is replaced by hyacinthina from Somalia in the south-east. Two birds ringed in Ethiopia in Oct were recovered in Kenya in Mar and Nov (Ash 1981d). There are no winter records in Eritrea, to where birds return in Apr–May, but they are present throughout the year in Ethiopia at 180–1850m. Very large numbers in Mar–Apr and Sep–Oct are indicative of migration, e.g. in spring: 15–28 Mar, when 106 netted at Aseita (43a), 14–25 Apr, when 23 netted at Bahadu (51d); in autumn: 15 Sep–7 Oct, when 140 netted at Aseita, and 16–26 Oct, when 18 netted at Bahadu, and there were astonishing numbers over a wide area in 110b in Mar. Presumably passage migrants also occur en route to and from the Arabian peninsula. Breeding: eight first-egg dates are in Jan–Mar, May–Jun, Oct–Dec (1 each). Favoured sites: see above, as well as Gambela (65d), Metehara (70b), etc. Tetrads: ET: 133 (7); ER: 18 (1).

404. Striped Kingfisher Halcyon chelicuti

15°

leucocephala

10°

5°

hyacinthina

35°

40°

45°

35°

40°

45°

ET/ER

H.c.chelicuti (ET, ER). A common breeding resident in Ethiopia, but in Eritrea rather rare except in Mai Aini area (17b). Not dependent on the proximity of water; found in open woodland, Acacia–Commiphora bush, Combretum–Terminalia woodlands, etc., at 910–2120m. It avoids the very arid areas of Dancalia and much of the south-east including the Ogaden, but occurs widely through much of the rest of the region south of 16°30´N in Eritrea, almost to the Ethiopia/Kenya border. Breeding: 11 first-egg dates were in Jan–Mar (3 each), May–Jun (1 each). Favoured sites: Awash NP (71a, etc.), Didessa (56c), Awassa (83c), Gambela (65d), etc. Tetrads: ET: 124 (5); ER: 7 (-).

15°

10°

5°

405. Blue-breasted Kingfisher Halcyon malimbica

ET/ -

H.m.malimbica (ET). Only known as a rare presumed resident with 10 records (one before 1970, nine recent) in two areas of western Ethiopia, at 950–1400m. This is apparently an isolated population close to nominate malimbica but which may be an undescribed race, far removed from the nearest known sites for the latter on the Sudan/ Uganda border (Nikolaus 1987). Recorded in Jan–Apr, May, Jul, Sep–Oct, with an old record at Handac on 18 Mar 1959 in 56c (Toschi 1959); two along the Didessa river in 1971 in 56c (Ash p.o.), and near Gok (79a) in 1974 (H. Pohlstrand p.o.), five records along Didessa and Legedema rivers in 56c and 67a in 1989 (de Castro & de Castro 1990), one along the Omo, in 82c in 1993 (Hirsch p.o.) and two at 20km north of Tepi in 2001 (Shimelis p.o.). Seen singly or in pairs. Breeding: there are no records. Favoured sites: Legedema river (67a), Didessa bridge area (56c). Tetrads: ET: 6 (-).

15°

10°

5°

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216

ALCEDINIDAE 35°

40°

45°

406. Woodland Kingfisher Halcyon senegalensis

ET/ER

H.s.senegalensis (ET, ER); H.s.cyanoleuca (ET). Nominate birds are locally common breeders in Ethiopia and Eritrea; records exist for every month in the former, but apparently an intra-tropical migrant and only present in Jun–Sep in Eritrea. Found in a variety of woodland, including dense acacia, mango plantations, Hyphaene swamp, usually near water, at 380–1530m. The main concentration in Ethiopia is along the Rift Valley, with only one record to the east of it; elsewhere it is widely scattered in the west, except in arid areas, north to 16°30´N in Eritrea. Usually solitary, or in pairs. Race cyanoleuca is only known from the Sudan border west of Gambela (Nikolaus l987) but may be quite common as a migrant. Breeding: six first-egg dates are in May and Jun (1 each), Jul (2), Aug and Sep (1 each). Favoured sites: Gambela (65d), Bulcha (97c), Didessa (56c), Bahadu (51d), Koka (70c), etc. Tetrads: ET: 69 (2); ER: 6 (1).

15°

10°

senegalensis

cyanoleuca? 5°

35°

40°

45°

407. Collared Kingfisher Todiramphus chloris

- /ER

Other name: White-collared Kingfisher T.c.abyssinicus (ER). A breeding visitor, or possibly resident, confined to coastal and island mangroves in Eritrea. There are surprisingly few records, suggesting it is either elusive or rare, and these are confined to the months of Feb, Apr–Aug and Dec, which supports the suggestion that it may be a migrant. Its distribution is limited to short stretches of coast north and south of Massawa and on the Dahlak Islands, and also in the Assab area. Breeding: there is a record of a pair with young in a hole in a mangrove tree on 25 Aug (Clapham 1964). Favoured sites: Shek Seyd Island (12a), Harat Island (7c). Tetrads: ER: 7 (1).

15°

10°

5°

35°

15°

10°

40°

45°

408. African Pygmy Kingfisher Ceyx pictus

ET/ER

Other name: Pygmy Kingfisher C.p.pictus (ET, ER). A common breeding resident in Ethiopia, but less common in Eritrea, where possibly an intra-tropical migrant as it is unrecorded in winter (Smith 1957). There is no evidence for migration in Ethiopia, where it is present throughout the year. It inhabits a wide range of woodland and bushland, but needs banks or termitaria for its breeding burrows; at 180–1530m, not necessarily near water. The main concentration of distribution is down the length of the Rift Valley, with a scattering of records to the east, but with very many more to the north and west, extending as far as 17°N in Eritrea. Breeding: the only record with data is from Eritrea, with a first-egg date in Jun. Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Bole river (58d), Bahadu (51d), Gambela (65d), etc. Tetrads: ET: 98 (8); ER: 8 (1).

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ALCEDINIDAE 217

409. Malachite Kingfisher Alcedo cristata

ET/ER

A.c.galerita (ET); A.c.stuartkeithi (ET, ER). Fairly common presumed resident in both Ethiopia and Eritrea, associated with river- and streamsides, and lakes where there is emergent vegetation, at 380–2720m. Distribution throughout the year is concentrated down the length of the Rift Valley and widely in areas to the west of it and north to 16°N. A bird at Kalafo (115a) on 13 Sep 1971 is exceptional, but there are also two other remote records in north-eastern Somalia (Ash & Miskell 1998), possibly passage migrants to Arabia. A.c.stuartkeithi is confined to the north above 13°30´N, and galerita over the rest of the range of the species (Dickerman 1989). Usually seen singly or in pairs, but occasionally numbers occur in an area, e.g. 70 netted 24 Jul–8 Aug and 32 netted 15–30 Aug in two different years at Gambela (65d). Breeding: there are no dated records. Favoured sites: Gambela (65d), Lake Abiata (83b), Aseita (43a), Koka (70c). Tetrads: ET: 80 (2); ER: 10 (-).

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410. Half-collared Kingfisher Alcedo semitorquata ET/ER Rather uncommon presumed breeding resident in Ethiopia, along fast-flowing streams, especially where wooded, but often elsewhere including open streams and large rivers, at 750–2270m. Except for four records, all others were in or to the west of the Rift Valley, widely scattered to 14°30´N. In Eritrea there are a further three up to 16°N, one in 12a, one in 17c (Blanford 1870), and an adult in the Torrente Endeli gorge (18ac) in Dec 1906 (Salvadori 1907–08). Breeding: there are no breeding records, except for a mating pair in Mar (58d). Favoured sites: Didessa (56c), Bole river (58d). Tetrads: ET: 51 (-); ER: 3 (-).

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411. Giant Kingfisher Megaceryle maxima

ET/ER

M.m.maxima (ET, ER). Local and uncommon in Eritrea, fairly common in parts of Ethiopia, and presumed to be a breeding resident in both. Found along rivers, especially where wooded, and freshwater lakes, at 750–1820m. The few Eritrean records are spread across the south below 15°30´N, whereas further south in Ethiopia they are concentrated along the Rift Valley and in the area to the west, but only very few to the east of this line. They are almost invariably seen singly, very occasionally two together, and records exist for every month except Sep. Breeding: the only record lacks data. Favoured sites: Gambela (65d), Bulcha (97c), Langano (83b), etc. Tetrads: ET: 67 (1); ER: 5 (-).

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412. Pied Kingfisher Ceryle rudis

ET/ER

C.r.rudis (ET, ER). A common to very common breeding resident and intra-tropical migrant in part of its range in Ethiopia, but a much less common presumed resident in Eritrea. Its range in the north extends from 16°N south through Ethiopia to the Rift Valley, but very much less common to the east of it where there is only a dispersed distribution. It is found along streams and rivers, at freshwater and alkaline lakes and in marshes, but only rarely on the coast in Eritrea; frequently to 2120m, and rarely to 2420m. It is found throughout the year, but in noticeably smaller numbers in May–Jul, when only 70 (13%) of a sample of 535 records occurred. Roosting flocks of up to 75 birds have been seen, e.g. at Lake Awassa (Borrow p.o.). One ringed at Gambela (65d) in Jul was in Uganda in Nov of the following year (Borrow p.o.). Breeding: only three first-egg dates are known, one each in Apr, May and Dec. Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Abiata (83b), Gambela (65d), etc. Tetrads: ET: 129 (3); ER: 9 (-).

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Family: MEROPIDAE bee-eaters 413. Swallow-tailed Bee-eater Merops hirundineus ET/ -

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M.h.heuglini (ET). An uncommon presumed resident, in two restricted areas of the west and south-west at 480–750m, known from five old records within the period 1814–1903, and over four times as many again since 1970. It is mainly associated with combretaceous woodland in Ethiopia, around and to the west and south of Gambela (65d) close to the Baro and Gilo rivers. Three recent records from the Omo river area indicate this must also be a recognised site. A single old record from near Adwa (Salt 1814) is an error: this specimen was collected in Mozambique and is still extant in the Liverpool Museum (accession number D35: Largen 1988). No records exist for Aug–Nov, which may suggest the birds are not present at that period. Breeding: no records. Favoured site: Gambela (65d). Tetrads: ET: 9 (-).

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414. Little Bee-eater Merops pusillus

ET/ER

M.p.ocularis (ET, ER); M.p.cyanostictus (ET). In Ethiopia a common and in Eritrea an uncommon breeding resident, in thornbush, combretaceous woodland, and open acacia woodland at 180–1570m. It is represented by two races, cyanostictus in the lower Rift Valley and in areas to the east, ocularis in areas to the west and north, although there is a zone in the north-east between these two areas of distribution where racial identity is unknown (see map). It is a smaller bird than the similar Blue-breasted Bee-eater, with a wing-length of 72–85mm in 217 Ethiopian Little compared with 91–104mm in 62 Blue-breasted (Ash p.o.). It is very widely distributed south of 16°30´N in both countries except in the more montane and the most arid areas, and records exist for every month, although no recent records have been found for ocularis in Sep–Nov. Breeding: first-egg dates from 10 nests were in Feb (1), Mar (4), Apr (3), Jun and Jul (1 each). Favoured sites: Keren (11a), Awash NP (60c, etc.); Gambela (65d), Didessa (56c), Ogaden; Abiata (83b), etc. Tetrads: ET: 175 (10) +1 (-); ER: 16 (2).

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MEROPIDAE

415. Blue-breasted Bee-eater Merops variegatus

ET/ER

M.v.lafresnayii (ET, ER). A common resident in a wide range of wooded and bushed habitats, commonly confused with Little Bee-eater but occurring at 530–1830m and thus generally rather higher than that species (but is also frequently misidentified as extralimital Cinnamon-chested Bee-eater M.oreobates). Blue-breasted is widely distributed south of 17°30´N in Ethiopia and Eritrea, but 40°E is the cut-off line and there are only a few records further east (see map). It is generally seen throughout the year as 1–2 birds, or in small family parties of up to six; it also, at least sometimes, roosts communally and up to 16 and 23 have been seen together at dusk. Interestingly only Little occurs at Koka (70c) at 1590m, while only Blue-breasted occurs much lower at 1280m at Bulcha (97c). More work is required on these southern birds. Breeding: eight first-egg dates were in Jan–Mar (1 each), Apr (4), Oct (1); nests are in burrows in banks. Favoured sites: Addis Ababa (58d), Bulcha (97c), Didessa (56c). Tetrads: ET: 126 (14); ER: 12 (2).

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416. Red-throated Bee-eater Merops bullocki

ET/ER

M.b.frenatus (ET, ER). There is one old record from Eritrea: Undated ? Hamedo, Mareb river 9d (Heuglin 1869–74) In Ethiopia it is believed to be a locally common breeding resident in a few areas in the west, but as it has only been recorded in the period 22 Nov–28 Aug, and none at all in Sep–Oct, it may be an intra-tropical breeding migrant visitor. It is found by freshwater lakes, rivers and large streams, and in acacia, combretaceous and other woodland. Within its Ethiopian range breeding colonies do not exceed 25–30 birds, and it is unusual to see this many together; however, it is common along the Akobo, Gilo and Baro rivers, and extends westwards down the latter for at least 11km beyond Itang (65c), and breeds up to 750m elevation. Breeding: there are no dated observations. Favoured site: Gambela (65d). Tetrads: ET: 20 (2); ER: 1 (-).

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417. Somali Bee-eater Merops revoilii

ET/ -

A common presumed breeding resident in a large area of the south-east, and in a smaller area of the south-west of Ethiopia – a classic ‘Somali arc’ distribution, but where the southern sector in northern Kenya does not quite reach southern Ethiopia between 37° and 41°E. It inhabits open acacia bush, semi-desert and dry grassland with scattered bushes and trees, at 180–590m, south of 9°N and east of 41°E, with a small pocket of distribution round the Omo mouth and the Lake Chew Bahir (118abcd) area. Records exist for every month. Usually singly or in pairs, and thinly scattered. Breeding: no records in Ethiopia. Favoured site: Ogaden (89c, 103b, 114c, etc.); Bogol Manyo (123b). Tetrads: ET: 57 (-).

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418. White-throated Bee-eater Merops albicollis

ET/ER

A common intra-tropical migrant, breeding and on spring and autumn passage in both Ethiopia and Eritrea between 3°30´ and 17°N. It breeds in semi-desert and dry open bushland, but on passage may occur almost anywhere. Widely distributed between sealevel and 1700m, but large areas of central-west, central-south and south-east Ethiopia are without records. Northerly migration has been recorded 9 Apr–7 Jun, southward in Sep; birds are present from at least 8 Jan to 14 Oct, but none has been observed 15 Oct–7 Jan. Migrating parties may number 50 or more. Breeding: has been noted where several pairs nest in burrows in small scattered colonies on flat ground. In the four records involved, first-egg dates were in May and Jun (2 each). Favoured sites: Awash NP (71a, etc.), Bahadu (51d), Bonga (81c). Tetrads: ET: 81 (2) +1 (-); ER: 22 (3).

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419. Green Bee-eater Merops orientalis

ET/ER

Other name: Little Green Bee-eater M.o.viridissimus (ET, ER). A common to very common and widespread breeding resident in Eritrea below 8°N; uncommon in Ethiopia as an apparently non-breeding visitor, with four old and 12 recent records in Dec–Apr; most frequent in the Gambela (65d) area during 26 Dec–13 Feb. It is a bird of mainly arid country and semi-desert where there are thornbushes and some trees, but it also occurs in wetter areas as a migrant. Recorded between sea-level and 1210m in Eritrea, but mainly below 750m in Ethiopia. Frequently it is in small parties and up to 20 have been seen dust-bathing communally. Breeding: in burrows in banks, where four first-egg dates are in Mar (1), Apr (2) and May (1). Favoured sites: Massawa (12a), Gambela (65d). Tetrads: ET: 13 (-); ER: 20 (7).

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420. Blue-cheeked Bee-eater Merops persicus

ET/ER

M.p.persicus (ET,ER). A Palearctic passage migrant in spring and autumn in Eritrea and Ethiopia, with some overwintering in the latter. Most records were accumulated prior to the splitting of Blue-cheeked from Madagascar Bee-eater, so their interpretation is mostly difficult. There is a very large northerly diurnal passage of birds in Feb–Apr, especially in Mar, in Ethiopia and in Apr–May in Eritrea; southerly migration is in Aug–Sep in Eritrea, and in (Sep) Oct–Nov in Ethiopia. Overwintering birds are present between these periods and altogether have been present in the country between 8 Sep and 1 May. These migrations are largely presumed to be this species, but the amount of confusion with Madagascar, which probably overlaps it to an unknown extent, is impossible to assess. The map shows all the known certain records for this species, and triangles indicate additional old records of the two forms before they were split. Certainly identified Blue-cheeked have been in Mar, Apr and Sep; the very large number of unidentified birds in Mar–Apr and Oct–Nov could also involve Madagascar. Favoured site: Bahadu (51d). Tetrads (certain Blue-cheeked only): ET: 41 (-); ER: 12 (-).

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MEROPIDAE

421. Madagascar Bee-eater Merops superciliosus ET/ER Other name: Olive Bee-eater M.s.superciliosus (ET). A common intra-tropical migrant, breeding visitor and possible resident in Ethiopia. Smith (1957) claimed there was no certain record of Madagascar Bee-eater from Eritrea, and that all records referred to Palearctic Blue-cheeked Beeeater. Apart from birds seen in May–Aug in Ethiopia, when no Blue-cheeked are known to occur, others in Ethiopia need to be checked for this species; particularly those present in Dec–Feb, when the unlikely occurrence of Madagascar cannot be ruled out entirely. Normally it occurs below 1530m (once at 1820m), and breeds below 920m, in a range of open country, in acacia bush, semi-desert, along rivers and by lakes and marshes, etc. The map indicates records of certainly identified birds of this species, and triangles indicate additional old records of persicus/superciliosus before they were split. Breeding: in burrows in banks and on gently sloping ground. Six first-egg dates are in May (3), Jun (2), Jul (1) (these dates are earlier in Apr and May in Somalia, compared with May–Jun in eastern Ethiopia and Jul in western Ethiopia). Favoured sites: Awash NP (71a), Bahadu (51d), Koka (70c), Bulcha (97c). Tetrads (certain Madagascar only): ET: 34 (5); ER: 4 (-).

422. European Bee-eater Merops apiaster

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ET/ER

Other name: Eurasian Bee-eater A very common Palearctic migrant on spring and autumn passage in Ethiopia and Eritrea, with relatively few overwintering in the former. Its choice of habitat is catholic and ranges from the coast to montane areas up to at least 3030m, over which it also migrates. It is partial to wetland areas, including lakes, rivers and marshes, and will associate with people and wild and domestic animals for items of food disturbed by them, as well as using the latter as look-out stations. Extreme dates are between 16 Aug (once 5th) and 5 May (once 23rd), with the main passage in spring 10 Mar–5 May and in autumn 16 Aug–30 Oct. Birds present during 1 Nov–7 Mar may include some early and late migrants and overwintering birds – the latter mainly between 5° and 9°N. Distribution is widespread across both countries, although mainly absent from the drier areas such as Dancalia, the Ogaden and southern Ethiopia. Favoured sites: Rift Valley (70c, 83b, etc.), Addis Ababa (58d, 69b), Gambela (65d). Tetrads: ET: 114 (-) + 1 (-); ER: 24 (-).

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423. Carmine Bee-eater Merops nubicus

ET/ER

Other name: Northern Carmine Bee-eater M.n.nubicus (ET, ER). Very common breeding resident and presumed intra-tropical migrant, but no supporting evidence for the latter has been obtained. Records exist for every month at up to 2500m in a wide variety of open country, especially at lakes, rivers, marshes, grassy plains, coast, bushland, etc. Feeding flocks of 100–150 are frequent, while up to 250–300 are infrequent. Largest breeding colony 300+ pairs (124c). In Ethiopia most roosting birds seem to be in trees. Frequently feeds from the backs of large birds, notably Abyssinian Ground Hornbills and Kori Bustards, as well as wild and domestic animals, and uses the activity of people, wild and domestic animals and bush-fires as a means of disturbing available food. An albino was found at Aseita (Ash 1978b). Breeding: colonies in 124c and 14d were occupied in Apr (2) and May (1), but the only known first-egg dates are in Mar. Favoured sites: Bahadu (51d), Abiata (83b), Gambela (65d), Dolo (124c). Tetrads: ET: 119 (10); ER: 9 (1).

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Family: UPUPIDAE hoopoe(s) 424. Common Hoopoe Upupa epops

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Other names: Hoopoe, Eurasian Hoopoe U.e.senegalensis (ET, ER); U.e.epops (ET, ER); U.e.africana (ET); ?U.e.waibeli (ET). A common intra-tropical migrant and breeding visitor to, and possible resident (senegalensis) in, Ethiopia and Eritrea; and a common Palearctic passage migrant and winter visitor (epops) present throughout Ethiopia during 17 Sep–23 Apr, but only once in Dec, and records exist for every month in Eritrea. U.e.africana has occurred once in Ethiopia: ringed on 28 Oct 1974 at Koka (70c) (Ash p.o.). U.e.waibeli might occur but has not been reported. Found in any type of woodland from coastal mangroves to montane scrub at 3030m; absent from very arid areas, and fewer in the far west. Although Hoopoes are present in May–Sep, presumably senegalensis, few have actually been racially identified in this period. Of 93 birds netted in 1969–1976, 80 were epops, 11 senegalensis, one africana, and one unidentified. Breeding: 11 first-egg dates (presumably all senegalensis) were in: Jan (1), Mar (3), Apr (5), May–Jun (1 each). Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Awash NP (71a, etc.), Bahadu (51d), Lake Tana (39a), etc. Tetrads: ET: 196 (13); ER: 29 (3).

senegalensis

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Family: PHOENICULIDAE wood hoopoes 425. Green Wood Hoopoe Phoeniculus purpureus

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ET/ -

Other name: Red-billed Wood Hoopoe P.p.niloticus (ET). One of a group of species which has been immersed in a tangle of taxonomic and nomenclatural confusion. Plumage variation within the species, intergradation between races, and possibly even hybridisation between species, indicates phylogenetic instability. This species in Ethiopia represents a small eastern extension of its range from Sudan into the western lowlands, where it certainly extends to just beyond 35°E, although scattered birds may reach as far as 38°E. It appears to be clearly separated from red-billed Violet Wood Hoopoe P. damarensis not far away to the south (see List D). Field identification of all Phoeniculus species requires great care. Found in a variety of open woodland, palms and acacia bush at around 500–800m. In 17 counts it was seen singly on nine occasions, and 3–6 birds eight times. Breeding: there are no records. Favoured sites: Gambela (65d). Tetrads: ET: 11 (-).

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abyssinicus

neglectus

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ET/ER

P.s.somaliensis (ET); P.s.neglectus (ET); P.s.abyssinicus (ET, ER). See also remarks under last species; distributions given for this species in BoA and BoKT differ greatly. A common widespread breeding resident in Ethiopia and Eritrea from 16°30´N in the north down to the Kenyan border in the south. There are three races, all of which may have some red at the base of the bill: neglectus occurs in central areas above c.5°N to c.12°N, and west of eastern somaliensis; the latter has been recorded across the south to 36°E, but this requires confirmation; abyssinicus occurs between c.12° and 16°30´N, but the exact delineation of the distribution of all three races is poorly understood (e.g. see BoA and BoKT). The species’ habitat is much as in Green Wood Hoopoe, but it is especially common in acacia bush, from the coast up to 2120m. Usually seen singly or in pairs in 70 of 114 counts (61%), 3–5 in 30 counts (31%), and six or more in nine counts (8%). Breeding: 12 first-egg dates were in: Jan–Feb (1 each), Mar (2), Apr–May (1 each), Jun–Jul (2 each), Aug–Sep (1 each). Favoured sites: Abiata (83b), Gambela (65d), Bulcha (97c), Koka (70c). Tetrads: ET: 162 (9); ER: 19 (4).

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426. Black-billed Wood Hoopoe Phoeniculus somaliensis

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BUCEROTIDAE

427. Black Scimitarbill Rhinopomastus aterrimus ET/ER Other name: Black Wood Hoopoe R.a.notatus (ET, ER). A rather uncommon breeding resident extending eastwards in two bands from Sudan, one across Eritrea and northern Ethiopia, and the other mainly concentrated along the Rift Valley across central Ethiopia. Ranging from 17°N south to 4°30´N, not quite reaching the Kenya border. It is a bird of thornbush, and combretaceous and other woodland, but avoids denser woodland and forest. Records exist for every month from almost sea-level up to 1880m. There is no evidence that R.a.emini extends into western areas from Sudan. Immediately distinguished from Abyssinian Scimitarbill by the presence of white in its tail. Generally seen singly or in pairs, three together occasionally, and once each four and five together. Breeding: two first-egg dates are in Jan and Jun. Favoured sites: Bulcha (97c), Abiata (83b), Koka (70c), Keren (11a). Tetrads: 54 (2); ER: 16 (1).

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428. Abyssinian Scimitarbill Rhinopomastus minor ET/ R.m.minor (ET); R.m.cabanisi (ET). A fairly common breeding resident in Ethiopia only, found widely below 11°30´N almost entirely to the east of the Rift Valley with only very few just to the west. There are two races, but their respective distributions are poorly understood. A racially identified cabanisi specimen is known from 99b, otherwise the line separating the two races on the map is largely based on field observations. Usual habitat is open woodland and a variety of bushland at 180–1550m, where it was seen singly or in pairs in 24 of the 27 counts, and as 3–4 in the others. Breeding: four firstegg dates (all nominate minor) were in Feb and Mar (1 each), and May (2). Favoured sites: none; records are widely scattered. Tetrads: ET: 93 (4) + 1 (-).

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cabanisi 35°

Family: BUCEROTIDAE hornbills 429. Crowned Hornbill Tockus alboterminatus

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ET/ -

T.a.geloensis (ET). A not uncommon presumed breeding Afrotropical resident in a rather restricted area of W/SW Ethiopia, between 6° and 10°N west of 39°E. It is found at 690–2760m in woodland and forested areas. Besides records from within the area mapped there are half as many again unconfirmed records, probably largely resulting from confusion with Hemprich’s Hornbill. Its existence in its present known range has been confirmed in the past by collected specimens, and the absence of collected specimens from other probable areas tends to suggest their absence there is real. Probably sedentary, and no indication of movement, but no records yet in Jun, Aug, Sep or Dec; usually seen singly, in pairs, or in parties of 3–4. Breeding: the only record is of a newly fledged juvenile on 7 Apr (69c). Favoured sites: Didessa (56c), Bonga (81c), Menagesha (69b). Tetrads: ET: 24 (1).

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430. Hemprich’s Hornbill Tockus hemprichii

ET/ER

A common breeding resident in wooded habitat associated with cliffs, gorges and other rocky areas in both Ethiopia and Eritrea; also visits towns, eucalyptus plantations, and more open country. Generally it does not occur below 1570m, but sometimes descends as low as 380m, and is found up to at least 3900m. Its range extends from 16°30´N in Eritrea south through Ethiopia as far as the Kenya border, but there are very few west of 37°E, from where they extend eastwards as far as 43°E. Usually seen singly or in pairs, but they often roam about in the non-breeding season in parties of 10–12 birds. Breeding: first eggs in four nests were in Aug and Sep (2 each), in holes in cliffs (Brown 1976), and a tree (Heuglin). Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Bulcha (97c), Langano (83b). Tetrads: ET: 89 (7); ER: 9 (1).

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431. African Grey Hornbill Tockus nasutus

ET/ER

Other name: Grey Hornbill T.n.nasutus (ET, ER). A common breeding resident and intra-tropical migrant in a wide range of woodland habitats, especially acacia, at elevations between close to sea-level and 1510m. It is resident in both Ethiopia and Eritrea, where records exist for every month from 17°N south through both countries down to the Kenya border, but absent from most of arid Dancalia and a large area of the south-east. Flights of migrating birds are a familiar sight in some other parts of the species’ range, but are rarely recorded in Ethiopia: at Gambela (65d) in May parties of up to 21 birds daily flew west, and in Aug at Mui (106b) parties of 6–12 daily were possibly migrants. Breeding: 11 first-egg dates were in Mar–Sep: Mar (1), Apr–Jul (2 each month), Aug–Sep (1 each). Favoured sites: Bulcha (97c), Gambela (65d), Awash NP (71a etc.), Didessa (56c). Tetrads: ET: 117 (10); ER: 21 (1).

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432. Red-billed Hornbill Tockus erythrorhynchus

ET/ER

T.c.erythrorhynchus (ET, ER). A common, sometimes abundant, breeding resident in both Ethiopia and Eritrea, in bushland, acacia and combretaceous woodlands, between 180 and 2120m. Records exist for every month, apparently in two disjunct populations, one in northern Ethiopia and Eritrea, and another in the south extending eastwards from a short distance to the west of the Rift Valley over the rest of the country, the two being separated at about 10–11°N. Its absence from a large part of western Ethiopia and an adjoining area of Sudan cannot be explained. Often seen singly and in pairs, small parties of 10–12, and flocks of 20–50, especially in the south, where once several thousands were seen from the road feeding on the ground in scattered flocks of up to 50 birds to the south-east of Yavello in Dec 1974–Jan 1975 (Ash p.o.). Breeding: 15 first-egg dates were in Feb (3), Mar–Apr (4 each), May–Aug (1 each). Favoured sites: Awash NP (71a, etc.), around Gurara (130cd), Jemmu valley (59a). Tetrads: ET: 188 (11) + 1 (-); ER: 20 (2).

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BUCEROTIDAE

433. Eastern Yellow-billed Hornbill Tockus flavirostris

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Other name: Yellow-billed Hornbill A fairly common Afrotropical resident, breeding in Ethiopia and presumed to do so in Eritrea. Typically a species of Acacia–Commiphora bush and acacia woodland throughout the year, at 180–1720m, but reported up to 2430m by Blanford (1870), although not above 1210m by Smith (1957). Usually seen singly or in pairs, rarely three together. Distribution in Eritrea is local south of 16°N in the east, and numbers seem to be decreasing there. It is mainly found along parts of the Rift Valley and in the area east of it to the southern borders of Ethiopia, with a narrow extension north to Eritrea. Breeding: five first-egg dates were in Apr (4) and May (1). Favoured sites: Awash NP (71a, etc.), Warder area (104a), etc. Tetrads: ET: 134 (6) +2 (-); ER: 6 (-).

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434. Von der Decken’s Hornbill Tockus deckeni

ET/ -

A common breeding resident in dry to moderately dry thornbush and acacia woodland in Ethiopia at 180–1530m. Its distribution lies along the Rift Valley and scattered through an area to the east into Somalia, and also south into Kenya. There is an unconfirmed isolated record (in 31b), which was either a wanderer or possibly an indicator of an isolated population (Dijksen p.o.). In 58 counts, 35 were of single birds, 22 of 2–6 birds, and once 11, throughout the year. Breeding: eight first-egg dates were in Jan and Feb (1 each), Mar (2), Apr–Jul (1 each). Favoured sites: Bulcha (97c), Koka (70c), Awash NP (71a, etc.), Abiata (83b). Tetrads: ET: 107 (6).

15°

10°

5°

435. Jackson’s Hornbill Tockus jacksoni

ET/ -

Apparently a rare possible resident, in a restricted area in south-west Ethiopia, south of 6°N and west of 38°E. However, it is possibly only a casual visitor extending from its range in north-west Kenya and south-east Sudan. There are four old records of collected specimens: 31 Aug 1905 1 Gato river, Konso 850m 108c (Ogilvie-Grant 1913) 1 Jun 1912 1F Bodessa 108d (Friedmann 1930b) 5 Jun 1912 1M Sagon river 108d (Friedmann 1930b) 14 Jun 1912 M+F Mar Mora 119a (Friedmann 1930b) It occurs within the known range of Von der Decken’s Hornbill in Ethiopia, a species which does not extend in this area across the adjoining border with Kenya and Sudan. There are about a dozen other records of Jackson’s in southern Ethiopia but they all lack supporting details, and two collected skins at Tring listed as this species from that area proved to be deckeni. Breeding: there are no records. Tetrads: ET: 3 (-) + 2 (-).

15°

10°

5°

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226

BUCORVIDAE, RAMPHASTIDAE 35°

40°

45°

436. Silvery-cheeked Hornbill Bycanistes brevis

ET/ER

A common breeding Afrotropical resident, with two isolated records in Eritrea: Nov 1909 1 collected Adi Ugri 16b (Cavazza 1913) 10 Jun 1998 a pair Mai Aini 17a (Zinner p.o.) It is curious that these two only records were in adjoining half-degree squares 89 years apart, with no other records from the country in the interim. In Ethiopia its main distribution lies along both sides of the lower Rift Valley but mainly to the west, and most records lie to the west of 40°E and south of 10°30´N. There are two lines of extension from this area, to the north through the Lake Tana area, and to the north-east towards Djibouti. It inhabits wooded and forested country at 510–2430m, and frequently in areas with scattered large Ficus trees (Awassa). Present throughout the year, usually seen singly or in pairs, but often feeding in parties of 10–15, and frequently roosting communally. Breeding: eight first-egg dates were in Feb (3), Mar–Jul (1 each month). Favoured sites: Bulcha (97c), Didessa (56c), etc. Tetrads: ET: 88 (3); ER: 2 (-).

15°

10°

5°

35°

40°

45°

Family: BUCORVIDAE ground hornbills 437. Abyssinian Ground Hornbill Bucorvus abyssinicus

15°

ET/ER

Other name: Northern Ground Hornbill A common (less so in Eritrea) Afrotropical breeding resident south of 16°30´N through Ethiopia to the Kenya border. In Ethiopia it extends from near the Sudan border eastwards just as far as 43°30´E. Present throughout the year in open grassland, often with scattered trees, at 180–2000m (once 2420m); in 91 counts almost equally singly or in pairs in 69 counts (76%), 3–5 birds in 17 counts (19%), and once each in parties of 8, 9, 11, 12, 14. Breeding: there is one first-egg date in Apr, and a record of a new-fledged pullus on 13 Aug; there are no data on contents of occupied nests. Favoured sites: Bulcha (97c), Awash NP (71a, etc.), Langano (83b). Tetrads: ET: 149 (7) + 1 (-); ER: 14 (1).

10°

5°

35°

40°

45°

Family: RAMPHASTIDAE barbets, tinkerbirds 438. Red-fronted Tinkerbird Pogoniulus pusillus

15°

uropygialis

10°

5°

ET/ER

P.p.affinis (ET); P.p.uropygialis (ET, ER). A common Afrotropical resident in Ethiopia and Eritrea, but only presumed to breed in the latter. Two races occur, uropygialis in the north and affinis in the south, but the dividing line shown on the map is only approximate. It is found in almost any kind of woodland, including thornbush, Ficus and riparian woodlands, etc., from near the coast to 1820m. Inexplicably rare in some well-known areas, e.g. Koka (70c). It is widespread across Ethiopia in less arid areas as far as 45°E, and south to the Kenyan border; in Eritrea it extends from 16°30´N mostly through the eastern part of the country. Breeding: there are only two first-egg dates, one each in Feb and Mar. Favoured sites: Bulcha (97c), Gambela (65d), Arba Minch (96d). Tetrads: ET: 138 (1); ER: 14 (-).

affinis

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RAMPHASTIDAE

439. Yellow-fronted Tinkerbird Pogoniulus chrysoconus

35°

40°

45°

35°

40°

45°

35°

40°

45°

227

ET/ -

P.c.chrysoconus (ET); P.c.xanthostictus (ET). A rather uncommon Afrotropical breeding resident in Ethiopia distributed to the west of 40°30´E and between 5° and 14°N. There are two races, chrysoconus in the north-west and xanthosticta in the south-west, whose distributions are indicated approximately on the map. Records exist for every month in a variety of wooded country and thorn scrub at elevations from 750–1820m, and are usually seen singly or in pairs; in 60 counts, there were single birds in 47 (78%), two birds in 10 (17%), and 3–5 in three counts. Breeding: eight first-egg dates were in the period Aug–Jan, viz: Aug (2), Oct (1), Dec (3), Jan (2). Favoured sites: Bonga (80d/81c), Bulcha (97c), Debre Mariam Island (39a). Tetrads: ET: 56 (2).

15°

chrysoconus

10°

5°

xanthostictus

440. Red-fronted Barbet Tricholaema diademata

ET/ -

T.d.diademata (ET). An uncommon and rather local breeding Afrotropical resident in Ethiopia. Its range is confined, south of 10°N, to the line of the Rift Valley with some extension in range to small areas to both the east and the west of it. Very much associated with acacia woodland, but also in Acacia–Commiphora bush, and to a lesser extent in combretaceous woodland, at 580–1720m. It is present throughout the year, and usually seen solitarily: in 59 sightings, 49 were of single birds (83%), seven of two birds, and three of three birds. Breeding: six first-egg dates were single records in Jan, Mar, Apr, May, Jun and Dec. Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Bulcha (97c), Langano (83b). Tetrads: ET: 34 (2).

15°

10°

5°

441. Black-throated Barbet Tricholaema melanocephala

ET/ER

T.m.stigmatothorax (ET); T.m.melanocephala (ET, ER); T.m.blandi (ET). A fairly common Afrotropical resident, presumed to breed in Ethiopia, and known to do so in Eritrea, recorded at near sea-level to 1350m. Mostly associated with acacia, but also found in thickets of Salvadora and Ziziphus. Records exist for every month in three races: melanocephala below 17°30´N and through the eastern half of Eritrea, along the Rift Valley and into the eastern part of Ethiopia to c.8°N; blandi in the Ogaden south of the latter, to intergrade with stigmatothorax close to the Wabe Shabeelle (an adult male with shared characters was collected by Erlanger on 3 Apr 1901 on the River Mane in 99d); stigmatothorax to the south as far west as 35°30´E and all along the Ethiopian border with Kenya. Usually seen singly or in pairs. Breeding: there are no reports, except one without details from 6b. Favoured sites: Negelle area to Filtu (111c etc.), Warder area (104ac, 90c), Hadar (42cd), Massawa (12a), Chew Bahir area (107d, 118b, 119a). Tetrads: ET: 90 (-) + 1 (-); ER: 9 (1).

15°

melanocephala

10°

blandi

5°

stigmatothorax

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228

RAMPHASTIDAE 35°

40°

45°

thiogaster 15°

? undatus 10°

squamatus

5°

leucogenys

35°

40°

45°

442. Banded Barbet Lybius undatus

ET/ER

ENDEMIC. L.u.leucogenys (ET); L.u.undatus (ET); L.u.squamatus (ET); L.u.thiogaster (ET, ER). There are four recognised races delineated on the map from collected specimens: those formerly known as ‘gardullensis’ are now included under leucogenys, those as ‘senafensis’ under thiogaster and those as ‘salvadorii’ under squamatus. The race in Dickinson (2003) called salvadori (sic) should actually be squamatus. A fairly common and widely distributed resident in Ethiopia and Eritrea, but breeding is only proved in the former. It is endemic to the two countries, and records exist for every month in a wide range of habitats where there are trees (particularly Ficus and other fruit-bearers), at 450–2280m, and it is found from 16°30´N south through Eritrea and Ethiopia to the southern border with Kenya at Lake Turkana; eastwards it extends to 40°E in Eritrea and to 42°30´E in Ethiopia. It has not been recorded other than singly or as pairs. Breeding: it has been found breeding eight times in Ethiopia, two with first-egg dates in Apr and Jun, and five with nests in May, Jun–Aug and Nov, with another building in Nov. Favoured sites: Didessa (56c, undatus); Keren (11a, thiogaster); Agere Maryam (109a, leucogenys); Harar area (62a, squamatus); Wondo Genet (83d, leucogenys), etc. Tetrads: ET: 92 (6); ER: 6 (-).

443. Vieillot’s Barbet Lybius vieilloti

ET/ER

L.v.vieilloti (ET, ER). Only known in Ethiopia from one old record on the border with Eritrea: 19 Apr 1908 1 collected Biaghela 15c (Zedlitz 1910–11) In Eritrea it is a rather uncommon presumed breeding resident in a 1.5° band across the country from the Sudan border to the Dahlaks. Essentially an acacia species found from near sea-level up to 1360m. Following records in five squares in 1962 (Clapham p.o.), there have been only two since, in 9d and 11a in 1994–1995, and all others are old and dated in the period 1870–1909. Records exist for only seven months of the year, Nov–Apr and Jun, and birds have mainly been recorded singly, but once each of two and three birds. Breeding: there are no records. Favoured sites: none known. Tetrads: ET: 1 (-); ER: 9 (-).

15°

10°

5°

35°

15°

10°

40°

45°

444. Black-billed Barbet Lybius guifsobalito

ET/ER

A very common breeding Afrotropical resident in a wide range of wooded country with fruiting trees, particularly figs, in Ethiopia; presumed to breed in Eritrea. Found at 380–2430m, from 16°30´N in Eritrea, widely distributed south through the Rift Valley, from which it extends further east in some areas, although it is absent from much of the arid country east of 40°E. Further north it is also absent from most of arid Dancalia. It is usually seen singly or in pairs, and records exist for every month. Breeding: the only certain evidence of breeding season is of two first-egg dates in Apr, and a female with advanced gonads in Oct; four other records refer to birds at nesting holes, of which one was in May and one in Jul, but there are no other data. Favoured sites: Sodere (70c), Bulcha (97c), Gambela (65d), Bahadu (51d), Abiata (83b). Tetrads: ET: 120 (6); ER: 11 (-).

5°

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RAMPHASTIDAE

445. Double-toothed Barbet Lybius bidentatus

ET/ -

L.b.aequatorialis (ET). A rather uncommon presumed breeding Afrotropical resident in a restricted area of west and south-west Ethiopia. Found in a variety of open woodland, thickets, scrubby areas, gardens, etc., at 580–1830m. It is distributed between 4°30´ and 12°N, and apart from one record does not extend eastwards beyond 40°E; records exist for every month usually of single birds or pairs; 3–5 infrequently. Numbers fluctuated in one well-watched area, suggesting movements, possibly in quest of fruiting trees. Breeding: there are no records except for two pairs excavating holes in early May (83d). Favoured sites: Gambela (65d), Bulcha (97c), Awassa (83c), etc. Tetrads: ET: 64 (-).

35°

40°

45°

35°

40°

45°

229

15°

10°

5°

446. Red-and-yellow Barbet Trachyphonus erythrocephalus

ET/ -

T.e.versicolor (ET); T.e.shelleyi (ET). A locally common Afrotropical breeding resident in Ethiopia, extending south from 13°30´N with the main distribution along and to the east of the Rift Valley. There are two races, versicolor in the south and shelleyi to the north, but the range of each is unclear and there is much intergradation where they meet. Typically a thornbush, scrub and light woodland species, at 180–1530m, apparently dependent on the presence of termitaria for breeding and roosting. Absent from Eritrea, but is likely to be there as it is found in Dancalia within 9km of its border (presumed shelleyi). Usually seen singly or in pairs; once six emerged from the same roosting hole in a termitarium; records exist for every month. Breeding: there are four first-egg dates: two each in Mar and Apr. Favoured sites: Bulcha (97c), Awash NP (71a), etc. Tetrads: ET: 64 (2).

15°

10°

shelleyi

5°

versicolor

447. Yellow-breasted Barbet Trachyphonus margaritatus

35°

40°

45°

ET/ER

T.m.margaritatus (ET, ER); T.m.somalicus (ET, ER). A common breeding Afrotropical resident throughout Eritrea south of 17°N and in north-east Ethiopia south to 8°N. Of the two races somalicus extends westwards from Somalia between 9° and 11°N; between about 41° and 43°E it overlaps with T.m.margaritatus throughout the rest of its range to the west and north. Records exist for every month. It is found from sea-level to 2120m in a range of dry habitats including thornbush, especially acacia, wooded and bushy areas, with dry banks and/or termitaria; it is usually seen singly, or as 2–3 together, but at times several occur in loose associations. Breeding: nine first-egg dates are in May (1), Jun and Jul (3 each), Aug and Sep (1 each) for both races, and one margaritatus in Feb in Eritrea. Nests are in holes in banks, termitaria and trees. Favoured sites: Asmara area (11d), Awash NP (71a, etc.). Tetrads: ET: 49 (4) + 1 (-); ER: 24 (4).

15°

margaritatus 10°

somalicus

5°

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230

INDICATORIDAE 35°

40°

45°

448. D’Arnaud’s Barbet Trachyphonus darnaudii

ET/ -

T.d.darnaudii (ET); T.d.boehmi (ET). A fairly common breeding resident in Ethiopia in grasslands with thornbush or open woodland at 180–1520m. It is found south of 8°N, and except where it just reaches the south-west, all are to the east of the Rift Valley. Of the two races, boehmi occurs to the east of 39°30´E, and nominate birds to the west, although a bird from Moyale (130a) was described as boehmi but is perhaps more likely to be nominate. Usually seen singly or in pairs, and rarely up to six. Breeding: the only record is of a first-egg date in Mar (darnaudii), and a bird of the same race was seen at a presumed nest in a hole in the ground in Nov. Favoured sites: Yavello (120a), Mui (106b). Tetrads: ET: 32 (2).

15°

10°

5°

boehmi

darnaudii

35°

40°

45°

Family: INDICATORIDAE honeybirds, honeyguides 449. Green-backed Honeybird Prodotiscus zambesiae

15°

ET/ -

Other names: Eastern Honeybird; Slender-billed Honeyguide P.z.ellenbecki (ET). A rather rare and poorly known parasitic and presumed breeding resident in Ethiopia, with only 18 records this century (five old and 13 recent), all between 9 Oct and 7 Mar, in woodland, forest edge and garden-like situations, at 1750–1970m. Distribution is confined to a relatively small area in south-west and central areas between 6° and 9°N and 35° and 40°30´E. Breeding: there are no records. Favoured sites: Wondo Genet (83d), Gojeb river area (81ac), Alghe forest (83d). Tetrads: ET: 16 (-).

10°

5°

35°

15°

10°

40°

45°

450. Wahlberg’s Honeybird Prodotiscus regulus

ET/ -

Other names: Brown-backed Honeybird; Sharp-billed Honeyguide P.r.regulus (ET). An uncommmon to rare presumed resident, breeding parasitically in Ethiopia. It is found at 900m to at least 2000m in a mixed range of wooded and bushland habitats, lakesides and riversides, forest edge, acacia bush, etc. Its main distribution is down the Rift Valley, and in areas to the east and north-west of it between 4°30´ and 9°30´N and 37° and 41°E, as well as in a much smaller area round Lake Tana. The latter warrants further study. Records exist for every month, and all records refer to single birds except for a displaying pair once. Breeding: parasitic; there are two records with first-egg dates in Aug and Sep, the host being Rattling Cisticola in one case, and probably in both (Ash p.o.) – a new host species (Friedmann in litt.). A Beautiful Sunbird showed much interest in one of these young birds, but did not feed it. Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Wondo Genet (83d), Yavello area (120ab). Tetrads: ET: 24 (1).

5°

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INDICATORIDAE 231

451. Lesser Honeyguide Indicator minor

ET/ER

I.m.diadematus (ET, ER); I.m.teitensis (ET). A fairly common parasitic breeding resident patchily distributed in Ethiopia; in Eritrea rare prior to 1957 and not recorded since. Records exist for every month in a wide range of bushed and wooded habitat at 190–2600m. I.m.teitensis is the presumed race in the lower Shabeelle and far southern Ethiopia, extending from its range in southern Somalia and northern Kenya, and diadematus is elsewhere. Otherwise it is absent from both countries east of 41°E and from large areas of eastern Ethiopia. In 79 records, there were 62 single birds (78%), two birds 11 times (14%), three birds five times (6%), and five birds once. Breeding: there is one undated record in 81a. Favoured sites: Bulcha (97c), Koka (70c), Didessa (56c), Gambela (65d). Tetrads: ET: 58 (1); ER: 4 (-).

35°

40°

45°

15°

10°

diadematus

teitensis

5°

teitensis

452. Scaly-throated Honeyguide Indicator variegatus ET/ A locally not uncommon breeding Afrotropical parasitic resident found in southern Ethiopia below 9°30´N and west of 40°30´E. It inhabits diverse woodlands and forest, not ‘evergreen forests and juniper-clad hillsides’ in Ethiopia (fide BoA), at 1280–3030m. Usually seen singly or in pairs; in 43 observations 34 consisted of single birds (79%), and the remainder of pairs (21%). Breeding: the only first-egg date was in Jan, with Nubian Woodpecker fosterers, in Harenna forest in 98b (Ash p.o.). Tetrads: ET: 26 (1).

35°

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45°

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10°

5°

453. Greater Honeyguide Indicator indicator

ET/ER

Other name: Black-throated Honeyguide An uncommon to fairly common parasitic resident, presumably breeding, in both Ethiopia and Eritrea. Within its range it may occur wherever there are trees, from forest edge to isolated scattered trees in grasslands, at 530–2320m. It is uncommon in Eritrea, where in addition to the mapping squares shown it is also known from unplotted sites in the south along the Mareb and Tacazze rivers. It is found through Ethiopia down to the Kenya border in the south, but is absent from much of the Ogaden, Dancalia, and the western highlands east of 38°30´E. It is widely used as a guide to honey sources, and is regarded benignly by local people, e.g. the Guji constantly talk to their honeyguides with encouraging calls and terms of endearment (‘wully-ah’). Remarkably, birds also guide along circuitous accessible routes to avoid dense undergrowth. Breeding: no accurate data. Favoured sites: Bulcha (97c), Koka (70c), Didessa (56c), Gambela (65d). Tetrads: ET: 91 (-); ER: 7 (-).

15°

10°

5°

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232

PICIDAE 35°

40°

45°

Family: PICIDAE wrynecks, woodpeckers 454. Eurasian Wryneck Jynx torquilla

15°

ET/ER

Other name: Northern Wryneck J.t.torquilla (ET, ER). A fairly common Palearctic migrant on spring and autumn passage, and overwintering in Ethiopia and Eritrea. Largest numbers are in Mar and Oct. Extreme dates are 31 Aug–18 Apr in Eritrea and 8 Sep–12 Apr in Ethiopia; fewer overwinter in Eritrea. The most southerly was on the Kenya border in 128b, with most along the Rift Valley and very few to the east of it. Always seen singly; even when there are 2–3 in an area they do not consort. Overwinters in scrub and acacia bushland in semi-desert areas, acacia and mixed woodland, and forest edge; five overwintered in c.1ha of acacia woodland at Aseita (43a). Recorded from sea-level to 2430m. Favoured sites: Bulcha (97c), Koka (70c), Bahadu (51d), Aseita (43a), Didessa (56c). Tetrads: ET: 43 (-); ER: 12 (-).

10°

5°

35°

40°

455. Rufous-breasted Wryneck Jynx ruficollis

45°

ET/ -

Other names: Red-throated Wryneck; Red-breasted Wryneck J.r.aequatorialis (ET). A locally common breeding resident in Ethiopia, at 1500–3300m on highland grasslands with scattered trees and rocks, and woodland edges and clearings. It is found from 14°N southwards almost to the Kenya border, over rather restricted areas which are not necessarily correlated with altitude, and may be linked with availability of ant food requirements. Records exist for every month, usually of single birds or pairs, but occasionally small parties of 3–5. Breeding: the only record with suitable data has a first-egg date in May (Ash p.o.). Favoured sites: Entoto (58d), Awassa (83c), Yavello (120a). Tetrads: ET: 40 (6).

15°

10°

5°

35°

40°

456. Nubian Woodpecker Campethera nubica

45°

ET/ER

C.n.nubica (ET, ER); C.n.pallida (ET). A common breeding (presumed in Eritrea) resident in Ethiopia and Eritrea, occurring widely south of 17°N through much of both countries, although absent from arid areas such as Dancalia, and also inexplicably absent or rare in some other areas. It is found in acacia bush and woodland and elsewhere where there are trees, except in forests, at 150–2120m. Usually seen singly or as 1–3, rarely four together and once six. Of the two races present pallida extends from Somalia into the Ogaden as far as about 44°/45°E, but has been collected once at 41°E (85d). Breeding: first-egg dates in 11 nests were in Jan–Mar (2 each), Apr–May (1 each), Nov (1), and Dec (2). Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Bulcha (97c), Didessa (57c), Gambela (65d), etc. Tetrads: ET: 160 (12) + 1 (-); ER: 21 (-).

15°

nubica

10°

pallida 5°

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PICIDAE

457. Green-backed Woodpecker Campethera cailliautii

35°

40°

45°

35°

40°

45°

35°

40°

45°

233

ET/ -

Other name: Little Spotted Woodpecker C.c.nyansae (ET). Rare, presumed resident in a small area of west and south-west Ethiopia. There are only 14 records, in the period 1901–1998, of which two are old (Neumann 1904–1906, Toschi 1959, BMNH coll.) and 12 are more recent, but there has been none since. In addition there are several other unsubstantiated records in 14d, 39a, 58b, 80c, 119b, 120a. It is an inconspicuous and probably overlooked species, found in mixed woodland, in what is apparently an isolated population in Ethiopia. Only seen singly here, at 750–1240m, and most at two localities: Didessa (3 records) and Gambela area (5). Breeding: no records. Favoured sites: Gambela (65d), Didessa (56c). Tetrads: ET: 6 (-).

15°

10°

5°

458. Gold-mantled Woodpecker Dendropicos abyssinicus

ET/ER

Other names: Golden-backed Woodpecker; Abyssinian Woodpecker ENDEMIC. A rather uncommon resident, breeding in Ethiopia and presumed to do so in Eritrea, where it is very localised in the east. It inhabits a variety of woodlands, and areas with scattered trees, including Ficus, euphorbias and junipers, at 1670–3250m. It is found from 15°30´N in Eritrea, widely scattered southwards through the western half of Ethiopia (except for a small extension eastwards on higher ground in the Harar area, all localities are west of 40°30´E) as far south as 5°N. Breeding: seven first-egg dates were in Feb and Mar (2 each), Apr (1), May (2), with a photograph of a bird at a nest in Jan. Favoured sites: Wondo Genet (83d), Menagesha (58d). Tetrads: ET: 45 (5); ER: 3 (-).

15°

10°

5°

459. Cardinal Woodpecker Dendropicos fuscescens

ET/ER

D.f.lepidus (ET); D.f.massaicus (ET); D.f.hemprichii (ET, ER). A common widespread Afrotropical resident, breeding in Ethiopia and presumed to do so in Eritrea. Three races are recognised, but their distribution and relative status is poorly understood: according to BoA lepidus inhabits the highlands, with massaicus at middle elevations in the south below lepidus, and hemprichii lower still; our identification material suggests that hemprichii is throughout most of the country, with lepidus confined to a relatively small enclave in the west; our only record of massaicus is in 120a. The situation is complicated further by interbreeding where they meet. See the map for the only data known. Inhabits a wide variety of woodland and bushland from near sea-level to 2450m, including desert and montane areas; and usually seen singly or in pairs, and very rarely 4–5 together. Breeding: five first-egg dates were in Apr–Jun (1 each), Jul (2). Favoured sites: Bulcha (97c), Abiata (83b), Didessa (56c). Tetrads: ET: 126 (6); ER: 10 (-).

15°

10°

hemprichii

lepidus 5°

massaicus

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234

PICIDAE 35°

40°

45°

460. Bearded Woodpecker Dendropicos namaquus ET/ D.n.schoensis (ET). Frequent but nowhere common in Ethiopia south of 14°N, with the main distribution along the Rift Valley, and on each side of it; there are also scattered records to the north and south. Most favoured sites are in open mature acacia woodland on grasslands close to lakes and rivers, but it may also be found in other woodland, at 180–1580m. Some more distantly scattered records may indicate movements; but records exist in the same areas in every month. Breeding: five first-egg dates are in May (2) and Jun (3). Favoured sites: Bulcha (97c), Abiata (83b), Bahadu (51d). Tetrads: ET: 68 (2).

15°

10°

5°

35°

40°

45°

461. Grey Woodpecker Dendropicos goertae

ET/ER

D.g.spodocephalus (ET); D.g.abessinicus (ET, ER). A fairly common resident breeding in Ethiopia, and presumed to do so in Eritrea. It is found in a wide range of wooded habitats, particularly where there are mature trees near rivers and lakes at 380–1820m. Its distribution extends from 16°N in Eritrea, south through Ethiopia almost to the Kenya border. However, it is absent from large, more arid areas of the south-east and northeast. Records exist for every month in two races, spodocephalus and abessinicus, about which the published accounts of their taxonomy and distribution are both contradictory and confusing, so that the division shown on the map is questionable. The two races are sometimes considered to be separate species: D.goertae and D.spodocephalus. Breeding: there are six first-egg dates in Mar (2), Apr, Aug, Sep and Dec (1 each). Favoured sites: Gambela (65d), Koka (70c), Aseita (43a). Tetrads: ET: 95 (9); ER: 8 (-).

15°

abessinicus

10°

spodocephalus

5°

35°

40°

heuglini 15°

ingens 10°

45°

462. Brown-backed Woodpecker Dendropicos obsoletus

ET/ER

D.o.heuglini (ET, ER); D.o.ingens (ET). An uncommon or rarely seen resident in Ethiopia and Eritrea, apparently breeding in the latter. There are fewer than 21 records, of which only 10 are post-1970. Inhabits Combretum–Terminalia–Hyparrhenia and mixed scrubby woodlands, and also dry acacia woodland (Eritrea), at 1210–1820m. There are two races, heuglini in Eritrea, just reaching Ethiopia above 13°30´N, and ingens to the south through western Ethiopia west of 38°E. As there are so few records, the lack of them between 31 May and 20 Oct may not necessarily indicate a real absence of this inconspicuous species. The few sight records with data refer to single birds in nine cases and two birds twice. Breeding: the only evidence is from two records from Eritrea without data in Feb and Mar (MP&G 1957). Favoured sites: Gambela (65d). Tetrads: ET: 12 (-); ER: 6 (-).

5°

003 Ethiopia 385-576.indd 234

11/1/09 12:09:30

PITTIDAE, PLATYSTEIRIDAE

Family: PITTIDAE pittas 463. African Pitta Pitta angolensis

35°

40°

45°

35°

40°

45°

235

ET/ -

Other name: Angola Pitta P.a.longipennis (ET). There is a single record of this vagrant intratropical migrant in Ethiopia: 3 Jul 1970 M 10km west of Addis Ababa 58d (Urban & Håkanson 1971) This bird with undeveloped testes was killed by a small boy with a slingshot at 2440m at 09°03’N 38°40´E, and is preserved in the University Museum of Natural History, Addis Ababa. Tetrads: ET: 1 (-).

15°

10°

5°

Family: PLATYSTEIRIDAE batises, wattle-eyes 464. Grey-headed Batis Batis orientalis

ET/ER

Other name: Grey-headed Puffback Flycatcher B.o.orientalis (ET, ER); B.o.chadensis (ET). A common breeding Afrotropical resident in Ethiopia and Eritrea in a wide variety of woodland and bushland at 380–2120m. The account here is rendered problematic owing to confusion in the literature on identification issues and paucity of specimens with which to resolve them. In Ethiopia there is difficulty in distinguishing subspecies within orientalis and in separating this species from Black-headed Batis. In separating these two species Ash based field characters on those from 16 skins of orientalis and 19 skins of minor captured or collected throughout their range in both countries. The distribution of these skins conformed closely with those identified in the field; thus our map here is believed to be reasonably accurate. Notably, both species were collected at the same site in eight of the 16 collecting areas, and both species were recorded in field surveys in the same sites, indicating an unsuspected degree of sympatry. In terms of races of orientalis, the map should be treated with caution: chadensis in the far west of Ethiopia (64d, 65cd, etc.) does not agree with Nikolaus’s distribution of orientalis in Sudan; our orientalis in Eritrea (and northern Somalia) is regarded as lynesi in Sudan, and bella, which occurred elsewhere in our region in southern Ethiopia, northern Somalia and northern Kenya, is now lumped with orientalis. Breeding: five first-egg dates are in Feb and May (1 each), Jul (3). Favoured sites: Awash NP (71a, etc.), Didessa (56c), Gambela (65d), Langano (83b), etc. Tetrads: ET: 116 (7) + 9 (3); ER: 19 (2) + 2 (-).

465. Black-headed Batis Batis minor

10°

orientalis

chadensis

5°

35°

40°

45°

15°

ET/ER

Other name: Black-headed Puffback Flycatcher B.m.erlangeri (ET, ER). See also comments under Grey-headed Batis above. This is a common Afrotropical resident in Ethiopia, but rare in Eritrea, in mixed woodland and thornbush, at 600–2580m. Extending through Eritrea below 16°N, it continues down the length of Ethiopia almost to the Kenya border. However, above 10°N it does not occur E of 39°30´E, whereas south of 10°N its range extends much further east to 44°E. Difficulties in the field identification of Black-headed and Grey-headed Batises led to problems, but the field identification squares were confirmed by collected or captured birds in 19 of the 21 tetrads involved. However, it is not known if this degree of accuracy can be applied to all observers. The birds are usually seen singly, in pairs or trios. Breeding: there are five first-egg dates: Mar (1), May (2), Aug and Sep (1 each). Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Bulcha (97c), Abiata (83b), Gambela (65d). Tetrads: ET: 84 (7) +1 (-); ER: 5 (-).

003 Ethiopia 385-576.indd 235

15°

10°

5°

11/1/09 12:09:35

236

MALACONOTIDAE 35°

40°

45°

466. Pygmy Batis Batis perkeo

ET/ -

Other name: Pygmy Puffback Flycatcher An Afrotropical breeding resident found rather uncommonly across the south of Ethiopia below 8°N. It inhabits acacia bush almost entirely, and is usually seen as 1–3 birds thinly scattered through areas of extensive bush; at 600–1370m. Breeding: there is one first-egg date in Feb. Favoured sites: Warder area (104a); Yavello/Mega (120ac). Tetrads: ET: 26 (1) + 1 (-).

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35°

40°

45°

467. Brown-throated Wattle-eye Platysteira cyanea ET/ Other names: Common Wattle-eye; Scarlet-spectacled Wattle-eye, Wattle-eyed Flycatcher P.c.aethiopica (ET). A locally fairly common presumed breeding resident in Ethiopia, in dense cover in woodland and especially in trees and bushes alongside and overhanging rivers, at 750–2430m. Its distribution ranges from 14°N south to 5°N and east to 41°E, but until its call is known it is probably much overlooked; however, there are about 10 times more recent records than there were prior to 1970, perhaps indicating that not so many are overlooked after all! It is most often seen solitarily, then in pairs or trios, and more rarely as 4–5, and records exist for every month. Breeding: is reported in 81d, but without details. Favoured sites: Bulcha, Gidabo river (97c, where 98 records!), and many others with mostly single records. Tetrads: ET: 51 (1) + 1 (-).

15°

10°

5°

35°

40°

45°

Family: MALACONOTIDAE helmetshrikes, bush-shrikes, puffbacks 468. White-crested Helmetshrike Prionops plumatus

15°

concinnatus

10°

cristatus

5°

003 Ethiopia 385-576.indd 236

vinaceigularis

ET/ER

Other names: White Helmetshrike; Helmet Shrike; Curly-crested Helmetshrike P.p.concinnatus (ET); P.p.cristatus (ET, ER); P.p.vinaceigularis (ET). A common Afrotropical breeding resident in Ethiopia, presumed to breed also in Eritrea, in bushland, riverine and mixed woodland, and especially acacias. It occurs at 900–1820m in Ethiopia, but lower in Eritrea where it is below 1210m in the east and below 910m in the west. Distribution extends from 16°N in Eritrea south into Ethiopia where it is found rather sparsely until the Rift Valley is reached, where it is more numerous both there and to the east; there are few or none in the drier parts of Dancalia and the Ogaden. There are three races (see map), concinnatus in the west, vinaceigularis in the southeast, and cristatus over the remainder of its range. The species is present throughout the year. Rarely seen alone; usually in pairs or parties of 3–10 (once 14). Breeding: there are seven first-egg dates: Feb (1), Mar (2), and one each in Apr, May, Jul and Dec. Favoured sites: Bulcha (97c), Awash NP (71a, etc.), Langano (83b), Zwai (69d). Tetrads: ET: 103 (6) + 8 (1); ER: 10 (-).

11/1/09 12:09:39

MALACONOTIDAE

469. Grey-headed Bush-shrike Malaconotus blanchoti

35°

40°

237

45°

ET/ER

M.b.catharoxanthus (ET, ER); M.b.approximans (ET). A common resident in Ethiopia, but scarcer in Eritrea, although probably much overlooked. It occurs in riverine (and especially with tamarinds in Eritrea) acacia, and other mixed woodland, ranging from 180–1820m in Ethiopia, but at only below 1210m in Eritrea, in two races: M.b.approximans, roughly as shown on the map, is concentrated along the Rift Valley and to the east of it; M.b.catharoxanthus is in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia, extending eastwards across to northern Somalia. However, the line of division between the two races is unclear. Records exist for every month; in 46 counts, 24 (52%) were single birds, 12 (26%) were two birds, seven involved three birds, and three were of 4–6 birds. Breeding: there are only two first-egg dates, singly in Jun and Dec. One destroyed the nest of an African Thrush Turdus pelios on 6 May, carrying off the material presumably for its own nest. Favoured sites: Bulcha (97c), Awash NP (71a, etc.), Dolo (124c), Mui (106b). Tetrads: ET: 70 (4); ER: 4 (-).

15°

catharoxanthus

10°

5°

approximans

470. Sulphur-breasted Bush-shrike Chlorophoneus sulfureopectus

35°

40°

45°

35°

40°

45°

ET/ -

Other name: Orange-breasted Bush-shrike C.s.similis (ET). A common Afrotropical breeding resident in Ethiopia, in bushland, thickets, acacia and secondary growth woodland. It is found below 12°N and west of 42°30´E. The population in the far west appears to be segregated from that further east. It is present throughout the year at 530–1850m. Eritrea: an old record by Heuglin along the Mareb river was not accepted by Smith (1957). Breeding: the only first-egg record is in Apr. Favoured sites: Lake Shalla (83d), Bulcha (97c), Koka (70c), Awash NP (71a). Tetrads: ET: 65 (1) + 1 (-).

15°

10°

5°

471. Rosy-patched Bush-shrike Rhodophoneus cruentus

ET/ER

Other name: Rosy-patched Shrike R.c.cruentus (ET, ER); R.c.hilgerti (ET). A fairly common Afrotropical breeding resident in two races in Ethiopia and Eritrea, in acacia bush, at 450–1500m in Ethiopia, and 0–1500m in Eritrea. There are two races, cruentus between 12°30´ and 18°N in the north in Eritrea and once in Ethiopia, and hilgerti in the south in Ethiopia below 12°N and extending to the Kenya border between 35°30´ and 45°E (largely down the Rift Valley and to the east). Records exist for every month except Aug and Oct. Breeding: 15 first-egg dates were for cruentus: Jan–Mar (2 each), May (1), Nov (1), and for hilgerti: Jan and Apr (1 each), May (2), Sep, Nov and Dec (1 each). Favoured sites: Massawa (12a), Awash NP (71a), Negelle–Filtu (110d, 111cd). Tetrads: ET: 75 (7) +10 (1); ER: 20 (3) +2 (-).

cruentus 15°

10°

hilgerti

5°

003 Ethiopia 385-576.indd 237

11/1/09 12:09:44

238

MALACONOTIDAE 35°

40°

45°

472. Marsh Tchagra Tchagra minuta

ET/ -

Other name: Blackcap Bush-shrike T.m.minuta (ET). An uncommon Afrotropical presumed breeding resident in Ethiopia. Found particularly in rank or long grass with scattered trees or bushes, particularly Hyparrhenia in combretaceous woodland, in which it tends to sit quietly and unobtrusively; at 1230–2120m. It is confined to part of west and south-west Ethiopia between the Sudan border and 39°E, and 5° and 11°30´N. Usually seen singly or in pairs (67% and 23% respectively in 30 counts), and recorded throughout the year except in Sep and Nov. Breeding: there are no records. Favoured sites: Didessa (56c). Tetrads: ET: 25 (-) +1 (-).

15°

10°

5°

35°

40°

45°

473. Three-streaked Tchagra Tchagra jamesi

ET/ -

Other name: Three-streaked Bush-shrike T.j.jamesi (ET). A rather uncommon Afrotropical breeding resident in Ethiopia. It is a skulking species, found in thick scrub and bush in which it is often reluctant to reveal itself. It is known from an altitudinal range of 220–1630m from southern and southeastern thornbush areas, confined to the south below 8°N, with one or two others a little further north along the Somalia border. In 16 counts it was solitary in 50%, in pairs in 44%, and once in a party of four; records exist for every month except Aug. Breeding: there are six first-egg dates in Mar (1), Apr (3), May and Jun (1 each); clutch-size: two eggs (1), three eggs (3). Favoured sites: Filtu area (111cd, 122b, 123a), Yavello area (120a). Tetrads: ET: 40 (4) +2 (-).

15°

10°

5°

35°

15°

10°

40°

45°

474. Black-crowned Tchagra Tchagra senegalus

ET/ER

Other name: Black-headed Bush-shrike T.s.habessinicus (ET, ER). A common to very common Afrotropical breeding resident in Ethiopia and Eritrea, in a wide variety of bushed and wooded habitat at 380–2000m in Ethiopia, and at all altitudes above 300m in Eritrea, except in Dancalia where it occurs much lower in arid acacia bush. It is widely distributed south of 16°30´N and west of 43°E, but avoiding the more arid areas, particularly in the Ogaden of Ethiopia. Records exist for every month. It is usually seen singly or in pairs. Breeding: there are six first-egg dates: Apr (3), and one each in May, Jun and Jul; clutch-size: two and three eggs (1 each). Favoured sites: Gibé gorge (68d, very common), Gambela (65d), Awash NP (71a. etc.). Tetrads: ET: 165 (4) + 6 (-); ER: 18 (1).

5°

003 Ethiopia 385-576.indd 238

11/1/09 12:09:48

MALACONOTIDAE

475. Northern Puffback Dryoscopus gambensis

ET/ER

D.g.erythreae (ET, ER). A common Afrotropical resident, breeding in Ethiopia and presumed to do so in Eritrea. It occurs in a variety of wooded habitats including Combretum–Terminalia, gallery forest, riparian Ficus and tamarinds, occasionally acacia woodland, etc., at 480–1880m (once 2576m) in Ethiopia, but mostly at 910–1520m in Eritrea. Its distribution extends from 17°N southwards and widely right through Ethiopia to the west of 43°E. It is absent from a large part of the dry north-east of Ethiopia and all of the Ogaden. Records exist for every month and it is usually seen singly or in pairs (in 57% and 28% respectively in 104 counts). Breeding: there are only two first-egg dates, both in Apr. Favoured sites: Gilo/Abol/Akobo (79abcd), Bulcha (97c), Didessa (56c), Sodere (70c), etc. Tetrads: ET: 132 (4) +5 (-); ER: 12 (-).

35°

40°

45°

35°

40°

45°

35°

40°

45°

239

15°

10°

5°

476. Pringle’s Puffback Dryoscopus pringlii

ET/ -

An elusive and apparently very uncommon breeding resident in Acacia–Commiphora and low scrubby bush in a restricted area in central-south Ethiopia. Only 18 dated records exist (five old and 12 recent) in all months except Apr, May and Jul, in an altitude range of 110–1360m. Its distribution is confined to an area between 35°30´ and 42°30´E, north to 5°30´N. Breeding: no record. Favoured sites: none known. Tetrads: ET: 17 (-).

15°

10°

5°

477. Slate-coloured Boubou Laniarius funebris

ET/ -

A common Afrotropical breeding resident in Ethiopia, in thornbush and thickets at 910– 1560m. It is almost entirely found down the Rift Valley and in the country to the east, south of 11°N and extending as far as 43°30´E. Records exist for every month and it is usually seen singly or in pairs, sometimes in small, probably family groups. Breeding: there are four first-egg dates in Apr (2), May (1), Jul (1). Favoured sites: Bulcha (97c), Koka (70c), Awash NP (71a, etc.), Abiata (83b), Arba Minch (96d). Tetrads: ET: 97 (7) +2 (-).

15°

10°

5°

003 Ethiopia 385-576.indd 239

11/1/09 12:09:53

240

MALACONOTIDAE 35°

40°

45°

478. Red-naped Bush-shrike Laniarius ruficeps

ET/ -

L.r.rufinuchalis (ET). A rather uncommon Afrotropical breeding resident in south and south-east Ethiopia in thornbush at 600–1370m. There have been 28 records, of which 18 are old and 10 since 1970. Most earlier records were of collected birds; in nine counts in recent records, five were solitary, three of three birds, and one of four. Breeding: recorded in southern Ethiopia in May (MP&G 1957–1960, but there are no details). Favoured site: Warder area (104ac), Yavello (120a). Tetrads: ET: 19 (-).

15°

10°

5°

35°

40°

45°

479. Tropical Boubou Laniarius aethiopicus

ET/ER

L.a.aethiopicus (ET, ER). A common to locally very common Afrotropical breeding resident in Ethiopia and Eritrea, in woodland understorey, secondary growth, thickets, thornbush and scrub. Records exist for every month, from near sea-level to 2730m in Eritrea and at 190–3030m in Ethiopia, and is usually seen singly or in pairs; in 115 counts single birds occurred in 46%, pairs in 29%, and groups of 3–6 in 25%. It is distributed from 17°30´N in Eritrea, and southwards widely on throughout Ethiopia, but mostly west of 41°E, and absent from most of the dry south-east and from Dancalia. Breeding: there are only six first-egg dates, in Apr–Jun and Aug (1 each) and Sep (2). Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Bole river and Addis Ababa (58d), Awassa (83c), Bulcha (97c). Tetrads: ET: 166 (3) + 3 (1); ER: 19 (1).

15°

10°

5°

35°

15°

10°

40°

45°

480. Black-headed Gonolek Laniarius erythrogaster ET/ER A fairly common to common Afrotropical presumed breeding resident within its relatively restricted range in Ethiopia and Eritrea. It inhabits thickets, scrubby areas, patches of dense bush and Hyphaene at 700–910m. Distribution is confined to southwest Eritrea to the west of 39°E, and adjoining areas of Ethiopia south along or close to the Sudan border to the Blue Nile, with another area west of 35°E embracing Gambela (65d) and nearby points to the south and west, and again in an area just to the north of Lake Turkana and round the lower Omo area. Recorded throughout the year, except in Sep. Usually seen in pairs or small groups, infrequently singly. Breeding: there are no records. Favoured sites: Gambela (65d), Mui (106b), Omo mouth (117b/118a), etc. Tetrads: ET: 24 (-) +3 (-); ER: 11 (-).

5°

003 Ethiopia 385-576.indd 240

11/1/09 12:09:58

CAMPEPHAGIDAE

481. Brubru Nilaus afer

ET/ER

Other names: Brubru Shrike; Northern Brubru N.a.afer (ET, ER); N.a.minor (ET); N.a.hilgerti (ET). A breeding Afrotropical resident, common in Ethiopia and rather uncommon in Eritrea in bushland and woodland, particularly acacia and Combretum–Terminalia, at 530–2120m in the former and below 1370m in the latter. Records exist for every month. It is widely distributed in three races from 17°N, and southward across both countries down to the Kenya border. Of the three races, afer is in the north, minor in the south, and hilgerti between in the central area. Their divisions, shown by broken lines on the map, are very uncertain. Breeding: there is only one record, almost a century old, of a nest with two eggs on 7 Apr. Favoured sites: Abiata (83b), Bulcha (97c), Koka (70c). Tetrads: ET: 126 (4) + 12 (1); ER: 12 (-).

35°

45°

15°

afer

hilgerti 10°

5°

Family: CAMPEPHAGIDAE cuckooshrikes 482. Grey Cuckooshrike Coracina caesia

40°

241

minor

35°

40°

45°

35°

40°

45°

ET/ -

C.c.pura (ET). A locally frequent and presumed Afrotropical resident in forested and wooded hills at 1800–2900m in Ethiopia. It occurs below 10°N and between 35°30´ and 42°30´E, so its eastward extension is essentially governed by altitude. It is apparently present throughout the year, although there are no records in May–Jun or Aug; usually seen as 2–3 birds or in small parties. Breeding: there are no records with data, except that Neumann reported breeding in Feb–Mar. Favoured sites: Gojeb forest area (81c), Agere Maryam (109a), Harenna forest (98b). Tetrads: ET: 34 (2).

15°

10°

5°

483. White-breasted Cuckooshrike Coracina pectoralis

ET/ -

An uncommon presumed breeding Afrotropical resident in Ethiopia with about 46 records (29 old, 17 recent), in woodland and forest edge at 510–2430m. Distribution is confined to two disjunct groups in restricted areas in the north-west between 10° and 14°N, and in the south between 4°30´ and 8°30´N, and all except one records are to the west of 39°E; and there are records in all months of the year. Of 19 counts, 10 were of single birds and nine of pairs. Breeding: there are no records. Favoured sites: Bulcha (97c), Yavello (120a). Tetrads: ET: 26 (-) +1 (-).

15°

10°

5°

003 Ethiopia 385-576.indd 241

11/1/09 12:10:02

242

LANIIDAE 35°

40°

45°

484. Black Cuckooshrike Campephaga flava

ET/ -

An uncommon breeding Afrotropical resident in Ethiopia, with at least 13 records (eight old and five recent), of which 10 were collected or netted. It is possible that some are intra-tropical migrants from southern Africa, but it is notable that most of our dated records are in Nov–Dec (10 compared with four in Jun–Sep) when they are at the lowest numbers in Kenya. Possibly it is not generally realised there is difficulty in separating male Red-shouldered Cuckooshrike morphs with yellow shoulders from Black Cuckooshrikes, so some 30 records lacking full data have had to be treated here as uncertain. It is a bird of woodland edge and secondary growth in Ethiopia, at 1210–1820m. Its distribution is confined to a rather restricted area in the south below 8°N and between 36° and 40°E, where it occurs singly or in pairs. Breeding: no seasonal data. Favoured sites: Bulcha (97c), Mega–Yavello area (120a). Tetrads: ET: 13 (1).

15°

10°

5°

35°

40°

45°

485. Red-shouldered Cuckooshrike Campephaga phoenicea

ET/ER

A fairly common presumed resident in Ethiopia and Eritrea, but strangely little evidence for breeding. Found in a wide range of woodland habitats and thickets, especially in forest/woodland edge situations, at 750–1880m. Can be very elusive, and is netted in larger numbers than sightings suggest are present. It occurs from 16°N in Eritrea, south through Ethiopia to the west of 42°E, and is most common in the south-west below 10°N and west of 39°30´E; records exist for almost every month, but there is only one record in Aug and none in Sep. It is usually seen singly or in pairs, and great care is required to separate males with yellow wing-patches from Black Cuckooshrikes. Breeding: males with advanced gonads in Feb and Mar are the only records. Favoured sites: Bulcha (97c), Gambela (65d), Didessa (56c). Tetrads: ET: 78 (1) +3 (-); ER: 8 (-).

15°

10°

5°

35°

40°

45°

Family: LANIIDAE shrikes 486. White-rumped Shrike Eurocephalus rueppelli

15°

10°

ET/ -

Other name: Northern White-crowned Shrike A common Afrotropical breeding resident in Ethiopia, in thornbush and open woodland at 190–1570m. Often seen singly, but also a sociable species in parties of 3–8 birds. Records exist for every month. It occurs south of 12°N, mostly following the line of the Rift Valley and all the region to the east of it. The few records further west between 11° and 12°N may refer to wandering birds. Breeding: there are eight first-egg dates in Mar (1), Apr and May (3 each), and Oct (1). Favoured sites: Awash NP (71a, etc.), Abiata (83b), Bulcha (97c), Yavello area (120a), Ogaden widely. Tetrads: ET: 125 (8) + 6 (-).

5°

003 Ethiopia 385-576.indd 242

11/1/09 12:10:07

LANIIDAE

487. Red-backed Shrike Lanius collurio

ET/ER

L.c.collurio (ET, ER); L.c.kobylini (ET,ER presumed). A Palearctic migrant common to abundant in Ethiopia and Eritrea on spring and autumn passage with only a few in Dec–Feb. While birds may be seen in a wide range of habitats, basically it is a bushland species, and has been recorded at 0–2070m. Using numbers of daily records throughout the year, from a total of 183 records (Ash p.o.), 73 (40%) were in Oct/Nov, and 69 (37%) in Apr/May, suggesting a similar amount of passage at each season. Although generally widely distributed across Ethiopia (there are fewer in the west), the main passage in spring is concentrated on a SW–NE line through the Negelle area (110d) to the Jijiga area (62d). Extreme dates are 5 Sep–28 May, but with relatively few (only 15, 8.3%) in Dec–Feb. One record only in Feb indicates that extremely few overwinter this far north. In Eritrea the dates range between 12 Aug–late Sep and mid-Apr–15 May, with none at all in winter. Very large concentrations occur on spring passage, e.g. at Assab (26d) on the Eritrean coast, and in south Ethiopia, where there were large numbers in Apr in the thornbush between Negelle (110d) and Dolo (124c) in three consecutive years (e.g. 1000 on 18–22 Apr from Negelle to 76km to the east). Two male ‘L. bogdanowi’ (Bianchi 1886), now recognised as hybrid L. collurio × L. isabellinus, were present between Au and Chiam (78b) in Mar 1976. Favoured sites: Negelle (110d), Assab (26d), Jijiga (62d). Tetrads: ET: 129 (-) + 6 (-); ER: 21 (-).

488. Isabelline Shrike Lanius isabellinus

35°

40°

45°

35°

40°

45°

35°

40°

45°

243

15°

10°

5°

ET/ER

Other name: Red-tailed Shrike L.i.isabellinus (ET,ER); L.i.phoenicuroides (ET,ER). A common Palearctic migrant in Ethiopia and Eritrea, overwintering and presumably on spring and autumn passage. Like Red-backed Shrike, very much a bushland species, but more frequently in other types of wooded terrain. Distribution is widespread south of 16°N, but with a rather more westerly bias than Red-backed (only 8% of all square records are east of 42°E, compared with 21% for collurio). Altitudes range from sea-level to 2430m, and extreme dates range from late Sep to mid-Apr in Eritrea and 20 Sep–18 Apr in Ethiopia. The two races isabellinus and phoenicuroides are similarly distributed through the region, although there are twice as many tetrads with many certain isabellinus records (23), compared with 11 of the latter. Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Gambela (65d), Bahadu (51d), etc. Tetrads: ET: 60 (-); ER: 6 (-).

15°

10°

5°

489. Lesser Grey Shrike Lanius minor

ET/ER

An uncommon to locally very common Palearctic migrant on spring passage in Ethiopia and Eritrea, but few only in autumn in Eritrea. Particularly found in thornbush, but also in acacia woodland and in open country with scattered bushes. It is recorded from sea-level to 2430m in eastern Eritrea and south through Ethiopia at 180–1630m to the Kenya border, mostly down the Rift Valley and to the east of it. Spring passage in Eritrea is only along the coast, and in Ethiopia is apparently concentrated along a SW–NE route across the country, resulting in major areas of concentration in the Negelle (111b) and Jijiga (62d) areas, where 100–150 per day can be seen in one tetrad. Over 40 were seen one day in a small area at Sauena (86c), half-way along the Negelle–Jijiga route. Extreme date-range in Ethiopia is 28 Mar–5 May (12 May in Eritrea), and 21 Aug–30 Sep. See also comments under Southern Grey Shrike below. Favoured sites: Negelle (111b) and Jijiga (62d) areas; near Filtu (111c). Tetrads: ET: 45 (-) + 3 (-); ER: 11 (-).

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490. Southern Grey Shrike Lanius meridionalis

L.m.aucheri (ET,ER); L.m.pallidrostris (ET, ER); L.m.?buryi (ET). A recent specific split from Great Grey Shrike L. excubitor, but racial and nomenclatural changes involving that species and extralimital L.m. elegans have led to difficulty and confusion in establishing the distribution of the two species recognised today. L.m.aucheri is a common breeding resident in Eritrea, but less so in Ethiopia, and pallidirostris is an uncommon Palearctic winter visitor to both countries. Both occur south to about 7°N and are particularly associated with thornbush, but are often found in lightly wooded country, and in the case of pallidirostris especially in much more arid and more sparsely vegetated country, from sea-level to at least 2000m. Smith (1957) claimed aucheri overwintered commonly in west Eritrea, but no localities are available for the map. This race, recorded in every month, occurs southwards, many in or close to the Rift Valley, as far as 6°30´N, but is exceeded by pallidirostris, which extends to 5°N and for which extreme dates are 7 Oct–1 Mar in Ethiopia, although in Eritrea it is only known in Jan and Feb, when common. The distribution of confirmed aucheri is outlined on the map. L.m.buryi is stated to be a scarce visitor to central Ethiopia (BoA). Great care is required in the field identification of all these birds, and this species is frequently misidentified as a Lesser Grey Shrike. Breeding: there are 14 first-egg dates (13 in Eritrea): in Jan–Mar (3 each month), Nov (1), Dec (4). Favoured sites: Asmara (11d), Abiata (83b), Awash NP (60c, pallidirostris), Awash–Mille on desert road (71a, 60abc, 51bd, 42b). Tetrads: ET: 59 (1) +2 (-); ER: 30 (7).

491. Grey-backed Fiscal Lanius excubitoroides

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L.e.intercedens (ET), L.e.excubitoroides (ET). A common breeding Afrotropical resident in Ethiopia at 500–2000m. Found in bushed and wooded grasslands, very often near lakes, rivers and marshy areas, singly, in pairs, and small noisy groups of up to 10 birds (once 17 together), and records exist for every month. It extends south from 13°N, mostly down the Rift Valley and to the west of it, and continues on south to the Kenya border. The race intercedens is found in central-southern areas between 5° and 9°N and 37° and 39°30´E, but may also extend in any direction from this area. Elsewhere birds presumably derive from the Sudanese population of nominate excubitoroides. Breeding: six first-egg dates were in Mar (1), Jun (4) and Aug (1). Favoured sites: Koka (70c), Awassa (83c), Kombolcha area (41d and south through 50b and d), Mui (106bd). Tetrads: ET: 86 (5) + 3 (-).

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492. Taita Fiscal Lanius dorsalis

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An Afrotropical breeding resident in Ethiopia in bushed savanna and thornbush at 910–1500m. There are two areas of concentration in the south-west below 7°N and in the Ogaden below 8°30´N, with a few scattered records between, almost connecting the two groups. It is fairly common and widespread within its range, and interestingly is marginally sympatric with the closely similar Somali Fiscal, and in some areas the two species occur together. Records exist for every month except for Jul and Aug (when probably due to lack of observers rather than of birds). Breeding: there are only two records, which lack details, but there are first-egg dates in Jan and May in adjoining Somalia. Favoured sites: wide area of western Ogaden and Chew Bahir region. Tetrads: ET: 58 (1) +5 (1).

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493. Somali Fiscal Lanius somalicus

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A locally common Afrotropical presumed resident breeding in Ethiopia in Acacia– Commiphora and other bush at 600–1630m. Its distribution in the east and southeast is below 12°30´N, and below 7°N in the south-west. There is a scattering of records in the south between these two areas. In both these main areas it is marginally sympatric with Taita Fiscal. In 34 cases in which numbers/sightings were recorded 24 (70%) involved single birds and 10 (30%) involved two. Records exist for every month. Breeding: eight first-egg dates were in Mar (2), May (2), Jun–Aug (1 each), Nov (1). Favoured sites: Awash NP (60a, 71a), a total of 44 were counted between Dire Dawa and Aischia on 28–29 Nov in 53abcd, 61b and 62a (Ash p.o.), otherwise there was no single area of concentration. Tetrads: ET: 60 (5) + 12 (2).

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494. Common Fiscal Lanius collaris

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Other names: Fiscal Shrike, Fiscal L.c.humeralis (ET, ER). A common to very common Afrotropical breeding resident in Ethiopia and Eritrea. Found in almost any open country with bushes, scrub and trees, at 910–3030m. It is widely distributed throughout the year from 17°N in Eritrea southwards through Ethiopia west of 40°30´E (except for an eastward extension through the highlands of Harar and the adjoining country). Frequently seen singly or in pairs, and sometimes 3–5 together. Breeding: there are 32 first-egg dates, with all except two in Mar–Jun, viz: Mar (5), Apr (9), May (14), Jun (2), Jul and Dec (one each). Favoured sites: Mulu (58d), Akaki (69b), Awassa (83c), etc. Tetrads: ET: 154 (28) + 1 (-); ER: 12 (1).

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495. Woodchat Shrike Lanius senator

ET/ER

L.s.niloticus (ET, ER). A fairly common Palearctic overwintering visitor, with possibly a few on passage, in bushland and open country with scattered trees or bushes, in Ethiopia and Eritrea. In Ethiopia found at 530–1820m, and in Eritrea at below 910m in winter, but at up to 2430m on passage. Widely distributed from 18°N through Eritrea, and further south in Ethiopia down to 5°30´N along the Rift Valley and almost entirely in areas to the west of it. All racially identified birds have been niloticus, although there is one unsubstantiated record of badius from Eritrea. Extreme dates are the last week in Sep to mid-May in Eritrea, and 5 Oct–1 Apr in Ethiopia. It is invariably seen singly, but several may be scattered through suitable areas, e.g. 20 in