Bilingual Thematic Dictionaries 9783110258899, 9783110258882

Table of contents :
List of Figures
Acknowledgements
List of Abbreviations
1 Introduction
1.1 The Reasons for Undertaking Research into Bilingual Thematic Dictionaries
1.1.1 The Bilingual Thematic Dictionary as an Innovative and Intriguing Lexicographic Hybrid
1.1.2 The Lack of Previous Research into Contemporary Bilingual Thematic Dictionaries
1.1.3 The Potential for Development of the BTD
1.2 The Aims of the Research
1.2.1 What are Bilingual Thematic Dictionaries?
1.2.2 How Useful are BTDs?
1.2.3 How Can BTDs and the Use of BTDs be Improved?
2 The Nature and Development of the Bilingual Thematic Dictionary as a Hybrid Lexicographic Genre
2.1 Researching the Bilingual Thematic Dictionary from the Typological, Structural, and User Perspectives
2.2 The Bilingual Thematic Dictionary as a Type of Bilingual Dictionary
2.2.1 What is a Bilingual Dictionary?
2.2.2 The Different Types of Bilingual Dictionary
2.2.3 The Key Issues of Bilingual Lexicography
2.2.4 What are the Desiderata for a Bilingual Dictionary?
2.3 The Bilingual Thematic Dictionary as a Type of Learner’s Dictionary
2.3.1 What is a Learner’s Dictionary?
2.3.2 The Different Types of Learner’s Dictionary
2.3.3 What are the Desiderata for a Learner’s Dictionary?
2.3.4 A Checklist of Monolingual Learner’s Dictionary Features and Choices
2.4 The Bilingual Thematic Dictionary as a Type of Thematic Dictionary
2.4.1 What is Thematic Lexicography?
2.4.2 Thematic Dictionaries
2.5 Thesauri
2.5.1 What is a Thesaurus?
2.5.2 Definitions of ‘Thesaurus’
2.5.3 Contemporary Native-Speaker Thesauri
2.6 Bilingual Synonym Dictionaries
2.7 The Key Issues and Desiderata of Thematic Lexicography
2.8 Monolingual Thematic Learner’s Dictionaries
2.8.1 An Overview of Monolingual Thematic Learner’s Dictionaries
2.8.2 The Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English
2.8.3 The Longman Language Activator
2.8.4 The Longman Essential Activator
2.8.5 The Longman Pocket Activator
2.8.6 The Oxford Learner’s Wordfinder Dictionary
2.8.7 A Checklist of Thematic Dictionary Features and Choices
2.9 Summary of Chapter 2
3 Bilingual Thematic Dictionaries
3.1 An Overview of Bilingual Thematic Dictionaries
3.1.1 A Chronology of Key Works
3.1.2 The Types of BTD in the Survey
3.2 The Cambridge Word Routes Series
3.2.1 The Six Dictionaries in the CWR Series
3.2.2 Users
3.2.3 Aims
3.2.4 Inclusion
3.2.5 Lexicographic Evidence
3.2.6 Overall Structure and Textual Components
3.2.7 Macrostructure
3.2.8 Sections
3.2.9 Microstructure
3.2.10 Other Features
3.2.11 Access Routes
3.2.12 User Guidance
3.3 The Cambridge French/English Thesaurus
3.3.1 Users
3.3.2 Aims
3.3.3 Inclusion
3.3.4 Lexicographic Evidence
3.3.5 Overall Structure and Textual Components
3.3.6 Macrostructure
3.3.7 Sections
3.3.8 Microstructure
3.3.9 Other Features
3.3.10 Access Routes
3.3.11 User Guidance
3.4 The Collins Robert Comprehensive Dictionary & Thesaurus
3.4.1 Users
3.4.2 Aims
3.4.3 Inclusion
3.4.4 Lexicographic Evidence
3.4.5 Overall Structure and Textual Components
3.4.6 Macrostructure
3.4.7 Microstructure
3.4.8 Other Features
3.4.9 Access Routes
3.4.10 User Guidance
3.5 Bilingual Thematic Slang Dictionaries
3.5.1 The Street French Slang Dictionary and Thesaurus
3.5.2 The Streetwise French Dictionary/Thesaurus
3.6 A Checklist of Existing BTD Features and Choices
3.7 Summary of Chapter 3
4 Approaches to Evaluating the Usefulness of Bilingual Thematic Dictionaries
4.1 A Three-Pronged Approach
4.2 Assessing Bilingual Thematic Dictionaries from the User Perspective
4.2.1 The Informants
4.2.2 User Research Methodology
4.2.3 The Scope and Limitations of User Research
4.3 Summary of Chapter 4
5 The Compilation of Bilingual Thematic Dictionaries: Choices and Recommendations
5.1 A Cumulative Checklist of Actual and Potential BTD Features and Choices
5.2 Physical Format
5.3 Independent and Dependent BTDs
5.4 Inclusion
5.5 Lexicographic Evidence
5.6 Macrostructure
5.7 Sections
5.8 Headings
5.9 Microstructure
5.10 Other Features
5.11 Access Structures and Routes
5.12 User Guidance and Practice
5.13 Bilingual Elements
5.14 CD-ROM Features
5.15 Summary of Chapter 5
6 Conclusions
6.1 What are Bilingual Thematic Dictionaries?
6.2 How Useful are Bilingual Thematic Dictionaries?
6.3 How Can BTDs and the Use of BTDs be Improved?
6.4 Implications for Future Research into BTDs
Bibliography
Appendix 1 A Checklist of Monolingual Learner’s Dictionary Features and Choices
Appendix 2 A Checklist of Thematic Dictionary Features and Choices
Appendix 3 A Checklist of Existing BTD Features and Choices
Appendix 4 A Sample of the EFL Questionnaire Version A (for French Learners of English)
Appendix 5 Location Guessing Experiment: List of BTD Categories
Appendix 6 Location Guessing Experiment: List of 10 Words
Appendix 7 Search Report Experiment: Answer/Search Report Sheet
Appendix 8 A Cumulative Checklist of Actual and Potential BTD Features and Choices
Appendix 9 Location Guessing Experiment: Guessed Locations for Each Word
Appendix 10 Location Guessing Experiment: No. of Correct Guesses for Each Word
Appendix 11 Location Guessing Experiment: Correct Answers and Participants’ Answers
Abstract
Index

Citation preview

L E X IC O G R A PH IC A Series Maior Supplementary Volumes to the International Annual for Lexicography Supplments  la Revue Internationale de Lexicographie Supplementbnde zum Internationalen Jahrbuch fr Lexikographie

Edited by Pierre Corbin, Ulrich Heid, Thomas Herbst, Sven-Gçran Malmgren, Oskar Reichmann, Wolfgang Schweickard, Herbert Ernst Wiegand 140

Martin Stark

Bilingual Thematic Dictionaries

De Gruyter

ISBN 978-3-11-025888-2 e-ISBN 978-3-11-025889-9 ISSN 0175-9264 Bibliografische Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet ber http://dnb.d-nb.de abrufbar.  2011 Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin/Boston Druck: Hubert & Co., Gçttingen

¥ Gedruckt auf surefreiem Papier Printed in Germany www.degruyter.com

Table of Contents

List of Figures ................................................................................................................ ix Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................... xi List of Abbreviations......................................................................... ........................... xii 1

Introduction ...........................................................................................................1

1.1 The Reasons for Undertaking Research into Bilingual Thematic Dictionaries ....1 1.1.1 The Bilingual Thematic Dictionary as an Innovative and Intriguing Lexicographic Hybrid .......................................................................................... 1 1.1.2 The Lack of Previous Research into Contemporary Bilingual Thematic Dictionaries....................................................... ....................................................4 1.1.3 The Potential for Development of the BTD....................................................... ...5 1.2 The Aims of the Research .....................................................................................6 1.2.1 What are Bilingual Thematic Dictionaries? ..........................................................6 1.2.2 How Useful are BTDs? .........................................................................................9 1.2.3 How Can BTDs and the Use of BTDs be Improved? .........................................10 2 2.1 2.2 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4 2.3 2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3 2.3.4 2.4 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.5 2.5.1 2.5.2

The Nature and Development of the Bilingual Thematic Dictionary as a Hybrid Lexicographic Genre...............................................................................13 Researching the Bilingual Thematic Dictionary from the Typological, Structural, and User Perspectives........................................................................13 The Bilingual Thematic Dictionary as a Type of Bilingual Dictionary ..............13 What is a Bilingual Dictionary? ..........................................................................13 The Different Types of Bilingual Dictionary ......................................................14 The Key Issues of Bilingual Lexicography.........................................................15 What are the Desiderata for a Bilingual Dictionary? ..........................................20 The Bilingual Thematic Dictionary as a Type of Learner’s Dictionary..............21 What is a Learner’s Dictionary? .........................................................................21 The Different Types of Learner’s Dictionary .....................................................89 What are the Desiderata for a Learner’s Dictionary?..........................................92 A Checklist of Monolingual Learner’s Dictionary Features and Choices ..........95 The Bilingual Thematic Dictionary as a Type of Thematic Dictionary ..............95 What is Thematic Lexicography? .......................................................................95 Thematic Dictionaries .......................................................................................106 Thesauri ............................................................................................................131 What is a Thesaurus? ........................................................................................131 . Definitions of ‘Thesaurus’ ...............................................................................131

VI

2.5.3 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.8.1 2.8.2 2.8.3 2.8.4 2.8.5 2.8.6 2.8.7 2.9

Contemporary Native-Speaker Thesauri ...........................................................133 Bilingual Synonym Dictionaries .......................................................................153 The Key Issues and Desiderata of Thematic Lexicography ..............................164 Monolingual Thematic Learner’s Dictionaries .................................................167 An Overview of Monolingual Thematic Learner’s Dictionaries ......................167 The Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English ............................................167 The Longman Language Activator ...................................................................180 The Longman Essential Activator.....................................................................195 The Longman Pocket Activator ........................................................................210 The Oxford Learner’s Wordfinder Dictionary ..................................................219 A Checklist of Thematic Dictionary Features and Choices ..............................229 Summary of Chapter 2 ......................................................................................230

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Bilingual Thematic Dictionaries .......................................................................232

3.1 An Overview of Bilingual Thematic Dictionaries ............................................232 3.1.1 A Chronology of Key Works ............................................................................232 3.1.2 The Types of BTD in the Survey ......................................................................233 3.2 The Cambridge Word Routes Series .................................................................233 3.2.1 The Six Dictionaries in the CWR Series ...........................................................233 3.2.2 Users .................................................................................................................234 3.2.3 Aims ..................................................................................................................234 3.2 4 Inclusion............................................................................................................235 3.2.5 Lexicographic Evidence....................................................................................235 3.2.6 Overall Structure and Textual Components ......................................................235 3.2.7 Macrostructure ..................................................................................................237 3.2.8 Sections .............................................................................................................241 3.2.9 Microstructure ...................................................................................................242 3.2.10 Other Features...................................................................................................251 3.2.11 Access Routes ...................................................................................................260 3.2.12 User Guidance ..................................................................................................262 3.3 The Cambridge French/English Thesaurus .......................................................263 3.3.1 Users .................................................................................................................263 3.3.2 Aims ..................................................................................................................263 3.3.3 Inclusion............................................................................................................264 3.3.4 Lexicographic Evidence....................................................................................264 3.3.5 Overall Structure and Textual Components ......................................................264 3.3.6 Macrostructure ..................................................................................................265 3.3.7 Sections .............................................................................................................266 3.3.8 Microstructure ...................................................................................................269 3.3.9 Other Features ...................................................................................................276 3.3.10 Access Routes ...................................................................................................287 3.3.11 User Guidance ..................................................................................................288

VII

3.4 The Collins Robert Comprehensive Dictionary & Thesaurus ..........................288 3.4.1 Users .................................................................................................................288 3.4.2 Aims ..................................................................................................................288 3.4.3 Inclusion............................................................................................................289 3.4.4 Lexicographic Evidence....................................................................................290 3.4.5 Overall Structure and Textual Components ......................................................290 3.4.6 Macrostructure ..................................................................................................291 3.4.7 Microstructure ...................................................................................................291 3.4.8 Other Features ...................................................................................................292 3.4.9 Access Routes ...................................................................................................293 3.4.10 User Guidance ..................................................................................................293 3.5 Bilingual Thematic Slang Dictionaries .............................................................293 3.5.1 The Street French Slang Dictionary and Thesaurus ..........................................293 3.5.2 The Streetwise French Dictionary/Thesaurus ...................................................308 3.6 A Checklist of Existing BTD Features and Choices .........................................317 3.7 Summary of Chapter 3 ......................................................................................317 4

Approaches to Evaluating the Usefulness of Bilingual Thematic Dictionaries .......................................................................................................319

4.1 4.2 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.3

A Three-Pronged Approach ..............................................................................319 Assessing Bilingual Thematic Dictionaries from the User Perspective ............319 The Informants ..................................................................................................319 User Research Methodology .............................................................................327 The Scope and Limitations of User Research ...................................................335 Summary of Chapter 4 ......................................................................................336

5

The Compilation of Bilingual Thematic Dictionaries: Choices and Recommendations .............................................................................................338

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12

A Cumulative Checklist of Actual and Potential BTD Features and Choices .338 Physical Format ................................................................................................338 Independent and Dependent BTDs ...................................................................339 Inclusion............................................................................................................340 Lexicographic Evidence....................................................................................343 Macrostructure ..................................................................................................343 Sections .............................................................................................................347 Headings ...........................................................................................................351 Microstructure ...................................................................................................352 Other Features ...................................................................................................362 Access Structures and Routes ...........................................................................368 User Guidance and Practice ..............................................................................375

VIII

5.13 Bilingual Elements ............................................................................................376 5.14 CD-ROM Features ............................................................................................376 5.15 Summary of Chapter 5 ......................................................................................378 6

Conclusions.......................................................................................................379

6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4

What are Bilingual Thematic Dictionaries? ......................................................379 How Useful are Bilingual Thematic Dictionaries? ...........................................381 How Can BTDs and the Use of BTDs be Improved? .......................................385 Implications for Future Research into BTDs ....................................................393

Bibliography ................................................................................................................398 Appendix 1 A Checklist of Monolingual Learner’s Dictionary Features and Choices ...................................................................................................404 Appendix 2 A Checklist of Thematic Dictionary Features and Choices ...................410 Appendix 3 A Checklist of Existing BTD Features and Choices ..............................420 Appendix 4 A Sample of the EFL Questionnaire Version A (for French Learners of English) ..............................................................................................429 Appendix 5 Location Guessing Experiment: List of BTD Categories.......................440 Appendix 6 Location Guessing Experiment: List of 10 Words .................................443 Appendix 7 Search Report Experiment: Answer/Search Report Sheet .....................444 Appendix 8 A Cumulative Checklist of Actual and Potential BTD Features and Choices ...................................................................................................451 Appendix 9 Location Guessing Experiment: Guessed Locations for Each Word .....467 Appendix 10 Location Guessing Experiment: No. of Correct Guesses for Each Word.......................................................................................................470 Appendix 11 Location Guessing Experiment: Correct Answers and Participants’ Answers .................................................................................................472 Abstract........................................................................................................................474 Indcx ............................................................................................................................475

IX

List of Figures

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38

Two Types of Bilingual Thematic Dictionary............................................................2 Front Matter Features of CALD, CCALED, LDOCE4, MED, and OALDCE7 ..... 26 Microstructural Features of CALD, CCALED, LDOCE4, MED, and OALDCE7. 29 Style, Register etc Labels in CALD, CCALED, LDOCE4, MED, and OALDCE7 32 Notes and Boxes in CALD, CCALED, LDOCE4, MED, and OALDCE7 ............. 43 Middle Matter Features in CALD, CCALED, LDOCE4, MED, and OALDCE7 . 55 Back Matter Features of CALD, CCALED, LDOCE4, MED, and OALDCE7...... 56 Access Structures in CALD, CCALED, LDOCE4, MED, and OALDCE7............ 57 CD-ROM Features of CALD, CCALED, LDOCE4, MED, and OALDCE7 ......... 60 CALD CD-ROM Display after a Search on ‘sharp’................................................ 68 CCALED CD-ROM Display after a Search on ‘sharp’ .......................................... 69 LDOCE4 CD-ROM Display after a Search on ‘sharp’ ........................................... 71 MED CD-ROM Display after a Search on ‘sharp’ ................................................. 72 LDOCE CD-ROM Entry for aeroplane ................................................................. 73 LDOCE4 CD-ROM Pronunciation Search Window ............................................... 81 CALD CD-ROM Smart Thesaurus Search on ‘macaroni’...................................... 86 A Typology of Longman Learner’s Dictionaries .................................................... 89 A Matrix of Bilingual Pairs and Thematic Arrangements ....................................... 92 Types of System Covered in The Order of Things .................................................127 Six Senses of ‘Thesaurus’ ......................................................................................133 The Top Level of the Macrostructure of the Thematic Section of the Encarta Thesaurus ...............................................................................................................143 Categories in the Thematic Section of the Encarta Thesaurus ..............................144 Subcategories at ‘Becoming, Appearing, and Disappearing’ in the Thematic Section of the Encarta Thesaurus ..........................................................................145 A Search on ‘pen’ in the Visual Thesaurus ............................................................150 A Search on ‘write’ in the Visual Thesaurus..........................................................152 MTDs in Chronological Order of Publication ........................................................167 The Hierarchical Levels in the Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English ........171 The Semantic Fields in the Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English ..............172 Types of Section Heading in LLA2 .......................................................................185 The Activator CD-ROM Display of the Keyword HOT ........................................195 Essential Word Banks in LEA1..............................................................................205 Essential Communication Categories in LEA1 ......................................................206 Essential Grammar Sections in LEA ......................................................................207 Communicator Categories in the Longman Pocket Activator ................................216 A Chronology of BTDs ..........................................................................................232 The Numbers of Subcategories in the Categories of CWR/Fr ...............................238 CFET Subheadings and Their Nearest CWR/Fr Equivalent Categories ................244 The Parts of the Cambridge French-English Thesaurus ........................................265

X

39 40 41 42 43

The Publication Dates of Bilingual Thematic Slang Dictionaries ..........................293 Informants who Completed the EFL Questionnaire Version A .............................320 Informants who Completed the EFL Questionnaire Version B .............................321 Informants who Completed the FFL Questionnaire Version A .............................322 Informants who Completed the FFL Questionnaire Version B ..............................323

XI

Acknowledgements

I would like to take this opportunity to thank the following people and organizations for their kind and invaluable assistance during the course of this project: Cambridge University Press for permission to reproduce extracts from the Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2003) CD-ROM Laurence Delacroix (Senior Publisher, Longman Dictionaries, Pearson Education) Anne Domone (Academic Manager, Eurocentres, Cambridge) Chris Fox (Managing Editor, Longman Dictionaries, Pearson Education) HarperCollins Publishers for permission to reproduce an extract from the Collins Cobuild Advanced Learner’s English Dictionary (4th edition 2003) CD-ROM Dr. Reinhard R.K. Hartmann (Honorary University Fellow in the School of English, University of Exeter; Honorary Professor of Lexicography, University of Birmingham) Richard Kelly (Assistant Director of Studies, Bell School, Saffron Walden) Macmillan Education Limited for permission to use an extract from the Macmillan Dictionary for Advanced Learners (2002) CD-ROM Natasha C. Martindale (Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge) Denise McKeough (Database Administrator, Longman Dictionaries, Pearson Education) Pearson Education for permission to reproduce extracts from the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (4th edition 2003) CD-ROM Paola Rocchetti (Editorial Manager, Longman Dictionaries, Pearson Education) Dr. B. Peter Stark Olga Zachopoulou

XII

List of Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in the text. AHD BTD BTLD C1 C2 CALD CCALED CED CFET CRCDAT CRCDAT/Eng-Fr CRCDAT/Fr-Eng CWR CWR/Fr CWR/Gk CWR/It CWR/Port CWS/Cat CWS/Sp DOL DV EFL EWED FFL GUI IPA L1 L2 LDELC LDOCE LDOCE1 LDOCE4 LEA

American Heritage Dictionary bilingual thematic dictionary bilingual thematic learner’s dictionary first culture second culture Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary Collins Cobuild Advanced Learner’s English Dictionary Collins English Dictionary Cambridge French-English Thesaurus Collins Robert Comprehensive Dictionary & Thesaurus Collins Robert Comprehensive Dictionary & Thesaurus Volume Two English-French Collins Robert Comprehensive Dictionary & Thesaurus Volume One French-English Cambridge Word Routes Cambridge Word Routes Anglais-Français Cambridge Word Routes Αγγλικά-Ελληνικά Cambridge Word Routes Inglese-Italiano Cambridge Word Routes Inglês-Português Cambridge Word Selector Anglès-Català Cambridge Word Selector Inglés-Español Dictionary of Lexicography defining vocabulary English as a Foreign Language Encarta World English Dictionary French as a Foreign Language graphical user interface International Phonetic Alphabet first language second language Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (1st edition 1978) Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (4th edition 2003) Longman Essential Activator

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LEA1 LEA2 LLA LLA1 LLA2 LLCE LPA MED MLD MTD MTLD NOTE NSOED OALDCE OALDCE7 OALED OCEL ODPGED OLWD OOT ORD Q. RHWWM RTEWP SFD/T SFSDAT TLD USS

Longman Essential Activator (1st edition 1997) Longman Essential Activator (2nd edition 2006) Longman Language Activator Longman Language Activator (1st edition 1993) Longman Language Activator (2nd edition 2002) Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English Longman Pocket Activator Macmillan English Dictionary monolingual learner’s dictionary monolingual thematic dictionary monolingual thematic learner’s dictionary New Oxford Thesaurus of English New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English (7th edition 2005) Oxford Advanced Learner’s Encyclopedic Dictionary Oxford Companion to the English Language Oxford-Duden Pictorial German and English Dictionary Oxford Learner’s Wordfinder Dictionary Order of Things Oxford Reverse Dictionary Question Random House Webster’s Word Menu Roget’s Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases (facsimile of the 1st edition of 1852) Streetwise French Dictionary/Thesaurus Street French Slang Dictionary and Thesaurus thematic learner’s dictionary Using Spanish Synonyms

1

Introduction

1.1

The Reasons for Undertaking Research into Bilingual Thematic Dictionaries

The bilingual thematic dictionary (BTD) was chosen as a research topic for three main reasons. 1) The BTD is an innovative and intriguing lexicographic hybrid. 2) Previous research into contemporary bilingual thematic lexicography has been very limited. 3) The BTD has considerable potential for development. 1.1.1 The Bilingual Thematic Dictionary as an Innovative and Intriguing Lexicographic Hybrid Use of the Terms ‘Bilingual Thematic Dictionary’ (BTD), ‘Bilingual Thematic Learner’s Dictionary’ (BTLD), and ‘Bilingual Thesaurus’ This book is concerned with a lexicographic hybrid: the bilingual thematic dictionary. For the purposes of this investigation, ‘bilingual thematic dictionary’ is employed as a superordinate term to refer to two types of thematically arranged bilingual dictionary for the foreign language learner (see Figure 1 below): 1) the bilingual thematic learner’s dictionary (BTLD) e.g. the Cambridge Word Routes (CWR) series, and 2) the bilingual thesaurus e.g. the Cambridge French-English Thesaurus (CFET). Both types of BTD have borrowed certain features from monolingual learner’s dictionaries, such as substantial grammatical information, usage notes of various kinds, and illustrative examples. The characteristics of learner’s dictionaries are discussed in Section 2.3 below. For the purposes of the current investigation, ‘bilingual thesaurus’ is used as a term to refer to those bilingual thematic dictionaries which include the word ‘thesaurus’ in their titles, thereby suggesting some form of association, however distant or variously interpreted, with Peter Mark Roget’s original work: Roget’s Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases (RTEWP). However, the fact that the subtitle of each dictionary in the CWR series contains a phrase (e.g. Lexique thématique in the case of CWR/Fr) which can be translated into English as ‘thematic dictionary’ implies that the publisher wishes to indicate that these latter works, albeit also thematically arranged, differ significantly from thesauri. The distinction between the two kinds of bilingual thematic dictionary lies in the different ways each organizes its topics to form their respective macrostructures. The

2

subject classification scheme of a bilingual thesaurus, such as CFET, is arranged in a steep ‘Christmas tree’ hierarchy. A small number (15) of broad themes (‘part titles’) at the top level, e.g. ‘Food and drink’, are divided into categories (‘subheadings’), e.g. ‘Fruit and vegetables’, and subcategories (‘topic categories’), e.g. ‘Citrus fruit’. A BTLD arranges its macrostructure in a different way. Instead of having a small number of very broad superordinate categories, the CWR dictionaries have a large number (450) of categories on the same level, e.g. Fruit Fruits in CWR/Fr, which are divided into subcategories e.g. Citrus fruit Agrumes, Soft fruit Fruits rouges etc, and very occasionally, into subsubcategories.

bilingual thematic dictionary (BTD)

bilingual thematic learner’s dictionary (BTLD)

bilingual thesaurus

Figure 1) Two Types of Bilingual Thematic Dictionary Other thesauri for foreign language learners retain connections of a somewhat different nature to Roget. The two-volume Collins Robert Comprehensive Dictionary & Thesaurus (CRCDAT) is a case in point. Volume One contains a French-English A-Z dictionary and a monolingual French thesaurus. Volume Two is the mirror image of Volume One, comprising an English-French A-Z dictionary and a monolingual English thesaurus. Each thesaurus groups together lexemes that are closely related in meaning, but does not supply any definitions to distinguish them. As with Roget’s work in its original form, the users have to draw on their existing knowledge in order to distinguish between near-synonyms. Within the genre of learner’s thesauri, a distinction operates at the lowest level of the macrostructure where the linguistic exponents are grouped together. Distinctive synonymies, such as CFET, “explain in what contexts the different synonyms etc. should be used” (CFET:back cover) whereas cumulative synonymies, such as the CRCDAT thesauri, do not. CFET supplies a variety of ways of indicating differences in meaning and use. These means include translation equivalents, disambiguators (=

3

disambiguating information enclosed within square brackets), contrastive notes, and examples. Unlike CFET, CRCDAT/Eng-Fr and CRCDAT/Fr-Eng do not have steep hierarchical subject classification schemata. Instead, all the keywords are on the same level and are alphabetically ordered. In terms of macrostructural arrangement, CFET is closer to Roget’s 1852 Urtext. However, the Collins Robert thesauri are nearer to Roget at the exponent level of the macrostructure because lexemes are grouped together without any disambiguating information. Devising an effective arrangement of topics, and identifying useful ways of grouping exponents, are two of the biggest challenges facing compilers of thematic dictionaries. For this reason, a key task that lies ahead will be to analyze and evaluate the subject classification schemata and grouping strategies found in various thematic dictionaries and thesauri for both native and non-native speakers of English in order to make some practical recommendations to compilers of BTDs. An Innovative and Intriguing Lexicographic Hybrid The bilingual thematic dictionary combines elements from the bilingual, thematic, and pedagogical traditions in lexicography. The mixing of genres to create a new type of dictionary is a familiar phenomenon in the history of dictionary-making. For example, the encyclopedic learner’s dictionary unites features of the monolingual learner’s dictionary with encyclopedic content (Stark 1999). The creation of new lexicographic hybrids is one way in which publishers strive to steal a march on their rivals, especially within a highly competitive market such as that for learner’s dictionaries. The innovative nature of the BTD in combining the three lexicographic genres mentioned above contributes to making it an intriguing object of research. Nevertheless, one has to be slightly careful when referring to the BTD as a completely new type of dictionary. The origins of the reference science that developed into lexicography were bilingual and thematic as in the case of the topically organized bilingual lists of Sumerian vocabulary with their Akkadian equivalents that were created on clay tablets in cuneiform script in ancient Mesopotamia following the defeat of the people of Sumer by the Akkadians around 2350 BC (McArthur 1986:20-22). However, in terms of the history of the modern learner’s dictionary, at least as far as English as a Foreign Language is concerned, the thematic learner’s dictionary was certainly a new development. The New Method English Dictionary (1935) by Michael West and James Endicott is widely considered to be the first monolingual learner’s dictionary (MLD) (Cowie 1999:33). Since then, the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English (OALDCE – first published in 1948) and the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (LDOCE – first published in 1978) have each evolved through several editions. The first thematic MLD for EFL students was probably the Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English (LLCE) (1981). Its successor, the first edition of the Longman Language Activator (LLA1), the first dictionary in Longman’s Activator series, was published in 1993. Oxford University Press have not been as prolific in

4

terms of monolingual thematic dictionary (MTD) production although the Oxford Learner’s Wordfinder Dictionary (OLWD) appeared in 1997. Publishers of MTDs have been keen to emphasize the newness of this type of lexicographic work. For example, LLA1 is described on its back cover as a “revolutionary dictionary” and as “the first-ever production dictionary”. A significant milestone in the history of the learner’s dictionary occurred when the thematic approach to this lexicographic genre was applied to bilingual works. The advent of the BTD for learners of English as a foreign language came in 1994 when the Cambridge Word Routes Anglais-Français (CWR/Fr) appeared. Between 1994 and 1996, Cambridge University Press published another five works in the Word Routes series for native speakers of various other languages. The success of a reference work must be measured in terms of its usefulness to the target users, i.e. learners of a foreign language. Not only is it necessary to evaluate the benefits to this user group of a thematic approach, but there is also a need to consider the issues that arise when the bilingual aspect is involved. A further reason, therefore, behind the choice of the BTD as a research topic was to explore ways in which it can best meet the triple challenge of being successful as a bilingual dictionary, as a thematic dictionary, and as a learner’s dictionary. 1.1.2 The Lack of Previous Research into Contemporary Bilingual Thematic Dictionaries Discussion of thematic lexicography in metalexicographic literature has tended to be rather limited. Indeed, Hartmann (2005:7) mentions that no single publication exists which is dedicated entirely to the discussion of onomasiological dictionaries in English, and that metalexicographic literature on this subject is often “immature, episodic and superficial”. In the case of introductory textbooks on lexicography, Jackson (2002:145-160) is somewhat exceptional in devoting a whole chapter to the subject (Chapter 12: “Abandoning the Alphabet”). As for more advanced metalexicographic works, the three-volume international encyclopedia of lexicography (Hausmann et al:1989-91) includes articles on: the thesaurus (Marello 1990), the thesaurus in dictionary form (Hausmann 1990a), the onomasiological dictionary (Reichmann 1990), and the dictionary of synonyms (Hausmann 1990b, c). The history of onomasiological dictionaries is the theme of a collection of papers edited by Werner Hüllen (Hüllen 1994), who has also written a monograph tracing the topical tradition in English dictionaries from 800 to 1700 (Hüllen 1999). Non-alphabetic reference works feature heavily throughout Tom McArthur’s multi-disciplinary study Worlds of Reference: Lexicography, Learning, and Language from the Clay Tablet to the Computer (McArthur 1986). McArthur is a key figure as regards both the study of thematic reference works (as a metalexicographer) and the development of contemporary thematic learner’s dictionaries (as a lexicographer). Not only is he the author of the Longman Lexicon of Contemporary

5

English (1981), a groundbreaking monolingual thematic learner’s dictionary, but he has also provided a detailed description of the evolution of this particular work (McArthur 1998:177-190). Such insiders’ views of the rationale behind MTDs and their individual features are rare. Other aspects of thematic lexicography which have received attention in metalexicographic literature include: the alphabetical versus the conceptually organized dictionary (Baldinger 1960), the onomasiological approach to dictionary material (Kipfer 1986), the possibility of combining the dictionary and the thesaurus (Calzolari 1989), onomasiological dictionary software (Sierra 1995, 1997, and 2000), and a survey of onomasiological dictionaries in 20th-century Europe (Hartmann 2005). Specialist journals on lexicography and on language learning occasionally contain critical reviews of specific thematic learner’s dictionaries e.g. Berry (1994), Nida (1995), and Wajnryb (1997) on LLA1, Willis (1998) on the first edition of the Longman Essential Activator (LEA1), Perry (1999) and Trotman (1998) on the Oxford Learner’s Wordfinder Dictionary (OLWD), and Bruton (1997) on the Cambridge Word Selector Inglés-Español (CWS/Sp). Historically, thematic dictionaries have often been the creation of a single author. This trend has continued in recent times, for example with McArthur’s LLCE and Hugh Trappes Lomax’s OLWD (1997). Prominent thematic lexicographers and their works have been the focus of various forms of published criticism and scholarly research. Peter Mark Roget, for example, has been the subject of a biography (Emblen 1970). The history and design of the Thesaurus has been thoroughly investigated (e.g. Hüllen 2004) and its effect critically reappraised (e.g. Winchester 2001). It is not always easy to discover which thematic dictionaries have been published. In a paper surveying onomasiological dictionaries in 20th-Century Europe, Hartmann (2005:6) mentions that currently available bibliographical guides do not adequately cover such works. To date, the amount of published metalexicographic discussion of thematic learner’s dictionaries has been very limited, especially as regards bilingual works. Bearing this in mind, and given the increase in the number of BTDs published lately, now seems to be an apposite time to evaluate this particular lexicographic genre. 1.1.3 The Potential for Development of the BTD The bilingual thematic learner’s dictionary is still at a relatively early stage of its development. Consequently, there remain ways in which the genre can be further refined. One key issue that demands attention is whether an electronic format can overcome some of the inclusion and access problems associated with print dictionaries. By way of illustration, the print version of the second edition of the Longman Language Activator, a monolingual thematic learner’s dictionary, is over 1530 pages in length, yet it focuses almost exclusively on abstract lexemes. If concrete vocabulary was added and the dictionary was to remain a single-volume work, the number of abstract words would have to be reduced. An electronic version (on CD-ROM, DVD,

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or online) could, however, provide enough storage space to free the compilers from such inclusion restrictions. Electronic thematic dictionaries open up to the user a wider range of access routes than their paper-based counterparts do, whose contents are immobile. The CD-ROM accompanying LDOCE4 represents a milestone in the history of the learner’s dictionary because it combines the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, a semasiological MLD, with the onomasiological Longman Language Activator on the same disk, and allows the user to jump between the two texts. There is no reason why the same functionality could not be provided for paired semasiological and onomasiological bilingual dictionaries. In addition to the opportunities for development of the BTD via an electronic format, compilers will have to select features carefully from its constituent lexicographic genres and combine them in an effective eclectic mix.

1.2

The Aims of the Research

The project aims to answer three questions: 1) What are bilingual thematic dictionaries? 2) How useful are they? 3) How can they be improved? 1.2.1 What are Bilingual Thematic Dictionaries? Answering this question involves: 1) analysis of the BTD as a hybrid lexicographic genre, 2) examination of the BTD’s roots and relatives, and 3) identification of the BTD’s distinctive features. Analysis of the BTD as a Hybrid Lexicographic Genre A typological perspective on lexicographic research will be used here not to construct a comprehensive typology of thematic dictionaries as a whole, but instead to achieve the following three narrower objectives: 1) to locate the BTD’s position within dictionary typology, 2) to discover which elements from various types of dictionary have been incorporated in BTDs and to determine the extent to which they have been adapted, and 3) to identify the elements from other lexicographic genres that do not appear in existing BTDs, but which may be worth inclusion in future versions of this type of dictionary. As the topic under investigation is a lexicographic genre, a myriad of its characteristics could potentially be explored. To keep the breadth of discussion within manageable bounds, the balance of the discussion is therefore weighted towards those

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features of BTDs which are not common to all learner’s dictionaries, but which have been included so that this specific type of learner’s dictionary can also fulfil its functions as a thematic dictionary and as a bilingual dictionary. Pronunciation information, for example, is unaffected by the ordering principle chosen for a learner’s dictionary (i.e. whether it is alphabetically or thematically arranged), and is therefore not discussed in great detail. On the other hand, the main reason for choosing a thematic arrangement for a learner’s dictionary is to group together semantically and topically related lexemes in an advantageous way that is not possible in an alphabetically ordered semasiological text. Consequently, far more attention is devoted to topics such as the various macrostructural frameworks used to categorize vocabulary within the text as a whole, and to the different ways of disambiguating the meanings of nearsynonyms within a particular section of the text. Chapter 2 begins by considering the main characteristics and issues surrounding the three lexicographic traditions that have been synthesized to create the BTD, namely the bilingual (Section 2.2), the pedagogical (Section 2.3), and the thematic (Sections 2.42.8). This typological approach aims not only to determine what a BTD is, but also to provide a set of criteria against which this type of dictionary can be evaluated. To be considered successful, the BTD must be effective as a bilingual dictionary (Section 2.2.4), as a learner’s dictionary (Section 2.3.3), as a thematic dictionary (Section 2.7), and as a synthesis of all three. Of the three lexicographic traditions mentioned above, it is the bilingual which is dealt with first. The discussion begins by considering the way in which the term bilingual dictionary has been defined (Section 2.2.1), before moving on to identify the major types of bilingual lexicographic work (Section 2.2.2), the issues which are associated with them (Section 2.2.3), and the desiderata for a bilingual dictionary (Section 2.2.4). Section 2.3 considers the BTD qua learner’s dictionary. The topic is discussed in substantial depth by virtue of the fact that monolingual EFL dictionaries have collectively generated a plethora of features, many of which could potentially be incorporated by BTDs in order to fulfil their roles as learner’s dictionaries. Following a discussion of the definition of the learner’s dictionary, its various features in print and in electronic format are described and evaluated (Section 2.3.1). The different types of learner’s dictionary and the desiderata for this lexicographic genre are covered in Sections 2.3.2 and 2.3.3 respectively. Finally, a checklist of monolingual learner’s dictionary features and choices is drawn up (Section 2.3.4). The discussion of the BTD as a type of thematic dictionary begins by looking at broader issues of thematic lexicography such as the different ways in which the term thematic can be interpreted, the major types of macrostructural arrangement, and the relative advantages and disadvantages of thematic and alphabetical arrangements of the information contained in a dictionary (Section 2.4.1). An attempt is made to clarify the terms of reference employed in the ensuing discussion. This involves assessing the serviceability of the paired technical terms onomasiology/onomasiological and semasiology/semasiological, and clarifying distinctions such as those between a

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thesaurus and a dictionary, and between a thesaurus and other types of thematic dictionary. Examination of the BTD’s Roots and Relatives Throughout Chapter 2, the examination of the BTD’s roots and relatives gradually narrows its focus, covering thematic dictionaries (Section 2.4.2), thesauri (Section 2.5), and bilingual synonym dictionaries (Section 2.6), before turning to the BTD’s immediate predecessors, i.e. monolingual thematic learner’s dictionaries (MTLDs) such as the Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English, the Longman Activator family of dictionaries, and the Oxford Learner’s Wordfinder Dictionary (Sections 2.8.1-2.8.6). This survey of thematic dictionaries makes it possible to draw up a checklist of the distinctive features of the genre (Section 2.8.7) which is later compared with a similar checklist for existing BTDs (Section 3.6). It is thereby possible to see which features of previous bilingual, thematic, and learner’s dictionaries have found their way into modern BTDs, and which have not. Furthermore, by combining the checklists for the learner’s dictionary, thematic dictionary, and existing BTDs and by subtracting all those features that apply exclusively to monolingual dictionaries, it is possible to create a cumulative checklist of actual and potential BTD features (Section 5.1). The compilers of a future BTD could select from this list those features that seem most relevant to and useful for their own particular dictionary. For this reason, Chapter 5 examines and evaluates each of these features in turn. The Identification of the Distinctive Features of Contemporary BTDs Before recommendations can be made as to how BTDs could be improved, it is necessary to identify and assess the components of existing dictionaries of this type. To this end, the following works were subjected to especially detailed analysis and evaluation: the six dictionaries in the Cambridge Word Routes (CWR) series for French, Spanish, Catalan, Italian, Portuguese, and Greek speakers learning English as a foreign language (Section 3.2), the Cambridge French/English Thesaurus (CFET) for English speakers learning French as a foreign language (Section 3.3), and finally the Collins Robert Comprehensive Dictionary & Thesaurus Volume One French-English (CRCDAT/FrEng) and Volume Two English-French (CRCDAT/Eng-Fr) for learners of either language (Section 3.4). The BTDs in the CWR series describe themselves (in their sub-titles) as thematic dictionaries. CFET and the thesaurus components of the two Collins Robert works are thesauri which, as will be demonstrated later, interpret the thesaurus concept in markedly different ways. The focus of the present research is on BTDs for adults learning the L2 as a whole, rather than a selected part of the language. Nonetheless, given the rather small canon of BTDs, it was felt worthwhile to examine two bilingual thematic slang dictionaries, the

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Street French Slang Dictionary & Thesaurus (SFSDAT) and the Streetwise French Dictionary/Thesaurus (SFD/T), to see if they contained features whose incorporation into bilingual thematic learner’s dictionaries could be beneficial (Section 3.5). Each BTD is analyzed and evaluated under the following headings: users, aims, inclusion, textual components, macrostructure, sections, microstructure, other features, access routes, and user guidance. The term section is used here to refer to groupings of linguistic exponents, most commonly in subcategories and occasionally in subsubcategories. ‘Other features’ serves as a forum for discussion of all those features that do not fall neatly under the other headings, for example notes and boxes that often refer to several entries and cannot necessarily be considered as belonging to the microstructure of an individual entry. ‘Access routes’ covers all devices that lead users to the information sought. It includes not only such features as tables of contents and indexes, but also the cross-reference structure (referred to by some metalexicographers as the mediostructure). When it comes to making recommendations as regards the compilation of BTDs in Chapter 5, this same set of headings is used to discuss individual components in detail. This framework for discussion is organized largely from the structural perspective in order to make it easier for compilers of future BTDs to find information relating to particular features of this type of dictionary. Nevertheless, the intention is not to lose sight of the fact that a reference work is a container of information, an analogy made by McArthur (1986:19-23). In the light of this, the structural elements are therefore assessed with regard to their effectiveness as vehicles for conveying knowledge that can be classified into various information categories (e.g. meaning, usage etc). 1.2.2 How Useful are BTDs? A Three-Pronged Approach to Evaluating Usefulness A three-pronged approach has been adopted to evaluate the usefulness of BTDs: 1) textual analysis and evaluation of contemporary BTDs, 2) the elicitation of judgements from nearly 100 informants as to the usefulness of actual and potential BTD features by means of questionnaires, and 3) two small-scale experiments to seek answers to issues that face BTD compilers such as: i) What is the most appropriate location for specific lexemes within a hierarchical framework of topics? and ii) What consultation strategies do users employ when interacting with a BTD, and how effective are they? The Value of User Research The conclusions drawn by a researcher on the basis of textual analysis are of only limited validity. Significant features of BTDs are therefore additionally evaluated by taking users’ opinions and look-up experiences into account. Section 4.2 provides details of the informants and the methodologies employed in the user research. The

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information gleaned has been fed into the recommendations concerning individual BTD features in Chapter 5. Catering for the Needs of Speakers of a Particular Language Central to the user-oriented evaluation of BTDs is the question as to whether the information provided is useful to speakers of a particular language. This is an especially relevant issue when a universal English framework has been used as a basis to generate separate dictionaries for speakers of various languages, as is the case with the Cambridge Word Routes series. Cultural content should also be tailored to the needs of users who may wish to communicate about either their own culture (C1 by analogy with L1 as regards language) or the culture (C2) of the L2 speakers. The criterion of satisfying the linguistic and cultural needs of speakers of a particular language will be used to assess such features as false friend notes, translation notes, cultural notes, and pictures as well as inclusion policy. 1.2.3 How Can BTDs and the Use of BTDs be Improved? Learning from Ongoing Developments in Thematic Pedagogical Lexicography Although second editions of the bilingual thematic dictionaries examined in the current project have not yet appeared, second editions of two monolingual thematic dictionaries (the Longman Language Activator and the Longman Essential Activator) have been published. These show which features the lexicographers responsible for these MTDs felt needed revision in order to improve the texts. LLA2 also exists in electronic format as a CD-ROM (together with LDOCE4). Consequently, it provides some pointers as to the effectiveness of this medium for a text type that is closely related to the BTD, especially as regards its access structure even if it does not include bilingual elements. For these reasons, revised editions of these two MTDs are included in the survey (see Sections 2.8.3 and 2.8.4). Taking Advantage of Information Technology The BTDs examined here are all paper-based. Given the inclusion, access, and presentation limitations of thematic dictionaries in print format, the electronic dictionary is the obvious medium to look towards when considering models for a new type of bilingual thematic dictionary. Another major application of information technology to dictionary compilation is the use of electronically stored corpora to inform a wide range of lexicographic decisions, e.g. checking the frequency of a lexeme to see if it warrants inclusion, identifying the most common syntactic and collocational patterns in which it occurs, determining whether it is more commonly used in spoken or written

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language, extracting illustrative examples etc. As many of the issues surrounding the use of electronic text corpora apply to learner’s dictionaries in general and are not exclusive to BTDs, corpus lexicography is not discussed here at length except when dealing with BTD-specific matters. This does not, however, imply any underestimation of the immense value of corpus-informed lexicographic practice. The Practical Emphasis of the Project The ultimate goal of the project is a practical one, i.e. to provide recommendations for BTD lexicographers as they face the various decisions that have to be made throughout the design and compilation processes. The recommendations will include not only improvements to existing BTD features, but also suggestions for entirely new features. This research project makes suggestions as to how BTDs could be improved, and does not need to account for the limitations on financial and human resources in the same way that a publishing plan for a projected dictionary would do in a commercial setting. Nevertheless, the aim has been to keep any recommendations within the bounds of feasibility. Improving the Skills of the BTD Lexicographer In order to improve BTDs, it is also necessary to provide as much help as possible to those who compile them. In most dictionary publishing houses, lexicographers are usually more accustomed to working on semasiological dictionaries. It is therefore necessary to consider which lexicographic skills are demanded of compilers who are assigned to working on an onomasiological text. Once identified, these skills can inform the content of the pre-project training of lexicographers (see A New Approach to BTD Compilation in Section 6.3). Improving the Skills of the BTD User The macrostructures of thematic learner’s dictionaries are more complex and demanding of their users than those of conventional A-Z MLDs. It is necessary to know whether users can find their way to the information they are seeking. Considerable attention will therefore be devoted here to the options available as regards access routes in both print and electronic dictionaries. This concern is supported by two pieces of experimental user research (see Chapter 4). The first experiment tests whether specific items of vocabulary have been placed in a BTD at locations where users expect to find them. The second experiment utilizes a ‘think aloud’ methodology to follow a user’s consultation strategies when completing a gap-fill vocabulary exercise. Even if users successfully find their way to the requisite section of a BTD, they still face the task of choosing the correct linguistic exponent from among a selection of

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near-synonyms. Although BTD users are not required to decipher the lengthy L2 definitions found in monolingual dictionaries, they still have to deal with BTD elements that perform the same disambiguating function, such as the bracketed notes attached to translation equivalents. Given the challenges facing users dealing with the macrostructure and microstructure of a BTD, an evaluation of this type of dictionary from the user perspective therefore requires an examination of the quantity and quality of the user guidance that is provided, mainly in the front matter of print dictionaries, with the aim of enabling users to get the most out of this possibly unfamiliar type of reference work. There is a need to consider which skills the BTD user has to command and how they should be taught and practised if required (see Training Users to Use BTDs in Section 6.3). Finally, a project of limited length aiming to suggest improvements to a particular lexicographic genre can only be a starting point. Section 6.4 therefore suggests areas for future research into BTDs.

2

The Nature and Development of the Bilingual Thematic Dictionary as a Hybrid Lexicographic Genre

2.1

Researching the Bilingual Thematic Dictionary from the Typological, Structural, and User Perspectives

Three research perspectives are used in the course of this investigation: the typological perspective, the structural perspective, and the user perspective. The current chapter begins by using the typological perspective to divide the lexicographic hybrid into its constituent genres. It is combined with the structural perspective in a process of genetic engineering that seeks to answer four parallel sets of questions: – – – –

What is a bilingual/learner’s/thematic/dictionary? What are the different types of bilingual/learner’s/thematic dictionary? What are the key issues surrounding the bilingual/learner’s/thematic dictionary? What are the desiderata for a bilingual/learner’s/thematic dictionary?

2.2

The Bilingual Thematic Dictionary as a Type of Bilingual Dictionary

2.2.1 What is a Bilingual Dictionary? Definitions of ‘Bilingual Dictionary’ The bilingual dictionary is defined contrastively in relation to the monolingual dictionary e.g. A type of DICTIONARY which relates the vocabularies of two languages together by means of translation EQUIVALENTS, in contrast to the MONOLINGUAL DICTIONARY in which explanations are provided in one language. (DOL:14) BILINGUAL DICTIONARY, sometimes translation dictionary. A dictionary that defines a selection of the vocabulary of two languages, usually each through the other, as in the Collins Robert French Dictionary (1978). (OCEL:126) The distinction between the bilingual or multilingual (or plurilingual) dictionary and the monolingual (or unilingual) dictionary is usually clear enough. Monolingual dictionaries are those in which the language of description is the same as the language being described: the microstructural information is given in the language from which the entry-words are drawn. A bilingual dictionary uses two different languages: one as the object of description and one as the instrument of description. ‘La macrostructure et la microstructure des dictionnaires

14 bilingues … appartiennent chacune à un système linguistique different’ (Rey-Debove 1971:29). Typically, bilingual dictionaries provide equivalents, but some bilingual dictionaries are not ‘translation dictionaries’: for example, the best etymological dictionary of French is written in Latin and German. (Béjoint 2000:38-9)

As these definitions show, a basic understanding of what distinguishes the bilingual dictionary from other lexicographic genres appears straightforward. However, there are different types of bilingual dictionary (see Section 2.2.2), each with its own set of attendant issues (see Section 2.2.3). 2.2.2 The Different Types of Bilingual Dictionary In this section, the main types of bilingual dictionary are identified. This makes it possible to observe the range of bilingual dictionaries which have been given, or could potentially be given, thematic treatment. One important distinction exists between active and passive bilingual learner’s dictionaries: Bilingual dictionaries can be distinguished as ACTIVE DICTIONARIES or PASSIVE DICTIONARIES, according to whether their purpose is to help with encoding (writing) or decoding (reading) activities. (DOL:14)

This distinction also applies to monolingual learner’s dictionaries, and is discussed in Section 2.3.2. Bilingual Translation Dictionaries The term translation dictionary is sometimes employed as a synonym for bilingual dictionary. It is additionally used to refer to the more traditional type of bilingual dictionary whose prime function is to serve the needs of users translating from L2 to L1, or vice-versa. Bilingual Learner’s Dictionaries Bilingual learner’s dictionaries differ from traditional bilingual dictionaries in that they include features which were previously found in monolingual learner’s dictionaries. They were created as a reaction to criticism that translation dictionaries do not provide enough information about the meaning and use of words. Such dictionaries include far more illustrative examples than traditional translation dictionaries do. They also tend to provide more detailed and explicit information on style, register, and usage including syntactic and collocational patterns.

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Bilingualized Dictionaries Bilingualized (or semi-bilingual) dictionaries have been defined as follows: A type of dictionary based on a MONOLINGUAL DICTIONARY whose entries have been translated in full or in part into another language. […] The resulting HYBRIDS combine features of the monolingual dictionary (such as the definitions formulated in the target language) with those normally associated with the BILINGUAL DICTIONARY (translation equivalents of headwords and/or examples) for the benefit of learner-users, especially in decoding tasks such as reading. (DOL:14)

General and Restricted Field Bilingual Dictionaries Bilingual dictionaries, like all lexicographic works, either cover general language or restrict themselves to a selected part of the total vocabulary such as the lexemes belonging to a particular subject area or register. The BTDs covered in the present investigation fall into two types as regards inclusion policy: general language dictionaries (e.g. the CWR series, CFET, CRCDAT/Eng-Fr, and CRCDAT/Fr-Eng) and slang dictionaries (e.g. SFSDAT and SFD/T). 2.2.3 The Key Issues of Bilingual Lexicography Bilingual versus Monolingual Thematic Learner’s Dictionaries As far as EFL lexicography is concerned, monolingual thematic learner’s dictionaries predate bilingual thematic learner’s dictionaries. What advantages would a bilingual thematic dictionary have over a monolingual thematic dictionary for foreign language learners? A criticism that is sometimes levelled at monolingual learner’s dictionaries is that they are only able to offer a ‘one size fits all’ solution to meet users’ needs because they are aimed at native speakers of any language, rather than of a specific language. If one takes a feature such as error avoidance notes, not only will they lack the precision required when comparing the varying use of items belonging to a specific language pair, but they will also contain material irrelevant to speakers of a particular language if this user group does not commonly make the error which is addressed. A bilingual dictionary, on the other hand, caters for speakers of one language learning another particular language. The advantages of the bilingual format are expounded in the front matters of BTDs: En outre, Word Routes offre l’avantage de vous fournir toutes ces informations dans votre propre langue, ce qui les rend plus accessibles. Le livre a été écrit pour répondre aux besoins spécifiques des apprenants francophones: les ‘faux amis’ sont soulignés et des explications

16 détaillées sont fournies dans tous les cas où il n’existe pas d’équivalent entre des mots ou des expressions des deux langues. (CWR/Fr:vii) […] unlike a standard thesaurus, this book offers a translation for every word, phrase and example provided, and specific help for dealing with ‘false friends’ (CFET:vii)

Three important benefits of the bilingual dictionary can be extracted from these excerpts: 1) Information in the user’s L1 is easier to understand and therefore more accessible than in the foreign language. 2) A bilingual dictionary can respond to the needs of a speaker of a particular language, for example by providing false friend notes specific to the language pair concerned. 3) Translation equivalents are provided where they exist. There are many instances where monolingual dictionaries struggle to provide an adequate definition. For example, the definition at oak in LDOCE4 is “a large tree that is common in northern countries, or the hard wood of this tree”. This may well leave the user unsure as to which species of tree is being described whereas the translation equivalent (e.g. in French) ‘chêne’ leaves no room for doubt. In cases where a direct translation equivalent does not exist, a paraphrase or note can be used. Again, either would be more readily understood if written in the user’s L1. A counterargument in favour of monolingual dictionaries, often expressed in the front matter of MTDs, is that bilingual dictionaries do not provide enough usage information or illustrative examples. When LLA1, a monolingual thematic dictionary, was published in 1993, it was promoted as a production dictionary that could serve encoding purposes better than previous monolingual and bilingual dictionaries. Proponents of BTDs might question whether the MLD’s transformation of vocabulary would necessarily be into “a lexical version that is easier to understand” (LLA1:F24) as this explanation of a word’s meaning and use would be in the user’s L2. L2 definitions in monolingual thematic dictionaries can be rather lengthy and hard to understand when charged with the task of explaining the subtle differences between linguistic exponents that are very close in meaning. The front matter essays in LLA1 criticize dictionaries which do not provide users with sufficient help when using words for encoding. ‘Active’ learner’s dictionaries can, however, be monolingual or bilingual (see Section 2.3.2). The introductory essays in LLA1 do not mention that a bilingual thematic dictionary can also provide encoding information. This is not altogether surprising as: 1) it is not in the publisher’s interests to suggest that a different type of dictionary might constitute an equal (if not better) alternative, and 2) the publication of LLA1 predates the small flurry of BTDs which were produced in the mid- to late-1990s by a rival publishing house (Cambridge University Press). Interestingly, Longman (the publishers of LLA1) had published in 1992 a Chinese/English bilingualized version of the Longman Lexi-

17

con, LLA’s predecessor, as a monolingual thematic learner’s dictionary, although they did not go on to produce bilingualized adaptations of the text for other languages. The Degree of Bilingualization Lexicographers working on bilingual dictionaries have to decide which entry components to present in L1, L2, or both. In theory, virtually any entry component could be provided with a translation. In practice, some components (e.g. examples) are commonly supplied with translations, whereas others (e.g. grammatical codes) are not. This selectivity is necessary so as not to overburden the text. In the case of BTDs, decisions concerning bilingualization also have to be made as regards those components which are exclusive to thematic dictionaries, such as lists of contents, category headings, and indexes. In addition to having more space than print dictionaries to display translated elements, electronic dictionaries can provide the user with a choice as to whether or not to display translations of selected components on the screen. Directionality Directionality is “the user orientation of the bilingual dictionary according to the direction of the look-up operation” (DOL:44). It affects the types of information contained in an entry. For example, a bilingual dictionary for English learners of French could provide pronunciation information at the French entries in the French-English part, but would not need to supply such information at the English entries in the English-French part. Choice of explanatory language is also affected by directionality. For example, a cultural note attached to an entry such as banlieu in the French-English part of the aforementioned dictionary would normally be in English, i.e. the user’s L1. The bilingual dictionary described above is unidirectional or monodirectional, i.e. the translation equivalents can only be accessed from one of the two paired languages (Ibid:95). Thus, an English speaker could use the French-English part for decoding a French text, but a French speaker could not use it satisfactorily to understand an English text. A bidirectional dictionary, on the other hand, allows the translation equivalents to be accessed from either of the two languages (Ibid:13). An English speaker would use the French-English part for decoding and the English-French part for encoding, and a French speaker would use the English-French part for encoding, and the French-English part for decoding. There exist, however, considerable difficulties in producing a bidirectional dictionary because the information required for encoding is different from that required for decoding, and the more distantly related the two languages involved, the more complex the compilation process becomes. The existing BTDs covered in the current survey are, perhaps unsurprisingly, all unidirectional.

18

Entry Components Compilers of bilingual dictionaries have to decide what the entry components are to be and how they will be organized, bearing in mind in each case the information conveyed, the mode (i.e. source language, target language, or some form of coding such as abbreviations), the function (i.e. what it helps users to do), and the type of person which it is designed for (i.e. an encoding and/or decoding source and/or target language user). Translation Equivalents Whereas a monolingual dictionary provides definitions to explain meanings, a bilingual dictionary supplies translation equivalents to fulfil the same role. An equivalent has been defined as: A word or phrase in one language which corresponds in MEANING to a word or phrase in another language, e.g. English mystery tour and German Fahrt ins Blaue. Because of linguistic and cultural ANISOMORPHISM, translation equivalents are typically partial, approximative, non-literal and asymmetrical (rather than full, direct, word-for-word and bidirectional). Their specification in the BILINGUAL DICTIONARY is therefore fraught with difficulties, and recourse must be had to surrogate EXPLANATORY EQUIVALENTS. Ö CONVERGENCE, DIVERGENCE, TRANSLATION Iannucci 1985 (DOL:51)

The above definition includes a number of technical terms which require explanation. Anisomorphism is the “mismatch between a pair of languages due to their semantic, grammatical, and cultural differences” (Ibid:6). This means that it is not always possible to supply a direct one-to-one translation equivalent between one member of a language pair and another. Smaller bilingual dictionaries are, however, often criticized for providing a single translation equivalent which can be misleading. For example, the Collins Greek-English Dictionary Ελληνοαγγλικό Λεξικό gives ‘beggar’ as the sole translation equivalent of the Greek word ζητιάνος (literally ‘one who begs’). As this is the most common use of ζητιάνος, in most cases ‘beggar’ will be the correct translation, but not always because it can also refer to a tramp. There is, however, no direct equivalent for ‘tramp’ in Greek, perhaps because vagrants are less common in Greece than in the UK or US. The phenomenon of anisomorphism also entails that the creation of, say, an English-Greek dictionary from an existing Greek-English one involves more than a simple reversal of content, but has to take into account the varying degrees of equivalence between a lexeme in one language and that in another. An explanatory equivalent is the use of a surrogate paraphrase in the target language rather than a one-to-one equivalent when translating a piece of culture-specific vocabulary. The Dictionary of Lexicography gives the example of the German word Dolchstoβlegende being rendered in English as the “myth of the ‘stab in the back’ betrayal of Germany after the First World War by its own politicians” (Ibid:54). One

19

can see from this example how problematic it would be to enter this item in the English-German side of a dictionary. Would it be placed at the entry for stab? Would it indeed be worth entering it at all on the English-German side? The definition of ‘equivalent’ given above cross-refers to two other important technical terms connected with translation equivalents: convergence and divergence. It is worth citing their DOL definitions in full as they provide useful examples of each phenomenon: convergence In cases of partial TRANSLATION equivalence, the rendering of two or more words in one language by a single word in the other language. Thus the meanings of the two English words slug and snail are covered by the single Dutch word slak. (The opposite direction is called DIVERGENCE.) The BILINGUAL DICTIONARY must allow for such asymmetrical relations, in conjunction with the problem of user orientation. Ö ANISOMORPHISM, BIDIRECTIONAL DICTIONARY. Kromann et al. 1991. (Ibid:29) divergence In cases of partial TRANSLATION equivalence, the rendering of a word in one language by two or more words in the other language. Thus the meaning of the English word aunt is expressed in Danish by two words, moster ‘maternal aunt’ and faster ‘paternal aunt’. (The opposite direction is called CONVERGENCE.) The BILINGUAL DICTIONARY must allow for such asymmetrical relations, in conjunction with the problem of the user orientation. Ö ANISOMORPHISM, BIDIRECTIONAL DICTIONARY. (Ibid:45)

The issue of crosslinguistic diversity is mentioned in Semantic Analysis and the Activator, one of the front matter essays in the first edition of the Longman Language Activator (LLA1:F21). The dictionary is praised for covering in detail the often subtle differences and selection restrictions pertaining to near-synonyms. The problem that a monolingual thematic dictionary cannot get round, however, is that while it can deal with issues that make the English language complex per se, it cannot handle specific issues of anisomorphism between one particular language and another. Instead, it has to compromise by concentrating on areas that are known to be problematic for a majority of EFL learners, regardless of their first language. Here, the BTD has a distinct advantage over its monolingual counterpart. How can accurate translation equivalents be identified? One possible solution lies in the use of electronic parallel text corpora. There are two basic types of parallel text: bitexts and comparable texts. Bi-texts exist when a text in one language has been translated into another. Comparable texts are two texts which have been produced independently of one another, but which were created in a similar context (DOL:105). The integrity of bi-texts depends on the quality of the translation, and the integrity of comparable texts depends on correctly identifying truly similar contexts and involves complex parsing processes to pick out linguistic exponents that express the same meaning. The BTDs surveyed do not appear to have made any use of parallel text

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corpora, and indeed there is little evidence to suggest that parallel text corpora are widely used by publishing houses that produce bilingual dictionaries. Equivalence can be conveyed by various entry components e.g. translations, nearequivalents, glosses, examples (and their translations), and pictorial illustrations. In each case, the lexicographer has to choose which elements to assign this role to. Glosses are often used when the headword denotes something in the source-language culture which is absent from the target-language culture. Near-equivalents are employed when there is no direct equivalent in the target language so the closest parallel item has to be used, for example in the case of two political positions whose holders perform similar roles in each culture e.g. ‘president’ and ‘prime minister’. Literal Translations The BTD compiler has to decide whether or not to include literal translations in addition to conventional translation equivalents. As will be shown later, literal translations are rare in BTDs for the EFL market, presumably out of a reticence to include artificial language produced by lexicographers rather than that which occurs naturally. By contrast, literal translations are commonly used in slang BTDs. They can, for example, shed light on the process by which an idiom has attained its current meaning. 2.2.4 What are the Desiderata for a Bilingual Dictionary? The desiderata for the BTD qua bilingual dictionary can be summarized as follows: – The information provided in a bilingual dictionary should match its directionality and serve its active function. – The BTD is a type of bilingual learner’s dictionary rather than a translation dictionary, and should therefore include features of learner’s dictionaries when these benefit its aims. – The translation equivalents and the translations of examples should be accurate and natural. Corpora for both members of the language pair should be used where possible. – Active bilingual dictionaries for encoding purposes require extra care to be taken with translations. As far as possible, safe translations should be used as direct translations. – Adequate explanatory information should be provided for culture-specific items, especially in cases where no direct equivalent exists. – Where necessary, translation equivalents should be supplemented by style/register labels and notes, for example to assist the user in discriminating between nearsynonyms.

21

– The information in the BTD should be tailored to the specific linguistic and cultural needs of its user group. – An effective communication system needs to be set up between lexicographers working on the L2 framework and those translating into the users’ L1. The interests of both the source language-speaking user and the target language-speaking user need to be protected.

2.3

The Bilingual Thematic Dictionary as a Type of Learner’s Dictionary

2.3.1 What is a Learner’s Dictionary? Definitions of ‘Learner’s Dictionary’ The learner’s dictionary has been defined thus: a synchronic monolingual dictionary intended to meet the demands of the foreign user (Herbst 1990:1379) A PEDAGOGICAL DICTIONARY aimed primarily at non-native learners of a language. (DOL:82)

The Dictionary of Lexicography (Ibid:107) defines the genus word (‘pedagogical dictionary’) in its definition of a learner’s dictionary as: A REFERENCE WORK specifically designed for the practical didactic needs of teachers and learners of a language

The same reference work also supplies a definition of the bilingual learner’s dictionary: A BILINGUAL DICTIONARY aimed at (foreign) language learners (Ibid:15)

DOL’s broader definition of learner’s dictionary, encompassing both monolingual and bilingual works, corresponds to the most prevalent use of the term among metalexicographers, and is the one adopted by the current author. Herbst’s narrower definition, restricted to monolingual dictionaries, perhaps reflects the facts that: 1) the first reference works with ‘learner’s dictionary’ in their titles were monolingual, and 2) even though more recent bilingual dictionaries have, to varying degrees, incorporated features that first appeared in monolingual learner’s dictionaries, the MLD is perhaps still considered the archetypal learner’s dictionary.

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The Features of Learner’s Dictionaries In order to identify the characteristics of the contemporary monolingual learner’s dictionary, five such works will be analyzed and compared: 1) CALD (= Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary) 2) CCALED (= Collins Cobuild Advanced Learner’s English Dictionary) 3) LDOCE4 (= Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, Fourth Edition) 4) MED (= Macmillan English Dictionary), and 5) OALDCE7 (= Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English, Seventh Edition). All these dictionaries are corpus-based and each has an accompanying CD-ROM. Inclusion The issue of inclusion requires consideration from both a linguistic and a cultural angle. Linguistic Inclusion Compilers of EFL learner’s dictionaries have to decide on a range of linguistic inclusion policies. They have to ask themselves a series of questions such as: – – – – – – – – – –

Which varieties of English should be included? What should the balance of inclusion be between British and American English? What determines whether or not a headword or a sense is assigned a regional label? How extensive should the inclusion of varieties other than British and American English be? How extensive should the inclusion of dialects of British and American English be? How extensive should the inclusion of abbreviations and phrases be? Should any non-alphabetic items i.e. numeric items (e.g. 24/7) and symbols (e.g. @) be included? If so, where are they to be placed? To what extent should the English used by particular groups of speakers be included, i.e. those largely confined to particular professions, subject specialisms, age groups, text types etc? To what extent should the various styles of English (formal, informal, literary, journalistic, Biblical etc) be included? Apart from contemporary English vocabulary, how broad should the inclusion of time-specific English (e.g. archaic, old-fashioned, recently coined) be?

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In addition, the corpora which inform such decisions should be capable of providing sufficient linguistic evidence to meet the demands of the various inclusion policies. For example: – Is there enough spoken material in the corpora? – Is the corpus material sufficiently up-to-date? – Is there a balanced and adequate spread of different text types? etc. One of the problems which lexicographers face is that in order to answer the inclusionrelated questions raised above, they need to know who their target readership is. The five selected MLDs are, however, aimed at a very broad range of EFL learners, restricted only by their level of proficiency as evidenced in the titles of four of them: the Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, the Collins Cobuild Advanced Learner’s English Dictionary, the Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners, and the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (current author’s underlining). In the case of the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (4th edition 2003), it is necessary to look inside the text at the Introduction to identify the user group: Each time we produce a new edition of the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, our aim is always the same: what can we do to make the dictionary more helpful for advanced level students of English? (LDOCE4:x)

As will be shown in Chapter 3, many bilingual thematic dictionaries are similarly aimed at a wide range of EFL users. Their compilers consequently face equally difficult decisions regarding the inclusion of the various vocabulary types mentioned above. The main focus in the five dictionaries surveyed is on UK and US English. Some of these MLDs cover other varieties (e.g. Australian English) and dialects (e.g. Northern English), but only to a very limited degree. Learner’s dictionaries cover regional variation in terms of spelling (e.g. colour BrE, color AmE), equivalence (e.g. tap BrE, faucet AmE), sense (e.g. the difference in the meaning of ‘chip’ as a foodstuff in British and American English), and usage. It is far rarer, however, for examples to be assigned a regional label. The number of dated and archaic words included in all five dictionaries is also severely restricted. When present, they are usually provided with labels such as oldfashioned and old use respectively. The emphasis of the inclusion policies is mainly on the language of the present day as reflected in the titles: the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English and the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English (current author’s underlining). Publishers are usually keen to include some very recent coinages, not least in order to advertise the dictionary in question as being up-to-date. A sprinkling of neologisms on the back cover is a useful marketing device. Whereas general-purpose learner’s dictionaries can justify the inclusion of a certain amount of dated and/or archaic vocabulary to serve the decoding needs of users reading literary works, BTDs are production-oriented and do not need to meet this requirement.

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A minority of the vocabulary items included in the five MLDs are restricted to a particular subject area (e.g. law) or style (e.g. literary English). Labels are commonly employed to identify these items e.g. legal, literary etc. These labels play an important disambiguating role in the case of synonyms or near-synonyms, for example between technical (e.g. ‘rubella’) and non-technical vocabulary (e.g. ‘German measles’). As such, a clear and comprehensive set of subject and style labels is a prerequisite for an effective BTD. Where more information is required than can be conveyed by a label, comments can be attached to translation equivalents (see Section 5.9 on disambiguators). A criticism that is sometimes levelled at MLDs is that although they cover both written and spoken English, the corpora from which they draw lexicographic evidence tend to consist of predominantly written language. Consequently, spoken language is often underrepresented. One reason for this imbalance is that spoken language data is more time-consuming and expensive to collect than written language. Volunteers must be found who are willing to wear a microphone for extended periods of time. The recorded data then need to be transcribed. Clearly, a desideratum for a production dictionary, such as a BTD, is that spoken language should be included to a sufficient degree within the time and budget constraints under which commercial dictionaries are created. A thematic approach has proven quite popular among bilingual dictionaries of slang (see Section 3.5). Such dictionaries are included in the present survey to see if they possess features which can be usefully included in general BTDs. These works contain a considerable amount of potentially offensive language (including taboo words). General BTDs contain comparatively few such items, but where they do occur, their restricted use must be clearly signalled. Cultural Inclusion The majority of the words and phrases in the five learner’s dictionaries under consideration are non-encyclopedic and belong to general rather than specialized English. Encyclopedic learner’s dictionaries such as the Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture and the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Encyclopedic Dictionary are based on pre-existing MLDs (LDOCE and OALDCE respectively). Cultural content has been added to the original base texts in the form of cultural entries, notes, articles, and appendices (Stark 1999). When it comes to standard MLDs, on the other hand, there is quite a wide variation among the texts as regards the inclusion of cultural features. In cases where cultural information is included, publishers often adopt a rather timid piecemeal approach. Cultural entries compete with other entries for space. LDOCE4, for instance, has opted to place far more encyclopedic entries on its accompanying CD-ROM than in its print version. Traditionally, MLD lexicographers have been somewhat reluctant to include proper nouns in the wordlist. Capitalized headwords are often restricted to abbreviations and adjectives for nationalities and ethnic groups (e.g. American), especially those relating to anglophone countries. More

25

recently, the amount of cultural content has increased in some MLDs. It is unclear what the reason for this change is. The pressures of a competitive market may perhaps have had an influence on the ‘more is better’ principle. The variations in policy become evident when one considers the proper nouns and abbreviations appearing as headwords. On examining the range of encyclopedic entries in the ‘A’ section of the print versions of MED and LDOCE4, it is clear that the two dictionaries differ markedly in their inclusion policies regarding encyclopedic items. MED not only contains a higher number of such entries, but also spreads its cultural net wider than LDOCE4 does. It includes, for example, far more entries relating to Australia than its competitor. It even embraces a limited number of biographical entries. In the ‘A’ section these are restricted to Arthur and Astaire, Fred. This begs the question as to why these two biographical entries have been admitted whereas many other notable figures (e.g. Edward Albee, Muhammad Ali, Woody Allen, Kingsley Amis etc) have been excluded. This sparse treatment lays the dictionary open to the charge of tokenism. Abbreviation entries often take on an encyclopedic quality when information is supplied in addition to the full form equivalent e.g. AA, the /…/ the Automobile Association: A British organization for drivers that gives its members information on travelling by road and helps them if their car BREAKS DOWN (= stops working)

(MED) The reason for considering inclusion issues with regard to MLDs at this stage of the discussion is that compilers of thematic learner’s dictionaries face many of the same decisions. In fact, there is even greater pressure on space in print dictionaries because entries in TLDs tend to be longer than those in semasiological learner’s dictionaries (on account of the amount of information required to disambiguate near-synonyms). As a result, some monolingual thematic dictionaries, e.g. the Longman Activator series, have restricted inclusion almost exclusively to non-concrete items. Lexicographic Evidence All five MLDs are corpus-based. This is the norm for any learner’s dictionary that desires to be taken seriously. Common uses of corpora containing texts produced by native speakers are: – to decide whether a particular item of vocabulary occurs frequently enough to merit inclusion, – to identify the most frequent lexemes so that they can be given a more detailed lexicographic treatment than less common items,

26

– to extract instances of natural language use that can be used as examples or as the basis for examples, – to identify the most common senses of lexemes so that the order of senses within a polysemous entry can be determined, – to discover the most common syntactic patterns and collocations, to ensure that these are covered in the relevant entries, and – to find out the contexts in which words are most usually employed, e.g. in spoken or written texts, in British or American English, in formal or informal situations, in text books or newspapers etc. Front Matter Features The front matter components (excluding title pages, contents pages, forewords, and introductions) of the five semasiological MLDs are summarized in Figure 2 below. Feature/Component List of the grammar labels used in the dictionary List of the style, usage, pragmatics, and geographical labels used in the dictionary List of the pronunciation symbols used in the dictionary

Guide to using the dictionary Entries for numbers that are used as words Symbols commonly used in English

CALD 9

CCALED 9 (Including discussion of their use) 9

LDOCE4 9

MED 9

9

8 (In the back matter instead)

9

9

8 (In the back matter instead) 8 (In the back matter instead)

9

9

9

9

8 (In the back matter and at the bottom of each page in the A-Z text instead) 9

9

8

8

9

9

8

8

8

8

9

9

OALDCE7 9 (Including a key to verb patterns) 9

Figure 2) Front Matter Features of CALD, CCALED, LDOCE4, MED, and OALDCE7

27 Feature/Component Discussion of the corpus Discussion of the definitions Discussion of style and usage Discussion of pragmatics Discussion of pronunciation

CALD 8

CCALED 9

LDOCE4 8

MED 8

OALDCE7 8

8

9

8

8

9

8

9

8

8

8

8

9

8

8

8

8

9

8

8

8 (In the back matter instead)

Figure 2) continued) Front Matter Features of CALD, CCALED, LDOCE4, MED, and OALDCE7 Some of the components (e.g. a list of phonetic symbols) may be placed at either the front or the back of the text. Others (e.g. a guide to using the dictionary) are usually placed by convention in the front matter although they could in theory be located elsewhere. The two indispensable features found in all the dictionaries are: the lists of symbols and abbreviations used in the dictionary, and the guide to using the dictionary. In the case of thematic learner’s dictionaries, instructions on how to use the dictionary might be expected to assume particular importance because this type of text is likely to be less familiar to many users than an A-Z semasiological dictionary would be. Features of the Headword List Two aspects of the wordlists in learner’s dictionaries are examined in this section: 1) the arrangement and 2) the highlighting of headwords. The headword lists of all the MLDs are alphabetically arranged. The order of headwords is not, however, identical across the five dictionaries because of varying policies as regards the employment of entries with homograph numbers and the use of subentries. This becomes evident when the CALD and LDOCE4 entries for cook are compared. CALD has two main entries for cook, neither of which is assigned a homograph number, as this feature is absent from the entire dictionary. The first CALD main entry is for the verb ‘cook’ in the sense of heating food in order to eat it, and has the guideword (or signpost in more frequent metalexicographic terminology) HEAT. The second CALD main entry is for the verb ‘cook’ in the sense of changing evidence etc in order to deceive people, and has the somewhat broad guideword CHANGE. The first main entry contains six subentries: cook noun, cooked, cooker, cookery, cooking noun, and cooking adj. LDOCE4 has two main entries: cook1 v and cook2 n. The only subentry is the phrasal verb cook sth ↔ up which is placed after all the other senses at

28

cook1. LDOCE4 has no entry for cooked although two examples containing the adjective are found at sense 1 of cook1 v. Main entry status is accorded to cooker, cookery, cooking noun, and cooking adj. LDOCE4 takes part of speech as the primary disambiguating factor whereas the CALD arrangement gives precedence to meaning. One problem with the CALD system is that placement can become unpredictable. For example, CALD’s treatment of ‘cool’ and its derivatives is as follows: cool [COLD] adj (main entry) cool verb (subentry) the cool noun (subentry) cooler noun (subentry) cooling adj (subentry) cool [CALM] adj (main entry) cool noun (subentry) cool verb (subentry) coolness noun (subentry) cool [UNFRIENDLY] adj (main entry) coolly adv (subentry) coolness noun (subentry) cool [FASHIONABLE] adj (main entry) cool [GOOD] adj (subentry) This arrangement seems satisfactory until coolant is discovered further down the headword list as a main entry. It may be difficult for users to see why this particular word has been granted main entry status rather than appearing as a subentry under cool [COLD] adj. Thematic learner’s dictionaries do not make extensive use of subentries although they commonly use undefined run-ons for derivatives. An entry such as cook n might, for example, appear in a section entitled ‘people who prepare food’ next to exponents such as chef, caterer, commis chef, sous chef etc rather than being grouped together with other members of its morphological word family. A problem confronting compilers of alphabetically-ordered dictionaries is where to position multi-word units so that the user has the greatest possible chance of finding them. A standard practice is to place phrases, especially idioms, at the entry which corresponds to its first “meaningful” element, possibly with cross-references to that entry at the entries for other meaningful elements. Thus, LDOCE4 places he who pays the piper calls the tune at pay1 v. This arrangement places a burden on the user to identify which element of the phrase determines its location. This is not necessarily easy for a user dealing with a foreign language. Decisions have to be made as to how many safety net features are provided in case the phrase is not found at the first attempt, e.g. should cross-references be provided from, say, piper and/or tune n to pay v? Are there circumstances under which a phrase should appear in more than one place, with full lexicographic treatment provided at each location? LDOCE4, for instance, considers of course important enough to appear both as a main entry in the ‘O’ stretch

29

of the headword list and as a lexical unit at a sense of course n in the ‘C’ stretch of the alphabetical order. Despite the issues mentioned above, the strength of a system of ordering entries alphabetically is that it generally makes individual words or phrases relatively easy to find. Indeed, thematic dictionaries still exploit alphabetization in various ways. The concepts or keywords may be ordered alphabetically (as in the Longman Activator series) and/or the entries within a base-level section of exponents may be placed in alphabetical order. Most thematic dictionaries have at least one index (sometimes two in the case of BTDs) and these are invariably alphabetically ordered. The pros and cons of alphabetical versus thematic arrangement are discussed more fully in Section 2.4.1. The highlighting (in a different colour or type size) of the most frequent, and therefore most useful, headwords in learner’s dictionaries has become increasingly common in recent years. None of the thematic learner’s dictionaries, either monolingual or bilingual, in the current survey highlight headwords. Frequency of use in TLDs is often implicit in the relative ordering of entries within a section, with the most frequent items being placed first. Explicit indication of the relative frequency of linguistic exponents within a section is usually dealt with in comparative notes and bracketed disambiguators. Microstructural Features The microstructural features of the five MLDs are shown below. Feature/Component Hyphenation information Pronunciation information (using the IPA) Stress marking Orthographic variants Lexical variants Inflections Frequency information

Frequency graphs Grammar codes

CALD 8

CCALED 9

LDOCE4 9

MED 8

OALDCE7 9

9

9

9

9

9

9 9 9 9 8

9 9 9 9 9 (Using diamond symbols)

9 9 9 9 9 (Using an alphanumeric system)

8 9 9 9 9 (Using star symbols)

8 9

8 9

9 9

8 9

9 9 9 9 8 (Although the Oxford 3000 are marked) 8 9

Figure 3) Microstructural Features of CALD, CCALED, LDOCE4, MED, and OALDCE7

30 Feature/Component Regional information (e.g. whether British, American etc English) Style and register labels Pragmatics labels

CALD 9

CCALED 9

LDOCE4 9

MED 9

OALDCE7 9

9

9

9

9

9

8

9

8

Definitions Defining vocabulary Use of glosses in definitions Lexical unit senses

9 9 9

9 8 8

9 9 9

9 (To a limited degree) 9 9 9

9 (To a limited degree) 9 9 9

9

9

9

9

Pictorial illustrations at individual entries Examples Use of glosses in examples Highlighting of collocations before/within examples Highlighting of syntactic patterns before/within examples

9

9 (With the lexical unit in bold in the definition) 8

9

9

9

9 9

9 8

9 9

9 9

9 9

9

8

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

Synonyms, antonyms, and other related words

9

9

9

9

Listing of fixed phrases after the other senses Listing of phrasal verbs after plain verb senses Separate sections of entries for spoken English

9

8 (Extra Column used instead) 9 (In the Extra Column) 8

8

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

8

8

9

8

8

Figure 3) continued) Microstructural Features of CALD, CCALED, LDOCE4, MED, and OALDCE7

31 Feature/Component Use of an extra column for information on grammar, synonyms, and usage

CALD 8

CCALED 9

LDOCE4 8

MED 8

OALDCE7 8

Figure 3) continued) Microstructural Features of CALD, CCALED, LDOCE4, MED, and OALDCE7 Information at the Head of an Entry The information provided at the head of a learner’s dictionary entry includes hyphenation, stress marking, and pronunciation information, as well as orthographic and lexical variants. None of these information types are significantly affected by whether the entry appears in a conventional or a thematic learner’s dictionary. Grammar Codes Learner’s dictionaries are required to supply more grammatical information than native speaker dictionaries. Consequently, they employ a wider range of grammatical codes than dictionaries intended for L1 speakers. Regional Information Regional restriction is normally indicated by labels such as BrE (= British English) at the headword, the pronunciation transcription, variants, senses, and (less commonly) examples. More detailed treatment of regional variation, for example between British and American usage, is found in notes. The issues surrounding regional information are much the same for both thematic and non-thematic learner’s dictionaries. Therefore, they are not a central concern within the scope of the present discussion. Style and Register Information The five MLDs convey style and register information in three main ways: 1) through a set of labels (the most common method), 2) through comments within or attached to definitions, and 3) through comments in usage notes. Style and register labels are usually located at the beginning of the relevant sense before the definition, e.g.

32 chav […] noun (BrE, slang) a young person, often without a high level of education, who follows a particular fashion (OALDCE)

It is worthwhile to consider the main issues surrounding the use of style and register labels in MLDs because lexicographers working on thematic learner’s dictionaries also have to deal with such labelling concerns when providing information that disambiguates near-synonyms grouped together in a section. The various labels (apart from grammatical and regional ones) used in the five MLDs are shown below. Formal Very Formal Informal Very Informal Slang Humorous Ironic Biblical Legal Journalism Literary Linguistics Business Computing Medical Military Science Technical Specialized Impolite Taboo

CALD FORMAL

CCALED FORMAL

LDOCE4 Formal

MED formal very formal

OALDCE7 Formal

INFORMAL

INFORMAL

Informal

informal very informal

Informal

SLANG HUMOROUS

HUMOROUS

Humorous

humorous

LEGAL LITERARY

LEGAL JOURNALISM LITERARY BUSINESS COMPUTING MEDICAL MILITARY TECHNICAL

Biblical Law

Medical

Legal journalism literary linguistics business computing medical

Technical

science technical

Literary

Slang Humorous Ironic

Literary

Technical

SPECIALIZED

Offensive Dated

OFFENSIVE DATED

Archaic Spoken Written Child Language Male

OLD USE

RUDE, VERY OFFENSIVE OFFENSIVE OLDFASHIONED SPOKEN WRITTEN

not polite Taboo oldfashioned old use Spoken Written

impolite Taboo offensive old-fashioned spoken

CHILD’S WORD MALE

Figure 4) Style, Register etc Labels in CALD, CCALED, LDOCE4, MED, and OALDCE7

Offensive OldFashioned Old use

33 Female Figurative NonStandard Saying Trademark Approving Disapproving Emphasis Feelings Formulae Politeness Vagueness

CALD FEMALE FIGURATIVE NOT STANDARD SAYING TRADEMARK APPROVING DISAPPROVING

POLITE

CCALED

LDOCE4

MED

OALDCE7 Figurative

TRADEMARK [approval] [disapproval]

Saying TM Approving Disapproving

[emphasis] [feelings] [formulae] [politeness] [vagueness]

Figure 4) continued) Style, Register etc Labels in CALD, CCALED, LDOCE4, MED, and OALDCE7 The labels fall into four broad categories: 1) register labels – those used in a particular situation e.g. formal, informal 2) style labels – those used to show a particular attitude e.g. humorous – those used in a particular context – subject labels (used by people of a certain profession) e.g. law, medical, technical – those used in a particular type of language: – of a particular medium e.g. spoken, written – of a particular type of text e.g. biblical, literary – of a past time e.g. old-fashioned, old use 3) pragmatic labels e.g. disapproving, and 4) other e.g. trademark. It is vital that users understand what the labels mean, especially in cases where they are close in meaning e.g. informal and slang. Explanations of the meaning of each label should preferably be provided in the front or back matter as part of the user guidance e.g. literary a word used mainly in English literature, and not in normal speech or writing. (LDOCE3:i)

Such explanations could perhaps be backed up by providing examples of words to which each individual label applies. No matter which labelling system is adopted, however, assignment of labels will always remain a subjective decision on the part of individual lexicographers.

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Lexicographers working on learner’s dictionaries have to decide on the depth of analysis required of the labelling system used for each of the areas mentioned above. Certain labels (e.g. formal, informal) are found across all five MLDs, but considerable variation is also present. For example, as regards the register spectrum, CCALED opts for two labels (formal and informal) whereas MED has four (very formal, formal, informal, and very informal). The compilers of CCALED felt it necessary to distinguish between RUDE, OFFENSIVE, and VERY OFFENSIVE. Analogous choices need to be made as regards the number of subject area labels. CALD and OALDCE7 opt for the umbrella labels specialized and technical respectively. CCALED and MED, however, make use of a wider range of subject area labels (business, computing etc). This use of a more extended label set may help pinpoint the usage of a word to specialists within a particular subject area, but is also of necessity selective. There are, for example, no labels such as philosophy, mathematical etc to cater for their corresponding disciplines. Care must be taken as to the associative expectations generated by a label. LDOCE4, for instance, uses the label technical at the entries for lexemes of various types including those belonging to linguistic metalanguage (e.g. adjunct). This may seem surprising to some users who might expect technical to be restricted in its range to areas such as engineering. The literary style label is used in all five dictionaries and has a similar superordinate function to technical. Interestingly, both labels appear in OALDCE7 which eschews the more specific subject labels. The legal label functions as both subject and style label: the word in question could either be one used by people employed within the legal profession or could identify a legal word used in a text for the general reader (LDOCE4:i)

The learner should be clear that labels such as journalism and literary are not subject labels i.e. they would not be assigned to lexemes that are part of the metalanguage used in the study of newspapers or literature, but rather to words that are typically found in these types of text. Each MLD goes off on a limb in certain instances and employs labels which are not found in the other dictionaries e.g. CALD’s CHILD’S WORD, MALE, FEMALE, NOT STANDARD, and SPECIALIZED; CCALED’s military, emphasis, feelings, formulae, and vagueness; LDOCE4’s biblical; MED’s linguistics and science, and OALDCE7’s ironic. The table in Figure 4 lists those labels that have been used in recently published MLDs. It supplies lexicographers working on BTDs with a selection from which to choose a set of labels (albeit in the user’s L1) to suit the purposes of their own dictionaries. It is worth considering whether there are other fields not covered in the table which could be useful if codified into a labelling system. One such area might, for instance, be that of hackneyed language (e.g. ‘at the end of the day’) if this is not deemed to be needlessly prescriptive. In addition to selecting sets of satisfactory labels, TLD lexicographers also have to decide: 1) whether labels can be combined (e.g. spoken informal), 2) if so, in which order the labels should be listed at an entry, and 3) whether combining labels is the

35

most appropriate way to transmit information on style and register. For example, extremely formal and/or dated vocabulary is sometimes used for humorous effect. A label such as formal humorous may not make this point explicitly enough, so it might be preferable to provide such information in a note. Information on style and register is not confined to labels. It can also appear in definitions and as the subject of usage notes. LDOCE4, for example, builds warnings into its definitions of certain taboo words: wetback […] n [C] AmE taboo a very offensive word for someone from Mexico who has come to the US illegally. Do not use this word.

Senses The senses in conventional MLDs are usually ordered within entries according to frequency. Although this ordering principle might appear initially straightforward, lexical units (i.e. phrases, including idioms), phrasal verbs, and spoken language can cause placement problems for compilers. Lexical unit senses (informally known as lexunits within some publishing houses) are senses in learner’s dictionaries which define a phrase that includes the headword. Lexical units can be found in dictionaries such as LDOCE4, where the phrase in question is printed in bold at the beginning of the sense. In polysemous entries, lexical units (senses 3, 4, and 5 below) can appear alongside ordinary senses (senses 1 and 2): nest1 […] n [C] 1 BIRDS a place made or chosen by a bird to lay its eggs in and to live in: a bird’s nest | In May the females build a nest and lay their eggs. | Young eagles are ready to leave the nest after only two months. 2 INSECTS/ANIMALS a place where insects or small animals live: a field mouse’s nest 3 leave/fly the nest to leave your parents’ home and start living somewhere else when you are an adult Both daughters were of an age where they wanted to fly the nest. 4 nest of spies/thieves/intrigue etc a place where people are secretly doing a lot of illegal or dishonest things 5 nest of tables/boxes etc a set of tables etc that fit inside each other → feather your nest at FEATHER2 (1), → mare’s nest at MARE (2), → LOVE NEST

Dictionaries which order phrases by frequency face two major issues. First, it is no easy matter for corpus software to determine the frequency of phrases relative both to each other and to plain senses, because of the variability of the form of phrases (due to optional elements, inflections, and different permitted syntactic patterns). Secondly,

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beyond the first few senses in a long entry, the arrangement of senses by frequency ceases to be of much practical use. Whether a phrase appears at sense 11 or sense 19 is immaterial. It will not affect the user choosing to use or not to use the phrase in question. Some MLDs prefer not to assign idioms to numbered senses, but instead to list them together at the end of the entry (e.g. CALD) or even in a separate section (e.g. CCALED). If either of these two approaches is adopted, a decision is required as to how the idioms should be ordered. CALD, for example, places them in alphabetical order. Deciding the alphabetical order of idioms can, however, be tricky because some elements are variable (e.g. the verb ‘be’ according to tense) and a policy decision has to be made as to which phrase elements are to be taken into account when implementing an alphabetical arrangement, e.g. whether or not function words should be ignored. Ordering policies are unfortunately seldom addressed in the user guidance material that appears in the front matter of MLDs. Although the alphabetical ordering of phrases has the advantage, in theory at least, of permitting relative ease of access, it deviates from the principle of ordering senses by frequency. An unfortunate side effect of using lexical units in a large polysemous entry is that the ordinary senses can become difficult to identify among a mass of lexical units. LDOCE4 addresses this issue by using signposts at the plain senses. As mentioned above, other dictionaries have chosen to group all idioms at the end of an entry or in their own section. The use of lexical units also has an impact on access. At times, there is a danger that the user may be unsure why a particular combination (e.g. noun + noun or adjective + noun) has been handled as a lexical unit rather than as a collocation or headword: parlour BrE; parlor AmE […] n [C] 1 ice cream/funeral/tattoo parlour a shop or type of business that provides a particular service 2 oldfashioned a room in a house which has comfortable chairs and is used for meeting guests → MILKING PARLOUR

(LDOCE4) In the case of parlour, massage parlour is of necessity treated as a main entry because it has two senses (a bordello and a place where you pay to have a massage). The lexicographer also has to decide whether to rationalize a lexical unit (e.g. if it is a verb phrase, to put the verb in infinitive form) or whether to use an inflected form if the use of a particular tense is frequently dominant. The same dilemma is faced by compilers of thematic learner’s dictionaries when phrases are included as exponents. Thematic learner’s dictionaries have an advantage over traditional MLDs in that most entries consist of a single sense and so each phrase can be placed in its relevant section, along with other semantically or thematically related exponents, thereby avoiding a pile-up of idioms. Similarly, problems concerning the placement of phrases in the same entry as other senses do not usually arise. Nonetheless, BTD compilers still face the decision regarding whether to intermingle phrases with other exponents in a

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section or whether to place them in a separate compartment. Whereas monolingual thematic dictionaries for EFL learners have tended to opt for intermingling, BTDs have often assigned phrases to a separate section. The CWR dictionaries have ‘expressions’ boxes and CFET has separate ‘Locutions idioms’ sections placed after those containing non-idiomatic expressions. Definitions The desiderata for definitions include the requirements to be accurate and, especially in the case of pedagogical lexicography, to be easy to understand. The use of a defining vocabulary (DV) is intended to meet this latter criterion. Many monolingual English learner’s dictionaries limit the choice of words which lexicographers are permitted to use in definitions. The rationale behind DVs is that users will have a better chance of understanding the definitions if they are written using only the easiest, usually the most frequent, words in the foreign language. Many of the most frequent words in English are, however, polysemous, and users may be unsure as to which of the various senses applies in any given definition unless the sense number (and where relevant, the homograph number) is provided. However, in practice, this is often not the case. There is an unspoken assumption that polysemous DV words are used in their most frequent sense, but it is unlikely that the lexicographers will have undertaken a time-consuming check to confirm that this applies in all circumstances. Definitions do, in fact, contain words outside the DV because otherwise the explanations of meaning would become excessively long and unwieldy if every hard word had to be paraphrased. These nonDV words are often made typographically distinct by being printed in small capitals e.g. magnetic north n [U] the northern direction shown by the needle on a COMPASS

(LDOCE4) A major problem with a defining vocabulary is that it forces an artificial limitation on the writer’s means of expression which can result in unnatural English. In a bid to avoid transgressing the rules of DV, a lexicographer may end up using a cumbersome paraphrase. The defining vocabulary issue does not arise with the bilingual thematic dictionaries considered in the current survey because the explanations of meaning are in the user’s first language. In fact, the avoidance of having to use a defining vocabulary could be used as an argument in favour of bilingual dictionaries in general.

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Examples The inclusion of examples is a key feature of almost all learner’s dictionaries. The desiderata for examples are the same for both monolingual learner’s dictionaries and bilingual learner’s dictionaries. The difference between the two is that bilingual dictionaries often provide translations of examples. This clearly has an impact on space. The requirements are that examples should: – always be motivated i.e. their presence should always serve a clear purpose, chief amongst which is to illustrate the word being used in context in a particular sense – illustrate the sense (This is self-evident, but corpus searches for examples sometimes uncover ambiguous cases that fit more than one sense. On occasion, these have found their way into dictionaries.) – illustrate a range of contexts (If a word or phrase is used in different contexts, this should be illustrated as far as space allows.) – be natural (In a sense, no dictionary example is natural in that it has been removed from its context. The important factor is that the example should not be altered to the extent that it becomes a phrase or sentence that would be unlikely ever to appear in a text.) – be typical (The examples should illustrate the most frequent syntactic and collocational patterns which a word or phrase enters into. There should be no atypical juxtapositions of words from different registers, varieties etc. The situations described in examples should also not be too outlandish. At the same time, it must be acknowledged that cultural familiarity with the world as depicted in an example inevitably varies from individual to individual.) – be reasonably easy to understand (i.e. they should not contain too many hard words. Enough information should be provided to make the context clear.) – be of reasonable length (Dictionaries vary as to the extent to which fragments, as opposed to full sentences, are permitted. As space is at a premium, lexicographers are encouraged to avoid verbose examples. Attempts to reduce ‘ennage’ (i.e. the space taken up by characters), which may be a discrete stage in compilation, often require non-essential words to be excised from examples, or for words to be shortened where possible. It is no accident that Dan and Sue feature more often than Daniel and Susan in examples, and that they are more likely to live in York than Yarmouth.) – not cause offence or engender legal problems (Some publishing houses have a policy of not including the names of living people in examples to avoid litigation issues. Controversial statements concerning topics such as sex and religion are usually avoided, as are derogatory comments about products, countries etc.)

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– should not date too quickly (For this reason, examples are often drawn from distant but not from recent history. Lexicographers employ such strategies as exaggerating any prices mentioned in order to account for possible inflation over the shelf life of the text.) – should be varied in terms of subjects and objects, tense, text type, and topic (Although dictionaries are not normally read from cover to cover, it is desirable to provide variety in the examples to cater for the broad readership of these texts.) – should reflect both written and spoken language as well as a variety of registers (In addition to catering for a wide range of users, examples should illustrate a variety of formal and informal uses of language.) – should serve both productive and receptive purposes (General learner’s dictionaries serve both productive and receptive purposes. In receptive terms, this means that the examples must not be too difficult for the users to understand, both with respect to the language used and to the situation portrayed. From a productive perspective, at least some of the examples must be of a type which learners could reasonably be expected to produce for themselves, or at least aspire to produce.) – should be ordered according to difficulty (It is standard practice for MLDs to place simpler ‘vanilla’ examples first in cases where more than one example is provided at a sense.). Although the examples in all five MLDs are corpus-derived, they vary in the extent to which corpus material has been adulterated before being used as an example. The print version of LDOCE has corpus-based, but simplified examples. The LDOCE4 CDROM contains all the examples in the print version as well as 80,000 additional (simplified) sentences from other dictionaries in the Longman series and also “over one million sentences direct from the Longman Corpus Network in the Longman Examples Bank on the CD-ROM” (LDOCE4:x). This latter set of examples is unedited. Contemporary semasiological MLDs provide the user with plentiful information about the syntactic and collocational patterns which lexical items enter into, especially if the word or phrase in question registers a high occurrence on corpus. These patterns serve the function of providing models for language production. Just as the numbers of entries and examples have long been a selling point, the number of collocations has more recently been promoted as a desirable feature. The process of updating an existing edition of a dictionary often involves a phase referred to in in-house jargon as a collo boost, i.e. a targeted increase in the number of collocations included and highlighted. Among the most common ways of highlighting syntactic patterns are the following: a) placement of a following preposition in a bold skeleton before an example e.g. at critical: [+of] Many economists are critical of the government’s economic policies.

(LDOCE4)

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b) placement of one or more (highlighted) following prepositions in the definition e.g. at mad: [4] If you are mad about or mad on something or someone, you like them very much indeed.

(CCALED) c) placement of a preceding preposition and the entry word in bold before an example e.g. at cable n: on cable I’ll wait for the movie to come out on cable.

(LDOCE4) d) placement of that after the entry word in bold before an example e.g. at calculate: calculate (that) Sally calculated that she’d have about £100 left.

(LDOCE4) e) placement of a syntactic pattern in bold before an example e.g. at cable v: cable sb sth I cabled Mary the good news.

(LDOCE4) f) highlighting a colligating preposition within an example e.g. at fight v: He fought against racism.

(CALD) g) use of a bold skeleton to indicate permissible object positions at phrasal verbs e.g. call out phr v: call out phr v 1 to say something loudly: call sth ↔ out ‘Hi there!’ I called out. | [+to] The firemen called out to him. 2 call sb ↔ out to ask or order a person or an organization to help, especially in a difficult or dangerous situation: The army was called out to help fight fires.

(LDOCE4) h) syntactic information in boxes. The bold skeletons in a), c), d), e), and g) above are referred to informally within the dictionary departments of some publishers as a propforms (= propositional forms). These propositional forms and their supporting examples can be ordered according to frequency.

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Familiar ways of drawing attention to collocational patterns include: a) implicit illustration within a definition e.g. at madcap: A madcap plan or scheme is very foolish and not likely to succeed.

(CCALED) b) highlighting a collocational pattern in bold within an example e.g. at critical: Many parents are strongly critical of the school.

(LDOCE4) c) placement of collocations before an example e.g. at cab: take/get a cab I took a cab to the airport.

(LDOCE4) d) placement in collocation boxes e) placement in vocabulary expansion boxes, and f) placement in error avoidance notes. Additional information on collocations is sometimes supplied on the CD-ROM versions of learner’s dictionaries. Nearly all of the presentation devices described above could theoretically be incorporated into thematic learner’s dictionaries, and the patterns ordered in accordance with frequency. The illustration of collocational and grammatical patterns raises a number of issues for lexicographers: – Should plain examples come before examples that highlight collocational and grammatical patterns? – Should examples be ordered strictly according to the relative frequency of the collocational and grammatical patterns they illustrate? – Should examples illustrating collocational patterns be placed in one group of examples, and those illustrating grammatical patterns be placed in another? Alternatively, should they be mixed together (as is normally the practice)? – Under which conditions should grammatical and collocational patterns be shown in an example? When will just a bold skeleton suffice? – Does the highlighting of patterns in bold (either before or within an example) risk giving the impression that a given pattern is more fixed (i.e. that there is less scope for variability amongst its components) than is actually the case?

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– In the case of collocational selectionals, is there a risk of confusion between type and token as regards the collocates? – Should collocation boxes be used in tandem with examples? Some of these demands, for example the first two questions posed above, may conflict with each other. Other issues surrounding examples include the following: – If an example is restricted to a particular variety of English, should this be indicated by a regional label? – If an example is restricted to either spoken or written English, should this be indicated by a label? – If an example is stylistically restricted, should this be indicated by a label? – Which senses should examples be provided for? Are there particular types of words for which the provision of examples is more/less important? – In terms of layout and typography, what is the best way of presenting examples and their features? – If there is an electronic version of the dictionary, should audioclips of all the examples be included? LDOCE4 provides audioclips of examples on its CD-ROM version. The audioclips play if the user clicks on a loudspeaker icon placed before each example. These direct acoustic models are both useful and user-friendly. Lexicographers have to decide whether to adopt LDOCE4’s policy of providing recordings for all the edited examples (except for some taboo words) even though some examples belong to written rather than spoken language. – Should glosses be added to examples? If so, under what circumstances? To assist understanding, glosses can be provided e.g. at LDOCE4 nail1 n: 2 your nails are the hard smooth layers on the ends of your fingers and toes: I’ve broken my nail. | Stop biting your nails! | She sat painting her nails (= putting a coloured substance on them). | He still had dirt under his nails.

(LDOCE4) A stylistic rule commonly applied to the use of glosses in examples is that they should not normally be used if they cause a major interruption in the middle of a sentence. Bilingual learner’s dictionaries have the option of providing translations of examples, thus avoiding the need to use glosses in examples except under exceptional circumstances, for example when commenting on cultural content.

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Notes and Boxes In this section, the various types of note and box are each examined in turn to discover which of them could potentially serve a useful role in a BTD. Figure 5 below shows the different types of notes and boxes found in the five MLDs. Feature/Component Academic writing notes

CALD Academic writing notes 8

CCALED 8

LDOCE4 8

MED 9

OALDCE7 8

9

9

9

9

8

8

8

Error avoidance notes

9 (Common Learner Error notes)

8

9 (At the end of selected entries) 9 (At a few selected entries) 9

9 (In Synonym notes)

8

9 (At the beginning of selected entries) 8

Grammar notes

(9) (Covered in the Usage Notes and Common Learner Error Notes) 8 8 8 9

9

9

9

8 9 8 9

8 8 8 9 (Which word? boxes, some More about boxes)

American/British differences notes Collocation boxes

Cultural notes

Function notes Metaphor notes Pronunciation notes Usage notes

8 8 9 9

9 (Sometimes contained within other boxes) 9

9 8 8 9 (Word Choice boxes)

9 (In More about notes) 8

Figure 5) Notes and Boxes in CALD, CCALED, LDOCE4, MED, and OALDCE7

44 Feature/Component Vocabulary expansion notes

Word family notes Word origin notes

CALD 9

CCALED 8

LDOCE4 9 (Word Focus boxes)

MED 9

8 8

8 8

8 9 (On the CD-ROM)

8 9 (At selected entries)

OALDCE7 9 (Synonym notes, Vocabulary Building notes) 9 8

Figure 5) continued) Notes and Boxes in CALD, CCALED, LDOCE4, MED, and OALDCE7 Academic Writing Notes Academic writing When you are writing about the causes of something, your choice of words depends on whether you want to draw attention to the cause itself or to the thing that has been caused. It also depends on whether something is the main cause or just one of several causes. Here are some verbs and expressions that you can use. saying that A causes B Each eruption gives rise to one or sometimes more columns of hot fluid rising through the inside of the volcano. be responsible for, be the cause of, bring about, cause, give rise to, precipitate, produce, trigger saying that A is one of the causes of B For a computational project, the processing requirements are an important factor in the choice of a system. be a factor in, contribute to, facilitate, have a hand in, influence, play a part in, underlie saying that B is caused by A There are many problems involved in calculating the number of cancers and deaths resulting from the Chernobyl accident. arise from/out of, be attributable to, be due to, be the result of, can be ascribed/attributed to, derive/ follow/stem from, result from

45 saying that A stops B from happening or succeeding State planning and regulation of the economy inhibit its efficient operation by distorting market forces. check, impede, inhibit, prevent Other ways of indicating cause Many transitive verbs contain ideas of cause, effect, and change: for example if A increases B, A causes B to increase. By expressing something in the passive, you can mention the effect or change without mentioning the cause or means: for example, by saying B was increased. The following linking words, prepositions, and conjunctions can also be used as a way of indicating cause: as, because, because of, due to, on account of, as a result of, owing to, since → RESULT (MED)

Academic writing notes are exclusive to MED, and are aimed at users who are studying an academic subject through the medium of English. The sample note above appears at cause v. A positive aspect of this kind of note is that it brings together vocabulary items that would otherwise be dispersed throughout the A-Z text. A thematic learner’s dictionary could cover the same material in a category on CAUSES. Nonetheless, the emphasis on specifically academic exponents is a valuable one that is currently lacking in many existing MTDs and BTDs. The explanations are, however, rather lengthy. A BTD could supply them in the user’s L1 in order to make them easier to understand. Collocation Boxes In LDOCE4, collocation boxes appear at selected high-frequency words. They are positioned at sense level after the definition, and consist of two parts. The upper half of the box lists common collocations in bold skeleton form, each on a separate line for reasons of clarity, and sometimes accompanied by a gloss e.g. at welcome news. The lower half of the box consists of examples that appear in the same order as that of the collocations e.g. at news:

46 news [...] n [U] 1 information about something that has happened recently good/bad news great/wonderful/terrible etc news news that welcome news (= good news) the latest news a piece/bit of news have some news (for sb) tell sb some news hear some news break the news (to sb) (= tell someone about something for the first time) welcome the news (= be happy about something) greet the news with news spreads I’m not sure how he’s going to react to the news. | The good news is that tomorrow will be fine and sunny. | You seem upset – not bad news, I hope? | We are delighted at the news that our daughter is expecting a baby. | The fall in house prices will be welcome news for first time buyers. | [+on] What’s the latest news on your university application? | David’s just told me an interesting piece of news. | Do you have any news for me? | [+of/about] Everyone is shocked by the news of the arrests. | Sit down and tell me all your news. | Have you heard the news? We’re going to get married. | How would he break the news to Mary that he’d been lying to her? | People living near a disused factory have welcomed the news that it is to be demolished. | Friday’s news was greeted with enthusiasm in Denmark. | News of the tragedy spread quickly around the town.

Collocation is a facet of language which has received considerable attention in recent monolingual learner’s dictionaries of English. Bilingual dictionaries have, however, lagged behind to some extent in this respect. BTDs could justifiably include considerable collocational information, perhaps making use of a presentation device such as a collocation box. The listing of each bold collocation skeleton on a separate line is very clear in terms of presentation. Issue could perhaps be taken with the arrangement shown above, which separates the collocation patterns from the corresponding illustrative examples (unlike at conventional LDOCE4 entries). This could, however, be modified e.g.

47 good/bad news The good news is that tomorrow will be fine and sunny You seem upset – not bad news, I hope?

Cultural Notes Cultural notes frequently deal with the connotations and cultural associations of a lexeme e.g. cardigan […] noun [C] a jacket KNITTED from wool, that you fasten at the front with buttons, or a ZIP -- picture → C5 Cardigans are usually thought of as an old-fashioned, rather boring piece of clothing, worn mainly by older people.

(MED) Monolingual dictionaries, in theory at least, target all foreign language learners regardless of L1 or cultural background. However, the cultural lacunae that need to be filled for, say, a Japanese EFL learner, will be very different from those for a French EFL learner. Inevitably, the information supplied by an MLD in a cultural note will sometimes either be relevant or redundant depending on the user’s individual circumstances. A BTD, on the other hand, can tailor the content of its cultural notes to the needs of its more narrowly targeted users i.e. speakers of a particular L1 and their likely cultural background(s). Consequently, cultural notes in a BTD can be more contrastive in nature, highlighting differences between the two specific cultures. Additionally, as with the academic writing notes, clarity of explanation can be increased through employment of the user’s L1. Error Avoidance Notes LDOCE4 contains warning notes which can be identified by a warning triangle. They are placed at the following locations: 1) at sense level following the definition and examples e.g. at never: never […] adv 1 not at any time, or not once […] /!\ Do not use another negative word (e.g. ‘not’) with never. Use ever with not: I’ve never seen her. | I haven’t ever seen her.

(LDOCE4)

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2) in grammar notes, 3) in Word Choice boxes, and 4) in function notes. MED also includes notes that help learners to avoid causing offence e.g. at black: Words that avoid giving offence: black ____________________________________________ Use the adjective black (sometimes spelt Black) to refer to people with dark skin whose families originally come from Africa. Avoid using black as a noun because this is sometimes considered offensive. Black people in the UK whose families originally came from the Caribbean often prefer to be called AfricanCaribbean. Black Americans usually prefer to be called African-American. In Australian English, use black to refer to the people whose families were living in Australia before Europeans arrived and settled.

Warning notes can be used to handle a wide range of potential errors. The content of these notes can be informed by a learners’ corpus, as is the case with LDOCE4. A BTD could, however, use such a corpus to target the interlingual errors peculiar to its user group. False Friend Notes False friend notes are a comparatively rare phenomenon in MLDs because their target users cannot be narrowed down to speakers of a particular L1. Again, BTDs and other bilingual dictionaries have an advantage in this area. The false friend note below from CALD comes in the guise of a Common Learner Error note and is aimed at speakers of Romance languages (bench = banc in French, and banco in Spanish). Such a note would be entirely irrelevant and possibly mystifying to, say, a Thai native speaker. COMMON LEARNER ERROR____________________________ bank Do not use bank if you mean a long seat for people to sit on (for example, in a park). The correct word for this kind of seat is bench. The old man sat down on the bench to rest for a while. The old man sat down on the bank to rest for a while.

(CALD)

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Function Notes Ways of apologizing _______________________________________________ I’m sorry the usual way of apologizing to someone you know well I do apologize for …

a more polite and formal way of apologizing, used especially when you feel responsible for something that someone else has done

Excuse me

used when apologizing for something you did accidentally

I owe you an apology

used when you realize you have treated someone badly, for example by blaming them for something that is not their fault

Please accept my/our apologies

used when making a written or formal apology

I/We regret …

used when making an apology in an official announcement

Examples: I’m sorry I’m late. I missed the train.  I’m sorry, I didn’t quite hear what she said. I do apologize for Julie’s behaviour. She’s normally so reliable. Oh, excuse me, I didn’t see you standing there. We’ve discovered who the thief was, and it seems we owe you an apology. We regret to announce that tonight’s performance of ‘La Traviata’ has been cancelled. (MED)

Function notes, such as the one illustrated above, do not appear in existing thematic learner’s dictionaries. This is because MTDs and BTDs for EFL purposes have their

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own groups of categories devoted to communicative functions, such as the Essential Communication section in the Longman Essential Activator and the Conversational Gambits section in the Cambridge French-English Thesaurus. Grammar Notes Notes often cover more than one area of language. In addition to grammatical behaviour, the grammar note at qualification below discusses a difference in usage between British and American English. Typical grammar topics covered in such notes are countability and varying parts of speech. Again, such notes could be provided in L1 in a BTD. qualification […] n […] 4 [C,U] something that you add to a statement to limit its effect or meaning; = reservation: I welcome without qualification the minister’s proposal. GRAMMAR Qualification is usually plural. Qualifications are all the examination passes and skills you need to do a particular job: Academic qualifications (NOT qualification) are not necessary to do the job. When qualification is used in the singular form in British English, it means ‘a degree, a certificate, a diploma etc’: a qualification in business studies. Speakers of American English usually mention the specific name of the degree, diploma etc they are talking about, e.g. high school diploma, college degree, teaching certificate etc. /!\ Do not say ‘study a qualification’. Say study for a qualification.

(LDOCE4) Metaphor Notes The introduction of metaphor notes, such as the one below at achievement, is an innovation on the part of MED. Metaphor is a rather neglected area in learner’s dictionaries, so the inclusion of such notes could be justified in a BTD. The provision of translations for the example sentences would provide extra help for the user. As the MED note stands in its current form, unfortunately no meaning explanations are supplied for the individual exponents highlighted.

51 Metaphor An achievement is like a building, and the process of achieving is like the process of building. ______________________________________________ They built up the business over 20 years.  The organization was built on traditional principles.  This web site is still under construction.  They laid the foundations for future success with a carefully balanced range of products.  This was the blueprint for success.  She was the architect of the company’s expansion overseas.  It is a towering achievement.  These developments threatened the whole edifice of government.  All her life’s work was in ruins.  Strong foreign markets are the building blocks of a successful economy.  Everything seemed to come crashing down around them. → IDEA, METHOD, SUCCESS

Pronunciation Notes Pronunciation notes are a feature of CCALED e.g. at abuse: The noun is pronounced /əbju:s/. The verb is pronounced /əbju:z/.

A BTD could focus not just on aspects of English pronunciation that are problematic for learners in general, but also on areas that cause problems for a user group speaking a particular language. Regional Differences Notes Most MLDs contain notes dealing with regional differences e.g. LDOCE4’s US/UK Difference note at floor1 n: US/UK DIFFERENCE The bottom area of a building, on the same level as the land around it, is called the ground floor. In American English this can also be called the first floor. In British English the first floor is one level up from the ground. In American English this is the second floor. floor or storey/story? See note at STOREY /!\ Say on the first/second/fifth etc floor: The cafeteria is on (NOT at/in) the top floor.

Such notes help to disambiguate near-synonyms, and would therefore have a role to play in a BTD.

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Thesaurus Notes The term thesaurus note has crept into some recent MLDs. It refers to notes which draw attention to the distinctions between lexemes that are closely semantically related. LDOCE4’s Word Choice notes serve this function e.g. at beautiful: WORD CHOICE: beautiful, pretty, handsome, goodlooking, attractive, gorgeous, stunning beautiful is used to describe someone, usually a woman or child, who is attractive in a very special and noticeable way. pretty is usually used to describe a girl or woman who is good-looking, with regular features. It can also be used to describe a boy or young man who has an attractive but feminine face. handsome is usually used to describe a man or boy who is good-looking, with strong regular features. It can also be used to describe a woman, usually an older woman, who has attractive but masculine features. good-looking can be used to describe anyone who you think is nice to look at. attractive is used to describe someone who looks good in a way that attracts sexual interest: I can see he’s handsome, but I don’t find him very attractive. gorgeous and stunning are emphatic ways of saying that someone is very attractive. Gorgeous is used mostly in spoken English.

Notes of this kind are attempts by A-Z semasiological MLDs to compensate for the fact that their alphabetical arrangement splits up vocabulary items that are related in meaning. They would be superfluous in a BTD. Usage Notes The types of note that are labelled usage note vary between MLDs. In CALD, for example, usage notes include notes showing verb forms (e.g. at be), notes contrasting confusables and near-synonyms (e.g. at can v comparing the use of ‘can’, ‘could’ and ‘may’), as well as notes on grammar topics (e.g. at increase on the choice of a following preposition). It is perhaps because of the vagueness of the term that MLDs such as LDOCE4 have opted to use more precise note titles.

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Vocabulary Expansion Notes Notes that are designed to expand learners’ vocabularies include LDOCE4’s Word Focus boxes, MED’s Other Ways of Saying … notes, and OALDCE7’s Vocabulary Building Notes. Broad types of vocabulary expansion note include: 1) notes on groups of near-synonyms placed at the entry for a superordinate term e.g. at cheap: WORD FOCUS: words meaning CHEAP reasonable not too expensive | economical used about cars, systems, or methods that do not cost a lot of money to use | be good value to be well worth the price you pay | be a bargain to be very cheap

(LDOCE4) This type of note is functionally very close to LDOCE4’s Word Choice notes and arguably leads to a lack of clarity as to the relative purposes of the two types of note. 2) notes which subdivide topics and provide relevant exponents at each subtopic e.g. LDOCE4’s Word Focus note at crime: WORD FOCUS: CRIME crimes that involve stealing things: robbery, burglary, theft, shoplifting, fraud, carjacking crimes that involve attacking people: assault, mugging, murder, rape someone who commits crimes: criminal, thief, crook, burglar, mugger, robber, pickpocket, rapist, offender, lawbreaker → see also criminal, offence, felony, misdemeanour, organized crime, war crime

3) notes which build selected items of topic-related vocabulary into a prose passage e.g. LDOCE4’s Word Focus note at airport:

54 WORD FOCUS: AIRPORT what you do at the airport: When you arrive at the airport, you go into the terminal building. You check in for your flight at the check-in desk. You show your passport at passport control and then go through security, where they check that you are not carrying any weapons. If you have time you can wait for your flight in the departure lounge. When your flight is called, you go through the departure gate in order to get onto the plane. The plane then takes off from the runway. After your plane has landed, you go to the baggage reclaim to collect your bags, then go through customs and immigration, where they check your passport and your bags. You then go out into the arrivals area of the airport.

These notes have an onomasiological function in that they lead the user from (a word with) a general meaning to words related thematically and/or expressing more limited meanings (e.g. types of something). The notes are not, however, placed within their own access framework (such as the contents listing of a Rogetian thesaurus). Users, therefore, will come across these notes by accident until they are familiar with the text. They may then remember that, say, crime has a Word Focus box attached to it. Word Family Notes Word family notes list lexemes that are morphologically related to the headword in question e.g. at able in OALDCE7: WORD FAMILY able adj. (≠ unable) ability n. (≠ inability) disabled n.

These notes could, if desired, be incorporated into BTDs, along with translations. Word Origin Notes Etymological notes are provided on the CD-ROM version of LDOCE4. The notes provide the following types of information: the century when the word entered the English language, its language of origin, and the word in the source language from which it is derived e.g. at budgerigar:

55 Date: 1800-1900 Language: Australian Aboriginal Origin: gijrigaa.

Etymology is not of the highest priority when it comes to selecting information for inclusion in learner’s dictionaries. Nonetheless, it can help learners to remember the meanings of words and may be of interest in its own right so there is no reason why it should not be included in BTDs if space allows. Pictorial Illustrations In the context of thematic learner’s dictionaries, pictures are useful for illustrating: – types of things (e.g. at cake in MED there are pictures of a Swiss roll, a birthday cake, a sponge cake, a cream cake, a fairy cake, and a wedding cake) – parts of things (e.g. at body in MED there are pictures of a man and a woman with various body parts labelled) – the differences between semantically close items of vocabulary (e.g. at assemble in LDOCE4 where four verbs are accompanied by apposite illustrations: ‘assemble’ (two people assembling a bed), ‘construct’ (a building site), ‘build’ (a man building a wall), and ‘make’ (a man making a violin)) – thematically related items (e.g. at electric in LDOCE4 there are illustrations of bulb, extension lead, fuses, and batteries), and – processes (e.g. the food chain and the greenhouse effect in LDOCE4). Middle Matter Features Figure 6 below lists the middle matter features of the five MLDs. Feature/Component Language notes/study pages (on subjects such as grammar, pragmatics, vocabulary, pronunciation, punctuation, inflections, varieties of English, letter-writing, and collocation)

CALD 9

CCALED 8 (In the back matter instead)

LDOCE4 9

MED 9

Figure 6) Middle Matter Features in CALD, CCALED, LDOCE4, MED, and OALDCE7

OALDCE7 8 (In the back matter instead)

56 Feature/Component Full-Page illustrations

Maps

CALD 9

CCALED 8 (In the back matter instead)

LDOCE4 9

MED 9

8

8

9 (In the back matter instead)

8

OALDCE7 9 (At body. Most are in the back matter) 8 (In the back matter instead)

Figure 6) continued) Middle Matter Features in CALD, CCALED, LDOCE4, MED, and OALDCE7 Back Matter Features The back matter features of the five MLDs are listed in Figure 7 below. Feature/Component List of first names List of geographical names The language of literary criticism Specialist lists Word families List of prefixes and suffixes List of sayings and proverbs British and American English Numbers Weights and measures Abbreviations Symbols Punctuation List of irregular verbs Regular verb tenses List of usage notes List of illustrations List of defining vocabulary

CALD 9 9

CCALED 8 8

LDOCE4 8 9

MED 8 8

OALDCE7 9 9

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8 8 8 8 8 9 8 8 8 (Not applicable)

9 9 8 8 8 9 8 8 8 9

8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9

9 9 9 8 9 9 8 9 9 9

Figure 7) Back Matter Features of CALD, CCALED, LDOCE4, MED, and OALDCE7

57 Feature/Component List of labels used in the dictionary

List of pronunciation symbols Explanation as to how pronunciation is shown in the dictionary Explanation of frequency bands Full-Page illustrations (Topic Pages)

Maps Language notes/Study pages

Grammar Idiom finder Essays

CALD 8 (In the front matter instead) 9

CCALED 8 (In the front matter instead)

LDOCE4 8 (In the front matter instead)

MED 9

OALDCE7 8 (In the front matter instead)

8 (In the front matter instead) 8

9

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8 (In the front matter instead) 8

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8 (In the middle matter instead) 8 8 (In the middle matter instead) 8 9 8

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8 (In the middle matter instead) 8 8 (In the middle matter instead) 8 8 8

9

8 9

8 8 8

9 9

9 8 9

Figure 7) continued) Back Matter Features of CALD, CCALED, LDOCE4, MED, and OALDCE7 Access Structures Feature/Component Guidewords (at the top of the page) Cross-References Menus in long entries Signposts in long entries Idiom finder

CALD 9

CCALED 9

LDOCE4 9

MED 9

OALDCE7 9

9 8 9 9

9 9 8 8

9 8 9 8

9 9 8 8

9 8 9 8

Figure 8) Access Structures in CALD, CCALED, LDOCE4, MED, and OALDCE7 The purpose of the various access structures is to guide the user to the sought-after information in an efficient way. Figure 8 above indicates the access routes across the five MLDs.

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Guidewords In an alphabetical semasiological learner’s dictionary, guidewords inform the user as to the alphabetic stretch of entries covered usually over a double spread of pages. CALD, LDOCE4, MED, and OALDCE7 place a guideword in the top left-hand corner of the verso page to show the first entry (e.g. bricklayer) and a guideword in the top righthand corner of the recto page to show the last entry (e.g. bring). Cross-References There are three major types of cross-reference employed in MLDs: redirectional crossreferences, relational cross-references, and cross-references at entries to other elements of the text such as pictures e.g. at the entry for dandelion in CALD: See picture Flowers and Plants on page Centre 3

Redirectional cross-references reorientate users to the correct location of a target entry if they have sought it at another location in the headword list. Examples of such crossreferences in LDOCE4 are found at the entry for B, b. These redirect the users to: plan B (a lexical unit) at plan1 n, from A to B (a lexical unit) at A1, B-movie, B-side, and B-road. This type of cross-reference is often used in connection with compounds e.g. from baby to test-tube baby (LDOCE4). Relational cross-references direct the user to entries for lexemes which are related to the source entry in some way i.e. semantically or morphologically e.g. from BA to BS, BSc, and MA (LDOCE4) and from dangerous to endanger (CALD). Cross-references to synonyms and antonyms also fall into this category. Cross-references can be placed at individual senses. However, the user cannot always be sure whether a cross-reference placed after the final sense of a multi-sense entry refers to that sense alone or to the entry as a whole. This problem does not arise in TLDs whose entries normally consist of just one sense. If every possible cross-reference were placed at every entry, certain entries would accumulate a log-jam of cross-references. This would be both space-consuming and irksome for the users to work their way through. Consequently, a policy has to be adopted whereby the number of cross-references at any given entry is limited. One cross-referencing issue that affects both alphabetically organized and thematically organized learner’s dictionaries relates to the strength of the reason(s) supplied by the dictionary to encourage users to follow up a cross-reference. If the text indicates clearly to users why they should take the trouble to pursue a cross-reference, they are more likely to do so. This clear indication can either be achieved by consistency of label use (e.g. if, say, see also is always used for redirectional cross-references) or by explicit labelling (e.g. ≠ for cross-references to antonyms or the use of explanatory wording before the cross-reference).

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User Guidance and Practice The following elements of the print MLDs provide user guidance: 1) lists of abbreviations, codes, labels, and symbols used in the dictionary (in the front and/or back matter), 2) sample entries with key features highlighted and explained (in the front matter), 3) a list of pronunciation symbols (in the front or back matter), 4) an explanation of how specific types of information are shown e.g. pronunciation, style and usage, pragmatics, and grammar (generally in the front matter, sometimes in the back matter), 5) a list of the defining vocabulary (in the back matter), 6) a list of usage notes (in the back matter), and 7) a list of pictorial illustrations (in the back matter). All of the above features, apart from the list of defining vocabulary, could be included in a BTD, with items 1) - 4) being especially important. Practice materials to help users get the most out of their dictionaries and to improve their reference skills are conspicuous by their absence from the five MLDs. No exercises are included in any of the print dictionaries. Instead, these are to be found in the CD-ROM versions. The LDOCE CD-ROM includes a number of lesson plans and classroom activities in pdf format which can be printed out by teachers. These are integrated with the use of specific dictionary features, and one of the lesson plans is devoted to dictionary training. Some years ago, workbooks often accompanied major MLDs (Stark 1990). These appear to have gone somewhat out of fashion, although one was produced for MED (Underhill 2002). Features of CD-ROM MLDs Each of the print versions of the five MLDs surveyed has an accompanying CD-ROM that includes an electronic equivalent of the semasiological A-Z dictionary. Again, these will be examined to ascertain whether they include features which could be usefully incorporated into an electronic BTD. Of particular interest and relevance are three thematic learner’s dictionaries that are included on the same disk as the standard MLDs: the Smart Thesaurus on the CALD CD-ROM, the Longman Language Activator on the LDOCE4 CD-ROM, and the Oxford Learner’s Wordfinder Dictionary on the OALDCE7 CD-ROM. Figure 9 below lists the features of the five MLD CD-ROMs.

60 Feature/Component Electronic version of the semasiological A-Z dictionary Electronic thematic dictionary or thesaurus

CALD 9

CCALED 9

LDOCE4 9

MED 9

OALDCE7 9

9 (SMART Thesaurus)

8

9 (Longman Language Activator)

8

Link between the A-Z semasiological dictionary and the thematic dictionary/thesaurus Encyclopedic words

9 (Via SMART Thesaurus button) 9 (But only to a very limited degree)

(Not applicable)

9

(Not applicable)

9 (Oxford Learner’s Wordfinder Dictionary) 9

9 (But only to a very limited degree)

9 (More than in the print version)

9 (But only to a very limited degree)

Recorded pronunciation of headwords Recorded pronunciation of examples Sounds (apart from audioclips of headwords or examples) Clickable parts of speech and grammar labels to summon up descriptions of each Clickable words in definitions (taking the user to the word’s entry) Additional examples (Not included in the print version)

9

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Corpus-mode display of examples

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(9) (Examples can be viewed from elsewhere in the dictionary, not just those at the immediate entry) 8

Figure 9) CD-ROM Features of CALD, CCALED, LDOCE4, MED, and OALDCE7

61 Feature/Component Additional collocations (Not included in the print version) Additional phrases (Not included in the print version)

CALD 8

CCALED 8

8

8

Derived words (for word-building) listed when an entry is called up

9

9

Related words: compound words listed when an entry is called up

9

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Related words: phrasal verbs

9

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Related words: prefixes Related words: suffixes Related words: additional synonyms

8

Usage notes Error avoidance information Verb endings/forms

Word origins Word sets

MED 8

OALDCE7 9

8

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8 (Although a wild card can be used)

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LDOCE4 9 (In the Phrase Bank) 9 (In the Phrase Bank) 9 (They appear in the dropdown wordlist) 9 (They appear in the dropdown wordlist) 9 (In the Phrase Bank) 8

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9 (Via the SMART Thesaurus)

9 (Same as in the print dictionary)

9 (Same as in the print dictionary)

9 (Via the Wordfinder)

9 9 (In usage notes) 9 (Via Verb Endings button)

8 8

9 9 (In usage notes) 9

9 (Appear in Better Words notes) 9 9 (In usage notes) 9 (Inflection listed at the headword) 9 8

8 9 (Via the Advanced Search)

9 (Lists inflections with audioclips) 8 8

9 9

9 9 (In usage notes) 9

9 9 (Via the Advanced Search)

Figure 9) continued) CD-ROM Features of CALD, CCALED, LDOCE4, MED, and OALDCE7

62 Feature/Component Pictures Exercises

CALD 9 9

LDOCE4 9 9

MED 9 8

OALDCE7 9 9

8

CCALED 8 8 (Although there is a self-testing facility) 9

Self-Testing of material input by the user User-Defined selfpractice of vocabulary

8

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Record your own pronunciation function Supplementary userdefined dictionary/wordlist User-Created topics Facility for user to add notes to entries Study pages

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Figure 9) continued) CD-ROM Features of CALD, CCALED, LDOCE4, MED, and OALDCE7

63 Feature/Component Homophone search

CALD 8

CCALED 9 (Using Phonetic Search)

Irregular inflections search Menu search Morphological/ Derived word search

8

Multimedia search No. of senses search Part of speech search Phrasal verb search Phrase search Pronunciation search Regional search Style search Subject search Word origin search Brief view of entry

Pop-up mode

Writing aid

MED 9 (Using Sound Search)

OALDCE7 8

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Figure 9) continued) CD-ROM Features of CALD, CCALED, LDOCE4, MED, and OALDCE7 Additional Content not Included in the Print Versions of the MLDs CD-ROM MLDs have taken advantage of the extra space available compared with their print equivalents. Four areas where this applies are: the inclusion of encyclopedic words as well as additional examples, collocations, and phrases.

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The Inclusion of Encyclopedic Information The abundance of space available on a CD-ROM MLD has allowed publishers to include encyclopedic entries which are absent from the equivalent print versions. The LDOCE4 CD-ROM, for instance, includes biographical entries (e.g. Griffith, D.W.), historical events (e.g. Boston Tea Party, the), and organizations (e.g. UNHCR) as well as entries for various other proper nouns. In general, the MTDs and BTDs examined in the current survey include very few encyclopedic entries. Theoretically, there is no reason why CD-ROMs which combine a standard learner’s dictionary and a thematic learner’s dictionary should not increase both the amount of encyclopedic content, but also the links between ordinary entries and cultural entries. For example, a category on the subject of cinema in a TLD could be linked to biographical entries on well-known film directors and actors. Additional Examples The LDOCE4 CD-ROM contains all the examples in the print version plus 1,080,000 additional ones. These extra examples are located in the Examples Bank window on the right-hand side of the screen. The Examples Bank groups examples under two headings: Extra Dictionary Examples and Sentences from Books, Newspapers etc. The former consists of edited examples imported from other Longman dictionaries. The latter comprises unedited examples derived from corpus, and are intended to cater for users at the higher levels of L2 competence. The additional examples, whilst impressive in terms of quantity, are not assigned to particular senses, thereby limiting their usefulness. Extra examples could also be integrated into a BTD CD-ROM. They would, however, need to be furnished with translations. Additional Collocations Some dictionaries provide additional collocational information on their CD-ROMs. When viewing the Dictionary (i.e. the A-Z semasiological MLD), the LDOCE4 CDROM has a window entitled Phrase Bank on the right-hand side of the screen above the Examples Bank. The Phrase Bank groups its contents under two headings: 1) Dictionary Phrases and 2) Words Used With. The latter heading is further subdivided by part of speech. Thus, when looking up ‘exciting’, the Words Used With heading shows nouns and adverbs which collocate with this word: „ NOUNS: challenge, development, event, life, opportunity, part, possibility, project, prospect, story, thing, things, time

65 „ ADVERBS: as, how, more, most, quite, really, so, very

Additional Phrases Phrases are handled in MLDs at various locations i.e. – highlighted within an example e.g. Its teeth are razor sharp (= very sharp)

– highlighted in bold before an example e.g. sharp left/right Take a sharp left after the church.

– as bold skeletons without a supporting example e.g. somebody has a sharp tongue (= they speak in a very disapproving way which often upsets people)

– and, as senses in their own right (i.e. lexical units) e.g. keep a sharp eye on somebody to watch someone very carefully, especially because you do not trust them

All the above are taken from a single entry (LDOCE4’s sharp adj). A large amount of phraseological information is given here, but it may still leave the user with a number of unanswered queries e.g. – How is it possible to navigate quickly to the sought-after phrase within a long entry? – How is it possible to find phrases involving the word concerned which are not in the entry currently being consulted? – Is any further collocational information available? LDOCE4 CD-ROM’s Phrase Bank window is designed to answer some of these questions. Its contents are displayed under three headings: Dictionary Phrases, Phrases from Other Entries, and Words Used With. Dictionary Phrases lists all the phrases in the current entry. By clicking on any phrase in the list, the user is taken to the relevant sense of the current entry where the phrase is highlighted. This speeds up access, especially when a long entry is involved. Clicking on the phrase also generates examples containing it in the Examples Bank. Phrases from Other Entries gathers

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together phrases containing the word from entries other than the one being currently viewed. This is a prime instance of the application of the CD-ROM technology to achieve something which a print dictionary cannot accomplish. By clicking on any phrase in the list, the target entry will be shown in a new window. As with Dictionary Phrases, clicking on any phrase in the list will also generate examples in the Examples Bank. Words Used With lists collocations, with the collocates grouped according to part of speech. By way of example, a search on ‘sharp’ will generate the following phrases: Dictionary Phrases: be on the sharp end of (sth) be … sharp with F sharp/D sharp/C sharp etc in sharp contrast keep a sharp eye on sb razor sharp sb has a sharp tongue sharp eye for detail sharp left/right sharp practice sharp wind/frost Phrases from Other Entries: (in) stark/marked/sharp etc contrast to sth – see contrast, n a sharp/dramatic/marked drop in sth – see drop, n at ten-thirty/2 o’clock etc sharp – see sharp, adv clear/sharp distinction – see distinction, n hard/heavy/sharp/severe frost – see frost, n keep a sharp lookout – see lookout, n look sharp – see sharp, adv loud/sharp crack – see crack, n quick/dry/sharp etc wit – see wit, n rapid/sharp/steep/dramatic decline – see decline, n sharp focus – see focus, n sharp pain – see pain, n sharp retort – see retort, n sharp rise – see rise, n sharp shooter – see sharp shooter, n sharp turn – see turn, n sharp/drastic/severe cutback – see cutback, n sharp/fundamental/profound etc disagreement – see disagreement, n sharp/stark relief – see relief, n sharp/steep fall – see fall, n shoot sb a quick/sharp/warning etc look/glance – see shoot, v

67 Words Used with: sharp „ NOUNS contrast, crack, criticism, decline, difference, distinction, drop, edge, end, eye, fall, focus, glance, increase, knife, look, pain, practice, reduction, relief, right, rise, tongue, tooth, turn, wit

Both the additional information on collocations and that on phrases could be integrated into a BTD CD-ROM if so desired, especially as collocation often helps to distinguish near-synonyms. Display The main features of the Graphical User Interface (GUI) for each MLD CD-ROM are described in this section. Figure 10 below shows the CALD display following a search on ‘sharp’. The type-in search box (containing ‘sharp’) is located in the top left-hand corner, as is conventional for MLD CD-ROMs. Below it is a scrollable Index window which can be toggled between the Words option to show the alphabetical headword list (A, a, A4, AA, AAA, aah, aardvark etc) or the Results option following a search (as shown in the screenshot). By clicking on any item in the Index window, the user is transported to the relevant entry which is displayed in the main window, known as the Content Window. The Results in the Index window alphabetically display the following types of information in different coloured type: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5)

headwords (bright blue) e.g. sharp (ABLE TO CUT), phrasal verbs (bright green) (none appear for sharp), idioms and phrases (dark green) e.g. Look lively/sharp!, usage notes (red) (none appear for sharp), definitions (black) e.g. angular (i.e. ‘sharp’ appears in the definition for angular), and 6) examples (black italics) e.g. blow (HIT) (off-screen) i.e. ‘sharp’ appears in an example (a sharp blow to the stomach) at blow. The Content Window displays the entries much in the same way as in the print dictionary, but with a number of additional features. For example, next to the headword sharp there are loudspeaker icons which play either a British English or an American English audioclip of the headword when one of them is clicked on. Next to them, the microphone icon allows the users to record their own pronunciation and play it back. The Word Building button to the right of the part of speech starts up a new window containing items morphologically related to the search item i.e. (pencil) sharpener, sharpness etc, categorized according to part of speech. The Smart Thesaurus button at the end of each entry provides a direct link to CALD’s underlying Smart Thesaurus. At

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sense 1 the ‘see picture’ cross-reference brings up a picture illustrating the different senses of ‘sharp’. At the run-on entry for sharpen, the Verb Endings button shows the verb’s forms in different tenses in a new window.

Figure 10) CALD CD-ROM Display after a Search on ‘sharp’ Figure 11 below shows the CCALED display following the same search. As with CALD, the type-in search box is positioned at the top-left of the screen. The top-left window can be toggled between Entries and Full Text. The Entries option, as the name suggests, displays the entries. The Full Text option shows whichever Full Text parameters have been specified i.e. one or more choices from: Entries and Phrases, Explanations and Definitions, Examples, Synonyms and Antonyms, and Extras (= material added by the user). The bottom-left window can be toggled between the Compounds option and the Index option. The Compounds option displays compounds formed using the search word e.g. razor-sharp. The Index option shows where the search word lies in the headword list i.e. between shark and sharpen. Any item in this window may be clicked on to take the user to the corresponding entry which is shown in the main window. Compared with CALD, the number of features that are additional

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to the print equivalent are rather thin on the ground. Just below the headword, the loudspeaker icons can be used to play audioclips of the headword and its inflections. Users can click on any word in the main window in order to summon up its entry. For example, ‘twig’ appears in the first example at sense 1: The other end of the twig is sharpened into a sharp point to use as a toothpick. If the user clicks on ‘twig’, the entry for twig will appear in the main window. This is an extremely useful feature which is present in all five MLD CD-ROMs. As is the case with all the electronic MLDs, the user has control over several aspects of the display appearance. The font can be changed and certain elements (e.g. the examples) can be either shown or hidden. In addition, the pronunciation audioclips can be set to play automatically if desired.

Figure 11) CCALED CD-ROM Display after a Search on ‘sharp’ Figure 12 below shows the display for the LDOCE4 CD-ROM. Again, the type-in search field is positioned at top left. The loudspeaker icon in the toolbar below the headword generates an audioclip of the headword. Loudspeaker icons before examples activate audioclips of the examples. The menu option in the toolbar brings up a menu consisting of the signposts (ABLE TO CUT EASILY, TURN etc) at each sense. This menu provides a useful overview of a long entry. It appears in a separate window, and if the user clicks on a menu item, the main window scrolls down automatically to the relevant sense. The Word Family option in the toolbar performs the same function as

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CALD’s Word Building button. The Word Origin button in the toolbar supplies etymological information in a new window. In this instance, the user is informed that ‘sharp’ is derived from the Old English word ‘scearp’. This etymological information is another example of material that does not appear in the print version, but is included on the CD-ROM. The greyed-out Verb Form option becomes active at verb entries and lists the forms which a verb takes in different tenses. The Word Sets option lists the semantic fields which the word belongs to in a new window. In this particular case, the user is informed that ‘sharp’ belongs to the areas Textures/Sounds, Tastes, and Music. By selecting one of these areas, the user can access an alphabetical list of all the other members of the same word set and their parts of speech e.g. at Music: a cappella adjective, accelerando adjective etc. On the right-hand side of the screen are three smaller windows: the Phrase Bank, the Examples Bank, and Activate Your Language. The Phrase Bank, as already mentioned, lists phrases of which the search word is part. It is divided into three sections: Dictionary Phrases (for phrases found in the current entry e.g. be on the sharp end (of sth)), Phrases from Other Entries (e.g. (in) stark/marked/sharp etc contrast to sth from the entry for contrast), and Words Used With which lists collocations under different parts of speech (e.g. ‘sharp decline’ under NOUNS). The Examples Bank works in tandem with the Phrase Bank. If one of the phrases in the Phrase Bank is clicked on, the Examples Bank will generate examples that contain it. The Examples Bank is split into Extra Dictionary Examples which are edited, and Sentences from Books, Newspapers etc. which are not. The Activate Your Language window is a gateway from the semasiological LDOCE4 to the onomasiological Longman Language Activator. The MED CD-ROM (see Figure 13 below) places the type-in field in the conventional top-left position on the screen. The top window on the left-hand side displays the headword list and can be toggled between Wordsearch and Textsearch. The left-hand bottom window shows the search results. The large window in the middle of the screen displays the entry with a vertical scrollbar for users to navigate through the senses. At the top of the entry can be found the usual loudspeaker icons to play audioclips of the headwords. Pictures are shown at the top of the narrow window on the right. The Notebook is positioned below the picture window. The OALDCE7 CD-ROM positions the type-in search field in its familiar position at top left of the screen. The narrow window on the left-hand side is divided into three sections: Headwords, Idioms, and Structures. The Headwords section alphabetically lists compounds containing the search word e.g. razor-sharp. By clicking on any of the idioms in the Idioms section e.g. the sharp end (of sth), the main window scrolls down to the part of the entry where the idioms are located. The Structures section lists collocations either in the currently viewed entry, e.g. sharp suits, or in another entry e.g. sharp/stark/striking contrast (which appears at the entry for contrast). In the latter case, the entry displayed in the main window switches automatically to the new entry. The main window shows the entry much as it appears in the print dictionary with one or two extra ‘bells and whistles’ such as the loudspeaker icon next to the headword which activates an audioclip. There are three small windows on the right-hand side of the screen: the Word Origin window, the Example Sentences window, and the Word-

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finder window. The Word Origin window provides etymological information in slightly more detail than LDOCE4’s equivalent feature. The Example Sentences window lists edited examples from the dictionary. If users click on an example sentence e.g. a sharp bend in the road that appears at another entry (e.g. bend), a preview version of the entry appears in a new window. The user then has the option to see the full entry if so desired. The Wordfinder window is the portal from the standard MLD OALDCE7 to the thematic learner’s dictionary, the Wordfinder.

Figure 12) LDOCE4 CD-ROM Display after a Search on ‘sharp’ There are a few other display-related aspects of electronic MLDs that are worthy of note, namely: the brief view of an entry, the pop-up mode, and pictorial illustrations. Brief View of an Entry CCALED has a button which allows users to view an entry without the inflections or examples. In MED, an entry preview window comes up if an on-screen word is clicked on. The preview window is the same as for a full entry, but without the left-hand and right-hand windows.

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Figure 13) MED CD-ROM Display after a Search on ‘sharp’ Pop-Up Mode LDOCE4 allows the dictionary to be displayed in a smaller window than the normal one. The pop-up view of the entry does not display the Phrase Bank, Examples Bank, or the Activate Your Language windows. When the user holds the cursor over a word, or clicks on it in a word-processing document, email, or webpage, the relevant entry is displayed in the pop-up dictionary. The user can also click on a button to switch to the full dictionary entry. Pictorial Illustrations The space on a CD-ROM allows the same picture to be placed at different entries whereas in a print dictionary it would only appear once. For example, in LDOCE4 the illustration at aeroplane (with the labelled parts cockpit, wing, and tail) is also found at airplane, plane, cockpit, wing, and tail (see Figure 14 below). There are a number of other advantages of having pictures on a CD-ROM learner’s dictionary: the illustrations can be enlarged (e.g. in LDOCE4 and OALDCE7), the quality of the image can be higher than in a print dictionary, the labelled parts can be clicked on to take the user

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to the corresponding entries, and some dictionaries (e.g. LDOCE4) allow a multimedia search for pictures. CALD’s ‘picture’ button allows users to call up an alphabetical list of pictures from which individual images can be selected for viewing.

Figure 14) LDOCE CD-ROM Entry for aeroplane Multimedia In addition to pictorial illustrations, CD-ROM MLDs have various other multimedia features: recorded pronunciation of headwords, recorded pronunciation of inflected forms, recorded pronunciation of examples, and sound effects. Recorded Pronunciation of Headwords All five CD-ROMs supply recorded pronunciations of headwords. The user clicks on an icon (usually a loudspeaker symbol) to play the requisite audioclip. The advantage of supplying such recordings is that learners are provided with a pronunciation model without having to master IPA. LDOCE4 is, however, selective in its provision of audioclips. These are not supplied for inflections or run-ons, and are completely absent

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from the thematic Activator component of the CD-ROM. Some CD-ROM MLDs provide the user with the option of hiding the IPA symbols. Recorded Pronunciation of Inflected Forms The recorded pronunciation of inflected forms is provided by three of the five MLDs. This would be a desirable, but not essential feature of a TLD. Recorded Pronunciation of Examples In Dictionary mode (as opposed to the thematic Activator mode), the LDOCE4 CDROM supplies audioclips for all examples in the main window except for those at taboo words. None of the examples in the Examples Bank or the Activator are furnished with recorded pronunciations. Sound Effects A multimedia search for sound effects on the LDOCE4 CD-ROM produces 199 results including sounds made by inanimate objects e.g. alarm clock, people e.g. cough, and animals e.g. bark. Sounds can be extremely difficult to define so the inclusion of audioclips of different sounds is helpful. The sound effects also lend themselves to game-type classroom activities such as the matching of sounds to words. Other CD-ROM Features Related Words One of the strengths of an electronic learner’s dictionary is the amount of related items which can be supplied when looking up a particular lexeme. These include morphologically related words, as well as compounds and phrasal verbs containing the search word. On the LDOCE4 CD-ROM, selected entries are provided with a Word Families button which displays words that are morphologically related to the headword e.g. at happy adjective: noun „ happiness ≠ unhappiness adverb „ happily ≠ unhappily adjective „ happy ≠ unhappy

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When users enter ‘happy’ in LDOCE4’s type-in search box, a drop-down menu displays the following entries in word-by-word alphabetical order: happy hour noun happy-clappy adjective happy-go-lucky adjective The same search in CALD generates a list that includes not only headwords where ‘happy’ is the first element, but also those where it is the last element (e.g. triggerhappy). LDOCE4 lists phrasal verbs not only in the main entry (after the other senses), but also in the Phrase Bank. For instance, at drive v, the following phrasal verbs are listed amongst other phrases (such as drive a coach and horses through sth): drive at sth drive off drive sb away drive sb off drive sb/sth in drive sb/sth out drive sth down drive sth up The cross-references to synonyms, antonyms and other semantically related words that appear in print MLDs, usually after definitions or at the end of entries, are retained in the electronic versions. The CD-ROM dictionaries have an advantage in that the user can hyperjump directly to the target reference. Those MLDs on CD-ROM which are twinned with a thematic dictionary can direct users to relevant sections of the TLD where a wealth of information on near-synonyms can be found. Word Sets LDOCE4 CD-ROM’s Word Set function provides thematic access from the starting point of an A-Z semasiological dictionary. For example, at the entry for beer, Word Set informs the user that this word belongs to the word set ‘drink’. By clicking on the name of the Word Set, the user can generate an alphabetical list of all the entries in the set: absinth, ale, alehouse, aperitif etc. By clicking on any item in the list, the user is taken to the matching entry.

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Notes In a print dictionary, space limitations usually dictate that notes referring to more than one word can only be held at one entry. CD-ROM dictionaries, however, have sufficient space to display the note at all the affected entries. Thus, for example, the print version of LDOCE4 holds the following Word Focus note at short adj: WORD FOCUS: SHORT speech/piece of writing: brief, concise, condensed, abridged person: not very tall, little, tiny, petite time/event: brief, quick, momentary, fleeting, ephemeral, transient, passing, short-lived legs/fingers: stumpy, stubby clothes: skimpy

The CD-ROM version, however, places this note at all those exponents within the note which have their own entries i.e. brief, concise etc. Access Structures The Type-In Search Field The type-in search field is the most frequently used starting point for a search on a CDROM MLD. Most CD-ROM dictionaries allow a spellcheck to be performed on data entered in the type-in box. As a word is typed into the search field, the software checks the character string being formed letter by letter against the headword list. If a matching headword cannot be found, as in the case of a misspelling, alternative words are suggested. Search Filters Collectively, the five CD-ROM MLDs offer users a rich variety of search types, most of which are adaptable for use in BTDs. Advanced Search The term advanced search is used here to refer to any search mechanism that permits the combination of search parameters. LDOCE4’s Dictionary Search can be refined along four parameters: 1) Boolean operators (and/or/*/not), 2) frequency, 3) part of speech, and 4) style.

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These four parameters may be employed individually or in combination. The Boolean operators can be used to search full entries, headwords, definitions, or examples. The frequency search can be limited to the most frequent 1000, 2000, or 3000 words of written or spoken English. The part of speech search can be either unrestricted, i.e. a search on words with any part of speech, or it can be confined to one part of speech from a choice of: adjective, adverb, auxiliary verb, conjunction, definite article, determiner, indefinite article, interjection, modal verb, noun, number, predeterminer, prefix, preposition, pronoun, suffix, or verb. The style search can also be either unlimited or focused on one parameter from: biblical, formal, humorous, informal, law, literary, medical, not polite, old use, old-fashioned, spoken, taboo, technical, trademark, or written. Collocation Search The collocation searches in the Dictionary window of LDOCE4 and in OALDCE7 are performed automatically on each occasion data are entered in the type-in search field. LDOCE4 displays collocations in the Words Used With section of the Phrase Bank, and OALDCE7 places them in the ‘structures’ section of its Results Field. In the case of MED, the collocation search is a tickable option within its Wordsearch function. Compound Search In CCALED, the compound search is performed automatically, and the output is displayed in a results window located at the bottom left-hand side of the screen. For example, a search on ‘hat’ generates: bowler hat, cocked hat, hard hat, hat-trick, panama hat, sun hat, and top hat. It fails, however, to select the solid compounds hatbox and hatpin which are both in the dictionary. CALD operates in much the same way, the compounds being displayed in the left-hand results window. All the compound searches are purely formal, hence the inclusion of items such as hi-hat (in OALDCE7’s automatic collocation search) which deviate semantically from the item of clothing sense. A semantically sensitive compound search might benefit a BTD, but one would, in any case, hope that the various types of ‘hat’ would be grouped together in a section. Definitions Search In CCALED, the full-text search allows the user to search on words within the entries. The results are arranged according to their location, i.e. in entries, definitions, compounds, and examples. Thus, if a full-text search is conducted on ‘insect’ by way of using the Full Text tab (as opposed to the normal Entries tab), the user is presented with three expandable threads: Entries, Definitions, and Examples. If users expand the

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Entries thread, they are supplied with a list of relevant entries (insect and stick insect). If any of these are clicked on, the entry appears in full in the right-hand window. If the Definitions thread is expanded, a list of entries is displayed whose definitions include the word ‘insect’ (e.g. alight, animal, antenna, attack, beat, bedbug, bee, beetle etc). Again, users can click on any of these to see the full entry in the right-hand window. Obviously, a definition search would not be applicable to a BTD. As far as searches on meaning explanations are concerned, it would be logical to allow searches on translation equivalents and bracketed disambiguating information. Derivatives Search In MED, a derived word search is an option within its broader Wordsearch feature. It locates the position of derivatives within entries. Thus, if users type in ‘angrily’, they will be taken to the run-on angrily at angry. Examples Search An examples search allows the user to search for one or more items within the examples in the dictionary. Frequency Search In LDOCE4, the frequency search can be limited to the most frequent 1000, 2000, or 3000 words of written or spoken English. Full Text Search CALD permits a Category Search as one of its advanced search parameters. This involves a choice between any (exponent), headwords, phrasal verbs, and idioms. Grammar Search LDOCE4’s Part of Speech search can either be unrestricted, i.e. it can search on words with any part of speech, or be confined to one part of speech.

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Headword Search The Headword Search in LDOCE4 is one of the search options within the Dictionary Search, and again permits the use of Boolean operators. Homophone Search CCALED’s Phonetic Search finds rhyming words. For example, a search on ‘time’ generates time and thyme. This function is useful when searching for homophones. Inflections Search An inflections search is available within MED’s SmartSearch function. For instance, a search on ‘do’ with the irregular inflection box ticked will generate do1 verb because it has irregular inflections, but not do2 noun or do3 (another spelling of doh). Menu Search MED’s Menu Search is a component of its SmartSearch feature. Its usefulness is somewhat compromised by the fact that one of the left-hand options in SmartSearch must be ticked. It is not possible to type in, say, ‘fish’ and expect the software to extract all those entries where one of the menu items includes this word. Instead, users must select a search parameter such as ‘definition’ as well. Multimedia Search LDOCE4’s Multimedia Search has a type-in box that enables a search on pictures and/or sound effects to be conducted. Notes Search In MED, an Editorial Notes search is one of the suboptions within Textsearch. It allows the user to search for the presence of a particular word in the notes. For example, if the user types in ‘offensive’, the result window brings up: NOTE AT black1 adjective NOTE AT conduct2 verb NOTE AT disabled NOTE AT offensive1 adjective

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Two limitations are evident: 1) the search word cannot be limited by part of speech. As a result, the note at conduct2 refers to the noun ‘offensive’ whereas the other three notes are concerned with the adjective, and 2) no indication is given in the results field as to the type of note involved in each case. In this instance, the notes at black1 and disabled are usage warning notes, and those at conduct2 and offensive1 are collocation notes. Phrasal Verb Search CALD includes a phrasal verb search as one of the Category searches within its Advanced Search function. It can be used in conjunction with a ‘topic search’. Thus, a search on ‘phrasal verbs’ plus the topic ‘sports and games’ will generate bowl out, kick off etc. Phrase Search In OALDCE7, the ‘phrase’ and ‘idiom’ searches are found within Advanced Search. Phrases and idioms are also generated automatically following a standard search, and appear in the results window under the headings ‘idioms’ and ‘structures’. For example, a search on ‘green’ produces: idioms: green with envy structures: dark blue/green/red etc green fields/hills given the green light muddy green/brown green vegetables

For some reason, probably connected with the underlying tagging in the database, given the green light appears under ‘structures’ rather than ‘idioms’. Pronunciation Search LDOCE4’s Pronunciation Search window (see Figure 15 below) consists of separate buttons for each of the IPA symbols used in English. By clicking on a button, the relevant symbol is entered into the search field. Although searches of this type rely on the user’s mastery of the IPA symbols, they do at least offer one possible, if slightly cumbersome, way of proceeding from phonological to graphic form.

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Figure 15) LDOCE4 CD-ROM Pronunciation Search Window Regional Search MED has a regional search within SmartSearch which allows the user to access any of/all of/none of: American, mainly American, Australian, British, Canadian, Indian English, Irish, New Zealand, Scottish, South African, and West African. Style and Usage Search In LDOCE4, the Style Search can either be unrestricted or focused on one parameter from a choice of: biblical, formal, humorous, informal, law, literary, medical, not polite, old use, old-fashioned, spoken, taboo, technical, trademark, and written. Subject Search LDOCE4’s Subject Search allows the user to refine a search along three parameters: Theme, Heading, and Subject Area. The themes are listed below.

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– – – – – – – – – –

arts business colours & sounds daily life hard science medicine politics religion & thought society technology

Each theme is divided into a number of headings: e.g. ‘arts’ is split into: ‘architecture’, ‘literature’, ‘media’, ‘performing’ and ‘visual’. Some of the headings are further subdivided into subject areas: e.g. ‘media’ is split into the subject areas ‘film’ and ‘television & radio’. Word Origin Search LDOCE4’s Word Origin search can be refined according to two parameters: language of origin (Abnaki, African, Afrikaans, Aleut etc) and date (600-700, 700-800, 800-900 etc). Menus The print version of LDOCE4 eschews the use of menus at long entries. Menus are, however, featured in the CD-ROM edition. The menu items consist of signposts and bold lexical units which have been extracted from the remaining components of the entry: e.g. ►MOVE/TRAVEL◄ and go flying/laughing/rushing etc respectively at the entry for go v. Cross-References Cross-References on the LDOCE4 CD-ROM take users not only to the target entry, but also to the relevant part of the entry; a facility which can save considerable time when long entries are involved. For example, at the entry for horse there is a cross-reference ߛ never/don't look a gift horse in the mouth at gift (7). Clicking on this crossreference takes the user straight to sense 7 of gift.

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Hyperlinks CD-ROM MLDs offer a variety of hyperlinks which can greatly speed up consultation times. These include: – clicking on any word in an entry, to go to the entry for that word. This includes words used in definitions, examples, and illustrations as well as cross-references to synonyms, antonyms, and other related words. – clicking on any word in a list, to go to the entry for that word. Such lists include not only the main headword list, but also subsidiary lists such as LDOCE4’s Word Set lists. – clicking on any word in a box or note, to go to the entry for that word, e.g. a word family box or a usage note. – clicking on any word in a minor window (e.g. LDOCE4’s Phrase Bank or Examples Bank) to go to the full entry for that word, and – a direct link between the A-Z text and the thematic dictionary/thesaurus. The Links between a Conventional Learner’s Dictionary and a Thematic Learner’s Dictionary LDOCE4 CD-ROM If users of the LDOCE4 CD-ROM are in ‘dictionary’ mode, they can link to the thematic Activator via the Activate Your Language window located at the bottom right of the screen. For instance, on consulting the entry for hot1 adj, the Activate Your Language window shows: when you feel hot hot zwarm z boiling/roasting z sweltering z have/run a temperature z feverish room/place/weather hot z the heat z boiling/boiling hot z broiling z baking/baking hot z sweltering z stifling/stifling hot z muggy/humid z oppressive z like an oven z heatwave food/drink hot z piping hot z steaming/steaming hot z scalding/scalding hot z objects/surfaces/liquids hot z heat z boiling/boiling hot z scalding/scalding hot z molten

84 fashionable fashionable z cool z hot z trendy z stylish z chic z cult z in z hip z happening with a hot taste hot z spicy z fiery hot weather hot z boiling/scorching z warm z mild z humid to keep changing your mind vacillate z fickle z blow hot and cold to get hot or hotter get hot/warm/hotter/warmer z heat up z warm up z overheat recently made or produced new z latest z be just out z recent z be hot off the press

The bold headings shown are the titles of sections that have been extracted from various keywords in the Activator. Below each section heading are the exponents that are listed at the section in question. In the above instance, the sections have been drawn together from the following keywords. section when you feel hot room/place/weather food/drink objects/surfaces/liquids fashionable with a hot taste hot weather to keep changing your mind to get hot or hotter recently made or produced

keyword HOT HOT HOT HOT FASHIONABLE/NOT FASHIONABLE TASTE WEATHER CHANGE/NOT CHANGE HOT NEW

The Activate Your Language window takes the user into the Activator in two ways. The first access route is via the list of exponents. By clicking on any one of these, the user is transferred to the section of the Activator where the exponent is located. The second means of entry to the Activator is less predictable. By clicking on the double arrow next to the heading of the Activate Your Language window, the software gathers together semantically related keywords from the Activator and displays them in a list e.g. HOT, NEW etc.

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CALD CD-ROM There are two ways of using the Smart Thesaurus: 1) by accessing it from a sense of a word in the A-Z dictionary, and 2) by using the thesaurus’s browse function. In the first case, each sense is provided with a link button to the Smart Thesaurus. If users click on the link button at macaroni, the thesaurus window appears (see Figure 16 below). This window is divided into three columns under the heading ‘words related to: macaroni’. The left-hand column lists the related words (cannelloni, gnocchi etc.) in alphabetical order, the middle column provides the full entries for the items, and the right-hand column shows the subject field(s) which each item belongs to (e.g. pasta). The bottom right-hand corner of the thesaurus window has a ‘browse SMART thesaurus’ button. When this button is clicked on, the right-hand column of the thesaurus window shows that part of the hierarchical structure of the thesaurus which contains the subject field (e.g. pasta) revealed by a thesaurus search. The subject field in question is highlighted in blue to make it easier to identify. From this point, the user can navigate around the thesaurus hierarchy, e.g. by looking at other items at the same level (e.g. bread and pancakes and batter) or at the next highest level (e.g. foods). Sections can be expanded to reveal their subsections by clicking on the + (plus) button. Conversely, the – (minus) button is used to collapse subsections. By clicking on any item (i.e. node) in the line diagram of the hierarchical structure of the thesaurus, the words within that particular semantic field are displayed. The Smart Thesaurus has a steep pyramidal hierarchy consisting of 21 top-level topics: 1) Building and civil engineering 2) Chemistry 3) Finance and business 4) Sports and games 5) History 6) Science 7) Arts and entertainment 8) Education 9) Religion 10) Society 11) War and the military 12) Clothes, belongings and personal care 13) Life, death and the living world 14) Using the mind 15) Light and colour 16) Movement and location 17) General/abstract 18) Comparing and classifying 19) Chance and possibility 20) Importance

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21) Communication.

Figure 16) CALD CD-ROM Smart Thesaurus Search on ‘macaroni’ As is evident from the above list, the Smart Thesaurus covers both concrete and abstract items. It is not known whether the subject classification underlying the CALD thesaurus was created specifically for the CD-ROM or borrowed from elsewhere. There appears, however, to be little or no concession to foreign language learners in terms of simplifying the language of the topic headings. The headings contain highlevel language such as: ‘Carpentry and joinery’, ‘Hiking and orienteering’, and ‘The human torso’. It raises the question as to what extent users are expected to navigate their way around this hierarchical structure. This is compounded by the fact that, unlike the Activator component of the LDOCE CD-ROM, the Smart Thesaurus’s overall structure is covert, i.e. it is not visible as the first point of access which the user encounters. Each top-level topic is divided into a maximum of six levels e.g. Society + Crime and the law + Crime + Punishments + Prisons and related terms + People held in prison

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While it is possible for users to begin exploration from the topmost level of the hierarchy (as in the original Rogetian conception of thesaurus use), this is unlikely to be the intended way in which publishers envisaged the scheme to be used. Instead, the user lands in a particular part of the hierarchy and is thereby encouraged to explore neighbouring semantic areas. Other thematic dictionaries, such as the Longman Activator series, achieve the same end by means of cross-references. Certain formulae are used in the topic headings to indicate the various types of section. These are listed below. Abbreviations used in X e.g. Abbreviations used in publishing Branches of X e.g. Branches and types of mathematics Groups of X e.g. Groups of crop plants and economic plants Expressions of X e.g. Expressions of anger Feelings of X e.g. Feelings of dislike and hatred Properties of X e.g. Properties of circles and curves Informal terms for X e.g. Informal terms for the sexual organs Informal words for X e.g. Informal words for good Names of X e.g. Names of dances Terms for X e.g. Terms for numbers Words used to describe X e.g. Words used to describe textiles Words meaning X e.g. Words meaning small pieces and amounts X and parts of X e.g. Roofs and parts of roofs General words for X e.g. General words for fun X – general words e.g. Animal and plant biology – general words X in general e.g. Media in general … connected with X e.g. Objects and decorations connected with celebrations Describing X e.g. Describing good weather Relating to X e.g. Relating to detection and solving crimes Kinds of X e.g. Kinds of book Types of X e.g. Types of rock Lacking X e.g. Lacking humour Not X e.g. Not fit and healthy People who X e.g. People who sell sex or are promiscuous Places involved in X e.g. Places involved in military activity Miscellaneous X e.g. Miscellaneous pastimes and their participants Other X e.g. Other water sports OALDCE7 CD-ROM The link between OALDCE7’s Dictionary and the thematic Wordfinder is via the Wordfinder window positioned at bottom right in the Dictionary window. For instance, if the user types ‘toast’ into the Dictionary search, the Wordfinder window locates the keyword BREAD. The Wordfinder window can be expanded to show the whole of the

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Wordfinder contents under the keyword. Users may scroll down the information at BREAD until they come to the section entitled ways of eating bread, at which the following entry will be found: – bread which is made brown by heating: toast (noun U) a slice of toast for breakfast.

User Guidance and Practice Clickable Grammar Codes and Labels Monolingual learner’s dictionaries are sometimes criticized for employing grammatical codes and labels that can be difficult for learners to understand. CALD addresses this issue by supplying a brief explanation in a pop-up box whenever a part of speech or grammar code is clicked on. For example, verb is described as “A word that describes an action, condition, or experience” and [T] is explained as “Transitive verb: a verb that has an object”.

Exercises The LDOCE4 CD-ROM divides its exercises into five categories: 1) Grammar, 2) Vocabulary, 3) Culture, 4) Listening, and 5) Exam Practice. Content Input by Users Users can add notes to any MED entry. These notes are saved in a special window on the right-hand side of the screen. MED’s self-testing function uses ‘flashcards’ which can be set to show: 1) the headword, 2) the entry without the headword, 3) the note, or 4) the note and the entry without the headword. Record Your Own Pronunciation Function Most of the CD-ROMs allow the users to record their own pronunciation of a word that can later be played back and compared with the audioclip of the relevant headword which has been recorded by a native speaker. Such a feature could equally well be incorporated into a BTD CD-ROM.

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2.3.2. The Different Types of Learner’s Dictionary An overview of the most frequently published types of learner’s dictionary can be gained from the catalogue of any major publisher of EFL dictionaries. Figure 17 below categorizes the dictionaries in the Longman Dictionaries catalogue into a number of broad types. Hybrid dictionaries can be created by combining typological elements. At present, for understandable commercial reasons, serious BTDs for EFL learners tend to be general-purpose works. The potential exists, however, for the creation of more specialized hybrid works, e.g. a BTD for a particular subject area such as law. Publishers face the challenge of trying to identify types of learner’s dictionary which would both benefit from a BTD treatment and also be commercially viable. Typological Parameter User Characteristics Age group Level of linguistic competence Physical Characteristics of the Text Dominant textual element Size Print format/Electronic format

Textual Content re Language as a Whole Language variety No. of languages

Textual Content re Part of the Language Focus on written/spoken language Focus on a particular type of lexeme Focus on a particular subject Textual Content re Using the Language Error avoidance Focus on language production (from meaning to word) Arrangement of the Textual Content Alphabetically arranged/Non-alphabetically arranged Access via headwords/Access via topics

Example Text Picture Dictionary for Young Learners Longman Elementary Dictionary Longman Picture Dictionary Longman Mini English Dictionary Longman Handy Learner’s Dictionary (print) Longman Interactive English Dictionary (CD-ROM) Longman Basic Dictionary of American English Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (monolingual) Longman English-Polish/Polish-English Dictionary (bilingual) Longman Pronunciation Dictionary Longman Phrasal Verbs Dictionary Longman Business English Dictionary Longman Dictionary of Common Errors Longman Language Activator Longman Wordwise Dictionary (alphabetically arranged) Longman Dictionary of American English (Access via headwords) Longman Essential Activator (Access via topics)

Figure 17) A Typology of Longman Learner’s Dictionaries

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Active and Passive Learner’s Dictionaries The terms active and passive are sometimes employed to distinguish different types of learner’s dictionary. Hartmann and James (DOL:3) define an active dictionary as: A type of DICTIONARY designed to help with encoding tasks, such as the production of a text. In monolingual lexicography, the typical example of an active dictionary is the THESAURUS, whose main function is to provide vocabulary choice for the writer; in bilingual lexicography the function addressed is translation into the foreign language. The PASSIVE DICTIONARY, by contrast, is aimed primarily at decoding tasks such as reading.

Active Monolingual Learner’s Dictionaries The word active has positive connotations in general language and it is perhaps not surprising that it has been used in dictionary titles such as the Longman Active Study Dictionary. Use of this term has, however, been used to signal a shift in lexicographic emphasis. In recent years, general MLDs have introduced elements designed to increase their ability to help users with encoding such as active words, various types of vocabulary expansion box including so-called thesaurus boxes, and pages of pictorial illustrations focusing on particular topics. The Need for a More Active Learner’s Dictionary Previous MLDs were considered to be biased towards the reader or listener, i.e. ‘passive’ dictionary users seeking the meanings of words or phrases, and met their needs by organizing the lexemes in alphabetical order. They largely neglected, however, ‘active’ users who began with a meaning and wanted to express it with a word or phrase (LLA1:F12). The Thematic Learner’s Dictionary as the Archetypal Active Dictionary Some encoding features in semasiological MLDs, such as the generous provision of examples to illustrate syntactic and collocational patterns, are not compromised by the alphabetical ordering of the headwords in a single wordlist. However, other thematic features, such as wordlists or illustrations organized according to topics, have to be placed in the middle or back matter. The emergence of thematic learner’s dictionaries was therefore a logical step in the evolution of learner’s dictionaries. The most active of learner’s dictionaries are those which are thematically organized. This is reflected in the titles of Longman’s monolingual Activator series which refer to themselves as production dictionaries.

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Active Bilingual Learner’s Dictionaries The concept of the active dictionary has also been extended to thematic bilingual works. As mentioned earlier, traditional bilingual dictionaries have, however, come under criticism, either for not providing enough translation equivalents, especially phrases, or for not supplying enough information of a grammatical, stylistic, or collocational nature to allow learners to choose between the translation exponents and therefore to encode effectively. This criticism, along with the lack of grouping by meaning, has been used by the publishers of LLA1 (F24) as an argument in favour of the monolingual thematic learner’s dictionary. Whilst these objections may be valid for many bilingual dictionaries, it is not their bilingual nature per se that is the problem, but their traditional content. There is no reason why a bilingual dictionary should not include improved encoding-oriented information or should not be thematic. The Dual Activeness Dilemma Blending the requirements of an active learner’s dictionary with those of a text that is also bilingual and thematic is not without its complications. Measured against the Hartmann and James definition cited earlier, the thematic learner’s dictionary clearly falls into the category of active dictionaries on account of its encoding function. Although an unconventional and additional use of the term ‘active’, it could also be applied to the directionality of translation. In this latter sense, a bilingual dictionary can either be active if it aids translation from L1 into L2 or passive if it serves translation from L2 into L1. Thus, there are two types of activeness which might be somewhat inelegantly termed encoding activeness and translational activeness. Theoretically and syllogistically, a bilingual thematic dictionary is unavoidably active due to its productive function, and may or may not be active in terms of its translation function depending on its directionality. Interestingly, all the BTDs surveyed have opted for a translationally inactive L2-L1 arrangement without a corresponding L1-L2 half. This conflict between the active nature of encoding and the passivity of the translation direction could be referred to as the dual activeness dilemma. If a BTD is unidirectionally oriented in terms of translation, the L2-L1 arrangement is arguably the only practical option in the eyes of publishers. A dually active dictionary would unavoidably contain a considerable amount of repetition. For example, if a French-English BTD for French speakers gives ‘child’ as a translation of ‘enfant’, in order to fulfil its encoding function completely, full information about ‘child’ would be required e.g. the irregular plural inflection, together with sufficient examples and collocational information. If other translation equivalents were provided, e.g. ‘kid’, full encoding information would have to be supplied for each of these.

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Example of Bilingual Pair L2 headwords and L1 translations (Serves L2→L1 translation, therefore translationally ‘passive’) L1 headwords and L2 translations (Serves L1→L2 translation, therefore translationally ‘active’)

English-French dictionary for French speakers

French-English dictionary for English speakers French-English dictionary for French speakers

Thematic Arrangement (productively ‘active’) e.g. CWR/Fr

e.g. CFET

English-French dictionary for English speakers

Figure 18) A Matrix of Bilingual Pairs and Thematic Arrangements The direction of translation also affects the headings of categories and subcategories, i.e. whether L1, L2, or both are used, and in the last case, their relative order (see Figure 18 above). For example, CWR/Fr has L2 headwords with L1 translation equivalents within the sections. The subcategory headings are in L1 as would be expected, e.g. 139.1 Les gens en général. The category headings are in both L2 and L1 e.g. 139 People Les gens. The relative order of L2 and L1 perhaps runs counter to expectation, however. 2.3.3 What are the Desiderata for a Learner’s Dictionary? Meeting the Users’ Needs In order to be successful, a learner’s dictionary must meet the needs of its users. The problem lies in identifying what those needs are. Most learner’s dictionaries deal with the foreign language as a whole. This being the case, the envisaged users constitute a very broad group whose only known common characteristic, at least as far as monolingual works are concerned, is the fact that the users’ levels of language proficiency fall within a certain range. Editorial policies concerning such matters as inclusion, the manner of explaining meanings, the breadth and depth of lexicographic

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treatment at any given entry and so on, all have to be geared towards this somewhat vague target readership. Various sources of help are, however, available to lexicographers, e.g.: – piloting of material with learners at the relevant level of L2 competence. This is especially useful when deciding between various alternative versions of a particular feature such as a collocation box. – research into the types of text which, for example, upper intermediate learners are likely to read. If such texts are gathered into a corpus, frequency analysis can influence decisions regarding the inclusion of particular items of vocabulary. With regard to thematic learner’s dictionaries, it could also inform the compilers’ choice of topics. – research into the types of text which learners are expected to produce. This could involve, for example, finding out which written tasks are included in examinations at a particular level. – research into the types of written and spoken language which learners actually produce. This can be collected in a learners’ corpus and used to pinpoint problems commonly associated with particular vocabulary items. Such observations can form the basis of error avoidance notes. Learners’ corpora allow the lexicographer to discover how any piece of language is used by speakers of a particular language. This is useful when writing false friend notes, or notes which guide users towards accurate translation. If a learner’s dictionary is bilingual, the user group is at least restricted to speakers of a particular L1 learning a particular L2. BTDs often claim that they can answer the needs of speakers of a specific L1 through the provision of such features as: explanations in L1, translations of examples, false friend notes, and translation notes. A major criterion against which BTDs should be evaluated is the extent to which they provide information tailored to meet the specific needs of their L1 user group. Inclusion Learner’s dictionaries often broadly concur as to which items of vocabulary constitute the common core of a language. Members of this core vocabulary are often provided with a greater depth of lexicographic treatment than less frequent items are. Differences in inclusion policy tend to apply to more peripheral items of vocabulary. A commercial imperative exists for learner’s dictionaries to appear up-to-date. As a result, a restricted number of neologisms are often included in new editions of existing works. Archaic and dated words also present a problem. Sometimes, their inclusion is favoured on the grounds that users may come across them in literary works. However, the compilers cannot possibly know whether any given user will find such vocabulary useful. Learner’s dictionaries also vary as to whether encyclopedic entries, mainly proper names, are included. Considerations of space sometimes lead publishers to

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restrict the inclusion of such items to the CD-ROM edition of the dictionary. Inclusion policy also differs as regards regional varieties of English. Some learner’s dictionaries claim to include lexemes from many such varieties, but closer inspection often reveals that the total number of such items may be small. Faced with so many tricky inclusion decisions, the ultimate decision as to whether a particular word is included is often determined by what competing works have decided upon. Macrostructure In terms of macrostructure, as seen earlier, different forms of alphabetization have been used in semasiological MLDs, and there are other issues surrounding headword lists such as whether homograph numbers are employed or whether it is acceptable to place lexemes with different parts of speech under the same headword. However, these issues are unlikely to affect thematic learner’s dictionaries, even those which organize topics in alphabetical order, because an A-Z themelist at the uppermost level of the macrostructure contains far fewer topics than the overall total of headwords in a standard MLD. The macrostructural issues relating to thematic learner’s dictionaries are of a different nature (see Section 2.4.1) although a desideratum of any macrostructure is that it should lead users to the target information as efficiently as possible. Microstructure In order to fulfil its role as an active learner’s dictionary that serves the encoding/productive function, certain microstructural features must be present in a thematic learner’s dictionary e.g. extensive illustrative examples, information about meaning (in MTD definitions, in notes attached to translation equivalents in BTDs, and via semantic cross-references), information about grammar (by means of codes and syntactic patterns either before or within examples), and information about style, register, and pragmatics (via labels in both MTDs and BTDs, and in disambiguating notes attached to translation equivalents in BTDs). Other Features The encoding function can also be assisted by other features, especially notes of a comparative nature which help users to distinguish between near-synonyms.

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Access Routes One way of catering for the individual needs of a wide range of users seeking information in learner’s dictionaries is to provide a selection of different access routes. This is especially apparent in the CD-ROM versions of MLDs, which offer many different types of search, the possibility of combining search parameters, and the capability of proceeding from a semasiological to an onomasiological dictionary. Access choice becomes especially important in the case of thematic learner’s dictionaries which depart from an alphabetical arrangement of the contents. A desideratum of any search mechanism is that it should both maximize the probability of users hitting the target information and not present the user with irrelevant data. User Guidance and Practice Learner’s dictionaries need to supply sufficient guidance to allow users to derive maximum benefit from the text. This is especially the case where thematic learner’s dictionaries are concerned, as such dictionaries are likely to be less familiar to users. The same applies to practice activities. Both desiderata are in harmony with contemporary pedagogical demands to encourage learner independence. 2.3.4 A Checklist of Monolingual Learner’s Dictionary Features and Choices Having examined a number of MLDs in both print and electronic formats, it is now possible to draw up a checklist of features which this type of dictionary could potentially contain, and to present the different choices associated with each feature (see Appendix 1). Compilers of learner’s dictionaries can use the list to select those features and their accompanying options in accordance with the aims of the dictionary and its target users.

2.4

The Bilingual Thematic Dictionary as a Type of Thematic Dictionary

2.4.1 What is Thematic Lexicography? Definitions of Thematic Lexicography Thematic lexicography has been defined as: A complex of activities concerned with the design, compilation, use, and evaluation of THEMATIC DICTIONARIES. (DOL:142)

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This definition hangs crucially on the term thematic dictionary which the same authors define as: A type of REFERENCE WORK which uses THEMATIC ORDER as an organising principle, e.g. a THESAURUS or an ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. (Ibid:Ibidem)

In turn, thematic order is defined as: The systematic ARRANGEMENT of information in a reference work according to classes of topics. (Ibid:Ibidem)

These three definitions can be conflated into a single explicit, if longwinded, definition of thematic lexicography: A complex of activities concerned with the design, compilation, use, and evaluation of REFERENCE WORKs which use a systematic ARRANGEMENT of information according to classes of topics as an organising principle, e.g. a THESAURUS or an ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY.

Two Senses of ‘Thematic’ The term thematic can be used to describe both the arrangement of the contents of a dictionary and the objects that are arranged. In the first usage, a thematic dictionary with a thematically arranged macrostructure stands in contrast to a dictionary with an alphabetically arranged macrostructure i.e. that of a standard dictionary. In the second usage, a thematic dictionary whose macrostructure consists of themes stands in opposition to a dictionary whose macrostructure consists of a list of headwords. Its macrostructure comprises one or more of what might be termed themelists rather than wordlist(s). A particular work can be thematic in both the senses mentioned above. The distinction allows for the possibility that a text can be thematic in that the objects of its arrangement are topics, but the arrangement itself is non-thematic i.e. alphabetical. Two Types of Macrostructural Arrangement and Initial Points of Access There are two basic choices as regards the macrostructural arrangement (i.e. alphabetical or thematic) and the initial point of access (i.e. headword or theme). By combining these two sets of choices, three types of dictionary can be generated: Type 1) an alphabetically arranged dictionary with one or more central wordlists e.g. (for non-native speakers): standard MLDs such as CALD, CCALED, LDOCE4, MED, and OALDCE7 e.g. (for native speakers): CED

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Type 2) an alphabetically arranged dictionary with one or more themelists e.g. (for non-native speakers): LEA, LLA, LPA, OLWD, Parts 4 and 5 of SFSDAT e.g. (for native speakers): Descriptionary Type 3) a thematically arranged dictionary with one or more themelists e.g. (for non-native speakers): CFET, the CWR series e.g. (for native speakers): Roget’s Thesaurus. A fourth type (a thematically arranged dictionary with a central wordlist) could theoretically be created by listing next to each other headwords belonging to particular themes. Such a work would, however, be of little practical use. Without an index, access would be severely hindered because the user would be given no indication as to where to find words belonging to a particular theme. It would also be difficult to work out where one theme ends and another begins. In other words, a thematically ordered central list requires at least one superordinate level of themes. In addition to the Types 1) - 3) described above, the situation becomes more complex as regards LLA1. This topic-based dictionary interweaves its wordlist and themelist into one list, using typographical devices to distinguish between the two types of list item. The running index was, however, abandoned in the second edition (LLA2), presumably because it was deemed to be too confusing for users (see Section 2.8.3). In Type 1) dictionaries, the initial points of access (as regards the main text and ignoring access via index(es) if present) are words or phrases qua headwords. All the headwords in the wordlist are at the same level. This arrangement can be diagrammatically represented as follows: initial points of access: headword---headword---headword---headword---headword

Flat Macrostructural Hierarchies and Pyramid Macrostructural Hierarchies Dictionaries with themelists entail a hierarchy. Two basic types of hierarchy exist: a flat hierarchy and a pyramid hierarchy. These are shown below. 1) a flat hierarchy with one layer of (thematic) macrostructure: theme---------------theme--------------theme--------------theme--------------theme | | | | | – headword – headword – headword – headword – headword – headword – headword – headword – headword – headword – headword – headword – headword – headword – headword

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The Longman Activator series employs a flat hierarchy with an alphabetically ordered themelist. The Cambridge Word Routes series is also structured in a flat hierarchy, but its themelist places semantically related topics next to each other to a certain degree. A detailed critical analysis of the hierarchies of the two series will be provided in the sections devoted to the specific texts. At this juncture, however, suffice it to say that in both cases the macrostructure presents users with problems when attempting to locate an initial point of access to the lexemes required to express a particular meaning. If the number of themes runs into the hundreds (as is the case with LLA and CWR), users are likely to have difficulty remembering them all, even though this may improve as the text becomes more familiar through repeated use. Faced with an alphabetically ordered themelist arranged in a flat hierarchy, the user has to try to guess or remember which theme (often referred to as a keyword or concept) a particular item of vocabulary is likely to be found under. Thus, if a word meaning ‘freezing’ is sought after, the user may hope that there is a keyword COLD and will therefore look in the C section of the alphabetical themelist. A user with the same search query who is confronted with CWR’s themelist will not only have to hope that COLD exists as a keyword, but faces the additional task of trying to find where this could be located within the themelist. Both the Activator and the Word Routes series are furnished with alphabetical indexes and these appear to be intended as the primary access routes to the linguistic exponents sought to express any given meaning. Locating cold (the headword) and/or COLD (the keyword) in the index will lead the user to the precise section required, or at least to a neighbouring section which contains items belonging to the semantic field concerned. An electronic version of a TLD with a type-in search field can speed up the lookup process by circumventing the macrostructure and taking the user directly to the target section. Another problem with the flat hierarchy model, especially when an alphabetical themelist is involved, is that the semantic links between related themes are lost, e.g. EAT, FOOD, and MEAL all fall in different parts of the alphabet. This has to be compensated for by extensive use of cross-references. Again, an electronic TLD, such as a CD-ROM, can accelerate the lookup procedure and thereby encourage learners to follow up cross-references which they might spurn in a print version. The rationale behind the flat hierarchy of LLA1 has been explained in terms of viewing the vocabulary of a language as a network rather than a tree. 2) a pyramid hierarchy with two or more layers of (thematic) macrostructure: theme----------theme----------theme | | | theme---------------theme--------------theme--------------theme--------------theme | | | | | – headword – headword – headword – headword – headword – headword – headword – headword – headword – headword – headword – headword – headword – headword – headword

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The archetypal pyramid hierarchy is that of Roget’s Thesaurus. Any thematic dictionary whose macrostructure is arranged hierarchically is arguably related to Roget, however distantly. None of the monolingual thematic dictionaries in this study are organized in this fashion, although the alphabetically ordered OLWD does arrange its front matter pages of Topic Areas in a pyramid hierarchy. It is not a table of contents in the conventional sense, because the topics and keywords are not listed in the order in which they appear in the text. A major drawback with Roget’s pyramid hierarchy is that the top-level themes are very general and hence highly abstract. Consequently, it is cumbersome and timeconsuming for users to work their way down through the macrostructural levels as they move from the general to the specific, and there is always the risk that they may start off from the wrong place as they are forced to guess the most promising route to goal. For this reason, a rudimentary index was included in Roget despite this not being the author’s original intention. Learner’s thesauri that employ a pyramid hierarchy, such as CFET, have a far simpler classificatory system than Roget. Their uppermost themelists are nowhere near as intangible as those in Roget. Nevertheless, all such works choose to provide users with an alternative and indeed primary access route, namely the index. It could be posited that there may be a level of abstraction beyond which the average user is not comfortable dealing with. The pyramid hierarchy retains the semantic networks that are dismantled by a flat hierarchy. Alphabetical Arrangement and Thematic Arrangement What is Alphabetical Order? Alphabetic(al) order is defined by Hartmann and James (DOL:5) as: The conventional sequence of the letters of an ALPHABET. In languages whose script is based on the LATIN ALPHABET, arrangement of entries by the orthographic form of the HEADWORDS allows compilers and users of reference works to locate INFORMATION.

The notion of alphabetical order is not difficult to grasp, but it has not always been the most popular method of arranging material in dictionaries, and there exist variations on the theme of alphabetization. The Different Types of Alphabetical Order With regard to arranging the macrostructure of a dictionary, not all alphabetical systems are the same. There are two basic types of alphabetical ordering: 1) letter-by-letter order in which spaces are ignored e.g.

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American American English Americanese Americanism American language and 2) word-by-word order in which a shorter word precedes all longer words starting with the same sequence of letters e.g. American American English American language Americanese Americanism Dictionaries also vary as to whether they include subentries and, if so, how those subentries are constructed. Run-on entries also take headwords out of their alphabetical order in the headword list. Unlike LDOCE4 and MED, CALD does not use homograph numbers. Also in contrast to the other two dictionaries, the same graphic form with the same part of speech and pronunciation may appear more than once as main entries with different major senses. Thus, there are five headwords for mad adj corresponding to the senses [MENTALLY ILL], [FOOLISH], [HURRYING], [ANGRY], and [ENTHUSIASTIC] whereas a single headword suffices for the other two MLDs. The advantage of the CALD system is that it shows which derivatives apply to which senses. This arguably assists encoding although at the expense of accessibility. For example, users of LDOCE4 and MED will find maddening in its expected alphabetical position in the headword list whereas a CALD user will not. The compilers are relying on the user searching through adjacent entries to locate maddening at mad [ANGRY]. Another problem with the CALD arrangement is that it is not clear why some polysemous items are treated like mad with separate headwords for different senses whereas others, e.g. machine n, which is assigned four senses, are not. In addition, CALD differs markedly from the other two MLDs in that it makes greater use of subentries. For example, the entry for machine n contains the defined subentries machine v, machinery n, and machinist. In LDOCE4 and MED, all these words have main entry status in the headword list. Since the CALD arrangement has taken the three words in the subentries out of their alphabetical positions in the headword list, more effort is required on the part of the user to find them. Conversely, by grouping these semantically related words together, CALD perhaps aids vocabulary building. It could be argued that, as far as this feature is concerned, CALD promotes encoding whereas LDOCE4 and MED give decoding precedence.

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The Advantages and Disadvantages of Alphabetical and Thematic Ordering Dictionaries are nowadays prototypically thought of as alphabetically organized reference texts. The advantages of alphabetical order are its familiarity, fixed nature, and objectivity. Native-speaker users will usually have few problems locating headwords that are ordered according to a system learnt at an early age and commonly encountered in a wide range of reference works. A non-native speaker’s ability to handle this arrangement will depend on such factors as the degree of difference between the L1 and L2 alphabets, level of competence and experience in L2 learning, and individual memory capability. The alphabet consists of a finite number of letters in a fixed order. As such, it has an objectivity which any thematic system unavoidably lacks. Alphabetical ordering results in all the meanings of a word being assembled in one place. In a thematic dictionary, the word will appear in different places for each of its senses. To some extent, a thematic dictionary can compensate for this sense dispersal and lack of an overview of a lexeme’s meaning spectrum if it has an alphabetical index where references are provided under meaning indicators for each sense of a word, as for example in LLCE (Jackson 1988:221). The benefits of alphabetical order are so enduring that some dictionaries with thematic content have opted to arrange their themes alphabetically: Although the dictionary uses grouping by concept as a very important aid to production, the dictionary is in alphabetical order. The Key Words themselves are in alphabetical order, and all the individual word- and phrase-meanings are also in alphabetical order. If you already know the word allegation and want to find out how to use it correctly, you look in A, and are directed to the appropriate Key Word SAY/STATE in S. (LLA1:F10)

If a single item is being looked up, alphabetical order may serve the user well as a convenient and rapid access device. It is more questionable, however, whether alphabetical order is the best arrangement for describing the vocabulary of a language as an interconnected whole. Certain user needs may be easier to fulfil by using another ordering principle. The introductory matter of thematic dictionaries (e.g. OOT:xxiii and USS:12) often mentions the fact that alphabetical order splits up related lexemes as the driving force behind the need to adopt an alternative arrangement. It has been pointed out that the logic of alphabetical order is not the logic of everyday life, and that words ought to be defined in the light of the company they keep (LLCE:vi). In fact, claims to reflect life and the universe are characteristic of thematically organized reference works. Contemporary users will be familiar with hierarchical subject classification schemes through their use of reference software such as CDROM encyclopedias and internet search engines. The title of the Random House Word Menu was aptly chosen: The author chose the title carefully, to reflect the idea of a detailed list of items, or minutiae, married to the computer-age concept of a menu: a list of options available to the user. The Random House Webster’s Word Menulists provide a schematic that opens up the English language in a way never before realized. (RHWWM:xvi)

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Being able to find all the vocabulary relating to a particular topic in one place can also speed up consultation rates as compared with having to look up each item separately (ODPGED:7). Consultation of this kind also depends on the user’s existing knowledge and is unlikely to lead to vocabulary expansion through the acquisition of previously unknown lexemes. The word set function on CD-ROM semasiological MLDs does, however, present a partial solution to this problem by gathering together words belonging to a lexical field even if the definitions are not written in such a way that explicit contrasts are made between near-synonyms, as should be the case in a thematic dictionary. Jackson (2002:145) brings attention to two types of morphological relation which are disrupted by alphabetical ordering. The first of these applies to words that are derived by prefixation (e.g. discourage and courage). Under normal circumstances, there is no indication at the entry for the root (e.g. courage) that it has a prefixed derivative. The second morphological link that is disconnected by an A-Z arrangement is the one that holds between nouns (often of Old English origin) that have matching adjectives (usually derived ultimately from Latin) e.g. lung and pulmonary, or church and ecclesiastical. Several CD-ROM MLDs compensate for the first type of morphological disconnection by providing a word family function which lists common affixed items pertaining to a particular root word. The second type of morphological disruption is less well catered for. Although a definition of pulmonary will mention lungs, the entry for lung in most MLDs usually does not cross-refer to pulmonary. This is where a link to a TLD on a CD-ROM could potentially prove its worth, as the user is transferred from the A-Z dictionary to the thematic dictionary where pulmonary could, for example, be listed next to other exponents grouped together under a section dealing with the respiratory system. Alphabetical ordering has been criticized for embodying an atomistic perspective on vocabulary and by largely treating each word in isolation (Ibid:146). Each entry only makes a limited selection of links to other words through cross-references to synonyms, antonyms etc and the illustration of syntagmatic and collocational patterns. The lexicon is, however, a system whose relations are both paradigmatic (e.g. antonymy, hyponymy, meronymy, and synonymy) and syntagmatic (e.g. collocation). Lexicographers working on thematic dictionaries undertake a form of lexical field analysis, albeit often informally or subconsciously, when deciding which exponents to group together in a section. Lexical field analysis involves gathering together lexemes on the basis of shared meaning. Once relationships between different lexical fields are identified, the structure of the language as a whole becomes clearer. However, as Jackson (Ibid:Ibidem) points out, there is no single correct way of determining what constitutes a lexical field. The above-mentioned subjectivity of any subject classification scheme is therefore unavoidable. The idiosyncrasy of any subject classification scheme need not, however, prevent its adoption as long as the aims of the reference work are attained. As far as pedagogical lexicography is concerned, thematic order facilitates encoding, the raison d’être of the so-called production dictionaries. In order to expand their vocabulary, learners need to create constellations of semantically related lexical items (USS:i).

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It is necessary to group near-synonyms or semantically close lexical items in order to explain the differences between them so that the exact word required can be chosen. This is often used by TLDs as a justification for adopting a thematic arrangement (e.g. CWR/It:vii). Another reason, derived from psycholinguistic research, for using a thematic arrangement for a pedagogical dictionary is that it is widely thought to be easier to learn words if they are recorded in groups of semantically related items (LLA1:F17). The fact, however, that the majority of non-alphabetic thematic learner’s dictionaries provide a back-matter index, rather than expect their users to work their way through the macrostructural hierarchy, suggests that thematic organization still presents a number of access problems. Combining Alphabetical and Thematic Approaches Not surprisingly, therefore, a number of thematic dictionaries have opted to combine alphabetical and thematic approaches in order to exploit the advantages of both ordering systems. Some topical reference works, such as Using Spanish Synonyms, order their categories alphabetically. Other texts, such as The Order of Things, order the top level of the macrostructure thematically, but arrange their subcategories alphabetically. The items listed in the indexes at the back of thematic dictionaries are naturally placed in alphabetical order. Onomasiology and Semasiology In metalexicographic discussions of thematic lexicography, the terms onomasiology and semasiology are sometimes used. They have been defined as follows: onomasiology An approach in SEMANTICS which is concerned with the matching of the most appropriate word or phrase to a given CONCEPT. When its principles are applied to the ‘tip of the tongue’ phenomenon, the result can be a reference work (an ONOMASIOLOGICAL DICTIONARY) which guides the user from relatively well-known concepts to relatively less familiar words, in contrast to the traditional SEMASIOLOGICAL DICTIONARY in which relatively unknown words are explained in terms of familiar ones. The onomasiological approach is associated with the solution of word-finding problems and the creation of TERMINOLOGY. Ö ACTIVE DICTIONARY, WORD-FINDING DICTIONARY Kipfer 1986

(DOL:102)

104 semasiology An approach in SEMANTICS concerned with the explanation of given words or phrases. Traditional monolingual and bilingual dictionaries supply such semasiological information (e.g. in terms of DEFINITIONS and TRANSLATION EQUIVALENTS), while thesauruses, synonym dictionaries and specialist terminologies follow the opposite route (ONOMASIOLOGY) and guide the user to a choice of words appropriate for the expression of particular meanings or concepts. Svensén 1993

(Ibid:124) The derivative adjectives onomasiological and semasiological are used to refer to both types of information and to dictionaries: onomasiological information One of the INFORMATION CATEGORIES presented by the compiler and consulted by the user of a reference work, based on SENSE RELATIONS, or paradigmatic choices between semantically linked words or phrases.

(Ibid:102) onomasiological dictionary A type of REFERENCE WORK which presents words or phrases as expressions of semantically linked CONCEPTS, which may be meanings, ideas, notions, word families and similar relationships. These can be designated in a number of different ways: by pictures, words, terms, definitions, synonyms or translation equivalents. The important criterion is the direction from concept to word, rather than from word to explanation (as in the traditional SEMASIOLOGICAL DICTIONARY). Typical examples of onomasiological dictionaries are the THESAURUS, the SYNONYM DICTIONARY and the WORD-FINDING DICTIONARY. Because of this conceptual, systematic, or ideological approach, THEMATIC ORDER is sometimes preferred to ALPHABETICAL ORDER. Ö ACTIVE DICTIONARY, PARADIGMATIC RELATIONS, REVERSE-ORDER DICTIONARY. Šarćević 1989, van Sterkenburg 1992, Svensén 1993, Hüllen 1994.  Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases (P.M. Roget), London, 1852; A Dictionary of Selected Synonyms in the Principal European Languages (C.D. Buck), Chicago IL, 1094; The Oxford Thesaurus. An A-Z Dictionary of Synonyms (L. Urdang), Oxford, 1991.

(Ibid:Ibidem) semasiological dictionary A type of REFERENCE WORK which presents and explains the meanings of a given word or phrase, in contrast to the ONOMASIOLOGICAL DICTIONARY which shows the various words that can be used to express a given meaning. Svensén 1993 (Ibid:124)

Furthermore, it should be pointed out that a certain number of anglophone commentators do not like using the paired technical terms semasiology/onomasiology and semasiological/onomasiological, on the grounds that these words are by no means the easiest to pronounce and are used not in common parlance, but only by metalexicogra-

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phers. McArthur (1998:161) feels that the terms are more useful in Continental European circles and that they are limited in usefulness because they are not natural opposites. The terms do, however, have the advantage of encapsulating meanings that would otherwise have to be conveyed by a lengthy and perhaps clumsy paraphrase. In addition to referring to types of dictionary and information, semasiological and onomasiological are useful when referring to the direction in which a lookup, a text, or a feature of a text is oriented, i.e. from lexical item to meaning and from meaning to lexical item respectively. A distinction can be made between the user’s lookup orientation and the arrangement of information in the dictionary to serve either a semasiological or an onomasiological function. Semasiological features can appear in onomasiological dictionaries, and vice versa. Therefore, semasiological or onomasiological lookups, features, and lexicographic works are being dealt with. Consequently, four permutations can occur: 1) a semasiological lookup using a semasiological feature in a semasiological reference work, e.g. looking up the meaning of a word (e.g. overjoyed) by locating its entry in the alphabetical wordlist of an A-Z dictionary, 2) a semasiological lookup using a semasiological feature in an onomasiological reference work, e.g. looking up the meaning of a word (e.g. overjoyed) at its entry located in a subcategory (e.g. ‘very happy’) of a broader category (e.g. HAPPY). Note that this semasiological lookup with a subcategory was preceded by an onomasiological search for lexical items expressing a particular type of happiness, 3) an onomasiological lookup using an onomasiological feature in an onomasiological reference work, e.g. looking up a lexical item to express a particular meaning by working one’s way through the hierarchical macrostructure of a thesaurus from a general category (e.g. HAPPY) to a more specific subcategory (e.g. very happy), and 4) an onomasiological lookup using an onomasiological feature in a semasiological reference work, e.g. using a thesaurus note or vocabulary expansion note to discover lexical units (e.g. cheerful, relieved) expressing more specific meanings (e.g. ‘feeling happy’, ‘happy because you are no longer worried about something’ etc) than that conveyed by a rather general word (e.g. happy) found by locating its alphabetical position in the wordlist of an A-Z dictionary. In onomasiological lexicographic works for foreign language learning, the textual orientation is seldom purely onomasiological throughout the entire access route. For example, even in a Roget-influenced thesaurus where the users can advance onomasiologically from the general to the specific, i.e. via a broad topic (e.g. EMOTIONS) to a category (e.g. HAPPY) and then to a subcategory (e.g. ‘very happy’), once one has arrived at the lowest thematic level where a choice of lexical items (e.g. delighted, overjoyed) is presented, this onomasiological stream is interrupted and a switch to semasiological textual ordering occurs because the headwords (forms) precede the meanings (definitions or translations). The reason for this may largely be a matter of

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convention. Entries are traditionally headed by a word or phrase followed by a definition, in the case of monolingual works, and by a translation or series of translations in a bilingual dictionary. To maintain the onomasiological orientation would require a reversal of this conventional ordering which may be offputting to some users. Only one TLD takes this route: the OLWD. Another option, available to MTDs, is to dispense with definitions altogether and to precede each group of related words by a note which discusses their differences in meaning and use. Such is the approach taken by LPA. These radical treatments are, however, the ‘exceptions that prove the rule’. 2.4.2 Thematic Dictionaries Types of Thematic Dictionary Although thematic dictionaries may not be overtly signalled as such in their titles, a number of native speaker dictionaries of this type are on the market. In the following sections, four kinds of thematic dictionary are examined: monolingual thematic dictionaries for (primarily) native speakers (Descriptionary and Random House Webster’s Word Menu), reverse dictionaries (Oxford Reverse Dictionary), thematically-arranged picture dictionaries (Oxford-Duden Pictorial German and English Dictionary), and encyclopedic works (The Order of Things). Monolingual Thematic Dictionaries for Native Speakers Descriptionary Users The Descriptionary, subtitled “a thematic dictionary”, is aimed at native speakers of (American) English. Aims The front cover strapline (“the book for when you know what it is, but not what it is called”) indicates the central concern of the dictionary. It aims to plug gaps in the user’s vocabulary. These could either be items of vocabulary which the user has previously learnt, but cannot recall (the ‘tip of the tongue’ phenomenon) or new acquisitions to the user’s mental lexicon. Although it does not describe itself in such terms, the Descriptionary is designed to serve both active and passive functions i.e. to provide the meaning when the user is presented with an unfamiliar term, and to supply the required term when the subject is known to the user (Descriptionary:back cover).

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Its goal is to improve the user’s writing by rendering it more accurate and thereby more authoritative (Ibid:Ibidem). The Descriptionary claims superiority over thesauri because not only does it include synonyms, but it additionally covers words expressing other semantic relationships, such as that between parts and a whole (Ibid:xv). Its further aims are to entertain and to generate ideas. Inclusion The bias in the text is very much towards subject-specific vocabulary, often of a technical nature, that extends beyond everyday language. By glancing through the headings for the categories and subcategories etc, it immediately becomes apparent that the book is mainly concerned with lexical items that have concrete referents. Unsurprisingly, the vast majority of the linguistic exponents are nouns. The topics included in the Descriptionary range from the historical (e.g. CLOTHING OF ANCIENT GREECE) to the contemporary (e.g. THE INTERNET). Overall Structure and Textual Components A contents overview of the Descriptionary is shown below. Elements in round brackets are untitled in the text itself. This method of presentation applies to all Overall Structure and Textual Components sections of the current investigation. (brief title page) (full title page) (details of publication) Contents (dedication) Introduction A-Z 1,050 Words and expressions you should know Index

p. I p. III p. IV p. V-XI p. XIII p. XV p. 1-456 p. 457-499 p. 500-560

Macrostructure The main part of the book is divided into 22 alphabetically ordered categories: 1) Animals and Insects 2) Architecture 3) Art 4) Clothing

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5) Electronics 6) Environment 7) Finance 8) Food and Drink 9) Human Body and Mind 10) Language 11) Law 12) Magic and the Occult 13) Medicine 14) Military 15) Music 16) Occupations 17) Performing Arts and Broadcasting 18) Religions 19) Sports 20) Tools 21) Transportation 22) Weapons. Each category (e.g. OCCUPATIONS) is divided into between 1 and 33 subcategories which are also placed in alphabetical order, e.g. FARMING FIRE FIGHTING POLICE POLITICS PUBLISHING AND JOURNALISM. Some subcategories (e.g. PUBLISHING AND JOURNALISM) are further divided into alphabetically arranged subsubcategories (e.g. Book Publishing) and, very occasionally, into subsubsubcategories (e.g. Book Terms). The macrostructural shape is that of a pyramid hierarchy with the subcategory being the level that contains the highest number of elements: Category: Subcategory: Subsubcategory: Subsubsubcategory:

TRANSPORTATION SPACE FLIGHT Space Shuttle Shuttle Acronyms.

Subsubsubcategories are extremely rare, and many categories are not divided beyond subcategory level. The choice of top-level categories is highly idiosyncratic. For example, the category ANIMALS AND INSECTS has a subcategory WHALES, but no subcategories for broader subject areas such as FISH or REPTILES. Similarly, the category FOOD

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AND DRINK is restricted to just four subcategories: BOTTLES AND GLASSES, FRENCH COOKING TERMS, LIQUEURS, and WINES AND WINE TERMS. In the absence of topics such as everyday cooking equipment, techniques, and ingredients, the existing selection has a distinctly epicurean bias. Sections A side effect of the use of alphabetical order at all macrostructural levels is that odd bedfellows can be created at any given level. For example, within the category HUMAN BODY AND MIND the subcategories EARS, EYES, and HAIR can be found. These contain many medical terms (e.g. aero-otitis, ectropion, and paratrichosis). HAIR is subdivided into sections entitled Beards, Hairstyles, Hairstyles of the 18th Century, Hairstyles of the 19th Century, and Mustaches. An entirely different type of exponent is found at these subcategories e.g. goatee, dreadlocks, Adonis wig, curlicue, and walrus. The exponents in the subsequent subcategory HEART AND CIRCULATORY SYSTEM, which is divided into Arteries, Blood, and Veins, belong to medical terminology e.g. acetabular, erythrocytes, and azygos. A mixture of registers is found in certain base-level sections. For example, at Words about Words, a subcategory of LANGUAGE, linguistic terms such as agglutination and anacoluthon appear next to the informal words bilge and blather. Some sections deal with historical topics and are chronologically ordered e.g. Hairstyles of the 18th Century is followed by Hairstyles of the 19th Century. There are also lists of horse breeds, beef cattle breeds, pig breeds etc. In sum, it is difficult to identify what kind of user would find the eclectic mix of topics useful. Certain heading formulae are repeatedly used throughout the text e.g. X groups e.g. ANIMAL GROUPS parts of X e.g. Parts of a Shoe X styles/styles of X e.g. HOUSE STYLES, STYLES OF ARCHITECTURE X terminology e.g. MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY AND TESTS X terms e.g. ARCHITECTURE TERMS X types e.g. Headline Types types of X e.g. Types of Missiles and Rockets. Within each hierarchical level of the macrostructure, from subcategory downwards, the entries are listed in A-Z order. For example, the subsubcategory Book Publishing includes the following entries. academic press acknowledgments acquisitions editor adaptation addendum

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A minority of sections consist of alphabetical lists of undefined words. Sometimes these are organized into types, such as the subcategory Animal Groups: Animal camel

Group herd/flock

Male bull

Female cow

Young foal/calf

These categorized lists bear a degree of similarity to the tables in the Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English. Some sections are made up exclusively of proper nouns e.g. the subcategory Horse Breeds which contains the entries American albino, Andalusian, Appaloosa etc. The large number of entries within any given exponent section slows down the lookup process. For instance, users searching for a particular baseball term can soon find the subcategory ‘baseball’ under the category SPORTS. The problem is that they must then sift through 263 entries in the hope of finding the relevant term. Microstructure The entries consist of the headword in bold followed by the definition, e.g. academic press a small press or university press specializing in scholarly books

Certain entries contain meaning explanations which are encyclopedic insofar as the amount of information supplied is far greater than that required for a conventional definition, e.g. Phantom II a twin-engine, supersonic, multipurpose, all-weather jet fighter/bomber capable of operating from land or from aircraft carriers and armed with either nuclear or nonnuclear weapons. Also known as an F-4.

Other Features Towards the end of the Descriptionary before the index, there is an alphabetically ordered section entitled ‘150 Words and Expressions You Should Know’. This feature places the text in the thesaural tradition of self-improvement. It has a role similar to that of the active words in some MLDs in that it contains lexical items which the compilers consider worthy of particular attention. In similar fashion to the active words, the depth of lexicographic treatment accorded to the words in this section is greater than that provided for other words.

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Access Routes The two principal access routes to the contents of the Descriptionary are: via the table of contents and by means of the index. The table of contents is text-reflective i.e. it lists all the contents in the order in which they appear in the text and does not impose any other form of organization upon them. It is also comprehensive in that it contains all the categories and their subdivisions. The categories and their subcategories are alphabetically ordered. The table of contents, therefore, does not readily assist onomasiological lookups. A user engaged on a search from meaning to word has to leaf through seven pages of contents. A non-native user would find this even more timeconsuming, a situation aggravated by the large number of exponents contained in each base-level section. The index does not provide users with semantic pointers. For example, looking up eye in the index will lead the user to the subcategory FLOWERS AND PLANTS (defined as: “a mark or spot in the middle of the flower, prominent and of a different color from the rest of the flower”). Within the main text, there are no cross-references or other navigation devices to assist the user. The alphabetically ordered index simply gives the item followed by the page number e.g. symbiotic 495. The index consists solely of headwords. Category and subcategory headings are not included. Random House Webster’s Word Menu Users The Random House Webster’s Word Menu (RHWWM) is intended as a writer’s tool for native speakers and non-native speakers alike. Aims The author, Stephen Glazier, analyzed subject classification schemes such as those of Dewey, the Library of Congress, Peter Mark Roget, Francis Bacon, and the trivium and quadrivium of the Middle Ages (RHWWM:xvii). He devised a system that combined “a traditional approach to the division of knowledge with a contemporary hierarchical structure influenced by the computer age” (Ibid:Ibidem), hence the title Word Menu. He felt that Roget’s 1852 classification scheme of language required a long overdue overhaul for three reasons: 1) substantial social, cultural, and technological changes took place in the second half of the 20th century, 2) language has evolved accordingly and this should be reflected in lexicons, and 3) modern ways of thinking have also changed in the computer age. A number of uses are envisaged for the Word Menu, with a particular emphasis on its role as a creativity tool. Its “logical structure and word associations” (Ibid:xvi) are designed with the following goals in mind: to aid brainstorming when conducting

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preliminary research, to overcome memory lapses, to enliven written text, to expand the user’s vocabulary, and to help with solving crossword puzzles and other word games. Inclusion To serve its goal of contemporary relevance, the Word Menu contains a considerable amount of material that would typically be found in encyclopedic works: such as the Nations of the World, each with its capital, area in square miles, population number, language, major religion, and currency; the names and descriptions of all the Christian denominations and sects; major world cities; States of the United States; annual national and religious holidays; military ranks; names and functions of government departments; list of common abbreviations; and so on. (RHWWM:xv)

A consequence of the encyclopedic inclusion policy is that certain sections consist of lists of undefined items. Overall Structure and Textual Components A contents overview of the Word Menu is provided below. Introductory Matter: Acknowledgments Staff and Consultants Preface Biography of the Author User’s Guide Table of Contents Part One – NATURE Chapter 1 – The Human Body Chapter 2 – Living Things Chapter 3 – The Earth Part Two – SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Chapter 4 – The Sciences Chapter 5 – Technology Chapter 6 – Transportation

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Part Three – DOMESTIC LIFE Chapter 7 – The Home Chapter 8 – The Family Chapter 9 – Eating Chapter 10 – Clothing Part Four – INSTITUTIONS Chapter 11 – Social Order Chapter 12 – The Economy Chapter 13 – Social Sciences Part Five – ARTS AND LEISURE Chapter 14 – Fine Arts and Literature Chapter 15 – Performing Arts Chapter 16 – Applied Arts Chapter 17 – Leisure and Recreation Part Six – LANGUAGE Chapter 18 – Structure and Usage Chapter 19 – Action and Sense Words Chapter 20 – Common Expressions Chapter 21 – Foreign Expressions Part Seven – THE HUMAN CONDITION Chapter 22 – Character and Behavior Chapter 23 – Cognition Chapter 24 – The Dark Side Chapter 25 – Faith Index Macrostructure In contrast to Roget’s abstract philosophical categories, the Word Menu employs a macrostructure consisting of subject categories that supposedly reflect the modern world in a more intuitive, less abstruse manner: A hierarchical structure is familiar to most users of the standard thesaurus: it goes from the general to the specific, from the idea or subject to particular words, from the whole to the parts. but whereas the structure of the standard thesaurus is based on philosophical categories such as “Abstract Relations,” “Space,” “Matter,” and “Volition,” the structure of this book (outlined in the Table of Contents) is built on natural, contemporary categories and logical relations among not just concepts, but also things. (RHWWM:xv)

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The top level of the macrostructure consists of seven ‘Parts’: Part 1 – Nature Part 2 – Science and Technology Part 3 – Domestic Life Part 4 – Institutions Part 5 – Arts and Leisure Part 6 – Language Part 7 – The Human Condition

p. 3-91 p. 93-223 p. 225-293 p. 295-416 p. 417-512 p. 513-566 p. 567-670

The Parts are divided into chapters. For example, Part 1 – Nature comprises: Chapter 1 – The Human Body Chapter 2 – Living Things Chapter 3 – The Earth. In turn, the chapters are carved up into categories. Thus, Chapter 1 – The Human Body is split into: Anatomy Medical Problems Health, Fitness, and Enhancement Hair and Grooming Physical Appearance. In turn, the categories are themselves divided into subcategories. For example, Physical Appearance is made up of: Aspects and Components of Appearance Physical Attributes Small/Large Healthy/Sickly Beautiful/Ugly. Occasionally, the subcategories are further divided. For example, the subcategory Healthy/Sickly contains the following subsubcategories: Healthy, Fit, Bright, or Strong and Sickly, Out of Shape, Dull, or Weak. In total, therefore, the macrostructural pyramid hierarchy consists of five levels (Part, Chapter, Category, Subcategory, and Subsubcategory) running from the general to the specific, each of which is thematically ordered. The lowest level of the structure (i.e. the subcategory or subsubcategory) comprises nearly 800 lists, each containing 50-200 items of vocabulary. The author of the Word Menu emphasizes the logical nature of the classificatory framework. In this context, he alludes to the issue of arranging topics. Whereas concrete topics can be relatively straightforward to arrange with respect to their subdivisions, abstract topics

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are more taxing to organize. The latter also place greater demands on the users engaged in working out where each might fit into the overall structure. To some extent, the compilers have no choice but to rely on the user’s familiarity with the textual arrangement: The logical structure and its word associations are designed to make it easy to find the group of words one is seeking. In technical and institutional areas this logic is virtually absolute – Parts of Ships, Sails and Equipment must lie within Ships and Boats, which must lie within Transportation, which must lie within Science and Technology. In nonconcrete areas like Language, Cognition, or Faith, users will quickly become familiar with the structure so that they can locate Judgment and Criticism, or Magic and the Occult, or Exclamations, or Verbs of Motion. (Ibid:xix)

Sections The language level of the headings of the sections at category level and below makes no noticeable concessions to the non-native speaker. Within the category ‘Anatomy’, for instance, there are subcategories such as ‘Heart, Circulatory, and Lymphatic Systems’, ‘Endocrine System and Glands’, and ‘Tissue, Fiber, and Integumentary System’. The section headings employ a less formulaic style than those of CALD’s Smart Thesaurus and the Descriptionary. Nonetheless, featured types include: branches and disciplines e.g. at Geology and at Geography breeds of X e.g. Breeds of Dogs kinds of X e.g. Kinds of Paintings parts of X e.g. Parts of Rooms X and X parts e.g. Botany and Plant Parts types of X e.g. Types of Aircraft X types and parts e.g. Animal Types and Parts general X Terminology e.g. General Sports Terminology X in general e.g. Food in General other X e.g. Other Vehicles. Within each base level section of the macrostructural hierarchy, the words are arranged in alphabetical order. Microstructure The entries contain two compulsory elements: the headword and the definition. Four optional elements may also be present: a part of speech label, a style/register label, a regional label and a Latin label in relevant cases such as res judicata e.g. canine sharp pointed tooth behind incisor

116 twenty-twenty (adj) having normal visual acuity choppers Slang teeth ledgering Chiefly Brit. type of fishing in which a ledger is used to hold bait on bottom.

The Word Menu claims to provide more precise discriminatory information than a thesaurus of the Rogetian type in that it provides definitions (RHWWM:xv) as well as style/register labels (Ibid:xix). Nonetheless, some sections consist of undefined words: Most words listed under a category have concise definitions, except where they form a long list defined by its heading, as the list of Pet Names under the category Terms of Endearment and Respect or the list under Meats and Cuts of Meat. (Ibid:Ibidem)

Examples of such undefined lists include ‘Military Ranks (in descending order)’ (e.g. general of the army (5-star), marshal (Europe), general (4-star), lieutenant general (3-star) etc). Sometimes, the undefined words are those which are considered selfevident in terms of meaning or less important in some respect. A case in point is the note at the subcategory ‘Common Tools and Tool Types’: Each subcategory lists and defines the major representatives of that tool type. These are followed by an undefined list of other tools of that type that are either less common or whose name is self-explanatory, such as “jeweler’s saw.”

At other times, the undefined words are memory-joggers only, e.g. at the category ‘Sports’: Basic definitions are provided for the names of twenty major competitive sports and games. The extensive lists of specialized technical and slang terms that follow these generic definitions are intended as a prompt or memory jog for users already familiar with the games they describe.

The text is, therefore, a collection of predominantly distinctive synonymies interspersed with occasional cumulative synonymies. The latter are clearly unsuitable for foreign language learners. As with the headings, the definition language does not appear to have been simplified in any way for the non-native speaker e.g. blood liquid of circulatory system containing dissolved digestive products and conveying oxygen to tissue: plasma, red and white blood cells, and platelets.

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Access Routes There are two main access routes into the Word Menu: the Table of Contents and the Index. When browsing through the dictionary, the user is also assisted by the Guide Words and the menus at the beginning of each category. The system consisting of a pyramid hierarchy and multiple menus is reminiscent of the organizational structure of much computer software. The Guide Words appear at the top of each page and indicate the chapter number, chapter name, and subclass (= category). The menus list not only the subcategories within the relevant category, but also supply cross-references e.g. at ANATOMY: See also: Chap. 1: Medical Problems: Health, Fitness, and Enhancement; Physical Appearance; Chap. 2: Biology: Chap. 4: Medicine: Chap. 8: Parents and Children: Chap. 24: Death.

The Index lists both the words (in plain type) and the page numbers of their locations, as well as the parts, chapters, and categories (in bold type). In addition, the index supplies redirectional cross-references e.g. Accessories. See Ornaments and Accessories.

As with the Descriptionary, the large number of exponents in the base-level sections detracts from the book’s user-friendliness. An illustrative case is the subcategory ‘Hair Styles’. This contains 128 entries which users have to work their way through. The entries cover a variety of subjects including hair styles (e.g. Afro), hair colour (e.g. auburn), people with a particular colour of hair (e.g. brunette), and lack of hair (e.g. thinning). If this subcategory had been further divided into semantically or thematically related groups, it seems likely that consultation time would be reduced. One access-related feature of the Word Menu is especially interesting because of its rarity of occurrence in thematic dictionaries, namely: explanations in the main text that describe how and why sections have been divided up. For example, at the beginning of the subcategory ‘Physical Appearance’ the following explanation appears after the menu of the subcategory’s contents: Adjectives describing human physical appearance or physiological states have been grouped into three pairs of opposites, such as Healthy/Sickly. Each pair is broken down into two undefined lists of virtual synonyms and words with casually related meanings. The parameters for these lists are defined by the three or four adjectives forming the section title. While the meanings of the terms in each list vary, this category is intended to serve as a reminder of similar but slightly different and familiar words. The subcategory Physical Attributes includes adjectives describing a wide variety of physical states. (RHWWM:31)

The problem here is precisely that which critics aim at Roget, namely that the user is presumed to know already the meanings of the words contained in such cumulative

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synonymies. For this reason, they are of extremely limited use to the second language learner. Reverse Dictionaries The Dictionary of Lexicography provides two senses at its entry for reverse dictionary: 1 With reference to format, Ö REVERSE-ORDER DICTIONARY 2 With reference to function, Ö WORD-FINDING DICTIONARY

(DOL:119) It defines reverse-order dictionary and word-finding dictionary respectively as follows: reverse-order dictionary A type of REFERENCE WORK which lists the vocabulary alphabetically by last-to-first rather than first-to-last order. Because of the backto-front arrangement of items, it may also be called ‘a tergo’ dictionary or ‘reverse index’.

(Ibid:Ibidem) word-finding dictionary A type of REFERENCE WORK which supplies words for meanings. This is done by inverting the traditional order which explains the meaning of relatively unknown words by easy words (SEMASIOLOGY), providing instead access to the more unusual words via easy ones.

(Ibid:156) Of these, it is the word-finding dictionary, as an onomasiological reference work, that is of current interest. In the following section, an example of this type of dictionary is examined. Oxford Reverse Dictionary Users The Oxford Reverse Dictionary (ORD) is aimed at native speakers of English.

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Aims One of the aims of the ORD is to act as an aid to resolving tip-of-the-tongue situations (ORD:v). This particular word-finding dictionary provides access to less frequent and more elevated words by means of easier ones, as mentioned in the DOL definition. ORD also claims to be useful for solving crosswords and other word games by virtue of its grouping of words under subject categories. In addition, it aims to serve the pedagogical function of vocabulary expansion. Inclusion ORD includes 31,000 entries. It claims to provide the standard terms for things and to avoid literary, archaic, or slang vocabulary. Furthermore, it professes to exclude specialist terminology and core vocabulary words such as ‘dog’ and ‘family’ (ORD:v). There is, however, no indication as to the frequency of exponents. This is compounded by the fact that, despite its claims to the contrary, some very rare words are included, such as cicisbeo (= married woman’s male lover) at the article headed by adultery. In addition, ORD includes some proper nouns, such as figures from Greek and Roman mythology (e.g. Haephestus and Venus) and from the Bible (e.g. Cain). Also included, again in contradiction to the claims in the Introduction, are some technical terms, especially in the field of medicine. For example, the article for blood includes erythrocyte, lymphoblast, and normoglycaemia. Some place names (e.g. Cyprus) are also covered. Overall Structure and Textual Components The contents are listed below. (brief title page) (full title page) (details of publication) Introduction Abbreviations (dedication) A-Z text

p. i p. iii p. iv p. v-vi p. vii p. viii p. 1-406

Macrostructure The macrostructure consists of key concepts placed in alphabetical order e.g. label, laboratory, lace-making, lack etc. The key concepts seem to have been chosen be-

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cause they are stylistically neutral, frequent words. For example, the section entitled meeting contains exponents such as interface, colloquium, and plenum. Sections At each key concept will be found a number of linguistic exponents (in bold), each preceded by its definition e.g. bell y bell rung to instruct people to return to their houses: curfew y bell rung for the recitation of Roman Catholic prayers commemorating the Incarnation: angelus y bell rung at death or a funeral: knell y alarm bell: tocsin y bell’s tongue: clapper y bell tower: campanile y art of bellringing: campanology y set of bells for campanology: peal y large set of bells for musical performances: carillon.

This key concept section illustrates the various semantic and thematic relationships that exponents can hold with the key concept e.g. types (curfew), parts (clapper). dedicated location (campanile), the art of using the referent (campanology), and sets (peal). Some articles include opposites, negatives, and absences of a quality e.g. aesthetics y aesthetic expert: connoisseur y person with no aesthetic sense: boor, philistine

The ordering of entries within an article may be either alphabetical or governed by semantic flow: Within each article entries are arranged alphabetically where that is possible, or in an appropriate sense-progression such as life-death, top-bottom, eldest/largest-youngest/smallest: there is also a general tendency to move out from core items to those that are more peripheral to the senses of the article headword. (ORD:v-vi)

Although a logic can often be detected in the way the different exponents have been grouped together, this is by no means always the case. Even when closely related words are grouped together, there are no headings or separating devices to show where one group ends and another begins. The longer the article (e.g. aircraft with 148 exponents), the more acute this problem becomes. Navigation is difficult and consultation is slowed down. Sometimes, articles include a highly restricted selection of exponents e.g. African which contains a mere seven exponents:

121 African y African club: knobkerrie y African machete: panga y long narrow African drum: tom-tom y African hut village: kraal y African itinerant storyteller: griot y expedition to hunt or observe wild animals: safari y African fly causing sleeping sickness: tsetse

By contrast, the article for French has 55 exponents. The size of articles (i.e. the number of exponents they contain) is sometimes surprising, for example the article for the game of cricket is larger than that for crime. Microstructure The explanations of meaning are provided in glosses rather than in fully-fledged definitions (ORD:vi). Some items share a single gloss, e.g. knee y knee joint in horses, dogs, etc.: stifle y bone covering the knee joint: kneecap; patella y tendon behind the knee: hamstring y inflammation of the knee: housemaid’s knee

Such nesting does not imply that the lexemes are interchangeable. They are listed in alphabetical order, and any item loitering at the end of such a list is a firm indication that it is an “inferior match” (Ibid:v). A native speaker would recognize that kneecap is the everyday term whereas patella is the medical word. In order to adapt this entry to serve the needs of L2 users, this difference would have to be made explicit. Unlike a learner’s dictionary, there is no information about style, register, syntactic or collocational properties, nor are there any examples. Access Routes The only access route available to the user is to leaf through the alphabetically ordered key concepts. Guidewords at the top of each page indicate the first and last article on the page in question. Thematically Arranged Picture Dictionaries and Encyclopedic Works Learner’s dictionaries make extensive use of pictures: not just at individual entries and groups of entries, but also often include topic pages of pictorial illustrations in the

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middle or back matter. Thematically organized picture dictionaries have played an important part in the topical tradition of lexicography. In the following section, a wellknown bilingual picture dictionary is examined. Oxford-Duden Pictorial German And English Dictionary Users The Oxford-Duden Pictorial German and English Dictionary (ODPGED) is intended for English speakers learning German. Aims The advantage that a bilingual picture dictionary has over a traditional bilingual dictionary is that a picture can remove the possible uncertainty generated by translation equivalents and convey meaning extremely quickly (ODPGED:Preface). Thematically arranged picture dictionaries, such as the ODPGED, are onomasiological because the user proceeds from the (pictorial representation of) the referent to its corresponding linguistic sign. Inclusion ODPGED claims to identify more than 28,000 numbered objects, ranging from the familiar to the highly specialized (ODPGED:Preface). At the technical end of the vocabulary spectrum, many recently coined terms in subject fields such as computing and communication are included. Overall Structure and Textual Components The contents of ODPGED are shown below. (half title page) (full title page) (publication details) Preface Vorwort Abbreviations used in the English text/Abkürzungen im deutschen Text Inhaltsverzeichnis/Contents (main text) (acknowledgements)

p. 1 p. 3 p. 4 p. 5 p. 7 p. 8 p. 9-15 p. 16-677 p. 678-679

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Register (= German index) Index (= English index)

p. D1-D96 p. E1-E95

Macrostructure The top level of the macrostructure consists of 11 categories: 1) Atom, Weltall, Erde/Atom, Universe, Earth (15 subcategories) 2) Mensch und soziale Umwelt/Man and his Social Environment (35 subcategories) 3) Natur als Umwelt, Land- und Forstwirtschaft/Nature as Environment, Agriculture, and Forestry (40 subcategories) 4) Handwerk und Industrie/Trades, Crafts, and Industry (83 subcategories) 5) Graphisches Gewerbe/Printing Industry (12 subcategories) 6) Verkehrs- und Nachrichtenwesen/Transport, Communications, and Information Technology (59 subcategories) 7) Büro, Bank, Börse/Office, Bank, Stock Exchange (7 subcategories) 8) Őffentlichkeit und Gemeinwesen/Community (21 subcategories) 9) Freizeit, Spiel, Sport/Recreation, Games, Sport (33 subcategories) 10) Unterhaltung, Show, Kultur und Kunst/Entertainment, Culture, and Art (50 subcategories) 11) Tiere und Pflanzen/Animals and Plants (29 subcategories). Each category is furthermore subdivided into between 7 and 83 subcategories. For example, Community is split into the following sections: – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

Money (Coins and Notes, Am. Coins and Bills) Flags Heraldry; Crowns and Coronets Armed Forces I (Army) Armed Forces II (Air Force I) Armed Forces III (Air Force II) Warships I Warships II (Modern Fighting Ships) School I (Primary School) School II (Secondary School, High School) University Election Police Café Restaurant Hotel Town (Town Centre, Am. Downtown) Water Supply

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– Fire Service (Am. Fire Department) – Department Store – Park As is evident from the above list, some themes (e.g. Armed Forces) are dealt with in more than one subcategory. Within the macrostructure, there is an attempt to maintain thematic flow, especially at subcategory level, as with the placement of School I and School II next to University. Some of the subcategories deal with types of something e.g. 70 Hunderassen/Breeds of Dog contains die Englische Bulldogge (der Bullenbeißer)/bulldog, der Mops/pug (pug dog), der Boxer/boxer etc. Within some subcategories, exponents are grouped together into subsubcategories which are typographically differentiated from the other exponents by the use of bold type. The fact that each exponent is identified by a number corresponding to an object within a composite pictorial illustration also allows for the possibility that such subgroupings can overlap if so desired. For instance, the subcategory 20 Mensch V/Man V includes the following subsubcategories: 1-57 die inneren Organe n [von vorn] – internal organs [front view] 14-22 der Darm – intestines (bowel) 14-16 der Dünndarm – small intestine (intestinum tenue) 17-22 der Dickdarm – large intestine (intestinum crassum) 45-57 das Herz [Längsschnitt] – heart [longitudinal section] Sections Each double page covers a particular subject. Sometimes, the list of exponents and translations takes up the verso and the pictures are placed on the recto. At other times, each page consists of pictures in the top half and the list of exponents is placed in the bottom half. Each exponent has a number which corresponds to a numbered item in a composite illustration. There are six broad types of pictorial illustration: 1) several objects depicted, with the whole objects and parts of each object labelled e.g. 6 Mondlandung/Moon Landing (The three main components of this illustration are the Apollo spacecraft, an astronaut, and the lunar module, each of which has its various parts labelled.),

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2) several individual objects, named as wholes only e.g. 36 Schmuck/Jewellery (Am. Jewelry) which depicts das Collier necklace, das Armband bracelet, der Ring ring etc, 3) conventional diagrammatic representations e.g. 3 Astronomie I/Astronomy I (star map of the northern sky), 9 Meteorologie II (Wetterkunde) und Klimakunde/ Meteorology II and Climatology (weather map), 14 Landkarte I/Map I and 15 Landkarte II/Map II (maps), and 18 Mensch III/Man III (anatomical diagram), 4) an inside scene, especially a room either in a home or in a work setting e.g. 22 Arzt I/Doctor I (a GP’s consulting room), 109 Uhrmacher/Watchmaker, Clockmaker, 5) an outside scene e.g. 233 Flughafen/Airport, and 6) a process, especially an industrial one e.g. 162 Glasherstellung/Glass Production. Many of the pictures in ODPGED cram a lot of objects into the available space. This can sometimes compromise intelligibility although it is seldom critical, as each labelled item is also provided with a translation. Pictures are, however, limited in the extent to which they can convey the functions of items. The corresponding term, either in L1 or L2, may also shed little light on the matter. For instance, at the subcategory 6 Mondlandung/Moon Landing there is a picture of the lunar module. One of its parts is called der Trägheitsmeßwertgeber/inertial measurement unit. To the layman, it may not be clear, however, what this device is measuring. Decisions also have to be made pertaining to culture. Should a typical British or a typical German living room, garden etc be shown? ODPGED has opted for the latter e.g. at 204 Bahnhofshalle/Station Concourse and 205 Bahnsteig/Station Platform. The British and German cultures have much in common so the issue is not as critical as it would be between cultures that have greater differences e.g. British and Chinese. The issue arises because the user may want to speak or write not only about C2 (the foreign culture), but also about C1 (the user’s culture: by analogy with L1 and L2 for the first and second languages). Microstructure Each item in the list of exponents consists of a number (corresponding to a number label in the illustration) plus the German followed by the English translation e.g. at Subcategory 6 ‘Mondlandung/Moon Landing’: 1 die Apollo-Raumeinheit – Apollo spacecraft

Access Routes The two access routes are: 1) via the table of contents in the front matter, and 2) by means of the two indexes (German and English) in the back matter. The table of con-

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tents lists all of the categories and subcategories, providing the number of each subcategory after its title. The index is organized alphabetically. Entries consisting of adjective + noun are also placed in alphabetical order e.g. hair, bobbed – 34 34 hair, closely-cropped – 34 11 hair, curled – 34 34

The basic index item consists of the following components: (in the German index) Eckfahne 291 8

(in the English index) corner flag 291 8

The number in bold is the subcategory number (291 = Ballspiele I (Fußball) / Ball Games I (Football, Association Football, Soccer). The number in ordinary type is the item named in the picture. The Order of Things Users The Order of Things (OOT), subtitled ‘How Everything in the World is Organized into the Hierarchies, Structures, and Pecking Orders’, appears to be aimed mainly at native speakers of English as no concessions are made to L2 users. Aims OOT claims to answer the need for a single reference source to find out about the various orders that exist, but which users often do not know where to look up (OOT:xxiii). In attempting the reorganization of all knowledge into a system, OOT sees itself as belonging in the same tradition as Francis Bacon (Ibid:Ibidem). Its logical structure and word associations are claimed to serve brainstorming and preliminary research purposes (Ibid:xxiv).

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Inclusion OOT aims to cover all those things which are organized by humans or which are naturally organized (OOT:xxiii). The orders are included on the basis of being “basic, important, and informative to the layperson without going so far as to be encyclopedic in coverage” (Ibid:Ibidem). It is possible to map different types of system onto sample sections of the text (see Figure 19 below). Type Areas Arrangement Branch Classification

Cycle Division Extremes Hierarchy

Law Level Parts Periods of Time

Sample Sections of the Text Tasting Areas of Tongue Rugby Union Positions Snooker Setup Branches of Psychology Animals and Plants Kingdoms Animal Groups Animal Species Architectural Styles Fossil Fuels – Classification Island Types Literary Genres Mineral Categories Plant Taxonomy Social Classes According to Marx Telecommunications Divisions Weight Divisions Carbon Cycle (Air & Water) Climatic Zones Rock Strata Depressions – World’s Deepest Largest Islands Satanic Hierarchy Chinese Feudal System Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Incan Social Hierarchies Laws of Motion Levels of Consciousness Edible Plant Parts Skin layers Pre-Colombian Time Periods

Figure 19) Types of System Covered in The Order of Things

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Type Process Ranking

Scale Sequence Stage Structure Succession System

Sample Sections of the Text Cave Formation Microchip Making Process Can Sizes Mortar Grades Coal Ranks Boats by Length Orders and Grades of Wizards Russia – Army Ranks Mercalli Scale Fracture Severity Scale Earthquake Sequence Digestive Sequence Sensing Order of the Eyes Pilot Checklist Steps River Stages Atmospheric Layer Brain Structure Earth Layers France – Prime Ministers Japan – Imperial Shoguns Human Body Systems

Figure 19) continued) Types of System Covered in The Order of Things Some of these systems are not particularly well covered by learner’s dictionaries. Processes are a case in point: e.g. CAVE FORMATION: 1. Surface of a lava flow cools and solidifies. 2. As molten interior of lava field drains off, it leaves cylindrical cavity. 3. Pressure from hot gases sustains the ceiling of the cavity

As regards cultural inclusion, OOT includes topics relating to past eras e.g. ‘Ancient Measures’ (Biblical, Egyptian, Greek, and Roman). Overall Structure and Textual Components A contents overview is presented below.

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(half-title page) (quotations) (full title page) (publication details) (brief list of contents) Outline of contents Acknowledgments (dedication) Preface Chapter 1: EARTH SCIENCES & GEOGRAPHY Chapter 2: LIFE SCIENCES Chapter 3: PHYSICAL SCIENCES Chapter 4: TECHNOLOGY Chapter 5: MATHEMATICS & MEASUREMENT Chapter 6: RELIGION Chapter 7: HISTORY Chapter 8: SOCIETY & SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS Chapter 9: BUSINESS & ECONOMY Chapter 10: THE ARTS Chapter 11: DOMESTIC LIFE Chapter 12: SPORTS & RECREATION Chapter 13: GENERAL KNOWLEDGE Bibliography Index Macrostructure The main body of the OOT text is divided into 13 thematic chapters (e.g. EARTH SCIENCES & GEOGRAPHY), each of which is separated into between 4 and 38 alphabetically ordered categories (e.g. ATMOSPHERE, CAVES, CITIES, CLIMATES AND CLIMATIC REGIONS, CONTINENTS etc). In turn, the categories are split into (generally alphabetically ordered) subcategories. For example, CLIMATES AND CLIMATIC REGIONS is divided into: Biomes, Climatic Zones, and Deserts. Some of the subcategories are thematically ordered e.g. TIME is carved up into Periods of Time, Seconds, Times of Day, Days of the Week, Months, Intervals of Time, and Calendars. As is common with thematic reference works, the topical arrangement is justified on account of its capacity to keep together related objects rather than dispersing them, as would be the case with an alphabetically ordered work (OOT:xxiii). A guiding principle behind the arrangement of the book’s chapters is that they should proceed from one to the other in a natural order (Ibid:xxiv).

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Sections The exponents are often ordered within subcategories in order of size e.g. at DESERTS where the deserts are arranged by area in square miles/square kilometres from the Sahara to the Thar desert. Some subcategories order the exponents chronologically e.g. GEOLOGICAL TIME: Eras and Periods, and SPACE FLIGHTS Order of First 50. Microstructure The majority of exponents are undefined. Exceptions include items on a scale e.g. Point 5.0-5.9 on the Richter scale is described as: “Furniture moves, masonry cracks and falls” and branches of a particular science e.g. “aeronomy: study of earth’s and other planets’ atmosphere”. The policy for including/excluding descriptions is stated below: The Order of Things relies on the hierarchies themselves to tell their specific “stories.” Their “levels” are made evident through typography, and descriptions are only added for difficult words. For example, the Boy Scout rankings will tell the names of each level, but will not describe their specific roles in the group. The motion picture crew will list each member, but will not provide definitions of each participant. We do, however, attempt to clarify orders that leave much room for curiosity, such as the major Hindu gods. The mission of The Order of Things is to show best the structure of the various parts of the world’s civilization and nature. (OOT:xxv)

Other Features One of the distinctive features of OOT is the use of pictorial illustrations which are employed to demystify hierarchies and provide a link to encyclopedias and other reference works on more specific subject matter (OOT:xxiv). The illustrations come in many guises: maps (e.g. Tectonic Plates), cutaway diagrams (e.g. Structure of the Earth), comparative illustrations (e.g. Types of Crystals), stages in a process (e.g. Metamorphosis of a Housefly), anatomical diagrams (e.g. Human Brain), and tables (e.g. Periodic Table of the Elements). Access Routes The two main access routes into OOT are via the Outline of Contents in the front matter, which gives a full listing of all the Chapters and their subsections, and by means of the index in the back matter, which gives the page number for each subject included and indicates whether an illustration is provided.

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2.5

Thesauri

2.5.1 What is a Thesaurus? Two methods of answering the question ‘What is a thesaurus?’ are: 1) to look at the various ways in which ‘thesaurus’ has been defined, and 2) to analyze contemporary thesauri i.e. the New Oxford Thesaurus of English (NOTE), the New Oxford Thesaurus on CD-ROM, the Encarta Thesaurus, and the Visual Thesaurus on CD-ROM. 2.5.2 Definitions of ‘Thesaurus’ An analysis of the definitions of ‘thesaurus’ in a number of reference works reveals several senses in which the word has been used. The different ways in which each individual work carves up the senses also highlight areas of semantic overlap. The works chosen were four general native speaker dictionaries: the American Heritage Dictionary (AHD), the New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (NSOED), the Collins English Dictionary (CED), and the Encarta World English Dictionary (EWED), as well as two subject-specific works on lexicography and language: the Dictionary of Lexicography (DOL) and the Oxford Companion to the English Language (OCEL). The pertinent definitions are cited below. 1) thesaurus […] 1. A book of synonyms, often including related and contrasting words

and antonyms 2. A book of selected words or concepts, such as a specialized vocabulary of a particular field, as of medicine or music [Latin thēsaurus, treasury, from Greek thēsauros.]

(AHD) 2) thesaurus […] L16. [L f. Gk thesaurus store, treasure, storehouse.] 1 a A dictionary; an

encyclopedia. L16. b A collection of words arranged in lists or groups according to sense. Also (chiefly N. Amer.) a dictionary of synonyms (and occas. of antonyms). M19. c A classified list of terms, esp. keywords, in a particular field, for use in indexing and information retrieval. M20. 2 A treasury, esp. of a temple. E19.

(NSOED) 3) thesaurus […] 1. a book containing systematized lists of synonyms and related words. 2.

a dictionary of selected words or topics. 3. Rare. a treasury. [C18: from Latin, Greek: TREASURE].

(CED) 4) thesaurus […] 1. BOOK OF WORD GROUPS a book that lists words related to

each other in meaning, usually giving synonyms and antonyms 2. BOOK OF SPECIALIST VOCABULARY a dictionary of words relating to a particular subject 3. TREASURY a place in which valuable things are stored [Early 19th C. Via Latin, ‘treasury’, from Greek thēsauros ‘storehouse’ (source also of English treasure).]

(EWED)

132 5) thesaurus

1 A type of REFERENCE WORK which presents the vocabulary of a language, language variety or subject discipline by systematically tracing synonym networks between words within semantic domains. The title thesaurus signifying a ‘lexical storehouse’ has been in use for a long time for large (sometimes polyglot) dictionaries. […] In its modern sense, the term is associated with Peter Roget’s thematically arranged Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases, a synonym list first published in London in 1852, which was influenced by the classifications of the universalist philosopher John Wilkins. […] 2 In TERMINOLOGICAL LEXICOGRAPHY, a monolingual or multilingual alphabetical and/or systematic index of standardised key terms in a specialist field to facilitate access to a DATABASE. Depending on the range of specialisation, a distinction can be made between a ‘macrothesaurus’ and ‘microthesaurus’. (See Cluver 1989, Sager 1990)

(DOL) 6) THESAURUS [19c: through Latin from Greek thēsaurόs a store(house), treasury,

repository. There are currently two plurals: traditionally thesauri, more recently and less formally thesauruses. See DOUBLET] (1) A work of reference presented as a treasure house of information about words, such as Thomas Cooper’s bilingual dictionary, the Thesaurus Linguae Romanae et Britannicae (1565), and the thematic Roget’s Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases (1852). (2) A work of reference containing lists of associated, usually undefined, words (such as synonyms) arranged thematically, in the style of Roget’s Thesaurus. (3) A work of reference containing such lists but presented alphabetically, such as The New Roget’s Thesaurus in Dictionary Form (ed. Norman Lewis, Putnam’s, 1961), The New Collins Thesaurus: A Creative A-Z Wordfinder in Dictionary Form (1984), and The Oxford Thesaurus (ed. Laurence Urdang 1991). (4) In information technology, an alphabetic index list of key terms, through which information of a specialist nature (such as terms used in a particular industry) can be retrieved from a database. In such a thesaurus, terms are commonly linked associatively by cross-reference through such relations as synonymy and antonymy. (5) In word processing, a stored list of synonyms and antonyms to be consulted in the preparation of texts, and provided as a service comparable to a spellchecker. See FACTS ON FILE, LEXICOGRAPHY, LEXICON, MARCH, ROGET’S THESAURUS, SLANG, SYNONYMY, THEMATIC ORDER. [REFERENCE]

(OCEL) Six sometimes overlapping senses of ‘thesaurus’ can be extracted from these definitions (see Figure 20 below). The earliest sense (= treasury) of thesaurus is derived from Greek, and entered the English language via Latin. By metaphorical extension, the word came to be used to describe a reference work (either a dictionary or encyclopedia) as a storehouse of words. OCEL cites Thomas Cooper’s Thesaurus Linguae Romanae et Britannicae (1565) and Roget’s Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases (1852) as examples of this type of book. Sense 3 might, however, be more representative of those works that are ultimately derived from Roget’s Thesaurus. The third sense (= a book of synonyms and other related words) is, in varying formulations and emphases, common to all six sources. OCEL points out that reference works of associated words usually leave them undefined, and assigns separate senses to

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thematically and alphabetically arranged reference works of this kind. The fourth sense (= a dictionary of selected words or topics) applies to works containing vocabulary or concepts restricted to a particular subject field (e.g. medical terminology) or to a particular aspect of language (e.g. slang). This sense embraces not only wordbooks, but also encyclopedic works. The fifth sense (= a classified list of key terms in a particular field for information retrieval) is used in terminological lexicography. The sixth sense (= a stored list of synonyms and antonyms used when word-processing) is exclusive to McArthur. AHD (1992) 1) 2)

3)

4)

5)

6)

a treasury a work of reference as a lexical storehouse a book of synonyms and other related words a dictionary of selected words or topics a classified list of key terms in a particular field for information retrieval a stored list of synonyms and antonyms used when wordprocessing

NSOED (1993) s.2

CED (1994) s.3

EWED (1999) s.3

s.1

s.1b

s.1

s.1

s.2

s.1a? (also ‘encyclopedia’) s.1c

s.2

s.2

DOL (1998)

OCEL (1992)

(s.1)*

s.1

s.1

s.2, s.3

s.2

s.4

s.5

Figure 20) Six Senses of ‘Thesaurus’ s = sense * = mentioned within the sense explanation 2.5.3

Contemporary Native-Speaker Thesauri

This section focuses on contemporary thesauri for native speakers. The purpose of this brief survey is to discover whether there are features of these works which could be profitably integrated into bilingual thematic dictionaries for language learners. The

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following texts are examined: New Oxford Thesaurus of English (NOTE), New Oxford Thesaurus on CD-ROM, Encarta Thesaurus, and Visual Thesaurus. The New Oxford Thesaurus of English was chosen because it is a major thesaurus recently published by an important publisher. The New Oxford Thesaurus on CD-ROM is an electronic thesaurus which can be compared with its print equivalent. The Encarta Thesaurus is of interest because of its unusual two-part structure consisting of a Quick Reference Section and a Thematic Section. Like NOTE on CD-ROM, the Visual Thesaurus is a thesaurus in electronic format. However it is entirely conceived in electronic rather than print terms and represents a radical departure from conventional ways of displaying lexicographic information thematically. New Oxford Thesaurus of English Users and Aims The New Oxford Thesaurus of English is a native-speaker thesaurus that claims to serve a wide range of users (NOTE:vii). It can function either as an independent work of reference or as a companion work to the New Oxford Dictionary of English although there are no direct links in terms of cross-references etc between the two dictionaries. The envisaged users include: people who want to expand their vocabulary, people who want to improve their creative writing skills, people who are enthusiasts of word games such as crosswords, people who want to solve a ‘tip of the tongue’ problem, and people who are looking for le mot juste (NOTE:vii). The publishers claim that NOTE goes beyond the normal remit of thesauri by not only containing words linked by having a similar meaning, but also by including antonyms, related terms, noun lists, detailed studies of closely related synonyms, and advice on confusable words amongst other features. Inclusion The main purpose of NOTE is nonetheless to provide lists of synonyms for common everyday words of English. The focus is on general words that non-specialists may want to look up. (NOTE:vii)

Certain words, especially terms denoting kinds of animals, plants, and physical objects, do not have synonyms and therefore do not appear as entries in the book (Ibid:Ibidem). NOTE acknowledges that the term ‘synonym’ can be interpreted variously and that it is sometimes argued that no two words have exactly the same meaning. The compilers have adopted the “broadest possible definition” of the term for the pragmatic reason that this approach will be the most useful for the highest number of users. Both individual words and phrases are included where they are considered to be synonymous e.g. tinker and rearrange the deckchairs on the Titanic (Ibid:viii).

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In addition to grouping together words of similar meaning, NOTE also includes antonyms and related words. Antonyms are placed after synonym sets. Auxiliary features include noun lists as well as discussions of near-synonyms and confusable words. Two broad types of related word are included: 1) adjectives that usually mean ‘relating to’ the headword, but have a different origin e.g. lactic for milk and which are perhaps less likely to suggest themselves than a straightforward derivative such as milky, and 2) words that are closely related to a word, but have a different meaning. They may be a part of the thing denoted by the headword e.g. stave at barrel, a particular type of it, or a person connected with it e.g. cooper at barrel. Tables of parts and types are provided at certain entries e.g. ‘Types of Telescope’ at telescope and ‘Parts of a Television’ at Television. It is difficult to figure out the reasons (apart from space limitations) why some entries e.g. barrel have related words whereas others, e.g. box or tree do not. Combining forms, e.g. oeno- at wine are placed after related terms. NOTE includes phrasal verbs, idiomatic phrases, and informal language (not excluding taboo words) (Ibid:Ibidem). Phrases may be provided as synonyms or antonyms e.g. prime of life as the antonym of senile. It also embraces vocabulary from many varieties of English. Lexicographic Evidence The lexicographic evidence for the actual usage of the exponents included is drawn from the 100 million-word British National Corpus and the 60+ million-word database of the Oxford Reading Programme, a collection of citations gathered by an international network of readers (NOTE:vii-viii). Overall Structure and Textual Components The overall structure of NOTE is shown below. (brief title page) (full title page) (publication details) Contents Editorial staff Introduction – Selection of entries – Tables – Homonyms – Synonyms – Illustrative examples – Linguistic evidence – Phrasal verbs and idiomatic phrases

p. i p. iii p. iv p. v p. vi p. vii-ix

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– Register: standard vs. informal and regional English – World English – Opposites – Related terms – Combining forms – Awkward synonyms and confusables How to use this thesaurus (A-Z text)

p. x p. 1-1087

Macrostructure NOTE consists of alphabetically organized synonym lists (‘articles’). As it does not have an index, users who find the alphabetical location of the target lexical item would expect to find the relevant item at that position in the text or else be redirected to its place elsewhere. The dictionary provides location help in two ways: 1) by supplying pronunciation notes at homonyms, and 2) via cross-references. Microstructure Here is a sample NOTE article: money f noun n I haven’t got enough money to buy it. CASH, hard cash, ready money; THE MEANS; the wherewithal, funds, capital, finances, (filthy) lucre; banknotes, notes, paper money, coins, change, coin, coinage, silver, copper, currency, legal tender; Brit. sterling; N. Amer. bills; N. Amer. & Austral. roll; informal dough, bread, loot, the ready, readies, shekels, moolah, the necessary, wad, boodle, dibs, gelt, ducats, rhino, gravy, scratch, stuff, oof, folding money; Brit. informal dosh, brass, lolly, spondulicks, wonga, ackers; N. Amer. informal dinero, greenbacks, simoleons, bucks, jack, mazuma; Austral./NZ informal Oscar; informal, dated splosh, green, tin; Brit. dated l.s.d.; N. Amer. informal, dated kale, rocks, shinplasters; formal specie; archaic pelf. See also table at CURRENCY. – RELATED WORDS: pecuniary, monetary, numismatic. o she married him for his money WEALTH, riches, fortune, affluence, assets, liquid assets, resources, substance, means, prosperity. p I took the job here because the money was better PAY, salary, wages, remuneration, fee, stipend: rare emolument ƒ for my money for my money, they are the better team IN MY OPINION, to my mind, in my view, as I see it, (according) to my way of thinking, from my standpoint, personally, in my judgement, in my book, if you ask me. ƒ in the money RICH, wealthy, affluent, well-to-do, well off, prosperous, moneyed, in clover, opulent; informal rolling in it, rolling in money, loaded, stinking rich, well heeled, flush, made of money, in/on Easy Street; informal; dated oofy; Brit. informal quids in.

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Each article is fronted by a headword (e.g. money), followed by the part of speech, written in full (e.g. noun). Within each entry, the synonyms are grouped in sets. These sets are approximately comparable to the different senses in a dictionary, and are each preceded by a sense number. Finer subdivisions are separated by semicolons. Sometimes there is a regional or style/register label in italics to show why a subdivision has been formed, e.g. Brit. informal dosh, brass, lolly, spondulicks, wonga, ackers.

Unlike in a learner’s dictionary, however, this is not always the case, e.g. banknotes, notes, paper money, coins, change, coin, coinage, silver, copper, currency, legal tender

In this instance, users have to work out for themselves which item to select. This reliance on the users’ existing knowledge is reminiscent of Roget’s Thesaurus which has been criticized on the same grounds. At the start of most synonym sets there is a core synonym, printed in bold small capitals. A core synonym is the word that is closest in meaning to the headword in the sense in question. Slightly different aspects of the headword meaning can be indicated by providing two core synonyms e.g. CASH and THE MEANS at money, each followed by a group of words relating to a particular aspect of the meaning (NOTE:viii). In each synonym set, general stylistically unmarked synonyms are listed first. They are followed by lexical items that can only be used in the restricted contexts. The main labels used to indicate register, style, currency etc are listed below. formal informal vulgar slang technical poetic/literary dated archaic historical humorous rare In addition to the register labels, specialist field labels are used. For example, at the article for ancillary, the synonym ‘adjuvant’ is labelled medicine. Labels are also used to indicate the origin of a synonym e.g. at book: French cahier

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Most synonym sets are supplied with an example taken from the British National Corpus or from the files of the Oxford Reading Programme. Some have been slightly altered to make the sense clearer or to remove distracting digressions (Ibid:Ibidem). Relative to the number of lexical items contained in a synonym set, the number of examples is, however, far lower than would be the case in a learner’s dictionary. For example, sense 1 of money contains 64 words, but has only one example. Other Features NOTE has two types of box: awkward synonyms boxes and confusables boxes. Awkward Synonyms Boxes There are 120 awkward synonyms boxes in NOTE. The reason for their inclusion is that simply listing synonyms together in groups does not help users to distinguish between them. A box can, however, describe the nuances and connotations of each (NOTE:ix) e.g. AWKWARD SYNONYMS accurate; precise; exact All these words apply to information or statements that are correct, usually helpfully and informatively so. „ An accurate statement or representation has been put together with great care and corresponds to the facts. It is likely to give people a good idea of the truth or be a reliable guide for action: he gave her a frighteningly accurate description of her life | an accurate and intelligible technical drawing „ Precise denotes minute attention to detail. It draws a contrast with something that may be correct but is more vague or approximate: we have no precise figures for possible job losses | he gave her precise directions on the route „ Exact emphasizes that something has been definitely identified, with no margin for vagueness or error: we may never know the exact number of deaths. An exact statement is one that is both precise and truthful.

Confusables Boxes NOTE contains more than 150 Confusables Boxes. They compare words which may cause problems for users because they are similar in written form (e.g. militate and mitigate) or pronunciation (e.g. principal and principle) (NOTE:ix) e.g. CONFUSABLES affect; effect Affect and effect are quite different in meaning, though frequently confused. Affect is primarily a verb meaning either ‘make a difference to’, as in their gender need not affect their career, or ‘pretend to have or feel’, as in I affected a supreme unconcern. Effect, on the other hand, is commonly used both as a noun and as a verb, meaning ‘something brought about’ as a noun (move the cursor until you get

139 the effect you want) or ‘bring about (a result)’ as a verb (growth in the economy can only be effected by stringent economic controls).

Notes with this function can play a useful role in BTDs. Tables NOTE contains 480 tables. Their function is to provide extra information pertaining to particular headwords to help users with crossword-solving and to supply encyclopedic information, e.g. at bear2 noun: Bears American black bear Asian black bear brown bear cinnamon bear giant bear grizzly bear Himalayan black bear honey bear

Kodiak bear musquaw polar bear red panda sloth bear spectacled bear sun bear

Access Routes Users find their way to the target information by leafing their way through the alphabetically ordered articles. Additional navigation assistance is provided by guidewords at the top of each page and by cross-references. New Oxford Thesaurus of English on CD-ROM Users and Aims NOTE on CD-ROM aims to enrich users’ creative writing, essays, letters, or enjoyment of the English language. Inclusion The dictionary contains over 600,000 alternative and opposite words. There are over 450 lists on a wide range of subjects.

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Access Routes Access to NOTE on CD-ROM is possible from a webpage or from any Windows application including word-processing software such as Microsoft Word and email programs such as Outlook. In a Windows application the user clicks on a word, and alternative words are displayed in a pop-up window. On a webpage, the user holds the cursor over a word (known as mouse-over searching). Next, users select the appropriate alternative and employ the Replace function to substitute it for an existing word in their text. Another way of launching a search is to type a word into the Search Input field in the pop-up window which resides in the title bar of the user’s active window. The software is capable of taking the user to the article for the base form if an inflected word is entered in the search field. For example if a search is made on ‘bagged’, the user will be sent to the article for bag. The software will not however take the user to the verb section of the article for bag which deals first with the noun senses. The search function does not always succeed in finding exponents if they are not headwords. For example, the article for unification gives ‘consolidation’ as one of the synonyms. A search on ‘consolidation’, however, terminates in the message ‘no results found’. A similar phenomenon occurs with multi-element lexemes such as open compounds. A search on ‘hoi polloi’ will happily locate the article hoi polloi because it is a keyword. Within the article there are various multi-word units e.g. ‘the rank and file’, ‘the lower orders’, and ‘the third estate’. A search on any of these will again elicit the response ‘no results found’. The lack of a full-text search option places a severe restriction on the usefulness of the CD-ROM. Future versions will, however, offer fulltext searching. The Pop-Up Window When conducting a search, the pop-up window initially just displays the first few lines of the thesaurus entry. By clicking on an expand button, the user can view the full synonym lists in the article window. The articles are displayed as they would be in the print version, but with a vertical scrollbar to allow the user to move down the article if all its contents do not fit on the screen. The Article Window The Article Window is an extension of the Pop-up window. It provides the full entry text for the word being looked up.

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Other Features The software has a function called User Dictionaries which allows users to create their own personalized dictionaries. The entries created by the user are sorted into alphabetical order and can be edited later. The personalized dictionaries are searchable, and data are exportable if users want to employ a User Dictionary within another software program. Users can conduct searches on any word within an entry being viewed. Encarta Thesaurus Users and Aims The Encarta Thesaurus is promoted as a thematic companion to the semasiological Encarta World English Dictionary. Whilst acknowledging that the text traces its ancestry back to Roget’s Thesaurus, it deliberately distances itself from Roget’s work, maintaining that whereas the intellectual focus in Roget was on ideas, concepts, and abstract relationships, the thesaurus of today should have a language focus that is much more concrete. The publishers believe that a contemporary reader is more likely to want to know about types of software than be concerned with the aspects of existence which preoccupied Roget. The thesaurus is designed to help contemporary users answer two questions: 1) Which word can I use instead of this one?, and 2) Which words relate to this one? There are no philosophical aspirations. Inclusion The Quick Reference Section lists in excess of 300,000 synonymical or nearly synonymical words under 40,000 headings. Over 18,000 antonyms are listed (Encarta Thesaurus:vii). Both British and American English exponents are included, as are subject areas of rapid vocabulary growth such as information technology, e-commerce, and media management. Extensive substitutability was used as a criterion for inclusion (Ibid:Ibidem). Lexicographic Evidence The linguistic data for the thesaurus were extracted from the Bloomsbury Database of World English.

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Overall Structure and Textual Components A contents overview of the Encarta Thesaurus is provided below. (half-title page) (title page) (publication details) Contents Contributors Introduction How to Use the Encarta Thesaurus List of Thematic Categories Quick Reference Section Thematic Section

p. i p. iii p. iv p. v p. vi p. vii-viii p. ix p. x-xiv p. 1-1052 p. 1053-1201

The main body of the text consists of two sections: a Quick Reference Section and a Thematic Section. These are collectively described as “an innovative dual navigation scheme” (Encarta Thesaurus:inside front flap). The Quick Reference Section takes the form of an alphabetical list of 40,000 entries. Users can look up a lexical item in this part of the dictionary and quickly find a group of synonyms for each of its most frequent senses. The Thematic Section arranges words under 1200 themes, classified under five main headings. Whereas the Quick Reference Section is designed for rapid consultation, the Thematic Section is oriented towards browsing in the hope that users will expand their vocabulary by exploring chains of word associations and thereby gain knowledge of the subtle distinctions between alternative words. Macrostructure of the Quick Reference Section The Quick Reference Section consists of alphabetically ordered groups of synonyms. Microstructure of the Quick Reference Section Here is a sample entry: masses 1 n common people, crowd, multitude, commonality. hoi polloi, the many, the multitude, the people, grassroots. [¨CLASS STATUS; 891] Opposite: elite. 2 n (informal) lots, loads (informal), tons (informal), heaps (informal), oodles (informal). [¨MANY, MUCH, LARGE AMOUNT; 118].

Each entry in the Quick Reference Section contains the following elements:

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– a headword (e.g. masses) – one or more senses. Each sense has: – – – – –

a sense number (if there is more than one sense) a part of speech abbreviation (e.g. n) a first synonym in bold indicating the meaning (e.g. common people) a list of synonyms (e.g. crowd, multitude etc) a reference to a numbered paragraph in the Thematic Section e.g. [¨CLASS STATUS; 891]

– (optionally) an opposite or contrasting term (e.g. elite) – (optionally) a style/register label (e.g. informal). Some of the entries in the Quick Reference Section do not have lists of synonyms, but instead consist of a redirectional cross-reference to the Thematic Section e.g. giant-sized adj [¨LARGE; 1195]

The lists of alternatives within each entry have been “broadly arranged for ease of use, with the most general alternatives near the beginning of the list, and alternatives that can only be used in more restricted contexts towards the end” (Encarta Thesaurus:viii). Macrostructure of the Thematic Section The top level of the macrostructure is made up of five parts: The Way Things Are or Seem to Be Concepts and Ideas Move and Function People and their Way of Life The World Around Us Figure 21) The Top Level of the Macrostructure of the Thematic Section of the Encarta Thesaurus Each of these parts is divided into categories (see Figure 22 below).

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The Way Things Are or Seem to Be Becoming, Appearing, and Disappearing Being and Not Being Happen Events and Occurrences Seeming, Appearing to Be, and Representing Situations and Outcomes Concepts and Ideas Time, Duration, and Speed Quantity, Portion, Extent, and Degree Relatedness and Connection Truth, Reality, Certainty, and Possibility Positive Qualities of Things Negative Qualities of Things Move and Function Action: Start, Continue, and Finish Movement and Locomotion Creation, Production, and Emission Change and Transformation Contact and Impact Obtaining, Losing, and Exchanging Possession Using and Functioning People and their Way of Life Qualities and Characteristics Emotions and States of Mind The Written Word Communication and Interaction The Human Body and Bodily Functions The Mind and Mental Processes Philosophies, Beliefs, and Morality Social Structures and Institutions Work and Leisure: Lifestyles and the Home People Relationships with Others The World Around Us Living Things The Natural Environment and The Forces of Nature Space and the Universe Figure 22) Categories in the Thematic Section of the Encarta Thesaurus

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Places and Human Geography Buildings and Structures Technology Energy, Fuels, and Foods Physical Qualities of Objects Physical Objects Sounds Substances Figure 22) continued) Categories in the Thematic Section of the Encarta Thesaurus The categories are further divided into between 5 and 100 numbered subcategories. For example, the category entitled Becoming, Appearing, and Disappearing is split into 14 subcategories (see Figure 23 below). 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) 13) 14)

Gradually Come into Existence Suddenly Come into Existence Appear and Emerge Disappear Cause to Appear Cause to Disappear Absent and Unavailable Absent Oneself Runaways and Absentees Run Away and Avoid Present and Available Arrive Arrival Arrive by Transport

Figure 23) Subcategories at ‘Becoming, Appearing, and Disappearing’ in the Thematic Section of the Encarta Thesaurus A clear effort has been made to maintain semantic flow. As will be seen later with the CWR texts, this is not always possible to preserve, because of the thematic breadth of the categories. For example, at the category Work and Leisure: Lifestyles and the Home, the subcategory 871) Footwear is followed by 872) Entertainment, jumping from a series of subcategories concerned with clothes to another series, dealing with sports and games. Each of the three macrostructural levels of the text’s pyramid hierarchy is thematically arranged. In total, there are 1200 themes in the Thematic Section. The

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range of meaning covered by each of the themes is much broader than the range covered by those in the Quick Reference Section because they are designed to “open up to the reader a rich network of linguistic relationship and association” (Encarta Thesaurus:viii). Two types of relationship which feature heavily are: parts of objects, and types of something. Contrasting subcategories are often positioned next to each other e.g. 25) Perceptible and 26) Imperceptible. Each theme is headed by a quotation, for example at 4) Disappear: In the night reason disappears, only the lives of things remaining. Antoine de SaintExupéry.

Microstructure of the Thematic Section Below is a sample article from the thematic section. 282 Unintentional and Accidental Improvisation is the touchstone of wit. Molière (adj) ad hoc, ad lib, arbitrary, impromptu, improvised, inadvertent, indirect, irrespective, motiveless, offhand, off-the-cuff, unannounced, unconscious, unexpected, unforeseen, unintended, unintentional, unknowing, unmeant, unplanned, unpremeditated, unscripted, unwitting (adv) accidentally, by accident, by mistake, capriciously, offhandedly, on a whim, on impulse, unawares, unconsciously, unknowingly, willy-nilly See also CHANCE, COINCIDENCE, AND ACCIDENT (787)

Each article in the Thematic Section consists of a list of broadly related words, alphabetically ordered under different parts of speech. Some items are followed by indications of their usage range printed in italics within round brackets e.g. whopping (informal) at the article for Large. Words printed in roman type (e.g. ad hoc, ad lib, arbitrary etc.) are provided with a synonym list in the Quick Reference Section. Other Features Notes There are three types of note: 1) Compare and Contrast notes, 2) types of X notes, and 3) parts of X notes.

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1) Compare and Contrast notes e.g. at ability: Compare and Contrast: ability, skill, competence, aptitude, talent, capacity, capability CORE MEANING: THE NECESSARY SKILL, KNOWLEDGE, OR EXPERIENCE TO DO SOMETHING ability natural and acquired skills or knowledge; skill proficiency gained through training or experience; competence ability measured against a standard; aptitude a natural tendency to do something well; talent an unusual natural ability to do something well; capacity mental or physical ability for something or to do something; capability the ability of a person or machine to do something

There are over 130 such notes in the Quick Reference Section. They are intended to help users discriminate between the meanings of closely related words (Encarta Thesaurus:viii). Cross-references are supplied to entries furnished with these notes e.g. at abhorrence: See Compare and Contrast at dislike

Each Compare and Contrast note consists of the following elements: 1) a list of the exponents which are discussed in the note (in bold italics), 2) the core meaning i.e. that which all the exponents have in common semantically, and 3) a list of each exponent followed by a short definition. 2) types of X notes e.g. at accessory:  types of accessory bandanna, belt, bootlace, bow tie, braces, cravat, cummerbund, dicky (informal), dicky bow (informal), earmuffs, glove, handkerchief, hat, jewellery, mitt, mitten, muff, muffler, neckerchief (US), necktie (US), pashmina, sash, scarf, shawl, stole, suspenders (US), tie, veil, wrap

3) parts of X notes e.g. at aircraft:  parts of an aircraft aileron, air brake, autopilot, cabin, cockpit, ejection seat (US), ejector seat, fin, flight deck, flight recorder, fuselage, jet engine, joystick, landing gear, nose cone, nose wheel, propeller, rotor, rudder, tail, tail rotor, tailplane, turbofan, turbojet, turboprop, undercarriage, wing

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Each of the three kinds of notes lists the exponents in alphabetical order. Bracketed labels indicate register (e.g. informal), regional variety (e.g. US), style (e.g. literary), and currency (e.g. dated). The ‘types of X’ and ‘parts of X’ notes do not provide definitions or glosses of meaning, so are presumably intended to perform a memoryjogging function. Access Routes The access route to the Quick Reference Section involves looking through the alphabetical entries. Guidewords help users to locate themselves within the macrostructure. The access route to the Thematic Section is via the List of Thematic Categories in the front matter. The links from the Quick Reference Section to the Thematic Section by means of cross-references constitute a two-stop route to the latter section. Visual Thesaurus Users and Aims The Visual Thesaurus is available both on CD-ROM and over the Internet. Users are advised to search for a word and then follow a trail of related concepts. Its aim is to help people improve their grasp of the English language and to use it more precisely. It claims to achieve this via its intuitive interface which is designed to help users find words through their semantic relationships with other words. Inclusion The Visual Thesaurus includes over 145,000 words and 115,000 meanings. The Interface The Visual Thesaurus describes itself as animated display of words and meanings comprising a visual representation of the English language. This display takes up the main window of the Visual Thesaurus. Above the main window is a toolbar, and to its left are four smaller windows entitled Nouns, Adjectives, Verbs, and Adverbs.

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Searching for a Word In order to launch a search, users type the word into the type-in search box at the top of the window. The target word (e.g. ‘pen’) will appear in the centre of the main display, surrounded by related words and meanings which radiate from the centre like the spokes of a bicycle wheel (see Figure 24 below). By clicking on any of the words in the display (e.g. ‘write’) that word then moves to the centre, and related words and meanings radiate from it (see Figure 25 below). The Main Display Meanings of the search word are indicated by solid lines. For example, solid lines radiate from write to nine green dots. By holding the cursor over each dot, the definition for each sense is given along with an example: – record data on a computer: “Boot-up instructions are written on the hard disk.” – mark or trace on a surface: “The artist wrote Chinese characters on a big piece of white paper.” – communicate (with) in writing: “Write her soon, please!” – communicate or express by writing: “Please write to me every week.” – communicate by letter: “He wrote that he would be coming soon.” – have (one’s written work) issued for publication: “How many books did Georges Simenon write?”; “She published 25 books during her long career.” – produce a literary work: “She composed a poem.”; “He wrote four novels.” – write or name the letters that comprise the conventionally accepted form of a word (or part of a word): “He spelled the word wrong in this letter.” – write music: “Beethoven composed nine symphonies.” Each meaning is colour-coded: red for nouns, yellow for adjectives, green for verbs, and purple for adverbs. The Visual Thesaurus only identifies these four parts of speech. Antonyms are indicated by a dashed red line. Thus, from intelligent such a line extends to unintelligent. Meanings are connected to each other by dashed lines. For example, when train is at the centre of the display, there is a dashed line from the meaning “piece of cloth forming the long back section of a gown that is drawn along the floor” to the meaning “piece of fabric”.

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Figure 24) A Search on ‘pen’ in the Visual Thesaurus It is claimed that in addition to synonyms, 16 further types of semantic relationship are presented. These are listed and exemplified below. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5)

antonyms e.g. hot/cold X is a participle of Y e.g. tried/try X is derived from Y e.g. softly/soft X (an adjective) pertains to Y (a word closely related to it) e.g. academic/academia See Also relationships are shared by those meanings that have different senses, but express related concepts e.g. “free from error”/“conforming exactly or almost exactly to fact” e.g. between precise and accurate 6) X is similar to Y. Relationships of similarity are shared between adjectives that are very close in meaning to each other e.g. precise/meticulous 7) attribute. An attribute is a noun (e.g. weight) for which adjectives (e.g. light, heavy) express values 8) A verb X (e.g. snore) entails Y (e.g. slept) if X cannot be done unless Y is, or has been, done 9) X is a type of Y e.g. Dalmatian/dog 10) X is a part of Y e.g. spoke/bicycle wheel 11) X is made of Y e.g. brick/clay

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12) X is a member of Y e.g. Democrat/Democratic Party 13) related verb groups e.g. to go together/to be compatible are verbs which share related meanings 14) X is a domain category of Y – a term which expresses the branch of knowledge that a term belongs to e.g. ballet/pirouette or between e-mail/email/netmail and computing/computer science 15) X is the domain region of Y i.e. a term that expresses the region that a term is associated with or originated in e.g. Japan/kamikaze 16) X is the domain usage of Y e.g. trademark/Kleenex. A domain usage is “a term that expresses the way that a term is used”. The Meaning Lists are displayed in a window to the right of the main Visual Thesaurus display. The senses are split into four parts of speech (noun, verb, adjective, and adverb). These are colour-coded according to the same scheme used for the coloured circles in the Visual Thesaurus window. Therefore, a search on ‘bicycle’ will list two definitions in the right-hand window; one at the noun (“a wheeled vehicle that has two wheels and is moved by foot pedals”) and one at the verb (“ride a bicycle”). If the cursor is placed over a sense in the Meaning List, the circle representing that sense in the Visual Thesaurus is highlighted, and the definition will be shown next to it. The majority of meanings also have an example sentence illustrating that sense. Conversely, if the cursor is placed over a meaning circle in the Visual Thesaurus display area, the corresponding item in the Meaning List will be highlighted. Users can turn each part of speech in the Meaning List on or off in order to filter searches. In cases where a meaning (e.g. “produce a literary work”) can be expressed by different words, solid lines connect the relevant shared meaning circle to the exponents (e.g. compose and write). Connections between meanings are shown with dotted lines. If users place the cursor over one of these broken lines, the relationship between the meanings will be revealed. For example, if pen is the search word appearing in the centre of the display, one of the spokes from the centre forms a broken line between the meaning circles “a writing implement with a point from which ink flows” and “an implement that is used to write”. The latter then continues in a solid line to the exponent writing instrument. If the cursor is placed over the broken line, the relationship “is a type of” is shown. Clicking on a meaning circle will generate all the exponents that carry that meaning. For instance, if users click on the meaning circle “a writing implement with a point from which ink flows”, that circle becomes the centre of the display and spokes radiate from it. One of these is a broken line carrying the “is a type of” relationship to the meaning circle “a pen that has a small metal ball as the point of transfer of ink to paper”. Solid lines extend from the latter meaning circle to the exponents, i.e. narrower terms: ballpoint pen, ballpoint, ballpen, and Biro. After clicking on the meaning, the narrower terms for a pen (ballpoint pen etc) appear nearer the top of the display, while broader terms (e.g. writing implement) appear near the bottom.

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Figure 25) A Search on ‘write’ in the Visual Thesaurus

Other Features The type-in search box will suggest alternatives if a word is misspelt. Each word is provided with a loudspeaker icon. By clicking on this, users can hear an audioclip of the word in either British or American English. Any word or meaning can be clicked on in order to expand the Visual Display so that it includes words that are related to it. Users can alter the display settings in various ways e.g. 2D or 3D display, scale (e.g. the spacing between words and meanings), font size, circle size, line colour, and 3D contrast. The settings panel also allows users to filter which of the 16 relationships mentioned above are displayed in the Visual Thesaurus. Content filtering is also possible using a four-level system that blocks out profanity and blasphemy. The Visual Thesaurus has an Auto Pilot mode in which it randomly jumps from one word to another and creates a display centred on that word. This feature has something in common with casually browsing through a dictionary.

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2.6

Bilingual Synonym Dictionaries

Using Spanish Synonyms Users and Aims Using Spanish Synonyms (USS) is aimed at anglophone learners of Spanish who have reached a “basic competence” and who wish to extend their knowledge of Spanish and Spanish-American vocabulary (USS:back cover). Its ultimate objective is to enable the users to differentiate shades of meaning and therefore use the target language to communicate effectively (Ibid:1). It is explained in the front matter that total synonymy is a rare phenomenon, and hence, the study of synonyms involves the investigation of nuances of meaning and how the shades of meaning of different lexemes relate to each other. In addition, it requires the study of register and of the contexts in which words are used. The case is made for the superiority of USS over both alphabetical dictionaries and synonym dictionaries for native speakers of Spanish. Unlike an alphabetical dictionary, it can help users develop an awareness of the semantic relationships in a language by grouping synonyms together and explaining how they differ from and are similar to each other (Ibid:2). Whereas a synonym dictionary for native speakers of Spanish provides lists of undifferentiated items, USS is a learner’s dictionary and therefore explains the differences of register, level, connotations, situations and frequency of use, between the items listed (Ibid:Ibidem). Inclusion Both single words and phrases are included, as is vocabulary from a range of registers including formal, informal, vulgarisms, and literary language. USS claims that dictionaries of Spanish synonyms often exclude items at the lower end of the register scale, such as colloquial and obscene terms, in favour of literary and other items belonging to a higher register. The book seeks to redress this balance by not ignoring items at either end of the register scale. Overall Structure and Textual Components The main components of the text are shown below. (title page) Companion titles to Using Spanish Synonyms (title page) (details of publication)

p. i p. ii p. iii p. iv

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Contents Acknowledgements Abbreviations Introduction Word or lexical item Vocabulary acquisition What is a synonym? What is a book of synonyms? Why a book of Spanish synonyms? The choice of the right word Choice of frame titles Choice of entries Layout of semantic frames and their use English equivalent of frame title Synonyms Register Translations, grammar, comments, etc Examples Number of entries within a frame Indexes Spanish Synonyms Index of Spanish items with frame titles Index of Argentinian items with frame titles Index of Mexican items with frame titles Index of English items with frame titles

p. v p. vii p. viii p. 1-5 p. 1 p. 1 p. 1 p. 1 p. 2 p. 2 p. 3 p. 3 p. 3 p. 4 p. 4 p. 4 p. 4 p. 5 p. 5 p. 5 p. 7-583 p. 584-650 p. 651-653 p. 654-656 p. 657-721

Macrostructure The macrostructure of USS consists of alphabetically ordered sections termed (semantic) frames. Each frame title is given in both Spanish and English e.g. gritar to shout. The choice of title for each Spanish frame was determined by the range of possible synonyms generated (USS:3). The English frame titles are intended to retain the neutral flavour of their Spanish counterparts. The frame titles are general terms that can be used in a broad spectrum of contexts.

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Microstructure Here is a sample semantic frame: gritar

to shout

clamar [3-2]

to clamour (often used figuratively)

non se cansaba de clamar por la justicia; miles de mineros claman por más comida y jabón …

vociferar [3-2]

to scream

los huelguistas vociferaron una retahíla de insultos; vociferar como un energúmeno

dar alaridos to howl (often followed [2] by de dolor)

el pobre animal, cogido en la trampa, daba alaridos de dolor

aullar [2]

to howl (used of dogs, wolves)

se oía aullar a los lobos a lo lejos

chillar [2]

to scream, to shout

¡a mí no me chilles!; ‘quíteme las manos de encima’, chilló la chica

gritar [2]

to shout

gritaba pidiendo ayuda; ‘¡eh, tú, pequeño!’ gritó el cabo

berrear [2-1]

to howl (often used of children)

el crío se pasó toda la noche berreando

ladrar M [1]

to bawl, to holler

ya tranquilízate y deja de ladrar

Each synonym is provided with a register level that is indicated according to the following scheme: R3 = a high degree of formality R2 = neutral R1 = colloquial R1* = vulgar, to be used with care. The synonyms are grouped together according to register because this is considered the most important organizing principle of the book (USS:4). In addition to the codes listed above, R3-R2 and R2-R1 are used when there is a degree of movement between the register levels. The exponents are organized alphabetically within each register group. In addition, synonyms are supplied with: – grammatical gender (if the exponent is a noun) e.g. abrigo m – (optionally) regional information e.g. campera f A (where A = Argentinian) – one or more translations

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– (optionally) additional bracketed information commenting on meaning and use (= disambiguators), and – one or more examples. The extra information appended to the translation also includes indications, where applicable, of the interchangeability of synonyms. Sometimes, numbers are used to indicate examples where a word may be substituted e.g. at the frame for incluir to include: recabar

to collect together, to include (abarcar may be used in 1; reunir may be used in 2; reunir and juntar may be used in 3 but not for opiniones)

este artículo recaba (1) todos los aspectos del problema; recabé (2) varios artículos a fin de publicarlos en un número especial recabar fondos para la Cruz Roja; recabar (3) información/opiniones sobre un tema

(Abarcar, reunir, and juntar are exponents included in the same semantic frame.) The examples are located in the third column of the semantic frame. They aim to illustrate the most typical senses, contexts, and syntactic patterns of the synonym in question (Ibid:Ibidem). Disambiguators Throughout the current investigation, the comments in round brackets that follow translations are termed disambiguators. In the USS text they cover the areas listed and exemplified below. – Comparison with the Referents of Other Exponents e.g. tres cuartos m

three quarter coat (longer than chaquetón and shorter than abrigo)

– Connotation e.g. vencer

to expire, to become invalid (has an official connotation)

– Context e.g. clausurar

to bring to a close (often used in a political context)

– Descriptive Range e.g. desembocar en

to end up in, to flow into (used of a river) (R3-2 when figurative; see desembocar above)

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– Emphasis e.g. estrafalario

odd, eccentric (more emphatic than extravagante)

– False Friends e.g. extravagante

outlandish, odd, eccentric (does not mean extravagant in the sense of wasting money; slightly less emphatic than estrafalario)

– Frequency in Comparison with Cognates e.g. jurista mf

any person whose profession is directly connected with the law, lawyer (used much more than jurist)

– Gender of the Referent e.g. estrella f

star (in the cinema) (may be male or female)

– Grammar e.g. tragar(se)

to swallow (usually used reflexively in this meaning)

– Grammatical Gender e.g. comparsa mf

supernumerary (for many Spaniards comparsa is only feminine)

– Literal/Figurative Use e.g. desenredar

to untangle (used figuratively in R3; see below for the literal use) desenredó el complot/el misterio/el asunto

– Location e.g. actor m

actor (in the theatre and cinema)

– Most Typical Use e.g. plenitud f

plenitude, fullness (the example is the most typical) está en la plenitud de la vida

– Part of Speech e.g. demasiado(s)

too much, too many (used as an adjective or adverb)

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– Pejorative Quality e.g. picapleitos mf

lawyer (used pejoratively)

– Possible Object e.g. aprobar

to approve, to pass (a candidate in an examination)

– Regional Restriction e.g. apalancarse

to kip down (not used in Northern Spain)

– Register e.g. abundantemente [2]

abundantly (the second example is R3) llovió abundantemente; escudos y cascos representan abundantemente en la exposición esta técnica

register compared to other exponents: clarificar

to clarify (aclarar may be used in this example; clarificar is used less and is of a higher register than aclarar) clarificó algunos puntos sobre este asunto

– Specification of an Accompanying Feature of the Referent e.g. campera f A

sports jacket (usually with a zip)

– Specification of the Purpose of the Referent e.g. capa f

cape (usually the garment worn in ceremonies)

– Specification of What the Referent is a Part of e.g. chaqueta f

jacket (of a suit) (only for females in Argentina), cardigan

– Specification of What Type of Person Uses the Referent e.g. abrigo m

overcoat (for a man or a woman)

– Strength of Meaning e.g. percance m

mishap, setback (same as contratiempo although percance may have a much stronger meaning of serious accident)

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– Substitutability e.g. pasarse (sin)

to do (without) (prescindir de may not be used in 1 but may be used in 2) (see the note below) no puedo pasarme (1) sin televisión/sin ver la televisión; necesitamos su ayuda, no podemos pasarnos (2) sin él

– Suggestion/Implication e.g. acabar

to end, to finish (very similar to terminar but this verb may not be used in the last two examples) (also suggests to have just done something) no puedo salir, tengo que acabar esto antes; las vacaciones acaban mañana; si segues así vas a acabar mal; ya se han acabado los bombones; decidió acabar con su vida; acabó por decirnos la verdad; me lo acabo de encontrar en la calle; la idea no me acaba de convencer

– User Group e.g. siniestro m

serious accident, disaster, accident (as used by insurance companies)

Other Features Notes Notes are located at the end of some frames. The types of note found are listed and exemplified below, along with the stylistic formulae used in each case. – Collocation/Qualification – sometimes, X is not qualified with Y or Z. They are understood – X is used with Y – X must be followed by … e.g. NB disfrutar and gozar are very similar although gozar may not be used in the first example of disfrutar [= ha disfrutado mucho en la playa]. Gozar must be followed by a preposition and a noun or pronoun. The use of de and con varies according to the context.

– Connotation – – – –

X does not have the pejorative connotation it may have in English X has an (administrative etc) connotation X has a positive connotation whereas Y does not X is used/may be used pejoratively for …

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– X may have a favourable connotation e.g. Halagar has a positive connotation whereas the other two do not [= lisonjear and adular at alabar to praise].

– Context – the use of X and Y varies according to the context e.g. (at ascendencia ancestry) NB It is very difficult to distinguish between abolengo, alcurnia, estirpe and linaje except through context and register.

– Descriptive Range – – – – –

X and Y are used in the same way X has … while Y has … X is often used of … X may be used for persons and objects X refers to …, while Y refers to …

e.g. NB pícaro is losing its original strength of sly, and is weaker than taimado for instance. It is often used of children.

– Difficulty of Disambiguation – it is very difficult to distinguish between X, Y and Z except through context and register – Spanish-speaking people have great difficulty in distinguishing between some of these (nouns etc), although there is general agreement on their register – there is very little difference between these two verbs e.g. (at ascendencia ancestry) NB It is very difficult to distinguish between abolengo, alcurnia, estirpe and linaje except through context and register.

– Frequency – – – – –

certain parts of X [a verb] are rarely used the noun X is used more than the verb there is little difference between X and Y except that the latter is used more X is used less/more than Y X, Y, and Z are pretty well interchangeable, except that X is the most common

e.g. NB afrontar, enfrentarse a and hacer frente a are used more than hacer cara a and encararse a.

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– Grammar – – – – – – – –

all these verbs may be used reflexively note also that X is not used transitively with the meaning of … this verb may be used intransitively when X refers to … it may be used in the singular or the plural X, Y, and Z are also very common as reflexive verbs X is used much more in the plural than in the singular X may also be used transitively X may only be used with things as direct objects

e.g. NB acostar may also be used transitively: voy a acostar a la niña.

– Literal/Figurative Use – X is usually figurative e.g. Note also that avecinar is not used transitively with the meaning of to bring close(r) but avecinarse (R3-2) does have the meaning of to come closer, and is usually figurative, i.e. se avecina una tormenta / el fin del mundo; nadie podía calcular la magnitud del problema / del desastre que se avecinaba.

– Meaning – example may mean … (– gloss) – X indicates … – X means … and does not correspond to … e.g. (at suspender) the last example [= el partido fue suspendido a causa de la lluvia] may mean that the game was abandoned before it started or while it was taking place.

– Precision – X is more precise than Y e.g. NB ahí indicates closeness to the person speaking, and suggests less distance than allí. It corresponds to ese. Allí indicates a certain distance from the speaker and the addressee, and often involves an indication with a finger. It is more precise than allá which can be vague.

– Preferred Form – there is no difference between these three except that X is preferred by purists to Y – note also that X and Y both mean … although the former is preferred to the latter

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– X and Y have the same meaning although X is preferred by purists to Y – X is preferred by purists to Y e.g. NB There is no difference between these three except that Suráfrica is preferred by purists to Sudáfrica.

– Regional Restriction – in [a particular geographical area] X usually has the meaning of … e.g. In Spain americano usually has the meaning of norteamericano. In the whole of Spanish America norteamericano is used for North Americans. Estadounidense is also used in both Spain and Spanish America when referring to North Americans. Yanqui is used pejoratively for North Americans in both Spain and Spanish America, while Spanish Americans use gringo pejoratively when referring to North Americans and the British.

– Register – there is no difference between the last (three etc) synonyms except one of register – there is very little difference between X and Y, although the latter is of a slightly higher register – when X is used transitively it is of a higher register than when used intransitively. – X and Y are used in the same way when referring to … The only difference is one of register. – X is of a higher register (than Y) – X is of a slightly lower register than Y – X is of a lower register than Y e.g. (at abstenerse to abstain) NB pasarse sin is of a lower register than prescindir de.

– Strength – when used figuratively, X is much stronger then Y – X is weaker than Y e.g. NB when used figuratively, bestia is much stronger than animal.

– Substitutability – all these synonyms are very similar and are to some extent interchangeable e.g. (at agreste wild) NB all these synonyms are very similar and are to some extent interchangeable, particularly abrupto, escabroso and escarpado, bearing in mind that the second has a figurative meaning.

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– Suggestion/Implication – the difference between X and Y is that, while the former suggests …, the latter suggests … – the difference between X and Y is that X suggests …, whereas Y suggests … – whereas the former implies …, the latter suggests … – X and Y are very similar except that the former suggests …, whereas the latter suggests – X (often) suggests … whereas Y suggests … e.g. NB perspicacia and sagacidad are very similar except that the former suggests the quality of the observer, whereas the latter suggests the quality of someone trying to uncover a deceitful act or some other mystery.

– Synonymy – X and Y are not complete synonyms … – X and Y are very similar although … e.g. (at acabar to finish, to end) NB 1 llevar a cabo and llevar a término are not complete synonyms. Whereas the former implies that the action can still be taking place, the latter suggests completion. 2 there is very little difference between poner fin a and poner término a, although the latter is of a slightly higher register.

It is important that BTD compilers are aware of the wide range of aspects in which near-synonyms can be distinguished. USS supplies an impressive range of discriminating parameters which could be advantageously employed in a BTD. Access Routes There are two main access routes to the entries in USS: 1) by leafing through the alphabetically ordered frame titles in the text itself. This involves the user guessing which word might be the frame title for the area of meaning sought, and 2) by using one of the indexes in the back matter: – Index of Spanish items with frame titles (Spanish-Spanish) e.g. abierto

sincere

– Index of Argentinian items with frame titles (Argentinian-Spanish) e.g. anteojos

gafas

– Index of Mexican items with frame titles (Mexican-Spanish) e.g.

164 acabadón

viejo

– Index of English items with frame titles (English-Spanish) e.g. assure, to

2.7

afirmar/confirmar

The Key Issues and Desiderata of Thematic Lexicography

Inclusion The inclusion policy of any dictionary should be determined by its purpose. A thematic learner’s dictionary, being an encoding tool, places its prime emphasis on encouraging active use of the language. This aim affects the type of vocabulary that should be included in a TLD. There would be no point in including exponents which the learner is unlikely ever to use, especially in the case of a print dictionary where space is at a premium. At the same time as mastering the most frequent and basic vocabulary of the L2, foreign language learners seek to move beyond the limitations of core vocabulary. They need to acquire additional vocabulary which would allow them to express more precise and differentiated ideas (LLA1:F22) and thereby broaden the range of situations in which they can function linguistically in an effective way. In order to achieve this goal of coming closer to native speaker competence, learners must have at their disposal an armoury of vocabulary that includes not just neutral core vocabulary, but also language that is marked in terms of style and register as well as more specific words than the general ones they already know. Another inclusion policy decision concerns encyclopedic content. Some thematic dictionaries, such as the Word Menu, contain substantial cultural material. If cultural sections are included, care must be taken to avoid the lack of balance observed in ORD. Macrostructure A major decision that has to be made when planning a thematic dictionary is whether to order the topics according to alphabetical order, a thematic framework, or an arrangement that combines both approaches in some way. Whichever course is adopted, user-friendliness in terms of allowing rapid location of the desired item’s section is a key desideratum. The alphabetical ordering of keywords in a thematic dictionary separates related topics in the same way that the alphabetical ordering of headwords disunites related vocabulary. Searching for a word among alphabetically ordered section headings, words within a section, or in an index, requires a knowledge of how the sought-after item is spelt, at least as far as print dictionaries are concerned.

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Another decision facing the TLD lexicographer concerns whether a flat or a pyramid macrostructural hierarchy should be adopted. This is an area where further experimental research is required to determine whether one arrangement or the other is more effective as an access structure. A flat hierarchy risks generating a large number of categories, possibly running into the hundreds, and of losing a substantial number of the semantic connections between topics. Cross-references can only partially suggest the network of the total vocabulary of a language. Since most users of print TLDs choose the index as the starting point for consultation, and users of electronic TLDs employ a type-in search box, the option chosen is arguably not critical. The subject classification scheme should not be organized according to an obscure philosophical system, but it should be arranged logically and practically for the contemporary user. Whilst acknowledging that no single topical arrangement is uniquely correct, at the same time highly idiosyncratic schemata (e.g. that of the Descriptionary) ought to be avoided. Regardless as to whether topics are thematically or alphabetically organized, exponents should be placed under section headings where users would expect to find them. In Section 4.2.3 below, a report is provided on an experiment conducted to test the efficiency of the list of topics in a BTD in guiding users to the expected location of a selection of exponents. Clarity and comprehensibility are especially important as regards the learner’s thematic dictionary. In the case of an MTD, this involves ensuring that the keywords (if used) are simpler than the more difficult words which they lead users to. The words that are chosen as the keywords should be items of basic vocabulary upon which users can expand their vocabulary so that the learner proceeds from the known to the unknown. Sections Thematic lexicographers need to decide on the various criteria according to which broad topics can be subdivided. As a general rule, abstract topics tend to be more problematic than concrete topics to carve up into satisfactory subdivisions and to place in a felicitous relative order. Certain kinds of semantic and thematic relationship can, however, be applied across many themes, e.g. types of X, parts of X, groups of X, and styles of X. Lexicographers have to decide on the most effective number of exponents to include at the bottom level of any macrostructural hierarchy. Too many exponents in a section can make the focus too general and difficult for users to handle. The ordering of exponents within a section will vary according to the subtopic concerned. For encoding purposes, frequency is an obvious ordering criterion, but other criteria have been used in native speaker thematic dictionaries depending on the subject in question e.g. alphabetical, chronological, and ordering by size or degree. Metatextual comments are useful for explaining the inclusion or arrangement policy relating to a particular section or to the types of information included in it. Some thematic dictionaries include cumulative synonymies within them, i.e. lists of undefined exponents. These are, however, unlikely to appear in a TLD.

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Microstructure The challenge for thematic lexicographers at the microstructural level is to provide sufficient disambiguating information in a clear manner. This involves developing effective codifying systems to cover grammatical and usage differences between nearsynonyms. Decisions have to be made as to how much of this discriminatory data is carried in definitions or translation equivalents, and how much is codified in labelling systems and notes. Disambiguators (= discriminating information placed after translation equivalents) can play an important role in bilingual thematic dictionaries. The most radical microstructural arrangement occurs when the meaning explanations are placed before the headwords. Other Features Much inventive use has been made of pictorial illustrations in thematic dictionaries such as the Order of Things and in picture dictionaries such as ODPGED. There is much that TLD lexicographers can learn from these works in terms of the style, placement, and use of pictures. The clarity of the depiction is a key desideratum. Decisions also have to be made regarding the cultural setting of illustrations, i.e. whether they pertain to C1, C2, or to both in the case of a bilingual work. Access Routes A table of contents can either reflect the order of the contents of the main text, as is conventional, or else constitute a subject classification scheme which organizes topics into larger groups regardless of their position within the main text. Issues surrounding indexes include: whether or not the index should be exhaustive, whether section headings should be included in the index, and what kind of semantic pointers should be used for polysemous index items. Thematic dictionaries vary as to the amount of navigational assistance that is provided to users once they are inside the main text. Navigational aids come in the form of guidewords, menus at the beginning of sections, and cross-references. Lexicographers who are working on electronic thematic dictionaries have to choose the search types which best serve their users, and the most useful hyperlinks, both within the TLD and also between conventional and topical dictionaries if they are paired together on a CD-ROM.

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2.8

Monolingual Thematic Learner’s Dictionaries

2.8.1 An Overview of Monolingual Thematic Learner’s Dictionaries A selection of monolingual thematic learner’s dictionaries are analyzed and compared below. Chronology of Key Works The dictionaries are listed in the table at Figure 26 below in chronological order of publication. The table shows that the MTD has been in existence for over a quarter of a century since the publication of Tom McArthur’s pioneering Longman Lexicon. Two of the Longman MTDs have had second editions published. Both publishers have included electronic versions of their MTDs on a CD-ROM, together with their flagship MLDs.

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)

8)

9)

MTD Title and Publisher Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English (Longman) Longman Language Activator 1st edition (Longman) Longman Essential Activator 1st edition (Longman) Oxford Learner’s Wordfinder Dictionary (Oxford University Press) Longman Pocket Activator (Longman) Longman Language Activator 2nd edition (Longman) Longman Language Activator 2nd edition – electronic version (Longman) [combined with the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English 4th edition on a CD-ROM] Oxford Learner’s Wordfinder Dictionary – electronic version (Oxford University Press) [combined with the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary 7th edition on a CD-ROM] Longman Essential Activator 2nd edition (Longman)

Date 1981 1993 1997 1997 2001 2002 2003

2005

2006

Figure 26) MTDs in Chronological Order of Publication 2.8.2 The Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English Publication History Although only one edition of the Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English (LLCE) has been published (1981), the text is still in print at the time of writing. In 1992, a Chinese-English bilingualized version was produced.

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Users LLCE is aimed at EFL learners who are at the same level of competence as users of LDOCE1, i.e. upper-intermediate to advanced. In fact, it could be seen as a companion work to LDOCE1 although this is not explicitly stated. Aims The dictionary’s main aim is to help learners to expand their vocabulary. The innovative and unique nature of the LLCE is heavily emphasized by the publishers: The Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English is a completely new kind of vocabulary reference book. The Lexicon brings together words with related meanings and lists them in sets with definitions, examples, and illustrations so that you can see the similarities and differences between them. These sets may include words with the same meaning, or opposite meanings, or may list the names of the different parts of something. (LLCE:xii)

At least as far as EFL lexicography is concerned, the claims regarding the groundbreaking nature of the work are justified. No previous EFL dictionary appears to have gone down the thematic route to such an extent. The author claims that the following features allow the dictionary to be effective as such a production-oriented reference work: the pragmatic user-friendly top-level macrostructure (the ‘semantic fields’), the index (which further facilitates access), the detailed definitions, the appropriate presentation of related words, the information on style and register, the illustrative examples, the use of tables, and the use of pictorial illustrations. Tom McArthur, the creator of the Lexicon, allows metalexicographers a rare insight into the rationale underlying a dictionary in a paper entitled A mutually defining circle of words: some reflections on the making of the Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English (McArthur 1998:177-190). Four main influences on the text are listed below. 1) Lexical Set Theory McArthur conceived the Lexicon in terms of lexical sets that were based on such sense relations as antonymy, hyponymy, meronymy, polysemy, and synonymy. John Lyons’ structural semantics as espoused in an Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics (Lyons 1968) was a key influence in this respect. 2) Folk Taxonomy The author was also influenced by Stephen A. Tyler’s Cognitive Anthropology which describes the concept of folk taxonomy i.e. a system by means of which a community structures its vocabulary. The fields in the dictionary are pragmatic and relativistic.

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3) Meaning Equals Other Words Yorick Wilks’s Grammar, Meaning, and the Machine Analysis of Language (1972) proposed that meaning is other words, and for this reason the dictionary is effectively a mutually defining circle of words. 4) The Diachronic Perspective The author wished to discover whether his work belonged to a particular tradition, and he found out that his work was a continuation of the thematic tradition which had spread throughout the globe and across millennia. (Ibid:179-180) Inclusion LLCE claims to contain more than 15,000 entries, covering over 130 major topics, concentrating on the central or core vocabulary of English. The inclusion policy embraces both concrete and abstract lexemes. One area which remains somewhat shrouded in mystery with regard to TLDs is how compilers decide which exponents to include in each section. McArthur has shed some light on this as far as the Lexicon is concerned (McArthur 1998:182). He applied the snowflake principle to a basic list of 2000 basic words and expanded them along two lines to 15,000 words. These lines were: the morphological line and the semantic line. The morphological line involves the application of formational processes including derivation, compounding, conversion, and abbreviation. The semantic line concerns semantic relations. Each word is considered to be like a snowflake in that its “morphosemantic pattern and potential” makes it distinct from all other words. Overall Structure and Textual Components An overview of the main components of LLCE and their relative order is provided below. Component Front Matter Pronunciation table/Special signs Short forms used in the Lexicon (Title Page) (Details of Publication)/Acknowledgements Contents Preface List of Sets How to use the Lexicon

Page inside front cover inside front cover p. iii p. iv p. v p. vi p. vii-xi p. xii-xiii

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Guide to the Lexicon

p. xiv-xv

Main Text The Lexicon

p. 1-784

Index The Index Back Matter Grammar Table

p. 785-910 p. 912-3

Macrostructure The LLCE macrostructure is a pyramid hierarchy consisting of four levels: 1) 14 semantic fields, 2) 128 items at a level below the semantic fields (for the current purposes, this unnamed level has been termed the X Level), 3) 2450 sets, and 4) 9 items at an unnamed level below set level (for the present purposes, this level is referred to as the subset). Each of the semantic fields is identified by an alphabetical letter together with a title e.g. A Life and Living Things, B The Body: its Functions and Welfare etc. The 128 X Levels each have a title e.g. Life and death, Living creatures generally etc. On average, there are 9 X Levels per semantic field. The next level down in the hierarchy comprises 2450 sets, averaging 175 sets per semantic field. Each set has a title consisting of: 1) a set letter followed by a serial number, 2) a part of speech or similar descriptor (e.g. euphemistic verbs), and 3) a heading e.g. A1 verbs: existing and causing to exist, B4 nouns: substances of the body etc. Some set titles additionally include a grammar code e.g. A150 nouns: kinds of fruits [C] and B37 nouns & verbs: the lungs and breathing. These grammar codes are listed in the inside back pages of the Lexicon. Sometimes, opposite sets are placed adjacent to each other e.g. becoming fatter and becoming thinner. This is characteristic of thematic dictionaries. The subsets bear simple titles and appear at selected sets only. For example, the subset Other varieties of horses and similar mammals occurs at the set A51 nouns: the horse and similar animals [C]. The alphanumeric codes used at set level jump to the next factor of 10 at each new X Level. Thus, the X Level Life and Death contains sets A1-A20, but the first set at the next X Level Living creatures generally is coded A30 rather than A21. This discontinuous numbering system may not cause the user any serious problems, but it might have been better to mention it in the front matter in case the user is puzzled by it. The hierarchical levels and their respective titles are summarized in Figure 27 below. The figure reveals that the number of subsets is very small and peters out after semantic field E.

171 Level No. 1)

Level Name

2)

Subject/Semantic Field (X Level)

3)

Set

4)

(Subsets)

No. of Topics at Level 14 10 @ A 10 @ B 15 @ C 8@D 7@E 12 @ F 8@G 8@H 5@I 8@J 8@K 9@L 8@M 12 @ N Total: 128 99 @ A 131@ B 279 @ C 138 @ D 97 @ E 214 @ F 242 @ G 183 @ H 99 @ I 177 @ J 138 @ K 212 @ L 171 @ M 270 @ N Total: 2450 7@A 0@B 2@C 0@D 2@E 0@F 0@G 0@H 0@I 0@J 0@K 0@L 0@M 0@N Total: 11

Example Title

Level Title Style

A Life and living things Life and death

subject letter + title Title

A1 verbs: existing and causing to exist [Sometimes with a grammar code at the end e.g. A150 nouns: kinds of fruits [C]]

set letter and number + part of speech + title [+ grammar code]

Other varieties of horses and similar mammals

Title

Figure 27) The Hierarchical Levels in the Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English

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The 14 semantic fields are shown in Figure 28 below. No. 1) 2) 3) 4)

Letter A B C D

5) 6)

E F

7)

G

8)

H

9)

I

10)

J

11) 12) 13)

K L M

14)

N

Subjects Life and Living Things The Body; its Functions and Welfare People and the Family Buildings, Houses, the Home, Clothes, Belongings, and Personal Care Food, Drink, and Farming Feelings, Emotions, Attitudes, and Sensations Thought and Communication, Language and Grammar Substances, Materials, Objects, and Equipment Arts and Crafts, Science and Technology, Industry, and Education Numbers, Measurement, Money, and Commerce Entertainment, Sports, and Games Space and Time Movement, Location, Travel, and Transport General and Abstract Terms

Page p. 1-38 p. 39-78 p. 79-168 p. 169-212 p. 213-236 p. 237-296 p. 297-379 p. 381-428 p. 429-456 p. 457-503 p. 505-544 p. 545-601 p. 603-677 p. 679-784

Figure 28) The Semantic Fields in the Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English X levels and Semantic Field Titles The semantic field G Thought and communication, language and grammar is, for example, divided into eight X levels: 1) Thinking, judging, and remembering (containing sets G1-G25) 2) Knowing and learning (containing sets G30-G54) 3) Communicating, mainly by speaking and talking (containing sets G60-G132) 4) Communicating, mainly by reading and writing, printing and publishing, radio and television (containing sets G140-G180) 5) Communication and information (containing sets G190-G218) 6) Language (containing sets G230-G249) 7) Grammar (containing sets G260-G274) 8) General grammatical words (containing sets G280-G293).

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Sections The Components of a Set The main components of a set are shown in the hierarchical scheme below. – set heading [e.g. G1 nouns: mind, thought, and reason ALSO B B20] – set reference letter and number [e.g. G1] – part(s) of speech [e.g. nouns] – set title [e.g. mind, thought, and reason] – (cross-reference to another set – indicated by the set reference letter and number e.g. ALSO Ö B20) – (cross-reference to a picture e.g. B26 nouns: the mouth in detail [C] [B PICTURE AT B10] B10 is: B10 nouns: male and female bodies) – entry [Each set consists of a number of entries.] head – headword [e.g. mind] (– variant) sense(s) – sense number [present whenever there is more than one sense] – grammar code(s) [present at the head if it refers to all senses] – (register label (s)) – definition [e.g. “the part of a person which thinks”] [N.B. there is often no definition at pictures e.g. chimpanzee, gorilla, baboon, marmoset, gibbon, rhesus, and orang utan at A50 nouns: man and the monkey. However, some pictures do have definitions in square brackets e.g. frog spawn [U]] [= The mass of soft eggs of the frog] at A94 nouns: amphibians. There are also No definitions at tables e.g. ‘Names for the horse according to age and sex’ at A51 nouns: the horse and similar animals [C]] – example(s) [e.g. We don’t know what goes on in the mind, or the exact relationship of mind and brain.] – (gloss of example) n.b. use of glossed examples – see think – (lexical unit) – (definition of lexical unit) – (example illustrating lexical unit) – (cross-reference – at sense level) – (subsenses) – (– negative)

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tail – (run-on) – run-on headword – grammar code(s) – sense – (sense number) – definition – example(s) – (grammar note) – (usage note) – (table) – see list of tables Set Titles It is possible to identify a number of frequently recurring heading styles: – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

common X (e.g. common wild birds) expressions for X (e.g. emotive expressions for living things [C]) general words for X (e.g. general words for plants) collective words for X (e.g. collective words for many plants together) informal names for X (e.g. informal names for policemen) various names for X (e.g. various names for soldiers, etc.) technical terms in X (e.g. technical terms in electricity) special terms for X (e.g. special terms for numbers, etc) titles of X (e.g. titles of priests and other religious persons) acts of X (e.g. acts of stealing) X activities (e.g. military activities) making X (e.g. making alcoholic drinks) classes of X (e.g. classes of living things [C]) kinds of X (e.g. kinds of living creature) forms of X (e.g. forms of potatoes as food) levels in X (e.g. levels in societies) parts of X (e.g. special parts of different creatures) X and their parts (e.g. doors and their parts) persons associated with X (e.g. persons associated with love and sex) persons connected with X (e.g. persons connected with prostitution) places where X (e.g. places where creatures lie and shelter) relating to X (e.g. relating to sweat) showing X (e.g. showing good bodily condition) X and similar Y (e.g. insects and similar creatures) X generally (e.g. young creatures generally) other X (e.g. other varieties and breeds of horses and similar animals)

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Microstructure By way of illustration, here is the entry for conviction at G86 nouns: convincing and reassuring: conviction [C;U] (a) very firm and sincere belief: I always try to act in accordance with my convictions. I speak in the full conviction that our cause is just. From the way she spoke you could tell she was speaking from conviction. carry conviction to be likely to cause belief; be likely to persuade: If your arguments carry conviction many people will support you. open to conviction ready to listen to a person’s opinions and be persuaded by them if they seem right: I’ve never supported your political party but I’m open to conviction.

The basic elements of each entry are: – – – – – – – –

the headword (e.g. conviction) the grammar codes (e.g. [C;U]) the definition (e.g. (a) very firm and sincere belief) the examples (e.g. I always try to act in accordance with my convictions.) a phrase including the headword (e.g. carry conviction) [optional] the definition of the phrases (e.g. to be likely to cause belief; be likely to persuade) an example illustrating the phrase, and chart/illustration/diagram [optional].

LLCE employs a wide range of labels covering the following information types: region (e.g. ScotE = English used in Scotland), style (e.g. poetic), register (e.g. fml = formal), pragmatics, attitude (e.g. affec = affectionate), and subject (e.g. geom = geometry). Labels can appear not just at the head of an entry, but also before examples e.g. believe […] 2 [T5a, b; V3; X1, 7] to hold as an opinion; suppose: I believe he has come. He has come, I believe. Has he come? – I believe so. I believe he did it. (old use & lit) I believe him to have done it. I believe him (to be) honest.

Some of the labels, especially those connected with pragmatics and attitude, are of particular interest because they are seldom found in other dictionaries e.g. emot (= emotive or emotional): slaughter [T1] […] 2 esp emot to kill (esp many people) cruelly or wrongly; massacre

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The definitions are written in the 2000-word Longman defining vocabulary and are based on those in the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (LDOCE). Rolling definitions are sometimes used in lexical sets whose key member is a generic or superordinate term which is placed first and whose definition acts as the basis for all following definitions (McArthur 1998:183). Thus, the initial definition at big would be followed by dependent definitions at the entries for large, great, grand, immense, vast etc. Pressure of time did not, however, allow the author to apply and refine this principle as much as he would have liked. The definitions with bracketed information in the ‘A’ field are categorized into their main types below. – Additional Vocabulary e.g. python any of several types of non-poisonous tropical snakes (constrictors) that kill small animals for food by winding round them and crushing them

– Descriptive Range e.g. animate [B] 1 [Wa5] precise & tech (of plants and animals) alive; living: animate beings

– Exemplification e.g. cane 1 [C;U] the hard smooth hollow stem of certain plants (such as tall grasses)

– Location of the Referent e.g. aquarium 1 a glass container for fish and other water animals 2 a building (esp in a zoo) containing many of these

– More Precise Information e.g. life 1 [U] the active force that is present in those forms of matter (animals and plants) that grow through feeding and produce new young forms of themselves, but is not present in other matter (stones, machines, objects, etc): Life is a mystery; we do not know how it began or why it continues.

– Possible Object e.g. bear 2 [T1; IØ] to produce (fruit or young): The trees have borne a heavy crop of fruit this year. The young apple tree is bearing this year.

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There are claimed to be over 35,000 natural examples showing the words in context. Nevertheless, many of the examples do not exhibit much, if any, use of corpus evidence e.g. gullible […] easily tricked, esp into a false belief: He is very gullible; he gave money to a strange man who said he lost £5 in the street.

It appears that the examples are always full sentences rather than fragments. Instead of collocational patterns being shown in bold before or within examples, as is the case with most contemporary MLDs, this type of information is frequently supplied within brackets before definitions e.g. think […] 3 [T6a,b] (used after cannot and could not) to imagine; understand: I can’t think why you did it!

Other Features Notes There are two types of note in LLCE: grammatical notes and usage notes e.g. [picture of antelope] antelope [Africa, Asia] gazelle one of many kinds of small soft-eyed graceful antelope common in Africa and southern Asia springbok a kind of swift South African gazelle GRAMMATICAL NOTE The above three nouns are [Wn1;C]: an antelope; antelopes or antelope; the antelope, etc remember 1 […] to keep in memory; call back into the mind: I shall always remember that terrible day. Certainly I posted your letter; I remember posting it. […] 2 […] to take care not to forget: Don’t forget to post my letter; please remember! – Yes, (I promise) I’ll remember to post your letter. USAGE Note the difference between remember posting the letter (1) and remember to post the letter (2). In the first case the letter is already posted, while in the second case it has not been posted yet.

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Tables The Lexicon makes plentiful use of tables. The use of tables does, however, peter out as the text progresses e.g. Field A: 16 tables Field B: 2 Field C: 11 Field D: 1 Field E: 2 Field F: 0 Field G: 3 Field H: 0 Field I: 0 Field J: 0 Field K: 0 Field L: 5 Field M: 1 Field N: 0 The most common subject for treatment in tables is animals e.g. sex

age full-grown younger young newborn

Names for fowls according to age and sex general and female hen, chicken

male cock, AmE usu rooster cockerel

chicken chick

The features listed in these tables are reminiscent of those used during lexical field analysis. One advantage of the presentation using grids is that the users can immediately see the distinguishing features without the distraction of any surrounding text. Pictorial Illustrations Some of the entries or sections in the Lexicon have charts, illustrations, or diagrams, totalling over 1000 in the entire text. Line drawings are used for various purposes e.g. – to show different types of something e.g. pictures of various monkeys (gorilla, baboon etc.) at A50 nouns – man and the monkey where an illustration is used instead of a definition

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– to show different parts of something e.g. parts of a horse (mane, withers etc.) at A51 nouns the horse and similar animals. Here again, an illustration is used instead of a definition. – to illustrate individual entries e.g. plait at B52 nouns, etc styles of hair. In this case, the picture is used in conjunction with a definition. – to show objects typically found in a particular location e.g. at D34 nouns: the inside of a room, and – to show position and direction e.g. at M204 adverbs, prepositions & adjectives: in, into, at etc. Access Routes Apart from browsing through the main text, there are two modes of access to the information contained within the Lexicon: 1) choosing a subject from the List of Sets in the front of the book, and 2) selecting an individual word from the index. The List of Sets takes up five pages of the front matter. It lists each of the semantic fields from A Life and Living Things to N General and Abstract Terms. Within the listing for each individual field, the headings of the X levels contained within it are supplied e.g. A1 Life and Living Things, A30 Living Creatures Generally, A50 Animals/Mammals etc at the Field A. As mentioned above, because the system of alphanumeric coding jumps to the next factor of 10 at each new X level, users may find it somewhat puzzling that X levels are sequenced A1, A30, A50 etc. As well as the X level titles, the List of Sets gives major cross-references at each X level. Thus, the section of the List of Sets for field A begins: A Life and Living Things A1 Life and Living Things C1 People C20 Courting, Sex, and Marriage C50 Death and Burial I74 The Life Sciences L200 Old, New, and Young N1 Being, Becoming, and Happening

The index is alphabetically organized and lists all the words in the Lexicon. User Guidance The LLCE front matter ‘How to use the Lexicon’ (pp. xii-xiii) consists of the following sections: ‘Using the List of Sets’, ‘Using the Index’, ‘Words with several meanings’, and a ‘Guide to the Lexicon’.

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2.8.3 The Longman Language Activator Publication History At the time of writing, two print editions of the Longman Language Activator have been published (in 1993 and 2002), together with one electronic version (based on the second edition) which appeared with LDOCE4 on a CD-ROM (in 2003). It is possible, therefore, to see how one particular publisher has sought to introduce improvements to a monolingual thematic dictionary between editions. A further comparison can be made between a print version and an electronic version of a monolingual TLD. Users LLA1 and LLA2 are aimed at learners between intermediate and advanced level. Aims In spite of the fact that LLA1 describes itself as “the world’s first production dictionary” (LLA1:back cover), it was certainly not the first dictionary to be primarily concerned with encoding because this is the rationale behind thesauri. Even if the application of the statement is restricted to EFL dictionaries, the Longman Lexicon has a stronger claim. The main aim of the Activator is to help learners to produce language that encodes their ideas. It is argued that there is a need for a “a radically different type of dictionary”, i.e. a production dictionary, because traditional dictionaries have focused primarily on meeting decoding needs (Ibid:F8). This criticism includes bilingual dictionaries which, the publishers of the Activator claim, often provide an insufficient number of translation equivalents and not enough guidance for users to choose between the L2 exponents. Thesauri are also dismissed as a possible solution to the production issue because they tend to include obscure vocabulary rather than common phrases, and often fail to supply information about the meaning of exponents (Ibid:F17). In order to achieve the dictionary’s onomasiological aim, words of similar meaning had to be grouped together (LLA2:viii). Having adopted a topical arrangement, care had to be taken that the information remained accessible to users. A system of alphabetically ordered keywords was adopted, each of which was divided into a number of subcategories. Once the vocabulary had been carved up into categories and subcategories, users needed to be able to discriminate between the exponents gathered together in these groups. In order to help the user choose the right word, this new type of dictionary must supply information that is detailed and precise enough to allow the user to make the correct choice from a selection of vocabulary items that are semantically close. Such information must disambiguate lexemes by explaining the different nuances of

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meaning and the grammatical and collocational properties of each of the exponents available for selection. Lexicographic Evidence The publishers of LLA1 claim to have made use of two tools to identify the small but significant differences between exponents that are grouped together in a section: 1) large representative corpora of written and spoken language (the Longman Corpus Network), and 2) “a computer-aided semantic analysis system with which we can formally distinguish between the meanings of similar words” (LLA1:F8). The corpus network also includes the Longman Learners’ Corpus of writing by students from more than 70 different countries (Ibid:Ibidem). The second tool mentioned is intriguing, and it is a pity that further details about it are not provided. At the same time, the importance of lexicographers’ judgements is acknowledged (Ibid:Ibidem). What also remains a mystery is how the set of concepts to which the exponents were assigned was decided upon. Exactly where did the use of the “computer-aided semantic analysis system” end and the lexicographers’ decisions enter into the equation? Inclusion The compilers of LLA1 recognize that in order to express meanings, users require information not just about individual words, but also about phrases as a productive resource, especially as research has shown that writers and speakers create messages by making use of preformed sequences of words (LLA1:13-14). In terms of regional varieties of English, LLA covers both British and American English, but not local dialects or English spoken in other parts of the world. The proportion of American English has been increased in the second edition of the dictionary. Also covered are formal and informal vocabulary as well as spoken and written language. The LLA1 front matter points out the importance of including items that occur with sufficient frequency so that they are useful for production purposes (Ibid:F17). One obvious omission in terms of inclusion is the lack of vocabulary with concrete and “real world” referents. This concentration on the abstract world is common to all the dictionaries in the Activator series and is based on the argument that learners need more help in this area (Ibid:F8). One suspects, however, that space limitations may have been the deciding factor. Overall Structure and Textual Components Content overviews for LLA1 and LLA2 are provided below. Note that in the second edition, the front matter essays have been dropped, and the index has been moved to

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the back matter rather than existing as a running index interspersed among the keyword categories. LLA1: Prelims – Pronunciation table – (title page) – (publication details) – Contents – (personnel) – Preface (Professor Sir Randolph Quirk) – Introduction (Della Summers, Editorial Director) – Vocabulary acquisition and the Activator (Dr. Paul Meara) – The conceptual map of English and the Activator (Philip Scholfield) – Semantic analysis and the Activator (Professor Y. Ikegami) – Informal, formal, and spoken language and the Activator (Professor Gillian Brown) – The value of the Activator to students of English (Professor Albrecht Neubert) – Explanatory page – How to use the Longman Language Activator – Getting the most out of the Longman Language Activator – Putting your ideas into words with the Activator – Using new words and phrases – Improving your English with the Activator – Preparing for an exam – Choosing the right word when writing – Helping you with multiple-choice exercises – The Activator definitions – Selection restrictions – Helping you get the grammar right – Grammatical patterns are shown simply and clearly, in bold type – Transitive and intransitive – The use of the passive – The meaning of sb and sth – Helping you with phrasal verbs – Collocations – using the right words together – Using the right kind of language for the situation – informal and formal language – New insights into spoken English – British English and American English are both fully covered – But what if you cannot get to the right Key Word? – Meanings are always clear through the Longman Defining Vocabulary – The purpose of reference dictionaries (A-Z text) Key Words The Longman Defining Vocabulary Grammatical information

inside front cover p. F1 p. F2 p. F3 p. F4-5 p. F7 p. F8-11 p. F15-16 p. F17-19 p. F20-21 p. F22-23 p. F24-25 p. F26-27 p. F28

p. F29-34

p. 1-1587 p. B1-4 p. B5-11 inside back cover

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LLA2: Prelims – Pronunciation table – (half-title page) – (full title page) – (publication details) – Contents – Acknowledgements – Preface – Introduction – How the Activator is organized – How to use the Activator using keywords – How to use the Activator index – Explanatory pages (A-Z text) Using the Longman Language Activator (an insert in the middle matter after p.722) Index Grammatical information

inside front cover p. i p. iii p. iv p. v p. vi p. vii p. viii p. ix p. x p. xi p. xii-xiii p. 1-1402 p. C1-C12 p. 1403-1530 inside back cover

Macrostructure The macrostructure of LLA1 consists of 1052 keywords that are alphabetically ordered e.g. ABOUT, ABOVE, ACCEPT etc. The keywords are intended to constitute the basic building blocks of the language i.e. neutral core vocabulary that helps to activate the learner’s passive knowledge. The publishers claim to have conducted classroom tests to ascertain that the keywords are clear, direct, and part of the active vocabulary of learners at intermediate level and above (LLA1:F8). The keywords were also validated against the learners’ corpus. As familiar items of vocabulary, the keywords act as a starting point leading to the productive use of more accurately tailored language (Ibid:F14). Each keyword category consists of one or more subcategories which are thematically, i.e. conceptually, ordered. For example, ACCEPT has eight subcategories. These subcategories are listed after the cross-references in a menu at the beginning of each category e.g. z ACCEPT 1 to take something that someone offers you such as money, a gift, or a job 2 to say yes when someone asks you to do something or offers you a chance to do something 3 to say that you think a suggestion, piece of advice etc is good or worth considering 4 to unwillingly accept someone’s suggestion, offer, or demand, after first opposing it or refusing it 5 to accept a situation which you do not want to accept but which you cannot change or improve

184 6 7 8

to officially agree to accept a new law, proposal etc, especially by voting to accept that something has legal or official authority to accept something as a way of paying for goods or services

This menu illustrates a dilemma which compilers of MTDs face. Dividing up the main uses of an abstract word such as ‘accept’ is no easy matter. Even if satisfactory divisions are arrived at, the headings for each division can be quite long and challenging for the learner to understand. The same applies to the definitions at each exponent. In order to be sufficiently explicit in terms of disambiguating one word from another, the definitions tend to be longer than they would be in a standard A-Z semasiological dictionary. Superconcepts LLA2 reduced the overall number of categories by merging LLA1 categories whose titles began with the same word. Thus, for example, the three LLA1 categories entitled SAVE MONEY, SAVE/RESCUE, and SAVE STH TO USE LATER became one superconcept SAVE in LLA2. Changes were accordingly also made to the menu system. Sections The elements within each category/keyword section are shown below for LLA1 and LLA2. LLA1: – keyword – (access map) [= ‘which meaning?’ cross-references to other keywords] – meaning menu [= list of numbered sections] – (definition of keyword) – numbered section – section heading [= section number + section title] – list of exponents in the section – entry – (run-on entry) LLA2: – keyword – (definition of keyword) – related words [= cross-references to other keywords]

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– numbered section – section heading [= section number + section title] – list of exponents in the section – entry – (run-on entry) Keyword definitions are mainly used at slightly harder words if there is any doubt as to whether the keyword will be understood by the users. Certain subcategory headings in LLA1 are very long and had to be shortened in LLA2. For example, AGREE ‘3 ways of saying that two people or organizations agree and make a decision, after talking together about what they should each do’ became ‘when everyone agrees on a decision, plan etc’. Verbose headings in L2 can be difficult for learners to decipher, especially when subtle differences are being explained. Selected LLA1 sections have been merged in LLA2 e.g. to make someone leave their job and to be forced to leave your job were amalgamated into when someone is forced to leave their job. Some subcategory headings could be termed functional headings by analogy with functional definitions. They are used especially for spoken language, and metalinguistically describe what exponents are used to express e.g. LLA1 ADMIT subcategory 2 ‘how you say that you admit that something is true’ which contains the exponents admittedly, it’s true that, I grant you/granted, let’s face it, and there’s no getting around it. LLA subcategories sometimes concern people e.g. LLA1 ADVISE subcategory 6 ‘someone whose job is to give advice, for example about technical matters, work, or personal problems’. The issue here for the lexicographer is to decide the extent to which people should be included as exponents under the various topics. Subcategories can also deal with a lack of something e.g. LLA1 AIR subcategory 4 ‘words for describing places that are uncomfortable to be in because there is not enough fresh air’. Others deal with opposites although this is not applied consistently throughout the text, e.g. the access map for APPEAR in LLA1 does not cross-refer to DISAPPEAR although at approve there is a cross-reference to DISAPPROVE. The exponents in a section are ordered according to frequency, with the most general lexemes placed first. Figure 29 below lists the main types of section heading used in LLA2. Genus Word or Topic Abbreviation Ability Action Activity

Sample Subcategory abbreviation for different types of company able to make decisions quickly and firmly the action of breathing the activity or study of acting

Figure 29) Types of Section Heading in LLA2

Category COMPANY DECIDE BREATHE ACTOR/ACTRESS

186 Genus Word or Topic Amount To Become X Behaviour Causing X To Completely X Containing X Continuation Degree Deliberate/Accidental

Descriptive Range

Duration Easy/Difficult Excess Experience Feeling Function Good/Bad Groups Having X In General Involving X Location To Make X Do Sth Manner

Sample Subcategory the amount of business a company is doing to become an adult dishonest behaviour causing a lot of destruction or suffering to completely destroy a vehicle containing interesting or new ideas continuing for too long a continuous movement of water feeling angry feeling extremely angry to deliberately try to cause trouble, arguments etc to hit someone or something accidentally 1) woman 2) man 3) child 4) animal 5) thing/building 6) place/countryside/view 7) a beautiful appearance 8) dressed, arranged, decorated etc in a beautiful way angry for a short time easy to understand difficult or impossible to understand too proud an exciting experience the feeling of admiring someone what you say when you admit that something is true to have a good smell to have a bad smell a set of questions having a lot of power people in general involving risk at work, at home, when doing a sport etc to make someone like or want to do something the way someone behaves

Figure 29) continued) Types of Section Heading in LLA2

Category BUSINESS ADULT DISHONEST DISASTER DESTROY IDEA LONG WATER ANGRY CAUSE HIT BEAUTIFUL

ANGRY UNDERSTAND/NOT UNDERSTAND PROUD EXCITED/ EXCITING ADMIRE ADMIT SMELL ASK POWER/ POWERFUL PERSON/PEOPLE RISK ACCIDENT ATTRACT/ ATTRACTION BEHAVE

187 Genus Word or Topic Method Not X Occasion Officially Part Part Of Speech People Place Problems Process Purpose Quality Of Being X Relating To X Repetition Series Similarity Situation Something Speed Starting/Stopping Style Time Types Typical Of X Used By Or Connected With X Ways For Describing X Ways Of Saying X/Ways To Say X When X Words For Describing X

Sample Subcategory methods, laws etc that are used to control situations or people not mentally ill an occasion when people compete against each other in a game to officially accept a new law or proposal the back part of something 1) with adjectives 2) with nouns someone who is accused of a crime in a trial a place where art is shown computer problems the process of people or animals producing babies used to decorate something the quality of being similar relating to art or culture relating to art or culture to happen again a series of events and results like a father a situation that you think is wrong or immoral something that is added to walk quickly to walk slowly in a relaxed way to make or start a fire to stop drinking alcoholic drinks a style of cooking the time when someone is an adult the period in which a baby is developing inside its mother types of film typical of men used by or connected with the army, navy etc ways for describing someone who is helpful ways of saying how old someone is ways to say hello when something gives someone an advantage words for describing an angry meeting, argument etc

Figure 29) continued) Types of Section Heading in LLA2

Category CONTROL/NOT CONTROL MENTALLY ILL GAME ACCEPT BACK BECOME ACCUSE ART/CULTURE COMPUTERS/ INTERNET/EMAIL BABY DECORATE LIKE/SIMILAR ART/CULTURE HAPPEN RESULT FATHER BAD ADD WALK FIRE DRINK COOK ADULT BABY FILM/MOVIE MAN ARMY HELP AGE HELLO ADVANTAGE ANGRY

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Microstructure The elements of each entry are as follows: – headword or headphrase – pronunciation – (register label) – (lexical unit) – definition – word class label + grammar code + (further grammatical information) – example – (grammatical pattern) example (gloss) – (collocation pattern) example (gloss) – (run-on derivative) – headword of run-on – word class label + grammar code e.g. at obey Section 1 to obey someone: obey /…/ [v I/T] to do what someone in authority tells you to do: Soldiers must always obey their commanding officer. | I knew that if I didn’t obey, I would be shot. | obey an order/command/instructtion You can teach most dogs to obey simple commands. | War criminals tried to justify their actions by saying that they were only obeying orders.

The definitions are written in the Longman defining vocabulary. An attempt is made in LLA2 to improve the definitions of the previous edition. Perhaps the most important of these revisions was to address cases where the exponents within a section were not sufficiently disambiguated e.g. at ADMIT: own up /…/ to admit that you have done something wrong, especially something that is not serious

(LLA1) own up /…/ to admit that you have done something wrong, especially something that is not serious. Own up is more informal than admit

(LLA2) LLA1’s fronted definition style has been replaced by the use of labels or a hyphen followed by a comment on the context or the user group e.g.

189 get stroppy /…/ an informal British expression meaning to start behaving and talking to people in an angry way, especially when other people think this is unreasonable

(LLA1) get stroppy /…/ British Informal to start behaving and talking to people in an angry way, especially when other people think this is unreasonable

(LLA2) Apart from this change, the other permitted definition styles are the same as those in LEA (see Section 2.8.4 Microstructure). A lot of usage information is carried in the definitions e.g. the type of text in which the exponent is used and the user group: on-message /…/ [adj/adv] if a politician is on-message he or she is always publicly willing to support the ideas and aims of their party and to do what their leaders want them to do – used especially in newspapers

Examples The examples in LLA1 were substantially overhauled for the second edition. Their basic purpose, however, remained unchanged i.e. to illustrate typical subjects, objects, contexts, syntactic patterns, collocations, and so forth as evident from the corpus lines. In addition, examples should help users to show how adjacent near-synonyms differ despite their similarity of meaning. Although the examples are corpus-derived, as is the case with all Longman EFL dictionaries, they have been changed when necessary e.g. for reasons of space or to excise unnecessarily complex vocabulary, dated cultural references, and material which could cause offence or lead to litigation. The LLA1 policy of placing easier pedagogical examples first, followed by more difficult ones for advanced-level users, is retained in LLA2. Examples assume particular importance in a production dictionary as models of use. Syntactic and collocational patterns also help users to disambiguate words with very similar meanings grouped together in a section. On account of these two reasons, the compilers of LLA1 have included more examples than in a traditional reference dictionary (LLA1:F10). Bold skeletons, also known as propositional forms, are placed in front of examples that illustrate grammatical patterns such as the transitive use of verbs (e.g. sip sth), intransitive use of verbs (e.g. drink He didn’t take a glass, but drank straight from the bottle at drink), following prepositions (e.g. sip at), and collocational patterns (e.g. have a drink of Can I have a drink of water, please at

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drink). This written-out form of presenting syntactic patterns was chosen because it is clearer than the coding systems used in some dictionaries such as CCALED. The following entry shows three bold syntactic propositional forms including one optional element in brackets (+ [that]). can tell /…/ [v phrase] to know that something must be true because you can see signs that show this + [that] I can tell that Mark isn’t happy here. | Even though it was dark, she could tell it was him. | + if I can’t tell if this is dirty or not. Can you? | + by I could tell by the way she walked that her knee was still bothering her.

The entry for follow below shows a typical collocation (follow sb’s advice), a selectional collocation (follow orders/instructions), and a collocation followed by a meaning gloss (follow sb’s orders/instructions etc to the letter). follow /…/ [vT] to do what someone tells you to do, wants you to do, or thinks you should do follow orders/instructions He was a military man, and therefore used to following orders. | I have followed your instructions exactly. | follow sb’s advice Visitors to the city should follow police advice and not resist muggers. | follow sb’s orders/instructions etc to the letter (= do exactly what someone tells you) You will not make a mistake if you follow these instructions to the letter.

Access Routes The Running Index in LLA1 The main access route in LLA1 is via the running index. An initial glance through the pages of LLA1 may cause some users alarm because keyword sections containing exponents are placed in the same single alphabetical list of references which one would normally expect to find in the index of a text. Thus, the keywords GOVERNMENT and GRACEFUL are separated by the following references: GP DOCTOR 1 grab TAKE STH FROM SB 1, TAKE STH FROM SOMEWHERE 2 grab at/snatch at TAKE STH FROM SOMEWHERE 3 grab some sleep: snatch/grab some sleep SLEEP 2 grab something/a bite to eat EAT 2 grab the chance CHANCE/OPPORTUNITY 4 grabs: be up for grabs AVAILABLE 2 grace/gracefulness GRACEFUL 3

191 graceful GRACEFUL 1, 2

The exponents are printed in bold, and the keyword(s) where they are located are shown in capitals to their right. The number(s) in bold following each keyword indicate the subcategory where the word or phrase is placed. Note that although section numbers are given, the section title is not. The running index was, however, discarded in the second edition (LLA2) and an index placed in the back of the text instead. Presumably the publishers felt that although the macrostructure may function well once it is mastered, initial impressions might fail the flick test i.e. prove confusing to potential buyers leafing through a copy of the dictionary in a bookshop. The Index in LLA2 The index in LLA2 provides the category and the section number where each item is located. Again, the section heading is missing, although open compound exponents (e.g. saving grace) and slashed exponents (e.g. saving grace/redeeming feature) are included e.g. GP DOCTOR 1 GPA grade point average/GPA GRADE 1 grab HOLD 3, TAKE 11 grab something/a bite to eat EAT 2 grab the chance CHANCE 5 grab/snatch TAKE 9 grab/snatch at TAKE 12 grab/snatch some sleep SLEEP 2 grace PRAY 1 saving grace ADVANTAGE 2 saving grace/redeeming feature GOOD ENOUGH 3 grace/gracefulness GRACEFUL 2 graceful GRACEFUL 1

Access Maps in LLA1 The Access Maps in LLA1 are placed before category titles in cases where the category name is polysemous. They cross-refer the user to the relevant keywords, including cases where a word occurs in more than one category title, e.g. PASS: pass which meaning? go past something or someone

Æ z PASS/GO PAST

192 time passes

Æ z PASS/TIME PASSING

to be successful in a test or examination Æ z PASS A TEST do a test or examination

Æ z EXAM/TEST

pass something to someone

Æ z GIVE

References in LLA2 Instead of Access Maps, LLA2 has references under the heading Related Words which perform much the same role e.g. at the keyword PASS/GO PAST: RELATED WORDS to pass an exam or test see test when time passes see time (25-27) see also go, drive, walk, run.

Meaning Menus in LLA1 Once users have reached a keyword in LLA1, the Meaning Menus provide navigation assistance around the category by listing the subcategory titles e.g. z CARRY to take something somewhere in your hands or arms, on your back etc 1 to carry something or someone 2 to carry something that is heavy 3 to regularly carry something in your pocket, bag etc when you go somewhere 4 designed so that it can be easily carried 5 holding or carrying a lot of things

These Meaning Menus were dropped in LLA2, presumably on the grounds that they placed an unnecessary level between the user and the exponent sought, and that the subcategory headings throughout the category text were considered sufficient and prominent enough themselves to guide users. Exponent Menus In both LLA1 and LLA2, there is a menu at each subcategory below the subcategory heading which lists the exponents in the order in which they appear within the section.

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For example, at the first subcategory ‘to carry something or someone’ at the keyword CARRY, the menu is as below. carry bear tote

lug cart

User Guidance A considerable amount of user guidance is provided in the front matter of LLA1, including five essays by academics as well as an ‘explanatory page’ (actually a double page) of sample entries with features labelled and briefly explained, plus sections on how to use the dictionary and how to improve one’s English with its help (see Overall Structure and Textual Components above). A separate workbook of practice exercises was also published (Maingay and Tribble 1993). LLA2 dispenses with the front matter essays and restricts its front matter usage guidance to much shorter explanations, shifting more expansive treatment to a middle matter insert. The Differences Between LLA1 and LLA2 The following observations can be made. – The number of keywords has been reduced from 1052 to 866. The rearrangement of information does, however, mean that some new keywords have been created e.g. ACCIDENTALLY, and any keywords whose titles began with the same genus word have been merged into superconcepts e.g. ALWAYS/EVERY TIME and ALWAYS/FOREVER are conflated into ALWAYS. At these supercategories WHAT’S HERE boxes are added to give users an overview of the concept e.g. WHAT'S HERE always/every time see 1 always/all the time see 2 to 3 always/forever see 4 to 6

– In LLA1, certain keyword sections (e.g. BROKEN) included antonymic subcategories even though this was not reflected in the keyword titles. This has been rectified in LLA2 (e.g. BROKEN/NOT BROKEN). Some of the newly created categories in LLA2 (e.g. BOOKS and COMPUTERS/INTERNET/EMAIL) seem to stray into the ‘real world’. – Long-winded or confusing concept names have been changed. – The running index was removed and an index placed in the back matter instead. – The access maps have been revised. – The meaning menus have been discarded.

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– – – – – – – – – – –

The amount of cross-referencing and navigational assistance has been increased. Antonymic cross-references have been added. Cross-references have been removed where felt not to be needed. Where necessary, keyword definitions have been added in LLA2. Keyword definitions have also been shortened. On occasion, the subcategories have been re-ordered. Sometimes new subcategories have been added. Some subcategories are antonymic. Short telegraphic section headings are used where appropriate in LLA2. The ‘words for’ heading style has been excised. A large number of the examples have been substantially revised so that they are more up-to-date and corpus-based. – The coverage of spoken British English and American English has been increased. – Sometimes, the order of exponents within a subcategory has been changed. – Exponents have also been moved to avoid single-exponent subcategories e.g. at ACTOR/ACTRESS, cast originally appeared in a subcategory called ‘7 all the actors and actresses in a play, film etc’. In LLA2, it was transferred to subcategory ‘1 someone who performs in plays, films etc’.

– ‘Missing’ items have been added e.g. at ABOVE the exponents up and upstairs have been added, and at ANGRY ‘6 to get angry’ the exponent go ballistic has been added. – Exponents have also been cut e.g. at ACCIDENT subcategory ‘1 an accident that someone has while doing something, using equipment etc’, disaster has been removed. – Where appropriate, exponents have been merged. For example, at ABOUT Subcategory 1 ‘about something or someone’ (LLA1) / ‘about a subject or person’ (LLA2), LLA1 has concerning and regarding as separate entries whereas in LLA2 they are slashed together in a combined entry concerning/regarding. – A new colour section has been added.

LLA2 on CD-ROM LLA2 appears together with an electronic version of LDOCE4 on the CD-ROM that accompanies the print edition of LDOCE4. The link from LDOCE4 to LLA2 is via the Activate Your Language window at the bottom right of the screen. Figure 30 below shows the Activator CD-ROM display at the keyword HOT. Positioned at top left is a type-in search box which lists the keywords in capitals and the exponents in lower-case letters. This is the main access route to information within the TLD and it performs the same function as the index in the print edition. An alternative access route is supplied by the horizontal scrollbar of alphabetically ordered keywords. The left-hand window displays the keyword title, the related words, and the subcategory headings. Whichever heading is selected determines the section which is shown in the right-hand window. Each exponent within a section is listed. If users wish to see the complete entry for a given exponent, they must click on the triangle next to the headword in order to expand the entry.

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Figure 30) The Activator CD-ROM Display of the Keyword HOT 2.8.4 The Longman Essential Activator Publication History Two editions of the Longman Essential Activator have been published to date: in 1997 and 2006. LEA2 has an accompanying CD-ROM entitled the Writing Coach. Users LEA is aimed at EFL learners between the lower and upper intermediate levels. Aims LEA is a production dictionary which aims to increase the accuracy and breadth of the user’s vocabulary in order to bring it closer to that of a native speaker.

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Inclusion As with all the Activator dictionaries, LEA concentrates mainly on abstract vocabulary. However, more ‘real world’ elements are admitted than in LLA. Sometimes, real-world information has been added to ordinary concepts e.g. at SHOP, there is a section on types of shop. All the relevant exponents on a possible essay topic can be found in one place. LEA covers both spoken and written English, as well as British and American varieties of the language. Lexicographic Evidence As with all the dictionaries in the Activator series, LEA is corpus-based. Overall Structure and Textual Components Contents overviews of the two editions of LEA are provided below. LEA1: (prelims) – Pronunciation table – consonants – vowels – special signs – (title page) – (acknowledgements/list of personnel) – Contents – How to use the Longman Essential Activator The Dictionary A-Z Essential Communication Essential Grammar Index (publication details) Short forms/Labels/Symbols

inside front cover

p. i p. ii p. iii p. iv-vii p. 1-870 p. 871-910 p. 911-936 p. 937-997 p. 1000 inside back cover

LEA2: (prelims) – Pronunciation table – consonants – vowels – special signs

inside front cover

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– Short forms/Labels/Symbols – (publication details) – (title page) – (acknowledgements/list of personnel) – Contents – How to use the Longman Essential Activator – Guide to the Dictionary – Photo Acknowledgements The Dictionary A-Z Word Banks (in the middle matter between p. 470 and 472) Essential Communication Essential Grammar Index

p. i p. ii p. iii p. iv p. v p. vi-vii p. viii-ix p. x p. 1-854 p. 855-894 p. 895-920 p. 921-981

Macrostructure The macrostructure consists of 750 alphabetically ordered keywords. LEA1 was derived from LLA. During this conversion, the overall number of keywords was reduced considerably, as was the number of exponents per subcategory. Sections During the process of reducing the number of keywords from LLA to LEA, some categories were merged e.g. RUDE/IMPOLITE, INSULT, SWEAR, and OFFEND were combined under a single concept called RUDE. This occurred especially when the LLA keywords were near-synonyms. Conflation also took place in cases where several categories were based around a single keyword e.g. BAD, BAD AT, BAD BEHAVIOUR OR ACTIONS, and BAD PERSON in LLA were all subsumed under BAD in LEA. As part of the conversion process from LLA to LEA, not only were the sections reduced in number, but their headings were shortened, often using a telegraphic style e.g. at MODERN: LLA1: 1 words for describing machines, systems, processes etc that have been developed using the most recent ideas and equipment 2 using, or willing to use, the most recent ideas and ways of thinking 3 words for describing modern art, literature, music etc 4 to change something in order to make it modern

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LEA1: 1 modern machines/buildings/methods

2 modern art/literature/music/fashion 3 modern ideas/ways of thinking 4 to make something more modern

The order of exponents in a section is determined by both frequency and centrality. The more frequent words and phrases are placed at the beginning because they are more likely to be useful to learners. Less frequent exponents are positioned towards the end of sections. They are often more semantically complex or stylistically marked in some way, such as belonging to a particular register. Microstructure Here is a sample entry from LEA1, taken from the subcategory 1 what you have to pay for something at the keyword COST: cost /…/ [n C] the amount of money you must pay for services, activities, or things you need all the time like food and electricity + of The cost of bread went up by 200%. | Many old people cannot afford the cost of heating their homes. high/low cost the high cost of building land in Tokyo heating/transportation/legal etc costs Delaney still owes his lawyer over £20,000 in legal costs. the cost of living (=the amount of money you need for things such as food, clothes, and rent) /!\ Don’t use ‘cost’ about things you buy in shops. Use price. /!\ Don’t say ‘the cost is expensive’. Say it is expensive.

Here is another sample entry from DRUNK, subcategory 1 drunk: tipsy /…/ [adj not before noun] INFORMAL a little drunk: After the second glass of wine I was feeling a little tipsy.

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The entry components are: – – – – – – –

the headword the pronunciation information the part of speech and grammar code additional grammatical information e.g. ‘not before noun’ (optional) the label(s) (optional) the regional indicator (optional) the examples – a syntactic pattern indicated in bold before an example (e.g. +of) (optional) – a collocational pattern indicated in bold before an example (e.g. high/low cost) (optional) – a gloss in round brackets following a collocation or phrase (e.g. after the cost of living) (optional) – irregular inflections (where applicable), placed after the examples in LEA1, and – an essential help box (optional). Standard abbreviated labels are used to show the relevant part of speech and grammar code (e.g. n, adj, C, T). The style, register etc labels cover the level of formality (e.g. INFORMAL) and the mode (e.g. SPOKEN). In addition, a speech bubble symbol is used beside exponents that are mainly spoken. Regional indicators are written in full e.g. (ESPECIALLY) BRITISH and AMERICAN. The definitions are written using the standard Longman defining vocabulary. Compared with LLA, the definitions are shorter and more prescriptive. Definitions are written to the bottom of the DV, i.e. avoiding the use of DV words in their less common senses, in an effort to balance the need to make the disambiguation as precise as possible against the demands for brevity and simplicity. A number of definition styles are used in LEA. These are listed and exemplified below. Each sample entry has been taken from LEA2. 1) conventional definition e.g. gap […] [n C] a big difference between two amounts, two ages, or two groups of people

This is the default style of definition. 2) no definition (sometimes referred to as a zero definition) e.g. cold […] [adj] a cold January morning | This is the coldest winter we’ve had for years.

Definitions can be omitted when the word is an extremely basic one, and any metalanguage would be more difficult to understand than the word itself. Zero definitions can

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also be used when the section heading is precise and the section only contains one exponent e.g. at REMOVE section 9 the process of removing something: removal […] [n U] + of Police arranged for the removal of the wreckage. | the removal of Russian troops from the area | an operation for the removal of her appendix

3) ‘if’ definition This definition style is used to specify the subject of a verb e.g. display […] [v T] if a computer or sign displays information, it shows the information in a way that makes it easy to see or notice

‘If’ definitions also come in handy when defining adverbial phrases, e.g. before long […] if something happens belong long, it happens after a fairly short time

4) ‘say when’ definition e.g. that’s all right/that’s OK […] SPOKEN say this when someone says that they are sorry for something they did

This type of definition is used to explain the situation in which a spoken expression is used. 5) selectional definition e.g. turn to sth […] (phrasal verb T) turn to crime/drugs/alcohol etc to start doing something dangerous or illegal

Selectional definitions are used when the range of objects for a verb, or of the subjects for an adjective, is highly restricted, especially when the item needs to be defined in a phrase rather than in isolation.

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6) sentential definition e.g. at HONEST section 2 honest about telling people what you really think: frank […] [adj] someone who is frank talks in an honest and direct way, especially about subjects that are difficult to talk about

Sentential definitions are used when the section heading gives a good indication as to the meaning of an adjective, but the user requires additional information, such as whether the subject or object of the word is human or inanimate. The wording of the definition should reflect whether the adjective is more often used attributively or predicatively. 7) two-part definition e.g. missing […] [adj] a missing object is lost and may have been stolen; a missing person cannot be found and may be in danger

This type of definition is occasionally required when an exponent can have either a human or an inanimate subject, and conveying this fact cannot be achieved by a conventional definition. 8) ‘use about’ definition e.g. at FAT section 2 part of the body: thick […] [adj] fat – use this about people’s necks, legs, ankles, wrists, or arms that have a lot of muscles or a lot of flesh on them

This definition style is used mainly with adjectives and intransitive verbs when the section heading leaves no doubt as to the meaning of the exponent and the sole disambiguating feature is its descriptive range. 9) user group definitions e.g. grown-up […] [n C] an adult – used especially by children or when you are talking to children

Definitions can indicate the likely user group of a particular exponent.

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10) ‘when’ definition e.g. outbreak […] [n C] when a lot of people suddenly start to get an illness at the same time

This definition style is mainly used with nouns and adjectives to avoid lexicographese such as ‘the act of’ or ‘ the process of’ which can be difficult for users to understand. The purpose of the examples is to provide useful information such as typical grammatical patterns and common contexts. Collocational and syntactic patterns are ordered according to frequency throughout the examples. Simple ‘vanilla’ examples are often placed first. Collocation receives particular attention in the Activator series because it is a key determinant as to why one word or phrase is chosen over another in a particular context. LEA2 focuses on four types of collocation that are deemed especially important for the intermediate learner: 1) operating verbs e.g. commit a crime, 2) intensifiers e.g. highly critical, 3) prepositional phrases e.g. in difficulty, and 4) selectional collocations e.g. electrical/mechanical/technical fault. The examples are corpus-based. Colligating prepositions and grammatical patterns are shown in bold skeletons before the examples (e.g. + of), as are collocational patterns (e.g. reduce/cut prices at the entry for price): + of What’s the price of a pack of cigarettes these days? reduce/cut prices Comet has reduced the prices of most electrical goods by 25%.

Other Features Essential Help Boxes Many entries in LEA1 and LEA 2 are furnished with Essential Help Boxes. These are intended to provide “maximum help with language production” (LEA1:vi). The selection and content of these error avoidance boxes were informed by a learners’ corpus. The boxes are placed either at the end of entries or after the keyword headings. The main subjects of the notes are listed below. The sample entries have been extracted from LEA1.

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– Articles e.g. military service [n U] /!\ Don’t say ‘the military service’, just say military service.

– Confusables e.g. advise [v T] /!\ Don’t confuse ‘advise’ and ‘advice’. Advise is a verb and advice is a noun. /!\ Don’t confuse alone (= when no-one else is there) and lonely (= when you feel unhappy because you are alone).

– Descriptive Range e.g. on [preposition] /!\ Don’t use on to talk about books, films etc that tell stories. Use it about more serious subjects or opinions.

– Error Avoidance e.g. adult [n C] /!\ You can also use adult before a noun, like an adjective: The book is intended for adult readers. | adult education /!\ Don’t say ‘adult people’. Just say adults.

– Function e.g. all [predeterminer/quantifier] /!\ Don’t use ‘all the …’ to make general statements about people or things. Don’t say ‘all the dogs have four legs’. Say all dogs have four legs.

– Medium e.g. at ADVISE tell [v T] /!\ Use tell especially in spoken English or informal writing.

– Orthography e.g. advertise [v I/T] /!\ Don’t write ‘advertize’. Advertise is never spelled with a ‘z’.

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– Prepositions e.g. crash [v I/T] /!\ Don’t say ‘crash with something’. Say crash into something.

– Regional Variation e.g. /!\ In American English, almost is much more common than nearly, but in British English both words are common.

– Register e.g. approximately [adv] /!\ Approximately is more formal than about or around, and is mostly used in writing.

– Tense e.g. agree [v I/T] /!\ Don’t say ‘I am agreeing’, ‘he is agreeing etc’. Say I agree, he agrees etc.

– Usage Warning e.g. actress [n C] /!\ You can use actor about a man or a woman. Some women prefer to be called actors and do not like the word actress.

– Word Order e.g. accidentally/by accident [adv] /!\ Word order: accidentally can come between the subject and the verb (I accidentally broke it), but by accident usually comes at the end of a sentence or clause (I broke it by accident).

Essential Word Banks LEA1 contains 30 Essential Word Banks. A complete list of these is provided in Figure 31 below.

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No. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) 13) 14) 15) 16) 17) 18) 19) 20) 21) 22) 23) 24) 25) 26) 27) 28) 29) 30)

Title of Wordbank Advertising Banks Books/Literature Computers Court/Trial Describing People Drive Drugs Education Environment Exercise Festivals & Special Days Films/Movies Free Time Government/Politics Houses/Where People Live Mail, Phone, and Fax Medical Treatment Music Newspapers and Magazines Police Religion Restaurants/Eating & Drinking Sport Strange Things and Events Technology Television and Radio Theatre Tourism Transport

Page p. 10 p. 58 p. 79 p. 136 p. 158 p. 186 p. 215 p. 213 p. 225 p. 240 p. 250 p. 278 p. 283 p. 302 p. 328 p. 366 p. 470 p. 484 p. 502 p. 518 p. 569 p. 614 p. 623 p. 703 p. 719 p. 756 p. 754 p. 769 p. 796 p. 802

Figure 31) Essential Word Banks in LEA1 These “special feature pages” help learners by providing vocabulary, information, and ideas when they need to write or speak about a particular topic, for example in an essay, examination, or classroom debate (LEA1:back cover). Some of the Word Banks in LEA1 do not differ markedly from other keyword sections in the text. For example, ADVERTISING is divided into three subcategories: 1) advertising, 2) an advertisement, and 3) to advertise something. Other Word Banks favour a presentation involving the heavy use of pictorial illustrations. The Word Bank COMPUTERS, for example, is spread across four pages and is divided into four subcategories: 1)

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computers and computer equipment (accompanied by a computer with its various parts (keyboard, modem etc) labelled), 2) the Internet, 3) the advantages of computers, and 4) the disadvantages of computers. Sections 3) and 4) are in the form of cartoon-style panels involving relevant points that could be used in an essay (e.g. Computers make it possible to work from home) and spoken statements (e.g. I can access any information I need from the office using a modem.). Significant words are printed in bold and defined in an alphabetically ordered list of entries. A substantial overhaul of the Word Banks was undertaken in LEA2. Instead of being placed in the alphabetical order of the keywords throughout the text, they were collected together in the middle matter. Some were renamed and others were converted from Word Banks into ordinary keyword sections. The revised Word Banks in LEA2 replace the line drawings of LEA1 with photographs and include mini-essays to serve as models for learners e.g. ‘Using your computer’ and ‘The advantages of computers’ at COMPUTERS/INTERNET. Key vocabulary items in these mini-essays are highlighted in bold type. The lists of vocabulary have been retained, but they have been divided into sections and their content altered accordingly e.g. COMPUTERS/INTERNET has the sections 1 computers and computer equipment, 2 programs and other information stored on a computer, and 3 using your computer. Essential Communication Section The Essential Communication Section in LEA1 and LEA2 is located towards the back of the dictionary. Each consists of 21 categories (see Figure 32 below). There are only minor differences in titling and ordering between the two editions of LEA as regards this feature. The list of categories is reminiscent of a communicative functional syllabus. The access route which users are advised to take involves selecting the relevant situation from the list, e.g. TALKING ON THE PHONE, and then choosing the most appropriate box from those at the top of the page e.g. when you are making the call and when you are answering the call. Sometimes these sections are further divided e.g. asking for the person you want to speak to, saying who you are, or saying goodbye. The final consultation step requires selection from the exponents on offer. No. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5)

Title of Category Advice Suggestions Offers Invitations Requests

Page p. 872 p. 873 p. 874 p. 875 p. 876

Figure 32) Essential Communication Categories in LEA1

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No. 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) 13) 14) 15) 16) 17) 18) 19) 20) 21)

Title of Category Permission Complaining Apologizing Saying Thank You Directions Opinions Agreeing Disagreeing Saying Yes Saying No Saying Hello Saying Goodbye Having a Conversation Talking on the Phone Linking Words Position and Direction

Page p. 877 p. 878 p. 879 p. 880 p. 881 p. 882 p. 884 p. 885 p. 886 p. 887 p. 888 p. 889 p. 890 p. 891 p. 892 p. 899

Figure 32) continued) Essential Communication Categories in LEA1 Essential Grammar Section LEA’s Essential Grammar Section is located near the end of the text, just before the index. It is designed to provide help with common major grammar problems (LEA1:v). Both LEA1 and LEA2 cover the same topics (see Figure 33 below). No. Section 1 Section 2 Section 3 Section 4 Section 5 Section 6 Section 7 Section 8 Section 9 Section 10 Section 11

Title Statements and questions Verbs: intransitive and transitive Talking about the present Talking about the past Talking about the future Phrasal verbs Modal verbs Conditionals Active and passive Nouns: countable and uncountable Nouns: singular and plural

Figure 33) Essential Grammar Sections in LEA Access Routes

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No. Section 12 Section 13 Section 14 Section 15

Title Determiners and articles Word order Comparison Reported speech

Figure 33) continued) Essential Grammar Sections in LEA Access Routes Two access routes are suggested in the front matter to the user. The first method requires the users to think of a possible keyword (e.g. FAST) which expresses the basic idea which they want to express (e.g. “to go somewhere fast because you are late for an appointment”) and to find its location among the alphabetically ordered keywords. Additional help is provided by the cross-references that follow the keyword heading, e.g. at FAST: Î opposite SLOW Î see also HURRY, RUN

If a keyword has more than one common meaning, a cross-reference is supplied to redirect the user if necessary, e.g. at HOT: Î if you mean ‘food that has a hot taste’, go to TASTE 7

The cross-references are placed at either a keyword, a section, or an exponent, and can target any of these three elements. Further navigational aid is provided by ‘see also’ menu wheels at certain keywords. These are like conventional menus except that the cross-references are arranged in a circle pattern. The menu wheels are located after the keyword and any other cross-references. They direct users to other semantically related keywords, for example at ACCIDENT the menu wheel points to the keywords DAMAGE, BREAK, FALL, MEDICAL TREATMENT 6, DRIVE, PAIN, KILL, and HURT/INJURE. At some keywords, users are provided with an overview of the contents of the keyword sections. For example, at AGREE the user is instructed to “look here” for the meanings “have the same opinion as someone else” and “say you will do what someone else asks you”. Once users find the appropriate keyword, they look at the subcategory headings to find the most suitable subcategory. Thus, at FAST there are six subcategories: 1) moving fast 2) doing things quickly or happening quickly 3) how fast

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4) to go somewhere fast 5) to move or work faster 6) to move as fast as someone else. Users then select the subcategory which appears to be the most promising (e.g. 4) to go somewhere fast) and look at the exponents there (e.g. race, rush, dash, and speed). They then read the definitions and choose the most apposite exponent (e.g. rush […] to go somewhere very quickly because you are in a hurry). The second access route open to users is to go to the index and select a word that bears a close semantic relationship to the word sought. The index contains every word and phrase that appears as an exponent in the text. If users choose fast, they will find the categories listed which the exponent appears in, together with the subcategory number in each case, e.g. fast........................EAT4; FAST 1,2; RELIGION 6

A potential problem could arise at this stage in the consultation process because the index makes no distinction between the verb/noun fast (which applies to EAT 4 and RELIGION 6) and the adjective/adverb fast (which applies to FAST 1, 2). Matters could potentially deteriorate further if users decide to look up go in the index, a reasonable possibility given that the basic idea to be expressed is verbal. The index lists many exponents (mostly multi-element exponents) for go e.g. go........................................BECOME 1; GO 1, 4; LEAVE 1, 2; SOUND 2; SPORT 3; TRAVEL 1; WORKING go/belong.................................................PLACE 3 go: have a try (also have a go) ...................TRY 1 go: I have to go (also I must go) ..........LEAVE 4; [EC] SAYING GOODBYE go: I must go............[EC] SAYING GOODBYE go: I’ve got to go.....[EC] SAYING GOODBYE go after sb: run after sb/go after sb....FOLLOW go along with sth...................................AGREE 2

In fact, of the 50 or so exponents beginning with go in the Index, not a single one of them directs the users to FAST. This betrays a critical design fault with the index which could have been avoided if the subcategory headings had been included. User Guidance User guidance for the LEA dictionaries is provided in the front matter. This consists in both cases of two sections: ‘How to use the Longman Essential Activator’ and ‘Guide

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to the Dictionary’. A workbook of practice exercises was produced for LEA1 (Ham 1998). 2.8.5 The Longman Pocket Activator Publication History The Longman Pocket Activator is the smallest member of the family of Activator dictionaries. It was published in 2001 alongside three other works in the Longman Pocket Dictionary series: the Longman Pocket English Dictionary, the Longman Pocket Idioms Dictionary, and the Longman Pocket Phrasal Verbs Dictionary. Users LPA is aimed at users between intermediate and advanced level. Aims LPA describes itself as a unique vocabulary finder that helps users proceed from key words and basic ideas to the words they need. Inclusion The inclusion policy appears to be the same as for LEA, but with a smaller overall entry count. Lexicographic Evidence LPA is corpus-based. Overall Structure and Textual Components The main components of LPA are set out below. (title page) (details of publication) Contents Acknowledgements

p. i p. ii p. iii p. iv

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Using the Activator What other information does the Activator give me? The Communicator Labels used in the Activator Abbreviations used in the Activator (Activator A-Z) The Communicator Index

p. v-viii p. vi-vii p. vii p. viii p. viii p. 1-589 p. 590-607 p. 608-63

Macrostructure LPA’s macrostructure consists of 621 alphabetically ordered keywords. These keywords are common words that express basic ideas (LPA:v). Most keyword sections are broken down into subcategories. For example, EAT is split into six subcategories: 1) TO EAT 2) TO HAVE A MEAL 3) TO FINISH EATING 4) TO EAT VERY LITTLE FOOD OR NO FOOD 5) WHEN YOU HAVE EATEN ENOUGH FOOD 6) SOMEONE WHO EATS TOO MUCH. Microstructure It is in the microstructural aspect that LPA differs radically not just from the other dictionaries in the Activator series, but also as regards EFL thematic dictionaries as a whole. There are no definitions, and parts of speech are only used where homographs are involved e.g. diet (VERB) is a run-on at diet (NOUN). Instead, some of the subcategories have notes which contrast selected exponents. For example, here is subcategory 1) TO EAT at the keyword EAT: [1] TO EAT eat Don’t eat so fast – you’ll get indigestion.  Hey! Someone’s eaten all my chocolates. have INFORMAL  I wasn’t very hungry, so I just had a sandwich.  What shall we have for dinner/lunch? chew  I chewed the toffee slowly. swallow I threw a piece of meat to the dog, and he swallowed it in one go. lick  The children sat licking their ice-creams.  Nina licked the melted chocolate off her fingers.

212 munch  He came out of the store munching a bag of potato chips.  We sipped black coffee and munched on/ at some biscuits. nibble  The horse lowered his head and nibbled the grass.  We stood around drinking wine and nibbling on/at little snacks. If you munch food, you chew it well, perhaps quite noisily, and you enjoy it; if you nibble food, you take very small bites of it.

The main LPA entry components are the headword (in bold) a label (optional), and the example(s). The range of labels employed in the dictionary covers regional differences (e.g. ESPECIALLY AMERICAN), level of formality (e.g. INFORMAL), and mode (e.g. SPOKEN). The examples illustrate common collocations although these are not highlighted, unlike colligating prepositions and conjunctions which are printed in bold. In the absence of definitions, the examples assume critical importance as a key way of disambiguating between the exponents: Each word is followed by typical examples of real usage. These examples show you clearly how each word is used and help you to find the one which is best in your situation. (LPA:vi)

Other Features Notes Notes such as the one concerning munch and nibble shown above are found at many (sub)categories. Their purpose is to supply explanations of the differences in meaning and usage between exponents, and to help users avoid making errors. The notes cover the areas categorized and exemplified below. – Agreement e.g. Subsequent is often followed by a plural noun.

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– Articles e.g. Don’t confuse next week and the next week. Use next week, next Friday etc (without the) to talk about the future: See you next Saturday! Use the next week, the next day etc to talk about the past: She got married and spent the next five years in Boston.

– Collocation e.g. Full can also be used with these words: price, details, set, report, statement, cost, amount, refund.

– Confusables e.g. Don’t confuse ‘advise’ and ‘advice’. Advise is a verb and advice is a noun.

– Context e.g. Following is often used in stories and descriptions, about what happened in the past.

– Countability e.g. Don’t say ‘give advices’ or ‘give an advice’. Advice is an uncountable noun.

– Emphasis e.g. Every single emphasizes that you really do mean everyone or everything, especially when this is surprising.

– Error Avoidance e.g. Don’t say ‘almost my friends came’ or ‘almost of my friends came’. Say ‘almost all my friends came’ or ‘almost all of my friends’ came.

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– Frequency e.g. say sb should do sth/say sb ought to do sth This is the most common way of saying ‘to advise someone’.

– Function e.g. You often say I didn’t mean to when you are saying sorry to someone. I’m sorry I shouted at you. I didn’t mean to.

– Gender of the Referent e.g. Though actor usually refers to a man you can use it about a woman too; some women prefer it. Actress always describes a woman, while actors who are stars are very famous.

– Implication e.g. Hype suggests that you don’t trust the publicity something is getting.

– Meaning e.g. Use drawback about a less attractive part of something that seems good in other ways.

– Mode e.g. Use tell especially in spoken English or informal writing.

– Near-Synonyms e.g. If you welcome an idea, you think it is very good, but if you accept it, you are not so happy. If you agree to something, you often have the power to decide whether it will happen.

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– Orthography e.g. Advertise is never spelled with a ‘z’.

– Part of Speech e.g. After can be used as an adverb, but only in expressions like soon.

– Prepositions e.g. Don’t say ‘crash with something’. Say crash into something.

– Region e.g. In American English almost is much more common than nearly, but in British English both words are common.

– Register e.g. Approximately is more formal than about or around, and is mostly used in writing.

– Strength e.g. Rage is a much stronger feeling than anger.

– Tense e.g. Don’t say ‘I am agreeing’, ‘he is agreeing etc’. Say ‘I agree’, ‘he agrees’ etc.

– User Group e.g. Grown-up is often used by children or by people who are talking to children.

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– Word Order e.g. Accidentally can come between the subject and the verb (I accidentally broke it), but by accident usually comes at the end of a sentence or clause (I broke it by accident).

The Communicator The Communicator is located towards the end of the dictionary. It is divided into 18 categories (see Figure 34 below), each dealing with a “real-life everyday situation” (LPA:vii). The list of Communicator categories is given in the contents table in the front matter. No. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) 13) 14) 15) 16) 17) 18)

Category Complaining Opinions Advice Suggestions Offers Invitations Requests Permission Apologizing Saying Thank you Agreeing Disagreeing Saying Yes Saying No Saying Hello Saying Goodbye Having a conversation Talking on the phone

Page p. 590 p. 591 p. 592 p. 593 p. 594 p. 595 p. 596 p. 597 p. 598 p. 599 p. 600 p. 601 p. 602 p. 603 p. 604 p. 605 p. 606 p. 607

Figure 34) Communicator Categories in the Longman Pocket Activator Each category is divided into sections. Thus, at Opinions the user chooses the section which corresponds to the communication situation they are dealing with: 1) Giving your opinion, 2) Saying what other people think, and 3) Asking someone for their

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opinion. The exponents are listed in the relevant column. Sometimes the entries simply consist of the exponent and an example e.g. at 1): It seems to me (that) …  It seems to me (that) you don’t have much choice.

On other occasions, advice on usage is provided e.g. As far as I’m concerned … Use this to emphasize that you do not care whether people agree with you or not.  As far as I’m concerned, everything’s fine the way it is.

Access Routes There are two access routes into the LPA: via the keywords or by using the index. Guidewords at the top of each page and cross-references aid navigation within the text. If, for example, users do not know the verb ‘wink’, but would like to express its meaning, they first have to take a guess as to which keyword might lead them to the correct exponent. They might first try looking for the keyword EYE, but this would lead to disappointment as there is no such keyword. This is because LPA does not concern itself with words that denote concrete items. It does, however, cover actions relating to concrete items, a category into which winking falls. If users are fortunate enough to settle on SIGN as a likely keyword, they will at least have a chance of identifying the exponent although this is far from guaranteed. The next step is to peruse the subcategories. These are: 1) A WRITTEN SIGN THAT GIVES INSTRUCTIONS OR INFORMATION 2) A PICTURE OR SHAPE THAT HAS A SPECIAL MEANING 3) A MOVEMENT OR SOUND THAT YOU MAKE TO TELL SOMEONE SOMETHING 4) TO MAKE A MOVEMENT OR SOUND TO TELL SOMEONE SOMETHING 5) SOMETHING THAT SHOWS WHAT IS TRUE OR WHAT IS HAPPENING.

Hopefully, subcategory 4 below will be identified as the one where the sought-after exponent is found. make a sign I’ll make a sign when I’m ready.  The President made a sign to indicate/show what he wanted.

218 signal  A sailor began signalling with two flags.  Capone finished his drink and signalled to the waiter.  An official signalled that it was time for the race to begin. wave (VERB)  Who’s that waving at you?  Her parents stood in the doorway and waved goodbye.  At the border the customs officer just waved us through/on. wave (NOUN)  I gave him a friendly wave. wink (VERB)  Ben grinned and winked at me. wink (NOUN)  “Don’t worry,” he said with a wink, “I won’t tell anyone.”

There are, however, no definitions to help the user. Unlike some other subcategories, this particular section is also bereft of a note comparing exponents. The part of speech and the examples are the only sources of guidance available to the user. Even the part of speech is missing at nouns except where homographs are involved. There is room for debate as to whether users could work out what ‘wink’ means by looking at the example. Some may not be familiar with the meaning of ‘grin’ which is quite a high-level word. The example at the noun perhaps gives more of a clue due to the convention of winking when referring to a secret, but requires the user to look at that entry. Further research is required to determine whether this approach provides learners with enough information to identify the meanings of exponents with confidence. If users chose the alternative access strategy of using the Index, they would find: sign …SIGN, WRITE

There is no indication in the Index as to what either of these keyword sections consists of. Users would be fortunate insofar as sign is an exponent and therefore appears in the Index. Matters would be somewhat improved if the Index included the keywords. As with the other dictionaries in the Activator series, after the keyword heading there are ‘if you mean’ cross-references that redirect the user if the keyword is polysemous, and ‘see also’ cross-references which point the user towards related keywords e.g. at HOT: z if you mean ‘food that has a hot taste’, go to TASTE 7 z opposite COLD z see also WEATHER

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User Guidance The only user guidance provided is the Using the Activator section in the front matter. 2.8.6 The Oxford Learner’s Wordfinder Dictionary Publication History The print version of the Oxford Learner’s Wordfinder Dictionary (OLWD) was published in 1997. An electronic version was included on the CD-ROM for OALDCE7 (2005). Users The Oxford Learner’s Wordfinder Dictionary is aimed at EFL learners at intermediate level and above. Aims The Author’s Preface (OLWD:v) draws a distinction between “checking” books and “discovering” books. Most dictionaries fall into the former category, and are useful when reading or listening for checking the meaning, pronunciation, or use of a word. OLWD, on the other hand, is a “discovering” book, designed to help users expand their vocabulary so that they can express themselves better. In order to achieve this goal, the dictionary groups its words according to meaning and it reverses the usual order of the headwords and definitions. Inclusion Unlike the Longman Activator series, OLWD includes vocabulary denoting both concrete and abstract items. Lexicographic Evidence No mention is made in the text of the use of corpus-derived evidence.

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Overall Structure and Textual Components The textual components of OLWD are shown below. Prelims – (half title page) – (full title page) – (publication details) – Author’s Preface – Terms, symbols and short forms – Contents – Using the dictionary – 1 With Wordfinder, you can: – look for a particular word that you want – collect words that are related to a particular topic area – expand your vocabulary by looking freely through topic areas – Looking for a word – Collecting words about a topic – Looking freely through topic areas – 2 Finding your way in Wordfinder – Keywords – Words that are related in meaning – Words that are related in use – Topic areas (A-Z list of keywords) Irregular verbs Geographical names

p. i p. iii p. iv p. v p. vi p. vii p. ix-xii p. ix

p. ix p. ix p. xi p. xi p. xi p. xii p. xii p. xiii p. 1-515 p. 516-7 p. 518-9

Macrostructure OLWD’s macrostructure consists of a series of alphabetically ordered keywords. These keywords head two types of section: 1) one or more subcategories, each consisting of exponents, and 2) cross-references to type 1) sections. The latter collectively form a running index of dummy keywords interwoven with the type 1) keywords. Unlike the running index in LLA1, however, it is selective and does not include all the exponents in the dictionary. Sections The components of each keyword section are as follows.

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– – – – –

keywords (in bold) cross-references to other keywords (using Ö) indexes (in grey boxes) listing the numbered sections cross-references in indexes to other keywords (using Ö) numbered sections – entries – cross-references at the end of sections (preceded by Z) – subsections (preceded by ƒ) MORE sections

The MORE sections have been provided for users who wish to extend their vocabulary by acquiring lexemes at a higher level than the exponents in the rest of the keyword section e.g. at blood: ■ MORE… – easily upset by the sight of blood: squeamish ○ I couldn’t be a nurse. I’m far too squeamish. – full of violence and blood: gory ○ a gory film – involving bloody injuries: gruesome ○ The battlefield was a gruesome sight.

A problem with these sections is that they lack a specific heading, so learners have to work out for themselves why the words have been gathered together. Clear efforts have been made to order subcategories in a logical fashion e.g. animal 1 different kinds of animal 2 parts of an animal 3 animal behaviour 4 animal sounds 5 keeping and looking after animals 6 killing animals

Exponents have been grouped together into sections in accordance with three main criteria: 1) they are related in meaning, 2) they are used in the same context, and 3) they are semantically and morphologically related. Words that are linked in meaning often stand either in a relationship of (near-) synonymy e.g. plane, aeroplane, airplane and crash, come down, or in a relationship of hyponymy e.g. plane, aircraft e.g. – any vehicle that can fly in the air: aircraft (plural aircraft) ○ a jet aircraft (= powered by a jet engine)

222 – a vehicle with wings and one or more engines that can fly through the air: plane, aeroplane (AmE airplane) ○ to travel by plane ○ a plane ticket ○ a plane crash ○ a supersonic plane (= a plane that can fly faster than the speed of sound) – when an aircraft falls from the sky, it crashes, comes* down ○ The plane ran out of fuel and came down in the sea.

Alternatively, they may be different kinds of something: – a large plane that carries passengers: airliner; a very large jet plane that carries passengers: jumbo (jet) – a plane that carries goods: cargo plane – a plane that takes off and lands on the sea: seaplane

or antonyms e.g. – suitable or practical for a particular purpose; not causing difficulty: convenient (adverb conveniently): opposite: inconvenient (adverb inconveniently) ○ When would it be convenient to phone? ○ Have I called at an inconvenient moment?

Words have also been grouped into sections because they often occur together in the same situation e.g. – to put butter on a piece of bread, etc: butter sth ○ Shall I help you to butter the sandwiches? ○ buttered toast. – to put butter, jam, etc on bread: spread* A on B, spread* B with A – Spread margarine on it. ○ Spread it with margarine. – butter which is easy to spread is soft; opposite: hard ○ It’s too hard to spread.

One consequence of this grouping policy is that words with different parts of speech may be placed in the same article. Microstructure Full entries consist of the following components:

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– entry – definition (gloss of word in definition) – headword (in bold) (irregular plural form) (part of speech) (grammatical information) (register label) (AmE equivalent) – (run-on derivative) – (part of speech) – (grammar code) – (opposite) – example(s) – (gloss) – (cross-reference) (at end of section) – (More… sections) – (note) [e.g. to set of grouped entries] – (picture) One of the first things that leaps from the page when looking at a section is the placement of the definition before the exponent. This is a bold departure from lexicographic convention. Such an arrangement preserves the onomasiological flow from meaning to word throughout the entire consultation process. As such, it contrasts with other thematic learner’s dictionaries where the onomasiological flow in, say, the Longman Language Activator is preserved from category to subcategory, but the text then changes to a semasiological orientation as the exponent precedes the definition (or translation equivalent in the case of a BTD). OLWD’s approach avoids this switch of mode, and yet the user who wishes to run through the headwords before proceeding to the meanings can do so as the headwords (or perhaps they should be called tailwords or endwords) are printed in bold and are therefore easily identifiable from the surrounding text. Some definitions include bracketed information of various types e.g. extra semantic information at act2 in a play, film etc: 3 being in a play or film – a kind of test when a person can show how good they are at acting (often a particular part): audition; to do this kind of test: audition (for sth); to give the test: audition (sb) (for sth) ○ He auditioned for the part of Romeo but didn’t get it. ○ They’re auditioning for ‘My Fair Lady’ – are you going to try and get a part?

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(The above grouping also illustrates the use of dependent definitions.) e.g. specification of descriptive range: alcohol 4 not drinking alcohol – (used about beer or wine) containing no alcohol or very little alcohol: alcohol-free, low-alcohol ○ alcohol-free wine

e.g. specification of a semantic aspect that is emphasized: almost – almost not (emphasizing a negative meaning): hardly, scarcely, barely ○ There was hardly anybody there ○ You’ve hardly eaten anything. ○ There was scarcely enough food for everyone (= there almost wasn’t enough food).

e.g. giving a usage warning: angry 2 what people do when they’re angry – some words which show anger and impatience (but many people find these words offensive): damn, blast, hell, shit ○ Damn it! I’ve broken the screw! ○ Oh hell! I’ve forgotten my keys.

e.g. an explanation of the rationale behind the ordering of exponents: army 1 people in the army ■ ranks in the British army – officers (starting with the highest rank) are: Field Marshal, General, Brigadier, Colonel, Major, Captain, Lieutenant.

(The above grouping also shows that OLWD sometimes includes undefined exponents.) Other Features Notes The notes in OLWD are often positioned after a set of grouped entries. They cover areas such as:

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– grammatical properties e.g. alcohol 2 drinks made with alcohol Note: beer, wine, etc can be used as uncountable nouns: ○ Do you like Australian wine? ○ My favourite drink is Scotch on the rocks (= Scotch whisky with ice). ○ There’s some beer in the fridge. If used as countable nouns, the meaning is ‘a type of’ or ‘a glass of’: ○ This is an excellent brandy (= a good type of brandy). ○ Would you like a beer (= a glass of beer)?

– additional ways of expressing the meaning of the keyword e.g. again Note: some verbs can express the meaning that sth is done again by adding the prefix re- ○ I’m going to retake my exam (= I’m going to take it again). ○ We haven’t got as much money as we thought so we’re going to have to rethink our holiday plans (= we’re going to have to plan our holidays again). ○ It’s too long – I’ll rewrite it (= I’ll write it again). ○ I’m afraid you’ll have to redo this piece of work, it just isn’t good enough (= you’ll have to do the work again).

– , and additional senses of the keyword e.g. animal 1 different kinds of animal Note: animal is sometimes used to mean all living creatures that are not plants, sometimes to mean living creatures of this kind that are not humans, and sometimes to mean living creatures which have four legs (and therefore not including humans, birds, fish, insects, or reptiles)

Tables There are two broad types of table: 1) MORE … tables which supply additional vocabulary on a given topic, and 2) those which are given a topic heading e.g. animal sounds and different kind of book. Here are examples of each:

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(At doctor) „ MORE… a doctor who is an expert in

is called a …

illnesses of the nervous system

neurologist

children’s illnesses

paediatrician (AmE pediatrician)

the diseases of women (especially those affecting the reproductive system)

gynaecologist (AmE gynecologist)

looking after women who are pregnant repairing damaged skin or improving the appearance of a person’s face or body

obstetrician

treating people with mental illness

psychiatrist

plastic surgeon

„reference books a book that …

is called ...

gives lists of words and their meanings, etc

a dictionary

contains maps

an atlas

gives information about many subjects, arranged in alphabetical order

an encyclopedia

describes a town or country, and suggests interesting places to visit there

a (travel) guide, guidebook

explains how to do or operate sth, for example a computer

a manual

explains how to prepare food and cook it

a recipe book, cookery book, cookbook

you use to study and help you understand a subject

a textbook

227 gives lists of people’s names, addresses, telephone numbers, etc

a directory

has photos of things you can buy and details about prices, etc

a catalogue (AmE catalog)

Pictorial Illustrations The main types of pictorial illustration in OLWD are: 1) group illustrations of types of something e.g. animals (depicting monkey, giraffe, zebra etc) or throwing things (depicting discus, javelin etc) and 2) objects found in a particular location e.g. bathroom (depicting shower curtain, taps etc) or activities by the sea (depicting beach ball, deckchair etc), and parts of an object e.g. bicycle (e.g. spoke, handlebars etc). Access Routes Type 1) keywords that contain more than one subcategory are provided with a menu (confusingly termed an ‘index’) of the numbered sections inside a grey box situated directly under the keyword. In the print version of the dictionary, there are two access routes into the content of OLWD: 1) by leafing through the 630 alphabetically ordered keywords in the main text itself, and 2) by referring to the list of topic areas in the front matter. There are 23 topic areas in total: 1) People 2) Your body, personal appearance and clothes 3) Everyday life 4) Food and drink 5) Where you live 6) The natural environment 7) Animals and other living things 8) Work, business, industry and technology 9) Money and buying and selling 10) Education and science 11) Leisure, sport, art and music 12) Transport, travel and holidays 13) Government and politics 14) The law and crime 15) Fighting and war 16) Illness and injury

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17) Religion and beliefs 18) Language and communication 19) The media and literature 20) Knowing, thinking, feeling, wanting, liking 21) Situations, actions, events and movement 22) Time and place 23) Describing objects and materials; measuring; counting. An excerpt (for Topic Area 1 People) from the contents list is reproduced below. Topic Area 1) People Keywords

Topic Sub-areas – the human race and human nature;

people

races and ethnic groups

Related Keywords and Topic Areas – for relationships between people, look at relationship

– society and social groups society, group ______________________________________________________ – people as individuals

– for some particular kinds of – the stages of a person’s life life, birth, death, young/old relationship, look at family, – how people live their lives live2 friend, love, marry ______________________________________________________ – babies and children – men and women – male and female – personal qualities and ways of behaving – some particular qualities or ways of behaving – good and bad behaviour – sexual behaviour – behaviour that is shared by groups of people

person

baby, child man, woman sex1

– for being famous, look at famous – for the human body and its parts, look at TOPIC AREA 2

personality, behaviour, habit brave, clever, generous, honest, kind/cruel, lazy, proud, careful, sensible right/wrong2 sex2 custom

It is not a contents list in the conventional sense. The contents are not listed in the order in which they appear in the book. Instead, it is a topical classification scheme which gathers together thematically related items and shows the users which sections to look up if they are interested in a particular subject. The left-hand column divides each topic area (e.g. People) into sub-areas (e.g. society and social groups). The middle column lists the keywords which correspond to each sub-area, and the right-hand column

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directs the users to related keywords and topic areas. This approach is unique amongst alphabetical TLDs. Within the main text, cross-references and menus provide further navigational assistance. Most keywords have an ‘index’ (i.e. menu) e.g. at accident: 1 accidents in general 2 crashes 3 after an accident things which happen unintentionally B INTEND/PLAN

User Guidance The only user guidance provided is in the front matter (see Overall Structure and Textual Components above). CD-ROM Version The electronic version of OLWD is paired with OALDCE7 on a CD-ROM. Discussion of the hyperlinking between the two dictionaries can be found near the end of Section 2.3.1 at OALDCE7 CD-ROM. The keyword section for hot is displayed in the Wordfinder component of the OALDCE CD-ROM in the following manner. The main window in the middle presents the information much as it appears in the print version. Users navigate through the keyword section by means of the vertical scrollbar. The cross-references in small capitals are hyperlinked to other keywords. The narrow left-hand window is divided into three parts. Under Headwords there is a type-in search box. By clicking on any of the items under Themes, the user is taken to a related section at another keyword. Thus, clicking on ‘keeping cool when the weather is hot’ switches the main entry display to Section 3 at the keyword cold. Words to Use functions in a similar manner, but at exponent rather than section level. For example, clicking on ‘hot-water bottle’ at bed (2) changes the main window to Section 2 at the keyword bed where the exponent hotwater bottle is located. The right-hand window is split into two parts. The upper part displays entries in OALDCE7 which correspond to the typed-in search word, and the lower part shows example sentences also taken from the MLD. 2.8.7 A Checklist of Thematic Dictionary Features and Choices Having surveyed a range of thematic dictionaries, it is now possible to draw up a cumulative checklist of features characteristic of this lexicographic genre and of the choices available to lexicographers regarding each feature (see Appendix 2).

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2.9

Summary of Chapter 2

The investigation into the nature and development of the bilingual thematic dictionary as a hybrid lexicographic genre began by considering approaches to metalexicographic research from three different perspectives (typological, structural, and user) and by explaining where these are applied in the current project. Next, the BTD was discussed as a type of bilingual dictionary, learner’s dictionary, and thematic dictionary respectively. The consideration of the BTD as a type of bilingual dictionary covered: 1) the characteristics of the bilingual dictionary (by looking at definitions of the genre), 2) the different types of bilingual dictionary (bilingual translation dictionaries, bilingual learner’s dictionaries, bilingualized dictionaries, and general and restricted field bilingual dictionaries), 3) the key issues of bilingual lexicography, and 4) the desiderata for a bilingual dictionary. The key issues covered were: bilingual versus monolingual thematic learner’s dictionaries, the degree of bilingualization, directionality, entry components, translation equivalents, and literal translations. The discussion of the BTD as a type of learner’s dictionary covered: 1) the characteristics of the learner’s dictionary, 2) the different types of learner’s dictionary, and 3) the desiderata for a learner’s dictionary. It also provided a checklist of MLD features and choices. In order to answer the question ‘What is a learner’s dictionary?’, two areas were examined: selected definitions of learner’s dictionary and the features of learner’s dictionaries following a detailed textual analysis of five contemporary MLDs. Selected MLD features were described and evaluated in order to assess their potential usefulness for adoption in BTDs. This assessment was organized under the following headings: (linguistic and cultural) inclusion, lexicographic evidence (i.e. corpus use), front matter features, features of the headword list, microstructural features, information at the head of an entry, senses, examples, notes and boxes, pictorial illustrations, middle matter features, back matter features, access structures, and user guidance and practice. Features of CD-ROM MLDs were next considered under the headings: additional content not included in print MLDs, display, multimedia, other CD-ROM features, access structures (including the wide range of search parameters), and user guidance and practice (e.g. interactive exercises). The discussion of the different types of learner’s dictionary covered active monolingual learner’s dictionaries, the TLD as the archetypal active dictionary, the concept of the active bilingual learner’s dictionary, and the dual activeness dilemma (concerning encoding activeness and translational activeness). The enumeration of the desiderata for a learner’s dictionary dealt with the necessity to meet users’ needs as regards inclusion, the macrostructure, the microstructure, other features (e.g. notes contrasting nearsynonyms), access routes, and the provision of user guidance and practice. Following the detailed analyses of the five MLDs in print and electronic format, a checklist of monolingual learner’s dictionary features and choices was compiled. The examination of the BTD as a type of thematic dictionary began by discussing: 1) the nature of thematic lexicography and 2) thematic dictionaries. In order to gain an insight into the nature and characteristics of thematic lexicography, definitions of

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thematic lexicography were analyzed and two senses of thematic were distinguished, as were two types of macrostructural arrangement (the flat hierarchy and the pyramid hierarchy). The different kinds of alphabetical and thematic arrangement were described, including the advantages and disadvantages of each, as well as the possibility of combining both in a single TLD, and the serviceability of the terms onomasiology and semasiology. Attention was then turned to thematic dictionaries. Two MTDs for native speakers (the somewhat idiosyncratic Descriptionary and the computationally inspired Random House Webster’s Word Menu) were subjected to detailed analysis and evaluation under the following headings: users, aims, inclusion, overall structure and textual components, macrostructure, sections, microstructure, other features (e.g. notes and boxes), and access routes. Using the same template, evaluative analyses were then carried out on a reverse dictionary (the Oxford Reverse Dictionary) (ORD), a bilingual picture dictionary (the Oxford-Duden Pictorial German and English Dictionary) (ODPGED), and a work concentrating on structures and hierarchies (the Order of Things) (OOT) with a view to investigating whether any of their features could usefully be borrowed by BTDs. Attention then shifted more specifically to thesauri. In order to answer the question ‘What is a thesaurus?’, two steps were taken: 1) an analysis of definitions of thesaurus, and 2) textual analyses of four notable contemporary native-speaker thesauri in print and electronic formats: the New Oxford Thesaurus of English (NOTE), the New Oxford Thesaurus on CD-ROM (NOTE on CD-ROM), the Encarta Thesaurus (notable for its dual navigation scheme), and the Visual Thesaurus with its revolutionary constellationstyle graphic display. The focus next moved to a lexicographic genre closely related to the thesaurus, namely the synonym dictionary. This involved the textual analysis of the bilingual Using Spanish Synonyms (USS), notable for its use of semantic frames and copious disambiguating information. At this juncture, the key issues and desiderata of thematic lexicography were considered under the following six headings: inclusion, macrostructure, sections, microstructure, other features, and access routes. The discussion of contemporary MTDs began with a chronological overview of the genre, followed by detailed analyses of five dictionaries: 1) the Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English (LLCE), 2) the two editions of the Longman Language Activator (LLA1 and LLA2), 3) the two editions of the Longman Essential Activator (LEA1 and LEA2), 4) the Longman Pocket Activator (LPA), and 5) the Oxford Learner’s Wordfinder Dictionary (OLWD). LLCE is notable for being the first MTD on the EFL dictionaries market. LLA and LEA are of particular interest because both have been substantially revised between editions. LLA exists in print and electronic format, as does OLWD. OLWD is unusual in having a thematically organized list of contents and for reversing the conventional order of the definition and the headword. LPA dispenses with definitions altogether and uses contrastive notes instead. Finally, the analyses of MTDs collectively made it possible to draw up a checklist of MTD features and choices.

3

Bilingual Thematic Dictionaries

3.1

An Overview of Bilingual Thematic Dictionaries

In this section, the BTDs are listed in chronological order of publication and classified into broad types. 3.1.1 A Chronology of Key Works Figure 35 below lists in chronological order of publication the bilingual thematic dictionaries that are analyzed and evaluated in the following sections. No. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)

7) 8) 9)

10)

11)

BTD Title, Publisher, and Abbreviation Cambridge Word Routes Anglais-Français (Cambridge University Press) CWR/Fr Cambridge Word Selector Inglés-Español (Cambridge University Press) CWS/Sp Cambridge Word Selector Anglès-Català (Cambridge University Press) CWS/Cat Cambridge Word Routes Inglese-Italiano (Cambridge University Press) CWR/It Cambridge Word Routes Αγγλικά-Ελληνικά (Cambridge University Press) CWR/Gk Cambridge Word Routes Inglês-Português (Martins Fontes, copyright Cambridge University Press) CWR/Port Street French Slang Dictionary & Thesaurus (John Wiley) SFSDAT Cambridge French-English Thesaurus (Cambridge University Press) CFET Collins Robert Comprehensive Dictionary & Thesaurus Volume One French-English 2nd Edition (HarperCollins/Dictionnaires Le Robert) CRCDAT/Fr-Eng Collins Robert Comprehensive Dictionary & Thesaurus Volume Two English-French (HarperCollins/Dictionnaires Le Robert) CRCDAT/Eng-Fr Streetwise French Dictionary/Thesaurus (McGraw-Hill) SFD/T

Figure 35) A Chronology of BTDs

Date 1994 1995 1995 1995 1996 1996

1997 1998 2000

2000

2002

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3.1.2 The Types of BTD in the Survey Apart from CRCDAT/Fr-Eng and CRCDAT/Eng-Fr, all the BTDs surveyed are first editions, so the table gives an impression of the order of events in the recent history of the genre, at least as far as works published in the US and UK are concerned. Particularly noticeable is the flurry of publishing activity in this field by Cambridge University Press from the mid- to late 1990s. The frequency with which the BTD format has been applied to bilingual dictionaries of slang, often of a rather light-hearted nature, is also evident. The textual analyses that follow are more detailed in the case of the general language BTDs because this is where the focus of the current study lies. Nevertheless, it is worthwhile looking at the restricted field slang BTDs in case they include features that could profitably be adapted for use in other bilingual thematic dictionaries.

3.2

The Cambridge Word Routes Series

3.2.1 The Six Dictionaries in the CWR Series The six dictionaries in the CWR series were published over a three-year period in the mid-1990s. All the languages paired with English are Romance languages, apart from Greek. Serial Lexicography and the Use of a Common English Framework Each dictionary in the CWR series is based on the same formula, using a common English framework. The following factors are identical (with very few exceptions) across the six texts: the people involved in the creation of the dictionaries (listed in the front matter), the textual components and their relative order, the categories and subcategories of the macrostructure, the entry components of the microstructure, the inclusion of lexemes within sections, other features e.g. notes and pictorial illustrations, and the indexes. There is no indication that the texts have been refined in any significant way over the course of their publication history. The last dictionary (CWR/Gk) published in the series is based on exactly the same template as the first (CWR/Fr). The Word Routes dictionaries have been produced by a process which might be termed serial lexicography. One advantage for the publishers is that it allows economies of scale. At the same time, it must be considered whether this approach, when applied to any given CWR text, provides sufficient information for speakers of the particular L1 involved.

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3.2.2 Users The target users of the CWR series are learners of English whose mother tongue is either French, Castilian Spanish, Catalan, Italian, Greek, or Brazilian Portuguese. The choice of lexemes included suggests that these dictionaries are aimed at students who have reached intermediate level and above. Each dictionary in the CWR series is claimed to have been written to meet the specific needs of speakers of the particular language that has been paired with English (CWS/Sp:vii). As regards user research, user questionnaires (see 4.2.) were used to elicit learners’ opinions on selected features of the CWR and CFET texts. In addition, a location guessing experiment was based on the CWR category headings to gauge the extent to which learners would succeed in finding words and phrases using this particular access route. 3.2.3 Aims The CWR dictionaries claim to provide a solution to the problem which learners face of trying to distinguish between near-synonyms in the L2 (English). This problem is exacerbated when there is no precise L1 equivalent for a particular word. Each CWR Introduction points out the limitations of both semasiological and bilingual dictionaries. It is argued that dictionaries (by implication, A-Z semasiological ones) are only of limited usefulness because alphabetical order usually places near-synonyms at different locations in the wordlist rather than side by side. Bilingual dictionaries are criticized for providing the same translation equivalent for a number of English words, but often not giving any indication as to the differences in their meaning and use (CWS/Sp:vii). The CWR approach to overcoming these obstacles is to group together semantically related lexemes in order to help users to distinguish between near-synonyms, and to provide further assistance in the form of examples and information pertaining to style, register, grammar, and typical contexts of use (Ibid:Ibidem). Later, it will be shown that the groups of words gathered together in a section are not always near-synonyms, but are often related in other ways, e.g. thematically or associatively. The CWR dictionaries can also help learners to expand their vocabulary by encouraging them to think of words as belonging to a family as opposed to being isolated items, especially if users get into the habit of looking at the other words in the section where the sought-after item is located.

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3.2.4 Inclusion Extent No figure is given within any of the CWR texts as to the total number of vocabulary items included within each dictionary. However, an estimate based on the average number of exponents per page after counting the items on ten pages reveals figures of 14,512 for the main text (including exponents appearing as run-ons or in usage notes or expressions boxes) and 722 for the Language for Communication section i.e. 15,234 for the complete text. This is a much lower figure than for any of the flagship monolingual learner’s dictionaries examined earlier which can contain more than 50,000 exponents. If inclusion in Categories 1-100 is compared across all six CWR texts, of the 2970 words and phrases in these categories, only 3% are treated differently in the dictionaries that make up the series. Inclusion of Subject Matter The CWR dictionaries cover both concrete (e.g. 191 Shoes Chaussures) and abstract topics (e.g. 201 New Nouveau). There are very few proper names and no encyclopedic entries. Inclusion of Language Exponents The CWR texts include the following types of vocabulary: individual words, phrases (including idioms), predominantly British English (with a limited amount of American English), and both written and spoken English. Spoken English is focused on in the Language for Communication sections, and derivatives are usually treated as run-ons. The compilers stress that the dictionaries in the series concentrate on vocabulary that can be used for everyday objects and situations, in contrast to many traditional dictionaries which contain more recherché, and hence less useful, exponents (CWS/Sp:vii). 3.2.5 Lexicographic Evidence No mention is made in the texts of any use of corpora. 3.2.6 Overall Structure and Textual Components The virtually identical organization of each of the six CWR texts is evident from the parallel contents overviews presented below.

236 Notes: 1 Wrongly listed in the Índex as p. vii 2 Wrongly listed in the Índex as p. viii Table des matières Indice General Índex Indice generale Índice Geral Περιεχόμενα

(CWR/Fr) (CWS/Sp) (CWS/Cat) (CWR/It) (CWR/Port) (CWR/Gk)

p. v p. v p. iv p. v p. v p. v

Introduction du directeur de collection Introducción Introducció Prefazione del curatore della serie Introdução Εισαγωγή

(CWR/Fr) (CWS/Sp) (CWS/Cat) (CWR/It) (CWR/Port) (CWR/Gk)

p. vii p. vii p. v1 p. vii p. vii p. vii

Comment se servir de Cambridge Word Routes Cómo utilizar el Cambridge Word Selector Instruccions d’ús del Cambridge Word Selector Como usare ‘Cambridge Word Routes’ Como utilizar o Cambridge Word Routes Πώς να χρησιμοποιήσετε το Cambridge Word Routes

(CWR/Fr) p. viii-xi (CWS/Sp) p. viii-xi (CWS/Cat) p. vi2-ix (CWR/It) p. viii-xi (CWR/Port) p. viii-xi (CWR/Gk) p. viii-xi

Catégories de mots 450 catégories de mots regroupés par thème ou par parenté de sens Grupos de palabras 450 categorías o grupos de palabras distribuidas a partir de criterios temáticos o de significado Grups de paraules Continguts 450 apartats o grups de paraules organitzats per temes o per nocions ‘Gruppi di parole’ 450 gruppi di parole disposti per argomento o per attinenza di significato Grupos de Palavras 450 categorias ou grupos de palavras distribuídas a partir de critérios temáticos ou de significado Ομάδες λέξεων Κατάλογος περιεχομένων 450 ομάδες λέξεων ταξινομημένες είτε κατά θέματα είτε σαν λέξεις με παρόμοια έννοια Language for Communication Liste des rubriques Lenguaje y comunicación Contenidos Funcions lingüístiques Continguts Lingua e comunicazione Indice analitico

(CWR/Fr)

p. 1-364

(CWS/Sp) (CWS/Cat) (CWS/Cat) (CWS/Cat)

p. 1-362 p. 1 p. 3-4 p. 5-364

(CWR/It)

p. 1-364

(CWR/Port) p. 1-362 (CWR/Gk) p. 1 (CWR/Gk) p. 3 (CWR/Gk) p. 5-354 (CWR/Fr) (CWR/Fr) (CWS/Sp) (CWS/Sp) (CWS/Cat) (CWS/Cat) (CWR/It) (CWR/It)

p. 365-387 p. 367 p. 363-385 p. 365 p. 365-387 p. 367 p. 365-386 p. 367

237 Linguagem e Comunicação Conteúdo Γλώσσα για επικοινωνία Κατάλογος περιεχομένων

(CWR/Port) (CWR/Port) (CWR/Gk) (CWR/Gk)

p. 363-387 p. 365-367 p. 355-377 p. 357

Index des mots anglais Indice de palabras en inglés Índex de les paraules en anglès Indice alfabetico delle parole inglesi Índice de palavras em inglês Ευρετήριο αγγλικών λέξεων

(CWR/Fr) p. 389-433 (CWS/Sp) p. 387-431 (CWS/Cat) p. 389-434 (CWR/It) p. 387-431 (CWR/Port) p. 389-433 (CWR/Gk) p. 379-423

Index des mots français Indice de palabras en español Índex de les paraules en català Indice alfabetico delle parole italiane Índice de palavras em português Ευρετήριο ελληνικών λέξεων

(CWR/Fr) (CWS/Sp) (CWS/Cat) (CWR/It) (CWR/Port) (CWR/Gk)

p. 435-467 p. 433-464 p. 435-469 p. 433-468 p. 435-472 p. 425-457

3.2.7 Macrostructure The main text of each CWR dictionary is divided into 450 thematically arranged categories. Each category heading comprises a number followed by L2 (English) then L1 (e.g. French) i.e. 164 Eat Manger. Each category is carved up into between 1 and 13 subcategories (see Figure 36 below). Most categories consist of between one and six subcategories. For example, Category 164 Eat Manger is split into the following subcategories: 164.1 Bon à manger 164.2 Manger 164.3 Manger vite ou en grandes quantités 164.4 Gens qui mangent beaucoup 164.5 Manger de petites quantités. Occasionally, categories are either not subdivided (e.g. 165 Hungry Affamé) or else they are subdivided, but the first subdivision contains general exponents and has no category heading (e.g. 164 Eat Manger). The subcategory headings consist of an ordering number followed by the subdivision title in French (L1). The subcategories are ordered within a category according to a logical progression. Just two of these subcategories are divided further into subsubcategories. The subsubcategories are identical across all six CWR texts. The subject classification scheme consisting of categories, subcategories, and subsubcategories is identical across all six CWR texts with only a few minor variations at subcategory level.

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In a thinly veiled attack on Roget, the publishers claim that the categories in the CWR texts were arranged not according to an obscure philosophical system, but in a logical and practical manner: Plutôt que d’être organisées selon un obscur système philosophique, les catégories de mots sont regroupées logiquement et de façon pratique. Ainsi, par exemple, les noms d’aliments sont placés à proximité des mots décrivant l’action de manger et la faim, de même que les mots faisant référence à l’école seront à proximité des mots décrivant l’enseignement ou l’apprentissage. (CWR/Fr:vii)

No. of Subcategories per Category 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

No. of Categories which Contain the No. of Subcategories Stated in the Left-Hand Column 168 100 73 40 23 22 11 7 2 1 2 0 2

Figure 36) The Numbers of Subcategories in the Categories of CWR/Fr Semantic/Thematic Flow On examining the list of categories, it soon becomes obvious that the compilers have tried as far as possible to create a semantic or thematic flow between adjacent categories. Due to the linear nature of the flat hierarchy, however, this flow breaks down at various points. The chunks (of more than two categories together) of logically related categories are outlined below, using CWR/Fr as an example. Breaks in the flow are indicated by interruptions in the numbering. The gaps are filled with miscellaneous categories (shown in square brackets). flora/fauna: 1) Wild animals Animaux Sauvages – 12) Trees Arbres physical world: 13) Geography and Geology Géographie et Géologie – 27) Astronomy Astronomie [28) Astrology Astrologie] various abstract topics: 29) Be Etre – 37) Seem Sembler

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size/shape: 38) Shapes Formes – 53) Edge Bord similarity/change: 54) Alike Semblable 58) Change Changer [beautiful/ugly: 59) Beautiful Beau – 60) Ugly Laid] [rough/smooth: 61) Rough Irrégulier – 62) Smooth Régulier] order and disorder: 63) Tidy Ordonné – 66) Position Position necessary/not necessary: 67) Necessary Nécessaire – 71) Rubbish Détritus [72) Want Vouloir] [73) Choose Choisir] important/unimportant: 74) Important Important – 77) Great Magnifique possibility/probability: 78) Possible Possible – 83) Uncertain Incertain [particular/general: 84) Particular Particulier – 85) General Général] [86) Human Body – External Corps Humain – Externe] senses: 87) Hear Entendre – 91) See and Look Voir et Regarder [visibility: 92) Show Montrer – 93) Obvious Evident] searching/finding/losing: 94) Search Chercher – 96) Lose Perdre [97) Body positions Positions du corps] touch: 98) Touch Toucher – 100) Hard Dur the body: 101) Human body – internal Corps humain – interne – 103) Breathe Respirer mental activities: 104) Think Penser – 117) Forget Oublier [118) Surprise Surprendre] [boring/interesting: 119) Boring Ennuyeux – 120) Interesting Intéressant] medicine: 121) Doctor Médecin – 130) Sane Sain d’esprit damage: 131) Hit Frapper – 135) Burn Brûler people: 136) Babies Bébés – 141) Female Féminin personality: 142) Personality Personnalité – 150) Modest Modeste [151) Emotion Emotion] food: 152) Fruit Fruits – 170) Dining room Salle à manger [addictions: 171) Smoking Fumer – 172) Drugs Drogues] [173) Farming Agriculture] buildings: 174) Types of building Types de constructions – 185) Bathroom La Salle de bain clean/dirty: 184) Personal hygiene Hygiène personnelle – 189) Dirty Sale clothes: 190) Clothes Vêtements – 193) Textiles Textiles old/new: 200) Old Vieux – 203) Old-fashioned Démodé honesty: 213) Honest Honnête – 216) Untrue Faux human qualities: 217) Good (morally) Bon (moralement) – 226) Selfish Egoïste freedom/control: 228) Control Diriger – 231) Forbid Interdire learning/intelligence/ability: 233) Education Enseignement – 242) Unskilled Inexpert easy/difficult: 243) Difficult Difficile – 247) Easy Facile strife: 248) War Guerre – 251) Resentment Ressentiment danger/safety: 252) Danger Danger – 254) Look after S’occuper de emotions: 255) Fear Peur – 259) Calmness Calme money and business: 260) Bank Banque – 270) Poor Pauvre

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work: 271) Employment Emploi – 274) Work Travailler [275) Busy Occupé] [276) Try Essayer] [277) Help Aider] [278) Eager Impatient] [279) Encourage Encourager] usefulness: 280) Use Utiliser – 282) Useless Inutile inaction: 283) Lazy Paresseux – 286) Wait Attendre [287) Do Faire] [288) Habitual Habituel] [289) Put Mettre] [290) System Système] [cause/effect] 291) Cause Cause – 292) Result Résultat] [293) Make Fabriquer] [join/separate: 294) Join Unir – 295) Separate Séparer] mathematics/computers: 296) Computers Ordinateurs – 300) Incorrect Incorrect [careful/careless: 301) Careful Prudent – 302) Careless Négligent] [303) Machinery Machines] [304) Materials Matériaux] [items: 305) Thing Chose – 306) Sort Sorte] [307) Weights and Measures Poids et Mesures] transport: 308) Car Voiture – 315) Other Transport Autres moyens de transport travel and movement: 316) Travel documents and Procedures Documents de voyage et Formalités – 322) Go Aller [323) Bring Apporter] [324) Avoid Eviter] early/late: 325) Early Tôt – 330) Delay Retarder containing/carrying: 331) Containers Récipients – 337) Carry Porter [338) Pull and Push Tirer et Pousser] [339) Hide Cacher] communicating: 340) Communications Communications – 365) Gesture Geste writing: 366) Document Document – 371) Erase Effacer giving and taking: 372) Give Donner – 375) Take Prendre entertainment/leisure: 376) Entertainment Divertissement – 385) Park and Funfair Parcs et Fêtes foraines games and sports: 386) Games Jeux – 395) Equestrian sports Sports équestres success and failure: 396) Success Succès – 398) Reward Récompense physical qualities: 399) Agile Agile – 402) Weak Faible movement: 403) Quick Rapide – 415) Wave Flotter au vent [416) Magic Magie] positive qualities: 417) Good Bon – 422) Happy Heureux humour: 423) Laugh Rire – 425) Tease Taquiner liking: 426) Like Bien Aimer – 432) Attract Attirer [433) Endure Supporter]

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[friends/lack of friends: 434) Friendship Amitié – 435) Loneliness Solitude] [include/exclude: 436) Include Inclure – 437) Exclude Exclure] negative qualities: 438) Bad Mauvais – 441) Worsen Empirer frequency: 442) Normal Normal – 444) Unusual Inhabituel negative emotions: 445) Hate and Dislike Haïr et Détester – 450) Angry Furieux 3.2.8 Sections There is virtually no variation across the six CWR texts as regards the subcategories. Sometimes, the first subcategory within a category does not have a title. Subcategory headings are given in L1. The subcategories are ordered in a logical sequence e.g. at 9) Birds Oiseaux: (9.0) 9.1 Vie des oiseaux 9.2 Oiseaux aquatiques 9.3 Oiseaux de proie 9.4 Chants d’oiseaux. Some subcategories consist of pictures with captions rather than the usual wordlists spread over two columns. An example of such an illustrated subcategory is 40.0 at 40) Dimensions Dimensions. This particular subcategory has five illustrations: 1) a swimming pool with the exponents width, length, height etc labelled, 2) a dense crowd, 3) thick soup, 4) a broad avenue, and 5) a narrow footpath. Other subcategory types include grouping according to: – generality e.g. at 124) Illnesses Maladies: 124.1 Termes généraux – part of speech e.g. at 45) Small quantity Petite quantité: 45.1 Adjectifs décrivant des petites quantités – parts e.g. at 152) Fruit Fruits: 152.6 Parties d’un fruit – people (often at the end of categories) e.g. at 174 Types of building Types de constructions: 174.6 Gens qui travaillent dans la construction – purpose e.g. at 331) Containers Récipients: 331.5 Pour le transport d’objets – register e.g. at 43) Large quantity Grande quantité: 43.2 Termes informels utilisés pour les grandes quantités – subject e.g. at 46) Increase Augmenter: 46.1 Termes mathématiques pour exprimer l’augmentation – types e.g. at 137) Name Nom: 137.2 Types de noms, and – value judgement e.g. at 48) Fat Gros: 48.1 Termes moins péjoratifs marquant l’excès de poids. Subcategory headings such as 62.1 Termes désignant des surfaces horizontales (at 62) Smooth Régulier) could perhaps be termed metalinguistic headings.

242

Sometimes, contrasting subcategories are placed adjacent to or in close proximity to each other e.g. at 164) Eat Manger: (164.0) 164.1 Bon à manger 164.2 Manger 164.3 Manger vite ou en grandes quantités 164.4 Gens qui mangent beaucoup 164.5 Manger de petites quantités. The categories of words in the CWR series are claimed to be built around a base vocabulary so that users can start from their existing knowledge and move from familiar exponents to learning more precise ones (CWR/Fr:vii). Thus, category 164.2 Manger contains not only taste, a word which most learners will already know, but also less common exponents such as swallow and gnaw. 3.2.9 Microstructure For illustrative purposes, here are some sample entries from CWR/Fr. ache nd [implique une douleur continue, pas intense] douleur Tell me all about your aches and pains. Parlezmoi de vos maux. brawl nd [dispute bruyante et fruste entre groupes ou entre personnes] bagarre a drunken brawl une querelle d’ivrognes brawl vi se bagarrer, se quereller cancel vt (Brit) –ll-, (US) –l- [obj: ex. voyage, rendezvous, train] annuler They’ve cancelled their order for five new aircraft. Ils ont annulé leur commande de cinq nouveaux avions. give up (sth) ou give (sth) up vti prép 1 [cesser de faire qch] cesser I gave up smoking. J’ai cessé de fumer. 2 vi prép [cesser d’essayer de faire qch] renoncer impractical adj [décrit: ex. plan, suggestion, projet] peu réaliste *voir aussi 282 Useless job nd travail Painting the ceiling will be a difficult job. Peindre le plafond, ce sera un travail difficile. *voir aussi 271 Employment smelly adj [informel] malodorant smelly feet des pieds qui sentent mauvais

243 unthinkable adj (souvent + that; gén après v) [souligne le fait que ce que l’on décrit serait mal, choquant, etc.] impensable, inconcevable It’s unthinkable that they would refuse. Il est impensable qu’ils refusent.

Each entry consists of the following elements. – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

a headword e.g. brawl variant (optional) e.g. DIY AUSSI do-it-yourself a part of speech e.g. nd grammatical information (optional) irregular inflections (optional) regional label e.g. (Brit) (optional) a disambiguator (optional) e.g. [dispute bruyante et fruste entre groupes ou entre personnes] a style/register label (optional) e.g. [informel] collocational information (optional) e.g. [obj: ex. voyage, rendez-vous, train] a general translation e.g. bagarre an L2 example (optional) e.g. a drunken brawl a translation of the example e.g. une querelle d’ivrognes a cross-reference (optional) e.g. *voir aussi 271 Employment usage notes (optional)

Any run-ons, e.g. brawl vi, consist of the headword + part of speech + general translation(s). Grammatical information is provided in round brackets e.g. following prepositions and ‘that’ clauses such as (souvent + that; gén après v) at unthinkable. The grammatical and syntactic properties of phrasal and prepositional verbs, e.g. give up, are explicitly shown i.e. whether the verb can be separated from its particle and whether it is transitive, intransitive, or both. The disambiguator (or texte explicatif in CWR/Fr, el texto explicativo in CWS/Sp etc) appears within square brackets and describes in detail the nuances of meaning and specifies the correct usage of the word (CWR/Fr:x). For a detailed analysis of this important feature, see Disambiguators below. Style/register labels also appear within square brackets e.g. [informel] at smelly. Information on collocation and descriptive range (e.g. possible subjects or objects) is also given within square brackets e.g. [obj: ex. voyage, rendez-vous, train] at cancel. This includes the typical nouns which an adjective can qualify (see impractical). Considering this is a production dictionary, the collocates would normally be expected to be in L2, the same language as the headword. What is being supplied here is information about the semantic types of word that can combine with the headword rather than collocational tokens, i.e. other actual English words that collocate with the headword. Whilst this semantic information is of some help in indicating the descriptive range of the headword, it is the unpredictability of collocates that makes them so difficult for the foreign language learner i.e. why commit suicide is permissible, but *do suicide is not.

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This odd treatment is all the more surprising given that learner’s dictionaries have recently placed considerable emphasis on collocational patterns. The general translation is the most widely applicable translation of the headword. Users are warned that it is not substitutable for the headword in all circumstances and that they should pay attention to the examples (Ibid:Ibidem). The examples are included with their translations into L1 in order to allow the user to employ the word in a natural way. Fixed expressions are printed in bold within the examples e.g. Tell me all about your aches and pains.

Disambiguators As the disambiguators play such an important role in bilingual thematic learner’s dictionaries, it was decided to analyze in particular depth those disambiguators in CWR/Fr and CFET that appear in comparable categories. These are listed in Figure 37 below. CFET Part/Subheading (Concrete) Position, movement and travel 1 Shape 2 Position 3 Direction and distance 4 Arrival and departure 5 Movement

Nearest CWR/Fr Category (Concrete) 38 Shapes Formes 39 Shape Façonner 66 Position Position 318 Directions Directions 320 Distance Distance 321 Come Venir 322 Go Aller 323 Bring Apporter 324 Avoid Éviter 337 Carry Porter 338 Pull and Push Tirer et Pousser 405 Throw Lancer 407 Walk Marcher 408 Run Courir 409 Follow Suivre 410 Jump Sauter 411 Movement Mouvement 412 Fall Tomber 413 Rise Monter 414 Turn Tourner 415 Wave Flotter au vent

Figure 37) CFET Subheadings and Their Nearest CWR/Fr Equivalent Categories

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CFET Part/Subheading (Concrete) 6 Travel

7 Cars

8 Ships, planes and trains

42 Temperament and emotion 43 Observing and failing to observe rules of behaviour

Nearest CWR/Fr Category (Concrete) 316 Travel documents and Procedures Documents de voyage et Formalités 317 Travel Voyager 308 Car Voiture 309 Driving Conduire 310 Petrol station Station-service 311 Roads Routes 315 Other Transport Autres moyens de transport 312 Ships and Boats Navires et Bateaux 313 Aircraft Avions 314 Trains Trains 142 Personality Personnalité 151 Emotion Émotion 143 Polite Poli 144 Rude Grossier 145 Cheeky Insolent 146 Formal Formel 147 Informal Informel 148 Proud Fier 149 Boast Se Vanter 150 Modest Modeste 211 Fair Juste 212 Unfair Injuste 213 Honest Honnête 214 Dishonest Malhonnête 217 Good (morally) Bon (moralement) 220 Steal Voler 221 Mercy Pitié 222 Sympathy Compassion 223 Unmerciful Impitoyable 224 Kind Gentil 226 Selfish Egoïste 449 Shame Honte

Figure 37) continued) CFET Subheadings and Their Nearest CWR/Fr Equivalent Categories

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CFET Part/Subheading (Concrete) 44 Doing things well and doing them badly

45 Positive and negative feelings

46 Help and encouragement 47 Alertness and degrees of contentment

Nearest CWR/Fr Category (Concrete) 218 Reliable Fiable 283 Lazy Paresseux 301 Careful Prudent 302 Careless Négligent 399 Agile Agile 400 Clumsy Maladroit 196 Greet Saluer 225 Cruel Cruel 255 Fear Peur 421 Comfortable Confortable 426 Like Bien Aimer 427 Love Aimer 430 Praise Éloge 431 Admire Admirer 434 Friendship Amitié 440 Uncomfortable Inconfortable 445 Hate and Dislike Haïr et Détester 446 Horror and Disgust Horreur et Dégoût 277 Help Aider 279 Encourage Encourager 256 Tension Tension 257 Excitement Excitation 259 Calmness Calme 422 Happy Heureux 423 Laugh Rire 424 Funny Comique 425 Tease Taquiner 428 Enjoy Apprécier 429 Satisfy Satisfaire 447 Sad Triste 448 Disappointment Déception 450 Angry Furieux

Figure 37) continued) CFET Subheadings and Their Nearest CWR/Fr Equivalent Categories The subjects covered by the CWR/Fr disambiguators are listed and exemplified below.

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– Abstraction e.g. form nd [légèrement plus abstrait et littéraire que shape] forme The form of a building was just visible. On distinguait à peine la forme d’un bâtiment.

– Addressee e.g. Clear off/out! [en s’adressant par ex. à des intrus] fichez le camp!

– Agency e.g. mould (Brit), mold (US) vt [gén former avec les mains ou avec un moule. Obj: ex. plastique, argile] modeler, mouler moule nd moule, forme

– Approving/Disapproving e.g. lust ni [terme désapprobateur pour un désir sexuel très fort] désir sexuel, concupiscence

– Comparison between Referents of Exponents e.g. boat nd [plus petit que ship. Avec ou sans toit] bateau

– Comparison to Explain Meaning e.g. trot vi, -tt- (gén + adv ou prép) [comme un cheval qui va lentement] trotter, courir She got out of the car and trotted along the path. Elle est sortie de la voiture et a pris le chemin d’un petit pas pressé.

– Completedness e.g. vanish vi [plus complètement et de façon plus permanente que disappear] disparaître The image vanished from the screen. L’image disparut de l’écran. He simply vanished into thin air. Il s’est tout simplement volatilisé.

– Context e.g. advance nd (souvent + on) [surtout dans un contexte militaire] progression

– Currency e.g. motorcycle nd [plutôt vieilli] motocyclette

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– Deliberate/Accidental e.g. tip v, -pp- (gén + adv ou prép) [implique une perte d’équilibre due à une pression] 1 vt [gén délibérément] faire basculer, renverser We tipped the rubbish in the bin. Nous avons vidé les ordures dans la poubelle. I tipped the contents out onto the table. J’ai vidé le contenu sur la table. 2 (gén + over) [gén accidentellement] renverser. The jolt made the bottle tip over. La secousse a fait basculer la bouteille.

– Descriptive Range e.g. shapeless adj [décrit: ex. masse, vêtement] informe, sans forme

– Emphasis/Intensity e.g. despise vt [terme emphatique] mépriser They despise society’s values. Ils méprisent les valeurs de la société. detest vt (souvent + -ing) [plus intense que hate. Implique souvent l’irritation] détester, avoir en horreur He detests Wagner. Il a horreur de Wagner. I simply detest ironing. J’ai une sainte horreur du repassage.

– Euphemism e.g. not to one’s taste [souvent utilisé comme euphémisme, souvent quand on a refusé qch] pas à son gout So office work is not to your taste, young man. Ainsi donc le travail de bureau ne vous plaît pas, jeune homme.

– Exemplification e.g. sink v, prét sank part passé sunk 1 vi [ex. en mer] couler, sombrer the year the Cambridge boat sank l’année où le bateau de Cambridge a coulé 2 vt [ex. en mer] (faire) couler 3 vi [ex. de fatigue] s’écrouler, s’affaisser to sink into an armchair s’écrouler dans un fauteuil She sank to the ground from exhaustion. Elle s’est effondrée à terre, épuisée. I sank to my knees. Je suis tombé à genoux.

– Frequency e.g. stride vti, prét strode part passé [rare] stridden (souvent avec adv ou prép) arpenter, marcher à grands pas He strode off after her. Il est parti à toutes jambes pour la rattraper. *voir aussi 407.1

– Function e.g. mercifully adv avec indulgence [comme commentaire du locuteur] Mercifully they didn’t ask me to sing. Dieu merci, ils ne m’ont demandé de chanter.

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– General/Specific Term e.g. throw vt, prét threw part passé thrown 1 (souvent + adv ou prép) [terme général] jeter, lancer She threw a snowball at me. Elle m’a jeté une boule de neige. I threw him a pencil. Je lui ai lancé un crayon. She threw the newspaper down angrily. Elle a jeté le journal par terre avec colère. Throw that pen over, will you? Lance-moi ce stylo, tu veux? emotion n 1 ni émotion I could hardly speak for emotion. Je pouvais à peine parler tant j’étais ému. 2 nd [type particulier] sentiment an appeal to the emotions of the public un appel aux sentiments du public

– Generic Term e.g. journey nd [terme générique, plus ou moins long] voyage, trajet I always wear a seat belt, even on short journeys. J’attache toujours ma ceinture de sécurité, même pour de courts trajets. a journey across Africa un voyage à travers l’Afrique

– Gloss of Meaning e.g. as the crow flies [par le chemin le plus direct] à vol d’oiseau It’s ten miles by car, but only six as the crow flies. C’est à quinze kilomètres d’ici en voiture, mais seulement neuf à vol d’oiseau.

– Implication/Suggestion e.g. flatten vti [obj: ex. surface, bout] aplatir, abattre [implique souvent une action énergique ou violente] trees flattened by the gales des arbres abattus par les bourrasques advance vi (souvent + on, towards) [suggère la détermination] (s’) avancer Troops advanced on the city. Les troupes marchèrent sur la ville. He advanced towards me, holding a knife. Il s’avança vers moi, un couteau à la main.

– Irony e.g. full of the joys of spring [souvent ironique. Beaucoup plus heureux que d’habitude] débordant de joie My book had just been published and I was full of the joys of spring. Mon livre venait d’être publié, et je débordais de joie.

– Location e.g. gangway nd 1 [sur un bateau] passerelle 2 (Brit) [entre des rangées de sièges, par ex. au cinéma ou dans un autobus] passage, allée

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– Meaning Indicator e.g. evade vt 1 [surtout par des moyens malhonnêtes. Obj: ex. devoir] échapper à, se dérober He evaded conscription by feigning illness. Il a échappé au service militaire en faisant semblant d’être malade. 2 [fuir. Obj: ex. attaquant, poursuivant] échapper à

– Pejorative Quality e.g. lumpy adj [gén péjoratif] grumeleux lumpy custard crème (anglaise) grumeleuse

– Possible Object e.g. fold vti [obj: ex. vêtement, journal] (se) plier The bed folds away. Le lit se replie. to fold one’s arms se croiser les bras fold nd pli

– Possible Subject e.g. retreat vi (souvent + from) [suj: surtout armée] battre en retraite A series of explosions caused the crowd to retreat in confusion. Une série d’explosions sema la confusion et fit battre la foule en retraite.

– Proverb e.g. Look before you leap. [proverbe. Réfléchir avant d’agir] Ne prenez pas de décision à la légère.

– Regional Differences e.g. trip nd [gén voyage de courte durée, pour le plaisir ou pour des raisons professionelles. En anglais britannique, le locuteur donne l’impression qu’il est blasé s’il utilise ce terme en parlant de voyages plus longs] voyage a shopping trip une expédition dans les magasins business trips voyages d’affaires

– Register e.g. in the vicinity (of) [formel] aux alentours (de) There are roadworks in the vicinity of Junction 13. Il y a des travaux sur la chaussée à proximité de l’embranchement numéro 13. The castle gets in the vicinity of 10,000 visitors a year. Le château reçoit aux alentours de 10.000 visiteurs par an.

– Similarity to Another Exponent e.g. brutal adj [similaire à vicious] brutal, cruel a victim of a brutal assault la victime d’une agression sauvage brutally adv brutalement, sauvagement brutality nid brutalité, sauvagerie

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– Strength e.g. Piss off! (Brit) [assez fort et agressif] foutez le camp!

– Style e.g. true adj (souvent + to) [légèrement plus littéraire que loyal ou faithful] fidèle, loyal to be true to one’s word/promise tenir parole/sa promesse

– Technicality e.g. motion n [plus formel ou technique que movement] 1 ni [continu] mouvement, marche motion caused by magnetic attraction le mouvement dû à l’attraction magnétique to set wheels in motion mettre la machine en route 2 nd [surtout comme signal] mouvement, geste She beckoned me with a quick motion of her hand. Elle m’a fait signe d’avancer d’un geste rapide de la main.

– Use in a Negative Phrase e.g. remotely adv [gén dans une phrase négative] de loin, faiblement I’m not remotely interested. Je ne suis pas le moins du monde intéressé.

– User Group e.g. robber nd [pas souvent utilisé dans les contextes formels. Souvent utilisé par les enfants et, de ce fait, peut sembler plutôt enfantin] bandit, voleur bank/train robber pilleur de banque/de train

– Voluntary/Involuntary Action e.g. shape vt [gén avec les mains ou un outil. Action toujours volontaire] façonner

3.2.10 Other Features Notes Four types of note are found in the CWR texts: 1) grey usage notes, 2) grey expressions boxes, 3) grey comparative expressions boxes, and 4) white notes. Grey Usage Notes The grey usage notes are intended to give precise information about grammar points and nuances of meaning. They can apply to either one particular headword or two several entries within a section (CWR/Fr:xi). These notes cover the areas listed below.

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– Colligation e.g. at 25.3 Festivals Fêtes: usage On utilise la préposition at lorsqu’on parle d’une période de vacances, mais on utilise la préposition on lorsque’on parle d’une seule journée: ex. at Easter (à Pâques) on Christmas Day (le jour de Noël). Avec les termes Passover et Ramadan, on utilisera la préposition during.

– Collocation e.g. at 18.3 Vent: usage Avec tous les vents on utilise le verbe blow: ex. A breeze/gale was blowing. (Une brise/bourrasque soufflait.). Le verbe blow est utilisé avec un adverbe pour décrire les effets du vent: ex. The roof was blown off in the hurricane. (Le toit a été emporté par l’ouragan.)

– Comparing Exponents on a Particular Topic e.g. at 6.1 Oiseaux de basse-cour: usage Chicken est le terme général employé pour désigner à la fois les mâles et les femelles. On utilise souvent le mot chicken pour désigner uniquement des femelles, mais on utilisera plus souvent les termes cock ou rooster lorsqu’on souhaite désigner uniquement des mâles. La chair du poulet est appelée chicken. Un jeune coq est un cockerel. Le terme général qui désigne la volaille est poultry et on parlera par exemple de poultry farmers, même s’ils n’élèvent que des poulets.

– Confusables e.g. at 110.2 Savoir par expérience: usage On ne confondra pas le terme experience (l’expérience au sens général de “connaissance”, “savoir”, par exemple dans to have some experience (avoir une certaine expérience)), et le terme experiment (qui fait référence à l’expérimentation: ex. une expérience en laboratoire).

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– Cultural Note e.g. at 307.0 Weights and Measures Poids et Mesures: usage Bien que le système métrique soit considéré comme la norme dans la terminologie scientifique et technique du monde entier, la Grande-Bretagne ne l’adopte que peu à peu pour l’utilisation quotidienne. Le système métrique n’est pratiquement pas utilisé aux Etats-Unis. La plupart des Britanniques préfèrent encore utiliser le système impérial (the Imperial system) qui, à l’opposé du système métrique, ne suit pas la structure régulière basée sur le nombre 10. Le système américain est le plus souvent sembable au britannique mais on notera quelques légères différences pour les équivalents du système métrique.

– Currency e.g. at 180.0 Living room Salle de séjour: usage On appelle aussi cette pièce sitting room et parfois lounge. Ces deux termes sont maintenant légèrement démodés. La plupart des maisons modernes n’ont qu’une pièce au rez-de-chaussée. Dans les maisons où il y a encore deux pièces, on utilisera les termes front room et back room.

– Emphasis e.g. at 67.0 Necessary Nécessaire: usage Essential, vital, et crucial sont tous plus emphatiques que necessary, et on peut les rendre encore plus emphatiques en ajoutant absolutely, ex. absolutely vital (absolument vital). Essential est légèrement moins emphatique que les deux autres, surtout lorsqu’il est utilisé avant le nom.

– Error Avoidance e.g. at 230.0 Allow Autoriser: usage Il est incorrect de dire 'Is it allowed to smoke/eat in here?' etc. A la place, il faut dire Is smoking/eating allowed in here? (Est-il permis de fumer/manger ici?) ou Are we allowed to smoke in here? (Sommes-nous autorisés à fumer ici?)/Am I allowed to eat in here? (Ai-je le droit de manger ici?)

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– Figurative Use e.g. at 39.0 Shape Façonner: usage Shape, form, et mould peuvent s’utiliser au sens figuré pour décrire les effets d’événements et d’expériences. ex. His character was shaped by his wartime experiences. (Son caractère s’est forgé dans ses expériences de guerre.)

– Function e.g. at L43.2 Problèmes de volume/vitesse: usage En anglais britannique, la réponse polie utilisée quand on n’entend pas son interlocuteur est sorry? de préférence à what? What? est acceptable dans les situations informelles ou entre amis. Pardon? est aussi couramment utilisé bien que certaines personnes considèrent cette formule comme très distinguée.

– Grammar e.g. at 156.1 Pain: usage Le mot bread (du pain), qui sert à désigner l’aliment en général, est indénombrable, alors que le mot loaf, qui fait référence aux pains à la pièce, est dénombrable, ex. Two loaves please. (Deux pains, s’il vous plaît).

– Implication/Suggestion e.g. at 46.0 Increase Augmenter: usage Dans les sens 1 et 2, extend implique que l’on ajoute quelque chose à ce qui existe déjà, tandis que stretch implique que l’on augmente la taille de ce dont on dispose. Extend est un rien plus formel que stretch dans le troisième sens.

– Irregular Inflections e.g. at 1.0 Wild animals Animaux sauvages: usage La plupart des noms d’animaux sauvages forment leur pluriel de façon régulière. Les quelques cas de pluriels irréguliers sont indiqués dans le texte. Cependant, lorsqu’il s’agit d’animaux de safari ou de gibier, on utilise souvent la forme du singulier même lorsqu’on parle de plusieurs animaux: ex. We saw a dozen giraffe (Nous avons vu une douzaine de girafes.)

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– Medium e.g. at 68.0 Unnecessary Inutile: usage Unnecessary ne s’utilise pas beaucoup en anglais parlé, surtout après un verbe. Il est plus fréquent de dire ‘It’s not necessary.’ (Ce n’est pas nécessaire.) ou ‘There’s no need.’ (Il n’y a pas besoin.).

– Orthography e.g. at 13.4 Etendues d’eau: usage Sea, lake, et ocean sont souvent utilisés dans des noms propres et s’écrivent alors avec une majuscule, ex. the Atlantic Ocean (l’océan Atlantique) Lake Geneva (le lac de Genève)

– Part of Speech e.g. at 16.0 Metals Métaux: usage Tous les noms de métaux cités ci-dessous peuvent être utilisés avant un nom et décrivent alors un objet fabriqué dans ce métal: ex. a gold bracelet (un bracelet en or) a lead pipe (un tuyau de plomb).

– Regional Variation e.g. at 235.1 Personnes qui apprennent: usage Aux USA, on a tendance à désigner tous les écoliers sous le nom de students (étudiants). En GrandeBretagne, par contre, le terme student est réservé aux étudiants universitaires et les enfants des écoles sont en général appelés pupils (élèves).

– Register e.g. at 66.0 Position Position: usage Rear est un peu plus formel que back. Centre est légèrement plus formel que middle. Centre est généralement utilisé pour les surfaces à deux dimensions, alors que middle peut être utilisé pour des lignes également.

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– Standard Usage e.g. at 298.1 Nombres désignant des nombres particuliers: usage On entend couramment less au lieu de fewer, par ex. There are less people here than I expected. (Il y a moins de gens que je ne l’escomptais.) Cet usage est cependant toujours considéré comme incorrect par bon nombre de personnes.

– Style e.g. at 17.0 Gases Gaz: usage The skies est souvent synonyme de the sky: ex. The skies were grey. (Le ciel était gris.) Skies est légèrement plus littéraire que sky, mais est quand même utilisé fréquemment.

– Syntactic Patterns e.g. at 34.0 End Finir: usage Notez les structures verbales suivantes, utilisées pour indiquer les sens différents de stop: (+ to + INFINITIF) [interrompre une action pour faire autre chose] He stopped to tie his shoelace. (Il s’arrêta pour nouer son lacet.) (+ -ing) [cesser une activité] She stopped eating. (Elle s’arrêta de manger.)

– Translation Advice e.g. at 92.3 Lieux et événements où sont présentés des objets: usage Le mot demonstration ne sera pas toujours traduit par démonstration. Dans un contexte socio-politique, il sera traduit par manifestation. *voir aussi 227.6 Politics and Government

– Usage Warning e.g. at 163.1 Personnel (located within 163 Eating and Drinking Places Lieux où on peut boire et manger): usage On évitera de préférence les termes barman et surtout barmaid sans doute parce qu’ils traduisent une attitude condescendante. On dira plutôt the man/woman (serving) behind the bar (l’homme/la dame qui sert au bar), ou en parlant de ces personnes en général, simplement bar staff (personnel de comptoir).

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– Vocabulary Expansion e.g. at 331.5 Pour le transport d’objets: usage On peut utiliser tous les mots donnés jusqu’à présent, à l’exception de receptacle, pour désigner le contenu des récipients, ou les récipients en tant que tels. (Autrement dit, on peut les employer pour répondre à une question commençant par “How much…?”.) Par exemple, We drank a bottle of wine. (Nous avons bu une bouteille de vin.) signifie que nous avons bu tout le vin que la bouteille contenait. On peut dire de la même façon We ate half a packet of biscuits. (Nous avons mangé un demi paquet de biscuits.) I've used a whole tank of petrol. (J’ai utilisé tout un réservoir d’essence.) et She smokes a packet of cigarettes a day. (Elle fume un paquet de cigarettes par jour.) On ajoute parfois le suffix -ful à ces mots quand ils servent à désigner le contenu dans son intégralité, ex. boxful, bottleful, jarful, sackful etc. On peut les utiliser de la même façon dans les phrases comme par exemple I’ve used a whole tankful of petrol. (J’ai utilisé tout un réservoir d’essence). Mais on ne peut pas utiliser -ful pour désigner une partie d’un tout (il est incorrect de dire 'half a packetful of biscuits'.)

As regards grey usage notes, not all exponents are included in the corresponding grey usage notes across the six texts e.g. the exponent red-hot appears in subcategory 20.0 Hot in all the texts except CWR/Fr and CWR/It. This is the case with 11% of the note types. Some usage notes do not appear in all the CWR texts. For example, at 35.0 Real Reale in CWR/It there is a grey usage note which discusses the exponents actual, actually, current, present, currently, and at present. This usage note is not present in any of the other five texts. There appears, however, to be no obvious correlation between the inclusion of a usage note and the particular L1 involved. 30% of the types of grey usage note do not appear in all CWR texts. Grey Expressions Boxes There are 186 different types of grey expression box, of which 11 (= 6%) box types are not found in all six CWR texts. There were 19 (= 10%) instances where the exponents included in equivalent boxes differ across the dictionaries either because of minor differences in the form of exponents or because an exponent does not appear in all the equivalent boxes.

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Grey Comparative Expressions Boxes These boxes are usually placed at the end or near the end of semantically related subcategories. For example, in CWR/Fr at Category 91 See and Look Voir et Regarder, Subcategory 91.6 Utiliser les yeux, the comparative expressions box is located after the entries sight, eyesight, vision, visible, visibly, and visibility, but before the last entry invisible: locution comparative (have) eyes like a hawk (avoir) des yeux de lynx [littéralement: avoir des yeux comme un faucon]

There are 18 comparative expressions boxes, all of which appear in each CWR dictionary. Only two instances occur of minor variations in the form of exponents. White Notes There are 37 white notes, each of which is present in all CWR texts. There are only 7 (= 19%) notes where minor differences occur among the texts as regards either the form or inclusion of exponents. Two broad types of white note exist: 1) vocabulary expansion notes and 2) contrastive notes. An example of the first type can be found at Category 1 Wild animals Animaux sauvages: MOTS UTILISÉS POUR DÉSIGNER LES ANIMAUX creature nd [souvent utilisé pour désigner un animal dont on ne connaît pas le nom ou lorsque l’animal suscite de la répugnance, de l’étonnement, de la pitié, etc.] créature What a peculiar creature! Quelle créature bizarre! beast nd [désigne surtout un animal imposant. Ce mot ne s’emploie pas pour les insectes] bête monster nd [désigne une créature imaginaire de grande taille, laide et effrayante, ou tout animal anormalement grand] monstre wildlife ni [mot générique qui recouvre tous les êtres vivants, y compris les plantes en anglais britannique mais pas en anglais américain] la faune et la flore a wildlife tour of Kenya une exploration de la faune et de la flore du Kenya game ni gibier game birds gibier à plumes mammal nd mammifère.

Contrastive notes explain the difference between items that are semantically closely related e.g. at Category 14 Areas Régions:

259 LANDSCAPE (PAYSAGE), COUNTRYSIDE (CAMPAGNE), ET COUNTRY (CAMPAGNE) Le terme landscape fait référence à un paysage qu’on regarde ou qu’on admire de loin, qu’il s’agisse d’un site ou de sa représentation. Les termes country et countryside font tous deux référence à des endroits que l’on peut non seulement admirer mais aussi visiter. Le terme countryside implique généralement un paysage vert et souvent cultivé qui est visité par les citadins. Il ne sera pas utilisé en parlant de régions arides, sauvages ou montagneuses. Le terme country peut être utilisé de façon plus générale pour désigner tout endroit non urbain, y compris les régions plus sauvages. Cependant, on évitera d’utiliser le terme country dans cette acception s’il risque d’y avoir confusion avec l’acception “nation”.

Pictorial Illustrations There are only minor differences in the pictorial illustrations across the six CWR texts. The illustrations are of the following main types: – different types of something (e.g. at 1 Wild animals depicting lion, elephant, monkey, buffalo, stag, camel, and kangaroo). These pictures have parts labelled e.g. pouch at kangaroo, – an individual object with labelled parts (e.g. blackbird at 9 Birds with wing, claw etc labelled), – actions (e.g. 21 Wet – a picture accompanied by the description Dip the cherries in melted chocolate), – systems (e.g. the solar system at 27 Astronomy), and – locations and the objects usually found there (e.g. at 169 Kitchen). As regards inclusion, of the 238 illustrations in each CWR dictionary, only 24 instances (= 10%) are found where the L2 exponents are not identical across all six texts. Sometimes, regional markings vary e.g. at cooker and stove in Subcategory 169.0 Kitchen. In rare instances, pictorial illustrations are not found across all six texts. Language for Communication Sections At the end of each CWR text there is a series of 48 categories on communicative functions. All but two of the subcategories are identical across the six texts. The principles of ordering and presentation of the categories and subcategories are the same as those

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underlying the main text. Category titles are given in L2 and L1, and subcategory titles in L1 only. The subcategories within a category are placed in a logical sequence, e.g. according to a chronology of events at L12 Shopping (CWS/Sp): L12 Shopping De compras L12.1 Al iniciar un encuentro L12.2 Para solicitar artículos/servicios L12.3 Para declinar la oferta de servicio L12.4 Cuando no se dispone de un artículo/servicio L12.5 Al decidir lo que uno desea L12.6 Al pagar L12.7 Al recoger y transportar artículos L12.8 Al terminar el encuentro 3.2.11 Access Routes The Indexes The main access routes to the entries within any CWR dictionary are via the two alphabetically arranged indexes in the back matter. The index of English words contains all the headwords. Each index lists the category or subcategory under which each exponent can be found. In addition, the English index supplies the pronunciation of each word using IPA. The L1 index alphabetically lists the main translation equivalents and the categories at which they appear. The Introduction to each CWR dictionary suggests five consultation strategies. 1) If users have an L1 word which they want to express in English, they should consult the L1 index and search at the category number at which the English word is located (CWR/Sp:viii). 2) If users wish to know the exact meaning of an English word or how to use it, they should look it up in the English index and search at the category number provided (Ibid:Ibidem). 3) If users want to find a more precise word than they already know, they should look at the other entries which are located in the same category (Ibid:Ibidem). 4) If users are looking for an idiomatic expression, they should think of an approximate synonym or a word with the same general sense in L1 or English and find the category in which it is located (Ibid:Ibidem). 5) If users are looking for a useful expression to suit a communicative situation, they should look in the Language and Communication section (Ibid:Ibidem).

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Cross-References Of the 471 cross-references in CWR/Fr, 437 (= 93%) are of the see also type and 34 (= 7%) are antonyms. The see also cross-references vary between those where there is a close semantic proximity between source and target e.g. Cat. 2 Fierce Féroce voir aussi 225 Cruel

and those where the relationship is much looser, and the connection is via a common theme e.g. Cat. 126 Cures Remèdes Subcat. 126.5 Médicaments voir aussi 172 Drugs.

Other cross-references proceed from the specific to the general e.g. Cat. 195 Social customs Coutumes sociales Subcat. 195.2 Cérémonies religieuses voir aussi 232 Religion.

Antonymic cross-references can also be found e.g. Cat. 32 Begin Commencer voir aussi 201 New; ant 34 End

An analysis of the antonymic or contrasting categories also reveals breaks in semantic flow. The category numbers in the list of paired antonymic cross-references in CWR/Fr show that whereas such pairs of categories are often in close proximity, this is by no means always the case (see below). Cat. No. 38 42 43 50 74 148 236 238 239 243 250 255

Category Begin Big Large quantity Whole Important Proud Clever Sensible Skilful Difficult Enmity Fear

Cat. No 34 44 45 52 76 449 240 241 242 247 434 258

Category End Small Small quantity Part Unimportant Shame Stupid Foolish Unskilled Easy Friendship Courage

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Cat. No. 278 346 417 419 421 422 442

Category Eager Disagree Good Superior Comfortable Happy Normal

Cat. No 285 348 438 439 440 447 444

Category Unwilling Agree Bad Inferior Uncomfortable Sad Unusual

Note: “242 Unskilled” also refers to “237 Able” as one of its antonyms, but “237 Able” does not mention “242 Unskilled” as its antonym. 3.2.12 User Guidance The front matter components concerned with user guidance are listed below in parallel fashion for the six CWR texts. This comparative listing below shows that there is minimal variation in the provision of user guidance across the series. Comment se servir de Cambridge Word Routes Cómo utilizar el Cambridge Word Selector Instruccions d’ús del Cambridge Word Selector Come usare ‘Cambridge Word Routes’ Como utilizar o Cambridge Word Routes Πώς να χρησιμοποιήσετε το Cambridge Word Routes

(CWR/Fr) (CWS/Sp) (CWS/Cat) (CWR/It) (CWR/Port) (CWR/Gk)

1) Tirer le meilleur parti de Word Routes 1) Para sacar el máximo provecho de Cambridge Word Selector 1) Com es pot treure el màxim partit del diccionari 1) Utilizzare al meglio ‘Word Routes’ 1) Para aproveitar ao máximo o Cambridge Word Routes 1) Πώς να εκμεταλλευτείτε πλήρως το Word Routes

(CWR/Fr) (CWS/Sp) (CWS/Cat) (CWR/It) (CWR/Port) (CWR/Gk)

2) Trouver les mots et les expressions 2) Búsqueda de palabras y expresiones 2) Com es poden localitzar paraules i expressions 2) Cercare parole e locuzioni 2) A procura de palavras e expressões 2) Πώς να ψάξετε λέξεις και φράσεις

(CWR/Fr) (CWS/Sp) (CWS/Cat) (CWR/It) (CWR/Port) (CWR/Gk)

3) Les entrées 3) Las entradas 3) Les entrades 3) Le voci 3) Os verbetes 3) Οι καταχωρήσεις

(CWR/Fr) (CWS/Sp) (CWS/Cat) (CWR/It) (CWR/Port) (CWR/Gk)

263 3.1) Parties du discours 3.1) Partes de la oración 3.1) Categories gramaticals 3.1) Parti del discorso 3.1) Partes da oração 3.1) Μέρη του λόγου

(CWR/Fr) (CWS/Sp) (CWS/Cat) (CWR/It) (CWR/Port) (CWR/Gk)

3.2) Grammaire 3.2) Gramática 3.2) Explicacions gramaticals 3.2) Grammatica 3.2) Gramática 3.2) Γραμματική

(CWR/Fr) (CWS/Sp) (CWS/Cat) (CWR/It) (CWR/Port) (CWR/Gk)

3.3) Verbes à particule 3.3) Verbos con partícula (phrasal verbs) 3.3) Phrasal verbs 3.3) Verbi frasali 3.3) Verbos com partícula (preposicional ou adverbial) (phrasal verbs) 3.3) Περιφραστικά ρήματα (Phrasal verbs)

(CWR/Fr) (CWS/Sp) (CWS/Cat) (CWR/It) (CWR/Port) (CWR/Gk)

3.4) Flexions 3.4) Inflexiones 3.4) Formes verbals 3.4) Forme irregolari 3.4) Flexões 3.4) Κλίσεις, καταλήξεις

(CWR/Fr) (CWS/Sp) (CWS/Cat) (CWR/It) (CWR/Port) (CWR/Gk)

3.5) Altres abreviatures utilitzades en el Cambridge Word Selector

(CWS/Cat)

Sample dictionary pages with features labelled and described

(All texts)

3.3

The Cambridge French/English Thesaurus

3.3.1 Users The Cambridge French/English Thesaurus (CFET) is aimed at “all English-speaking learners and users of French at intermediate and more advanced levels” (CFET: back cover). 3.3.2 Aims The principal aims which CFET intends to fulfil are: to reactivate dormant vocabulary which users cannot recall when required, to expand users’ vocabulary by supplying

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natural English exponents to express meanings, and to cover both written and spoken English. CFET describes itself as “a thesaurus, or dictionnaire analogique, with a difference: the French language is not presented as a list of words but as a network of ideas” (CFET:vii). Hartmann and James (DOL:6) define an analogical dictionary as: “a type of DICTIONARY which contains information such as collocations, synonyms or confusable words.” CFET contains all three of these types of information. It is a distinctive synonymy: […] unlike many thesauri, The Cambridge French-English Thesaurus is not limited to listing synonyms, but provides information to allow users to select a word or phrase with the right intensity in the right circumstances. (CFET:vii)

3.3.3 Inclusion The inclusion policy of CFET embraces both concrete and abstract vocabulary. 3.3.4 Lexicographic Evidence No mention is made in the text of any use of corpora during compilation. 3.3.5 Overall Structure and Textual Components The main components of CFET are set out below. Contents [lists part titles and subheadings] Preface How to use this book List of abbreviations Bilingual Thesaurus full list of contents [lists part titles, subheadings, and topic categories] (main text) (Conversational Gambits full list of contents) Conversational Gambits Verb conjugations English-French index French-English index

p. v-vi p. vii p. viii-xi p. xii p. 1-11 p. 13-229 p. 209-210 p. 211-229 p. 231-240 p. 241-282 p. 283-326

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3.3.6 Macrostructure The top level of CFET’s macrostructure consists of 15 thematically arranged Parts. Each Part title is in L1 (English). Figure 38 below lists the Parts. Part Title 1) Position, movement and travel 2) Time 3) The natural environment 4) Everyday things 5) Society, family and relationships 6) Emotions, feelings and attitudes 7) Wanting 8) Knowledge and thought processes 9) Body and health 10) Food and drink 11) Work and leisure 12) Money, worth, economy 13) Abstract terms to describe the world 14) Ways of communicating 15) Conversational gambits Figure 38) The Parts of the Cambridge FrenchEnglish Thesaurus Each Part is divided into subheadings, of which there are 142 in the entire text. Each subheading consists of a number and the title of the subheading in English. Within each Part, the subheadings are thematically ordered. For example, the Part ‘Position, movement, and travel’ is divided into the following subheadings. 1 Shape 2 Position 3 Direction and distance 4 Arrival and departure 5 Movement 6 Travel 7 Cars 8 Ships, planes, and trains The subheadings are split into topic categories e.g. the subheading ‘1 Shape’ is subdivided into the following topic categories.

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1.1 Formes Shapes 1.2 Formes en deux dimensions Two-dimensional shapes 1.3 Formes à trois dimensions Three-dimensional shapes 1.4 Formes décoratives Shapes used for decoration 1.5 Lignes Lines 1.6 Formes irrégulières Irregular shapes 1.7 Changements de forme Changing shapes. 3.3.7 Sections The components of each Part are as follows. Part Title [in English [L1]] – Subheading – Subheading number – Subheading title [in English [L1]] – Topic category – Topic category number – Topic category title [in French [L2] and English [L1]] – Entry – Headword – (variant/s) – Grammar code – [bracketed information] – Translation equivalent – (Example) – Translation of Example – (run-on) – (Grey Usage Note) [see separate list of grey usage notes] Each topic category consists of a numeric code followed by L2 (French), then L1 (English). The number of topics gathered together under each subheading varies between 2 (e.g. 11) Changes in time) and 33 (e.g. 96) Communicating with voice and the body). There is a logical progression in the thematic arrangement of the topic categories within a subheading. Semantic flow can be observed at both subheading and topic level. For example, Part 1 Position, movement, and travel consists of the following subheadings. 1) Shape 2) Position 3) Direction and distance 4) Arrival and departure 5) Movement

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6) Travel 7) Ships, planes and trains Characteristic of TLDs is the adjacent placement of antonymic or otherwise contrasting topics. This also occurs in CFET e.g. 3.6) Près Near 3.7) Loin Far Among the topic titles can be found metalinguistic headings that often include parts of speech e.g. 7.6) Verbes exprimant les manoeuvres en voiture Verbs for driving Various commonly repeated types of topic can be identified among the sections e.g. – actions e.g. 27.1) Assembler To put together, – degree of generality e.g. 14.3) Termes généraux désignant les animaux General words for Animals, – euphemisms e.g. 33.7) Euphémismes pour dire âgé Euphemisms for aged, – evaluation e.g. 36.6) Termes péjoratifs désignant les appartenances politiques Pejorative terms for political orientations, – features e.g. 22.7) Caractéristiques de la mer Features of the sea, – metaphorical extension e.g. 14.5) Noms d’animaux sauvages désignant les humains Names of wild animal used for people, – methods e.g. 27.3) Façons de séparer Ways of separating, – miscellaneous e.g. 45.10) Autres types d’amitiés Other kinds of friendships, – parts e.g. 8.12) Parties principales de l’avion Main parts of the aircraft, – people e.g. 8.21) Personnel des trains Train staff, – places e.g. 81.13) Endroits où l’on fait du sport Places where sports are played, – ranking e.g. 33.8) Place dans la famille selon l’âge Ranking within the family according to age, – register e.g. 32.7) Synonymes familiers Informal words for throwing away, – types e.g. 8.8) Types de gros navires Types of large ships, and – user groups e.g. 14.8) Mots enfantins pour désigner les bruits d’animaux Baby words for animal noises. Within each topic category, the exponents consist of synonyms and other related L2 (French) words and phrases including sayings, metaphors, proverbs, famous quotations, and usage notes (CFET:i). For instance, the topic category 1.7) Changements de forme Changing shapes contains the following exponents.

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former vt prendre forme prendre des formes déformer [+ usage note] façonner gonfler enfler plier replier redresser tordre tortiller The ordering principle as applied to exponents seems to be thematic wherever possible, and alphabetic when not. Subsubcategories CFET also includes sections at subsubcategory level. These can be categorized into four types. 1) subsubcategories After a heading which applies to the entire subsubcategory, items are shown which each consist of a headword (in French, usually in bold type), (optionally) a disambiguator (in English, in square brackets), and a sequence of pairs of corresponding French and English phrases, sometimes accompanied by explanatory material. 2) vocabulary sections These consist of a heading, followed by parallel lists of words or short phrases comprising French (usually in bold type) and English (usually in non-bold type) equivalents. 3) enhanced vocabulary sections These are similar to vocabulary sections, but additionally include short explanatory notes. 4) situational sections These are divided into either two or three columns.

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It is not always easy to distinguish among the types described above because of the inconsistent typographical layout. Some of the sections are separated by lines from the rest of the text (‘lined’), others are not (‘unlined’). The proportions of the above types of note are as follows: vocabulary sections 53%, subsubcategories 41%, enhanced vocabulary sections 3%, and situational sections: 3%. 3.3.8 Microstructure Here are some sample CFET entries which will be used below to highlight microstructural features: cubique adj cubic enfler (6) vi [subj: bruised flesh] to swell (up) faire étalage de ALSO étaler (6) vt [pejorative. Obj: knowledge, erudition] notaire nm A practising solicitor whose work does not involve advocacy. pénible adj [disagreeable and difficult. The translation of this depends on context] unpleasant Marcher, c’est pénible par cette chaleur. Walking in this heat is really unpleasant. Il faut repasser par chez eux, que c’est pénible! We have to go back via their place, what a drag! Les enfants ont été pénibles, cet après-midi. The children were hard work this afternoon. prendre des formes [euphemism. Applies to pubescent girls only] to fill out

The entry components are as follows. – French headword e.g. cubique – near-synonym (optional) – part of speech e.g. adj – verb conjugation number (supplied at verb entries) e.g. enfler (6) – English translation e.g. cubic at cubique – disambiguators within square brackets (optional) – comments that disambiguate near-synonyms e.g. [euphemism. Applies to pubescent girls only] at prendre des formes – comments that help explain meaning when a translation alone is not sufficient e.g. [disagreeable and difficult. The translation of this depends on context] at pénible

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– explanations e.g. at notaire (in cases where there is no direct equivalent) – example(s) (optional) – translation of example – note (optional) Near-synonyms that appear in headwords or examples are separated by ALSO e.g. faire étalage de ALSO étaler. Parts of speech are provided “wherever possible” (CFET: xii). They are not supplied at phrases e.g. prendre des formes. One, and sometimes two, head translations are provided for every word, phrase, and example. All head translations are listed in the English index. Where there is no direct translation, an explanation is supplied, as is the case with notaire above. Disambiguators The various subjects covered by the CFET disambiguators are listed and exemplified below. – Collocation e.g. échauffer les oreilles à qqn [informal. Often with commencer] Tu commences à m’échauffer les oreilles! You’re getting on my nerves!

– Connotation e.g. humble adj 1 [not ostentatious. Describes e.g. meal, home] simple 2 [religious overtones. Not proud] meek

– Context e.g. personnalité nf [attitudes and behaviour. Can be used in psychological contexts] personality troubles de la personnalité personality disorders Elle a une forte personnalité. She has a strong personality.

– Currency e.g. bon, bonne adj (after noun) [an old-fashioned term. Disposed towards helping fellow-beings] good Il a toujours été bon envers nous. He was always good to us. Sa mère était bonne femme, qui s’occupait beaucoup des pauvres. His mother was a good woman who did a lot for the poor.

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– Descriptive Range e.g. affectif, -tive adj [describes: e.g. reaction, state, behaviour] emotional Notre vie affective est influencée par les expériences vécues dans notre enfance. Our emotional life is influenced by things which happened to us when we were young children.

– Emphasis e.g. soigneux, -gneuse adj [stresses neatness of result] neat (and careful) soigneusement adv neatly (and carefully)

– Euphemism e.g. les cinq lettres [euphemism for merde] a four-letter word Je te dis les cinq lettres F…you!

– Everyday Use e.g. esthétique adj [everyday use] beautiful Enlève cette vieille nappe, elle n’est pas très esthétique. Take that old tablecloth off the table; it isn’t very beautiful.

– Figurative Use e.g. en flagrant délit 1 [legal] in flagrante (delicto) 2 [figurative] in the act Je l’ai pris en flagrant délit de mensonge. I caught him telling a bare-faced lie.

– General Term e.g. politesse nf [general term. Refers to conventional standards of behaviour] politeness formule de politesse letter ending

– Gloss of Meaning e.g. caractère nm [long-term psychological traits] avoir mauvais caractère to be bad-tempered avoir bon caractère to be good-tempered avoir du caractère to be a strong character n’avoir aucun caractère to be a weak character troubles du caractère personality disorders

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– Grammar e.g. échapper (6) vi [always with à] Le verre m’a échappé. The glass slipped through my fingers.

– Implication/Suggestion e.g. C’est une sainte-nitouche. [used of women, implies outward show of virtue, belied by shyness] Butter wouldn’t melt in her mouth.

– Irony e.g. admirer (6) vt to admire. Les passants admiraient la vitrine richement décorée pour Noël. Passers-by were admiring the shop window which had been luxuriously decorated for Christmas. Quatre enfants et une carrière de médecin, je t’admire! Four children and a career as doctor. I admire you. Admirez le travail! [can be ironic] Just look at this, isn’t it wonderful?

– Location e.g. bosse nf 1 [on the surface of an object] lump 2 [on a person or an animal, after a knock] bump 3 [on sculpture, on tree trunk] bump un mauvais chemin qui a des creux et des bosses a rough path with hollows and bumps in it

– Meaning Indicator e.g. se comporter (6) v refl [habitually or in a given situation] to behave Tu t’es bien comporté hier. You behaved well yesterday. Elle s’est mal comportée dans sa jeunesse. She behaved badly in her youth.

– Patronizing Tone e.g. grogne nf [informal. A patronizing way of describing social discontent] la grogne des enseignants grumblings among the teaching profession

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– Pejorative Quality e.g. humeur nf 1 [good or bad frame of mind] mood De quelle humeur est-elle ce matin? What (sort of) mood is she in this morning? de bonne humeur in a good mood de mauvaise humeur in a bad mood 2 [pejorative] bad mood Excusez-moi pour ce matin, j’ai eu un mouvement d’humeur. I apologize for sounding off this morning. Il ne sait pas cacher ses humeurs. He doesn’t know how to conceal his moods.

– Point of View e.g. entrer (6) vi [implies movement into a closed space or a space bounded by walls, fences, etc] 1 [action seen from the point of view of the person, animal or thing which is moving] to go in. Je n’osais pas entrer chez ces inconnus. I was reluctant to go into the house of these strangers. Le chien n’a pas le droit d’entrer dans le restaurant. The dog isn’t allowed to go into the restaurant. Le clé n’entre plus dans le trou: ils ont dû changer la serrure. The key no longer fits the hole, they must have changed the lock. 2 [seen from the point of view of the stationary person towards whom the movement is made] to come in Entrez! Come in! Je vais ouvrir mes grilles pour que la camionnette de livraison puisse entrer dans la cour. I’ll open my gates so that the delivery van can come into the yard.

– Possible Object e.g. bluffer (6) 1 vi [informal] BrE to try it on AmE to bluff Ils ont menacé de licencier tout le monde, mais ils bluffent. They threatened to sack everybody, but they’re just trying it on. 2 vt [obj: person] BrE to have on AmE to put on Il te bluffe, en fait il n’est jamais allé en Afrique. He’s having you on, in fact he’s never been to Africa.

– Possible Subject e.g. ragaillardir (19) vt [give new vigour to. Subj: esp breath of bracing air, glass of whisky, pep talk] to cheer up

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– Proverb e.g. Faute avouée est à moitié pardonée. [proverb used to exhort esp children to own up to a misdeed] A sin confessed is a sin half pardoned.

– Purpose e.g. porte-bouteilles nm inv 1 [for storing] wine rack 2 [for carrying] crate

– Register e.g. ressentir (25) vt [slightly more formal than sentir. Be under the influence of a lasting emotion] to feel Ce que je ressens pour lui n’est pas de l’amour. What I feel for him is not love. ressentir une grande émotion to feel a powerful emotion

– Respect e.g. insolent, e adj [more disrespectful than impertinent] insolent

– Similarity of Meaning e.g. sympa adj [informal. Similar to both senses of sympathique] nice, kind Elle m’a proposé de m’aider, c’est sympa, non? She offered to help me. Kind of her, wasn’t it?

– Situation e.g. fier comme Artaban [used as an affectionate comment on, for example, a small child achieving a difficult feat] pleased as Punch

– Strength e.g. insulte nf [stronger than injure] insult

– Style e.g. vertu nf [literary] virtue

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– Subject Area e.g. bien nm [philosophical or religious term] good le bien et le mal good and evil

– Synonymy e.g. probe adj [literary synonym for honnête 1] honest

– Translation Advice e.g. pénible adj [disagreeable and difficult. The translation of this depends on context] unpleasant Marcher, c’est pénible par cette chaleur. Walking in this heat is really unpleasant. Il faut repasser par chez eux, que c’est pénible! We have to go back via their place, what a drag! Les enfants ont été pénibles, cet après-midi. The children were hard work this afternoon.

– Usage Warning e.g. se foutre de la gueule de qqn [very strong phrase, which may offend] BrE to take the piss out of sb AmE to put someone on

– Use in Negative Phrases e.g. se vanter v refl (often + de + infinitive) 1 [say out loud in order to be admired] to boast Il se vante d’avoir des amis en haut lieu. He boasts of having friends in high places. 2 [in negative phrases, as a euphemism for keeping things secret] Il n’y a pas de quoi se vanter! It’s nothing to be proud of! À ta place je ne m’en vanterais pas. I wouldn’t shout it from the rooftops, if I were you. Il a volé l’idée à son collègue mais il ne s’en est pas vanté. He stole the idea from his colleague but he kept it quiet.

– User Group e.g. gros mot nm [children’s language] swearword dire des gros mots to use bad language

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– Voluntary/Involuntary Action e.g. former (6) vt 1 [voluntary action] Formez une boule avec la pâte. Shape the dough into a ball. Formez un cornet avec le papier. Make the paper into a cone. 2 [involuntary action] to form Le vent a formé des zig-zags sur le sable. The wind has formed wiggly lines on the sand.

3.3.9 Other Features Locutions/Idioms Sections At the end of several CFET subcategories, a ‘Locutions Idioms’ section can be found, e.g. at 39.15 Héroïsme et courage Heroism and courage: Locutions Idioms prendre son courage à deux mains [to overcome fear and find courage] to pluck up courage Il/Elle n’a pas froid aux yeux. [informal] He’s/She’s pretty fearless. La fortune sourit aux audacieux. [proverb] Fortune favours the brave. A coeur vaillant rien d’impossible. [proverb] There’s no such word as ‘can’t’. Du cran! [informal] Buck up! Il est courageux mais pas téméraire. [ironic] He’s no hero. Je ne prends pas ma bicyclette dans Paris, je suis courageuse mais pas téméraire! I don’t ride my bicycle in Paris. I may be brave, but I’m not foolhardy.

Quotations Well-known quotations are provided at the end of selected topics if they are still in current use as part of today’s culture (CFET:ix) e.g. at 66.13 Raison Sanity: Citation Quotation La cœur a ses raisons que la raison ne connaît point. [This line from Blaise Pascal, the 17th-century philosopher, is often quoted. It is due as much to its meaning, excusing irrational behaviour as long as it stems from the heart, as to its poetic form] The heart has its reasons that reason does not recognize.

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Notes There are three broad types of note in CFET: 1) grey usage notes, 2) section notes, and 3) white notes. Grey Usage Notes The main subjects covered in this type of note are listed and exemplified below. – Approved Usage e.g. usage amener and emmener You will often hear these two verbs used with an inanimate direct object, i.e.: J’ai amené mon chapeau pour te le montrer. I brought my hat to show you, or Emmène la moutarde dans la cuisine! Take the mustard into the kitchen! This is not always accepted as correct and the verbs apporter and emporter are more appropriate in the above contexts. With an animate direct object, however, amener and emmener are suitable, e.g.: J’ai amené ma belle-fille pour vous la présenter. I brought my daughter-in-law to introduce her to you, or Emmène les petits jouer dans le jardin. Take the little ones to play in the garden. They are also acceptable with a direct object representing a vehicle: e.g. Amène la charrette. Bring the cart.

– Confusables (due to Similarity of Form) e.g. usage pointe nf and point nm pointe meaning ‘pointed end’ or ‘tip’, must not be confused with point, a dot or full stop. La pointe d’un couteau the pointed end of a knife un point á l’horizon a dot on the horizon.

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– Confusables (due to Similarity of Meaning) e.g. usage see also 3.6 Prés coin nm and angle nm Coin is the everyday term for corners and angular parts of objects. Angle is in common usage for parts of objects and street intersections. La boulangerie est à l’angle de la rue Rimbaud et de l’avenue Poincaré. The bakery is on the corner of rue Rimbaud and avenue Poincaré. But when familiarity with the streets is implied coin is more likely, e.g. Depuis trente ans, elle prend son pain chez le boulanger du coin. She’s been buying her bread from the bakery on the corner for thirty years. Coin is also used in situations where the emotional impact is strong, e.g. Aïe, je me suis cogné contre le coin du bureau! Ouch! I banged into the corner of the desk! In geometry, and when greater objectivity or precision is needed, only angle is used.

– Connotation e.g. usage Notoriété nf and notoire adj Notoriété means fame, and notoire means famous. These words do not necessarily have negative connotations in French, but derive their sense from the context: e.g. Il y avait au village une dentellière dont la notoriété s'étendait à des kilomètres à la ronde. In the village there was a lacemaker who was famous for miles around. un ivrogne notoire a notorious drunkard. un botaniste notoire a noted botanist.

– Error Avoidance e.g. usage Avoid pièce when talking about someone's room. Use bureau if you are referring to an office or chambre if you are referring to a bedroom.

– Euphemism e.g. usage Toilettes nf pl When you need to mention the toilet, the best phrase is les toilettes. Note that les WC nm pl and les cabinets nm pl are both a little informal, and les cabinets is a term often used by or to children. There isn't really a euphemism in common use, apart from le petit coin, equivalent to 'the smallest room', which is informal.

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– Exponents for a Particular Communicative Situation e.g. usage You may use either the 12-hour or the 24-hour clock. If you want to speak with precision, use the 24-hour clock. Most people use the 12-hour clock, specifying du matin (a.m.), de l'après-midi (p.m. until roughly 6 p.m.) or du soir (after 6 p.m.). To greet people at different times of the day, say bonjour at any time, bonsoir any time after dark (and, in summer, from approximately 7 p.m.). When leaving, say au revoir. Conventional leavetaking, e.g. in shops, may involve saying bonne journée when the day is still relatively young, bonne après-midi in early afternoon, and bonne soirée at the beginning of the evening. Say bonne nuit only when you are taking leave of someone late at night or going to bed.

– Exponents on a Particular Theme e.g. usage bouquet nm, gerbe, nf, botte, nf and brassée nf Bouquet is used for bunches of flowers of all types. Gerbe applies to long-stemmed flowers or grasses: une gerbe de glaïeuls a bunch of gladioli. A botte is a neatly tied and compact bunch: une botte de foin a bale of hay: une botte de cresson a bunch of watercress. Brassée suggests a large bunch of recently picked wild or garden flowers: Elle a posé une brassée de lilas sur le piano. She placed an armful of lilac blooms on the piano.

– Extended Meaning e.g. usage gueule nf Gueule is the mouth of an animal: Le chat tenait une souris dans sa guele. The cat had a mouse in its mouth. Gueule is neutral when referring to animals, but vulgar and pejorative when talking about humans: Ta gueule! BrE Shut your gob! AmE Shut your trap!

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– False Friends e.g. usage The false friends delay and délai Délai nm refers to the length of time allowed for something to happen, without any implication of lateness. So when you're ordering goods or booking services which aren't available immediately, the question Quels sont les délais? simply means 'How long will it take?' Other examples: Je vous donne un délai d'une semaine pour terminer l'inventaire. BrE I'll give you a week in which to finish stocktaking. AmE I'll give you a week in which to finish taking inventory. livraison dans un délai de 15 jours delivery within a fortnight.

– Figurative Use e.g. at 1.7 Changements de forme Changing shapes: usage déformer can be used figuratively to describe distortions Tu déformes la vérité. You’re distorting the truth. Ne déformez pas ma pensée. Don’t put words into my mouth.

– Grammar e.g. usage Note that foutre le camp is used in all the forms of the verb (Fous le camp! Fuck off! Vous allez foutre le camp, oui ou non? Will you fuck off!)

– Lexical Sets e.g. usage Things with a common border Houses with a wall in common are maisons contiguës. Neighbouring regions are régions limitrophes. Adjoining rooms are pièces attenantes.

– Translation Advice e.g. usage The phrases ‘to ask for directions’, ‘to give sb directions’ are best translated as demander son chemin, indiquer le chemin à qqn.

281 usage banlieue nf faubourg nm and zone nf The most common translation for banlieue is suburb, but in French the word often suggests the deprivation, unemployment and ghettoization more often associated with inner-city areas in Britain and in the United States. Faubourg is the outer edge of a town. In large towns the name faubourg was given to outlying districts but as the towns extended their boundaries, streets called faubourg became part of the city centre, for example le faubourg Saint-Honoré in the heart of Paris. Une zone is an area designated for a particular purpose, generally specified by the following word, e.g.: zone industrielle industrial estate, zone inondable area liable to flooding. In large towns the phrase la zone refers to a run-down area. In Britain it is associated with the inner city, while in France it tends to be associated with the deprived suburbs.

– Usage Warning e.g. usage Words in the emmerder family emmerder (6) vt, s’emmerder v refl, and emmerdant, e adj, are all commonly used with the meaning of ‘boring’, but their very informal or vulgar overtones may give offence. If in doubt, opt for a substitute, such as the informal family of words embêter (6) vt, s’embêter v refl, embêtant, e adj. E.g. On s'est tellement embêtés qu'on est partis à l'entr'acte. We were so bored that we left during the intermission.

– Word Families e.g. usage extérieur, externe and intérieur, interne adj Extérieur bears the same relation to externe as intérieur does to interne. Extérieur is commonly used while externe belongs to the vocabulary of geometry and science: l’oreille externe the outer ear; l’oreille interne the inner ear. Another special use of interne and externe (as nouns) is in the context of schools: les internes et les externes boarders and day pupils cercle extérieur ALSO externe outer circle cercle intérieur ALSO interne inner circle l’intérieur de la boîte the inside of the box l’extérieur de la boîte the outside of the box

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– Word Position and Meaning e.g. usage humble Before a noun, humble means simple, not sophisticated, or not large. Beware of the difference between, e.g. une humble demeure 'a simple dwelling' and des paroles humbles 'words full of humility'.

Section Notes Section notes occur at the beginning of or in the middle of a section, and sometimes comprise a whole section in their own right. Their function is to introduce or comment on sections. They are classified into types and are exemplified below. – A Comment on a Section Title e.g. at 24.16 Salle de séjour Living room: This room is also called le séjour, le salon and sometimes le living. In houses or flats where it is not separated from the dining-room, it is called le salon-salle-à-manger.

– A Comment on Following Exponents e.g. at 45.7 L’amour hors mariage Love outside marriage: The phrases below all sound a little old-fashioned now that extramarital relationships are much more socially acceptable. liaison nf, ALSO aventure nf affair Ils ont eu une liaison. They had an affair. Elle a une liaison avec son assistant. She’s having an affair with her assistant.

etc – A Comment on Following Sections e.g. at 15.1 Animaux familiers Pets: Any pet can be called animal familier. The more formal phrase animal de compagnie is also used, mainly for cats and dogs.

This comment takes up an entire section and refers to the following sections: 15.2 Les chats Cats 15.3 Les chiens Dogs 15.4 Autres animaux familiers Other pets

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15.5 Petits animaux Small animals – A Comment on Following Translations e.g. at 7.10 Routes Roads: In the list below, translations are provided to give a general indication, although it is difficult to be accurate, as classification systems vary from country to country. route principale ALSO à grande circulation BrE trunk road AmE high traffic road route nationale [shown on road signs as N, followed by the number of the road] main road

etc – Headings for Contrastive Sections e.g. at 10.1 Fréquence Frequency: To show that the situation continues

To show that the situation is habitual

encore/toujours = still Je suis encore ALSO toujours toute tremblante après l’accident. I’m still shaky after the accident.

encore = always Je suis toujours toute tremblante quand j’entends cette voix. I always shake when I hear that voice.

White Notes CFET’s white notes have been categorized into their main types below. – Comments on Exponents This type of white note comments on one or more exponents e.g. at 4.3 Visites Visits: Visiter The verb visiter cannot be used when referring to people. To translate ‘I visited my friends’, you have to say J’ai rendu visite à mes amis, or Je suis allé voir mes amis. Nor is it often appropriate to use it with geographical names. To express ‘I visited Burgundy’, it is better to avoid the construction visiter + place name, and to use, for example, J’ai fait du tourisme en Bourgogne. You may use visiter transitively, as in English, when talking about enclosed places, e.g. visiter un château to visit a chateau, or visiter des grottes to visit caves.

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– Contrastive Notes These contrast two or more exponents e.g. at 6.1 Billeterie des transports Tickets for travel: Billet and ticket On most forms of transport, you require a ticket called un billet: e.g. un billet de train a train ticket, un billet d’avion a plane ticket, un billet pour prendre le ferry a ferry ticket. The term un ticket is preferred for short trips, such as on a bus, a funicular railway or a river boat.

– Cultural Notes e.g. at 6.1 Billeterie des transports Tickets for travel: On the Paris buses, in the Métro and the R.E.R In Paris the Métro underground has its own fare system. You normally pay for your journeys with a ticket which you buy singly, or in a booklet, un carnet (de tickets) at a Métro station. With a single ticket, you may make as long a journey as you like, providing it’s unbroken. These tickets also allow you to travel on the Paris buses, where route maps show you clearly how many tickets you must use, depending on the length of your journey. Underground, the newer, faster, long-distance network called the Réseau Express Régional, or R.E.R, is fully linked to the Métro and you can change from one system to the other at many key stations throughout the capital. Beware, however, as tickets bought for use on the Métro network are not valid on the R.E.R. For this, special tickets have to be purchased, on sale at the underground stations.

– False Friends Notes e.g. at 12.3 Moderne Modern: False friends actuel and actuellement Do not be misled by the similarity between these words and ‘actual’, ‘actually’. In French actuel means ‘current’, and actuellement ‘today’ or ‘now’.

– Grammar Notes e.g. at 4.2 Départ Departure: To go away One of the most useful phrases for ‘to go away’ is s’en aller. It is a colloquial phrase, used mostly in the following tenses:

285 Present je m’en vais

Future Near future je m’en irai je vais m’en aller tu t’en vas tu t’en iras tu vas t’en aller il/elle s’en vas il/elle s’en il/elle va s’en ira aller ils/elles s’en ils/elles s’en ils/elles vont vont iront s’en aller

Imperfect je m’en allais tu t’en allais il/elle s’en allait ils/elles s’en allaient

– Section Introduction Notes These comment on the whole of a section - e.g. at 32.7 Synonymes familiers informal words for throwing away: All the informal or strong verbs below can be translated into stronger BrE English by adding ‘flipping’, ‘sodding’ or even stronger ‘…ing’ words according to strength of feeling and company present.

(The section includes the exponents ficher en l’air, foutre en l’air, mettre/flanquer/ foutre à la porte, and balancer.) – Situational Notes These deal with the language employed in a particular situation e.g. at 74.9 Personnel Catering staff: When calling a waiter to your table, you can call out garçon!, but modern usage inclines towards saying monsieur! instead. With the waitress, use mademoiselle! or madame!, always adding s’il vous plait for politeness’ sake.

– Translation Notes These explain how a particular word or phrase can be expressed in French e.g. at 3.6 Prés Near: Local people and places The French adjective local is not used when describing people. For this purpose use phrases adapted to the context, e.g. de la région (to cover a fairly wide area), du quartier (in towns) or du coin (informal), to mean ‘in this area’), as follows. Toutes les plages de la région sont polluées. All the local beaches are polluted. un espace vert pour les enfants du quartier a park for the local children. Le petit restaurant du coin sert des moules tous les soirs. The little local restaurant has mussels on the menu every evening.

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– Vocabulary Sections These sections list related exponents. They have headings which indicate the context of use or the name of a group of related words e.g. at 2.2 Positions Position: In a queue Elle est au début ALSO á l’avant de la queue. She is at the front of the queue. Elle est au milieu de la queue. She is in the middle of the queue. Il est à la fin ALSO au bout de la queue. He’s at the back of the queue. ______________________________________________ On a garment Les boutons sont devant. The buttons are on the front. Les boutons sont derrière. The buttons are on the back. une étiquette sur l’endroit a label on the outside une étiquette sur l’envers a label on the inside

e.g. at 13.8 Essayer de faire vite To try to be quick: Phrases for encouraging people to hurry Dépêchez-vous! Hurry up! Accélérez! Get a move on! Vite, il n’y a pas de temps à perdre! Quick, there’s no time to lose! On ne va pas rester là une heure! We haven’t got all day!

Pictorial Illustrations Pictures are used in two main ways: – in an illustration of an individual object e.g. at Topic: 25.12 Sacs et serviettes Bags and briefcases: Title: cartable nm (school bag), and – as a set of individual pictures illustrating types of something e.g. at Topic: 24.4 Beaux bâtiments historiques Fine historic buildings: – Title: manoir nm (country house) – Title: château nm, pl x (manor house) – Title: château-fort nm, pl châteaux-forts (castle) – Title: 18th C Parisian town house: hôtel particulier (town house).

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Conversational Gambits Section The Conversational Gambits section consists of 43 topics, each containing phrases which are considered to be useful in conversations. The head phrases are each provided with translations and are sometimes supplied with glosses in square brackets e.g. 103.4 Interruptions Interrupting Désolé(e) de vous couper la parole … Sorry to butt in … [rather formal] Excusez-moi de vous interrompre. Sorry to interrupt you. [When you feel you cannot get a word in, or someone is dominating the conversation] (Vous) permettez! Hang on (a minute)! Laissez-moi parler! Let me speak! Laissez-moi terminer! Let me finish! [when a child is trying to interrupt you] Je parle! I’m talking! Vous n’avez pas répondu à ma question! You didn’t answer my question!

The Conversational Gambits section is preceded by a list of its contents. 3.3.10 Access Routes Indexes There are two alphabetically ordered indexes at the back of the dictionary: the EnglishFrench Index (pp. 241-282) and the French-English Index (pp. 283-326). All the French headwords are included in the French-English Index. In each index, the word or phrase is followed by the topic category number(s) e.g. oak 18.10

(18.10 = Noms d’arbres à feuilles caduques Names of deciduous trees) obéir 43.2

(43.2 = Qui se conforme à ce que l’on demande Well-behaved). If the index item in question is polysemous, disambiguating guidance is given in round brackets e.g. opération (bancaire) 84.1 opération (chirurgicale) 65.3

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Cross-References Up to nine cross-references (mostly one or two) are placed after the topic category headings. They usually refer to topic categories with similar or related meanings. These vary from direct semantic connections e.g. 55.8 Types de différences Kinds of differences see also 55.7 Contraster

to looser thematic relationships e.g. 5.7. Courir To run see also 81.9 Sport 6.1 Billeterie des transports Tickets for travel see also 8.19 La gare

3.3.11 User Guidance The user guidance in the front matter consists of the four-page ‘How to use this book’ section and a list of abbreviations.

3.4

The Collins Robert Comprehensive Dictionary & Thesaurus

3.4.1 Users The Collins Robert Comprehensive Dictionary & Thesaurus comprises two volumes: French-English (CRCDAT/Fr-Eng) and English-French (CRCDAT/Eng-Fr). The target users are “spécialistes de la langue, étudiants, enseignants et traducteurs et à toute personne qui désire avoir une connaissance approfondie du français, de l’anglais et de l’américain.” (CRCDAT/Fr-Eng:ix). 3.4.2 Aims Each of the volumes of CRCDAT consists of an A-Z semasiological bilingual dictionary followed by a middle matter section of coloured maps, and a monolingual thesaurus. These texts are named respectively ‘French Thesaurus’/‘Dictionnaire de Synonymes Français’ in CRCDAT/Fr-Eng and ‘English Thesaurus’/‘Synonymes Anglais’ in CRCDAT/Eng-Fr.

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For illustrative purposes, the entry for dictionnaire located in the A-Z dictionary of CRCDAT/Fr-Eng is reproduced below. dictionnaire […..][Æ SYN] nm dictionary Š dictionnaire analogique thesaurus Š dictionnaire de langue/de rimes language/rhyme dictionary Š dictionnaire de données (Ordin) data directory ou dictionary Š dictionnaire électronique electronic dictionary Š dictionnaire encyclopédique/étymologique encyclopaedic/etymological dictionary Š dictionnaire géographique gazetteer Š dictionnaire des synonymes dictionary of synonyms Š c’est un vrai dictionnaire ou un dictionnaire vivant he’s a walking encyclopaedia

The user is made aware via the indicator [Æ SYN] that there is an entry at dictionnaire in the French thesaurus. On following up this cross-reference, users will find the following entry: dictionnaire n.m. codex, encyclopédie, glossaire, lexique, nomenclature, répertoire, terminologie, trésor, usuel, vocabulaire Š vx : apparat, calepin, compilation, thésaurus

This entry is of limited use to English-speaking L2 users. Although a range of exponents is provided, the cumulative synonymy gives no information about the differences in meaning between them. The user is merely informed that the last three exponents are dated as indicated by the label vx (= vieux). Each monolingual thesaurus can also be used independently of the dictionary in the same volume. It is, however, pointed out that despite the links between the two reference works in the same volume, the bilingual and monolingual texts are structured according to their different purposes and do not always match each other in terms of the information provided and the manner in which it is distributed (CRCDAT/FrEng:unnumbered page before p. 1041). 3.4.3 Inclusion It is claimed that the CRCDAT/Fr-Eng dictionary contains 500,000 words and expressions, and 750,000 translations, thereby providing a “complete overview” of both English and French (CRCDAT/Fr-Eng:viii). More than 20,000 entries in the FrenchEnglish part have been cross-referenced to some 200,000 synonyms in the French Thesaurus, with similar figures applying to the English-French part and the English Thesaurus. The chosen exponents include vocabulary that is: contemporary/up-to-date, spoken and written, both general and specialist, or literary.

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3.4.4 Lexicographic Evidence CRCDAT is a corpus-based reference work based on two of the publisher’s electronic databases of current English (the Bank of English) and French (the Banque de français moderne), containing over 495 million words from a variety of spoken and written sources. 3.4.5 Overall Structure and Textual Components A broad contents overview of CRCDAT/Fr-Eng can be found below. Front Matter Pays Francophones/French-Speaking Countries (Map) (short title page) (copyright details) (title page) Deuxième Édition/Second Edition (publication details) Première Édition/First Edition (publication details) Sommaire/Contents Introduction (in English) Introduction (in French) Using the Dictionary Guide D’Utilisation Abréviations Et Signes Conventionnels/ Abbreviations and Special Symbols Pronunciation of French Phonetic Transcription Of French/ Transcription Phonétique Du Français

inside front pages p. i p. ii p. iii p. v p. vi p. vii p. viii p. ix p. x p. xi

Dictionnaire Français-Anglais/French-English Dictionary

p. 1-1035

p. xxviii-xxix p. xxx-xxxi p. xxxi

Cartes/Maps (List Of Maps) Dictionnaire De Synonymes Français/French Thesaurus Abréviations/Abbreviations (introduction) (A-Z text)

p. 1039 p. 1039 p. 1040 p. 1041-1260

Grammaire Active/Language in Use 1) La Suggestion 2) Le Conseil 3) Propositions

p. 1261-1292 p. 1262 p. 1262 p. 1263

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4) Demandes 5) La Comparaison 6) L’Opinion 7) Les Goûts Et Préférences 8) L’Intention Et La Volonté 9) La Permission 10) L’Obligation 11) L’Accord 12) Le Désaccord 13) L’Approbation 14) La Désapprobation 15) La Certitude, La Probabilité, La Possibilité Et La Capacité 16) L’Incertitude, L’Improbabilité, L’Impossibilité Et L’Incapacité 17) L’Explication 18) L’Excuse 19) Les Demandes D’Emploi 20) La Correspondance Commerciale 21) La Correspondance Générale 22) Les Remerciements 23) Les Vœux 24) Les Faire-Part 25) Les Invitations 26) La Dissertation 27) Le Téléphone Annexes/Appendices Le Verbe Français/The French Verb Nombres, Heures Et Dates/Numbers, Times and Dates Poids, Mesures Et Températures/Weights, Measures and Temperatures Table Des Matières/Contents Le Monde Anglophone/The English-Speaking World (Map)

p. 1264 p. 1264 p. 1265 p. 1265 p. 1266 p. 1267 p. 1268 p. 1269 p. 1269 p. 1270 p. 1271 p. 1271 p. 1272 p. 1273 p. 1274 p. 1275 p. 1277 p. 1279 p. 1282 p. 1282 p. 1283 p. 1284 p. 1285 p. 1291 p. 1294-1314 p. 1315-1321 p. 1322-1325 p. 1326 inside back pages

3.4.6 Macrostructure Both the English Thesaurus and the French Thesaurus consist of alphabetically ordered synonym sets. 3.4.7 Microstructure Below is a sample synonym set from CRCDAT/Fr-Eng.

292 mauvais, e [1] phys. [a] avarié, corrompu, dangereux, délétère, détérioré, douteux, empoisonné, immangeable, inconsommable, insalubre, irrespirable, maléfique, malfaisant, malsain, méphitique, morbide, nauséabond, nocif, nuisible, pernicieux, toxique, vénéneux, venimeux, [b] déconseillé, dommageable, interdit, préjudiciable, proscrit [c] contagieux Æ pestilentiel [d] vx: peccant [2] par ext. : abusif, affreux, agressif, blâmable, caustique, chétif, corrompu, corrupteur, criminel, cruel, démoniaque, déplorable, désagréable, déshonorant, détestable, diabolique, erroné, exécrable, fatal, fautif, fielleux, funeste, haïssable, horrible, hostile, immoral, impur, infect, insuffisant, malicieux, malin, malpropre, manqué, méchant, misérable, monstrueux, néfaste, noir, pervers, pitoyable, raté, ringard, (arg.), roublard, sadique, sale, satanique, scélérat, sévère, sinistre, sournois, tocard (fam.), torve, venimeux, vicieux, vilain Æ laid [3] Æ querelleur

The basic elements of each set are: – (– – –

the headword (in bold) variant) (also in bold, following the headword after a comma) a number indicating a major sense division e.g. [1] phys. and [2] par ext. a letter indicating a further sense division. These subdivisions are not, however, provided with headings or other meaning indicators. The users have to work out for themselves what the words grouped together in subdivisions have in common semantically. – a cross-reference in bold to the French Thesaurus or the English Thesaurus. 3.4.8 Other Features Language in Use Supplement The back matter of each volume contains a ‘Language in Use’ supplement divided into 27 topics serving various communicative functions (La suggestion, Le conseil, Propositions etc.). The purpose of the supplement is provide a repertoire from which users can choose the most appropriate vocabulary for a particular situation. Guidance is provided as to the register of each exponent and whether it expresses the message directly or indirectly, or in a tentative or assertive manner (CRCDAT/Fr-Eng:1261). The main dictionary text has cross-references to the Language in Use supplement in

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order to allow users to move from a single concept word to more diverse means of expression (Ibid:Ibidem). 3.4.9 Access Routes The only access route into either thesaurus is via the alphabetically-ordered synonym sets. Cross-references link each main dictionary to its corresponding thesaurus. 3.4.10 User Guidance The user guidance is contained in the front matter.

3.5

Bilingual Thematic Slang Dictionaries

As far as bilingual thesauri are concerned, this format has proved popular for dictionaries of slang. Two such works are analyzed in the following sections: Date of Publication 1997 2002

Title

Language Pair

Abbreviation

Street French Slang Dictionary and Thesaurus (John Wiley) Streetwise French Dictionary/Thesaurus (McGraw-Hill)

French/English

SFSDAT

French/English

SFD/T

Figure 39) The Publication Dates of Bilingual Thematic Slang Dictionaries 3.5.1 The Street French Slang Dictionary and Thesaurus Users The Street French Slang Dictionary and Thesaurus (SFSDAT) is aimed at (American) English learners of French.

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Aims The purpose of the dictionary is to inform users about popular and colourful French slang, idioms, and colloquialisms that are seldom or never taught in schools, but which are frequently encountered, especially in the media (SFSDAT:vii). Inclusion SFSDAT contains two thesauri: Part 5 of the Street French Thesaurus covers “general slang synonyms and expressions”, and Part 6 deals with “obscenities, vulgarities, insults, bodily functions & sounds, sexual slang, offensive language etc” (SFSDAT:v). Altogether, over one thousand French slang synonyms are included. The other parts of SFSDAT are as follows: Part 1 The Street French Dictionary, Part 2 Popular French Gestures, and Part 3 English Words Used in French. Lexicographic Evidence No mention of using corpus evidence is made in the text. Overall Structure and Textual Components The major components of the text are shown below. (title page) (details of publication) (dedication) (acknowledgments) Contents Introduction Legend – Part 1 Street French Dictionary (Popular French Terms Including Slang, Idioms, Colloquialisms, Vulgarities, Proverbs, Special Notes, Synonyms, Antonyms, & Variations) – Part 2 Popular French Gestures – Part 3 English Words Used in French – Part 4 Street French Thesaurus (General Slang Synonyms & Expressions) – Part 5 Street French Thesaurus (Obscenities, Vulgarities, Insults, Bodily Functions & Sounds, Sexual Slang, Offensive Language, etc.)

p. i p. ii p. iii p. iv p. v p. vii-viii p. ix p. 1-187

p. 189-195 p. 197-203 p. 205-297 p. 299-323

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Macrostructure The macrostructure of each part of SFSDAT is alphabetically arranged. The headings of each set or category in Part 4 are given in English (L1) with the French equivalent underneath e.g. ALCOHOL alcool

Consistent with the jocular tone of the dictionary, some of the category headings are informal e.g. BIG WHEEL personnage éminent, BLABBERMOUTH (TO BE A) bavard(e) (être), and BOTCH UP (TO) ruiner. Within each category, the entries are alphabetically arranged. Sections The main components of a category in Part 4 of SFSDAT are arranged according to either of the two hierarchical schemata below. – category heading in English [L1] [e.g. A LOT] – category heading in French [L2] [e.g. beaucoup] – first entry [without headword] – example – translation [of example] – as spoken [version of example] – subsequent entry [Each set consists of a number of entries. See the sample entries below.] – headword – part of speech – example – translation [of example] – as spoken [version of example] – (variant) – (variant form) – (variant part of speech) – (synonym) – (antonym) – (SEE cross-reference(s))

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– category heading in English [L1] – category heading in French [L2] – entry – head – headword – part of speech – translation part – ((lit.) label) – literal translation or ordinary translation [sometimes more than one translation is given] – tail – note – ALSO Each category contains more than one entry, and each entry can contain more than one sense. In order to illustrate the category structure in concrete terms, a sample category is reproduced below. A LOT beaucoup example: Prends encore du gâteau! Il y en a bésef! translation: Take more cake! There’s plenty! as spoken: Prends encore du gâteau! Il y en a bésef! ______________________________ bésef adv. example: Regarde toutes ces fleurs à cette cérémonie de mariage! Il y en a bésef! translation: Look at all those flowers at this wedding ceremony! There’s so many! as spoken: Regarde toutes ces fleurs à cette cérémonie de mariage! Y en a bésef! VARIATION: bézef! adv.

297 flopée f. a bunch. example: Suzanne possède une flopée de robes. translation: Suzanne owns a bunch of dresses. as spoken: Suzanne, elle possède une flopée d’robes. gogo (à) adv. a bunch. example: Tu ne savais pas que Carole a des enfants à gogo? translation: You didn’t know that Carole has a bunch of children? as spoken: Tu savais pas que Carole, elle a des enfants à gogo? ribambelle f. a bunch. example: J’ai une ribambelle de devoirs à faire ce soir. translation: I have a bunch of homework to do tonight. as spoken: J’ai une ribambelle de d’voirs à faire c’soir. tire-larigot (à) adv, a great amount. example: Il boit à tire-larigot. translation: He drinks a great deal. as spoken: Y boit à tire-larigot. tripotée f. a bunch. example: Robert a une tripotée d’amis à Paris. translation: Robert has a bunch of friends in Paris. as spoken: Robert, il a tripotée d’amis à Paris.

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Microstructure The entries in the category above consist of three components: ‘example’, ‘translation’, and ‘as spoken’. The ‘as spoken’ component is the most unusual of these. Not all entries have these three components, however. Some of the entries have disambiguating information in round brackets e.g. aller en eau de boudin exp. to fizzle out (said of something that does not turn out). NOTE: boudin m. blood sausage (made usually of the coagulated blood of a pig)

Literal translations are also often included e.g. ardoises f.pl. public bathroom (lit.): slates

Sometimes, disambiguating information is supplied in round brackets. These disambiguators cover the topics listed and illustrated below. – Currency e.g. bougresse f. (old-fashioned yet used ironically) country woman.

– Etymology e.g. misérable m. a 500-franc bill (from the work of Victor Hugo).

– Frequency e.g. trouille (avoir la) f. (very popular) to have intense fear. NOTE: trouillard(e) n. one who is terribly scared, scaredy cat.

– Meaning Indicator e.g. at ARREST (TO) arrêter: cuit(e) (être) adj. z (lit.): to be cooked (as in “one’s goose”).

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– Pejorative Quality e.g. at PREGNANT enceinte: engrossée (être) adj. (pejorative) to be knocked up z (lit.): to be fattened up (used for animals) NOTE: engrosser v. to knock up

– User Group e.g. at BATHROOM cabinet: petit coin m. (child language) z (lit.): the little corner

Meaning Explanations A number of styles are used for explaining the meaning of exponents apart from the provision of translation equivalents. The various different styles of meaning explanation are illustrated below under subject headings. – Abusive Language e.g. at SHUT UP (TO) taire (se): ta bouche, bébé, t’auras des frites exp. an abusive remark made at someone who is talking too much z (lit.): your mouth, baby, you’re gonna have fainting spells (from all the oxygen you’re losing). NOTE: tomber dans les frites exp. to faint z (lit.): to fall in the (French) fries

– Derogatory Language e.g. at MOUTH bouche: gueule f. derogatory for “mouth” or “face” since its literal translation is “the mouth of an animal.”

– Descriptive Range e.g. at EASY facile: du billard (c’est) exp. said of something that goes along as smooth as silk (or more literally, that which rolls along as smoothly as a billiard ball).

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– Humorous Language e.g. at FIGHT (TO) battre (se): peigner (se) v. humorous for “to fight z (lit.): to comb each other’s hair.

– Onomatopoeia e.g. at CAR voiture: teuf-teuf m. an old car z (lit.): an onomatopoeia for the sound of a car’s noisy engine.

– Verlan e.g. at NOTHING rien: balpeau m. verlan for: peau de ball z (lit.): skin of a ball.

Other Features Notes The notes in Parts 4 and 5 are divided into types below. – Additional Sense of the Headword e.g. cabot m. (at DOG) NOTE: This term is also used to mean “a ham actor.”

– Antonymy e.g. déveine (avoir la) f. NOTE: avoir la déveine = to be unlucky z avoir de la veine = to be lucky.

– Collocation e.g. quinquet m.pl. NOTE: This term is most often used with ouvrir (to open) and fermer (to close). example: Je suis fatigué. Je crois qu’il est temps de fermer les quinquets. translation: I'm tired. I think it’s time to close my eyes. as spoken: J’suis fatigué. J’crois qu’il est temps d’fermer les quinquets.

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– A Compound Containing an Element in the Same Word Family as the Headword e.g. piailler v. z (lit.): to whimper (of children), to chirp (of small birds). NOTE: enfant piailleur m. cry-baby.

– A Compound Containing an Element of the Headword e.g. bonne pâte f. "a good egg," a person with a good personality z (lit.): good dough. NOTE: pâte molle f. a person with no personality, a boring person.

– Cultural Note e.g. at BATHROOM cabinet: NOTE: In France, the bathtub and toilet are often in two separate rooms, Therefore, the sale de bain (literally: “bathroom”) refers to the room containing only the bathtub, and the cabinet refers to the room where the toilet is located.

– Derivatives e.g. déglonfer (se) v. to lose one’s courage, to lose one’s nerve z (lit.): to deflate. NOTE: déglonflard(e) z déglonflé(e) z déglonfleur, euse n. scaredy cat.

– Etymology e.g. tuile f. unexpected bad luck z (lit.): tile. NOTE: The feminine noun tuile has taken on this slang connotation because “unexpected bad luck” can fall on a person as unexpectedly as a tile off a roof.

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– Explanation of a Head Phrase Element e.g. chocottes (avoir les) f.pl. to have the jitters, shakes. NOTE: chocottes f.pl. slang for “teeth” z avoir les chocottes might be loosely translated as “to have teeth (that are chattering from fear).”

– Explanation of an Example Component e.g. débiter v to reel off a long story. example: Chaque fois que Marc me voit, il me débite une longue harangue. translation: Every time Marc sees me, he reels off a long and boring story. as spoken: Chaque fois que Marc, y m’voit, y m’débite une longue harangue. NOTE: harangue f. a long and endless story, harangue. SEE: haranguer, p. 286.

– Explanation of a Word Containing an Element that is Morphologically Related to the Headword e.g. licher v. NOTE: This slang synonym for “to drink” is often heard as: pourliche m. waiter’s tip (from pourboire).

– False Friends e.g. prune f. a blow, a punch z (lit.): plum. NOTE: The term “prune” falls into the category of “faux amis” (“false friends”) referring to the many words which resemble English words but have different definitions. For example: prune = plum; pruneau = prune.

– Female/Male Equivalent e.g. Jules m. guy, boyfriend, “dude.” NOTE: Julie f. woman / girl, “chick.”

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– Grammar e.g. allez! exclam. stop exaggerating! come off it! NOTE: Although allez is commonly used as the second person plural of the verb aller, meaning “to go,” it may also be used in this context when speaking to only one person, formal or informal.

– Inflections e.g. bien fichue f. said of a girl with a good body z (lit.): well-made NOTE: Oddly enough, fiche is a verb (although it does not have a traditional ending) and is conjugated as a regular “er” verb: je fiche, tu fiches, il/elle fiche, nous fichons, vous fichez, ils fichent. However, its past participle is that of a regular “re” verb: fichu(e).

– Largonji Transformation e.g. lamfé f. woman in general. NOTE: This is a largonji transformation of the feminine noun femme meaning “woman.” SEE: STREET FRENCH 2, Largonji - p. 216.

– Literal Translation of a Phrase Involving the Headword e.g. gaufre f. face, head z (lit.): waffle. NOTE: sucrer le gaufre (se) exp. to put on make-up z (lit.): to sugar the waffle.

– Literal Translation of the Head Phrase e.g. brouille-ménage m. red wine. NOTE: brouiller v. to mix up, to stir up z ménage m. household z This literally translates as “something that stirs up the household” since husbands and wives often get into fights after having too much to drink.

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– Loose Translation of the Head Phrase e.g. grolles (avoir les) f.pl. to have the jitters, shakes. NOTE: grolle f. shoe z avoir les grolles might be loosely translated as “to have shoes that shake (from fear)” or “to shake in one’s boots.”

– Original User Group e.g. tambouille f. bad food. NOTE: Originally this was used only as military slang.

– A Phrase Containing an Element in the Same Word Family as the Headword e.g. piper v. z (lit.): to lure, decoy. NOTE: pipé(e) sur le tas (être) exp. to be caught red-handed.

– A Phrase Containing the Headword e.g. soûler (se) v. to get drunk z (lit.): to gorge oneself (with booze). NOTE: soûler la gueule (se) exp. to get roaring drunk z (lit.): to get one’s mouth drunk z gueule f. derogatory for “mouth” when applied to a person since the literal translation is “the mouth of an animal.”

– Play on Words e.g. at FORNICATE (TO) forniquer: faire une partie d'écarté exp. NOTE: This is a pun based on the expression faire une partie de cartes meaning “to play a hand of cards.” However, in this expression, the noun cartes has been replaced with the adjective écarté meaning “spread apart” as with one’s legs during sex.

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– Pronunciation e.g. l’estomac creux (avoir) exp. to be very hungry z (lit.): to have a hollow stomach. NOTE: The masculine noun estomac (meaning “stomach”) is pronounced: estoma.

– Punctuation e.g. poussières f.pl. small supplementary amount of francs that is added to a basic amount z (lit.): dusts. example: Ce livre coûte vingt balles et des poussières. translation: This book costs twenty francs and some change. as spoken: Ce livre, y coûte vingt balles et des poussières. NOTE: The French use decimal points where Americans use commas, and commas where Americans use decimal points! For example: Il y avait 1.000 personnes à la soirée!; There were 1,000 people at the party! z Ça coûte $2,50; That costs $2.50.

– Slang Suffixation e.g. pétoches (avoir les) m.pl. to have great fear z (lit.): to have farts (out of intense fear) NOTE: The masculine noun pet, meaning “fart,” comes from its infinitive péter. It is often the case in French slang that special slang suffixes are added to adjectives and nouns either to create a slang word or to make an already slang word even more colourful. Some of the slang suffixes include: -asse, -aille, -ouche, -ouille, -ouse, -ace, etc.

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– Structural Inconsistency e.g. LOVE (TO) aimer/plaire example: J’ai décidé de demander à Sophie de m’épouser. Après tout, je suis mordu d’elle! translation: I've decided to ask Sophie to marry me. After all, I’m crazy about her! as spoken: J’ai décidé de d’mander à Sophie de m’épouser. Après tout, je suis mordu d’elle! NOTE: Note that although many of the following expressions are constructed similarly, there is an inconsistency. In some expressions, de follows the adjective: coiffé(e) de z entiché(e) de z fou/folle de zmordu(e) de z raffoler de, whereas in others, pour follows the adjective: chipé(e) pour z pépin pour z en pincer pour z toquade pour and one expression takes par: emballé(e) par.

– Substitutability e.g. gueule à caler les roues de corbillard (avoir une) exp. said of a very ugly person z (lit.): to have a face that could stop the wheels of a hearse. NOTE-1: gueule f. derogatory for “face” or “mouth” since its literal translation is the “mouth of an animal.” NOTE-2: Any synonym for “face” could be used in place of gueule in this expression. SEE: FACE, p. 233.

– Synonymy e.g. HOW’S IT GOING? ça va? example: Salut Marcel! Ça boume? translation: Hi Marcel! How's it going? as spoken: [no change] NOTE: The following are synonyms for Ça va? meaning “How’s it going?” and may all be constructed the same way: Ça biche? z Ça boulotte? z Ça carbure? z Ça colle? z Ça gaze? z etc.

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– Usage Warning e.g. at OUT OF A FIX (TO GET) démerder (se) v. (vulgar and extremely popular) z (lit.): to get out of shit. NOTE: This verb comes from the feminine noun merde meaning “shit” and should therefore be used with discretion.

– User Group e.g. at BED (TO GO TO) coucher (se) dodo (faire) exp. NOTE: This is common child language, yet usually commonly in jest by adults.

– Variant Phrase Element e.g. at ARRIVE (TO) arriver amener sa viande exp. z (lit.): to bring along one’s meat. NOTE: The slang word for “meat” (bidoche) is commonly used in place of viande in this expression.

– Variant Shortened Form e.g. at ANUS anus pot d’échappement m. z (lit.): exhaust pipe NOTE: This can be shortened to: pot.

– Variant Spelling e.g. at BROTHEL maison de prostitution: claque m. z (lit.): opera hat. NOTE: Also spelled: clac.

– Verlan Transformation e.g. at GIRL/WOMAN fille/femme meuf f. (very popular). NOTE: This is a verlan transformation of the feminine noun femme meaning “woman.” SEE: STREET FRENCH 2, Verlan p. 187.

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– Vocabulary Expansion e.g. poivre (être) adj. to be on the verge of getting drunk z (lit.): to be pepper(ed). NOTE: The steps of drunkenness (or to becoming noir or “drunk”) are: after a few drinks, one might be a little poivre (pepper), then gris(e) (gray), and finally noir(e) (black or close to blacking out).

Access Routes There is no table of contents or index in SFSDAT, so the only two navigational aids are the guidewords at the top left and right corners of each page giving the first and last entries on each page, and the cross-references. User Guidance The user guidance comprises the one and a half pages of the Introduction and the Legend, a selection of sample entries with various salient features labelled and briefly explained. 3.5.2 The Streetwise French Dictionary/Thesaurus Users The Streetwise French Dictionary/Thesaurus (SFD/T) is aimed at a wide range of (American) English learners of French who are interested in learning slang vocabulary. Aims SFD/T aims to take learners of French into areas of language which are not covered by conventional textbooks and bilingual dictionaries (SFD/T:x).

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Inclusion SFD/T claims to contain more than 2600 words and phrases. The area of language focused on is slang, defined as “informal, specific to a particular group or subculture, or used exclusively by people of a certain age” (SFD/T:ix). Lexicographic Evidence No use of corpus evidence is mentioned. Overall Structure and Textual Components The textual components of SFD/T are shown below. (title page) (full title page) (details of publication) Contents Introduction

p. i p. iii p. iv p. v-vii p. ix-x

Thesaurus – Gestures: Speaking Without Words – Acronyms and Initials – Animals – Art – Beauty – Business – Cars – City – Clothing – Conversations and Invitations – Disputes – Drinks – Education – Emotions – Entertainment – Food and Eating – Foreigners – Health – Hobbies and Pastimes – The Human Body – Immigrants and Immigration

p. 3 p. 8 p. 11 p. 16 p. 21 p. 26 p. 34 p. 40 p. 48 p. 55 p. 62 p. 70 p. 78 p. 87 p. 93 p. 104 p. 111 p. 114 p. 120 p. 125 p. 136

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– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

Information Technology Land and Countryside The Movies Music Names Press, Magazines, Books Regions and Francophone Countries Romance Seaside and Mountains Sex Sports Travel and Transportation Vacations Verlan Weather The World of Work Answer Key Bibliography French-English Dictionary/Index

p. 139 p. 142 p. 147 p. 151 p. 159 p. 164 p. 167 p. 173 p. 180 p. 184 p. 194 p. 201 p. 208 p. 211 p. 215 p. 221 p. 227 p. 235 p. 237

Macrostructure The SFD/T macrostructure consists of 36 alphabetically ordered themes, 157 nonalphabetically ordered subcategories, and occasional subsubcategories e.g. category: animals subcategory: barnyard animals subsubcategory: idiomatic expressions involving barnyard animals. Sections The words are grouped together into subcategories and subsubcategories according to various criteria including: generality e.g. ‘general’ (within ‘The Movies’), people e.g. ‘art and artistic people’, places e.g. ‘places and sources of entertainment’, stages e.g. ‘stages of hunger’, style/register e.g. ‘alternative slang expressions for parts of the female (and, in many cases, male) body’, types e.g. ‘types of food’, and user group e.g. ‘familiar words used by children’ (within ‘Barnyard Animals’). Metalinguistic headings are also used e.g. ‘names for and qualities of food’.

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Microstructure The theme components are as follows. – theme heading in L1 (English) e.g. Gestures: Speaking Without Words – (NOTE) – (cross-reference) SUBCATEGORY components – (subcategory heading in L1 (English) e.g. BOREDOM) – (picture) – L2 headword(s) e.g. J’en ai ras le bol! (+ symbol) – (full form in square brackets if the headword is an abbreviation) – (bracketed information after the headword) – (translation of headword element – in brackets) – (literal translation) – (regional label) L1 translation equivalent(s) (+ symbol) e.g. I’ve had it up to here!/ I’m totally pissed off (?)! – (register label) – (example) – (translation of example) – (NOTE) – Exercises C’est à vous maintenant! Bracketed information after the headword or translation equivalent is used to convey two main types of information as exemplified below. – Cultural Note e.g. le Marie-Chantal (a common name in pretentious families) highbrow snob

– Literal Translation e.g. «C’est imbuvable! C’est du pipi de chat (?).» (lit. cat’s piss) “It’s undrinkable./ [Br.] It’s gnat’s piss (?).”

SFD/T uses a number of different symbols to indicate register and to provide warnings about usage such as: (!) placed at the beginning of a list or sentence or after a word or phrase to indicate that everything contained in the list or sentence, or that the specific word or phrase, is highly vulgar, crude, or offensive. The reader should use everything labeled (!) at his or her own risk! (SFD/T:x)

e.g. Russian, Russki (!) un ruski (!), un ruskof (!), un popof (!)

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Examples are provided with translations: se faire un ravalement/se faire ravaler la façade (lit., a cleaning/ to reface a façade) to have a face job/a face-lift «Elle est allée voir un chirurgien parce qu’elle a décidé de se faire refaire les nichons (?) L’année dernière elle s’est fait faire un ravalement/elle s’est fait ravaler la façade et ça lui a coûté les yeux de la tête.» “She went to see a surgeon because she’s decided to have a boob (?) job. Last year she had a face-lift and it cost her an absolute fortune/[Br.] packet.”

Other symbols cover regional variations e.g. Quelle barbe! What a drag!/[Br.] What a bloody bore!

Other Features Notes Some notes are placed after theme headings e.g. at Acronyms and Initials: NOTE: When we speak colloquial English, we use large numbers of acronyms (such as AWOL, KO, OK, OTT, US), often unconsciously. Exactly the same thing happens in French and in order to be confidently streetwise, we need to be aware of the most common acronyms French speakers use in place of whole phrases. The following list shows the most common and will give you a working knowledge.

Notes within entries can be categorized into various types (see below). – Additional Phrase Involving the Headword e.g. la caisse (?), le char (Québécois), la chignole, le clou, la guimbarde, le tacot, le tape-cul (?), la tire old car, [Br.] banger, [Br.] boneshaker, [Br.] crock „ «Avec cette guimbarde-là, tu peux t’inscrire pour la course des vieux tacots!» “With that old [Br.] banger, you can sign up for the old crocks’ race!” „ «Lui, et son vieux tape-cul (?)» “Him and his old jalopy/[Br.] boneshaker!” NOTES: La course des vieux tacots means “the old heaps’/[Br.] crocks’ race”; la chiotte (normally, “the shithouse (?)”) can also be used to mean an old [Br.] “banger/rust bucket,” but is current slang among young people for a motor scooter: une mobylette.

– Additional Sense of the Headword e.g. le toutou, le cabot, le cador, le clébard, le clebs mutt, pooch, doggy, doggie „ «Viens, mon toutou, on va sortir et je vais te promener. » “Come on, doggy, I’m going to take you out for a walk.”

313 NOTE: Both cabot and cador also take on the meaning “boss,” [Br.] “gaffer” in slang French. (Compare with “top dog” in English.)

– Comment on the Exponents in a Section e.g. at the subcategory BUSINESS TITLES/JOB DESCRIPTIONS: NOTE: All the expressions in this subcategory referring to individuals, with the exception of the “standard” abbreviation PDG, should not normally be used when addressing the person to whom they refer.

– Cultural Note e.g. le CRS [Compagnie Républicaine de Sécurité] riot-policeman NOTE: The CRS are not greatly loved because of the public perception of their tendency to overreact at times of public disorder. Some people consequently treat them with a slightly fearful humor, referring to the CRS as centres de rattrapage scolaire, that is, a place where young people can catch up on their schooling (that is, detention centers)!

– Descriptive Range e.g. voir trente-six chandelles (lit., to see thirty-six candles) to see stars „ «Sa bagnole a fait un tonneau et il a vu trente-six chandelles.» “His car turned over and he saw stars.” NOTE: Suitable for any physical knock or bump which causes the victim to see stars.

– Equivalent in Standard Language e.g. se faire faire un ravalement/se faire ravaler la façade (lit., a cleaning/ to reface a façade) to have a face job/a face-lift «Elle est allée voir un chirurgien parce qu’elle a décidé de se faire refaire les nichons. (?) L’année dernière elle s’est fait faire un ravalement/elle s’est fait ravaler la façade et ça lui a coûté les yeux de la tête.» “She went to see a surgeon because she’s decided to have a boob (?) job. Last year she had a face-lift and it cost her an absolute fortune/[Br.] packet.” NOTE: The standard French expression for having a breast implant is se faire refaire les seins while breast enlargement is une augmentation mammaire. The standard French expression for having a face-lift is se faire faire un lifting while cosmetic surgery is une operation de chirurgie esthétique. “To have a nose job(?)” is se faire refaire le nez.

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– Etymology e.g. le vrai Beaubourg! real bit of contemporary design NOTE: Beaubourg is the name given to the Musée des arts contemporains in the Beaubourg quarter of Paris. Because of its mix of metal towers and scaffolding it is seen by many to resemble a gasworks and has consequently been given the affectionate nickname of l’usine à gaz.

– Explanation of an Example Component e.g. la locomotive trendsetter, leader „ «La Haine est la locomotive pour le nouveau genre hyper-réaliste. » La Haine sets a new trend in hyper-realism.” NOTE: La Haine is a trendsetting film of the super-realist genre, similar to the British Trainspotting, dealing with drugs and the myriad problems of those living in the rundown suburbs.

– Grammar e.g. canon (?)/une nana canon (?) stunning/ a stunner/a stunning chick „ «Elle fait de l’aérobic tous les jours. Elle est hyper canon./C’est une nana canon. » “She does aerobics every day. She’s a real stunner.” NOTE: Canon is used both as an adjective and as a noun (stunning: a stunner, a stunning chick).

– Implication/Suggestion e.g. piloter to drive (race cars) „ «T’as vu la façon dont il pilote sa bagnole?» “Have you seen the way he drives his car?” NOTE: Piloter is often used to imply that a driver should be on a racetrack, not the public roads!

– Morphologically Related Word e.g. l’affairisme (m) wheeling and dealing NOTE: A standard but pejorative term for a “wheeler-dealer” is un affairiste.

– Pejorative Quality e.g. le plombard plumber NOTE: The familiar noun barbouilleur has pejorative connotations; the familiar noun plombard is derived from the standard term plombier.

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– Register e.g. le chèque en bois (lit., wooden check/cheque) bad check/[Br.] cheque, a check/[Br.] cheque that bounces „ «Quel connard! (?) Il lui a filé un chèque en bois. » “What a stupid bastard! (?) He gave him a bad check/cheque.” NOTE: un chèque en bois is used in relaxed, informal situations. Un chèque sans provision is the standard French expression for “a bad check/[Br.] cheque.”

– Slang Usage e.g. «Ça (ne) vaut pas un pet (?) de lapin. » “It’s totally worthless./[Br.] It’s not worth a monkey’s fart (?).” NOTE: In familiar and slang French, ne in the negative ne… guère/jamais/pas/plus/rien is often omitted.

– Synonymy e.g. BCBG [bon chic bon genre] preppy, [Br.] Sloane (-ranger) NOTE: Also, bourge [bourgeois] (classy/[Br.] Sloane-rangerish).

– Usage Warning e.g. se faire refaire les nichons (?) to have a boob job (?) NOTE: Nichons (?) is of a similar register to “tits” (?) or “boobs” in English and should not be used in polite company or formal situations.

– Verlan e.g. le dur, le métral, le tromé subway, [Br.] metro, [Br.] tube, [Br.] underground NOTE: Le tromé is yet another example of verlan and is derived from the standard word for subway/underground, le métro; le métral is a deformation of the same word.

– Vocabulary Expansion e.g. se sucrer la gaufre (lit., to sugar one’s waffle/honeycomb) to do one’s face „ «Elle n’a pas eu le temps de se sucrer la gaufre. Elle est vraiment moche! » “She didn’t have time to do her face. She looks really scuzzy/grungy/ugly!”

316 NOTES: Other slang expressions for putting on makeup are se griffer la tronche (lit., to scratch one’s face/mug) and se griffer la devanture (lit., to scratch one’s shop window/frontage). The standard French for “to put makeup on” is se maquiller. A more standard (but familiar) French alternative for the English noun “face” is frimousse, used in the slang phrase ravaler sa frimousse (to put on one’s makeup). While se reloquer means simply “to get dressed” (s’habiller in standard French), two slang expressions for getting “dolled up” are se nipper and se saper. Care should be taken to differentiate between (se) reloquer and reluquer “to ogle (someone)/[Br.] to eye (someone) up.”

 Pictorial Illustrations  In the section entitled ‘Gestures: Speaking without Words’, 21 “typical Gallic gestures” are pictorially illustrated. The rest of the text has occasional illustrations, often to illustrate colourful expressions such as ‘Elle a un verre dans le nez et pas pour la première fois’ (= to have had one too many) (SFD/T:73). Access Routes  There is a contents list in the front matter which lists all the categories and subcategories. At the end of the dictionary is a French-English Dictionary/Index which cross-refers all the 2,600 words and expressions in the text. Each index item gives the exponent, followed by the gender (where appropriate), one or more translation equivalents, and the page number e.g. les faffes (mpl) identity papers 27 avoir un faible pour quelqu’un to have a soft spot for someone 174

 User Guidance The only user guidance comes in the form of a two-page introduction which discusses the nature of slang, the purpose of the dictionary, and the meaning of the symbols placed after the headwords. Exercises At the end of each category, an exercise is supplied which practises the vocabulary contained within it.

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3.6

A Checklist of Existing BTD Features and Choices

Following the analyses of various contemporary BTDs, it is now possible to draw up a checklist of existing BTD features. This can be found in Appendix 3).

3.7

Summary of Chapter 3

The critical analysis of contemporary bilingual thematic learner’s dictionaries began by listing the texts covered by the survey in chronological order of publication. This listing showed a flurry in BTD production from the mid- to late 1990s. Various general-language BTDs were studied in particular detail: the six texts comprising the Cambridge Word Routes (CWR) series for EFL users, the Cambridge French-English Thesaurus (CFET) for FFL users, and the two volumes of the Collins Robert Comprehensive Dictionary & Thesaurus English-French (CRCDAT Eng-Fr) and French-English (CRCDAT Fr-Eng) for speakers of either language. Each BTD was analyzed and evaluated in the same manner under the headings: users, aims, inclusion, lexicographic evidence, overall structure and textual components, macrostructure, sections, microstructure, other features (e.g. notes), access routes, and user guidance. The six CWR dictionaries were generated from a single L2 (English) framework. The comparative textual analysis revealed little variation among the individual texts in terms of content and arrangement. Despite the bilingual content, the needs of speakers of a specific L1 were not adequately catered for in certain features such as false friend notes. The flat hierarchy was shown to consist of blocks of logically sequenced categories interrupted by unrelated topics which break the thematic flow. The provision of combinatory information was criticized for being in L1, thereby indicating descriptive range in terms of types rather than collocational possibilities which would have been the case if linguistic tokens in L2 had been provided. Nonetheless, the disambiguators and notes were shown to provide information on a wide range of subjects that help users differentiate near-synonyms. These observations also apply to CFET. Other notable features of CFET include its locutions/idioms sections, use of quotations, and its communicative functions section. This last feature is also found in the CWR dictionaries and in MTDs such as LEA. The two CRCDAT volumes each combine an A-Z semasiological bilingual dictionary with a monolingual thesaurus in the form of a cumulative synonymy. Notable features include cultural entries and an extensive communicative functions section entitled ‘Language in Use’. Next, two slang BTDs were examined using the same critical apparatus: the Street French Slang Dictionary and Thesaurus (SFSDAT) and the Streetwise French Dictionary/Thesaurus (SFD/T). Although the slang BTDs are less serious works than CWR, CFET, and CRCDAT, they were analyzed to discover whether they contained features that could usefully be incorporated into putative BTDs of the future. The examination of these texts revealed a number of features not present in the generallanguage BTDs e.g. literal translations, ‘as spoken’ components of entries, alternative

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styles of meaning explanation, and exercises. As with the majority of general-language BTDs, the use of corpus evidence was neither mentioned nor discernable from the examples. Finally, the critical analyses of several contemporary bilingual thematic dictionaries having been completed, it was possible to produce a checklist of existing BTD features, together with the choices facing the lexicographer with regard to each feature.

4

Approaches to Evaluating the Usefulness of Bilingual Thematic Dictionaries

4.1

A Three-Pronged Approach

The ultimate aim of the current project is to suggest practical ways in which the BTD can be improved. In order to be in a position to achieve this, an analysis has been undertaken of both existing BTDs as well as of other dictionaries that are related to them by virtue of being bilingual, thematic, pedagogical, or a mixture of these genres. In the course of this primarily textual analysis, the advantages and disadvantages of various features have been suggested with reference to their possible inclusion in any BTDs of the future. Although an attempt has been made to put oneself in the shoes of the user when evaluating these dictionaries, the opinions expressed are unavoidably written from a metalexicographer's standpoint. In order to take greater account of the users, a three-pronged approach has therefore been adopted in the latter part of this project. The textual analyses will be complemented by input from the user perspective on BTD features. The user angle is accommodated in three ways: by means of questionnaires, and through the use of two experiments.

4.2

Assessing Bilingual Thematic Dictionaries from the User Perspective

As each BTD component is considered, the discussion will be informed by learners’ opinions elicited by means of the questionnaire and the experiments. The following sections describe the informants, the methodology employed in each case, and the extent to which conclusions can be drawn from the various forms of user research undertaken. 4.2.1 The Informants There were 118 informants in total. The Informants who Completed the User Questionnaires The numbers for the informants who completed the user questionnaires are presented below.

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Informants who Completed the EFL Questionnaire Version A No. of Informants Nationality Brazilian Cuban Italian Nationality Spanish First Language Italian Portuguese Spanish English Level Advanced Upper Intermediate Intermediate Below Intermediate Profession/Subject Specialism Architecture Art History EFL Editing Law Science Spanish Teaching English Teaching (Subject Unknown) Transport Engineering Unknown

17 1 1 5 10 5 1 11 12 5 0 0 1 1 5 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1

Figure 40) Informants who Completed the EFL Questionnaire Version A

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Informants who Completed the EFL Questionnaire Version B No. of Informants Nationality Brazilian Colombian French Greek Italian Mexican Panamanian Spanish Venezuelan First Language French Greek Italian Portuguese Spanish English Level Advanced Upper Intermediate Intermediate Below Intermediate Profession/Subject Specialism Business Catering Economics Law Marketing Physics Student (Subject Unknown)

20 3 1 3 1 6 3 1 1 1 3 1 6 3 7 9 4 7 0 3 4 2 1 1 1 8

Figure 41) Informants who Completed the EFL Questionnaire Version B

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Informants who Completed the FFL Questionnaire Version A No. of Informants Nationality American British Canadian German Greek Irish Italian Mauritian Swiss First Language Creole English German Greek Italian French Level Advanced Upper Intermediate Intermediate Below Intermediate Profession/Subject Specialism Academic Science (Subject Unknown) Administration Archaeology Biology Design Development Studies Economics Finance Law Librarianship Mathematics Music Philosophy Photography

35 5 16 3 2 1 1 2 1 4 1 25 6 1 2 10 8 11 6 1 1 19 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Figure 42) Informants who Completed the FFL Questionnaire Version A

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Profession/Subject Specialism Production Editing Social Sciences Studying (Subject Unknown)

1 1 1

Figure 42) continued) Informants who Completed the FFL Questionnaire Version A Informants who Completed the FFL Questionnaire Version B No. of Informants Nationality American Belgian British Canadian German Italian Japanese Lebanese Maltese South African Swedish First Language Afrikaans Arabic English German First Language Italian Japanese Maltese Swedish French Level Advanced Upper Intermediate Intermediate Below Intermediate

25 3 1 12 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 17 1 1 1 2 1 4 6 10 5

Figure 43) Informants who Completed the FFL Questionnaire Version B

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Profession/Subject Specialism Archaeology Computer Science Genetics Management Museum Curatorship Health and Safety Journalism Retired Secretarial Translation

16 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Figure 43) continued) Informants who Completed the FFL Questionnaire Version B Item 5) in all the questionnaires asked whether the informants owned a thesaurus. The results were as follows: EFL A: EFL B: Average of %s: FFL A: FFL B: Average of %s: Average Both:

Yes: 63% Yes: 20% Yes: 41% Yes: 60% Yes: 64% Yes: 62% Yes: 52%

No: 37% No: 80% No: 59% No: 40% No: 36% No: 38% No: 48%

(67% of ‘Yes’ owned Roget’s Thesaurus) (44% of ‘Yes’ owned Roget’s Thesaurus)

Item 6) in all the questionnaires asked how often the informants use a thematically organized dictionary such as a thesaurus when they are writing in their mother tongue. The choices available were: often (e.g. at least once a day), sometimes (e.g. at least once a week), seldom (e.g. less than once a week), or never. The results were as follows: EFL A: EFL B: Average of %s: FFL A: FFL B: Average of %s: Average Both:

often: 0% often: 10% often: 5% often: 9% often: 8% often: 8% often: 7%

sometimes: 18% sometimes: 15% sometimes: 16% sometimes: 14% sometimes: 8% sometimes: 11% sometimes: 14%

seldom: 41% seldom: 20% seldom: 31% seldom: 51% seldom: 48% seldom: 50% seldom: 40%

never: 41% never: 55% never: 48% never: 26% never: 36% never: 31% never: 39%

Item 7) in all the questionnaires elicited how often the informants use a thematically organized dictionary such as a thesaurus when they are writing in L2. The following results were recorded:

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EFL A: EFL B: Average of %s: FFL A: FFL B: Average of %s: Average Both:

often: 12% often: 20% often: 16% often: 0% often: 17% often: 8% often: 12%

sometimes: 24% sometimes: 35% sometimes: 29% sometimes: 3% sometimes: 0% sometimes: 2% sometimes: 15%

seldom: 35% seldom: 25% seldom: 30% seldom: 40% seldom: 4% seldom: 22% seldom: 26%

never: 29% never: 20% never: 25% never: 57% never: 79% never: 68% never: 47%

On average, across all the groups, it emerged that 73% of the informants either seldom or never used a thematically organized dictionary when writing in L2. Use of such a dictionary for this purpose was significantly higher among EFL informants (45% for often or sometimes) than FFL informants (10% for often or sometimes). One might guess that this is partly accounted for by the greater availability of thematically organized dictionaries for EFL students. Item 8) asked the EFL informants whether they used the CWR dictionary relevant to their L1 and asked the English learners of French whether they used CFET. The results were as follows. EFL A: yes: 12% EFL B: yes: 5% Average of %s: yes: 8% FFL A: yes: 3% FFL B: yes: 0% Average of %s: yes: 1% Average Both: yes: 5%

no: 88% no: 95% no: 92% no: 97% no: 100% no. 99% no: 95%

An overwhelming majority of the informants did not use either a CWR dictionary or the CFET. Again, the slightly higher figure for EFL informants may have been due to the greater availability of texts. Item 9) asked informants who used CWR or CFET how useful they felt these BTDs were when compared with ordinary A-Z bilingual dictionaries: EFL A: EFL B: Average of %s: FFL A: FFL B: Average of %s: Average Both:

more useful: 50% equally useful: 50% more useful: 0% equally useful: 100% more useful: 25% equally useful: 75% more useful: 0% equally useful: 100% not applicable as no informants used CFET more useful: 0% equally useful: 100% more useful: 12% equally useful: 88%

less useful: 0% less useful: 0% less useful: 0% less useful: 0% less useful: 0% less useful: 0%

As the number of informants who used either CWR or CFET was very low, the number who qualified for answering Item 9) was equally low so it would be unwise to generalize on the basis of the above results.

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Item 10) of the CWR questionnaires presented the informants with the keyword section entitled carry from the monolingual thematic dictionary The Longman Language Activator, second edition (LLA2) and the category section Carry Porter (in the case of CWR/Fr) from the bilingual thematic dictionary in the CWR series which matched their L1. The informants were asked which of the treatments they preferred, and to give a reason for their choice. The results were as follows. EFL A: preferred LLA2 (MTD): 50% EFL B: preferred LLA2 (MTD): 20% Average of %s: preferred LLA2 (MTD): 35%

preferred CWR (BTD): 50% preferred CWR (BTD): 80% preferred CWR (BTD): 65%

Those who preferred the LLA2 (MTD) treatment supplied the following reasons (in decreasing order of frequency) for their choice: – preference for the definitions/explanations to be written in English – preference for the listing of the exponents in the section before the full entries – preference for the LLA2 examples compared to those in CWR. Those who preferred the CWR (BTD) treatment gave the following reasons for their choice: – preference for the definitions/explanations/translations of examples to be written in L1 which makes them easier to understand – preference for the greater amount of information supplied by CWR. The same question was posed in the FFL questionnaires. Informants were asked to state a preference between the section Porter To carry from CFET (BTD) and the article for porter in Collins Robert Comprehensive Dictionary & Thesaurus Volume One French-English CRCDAT/Fr-Eng (MTD). The results were as follows: FFL A: preferred CRCDAT/Fr-Eng (MTD): 20% FFL B: preferred CRCDAT/Fr-Eng (MTD): 17% Average of %s: preferred CRCDAT/Fr-Eng (MTD): 18%

preferred CFET (BTD): 80% preferred CFET (BTD): 83% preferred CFET (BTD): 82%

Those who preferred the CRCDAT/Fr-Eng (MTD) treatment provided the following reasons for their choice: – – – –

approval of the breadth of inclusion preference for the monolingual text approval of the information about connotation approval of the “traditional format” of the treatment.

Those who preferred the CFET (BTD) treatment gave the following reasons:

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– – – – – –

clearer layout and therefore easier/quicker to use better explanations of the meanings of words approval of the depth of information approval of the examples too many unfamiliar words in the monolingual CRCDAT/Fr-Eng thesaurus article approval of the English translation/bilingual aspect

Informants who Participated in the Location Guessing Experiment Twenty people agreed to take part in the location guessing experiment. They were all adult native speakers of English. Informants who Participated in the Search Report Experiment One informant (a native speaker of Greek) took part in the Search Report Experiment. 4.2.2 User Research Methodology This section describes the methodologies employed for the user research, the reasons for choosing them, and their advantages and disadvantages. The Questionnaires In order to elicit learners’ opinions on various issues pertinent to BTDs, questionnaires were devised and administered for: 1) actual or potential users of CWR dictionaries i.e. native speakers of French, Spanish, Catalan, Italian, Portuguese, or Greek who are learning English. Separate questionnaires were produced for speakers of each of the six first languages, and 2) actual or potential users of CFET i.e. speakers of English who are learning French. The questionnaires for type 1) informants are referred to as ‘EFL questionnaires’ and those for type 2) as ‘FFL questionnaires’. There was a need to strike a balance between covering a large number of issues in the questionnaires without making them so long as to try the patience of the informants. Consequently, two versions (named ‘A’ and ‘B’) of both the EFL and the FFL questionnaire were created. In both the EFL and the FFL questionnaires, questions 1)10) are the same in Versions A and B, whereas questions 11)-23) in Version A are different from questions 11)-31) in Version B. A sample of EFL Questionnaire Version A is reproduced in Appendix 4. In most cases, the informants were asked to tick boxes in order to answer the questions, but occasionally they were required to write short comments. Test administrators were advised not to let the informants take more than 30 minutes to complete the task.

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The Location Guessing Experiment The location guessing experiment was designed to test whether a bilingual thematic dictionary places words and phrases in locations where users would expect to find them. The informants were provided with a list of categories from a notional BTD. This list consisted of the first 200 CWR categories (see Appendix 5). The informants were also supplied with a list of 10 words (see Appendix 6) and asked to write down where they would expect to find each of them in the dictionary. The results of this experiment are reported in Section 5.7. The Search Report Experiment The informant was provided with a copy of the CWR text (CWR/Gk) which relates to her first language (Greek) and a question sheet containing five multiple-choice cloze questions and five open cloze questions. She was instructed to record each separate search made in CWR on the form while trying to answer each question. A copy of part of the answer/search report sheet is provided in Appendix 7. The main aim of this experiment was to determine to what extent a BTD provides sufficient information for users to discriminate between exponents with similar meanings that are grouped together in a section. Although the informant had previous experience of using an L2 thesaurus, she had not previously used either an L2 monolingual or bilingual thematic dictionary including CWR/Gk. The consultation strategies used for each question are described below. Translations of the disambiguators have been added in round brackets by the current author. These translations were not included in the materials supplied to the informant. Question 1) We decided to buy an old house and __________ ourselves. a) fix it b) mend it c) patch it up d) renovate it The first search was on renovate which was found successfully in the index of English words. The relevant entry was located at 383 Repair Επισκευάζω, and renovate was correctly identified as the right answer. The informant recorded that the information in square brackets helped her to determine that this particular exponent could fill the gap in the sentence. The disambiguator in question supplied information both of a semantic nature and regarding possible objects of the verb:

329 renovate […] [στην προηγούμενη ή καλύτερη κατάσταση. Αντικ.: κυρίως κτίρια] (translation: to a previous or better condition. Objects: mainly buildings)

In this instance, the disambiguator appears to have performed its function successfully. Question 2) He beat Tim Henman to go through to the third round of the tennis __________ . a) contest b) game c) match d) tournament The informant was initially undecided between match and tournament as possible answers. She first looked up and successfully found match in the English index. Then she correctly found the relevant subcategory (388.3 Συναγωνισμοί (translation: competitions) at 388 Sport Αθλητισμός). This required choosing between the two index entries for match, namely ‘burn 135.1’ and ‘sport 388.3’. The example led the informant to reject match as a possible filler because it mentioned football, but not tennis: a football match αγώνας ποδοσφαίρου

This rejection resulted from a mistaken conclusion from the example that the collocational range of match did not extend to tennis. In this instance, the advantage of including a selection of possible collocates is highlighted e.g. a football/tennis/hockey etc match He spent Saturday afternoon watching a football match.

The disambiguator was, therefore, of no help on this occasion: match ουσ.αρ. [έχει κάπως πιο σοβαρή σημασία από το game] (translation: has a somewhat more serious meaning than game)

Although this disambiguator could help users distinguish between match and another exponent in the subcategory (game), it did not help with the match/tournament distinction. The example therefore caused an error, and the disambiguator failed because it did not assist the informant in choosing between two exponents. The informant’s next search was for tournament whose entry was found in the same subcategory as that of match. It was correctly identified as the answer with the help of three elements of the entry: 1) the translations (πρωτάθλημα, τουρνουά – the latter being a borrowing from the French tournoi), 2) the disambiguator, and 3) the example which is specifically tennis-related:

330 tournament ουσ.αρ. [έχει πιο εξειδικευμένη σημασία από το competition. Xρησιμοποιείται κυρίως για σειρά από αγώνες] (translation: has a more technical significance than competition. Is used mainly for series of contests) πρωτάθλημα, τουρνουά the Wimbledon tournament το πρωτάθλημα τένις του Γουίμπλεντον

Question 3) This type of cattle does not like cold or too much rain. They are not __________ animals. a) athletic b) hardy c) mighty d) powerful As the informant was not familiar with the word hardy, she decided to look up this exponent first. It was found at 401.1 Έχω δύναμη (translation: Having strength), a subcategory at 401 Strength Δύναμη. The semantic disambiguator and the example, neither of which mentions animals, left the informant unsure as to whether hardy could fill the gap: hardy επίθ. [υπονοεί αντοχή] (translation: implies stamina) ανθεκτικός, σκληραγωγημένος I don’t think I’m hardy enough to face camping in October. Δε νομίζω ότι είμαι αρκετά σκληραγωγημένος για να κάνω κατασκήνωση τον Οκτώβριο.

A follow-up search was carried out on athletic whose entry also appears at subcategory 401.1. This entry does not have any disambiguating information in square brackets, but the word was rejected as a possible answer on account of its example which concerns people not animals: athletic επίθ. αθλητικός τύπος My sister’s the athletic one, always skiing or horse-riding. Η αδελφή μου είναι ο αθλητικός τύπος, ή θα κάνει σκι ή ιππασία.

The informant next considered mighty, another exponent located at 401.1. This word was, however, dismissed as a possible answer because the disambiguator describes it as [κάπως λογοτεχνικό] (translation: rather literary) and therefore having the wrong register. The next search was conducted on powerful (also to be found at 401.1). Although there is no disambiguator at the corresponding entry, the two examples (a powerful blow and a powerful build) were enough to convince the informant that powerful was not the required gap-filler. Having ruled out athletic, mighty, and powerful, the informant returned to hardy and correctly recorded this as the answer.

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Question 4) Bert had been __________ his income tax for years. a) cheating b) defrauding c) fiddling d) swindling The first word selected to be consulted was fiddle. It was successfully located at the 214.1 Κλέβω (translation: To steal), a subcategory within 214 Dishonest Ανέντιμος, ανειλικρινής. The translation κάνω κομπίνα can, but does not necessarily have to refer to deception involving money. In this instance, the example He’s been fiddling the books Μαγειρεύει τους λογαριασμούς is, however, specifically money-related. Consequently, the informant was reasonably confident that fiddle was the correct answer. Nevertheless, she decided to double-check and carried out further searches on swindle, defraud, and cheat. Swindle was found in 214.1, but apart from the translation, the entry provided little to help the user. There is no disambiguating information and no example. Collocational information would have been useful here. The entry for defraud also appears in 214.1, but there is no example and the disambiguator refers only to register: defraud [περισσότερο επίσημο από το cheat, swindle ή fiddle] (translation: more formal than to cheat, swindle or fiddle). The key information missing here concerns possible objects. If it had been made clear in the text that common objects of defraud are people and organizations (and not money, tax etc), the informant might not have been left confused as to whether defraud could fill the gap in the cloze sentence. The next search was made on cheat whose corresponding entry has three senses. The first sense was rejected on account of the two examples which were unconnected with tax deception although the second could involve an element of money-related deception: She cheated in the exam and to cheat at cards. The second sense (exemplified by: She was cheated out of her rightful inheritance.) and the third sense (exemplified by: She thinks John’s cheating on her.) were rejected on account of the information in round brackets indicating prepositional use with the verb e.g. at sense 2 (συχνά (translation: often) + of, + out of) and sense 3 (+ on). As the gap in the sentence requires only one word, this rules out the use of a verb plus preposition. The informant appeared to think that the use of prepositions in sense 2 was not obligatory and would not necessarily eliminate this usage. A source of confusion may have been CWR’s policy of placing syntactic information in round brackets. As round brackets are often used to indicate an optional element, the distinction between compulsory and optional elements is lost. Having considered all four alternatives, the informant correctly settled for fiddling as the right answer.

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Question 5) Metals __________ when they are heated. a) expand b) grow c) increase d) swell The informant was confident that expand was the correct answer. She found it in the English index and was directed to Category 46 Increase Αυξάνω. One of the examples at that location (Wet weather makes the wood expand.) convinced her that she had indeed made the correct choice. Question 6) He __________ of his sins before he died. When faced with this particular open cloze question, the informant elected to look up μετανοιώνω (translation: to regret) in the Greek index. The index directed her to 449.1 Λύπη (translation: sorrow), a subcategory of 449 Shame Ντροπή. Even though the correct answer (repent) is located in this subcategory and has an example referring to sins, the informant did not select this exponent and instead embarked on a second search. This may have happened because the informant did not go deep enough into the subcategory and only looked at the first few entries. A similar phenomenon has often been observed when users only look at the first few senses of a long polysemous entry. This may be an issue of user training, not merely the fault of the book. The informant tried a different tack and found the entry for confess via the English index at 350 Admit Παραδέχομαι. Confess was, however, ruled out by the informant because of the syntactic information in round brackets (συχνά (translation: often) + that, + to -ing) which led her to mistakenly think that a ‘that’ clause or a preposition was required even though neither were compulsory and one of the examples showed usage of a direct object: He has confessed his own part in the crime. This is the same type of consultation error as that which occurred with Question 4). The informant next searched for and located the entry for forgive at 221.1 Συγχωρώ (translation: to forgive), a subcategory of 221 Mercy Έλεος. Again, initially the syntactic information (συχνά (translation: often) + for) proved offputting for the informant, followed by a realization on reading the translation and the examples (She can’t forgive herself for not being there, She forgave them their unkindness to her, and Forgive me, I didn’t catch your name) that the sense did not fit. The informant finally returned to the entry for repent and decided that this was the correct missing word after all on account of the syntactic information (συχνά (translation: often) + of) and the disambiguator: [κυρίως με θρησκευτικό περιεχόμενο] (translation: especially in a religious context).

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Question 7) “__________ on passing your driving test!” “Thanks!” The informant was confident that congratulations was the correct answer, and found its entry at 430 Praise Παινεύω. The example (Congratulations on your promotion!) confirmed that this was the right answer, and no further searches were conducted. Interestingly, this entry exemplifies, but does not highlight use of the preposition e.g. (συχνά (translation: often) + on). Question 8) She’s a bit annoyed because the kids have been __________ her all week to buy them new trainers. The first word which the informant looked up in the English index was ask. It was found at 351 Ask Ρωτώ. Ask was, however, rejected because of the disambiguator at sense 1: [για πληροφορίες] (translation: for information). The following search was carried out on nag, found at 279.1 Ανεπιθύμητοι τρόποι ενθάρρυνσης (translation: Undesirable forms of encouragement), a subcategory at 279 Encourage Ενθαρρύνω. The informant was satisfied that this was the correct answer, based especially on the example, its translation, and the preceding syntactic pattern supplied in round brackets: (+ to + ΑΠΑΡΕΜΦΑΤΟ (translation: INFINITIVE)) She’s always nagging me to get my hair cut. Όλη την ώρα μου γκρινιάζει να κόψω τα μαλλιά μου. Question 9) The river lies on the __________ between the US and Mexico. The informant was confident that border was the right answer and found its entry via the English index at 53.1 Γραμμές που χωρίζουν περιοχές (translation: Lines which Separate Regions), a subcategory at 53 Edge Άκρη. The two elements of the entry which confirmed this to be the right choice were the syntactic information at sense 1 (συχνά (translation: often) + between, with) and the disambiguator ([ανάμεσα σε χώρες] (translation: between countries)). At this point, the informant also had a quick look at the remaining entries (frontier, boundary) in the same subcategory just to make doubly sure that the correct choice had been made. Question 10) She broke her arm when she fell off her bicycle. It took three months to __________.

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The informant was undecided between recover and heal as a possible answer. Her first search was for recover which was located at 126.1 Βελτίωση/ανάρρωση (translation: Improvement/Recovery), a subcategory of 126 Cures Θεραπείες. Yet again, the exponent was rejected because of the syntactic information (συχνά (translation: often) + from) even though the use of the preposition is indicated as not being compulsory. The example may, however, have reinforced the impression that a preposition was mandatory: He’s still recovering from his bronchitis. The next search was conducted on heal whose entry also appears at 126.1. The reason given for settling on this exponent as the correct answer was the disambiguator: [υποκ: π.χ. σπασμένο οστό, πληγή] (translation: subject: e.g. broken bone, wound). Conclusions The disambiguators in CWR only functioned partially successfully (e.g. Q.1). Those disambiguators which appeared to perform most effectively specified possible subjects or objects (e.g. Q.1). Sometimes disambiguation was missing or insufficient either at individual exponents and/or when comparing exponents (e.g. Q.2 and Q.3). If there had been more notes explaining the differences between several near-synonyms in a section, the informant might have arrived at the correct answers more easily and quickly. Users often look at the examples first, perhaps because these are concrete instances of use and do not require the interpretation of codes and other lexicographic conventions. Examples can provide crucial disambiguating information (e.g. Q.5). Indeed, examples could be described as carrying implicit disambiguating information, whereas CWR’s disambiguators in square brackets bear explicit disambiguating information. There is a danger, however, that users may overgeneralize on the basis of an example (e.g. Q.2). For this reason, the policy of listing a selection of possible collocates justifies itself. Entries that provide neither disambiguating information nor examples are especially unhelpful to users (e.g. Q.4). Users may exhibit systematic consultation errors, as was the case in this experiment when the information about combining propositions was misunderstood (e.g. Q.4, Q.6, and Q.10). Greater experience with using a particular text should hopefully reduce such problems. Nonetheless, there is an onus on the dictionary to do what it can to prevent such misinterpretations of the information provided. Some form of dictionary training would also be helpful. The electronic format lends itself especially well to such training activities because of the interactivity it can bring to testing materials. The informant did not always look at the other exponents in a subcategory (e.g. Q.6) although this improved as the experiment progressed. Users who adopt this strategy are likely to miss finding a suitable exponent. Again, user training could address this issue. Syntactic information can undoubtedly play a significant role in helping users to discriminate between linguistic exponents. BTDs have a responsibility to supply adequate syntactic information at all entries. Unfortunately they have not always met this requirement (e.g. Q.7).

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4.2.3 The Scope and Limitations of User Research No matter what form user research takes, it is impossible to know how far generalizations can be made on the basis of its findings. There is no precise number of informants which constitutes a required minimum before a piece of research acquires validity. At the same time, so many factors are in operation during any experiment that it is difficult to isolate those which are the most significant. The analysis of results inevitably involves interpretation and therefore subjectivity. Not only this, but the performance of any individual will vary from occasion to occasion, and from task to task. All of this is somewhat frustrating for the metalexicographic researcher. Nonetheless, this does not mean that user research should not be undertaken. Over time, the cumulative effect of different research projects should allow trends to be spotted, and compilers of BTDs can direct research to their specific target user group. The following sections briefly describe the aims, advantages, and disadvantages of the methodologies employed. The Questionnaires The questionnaires were used to elicit learners’ opinions on a range of BTD-related topics. The advantages of questionnaires include the fact that they are relatively straightforward to administer. Indeed, they can be sent by post and administered by a third party such as the teacher of a language class if required. They are especially useful for presenting different choices to learners and asking them to express a preference for one or the other. It is also possible to provide concrete examples of particular dictionary features and to invite comments on them. All questionnaires, however, risk leading informants to particular answers: either by the manner in which questions are framed or by the range of answer choices available. Some informants may provide answers which they feel they are expected to supply, rather than those expressing actual opinions. In addition, there is no guarantee that questions have been correctly understood, especially if they are written in L2. Similarly, informants writing in L2 may not be able to express themselves with adequate clarity. Researchers may not be able to follow up interesting or enigmatic points raised in answers. Any questions on dictionary use can only elicit secondhand reports, and lack the, by comparison, relatively unmitigated nature of experimental approaches where consultation is directly observed. When giving an example of a particular dictionary feature, such as a false friend note, and asking informants to comment on it, the issue arises as to whether the opinions expressed relate to the type of feature (i.e. false friend notes in general) or just to the specific sample (i.e. token) featured in the questionnaire. A particular problem with BTD research is that the overwhelming majority of informants will not have previously used this type of lexicographic work, so they are potential rather than actual users. Ideally, what is required is an informant base of

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experienced BTD users. Unfortunately, such a group of informants was not available at the time when the user research was conducted. Nonetheless, the above should not imply that questionnaires are without value. They allow researchers to identify trends of opinion across a wide range of topics in a relatively efficient manner. The number of informants will never be enough, but garnering a limited number of opinions is preferable to the metalexicographer trying to second-guess what learners’ opinions might be. The Experiments There is an unavoidable element of artificiality about any form of empirical research into dictionary use. Nonetheless, it was felt that experimental research was required to complement the questionnaires in order to go beyond eliciting opinions and to simulate dictionary use at least to a limited degree. The Location Guessing Experiment The aim of the location guessing experiment was to discover whether the placement of exponents in particular sections of a BTD corresponds to users’ expectations. The CWR table of contents was reduced from 450 categories to 200. This was done in order to avoid the task becoming excessively long. This reduction unavoidably, however, introduced an element of artificiality, as did the fact that the exponents were chosen by the researcher rather than by the users themselves. This was necessary in order to compare the performances of different informants. The Search Report Experiment The search report experiment attempted 1) to investigate the various consultation strategies employed by a BTD user, and 2) to find out which features proved helpful in directing her towards making a correct lexical choice. It would, however, be unwise to generalize on the basis of an experiment involving one informant, and ideally it would have been preferable to have repeated the experiment with a larger number of informants.

4.3

Summary of Chapter 4

In order to evaluate the usefulness of bilingual thematic dictionaries from the user perspective, a trifurcate approach was adopted. This involved user questionnaires and two experiments: the location guessing experiment and the search report experiment.

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Ninety-seven informants completed the user questionnaires. The informants were either learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) or learners of French as a foreign language (FFL). In order to cover a wide range of topics, two versions (A and B) of the questionnaire for each group were administered. Versions A and B of the EFL questionnaires were tailored to the particular L1 of each individual informant. Thus, an Italianspeaking learner would receive either Version A or B of the EFL questionnaire containing excerpts from CWR/It. The results for most of the questions are reported in Chapter 5 in the sections dealing with each respective feature about which users’ opinions were elicited. However, the responses to a number of general questions concerning the ownership and use of thematic dictionaries are reported in Chapter 4. It was found that just over half the informants owned a thesaurus, that 79% either seldom or never used a thematic dictionary when writing in L1, that 73% either seldom or never used a thematic dictionary when writing in L2, and that only 5% used CWR or CFET. 88% of the latter group believed that BTDs were equally as useful as standard A-Z bilingual dictionaries. When asked to compare an excerpt from a monolingual thematic dictionary and one from a bilingual thematic dictionary, 65% of EFL learners preferred the latter, as did 82% of the FFL

learners. Twenty people participated in the location guessing experiment. Informants were provided with a list of 10 words and were asked to state, using a reduced version of the CWR table of contents, which section they believed each word would be placed in. The results of this experiment are reported in Section 5.7. One informant took part in the search report experiment. She was asked to solve five multiple-choice gap-fill questions and five open cloze questions with the help of CWR/Gk, and to record each separate search conducted on a report form. The experiment revealed that the disambiguators in CWR were only partially successful in providing sufficient differentiating information to allow the correct exponent to be chosen. Both disambiguators and examples were found to be somewhat thin on the ground. Errors were caused by such factors as missing collocational data, overgeneralization on the basis of too limited a number of examples, and misinterpretation of syntactic codes. Finally, the scope and limitations of each methodology were discussed. Questionnaires were, for example, found to be useful for eliciting opinions on sample extracts of features, but risk leading informants to certain answers as a result of the way in which questions are framed or the choice of responses provided. The two experiments had the advantage not just of eliciting opinions, but also of simulating the consultation process to some extent despite aspects of artificiality. All three types of user research would benefit from larger informant bases.

5

The Compilation of Bilingual Thematic Dictionaries: Choices and Recommendations

This chapter addresses the practical issues facing compilers of bilingual thematic dictionaries. Each aspect of the text is considered in turn, drawing on the previous textual analyses and evaluations as well as on the user perspective that was supplied by the questionnaires and the experiment-based research. The aim is to list the choices available to compilers with regard to each feature of the text, to describe the advantages and disadvantages of each option, and to make recommendations as to which appear to be the most useful.

5.1

A Cumulative Checklist of Actual and Potential BTD Features and Choices

Having drawn up checklists of the features and available choices for monolingual learner’s dictionaries (Section 2.3.4), thematic dictionaries (Section 2.8.7), and existing bilingual thematic dictionaries (Section 3.6), it is now possible to create a cumulative checklist of actual and potential BTD features and choices by combining these three lists and discarding any elements, such as definitions, that apply exclusively to monolingual works. The checklist can be found in Appendix 8. The resulting checklist is intended to act as a menu from which BTD lexicographers can select those components which are most appropriate for the target user group of their particular dictionary. In order to assist the prospective BTD compiler, the choices available concerning each feature are described and evaluated. Wherever possible, recommendations are made concerning which components appear to be most useful, based both on the textual analyses and on the user-oriented research by questionnaire and experiment.

5.2

Physical Format

The use of electronic aids to compilation and delivery, including menu-driven software, has been described as a recent incarnation of ancient thematic hierarchies (McArthur 1998:163). UK publishers of EFL dictionaries generally still publish their dictionaries in print format. With increasing frequency, however, an electronic version of the dictionary is published at the same time. Often, both formats of the dictionary can be purchased together as a package. Throughout the remainder of this discussion,

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both formats will be taken into account when enumerating and evaluating the choices available to the compiler when considering the various features of a potential BTD. Question 31) in the EFL and FFL questionnaires asked the informants whether they thought bilingual thematic dictionaries would be useful in electronic form e.g. on a CD-ROM. The results showed an overwhelming vote of approval: Results: EFL informants: FFL informants: Average of %s:

Useful: 80% Useful: 87% Useful: 84%

Not Useful: 20% Not Useful: 13% Not Useful: 16%.

The reasons given in favour of electronic BTDs were as follows: – – – – –

speed of consultation the possibility of using an electronic dictionary almost anywhere ease of use multimedia features the ease of linking entries.

The reasons given against electronic BTDs included: – some people do not have a computer – it is awkward to use a computer in some situations – software becomes dated. Considering the relatively large number of points in support of electronic dictionaries in general, the particular advantages of an electronic format for thematic dictionaries, and the majority support from the informants, there is a strong case for the electronic BTD.

5.3

Independent and Dependent BTDs

Most of the thematic learner’s dictionaries examined here are standalone reference works. Standard MLDs have, however, been combined with TLDs on CD-ROMs. There is no theoretical reason why a bilingual thematic dictionary should not be combined with a conventional semasiological bilingual dictionary, if desired. In fact, there is a strong pedagogical argument in favour of combining dictionaries that are decoding- and encoding-oriented respectively. Many L2 activities involve the learner constantly switching between active and passive modes, for example writing an essay may also involve reading source texts.

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Regardless, however, as to whether a print or an electronic format is adopted, decisions still have to be made as to how and where the links between the two dictionaries are to be made. Existing combined electronic dictionaries have taken different approaches to the linking issue. The CALD CD-ROM places a link at each entry in the AZ dictionary to the Smart Thesaurus. On the other hand, the LDOCE4 CD-ROM presents the links to the thematic Activator by means of a dedicated window whose contents are determined by the lexeme being searched on. Both setups make the learners aware of the place of the search item within the vocabulary of the language as a whole. The CALD CD-ROM achieves this by directing the user to the underlying thesaural macrostructure, and the LDOCE4 CD-ROM groups together related keywords from various parts of the Activator. The LDOCE4 arrangement has an advantage in that the thematic links are automatically triggered by data input into the search field whereas CALD users have to click on the Smart Thesaurus button at each individual entry. CALD aficionados could, however, validly claim that once inside the thesaural macrostructure scheme, users can move around a network model that approximates the mental lexicon as it is envisaged by many psycholinguists. This navigation takes place at a later stage in the consultation process compared to the LDOCE user who, once transferred to the Activator, is reliant for navigation on cross-references and a horizontal scrollbar of 866 alphabetically ordered keywords. Perhaps the solution lies in combining a dedicated link window with an option to navigate round a graphic representation of the macrostructure if preferred. The flexibility of the electronic format should make this dual option technically feasible.

5.4

Inclusion

Linguistic Inclusion Some of the key decisions which BTD lexicographers have to make are as follows: – – – – – – – – – – –

Should a BTD cover lexemes with abstract referents, concrete referents, or both? Should the whole of the language be covered or just part of it (e.g. slang)? Should phrases be included as well as individual lexemes? Should both spoken and written language be included? Which varieties of a language should be covered? What should the balance between specialist and general language be? To what extent should derivatives be included? To what extent should combining forms be included? To what extent should archaic and dated language be included? To what extent should current language, including neologisms, be covered? To what extent should proper names and other encyclopedic entries be included?

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The first question was included in the user questionnaire (Question 12) Version A of the EFL and FFL questionnaires). The informants voted overwhelmingly in favour of including both abstract and concrete vocabulary: EFL informants: FFL informants: Average of %s:

abstract only: 6% abstract only: 3% abstract only: 5%

concrete only: 0% concrete only: 3% concrete only: 1%

both: 94% both: 94% both: 94%

Some existing MTDs (e.g. the Longman Activator series) have opted to include lexemes for abstract items only, usually on the grounds that these allegedly cause more problems for learners. None of these dictionaries have, however, gone so far as to claim that such a policy is better than the inclusion of both abstract and concrete vocabulary. The unspoken issue is one of space. As regards the question of including all the language which a learner at a particular level of L2 competence requires, or restricting inclusion to a particular type of linguistic exponent, some of the BTDs in the current survey are concerned with slang. The monolingual TLDs in the Activator series are concerned with abstract concepts. It might be concluded that publishers have felt confident in the first instance to treat a limited subset of the language thematically. In the second case, space clearly played an important role in determining the inclusion policy. Nonetheless, the CWR series and CFET show that one publisher at least has been willing to grasp the nettle of treating the whole of the language thematically. Arriving at a satisfactory macrostructure for abstract concepts is arguably more challenging than for concrete topics. Encouragement can, however, be drawn from the fact that the Activator series has advanced a considerable way down the path of successfully handling a large number of abstract concepts. It seems entirely logical for BTDs to include phrases, whether they are idioms, other types of fixed expressions, or collocations. Meanings are expressed not just through individual words, but also in multi-word units. In alphabetical dictionaries, the placement of phrases has often proved problematic. Decisions need to be made as to which elements of a phrase should be taken into account when positioning them in an alphabetical headword list. Often they are ordered according to significant, i.e. lexical elements, but arguments may exist as to which words qualify as such e.g. as regards the verb be. Phrases sometimes contain variable elements or a choice of elements in one slot. Furthermore, a decision has to be made as to whether idioms should be grouped together or interspersed among other senses. Thematic learner’s dictionaries face far fewer problems with the placement of phrases because they are less likely to co-occur within a given section. Nonetheless, problems arise when placing phrases within an alphabetical index. It is reasonable that both spoken and written language should be included in a BTD. Indeed, the main distinguishing factor between two exponents can be the fact that one may be used mostly in either spoken or written language. Two related questions which arise are:

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– How should exponents be signalled as mostly used either in spoken or in written language? – Should spoken exponents be grouped together in a section? Normally a label such as spoken or written can be used to indicate the most frequent medium within which the word or phrase is used. The compilers can choose whether to place items next to each other if they are semantically close, or whether to have a separate section or subsection for spoken items. Other inclusion issues, such as which varieties of a language should be covered (e.g. general versus specialist language, derivatives, and combining forms), are the same as in the case of a standard alphabetical MLD with the additional proviso that they should be useful for production purposes. For the same reason, archaic and dated language should generally be excluded in favour of current language. It is desirable for learner’s dictionaries of any kind to include up-to-date language from such areas as computing, biotechnology, and so forth. The inclusion of encyclopedic language could be justified on the grounds that the border between language and culture is blurred. Many TLDs include cultural notes. Other factors which have a bearing on inclusion policy are: the users’ level of competence in the L2, the frequency of exponents within the source corpora, and the usefulness of exponents to users. The higher the level of the users’ L2 competence, the more lexemes need to be included in a learner’s dictionary. This principle applies equally to BTDs. Deciding which exponents need to be mastered by learners at a specific level of competence (elementary, intermediate, advanced etc) is an unavoidably subjective process. Learners’ corpora, i.e. collections of written and spoken English by learners, can be of help. These corpora are searchable by various parameters including level and mother tongue. It is therefore possible to use learners’ corpora to identify which exponents are most familiar to learners, which cause problems for particular L1 user groups, and which types of error are most common (LLA2:vii). The issues of frequency and usefulness are linked. As a productive dictionary, the dictionary should only include items which learners are likely to use. This means excluding both rare words and words that are restricted in terms of style or subject specialism (CWS/Sp:vii). Frequency should normally determine: the inclusion of exponents and their relative ordering within a section, the inclusion of collocations and their relative ordering amongst illustrative examples, and the inclusion of syntactic patterns and their relative ordering amongst illustrative examples. Corpora can inform the compiler as to whether a particular word is used more in spoken or written language etc. The importance of using corpus evidence is of paramount importance. LLA1 was revised partly in response to this factor. When deciding which exponents should be included in a section, compilers can see what other thematic works have done in order not to have to reinvent the wheel, and can draw on their collective judgements as to what should be included. A further step would be to canvas a sizeable number of native speakers about the vocabulary which they associate with particular topics.

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The issue as to how to choose the exponents to be grouped together in a particular section is dealt with in Sections below. Cultural Inclusion In the case of thematically organized bilingual dictionaries, it could be argued that existing BTDs have not taken cultural factors sufficiently into account as regards the inclusion of topics and exponents. Existing MTDs and BTDs focus almost exclusively on topics and their accompanying language exponents that are relevant, by virtue of their broad applicability, to almost all developed contemporary societies. This is understandable, especially in the case of TLDs for those users at the lower levels of L2 competence. Pancultural topics and items are assigned high priority status in terms of inclusion. At higher levels, and especially in the case of a BTD where a particular language pair is involved, there is an argument that learners should be provided with the vocabulary to write or speak about their own culture as well as that of L2 native speakers. Current TLDs tend to restrict themselves to occasional cultural entries and notes. Series of bilingual dictionaries, such as Cambridge Word Routes, are sometimes based on a common English framework regardless of the language pair involved. Formulaic lexicographic production of this type makes economic sense, but appears to mitigate against the inclusion of cultural content aimed at speakers of specific L1s. A case can be made for making bilingual dictionaries more attuned to the cultural needs of their users. In other words, in addition to the encoding and translational types of activeness mentioned earlier, a third type termed cultural activeness may also be required.

5.5

Lexicographic Evidence

The use of corpus evidence is essential for any serious learner’s dictionary. Its use has been long established within learner’s dictionary compilation for such tasks as determining inclusion and extracting syntactic and collocational patterns. As far as bilingual dictionaries are concerned, parallel text corpora can be used to identify equivalences between languages, and learners’ corpora can help to pinpoint common errors.

5.6

Macrostructure

The Macrostructural Options for BTDs A fundamental decision regarding a BTD’s subject classification scheme is:

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– How many levels should the subject classification scheme be divided into? There must be at least two because a completely flat scheme would not allow for any degree of subcategorization, and the dictionary could not be thematic in its organization. – Should a pyramid hierarchy or a flat hierarchy be used? A pyramid hierarchy of the Rogetian type is arguably unsuitable for a learner’s dictionary because the sections at the top level of the macrostructure are of such a broad abstract, even philosophical, nature that they risk being difficult for users to understand and too far removed from sections lower down the scheme and from the linguistic exponents at the end of the access route. This is not to say that pyramid hierarchies are of themselves unsuitable access frameworks. Contemporary thematic learner’s dictionaries such as CFET proceed from the general to the specific, but the uppermost macrostructural levels have been chosen on pragmatic grounds and the most general abstract concepts ignored. Concrete topics, if included, are often easier for users to grasp, and this is the case with CFET. A flat hierarchy consists of a large number of topics at the highest level of the macrostructure. The number of such topics can run to several hundred. Regardless as to whether this level is alphabetically or thematically ordered, the user is likely to have difficulty remembering them all, although this will improve with experience of using the dictionary. If the index is intended to be the main access route, this does not present a problem. Logic dictates that it is impossible to encapsulate satisfactorily a view of the vocabulary of a language as a network within a single string of topics, even with extensive cross-referencing. The relationships between topics cannot be captured by such a unidimensional arrangement. Nonetheless, CWR does attempt partial thematic grouping within the categories at the top level of its flat hierarchy. This results in a fractured and highly idiosyncratic scheme. Two arguments can, however, be made in favour of this arrangement: 1) since the main access route is via the index anyway, the arrangement of categories is largely immaterial, and 2) thematic grouping, even if sporadic, may help users remember which topics are next to each other and is better than totally random listing. A counter-argument is that the arrangement constitutes an uncomfortable compromise, and this is highlighted if access is made via the table of contents included in some of the CWR texts. Systematicity is generally considered a valuable asset of a reference work so any deviation may trouble current or potential users. The decisions concerning the number of levels of the classification scheme and the type of hierarchy are more crucial for a print dictionary than for an electronic dictionary. The type-in search field often allows users of an electronic dictionary to be transported directly to the section containing the searched-for item without having to worry about the organization of the macrostructure.

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Thematic versus Alphabetical Ordering of Macrostructural Levels A further key decision has to be made for each level in the hierarchy: – Which levels should be thematically arranged, and which should be alphabetically ordered? As in the case of the Activator series, it is possible to have a top macrostructural level that is alphabetically ordered. The levels further down the macrostructural hierarchy are usually thematically ordered. This does, however, raise an additional question: – Should a TLD provide users with a purely onomasiological access route from the top of the macrostructure to the exponents? In most cases, TLDs compromise in terms of onomasiological orientation at the bottom level of the macrostructure where the exponents are placed. For example, LLA2 and LEA start off at category level with an alphabetical list of themes, then change to thematic organization at subcategory level. At both levels, despite the different ordering principles, the users are ultimately proceeding from meaning to form. The entries themselves, however, are semasiologically oriented because the headwords (forms) precede the definitions (meanings). Only OLWD takes the radical step of maintaining onomasiological orientation at the macrostructural base level by placing the definitions before the headwords. The advantages and disadvantages of alphabetical and thematic organization have already been discussed in Section 2.4.1. Even if the uppermost macrostructural level is alphabetical, it is still possible for a thematic access route to be provided by means of a table of contents ordered by theme rather than reflecting the order of keywords in the text. This is the approach adopted by OLWD. Question 15) of the EFL and FFL Questionnaires Version A asked informants whether the categories in a thematic dictionary should be arranged alphabetically or thematically. The results revealed no dominant preference for either ordering principle. EFL informants: FFL informants: Average of %s:

alphabetical: 41% thematic: 47% no preference: 12% alphabetical: 49% thematic: 34% no preference: 17% alphabetical: 45% thematic: 41% no preference: 14%

Some TLDs (e.g. LLA1:F18) claim to mirror the way words are stored in the mental lexicon by the macrostructural arrangement of the text, thus providing it with psycholinguistic validity. LLA1 claims that this structure should not be that of a hierarchy, but of a network. In actual fact, LLA1 and LLA2 retain a hierarchical structure, but it is a flat hierarchy as opposed to the pyramid hierarchy of Roget’s scheme. The analogy with a road map is made in LLA1. The access maps are menus that direct users from the concept/category in question to related concepts/categories (Ibid:Ibidem).

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Nevertheless, some thematic dictionaries may wish to take advantage of the familiarity of alphabetization at one level or another of the macrostructure. Such is the case with the Longman Activator series. Desiderata for Subject Classification Schemata Whichever type of hierarchy is adopted, the categories should not be so abstruse or philosophical as to be difficult for users to understand. This is a point made by various compilers of thematic dictionaries e.g. the Word Menu (xv) which emphasizes that the structure of the text is based on “natural, contemporary categories and logical relations among not just concepts but things” and the classes in the classification scheme are “everyday subjects”. The macrostructure needs to possess an internal logic. The macrostructure of a thematic dictionary will inevitably reflect the way its creators view the world and will therefore be open to charges of idiosyncrasy. Each individual user will have his or her own Weltanschauung and, as McArthur (1998:153) has pointed out, it may not be possible to map the lexicographers’ conceptual scheme onto any individual user’s mental lexicon. Furthermore, there is no such thing as the perfect subject classification. The scheme ought, however, to mirror the modern world (RHWWM:xv). All topical schemata are influenced by the culture and period of history within which they are created. The same is true of alphabetical dictionaries although the idiosyncrasies are not so immediately obvious. All the lexicographers can do is to try to learn from previous attempts at the task and to attempt to make logical decisions based on what is known about the mental lexicon, language acquisition, and pertinent linguistic theories such as lexical set theory. The access routes should avoid introducing unnecessary macrostructural levels between their starting and finishing points. There certainly seems to be little justification for introducing a dual navigation system as in the case of the Encarta Thesaurus. Another macrostructural question is: – How many topics should there be at each level of the macrostructure? Most users will arrive at a particular subcategory via the index in a print TLD or by means of a search using a type-in box in an electronic TLD. Either way, users will have to navigate around the macrostructure to some degree, whether it is from one subcategory to another under the same category or moving from one category to another by way of a cross-reference. Some users may prefer the top-down general-to-specific access route if the dictionary is organized to allow this. In either case, especially the latter, there is a requirement for the sections to guide the user in an intuitive way.

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5.7

Sections

Grouping Sections within a Category There should be semantic/thematic flow between the sections within a category. The Criteria for Grouping Exponents in a Section There needs to be a high degree of homogeneity binding together the exponents which are grouped together in a section. This means that clear guidelines must be provided to compilers as to which sorts of items are permitted to be grouped together. Synonyms and near-synonyms are clear cases of semantically related exponents that naturally encourage grouping. Very few words are, however, true synonyms. A policy therefore has to be formulated as to how close in meaning lexemes have to be for them to be usefully grouped together in a section. Near-synonyms include phrases as well as individual words. In addition to synonyms and near-synonyms, there are other criteria for grouping exponents together within a section. Some of these are listed below. – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

actions/activities antonymous or contrasting items euphemisms generality/particularity (general lexemes are often placed first) groups/sets hierarchies/rankings items relating to a particular location logical and practical connections metaphorical extensions methods miscellaneous parts/features of something people processes purpose register styles types of something user group words which are related by subject or theme

Other related items that could be placed together in a section include straightforward noun-adjective relations e.g. milk and milky and non-straightforward noun-adjective relations with different origins e.g. milk and lactic.

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Sections can also consist of additional vocabulary catering for more advanced users. They can also be made up of labelled pictorial illustrations if desired. The Ordering of Exponents within a Section The usual ordering principle will be frequency, so that the user encounters the most commonly used exponents first within a section. Stylistically marked items should be placed towards the end of a section. Other ordering principles include: alphabetical, chronological, situational, by size, topical, and the degree of semantic/thematic/logical flow throughout a section. The Placement of Specific Types of Lexeme within Sections Should Words and Phrases be Kept Apart or Grouped Together? Question 13) of the EFL and FFL Questionnaires Version A asked informants whether they preferred single words and phrases to be listed in two separate lists within a section, or whether they should be combined in one list. Results: EFL informants:

two separate lists: 65% one combined list: 29% no preference: 6%

FFL informants:

two separate lists: 63% one combined list: 23% no preference: 14%

Average of %s:

two separate lists: 64% one combined list: 26% no preference: 10%

Should Words Belonging to Different Parts of Speech be Grouped Together? Question 14) of the EFL and FFL Questionnaires Version A asked informants whether it was considered acceptable to group together words with different parts of speech in the same section, or whether they should be kept separate from each other.

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Results: EFL informants: FFL informants: Average of %s:

keep together: 29% keep together: 29% keep together: 29%

keep separate: 71% keep separate: 71% keep separate: 71%

Should Antonyms be Included within a Section? It may well be easier for users to find certain exponents at sections for their opposites. In such cases, it is good practice for the section heading to indicate the inclusion of antonymic content, e.g. shy/not shy. The Treatment of Spoken Exponents A decision has to be made as to whether to mix spoken exponents in with other items, or whether to assign them a separate section or box. The Number of Exponents in a Section The number of words included within a BTD as a whole, and therefore within any individual section, will depend on the users’ level of L2 competence. In addition, the number of exponents within a section should be manageable, i.e. not so many that the section loses its semantic or thematic cohesion, and not so large that it is problematic for users to scan and handle comfortably. The Presentation of Information in a Section BTD compilers can make use of various typographical and layout devices to aid presentation. For example, indentation can be used to show hierarchical relationships between exponents. Semantic frames can be used, as in USS. The Naming of Sections The naming of sections is important because keywords collectively form one of the most significant channels of access to the information on communicative appropriateness (LLA1:F12). Monolingual thematic learner’s dictionaries, such as the Longman Activator series, select keywords that belong to the common core of English and should present no comprehension problems to the user in terms of familiarity (LLA1:F18). The section names must characterize the content of the section as regards

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semantic or thematic spread. LLA2 (p. vi) states that the keywords were chosen on the basis of research using corpora of texts produced by learners (and subsequently tested in classrooms) to identify which general words were used by learners if they did not know a more precise one. With a BTD, this problem is less acute if the section headings are in L1 or are in both L1 and L2. Having established the keywords which make up the top level of the macrostructural hierarchy, the same principles are then applied to their subdivisions. In addition to the titling of sections, BTD compilers also have the option of adding other labels (style, register, regional etc) at the top of sections. Cumulative and Distinctive Synonymies Some thematic dictionaries include sections consisting of cumulative synonymies in which the exponents are merely listed without any additional information being supplied. Such an approach is not suitable for a thematic dictionary aimed at language learners. Evaluating the Accessibility of Exponents: A Location Guessing Experiment One of the criteria on which a reference work can be judged is whether or not information has been placed in locations where users would reasonably expect to find it. It was decided to test how CWR fared in this respect. Twenty adults with a variety of different backgrounds took part in the experiment. Only one of them had previously used any of the dictionaries in the Cambridge Word Routes (CWR) series. Participants were provided with a table of contents consisting of 200 categories from CWR. They were told that this list came from a thematic dictionary, but were not informed that the specific text involved was CWR. They were also provided with a list of ten words on an answer sheet, and were instructed to write down next to each word the location where in the dictionary they would expect to find each one. The location was to be expressed by stating the category number and heading. The Table of Contents, instructions, and answer sheet are provided in Appendices 9, 10, and 11 respectively. Appendix 9 shows the results of this experiment. Along the top of the table, the letters A-T represent the 20 participants. The first column lists each of the words whose likely location the participants had to specify. The numbers in the table are the guessed locations i.e. the section numbers in the table of contents. ‘Correct’ numbers (i.e. where the informant’s answer gave the section number actually used in CWR) are shown in bold print. In Appendix 10, the number of guesses for each word are presented in tabular form. ‘1’ indicates that the number of the appropriate section was given by the participant, and ‘0’ that it was not.

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The list of contents derived from the CWR texts proved to be of only limited help for learners who wished to locate specific words. In the present exercise, involving 20 ‘users’ and 10 English words to be located, fewer than half of the participants’ answers would have led to success. For only 3 of the 10 English words in this exercise can the accuracy of the answers be regarded as even reasonably good. The best three success rates recorded were: 100% (ambulance), 95% (tiny), and 75% (progress vi). For the other 7 English words in question, success was always less than 50%. Indeed, no success at all was recorded in one case (thermometer). Many of the participants seemed to have overlooked or perhaps not understood the grammatical information (v) provided for one of the target words (the verb tear v). Consequently, inappropriate nouns were suggested. As a result, the success rate for this word was rather low (40%). However, the success rate for the other target verb (progress vi) in this exercise was higher (75%), as mentioned above. Consideration of the words where the success in identifying the ‘correct’ CWR section (i.e. that actually used in the CWR books) showed clearly that very reasonable and logical suggestions regarding CWR sections could be put forward which differed from the sections actually used in CWR. This was shown particularly clearly with the word thermometer (CWR Category 126 Cure) where the suggestions were all different from the category actually used in the CWR texts. The correct answers and the other answers supplied by participants are shown in Appendix 11.

5.8

Headings

The most important criterion for a section heading is that it should clearly and accurately reflect the contents of the corresponding section. Various choices are open to the BTD compiler, e.g. regarding the selection of heading components: i.e. whether or not to number headings, whether or not to use alphanumeric codes (as in LLCE), and whether to use L1, L2, or both. Question 25) of the EFL and FFL Questionnaires Version B asked informants whether the category titles of a BTD should be provided in L1, L2, or both. There was overwhelming support for using both languages: EFL informants: FFL informants: Average of %s:

L1: 10% L1: 8% L1: 9%

L2: 25% L2: 8% L2: 16%

L1 and L2: 65% L1 and L2: 84% L1 and L2: 75%

Other heading-related choices include: the length of heading i.e. the use of keywords, telegraphic headings, more lengthy descriptive headings, or a mixture of heading styles, the use/non-use of formulaic headings, the use/non-use of metalinguistic head-

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ings e.g. in sections dealing with communicative functions, and the use/non-use of sections without headings e.g. for an initial section of general exponents.

5.9

Microstructure

Features at the Head of an Entry There is no need to comment in detail about the features at the head of an entry (spelling, hyphenation etc), as the choices and desiderata that relate to them are mainly the same for any learner’s dictionary, and not specific to a thematic learner’s dictionary. The key choices relating to headwords include whether to allow: both individual words and phrases as the head of an entry, selectional headwords (divided by slashes), and optional elements (in brackets). The Importance of Style and Register Information Style and register information is especially important in a thematic learner’s dictionary because it represents one of the chief ways in which near-synonyms can be distinguished. MTDs can build information on formality and other restricted contexts into definitions by the technique of using such formulations as ‘an informal word for …’ (LLA1:F9). A similar metalinguistic form of meaning explanation can be achieved in a bilingual dictionary by effectively providing a definition translated into L1 or by placing the fronted style/register information before a translation equivalent. Although this unconventional type of value-added meaning explanation has been employed in some slang BTDs, it is not usually found in general-language BTDs. The Placement of Style and Register Information There are various places at which style and register information can be placed within the microstructure of a BTD: in a style label, placed usually before the translation equivalent and possibly at individual examples, in a bracketed disambiguator, in a comment built into the translation equivalent, or in a note. Translation Equivalents In addition to supplying accurate head translations, BTD lexicographers need to consider: 1) whether additional translations for different contexts also need to be supplied and their use illustrated in examples, and 2) what kind of information is required in

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addition to the translation equivalent, and whether to place it in a disambiguator or in some other kind of note. LPA is an example of an MTD which eschews definitions, but instead has comparative notes contrasting exponents. No existing BTD has followed a similar path and omitted translations. Disambiguators and Other Bracketed Comments Sometimes, a translation equivalent or even a translation equivalent plus a label does not suffice to provide all the information needed to disambiguate exponents. In such instances, extra information can be supplied in bracketed disambiguators. Bracketed glosses are also required when no direct translation equivalent exists. The user questionnaires provided an opportunity to canvass users’ opinions on a select number of disambiguators, in order to discover which were considered most useful. Disambiguators Concerning Descriptive Range Question 11) in the EFL Questionnaire Version B and in the FFL Questionnaire Version B asked the informants whether they thought that information in brackets about the things that a word can describe is useful in a bilingual thematic dictionary. The EFL informants were provided with the disambiguator at the entry for baggy in CWR as an example, and the FFL informants were supplied with the disambiguator at the entry for prendre forme in CFET as an example. Results: EFL informants: FFL informants: Average of %s:

Useful: 100% Useful: 92% Useful: 96%

Not Useful: 0% Not Useful: 8% Not Useful: 4%

Disambiguators Concerning the Meaning of a Word Question 12) in the EFL Questionnaire Version B and in the FFL Questionnaire Version B asked the informants whether they thought that information in brackets about the meaning of a word is useful in a bilingual thematic dictionary. The EFL informants were provided with the disambiguator at design in CWR as an example, and the FFL informants were supplied with the disambiguator at décor in CFET as an example.

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Results: EFL informants: FFL informants: Average of %s:

Useful: 60% Useful: 79% Useful: 70%

Not Useful: 40% Not Useful: 21% Not Useful: 30%

Disambiguators Concerning Location Question 13) in the EFL Questionnaire Version B and in the FFL Questionnaire Version B asked the informants whether they thought that information in brackets about where something is located would be useful in a bilingual thematic dictionary. The EFL informants were provided with the disambiguator at gangway in CWR as an example, and the FFL informants were supplied with the disambiguator at cadre in CFET as an example. Results: EFL informants: FFL informants: Average of %s:

Useful: 90% Useful: 83% Useful: 87%

Not Useful: 10% Not Useful: 17% Not Useful: 13%

Disambiguators Concerning Positive or Negative Meaning Question 14) in the EFL Questionnaire Version B and in the FFL Questionnaire Version B asked the informants whether they thought that information in brackets about whether a word or phrase is used with a positive or negative meaning is useful in a bilingual thematic dictionary. The EFL informants were provided with the disambiguator at lumpy in CWR as an example, and the FFL informants were supplied with the disambiguator at informe in CFET as an example. Results: EFL informants: FFL informants: Average of %s:

Useful: 70% Useful: 83% Useful: 77%

Not Useful: 30% Not Useful: 17% Not Useful: 23%

Disambiguators Concerning Possible Subjects or Objects of Verbs Question 15) in the EFL Questionnaire Version B and in the FFL Questionnaire Version B asked the informants whether they thought that information in brackets about the possible subjects or objects of verbs is useful in a bilingual thematic dictionary. The

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EFL informants were provided with the disambiguators at reach and retreat in CWR as examples, and the FFL informants were supplied with the disambiguator at enfler in CFET as an example. Results: EFL informants: FFL informants: Average of %s:

Useful: 80% Useful: 67% Useful: 74%

Not Useful: 20% Not Useful: 33% Not Useful: 26%

Disambiguators Explaining the Difference in Meaning between Two Words with Very Similar Meanings Question 16) in the EFL Questionnaire Version B and in the FFL Questionnaire Version B asked the informants whether they thought that information in brackets explaining the difference in meaning between two words with very similar meanings is useful in a bilingual thematic dictionary. The EFL informants were provided with the disambiguators at haul and heave in CWR as examples, and the FFL informants were supplied with the disambiguators at tirer and tracter in CFET as examples. Results: EFL informants: FFL informants: Average of %s:

Useful: 60% Useful: 96% Useful: 78%

Not Useful: 40% Not Useful: 4% Not Useful: 22%

Disambiguators Concerning Whether a Word is a General or Subject-Specific Term Question 17) in the EFL Questionnaire Version B and in the FFL Questionnaire Version B asked the informants whether they thought that information in brackets explaining whether a word is a general (or subject-specific) term is useful in a bilingual thematic dictionary. The EFL informants were provided with the disambiguators at throw and toss in CWR as examples, and the FFL informants were supplied with the disambiguators at bord and lisière in CFET as examples. Results: EFL informants: FFL informants: Average of %s:

Useful: 60% Useful: 67% Useful: 64%

Not Useful: 40% Not Useful: 33% Not Useful: 36%

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Disambiguators about How Strongly Felt a Word Is Question 18) in the EFL Questionnaire Version B and in the FFL Questionnaire Version B asked the informants whether they thought that information in brackets explaining how strongly felt a word is would be useful in a bilingual thematic dictionary. The EFL informants were provided with the disambiguator at despise in CWR as an example, and the FFL informants were supplied with the disambiguator at haïr in CFET as an example. Results: EFL informants: FFL informants: Average of %s:

Useful: 70% Useful: 75% Useful: 73%

Not Useful: 30% Not Useful: 25% Not Useful: 27%

Disambiguators about What a Word Suggests Question 19) in the EFL Questionnaire Version B and in the FFL Questionnaire Version B asked the informants whether they thought that information in brackets explaining what a word suggests would be useful in a bilingual thematic dictionary. The EFL informants were provided with the disambiguator at flatten in CWR as an example, and the FFL informants were supplied with the disambiguator at auprès de in CFET as an example. Results: EFL informants: FFL informants: Average of %s:

Useful: 75% Useful: 79% Useful: 77%

Not Useful: 25% Not Useful: 21% Not Useful: 23%

Disambiguators about Whether a Word Describes People or Things Question 20) in the EFL Questionnaire Version B and in the FFL Questionnaire Version B asked the informants whether they thought that information in brackets explaining whether a word describes people or things would be useful in a bilingual thematic dictionary. The EFL informants were provided with the disambiguator at deceptive in CWR as an example, and the FFL informants were supplied with the disambiguator at avoir du nez in CFET as an example.

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Results: EFL informants: FFL informants: Average of %s:

Useful: 100% Useful: 88% Useful: 94%

Not Useful: 0% Not Useful: 12% Not Useful: 6%

Disambiguators about the Situation a Word is Used in Question 21) in the EFL Questionnaire Version B and in the FFL Questionnaire Version B asked the informants whether they thought that information in brackets about the situation a word is used in would be useful in a bilingual thematic dictionary. The EFL informants were provided with the disambiguators at Clear off/out! and advance in CWR as examples, and the FFL informants were supplied with the disambiguator at suiveur in CFET as an example. Results: EFL informants: FFL informants: Average of %s:

Useful: 90% Useful: 83% Useful: 87%

Not Useful: 10% Not Useful: 17% Not Useful: 13%

Disambiguators about Currency Question 22) in the EFL Questionnaire Version B and in the FFL Questionnaire Version B asked the informants whether they thought that information in brackets about whether a word is old-fashioned would be useful in a bilingual thematic dictionary. The EFL informants were provided with the disambiguator at motorcycle in CWR as an example, and the FFL informants were supplied with the disambiguator at salle des pas perdus in CFET as an example. Results: EFL informants: FFL informants: Average of %s:

Useful: 65% Useful: 88% Useful: 76%

Not Useful: 35% Not Useful: 12% Not Useful: 24%

Disambiguators about Whether a Word is Everyday or Technical Question 23) in the EFL Questionnaire Version B and in the FFL Questionnaire Version B asked the informants whether they thought that information in brackets about whether a word is everyday or technical would be useful in a bilingual thematic

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dictionary. The EFL informants were provided with the disambiguators at the entries for flee and rotate in CWR as examples, and the FFL informants were supplied with the disambiguators at bateau, orient, and révolution in CFET as examples. Results: EFL informants: FFL informants: Average of %s:

Useful: 80% Useful: 79% Useful: 80%

Not Useful: 20% Not Useful: 21% Not Useful: 20%

Disambiguators about the Register of a Word Question 24) in the EFL Questionnaire Version B and in the FFL Questionnaire Version B asked the informants whether they thought that information in brackets about the formality of a word would be useful in a bilingual thematic dictionary. The EFL informants were provided with the disambiguators at in the vicinity (of) and nick in CWR as examples, and the FFL informants were supplied with the disambiguators at tous azimuts and borne in CFET as examples. Results: EFL informants: FFL informants: Average of %s:

Useful: 95% Useful: 96% Useful: 96%

Not Useful: 5% Not Useful: 4% Not Useful: 4%

The disambiguators covered by the learners’ questionnaires are listed below in order of usefulness rating. – – – – – – – – – – – – –

disambiguators concerning descriptive range (96% approval) disambiguators with information about the register of a word (96% approval) disambiguators about whether a word describes people or things (94% approval) disambiguators concerning location (87% approval) disambiguators about the situation a word is used in (87% approval) disambiguators about whether a word is everyday or technical (80% approval) disambiguators explaining the difference in meaning between two words with very similar meanings (78% approval) disambiguators about what a word suggests (77% approval) disambiguators concerning positive or negative meaning (77% approval) disambiguators about currency (76% approval) disambiguators concerning possible subjects or objects of verbs (74% approval) disambiguators about how strongly felt a word is (73% approval) disambiguators concerning the meaning of a word (70% approval)

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– disambiguators concerning whether a word is a general or subject-specific term (64% approval) This list may provide some indication as to which types of disambiguator to include in a BTD. All of the disambiguators listed have high approval ratings which could justify their inclusion in a BTD. A caveat needs, however, to be mentioned here. It is impossible to know whether the opinions expressed on the basis of the particular samples used in the questionnaires would extend to the respective types of disambiguator in general. Unfortunately, it was not possible to collect ratings for all the types of disambiguator. A number of subjects dealt with by additional types of disambiguator are listed below. – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

abstraction (level of) addressee agency approving/disapproving collocation communicative function comparison between referents of exponents completedness connotation context deliberate/accidental [etymology] [euphemism] everyday use exemplification false friends figurative/literal use frequency gender of the referent generic term grammar (including part of speech) humour irony literal translation mode (i.e. spoken or written language) [onomatopoeia] permanence patronizing use point of view [proverb] purpose regional restriction respect (level of)

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– – – – – – – – – – – –

specification of an accompanying feature of the referent specification of what the referent is part of specification of what type of person uses the referent style subject area substitutability translation typical use usage warning use in negative phrases user group voluntary/involuntary action

Some of the above (shown in square brackets) appear in the disambiguator slot, but do not have a strong disambiguating function. It is difficult to generalize as to which disambiguators are the most useful as this depends on the particular exponents grouped together within a section. However, it is important that compilers are aware of the full range of aspects upon which differences between exponents can be pinpointed. Ideally, enough information should be supplied via the sum contributions of all the entry components so that users can easily perceive the difference between any two members of a section. Examples Examples are useful: for providing sample models for production, for showing selection restrictions, both semantic and collocational, for showing syntactic patterns, and for showing use of the lexeme in context. Desiderata for examples include the following: they should be selected and ordered on the basis of corpus evidence, they should show the exponent being used in a typical context, patterns should be shown as explicitly as possible and with the minimum use of codes, and grammatical and collocational patterns should be presented in order of frequency. In terms of ordering examples, it is common practice to put plain examples first, with more authentic and complex examples for more advanced users placed further down the section in question. Question 26) of the EFL Questionnaire Version B and of the FFL Questionnaire Version B asked informants whether the examples in a BTD should have translations.

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Results: EFL informants: FFL informants: Average of %s:

Yes: 65% Yes: 74% Yes: 70%

No: 35% No: 26% No: 30%

The examples should show cases where context dictates that a translation different to the head translation is required. Other choices relating to examples are: – whether to allow fragments as well as full sentences, (In principle there is nothing wrong with fragments, as long as sufficient context is provided to make the meaning and use clear.) – the extent to which corpus-derived examples may be altered, – how to highlight syntactic and collocational patterns i.e. using bold skeletons before examples or using bold type within examples, – whether to allow selectional syntactic and collocational patterns, – whether to include additional syntactic and collocational patterns (e.g. on a CDROM version), – whether to allow glosses of example elements, (This is usually acceptable as long as the flow of an example is not interrupted.) – whether to allow labels (e.g. regional indicators) to be attached to examples, – whether to allow bracketed optional elements in examples, – whether to include audioclips of examples, and – whether to allow clickable words in examples (on a CD-ROM version) (i.e. to provide a function which allows users to click on a word in an example in order to access the entry for that word). Other Microstructural Features Onomasiological Reversal of Normal Entry Order OLWD is an example of an MTD which reverses the normal relative positions of the headword and the definition in order to maintain onomasiological orientation. None of the existing BTDs have placed the translation equivalents before the headwords, although this is theoretically possible.

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5.10 Other Features Notes and Boxes Question 27) of EFL Questionnaire Version B and of FFL Version B asked the informants whether they thought that notes should be in L1, L2, or both. Results: EFL: L1: 30% FFL: L1: 0% Average of %s: L1: 15%

L2: 15% L2: 35% L2: 25%

Both L1 and L2: 55% Both L1 and L2: 65% Both L1 and L2: 60%

Notes on a Particular Topic Question 21) in EFL Questionnaire Version A and in FFL Questionnaire Version A asked informants whether notes about words on a particular topic are useful in a bilingual thematic dictionary. The EFL informants were provided with the note at chicken as an example, and the FFL informants were supplied with the note on Shooting and hunting as an example. Results: EFL: Useful: 94% FFL: Useful: 76% Average of %s: Useful: 85%

Not Useful: 6% Not Useful: 24% Not Useful: 15%

Notes about the Language Needed for a Particular Situation Question 22) in EFL Questionnaire Version A and in FFL Questionnaire Version A asked informants whether notes about the language needed in a particular situation are useful in a bilingual thematic dictionary. The EFL informants were provided with the note at the category Thanking Remerciements as an example, and the FFL informants were supplied with the note at the category Remercier Thanking as an example. Results: EFL: Useful: 59% FFL: Useful: 73% Average of %s: Useful: 66%

Not Useful: 41% Not Useful: 27% Not Useful: 34%

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Notes about Collocation Question 23) in EFL Questionnaire Version A and in FFL Questionnaire Version A asked informants whether notes about collocation are useful in a bilingual thematic dictionary. The EFL informants were provided with the note at the category 124 Illnesses Maladies as an example, and the FFL informants were supplied with the note at mal as an example. Results: EFL: Useful: 76% FFL: Useful: 88% Average of %s: Useful: 82%

Not Useful: 24% Not Useful: 12% Not Useful: 18%

False Friend Notes Question 18) in the EFL Questionnaire Version A and in the FFL Questionnaire Version A asked informants if they thought that false friend notes are useful in a bilingual thematic dictionary. The EFL learners were provided with the false friend note at sympathy in CWR as an example, and the FFL learners were supplied with the false friend note at délai as an example. Results: EFL: Useful: 88% FFL: Useful: 80% Average of %s: Useful: 84%

Not Useful: 12% Not Useful: 20% Not Useful: 16%

Notes about Confusable Words Question 19) in the EFL Questionnaire Version A and in the FFL Questionnaire Version A asked informants if they thought notes about confusable words are useful in a bilingual thematic dictionary. The EFL informants were provided with the confusable note at end/finish in CWR as an example, and the FFL informants were supplied with the confusable note at fleuve/rivière in CFET as an example. Results: EFL: Useful: 88% FFL: Useful: 86% Average of %s: Useful: 87%

Not Useful: 12% Not Useful: 14% Not Useful: 13%

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Notes about Word Origins Question 20) in the EFL Questionnaire Version A and in the FFL Questionnaire Version A asked informants if they thought notes about word origins are useful in a bilingual thematic dictionary. The EFL informants were provided with a word origin note at gin as an example, and the FFL informants were supplied with a word origin note at moussante as an example. Results: EFL: Useful: 41% FFL: Useful: 80% Average of %s: Useful: 61%

Not Useful: 59% Not Useful: 20% Not Useful: 39%

The slight majority of 60% suggests that most users would prefer the notes to be in both L1 and L2. The approval ratings for the other notes were as follows: – – – – – –

notes about confusable words (87% approval rating) notes on a particular topic (85% approval rating) false friend notes (84% approval rating) notes about collocation (82% approval rating) notes about the language needed in a particular situation (66% approval rating) notes about word origins (61% approval rating).

This leaves a large number of types of note which unfortunately could not be covered in the questionnaires. For a BTD, arguably the most useful notes are those which are contrastive and thereby help learners select exponents. In the list below, those note types that have been placed within square brackets do not perform a primarily disambiguating function, and are therefore of secondary importance from that aspect. – – – – – – – – – – – – –

[abbreviated forms] [academic writing notes] [additional phrases] [additional senses] [affixation] [antonyms] [approved usage] [comparative expressions boxes] [compounds section] connotation notes contextual notes [cultural notes] currency notes (i.e. dated, historical etc lexemes)

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– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

[derivatives] descriptive range emphasis [error avoidance notes] [euphemisms] [explanation of an example component] [explanation of a phrase component] figurative/literal usage [gender notes] grammar notes implication [inflections] [learner training notes] [the meaning of plural forms] [metatextual notes (on arrangement, inclusion policy etc.)] [metaphor notes] [non-standard language] notes on medium (i.e. spoken or written language) [orthographical notes] pejorative use notes [phrases/idioms boxes/sections] [pronunciation notes] [punctuation notes] regional notes register notes [standard language equivalents] [standard usage] [structural inconsistency] substitutability synonym notes [translation advice] [literal translation of the headword phrase] [loose translation of the headword phrase] usage notes usage warning user group notes [variants] [vocabulary expansion notes] [word family notes] [word position notes]

An advantage which the electronic BTD has over its print equivalent is that notes can be placed at all the entries discussed rather than having to keep the note in one location and cross-refer to it from all other pertinent entries.

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Tables Question 29) of EFL Questionnaire Version B and of FFL Questionnaire Version B asked informants whether they think that tables are useful in thematic dictionaries. The informants were provided with a table about meat and animals as a sample. Results: EFL informants: Useful: 95% FFL informants: Useful: 91% Average of %s: Useful: 93%

Not Useful: 5% Not Useful: 9% Not Useful: 7%

The second table in the questionnaires was about ducks and geese. Results: EFL informants: Useful: 80% FFL informants: Useful: 83% Average of %s: Useful: 82%

Not Useful: 20% Not Useful: 17% Not Useful: 18%

The high approval ratings for the tables provide encouragement for their inclusion in BTDs. They are useful for presenting simple cases of componential analysis to show the differences between semantically related words. Pictorial Illustrations Clear pictures can convey meaning in an extremely direct way and can be used to support translation equivalents. Question 28) of EFL Questionnaire Version B and of FFL Questionnaire Version B asked informants whether they thought that two sample pictures were useful in BTD, and to provide the reasons for their responses. The first sample picture in both questionnaires was a picture of a bathroom from CWR with various objects labelled. Results: EFL informants: Useful: 100% FFL informants: Useful: 91% Average of %s: Useful: 96%

Not Useful: 0% Not Useful: 9% Not Useful: 4%

The reasons given in favour of this (the EFL) illustration were as follows: – because pictures are a very clear way of indicating meaning – the clarity of the illustration

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– – – –

because the items shown are everyday objects because it is useful to learn the words of items found in a particular location because a lot of information can be shown in limited space pictures help learners to remember vocabulary.

The reasons given against were: – pictures are inappropriate for an adults’ dictionary – location of a particular object could be troublesome. The second sample illustration in the EFL Questionnaire and the FFL Questionnaire was of four pictures from CWR, each depicting a person with some form of illness or injury and with a caption e.g. She’s got her arm in a sling Elle a le bras en écharpe. Results: EFL informants: FFL informants: Average of %s:

Useful: 79% Useful: 36% Useful: 58%

Not Useful: 21% Not Useful: 64% Not Useful: 42%

The reasons given in favour of such illustrations were as follows: – – – –

the pictures help make the meaning clear pictures help learners to remember words the pictures show the words required in a particular situation the captions show how the words can be used in a sentence.

The reasons given against this (the EFL) illustration were as follows: – – – –

the situations illustrated are not especially common there is too much distracting information it is unnecessary to illustrate situations for adults, pictures are not appropriate.

The main choices facing BTD lexicographers are: – the purpose of the illustration (e.g. to show different types of something) – the range of items to illustrate – whether or not to label items within an illustration (on an electronic version, labels can be hyperlinked to entries) – the size (on an electronic version, illustrations can be expandable) – the appearance e.g. line drawing or photograph, technical drawing, or cartoon style – the placement of the illustration (on an electronic version, pictures can be placed at all the entries they relate to).

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Communicative Function Sections Question 30) in EFL Questionnaire Version B and in FFL Questionnaire Version B asked informants whether they thought that communicative function sections were useful in thematic dictionaries. Results: EFL informants: FFL informants: Average of %s:

Useful: 90% Useful: 74% Useful: 82%

Not Useful: 10% Not Useful: 26% Not Useful: 18%

5.11 Access Structures and Routes Tables of Contents Question 16) of the EFL Questionnaire Version A and of the FFL Questionnaire Version A asked the informants whether they thought that the different categories in a thematic dictionary should be listed near the front of the book. Results: EFL: Yes: 82% FFL: Yes: 88% Average of %s: Yes: 85%

No: 18% No: 12% No: 15%

This suggests that a table of contents is a highly desirable feature of a BTD. This feature is not without its problems, however. Even a straightforward alphabetical listing of keywords may be of considerable length if the dictionary is of a substantial size. A flat hierarchy such as that found in the CWR texts also suffers from length-related issues. A user is unlikely to be able to remember the relative position of each keyword in a list of 450 concepts, especially when the semantic flow between them is unavoidably only sporadic. Even if the keywords are listed alphabetically, the user still has to guess where a target lexeme may have been placed. Employing an alternative strategy of leafing through the main text itself until one comes to the relevant place in the alphabetical order of keywords runs into similar difficulties. A pyramid hierarchy requires users to work their way from top to bottom, possibly somewhat laboriously, at least when compared to a search using an electronic dictionary. Whichever type of hierarchy has been adopted, the word location experiment described earlier in this project suggests that exponents are very often placed in sections where users would not necessarily expect to find them. This may be partly due to each individual’s mental lexicon storing words in the mind in a unique way. It could also

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depend on the user’s first language and culture. Kumar (2004:8-9) cites the example of hereafter which Roget deals with in the context of Future, but which for many Indians would be connected with life after death, rebirth, and various forms of incarnation. There is no theoretical objection to including an exponent in more than one location. The problem is knowing where to place items. BTDs published in Britain tend to be based on an organizational framework that makes sense in terms of British society and culture. The intended users, however, are not British, and whilst it may be instructive to see how the British carve up the world, the user perspective must be taken into account. The further apart the cultures of the L1 and L2 speakers are, the bigger this concern becomes. Once users arrive at a promising-looking top-level category, there is likely to be a menu to help them find the most useful section. Nonetheless, this journey through the various layers is somewhat time-consuming, and more so if a wrong turn is taken at any stage. When the bottom level of the macrostructural hierarchy has been reached, i.e. the section at which the exponents are listed, the user normally then has to execute a kind of about-turn because the L2 headwords are encountered before their definitions (in an MTD) or translations (in a BTD). Only the monolingual OLWD maintains the onomasiological (i.e. meaning-to-word) route from start to finish because the definitions are placed to the left of the headwords (or perhaps they should be called tailwords in this instance). It is not known whether the radical move of left-aligning the senses really does prove more effective than the conventional arrangement of headword before definition. This is an area that requires further experimental research. As far as BTDs are concerned, similar experimentation could be carried out comparing the effectiveness of left-alignment of translations versus the conventional order of L2 headword followed by L1 translation. Research could also be undertaken in which the (often bracketed) disambiguating information is placed to the left of the translations. As far as print versions of thematic dictionaries are concerned, in the majority of cases some form of index is provided and this is regarded as the most usual access route which users are likely to employ. Less often, users are confronted by a table of contents which is usually organized according to the order of the sections in the text, but occasionally (as in the case of OLWD) may constitute a topical framework that does not reflect the order of the content as it appears in the book. Interestingly, none of the existing electronic TLDs have opted to present users with a hierarchically ordered subject classification scheme, even though hierarchical ordering with expandable/contractible nodes is a familiar organizational model in computer software, for example in the case of Windows File Manager. The arrangement closest to this comes in the form of CALD’s Smart Thesaurus, which is hidden below the surface of the GUI. Another consideration for BTD lexicographers is whether to have a fully comprehensive table of contents, an abridged version, or even both. If a table of contents is not employed, an alternative is to provide at least a list of categories or keywords in the front or back matter of a print version in order that users at least have some overview of the dictionary’s contents.

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Indexes The majority of topic-based dictionaries, regardless of whether the topics are alphabetically or thematically arranged, include an index. This could be interpreted as a tacit acknowledgement that both organizational principles have their limitations and that, at least as far as print dictionaries are concerned, the most commonly followed access path is likely to be via the index. This places a great deal of responsibility on the index to perform as an effective access device. The major decisions facing BTD lexicographers as regards indexes are: how many indexes to include, the extent of coverage, the location of the index, the arrangement of index items, and the details supplied at each index item. It seems advisable to supply two indexes, L1-L2 and L2-L1, so that the user can choose which language to use as a starting point in the consultation process. As regards coverage, ideally the indexes should contain all the exponents in the text although many BTDs (e.g. CWR) do not do this on account of space restrictions. Indexes should include not only exponents, but also section names. This applies equally to the indexes used in electronic dictionaries that show where a search word stands in relation to other exponents in a list, usually on the left-hand side of the screen. A BTD can either employ a running index (as in LLA1) or a conventional back-of-text index. A main disadvantage of a running index is that it could alienate users through its unfamiliar appearance, owing to the intercalation of text and access structure. In terms of arranging items in an index, alphabetical order is usually used, but the particular form of alphabetization has to be decided upon. A policy also needs to be formulated as to how to deal with multi-word units such as idioms. The information provided at each index item must obviously include a reference to the location or locations of the exponent in the main text. Semantic indicators will be needed in the case of polysemous items appearing in more than one location, and part of speech information is also useful, if not essential. Optional information includes: whether or not the exponent appears in an illustration, inflections (where applicable), and pronunciation information (as in LLCE). Menus Question 17) of the EFL Questionnaire Version A and of the FFL Questionnaire Version A asked the informants whether it would be useful to list all these subcategories in a menu immediately after the category heading. A strong majority came out in favour of this feature.

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Results: EFL: Useful: 79% FFL: Useful: 86% Average of %s: Useful: 83%

Not Useful: 21% Not Useful: 14% Not Useful: 17%

Those menus which appear at the beginning of a category list all the sections in the category. BTD compilers also need to decide whether menus are additionally needed at the base macrostructural level where the exponents are placed in sections e.g. as in LLA. The aim of menus is to direct users to the most appropriate exponent in the shortest possible time. Menus act as signposts along the access route, and support the representation of vocabulary as a network. Continuing the road sign analogy: they should be sufficient in quantity, and unambiguous as regards their informational content. In the latter case, the use of sample exponents can be helpful, as at SAVE MONEY in LLA1: 1 to save money, e.g. save up 2 to have some money that you have saved, e.g. have put something by 3 the money that you have saved, e.g. nest egg

In an electronic BTD, the menu items can be hyperlinked to their corresponding sections, thus speeding up consultation. Cross-References Cross-references also serve as important navigational aids. The key choices concerning cross-references are: the number of cross-references, their location, their type, and their representation (via wording and/or symbols). In print dictionaries, cross-references are normally restricted to those deemed most useful, because, if all possible cross-references were included, this could take up considerable space and end up being overwhelming for users. In electronic BTDs, more latitude is granted by the reduced pressure on space. Cross-references can be placed at various levels (category, subcategory, entry etc) and locations (within entries, notes etc). As regards types, cross-references may be content-oriented, directing the users to semantically, thematically, or morphologically related items. Alternatively, they may be redirectional in function, guiding the users when they have arrived at the wrong location, perhaps because of some confusion caused by similarity of meaning or form. Care must also be taken with the wording used before cross-references and with any symbols used to indicate cross-reference type. Cross-references of the see also type or using a symbol such as an arrow to indicate a related word are frequently found in learner’s dictionaries. The user may be confronted with a related item that could be either a near-synonym or almost an antonym. Users could be left unsure as to why they

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are being made aware of another item. More specific labelling of cross-references can help in such situations. Searching on an Electronic BTD The more access routes available to users, the higher the probability that they will find what they are looking for. In a print dictionary based on themes, the users are highly restricted in terms of access routes. Regardless as to whether the uppermost themelist is alphabetically or thematically arranged, users deploying the index to access the relevant section are dependent on the quantity and quality of that list, i.e. whether it covers all the headwords and whether it is organized in a user-friendly manner. If users are using the uppermost themelist as an access route, even more limitations are imposed. Accessing via an alphabetical themelist requires users to guess or remember a promising keyword and then to leaf through the pages in an attempt to find it. Accessing via a thematically ordered themelist is made a lot easier if a list of contents is provided (as in the case of CFET). As has been seen earlier, however, not all thematic learner’s dictionaries provide a contents list: e.g. as in the case of the CWR series. As with the index, accessibility is dependent on the quantity and quality of the information held in the contents list. Electronic dictionaries can overcome many of the access limitations that blight users of print dictionaries. However, if the macrostructure of an electronic TLD closely resembles that of its print dictionary equivalent, such an advantage is diminished. For example, the CD-ROM version of LLA2 has a horizontal scrollbar listing the keywords in alphabetical order. As the total number of keywords is 866, this scrollbar is somewhat unwieldy as an access device. The great advantage which electronic dictionaries have over print dictionaries in terms of freedom of access lies in the relatively sophisticated search types permitted via the type-in search dialogue box. The index in a print dictionary can allow users to bypass much of the macrostructure and so can point them to a relevant section. A similar function is performed by the type-in search field in an electronic dictionary. The user can be dropped in at the relevant entry without having to contend with the complexities of the macrostructure. In the case of electronic thematic dictionaries, users can avail themselves of type-in search fields. These allow the user to be more or less instantly directed from an entered familiar vocabulary item to a section containing other semantically or thematically related lexis. A hyperlink of this nature largely obviates the user having to wrestle with the organizational plan of the dictionary, at least initially. If users wish to move from the subcategory where they have landed to other related subcategories, then the organizational framework has to be engaged directly. Another important desideratum is therefore that the access structures should be intuitive to use. Once a user is within the main text, it should be clear where they currently are and where they should go to pursue a particular target section or item. Clear and frequent signposting in the form of access maps etc is therefore required.

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Electronic dictionaries change access structures significantly. A BTD offers the following access routes: – – – – –

the type-in search field searches according to user-specified parameters access via a graphic display (e.g. the Visual Thesaurus) scrollable lists of keywords hyperlinks – at menus – at cross-references – at pictorial illustrations – between thematic and alphabetical onomasiological dictionaries if combined on the same CD-ROM.

The search capabilities are faster and more comprehensive than those of a print dictionary. They can also be more attuned to the user’s individual interests. With a print dictionary, the user is following a predetermined route through the structure of the text. This is less so in the case of an electronic dictionary because the user has greater freedom of choice as regards search strategies. This is an important element of the increased personalization which electronic reference works can provide. The type-in search box allows searches either on the full text or on selected parts of the text such as the definitions. Fuzzy matching increases the possibility of a user finding a target item, and is especially useful when searching for multi-element lexemes. Scrollable lists of headwords are still problematic, however, in that such lists are often very long and not always possible to view in toto on-screen. Nonetheless, the type-in search field allows users to avoid dealing with a long list of keywords and with other complications of the macrostructural hierarchy, as do other, often invisible, links. The user’s relationship with the text changes in the electronic medium. The text becomes less fixed. Parts of it can be taken from different areas and joined together. On carrying out a search on an electronic learner’s dictionary, a number of items can be displayed in addition to the target entry, e.g.: – – – – – – – – – – – –

antonyms attributes (e.g. weight – light, heavy etc) branches of knowledge (e.g. ballet – pirouette) derivatives domain usage (e.g. trademark – Kleenex) entailments (e.g. snore – sleep) material something is made of (e.g. brick – clay) near-synonyms participles parts region types.

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Below is a list of the various search types available on electronic learner’s dictionaries. – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

collocation search compound search derived words search editorial notes search etymological search examples search frequency search full text search grammar search headword search homophone search irregular inflections search menu search morphological search multimedia search part of speech search phrasal verb search pronunciation search regional search style search subject search

Electronic dictionaries also allow the possibility of combining these various parameters in an advanced search. A key desideratum is, therefore, that the advanced search facility should be easy to use without the need to type in codes, as is occasionally the case. From the production angle, the most useful search parameters for a BTD are the subject search and the full text search, especially if the latter allows a search specifically on translation equivalents and disambiguators including notes. If a conventional A-Z bilingual dictionary is combined with a BTD, for example on a single CD-ROM, care must be taken with the design of the link from the former to the latter. Of the existing electronic TLDs, the LDOCE4’s dedicated link window (‘Activate Your Language’) appears to offer an effective solution by bringing together relevant sections from the thematic Activator. CALD’s covert thesaurus does, however, allow an overview of the vocabulary as a network. The ideal situation would perhaps allow users a choice of using either access system.

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5.12 User Guidance and Practice The User Guide A user guide, normally placed in the front matter of a print TLD, has to strike a balance between clarity and comprehensiveness. It should be divided into manageable chunks and not be so lengthy as to be offputting for the reader. Particular attention should be paid to those features which are TLD-specific and possibly unfamiliar to users of conventional learner’s dictionaries. Specific features can be indicated with the aid of sample sections and entries. The users need to be taken through the various steps of the onomasiological consultation progress, and alerted to the various choices of access route. Help with Codes and Abbreviations Each of the codes and abbreviations needs to be explained and exemplified, especially as TLDs tend to use a greater range of style and register labels than standard learner’s dictionaries do to distinguish the sometimes subtle distinctions between exponents. Existing electronic TLDs sometimes provide an explanation of a grammatical code if it is clicked on by a user. This could be extended to all codes, abbreviations, and labels. Practice Materials Exercises can usefully be provided to practise not only different areas of language, but also dictionary use. The latter is especially important given the lack of training which most users receive regarding thematic dictionaries of any kind. Electronic BTDs have the advantage of being able to function interactively i.e. by providing hints (possibly including hyperlinks to entries), instant answers, and score calculations. A function has already become established on electronic learner’s dictionaries which allows users to record their own pronunciation and compare it with a pre-recorded audioclip. Diagnostic testing could be employed to direct learners to exercises practising areas of their L2 competence that need to be improved. Encouraging Learner Autonomy Learner independence can be encouraged when using electronic BTDs by allowing users to add their own notes to existing entries and to create their own thematic wordlists or mini dictionaries. A facility can also be supplied enabling users to test themselves on material which they have input themselves.

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5.13 Bilingual Elements Decisions need to be made as to which BTD features to present in L1, L2, or both. Front matter guidance should arguably be at least in L1 on account of the need for clarity. The user questionnaires revealed a preference for macrostructural headings to be in both languages. There is a strong argument that such headings should include L1 because LLA has shown that section headings can become quite lengthy when indicating differences between near-synonymous sections, and as such, could become challenging to understand if only written in L2. Crucial discriminatory information is contained in the bracketed disambiguators and in contrastive notes, so these features should also arguably be in L1 because of the demand for intelligibility. Entry elements in both L1 and L2 obviously include the headword and the various translation equivalents, as well as the examples and their translations. Translations of examples are useful for illustrating cases where a head translation can or cannot be used. As mentioned earlier, both L2-L1 and L1-L2 indexes should be provided to allow users to start the consultation process from either language.

5.14 CD-ROM Features Exploiting the Storage Capacity of a CD-ROM BTD The increased storage capacity of a CD-ROM BTD compared to its print equivalent results in lexicographers facing a number of choices as to which additional material to include, such as extra cultural entries, phrases, examples, and collocational and syntactic patterns. Inclusion decisions should be guided by the principle of usefulness with regard to language production. The relative freedom from space restrictions enables CD-ROM BTDs to place pertinent notes, boxes, tables, and pictorial illustrations at all the entries they refer to, thus reducing the need for cross-referencing. Presentational Possibilities The CD-ROM format opens up a wide range of possibilities for displaying information. A key desideratum, as with any piece of software, is user-friendliness in the form of being intuitive to use. The central part of the display can closely resemble a print dictionary or adopt a radically different graphic approach as with the 2D and 3D constellations of the Visual Thesaurus. This latter display style graphically represents vocabulary as a network. Further research is required to compare its effectiveness with that of more traditional display styles. Existing CD-ROM MTDs either place the thematic dictionary under a conventional dictionary (e.g. CALD CD-ROM) or transfer the user from the conventional MLD to the thematic dictionary (e.g. LDOCE4 CDROM). Electronic BTDs can be minimized as pop-up windows to function alongside

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other software applications such as word processors, web browsers, and email programs. Font colours, sizes, and styles can also be altered in accordance with user preferences. Users can also choose whether to hide or display certain features, such as pronunciation symbols. Pictures can be expanded and are often of higher quality than their print equivalents, due to backlighting from the screen. Electronic Assistance along Access Routes The electronic BTD has a significant advantage over its print counterpart in terms of its search capabilities. A spellcheck can operate on items entered into the type-in search field. The more effective search systems can locate base forms from inflected forms and direct the users to the correct entries when multi-word units such as compounds and phrases are entered as target items. The search mechanism can be designed to automatically generate lexemes related to the search term. These exponents are generally output to a results window, and include both semantically and morphologically related items. Users can return to previous searches by means of the history function. As discussed above, a wide variety of filters can be put on searches. Other search devices include scrollable lists of keywords, as in the electronic Activator. An autopilot function can simulate random browsing through the text. The electronic format allows users to move rapidly between texts (from the standard to the thematic dictionary, and vice-versa) and around different parts of the same text. Hyperlinks enable users to click on any on-screen word in order to be taken to its entry. Hyperlinks can also transport users from menus to the relevant section within a category. Links could even be set up between the dictionary and the Internet. Furthermore, hyperlinks are useful for moving around grammar sections and other subdivided texts such as user guides. The Benefits of Multimedia The multimedia possibilities of the electronic BTD can significantly enhance the consultation experience. As regards sounds, recorded pronunciation clips can be provided for headwords, inflected forms, and examples, thus avoiding the need for users to master a coded system such as IPA. Users can record their own pronunciation and compare their performance to audioclips of native speakers. Sound effects are useful for illustrating sounds that are not easily defined. Although videoclips have not been widely used to date in electronic learner’s dictionaries, there are plenty of vocabulary areas which could benefit from their use, such as illustrating processes, physical movement, and facial expressions.

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User Guidance and Practice User guidance can be provided by means of a Help function as found in most software applications. In addition, clickable codes and labels can be supplied which summon up descriptions of their purpose. Practice can be provided in the form of interactive exercises. User independence can be catered for by allowing users to input their own material, such as notes attached to entries or topical vocabulary lists.

5.15 Summary of Chapter 5 A cumulative checklist of actual and potential BTD features and choices was produced by combining the previously compiled checklists for monolingual learner’s dictionaries, monolingual thematic dictionaries, and existing bilingual thematic dictionaries, and discarding any elements that apply exclusively to monolingual works. The rationale behind the creation of the cumulative checklist was to provide lexicographers working on BTDs with a menu from which they could select features that meet the needs of their own particular user group. In order to provide further assistance to these putative BTD lexicographers, each feature and its surrounding issues and options were discussed in greater detail under the following headings: physical format, independent and dependent BTDs, inclusion, lexicographic evidence, macrostructure, sections, headings, microstructure, other features (i.e. notes and boxes, tables, pictorial illustrations, and communicative function sections), access structures and routes (i.e. tables of contents, indexes, guidewords, menus, cross-references, and searching on an electronic BTD), user guidance and practice, bilingual elements, and CD-ROM features. As each feature was examined, feedback from the user questionnaires, the search report experiment, and the location guessing experiment was introduced into the discussion where relevant. The discussion of sections included a full report on the location guessing experiment.

6

Conclusions

In Section 1.2 it was stated that the current project aimed to answer three questions: 1) What are bilingual thematic dictionaries? 2) How useful are they? 3) How can they be improved? As a conclusion, answers to these questions are provided in this final chapter.

6.1

What are Bilingual Thematic Dictionaries?

The attempt to discover exactly what bilingual thematic dictionaries are involved three investigative strands: 1) analysis of the BTD as a hybrid lexicographic genre, 2) examination of the BTD’s roots and relatives, and 3) identification of the BTD’s distinctive features. The bilingual thematic dictionary is an intriguing and innovative amalgam of three lexicographic traditions: the bilingual, the thematic, and the pedagogical. The typological research perspective involved examining each of these traditions in turn and identifying their characteristics, including important distinctions within each tradition such as the difference between a thematic dictionary and a thesaurus. The typological approach was combined with the structural perspective to examine the roots and relatives of the BTD, including semasiological learner’s dictionaries and the BTD’s immediate predecessors: monolingual thematic learner’s dictionaries. Checklists of the key features of MLDs, thematic dictionaries, and existing BTDs were drawn up, together with a discussion of the choices available to the lexicographer. The checklist of existing BTD features shows the state of play as regards the components of BTDs published to date. By combining the three lists and subtracting features that apply only to monolingual works, it was possible to create a cumulative checklist of both actual and potential BTD features. The issues relating to the inclusion policy for a BTD are much the same as for any other learner’s dictionary, but with a bias towards language that a user is likely to employ productively. As a productive bilingual dictionary, there is also a case for greater inclusion of vocabulary relating to the user’s culture than has traditionally been the case. The themes that make up the macrostructure of a BTD may be either alphabetically or topically arranged, and in either a flat or a pyramid hierarchy. A distinction can be made between bilingual thesauri, such as CFET, which adopt a Christmas tree formation proceeding from the general to the specific, and bilingual thematic learner’s

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dictionaries, such as the CWR series, which employ a flatter macrostructural arrangement. Those BTDs which have the word ‘thesaurus’ in their titles retain some kind of familial connection, however distant, with Roget’s Thesaurus. In the case of CFET, this link is in terms of the macrostructural shape although the categories are more pragmatic than Roget’s highly abstract ‘philosophical’ classes. The thesauri in the CRCDAT dictionaries relate to Roget at the base level of the macrostructure where undefined lexemes are grouped together. A publisher’s decision to use ‘thematic dictionary’ in the title of a topical learner’s dictionary signals an intent to distance it from the Rogetian model, e.g. by employing a subject classification more in tune with the modern world or by providing definitions so that the work is a distinctive rather than a cumulative synonymy. Different levels of the macrostructure can be ordered according to different principles. Generally, the sections within a category are thematically arranged. As regards the number of macrostructural levels, these do not usually descend beyond subsubcategory level. Semantic and thematic flow is maintained as far as possible at the top level of a flat hierarchy and between the sections (normally subcategories) within a category whichever kind of hierarchical framework is employed. The adjacent placement of antonymic or contrasting categories is characteristic of TLDs. The base-level sections of BTDs group exponents according to a wide variety of criteria. Certain types of grouping can be found in many different BTDs. These include not only semantically related items such as near-synonyms or the types or parts of something, but also vocabulary associated with a particular theme, activity, or location. Within sections, exponents can be ordered alphabetically, thematically, or by frequency. Phrases and other multi-word units can either be mixed in with single-word exponents or assigned to a separate box. In contrast to many native-speaker thematic dictionaries, BTD sections are distinctive rather than cumulative synonymies. Some sections consist of labelled pictures rather than entries, or a mixture of pictorial illustrations and wordlists. Section headings may be in L1, L2, or both. The microstructural elements of BTDs include those found in most learner’s dictionaries such as variants, inflections, pronunciation information, part of speech and grammar codes, as well as regional, style, and register labels. As BTDs are bilingual dictionaries, translation equivalents replace the definitions given in MLDs. Examples highlight syntactic and collocational patterns, and are provided with translations. Slang BTDs often additionally supply literal translations. Bracketed information is often placed after the translation equivalents. These are referred to as disambiguators in the current text because their main role is to help users differentiate between nearsynonyms. They may, however, contain supplementary information, for example concerning etymology. BTDs contain several different types of notes and boxes. Some of these contain additional exponents for vocabulary expansion, further details about a particular aspect of a given exponent such as its grammatical behaviour, or occasionally metatextual explanations concerning such matters as the arrangement of items within a section. The most useful of these from a productive aspect are those which help users to discriminate between exponents, especially when explicit contrasts are made between

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items which have been grouped together. Many BTDs include an extensive set of sections towards the end of the text dealing with communicative functions such as giving instructions or asking for permission. Pictorial illustrations are widely used in BTDs and, as mentioned above, sections sometimes consist mainly or solely of labelled pictures. As regards access routes, BTDs usually have a table of contents and two indexes (L1-L2 and L2-L1), plus cross-references and guidewords. The bilingual elements in BTDs may include the table of contents, the user guide in the front matter, section headings, translation equivalents, translations of examples, and the indexes. User instruction comes in the form of the user guide, lists of abbreviations and codes, and sample entries highlighting salient features. Exercises only very occasionally appear in existing BTDs.

6.2

How Useful are Bilingual Thematic Dictionaries?

Usefulness of the BTD in General A three-pronged approach was taken to evaluating the usefulness of BTDs: 1) textual analysis and evaluation, 2) elicitation of opinions from nearly 100 informants by means of user questionnaires, and 3) two small-scale experiments concerned respectively with the placement of exponents within sections and with consultation strategies. To repeat the familiar mantra, the most important criterion for measuring the usefulness of any dictionary is whether it meets the needs of its users. Approaches 2) and 3) above were adopted with the user perspective in mind. A BTD has to be useful in three ways: as a bilingual dictionary, as a thematic dictionary, and as a learner’s dictionary. Desiderata were identified against which the BTD could be evaluated as a member of each of the three lexicographic traditions. It is difficult to assess how useful BTDs are as a lexicographic genre, although the questionnaires and experiments provide some indication as to the usefulness of certain features. The user questionnaires revealed that 45% of EFL learners claimed to use a thematic dictionary often or sometimes when writing in L2, but a figure of only 10% was recorded for FFL learners. Splitting the difference gives an average of 27.5% which is a very low figure. It remains uncertain how much should be read into these results. The disparity between the EFL and FFL groups as regards TLD use may be accounted for by the greater availability of such works for EFL learners, and the low overall figures may be due to some extent to the fact that the informants claimed to have seldom received instruction in the use of thematic dictionaries for either L1 or L2 purposes. Very low figures were also recorded as regards BTD use, averaging 5% for the two types of learner. The user questionnaires showed, however, that the vast majority (88%) of BTD owners felt that the usefulness of this type of dictionary was equal to that of a conventional bilingual dictionary. When EFL learners were asked to

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express a preference between corresponding sections from a monolingual thematic dictionary and from a bilingual thematic dictionary, 65% preferred the latter. The main reason for preferring the BTD was that the translation equivalents, explanations (in notes), and the translations of the examples were easier to understand because they were written in L1. Among FFL informants, an even greater proportion (82%) preferred the section extracted from a BTD. Again, the clarity supplied by the use of L1 was given as one of the top reasons for this preference. Catering for the Needs of the User Group It is a well-established practice for publishing houses to generate several bilingual dictionaries (e.g. French, Spanish etc) from a single L2 (e.g. English) framework. At the same time, a bilingual dictionary’s usefulness must be judged according to the extent to which it meets the needs of speakers of one particular language who are learning another particular language. Features such as false friend notes and translation notes must be relevant to the language pair involved, and ideally be informed by learners’ corpora of spoken and written material produced by, for example, French speakers learning English. As regards existing BTDs, the CWR series is perhaps less successful than CFET or USS at achieving this. As already discussed, the notion of relevance to a specific user group relates not only to linguistic needs, but also to cultural needs. This affects not only features such as cultural entries and cultural notes, but also inclusion policy and the choice of subject matter illustrated in pictures. Inclusion One of the most important decisions that TLD lexicographers have to make regarding inclusion is whether to include exponents with abstract, concrete, or both abstract and concrete referents. The user questionnaires revealed that 94% of the informants preferred the last option. This would suggest that BTDs which adopt this inclusion policy are more useful than those which do not. The deciding factor with regard to the inclusion of any exponent is that it should be useful for encoding purposes. Hence the emphasis should be on frequently occurring contemporary vocabulary, not on rare and/or dated language. This principle should also extend to the topics covered in a BTD. Macrostructure A BTD macrostructure should reflect the modern world and be pragmatically determined, i.e. it should not include topics at such a high level of generality that they become too abstract and difficult for users to handle. Nevertheless, more research is

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required to determine which types of macrostructural arrangement, i.e. a flat or pyramid hierarchy or an alphabetical versus a thematic arrangement of topics, are more effective for users. The limitations of a flat hierarchy were evident from the analysis of CWR categories which revealed chunks of logically related themes interrupted by unrelated topics. The user questionnaires revealed no strong preference for either an alphabetical or a thematic ordering of the categories. It could be argued that the macrostructural arrangement is not critical, because in print BTDs the main access route is via the indexes, and with electronic BTDs it is by means of the type-in search field. Nonetheless, lexicographers may wish to provide users with the additional possibility of dealing directly with the macrostructure as a representation of vocabulary as a network, as is the case with CALD’s latent Smart Thesaurus. If this is the case, then the macrostructure assumes greater importance because it must be navigable by the average user. Sections More research is required in order to decide which types of vocabulary groupings are most useful for users. In terms of user preferences, as indicated by the questionnaires, a majority (64%) of informants preferred single words and phrases to be kept apart in separate lists within a section. A majority (71%) of informants preferred words belonging to different parts of speech to be kept apart from each other within a section. A section heading should clearly indicate the type of exponents which users would expect to find there. The results from the location guessing experiment suggest that there are problems with the placement of exponents within sections, at least as far as the CWR series is concerned. Fewer than half of the participants’ location guesses would have resulted in success, and only 30% of the location guesses could be considered even reasonably good (i.e. achieving a success rate of 75% or more). User research has long established that some users will only look at the first few senses in a long polysemous entry. The search report experiment suggested that users of thematic learner’s dictionaries may, in analogous fashion, not look beyond the first few exponents in a section. Again, this is an issue which needs to be addressed by training in dictionary use. The number of exponents contained within a section affects its usefulness. Too few exponents would not expand the users’ vocabulary sufficiently, whereas too many would render the section unmanageable. Headings The headings should pass the Ronseal test i.e. they should describe their contents accurately. The location guessing experiment suggested that CWR category headings often did not succeed in indicating the type of exponents they contained.

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The majority (75%) of the user questionnaire informants expressed a preference for headings to be supplied in both L1 and L2. Microstructure BTDs should avoid opaque codes such as the grammatical codes used in LLCE. The search report experiment provided mixed, although generally favourable, evidence of the usefulness of the bracketed disambiguators that follow translation equivalents, especially those containing semantic or register information, or which specify possible objects. The disambiguators were, however, only effective if they provided sufficient information. It was also demonstrated that errors can result when not all of the exponents within a section are supplied with enough information for the user to discriminate among them. Often, disambiguators allow the user to identify the difference between some, but not all of the exponents in a section. Some disambiguators provided a certain amount of information (e.g. on register), but not enough to differentiate between exponents, for example when possible objects were a crucial factor in deciding between the lexical choices on offer. Although examples are often referred to by users and can play an important role in disambiguating near-synonyms, the same experiment also pointed out the risks of supplying insufficient collocational information at examples. This can lead to users coming to false conclusions. Users may, for example, conclude that the use of an exponent is highly restricted if an example only shows one collocation. The collocations illustrated should be linguistic tokens i.e. specific exponents that collocate, not merely semantic types in L1 as provided in the CWR dictionaries. Translation equivalents were also shown to help users choose between exponents. Syntactic patterns were found to cause problems when prepositions were placed in round brackets because the user incorrectly assumed them to be optional sentence elements. At the same time, the reverse problem was also encountered: i.e. an optional element was wrongly interpreted as being compulsory because the word meaning ‘often’ was overlooked. The user questionnaires provided high approval ratings for all the disambiguators for which opinions were canvassed. As regards examples, a majority (70%) of informants expressed approval of translations being provided for examples. Other Features 60% of the user questionnaire informants preferred the notes to be in both L1 and L2. High usefulness ratings were recorded for the various types of note. Similarly positive ratings (93% and 82%) were also registered for the two tables in the user questionnaires for which opinions were canvassed. A 96% usefulness rating was recorded for a pictorial illustration of a bathroom with various objects labelled. Reasons given for this approval were: that pictures can be a

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very direct means of indicating meaning, the clarity of the illustration, the fact that the items depicted were everyday objects, because the items were shown in context, and because pictures help users to remember vocabulary. A second illustration depicting people suffering from illness or injury was only considered useful by 58% of informants. Some informants felt that the situations illustrated were not especially common, that the pictures contained too much distracting information, and that they are not suitable for adults. Pictures should be clear and their inclusion ought to be pedagogically and not merely aesthetically motivated. Communicative function sections were considered useful by 82% of the informants. Access Structures and Routes 85% of the user questionnaire informants considered front matter tables of contents to be useful. The search report experiment showed that BTD indexes generally directed the user to the correct section and that semantic indicators are of crucial importance at polysemous index items. A large majority (83%) of informants favoured the inclusion of a menu of subcategories at the beginning of each category. User Guidance and Practice The current project did not question users directly about the usefulness of user guidance and practice materials. However, the facts that the questionnaire informants received very little training in the use of thematic dictionaries of any kind, and that the experiments demonstrated that users did not always find sought-after information or else interpreted it incorrectly, suggest that the user guidance supplied by existing BTDs is not as useful as it should be.

6.3

How Can BTDs and the Use of BTDs be Improved?

One of the three reasons for undertaking research into bilingual thematic dictionaries was a belief that this lexicographic genre has considerable potential for development. Suggestions as to areas in which BTDs could be improved are discussed in the following section. Format None of the existing BTDs surveyed are in electronic format. In the light of the advantages of the electronic format for learner’s dictionaries in general and TLDs in particular, it seems likely that the BTD’s usefulness can be improved by adopting an

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electronic format. The user questionnaires revealed that 84% of informants believed that BTDs would be useful in electronic form. The main reasons for this opinion were: the increased speed of consultation, ease of use, multimedia features, and the links from one part of the text to the other. The decision to combine a semasiological A-Z learner’s dictionary with a thematic learner’s dictionary on a single CD-ROM, and to link the two works together, is a logical step because language learning activities often involve frequent switching between decoding and encoding modes. However, once users have transferred to the thematic dictionary, they could usefully be offered more ways of navigating around the macrostructure, and a wider choice of information display than is currently the case. Some users may wish to navigate around a representation of the vocabulary of a language as a hierarchical network similar to CALD’s latent deep-level Smart Thesaurus. Others may prefer the approach adopted by the electronic versions of LDOCE4’s Activator and OALDCE7’s Wordfinder where the main access route begins with the type-in search field and involves less direct involvement with the macrostructural arrangement, at least at the start of the consultation process. Ideally, perhaps both options could be catered for. It could be the case that some users interact better with a graphics-driven macrostructure, whilst others prefer a more word-based menu-driven access route. The same observation applies to the presentation of information within a category or other section. Some users may prefer a display that is similar to a page in a print dictionary and others may favour a radical departure from tradition, such as the constellation model used in the Visual Thesaurus. Either way, as many choices of macrostructural representation and interaction should be provided as are technically possible. Inclusion Some existing thematic learner’s dictionaries have limited inclusion to abstract vocabulary only. The user questionnaires, however, showed a 94% preference for including both concrete and abstract vocabulary. A case was made for TLDs to include more vocabulary relating to the user’s own culture. Publishers could also consider the possibility of producing an encyclopedic BTD analogous to encyclopedic MLDs such as LDELC and OALED in order to supply information on the often overlapping areas of language and culture. The overall number of exponents in existing BTDs such as the CWR series and CFET is modest compared to that in the monolingual thematic dictionary LLA. There may be room in the market for an expanded BTD to cater for advanced-level users.

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Lexicographic Evidence The BTDs already published do not generally make any reference to corpus evidence, so it remains unknown to what extent it was drawn upon, if at all. BTDs could be improved by making more use of corpus evidence, especially learners’ corpora which can inform the content of disambiguators attached to translation equivalents and determine the content of contrastive notes. Use of parallel corpora could assist lexicographers in identifying accurate translation equivalents, especially those which may have been missed in other dictionaries. Effective and reliable semantic tagging of corpora would greatly assist the compilation of BTDs, because it would allow lexicographers to identify all the exponents that express any particular meaning. It would also reduce compilation time because otherwise, corpus lines have to be manually trawled through. Furthermore, this traditional method is formally oriented. In other words, compilers select an exponent and look at the different senses illustrated in the corpus, rather than use the reverse process which is onomasiological, i.e. it proceeds from meaning to linguistic exponent. Macrostructure Further research is required to discover whether particular macrostructural arrangements are more effective than others (see Section 6.4 below). It is not beyond possibility that there is no one-size-fits-all solution to the issue of the macrostructure, and that individual users have different needs and require different macrostructural options to be provided. Headings The location guessing experiment showed that users often do not find exponents at the locations where they would expect to find them. BTDs could make greater use of metatextual headings explaining the rationale behind the grouping and arrangement of exponents within a section, as is the case in RHWWM. This explicit approach would be an improvement on a common existing situation whereby such information is only found in the styleguide, and is not available to users. Sections Decisions as to which exponents to group together in a section are crucial. Ways of improving the existing, often somewhat ad hoc, approach evident in TLDs include:

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1) making lexicographers aware of the various criteria according to which lexemes may be related. These include not only semantic relationships, but also other logical, thematic, situational, and associative relationships. These can sometimes be hard to pin down. For this reason, the preceding analyses of texts have included lists of the different grouping criteria (see under the headings Sections, Disambiguators, and Notes in the reports on the various dictionaries). Learning from the efforts of predecessors is also an entirely valid approach to deciding on grouping strategies. 2) improvements to existing corpus tools in order to allow semantic and functional analysis of corpus lines so that all the exponents expressing a particular meaning or communicative function are caught and can be considered for inclusion. At present, many of them slip through the net on account of the limitations of corpus tools. 3) use of word association tests could generate the constellations of related vocabulary that surround any given lexeme. This would assist lexicographers who often work in isolation, and it would reduce the risk of a section merely reflecting the idiolect of the compiler who happened to be working on it. Microstructure The search report experiment showed that some disambiguators did not contain sufficient information to allow users to choose between near-synonyms, and that it was often the case that not enough information was supplied to disambiguate one exponent within a section from each of the other exponents. Crucial information about possible subjects and objects was also found to be lacking in several cases. Ideally, whichever exponents are compared by the user, there should be enough data for their respective meanings and uses to be clearly distinguished. Greater use could be made of learners’ corpora by identifying cases where learners have confused near-synonyms. The thematic learner’s dictionaries varied in the amount of disambiguating information supplied to users. One of the most thorough and systematic treatments of this area can be found in USS. Part of the solution to improving this area lies in making compilers aware of the wide range of aspects in which near-synonyms differ. Such awareness-raising should also cover the fact that certain types of disambiguator make discrimination more clear-cut than others. For example, register operates as a cline and it is often a subjective decision as to which register is acceptable in a given situation, but syntactic patterns are far more fixed. A systematic approach to disambiguation is vital, because information may otherwise be included which falsely discriminates, i.e. it shows a difference which does not actually exist. The search report experiment also suggested that not enough collocational information was provided at some BTD examples and that when this occurs there is a risk that users may assume that a lexeme’s descriptive range is more limited than is actually the case. More examples in general should be provided, especially on a CD-ROM where space is not so much at a premium as with a print version, in order to illustrate the use of a word in a variety of contexts. Greater use could be made of devices such as collocation boxes which supply extensive illustration of the most frequent collocational

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patterns associated with any given exponent. Existing BTDs do not tend to illustrate syntactic and collocational patterns to the same extent as MLDs, so this is an issue that needs to be addressed. The search report experiment demonstrated that the placement of prepositions in parentheses is open to misinterpretation by users. Therefore, as far as space permits, syntactic patterns should be manifested in unabbreviated form. Greater use of corpus-derived examples would also be an improvement on existing BTDs. Other Features The cumulative checklist of actual and potential BTD features lists a wide range of note types. However, many TLDs, whether monolingual or bilingual, do not include enough notes which contrast the meaning and use of the exponents collected together in a section. False friend notes, translation notes, and contrastive notes should be tailored to the specific needs of the users, i.e. speakers of a particular L1. The CWR series, in which several BTDs were generated from a common L2 framework, does not meet this requirement adequately. Electronic BTDs could improve on existing print versions by placing notes and pictures at all or many of the entries to which they apply. Tables received a high approval rating (82%) and yet are relatively rarely used in TLDs. Their increased use could improve the presentation of simplified componential analyses and permitted collocations. Access Routes Indexes, the most common access route in print TLDs, can be improved by including category headings if they are missing. The experience of the LLA1 publishers suggests that running indexes should be avoided. Care must be taken to avoid vague or unclear cross-references. This can be an issue with arrow symbols and ‘see also’ cross-references. Users must always be informed as to the reason why their attention is being drawn to an entry at another location. Electronic BTDs have many advantages over print dictionaries in terms of the choice of access routes and the increased speed when travelling along them. Nonetheless, the problems associated with print versions must not be replicated. For example, a list of hundreds of keywords in a flat hierarchy is always going to be difficult for users to remember. The horizontal scrollbar of keywords in the CD-ROM version of the Longman Activator does not provide a solution to the problem. Existing search devices of electronic learner’s dictionaries are not without their gremlins. Some are inefficient in searching for multi-word units such as phrases and idioms.

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There is room for BTD lexicographers to experiment with alternatives to the type-in search field. Although type-in search fields are fast and flexible due to the many search parameters which can be set, some users may prefer to have the option of dealing with the macrostructure directly. For instance, to date no electronic TLD has attempted to present users with a hierarchical table of contents whose levels can be expanded by the user in much the same way as folders are stored in software programs such as Windows Explorer. Other users may prefer a more graphic access route in which the vocabulary of a language is represented as a network of linked constellations. User Guidance and Practice A need exists for improved user guidance and exercises for practising TLD use, especially given the paucity of such features in existing BTDs and the relative unfamiliarity of users with thematic dictionaries (as shown in the user questionnaires). Only just over half of the questionnaire informants owned a thesaurus. 40% of all the informants seldom used a thematically organized dictionary when writing in L1, and 39% never used one. 73% of the informants either seldom or never used a thematically organized dictionary when writing in L2. Specifically regarding BTDs, only 5% of the informants used either CWR or CFET. A New Approach to BTD Compilation The lexicographic output of most publishers of learner’s dictionaries consists mainly of alphabetical semasiological learner’s dictionaries. Consequently, lexicographers may only occasionally be required to compile thematic learner’s dictionaries. Not only could they face the challenge of compiling works of a less familiar nature in terms of arrangement, but they may also need to deal with the issues surrounding a bilingual version of a thematic dictionary. Accordingly, it may be necessary to carry out additional training to raise awareness of the issues involved in creating a BTD. This being a type of learner’s dictionary, use of corpus-derived evidence will be required to inform compilation decisions in many areas such as the inclusion of lexemes, identification of typical syntactic and collocational patterns, determining the number of senses and their relative frequency, and the extraction of examples. Beyond these familiar uses of a corpus during the compilation of a learner’s dictionary, lexicographers may also need to be trained in exploiting this resource for a thematic dictionary. The texts contained within a corpus are often tagged according to various parameters, such as: the medium i.e. whether derived from a spoken or written source, the date of the source text, details of the speaker or writer e.g. gender, age, nationality, and the type of text e.g. informal conversation, newspaper article, university textbook etc. Information of these various kinds can go a long way towards informing the various disambiguating devices used in a TLD, such as the subdivision of topical areas into sections or the content of notes discriminating near-synonyms. Arguably the most

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useful form of corpus tagging would be semantic. Unfortunately, at the present time, dictionary publishers do not appear to have such a tool at their disposal. Its provision would, however, radically improve the quality of dictionaries of all kinds. One key area which dedicated training for BTD compilation should focus on is the raising of awareness of the types of semantic and other relationships which can be detected when surveying corpus lines. To this end, it is hoped that the lists of potential relationships in the cumulative checklist of actual and potential BTD features and choices will be useful. These are given under the headings for Sections, Microstructure (disambiguators), and Other Features (notes and boxes). Such text-derived evidence pertaining to a particular lexeme can be complemented by data drawn from word association tests, even if undertaken using a relatively small informant base. Each individual has a different set of associations with any given word. Compilers need to reach out beyond the confines of their own idiolects. In addition to word association testing, a further means of eliciting the constellation of lexemes associatively related to a particular word or expression is to take heed of user feedback during and/or after compilation. Unfortunately, publishers are understandably cagey about revealing which dictionaries are in the pipeline before they are published. This attitude is likely to prevent feedback being collected simultaneously with compilation, although it could be carried out after publication with a view to improving future editions. Corpora of texts produced by learners are especially useful for the production of bilingual dictionaries. Compilers can examine the texts spoken or written by speakers of the language which is paired with the foreign language. Areas can be identified where learners are only using a limited range of language exponents to express something, thus exhibiting a lack of knowledge about the more precise and appropriate language needed for a particular situation. Such lacunae can be focused on and addressed in the BTD by means of increased coverage of particular thematic and functional areas as well as via the provision of targeted disambiguating information. Parallel text corpora could also be used to establish equivalences between languages for expressing the same meanings. Again, as with semantically tagged corpora, this is an area of corpus use which publishing houses do not yet appear to put into practice. This is possibly due to the pressures of time and expense which permeate all commercial lexicography. Additional tools to help compilers are the styleguide and the benchmark text. The styleguide should not only ensure consistency of lexicographic treatment by outlining the stylistic requirements, but also provide concrete instances of how to compile particular items and aspects of the entries. A BTD styleguide could, for example, enumerate a list of the various ways in which near-synonyms can be distinguished, and the options in terms of features which can act as vessels for conveying this contrastive information. In addition to the problems surrounding disambiguation which lie at the heart of BTD compilation, construction of a satisfactory subject classification scheme is equally challenging. Indeed, compilers may initially find this a somewhat daunting task. A likely starting point will often be to compare the topical macrostructures of previously

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published works. A common experience is for the classification scheme to be altered many times during its construction as new exponents are added. As the brief survey of existing thematic dictionaries has shown, there is no perfect subject classification scheme. The best that can be hoped for is that the macrostructure chosen meets the needs of its particular users. Training Users to Use BTDs It is not just the BTDs themselves which require improvement, but also their use. Question 11) of the EFL Questionnaire Version A and of the FFL Questionnaire Version A asked informants if they had ever been instructed by a teacher how to use a thematic dictionary or thesaurus. The results were as follows: – informants who had been instructed by a teacher how to use a monolingual thematic dictionary or thesaurus for native speakers of their L1: EFL Version A: FFL Version A: Average of %s:

35% 23% 29%

– informants who had been instructed by a teacher how to use a monolingual thematic dictionary or thesaurus for learning an L2: EFL Version A: FFL Version A: Average of %s:

13% 0% 6.5%

– informants who had been instructed by a teacher how to use a bilingual thematic dictionary or thesaurus for learning an L2: EFL Version A: FFL Version A: Average of %s:

13% 3% 8%

– informants who had never been instructed by a teacher on how to use a thematic dictionary or thesaurus: EFL Version A: FFL Version A: Average of %s:

39% 74% 57%

These percentages indicate that the informants received very little training in the use of thematic dictionaries, either for native speaker or foreign language learning purposes.

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If these results are indicative of a wider trend, then a responsibility is placed on the BTDs to provide adequate user guidance. This could take the form of improved user guides, more help options in electronic dictionaries, and more exercises to familiarize users with the various features of the BTD. These exercises could be placed in the middle or back matter of a print BTD, or in a separate workbook. On a CD-ROM version, interactive familiarization exercises could be included. Lessons which can be printed out, together with instructions for the teacher, could be provided (as is the case with the LDOCE4 CD-ROM). The exercises should, as far as possible, replicate consultation situations which users are likely to encounter, rather than being an end in themselves. In order to safeguard against the possibility that users may not receive any instruction in using BTDs from teachers, and to cater for independent learners, familiarization exercises should include those which are suitable for self-instruction purposes. The inclusion of this type of exercise would also be in harmony with contemporary demands for encouraging learner autonomy.

6.4

Implications for Future Research into BTDs

There is a need for more user research: into BTDs using larger numbers of informants, especially experimentally based studies, into areas which have not been covered in the current project, and into the various relationships between words, especially using psycholinguistic techniques such as word association tests which have apparently hitherto not been exploited with regard to determining lexicographic content and arrangement. It was mentioned in Section 1.1.2 that there was a shortage of metalexicographic literature on thematic learner’s dictionaries in general and on bilingual thematic dictionaries in particular. This lack of research was one of the catalysts for undertaking the current project. As regards the three pieces of user research (the user questionnaires, the location guessing experiment, and the search report experiment), it would be desirable in the future to repeat them using larger numbers of informants, especially those with experience of using BTDs. In the case of the questionnaires, although opinions were elicited on a wide range of issues, inevitably it was not possible to cover every single aspect of BTDs without creating inordinately long questionnaires. It would also be beneficial to use a range of question styles when canvassing opinions on the same topics in order to reduce the effect of unconscious bias in the way questions are framed. The location guessing experiment was based on a reduced list of categories from a particular BTD. Future research using a similar methodology could be carried out comparatively on a range of access structures, such as different macrostructural hierarchies, in order to discover which are the most effective at leading users to the desired exponents. The same applies to the search report experiment which involves a rather time-consuming methodology and requires a high degree of trust between the informant and the administrator, hence the low number of participants. Nevertheless,

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its results were promising insofar as they provided insights into the consultation strategies employed when using a BTD. Search report studies could be undertaken contrastively on a variety of BTDs to discover the best arrangements and features to adopt. Once an electronic BTD has been created, consultation strategies can be identified with the assistance of software which records all keyboard and mouse movements. Whichever methodology is adopted, many user variables and text variables will be at play, not to mention methodological issues such as the extent to which informants are reacting to the particular samples or tasks presented to them. It will take a considerable amount of research to single out the significant factors required to create the best possible BTD. The current project is therefore merely a starting point. The remaining sections draw attention to some of the areas where future research could usefully be directed. Inclusion The issue of inclusion is problematic for learner’s dictionaries of all kinds. The TLD compiler faces the specific issues of having to decide how many exponents to include in the text as a whole in order to expand the user’s existing vocabulary, and how many to include in a section so that it is large enough to be useful, but not so huge it that overwhelms the user. This is an area that requires further investigation. Macrostructure Further research is needed to discover which macrostructural options are the most effective for users e.g. a flat or a pyramid hierarchy, an alphabetical, thematic, or mixed arrangement, a menu-based or graphic-driven presentation on an electronic BTD. Studies are also required to determine the optimal number of topics at each macrostructural level. Headings The headings are critical for users to identify section contents. It is therefore important to find out how users cope with heading types of different lengths and styles. Sections More research is essential to identify the best ways of ordering sections within a category and of ordering exponents within a section. The effectiveness of the various criteria for grouping exponents in a section, including those with different parts of speech, also requires further investigation. Manageability for users should be tested as

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regards the number of sections within a category and the number of exponents within a section. The possibility of using word association tests to determine the vocabulary content of sections was raised. Again, this is another area which could benefit from additional research. The possible need to include exponents relating to the user’s culture requires testing for user approval. Knowledge needs to be gained concerning the effect of different forms of sectional presentation, such as the semantic frames employed in USS. The most effective treatment of specific types of lexeme (stylistically marked/unmarked vocabulary, multi-word units, spoken language etc) also needs to be gauged. Throughout the preceding discussion it has been assumed that lists of undefined exponents (i.e. cumulative synonymies) are unsuitable for L2 users. The electronic format does, however, allow translation equivalents to be hidden if desired and only revealed if the exponent is clicked on. Experimentation using this presentation could be used to test this assumption. LPA, a monolingual thematic learner’s dictionary, adopted the radical approach of grouping undefined exponents accompanied by notes explaining their differences. It would be interesting to discover whether users could cope with a bilingual adaptation of this arrangement. Microstructure The user questionnaires covered some, but not all types of disambiguator. Future research could collect usefulness ratings for the remaining types. Not enough is known about the effectiveness of particular kinds of disambiguator for assisting users to choose between near-synonyms. This is an area where experimental methodologies could beneficially be used. A distinction exists between the explicit disambiguating information conveyed by disambiguators and the implicit disambiguating information present in examples. It would be useful to investigate the extent to which users take advantage of each type of information. Labels providing style, register, currency etc information can play a key role in distinguishing near-synonyms. It may well be the case that BTDs require a larger number of such labels than semasiological learner’s dictionaries. Research may be able to indicate to lexicographers which labels convey information most clearly. The issue also arises as to where style, register etc data should be distributed, i.e. in labels, disambiguators, or notes. It would be valuable to discover the effectiveness of purely onomasiologically oriented BTDs where translation equivalents are placed before headwords (by analogy with the reversal of headword and definition positions in OLWD). BTDs such as CFET supply translation equivalents with additional information provided in bracketed disambiguators, whereas many of the slang BTDs, such as SFSDAT, often use a style of meaning explanation in which the translation equivalent is surrounded by supplementary data in continuous text e.g. gueule = “derogatory for

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‘mouth’ or ‘face’ since the literal translation is the mouth of an animal”. Research could perhaps determine which of these approaches is preferable. Many of the slang bilingual thematic dictionaries provide literal translations whereas these are eschewed by the more serious general language BTDs. It would be instructive to find out whether users benefit from their inclusion or whether they are likely to generate errors. The importance of syntactic and collocational information in an active dictionary has been mentioned several times in the preceding text. Questions remain, however, as to the best way in which such data should manifest itself i.e. through the use of bold skeletons before examples and/or by highlighting patterns with examples etc. Other Features As with the various kinds of disambiguator, the user questionnaires were only able to survey opinions on a limited number of note types, so further research into this feature is necessary. It was mentioned earlier that more contrastive notes are needed in BTDs. This being the case, research is required to determine the form that they should take. The same applies to tables which can clearly and economically summarize the features that distinguish near-synonyms. Pictures are an important component of thematic learner’s dictionaries, and research could shed light on their most effective use with specific reference to topical lexicography. The effectiveness of large topic vocabulary sections, such as LEA’s Word Banks, which combine lists of exponents with pictures, also remains unknown. Communicative function sections feature in many MTDs and BTDs. Although the current research recorded a high approval rating, little is as yet known about how learners interact with this feature and how it can be improved. Access Routes There are many issues connected with access routes about which further knowledge is required, e.g.: – Should tables of contents reflect the order of elements of the text or impose a topical framework upon them? – As regards an electronic BTD, is it possible to design a representation of the vocabulary network which users can easily navigate around? – As regards a print BTD, what are the desiderata for the design of an index? – At which levels of the macrostructure should menus be provided? – To what extent do users make use of cross-references? – Are certain types of cross-reference more likely to be followed up by users than others?

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– Is it correct to assume that users are more likely to follow up cross-references in an electronic BTD than in a print equivalent? – As regards an electronic BTD, what is the best way of designing a search function that allows various parameters to be set? – How do verbal displays of information compare with more pictorial representations such as the constellations used in the Visual Thesaurus? – If a semasiological learner’s dictionary and a BTD appear on the same CD-ROM, how should the links between them be presented? User Guidance and Practice The forms of user guidance and practice exercises provided for BTDs should be informed by user research into consultation strategies. User Feedback When the initial version of a new BTD is created, it should be thoroughly pilot-tested. This is an opportunity for different ways of presenting information to be tried out on potential users. After publication, it would be useful to obtain users’ reactions to the text, especially if an online version of the text is provided. For example, if users reported difficulties in locating particular exponents, the access route towards them could be examined to rectify weaknesses. CD-ROM Features It was suggested earlier that an electronic version can solve many of the issues that surround a print BTD. The creation of an electronic BTD and the testing of its effectiveness are therefore obvious future research targets. Features that demand particular attention are: the search mechanisms mentioned above, and the way in which information is displayed. Research is needed to show whether particular verbal, graphic, or combined displays of information are more helpful to users than others.

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LONGMAN DICTIONARY OF COMMON ERRORS, by N.D. Turton and J.B. Heaton, Harlow: Pearson Education 21996 [11987] LONGMAN DICTIONARY OF CONTEMPORARY ENGLISH, London: Longman 42003 [11978] LONGMAN DICTIONARY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND CULTURE, Harlow: Longman 2 1998 [11992] LONGMAN ELEMENTARY DICTIONARY, Harlow: Longman 1987 LONGMAN ENGLISH-POLISH POLISH-ENGLISH DICTIONARY, Harlow: Longman 1999 LONGMAN ESSENTIAL ACTIVATOR, Harlow: Longman 22006 [11997] LONGMAN HANDY LEARNER’S DICTIONARY, Harlow: Longman 1999 LONGMAN INTERACTIVE ENGLISH DICTIONARY, Harlow: Longman 2000 LONGMAN LANGUAGE ACTIVATOR, Harlow: Longman 22002 [11993] LONGMAN LEXICON OF CONTEMPORARY ENGLISH, by T. McArthur, Harlow: Longman 1981 LONGMAN LEXICON OF CONTEMPORARY ENGLISH (ENGLISH-CHINESE EDITION), by T. McArthur, Harlow: Longman 1992 LONGMAN MINI ENGLISH DICTIONARY, Harlow: Pearson Education 2002 LONGMAN PHRASAL VERBS DICTIONARY, Harlow: Longman 2000 LONGMAN PICTURE DICTIONARY, by J. Ashworth and J. Clark, Harlow: Longman 1992 LONGMAN POCKET ACTIVATOR, Harlow: Longman 2001 LONGMAN POCKET ENGLISH DICTIONARY, Harlow: Longman 2001 LONGMAN POCKET IDIOMS DICTIONARY, Harlow: Longman 2001 LONGMAN POCKET PHRASAL VERBS DICTIONARY, Harlow: Longman 2001 LONGMAN PRONUNCIATION DICTIONARY, by J.C. Wells, Harlow: Pearson Education 3 2008 [11990] LONGMAN WORDWISE DICTIONARY, Harlow: Pearson Education 2001 MACMILLAN ENGLISH DICTIONARY: FOR ADVANCED LEARNERS, Oxford: Macmillan Education 2002 NEW COLLINS THESAURUS, by W.T. McLeod, London: Collins 1984 NEW METHOD ENGLISH DICTIONARY, by M.P. West and J.G. Endicott, London: Longmans, Green 1935 NEW OXFORD DICTIONARY OF ENGLISH, Oxford: Oxford University Press 2001 NEW OXFORD THESAURUS OF ENGLISH, Oxford: Oxford University Press 2000 NEW OXFORD THESAURUS OF ENGLISH ON CD-ROM, Version 2.1, Oxford: Oxford University Press 2004 NEW ROGET’S THESAURUS IN DICTIONARY FORM, ed. by N. Lewis, New York: Putnam’s 1961 NEW SHORTER OXFORD ENGLISH DICTIONARY ON HISTORICAL PRINCIPLES, Oxford: Oxford University Press 1993 THE ORDER OF THINGS: HOW EVERYTHING IN THE WORLD IS ORGANIZED INTO HIERARCHIES, STRUCTURES, AND PECKING ORDERS, by B.A. Kipfer, New York: Random House 2001 OXFORD ADVANCED LEARNER’S DICTIONARY OF CURRENT ENGLISH, Oxford: Oxford University Press 72005 [11948]

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OXFORD ADVANCED LEARNER’S ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY, Oxford: Oxford University Press: 1992 OXFORD COMPANION TO THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, ed. by T. McArthur, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press 1992 OXFORD-DUDEN PICTORIAL GERMAN AND ENGLISH DICTIONARY, Oxford: Oxford University Press 21994 [11979] OXFORD LEARNER’S WORDFINDER DICTIONARY, Oxford: Oxford University Press 1997 OXFORD REVERSE DICTIONARY, Oxford: Oxford University Press 1999 OXFORD THESAURUS: AN A-Z DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMS, Oxford: Clarendon Press 1991 RANDOM HOUSE WEBSTER’S WORD MENU, New York: Random House 1998 ROGET’S THESAURUS OF ENGLISH WORDS AND PHRASES: FACSIMILE OF THE FIRST EDITION 1852, London: Bloomsbury Books 1992 ROGET’S THESAURUS OF ENGLISH WORDS AND PHRASES: 150TH ANNIVERSARY EDITION, London: Penguin 2002 STREET FRENCH SLANG DICTIONARY & THESAURUS, by D. Burke, New York: John Wiley & Sons 1997 STREETWISE FRENCH DICTIONARY/THESAURUS, by I. Pickup and R. Hares, Chicago: McGraw-Hill 2002 USING SPANISH SYNONYMS, by R.E. Batchelor, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1994 VISUAL THESAURUS, Version 3, Thinkmap 2005 (CD-ROM) Other Literature Baldinger, K. (1960): “Alphabetisches oder begrifflich gegliedertes Wörterbuch?”, Zeitschrift für romanische Phililogie 76 (1960), pp. 521-536. Republished in Zgusta (1985), pp. 40-57 Béjoint, H. (2000): Modern Lexicography: An Introduction, Oxford: Oxford University Press Berry, R. (1994): “Longman Language Activator – a Review.”, Hong Kong Papers in Linguistics And Language Teaching 17 (1994), pp. 83-86 Bruton, A. (1997): “Review of Cambridge WORD SELECTOR (Inglès-Español)”, International Journal of Lexicography 10/4 (1997), pp. 339-342 Calzolari, N. (1989): “The dictionary and the thesaurus can be combined”, in Evens, ed. (1989), pp. 75-96 Cluver, A.D. de V. (1989): A Manual of Terminography, Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council Cowie, A. (1999): English Dictionaries for Foreign Learners – A History, Oxford: Clarendon Press Emblen, D.L. (1970): Peter Mark Roget: The Word and the Man, London: Longman

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Evens, M.W., ed. (1989): Relational Models of the Lexicon, Cambridge Studies in Natural Language Processing, New York: Cambridge University Press Ham, N. (1998): Longman Essential Activator Workbook, Harlow: Longman Hartmann, R.K.K. (2005): “Onomasiological Dictionaries in 20th-Century Europe”, Lexicographica. International Annual for Lexicography 21 (2005), pp. 6-19 Hausmann, F.J. (1990a): “Le dictionnaire analogique”, Article 106 in Hausmann et al., eds. (1990), pp. 1094-1099 – (1990b): “The Dictionary of Synonyms: Discriminating Synonymy”, Article 102 in Hausmann et al., eds. (1990), pp. 1067-1075 – (1990c): “Das Synonymenwörterbuch”, Article 103 in Hausmann et al., eds. (1990), pp. 1076-1080 Hausmann, F.J., O. Reichmann, H.E. Wiegand, and L. Zgusta, eds. (1989): Wörterbücher/Dictionaries/Dictionnaires. Ein Internationales Handbuch zur Lexikographie. International Encyclopedia of Lexicography. Encyclopédie Internationale de Lexicographie, Volume 1, Berlin and New York: W. de Gruyter – (1990): Wörterbücher/Dictionaries/Dictionnaires. Ein Internationales Handbuch zur Lexikographie. International Encyclopedia of Lexicography. Encyclopédie Internationale de Lexicographie, Volume 2, Berlin and New York: W. de Gruyter – (1991): Wörterbücher/Dictionaries/Dictionnaires. Ein Internationales Handbuch zur Lexikographie. International Encyclopedia of Lexicography. Encyclopédie Internationale de Lexicographie, Volume 3, Berlin and New York: W. de Gruyter Heid, U., S. Evert, E. Lehmann, and C. Rohrer, eds. (2000): Proceedings of the Ninth EURALEX International Congress, Euralex 2000 Stuttgart, Germany August 8th-12th, 2000, Volume 1, Stuttgart: Institut für Maschinelle Sprachverarbeitung, Universität Stuttgart Herbst, T. (1990): “Dictionaries for Foreign Language Teaching: English”, Article 151 in Hausmann et al., eds. (1990), pp. 1379-1385 Hüllen, W., ed. (1994): The World in a List of Words, Lexicographica Series Maior 58, Tübingen: Max Niemeyer – (1999): English Dictionaries, 800-1700: The Topical Tradition, Oxford: Oxford University Press – (2004): A History of Roget’s Thesaurus: Origins, Development, and Design, Oxford: Oxford University Press Iannucci, J.E. (1985): “Sense discriminations and translation complements in bilingual dictionaries”, Dictionaries: Journal of the Dictionary Society of North America 7 (1985), pp. 57-65 Jackson, H. (2002): Lexicography: An Introduction London and New York: Routledge Kipfer, B.A. (1986): “Investigating an Onomasiological Approach to Dictionary Material”, Dictionaries: Journal of the Dictionary Society of North America 8 (1986), pp. 55-64 Kromann, H.-P., T. Riiber, and P. Rosbach (1991): “Principles of bilingual lexicography”, in F.J. Hausmann et al., eds. (1991), pp. 2711-2728

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Kumar, A. (2004): “Societal Context in Amar Kosh, Roget’s Thesaurus, and Samantar Kosh”, Language in India 4 (2004), Online version: http://www.languageinindia.com/june2004/amarkosh.html Lyons, J. (1968): Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press Maingay, S. and C. Tribble (1993): Longman Language Activator Workbook, Harlow: Longman Marello, C. (1990): “The Thesaurus”, Article 105 in Hausmann et al., eds. (1990), pp. 1083-1094 McArthur, T. (1986): Worlds of Reference: Lexicography, Learning, and Language from the Clay Tablet to the Computer Cambridge: Cambridge University Press – (1998): Living Words: Language, Lexicography, and the Knowledge Revolution, Exeter: University of Exeter Press Nida, E. (1995): “Review of Language Activator: The World’s First Production Dictionary. 1993. Longman”, International Journal of Lexicography 8/2 (1995), pp. 143-46 Perry, B.C. (1999): “Review of H. Trappes-Lomax. Oxford Learner’s Wordfinder Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997”, JALT Journal 23/2 (1999), pp. 52-53 Reichmann, O. (1990): “Das onomasiologische Wörterbuch: Ein Überblick”, Article 101 in Hausmann et al., eds. (1990), pp. 1057-1067 Rey-Debove, J. (1971): Etude linguistique et sémiotique des dictionnaires français contemporains, The Hague: Mouton Sager, J. (1990): A Practical Course in Terminology Processing, Amsterdam: J. Benjamins Šarćević, S. (1989): “Conceptual dictionaries for translation in the field of law”, International Journal of Lexicography 2/4 (1989), pp. 277-94 Sierra, G. (1995): “Outline of an onomasiological dictionary software in the disaster area” Journal of the International Institute for Terminology Research IITF 6/2 (1995), pp. 18-30 – (1997): “Estructura semántica del léxico en un diccionario Onomasiológico práctico”, Estudios De Lingüística Aplicada 23/24 (1997), pp. 417-425 – (2000): “The onomasiological dictionary: a gap in lexicography” in Heid et al., eds. (2000), pp. 223-235 Stark, M. (1990): Dictionary Workbooks: A Critical Evaluation of Dictionary Workbooks for the Foreign Language Learner, Exeter Linguistic Studies Volume 16, Exeter: University of Exeter Press – (1999): Encyclopedic Learners’ Dictionaries: A Study of their Design Features from the User Perspective, Lexicographica Series Maior 92, Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Svensén, B. (1993): Practical Lexicography: Principles and Methods of DictionaryMaking, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press Tommola, H., K. Varantola, T. Salmi-Tolonen, and J. Schopp, eds. (1992): EURALEX ’92 Proceedings I-II. Papers Submitted to the 5th EURALEX International Congress on Lexicography, Studia Translatologica A.2, Tampere: Yliopisto

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Trotman, W. (1998): “Review of H. Trappes-Lomax. Oxford Learner’s Wordfinder Dictionary. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1997”, IATEFL Issues 144 (1998), pp. 29-30 Tyler, Stephen A., ed. (1969): Cognitive Anthropology, New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston Underhill, A. (2002): Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners Workbook, Oxford: Macmillan Van Sterkenburg, P.G.J. (1992): “Electronic onomasiology: Van Dale greater dictionary of synonyms” in Tommola et al., eds. (1992), pp. 519-26 Wajnryb, R. (1997): “Review of The Longman Activator Dictionary. Longman; The English Pronouncing Dictionary. Cambridge University Press; and The Australian Learner’s Dictionary”, EA Journal 15/2 (1997), pp. 99-103 Wilks, Y. (1972): Grammar, Meaning, and the Machine Analysis of Language, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Willis, P. (1998): “Review of Longman Dictionaries Dept. Longman Essential Activator. Addison Wesley Longman, 1997”, International Journal of Lexicography 11/4 (1998), pp. 357-65 Winchester, S. (2001): “Word Imperfect”, The Atlantic Online 287/5 (2001), pp. 54-86 Zgusta, L. (1985): Probleme des Wörterbuchs. Darmstadt: Ladislav Zgusta

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Appendix 1) A Checklist of Monolingual Learner’s Dictionary Features and Choices

Physical Format – print dictionary or electronic dictionary Independence of the Text – standalone text or combined with a thematic dictionary (a thesaurus dictionary) – if combined: a semasiological A-Z MLD and a TLD combined in a single volume or on a single CD-ROM, or in separate volumes – the standard MLD and the companion thematic dictionary may be linked or not linked (by cross-references or hyperlinks) Inclusion – regional spread (e.g. in the case of English: British English, American English, other varieties of English, and World English) – the balance between written and spoken language – the extent to which various subgroups of a language are included e.g. – dated and historical language – formal and informal language (including taboo words) – specialist language e.g. – for particular academic disciplines and/or subject areas – for particular written and spoken styles (e.g. literary or technical) – abbreviations – numbers – symbols – the extent to which cultural content is included e.g. – encyclopedic entries – longer cultural articles – middle and back matter devoted to cultural topics – additional content on the CD-ROM version of the dictionary (e.g. encyclopedic entries) Lexicographic Evidence – corpus-based/not corpus-based

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Macrostructure – the type of alphabetization applied to the A-Z wordlist – the use of homograph numbers including:

– the policy behind the ordering of homographs – main entries and run-on derivatives Microstructure – headword features – orthographic information – spellcheck on search type-in field (on CD-ROM version) – hyphenation – frequency information – headword highlighting – frequency rating systems (other frequency-related issues: – the relative ordering of homographs (see Macrostructure) – the relative ordering of senses (see ‘senses’ below) – frequency graphs (see Other Features)) – usefulness information – headword highlighting – pronunciation information – use of IPA or some other system for representing pronunciation – stress marking – recorded pronunciation of headwords (on CD-ROM version) – recorded pronunciation of inflected forms (on CD-ROM version) – recorded pronunciation of examples (on CD-ROM version) – sound effects (on CD-ROM version) – regional information – inflectional information – grammatical information – clickable grammar codes (on CD-ROM version) (= an explanation of the grammar code is revealed when the code is clicked on by the user) – style and register information – usage information – pragmatics information – currency information (e.g. dated or historical) – etymological information – senses – ordering of senses e.g. – by frequency – definitions

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– definition styles – use of a defining vocabulary – use of glosses in definitions – clickable words in definitions (on CD-ROM version) (= a function which allows users to click on a word in a definition in order to access the entry for that word) – the treatment of lexical units – examples – choice of: – unadulterated corpus-derived examples – adulterated corpus-derived examples – editorial (i.e. made-up) examples – syntactic patterns highlighted before or within examples – the relative ordering of syntactic patterns within a series of examples – collocational patterns highlighted before or within examples – the relative ordering of collocational patterns within a series of examples – additional collocational information (on CD-ROM version) – glosses after collocational patterns – use of glosses in examples – use of labels (e.g. regional indicators) following examples – clickable words in examples (on CD-ROM version) (i.e. a function which allows users to click on a word in an example in order to access the entry for that word) – additional examples (on CD-ROM version) – corpus-mode display of examples (on CD-ROM version) – sound recordings of examples (on CD-ROM version) – the treatment of fixed phrases (including idioms and phrasal verbs) e.g. – placement among other senses or in a separate section – additional phrases (on CD-ROM version) – policy on ordering multi-element lexemes – the treatment of spoken English – placement among other senses or in a separate section – variants – orthographic variants – lexical variants – regional variants – derivatives – run-on derivatives – information on word families – information on related words – synonyms and near-synonyms – antonyms – compounds – other types of related word e.g.

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– types of something – members of a finite semantic or thematic set – members of a word family – use of an extra column (for information on grammar, synonyms, and usage) Other Features – notes and boxes: – academic writing notes – collocation boxes and notes – cultural notes – error avoidance notes – etymology notes – false friend notes – function notes – grammar notes – metaphor notes – pronunciation notes – regional notes – usage notes – vocabulary expansion notes – word family notes – tables – frequency graphs – pictorial illustrations – for individual items – for groups of items – full-page illustrations – clickable labels in illustrations (on CD-ROM version) (i.e. a function which allows users to click on a label in an illustration in order to access the entry for that word) – expandable illustrations (on CD-ROM version) – middle/back matter features – language study pages – maps – topic pages (see also: ‘full-page illustrations’ above) – front matter features – user guide – front/back matter features – essays (e.g. on British and American English or English as a world language) – explanation of pronunciation information – lists of abbreviations, codes, and labels

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– numbers – symbols – back matter features – frequency bands – list of common first names – list of defining vocabulary – list of geographical names – list of irregular verbs – list of notes – list of pictorial illustrations – list of specialist vocabulary – list of weights and measures – punctuation – regular verb tenses – sayings and proverbs – word families – word formation Access Routes – guidewords – menus in long entries – signposts in long entries – cross-references – synonyms – regional equivalents – antonyms – other types of related word – idiom finder – CD-ROM-specific access structures – facility to search for both words and phrases – advanced search facility – collocation search – compound search – defining vocabulary search – definition search – derivatives search – examples search – frequency search – full text search – grammar search – headword search – homophone search – inflections search

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– menu search – multimedia search – notes search – number of senses search – phrasal verb search – pronunciation search – regional search – style and usage search – subject search – word origin search – links to a thematic dictionary (when twinned with such a reference work) User Guidance and Practice – in the front matter – user guide – sample entries – in the front or back matter – lists of codes and symbols – exercises – interactive exercises (on CD-ROM version) – workbook – facility for users to input their own material (e.g. in a mini-dictionary) (on CD-ROM version) – facility for users to test themselves on such material (on CD-ROM version) – facility for users to record their own pronunciation (on CD-ROM version) Other CD-ROM Features Display: – brief view of entry – pop-up mode Searching: – type-in search facility Links: – from A-Z semasiological dictionary to thematic dictionary (if both are included on a single CD-ROM)

Appendix 2) A Checklist of Thematic Dictionary Features and Choices Physical Format – print dictionary or electronic dictionary Number of Parts – usually one part, occasionally two e.g. the Quick Reference Section and the Thematic Section in the Encarta Thesaurus (a ‘dual navigation system’) Independence of the Text – standalone text or combined with a semasiological A-Z dictionary (a thesaurus dictionary) – if combined: – dictionary and thesaurus combined in a single volume or in separate volumes (e.g. the Encarta World English Dictionary and the Encarta Thesaurus.) – the dictionary and the companion thesaurus linked or not linked Inclusion – abstract referents (e.g. the Longman Activator series) – concrete referents – both abstract and concrete referents (e.g. CALD’s Smart Thesaurus) – both phrases and individual words (as exponents heading entries) – the balance between spoken and written language – the range of regional varieties to include e.g. in the case of English: – British English – American English – World English – other varieties of English (Australian English, Indian English etc) – dialect words (e.g. Northern English) – the extent to which various subgroups of a language are included e.g. – dated and historical language – formal and informal language (including offensive language) – specialist language (e.g. Descriptionary) – for particular academic disciplines and/or subject areas – for particular written and spoken styles (e.g. literary, technical etc) – abbreviations – numbers – symbols – cultural content – historical/contemporary referents

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– encyclopedic items (e.g. RHWWM) – proper names – cultural entries – coverage of cultures – L1 culture, L2 culture, or both – location of cultural content – in entries, notes, middle/back matter Lexicographic Evidence – corpus-based (e.g. NOTE) or not – use of L2 corpus – use of learners’ corpus Macrostructure – one macrostructure (the usual case) or two macrostructures (in two-part thematic dictionaries e.g. Encarta Thesaurus) – pyramid hierarchy (e.g. CALD’s Smart Thesaurus) – flat hierarchy (e.g. RHWWM) – degree of progression from the general to the particular – no. of topics at each level of the macrostructure – alphabetical ordering of topics at Level 1 (the top level of the hierarchy) – alphabetical ordering of topics at Level 2 (the level below Level 1) – alphabetical ordering of topics at Level 3 – alphabetical ordering of topics at Level 4 (where applicable) – alphabetical ordering of topics at Level 5 (where applicable) – alphabetical ordering of topics at Level 6 (where applicable) – thematic ordering of topics at Level 1 – thematic ordering of topics at Level 2 – thematic ordering of topics at Level 3 – thematic ordering of topics at Level 4 (where applicable) – thematic ordering of topics at Level 5 (where applicable) – thematic ordering of topics at Level 6 (where applicable) – thematic ordering at some levels and alphabetical ordering at others – use of keywords – use of keyword definitions (e.g. LLA1) – keywords leading to full information (e.g. OLWD) – keywords consisting of cross-references (e.g. OLWD) if thematically ordered: – degree of semantic/thematic/logical flow between keywords – conventional vs. idiosyncratic (e.g. Descriptionary) grouping of topics – modernity of the macrostructure – one macrostructural level acting as the default user level (i.e. the level which is the most frequently used macrostructural access route)

412

– the placement of contrasting or correlative concepts opposite each other – superconcepts (e.g. LLA2) – subcategories – use of antonymic subcategories – main entries and run-on derivatives Headings – use of numbers in headings – use of alphanumeric codes in headings (e.g. LLCE) – use of formulaic topic headings – use of functional headings (e.g. LLA) – use of keyword definitions (e.g. LLA) – length/style of heading – single-word headings – lengthy descriptive headings – telegraphic headings – use of metatextual headings (e.g. RHWWM) Sections – relative ordering of sections within a category – criteria for grouping words together in a section – the breadth of relationships covered/the principle behind the grouping of exponents – groups – sets – part-whole relationship – hierarchies – rankings – processes (e.g. OOT) – styles – synonyms and near-synonyms – thematically related items – e.g. terminology belonging to a particular subject – items relating to a particular location – types (including branches of subjects, breeds, classes etc) – antonymous or contrasting items (in the same or a different section at any of the macrostructural levels) – general lexemes – miscellaneous – ordering of exponents within a section – according to frequency – alphabetically – topically/situationally

413

– degree of semantic flow throughout a section – according to part of speech (e.g. LLCE) – unmarked lexemes placed first (e.g. NOTE) – chronologically – by size (e.g. DESERTS in OOT) – the number of exponents within a section – the criterion of manageability – cumulative synonymy or distinctive synonymy – cumulative sections/lists of undefined items within an otherwise distinctive synonymy (e.g. ‘Military Ranks (in descending order)’ in RHWWM) – use of core synonyms (e.g. NOTE) – use of typographical devices to group words (e.g. the use of semicolons within paragraphs (e.g. NOTE)) – subgrouping by sense in cumulative thesauri (e.g. NOTE) – use of style/register labels at the head of cumulative word groupings (e.g. NOTE) – use of regional labels at the head of cumulative word groupings (e.g. NOTE) – use of typographical layout (e.g. indentation) to show hierarchical relationships between exponents (e.g. OOT) – assignment of phrases to a separate section or note, or mixed in with other exponents – use of helpwords – additional vocabulary sections (e.g. the More … sections in OLWD) Microstructure – headword features – orthographic information – spellcheck on search type-in field (on CD-ROM version) – hyphenation – selectional headwords (divided by slashes) (e.g. LLA) – bracketed optional elements in headwords (e.g. LLA) – pronunciation information – use of IPA or some other system for representing pronunciation – stress marking – audioclips of pronunciation (on CD-ROM) (e.g. Visual Thesaurus) – regional information – inflectional information – grammatical information – no. of grammar codes – degree of depth of grammatical analysis – clickable grammar codes (on CD-ROM version) (= an explanation of the grammar code is revealed when the code is clicked on by the user) – style and register information – usage information

414

– pragmatics information – currency information (e.g. dated, historical etc) – comments attached to labels (e.g. LLCE) – word origin information – senses – definitions – definition styles – basic/encyclopedic (e.g. Descriptionary) – more than one exponent sharing a definition (e.g. ORD) – full definition vs. gloss – use of defining vocabulary (e.g. LLCE) – use of rolling/dependent definitions (e.g. in LLCE, ORD) – use of conventional definitions – use of ‘if’ definitions (e.g. LLA) – use of ‘when’ definitions (e.g. LLA) – use of functional (e.g. ‘use this about/when’) definitions (e.g. LLA) – use of selectional definitions (e.g. LEA) – user group definitions (e.g. LLA) – use of fronted definitions (e.g. LLA1) – use of two-part definitions – use of sentential definitions (e.g. LLA) – meaning glosses in definitions (e.g. OWLD) – double definitions (e.g. in LLA) – use of glosses in definitions – reversal of headword and definition (e.g. OLWD, ORD) – disambiguating information that supplements the definition – descriptive range (e.g. LLCE) – exemplification (e.g. LLCE) – location of the referent (e.g. LLCE) – more precise information (e.g. LLCE) – possible object (e.g. LLCE) – clickable words in definitions (on CD-ROM version) (= a function which allows users to click on a word in a definition in order to access the entry for that word) – omission of definition (zero definitions) – if the first exponent is the same as the keyword (e.g. LLA) – to be replaced by a contrastive note (e.g. in LPA) – use of lexical unit senses (e.g. LLCE) – use of selectional lexical units (e.g. LLA) – use of subsenses (e.g. LLCE) – examples – choice of: – unadulterated corpus-derived examples – adulterated corpus-derived examples

415

– editorial (i.e. made-up) examples – syntactic patterns highlighted before or within examples (e.g. LLA) – the relative ordering of syntactic patterns within a series of examples e.g. by frequency – selectional grammatical patterns – collocational patterns highlighted before or within examples (e.g. LLA) – the relative ordering of collocational patterns within a series of examples e.g. by frequency – additional collocational information (on CD-ROM version) – glosses after collocational patterns – selectional collocations – use of glosses in examples (e.g. LLCE) (after collocations – LLA) – use of labels (e.g. regional indicators) following examples – highlighting of a substitutable element in an example (e.g. NOTE) – use of bracketed optional elements in examples (e.g. LLCE) – clickable words in examples (on CD-ROM version) (i.e. a function which allows users to click on a word in an example in order to access the entry for that word) – use of cross-references in examples (e.g. LLCE) – use of fragments as examples – additional examples (on CD-ROM version) – variants – orthographic variants – lexical variants – regional variants – derivatives – run-on derivatives – selectional run-ons (e.g. LLA) Other Features – notes – collocation notes – confusables notes – contextual notes – contrastive notes – currency notes – descriptive range notes – error avoidance notes – functional notes – gender notes – grammar notes – learner training notes – metatextual notes (on arrangement, inclusion policy etc) (e.g. RHWWM)

416

– notes on emphasis/strength – notes on implication – notes on medium (i.e. spoken or written language) – orthographical notes – parts of X notes (e.g. Encarta Thesaurus) – regional notes – register notes – synonym notes (e.g. NOTE) – types of X notes (e.g. Encarta Thesaurus) – usage notes – usage warning notes – user group notes – vocabulary boxes – tables (e.g. Descriptionary, LLCE, OLWD) – for items which are closely semantically related – for items on a particular topic – for additional vocabulary items – pictorial illustrations – for individual items – for groups of items – full-page illustrations – individual items – to show different types of something – to show different parts of something – to show objects typically found in a particular location – to show position and direction – literary quotations – front matter features – tables of contents – text-reflective table of contents – non-text-reflective table of contents (e.g. OLWD) – instructions on how to use the dictionary – middle/back matter features – topic pages/wordbanks (see also: ‘full-page illustrations’ above) – front/back matter features – essays (e.g. on British and American English, English as a world language etc) – explanation of pronunciation information – lists of abbreviations, codes, and labels – back matter features – communicative functions section (e.g. LEA1 and LEA2) – grammar section (e.g. LEA1 and LEA2) – grammar table (e.g. LLCE)

417

– words you should know section (e.g. Descriptionary) – list of keywords (e.g. LLA1) – list of defining vocabulary (e.g. LLA1) – exercises Access Routes – single or dual navigation system – list(s) of contents in the front matter – complete list and/or brief list of contents – contents list arranged according to the order of material in the text or imposing a thematic framework on it – subject classification scheme as the main access route – looking through the alphabetically ordered keywords (where applicable) – scrolling through a horizontal scrollbar of keywords (on CD-ROM version) – list of keywords in the back matter – the index as the main access route (the usual situation) – whether or not to have reversed index items – comprehensiveness: all exponents included in the index or partial coverage – information categories given at each index item – semantic pointers to distinguish homographs or senses of polysemous lexemes (e.g. LLCE) – pronunciation information given at index entries (e.g. LLCE) – part of speech information given at index entries (e.g. LLCE) – irregular inflections information given at index entries (e.g. LLCE) – an indication that the index item appears in a picture (e.g. LLCE) – running index (e.g. LLA1) or end-of-book index (e.g. LLA2) – possibility of navigating around a covert subject classification scheme (e.g. CALD’s SMART Thesaurus) – guidewords – menus (at categories/keywords (e.g. LLA1) – menus at the beginning of subcategories/sections (e.g. LLA, RHWWM) – cross-references at category, subcategory, and entry level – target of cross-references: – related categories/sections (e.g. RHWWM) – synonyms – antonyms – other types of related lexeme – pictorial illustrations – tables – positioning of cross-references – cross-reference keywords (e.g. OLWD) – type-in search field (on CD-ROM version) – ability to interpret inflected forms (e.g. NOTE on CD-ROM)

418

– types of items related to the search word that are displayed at the same time as the search word (i.e. not just via cross-references) (e.g. Visual Thesaurus) – antonyms – attributes (e.g. weight – light, heavy etc) – branches of knowledge (e.g. ballet – pirouette) – derivatives – domain usage (e.g. trademark – Kleenex) – entailments (e.g. snore – sleep) – material something is made of (e.g. brick – clay) – near-synonyms – participle – parts – region – types – access via a graphic display (e.g. Visual Thesaurus) – links to an A-Z semasiological dictionary (when twinned with such a dictionary) – (on CD-ROM) via a designated window on-screen (as with LDOCE CD-ROM) – (on CD-ROM) from an entry in the alphabetical dictionary: automated selection of relevant keywords in the thematic dictionary (e.g. via the ‘Activate Your Language’ window on LDOCE CD-ROM) – (on CD-ROM) links between individual entries and a covert thesaurus (as in the case of CALD’s SMART Thesaurus) User Guidance and Practice – user guide – list of codes/abbreviations in the front or back matter – exercises – interactive exercises (on CD-ROM version) – workbook CD-ROM Features – display – degree of intuitiveness of the GUI – overt thematic dictionary (e.g. LDOCE CD-ROM) – covert thematic dictionary (e.g. CALD’s SMART Thesaurus) – ability to function when user is working on a word processing document, browsing a webpage, or using an email program – non-linear display – constellation-style display (e.g. Visual Thesaurus) – use of colour coding – e.g. for different parts of speech (e.g. Visual Thesaurus) – meaning lists (e.g. Visual Thesaurus)

419

– use of lines to show semantic connections (e.g. Visual Thesaurus) – pop-up window (e.g. NOTE on CD-ROM) – extent of the thesaurus entry revealed in the pop-up window – 3D display (e.g. Visual Thesaurus) – searching – type-in search facility – ability to locate a base from an inflected form entered in the type-in search field – extent of search (on all words or a selection e.g. exponents heading a paragraph in a cumulative thesaurus) – ability to deal with open compounds and phrases – ability to provide help when misspelt items are typed in – search filters – automatic generation of related keywords (e.g. LEA2 CD-ROM) – autopilot for random browsing (e.g. Visual Thesaurus) – scrollable list of keywords (e.g. LEA2 CD-ROM) – other features – facility for users to create their own dictionary (e.g. NOTE CD-ROM) – search history function (e.g. Visual Thesaurus) – content filtering (e.g. Visual Thesaurus) – writing tips (e.g. LEA2 CD-ROM) – exercises (e.g. LEA2 CD-ROM) – grammar (e.g. LEA2 CD-ROM) – communicative functions (e.g. LEA2 CD-ROM) – writing assistant – links: – links from the thesaurus to the Internet – hyperjump from one category to another via a cross-reference (e.g. LEA2 CDROM)

Appendix 3) A Checklist of Existing BTD Features and Choices Inclusion linguistic inclusion: – lexemes with concrete referents (e.g. CFET, CRCDAT/Eng-Fr, CRCDAT/Fr-Eng, CWR) – lexemes with abstract referents (e.g. CFET, CRCDAT/Eng-Fr, CRCDAT/Fr-Eng, CWR) – phrases as well as individual words (e.g. CFET, CRCDAT/Eng-Fr, CRCDAT/FrEng, CWR) – British English (e.g. CFET, CRCDAT/Eng-Fr, CRCDAT/Fr-Eng, CWR) – American English (e.g. CFET, CWR) – other varieties of English – written language (e.g. CFET, CRCDAT/Eng-Fr, CRCDAT/Fr-Eng, CWR) – spoken language (e.g. CFET, CRCDAT/Eng-Fr, CRCDAT/Fr-Eng, CWR) – derivatives (e.g. CWR, CRCDAT/Eng-Fr, CRCDAT/Fr-Eng [but not as run-ons]) cultural inclusion: – inclusion of cultural phenomena relating to the L2 community – inclusion of cultural phenomena relating to the L1 community – inclusion of contemporary/historical cultural phenomena – extent of focus on everyday objects Lexicographic Evidence – use of corpus evidence from corpora of native speaker and non-native speaker texts Macrostructure – hierarchy – pyramid hierarchy (e.g. CFET) – flat hierarchy (e.g. CRCDAT/Eng-Fr, CRCDAT/Fr-Eng, CWR) – no. of levels (e.g. CFET: 3 [Parts, Subheadings, and Topic Categories], CRCDAT/Eng-Fr, CRCDAT/Fr-Eng: 2, CWR: 3 [categories, subcategories, and subsubcategories]) – no. of levels at the top level (e.g. CFET: 15 Parts, 142 Subheadings, CWR: 450) – arrangement – thematic ordering of categories [top level of hierarchy] (e.g. CFET, CWR) – alphabetical ordering of categories [top level] (e.g. CRCDAT/Eng-Fr, CRCDAT/Fr-Eng) – thematic ordering of subcategories (e.g. CFET, CWR)

421

– alphabetical ordering of subcategories – the treatment of articles in the alphabetical ordering of categories – the degree of semantic/thematic/logical flow between categories within the top level of the macrostructural hierarchy – placement of antonymic/contrasting categories next to each other (e.g. CWR) Headings – numbered subheading/category headings (e.g. CFET, CWR) – subheading/category headings in L1 and L2 (e.g. CWR, SFSDAT) – subheading/category headings in L1 (e.g. CFET) [CFET’s Part headings are also in L1] – numbered topic/subcategory headings (e.g. CFET, CWR) – topic/subcategory headings in L1 (e.g. CFET, CWR) – subcategories without headings (e.g. CWR) – numbered subsubcategory headings (e.g. CWR) – subsubcategory headings in L1 (e.g. CWR) – the criteria for the selection of keywords Sections The Reasons for Grouping Exponents in a Section e.g. – according to level of generality/particularity (e.g. CWR, SFD/T) – according to part of speech (e.g. CWR) – according to similarity of register (e.g. CFET, CWR, SFD/T) – actions (e.g. CWR) – euphemisms (e.g. CWR) – metaphorical extension (e.g. CFET) – methods (e.g. CWR) – parts/features of a thing (e.g. CWR) – people (as opposed to objects etc) (e.g. CFET, CWR, SFD/T) – places (e.g. CFET, SFD/T) – purpose (e.g. CWR) – ranks (e.g. CFET) – stages of a process (e.g. SFD/T) – subject-specific terminology (e.g. CWR) – types (e.g. CFET, CWR, SFD/T) – user groups (e.g. CFET, SFD/T) Arrangement and Ordering of Exponents within a Section – the use of semantic frames (e.g. USS) – alphabetical order (e.g. CFET [sometimes], CRCDAT/Eng-Fr, CRCDAT/Fr-Eng) – nonalphabetical order (e.g. CFET [sometimes], CWR) [could be thematic, could be by frequency]

422

– phrases kept separate from single words – phrases mixed in with single words (e.g. CFET) – the degree of semantic/thematic/logical flow between sections within a category – the degree of semantic/thematic/logical flow between exponents within a section – placement of antonymic/contrasting sections next to each other – cumulative synonymy (e.g. CRCDAT/Eng-Fr, CRCDAT/Fr-Eng) – distinctive synonymy (e.g. CFET, CWR) – the number of exponents within a section – the use of miscellaneous/umbrella sections (e.g. CWR) – the use of sections consisting of pictorial illustrations rather than entries (e.g. CWR) Microstructure entry components – headwords (all) – use of slashed headwords (e.g. SFD/T) – variants (e.g. CFET, CRCDAT/Eng-Fr, CRCDAT/Fr-Eng, CWR) – irregular inflections (e.g. CFET [verb conjugation number], CWR) – pronunciation information (e.g. CWR) – part of speech (e.g. CFET, CWR) – grammar codes (e.g. CFET, CWR) – numbers indicating sense divisions [in a cumulative synonymy] (e.g. CRCDAT/EngFr, CRCDAT/Fr-Eng) – letters indicating further sense divisions [in a cumulative synonymy] (e.g. CRCDAT/Eng-Fr, CRCDAT/Fr-Eng) – style and register labels (e.g. CWR, CRCDAT/Eng-Fr, CRCDAT/Fr-Eng) [CFET: style and register information is placed within brackets instead – see ‘disambiguators’ below] – register levels (e.g. USS) – regional labels (e.g. CFET [for translation equivalents], CWR, SFD/T) – translation equivalents (e.g. CFET, CWR) – use of head translations (e.g. CWR) – use of literal translations (SFSDAT, SFD/T, SSD/T) – explanations [where there is no head translation] (e.g. CFET) – disambiguators and other comments (in brackets) (e.g. CFET, CWR) – abstraction (e.g. CWR) – addressee (e.g. CWR) – agency (e.g. CWR) – approving/disapproving (e.g. CWR) – collocation (e.g. CFET) – communicative function (e.g. CWR) – comparison (e.g. CFET, CWR, USS) – comparison between referents of exponents (e.g. CWR) – completedness/permanence (e.g. CWR)

423

– connotation (e.g. CFET, USS) – context (e.g. CWR, USS) – currency (e.g. CFET, CWR, SFSDAT) – deliberate/accidental (e.g. CWR) – descriptive range (e.g. CFET, CWR, USS) – emphasis/intensity (e.g. CFET, CWR, USS) – etymology – euphemism (e.g. CFET, CWR) – everyday use (e.g. CFET) – exemplification (e.g. CWR) – false friends (e.g. USS) – figurative/literal use (e.g. CFET, USS) – frequency (e.g. CWR, SFSDAT, USS) – general/specific term (e.g. CFET, CWR) – gender of the referent (e.g. USS) – generic term (e.g. CWR) – gloss of meaning (e.g. CFET, CWR) – grammar (including part of speech) (e.g. CFET, USS) – humour (e.g. SFSDAT) – implication/suggestion (e.g. CFET, CWR, USS) – irony (e.g. CFET, CWR) – literal translation (e.g. SFD/T) – location (e.g. CFET, CWR, USS) – meaning indicator (e.g. CFET, CWR, SFSDAT) – mode (i.e. spoken or written language) (e.g. SFSDAT) – onomatopoeia (e.g. SFSDAT) – patronizing use (e.g. CFET) – pejorative use (e.g. CFET, CWR, SFSDAT, USS) – point of view (e.g. CFET) – possible object (e.g. CFET, CWR, USS) – possible subject (e.g. CFET, CWR) – proverb (e.g. CFET, CWR) – purpose (e.g. CFET, USS) – regional restriction (e.g. CWR, USS) – register (e.g. CFET, CWR, USS) – respect (e.g. CFET) – similarity to another exponent (e.g. CFET, CWR) – situational information (e.g. CFET) – specification of an accompanying feature of the referent (e.g. USS) – specification of what the referent is part of (e.g. USS) – specification of what type of person uses the referent (e.g. USS) – style (e.g. CFET, CWR) – subject area (e.g. CFET) – substitutability (e.g. USS)

424

– synonyms (e.g. CFET) – technical (e.g. CWR) – translation (e.g. CFET) – typical use (e.g. USS) – usage warning (e.g. CFET, SFSDAT) – use in negative phrases (e.g. CFET, CWR) – user group (e.g. CFET, CWR, USS) – voluntary/involuntary action (e.g. CFET, CWR) – collocational information (e.g. CWR) – grammar pattern (e.g. CFET, CWR) – example (e.g. CFET, CWR) – highlighting of fixed expressions within examples (e.g. CWR) – translation of example (e.g. CFET, CWR, SFD/T) – spoken version of the example (e.g. SFSDAT) – cross-reference (e.g. CFET, CWR) – synonym – antonym – variant – run-on derivative (e.g. CWR) Other Features Notes and Boxes – abbreviated forms (e.g. SFSDAT) – additional phrases (e.g. SFD/T, SFSDAT) – additional senses (e.g. SFD/T, SFSDAT) – affixation (e.g. SFSDAT) – antonyms (e.g. SFSDAT) – approved usage (e.g. CFET) – colligation (e.g. CWR) – collocation (e.g. CFET, CWR, SFSDAT) – comment on following exponents [section note] (e.g. CFET) – comment on following sections [section note] (e.g. CFET) – comment on following translations [section note] (e.g. CFET) – comment on a section title [section note] (e.g. CFET) – comments on exponents (e.g. CFET) – comparison note (e.g. CFET, CWR) – confusables (e.g. CWR) – connotation (e.g. CFET, CWR) – context (e.g. CFET) – contrasting words (e.g. CFET, CWR) – cultural note (e.g. CFET, CRCDAT/Eng-Fr, CRCDAT/Fr-Eng [in A-Z dictionary], CWR, SFD/T, SFSDAT)

425

– currency (i.e. dated, historical etc vocabulary) (e.g. CFET, CWR) – derivatives (e.g. SFSDAT) – descriptive range (e.g. SFD/T) – emphasis (e.g. CWR) – error avoidance (e.g. CFET, CWR) – etymology (e.g. SFD/T, SFSDAT) – euphemism (e.g. CFET) – explanation of an example constituent (e.g. SFD/T, SFSDAT) – explanation of a phrase constituent (e.g. SFSDAT) – extended meaning (e.g. CFET) – false friend note (e.g. CFET, CWR, SFSDAT) – figurative/literal usage (e.g. CFET, CWR, SFSDAT) – functional language (e.g. CFET, CWR) – grammar (e.g. CFET, CWR, SFD/T) – headings for contrastive sections [section note] (e.g. CFET) – implication (e.g. CWR, SFD/T) – inflections (e.g. CWR, SFSDAT) – learner training note – the meaning of plural forms (e.g. CWR) – metatextual note (e.g. CFET, SFD/T) – mode (spoken/written language) (e.g. CWR) – non-standard language (e.g. SFD/T) – part of speech (e.g. CWR) – pejorative use (e.g. SFD/T) – pronunciation (e.g. SFSDAT) – punctuation (e.g. SFSDAT) – regional varieties/variation (e.g. CWR) – register (e.g. CWR, SFD/T) – section introduction notes (e.g. CFET) – situational note (e.g. CFET) – spelling and capitalization (e.g. CWR) – standard language equivalent (e.g. SFD/T) – standard usage (e.g. CFET, CWR) – structural inconsistency (e.g. SFSDAT) – substitutability (e.g. SFSDAT) – synonyms (e.g. SFD/T, SFSDAT) – syntactic patterns (e.g. CWR) – translation advice (e.g. CFET, CWR) – literal translation of the headword phrase (e.g. SFSDAT) – loose translation of the headword phrase (e.g. SFSDAT) – usage notes (e.g. CWR) – usage of a single exponent (e.g. CWR) – usage warning (e.g. CFET, CWR, SFD/T, SFSDAT) – user group (e.g. SFSDAT)

426

– variants (e.g. SFSDAT) – vocabulary expansion (e.g. SFD/T) – word position: effect on meaning (e.g. CFET) – words in the same word family (e.g. CFET) – words on a particular theme (e.g. CFET) – comparative expressions boxes (e.g. CWR) – phrases/idioms boxes/sections (e.g. CFET, CWR) – quotations (e.g. CFET) – vocabulary expansion boxes/sections (e.g. CFET, CWR, SFSDAT) – compounds section (e.g. CRCDAT/Eng-Fr, CRCDAT/Fr-Eng in A-Z dictionary) – functional section (e.g. CFET, CRCDAT/Eng-Fr, CRCDAT/Fr-Eng, CWR) middle matter – maps (e.g. CRCDAT/Eng-Fr, CRCDAT/Fr-Eng) back matter – verb conjugations (e.g. CFET) – L2-L1 Index (e.g. CFET, CWR) – L1-L2 Index (e.g. CFET, CWR) – grammatical section in L1 (e.g. CRCDAT/Eng-Fr, CRCDAT/Fr-Eng on the English verb) – section on numbers, time and dates (e.g. CRCDAT/Eng-Fr, CRCDAT/Fr-Eng) – section on weights, measures and temperatures (e.g. in L1 (e.g. CRCDAT/Eng-Fr, CRCDAT/Fr-Eng)) Pictorial Illustrations – placement – at individual entries for a single entry (e.g. CWR) – at individual entries for more than one entry (e.g. CWR, LLCE) – in a group of illustrated pages – colour – black and white (e.g. CFET, CWR) – colour – size – small (e.g. CWR) – full page (e.g. CWR) – style – line drawing (e.g. CWR) – photograph – labelled objects (e.g. CWR) – coverage – individual objects (e.g. CFET, CWR) – individual object with labelled parts (e.g. CWR) – composite illustrations (e.g. CWR) – different types of something (e.g. CFET, CWR)

427

– actions (e.g. CWR) – locations/scenes (e.g. CWR) – systems (e.g. CWR) – regional variants (e.g. CWR)

Access Routes – table of contents (e.g. CFET, CWR) – text-order table of contents (e.g. CFET, CWR) – more than one table of contents (e.g. CFET) – indexes – L2-L1 index (e.g. CFET, CWR, ODPGED) – L1-L2 index (e.g. CFET, CWR, ODPGED) – L1 topic index – disambiguating guidance for polysemous index items (e.g. CFET) – reversal of certain index items e.g. adjective + noun combinations entered as adjective, noun in the alphabetical order of the index (e.g. ODPGED) – cross-references placement: – from categories to other category (e.g. CWR) – from category to subcategory (e.g. CWR) – from subcategory to category (e.g. CWR) – from subcategory to usage note (e.g. CWR) – from usage note to category (e.g. CWR) – from usage note to subcategory (e.g. CWR) – from exponent to category (e.g. CWR) – from exponent to subcategory (e.g. CWR) – from exponent to usage note (e.g. CWR) – from main text to communicative function section (e.g. CWR) – from one communicative function section to another (e.g. CWR) – at section headings to other sections (e.g. CFET) – from entry to subcategory (e.g. CWR) type: – to semantically related items – to thematically related items – to antonyms (e.g. CFET, CWR) – from A-Z dictionary to thesaurus (e.g. CRCDAT/Eng-Fr, CRCDAT/Fr-Eng) – from A-Z dictionary to functional section (e.g. CRCDAT/Eng-Fr, CRCDAT/FrEng) Bilingual Elements – table of contents in L1 (e.g. CFET, CRCDAT/Eng-Fr, CRCDAT/Fr-Eng, CWR) – introduction/preface in L1 (e.g. CFET, CWR)

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– introduction/preface in L1 and L2 (e.g. CRCDAT/Eng-Fr, CRCDAT/Fr-Eng) – front matter guidance on using the dictionary in L1 (e.g. CFET, CWR) – front matter guidance on using the dictionary in L1 and L2 (e.g. front matter guidance on using the dictionary in L1) – sample entries showing entry features in L1 (e.g. CFET, CWR) – sample entries showing entry features in L2 – subheading/category headings in L2 and L1 (e.g. CWR) – subheading/category headings in L1 (e.g. CFET, CRCDAT/Eng-Fr, CRCDAT/FrEng [in the Functional section]) – topic/subcategory headings in L1 (e.g. CWR, CRCDAT/Eng-Fr, CRCDAT/Fr-Eng [in the functional section]) – topic/subcategory headings in L2 and L1 (e.g. CFET) – subsubcategories in L1 (e.g. CWR) – translation equivalents (e.g. CFET, CWR) – translations of examples (e.g. CWR) – note titles in L1 (e.g. CWR) – labels under pictorial illustrations in L2 and L1 (e.g. CWR) – labels to parts of pictorial illustrations in L2 and L1 (e.g. CWR) – index L2-L1 (e.g. CWR) – index L1-L2 (e.g. CWR) – back matter grammatical section in L1 (e.g. CRCDAT/Eng-Fr, CRCDAT/Fr-Eng on the English verb) – back matter section on numbers, time and dates (bilingual treatment) (e.g. in L1: CRCDAT/Eng-Fr, CRCDAT/Fr-Eng on the English verb) – back matter section on weights, measures and temperatures (bilingual treatment) (e.g. in L1: CRCDAT/Eng-Fr, CRCDAT/Fr-Eng on the English verb) User Guidance and Practice – front matter ‘how to use the dictionary’ guidance (e.g. CFET, CRCDAT/Eng-Fr, CRCDAT/Fr-Eng, CWR) – list of abbreviations [in the front or back matter] (e.g. CFET, CRCDAT/Eng-Fr, CRCDAT/Fr-Eng) – sample entries showing entry features (e.g. CWR, CRCDAT/Eng-Fr, CRCDAT/FrEng) – exercises (e.g. SFD/T)

Appendix 4) A Sample of the EFL Questionnaire Version A (for French Learners of English) Introduction The purpose of this questionnaire is to find out language learners’ opinions about bilingual (e.g. French/English) thematic dictionaries so that this type of dictionary can be improved in the future. A thematic dictionary is a dictionary such as a thesaurus that is organized into categories (sometimes called ‘keywords’). Each category contains words which are similar in meaning (e.g. wet, damp, moist etc) or which are connected to a particular topic (e.g. airport, aeroplane, pilot etc). A thematic dictionary is different from a traditional dictionary in which all the words are organized into one A-Z list. A bilingual thematic dictionary also shows how the words in one language (e.g. French) can be expressed in another (e.g. English). Do not worry if you have never used a bilingual thematic dictionary before. The questionnaire will provide all the information you need to answer the questions. In advance, many thanks for your help with this survey. 1) What is your nationality? ____________________ 2) What is your first language? ____________________ 3) What is your level of competence in English? Please tick (9) one of the choices below. – advanced – upper intermediate – intermediate – below intermediate

_____ _____ _____ _____

4) What is your subject specialization or profession? ____________________ 5) Do you have a thesaurus? Please tick (9) one of the choices below. – yes _____ – no _____

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6) How often do you use a thematically organized dictionary (such as a thesaurus) when writing something in your own language (French)? Please tick (9) one of the choices below. – often (e.g. at least once a day) – sometimes (e.g. at least once a week) – seldom (e.g. less than once a week) – never

_____ _____ _____ _____

7) How often do you use a thematically organized dictionary (such as a thesaurus) when writing something in English? Please tick (9) one of the choices below. – often (e.g. at least once a day) – sometimes (e.g. at least once a week) – seldom (e.g. less than once a week) – never

_____ _____ _____ _____

8) Do you ever use the Cambridge Word Routes Anglais-Français? Please tick (9) one of the choices below. – yes – no

_____ _____

If you ticked ‘yes’, please go to Question 9). If you ticked ‘no’, please go to Question 10). 9) When compared to ordinary A-Z English-French dictionaries, how useful do you find Cambridge Word Routes Anglais-Français? Please tick (9) one of the choices below. – more useful? – equally useful? – less useful?

_____ _____ _____

What are the reasons for your choice? _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________

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10) Do you prefer Option A or Option B below? Please look at the samples, tick (9) one of the choices below, and give the reasons for your choice. – Option A _____ – Option B _____ What are the reasons for your choice? _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ Option A carry

RELATED WORDS X see also take/bring, lift, pull 1 to carry someone or someone X carry X lug X bear X cart X tote carry /…/ [v T] to take something from one place to another, by holding it in your hands, lifting it on your back etc: A porter helped me carry my bags. | carry sth to/out of/around etc The women have to carry water from the well to the village. | I’ve been carrying this taperecorder around with me all day. bear /…/ [v T] formal or written to carry something, especially something important: A messenger arrived, bearing a letter from the ambassador. | At the head of the procession a group of dark-suited men bore the coffin into the church. tote /…/ [v T] American informal to carry something: My job was to tote their golf bags and wash their cars. | a gun-toting cowboy lug ALSO schlep American /…/ [v T] informal to carry something heavy with difficulty: We lugged our suitcases up the hotel steps. | I’ve got enough to carry without lugging your bags as well. cart /…/ [v T] informal to carry something that is awkward or heavy cart sth down/out etc Madge picked up the box and carted it out to the back yard. | I’m not going to cart your shopping around all afternoon.

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Option B Carry Porter carry vt 1 [dans les bras ou sur le corps] porter I carried the baby upstairs. J’ai porté le bébé à l’étage. I don’t carry much cash with me. Je ne prends pas beaucoup d’argent liquide sur moi. 2 [déplacer] transporter Which airline carries most passengers? Quelle compagnie aérienne transporte le plus de passagers? The wood was carried along by the current. Le bois était charrié par le courant. I ran as fast as my legs would carry me. J’ai couru à toutes jambes. 3 [répandre] transporter Germs are carried in people’s clothing. Les vêtements véhiculent les microbes. 4 [soutenir] supporter, soutenir These shelves won’t carry much weight. Ces étagères ne sont pas faites pour supporter des choses très lourdes. usage Il ne faut pas confondre le verbe carry (porter) et le verbe wear (porter). Notez l’exemple suivant: She was wearing a blue suit and carrying a briefcase. (Elle portait un tailleur bleu et avait une mallette à la main.) voir aussi 190 Clothes contain vt contenir a bag containing a few personal belongings un sac contenant quelques objets personnels This book contains the results of years of research. Ce livre contient le résultat d’années de recherche. bear vt, prét bore part passé borne 1 [formel ou littéraire] porter, apporter Roast swans were borne in on silver platters. On apporta des cygnes rôtis sur des plateaux d’argent. They arrived bearing gifts and messages. Ils arrivèrent en apportant des cadeaux et des messages. 2 [supporter] porter a load-bearing wall un mur porteur hold vt, prét & part passé held 1 [comprendre] contenir This jug holds 1 pint. Cette cruche peut contenir un demi-litre. The table was too small to hold all the books. La table était trop petite pour qu’on puisse y mettre tous les livres. 2 [résister à] supporter Will this rope hold me? Cette corde va-t-elle pouvoir me porter? * voir aussi 336 Hold hold sth up OU hold up sth vt prép soutenir The roof was held up by a pole in each corner. Le toit était soutenu par un pilier dans chaque coin. support vt soutenir a supporting wall un mur porteur A wider base supports more weight. Une base plus large supporte plus de poids. prop vt, -pp- 1 (gén + adv ou prép) [soutenir, généralement en position inclinée] étayer, soutenir We propped the door open. Nous avons bloqué la porte en position ouverte. 2 [placer contre qch] appuyer, adosser I propped the chair against the wall. J’ai appuyé la chaise contre le mur. prop nd support, tuteur, appui, réconfort prop up sth OU prop sth up vt prép (souvent + with) [gén à titre temporaire pour empêcher qch de tomber] soutenir

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11) Have you ever been instructed by a teacher how to use a thematic dictionary or thesaurus? Please tick (9) one or more of the choices below. – Yes, I have been instructed how to use a monolingual (French-French) thematic Dictionary or thesaurus for native speakers of French (e.g. Larousse Dictionnaire Analogique). _____ – Yes, I have been instructed how to use a monolingual (English-English) thematic dictionary or thesaurus for people learning English (e.g. Longman Language Activator, Longman Essential Activator, Longman Pocket Activator, Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English, or Oxford Learner’s Wordfinder Dictionary). _____ – Yes, I have been instructed how to use a bilingual (French-English) thematic dictionary or thesaurus for French speakers learning English (e.g. Cambridge Word Routes Anglais-Français). _____ – No, I have never been instructed how to use a thematic dictionary or thesaurus. _____ 12) What kinds of vocabulary do you think a thematic dictionary for learning a foreign language should include? Please tick (9) one of the choices below. – words for abstract items only (happiness, guilt, jealousy etc) – words for concrete items only (train, cake, dog, plant etc) – words for both abstract and concrete items

_____ _____ _____

13) Here are two ways of arranging the words and phrases for the category ‘Fair Juste’ in a thematic dictionary. Do you prefer Option A or Option B? Please tick (9) one of the choices below. – I prefer Option A. _____ – I prefer Option B. _____ – I have no strong preference for either Option A or Option B. _____

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Option A [Single words and phrases in two separate lists] Fair Juste fair adj fairness ni right adj right n just adj justice ni impartial adj disinterested adj phrases fair and square fair enough fair’s fair fair play Option B [Single words and phrases combined in one list] Fair Juste fair adj fair and square fair enough fair’s fair fair play fairness ni right adj right n just adj justice ni impartial adj disinterested adj

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14) In a thematic dictionary, do you think it is OK to group together words with different parts of speech (nouns, verbs, adjectives etc) in the same section or do you think they should be kept separate from each other? Please look at the arrangements below and tick (9) one of the choices. – I prefer arrangement A). – I prefer arrangement B).

_____ _____

Arrangement A) [different parts of speech grouped together] Group Groupe group nd group vti bunch nd bunch vit cluster nd cluster vit bundle nd collection nd collector nd network nd Arrangement B) [words with the same part of speech grouped together] group nd bunch nd cluster nd bundle nd collection nd collector nd network nd group vti bunch vit cluster vit 15) Thematic dictionaries and thesauruses organize their contents under various categories. Do you think the categories should be arranged alphabetically or thematically? Please look at the examples below and tick (9) one of these choices: I prefer the alphabetical arrangement (Example A). I prefer the thematic arrangement (Example B). I have no strong preference.

____ ____ ____

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Example A) the alphabetical ordering of categories: about (category) about a subject or person (subcategory) to have something as the main subject (subcategory) above (category) accept (category) to accept an offer, invitation, or request (subcategory) to take money or a gift that someone offers you (subcategory) to accept that something is right (subcategory) etc accident (category) at work, at home, when doing a sport etc (subcategory) in a car, train, plane etc (subcategory) to have an accident (subcategory) accidentally (category) etc (The category accident might for example include the words: accident, mishap, crash, wreck, pile-up etc.) Example B) the thematic ordering of categories: food and drink fruit and vegetables (category) fruit (subcategory) common fruit (subcategory) citrus fruit (subcategory) red fruit and soft fruit (subcategory) exotic fruit (subcategory) parts of fruit (subcategory) condition of foodstuffs (subcategory) nuts (subcategory) vegetables (subcategory) green vegetables (subcategory) root vegetables (subcategory) other common vegetables (subcategory) salad vegetables (subcategory) bread, biscuits and cake (category) food derived from animals (category) flavours and seasonings (category) cooking and eating (category) drinks and drinking (category) (The subcategory exotic fruit might for example include the words: pineapple, mango, kiwi fruit, passion fruit etc.)

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16) Do you think the different categories in a thematic dictionary should be listed near the front of the book? Please tick (9) one of the choices below. – yes _____ – no _____ 17) In a thematic dictionary, categories are sometimes divided into subcategories. Do you think it would be useful to list all these subcategories in a menu immediately after the category heading? Please look at the example below and tick (9) one of the choices. – useful – not useful

_____ _____

Category 232) Religion Category Menu: 232.1 Les religions du monde World religions 232.2 Dénominations chrétiennes Christian denominations 232.3 Créatures divines ou sacrées Divine or sacred beings 232.4 Le clergé The clergy 232.5 Edifices religieux Religious buildings 232.6 Le culte Worship 232.7 Livres saints Religious texts 232.8 Saint Holy 232.9 Vie après la mort Life after death 232.10 Athéisme Atheism 18) Do you think notes about false friends* are useful in a bilingual thematic dictionary? (*False friends = words which look similar in two languages, but have different meanings) Please look at the usage note below and tick (9) one of the choices. – useful – not useful

_____ _____

usage Les mots sympathy et sympathetic sont utilisés surtout lorsqu’il s’agit de la compassion que démontre une personne envers les problèmes ou les souffrances d’un autre. Ils ne correspondent pas tout à fait aux mots français “sympathie” et “sympathique”, ex. Elle est très sympathique. (She's very nice.)

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19) The meanings of some words in a particular language are often confused. Do you think that notes about ‘confusable’ words are useful in a bilingual thematic dictionary? Please look at the note below and tick (9) one of the choices. – useful – not useful

_____ _____

End et finish sont tous deux des termes très courants. Finish a plus le sens de réalisation que end, et est plus courant quand il est transitif. Quand il est intransitif, finish est légèrement moins formel que end. Finish peut être suivi d’une forme verbale en –ing, ex. Have you finished eating?, mais pas end.

20) Do you think notes about the origins of words (etymology) are useful in a thematic learner’s dictionary? Please look at the note below and tick (9) one of the choices. – useful – not useful

_____ _____

gin n [C,U] a strong alcoholic drink made mainly from grain, or a glass of this drink WORD ORIGIN NOTE: The English word gin comes from the French word ‘genievre’, which means ‘juniper’. Juniper is a berry which gives gin its bitter flavour.

21) Do you think notes explaining the difference in meaning of words on a particular topic are useful in a bilingual thematic dictionary? Please look at the note below and tick (9) one of the choices. – useful – not useful

_____ _____

Chicken est le terme général employé pour désigner à la fois les mâles et les femelles. On utilise souvent le mot chicken pour désigner uniquement des femelles, mais on utilisera plus souvent les termes cock ou rooster lorsqu’on souhaite désigner uniquement des mâles. La chair du poulet est appelée chicken. Un jeune coq est un cockerel. Le terme général qui désigne la volaille est poultry et on parlera par exemple de poultry farmers, même s’ils n’élèvent que des poulets.

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22) Do you think notes about the language needed in a particular situation are useful in a bilingual thematic dictionary? Please look at the note below and tick (9) one of the choices. – useful – not useful

_____ _____

(in a category called Thanking Remerciements) En anglais britannique, il n’est pas nécessaire de répondre à qn qui vous remercie, surtout s’il agit de petites choses comme ouvrir la porte pour qn et on peut se contenter d’un sourire ou d’un signe de tête. Dans des situations plus exceptionnelles, (lorsqu’on a aidé qn qui se trouvait en difficulté, par ex.), on peut répondre That’s okay, ou, plus formellement, Not at all, ou encore (par exemple lorsque qn vous remercie de votre hospitalité) It was a pleasure. En anglais américain, on répond plus fréquemment à un remerciement, notamment en utilisant l’expression You’re welcome qui s’utilise aussi en anglais britannique.

23) Do you think that notes on words which are often used together (collocations) are useful in a bilingual thematic dictionary? Please look at the note below and tick (9) one of the choices. – useful – not useful

_____ _____

Les noms de maladies et de blessures entrent dans un certain nombre de collocations. Etant donné que des termes comme asthma et indigestion sont indénombrables, on utilisera souvent les termes attacks (crise) ou bouts (cris, accès) pour faire référence à une maladie ponctuelle. Les deux constructions an attack of asthma ou an asthma attack sont possibles, par contre on dira uniquement an attack of indigestion. On dira soit a bout soit an attack of coughing/sneezing.

Appendix 5) Location Guessing Experiment: List of BTD Categories Table of Contents 1 Wild animals 2 Fierce 3 Gentle 4 Small animals 5 Insects 6 Farm animals 7 Pets 8 Animal noises 9 Birds 10 Fish and sea animals 11 Plants 12 Trees 13 Geography and geology 14 Areas 15 Jewels 16 Metals 17 Gases 18 Weather 19 Cold 20 Hot 21 Wet 22 Dry 23 Dark 24 Light 25 Calendar and seasons 26 Time 27 Astronomy 28 Astrology 29 Be 30 Presence and absence 31 Happen 32 Begin 33 Continue 34 End 35 Real 36 Unreal 37 Seem

38 Shapes 39 Shape 40 Dimensions 41 Size 42 Big 43 Large quantity 44 Small 45 Small quantity 46 Increase 47 Decrease 48 Fat 49 Thin 50 Whole 51 Enough 52 Part 53 Edge 54 Alike 55 Different 56 Copy 57 Substitute 58 Change 59 Beautiful 60 Ugly 61 Rough 62 Smooth 63 Tidy 64 Untidy 65 Order 66 Position 67 Necessary 68 Unnecessary 69 Waste 70 Throw away 71 Rubbish 72 Want 73 Choose 74 Important

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75 Main 76 Unimportant 77 Great 78 Possible 79 Impossible 80 Probable 81 Improbable 82 Certain 83 Uncertain 84 Particular 85 General 86 Human body – external 87 Hear 88 Noisy 89 Quiet 90 Smell 91 See and look 92 Show 93 Obvious 94 Search 95 Find 96 Lose 97 Body position 98 Touch 99 Soft 100 Hard 101 Human body – internal 102 Bodily wastes 103 Breathe 104 Think 105 Believe 106 Opinion 107 Intend 108 Idea 109 Guess 110 Know 111 Fame 112 Unknown 113 Find out 114 Understand

115 Misunderstand 116 Remember 117 Forget 118 Surprise 119 Boring 120 Interesting 121 Doctor 122 Hospital 123 Dentist 124 Illnesses 125 Symptoms 126 Cures 127 Healthy 128 Unhealthy 129 Mad 130 Sane 131 Hit 132 Damage 133 Cut 134 Hole 135 Burn 136 Babies 137 Name 138 Families and relations 139 People 140 Male 141 Female 142 Personality 143 Polite 144 Rude 145 Cheeky 146 Formal 147 Informal 148 Proud 149 Boast 150 Modest 151 Emotion 152 Fruit 153 Ripeness 154 Nuts

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155 Vegetables 156 Baked and dried foods 157 Flavours 158 Dairy products 159 Meat 160 Sweet foods 161 Snacks and cooked food 162 Meals 163 Eating and drinking Places 164 Eat 165 Hungry 166 Drinks 167 Drink 168 Cooking methods 169 Kitchen 170 Dining room 171 Smoking 172 Drugs 173 Farming 174 Types of building 175 Live 176 Parts of buildings 177 Inside buildings

178 Close 179 Open 180 Living room 181 Bedroom 182 Sleep 183 Rest and relaxation 184 Personal hygiene 185 Bathroom 186 Laundry 187 Cleaning 188 Clean 189 Dirty 190 Clothes 191 Shoes 192 Accessories 193 Textiles 194 Colours 195 Social customs 196 Greet 197 Die 198 Kill 199 Sex 200 Old

Appendix 6) Location Guessing Experiment: List of 10 Words Instructions

Dictionary-makers try to put words in the dictionary in places where users would expect to find them. The purpose of this exercise is to see whether they have been successful in doing this. Here are: – a four-page Table of Contents from a thematic dictionary, and – a one-page Exercise Answer Sheet which lists 10 words. For each word on the Exercise Answer Sheet, please write down (in the right-hand column) the number and title of the section in the dictionary where you would expect to find it. If you think that a word may appear in more than one place in the dictionary, you can write down more than one section in the right-hand column of the Exercise Answer Sheet. Please do not spend more than 30 minutes on this exercise. Example answer: Word pyjamas

Place in the dictionary where you would expect to find the word 190 Clothes

Exercise Answer Sheet Word 1) ambulance 2) progress vi 3) thermometer 4) tear v 5) fundamentally 6) tiny 7) pollution 8) nosy 9) pressure 10) vain

Place in the dictionary where you would expect to find the word

Appendix 7) Search Report Experiment: Answer/Search Report Sheet What is your first language? __________ Instructions The aim of this test is to see whether the dictionary provides you with enough information to allow you to choose the correct missing words in a number of sentences. There are 10 questions. Questions 1-5 are multiple-choice questions. You have to decide which of 4 choices from a), b), c), and d) is the correct missing word or phrase from the sentence. For Questions 6-10 you have to choose a word which can fill the gap in each sentence. Each time you answer a question you must use the dictionary to see if it can help you, and then fill in a search report. – The first time you use the dictionary to answer one of the questions, please fill in the Search report: first search attempt. – If you need to do a second search, please fill in the Search report: second search attempt. – If you need to do a third search, please fill in the Search report: third search attempt. – If you need to do a fourth search, please fill in the Search report: fourth search attempt. – If you do not find a suitable word after your fourth search, please move on to the next question. Question 1) Please fill the space in the sentence below with one of the choices a), b), c), or d). Use the dictionary to help you. Each time you look up a word or phrase in the index, please fill in a search report. We decided to buy an old house and __________ ourselves. a) fix it b) mend it c) patch it up d) renovate it

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Search report: first search attempt (Q.1) Which word or phrase did you look up in the index? __________ In which index did you look up the word or phrase? Please tick (9) one of the choices below: a) the index of English words b) the index of words in your own language

_____ _____

Did you successfully find the word or phrase you were looking for in the index? Please tick (9) one of the choices below: a) yes _____ b) no _____ If you ticked no, please try another search and answer the questions below in the section called ‘Search report: second search attempt (Q.1)’. If you ticked yes, which category did you find your answer in (e.g. 194 Colours)? ___________ If you ticked yes, is the word or phrase you found suitable for filling the gap in the sentence? a) yes _____ b) no _____ If you ticked yes, which part of the dictionary entry helped you most to choose the word or phrase which you put as your answer to the question? Please tick (9) one of the choices below: – information about the part of speech (e.g. whether the word is a noun, verb, adjective etc) – information in square brackets [ …] – information in round brackets (…) – the translation(s) – the example(s) – a usage note

_____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____

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If you ticked no, which part of the dictionary entry helped you most to reject the word or phrase which you put as your answer to the question? Please tick (9) one of the choices below: – information about the part of speech (e.g. whether the word is a noun, verb, adjective etc) – information in square brackets [ …] – information in round brackets (…) – the translation(s) – the example(s) – a usage note

_____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____

If you ticked no, please try another search and answer the questions below in the section called ‘Search report: second search attempt (Q.1)’. Search report: second search attempt (Q.1) Which word or phrase did you look up in the index? __________ In which index did you look up the word or phrase? Please tick (9) one of the choices below: a) the index of English words b) the index of words in your own language

_____ _____

Did you successfully find the word or phrase you were looking for in the index? Please tick (9) one of the choices below: a) yes _____ b) no _____ If you ticked no, please try another search and answer the questions below in the section called ‘Search report: third search attempt (Q.1)’. If you ticked yes, which category did you find your answer in (e.g. 194 Colours)? ___________ If you ticked yes, is the word or phrase you found suitable for filling the gap in the sentence? a) yes _____ b) no _____

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If you ticked yes, which part of the dictionary entry helped you most to choose the word or phrase which you put as your answer to the question? Please tick (9) one of the choices below: – information about the part of speech (e.g. whether the word is a noun, verb, adjective etc) _____ – information in square brackets [ …] _____ – information in round brackets (…) _____ – the translation(s) _____ – the example(s) _____ – a usage note _____ If you ticked no, which part of the dictionary entry helped you most to reject the word or phrase which you put as your answer to the question? Please tick (9) one of the choices below: – information about the part of speech (e.g. whether the word is a noun, verb, adjective etc) – information in square brackets [ …] – information in round brackets (…) – the translation(s) – the example(s) – a usage note

_____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____

If you ticked no, please try another search and answer the questions below in the section called ‘Search report: third search attempt (Q.1)’. Search report: third search attempt (Q.1) Which word or phrase did you look up in the index? __________ In which index did you look up the word or phrase? Please tick (9) one of the choices below: a) the index of English words b) the index of words in your own language

_____ _____

Did you successfully find the word or phrase you were looking for in the index? Please tick (9) one of the choices below: a) yes _____ b) no _____

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If you ticked no, please try another search and answer the questions below in the section called ‘Search report: fourth search attempt (Q.1)’. If you ticked yes, which category did you find your answer in (e.g. 194 Colours)? ___________ If you ticked yes, is the word or phrase you found suitable for filling the gap in the sentence? a) yes _____ b) no _____ If you ticked yes, which part of the dictionary entry helped you most to choose the word or phrase which you put as your answer to the question? Please tick (9) one of the choices below: – information about the part of speech (e.g. whether the word is a noun, verb, adjective etc) – information in square brackets [ …] – information in round brackets (…) – the translation(s) – the example(s) – a usage note

_____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____

If you ticked no, which part of the dictionary entry helped you most to reject the word or phrase which you put as your answer to the question? Please tick (9) one of the choices below: – information about the part of speech (e.g. whether the word is a noun, verb, adjective etc) – information in square brackets [ …] – information in round brackets (…) – the translation(s) – the example(s) – a usage note

_____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____

If you ticked no, please try another search and answer the questions below in the section called ‘Search report: fourth search attempt (Q.1)’.

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Search report: fourth search attempt (Q.1) Which word or phrase did you look up in the index? __________ In which index did you look up the word or phrase? Please tick (9) one of the choices below: a) the index of English words b) the index of words in your own language

_____ _____

Did you successfully find the word or phrase you were looking for in the index? Please tick (9) one of the choices below: a) yes _____ b) no _____ If you ticked no, please go on to Question 2. If you ticked yes, which category did you find your answer in (e.g. 194 Colours)? ___________ If you ticked yes, is the word or phrase you found suitable for filling the gap in the sentence? a) yes _____ b) no _____ If you ticked yes, which part of the dictionary entry helped you most to choose the word or phrase which you put as your answer to the question? Please tick (9) one of the choices below: – information about the part of speech (e.g. whether the word is a noun, verb, adjective etc) – information in square brackets [ …] – information in round brackets (…) – the translation(s) – the example(s) – a usage note

_____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____

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If you ticked no, which part of the dictionary entry helped you most to reject the word or phrase which you put as your answer to the question? Please tick (9) one of the choices below: – information about the part of speech (e.g. whether the word is a noun, verb, adjective etc) – information in square brackets [ …] – information in round brackets (…) – the translation(s) – the example(s) – a usage note If you ticked no, please go on to Question 2.

_____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____

Appendix 8) A Cumulative Checklist of Actual and Potential BTD Features and Choices Physical Format – print dictionary or electronic dictionary Independence of the Text – standalone text or combined with a thematic dictionary (a ‘thesaurus dictionary’) – if combined: dictionary and thematic combined in a single volume/CD-ROM, or in separate volumes: the dictionary and the companion thematic dictionary linked/not linked Number of Parts – usually one part, occasionally two e.g. the Quick Reference Section and the Thematic Section in the Encarta Thesaurus (‘a dual navigation system’) Inclusion Linguistic inclusion: – the balance between lexemes for abstract referents and for concrete referents – regional spread (e.g. in the case of English: British English, American English, other varieties of English, World English, and dialect words) – the balance between written and spoken language – the extent to which various subgroups of a language are included e.g. – dated and historical language – formal and informal language (including offensive words) – specialist language e.g. – for particular academic disciplines/subject areas – for particular written and spoken styles (e.g. literary, technical etc) – abbreviations – numbers – symbols – whether to allow both phrases and individual words as exponents heading entries – the extent to which derivatives and morphologically related words are included Cultural inclusion: – the extent to which cultural content is included e.g. – encyclopedic/cultural entries

452

– proper nouns – cultural notes of various kinds (biographical etc) – longer cultural articles – middle and back matter features devoted to cultural topics – the extent to which lexemes with historical referents are included – the extent to which items relating to the cultures of L1 and L2 speakers are covered – the distribution of cultural content (in complete entries, notes, topic pages etc) Space considerations: – additional content on the CD-ROM version of the dictionary (e.g. encyclopedic/cultural entries) Lexicographic Evidence – corpus-based or non corpus-based (e.g. the bilingual slang thesauri) – use of L2 corpora (by compilers of the L2 framework) – use of L1 corpora (by translators of the L2 framework) – use of learners’ corpora (to inform error avoidance notes, translation notes etc) – use of parallel corpora (to identify translation equivalents) [use not observed in existing BTDs] Macrostructure – one macrostructure (the usual case) or two macrostructures (in two-part thematic dictionaries) – the choice between a flat and a pyramid hierarchy – the degree of progression from the general to the particular – no. of macrostructural levels – no. of topics at each level of the macrostructure – alphabetical ordering of topics at Level 1 (the top level of the hierarchy) – alphabetical ordering of topics at Level 2 (the level below Level 1) – alphabetical ordering of topics at Level 3 – alphabetical ordering of topics at Level 4 (where applicable) – alphabetical ordering of topics at Level 5 (where applicable) – alphabetical ordering of topics at Level 6 (where applicable) – thematic ordering of topics at Level 1 – thematic ordering of topics at Level 2 – thematic ordering of topics at Level 3 – thematic ordering of topics at Level 4 (where applicable) – thematic ordering of topics at Level 5 (where applicable) – thematic ordering of topics at Level 6 (where applicable) – thematic at some levels and alphabetical at others – use of keywords – keywords leading to full information

453

– keywords heading cross-reference entries – one macrostructural level acting as the starter level (i.e. the level which is the most frequently used macrostructural access route) if thematically ordered: – the degree of semantic/thematic/logical flow between topics within each level of the macrostructural hierarchy – conventional/expected versus idiosyncratic grouping of topics – modernity of the macrostructure – the placement of contrasting or correlative concepts if alphabetically ordered: – the type of alphabetization employed – the treatment of articles in the alphabetical ordering of topics Sections – the relative ordering of sections within a category – the breadth of relationships covered in a section – the criteria for grouping exponents together in a section – actions/activities – antonymous or contrasting items (in the same or a different section at any of the macrostructural levels) – euphemisms – groups/sets – hierarchies/rankings – items relating to a particular location – level of generality/particularity – general lexemes (often placed first) – metaphorical extension – methods – miscellaneous sections – part of speech – parts/features – people (as opposed to objects etc) – processes/stages of a process – purpose – register – styles – synonyms and near-synonyms – thematically related items – e.g. terminology belonging to a particular subject – types (including branches of subjects, breeds, classes etc) – user groups – the ordering of exponents within a section

454

– according to frequency – alphabetically – chronologically – by situation – by size – by topic – degree of semantic/thematic/logical flow throughout a section – the number of exponents within a section – application of the criteria of manageability and comprehensiveness – cumulative synonymy or distinctive synonymy – cumulative sections/lists of undefined items within an otherwise distinctive synonymy – subgrouping by sense in cumulative thesauri – use of style/register labels at the head of cumulative word groupings – use of regional labels at the head of cumulative word groupings – presentation: – use of typographical layout (e.g. indentation) to show hierarchical relationships between exponents – use of typographical devices e.g. semi-colons to group words – use of semantic frames – the treatment of particular types of lexeme within a section – whether to place unmarked lexemes first in a section – whether to group together lexemes with the same part of speech – whether to assign phrases to a separate section or note, or integrate with other exponents – whether to assign spoken English to a separation section or box, or mix in with other exponents – use of core synonyms – use of helpwords – additional vocabulary sections – the use of sections consisting of pictorial illustrations rather than entries – main entries and run-on derivatives Headings – the criteria for the selection of keywords – choice of heading components: – use of numbers in headings at each level of the macrostructural hierarchy – use of alphanumeric codes in headings – headings in L1, L2, or both – length/style of headings – single-word headings – lengthy descriptive headings – use of telegraphic headings

455

– use of formulaic topic headings – use of keyword definitions – use of metatextual headings – use of metalinguistic headings other: – sections without headings Microstructure – headword features – orthographic information – spellcheck on items entered in type-in search field (on CD-ROM version) – hyphenation (see also ‘headword highlighting’ at frequency information) – selectional headwords (divided by slashes) – bracketed optional elements in headwords – whether to allow both phrase and single words as lemmata – frequency information – headword highlighting – frequency rating systems – other frequency-related issues: – the relative ordering of homographs – the relative ordering of senses (see ‘senses’) – frequency graphs (see ‘Other Features’) – usefulness information – headword highlighting – pronunciation information – use of IPA or some other system for representing pronunciation – stress marking – recorded pronunciation of headwords (on CD-ROM version) – recorded pronunciation of inflected forms (on CD-ROM version) – sound effects (on CD-ROM version) – regional labels – variants – orthographic variants – lexical variants – regional variants – inflectional information – grammar codes – clickable grammar codes (on CD-ROM version) (= an explanation of the grammar code is revealed when the code is clicked on by the user) – the number of grammar codes – degree of depth of grammatical analysis

456

– style and register labels – usage labels – pragmatics labels – currency labels (e.g. dated, historical etc) – etymological information – comments attached to labels – translation equivalents – use of head translations – use of literal translations – explanations (where there is no head translation) – disambiguators and other comments (in brackets) – abstraction – addressee – agency – approval/disapproval (value judgement) – collocation – communicative function – comparison between exponents – comparison between referents of exponents – completedness – connotation – context – currency – deliberate/accidental – descriptive range – emphasis/intensity – etymology – euphemism – everyday use – exemplification – false friends – figurative/literal use – frequency – general/specific term – gender of the referent – generic term – gloss of meaning – grammar (including part of speech) – humour – implication/suggestion – irony – literal translation – location – meaning indicator

457

– mode (i.e. spoken or written language) – onomatopoeia – patronizing use – pejorative use – point of view – possible object – possible subject – proverb – purpose – regional restriction – register – respect – similarity to another exponent – situational information – specification of an accompanying feature of the referent – specification of what the referent is part of – specification of what type of person uses the referent – style – subject area – substitutability – synonyms – technical – temporary/permanent state – translation – typical use – usage warning – use in negative phrases – user group – voluntary/involuntary action – examples – choice of: – unadulterated corpus-derived examples – adulterated corpus-derived examples – editorial (i.e. made-up) examples – use of fragments/full sentences as examples – syntactic patterns highlighted before/within examples – the relative ordering of syntactic patterns within a series of examples e.g. by frequency – selectional grammatical patterns – collocational patterns highlighted before/within examples – the relative ordering of collocational patterns within a series of examples e.g. by frequency – additional collocational information (on CD-ROM version) – glosses after collocational patterns

458

– selectional collocational patterns – use of glosses in examples – use of labels (e.g. regional indicators) following examples – highlighting of substitutable elements in example – use of bracketed optional elements in examples – use of cross-references in examples – clickable words in examples (on CD-ROM version) (i.e. a function which allows users to click on a word in an example in order to access the entry for that word) – additional examples (on CD-ROM version) – corpus-mode display of examples (on CD-ROM version) – sound recordings of examples (on CD-ROM version) – translations of examples – spoken version of the example – information on/cross-references to related words – synonyms and near-synonyms – antonyms – compounds – other types of related word e.g. – types of something – members of a finite semantic or thematic set – members of a word family – derivatives – run-on derivatives – selectional run-ons – information on word families – use of an extra column (for information on grammar, synonyms, and usage) Other Features – notes and boxes – abbreviated forms – academic writing notes – additional phrases – additional senses – affixation – antonyms – approved usage – colligation notes – collocation boxes and notes – comparative expressions boxes – compounds section – confusables notes – connotation

459

– contextual notes – contrastive notes – cultural notes – currency notes (i.e. dated, historical etc lexemes) – derivatives – descriptive range – emphasis/strength – error avoidance notes – etymology – euphemisms – explanation of an example component – explanation of a phrase component – false friend notes – figurative/literal usage – functional notes – gender notes – grammar notes – agreement – articles – countability of nouns – part of speech – prepositions – tenses – implication/suggestion – inflections – learner training notes – the meaning of plural forms – metalinguistic and metatextual notes (on arrangement, inclusion policy etc) – comment on following exponents – comment on following sections – comment on following translations – comment on a section title – metaphor – mode (i.e. spoken or written language) – non-standard language – orthographical notes – pejorative use notes – phrases/idioms boxes or sections – pronunciation notes – punctuation notes – regional notes – register notes – situational notes – spelling and capitalization notes

460

– standard language equivalents – standard usage – structural inconsistency – substitutability – synonym notes – thematic notes (i.e. words on a particular theme) – translation advice – literal translation of the headword phrase – loose translation of the headword phrase – usage notes – usage warning – user group notes – variants – vocabulary expansion notes – word family notes – word position notes: effect of word order on meaning – placement of notes/boxes at all relevant entries (on CD-ROM version) – tables – of items which are closely semantically related (distinctive feature matrices) – of items on a particular topic – of additional vocabulary items – frequency graphs – literary quotations – pictorial illustrations – placement/coverage: – for individual items – for groups of items – purpose: – to show different types of something – to show different parts of something – to show objects typically found in a particular location – to show position and direction – to show actions/processes – features: – labelled objects – clickable labels in illustrations (on CD-ROM version) (i.e. a function which allows users to click on a label in an illustration in order to access the entry for that word) – expandable illustrations (on CD-ROM version) – appearance/size: – colour/black and white – small/half page/full page etc – line drawing/photograph – placement of pictorial illustrations at all relevant entries (on CD-ROM version)

461

– front matter features – table of contents (see Access Routes) – user guide – front/back matter features – essays (e.g. on British and American English, English as a world language etc.) – explanation of pronunciation information – lists of abbreviations, codes, and labels – numbers – symbols – middle/back matter features – language study pages – maps – topic pages (see also: ‘full-page illustrations’ above) – back matter features – communicative functions section – grammar section – indexes (see Access Routes) – L2-L1 index – L1-L2 index – frequency bands – grammar table – list of common first names – list of geographical names – list of keywords – list of notes – list of pictorial illustrations – list of specialist vocabulary – list of words you should know – punctuation – regular/irregular verb conjugations – sayings and proverbs – section on numbers, time, and dates – section on weights, measures, and temperatures – word families – word formation – exercises (see ‘User Guidance and Practice’) Access Routes – single or dual navigation system – table(s) of contents in the front matter – complete list and/or brief list of contents

462

– contents list arranged according to the order of material in the text or imposing a thematic framework on it – subject classification scheme as the main access route – possibility of navigating around a covert subject classification scheme – looking through the alphabetically ordered keywords (where applicable) – scrolling through a horizontal scrollbar of keywords (on CD-ROM version) – list of keywords in the front/back matter – the index(es) as the main access route (the usual situation) – L2-L1 index – L1-L2 index – L1 topic index – reversal of certain index items e.g. adjective + noun combinations entered as adjective, noun in the alphabetical order of the index – comprehensiveness: all exponents included in the index or partial coverage – information categories given at each index item – semantic pointers to distinguish homographs or senses of polysemous lexemes – pronunciation information given at index entries – part of speech information given at index entries – irregular inflections information given at index entries – an indication that the index item appears in a picture – running index or end-of-book index –idiom finder – guidewords – menus (at categories and subcategories) – cross-references at category, subcategory, and entry level – sources and targets: – from categories to other category – from category to subcategory – from subcategory to category – from subcategory to usage note – from usage note to category – from usage note to subcategory – from exponent to category – from exponent to subcategory – from exponent to usage note – from main text to communicative function section – from one communicative function section to another – at section headings to other sections – from entry to subcategory – to tables/illustrations – type: – to semantically related items – to thematically related items – to antonyms

463

– from A-Z dictionary to thesaurus/thematic dictionary – from A-Z dictionary to functional section – cross-reference keywords – CD-ROM-specific access structures – type-in search field – ability to interpret inflected forms – types of items related to the search word that are displayed at the same time as the search word (i.e. not just via cross-references) – antonyms – attributes (e.g. weight – light, heavy etc) – branches of knowledge (e.g. ballet – pirouette) – derivatives – domain usage (e.g. trademark – Kleenex) – entailments (e.g. snore – sleep) – material something is made of (e.g. brick – clay) – near-synonyms – participles – parts – region – types – facility to search for both words and phrases – advanced search facility – collocation search – compound search – derived words search – editorial notes search – etymological search – examples search – frequency search – full text search – grammar search – headword search – homophone search – irregular inflections search – menu search – morphological search – multimedia search – part of speech search – phrasal verb search – pronunciation search – regional search – style search – subject search – access via a visual display (e.g. Visual Thesaurus)

464

– links to an A-Z semasiological dictionary (when twinned with such a dictionary) – via a designated window on-screen – from an entry in the alphabetical dictionary: automated selection of relevant keywords in the thematic dictionary (e.g. via the ‘Activate Your Language’ window on LDOCE CD-ROM) – links between individual entries and a covert thesaurus User Guidance and Practice – user guide (usually in the front matter) – list of codes/abbreviations (in the front or back matter) – sample entries showing salient features – exercises – interactive exercises (on CD-ROM version) – workbook – facility for users to input their own material (e.g. in a mini-dictionary) (on CD-ROM version) – facility for users to test themselves on such material (on CD-ROM version) – facility for users to record their own pronunciation (on CD-ROM version) Bilingual Elements – table of contents – introduction/preface – front matter guidance on using the dictionary – sample entries showing entry features in L1 – macrostructural headings – translation equivalents – translations of examples – note/box titles – labels under pictorial illustrations – labels to parts of pictorial illustrations – L2-L1 index – L1-L2 index – back matter grammatical etc sections CD-ROM Features – storage capacity: – additional content on the CD-ROM version of the dictionary – additional encyclopedic/cultural entries – additional phrases – additional examples – additional collocational information

465

– additional syntactic information – placement of notes/boxes at all relevant entries – placement of pictorial illustrations at all relevant entries display: – degree of intuitiveness of the GUI – overt thematic dictionary – covert thematic dictionary – ability to function when user is working on a word processing document, browsing a webpage, or using an email program – non-linear display – constellation-style display – use of colour coding – e.g. for different parts of speech – meaning lists – use of lines to show semantic connections – pop-up window – extent of the thesaurus entry revealed in the pop-up window – corpus-mode display of examples – 2D/3D display – expandable pictorial illustrations – facility to hide/display entry components e.g. IPA symbols searching: – type-in search facility – spellcheck on items entered in type-in search field – ability to locate a base from an inflected form entered in the type-in search field – extent of search (on all words or a selection e.g. exponents heading a paragraph in a cumulative thesaurus) – ability to deal with open compounds and phrases – ability to help when misspelt items are typed in – function that records the history of searches – search filters – autopilot for random browsing – scrollable list of keywords – automatic generation of related keywords See also ‘CD-ROM-specific access structures’ above. multimedia: – recorded pronunciation of headwords – recorded pronunciation of inflected forms – recorded pronunciation of examples – facility for users to record their own pronunciation – sound effects other features: – content filtering – grammar section

466

– communicative functions section user guidance and practice: – clickable grammar codes – facility for users to create their own dictionary – facility for users to test themselves on content they have input themselves – interactive exercises – writing assistant/writing tips links: – clickable words on-screen linking to the corresponding entry for the word (including labels at pictorial illustrations) – link from thematic dictionary to A-Z semasiological dictionary if on the same disk – links from the thematic dictionary to the Internet – hyperjump from one category to another via a cross-reference

Appendix 9) Location Guessing Experiment: Guessed Locations for Each Word Response from: 1) 122 ambulance 2) 33 progress vi 3) 126 thermometer

B 122 33 121, 122

8) 113 nosy

A 122 33, 58 121, 124, 125 132, 134 75, 105 41, 44 69, 71, 189 113, 142

9) 98 pressure 10) 148 vain

17 142, 148

Response from: 1) 122 ambulance 2) 33 progress vi 3) 126 thermometer 4) 132 tear v 5) 75 fundamentally 6) 44 tiny 7) 189 pollution 8) 113 nosy 9) 98 pressure 10) 148 vain

4) 132 tear v 5) 75 fundamentally 6) 44 tiny 7) 189 pollution

D 122 58 19, 20, 125, 168 132 29 44 13, 69, 71, 102, 189 113

168 59, 92, 106, 148, 149

C 121, 122 31, 33 18, 19, 20, 122 151 74, 75 40, 41, 44 17, 69, 71, 189, 198 91, 113, 139, 142, 144 77, 100, 183 59, 86, 142, 148

E 85, 122 26 121

F 122 31 18

G 122 33 19, 20

102 114 41, 44, 45 132 144 98 142

132, 133 74, 105 44 69 91, 142 100 148, 149

151 85 40, 41, 44 132 142 100 139, 142

H 122 31, 114 19, 20, 121, 125 52 ----------------41, 44, 45 17, 18, 88, 90 142 4, 13, 17, 18 142, 148

70, 132 67 41, 44 69 91, 113

100, 132 36, 37, 111, 115, 148, 149

468

Response from: 1) 122 ambulance 2) 33 progress vi 3) 126 thermometer 4) 132 tear v 5) 75 fundamentally 6) 44 tiny 7) 189 pollution 8) 113 nosy 9) 98 pressure 10) 148 vain

I 122 33 18, 125 132 75 44 13, 69 142 17 142

J 122 33 20 134 106 44 69 113 17 101

K 122 33 18 151 74 44 69 91 77 139

L 122 131 20 101 73 44 69 94 77 37

Response from: 1) 122 ambulance 2) 33 progress vi

M 122 33

N 122 -----------------

P 122 33, 66

3) 126 thermometer

121

-----------------

4) 132 tear v 5) 75 fundamentally 6) 44 tiny 7) 189 pollution

151 85 44 69

86 ----------------45 -----------------

8) 113 nosy

142

-----------------

9) 98 pressure 10) 148 vain

18 142

13 -----------------

O 122, 87 33, 26, 46, 66 18, 25, 124, 168 53, 58 50, 104, 106 44, 41 17, 18, 102, 132 113, 139, 146, 195 17, 18, 124 106, 142, 195

19, 20, 121, 122 132 75 44, 41 69 113 (?), 142, 145 17, 18 148 (?), 142, 149

469

Response from: 1) 122 ambulance 2) 33 progress vi 3) 126 thermometer

Q 122 33 121

R 122 33, (26), (58) 18, (19), (20), 125

4) 132 tear v

151

5) 75 fundamentally 6) 44 tiny

74 44

102, 132, (134), 151 75, 74 44, 40, 41

7) 189 pollution

69

17, 69, (71)

8) 113 nosy

144

9) 98 pressure

13

10) 148 vain

142

113, 91, (97), 110 46, 47, (49), (100) 148, (59), (86), 92, 97, (104), (105), (111), 149

S 122, 121 33, 113 19, 124, 125, 127, 128 132, 133, 151 32 44, 40, 41, 45 69, 71, 88, 90, 189 91

T 122, 121, 124 33 18, 19, 20

100

17, 18

149

59, 149

21, 151 67, 74 44, 41, 45, 49 17, 24, 69, 171 91, 94

Appendix 10) Location Guessing Experiment: No. of Correct Guesses for each Word 1)122 ambulance A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T Total correct Correct %

3)126 thermometer

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 20

2)33 progress vi 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 15

5)75 fundamentally

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

4)132 tear v 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 8

100%

75%

0%

40%

25%

1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 5

471

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T Total correct Correct % Overall average %

6)44 Tiny 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 19

7)189 pollution 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 4

8)113 nosy 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 8

9)98 Pressure 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

10)148 Vain 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 8

95%

20%

40%

5%

40%

Hits 8 6 7 6 3 4 3 3 5 4 3 3 3 1 4 7 3 7 5 3 Total 88 44%

Appendix 11) Location Guessing Experiment: Correct Answers and Participants’ Answers ambulance – correct answer: 122 Hospital (20) – other answers: 121 Doctor (3), 124 Illnesses (1), 87 Hear (1), 85 General (1) progress vi – correct answer: 33 Continue (14) – other answers: 26 Time (3), 31 Happen (3), 58 Change (3), 66 Position (2), 46 Increase (1), 113 Find out (1), 114 Understand (1), 131 Hit (1) thermometer – correct answer: 126 Cures (0) – other answers: 20 Hot (9), 19 Cold (8), 121 Doctor (7), 18 Weather (7), 125 Symptoms (6), 124 Illnesses (3), 122 Hospital (3), 168 Cooking methods (2), 25 Calendar and seasons (1), 127 Healthy (1), 128 Unhealthy (1) tear v – correct answer: 132 Damage (8) – other answers: 151 Emotion (8), 134 Hole (3), 102 Bodily wastes (2), 133 Cut (2), 101 Human body – internal, (1), 86 Human body – external (1), 70 Throw away (1), 58 Change (1), 53 Edge (1), 52 Part (1), 21 Wet (1) fundamentally – correct answer: 75 Main (5) – other answers: 74 Important (6), 67 Necessary (2), 85 General (2), 105 Believe (2), 106 Opinion (2), 114 Understand (1), 104 Think (1), 73 Choose (1), 50 Whole (1), 32 Begin (1), 29 Be (1) tiny – correct answer: 44 Small (19) – other answers: 41 Size (11), 45 Small quantity (5), 40 Dimensions (4), 49 Thin (1) pollution – correct answer: 189 Dirty (4) – other answers: 69 Waste (15), 17 Gases (5), 71 Rubbish (5), 132 Damage (3), 13 Geography and geology, (2), 18 Weather (2), 88 Noisy (2), 90 Smell (2), 102 Bodily wastes (2), 24 Light (1), 171 Smoking (1), 198 Kill (1)

473

nosy – correct answer: 113 Find out (8) – other answers: 142 Personality (8), 91 See and look (7), 144 Rude (3), 94 Search (2), 139 People (2), 97 Body positions (1), 110 Know (1), 145 Cheeky (1), 146 Formal (1), 195 Social customs (1) pressure – correct answer: 98 Touch (1) – other answers: 17 Gases (7), 100 Hard (6), 18 Weather (5), 13 Geography and geology (3), 77 Great (3), 4 Small animals (1), 46 Increase (1), 47 Decrease (1), 49 Thin (1), 124 Illnesses (1), 132 Damage (1), 168 Cooking methods (1), 183 Rest and relaxation (1) vain – correct answer: 148 Proud (8) – other answers: 142 Personality (10), 149 Boast (7), 59 Beautiful (4), 37 Seem (2), 86 Human body – external (2), 92 Show (2), 106 Opinion (2), 111 Fame (2), 139 People (2), 36 Unreal (1), 97 Body positions (1), 101 Human body – internal (1), 105 Believe (1), 115 Misunderstand (1), 195 Social customs (1)

Abstract

This book is concerned with bilingual thematic dictionaries (BTDs). Three key reasons for undertaking this research are: 1) the intriguing and innovative nature of this lexicographic hybrid, 2) the lack of previous research into this type of dictionary, and 3) its potential for development. In addition, the author believes that BTDs are useful ancillary reference tools for learners of a foreign language because they meet encoding needs better than semasiological bilingual dictionaries. The three chief aims of the research project are: 1) to identify the characteristic features of the bilingual thematic dictionary, 2) to gauge its usefulness, and 3) to make suggestions as to how it could be improved. Various approaches are adopted in order to reveal the nature of the BTD. The typological approach considers the lexicographic genres (bilingual, thematic, and pedagogical) which have been combined to create this hybrid reference work. Particular attention is paid to the BTD’s immediate forerunner and closest lexicographic relative: the monolingual thematic learner’s dictionary. Detailed textual analyses of contemporary thematic dictionaries identify the characteristic features of the macrostructure, microstructure, and other components from a structural perspective. Two contemporary BTDs, the Cambridge Word Routes series and the Cambridge French-English Thesaurus are examined in particular depth. In order to evaluate the usefulness of the BTD features identified, the textual analyses are supplemented by three pieces of user research involving a questionnaire (to elicit learners’ opinions), a test (on the effectiveness of the access structure), and an experiment (to discover how a learner uses a BTD). The ultimate aim of the project is a practical one i.e. to provide a list of the options available to compilers of this type of dictionary, together with discussions of the advantages and disadvantages of each choice and suggestions as to how BTDs can be designed to maximize their usefulness.

Index access maps 191-92 access routes and structures 95, 111, 117-18, 121, 125-26, 130, 139, 148, 163-64, 166, 179, 190-93, 208-9, 21718, 227-29, 260-62, 287-88, 293, 308, 316, 385, 389-90, 396-97, 408-9, 417418, 427, 461-64 access routes and structures in CD-ROM dictionaries 368-74, 377 active and passive dictionaries 90-92 activeness cultural 343 encoding 91-92 translational 91-92 active words 90 additional content on CD-ROM MLDs 63-67, 376 AHD 131, 133 aims 106-7, 111-12, 119, 122, 126, 134, 139, 141, 148, 168-69, 180-81, 195, 210, 219, 234, 263-64, 288-89, 294, 308 aims of the research 6-12, 319, 379 alphabetical and thematic ordering 2729, 96-97, 99-103, 345-46 American Heritage Dictionary see AHD analogical dictionary 264 anisomorphism 18 a tergo dictionary 118 back matter features 56-57 Bacon, Francis 111, 126 bidirectional dictionary 17 bilingual dictionary benefits of 15-17 definitions of 13-14 desiderata for 20-21 types of 14-15 bilingual elements of BTDs 376, 42728, 464 bilingual learner’s dictionaries 14, 21 bilingual lexicography key issues of 15-20

bilingual synonym dictionaries 153-64 bilingual thematic dictionaries 232-318 approaches to evaluating the usefulness of 319-37 as an innovative and intriguing lexicographic hybrid 1-4, 13-231 as a type of bilingual dictionary 13-21 as a type of learnerʼs dictionary 21-95 as a type of thematic dictionary 95130 assessing from the user perspective 319-37 checklist of existing BTD features and choices 317, 420-28 chronology of key works 232 compilation choices and recommendations 338-78 cumulative checklist of actual and potential BTD features and choices 338, 451-66 examination of the BTD’s roots and relatives 8 exploiting the storage capacity of a CD-ROM BTD 376 how can BTDs and the use of BTDs be improved? 385-93 how useful are BTDs? 381-85 identification of the distinctive features of 8-9 implications for future research 39397 independent and dependent BTDs 339-40 lack of previous research into contemporary BTDs 4-5 macrostructural options for 343-44 new approach to compilation of 39092 overview of 232-33 physical format of 338-39, 385-86 potential for development of 5-6

476 reasons for undertaking research into 1-6 researching BTDs from the typological, structural, and user perspectives 13 searching on an electronic BTD 37274 training learners to use 392-93 two types of 1-2 types of BTD in the survey 233 what are BTDs? 6-9, 379-81 bilingual thematic learner’s dictionaries 1-2 bilingual thematic slang dictionaries 293-316 bilingual tradition in lexicography 3 bilingual translation dictionaries 14 bilingualization 17 bilingualized dictionaries 15 bi-text 19 boxes see notes and boxes brief view of an entry 63, 71 BTD see bilingual thematic dictionaries BTLD see bilingual thematic learner’s dictionaries CALD 26-36, 43-44, 55-70, 85-87 Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary see CALD Cambridge French-English Thesaurus see CFET Cambridge Word Routes see CWR CCALED 26-36, 43-44, 55-69 CD-ROM dictionaries 59-88, 139-41, 148-52, 194-95, 229, 338-39, 37274, 376-78, 408-9, 417-19, 464-66 CED 96, 131 CFET 263-88 checking books 219 Collins Cobuild Advanced Learner’s English Dictionary see CCALED Collins English Dictionary see CED Collins Greek-English Dictionary 18

Collins Robert Comprehensive Dictionary & Thesaurus see CRCDAT collo boost 39 collocation 41-42, 64-65, 363 Communicator 216-17 comparable texts 19 concepts 98 key concepts 119-20 contents table see table of contents convergence 19 Cooper, Thomas 132 corpus 19-20, 387, 390-91 learners’ corpora 93, 181, 183, 202, 342, 387 parallel text corpora 19 CRCDAT 288-93 crosslinguistic diversity 19 cross-references 58, 82, 261-62, 371-72 redirectional 58 relational 58 cultural needs 10, 125, 343, 382 cumulative and distinctive synonymies 2, 116, 264, 289, 350, 380, 395 CWR 233-63 defining vocabulary 37 definitions 37, 77-78, 199-202 conventional definition 199 ‘if’ definition 200 keyword definition 184-85, 194 no definition 199 rolling definition 176 ‘say when’ definition 200 selectional definition 200 sentential definition 201 two-part definition 201 ‘use about’ definition 201 user group definition 201 ‘when’ definition 202 zero definition 199 Descriptionary 106-11 descriptive range 156, 160, 176, 186, 203, 248, 271, 299, 313, 353 Dictionary of Lexicography see DOL dictionnaire analogique 264

477 directionality 17 disambiguators 156-59, 244-51, 270-76, 298-99, 353-60 abstraction 247 addressee 247 agency 247 approving/disapproving 247 collocation 270 comparison between referents of exponents 156, 270 comparison to explain meaning 247 completedness 247 connotation 156, 270 context 156, 247, 270 currency 247, 270, 298, 357 deliberate/accidental 248 descriptive range 156, 248, 271, 353 emphasis/intensity 157, 248, 271 etymology 298 euphemism 248, 271 everyday/technical 271, 357-58 exemplification 248 false friends 157 frequency 157, 248, 298 function 248 gender of the referent 157 general/specific term 249, 271, 355 generic term 249 grammar 157, 272 grammatical gender 157 implication/suggestion 159, 249, 272 irony 249, 272 literal/figurative use 157, 271 location 157, 249, 272 meaning 250, 271, 274, 298, 353-54 most typical use 157 part of speech 157 patronizing tone 272 pejorative quality 158, 250, 273, 299 people or things 356-57 point of view 273 positive or negative meaning 354 possible object 158, 250, 273, 354-55 possible subject 250, 273, 354-55

proverb 250, 274 purpose 158, 274 regional differences 250 regional restriction 158 register 158, 250, 274 respect 274 similarity to another exponent 250 situation 274 specification of an accompanying feature of the referent 158 specification of what the referent is part of 158 specification of what type of person uses the referent 158 strength of meaning 251, 274, 356 style 251, 274 subject area 275 substitutability 159 synonymy 275 translation advice 275 usage warning 275 use in a negative phrase 251, 275 user group 159, 251, 275, 299 voluntary/involuntary action 251, 276 discovering books 219 distinctive synonymy see cumulative and distinctive synonymies divergence 19 DOL 13-14, 18-19, 21, 90, 95-96, 99, 103-4, 118, 132, 264 dual activeness dilemma 91-92 DV see defining vocabulary electronic dictionaries 59-88, 338-39, 372-74, 376-78, 385-86 Encarta Thesaurus 141-48 Encarta World English Dictionary see EWED encyclopedic content 24-25, 64, 343 Endicott, James 3 endwords 223 equivalents 18-20, 353 explanatory equivalent 18 translation equivalent 18-20, 353 Essential Word Banks 204-6

478 EWED 131-33, 141 examples 38-42, 64, 74, 78, 189-90, 360-61 Examples Bank 64 exercises 59, 193, 209-10, 316, 375, 381, 397 on CD-ROM MLDs 62, 88 experiments 11, 327-37, 381, location guessing experiment 328, 336, 350-51, 440-43, 467-73 search report experiment 328-34, 444-50 explicit disambiguating information 334 extent 235 flick test 191 flow logical/semantic/thematic 238-41 onomasiological 223 format 338-39, 385-86, 404, 410, 451 frames see semantic frames front matter features 26-27 grammar codes 31 guidewords 58 Hartmann, Reinhard 5, 90, 99, 264 head of an entry 31 headings 174, 185-87, 241-42, 282-83, 351-52, 383-84, 387, 394, 412, 421, 454-55 functional 186 metalinguistic 241, 267, 310, 351-52 section 87, 109-10, 115, 185-87 headwords 27-31, 73-74, 79 Herbst, Thomas 21 hierarchies flat hierarchy 97-98 pyramid hierarchy 98-99 Hüllen, Werner 4 hyperlinks 83, 229, 372, 377 implicit disambiguating information. 334 inclusion policy 22-25, 93-94, 107, 112, 119, 122, 127-28, 134-35, 139, 141, 148, 153, 164, 169, 181, 196, 210, 210, 219, 235, 264, 289, 294, 309, 340-43, 382, 386, 394, 404, 410-11,

420, 451-52 cultural/encyclopedic 24-25, 64, 235, 343, 420, 451-52 linguistic 340-43, 420, 451 independence of the text 339-40, 404, 410, 451 indexes 190-91, 260, 287, 370 reverse index 118 running index 190-91 informants 319-24, 327 information technology taking advantage of 10-11 International Encyclopedia of Lexicography 4 Jackson, Howard 4, 102 James, Gregory 90, 99, 264 keywords 83-84, 197, 227-29 Language in Use Supplement 292-93 LDELC 24, 386 LDOCE 26-100 passim LEA 195-210 learner autonomy 393 learner’s dictionaries 21-95 definitions of 21 desiderata for 92-95 features of 22 types of 89-92 what is a learner’s dictionary? 21-95 lexical units 30, 35-37, 58, 65 lexicographer improving the skills of 11, 390-92 lexicographic evidence 25-26, 135, 141, 181, 196, 210, 219, 235, 264, 290, 294, 309, 343, 387, 404, 411, 420, 452 lexicographic hybrids 1-4, 13-231 lexunits see lexical units Library of Congress 111 links between a conventional learner’s dictionary and a thematic learner’s dictionary on a CD-ROM 83-88 list of sets 179 literal translations 20, 298, 303

479 LLA 180-95 differences between LLA1 and LLA2 193-94 LLA2 on CD-ROM 194-95 LLCE 167-79 Longman Active Study Dictionary 90 Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English see LDOCE Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture see LDELC Longman Essential Activator see LEA Longman Language Activator see LLA Longman learner’s dictionaries typology of 89 Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English see LLCE Longman Pocket Activator see LPA LPA 210-19 Lyons, John 168 Macmillan English Dictionary see MED macrostructure 94, 95-103, 107-9, 113115, 119-21, 123-24, 129, 136, 142, 143-46, 154, 170-73, 183-84, 197, 211, 220, 237-41, 265-66, 291, 295, 310, 343-46, 382-83, 388-89, 394, 405, 411-12, 420-21, 452-53 macrostructure of the Quick Reference Section in the Encarta Thesaurus 142-43 macrostructure of the Thematic Section in the Encarta Thesaurus 143-46 thematic versus alphabetical ordering of macrostructural levels 27-29, 99-103, 345-46 two types of macrostructural arrangement and initial points of access 96-99 main display 149-52 McArthur, Tom 4-5, 9, 105, 133, 16869, 346 meaning explanations 299-300 MED 25-34 passim, 43-63 passim, 7072, 77-78, 81, 88, 96

mediostructure 9 menus 82, 192-93, 370-71 exponent menus 192-93 meaning menus 192 menu wheels 208-9 metalexicographic literature on thematic lexicography 4-5 microstructure 94, 110, 115-16, 121, 125, 130, 136-38, 142-43, 155-56, 166, 175-77, 188-90, 198-202, 21112, 222-24, 242-51, 269-76, 291-92, 298-99, 311-12, 352-61, 384, 388-89, 395-96, 405-7, 413-15, 422-24, 45558 of the Quick Reference Section in the Encarta Thesaurus 142-43 of the Thematic Section in the Encarta Thesaurus 146 middle matter features 55-56 MLD see monolingual learner’s dictionaries mode 18 monodirectional dictionaries 17 monolingual learner’s dictionaries 21-95 checklist of MLD features and choices 8-9, 95, 404-9 monolingual thematic dictionaries 10621, 167-229 monolingual thematic learner’s dictionaries 167-229 chronology of key works 167 overview of 167 morphological line 169 mouse-over searching 140 MTD see monolingual thematic dictionaries MTLD see monolingual thematic learner’s dictionaries multilingual dictionaries 13-14 multimedia 73-88, 376-78 multi-word units 28-29, 140, 341, 348, 377, 380 needs of speakers of a particular language 10

480 New Method English Dictionary 3 New Oxford Thesaurus of English see NOTE New Oxford Thesaurus of English on CD-ROM 139-41 New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary see NSOED NOTE 134-41 notes and boxes 43-55, 76, 79-80, 13839, 146-48, 159-63, 177, 202-4, 21216, 224-25, 251-59, 277-85 academic writing notes 44-45 additional phrase involving the headword notes 312 additional sense of the headword notes 300 additional senses of the keyword notes 225 additional ways of expressing meaning notes 225 agreement notes 212 antonymy notes 300 approved usage notes 277 articles notes 203 Awkward Synonyms boxes 138 colligation notes 252 collocation boxes 45-47 collocation notes 159, 213, 252, 300, 363 comments on exponents notes 282, 313 Common Learner Error notes 48 Compare and Contrast notes 147 comparing exponents on a particular topic notes 252 compound containing an element in the same word family as the headword notes 301 compound containing an element of the headword notes 301 confusables notes 138-39, 203, 213, 278, 363 connotation notes 159-60, 278 context notes 213

contrastive notes 258-59, 284 countability notes 213 cultural notes 47, 253, 284, 301, 311, 313 currency notes 253 derivatives notes 301 descriptive range notes 160, 203, 313 difficulty of disambiguation notes 160 emphasis notes 213, 253 equivalent in standard language notes, 313 error avoidance notes 47-48, 203, 213, 253, 278 Essential Help boxes 202-4 etymology notes 54-55, 301, 314, 364 euphemism notes 278 explanation of a head phrase element notes 302 explanation of a word containing an element that is morphologically related to the headword notes 302 explanation of an example component notes 302 exponents on a particular theme notes 279 extended meaning notes 279 false friends notes 280, 284, 302 female/male equivalent notes 302 figurative/literal use notes 161, 254, 280 frequency notes 160, 214 function notes 49-50, 203, 214, 254 gender of the referent notes 214 grammar notes 50, 161, 225, 254, 280, 284-85, 303, 314 grey comparative expressions boxes 258 grey expressions boxes 257 grey usage notes 251-57, 277-82 implication/suggestion notes 163, 214, 254, 314 inflections notes 254, 303 Largonji transformation notes 303 lexical sets notes 280

481 literal translation of a phrase involving the headword notes 303 literal translation of the head phrase notes 303 loose translation of the head phrase notes 304 meaning notes 161, 214 medium notes 203, 255 metaphor notes 50-51 mode notes 214 morphologically related word notes 314 near-synonyms notes 53, 214 notes in CD-ROM dictionaries 76 notes on a particular topic 362 original user group notes 304 orthography notes 203, 215, 255 Other Ways of Saying notes 53 part of speech notes 215, 255 parts of X notes 147-48 pejorative quality notes 314 phrase containing an element in the same word family as the headword notes 304 phrase containing the headword notes 304 play on words notes 304 precision notes 161 preferred form notes 161-62 prepositions notes 204, 215 pronunciation notes 51, 305 punctuation notes 305 regional differences notes 51, 162, 204, 255 register notes 162, 204, 255 section introduction notes 285 section notes 282-83 situational notes 285 slang suffixation notes 305 slang usage notes 315 standard usage notes 256 strength notes 162, 215 structural inconsistency notes 306 style notes 256

substitutability notes 162, 306 synonymy notes 163, 306 syntactic patterns notes 256 tense notes 204, 215, 284-85 thesaurus notes 52 translation notes 256, 280-81, 285, 303-4, 311 types of X notes 147 usage notes 52, 177, 251-57, 277-82 usage warning notes 204, 257, 281, 307, 315 user group notes 215, 299, 304, 307 variant phrase element notes 307 variant shortened form notes 307 variant spelling notes 307 Verlan notes 307, 315 vocabulary expansion notes 53-54, 257, 308, 315-16 white notes 258-59, 283-86 Word Choice boxes 52 word family notes 54, 281 Word Focus boxes 53-54, 76 word order notes 204, 216 Word Origin notes 54-55, 364 word position and meaning notes 282 NSOED 131-33 OALDCE 26-27, 29-35, 43-44, 55-63, 70-72 OALED 24-25, 386 ODPGED 122-26, 166 OLWD 219-229 onomasiological dictionary 104 onomasiological information 104 onomasiological reversal of normal entry order 361 onomasiology 103-6 OOT 126-30 ORD 118-22 order letter-by-letter 99-100 word-by-word 100 Order of Things, The see OOT

482 other features (of specific dictionaries) 94, 110, 130, 138-39, 141, 146-48, 152, 159-63, 166, 177-79, 202-8, 21217, 224-27, 276-87, 292-93, 300-8, 312-16 overall structure and textual components (of specific dictionaries) 107, 112-13, 119, 122-23, 128-29, 135-36, 142, 153-54, 169-70, 181-83, 196-97, 21011, 220, 235-37, 264, 290-91, 294 Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English see OALDCE Oxford Advanced Learner’s Encyclopedic Dictionary see OALED Oxford-Duden Pictorial German and English Dictionary see ODPGED Oxford Learner’s Wordfinder Dictionary see OLWD Oxford Reverse Dictionary see ORD parts 265-68, 410, 451 part titles 2, 265-66 passive dictionaries see active and passive dictionaries pedagogical dictionary 21 pedagogical tradition in lexicography 3, 6-7, 21-95 Phrase Bank 65-67, 70-71 phrases 35-37, 61, 65-67, 70, 80, 348 pictorial illustrations 55, 72-73, 122-26, 178-79, 227, 259, 286, 316, 366-67, 426-27 plurilingual dictionaries 13 pop-up mode 72 practical emphasis of the project 11 practice materials 375 production dictionaries 4, 16, 90, 102, 180-81, 189-90 propforms see propositional forms propositional forms 40, 189 questionnaires 319-27, 335-36, 338-68 passim, 370-71, 381-97 passim quotations 276 Random House Webster’s Word Menu see RHWWM

record your own pronunciation function 88 recorded pronunciation of examples 74 recorded pronunciation of headwords 73-74 recorded pronunciation of inflected forms 74 references 192 regional information 31, 51, 158, 162, 250, 255 register see style and register research 1-12, 93 aims of 6-12 implications for future research 39397 lack of previous research into contemporary bilingual thematic dictionaries 4-5 reverse dictionary 118-21 reverse-order dictionary 118 RHWWM 111-18 Roget, Peter Mark 1-2, 5, 111, 141, 238, 345, 369 Roget’s Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases 1, 3, 5, 54, 87, 96-97, 104, 111, 113, 116, 132, 137, 141, 344, 369, 380 RTEWP see Roget’s Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases search filters 62-63, 76-82, 372-75 advanced search 76-77 collocation search 77 compound search 77 definitions search 77-78 derivatives search 78 examples search 78 frequency search 78 full text search 78 grammar search 78 headword search 79 homophone search 79 inflections search 79 menu search 79 multimedia search 79

483 notes search 79-80 phrasal verb search 80 phrase search 80 pronunciation search 80-81 regional search 81 style and usage search 81 subject search 81-82 word origin search 82 searching on an electronic BTD 372-74 section notes comment on a section title 282 comment on following exponents 282 comment on following sections 28283 comment on following translations 283 sections (of specific dictionaries) 9, 109-10, 115, 120-21, 124-25, 130, 165, 173-74, 184-87, 197-98, 22022, 241-42, 295-97, 310, 347-50, 383, 387-88, 412-13, 453-54 Conversational Gambits section 287 enhanced vocabulary section 268 Essential Communication section 206-7 Essential Grammar section 207-8 keyword section 229 Language for Communication sections 259-60 Locutions/Idioms sections 276 MORE sections 221 Quick Reference section 142-43 situational sections 268-69 Thematic section 143-46 vocabulary sections 268, 286 semantic fields 170-72 semantic frames 154-56 semantic line 169 semasiological dictionaries 104 semasiology 104 semi-bilingual dictionaries 15 senses 35-37 serial lexicography 233 sets 170-74

components of a set 173-74 set titles 174 synonym sets 136-38 word sets 75 SFD/T 308-16 SFSDAT 293-308 signposts 27-28, 36, 57, 69, 82 Smart Thesaurus 67, 85-87, 340 snowflake principle 169 sound effects 74 Street French Slang Dictionary & Thesaurus see SFSDAT Streetwise French Dictionary/Thesaurus see SFD/T structural perspective on lexicographic research 13 style and register 31-35, 81, 162, 204, 215, 251, 256, 274, 315, 358 subcategories 2, 92, 108, 114-15, 123-24, 129, 145, 183-84, 208-9, 237-38, 241-42, 310 subentries 27-28 subheadings 2, 244-46, 265-68 subject classification schemata desiderata for 346 subsets 170-71 subsubcategories 268, 310 superconcepts 184 synonyms 163, 275, 306, 315 core synonyms 137 syntactic patterns 39-40, 256 table of contents 111, 166, 227-29, 36869 text-reflective table of contents 111 tables 139, 178, 225-27, 366 tailwords 223, 369 target readership 23, 92-93 thematic two senses of 96 thematic dictionaries 95-130 checklist of thematic dictionary features and choices 229, 410-19 monolingual thematic dictionaries for native speakers 106-118

484 types of 106 thematic learner’s dictionary 3-4, 81 as the archetypal active dictionary 90 bilingual versus monolingual 15-17 thematic lexicography definitions of 95-96 key issues and desiderata 164-66 metalexicographic literature on 4-5 thematic tradition in lexicography 34, 6-7, 121-22, 169 what is thematic lexicography? 95106 thematic pedagogical lexicography learning from ongoing developments in 10 thematically arranged picture dictionaries and encyclopedic works 122-30 themelist 96-99 themes 81-82, 96-99, 142, 145-46, 229, 310 thesauri 131-52, 263-316, 324-25 bilingual thesauri 1-2, 263-316 contemporary native speaker thesauri 133-52 definitions of thesaurus 131-33 what is a thesaurus? 131 thesaurus boxes 90 Thesaurus Linguae Romanae et Britannicae 132 topic categories 2, 265-68 translation dictionaries 14 Trappes Lomax, Hugh 5 Tyler, Stephen A. 168 type-in search field 76 typological perspective on lexicographic research 6-7, 13, 89 unidirectional dictionaries 17 unilingual dictionaries 13 universal framework for generating separate dictionaries 10

usefulness of bilingual thematic dictionaries: three-pronged approach to evaluating 9, 319 User Dictionaries 141 user feedback 397 user guidance and practice 59, 88, 95, 179, 193, 209-10, 219, 229, 262-63, 288, 293, 308, 316, 375, 378, 385, 390, 392-93, 397, 409, 418, 428, 464 user perspective on lexicographic research 319-37 user research scope and limitations of 335-36 methodology of 327-34 value of 9-10 users (of specific dictionaries) 106, 111, 118, 122, 126, 134, 141, 148, 153, 168, 180, 195, 210, 219, 234, 263, 288, 293, 308 training users to use BTD 392-93 users’ needs 10, 92-93 Using Spanish Synonyms see USS USS 153-64 Visual Thesaurus 148-52 West, Michael 3 Wilks, Yorick 169 windows Activate Your Language window 8384, 194-95 article window 140 pop-up window 140 word-finding dictionary 118 Words to Use 229 Words Used With 64-67, 70, 77 workbooks 59, 193 Worlds of Reference: Lexicography, Learning, and Language from the Clay Tablet to the Computer 4 X levels 170-72, 179