Biology and Breeding of Camels: Focus on Pakistan Camels 1032521961, 9781032521961

Table of contents :
Cover
Half Title
Title
Copyright
Contents
Foreword
About This Book
Acknowledgments
Authors
Chapter 1 Old and New World Camels—Introduction
Introduction
Origin of Camels
Taxonomy and History
Biological Organization of Camels
Genetics
Camel Classification and Evolution
Ancestry of Camels
Protylopus—Holds the Ancestral Key
Biological Trends in the Evolution of Camels
Paleontological Procession of Camels
Oligocene—The Influx of Camel-Like Animals
Poebrotherium
Protomeryx—The Upper Oligocene Form
Miocene—The Period of Divergence
Procamelus—Directed the Main Line of Evolution
Sideline Evolution—Gazelle-Camels
Giraffe-Camels
Pliocene and Pleistocene—Periods for True Camels
Camel Domestication
Current Statistics and Evolution of Camels in Host Countries
Camel Biodiversity
Camel Anatomy and Appearance: Physiognomy and Description
Adaptations
Camel Distribution and Habitat
Camel Behavior and Lifestyle
Camel Reproduction and Life Cycle
Mating
Camel Diet and Prey
Camel Predators and Threats
Camels’ Relationship with Humans
Camel Conservation, Status, and Life Today
References
Chapter 2 Camel Breeds in the World and Their Distribution—Introduction
Introduction
Species/Breeds of Camels at the Global Level and Their Distribution
Global Distribution of Camels and Gaps Therein
Camel Breeds in Pakistan
Camel Breeds of Punjab
Bagri (Bota)
Breela
Campbelpuri
Mareecha
Kala-Chitta
Camel Breeds of KPK
Ghulmani
Khader
Maya
Gaddi
Camel Breeds of Baluchistan
Brahvi
Kachhi
Kharani
Lassi
Makrani
Pishin
Rodbari
Raigi
Kohi
Camel Breeds of Sindh
Dhatti (Thari)
Kharai
Sakrai
Larry
Historical Dromedary–Bactrian Crossbreeding (Interspecific Breeding)
References
Chapter 3 Effective Management of Camels—Introduction
Introduction
Common Practices in Camel Management
Camel Nutrition
Feeding Management
Time of Feeding
Food Quantities
Nutrient Requirements
Energy Value
Protein
Salt
Water
Reproduction
Breeding in Camels
Handling
Transportation
Recommended Environment for Living
Facilities and Equipment
Shelter
Fencing
Declining Camel Population and Factors Thereof
Grazing Resources Are Being Squeezed
Innovations in Agriculture Farming Practices
Illegal Movement of Camels for Slaughter
Grazing Policy for Livestock Is Poorly Organized
Lack of Interest among the Young
Sustaining the Ship of the Desert
Strengthen the Silvo Pasture Program
Emphasis on Roadside Plantation as Fodder for Livestock
Utilization of Unconventional Feed
Stress on Agroforestry Development
Health Care: Diseases and Their Control
Pharmaceutical Use
Euthanasia
References
Chapter 4 Camel Feed and Nutritional Requirements—Introduction
Introduction
Nutrients
Six Basic Nutrients
Water
Proteins
Carbohydrates
Minerals
Vitamins
Feeding Behavior of Camels
Browser or Grazer
Feed Preference
Browsing of Camels
Preferred Feeding Time
Effect of Season
Nutritive Value
Browsing/Grazing, Rumination, and Resting Duration
Defecation and Urination
Comparative Anatomy of the Digestive Tract of Camels and Other Ruminants
Mouth and Upper Throat
Pharynx and Esophagus
Stomach
Intestines
Liver, Pancreas, and Spleen
Nutritional Physiology
Mechanism of Reserve Mobilization in Camels
Nutritional Needs of Animals
Specific Nutrient Requirements during Lactation and Milk Production
The Food of Camels
Water
Nutrient Requirements of Dromedary Camels
Protein Requirements of Camel
Dry Matter
Energy
Protein
Lactating Animals Have Different Nutrient Requirements
Energy
Protein
Nutrient Requirements Differ for Growth
Energy
Protein
Requirements of Mineral
Requirements of Vitamins
References
Chapter 5 Camel Products and By-Products
Introduction
Meat
Milk
Camel Milk Brightens and Tightens the Skin
Milk Health Effects
Healthy Hair and Nails
Camel Milk Slows Down the Aging Process
Moisturizing and Softening
Camel Milk for Clear Skin
Camel Hair
Uses
Skin
Lamp Shades
Making Camel Skin Lamps: Teamwork of a Triad
Cholistan Desert as the Supplier of Camel Skin Lamps
Processing the High-Value Camel Skin for Lamps
Durable and Long-Lasting Camel Skin Lamps
Camel Skin Lamps Caught in the War on Terror
Exporting Local Souvenirs Overseas
Shopping Online for Multan-Made Camel Skin Lamps
Vintage Camel Skin Lamps
Bone Ornaments
Camel Leather
References
Chapter 6 Camels’ Genomic Potentials
Introduction
Genes for Milk and Heat Tolerance
Heat Tolerance
Milk Genetics
Immunity
Phylogenetic and Genotyping
Growth and Weight
Use of mtDNA and the Like for the Study of Genetic Diversity
Phenotypic and Genetic Variation
Worldview on Camel Genetics
Milk Genetics
Heat Tolerance
Phylogenetic and Genotyping
Growth and Weight
Phenotypic and Genetic Variation
Future Perspectives of Camel Genetics
Conclusion
References
Chapter 7 Camel as the Best-Suited Animal under Global Climate Change
Introduction
Climate Change
Climate Change and Global Warming
Vulnerability of Camels to Global Warming
Socioeconomic, Environmental, Cultural, and Health Dimension of Camels under Global Climate Change
Effects of Climate Change on Animal Size
Camel: An Animal of the Future
Water Requirements, Feeds, and Feeding
Adaptations in Camels
Adaptive Capability of Camel Is Much Higher than Other Livestock Animals
Superior Adaptabilities of Camel during Heat Stress Conditions
Camel: “A Ship of Desert”
Hematological and Biochemical Parameters of Camels Are Vulnerable to Heat Stress
Camels Use Heat Shock Proteins for Their Adaptive Capability
Climate Change and Camel Diseases
Camels Also Contribute to Climate Change
GHG Emissions from Livestock
Methane Emissions from Camels
References
Chapter 8 Camel Diseases and Preventive Measures
Introduction
Bacterial Diseases
Mastitis
Pneumonia
Clostridial Diseases
Salmonellosis
Camel Calf Diarrhea
Brucellosis
Dermatitis
Fungal Infections
Viral Diseases
Nonpathogenic Viral Infections
Pathological Viral Infections
Camel Pox
Contagious Ecthyma
Rabies
Parasitic Diseases of Camels
Helminthic Diseases
Arthropod Infestations
Protozoan Infections
Nutritional Deficiency Diseases in Camels
Energy and Protein Deficiency
Signs of Energy and Protein Deficiency
Energy Deficiency
Protein Deficiency
Prevention–Control–Treatment
Vitamin and Mineral Deficiencies
Vitamin A
Vitamin D
Vitamin E
Vitamin B1
Selenium
Calcium and Phosphorus
Copper
Iodine
Iron
References
Chapter 9 Future Prospects and Opportunities for the Scientific Community
Introduction
Prospects/Challenges
Camel Milk
Marketing of Camel Meat
Camel: An Animal with Diversified Applications
From Convention to Modernism
Establishment of a Society or Organization
Other Purposes
The Trends in Camel Sciences
The Way Ahead: Opportunities
Breeding Programs and Their Planning
Organizational Aspects
References
Index

Citation preview

Biology and Breeding of Camels This book discusses the biology, breeding, care, and management of camels, with a focus on camels from Pakistan. The book provides a sound understanding of how to look after camels, their senses, behavior, and adaptations. The chapters describe the practical aspects of camel husbandry such as how to maintain their body condition, feet, and cleanliness. It covers the types of feeds, feeding methods, and their needs at different stages of life. The book provides a detailed account of camel husbandry, breeding, and reproduction. It is meant for camel breeders, veterinarians, livestock advisers, students, and researchers working on animal sciences, camel rearing, feeding, and management. Features • Includes information about different species of camels present in Pakistan and their importance to humans • Discusses the nutrition and feeding of camels, the medicinal qualities of camel milk, and the peculiar immunity-enhancing properties of their nutritious meat • Describes the features of camels that help them survive and thrive in deserts and make them the animals of the future • Covers the range of unique products obtained from camels and their economic value • Explores the management, types of diseases in camels, causes of their spread, their control, and therapeutic measures for successful and productive farming

Biology and Breeding of Camels Focus on Pakistan Camels

Masroor Ellahi Babar Muhammad Ashraf

First edition published 2024 by CRC Press 2385 NW Executive Center Drive, Suite 320, Boca Raton FL 33431 and by CRC Press 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN © 2024 Masroor Ellahi Babar and Muhammad Ashraf CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the authors and publishers cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www. copyright.com or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. For works that are not available on CCC please contact [email protected] Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. ISBN: 978-1-032-52196-1 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-52829-8 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-40859-8 (ebk) DOI: 10.1201/9781003408598 Typeset in Times by Apex CoVantage, LLC

Contents Foreword�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xi About This Book�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xiii Acknowledgments���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� xv Authors�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xvii Chapter 1 Old and New World Camels—Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������� 1 Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 1 Origin of Camels���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 1 Taxonomy and History��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 1 Biological Organization of Camels������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 4 Genetics������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 8 Camel Classification and Evolution����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 9 Ancestry of Camels�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 9 Protylopus—Holds the Ancestral Key�����������������������������������������������������������������9 Biological Trends in the Evolution of Camels������������������������������������������������������� 11 Paleontological Procession of Camels����������������������������������������������������������������������� 11 Oligocene—The Influx of Camel-Like Animals���������������������������������������������������� 11 Poebrotherium���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 11 Protomeryx—The Upper Oligocene Form��������������������������������������������������������� 11 Miocene—The Period of Divergence��������������������������������������������������������������������� 11 Procamelus—Directed the Main Line of Evolution������������������������������������������� 12 Sideline Evolution—Gazelle-Camels��������������������������������������������������������������������� 12 Giraffe-Camels��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 12 Pliocene and Pleistocene—Periods for True Camels������������������������������������������������� 13 Camel Domestication������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 13 Current Statistics and Evolution of Camels in Host Countries���������������������������������� 15 Camel Biodiversity����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 16 Camel Anatomy and Appearance: Physiognomy and Description���������������������������� 16 Adaptations����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 17 Camel Distribution and Habitat���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 17 Camel Behavior and Lifestyle������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 18 Camel Reproduction and Life Cycle���������������������������������������������������������������������� 18 Mating�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 19 Camel Diet and Prey��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 20 Camel Predators and Threats�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 20 Camels’ Relationship with Humans��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 20 Camel Conservation, Status, and Life Today������������������������������������������������������������� 21 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 22 Chapter 2 Camel Breeds in the World and Their Distribution—Introduction���������������������������� 27 Introduction���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 27 Species/Breeds of Camels at the Global Level and Their Distribution���������������������� 27 Global Distribution of Camels and Gaps Therein�������������������������������������������������� 28 Camel Breeds in Pakistan������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 29

v

vi

Contents

Camel Breeds of Punjab��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 30 Bagri (Bota)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 30 Breela���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������31 Campbelpuri����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 32 Mareecha���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 32 Kala-Chitta������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 34 Camel Breeds of KPK������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 36 Ghulmani���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 36 Khader�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 36 Maya����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 36 Gaddi���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 37 Camel Breeds of Baluchistan������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 37 Brahvi��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 37 Kachhi�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 37 Kharani������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 38 Lassi����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 40 Makrani������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 40 Pishin���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 41 Rodbari������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 42 Raigi����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 42 Kohi������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������43 Camel Breeds of Sindh����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 44 Dhatti (Thari)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 44 Kharai��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 44 Sakrai���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 44 Larry����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 45 Historical Dromedary–Bactrian Crossbreeding (Interspecific Breeding)������������������ 46 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 48 Chapter 3 Effective Management of Camels—Introduction������������������������������������������������������� 51 Introduction���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 51 Common Practices in Camel Management���������������������������������������������������������������� 52 Camel Nutrition������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 52 Feeding Management��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 53 Time of Feeding������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 53 Food Quantities������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 55 Nutrient Requirements����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 56 Energy Value����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 56 Protein�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 56 Salt�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 57 Water���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 57 Reproduction�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 58 Breeding in Camels������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 59 Handling��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 63 Transportation������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������63 Recommended Environment for Living��������������������������������������������������������������������� 63 Facilities and Equipment�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 64 Shelter��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 64 Fencing������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 65

Contents

vii

Declining Camel Population and Factors Thereof����������������������������������������������������� 65 Grazing Resources Are Being Squeezed���������������������������������������������������������������� 65 Innovations in Agriculture Farming Practices�������������������������������������������������������� 65 Illegal Movement of Camels for Slaughter������������������������������������������������������������ 66 Grazing Policy for Livestock Is Poorly Organized������������������������������������������������ 66 Lack of Interest among the Young�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 66 Sustaining the Ship of the Desert������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 66 Strengthen the Silvo Pasture Program�������������������������������������������������������������������� 67 Emphasis on Roadside Plantation as Fodder for Livestock����������������������������������� 67 Utilization of Unconventional Feed����������������������������������������������������������������������� 67 Stress on Agroforestry Development���������������������������������������������������������������������� 67 Health Care: Diseases and Their Control������������������������������������������������������������������� 68 Pharmaceutical Use���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 68 Euthanasia�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 69 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 70 Chapter 4 Camel Feed and Nutritional Requirements—Introduction���������������������������������������� 73 Introduction���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 73 Nutrients��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 73 Six Basic Nutrients������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 73 Water���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 73 Proteins������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 74 Carbohydrates��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 74 Minerals������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 75 Vitamins�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������75 Feeding Behavior of Camels�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 75 Browser or Grazer�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 76 Feed Preference������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 76 Browsing of Camels��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 79 Preferred Feeding Time������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 79 Effect of Season������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 79 Nutritive Value�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 80 Browsing/Grazing, Rumination, and Resting Duration����������������������������������������� 81 Defecation and Urination��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 81 Comparative Anatomy of the Digestive Tract of Camels and Other Ruminants�������� 82 Mouth and Upper Throat���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 82 Pharynx and Esophagus�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������82 Stomach������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 82 Intestines����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 84 Liver, Pancreas, and Spleen������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 84 Nutritional Physiology������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 86 Mechanism of Reserve Mobilization in Camels�������������������������������������������������������� 87 Nutritional Needs of Animals��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 89 Specific Nutrient Requirements during Lactation and Milk Production���������������� 89 The Food of Camels����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 90 Water���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 90 Nutrient Requirements of Dromedary Camels����������������������������������������������������������� 90 Protein Requirements of Camel����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 91 Dry Matter�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 91

viii

Contents

Energy�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 91 Protein�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 92 Lactating Animals Have Different Nutrient Requirements���������������������������������������� 92 Energy�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 92 Protein�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 93 Nutrient Requirements Differ for Growth������������������������������������������������������������������ 93 Energy�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 93 Protein�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 93 Requirements of Mineral���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 93 Requirements of Vitamins�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 94 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 94 Chapter 5 Camel Products and By-Products������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 99 Introduction���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 99 Meat���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 99 Milk�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 102 Camel Milk Brightens and Tightens the Skin������������������������������������������������������ 107 Milk Health Effects�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 108 Healthy Hair and Nails����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 112 Camel Milk Slows Down the Aging Process������������������������������������������������������� 112 Moisturizing and Softening���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 112 Camel Milk for Clear Skin����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 112 Camel Hair��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 113 Uses���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 118 Skin���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������122 Lamp Shades������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 122 Making Camel Skin Lamps: Teamwork of a Triad���������������������������������������������� 123 Cholistan Desert as the Supplier of Camel Skin Lamps�������������������������������������� 125 Processing the High-Value Camel Skin for Lamps���������������������������������������������� 125 Durable and Long-Lasting Camel Skin Lamps���������������������������������������������������� 125 Camel Skin Lamps Caught in the War on Terror������������������������������������������������� 125 Exporting Local Souvenirs Overseas������������������������������������������������������������������� 126 Shopping Online for Multan-Made Camel Skin Lamps�������������������������������������� 126 Vintage Camel Skin Lamps���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 126 Bone Ornaments������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 127 Camel Leather���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 128 References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 130 Chapter 6 Camels’ Genomic Potentials������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 131 Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 131 Genes for Milk and Heat Tolerance�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 131 Heat Tolerance������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 131 Milk Genetics������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 132 Immunity�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 132 Phylogenetic and Genotyping���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 132 Growth and Weight����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 133 Use of mtDNA and the Like for the Study of Genetic Diversity������������������������� 133 Phenotypic and Genetic Variation���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 134

Contents

ix

Worldview on Camel Genetics��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 134 Milk Genetics������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 134 Heat Tolerance������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 135 Phylogenetic and Genotyping���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 136 Growth and Weight����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 137 Phenotypic and Genetic Variation���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 139 Future Perspectives of Camel Genetics�������������������������������������������������������������������� 140 Conclusion������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 142 References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 143 Chapter 7 Camel as the Best-Suited Animal under Global Climate Change���������������������������� 147 Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 147 Climate Change�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 147 Climate Change and Global Warming������������������������������������������������������������������ 148 Vulnerability of Camels to Global Warming������������������������������������������������������������ 151 Socioeconomic, Environmental, Cultural, and Health Dimension of Camels under Global Climate Change������������������������������������������������������������� 154 Effects of Climate Change on Animal Size���������������������������������������������������������� 156 Camel: An Animal of the Future������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 161 Water Requirements, Feeds, and Feeding������������������������������������������������������������ 161 Adaptations in Camels����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 163 Adaptive Capability of Camel Is Much Higher than Other Livestock Animals����� 163 Superior Adaptabilities of Camel during Heat Stress Conditions������������������������ 166 Camel: “A Ship of Desert”��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 166 Hematological and Biochemical Parameters of Camels Are Vulnerable to Heat Stress������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 167 Camels Use Heat Shock Proteins for Their Adaptive Capability������������������������� 169 Climate Change and Camel Diseases������������������������������������������������������������������� 169 Camels Also Contribute to Climate Change������������������������������������������������������������� 172 GHG Emissions from Livestock�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 172 Methane Emissions from Camels������������������������������������������������������������������������� 173 References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 175 Chapter 8 Camel Diseases and Preventive Measures���������������������������������������������������������������� 181 Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 181 Bacterial Diseases����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������182 Mastitis����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 182 Pneumonia������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 185 Clostridial Diseases���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 186 Salmonellosis������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 188 Camel Calf Diarrhea��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 188 Brucellosis������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 189 Dermatitis������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 190 Fungal Infections������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 192 Viral Diseases����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 192 Nonpathogenic Viral Infections�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 194 Pathological Viral Infections������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 195 Camel Pox������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 195

x

Contents

Contagious Ecthyma��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������196 Rabies������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 196 Parasitic Diseases of Camels������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 198 Helminthic Diseases��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 198 Arthropod Infestations������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 199 Protozoan Infections��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 201 Nutritional Deficiency Diseases in Camels�������������������������������������������������������������� 203 Energy and Protein Deficiency����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 203 Signs of Energy and Protein Deficiency��������������������������������������������������������������� 203 Energy Deficiency�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 203 Protein Deficiency�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 204 Prevention–Control–Treatment���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 205 Vitamin and Mineral Deficiencies���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 205 Vitamin A������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 205 Vitamin D������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 205 Vitamin E�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 205 Vitamin B1����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 205 Selenium��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 205 Calcium and Phosphorus�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 205 Copper������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 206 Iodine�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 206 Iron����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 206 References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 206 Chapter 9 Future Prospects and Opportunities for the Scientific Community�������������������������� 215 Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 215 Prospects/Challenges������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 216 Camel Milk��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 217 Marketing of Camel Meat���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 217 Camel: An Animal with Diversified Applications���������������������������������������������������� 218 From Convention to Modernism������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 221 Establishment of a Society or Organization������������������������������������������������������������� 225 Other Purposes����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 226 The Trends in Camel Sciences��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 226 The Way Ahead: Opportunities�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 228 Breeding Programs and Their Planning������������������������������������������������������������������� 232 Organizational Aspects��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 233 References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 234 Index���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 237

Foreword A camel belongs to genus Camelus. It is an even-toed ungulate with a unique hump on its back. Hump is filled with fatty deposits. Camels were domesticated from the wild long time ago. They were then trained, and since that time, they have been providing milk and meat, as well as textiles, to their owner. In addition to food, they also provide fiber from hair used for textiles. Camels are well adapted and suitable for desert life and are performing successfully the task of transporting passengers and their associated luggage. Due to its peculiar qualities, it is also called the “animal of the future” Presently only three camel species exist. These include the single-humped dromedary camel. This camel is 94% of the total camel population on Earth. The second species is called the two-humped Bactrian camel, which covers the rest of the 6% population of the camel in the world. The third species, which is hereby called the Wild Bactrian camel, is now in quite miserable condition and declared as critically endangered. Originally, the camel is an animal of Bedouins and desert dwellers where it nourishes them with milk and meat shelter them with its hair and skin, transports them and their luggage in a hostile and unfriendly environment and strengthening their economy. Therefore, it is a multipurpose animal. It ensures food security, consequently significantly reducing poverty. For this reason, the present book, Biology and Breeding of Camels, was initiated to provide the maximum information about this animal, encompassing right from its past to the present and then its future. The chapters included in this book are very much on its origin, species and breeds, nutrition, diseases and health, prospects for the scientific community, and justification for its adaptation as the animal of the future. At this stage, writing a comprehensive document on this animal is a must, although it is an uphill struggle because not much information is available on this animal as plenty of can be found on other livestock. Poor people predominantly live in hostile environments. Soils are not fertile and are mainly arid or semiarid. Such places hold the least economic perspective. In such areas normally public services do not exist. Their livelihoods remain poor and miserable. Camels, which are also called the “ships of the desert”, are really a ray of hope for them. This book covers all the facets of camel holding, farming and successful management with feeding, disease management, camel products, and their processing, camel genetics with innovations and future prospects in their identification and improvement, explorative opportunities for camel scientists with its justification as the best animal of the future. The book has been produced in conjunction with local Pakistani researchers/authors under the project Camel as an Animal of the Future, with the aim to improve capacity, productivity, and quality in camel farming and management in Pakistan through the active participation of and combination of public and private sector, which Virtual University of Pakistan is a major player in. Adaptation of innovative method and techniques of camel farming given in this book will definitely support the healthy growth of camels and enhance the milk and meat production, with improved breeding and production of healthy young ones. Virtual University presents this book to camel owners and farmers and other stakeholders involved in this business in one way or the other which will serve as a continuous source of guidance to present status of this livestock and its future developments. We hope that this book will aid as a tool to improve the present income of the Pakistan camel owners ultimately improving food security in Pakistan.

xi

About This Book How many academic books on camel lie languishing on library shelves, there are not many and if there are any are with little practical value? This book will fulfill a vital role in the dissemination of research findings to those directly involved in camel husbandry like farmers, veterinary personnel, livestock advisers, and students studying animal farming and its body functions. This book goes a long way toward filling that major gap between researchers in camel management and those actually involved in camel husbandry. In this connection, credit goes to Virtual University of Pakistan, which has generously made this possible by providing the necessary technical and moral support, along with funds, for its publication. The authors, Masroor Ellahi Babar and Muhammad Ashraf, have both been intimately involved in comprehensive research and investigations on various aspects of livestock and have started to some extent on camels too. Authors have taken major texts from different sources on this topic and distilled them in such a way that they can be comfortably used by those working with camels in one way or the other, be it farming camels or the business of acquisition of camel products and their further processing. The book starts with the chapter on origin of camels with their evolutionary history with comprehensive coverage of their systematics. Unfortunately, keeping camels as dairy and/or meat animals is not well developed; neither is it well accepted among the scientific community as well as among livestock managers. Although many Asian as well as African developing countries are currently taking keen interest in the development of camel herds to the level of other livestock due to their contribution in the society, private and public interests are very poor and far less than for other dairy herds. The book lays the foundation for a sound understanding of how to look after camels by first describing their senses, behavior, and adaptations in some detail. The authors explicitly describe the language and way of talking of camels and tell how camels talk to each other and how they talk to us, but most of the time, we ignore their messages that they pass to us in one way or the other. While talking about welfare management, the authors describe the signals that camels provide when their welfare is not properly maintained or is compromised. Camels convey this signal by their body posture and conditions moving them further to change the rumination of the white area of the eye. Yes, it is well proved and tested that like other livestock, camels open their eyelids much wider when they are frightened just like we do in our daily life. Much has been discussed about the practical aspects of camel husbandry such as how to maintain their body condition, feet, and cleanliness and how to avoid lameness, which is a common problem in livestock, including camels. This volume is and will be of great help for remembering these things as well as for comparing camels with other animals. So far, not much has been written about the handling practices of camels, which actually should be because poor handling of camels is at the root of many welfare problems for camels. What books are available on camel life and biology traditionally describe the present conditions of camels; contradictory to previous literature on camels, this book focuses on the variation between individual camels and how each can be handled individually so its welfare is not compromised at any stage of its life. Therefore, there is an urgent need for learning and adapting skills for good camel observation when camels are raised intensively and they are spending far less time with dairy camels. This book has accepted this challenge and comprehensively answered this query. It is no coincidence that in intensive camel farming units, it is getting harder to repeatedly get the camels pregnant on account of several factors; among all of them, feeding is major one, which has been explicitly explained in this book. Types of feeds, feeding methods, and what actually they need in their daily feeding at different stages of their life have been covered in detail. Author do recognize that good herd person is essential for camel farm management, and they also know well the hardship that one can face in finding the good herd person due to competition with expanding industries and the competitive salaries they offer to their workers. The techniques and methods explained in this book can easily make camel farming a success, competing fully with industrial growth and hikes in salaries. The authors also warn the stakeholders that xiii

xiv

About This Book

repeated breeding to produce more and more milk, meat, and textile products at the expense of their welfare is not a good practice at all. Intensive housing for the well-being of camels has been thoroughly reviewed. The daily needs of the camel, such as what can trigger negative behavioral changes aggression, kicking, biting, and growling have been particularly addressed. Keeping camels indoors in tie stalls is common in Southeast Asia and African camel-holding countries due to the shortage of land for grazing systems. The authors stress that it is only for farmers to find that the camels have lost their condition and have an appetite that is almost impossible to satisfy, with the results that the milk yields are low, meat production declines, and textile products shorten in supply. Further to this, heat stress and a shortage of food and shelter intensify this welfare insult. This book takes a lot of the camel research material that is currently available that has been generated in the last several years and interprets it for the farmer, extracting what is useful in the work that has been done. It is not a lengthy academic text that is entirely evidence-based and copiously referenced, but it is eminently suitable for practicing farmers, students, and academicians who are looking for practical information on camel rearing, feeding, and management. The book concludes with the advice that “Happy camels make happy farmers”. Without doubt, it can be guaranteed that all camel owners and farmers will find something in this book that will help make their camels, and them, just that little bit happier.

Acknowledgments The success of this compendium depends on the cooperative attitude of my seniors and those living around me. Therefore, authors must acknowledge their loyalty, honest support, and critical but positive comments. First of all, authors must thank those who devoted their valuable time for their significant contribution to this book. The experience of these people and their scientific approach significantly contributed to the completion of this compendium. My gratitude goes to Dr. Tanveer Hussain for fruitful and productive discussions. He showed a lot of interest in the preparation of this compendium with technical contributions. Thank you for your comments and for your support throughout this book project. Authors thank Mr. Riaz Hussain, who contributed significantly in chapter to this book titled “Camel Breeds of Pakistan”. Several friends have assisted authors in this faculty and working in the field of livestock. Authors thank those who welcomed them to approach them in the discussion authors needed to collect the relevant material from them. Authors thank those who contributed to this book by writing, auditioning, and compiling. Thanks to Xaaceph Khan, who helped in composing this book and assisted in giving this book a final shape. Authors thank several friends and colleagues who lent lot of support both moral and technical at different stages and steps during the preparation of this publication. M. Hasseb from IT prepared the layout of this book, and hence, authors are thankful to him for this technical effort. Authors had useful discussions with Dr. Aasma Nourin. She also shared some literature on camel biology; hence, authors are grateful to her for this contribution too. Authors thank all colleagues for their continuous support.

xv

Authors Masroor Ellahi Babar, PhD, is currently serving as the Vice Chancellor of the University of Agriculture, Dera Ismael Khan KPK. Previously, he has served as the Vice Chancellor of Gomal University and the Dean of the Faculty of Science and Technology at the Virtual University of Pakistan Lahore. He has done a lot of work on functional genomics and molecular genetics of domestic as well as wild mammal breeds. He has authored several books and papers in this discipline. Due to his scientific services to the discipline of animal breeding and genetics, he was awarded Tamghah-i-Imtiaz by the government of Pakistan. Muhammad Ashraf, PhD, is currently a Subject Expert in Zoology at the University of Agriculture, Dera Ismael Khan KPK. Previously he has served as Dean of the Faculty of Fisheries and Wildlife. During his tenure, he served on several research projects on fisheries and wildlife as the principal or co-principal investigator. He has made many academic and practical contributions in the upgradation of the fields of fisheries and wildlife. He has written several scientific papers and books in this discipline and taught several undergraduate and postgraduate classes in zoology.

xvii

1

Old and New World Camels—Introduction

INTRODUCTION The camel  belongs to the genus Camelus. It is an  even-toed ungulate. It has a unique hump on its back, which is filled with fatty deposits (Basem  & Fahmy, 2015). Camels were domesticated from the wild a long time ago. They have been trained for human service. Hence, since then, they have been providing milk and meat for human nourishment and fiber from their hair for clothing. Camels are well adapted and suitable for desert life and successfully perform the task of transporting passengers and their associated luggage. Presently, only three camel species exist. The singlehumped  dromedary  camel is an important one, and it contributes up to 94% of the total camel population. The second species is the two-humped Bactrian camel, which covers the remaining 6% of the camel population in the world. The third species, which is hereby called the Wild Bactrian camel, is now in quite a miserable condition and has been declared a critically endangered species (Worboys et al., 2010). The word  camel  comes from Latin  camelus  and  the Greek  κάμηλος  (kamēlos). Universally, the name “camel” or “camelid” can be used for any member of the seven species of the family Camelidae. Family Camelidae consists of seven species of camel. The first three, which are comparatively in abundance, are the dromedary, the Bactrian, and the Wild Bactrian (the true camels). The remaining, which are comparatively less common and low in number, are the llama, the alpaca, the  guanaco, and the  vicuña (also called the “New World” camelids; Figure  1.1; Fleming, 1909; Douglas, 2012).

ORIGIN OF CAMELS Taxonomy and History Camels, generally called the ships of the desert, are fully adjusted to the severe and hostile environment of the desert. After horses, a collection and assortment of fossils have provided sufficient information on the evolutionary history of camels. The astonishing fossils collected during the exploration of the developmental history of the earth reveal and tell about the progressive evolutionary stages of the camel, which happened during its phylogenetic development. Due to the similarity in the grooved upper lip present in both animals, many people opine that camels originated from rabbits. The camelids belong to the order Artiodactyla (even-toed ungulates). They have been placed in the suborder Tylopoda, with Suifomes (pig-like) as an alternate presentation. Camelid classification is very closely related to ruminants, but they do not come under the suborder Ruminantia because of variations in the anatomy of their feet and digestive system and the absence of horns on its head (Fowler, 1998; Wernery, 2003). Many researchers have stated that the origin of camels can be linked to a group of animals belonging to Protylopus. Animals belonging to this group were equal in size to that of a rabbit. They have feet with four toes and low-crowned teeth. These animals lived on the North American continent during the Eocene period (45–50 million years ago; Indra et al., 1998). In general, the family Camelidae has three genera. The genus Camelus consists of Old World camels. The genus Lama consists of L. glama, L. guanicoe, and L. pacos while the genus Vicugna has one species called V. vicugna. All of these are called New World camels (Wilson & Reeder, DOI: 10.1201/9781003408598-1

1

2

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 1.1  Different species of camels. Source: amazon.co.uk

2005). The New World camels, which belong to family Camelidae, are small camels as compared to their other relatives and are currently found high in the mountains of South America. Two species of Old World camels were domesticated. They even exist today. These two species are (1) the dromedary or one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) and (2) the Bactrian or twohumped camel (Camelus bactrianus). The genealogy of the dromedary camel, the most commonly found camel (94% of the total world population), follows: Order: Artiodactyla (even-toed ungulates) Suborder: Tylopoda (pad-footed animals) Family: Camelidae Subfamily: Camelinae Genus: Camelus Species: Camelus dromedaries

Old and New World Camels—Introduction

3

In the semiarid areas of northern and eastern Africa, as well as on the Arabian Peninsula and in Iran, the dromedary species of camel is the most important livestock animal. It was tamed and domesticated around 3000 bce in southern Arabia (today Yemen and Oman) for its two main products (meat and milk; Epstein, 1971; Fowler, 1998). In addition to the aforementioned products, it can also be used for fur and transport (Burgmeister, 1974). The cold deserts and dry grasslands of Asia are the main living sites of the Bactrian (Camelus bactrianus, or two-humped) camel. The Bactrian (two-humped) camel was also tamed and kept at the borders of Iran and Turkmenistan, and then its range extended to the boundaries of Crimea, southern Siberia, Mongolia, and China. This camel is hardier than the dromedary and bears dense wool on its body. Among Bactrian camels, the wild species Camelus ferrus still exists in Gobi desert (Fowler, 1998) while per existing data, the wild Arabian camel is extinct now (Lensch, 1999). Leidy (1853) reported the presence of Poebrotherium (one of the ancestors of camels) in the open woodlands of North Dakota (USA) about 37–24 million years ago. The Poebrotherium was only three feet long and the size of a goat. The Poebrotherium had a narrow snout and a long neck and was very much similar to the modern llama. Camels started to increase in size between 24 and 5 million years ago. Their neck and limbs increased, and accordingly, their speed of walking the expanded areas of desert and grassland also increased. Per existing and available record, Camelini moved to Eurasia via the Bering isthmus about 5–3 million years ago. However, Lamini headed to South America via the Panama isthmus about 3 million years ago (Abdulaziz & Al-Swailem, 2010). Data on fossil record of Asia, Europe, and Africa dating 6.5–7.5 million years ago shows that Camelus descended from Paracamelus. Some suggest that Camelus originated in the African continent. Others are of the view that most of its fossil records are available from North America; hence, possibly it first appeared there. In the Yukon of Canada, rare fossil remains (proximal phalanx, ankle elements, partial long bones, teeth) of really big camels were found from the Plio-Pleistocene (3.5 million years ago). Fossil deposits in the Old Crow Basin (within northern Yukon territory), however, are supposed to be that of Paracamelus in the north (Rybczynski, 2013). The Canadian Museum of Nature reported in 2010 that giant camels were actually inhabitants of Canada’s High Arctic (Rybczynski, 2013). Its researchers collected data on the collagen fingerprinting of the fossil limb bone. They compared these data with the database of genus-specific collagen peptide markers from 37 modern mammal species, along with fossils of camel available from the Yukon. The collagen profile obtained from the camel showed its habitat in the High Arctic. It also showed that such features were very close to modern dromedary camels as well as the Yukon giant camel. This giant camel was considered the Paracamelus ancestor of modern camels. Anatomical information and data collected from the collagen profile revealed that the Ellesmere camel and the giant Yukon camel are closely related. There is also a possibility that they may belong to the ancestry of Paracamelus, which inhabited Earth about 3.5 million years ago. The relative size of the tibia of the Ellesmere was about 30% bigger than that of modern camels. Considering tibia length, only the Ellesmere camel was closer in size to those of other giant camels like Asian Paracamelus gigas and the Yukon giant camel. High Arctic camel fossil records revealed and helped the researchers conclude that camels took their birth in North America and then spread to Eurasia through the Bering isthmus, which was a land bridge between Alaska and Siberia. The ancestors of Paracamelus used to live in the North American Arctic less than 7 million years ago before probably spreading out across the Bering Strait in the cold winter via Arctic sea ice (Rybczynski, 2013). Researchers are rebuilding an evolutionary lineage of the Camelidae based on genome sequence data obtained thus so far. The complete mitochondrial genome sequence data of wild Bactrian camels have further revealed that Camelini and Lamini separated from each other approximately 25 million years ago. In the community of Camelini, the Bactrian camel and the dromedary started to emerge as independent species about 8 million years ago, while in the community of Lamini, first appeared the alpaca 10.4 million years ago; after that, vicuna started to emerge as an independent species about 6.4 million years ago, and last, the llama and guanaco separated from each other as independent species about 1.4 million years ago. In their explorations, scientists are of the opinion that the Bactrian camel called the wild Bactrian camel and the domestic Bactrian camel come from

4

Biology and Breeding of Camels

the same parents but diverged as subspecies from each other about 0.7 million years ago (Burger et al., 2012; Jirimutu & Cui, 2009; Cui, 2007). The latest camel genomic studies do not prove that the two-humped wild camel is an ancestor of the existing domestic Bactrian camel. Further to this, from late Bronze and early Iron Age sites of Siberia, when mitochondrial DNA was extracted from bone marrow of modern domestic Bactrian and wild camels (the two strains of C. Bactrians), no link was found between wild Bactrian camel and both prehistoric and modern domestic camels. They further added that extant wild two-humped camel did not originate the domestic Bactrian camels. Both dromedary and Bactrian camels were tamed in the Near East principally for transport and food (milk and meat) or possibly for fur and hides about 2500–3000 years ago. It has been stated that the camels might have been used for transporting cargo in the early 3rd millennium and late of 2nd millennium bce. Other scientists do not agree with this theory. They opine that camels were actually domesticated as early as 1000 bce. In 1845, British archaeologists discovered “The Black Obelisk of Shalmanester III”, a black limestone monument in northern Iraq at Kalhu. This monument was in the capital of ancient Assyrian, and it was built in 825 bce in honor of the achievements of King Shalmaneser III (ruled 858–824 bce). Sketches of Bactrian camel were found on this monument. This can be considered as one piece of evidence that the Bactrian camel was domesticated in the Near East. This can be possible because Assyrian kings were fond of collecting and maintaining exotic animals. They used this practice to show the power among their people as well as foreigners (Kennedy, 2010). So it can be said that Near East, the Arabian regions, and what is now Iran were the home of taming wild animals as well crops. It is possible that the animals tamed and kept in this area might have been exported to surrounding regions. Ancient records, as well as fossils, show that more than 1000 years ago, Bactrian camels were raised in western China and later on, in the 840s bce, were used by people in Turkmenistan (Indra et al., 1998) for various purposes. The ancient Romans named two-humped camels Bactrian camels. There is a possibility that they might have taken this name from the word Bacteri. Bacteri was actually a Middle Asian country present inside the boundaries of Macedonia in 4th millennium bce. Hunnu people from Mongolia used these animals for racing competition. Historically, it has been observed that camel caravans started from the Hunnu Empire and went to China. They further added that 700 carriages and 1000 camels were captured during the course of this journey due to one reason or the other (Indra et al., 1998; Sanjmyatav, 1995). Although camels belong to even-toed Artiodactyla, their status is provisional and maintains an independent position; nevertheless, the biological relationship still needs to be clearly established. Considering their current distribution, Artiodactyla are found in quite isolated places. Currently, the dromedary (C. dromedarius, also called the Arabian camel; Figure 1.2) is common in the Middle East  and the  Horn of Africa. The Bactrian (C. bactrianus; Figure  1.3), however, is common in Central Asia. The wild Bactrian, which is currently endangered species (C. ferus; Figure 1.5), has settled in the faraway places of northwest China  and  Mongolia. C. hesternus, genus Camelops, which is currently extinct (Baskin & Thomas, 2015; Heintzman et al., 2015) used to live in western North America at the end of Pleistocene before human entry to that continent.

BIOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION OF CAMELS Camelus and llama or Auchenia are currently two endangered genera. These genera present animals with long limbs that are two-toed and digitigrade. These are the only two genera surviving today. These features allow these animals to adapt to sandy deserts. The hoofs end up in nail-like structures. The metapodials combine and fuse to form a cannon bone. Camel limbs cannot move laterally or sidewise, and if they can, the range of this movement is very limited. The feet of camels possess one or two cushion-like pads. These pads help the animal to move in the sandy desert. The toes gradually widen when moving toward the hoof. These widening toes provide an additional support to deal with different soil sediments (Fayed, 2001).

Old and New World Camels—Introduction

FIGURE 1.2  Dromedary camel. Source: Dreamstime.com

FIGURE 1.3  Bactrian camel. Source: en.wikipedia.org

5

6

FIGURE 1.4  Hybrid camel. Source: macroevolution.net

FIGURE 1.5  Wild Bactrian camel. Source: en.wikipedia.org

Biology and Breeding of Camels

Old and New World Camels—Introduction

7

FIGURE 1.6 Cama. Source: mnn.com

There is considerable reduction in teeth number, which is now 34, with only a single upper incisor on each side that looks more like a canine. Spatulate and buck teeth, which represent incisors, are all present. These incisors have the same structure and function as has been observed in canines. Each molar has four crescent cusps (Figure 1.7). They are elongated with a high crown. The stomach in camels is three-chambered, which differs from other ruminants. “Water-cells”, an integral part of the stomach, are present in the wall of the rumen. The red blood corpuscles are elliptical, not circular, which are unique to camels and not found in other mammals. The primitive type of placenta and the presence of a conical-shaped hump on the back are some other distinctive features of this animal. The hump consists of gelatinous fat and provides nourishment to the animal when food is scarce. The Central Asian camel has a double hump (Figure 1.5) while the Arabian camel has a single hump (Camelus dromedarius; Figure 1.2). A hybrid of Bactrian and dromedary camels (Potts, 2005) (Figure 1.4) has one hump. Nonetheless, there is a depression of 4–12 cm (1.6– 4.7 in.) deep that divides the front from the back. The height of an adult camel is 1.85 m (6 ft 1 in.) at the shoulder and 2.15 m (7 ft 1 in.) at the hump (Ganthier-Pilter & Inns, 1981). Camels can run 65 km/h (40 mph) in short intervals, while their sustainable speed is only up to 40 km/h (25 mph; Karen, 2015). Camels live up to 40–50  years (Barat  & Khomeiri, 2015).  Bactrian camels weigh 300 to 1,000 kg (660 to 2200 lb), and dromedaries normally weigh less and fall in the range of 300 to 600 kg (660 to 1320 lb). The hybrid is 2.15 m (7 ft 1 in) high at the shoulder while the height at the hump is 2.32 m (7 ft 7 in). The weight of this camel is 650 kg (1430 lb). It has, however, a large carrying capacity and can carry a weight up to about 400 to 450 kg (880 to 990 lb). This carrying capacity is far higher than either the dromedary or Bactrian camel (Potts, 2005).

8

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 1.7  Skull of an F1 Hybrid camel. Source: steemit.com

A special organ, called dulla (a large inflatable sac), is present in the throat of male dromedary camels. The camel extrudes this organ during rut (reproduction) to proclaim its dominance over other males and attract females (Abu-Zidana et al., 2011). Camelids are the only ungulates that mate with their female partners in a sitting position (Admin, 2013). The female first sits on the ground, and the male then mounts from behind (Khanvikar et al., 2009). In a single mating session, the male camel usually ejaculates 3–4 times, and it takes about half an hour to complete this process (Mohandesan et al., 1981).

GENETICS Karyotypes of different camelid species have been well explored (Taylor et al., 1968; Koulischer et al., 1971; Bianchi et al., 1986; Bunch et al., 1985; O’Brien et al., 2006, Di Berardino et al., 2006). Despite several studies on genetics of camels, still there is no uniformity on the nomenclature of chromosomes. Balmus et al. (2007) reported in their studies that there are 37 pairs of chromosomes (2n = 74). Their karyotyping is 1 metacentric, 3 sub-metacentric, and 32 acrocentric autosomes. They further added “X” is a large metacentric chromosome while “Y” is a small metacentric chromosome. The molecular data shows the departure of New World camelids (Figure 1.8) from Old World camelids about 11 million years ago (Stanley et al., 1994). Although these species diverged from each other quite a long time ago, still they can mate with each other and can produce hybrid camels that are fertile and viable (Skidmore et al., 1999). The cama (Figure 1.6) is a hybrid camel of camel and llama produced to see the intensity of the relationship between these two species. Scientists collected semen from a camel via an artificial vagina for breeding purposes. They ovulated the female with injections of gonadotrophins and inseminated it with recently collected semen for breeding

Old and New World Camels—Introduction

9

FIGURE 1.8  Caravan of dromedaries (Pyramids of Giza, Egypt). Source: dreamstime.com

purposes (Khalifa et al., 2014). Camas are normally sterile, although their parents have an equal number of chromosomes (Fahmy, 2002). Camas have no hump, and their body and ear size is in between camel and llama. The hybrid camel has cloven hooves, and its legs are longer than the llama but shorter than the camel (Campbell, 2002). These differences can be possible because the domestic Bactrian (C. bacterianus) camel diverged from its wild counterpart (C. ferus) about 1 million years ago (Mohandesan et al., 1981; Ji et al., 2009).

CAMEL CLASSIFICATION AND EVOLUTION Ancestry of Camels It is reported that originally, camels evolved in North America (Lambert & Shoshani, 1998). They appeared there even before the entry of human beings. Therefore, it can be claimed that their ancestral source goes back to the upper Eocene. Protylopus—Holds the Ancestral Key During the Upper Eocene, the first plausible ancestral stage in the evolution of the camel can be found. The Protylopus group retained many camel-like characteristics. These camels have a small stature and a normal number of mammalian teeth, that is, 44. These camels have low-crown molars while their canines were quite enlarged. The orbit was incomplete in these camels while their facial portion of the skull was narrow. The forelimbs were shorter in length than the hind limbs. The forelimbs had four functional digits. The lateral digits of the hind limbs, however, were structurally cylindrical. Scientists have agreed that the earliest well-identified stage in the evolution of camels can be the Protylopus. Prior to Protylopus, there are no clear-cut distinctions, and the ancestral lineage mixes with the ancestry of other groups; therefore, it is hard to discriminate and trace it back with certainty (Figure 1.9; Palmer, 1999).

10

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 1.9  The evolution of the camel, with its skull, molars, and limbs. Source: biologydiscussion.com

Old and New World Camels—Introduction

11

Biological Trends in the Evolution of Camels Between Protylopus, the first camels, and the presently surviving genera of camels, a large number of fossils have been found and recorded up to this day. Except for the decline in the size of the limbs, the evolutionary changes in camels appear quite parallel to the changes observed in the evolution of horses (Kemp, 2005; Donald, 2009). Here is the summary of the evolutionary changes in camels:

a. Body size increased gradually with proportionate increase in size of limbs b. Ensuing to these changes, a loss of lateral digits c. Elongation of metapodilas and their subsequent fusion to form the cannon bone d. Consequent modification from unguligrade to digitigrade form e. With the previously mentioned changes, there was a reduction in the number of teeth following their elongation

PALEONTOLOGICAL PROCESSION OF CAMELS Starting from the Protylopus stage of camels till the present time lot of fossils of different forms have been collected and recorded from the different successive layers of the earth.

Oligocene—The Influx of Camel-Like Animals Belonging to the Oligocene period are a different number and type of fossils that have been dug out that show that camel-like animals were quite abundant during this period. These fossils are a mixture of peculiar fauna of this time period. Poebrotherium This period is considered the middle of Oligocene; during this period, the remains of different camel species present during this time are quite abundant. The Poebrotherium camel species (the middle of the Oligocene animals) were of the size of sheep with longer limbs and necks (Janis et al., 2002), with longer and tapered facial portions of the skull. The grinding teeth present in the upper jaw were short-crowned while in the lower jaw they were elongated. The number of teeth, however, remained 44. There was a considerable reduction in limbs, the later toes acquired the shape of small vestiges, and the hoofs appeared very much like that of deer. Protomeryx—The Upper Oligocene Form Protomeryx, which originated from Poebrotherium, led the main evolutionary lineage of camel that sustained up to the lower Miocene time. Protomeryx had similar features to those present in Poebrotherium except that of orbit was fully surrounded and covered by bone. Camels present in the Protomeryx lineage had all the mammalian teeth, and the grinding teeth tend to be deepened in appearance. These animals possessed two digits and the hoofs were sharp and pointed (Janis et al., 2002).

Miocene—The Period of Divergence In this period like that of horses, several clear-cut and well-separated groups of camels have been found and recorded. Among these different lines, the main evolutionary line appeared and continued through the lower Miocene (Protomeryx) and the upper Miocene form (Procamelus; Made et al., 2002).

12

Biology and Breeding of Camels

Procamelus—Directed the Main Line of Evolution The Procamelus (fossil camel) present in the upper Miocene showed up there for the first time in the adult stage. A reduction in the number of teeth loss is observed in the first and second incisors of the upper jaw. The metapodial was inclined to fuse to form the cannon bone. The presence of pads on the underside of the foot in this period was the first sign of adaptation to desert environments (Made et al., 2002).

Sideline Evolution—Gazelle-Camels A large number of fossil remains of Stenomylus (camel group) were excavated from western Nebraska and have been recorded in the lower Miocene. The ancestors of Stenomylus were unknown in the Oligosene, but it sustained as Rakomylus; ultimately, it perished in the Lower Pliocene. Stenomylus was named the gazelle-camel and lived for a very short period during the course of camel evolution. Stenomylus, or gazelle-camels, showed very irregular features, especially in dentition very distant from the animals found in their lineage (Prothero, 2009). Of them, some important ones are ten incisor-like teeth in the lower jaw, six true incisors, and canines, along with first premolars, that adapted the expression of incisors while the molars were low crowned. The body was delicately and precisely built, and the limbs were two-toed with separate metapodials. Giraffe-Camels The group adapted the shape of Paratylopus in the upper Oligocene and that of Oxydactylus in the Lower Miocene. Same group took the shape of both Oxydactylus and Alticamelus in the Upper Miocene with no particular relationship with giraffes. When Paratylopus was present in the upper Oligocene, they were considered as the ancestor giraffe-camels. In the lower Miocene, Oxydactylus, which was derivative of Paratylopus, had small organs, limbs, neck, and remaining body makeup compared to its successor. Like its predecessor, it retained separate metapodials with sharp, pointed hoofs. The teeth number remained the same as in mammals and were shortcrowned. Nevertheless, Alticamelus, which appeared and is considered representative of the Late Miocene and early Pliocene, which originated from Oxydactylus, was much more advanced than its predecessors in numerous ways. Among them, the presence of the cannon bone and pads is the important one. Alticamelus was really quite big compared to its predecessors, with low-crowned teeth (Figure 1.10).

FIGURE 1.10  Approximate time frame of domestication based on archaeology. Source: sciencenews.org

Old and New World Camels—Introduction

13

PLIOCENE AND PLEISTOCENE—PERIODS FOR TRUE CAMELS Procamelus were the Camelops and Eschatius, and were the direct descendants of the Upper Miocene. These animals existed in the Pliocene and Pleistocene times. The fossil records for both these species are very rare and very hard to trace out. They did not survive after the Pleistocene period. It has been observed that in the Pleistocene period, camels were abundant. The most important of them belonged to the genus Camelus. Figure 1.11 shows the scheme of evolution of the camel. Camels present in this period were well-developed compared to Procamelus (Yam & Khomeiri, 2015). Observations showed that in Camelus, one premolar in the upper jaw and two in the lower jaw were further reduced. Camelus was the first genus member that migrated to the Old World. Preliminary fossil records of these camels were discovered from the Siwalik formation of India. Nevertheless, how North American camels perished is not known (Figures 1.11 and 1.12).

CAMEL DOMESTICATION Archaeologists said that originally, camels were domesticated in the Arabian Peninsula. This area borders the Aravah Valley. It is speculated that the Egyptians were in search of copper at that time. Hence, accordingly, in search of beasts of burden, they started to domesticate camels. Earlier, people in the region relied on mules and donkeys as their beasts of burden. The latest camel that was domesticated was the one-humped camel, the Arabian or dromedary camel, which is actually a large-hoofed animal. This one-humped camel is most commonly found in the hot deserts of northern Africa and the Middle East. It is assumed that about 5000 years ago, the local population domesticated this camel. These camels provided meat, milk, and textile material to the owners. In addition to that, they also provided a means of transport for the people who owned them, proving themselves very hard and suitable animals to the prevailing hostile environment (Vannithone & Davidson, 1999; Wilson, 1984). So it can be considered one of the most unique mammals on the planet. It has adapted itself perfectly to very hostile desert environments. In such environments, food and water are often scarce, and the temperature changes rapidly from scorching-hot days to cooler nights. Once they roamed in Arabian deserts, but now, they have disappeared from the wild. A huge population is, however, raised at the

FIGURE 1.11  Evolution of the camel. Source: @Zoologywithamina

14

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 1.12  Phylogenetic tree of the camel (after Lull). Source: biology.discussion.com (Molly Oudekerk)

domestic level. The main reason of this proliferation is that they are grown with proper care and reproduce in a controlled, well-protected environment. The genealogy and some key characteristics of the dromedary camel are given in the following table.

Kingdom:

Animalia

Phylum:

Chordata

Class:

Mammalia

Order:

Artiodactyla

Family:

Camelidae

Genus:

Camelus

Scientific Name:

Camelus dromedarius

Common Name:

Camel, also called Other names: Arabian camel, one-humped camel, dromedary Camel

Group:

Mammal

Number Of Species:

1

Location:

Whole Middle East has a sufficient population

Habitat:

Scrubland and arid desert

Color:

Black, tan, cream, brown

Skin Type:

Hair

Size (L):

2.2 m–3.5 m (7.25 ft–11.5 ft)

Weight:

300 kg–690 kg (660 lb–1500 lb)

Old and New World Camels—Introduction Kingdom:

Animalia

Top Speed:

64 kph (40 mph)

Diet:

Herbivore

Prey:

Grass, grain, thorny and salty plants

Predators:

Humans, lions, leopards

Lifestyle:

Diurnal

Group Behavior:

Herd

Life Span:

40–50 years

Age of Sexual Maturity:

3–5 years

Gestation Period:

390–410 days

Average Litter Size:

1

Name of Young:

Calf

Age of Weaning:

4 months

Conservation Status:

Common

Estimated Population Size:

20 million

Biggest Threat:

Drought

Most Distinctive Feature:

Large hump, with long, curved neck

Fun Fact:

Without water can survive for 10 months!

15

CURRENT STATISTICS AND EVOLUTION OF CAMELS IN HOST COUNTRIES The camel carries a peculiar status among the mammals domesticated by humans for their needs. It is highly adapted to a specific ecosystem (the desert). Unlike other livestock, it is a multipurpose animal used for the production of milk, meat, wool, skin, and manure; leisure, such as racing; sport, such as polo; tourism; beauty contests; and festivals. Moreover, it is an important beast of burden and is extensively used for transport like riding, carting, and pack carrying, as well as for agricultural work like plowing, weeding, harrowing, noria, and water extraction. The human population cannot accomplish multifaceted jobs from any other livestock. In spite of these numerous services to humans, its image is still the same as the animal from the past. People still look at camels as moving in caravans through the arid lands of the world. Such extensive networks have been managed by nomads from Mauritania to the Middle East and from Mongolia (Luvsan, 1975) to India. However, at the world level, the camel population is not declining. Its current distribution and availability status, however, varies from country to country. For example, if it is on the decline in India, at the same time, it is growing astonishingly in the Horn of Africa and Sahelian countries. The camel is marginal in its number (27 million in 2014 according to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) compared to other domestic farm animals. Despite a regular decline in the proportion of the human population living in the desert, there is no significant decline in the overall population of camels. If we compare the population with trends in the nomad population inhabiting deserts, it decreased from 10% to 1.5% during the last five decades, but the camel population did not show any relation with nomad population. Rather, the camel population doubled in 2014 compared to that observed in 1961 (first available world annual data). Interpreting it on an annual basis, it comes out a 2% increase per year. This shows a faster annual growth compared to other species like cattle, sheep, horses, and llamas but an equal growth with buffaloes at the world level. Nonetheless, its growth rate has remained lower than that of goats (Faye & Bonnet, 2012). In 1961, the proportion of camels in the domestic herbivorous biomass (DHB) was 1.1%, which increased to 1.5% in 2014. This growth is proportionate to the changes in livestock systems. Nowadays, camels are not only the animals of Bedouins, but they are now also a part of modern life in the desert (Breulmann et al., 2007). Currently, they contribute significantly to desert productivity. Their production potential (milk and meat) is a major contributor. Another one is the value they add (Musaad et al.,

16

Biology and Breeding of Camels

2013). Although camels are raised extensively, meaning that they are heavily dependent on natural resources, herds are constantly in motion, but currently (1) the accentuation of the environmental aridity, (2) the globalization of the world economy, and (3) the change in the territorial distribution are working to maintain, as well increase, its population.

CAMEL BIODIVERSITY Camels have never been selected for better traits except when they were in demand for specific purposes like riding, milking, and racing. However, at the global level, there is a lot of variation among camel species and so are several misconceptions. The probable reason for this variation could be that the same types of animals get different names from their breeds. Some nominations go to coat color while others refer to the name of the owner. Blanc and Ennesser (1989) described 48 dromedary breeds in the world. In pursuance of their individual phenotypes, they classified them into eight subgroups. This classification, however, depended only on the usual conformation of that particular animal. Ultimately, it can be said that although many authors testify to camel biodiversity, still, gaps exist at the world level. Nevertheless, molecular genetics (Al-Swailem et al., 2010) has attested to and clarified some of the confusion. Similarly, different phenotypes described in Kenya lack a genetic background and are only supported by the physical appearance of that particular animal (Jianlin et al., 2000). Following the Kenyan viewpoint, in Saudi Arabia, nine camel phenotypes are described and identified, but after genomic studies, they were left with only three subtypes (Faye et al., 2011b).

CAMEL ANATOMY AND APPEARANCE: PHYSIOGNOMY AND DESCRIPTION

1. The Hump: It is generally perceived that the hump stores water, but rather, it is filled with fat that supports the camel when food is scarce or not available, and this can provide food to the camel for even up to a month. If the hump is devoid of fat, it will shrink, flop over, and may hang on one side of the camel back. 2. The Nipples: Camel milk, also called the Bedouin beverage of choice, contains more nutrients than that of cow milk. It is a good source of potassium and iron. It has three times more vitamin C than that of cow milk. 3. The Nostrils: Nostrils are unique in camels. When they want, camels can open and close them. The opening and closing of nostrils help camels not to inhale sand unnecessarily during sandstorms. 4. Body Heat: Normally when outer temperature exceeds an animal’s body temperature, the animal sweat to cope with this issue and cool off. Camels, on the other hand, do not sweat despite the higher temperatures. They raise their body temperature up to 11 °C and conserve water to sustain their survival in the desert. What actually camels do, they often group together to keep themselves cool, and then they lessen their temperature than that of the present outside air. 5. Excretions: Camels produce concentrated urine and dry dung to prevent water loss rather conserve it. 6. The Feet: When camels walk on the ground, their thick, leathery pads underneath the feet hit the ground and spread, which prevents the camel from sinking into the sand to maintain its appropriate gait. 7. Long Legs: When walking, camels rock their legs side to side, meaning that they move both legs on one side and then the other side. From this movement, they get the name “the ships of the desert”. Camels’ legs are very strong and due to their stout legs, they can carry heavy loads even up to 1000 pounds. With such heavy loads, they can walk swiftly. With an average speed of 12 miles per hour, they can cover a distance of 100 miles a day (Figure 1.13).

Old and New World Camels—Introduction

17

FIGURE 1.13  Camel anatomy. Source: pinterest.com

ADAPTATIONS Adaptation in animals in general means how animals adjust themselves to the diurnal or seasonal changes in their environment. Unlike other animals, camels can adjust themselves when facing direct sunlight or heat or when there is a shortage of water or food. The eye orbit is circular, present at equal distances on both sides of the face and totally osseous and distinctly projects in the lateral directions. Camels bear long double eyelashes and a nictitating eye membrane that help protect them from the sun and sand. As mentioned earlier, it also has closeable nostrils, and its breathing is slow with no panting. The lips are stout and thick, which allows them to eat thorny and prickly shrubs. Their bodies are covered with a thick coat of hair; even the inside of the ear is covered with sufficient hair. Per its habitat, camels have long legs with proper coverage and support of the knee. Camels’ body temperature is not constant as other animals experience and is always changing from 34 °C to 41.7 °C (93 °F–107 °F). Small and thick, ranging from cream to brown hair, their coat not only protects them from sun rays but also helps warm them up when the temperature falls. The fats present in their humps enable them to survive without water and food when these are scarce (Ganguly & Kumar, 2018).

CAMEL DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Due to ownership by nomads and pastoralists who move frequently from place to place, it is really very hard to determine the exact number of camels. Second, unlike other livestock animals, counting and estimating their population are difficult because they are not vaccinated. It is estimated that there are about 27 million camels all over the world (FAO, 2014). This figure was not well accepted due to

18

Biology and Breeding of Camels

flaws in proper estimation. One estimation has shown a quite higher number of camels in the Sahelian countries (Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad, Sudan, Ethiopia) than this figure. The Ministry of Animal Resources therefore adjusted this number from 800,000 to more than 1.3 million heads after suitable counting. Nevertheless, with an estimation of the Australian camel population (Gee, 1996) and those from other nations, the figure rose up to about 30 million heads. Although it appears a big number, it is only less than 1% of the total herbivorous domestic population in the world. The camel population is therefore far behind to those of cattle (1.5 billion), sheep and goats (more than 1 billion each), and even behind horses (70 million) and buffalo (200 million). Out of this whole camel population, 80% live in Africa. Out of this 80%, 60% of the population live in the Horn of Africa. The most camel-populated countries with a camel population over 1 million are, in the order, Somalia, Sudan, Ethiopia, Niger, Mauritania, Chad, Kenya, Mali, and Pakistan. The annual growth of the camel population is 2.1%. Since 1961 (date of the first FAO statistics; Faye et al., 2011b) to date, the world camel population has more than doubled. There is, however, lot of variation in the production data. Country-wise growth trends of camels can be ordered as follows: Algeria, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Oman, Qatar, Syria, the United Arab Emirates, Yemen, Ethiopia, and Eritrea have higher growth. Bahrain, Burkina Faso, Djibouti, Egypt, Iran, Kenya, Niger, Nigeria, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Tunisia, and the western Sahara have regular growth in their camel populations. Lebanon, Libya, and Senegal have stable camel populations. Camel populations in Afghanistan, China, India, Israel, Jordan, Mongolia, the former Soviet Union, and the republics in Central Asia are declining. The rate of decline in the camel population is quite high in Iraq, Morocco, and Turkey. The dromedary is mostly found in arid and semiarid countries. Considering its population on sociological basis it is found in Muslim countries, although not exclusively. Camel farming is found all over in desert-containing countries like Mauritania, Saudi Arabia, the Gulf countries, and Iran. In sub-arid countries, its share is however very small. For instance, in India, only in Rajasthan and Gujarat states is some camel farming practiced. In Ethiopia, the lowlands (below 1500 ft. altitude) are suitable for camel farming. The distribution is similar for the Bactrian camel. For instance, the Bactrian camel is found in arid parts like Gobi Desert in China and Moyoum-Koum Desert in Kazakhstan. Historically, camels definitely would have inhabited and wandered about throughout the deserts of northern Africa, the Middle East, and Asia. India was a common place for camels to live in Asia. It is assumed that with the passage of time, the environment changed from soft, powdery sand dunes to more hostile, rocky regions. This significant change in the environment has affected the distribution patterns of camels and their places of living. Accordingly, camels perished in the wild in these countries. Presently, all the population present in these countries is domesticated, where they are used for transport and food. Due their ability to go without food and water for a long time, camels have facilitated travel across deserts for people. Today, the deserts of Central Australia host millions of domestic camels, along with a feral population (Faye, 2014).

CAMEL BEHAVIOR AND LIFESTYLE Camels are usually found in groups of 40 in arid regions, including females with their young ones. Always A single male always dominates and leads the other males. During the breeding season, dominant males bite and spit on their rival males and protect their female circle. Sometimes they lean and kick the other males out of their territory. Camels bend their front legs underneath them and then back, ultimately lying down for rest. They possess a minimal number of sweat glands for conserving water in hostile environments. The lower number of sweat glands (very few in relation to their body size) lets a camel’s body temperature rise in summer but manages to lower it slowly by losing small amounts of water (Al-Hazmi & Brain, 1993).

Camel Reproduction and Life Cycle The camel is a seasonal breeder. Camel reproduction differs from other livestock. During breeding season, both males and females come into heat. “Thoot”, “rutt”, or “musth” are the common

Old and New World Camels—Introduction

19

FIGURE 1.14  Lactating female. Source: Dreamstivme.com

terms used for heat. Usually, the heat period is from November to March. Males mature at the age of 4–5 years while females mature at the age of 3–4 years. During the heat period, the male attracts females by emitting a black pigment from his pole gland (skin gland). The male camel protrudes the “gula” (a specialized inflatable diverticulum of the soft palate) out of the mouth when animal is angry. The gula can also extrude when the animal is under chemical stress or under physical harsh treatment (Flower, 1978). The gestation period (390 days) is a little more than 1 year. An adult camel weighs 450–750 kg while a newborn weighs 35–40 kg (Figure 1.14). This is common in most camel species.

Mating In Rajasthan (India), the mating of camels is called lakhana. It has been observed that in one season, a male camel can cover 20–50 females. However, this number should not exceed from 50 females. Although the heat period is only for 3–4 days, the estrous cycle lasts 16–22 days. Camels usually do not experience heat in the summer season. During the estrous cycle, camels become excited, bleat, and desire a male. The vulva becomes swollen, and it discharges a slimy liquid. Females try to smell the urine and external genitalia of male and raise their tails. Females can show homosexual behavior but approach a male, allowing him to mount and mate. Usually, a male camel mates with a female camel naturally. The female sits down, keeping its external genitalia open to allow the male camel to copulate. During the mating process, both sexes murmur, and it takes about 20 minutes to complete the process. During this process, the male burbles and moans while the female froths and whims. Conception can be checked physically in a female after 15–25 days if a male approaches the female or an attendant handles; it shows, tilts, and raises her tail; if there are none of the aforementioned symptoms, there is no conception (Rathore, 1986).

20

Biology and Breeding of Camels

After 13 months of gestation, the female gives birth to the young, normally one calf but, in exceptional cases, it can be twins. The calf at birth weighs 40 kg on average. About 8 hours after birth, the calf is ready to stand and suck the milk of its mother. The mother protects the calf until it becomes independent. Young camels start eating grass when they are 3 months old; weaning, however, normally takes place 4 months after its birth (Khanvikar et al., 2009).

CAMEL DIET AND PREY Camels are principally herbivores but sometimes chew bones and eat the flesh of other animals to supplement their diet. Their split, leathery lips help them eat tough, thorny, and salty plants. They can eat those plants that other animals always avoid eating. When there is a shortage of food and water, the hump of the camel supports them to meet its energy and water shortages. Camels have the ability to lose even up to 40% of their weight and can drink up to 40 gallons of water when it approaches water source. Field (1979) reported that principally, it is a browser but can graze tall succulent grass when required. However, Schwartz et al. (1983) claim that camels are browsers and primarily feed on shrubs, bushes, and trees (3.5 m above ground level). Their mouths are adapted to eating and accommodating prickly plants, while Aussie camels can eat the highly bitter orange fruit of the white wood tree. Like earlier authors, Tripathi (1987) also supports that camels are primarily browsers and that they forage for at least 6 hr a day to satisfy their hunger. They feed on specific plants and even reach remote salt lakes to eat plants containing high electrolyte concentrations, as well as moisture contents (Calandrinia and Portulaeea sp.). They eat grasses after rain when they are green and soft but can eat before if grasses are available in abundance (Elmi et al., 1992). Some authors report five factors that affect the selection process of food in camels (Arnold & Dudzinski, 1978): (1) animal species, physiological state means full, hungry, starving, and so on as well as feed demand grazing behavior, social behavior, and previous experience of animal affect the selection process; (2) taste, smell, sense of sight, and touch also modulate the selection process; (3) some physical factors, like slope and site of the plant, distance of plant from water source, distance of plants from track, also affect selection process; (4) soil type, soil fertility, and plant community, which means environment where camels are thriving; and (5) the available plant species present where animal is living, which means chemical and physical characteristics of that particular plant as well as relative availability.

CAMEL PREDATORS AND THREATS Camels’ large size constrains their predation and attacks by predators. Lions, leopards, and humans are their main predators (Figure  1.15). Furthermore, they live in arid and hostile environments where predators can seldom survive. Hence, their predation is less frequent than other hoofed herbivores. They were first domesticated a little more than 5,000  years ago. However, before their domestication, they were killed for their meat and fur. Presently, their population in the wild is very scarce and on the decline. Nevertheless, they have been domesticated, are produced, and are reared in controlled environments to compensate for their decreasing population. Their controlled proliferation and conservation are successful and commonly practiced alongside people from northern Africa to western Asia.

CAMELS’ RELATIONSHIP WITH HUMANS People have been using camels for milk (Ramet, 2011) and meat and for transporting goods for thousands of years. Their wooly hair and leathery hides provide clothing to their owners and related people. Presently, there are several camel breeds that are now thriving. Nevertheless, very few have been bred for truly practical uses. The improved breeds are quite faster, which are presently used for racing. They are easygoing animals and comfortably live with humans and other animals with hardly any problems or difficulties.

Old and New World Camels—Introduction

21

FIGURE 1.15  Camel predators. Source: slideplayer.com

CAMEL CONSERVATION, STATUS, AND LIFE TODAY Currently, most camels have been domesticated and are seldom found in the wild. Their present estimated population is about 30 million heads altogether. The first camel was imported into Australia in 1800. They have proliferated, and now their population has touched the 1 million mark. Now, camels can be seen roaming in the vast Australian deserts. Currently, two camels exist: the dromedary and the Bactrian. Dromedaries constitute 94% of the total camel population of the genus Camelus. More than 80% (12 million) of Arabian camels are presently available in more than 18 African countries. In these countries, they contribute to a major share in local livestock production. Dromedary camels are dominant in Asian countries. Nonetheless, the Middle East, as well as the South Arabian Peninsula, Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, northwestern India, China (western Sinkiang), and southwestern former Soviet republics (mainly Turkmenistan), host a major share of the dromedary camel population. The Bactrian camel, in comparison, favors a comparatively cooler environment. Accordingly, it inhabits the mountainous regions of southern Russia and in the cold deserts of China, including Mongolia. About 600,000 (some sources say over 1 million; Mason, 1984) Bactrians are found in China, of which 60% are present in Inner Mongolia. They live mostly in those areas where the average temperature is above 21 °C, with an average rainfall of 50 cm (Mason, 1984). The major population of dromedary camels has been domesticated, and they are now reproduced and raised under controlled conditions. Some camels, however, still can be seen roaming about in cultivated lands and desert oases. Such camel populations are very common along the Nile in Egypt or in Indian and Pakistani villages. Conserving feral camels is less of a concern; rather, they are considered vertebrate pests, and their population control is considered more important to protect agricultural commodities. Feral camels

22

Biology and Breeding of Camels

are widely distributed. Their density is very low; hence, their water requirements are also very low. Due to their low population, their mobility is very high. Due to these factors, their control is real challenge (Sharp & Saunders, 2012). At present, the management options for this animal as a vertebrate pest are very limited. Live capture and aerial culling are a couple of them. Their live capture by mustering or trapping at water sources when they congregate is one of the common options for their efficient, safe control. Reducing the density of camels near agricultural areas is an important step for protecting agricultural commodities from damage by them. Reproductive control is another method for reducing the feral population. Exclusion fencing is expensive and limited in its application because specific areas can be protected. Accordingly, buffer zones will be required to conserve this feral population and constrain the potential damage they do to sensitive areas. Cost-effectiveness and humaneness should also be considered before applying any control method and technique.

REFERENCES Abdulaziz, M., and Al-Swailem. (2010). Sequencing, analysis, and annotation of expressed sequence tag for Camelus dromedarius. PLoS One, 5(5), e10720. Abu-Zidana, F. M., Eida, H. O., Hefnya, A. F., Bashira, M. O., and Branickia, F. (2011). Camel bite injuries in United Arab Emirates: A 6 year prospective study. Injury, 43(9), 1617–1620. doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2011 .10.039. PMID 22186231 Admin, M. (2013). The difference between Bactrian and Dromedary camels. Knowledgenut, 2. Al-Hazmi, M. A., and Brain, P. F. (1993). A preliminary study on the behavior of Dromedary (Camelus dromedarius) in the Midwestern Region of Saudi Arabia. Journal of KAU “Marine Sciences”, 5, 71–76. Al-Swailem, A. M., Shehata, M. M., Abu-Duhier, F. M., Al-Yamani, E. J., Al-Busadah, K. A., Al-Arawi, M. S., Al-Khider, A. Y., Al-Muhaimeed, A. N., Al-Qahtani, F. H., Manee, M. M., Al-Shomrani, B. M., Al-Qhtani, S. M., Al-Harthi, A. S., Akdemir, K. C., Inan, M. S., and Out, H. H. (2010). Sequencing, analysis, and annotation of expressed sequence tag for Camelus dromedarius. PLoS One, 5(5), e10720. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0010720 Arnold, G. W., and Dudzinski, M. L. (1978). Diet selection and food intake. In Ethology of Free Ranging Domestic Animals. Elsevier Publishing Co., Amsterdam. Balmus, G., Trifonov, V. A., Biltueva, L. S., O’Brien, P. C. M., Alkalaeva, E, S., Fu, B., Skidmore, J. A., Allen, T., et al. (2007). Cross-species chromosome painting among camel, cattle, pig and human: further insights into the putative Cetartiodactyla ancestral karyotype. Chromosome Research, 15(4), 499–515. doi: 10.1007/s10577-007-1154-x Barat, A. Z. Y., and Khomeiri, M. (2015). Introduction to camel origin, history, raising, characteristics, and wool, hair and skin: a review. Research Journal of Agriculture and Environmental Management, 4(11), 496–508. www.apexjournal.org Basem, G., and Fahmy, A. (2015). Fatty acids profile in camels. The Egyptian Journal of Chemistry and Environmental Health, 1(1), 224–273. Baskin, J., and Thomas, R. (2015). A review of camelops (Mammalia, Artiodactyla, Camelidae), a giant llama from the Middle and Late Pleistocene (Irvingtonian and Rancholabrean) of North America. Historical Biology, 28(1–2), 120–127. doi: 10.1080/08912963.2015.1020800 Bianchi, N. O., Larramendy, M. L., Bianchi, M. S., and Cortés, L. (1986). Karyological conservatism in South American camelids. Experientia, 42, 622–624. doi: 10.1007/BF01955563 Blanc, C. P., and Ennesser, Y. (1989). Approche zoogéographique de la différenciation infraspécifique chez le dromadaire Camelus dromedarius Linné, 1766 (Mammalia: camelidae). Revue D’élevage et de Médecine Vétérinaire Des Pays Tropicaux, 42(4), 573–587. Breulmann, M., Boer, B., Wernery, U., Wernery, R., El-Shaer, H., Alhadrami, G., Gallacher, D., Peacock, J., Chaudhary, S. A., Brown, G., and Norton, J. (2007). The Camel, from Tradition to Modern Times. Unesco Doha Publications, Doha. Bunch, T. D., Foote, W. C., and Maciulis, A. (1985). Chromosome banding pattern homologies and NORs for the Bactrian camel, guanaco, and llama. Journal of Heredity, 76(2), 115–118. Burger, P. A., Charruau, P., Enkhbileg, D., Adiya, Y., Yuan, L., Jianlin, H., Banabazi, M., and Walzer, C. (2012). From the bush to the genome: Genetic identification of the last wild old World camel species Camelus ferus. In Proceedings of 3rd ISOCARD International Conference, Oman, pp. 32–33. Sultan Qaboos University College of Agricultural and Marine Sciences, Department of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, Masqat, Oman.

Old and New World Camels—Introduction

23

Burgmeister, R. (1974). Probleme der dromadarhaltung. Undzucht in Suedtunesien. Vet. Med. Diss, Giessen. Campbell, D. (2002). Bad Karma for Cross Llama without a Hump. The Guardian. http://www.theguardian. com/world/2002/jul/15/highereducation.science. Cui, R. J. (2007). A complete mitochondrial genome sequence of the wild two-humped camel (Camelus bactrianus ferus): evolutionary history of camelidae. BMC Genomics, 8, 24. doi: 10.1186/1471-2164-8-24 Di Berardino, D., Nicodemo, D., Coppola, G, King, A. W., Ramunno, L., Cosenza, G. F., Iannuzzi, L., Di Meo, G. P., et al. (2006). Cytogenetic characterization of alpaca (Lama pacos, fam. Camelidae) prometaphase chromosomes. Cytogenetic and Genome Research, 115(2), 138–144. doi: 10.1159/000095234 Donald, R. P. (2009). Evolutionary transitions in the fossil record of terrestrial hoofed mammals. Evo Edu Outreach, 2, 289–302. Douglas, H. (2012). Camel. Online Etymology Dictionary, 28 November. www.etymonline.com. Elmi, A. A., Thurow, T. L., and Box, T. W. (1992). Composition of camel diets in Somalia. Nomadic Peoples, 31, 51–63. Epstein, H. (1971). The Origin of the Domestic Animals of Africa (vol. 2). Africiana Public, Corps Thuringia Leipzig and Edition Leipzig, New York. Fahmy, M. (2002). ‘Cama’ camel/llama hybrids born in UAE research centre. Science in the News. The Royal Society of New Zealand (Archived from the original on 27 September 2013). en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Talk:Cama_(animal). Fayed, R. H. (2001). Adaptation of the camel to desert environment. Proceedings of the ESARF 11th Annual Conference. http://esarf2 [permanent dead link] (tripod. com/conf 2001 proc. htm). accessed on 18 November 2010. Faye, B. (2014). The camel today: Assets and potentials. Anthropozoologica, 49(2), 167–176. Faye, B., Abdallah, H., Almathen, F., Harzallah, B., and Al-Mutairi, S. (2011b). Camel Biodiversity—Camel Phenotypes in Saudi Arabia, p. 45. FAO Publication, Riyadh. Faye, B., and Bonnet P., (2012). Camel sciences and economy in the world: Current situation and perspectives. In Proceedings of the 3rd ISOCARD Conference. Keynote Presentations, 29 January–1 February, Muscat (Sultanate of Oman), pp. 2–15. Field, C. R. (1979). Camel growth and milk production in Marsabit district, northern Kenya. In Proceedings of the Khartoum. Workshop on Camels, 18–20 December, Khartoum, Sudan. Fleming, W. L. (1909). Jefferson Davis’s camel experiment. The Popular Science Monthly, 74(8), 150. Flower, M. E. (1978). Restraint and Handling of Wild and Domestic Animals, p. 249. Iowa State University Press, Iowa. Fowler, M. E. (1998). Medicine and Surgery of South American Camelids (2nd ed). Iowa State Press Blackwell, Iowa. Ganguly, S., and Kumar, V. (2018). Chapter 5: Anatomical adaptation of the dromedary camel (Camelus dromedaries) to desert environment. In Subha Ganguly and Vikas Kumar (eds.), Recent Research Trends in Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry (vol. 1), p. 61. AkiNik Publications, Rohini, Delhi. Ganthier-Pilter, H., and Inns, D. A. (1981). The camel: Its evolution, ecology, behavior, and relationship to man. In Camel Biology, p. 226. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Gee, P. (1996). The camel in Australia. Journal of Camel Practice and Research, 3(2), 139–140. Heintzman, P. D., Zazula, G. D., Cahill, J. A., Reyes, A. V., MacPhee, R. D. E., and Shapiro, B. (2015). Genomic data from extinct North American camelops revise camel evolutionary history. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 32(9), 2433–2440. doi: 10.1093/molbev/msv128. Indra, R., Magash, A., and Biichee, N. (1998). Studies of Bactrian camel. Ulaanbaatar, p. 303. Janis, C. M., Theodor, J. M. Jessica, M. T., and Boisvert, B. (2002). Locomotor evolution in camels revisited: a quantitative analysis of pedal anatomy and the acquisition of the pacing gait. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 22(1), 110–121. Ji, R., Cui, P., Ding, F., Geng, J., Gao, H., Zhang, H., Yu, J., Hu, S., and Meng, H. (2009). Monophyletic origin of domestic bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus) and its evolutionary relationship with the extant wild camel (Camelus bactrianus ferus). Animal Genetics, 40(4), 377–382. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2052.2008.01848.x Jianlin, H., Mburu, D., Ochieng, J., Kaufmann, B., Rege, J., and Hanotte, O. (2000). Application of new world Camelidae microsatellite primers for amplification of polymorphic loci in old world camelids. Animal Genetics, 31, 404–406. Jirimutu, R., and Cui, P. (2009). Monophyletic origin of domestic Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus) and its evolutionary relationship with the extant wild camel (Camelus bactrianus ferus). The Journal of Animal Breeding and Genetics, 40, 377–382. doi: 10.1111/j.1365–2052.2008.011848.x Karen, H. (2015). How fast camels can run and how far. A Fact Sheet (Zippy Facts), p. 2.

24

Biology and Breeding of Camels

Kemp, T. S. (2005). The Origin and Evolution of Mammals. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Kennedy, T. (2010). The domestication of the camel in the Ancient Near East. Journal of Bible and Spade, 23(4), 105. Khalifa, N. O., Khater, H. F., Fahmy, H. A., Radwan, M. E. I., and Afify, S. A. J. (2014). Phylogenetic analysis of cystic Echinococcosis isolated from camels and humans in Egypt. American Journal of Epidemiology and Infectious Disease, 2(3), 74–82. Khanvikar, A. V., Samant, S. R., and Ambore, B. N. (2009). Reproduction in camel: a review. Veterinary World, 22(2), 72–73. Khanvikar, A. V., Samant, S. R., and Ambore, B. N. (2009). Reproduction in camel. Veterinary World, 2(2), 72–73. Koulischer, L., Tijskens, J., and Mortelmans, J. (1971). Mammalian cytogenetics. IV. The chromosomes of two male Camelidae: camelus bactrianus and Lama Vicugna. Acta zoologica et pathologica Antverpiensia, 52, 89–92. Lambert, W. D., and Shoshani, J. (1998). Proboscidea. In Janis, C., Scott, K. M., and Jacobs, L. L. (eds.), Evolution of Tertiary Mammals of North America, p. 606. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Leidy, J. (1853). The ancient fauna of nebraska or a description of remains of extinct mammalia and chelonia from the mauvaise terres of nebraska. Smithonian Contributions to Knowledge, 6. Lensch, J. (1999). The two-humped camel (Camelus bactrianus) World Anim. Rev. www.fao.org/docrep/ X1700T/x1700t05.htm. Luvsan, B. (1975). Bactrian camel husbandry of Mongolia. Ulaanbaatar, p. 112. Mongolian Academy of Sciences. Made, J. V. D., Morales, J., and Fehmi Aslan, S. (2002). The first camel from the upper miocene of Turkey and the dispersal of the camels into the old world. Comptes Rendus Palevol, 1, 117–122. Mason, J. L. (1984). Origins, evolution and distribution of domestic camels. In The Camelid—An All-Purpose Animal (vol. 1. Proceedings of the Khartoum Workshops on Camels, 1979). Scandinavian Institute of African Studies Uppsala, Uppsala. Mohandesan, E., Fitak, R. R., Corander, J., Yadamsuren, A., Chuluunbat, B., Abdelhadi, O., Raziq, A., and Mukasa-Mugerwa, E. (1981). The Camel (Camelus dromedarius): A bibliographical review. International Livestock Centre for Africa Monograph, 5 (Ethiopia: International Livestock Centre for Africa), 1, 3, 20–21, 65, 67–68). Musaad A., Faye B., and Abu-Nikhela A. (2013). Lactation curves of dairy camels in an intensive system. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 4, 1039–1046. Nagy, P., and Stalder, G. A. (2017). Mitogenome sequencing in the genus camelus reveals evidence for purifying selection and long-term divergence between wild and domestic bactrian camels. Scientific Reports, 7(1). doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-08995-8 O’Brien, S. J., Menninger, J. C., and Nash, W. G., eds. (2006). Atlas of Mammalian Chromosomes, p. 547. Wiley-Liss, New York. Palmer, D., ed. (1999). The Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animals, p. 275. Marshall Editions, London. Potts, D. (2005). Bactrian camels and bactrian-dromedary hybrids. In Waugh, D. (ed.), The Silk Road (vol. 3). Silkroad Foundation, Saratoga. Prothero, R. D. (2009). Evolutionary transitions in the fossil record of terrestrial hoofed mammals. Evolution: Education and Outreach, 2, 289–302. Ramet, J. P. (2011). The technology of making cheese from camel milk (Camelus dromedarius). In FAO Animal Production and Health Paper. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. http://www.fao.org/employment/current-vacancies/en/. Rathore. G. S. (1986). Camels and Their Management, pp. 55–56. Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi. Rybczynski, N. (2013). Mid-Pliocene warm-period deposits in the high Arctic yield insight into camel evolu�tion. Journal of Nature communication, 4, 1550. doi: 10.1038/ncomms 2516 Sanjmyatav. (1995). Petroglyphs of Mongolia Altai, p. 196. World Health Organization, Ulaanbaatar.  https:// apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/62631 Schwartz, H. J., Wilson, A. J., and Folan, B. R. D. (1983). Camel production in Kenya and its constraints: Pro�ductivity. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 15, 169–178. Sharp, T., and Saunders, G. (2012). Model Code of Practice for the Humane Control of Feral Camels. Code of Practice. PestSmart Website.  https://pestsmart.org.au/toolkit-resource/model-code-of-practice-for-thehumane-control-of-feral-camels.

Old and New World Camels—Introduction

25

Skidmore, J. A., Billah, M., Binns, M., Short, R. V., and Allen, W. R. (1999). Hybridizing old and new world camelids: Camelus dromedarius x Lama guanicoe. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 266, 649–656. doi: 10.1098/rspb.1999.0685 Stanley, H. F., Kadwell, M., and Wheeler, J. C. (1994). Molecular evolution of the family camelidae: A mito� chondrial DNA study. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 256, 1–6. doi: 10.1098/ rspb.1994.0041 Taylor, K. M., Hungerford, D. A., Snyder, R. L., and Ulmer, Jr., F. A. (1968). Uniformity of karyotypes in the Camelidae. Cytogenetic and Genome Research, 7, 8–15. doi: 10.1159/000129967 The Food and Agriculture Organization. (2014). The role, impact and welfare of working (traction and trans�port) animals. In Animal Production and Health Report. No. 5. The Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome. Tripathi, V. N. (1987). Milk of other anaimals. In Milk-The Vital Force (In Proc. XXII Int). Dairy Congress and Reidel Publishing Company, Los Angeles and Hague. Vannithone, S., and Davidson, A. (1999). Camel. In The Oxford Companion to Food, p. 127. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Wernery, U. (2003). New Observations on Camels and Their Milk. Blackwell Wissenschafts-Verlag, Berlin. Wilson, D. E., and Reeder, D. M. (2005). Mammal Species of the World (3rd ed). Smithsonian, Washington, DC. Wilson, R. T. (1984). The Camel. Longman, New York. Worboys, G. L., Francis, W. L., and Lockwood, M. (2010). Connectivity Conservation Management: A Global Guide, p. 142. Earthscan, Oxford. Yagil, R. (1982). Camels and camel milk. In FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 26. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Yam, B. A. Z., and Khomeiri, M. (2015). Introduction to camel origin, history, raising, characteristics, and wool, hair and skin: a review. Research Journal of Agriculture and Environmental Management, 4(11), 496–508.

2

Camel Breeds in the World and Their Distribution—Introduction

INTRODUCTION Throughout the world, camels are categorized into two major types. These types are known as Camelus dromedarius and Camelus bactrianus. Camelus dromedarius (Wardeh, 2004), which is commonly called as one humped camel or dromedary, is found in Afghanistan, Asia (South and Central Iran), and in the Arabian deserts. The word dromedary is derived from the Greek word dramas (road), and this camel is mainly used for racing and riding. Camelus bactrianus (Bactrian) is found in China, Russia, and Central Asia and is commonly known as the two-humped camel. The term Bactrian is derived from the place name “Baktria”, which is located on the river Oxus in northern Afghanistan. Baktria was the origin of this breed (Raziq et al., 2008).

SPECIES/BREEDS OF CAMELS AT THE GLOBAL LEVEL AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION Officially, there are 46 national entities have declared the possession of camel stock. Among them, 25 countries are in Asia, one is in Europe (Ukraine), and the other 20 countries are in Africa. The geographical distribution of these two species shows the distribution of only dromedaries. The distribution of these camels mainly falls in South Asian, Middle Eastern, and African countries. Only Bactrians are prevalent in Central Asia. The cohabitation of the two species occurs only in a few countries. Kazakhstan (Figure 2.1) is the main country that collectively hosts these two species. In 1961, these national entities consisted of only 38 countries. The reason was that Central Asian states were part of the former Soviet Union and Ethiopia included Eritrea. Moreover, since the 2000s, the emergence of Namibia as a new camel country has been realized. If we view the global level, 42% of the data from Asian countries on camels and 70% of that from African countries are just estimations. The reason is that a readily available livestock census does not exist. The most recent data on the quantitative estimation of camels was available in 2018. According to that information, 35,525,270 (FAOSTAT2020) camels have been reported in the world. In 1961, 60% of the 38 national entities declared their official data on the presence and distribution of camels. The total assessment of the camel population at that time was 12,926,638 heads. Accordingly, the annual growth of the world camel population was estimated at 3.07%. Due to contradictions in the data figures for growth and overall population, it was finalized between −1.95% (Kyrgyzstan, calculated right from independence in 1992) and + 45.3% (Oman, calculated from 1961; Figure 2.1). At the global level, out of 46 total entities, 35% of them showed a decline in the growth of camels. A growth of the camel population of more than 10–15% is not only difficult but even impossible to achieve without importing animals. This is due to decreased natural growth of camels, which falls in the range of not more than 5–10% (Bonnet, 1996; Adamova, 2004). Presently, there are approximately 24.1 million camels present on the planet (FAO, 2012a). Pakistan is the second-largest country, having about 1.2 million camels in its deserts. The province-wise camel population ratios are as follows: 7.30% in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK), 22.76% in Sindh, 33.51% in Punjab, and 36.43% in Baluchistan. Pakistan hosts more than 1 million dromedary camels. However, there are only 1000 DOI: 10.1201/9781003408598-2

27

28

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 2.1  Distribution map of the different camel species (domestic Bactrian camel, Wild Bactrian camel, dromedary camel, alpaca, llama, vicuña, and guanaco). Source: Researchgate

Bactrian camels in Pakistan. All of the Bactrian population inhabits the extreme northern regions of Pakistan. A few animals can also be seen in zoos. The camel is a robust animal and can survive in hot and harsh environments of sandy deserts and semiarid and arid regions where other animals cannot survive. Camels are found mostly in Tharparker, Thal, Cholistan, coastal areas, and Balochistan rangelands (Habibi, 1999). The camel is the main economic source of the pastoralists in the rangelands of Baluchistan, (Camel Farming in Pakistan, 2018) which is deeply rooted in their social and economic culture wherein it provides draught power, meat, milk, and other things of livelihood (Raziq et al., 2008).

Global Distribution of Camels and Gaps Therein The FAOSTAT website posted a far lower camel distribution than it actually should be. At the global level, in 2018, it listed that 46 national entities hosted camels. Jones and Kenny (2010) reported that Australia is the only country where camels were introduced in the 19th century. Hence, relevant information on camel distribution in Australia is lacking. It appears that most of the camels in

Camel Breeds in the World and Their Distribution—Introduction

29

Australia are wild. As the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2012b) reports only on domestic camels, their numbers and distribution are not properly declared. Despite lacking this information, still these camels hold value for meat and milk production at both the national and international levels (Zeng & McGregor, 2008). Moreover, despite poor reporting, the number of camels and their geographic distribution are debatable. Saalfeld and Edwards (2010) used different procedures to calculate the camel population. Finally, they reached an estimation of between 953,000 and 2,000,000 heads present in Australia. Nonetheless, Lethbridge et al. (2016) stated that it was an overestimation of the actual numbers present. Later on, Al-Jassim and Lisle (2016) from Queensland University reported 400,000 camels present in Australia. It means that if actual information about camels in Australia is missing in the FAO data, then the same can happen with other countries that possess a significant number of camels. Spain can be quoted as an example. It is the only European country with a native camel population. This population, although not indigenous, was mainly introduced in the Canary Islands in the 14th century. Wilson and Gutierrez (2015) opined that this population was introduced to the Canary Islands in the 14th century and has thrived since that time. Presently, there are 1200 camels living there. Nonetheless, local people see it differently, and they report between 800 and 2000 camels. Strategically, the camel herd in the Canary Islands has its own importance. This is the only source of camels that can be exported to other European countries. The reason is that European countries do not accept importing camels from other countries due to sanitary reasons. Currently, these camels are used in the tourism sector (Schultz, 2008). Nonetheless, initially, they were used for agriculture and transport activities. However, it is unfortunate that the local authorities are not much interested in the promotion of mass production of camels. Meat production from these camels is not yet possible due to a lack of regulations, and production of milk from camels is just a coincidence (Diaz-Medina, 2017).

CAMEL BREEDS IN PAKISTAN The camel is the only livestock animal that has been domesticated for milk and transport through the desert. In a total population of more than 1 million camels, approximately 20% are lactating, which is producing about 0.6 million tons of milk per year in Pakistan. The two main products acquired from camels are meat and milk. A large amount of camel’s milk is not marketed and hence remains undocumented. Camel breeds of Pakistan are highly diversified. On average, in a conventional grazing environment, a female marecha camel can produce 5.62 liters of milk in a day (Faraz et al., 2018). Different breeds of Pakistani camels have been province-wise listed and described in the following: Camel Breeds of Punjab

1. Bagri (Booja) 2. Brela (Thalocha) 3. Campbelpuri 4. Marecha 5. Kala-Chitta

Camel Breeds of Baluchistan

1. Brahvi 2. Kachhi 3. Kharani 4. Lassi 5. Makrani 6. Pishin 7. Rodbari 8. Raigi 9. Kohi

30

Biology and Breeding of Camels

Camel Breeds of Sindh

1. Dhatti 2. Kharai 3. Sakrai 4. Larri (Sindhi)

Camel Breeds of KPK

1. Ghulmani 2. Khader 3. Maya 4. Gaddi

CAMEL BREEDS OF PUNJAB Bagri (Bota) The Bagri is a good camel for racing and riding (Figure 2.2). The male camels are trained for acrobatics and dancing. They are very expensive and fetch high market prices. Rojhan is also a strain of Booja camel, which is found in Dera Ghazi Khan (D.G. Khan) and Multan. Home Tract: Mostly found in Cholistan and Thal Deserts Coat Color: The majority of camels of this breed are brown in color, but sometimes shades of brown and white can also be seen. Physical Characteristics, Performance, Adaptation, Special Traits: The body is quite thin (Figure 2.2). Mainly, these are animals of the desert, but they gain more weight when kept in the irrigated regions. The gait of this breed is very smooth, and

FIGURE 2.2  Bagri Bota camel. Source: @image exposure-worldpress

Camel Breeds in the World and Their Distribution—Introduction

31

they are not jerks. The females of this breed are good milkers. The age of first breeding is slightly more than 4 years. The average yield of hair is 1.5 kg, and birth weight is 44 kg. The weaning weight and adult weight are 75 kg and 656 kg, respectively. The average calving interval is 752 days, and lactation length is about 565 days (Waheed & Tariq, 2014).

Breela The Breela breed is a good producer of milk, and because of high milk production, it is a good source of income for its herders (owners), specifically for women. The animals of this breed are very tame, and even a stranger can milk them. This type of animal can also be raised for the production of milk in those areas where they are not raised normally because it is very adaptive to any environment. The male camel of Breela breed is chiefly raised for meat purposes (Faraz et al., 2021). Home Tract: Thal (desert region) of Pakistan and parts of Mianwali, Muzafargarh, Multan, and Jhang host the Breela breed. Women sell camel milk in these areas as a source of income for their living. Coat Color: The majority of this breed has a deep brown color. A dark brown to a light black color is also found, and some animals with rear white color can also be seen. Physical Characteristics, Performance, Adaptation, Special Traits: Breela is generally found in irrigated and riverine tracts (Figure  2.3). The animals of this breed have strong, big, and tall bodies, along with thick necks and massive heads. They have broad chests and long, muscular legs. The hump of these animals is well developed,

FIGURE 2.3  Breela camel. Source: defence.pk

32

Biology and Breeding of Camels

and their lips hang somewhat. This is a good animal for transporting baggage. The camels of this breed are used for fighting by some people, and they earn a huge amount of money from this task (Waheed & Tariq, 2014). The age at first breeding of this breed is 3 years, and the weight at birth is 47 kg. The weaning weight of this camel is 84 kg. The average weight of an adult camel is about 691 kg, and the length of the lactation period is 478 days. The calving interval lasts for 754 days, and the average yield of hair is 2.5 kg. The season for milking this camel breed is October to March. Breela is a high milkproducing variety of camel. Its lactation period is 9 months. Its milk production capacity is 22 liters per day if milking is practiced twice a day.

Campbelpuri Home Tract: Potohar plateau, including Attock, Chakwal, Rawalpindi, Jehlum, and parts of Sargodha and Mianwali mainly hosts Campbelpuri camel (Figure 2.4) Coat Color: Fawn Physical Characteristics, Performance, Adaptation, Special Traits: This is a heavyweight breed of camels. The majority of camels of this breed are used for draft purposes but are rarely used for riding. The camels belonging to this breed are heavy in weight, with short necks and big heads. The thick growth of brown hairs on the hump, the upper half of neck, and along with throat is a peculiarity of this breed. The animals of this breed have small ears and strong, muscular legs. The age of first breeding of this animal is 3 years, and weight at birth is 54 kg. The weaning weight of this breed is 129 kg, and the weight of an adult animal is 741 kg. The length of lactation in this breed is 553 days, and the interval of calving is about 812 days. The average yield of hair is approximately 3 kg (Waheed & Tariq, 2014).

Mareecha Animals of Mareecha are used both for milk and draught (Figure 2.5). In Rajasthan (India), it is named the Bekaneri camel. It is famous for its adaptation to desert ecosystems. It is an animal of choice for working in sandy deserts. This breed is fast-moving. It can travel at the speed of 20–25  km/hour. It can cover a distance of 100–125 kilometers per day. The Mareecha camel is animal of choice for the herder for increasing the milk production to sustain the human life in sandy deserts because of its good capability of producing a high milk yield in the ecology of the desert (Faraz et al., 2021). Home Tract: Mainly found in the desert of Cholistan and adjoining irrigated regions. Some animals of this breed are also found in Dera Ismael Khan (D.I. Khan) and its neighboring regions. Coat Color: The color of this breed ranges from blackish brown and light brown. Some animals of this breed are a fawn color, but they are rare. Fawn is the color of the majority of this breed, but other shades, from chestnut to blackish, are also found. Physical Characteristics, Performance, Adaptation, Special Traits: As mentioned earlier, it is a dual-type breed. The camels of this breed are good for carrying baggage and riding. The females of this breed are famous for higher milking yields. The camels belonging to this breed have pointed muzzles and medium-sized heads. The eyelashes of this camel are long, as is the hair on its neck and ears. Generally, the body of

Camel Breeds in the World and Their Distribution—Introduction

FIGURE 2.4  Campbelpuri camel. Source: Alamy

33

34

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 2.5  Mareecha camel. Source: camel4all.blog

these camels is not massive and heavy. They have well-developed humps and long legs. Comparatively, the Mareecha has a long and thin neck. The most salient feature of this breed is that they have ears like a rabbit. The age at first breeding of this breed is slightly more than 3.6 years, and the average birth weight is 43 kg. When the young one weans, it can attain a weight of about 75 kg. An adult animal of this breed weighs 637 kg. The length of lactation is 429 days, and the calving interval is about 748 days (Waheed & Tariq, 2014). Mareecha is mainly used for drafting and transporting their families and goods. Mareecha camels are good racers and are in high demand, commanding a high market price, because of their ability of racing. The Mareecha is very strong and energetic animal that can withstand harsh desert conditions and can produce milk in the critical conditions of water and feed scarcity and high temperatures (Faraz et al., 2021).

Kala-Chitta Home Tract: Kala-Chitta range, Pabbi, Sohawa, and salt range (Figure 2.6) Coat Color: Most animals are cream in color, but a darker shade can also be seen. Physical Characteristics, Performance, Adaptation, Special Traits: Kala-Chitta camel is very good for baggage transportation. This breed of camel is very well adapted for working in rough mountainous areas. The camels belonging to this breed have massive necks and are of a comparatively heavy weight. Dark brown hair is present on

Camel Breeds in the World and Their Distribution—Introduction

FIGURE 2.6  Kala Chitta camel. Source: Agrihunt

three fourths of their necks, and the ears of this camel are slightly longer. Animals of this breed have very well-developed humps. This hump steeply slopes to the region of rump. Its distribution area is very similar to that of the Dhani livestock species. Animals of this breed start reproducing at approximately age 3.5. The newborn normally weighs 48 kg. The weaning weight is about 90 kg, and the weight of an adult Kala-Chitta camel is 691 kg. The length of the lactation is 310 days, and the calving interval is 820 days. The average hair yield is 2 kg (Waheed & Tariq, 2014).

35

36

Biology and Breeding of Camels

CAMEL BREEDS OF KPK Ghulmani Home Tract: Mainly found in D.I. Khan but also found in Zhobe Area and D.G. Khan. Coat Color: Commonly white Physical Characteristics, Performance, Adaptation, Special Traits: The camels belonging to this breed are tall and robust and are good for baggage transportation. The forehead of this camel breed is broad. The lower part of head and the adjoining lower part of neck are fully covered with dense hair. These animals are well adapted for working in forest areas and have very good working capabilities. Animals of this breed start reproducing at an age of approximately 3.5 years. The newly born weighs 50 kg at birth. The weaning weight and the weight of an adult camel are 125 kg and 738 kg, respectively. The calving interval is about 803 days, and lactation is 538 days. The average hair yield is about 1.7 kg (Waheed & Tariq, 2014).

Khader Home Tract: Southernmost region of KPK along with the area between Indus River and Suleiman range. Coat Color: Creamy white Physical Characteristics, Performance, Adaptation, Special Traits: Camels belonging to this breed have slim bodies and long legs. The neck of this camel is short, and the ventral and dorsal body surfaces run approximately parallel, which provides a barrel-like shape to the body of this camel. This breed has a small hump. It is positioned right in the middle of the straight back. Principally, it is burden-carrying animal. The average yield of hair from a single individual is 2 kg. The average weight at birth is 45 kg, and the weaning weight is 45 kg. The adult camel of this breed weighs about 671 kg. The calving interval is 789 days, and the average length of lactation is 450 days (Waheed & Tariq, 2014).

Maya Home Tract: Tribal zones of KPK Coat Color: Dark brown to blackish. Physical Characteristics, Performance, Adaptation, Special Traits: The camels belonging to this breed generally look like a Bactrian camel. This type of camel has a strong and well-built body and a comparatively short neck. Long darkbrown hairs are present on the ventral side of the neck, hump, and flank region, as well as the mane. Long eye lashes and long hairs in the ear are their peculiarities. They are famous for carrying baggage and riding. Riding is most common in rugged and rough hilly areas. Locally, this camel breed is called Maya because of its very good speed. The average yield of hairs is about 4.4 kg. The average weight at birth and the weight at weaning is 50 kg and 119 kg, respectively. The weight of an adult individual is 722 kg. The duration of lactation is 480 days, and the calving interval is about 807 days (Waheed & Tariq, 2014).

Camel Breeds in the World and Their Distribution—Introduction

37

Gaddi Some people consider this breed a crossbred animal. Home Tract: mainly an inhabitant of Lucky Marwat but also found in some areas of D.I. Khan and Waziristan Agency Coat Color: Generally creamy white Physical Characteristics, Performance, Adaptation, Special Traits: It is also a breed of baggage-type camel and is used for the draft purposes as well. The camels belonging to this breed are strong, tall, and well built, with strong massive legs. These camels have very good stamina for doing hard work. The age at first breeding of this camel is more than 3 years. The average birth weight of a young one is 41 kg. When young one weans, it can attain a weight of 72 kg. The weight of an adult animal is 589 kg, and the calving interval is about 736 days (Waheed & Tariq, 2014).

CAMEL BREEDS OF BALUCHISTAN Brahvi The Brahvi breed is common in Baluchistan. As the name shows, they belong to Central Brahvi of Baluchistan province. They are well adapted for inhabiting mountainous, cold, and arid areas. The camels belonging to this breed are very important for the socioeconomic life of breeders in this areas. The herders use this animal as draught power for agriculture operations, transportation, and moving their families from one place to other. Usually, these animals are not slaughtered by the owners except in cases of untreatable injuries and disease. The camels of this breed have high prices due to their being smuggled into Iran; however, the negative effect of this business is the slaughtering of fertile female camels, which is not good. Home Tract: Desert region of district Chagi extended to northern region of Sindh Coat Color: Light fawn to dark fawn color and gray color camel Physical Characteristics, Performance, Adaptation, Special Traits: The camels of this breed are baggage-type animals and are used for plowing agriculture fields. In winter, long, dense hair grows, covering the entire body of the camel. The camel belonging to this breed has a comparatively short stature and broad chest. The female camel of this breed is not a good milk producer but provides milk in periods of scarcity. The stage of first breeding comes approximately at the age of 4  years. At birth, the calf weighs 48 kg. When young one weans, it can attain the weight of 98 kg. The lactation length of this breed of camel is 587 days, and the average calving interval is about 719 days. The yield of hair is 205 kg, and the weight of an adult camel is 698 kg. The camels of this breed adapt very well to cold and arid environments and have a very good capability to withstand the scarcity of water compared to other breeds. These camels are very good learners and follow the commands given by the owner (Waheed & Tariq, 2014).

Kachhi Home Tract: Area in the Jacobabad and Sibi and between the Jacobabad and Sibi. Coat Color: Generally the color of this breed is fawn (Figure 2.7).

38

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 2.7  Kachhi camel. Source: kuums.org

Physical Characteristics, Performance, Adaptation, Special Traits: Kachhi is a breed of baggage-type camels, and they are also used for riding purposes. The body of this breed is compact. Nonetheless, its neck is shorter than other breeds of camels. In the colder areas, their body is covered with a dense hair coat. The camels of the Kachhi breed have harder feet; due to this, these camels work very efficiently in hilly and mountainous areas. The age of first breeding comes at the age of 4.5 years. The calving interval is 692 days, and the length of lactation is about 516 days. The weight at birth is 44 kg, and the weaning weight is about 76 kg. The adult individual weighs about 662 kg. The hair yield from an adult animal weighs about 2.8 kg (Waheed & Tariq, 2014).

Kharani The Kharani camel of Pakistan is one of the best milking camels in the world (Figure  2.8). Unfortunately, the camels belonging to this breed are under high threat mainly due to the reduction of Halloxylon spp. (Thagaz) in these areas, which is feedstuff for the camels of this region. The other threat to this breed is the smuggling of these animals to Iran, where this unique genetic resource is slaughtered. For the conservation of this unique and precious camel, the policy makers of livestock of Pakistan should be involved in this issue for taking steps to stop this illegal activity. Home Tract: The Chaghi-Kharan Desert of Baluchistan province hosts this camel breed. It also partially inhabits the Jhalawan area and regions bordering Kalat. Coat Color: Commonly the color of this breed is light yellow to grayish.

Camel Breeds in the World and Their Distribution—Introduction

FIGURE 2.8  Kharani camel. Source: camel4all.blog

Physical Characteristics, Performance, Adaptation, Special Traits: Kharani is one of the best milking breeds in the world. It produces about 40 liters of milk per day. The milk has high level of consumer preference because it is broadly used locally. The milk is either consumed fresh or stored as Sorain (soured product of camel milk) and is used in tea. Sorain is very much preferred, and without refrigeration, it can be stored for more than a week. The name Kharani of this breed is derived from the very famous Kharan Desert. Due to its fawn color, locally this breed is also known as Boor. There are different patterns of color in the Kharani breed. The pastoral people are familiar with the importance of each color pattern and correlate the colors with specific traits. The special features of this breed are its high production of milk in harsh desert ecosystems, its high resistance to the disease trypanosomiasis, and its high tolerance to drought conditions. This breed is very efficient in production of milk and produces more milk/kg intake of dry matter feed. This animal has the capacity to survive in harsh and challenging environments. There is a huge variation in milk production among this breed. When there is an abundance of succulent and green vegetation in wet days of the year, some animals belonging to this breed produce more than 38 liters/day of milk (Raziq, 2009). The camels of this breed have compact and small bodies. Abundant gray hairs, which are mixed with white hairs, are present on the bodies of these camels. This camel is equally famous in sandy and hilly areas for work. In the sandy area of Kalat, this camel performs very well for riding. This breed starts reproducing at an age of approximately 4 years. Its lactation lasts for 522 days. The weaning weight and the weight at birth are 71 kg and 42 kg, respectively. The weight of an adult of this breed is 624 kg, and the average production of hair is 2.2 kg (Waheed & Tariq, 2014).

39

40

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 2.9  Lassi camel. Source: camel4all.blog

Lassi Home Tract: Mainly found in the Lassi Lasbella and adjacent regions of Sindh and Baluchistan (Figure 2.9). Coat Color: Fawn color with reddish tinge. Physical Characteristics, Performance, Adaptation, Special Traits: It is a medium-sized camel breed with a longer face and a pointed muzzle. This breed of camel is used for dual purposes: transporting baggage and riding. The age at first breeding of this camel is 3 years 7 months. The average weight at birth is 39 kg, and the weaning weight is 65 kg. The weight of an adult camel belonging to this breed is about 550 kg, which is comparatively less than other breeds. The length of the lactation period is about 300 days, and the average yield of hair is 1.25 kg. The name Lassi of this camel breed is due to its home tract Lasbella. Dark red hairs are present on the shoulders and part of the belly and the hump (Waheed & Tariq, 2014).

Makrani Home Tract: Makhran, Lesbella, and Kharan, along with parts of Jhalawan and some areas of Karachi and Dadu, host this camel breed. Coat Color: The Makrani camel has light brown strains that become darker over the flank and neck. The Jabilu strain has a color of brown to dark brown, but animals having a fawn color are also seen.

Camel Breeds in the World and Their Distribution—Introduction

Physical Characteristics, Performance, Adaptation, Special Traits: The camels belonging to the coastal areas are relatively smaller and slim than Jabilu-type camels. Long hairs are present on the body of Jabilu (mountainous)-type camel, which has a strong and well-built body and a short neck. Mostly, they are soft-footed animals with medium-sized humps. The Jabilu strain has black-tinged hairs on the legs, neck, flank region, hocks, and above the knees. Makrani camels are famous as baggage carriers. If the females are well fed, they are moderately good milk producers. The females of this breed start reproducing at the age of approximately 4 years. The young one of this breed weighs approximately 46 kg at birth. The weaning weight and the weight of an adult individual camel of this breed are 80 kg and 677 kg, respectively. The length of lactation is 519 days, and the average yield of hairs is 2.6 kg (Waheed & Tariq, 2014).

Pishin Home Tract: Pishin and Quetta and its neighboring areas Coat Color: Light to dark brown (Figure 2.10) Physical Characteristics, Performance, Adaptation, Special Traits: The camels belonging to this breed are baggage-type animals and are used for transporting heavy loads. These camels are of short stature, and they are strong animals that perform very well in both sandy and hilly areas. The camels of this breed are a cream color. Due to this body color, they are considered inferior. The females of this breed start reproducing

FIGURE 2.10 Pishin. Source: Bkraonline.pk

41

42

Biology and Breeding of Camels

at an age of approximately 4 years. The weight of newly born individual is 49 kg, and the weaning weight is 98 kg. The weight of an adult individual is 702 kg, and the average weight of hair yield is 1.9 kg. The length of lactation is 354 days (Waheed & Tariq, 2014).

Rodbari Home Tract: Coastal range of Makran, Turbat, Pasin, the area around the Gwadar, along with Panjgur and the area of Khuzdar Coat Color: Dirty gray color to light red Physical Characteristics, Performance, Adaptation, Special Traits: The Rodbari is a baggage-type breed of camel that have short necks and slim bodies. The body of the camel, its hump, and its neck are covered with the thick growth of hairs. The camels of the Rodbari breed are used for pulling water from the deep wells. The camel reaches its first breeding at the age of 3 years. The weight at birth and the weaning weight are 49 kg and 118 kg, respectively. The weight of an adult animal of this breed is 707 kg, and the yield of hairs is 3.0 kg. The length of lactation for this breed is 467 days (Waheed & Tariq, 2014).

Raigi In Pakistan and Afghanistan, the Pashtoon pastoral raise the Raigi camel as one of the main species of livestock (Figure 2.11).

FIGURE 2.11  Raigi camel. Source: allpaedia.com

Camel Breeds in the World and Their Distribution—Introduction

43

Home Tract: The region of Killasaifula (Kakar Kurasan) and the district of Zohb in northeastern Baluchistan and the areas near the Afghan provinces of Qandhar, Zabul, Ghazni, and Paktika are the home tract of this breed. In these areas, this animal was previously used for transporting salt. Coat Color: The coat color of Raigi camel breed is brown in winter. Nonetheless, it changes from brown to fawn in summer. Physical Characteristics, Performance, Adaptation, Special Traits: Raigi breed camels are famous as baggage carriers. In addition to transportation, they are also good milk and meat producers. The wool of Raigi camels is used for bedding material, rugs, netting, and tents. Fresh milk from this breed is commonly consumed. Surplus milk is, however, dried and fermented in the form of Kurth and Shlombey, respectively. For the utilization in the winter season, the meat of this camel is traditionally dried in the form of Landi. The camels of this breed have barrel-like large bodies, which represent its dairy potential. They have wide chests and strong bodies. These camels have long eyelashes, black toenails, and a dark brown retina of the eye. The breeding season of this breed starts in November and ends in January. The average weight at birth is 30 kg, and the weaning weight is 140 kg. The calving interval is 2.5 years approximately, and the length of lactation is 360 days. The wool of the Raigi camel has a long length of staple with a fine-type fiber that is locally used for rug fabrication. The average yield of hairs is 3 kg. The age at first breeding is more than 3 years (Kakar et al., 2011). The special traits of Raigi camel, according to their keepers, are their thick milk compared to other camel breeds and their ability to eat bitter Artemisia plants and drink saline water. These camels graze entirely on the Artemisia and Haloxylon, so the taste of their milk is salty. The people of these areas prefer this camel breed because of its thick milk and the consistency of milk production for long period. Other important aspects of this camel are its good capability of climbing in mountains and travelling of long distances (Kakar et al., 2011).

Kohi In Pakistan, the Kohi breed is an important camel breed. Other provinces also host animals of the Kohi breed. In the province of Baluchistan, the estimated population of the Kohi breed is 70,000 head. The camels belonging to this breed produce 10 liters of milk per day on an average and still are important for milk and transportation. The Kohi breed is not under threat because this is a growing breed (Raziq & Younas, 2006). Home Tract: The camels of Kohi breed are predominantly inhabitants of the Suleiman mountainous areas of Baluchistan and KPK and the province of Punjab of the country. Seventy percent of this breed is found in the province of Baluchistan in Pakistan, and some animals are also present in Paktia province of Afghanistan. Coat Color: The Kohi breed is commonly white in color. Some animals, however, have a light brown color with white-colored legs. Such animals are locally said to have a spole color. Physical Characteristics, Performance, Adaptation, Special Traits: The Kohi camels have a spole or white coat color and have white nails and yellowish eyes. The camels of this breed have wide cannon bones; short necks; big, beefy heads; and strong, compact bodies. The hindquarters of this camel are very strong. Its strong footpad, however, makes this animal suitable for thriving successfully in mountainous environments. The Kohi camel herders believe that the Kohi camel, with its white coat color, produces

44

Biology and Breeding of Camels

a higher amount of milk than a spole-colored animal. The weight of a newborn calf is 35–45 kg, depending on the sex, health, and nutritional status of the dam. The weight is approximately 160 kg. Camels of this breed can survive without housing in cold weather. If vegetation is abundant, they can be easily managed because usually they browse a small area. Camels of this breed are highly resistant to a disease locally known as syed. We can say that the future of the Kohi breed is very bright, with good economic perspectives. Due to its browsing on a wide variety of vegetation, its meat is very tasty. This animal is very loving and loyal to its owner.

CAMEL BREEDS OF SINDH Dhatti (Thari) Home Tract: Mainly found in the Dhatt region of Tharparkar, as well as in the areas of Badin, Sanghar, Umerkot, and Mirpurkhas Coat Color: Light fawn color to dark fawn Physical Characteristics, Performance, Adaptation, Special Traits: The Dhatti is an excellent breed of racing and riding camel. The camels of this breed are very well adapted for fast travel on sandy soil. These camels are very good learners and can be trained easily to perform acrobatics and dancing. The Dhatti is a typical camel of the desert. Its body stature is slim, and it has long legs. It has a small head and is considered a good carrier. The belly of this camel breed is popped up instead of hanging down. The part of the neck that is close to the head and the belly are covered by bushy hairs (Waheed & Tariq, 2014). The age of first breeding is more than 3 years, and the average yield of hairs is about 2.5 kg. The name of this breed is derived from its home tract, Dhatt. The newborn weighs 40 kg, and at weaning, it attains the weight of about 65 kg. The length of the lactation period is 530 days, and the interval of calving is about 721 days. The weight of an adult camel is about 530 kg (Figure 2.12).

Kharai Home Tract: Mainly found in the Kharo Chann and the area of Chohar Jamali, but also present in Badin, Thatta, coastal areas of Karachi, and some parts of Kacch (Figure 2.13) Coat Color: Dark brown color to black in color Physical Characteristics, Performance, Adaptation, Special Traits: The camels of the Kharai breed are medium-sized animals. The legs and neck of Kharai camels are comparatively thinner, but their humps are well developed. The body surface of this camel breed is concealed by crimped brown or black hairs, and long black color hairs are present in the ear. This camel is mainly used for riding, transportation, and the traction of loads. At the beaches of Karachi, they provide riding entertainment for visitors. It starts breeding at an age of 3.5 years. The average weight at birth and the weaning weight are 43 kg and 70 kg, respectively. The weight of an adult individual of the Kharai breed is about 602 kg. The average calving interval and the lactation length are 711 days and 320 days, respectively, and the average yield of hair is 3 kg approximately (Waheed & Tariq, 2014).

Sakrai Home Tract: Thatta district from Mirpur Sakro to Sujawal Tallukas Coat Color: This breed has mainly a reddish-brown color, and the neck is darker than body.

Camel Breeds in the World and Their Distribution—Introduction

FIGURE 2.12  Dhatti camel. Source: Agrihunt-A

Physical Characteristics, Performance, Adaptation, Special Traits: The Sakrai breed are exploited in the operation of both riding and baggage as well, but they are not the animal of choice for riding. It is a breed of medium-sized camel that has a short hair coat. The hump of this breed is comparatively well developed. Like the Kharai breed, at the beaches of Karachi, they also provide riding entertainment for visitors. It starts breeding at an age of about 3.5 years. The birth weight of this camel breed is 41 kg, and the weaning weight is about 68 kg. The weight of an adult Sakrai individual camel is 571 kg, and the average yield of hairs is about 2 kg. The length of the lactation period and the calving interval are 312 and 720 days, respectively (Waheed & Tariq, 2014).

Larry Home Tract: Mainly found in Hyderabad, Badin, and its surrounding areas; also found on both banks of Indus River and most areas of Sindh Coat Color: Dark fawn color to dark brown

45

46

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 2.13  Kharai camel. Source: youtube.com

Physical Characteristics, Performance, Adaptation, Special Traits: The Larry camel is a breed of riverine camel with a good ability for carrying baggage and drafting. The camels of this breed have massive body frames and heavy weights. The head of the Larry camel is large, with a prominent cranium. They have well-developed humps, massive necks, and broad chests. The body coat of this camel is short, its legs are strong, and its tail is broad with a tuft at the end and hairs on the sides. The dorsal half of the neck, the shoulder, and the hump has long hairs on them. As Larry camels are found all over the province of Sindh, therefore, they are also called Sindhi camels. This camel is not good for riding purposes. It starts breeding at an age of 4.5 years. It yields hair about 3 kg. The weight at the time of birth of a newborn calf is about 58 kg, and the weaning weight is about 145 kg. The weight of an adult individual is 765 kg. The length of lactation and the calving interval are 512 and 704 days, respectively (Waheed & Tariq, 2014).

HISTORICAL DROMEDARY–BACTRIAN CROSSBREEDING (INTERSPECIFIC BREEDING) The purpose of crossbreeding dromedary and Bactrian camels was to obtain strong pack camels. The breed should be capable of withstanding rough terrains and colder, wet climates of geographical areas with large trade volumes. In addition, they should be capable of handling tough military conquests and campaigns. These geographical areas include Turkey, the Balkans, and Northern and Eastern Europe. The hybrid camel produced has exceptionally high load capacity, which has been repeatedly documented (Tapper, 2011). This can be the probable reason for the presence of skeletal remains of hybrid camels at a variety of archaeological sites located at military garrisons and trade centers. All of Turkey and Northern, Eastern, and Central Europe also possess such archaeological sites (Çakırlar & Berthon, 2014; Galik et al., 2015). The Ottoman army used hybrid camels extensively because of their exceptional loading capacity of 400–500 kg. In particular, they were used in hilly terrain because they can withstand cold and hilly terrains (Leese, 1927). When the Ottoman army laid siege to Vienna in 1529, thousands of camels were used. After the defeat of the Ottoman army, scores of them ended up as spoils of war (Schimmer, 1847). Camels were

Camel Breeds in the World and Their Distribution—Introduction

47

crossbred by mating a male Bactrian with a female dromedary. Archaeological findings have proved this approach by identifying the dromedary camel as the maternal species used in crossbreeding. Several authors (Plassio, 1912) have reported this practice of crossbreeding as very common. It has also been mentioned by various regional travelers (Olearius, 1669). In the 19th century, when dromedaries were imported into the United States (United States Government Report, 1857), Lieutenant Porter (responsible for the expedition) even suggested importing pure male Bactrian camels that could be bred with female dromedaries to produce F1 hybrids (United States Government Report, 1857: 123). Further attempts to crossbreed F1 hybrid camels among themselves were not undertaken. The reason for this further initiative was that the resulting progeny was smaller, weaker, and “extremely vicious” and, at the same time, was unable to cope with inclement weather (Steel, 1890). Historically, male Bactrian and female dromedary F1 hybrids have also been used in camel wrestling events (Adamova, 2004). In eastern Turkey, camel hybridization is a very common practice in the current era (Yilmaz & Ertugrul, 2014). The same practice has been successfully adopted and more extensively applied in a well-organized way in the former Soviet republics of Kazakhstan and neighboring Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan (Baimukanov et al., 2019). In Turkey, the attempts of hybridization are to obtain large camels for the annual “wrestling” events organized in the southwestern part of the country during winter (Yilmaz, 2017; Figure  2.14). In Kazakhstan and

FIGURE 2.14  Crossbreeding practices in Turkey.

48

Biology and Breeding of Camels

neighboring countries, however, camels are crossbred for better production of milk, wool, and meat production as well as to create a resilience in camels against the harsh climates of Central Asia (Imamura et al., 2017).

REFERENCES Adamova, A. T. (2004). The iconography of a camel fight. Muqarnas Online, 21(1), 1–14. doi: 10.1163/22118993_02101002 Al-Jassim, R., and Lisle, A. (2016). Prediction and management of feral camel population in Australia. In Advances in conservation through sustainable use of wildlife. In Baxter, G., Finch, N., and Murray, P. (eds.), Proceedings of Conference, 30 August−1 September. Wildlife Science Unit, School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, University of Queensland, Gatton, Qld, 2018, Brisbane, Australia, pp. 74–77. Baimukanov, A., Baimukanov, D. A., and Semenov, V. G. (2019). Interspecific hybridization of camels. In Monograph [Межвидовая гибридизация верблюдов. Монография], p. 195. The National Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Cheboksary [in Russian]. Bonnet, P. (1996). Le cas des camelins autour du lac Tchad. In De Zborowski, I. (ed.), Atlas d’élevage du bassin du Lac Tchad [Livestock atlas of the Lake Chad Basin], pp. 93–95. CTA.CIRAD-EMVT Service Infographie-Cartographie (FRA), Wageningen. Çakırlar, C., and Berthon, R. (2014). Caravans, camel wrestling and cowrie shells: Towards a social zooar�chaeology of camel hybridization in Anatolia and adjacent regions. Anthropozoologica, 49(2), 237–252. http://dx.doi.org/10.5252/az2014n2a06 Camel Farming in Pakistan Discussion in ‘Infrastructure & Development’ Started by Ghazi52, 15 February 2018. https://camel4all.blog/2012/01/04/kohi-camel-breed-of-suleiman-mountainous-region/ (Abdul Razaq). Diaz-Medina, E. (2017). Studies on Identification, Lactation and Rearing of Dromedaries in the Island of Fuerteventura (Canary Islands). PhD thesis in animal sciences and nutrition. Autonomous University of Barcelona Publications, Barcelona. FAO. (2012a). Domestic animal Diversity Information System. FAO, Rome. FAO. (2012b). Livestock in the Balance. The State of Food and Agriculture. FAO, Rome. Faraz, A., Waheed, A., Nazir, M.M. and Mirza, R.H., 2018. J. Fish. Livest. Prod., 6: 1000280. https://doi. org/10.4172/2332-2608.1000280 Faraz, A., Khan, N. U., Passantino, A., Pugliese, M., Eyduran, E., Iglesias, C. P., Ismail, A., Tauqir, N. A., Waheed, A., and Nabeel, M. S. (2021). Effect of different watering regimes in summer season on water intake, feed intake, and milk production of Marecha She-camel (Camelus dromedarius). Animals (Basel), 11(5), 1342. Galik, A., Mohandesan, E., Forstenpointner, G., Scholz, U. M., Ruiz, E., Krenn, M., et al. (2015). A  sunken ship of the desert at the River Danube in Tulln, Austria. PLoS ONE, 10(4), e0121235. https://doi.org/10.1371/ journal.pone.0121235 Habibi, A. H. (1999). The Short History of Afghanistan. Danish Publisher, Qisa Khuani Bazar and Peshawar. Imamura, K., Salmurzauli, R., Iklasov, M. K., Baibayssov, A., Matsui, K., and Nurtazin, S. T. (2017). The distribution of the two domestic camel species in Kazakhstan caused by the demand of industrial stockbreeding. Journal of Arid Land Studies, 26(4), 233–236. Jones, P., and Kenny, A. (2010). Australia’s Muslim Cameleers. Pioneers of the Inland, 1860s−1930s. Wakefield Press, South Australian Museum, Mile End. Kakar, D. A. R., Tareen, A. M., and de Verdier, K. (2011). Characterization and significance of Raigi camel, a livestock breed of the Pashtoon pastoral people in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Journal of Livestock Science, II, 1–9. Leese, A. S. (1927). A Treatise on the One-Humped Camel in Health and in Disease. Haynes & Son, Stanford. Lethbridge, M., Keith, W., Saalfeld, B., and Edwards, G. P. (2016). Measured reductions in the density of camels under the Australian Feral Camel Management Project. The Rangeland Journal, 38(2), 173–179. https://doi.org/10.1071/RJ15106 Olearius, A. (1669). The Voyages and Travels of the Ambassadors Sent by Frederick, Duke of Holstein to the Great Duke of Muscovy and the King of Persia (trans. John Davies, 2nd ed. corrected). Thomas Dring and John Starkey, London. Plassio, E. (1912). Il Cammello, p. 303. Manuali Hoepli, Milano. Raziq, A. (2009). A Portrayal of Camelids in Pastoral Economy of Northeastern Herders of Balochistan. PhD thesis, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad.

Camel Breeds in the World and Their Distribution—Introduction

49

Raziq, A., and Younas, M. (2006). White camels of Balochistan. SCI International Hospital (Lahore), 18(1), 51–52. Raziq, A., Younas, M., and Kakar, M. A. (2008). Camel-a potential dairy animal in difficult environments. The Pakistan Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 45(2), 263–267. Saalfeld, W. K., and Edwards, G. P. (2010). Distribution and abundance of the feral camel (Camelus dromedar� ius) in Australia. The Rangeland Journal, 32, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1071/RJ09058 Schimmer, K. A. (1847). The Siege of Vienna by the Turks. John Murray, London. Schultz, U. (2008). El camello en Lanzarote. Asociación para el Desarrollo Rural de Lanzarote (ADERLAN) Publication, Arrecife. Steel, J. H. (1890). Manual of the Diseases of the Camel and of His Management and Uses. Lawrence Asylum Press, Madras. Tapper, R. (2011). One hump or two? Hybrid camels and pastoral cultures revisited. In The Camel Conference @ SOAS, 23–25 May, SOAS University of London. http://www.soas.ac.uk/camelconference2011/ file74604.pdf. accessed on 20 December 2019. United States Government Report. (1857). Report of the secretary of war, communicating, in compliance with a resolution of the Senate of February 2, 1857, information respecting the purchase of camels for the purposes of military transportation. In 34th Congress, 3rd Session: Senate, Ex. Doc. No. 62, 238. A. O. P Nicholson, Printer, Washington, DC. Waheed, A., and Tariq, M. (2014). Camel Breeds in Pakistan. doi: 10.13140/2.1.4738.1446 Wilson, T.R., and Gutierrez, C(2015). One humped camel in Canary Island: History and present status. Tropicultura, 33(4), 288–289. Wardeh, M. F. (2004). Classification of dromedary camels. Journal of Camelid Science, 1, 1–7. Yilmaz, O. (2017). History of camel wrestling in Turkey. International Journal of Livestock Research, 7(10), 235–239. Yilmaz, O., and Ertugrul, M. (2014). Camel wrestling culture in Turkey. Turkish Journal of Agricultural and Natural Sciences, 2, 1998–2005. Zeng, B., and McGregor, M. (2008). Review of commercial options for management of feral camels. In Edwards, G. P., Zeng, B., Saalfeld, W. K., VaarzonMorel, P., and McGregor, M. (eds.), Managing the Impacts of Feral Camels in Australia: A New Way of Doing Business, pp. 221–282. Desert Knowledge Cooperative Research Centre DKCRC Report 47, Alice Springs.

3

Effective Management of Camels—Introduction

INTRODUCTION During nomadic life, Bedouin people used to live with their camels in a traditional way and in beneficial relationships with each other. Camels, in return, provided them milk to drink, meat to eat, and wool and leather to wear. When Bedouins have such facilities like possessing camels, it was regarded as a “Gift of God” to them (Gillespie, 2006). Bedouins, along with their camels, used to live in harsh environments “at arid, semi-arid and desert” lands (Gauthier-Pilters, 1979). In the areas where Bedouins normally settled, the vegetation level was quite high and never fell below 10% (Barth, 1999). But during the 20th century, intensive social and economic changes altered all this. For example, heavy oil exploration resulted in economic development and population increases following urban development, which destroyed these camel habitats. With the passage of time, conventional rearing system of dromedary camels in Arabia was modified altogether and was transformed into the commercial and extended-range farming system (Al-Rowaily, 1999). Mobile water sources facilitated Bedouins watering their herds even in the remotest places. This technology of camel rearing significantly increased the density of herds as well as the volume of water needed, which ultimately significantly increased the rate of water renewal than its consumption. In Asia and Africa, Bactrian and Arabian camels dominate, which were adapted, and then as the time passed, their rearing systems were also modified as mentioned earlier (Farah et al., 2004; Hartley, 1979). South America is inhabited by llamas, vicunas, alpacas, and guanacos. North America, however, has only two species of Camelidae family, and they are llamas and alpacas. In USA, llamas have a much larger population than alpacas, which are quite fewer in number. Among all camelids mentioned earlier, vicunas and guanacos are not well adapted and are the least domesticated. In North America, llamas and alpacas help transport loads, are used to produce textiles and clothing, and sometimes are used to watch and ward sheep and goats. Camels are such a reliable and adequate source of meat that they are claimed as a companion of the owner. Compared to other livestock, their genetics, feed, and health management have been poorly explored. Hence, information on previously mentioned aspects of camels is very scarce. Llamas and alpacas are treated just like cattle and are farmed under similar conditions. Natural conditions like pasture, range, and wellmanaged dry lots are favored places for both these species. They do not prefer closed places such as stalls and the like. Except for walking differences, they are quite similar to that of ruminants. Unlike ruminants, they walk on footpads while ruminants walk on hooves. Both llamas and alpacas have adequate capabilities for conserving water. Accordingly, they can be sustained under dry conditions and arid conditions. They are medium-sized animals (Figure 3.1). At the time of maturity, males, however, are bigger than females. In South America, llamas are the largest camels found; the males attain a weight of 300 pounds while alpacas are smaller and weigh far less than llamas, which are around and/or up to 175 pounds (Figure 3.1). Both these camelid species are quite passive in nature and aptitude and are well suited for domestication. They get agitated when threatened and are quite active and vigilant in the protection of their offspring.

DOI: 10.1201/9781003408598-3

51

52

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 3.1  Feeding in alpacas. Source: Animals.net

COMMON PRACTICES IN CAMEL MANAGEMENT Camel Nutrition Like other camels, llamas and alpacas are also three-stomached animals. Their digestion process is very much similar to cattle and small ruminants. They chew the cud as well as ruminate. Both llamas and alpacas hunt for food and then browse. Alpacas and llamas have similar nutritional requirements. Nonetheless, alpacas are better browsers and grazers than llamas. Both llamas and alpacas can efficiently take in grain concentrates to fulfill their energy and protein requirements. Both grass and legume hays are the best sources of roughage for them. However, when they graze on quality pastureland, they can comfortably fulfill their nutritional requirements. Their protein requirement is only 10–16%, which is quite lower than other ruminants (Vyas et al., 2007). Whatever the source of water is, it always needs to be fresh, clean water in adequate quantity. Different water sources for the camel are natural streams or ponds or artificial means, such as buckets, troughs, or automatic devices. Drinking containers might be troughs or buckets but should be always cleaned well and regularly. If animals are planned to graze in a pasture, it should be made certain that the forage is of good quality and does not contain poisonous plants or other harmful material because materials or plants toxic to livestock can be toxic to camels too (Figure 3.2). Llamas and alpacas can comfortably feed on concentrated and well-balanced rations like livestock. In addition to balanced rations, simple grains can also suffice their nutritional requirement. Camels can be easily fed on texturized feeds, such as steam-rolled corn and barley mixed with soy pellets. Fully pelleted feed is, however, less preferred by camels. Characteristically, camels choke on it less, and with little resistance, the pelleted feed goes into the animal body and is well digested. Nevertheless, supplementing artificial feeds with a mineral mix is always preferred and should be considered for balanced feeding of camels.

Effective Management of Camels—Introduction

53

FIGURE 3.2  Feeding behavior of llamas. Source: animals.net

In camel-rearing areas where selenium is deficient in feed supplementation, camels must be fed with selenium along with vitamin E to meet their deficiency. For feeding camels, round or square bales made from good-quality hay that are not spoiled and are free from fungus are encouraged and recommended for camels. We can determine the nutritional status of camels by a Body Condition Score (Figures 3.2 and 3.3). A Body Condition Score of 3 (on a 1–5 scale) or 6 (on a 1–10 scale) is considered ideal. On a 1–5 scale, 1 means thin and 5 means obese. Routine monitoring is good for normal animals, but it is strongly recommended that females should be monitored during pregnancy and lactation. Cria (a baby llama, alpaca, guanaco, or vicuna) should be monitored during its growth period. Nevertheless, all the animals should be regularly monitored during winter months.

Feeding Management Time of Feeding Free-ranging camels can freely browse. They can, however, take rest if they intend to do that. With alternate intervals of rest and rumination, they normally feed during the day. Nobody should dare to disturb the herd that is under the possession of a particular owner. This practice is common in the world, including the Cholistan Desert of Pakistan. For camels meant to work either in transportation or agriculture, it is mandatory to feed them early in the morning. However, they enjoy feeding and resting in the afternoon as a major activity after their working hours. Nonetheless, they are again offered feed in the evening before their night sleep/rest (Figure 3.4). Those camels used for intercity transportation, pulling carts, and carrying baggage, they are fed alternatively. They are offered some bhoosa and/or green fodder during loading and unloading intervals (Figure 3.5). Cart drivers have sufficient food for camels with them and offer it on demand or at their convenience. Rangers and armies also possess camels for transportation as well as for carrying luggage and have a fixed schedule for feeding camels. This schedule works around the

54

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 3.3  Llama habitat. Source: Animals.net

FIGURE 3.4  Feeding of camels. Source: defence.pk

nutritional requirements of the individual animal or group of animals. When they put camels to work or on parade, early in the morning, they feed the camels. These camels are released for rest in the afternoon. This time is for their rest as well as for their feeding. In the evening when camels are off work and are also free for rest, they are fed a third time. Their early feeding is mostly concentrated feeds. Nonetheless, bhoosa is offered at night. Camels graze and browse during the

Effective Management of Camels—Introduction

55

FIGURE 3.5  Camel feeding. Source: researchgate.net

day if they have access to adequate grazing facilities. However, again, in the evening, they enjoy concentrated feed. Concentrated feed is, however, less frequent, and feeding on bhoosa at night is a common, as well as convenient, practice. The following suggestions can help improve the proper feeding of the one-humped camels: • If the camel is not used to grain feeding, do not offer grains suddenly; it may disturb its digestive system or even can cause its death. • Starving a camel for a longer time is not advisable. Starvation stops cud chewing, resulting in motor dysfunction of the stomach. • If the camel is exhausted after long journey and is kept deprived of feed and water, bhoosa feeding is not advised (Figure 3.5). If bhoosa is fed to starve animal, it constipates the ani�mal, which can cause death. A small quantity of flour mixed with molasses can be offered to an exhausted or fatigued animal. However, this ration can be accompanied by 1–2 liters of water, exceeding not more than 10 liters at one time. At intervals of a half hour, the camel can be offered routine feed. If green fodder such as lucerne, green moth, or jowar (fodder of its choice) is offered to the camel in excess, there is a strong possibility that the camel will overeat. This overeating can cause stomach distension and flatulence of colic. Moderation in feeding camels such fodders should be strictly adhered to.

Food Quantities Detailed studies on camel feeding are lacking. It is generally believed that working camels are usually inadequately fed. The daily food consumption of groups of nonworking camels that browsed poorly were observed being given test rations. The average total weight of the test rations consumed

56

Biology and Breeding of Camels

by an individual camel varied from 22.2 lb of a dry ration of gram and hay to 135.4 lb of chopped green sarson. These quantities cannot be considered equal to dry matter but mainly depend on the palatability of the ration provided to camels during a 24-hr period. In India, 16 lb of a mixture of wheat and legume straws is considered only a half ration for camel against the total ration given per day. Leese (1927) has presented a number of rations for working camels. Those that are intended to be fed when little grazing is available can be comfortably compared with previous data. Later, attempts were made to estimate their nutritive value. No data exists for the digestibility of foodstuffs by camels, but, since most of the habits of camel are common with other ruminants, hence, it is considered ruminant, and then data are considered comparable with ruminants. The possibility is quite meager that there may be any great differences using digestibility coefficients determined with other ruminants. According to Leese (1927), missa bhusa is the hay or straw of Phaseolus aconitifolius (moth) or Phaseolus mungo (mung) that is used for camels, but still, no available data have been found so far on the digestibility studies of this bhusa. Previous authors define missa bhusa as the straw of Cicer arietinum (Bengal gram), and it is used in camel rations based on previous analyses of it.

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS Energy Value For the resting camel, the energy requirement is from 21,000 to 28,000 cal, which is without grazing. During various experiments, camels ate food containing 16,000 cal when they experienced poor grazing. Resting camels are expected to improve in condition, and it may be supposed that they can and do perform like this if they are provided with larger rations. When working camels do not graze and depend only on concentrate feed, they require about 30,000 cal in each of the three rations. The camels that need such rations are the bigger ones and those that usually carry heavy loads. Rations are quite related to level of the grazing because with little grazing the allowance is about 22,000 cal; with fair grazing, 17,500 cal; and with good or full grazing, between 8000 and 11,000 cal. The energy value of a day’s good grazing must therefore be from 14,000 to 20,000 cal.

Protein It is normally thought that rations in which the concentrate is a dried legume can provide an excess of protein, but a long-term feeding experiment does not support this. Replacing gram with sorghum of the Somaliland Camel Corps ration showed no advantage in condition, health, or efficiency. In Palestine, the Fellahin gave an evening ration of 4 kg, averaging about 3 kg of “grain” and 7–10 kg of straw with an average energy value of 24,000 cals. The grain is barley, lentils, beans, or the local products kersenneh and gilbaneh. We have been unable to identify these. In Iraq, the nomad Arab camel owners and transport contractors provide rations only when there is a shortage of grazing areas, when it is scarce in availability, or when animals are required for racing. Under these conditions, they give balls of barley meal and salt mixed with straw to camels to mitigate their appetite. The amounts given to camels in full working conditions are barley meal, 5 kg, and straw, 7 kg, giving 27,500 cal. The grain allowances provided by native camel owners are higher, and the roughage allowances are comparatively lower than normally suggested in daily life. The ration of the Trans-Jordan Frontier Force is given as barley, 3 kg; hay, 5 kg; and straw, 3 kg (23,500 cal). Army camels and government camels in Sudan are normally provided with 10 lb of millet in two or more installments. Lenox-Conyngham (1916), in his small handbook for army camel officers, says that 6 lb of grain (8000 cal) is a good ration for camels getting 6 to 8 hr of grazing. Hay and bhusa do very well as an additional ration but cannot take the place of grazing. He further opined that when there is no grazing, 50 lb of hay daily (41,000 cal) should be given, which can suffice the requirements of the camel.

Effective Management of Camels—Introduction

57

If bhusa is given to camel, it should not be more than 15 lb at one time; if provided more than this quantity, it may cause digestive disturbances, with diarrhea and tympanites.

Salt The rations prescribed by Leese (1927) have an allowance of 1.5 oz of salt daily. He further states that camels should have 1.5 or 2 oz of salt daily. Salt is not required to be provided to the camel if the camel is grazing on saltbush. The Trans-Jordan Frontier Force and the Somali Land Camel Corps are reported to feed 1 oz of salt daily while the Sudan Defense Force goes up to 2 oz daily. Native practice, as well as in different organizations, is not uniform. The Fellahin (Egyptian peasants) give salt, 1 or 2 oz daily, to camels in addition to their feed to induce them to drink in winter. In Iraq, the practice is slightly different because salt is given to the camels when there is no saltbush and/or no salt lick, and then the total amount of salt is about 20 g daily. In Sudan, Arab camel owners give large quantities of salt at long intervals, up to 1 lb in water at the beginning and end of the rains, and sometimes, amounts are so enhanced that the salt given can produce the symptoms of poisoning. In Nigeria, native camel owners feed crude salts to camels regularly. When green fodder is available, up to three double handfuls of a crude salt are fed once a week. When there is no green fodder, one double handful of common salt is given every 20 days. As emphasized earlier, salt is an important component of camel feed, and if salt is not fed, the camels may lose weight and develop a pica for earth or anthills. Peck (1939), in his extensive series of experiments, showed that the usual amount of salt to hand-fed camels is inadequate and does not fulfill the requirements for the camels. He fed a compound salt mixture to some and crude salt ad libitum to others. The compound salt mixture produced no result, which was expected, but it is interesting to note that the results of salt experiments carried a lot of interest. Salt was provided to camels on consecutive days. It was started with 1 lb a day with a gradual decrease in concentration until it was stabilized in a cycle closely related to watering. However, immediately after watering, it was between 5–6 oz and, on subsequent days, was decreased to about 3.5 oz for 2 days before the next watering. Peck (1939) therefore suggests a daily ration of 5 oz and says that, even with that amount, the camels will still take salt bush readily. There was a dramatic improvement in condition and health with the increased salt ration. There must have been a greatly improved utilization of food because, he says, it was possible to decrease the gram ration by 25%. No evidence was found to indicate that all inorganic substances other than NaCI were present, either in the crude salt or saltbush, that could improve the present condition.

Water Lenox-Conyngham (1916) was of the view that camels at work do best when watered every second day. If camels are grazing on quite good green fodder, they can go without water for longer than that, but nothing is gained by withholding water when it can be got. He further added that forced drinking is not possible, nor is it advisable. The quantity of water each camel requires at one time depends on the amount of moisture in the food, the temperature, and the work it performed. During the rainy season, camels do not need water often and can go without water for longer periods, but during the dry season, camels are usually watered at intervals from 3–7 days or more often if they are at work (Figure 3.6). If camels are provided the opportunity for water daily, then they will drink from 3–8 gallons per day (Figure 3.7). If a camel is forced to run, race, or walk during summer or in heat, it can drink water up to 9–10 gallons on every second day. If a camel is thirsty for a longer period, it can drink as much as 20 gallons per day. Leese (1927) was of the view that when camels covered a distance of 537 miles in 34 days without drinking water, only a few survived. Regular drinking or at least at demand is necessary for the well-being of camels.

58

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 3.6  Camels drinking water. Source: pinterest.com

FIGURE 3.7  A camel drinking water. Source: maeryvilleforum.com

REPRODUCTION Camels can be induced to ovulate. Behaviorally, they are receptive to breeding throughout the year. These features are distinctive to camels and are not present in other livestock. During mating, the female always sits and the male mounts her (Figures 3.8 and 3.9). The gestation period in female camels lasts for little more than 1 year. Pasture and pen breeding are the most common and acceptable breeding strategies for camels. For successful breeding, it is important to ponder the time of

Effective Management of Camels—Introduction

59

FIGURE 3.8  Male camel in heat. Source: todayifoundout.com

breeding in relation to the prevailing season. At birth, it is important to record daily temperature. During winter months, it is hard to care for and protect the mother and young one from severe cold. Proper cover and shelter are quite important for winter births because of harsh and unfriendly weather. In winter, it is important to keep the cria warm for its survival. At this time in its development, taking proper care of its energy and other nutritional requirements is also important. The success of the breeding of camels is totally dependent on the proper management and maintenance of male camels. The rainy/fall and spring seasons are the peak breeding seasons. With the onset of the rainy season, breeding starts (Figure 3.9) and declines and/or totally diminishes toward the end of the rainy season. In the absence of drought, female camels can breed twice a year. Birth time is the best to select males for future breeding. Keeping in mind the ancestral history of the herd, two or three males are selected and raised for future breeding. They especially nourished and cared for (Figure 3.10). Due to their fat growth, they become sexually mature at the age of 5.

Breeding in Camels Calves are fed on ample quantity of milk. They are kept in tick- and other parasite-free environment to save them from diseases. Like other sires they are not used for transportation of luggage. They are kept in labor free environment throughout their mating duration. Their mating is limited to a few females. When male is 5 years of age, it is allowed to mate with his age-mate female camel. If a satisfactory progeny is produced from this male, its mating number is increased. At the age of

60

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 3.9  Camel mating. Source: ejmanager.com

8–9 years, it is allowed to mate with up to 50 females. In particular, a prepared sire can mate with females up to 20 years. A female camel, however, is used for breeding purposes up to about 22 years. One female can produce up to 10 calves during this period. Those camels used for breeding are totally deprived of transportation. It is a common belief that using male camels for breeding and labor shortens their breeding life from 22 to 17 years. During sexual excitement, camels become hostile to humans as well as their counterparts. They intend to fight and may be dangerous at this time. In the presence of other males, it just tries to fight with rare mating or copulation. Therefore, it is advisable to not let a male older than 2 years of age enter in its breeding territory. During sexual excitement, the male camel develops its territory and keeps it isolated from the other herds around. At this stage, its back-and-forth movement is very frequent. If standing, it always faces the direction of possible intruders, meaning its male counterparts. During rutting season, a male camel can mate with females day and night. Camel owners normally prohibit camel mating during the day. They give free access to mating during the night. Their belief is that daytime mating shortens the breeding life of the male camel. A herder can detect pregnancy in a female 10 days after mating (Figure 3.11). If pregnant, the female coils its tail backward to the hump and urinates frequently. They lift up their head, pointing their ears straight. When a man or a male camel approaches, the pregnant female camel curves

Effective Management of Camels—Introduction

61

FIGURE 3.10  Pregnant female and newly born calf. Source: tripadvisor.com

its neck back to the shoulder. After 1 month of pregnancy, these symptoms become more evident. Nonetheless, these symptoms are less prominent in the first few weeks of pregnancy. The professional experience of the herder teaches him to know whether the female camel is pregnant or not. After a week or so, a rutting camel can detect pregnancy in a female camel. The gestation period in female camel lasts for about 13 months (Figure 3.12).

62

FIGURE 3.11  Llama with newly born calf and a camel on the right. Source: Emirates247.com

FIGURE 3.12  Calf suckling milk. Source: au.ibar.org

Biology and Breeding of Camels

Effective Management of Camels—Introduction

63

HANDLING Slightly differing from dromedary and Bactrian camels, llamas and alpacas are social animals and prefer to live in herds and intend to graze when in herds. They get irritated during poor handling and prefer calm, quiet, and slow handling. They are very smart and instinctual animals. If they think or smell any danger around, they try to escape from the predator at once. They maintain a social hierarchy associated with its social order. Pregnant females or females with nursing young lose their temper when teased and react vehemently. Healthy males always show dominance over others and are hard to catch; if required, much experience is demanded from handlers. Understanding the natural behavior of llamas and alpacas is highly important for their proper handling. If their behavior is properly known, then any expected injury from predators or humans can be avoided. Llamas and alpacas are not so quiet animals and can break the halter or lead. If the nose bands ride in the middle of the nose, it is safer and much easier for the animals to handle. The presence of the nose bands on the lower side may hurt the nose. It can also cut off the breathing process. Loose nose bands help the owner herd camels in a group. Their independent living is troublesome, and they become panicky if they are separated from the herds. Unless they are specifically acquainted with dogs living nearby and well accept calmly living with dogs or being in the presence of dogs, using dogs for llama herds is well appreciated. Practices like nail trimming and other related practices are possible to apply only in those camels whose chutes or stocks are well adjusted to their body shape and can work well to conduct preventative or therapeutic health procedures. The proper training and taming of the animals, accompanied by using well-established procedures and protocols, can minimize problems and restraints. This facilitates the successful rearing of camels in a controlled environment.

TRANSPORTATION If, like dromedaries, llamas and alpacas are conditioned for transportation, they can also be transported like dromedaries. Vehicles like trucks that are normally used for livestock transportation can be used for camels too. This can be achieved without any injury and without interfering driver or accompanying passengers. For transporting llamas or alpacas, safety and comfort are of primary importance. Larger animals, easily and freely, can walk or jump in the transport vehicle and can injure or hurt others. During transportation, weather conditions should be considered, for example, high heat or extreme cold should be avoided, and the transporting vehicle should be ventilated. A pre-examination of the animal for coating or shearing is important for transportation. If their current condition is not properly addressed before initiating the transportation, it can affect the animal’s heat- or cold-tolerance capability. Very weak animals or those that can hardly move should not be transported until and unless proper protocols are followed for such animals to move to avoid injury and distress when severe medical care is needed.

RECOMMENDED ENVIRONMENT FOR LIVING Dromedaries can be kept in any environment. Alpacas and llamas are very clean, disciplined, and well-managed animals. They always try to defecate in areas that are away from their grazing and feeding areas. Therefore, these two animals demand special care for their successful rearing. If fecal matter is found scattered around them, it is important to clean these areas frequently to provide comfort and ease to the animal, but this frequency is very much dependent on the size of the camel herd. For camels, shed manure buildup should always be avoided, and living places should be always tidy and dry without any infiltration of moisture. Bedding the area following its perpetual drying is quite important.

64

Biology and Breeding of Camels

Pastures meant for grazing camels should be managed in a way that they are fully packed with required the quality and quantity of forage and carry a minimum parasite load. Two to three llamas or four to five alpacas per 2 acres is quite sufficient for successful and safe rearing. This number can maintain a good and sustainable pasture. The places for camels live should always be well drained and dry, and these precautions are necessary to take specifically during rainy seasons. Like livestock, camels also demand a sufficiently clean environment with good hygienic conditions. Further to this, local, state (Michigan GAAMPs), and federal guidelines need to be implemented in letter and spirit. In addition to these, it is also important to fulfill other requirements for the camel to live, such as the maintenance of a good community and population relationships.

FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT Shelter Outdoor and semi-confined housing systems can support the comfortable living of both llamas and alpacas as well as dromedaries. Three-sided sheds and barns of various configurations can suffice for the requirements of the camel for trouble-free living. Shelter is required for the animals so that they can hide when they feel necessary. Because they are wool-bearing animals, the summer season requires special considerations; therefore, provisions for shade, whether it is natural or artificial, are mandatory. Like dromedaries, alpacas are also hardy and can successfully tolerate cold weather conditions, but still, care is always required for their successful movement through cold winter. The provision of shelter (Figures  3.13 and 3.14) is more important if the animals are housed outdoors. Extreme hot and cold temperatures hamper their living; hence, shelter protects them from

FIGURE 3.13  Feeding of camels. Source: defence.pk

Effective Management of Camels—Introduction

65

FIGURE 3.14  Camel feeding. Source: thenational.ae

such extreme conditions. Unlike adult animals, the newly born are more vulnerable to cold stress. Hence, they need proper protection from the cold for a week or so. If during this period they are not properly cared for, a high mortality rate can ensue in young ones.

Fencing External fencing is always higher and comparatively stronger than those normally built for goats, deer, and some other ruminants. Camels escaping are one problem, and other undesirable animals entering are second, so to prevent and resolve both problems, reliable fencing is extremely important.

DECLINING CAMEL POPULATION AND FACTORS THEREOF Grazing Resources Are Being Squeezed With the increase in population, there is continuous increase and expansion in the utilization of area under both canal and tube-well irrigation to enhance the present production level of grains to meet the increasing demand of the human population (FAO, 2004). The number of tube wells is on the rise for irrigation purposes. This development has restricted grazing with the proportionate increase in irrigated land. Agriculture fields are fenced. This further restricts the free-range grazing of camels, diminishing the possibility of grazing around the year by up to 13% of the total area.

Innovations in Agriculture Farming Practices Currently, a rapid and accelerated agricultural mechanization has been introduced in rain-fed crop cultivation. This introduction of new technology has considerably damaged the natural fauna of perennial pastures like sewan (Lasiurus sindicus), dachab (Cyperus rotundus), and dhaman (Cenchrus setigerus). This technology has even disturbed the existence of shrubs or bushes like pala (Ziziphus nummularia), phog (Calligonum polygonoides), kheemp (Leptadenia pyrotechnica),

66

Biology and Breeding of Camels

and senia (Crotolaria burhia), including some important fodder trees like khejari (Prosopis cineraria). A considerable reduction has been observed in the percentage of the khejari tree, from 10% to 3%. During fodder shortage periods and droughts, these trees have been an important source of fodder and forage. In harsh and hostile environments, these trees not only help camels with their sustenance, but they also support other livestock in their survival and existence. Due to extremely low and erratic rainfall in the last 5 years, most of the places camels graze like deserts have faced severe drought. As a result, grazing places, as well as the production of fodder and grazing out, have been reduced considerably (Olsvig-Whittaker et al., 2006). This state of affairs has resulted in a high mortality rate of camels and small ruminants like sheep and cattle. Most of the areas are deprived of fodder depots. Even these people have no future planning to produce sufficient fodder and its storage. Furthermore, there is no subsidized program by the government that can help farmers with alleviating the fodder shortage problems. In some villages, the conditions are very miserable. Poor farmers cut down the available natural bushes and trees, totally ignoring the food demands of livestock. They sell this fuelwood in nearby towns and cities to earn money for their living. Among other factors, this is also contributing a lot to the diminishing availability of fodder and forage in deserts and arid areas (Al-Rowaily, 1999).

Illegal Movement of Camels for Slaughter The purchase and transport of camels by different agents/middlemen/local agencies from one province to another, and their slaughter is another main issue resulting in a decline in the camel population. They are slaughtered for different festivals, and/or their meat is exported to different countries. As camels reproduce too slowly, their numbers decrease quite rapidly. It is the need of the hour that both provincial and central ministries should interfere to stop the illegal movement of camels from one province to another to sustain their required population in a particular area.

Grazing Policy for Livestock Is Poorly Organized Livestock like cattle, sheep, and goats are important components of the livelihood of the country’s population. However, from the government side, there is no support or help for conserving and promoting grazing places (Olsvig-Whittaker et al., 2006). If conserved and properly maintained, these grazing places can alleviate the shortage of fodder for livestock living in arid areas during drought and other hostile conditions. This state of affairs has severely affected the existing conditions of the herders. This situation has forced the herders to decrease the number of camel herds and herd sizes, ultimately leading to an overall reduction in the livestock population.

Lack of Interest among the Young Due to education and rapid urbanization, the children of camel owners totally lack interest in keeping and rearing of camels—another reason for the decline in the camel population.

SUSTAINING THE SHIP OF THE DESERT To increase the interest of the masses, camel farming should be made more remunerative, and areas that are still untapped should be explored. Camels possess excellent biological characteristics for farming. They produce good quality milk and a range of potential products (Ahmed Abdel-Hameid et al., 2014; Raghvendar et al., 2004). These products can be helpful and beneficial for treating major chronic diseases like tuberculosis, diabetes type I, liver disease, and other problems. If well managed, camels have a lot of potential for farming, reproduction, and expansion because their useful

Effective Management of Camels—Introduction

67

products force us to focus on their farming and promotion. The demand definitely will increase in areas where female camel populations exceed those of males. In this context, hilly/mountainous areas are particularly important. In these areas, camel farming and rearing are regular and reliable sources of income for people. Hair, leather, hides, and bone are some other important products that can be obtained from camels. By incorporating improved technology and blending it with other fibers, it can be made even more useful and important too.

Strengthen the Silvo Pasture Program The silvo pasture program is an important option in wastelands with high salinity. It can improve agriculture production, including fodder production. Therefore, planting such trees and bushes that are well adapted to the prevailing environment and are good sources of fodder should be encouraged. Silvo pasture is quite good for producing fodder for camels. It can produce seven times more vegetation than traditional land-use patterns. Silvo culture further can ensure a longer supply of green biomass that serves as an excellent source for browsing of camels. For successful camel farming, there is an urgent need for an intensive tree plantation program in which crop cultivation is mostly rain-fed. In this scenario, cultivating khejri (Prospis cineraria) and Acarsia tortalison should be encouraged among farmers. Cultivating these plants at a mass scale can alleviate the food and forage problems of camels. In the long run, it will definitely improve soil fertility. In turn, it will produce more fodder, fulfilling the fodder demands of camels and small ruminants. Saplings from these forests can be requested from the Forest Department of any camel inhabiting country. Further to this, farmers need to be encouraged with a provision of incentive to motivate them to plant these plants at mass scale. If these plants are planted at a mass scale, they can serve as an additional source of forage during drought conditions.

Emphasis on Roadside Plantation as Fodder for Livestock Trees planted along the roadsides will ensure the enhancement of fodder productivity during lean periods. Browsing on plants planted on the roadside should be limited. Agriculture and forest departments, however, should take responsibility for browsing that is sustainable, and in the case of any damage to plants, they should be replaced amicably with new saplings or seeds, whichever is advisable.

Utilization of Unconventional Feed Presently, it is required that both conventional and unconventional fodders need to be mixed. The appropriate ratio of their mixing is 20–25%. This mixing and storing in the form of blocks can be of great help during droughts when fodder is scarce. For preparing and storing the blocks, the government can facilitate and encourage farmers to have this practice at mass scale. A provision of the material and technology at a subsidized rate can be of great help.

Stress on Agroforestry Development Agroforestry will help with soil conservation. It will improve the feed and fodder for camels. In addition to the provision of fodder, it will also supplement the fuel resources. Contradictory to other livestock, camels are environmentally friendly. They do not damage the existing vegetation if their grazing is under controlled conditions and well managed. Camels can well mange drought conditions, survive during the periods of water scarcity, and sustain themselves more successfully than agricultural crops that often need irrigation. Camels can adapt well in persistently

68

Biology and Breeding of Camels

changing agroecosystems. Nevertheless, proper participation and collaboration of farmers and government departments can strengthen this process. Forest and animal husbandry departments and village panchayats can contribute significantly to the further development and promotion of this process. These measures can help in improving the declining population of camels in a given area or country.

HEALTH CARE: DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL Health care programs for dromedaries and other camel species like llamas and alpacas cover a wide range of aspects of the animal’s life. Under these programs, the nutritional requirements of the animal are determined for their proper nutrition. Appropriate and necessary remedial measures are taken to prevent disease and maintain its health. Camels should be timely vaccinated. Practices like foot care, parasite control, and other emergency practices are implemented in time to save the animal’s life and maintain its health, including determining and applying nutritional requirements, implementing remedial and necessary measures to prevent disease, and maintaining the animal’s proper health care through timely vaccinations, parasite control, foot care, and adaptation of emergency procedures in case of injury whichever are applicable to local conditions (Mares, 1954). It is worth mentioning here that if and when invasion into the body cavity (e.g., castration) is required, it should be done and accomplished by trained veterinarians to not inflict unnecessary disturbance and pain to the animal (Figure 3.15). The same should be applied when developing a health care plan is required for camels and/or for other livestock.

PHARMACEUTICAL USE During a health care plan and/or when treating an animal, the judicious application of medicines becomes quite important (Figure 3.16). In addition to their application, their technical understanding both structurally and physiologically is quite important prior to their successful utilization. Maintaining the proper health and welfare of all livestock, whether it is poultry, livestock, or camels, always demands a sufficient quantity of feed of good quality. Next comes treating and maintaining

FIGURE 3.15  Diseases in camels, surveys, and control measures. Source: depaw.wa.gov.au

Effective Management of Camels—Introduction

69

FIGURE 3.16  Treating camels. Source: researchgate.net

good health in the camel. It is highly recommended to sustain its proper health. Proper maintenance of camel health demands a staunch and persistent veterinary–client–patient relationship, which is highly important.

Euthanasia Pain-free killing or other treatments carry a lot of importance not only for human beings but also for animals too. This is more important for animals that are seriously ill or accidentally injured when they need immediate euthanization (Figure 3.17). Several methods are used to euthanize animals. They can be physical or chemical. Whatever method is used needs to be approved by a competent authority. One of the approved methods usually recommended by the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) are the Guidelines on Euthanasia (AVMA, 2013).

70

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 3.17  Euthanization in camels. Source: wbrc.com

REFERENCES Ahmed Abdel-Hameid, A., Sayed, R. G., and Sayed, M. (2014). Nutritional value and sanitary evaluation of raw Camel’s milk. Emirates Journal of Food and Agriculture, 26(4), 317–326. doi: 10.9755/ejfa. v26i4.16158 www.ejfa.info/317 Al-Rowaily, S. L. R. (1999). Rangeland of Saudi Arabia and the “tragedy of commons”. Rangelands, 21(3), 27–29. AVMA Guidelines for the Euthanasia of Animals: 2013 Edition pages 102. American Veterinary Medical Asso� ciation, https://www.avma.org › resources-tools › avma-policies Barth, H. J. (1999). Desertification in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. Journal of Arid Environments, 43, 399–410. Farah, K. O., Nyariki, D. M., Ngugi, R. K., Noor, I. M., and Guliye, A. Y. (2004). The Somali and the camel: Ecology, management and economics. The Anthropologist, 6(1), 45–55. Food and Agriculture Organization. (2004). The life initiative local livestock for empowerment of rural people. Saving the camel and peoples’ livelihoods building a multi-stakeholder platform for the conservation of the camel in rajasthan. International Conference, 23–25 November, Sadri and Rajasthan. Gauthier-Pilters, H. (1979). Some Ecological Aspects of the Camel in Western Sahara, pp. 387–398. IFS Symposium, Sudan. Gillespie, F. (2006). Discovering Qatar. Sponsored by Ras Gas Company Limited. The UNESCO Office Doha. Marc Breulmann, Benno Böer, David Gallacher, Ulrich & Renate Wernery, Shaukat Ali Chaudhary, John Peacock, Ghaleb Alhadrami, John Norton. Ras Gas Company Qatar. Hartley, J. B. (1979). Camels in the Horn of Africa, pp. 109–124. IFS Symposium, Sudan. Leese, A. S. (1927). A Treatise on the One-Humped Camel in Health and Disease, p. 382. Haynes and Son, Stanford (Lincs). Lenox-Conyngham, J. S. M. (1916). Our Heroes, p. 322. Friends of Somme Mid Ulster Branch, Cookstown.

Effective Management of Camels—Introduction

71

Mares, R. G. (1954). Animal husbandry, animal industry and animal disease in the Somalia and Protectorate. British Veterinary Journal, 110, 411–423. Olsvig-Whittaker, L., Frankenberg, E., Perevolotsky, A., and Ungar, E. D. (2006). Grazing, overgrazing and conservation: Changing concepts and practices in the Negev rangelands. Secheresse, 17, 195–199. Peck, E. F. (1939). Salt intake in relation to cutaneous necrosis and arthritis of one-humped camels (Camelus dromedarius, L.) in British Somaliland. The Veterinary Record, 51(46), 1355–1360. Raghvendar, S., Shukla, S. K., Sahanian, M. S., and Bhakat, C. (2004). Chemical and physico-chemical proper�ties of camel milk at different stages of Lactation. In Saving the Camel and Peoples’ Livelihoods Building a Multi-Stakeholder Platform for the Conservation of the Camel in Rajasthan International Conference, 23–25 November 2004, Sadri. www.pastoralpeoples.org/lpps.htm Vyas, S., Sharma, A. K., and Patil, N. V. (2007). Camel Research (1986–2013)-NRC on Camel National Research Centre on Camel (Indian Council of Agricultural Research). Post Bag-07, Jorbeer, Bikaner.

4

Camel Feed and Nutritional Requirements—Introduction

INTRODUCTION The word nutrition, which appeared first time in 1551, has its origin in Latin word nutrire, which in English translation means “to nourish”. Presently, nutrition is defined as the process in which an animal obtains nutrients, metabolizes them, and finally utilizes these nutrients to sustain all its living reactions and life processes to sustain life. Nutritional sciences are studied and applied from different perspectives. This field specifically explores different factors that affect the nourishment of an animal and how they can be optimized for the best production and well-being of an animal. This discipline further explores how poor nutrition in animals affects personal health, population health, and, ultimately, planetary health. Nutritional science covers different aspects and disciplines. Nutritional scientists therefore can have expertise and specialize in particular, specific aspects of nutrition. These fields are biology, physiology, immunology, biochemistry, education, psychology, sustainability, and sociology. Without appropriate feeds and feeding, an animal’s body cannot perform ideally. Whenever there are nutritional inadequacies, animals can become sick and/ or die. Both feed and water contain various nutrients for the performing physiological functions of the animal body. The monogastric and ruminants can recover and collect these nutrients during digestion. For optimum growth, well-being, and production in animals, it is highly important to provide quality nutrients in adequate amounts to meet the nutritional requirements of the animal.

NUTRIENTS Nutrients are chemical compounds that help in the performance of bodily functions of an animal. These nutrients enter the cells of the body and support cells in the maintenance of bodily functions, ultimately contributing to the growth of cells, tissues, and organs. The entry of water, grains, roughage, and other food substances occurs through the mouth of an animal. After digestion in the stomach, an animal gets the nutrients and required energy from this food.

Six Basic Nutrients Basically, animals require six essential nutrients required for the growth, survival, and maintenance of their health. Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are macronutrients and are required in bulk. Vitamins and minerals are micronutrients, and they are required in minor quantities. Water is the transporter of all these nutrients and keeps the animal’s body hydrated. They are water, proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, and minerals. All these nutrients are essentially required for an animal, although in variable amounts. A lack of any one of them can cause problems, and the animal can become sick. The detailed characteristics of each nutrient have been explained in detail in the following subsections.

Water Water is made up of hydrogen and oxygen. As a major part of the body contains water, water has important functions in the body. Major functions of the body like respiration, digestion, and assimilation cannot take place without water. It serves as a medium for transportation and assimilation. DOI: 10.1201/9781003408598-4

73

74

Biology and Breeding of Camels

It works as a carrier or medium for transporting nutrients as well as wastes out of the body. Water shapes the body of any animal and helps the animal in thermoregulation and heat dissipation.

Proteins Proteins are organic in nature and composed of the compounds N, C, O and H. Sometimes it also contains iron, phosphorus, or sulfur. Animal gets nitrogen only from protein. Proteins are composed of essential and nonessential amino acids. Including essential amino acids in a diet is a must because an animal’s body cannot synthesize them. Nonetheless, the body can synthesize nonessential amino acids; hence, they are not dietary essentials (Table 4.1). In an animal’s body, proteins perform several functions. Amino acids build an animal’s body because they are the building blocks of the animal body (Table 4.1). The building of muscles, nerves, skin, hair, hooves, and feathers can be quoted as examples. Proteins also repair animal’s body when and where required. For the production of milk, eggs, and wool, the animal demands protein intake. Protein produces hormones and enzymes and develops fetuses. Proteins are an integral part of DNA and play a pivotal role in its functioning.

Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are constituted of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The term carbohydrate is very broad and encompasses sugars, starches, or fiber. Animals can digest both sugars and starches quite easily, while fiber, which is also called a complex carbohydrate that forms the wall of the cell wall, is poorly digested and comparatively difficult to digest compared to other carbohydrates. Starches and sugars are easy for the animal to digest. However, the fibrous component of carbohydrates, found predominantly in plant walls, is more difficult to digest. Carbohydrates provide energy to animals to empower muscles and their functioning. Carbohydrates provide energy for all bodily functions like breathing, digestion, and the beating of the heart. In addition to these functions, carbohydrates also produce heat for the body and, when present in extra quantities, are stored as body fat. The stored fats serve as an energy source. Energy production is more convenient from carbohydrates than fats,

TABLE 4.1 Essential and Nonessential Amino Acids Essential Amino Acids

Nonessential Amino Acids

Arginine

Alanine

Histidine

Aspartic Acid

Isoleucine

Citrulline

Leucine

Cysteine

Lysine

Cystine

Methionine

Glutamic Acid

Phenylalanine

Glycine

Threonine

Lodogorgoic Acid

Tryptophan

Proline

Valine

Serine Tyrosine Hydroxyglutamic Acid Hydroxyproline

75

Camel Feed and Nutritional Requirements—Introduction

although fats always produce 2.25 times more energy than carbohydrates. Fats also contain some fatty acids and are transported in the body when and where they are required.

Minerals The minerals are inorganic in nature, and the body utilizes these elements in a variety of functions. Minerals can be either macro- or micromeres. Macro-minerals are always required in comparatively larger amounts while micro-minerals are required in smaller amounts. Minerals help in and support the building of the skeleton and teeth and help in regulating bodily functions, integrating with the regulation of enzymes and hormones. Minerals help in the development of body tissues and muscular activity and support the transmission of impulses through the nervous system, body tissues, and muscles.

Vitamins Vitamins are organic substances and can be fat- or water-soluble. Fat-soluble vitamins are constituted of hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon. Vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat-soluble vitamins. Watersoluble vitamins constitute hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, chlorine, nitrogen, cobalt, or sulfur. Vitamin C and B-complex vitamins are examples of water-soluble vitamins (Table 4.2). Vitamins are not deposited in the body and, unlike other nutrients, rarely become part of the body. Vitamins, however, regulate most bodily functions. They support, integrate, and regulate the digestion, absorption, and metabolism of a variety of nutrients that may be used for growth, health maintenance, and/or physiological functions. Vitamins help in the regulation of new cells. They also have an important role in the development of the vision, bones, hair, feathers, skin, and muscles. They also help in the protection from diseases, develop nervous system, and maintain it.

FEEDING BEHAVIOR OF CAMELS There is no doubt that camels provide countless services to human beings under harsh climatic conditions and have been long been living in ecosystems with marginal food and water availability (Altaf, 2000). At the world level, approximately 19.5  million camels exist (FAO, 2016). Despite huge urbanization in several countries, there has been no reduction in camel population. This witnesses the useful role of one-humped camel (Meredov, 1989). The provision of milk and meat, help

TABLE 4.2 Macro-minerals and Micro-minerals Required by Animals Macro-minerals

Micro-minerals

Calcium (Ca)

Iron (Fe)

Phosphorus (P)

Iodine (I)

Sodium (Na)

Copper (Cu)

Potassium (K)

Cobalt (Co)

Chlorine (Cl)

Fluorine (Fl)

Magnesium (Mg)

Manganese (Mn)

Sulfur (S)

Zinc (Zn) Molybdenum (Mo) Selenium (Se) Chromium (Cr)

76

Biology and Breeding of Camels

in transporting goods, use in agriculture, and their exhibition in zoos are some of camels’ roles and benefits they play for the betterment of human beings (Iqbal, 1999). Nonetheless, camels remained neglected in improving their existing strains and further developing their farming and expansion. They did not get that much attention as livestock, although their role is quite closer to other livestock. Camels’ versatility helps them survive in harsh arid and semiarid regions. Scientists should further explore their potential to enhance their role in the well-being of humans.

Browser or Grazer The browsing or grazing behavior of camels is still debated. However, this behavior can be identified from searching, choosing, ingesting feed, and its final absorption processes (Pagot, 1992). Field (1979) reported that principally, camels browse for their feeding. Nonetheless, it also grazes on tall succulent young grass. Schwartz et al. (1983) further claim camels are browsing animals and prefer to browse on bushes, shrubs, and other trees that are normally 3.5m above ground level. Tripathy (1987) also reported that camels prefer browsing instead of grazing and should be allowed to forage for at least 6 hours a day. He further claimed that their long necks and legs support camels in browsing. Accordingly, they can take in and masticate leaves and fruits of those trees that other livestock cannot approach. Camels can eat prickly plants. Aussie camels, however, can even ingest the orange fruit of the white wood tree. This fruit is highly bitter, and other creatures even cannot dare to taste it. Coppock et al. (1986a) observed and reported that livestock gets 96% of its feed from eating grass. Camels, however, meet 95% of their total feed demand from browsing on trees. Sheep and goats feed both on grass as well as browse on small trees, herbs, and shrubs, among others. Hence, we can say that they feed both on herbaceous and non-herbaceous vegetation. McDowell (1986) further emphasized that camels can sustain themselves by browsing for an indefinite period. Additionally, they can successfully feed on thorny plants due to its strong prehensile lips and narrow muzzle. Tripathi (1987) suggested that camels prefer browsing over grazing and should be allowed to forage for at least over 6 hr a day. In Somalia, the situation is different because grass is the major part of a camel’s ration. Yagil (1990) further verified that camels browse on the trees, taking a bite from one plant and moving to another. Hence, for food each day, they search a wide area. Some others claim the selective feeding of camels. In this context, they prefer to eat the freshest vegetation available. Browsing near the salty lakes is their favorite habit. They intentionally approach salty lakes. There they eat plants like Calandrinia and Portulaeea sp., which are high in electrolytes and moisture. Camels eat grasses normally after rain and before the availability of herbs and forbs (Anonymous, 1993). El-Badawi (1996) is also of the view that camels are principally browsers. For this purpose, they spend a lot of time consuming their feed and its further rumination (Figure 4.1).

Feed Preference Bell (1959) tried to define the feed preferences of camels. He selected some plants and worked out camels’ preferences. He further reported that when an animal selects one plant over another, it means that it is more palatable than the one that was rejected (American Social Range Management. Range Term Glossary Committee, 1964). There are five factors that interact with other factors and help an animal select its food (Arnold & Dudzinski, 1978):

1. Animal-related factors:

These are individual to the animal, its species, its physiological condition, and its feed demand. Past experience of an animal in grazing/browsing and the social behavior of an animal also play a role in food selectivity (Garton, 2019).

Camel Feed and Nutritional Requirements—Introduction

77

FIGURE 4.1  Feed preferences of camels. Source: ilse.koehler.rollefson.com

2. Sensory factors like sight, smell, touch, and taste also help an animal in food selectivity (Schwartz, 1992a). 3. Physical environment: This includes the slope aspect and the site of the plant (topography). How far are the plants from a water source, from the track, or from the shade?

4. Quality and quantity of plants:

Plant community, type, and fertility of soil do play a role in food preferences and food selection of an animal.

5. Plant species present and their characteristics:

The relative availability of plants in that particular area and their physical and chemical characteristics do have a role in the food selection of camels. Newman (1975) reported shrub and forb material (up to 70%) as the primary feed of 3-year-old camels. Nonetheless, some breeds of camels and buffalo prefer grass (up to 90%). The grazing habits of camel and sheep and goats differ entirely. Sheep and goats are intensive grazers while camels are passive grazers. Overgrazing is not common in camels. They keep moving taking bit by bit from different plants. Field (1979) reported dwarf shrubs (47.5%), trees (29.9%), grasses (11.2%), other herbs (10.2%), and vines (1.1 %) are their favorite grazing points. In their natural habitats, dromedary camels prefer browsing on grasses and herbs of greater nutritional value in arid zones. Such grasses normally exist for a short duration but grow more frequently than bigger plants and shrubs (Mukasa-Mugerwa, 1981).

78

Biology and Breeding of Camels

Camels differ from other ruminants in their feeding (Yagil, 1986). Other ruminants are exclusively vegetarian. Camels, however, also feed on a wide variety of things. Most common are charcoal, bones, or even mummified remains of young gazelles, such as the heads and its other parts (GauthierPilters & Dagg, 1981). However, camels expand their dietary range specifically during the dry season. They do this naturally to compensate for the declining forage abundance. Hence, they eat more grasses, litter, leaves, vines, and lignified twigs. Baimukanov (1989) has reported specialized desert vegetation – halophytes, wormwood, shrubs, subshrubs, and various thorny plants – is the preferred food of llamas. Pirzada et al. (1989) are of the view that salty bushes with very high water content are the preferred food of camels. The water present in these bushes fulfills their water requirement, and the salts present in these bushes help meet the physiological requirements of the animal. Rutagwenda et al. (1990) observed that irrespective of the season camels and goats spend more than 80% of total feeding time on dicotyledons. Nevertheless, sheep were intermediate between these extremes. Yagil (1990) reported that dromedary camels prefer to browse on bushes on typical grazing grounds of the arid tropics and subtropics. Schwartz (1992a, 1992b) reported that camels are very versatile feeders. They graze on a broad spectrum of fodder plants, including thorny species, halophytes, and aromatic species. Other livestock generally avoid such plants. Camels, however, extend their grazing area to the fringes of the great deserts and in dune country, where they feed on coarse perennial grasses and dwarf shrubs. Such shrubs usually have a coarse texture and hairy leaves that are not liked by other livestock. Camels mainly harvest leaves, flowers, and fruits. During the dry season, they feed on the tips of the twigs and branches. Camels have been seen debarking trees during the long dry season. Elmi et al. (1993) reported that the physical defense structure or leaf size does not affect the consumption of plant species and dimensions of the bite of an animal. Iqbal (1999) was of the view that during more humid and rainy days, camels deviate from their normal behavior and prefer to eat Alhaji came/Drum irrespective of their age. This change in the eating behavior of the animal is probably due to the small, soft scales of this plant, which enhance the acceptability of this plant to the animal (Figure 4.2).

FIGURE 4.2  Grazing and browsing camels. Source: researchgate.net

Camel Feed and Nutritional Requirements—Introduction

79

BROWSING OF CAMELS Preferred Feeding Time There is no specific time for browsing or grazing for camels. Rather, they can browse and graze on natural range at any time of the day or night. During very hot weather, they avoid feeding. However, they try to take positions that can reduce heat exposure. In doing this, they try to conserve energy (Acland, 1932; Qureshi, 1986; Figure 4.3).

Effect of Season Field (1979) indicated that double-humped camels prefer annual and ephemeral plants during the summer season. When these plants dry off or disappear, then shrubs and legumes begin to dominate

FIGURE 4.3  Camels browsing on trees. Source: fao.org

80

Biology and Breeding of Camels

their diet. Wei (1979) reported that double-humped camels spend their time by roaming and grazing in natural and semi-wild conditions. They practice this all year round and take in coarse, thorny plants and those with unfavorable flavors. Dromedary camels, however, prefer browsing on plants of great nutritional value in their natural habitat (arid zones). Dromedary camels least prefer browsing and/or grazing on grasses and herbs that have very short growing seasons (Mukasa-Mugerwa, 1981). Elmi et al. (1992) observed that the number of plants available to camels during the dry season are equal to that available during the wet season. Schwartz et al. (1983) reported that during drought years and the dry season, camels only rely on deep-rooted trees and large evergreen bushes. Abdullahi et al. (1985, 1986) and Nasser et al. (1986) indicated that during the early wet season, camels consume forbs (52%), then grasses (26%), and finally shrubs (22%). However, shrubs were the dominant diet of the camel at the start of spring. They further detailed that shrubs were the dominant diet of camels throughout the year, although camels ate forbs and grasses during the winter. Baimukanov (1989) found that usually llamas, two-humped camels, preferred and depended on shrubs, subshrubs, various species of legumes, and halophytes. These plant varieties are normally considered drought-resistant plants. Camels carefully pluck the soft and the most nutritious part of the plant and ingest it. Coppock et al. (1986b) opined that the fiber–to–crude protein ratio in camels was unaffected by season.

Nutritive Value Leese (1927) was of the view that one third of the total camel feed must consist of saltbush. Saltbushes are normally high in protein, low in cellulose, and usually green in summer, with succulent leaves. When salty plants are combined with dry grass, it becomes a well-balanced diet. They provide carbohydrates, as well as other nutrients, to camels in sufficient quantities. Leitch (1940) observed that dromedary camels feed on mineral-rich plant species; hence, they seldom suffer from mineral-deficiency diseases. Cook and Harris (1968) further emphasized that the shrubs and trees that camel browses during the dry season are normally high in protein, calcium, phosphorus, and lignin. Generally speaking, the feeding behavior of camels, their ability to conserve water, and their tolerance to high salt contents make them the best ruminants for arid and many semiarid areas (McDowell, 1986). Some authors state that camels are the most economical and efficient animals in the arid and semiarid range lands of tropical and subtropical areas of Pakistan (Mohammad, 1989). During rainy season, however, camels prefer salty sour plants and shrubs. Sheep and goats cannot graze on such plants, which are favored by camels. Nonetheless, during certain seasons, grasses can be good energy sources for camels because of their high contents of crude fiber. Nutritionally, herbs come between browsing plants and grasses. Therefore, the nutritive value of a diet is directly affected by the food plants camels select. It has also been observed that intentionally or unintentionally, camels select those parts of the plant that have high nutritive values (Wardeh, 1990a, 1990b and Wardeh & Farid, 1990). Wardeh et al. (1990) selected 160 plants from Africa and the Asian region that camels prefer to eat. To determine the plants’ nutritive values, they sorted the samples into four groups and grouped them into trees, shrubs, grasses, and forbs. After analysis, protein values came out as 14.89 ± 5.44, 11.88 ± 4.97, 8.54 ± 4.90, and 12.39 ± 5.80% and crude fiber as 21.95 ± 12.11, 29.79 ± 12.46, 33.87 ± 6.18, and 25.71 ± 10.89%, respectively. Ash contents from these samples came out as 9.85 ± 7.66, 12.78 ± 7.40, 11.02 ± 5.02, and 15.80 ± 8.94% in all four groups, respectively. Williamson and Payne (1990) found out that camels always preferred and fed on those plants that contained higher levels of moisture and salt. It has been commonly observed that camels and goats intentionally or unintentionally select a diet that contains a higher protein content. This has been rarely observed in other animal species (Rutagwenda et al., 1990). Other researchers have mentioned that camels select highly digestible feed. That feed richly contained easily fermentable carbohydrates and a high water content (Yagil, 1990). When various researchers analyzed farm animals, they reported that the most preferred forages has highest fiber and lignin content at the end of the dry season. Plants, however, showed the highest percentages of

Camel Feed and Nutritional Requirements—Introduction

81

protein at the start of dry season. Some authors report that cattle select low-quality diets for grazing. This drawback may be the result of their grazing habits (Schwartz, 1992c). Quraishi et al. (1993) contradicted some earlier reports and claimed that camels always prefer to browse on higher plants. Goats, however, heavily depend on tree leaf fall, pod fall, and ground herbage. However, Abdullah et al. (1986) determined the dietary overlap of about 24–43% between camels and goats. Anonymous (1993) reported that like other ruminants, camels prefer to eat the freshest vegetables available near and around their habitat. They always try to get near salty lakes where they can find their preferred plants with a high electrolyte content and the required moisture for meeting their water requirements. Williams (1996) gave a slightly different statement as mentioned earlier. He was of the view that camels first select the freshest vegetation to eat but always mix both dry and fresh feed intake. It has been observed that during eating, they always prefer fresh plants with high moisture and higher mineral contents. Nonetheless, when they move to vegetation, they prefer leaves of trees and shrubs and herbs/forbs over grass. Some other workers have reported that camels do not restrict to single vegetation but make a blend of several to optimize their nutrition (Khan, 1996; Ranjhan, 1997). Some researchers have reported that camels preferred Acacia modesta during feeding due to high protein (Iqbal, 1999). The same researchers have further stated that the high protein content of this plant seems sufficient for meeting the protein requirement of camels. Accordingly, there is a decrease in the intake of plants such as Alhaji came/orum and Olea ferruginea. The findings of these authors seem logical and serve as a confirmatory test for this previously put-forward phenomenon (Del-Curto et al., 1990; Van Soest, 1994; EI-Banna, 1995). These authors have opined that if the ratio of dry matter intake increases in the diet of ruminants, there is a proportionate increase in the protein intake of these animals.

Browsing/Grazing, Rumination, and Resting Duration All the researchers agree that camels should be allowed to graze at least for 6 hr per day (Tripathi, 1987). Some authors in Tunisia let female sucklings graze (Khorchani et al., 1992) on arid ranges for 600 min/day. Generally, they graze for 464 min (77.3%) and rest for 135 min (22.5%) when released free in the pasture. Considering rumination, dromedaries in India and Kenya spent about 25% of a 24-hr period (Sambraus, 1994a) for rumination. Further explorations along this line found 4–7 a.m. as a rumination time. Sambraus (1994b) also observed the resting time of these dromedaries, and he found out that they observe rest while lying on the ground almost exclusively in Kenya which different from those in India which they prefer at night. Researchers found that in both herds that were observed in India and Kenya, females spent almost half of the 24-hr timeframe lying down, which was different from males. The 24-hr activity timeframe in the Thai area (Punjab, Pakistan) camels was distributed (Khan et al., 1998), with the following distribution pattern: 37.41%, 31.70%, 26.52%, and 4.37% for grazing, rumination, idling, and resting/sleeping, respectively. Then on the comparative basis, the feeding patterns of adult females, young stock, and sucklings were observed (Iqbal, 1999). It was found that adult females spent a maximum time in browsing/grazing followed by young stock and sucklers. On the basis of 7-hr duration, the actual feeding time varied from 60.80% to 68.04% among the three groups. They spent 8% of the time ruminating while they stood idle from 2.40–3.10% of the time. The previous observations do not agree with this information.

Defecation and Urination Camels daily produce 20 kg of feces and 4 liters of urine (Haq & Masood, 1966). This quantity is half in young stock than adults as mentioned earlier. Defecation from camels is always in compact balls, making its collection and handling quite feasible (Chapman, 1985) in contrast to other ruminants, which are always cumbersome and problematic. Camels frequently rather can be said primarily after rising (Dioli et al., 1992). Depending on the hydration and dehydration of the animal, daily urine production ranges

82

Biology and Breeding of Camels

from 0.5 to 5.0 liters. During the day and night frequency of defecation and urination observed (Khan et al., 1998) is usually 5.7 ± 2.0 and 3.0 ± 1.2 and 5.7 ± 1.9 and 4.3 ± 1.5, respectively. Animal defecation frequency (Iqbal, 1999) is maximum in young stock (6.2). Then comes adults (5.7), and the minimum is in sucklers (4.6). The maximum urination frequency (10.8) was observed in young stock. Next came the sucklers (6.9) and the adults the minimum (5.2). It has further been observed that at all stages, camels defecate and urinate during feeding and moving irrespective of the age of the animal. The urination and defecating behavior little differ in pregnant females because they defecate and urinate simultaneously.

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT OF CAMELS AND OTHER RUMINANTS Mouth and Upper Throat Camels have spilt and prehensile upper lips. This modification helps camels selectively collect and grasp hanging plant parts (Figure 4.4). Camels have bigger lower lips that hang like a pendulum. The upper dental pad is quite hard for grinding various plants and their parts. This hard structure is just like that of a horn in texture and functioning. The internal membrane of the inner cheek is pointed backward and covered with papillae. The hard palate is comparatively long. The soft palate, also called a “dulla”, can be extended. The rutting male protrudes the dulla from its mouth. Although the camel’s tongue is small, it is very mobile, and along each side, there are five to seven papillae of large diameter. Its rumination is different from other ruminants. Its teeth are demarcated in such a way that it has incisors in the upper jaw. Both lower and upper jaws in camels contain canine teeth (tushes). This arrangement of teeth is not found in true ruminants. The salivary glands of camel and other ruminants are quite similar.

Pharynx and Esophagus Like in other ruminants, the camel’s pharynx is a long and narrow tube, which is divided it into two components and or/chambers. The esophagus is 1–2 m long on average, with a large capacity to hold food for a transitory period. Glands present in the esophagus secrete water solutions to moisturize the food.

Stomach The stomach of a camel differs from ruminates in that it has three distinct chambers. Anatomically, it is hard to differentiate the third chamber from the fourth chamber of the stomach. Although the same terminology is used for camels as for ruminants in naming the different parts of the stomach, the level of similarity and whether different parts of the stomach perform homologous functions are not clear. The sac-like area with a gland-like structure in it, consisting of several built-in components that are separated by distinct fold-like structures of mucosa, is sometimes considered to be used for water storage for the camel. Covered with columnar epithelium, the mucosa has up to 100 million short tubular glands. The reticulum and the omasum have also similar areas. The glands present in these areas help in absorption and fermentation as well as secretion of enzymes. This type of mucosa is not present in true ruminants. The rumen present in camels has quite a similar function as it performs in true ruminants. Rumen present in camels and/or present in ruminants is 11–15% of the total body weight of an animal (Figure 4.5). Unlike in ruminants in tylopods, the esophagus attaches directly with the rumen, and its contents accordingly enters in the rumen while the case differs in ruminants, where the esophagus joins the stomach between the rumen and the reticulum. The combined form of the rumen–reticulum has a honeycomb-like appearance while it differs in tylopods, where it appears like a glandular sac. In tylopods, there is no sharp division between the omasum and the abomasum. Hence, camels can be

Camel Feed and Nutritional Requirements—Introduction

FIGURE 4.4  Mouth and throat anatomy of the camel. Source: pinterest.com

83

84

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 4.5  Digestive system of a camel. Source: slideshare.net

considered two-chambered, where the forestomach is the reticulo-rumen while the tubular stomach is the remaining part (Von Engelhardt et al., 2006). Tubular stomach has a very small terminal part that is one fifth of the total size in llamas. This terminal part is devoid of ridges or ridge-like structures. Nonetheless, one ridge-like structure was found in fetus.

Intestines In an adult one-humped camel, the small intestine is 40 m long. The liver opens into the looped duodenum while the duodenum receives a common duct from the pancreas. Camels have a large jejunum (which has a chain of mesenteric lymph nodes along its entire surface) that occupies a major part of the abdomen. The lymph nodes present in the ilium are closely attached to the large intestine. The large intestine is about 20 m long in dromedary camels with a blind caecum attached to the mesentery. The colon is 4 m long, with a large diameter. It occupies space on the left side of the abdomen located in a large mesenteric fold. Where the colon narrows, maximum water is absorbed during the course of its movement. The lymph supply is highly concentrated at the start. It means that the colon is converted into the rectum at the entry of the intestine and close to the terminal part.

Liver, Pancreas, and Spleen In camels, there are several tissues between the lobes, and there is no gall bladder. The bile duct and pancreatic ducts are common and accordingly enter the duodenum. The spleen is not attached to the diaphragm and is located high to the left side of the rumen. The peritoneum is present in camels and is very similar to that in cattle (Figures 4.6 and 4.7).

Camel Feed and Nutritional Requirements—Introduction

FIGURE 4.6  Liver of a one-humped camel. Source: docplayer.com

85

86

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 4.7  Digestive anatomy of a cow. Source: Pinterest

Nutritional Physiology The metabolism of nitrogen, glucose, fatty acids, and ketone bodies significantly differs from the true ruminants. However, it is interesting to note that ratio of volatile fatty acids in the forestomachs of both camels and ruminants are the same (Maloiy, 1972). A similar ratio of volatile fatty acids in the forestomachs shows no prominent differences in the metabolic processes in stomachs of true ruminants and camels. Similarly, there are differences in the motility of the stomachs between camels and those present in ruminants. The digested material is retained in the stomachs of camels for about 20% less time than that of those retained in zebu steers. This longer retention might be due to the variations in the speed of contractions from that of true ruminants. Moreover, the ruminant cycle is shorter in true ruminants when compared with camels (Valleras & Stevens, 1971). In llamas, there is sound contraction, and the duration of motility follows a single rapid contraction in the second compartment. Following these contractions, there are continuous contractions in both the first and second compartments. During the resting period of llamas, the contractual cycle is just under 1.5 minutes. Nevertheless, during feeding, the contractual cycle is quite bigger. On the second compartment filling with food, there is considerable a decrease in the number of contractions per cycle. This filling of the stomach with food also increases the speed of cycling. The food is moved around the first compartment by strong contractions in an anticlockwise direction. For maximum absorption, the fluid present in food is pressed out in the form of dry contents into the glandular sac. Simultaneous contractions, however, occur along the entire length of the third compartment later on (Ehrlein & von Engelhardt, 1971). The speed of the contractions in the forepart of this compartment is about 10 per minute. However, comparatively, they are weak, but they become stronger when they move far back behind. The food contents present in an alimentary canal move from forestomach to the tubular part of the stomach when a quite a strong contraction occurs in the second compartment, which results in an expansion of the canal.

Camel Feed and Nutritional Requirements—Introduction

87

Movement of the food contents in the alimentary canal is quite similar to that observed in true ruminants. At the completion of each contraction in llamas, the food contents present in an alimentary canal moves at 850 ml per hour (Von Engelhardt et al., 1979). In llamas, fluids are retained for about 15.3 hr. The retention of small particles (smaller than 20 mm in length) lasts for about 29.3 hr. This retention time is quite comparable with one-hump camels, which is 46.0 hr for small particles. In contrast to these timings, larger particles in llamas can stay up to 40 hr in an alimentary tract. When the upper part of the rumen contracts, maximum regurgitation of the food bolus occurs. The frequency of this contraction can be three to four times per cycle. Although variations have been observed in the frequency of contraction cycles, the volume of turnover is similar to those of other cattle. Short-chain fatty acids are quite in higher amounts, fermentation rates are also quite higher, while the pH observed in camels is quite similar to that observed in cattle. It can be perceived that structural and morphological differences in stomachs of camel and ruminants rarely influence the fermentation rate. Protozoan fauna in the rumen of camels is different from that of sheep. Entrodinum sp., for example, is about 75% of all protozoa in both sheep and camels. During full dehydration, this species drops to 68.4% in sheep; however, this species increases up to 83.8% in camels under similar conditions. The remaining fauna in camel is Epidinium, Metadinium, and Eudiplodinium. In sheep, instead of these protozoans, Diplodinium is present. Fatty acids and sodium chloride are absorbed in the forestomach of camels. The absorption rate of these nutrients is three times faster in goats and sheep. When we move further back, the absorption of solutes and water increases at an accelerated pace. Forestomach takes up about 60% sodium, 70% fatty acids, and 30% water. With the increase in the chlorine level in the hind stomach, there is a proportionate increase in the concentration of acids. Although camels require few proteins and thrive successfully without any problem, nonetheless, they can ingest and successfully digest high-nitrogen materials through efficient urea cycling mechanisms. When camels are under stress, the recycling rate increases. Accordingly, pregnant camels excrete very little urea with their urine (Schimdt-Nielsen, 1959). With the reduction in the dietary protein from 13.6% to 6.1%, the recycling efficiency in camels increases from 47% to 86%. In llamas, this recycling rate can go up to 95% when a high-energy, low-protein diet was given to them. When the same energy rations were provided to llamas, they were able to use 78% of the nitrogen for metabolism from the recycled urea. The provision of lower levels of protein in the feed, however, dropped the utilization of nitrogen by up to 10%. The concentration of urea in the blood does not affect the amount of urea returned to the alimentary canal. The permeability of the stomach lining to urea changes with the type of food provided. Nonetheless, the forward part of the stomach is the major site of recycled urea absorption. Volatile fatty acids and carbon dioxide both affect the permeability of an alimentary canal. Higher concentrations increase the rate of permeability; further to this, butyric acid has a greater effect on this mechanism than is exerted by acetic acid or propionic acid. Generally, camels can more efficiently digest dry matter, fiber, cellulose, and crude protein than other ruminants and domestic nonruminants (Hinz et al., 1973). This increased efficiency may be the result of frequent recycling of the stomach contents.

MECHANISM OF RESERVE MOBILIZATION IN CAMELS Camels can go for weeks without drinking water, which is especially important when they travel across arid environments. This habit of camels earns them the nickname “ships of the  desert”. Camels have humps, which is unique to camels. Some people believe that they store water in this hump for later use. Nonetheless, actually, a camel’s hump stores fatty tissue, not water, which is used as a source of nourishment when food is scarce or not available (Figure 4.8). So unlike other mammals, which have fats spread in the whole body, why do camels store fat in these humps? Camels typically live in the desert, where either food sources are scarce or hard to get. When food is not available to camels for longer periods, they mobilize the fats in their humps to meet their nutritional requirements (Figure 4.9). Deflating and drooping of the hump are quite

88

FIGURE 4.8  Why camels have humps. Source: Mocomi kids

FIGURE 4.9  Camel hump. Source: Vedantu

Biology and Breeding of Camels

Camel Feed and Nutritional Requirements—Introduction

89

common if a camel cannot get food for a long period. Nonetheless, they will sit upright again when the camel refuels its hump. In addition to being a source of food, the hump also regulates camels’ body temperature in the desert, which is very high during the day and very low during the nights. By concentrating fatty tissue in humps on their backs, camels can minimize heat insulation throughout the rest of their body when body temperature rises during the day. Then, at night, the extra heat dissipates through the rest of the camel’s body. In this way, they maintain their temperature, which does not fall too low when the temperature is cooler. Despite not storing water in their humps, camels can still perform incredibly well with the amount of water they use per day. This efficiency in utilizing water helps them go nearly a week without drinking. This ability can be attributed to the unique shape of their blood cells, which are oval. Oval-shaped blood cells allow camels to consume large amounts of water (up to 30 gallons in one sitting!) since the cells are more elastic and can change shape more easily. This peculiar shape of the red blood cells allows their blood to flow more easily when water is scarce. Hence, their red blood cells help retain water for hostile future conditions. This phenomenon works very successfully in the desert.

Nutritional Needs of Animals The nutritional needs of an animal depend on the stage of the animal and its health status. The nutrient requirements of an animal vary with each stage of its development, whether an animal has conceived a young one, is in gestation, is lactation at maintenance, or whether developing and growing. Its nutritional needs also vary whether an animal is healthy or sick. During the course of different life stages, maintenance nutrient requirements are the lowest and must be provided first. Additional requirements of the nutrients come next. The provision of maintenance nutrient requirements helps the animal maintain its vital life processes and normal body temperature. At this level, the animal does not gain any weight or get fattened with no production. After maintenance requirements, the quantitative feed requirement of an animal depends on the size of its body (Wilson, 1989). During conception and gestation, animals demand additional feed to ensure proper fetal growth and maintenance of the mother’s health and well-being. A major part of the growth of an animal is completed in the last trimester, the time when the mother requires additional nutrients for the required growth of the fetus and its own health. At pregnancy, the female needs additional nutrients for the fetus as well for itself. So the total nutrient requirement during pregnancy is equal to the requirement of the fetus after birth and the maintenance ration for the female after parturition.

Specific Nutrient Requirements during Lactation and Milk Production Animals need additional nutrients like proteins, minerals, vitamins, fats, and carbohydrates to produce milk to nourish their young one. Among all of them, the protein component is more important because milk contains 3% of the total milk constituents. Fats and carbohydrates provide energy for lactation while water serves as the medium for a series of reactions required to produce milk. During location, among all the various minerals required, calcium and phosphorus are the most important. During lactation, the mother essentially needs vitamin A and B-complex vitamins. For those animals that live indoors, vitamin D may also be needed. During this growth and development phase, the animal also needs additional and special nutrients. With the gradual development process, the animal increases the number of cells and builds muscles and bones with the production of connective tissues. This growth phase requires an increased quantity of protein. However, calcium and phosphorus are required for bone growth and health. The presence of vitamin D regulates the proper mobilization and absorption of calcium and phosphorus. Additional fats and carbohydrates are provided to meet the increasing demands of energy for maintenance of an animal. During growth, if additional nutrient requirements are not fulfilled, the animal will either decrease productive potential or not produce at all. Nutrients help the animal

90

Biology and Breeding of Camels

maintain its health and well-being in all its life stages and carry out vital body functions. At the maintenance stage, the animal does not gain much weight, but it will not be so healthy. Nevertheless, animals need proper health to maintain their productive potential.

The Food of Camels Old World camels collect most of their natural food from browsing on plants that belong to family Chenopodiaceae and similar families. In camelids, dromedary camels get 90% of their natural food exclusively from browsing totally under semi-natural conditions. The interesting feature is that camels do not compete with other ruminants in browsing or the height where they have access to browsing. Camels take food that is watery in nature and high in electrolytes and oxalates. Acacia, Balanites, Salsola, and Tamarix are the major and normal constituents of camel food in the wild (Owen-Smith & Novellie, 1981). When camels are released in an open environment, they become very active. Accordingly, they can consume a wide variety of plants and their parts. Then they are able to exploit a wide variety of plants and plant parts. Camels need 4% dry matter of their total body weight, and to achieve this weight, they have to browse for at least 15 or more hr per day. A mature 650-kg dromedary camel then needs 25 kg of dry matter, and when foods are high in moisture content, the total intake inclusive of water content can reach up to 100 kg. This target is not difficult to achieve for camels if limit their movement near the grazing area. Camels overcome this problem by eating too much for their immediate requirements and storing the remaining in their hump for future needs. Camels require minerals, and they fulfill their need by eating salty bushes; if they are not available, then they meet this requirement by collecting such materials at various times of the year. Minerals are essentially required by camels, and if they are not available to the camel, it may result in a variety of diseases. The most important of them is the calcium/phosphorus ratio. A metabolic problem related to this imbalance observed in North Africa is called “krafft” (Durand & Kchouk, 1958).

Water Dromedary camels can efficiently store the required volume of water due to their anatomical, physiological, and behavioral adaptations. When camels are under stress, their water-storing capacity is considerably decreased. The storage of body water is related to the daytime temperature, which increases body temperature up to 7 °C. Under such conditions, camels do not sweat or lose water but dissipate the heat in the cooler night temperatures. Due to this adaptation, camels can go not only for days but even months without water. The water requirements of camel despite its body size are similar to that of other animals. Dehydration is not a problem in camels. They can compensate for dehydration very quickly. They can fulfill 91% of their total water requirement in a very limited period.

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF DROMEDARY CAMELS Microbes digest the food that camels take in. The final metabolic products produced from camels’ digestion are similar to those observed in ruminants. There is, however, considerable variation in the composition of their diet with season and site of food. Salty plants have a high level of water in them that is almost constant. These plants are therefore preferred because these plants can ensure that a good portion of the water requirements of animals is easily met when water is a limiting factor for animals. Fresh green leaves and twigs of trees and shrubs contain up to 80% water (GauthierPilters & Dagg, 1981). Camels can meet up to 40–50% of their water requirement from these plants. This water content makes them able to survive from a few days to several weeks without drinking (Macfarlane, 1964).

Camel Feed and Nutritional Requirements—Introduction

91

Protein Requirements of Camel Camels get 8.54–14.89% of their total protein requirements from plant species (Wardeh et al., 1991). As this is quite a sufficient percentage of protein for fulfilling camels’ dietary requirements, they can successfully perform their physiological functions (Wardeh, 1990a; Wardeh  & Farid, 1990). Similarly, if camels also take crude fiber, nitrogen-free extracts, and ether extracts, which are actually energy-releasing entities, in sufficient quantities, these items can ensure the maintenance of the camel as well as its certain production requirements (Wardeh, 1990a, 1990b). Proper management of camels helps them consume and utilize all the available feed very efficiently. It is common for camels to not browse only on one plant; rather, they prefer to move continuously, taking bite by bite from plant to plant (Wilson, 1984). When they browse, they always consider watering points and try to move along these points. Nonetheless, they do not hang around like cattle and sheep. All this management reshuffles when the number of camels increases in certain areas of their habitat (Wardeh, 1989).

Dry Matter When kept under natural conditions, the dromedary camel grazes daily for 6–12 hr. Camels can take from 5–55 kg of plant matter per day; however, it varies with the availability of food and the season of the year (Gauthier-Pilters, 1979; Gauthier-Pilters  & Dagg, 1981; Wardeh, 1989). Dry matter is only 1.2–12 kg/day out of the total food taken in. This dry matter is, however, only 2.45% of the body weight of a 500-kg camel (Wardeh, 1989; Wardeh & Farid, 1990). When the camels were given fibrous diets at the maintenance level, they took in concentrated components and rejected the coarse materials. The energy value of the material taken in was 8.37 MJ ME/kg DM. At the maintenance level, those camels that received berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum) hay and barley straw consumed 32.4 g/kg 0.75 or about 0.68% of their live body weight. At this ration, they did not gain any weight during the course of their growth period but rather lost weight. However, when young ones (326.6 kg) were fed at the maintenance level, they consumed only 1.33% DM (3.35 kg/head/day) of their body weight. The possible reason of slow growth in northeastern Saudi Arabia might be the high environmental temperature. The amount of dry matter consumption was higher in lactating camels (9.3 kg/ head/day) than in dry ones (6.7 kg/head/day). Dry camels showed a decrease in feeding intake, which was only 5.9 kg/head/day, in Saudi Arabia (Basmail, 1989). As previously mentioned, rations of alfalfa hay, straw, and concentrate are normally fed to all groups of camels irrespective of their nature, whether dry or lactating. Narrowing down this, it can be concluded that dromedary camels require a daily dry matter amount of 2.5% of the body weight with 10.88 MJ ME/kg DM. This ME value of this ration should not be less than 8.39 Mj/kg DM irrespective of the nature of the ration, time of the year, and nature of the prevailing season of the year.

Energy When 579-kg nouks (dromedary females) were offered maintenance cattle rations, they obtained 467.0 KJ ME/kg and grew 200 g/d (Farid, 1995). In the east of the Mediterranean, under range conditions, a slightly higher ration (488.4 MJ ME/kg 0.75) was provided, and the intake values were also higher (Wardeh, 1989). Kearl (1982), however, has reported that in a hot climate, the average value was 493.7 KJ for cattle. When higher values were excluded, then the average value became 468.5 KJ ME/ kg 0.75. Growing young camels obtained 8.98 Kcal/h/d, of which 3.88 Kcal ME (43.2%) came from straw with 2.06 Mcal/Kg DM (Al-Motairy, 1991) of ME in the ration. At these energy values, the animals, however, grew at a very slow pace. These values obtained are quite close to those of reported by Wardeh (1990a) and are very close to those reported by Wilson (1984) with not much difference.

92

Biology and Breeding of Camels

Protein During pregnancy in cattle, the ratio of digestible protein to metabolizable energy remains constant. In hot climates, this ratio, however, was 21–28 g DP/4.18 MJ ME (Kearl, 1982). To estimate the protein requirements of the pregnant female camels an average value of 26 g DP/4.18 MJ ME was utilized. When camels in the east of the Mediterranean obtained 2.73 g DP/ kg 0.75 from natural rangelands (Wardeh, 1989) and 2.60 g DP/ kg 0.75 in confinement in Egypt (Farid, 1995), they grow at quite a low rate, showing positive nitrogen balance. Kearl (1982) and Ranjhan (1980), however, reported higher figures for cattle in hot climates (2.86 and 2.84 g DP/kg 0.75, respectively). Al-Mutairi et al. (2010) has further observed in Saudi Arabia that an amount of 443.4 g CP/h/d (236.9 g DP; 3.02 DP/ kg 0.75) was enough for slightly above maintenance requirements for growing camels. It was further observed that during the last trimester of pregnancy, the energy requirements of pregnant nouks increase faster. A similar energy regime has been observed in the case of cattle and sheep. It is further added that 50% in addition to exiting energy requirements was added to the pregnant female camels from the start to the 11th month of the delivery while 20% extra was added to the energy requirements for maintenance during the ninth and tenth months in Saudi Arabia (Basmail, 1989).

LACTATING ANIMALS HAVE DIFFERENT NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS Energy Camel milk is composed of 13.0–13.4% total solids, 4.15–4.33% fats, 3.4–4% proteins, 4.2–4.5% lactose, and 0.7–0.8% ash (Zibaee et al., 2015). The production of 1 kg of milk, which contains 4.2% protein, will contain 5.02 MJ ME, 55.0 g DP, 2.7 g Ca, and 2.09 P (Zibaee et al., 2015). During lactation, the energy requirements increase by about 12% for lactating farm animals. Hence, the metabolizable energy for a lactating naga (a female camel) that produces 5 kg of milk daily is 487.4 KJ. Zibaee et al. (2015) have further suggested adding an extra 20% ME of the requirements for the maintenance of the growing lactating nouks during their first lactation and 10% during their second one (Figure 4.10).

FIGURE 4.10  Lactating female camel. Source: Emirates247.com

Camel Feed and Nutritional Requirements—Introduction

93

Protein During lactation, there is no change in maintenance protein requirement in farm animals. A value of 55 g DP/kg of milk was used as a basis for determining the protein requirements for lactating nouks. Nevertheless, Wardeh (1989) further reported that 20% was added to the maintenance requirements of the growing lactating nouks during their first lactation and 10% during their second one.

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS DIFFER FOR GROWTH Energy For a daily growth of 200–220 g of 570-kg camels, 48.1–50.2 KJ/g of energy is required (Farid, 1995). When the daily growth of camels was 185–200 g under natural range conditions east of the Mediterranean (Zibaee et al., 2015), similar results were obtained. The aforementioned findings are quite in close agreement with those of Al-Mutairi et al. (2010), who reported 326.6-kg camels growing at an average daily gain of 137.5 g required 8.98 Mcal/d. This value of metabolizable energy is merely 0.56 Mcal higher than that reported by Wardeh (1990a). Regarding energy requirements of cattle, Kearl (1982) and Ranjhan (1980) reported that 36.5KJ/g is required or growth of 200-kg cattle in hot climates. Nevertheless, these requirements can increase to 62.3 KJ/g for cattle weighing 500 kg. There is a direct relationship between the energy requirements and growth as well fat deposition in animals because with the rise of fat deposition, a growth increase in energy requirements has been observed.

Protein Al- Mutairi et al. (2010) reported that growing camels weighing 326.6 kg consumed 433.4 g of CP and grew at a rate of 137.5 g/h/d. Nevertheless, higher values of 882.6 g CP/h/d were reported by Farid (1995) when highly concentrated rations were offered fed to camels. Jenkins and Leymaster (1995) developed the following regression equation to predict the protein requirements according to the animal weight and its growth rate for cattle in hot climates. Due to being the only reference for predicting protein requirements, this equation even overestimates for dromedary camels. Daily requirements (g DP)  =  0.2180 growth rate (g/d) + 0.6631 body weight (kg) − 0.001142 (body weight)² (kg).

Requirements of Mineral Except for slightly higher chloride and phosphate levels (Faye & Bengoumi, 2018) reported similar mineral composition of the body fluids of the dromedary camels to other farm animals. Kuria (2005), however, assumed that the dromedary requires high quantities of sodium chloride, which might be about 6–8 times that of the other farm animals. Camels that get 30–60 g salt/d do not show normal behavior, and there is a possibility that they may show lameness, skin necrosis, and bone fracture. Peck (1938) was of the view that these symptoms disappeared when affected camels were given about 140 g salt/d. He further opined that when camels graze on salty plants such as Atriplex spp. and Salvadora spp. or drink saline water, they might obtain about 120 g salt/d, which is enough to alleviate symptoms like that, and do not develop this type of sickness. Elmi (1989) reported that the major problem encountered is the extremely low calciumto-phosphorus ratio, which was 26:1 in dry and 15:1 in wet seasons. McDowell et al. (1983) opined that these ratios are far below those generally recommended (2:1) for domestic animals and lower than those reported by Le Houérou (1980) in Capparidaceae (15:1) or in leguminous plants (5:1). Elmi (1989) and Wilson (1984) reported that camels usually chew bones and eat snail shells during the dry seasons in order to obtain part of their phosphorus requirements. Faye et al. (1992) reported copper and zinc deficiencies in camels during certain seasons in Djibouti.

94

Biology and Breeding of Camels

Requirements of Vitamins Vitamins are a group of nutrients essential for the functioning of normal body processes. For maintenance of normal health in camels, range or pasture diets should contain adequate levels of vitamins or vitamin precursors. When the range or pasture is poor or when animals are kept under restricted pen feeding, they may need vitamin supplementation. Kearl (1982) has reported that camels and true ruminants, due to microbial activity within the rumen, are able to synthesize most of the essential vitamins except vitamins A, D, E, and C. The requirement of vitamins A and D for dromedary camels are adapted from those of cattle in hot climate (Kearl, 1982).

REFERENCES Abdullahi, A. N., Hassan, N. T., Bayoumi, M. A., and Shourbagy, M. A. (1985). Forage preference of sheep, goats and camels in Mediterranean type arid region of Wadil-Azieb. In Proceedings of the International Conference. on Animal Production in Arid Zones (ICAPAZ), ICAPAZ, Damascus. Abdullah, A. N., Hassan, N. T., and Wardeh, M. F. (1986). Behaviour and forage preference of camels, goats and sheep in Syrian rangelands. Seminar on Camel Research and Development, 20–23 October, Kuwait. Acland, P. B. E. (1932). Notes on the camel in the eastern Sudan. Sudan Notes & Records, 15, 119–149 (In: The Camel by R. T. Wilson (1984), Longman, London). Al-Motairy, S. (1991). Feed Resources in Saudi Arabia and the Possibility of Feeding Urea Treated Straws to Growing Camels. M.Sc thesis, Gulf University, Bahrain. Al-Mutairi, S. E., Boujenane, I., Musaad, A. M., and Acharari, F. A. (2010). Genetic and nongenetic effects for milk yield and growth traits in Saudi camel. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 42, 1845–1853. Altaf, Z. (2000). Foreword. In Camel Breeds of Pakistan. CARDN-Pakistan/ACSA D/Came I/P9 3/2000. American Social Range Management. Range Term Glossary Committee. (1964). A Glossary of Terms Used in Range Management, 32 p. The Society, New York. Anonymous. (1993). Strategies for development. In Camel Industry Steering Committee. Alice Springs, Canberra. Arnold, G. W., and Dudzinski, M. L. (1978). Diet selection and food intake. In Ethology of Free Ranging Domestic Animals. Elsevier Publishing Co., Amsterdam. Baimukanov, A. (1989). Two-humped camels: animal Genetic Resources of the USSR. In Animal Production and Health Paper No. 65. FAO, Rome. Basmail, S. (1989). The nutrition of Arabian Camels under controlled management. In Galal, E. S. E., Aboul Ela, M. B., and Shafie, M. M. (eds.), Proceedings of the International Symposium on the Constraints and Possibilities of Ruminant Production in the Dry Subtropics: Constraints and Potentials, 5–7 November 1988 (Cairo EAAP Pub. No. 38). Cairo, Wageningen, pp. 259–261. International Livestock Center for Africa, Addis Ababa. Bell, F. R. (1959). Preference threshold for taste discrimination in goats. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research Society, 52, 125–129. Chapman, M. J. (1985). Bactrian camels. World Animal Revised, 55, 14–19. Cook, E. W., and Harris, L. E. (1968). Nutritive Value of SEASONAL ranges. Utah Agricultural Experiment Bulletin, 472. Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Fort Collins, CO. Coppock, D. L., Ellis, J. E., and Swift, D. M. (1986a). Livestock feeding ecology and resource utilization in a nomadic pastoral ecosystem. Journal of Applied Ecology, 23, 573–583. Coppock, D. L., Swift, D. M., and Ellis, L. E. (1986b). Seasonal nutritional characteristics of livestock diets in a nomadic pastoral ecosystem. Journal of Applied Ecology, 23, 585–595. Del-Curto, T., Cochran, R. E., Nagaraja, T. G., Corah, L. R., Beharka, A. A., and Vanzant, E. S. (1990). Com�parison of soybean meal/sorghum grain, alfalfa hay and dehydrated alfalfa pellets as supplemental protein sources for beef cattle consuming dormant tall grass prairie forage. The Journal of Animal Science, 68, 2901–2915. Dioli, M., Schwartz, H. J., and Stimmelmayr, R. (1992). Management and handling of camels. In The OneHumped Camel (Camelus dromedarius) in Eastern Africa: A Pictorial Guide to Diseases, Health Care and Management. Verlag Josef Margraf, Berlin. Durand, M., and Kchouk, M. (1958). Le Krafft One Ostepathie dystrophique due dromidaire. Archives de l’Institut Pasteur de Tunis, 35, 107–152.

Camel Feed and Nutritional Requirements—Introduction

95

Ehrlein, H. J., and von Engelhardt, W. (1971). Untersuchungen überdie Magenmotorik beim Lama. Zentralblatt fürVeterinärmedizin. Reihe A, 18, 181–191. El-Badawi, A. Y. (1996). The possibilities of using camels in the new reclaimed lands. In Proceedings: The First Meeting of the National Committee for Camel Research in the Arab Republic of Egypt, 16 November, Cairo. EI-Banna, H. M. (1995). Effect of dietary energy, protein and their interaction on nutrient utilization by sheep, goats and camels. Camel News Letter, 11. Elmi, A. A. (1989). Management, Foraging Behavior, Diet Composition and Forage Quality of Free-Ranging But Herded Camels in Ceeldheer District, Central Somalia. Ph.D. dissertation, Utah State University. https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/etd/6449. accessed January 4, 2018. Elmi, A. A., Thurow, T. L., and Box, T. T. (1992). Composition of camel diets in Central Somalia. Nomadic Peoples, (31), 51–63. Elmi, A. A., Thurow, T. L., and Box, T. W. (1993). Composition of camel diets in central Somalia. In The Multipurose Camel: Interdisciplinary Studies on Pastoral Production in Somalia. Uppsala. Commission on the Nomadic Peoples of the International Union of Anthopopogical and Ethnological Sciences (IUAES) with Ford Foundation. wwwnomadicpeoples.info and Berghahn Books, www.berghahnbooks.com. FAO. (2016). FAOSTAT [Website]. http://faostat.fao. org. accessed October 2016. Farid, M. F. A. (1995). Nutrient requirements of dromedary camels: Protein and energy requirements for main�tenance. Journal of Arid Environments, 30(2), 207–218. Faye, B., and Bengoumi, M. (2018). Macro-minerals and electrolytes. In Faye, B., and Bengoumi, M. (eds.), Camel Clinical Biochemistry, and Hematology, pp. 173–208. Springer, New York. Faye, B., Saint-Martin, G., Cherrier, R., and Ruffa, A. (1992). The influence of high dietary protein, energy and mineral intake on deficient young camel: Changes in mineral status. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, 102(A), 417–424. Field, C. R. (1979). Camel growth and milk production in Marsabit district, northern Kenya. In Proceedings of the Workshop on Camels, Khartoum, pp. 18–20. International Foundation for Science, Stockholm, Sweden. Garton, L. B. (2019). Trends and challenges facing higher education: Implications for agricultural education. Journal of Agricultural Education, 60(1), 1–13 https://doi.org/10.5032/jae.2019.01001 Gauthier-Pilters, H. (1979). Someecological aspects of the camel in the Eastern Sahara. In Cockrill, M. (ed.), The Camelid: An All Purpose Animal Proc. Workshop on Camels (Khartoum, Dec. 1979. The Scandinavian Institute for African Studies). The Scandinavian Institute for African Studies, Uppsala. Gauthier-Pilters, H., and Dagg, A. I. (1981). The Camel, its Evolution, Ecology, behaviour and Relationship to Man. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London (Gentsch, W.l). Gauthier-Pilters, H., and Dagg, A. (1981). The Camel: Its Evolution, Ecology, Behaviour and Relationship to Man. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Haq, I., and Masood, M. (1966). Livestock, Poultry and Their Products. West Pakistan Agricultural University, Lyallpur. Hinz, H. F., Schryver, H. F., and Halbert, M. (1973). A note on the comparison of digestion by New World Camels, sheep and ponies. Animal Production Science, 16, 303–305. Iqbal, A. (1999). Studies on Some of the Productive, Reproductive and Behavioural Aspects of Camel in Pakistan. PhD thesis, University Agricultural, Faisalabad. Jenkins, T. G., and Leymaster, M. D. (1995). Development and evaluation of regression equation of predic� tion of fat free soft tissue in heterogeneous population of cattle. Journal of Animal Science, 73(12), 3627–3632. Kearl, L. C. (1982). Nutrient Requirements of Ruminants in Developing Countries. Utah State University, Logan. Khan, B. B., Lateef, M., Bilal, M. Q., Iqbal, A., and Raza, H. (1998). A study on some of the activity patterns of Camelus dromedarius maintained in Thai area of the Punjab, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 33, 69–72. Khan, M. A. (1996). Camel herding in Cholistan. In Proceedings of the Workshop on the Status of Camel Production and Research in Pakistan, Islamabad. Austrian Academy of Sciences Press, Wien. Khorchani, T., Abdouli, H., Nefzaoui, A., Neffati, M., and Hamadi, M. (1992). Nutrition of one-humped camel. 11. Intake and feeding behaviour in arid ranges in southern Tunisia. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 39, 303–311. Kuria, S. G. (2005). Mineral Nutrition on Settlement (Manyatta) Based Milk Camel Herds Among the Rendille Community of Northern Kenyia, 196p. Ph.D. dissertation University of Nairobi, Kenyia.

96

Biology and Breeding of Camels

Leese, A. S. (1927). A Treatise on the One-Humped Camel in Health and Disease, p. 382. Haynes and Son, Stanford (Lincs). Le Houérou, H. N. (1980). Indigenous Shrubs and Trees in the Silvopastoral Systems of Africa, World Agroforestry Center, Nairobi. Leitch, I. (1940). The feeding of camels. In Imperial Bureau of Animal Nutrition, Rowett Institute (Aberdeen), Technical Communication No. 13. Feedipedia—Animal Feed Resources Information System—INRAE CIRAD AFZ and FAO © 2012–2022. https://www.feedipedia.org Macfarlane, W. V. (1964). Terrestrial animals in dry heat; ungulates. In Dill Handbook of Physiology (Section 4), pp. 509–539. American Physiological Society, Washington, DC. Maloiy, G. M. O. (1972). Comparative studies on digestion and fermentataion rate in the free-stomach of the one humped camel and zebu steer. Research in Veterinary Science, 13, 476–481. McDowell, L. R., Conrad, J. H., and Ellis, G. L. (1983). Mineral deficiencies imbalances and their diagnosis. In Mackie, R. I. (ed.), Symposium on Herbivore Nutrition Tropics—Problems and Prospects, pp. 67–88. Pretoria, South Africa. https://agris.fao.org McDowell, R. E. (1986). Feed source: Animal interactions as production determinants. Farm Animals, I, 1–8. Meredov, B. (1989). One-humped camels. In Animal Genetic Resources of the USSR. Animal Production Health Paper, 65, pp. 351–355. FAO, Rome. Mohammad, N. (1989). Rangeland Management in Pakistan. ICIMOD, Kathmandu. Mukasa-Mugerwa, E. (1981). The Camel (Camelus dromedarius): A bibliographical review. In International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA). ILRI Publications [423], Addis Ababa. Nasser, A. N., Hassan, N. I., and Wardeh, M. F. (1986). Behaviour and Forage Preference of Camels, Goats and Sheep on Syrian Range Lands (ACSAD/AS/P64/1986). ACSAD, Damascus. Newman, D. M. R. (1975). The camel-its potential as a provider of protein in Arid Australia. In Proceedings of the III World Conference on Animal Production, Melbourne, Australia, 1973. Sydney University Press, Sydney. Owen-Smith, R. N., and Novellie, P. (1981). What should a clever ungulate eat? American Nature, 19, 151–178. Pagot, I. (1992). Animal Production in the Tropics. The Macmillan Press Ltd., London. Peck, E. F. (1938). The relationship of salt starvation to contagious necrosis and lameness in camels. Veterinary Record, 14(50), 409–410. Pirzada, W. H., Khan, R. N., and Ghaffar, A. (1989). Camel-an animal resource of islamic world. S&T in the Islamic World, 7(2), 67–80. Quraishi, M. A. A., Khan, G. S., and Yaqoob, M. S. (1993). Range Management in Pakistan. A-One Publishers, Lahore. Qureshi, M. H. (1986). The camel. In A Paper Presented at FAO Seminar on Camel Production and Health, pp. 20–23. Agriculture Operations Division, FAO, Kuwait. Ranjhan, S. K. (1980). Animal Nutrition in Tropics (1st ed.). Vikas Publishing House (Pvt.) Ltd., New Delhi. Ranjhan, S. K. (1997). Animal Nutrition and Feeding Practices. Vikas Publishing House (Pvt.) Ltd., New Delhi. Rutagwenda, T., Lechner-Doll, M., Schwartz, H. W., Schultka, W., and von Engelhart, W. (1990). Dietary pref� erence and degradability of forage on a semiarid thorn-bush savannah by indigenous ruminants, camels, and donkeys. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 31, 179–192. Sambraus, H. H. (1994a). Qauntitative data on dromedary rumination. Archives Animal Breeding, 37(6), 659–664. Sambraus, H. H. (1994b). Lying down behaviour and its diurnal distribution in dromedaries. Animal Breeding and Genetics, 111(5–6), 563–471. Schimdt-Nielsen, K. (1959). The physiology of the camel. Scientific American, 200, 75–282. Schwartz, H. J. (1992a). Productive performance and productivity of dromedaries (Came/us dromedarius). Animal Research and Development, 35, 86–98. Schwartz, H. J. (1992b). The biology of the camel. In The One Humped Camel in Eastern Africa: A Pictorial Guide to Diseases, Health Care and Management. Verlag Josef Margraf, Berlin. Schwartz, H. J. (1992c). Common range forage species preferred by camels and their nutritive value. In The One-Humped Camel in Eastern Africa: A Pictorial Guide to Diseases, Health Care and Management. Verlag Josef Margraf, Berlin. Schwartz, H. J., Wilson, A. J., and Folan, R. B. D. (1983). Camel production in Kenya and its constraints: Pro�ductivity. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 15, 169–178. Tripathi, V. N. (1987). Milk of other anaimals. In Milk-The Vital Force. Proceeding of the XXII International. Dairy Congress, Reidel Publishing Company, Los Angeles and Hague.

Camel Feed and Nutritional Requirements—Introduction

97

Valleras, A., and Stevens, C. E. (1971). Motility of llama and guanaco stomach. American Journal of Physiology, 220, 275–282. Van Soest, P. J. (1994). Nutritional Ecology of Ruminants. Cornell University Press, Ithaca. Von Engelhardt, W., Ali, K. E., and Wipper, E. (1979). Absorption and secretion in the tubiform forestomach (compartment 3) of the llama. Journal of Comparative Physiology, 132B, 337–341. Von Engelhardt, W., Haarmeyer, P., Kaske, M., and Lechner-Doll, M. (2006). Chewing activities and oesoph�ageal motility during feed intake, rumination and eructation in camels. Journal of Comparative Physiology B, 176, 117–124. Wardeh, M. F. (1989). Arabian Camels, Origin, Breeds and Husbandry, p. 500. Al-Mallah Publishers Damascus, Syria. Wardeh, M. F. (1990a). Arabian Camels: Origin, Breeds and Husbandry. AI-Mallah Publisher, Damascus (In Proc. Int. Conf. Camel Production and Improvement. 10–13 December, Tobruk, Libya). Wardeh, M. F. (1990b). Camel feeds and grazing behavior. Symposium on Animal Science Divisions in the Arab Universities and Workshop on Development of Camel Production, 4–7 March. (United Arab M. F. Wardeh 42 J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 37–45 Emirates (Arabic/English). ACSAD /AS/P104 /1990). Agris FAO, UAE. Wardeh, M. F. (1990c). Camel nutrition and grazing behaviour. Symp. Animal Science Division in the Arab Universities and Workshop on Development of Camel Production. In Proc. Int. Conf. Camel Production and Improvement, 10–13 December, Tobruk, Libya. Wardeh, M. F. (1990d). The nutrient requirements of the dromedary camels. In Third International Symposium: Relationship of Feed Composition to Animal Production. The International Network of Feed Information Centers (lNFlC), 25–29 June. University of Saskatchewan. Saskatoon (ACSAD /ADS/P 110/1990). Wardeh, M. F., Dawa, M., and Ould Al-Mostafa, M. M. (1991). The nutritive value of plant species eaten by camels (Camelus dromedarius). In Wardeh, M. F., Wilson, R. T., and Zaied, A. A. (eds.), Proceeding of the International Conference Camel Production and Improvement, pp. 126–145. Tobruk, Libya (ACSAD/Camel1/P1 /1991. Damascus). Wardeh, M. F., Dawa, M., Soghmari, M., and Al-Mastafa, M. M. O. (1990). The nutritive value of preferred plant species by camels (Came/us dromedarius). In Proc. Int. Conf. Camel Production and Improvement, 10–13 December, Tobruk, Libya. Wardeh, M. F., and Farid, M. F. (1990). Nutrient requirements (energy and protein) of the dromedary camels. In Proc. Int. Conf. Camel Production and Improvement, 10–l3 December. Tobruk, Libya. Wardeh, M. F., and Farid, M. F. (1990). The energy and protein requirements of the camel (Camelus dromedarius). Symposium on Animal Science Division in the Arab Universities and Workshop on Development of Camel Production, 4–7 March, The University of the United Arab Emirates, Al Ain (CSAD/ AS/ P103/1990). Wei, D. (1979). Chinese camels and their productivities. In Proceedings of Khartoum Workshop on Camels and their Productivities, 18–20 December, Khartoum. Austrain Academy of Sciences Press, Wien. https:// verlag.oeaw.ac.at. Williams, T. (1996). Australian Code’ of Practice for the Welfare of the Camel (Camelus dromedarius). Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries, Alice Springs. Williamson, G., and Payne, W. J. A. (1990). An Introduction to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics. Longman, London. Wilson, R. T. (1984). The Camel. Longman, London and New York. Wilson, R. T. (1989). The nutritional requirements of camel. In Tisserand, J. L. (ed.), Séminaire sur la digestion, la nutrition et l’alimentation du dromadaire, pp. 171–179. CIHEAM, Zaragoza (Options Méditerranéennes: Série A. Séminaires Méditerranéens; n. 2). Yagil, R. (1986). The camel: Self-sufficiency in animal protein in drought-stricken areas. World Animal Revised, 57, 2–10. Yagil, R. (1990). Camel’s milk-one hump or two? The Economist, 20 October. Zibaee, S., Husseini, S. M., Yousafi, M., Taghipour, A., Kiani, M. A., and Noras, M. R. (2015). Nutritional and therapeutic characteristics of camel milk in children. A systematic review. Electron Physician, 7(7), 1523–1528.

5

Camel Products and By-Products

INTRODUCTION Out of the estimated 28 million camels all over the world (FAO, 2018), 89% are one-humped dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius) and the remaining 11% are two-humped camels (Camelus bactrianus). Bactrian camels are generally found in the cold deserts of Asia, whereas more than 60% of the dromedary is concentrated in the arid areas of northeastern African countries (Faye, 2015). Somalia ranks first while Pakistan ranks ninth in the camel-raising countries after Mali (Faye, 2014), which has a population of 1.1 million camels. In Pakistan, the major populations of camels are owned by nomads and are kept in desert areas. Province-wise, the ratio of the camel population in Pakistan is Baluchistan, 36.43%; Punjab, 33.51%; Sindh, 22.76%; and Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, 7.30%. Camels are important multipurpose animals that cater to the socioeconomic needs of the inhabitants of the deserts and other remote areas of South Punjab. Their common uses are in agriculture, racing, tourism, transportation, and beauty contests. In addition to that, they produce milk, meat, and wool. No other domestic animal can provide such a variety of services to human beings (Faye, 2014). It is the sole source of earnings for poor farmers. There are about 0.328 million households linked in one way or another with camel holding and farming in Pakistan (Pasha et al., 2013).

MEAT In desert, arid, and semiarid areas, camels are a good source of meat. Other animals can hardly survive in such areas (Figures 5.1 and 5.2). Meat yield and quality, however, depend on the age, sex, feeding condition, and general health of the animal. Camel meat looks and tastes very much like raw beef. It further becomes hard textured if it is from an aged animal (El Amin, 1979). Butchering (Figure 5.1) also plays a role in tenderness and the physical quality of meat to some extent. Hump meat is considered a delicacy (Kadim et al., 2008); it can be eaten raw when it is still warm, but when it cools, then it needs boiling before eating. The hump fat combined with the fat from the prenephric and pre-mesenteric areas makes an important food supplement for the human diet. As the animals get older, the moisture and ash contents of the hump fat and around the kidneys increase, while the overall crude fat content decreases. More fat is observed in the fat tissue present around the kidneys than that present in the hump. The brisket, ribs, and loin are other preferred parts of the carcass. Camels are the ultimate pillars of poor rural populations that support the national economies of many developing countries because of their multipurpose utilization, namely, transport and food in the form of meat and milk. They can provide in bulk because of their massive body. A male dromedary can weigh 300–400 kg (661–882 lb), while a male Bactrian can weigh up to 650 kg (1,433 lb). The female dromedary weighs less than the male, ranging between 250 and 350 kg (550 and 770 lb). The information available on camels at a global level is scattered. It is only limited to the number of animals slaughtered and their mean carcass weight while no data are available about the type and number of animals slaughtered and processed. The contribution of camel meat toward global red-meat production is marginal. Compared to all meat produced from different sources, the share of camel meat is only 0.13% of the total meat produced. Kadim et al. (2014), however, gave a little DOI: 10.1201/9781003408598-5

99

100

FIGURE 5.1  Slaughtering of a camel. Source: Dawn

FIGURE 5.2  Slaughtering of a camel. Source: shiachat.com

Biology and Breeding of Camels

Camel Products and By-Products

101

larger figure, which is 0.18% in the world. However, when talking about just herbivores, its share is then 0.51% (Faye, 2014). In 2011, Africa produced 62.2% of the world’s camel meat, followed by Asia, with 35.8%, while South America contributed 5.3% (Kadim et al., 2014), and camel meat represents about 8% of the meat production in Arab countries (Khan et al., 2016). Although the percentage of slaughtered camelids (number of animals slaughtered) has increased over the last five decades from 5% to 7% (Faye, 2013), the number of slaughtered camelids, however, is much lower than those of other slaughtered red meat–producing animals. In spite of the low contribution of camels to the world’s meat production, it is noticeable that the growth is greater than for cattle, sheep, and horse meat. The total number of amelids slaughtered in 2011 was 2,283,623 head around the world, with Africa contributing 1,086,221 heads, followed by Asia, with 601,883 heads. South and Eastern Europe contributed 595,000 and 519,000 heads, respectively. Most African and Asian camel meat generally comes from old animals (more than 10 years old; Kadim et al., 2014). The dressing percentage of the carcass varies (Figures 5.3 and 5.4) from 52% to 77%. The fat content in camel meat ranges from 0% to 4.8 percent, and the bony portion is from 15.9% to 38.1%. The percentages of protein, water, fat, and ash vary from body part to body part selected. The age of the animal also affects the components of the meat. Camels younger than 5 years have less protein, fat, and ash than older camels. Nevertheless, these relatively small amounts of protein are comparable with the protein content of beef whether it is from bull, cow, or steer. The fat and ash contents of camel meat are lower than that of beef. The brisket, ribs, and loin are among the preferred parts, and the hump is considered a delicacy (Figures 5.5 and 5.6). The hump contains “white and sickly fat”, which can be used to make the khli (preserved meat) of mutton, beef, or camel. When it comes to camel meat, the prime cut comes from the hump, where more fat means more flavor. Young camels are particularly prized (Hill, 2017). However, camel milk and meat are rich in protein, vitamins, glycogen, and other nutrients, making them essential in the diet of many people. Due to higher concentrations of essential nutrients, the dromedary camel is the preferred breed for meat production. It does well even in arid areas due to its unusual physiological behaviors and characteristics, which include tolerance to extreme temperatures like radiation from the sun, water paucity, rugged landscapes, and low vegetation. Camel

FIGURE 5.3  Dressing of camel meat. Source: liveleak.com

102

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 5.4  Dressing of camel meat. Source: Wikimedia.org

meat tastes like raw beef; meat from older animals has been experienced as having a harder texture, although camel meat becomes tender with cooking. The Abu Dhabi Officers’ Club serves a camel burger mixed with beef or lamb fat in order to improve the texture and taste. In Karachi, Pakistan, some restaurants prepare nihari from camel meat. In Syria and Egypt, there are specialist camel butchers to prepare quality meat (Figures 5.5, 5.6, 5.7, 5.8, 5.9, and 5.10). For centuries camel meat has been eaten. Ancient Greek writers have recorded that camel was roasted whole in ancient Persia. It was then served at banquets at which it was the only dish at that time. Camel’s heel was a favorite dish of the ancient Roman emperor Heliogabalus. In Eritrea, Somalia, Djibouti, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Syria, Libya, Sudan, Ethiopia, Kazakhstan, and other arid regions, camel meat is still eaten. Alternatives are not available or are limited in these countries. Eating camel meat has a long cultural history. Camel blood is also consumable, as is the case among pastoralists in northern Kenya, where camel blood is drunk with milk and acts as a key source of iron, vitamin D, salts, and minerals. Camel meat is also occasionally found in Australian cuisine; for example, camel lasagna is available in Alice Springs. A 2005 report issued jointly by the Saudi Ministry of Health and the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention details cases of human bubonic plague resulting from the ingestion of raw camel livers. Camel meat is largely consumed by the people of rural and remote areas of the Pakistan as most of the citizens have not developed a taste for it. But this trend is changing with the passage of time, which can be clearly seen on the occasion of Eid ul Zuha (Pasha et al., 2013).

MILK Milk is often the most important camel product and is the staple food of nomads. When nomads move in search of pasture, they can live for up to a month in the desert merely on camel milk. Camels are more efficient in producing milk from poor feed than any other dairy species. In northern

Camel Products and By-Products

FIGURE 5.5  Samex Australian meat. Source: samex.com.au

103

104

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 5.6  High-quality meat products. Source: aliexpress.com

Kenya, for example, camels produce far more milk than cattle. Camel dairy products could not only provide more food for people in arid and semiarid areas but also give nomadic herders a rich source of income. Camel milk is normally produced under low-input, low-output systems. Five liters a day is considered a decent yield. Lactating camels generally produce between 1,000 and 2,700 liters per lactation in Africa, but camels in South Asia were reported to produce up to 12,000 liters per lactation. The milk yield of a well-fed camel was recorded as being 10–15 kg per day (Yasin & Wahid, 1957). Up to 35 kg of milk per day is a common output from good Pakistani breeds (Jasra & Aujla, 1998). Nonetheless, production is very low (up to 4 kg) in areas that lack fodder or are under desert conditions. Camels reach the maximum yield in the second or third month of lactation and produce milk from the eighth day through 18 months. The daily milk yield during the wet season is often twice that of the dry season. The lactation curve of dairy camels is like that of dairy cattle, but camels have more persistent lactation. Arabian camels generally have a much higher milk yield than Bactrian camels and are being used increasingly in intensive dairy operations.

Camel Products and By-Products

FIGURE 5.7  Camel meat products. Source: commons.wikimedia.org

FIGURE 5.8  Could your next burger be camel meat? Source: cnn.com

105

106

FIGURE 5.9  Camel products are gaining popularity. Source: thnational.ae

FIGURE 5.10  Camel meat in some other ready-to-eat snacks. Source: washingtonpost.com

Biology and Breeding of Camels

Camel Products and By-Products

107

In sub-Saharan Africa, camels contribute about 8% of total milk production. Somalia is by far the largest camel milk producer in the world, followed by Kenya and Mali. People living in deserts enjoy milk, which is their only product. The main part is consumed locally, which ensures food security for people living in arid areas. Nonetheless, due to medical reasons, an interest in milk consumption is developing in urban populations too. In addition to that, settled producers are moving toward intensive production from camels (Faye & Konuspayeva, 2012). Except for few countries, camel milk is not marketed commercially (Faye, 2014). Camel milk is rich in vitamins, minerals, proteins, and immunoglobulins; compared to cow’s milk, it is lower in fat and lactose and higher in potassium, iron, and vitamin C. Bedouins believe the curative powers of camel milk can be further enhanced if the camel’s diet consists of certain desert plants. Camel milk can readily be made into a drinkable yogurt, as well as butter or cheese, although the yields for cheese tend to be low. Camel milk cannot be made into butter by the traditional churning method. It can be made if it is soured first, churned, and a clarifying agent is then added. Until recently, camel milk (Figures 5.11 and 5.12) could not be made into camel cheese because rennet was unable to coagulate the milk proteins to allow the collection of curds. The cheese produced from this process has low levels of cholesterol and is easy to digest; even lactose-intolerant people can digest it easily. The sale of camel cheese is limited owing to the small output of the few dairies producing camel cheese and the absence of camel cheese in local (West African) markets. Cheese imports from countries that traditionally breed camels are difficult to obtain due to restrictions on dairy imports from these regions. Additionally, camel milk has been made into ice cream on camel farm in the Netherlands (Figures 5.13, 5.14, 5.15, and 5.16).

Camel Milk Brightens and Tightens the Skin Camel milk in general and especially milk powder contains two nutrients called vitamin C and elastin. These two nutrients are essential for plump and youthful skin.

FIGURE 5.11  Production of milk from camel. Source: kathmandupost.ekantipur.com

108

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 5.12  Production of milk from camels. Source: moodiedavittrepost.com

Vitamin C helps in the synthesis of collagen. Collagen is a protein that is responsible for giving skin its soft, supple texture. Another protein called elastin maintains skin elasticity. Elastin and collagen are produced in the body naturally, but when we age, its production declines. This is the stage when fine lines appear on the skin. Wrinkles set in and skin begins to sag. Camel milk can naturally increase our collagen and elastin production. People also use injections for collagen production, but it is an expensive method and is also not risk-free. But dietary sources are safer and cheaper too. If we apply camel milk topically as a face mask, it helps tighten the skin. It stimulates exfoliation to remove dead skin cells, which ultimately and instantly creates a brighter appearance. The absorption of camel milk by the skin can be enhanced when combined with one or more ingredients. That’s why people use camel skin as face masks when formulated with natural clays, such as Moroccan lava clay.

MILK HEALTH EFFECTS Camel milk consists of insulin, insulin-like proteins, minerals, immunoglobulins, and trace elements with anti-inflammatory properties in it in abundance. Antioxidants and free radical scavengers are in addition to the previously mentioned components (Agrawal et al., 2011; Korish et al., 2015; Habib et  al., 2013). It also acts against cancer, hepatitis, food allergies, tuberculosis (Malt et al., 2006), and autism (Bashir & Al-Ayadhi, 2013). Camel milk has potent actions against cardiovascular disease (Abdel Galil et al., 2016), hypertension, and peptic ulcer. The reason for treating these diseases with camel milk is very obvious because camel milk contains lactoferrin and camel immunoglobulins. Lactoferrin has potent antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties. It inhibits bacterial, viral, and fungal growth. Immunosupportive and immunomodulating functions of this protein help in the maturation of lymphocytes, working as an anticancer agent (Habib et al., 2013; Kanwar et al., 2015).

Camel Products and By-Products

FIGURE 5.13  Frozen camel milk. Source: desertfarms.com

109

110

FIGURE 5.14  Camel milk powder. Source: desertfarms.com

Biology and Breeding of Camels

Camel Products and By-Products

FIGURE 5.15  Niche market with camel milk. Source: business.standard.com

FIGURE 5.16  Tony Moly Premium RX Camel Milk Cream. Source: carizzachua.com

111

112

Biology and Breeding of Camels

Healthy Hair and Nails If somebody has shiny hair and strong nails, it means they are taking in a balanced diet and that the proteins and fats in their diet are quite adequate. The protein level in cow and camel milk is the same. Nonetheless, camel milk has higher concentrations of omega-3 essential fatty acids. Healthy fats moisturize and nourish hair follicles from the inside out and strengthen nails. If someone’s nails are peeling off, it means that fats in their diet are below the requirement. It further indicates the first signs of an omega-3 deficiency. If nail and hair growth is abnormal, it means that someone has to increase their omega-3 intake, which is taken in food because our body cannot synthesize it. In addition to camel milk, chia, flaxseed, hemp hearts, wild salmon, and cod liver oil are all excellent sources of omega-3 fatty acids.

Camel Milk Slows Down the Aging Process Previously it was discussed that vitamin C plays a key role in the production of collagen. Collagen, in turn, helps preserve the appearance of skin. Vitamin C also serves as an antioxidant and can play a role in the reduction of oxidative stress. Oxidative stress damages cells and causes aging. There are several factors that cause oxidative stress. Important among them are environmental pollutants, smoking and secondhand smoke, toxins, excessive refined sugar and alcohol consumption, and transfats found in deep-fried foods and processed foods. Camel milk has a better capability of promoting detoxification and maintaining healthy skin cells. This capability is because camel contains a concentration of vitamin C that is three times higher than that present in cow milk.

Moisturizing and Softening It is said that Cleopatra took daily baths in camel milk. Camel milk helps soften the skin. It contains lanolin. Lanolin is a fatty acid that locks in the natural moisturizer in the skin and soothes inflammation when it is present. For all types of creams, whether they are manufactured for chapped, cracked, or dry skin, manufacturers will list lanolin oil as one of the main ingredients (Figure 5.17, 5.18, 5.19, and 5.20). Lanolin from natural food sources (such as camel milk) has a high comedogenic rating (meaning it’s less likely to clog pores). It is safe for acne-prone skin. The absence of hydrogenated lanolin (manmade) in it makes it safer and more effective too. As mentioned earlier, synthetic lanolins are less safe because they clog pores and, at the same time, irritate the skin, which can cause or worsen acne and redness.

Camel Milk for Clear Skin Camel milk is rich in lactic acid. Lactic acid has antimicrobial and antibacterial properties. They can help in killing the acne-causing bacteria on the skin. Lactic acid is actually an alphahydroxy acid that helps remove dead skin cells and germs from the skin. Lactic acid hence reduces the severity and frequency of breakouts. Lactic acid is one of the most common natural remedies recommended for acne-prone skin. Mechanistically, it helps rebalance the skin’s pH. If an imbalance in pH occurs, the media becomes alkaline. This alkaline media can promote inflammation, following the growth of bacteria. Studies show that if lactic acid is applied topically for 3 months, it can significantly lighten acne scars. At the same time, it can control hyperpigmentation on dark skin over extended periods. This suggests that instead of using artificial means and methods for skin treatment, camel milk may also have a similar effect in curing damaged skin.

Camel Products and By-Products

113

FIGURE 5.17  Camel milk body butter. Source: amazon.com

CAMEL HAIR Camel hairs are also an important commodity. Camel hairs have been used for tents, yurts, clothing, bedding, and accessories by desert tribes and Mongolian nomads. Camels have hairs that actually act as an outer guard. Animals living in the hottest desert climates produce these hairs. They are, however, less common in camels living in a more temperate climate. Soft inner down hairs and the fibers are prized and are sorted by the color and age of the animal. Those camels living in the

114

FIGURE 5.18  Camel milk body moisturizer. Source: neogenlab.us

Biology and Breeding of Camels

Camel Products and By-Products

115

FIGURE 5.19  All-natural face cream with camel milk Source: hesa.io

high-altitude regions of Peru, Bolivia, and Argentine have excellent-quality wool (Bustinza, 1979). Vicuna, especially, produce high-quality wool. The High Andes is a habitat of this wild species. It has very short wool with an average length of 2 to 3 cm. The average wool yield from this animal is only 150 g. The internal fibers are brownish yellow in color and are very fine. External fibers, which are brick red in color, are rough and coarse on touch (giving an overall red appearance). On the chest, vicuna also have a large hank of fibers. When compared with the fibers present on the remaining parts of the body, these fibers are longer and stronger. People make ponchos and shawls from the wool of vicuna that are highly prized and very costly (Figures 5.21, 5.22, 5.23, and 5.24). The valleys of Patagonia are the habitat of the guanaco. Two types of wool cover the body of the camel. The internal fibers are very fine and light brown in color. The external fibers are long, coarse in touch, and reddish brown in color. The head of the guanaco is, however, covered with short black hair. The young have a different hair style and structure from the adults and have an especially fine pelt on the body.

116

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 5.20  All-natural eye cream with camel milk Source: hesa.io

The heights of Andes also host the llama. The wool yield is about 2 kg per animal per year. It has a variety of colors. It has long and coarse fibers on its body. Llamas are found in a variety of colors, including black, brown, and white. This variety of colors sometimes appears only on a single individual. Its wool is used for a variety of things; the most common are string bags or sacks, blankets, and clothing (Figures 5.25 and 5.26). The alpaca is a very important animal, especially for its wool. Alpacas are of two types: Huacaya and the Suri. They can be easily differentiated by their wool. Wool fibers of Huacaya are rough. Nonetheless, they have a well-defined crimp. It is easy to die because of its similarity with sheep wool. The wool of Huacaya grows perpendicular to the body. Accordingly, it forms compact staples. Suri bear coarse wool. It is totally different from that of Huacaya (Figure 5.27). There is no crimp formation in the wool fibers present on Suri. Dying wool from Suri is difficult. The wool grows parallel to the body. It forms thin, floppy, and round staples. Finally, it falls from the body. After that, a line follows down the middle of the back. Bustinza (1979) has done a lot of research on the quality of fibers from various animals. He opined that the quality of fiber is very much dependent on the age, sex, nutrition, and health status of animals.

Camel Products and By-Products

117

FIGURE 5.21  Fiber by Auskin’s newest addition. Source: pinterest.com

The adult animal produces 1–5 kg of wool and hair annually (El Amin, 1979; Keikin, 1976). The wool and hair of Old World camels is inferior to New World camels. The wool yield is higher from Bactrian than the dromedary camels. Furthermore, the quality of wool from Bactrian camels is superior to that obtained from Dromedary camels (Dong Wei, 1979). Wool shedding of animals takes place at the end of winter. In case of non-collection, the animal sheds it of by rubbing against trees and bushes. China annually collects 1500 tons of wool from camels. Padded cloth quilts and mattresses are the main products of this wool. Other than wool, long hairs are also produced by camels. Ropes, clothes, tents, carpets (Cloudley-Thompson, 1969), robes, saddle girths, and blankets (El-Amin, 1979) are prepared from these hairs. Guard hairs are another product from these camels. These hairs are synthesized into cloth, which then is used for the production of waterproof coats for the herdsmen (Figure 5.28). Softer hairs are, however, used for premium goods. These fibers can also be spun for weaving. Yarns are then prepared which are used for hand knitting or crochet. Since the 17th century, pure camel hairs have been used is in Western garments. Nonetheless, since the 19th century, hair and wool have been mixed for producing a variety of clothing materials. Generally, the outer hairs of the camel are coarse and are 37.5 cm long. Their diameter is 20–120 microns. However, the fine down fibers are 2.5 and 12.5 cm long, with a diameter of 19–24 microns. During the molting season of camels, fibers are shaved and collected. During molting, camels do not lose their hair all at once. The hair starts falling first from the neck, then from the mane, and, at the end, the remaining body. The hair falling starts at the end of spring and continues for 6–8 weeks. The hump of the camel does not shed hairs because the hump serves as a disease-resistant organ. A naked hump is more susceptible to diseases during summer. During the molting season,

118

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 5.22  Camel hair scarf or cap. Source: proidee.co.uk

hairs are collected by several methods. Combing, shearing, and collecting the clumps of hair shed naturally during the molting season are some of the important methods used for collection of hairs. Hair color varies from reddish to light brown. The hairs are then sorted and separated in different categories depending on the age of the animals and shade of the color. Baby camels produces the finest and softest hairs. Their length is 2.5–12.5 cm with diameter of about 19 microns. Although it holds quite a greater status, currently, adult hairs are offered over baby hairs. Hence, they are not much in demand due to their high premium, which makes them less economical. During the winter, the Bactrian camel produces long and thick hairs. Its mane grows around the neck and extends along the tuft from the muzzle. The elbow joints, knees, and limbs also carry long hairs. The most common color of these hairs is reddish brown. Variations in color, however, have been observed from brown to gray. The white fleece, although very rare, is highly prized.

Uses Fabrics obtained from camel hair are either dyed to a darker shade of brown or are left in their natural state. The fine fur fibers are woven or blended with fine wool. They are then used for overcoating, top coating, and/or for the preparation of sportswear and sports hosiery.

Camel Products and By-Products

119

FIGURE 5.23  Camel-hair twill coat. Source: peopleinfocom.com

The long hair is removed by shaving. They are then used to make felt for the Mongolian yurts or tents and for herdsmen’s winter coats. These coats are very warm and completely waterproof. Carpet backing is also prepared from these hairs. The strong, springy hair of the camel mane is used for an innerlining. Outer hairs have been used traditionally in bedding. It is said that these hairs and their products bear beneficial properties to rheumatism and arthritis (Petrie, 1995).

120

FIGURE 5.24  Persian Hamadan camel-hair carpet. Source: overstock.com

FIGURE 5.25 Alpaca. Source: springfarmalpacas.co.uk

Biology and Breeding of Camels

Camel Products and By-Products

FIGURE 5.26  Llama (Lama glama). Source: a.z.animals.com

FIGURE 5.27  Suri alpaca vs. Huacaya alpaca. Source: pinterest.com

121

122

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 5.28  Dromedary vs. Bactrian camel. Source: youtube.com

SKIN Camel hides have multipurpose uses and can fulfill many functions. The pastoral communities used to use hides to cover their traditional houses. Preparation of ropes, ropes, guards, drums, seats, sandals, prayer mats, and water and milk containers are some of the uses of these hides. Shoes and sandals are the main products of these hides (El Amin, 1979). The skin of the vicuna is very costly. It can bring a reasonable amount of revenue (Bustinza, 1979). Like vicuna, guanaco also have good-quality skin. Among other uses it is also utilized for making bed covers, coats, and mantels. Bags, shoes, and sandals are comparatively products of inferior quality of llama hide (Figures 5.29 and 5.30). New World camels are more important and considered superior to Old World camels. The main qualities of New World camels are their meat, skin, and uses of fur. Although Old World camels are very important for their milk production and haulage, their qualities are not given much importance. Nevertheless, desert-living camels produce milk and meat. In addition to milk, wild camels also produce skins, hides, bones, and wool. Humans prepare useful amenities from these products. Clothing and shelter are important for them. Breeding the ideal breeds produces good-quality, as well as quantity of, milk. Calves produce wool and meat, supporting the local camel industry. As with the production of beef, the age of the animal is determined to have a better taste than beef. Similar criteria need to be adopted in the case of camel meat to provide quality and good-tasting meat to consumers. Determining the appropriate age at the time of slaughter for camels will quickly reverse misconceptions about the quality of the meat of the camel. The reason for this misconception is slaughtering older camels for meat, which considerably decreased its attraction of consumers.

LAMP SHADES For almost a millennium, the handwork of the making of camel skin lamps has been practiced in  Multan, Pakistan. There are families in the city who have been in this business for centuries and continue to this day. Camel skin lamps  made in Multan  are renowned worldwide. It is due to the intricate handwork done by skilled artisans. The art of decorating a camel’s skin is known

Camel Products and By-Products

123

FIGURE 5.29  Camel leather bag. Source: indianmirror.com

as naqashi in the local language and is a very valuable skill. The different paintings made on the camel skin are fixed at the top of the lamp. These paintings represent the local culture of Multan city. These pictures, designs, the colors are all representative of the local customs in Multan. Lamps made from camel skin in Multan are exported to different countries around the world. These handicrafts have therefore earned a lot of accolades and goodwill for the ancient city of Multan as well as for Pakistan (Figure 5.31).

Making Camel Skin Lamps: Teamwork of a Triad It is said that the making of camel skin lamps is the joint effort of a clayman, a naqash, and a dabgar. All three persons are highly skilled and professional. All these workers work in harmony and synchronously to achieve this project. Their collective efforts are able to produce ornate camel skin lamps in Multan.

124

FIGURE 5.30  Camel skin lamp. Source: artisansgalleria.com

FIGURE 5.31  Camel skin products. Source: Alibaba.com

Biology and Breeding of Camels

Camel Products and By-Products

125

Cholistan Desert as the Supplier of Camel Skin Lamps Camels can be found easily in areas near Multan due to its close location to the desert. The Cholistan Desert of Punjab is very close to Multan. In the Cholistan Desert, the local population commonly uses camels for local, as well as distant, travel. Therefore, camel skin, the main raw material required for this art, is easily available and in excess in Multan. Due to the drastic dryness of the Cholistan Desert, the frequency of camel death is very high. This frequency of death can be attributed to thirst that they experience due to shortage of water. Although camels have a natural ability to store water for days in their bodies even in the hot summer season, they cannot tolerate long-term water shortages. If a camel dies, it is still valuable to the owner. He can sell its skin and make a good profit from its sale. Selling camel skins is similar to selling goat skins, which are frequently sold in Pakistan at a good profit for goat owners.

Processing the High-Value Camel Skin for Lamps

1. First of all, the skin is freed from hair, which is then washed with chemicals. The chemical treatment ensures its total cleanliness from all kinds of unwanted substances, such as flesh particles. 2. Next, to make the skin translucent, the camel skin is cleaned in a way in which quite a few layers are removed from it. This extensive cleaning means that the camel skin can later be used for a lamp because light can pass through it when it is fitted on the lamp. 3. A base is prepared from clay, and then the camel skin is fixed on the top of a base. Finally, it is left to dry in the sun. 4. In the next step, the artisans process it further and decide what shape they have to give to that lamp, and what dye they have to use. 5. Then they paint the skin, depicting the local culture. For this purpose, they paint it with traditional colors or pictures to make it attractive to the purchasers. If we compare this with other handicrafts or the process used to give them their final shape, the camel skin is probably the most difficult step in the process. This complexity can be attributed to its intricate nature. The designs required to be made on the skin are all very minute. Due to the miniature nature of the designs made on the skin, extra care is needed when applying the paint to the camel skin. 6. In this connection, a lot of attention is required to ensure mistakes are avoided during this whole process, especially when designs are prepared and the paint is applied to them. Performing such assignments also takes a toll on the eyes of the naqash because he has to either repeat it or sometimes has designed it quite differently. The production of handicrafts is not limited making lamps; some other handicrafts are also prepared too. The skin vases and lamps are also some other handicrafts that are highly appealing to buyers.

Durable and Long-Lasting Camel Skin Lamps Lamps from the camel skin prepared in this way are long-lasting. Buyers also want that they should last for a lifetime. Normally, it is claimed that lamps made from camel skins should go for 50–100 years. The vanishing of lamps should be practiced frequently at different points during their usage to ensure that their shine and beauty are well maintained.

Camel Skin Lamps Caught in the War on Terror There has been a significant drop in tourism in Multan and its vicinities, which has caused a significant drop in its revenue. Therefore, as an alternative, a lot of focus has been paid to this artisanal

126

Biology and Breeding of Camels

activity. So people are working hard to meet the revenue deficiencies experienced from the decline in tourism activities. Since Pakistan has cooperated with the United States after the incident of 9/11 attacks, Pakistan has tried really very hard to suppress terrorist activities. The Pakistani army has faced a lot of casualties, and the Pakistani economy has suffered from huge economic losses. Accordingly, to recuperate drawbacks and losses, Pakistan has had to carry out major military offenses in the country to flush out terrorists from its soil. A lot of smaller or bigger operations are still underway, including the one very famous, Zarb-e-Azb which is ongoing. All these activities totally destroyed tourism activities. Keeping in view such activities, different countries continue to caution their nationals against travel to Pakistan. This all happened due to the risks involved in the frequent occurrence of terrorist attacks in Pakistan. When such activities pushed the tourists back, damaging the tourist industry, then as alternative handicraft from Multan boomed to meet these recurring and sometimes devastating losses to the economy of the inhabitants of Multan city.

Exporting Local Souvenirs Overseas Due to the courtesy of their beauty and the hard work put in by professionals, these lamps are admired and valued all over the world. Therefore, they are continuously exported to different countries. They are well liked in Gulf countries, and hence, many are exported there. Second, they are well liked in Europe and the United States; several are exported to these countries too. It has been reported that in the United States, each lamp can earn about 600 USD, which is a huge sum of money. Nonetheless, fetching this price all depends on the variety of lamp and its quality. Some are available at cheaper prices while some others are really highly prized.

Shopping Online for Multan-Made Camel Skin Lamps Online shopping for purchasing camel skin lamps is also in vogue. The major websites that can be used for these purchases are Amazon and eBay, among other websites. The fans of this art sometimes prefer to have them online, which actually has been developed for the convenience of the purchasers. In addition to previously mentioned sites, they can also be purchased  OLX  and other online shopping websites in the country such as pakistanhandicraft.com, tcsconnect.com, and others. In Pakistan, other than online shopping, these handicrafts are easily available in different shops in different cities of the country. Due to their higher decorational value, most of the people in the country like to have them. The same is the case for tourists; whenever they visit these markets and shops, it is hard for them to leave a market without purchasing these lamps and other handicrafts present. As these lamps are made in Multan, they are definitely cheaper than those found in other parts of the world or other parts of the country. Therefore, natives of Multan have the benefit of purchasing these lamps or other handicrafts comparatively at cheaper prices.

Vintage Camel Skin Lamps Where recently prepared camel skin lamps are in high demand, antique and vintage lamps are valued more on some occasions. Generally, it can be said that vintage lamps are not far less than in demand that current produce. Hence, the market is also loaded with vintage lamps because locals and foreigners like them equally well. Many admirers of the art local or foreigners intend to purchase old camel skin lamps made really a long time ago. Actually, they are fascinated by the skill the workers put into them. The professionals who made these lamps may have expired, but their skills have made them to live on, and still they are impressing people and decorating houses with their skill.

Camel Products and By-Products

127

BONE ORNAMENTS Once, all the jewelry in the United Arab Emirates and other Arabian countries was prepared from camel bone and teeth. To prepare different designs on camel bones, they are still carved, and this practice is very common in some parts of the world. Pakistan, Rajasthan, and Iran are good examples of where this carving work occurs. Sharjah-based online store www.craftihouse.com has Persian handicrafts painstakingly carved from camel bone. They prepare a variety of ornaments and paint them with a variety of colors to make them more attractive. Important examples of such vintage bone carvings are penholders, miniature jewelry boxes, and khol tubes and stick sets. Before carving, camel bones are boiled and then well cleaned. The knee bones are most commonly used for this purpose. In addition to camel bones, camel teeth are also used for preparing ornaments. Decorative items include tribal accessories, blue glass beads, and necklaces. To prepare these things, camel teeth are considered the top raw material (Hill, 2017; Figures 5.32, 5.33, and 5.34).

FIGURE 5.32  Camel bone crafts. Source: traderscity.com

128

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 5.33  Camel bone tasbih. Source: islamicmart.com.pk

FIGURE 5.34  Bone chess set. Source: ganeshchess.com

CAMEL LEATHER Australia is a pioneer in the commercial tanning of camel leather. Camel leather has two unique properties that makes it versatile. When tanned, it shows exceptionally tensile strength. In addition to that, it has a very attractive grain pattern. Due to these two features, a variety of products can be manufactured from camel leather. Important among them are harnesses and supporting goods, shoe and boot uppers, upholstery, fashion accessories, briefcases, and garments (Figures 5.35 and 5.36).

Camel Products and By-Products

FIGURE 5.35  Camel leather leash. Source: zampamilano.com

FIGURE 5.36  Kopi, water bags made from camel leather. Source: alamy.com

129

130

Biology and Breeding of Camels

REFERENCES Abdel Galil, M., Abdel, G., and Abdulqader, A. A. (2016). The unique medicinal properties of camel products: A review of the scientific evidence. Journal of Taibah University Medical Sciences, 11(2), 98–103. doi: 10.1016/j.jtumed.2015.12.007 Agrawal, R. P., Jain, S., Shah, S., Chopra, A., and Agarwal, V. (2011). Effect of camel milk on glycemic control and insulin requirement in patients with type 1 diabetes: 2-years randomized controlled trial. [Original Article]. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 65, 1048. doi: 10.1038/ejcn.2011.98 Bashir, S., and Al-Ayadhi, L. Y. (2013). Effect of camel milk on thymus and activation-regulated chemokine in autistic children: double-blind study [Clinical Investigation]. Pediatric Research, 75, 559. doi: 10.1038/ pr.2013.248 Bustinza, A. V. (1979). South American camelids. In IFS Symposium Camels, pp. 73–108. IFS, Sudan. Cloudley-Thompson, J. L. (1969). Camel. Encyclopedia Americana, 5, 261–263. Dong, W. (1979). Chinese camels and their productivities. In IFS Symposium Camels, pp. 55–72. IFS, Sudan. El Amin, F. M. (1979). The dromedary camel of the Sudan. In IFS Symposium Camels, pp. 35–54. Sudan. International Foundation for Science, Stockholm, Sweden. CABI.Org Epstein, H. (1971). The Origin of the Domestic Animals of Africa (vol. 2). Africiana Publ. Corp. Edition Leipzig, Leipzig. FAO. (2018). Camels. Pakistan Economic Survey 2018–2019, 503p. Economic Advisors Wing, Finance Division Government of Pakistan. www.finance.gov.pk Faye, B. (2013). Camel meat in the world. In Kadim, I. T., Mahgoub, O., Faye, B., and Farouk, M. M. (eds.), Camel Meat and Meat Products (vol. 1), pp. 7–17. CABI International, Wallingford. Faye, B. (2014). The Camel today: assets and potentials. Anthropozoologica, 49(2), 167–176. doi: 10.5252/ az2014n2a01 Faye, B. (2015). Role, distribution and perspective of camel breeding in the third millennium economies. Emirates Journal of Food and Agriculture, 27(4), 318–327. doi: 10.9755/ejfa.v27i4.19906 Faye, B., and Konuspayeva, G. (2012). The sustainability challenge to the dairy sector – The growing impor�tance of non-cattle milk production worldwide. International Dairy Journal, 24(2), 50–56. doi: 10.1016/j. idairyj.2011.12.011 Habib, H. M., Ibrahim, W. H., Schneider-Stock, R., and Hassan, H. M. (2013). Camel milk lactoferrin reduces the proliferation of colorectal cancer cells and exerts antioxidant and DNA damage inhibitory activities. Food Chemistry, 141(1), 148–152. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.03.039 Hill, J. (2017). 9 Camel Products that are Gaining Popularity in the Arab World. www.thenational.ae/lifestyle/ wellbeing/9-camel-products-that-are-gaining-popularity-in-the-arab-world-1.42952. accessed on 23 October 2018. Jasra, A. W., and Aujla, K. M. (1998). Socioeconomic profile of camel herders in south-western mountainous areas of Pakistan. Camel Newsletter, 15, 14–17. Kadim, I. T., Mahgoub, O., and Mbaga, M. (2014). Potential of camel meat as a non-traditional high quality source of protein for human consumption. Animal Frontiers, 4(4), 13–17. doi: 10.2527/af.2014-0028 Kadim, I. T, Mahgoub, O., Purchas, R. W. (2008). A review of the growth, and of the carcass and meat quality characteristics of the one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius). Meat Science, 73, 619–625. Kanwar, J., Roy, K., Patel, Y., Zhou, S. F., Singh, M., Singh, D., et al. (2015). Multifunctional iron bound lacto� ferrin and nanomedicinal approaches to enhance its bioactive functions. Molecules, 20(6), 9703. Keikin, D. (1976). Camel breeding can be economical (Ru). Konevodstro I Konnyi Sport, 2, 12–13. Khan, R., Shahzad, M. I., and Iqbal, M. N. (2016). Role of camel in pastoral mode of life and future use of rCGH as a therapeutic agent in milk and meat production. PSM Veterinary Research, 1(1), 32–39. Korish, A. A., Abdel Gader, A. G., Korashy, H. M., Al-Drees, A. M., Alhaider, A. A., and Arafah, M. M. (2015). Camel milk attenuates the biochemical and morphological features of diabetic nephropathy: inhibition of Smad1 and collagen type IV synthesis. Chemico-Biological Interactions, 229, 100–108. doi: doi: 10.1016/j.cbi.2015.01.013 Malt, G., Suchitra Sena, D., Jain, V. K., and Sahani, M. S. (2006). Therapeutic value of camel milk as a nutritional sup�plement for multiple drug resistant (mdr) tuberculosis patients. Israel Journal of Veterinary Medicine, 61, 88–94. Pasha, R. H., Qureshi, A. S., and Khamas, W. (2013). A survey of camel production in three different ecological zones of Pakistan. International of Agriculture and Biology, 15(1), 62–68. www.fspublishers.org. People’s Interest for Camel Slaughtering on Rise. (2017). People’s interest for camel slaughtering on rise. Dunya News, 2 September. http://dunyanews.tv › Pakistan › 403862-Peoples-inter. Petrie, O. J. (1995). Harvesting of textile animal fibres. In Harvesting of Textile Animal Fibres: FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin No. 122. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Yasin, S. A., and Wahid, A. (1957). Pakistan camels. A preliminary survey. Agriculture Pakistan, 8, 289–297.

6

Camels’ Genomic Potentials

INTRODUCTION Camels are categorized into two main types throughout the world. These types are known as Camelus dromedarius and Camelus bactrianus. Camelus dromedarius, which is commonly called the one-humped camel and generally known as the dromedary, is found in Afghanistan, Asia (south and central), Iran, and the Arabian deserts. The origin of word dromedary is the Greek word dramas (road). Normally and directly, it is used for racing and riding. This term is used as a general description of this camel species worldwide. Camelus bactrianus (Bactrian) is also called the twohumped camel. It is widely distributed in China, Russia, and Central Asia. The term Bactrian is derived from the place-name Baktria. This place was the origin of this breed. This place is located on the river of Oxus in northern Afghanistan (Kakar et al., 2011). The camel is a distinctive genetic resource. Beyond this, its extraordinary characteristics have made it an entrancing animal. Despite much research, its potential still has not been fully explored. It is very unfortunate that this animal has not gotten the status it deserved for. Although it well habituated than other livestock, still, its further intensification is not possible due to the onset of climatic changes and desertification, including increases in worldwide temperatures (Tariq et al., 2014). A lot of studies have been carried out on their molecular genetics, population genetics, cytogenetics, and other disciplines of genetics. There are many implications of genetic research on camels; some follow: • • • •

Genetic research enables us for the characterization of different breeds of camels. Some genetics tools are used as genetic markers for identifying the different traits of camel. Recently, genetically engineered products have been obtained from camel milk. Using specific markers, genetic selection is also used to produce traits with increased milk and meat production. Other than this, different genetic research work has been conducted to evaluate the genetic markers that are used in finding individuals with high genetic potential.

In Pakistan and the world, different genetic work has been done; for example, work has been done on the heat-shock protein; the camel casein protein; cytochrome-b and D-loop; growth hormones; phylogenetic, genotyping, and molecular characterization of different breeds; and more. This review is aimed at compiling data on the genetics of camels that will be helpful in future research and help researchers in finding new ideas about molecular and genetic research on camels. Some of the salient explorations that have been made or can be planned for the future in Pakistan and all over the world are given in the following sections.

GENES FOR MILK AND HEAT TOLERANCE Heat Tolerance Heat shock proteins (HSPs) serve as molecular chaperones. These chaperones help the animal manage stress when an animal is exposed to hostile environmental conditions. HSPs’ cellular protein homeostasis promotes a response in an animal to any kind of stress, including heat stress (Tariq et al., 2014). Using the rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE) technique, a full-length cDNA with 2417 base pair (bp) was amplified. After amplification, it was cloned and cloned in an expression vector (pET). When the HSP6 gene was sequenced, it showed an ORF of 1932 bp. Such a DOI: 10.1201/9781003408598-6

131

132

Biology and Breeding of Camels

sequence of bps can encode the 643 amino acids. After sequencing the HSPA6 gene of the Arabian camel, its complete cDNA was submitted to the National Center of Biotechnology Information GenBank (accession number HQ214118.1). A blast analysis of the genome of C. dromedary showed that the nucleotide of the HSPA6 gene is very similar to the gene sequence of heat shock proteins present in other mammals. This similarity was up to about 77–91% (Elrobh et al., 2011).

Milk Genetics In the milk of mammals, κ-casein protein plays an important role in milk micelles. This protein is normally present in glycosylated form, and when expressed, then κ-casein controls this important role. TFBSs (transcription binding sites) carry the transcriptional regulation which is the 1st mechanism to control the organism’s development. The 5′ region of Iranian Bactrians and Dromedaries camel, κ-casein was determined along with the regulatory region of TFBSs. This region has 14 potential and MGF/STAT5, TPB, C/EBP-α and Oct1 have conserved most perfectly (Khabiri et al., 2014). The structural organization of 5′ flanking sequence of β-CSNGP of camel, porcine, and bovine species was analyzed. Of the 5′ flanking regions, 1,763 are present in β-CSNGP. TATA box, CAAT box, the binding motif for Oct 1, Oct 2, Oct 4, AP2, GR half YY1, C/EBP, and MGF/STAT5 are present in the basal promotor. The insertional sequences that act as binding sites for PRL and C/EBP are present in the promotor. At −1762 to −1371 of the enhancer region of camel β casein, the transcription-factor binding motif for MGF/STAT5, C/EBP, GR half, Oct3, Oct2, SP1, and AP1 is present. A comparison of the key regulatory element of camel β-CSNGP like YY1, GR half, SP1, Oct3, Oct2, and Oct1 with other bovine species showed that camel genes have multiple numbers for each single transcription factor binding motif. Due to the presence of multiple numbers for a single transcription factor, camels have a higher expression of β-CSN. When 6GR halves clustered in the 6YY1 and porcine β-CSNGP motifs, then in camel β-CSNGP witnessed that glucocorticoid and prolactin along with their transcriptional coactivators play a regulatory key function in the overexpression of camel β-CSN in camels. The same activity was observed in porcine species too. These results enabled transgenic researchers to simplify their experiments. At the same time, the scientists became able to concentrate and target their experiments to limited regulatory elements (Bhure et al., 2008). During the initial and later stages of lactation, milk samples were collected from the six breeds of camel. These samples were analyzed for protein, fat, lactose, sodium, ash, iron, magnesium, zinc, and copper. The analytical results revealed that a high value of zinc, iron, and protein and low levels of lactose and fat were found in kohi breed. Further studies showed that these differences are due to the variations in their genetic makeup (Kakar et al., 2011).

Immunity The gene BoLA-DRB3 is responsible for variance in the susceptibility in mammals to infectious disease and is considered appropriate for the comparative study of evolution. An analysis of the BoLA-DRB3 gene having 247 bp sequences of exon 2 in 20 samples of Mareecha and nondescriptive camel breeds of Pakistan was carried out. The results indicated 10 different polymorphic sites (7 parsimony and 3 singletons), which shows that the gene is highly polymorphic. These sites may be related to the difference in the immune response to particular pathogens in different individuals. The identified 10 haplotypes revealed 0.01445 nucleotide and 0.879 haplotype diversity. On the construction of phylogenetic tree using MEGA ver. 5.05 revealed a close relationship between camels and Ovis aries (Hussain et al., 2016).

PHYLOGENETIC AND GENOTYPING A tyrosinase gene of camel, a restriction site triggered by T variant, was exploited in PCR-RFLP (special restriction fragment-length polymorphism analysis) for the genotyping of individuals from six different Pakistani breeds of camels (Dhatti, Marecha, Kohi, Larri, Sakrai, Campbelpuri). For

Camels’ Genomic Potentials

133

this objective, exon 1 coding region of tyrosinase gene amplified the fragment of a 474 bp at 56 °C at 200bp. An SNP (T/C) was discovered and exploited with a Dde I (restriction enzyme). Under this study, the exploitation of SNP resulted in three different genotypes, that is, TC, CC, and TT in each camel breed. Between different breeds, noteworthy differences in the frequency of genotype were recorded. A greater frequency of heterozygosity was observed in Sakrai when compared it with the Dhatti, Marecha, Kohi, and Larri breeds (Shah, 2006). The long coat color of camel has been determined by C locus or tyrosinase gene. This gene, which is actually a copper-containing enzyme, is located on chromosome 11q14.3. Furthermore, this gene is expressed in melanocytes and controls the major steps in pigment production. In camels, the C locus is a restriction site provoked by the T variant of the mutation provokes the C locus, which is a restriction site in the camel genome. This restriction site is used in a PCR-RFLP for genotyping of six different camel breeds from Pakistani (Sakrai, Marecha, Larri, Dhatti, Campbelpuri, Kohi). Genotype frequency significantly differed between different camel breeds. With restriction genotype the Sakrai breed showed a distinctly higher frequency of homozygosity when it was compared with other breeds under experimentation. In the aforementioned study, the camel breeds were screened using modern techniques (Ghias et al., 2012). From these studies, in addition to the previously mentioned information, genetic polymorphism in the mitochondrial ATP8 and ATP6 genes was also evaluated in eight Pakistani breeds of camel (Camelus dromedarius): Barela, Kharani, Kachi, Pahari, Thari, Watni, Mix-bred (nondescriptive), and Mareecha,. In all the selected breeds of camel, 842-bp length, including full complete coding sequences of ATP8 and ATP6 at a total of 11 polymorphic sites (5 polymorphic were single variable and 6 were parsimony informative) were found. A neighbor-joining phylogenetic tree was then constructed using MEGA6. These studies confirmed that all the Pakistani camel breeds studied were dromedary. Developed with 23 other mammalian species, this phylogenetic tree further validated the traditional classification of camels visualized in the past (Ali et al., 2018)

Growth and Weight Two individuals from each of six breeds (Sakrai, Marecha, Larri, Dhatti, Campbelpuri, Kohi) were used for sequencing. The results indicated that the myostatin of camel has a more than 90% homology to the sheep, cattle, and pig. Although having greater than 98% homology with pigs, camels, however, formed a separate cluster from the pig. As reported in the literature, camels rather showed a 94% homology with cattle and sheep. In one study, six camel breeds were selected for the genomic analysis of myostatin. The camel myostatin was subjected to sequence analysis and part of exon 1 (256 bp) was amplified by PCR. These studies revealed that genetically, all six species are identical (Shah, 2006). Socioeconomically, the camel is a very important animal. It transports goods, mechanically extracts oil from oil seeds, pulls carts, crushes sugarcane, grinds grains, levels and plows land, and draws water from wells. Due to its strong genetic makeup if well fed, it produces 15–20 liters of milk and grows up to 1 kg per day. We can maximally use and exploit this important indigenous genetic resource by selective breeding using modern techniques. Registering camel herds, establishing camel health centers, organizing marketing, fattening males, camel ranching schemes, and special incentives or hardship allowances are some incentives that can facilitate utilizing our indigenous genetic resources. This can ultimately help cope with the day-by-day increasing food demands of the inhabitants.

Use of mtDNA and the Like for the Study of Genetic Diversity This is the first study designed on displacement (D) loop sequence diversity and mitochondrial cytochrome-b gene (Cyt-b) Mareecha and Bareela, which are two important camel breeds of Pakistan. The purpose of this study was to assess the status of differentiation and genetic diversity between these two breeds. A total of 48 blood samples (Mareecha = 25 and Bareela = 23) were collected for genomic DNA extraction. On the complete Cyt-b gene sequence (1140 bp) analysis, four parsimony informative sites were observed at positions 137, 146, 337, and 806. Following this,

134

Biology and Breeding of Camels

the construction of five haplotypes took place. These haplotypes indicated low Cyt-b gene genetic variability in selected two camel breeds from Pakistan. Nonetheless, contradictory information was observed in an analysis of the complete mt-DNA D-loop (1214 bp). Simultaneously, 32 polymorphic sites (2.63% of all sites) resulted in eight different haplotypes. Out of these sites, one site was parsimoniously informative polymorphic site while the other 31 were singleton variable sites. The phylogenetic analysis showed two clades: dromedary and Bactrian. These two clades are prevalent in the camel population present in Pakistan. Both these clades have a distinct distance between them. Accordingly, they can be regarded as a distinct lineage. However, the clustering of haplotypes from all Pakistani camels, and their comparison with dromedary camels show significant similarities. To preserve the genetic resource of camels for the development of future breeding programs to improve their productivity, genetic variability assessment on these animals is important (Babar et al., 2015). The prion gene can be used to identify a novel link between camel breeders with fatal neurodegenerative disorders. This gene can tell whether this disorder is present or not. Such studies are still lacking in Pakistan. Prion diseases are actually a group of diseases, and both camels and human beings are equally susceptible to these diseases. Prions are known as infectious agents responsible for transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. This study is considered the first study reported so far on the prion protein gene in dromedary camels of Pakistan (Hussain et al., 2014)

PHENOTYPIC AND GENETIC VARIATION The mitochondrial and  microsatellite  data are used to understand the phenotypes of color in the Nigerian–Niger corridor. These data correspond to genetically different groups and are used to study the reproductive patterns in camels of pastoralists. The results illustrate that Nigerian dromedaries are homogenous in their genetic makeup. This homogenous gene pool has no definite grouping that is analogous to coat color. The dark and black-brown camels were detected by low nuclear and mitochondrial differentiation. An increased diversity of genes among the dromedaries of Nigeria was observed when the constant gene flow was elaborated in other populations. This information was collected during the annual study on transhumant or mobile camel farming units of pastoralists located on both sides of the Nigeria–Niger corridor. Based on coat color distinctions (Abdussamad et al., 2015), when information collected from local pastoralists was compared with the molecular genetic data, it did not support a clear difference among breeds (Ja, Kurri, Kala). About 20 types of marginal and mountain breeds of camels are found in Pakistan. The physical characteristics of Kohi camels, present in the northeastern part of Pakistan (Baluchistan province), is credited to the camel type, that is, a mountain breed. Female camels were observed in fine physical condition in a huge quantities. Kohi camels are excellent performers revealed by their development, breeding, and reproduction characteristics in the cold mountain regions of the Baluchistan province (Shah et al., 2015).

WORLDVIEW ON CAMEL GENETICS Milk Genetics The total proteins, minerals, fats (lactose), vitamins B1, vitamin B2, vitamin C, and niacin were analyzed in the individuals by taking 20 samples each of camel and human milk. The samples were subjected to amino acids, fatty acids, and antimicrobial enzymes such as lysozymes, lactoferrins, and immune-globulins determinations. The findings of these analytical studies demonstrated that camel milk contained a higher concentration of fats, proteins (especially casein), ashes, calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, iron, and copper but lower levels of whey proteins, lactose, and zinc compared to human milk. The milk of camels contains more vitamin C and niacin than human milk. A satisfactory balance of essential amino acids is present in camel milk proteins. The ratio of essential to nonessential amino acids was 0.93 and 1.07 in camel and human milk, respectively. Camel milk is composed of high levels of immunoglobulins but low levels of lysozymes

Camels’ Genomic Potentials

135

and lactoferrins than human milk (Shamsia, 2009). Recently, a partial sequencing of the κ-casein promoter region (Khabiri et  al., 2014a) in the Iranian Bactrians and Arabian camels has been accomplished. The amplification and sequencing of a fragment of the κ-casein partial promoter consisting of 1212 bps were successfully done. The findings of the sequencing showed a greater than 95% homology between the sequence analysis of existing large variety of camel species and those studied currently. These results were based on the sequenced camel partial promoter fragment. Moreover, three halotypes of dromedaries and four haplotypes of Bactrians were observed in camels (Khabiri et al., 2014b)

Heat Tolerance Arabian dromedaries were exposed to constant heat stress in controlled conditions. At 0, 3, 6, and 24 hr of exposure to heat stress, samples of blood were collected. The cDNA was converted and prepared from an isolated total RNA. To access the genes responsible for differential expression of heat stress, the real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used. When animals were exposed to heat stress, HSP60, HSPA6, HSP105, and HSPA1L genes overexpressed themselves at the 3-hr point. Their expression decreased quickly at 6-hour point and subsequently rebounded after 24 hr of exposure. Heat stress considerably affected the expression of other heat stress–responsive genes: HSP70, HSP90, HSPFB, and CaHS. The mechanisms of body homeostatics will understand better under heat-stress conditions in camels by studying their physiological mechanisms and integration of functions of genes (Sadder et al., 2015). HSP is the best biological marker to quantify heat stress in camels. Due to their distinctive and significant adaptive characteristics, camels are considered animals of the future. They can considerably mitigate the growing and annoying challenges climatic changes to the world. Therefore, in varying climatic situations, considerable research attempts are required to promote the development of abandoned species (Al-Jassim & Sejian, 2015). Camelus dromedarius can tolerate the severe heat of the desert environment. Therefore, the sequencing of its genomic cluster, which contains genes of the hsp70 family (linked with major histocompatibility complex class III), was undertaken. The cluster, which was composed of heat shock elements (HSEs), has two genes of the hsp70 family that respond to heat stress. A third gene, however, lacks HSEs, and heat shock cannot induce it. A  comparison of camel hsp70 cluster with the genome from other animals from the same region showed a similar organization of genes that form the cluster. Specifically, the tandem arrangement has been observed in two heat-inducible hsp70 genes. Nonetheless, inverted orientation was implied to express the third constitutive. A comparison of regulatory regions of hsp70 genes from camels and other mammals showed a significant match of transcription factor with each other. A further location of these sequences was observed in the highly conserved 250-bp upstream region. A further correspondence of this sequence was to HSEs followed by NF-Y and Sp1 binding sites. The high conservation of camel gene sequences prohibits further thinking about its camel-specific regulatory elements. An analysis of RT-PCR and 59/39RACE was really surprising. This analysis demonstrated the expression of all three hsp70 genes in the blood cells and muscles of camels. Other than their expression when animals are under heat shock, they can also express under normal physiological functions. Therefore, these genes help animals tolerate extreme environmental conditions. During the evolutionary processes, the hsp70 cluster showed very high conservation. It highlights an important role of this organization because of its linkage with major histocompatibility locus in mammals. This explains the performance of a vital function of these genes in a very coordinated way (Garbuz et al., 2011). HSPB-1 cDNA of an Arabian camel was cloned and functionally characterized. This gene is 791 bp long, with 50 untranslated regions (UTR) of 34 bp, 30 UTRs of 151 bp with a poly (A) tail, and an open reading frame (ORF) of 606 bp. It encodes a protein of 201 amino acids (accession number: MF278354). Using quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) the tissue-specific expression analysis of Arabian camel HSPB-1 mRNA was accomplished. It suggested that Arabian camel HSPB-1 mRNA expressed itself constitutionally in all examined tissues of Arabian camels. Nonetheless, its

136

Biology and Breeding of Camels

predominant expression level was, however, observed in the esophagus tissue. The HSPB-1 protein of Arabian camel is phylogenetically grouped together with those of Bactrian camels and alpacas. When the modeled three-dimensional (3D) structure of Arabian camel HSPB-1 protein was compared with the available protein 3D structure of HSPB-1 from humans, it showed the presence of α-crystallin domain. Moreover, several similarities were observed between the two structures by using super secondary structure prediction (Manee et al., 2017)

PHYLOGENETIC AND GENOTYPING Using 13 microsatellites, genetic analysis showed the closest genetic proximity of dromedary camels to the North African (Tindouf, Algeria) camel population. However, although there was a certain degree of subdivision, still, among the breeders, significant differences were present. This difference in the genetic makeup was found with a global FST1 value of 0.116 (Ursula et al., 2010). The genetic diversity of Malvi camel population was evaluated in the study taken very recently. For 138 Malvi camels, multilocus genotype data were generated on microsatellites. During these studies, a total of 240 alleles were observed. A heterozygosity value of 0.6041 ± 0.3256 was found in the camel population for all 29 loci. However, the mean expected heterozygosity was 0.5978 ± 0.1983 over 29 loci; the mean number of alleles (Na) was found to be 8.2759 ± 3.4938. Nonetheless, in the Malvi population, the mean effective number of alleles (Ne) was 3.1917 ± 1.7795 (Prasad et  al., 2014). Mitochondrial DNA was extracted from 111 individuals representing 11 domestic Bactrian camel breeds selected from China, Mongolia, Russia, and one wild Bactrian camel group from Mongolia. The 1,140-bp fragments of Cyt-b were directly sequenced after their amplification by PCR. DNASTAR was used to analyze the sequences of 92 domestic and 19 wild Bactrian camel samples. Using MEGA, a phylogenetic tree was constructed. These samples were further divided into two haplogroups called a domestic haplogroup (H1–H13, H15, and H16) and a wild haplogroup (H14). Samples of these groups contained 16 haplotypes. In the Sunit Bactrian camel breed, the haplotype diversity values were from 0.356 in the HosZogdort to 0.889. The HosZogdort breed had the lowest value of 0.00031, and the Sunit breed displayed the highest nucleotide diversity value of 0.00115. A single monophyletic linage was observed in all domestic Bactrian camels, which showed as a sister group to wild Bactrian camels. Since domestication, this finding was consistent with a single-domestication event and independent maternal inheritance. In addition, Chinese, Mongolian, and Russian domestic Bactrian camels shared the most common mitochondrial haplotypes (H1, H3, H4). These observations showed that in these three regions, among domestic breeds, there was no distinguishing geographic structure. These studies concluded that for Bactrian camels from the Chinese, Mongolian, and Russian regions, their patterns of distribution are very much related even genetically (Ming et al., 2016). Nonetheless, the evolutionary history of dromedary and Bactrian camels goes back to their emergence from their ancestors on the North American continent to the Middle Eocene (about 40  million years ago). Based on the molecular genetic data, although the genetic status of the two domestic species has long been established, the wild two-humped camel has only recently been recognized as a separate species, Camelus ferus. With severe bottlenecks occurring during the last glacial period and in the recent past, the demographic history recognized from genome drafts of Old World camels shows the independent development of the three species over the last 100,000 years. Ongoing demographic studies consider the status of relevant production traits, the immune system of the animal, the global population structure, and the subsequent domestication of Old World camels. Specific metabolic pathways have been described which attribute to the now available whole genome drafts it sheds new light on the camel’s ability to adapt to desert environments. These data will link economically relevant phenotypes to genotypes and will conserve the diverse genetic resources in Old World camelids beating the origin for genomewide association studies (Burger, 2016). Using Bactrian camel sequences, the cDNAs of two proinflammatory cytokines, namely, interleukin (IL-6) and transforming growth factor (TGF-α), from dromedary camels were amplified by PCR and subsequently cloned for sequence analysis. When

Camels’ Genomic Potentials

137

the relationship between these two camels was explored on the bases of similarity in amino acid profile, it revealed that IL-6 of dromedary camels shared a 99.5% identity at both the nucleotide and amino acid levels with IL-6 of Bactrian camels. However, in the case of TGF-α, the identity of dromedary camel was 99.4% and 99.1% at nucleotide and amino acid levels, respectively, with that of Bactrian camels. Based on the amino acid sequences when a phylogenetic relationship was developed, the close relationship in these cytokine genes between dromedary camels and other members of camelids was observed (Nagarajan et al., 2011).

Growth and Weight To study the quality and quantity of meat in the terms of carcass trait, physical properties, chemical composition, and histological traits, we used 11 growing one-humped male camels (8 Sudani and 3 Maghrabi). Interpreting these properties, the relationship between the two camel species was developed based on meat characteristics and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the growth hormone and myogenic factor 5 genes. When Sudani and Maghrabi camels were compared, no significant differences (p < 0.05) between both breeds in body weight gain and dressingout percentage were observed. A further comparison was arranged with and without including the hump. When based on the hump, a slaughter weight of 50.69% versus 53.68% was obtained. When the hump was included, it gave out the dressing percentage of 51.51% versus 55.62%. When the percentage of edible parts was compared, the ratio obtained was 52.81% versus 55.70%. There were significant differences in the weight of fore ribs, loin, flit, and hump due to the breed of camel. Other than these, differences were not discernable in other parts. Differences in breed significantly affected the percentages of moisture, fat, ash, and collagen with no effect on the percentage of protein. Cooking loss of camel meat was not affected by camel breed. When these traits were compared on the basis of meat histology, the Maghrabi camel showed a higher number of fibers than that of the Sudani camel (98 vs. 123). Similar differences were evident in the thickness of fibers (6.12 and 8.47 µm) and the bundle area (6529.04 vs. 7105.30 µm2). When myogenic factor 5 gene (MYF5) was analyzed by PCR, it produced DNA fragments with different sizes in different animals. The fragment size, however, ranged from 400 to 422 bp. The number of nucleotide changes for the MYF5 gene ranged from 7 to 25. The sequence identity was found between 92% to 97%. The SNP identification showed one SNP at the nucleotide number 377. The presence of this single SNP indicated the change of T nucleotide to either an A or C nucleotide with frequencies of 0.73 and 0.27, respectively. When the obtained sequences were converted into amino acid sequences, this conversion resulted in the codon number 377 from T > A. It also affected the translation process of amino acids, which changed from methionine to lysine. This SNP therefore may be used as a candidate gene for evaluating the meat quality traits in dromedary camel. When the effects of MYF5 and growth hormone (GH) genes were studied on the various components of meat on slaughter, the weight obtained, dressing percentage, and dressing percentage with and those of edible parts were significant. The effect of these genes on carcass weight, left-forequarter weight, left-hindquarter weight, four-quarters weight, edible parts weight, and carcass-with-hump weight was even highly significant. The effects of MYF5 on neck weight, shoulder as a percentage, foreshank percentage, fore-shank bone as a percentage, fore-ribs percentage, brisket weight, leg weight, and loin weight were significant, and the effects on carcass-component weight, shoulder weight, filet weight, and total carcass bone weight and percentage were even highly significant. The results also indicated that GH significantly contributed to the carcass cuts. The obtained sequences of MYF5, GH3, UTR, and 5UTR were submitted to the International Gene Bank. The concerned quarter accepted these sequences with the compliance numbers KR909026.1, KR909027.1, KR902742.1, KR902743.1, KR902744.1, and KR902745.1. The effect of GH and MYF5 on protein, fat contents, and the eye muscle area were significant. The effect of GH on cocking loss percentage, thickness of fibers, and bundles area were from significant to highly significant. The outcome proved the opportunity of using this gene in marker-aided selection programs for meat production

138

Biology and Breeding of Camels

in camels (Shehata et al., 2015). To detect the genetic polymorphism of the GH gene in five breeds of camel reared in Egypt called Sudani, Somali, Mowaled, Maghrabi, and Falahy, the PCR fragment polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) technique was used. Accordingly, the SNP between different genotypes detected in these camels was identified. The restriction enzyme MspI digested the amplified fragment of camel GH at 613 bp, and the result revealed the presence of three different genotypes, CC, CT, and TT, in tested breeds. In the genotype frequencies between these camel breeds, significant differences were recorded. The result showed higher frequency for allele C (0.75) in the Maghrabi breed (also called dual purpose) than those of other breeds tested. The sequence analysis confirmed the presence of a SNP (C264T) in the amplified fragment. This SNP was responsible for the exclusion of the restriction site C^CGG. This exclusion ultimately resulted in the appearance of two different alleles C and T. The nucleotide sequences of camel GH alleles T and C were submitted to the nucleotide sequences database NCBI/Bankit/GenBank. They were entered into the GenBank repository with accession numbers KP143517 and KP143518, respectively. These studies concluded that among the five tested camel breeds reared in Egypt, only one SNP C→T was detected in the GH gene. For the evaluation of genetic biodiversity between the camels this nucleotide substitution served as a marker. We can also use it as a marker-assisted selection (WAS) due to the possible association between allele C and a higher growth rate. The purpose of this analysis was to improve growth traits in camel breeds brought up in Egypt (Abd El-Aziem et al., 2015). Further to this arrangement of breeding programs was another objective of these studies. Applying the data on 11 she-camels and their 12 offspring (calves), maintained at TTE Camels Research Station, Matrouk, Egypt, unraveled the size, sequence, and existence of SNP of the camel growth hormone (CGH) gene in Maghraby breed of camel. The study conducted on the CGH gene of Maghraby camel revealed that this breed consists of 1726 bp. The sequence comparison of the CGH gene with reference to GenBank sequence (AJ575419.1) revealed SNP in the noncoding region (intron1) in position AJ575419:g.419C>T. The results of these studies revealed the presence of two alleles (C or T) in this locus, while when compared with the GenBank sequence, there was only one nucleotide (C). Due to its origin from a single ecotype, which has not undergone segregation and mutation due to protracted time span on evolutionary scale, hence, there was a lack of variation in the number of GNPç in the Maghraby breed. However, for the confirmation of these results, further studies using more number of animal from a wide variety of ecotypes are required (Shawki et al., 2015). The aim of this study was to evaluate the relationship between estimated body weight in Arabian camels and GH gene polymorphism. To achieve this GH gene in four Saudi Arabian camel breeds (Majaheem, Saheli, Maddah, Homor) was sequenced and aligned. SNP was searched for and correlated with an estimated body weight. From each breed, 200 animals were selected, and the polymerase chain reaction–restriction fragment-length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) method was used to detect SNPs in the genotype of these selected animals. At each position 419 (C419T) 13 SNPs (2 insertions and 11 substitutions) were detected in the Majahem breed, and one was detected in the Maddah and Homor breeds. Two SNPs (C419T and T450C) were detected in the Saheli breed. Out of these, only the T450C SNP showed an association with increased estimated body weight. Both male and female Saheli camels with the CC genotype had higher body weights than the CT and TT genotypes (p ≤ 0.05). Consequently, these studies suggest that for the selection of camels for higher growth rate and meat production, this SNP may be a useful marker (Afifi et al., 2014). Insoluble residues are the source of CGH that are left after the extraction of the gonadotrophins follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone from a single batch of one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) pituitaries. Only the single form of CGH was isolated from that residue and then accordingly it was characterized. No glycosylated form of this gene was found. To find the isoelectric points of CGH, chromatofocusing was used. Then the N-terminal of the amino acid sequence was used to compare the GH of Camelus dromedartus pituitaries with the GH of other camel species. To study the structure, function, relationship, and physiological functions of this hormone in this economically important species requires its easy availability and our enhanced knowledge about it (Martina et al., 1990).

Camels’ Genomic Potentials

139

PHENOTYPIC AND GENETIC VARIATION The PROCAMED project was started to encourage research on dromedary camels in the discipline of genetics. Sixty-two blood samples were collected from the distinct animals from Tataouine, Medenine, and Kebili. These animals belonged to three subpopulations called Ourdhaoui Medenine, Ourdhaoui Tataouine, and Merzougui. This study aimed to assess the genetic diversity of dromedary camels found in Tunisia. In these three subpopulations, 26 alleles were observed. For these observations, seven microsatellites markers were used. However, only four of them were successfully amplified, with a mean number of 6.5 (Nouairia et al., 2015). Four Saudi Arabian camel populations, namely, Magaheem (MG), Maghateer (MJ), Sofr (SO), and Shual (SH), were selected to address their genetics. For genotyping 160 samples of these camels, 16 microsatellite markers were used. Out of these 16 markers, only VOLP67 did not produce any PCR amplicon. Fifteen microsatellite loci generated 139 alleles, with the mean number of 9.27 alleles per locus. Four microsatellites in MG, eight in MJ, and six in SO and SH deviated from the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. The fixation genetics index (Fst) among these populations is very low and ranges from 0.006 (between SH and SO) to 0.017 (between MG and MJ). From these results, it can be inferred that all four Saudi camel populations studied have the low population differentiation. Sign, standardized differences, and Milcoxon tests, along with the L-shaped distribution of the mode-shift test, did not show any significant heterozygous excess or bottleneck in the recent past. The current studies suggest that in camel breeding programs, these microsatellites are powerful tools (Mahmoud et  al., 2012). To investigate the genetic polymorphism in the Jaisalmer breed, six New World Camelidae microsatellite primer pairs were used. Thirty camels of the Jaisalmer breed were subjected to PCR. The resolution of the amplification product was undertaken in 6% urea polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE), and then attaining was accomplished with silver nitrate. In the Jaisalmer camel breed, all six microsatellite primer pairs were found to be polymorphic. The number of alleles ranged from two to five. Normally, a heterozygosity range of 0.32–0.651 is expected. However, a heterozygosity range of 0.268–0.588 was observed in polymorphic results. These results further showed that these microsatellites’ loci are highly useful in the study of genetic polymorphism in dromedary breeds (Gautam et al., 2004). The polymorphic DNA of unrelated camels, including the Bikaneri, Jaisalmer, and Kachchhi breeds, was amplified using PCR. To obtain the reproducible polymorphic bands with fluctuating frequencies between these three breeds of camels, five oligonucleotide primers were used. A total of 75 bands were amplified, of which 27 (36%) were polymorphic. The probability of obtaining identical fingerprints was observed to be lowest in primer GC-10 (5.7%) followed by OP-08 (8.7%), GT-10 (11.3%), G-2 (15.5%), and G-1 (80%). The genetic variability was highest in the Bikaneri (0.8 ± 0.05), followed by the Kachchhi (0.84 ± 0.06) and Jaisalmer (0.87 ± 0.05) breeds. The close relationship between the Bikaneri and Kachchhi camels (0.075), followed by the Jaisalmer and Kachchhi (0.016) and Bikaneri and Jaisalmer (0.132) breeds, was observed from interbreed genetic distance. The Bikaneri–Kachchhi (0.529), Jaisalmer–Kachchhi (0.588), and Bikaneri–Jaisalmer (0.556) breeds (Mehta et al., 2006) showed a similar genetic relationship in the degree of population subdivision. Sixteen microsatellite loci were used to study the genetic polymorphism in the Kachchhi breed of camel. Only 13 microsatellites were found polymorphic among all the 16 used. The number of alleles ranged from two to six. The expected range of heterozygosity was 0.332–0.796. The range of polymorphism was from 0.277–0.765. These results exhibited that there was sufficient genetic diversity present among the dromedary individuals for the potential use of microsatellites to further investigate their genetics, including genetic diversity analysis, individual identification, production enhancement, and parentage testing (Mehta et  al., 2007). Thirty-two lactobacilli strains were isolated from the four samples of camel cheese collected from Bikaner, India. The identification of these strains was accomplished by their phenotypic and genotypic characteristics. For the diversity analysis and species identification, the sequencing of the 16S r DNA were performed. The results showed that the Lactobacilli delbrueckii and Lb.

140

Biology and Breeding of Camels

fermentum dominated the culture medium. Lb. plantarum and Lb. casei were second in abundance. When these isolates were evaluated technically, 20 isolates were good acid producers, 8 of them are positive for citrate utilization, and the other 11 showed the presence of Prtp gene. For the start of the camel cheese, isolates obtained can be the potential for developing a definite strain for a starter of camel cheese (Nanda et al., 2011). For the study of genetic polymorphism in the Mewari breed of camel, 41 microsatellites loci were investigated. The polymerase chain reaction was carried out for the 50 camels of Memari breed. Six percent urea PAGE was used for resolving the amplification product while staining was achieved with silver nitrate. In the Mewari camel breed, only 21 microsatellite loci showed polymorphism. The number of alleles ranged from two to five. The observed and predicted heterozygosity ranged from 0.264 to 0.720 and 0.14 to 0.83. The polymorphic information regarding the markers ranged from 0.244 to 0.649. The results showed that genetic variation exists among camels of the Mewari breed, and the phenomenon of selective breeding also exists in the Mewari breed. The comprehensive study of these microsatellites suggested using these markers for genetic applications. Important among them are linkage mapping, marker-assisted selection for production enhancement, and parentage testing (Mehta, 2013). Indian dromedary camels were cloned and characterized for producing some useful genes important in the body functioning of camels. These genes are the hemagglutinin (HA)-encoding gene and gene encoding for immunomodulatory proteins, that is, schlafen-like protein, epidermal growth factor, and Golgi anti apoptotic protein of camel poxvirus (CMLV). The size of the HA-encoding gene is 941 bp. This gene is obtained from the Indian CMLV. Schlafen-like protein gene was sequenced. On sequencing, it revealed that CMLV obtained from India shared 99.6% identity with the CMLV-Iran and CMLV-Kazakhstan strains. These similarities were observed both at nucleotide and amino acid level. In the Indian CMLV, the size of the epidermal growth factor (EGF) gene is 418 bp. This increased size can be attributed to the addition of one cytosine at the position of the 132 of the EGF gene. Sequence analysis of the Golgi anti-apoptotic protein gene in Indian CMLV showed that it shared a 99.5% sequence identity with CMLV-Kazakhstan. This identity was observed in both the nucleotide and amino acid levels. Phylogenetic analysis of these genes following their nucleotide and amino acid sequencing can suggest that CMLV-India is forming a cluster with Kazakhstan and Iranian CMLV isolates (Nagarajan et al., 2013).

FUTURE PERSPECTIVES OF CAMEL GENETICS The recent approaches of biotechnology, the production of stem cells, provide a lot of research opportunities for research on developmental biology, biomedical research, and genetic engineering. If stem cell lines from camels are established, it will tremendously facilitate  regenerative medicine  for genetically superior camels. It will help in generating genetically modified animals by targeting the camel genome. Furthermore, it will serve as a way and means for genome conservation for elite breeds. Future horizons and potential applications for camel stem cells have been highlighted in the current research (Islam et al., 2018) The genomic DNA of T. evansi was isolated from the naturally infected buffalos, horses, and camels. That DNA was digested and then analyzed. Alu I, Dra I, EcoR I, Hind III, Kpn I, Not I, Pst I, Sal I, Sma I, and Taq I (panel of restriction enzymes) completely digested the genomic DNA. The digested DNA was subjected to agarose gel electrophoresis. The digested DNA samples appeared as a continuous smear along the electrophoretic tracks on ethidium bromide staining. Such appearance patterns revealed the complete size of the trypanosome genome. In the Trypanosoma genome, there was no fixed restriction site. Nonetheless, in restriction enzymes Dra I and Alu I, restriction sites were observed at the region of 1.5 kb and 100 bp, respectively. These restriction sites appeared with a background smear of DNA fragments. The nuclear DNA restriction endonuclease profile among the isolates did not show any heterogeneity (Yadav et al., 2004). To explore the possibility of cross-species amplification in Jaisalmer camel microsatellite analysis was explored with 16 New World Camelidae microsatellite markers. For this purpose, the

Camels’ Genomic Potentials

141

blood samples of the 50 distinct camels were collected both from the farms and the field. The resolution of the microsatellites was accomplished on the 6% urea PAGE. Following the staining of these microsatellites with silver nitrate, the size was marked. In Jaisalmer camels, 13 microsatellites were found to be polymorphic. The number of alleles ranged from two to seven. The predicted heterozygosity range of 0.320–0.816 was observed with the polymorphic range of 0.268–0.791. The results showed positive amplification of New World Camelidae microsatellite markers in the Jaisalmer breed, but it was across the species (Mehta & Sahani, 2007). Infections from Anaplasma marginale  and  Anaplasma phagocytophilum  were confirmed by serological surveys. Nonetheless, information is lacking on the molecular surveys and genetic characterization of camel-associated  Anaplasma  species. In this study, tick-borne  Anaplasmataceae  were detected in 30 out of 100 (30%) healthy dromedary camels. These camels were screened using a combined 16S rRNA—groEL PCR-sequencing approach. Nucleotide sequencing confirmed the presence of the Anaplasmataceae genome in 28 of the 33 16S rRNA PCR-positive samples by nucleotide sequencing approach. In two additional positive samples, 16S rRNA sequence data that were ambiguous were identified by groEL gene characterization. Phylogenetic analyses of a 1289 nt segment of the 16S rRNA gene confirmed the presence of a unique Ehrlichia lineage and a discrete  Anaplasma  lineage. They were comprised of three variants, occurring at an overall prevalence of 4% and 26%, respectively. When an aligned 559 nt groEL gene region was genetically characterized it revealed camel-associated Anaplasma and Ehrlichia lineages. These linages were novel and most closely related to  A. platys  and  E. canis. Based on the confirmed monophyly, minimum pairwise genetic distances between each novel lineage were observed. From their closest sister, taxon isolation of bacteria was impossible. Therefore, we propose that Candidatus status be assigned to each. When Anaplasmataceae was isolated from naturally infected asymptomatic dromedary camels in Saudi Arabia, their genetic characterization confirms the presence of two novel lineages. These lineages are phylogenetically linked to two pathogenic canid species of increasing zoonotic concern (Bastos et al., 2015). Staphylococcus aureus strains were isolated from the camel abscesses and wastitic milk of goats, camels, and from different cattle. On the basis of the 16S-23S ribosomal RNA the intergenic space polymorphism was carried out. For the amplification of DNA of intergenic space, two sets of primers were used. One of them had a highly conserved sequence in eubacteria 123S rRNA transcript, while the other had a less conserved sequence of 16S rRNA, reported earlier by other markers. The amplification was, however, achieved by only one set of primers. Sixty strains of S. aureus were tested. Out of these, only 18 strains were successfully amplified. Most frequent bands of DNA in these strains were of 350, 500, 750, and 1500 bp. Polymorphism was noted in the number of the rRNA transcripts. Size of the 16S–23S rRNA intergenic space was calculated and was evident by variable band pattern in different strains of S. aureus (Dubey et al., 2009). Tuberculosis (TB) was diagnosed in an adult male camel. TB inflicted the typical lesions in the lungs, liver, and spleen. On the histopathological examination of sections of the tissues, the presence of acid-fast bacilli was confirmed. Samples collected from camel showed mycobacteria, which were identified as the member of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC). Then, successively, the biomedical tests and multiplex PCR confirmed it as M. bovis. These tests displayed bands of 445 bp, which indicated MTBC, and another band of 823 bp, which indicated it as M. bovis (Verma et  al., 2011). Using Bactrian camel sequences, the cDNAs of three cytokines, namely, IL-2, IL-4, and interferon gamma (IFN-γ), from dromedary camels were amplified by PCR and consequently cloned for sequence analysis. When the relationship between Bactrian and dromedary camels was explored on the basis of on amino acid sequences, it showed that IL-2 of dromedary camels shared 99.5% and 99.3% identity with Bactrian camels’ IL-2 at the nucleotide and amino acid levels, respectively. However, IL-4 of dromedary camels showed a similarity of 99.7% and 99.2% with Bactrian camels’ IL-4 at the nucleotide and amino acid levels, respectively. The dromedary camels’ IFN-γ similarity, however, was a little higher. The IFN-γ shared 100% identity with Bactrian IFN-γ at both the nucleotide and amino acid levels. The amino acid sequence based on the phylogenetic analysis showed that

142

Biology and Breeding of Camels

there was a close relationship between these cytokine genes of the dromedary camels and other camelids (Nagarajan et al., 2012). The culture-independent approach was used in order to investigate the composition of microorganism composition of the rumen of the camel (Camelus dromedarius) was also investigated irrespective of cultural homogeneity or heterogeneity. Using currently available metagenomes, the rumen samples were compared with it determine the potential difference in rumen microbial systems. MG-RAST, a web-based tool, was used to determine the pyrosequencing based on metagenomics, which was then applied to analyze phylogenetic and metabolic profiles. The pyrosequencing of a camel rumen sample yielded 8,979,755 nucleotides assembled into 41,905 sequence reads with an average read length of 214 nucleotides. Metagenomics reads from taxonomic analysis indicated Bacteroidetes (55.5%), Firmicutes (22.7%), and Proteobacteria (9.2%) were dominantly present in camel rumen. All these microbial phyla were significantly higher than any other phyla found in the rumen of the camel. When their presence was further phylogenetically resolved, then it was revealed that the dominating microbes in camel rumen metagenome was Bacteroides species. Further to this functional analysis of these microbes was also executed. It revealed that clustering-based subsystem and carbohydrate metabolism were the most abundant SEED subsystem representing 17% and 13% of camel metagenome, respectively. The application of com metagenome showed a high taxonomic and functional similarity of camel rumen. Nonetheless, it is not surprising because both animals are mammalian herbivores with rumen digestive systems having similar structures and functions. Annotations available in the SEED database, called the combined pyrosequencing approach and subsystems-based annotations, helped in understanding the metabolic potential of these microbiomes. Irrespective of the type of rumen, all these data suggest that agricultural and animal husbandry practices can impose significant selective pressures on the rumen microbiota. The present study highlights striking similarities and differences when compared to other animal gastrointestinal environments, providing a baseline for understanding the complexity of camel rumen microbial ecology (Bhatt et al., 2013). At the molecular level, the present study characterized the paraflagellar rod 1 (pfr1) gene of Trypanosoma evansi from camels. The pfr1 gene was amplified by PCR using the genomic DNA of T. evansi from camels. A suitable bacterial plasmid vector was used for the cloning of the amplicon, and the pfr1 gene was then sequenced for its characterization. When a clone of pfr1 genes was confirmed, the plasmid DNA was then sequenced. The coding sequences of the pfr1 gene showed that it consists of 1,769 bp. The tree topology of pfr1 gene is based on the neighborjoining method. The maximum parsimony method with 100% bootstrap values was for the identification of pfr1 gene sequence. This sequence showed a close homology with other Trypanosoma and Leishmania spp. gene sequences (Kumar et al., 2013)

Conclusion In the previously mentioned searched literature, Ali et al. (2019) explored different genetic fields to compile the genetic work on camels that can be very informative and helpful for the genetics researchers on the camel. Similarly, a review of the advances in camel genetics and their application has been written by Ramadan and Inoue-Murayama (2017). Similarly, a study about global camel research was carried out by Gupta et al. (2015). Also, Vyas et al. (2014) worked on the application of genetics on camels in camel research (1986–2013)-NRC. This type of study is very helpful for science students, scholars, and researchers because it produces huge amounts of data about different fields in genetics and provides information about the latest techniques in genetics being used in the world to research and explore camel genetics.

NOTE

1 FST is the proportion of the total genetic variance contained in a subpopulation (the S subscript) relative to the total genetic variance (the T subscript).

Camels’ Genomic Potentials

143

REFERENCES Abd El-Aziem, S., Abd El-Kader, H., Sally., A., and Othman. (2015). Detection of MspI polymorphism and the single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) of GH gene in camel breeds reared in Egypt. African Journal of Biotechnology, 14, 752–757. doi: 10.5897/AJB2014.14374 Abdussamad, A. M., Charruau, P., Kalla, D. J. U., and Burger, P. A. (2015). Validating local knowledge on camels: Colour phenotypes and genetic variation of dromedaries in the Nigeria-Niger corridor. Livestock Science, 181, 131–136. doi: 10.1016/j.livsci.2015.07.008 Afifi, M., Metwali, E. M. R., and Brooks, P. H. (2014). Association between growth hormone single nucleotide polymorphism and body weight in four Saudi camel (Camelus dromedarius) breeds. Pakistan Veterinary Journal, 34, 494–498. Ali, A., Baby, B., and Vijayan, R. (2019). From desert to medicine: A review of camel genomics and therapeutic products. Frontiers in Genetics, 10, 1–20. Ali, R., Hussain, T., Babar, M. E., Masood, F., Ahmad, N., Pervez, M., and Nawaz, A. (2018). Molecular diversity and phylogenetic analysis of eight dromedary camel breeds of Pakistan based on mitochondrial ATP6 and ATP8 genes. The Pakistan Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 55, 397–401. doi: 10.21162/ PAKJAS/18.3625 Al-Jassim, R., and Sejian, V. (2015). Review paper: climate change and camel production: impact and contri�bution. Journal of Camelid Science, 8, 1–17. Babar, M. E., Hussain, T., Wajid, A., Nawaz, A., Nadeem, A., Shah, S. A., and. Abdullah, M. (2015). Mitochon�drial Cytochrome-b and D-loop sequence based genetic diversity in Mareecha and Bareela camel breeds of Pakistan. The Journal of Animal and Plant Sciences, 25, 591–594. Bastos, A. D., Mohammed, O. B., Bennett, N. C., Petevinos, C., and Alagaili, A. N. (2015). Molecular detec� tion of novel Anaplasmataceae closely related to Anaplasma platys and Ehrlichia canis in the dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius). Veterinary Microbiology, 179(3–4), 310–314. doi: 10.1016/j. vetmic.2015.06.001 Bhatt, V. D., Sena, D. S., and Patil, N. V. A. J. G. (2013). Molecular analysis of the bacterial microbiome in the forestomach from the dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius). Molecular Biology Reports, 40(4), 3363. Bhure, S. K., Mehta, S. C., and Singh, R. (2008). Comparative genomic organization of camel beta casein gene promoter: A computational gene regulation study. Journal of Camel Research and Practice, 15(1), 1–5. Burger, P. A. (2016). The history of old world camelids in the light of molecular genetics. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 48(5), 905–913. doi: 10.1007/s11250-016-1032-7 Dubey, A., Ghorui, S. K., and Kashyap, S. K. (2009). Differentiation of Staphylococcus aureus strains based on 16S-23S ribosomal RNA intergenic space polymorphism. Indian Journal of Biotechnology, 8, 276–279. Elrobh, M., Samar Alanazi, M., Khan, W., Abduljaleel, Z., Alamri, A., and Bazzi, M. (2011). Molecular cloning and characterization of cDNA encoding a putative stress-induced heat-shock protein from camelus dromedarius. The International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 12(7), 4214–4236. doi: 10.3390/ijms12074214 Garbuz, D. G., Astakhova, L. N., Zatsepina, O. G., Arkhipova, I. R., Nudler, E., and Evgen’ev, M. B. (2011). Functional organization of hsp70 cluster in camel (Camelus dromedarius) and other mammals. PLoS ONE, 6(11). Gautam, L., Mehta, S. C., Gahlot, R. S., and Gautam, K. (2004). Genetic characterisation of Jaisalmeri camel using microsatellite markers. Indian Journal of Bio Technology, 4, 457–459. Ghias, M., Shah, U., Reissmann, M., Qureshi, A., Schwartz, H., Khan, M., and Shakeeb, U. (2012). Determina�tion of genotype differences through restriction endonuclease in Camels (Camelus dromedarius). African Journal of Biotechnology, 11(53), 11543–11547. Gupta, B. M., Ahmed, K. K. M., Gupta, R., and Tiwari, R. (2015). World camel research: A scientometric assessment, 2003–2012. Scientometrics, 102(1), 957–975. doi: 10.1007/s11192-014-1405-5 Hussain, T., Babar, M., and Pervez, M. (2016). Sequence diversity of BoLA-DRB3 gene in Pakistani drome�dary camel. Journal of Animal and Plant Sciences, 26, 301–303. Hussain, T., Musthafa, M., Ellahi Babar, M., Marikar, F., Hussain, F., Akram Khan, S., and Ali, A. (2014). Genomic analysis and comparison of Pakistani camels (Camelus dromedarius) by Prion Gene. Global Veterinaria, 12(3), 307–313. doi: 10.5829/idosi.gv.2014.12.03.8249 Islam, M. S., AymanAbdel-Aziz, S., Faisal, A. A., and Abdullah, N. A. (2018). The current perspectives of dromedary camel stem cells research. International Journal of Veterinary Science and Medicine, 6, 27–30.

144

Biology and Breeding of Camels

Kakar, D. A. R., de Verdier, K., Muhammad, Y., Khan, S., Iqbal, A., and Khan, M. (2011). Milk composition in the Kohi camel of mountainous Balochistan, Pakistan. Journal of Camelid Science, 4, 49–62. Khabiri, A. A., Tahmoorespur, M., Nassiri, M. R., and Sekhavati, M. H. (2014). Mapping of transcription factor binding region of kappa casein (CSN3) gene in Iranian bacterianus and dromedaries camels. International Journal of Advanced Biological and Biomedical Research, 2(5), 1726–1733. Khabiri, A. A., Tahmoorespur, M., Nassiri, M. R., and Sekhavati, M. H. (2014). Sequencing and bioinformatics analysis of the partial promoter region of κ-casein (CSN 3) gene in Iranian Bacterianus and Dromedaries camels. International Journal of Advanced Biological and Biomedical Research (IJABBR), 2(5), 1719–1725. Kumar, S., Manoha, R. G. S., Ghorui, S. K., and Kashyap, S. K. A. C. S. M. (2013). Molecular characterisation of paraflagellar rod 1 gene of Trypanosoma evansi isolated from Indian dromedaries. Journal of Camel Practice and Research, 20(2), 191–196. Mahmoud, A. H., Alshaikh, M. A., Aljumaah, R. S., and Mohammed, O. B. (2012). Genetic variability of camel (Camelus dromedarius) populations in Saudi Arabia based on microsatellites analysis. African Journal of Biotechnology, 11(51), 11173–11180. doi: 10.5897/AJB12.1081 Manee, M. M., Alharbi, S. N., Algarni, A. T., Alghamdi, W. M., Altammami, M. A., and Alkhrayef, M. N. (2017). Molecular cloning, bioinformatics analysis, and expression of small heat shock protein beta-1 from Camelus dromedarius, Arabian camel. PLoS ONE, 12(12). Martina, N., Anouassi, A., Huet, J. C., Pernollet, J. C., Segard, V., and Combarnous, Y. (1990). Purification and partial characterization of growth hormone from the dromedary (Camelus Dromedarius). Domestic Animal Endocrinology, 7(4), 527–536. Mehta, S. C. (2013). Molecular characterisation of Mewari breed of camel. Veterinary Practitioner, 14(2), 212–215. Mehta, S. C., Goyal, A., and Sahani, M. S. (2007). Microsatellite markers for genetic characterisation of Kachchhi camel. Indian Journal of Biotechnology, 6, 336–339. Mehta, S. C., Mishra, B. P., and Sahani, M. S. (2006). Genetic differentiation of Indian camel (Camelus drome�darius) breeds using random oligonucleotide primers. Animal Genetic Resources Information, 39, 77–88. Mehta, S. C., and Sahani, M. S. (2007). Microsatellite analysis in Jaisalmeri camel (Camelus dromedarius). The Indian Journal of Animal Genetics and Breeding, 27(2), 22–26. Ming, L., Yi, L., Guo, F., Siriguleng, S., and Jirimutu, J. (2016). Molecular phylogeny of the Bactrian camel based on mitochondrial Cytochrome b gene sequences. The Genetics and Molecular Research, 15(3), 1–8. Nagarajan, G., Swami, S. K., Dahiya, S. S., Sivakumar, G., Yadav, V. K., Tuteja, F. C., and Patil, N. V. (2013). Phylogenetic analysis of immunomodulatory protein genes of camelpoxvirus obtained from India. Comparative Immunology, Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, 36(4), 415–422. Nagarajan, G., Swami, S. K., Ghorui, S. K., Pathak, K. M. L., Singh, R. K., and Patil, N. V. (2011). Cloning and phylogenetic analysis ofInterleukin-6 (IL-6) and Tumor necrosis factor-a (TNF-a) from Indian dromedaries (Camelus dromedarius). Comparative Immunology, Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, 34, 291–298. Nagarajan, G., Swami, S. K., Ghorui, S. K., Pathak, K. M. L., Singh, R. K., and Patil, N. V. (2012). Cloning and sequence analysis of IL-2, IL-4 and IFN-γ from Indian Dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius). Research in Veterinary Science, 92, 420–426. Nanda, D. K., Tomar, S. K., Singh, R., Mal, G., Singh, P., Arora, D. K., and Kumar, D. (2011). Phenotypic and genotypic characterisation of Lactobacilli isolated from camel cheese produced in India. International Journal of Dairy Technology, 64(3), 437–443. Nouairia, G., Kdidi, S., Ben Salah, R., Hammadi, M., Khorchani, T., and Yahyaoui, M. H. (2015). Assess�ing genetic diversity of three Tunisian dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) sub populations using microsatellite markers. The Emirates Journal of Food and Agriculture, 27(4), 362–366. doi: 10.9755/ ejfa.v27i4.19258 Prasad, S. H., Ali, S. A., Banerjee, P., Joshi, J., Sharma, U., and Vijh, R. K. (2014). Genetic characterization of malvi camel using microsatellite markers. DHR International Journal of Biomedical and Life Sciences (DHR-IJBLS), 51(1), 286–296. Ramadan, S., and Inoue-Murayama, M. (2017). Advances in camel genomics and their applications: A review. The Journal of Animal Genetics, 45, 49–58. doi: 10.5924/abgri.45.49 Sadder, M., Migdadi, H., Zakri, A., Abdoun, K., Samara, E., Okab, A., and Alhaidary, A. (2015). Expression analysis of heat shock proteins in dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius). International Journal of Biological Macromolecule, 22, 19–24. doi: 10.5958/2277-8934.2015.00003.X

Camels’ Genomic Potentials

145

Shah, G. M., Qureshi, A., Reissmann, M., Schwartz, H., Gandahi, D. J., Nisha, A. R., and Khan, M. (2015). Phenotypic characteristics and performance traits of kohi camel (Camelus Dromedarius). The International Journal of Pharma and Bio Sciences, 2(2), 13–19. Shah, M. G. (2006). Differentiation of Six Pakistani Camel Breeds by Phenotype and Molecular Genetics Analysis. PhD thesis, University of Agriculture Fassalabad, Fassalabad. Shamsia, S. M. (2009). Nutritional and therapeutic properties of camel and human milks International Journal of Genetics and Molecular Biology, 1(2), 52–58. Shawki, I., Mourad, M., Rashed, M. A., and Ismail, I. M. (2015). Molecular characterization of camel growth hormone gene in maghraby camel breed. Animal Science Reporter, 9(2), 50–55. Shehata, M. F., Salem, M. A. I., and Zayed, M. A. (2015). Comparative study of carcass wholesale cuts and physical components of Maghrbi and Sudani camels under Egyptian conditions. In Proceedings of the International Camel Conference, Al-Hasa, Saudi Arabia, 17–20 February, pp. 120–125, Al-Hasa. Tariq, A., Hussain, T., Ali, M., and E. Babar, M. (2014). Camels adaptation to desert biome. Global Veterinaria, 12, 307–313. doi: 10.5829/idosi.gv.2014.12.03.8249 Ursula, S., Tupac, I., Martinez, A., Susy, M., Delgado, J. V., Mariano, G., . . . Javier, C. (2010). The canarian camel: A traditional dromedary population. Diversity, 2(4), 561–571. doi: 10.3390/d2040561 Verma, R., Sena, D. S., Sharma, N. K., Alex, R., Pamane, S., Singh, R., and Pathak, K. M. L. (2011). Molecular diagnosis of Mycobacterium bovis as the cause of tuberculosis in a camel. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences, 81(11), 1126–1128. Vyas, S., Sharma, N. K., and Patil, N. V. (2014). Camel research (1986–2013)-NRC on camel. Published by National Research Centre on Camel, pp. 1–272. Yadav, S. N., Ghorui, S. K., and Ray, D. (2004). Restriction endonuclease analysis of genomic DNA of isolates of Trypanosoma. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences, 74(5), 466–469.

7

Camel as the Best-Suited Animal under Global Climate Change

INTRODUCTION The physical state of the climatic system is called climate, which comprises the atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere (Padodara  & Jacob, 2013). Therefore, climate is assessed by collecting sets of time averages. These time averages define the structure and the performance of various components of the climatic system too. In addition to that, they also define the relationships among various constituents of the climatic system (Peixoto & Oort, 1992). Simply, we can define climate as the average weather conditions observed at a particular place over a long period. By comparison, weather constitutes and corresponds to variables like temperature, moisture, wind velocity, and barometric pressure. Briefly speaking, climate covers a longer time while weather covers a shorter duration. Physically, climate has two components: microclimate and macroclimate. When we talk about a microclimate, it means that it covers the weather conditions of a very small and restricted area that is quite different from the climate of its surroundings. A macroclimate, as the name indicates, covers quite a larger area, which may be a continent, country, or the whole planet. It means that the whole world can be partitioned into various climatic conditions according to the weather of that particular area that persists for a longer period. Peel et  al. (2007), for the second half of the century, prepared a new digital Köppen–Geiger world map classifying the climate into six basic categories (Figure 7.1). Generally, these categories have been named tropical (mega-thermal), dry (arid and semiarid), temperate (mesothermal), continental (microthermal), polar, and alpine. Twelve discreet sub-categories have been derived from the six main categories. These 12 categories are hereby named desert, steppe, tundra, oceanic climate, rainforest, monsoon, tropical savannah, humid subtropical, humid continental, Mediterranean climate, subarctic climate, polar, and ice cap (GPCC, 2011; (Figure 7.1).

CLIMATE CHANGE Climate change is an undeniable fact and is universally recognized equally by both politicians and scientists. Over the past few decades, climatic changes have occurred at quite a disturbing rate, and these changes have been imposing their effects on naturally built ecosystems and humans (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC], 2014). There are so many indicators that predict the onset and prevailing climatic changes. Important among them is an increase in ocean and land surface temperatures. Sea-level rise and the subsequent increase in its salinity and acidity have had a severe impact on aquatic fauna. The melting of Arctic ice sheets and the Greenland ice sheet overflowed the water in rivers. Such heavy melting ultimately resulted in heavy and devastating floods. Human activities are the main causative agents of these changes. Since the pre-industrial era, humans are creating such factors that can disturb existing climates. However, economics and further population increases ameliorated the intensity of these activities from subsequently affecting the climate. The IPCC (2014) is of the view that since 1850, the last three decades are warmer than DOI: 10.1201/9781003408598-7

147

148

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 7.1  Koppen-Geiger climate classification. Source: koeppen.geiger.vu.wien.ac.at

any preceding decade observed on the surface of Earth. An average increase of 0.85 °C (0.65 to 1.06) from 1880 to 2012 has been observed in environmental temperatures at a global level (IPCC, 2014). These temperatures, however, are not uniform, and a variation in temperatures has been observed from country to country. The reason is simply that due to tropical variable locations, some areas are cooler while others are warmer. Despite all these variations, an increase in temperature has been factually witnessed (Al Jassim & Sejian, 2015).

Climate Change and Global Warming At the global level, both scientists and politicians widely acknowledge that climate change is real. There has been an increase in temperature in both land and ocean. This temperature ultimately increases sea levels. This is followed by an increase in ocean salinity and acidity (Al Jassim, 2015). It is repeatedly said, and it is a fact, that human activities are playing a major role in these climatic changes. Human beings have been disturbing the climate since the pre-industrial era. Increases in population, with the subsequent increase in economic demands, have further enhanced the intensity of these activities. Feed production activities for livestock, following their enteric fermentation, and

Camel as the Best-Suited Animal under Global Climate Change

149

FIGURE 7.2  Urination in camels. Source: quora.com

manure management are significantly contributing to greenhouse gases (GHGs). Little is known about camel biology, and how and what it contributes to GHGs is not much known yet. Deficient areas are largely filled by extrapolating known knowledge from cattle, but how valid these findings are has not fully tested and verified. Definitely there are differences in the physiological functioning and digestibility when we compare the four-chambered heart of cows with that of the three-chambered heart in camels, and what are the effects on nutrient metabolism and absorption need to be investigated. Further studies are needed on the daily differences in feed and water intake in cattle, which is quite different from that of camels because of huge differences in ecosystems, intermittent water and feed intake, microbial populations, and fermentation, feed intake, nutrient yield, and ultimate excretion either in the in the form of urine and/or dung (Figures 7.2 and 7.3) Currently, there are enormous environmental changes, a major issue at present, that are imposing unfavorable effects on agriculture, its related businesses, and livestock including, wildlife and aquatic flora and fauna, routine daily of nature-controlled life, the environment, and sociocultural favorable interactions. Recent climatic and/or environmental changes have negatively impacted daily routines. Sometimes, rivers have flooded and other water resources while droughts have converted huge parcels of agricultural land into deserts. Climatic changes have further become sources of such diseases, which affect all organisms and have not been seen before today (Idowu et  al., 2011). These environmental changes are hard to manage, but different varieties of plants and animals can play a direct and indirect role in the management of these environmental disturbances and alterations. Various scientists are of the view that these environmental changes are affecting flora and fauna on the earth directly or indirectly. Climate change further influences competition among particular animals and plant species (Iqbal & Khan, 2010). Believably, these environmental changes exert a lot of negative effects on the production of both animals and plants, and if these organisms fail to adjust to the changing and prevailing environment, irrespective of the country and/or nation where

150

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 7.3  Urination in cattle. Source: shutterstock.com

they are present, they face devastating results. Therefore, the need of the hour is to select such animal species that can comfortably adjust to the prevailing environmental conditions as well as those expected in the future (Gaughan et al., 2013). Also, there is an immediate need to observe the effects of these environmental changes on animals and their response to these alterations and stressors for their proper management and required productivity. Local inhabitants, and especially pastoralists, have taken their own measures, although they are not as visible, to deal with such environmental changes to save themselves and their belongings. One of such measures of pastoralists specifically observed in the Horn of Africa is that they have started farming camels instead of cattle and further have replaced sheep with goats, which have a better capability of facing such hostile and unfavorable environments in distant areas. Taking the camel as an example, it is more resistant to drought and can survive without water for an extended time, which cattle cannot do. Considering their food, both camels and goats feed on hedges. These are desert plants that can successfully survive and flourish there for quite a long period. To combat these changes like droughts, desertification, and the like, in these communities, it will be advisable to encourage the development of local species and make them resilient to better face the current situation. Among climatic changes and management under their prevalence, drought is one component that can never be neglected. All animal holders and/or farmers should make all arrangements well ahead of time to cope with seasonal changes before they fall short of the feed and water they require. The density of domesticated animals, following their management and their livelihood, is well connected with their health, disease prevalence, and welfare. Among all of them, the welfare of animals is more important, and the owner should take the maximum possible care and measures for safeguarding and securing them (Clayton, 2007). The IPCC (2014) has done considerable work on climatic changes and has compiled its observations into a report. It says that at the global level, seas have risen up to 0.19 (0.17–0.21) m during the period from 1901 to 2010. From 2002 to 2011, the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets have sufficiently lost

Camel as the Best-Suited Animal under Global Climate Change

151

their total volume of water. Overall, the mean mass of Arctic sea ice has shown a decrease in the range of 3.5–4.1% per decade during the period from 1979 to 2012. These prevailing climatic changes have decreased ocean pH by 0.1. This finally resulted in an increase in the acidity of ocean water. Currently, the acidity of ocean water has touched the figure of 26%. Generally speaking, at the global level, climate change brings with it several challenges to face and cope with, which are environmental, social, and economic (Mendelsohn et al., 2006). Although at the world level it is maximally tried to cover the impact of climatic changes, still, there is a lot of variation in different sectors and locations regarding how they respond to these changes, what their capacity to handle these seasonal alterations is, and what are other factors, such as socioeconomic and environmental elements, are impacting their performance in that particular environment. Climate change drastically affects agriculture, changes the economic status of poor farmers, and endangers their survival. In the agriculture sector, climatic changes have affected livestock. The reverse is also true. Livestock, directly or indirectly, affect the climate. Livestock emits methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O), also called GHGs, which have a direct bearing on climate (Sejian, 2013). Nevertheless, although livestock influences the environment with the release of the aforementioned gases, climatic changes have more drastic effects on animals. With the increase in population and the onset of environmental modifications, the demand for animal protein will rise at the world level as populations change their eating habits. In this scenario, animal production will be pivotal in the present, as well as the future, in the food supply for human beings (Sejian et al., 2015a). Although the demand for livestock and its products is increasing day by day, its further promotion and development for enhanced production will provide more marketing, as well as job, opportunities. This will improve the economic conditions of poor farmers, specifically landless ones. Therefore, globally, livestock has greater pressure due to adverse environmental changes because of the emission of GHGs (Sejian et al., 2015b). As ruminant animals do not possess the ability to endure abrupt changes in climate, it results in economic crisis, especially for poor and small farmers at the global level. Due to these problems, pastoralists, in general, and those in African countries, specifically, have and are shifting from cattle to camels and in several other cases to small ruminants. Camels provide an alternate livelihood security in this changing climate scenario protecting the socioeconomic status of small and poor farmers. Currently, climatic conditions have changed or are changing so drastically, and drought conditions are so severe that even camels, which are well known for their hardiness and resistance, have become vulnerable to these changes and are losing productivity potential.

VULNERABILITY OF CAMELS TO GLOBAL WARMING Climate change has enormous effects on energy as well as its sources. Other than these climatic changes have severely impacted human, animals, and ecosystems. Climate changes occur in the form of cycles of variable durations, which may be short term or long term, and in many cases, these changes may be dramatic and quite rapid. If we take temperature only, it reveals that there has been an increase of 1.4 °F if we compare it to the temperature at the beginning of the 20th century. It means that there is an increase of about 1.1 °F over the last 30 years. This observation tells us that by 2100, there is the possibility of another average rise of 2 °F to 11.5 °F (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2007). The sad thing is that the major changes that have been appearing in climate are all due to human interventions, which appear in the form of producing GHGs, which come from burning fossil fuels that emit carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (Figure 7.4). Forests are the major sink of CO2, but due to continuous deforestation, there is no consumption of this gas by plants, and it goes into atmosphere. The gases, especially CO2, cover Earth’s surface like a blanket and restrict the release of heat radiation from Earth to space, resulting in global warming. This scenario has witnessed higher levels of CO2 in the atmosphere than ever observed during the last 6, 50,000 years.

152

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 7.4  Sources of greenhouse gases. Source: climate central.org

These higher temperatures and elevated levels of humidity provide very conducive environments for the growth and proliferation of pathogenic microorganisms. If we take the animal body, their proportionate increase in rate (Q10 effect) of all metabolic reactions with the rise of temperature reduces the capacity of the animal body to fight the disease-causing organisms. When the immune system of an animal’s body breaks down, the animal’s capacity to resist diseases is further paralyzed, and disease dominates the animal’s body, deteriorating its health and well-being. An outbreak of numerous attacks of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) can be comfortably attributed to climate change. High temperatures and humidity provide favorable grounds for the proliferation of ecto- and endoparasites and other disease vectors. Waterlogging further facilitates the proliferation of these pathogenic organisms. Under the climatic changes, the exposure of sheep and goats to helminth infestations showed 23–63% growth reduction in their populations (Figures  7.5 and 7.6). At the global level, a 12% reduction in livestock growth has been observed (Abraham, 2011). Ruminants have suffered more than any others from climate effects because of their feeding habits, which heavily depend on pastures and grazing lands. Higher temperatures enhance the lignification of plant tissues, making them less digestible (Anonymous, 2009). Because frequent occurrences of drought induce fodder shortages, this starves livestock with subsequent morbidity and mortality. Therefore, supplementing fodder with trees and shrubs is highly important. This will meet fodder shortages and minimize losses in livestock (WMO, 2004). Bigger trees and shrubs will provide comfortable environments for animals, but they will also supplement existing fodder supplies. These trees will also promote the growth of grasses that normally fail to grow and proliferate due to high temperatures and dry weather (Onyewotu et al., 2003). Although ruminants are more resistant than monogastric animals, still food supplements are prerequisites for their successful survival and desired growth.

Camel as the Best-Suited Animal under Global Climate Change

FIGURE 7.5  Agriculture and climate change. Source: gov.mb.ca

FIGURE 7.6  Climate change impacts on animals. Source: ccafs.cgiar.org

153

154

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 7.7  Effect of climate change. Source: 350africa.org

There are several factors that can help animals cope with the existing hostile climate change effects. Animals can get help against climatic changes from their body surface area per unit body weight. In addition, relative lung size, metabolic heat production, and endocrinological profiles can also help mitigate the adverse effects of the climate. Skin and hair, the capacity of an animal for respiration, sweating, and tissue insulation effects are some other factors that, if working efficiently, can save animals from adverse climatic changes. Every animal receives a heat load daily at a particular place and time; if it is under control of an animal, the animal can cope with the prevailing climatic changes. Nevertheless, physiological, behavioral, or genetic mechanisms that manipulate these activities have not been fully explored (Hall, 2004; McManus et al., 2008). Animals tolerate these changes to a certain extent; if not, then they succumb to death (Figure 7.7).

Socioeconomic, Environmental, Cultural, and Health Dimension of Camels under Global Climate Change Climatic changes are very harsh, destructive, and challenging. Climate change poses threats especially to agriculture and animal farming. It limits the availability of food and water. Rising temperatures further cause aridity and diseases, adversely affecting the production level and quality of products. In such a mystifying situation, farmers prefer some species of animals over others. Animals that are well adapted to these emerging challenges are preferred. Such animals can produce and be the best examples of such genetic resources. Climate change truly educated the cattle pastoralists in Africa. They have started to replace cattle with camels (Kakar et  al., 2021). There has been a continuous increase in the demand for camel milk. Many farmers have started to supply camel milk to meet market demands, and many others are coming in. Recently, many new camel dairy plans have been sketched out in different regions. The main boost, however, has been observed on the Arabian Peninsula. Also, new camel milk products have been introduced into the market in Mongolia, China, Kazakhstan, Iran, India, and, the most important region, the Horn of Africa. If we follow the

Camel as the Best-Suited Animal under Global Climate Change

155

predictions of the experts about climate change, then camels are more important now than ever. The reason is quite simply that they are tough and can successfully survive in drought while creating minimal pollution. Camels produce less methane, of which one fifth of the total is produced by cattle and sheep. Camels have long been domesticated. If they are properly managed, they interact very well with human beings without damaging the ecosystem. The soft feet of camels are one example. They don’t disturb delicate ecosystems as do hooved animals. Pastoral camels travel in groups. Unlike other livestock, they cover many kilometers every day, reducing the impact of grazing on ecosystems. Camels live longer (up to 50 years of age). They prefer to browse and eat plants other animals cannot or will not. They can live up to 8 weeks without food and for 3–6 weeks without water. This means that they do not permanently attend or stay at waterholes for longer periods. Most livestock prefer to stay in one place. Their permanent stay normally leads to overgrazing of the area. The other way around, if they do not stay in a particular area, that area is under-grazed. Camels do not care for traveling distances, nor do they care for distant water sources. Hence, they can graze successfully and satisfactorily at any paddock or enclosure. Due to these qualities, they can become ideal animals for regenerative/sustainable grazing. They can conveniently share their grazing sites with cattle, sheep, and other livestock because feeding competition is nonexistent to very limited. This helps improve the economy of the farmer because the variety of livestock also breaks the parasite infestation cycle. Camels can sustain and flourish successfully in a number of unique ecosystems, which can compensate the economy of the farmer if others are not doing well when climatic conditions are hostile to livestock. Many indigenous or nomadic groups have deep and long connections with camels. They know very well how to live in arid conditions and earn from camels in lieu of other livestock. Climate change is challenging as well as changing our way of thinking, managing, and operating things. Methane production is far less from camels than from other livestock. It can be well suited for hot/drier conditions, producing reasonable quantities of milk, hides, wool, and meat. Milk processing and packaging have considerably increased in their demand and consumption in urban regions due the unique nutritional qualities of milk. Its ready availability has further enhanced its consumption. We can say that, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic, the demand for camel milk grew from Kazakhstan to Kenya and from Australia to Europe and North America. A camel milk entrepreneur from Kenya has reported that there has been an up to 20% increase in the demand for camel milk compared to cow milk. The reason for this shift is its immunity-boosting and -enhancing qualities of camel milk. Now parents are seeking camel milk for their children due to its anti-inflammatory, strong protective proteins, antimicrobial properties, and nutritional value. Further studies are required to explore its immunityenhancing qualities. Many reports are available that report on this quality. These observations suggest that camel milk can be a good and useful immunity booster. At the global level in 2019, the marketing of camel milk products is valued at 10.2 billion USD. Against this value, an estimated 3 million tons of camel milk were officially sold and consumed around the world. But true production levels could be double that reported. It is estimated that 5–6 million tons of milk is produced per year. Out of that total production, camel owners consume about 70% of camel milk, which never reaches the market. Media coverage has further highlighted the devastating effects of climate change. With the onset of COVID-19, camel milk has attained the status of having immune-boosting effects and is now considered as a superfood. Now, in dairy farming, camel milk is ranked at the top of the agenda. It provides an alternative to factory-farmed dairy milk. Even milk-intolerant people can consume it successfully with inherent health benefits. Camels are a better choice to keep both environmentally as well as humanely. Camel milk not only is good for bone health but is humane also. Currently, not only do camel pastoralists produce camel milk, but semi-intensive large farms are also producing camel milk at a mass scale. Such semi-intensive farms are quite common in the United Arab Emirates, Australia, United States of America, and in some European countries. In these countries, camels are raised on organic foods with humane treatment. Accordingly, camel milk is produced in a variety of high- and low-tech settings. Under such conditions, the health benefits of camel milk need to be further explored. Furthermore, there is a need to know how different production methods are affecting the nutritional value of camel milk. Budgets are also required to support pastoralists in upgrading camel farming as well as with reliable and effective marketing of camel milk products. Political support for pastoralists

156

Biology and Breeding of Camels

is another aspect that needs immediate attention. It is the very appropriate time to better understand and appreciate the role of this unique animal and its service to the ecosystem. At the same time, camels are important food-producing livestock. The camel can digest the scrubby and woody vegetation of the drylands that other herbivores cannot. It converts that food into milk and meat, and waste of this eaten thorny food provides sustainable nutrition for the detritivores. Ultimately, it fertilizes the soil present in such challenging and resource-poor regions.

Effects of Climate Change on Animal Size Higher temperatures not only slow the growth of flora and fauna of any ecosystem but also drastically affect the pastures and grazing areas. Sheridan and Brickford (2011) opined that at warmer temperatures, although survival can increase in small individuals, the following drought conditions are injurious for other animals. Bigger animals can tolerate these changes to some extent, but they are injurious for comparatively smaller animals. It is a common observation that many animals present on Earth are on the decline. They may be polar bears, which are considered the hardiest, and those of house sparrows, thought of more vulnerable to climatic changes. Nonetheless, climatic changes are not sparing anything, affecting life in one way or the other. Sheridan and Brickford (2011) and Karen (2011) in their studies further reported that over the last several decades, 85 animal species and 38 plant species have shown a considerable decrease in their size. Scottish sheep can be quoted as an example, which has shown a 5% reduction in size from 1985 until now (Louis, 2009). Thebault and Loreau (2003) recorded his findings which show that both animals and plants are decreasing in their overall size, and these effects are not limited to these organisms but are exerting their effects on various food webs, too, which are negatively but synergistically impacting biodiversity (Figures 7.8, 7.9, 7.10, 7.11). While affecting animals, plants,

FIGURE 7.8  Climate warming affects ecosystem functions at a large scale. Source: pnas.org

Camel as the Best-Suited Animal under Global Climate Change

FIGURE 7.9  Climate change and plant regeneration from seed. Source: researchgate.net

FIGURE 7.10  Plant development responses to climate change. Source: sciencedirect.com

157

158

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 7.11  Climate change and plant adaptations. Source: mdpi.com

or humans, climatic changes follow several biological rules that can explain their effects on an animal’s body. These rules are detailed next (Hafez, 1968). Bergmann’s rule talks about the adaptation of animals to an ambient temperature. This rule further explains that animals from cooler areas are larger in size while those from warmer areas are smaller in size. This means that in warmer climates, bigger animals from smaller breeds can efficiently dissipate excessive heat present on the outer surface of the animal. The reverse is true in smaller animals. Animals living in colder climates with small body surfaces can efficiently conserve heat during spells of low temperatures. Allen’s rule states that the tails, ears, and bills are the most exposed parts of homoeothermic animals to the environment. When ambient temperatures decrease, there is a proportionate pace of heat dissipation. This means that smaller animal sizes are good for cooler climates while bigger body sizes work best in warmer climates. Gloger’s rule is of the view that endothermic animals with more pigmentation are more prevalent in humid environments. It means that near the equator, animals accumulate more yellow and reddish-brown phaeomelanin pigments. Nonetheless, there is a gradual reduction in the intensity of this pigment when animals move from warmer to colder environments.

Camel as the Best-Suited Animal under Global Climate Change

159

Wilson’s rule says that an animal developing an outer covering, including hair length and thickness of adipose tissue, is very much dependent and relevant to the type of climate the animal inhabits. Cope’s rule says that with the passage of time and the progression of an evolutionary period, the body size of an animal will increase. Although this rule has been demonstrated and applied in several cases, it does not fit in all taxonomic groups and all clades. A larger body size means that the animal is more adapted to the prevailing environment perfectly fitted for successful survival, but there may be many other reasons for this fitness. In this way, there may be several disadvantages for the animal and/or clade level (Ridley, 2004). Rensch’s rule is an allometric law. It deals with sexual dimorphism. It mainly moves around whether the notion the sex is larger or smaller. Taking this principle into consideration, if the species is in the same lineage, an increase in size will increase dimorphism. This increased dimorphism has been observed in populations where males are larger in size. The reverse is true when females are larger in size. Dimorphism will decrease with the increase in the size of females (Szekely et al., 2004). The preceding rule further explains that with climatic changes, there is a proportionate change in the phenotype of that particular animal that is manipulated by both ecological and evolutionary processes because of the intimate linkage of both processes. In this scenario, a major task is to recognize their individual and relative roles in the prevailing environment (Ozgil et al., 2009). Studies on the fossil records of many species of animals, such as beetles, bees, cicadas, spiders, and ants, and plants have shown a reduction in their size due to climatic changes. A similar size-reduction trend has been observed in bay scallops, shrimp, crayfish, carp, Atlantic salmon, frogs, toads, iguanas, and hooded robins (Figures  7.12, 7.13, and 7.14), red-billed gulls, California squirrels, and

FIGURE 7.12  Climate change impacts on aquatic animals. Source: 19january2017snapshot.epa.gov

160

FIGURE 7.13  Fish are shrinking. Source: nexusmedianews.com

FIGURE 7.14  Effect of climate on Singapore agriculture. Source: nccs.gov.sg

Biology and Breeding of Camels

Camel as the Best-Suited Animal under Global Climate Change

161

FIGURE 7.15  General impacts of climate on agriculture. Source: 19january2017snapshot.epa.gov

wood rats, as well as certain crops like cotton, strawberries, (Figure 7.15), and corn. These scientists further reported that in addition to terrestrial fauna, aquatic fauna are facing similar challenges. For example, with the rise in 1 0C temperature, there is a 0.5–4% reduction in size of marine vertebrates. This reduction in size is even greater in fishes and ranges from 6–22% (Sheridan & Brickford, 2011). Body size changes positively with an increase in the reproduction rate when the environment is favorable; nevertheless, the opposite occurs when conditions are hostile to animals (Yom-Tov et al., 2011). Temperature changes, however, have direct effects on poikilothermic animals that affect their metabolism. This means that under these conditions, their food requirements increase, and if they are not provided with the required amount of food, they will lose weight and shrink. Temperature effects do not end here; they further ameliorate the development rates of cold-blooded animals, and they become mature without attaining the required size, which affects future generations (Parry, 2011). The situation is, however, different in high-altitude places, where increases in temperature enhance the feeding, as well as growing season, of the animals. These factors result in an increase in the size of animals; hence, animals get bigger (Parry, 2011). Yom-Tov et al. (2006, 2011) also verified the prediction by others of the warming of environment. An increase in temperature decreased the body size of at least 14 species of passerine birds (Bergmann’s rule). With the decrease in their body size, there was a subsequent increase in their wing length (Allen’s rule) present at two different locations in England. The researchers were, however, of the view that although many species have reduced in size, climatic changes cannot be always blamed for these changes.

CAMEL: AN ANIMAL OF THE FUTURE Water Requirements, Feeds, and Feeding Broadly speaking, camels can thrive in water-scarce and low-nutrient resource environments, improving itself an environmentally friendly animal. In this scenario, it possesses several advantages over other ruminants, some of which follow:

162

Biology and Breeding of Camels

• Camels are able to survive without water for several days. They move to distant places for grazing away from water points, conserving nearby water resources as well as decreasing the pressure on rangelands found in their nearest vicinity. • Considering their feeding behavior, camels have the ability to graze and feed on a wide variety of plants in near or far places, imposing less pressure on the nearest floral and fauna and maintaining faunal biodiversity in deserts as well as arid zones (Rutagwenda et al., 1990). • As it is well-established fact that camels have a wide tolerance to salt concentrations when feeding and hence eat all the plants with high salt concentrations, known as halophytes, which other ruminant cannot eat neither can tolerate due to their higher salt concentrations, giving camels a major feeding edge on their ruminant counterparts (Yagil, 1985). • Due to their modified anatomy, when compared with other ruminants, specifically camels’ longer neck size supports and enhances their grazing range from grasses to shrubs to trees, benefiting from different strata and pasture systems (Faye & Tisserand, 1989). • Because they are always moving and are very social animals, with a minimum irritation and fighting to others, whenever camels graze, their population is found uniformly distributed in the whole pasture and gazing area (Richard, 1985). • Their feet are padded with no hoof at the bottom; therefore, its walking on the ground does not hurt or damage the soil as other ruminants do with hooves. • Unlike other ruminants, camels help and protect the seeds they eat for better germination, keeping them in the digestive tract for a longer time, which enhances the germinating power of seeds, while other ruminants lack this capability, with the seeds getting digested quicker and losing their capability to be intact and properly favorable for further germination and growth (Trabelsi et al., 2012). • Camels have a much better capability to recycle nitrogen due to the slow transit time of feed taken in; hence, they have the advantage to give much better feed conversion ratio than other ruminants, not only from nutritious food but also by utilizing poor- and low-nutrient food in a much better way than its counterparts, which all can be attributed to the adaptation in their gut physiology with ruminal flora present in it. In this way, camels can get the maximum from even poor food resources (Jouany, 2000). These peculiar qualities of camels and their important functions and needs in the near future encourage and strengthen specialists and experts to save and conserve these animals. Camels not only support and strengthen the livelihood of poor people but help in further improving economic conditions, ensuring food security in an incomprehensible future (Wilson, 1998). Camels should be saved and proclaimed as a lucky, as well as a fateful, creature in the current scenario in which water resources are diminishing, creating drought-like conditions that further limit the growth and production of livestock food. Wilson (2019) further proclaims that in countries like Pakistan, camels are animals of the future as well as required in the present, which further demands its security and sustenance that the Pakistani people can comfortably achieve because of possessing a tremendous potential of their rearing. A lot of livestock animals have suffered and faced losses due to dry seasons and the desertification of various areas. But despite such harsh conditions, camels tolerated all of these, showing the slightest effects when compared with other ruminants in the last several years (Mehari et al., 2007; Nagwa & Shaapan, 2013; Al Jassim, 2015). Camels are an integral part of society with several advantages. It is the bread and butter of the people living in distant deserts and arid areas of the country. One of the main reasons is that they provide immediate sources of food in the form of nutritious milk equally good for those small and big. They are tough and stout, with peculiar properties that utilize low-quality foods in a very efficient and wise manner with no demand for water at all over an extended period, giving camels an edge over other ruminants (Terada & Mori, 2007). This is not the final list of camels’ unique features; in addition to these, they can tolerate and

Camel as the Best-Suited Animal under Global Climate Change

163

can successfully face and fight against the sparkling sun and escalated temperatures of the environment. Despite all the unique qualities, with a long list of benefits to humans and society, they are not respected as livestock animals as it deserves as animals for farming or for exploratory purposes in any forum public or private (Tariq et al., 2014).

Adaptations in Camels Now we focus on the peculiar adaptations in this animal that differentiate it from other livestock animals. As it is equally and successfully reared in tropical plains as well as in harsh environments of deserts and semiarid areas, due to its biological and physiological adaptive capability, it is claimed as a desert dairy farming animal (Field, 2005). As mentioned earlier, camels can tolerate dehydration over an extended period that may encompass several days, even maybe months, which is quite different from other animals (Al Jassim, 2015). They can feed on plants that are totally unpalatable to other animals that are even hard to smell and touch, have high salt concentrations, bear thorns and prickles, or have prickly structures, among which halophyte desert-grown varieties are very common (Kagunyu & Wanjohi, 2014). These qualities in camels make them distinct from others; even goats cannot compete with camels because they cannot tolerate such harsh conditions, cannot live without water, and always need a good-quality food supply while all the time under a good climate. Other livestock, including goats, are more vulnerable to climatic changes with a far lower ability to withstand environmental changes linked with environmental variations, which may be chronic or acute. Kagunyu and Wanjohi (2014) further opined that despite living in hostile and scorching environments, camels play a crucial role in food security and income generation. Their contribution is really very important for the food security and economy of people living in arid and semiarid areas. These are such hard and unfavorable areas where other animals barely can survive, but camels are a source of living for the inhabitants of these areas.

Adaptive Capability of Camel Is Much Higher than Other Livestock Animals Abdoun et al. (2012) reported and proclaimed that when camels and goats were kept in the same environment, camels always showed better tolerance and adaptive abilities than goats. This ability was not only in physical qualities but also in better biochemical features. These authors are further of the view that even slight variations and/or in some cases no variation can be observed in camels’ blood chemistry under varying climates that other animals are quite sensitive to. Samara et al. (2012) in a similar study proclaimed a lot of superior qualities in camels withstanding climatic changes over goats, which are considered the hardiest animal among all other livestock species currently under domestication (Figures 7.16, 7.17, 7.18, 7.19). When they compared stress levels of goats and camels under 72-hr water-deprivation conditions and severe heat stress, they found that goats were more vulnerable and prone to such conditions than camels, which showed some response after quite a delayed period of exposure. However, 72 hr of water deprivation in camels and goats induced measurable changes in both hematological and biochemical parameters in both species. Nonetheless, the intensity of changes was much lower in camels compared to goats (Samara et al., 2012). Camels have different adaptive behaviors when compared with other animals. The main adaptive mechanism in camels is a reduction in evaporative cooling as a response measure to heat stress. Moreover, at the same time, it conserves water, saving the animal from water dehydration. Contradictory to camels, all other animals cope with heat stress conditions by heavily depending on evaporative cooling mechanisms. Due to their adaptability, camels can maintain body temperatures far lower than normal. This activity is more prevalent during the summer days and nights. This capability is entirely lacking in other animals (Schroter et al., 1987). Due to this adaptability, they do not have to switch to respiratory evaporative cooling mechanisms to conserve body heat during summer days. This adaptability

164

FIGURE 7.16  Camel evolution to climate change. Source: edenkeepr.org

FIGURE 7.17  Camel evolution to climate change. Source: edenekeeper.org

Biology and Breeding of Camels

Camel as the Best-Suited Animal under Global Climate Change

FIGURE 7.18  Camel DNA could unlock key to climate change. Source: natureasia.com

FIGURE 7.19  Camel adaptations to its changing climate. Source: pinterest.com

165

166

Biology and Breeding of Camels

facilitates their conserving body heat without switching during the daytime. Animals produce a cooling effect primarily by water evaporation in hot environments; therefore, specifically, camels reduce evaporation to conserve water. In addition to aforementioned qualities, camels wither the exhaling air, ultimately decreasing their relative humidity. In this way, they reduce humidity to less than 100% and conserve water (Schmidt-Nielsen et al., 1981). A reduction in ventilation with subsequent reduction in respiratory loss with a maximum extraction of oxygen is another mechanism that camels use to conserve water (Schroter et  al., 1987). Camels produce very low quantities of concentrated urine compared to other livestock species. This is another adaptation in camels to conserve water. In addition to that, they also conserve water by excreting metabolic wastes in the form of very dry feces with minimum moisture (Zine Filali et al., 1992). This typical adaptive behavior in eliminating metabolic wastes saves both water and energy. This activity maintains the body temperature of the camel in acceptable ranges when compared with sheep and cattle living under similar desert and arid and semiarid conditions. This mechanism of water retention is highly useful for camels and supports their roaming and grazing in distant places where water is scarce or not available.

Superior Adaptabilities of Camel during Heat Stress Conditions The following adaptabilities are only specific to camels, and in these features, they are always superior to other livestock animals. The most important of them is the ability to reduce respiratory evaporative cooling to withstand elevated water temperatures during the day. Moreover, camels are able to excrete concentrated urine and conserve water, maintaining temperature during hotter nights. The production of dry, low-moisture feces reduces sweating, and switching to respiratory cooling when required is another adaptation of camels for conserving water. Camels are well adapted to drinking more water in a single attempt and storing it for the following period. As it normally grazes over wider areas quite away from water sources, this stored water prevents dehydration. Conserved and stored water for longer periods maintains cooler brain temperatures. These are some unique characteristics that no other animal in existing livestock possess, and these characteristics make camels superior to all the other livestock.

CAMEL: “A SHIP OF DESERT” Due to some above-mentioned uniques features, now camels cannot be considered animals of the old civilization; rather, now it has emerged with some modern peculiar features, which has made it an integral part of the economy of the rural poor. Frequent droughts and unstable and variable climatic conditions once again have realized for humans the importance of this animal. It has certain typical physiological features that strengthen and support humans to thrive in desert and arid environments. Camels have a perfect potential to move and roam about in deserts and the potential to confront drastic temperature fluctuations. In Ethiopia, Djibouti, Somalia, and Kenya, also called the Horn of Africa, the camel is prevalent in the dry, desert, arid, and semiarid rangelands of these countries. Water is scarce in these countries. It is all due to camels’ adaptations to such hostile environments that they are successfully surviving in these areas (Hartley, 1979). Rural populations inhabit these areas, and camels are always wandering and roaming about in these under the prevailing unfavorable conditions. During the dry season, camels get water when they get their turn, which often comes after 3–8 days, which are fixed for sheep and goats. For example, in Sudan, the maximum population of camels is found in those locations where rainfall is a maximum of about 350 mm per year (El-Amin, 1979). This has been the best and surest way for their subsistence for several hundred years (Raziq et al., 2008). Talking about Pakistan, it has 21 breeds of camels; among them, two types, the riverine and the mountainous, are most common. Pakistan is flooded with dromedary camels. A couple of groups of two-humped camels (Bactrians) are present in extreme northern regions, living and reproducing successfully there (Ahmad et al.,

Camel as the Best-Suited Animal under Global Climate Change

167

2010). The whole camel population is distributed in four ecological zones. They are sandy deserts, coastal mangroves, irrigated plains, and mountainous tracts (Qureshi et al., 1993). Although all of the camel population is present in these areas, their distribution is quite uneven, with no regular pattern. According to a rough estimation, the total population in Pakistan is 1.2 million heads, and if ranked worldwide, then it is third after Sudan and Somalia (Faraz et al., 2019). It has already been said that camels are very environmentally friendly, persistent, and contented. The camel is the best animal for deserts and arid areas and can live without water for quite an elongated period. Inhabitants of the Cholistan Desert heavily depend on camels for milk and meat. In addition to that, desert people are fully dependent on maintaining and uplifting their economy while improving their social life at the same time (Ali et  al., 2009). The distinctive features of this animal have made it quite unique and distinct whose potential has not yet fully been explored compared to other livestock members. Considering these qualities of this unique animal, it is quite strange that this animal has not been given due importance as it should, like other animals, despite its high adaptation to living in climates of desertification and a lot of environmental changes with drastic temperature fluctuations and abrupt elevations (Tariq et al., 2014). It is undeniable and well accepted all over the world that camels are food providers to poor rural populations. In addition to its dietary role, it has an important medicinal role in human life in the future as well as in the present too (Faye & Esenov, 2005). Without a doubt, it can be further said that it has quite important and peculiar characteristics to convert poor-quality pastures and lownutrition forages into nutritious milk and meat. Its communities are scattered in small cities, rural areas, and deserts, where it is playing a matchless role in empowering people both in nutrition and in socioeconomic conditions despite drought and the prevailing harsh and hostile environments in these areas of Pakistan.

Hematological and Biochemical Parameters of Camels Are Vulnerable to Heat Stress During heat, hematological and biochemical changes will be more convenient for camels to adjust with less physiological efforts under neutral zones and less changing environments than that where climate is changing at a slow pace and/or abruptly. Significantly, increased packed cell volume (PCV), serum sodium, and serum osmolality were observed when Majaheem male camels were exposed to heat stress. This heat effect further expanded to a further increase in the total protein and albumin concentrations and serum glucose (Samara et al., 2012). When different camel breeds were exposed to heat stress, changes due to this heat stress were not uniform; rather, they differed from camel to camel. Similarly, variable differences were present in the level of PCV (Abdoun et al., 2013). The researchers observed that under stress conditions, different camel breeds displayed variable thermo-physiological responses, although the exposure of different breeds to heat was under similar climatic conditions. They further suggested that PCV values are an adaptive mechanism of desert animals. This facilitates acquiring more water to efficiently perform the evaporative cooling process (Al-Haidary, 2004). Al-Haidary et al. (2013) reported a similar mechanism in camels when exposed to heat stress with visible differences in different breeds. Badawy et al. (2008) opined that during different seasons of the year, even blood biochemical parameters varied in different breeds of camels. They studied the physiological functions of camels in summer. Their findings included significantly lower erythrocyte counts, hemoglobin, PCV, and mean cell hemoglobin concentration. These differed from those reported by earlier researchers, specifically in PCV. They further reported that this mechanism helps camels keep an excess amount of water around all the time during this period of stress, which caused hemodilution with an availability of sufficient water another adaptation to cope with heat stress. In the same study during the summer season, they observed in camels a significantly lower total leukocyte count, a higher neutrophil count, and lower lymphocytes (Figure 7.20). A reduction in corticosteroids during prolonged exposure to high temperatures in summer in contrast to the winter season can be the probable reason for this increase in leukocyte counts in summer

168

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 7.20  Camel genome reveals evolution to climatic change. Source: nature.com

(Al Jassim and Sejian, 2015). During summer, another study on camels showed significantly increased levels of creatinine, urea, protein, albumin, and total lipids (Badawy et al., 2008). The findings of these authors support those of Nazifi et al. (1999). Al Qarawi and Ali (2003) are of the view that the elevation in blood urea may be due to the greater metabolic load, which reduced the infusion with lower glomerular infiltration. Contradictory to the studies of Nazifi et al. (1999), Badawy et al. (2008) observed significantly lower blood glucose levels in winter and higher ones in summer. The differences in environmental conditions, such as feeding and watering, and differences in breeds may the probable reason for this difference. Higher glucose levels in the blood during summer might be due to less use of sugar for energy with an increased basal metabolic rate during hot summer days, which is very much obvious from the excessive deposition of iodine, meaning a lower thyroid metabolism during dehydration, which is another mechanism to cope the water scarcity. These authors further observed that there was an increased deposition of serum bromide concentrations, further highlighting the role of halides during dehydration for water conservation (Etzion et al., 1987). Nazifi et al. (1999) observed significant (p < 0.05) differences in inorganic phosphorus, serum calcium, thyroxine (T4), and triiodothyronine (T3) in camels when they were exposed to hot and cool conditions. Similarly, under such harsh conditions, enzymes like alkaline phosphatase (ALP), creatine kinase (CK). and lactate dehydrogenase (LD) showed a lot of deviations from their normal functioning. The same trend was observed in the physiological functions of aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT). During the same studies, a significant correlation was observed between thyroidal hormones (T3 and T4) and serum total protein, glucose, blood urea nitrogen, AST, ALT, ALP, LD, and CK. Dromedary camels affect these bodily changes to

Camel as the Best-Suited Animal under Global Climate Change

169

cope with cold and heat stress. The higher activity of the thyroid gland in camels under such stressful conditions is another adaptation in camels to cope with adverse environments. Similarly, while working on dromedary camels, Tajik et al. (2013) observed no correlation between T4 with total serum protein. They, however, found a positive correlation with the activities of T4 with serum triglycerides and cholesterol.

Camels Use Heat Shock Proteins for Their Adaptive Capability Heat shock proteins (HSPs) are universal proteins. Various metabolic and environmental stresses induce their production in the animal’s body. Like other mammalian species, principally to control adaptive mechanisms, camels also possess HSP70 family genes (Tariq & Hussain, 2014). Due to the presence of HSP70, which is a crucial factor for controlling this extreme adaptability of these animals to hostile desert environments, Camelus dromedaries are well adapted to desert environments (Elrobh et al., 2011). The sequence of the genomic cluster of Camelus dromedaries had been conducted. This sequence analysis showed the presence of three HSP70 family genes. These genes are joined with major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class III region. These genes belong to heat-tolerant creatures (Terada & Mori, 2007). The HSP70 cluster from camels has been compared with several mammalian species. Nevertheless, further studies in this area are needed to confirm the biological reasons that give the camel superior adaptive ability over other domestic animals (Garbuz et al., 2011; Figures 7.21 and 7.22).

Climate Change and Camel Diseases Climate change creates a favorable environment for the proliferation of microbes, parasites, and other disease carriers that, in turn, cause new diseases to occur and spread. In recent years, climate change has developed drought conditions. It has reduced grazing land, ultimately giving rise to

FIGURE 7.21  The camel heat shock protein’s motif. Source: researchgate.net

170

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 7.22  Cellular function of heat shock proteins. Source: researchgate.net

malnutrition that ultimately severely affects camels’ health. Drastic changes in health conditions have been observed in camels due to current climatic changes in the Middle East, African countries, and Australia. Furthermore, these changes have deteriorated the immune system of camels, which has resulted in the emergence of various diseases. The appearance of these diseases, such as trypanosomosis, mange, camel pox, or gastrointestinal parasitism, has long been threat to camels and constrained camel farming in these areas (Al Jassim & Sejian, 2015) (Figure 7.23 and 7.24). Due to current fluctuations in climate, Faye et al. (2012) reported diseases in camels with complex and often unknown etiologies. These diseases ultimately resulted in high unsolved mortalities in camels. They were of the opinion that a further intensification of these climatic changes will totally upend current camel-farming systems in Saharan countries. The sudden outbreak of new emerging diseases, such as the highly contagious respiratory syndrome in Africa, has been observed in the last two decades (Roger et al., 2000). Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) and rinderpest in Sudan and Kenya (Khalafalla et al., 2005) are the most common. Similarly, earlier disease outbreaks of anaplasmosis, babesiosis, and theileriosis in sub-Saharan Africa were also heavily prevalent (Olwoch et al., 2007). Crop cultivation in these areas is poor due to the short growing period. Hence, camel farming is the only source of bread and butter in these harsh areas. Under these conditions then, more work is required to strengthen the husbandry and veterinary services of the camels. These services will ensure camels’ health and survival, as well as the food security they provide. The generally required services to meet these objectives are the diagnosis of

Camel as the Best-Suited Animal under Global Climate Change

171

FIGURE 7.23  Climate change and disease in camels. Source: phys.org

FIGURE 7.24  Climate change and camel diseases. Source: the national.ae

disease, control, prevention, and treatment of diseases (Bornstein & Younan, 2013). The onset of global warming has exposed camels to various risks, important among them is the occurrence of diseases. Under such conditions, epidemiologically, camels may become agents in spreading emerging and reemerging diseases. There is also a possibility that exotic diseases may increase due to the close interaction of camels with other livestock because of water scarcity and a lack of water resources.

172

Biology and Breeding of Camels

CAMELS ALSO CONTRIBUTE TO CLIMATE CHANGE GHG Emissions from Livestock Livestock has contributed and is contributing directly or indirectly to the emission of GHG gases. The emission of gases from gastric fermentation and manure management is the direct way while the production of feed and conversion of forests to pasture is an indirect contribution to greenhouse gases (Hristov et al., 2013). Various authors have reported different values for the emission of GHGs from livestock that ranges from 7% to 18%. It has been estimated that livestock contributes 18% of the total anthropogenic GHG emissions, which is equivalent to about 7.1 Gt of CO2-eq (Steinfeld et al., 2006) at the global level. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, 2006) predicted emissions of 2079 and 2344 Mt CO2-eq of enteric CH4 per year for 2010 and 2020, respectively. The same agency estimated that the CH4 emissions from manure storage were estimated to be 470 and 523 Mt CO2-eq per year, respectively. According to the Dunkley and Dunkley (2013), livestock emitted about 3.1% of the total GHG in the US in 2009. CH4 emission was the second largest (28% of total emissions). Ultimately, the thirdlargest source of N2O (6% of total emissions) was animals. The percentage of gross energy intake actually translates to the enteric CH4% emission. Emissions from 6% to 10% are the common range (FAO, 2013; Figure 7.25). Hristov et al. (2013) advised expressing GHG emissions on the basis of a digestible energy intake (DEI). This means that it should be expressed per unit of animal product instead of as GEI. Expression of emission of GHG as %DEI depicts effect of composition and quality of feed an animal consumes. For example, the poor digestion of forage results in a reduction in GHG emissions. Processes in the rumen produce these gases. Hence, these gases are expressed as per unit of animal product (Hristov et al., 2013). If oils/fats are added to feed concentrates or if the concentrate is supplementing normal food, they will definitely have an impact on the digestion of fiber. Fiber is an important constituent of animal feed, and its improper digestion results in the emission of GHGs. The natural compounds present in feeds like tannins and saponins may also reduce gastric release of CH4. Nitrates are a cheap source of non-protein nitrogen however when they are added to feed help to reduce the enteric production of CH4 (Nolan et al., 2010; Hulshof et al., 2012). Other than enteric GHG, feces and urine also produce GHGs. Diet composition also affects the GHGs produced from urine or feces. The indoor presence of animals or their grazing on pasture affects the emissions of GHGs (Hristov et al., 2013). With the increase in the digestibility of the diet, there is a proportionate decrease in the fermentation of organic matter, which ultimately reduces the production of CH4 from manure. The quality and quantity of protein given to animals demand special consideration; it also further demands deliberation about whether it is properly utilized and retained in the body with its decreased excretion in urine and feces. The provision of a well-balanced diet will improve animals’

FIGURE 7.25  Methane emission per animal per year. Source: worldfuture.council.org

Camel as the Best-Suited Animal under Global Climate Change

173

productivity, with the efficient utilization of all nutrients. This will ultimately result in a decrease of GHG emissions per each unit of livestock produced. This strategy is highly useful, which will help mitigate such issues and problems. During the storage of manure, the time allocation for the microbial fermentation of manure is reduced, which will also lower the rate of emission of GHGs. If manure is stored for a limited period and the microbes are not allowed sufficient time for fermentation, it will definitely result in a low emission of GHGs.

Methane Emissions from Camels The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) issued a report in 2006 that purely dealt with CH4 emission from gastric fermentation from livestock. In this report, they grouped camels with other ruminants like cattle, buffalos, sheep, and goats. The IPCC used a Tier 1 method because of adequate information on nutrition and digestion in livestock not being available. It assessed the overall production of GHGs from livestock by comparing it and accordingly extrapolating these values obtained from ruminants, which are supposed to have similar digestive systems (Al Jassim & Hogan, 2012). It is estimated that if a camel has a weight of about 570 kg, it can emit about 46 kg of CH4/head/year. This is similar to an animal that has a weight of 116.7 kg with a metabolic weight of 0.75kg, making an approximate release value of methane of 0.3942 kg CH4/kg 0.75/year or 1.08 mg/kg 0.75/day. Earlier, Gibbs and Johnson (1993) derived these estimates on the emission of GHGs and generalized methane release values for camels from cattle measurements (Figure 7.26). This report was mainly based on an extensive literature review and search using available resources. Nonetheless, the IPCC did not bother to explore the true differences between camels and other ruminant species of animals. Although this report acknowledges that there was a lack of information on camels, still it reported a default value of methane production, which per each camel is 46 kg per year. Accordingly, the producer of this report accepts the flaws present in it, which failed to come up with any true estimate. The methane emission figures for camels have been extrapolated from cattle experiments. Differences in intake, feeding behavior, fermentation processes, and production between camels and cattle were not accounted for, nor were any adjustments undertaken (Al Jassim & Hogan, 2012). Guerouali and Wardeh (1998) calorimetrically estimated emissions of methane from camels when starved or when fed different levels of a diet consisting of barley grain and wheat straw. Methane emission was 0.999 when animals were fasted. However, the values differed from this state when animals fed or refed. These values came up as, 0.285, and 0.642 mg/kg/day. These values

FIGURE 7.26  Methane emission from camels, small ruminants, and humans. Source: timesofmalta.com

174

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 7.27  Estimation of methane emission from camels. Source: slideshare.net

correspond to a total of 26.3, 32.6, and 38.6 kg CH4/year for 300, 400, and 500 kg live weight, respectively, when camels were fed. However, when camels were starved, the values observed were 7.5, 9.3, and 11.0 kg CH4/year, respectively. Nonetheless, when the animals were refed, significantly higher values of GHG emissions were observed, which appeared as 16.9, 21.0, and 27.3 kg CH4/year, respectively. This calorimetric measurement of gas provides an idea about the total production of methane from camels. It is normal practice and is hence important to mention here that camels are normally fed concentrate feeding, but it can be said that it is not routine feeding in camel farming. Recently, dromedary camels and Holstein dairy cattle were fed the same diet and farmed under similar housing conditions; the total emissions of CH4 from them were compared with each other (Guerouali & Laabouri, 2013; Figure 7.27). During these studies, camels and cattle were maintained in independent houses. They were offered lucerne hay (2 kg/day) and barley grain (3 kg/day). Methane (CH4) then produced from these animals was collected and measured using a face-mask open-circuit system. These studies revealed far less methane produced from camels than from cattle. Cattle produced 47.7 vs 138.7 g/ day or 17.4 vs 50.6 kg/year produced from cattle, whereas methane produced from camels was just one third of this quantity. These estimates are quite similar to the calorimetric production of methane (Guerouali & Wardeh, 1998). However, when alpacas (Lama pacos) and sheep were kept together and fed alfalfa hay, the methane production from these animals was measured by sulfur hexafluoride tracer techniques (Pinares-Patino et al., 2003). The quantity of methane produced by both alpacas and sheep was then compared, which did not differ from each other (5.7 vs 4.7). Nevertheless, a much higher volume of methane gas was produced when these animals were fed the improved perennial ryegrass/white

Camel as the Best-Suited Animal under Global Climate Change

175

clover pasture (9.4 vs 7.5) and lotus (6.4 vs 2.7). The possible reasons for these differences between production of CH4 from the two animals may be differences in particulate fractional outflow rates. Very recently some other authors have reported that when methane was collected from camelid species (Vicugna pacos, when methane gas production was estimated in Lama glama and Camelus bactrianus) using a respiration chamber, the production of methane was less than ruminants (0.229 vs 0.415 g kg−1 d−1) despite feeding both the same roughage diets (Dittmann et al., 2014). In another study, researchers took camel samples with different body masses ranging 50–760 kg and compared the production of methane gas from them with domestic ruminants. These researchers arrived at the conclusion that there might possibly be a reduction in the rate of metabolism. Also, the quantity of food provided, the quantity of digestible fiber, and the feed taken in by camels can create such differences. These researchers therefore give a message that camels produce a very limited amount of CH4. More comprehensive work is therefore needed to know the quantity of CH4 produced in relation to the type and quantity of forage given. In this context, the diversity of the archaeal population in the gastrointestinal tract of camel, the level of abundance, and their structure needs to be explored for a final conclusion. In the United States, studies were conducted on Bactrian camels (Camelus bactrianus) with the objective of determining the structure of methane genes from their fecal material. The camels were housed in captivity at two zoos. Two separate 16S rRNA gene libraries for each zoo were used for a structural determination of these genes (Turnbull et al., 2011). Methanogen sequences were dominant in both libraries. These sequences belong to the genus Methanobrevibacter. The differences were quite prominent in the structure and diversity of this gene in the camels is currently under study. These preliminary results showed the variations in the population structure of methanogen in the same camel population maintained in captivity just at different locations. These authors recommended additional studies on larger groups of animals using alternative techniques such as nextgeneration sequencing. When a large number of animals will be housed and fed controlled diets, the structural analysis of genes with new methods can give further insights into the diversity of gastrointestinal methanogens. Until and unless these studies are not conducted both on captive and wild Bactrian and dromedary camels, findings cannot be ascertained fully (Turnbull et al., 2011). The camel is more adapted to the environment than that of ruminant species. It may be either methane gas production pertaining to GHGs, or it may be its products. These adaptations can be to any type of environment pertaining to water scarcity, bulk intake, the variety of feed, and the like. Due to all these unique adaptations, it can be confidently said that camels are the best-suited animals in the future scenario in which the climate is drastically changing and persistently becoming hostile to all animals irrespective of their habitat. It has been postulated that in the future, these regions will probably not support the survival of sheep and cattle. Then only there will be camels to dominate these areas and provide the required amenities to people. So it is not optimistic to say that camels indeed are the animal of the future.

REFERENCES Abdoun, K. A., Samara, E. M., Okab, A. B., and Al-Haidary, A. A. (2012). A comparative study on seasonal variation in body temperature and blood composition of camels and sheep. Journal of Animal Veterinary Advances, 11(6), 769–773. Abdoun, K. A., Samara, E. M., Okab, A. B., and Al-Haidary, A. A. (2013). Therelationship between coat color and thermoregulation in dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius). The Journal of Camel Practice and Research, 20(2), 251–255. Abraham, B. L. (2011). Climate change and livestock farming. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala, 9(2), 66–69. Ahmad, S., Yaqoob, M., Hashmi, N., Ahmad, S., Zaman, M. A., and Tariq, M. (2010). Economic importance of camel: A unique alternative under crisis. Pakistan Veterinary Journal, 30(4), 191–197. Al Jassim, R. (2015). Camels and their environment: Impact of the climatic changes. Paper Presented at the 4th International Conference of ISOCARD At Almaty Kazakhstan, 1, 1–6.

176

Biology and Breeding of Camels

Al Jassim, R., and Hogan J., (2012). Chapter 3: Camel nutrition for meat production. In Camel Meat and Meat Products. CABI Publishing, London. Al Jassim, R., and Sejian, V. (2015). Review paper: Climate change and camel production: Impact and contri�bution. Journal of Camelid Science, 8, 1–17. Al-Haidary, A. A. (2004). Physiological responses of naimey sheep to heat stress challenge under semi-arid environments. International Journal of Agriculture and Biology, 6, 307–309. Al-Haidary, A. A., Samara, E. M., Okab, A. B., and Abdoun, K. A. (2013). Thermophysiological responses and heat tolerance of Saudi camel breeds. International Journal Chemical, Environmental and Biological Sciences, 1, 173–176. Al Qarawi, A. A., Ali, B. H. (2003). Variations in the normal activity of esterases in plasma and liver of camels (Camelus dromedarius), cattle (Bos indicus), sheep (Ovis aries) and goats (Capra hircus). Journal of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Health, 50(4), 201–203. Ali, I., Chaudhry, M. S., and Farooq, U. (2009). Camel rearing in Cholistan desert of Pakistan. Pakistan Veterinary Journal, 29(2), 85–92. Anonymous. (2009). Livestock and Climate change. Author by Calvosa et al. www.ifad.org/irkm/index.htm. Badawy, M. T., Gawish, H. S., Khalifa, M. A., El-Nouty, F. D., and Hassan, G. A. (2008). Seasonal variants in hemato-biochemical parameters in mature one humped she-camels in the north-western coast of Egypt. Egyptian Journal of Animal Production, 45(2), 155–164. Bornstein S., and Younan M., (2013). Significant veterinary research on the dromedary camels of Kenya: Past and Present. Bornstein. Journal of Camelid Science, 6, 1–48. Clayton, E. D. (2007). Animal welfare in drought. PRIMEFACT 327 NSW Department, 1–2. Dittmann, M. T., Runge, U., Lang, R. A., Dario Moser, D., Galeffi, C., Kreuzer, M., and Clauss, M. (2014). Meth� ane emission by camelids. PLOS ONE, 9(4): 1–8 [(19) (PDF) Review paper: Climate change and camel production: impact and contribution. Available from: www.researchgate.net/publication/289202153_Review_ paper_Climate_change_and_camel_production_impact_and_contribution [accessed on 11 January 2019]. Dunkley, C. S., and Dunkley, K. D. (2013). Review: Greenhouse gas emissions from livestock and poultry. Agriculture, Food, and Analytical Bacteriology, 3, 17–29. El-Amin, F. M. (1979). The dromedary camel of the Sudan. In IFS Symposium Camels, pp. 35–54. IFS, Sudan. Elrobh, M. S., Alanazi, M. S., Khan, W., Abduljaleel, Z., Al-Amri, A., and Bazzi, M. D. (2011). Molecular clon�ing and characterization of cDNA encoding a putative stress-induced heat-shock protein from camelus dromedarius. The International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 12(7), 4214–4236. EPA (US Environmental Protection Agency). (2006). Global Anthropogenic Non-CO2 Greenhouse Gas Emissions: 1990–2020. EPA, Washington, DC. Etzion, Z., Alfassi, Z., Lavi, N., and Yagil, R. (1987). Halide concentration in camel plasma in various states of hydratation. Biological Trace Element Research, 12, 411–418. FAO. (2003). Production Year Book. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome. FAO. (2013). Green House Emissions from Ruminanat Supply Chains: A Global Life Cycle Assessment, 214p. Animal Production and Health Division. Faraz, A., Waheed, A., Mirza, R. H., Ishaq, H. M., and Tariq, M. M. (2019). Socio economic status and associ�ated constraints of camel production in desert Thal Punjab, Pakistan. Journal of Fisheries and Livestock Production, 7, 288. https://doi.org/10.4172/2332-2608.1000288 Faye, B., Chaibou, M., and Vias, G. (2012). Integrated impact of climate change and socioeconomic develop�ment on the evolution of camel farming systems. British Journal of Environment and Climate Change, 2(3), 227–244. Faye, B., and Esenov. (2005). Desertification Combat and Food Safety. The Added Value of Camel Producers. lOS Press, Amsterdam. Faye, B., and Tisserand, J. L. (1989). Problèmes de la détermination de la valeur alimentaire des fourrages prélevés par le dromadaire. Séminaire sur la nutrition et l’alimentation du dromadaire, Ouargla, Algérie. Options méditerranéennes. Séries Séminaires, 2, 61–65. Field, C. R. (2005). Where There is No Development Agency: A Manual for Pastoralists and Their Promoters. Natural Resources International, Aylesford [(19) (PDF) Review paper: Climate change and camel production: impact and contribution. www.researchgate.net/publication/289202153_Review_paper_ Climate_change_and_camel_production_impact_and_contribution [accessed on 11 January 2019]]. Garbuz, D. G., Astakhova, L. N., Zatsepina, O. G., Arkhipova, I. R., and Nudler, E. (2011). Functional organi�zation of hsp70 cluster in camel (Camelus dromedarius) and other mammals. PLoS ONE, 6(11), e27205. Gaughan, J. B., Bonner, S. L., Loxton, I., and Mader. (2013). Effects of chronic heat stress on plasma con� centration of secreted heat shock protein 70 in growing feedlot cattle. Journal of Animal Science, 91(1), 120–129.

Camel as the Best-Suited Animal under Global Climate Change

177

Gibbs, M. J., and Johnson, D. E. (1993). Livestock emissions. In Michael J. Adler U.S EPA (ed.), International Methane Emissions, US Environmental Protection Agency, Climate Change Division. ScienceDirect, US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. GPCC. (2011). Global Precipitation Analysis Products of the GPCC (Reported by U. Schneider, A. Becker, A. Meyer-Christoffer, M. Ziese and B. Rudolf). Global Precipitation Climatology Centre (GPCC). Deutscher Wetterdienst, Offenbach. Guerouali, A., and Laabouri, F. Z. (2013). Estimates of methane emission from the camel (Camelus dromedar�ius) compared to dairy cattle (Bos taurus). Advances in Animal Biosciences, 4, 286. Guerouali, A., and Wardeh, M. F. (1998). Assessing nutrient requirements and limits to production of the camel under its simulated natural environment. In Proceedings of the Third Annual Meeting for Animal Production under Arid Conditions (vol. 36), pp. 36–51. United Arab Emirates University Publishing Unit, Al Ain. Hafez, E. S. E. (1968). Adaptation of Domestic Animals. Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia. Hall, S. J. G. (2004). Livestock Biodiversity. Genetic Resources for the Farming of the Future, p. 264. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford. Hartley, J. B. (1979). Camels in the horn of Africa. In IFS Symposium Camels Sudan, pp. 109–124, IFS, Sudan Hristov, A. N., Oh, J., Lee, C., Meinen, R., Montes, F., Ott, T., Firkins, J., Rotz, A., Dell, C., Adesogan, A., Yang, W., Tricarico, J., Kebreab, E., Waghorn, G., Dijkstra, J., and Oosting, S. (2013). Mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions in livestock production – A review of technical options for non-CO2 emissions. In Gerber, P. J, Benjamin, H., and Makkar, H. P. S. (eds.), FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 177. FAO, Rome. Hulshof, R. B. A., Berndt, A., Gerrits, W. J. J., Dijkstra, J., van Zijderveld, S. M., Newbold, J. R., and Perdok, H. B. (2012). Dietary nitrate supplementation reduces methane emission in beef cattle fed sugarcane-based diets. The Journal of Animal Science, 90, 2317–2323. Idowu, A. A., Ayoola, S. O., Opele, A. I., and Ikenweiwe, N. B. (2011). Impact of climate change in Nigeria. Iranica Journal of Energy and Environment, 2(2), 145–152. IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). (2007). Climate change 2007: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Summary for Policy Makers. www.ipcc.cg/SPM13apr07.pdf. IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). (2014). Summary for policymakers. In Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Field, C. B., V. R. Barros, D. J. Dokken, K. J. Mach, M. D. Mastrandrea, T. E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K. L. Ebi, Y. O. Estrada, R. C. Genova, B. Girma, E. S. Kissel, A. N. Levy, S. MacCracken, P. R. Mastrandrea, and L. L. White (eds.)], pp. 1–32. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and New York. Iqbal, M. M., and Khan, M. A. (2010). Climate Change Threat to Biodiversity in Pakistan. Global Change Impact Studies Centre, National Centre for Physics (NCP) Complex, Quaid-i-Azam University Campus, Islamabad. Jouany, J. P. (2000). La digestion chez les camélidés: Comparaison avec les ruminants. INRA Productions Animales, 13(3), 165–176. Kagunyu, A. W., and Wanjohi, J. (2014). Camel rearing replacing cattle production among the Borana com�munity in Isiolo County of Northern Kenya, as climate variability bites. Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice, 4, 13 [(19) (PDF) Review paper: Climate change and camel production: impact and contribution. Available from: www.researchgate.net/publication/289202153_Review_paper_Climate_change_ and_camel_production_impact_and_contribution [accessed on 11 January 2019]]. Kakar, A. R., Younas, M., and Faraz, A. (2021). Camel—A hope under the longs shadows of climate change. International Journal of Camel Science, 3, 58–60. Karen, L. (2011). Study Shows Unexpected Effect of Climate Change on Body Size for Many Different Species. www.Eurekalert.org. Khalafalla, A. I., Saeed, I. K., Ali, Y. H., El Hassan, A. M., Ali Abu, O., Mohamed, G., and Zakia, A. (2005). Morbillivirus infection of Al Jassim. Veerasamy/Journal of Camelid Science, 8, 1–17. www.isocard.net/ en/journal camels in eastern Sudan. New emerging fatal and contagious disease (In Proc of the Int. Conf. on Infectious Emerging Disease, Al Ain, UAE, 26 March–April 1, 2005, 126–127). Louis, B. (2009). Sheep Shrink on Scottish Isle as World Warms, Says Stanford Biologist. www.Eurekalert.org. McManus, C., Prescott, E., Paludo, G. R., Bianchini, E., Louvandini, H., and Mariante, A. S. (2008). Heat tolerance in naturalized Brazilian cattle breeds. Livestock Science, 120(3), 256–264. Mehari, Y., Mekuriaw, Z., and Gebru, G. (2007). Camel and Camel product Marketing in Babilie and Kebribeyah Woredas of the Jijiga Zone. Somali Region, Ethiopia. Mendelsohn, R., Dinar, A., and Williams, L. (2006). The distributional impact of climate change on rich and poor countries. Environment and Development Economics, 2, 159–178.

178

Biology and Breeding of Camels

Nagwa, I. T., and Shaapan, R. M. (2013). High diagnostic efficiency of affinity isolated fraction in camel and cattle Toxoplasmosis. World Journal of Medical Sciences, 8(1), 61–66. Nazifi, S., Gheisari, H. R., and Poorabbas, H. (1999). The influence of thermal stress on serum biochemical parameters of dromedary camels and their correlation with thyroid activity. Comparative Haematology International, 9, 49–54. Nolan, J. V., Hegarty, R. S., Hegarty, J., Godwin, I. R., and Woodgate, R. (2010). Effects of dietary nitrate on fermentation, methane production and digesta kinetics in sheep. Comparative Haematology International, 50, 801–806. Olwoch, J. M., Reyers, B., Engelbrecht, A., Erasmus, B. F. N. (2007). Climate change and the tickborne disease: Theileriosis (East Coast fever) in sub-Saharan Africa. The Journal of Arid Environments, 72, 108–120. Onyewotu, L. O. Z., Stigter, C. J., Abdullahi, A. M., Ariyo, J. A., Oladipo, E. O., and Owonubi, J. J. (2003). Reclamation of desertified farmlands and consequences for its farmers in semiarid northern Nigeria: A case study of Yambawa rehabilitation scheme. Arid Land Research Management, 17, 85–101. Ozgil, A., Tuljapurkar, S., Benton, T. G., Pemberton, J. M., Clutton-Brock, T. H., and Coulson, T. (2009). The Dynamics of Phenotypic Change and the Shrinking Sheep of St. Kilda. www.sciencexpress.org. Padodara, R. J., and Jacob, N. (2013). Climate change: effect on growth of animals. Basic Research Journal of Agricultural Science and Review, 2(4), 2315–6880, 85–90. Parry, W. (2011). Animals Shrink as Earth Warms. www.Livesciences.Com. Peel, M. C., Finlayson, B. L., McMahon, T. A. (2007). Updated world map of the Köppen–Geiger climate classification. Hydrology and Earth System Science, 11, 1633–1644. Peixoto, J. P., and Oort, A. H. (1992). Chapter 1: Physics of Climate. American Institute of Physics, New York. Pinares-Patino, C. S., Ulyatt, M. J., Waghorn, G. C., Lassey, K. R., Barry, T. N., Holmes, C. W., and Johnson, D. E. (2003). Methane emission by alpaca and sheep fed on Lucerne hay or grazed on pastures of perennial ryegrass/white clover or birds foot trefoil. The Journal of Agricultural Science, 140, 215–226. Qureshi, M. A. A., Khan, G. S., and Yaqoob, S. (1993). Textbook of Forestry and Range Management. Kazi Publishers, Lahore. Raziq, A., Younas, M., and Kakar, M. A. (2008). Camel a potential dairy animal in difficult environments. Agri Sciences, 45(2), 263–268. Richard, D. (1985). Le dromadaire et son élevage. Publ. IEMVT, Coll 3etudes et synthèses, p. 162. CIRAD, Montpellier. Ridley, M. (2004). Evolution (3rd ed). Blackwell Publishing, Oxford. Roger, F., Diallo, A., Yigezu, L. M., Hurard, C., Libeau, G., Mebratu, G. Y., and Faye, B. (2000). Investigations of a new pathological condition of camels in Ethiopia. The Journal of Camel Practice and Research, 7(2), 163–166. Rutagwenda, T., Lechner-Doll, M., Schwartz, H. J., Schultka, W., and Von Engelhardt, W. (1990). Dietary preference and degrability of forage on a semi-arid thornbush savannah indigenous ruminants, camels and donkeys. Animal Feed Sciences and Technology, 35, 179–192. doi: 10.1016/0377-8401(90)90123-P Samara, E. M., Abdoun, K. A., Okab, A. B., and Al-Haidary, A. A., (2012). A comparative thermophysiological study on water-deprived goats and camels. Journal of Applied Animal Research, 40(4), 316–322. Schmidt-Nielsen, K., Schroter, R. C., and Shkolnik, A. (1981). Desaturation of exhaled air in camels. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, 21, 219–303. Schroter, R. C., Robertshaw, D., Baker, M. A., Shoemaker, V. H., Holmes, R., and Schemidt-Nielsen, K. (1987). Respiration in heat stressed camels. Respiratory Physiology, 70, 97–112. Sejian, V. (2013). Climate change: Impact on production and reproduction, Adaptation mechanisms and mit�igation strategies in small ruminants: A review. The Indian Journal of Small Ruminants, 19(1), 1–21. Sejian, V., Bhatta, R., Soren, N. M., Malik, P. K., Ravindra, J. P., Prasad, C. S., and Lal, R. (2015a). Introduc� tion to concepts of climate change impact on livestock and its adaptation and mitigation. In Sejian, V., Gaughan, J., Baumgard, L., and Prasad, C. S. (eds.), Climate Change Impact on Livestock: Adaptation and Mitigation, pp. 1–26. Springer-Verlag GMbH Publisher, New Delhi. Sejian, V., Hyder, I., Ezeji, T., Lakritz, J., Bhatta, R., Ravindra, J. P., Prasad, C. S., and Lal, R. (2015b). Global warming: Role of livestock. In Sejian, V., Gaughan, J., Baumgard, L., and Prasad, C. S. (eds.), Climate Change Impact on Livestock: Adaptation and Mitigation, pp. 141–170. Springer-Verlag GMbH Publisher, New Delhi. Sheridan, J. A., and Brickford, D. (2011). Shrinking body size as an ecological response to climate change. Nature Climate Change, 1, 401–406. Steinfeld, H., Gerber, P., Wassenaar, T., Castel, V., Rosales M., and de Haan, C. (2006). Livestock’s Long Shadow – Environmental Issues and Options. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.

Camel as the Best-Suited Animal under Global Climate Change

179

Szekely, T., Freckleton, R. P., and Reynolds, J. D (2004). Sexual selection explains Rensch’s rule of size dimor�phism in shorebirds. Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 101(33), 12224–12227. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0404503101 Tajik, J., Sazmand, A., Hekmatimoghaddam, S., Rasooli, A. (2013). Serum concentrations of thyroid hor�mones, cholesterol and triglyceride, andtheir correlations together in clinically healthy camels (Camelus dromedarius): Effects of season, sex and age. Veterinary Research Forum, 4(4), 239–243. Tariq, A., and Hussain, T. (2014). Camels adaptation to desert biome. Global Veterinaria, 12(3), 307–313. Tariq, A., Hussain, T., Ali, M. M., and Babar, M. E. (2014). Camels adaptation to desert Biome. Global Veterinaria, 12(3), 307–313. doi: 10.5829/idosi.gv.2014.12.03.8249 Terada, K., and Mori, M. (2007). Mammalian HSP40/DnaJ chaperone proteins in cytosol. Cell Stress Proteins, 7, 255–277. Thebault, E., and Loreau, M. (2003). Food-web constraints on biodiversity ecosystem functioning relation�ships. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 100(25), 14949–14954. Trabelsi, H., Chehma, A., Senoussi, A., and Faye, B. (2012). The Contribution of the dromedary in the spon�taneous plant seeds transfer in the Northern Algerian Sahara. Journal of Life Sciences, 6(3), 300–303. Turnbull, K. L., Smith, R. P., Benoit St-Pierre, B., and Wright, A. D. G. (2011). Molecular diversity of meth� anogens in fecal samples from Bactrian camels (Camelus bactrianus) at two zoos. Research in Veterinary Science, 93, 246–249. Wilson, R. T. (2019). The one-humped camel in Bangladesh. Journal of Camel Practice and Research 26(1), 11–13. Wilson, R. (1998). The Tropical Agriculturalist, pp. 108–126. CTA, Amsterdam. WMO. (2004). Adaptation strategies required to reduce vulnerability in agriculture and forestry to climate change, climate variation and climate extremes (H. P. Das). In Management Strategies in Agriculture and Forestry for Mitigation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Adaptation to Climate Variability and Climate Change. Technical Note No. 202 (WMO-No. 969). WMO, Geneva. Yagil, R. (1985). The Desert Camel. Comparative Physiological Adaptation. Karger, Basel. Yom-Tov, Y., Kvam, T., and Wiig, O. (2011). Lynx body size in Norway is related to its main prey (Roe deer) density, climate and latitude. Ambio: A Journal of Environment, 40(1), 43–51. Yom-Tov, Y., Yom-Tov, S., Wright, J., Thorne, J. R. C., and Du Feu, R. (2006). Recent changes in body weight and wing length among some British passerine birds. Oikos, 112(1), 91–101. Zine Filali, R., Guerouali, A., and Oukessou, M. (1992). Thermoregulation in the heat and water stressed camel. In Proceedings of the First International Camel Conference, pp. 301–304. R&W Publisher, Newmarket.

8

Camel Diseases and Preventive Measures

INTRODUCTION The camel is a very hardy and robust animal. Anatomically and physiologically, it is well adapted to hostile environments such as those that are arid, semiarid, and desert. In its living environment, it suffers from various diseases that may be bacterial, viral, fungal, parasitic, and/or nutritional. These diseases always affect its health, growth, and reproductive capability and result in economic losses. The intensity of diseases increases in frequency and magnitude when we move toward intensive camel farming. Not much has been studied about the occurrence of camel diseases in camelinhabiting areas and what impact they have on the economy of the farmers (Faraz et al., 2021). Camels have a pivotal role in supporting the economy of pastoral peoples located in diverse world ecological zones. These ecological zones include in them the Gobi Desert and India in Central Asia (Kohler-Rollefson, 1992; Laval et al., 1998; Lensch, 1999). In the West, it encompasses Mauritania (Abiederrahmane, 1997), Somalia, and Ethiopia in the Horn of Africa (Tefera & Gebreah, 2001). In Somalia and Sudan (major camel-producing countries), camels contribute significantly to exporting various products, which helps with the foreign economy (Saint-Martin et al., 1992). In Arabian Peninsula (Snow et al., 1992) and Australia (Williams, 1992), camels have been used as an important sport and tourism resource. Camels were introduced in Australia to maintain their dominance in the desert during the 18th century. Since then, these animals have been moving around as wild feral animals breeding at will (McKnight, 1969). Despite several developments in the husbandry of camels at the global level, still, most camel owners prefer pastoral life (Abebe, 1991). They mainly rely on nomadism to secure nutrition for their herds. Although proper camel owners exist, still, they undertake long seasonal migrations, sometimes covering up to 600  km in one route (Agab  & Abbas, 1999). Due to such migrations and traveling through harsh and hostile environments with a long dry season, they are exposed to severe stress (Agab, 1993). Despite their presence close to towns or cities, still, they have difficulty in availing veterinary consultancy or required supplies (Field & Simpkin, 1999). Therefore, in such regions, camel owners have to heavily depend on veterinarians for the health coverage of their animals (Abbas et al., 2002). There are several constraints that hinder proper camel treatments. Historically, camel pastoralists live in isolated places. Diseases present in camels are not well reported because of veterinary centers not being available in camel regions. Therefore, researchers commonly consider camels resistant to those diseases that are quite common in other livestock (Mustafa, 1987). However, the most recent, long Sahelian drought has attracted world attention (1976–1990). Scientists have started to study the mechanisms that can support life in this traditional homeland of camels. Accordingly, researchers have formulated and conducted several research projects on camel management and the spread and management of camel diseases (Kohler-Rollefson et al., 2001). Recent socioeconomic and agricultural developments mainly in camel-holding countries have made a lot of modifications to camel farming. Along with improvements in farming, a lot of innovations have been introduced into husbandry practices. Out of them, the establishment of peri-urban or large central dairies for the commercial production of fresh or pasteurized camel milk is the important one (Abbas et  al., 2000). The development of camel-fattening feedlots (Abdul Rahim et  al., 1994) is another one. Efforts have also been exhausted to develop medium-sized to large “mobile ranches”. The purpose is to facilitate the free movement of camels during different seasons DOI: 10.1201/9781003408598-8

181

182

Biology and Breeding of Camels

to consume crop residues (Niamir, 1991). These are some of the recent developments for the betterment of camel herds (Abu-Sin, 1986). Because of rising interest in camel raising, more information on camels has become available. Compared to previous assumptions, now it has been observed that camels are susceptible to a lot more diseases. For example, in some diseases such as brucellosis, enterotoxaemia, paratuberculosis, and pox, the camel was found to be more susceptible than other livestock in the same eco-zones (Higgins, 1986; Radwan et al., 1991; Abbas et al., 2002). Data available on the infectious diseases of the camel have been comprehensively reviewed (Higgins, 1983; McGrane  & Higgins, 1985). Ramadan (1994) and Wernery and Kaaden (2002) have provided details of several activities on the camel clinics available in Saudi Arabia and the Emirates. So it is well known that, like other livestock, camels do suffer from a variety of diseases, and they may be bacterial, viral, fungal, and parasitic (Chauhan et al., 1986).

BACTERIAL DISEASES A wide range of pathogenic bacteria affects camels. In camels, for many species of bacteria, a relationship has developed between disease and bacteria. Nonetheless, in other diseases, there is no diagnostic or clinical relationship between a disease and its pathogens. Hence, epidemiologic or serologic methods have been used for detection in camels. This statement comes true for leptospirosis (Shigidi, 1974; Maronpot et al., 1972; Mathur et al., 1986; Moch et al., 1975), Q fever (Maurice et al., 1967a; Harbi & Karim, 1972; Addo, 1980; Abbas, 1987; Burgemeister et al., 1975; Schmatz et al., 1978; Hung et al., 1991), chlamydia infection (Schmatz et al., 1978), and mycoplasma infection (Al-AAlim et al., 2023). Bacterial infections, however, have been found in camels, but little has been written about them. This includes tetanus (Schwartz & Dioli, 1992), anthrax (Barakat et al., 1976), and botulism (Provost et al., 1975). Although very little has been studied about Johne’s disease (Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis infection), it is a fact that ruminants are least affected by this disease than camels (Buchnev et al., 1987). Recently, Mycobacterium bovis bacteria have been discovered in the lungs of a camel in Mauritania. This has developed a new enthusiasm in researchers to undertake fresh studies on the zoonotic disease of camels (Elmossalami et al., 1971). However, most workers consider tuberculosis a rare disease in camels. To confirm previous assumptions, studies have been carried out on camel tuberculosis in Australia. In these studies, however, 22% positive tuberculin tests were reported in Australia, but none of the animals showed signs of infection with any Mycobacterium spp. (Schillinger, 1987), which further confirmed the previous assumptions.

Mastitis Like other mammals, camels are very prone to mastitis. Although few data are available on it, it is really important for camels, and this is a more common disease in field conditions (Barbour et al., 1985; Gadir, 2014). Obeid et  al. (1996) found healthy and quality udders in only 5% of milking camels in eastern Sudan. When examined clinically, 50% of camels, out of the total population present, had mastitis. Guliye et al. (2002) further verified in his study the intensity of mastitis. In Bedouin camels, they reported up to 40% mastitis. Nonetheless, factually, 81.4% of the population had subclinical intra-mammary infections, which is quite significant. In another study, Younan et al. (2001) observed and reported mastitis in 207 lactating camels found in six different herds. This number is very high and alarming, showing a severe outbreak of mastitis. He further stated that there is a strong possibility that pox might have exacerbated the disease. Tick infestations and traumatic teat lesions have been found to be the major predisposing factor for mastitis among pastoralist camels. Abbas (1997) reported that camel owners use a combination of moxibuxtion, cauterization, and certain phytotherapeutics to treat mastitis (Abbas, 1997; Figures 8.1 and 8.2). Although these treatments have been applied quite frequently, so far they have been ineffective. Nonetheless, when the treatment of mastitis is delayed, it can lead to a chronic, often fibrostic, sequel

Camel Diseases and Preventive Measures

FIGURE 8.1  Mastitis in camel. Source: medcraveonline.com

FIGURE 8.2  Mastitis development in an infective udder. Source: omicsonline.com

183

184

Biology and Breeding of Camels

(Pyrola, 2009). Most researchers diagnose mastitis in camels through three different procedures. For the detection of clinical mastitis, the California Mastitis Test (CMT) and milk somatic cell count (SCC) have quite successfully been applied (Abdurahman, 1996). In the studies of Younan et al. (2001), CMT showed 77% sensitivity and 91% specificity for the diagnosis of camel mastitis. A lot of variation, however, has been observed in the SCC values, which ranged from 1.01 × 105 and 12 × 106 in both healthy and diseased udders, respecitvely (Younan et al., 2001). Different physiological states of female camels might have caused these variations because the camels were tested for mastitis at different time durations. Since SSC has shown a significant rise in camel milk, nonetheless, it coincides with the level of pregnancy. Before calving, pregnancy has the highest quantity of milk (Obeid et al., 1996). Hence, the SCC test does not give a true indication of the diagnosis of camel mastitis. However, for any application, the pros and cons of this test must be viewed with caution. Abdurahman (1996) and Guliye et al. (2002) tried to develop a quick diagnostic test for mastitis by the detection of N-acetyl-beta-glucosaminidase (NAGase) and serum albumin in milk. For wider applications, this test was discouraging. There is no correlation between the albumin content of milk and udder infection. Moreover, in both infected and healthy udders, great variations were recorded in the NAGase values (Figure 8.3). Several authors attempted to directly culture bacteria to detect udder infections. During their studies, they most commonly isolated Micrococcus sp., Streptococcus agalactiae, and Staphylococcus aureus, followed by Arcanobacterium sp., and E. coli. Klebsiella pneumoniae was, however, rarely found in a case of pre-acute mastitis (Kapur et al., 1982). Pastuerella haemolytica was found in animals with chronic obstructive mastitis (Ramadan et al., 1987), and Clostridium perfringens was quite common in subclinical cases (Mostafa et al., 1987). Virtually no work has been done on the economic impact of camel mastitis. Specifically, on multiparous camels, there is no information on long-term lactation expectancy. As the interest in dairy females increases, mastitis emerges as one of the most important diseases. Studies should also be directed toward developing and adopting control procedures for these diseases. This should be in line with the bovine industry. As a matter of fact, camel milk is consumed

FIGURE 8.3  Treatment of mastitis. Source: pressreader.com

Camel Diseases and Preventive Measures

185

fresh throughout its region of presence, and research on camel mastitis can be of great importance. In camel-keeping countries, large commercial and small peri-urban camel dairies are becoming common at quite an accelerated pace (Ali et  al., 1991). These factors warn of take up efforts to ensure better sanitation practices of milk supply to the consumers.

Pneumonia Pneumonia, which is a respiratory tract disease, is very common in camels. It has been observed that camels catch this disease when they cover really long distances during the rainy season (Schwartz & Dioli, 1992). It has been further observed that those camels housed in pens without any shelter, a major causative factors of this disease, also suffer from this disease (Arora & Karla, 1973). During the first weeks of the rainy season, the emergence of dust storms in the deserts are also a cause of respiratory disease in camels. Hansen et al. (1989) examined and reported on an outbreak of pneumoconiosis in Somali camels. When they evaluated the dust samples for microbial contamination camel carriers of this disease, they found a large number of macrophages originally present in dust in 94 camels out of 134 animals tested. Camels being crowded in limited areas during the summer season is also a cause of this disease. However, this happens when camels, approaching from diversified geographical locations, gather at the scanty open-water resources (Melaku & Fessaha, 1988; Figure 8.4).

FIGURE 8.4  Pneumonia in camels. Source: researchgate.net

186

Biology and Breeding of Camels

When infected with this disease, camels suffer from fever, their pulse accelerates, facial lymph glands swell, and they experience severe respiratory distress following the appearance of nasal discharge. Salivation and swelling of the neck and pectoral region occasionally appear, and bloody diarrhea is some other symptoms that can be observed in this disease (Momin & 1987). Momin et al. (1987) reported the presence of Pasteurella multocidais in pneumonic camels (Momin et al., 1987). Richard (1979) reported abortion pasteurellosis-infected camels. Nonetheless, following this, researchers could not agree with these findings. Bekele (1999) observed a severe outbreak of pneumonia in camel herds found in the Ogaden and Afar regions of Ethiopia. This disease further extended to the Sudan–Ethiopia borders, ultimately resulting in 30% morbidity and 6.4% mortality. Pasteurella haemolytica–infected camels displayed severe hemorrhagic and fibrostic lesions. A virus called morbilivirus was suspected as the initial cause of this outbreak. The camels in Jordan suffered from the same pneumonia (Al-Rawashdeh, 2000). Similarly, several other bacteria like S. aureus, E. coli, K. pneumoniae, Rhodococcus equi, and Neisseria sp. also caused pneumonia in camels (Abdurahman, 1987). Bergin and Torenbeeck (1991) isolated Pseudomonas pseudomallei, which caused severe necrotic pneumonic lesions in Australian camels that died later on, which was reported as the first case of meliodosis in camels. Abubakr et al. (1999) reported lung abscesses caused by Arcanobacterium pyogenes and C. pseudotuberculosis in both young and adult camels. Nevertheless, there were no clear-cut symptoms of these infections in camels. Refai (1992) studied the effects of Acholeplasma sp. in infected camels and isolated Mycoplasma argininiin from the nose, lung, and thoracic lymph nodes. Elfaki et al. (2002) observed the presence of M. arginine in 8.8% of camel lungs. They isolated these bacteria from those camels that were suffering from chronic interstitial pneumonia. Other researchers could not confirm the pathogenic role of this mycoplasmal isolate. They denied the involvement of respiratory tract disease of camels. Nevertheless, some other researchers observed antibodies in camels against M. mycoidesin. These antibodies were also reported in South American camels that were suffering from pneumonia (Abdelazeem et al., 2020) but again, it remains unconfirmed whether these molliculites are involved in camel pathology. The previously mentioned findings show that research on pneumonia is in its infancy in camels. The presence of high antibody titers in camel sera against numerous respiratory adenoviruses, parainfluenza 3, respiratory syncytial virus, and others (Olaleye et  al., 1989), but the epidemiological significance of these viruses could not be proved. Furthermore, not enough information is available on the use of antibiotic therapy in camel pneumonia (Bekele, 1999) or on the bioavailability of antibiotics for the treatment of camels infected with these pathogens (Abdelazeem et al., 2020).

Clostridial Diseases Contradictory to previous findings (Hutyra et al., 1946), camels appear highly vulnerable to several species of the genus Clostridium. Ipatenko (1974) and El-Sanousi and Gameel (1993) observed and reported C. perfringens types C and D as causative agents in the outbreaks of enterotoxaemia. This bacterium specifically attacks young camels when they start weaning. Postmortem investigations in young camels showed the presence of hemorrhagic enteritis, floppiness, necrotic lesions in the heart, and congestion in several organs. Wernery et al. (1991) and Seifert et al. (1992) isolated C. perfringens type A from several cases of acute enteritis in young camels. Kidneys from both young and adult camels appeared pulpy. Enterotoxaemia is a very common disease in camels used for racing and often occurs when racing camels are suddenly exposed to different environments before next racing (Figure 8.5). Selenium deficiency and concurrent infections by trypanosomiasis and salmonellosis are the main causative agents of enterotoxaemia in camels (Wernery et al., 1991, 1992). Wernery (2001) further says that young camels suffer from clostridial enterotoxaemia when there is a considerable drop in immunoglobulin levels, particularly IgA, when they are one month old. He reported that despite feeding young ones on colostrum, immunoglobulin decreased in the blood at around the seventh day of life. This reached its minimum level between 20 and 30 days of age. This statement coincided

Camel Diseases and Preventive Measures

187

FIGURE 8.5  Clostridial diseases in camels Source: researchgate.net

well with the high mortality in camel calves suffering from enterotoxaemia. A comprehensive understanding of the ontogeny of the immune system in camels is lacking (Abdel-Magied (2001). Despite these explorations on immunoglobulins, the predisposition of the different immunoglobulin classes is not well comprehended or well explored (Hannant et al., 1992; Nguyen et al., 2002). Provost et al. (1975) observed a severe outbreak of botulism (C. botulinum) in camels in Chad that drank contaminated water. These camels experience ataxia. Clinically, they could not stand, and it persisted particularly in the hindquarters. Because of the severity of symptoms, ultimately the animals succumbed. Previously, researchers had reported the occurrence of black quarter (C. chauvoei) in young and adult camels (Rutter & Mack, 1963). Presently, authenticated records of this disease are not available. However, Makinde et al. (2001) reported that during the 3 months of the slaughtering of dromedary camels in Nigeria, 29.3% of them were serologically positive for C. chauvoei. A few, however, observed the symptoms of tetanus (C. tetani) in the camels examined. Clinically, the symptoms of tetanus in camels match very closely to those of the horse. The common symptoms of tetanus are limb stiffness and “locked jaw”, opisthotonus. If cared for properly, 60,000 International Units of antitetanic serum treated them successfully within just 72 hr. Schwartz and Dioli (1992) were of the view that this disease is similar to one found in East Africa as called “wry

188

Biology and Breeding of Camels

neck”. This disease is a form of local tetanus, but regarding its causative agents, no information exists. In Sudan, 8 out of 200 pastoralist camels that suffered from tetanus showed a conspicuous bend in the upper half or third of the neck. These symptoms were equally present in both young and adults (Agab & Abbas, 1999). Nevertheless, the etiology of this disease is still ambiguous. Seven out of the total eight cases observed were serologically positive for brucellosis (Agab & Abbas, 1999).

Salmonellosis From different parts of the world, various species or serotypes of Salmonella were isolated from camels. The majority of isolations were from healthy camels (Wernery, 1992). In one extensive study an estimated carrier rate in camels was 30% (Selim, 1990). Nonetheless, clinically, salmonella was found to be associated with the symptoms of acute or chronic gastroenteritis and gastrohepatitis (Moore et al., 2002). Donatien and Boue (1944) reported observed abortion in those camels suffering from ghudda. They associated it with an unclassified salmonella infection as the major manifestation of this disease. This disease was commonly found in the Middle East and northern Africa.

Camel Calf Diarrhea With an increased tendency toward intensive farming of camels, diarrhea in young camel calves has become an important problem that has considerably increased in magnitude (Schwartz  & Dioli, 1992). This disease has been reported in Somalia, Sudan, the Emirates (Moore et al., 2002) Morocco (Michel et  al., 1997), and India (Khanna et  al., 1992) in young camels at the suckling stage. A considerable number of camel calves die due to this disease. The mortality rate ranges from 25% and 68% (Michel et al., 1997). Etiologically, a mixed infection of numerous microbes causes this disease. Important among them are Salmonella spp. and E. coli (Abbas et al., 1992; Figure 8.6).

FIGURE 8.6  Camel calf diarrhea and its treatment. Source: researchgate.net

Camel Diseases and Preventive Measures

189

Campylobacter coli has been reported in camel calves once associated with diarrhea. It has been further reported that rotavirus and adenovirus cause or at least are suspected as sole causes, sometimes in association with Enterobacteriaceae (Wunschmann et al., 2002). In this connection, clinically, three symptoms have been reported. The neonates, when they were 1 week old, experience the first type of diarrhea. This disease can also affect adults. This is recognized as fetid whitish diarrhea. Animals dehydrate severely following complete anorexia. E. coli or rotavirus (Abbas et al., 1992) is the main causative agent of this diarrhea. The second type of diarrhea causes this disease in camel calves when they are from 2 weeks to 2 months old, and this type of diarrhea is associated with Salmonella, Clostridium, and Campylobacter and may be coccidian (Schwartz & Dioli, 1992). The animal feels mild abdominal pain, emaciation, and inappetence. The excreta of the animal may contain blood. This disease can attack again when the animal attains an age of 1 year. Although it is called the third type, the assumption is that it is a recurrence the previous gastroenteritis. Affected animals suffer from pneumonia and become dull, and their mucosa turns pale. These animals also experience diarrhea for brief periods. Salmonella spp. is considered the common causative agent in older camel calves (Selim, 1990). Important risk factors, the economic impact, and control procedures demand in particular an exploration of its comprehensive control and eradication.

Brucellosis Brucella abortus (Al Khalaf & El Khaladi, 1989) and B. melitensis can be two causative agents of brucellosis (Ramadan et al., 1998; Abbas & Agab, 2002). These organisms have been isolated relatively easily from lymph nodes, vaginal swabs, testes, and aborted fetal stomach contents are the main living sites of these organisms. If required, they can be isolated from these sites; however, isolation was rare from camel milk (Hamdy & Amin, 2002). Hamdy and Amin (2002) successfully amplified their DNA sequences. They found out that 50–60% of 103 cattle were seropositive, confirming the presence of B. abortus and B. melitensisfrom in the milk of cattle, sheep, and goats. Nonetheless, the ratio was quite lower in female camels, where only one out of 12 was seropositive. However, the isolation of Brucella following a bacteriological culture did not show any seropositivity (Hamdy & Amin, 2002). Al Agamy et al. (1992) demonstrated strong bactericidal activity of the lactoperoxidase system in camel milk against gram-negative organisms. Nonetheless, it is not clear whether it can control Brucella sp. (Figure 8.7). The risk of this disease, however, in different countries is based on the outcomes of surveys of several serological tests. The tests conducted so far are slide or plate agglutination tests (Hashim et al., 1987). The important ones of these are the Rose Bengal plate test (Baumann et al., 1992) and the complement fixation test (Omer et al., 2000); rarely is the milk ring test and 2-mercaptoethanol test used (Hamdy  & Amin, 2002). To increase the sensitivity of these tests, they all were used principally in combination. The risk due to B. abortus was higher when camels that were raised intensively for the production of milk. The risk of this disease also increased if camels were kept in close proximity to cattle (Al Khalaf & El Khaladi 1989). B. melitensisis was more frequently isolated with a higher seroprevalence in those camels belonging to pastoralists that were extensively kept or herded with sheep and goats (Radwan et al., 1995). This observation might indicate and further support this statement that there are chances that brucellosis might be transmitted from other livestock to camels, and then cattle get infected from camels. The epidemiology of camel brucellosis shows a 8–15% prevalence of this disease in Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, the former Soviet Union, and perhaps Egypt. The intensive raising of camels in these areas enhances the chances of brucellosis (Ahmed & Nada, 1993). Nonetheless, in the extensive raising of camels in Somalia, Sudan, Libya, and Ethiopia or Eritrea, the prevalence of this disease is quite lower (1–3%; Bornstein & Musa, 1987; Agab, 1993). However, it is generally observed that camels belonging to pastoralists usually have a low prevalence of brucellosis. Pastoralist camels, however, have a different response. Under these conditions, individual herds could have an appreciably higher prevalence. For example, in Sudan, in certain camel herds, up to 30% seroprevalence of brucellosis has been observed (Bitter, 1986).

190

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 8.7  Brucellosis in camels. Source: dubaicrc.ae

To avoid this disease, camels have been successfully vaccinated with Rev 1 or S19 vaccinal strains (Agab et al., 1995). In addition to vaccination, antibiotics are also regularly applied to eliminate the carrier state in camels (Radwan et al., 1995). This latter finding, however, requires further confirmation as it will impact unmistakably the control of camel brucellosis. In camel-keeping countries, officially, no policy exists to control brucellosis in camels (Refai, 2002). It is fully suggested that to control brucellosis, vaccination in high-risk countries should be followed. In low-risk countries, vaccination should be preceded by blood testing (Abbas and Agab, 2002; Figure 8.8).

Dermatitis Dermatitis is a spreadable skin disease commonly found among camels. This disease forms skin necrosis, abscessation, and sinuses (Domenech, 1977). First of all, lesions appear on the body in the form of small nodules. The nodular area is usually swollen and really painful. This increases in size within 2–3 weeks and develops into a specified and well-marked necrotic center. This nodular structure finally sloughs off and exposes an ulcerated, purulent, or hemorrhagic layer underneath. Sometimes, bacteria automatically die off, and the injury heals with a regeneration of the skin underneath, but this whole process takes about 2 months (Yagoub & Mohamed, 1996). Different types of microorganisms have been blamed for the etiology of this disease. S. aureus, Streptococcus spp., Corynebacterium pyogenes, Nocardia cameli, Actinomyces sp., and Erysipelothrix sp. have been mainly incriminated and further have been isolated from these typical lesions (Domenech, 1977; Figure 8.9). Peck (1939) opined that this disease occurs in those camels that are salt-deficient. He further opined that this disease is rare in free-ranging camels that feed on salty bushes. Recent evidence about this disease is contradictory. The current status shows up to 5.7% of involvement of this disease in pastoralist camels; nonetheless. in some cases, a 55% prevalence has been observed (Yagoub & Mohamed, 1996). High tick infestations can be a possible reason for these diseases. It

Camel Diseases and Preventive Measures

FIGURE 8.8  Treatment of brucellosis. Source: infonet.biovision.net

FIGURE 8.9  Dermatitis in camels. Source: static1.square.space.com

191

192

Biology and Breeding of Camels

was further observed that ticks are the possible transmitting agents because the highest disease risk is observed in those areas where high tick infestations were found. The infestation sites in camels are obscure. There are observations that soil is the causative agent of the mixed bacterial infection. This happens when animals lie on the ground and sand-bath in contaminated areas. Although this disease is highly contagious and is very transmissible, nevertheless, this disease is not fatal. Parenteral antibiotics and local iodine tincture are successfully used for its treatment. Cutaneous streptothricosis, which has occurred due to Dermatophilus conglensiswas, has been reported in camels in Kenya (Gitao et al., 1998a), Sudan, and Saudi Arabia (Gitao et al., 1998b). Camels suffering from this disease have extensive skin matting over the abdomen and hind legs. Finally, this matting takes the shape of a scab on the infected site. These coatings are thin, and if removed, hyperemic skin can be observed underneath, which immediately becomes purulent. If camels are not treated, then the disease lasts for 2–6 months. Most of the skin is covered by a powdery crust. Alopecia can be seen covering more than 50% of the animal’s body (Gitao et al., 1998b). Up to 50–75% of affected camels have been observed in the spread of this disease. Gradually, herds over quite a wider geographical area suffer from its infections. Younger animals usually are more susceptible. Mortality in these animals has been observed at 6–30% (Gitao et al., 1998b). Wernery and Kaaden (2002) reported a relationship between contagious skin necrosis and streptothricosis. Practical evidence does not prove this claim.

FUNGAL INFECTIONS Not much has been reported about fungal diseases in camels. A  dermatophytosis-causing worm commonly occurs in young camels. If animals attain an age of 4 years or over, then they apparently become immune (Singh  & Singh, 1969). Trichophyton spp. and Microsporum spp. are the most common dermatophytes. They have been isolated from the animals affected with this disease (Boever & Rush, 1975). Fungal infections usually occur during winter. It has three different clinical forms: superficial, follicular, and generalized. The generalized form results in loss of body condition with severe skin lesions. These lesions are sometimes filled with pus. Only Aspergillus fumigatusis (fungus) causes systemic disease in camels, and it was isolated from a 5-year-old camel. This camel was suffering from chronic rhinitis. It showed the appearance of bilateral mucopurulent nasal discharges and mild inspiratory dyspnea (Pal & Mehrotra, 1984; Figure 8.10). A. fumigatus was a causative agent of bronchopneumonia and gastroenteritis, which has proved to be a severe disease. It affects a large number of camels in the Emirates specifically those used for racing (El-Khouly et al., 1992). This disease is characterized by pyrexia, lachrymation, edema of the throat, and bloody diarrhea. This disease is fatal. Out of 70 camels affected with this disease, 40 died after a brief illness. Vomiting and nervous signs were observed before the death of the animals. Postmortem findings revealed pneumonia, extensive hemorrhages in the heart, pleura, mediastinal lymph nodes, and omasal and abomasal mucosa. In some camels, it decreased the retinol values, but it is not clear whether this decrease in retinol value predisposed the camels to the poisoning of this disease (Abbas & Ali, 2001). These authors have also demonstrated that liver microsomes in camels were capable to metabolize several common pollutants, including benzopyrenes and aflatoxin B (Raza & Montague, 1994). During the course of these observations, an investigation using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay test took place to measure the total aflatoxin in camel sera.

VIRAL DISEASES Previous studies have reported that camels are vulnerable to a variety of viruses. Among all of them, some viral diseases have been well studied and diagnosed both by clinical and pathological methods. The viruses causing viral diseases in camels have been discovered and isolated from arthropods that parasitize the camel (Wood et al., 1982). These findings have not been well tested by both pathological and epidemiological methods. Some authors have reported evidence that there is risk of the spread these diseases to human beings and other livestock too (Figure 8.11).

Camel Diseases and Preventive Measures

FIGURE 8.10  Fungal infections in camels. Source: thenational.ae

FIGURE 8.11  Viral diseases in camels. Source: camel4all.blogspot.com

193

194

Biology and Breeding of Camels

NONPATHOGENIC VIRAL INFECTIONS In the presence of these infections, camels did not display signs of disease; neither was there any mortality though they were housed with other livestock. This shows that camels are resistant to those viral diseases. Presence of parainfluenza virus (Elamin et al., 1985) African horse sickness, bluetongue, bovine viral diarrhea (Bornstein et al., 1988), akabane virus (Abu Elzen et al., 1998), and pestes des petits ruminants virus (Haroun et al., 2002) in the sera of camels did not show any symptoms of sickness. Contradictory to these observations, the pathogenicity of certain other viruses and the role of camels in their dissemination are not clear. Whether camel is a symptomatic carrier of these diseases is considerably disputed. For example (Mahajan et  al., 2021), isolated virus (type O) from camels that were clinically affected with foot-and-mouth disease (FMD). However, when a goat calf and a camel were experimentally infected by the isolate, mild lesions resulted. All infected animals showed seroconversion l except the camel. Although the camel showed mild lesions, there were no antibodies. Nasser et al. (1980) re-isolated the FMD virus from infected camels up to 4 weeks from the nasopharynx as well as their feces. Researchers kept infected camels with other livestock in confinement for a variable period. None of the animals kept with the camels showed FMD virus infection (Hedger, 1980) in other ruminants (Figure 8.12). Richard (1979) is the only researcher who reported antibodies against FMD virus (types O, C, and SAT 2) in the sera of camels. Nonetheless, again, there were no clinical signs of this disease, although the camels were housed with diseased animals for several weeks. Obviously, FMD demands more research. Particularly, it is important to investigate methods for detecting FMD antigens in camels when sick and after recovery. These findings at least can alleviate the misconception about camels when they are considered asymptomatic carriers of the virus. Literature on Rift Valley fever (RVF) disease in camels is also scarce. Nonetheless, whatever literature is available is full of contradictions. When there was a severe outbreak of RVF in Kenya, the rate of abortion in females increased considerably with high antibody titers (Scott et al., 1963). Meegan et al. (1977), while working in Egypt, had similar observations. They considered camels as a source of infection for other livestock during the outbreak of disease. No clinical involvement

FIGURE 8.12  Nonpathogenic viral infections in camels. Source: sciencemag.org

Camel Diseases and Preventive Measures

195

was observed in camels. Previous reports in Sudan described an extensive involvement of camels, the main livestock in Sudan, in an outbreak of RVF (Eisa, 1981). RVF virus was isolated from even healthy camels when they were kept in close contact with badly affected cattle, sheep, and goats (Imam et al., 1978). However, the disease was not observed in experimentally inoculated camels. Furthermore, there was no record of whether these camels experienced an increased abortion rate, although their antibody titer was quite high. Records regarding the occurrence of rinderpest (RP) in camels are also very confusing. The susceptibility of camels to the RP virus is also obscure. Reports regarding the mortality of camels and erosive mucosal lesions due to RP when they were kept in combination with cattle are confusing (Dhillon, 1959). Nair et al. (2011) however, in support of this notion, collected blood from clinically affected cattle and used to inoculate camels. This blood infusion displayed an RP-like disease. Before 1905, several other researchers showed skepticism about these reports and reported the nonsusceptibility of camels to RP disease (Leese, 1927). Later on, more direct (and more precise) virological techniques were introduced and applied to investigate the disease in camels. Although it took considerable time, nonetheless, it confirmed that although camels were susceptible to experimental infection with RP virus, transient signs of infection were quite minimal (Chauhan et al., 1985). All of these researchers, as well as others (Maurice, 1967b), reported variable degrees of seroconversion. All showed an absence of clinical disease or significant virus persistence in camels after their exposure to RP virus. Therefore, it seems that camels do not spread RP disease in other animals.

PATHOLOGICAL VIRAL INFECTIONS Among viral diseases pox, rabies, papillomatosis, and contagious ecthyma are the most common ones and have well been reported from a majority of camel-raising regions of the world. Although this disease is very common in young camels, nonetheless, reports on the pathology of the disease are rare. This disease affects camels between 6 months and 2 years of age. Common symptoms of this disease are eruptive lesions on several parts of the skin, particularly around the mouth. These lesions are sometimes mistaken for pox if examined casually (Munz et al., 1990).

Camel Pox Pox is the most common viral disease of camels. Except for Australia, it is quite common in areas with a dominant presence and distribution of camels (Baxby, 1974; Chauhan and Kaushik, 1987). True poxvirus causes this disease. Except for minor variations in their terminal fragments, different virus isolates have identical DNA sequences (Pfeffer, 1998; Afonso, 2002). Camel pox virus strongly relates to the variola virus. Variola virus has been known to be the causative agent of smallpox. It is not yet what is the epidemiological significance of this disease; historically, it is known as a zoonotic disease (Jezek & Rothbauer, 1983). Camel pox virus is susceptible when attenuated by cidofovir. Nonetheless, it is more sensitive to ribavirin than mycophenolic acid (Smee et al., 2002; Figure 8.13). The disease mainly shows acute dermatitis. This starts with a mild fever and the development of papules. These papules quickly develop into pustules and scabs involving most of the body. The eyes, lips, nares, thighs, and the upper neck region are the main places of concentration of these structures (Abu Alzein et al., 1999). Most animals usually recover slowly, and this recovery takes about 2–4 weeks. In some camels, corneal opacity develops, which lasts a longer time (Abbas, personal observation). This malicious form of the disease has been well reported in younger camels. Nonetheless, this disease can also occur in old camels too if they have not been previously exposed to this disease. This disease results in severe and injurious labial lesions, and often, it ends up in lethal pneumonia, hemorrhagic gastroenteritis, and generalized adenopathy (Jezek & Rothbauer, 1983). If the disease is mild, then mortality due to camel pox is 0–2%, (Abu Alzein et  al., 1999). Nonetheless, mortality is 28–40% in the severe or systemic form (Jezek et al., 1983; Wernery &

196

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 8.13  Camel pox. Source: alchetron.com

Zacharia, 1999). According to several researchers, locally isolated viruses are killed, then attenuated, and then used to vaccinate camels ((Kaaden et al., 1992). One-year-old camels vaccinated with an attenuated commercial vaccine resisted challenge 6  years after vaccination. This vaccination was prepared from a field isolate of the camel pox virus (Chauhan and Kaushik, 1987; Wernery & Zacharia, 1999). Higgins et al. (1992) used the vaccine virus strain to control an outbreak of pox in adult camels.

Contagious Ecthyma Camel contagious ecthyma (CCE) is predominantly found in young camels (less than 1 year old). The causative agent of this disease is a parapox virus, and this disease is common in several countries. Countries prevalent with this disease include Mongolia (Dashtseren et al., 1984), Kazakhstan, Kenya (Munz et al., 1986), Somalia (Moallin & Zessin 1988), and Sudan (Ali et al., 1991); Khalafalla et al., 1994). At the onset of this disease, pustular dermatitis occurs in the oral mucosa. The particular organs are the gums and around the incisors, lips, and nostrils (Munz et al., 1986). The pustules develop into fissured crusts and severely affect lips. This leads to a complete cessation of suckling and feeding. When the disease becomes quite severe, head swelling and buccal hemorrhage have also been reported (Khalafalla et al., 1994). This disease spreads at quite an accelerated pace in herds. Several authors are of the view that all calves born during that season can catch this disease (Dashtseren et al., 1984). Sometimes, this disease just goes away without causing any mortality. In some cases, however, mortality rates of 6.6–38% mortality have been observed and reported (Khalafalla et al., 1994; Figure 8.14).

Rabies North African and Middle Eastern countries have reported rabies occurring in camels. This disease is common in Morocco (Chevrier, 1959), Mauritania (Bah et al., 1981), Sudan (Moallin et al., 1988),

Camel Diseases and Preventive Measures

197

FIGURE 8.14  Contagious ecthyma in camels. Source: Researchgate.net

Yemen, the United Arab Emirates (Abbas, 1988; Wernery & Kumar, 1993), Niger (Bloch & Diallo, 1995), and Jordan. In all these reports, the disease has been confirmed histologically or immunologically. No virus was isolated and/or reported. This disease has been observed in both dumb and furious forms (Abbas, 1988). The small number of cases presented and reported in the literature is not truly representative of this disease. Therefore, the furiousness of these diseases is more common. The dumb form is less common and hard to substantiate. For example, in Sudan, three out of five cases recorded in a camel clinic were of the dumb type (Aradaib & Abbas, 1987; Figure 8.15). It has been further observed that camels suffering from furious type experienced restlessness, anxiety, and salivation (Kumar & Jindal, 1997; Afzal et al., 1993). They displayed attacking behavior and biting behavior. During this time, parts of their body are badly mutilated. The signs of injuries are visible for 3–7 days. This is followed by 2–3 days of terminal paralysis with lateral recumbence. A characteristic flexion of all four limbs can also be observed (Aradaib &Abbas, 1987; Ata et al., 1993). Frequent yawning has been commonly seen in camels suffering from the furious type of rabies. The dumb or silent rabies remains silent in camels for several days. Even a female camel suffering from rabies can be milked daily for 3 days before death (Abbas, 1988). Typically, camels with this disease show lethargy, and their grazing becomes unfocused. The camels were seen barracking and sometimes calm for 3–5 days. Animals then showed weak tremors in the superficial muscles, especially in the neck and shoulders. They frequently nod their heads. The frequency of tremors and nodding increases 1–2 days before the death of animals. Nonetheless, it went into lateral recumbence for a few days. During this period of recumbence, camels manifested violent leg paddling and severe backward flexion of the neck (Abbas, 1990). Anti-rabies prophylaxis in camels has not been observed, and the sneaky nature of the disease may not warrant any. The control of stray dogs and foxes in the vicinity of camel farms and pens could be a beneficial procedure because dead camels will be disposed of immediately (Ata et al., 1993).

198

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 8.15  Rabies in camels. Source: Outbreaknewstoday.com

PARASITIC DISEASES OF CAMELS Helminthic Diseases Camels are not very susceptible to helminthic diseases because they are browsers in their feeding habits and do not have much concern with soil. However, Haemonchus, Nematodirella, Nematodirus, Trichostrogylus, Strogyloides, Ostertagia, Marshallagia, Cooperia, Trichuris, and Camelostrongylus are common gastrointestinal (GI) nematodes. They have been well reported in camels. These nematodes infect camels mainly during the rainy season, which is their favorite season to act. A minimum intensity of infection has been observed in summer, which is harsh for their survival and proliferation. An infection of these nematodes is very much related to the age of an animal. Among GI nematodes, Nematodirella has the highest prevalence in organized farms throughout the year. In the field, however, Haemonchus spp. is the most common or the main causative agent of GI parasitic disorders. GI nematodiasis has been found in camels in a subclinical form (Parsani et al., 2008). If the infection is moderate, camels show symptoms of anorexia and weakness (Figure 8.16). However, if the infection intensifies, then the symptoms are extended. Accordingly, in addition to anorexia, camels lose weight, with a deterioration of the condition of the body. Finally, a tough hair coat develops; the animal becomes anemic, with the final development of swellings on the lower side of the body. Anthelmintics like fenbendazole, levamisole, tetramisole hydrochloride, morantel tartarate, and ivermectin can successfully treat helminthic parasites (Sazmand & Joachim, 2017). Among extra-intestinal nematodes, Onchocerca fasciata, O. armilataand, and O. gutturosahave have been commonly reported in camels. O. fasciata produces subcutaneous nodules on the head and neck regions of affected camels. The calcified or encapsulated nodules present under the skin host this worm. Another flarid worm called Dipetalonema evansi occurs in the spermatic cord, pulmonary arteriole, right auricle, lymph nodes, and mesentery. Microfilariae have been observed in circulating blood and are well sheathed. Clinical symptoms in animals depend on the location

Camel Diseases and Preventive Measures

199

FIGURE 8.16  Helminthic diseases in camels. Source: scientificamerican.com

of the adult worm. In this infection, hypertrophic sclerosis and aneurysm are the common lesions found in camels. There are few cases of Thelazia leesi (eye worm) found in camels. Trematodes like Fasciola gigantica, F. hepatica, Schistosoma spp., Eurytrema pancreaticum, Dicrocelium dendriticum, and Paramphistomum spp. are common and quite important for camels too because they cause a variety of diseases. The rainy season is an ideal season for trematode infections in camels. The bile duct of an animal suffering from fasciolosis thickens and hampers the flow of bile, leading to digestive disorders. Moniezia expansa, Stilesia vittata, Avitellina spp., Hydatid cyst, Cysticercus tenuicollis, and C. dromedarii are the major cestodes found in camels in India. Infections from cestodes can be detected at the time of postmortem or by examining fecal matter. Infections from cestodes are normally not lethal.

Arthropod Infestations Sarcoptic mange (caused by Sarcoptes scabiei var. cameliis), with its recent origin, is serious disease in camels in India. The trend and nature of this disease are very much dependent on the season

200

Biology and Breeding of Camels

in which animal is living and the region where animal is present. Normally, this disease occurs in winter. Nonetheless, it prolongs from December to April. Predisposing factors for sarcoptic mange in camels are age, nutritional status, and overcrowding, a debilitating condition due to trypanosomiasis. The face, inner surface of the thighs, and around the tail are the common sites of injuries from this disease. Camels lose hair, form scabs, and develop keratinization. Connective tissue proliferates and skin thickens and corrugates. This disease is zoonotic in nature. Camel owners are its main sufferers. This disease is transmitted by direct contact. Fomites, such as blankets and baggage, among others, are some of the other sources of its transmission. Infected camels feel severe itching. Hence, they rub against their calves, other animals, or trees. This rubbing activity spread the disease further. Intense pruritis makes the camels restless. They bite, scratch, and rub the affected areas. The intensive rubbing may lead to the formation of large wounds. These wounds later on are infested by maggots and then suffer from secondary bacterial infections. Clinical symptoms are used as a mode of diagnosis. Finding the different developmental stages of mites and their ova in skin scrapings can also help in the diagnosis. Deep skin scrapings taken from the edge of suspected lesions and valleys of corrugated or wrinkled skin can be used for the diagnosis and detailed study of this disease (Figure 8.17). In India, this disease is treated by taramera oil with sulfur, kerosene oil, and coal tar. This treatment is, however, unsatisfactory and time- and labor-consuming too. To control this disease, three applications of diazinon, amitraz, deltamethrin, and fenvalerate are 100% effective (Parsani et  al., 2008). Recently, ivermectin therapy has shown excellent results in treating mangy camels. Nonetheless, its high prices prohibit its application at mass scale. Hyalomma dromedarii, H. anatolicum, H. marginatum isaaci, Rhipicephalus spp., Ornithodoros spp., and others are commonly found ticks on camels in India. During heavy infestations, the luggage-carrying capacity of

FIGURE 8.17  Arthropod that infests camels. Source: actionpest.com

Camel Diseases and Preventive Measures

201

male camels decreases. Dams do not produce enough milk, and the growth rate of young camels decreases. Chrysomyia spp. and Wohlfahrtia magnificaare are the most important flies that produce myiasis. Myiasis affects the vagina and instigate preputial myiasis. The Cephalopina titilator fly is the causative agent of nasal myiasis in camels.

Protozoan Infections Trypanosoma evansi, Sarcocystis spp., Balantidium coli, and Eimeria spp. are the most common protozoan. They infest camels and become pathogenic. Among all the previously given protozoans, Trypanosoma evansiis is of major importance for camels due to its intensive infestation nature. Trypanosoma greatly affect camels’ health and cause huge losses to camel owners. Blood-sucking flies like transmit this protozoan like Tabanus, Stomoxys, Hippobosca, Lyperosia, and Chrysops transmit this protozoan mechanically. Although the incidence of this disease varies from region to region, it is maximum during the breeding season of flies. These flies breed during the months of October and November and become infective. The development of Indira Gandhi Canal in India in the semiarid region of Rajasthan has totally changed the geoclimatic conditions of this area. These climatic changes have ultimately increased the chances of this disease called trypanosomiasis. This disease, which in camels is called “Surra”, is dominant in camels distributed around that canal (Abd-Elmaleck et al., 2014; Figure 8.18). Trypanosomiasis can attack camels at any stage of life without any discrimination. Although this disease can affect all age groups of camels, young ones are specifically more prone to this disease after weaning. Normally, the chronic form of this disease is present in camels. Nonetheless, when an animal is under stress, it becomes an acute form. The body temperature of the camel suffering from trypanosomiasis increases. Anorexia is common. And the animal may die if the disease is of acute nature. The chronic nature of this disease displays anemia, emaciation, intermittent fever, loss of hair, edema, restlessness, and abortion in animals suffering from this disease. This disease, also called “Tibersa”, can prolong in a camel herd for 3 or more years. Clinical symptoms may be used to diagnose this disease. Blood smear examination, the inoculation of blood from suspected animals into susceptible laboratory animals, sero-biochemical tests

FIGURE 8.18  Protozoans infecting camels. Source: omicsonline.org

202

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 8.19  Gastrointestinal parasites of camels. Source: scirp.org

such as formal gel test and mercuric chloride test, and immunological tests such enzyme immunoassays are commonly used for accurately diagnosing this disease. Recently, for diagnosing trypanosomiasis, antigen enzyme–linked immunosorbent assay and polymerase chain reaction–based assays have been found most sensitive and specific for this disease. For the control of this disease, Quinapyramine methyl sulfate and quinapyramine methyl chloride are commonly used they have been effective. Hence, both of these medicines have been widely used for curative and prophylactic purposes, respectively (Parsani et al., 2008; Figure 8.19). Coccidiosis is a common disease. Common symptoms of this disease are diarrhea and dysentery. Some other symptoms in camels suffering from this disease are dehydration, rough hair coat, and anemia. Infected camels can serve as an intermediate host for Sarcocystosis spp. and can infect animals around the infected animal. Cysts of this parasite are normally present in the gut of infected camels. Nonetheless, cysts can also be seen in the muscles of the heart, diaphragm, and esophagus (Radfar  & Gowhari, 2013). Although this infection has been found to be nonpathogenic, it is a matter of concern in meat-producing camels. People sometimes hesitate to consume the meat of infected animals. Toxoplasma gondii is another protozoan parasite. It normally inhabits feed and/ or water. Animals become infected they feed on contaminated feed or water. In Asia, the infection rate of this protozoan is 11–19%. However, older camels are more susceptible than young camels. The pathogenic effects of this protozoan are rare. Nonetheless, it can cause abortion in dams (Figures 8.20 and 8.21). For parasitic infestations, clinical signs are normally used to diagnose the parasitic infestation. This parasite, its ova, and its larvae and trophozoites can be seen in feces, urine, nasal discharge, or lachrymal discharge. These symptoms indicate parasitic infection in the host. Most of the protozoans inhabit in blood (Figure 8.21). An examination of blood can help with diagnosing parasitic infestations like hydatid cyst, Cysticercus tenuicollis, and Sarcocystosis. Animals do not excrete or secrete ova, larvae, or trophozoites. For identifying the different stages of these protozoa, immunological tests are of great importance.

Camel Diseases and Preventive Measures

203

FIGURE 8.20  Large intestinal coccidiosis. Source: sementicscholar.org

NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCY DISEASES IN CAMELS Energy and Protein Deficiency Animals require energy and proteins for different body functions. Energy is required for maintaining respiration, digestion, growth, milk production, and reproduction. Like other livestock, camels derive energy from dietary carbohydrates while proteins are used to build body tissues. The feed offered and intestinal flora is an important source of protein. To maintain the general health of the animal, adequate protein and energy must be supplied in the diet. The requirement of both energy and protein should be proportionate to the body weight of the animal and the expected degree of production from the animal. A prolonged deficiency of both proteins and energy will deteriorate the animal’s health production capability. If malnutrition of an animal persists, it eventually leads to death. Malnutrition due to energy and protein can occur in any part of the world, but tropical areas are more susceptible. Energy and protein levels vary with the type of feed offered. Straws from rice and wheat are poor in proteins and energy. Nonetheless, concentrates like dairy meal may be rich in both. Good-quality pastures, if present in the tropics, can provide a good quality and quantity of protein and energy to the animal, but prolonged drought and/or overgrazing can cause poor protein and energy supply to camels.

Signs of Energy and Protein Deficiency Energy Deficiency A deficiency in energy is very common. It limits the performance of grazing animals. Animals can be energy-deficient due to overgrazing, drought, and poor quality of the fodder, followed by poor digestibility and low assimilation. Sometimes, fodder may contain very high levels of water in it, which limits energy intake. Energy deficiency retards the growth in young animals, delaying the

204

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 8.21  Intestinal coccidiosis. Source: sementicscholar.org

onset of puberty. It declines milk production and the duration of lactation. In adult animals, it causes weight loss, and it especially happens during late pregnancy and early lactation. Energy deficiency further prolongs an estrus even for several months, decreasing the reproductive performance of animals. Energy deficiency causes pregnant animals to give birth to weak and undersized young ones.

Protein Deficiency Protein deficiencies normally accompany energy deficiencies. During protein deficiencies, appetite in young animals is reduced. Their feed intake decreases significantly. Muscle mass reduces, and further development is halted. The time to attaining maturity is prolonged. Mature animals lose weight, with a decrease in milk production.

Camel Diseases and Preventive Measures

205

Prevention–Control–Treatment Most farmers do not have the resources to meet these deficiencies. Diseases like the onset of worms in the alimentary canal should be treated to avoid a further worsening of the condition. Animals who have experienced malnutrition once hardly can recover. Farmers should plan well ahead of time for collecting fodder for storage. Weak animals should be sold or slaughtered. Weak animals should not be forced to work or reproduce as this will only worsen the condition.

VITAMIN AND MINERAL DEFICIENCIES Vitamin A Calves suffering from a congenital deficiency of vitamin A are born blind or show multiple congenital deformities like hydrocephalus or anophthalmos. Animals lose appetite, their growth rate is reduced, they experience xerophthalmia (with thickening and clouding of the cornea), with a thin serous or mucoid discharge from the eyes. Night blindness appears in adult camels, with a loss of reproductive capability in both males and females.

Vitamin D Animals lose their appetite and weaken with the development of rickets and osteomalacia.

Vitamin E Calves die suddenly without showing any obvious symptoms. Adult animals lose muscle mass, with a considerable decrease in fertility.

Vitamin B1 Animals experience disorientation and walk aimlessly. They take bigger steps due to blindness, anorexia, opisthotonos, or head retraction (stargazing). Muscle tremors and convulsions, followed by recumbence (leaning or reclining), are some symptoms observed due to a deficiency of vitamin B1. Animals display a splashing movement and ultimately succumb to death. A thiamine deficiency in camels usually occurs in sporadic (intermittent) cases. A higher incidence of this disease has been observed in the age range of 2–4 years.

Selenium Due to a selenium deficiency, racing camels perform poorly. Camels feel lethargy and suffer from anorexia, heart, and respiratory disturbances, following a stiffening gait. Moreover, a reduction in fertility in both male and female camels has been observed due to deficiency of this mineral.

Calcium and Phosphorus Deficiency symptoms develop gradually. In the early stages, young ones (from 1 month to 1 year) experience difficulties in movement due to a stiffness in their gait. An increase in the size of the joints, especially the forelimbs; lameness; and sometimes an arched back are some other common symptoms due to deficiency of these two minerals. When conditions persist and progress further, calves show an abnormal curvature of the shift of the long bones with an abnormal increase in the depth and width of the epiphyseal plates of, particularly, the long bones. General weakness, emaciation, and an appearance of abnormal appetite are the main signs observed in adult camels (Abu Damir, 1998).

206

Biology and Breeding of Camels

Copper Like calcium and phosphorus deficiency symptoms, those of copper deficiency also progress gradually. They are quite common in young calves (4–6 months). Animals experience ataxia and incoordination of the legs, particularly the forelegs, during movement of the animal. The bones, especially the bones of the foot, soften, which is followed by leg deformities and poor growth. Adult camels show general weakness, low milk production, anemia, and temporary infertility. The hair coat becomes rough following depigmentation.

Iodine Due to a deficiency of iodine, calves are either born with goiter or the disease appears in 1–2-month-old calves. The birth of stillborn calves or a weakness in newborn calves with gross palpable enlargement of the thyroid gland are some other symptoms observed in calves. Adult male camels lose their libido while female camels fail to express estrus. A  high incidence of abortion, stillborn, and the production of weak young ones has been observed.

Iron Camels having 40 μg/100ml of serum iron showed ruminal lactic acidosis, hemorrhagic disease, sever mange, and heavy tick infestations, following fever and trypanosomiasis.

REFERENCES Abbas, B. (1988). Infectious camel diseases. In Abbas, B., and Mohamed, G. E. (eds.), Annual Report of the Camel Research Unit, p. 48. Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Khartoum, Khartoum. Abbas, B. (1990). Infectious diseases. In Annual Report of the Camel Research Unit: University of Khartoum, pp. 63–71. Faculty of Veterinary Science, Sudan. Abbas, B. (1997). Ethnoveterinary Practices of Camel Pastoralists in Butana, Sudan, p. 98. OSSREA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Abbas, B., and Agab, H. (2002). Review of camel brucellosis. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 55, 47–56. Abbas, B., Agab, H., Mohamed, G. E., Yagoub, S. O., and Mustafa, K. (1992). Clinical observations on field cases of diarrhea in camel calves. In Proceedings of the 5th Conference, General Federation of Arab Veterinarians, 21–24 January, Khartoum, Sudan, pp. 128–137. Abbas, B., Al-Qarawi, A. A., and Al-Hawas, A. (2000). Survey on camel husbandry in Qassim region, Saudi Arabia: Herding strategies, productivity and mortality. Revue d’Elevage et de Medecine Veterinaire des Pays Tropicaux, 53, 293–298. Abbas, B., Al-Qarawi, A. A., and Al Hawas, A. (2002). The ethnoveterinary practices of camel pastoralists and traditional healers in Qassim region, Saudi Arabia. Journal of Arid Environments, 50, 367–379. Abbas, B., Elzubeir, A. E. A., and Yassin, T. T. M. (1987). Survey for certain zoonotic diseases in camels in the Sudan. Revue D’Elevage et de Medicine Veterinaire des Pays Tropicaux, 40(3), 231–233. Abbas, T. A., and Ali, B. H. (2001). Retinol values in the plasma of the Arabian camel (Camelus dromedarius) and the influence of aflatoxicosis. Veterinary Research Communications, 25, 517–522. Abdelazeem, W. M., Zolnikov, T. R., Mohammaed, Z. R., Saad, A., and Osama, K. M. (2020). Virulence, anti� microbial resistance, and phylogenetic analysis of zoonotic walking pneumonia, Mycoplasma arginine in the one humped camel (Camelus dromedaries). Acta Tropica, 207, 1–15. Abd-Elmaleck, B. S., Abed, G. H., and Mandour, A. M. (2014). Some protozoan parasites infecting blood of camels (Camelus dromedarius) at assiut locality, upper Egypt. Journal of Bacteriology and Parasitology, 5(2), 1–7. Abdel-Magied, E. M., Taha, A. A. M., Al Qarawi, A. A., and Elfaki, M. G. (2001). The parotid, mandibular and retropharyngeal lymph nodes of the camel (Camelus dromedarius). Anatomy Histology and Embryology, 30, 199–203. Abdul Rahim, S. A., Abdul Rahman, K., and El Nazier, A. E. (1994). Camel production and reproduction in Qassim, Saudi Arabia. Journal of Arid Environments, 26, 53–59.

Camel Diseases and Preventive Measures

207

Abdurahman, O. A. (1987). Pulmonary lesions among slaughtered camels in Mogadishu. Camel Forum, 20, 1–18. Abdurahman, O. A. (1996). The detection of subclinical mastitis in the Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus) by somatic cell count and California mastitis test. Veterinary Research Communications, 20(1), 9–14. Abebe, W. (1991). Traditional husbandry practices and major health problems of camels in the Ogaden. Nomadic Peoples, 29, 21–31. Abiederrahmane, N. (1997). Camel milk and modern industry. Journal of Camel Practice and Research, 4(2), 223–228. Abu Alzein, E. M., Gameel, A. A., Ramadan, R. O., Housawi, F. M. (1999). An eruptive moderate form of camelpox infection in dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Saudi Arabia. Revue scientifique et technique, 18, 749–752. Abu Damir, H. (1998). Mineral deficiencies, toxicities and imbalances in the camel (Camelus dromedarius): A review. Veterinary Bulletin, 68, 1103–1119. Abu Elzen, E. M. E., Sandouka, M. A., Al-Afaleq, A. I., Mohamed, O. B., and Flamand, J. R. B. (1998). Arbo� virus infections of ruminants in Al-Rub Al-Khali desert. The Veterinary Record, 142(8), 196–197. Abu-Sin, M. E. (1986). Breeding and Marketing of Racing Camels in Eastern Sudan: The Case of Butana District, p. 32. Scandinavian Institute of African Studies (SIAS), Uppsala. Abubakr, M. I., Nayel, M. N., and Fadlalla, M. E. (1999). Corynebacterium abscesses in camels in Bahrain. Journal of Camel Practice and Research, 6(1), 107–109. Addo, P. B. (1980). A serologic survey for evidence of Q fever in camels in Nigeria. British Veterinary Journal, 136(5), 519–521. Afonso, C. L., Tulman, E. R., Lu, Z., Zsak, I., Sandybaev, N. T., Kerembekova, U. Z., Zaitsev V. L., Kutish, G. F., and Rock, D. L. (2002). The genome of camel pox virus. Virology, 295(1), 1–9. Afzal, M., Khan, I. A., and Salman, R. (1993). Symptoms and clinical pathology of rabies in the camel. The Veterinary Record, 133(5), 220. Agab, H. (1993). Epidemiology of Camel Diseases in Eastern Sudan with Emphasis on Brucellosis, p. 184. M.Sc thesis, University of Khartoum, Faculty of Veterinary Science. Agab, H., and Abbas, B. (1999). Epidemiological studies on camel diseases in eastern Sudan. World Animal Review, 92(1), 42–51. Agab, H., Angus, R. D., Abbas, B., and Mamoun, I. E. (1995). Serologic response of camels (Camelus dromedarius) to Br. abortus S19 vaccine. Journal of Camel Practice and Research, 2(1), 93–95. Agab, H. (1993). Epidemiology of Camel Diseases in Eastern Sudan with Emphasis and Brucellosis, 184p. M.Sc. Thesis, University of Khartoum, Sudan. Ahmed, W. M., and Nada, A. R. (1993). Some pathological affections of testis and epididymis of slaughtered camels (Camelus dromedarius). International Journal of Animal Science, 8(1), 33–36. Al-AAlim, A. M., Sheet, O. H., Al-Jumma, M. Z., and Hamad, M. A. (2023). Molecular detection of myco� plasma spp. from camel’s milk. Iraqi Journal of Veterinary Scince, 27(2), 333–337. E I el Agamy, E.E., Ruppanner, R., Ismail, A., Champagne, C.P., and Assaf, R. (1992). Antibacterial and anti� viral activity of camel milk protective proteins. Dairy Res. 59(2), 169–175. Ali, O. A., Kheir, S. A. M., Abu Damir, H., and Barri, M. E. S. (1991). Camel (Camelus dromedarius) contagious echthyma in the Sudan. A case report. Revue D’Elevage et de Medicine Veterinaire des Pays Tropicaux, 44(2), 143–145. Al-Khalaf, S., and El-Khaladi. A. (1989). Brucellosis of camels in Kuwait. Comparative Immunology, Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, 12, 1–4. Al-Rawashdeh, O. F., Al-Ani, F. K., Sharif, L. A., Al-Qudah, K. M., Al-Hami, Y., and Frank, N. (2000). A survey of camel (Camelus dromedarius) diseases in Jordan. Journal of Zoology and Wildlife Medicine, 31(3), 335–338. Aradaib, I. E., and Abbas, B. (1987). Retrospective study of the diseases diagnosed at the University of Khar�toum Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital. Sudan Journal 16N B. Abbas and O. H. Omer CABI Publishing of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, 26, 24–29. Arora, R. G., and Karla, D. S. (1973). A note on isolation of Klebsiella pneumoniae and Diplococci from cases of bronchopneumonia in camels. Indian Journal of Animal Science, 43(12), 1095–1096. Ata, F. A., Tageldin, M. H., Al Sumry, H. S., and Al–Ismaily, S. I. (1993). Rabies in the Sultanate of Oman. The Veterinary Record, 132(1), 68–69. Bah, S. O., Chamoiseau, G., Biha, M. L. O., and Fall, S. M. O. A. (1981). An outbreak of camel rabies in Mau� ritania [Un foyer de rage Cameline en Mauritanie]. Revue D’Elevage et de Medicine Veterinaire des Pays Tropicaux, 34(3), 263–265. Barakat, A. A., Sayour, E., and Fayed, A. A. (1976). Investigation of an outbreak of anthrax in camels in the western desert. Journal of the Egyptian Veterinary Medical Association, 36(1), 183–186.

208

Biology and Breeding of Camels

Barbour, E. K., Nabbut, N. H., and Frerichs, H. (1985). Mastitis in Camelus dromedariusin Saudi Arabia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 17(3), 173–179. Baumann, M. P. O., and Zessin, K. H. (1992). Productivity and health of camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Somalia: Association with Trypanosomiasis and Brucellosis. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 24, 145–156. Baxby, D. (1974). Differentiation of smallpox and camelpox viruses in cultures of human and monkey cells. Journal of Hygiene Cambridge, 72, 251–254. Bekele, T. (1999). Studies on the respiratory disease “Sonbobe” in camels in the eastern lowlands of Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 31(6), 333–345. Bergin, T. J., and Torenbeeck, L. R. (1991). Melioidosis in camels. Australian Veterinary Journal, 68(9), 309. Bitter, H. (1986). Disease Resistance in Dromedaries with Particular Reference to Trypanosoma Evansi Infection, p. 150. Inaugural Dissertation, Tierartliche Hochschule, Hanover. Bloch, N., and Diallo, I. A. (1995). Probable outbreak of rabies in a group of camels in Niger. Veterinary Microbiology, 46, 281–283. Boever, W. J., and Rush, D. M. (1975). Microsporum gypseum infection in a dromedary camel. Veterinary Medicine and Small Animal Clinician, 70(10), 119–1192. Bornstein, S., and Musa, B. E. (1987). Prevalence of antibodies to some viral pathogens, Brucella abortus and Toxoplasma gondii in serum from camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Sudan. Journal of Veterinary Medicine, 34B, 364–370. Bornstein, S., Musa, B. E., and Jama, F. M. (1988). Comparison of sero-epidemiological findings of antibodies to some infectious pathogens of cattle and camels of Sudan and Somalia with reference to findings in other countries of Africa. In The International Symposium on the Development of Animal Resources in the Sudan, pp. 28–34. S.N. Butana Sudan (north eastern region), Khartoum. Buchnev, K. N., Tulepbaev, S. Z., and Sansyzbaev, A. R. (1987). Infectious diseases of camels in the USSR. Revue Scientifique et Technique Office Internationale des Epizootics, 6(2), 487–495. Burgemeister, R., Leyk, W., and Goessler, R. (1975). Studies on the parasitic, bacterial and viral causes of infectious diseases in dromedary camel in South Tunisia [Untersuchungen ueber Vorkommen von Parasitosen, Bakteriellen und viralen Infektionskrankheiten bei Dromedaren in Suedtunesien]. DeutscheTierarztliche Wochenschrift, 82, 352–354. Chauhan, R. S., and Kaushik, R. K. (1987). Isolation of camel pox virus in India. British Veterinary Journal, 143, 581–582. Chauhan, R. S., Kaushik, R. K., Gupta, S. C., Satiya, K. C., and Kulshreshitha, R. C. (1986). Prevalence of different diseases in camels in India. Camel Newsletter, 3, 10–14. Chauhan, R. S., Kulshreshitha, R. C., and Kaushik, R. K. (1985). Epidemiological studies of viral diseases of livestock in Haryana State, India. Indian Journal of Virology, 1(1), 10–16. Chevrier, L. (1959). Epidemiology of rabies in Morocco. [Epidemiologie de larage au Maroc]. Revue D’Elevage et de Medicine Veterinaire des Pays Tropicaux, 12(2), 115–120. Dashtseren, T., Solovyev, B. V., Varejka, F., and Khokhoo, A. (1984). Camel contagious echthyma (pustular dermatitis). Acta Virologica, 28, 122–127. Dhillon, S. S. (1959). Incidence of Rinderpest in camels in Hissar district. Indian Veterinary Journal, 36, 603–607. Domenech, J., Guidot, T. G., and Richard, D. (1977). Pyogenic diseases of the dromedaries in Ethiopia: symp� toms and etiology. [Les maladies pyogenes du dromedaire en Ethiope. Symptomatologie—Etiologie]. Revue D’Elevage et de Medicine Veterinaire des Pays Tropicaux, 30(3), 251–258. Donatien, A., and Boue, A. (1944). An outbreak of ghuddain Sidi Guir region (Sahara). [Une epizootie de Ghedda dans la region d’Qued Guir (Sahara oranais). Archives de L’Institute Pasteur D’ Algerie, 22(3), 171–174. Eisa, M. (1981). Rift valley fever. In Technical Reports, Series 1, pp. 2–13. Office Internationale des Epizootics, Paris. El-Khouly, A. B., Gadir, F. A., Cluer, D. D., and Manefield, G. W. (1992). Aspergillosis in camels affected with a specific respiratory and enteric syndrome. Australian Veterinary Journal, 69(8), 182–186. El-Sanousi, S. M., and Gameel, A. A. (1993). An outbreak of enterotoxaemia in suckling camels. Zentralbatt fur VeterinarmedizinA, 40(7), 525–532. Elamin, M. A. C., and Kheir, S. A. M. (1985). Detection of Influenza antibody in animal sera from Kassala region, Sudan, by agar gel diffusion test. Revue D’Elevage et de Medicine Veterinaire des Pays Tropicaux, 38(2), 127–129. Elfaki, M. G., Abbas, B., Mahmoud, O. M., and Kleven, S. H. (2002). Isolation and characterization of Mycoplasma arginini from camels (Camelus dromedarius). Comparative Immunology, Microbiology & Infectious Diseases, 25, 49–57.

Camel Diseases and Preventive Measures

209

Elmossalami, E., Siam, A. M., and El Sergany, M. (1971). Studies on tuberculosis-like lesions in slaughtered camels. Zentralbatt fur Veterinarmedizin B, 18(4), 253–261. Faraz, A., Younas, M., Pastrana, C. I., Waheed, A., Tauqir, N. A., and Nabeel, M. S. (2021). Socio-economic constraints on camel production in Pakistan’s extensive pastoral farming. Pastoralism; Research Policies, and Practice, 11(2), 1–9. Field, C. R., and Simpkin, S. P. (1999). Experience with a mobile field project with camel owners in Kenya. Journal of Camel Practice and Research, 6(1), 121–123. Gadir, A. E. (2014). Mastitis in camel (Camelus dromedarius): Past and recent research in pastoral production sys�tem of both East Africa and Middle East. Journal of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Health, 6, 208–216. Gitao, C. G., Agab, H., and Khalafalla, A. J. (1998a). Outbreaks of Dermatophilus congolensisinfection in cam�els (Camelus dromedarius) from the Butana region in Eastern Sudan. Revue Scientifique et Technique, 17(3), 743–748. Gitao, C. G., Agab, H., and Khalafalla, A. J. (1998b). An outbreak of a mixed infection of Dermatophilus congolensisand Microsporum Gypseumin camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Saudi Arabia. Revue Scientifique et Technique, 17(3), 749–755. Guliye, A. Y., van Creveld, C., and Yagil, R. (2002). Detection of subclinical mastitis in dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius) using somatic cell counts and the N-acetyl-beta-glucosaminidase test. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 34(2), 95–104. Hamdy, M. E., and Amin, A. S. (2002). Detection of Brucella species in milk of infected cattle, sheep, goat and camels by PCR. Veterinary Journal, 163(3), 299–305. Hannant, D., Mumford, J. A., Wernery, U., and Bowen, J. M. (1992). Elisa for camel IgG and measurement of colostral transfer. In Allen, W. R., Higgins, A. J., Maybew, I. G., Snow, D. H., and Wade, J. F. (eds.), Proceedings of the First International Camel Conference, 2–6 February, United Arab Emirates, Al Ain, pp. 93–95. R & W Publications, Newmarket. Hansen, H. J., Jama, F. M., Nilsson, C., Norrgren, L., and Abdulrahman, O. S. (1989). Silicate pneumoconiosis in camels. Zentralbatt fur Veterinarmedizin, A36(10), 789–796. Harbi, M. S. M. A., and Awad El Karim, M. H. (1972). Serologic investigation into Q fever in Sudanese camels (Camelus dromedarius). Bulletin of Epizootic Diseases in Africa, 20, 15–17. Haroun, M., Hajer, I. E., Mukhtar, M., and Ali, B. E. (2002). Detection of antibodies against pestes des petits ruminants virus in sera of cattle, camels and goats in Sudan. Veterinary Research Communications, 25, 537–541. Hashim, N. H., Galil, G. A., Hulaibi, M. A., and Al-Saleem, E. M. (1987). The incidence of brucellosis and species of Brucella organisms isolated from animals in Al-Hasa, Saudi Arabia. World Animal Review, 61(1), 32–53. Hedger, R. S., Barnett, T. R., and Gray, D. F. (1980). Some virus diseases of domestic animals in the Sultanate of Oman. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 12, 107–114. Higgins, A. (1983). Observations on the diseases of the Arabian camel (Camelus dromedarius) and their control: A review. Veterinary Bulletin, 53(12), 1089–1100. Higgins, A. (1986). The Camel in Health and Disease, p. 166. Bailliere Tindall, London. Higgins, A. J., Silvey, R. E., Abdelghafir, A. E., and Kitching, R. P. (1992). The epidemiology and control of an outbreak of camelpox in Bahrain. In Proceedings of the First International Camel Conference, pp. 101–104. AGRIS. Hung, A. L., Alvarado, A., Lopez, T., Perales, R., Li, O., and Garcia, E. (1991). Detection of antibodies to mycoplasmas in South American camelids. Research in Veterinary Science, 51(3), 250–253. Hutyra, F., Marek, J., and Manninger, R. (1946). Special Pathology and Therapeutics of the Diseases of Domestic Animals, p. 386. Balliere Tindall & Cox, London. Imam, I. Z. E., Karamany, R. E., and Darwish, M. A. (1978). Epidemic of Rift Valley fever in Egypt. Isolation of RVF virus from animals. Journal of Egyptian Public Health Association, 23, 265–269. Ipatenko, N. G. (1974). Infectious enterotoxemia of camel. Veterinary Bulletin, 44(4), 1481–1484. Jezek, Z., Kriz, B., and Rothbauer, V. (1983). Camel pox and its risk to the human population. Journal of Hygiene Epidemiology Microbiology and Immunology, 27, 29–42. Kaaden, O. R., Walz, A., Cerny, C. P., and Wernery, U. (1992). Progress in the development of a camelpox vaccine. In Allen, W. R., Higgins, A. J., Maybew, I. G., Snow, D. H., and Wade, J. F. (eds.), Proceedings of the First International Camel Conference, held at Dubai, 2–6 February, United Arab Emirates, Al Ain, pp. 47–49. R & W Publications, Newmarket. Kapur, M. P., Khana, B. M., and Singh, R. P. (1982). A peracute case of mastitis in a she camel associated with Klebsiella pneumoniaeand Escherichia coli. Indian Veterinary Journal, 59(8), 650–651 (Review of infectious diseases of the camel 11N CABI Publishing).

210

Biology and Breeding of Camels

Khalafalla, A. I., Agab, H., and Abbas, B. (1994). An outbreak of contagious echthyma in camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Sudan. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 26, 253–254. Khanna, N. D., Tandon, S. N., and Sahani, M. S. (1992). Calf mortality in Indian camels. In Allen, W. R., Higgins, A. J., Maybew, I. G., Snow, D. H., and Wade, J. F. (eds.), Proceedings of the First International Camel Conference, 13–16 February, United Arab Emirates, Al Ain, pp. 89–92. R & W Publications, Newmarket. Kohler-Rollefson, I. (1992). The Raika dromedary breeders of Rajasthan: A pastoral system in crisis. Nomadic Peoples, 30, 74–83. Kohler-Rollefson, I., Mundy, P., and Mathias, E. (2001). A Field Manual of Camel Diseases, p. 254. Intermediate Technology Group Publishing, London. Kumar, A., and Jindal, N. (1997). Rabies in a camel – A case report. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 29, 134. Laval, G., Khana, N. D., and Faye, B. (1998). A typology of camel farming systems in Bikaner and Jaisalmer districts of Rajasthan, India. Revue D’Elevage et de Medicine Veterinaire des Pays Tropicaux, 51(2), 147–154. Lensch, J. (1999). The two humped camel (Camelus bactrianus). World Animal Review, 92(1), 36–41. Leese, A. S. (1927). A Treatise on the One-Humped Camel in Health and Disease (vol. 2), p. 100. Vigot Feres, Paris, France. Mahajan, S., Sharma, G. K., Subramaniam, S., Biswal, J. K., and Pattnaik, B. (2021). Selective isolation of foot-and-mouth disease virus from coinfected samples containing more than one serotype. Brazalian Journal of Microbiology, 52(4), 2447–2454. doi:  10.1007/s42770-021-00604-1 Makinde, A. A., Majiyagbe, K. A., Chwzey, N., Lombin, L. H., Shamaki, D., Muhammad, L. U., Chima, J. C., and Garba, A. (2001). Serological appraisal of economic diseases of livestock in the one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) in Nigeria. Camel Newsletter, 18, 62–73. Maronpot, R. R., and Barsoum, J. S. (1972). Leptospiral microscopic agglutinating antibodies in sera of man and domestic animals in Egypt. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 21(4), 467–472 (10N B. Abbas and O. H. Omer CABI Publishing). Mathur, K. N., Khana, V. K., and Purohit, A. K. (1986). Macroscopic plate agglutination results of serological examination of camels, cattle and goat for leptospirosis. Indian Journal of Public Health, 30(3), 170–172. Maurice, Y., Bares, J. F., and Baille, M. (1967a). Serologic investigation of rickettsiosis in dromedaries in Chad. [Enquete serologique sur le rickettioses chez le dromedaire du Chad]. Revue D’Elevage et de Medicine Veterinaire Pays Tropicaux, 20(4), 537–542. Maurice, Y., Provost, A., and Borredon, C. (1967b). Presence of anti-rinderpest antibodies in dromedaries in Chad. Review of infectious diseases of the camel 15N CABI Publishing [Presence d’anticorps antibovipestiques chez le dromedaire du Chad]. Revue D’Elevage et de Medicine Veterinaires Pays Tropicaux, 20(4), 543–550. McGrane, J. J., and Higgins, A. J. (1985). Infectious diseases of the camel: Viruses, bacteria and fungi. British Veterinary Journal, 141, 529–547. McKnight, T. L. (1969). The Camel in Australia, p. 108. Melbourne University Press, Melbourne. Meegan, J. M., Hoogstraal, H., and Mousa, M. I. (1977). An epizootic of Rift Valley Fever in Egypt in 1977. The Veterinary Record, 105(8), 124–125. Melaku, T., and Fessaha, G. (1988). Observations on the Productivity and Diseases of the Issa Camel, p. 238. Ethiopia Institute of Agricultural Research, Addis Ababa. Michel, J. F., Bengoumi, M., Bonnet, P., Hidane, K., Zro, K., and Faye, B. (1997). Herd types and production systems of camels in Laayoune, Morocco. [Typology des systems de production camelins dans la province de Laayoune, Maroc]. Revue D’Elevage et de Medicine Veterinaire des Pays Tropicaux, 50(3), 313–323. Moallin, A. S. M., and Zessin, K. H. (1988). Outbreak of camel contagious echthyma in central Somalia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 20, 185–186. Moch, R. W., Ebner, E. E., Barsoum, J. S., and Botros, B. A. M. (1975). Leptospirosis in Ethiopia: a serological survey in domestic and wild animals. Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 78(2), 38–42. Momin, R. R., Petkar, D. K., Jaiswal, T. N., and Jhala, V. M. (1987). An outbreak of pasteurolosis in camels. Indian Veterinary Journal, 64(10), 896–897. Moore, J. E., McCalmont, M., Xu, J., Nation, G., Tinson, A. H., Crothers, L., and Harron, D. W. (2002). Preva�lence of fecal pathogens in calves of racing camels (Camelus dromedarius) in the United Arab Emirates. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 34(4), 283–287. Mostafa, A. S., Ragab, A. M., Safwat, E. E., El-Sayed, Z., El-Rahman, M., El-Danaf, N. A., and Shouman, M. T. (1987). Examination of raw camel milk for detection of subclinical mastitis. Journal of the Egyptian Veterinary Medical Association, 47(1–2), 117–128.

Camel Diseases and Preventive Measures

211

Moussa, A. A., Daoud, A., Omar, A., Metwally, M. A., El-Nimr, M., and McVicar, J. W. (1982). Isolation of foot and mouth disease virus from camels with ulcerative disease syndromes. Journal of the Egyptian Veterinary Medical Association, 47(4), 219–229. Munz, E., Moalin, A. S. M., Mahnel, H., and Reimann, M. (1990). Camel papollomatosis in Somalia. Journal of Veterinary Medicine B, 37, 191–196. Munz, E., Schillinger, D., Reimann, M., and Mahnel, H. (1986). Electron microscopical diagnosis of Ecthyma contagiosum in camels (Camelus dromedarius). First report of the disease in Kenya. Journal of Veterinary MedicineB, 33, 73–77. Mustafa, I. E. (1987). Bacterial diseases of the dromedary camel. Report of the 55th General Session of the Office Internationale des Epizootics, 55, e18–e22. Nair, A. S., Ravindran, R., Lakshmanan, B., Kumar, S. S., Tresamol, P. V., Saseendranath, M. R., Senthilvel, K., Rao, J. R., Tewari, A. K., and Ghosh, S. (2011). Blood parasites of cattle in Northern Kerala, India. Tropical Biomedicine, 28(1), 68–75. Nasser, M., Moussa, A. A., Abdel Metwalli, M., and Saleh, R. E. I. S. (1980). Secretion and persistence of foot and mouth disease virus in faeces of experimentally infected camels and ram. Journal of Egyptian Veterinary Medical Association, 40(4), 5–13. Nguyen, V. K., Su, C., Muyldermans, S., and van der Loo, W. (2002). Heavy-chain antibodies in Camelidae; A case of evolutionary innovation. Immunogenetics, 54(1), 39–47. Niamir, M. (1991). Traditional African range management techniques: Implications for rangeland manage�ment. In Pastoral Development Network (paper No. 31d), pp. 1–33. Overseas Development Institute (ODI), London. Obeid, A. L., Bagadi, H. O., and Mukhtar, M. (1996). Mastitis in Camelus dromedariusand the somatic cell count of camels’ milk. Research in Veterinary Science, 61(1), 55–58. Olaleye, O. D., Baba, S. S., and Omolabu, S. A. (1989). Preliminary survey for antibodies against respiratory viruses among slaughter camels (Camelus dromedarius) in north-eastern Nigeria. Revue Scientifique et Technique Office Internationale des Epizootics, 8(3), 779–783. Omer, M. K., Skjerve, E., Holstad, G., Woldehiwet, Z., and Macmillan, A. P. (2000). Prevalence of antibodies to Brucella spp. in cattle, sheep, goats, horses and camels in the State of Eritrea; influence of husbandry systems. Epidemiology and Infection, 125(2), 447–453. Pal, M., and Mehrotra, B. S. (1984). Association of Aspergillus fumigatuswith rhinitis. The Veterinary Record, 115(8), 167. Palgov, A. A., and Zhalabovski, I. Z. (1954). Diagnosis of brucellosis in camels and methods of eliminating infec�tion from camel herds. Trudy Instituta Veterinarii Akademiya Nauk Kazakhoskoi SSR, Alma-Ata, 6, 43–50. Parsani, H. R., Veer, S., and Momin, R. R. (2008). Common Parasitic Diseases of Camel Veterinary World (vol. 1), pp. 385–506. Deparment of Parasitology College of Veterinary Science and A. H. S. D. Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar, India. Peck, E. F. (1939). Salt intake in relation to cutaneous necrosis and arthritis of one-humped camels (Camelus dromedarius) in British Somaliland. The Veterinary Record, 46, 1355–1360. Pfeffer, M., Neubauer, H., Wernery, U., Kaaden, O. R., and Meyer, H. (1998). Fatal form ofcamelpox virus infection. Veterinary Journal, 155(1), 107–109. Provost, A., Haas, P., and Dembelle, M. (1975). First case of animal botulism (type c) in Chad: Intoxication of camels by well water. [Premiers cas au Tchad du botulisme animal (type c): Intoxication des dromadaires par l’eau d’un puit.]. Revue D’Elevage et de Medicine Veterinaire des Pays Tropicaux, 28(1), 9–12. Pyrola, S. (2009). Treatment of mastitis during lactation. Irish Veterinary Journal, 62(suppl 4), S40–S44. Radfar, M. H., and Gowhari, M. A. (2013). Common gastrointestinal parasites of indigenous camels (Camelus dromedarius) with traditional husbandry management (free-ranging system) in central deserts of Iran. The Journal of Parasitic Diseases, 37(2), 225–230. doi: 10.1007/s12639-012-0170-8 Radwan, A., El Magwary, S., Hawari, A., Al Bikairi, S. J., Aziz, S., and Rebelza, R. M. (1991). Para tubercu� losis enteritis (Johne’s disease) in camels in Saudi Arabia. Journal of the Saudi Society of Biology and Science, 1(3), 57–66. Radwan, A. I., Bekairi, S. I., Mukayel, A. A., al-Bokmy, A. M., Prasad, P. V., Azar, F. N., and Coloyan, E. R. (1995). Control of Br. Melitensis infection in a large camel herd in Saudi Arabia using antibio-therapy and vaccination with Rev. 1 vaccine. Revue Scientifique et Technique, 14(3), 719–732. Ramadan, F. M., and Sadek, I. M. (1971). Parameters of salmonellosis in Egypt. Journal of the Egyptian Veterinary Medical Association, 31(3–4), 193–218. Ramadan, R. O. (1994). Surgery and Radiology of the Camel, p. 360. AL-Jawad Printing Press, AL-Ahsa. Ramadan, R. O., El Hassan, A. M., Abdin-Bey, R., Algasnawi, Y. A., Abdalla, E. S., and Fayed, A. A. (1987). Chronic obstructive mastitis in the camel. A clinicopathological study. Cornell Veterinarian, 77(2), 132–150.

212

Biology and Breeding of Camels

Ramadan, R. O., Hatim, M. E., and Abdin-Bey, M. R. (1998). Isolation of Brucella melitensisfrom carpal hygroma in camel. Journal of Camel Practice and Research, 5(2), 239–241. Raza, H., and Montague, W. (1994). Metabolism of benzo(a)pyrene, dimethylbenzanthracene and aflatoxin B1 by camel liver microsomes. Comparative Biochemistry, Physiology, Pharmacology, Toxicology and Endocrinology, 107(3), 379–386. Refai, M. (1992). Bacterial and mycotic diseases of camels in Egypt. In Allen, W. R., Higgins, A. J., Maybew, I. G., Snow, D. H., and Wade, J. F. (eds.), Proceedings of the 1st International Camel Conference; Proceedings of the First International Camel Conference, held at Dubai, 2–6 February, United Arab Emirates, Al Ain, pp. 59–64. R & W Publications, Newmarket. Refai, M. (2002). Incidence and control of brucellosis in the near East region. Veterinary Microbiology, 90(1–4), 81–110. Richard, D. (1979). Study of the Pathology of the Dromedary in Borana Awraja (Ethiopia). PhD thesis, IEMVT, Maisons-Alfort, p. 312. Rutter, T. E. G., and Mack, R. (1963). Diseases of camels. Bacterial and fungal diseases. Veterinary Bulletin, 33(3), 119–124. Saint-Martin, G., Delmet, C., Zubeir, A. R. Y., Peyre de Fabriques, B., Harbi, M. S. M. A., and Bagadi, H. O. (1992). Camel Project of Butana: Final Report, p. 128. IEMVT, Maisons-Alfort. Sazmand, A., and Joachim, A. (2017). Parasitic diseases of camels in Iran (1931–2017) – A literature Review. Parasite, 24(21), 1–15. Schillinger, D. (1987). Kamel (Camelus dromedarius) seminar. Sonderdruck Vet, 9, 50–53. Schmatz, H. D., Krausse, H., Viertel, P., Ismail, A. S., and Hussein, A. A. (1978). Sero-epidemiological studies for recognition of antibodies against Rickettsia and Chlamydia in domestic ruminants in Egypt, Somalia and Jordan [Seroepidemiologische untersuchungen zum Nachweis von Antikorpern gegen Rickettsien und Chlaydien bei Hauswiederkauren in Egypt, Somalia und Jordanien]. Acta Tropica, 35, 101–111. Schwartz, H. J., and Dioli, M. (1992). The One-Humped Camel in Eastern Africa: A Pictorial Guide to Diseases, Health Care and Management, p. 282. Verlag Josef Margraf Publishers, Weikersheim. Scott, G. R., Coakley, W., Roach, R. W., and Cowdy, N. R. (1963). Rift valley fever in camels. Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology, 86, 229–231. Seifert, H. S., Bohnel, H., Heitefu, S., Rengel, J., Shaper, R., Sukop, U., and Wernery, U. (1992). Isolation of Clostridium perfringenstype A from enterotoxemia in camels and production of a locality-specific vaccine. In Allen, W. R., Higgins, A. J., Maybew, I. G., Snow, D. H., and Wade, J. F. (eds.), Proceedings of the First International Camel Conference, held at Dubai, 2–6 February, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, pp. 65–68. R & W Publications, Newmarket. Selim, A. M. (1990). Salmonellosis of camels in Egypt. In Wardeh, M. P., Wilson, R. T., and Zaied, J. F. (eds.), Proceedings of the International Conference on Camel Production and Improvement, held at Tobruk, 10–13 December, ACSAD, Libya. ACSAD/Camel. Shigidi, M. T. A. (1974). Animal leptospirosis in the Sudan. British Veterinary Journal, 130(6), 528–536. Singh, M. P., and Singh, C. M. (1969). Mycotic dermatitis in camels. Indian Veterinary Journal, 46(10), 854–856. Smee, D. F., Sidwell, R. W., Kefauver, D., Bray, M., and Huggins, J. W. (2002). Characterization of wild-type and cidofovir-resistant strains of camelpox, cowpox, monkeypox, and vaccinia viruses. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 46, 1329–1335. Snow, D. H., Billah, A. M., Ridha, A., and Frigg, M. (1992). Plasma concentration of some vitamins in racing camels. In Allen, W. R., Higgins, A. J., Maybew, I. G., Snow, D. H., and Wade, J. F. (eds.), Proceedings of the First International Camel Conference, held at Dubai, 2–6 February, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, pp. 335–338. R & W Publications, Newmarket. Tefera, M., and Gebreah, F. (2001). A study on the productivity and diseases of camels in eastern Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 33(4), 265–274. Wernery, U. (1992). The prevalence of Salmonella infections in camels (Camelus dromedarius) in the United Arab Emirate. British Veterinary Journal, 148(5), 445–450. Wernery, U. (2001). Camelid immunoglobulins and their importance for the new-born—A review. Journal of Veterinary MedicineB, 48(8), 561–568. Wernery, U., Ali, M., Wernery, R., and Seifert, H. S. (1992). Severe heart muscle degeneration caused by Clostridium perfringens type A in camel calves (Camelus dromedarius). Revue D’Elevage et de Medicine Veterinaire des Pays Tropicaux, 45(3–4), 255–259. Wernery, U., and Kaaden, O. R. (2002). Infectious Diseases of Camelids (2nd ed), p. 110. Blackwell Wissenschafts Verlag, Berlin.

Camel Diseases and Preventive Measures

213

Wernery, U., and Kumar, B. N. (1993). Rabies in the U.A.E. Bulletin of the Emirates Natural History Group, 3(1), 5–21. Wernery, U., Seifert, H. S., Billah, A. M., and Ali, M. (1991). Predisposing factors in enterotoxemias of camels (Camelus dromedarius) caused by Clostridium perfringenstype A. Revue D’Elevage et de Medicine Veterinaire des Pays Tropicaux, 44(2), 147–152. Wernery, U., and Zacharia, R. (1999). Experimental camelpox infection in vaccinated and unvaccinated drom� edaries. Zenteralblatt fur Veterinarmedizin B, 46(2), 131–135. Williams, O. J. (1992). Investigation into health and productivity of camels in Central Australia. In Allen, W. R., Higgins, A. J., Maybew, I. G., Snow, D. H., and Wade, J. F. (eds.), Proceedings of the First International Camel Conference, held at Dubai, 2–6 February, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, pp. 122–128. R & W Publications, Newmarket. Wood, O. L., Moussa, M. I., Hoogstraal, H., and Buttiker, W. K. (1982). virus (Togaviridae, Flavivirus) infect�ing camel-parasitizing Hyalomma dromedarii (Acari; Ixodoidea) in Saudi Arabia. Journal of Medical Entomology, 19(2), 207–208. Wunschmann, A., Frank, R., Pomeroy, K., and Kapil, S. (2002). Enteric coronavirus infection in a juvenile dromedary (Camelus dromedarius). Journal of Veterinary Diagnosis and Investigations, 14(5), 441–444. Yagoub, S. O., and Mohamed, G. E. (1996). Incidence, clinical observation and etiology of contagious skin necrosis in camels (Camelus dromedarius) in the Sudan. Journal of Camel Practice and Research, 3(1), 95–98. Younan, M., Ali, Z., Bornestein, S., and Muller, W. (2001). Application of the California mastitis test in intra-mammary Streptococcus agalctiae and Staphylococcus aureus infections of camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Kenya. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 51(3–4), 307–316.

9

Future Prospects and Opportunities for the Scientific Community

INTRODUCTION Among the domesticated mammals, used for the welfare of human beings, the camel has unique features. It is highly adapted to a particular desert environment where other animals can hardly survive. It is a multipurpose animal that benefits human beings in numerous ways. It produces milk and meat to nourish humans and wool and skin to cover humans as clothing. The camel’s services do not end here; it also provides means of entertainment for human beings. Race competitions, sport (e.g., polo), tourism, and their presentation at different beauty tournaments are a few examples. In addition to these, camels also amuse humans with their various performances in festivals. They also help in agriculture, performing duties of plowing, weeding, harrowing, and water pulling. In addition to all these, they provide a means of transport for humans and their luggage either by themselves or by carting behind them. This particularity of performing diversified tasks only rests with camels. Despite all these services, people still consider camels animals of the past and imagine their movements in the form of caravans of wanderers through the deserts and arid and semiarid lands that maintain their own network for their facilitation in movement, which extend from Mauritania to the Middle East and from Mongolia to India. Although a majority of people do not show much interest in camels as they do in other ungulates, still their overall population is not declining. Variations are there, may be decreasing in one country and increasing in another country, but overall, there is no fall in its overall density. For example, if there is an alarming decrease in India, then a proportionate and amazing increase can be seen in the Horn of Africa and Sahelian countries. According to the FAO live animals statistics, the worldwide camel population is ∼35  million heads (FAO, 2019), most of which are in Somalia, Sudan, Niger, Kenya, Chad, Ethiopia, Mali, Mauritania, and Pakistan. This camel population is quite marginal when it is compared with the overall population of other ungulates. The status quo situation is probably due to its declining population in deserts. Current surveys show that with wanderers (nomad), the overall number of camels has declined from 10% to 1.5% during the last 50 years. The camel population, however, has doubled between 1961 and 2014 (FAO survey), with an annual increase of 2.0%. If the increase in camel population is compared with domesticated animals, the camel population growth is faster than that of other livestock, such as cattle, sheep, horses, and llamas. Nonetheless, the population growth of goats is higher than camels (Faye & Bonnet, 2012). A survey conducted in 1961 showed that the population of camels was only 1.1% of the total herbivore population, but with a slight increase it approached 1.5% of the total herbivorous population in 2014. This increase can be attributed to the modernization in camel farming and the controlled and well-managed breeding and rearing, which helped this rise in the camel population. Previously, camels were considered animals of Bedouins, but now they are not limited to this group of people; rather, now they are an essential component of desert life, where their population is well managed for numerous assignments (Breulmann et al., 2007), important among them are milk, meat, and other high-value products (Tefera & Gebreah 2001; Kurtu, 2004; Musaad et al., 2013). Conventionally, these animals have been raised using routine natural productivity, little external feed or other eatables available in deserts, and keeping the herd moving during major parts of the DOI: 10.1201/9781003408598-9

215

216

Biology and Breeding of Camels

day for food, which keeps their production and other outputs low. Current developments and innovations in camel breeding and farming, which can be observed in camel-holding countries, can be ascribed to the following three dynamic forces: (1) The adaptability of camels to arid environments linked to climatic changes Since 1900, there has been a considerable expansion of the Sahara Desert. Its boundaries have extended 250 km to the south while a large expansion of 6000 km can be seen in the front of the Sahara Desert (Leroux, 2004). Despite considerable changes and the expansions of new horizons, camels’ sensitivity to hostile environments is still the same with no changes observed so far. In addition to that, their applications in agriculture and integrated farming with other livestock have further expanded its geographical distribution and overall population increments. This change in the state of affairs, however, has further enhanced the chances of the emergence and outbreak of various camel diseases (Faye et al., 2012; Megersa et al., 2012; Gossner et al., 2016). (2) Camel farming should be market-oriented and the world economy needs to be globalized It is the second major factor that has helped expand the camel population. Until now, camel products have had a very low share in the global economy and have been limited only to camel meat, which is most commonly preferred and used between the Horn of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. Alpacas, however, with wool heavily present on its body, are used in the international textile market. However, now many countries have established camel dairy plants, and they have started to produce sterilized milk, cheese, yogurt, and ice cream. These products have enhanced the importance and value of existing camel products and are now contributing considerably to the camel product market (Faye et al., 2014). (3) Alteration and modification in regional distribution of camel population with consequent expansion in conventional camel farming following rising risk in emerging diseases This regional distribution is another factor that has contributed to the expansion of the camel population. Previously, camels were raised in an extensive environment principally on natural resources without any supplements and with limited utilitarian applications. Presently, the scenario is quite different, and now they have become multipurpose animals with wider applications in agriculture and a variety of other fields. This has necessitated enhancing the camel population under controlled conditions and hence started the rise of intensive farming systems.

PROSPECTS/CHALLENGES Camels, previously considered multipurpose animals, are now gradually being destined for highly specialized functions focusing mainly on dairy production, fattening, and racing. In rural areas, they have an opportunity to graze on a variety of plants, which include halophyte grasses, bushes, and trees, with minimum feeding on floral fauna found in arid lands, something other livestock animals cannot enjoy (Laudadio et al., 2009). Camels are very mobile and are always moving in search of food and water to drink, and normally, they spend more or less 8 hours feeding. Parallel to their own adaptations, the digestive functions of camels, such as N reutilization, sluggish movement, and the microbial population present in rumen, are also well adapted. Accordingly they can convert lowquality food in very beneficial manner with a better resource/production ratio. This adaptation is missing in other domesticated livestock. Now the question is when camels are brought under intensive farming and it is fed restricted feed varieties with wider feeding intervals, how will it affect its rumen flora, feed conversion, and metabolism. This has been the least studied and explored until now, which demands comprehensive and focused attention from the scientists to deal with it for further promotion and growth of this animal in the sector (Faye, 2015).

Future Prospects and Opportunities

217

CAMEL MILK Camel milk is a rich nutritional source not only for nomads but all others too. True or not, it supposedly has medicinal qualities, and nomads attribute these health effects to those varieties of wild plants that camels graze on and, in turn. compose the milk produced from camels. A lot of interest has developed in camel milk, which desert dwellers use for their food security. Urban populations use of it for the prevention or control of some diseases and for maintaining their health. The demand for camel milk and its products is increasing day by day. This increasing demand requires changes in farming and production styles with the adoption of new technologies (Faye et al., 2002; Faye & Konuspayev, 2012). One recent FAO survey shows that camel milk production is increasing at the rate of 6.72% annually, indicating that there is a lot of potential to enhance the current camel milk production, but it is unfortunate that research programs do not support or help uplift the current level of this important commodity (Faye, 2004; Faye  & Konuspayeva, 2012). Although progress of milk production is moving at slow pace, the marketing trend of camel milk is changing because previously the milk had been gifted to others but now it is properly marketed (Abdeirahmane, 1997). In addition to this development, value-added products like cheese (Figure 9.1) and other products are available in the market for human consumption instead of consumption of raw milk, which has been practiced years before (Boudjenah-Haroun et  al., 2011; Konuspayeva et  al., 2014). The introduction of milking machines in the Emirates, Saudi Arabia, and Central Asia is another major development helping increase milk productivity, but the marketing of milk is still dependent on the establishment of milk plants (Ayadi et al., 2013) like the Tiviski factory in Mauritania (Mohammed, 2003; Figures 9.1 and 9.2).

MARKETING OF CAMEL MEAT The current statistical data on camel meat production inform us about how many camels are slaughtered annually or the weight of camel meat produced, sold, and/or consumed, but information on the processing and/or production of value-added products is totally missing. The number of slaughtered

FIGURE 9.1  Camel cheese. Source: camelmilkonline.com

218

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 9.2  Camel milk processing plant. Source: Alibaba.com

animals has been on the rise since 1960, and an average of 5–7% increments have been observed, which shows that camel meat demand is on the rise. This is, however, not permanent as we move from year to year because when we look at the period from 1961 to 2012, the annual increase in camel meat production is only 4.6%, with major contributions from Sudan, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Somalia (Faye et al., 2011) (Figures 9.3 and 9.4). Out of these countries, Sudan and Somalia also exported camel meat to other countries, while Saudi Arabia and Egypt imported camel meat to meet their requirements. When we compare camel meat production with other livestock, its production is higher than that of cattle, sheep, and horse meat. Nevertheless, taking it to the global level, the contribution of camel meat is not as significant and is merely 0.13% of the overall meat produced (Faye, 2013b). This enhancement in camel meat production may be due to improvements in feeding camels, the consequent production of wellfattened animals, and establishment of specialized butcheries. Although practices like the official slaughtering of camels, evaluation of meat quality (Figure 9.5), cutting, and better veterinary controls are in progress, still a lot is required for comprehensive channeling safe and adequate meat with value-added products to end users (Farah & Fisher, 2004).

CAMEL: AN ANIMAL WITH DIVERSIFIED APPLICATIONS The versatility of camels is well accepted. They produce food in the form of milk and meat for consumption. They produce wool for manufacturing a variety of textile products. They help transport humans in deserts and rough places. People also use it for racing, tourism, agricultural work, and in beauty contests with their counterparts (Figure 9.6). In Abu Dhabi in the United Arab Emirates,

Future Prospects and Opportunities

FIGURE 9.3  Camel meat processing. Source: alicespringnews.com.au

FIGURE 9.4  Camel meat processing. Source: Abc.net.au

219

220

FIGURE 9.5  Evaluation of camel meat. Source: alamy.com

FIGURE 9.6  Beauty contests for camels. Source: mainepublic.org

Biology and Breeding of Camels

Future Prospects and Opportunities

221

beauty competitions are held for camels, and camels that win these contests are awarded heavy prizes. Camel farming is gaining popularity in Africa, while it is a common and significant social event on the Arabian Peninsula. No other domesticated animal so far can perform such a wide variety of services for humans. Camels are reared principally for milk production purposes in many countries. Camels are usually reared for milk production (especially dromedaries because milk yield is low in Bactrians) in rural areas because of their prevalence in rural, distant, and isolated areas. There is a lot of variation in the value and standards of camel wool obtained from various species (Figure 9.8). Wool from cold countries is preferred because of its quality. As the Bactrian camel lives in colder regions, hence, wool obtained from this camel is liked more than others. In Mongolia, some camel breeds are selected for wool production because of their soft wool. Other than camels, this wool is normally collected from Kashmiri goats. Historically, camels have been used for military campaigns and are still used by a number of sub-Saharan countries in military campaigns and endeavors (Figures 9.7 and 9.8). Camels are commonly used for moving groups through the desert, but at other places like India, draft camels are normally for moving manufactured goods as well different types of items produced in agriculture. Camels also perform several agricultural activities, for example, plowing, water pulling, sowing, harrowing, and more. Camels attract tourists, facilitating their movement on beaches, sandbanks, and/or around the Egyptian pyramids. Their activities and services do not stop here; they are also used for festivals, promotional purposes, and public shows or displays like the camel dances presented at Pushkar Fair (India).

FROM CONVENTION TO MODERNISM Conventional camel farming systems (Figure 9.9) are extensive means that thrive mainly by using ordinary and commonly developed resources and by moving animals from place to place. When camels are reared under this system, it carries several drawbacks. Due to the poor management of rearing animals, their reproduction slows, their baby-carrying period is unusually prolonged, (13 months or longer), their preparation for their next conception becomes irregular and quite longer than the normal animal (rarely before 3 years) (Faye, 2016) and the duration between one lactation period to the next unnecessarily is increased (generally 2 years or more than that). In addition, the survival rate of the young is low, and sometimes mortality reaches up to 20% with low numerical productivity. This camel productivity potential can be improved and enhanced with the start of an intensive rearing system (Figure 9.10; modernization of farming), consequently improving milk and meat (Breulmann et al., 2007). Rearing camels under a controlled and well-managed system, also called intensive systems, is important (Figure  9.10). It is productive. Some farmers have already adopted it while others are trying to adopt it. Nevertheless, the initiation of an intensive system has its own requirements and modalities. It demands well-developed reproduction techniques such as artificial insemination, the transfer of embryos from one mother to the other, and shifting young ones from mother milk to artificial feeding or milking as early as possible (Tibary & Anouassi, 1997). Some of them, such as artificial insemination of female camels and transferring embryos from one mother to another, have already begun and are well progressed in the Middle East (Anouassi & Tibary, 2013). Nonetheless, camel breeders have not adapted this technique well, and where they have, it has been very limited and quite marginal. Adopting this advancement in the management process further demands proper, innovative, and reliable commercial mechanisms for milking of female camels, like milking machines, because of their heavy productive potential and population (Atigui et al., 2015). This mechanism will ease their milking constraints because of their specific makeup and functioning during the lactation process. Intensive camel farming, which principally involves higher numbers of camels in a limited space and feeding them an artificial, high-nutrient diet with spaced meals, will definitely impact changes in milk composition along with its medicinal activities. What types of changes this rearing system

222

FIGURE 9.7  Use of camel for military campaigns. Source: pinterest.com

Biology and Breeding of Camels

Future Prospects and Opportunities

FIGURE 9.8  Use of camel for wool Source: en.wikipedia.org

FIGURE 9.9  Traditional rearing of camels. Source: defence.pk

223

224

Biology and Breeding of Camels

FIGURE 9.10  Intensive rearing of camels. Source: defence.pk

will bring about in milk and meat, an aspect that possesses a lot of scope and potential, need further comprehensive explorations (Kurtu, 2004). Because the members of the Camelidae family are evolutionarily well adopted and have remained closely associated with distant and isolated places like arid lands as well as mountainous regions, hence, their major populations currently inhabit these areas. Whatever the size and species of camel, they are adding value to the environments they inhabit despite dispersed resources with low nutritional value and extreme shortages of water. Due to camels’ peculiar qualities of living in hostile environments, people living in rural areas are more interested in them for their livelihood. Contradictory to the extensive farming system mentioned earlier, the intensive camel-rearing system will bring several changes as well as several important problems and immediate solutions for the sustainability of the rearing system, an area that will demand camel scientists’ immediate attention. In addition to the factors given earlier, intensifying camel farming demands higher water requirements. For example, in Saudi Arabia, camel farming has shifted from the Bedouin system (traditional system) to a semi-intensive or even intensive mode of farming. Now, animals are being shifted to feedstuffs locally grown under controlled conditions with well-managed irrigation and fertilizer and other inputs. Accordingly, the water consumption of camels has increased from 3000 to 35,000 m3/ha. Nevertheless, when the same water requirement was calculated on the basis of total biomass produced against water provided, the water consumption per camel was 3.2 times more than the normal consumption observed in traditional system, inflicting tremendous pressure on water resources (Faye, 2013b). Taking in consideration just the Bedouin style of farming, still, the water consumption requirements have significantly increased, approximately from 180,000 to 280,000 m3 since 1961 in Saudi Arabia. However, when we move to intensive farming system, in contrast to old Bedouin system, differences can be observed in water requirements, rising from 7000 to 860,000 m3 during the last 50 years (Faye, 2013a). The aforementioned data show that the intensification process in the camel sector increases water demands manifold; hence, it can be an important and major constraint in

Future Prospects and Opportunities

225

maintaining the sustainable development of camel farming while encompassing a lot of production potential too. Therefore, when we talk about the sustainable development of camel farming in the scenario of high-density rearing (intensive farming) is discernibly important for scientists to look at how it can be achieved, which always needs a simple search of technical innovations. Therefore, it can be said that if we want sustainable development to flourish in its true sense, it requires responsible and active decision-making to get things done in a timely and useful manner. It is further added that this development should ensure that it has a minimal negative impact and that it maintains a proper balance between social, environmental, and economic growth for all the other animal species now and in the future. Intensive camel farming is, therefore, inevitable because of camels’ useful and purposeful contribution to society. The responsibility, however, lands on camel breeders for how they maintain the biodiversity of camels parallel to its intensification. It further rests on breeders, as well as farmers, to produce value-added products and maintain a persistent supply for urban populations so they can also get benefits of their peculiar qualities of milk and meat. At the top of all comes management because whatever is planned, nothing can be achieved if management fails or flops. Having said all this, it is an irrefutable fact that camels are very important animals of the desert and Andean ecosystems, have been domesticated by humans, and are currently facing important challenges of livestock/environment interactions specifically in deserts. Although it is normally agreed that camels are environmentally friendly and their farming will definitely have low pressure on the environment, still we have to ponder how our current modifications in camel farming will adjust its historical associations with its environment and how camel demography affects the emission of greenhouse gases from the camels into the environment. In the current scenario, can we estimate and preserve camelid biodiversity? Nonetheless, mechanisms need to evolve to determine changes in camels’ metabolism and management under intensive farming systems. Furthermore, particular arrangements are desired to control diseases in camels across countries, especially considering animals’ mobility locally as well as internationally. Next, what is the future role of camelids in human society, which swiftly moving from rural to urban habitats? These are some actual issues that camel scientists are facing today and will face in the future too if these aspects are not properly addressed during intensification of camel farming.

ESTABLISHMENT OF A SOCIETY OR ORGANIZATION There is no well-organized society or association that can provide a forum for presenting investigative work accomplished on camels, which has a lot of prospects and needs the attention of camel scientists. Unfortunately, not much has been done on it so far except for the creation of the International Society of Camelid Research and Development (ISOCARD) in 2006 at Al-Ain (United Arab Emirates), with the purpose of recognizing and realizing the needs of camel sciences at an international forum. The main objective of this society is to promote research and practice, regularly organize conferences, facilitate the presentation of data at these conferences to share information collected from experience and practice among the members of the society as well as internet sources, and disseminate and deliver this information to various other organizations and institutes working or practicing in this field of science. The creators of ISOCARD are of the view to promote the field of “camelology”. The current collection Tropical Animal Health Production, dedicated camelids, is really an important breakthrough that can help “the camelologist community” in recognizing their actual status and standing. Although this collection has several papers on camelids, a few of the foremost of them were delivered in an open forum of the Fourth International Conference of ISOCARD held at Almaty (Kazakhstan) in June 2015. The interest in this field and contributions to the conference validate the importance and liveliness of this community, despite scientists’ interest in this field is quite old, has progressed at a slow pace and still has not achieved the desired progress.

226

Biology and Breeding of Camels

In the last conference of ISOCARD, participants focused and developed approaches to the relationship between traditional farming and modern concepts. Recent queries were addressed with appropriate and advances answers. The topics addressed in particular were recent queries and appropriate and advanced answers. Also stressed was the study of biology of camels and their products, with further emphasis on how these products can be made more useful for the betterment of humans. Other issues addressed were how to combat emerging diseases in the intensive farming of camels and how they can be managed reliably. Issues like camel–environment interaction, camels’ effect of climatic change, and how camels can contribute to the economy of human being nationally, as well as internationally, were also addressed at length. The position of camels in human society and its culture and in history was another issue that was given due priority during the course of this conference.

Other Purposes Although there is rapid urbanization in camel-holding countries, camels still hold their importance. Despite the loss of their traditional functions during urbanization, camel racing is still practiced, which has motivated scientists to initiate innovative research activities on their genetic, biotechnology, physiology, and biology for producing better traits.

THE TRENDS IN CAMEL SCIENCES Although presently there are several factors that hinder the progress and development of the camel industry, important among them are high calf mortality, a longer gestation period following longer calving interval, traditional and improper camel farming, poor husbandry practices, and the emergence of diseases with minimal response measures. The lack of modern breeding techniques and poor management of the herds produced and their dairy, as well as other products, are few others that have their own standing in proper development of camel farming and allied aspects. No less important is uplifting and establishing a proper structure for suitable marketing of its products (Figure 9.11). Take as an example Sudan. Although scientists have been working on camels for a long time and their research work is well honored at a global level, this research work has been mainly performed in higher education institutions like universities; hence, it is mostly considered academic with insufficient global links, which consequently makes very poor and low contributions to actual camel development and expansion. So far, there are only very few institutes that are presently working on camels, but still there is no well-developed national camel institute carrying a special mission and responsibilities for carrying on the camel-farming development mission. Concerned authorities in Sudan have proposed different strategic plans for camel research and its subsequent development. Because the required infrastructure for the achievement of these plans does not exist, all the efforts ended up in total failure. Some institutes performed some research work at isolated places, they published their work; although the number of publications was quite higher, the practical component actually required for good and purposeful publication is seriously lacking. This translates into a lot of variations in published papers, but due to the presence of some prestigious camel research organizations, the publications from Sudanese scientists are well respected and honored. Between 1999 and 2010, Sudanese scientists topped India, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Iran, and the Emirates in the number of publications produced on camels. Sudan has the most dynamic group of scientists among the Sahelian countries. Although it is assumed that the number of scientific publications is increasing every year, it is just an approximation and well underestimates actually what is happening; most camel scientists are moving from Sudan to other countries like Saudi Arabia, the Emirates, or Oman, where they are working on camels, producing scientific work, and publishing and disseminating it to the scientific community as well as other

Future Prospects and Opportunities

227

FIGURE 9.11  Camel market structure. Source: toppr.com

institutes or organizations interested in it, which in turn is increasing scientific productivity of these countries. Recently, people in Sudan and the camel scientists are working in the development of camel industry. For this purpose they have established a society called the Sudan Camel Association. The main objectives of this association are to develop linkages between and among camel researchers, as well as to encourage them to focus their research mainly on scientific, social, and economic aspects of camel that particularly emphasize its development and ultimately enhance overall camel productivity in Sudan. Although camel scientists have quite a broader research horizon, with coverage of several aspects of camel life, specifically, they focus on viral diseases, the role of minerals in metabolism, biochemical processes, abnormalities in reproduction, and the quality of milk produced from the animal. Nevertheless, pasture management in the light of camel grazing in relation to climatic changes, processing and marketing of camel commodities like meat and milk, overall disease management in camel farming, and finally complete genome analysis are still in their infancy. Considering the number of publications coming out each year on camels we can say that still there is lot of interest in camel research in the international camel scientific community and national and local communities. The trend has been slightly rising in scientific production and outcomes over the last 30 years. As mentioned earlier, several scientists in different countries are working on various aspects of camels, but generally speaking, camel studies are still quantitatively peripheral and marginal when we compare them with other ruminant species. The first and foremost reason for this marginal output is their low population with limited geographical distribution. Second, the donors and funding agencies, as well as the main decision makers, do not take this animal as a productive and

228

Biology and Breeding of Camels

contributory because it is domesticated and considered to just wander the deserts with few interested tourists and with very low productivity (Faye & Brey, 2005). When we talk about camel research, based on these facts as well as assumptions, much research institutes in the South, as well as the North, do not show any interest in camel research. This situation tells us that possibly research on camels will lag behind other livestock. For example, in sub-Saharan African countries, first, due to political reasons, different development projects emerged at the time when nomads, who were conventional camel keepers and keep traveling through deserts, were agitated and started fighting among themselves as well as with others. Among other countries, such as Mali, Niger, Chad, Morocco, and others, are important countries on this list. But the trend in camel farming is changing. Now farmers are engaging with camels in intensive farming to enhance their milk and meat production capacity. Some scientists take it as a biological model for research and try to implement its various applications in other livestock activities. The international camel scientific group should ponder these emerging trends, and scientists specifically present in the South countries should think about, and plan, their research in a way that can help promote camel farming for better productivity. These new directions and research can be visualized from the number of scientific papers published from 1979 to 2010. If taken together, the total number of publications during this long period is only 1000, which is far less than the work published on cattle in a limited period of only 3 years. Due to all these present development trends in camel, farming camels, following total production of camel itself as well as its products, is quite inspiring for the camel scientists: • Due unique adaptability to harsh environmental conditions, the presence of bioactive molecules in camel milk like lactoferrin or lysozymes, the presence of immunoglobulins, and finally medicinal properties of camel milk, scientists are now compelled to start research work on this animal (Konuspayeva et al., 2006), (Hamers-Casterman et al., 1993) and (Konuspayeva et al., 2004). • Previously, camels have shown a lot of potential for milk, meat, wool, and energy production. But it is unfortunate that now this potential is on the decline compared to the last several decades. But fortunately, recently, scientists have taken this point well and are trying hard to reinstate its productivity (Faye, 2004; Kadim et al., 2008). • The camel is a representative fauna found in arid and desert systems. Globally, it is perceived that expected changes could result in alterations in the farming systems of camels, which can definitely change its adaptation capabilities now and then. Therefore, scientists should also consider these aspects in research and investigative work that they plan to take or are physically undertaking.

THE WAY AHEAD: OPPORTUNITIES In spite of the exhaustive research activities conducted on the camels, still there are some areas that remain unattended and need more emphasis. In the last several years, camel scientists have mainly focused on existing and emerging diseases of camels while some other highly important areas have remained ignored. Nevertheless, in the future, the following research areas demand special attention of camel scientists:

1. Comparatively more detailed and in-depth research is required on the etiology of camel calf. Diarrhea comes first and results in heavy calf mortality in some cases. It is assumed that toxoplasma, rotavirus, and Clostridium perfringens are the main causative agents, but further scrutiny and subsequent confirmation are required regarding which one plays which role and for what. In addition to these pathological causative agents, other causes

Future Prospects and Opportunities

229

such as the management of herds and the nutritional requirements that may the major cause of outspread of disease or may predispose animal to certain diseases need not to be ignored and should be given due consideration and attention. 2. Reared under an intensive system or a traditional system, their production requirements, as well as other parameters such as whether industrial products are utilized or they are agriculture commodities, should be thoroughly explored with all the advantages and disadvantages for their safe and purposeful utilization. 3. Meat, milk, hides, and hair are important products from camels and demand due attention from scientists with the hope that they are properly processed, preserved if required, and marketed when and where required so they can justify their utility. As socioeconomic studies undertaken by several researcher have reported that most people, whether developed or pastoral, do not care much about camel milk, and a major part of it is wasted due to proper facilities for its storage and preservation not being available. It is the same is the case with hides and hair that are not utilized justifiably due to a lack of knowledge about their proper utilization and processing when and where required. Research needs to be conducted on these aspects, coupled with studies on camel marketing. 4. Breeding studies involving genetic considerations are lacking, and no properly organized genetic work has been envisioned so far in this area. There is huge breeding potential in racing, as well as for the use of milk and meat. But when looking at camels genetically, there is a huge difference in genetic research progress in camels and in cattle, sheep, and goats; it may be in developed or underdeveloped countries that differences are quite obvious. Still, there are lot of differences in the magnitude and level of research when comparing camels with livestock, Even in those countries where camels are permanent inhabitants and are in quite abundance but irrespective of the country, camels are still lot behind. 5. Immunogenetic or biochemical studies is another area that needs to explore the various aspects of camel life. Compared to other livestock in the same geographical area, camels show relatively more resistance to major infectious diseases. However, its immune-genome still needs to be studied. The immune system of camels comprises a unique heavy chain antibody homodimer. Camels are the only mammals that can produce heavy-chain antibodies (HCAbs) lacking the light chains at the same time. However, little is known about the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) region of the camel genome. This genomic major histocompatibility complex region contains immune-response (IR) genes. These genes play a crucial role in host–pathogen interactions. 6. Camel diversity preservation and selection are some of the important areas for the successful promotion of camel populations under controlled environments as well as in the wild. For sustainable conservation and utilization of livestock species, an assessment of genetic variability of these species is critical. It should be the prime strategy to characterize genetic diversity within and among different breeds/populations of camel. This will help manage camel diversity at the global level. Therefore, it is important to recognize the genetically unique structure of camels. Such steps are very important in the case of camels because of their rapid decline in the last decade. In this connection, an innovative method of genome selection using dense marker maps covering all chromosomes with new sequencing technologies has revolutionized the application of genetic information in livestock breeding programs. Moreover, the estimation of large-scale genetic variation, particularly single nucleotide polymorphism markers, using whole-genome sequencing could lead to the development of methods such as genome-wide association studies and genomic selection in camel breeding. Whatever studies have been undertaken on camels at the genomic level, numerous genetic variants in different camel breeds remain to be identified and correctly annotated.

230

Biology and Breeding of Camels

7. Like other livestock, molecular, proteomic and multi-omic studies in camels are lacking considerably; if accomplished in letter and spirit, they can help in camels’ feeding, production, and sustainability. Despite several limitations and pitfalls, the use of omics has revolutionized animal and veterinary sciences. The application of omics has enhanced selection programs in both agriculture and livestock. Accordingly, it has resulted in increased production and created resistance in animals, as well as in plants, against diseases, making them at the time sustainable. Current and future potential researchers are required to embrace and address such challenges to make camels, an animal of the future, and other livestock more productive and sustainable. Solutions to these problems need to be customized in such a manner that they are environmentally sustainable and economically viable and at the same time they are easy to implement. Future climatic changes under the current scenario and their effects on livestock are major areas to explore. Such animals that can conveniently adapt to increased temperatures that negatively affect production need to be developed and/ or selected. Using techniques like proteomics, transcriptomics, and metabolomics, extensive work has been undertaken to explore the adaptive mechanisms in small ruminant goat breeds to obviate weight losses in these animals. Differential gene expression results have shown that pig breeds behave differently to high temperature–humidity indexes. Omics have paved the way for dealing with susceptibility resilience against these climatic stressors. It is expected such studies will help produce and sustain such strains which are resistant and more productive. Intensive modern animal farming is heavily dependent on food sources that are located in distant places. Using omics, there is the possibility that, with fundamental changes in the quality and compositional, fodder strains can be developed that can be developed and grown successfully in the area of animal rearing. Combining the applications of transcriptomics and proteomics can provide robust and reliable solutions. In the future, the evolution of cheaper experimental procedures following development of productive technology can help in such multilevel interpretations of various productive steps in the face of hostile climatic changes. Early-stage researchers and PhD students have an excellent opportunity to work in such areas. Using state-of-the-art methodologies and tools, such as omics, they can direct their future research efforts to address both fundamental and applied studies. Following these techniques and methodologies, a lot can be accomplished. Selection programs can be established in deserting areas like in the Mediterranean. Accordingly, local food shortages can be prevented to maintain local populations. The additional use of biomarkers can help control the physiological state of wild game populations in susceptible ecosystems. This activity will aid in the maintenance of hunter-gatherer communities further improving their way of life. Under such conditions, only accumulation patterns of genes, transcripts, proteins, and metabolites can effectively explain such biological processes, their mechanisms, and sustainable outcomes. The application of omics in this whole story cannot be negated and rather will be a priority. 8. Camel welfare and social awareness about camels are always neglected aspects when compared with other livestock. For the welfare of poultry, pigs, cattle, sheep, goats, and fur animals, legislation exists. Nonetheless, specific regulations and guidance concerning the welfare of reared camels are not only limited but are mostly ignored. At an international level, the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) has established a ‘Terrestrial Code’ for the welfare of animals. It has been composed in a compendium that explicitly describes protocols and directives that may be relevant to camel welfare. It particularly focuses on standards for animal transport, their slaughtering process for human consumption and some specific facts and concerns applicable to specific diseases. There are specific chapters in this code that primarily detail the minimum requirements and recommendations for cattle, chicken, equid, and pig welfare. Production systems or regimes in which reared, from birth through to finishing areas are particularly addressed considerably at greater length, but their biosecurity, environmental conditions, and management practices have also been

Future Prospects and Opportunities

231

comprehensively covered. Nonetheless, this information and directions are totally lacking for camels. If investigative work is focused on these aspects, its findings can provide insight into the need for camel science to be reinforced in closely related topics. Upgrading the OIE standards in favor of camels can contribute a lot to the betterment of this animal because this compendium is based on the most recent scientific articles in light of advances in veterinary science. Unlike other livestock animals, nothing is done for their welfare; rather, they are only considered for transportation and slaughtering purposes. Whenever any work on the welfare of an animal, its relationship with humans, and the prosperity of human beings is initiated, nationally competent authorities should promote alternatives and implement research and development projects for existing animals’ sustainable exploitation. At the global level, only four countries have established and reinforced internal compulsory regulations on minimum, shallow requirements for the farming, transportation, and slaughtering of camels. Social awareness for both farmed and feral camels is very low. This notion further ratifies that certain camel science approaches are least known and need further exploration. Furthermore, from global animal welfare councils, there is little encouragement to national lawmakers to undertake specific mandatory regulations. Accordingly, camel makers cannot overcome challenges due to emerging climatic conditions and a lack of appropriate legislation for the well-being of the camels. Under this framework, innovative legislation needs to be drawn up. Accordingly, well-organized camel industries are expected to demand high voluntary provisional welfare standards from their human resources. Therefore, research needs to compulsorily focus on such processes. In this sense, the scientific community plays an additional role. The scientific community can prevent livestock producers from starting to think like businesspeople. Under this understanding, instead of thinking of the welfare and betterment of this animal, it is considered merely for economic products and gains. When the public perceives its well-being and will expect positive returns, rather than thinking about its production capacities, the livestock industry as a whole will improve. Accordingly, the resultant regulations of collaborative conventions will be extended. At the global level, those countries that have higher camel stocks and outstanding research potential can significantly contribute and promote research consortia. Such initiatives can then be shifted to those countries where such activities are poor. Accordingly, these consortia, which should be based on solid entities, can play advisory roles in camel welfare science. They can use their direct empirical experience derived from the analysis of large samples, which may maximize the validity of their conclusive results. In turn, this may translate into the potential influence and interpretation of camel literature for policy purposes. These consortia can further help promote access to the financial resources for academics to carry out their research. 9. Emerging camel husbandry is another important issue to address if camel population needs to be sustained. Camels were domesticated for meat, milk, wool, hair, and dung, or for draft purposes about 4000 years ago in southern Arabia. The domestication of camels prospered in Old World ancient nomadic civilizations. This pluripotential animal is still playing an important role in the economy of a few low-income nomadic livelihoods in Africa and Eastern Asia. Despite extreme environmental situations, camels play a pivotal role as food providers to those which face precarious nutritional conditions. From a productive, political, or socioeconomic perspective, the camel may be one of the most ignored species compared with other domestic livestock despite its long domestication period. The reason for this may be that camels normally belong to underdeveloped areas of the world. Accordingly, camels could not get that much attention for their upgradation, betterment, and welfare. This animal has been attributed to low-income resources. Science could not help this animal to prove it multifunctionality to humans with very low maintenance requirements. Fortunately, its recognition as sustainable livestock species at the global level has been increasingly established. This distinctive position is attributed to

232

Biology and Breeding of Camels

current global warming and desertification. These emergencies introduced this animal as a provider of functional solutions to these environmental emergencies. Currently, there is a transforming trend in nomadic livestock breeding simultaneously with intensive socialist livestock breeding. Other activities, like camel racing, which is deeply rooted traditional activity and stems from the Bedouin ancestral culture, have also become remarkably profitable in Middle East Arab countries. As a result, these growing social and economic interests in camel husbandry experienced during the past three decades have promoted an increase in scientific actions parallel to these physical tradition-based activities. Such scientific actions have been promoted increasingly deal with almost any discipline applied to the species. Presently, although scientific knowledge about anatomy, physiology, and pathology in camels has been widely applied for their better health and management, nonetheless, planned research and codes of action on the best handling practices ensuring a sufficient welfare status in these animals are scarce and very shallow which need immediate apprehension. The breeding component (Genetic Improvement component) in camels is still not taken as a priority in the overall improvement of the animal when compared with research on its health, feeds, and feeding. Scientists are of the view that these parameters do not have any value or worth when animals are well managed and various facets of their lives are well taken care of. Therefore, it is generally presumed that under these conditions, animals can and will express their genetic potential themselves without restriction or constraint. This view, however, nullifies that an animal population is under natural process. Irrespective of the time of the year culling and replacements are regularly occurring and variability is present in the population under the environment where it is living. Therefore, it is more accurate to say that genetic potential exists both theoretically and practically at each level of management (Falconer & Mackay, 1996). There are some other factors that have hindered the pace of genetic explorations in camels; one important one is the poor formulation of breeding strategies followed by poor recording of changes happening during this experimental stage. The result is quite obviously that it all happened in not producing specialized camel breeds. The general classification of camels divides it into two types: riding horses or those used for parcel. If we classify them topographically, they can be said lowland and mountain dwellers (Leese, 1927). These classifications do not bother much about their main products like milk and meat. Recently, camel classification has been based on method/techniques those used for other livestock, and then they are categorized in either produce, used for racing or for dual purposes and those used exclusively for dairy products (Wardeh et al., 1991). This classification carries very little value because still camels have not been reared primarily for meat or milk (Wilson, 1997) as cattle are. Mason (1984) has stated that so far, no true camel breed has been identified and isolated. The camel population and its subsequent breeds are named after the tribes that breed them.

BREEDING PROGRAMS AND THEIR PLANNING Breeding programs have been and presently are quite successful in developed countries. The reason is that they first recognize the real needs and then design programs on a solid basis, keeping in mind that it has proper and desired economic objectives. When they start these programs, they properly follow their outcomes, record what is happening, and genetically evaluate its outcomes; then, the favorable genes are selected and responsibly disseminated to end users. All of the preceding are entrusted to programs that are well equipped and reliable institutions. In these countries, well-trained people and responsible breeders work together and make these programs successful, which are required for breed improvement maintaining their sustainability. Such types of careful initiatives are needed for camels in the future locally as well as internationally. If we really need improvement in camel productivity, we need to develop proper plans and

Future Prospects and Opportunities

233

strategies blended with both technical and organizational components and, when developed, ensure that these programs have been justifiably implemented and used by the society in a befitting manner. Technical components include the following:

a. It starts with the identification of types of breeds in terms of meat, milk or for both, as well as for racing based on different production systems in vogue as well as make sure that they are in line with the needs and preference of society. b. Then we need to breed each selected camel with proper and solid breeding goals. Following this selection, we need record all the outcomes from this breeding program. In addition to that, these outcomes need careful and well planned genetic evaluation with well-established and authenticated evaluation methods. Further to this, useful genes collected during this endeavor have to be disseminated to end users, the purpose for which all these efforts have been exhausted. The story does not end here; proper management protocols also need to be developed for monitoring and maintaining the progress of these selected genes in the years to come.

ORGANIZATIONAL ASPECTS 1. All these efforts cannot be fruitful until and unless there is proper organizational infrastructure. Most of the developing countries, during the past three decades, have struggled very hard to establish an institutional infrastructure for the research and development of livestock. Primarily, they developed facilities for extension, establishment of veterinary laboratories, disease control protocol and services, and educational institutions for dissemination of techniques developed, as well as collected from other sources. As mentioned earlier, although several countries have devolved infrastructure, due several visible and nonvisible factors, their technical performance always vary from country to country and from institution to institution. 2. Despite all these efforts till so far institutional impact on livestock production is uncertain and does not appear as promising as it was originally envisaged (Bommer & Qureshi, 1988). The present development trend concerns little about the capacities an individual institute carries, such as physical infrastructure or size of trained workforce. Rather, its impact on the qualitative and quantitative improvement on productivity is considered more important. Among others, one of the alternatives to enhance the capacity and output of these institutes is to develop a mechanism of coordination between active key players in agriculture within the same country and/or at the international level. 3. The future of camel breeding and innovations purely lie with the steps taken today for the improvement of local livestock breeds in general and camels in particular (Van Fleck, 1987) has defined the true model for study of different traits in livestock which is, “y = f (genotype, environment, people)”. Actually, scientists work to save and improve the animals to benefit animal resources as well as society. Promoting the productivity of animals in a sustainable manner has always been a priority of the livestock experts. Successful examples can be seen in developed countries like European Association for Animal Production and American Dairy Science Association. This is the reason that national veterinary scientists both from arid and semiarid regions should meet regularly and exchange information on local, as well as international, breeds and their subsequent improvements. 4. National and/or international forums are the best places where scientific as well as artisanal information can be exchanged for the benefits of scientists as well for the practitioners. These mechanisms should be well accepted and recognized as they are. Organizations like an Association for Animal Scientists in Arid Zones could be one of the association working for the betterment of livestock. The association like one mentioned could convene meetings or arrange conferences to bring the efforts from scientists to a single forum and exchange

234

Biology and Breeding of Camels

information among the scientists to improve the level of productivity under specific arid and semiarid environmental conditions. If these associations are not effective, then there are several alterations and changes that can be executed to modify these societies and organizations to make them more productive and purposeful. 5. Research work performed over the decades shows that viral and bacterial diseases are a major threat for the growth and expansion of camels and their overall productivity. It is, therefore, quite important to take up research to prevent and control camel diseases by vaccination of various diseases at mass scale. Suppose vaccination is not successful; then proper treatment may be organized to save camels in any way. 6. On-farm and on-field research activities are of the utmost importance and need to be managed and executed in well-equipped organizations that work on well-conceived ideas and themes. The following three camel research centers established in Sudan can be quoted as example for others: ELshwak, Tambol, and ElRahad. 7. And finally is organization of an international conference on camel health named International Scientific Conference of Camel Research and Production (ISCCRP), held in Khartoum-Sudan, on 17–18 April 2013. Recently, a group of scientists from the University of Gazira have conducted research work on the medicinal qualities of camel milk and urine. Published research findings have revealed that camel milk and urine possess antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral activities against a wide range of infectious diseases as well as noncommunicable diseases, including diabetes mellitus, blood hypertension, peptic ulcer, liver cirrhosis, and cancer (Elhag et  al., 2001; Salamat et  al., 2021). These investigations have also shown that camel immunoglobulins are quite smaller in size and simpler in structure and that due to their unique qualities, these particles can be used to diagnose or combat certain human diseases, such as cancer (Lafaye & Li, 2018).

REFERENCES Abdeirahmane, N. (1997). Camel milk and modern industry. Journal of Camel Practice and Research, 4, 223–228. Anouassi, A., and Tibary, A. (2013). Development of a large commercial camel embryo transfer program: 20 years of scientific research. Animal Reproduction Science, 136(3), 211–221. Atigui, M., Marnet, P. G., Barmat, A., Khorchani, T., and Hammadi, M. (2015). Effects of vacuum level and pulsation rate on milk ejection and milk flow traits in Tunisian dairy camels (Camelus dromedarius). Tropical Animal Health and Production, 47, 201–206. Ayadi, M., Aljumaah, R. S., Musaad, A., Samara, E. M., Abelrahman, M. M., Alshaikh, M. A., Saleh, S., and Faye, B. (2013). Relationship between udder morphology traits, alveolar and cisternal milk com-partments and machine milking performances of dairy camels (Camelus dromedarius). Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research, 11(3), 790–797. Bommer, D. F. R., and Qureshi, A. W. (1988). Livestock development projects: successes and failures. In Proceedings VI World Conference on Animal Production, The University of Wisconsin – Madison, Helsinki, pp. 198–212. Boudjenah-Haroun, S., Laleye, C. L., Moulti-mati, F., Siahmed, S., Mahboub, N., Siboukeur, O. E., and Ati, A. (2011). Comparative study of milk clot-ting activity of crude gastric enzymes extractemd from camels’ abomasum at different ages and commercial enzymes (rennet and pepsin) on bovine and camel milk. Emirates Journal of Food and Agriculture, 23(4), 301–310. doi: 10.9755/ejfa.v25i8.16096 Breulmann, M., Boer, B., Wernery, U., Wernery, R., El-Shaer, H., Alhadrami, G., Gallacher, D., Peacock, J., Chaudhary, S. A., Brown, G., and Norton, J. (2007). The Camel, From Tradition to Modern Times. Unesco Doha Publisher, Doha. Elhag, A. E., Bernarf, F., and ElBadwi, S. M. A. (2001). Protectiive activity of camel’s milk and urine mixture (Camelus dromedaries) against ethanol induced hepatotoxicity in rats. Advances in Bioscience and Biotechnology, 8, 378–387. Falconer, D. S., and Mackay, T. F. C. (1996). Introduction to Quantitative Genetics (4th ed). Longman Group Ltd, Harlow. FAO. (2019). The State of Food and Agriculture, 182p. FAOSTAT, Rome Italy.

Future Prospects and Opportunities

235

Farah, Z., and Fisher, A. (eds.) (2004). Milk and Meat from the Camel: Handbook on Products and Processing. VDF Hochschulverlag AG et Ethzurich Suisse, Harlow. Faye, B. (2004). Dairy productivity potential of camels. Proceeding of the 34th Meeting FAO/ICAR (International Committee for Animal Recording). Session on Camelids, 28 mai–3 juin, Sousse (Tunisie), pp. 93–105. Faye, B. (2013a). Camel farming sustainability: The challenges of the camel farming system in the XXIth century. Journal of Sustainable Development, 6(12), 74–82. Faye, B. (2013b). Camel meat in the world. In Kadim, I., Maghoub, O., Faye, B., and Farouk, M. (eds.), Camel Meat and Meat Products, pp. 7–16. CAB International, Oxfordshire. Faye, B. (2015). Role, distribution and perspective of camel breeding in the third millennium economies. Emirates Journal of Food and Agriculture, 27(4), 318–327. Faye, B. (2016). The camel, new challenges for a sustainable development. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 48(4), 689–692. Faye, B., Abdelhadi, O. M. A., Ahmed, A. I., and Bakheit, S. A. (2011). Camel in Sudan: Future prospects. Livestock Research for Rural Development, 23(10), 1–11. Faye, B., and Bonnet, P. (2012). Camel sciences and economy in the world: current situation and perspec�tives. Procedding of the 3rd Isocard Conference. Keynote Presentations, 29 January–1 February, Mascate (Sultanate of Oman), Oman, pp. 2–15. Faye, B., and Brey, F. (2005). Les relations entre chameaux et société: entre marginalisation et idéalisation. Revue Ethnozootechnie n°77 –Varia, 43–50. Faye, B., Chaibou, M., and Vias, G. (2012). Integrated impact of climate change and socioeconomic develop�ment on the evolution of camel farming systems. British Journal of Environment and Climate Change, 2(3), 227–244. Faye, B., Grech, S., and Korchani, T. (2002). Le dro-madaire entre féralisation et intensification. Anthro-pozoologica, 39(2), 7–13. Faye, B., and Konuspayev, A. G. (2012). The sustainability challenge of the dairy sector—The growing impor� tance of the non-cattle milk production worldwide. Inter-national Dairy Journal, 24, 50–56. Faye, B., Madani, H., and El-Rouili, A. H. (2014). Camel milk value chain in Northern Saudi Arabia. Emirates Journal of Food and Agriculture, 26(4), 359–365. Gossner, C., Danielson, N., Gervelmeyer, A., Berthe, F., Faye, B., Kaasik-Aaslav, K., Adlhoch, C., Zeller, H., Penttinen, P., and Coulombier, D. (2016). Human–dromedary camel interactions and the risk of acquiring zoonotic middle east respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection. Zoonoses and Public Health, 63, 1–9. Hamers-Casterman, C., Atarhouch, T., Muyldermans, S., Robinson, G., Hamers, C., Songa, E. B., Bendahman, N., and Hamers, R. (1993). Naturally occurring antibodies devoid of light chains. Nature, 363, 446–448. Kadim, I. T., Mahgoub, O., and Purchas, R. W. (2008). A review of the growth, and of the carcass and meat quality characteristics of the one-humped camel (Camelus dromedaries). Meat Science, 80, 555–569. Konuspayeva, A. G., Camier, B., Gaucheron, F., and Faye, B. (2014). Some parameters to process camel milk into cheese. Emirates Journal of Food Agriculture, 26(4), 354–358. Konuspayeva, G., Faye, B., Loiseau, G., and Levieux, D. (2006). Lactoferrin and Immunoglobin content in camel milk from Kazakhstan. The Journal of Dairy Science, 90, 38–46. Konuspayeva, G., Loiseau, G., and Faye, B. (2004). La plus-value “santé” du lait de chamelle cru et fermenté: l’expérience du Kazakhstan. Rencontre Recherche Ruminants, 11, 47–50. Kurtu, M. Y. (2004). An assessment of the productivity for meat and the carcass yield of camels (Camelus dromedarius) and of the consumption of camel meat in the Eastern region of Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 36, 65–76. Lafaye, P., and Li, T. (2018). Use of camel-single domain antibodies for the diagnosis and treatment of zonotic diseses. Comparative Immunology, Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, 60, 17–22. Laudadio, V., Tufarelli, V., Dario, M., Hammadi, M., Seddik, M. M., Lacalandra, G. M., and Dario C. (2009). A survey of chemical and nutritional characteristics of halophytes plants used by camels in Southern Tunisia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 41, 209–215. Leese, A. S. (1927). A treatise on the One Humped Camel in Health and Disease. Stanford University, Haines. Leroux, J. (2004). La dynamique de la grande sécheresse du sahel. In La dynamique du temps et du climat (2e éd), p. 210. DUNOD, Qatar. Mason, I. L. ed. (1984). Camels. Evolution of Domesticated Animals, pp. 106–115. Longman, London. ISBN: 0582460468. Megersa, B., Biffa, D., Abunna, F., Regassa, A., Bohlin, J., and Skjerve, E. (2012). Epidemic characterization and modeling within herd transmission dynamics of an “emerging transboundary” camel disease epidemic in Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 44, 1643–1651.

236

Biology and Breeding of Camels

Mohammed, A. (2003). Organisation d’un réseau de collecte de lait en Mauritanie. Atelier Int. sur le lait de chamelle en Afrique. FAO-Cirad-Karkara Niamey (Niger), 104–112. Musaad, A., Faye, B., and Abu-Nikhela, A. (2013). Lactation curves of dairy camels in an intensive system. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 4, 1039–1046. Salamat, N., Idrus, R. B. H., Kashim, M. I. R., and Mokhtar, M. H. (2021). Anticancer, antiplatelet, gastropro�tective and hepatoprotective effects of camel urine: A scoping review. Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal, 29(7), 740–750. Tefera, M., and Gebreah, F. (2001). A study on the productivity and diseases of camels in Eastern Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 33, 265–274. Tibary, A., and Anouassi, A. (1997). Theriogenology in camelidae. Anatomy, physiology, pathology and arti-ficial breeding. Actes Ed. IAV Hassan II Morocco. Van Fleck, L. D. (1987). Contemporary groups for genetic evaluations. The Journal of Dairy Science, 70, 2456. Wardeh, M. F., Zajed, A. A., and Horier, H. S. (1991). Camel breed types in Arab Africa. In Proceeding of the International Conference on Camel Production and Improvement, pp. 78–86. Arab Center for the study of Dry zones and Arid Lands, Damascus. Wilson, R. T. (1997). Types and breeds of the one humped camel. Journal of Camel Practice and Research, 4(2), 111–117.

Index A adaptability, 216 adaptations, 163 African dishes, 102 age of breeding, 60 aging process, 112 agriculture farming, 65 ALP, ALT, 168 animal of the future, 161 animal size, 156 antibodies, 185 antioxidants, lactoferans, 107 Apergillus fumigatus, 192 aquatic flora, 149 arctic sea ice, 151 arthropod infestations, 199 artificial feeds, 52 Australia, 155

camel milk, 217 camel pox, 195 camel predators, 20 camel products, 99 camel transportation, 63 camel welfare, 230 Campbelpuri, 32 CH4, 151 CH4, emissions, 172 Cholistan desert, 53 clostridial diseases, 186 CO2, 151 coat, 119 coccidiosis, 202 conservation of camel, 21 contagious, 192 contagious ecthyma, 196 COVID-19, 155 CSNGP motifs, 132 current distribution status, 15

B bacterial diseases, 182 Bactrian camel, 4 Bactrians distribution, 27 Bagri, 29 basic nutrients, 73 behavior and life style, 18 Bengal gram, 56 biodiversity, 16 blood cells, 89 blood smear, 201 bone ornaments, 127 botulism, 187 Brahvi, 29 Brahvi habitat, 37 breeding component, 232 breeding season, 59 browser, grazer, 76 brucellosis, 189 buffer zones, 22

C camel adaptation, 17 camel anatomy, 17 Camel breeds, 29 camel calf diarrhea, 188 camel diseases, 68, 171 camel domestication, 13 camel farming, 28, 216 camel feeding behavior, 75 camel genome, 168 camel habitat, 17 camel hair, 113 camel hump, 9 camel meat, 217

D dehydration, 87 DEI, 172 dermatitis, 190 diazinon, 200 diet and prey, 20 digestive parts, 82 Dipetalonema evansi, 198 diversified applications, 218 dromedary camel characteristics, 15 genealogy, 2, 14 dry matter, 91 dry season, 78 E energy value, 56 epidemiology, 189 establishment of society, 226 euthanasia, 69 evolution of camels, 9 evolution to climate change, 164

F feeding time, 53 feed preferences, 76 feed quantity, missa bhussa, 56 fencing, 65 fish diseases, 181 fish gasping, 160 FMD, 194 fungal infections, 192 future perspectives, 140

237

238 G genes and growth, 133 genetic diversity, 133 genetic variation, 134 genomic potentials, 131 genotyping, 132 Genus Camelus, 1 classification, 2 GHG emission, 172 GHGs, 149 GHG sources, 152 Ghulmani, 30 giraffe camel, 12 global climate, 147 global warming, 149 grazing policy, 66 growth el, 141 growth and nutrient requirements, 93

H hair and nail health, 112 heat shock proteins, 169 heat stress, 166, 157 heat tolerance genes, 131 helminthic diseases, 198 hematological and biochemical parameters, 167 high quality products, 104 husbandry, 231

Index milk genetics, 132 milk products, 107 mineral deficiencies, 205 modernization in camel research, 221 movement of food component, 86 Mt-DNA D-loop, 134 MYF5, 137

N N2O, 151 new technologies, 65 nomadic life, 51 non-pathogenic infections, 194 nutrient requirements during lactation, 89 nutrition, 52 nutritional deficiencies, 203 nutritional physiology, 86

O October-November, 201 opportunities, 228 opportunities for scientists, 215 organizational aspects, 234 organization of camels, 4

P

lamp shades, 122 large scale genetic variation, 229 Larry, 45 leather belts, 129 life accessories, 229 life cycle, 19 liver, 85 Llamas, 52

PAGE, 139 paleontological evidences, 11 Paracamelus, 3 pastures, 64 pathological viral infections, 195 PCR-RFLP, 133, 138 peculiar qualities, 162 period of divergence, 11 pharmaceutical uses, 68 plant adaptations, 158 plant growth, 156 plant regeneration, 157 pneumonia, 185 pregnancy indicators, 60 prevention, 205 preventive measures, 189, 195 prospects/challenges, 216 protein, 56 protein deficiency, 204 proteins, 74 proteomic studies, 230 protozoan infections, 201 purse, 123

M

R

Makrani, 29 mastitis, 182 mastitis treatment, 184 mating, 60 meat, 99 meat processing, 219 MG-RAST, 142 microflarae, 198 milk, 102

rabies, 196 raising of camels, 29 rearing potential, 162 relationship with human, 20 reproduction, 58 reserve mobilization, 87 resting duration, 81 RT-PCR, 135 RVF, 194

I immunity, 132 immunogenetic studies, 229 interspecific breeding, 47 IPPC, 147

K Kala Chitta, 34 keratinization, 200

L

239

Index S Sakrai, 44 salmonellosis, 188 Saudi Arabia, 192 seasonal effects, 80 selenium deficiency, 186 Shalmanester III, 4 shelter, 64 ship of desert, 66, 166 Silvo-pasture, 67 Singapore agriculture, 160 skin, 122 skin softener, 112 skin tightening, 107 slaughter, 66 slaughtering, 101 social awareness, 230 socioeconomic effects, 154 South America, 51 stomach, 83 sub-Saharan countries, 221

T TGF-α, 136 trends in camel sciences, 226

trypanosomiasis, 186, 201 type of vehicles, 63

U UAE, 155 unique adaptability, 229

V vicunas, alpacas, 51 vintage lamps, 126 viral diseases, 192 vitamin deficiencies, 205 vitamins, 94 vulnerability of camels, 151

W water cells, 7 wildlife, 149 wrinkles, 108

Y Yemen, UAE, 197