Biblical Organizational Spirituality, Volume 3: Development of New Testament-Based Culture and Climate Scales (Christian Faith Perspectives in Leadership and Business) [1st ed. 2024] 3031517601, 9783031517600

Table of contents :
Preface
References
Contents
Notes on Contributors
List of Tables
1 New Testament Organizational Spirituality: Factor Analysis
Introduction
Step 1: Determine What It Is You Want to Measure
Phase 2 Chapter 2
Phase 2 Chapter 3
Phase 2 Chapter 4
Phase 2 Chapter 5
Phase 2 Chapter 6
Phase 2 Chapter 7
Phase 2 Chapter 8
Phase 2 Chapter 9
Phase 2 Chapter 10
Phase 2 Chapter 11
Phase 2 Chapter 12
Phase 2 Chapter 13
Phase 2 Chapter 14
Phase 2 Chapter 15
Step 2: Generate an Item Pool
Step 3: Determine the Format for Measurement
Step 4: Have the Initial Item Pool Reviewed by Experts
Step 5: Cognitive Interviewing
Step 6: Consider the Inclusion of Validation Items
Step 7: Administer Items to a Development Sample
Step 8: Evaluate the Items
Sample’s Demographics
Factor Analysis
Step 9: Optimize Scale Length
Discussion
Recommendations for the Second Data Collection and Analysis
References
2 Validity and Reliability
Intro to the Chapter
Sample Demographics
Variable Descriptives
Concurrent and Discriminant Validity
Test–Retest Reliability
Conclusion
References
3 The Impact of Organizational Spirituality on Employee Well-Being Mediated by Servant Leadership
Introduction
New Testament-Based Organizational Spirituality Scale
Modified General Employee Well-Being Instrument
Servant Leadership
Essential Servant Leadership Behaviors Instrument
Analysis
Regression Models
Model 1: Tenure (Control Variable), NTOS (Independent Variable), and ESLB (Dependent Variable)
Model 2: Tenure (Control Variable), NTOS (Independent Variable), and EWB (Dependent Variable)
Model 3: Tenure (Control Variable), NTOS (Independent Variable), ESLB (Independent Variable), and EWB( Dependent Variable)
Conclusion
References
4 The Relationships of New Testament Organizational Spirituality Behaviors and Altruistic Love
Introduction
Different Types of Love
Clarifying Differences Between Agapao and Phileo Love
Clarifying Differences Between Agapao and Altruistic Love
Analysis
Conclusion
References
5 The Relationships of New Testament Organizational Spirituality Behaviors and Inner Life
Introduction
Love of Self
Love of Others
Analysis
Conclusion
References
6 The Relationships of New Testament Organizational Spirituality Behaviors and Vision
Introduction
Agapao Love
Vision
Analysis
Limitations
Conclusion
References
7 Agapao and Agape as Possible Bases for the NTOS-L and NTOS-C Scales
Introduction
Values
Agape and Agapao Love as Values
Agape
Agapao
Values Coding
Understanding the Origin of Terminal Values in the Lives of Managers and Their Direct Reports
Interviews with Five Leaders About the Origin of Their Terminal Values
Participant 1
Participant 2
Participant 3
Participant 4
Participant 5
Summary of the Interviews About Values Development
Conclusion
Appendix: NTOS Phase 3 Terminal Values Survey
Introduction
References
8 Development of the New Testament Organizational Spirituality—Climate Scale
Introduction
Scale Development Steps One Through Six
Concurrent and Discriminant Validity
DeVellis and Thorpe’s Scale Development Step Seven
DeVellis and Thorpe’s Scale Development Step Eight
Factor Analysis
DeVellis and Thorpe’s Scale Development Step Nine
Descriptives of the continuous scales
Discussion
Second Data Collection and Analysis Study
Organizational Commitment
Affective Commitment
Normative Commitment
Continuance Commitment
Allen and Meyer’s Scales
Data Collection
Continuous Variables Descriptives
Tests of Hypotheses
Discussion
Recommended Future Research
References
9 Conclusion of Phase 3 of the Three-Phase New Testament-Based Organizational Spirituality Project
Introduction
Phase 3
Phase 2
Phase 1
Suggested Future Research
References
Index

Citation preview

CHRISTIAN FAITH PERSPECTIVES IN LEADERSHIP AND BUSINESS

Biblical Organizational Spirituality, Volume 3 Development of New Testament-Based Culture and Climate Scales

Edited by

de br a j. de a n bruc e e . w i ns t on m i h a i c. bo c a r n e a

Christian Faith Perspectives in Leadership and Business

Series Editors Doris Gomez, Regent University, Virginia Beach, VA, USA Kathleen Patterson, School of Global Leadership and Entrepreneurship, Regent University, Virginia Beach, VA, USA Bruce E. Winston, Regent University, Virginia Beach, VA, USA

This book series is designed to integrate Christian faith-based perspectives into the field of leadership and business, widening its influence by taking a deeper look at its foundational roots. It is led by a team of experts from Regent University, recognized by the Coalition of Christian Colleges and Universities as the leader in servant leadership research and the first Christian University to integrate innovation, design thinking, and entrepreneurship courses in its Masters and Doctoral programs. Stemming from Regent’s hallmark values of innovation and Christian faith-based perspectives, the series aims to put forth top-notch scholarship from current faculty, students, and alumni of Regent’s School of Business & Leadership, allowing for both scholarly and practical aspects to be addressed while providing robust content and relevant material to readers. Each volume in the series will contribute to filling the void of a scholarly Christian-faith perspective on key aspects of organizational leadership and business such as Business and Innovation, Biblical Perspectives in Business and Leadership, and Servant Leadership. The series takes a unique approach to such broad-based and well-trodden disciplines as leadership, business, innovation, and entrepreneurship, positioning itself as a much-needed resource for students, academics, and leaders rooted in Christian-faith traditions.

Debra J. Dean · Bruce E. Winston · Mihai C. Bocarnea Editors

Biblical Organizational Spirituality, Volume 3 Development of New Testament-Based Culture and Climate Scales

Editors Debra J. Dean LaGrange, KY, USA Mihai C. Bocarnea Regent University Virginia Beach, VA, USA

Bruce E. Winston School of Business and Leadership Regent University Virginia Beach, VA, USA

ISSN 2946-4579 ISSN 2946-4587 (electronic) Christian Faith Perspectives in Leadership and Business ISBN 978-3-031-51760-0 ISBN 978-3-031-51761-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-51761-7 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Cover illustration: shaifulzamri getty images This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Paper in this product is recyclable.

Scripture quotations taken from the (NASB® ) New American Standard Bible® , Copyright © 1960, 1971, 1977, 1995, 2020 by The Lockman Foundation. Used by permission. All rights reserved. lockman.org Scripture quotations from The Authorized (King James) Version. Rights in the Authorized Version in the United Kingdom are vested in the Crown. Reproduced by permission of the Crown’s patentee, Cambridge University Press

Preface

This is the third phase of a multi-phased study to see if the New Testament scriptures provide organizational spirituality principles that leaders and researchers could use in self-development, organizational leadership development, employee development, and research about employee and organizational well-being. Phase 11 consisted of 21 Regent University faculty, alums, and students who completed 21 exegetical studies searching for organizational spirituality principles, themes, and outcomes. Phase 2 scholars found 154 principles related to organizational spirituality. Serrano (2022) grouped the 154 principles into the following five themes: . Theme 1: New Testament organizational spirituality produces healthy communities. . Theme 2: New Testament organizational spirituality is serviceoriented. . Theme 3: New Testament organizational spirituality is future focused. . Theme 4: New Testament organizational spirituality is values centric. . Theme 5: New Testament organizational spirituality is biblically spiritual. 1 For the complete phase 1 study, please see Henson, J. (editor) (2022) Biblical

Organizational Spirituality: New Testament Foundations for Leaders and Organizations.

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Phase 2 of the study involved 12 qualitative researchers producing 14 qualitative research studies in which each researcher or pair of researchers took one or two of Henson’s (2022) chapters and condensed the principles, where appropriate, to reduce/remove duplication and significant overlap, resulting in 77 principles (Winston, 2023 in review). Each of the 12 authors, working alone or with another qualitative researcher, reviewed the contemporary literature to understand the underlying concepts of each principle as a means of developing interview questions for each of the three research questions: . How is the principle evident in the participant’s organization? . What is the benefit/outcome of the use of the principle? . Why is the benefit/outcome useful for the employees’ well-being and the overall health of the organization? The 12 qualitative researchers sought purposeful participants for each of the 14 studies that met the following two criteria: a. participants were either managers who practiced some or all of the principles addressed in the specific study or employees who reported to managers who practiced some or all of the principles; and b. both managers and employees could speak about the culture and climate of an organization that practiced some or all of the principles. The researchers in each phase 2 qualitative study interviewed four to eight purposeful participants exploring each principle within each research question. Each of the 14 studies’ researchers produced codes that they then grouped into themes. The researchers then used the themes to write answers to the three research questions. In addition, the researchers of each of the 14 studies developed two scale-development items for each of the 78 principles, or 156 total scale-development items. These items became the base for this phase 3 study about scale development, validity, and reliability studies.2

2 For the complete phase 2 study, please see: Winston, B. (in production) Biblical

Organizational Spirituality: Qualitative Case studies of Biblical Principles for Leaders and Organizations. (Manuscript submitted for publication).

PREFACE

ix

The current phase 3 research studies consist of three quantitative researchers with experience and expertise in scale development, scale reliability, validity, inferential statistical method, and organizational spirituality studies. We report the results of our scale development, reliability, validity, and inferential studies in this book. We followed DeVellis and Thorpe’s (2022) nine scale-development steps: . . . . . . . . .

Step Step Step Step Step Step Step Step Step

1: 2: 3: 4: 5: 6: 7: 8: 9:

Determine what it is you want to measure Generate an item pool Determine the format for Measurement Have the initial item pool reviewed by experts Cognitive interviewing Consider the inclusion of validation items Administer items to a development sample Evaluate the items Optimize scale length

In Chapter 1, we address the nine steps. After completing the nine steps, we conducted a second study using the resultant optimized scales and validity-test variables. In Chapter 2, we address the reliability and validity tests and a confirmatory factor analysis. In Chapter 3, we present the results of inferential studies. In Chapters 3–6, we present our evaluation of the new instrument and suggest future studies that would add to the existing organizational spirituality literature. We thought we were finished, but as we studied the 39 items that made up the scale, from which we optimized a 12-item scale, we noticed that the items were all action verbs. No surprise given that the item creation work in phase 2 asked interviewees what one might observe if the principle(s) from phase 1 existed in the organization. What was surprising was that these action verbs fit two concepts: (a) the Biblical Greek concept of Agapao love and (b) Rokeach’s concept of instrumental values. According to Denison (1996) organizational culture is the observable valued beliefs within an organization, which aligns with the scale developed and tested in Chapters 1–6. Denison said that organizational climate is the felt or sensed presence of the underlying valued beliefs. Suppose we found a measure of New Testament-based Organizational

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Spirituality culture as demonstrated by the leaders’ behaviors (NTOSL). Could there be another instrument to measure New Testament-based Organizational Spirituality climate (NTOS-C)? In our study of Agapao, we found a relationship with Agape love, which aligns with Rokeach’s (2008) concept of terminal values, which we explore in Chapter 7. Which, in essence, began a new scale-development study. We added a ‘Unit 2’ separator page between Chapter 6 and Chapter 7 to mark the transition between the NTOS-L and the NTOS-C studies. We values-coded the phase 1 principles related to each of the 39 items from the NTOS-L and found 38 values that were nouns, representing end-state terminal values in keeping with Rokeach’s concept and aligned with Agape love. In Chapter 8 we present the principal component analysis of the NTOS-C and its subsequent 16-item final factor from which we optimized a ten-item scale. In Chapter 8 we also present the findings from our inferential studies using both the NTOS-L and NTOS-C scales. We recommend future research based on our findings. LaGrange, USA Virginia Beach, USA Virginia Beach, USA

Debra J. Dean Bruce E. Winston Mihai C. Bocarnea

Acknowledgments We are thankful to Regent University’s Office of Academic Affairs for a Research Grant that funded our data collection.

References Denison, D. R. (1996). What is the difference between organizational culture and organizational climate? A native’s point of view on a decade of paradigm wars. The Academy of Management Review, 21(3), 619–654. https://doi.org/ 10.2307/258997 DeVellis, R. F., & Thorpe, C. T. (2022). Scale development (5th ed.). Applied Social Research Methods. Sage. Kindle Edition. Henson, J. (Ed.). (2022). Biblical organizational spirituality: New testament foundations for leaders and organizations. Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-3-031-04006-1 Rokeach, M. (2008). Understanding human values (Kindle Locations 333–334). Simon & Schuster. Kindle Edition.

PREFACE

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Serrano, C. (2022). New testament organizational spirituality: A meta-analysis. In J. Henson (Ed.), Biblical organizational spirituality: New testament foundations for leaders and organizations (Chapter 22, pp. 481–488). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04006-1 Winston, B. (in review). Biblical Organizational Spirituality: Qualitative Case studies of Biblical Principles for Leaders and Organizations. (Manuscript submitted for publication).

Contents

1

New Testament Organizational Spirituality: Factor Analysis Bruce E. Winston, Mihai C. Bocarnea, and Debra J. Dean

1 45

2

Validity and Reliability Bruce E. Winston, Mihai C. Bocarnea, and Debra J. Dean

3

The Impact of Organizational Spirituality on Employee Well-Being Mediated by Servant Leadership Bruce E. Winston and Mihai C. Bocarnea

53

The Relationships of New Testament Organizational Spirituality Behaviors and Altruistic Love Debra J. Dean

65

The Relationships of New Testament Organizational Spirituality Behaviors and Inner Life Debra J. Dean

81

The Relationships of New Testament Organizational Spirituality Behaviors and Vision Debra J. Dean

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Agapao and Agape as Possible Bases for the NTOS-L and NTOS-C Scales Bruce E. Winston and Michael Gilbert

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4

5

6

7

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8

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CONTENTS

Development of the New Testament Organizational Spirituality—Climate Scale Bruce E. Winston, Mihai C. Bocarnea, and Debra J. Dean

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Conclusion of Phase 3 of the Three-Phase New Testament-Based Organizational Spirituality Project Bruce E. Winston, Mihai C. Bocarnea, and Debra J. Dean

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Index

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Notes on Contributors

Dr. Mihai C. Bocarnea serves as an associate professor at Regent University in the School of Business & Leadership. He is an expert in the areas of communication, business analytics, research methods, statistics, and fundraising theory and practice. Dr. Bocarnea has also served as business analyst and research consultant for various organizations in the U.S. and overseas. His present research interests include organizational communication, cross-cultural leadership, servant leadership, organizational change, and pedagogy of online learning. Dr. Debra J. Dean serves as an adjunct professor at Regent University in the School of Business & Leadership. She is an expert in the areas of business analytics, business transformation, communication, data & innovation, and operational excellence. Her research interests include cultural dimensions, culture & climate, faith at work, followership, respectful pluralism, servant & spiritual leadership, and workplace spirituality. Michael Gilbert is the Founder of Remnant Leaders, an organization with a focus on making disciples after the manner of Jesus and the First Century Church. As a former professor of Business and Leadership, Mike has taught in both secular and faith-based universities. He completed his Ph.D. in Organizational Leadership at Regent University with a concentration in Ecclesial Leadership. His research interests include exegetical and hermeneutical analysis, church leadership, and church reform. Mike’s publications include The Divine Empowerment of Shared Leadership, xv

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NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

The Apostle Paul and the Ethical Treatment of Women, Social Identity Theory and the Prototypical Ecclesial Leader in Paul’s Letters to Timothy. Bruce E. Winston Ph.D., is a Professor of Business and Leadership at Regent University, USA. He previously served as Dean of the School of Leadership Studies. He is co-editor of Leading an African Renaissance: Opportunities and Challenges and Ethics: The Old Testament, The New Testament, and Contemporary Application. He is the author of Biblical Principles of Hiring and Developing Employees, Biblical Principles of Leading and Managing Employees, and Biblical Principles of Being an Employee in Contemporary Organizations. He is a co-author of Evaluating Employee Performance through Christian Virtues. He is co-editor and chapter author of Advancements in organizational data collection and measurements: Strategies for addressing attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.

List of Tables

Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 3.1 3.2 3.3

Table 3.4 Table 3.5

Table Table Table Table Table

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5

Sample age groups Sample tenure groups First-round factor analysis Second-round factor analysis Third-round factor analysis 12 scale items with their loadings Age Tenure Descriptives Bonferroni Post-hoc tests of NTOS by tenure Correlations Age Tenure Tenure (control variable), NTOS (independent variable), and ESLB (dependent variable) Model 2: Tenure (control variable, NTOS (independent variable), and EWB (dependent variable) Model 3: Tenure (control variable), NTOS (independent variable), ESLB (independent variable), and ESLB (mediating variable) Internal consistency reliability Pearson correlation among variables Regression analysis of variables Participant’s age Participant’s tenure

37 37 38 38 39 39 46 46 47 48 50 59 59 59 60

61 72 73 73 74 74

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LIST OF TABLES

Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table

4.6 4.7 4.8 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 7.1

Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table

7.2 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13 8.14 8.15

ANOVA Results using tenure as the criterion NTOS Post Hoc tests AL Post Hoc tests Internal consistency reliability Pearson correlation among variables Regression analysis of variables Participant’s age Participant’s tenure ANOVA results using tenure as the criterion NTOS post Hoc tests Inner life post Hoc tests Internal consistency reliability Pearson correlation among variables Regression analysis of variables Participant’s tenure ANOVA results using tenure as the criterion NTOS-L post-hoc tests Vision post-hoc tests Participant’s age The 39 items from the single factor analysis before optimization with its phase 2 principle and the principle-related terminal value(s) Definitions of the 38 terminal values Ethnicity Religion affiliation Years of work experience Gender Age 10-item NTOS-Climate Scale Items Descriptives Correlation of the continuous variables Second study ethnicity Second study religion affiliation Second study years of work experience Second study gender Second study age Second study continuous variables descriptives Second study correlation with Cronbach Alpha scores on the diagonal

74 75 77 86 87 88 88 88 89 90 92 102 103 103 104 104 105 107 108

119 127 162 162 162 163 163 165 165 166 169 170 170 170 170 171 172

LIST OF TABLES

Table 8.16

Regression Coefficients for the Linear Regression of the Independent Variables Affective Commitment, Continuance Commitment, And Normative Commitment on the Dependent Variable NTOS-C

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CHAPTER 1

New Testament Organizational Spirituality: Factor Analysis Bruce E. Winston, Mihai C. Bocarnea, and Debra J. Dean

Introduction DeVellis and Thorpe’s (2022) steps 1 and 2 were completed in Phase 1 and Phase 2 of the three-phase New Testament Organizational Spirituality study. In this third phase we addressed the other seven steps listed in the preface. In this chapter we present each of DeVellis and Thorpe’s seven steps and what occurred in each of the three phases of this three-phase study.

B. E. Winston (B) · M. C. Bocarnea · D. J. Dean School of Business and Leadership, Regent University, Virginia Beach, VA, USA e-mail: [email protected] M. C. Bocarnea e-mail: [email protected] D. J. Dean e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 D. J. Dean et al. (eds.), Biblical Organizational Spirituality, Volume 3, Christian Faith Perspectives in Leadership and Business https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-51761-7_1

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Step 1: Determine What It Is You Want to Measure Henson (2022)1 found and presented 154 principles relevant to organizational spirituality. The 21 exegetical scholars of Henson’s study focused on the New Testament so that the outcome of the organizational spirituality concept might clearly be aligned with the New Testament. If a principle had its origin in the Old Testament but was repeated or more clearly presented in the New Testament, the scholars treated the principle as a New Testament principle. Serrano (2022b) summarized the 154 principles into five groups: . Theme 1: New Testament organizational spirituality produces healthy communities. . Theme 2: New Testament organizational spirituality is serviceoriented. . Theme 3: New Testament organizational spirituality is future focused. . Theme 4: New Testament organizational spirituality is values centric. . Theme 5: New Testament organizational spirituality is biblically spiritual. Winston (2023c, in production)2 along with 11 other qualitative research scholars each took one or two of Henson’s 21 chapters and conducted 14 separate qualitative studies that collectively reviewed the 154 principles from Henson’s (2022) phase 1 study and reduced the principles from 154 to 77 principles by removing duplicate principles and condensing very similar principles together. The qualitative researchers in their 14 studies review the principles for each study using the contemporary literature looking for a priori codes that they might expect to 1 For a full review of the principles and exegetical findings please see: Henson, J. (Ed.). (2022). Biblical organizational spirituality: New testament foundations for leaders and organizations. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3031-04006-1. 2 For a full review of the scale development items that emerged from the contemporary literature review and the 12 case studies please see: Winston, B. (Ed.). (in production). Biblical organizational spirituality: Qualitative case studies of biblical principles for leaders and organizations. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Publishing (Manuscript submitted for publication).

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see in the follow-up bounded case studies seeking to understand from the purposeful participants the possible answers to the following three research questions: . How is the principle evident in the participant’s organization? . What is the benefit/outcome of the use of the principle? . Why is the benefit/outcome useful for the employees’ well-being and the overall health of the organization? The 12 researchers of phase 2 coded the transcript excerpts for each of the 14 qualitative studies with 87 participants and produced 3,600 codes that clustered into 343 themes. The 12 authors produced two scale development items for each of the 77 principles for a total of 154 scale development items. The section below examines each of the 14 chapters of Winston’s (2023c) study, presenting Henson’s (2022) chapters, the Biblical passages reviewed, the principles from Henson’s chapters, the condensed principles of phase 2, the literature topics examined and the two scale development items from each principle in phase 2. Phase 2 Chapter 2 Hulse and Winston (2023, in production) addressed Puppo’s (2022) and Caulton’s (2022) chapters. Puppo (2022) addressed Luke 10 and generated the following principles: . Principle One: Shalom-making leaders see each member equally through the eyes of God’s love and pay attention to everyone as a carrier of the Imago Dei. . Principle Two: Shalom-making leaders create just environments by understanding others’ needs and perceptions and providing the resources and opportunities for everyone to thrive at each level of the organization. . Principle Three: Shalom-making leaders are compassionate heroes who model values by acting to restore power to everyone. . Principle Four: Shalom-making leaders provide value through generously extending power and resources to all members to generate a positive impact within the organization and beyond.

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. Principle Five: Shalom-making leaders embrace and inspire sacrifice so that all members of the organization can attain their maximum potential. . Principle Six: Shalom-making leaders use their power and influence to sponsor others into better opportunities for they believe in their inherent potential. . Principle Seven: Shalom-making leaders are grateful individuals who gracefully invest in everyone without expecting anything in return other than bringing empowering opportunities to those who need them. Caulton (2022) addressed Acts 8:26–40 and developed the following principles: . Principle One: Effective diverse working relationships create an atmosphere of acceptance and respect that results in higher work performance. . Principle Two: Spiritual leaders bring hope and comfort to others as they seek to hear the voice of God. . Principle Three: Spiritual leaders illicit follower trust and motivation by maintaining authenticity and connectivity. . Principle Four: Effective spiritual leaders actively listen for understanding. . Principle Five: Spiritual leaders illicit trust, innovation, and creativity through effective communication. . Principle Six: Effective spiritual leaders facilitate an atmosphere of interpersonal communication among followers. . Principle Seven: Through sacrifice and sponsorship, effective spiritual leaders are characterized by personal development, including learning from the diverse experiences and backgrounds of others. . Principle Eight: Effective spiritual leaders invest in the diversity of their teams through delegation and empowerment. Hulse and Winston (2023, in production) combined Puppo’s (2022) and Caulton’s (2022) principles into three principles:

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. Principle One: Spiritual leaders focus on hearing the Word of God as they pay attention, have empathy for, and show respect to their followers. . Principle Two: Spiritual leaders elicit follower creativity, trust, and motivation through authentic interpersonal communication. . Principle Three: Spiritual leaders demonstrate the development of self and others in diverse communities as they foster delegation and empowerment. Hulse and Winston (2023, in production) examined the literature topics of ethical leadership, spiritual leadership, servant leadership, listening, diversity, being available, shared knowledge, asking for help, spiritual learning, personal development, empowerment, and empowerment for insight into the principles. Hulse and Winston then conducted a qualitative-bounded case study with four purposeful participants that resulted in the following scale development items. . C02-1A3 My leader’s communication reflects the word of God. . C02-1B My leader regularly studies God’s word. . C02-2A My leader focuses on our relationship before focusing on our work. . C02-2B My leader openly shares his/her past mistakes so I can learn. . C02-3A My leader respects the different cultures within the organization. . C02-3B My leader makes me feel welcome to share what I have learned.

Phase 2 Chapter 3 G. Tatone (2023, in production) examined Credle’s (2022) and Serrano’s (2022a) studies. Credle’s principles from John 11:1–44 include: . Principle One: With a unified vision, crisis leaders can effectively lead their team into difficult places during difficult times.

3 The item identifier represents the phase 2 chapter, principle number and the identifier A or B.

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. Principle Two: With effective communication, crisis leaders can create a safe space for followership to address their concerns. . Principle Three: During a crisis, decisive leaders can influence all followers, even those reluctant to follow. . Principle Four: In crisis, leaders can help followership make sense of their current reality and invite them to embrace new possibilities. . Principle Five: In crisis, information sharing can help followership to navigate temporal barriers, meeting both personal and organizational needs. . Principe Six: Leaders who effectively communicate in crisis can help change the context of the crisis, even when followers are disappointed. . Principle Seven: In crisis, leaders do not have to sacrifice empathy to make good decisions; when empathetic, leaders can invite followers to come and see new possibilities. . Principle Eight: In crisis, leaders must possess the emotional intelligence to discern the various emotions of followers and remain effective despite the criticism they receive. . Principle Nine: In crisis, leaders who practice empathy can remain sound without silencing their own emotions. . Principle Ten: In crisis, leaders must become incarnational and immerse themselves in the feelings of followers to influence their perspectives of followership. . Principle Eleven: Leaders who demonstrate agency thinking will move followers from eyewitnesses to participants who can engage new possibilities. . Principle Twelve: Leaders in crisis may have to pivot their plans to accomplish their goals. Serrano’s principles from Acts 4:32–37 include: . Principle One: Spiritual organizations embrace shared humanity. . Principle Two: Spiritual organizations work from a shared identity. . Principle Three: Spiritual organizations embody a sense of community. . Principle Four: Spiritual organizations are loyal to their collective mission. . Principle Five: Spiritual organizations take risks for the greater good.

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. Principle Six: Spiritual organizations share responsibility. . Principle Seven: Spiritual organizations take care of their members. . Principle Eight: Spiritual organizations benefit society. G. Tatone (2023, in production) condensed and combined Credle’s (2022) and Serrano’s (2022a) principles into: . . . . . . . .

Principle Principle Principle Principle Principle Principle Principle Principle

One: Leaders demonstrate solidarity. Two: Leaders demonstrate effective communication. Three: Leaders demonstrate trustworthiness. Four: Leaders exhibit emotional maturity. Five: Leaders embrace the community. Six: Leaders have concern for the greater good. Seven: Leaders embody peace-making behaviors. Eight: Leaders have concern for followers during a crisis.

Tatone (2023, in review) examined the literature topics of participative leadership, servant leadership, peace leadership, psychological empowerment, Beatitudes in Matthew 5:2–12 including, those who hunger and thirst for righteousness, merciful, peacemakers, pure of heart emotional intelligence, and crisis management Tatone (2023, in review) then conducted a qualitative-bounded case study with seven purposeful participants that resulted in the following scale development items: . C03-1A My leader/organization demonstrates working together cooperatively with each other. . C03-1B My leader/organizational leaders demonstrate singleness of purpose in their decisions and actions. . C03-2A My leader/organization demonstrates authentic communication. . C03-2B My leader/organizational leaders demonstrate sender/ receiver awareness of different communication methods. . C03-3A My leader/organization demonstrates accountable behaviors. . C03-3B My leader/organizational leaders demonstrate ethical values.

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. C03-4A My leader/organization demonstrates confidence investing in their employees. . C03-4B My leader/organizational leaders demonstrate self-monitoring behavior. . C03-5A My leader/organization demonstrates working collectively with others. . C03-5B My leader/organizational leaders demonstrate care and concern for society. . C03-6A My leader/organization demonstrates an awareness of humanity. . C03-6B My leader/organizational leaders demonstrate a focus on others rather than a focus on self. . C03-7A My leader/organization demonstrates mutual respect. . C03-7B My leader/organizational leaders demonstrate cooperation and harmony with employees. . C03-8A My leader/organization demonstrates giving assistance to others during a crisis. . C03-8B My leader/organizational leaders demonstrate attentiveness toward others during a crisis.

Phase 2 Chapter 4 H. R. Ventura (2023, in production) examined Gregory’s (2022) and May and Henson’s (2022) chapters. Gregory focused on the epistle of Philippians and produced the following principles: . Principle One: Organizations that desire to achieve organizational maturity that leads to sustainable and productive growth should foster an atmosphere of self-sacrifice, starting at the top of the company and permeating throughout (p. 260). . Principle Two: Organizations that desire to achieve organizational maturity that leads to sustainable and productive growth should foster an atmosphere of unity, where diversity of ideas and cultures are honored and sought (p. 262). . Principle Three: Organizations that desire to achieve organizational maturity that leads to sustainable and productive growth should foster an atmosphere of humility, which is inspired by the behavior and attitude of the company’s leadership (p. 263).

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. Principle Four: Organizations that desire to achieve organizational maturity that leads to sustainable and productive growth should foster an atmosphere where the mission of the organization fuels and motivates the actions and behaviors of its members (p. 264). . Principle Five: Organizations that desire to achieve organizational maturity that leads to sustainable and productive growth should foster an atmosphere that encourages members to look and strive forward, embracing a victorious attitude (p. 265). . Principle Six: Organizations that desire to achieve organizational maturity that leads to sustainable and productive growth should foster an atmosphere where self-imposed disciplined behavior is encouraged, recognized, and honored (p. 266). . Principle Seven: Organizations that desire to achieve organizational maturity that leads to sustainable and productive growth should foster an atmosphere where conflict is directly managed through intentionally implemented strategies that help members to unite in a shared organizational identity (p. 267). . Principle Eight: Organizations that desire to achieve organizational maturity that leads to sustainable and productive growth should foster a positive emotional and mental atmosphere where members are purposeful and constructive in their thinking (p. 269). . Principle Nine: Organizations that desire to achieve organizational maturity that leads to sustainable and productive growth should foster an atmosphere where members are encouraged and motivated to embrace a tenacious attitude of determination in all that they do (p. 270). . Principle Ten: Organizations that desire to achieve organizational maturity that leads to sustainable and productive growth should foster an atmosphere where financial systems are in place to keep the mission and the money of the company aligned (p. 271). May and Henson (2022) explored the account of Jesus’s last evening with His disciples described in John 13:1–20, producing the following seven principles: . Principle One: Leaders are motivated by love to model transparency and authenticity (p. 66).

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. Principle Two: Leaders build trust when they demonstrate their vulnerability through modeling humility (p. 66). . Principle Three: Mutual vulnerability provides an environment in which leader–follower relationships are solidified (p. 70). . Principle Four: Organizations with cultures of vulnerability create trusting environments where risk-taking is encouraged (p. 77). . Principle Five: Organizations with cultures of vulnerability create environments of camaraderie and communication (p. 77). . Principle Six: Leaders who practice vulnerability recognize that leadership is strengthened through relationships (p. 83). . Principle Seven: Vulnerable leaders must acknowledge their personal pain (p. 83). Ventura (2023, in review) combined and consolidated Gregory’s (2022) and May and Henson’s principles into the following principles: . . . . . .

Principle Principle Principle Principle Principle Principle

One: Leaders demonstrate mission motivation. Two: Leaders demonstrate intentionality. Three: Leaders foster trust. Four: Leaders foster mutuality. Five: Leaders practice self-sacrifice. Six: Leaders practice discernment.

Ventura (2023, review) examined the contemporary literature concept to better understand the six principles: the following Fruit of the Spirit from Galatians 5: (a) faithfulness, (b) love, (c) peace, and (d) self-control, kenotic leadership, authentic leadership, accountability, resiliency, trust, and discernment. Ventura then conducted a bounded case study with nine purposeful participants and produced the following scale development items: . C04-1A My leader/organization communicates the organizational mission on a regular basis. . C04-1B My leader/organization helps me understand my personal connection to the organizational mission. . C04-2A My leader/organization communicates the organization’s desired results.

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. C04-2B My leader/organization helps me recognize seasonal ebbs and flows. . C04-3A My leader/organization provides a sense of security in knowing we are in the mission together. . C04-3B My leader delegates responsibilities to me. . C04-4A My leader engages in collaboration. . C04-4B My leader/organization invites disagreement. . C04-5A My leader/organization adjusts expectations with the organization’s ebbs and flows. . C04-5B My leader invests the time necessary to propel goals to accomplishment. . C04-6A My leader/organization embraces the opportunity to resolve unanticipated situations. . C04-6B My leader/organization invites employees to share in decision-making.

Phase 2 Chapter 5 Hamilton and Winston (2023, in production) followed up on Reed’s (2022) phase 1 chapter where Reed studied John 15 and produced the following principles: . Principle One: Developing a personal relationship with Christ potentially cultivates a culture of spirituality. . Principle Two: Christian spiritual formation transforms spiritual relationships between organizational members. . Principle Three: Spiritual leadership develops moral traits that establish organizational values. . Principle Four: Spiritual development transforms organizational culture through developing spiritual relationships between organizational members. . Principle Five: Organizational spirituality develops a shared community concentrating on sacrificial love, mutual respect, compassion, and teamwork. . Principle Six: Organizational spirituality forms a shared community that potentially increases work performance. . Principle Seven: Spiritual leadership casts a vision of unity that inspires organizational spirituality.

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. Principle Eight: Spiritual leadership promotes organizational spirituality between members and develops a shared community. Hamilton and Winston (2023, in review) combined and consolidated Reed’s principles into the following three principles: . Principle One: Organizational Spirituality begins with Christ-filled organizational members living out Biblical Moral behaviors. . Principle Two: Like-minded Spiritual leaders and employees form a shared community. . Principle Three: Biblically, Spiritual Community members demonstrate love, respect, compassion, and teamwork. To better understand the three principles, Hamilton and Winston (2023, in review) examined the contemporary literature concepts: Biblical moral values, shared community, organizational love—agape and agapao, respect, compassion, and teamwork that led to a bounded case study with five purposeful participants tat produced the following six scale development items: . C05-1A My leader’s values align with my leader’s actions. . C05-1B My leader seeks the well-being of people in the organization. . C05-2A My leader has a positive attitude toward the members of the organization. . C05-2B My leader promotes all of us supporting each other. . C05-3A My leader goes above and beyond the minimal effort to achieve the organization’s mission. . C05-3B In my organization passion drives purpose.

Phase 2 Chapter 6 Minor and Winston (2023, in review) examined Minor’s (2022) and Pastori and Henson’s (2022) chapters. Minor conducted an exegetical study of John 20:19–29 and produced the following principles:

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. Principle One: Spiritual leaders gracefully communicate the change (p. 109). . Principle Two: Spiritual leaders focus on the forward mission (p. 109). . Principle Three: Spiritual leaders are welcoming (p. 109). . Principle Four: Spiritual leaders encourage followers to prepare them for the future mission (p. 110). . Principle Five: Spiritual leaders do not discourage followers by focusing on past failures (p. 110). . Principle Six: Spiritual leaders describe the challenges that come with change (p. 112). . Principle Seven: Spiritual leaders understand how emotionally difficult change is for followers (p. 112). . Principle Eight: Spiritual leadership prepares for a proposed change (p. 113). . Principle Nine: Spiritual leadership strengthens followers by providing the “why” behind change (p. 113). Pastori and Henson’s (2022) study looked at 1 John 1:1–10 and developed the following principles: . Principle One: Spiritual leaders seek to intrinsically motivate their followers by communicating vision while demonstrating care and concern (p. 459). . Principle Two: Through vision and altruistic love, spiritual leaders create a sense of belonging and appreciation among followers (p. 460). . Principle Three: Spiritual leaders recognize the vitality of spiritual life and seek to build and develop spiritual community (p. 465). . Principle Four: Values-centered spiritual community results in organizational unity and commitment (p. 466). . Principle Five: Spiritual leaders foster ethical and spiritual well-being through leading authentically and altruistically (p. 469). . Principle Six: Spiritual leaders foster a positive environment that results in workplace sustainability and job satisfaction (p. 470). . Principle Seven: Spiritual leaders practice altruistic love that positively influences organizational commitment (p. 473).

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. Principle Eight: For spiritual leaders, values alignment is essential to positive organizational outcomes (p. 474) Minor and Winston (2023, in review) condensed Minor’s (2022) and Pastori and Henson’s (2022) principles into the following five principles: . Principle One: Spiritual leaders foster a positive future organization when communicating the need for organizational change. . Principle Two: Spiritual leaders communicate to followers the risks and benefits of organizational change. . Principle Three: Spiritual leaders provide a loving and supporting example for others to emulate. . Principle Four: Spiritual leaders demonstrate authenticity by aligning their practiced values, and the organization’s espoused values. . Principle Five: Spiritual leaders create a culture of belonging, inclusion, and voice through organizational change initiatives. Minor and Winston (2023, in review) to better understand the resultant five principles examined the contemporary literature topics of appreciative inquiry, perceived organizational support, upper echelons theory, positive organizational psychology, and vision focus in change management, the following Fruit of the Spirit from Galatians 5: (a) kindness, (b) goodness, and (c) gentleness. Minor and Winston then conducted a bounded case study with five purposeful participants and developed the following ten scale development items: . C06-1A My leader demonstrates the balance between people, organization, and culture during change initiatives. . C06-1B My leader guides organizational change gracefully when dealing with all employees. . C06-2A My leader encourages communication with employees about change initiatives. . C06-2B My leader helps employees understand what the future will be like after a change initiative. . C06-3A My leader creates a welcoming environment where change initiatives can be completed. . C06-3B My leader reduces employees’ anxiety during change programs.

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. C06-4A My leader focuses on employees’ well-being during change initiatives. . C06-4B My leader creates a peaceful environment during change initiatives. . C06-5A My leader makes employees feel comfortable in the community of the organization. . C06-5B My leader creates a culture of inclusion for all employees.

Phase 2 Chapter 7 Magazi (2023, in review) examined Lane’s (2022) chapter on Romans 16:1–16, in which Lane produced the following principles: . Principle One: An organizational leadership response for women in leadership considers the value of authenticity as a dominant characteristic intuitive to women kept within the confines of their true self, regardless the leadership position. . Principle Two: An organizational leadership response for women in leadership considers the reality and insight of emerging women as valuable leaders within an organizational structure. . Principle Three: An organizational leadership response for women in leadership considers an organizational culture in favor of transparency, collaboration, genuine dialogue, clear values, and the alignment of words and deeds—all which woman leaders are traditionally characteristic in culture and style. . Principle Four: An organizational leadership response for women in leadership considers gendered trends that explore and encourage changes in leadership and support language from within that brings awareness and reinforcement of women as partners in the organization. . Principle Five: An organizational leadership response for women in leadership considers communicative resources and a culture supportive and collaborative in communications in order to create an environment where gender trending biases are reduced. Magazi, to better understand Lane’s principles, examined the contemporary literature on authentic leadership, organizational culture, gender

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and leadership, and employee well-being. Magazi then conducted a bounded case study with eight purposeful participants and produced the following ten scale development items: . C07-1A My organization allows people to express themselves freely. . C07-1B My organization accommodates gender differences. . C07-2A My organization has policies and processes that specifically address women’s needs. . C07-2B My organization has leadership development programs specifically for women. . C07-3A My organization allows for open and honest communication. . C07-3B My organization facilitates teamwork and participation. . C07-4A My organization empowers women. . C07-4B My organization actively addresses gender stereotypes and gender discrimination. . C07-5A My organization treats men and women employees the same. . C07-5B My organization actively promotes positive gender values.

Phase 2 Chapter 8 Abujaber and Winston (2023, in review) followed up on Crisp (2022) who examined 1 Corinthians chapter 2 and produced the following principles: . Principle One: Biblical leaders connect with the humility of the crucified Christ to know themselves, trust others, and see the bigger picture. (p. 186). . Principle Two: Biblical leaders tailor their approach to individuals and their unique needs (p. 189). . Principle Three: Biblical leaders develop competencies before carrying out their future calling (p. 190). . Principle Four: Biblical leaders depend on God’s Spirit to guide their path and subsequently guide others (p. 192). . Principle Five: Biblical leaders communicate truth creatively and clearly so that their followers can be transformed (p. 192).

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Abujaber and Winston (2023, in review) in an effort to more fully understand Crisp’s principles reviewed the contemporary literature topics of the first Beatitude of Blessed are the Poor in Spirit, humility servant leadership, developing one’s self-efficacy, education and training, guidance of the Holy Spirt, being Biblically Spiritual, and authenticity. Abujaber and Winston then conducted a bounded case study with five purposeful participants that produced the following ten scale development items: . C08-1A My leader’s behavior aligns with who he/she says he/she is (authentic). . C08-1B My leader trusts employees. . C08-2A My leader treats employees as individuals. . C08-2B My leader shows appreciation to employees. . C08-3A My leader is always learning. . C08-3B My leader accepts failure as a means to learn. . C08-4A My leader demonstrates an authentic prayer life. . C08-4B My leader demonstrates a reliance on the Holy Spirit. . C08-5A My leader is focused on the well-being of others. . C08-5B My leader communicates what is holy and good.

Phase 2 Chapter 9 Shoji-Schaffner (2023, in review) examined the exegetical chapters of Gregory’s (2022) and Elizabeth et al. (2022). Gregory studied 1 Corinthians 9:19–27 and produced the following seven principles: . Principle One: Cross-cultural leaders who desire to be successful in their leadership effectiveness should lead in a sacrificial manner, willing to make sacrifices for both the good of the organization and for their subordinates (p. 202). . Principle Two: Cross-cultural leaders who desire to be effective leaders will adapt their behavior, in a manner that does not compromise their ethical values, to the cultural setting they are in (p. 203). . Principle Three: Cross-cultural leaders who desire to be effective leaders will demonstrate an honest humility, which is perceived as such by their subordinates, in the way they approach their leadership responsibilities and practices (p. 205).

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. Principle Four: Cross-cultural leaders who desire to be effective leaders will allow the mission and goals of their organization to inspire their behaviors, moving them past cultural boundaries, and creating productive and lasting relationships with their subordinates (p. 206). . Principle Five: Cross-cultural leaders who desire to be effective leaders will choose their actions purposely and strategically, understanding they will have a direct influence on the performance of their subordinates (p. 207). . Principle Six: Cross-cultural leaders who desire to be effective leaders will discipline their behaviors, words, and emotional responses, strategically choosing them to fit the culture they are operating in (p. 208). . Principle Seven: Cross-cultural leaders who desire to be effective leaders will conduct regular self-evaluations to ensure they are remaining on the right track and to strengthen their followers’ perceptions of them as a leader (p. 209). Hunt and Dobric-Veiss leadership studied Ephesians 4: 1–16 that resulted in four principles: . Principle One: Individual spirituality as experienced through a transformative, belief-guided inner life, rich connections to leadership and others, and the meaningful work that stems from calling and connection provides empowerment for specific behaviors and attitudes (p. 223). . Principle Two: Organizational unity stems from members of the whole completing prescribed roles with an understanding of and dedication to the functioning of the whole (p. 226). . Principle Three: Spiritual organizational leaders empower organizational members by modeling the call to serve in meaningful work, how to serve well, and dedication to serving others (p. 227. . Principle Four: Organizationally modeled and supported spirituality, including an inner life, meaningful work, and sense of community, provides empowerment for organizational members to behave and engage with each other in a manner that supports and encourages unity (p. 230).

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Shoji-Schaffner (2023) compressed and condensed Gregory’s (2022) and Hunt and Dobric-Veiss’ principles into a combined seven principles: . . . . . . .

Principle Principle Principle Principle Principle Principle Principle

One: Leaders demonstrate sacrifice. Two: Leaders demonstrate adaptability. Three: Leaders demonstrate humility. Four: Leaders foster motivation. Five: Leaders foster purpose. Six: Leaders practice discipline. Seven: Leaders practice self-evaluation.

Shoji-Schaffner, to build a deeper understanding of the resultant principles studied the contemporary literature concepts of qualities of the Fruit of the Spirit from Galatians 5:22–23, including (a) love, (b) patience, (c) faithfulness, and (d) self-control, cross-culture leadership roles, and servant leadership. Shoji-Schaffner then conducted a bounded case study with four purposeful participants and produced the following 14 scale development items: . C09-1A My leader/organization fosters a culture to serve. . C09-1B My leader/organization demonstrates a practice of generosity. . C09-2A My leader/organization demonstrates interchangeability of necessary roles. . C09-2B My leader/organization demonstrates flexibility in relating to people served. . C09-3A My leader/organization demonstrates humility and acceptance. . C09-3B My leader/organization cultivates culture to teach/learn. . C09-4A My leader/organization values community motivation by building interpersonal connectedness. . C09-4B My leader/organization values authentic purpose-based mission. . C09-5A My leader/organization demonstrates (individual and collective) perseverance to accomplish goals. . C09-5B My leader/organization values (spiritual) mindfulness to foster interpersonal effectiveness.

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. C09-6A My leader/organization demonstrates the discipline to prioritize people first. . C09-6B My leader/organization demonstrates continuous commitment to the people served. . C09-7A My leader/organization practices mindfulness to increase awareness and openness to improve organizational experience. . C09-7B My leader/organization demonstrates commitment to ongoing change and improvement.

Phase 2 Chapter 10 Heinz and Winston (2023, in review) continued the work of Boyer’s (2022) and Clem and Henson’s (2022) work. Boyer conducted an exegetical study of Philippians seeking to find what Paul wrote to the Philippians that might relate to organizational spirituality that let Boyer to discover the following principles: . Principle One: Leader and member affirmation and affection support spiritual organizations (Philippians 1:1–11) (p. 240). . Principle Two: Providing time and space for leaders and followers to embrace gospel principles benefits spiritual organizations (Philippians 1:12–14, 27) (p. 242). . Principle Three: Top-down humility provides toward the glory of God and the betterment of spiritual organizations (Philippians 2:1– 13) (p. 243). . Principle Four: Authentic leaders and followers help spiritual organizations thrive (Philippians 2:14–30) (p. 244). . Principle Five: An aberrant Gospel damages followers of spiritual organizations (Philippians 3:1–6) (p. 245). . Principle Six: Leaders and followers who live examined lives benefit spiritual organizations (Philippians 3:7–11) (p. 247). . Principle Seven: Forgiveness provides a place for redemption and reconciliation and benefits spiritual organizations (Philippians 4:1–9) (p. 249). . Principle Eight: Generosity and Contentment provide toward the betterment of spiritual organizations (Philippians 4:10–16) (p. 252).

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Clem and Henson (2022) studied 2 Timothy 1 and summarized their findings with the following principles: . Principle One: Organizational leaders must foster opportunities for healthy relationships such as mentoring and peer networks to reduce feelings of isolation in the workplace (2 Timothy 1:1–2) (p. 326). . Principle Two: Organizational leaders must foster healthy relationships that allow space for honest and challenging conversations (2 Timothy 1:3–5) (p. 328). . Principle Three: Organizational leaders encourage their followers by validating their purpose and encouraging spiritual well-being (2 Timothy 1:6–7) (p. 329). . Principle Four: Organizational leaders should encourage the development and maintenance of healthy relationships which bolster emotional health and resiliency (2 Timothy 1:8–14) (p. 331). . Principle Five: Organization leaders should encourage the practice of prayer, which creates and maintains a connection with God’s transformative work, providing a protective barrier against burnout (2 Timothy 1:8–14) (p. 332). . Principle Six: Organizational leaders should encourage spiritual formation through spiritual disciplines, which protect against burnout, enhance wellness, and increase effectiveness (2 Timothy 1:8–14) (p. 333). . Principle Seven: Organizational leaders should provide specific and ongoing training and support to educate, train, and strengthen their constituencies against the effects of burnout (2 Timothy 1:8–14) (p. 334). . Principle Eight: Organizational leaders must address burnout and fatigue such that it reduces personal shame and provides renewed purpose and strength (2 Timothy 1:15–18) (p. 334). Heinz and Winston condensed and consolidated Boyer’s (2022) and Clem and Henson’s (2022) principles into the following ten principles: . Principle One: Leaders and members demonstrate affirmation and affection toward each other. . Principle Two: Leaders and followers embrace gospel principles.

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. Principle Three: Leaders and followers demonstrate authenticity toward each other. . Principle Four: Leaders model forgiveness, redemption, and reconciliation toward followers . Principle Five: Leaders demonstrate generosity and contentment toward followers. . Principle Six: Leaders foster opportunities for mentoring and peer networks to reduce feelings of isolation in the workplace. . Principle Seven: Leaders allow space for honest and challenging conversations with followers. . Principle Eight: Leaders validate followers’ purpose and encourage spiritual well-being. . Principle Nine: Leaders develop and maintain employees’ emotional health and resiliency. . Principle Ten: Leaders provide ongoing training and support to educate, train, and strengthen followers against the effects of burnout. To better understand the ten principles, Heinz and Winston (2023, in review) examined the following contemporary literature concepts: the Fruit of the Spirit concepts of Galatians 5: (a) kindness, (b) gentleness, and (c) goodness; authentic leadership, servant leadership, and employee well-being. Heinz and Winston then conducted a bounded case study with six purposeful participants and developed the following 20 scale development items: . C10-1A My leader/organization demonstrates appreciation for each other. . C10-1B My leader/organizational leaders demonstrate unity in values. . C10-2A My leader/organization encourages prayer and Bible study. . C10-2B My leader/organizational leaders model/practice biblical/ loving-focused behavior. . C10-3A My leader/organization is authentic with everyone. . C10-3B My leader/organizational is supportive of others. . C10-4A My leader/organization facilitates a culture of grace and mercy.

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. C10-4B My leader/organizational leaders demonstrate seeking forgiveness. . C10-5A My leader/organization facilitates a culture of serving others. . C10-5B My leader/organizational leaders serve intentionally but wisely. . C10-6A My leader/organization is aware of my physical and spiritual state of mind. . C10-6B My leader/organizational leaders balance the workload across the team. . C10-7A My leader/organization facilitates a culture of trust and collaboration. . C10-7B My leader/organizational leaders demonstrate honest communication. . C10-8A My leader/organization facilitates a culture of validation and inclusion. . C10-8B My leader/organizational leaders demonstrate affirming behaviors. . C10-9A My leader/organization facilitates a culture of spirituality. . C10-9B My leader/organizational leaders demonstrate a focus on others in the organization. . C10-10A My leader/organization takes breaks as needed. . C10-10B My leader/organizational leaders help me take breaks as I need.

Phase 2 Chapter 11 Wahlin and Winston (2023, in production) examined the following four principles developed by Dayton (2022) when he studied Colossians 3:23– 24: . Principle One: Leaders must follow and provide responsible, accountable, inspired instruction (p. 293). . Principle Two: Leaders practice motivational elements/rewards that produce successful outcomes (p, 294).

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. Principle Three: Leaders must recognize and utilize the motivational elements that produce successful work outcomes (p. 295).4 . Principle Four: Leaders must acknowledge and cultivate a worker’s purpose to commitment in working for an organization (p. 296). Wahlin and Winston (2023, in review) consolidated Dayton’s four principles into the following three principles: . Principle 1: Leaders provide responsible and accountable instruction. . Principle 2: Leaders practice motivational elements/rewards that produce successful outcomes. . Principle 3: Leaders cultivate commitment in workers. To more fully understand the three principles, Wahlin and Winston (2023, in review) examined the following contemporary topics: responsibility, accountability, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and commitment. Wahlin and Winston then conducted a bounded case study with seven purposeful participants and produced the following six scale development items: . C11-1A My leader/organization holds him/her/it accountable to senior leaders/stakeholders. . C11-1B My leader/organizational leaders provide the needed support for employees to accomplish the organizational objectives/ goals. . C11-2A My leader/organization demonstrates employee-focused motivation methods. . C11-2B My leader/organizational leaders demonstrate knowing the conditions of employees. . C11-3A My leader focuses employee development toward accomplishing the organization’s mission. . C11-3B My organization works to create employee commitment to the organization.

4 For a full review of Dayton’s research, please see: Dayton, K. G. (2022). An inception of scriptural work instruction: An analysis of Colossians 3:23–24. In J. Henson (Ed.), A new testament-based concept of organizational spirituality: Biblical foundations for leaders and organizations (Chapter 15). Springer International Publishing AG.

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Phase 2 Chapter 12 Winston (2023a, in review) followed up on Daley’s exegetical review of 2 Timothy 1 where Daley found the following principles: . Principle One: Leaders develop others through personal relationships (p. 310). . Principle Two: Leaders develop others by offering guidance amid diverse challenges (p. 311). . Principle Three: Leaders develop others by recognizing their potential, strengths, and abilities (p. 311). . Principle Four: Leaders develop others by helping them to recognize that they are empowered by God to fulfill their purpose (p. 312). . Principle Five: Leaders develop others through reciprocal support, commitment, and cooperation (p. 313). . Principle Six: Leaders develop others by helping them better understand their self-identity (p. 314). . Principle Seven: Leaders develop others by providing them with a sense of autonomy (p. 314). . Principle Eight: Leaders develop others by challenging them to take responsibility for their future (p. 315). Winston (2023a, in review) found similarities and overlaps in Daley’s (2022) principles and condensed Daley’s principles into these three principles: . Spiritual Leaders begin the development process by learning God’s call on the other person? . Spiritual Leaders base the development process on knowing the other person’s God-given work-related gifts, talents, and abilities? . Spiritual Leaders through the development process build a greater relationship with the other person? Winston (2023a, in review) found similarities with the principles in the contemporary literature of Calling/Vocare, Romans 12 Motivational Gifts, and mentoring. After studying the contemporary literature, Winston conducted a bounded case study with five purposeful participants out of which came the following six scale development items:

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. C12-1A My leader demonstrates a knowledge of my calling. . C12-1B My leader seeks to understand my calling. . C12-2A My leader changes my task assignments to make a better fit with my gifts and talents. . C12-2B My leader demonstrates the knowledge of how work performance relates to person-job fit. . C12-3A My leader mentors me to succeed in the organization. . C12-3B My leader understands the correlation between mentoring and my work performance.

Phase 2 Chapter 13 Cancino and Winston (2023, in review) examined Michelle Gonzalez Segundo (2022) chapter where she conducted an exegetical study of Hebrews 12:1–15 that led to the following principles: . Principle One: Biblical leaders endure for the sake of bringing glory to God, for the sake of the community of believers, and for the sake of unbelievers (p. 361). . Principle Two: Biblical leaders embrace suffering as a formative process (p. 362). . Principle Three: Biblical leaders maintain their biblical values despite persecution (p. 362). . Principle Four: Biblical leaders withstand discipline as it produces maturity and wisdom (p. 363). . Principle Five: Biblical leaders are intentional in building community among their followers (p. 364). . Principle Six: Biblical leaders pursue a life of holiness by allowing the Holy Spirit to mold, shape, and sanctify their soul (mind, will, and emotions) into the likeness of Christ (p. 365). . Principle Seven: Biblical leaders exemplify righteousness by having integrity, a clear commitment to their people, fair compensation, performance recognition, and growth opportunities, bringing about the best in their collaborators (p. 365). For a deeper understanding of Michelle Gonzalez Segundo (2022) seven principles, Cancino and Winston (2023, in review) explored the following contemporary literature concepts: Colossians 3: 23 of doing all

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you do for the Glory of God, organizational identity, personal development, upper echelons theory, organizational values, employee well-being, and person-organization fit. Cancino and Winston then conducted a bounded case study with eight purposeful participants and produced the following 14 scale development items: . C13-1A My leader demonstrates a commitment to accomplishing assigned objectives. . C13-1B My leader models a positive image to others. . C13-2A My leader takes on criticism and suffering to protect his/ her employees. . C13-2B My leader demonstrates appreciation and inclusion of different cultural standards. . C13-3A My leader endures persecution as a result of following spiritual principles. . C13-3B My leader experiences personal attacks because of his/her faith. . C13-4A My leader models introspective self-evaluation. . C13-4B My leader treats employees with respect. . C13-5A My leader seeks to build community among employees . C13-5B My leader demonstrates caring behaviors toward employees. . C13-6A My leader seeks holiness for him/herself. . C13-6B My leader demonstrates holiness to employees. . C13-7A My leader seeks righteousness. . C13-7B My leader demonstrates righteous behaviors to others.

Phase 2 Chapter 14 Winston (2023b, in review) examined Pickwell’s (2022) and Wright’s (2022) studies. Pickwell examined 1 Peter 5:1–11 and produced the following principles: . Principle One: Leaders must demonstrate care for their followers even amid adversity (p. 410). . Principle Two: Leaders demonstrate integrity by holding themselves to a higher standard (p. 411). . Principle Three: Leaders motivate followers by leading with a posture of humility (p. 411).

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. Principle Four: Leaders serve as stewards of their organizations and have been entrusted with their leadership (p. 412). . Principle Five: Leaders are called to willingly serve followers with humility and grace (p. 412). Wright (2022) studied James 4:13–5:12 that led him to develop the following principles: . Principle One: Leaders demonstrate humility (p. 384). . Principle Two: Leaders must ensure that followers receive just compensation for their work (p. 385). . Principle Three: Leaders must demonstrate patience in decisionmaking and in interactions with others (p. 387). . Principle Four: Leaders must create an organizational environment that discourages backbiting (p. 388). . Principle Five: Leaders must model endurance and seek to develop endurance in their followers (p. 389). . Principle Six: Leaders must consistently demonstrate integrity in both their words and actions (p. 391). Winston (2023b, in review) determined that Pickwell (2022) and Wright (2022) had similarities between their principles about humility, care, and integrity. Winston removed the duplicate and overlapping principles that resulted in the following consolidated principles: . . . .

Principle One: Leaders demonstrate humility. Principle Two: Leaders demonstrate patience. Principle Three: Leaders model endurance. Principle Four: Leaders demonstrate care for their followers even amid adversity. . Principle Five: Leaders demonstrate integrity by holding themselves to a higher standard. . Principle Six: Leaders serve as stewards of their organizations. Winston (2023b, in review) to more fully understand the six principles reviewed the following biblical and contemporary topics: the following Fruit of the Spirit from Galatians 5: patience, kindness, goodness, and gentleness; servant leadership, benevolent leadership, caring

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leadership, employee well-being, wholistic ethical leadership, and stewardship. Winston conducted a bounded case study with eight purposeful participants and produced the following 12 scale development items: . C14-1A My leader/organization demonstrates a focus on others rather than a focus on self. . C14-1B My leader/organizational leaders demonstrate transparency when dealing with other people in the organization. . C14-2A My leader/organization facilitates employees’ involvement in decision-making. . C14-2B My leader/organizational leaders work in harmony with the internal and external culture. . C14-3A My leader demonstrates persistence to complete projects. . C14-3B My organization demonstrates the value of learning from everyone’s past experiences. . C14-4A My leader/organization demonstrates care for employees. . C14-4B My leader/organizational leaders live the organization’s values. . C14-5A My leader practices what he/she preaches/teaches. . C14-5B My organization demonstrates clear rules and expectations for all employees. . C14-6A My leader demonstrates that everything in the organization belongs to God. . C14-6B My organization demonstrates concern for others over self.

Phase 2 Chapter 15 E. Abujaber (2023, in production) examined Bell et al.’s (2022) exegetical study of 1 Peter 5 in which Bell et al. produced the following seven principles about change: . Principle One: Create willingness for change in followers through voluntarily leading with vision. . Principle Two: Honesty and integrity in leaders who are proving to be examples create trust in leaders of change. . Principle Three: Anti-dominant leadership is not Lording it over followers but encouraging participatory change.

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. Principle Four: Noticeable humility in leadership strengthens followers’ personal confidence during change. . Principle Five: Governing leader ethics being not for sordid gain minimizes followers’ cost concerns in change. . Principle Six: Ensure leader support and guidance as a shepherd of followers solidifies confidence in change. . Principle Seven: Delegation in leadership is exercising oversight to empower followers’ commitment to change. Abujaber (2023) combined the principles of anti-dominant leadership and delegation that reduced Bell et al.’s principles to: . Principle One: Create willingness for change in followers through voluntarily leading with vision. . Principle Two: Honesty and integrity in leaders who are proving to be examples create trust in leaders of change. . Principle Three: Delegation in leadership is exercising oversight to empower followers’ commitment to change. . Principle Four: Noticeable humility in leadership strengthens followers’ personal confidence during change. . Principle Five: Governing leader ethics being not for sordid gain minimizes followers’ cost concerns in change. . Principle Six: Ensure leader support and guidance as a shepherd of followers solidifies confidence in change. Abujaber (2023, in review) studied the following contemporary literature topics as a means of gaining greater insight into Bell, Jones, and Murray’s (2022) principles: voluntary leadership, honesty, delegation, humility, ethical leadership, and supportive leadership. Then, Abujaber conducted a bounded case study with six purposeful participants that produced the following 12 scale development items: . C15-1A My leader/organization demonstrates a strong desire to lead even under ambiguous circumstances. . C15-1B My leader/organization shows humility with deeds and words. . C15-2A My leader/organization genuinely acts and shows characteristics of integrity.

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. C15-2B My leader/organizational leader’s words matched his/her actions. . C15-3A My leader demonstrates and engages employees in planning and execution. . C15-3B My leader provides opportunities for employees’ growth and development. . C15-4A My leader/organization acknowledge his/her limitation and seek to develop them. . C15-4B My leader/organizational leaders are always willing to lend a helping hand even with trivial tasks when needed. . C15-5A leader does not compromise on his/her values. . C15-5B My organization has a clean reputation. . C15-6A My leader is genuinely concerned with my well-being. . C15-6B My organization continuously supports the growth of its employees.

Step 2: Generate an Item Pool We, the authors, each have experience in scale development, inferential regression research, and organizational spirituality concepts. We examined the 154 scale development items, and each voted on which of the two scale development items for each of the 77 principles to keep for this scale development study. Each of us voted “1” to keep an item for a principle or “0” to not keep the item. We kept items that had a summative score of 2 or 3 (either two or three of us voted to keep the item) that resulted in 77 items for the final pool; thus, each principle from phase 2 was represented in this phase 3 scale development study. We reviewed the 77 items and edited items to remove double-barreled items, improve clarity of items, and consistency in language. We edited the items to remove problems reported by the reviewers. The final pool consisted of: . C02-1A My leader’s communication reflects the word of God. . C02-2A My leader focuses on our relationship before focusing on our work. . C02-3A My leader respects the different cultures within the organization.

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. C03-1B My leader demonstrates working together cooperatively with each other. . C03-2A My leader demonstrates authentic communication. . C03-3B My leader demonstrates ethical values. . C03-4A My leader demonstrates confidence investing in their employees. . C03-5A My leader demonstrates working collectively with others. . C03-6B My leader demonstrates a focus on others rather than a focus on self. . C03-7B My leader demonstrates with employees. . C03-8B My leader demonstrates attentiveness toward others during a crisis. . C04-1B My leader helps me understand my personal connection to the organizational mission. . C04-2A My leader communicates the organization’s desired results. . C04-3A My leader provides a sense of security in knowing we are in the mission together. . C04-4A My leader engages in collaboration. . C04-5A My leader adjusts expectations with the organization’s ebbs and flows. . C04-6B My leader invites employees to share in decision-making. . C05-1A My leader’s values align with my leader’s actions. . C05-2B My leader promotes all of us supporting each other. . C05-3A My leader goes above and beyond the minimal effort to achieve the organization’s mission. . C06-1A My leader demonstrates the balance between people, organization, and culture during change initiatives. . C06-2A My leader encourages communication with employees about change initiatives. . C06-3A My leader creates a welcoming environment where change initiatives can be completed. . C06-4A My leader focuses on employees’ well-being during change initiatives. . C06-5B My leader creates a culture of inclusion for all employees. . C07-1A My leader allows people to express themselves freely. . C07-2A My leader has policies and processes that specifically address women’s needs. . C07-3B My leader facilitates teamwork and participation. . C07-4A My leader empowers women.

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. C07-5A My leader treats men and women employees the same. . C08-1A My leader’s behavior aligns with who he/she says he/she is (authentic). . C08-2A My leader treats employees as individuals. . C08-3A My leader is always learning. . C08-4A My leader demonstrates an authentic prayer life. . C08-5A My leader is focused on the well-being of others. . C09-1A My leader fosters a culture to serve. . C09-2B My leader demonstrates flexibility in relating to people served. . C09-3A My leader demonstrates acceptance. . C09-4A My leader values community motivation by building interpersonal connectedness. . C09-5A My leader demonstrates perseverance to accomplish goals. . C09-6A My leader demonstrates the discipline to prioritize people first. . C09-7A My leader practices mindfulness to increase awareness and openness to improve organizational experience. . C10-01A My leader demonstrates appreciation for each other. . C10-02A My leader encourages prayer and Bible study. . C10-03B My leader is supportive of others. . C10-04A My leader facilitates a culture of grace. . C10-05A My leader facilitates a culture of serving others. . C10-06A My leader is aware of my overall well-being (physical, mental, and spiritual). . C10-07A My leader facilitates a culture of trust. . C10-08A My leader facilitates a culture of validation. . C10-09A My leader facilitates a culture of spirituality. . C10-10B My leader helps me take breaks as I need. . C11-1B My leader provides the needed support for employees to accomplish the organization’s objectives/goals. . C11-2A My leader demonstrates employee-focused motivation methods. . C11-3A My leader focuses on employee development toward accomplishing the organization’s mission. . C12-1B My leader seeks to understand my calling. . C12-2A My leader changes my task assignments to make a better fit with my gifts and talents. . C12-3A My leader mentors me to succeed in the organization.

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. C13-1B My leader models a positive image to others. . C13-2A My leader takes on criticism and suffering to protect his/ her employees. . C13-3B My leader experiences personal attacks because of his/her faith. . C13-4A My leader models introspective self-evaluation. . C13-5A My leader seeks to build community among employees. . C13-6B My leader demonstrates holiness to employees. . C13-7A My leader seeks righteousness. . C14-1A My leader demonstrates a focus on others rather than a focus on self. . C14-2A My leader facilitates employees’ involvement in decisionmaking. . C14-3B My organization demonstrates the value of learning from everyone’s past experiences. . C14-4A My leader demonstrates care for employees. . C14-5A My leader practices what he/she preaches/teaches. . C14-6B My leader demonstrates concern for others over self. . C15-1B My leader shows humility with deeds and words. . C15-2A My leader genuinely acts and shows characteristics of integrity. . C15-3B My leader provides opportunities for employees’ growth and development. . C15-4B My leader is always willing to lend a helping hand, even with trivial tasks, when needed. . C15-5A My leader does not compromise on his/her values. . C15-6A My leader is genuinely concerned with my well-being.

Step 3: Determine the Format for Measurement In phase 3 we selected the semantic differential response format with seven points anchored by: never true and always true. A semantic differential scale developed by Osgood (1952) is anchored by two opposite descriptors. According to Osgood: “The process of description or judgment can be conceived as the allocation of a concept to an experiential continuum, definable by a pair of polar terms” (p. 227) which aligns with our phase three scale development study in which we ask sample members

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to judge the member’s current or past leader on a conceptual statement believed to be relevant to organizational spirituality.

Step 4: Have the Initial Item Pool Reviewed by Experts The three of us have research experience with new testament concepts, spirituality measures, and scale development research projects. We reviewed the 154 principles, cleaned the items to improve clarity and to remove double-barreled items. We selected one principle from each of the 77 pairs so that each principle from phase 2 was represented in the factor analysis step.

Step 5: Cognitive Interviewing The three of us have research experience with New Testament concepts, spirituality measures, and scale development research projects. We reviewed the 154 principles and cleaned the items to improve clarity and to remove double-barreled items. We selected one principle from each of the 77 pairs so that each principle from phase 2 was represented in the factor analysis step.

Step 6: Consider the Inclusion of Validation Items We included gender, age, and tenure with the leader to see if there were any differences between gender, age groups, or tenure groups.

Step 7: Administer Items to a Development Sample We used Qualtrics’ data collection service to collect data. The Qualtrics’ internal participant identifier code allowed us to pair pre- and post- test results for test–retest reliability, without violating anonymity because we did not have access to Qualtrics’ identification information. We used a selection criteria question that required participants to answer a collective “Yes” to the first item that asked six questions: 1. Do you attend in-person or online church services or home group meetings two or more times a month?

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2. Do you pray five or more times a month? 3. Do you make charitable contributions to a church, or a faith-based charity at least once a month? 4. Would you describe yourself as a practicing Christian? 5. Are you 21 years of age or older? 6. Have you been employed full-time for at least three years? If the participant answered “Yes” the participant was able to continue with the questionnaire. If the participant answered “No” the participant exited the survey. Qualtrics collected the data between January 24 and February 1, 2023.

Step 8: Evaluate the Items Qualtrics collected data from 435 participants. The selection criteria item ensured that all of the participants: . Attended in-person or online church services or home group meetings two or more times a month? . Prayed five or more times a month? . Made charitable contributions to a church, or a faith-based charity at least once a month? . Described him/herself as a practicing Christian? . Was 21 years of age or older? . Had been employed full-time for at least three years?

Sample’s Demographics Correlation to determine rotation method—J. D. Brown (2009)

Of the 435 participants, 322 were female and 110 were male. One participant selected “other” and two participants chose not to answer the question about gender. Tables 1.1 and 1.2 show the sample distribution of age groups and tenure groups.

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Table 1.1 Sample age groups

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Age group

Frequency

Percent

21–30 31–40 41–50 51–60 61–70 71–80 Total

105 138 75 64 45 8 435

24.1 31.7 17.2 14.7 10.3 1.8 100.0

Frequency

Percent

67 139 94 55 37 15 4 24 435

15.4 32.0 21.6 12.6 8.5 3.4 0.9 5.5 100.0

Table 1.2 Sample tenure groups Less than 1 1–3 4–6 7–9 10–12 13–15 16–18 19 or more Total

Factor Analysis The first factor analysis study we conducted produced a Kaiser–Meyer– Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy of 0.987 and a Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity X 2 45,106.1 with df of 2926 and p-value of 0.000 which indicates that the data would benefit from factor analysis. We used an Oblim rotation due to the high correlation of the items. The factor analysis produced three factors with 69 items, five items, and two items with them, respectively. The items that loaded on factors 2 and 3 cross-loaded on items from factor 1. See Table 1.3 for the specifics about the three factors. We deleted the items that cross-loaded and re-ran the factor analysis. The second factor analysis produced a Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy of 0.988987 and a Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity X 2 38,213.2 with df of 2080 and p-value of 0.000 which indicates that the data would benefit from factor analysis. Table 1.4 shows the specifics of the second factor analysis study.

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Table 1.3 First-round factor analysis Factor

1 2 3

Initial eigenvalues

Extraction sums of squared loadings

Rotation sums of squared loadings

Total

% of Var.

Cum. %

Total

% of Var.

Cum. %

Total

51.863 3.437 2.023

67.354 4.463 2.627

67.354 71.817 74.444

51.863 3.437 2.023

67.354 4.463 2.627

67.354 71.817 74.444

51.243 24.872 5.258

Table 1.4 Second-round factor analysis Factor

1 2 3

Initial eigenvalues

Extraction sums of squared loadings

Rotation sums of squared loadings

Total

% of Var.

Cum. %

Total

% of Va.

Cum. %

Total

45.911 2.120 1.087

70.632 3.261 1.673

70.632 73.893 75.566

45.911 2.120 1.087

70.632 3.261 1.673

70.632 73.893 75.566

45.784 8.064 2.988

The second factor analysis showed three factors with 63 items loading on factor 1, 1 item each for factors 2 and 3, but the items cross-loaded with items from factor 1. We deleted the two cross-loading items and re-ran the principle component analysis with the remaining 63 items. The third factor analysis produced a Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy of 0.987 and a Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity X 2 22,364.6 with df of 741 and p-value of 0.000 which indicates that the data would benefit from factor analysis. Table 1.5 produced a single scale of 39 items explaining 73.7% of the variance. We used this factor for the scale optimization step.

Step 9: Optimize Scale Length We selected the top loading 12 items and conducted a Cronbach alpha test that showed the 12 items having an a of 0.98. The 12 items are shown in Table 1.6.

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Table 1.5 Third-round factor analysis Factor

1

Initial eigenvalues

Extraction sums of squared loadings

Total

% of Var.

Cum. %

Total

% of Var.

Cum. %

28.772

73.774

73.774

28.772

73.774

73.774

Table 1.6 12 scale items with their loadings Items

Component 1

C06-3A My leader creates a welcoming environment where change initiatives can be completed C06-4A My leader focuses on employees’ well-being during change initiatives C08-5A My leader is focused on the well-being of others C09-4A My leader values community motivation by building interpersonal connectedness C09-6A My leader demonstrates the discipline to prioritize people first C09-7A My leader practices mindfulness to increase awareness and openness to improve organizational experience C10-01A My leader demonstrates appreciation for each other C10-03B My leader is supportive of others C11-1B My leader provides the needed support for employees to accomplish the organization’s objectives/goals C11-2A My leader demonstrates employee-focused motivation methods C14-4A My leader demonstrates care for employees C15-2A My leader genuinely acts and shows characteristics of integrity

0.921 0.914 0.908 0.908 0.907 0.905 0.902 0.902 0.900 0.898 0.895 0.886

We assigned a working title to the scale of New Testament Organizational Spirituality (NTOS). We calculated the NTOS score for the 435 participants and found the mean to be 5.1 with a standard deviation of 1.65. We conducted a t-test of the NTOS scale between females and males and did not find significant differences. T -test score, assuming equal variance was 0.39 with a p-value of 0.699. We conducted two ANOVA tests of the NTOS scale and did not find a significant difference among the age groups or tenure groups. The F test for the age groups was F 5,429 =

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1.60, p-value of 0.160 and for the tenure group, the F test was F 7,427 = 1.21, p-value of 0.296.

Discussion The factor analysis steps resulted in a 12-item scale measuring the New Testament-based Organizational Spirituality (NTOS) that measures employees’ perceptions of their leaders’ behaviors using a semantic differential response format with seven points anchored by: never true and always true. The NTOS scale was the average of the 12 items. The analysis did not show significant differences between, the male and female categories (of the 435 participants, 322 were female and 110 were male. One participant selected “other” and two participants chose not to answer the question about gender), the age categories, or the tenure categories. Because of the one large factor with a high Cronbach alpha score, there is a risk of common method variance. Future studies might want to include variables that measure the observed behaviors of others as well as self-reported variables.

Recommendations for the Second Data Collection and Analysis We conducted two follow-up studies. In the first follow-up study, we tested the new 12-item NTOS scale for concurrent and discriminate validity, as well as test–retest reliability. The second study (complete after the follow-up studies).

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Bell, R. M., Jones, J. S., & Murray, S. R. (2022). Using leadership values to minimize resistance and facilitate change: An analysis of 1 Peter 5. In J. Henson (Ed.), Biblical organizational spirituality: New testament foundations for leaders and organizations. Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/ 978-3-031-04006-1 Boyer, S. W. (2022). Forgiveness and unity supports spiritual organizations: An analysis of the epistle of Philippians. In J. Henson (Ed.), Biblical organizational spirituality: New testament foundations for leaders and organizations (Chapter 12, pp. 235–256). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/ 978-3-031-04006-1 Brown, J. D. (2009). Choosing the right type of rotation in PCA and EFAJALT testing & evaluation. SIG Newsletter, 13(3), 20–25. Cancino, D., & Winston, B. (2023, in production). The organizational spirituality themes of (a) endurance; (b) suffering (c) persecution; (d) discipline; (e) collective identity; (f) holiness; and (g) righteousness in Hebrews 12:1– 15. In B. E. Winston (Ed.), Biblical organizational spirituality: Qualitative case studies of biblical principles for leaders and organizations (Chapter 13). Palgrave Publishing (Manuscript submitted for publication). Caulton, J. R. (2022). Crossing boundaries in multicultural relationships: An Analysis of acts 8:26–40. In J. Henson (Ed.), Biblical organizational spirituality: New testament foundations for leaders and organizations (pp. 137–158). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04006-1 Clem, C. L., & Henson, J. D. (2022). Preventing burnout and compassion fatigue: An analysis of 2 Timothy. In J. Henson (Ed.), Biblical organizational spirituality: New testament foundations for leaders and organizations (Chapter 16, pp. 321–340). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/ 978-3-031-04006-1 Credle, W. E. (2022). Finding legacy, empathy, and hope in crisis: An analysis of John 11. In J. D. Henson (Ed.). Biblical organizational spirituality: New Testament foundations for leaders and organizations. Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04006-1 Crisp, B. (2022). A tale of two worlds: An analysis of 1 Corinthians 2. In J. Henson (Ed.), Biblical organizational spirituality: New Testament foundations for leaders and organizations (pp. 177–198). Palgrave Macmillan. https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04006-1 Daley, A. E. (2022). Mentorship and Leadership Development: An Analysis of 2 Timothy 1. In Henson, J. (Ed.), Biblical organizational spirituality: New Testament foundations for leaders and organizations (pp. 305–319). Palgrave Macmillan, Palgrave Publishing https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3031-04006-1

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New Testament foundations for leaders and organizations. Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04006-1 Serrano, C. A. (2022). New testament organizational spirituality: A meta-analysis. In J. Henson (Ed.), Biblical organizational spirituality: New Testament foundations for leaders and organizations (Chapter 22, pp. 481–488). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04006-1 Shoji-Schaffner, N. (2023, in production). A dimension of organizational spirituality. In B. E. Winston (Ed.), Biblical organizational spirituality: Qualitative case studies of biblical principles for leaders and organizations (Chapter 9). Palgrave Publishing (Manuscript submitted for publication). Tatone, G. (2023, in production). Cultivating positive relationships within the organization, among employees, and with the community: A dimension of organizational spirituality. In B. E. Winston (Ed.), Biblical organizational spirituality: Qualitative case studies of principles for leaders and organizations (Chapter 3) (Manuscript submitted for publication). Ventura, H. R. (2023, in production). Playing the long game: A dimension of organizational spirituality. In B. E. Winston (Ed.), Biblical organizational spirituality: Qualitative case studies of biblical principles for leaders and organizations (Chapter 4). Palgrave Publishing (Manuscript submitted for publication). Wahlin, L., & Winston, B. (2023, in production). Leaders’ responsibility for others’ motivation and commitment. In B. E. Winston (Ed.), Biblical organizational spirituality: Qualitative case studies of biblical principles for leaders and organizations (Chapter 11). Palgrave Publishing (Manuscript submitted for publication). Winston, B. (2023, in production). Developing others in the organization. In B. E. Winston (Ed.), Biblical organizational spirituality: Qualitative case studies of biblical principles for leaders and organizations (Chapter 12). Palgrave Publishing (Manuscript submitted for publication). Winston, B. (2023, in production). Caring for others: A Dimension of organizational spirituality. In B. E. Winston (Ed.), Biblical organizational spirituality: Qualitative case studies of biblical principles for leaders and organizations (Chapter 14). Palgrave Publishing (Manuscript submitted for publication). Winston, B. (Ed.). (2023, in production). Biblical organizational spirituality: Qualitative case studies of biblical principles for leaders and organizations. Palgrave Publishing (Manuscript submitted for publication). Wright, A. (2022). Leader ethics and just treatment of followers: An analysis of James 4:13–5:12. In J. Henson (Ed.), Biblical organizational spirituality: New Testament foundations for leaders and organizations (Chapter 18, pp. 373– 396). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04006-1

CHAPTER 2

Validity and Reliability Bruce E. Winston, Mihai C. Bocarnea, and Debra J. Dean

Intro to the Chapter Sample Demographics Qualtrics collected data from 301 participants of which 174 selected ‘female,’ 126 selected ‘male,’ and one participant selected ‘other.’ Table 2.1 shows the age and Table 2.2 and tenure groups for the participants:

B. E. Winston (B) · M. C. Bocarnea · D. J. Dean School of Business and Leadership, Regent University, Virginia Beach, VA, USA e-mail: [email protected] M. C. Bocarnea e-mail: [email protected] D. J. Dean e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 D. J. Dean et al. (eds.), Biblical Organizational Spirituality, Volume 3, Christian Faith Perspectives in Leadership and Business https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-51761-7_2

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Table 2.1 Age 21–30 31–40 41–50 51–60 61–70 71–80 81 and over Total

Frequency

Percent

73 73 67 44 20 15 9 301

24.3 24.3 22.3 14.6 6.6 5.0 3.0 100.0

Frequency

Percent

48 73 66 42 30 14 4 24 301

15.9 24.3 21.9 14.0 10.0 4.7 1.3 8.0 100.0

Note: N = 301

Table 2.2 Tenure Less than 1 1–3 4–6 7–9 10+12 13–15 16–18 19 or More Total Note: N = 301

Variable Descriptives Table 2.3 shows the Cronbach alpha, minimum, maximum, mean, and standard deviation for the nine variables that we used in Chapters 2 through 6. We conducted an independent t-test on the 12-item NTOS scale with gender (female and male) only 1 participant selected ‘other.’ We also conducted ANOVA tests on the 12-item NTOS scale with age and then tenure. We found no significant differences in the NTOS scale by gender or age. We ran a Bonferroni post-hoc test and found significant differences between the age groups. F (7, 293) = 4.81 p < 0.001. Please see Table 2.4 to see the results of the Bonferroni post-hoc tests.

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Table 2.3 Descriptives Descriptive statistics

NTOS_AVG EWB_AVG ESLB_AVG Goodness_Avg RS_Avg Inner_Life_Avg Cond_Com_AVG Vision_Avg AL_Love_AVG

Chronbach a

Minimum

Maximum

Mean

SD

0.97 0.90 0.97 0.95 0.91 0.90 0.95 0.94 0.96

1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0

4.80 4.63 4.96 4.95 5.29 5.03 4.84 4.87 4.89

1.450 1.538 1.456 1.567 1.254 1.551 1.428 1.519 1.552

Note: N = 301 SD = Standard Deviation EWB = Employee Well-Being ESLB = Essential Servant Leadership Behaviors RS = Respective Skepticism Cond_Com = Conditions for Community AL_Love = Altruistic Love

Concurrent and Discriminant Validity According to DeVellis and Thorpe (2022), criterion validity such as concurrent validity and discriminant validity serves to validate that a measurement scale measures what it should measure and does not measure what it should not measure. To check criterion validity, We correlated the 12-item NTOS scale with the five-item Goodness scale developed by Bocarnea et al. (2018). The Pearson R result was 0.87, which shows a high correlation supporting the concurrent validity. We then correlated the NTOS with the four-item Respective Skepticism. Scale(cite). The Pearson R result was 0.52, which shows a moderate correlation. According to Mitchell and Jolley (2004) correlations below 0.60 support the existence of discriminant validity (p. 111). Table 2.5 shows the bi-variate correlations for all the continuous variables. Test–Retest Reliability Test–Retest reliability, according to Shou et al. (2022), is the belief that a measure of something is the same over a period of time and is analyzed by a paired t-test. We solicited participants via our Facebook and LinkedIn

7–9

4–6

1–3

0.26 0.26 0.29 0.32 0.42 0.72 0.35 0.26 0.24 0.27 0.30 0.41 0.71 0.33 0.26 0.24 0.27 0.31 0.41 0.72 0.33 0.29 0.27 0.27 0.33 0.43 0.73 0.36

−1.1260 −1.1256 −1.3839 −0.95 −1.26 −0.89 −1.5625 1.1260 0.00 −0.26 0.17 −0.13 0.24 −0.44 1.1256 0.00 −0.26 0.17 −0.14 0.24 −0.44 1.3839 0.26 0.26 0.43 0.12 0.50 −0.18

Less than 1

1–3 4–6 7–9 10+12 13–15 16–18 19 or More Less than 1 4–6 7–9 10+12 13–15 16–18 19 or More Less than 1 1–3 7–9 10+12 13–15 16–18 19 or More Less than 1 1–3 4–6 10+12 13–15 16–18 19 or More

Std. error

Mean difference (I−J)

Bonferroni Post-hoc tests of NTOS by tenure

(I) Tenure

Table 2.4

0.001 0.001 0.000 0.099 0.086 1.000 0.000 0.001 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.001 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000

Sig.

−1.94 −1.96 −2.31 −1.97 −2.59 −3.17 −2.66 0.31 −0.74 −1.11 −0.78 −1.41 −2.01 −1.47 0.29 −0.74 −1.12 −0.79 −1.42 −2.02 −1.48 0.46 −0.59 −0.61 −0.61 −1.23 −1.80 −1.30

−0.31 −0.29 −0.46 0.07 0.07 1.39 −0.47 1.94 0.74 0.59 1.12 1.14 2.49 0.59 1.96 0.74 0.61 1.14 1.15 2.49 0.61 2.31 1.11 1.12 1.48 1.48 2.79 0.94

Upper bound

95% confidence interval Lower bound

48 B. E. WINSTON ET AL.

19 or More

16–18

13–15

0.95 −0.17 −0.17 −0.43 −0.31 0.06 −0.61 1.26 0.13 0.14 −0.12 0.31 0.37 −0.30 0.89 −0.24 −0.24 −0.50 −0.06 −0.37 −0.67 1.5625 0.44 0.44 0.18 0.61 0.30 0.67

10+12

Less than 1 1–3 4–6 7–9 13–15 16–18 19 or More Less than 1 1–3 4–6 7–9 10+12 16–18 19 or More Less than 1 1–3 4–6 7–9 10+12 13–15 19 or More Less than 1 1–3 4–6 7–9 10+12 13–15 16–18

Mean difference (I−J)

(I) Tenure

0.32 0.30 0.31 0.33 0.45 0.74 0.38 0.42 0.41 0.41 0.43 0.45 0.79 0.47 0.72 0.71 0.72 0.73 0.74 0.79 0.75 0.35 0.33 0.33 0.36 0.38 0.47 0.75

Std. error

0.099 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.086 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000

Sig.

−0.07 −1.12 −1.14 −1.48 −1.73 −2.27 −1.81 −0.07 −1.14 −1.15 −1.48 −1.11 −2.11 −1.78 −1.39 −2.49 −2.49 −2.79 −2.39 −2.86 −3.04 0.47 −0.59 −0.61 −0.94 −0.59 −1.17 −1.69

Lower bound 1.97 0.78 0.79 0.61 1.11 2.39 0.59 2.59 1.41 1.42 1.23 1.73 2.86 1.17 3.17 2.01 2.02 1.80 2.27 2.11 1.69 2.66 1.47 1.48 1.30 1.81 1.78 3.04

Upper bound

95% confidence interval

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NTOS_AVG EWB_AVG ESLB_AVG Goodness_Avg RS_Avg Inner_Life_Avg Cond_Com_AVG Vision_Avg AL_Love_AVG

– 0.57** 0.91** 0.87** 0.52** 0.48** 0.80** 0.76** 0.80**

1

Correlations

– 0.600** 0.57** 0.36** 0.48** 0.59** 0.54** 0.58**

2

Note: N = 301 ** = p < 0.001 EWB = Employee Well-Being ESLB = Essential Servant Leadership Behaviors RS = Respective Skepticism Cond_Com = Conditions for Community AL_Love = Altruistic Love

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Table 2.5

– 0.89** 0.53** 0.50** 0.82** 0.77** 0.83**

3

– 0.56** 0.48** 0.84** 0.79** 0.85**

4

– 0.50** 0.60** 0.59** 0.51**

5

– 0.56** 0.54** 0.47**

6

– 0.87** 0.86**

7

– 0.84**

8

–

9

50 B. E. WINSTON ET AL.

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social media accounts. Fifty-four people volunteered for the study and completed the first test, but only 36 completed the second test. Participants completed the second round of data collection between seven and ten days after completing the first round. The paired t (35) = − 01.66, p = 0 0.514 > 0 0.05 showed no significant difference between the first and second round of data). The Pearson r correlation of 0.96 p < 0.000 showed a significant correlation between the data collection rounds. Although these two tests suggest good test–retest reliability of the scale, the small sample size prevents us from stating it conclusively.

Conclusion In this chapter, we presented the NTOS scale Cronbach alpha of 0.97. T tests did not show a significant difference by age or tenure. Correlation results showed a high correlation supporting the concurrent validity. A second correlation showed a moderate correlation of the NTOS scale and four-item Respective Skepticism. Scale Sosu (2013). A paired t-test and correlation analysis suggested a good test–retest reliability but due to a low sample size of 36 we cannot state test-reliability conclusively exists.

References Bocarnea, M. C., Henson, J. D., Huizing, R. L., Mahan, M. L., & Winston, B. E. (2018). Evaluating employee performance through Christian virtues. Palgrave. DeVellis, R. F., & Thorpe, C. T. (2022) Scale development (5th ed.). Applied Social Research Methods. Sage. Kindle Edition. Mitchell, M. L., & Jolley, J. M. (2004). Research design explained: Mark Mitchell, Janina Jolley (5th ed.). Wadsworth-Thomson Learning. Shou, Y., Sellbom, M., & Chen, H. (2022). 4.02—Fundamentals of measurement in clinical psychology. In G. J. Asmundson (Ed.), Comprehensive clinical psychology (2nd ed.). Elsevier. Sosu, E. M. (2013). The development and psychometric validation of a Critical Thinking Disposition Scale. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 9, 107–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2012.09.002

CHAPTER 3

The Impact of Organizational Spirituality on Employee Well-Being Mediated by Servant Leadership Bruce E. Winston and Mihai C. Bocarnea

Introduction The purpose of this study is to use the new 12-item New Testamentbased organizational spirituality (NTOS) scale in an inferential analysis of employees’ perspective of their leaders’ New Testament organizational spirituality behaviors on employees’ self-perception of their own wellbeing (EWB) mediated by employees’ perception of their employers’ essential servant leadership behaviors (ESLB).

B. E. Winston (B) · M. C. Bocarnea School of Business and Leadership, Regent University, Virginia Beach, VA, USA e-mail: [email protected] M. C. Bocarnea e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 D. J. Dean et al. (eds.), Biblical Organizational Spirituality, Volume 3, Christian Faith Perspectives in Leadership and Business https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-51761-7_3

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Winston (2022) examined the impact that employees’ perception of their Leaders’ ESLB on employees’ self-perception of their own wellbeing. This present study now adds the NTOS measure as the independent variable and changes the ESLB variable to a mediating variable, while keeping EWB. The results of this study shed light on the usefulness of the 12-item NTOS scale. New Testament-Based Organizational Spirituality Scale The NTOS scale was presented in chapter 1 and chapter 2 of this book. The NTOS scale had a Cronbach alpha score of 0.97 (Table 2.3). We conducted a t-test for differences in NTOS averages by gender and an ANOVA test of NTOS for differences by age groups and tenure groups. We used a Bonferroni post-hoc test and we found significant differences between the tenure groups ‘less than 1 year’ compared to the tenure groups ‘1–3 years,’ ‘4–6 years,’ ‘7–9 years,’ and ‘19 or more years.’ For this present study we used ‘tenure’ as a control variable. We chose to treat tenure as an interval variable because the tenure categories were similar in length and ordinal in direction. We developed the 12-item NTOS scale from the 77 items developed in Winston’s (Ed.) (in review) 14 qualitative case studies using the 154 principles from Henson’s (2022) 154 principles developed by 21 exegetical scholars reviewing the New Testament for insights about spirituality practices suitable for an organizational context. We followed DeVelis’ nine scale development steps and collected data from 435 participants. Following the scale optimization step, we collected data from 303 participants asking the participants to evaluate their manager using the NTOS and the ESLB scale. We also asked the participants to self-report their own employee well-being using the EWB scale. Items in the NTOS scale that align with employee well-being include: . C06-4A My leader focuses on employees’ well-being during change initiatives. . C08-5A My leader is focused on the well-being of others. . My leader demonstrates appreciation for each other. . C14-4A My leader demonstrates care for employees.

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Hypothesis 1: Employees’ perception of their manager’s organizational spirituality behaviors as measured by the NTOS scale have a positive impact on employees’ self-reported employee well-being as measured by the EWB scale.

Modified General Employee Well-Being Instrument Winston (2020) modified Dupuy’s (1978) 7 General Psychological WellBeing of American Adults scale changing the wording of the negative items to positive and using a single response method, thus addressing Taylor et al.’s (2003) concerns. Winston (2020) created a modified version of the 18-item General Employee producing an eight-item scale with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.96. Winston (2021) conducted a confirmatory factor analysis and further reduced the employee well-being (EWB) scale to four items. Final analysis of the four-item scale showed GFI = 0.98, AGFI = 0.89, RMSEA = 0.13, and Chi-square = 9.96, df = 9, p < 0.000. The scale includes the following four items: 1. I 2. I 3. I 4. I

felt calm, rather than anxious, during the past two months. have felt physically healthy during the past two months. felt emotionally stable for the past two months. felt energized for the past two months.

We used a seven-point semantic differential response format anchored by: never true and always true. Servant Leadership Servant leadership concepts and measures began with Greenleaf’s (1977) seminal work and has progressed through multiple models and instruments through the work of Page and Wong (2000), Sendjaya and Sarros (2002), Patterson (2003), Dennis and Bocarnea (2005), Joseph and Winston (2005), Laub (2005), Barbuto and Wheeler (2006), Hale and Fields (2007), Liden et al. (2008), and Van Dierendonck and Nuijten (2011) as well as Winston and Fields (2015). A common focus among the writers listed above is that servant leaders care about employees. Bass (2000) contrasted servant leadership with

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transformational leadership and noted that servant leaders focused on the employees, while transformational leaders focused on the organization. This contrast seems to align with Greenleaf’s (1977) test of servant leadership. Patterson (2003), in her model of servant leadership, commented about the importance of the leader’s moral love for the employees, Page and Wong (2000) included ‘caring for others’ in their servant leadership model, and Barbuto and Wheeler (2006) included ‘emotional healing’ in their servant leadership model. Jaramillo et al. (2009) concluded from their study that “it seems that the well-being of the salesperson is conducive to a variety of positive job outcomes, and a servant leadership style can play a key role in enhancing the well-being of salespeople” (p. 269). All of these dimensions of servant leadership point to a relationship between the leader’s level of servant leadership and the employees’ general well-being. Hypothesis 2: Servant leadership as measured by the ESLB scale will have a positive impact on employees’ self-report of the employee well-being as measured by the EWB scale.

Servant leadership instruments by Page and Wong (2000), Sendjaya and Sarros (2002), Van Dierendonck and Nuijten (2011), Dennis and Bocarnea (2005), Barbuto and Wheeler (2006), Hale and Fields (2007), and Liden et al. (2008) include multiple dimensions, which, according to Winston and Fields (2015), obfuscate the ability to measure that which is essentially servant leadership and not dimensions of other leadership styles. Essential Servant Leadership Behaviors Instrument To clarify the measurement of servant leadership Winston and Fields (2015) created an item pool of servant leadership behaviors from the multi-dimensional servant leadership instruments created in the studies cited above, asked a panel of experts to review the list and vote on keeping or removing each behavior, sent the resultant list of 22 items to 443 working adults and asked them to evaluate their supervisors using the 22 items. After principal component analysis and scale optimization, Winston and Fields produced a 10-item single-scale measure of essential servant leadership behaviors (ESLB) that had a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.96. Examples of the items in the scale include:

3

. . . .

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Practices what he/she preaches. Serves people without regard to their nationality, gender, or race. Sees serving as a mission of responsibility to others. Genuinely interested in employees as people.

Subsequent research studies showed Cronbach alphas ranging from 0.88 to 0.96 (Cancino, 2019; Hargadon, 2018; Hirschy, 2012; Phillips, 2018). Participants in this current study used the ESLB to provide their perception of their supervisor’s servant leadership behaviors. Winston (2022) using the key terms from the ten items in the scale servant leadership is defined as: A servant leader is a supervisor/manager/leader who practices what he/ she preaches, serves people without regard to their nationality, gender, or race. Is genuinely interested in employees as people and sees serving as an important mission of responsibility to others. A servant leader instills trust rather than fear, by sacrificing to help others and being honest in communications. A servant leader transcends self-interest and self-success as part of a higher calling to serve others. (p. 16)

Participants in this current study used the ESLB to provide their perception of their supervisor’s servant leadership behaviors. One of the objectives of this study is to see if NTOS positively impacts ESLB, thus: Hypothesis 3: Employees’ perception of their managers’ organizational spirituality behaviors as measured by the NTOS has a positive impact on employees’ perceptions of their managers’ servant leadership behaviors as measured by the ESLB scale (Fig. 3.1).

ESLB

NTOS

Fig. 3.1 Research model

EWB

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Analysis We used multiple regression to test the three hypotheses. According to Baron and Kenny (1986), to confirm the mediator effect of attitudinal and behavioral factors, the subsequent conditions must hold: 1. The independent variable is a significant predictor of the mediator; 2. The independent variable is a significant predictor of the dependent variable; and 3. The mediator is a significant predictor of the dependent variable and the strength of the previously significant relationship between the independent and the dependent variables gets weaker or becomes zero.

Regression Models We created three models using Multiple Regression: . Model 1: Tenure (control variable), NTOS (independent variable), and ESLB (dependent variable) . Model 2: Tenure (control variable, NTOS (independent variable), and EWB (dependent variable) . Model 3: Tenure (control variable), NTOS (independent variable), ESLB (independent variable), and EWB (dependent variable) The demographics for the sample are shown in Chapter 2 and repeated below. Qualtrics collected data from 301 participants of which 174 selected ‘female,’ 126 selected ‘male,’ and one participant selected ‘other.’ Table 3.1 shows the age and Table 3.2 and tenure groups for the participants: Model 1: Tenure (Control Variable), NTOS (Independent Variable), and ESLB (Dependent Variable) Table 3.3 shows a significant predictive model of NTOS predicting ESLB with Tenure being the control variable: F (2, 298) = 729.90 p < 0.001 and R 2 = 0.83 (∆R 2 = 0.81, p < 0.001 after removing Tenure’s influence on the dependent). Thus, we accept hypothesis 1.

3

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Table 3.1 Age 21–30 31–40 41–50 51–60 61–70 71–80 81 and over Total

59

Frequency

Percent

73 73 67 44 20 15 9 301

24.3 24.3 22.3 14.6 6.6 5.0 3.0 100.0

Frequency

Percent

48 73 66 42 30 14 4 24 301

15.9 24.3 21.9 14.0 10.0 4.7 1.3 8.0 100.0

Note: N = 301

Table 3.2 Tenure Less than 1 1–3 4–6 7–9 10 + 12 13–15 16–18 19 or More Total Note: N = 301

Table 3.3 Tenure (control variable), NTOS (independent variable), and ESLB (dependent variable) Coefficientsa Model

1 2

(Constant) Tenure (Constant) Tenure NTOS_AVG

Unstandardized coefficients

Standardized coefficients

B

Std. error

Beta

4.630 0.099 0.657 −0.040 0.925

0.165 0.042 0.125 0.018 0.024

a Dependent Variable: ESLB_AVG

0.134 −0.055 0.921

t

Sig.

28.117 2.339 5.233 −2.237 37.792