Benedictine Monasticism as Reflected in the Warnefrid-Hildemar Commentaries on the Rule 9780231878906

Table of contents :
Preface
Abbreviations
Table of Contents
Chapter I. Introduction
Chapter II. The Material Organization
Chapter III. The Material Organization
Chapter IV. Discipline Within the Monastery
Chapter V. The Monk’s Day: Devotional and Intellectual
Chapter VI. Social Characteristics of the Community Life
Chapter VII. Liturgy and Spirituality
Chapter VIII. Asceticism and Ideals
Conclusion
Appendix: Survey of the Medieval Commentaries
Bibliography
Index

Citation preview

S T U D I E S IN H I S T O R Y , E C O N O M I C S AND P U B L I C LAW Edited by the FACULTY OF POLITICAL SCIENCE OF COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY

N U M B E R 478

BENEDICTINE MONASTICISM AS REFLECTED IN THE WARNEFRID-HILDEMAR COMMENTARIES ON THE RULE BY

SISTER M. ALFRED SCHROLL

BENEDICTINE MONASTICISM AS REFLECTED IN T H E

WARNEFRID-HILDEMAR COMMENTARIES ON T H E RULE

BY

SISTER M. ALFRED SCHROLL, O.S.B.

A MS P R E S S , INC. NEW Y O R K

196"

Permissu Superiorum Religiosorum

« i b ( l obstat g l M A R T I N U S VETH, O.S.B.,ABBAS Censor Deputatus Die 5 Juin 1940

Imprimatur gl PAUL C. SCHULTE Episcopus Lea'veniuorthiensis Die S Julii 1940

Copyright 1941, Columbia U n i v e r s i t y New York

Press

R e p r i n t e d 1967 w i t h p e r m i s s i o n of C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s

AMS P R E S S , INC. New Y o r k , N . Y . 1 0 0 0 3

Manufactured

in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s

of

America

PREFACE ST. BENEDICT wrote his Rule for the guidance of his followers within the first half of the sixth century at

Monte

Cassino. W h e n , later in the same century, the monastery w a s plundered by the L o m b a r d invaders, its inmates fled to R o m e and were

given

refuge

in a monastery

near

the

Lateran

basilica. M o n t e Cassino was restored in the early part of the eighth century and in the later part of this century the L o m b a r d historian, Paul W a r n e f r i d , also known as Paul the Deacon, became one of its members. H e it is w h o wrote the first commentary on the Rule, a comparatively detailed exposition based on current interpretation and practice. O f

it, D o m

Butler

writes " it gives us an insight into the earliest phase of Benedictinism, before it was overlaid with ideas and usages of the early Middle A g e s , and shows us the w o r k i n g of

primitive

Benedictinism a f t e r it had run its course for t w o centures." Within

the first half of the ninth century, several

1

other

commentaries appeared. O n e of them is ascribed to the monk and Magistcr

Hildemar, and is preserved in the f o r m in which

it w a s written by his pupils at his dictation. 2 It is largely a reproduction of Paul's commentary, being modified and enlarged somewhat in the process. H i l d e m a r ' s commentary

has served as the basis of

two

f u r t h e r versions, the anonymous commentary of Novalese and the commentary ascribed to an A b b o t Basil. T h u s a family of commentaries is seen to have sprung f r o m the eighth-century exposition made by Paul W a r n e f r i d . T h e t w o oldest manuscripts o f this parent commentary date f r o m the tenth century; one of them was published at M o n t e Cassino in 1880. In the course of the text, however, there are instances in which the lines fail to make sense, and sometimes 1 Benedictine

Monachism

(2d ed., 1924), p. 178.

2 Cf. infra, p. 129.

5

6

PREFACE

even contain a contradiction. Practically all of these obscurities can be cleared by comparison with the corresponding passage in Hildemar's version; in the m a j o r i t y of cases they are seen to be scribal e r r o r s consisting in the omission of the text which, in the more correct form, occurs between repeated words or phrases. Although these and later commentaries have been drawn f r o m occasionally by writers on asceticism, they have not been made the subject of systematic study. T h e r e f o r e the commentary of W a r n e f r i d , because of its unique characteristics, and the commentary of Hildemar, because of its worth in correcting and verifying the extant version of Paul's work, have been selected as the chief sources of the present study. Its aim is to gather f r o m the concrete applications of the general principles of the Rule, f r o m the interpretation of obscure passages, and f r o m the alterations and amplifications of the Rule, a general picture of the monasticism reflected in the commentaries; in particular, to present the aims and ideals set up as the goal, the spirit and means to be utilized in the attainment of the end, and, in as f a r as is possible, the material, social, and cultural levels in which these ideals are to be striven for. In referring to the commentaries, when Paul's and Hildem a r ' s contain substantially the same thought, both have been cited, the preference being given to the earlier one. W h e n there is a difference, the commentary used in the text has been cited. It is a pleasure to acknowledge the unfailing courtesy and helpfulness of the staffs of the various libraries in which I have had occasion to work, particularly that of Columbia University, of the U n i o n Theological Seminary, and of the Library of Congress. The courtesy of the librarians of St. Benedict's Abbey, Atchison, Kansas, and of St. Vincent's Archabbey, Latrobe, Pennsylvania, placed at my disposal commentaries not easily obtainable elsewhere. T o P r o f e s s o r s Lynn Thorndike, Dino Bigongiari, and Eugene Byrne, all of Columbia University, I am sincerely

PREFACE

7

grateful for their careful reading of the manuscript and for helpful criticisms. My greatest debt is to Professor Austin P. Evans, also of Columbia University, who directed the research and whose scholarly guidance and kindly interest accompanied the work to its completion.

S. A.

ABBREVIATIONS USED Albers

B. Albers, Consuetudines

Hildemar

R.

Mittermüller,

monaslicae.

Exfositio

regulae

ab

tradita ( P a r t III of Vita et regula SS. P. una cum expositione Mansi

J. Mansi, Sacrorum

regulae a Hildemaro conciliorum

nova et

Hildetnaro Benedicti tradita). amplissima

collectio. MGfl

Monumenta

Germaniae

histórica.

Paul

Pauli IVarnejridi Diaconi Casinensis in sanctam lam commentarium.

PI

J. P. Migne, Patrologia

Latina.

9

regu-

TABLE OF CONTENTS PACE

s

PREFACE. ABBREVIATIONS

9

•

II

T A B L E OF C O N T E N T S C H A P T E R

I:

INTRODUCTION

The principles of Benedictinism arise in the Rule; external observances vary with time and place; nature and purpose of the Carolingian commentaries; variation in the aim and viewpoint of the medieval commentators; authenticity of the Warnefrid commentary; of the Hildemar version; biographical sketch of Paul Warnefrid; of Hildemar; when and where each wrote his commentary. C H A P T E R

II:

T H E MATERIAL ORGANIZATION

26

Location of the monastery; the church and oratories; the cloister; the refectory—dishes, food, drink, the abbott's table; the kitchen—equipment, cleaning, laundry; the dormitory—baths, soap, towels, combs; clothing—articles of, quantity, color, quality, procurement; the infirmary—rooms, oratory; guest department—divisions for the nobility, the clergy, the poor; outlying units—garden, cells, villas; lay service—on villas, in domestic ministries. C H A P T E R

III:

T H E MONASTIC

HOUSEHOLD

54

Number of monks in the community; the abbott—his authority final but limited, difficulty of his position, need of discretion, ordination not essential, canonical abbots; the council—for major matters, for minor matters; the provost and deans; the camerarius; the cellarer; the infirmarian; the guestmaster; the doorkeeper; the magister of the boys; the admission of novices; the period of probation; profession ceremony and formula; admission of priests; of monks from other monasteries; commendatory letters; formatae and their authenticity; admission of the child oblate—ceremony and symbolism, irrevocability of promise, age of admission, attainment to complete monastic status. C H A P T E R

IV:

D I S C I P L I N E WITHIN THE M O N A S T E R *

82

Rank; equality; exceptions for merit, talent, or office; proportionate number of priests; impediments to ordination; enclosure rules; the penal code; classification of sins; modifying circumstances; the "seven steps" of correction for lesser faults—tradition, practical application; penalty for grave faults—custody, excommunication; monastic and canonical excommunication; monastic and canonical penances; readmission—in the original text of the Rule, in the texius receptus, as interpreted by the commentators; terms of readmission; prevailing practice. 11

12

TABLE

OF

CONTENTS PACE

C H A P T E R V:

T H E M O N K ' S D A Y — D E V O T I O N A L AND I N T E L L E C T U A L . 107

O r d e r of the day; t i m e c o m p u t a t i o n ; signals for c o m m u n i t y exercises; h o r a r i u m — a c c o r d i n g to the R u l e , a c c o r d i n g to the c o m mentaries; interval before Laudes; before P r i m e ; the m o r n i n g Chapter; daily M a s s ; the mixius; precision in the appointed h o u r s ; reading in the cloister; e x t e n t of literacy; distribution of library books; attitude toward secular studies; H i l d e m a r ' s interest in g r a m m a r ; P a u l ' s education a l o n g R o m a n lines; authors cited in the c o m m e n t a r i e s ; formal education; studies—at M u r b a c h , at I n d e ; schools for " e x t e r n s " ; c o u r t e s y — a m o n g the members, in the salutation of guests. C H A P T E R

VI:

S O C I A L C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S OF THE C O M M U N I T Y L I F E .

132

O u t d o o r w o r k ; domestic s e r v i c e s — i n the monastic k i t c h e n , in the a b b o t ' s kitchen, in the lay-guest k i t c h e n , in the i n f i r m a r y ; the the term " s e r v i t o r " ; the family spirit—in e x c l u d i n g l a y m e n from internal services, in attitude toward the abbot, in fraternal charity a m o n g m e m b e r s , the bonds of spiritual affection; importance of the individual; care g i v e n the i n f i r m ; the odlaii—age distinctions, concessions in food, custody, incentives; silence not absolute, hospitality—numerous g u e s t s , directions for reception of nobility, of guest m o n k s , of the poor. C H A P T E R

VII:

L I T U R G Y AND SPIRITUALITY

152

T h e corporate prayer of the D i v i n e O f f i c e ; lack of uniformity in the O f f i c e c h a n t e d ; attitude of the c o m m e n t a t o r s relative t o the monastic and the R o m a n O f f i c e ; imperial and conciliar legislation on the subject; accretions to the l i t u r g y — t h e Office of the D e a d , the trina oratio, the double O f f i c e ; the content of the O f f i c e — on major festivities, on minor festivities, w h e n a saint's day occurs on a Sunday; the external e x e c u t i o n of the O f f i c e ; the spirit in w h i c h it is to be performed; individual prayer; spirituality c e n tered on the m y s t e r y of the R e d e m p t i o n ; spirituality in the daily life. C H A P T E R

VIII:

ASCETICISM AND IDEALS

A s c e t i c practices viewed as a means to an end; necessity of self-denial arises from the effects of original sin; discretion in corporal austerities; fasting; abstinence from the use of fleshmeat; interpretation of the precept not uniform; opinion and discussion g i v e n by the c o m m e n t a t o r s ; reasons for abstinence o f f e r e d ; intensive use of spiritual austerities; silence; p o v e r t y ; chastity; obedience; stability; conversion of morals; the cenobitic life versus the eremitic life; the essence and ideal of the monastic life; motivation; the active and contemplative life.

171

T A B L E

OF

C O N T E N T S

13 PAGE

CONCLUSION APPENDIX:

193 SURVEY OF THE MEDIEVAL C O M M E N T A R I E S

197

BIBLIOGRAPHY

206

INDEX

213

.

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION O F St. Benedict's Rule it has been well said that it is in its " emphasis on inner principles, rather than in any enforcement of a definite organization that we find its secret of power. A n organization would have waxed old and perished; an inner principle can adapt itself to changing need." 1 T h u s it is that the Rule has, for more than fourteen hundred years, supplied the principles of Benedictine monasticism. Its adaptability to changing times and climes, however, has called forth, in the course of its history, numerous statutes, customaries, and commentaries. Moreover, the brevity of the Rule and the wisdom of its author would not permit him to attempt a minute legislation for the varying circumstances and situations which would inevitably arise in the future. In spite of its unusual practicality, it contains passages which, even today, are not received uniformly by Benedictine scholars. 2 It is not a matter of wonder, then, that an age which was emerging f r o m the F r a n k i s h conquest of the Lombards, more especially, an age which witnessed the restoration of Monte Cassino a f t e r an interruption of a century and a half in its traditions, should bring f o r t h a lengthy exposition of the Rule. The author of that exposition, Paul W a r n e f r i d , writes that " the Rule contains many things by implication which are not fully expressed in words." 8 Conciliar and imperial decrees, alike, prescribe that in the monasteries the abbots read and explain each sentence of the Rule fully and intelligently. 4 This 1 H. B. Workman, The Evolution

of the'Monastic

Ideal, p. 148.

2 Cf. infra, p. 186. 3 In sanctam

regulam

commentarium,

p. 188; Hildemar, Expositio

regulae,

P- 255. 4 " Statuta Murbacensia," published in Albers, Consuetudines III, 79; " Capitulare monasticum," MGH, (no. 1).

Capitula

regum

monasticae, I, 344

Francorum,

The Statutes of Murbach contain a recapitulation of the twenty-

's

l6

BENEDICTINE

MONASTICISM

took place, doubtless, at the morning chapter. 5 An early ninthcentury capitulary prescribed that if a question arose concerning a chapter of the Rule which the abbots could not define among themselves, its meaning should be discussed by the bishops in council.6 Thus it appears that the need of an authoritative interpretation of the Rule was frequently felt at this period of monastic history. Smaragdus, a contemporary biographer of Benedict of Aniane, states that the latter wrote his Concordia regidarum, a quasi-commentary, T to be read aloud at chapter. 8 The Diadema monachorum, written by another Smaragdus also of the early ninth century, was designed for reading at the evening conference. 8 It is quite possible that the commentaries of Paul and Hildemar were likewise used for public reading in the monastery. 10 Traube speaks of them as being the subject matter of oral discourses on the Rule delivered by their respective authors to their pupils.11 Some other recent writers are of opinion that the discourses were delivered chiefly to the oblate pupils, i. e., to the boys destined to become monks. 12 With seven decrees relating to monastic discipline, which were drawn up, it is thought, by the Synod of Aachen (816) ; see infra, p. 39. The Monastic Capitulary was composed by the Council of Aachen (817), an assembly of the abbots of the empire brought together by Louis the Pious under the influence of St. Benedict of Aniane. 5 Cf. infra, p. 115. 6 " Capitulum de inspiciendis monasteriis," Albers, III, 94, no. 3. 7 For a brief analysis of this work, see infra, p. 198. 8 Vita Benedicti abbatis Anianensis et Indensis auctore SS, X V , i, 217. Smaragdus is also known as Ardo.

Ardo,

in

MGH,

9 Op. cit., PL, 102, col. 593. 10 C. Cipolla is of opinion that Hildemar's commentary was used for monastic lettura; see his article, " Brevi appunti di storia Novaliciense," Memorie delta reale accademia della scienze di Torino, X L V (1896), 153. 11 Textgeschichte der Regula S. Benedicti (2d ed. by H. Plenkers, 1910, in Abhandlungen der königlich bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften: Philosophisch-philologische und historische Klasse, X X V ) , pp. 40, 42. 12 Cf. I. Herwegen, Geschichte der benediktinischen Professformel, in Beiträge zur Geschichte des alten Mönchtums und des Benediktinerordens, Heft 3 ( 1 9 1 2 ) , 40; K. Neff, De Paulo Diacono Festi epitomatore, p. 3, n. 1.

INTRODUCTION

IJ

reference to Hildemar's commentary, the inscription on the manuscript stating that it was written by his pupils at his dictation, would seem to confirm the two latter opinions.1® Regardless of the specific purposes which our Carolingian commentaries served or the immediate audience to which they were addressed, it is obvious that the prime concern of their authors was to prepare a detailed explanation of the Rule, to express with greater fullness the original intention of St. Benedict, not to outline and present the norm of contemporary monasticism. Their purpose was practical, however, and the exposition of the Rule was made with a view to its current observance. Thus the commentators frequently find themselves, or, at least, we find them, making applications and refinements which extend considerably beyond the scope of the R u l e ; they treat of questions which, doubtless within their own experience, have come up for solution and which, therefore, are deemed worthy to be recorded for future reference. It is chiefly in these practical applications, refinements of the Rule, and attitudes in general that the commentator, indirectly, fills in the picture of contemporary monasticism. A s might be expected, the religious and spiritual elements are given the greater emphasis; nevertheless, the material and social aspects are not ignored. On the contrary, W a r n e f r i d , in describing the ideal abbot, states emphatically that he should be zealous not only for the spiritual welfare of those entrusted to him, but also for their temporal necessities, for "it would avail nothing if he were solicitous only for the spiritual welfare and ignored the temporal; and again, it would be to no avail were he concerned only with the temporal necessities to the exclusion of the spiritual; but [the commentator concludes] he should be more solicitous for the spiritual than f o r the temporal welfare." 14 It seems safe to say that W a r n e f r i d ' s commentary is unique, not only in being the first of its kind, but also in being the 13 Cf. infra, p. 129. 14 Page 56.

l8

BENEDICTINE

MONASTICISM

most revealing of the medieval commentaries from the viewpoint of presenting the life and thought of contemporary monasticism. Hildemar's commentary is even more enlightening but its originality extends only to the small portion which is not taken from Warnefrid's Expositio. In some of the medieval commentaries the chief emphasis is placed on the literal interpretation of the Rule; in others, on its moral aspects; still others are devoted largely to the compilation of pertinent material from the writings of the Fathers or from monastic Rules other than that of St. Benedict. The commentators themselves, beginning with Hildemar, constitute the class of writers who have made the greatest use of the commentaries. Among these, the two learned commentators of the early modern period, Martène and Calmet, have drawn most extensively from the medieval commentaries. 16 The secondary literature on the commentaries is surprisingly scant. Only one of the commentaries written before the fifteenth century, that of Smaragdus, 1 6 was printed before 1880. Anyone wishing to use them prior to that date, therefore, was restricted to manuscript copies. Although a number of the commentaries are still in manuscript, several of the important ones have been published since 1880. The lack of easy accessibility to the commentaries has, doubtless, been one of the reasons for their infrequent use by the more general students of monasticism. Furthermore, their very bulkiness tends to make them prohibitive, both to the editor who would undertake to publish them and to him who would seek information from their numerous folios. Moreover, they contain much that is obvious and much that has been taken over from previous commentaries. Nevertheless, in spite of these limitations, the commentaries constitute a literary source with which, as we hope to 15 E . M a r t è n e , Commentarius in Regulam S. ( r e p r i n t e d in PL, 66, cols. 215-932) ; A . Calmet, torique, et moral, sur la règle de saint Benoît, ( t r a n s l a t e d into Latin in 1750 a n d into Italian in 16 Cf. infra, p. 198.

P. Benedicti, Paris, Commentaire littéral, 2 vols, in 1, P a r i s , 1751 ) .

1690 his1734

INTRODUCTION

19

show in the course of this study, the historian of monasticism cannot well dispense. 17 Concerning the authenticity of the commentaries of W a r n e frid and Hildemar, considerable controversial literature has appeared since the middle of the seventeenth century. T h e medieval commentators, Peter the Deacon, Bernard of Monte Cassino, and Peter Bohier listed among their predecessors Paul the Deacon, but seemed to know nothing of Hildemar. In the seventeenth century, such Benedictine scholars as H a e f t e n , Mabillon, and Marténe knew and made excerpts f r o m the manuscripts of Hildemar's commentary. Marténe went so f a r as to say that the commentary heretofore ascribed to Paul should be attributed to Hildemar, thinking, evidently, that the two expositions were identical. 18 T h e tradition of a commentary written by W a r n e f r i d cannot be traced beyond the two extant manuscripts of the tenth century: Codex G. V . 4 at Turin, originating at Bobbio, and the famous Codex 1 7 5 at Monte Cassino. 1 9 Bethmann j u d g e d the manuscript at Turin to be a copy of the one at Monte Cassino, 2 0 but O. Seebass considers both to have been copied f r o m the same source, 2 1 and Traube confirms this view on the basis of comparisons reported to him. 22 One of the two miniatures contained in Codex 1 7 5 has been taken to indicate that the commentary was copied from a manuscript at Capua by the 17 Cf. Appendix for a brief survey of the medieval commentaries. 18 Op. cit., col. 206. 619.

Cf. also J. Mabillon, Annales ordinis S. Benedicti,

II,

19 This manuscript was edited at Monte Cassino in 1880: Pauli Warnefridi diaconi Casinensis in sanctam regulam commentarium. Besides being printed in this separate edition, it is published also in Bibliotheca Casinensis, I V (Florilegium Casinense, folio pages 1-173). In the present study all citations from Warnefrid are taken from the separate edition. 20 L. Bethmann, " Paulus Diaconus, Leben und Schriften," Archiv Gesellschaft für ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde, X (1849), 298 fr.

der

21 " Ueber zwei turiner Handschriften des Capitulare monasticum," Neues Archiv für ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde, X I X (1894), 220. 22 Textsgeschichte,

p. 102.

20

BENEDICTINE

MONASTICISM

monks of Monte Cassino at the request of Abbot John ( 9 1 4 -

933)

28

The fact that the inscription on Codex 175 attributing the work to Paul the Deacon was written by a different and perhaps later hand than the one by which the text was written, has been cited by some as an argument against Paul's authorship.2* Traube has made a careful analysis of the problem, however, and explains that the omission of Paul's name in the original inscription was due to the introduction of a new arrangement in this codex, namely, the combination of the complete text of the Rule with the commentary. He is confident that the original manuscript from which Codex 175 was copied was attributed to Paul. 25 In fine, he considers the authenticity of the Warnefrid commentary no longer a matter of doubt, on the basis of the old manuscripts and also on the basis of linguistic characteristics. Karl Neff devotes thirty pages of his brief study, establishing Paul as the author of the Epitome of Festus, to a comparison of the features of language and style found in Paul's commentary with those of his better known works. 28 He considers the results so conclusive that he frequently cites similarities of style and language between the commentary and the abridgment of Festus as proof that the latter is a genuine work of Paul the Deacon. 27 Hildemar's version, on the other hand, cannot be thought the work of Warnefrid. It cites events such as the Council of Aachen held in 8 1 7 , the Council convoked at Rome in 826 by Pope Eugenius II, and a letter written to Bishop Urso of Benevento in 833, which took place after the death of Warne23 Ibid., pp. 103-104; Preface to Paul's commentary, p. iii. 24 R . Mittermuller, the editor of Hildemar's commentary, stresses this point in " D e r Regel-Commentar des Paul Diakonus ( W a r n e f r i d ) , des Hildemar und des Abtes Basilius," Studien und Mitteilunyen aus dem Benediktinerund dem Cistercienserorden, I X (1888), 397. 25 Op. cit., pp. 38, 103. 26 De Paulo 27 Ibid.,

Diacono

pp. 34-39, S3-

Festi

epitomatore,

pp. 4-33.

21

INTRODUCTION

frid. It is becoming more and more recognized that the commentary ascribed to Paul and that ascribed to H i l d e m a r are the w o r k of t w o distinct authors; that P a u l ' s is the " nucleus around which Hildemar w o r k s in m o d i f y i n g , and particularly in

enlarging

it

with

new

explanations

and

citations."28

Mittermiiller has retreated somewhat f r o m his earlier position in which he held Hildemar to be the author of both v e r s i o n s : the first as his original or " Grundriss," the second as the result of later additions made to the original in the course of his lectures. 29 T h e time and place o f Paul's writing have likewise been the subject of some controversy. B e i n g a monk of M o n t e Cassino and having written his better known w o r k s there, he

was

thought to have written his commentary there also. W e r e this true, it would follow that the life and thought outlined in the commentary would have special reference to that of

Monte

Cassino. O n the basis of internal evidence contained in the commentary,

however,

comparatively

recent

research

has

altered the earlier view. A l t h o u g h the unknown chronicler of Salerno, w r i t i n g about 980, recorded that P a u l the Deacon entered Monte Cassino about 787 and at the request of his abbot and

brethren wrote

a commentary entitled Super

rcgulam,

T r a u b e largely discounts the report. H e sees in the similarity between the title and the inscription on the tenth-century manuscripts of the commentary the clue to the chronicler's source of information. 3 0 In order to place the w r i t i n g of the commentary in the proper perspective with the rest of Paul's life, we shall sketch briefly his career, emphasizing particularly the evidence relating to the composition of the commentary. H e was born between 7 2 0 and 730, probably at Cividale del Friuli, certainly in Friuli. 3 1

He

2 8 C. Cipolla, " B r e v i appunti," p. 153. 2 9 " D e r R e g e l - C o m m e n t a r , " pp. 396, 398. 3 0 Op. cit., p. 38; Chronicon 31 K. N e f f , Die

Gedichte

Salernitanum,

dcs Paulus

in MGH,

Diaconus,

SS,

I I I , 488.

Q u e l l e n und U n t e r s u c h u n -

g e n zur l a t e i n i s c h e n P h i l o l o g i e des M i t t e l a l t e r s , I I I (1908), iv, 65.

22

BENEDICTINE

MONASTICISM

was educated at the Lombard court of Pavia and, at the advice of King Ratchis (744-749), entered the clerical state. At a mature age we find him at Monte Cassino from which in 782 he transferred to the court of Aachen for some years.® 2 The intervening years are difficult to account f o r ; nevertheless, several conjectures regarding them have been made by recent writers. 33 . Traube's suggestion, based on internal evidence found in the commentary and in other works of Paul, is that before 774 Paul lived and taught in a cloister situated in the neighborhood of Lake Como and of Monza, and separated some distance from Milan and Pavia; that there he wrote and delivered his Expositio before his pupils; and that with the fall of the Lombard state in 774 he transferred to Monte Cassino." Speaking with greater precision, Traube furthermore suggests that the Lombard monastery in which Paul lived was that of St. Peter situated on a mountain (Monte Pedale) near Civate. 35 He bases this suggestion on a comment made by Hildemar whom Traube proves to have written in a monastery at Civate. 39 Hildemar remarks to his hearers that " a guest who comes from Monte Pedale is your neighbor." 37 Traube notes, moreover, that, in using Paul's exposition, Hildemar found no occasion to make the changes which a different place of writing would necessitate. Thus, according to Traube, Paul wrote his commentary before 774 in a monastery near Civate in the diocese of Milan. This conclusion has been generally accepted 32 Traube, op. cil., p. 40. 33 Cf. M. Manitius, Geschichte der lateinischen Literatur des Mittelalters, I, 257; P. Paschini, " Paolo Diacono e la sua Expositio super regulam Sancti Benedicti," Mcmorie storiche Forogiuliesi, X X V (1929), 71-72; Neff, op. cit., pp. 13-23; P. De Santi, " P a o l o Diacono," Civilta cattoüca, series 17, X (1900), 414; W. Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter, I (7th ed., 1904), 181. 34 Op. cit., pp. 39-40. 35 Ibid., p. 42. Traube also notes that the monastery of S. Pietro al Monte was founded, according to tradition, by King Desiderius (759-774). 36 Cf. infra, p. 25. 37 Hildemar, p. 503; Traube, p. 43.

INTRODUCTION

by writers on the subject. T h e noted exception is that of

2$

P.

Paschini w h o conjectures that P a u l wrote his commentary only a f t e r his return f r o m A a c h e n to Monte Cassino about 786. T h e arguments, based on the references to place in the commentary, whereby he arrives at this conclusion are not c o n v i n c i n g . " T h e exact time at which P a u l entered M o n t e Cassino is not k n o w n but is generally assumed to have been about the y e a r 774. It is certain, however, that he was there before 782. In this year he journeyed to A a c h e n , as it appears, to plead f o r the freedom of his brother A r i c h i s , w h o had been imprisoned f o r taking part in the revolt of Friuli in 776. In time a w a r m

friendship developed between Paul

and

Charlemagne and, through the influence of the emperor, P a u l ' s sojourn w a s extended to several years. D u r i n g this time he taught in the palace school m a k i n g M e t z his headquarters. A l t h o u g h he enjoyed the friendship of such noted persons as A n g i l r a m of M e t z , A d a l a r d of Corbie, and Peter of Pisa, a letter written by Paul to T h e o d e m a r , abbot of Monte Cassino, describes his yearning to leave the prison of the court and return to the quiet of the cloister. T h i s he did about the year 786, devoting the remainder of his life to writing. T o this period belong, a m o n g his m a j o r w o r k s , a collection of homilies, the biography of G r e g o r y I, and the L o m b a r d history. T h e last named w o r k w a s incomplete at the time of his death in the closing years of the eighth century.3® M u c h less is known about Hildemar, and the little that is k n o w n has been brought to light in connection with his commentary. T h e earliest extant copy of it is contained in the eleventh century M S . Lat. 12637 originating at the monastery of St. Benignus of D i j o n and preserved n o w at the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris. T h i s manuscript was k n o w n and used by 38 Op. cit., pp. 78-83. 3 9 A. Hauck, Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands, II (3d and 4th ed., 1912), 165-169; N e f f , Die Cedichte, passim ; Manitius, Gesch. d. lat. Lit., I, 257258; G. Falco, " Lineamenti di storia Cassinese," Casinensia, II, 483-484; Wattenbach, op. cit., I, 181-184.

24

BENEDICTINE

MONASTICISM

Mabillon and Martene but, unfortunately, was not used by Mittermiiller in preparing his edition of the commentary which he published in 1880 at Metten. He judged f r o m the excerpts printed from the Paris codex by Martene that it did not differ notably from the four manuscripts which he did use. 40 Three of these are in the national library of Munich and the fourth, when used by Mittermiiller, was in the library of the monastery of Melk, Austria. 4 1 In the course of his commentary, Hildemar occasionally alludes to the customs of the monasteries of the Franks, 4 2 and once he refers to " my monastery in F r a n c i a . " 4 3 T h u s it appears that he had formerly been a monk in Frankland but was elsewhere at the time of his writing. In the manuscript attributed to Abbot Basil, which is thought to have originated from Hildemar, 44 there are additions which indicate that Hildemar was once in Corbie. 45 In general, however, it is evident from the various allusions to place that Hildemar, like Paul, taught in the diocese of Milan. In one instance he adds to the remark of Paul concerning a Milanese practice. 46 H i s cloister can scarcely be distinguished from that of Paul f r o m the viewpoint of location. Regarding the evidence contained in the commentary relative to the time of its writing, the latest piece cited is a letter addressed to Bishop Rampertus of Brescia in 845. 47 The meager information concerning Hildemar which can be gleaned from contemporary literature corresponds well with the 40 Expositio Regulae ab Hildcmaro tradita, P r o l e g o m e n a , p. xiv. Cipolla ( " Brevi appunti," p. 151-152) points out that the printed edition is not, therefore, definitive, but is recognized to contain, substantially, the w o r k of Hildemar. 41 Mittermiiller, Expositio,

xii-xiv.

42 Pages, 369, 572, 582, 611. 43 P a g e 462. 44 Cf. infra,

p. 199.

45 Traube, Textgeschichte, 46 P a g e 476. 47 P a g e 563.

pp. 44, 109.

INTRODUCTION

2¡

foregoing. F r o m an old document of Bishop Rampertus, we learn that the monk Hildemar and Abbot Leutgar, formerly of France but at the time of the document ( 8 4 1 ) in the diocese of Milan under Archbishop Angilbert, were sent by the latter to the monastery of Saints Faustinus and Jovita at the request of Rampertus f o r help. 48 Traube suggests that in 845 Hildemar and Leutgar returned to their Milanese cloister, f o r in that year A g a n o , bishop of Bergamo, sent his monk Mainard to be abbot of St. Faustinus. 4 9 Traube suggests further that after Hildemar's return from Brescia he wrote his lectures on the Rule, among which he quotes two letters from the episcopal archives of Brescia. 6 0 In a confraternity book f o r the year 845, Traube finds the names of Hildemar, priest, and Leutgar, abbot, heading the list of thirty-three monks under the title: "These are the names of the brothers of the monastery of Civate." He concludes that the Hildemar and L e u t g a - here named are to be identified with those sent to Brescia in 8 4 1 , and that their Milanese cloister was that of Civate. H e also observes that this monastery was founded by Archbishop Angilbert of Milan, and that it was formerly a dependency of the older monastery on Monte Pedale but that in time this monastery was supplanted by the newer foundation. 5 1 Thus our evidence ties together and seems to j u s t i f y the conclusion that Paul wrote his commentary in the monastery of St. Peter near Civate about 770, and that about seventy-five years later in the newly founded monastery of Civate, Hildemar compiled his commentary based, as it is, on Paul's exposition. 48 Iiistoriae 245-248.

patriae

monumento

(Codex

diplomaticus

Langobardia),

XIII,

49 Cf. Hildemar, p. 563, where this letter is quoted in full; Traube, op. cit., p. 42. 50 Loc.

cit.

51 Traube, op. cit., pp. 42-43.

CHAPTER II T H E MATERIAL ORGANIZATION I N T E R E S T in the monastic buildings and equipment is not of paramount importance in a study of the monasticism of any age or region. Nevertheless information of this kind should go a long way toward reconstructing the state of the arts and the material civilization in which a given monastery finds itself. Studies have been made which concern themselves with the plan and architecture of the buildings only. Such studies, however, give little detailed information relative to pre-Cluny monasteries. T h e two extant ninth-century drawings of monasteries are of limited value. 1 The one, sketching the monastery of St. Riquier, was executed with little perspective and is, therefore, none too intelligible; the other, purporting to be a sketch of St. Gall, is thought to be merely a fanciful representation of an ideal monastery. 2 It seems worthwhile, therefore, to present the meager i n f o r mation which the commentaries under consideration offer relative to the material organization of the monastery. Much of this is given in the form of recommendations as to what the arrangement should be; however, passing remarks and recurrent references to the various departments give the reader of the commentaries an impression, not altogether vague, as to the material conditions under which the Carolingian monk lived. The Rule of St. Benedict prescribes that if possible the monastery should be so situated that the requisites such as water, the mill, and the garden may be enclosed and the various arts may be plied inside the monastery. 3 In discussing this 1 P l a t e s V I I and V I I I in H . Leclercq, L'Ordre

bcncdictine.

2. A . D o p s c h , Wirtschaftliche und soziale Grundlagen der europäischen Kulturentivicklung aus der Zeit von Caesar bis auf Karl den Grossen, II (2d ed., V i e n n a , 1924), 406. 3 Sancti Benedicti regula monachorum, c. 66. T h e definitive t e x t of t h e R u l e w a s being p r e p a r e d f o r t h e Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum Latinorum by H . P l e n k e r s b e f o r e his d e a t h in 1931. U n t i l such time as t h e w o r k 26

THE

MATERIAL

ORGANIZATION

2J

passage, the commentator lays stress on the w o r d s , " if possible," saying that should it be necessary to construct a monastery in a place h a v i n g some but not all of these desirable features, it would be permissible to build in such a place; h o w e v e r , should the site be wholly lacking in these requirements, it would be c o n t r a r y to the mind of S t . Benedict to build thereon. 4 M o r e o v e r , the commentator adds, investigation

should be

made as to whether the site chosen be such that the f u t u r e monastery will not s u f f e r hindrance f r o m the k i n g , bishop, or count, because when situated near the court of such persons it is wont to endure hardships through this p r o x i m i t y . F i n a l l y , the location should be such that the m o n k s will not be impeded by other s e c u l a r s — w o m e n ,

clerics, or l a y m e n — w h o

are

accus-

tomed to congregate at certain places f o r religious devotions. 5 T h e church or o r a t o r y in which the monk spent a considerable portion of his time is not the subject of direct discussion in the commentaries. Indirectly, mention is made of the several altars at which the brothers prayed at stated times." F r o m the r e f e r ences it is clear that these altars

were

located

within

the

monastery church or main oratory. It is prescribed, moreover, that the house of the infirm have an o r a t o r y near the rooms of the sick, so that the sick while lying in bed m a y hear M a s s and receive H o l y Communion. 7 A n d a g a i n it appears that the guesthouse which w a s near the gate of the m o n a s t e r y

8

w a s also

provided with an oratory, f o r it is recommended that monk guests should sleep in a d o r m i t o r y separated f r o m that of the is completed by another, the most authentic editions are in Florilcgium patristicum, Vol. 17 ( B o n n , 1 9 2 8 ) , and Freiburg, 1 9 3 5 ) . Dom. Justin McCann has recently made tion of the Rule with notes: The Rule of St. Benedict 1937)4 Hildemar, p. 607.

by B. Linderbauer C. Butler (3d ed., an English transla(Stanbrook Abbey,

5 ibid., p. 606. 6 Paul, p. 272. Cf. also pp. 232-233, 261, and Hildemar, pp. 296, 322, 333. For this custom, cf. infra, p. 158. 7 Paul, p. 340; Hildemar, p. 406. 8 For the location of the guest department, cf. infra,

p. 89.

28

BENEDICTINE

MONASTICISM

lay guests and near the oratory. 8 T h a t this mention of an oratory refers to that of the guest-house seems also to follow f r o m another passage regarding the porter of the m o n a s t e r y : " f o r in our province there is a solarium (balcony) over the door and an oratory in the same place." 10 T h e cloister of the medieval monastery was, doubtless, the most characteristic department of the entire institution. T h e proper size of the cloister and the uses to which it was put are explained in the following passage taken f r o m the commentaries : Well did he [St. Benedict] call the cloister 11 of the monastery " workshops " because as in workshops the different crafts are carried on by the masters, as we have said, so also in the monastery different works take place in its various parts, i. e., when some read, others chant; others work with their hands, still others work in the kitchen and at similar tasks. . . . Therefore the cloister of the monastery ought to be such that therein these things which we have mentioned can be accomplished without an occasion of sin. However, there are many who, poorly understanding the occasion of sin, either make the cloister smaller, or perhaps larger, than necessary; for the abbot ought so to arrange the size of the cloister that those works which a monk has to do can be performed therein, whether it be to sew, to wash clothes, or to devote himself to reading, to the care of the infirm, and to such like tasks. If the cloister be larger than necessary, when a brother goes about he meets a layman or an outsider with whom he speaks, or gives or receives something without the abbot's permission, and thus is found an occasion of sin. Likewise if it be too small, i. e., small as compared with the needs of the work, then transgression occurs by going outside. The garden, however, is not within the cloister, 9Hil w o u l d not e v e n permit t h e f o o d or c l o t h e s t o be cared f o r a n y o n e but a m o n k .

re-

by

THE

COMMUNITY

LIFE

135

his refection with the weekly cooks and the servers." Since other passages refer only to those who serve for the week in the kitchen, some historians are inclined to conclude that laymen served in the monastery as early as the time of St. Benedict." Delatte points out that the two-fold duty of preparing and serving the food was fulfilled by the same persons. H e questions any real intention on the part of St. Benedict to distinguish between those who worked in the kitchen and those who served at table. His solution of the difficulty is that the servers (servitores) were brethren given as assistants to the officials of the week.16 The following explanation, however, seems equally satisfactory. Since, in the Rule, St. Benedict speaks of the infirmarian as a servitor, he may well have had in mind those who care for the infirm and the guests, in using the word in this particular passage. In an early ninth-century document an almost identical usage occurs which has reference only to ministers who are monks. The phrase in its context is: " At the proper time, let the prior or the one appointed in his place, i. e., the senior dean, sound the signal for the weekly [cooks] and other servers (ebdomadari et caeteri servitores) to receive, according to the Rule, the mixtus over and above the appointed allowance." 18 Paul Warnefrid and Hildemar indicate specifically that those who are to receive the mixtus are the weekly cooks, the reader, the guest waiters, and those who care for the sick.17 For the Carolingian, and for the preceding period, in so f a r as the strength of tradition may lend value, the question may well be disposed of by evidence contained in our commentaries and contemporary literature. We have already noted the direct 13 Rcgula, c. 3 8 : " Postea autem cum coquinae hebdomadariis et servitoribus reficiat" (Linderbauer, ed.). 14 D e Valous, op. cit., p. 50; Delatte, op. cit., pp. 364-365. 15 Op. cit., p. 254. Cf. supra, p. 133. 1 6 A l b e r s , III, 106, no. 5. 17 Paul, p. 3 3 3 ; Hildemar, p. 399.

I36

BENEDICTINE

MONASTICISM

comments of both Paul and Hildemar, namely, that the work of caring for the sick and the kitchen service should be performed by monks, and not laymen. But lest these remarks be regarded as the statement of the ideal which may or may not have been carried out, it may be significant to note that there are a number of indirect allusions to the servers (seruitores, ministri), sometimes in connection with the reader, the context of which indicates clearly that the commentators have in mind not lay servants, but monks serving in the kitchen or in the infirmary. 18 W e shall quote from two of these: It should be known that it is not in keeping with the Rule that the abbot give the reader or the other servers (ministri), by way of a favor, any bread, or drink, or [any other] food, because that is the custom of laymen; for the Rule prescribes that they receive their "justice," 1 ® i. e., the mixtus, before [their service]. 20 That " servitores " was used with the same signification as " ministri " follows from the passage in which the commentators explain that the interval between the evening meal and the collation should extend " until the servers (servitores) have eaten." 2 1 Just as the use of the word " servitor " in the Rule has been interpreted as evidence of lay servants in the monastery of St. Benedict, so its use in the Monastic Capitulary of 8 1 7 has been accepted as proof that in the Carolingian period the monks were served, not by fellow monks, but by famuli who were attached to the monastery in some vague way. In the latter instance, as in the former, the mere words of the passage in question taken in isolation admit of different interpretations; but when read in the light of the contemporary use of the word, 22 are seen to have but one acceptable meaning. Moreover, 18 Paul, pp. 122, 313-314, 373-374; Hildemar, pp. 186, 377, 462-463. 19 Thus we see that the use of " justice " for mixtus, Cluny monks, did not originate with them. 20 Hildemar, pp. 462-463; Cj. also Paul, p. 381. 21 Paul, p. 3 7 3 ; Hildemar, p. 454. 22 Cf. supra, p. 135.

common among the

THE

COMMUNITY

LIFE

I37

the probable source of this regulation can easily be traced and thus the correct signification can be confirmed. The disputed passage, the twenty-eighth article of the Monastic Capitulary reads: " Ut servitor es non ad unam mensam sed in propriis locis post refectionem fratrum reficiant; quibus eadem lectio quae fratribus recitata est legatur." 2p In his erroneous interpretation, De Valous states that the capitulary " very clearly admitted the presence of famuli living in the interior of the monasteries, eating in common in a special refectory where the same reading was to be provided for them as for the monks." " The more correct interpretation seems to be: The servers are not to eat at one table but in their own places after the brothers' refection; the same reading is to be provided for them as for the brothers [at the community meal]. The similarity of content between the three articles of the capitulary beginning with the twenty-seventh, and the three articles of the Statutes of Murbach beginning with the twentythird, proves, beyond doubt, a close source relation between the two series.25 The twenty-fourth and twenty-fifth articles of the Murbach Statutes refer to the " refection of the ministri and the food of the lector " ; 28 the twenty-eighth article of the capitulary concerns the refection of the servitores; the twentyninth orders that nothing else but what the Rule enjoins should be given the reader. 27 Now if seruitores is merely a synonym for ministri,. as it appears to be in this use of the word as well as in the instances cited above, the presumption is strong in favor of the servers referred to in the capitulary being monks and 2 3 MGH, 24 O f . cit.,

Cap.

reg.

Franc.,

I, 3 4 5 .

p. 45.

25 Cf. O. S e e b a s s , " U e b e r die S t a t u t a Kirchengeschichte, X I I ( 1 8 9 1 ) , 322-332.

Murbacensia,"

Zeitschrift

2 6 A l b e r s , I I I , 9 0 : " V i g e s i m o q u a r t o et q u i n t o capitulis, quae cibo

et ministrorum

27 MGH,

Cap.

rejection? reg.

Franc.,

de

für lectoris

descripta sunt, s t a t i m o b s e r v a t a sunt." I, 346. T h i s a p p e a r s t o h a v e o r i g i n a t e d f r o m

t h e p a s s a g e a b o v e q u o t e d f r o m H i l d e m a r ' s c o m m e n t a r y ( c f . supra,

p. 1 3 6 ) .

138

BENEDICTINE

MONASTICISM

not laymen. Moreover, if the capitulary had referred to lay servers, it would, doubtless, have prescribed that they eat in the same room—in proprio loco, not in propriis locis. With reference to the monk servers, the preferred translation given above should suffice. A s reflected in the commentaries, all the monks of the community, excepting the officials, were of equal status. There are no indications of the later medieval distinctions of lay brother and choir monk, notwithstanding the opinion of some writers that the origin of these institutions dates from the early ninth century. 28 That our commentaries and contemporary accounts evidence the employment of lay persons in certain departments of the monastery as well as on its tributary lands during the Carolingian period was noted in the closing pages of the second chapter. Our somewhat lengthy excursus on the servitores was introduced to establish the point that laymen were not employed in the domestic services of the monastery proper. From the economic point of view it would make little difference whether laymen were employed in the garden or in the kitchen; from the monastic point of view, however, it would not be the same. The reason is to be found in Warnefrid's explanation as to why laymen may not fill the office of infirmarían. He asks, as already noted, how a lay person who is not a member of the monastery can serve a monk any more than an eye or a foot can serve the body if not of it? 29 Only members of the family may participate in its internal affairs. Moreover, it is a religious family; its head, the father of the monastery, is to take the place of Christ. This ideal is found in the Rule (c. 2, 6 3 ) , but it makes so strong an appeal to Warnefrid that he repeats it seven times within two pages ( 5 1 , 5 2 ) . He would see in the relation which should exist between the abbot and his monks a replica of that which existed between Christ and His disciples. " The abbot should love and 28 Cf. D e Valous, op. cit., p. 4 5 ; Delatte, op. cit., pp. 364-365. 29 Paul, p. 340; Hildemar, p. 407.

THE

COMMUNITY

LIFE

I39

teach his monks as Christ loved and taught H i s disciples, and the monks should love and obey their abbot as the disciples loved and obeyed Christ." 50 Fraternal charity should dominate the relations between monk and monk. N o t f o r the sake of some important work, for gold or any temporal thing, or even out of false zeal f o r God, as it were, should monastic charity be sacrified." T h e brother who is weak should be given help, 32 and when seriously ill he should be visited by the others. 38 Paul intimates that in some monasteries a certain hour was appointed in which the brothers might freely visit the infirm." Before a brother goes on a long journey he takes affectionate leave of all the brethren in the chapter; upon his return, he greets, with equal affection, those whom he m e e t s . " W a r n e f r i d enumerates the following reasons why a strong spiritual affection should exist among the members of the monastic f a m i l y : It is well that he [St. Benedict] ordered them to be called fratres because they have been reborn in the same sacred font of Baptism, they have been sanctified by the same Spirit, they have pledged the same profession, they hope to attain to the same reward, and are all sons of Holy Mother Church. It is to be noted that this spiritual brotherhood is greater than that of the flesh.88 The importance of the individual, so well outlined in the Rule, is likewise emphasized in the commentaries. W h e t h e r in things spiritual or material, no two individuals are compelled or even expected to c o n f o r m to type. W e have already noted 30 Paul, p. 51; Hildemar, p. 87. 31 Paul, pp. 284, 330-331; Hildemar, pp. 351, 395, 398. 32 Paul, p. 136; Hildemar, p. 203. 33 Paul, p. 103; Hildemar, pp. 150-151. 34 Loc.

cit.

35 Paul, pp. 497-498; Hildemar, p. 612. Cf. also Albers, III, 18. 36 Paul, p. 469; Hildemar, p. 579.

140

BENEDICTINE

MONASTICISM

the reservations to be considered in administering penalties, particularly dispositions.

corporal The

punishment,

abbot

is

because

reminded

of

that,

differences like

the

Shepherd, he should leave the care of the g o o d monks devote

himself

with all

solicitude

to

recall

the

in

Good to

" infirm"

b r o t h e r ; thus will he place this erring one on his shoulder and carry him back to the flock when with compassion he zealously exhorts him to follow the w a y s of salvation. 8 7

Not

satisfied with admonishing all the monks in general concerning the more perfect motives which should animate them in their service, the abbot should c o n f e r with each one privately on the subject.3® Especially when a brother is seen to be tepid o r his obedience ill motivated, the abbot should privately e x h o r t and instruct him in spiritual motives. 3 9 T h e sentence of the R u l e (c. 4 0 ) , " It is with some hesitation, therefore, that we determine the measure of

food

for

others," is enlarged by the commentators as f o l l o w s : " T h e r e fore, w e cannot determine the measure of

f o o d f o r others

more specifically, because all do not have the same characteristics; no mortal being can arrange satisfactorily that all receive equally in matters of food, drink, or clothing.'"' 0 A p p l y i n g this principle, they recommend that if the appointed measure of wine be insufficient f o r individuals, the allowance should be increased; if it be superfluous f o r some, it should be diminished. 41 Likewise, if a monk cannot eat of the t w o common f o o d s served at table, he should be given cheese, o r an e g g , or something which he can eat. 42 I f the abbot see that an infirm brother, w h o has been confined

to bed f o r four or

five

days, is g r o w i n g weaker

he

3 7 P a u l , p. 294; H i l d e m a r , p. 359. 3 8 P a u l , p. 124; H i l d e m a r , p. 189. 39 Paul, infra,

pp.

129,

130;

Hildemar,

pp.

195-197.

p. 183.

4 0 P a u l , p. 364; H i l d e m a r , p. 444. 4 1 P a u l , pp. 364-365; H i l d e m a r , pp. 447-448. 4 2 H i l d e m a r , pp. 436, 440.

For

these

motives

see

THE

COMMUNITY

LIFE

I4I

43

should order that meat be given him. Should the asceticminded brother at first be unwilling to accept the meat, the abbot will convince him t h a t it is preferable to receive this nourishment now so that he may recover and p e r f o r m his service; otherwise a greater loss will result when later, because of more serious illness, it will be necessary to eat meat f o r a longer time.* 1 Hildemar relates that it is customary in Frattcia f o r the infirm brother to receive meat f r o m the time his recovery begins until he has regained his former strength. U p o n returning to the refectory for his meals, he will be provided better food than that given to the community for a few days because it would be injurious to descend abruptly to the common food. W i t h approval, he a d d s : " T h u s will the brother have greater love f o r the father of the monastery and speedily gain in bodily strength." 45 The care of the infirm has already received some attention in previous discussions. T h e frequent mention of blood-letting in the commentaries as well as in contemporary literature indicates that it was a remedy commonly used at the time. 46 W e have noted earlier the unrestricted use of the bath permitted the infirm ;4T also that the cellarer was expected to visit the infirmary frequently and correct any negligences he might observe. 48 In fine, both commentators remark that St. Benedict spoke with all emphasis possible regarding the care of the infirm. 48 The various concessions granted the boy oblates, as also the exactions required of them, offer items of considerable interest 43 Paul, p. 343; Hildemar (p. 412) would extend the time to s i x or eight days. 44 Paul, loc. cit.; Hildemar, pp. 412-413. 45 Pages 412, 417. 46 Paul, pp. 136, 313, 380; Hildemar, pp. 203, 377, 463; Albers, 86, no. 12; MGH, Cap. reg. Franc., I, 344, no. 11. 47 Cf. supra,

p. 37.

48 Cf. supra,

p. 63.

49 Paul, p. 340; Hildemar, p. 407.

III,

142

BENEDICTINE

MONASTICISM

f r o m the social viewpoint. A s Butler observes, " St. Benedict does not distinguish between ' children ' (infantes)

and ' boys '

( p u e r i ) , but g r o u p s them together up to the age of fifteen (c. 7 0 ) ; w i t h P a u l , h o w e v e r , they are children up to seven, b o y s f r o m seven to fourteen, and f r o m fourteen t o twenty-eight they are youths (adolescentes).

It is a surprise to find definite

provision f o r children of five, four, and even three."

30

The

abbot is to provide the b o y s with good clothing and f o o d ; the latter m a y consist of fish, milk, or eggs, and on certain m a j o r feast days, such as the N a t i v i t y and Easter, fleshmeat may be g i v e n t h e m ; moreover, if a boy is seen t o be weak, he should be g i v e n meat more frequently because of this infirmity. " T h u s all their needs are to be satisfied, so that, having been reared w i t h plentiful nourishment, they will not require it when they are older." " T h e commentators make the observation that the amount o f meat to be g i v e n t h e children should vary inversely with their age, beginning at three. A t this age they have the greatest need o f m e a t ; at f o u r y e a r s they have less need, and at five, still less. F r o m five until ten o r eleven they should have some m e a t ; f r o m ten until fifteen they should be given a substitute f o r meat except in case of special infirmity. A f t e r fifteen they are not to " anticipate " the c o m m u n i t y refection. 6 2 T h u s it appears that the special food is to be given at the anticipatory meal, and that at the common table they are t o share in the c o m m o n f o o d ; the portion, however, as ordered in the R u l e (c. 3 9 ) , is to be moderated by the cellarer, f o r "children o u g h t to eat o f t e n but not much [at a t i m e ] . "

53

Since

W a r n e f r i d makes n o statement to the contrary, w e are inclined to think that he intended this special food to precede all meals. W e learn f r o m Hildemar, however, that it is not to pre50 Benedictine

Monachism,

p. 323.

51 P a u l , p. 3 4 6 ; H i l d e m a r , p. 419. 52 P a u l , pp. 346-347; H i l d e m a r , loc. cit. A s h e r e used, " anticipate " signifies to eat in a d v a n c e of t h e c o m m u n i t y . 5 3 P a u l , p. 362; H i l d e m a r , p. 439.

THE COMMUNITY

LIFE

143

cede the evening repast: " In summer the children are not to anticipate the evening meal as they generally anticipate the midday meal, unless perchance some are so small that such anticipation is necessary." M In the concession which follows, we welcome the principle on which it is based but regret that it is granted in such stinted measure. We should like to think that the connotation of the time units as then understood, or the option left to the master, permitted a less rigid application of the concession. It provides that each week or each month, as it seems best to the master of the boys, he should take his charges out to the meadow or some like place and dismiss them for an hour's play, " because of human nature, lest it be broken." " The commentators recommend that during this occasional play time as at all other times, by day or by night, the boys are to be under immediate supervision. In winter, when they enter the calefactory, their masters should be present to prevent their romping or playing about. 56 In church they are to chant and pray, standing with their masters; this applies to the night Office as well as to the Hours of the day." It is at night that the commentators would enforce custody with special rigor. When leaving the oratory to go to the dormitory, the boys are to be accompanied by their several masters. When the boys have retired, their masters are to be relieved by other brothers who will take turns in keeping watch during the night. 58 As a basis for this regulation, the precept 54 Page 420. 55 Paul, p. 346; Hildemar, p. 419. 56 Paul, p. 136; Hildemar, p. 203. 57 Paul, p. 273; Hildemar, p. 334. Butler writes that among the various regulations for the oblati prescribed by Paul, " the only thing that seems to us unreasonable is that these children were present at the night Office; but a passage in Aelfric shows us that this was the general practice " (Benedictine Monachism, p. 324). 58 Paul, pp. 272-273; Hildemar, pp. 334-335- Calmet notes in his commentary on the Rule (p. 437 of 1732 edition) that the anonymous Reguia magistri recommends that two religious keep watch through the night and

144

BENEDICTINE

MONASTICISM

o f the Rule (c. 6 3 ) which orders that " t h e smaller boys and y o u t h s should always be under custody and discipline wherever they are until they reach the age of understanding " is combined w i t h a precept of another chapter ( 2 2 ) which prescribes that " the brothers sleep in tens or twenties with the seniors w h o h a v e charge of them." T h e commentators insist that if these and like precepts of the R u l e be observed, the sin of immorality against

which

these precepts are directed can never be committed; and if custody is exercised, the sin will never, or only with difficulty, be perpetrated. T h e y add that if the boys are reared as St. Benedict orders, the abbot need never have suspicion concerning t h e m ; those, however, w h o have come to the monastery at an older age may be regarded with mistrust. Custody should therefore be extended to those who, although older in age, understand less well and need custody. 6 9 In concluding the discussion, Hildemar insists that the recommendations he has just enunciated are based on the R u l e ; that he is not teaching new things, but rather, that he understands the commands of the Rule properly and has even seen them put into practice in the manner he has described. 80 A careful study of the instructions given by the commentators relative to the supervision and correction of the boys shows a comparatively lenient and intelligent attitude. T h e passage in the R u l e (c. 6 3 ) which orders the boys to be kept under discipline at all times by everyone is explained as follows. Only those brothers w h o are not lacking in discipline themselves, may exercise supervision over the boys. Such as do not " know discipline " ought never be permitted to rebuke or punish the w a k e n the brothers at the appointed hour, and that the Second Council of T o u r s (can. 14) prescribes that there shall be a l w a y s t w o or three religious w h o read in turns, keeping watch until the time of Matins. " But it is scarcely believable," Calmet concludes, " that St. Benedict, full of w i s d o m and discretion as he was, had wished to subject the deans to this fatigue." 5 9 Paul, pp. 272, 283; Hildemar, p. 333. 6 0 P a g e 337. Cf. Albers, I I I , 15, 16, 38.

THE

COMMUNITY

LIFE

145

children, because if these stupid and negligent ones were allowed to do this they would, through terror, make the children worse instead of better. 81 T h e master should be solicitous in exercising a thorough custody but is to deal temperately with them, neither beating them to excess n o r ill-treating them. When those brothers who are under custody fail, they should be subjected to severe fasts or flagellation; but the smaller boys are not yet old enough to be dealt with severely. Only if they oppose supervision are they to be soundly whipped. 8 2 If the master who is truly solicitous for the welfare of the boys should at some time be so incensed as to punish one of them beyond measure, he is to be corrected and admonished lest it happen again; nevertheless, f o r this incident he is not to be removed, but should be kept in office because of his general solicitude. 83 Here and there the commentator drops a hint as to the philosophy of his methods. Continuous custody is regarded as a preventive: " Flagellation and excommunication will avail nothing unless custody is exercised; because immediately a f t e r the beating or discipline they [the pueri] will return to their vanities." 64 The period of boyhood is seen to be one of f o r m a tion and dependency. " Since this age is weak and unable to help itself, it is necessary that it be helped by others; if thus the boy is aided while in these weaker years, he will become a stronger character and be more solicitous in the service of God. But if he is not helped while young, he will always be tepid and negligent." 85 Incentives should be offered to spur on the good to better things, and to move the negligent to imitate the g o o d : 61 Paul, p. 468; Hildemar, p. 578. 62 Paul, p. 346; Hildemar, pp. 418-419. T h e discrepancy between the t w o texts at this point indicates plainly a scribal error; since Hildemar's fails to make sense, Paul's has been considered the more authentic and has been followed. 63 Paul, p. 508; Hildemar, p. 622. 64 Paul, p. 346; Hildemar, p. 419. 65 Hildemar, p. 578.

I46

BENEDICTINE

MONASTICISM

If the abbot observes a boy who conducts himself religiously and is of good life, he ought to speak of him with praise in the chapter, so that after the boy shall have heard this, he may learn to love the way of sanctity. In the refectory the abbot ought occasionally to offer him of the guest's food, that he may learn to love the norm of righteousness, and be persuaded in this way, as it were, to advance to better things. W h e n the abbot gives the delicacy to the good youth, however, he should subtract from the food of that boy whom he sees given to worldliness, so that the latter, seeing himself contemned, as it were, and the other honored, may be ashamed of his misconduct and be persuaded to love restraint as he has seen the other love it.®8 T h e principle contained in this passage constitutes plainly a substitute f o r — o r perhaps it w o u l d be better to say a supplement t o — c u s t o d y and coercion; in itself, this is a

feature

w o r t h y of note. T h e incentives mentioned are not the most elevated, but if, f r o m a desire to win the g o o d will and f a v o r of his superiors, the L o m b a r d youth acquires refinement o f manners and learns to love right conduct, the commentator's purpose in this passage will, doubtless, be achieved. H e elsewhere and forcibly of the highest spiritual

speaks

motives. 6 7

T h u s f a r the custody spoken of has related to the boy oblates. F o r the monks in general, the precepts of the R u l e (c. 48, 5 6 ) w h i c h provide that a f e w seniors be present a l w a y s to preserve discipline when the brothers assemble in the refectory, or during the time of spiritual reading, are repeated in somewhat different w o r d s but with little substantial change. In addition, the commentators recommend that a f t e r the signal has been given for the Office, the circator g o through the monastic cloister if it is daytime and correct any negligent brother w h o m he m a y find there; likewise at night when the signal has been given

for

M a t i n s , he should g o through the dormitory and arouse the sleeping and the lazy. W a r n e f r i d observes that if this is done 6 6 H i l d e m a r , pp. 419-420. Paul's account (p. 347) is the same except for the omission (apparently by the scribe) of a brief phrase. 67 Cf. infra, pp. 190-191.

THE

COMMUNITY

LIFE

I47

it will rarely happen that a brother must do penance for being tardy. 68 The question of silence, i. e., the extent to which it was to be observed, has its social as well as ascetical implications; nevertheless, since the latter seem to outweigh the former, it will be treated in a subsequent discussion. At this point, then, it must suffice to state briefly the norm recommended. Although absolute silence was not exacted, neither was there a fixed daily period of recreative conversation. It was permissible for the brothers to speak in a low voice to one another while occupied in their work; during the time devoted to reading and during the night, however, silence was not to be broken except for grave necessity.88 These regulations are presented by the commentators, not as adjustments or developments in monastic practice, but rather as the currently recognized interpretation of the various admonitions and precepts on silence given by St. Benedict in the Rule. The final point to be considered in connection with the social aspects of the monasticism represented by our commentaries is hospitality—the reception of guests, lay and ecclesiastical, and the charity extended to the poor. In commenting on the precepts of the Rule relative to hospitality, our expositors are confronted with some difficulty due to the increased number of guests who then frequented the monastery. Hildemar quotes Cassian as saying that guests were few in his time; although the commentator admits that at the time of St. Benedict, " guests were never lacking in the monastery," he concludes that " they were surely less numerous then than now." He cites Theodulf, a contemporary, on the subject: " Per Deum, if St. Benedict were living now, he would close the door against them." 70 The Rule prescribes that all guests be received as Christ, he observes, but since this is 68 Paul, p. 379; Hildemar, p. 460. 69 Cf. infra, pp.

178-179.

70 Page 501. Theodulf was a noted scholar of Charlemagne's school and later, bishop of Orleans; he died in 821.

I48

BENEDICTINE

MONASTICISM

possible for comparatively few, the precept may be fulfilled by receiving all in spirit as Christ would be received." T o accommodate the numbers, two brothers should be appointed to answer the door and report the arrivals to the abbot, as previously noted. In this way one can always be on duty while the other goes to Office, to meals, or is detained with a guest. If a poor man comes, he should be directed to the hospitale, or almshouse." I n this distinction between the hospitality shown the wealthy and that extended to the poor, the commentators appear to be conscious of some departure f r o m the letter of the Rule. Instead of recognizing that changed conditions demand an alteration in the practice, they attempt to explain the words of the Rule in the light of current practice; the result is somewhat strained and superficial. T h u s they comment that the words of the Rule (c. 6 6 ) — " W h e n anyone lcnocketh or a poor man calleth, let him [the p o r t e r ] answer ' Deo gratias' or invoke a blessing " — a r e well written, for the poor man calls and the rich man knocks, and again, the 'Deo gratias " refers to the poor and the benedicat to the rich and the powerful. 7 3 In the following excerpt, the commentators give an interesting account of theory blended with practice. On second thought, the principle underlying the practice appears to be based largely on good sense; and allowing f o r altered times, t h e practice is not greatly out of harmony with the Rule. Beautifully does he [St. Benedict] prescribe that due honor be shown, for it is not fitting that an equal reception be given to all; it is not right that the same things, in kind and in quantity— delicate food and abundance of drink—be prepared for the poor as for the rich. It would be more a sin [than an act deserving reward], because the poor man knows not moderation; if he were to eat all the food available as he has been accustomed to do, he 71 Hildemar, p. 5 0 1 ; Cf. also Paul, p. 417. 72 Hildemar, p. 605; Cf. also Paul, pp. 492-493. 73 Hildemar, pp. 605-606; cf. also Paul, p. 493.

THE

COMMUNITY

LIFE

I49

would feel surfeited, and the sin would redound to us who occasioned it . . . Likewise it is not right that we prepare for the rich man those things which should be prepared for the poor; e. g., if we set before him only beans or a similar food, or should we wish to wash his feet [as it is done for the poor] it would be an insult, and considered foolishness, and it would cause a loss [to the monastery]. Therefore in saying let due honor be shown to all, he said that a guest should be received according to the quality of his person. 74 T h e more specific directions for the care of the guests fall into three general classes: those f o r the nobility, those f o r the guest monks, and those for the poor. In providing lodging for the rich it is necessary to receive also as many of their followers as c o m e . " W e have already noted that the food for the lay guests is to be prepared in a kitchen distinct f r o m the monastic kitchen and also f r o m that of the poor. 76 Both commentators state specifically that laymen are not to be admitted to the monastic refectory, 7 7 If the guest is a bishop or a count, or anyone of power who would take offense at being left alone were the guestmaster to go to the Office when the signal is given, the latter is to remain with the guest to avoid scandal. 78 This quasi-fear of the powerful was noted in the discussions of a suitable location of the monastery, 79 and in the question of the permissibility of a monk eating outside the monastery. 8 0 74 Paul, p. 4 1 7 ; Hildemar, p. 502. The translation is based on Paul's t e x t ; the phrases enclosed in brackets are taken from Hildemar. 75 Paul, p. 420; Hildemar, p. 507. 76 Cf. supra, p. 134. 77 Paul, p. 4 1 9 ; Hildemar, loc. cit. The same prohibition is contained in the Capitulary of 817 ( M G H , Cap. reg. Franc., I, 347, no. 52). 78 Hildemar, p. 466. Scandal is here used in the sense of giving offense, or of arousing the ill-will of the nobleman. 79 Cf. supra, p. 27. 80 Cf. supra, p. 89. It is reflected, too, in the eighteenth article of the Statute of Risbach in which laymen are forbidden to enter the monastic cloister and disturb the silence of the monks, unless, perchance, they are

150

BENEDICTINE

MONASTICISM

For the guest monks, a special dormitory should be arranged near the oratory. It should be separated from that of the lay guests because these latter " can remain up till midnight and talk and laugh, whereas the monks ought rather to keep silence and pray . . . Their vassals, however, should be in the other division with the laymen." 81 This dormitory of the guest monks appears to have been within the guest department, which was near the gate of the monastery; the brother of the monastery who should happen to return late is to be lodged here for the night, because, Hildemar observes, " the monks are all one." M Guest monks and clerics should eat in the monastic refectory. 83 They should be served promptly so that the brethren suffer no delay in leaving the refectory. 84 Hildemar relates with approval that in Francia if a brother is entertaining a guest who is a monk or one to whom the " regular " order is known, the brother will leave the guest to repair to the Office when the signal is given; if fitting, he will return to the guest after the Office is completed. 85 The number of poor to be received was restricted only by the number of beds available.8" That this number did not always persons of distinction who cannot be altogether avoided ( M G H , Cap. Franc., I, 228).

reg.

81 Hildemar, pp. 611-612. 82 Loc.

cit.; cf. supra,

pp. 27-28; Delatte, op. cit., p. 339.

83 Paul, p. 4 1 9 ; Hildemar, p. 507. T h e Monastic Capitulary (MGH, Cap. reg. Franc., I, 345, no. 27) specifies that bishops, abbots, canons, and nobles should eat with the abbot in the refectory. It grants power to the abbot t o increase somewhat the customary allowance of the brethren when a guest is present. T h e twenty-third article of the Statutes of Murbach permits the monks to rejoice at the coming of other brothers and to relax the rule of abstinence (Albers, III, 89-90). 84 Paul, p. 420; Hildemar, pp. 507-508. Albers ( I I I , 133, n. 1) sees in this admonition of Paul the implication that lay guests were admitted t o the refectory; however, in view of what the commentator writes elsewhere, it would seem that this reference is to clerical or monastic guests. 85 P a g e 465. 86 Paul, p. 420; Hildemar, p. 507.

THE COMMUNITY

LIFE

151

satisfy the demand is evident f r o m the following remarks of Hildemar: There should be this discretion in receiving the poor: if two or three come, some weak and others in health, you ought rather to help the weak, if it is not possible to help both the weak and the strong. With us, the guests are admitted at the ninth hour; but if a poor man come later, those already received are not to be ejected to make room for him. If possible he will be received, but if not, he is to be told to find another lodging since ours is filled to capacity. 87 Although the ceremony of washing the feet of the poor seemed to concern primarily the wayfarers, Hildemar teaches that it should include even those f r o m nearby who are in the hospitale, f o r it is not the distance to the place f r o m which they come but the fact that they now reside in the hospitale that entitles them to participation in the ceremony; moreover, those to whom the monks give food and who live daily in the monastery should also be included. 88 Apparently, the hospitale was a sort of almshouse in which some poor men lived continually. 87 Page 508. 88 Loc. cit.

CHAPTER VII LITURGY A N D SPIRITUALITY The most important corporate work to which Benedictine monks are devoted—and this applies to all ages since the founding of the Order—is the Opus Dei, the Divine Office. St. Benedict admonishes his followers to " let nothing be preferred to the work of God." 1 and he devotes eleven of the seventythree chapters of the Rule to the subject. In the Carolingian period some monasteries chanted the Roman Office instead of that outlined in the Rule. 2 There are several explanations for this lack of uniformity. The continuity pf the Monte Cassino tradition was broken with the destruction of that monastery by the Lombards in the late sixth century. Jn its restoration nearly a century and a half later, it was only through the Anglo-Saxon monk Willibald who assisted Petronax of Brescia that it had even a roundabout connection with the first Monte Cassino. 3 The basilican monasteries in Rome and in Gaul originally chanted the Roman Office ; gradually they adopted the Benedictine Office but often with modifications.4 In the seventh century there were a number of Columban foundations which had not yet assumed the Rule, much less the Office, of St. Benedict. 5 Finally, the attitude of the bishops and of Charlemagne seemed to favor the Roman breviary as the subsequent discussion will show. According to the commentaries, opinion was not of one cast even within some Benedictine monasteries. The indecision 1 Régula,

c. 43 : " E r g o nihil operi Dei praeponatur."

2 Cf. Statute Murbacensia, no. 3 (Albers, I I I , 81-82); letter of Paul t o Charlemagne (ibid., I l l , 54). 3 Cf. Butler, Benedictine

Monachism,

pp. 354-356.

4 Cf. Berlière, L'Ascèse bénédictine, pp. 42-45 ; Leclercq, " Office divin," Dictionnaire d'archéologie chrétienne et de liturgie, X I I , 1962 ff., especially I976-775 Cf. C. Selmer, Middle High German Translations of the Régula Sanctt Benedicti, p. 1, n. 4. 152

LITURGY

AND

SPIRITUALITY

153

arose f r o m the passage of the Rule (c. 1 8 ) which reads: " I f perchance this distribution of the psalms displease anyone or he judgeth another better, let it be followed if, in any case, the whole psalter of one hundred

fifty

psalms be recited

each

w e e k . " Both commentators personally feel that St. Benedict wished his arrangement to be followed, but lest they m i g h t appear arbitrary in their explanation, they argue the question f r o m both sides. T o those w h o see in this passage of the R u l e permission to say the R o m a n

Office, they explain that

St.

Benedict spoke these words, not as a concession, but out o f humility. S o m e may dissent, saying that his words offer proof of the concession, whereas proof that he spoke out of humility is lacking. In reply to this objection, the commentators insist that in the apparent concession, St. Benedict merely imitated the manner of the great and learned doctors who, w h e n they have so thoroughly propounded a cause that nothing more can be added, s a y : " I f another can explain it better, let his interpretation be f o l l o w e d . " T h e y point out that the Office w a s sung in his time and in his monastery as he explains it in the Rule, for St. G r e g o r y writes that as he taught so he lived. 6 T o this, H i l d e m a r adds the authority of St. G r e g o r y , who, he notes, is said to have formulated the R o m a n Office. H e praised the Rule, and in praising it, praised the Office described therein; on the basis of his authority, then, the monastic Office cannot rightly be considered inferior to the canonical Office. 7 A s to the Offices themselves, Hildemar explains that both are holy, f o r they are composed of holy and divine w o r d s ; the same words are to be found in the monastic as in the R o m a n Office, the order alone being different. Likewise both

are

chanted by holy and devout men w h o are wholly pleasing to G o d in the singing of their respective Offices. 8 In the weeks f o l l o w i n g Easter and Pentecost, according to Hildemar, the whole psalter w a s not sung in the R o m a n Office. 6 Paul, pp. 252-253; Hildemar, pp. 310-312. 7 Loc. 8 Ibid.

cit.

154

BENEDICTINE

MONASTICISM

F o r monks this would show, in the words of the Rule, " too slack a service in their devotion," especially since monks ought to devote more effort than the canons to the Offices; for at times the latter are burdened with the care of the faithful, from which hindrances monks are free." Before analyzing what the commentators have to say concerning conciliar and imperial regulations relative to certain parts of the Office, we shall note the attitude of the councils and the capitularies relative to the monastic Office as a whole. The Council of Aachen held in 789 confirmed a number of articles which were contained in Charlemagne's capitulary of the same year. 10 The eightieth article of this document 'orders " that the Roman chant be taught everywhere as prescribed by our father Pepin when he abolished the Gallican chant." 11 Although this legislation is addressed to the ecclesiastical order, it is not followed by a parallel command to the monastic order. It appears that Charlemagne's zeal in the matter of the Office centered only on the Roman chant.12 Seebass discounts almost totally the statement in the Chronicle of Moissac to the effect that the Synod of 802 required the monks to perform the Office according to the Rule; he fails to find the demand in any preserved capitulary of Charlemagne, and concludes that it " originated only in the unreliable Chronicon Moissiacense." 13 9 P a g e s 312-313. 10 H e f e l e - L e c l e r c q , Histoire

des conciles,

I I I , ii, 1027.

11 MGH, Cap. reg. Franc., I, 6 1 ; A . A m e l l i h a s edited a n d analyzed t h e v e r s e w r i t t e n by P a u l W a r n e f r i d c o m m e m o r a t i n g t h e R o m a n Synod of 781 w h i c h d e c r e e d t h e d i s c o n t i n u a n c e of t h e A m b r o s i a n c h a n t : " L ' e p i g r a m m a di P a o l o D i a c o n o i n t o r n o al c a n t o G r e g o r i a n o e A m b r o s i a n o , " Memorie storiche Forogiuliesi, I X ( 1 9 1 3 ) , 153-175. 12 Cf. O . Seebass, " U e b e r die S t a t u t a Kirchengeschichte, X I I (1891), 329.

Murbacensia,"

Zeitsihrift

fiir

13 Ibid., 328, n. 1. P e r h a p s t h e c h r o n i c l e r based h i s s t a t e m e n t on t h e m o r e general r e g u l a t i o n c o n s t i t u t i n g t h e t w e l f t h a r t i c l e of t h e c a p i t u l a r y ; it r e a d s : " W h e r e t h e r e a r e m o n k s , t h e a b b o t s should live w i t h t h e i r monks in s t r i c t a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e R u l e " (MGH, Cap. reg. Franc., I, 91). T h s g e n e r a l c o m m a n d , a f t e r its f i r s t a p p e a r a n c e in t h e c a p i t u l a r y of K a r l m a n n in 742

LITURGY

AND

SPIRITUALITY

155

C o m i n g to the time of L o u i s the P i o u s and Benedict o f Aniane, w e find the emphasis shifted to the monastic Office. T h e A n n a l s of L o r s c h record f o r the year 8 1 6 that the A a c h e n S y n o d of that year commanded all the monks to sing the cursus o f St. Benedict in the regular order. 1 4 Furthermore, the M u r bach Statutes, which are based on the decrees of this synod, order that all the monks p e r f o r m the Office of St. Benedict. In commenting on the decree, the compiler makes an interesting reservation: T h o s e things concerning the distribution of

the

psalms w h i c h have been added f r o m the R o m a n Office are t o be retained at M u r b a c h until such time when, by " the advice of our betters, either they will be dismissed or more definitely ordered to be retained."

Finally, the Monastic

15

Capitulary

of 8 1 7 orders that the monks celebrate the Office in the manner prescribed in the R u l e of St. Benedict. 1 ' P a u l W a r n e f r i d makes a v a g u e reference to a council w h i c h should have enjoined that the Office f o r the days of H o l y W e e k , beginning with H o l y T h u r s d a y and including Easter S u n d a y , should be sung wholly as it w a s done in the R o m a n Church, and not a c c o r d i n g to the R u l e f o r monks. 1 7 Hildemar apparently relates this council to that of A a c h e n held in 817. 1 8 " T h e pious E m p e r o r L o u i s , " he writes, " wished that the monks p e r f o r m the Office according to the Rule, but because the bishops said it w a s not well that on these days [of H o l y W e e k ] the m o n k s d i f f e r f r o m the R o m a n Church in singing the Offices, certain abbots agreed with t h e m . " T h e result, according to H i l d e m a r , w a s that the bishops prevailed in so f a r that the decree which (ibid., I, 25), w a s f r e q u e n t l y C a r o l i n g i a n capitularies. 14 MCH,

SS,

repeated,

at

least

in

substance,

I, 122. T h i s c h r o n i c l e , u n l i k e that of M o i s s a c , is

in

later

reliable;

cf. S e e b a s s , op. cit., X I I , 329. 15 A l b e r s , I I I , 81-83 ( a r t i c l e 3). 16 MGH,

Cap. reg. Franc.,

I, 344, no. 3.

17 P a g e 239. 18 I n the r e c o r d of t h e A a c h e n Council there is n o t h i n g w h i c h p o n d s t o H i l d e m a r ' s report. Cf. a l s o T r a u b e , Textgeschichte,

p. 104.

corres-

I56

BENEDICTINE

MONASTICISM

w a s d r a w n up ordered the R o m a n Office to be chanted d u r i n g the last three days of H o l y W e e k , but the regular Office w a s to be s u n g on Easter Sunday. 1 ® H i l d e m a r ' s personal sympathies are with those w h o

pre-

f e r r e d to follow the monastic Office t h r o u g h o u t ; as a defense o f his view, he cites St. G r e g o r y as saying that " varied customs do n o harm to the Catholic faith or to good morals."

20

I t is difficult to say just h o w much accuracy these reports of

P a u l and Hildemar possess. T r a u b e suggests that P a u l ' s

mention of an otherwise u n k n o w n L o m b a r d council might r e f e r to the S y n o d of P a v i a which, according to a poem that is its only witness, was held about 698 and dealt with the schism of A q u i l e i a . 2 1 H e raises a question as to the historicity of

the

detailed additions to P a u l ' s statement which Hildemar offers, s u g g e s t i n g that the latter wished to bring the views of

his

predecessors into agreement with the only report which he had to g i v e f r o m decrees relative to the manner of p e r f o r m i n g the O f f i c e in the monasteries. 2 2 H i l d e m a r ' s statement that the purpose of the Frankish synod w a s to effect that the monks chant the Office of the R o m a n C h u r c h during H o l y W e e k is far f r o m accurate if, as it appears, he refers to the Aachen Council of 8 1 7 ; and it tends to arouse suspicion regarding the accuracy of his entire account. T h e question of accretions to the liturgy in the course of the centuries is one which has considerable interest for Benedictines in particular and for liturgical scholars in general. It was long held

that many

additions

and

innovations

originated

with

C l u n y . M o r e recently, a number of these changes have been traced to the time and person of Benedict of Aniane. T h u s the introduction of the daily Office of the Dead and the 19 Page 302. 20 Pages 301-302. 21 Op. cit., p. 105. 22 Page 104.

trina

LITURGY

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157

oratio have been ascribed to him by recent Benedictine scholars. 23 In his commentary, however, Paul Warnefrid mentions both of these additional devotions in a way which implies acquaintance with their use. H e takes occasion to speak of the Office of the Dead in commenting on that chapter of the Rule (c. 52) in which St. Benedict prescribes that all leave the oratory in silence when the Opus Dei is completed unless a brother desires to pray alone in private: " He [St. Benedict] does not say that the Office of the Dead should not be celebrated there if it is done in community; likewise if one wishes, he may recite a second Office if this is done by all in common. T o an individual, however, it should not be permitted to pray aloud if the whole congregation does not pray." 2 4 From these explanations, it does not follow that the Office of the Dead was recited daily; nevertheless, they seem to offer a precedent to the usage of Aniane. Another reference to an additional Office is made in describing the order to be followed when the feast of a saint occurs on a Sunday. In this case, Paul explains that the Laudes should be those proper to the feast; if the brothers have another church, they may go there and chant the Laudes proper to 2 3 B u t l e r , op. cit., 295; B e r l i e r e , op. cit., 48; L e c l e r c q , op. cit., X I I , 2006 ff. These

writers

are i n c l i n e d

t o think

that

under

Benedict

of

Aniane

Office of the D e a d w a s recited daily, but t h e y r e c o g n i z e that t h e

the

sources

d o n o t w a r r a n t a b s o l u t e s u r e t y o n the subject. G o u g a u d (op. cit., pp. 58-59) is the o n l y o n e t o o b s e r v e that the practice of m a k i n g v i s i t s t o t h e v a r i o u s a l t a r s is m e n t i o n e d in the Vila

of St. P a r d u l f w h o died ca. 737.

24 P a u l , p. 413; H i l d e m a r , p. 500. B u t l e r (op. cit., p. 294) w r i t e s that in t h i s m e n t i o n of an Office of the D e a d b y W a r n e f r i d " there is n o g r o u n d f o r s u p p o s i n g it w a s

said o t h e r w i s e

t h a n w h e n a d e a t h o c c u r r e d in

the

c o m m u n i t y . " H o w e v e r , the equal m e n t i o n of d u p l i c a t i n g the O f f i c e in t h i s p a s s a g e , as a l s o in t h e o n e referred t o in the t e x t w h i c h f o l l o w s , d o e s n o t s e e m t o bear out B u t l e r ' s opinion. T h e w o r d s of the t e x t a r e : " n o n e n i m dicit ut ibi Officia M o r t u o r u m non a g a n t u r , si g e n e r a l i t a s e s t ; s i m i l i t e r si d u p l i c a r e v u l t officium, potest, si g e n e r a l i t a s h o c agit. V e r u m n o n l i c e t q u e m q u a m , si non g e n e r a l i t e r h o c facit C o n g r e g a t i o , v o c e orare." I n A b b o t A n g i l bert's ritual Ordo recite V e s p e r s , p. 3 2 8 ) -

f o r St. R i q u i e r (ca. 800) it is prescribed that t h e m o n k s

Matins,

and Laudes

of the D e a d d a i l y

(Bishop,

op.

cit.,

158

BENEDICTINE

MON'ASTICISM

the Sunday." This, Hildemar adds, is a matter of option and, therefore, need not be observed as if a law.2" Furthermore, some additions were made to the various hours as originally outlined in the Rule. Paul points out that " the verse and the Miserere said in church are not ' regular,' for they are not prescribed in the Rule but are of monastic custom." 27 Apparently the psalm Miserere was chanted at the close of the canonical hour, for he writes in another connection that when the Miserere is begun at Sext the servers leave to put the food on the table. This same psalm is listed as a part of the Hours in the Codex St. Gall 914, the famous ninth-century manuscript which also contains the exemplar of the Rule. 28 The trina oratio of Benedict of Aniane was not, strictly speaking, so much a liturgical function as it was a semi-private devotion which all the monks were exhorted to perform; later in the consuetudinaries of Cluny it became universally established. In the time of Benedict it consisted in chanting from five to fifteen psalms and visiting the altars of the church three times a day: before Matins, before Prime, and after Compline.29 This custom of visiting the altars was likewise known to Paul Warnefrid; moreover, he associates it with the same three times of the day. His remarks on the subject, however, are less precise, being made more or less indirectly.30 He speaks of the custom, not as a precept to be followed, but rather as a practice already in vogue. In referring to the interval between Laudes and Prime he comments that " if you do not go chanting psalms 2 5 P a g e 2 2 5 ; cf. ibid.,

p. 228.

2 6 P a g e 291. 2 7 P a g e 3 8 1 ; H i l d e m a r , p. 463. 28Albers,

III,

1 7 2 - 1 7 3 . A l t h o u g h this list is doubtless of a d a t e

w h a t later t h a n that of

P a u l ' s c o m m e n t a r y , it verifies for the later

sometime

t h e practice g i v e n by P a u l f o r his time. 2 9 Cf. SS,

Vita

Benedicti

abbatis

Anianensis

et Indcnsis

auclore

Ardo,

MGH,

X V , i, 2 1 6 - 2 1 7 .

3 0 Paul, pp. 2 3 2 - 2 3 3 , 261, 2 7 2 ; H i l d e m a r , pp. 296, 322, 333. Cf. a l s o p. 1 1 5 .

supra,

LITURGY

AND SPIRITUALITY

I59

you do not act contrary to the Rule; although I have spoken of the practice, I neither encourage nor discourage it." 31 T h u s Paul seems quick to observe and point out customs which are not contained in the Rule. H e does not easily approve of, much less enforce, innovations. A t the same time he does not limit his interpretations to the letter of the Rule. T h e following instance will, perhaps, illustrate clearly his attitude on the subject. It concerns the provision of the Rule (c. 10) which prescribes that during the night Office in summer only one lesson is to be recited f r o m memory in place of the three lessons and responsories which are " read f r o m the book in winter." Paul writes that St. Benedict did not wish that there should be no reading f r o m the book, but f o r the sake of discretion " he condescended to the pusillanimous," lest, because of the brevity of the nights and the heavier work of the day during the summer season, an occasion be given to murmuring. But, " since truth is not bound up in words, i. e., one ought not to interpret according to the letter, but according to the intention with which the holy doctor spoke," he concludes that if the labor is not strenuous and the congregation wishes to read in order to show greater devotion to God, it should be so done. 32 Some years later at Monte Cassino, Paul writes to Charlemagne in the name of Abbot Theodemar, and among other things discusses the subject of the lessons for Matins in summer. H e explains that at the time of St. Benedict the R o m a n Church did not read the three lessons, for that practice was introduced later by Pope Gregory or Honorius. In order that the monks might not appear to differ f r o m the Roman Church, according to the letter, the predecessors at Monte Cassino instituted that the monks should likewise read three lessons f r o m the book. 33 Even in this apparently different explanation, the 31 Paul, p. 233; Hildemar, p. 296. A custom, essentially the same although performed more as a public devotion, is contained in Angilbert's Ordo (Bishop, op. cit., pp. 238-239). 32 Paul, p. 2 1 8 ; Hildemar, pp. 283-284. 33 Albers, III, 52-53.

l6o

BENEDICTINE

MONASTICISM

implication is that under the current circumstances, St. Benedict would have legislated that the lessons be read in the summer Matins; to fulfill the spirit of the Rule appears to be Paul's goal. The content of the Office as outlined in the Rule (c. 9 - 1 4 ) varies according as it is celebrated on week days, Sundays, or days of the solemnities and festivities. The commentators observe that the " solemnities " pertain to Christ and are preferred to the " festivities of the saints," 34 A m o n g the saints' days they distinguish those of first rank (praecipua)

and those of lesser

rank. The feasts which are observed throughout the " whole w o r l d " are considered the principal festivities; 35 likewise the feasts of those saints whose bodies are interred in a certain locality and whom the region particularly honors are to be ranked as major festivities for that place, e. g. Saints Ambrose and Victor for Milan. 89 T o the feasts of the first rank only, the commentators apply the precept of the Rule (c. 1 4 ) relative to the festivities of the saints. It provides that Matins should be proper to the feast but 34 Paul, p. 237 ; Hildemar, p. 299. T h e commentators enumerate the following solemnities of Christ : the Nativity, Circumcision, Apparition, Presentation, the Last Supper, Good Friday, Holy Saturday, Easter, Ascension, and Pentecost. 3 5 Those specified are : the feasts of the twelve apostles, the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin, the feasts of Saints John the Baptist, Lawrence, Benedict, Martin, Caecilia, Agatha, Agnes, and All Saints in November. Concerning the introduction of the last feast, see P. Paschini, " Paolo Diacono e la sua Exfiositio super Régulant sancti Benedicti," Mcmorie storiche Forogiuliesi, X X V ( 1 9 2 9 ) , 84. 36 Paul, pp. 2 3 7 - 2 3 8 ; Hildemar, p. 300. Other Milanese saints named are Saints Protase, Gervase, Nabor, Felix, Nazarius, Celsus, and Simplicianus. Paschini (loc. cit.) notes that all the feasts except the last are to be found in the Cassinese calendars of the eighth and ninth centuries. Three of these calendars were published and analyzed by E . A. Loew : Die ältesten Kalendarien aus Monte Casstno, Quellen und Untersuchungen zur lateinischen Philologie des Mittelalters, I I I , iii (1908). By way of a supplement to this study, G. Morin published, along with the calendars given by Loew, a fourth calendar contemporary with the other three : " Les Quatres Plus Anciens Calendriers du Mont-Cassin ( V I I I e et I X e siècles)," Revue bénédictine, X X V (1908), 486-497.

LITURGY

AND

SPIRITUALITY

l6l

should be arranged as on Sundays, i. e., it should consist in the chanting of three nocturns of psalms and canticles, twelve lessons with their responsories, and the Gospel. The commentators point out that the other Hours of the Office and the Mass should likewise be those of the feast. Moreover, the Vespers of the preceding day, beginning with the capitulum, should also relate to the feast." The saints' feasts of lesser rank, even though they are important enough to have a proper Mass, are not to be observed as the Sundays. I f they were, the commentators observe, the greatness of their number would render the celebration of all of them difficult and little else could be done. 39 Instead, at Matins three lessons with their responsories will be read proper to the feast; likewise, the Laudes and the Mass will be those of the feast; but all the other canonical hours will be taken from the ferial Office.39 Hildemar notes that the Vespers of the preceding day, beginning with the capitulum should be proper to the feast of the day. Both commentators speak of this manner of observing the lesser feasts as "making a commemoration of the saints." 40 This terminology as also the ordo for the lesser feasts, when compared with that of the current mcmoria and duplex mains Offices, presents a tradition which has suffered little alteration in the course of a thousand and more years. The commentators discuss with equal clarity another point regarding the content of the Office. It is not treated in the Rule, and yet it is a matter which would demand a solution in practice, namely, the procedure to be followed when a saint's feast falls on a Sunday. The passage in Paul's account reads: If it is one of the principal festivities, i. e., of St. John the Baptist, of the Apostles, of St. Martin, or any feast universally 37 Paul, p. 2 3 8 ; Hildemar, pp. 300-301. T o conform to current usage, the lectio of Vespers is denoted as the capitulum. 38 Paul, p. 2 3 7 ; Hildemar, p. 299. 39 Paul, p. 2 3 8 ; Hildemar, pp. 300-301. 40 Paul, p. 2 3 7 ; Hildemar, p. 299.

162

BENEDICTINE

MONASTICISM

considered of first rank, the entire Office of the saint should be sung: the twelve lessons with their proper responses and the whole of Laudes including the psalms and antiphons. The day Hours are to be sung with antiphons,41 and the psalms and antiphons of Vespers are to be those of the feast. The morning Mass should be that of the Sunday and the major Mass that of the feast. If, however, it is the festivity not of St. John . . . or any feast of first rank, but one of lesser importance, then eight of the lessons and responsories ought to be proper to the Sunday, and the four remaining lessons and responses should be read from the Office of the saint. The entire Laudes should be from the feast, . . . but the alleluia is to be sung at Tierce, Sext, and None. The Mass of this lesser feast should be sung in the morning, and the major Mass should be that of the Sunday.42 The precision with which these expositions are expressed gives the impression that the commentator has directly transmitted to writing the practice of his time; its resemblance to current usage is surprisingly striking. Further discussions on the content of the Office, such as those regarding the alleluia,43 the doxology, 44 the cajritulum for Laudes on week days, 45 the choice of lessons for Matins according to the season,46 even to the special arrangement for an early morning Mass on Christmas Day, 47 should be of interest to the liturgist but seem superfluous for this study. The commentaries tell us only a little concerning the external execution of the Divine Office; of the attitude and spirit in which it should be performed they tell more. The little which 41 The " day Hours " signify Prime, Tierce, Sext, and None. In saying that they are said with antiphons, the commentator implies that the antiphons are proper to the feast; for the Sunday Office they would be said with Alleluias. 42 Paul, p. 225; Hildemar, pp. 290-291. 43 Paul, pp. 227-228, 243; Hildemar, pp. 293, 303-304. 44 Hildemar, pp. 302-303. 45 Paul, pp. 227, 232; Hildemar, pp. 292-293, 295-296. 46 Paul, p. 2 1 6 ; Hildemar, p. 281. 47 Hildemar, p. 287.

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163

is related relative to the outward form, however, is sufficient to indicate that this public prayer was conducted in a dignified and orderly manner. A brother is appointed to write out the names of those who are to read or chant on Sunday and feast days, and to list also what they are to read or chant. 48 The brothers who intone the verses are appointed by the abbot. 49 They are to stand in the first place in choir if worthy; if not, those who are first among the boys are to intone the verses. 50 For the sake of learning the chant and for propriety, the eldest of the boys should sing the antiphons if they can. 01 The Rule (c. n ) prescribes that when the lessons have been read and the cantor begins the Gloria Patri of the response, all should rise at once with reverence. The commentators explain that the brothers are not to rise hastily but reverently with bowed heads; they are to remain inclined until the words Spiritui Sancto have been sung. This bow should be uniform and sufficiently deep that the brothers may place their hands on their knees; likewise they are to rise in unison. 52 Passing from the externals to the spirit, we find the commentators admonishing the cantors that when they sing they should desire to please the people, not with their voices, but with the words they sing, for thus will they seek the advance48 Hildemar, p. 475; Paul w h o read or chant.

(p. 390) speaks only of the names of those

49 Paul, p. 386; Hildemar, p. 469. 50 Hildemar, p. 4 7 5 ; Paul (p. 390) differs slightly on this point. 51 Hildemar, loc. cit. This sentence is ungrammatical but has been translated in the light of a preceding sentence: ". . . debet ille, qui in capite infantum est in choro, prehendere versum." T h e text reads: " Antiphonas autem propter cantum discendi et ad honestatem priorum infantes, si posunt, dicere debent." In the commentaries as in the Rule, dicere and canere are used interchangeably in connection with the Office. A monastic document, thought to be contemporary, legislates similarly regarding verse intonation: " Those begin the verse, who, in comparison with the rest, can be the more useful, so that after the first or second syllable the rest can join in. A n d those youths should always pronounce the verse in a high voice " ( A l b e r s , I I I , 43-44)52 Paul, p. 2 2 4 ; Hildemar, p. 289.

164

BENEDICTINE

MONASTICISM

ment and salvation of the people; if, however, they were to desire to please only with their voices, they would be seeking not the salvation of others but the vanity of their own glory. 0 3 In spiritual things such as prayer and fasting, Hildemar writes, he builds on a rock who, f o r the love of Christ, perf o r m s good works and has Christ as his foundation, i. e., as the motivation of his w o r k ; and he builds on sand who does any good work with the intention of receiving human praise. 0 1 Mere lip service is not sufficient; only he chants wisely and offers praise to God who meditates in his heart what he speaks with his lips. 00 " But," Hildemar asks, " what of a simple brother who does not know the meaning of the verse he sings?" H e answers his own question: So long as his mind is occupied, n o t with some person or thing of the world, but with God through a more or less imperfect grasp of what the versicle connotes, he fulfills the precept. 56 T h e attitude of mind in which the psalms are to be chanted is described by way of a gloss on the pertinent words of the Rule. T h e following paragraph gives, in a slightly condensed form, the interpretation of the commentator, together with the passages of the Rule on which it is based. W h e n St. Benedict reminds us that the Prophet saith, "Serve ye the L o r d with fear," he wishes to explain that at no other time can we so well contemplate God as at the time of prayer. A n d therefore when we assist at that Divine W o r k , i. e., at the time of the psalmody, we should stand before God with fear, but with a chaste fear, such as that with which a son comes before his well-loved f a t h e r ; thus should we come before God, seeking, in so f a r as human frailty permits, to realize and understand H i s presence. W h e n he says, " Especially when we assemble f o r the Opus divinum," it is not meant that we come nearer to God by approaching in space, but by thinking upon 53 Paul, p. 256; Hildemar, p. 316. 54 Pages 56-57. 55 Paul, pp. 245, 256; Hildemar, pp. 308, 316. 56 Pages 317-318.

LITURGY

AND SPIRITUALITY

165

H i m and devoting ourselves to Him as much as human frailty permits. F o r although He is wholly in the house, in the church, in Heaven, and everywhere, the more we meditate upon H i m in any place whatsoever, the more we know and feel H i s presence." The commentators observe that he whose devotion is always based on God offers continual praise to Him in his heart whether he sleeps or keeps vigil; but St. Benedict, knowing that vocal praise cannot be offered to God without intermission as can the praise of the heart, appointed stated hours so that at least at these times praises would be offered to God also in words. 68 Thus far, liturgical prayer, or the public prayer of the Church, has been the subject of discussion. The Rule (c. 52) provides also for private prayer, and the commentators make some interesting remarks on the same. W h y , they ask, does St. Benedict speak of praying privately or in secret, when he has allowed no time for such prayer? Since, during the entire day the monks are to be devoted to reading, or are to work, or eat, or sleep, how can one remain in the oratory or enter there to pray ? The implication in the answer is that since contemplation is the g i f t of only the few, it was not included in the general disposal of the monk's day. The answer then states clearly that although contemplation pertains to only a few, these few are not to be deprived of the tears of devotion; for St. Benedict did not prefer reading or work to contemplation. Therefore one so gifted may dispense with reading or work to g o into the oratory to p r a y . " In another passage, Hildemar appears to contradict what has just been said regarding the number who are inclined to contemplation ; he states that there are many who are given to contemplation and who experience such good thoughts that they 57 Hildemar, pp. 315-316; Paul's account (p. 25s) is not so complete. 58 Paul, p. 244; Hildemar, p. 306. 59 Paul, pp. 412-413; Hildemar, p. 500. Cf. also Paul, p. 402, and Hildemar, p. 492.

l66

BENEDICTINE

MONASTICISM

would find it impossible to express them in words. 8 0 In this passage, however, Hildemar is not speaking exclusively of private prayer. In commenting on the precept of the Rule that prayer should always be short, 6 1 our expositors point out that the reference is not to the prayer said in the Office, but to that prayer which each monk makes by himself. 8 2 S o long ought one remain in prayer as, with the Lord's help, he can repress vain thoughts. I f , however, he sees himself overcome by distractions, and that he no longer delights in prayer, he should rise up and apply himself to reading, to the psalmody, or to work. And since St. Benedict understood that because of its infirmity the human mind cannot continue long in prayer without distractions, he recommended that prayer be short. 8 ' In a brief passage Paul Warnefrid strikes a mystical note which echoes the strains of St. Gregory relative to contemplative prayer: Moreover, the Lord gave us the words with which to pray, and those same words are few, so that when we stand to pray before God, our mind, by dwelling on the meaning of the words, may tranquilly and serenely enjoy that Invisible Light to the extent that human nature permits; for we cannot always see God because of the various terrestrial preoccupations with which our mind is impressed and made to reflect, and our vision is not receptive solely to the things of God. 84 T h e brief glimpse of the Light Invisible is particularly characteristic of St. Gregory's mysticism, and is very probably traceable to the influence of his writings. 8 5 60 Page 243. 61 Reguia,

c. 20.

62 Paul, p. 260; Hildemar, p. 32f. 63 Paul, pp. 258-259; Hildemar, p. 320. 64 Paul, p. 255; Hildemar, p. 315. 65 Cf. Butler, Western

Mysticism,

passim.

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167

In his discussion of private prayer, Hildemar inserts a few words regarding the manner of assisting at the Sacrifice of the Mass. Although this instruction doubtless reflects the ancient practice, it may well have been written by an exponent of the modern liturgical movement exhorting the faithful to follow the prayers of the Mass rather than some pious devotions contained in a prayerbook. We shall quote the passage. The better [method of] prayer, it seems to me, is as follows: when the priest recites the Lord's Prayer and other prayers aloud, you should not pray anything else, but in spirit follow that prayer [of the priest]; and so follow it that when he says per omnia saecula, you may answer, Amen. If, however, the priest says the Lord's Prayer or other prayers in secret as at the Mass over the oblation, you may pray either in words and in the heart, or in the heart only, as you wish; but you should so end your prayer that when the priest says per omnia, you may be prepared to respond Amen." Although the commentators state that the contemplative life consists in reading and prayer,67 it does not appear that the time of reading was generally considered to be one of contemplative prayer. It is true that, as we noted earlier, the commentators would have the monks sit apart during the time of reading so that one inclined to contemplation and tears would not be impeded by others.68 But we also observed in a passage above that when a monk ceases prayer he is to apply himself to reading or the chant, thus distinguishing lectio from oratio. It seems more correct to conclude that the hours of reading were regarded as a time in which the monk familiarized himself with spiritual writings so as to widen his spiritual horizon and thus prepare himself for the more intensively spiritual exercises. Delatte has neatly expressed this idea in saying that " the name lectio is only 66 Page 321. 67 Paul, p. 394; Hildemar, p. 478. 68 Cf. supra, p. 118.

l68

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the first moment of an ascending series: lectio, cogitatio, studium, meditatio, oratio, contemplatio." 49 An adequate estimate of the deep spirituality which underlies the commentary cannot be formed without a careful reading of the entire work. The prologue of the Rule, however, containing as it does the philosophy of the Rule, lends itself more readily to the development of the more spiritual phases of monastic thought. From our Carolingian interpretations of the prologue, therefore, we shall select a few characteristics of this spirituality. 70 In general, its essence arises in the relations which the commentator sees to exist between God, the Creator, and man, the creature. On the part of man there is original sin in general and the personal sin of the individual; on the part of God there is the " loving kindness of His mercy " and the Redemption of His Cross. It is well, Hildemar observes, that St. Benedict speaks of God's loving kindness, " for no one is saved by his own merit; after we were all expelled from Paradise in the person of Adam, the whole human race fell. Therefore when one is saved, it is not by his own merit, but through the kindness and mercy of God . . . He shows us the way of life by which we may return to life." 71 In another passage the commentator explains that according to the sacred Scriptures, God rarely looks upon the bad, but he does see the good. H e looks upon those of the good who are in sin that they may be corrected, and upon the just that they may become more perfect. 72 Paul sees in the phrase of the Rule, " the Lord Christ, the true King," words weighty with meaning. 73 We shall paraphrase a part of what he gives regarding the name of Christ, 69 Op. cit., p. 306. 70 In Hildemar's version, seventy-two pages are devoted to the Prologue; in Paul's only twenty-six, covering less than one-fourth of the Prologue. Traube (Textgeschichte, p. 102) states that this brevity is due to defects in the Vorlage on which it was based. 71 Page 4372 Hildemar, p. 39. 73 Page 17.

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for he associates it with the mystery of the Redemption. Whenever one hears mention made of the Son of God—and " C h r i s t " is appellative of the Son—he ought to recall to mind the mystery of his own redemption and that of the whole human race; for although man's redemption is related to the operation and mercy of the undivided Trinity, nevertheless, it is related in a special manner to the Son, for He only assumed flesh and shed His blood. F o r this reason, so Paul interprets, St. Benedict added the name of Christ to that of Lord, to recall the mystery of the Redemption. As above he spoke of H i m from Whom man had departed by disobedience, i. e., the sin of Adam, 74 so now he adds the name " C h r i s t " to make it plain to his followers that it is particularly through Christ's Redemption that they are recalled.75 The commentators continually insist on properly comprehending the spiritual significance of the words of the Rule, and, for that matter, all religious literature. To this end they frequently compare and contrast the faculties " of the interior man " and " of the h e a r t " with the external senses, e. g., they explain that the words of the Gospel, "who has ears to hear, let him hear," is paramount to saying, " I speak to those who hear with the ears of the heart." 76 In the following passage, Hildemar continues this comparison of the exterior and interior faculties and gives also a contrast of the present and future life. As our exterior man when walking in darkness needs a temporal light, becaufee without it he cannot make his way in the dark, so also our interior man, walking the dark way of this present life, which, when compared with the eternal life, should rather be called death than life, needs a spiritual light, namely, the word of God, in order that he may pass through this present life without offense; for without this light, i. e. the word of God, he errs in this present life just as the exterior man errs who walks in the dark without a lamp.77 74 Paul, pp. 13-14.

75 Paul, p. 18; Hildemar, p. 13.

76 Paul, p. 10; Hildemar, p. 5. Cf. ibid., Prologue, 77 Pages 45-46.

passim.

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The commentator's remarks on the beatific vision illustrate an equal grasp of the spiritual. Although this vision is not granted equally to all because of dissimilar merits, nevertheless it is one and the same vision just as it is enjoyed in the one kingdom of Heaven. Nor is God seen with the eyes as some material thing is seen; for "to see " in this usage means to comprehend. Furthermore, this vision will never become tiresome, but will ever be desired; the Apostle Peter testifies to this in speaking of God as " Him whom the angels desire to gaze upon." To the saints, this vision will be nourishment, brilliance, and power.78 Finally, the question is raised as to how the precept of the Rule, to serve God continually (omni tempore) can be fulfilled.7' This is an unusual admonition, the commentators remark, to serve God continually; for man's service cannot be continuous but only through an interval of time. The solution lies once more in the distinction drawn between the spirit and the externals. The "omni tempore " applies not to the external man but to the interior; for the exterior man must also engage in worldly occupations without which he cannot subsist. The interior man can offer continuous service to God, because through his intention he can serve God at all times although he is occupied with the cares and solicitudes of subsistence."0 78Hildemar, p. 47. 79 Regula,

Prologue.

80 Paul, pp. 25-26; Hildemar, pp. 22-23.

CHAPTER VIII ASCETICISM A N D I D E A L S THE concept of asceticism reflected in the commentaries accords well with the Christian principles of asceticism. Abstinence, fasting, and like practices are not to be performed for their own sakes, but as a means to an end; this end is the advancement in spiritual perfection, or as the commentators express it, the performance of " perfect works," i. e., the exercise of " faith, hope, and charity." 1 To present this teaching in a manner in which it could be grasped by readers less learned and, perhaps, less spiritual than himself, Paul develops the thought by way of a simile: Just as the smith fashions a sword or a lance with his proper tools such as the hammer and the forceps, as the physician performs healing by means of his knife and book of herbs, and as the scribe writes a book with his pen and parchment, so the servant of God performs such works as faith, hope, and charity by means of prayer, fasting, and the like. And as it would be folly for the smith to fashion a sword in order that he might possess the tools, so would it be folly for the servant of God to exercise faith, hope, and charity in order to possess the " instruments of the spiritual art." 2 Furthermore, these " instruments" constitute a necessary means without which the perfect works cannot be effected.® The explanation is to be found in the fact and effects of original sin. Man is weak in body by nature; but weakness of the soul is to be deputed rather to man's tainted state, for God created 1 Hildemar, pp. 139-140. Paul's explanation (pp. 97-98) is basically the same. 2 Hildemar, p. 139. In comparing the text of this passage in Paul's work (p. 97) with that of Hildemar, it becomes evident that the apparent contradiction in the former is due to a scribal omission of what follows in Hildemar's version between the phrase his similia and its repetition a few lines further on. 3 Hildemar, p. 140; Paul, p. 98. 171

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the soul g o o d ; wherefore if it had remained in the dignified state of its creation it would not be deficient in goodness; but because man fell f r o m this dignified state, he cannot, without labor, attain to the goodness which he formerly possessed without effort. 4 T h e commentators present this teaching more specifically in relating the difficulty man experiences in obedience, to the sin of A d a m . Adam, when in Paradise, obeyed God without e f f o r t ; but since man has been expelled f r o m Paradise and sent into exile he cannot obey God without labor. H i s inclination to disobey God's commands arises in the disobedience of Adam. 6 They explain that in self-denial man rejects that which exists in him through sin, not what he is by nature; " W e are one thing fallen through sin, and we are another as founded by nature. W h a t we have done is distinct f r o m what we were made . . . Therefore, we should deny ourselves inasmuch as we have acted through sin and we should remain ourselves inasmuch as we have been formed through grace." " Self-abnegation may consist in corporal or in spiritual austerities; both are treated by the commentators. In discussing the f o r m e r they insist on the necessity of discretion, as the following lines indicate: Great discretion is necessary in bodily chastisement lest it be insufficient or overmuch—lest when one wishes to smite the enemy, the citizen be struck. For if the chastisement be too severe, one will not be able to fulfill the service of God; if it be insufficient, one will be led into the abyss. For example, the slave, if not constrained, will murmur and rise up against his master; if constrained he will, likewise, murmur. It is better that he murmur under constraint than dissolutely. So it is with the body: if chastised, it will murmur because it always thinks in the manner of the world; and if not chastised, it will fall into the abyss. It is better that it 4 Hildemar, pp. 63-64. 5 Paul, pp. 1 3 - 1 4 ; Hildemar, pp. 8-9. 6 Hildemar, pp. 146-147; cf. also Paul, p. 101.

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AND

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173

should find fault under constraint, than that it should go wantonly into the abyss.7 T h e leading corporal auterities commented upon by our expositors are fasting and abstinence. The former, they observe, leads man to the mortification of the vices. 8 In this and similar uses of the word " vices," it evidently signifies the passions or inclinations to sin; for example, the commentators explain that the vices are so closely a part of human nature that one is not able to be wholly free from them, although all are not of equal force; therefore, those which cannot be entirely removed, may at least be controlled and repressed; 9 and again, " we ought to acquire such contrary virtues as will repress the vices from which we cannot be wholly free ", 1 0 Fasting should be performed so discreetly and temperately that the monk does not thereby become unable to fulfill his obedience, nor that he becomes so weak as to require fleshmeat or another special food; rather he should so fast that if perchance he become weakened, he can regain his strength from the measure of food prescribed in the Rule. 11 This admonition is given with reference to the Lenten fast which each individual is voluntarily to assume over and above the fast of the Rule. T h e latter consists in the restriction of the food to one refection daily during the winter and on the Wednesdays and Fridays of the summer season. The Wednesday-Friday fast, according to the commentators, originated with the Fathers, although there was also a Jewish custom of fasting on these days. 12 7 Hildemar, p. 148. In copying the corresponding passage in Paul's account (pp. 101-102), the scribe has erroneously written minimum for nimium. It is evident from the context that ntmium was the word used by the author: " In castigatione enim corporis, magna discretio necessaria est, ne aut minus, aut nimium [not minimum as in Paul] castigetur, . . . S i enim nimium [ P a u l : minimum] castigaveris corpus, Dei servitium operari non potes . . ." (Hildemar, loc. cit.). 8 Paul, pp. 206-207; Hildemar, p. 269. 9 Paul, p. 401; Hildemar, p. 490.

10 Paul, p. 444; Hildemar, p. 541.

11 Hildemar, p. 492; Cf. also Paul, p. 403. 12 Paul, p. 367; Hildemar, p. 449. Gougaud (o/>. cit., pp. 144-145) writes

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Concerning the precept of abstinence from the use of fleshmeat, there is evidence of a disputed point in the interpretation of the commentaries and contemporary literature. The indecision and divergent opinions center around the question as to whether or not the Rule, by implication, forbids the flesh of fowls; in one passage it expressly forbids the flesh of quadrupeds. 13 Both commentators would answer the question in the affirmative, and they cite various reasons for their view. Perhaps the reason which would possess greatest weight today is that given by Hildemar, namely, that St. Benedict did not specify the kinds of meat, but under the general term " carnes," forbade the eating of meat not only of quadrupeds but of fowls as well. In support of his view, he cites Cassiodorus, St. Augustine, and St. Jerome. 14 Both commentators argue that since the meat of fowls is sweeter than that of quadrupeds, and since the latter is forbidden, there is all the more reason that the former should likewise be forbidden. 18 Again, they admit that a solution of the matter cannot be derived conclusively from the wording of the Rule; the proper method to follow, therefore, is to dismiss the doubtful and accept the certain. In the case in point, one would not sin were he to abstain from the meat of fowls even though St. Benedict had intended it to be eaten, whereas one would sin were he to eat that this fast was legislated for in the monastic Rules of Macarius and Columban, was prescribed by Bishop Perpetuus of Tours for his flock, and, according to Cassian, was observed by the monks of Egypt and long practiced in the Orient where it seemed to have been of precept for the faithful. About the year 800, it was decreed by the Councils of Risbach, Freising, and Salzburg that it be observed by all the clergy ( M G H , LL,

III, Concilia aevi Karolini, I, i, 208, 214, 216). 13 Regula, c. 39: " Carnium vero quadrupedum

omni modo ab omnibus abstineatur comestio, praeter omnino debiles aegrotos." The Rule of St. Caesarius of Aries, a contemporary of St. Benedict, specifically prohibits the use of the flesh of fowls along with that of quadrupeds: " Pullos et carnes numquam sani accipiant" (Regula ad monachos, PL, 67, col. 1103). 14 Page 414. 15 Paul, p. 342; Hildemar, pp. 409-410.

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AND

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175

the meat which the lawgiver had intended to forbid. T h e r e f o r e , the former course should be followed. 1 6 T u r n i n g to contemporary regulations and practice, w e find the seventh article of the M u r b a c h Statutes forbidding use of the flesh of f o w l s to all except the infirm. 1 7 In explanation, the compiler states that although the authority of the R u l e does not forbid the use of fowls, but, as it were, leaves it to one's choice either to eat or abstain, the synod

(on which the M u r b a c h

Statutes are based) has decreed that monks, w h o have chosen the more religious discipline of life, should abstain f r o m such viands. 1 8 T h e same interpretation of the precept of the Rule regarding the use of meat is to be found in P a u l W a r n e f r i d ' s letter to Charlemagne, namely, that St. Benedict so prudently arranged the matter that, w h e n it is opportune, the monks m a y eat the flesh of fowls, if they wish, without being subject to fault. It is not to be understood, however, that the brothers m a y demand it as if it were a right. T h e practice w a s never to eat the flesh o f f o w l s except within the octave of the Nativity and on the Paschal days. 1 8 T h e eighth article of the A a c h e n Capitulary ( 8 1 7 ) , like the seventh article of the Murbach Statutes, forbids the use of the flesh of f o w l s except to the infirm. T h e seventy-eighth article o f the capitulary corresponds to Paul's letter in providing that the flesh of fowls, if available, may be eaten on the N a t i v i t y and within Easter week, but it is not to be regarded a s a right w h i c h may be demanded. 2 0 16 Paul, pp. 342-343; Hildemar, pp. 410-411. T o say that it would be sinful to eat the meat under the circumstances given, is not, of course, morally sound. T h e doubt may be resolved in favor of him who is unable t o obtain more precise knowledge. 17 It implies, of course, that the prohibition of the flesh of quadrupeds, as expressed in the Rule, also obtains. 18 Albers, III, 84-85. 19 Paul's letter Charlemagne, Albers, III, 57-58. 20 MGH, Cap. reg. Franc., I, 344, 348. This seventy-eighth article is not g i v e n in all the manuscripts of the capitulary, and since it partially contradicts the eighth article, it is probably an interpolation (Cf. Albers, I I I , xxi-xxiii).

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Thus, although the commentators would interpret the Rule as excluding all fleshmeat f r o m the monastic table, out of deference to the current interpretation they do not dismiss the subject without presenting various arguments on both sides. Butler intimates that at Monte Cassino the interpretaion permitting the use of fowls arose during the break of over a hundred years in the Cassinese traditions ; 21 he also notes that " a distinction between the flesh of animals and of birds is not one that would appeal to the modern mind." 22 Hildemar offers reasons why all forms of fleshmeat should be excluded f r o m the monastic f a r e : it is not read of the Lord that, a f t e r his resurrection, he ever ate any meat but fish; nor is it read of the Apostles or the monastic founders that they ever ate fleshmeat; finally, as the meat of fowls, through its sweetness of taste, is wont to stimulate the passions, so also the flesh of quadrupeds, through its greater strength, confers power to these passions; for the repression of the same, therefore, neither kind of meat should be eaten. 23 T h e commentators point out that if delicate foods are placed before a monk, he may eat them f o r the sake of hospitality or necessity. They explain that the sin does not consist in the food itself, but rather in an unlawful desire for it. T h u s many have sinned in desiring only common food as did the sons of Israel when in the desert they yearned for onions and melons, whereas others have eaten meat without sin as did the prophet Elias to whom ravens supplied meat morning and evening. 21 Hildemar even makes reference to a conciliar decree directed against the Manichaean heresy of dualism; the decree threatened with anathema anyone who abhorred the use of fleshmeat. The commentator explains that those who abstain 21 Benedictine

Monachism,

p. 44, n. I.

22 Op. cit., p. 308. 23 Pages 441-442. In 1336 the Bull "Benedictina" granted the general dispensation whereby meat was permitted to be eaten on four days a week. Most of the Benedictine congregations today observe the rule of abstinence on one or more days of the week, over and above the Friday abstinence. 24 Hildemar, p. 149. Cf. also ibid., p. 152; Paul, pp. 102, 105.

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AND IDEALS

177

f r o m meat f o r the sake of restraint do not violate the decree; but those who " abominate the flesh " should eat herbs in which meat has been cooked. 25 The context of this sentence, as also the foregoing paragraphs, indicates clearly that the doctrines of Gnosticism find no place in the commentaries under study n o r in the ascetic literature of the period. In the light of this fact, some sweeping statements made by certain writers on monastic asceticism need revision; for example, Mr. H . B. W o r k m a n speaks of the " half-veiled Gnosticism t h r o u g h o u t the vast literature of monasticism," 2" and he states that " not only the wilder hermits of the East, but monks of culture and influence—for instance, St. Bernard—sought to reduce it [the body] to ruin. They made pain an end in itself." 27 Some pages f u r t h e r on in his study, the same writer contradicts the last sentence, at least in part, and in doing so he agrees better with our commentary literature. H e writes: " F o r the more reasonable monk asceticism was but a means to an end, rather than an end in itself. A St. Benedict or St. Bernard strove to get this world beneath his feet that he might the better see the other world above his head." 29 The following passage f r o m Hildemar's commentary presents a forcible statement of his attitude toward the excessive practice of corporal austerities. Is the censure of the silent to be preferred to the edification of many, or is abstinence from food to be preferred to patience, or vigils to reason? For he does not err lightly who prefers a lesser good to a greater good. Does not rational man lose his dignity when he prefers fasting to charity or when he so prefers the keeping of vigils to the integrity of reason that he incurs the mark of madness or sadness through the immoderate and indiscreet chanting of psalms or the Offices? Can God be bent by a multitude of words as man can be? For not only in words but also in deeds 25 Page 411. 26 The Evolution 27 Ibid., p. 324. 28 Ibid., p. 339.

of the Monastic

Ideal, p. 63.

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should God be implored, for H e asks not for many words but for purity of heart . . . Therefore, let him who deprives the body of what is necessary hear what the Lord has spoken through the Prophet: " I am the Lord that love judgment, and hate robbery in a holocaust." 29 N o w he offers to God a holocaust of robbery who indiscreetly deprives himself of food, clothing, sleep, and the like, without which human infirmity is not able to subsist.30 In passing on to the ascetic practices which pertain more t o the spiritual than the material life, w e observe that the admonitions of the commentators to use discretion and moderation are replaced by exhortations to more intensive application. T h e many references in the Rule to the subject of silence h a v e occasioned m a n y comments on the subject by our glossators. T h a t the R u l e does not demand absolute silence is evident f r o m t w o brief p a s s a g e s : " L e t permission to speak be seldom given " (c. 6 ) and " L e t not brother join brother at unsuitable hours " (c. 4 8 ) . F r o m the latter, modern commentators i n f e r that " suitable hours " during which the monks are permitted to converse are implied. 31 Paul {horae

Warnefrid incompetentes)

explains

" unsuitable

hours "

are those hours which the

that

the

brothers

devote to reading. D u r i n g this time a brother ought not to join another nor speak with him without necessity. T h e hours of w o r k are also " unsuitable," if to speak with another it would be necessary to leave one's w o r k . B u t if all the brothers work together at the same task of obedience, it is permitted, W a r n e f r i d writes, f o r one to speak with another, notwithstanding the opinion of some to the contrary. 3 2 In another passage, the " suitable hours " are identified with " those hours in which they ought to speak, as are those hours of the day in which they are not to read or to keep silence . . . T h e time is in2 9 I s a . 6 1 : 8. 3 0 P a g e 566. 3 1 Cf.

D e l a t t e , op. cit.,

p. 3 1 6 ; B u t l e r , op. cit.,

3 2 P a u l , p p . 396-397; H i l d e m a r , p. 483.

pp. 288-290.

ASCETICISM

AND

IDEALS

I?Ç

during the night, and during the time which should be devoted to reading." " These remarks are not sufficiently explicit to warrant the conclusion that there was a daily fixed period of recreative conversation. Although they do seem to indicate that some speaking beyond what necessity would demand was permitted, there are other references in the commentaries which would give a contrary opinion." At Corbie in the early ninth century, the brothers were permitted to assemble each day and converse freely, after the horae incompétentes had passed. 35 An eighthcentury document thought to have originated at Monte Cassino reports that it was customary for a certain verse to be said at chapter as a signal for the breaking of silence, which had been carefully preserved until that hour. The authority was given the abbot to say the verse again after None to permit conversation if he saw fit.8" In view of these customs, the attitude of our commentators regarding silence is seen to be quite conservative. 37 In order to preserve silence the better during the " unsuitable hours," the commentators prescribe that a place in the monastery be appointed in which one may speak when necessary without hindrance to those who read or chant. 38 A similar provision is reported for Monte Cassino in the eighth century. 39 The commentators interpret those passages of the Rule compctens

33 Paul, p. 3 1 8 ; Hildemar, pp. 384-385. 34 For example, Paul, p. 135 ; Hildemar, p. 202. 35 Levillain, Les Statuts

d'Adalhard

pour ¡'abbaye

de Corbie,

p. 32.

36 Albers, III, p. 16. 37 G. Morin (" La journée du moine," Revue bénédictine, V I [1889], 3 5 2 ) writes that a daily period for conversation was universal in the monasteries as early as the ninth century. 38 Paul, p. 135 ; Hildemar, p. 202. 39 Albers, III, 17-18. Evidently the custom at Monte Cassino was to set aside two places in which speaking was permitted. The sentence in which this is reported is ungrammatical, and has been wrongly interpreted to mean that certain brothers, "desiring to come to the perfection of silence, were permitted to speak only to two brothers appointed for the purpose " ( G . Falco, " Lineamenti di storia Cassinese," Casinensia, II, 508).

l8o

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in which the word " silence " is modified by some such adjective as " sumtnum" or " omne" to refer to complete silence, whereas those in which no adjective is used, signify merely the suppressed tone of voice.40 The former relate to the hours of the night, the time devoted to reading, and to the refectory. The latter, i. e., the subdued tone of voice is proper at all times in order not to disturb others, for in the monastery things should be conducted in a becoming manner and without hindrance to anyone.41 In concluding the discussion, Hildemar points out that St. Benedict placed great stress on the observance of silence; just as he emphasized the renunciation of one's own will, so he emphasized the observance of silence, for it, too, signifies mortification.42 The renunciation of personal ownership—later known as the vow of poverty—is treated in three several chapters of the Rule. 43 In their explanation of these, the commentators, like the author of the Rule, do not use the term " poverty." 44 The entire emphasis is not on getting along with little or less than necessary in matters of worldly goods, but on the inability of the monk to appropriate anything as his own, and on the necessity of his receiving permission for the things which he uses. Why, they ask, does St. Benedict say that a monk is not to have anything whatever as his own, when further on, he orders that all things necessary be given him by the father of the monastery? The answer follows that whatever is given him, is for his use and not to be considered his property; furthermore, should the abbot, prior, or dean request the things 40 Paul, p. 3 5 3 ; Hildemar, pp. 424, 453, 457. 41 Paul, p. 199; Hildemar, p. 264. 4 2 Hildemar, p. 457. 43 Chapters 33, 54, 55. 44 A s B u t l e r (op. cit., p. 159) observes, St. Benedict " n e v e r speaks of ' monastic p o v e r t y ' ; the word ' paupertas ' occurs only once in the Rule, and then of a case regarded as abnormal, a monastery so poor that the monks should have themselves to gather in the harvest (c. 4 8 ) . "

ASCETICISM

AND

IDEALS

l8l

given him, such as a tablet or a pen, the monk ought to part with them r e a d i l y . " Hildemar explains that the w o r d s of the Rule (c. 3 3 ) w h i c h forbid a monk to g i v e or receive anything without the permission of his abbot, r e f e r to private ownership, but do not mean that one should not assist another by o f f e r i n g him a k n i f e , a tablet or the like; f o r this he m a y do without permission, because it is an act o f charity, and it w a s the intention o f

St.

Benedict, not to exclude charity, but to confirm it.48 Chapter

fifty-five

of

the R u l e prescribes that " the

beds

be frequently examined to prevent personal goods f r o m being f o u n d . " T h e commentators describe the manner in w h i c h this precept is to be fulfilled. A b o u t three times a year w h e n the community is assembled f o r the morning chapter, the abbot will send several of the brothers to inspect the beds. I f a n y t h i n g questionable be found, it is to be brought to the chapter and placed before his feet, at or near whose bed it w a s discovered. H e is then required to account f o r it; if it was obtained w i t h permission, the brother is e x o n o r a t e d ; if not, he is penalized in a manner dependent on the conditions under which the object was retained a m o n g his effects. 4 7 T h u s the poverty explained by the Carolingian commentators w a s a personal poverty consisting in the inability of the individual to possess property in his o w n name or receive g o o d s f o r his o w n use w i t h o u t permission. T h e r e is n o mention o f corporate poverty which, in the organization of the Franciscan O r d e r , became a subject of considerable importance. 4 8 Chastity, like poverty, w a s not included formally a m o n g the v o w s prescribed in the Rule. B u t unlike poverty, it is not the subject of even one chapter of the R u l e ; it was so generally 45 Paul, p. 322; Hildemar. pp. 388-389. 46 Page 387. 47 Paul, pp. 428-429; Hildemar, p. 517. 48 W o r k m a n (op. cit., pp. 220-224) seems to confuse some fundamental notions regarding monastic principles. According to him, monasticism w a s founded on renunciation; renunciation consists chiefly in the practice of poverty; and personal poverty cannot exist long without corporate poverty.

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regarded as a requisite o f the monastic life at the time o f S t . Benedict that he took it for granted. Consequently it is n o t discussed in the commentaries. According to both Paul and Hildemar, the spiritual renunciation which is first in the order o f time and importance, is obedience. T h e y write that, j u s t as the faithful are not admitted into the Church unless they renounce the devil and his works, and the world and its pomps, so is it required o f those who are received into the monastic life to renounce their own wills. 4 * T h e same thought is expressed in a second passage with greater emphasis: " A s in the beginning o f the conversion f r o m the cult of idols to God, it is required o f those who receive the S a c r a m e n t o f Baptism to renounce the devil and the idols, so also is it required in the beginning o f the monastic life that those who are admitted to its discipline make the renunciation o f their own wills, which is obedience."

50

Hildemar points out

that t h e chief teaching o f the R u l e is obedience, for it is the first precept which S t . Benedict addresses to his disciples. 0 1

Paul

writes that the monk places his faith in doing the will o f another, whereas the hermit devotes himself to contemplation. 5 ' It is recognized by the commentators that the practice o f obedience is difficult, especially to the beginner. Hildemar observes that St. Benedict spoke well in using the expression, " about to do battle," for obedience requires effort and struggle. T h i s is particularly true with reference to the beginners; to the perfect, however, that sentence o f the Gospel is applicable, " M y yoke is sweet and my burden light."

58

A g a i n , in commenting on

the words o f the Rule ( P r o l o g u e ) , " T h e

beginning o f

the

way o f salvation cannot but be n a r r o w , " Hildemar explains that by the " narrow beginning " is to be understood the renunciation o f one's own will. " Indeed," he writes, " it is very 4 9 P a u l , p. 16; Hildemar, p. n . 50 Paul, p. 2 0 ; Hildemar, p. 15. 51 Page 542. 52 Paul, p. 4 1 ; Hildemar, p. 81. 53 Page 63.

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AND I D E A L S

183

narrow to those who have lived for many years according to their own wills, and who later submit themselves to the rule and power of another . . . Such as these, St. Benedict encourages, saying, ' As we advance in the religious life and faith, we shall run the way of God's commandments with expanded hearts and unspeakable sweetness o f love.' " M I f a monk is seen to be slothful in obedience, the abbot should remind him that the obedience which is offered to his superiors is offered to God. Therefore, realizing this, he ought to obey without tepidity or slothfulness, and without murmuring or a word o f unwillingness." In one of his comments on obedience, Warnefrid is apparently so eager to impress his readers with the idea that it is necessary to obey not only in things pleasant and agreeable, but also in things adverse and disagreeable, that he somewhat overshoots his mark. H e writes that " he, who is truly obedient, receives worldly honor, delight, or prosperity, unwillingly, and he accepts the sorrow, dishonor, and adversity of the world, willingly; for if one receives joys and prosperity gladly he is not obedient; nor is one who meets sorrow and trials unwillingly, obedient." 66 In theory, a monk should be so obedient, according to the commentaries, that if he were required by obedience to pass through death, he would not withdraw. In practice, however, this situation is not to be expected. I f the abbot sends a monk on a task of obedience which involves serious danger unknown to the abbot, the monk should inform him of the danger; or if on the way he should foresee a danger which would threaten him were he to continue, he should return to the abbot and report the situation; for, in obeying, a monk should regard the intention, not the words, of him who commands. 67 54 Page 69. 55Hildemar, pp. 195-196; Paul, p. 129. 56 Paul, p. 444; Hildemar, p. 541. 57 Paul, p. 163; Hildemar, pp. 226-227.

184

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S h o u l d a situation a r i s e in which a m o n k h a s been given a c o m m a n d , t o fulfill which would involve sin, the p r o c e d u r e t o be followed by t h e m o n k , as given by W a r n e f r i d , is n o t m o r a l l y sound. H e w o u l d h a v e the brother c o m p a r e the evil in the act c o m m a n d e d w i t h t h a t of disobeying the c o m m a n d ; should the f o r m e r o u t w e i g h the latter, the b r o t h e r is to r e f u s e obedience. B u t should he consider the evil in the act c o m m a n d e d equal to or less t h a n the evil of disobedience, h e is to fulfiull t h e command. 5 8 T o the c o m m e n t a t o r it is a question of choosi n g the lesser of t w o evils. H i s entire discussion of the m a t t e r is m o r a l l y w r o n g , being vitiated by the false a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e r e can be a n y sin in r e f u s i n g to obey an u n l a w f u l c o m m a n d . W e noted the same e r r o r , t h o u g h n o t stated so directly, in h i s discussion of the relation between the abbot a n d the cellarer. 5 8 T h e c o m m e n t a t o r s , like the a u t h o r of the Rule, do not t r e a t t h e t w o r e m a i n i n g Benedictine vows, stability a n d the conv e r s i o n of morals, a t such length as they treat p o v e r t y a n d obedience. T o historians of t h e O r d e r , however, it h a s a l w a y s been of interest to note the m a n n e r in which the vow of stability has been interpreted in the course of the c e n t u r i e s — chiefly whether it signifies local stability, i. e., adherence to the h o u s e of profession, or merely stability in the m o n a s t i c state. 6 0 O u r c o m m e n t a t o r s , apparently unconscious of m o r e t h a n o n e signification, take local stability f o r granted, a n d look beyond t h e external stability in the m o n a s t e r y to the inner spirit. B o t h e x p o s i t o r s relate stability to perseverance. 6 1 P a u l a d d s t h a t o n e ' s conversion is as it should be if he perseveres to the e n d ; 6 2 H i l d e m a r c o m m e n t s t h a t if one fails to fulfill in part, o r in toto, a good w o r k or desire begun, he does n o t possess stability b e f o r e God even t h o u g h b e f o r e men he r e m a i n s in the 58 Paul, pp. 113-114; Hildemar, pp. 175-178. 59 Cj. supra, p. 56; cf. also Hildemar, p. 326. 60 Butler (op. at., pp. 123-134, 403-404) cites the views of the leading writers who have discussed the subject. 61 Paul, p. 444; Hildemar, p. 540.

62 hoc. cit.

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AND

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63

monastery. W e noted in an earlier chapter that a monk may leave his monastery only when sent on a mission by his superior or if he is thereby enabled to live a better life in another monastery or in the desert.' 4 The promise of conversion of morals, according to the commentators, consists in the eradication of vices and in the implanting of virtues. The one without the other is not sufficient." Hildemar observes that he who does neither, is worse than a pagan or a man of the world; because in as much as one assumes the obligations of the monastic state, in so much the greater danger is he if he does not live accordingly.®" Thus by his profession, the monk is seen to have assumed higher obligations than the average Christian, and consequently is held to a more severe reckoning. Our commentators recognize clearly that St. Benedict required less austerity in the matter of exterior mortifications than did his predecessors, such as St. Basil and the Fathers about whom Cassian writes in his Institutes and Conferences. For the mortification of the interior man, however, they judge that " nothing more nor better could be found " than that prescribed in the Rule. 67 The similarity between this comment on the asceticism of the Rule and that of one of its most recent commentators, Dom Butler of Downside Abbey, is striking. He writes that St. Benedict " places his asceticism primarily in the renunciation of self-will, and on this he is as insistent, as uncompromising, as in matters of corporal austerity he is indulgent." 88 Hildemar paraphrases the admonition of St. Benedict, " to do nothing but what is sanctioned by the examples of the elders," 63 P a g e 541. 64 Cf. supra, p. 87. 65 Paul, p. 444; Hildemar, p. 541.

66 Loc. cit. 67 Hildemar, pp. 254-256; Paul tone.

(pp. 187-188) writes in much the same

68 Op. cit., p. 49. Cf. also ibid., pp. 391-392.

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as f o l l o w s : " I f anyone shall have mortified the interior man in the manner I have described, and he shall have wished to restrain the exterior man more than I have disposed, namely, that he drink n o wine and eat no cooked

food—concessions

which I have g r a n t e d — t h e n let him follow the example of the elders." " Since the " example of the elders " suggests the lives o f the desert Fathers, the question is raised as to whether or not St. Benedict intended that the monks retire into the desert a f t e r learning to live according to the Rule. In the discussion, the commentators relate this mention of the " example of the elders " to the last chapter ( 7 3 ) of the Rule in which St. Benedict, by w a y of retrospect, speaks of " this least Rule written f o r a beginning," and of the " teaching of the holy Fathers, the observance of which leadeth a man to the height of perfection." These words of the Rule do not present the attitude of their author with sufficient clarity that f r o m them one can conclude whether or not St. Benedict favored the cenobitical or the eremitical f o r m of life as the ideal. Indeed, there are writers today w h o hold " that St. Benedict kept the eremitical

life

within the scope of his Rule, as being the consummation to which a term of cenobitical life under the Rule might be hoped to lead."

70

O u r commentators hesitate to take a definite stand on the question. A l t h o u g h they are personally inclined to favor the cenohitic f o r m , they direct the discussion toward an investigation of the mind of St. Benedict on the subject. T h e y marshall all the evidence available f r o m various passages of the Rule, 7 1 and present the current views for both sides. Some think that chapter seventy-three of the Rule in which St. Benedict speaks of " this least Rule written f o r a beginning " was written out of humility; others see in it a concession—the authority on 6 9 P a g e 256. P a u l ( p . 188) l i k e w i s e s p e a k s of t h e " e x a m p l e of t h e e l d e r s " being imitated only after the fulfillment of the 7 0 B u t l e r , op.

ext., p. 392

7 1 P a u l , p. 1 8 9 ; H i l d e m a r , p. 2 5 7 .

Rule.

ASCETICISM

AND

IDEALS

l8J

72

which a monk may withdraw to the desert. A discussion of the same subject evoked by the first chapter of the rule, ends with dissimilar conclusions on the part of our two commentators. 73 Both begin by noting that St. Benedict spoke of those monks who go from the monastery to the desert—apparently with approval, for " it is the custom of preachers always to exhort their hearers to advance from lesser to greater things." Next they observe that in his speaking of the cenobites as the most valiant kind of monks ( f o r t i s s i m u m genus), St. Benedict preferred them to the anchorites. At this point the two lines of argument take different directions. Paul explains that although St. Benedict advised that anyone after having been well trained in the monastery should go into solitude if this seemed best he did not say this by preference, as if it were better to leave the monastery to set out for the desert; rather, he spoke with reluctance, as if to say that only for some cause whereby a brother cannot remain in the monastery, should he, with the consent of the abbot, retire into the desert. 74 Hildemar, at the point of departure from Paul's line of reasoning, comments that as it cannot be said that Peter or John excelled the one the other, for the former is a figure of the active life, and the latter, of the contemplative, so it cannot 72 Paul, pp. 188-189; Hildemar, p. 257. It is interesting to note the e x planation of this passage given by a recent commentator, Abbot Marmion of Maredsous (Christ the Ideal of the Monk, p. 83, n.). H e writes: " W e must not take these words of the holy Patriarch too literally. Here we certainly have an expression of humility, but there is something more. T h e Rule of St. Benedict contains both relatively slight material observances and very lofty ascetical directions. In this place, he is only considering the first; he draws a comparison between what he regulates in the way of common ordinances and what was done by men such as Antony, Macarius, and even Pachomius." 73 This is one of the few instances in which the two commentators differ in thought, although it frequently happens that one omits a point treated by the other, or develops it more briefly. Even in this particular case, there is not so much a contradiction of thought, as a shift in the point of v i e w ; Hildemar is no longer trying to determine which type of life St. Benedict considered ideal, but is weighing the merits of the types themselves. 74 Paul, pp. 43-44.

i88

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be said that the life of the anchorite excels that of the cenobite, or vice versa" All this discussion seems to indicate that current opinion was divided as to the relative merits of the cenobitic and eremitic form of life. That the commentators favor the former, however, is evident not only in the foregoing but also in remarks concerning the advantages of the cenobitic life. They see the monk in a community aided by his companions through prayer, consolation, and exhortation—help which is not possible in the " single-handed combat." 7a Again, they would put into the mouth of the monk these words of gratitude for his calling: " We give thanks to Thee, O God, because when we were in the world we did not know nor learn Thy commands; now however, placed in the monastery and subject to the rule of others, by hearing, reading, and seeing good example we learn Thy will." 77 This thought indicates briefly the essence or ideal of the monastic life as viewed by the commentators. The monastery constitutes the place, obedience and the imitation of good example, the means whereby the monk learns to fulfill God's will—His service. The same idea is set forth at greater length in the following excerpts, explanatory of the phrase, " the school of divine service," used in the Prologue of the Rule: Therefore, if in this present world we are to do good which will profit us in eternity, a place should be established in which without worldly impediment we ought to perform that good. In this passage he [St. Benedict] speaks of monastic discipline as a school; for there are other schools, such as that of the ecclesiastical discipline, of the liberal arts, and of any art whatsoever in which anything is learned . . . It is well that he called it a school of divine service, because there are also schools of human service, and there is a great difference between the two. In the school of human service men fight for a king and learn the ways of warfare, the chase, and all things which pertain to the proper culture of the age; they perceive with likesome eye whatever concerns 75 Pages 84-85.

76 Paul, pp. 37, 39; Hildemar, p. 77, 79.

77 Paul, p. 1 8 5 ; Hildemar, pp. 253-254.

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189

their service, and for its sake endure all things—famine, tribulation, and the like. Those in the school of the Lord's service, on the other hand, fight for a celestial king, they learn the salvation of their own souls, and they perceive with the spiritual eye the heavenly beatitude for which they endure all evils and hardships.78 In commenting on the passage of the Prologue in which St. Benedict speaks of the " Lord seeking his workman in the multitude of his people," Hildemar takes occasion to view the religious life in a world-wide setting. I f , in this quotation, the " multitude " refers to the human race, then, according to our expositor, the Lord's workman is the Church considered as one man; but if the " m u l t i t u d e " signifies the Church—which Hildemar considers the more fitting interpretation—the Lord's worker is the order of apostolic followers. He explains that the Lord does not abandon the rest to seek out one workman, but He does as a king who chooses from among the great multitude of his people some for particular offices, and others as counsellors. The Lord chooses from among his Church that order of men who accept the word spoken to the rich man : " I f thou wilt be perfect, go sell what thou hast . . . and come follow me." While preaching here on earth He chose twelve from among the multitude of his disciples. Nor is it to be wondered at, that H e did this while in the flesh, or that He continues to do it daily in the Church, since even from the beginning of the world, He acted thus in choosing Noah, Abraham, Moses, and other holy persons. 78 Thus the life of the monk is viewed by our commentators as one of more intimate service than that expected of the average Christian; the emphasis is on the service—the life of devotion to God, not merely on the practice of one or other virtue or renunciation. It is on this point that some writers make a fatal mistake. In attempting to define a force which is essentially spiritual, they take into account only the external manifestations and ignore the spiritual element. Moreover, the invitation which the religious answers in assuming the monastic 78 Hildemar, pp. 65, 66.

79 Page 35.

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state is not complete with the words: " Go sell what thou hast, and give to the p o o r " ; it includes " a n d come follow me." In what has been said, it is obvious that the monastic ideal did not consist in the practice of any one virtue, but rather in the more intensive service of God—in becoming a more perfect Christian than was possible for one living in the world. T h e various ascetical practices, we recall, are but a means to the end. 80 I f , however, it were desired to point out from among these practices the one on which the commentators placed most emphasis, it would, doubtless, be obedience—the renunciation of one's own will. This is applicable, also, to the Rule itself, and to the Order in general. Poverty, particularly corporate poverty, was never the Benedictine ideal. It received its first emphasis in the Cistercian reform. It is difficult to understand, therefore, why Mr. Workman, even though he made no use of the commentaries, should write that at the time of the Cistercians " the center of emphasis in renunciation was being slowly changed. Hitherto ' poverty' had been supreme, but the experience of centuries has shown that poverty as an ideal defeated itself. But ' obedience ' had in it latent possibilities as yet little exploited." 8 1 The degree of perfection to be found in the service rendered by the monk is dependent on the motives with which it is performed. T h e commentators enumerate, in ascending order, four several motives whereby a monk may be actuated in his service. They explain that " those who serve God out of fear of punishment are not good in comparison with those who serve because of the promises made in their profession; again, those who serve for the love of their heavenly inheritance are better than those who serve in order to fulfill their promise; finally, those who serve solely for the love of God are better than those who serve for the love of their celestial country." 8 T o elucidate the import of all this to his readers, Paul Warnefrid makes use of the following figure: 80 Cf. supra,

p. 171.

81 Of.

cit., p. 245.

8 2 Hildemar, p. 1 8 8 ; in Paul's version (p. 1 2 4 ) , one item of the series has evidently been omitted by the scribe.

ASCETICISM

AND

IDEALS

igi

For example, there is a slave, a vassal, and a son. The slave obeys because of fear, lest he be beaten; the vassal serves because of the word which he has given, lest he be found false. The son may be one of the two kinds: one obeys his father lest he be disinherited—he is indeed a mercenary; another serves only out of love for his father, lest he offend him. This son has no anxiety about the possession of his inheritance—rather he would be willing to lose it so long as he is in his father's favor and enjoys his happiness. Such a one is a true son. So it is with the monk: if he serves God from fear of punishment, lest he be excommunicated or beaten, he is a slave; if he serves God because of the profession which he has promised, he is, as it were, a vassal; if he serves God in order to receive the inheritance of the heavenly country, he is a mercenary; if he serves God only to possess His good pleasure and not to know His anger, he is a perfect son.83 The monk's service, therefore, which is motivated by the fear of eternal punishment is not perfect; nevertheless, according to the commentators, his " conversion is sound." They observe, however, that some come to the monastery for a still less worthy motive—out of necessity for the material things of life. Such as these, although their "conversion is not right," will in time and through the Lord's mercy, be transformed, i. e., they will begin to fear, and will pass on to the higher degrees, even to love. 84 A final point, and one which has been the subject of particular interest a m o n g recent Benedictine writers, remains. Assuming that the cenobitical form of life is the ideal, and assuming that the cenobite aspires to the perfection of the pure love of God, is he to devote himself equally to manual work and to spiritual activities as the casual reading of the Rule would seem to imply, or is the contemplative life to be preferred to the active ? 85 The commentators discuss the question f r o m the viewpoint 83 Paul, p. 124; Hildemar, pp. 188-189. 84 Paul, pp, 121, 172; Hildemar, pp. 185, 242-243. 85 For an excellent analysis of this question with reference to the Rule, see Justin McCann, St. Benedict, pp. 168-189.

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of one trying to ascertain the mind of St. Benedict on the subject, and on the merits of the question itself. Their conclusion in the first case is that St. Benedict recommended both the active and the contemplative occupations, but with the implication that the latter is the ideal or end, and the former is a necessary means to that end. In his writing that the monks should not be saddened if the circumstances require them to gather in the harvest themselves, for then are they true monks indeed, he spoke by way of consolation, " not that those who are free to read are not true monks." And again, if they devote themselves solely to reading, they would experience tedium, and could not, therefore, fulfill the spiritual exercises properly.8« The same conclusion is reached in the second discussion, i. e., the one based on the merits of the two types of life. 87 The proper procedure to follow, therefore, is to strike a balance between the two, for although contemplation is the desired goal, it can best be attained through a limited devotion to the active life. 88 The following quotation expresses the attitude of the commentators regarding the practical and the ideal, as well, perhaps, as any which could be cited. The disposition of human and of divine things should be both separated and combined: they should be separated in dignity, inasmuch as the disposal of divine things should hold first place, for there is, indeed, great difference between the good which should be desired and the necessary which must be undertaken. They should be combined so that God be sought for Himself, and these temporal things be foreseen and obtained, not for themselves, but for that one and only Good. Thus those who in these things have but one purpose, i. e., zeal only to please God, are able praiseworthily to serve both, so that neither the divine things are neglected, nor the human things improperly done.89 86 Paul, p. 395 ; Hildemar, pp. 479-480. 87 Butler (op. cit., p. 101) points out that the allegory on which this passage of the commentary is based, is taken from the writings of St. Gregory who in turn took it from St. Augustine. 88 Paul, p. 394; Hildemar, pp. 477-478.

89 Hildemar, pp. 136-137.

CONCLUSION THE historical importance of the commentaries selected for the present study lies chiefly in the aggregate of details •which, when pieced together, form in mosaic an interesting and somewhat intimate picture of Carolingian monasticism. Particularly when compared with the meager glimpses available from contemporary chronicle literature and from legal documents, the picture loses, in large measure, the sketchiness it might appear to have on the first reading of the commentaries. Moreover, the information which they yield correlates well with the pertinent material in current conciliar and imperial decrees, and with the few scant monastic consuetudinaries o f the period, thus adding weight and authority to the literature of the commentaries. The fact that Paul Warnefrid's commentary is, after the Rule itself, the earliest extant account of any size pertaining to primitive Benedictinism, contributes special interest. This interest extends in two directions. On the one side, it is noteworthy to observe the manner in which the Rule, written more than two centuries earlier, is interpreted and applied in Carolingian times. In this respect, the historical developments in the interim, such as the introduction of. daily Mass, the tendency o f an ever increasing proportion of the monks to advance to Holy Orders, and the employment of laymen in the monastery are reflected in the adjustments to the Rule made by the commentators. On the other side, it is interesting to note the various institutional features of later monasticism, particularly that of Cluny, and, chronologically nearer, that of Benedict of Aniane, which are traceable to our commentaries; in this respect, certain liturgical developments and devotional practices, as well as numerous social customs, might be cited as illustrations. Moreover, these features are reported by the commentators, not as innovations, but as practices already in vogue; frequently they 193

194

CONCLUSION

are merely mentioned in passing. The question at once suggests itself as to the actual time and place of their origin. I t is in this respect, too, that W a r n e f r i d ' s commentary tends to diminish considerably the importance hitherto ascribed to the Carolingian reform, accredited by many writers to Benedict of Aniane, and by others to Louis the Pious. T h e f a m o u s document which serves as the chief basis of our knowledge of this reform is the Monastic Capitulary of 8 1 7 containing eighty-two articles relative to the monastic life. A large proportion of these coincide closely in substance, some even verbally, with our commentaries; a considerable proportion are to be found in previous canonical and imperial decrees. T h u s the contribution of Benedict of Aniane and the Aachen Council is seen to consist not so much in their originality as in the confirmation and codification of the regulations and discipline already contained in W a r n e f r i d ' s commentary and in current legal literature. More important than the comparative study which the commentaries make possible with reference to primitive Benedictinism and its later history, is the picture of contemporary monasticism which they present. Certain disputed questions regarding particular elements of monasticism can be solved f o r the Carolingian period on the basis of the treatment given them in the commentaries; f o r example, the relation between the monastic and the canonical penances and the irrevocability of the oblate's promise made by proxy. This statement is limited, of course, to the extent that the commentators base their remarks on current practice. A g a i n , other elements are observed to be in a state of development not sufficiently advanced to warrant their acceptance as general, although the commentators indicate their preference in the matter. A s belonging to this category, we might suggest the discussions relative to the use of fleshmeat, the superiority of the cenobitical to the eremitical form of life, and the use of the Roman or the monastic breviary.

CONCLUSION

195

The details concerning social and religious institutions a f ford worthwhile material for students of the respective fields. As might be expected from the amplification of a monastic rule of life, the most important results of the study, however, concern the constitutional and ascetical phases of monasticism. The former presents a somewhat rigorous and legalistic impression of the institution; the spirit of custody and the ever ready penalty for violations of observance stand out in clear form. The latter, i. e., the ascetical phase, indicates little departure from fundamental Christian principles of asceticism and the spirit of the Rule; spiritual austerities take precedence over the corporal, and all renunciation is subsidiary to the more positive ideal of a deep devotion to the service of God.

APPENDIX SURVEY OF THE MEDIEVAL COMMENTARIES T H E bibliographies of the commentaries on the Rule are not satisfactory. The most complete ones are now long antiquated ; they are to be found in Calmet's commentary 1 and in Ziegelbauer's literary history of the Benedictine Order. 2 Some of the commentaries in manuscript form have since been removed to libraries other than those indicated; some of the items listed are vaguely given, lacking precise title and date; others are editions of the Rule with a few scattered comments; still others are notices from chronicles for which there is no corresponding literature. Abbot Butler sketched briefly in his Benedictine Monachistn sixteen of the leading commentaries, including those of the modern period-; 8 Dom Berlière devoted a few pages of his L'Ascèse bénédictine to the commentaries written before the thirteenth century.* Both of these accounts have been used in preparing the following survey of the medieval commentaries. It is by no means exhaustive; current conditions in Europe render it extremely difficult to verify the location of the commentaries still in manuscript. A l l of the published Latin commentaries originating before 1500, however, are available in the university and monastic libraries of this country and have been examined. A f t e r the commentary of Paul Warnefrid which is first in the order of time, and perhaps the best of the medieval commentaries viewed as an historical source, the next works on the Rule to merit our attention are those of Benedict of Aniane, who died in the year 821. His name is vitally associated with 1 French edition (I734), PP. 73-9°, 592-597-

2 M. Ziegelbauer, Hisloria rei literariae ordints S. Benedicti, III (Augsburg, 1754), 12-24. 3 Pages 177-183. 4 Pages 19-23.

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the Carolingian reform movement which had for its purpose the uniformity of observance and practice among the monasteries of the empire. Although the two works he compiled on the Rule are not commentaries in the full sense of the word, they are so closely related to the commentaries that we must needs point them out. He collected into one volume entitled Codex regularum all the Latin Rules prior to the ninth century; this was edited by L. Holsten in Rome, 1661, and its contents have since been reprinted in various volumes of Migne's Latin Patrology,5 The second work, entitled Concordia regularum, is a quasi-commentary in which Benedict reorganized the contents of the Codex regularum in the following manner : the Rule of St. Benedict is presented, a passage at a time; after each of these passages, there follows the pertinent passage from one or more of the twenty-six Rules from which he quotes. The originality of the work lay chiefly in the novel idea of the compilation; it rendered not only possible but easy the study of the sources of the Rule and the comparison of its general tenor with that of the Rules which preceded and followed it. The Concordia was first edited by the Maurist Menard in 1638, and has been reprinted in Volume 103 of Migne's collection. Shortly after the death of Benedict of Aniane, Smaragdus, abbot of St. Michael's at Verdun, wrote a commentary entitled Expositio in regulam B. Benedicti. This was first published at Cologne in 1575, and has been reprinted in Migne, Volume 102. Having in view not the learned but the simple, as he himself writes in the prooemium* Smaragdus devotes considerable space to the literal interpretation of the Rule. Being quite void of historical details, his treatment, in general, might apply equally well to another age. The entire work is interlarded with quotations frpm the Scriptures, the Fathers, and, in particular, from the various monastic Rules; the last 5 Volume 103 contains a number of the Rules and it indicates the volumes in which the others may be found. 6 PL, 102, col. 691.

THE

MEDIEVAL

COMMENTARIES

199

named source indicates, doubtless, a generous use of the Concordia regularum. The next commentary, chronologically, is the enlarged version of Warnefrid's Expositio made by Hildemar about the middle of the ninth century. A s this was discussed in the Introduction, we shall note here only the further versions which derive from this revision of Warnefrid's commentary. T w o manuscripts, originating in Reichenau and now preserved at Karlsruhe, contain a slightly modified version of Hildemar's work. One of them, MS. Augiensis 203, dating from the ninth century, contains chapters one to thirteen of the commentary; the other, Augiensis 179, written in the early tenth century, contains chapters fourteen to sixty-one of the commentary. The latter is attributed, by an eleventh-century hand, to an Abbot Basil. Alfred Holder 7 and, after him, L. Traube 8 discount entirely this attribution, and maintain that the two manuscripts supplement each other in presenting the Expositio of Warnefrid in the enlarged edition given it by Hildemar. Traube explains that varying versions may have arisen either as copies of the original draft written at Hildemar's dictation, or as the notes of different pupils from the same series of lectures.® T w o ninth-century copies of this " Basil " commentary are extant: Engelberg 142, and Einsiedeln 253. 1 0 The surviving fragment of a second version of Hildemar's commentary was edited and analyzed by C. Cipolla in 1 8 9 4 . " It dates from an eleventh-century manuscript thought to have originated at the monastery of Novalese and is now preserved 7 Die Handschrijten der grossherzoglich badischen Hoj- und Landesbibliothek in Karlsruhe, V, Die reichenauer Handschrijten, I, 418, 464. 8 Textgeschichte der Regula S. Benedicti, p. 44. 9 Ibid., p. 43. 10 Ibid., n. 5. 11 Ricerche sull' anlica biblioteca del monastero della Novalesa, T u r i n , 1894; this was reprinted in large part in Memorie della reale accademia delle science di Torino, X L I V ( 1 8 9 4 ) , 7 1 - 8 8 , 115-150, 1 9 3 - 2 4 2 , 2 4 3 - 3 1 9 . T h e fragment of the commentary is edited on pages 2 1 9 - 2 2 4 . See also Cipolla, " Brevi appunti di storia Novaliciense," Ibid., X L V , 1 5 0 - 1 6 6 .

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Turin. 1 2

in the state archives of Traube sees it to be essentially Hildemar's work to which additions have been made by some monk living after him. 13 Berlière suggests that it is a manuscript of this kind which Trithemius attributed to Ruthard, a ninth-century monk of Hirschau, since the incipit which Trithemius gives corresponds to that of Paul and Hildemar." T w o ninth-century manuscripts, Codex 278 of Valenciennes and Codex n. a. lat. 763 of the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, are entitled Glose de diversis doctoribus collecte in Regula S. Benedicti; this composition is thought to have been made by Hucbald of St. Amandus in the diocese of Tournai, Belgium. 15 A commentary ascribed to one Remigius was seen by Bernard of Montfaucon in the library of the Camaldolite monastery of Our Lady of the Angels in Florence. Bernard would identify the author with Remigius of Auxerre who died in 908. 16 Theuzo, an eleventh-century monk of St. Marys, Florence, 11 composed a commentary on the Rule. A thirteenth-century manuscript of this work was preserved in the monastery of St. Mathiae de Murano, Venice, in the eighteenth century. 18 In 1810-1811, however, the manuscripts of this monastic library, except those codices which were deposited in the library of St. Gregory on Monte Coelio, Rome, were transferred to the 12 T r a u b e , Textgeschichte,

pp. 44-45.

13 Ibid., p. 45. 14 L'Ascèse bénédictine, p. 20. Berlière also notes that T r i t h e m i u s attributes to Rüdiger of Echternach (10th century) and to M a r q u a r d , monk of S t . B u r c h a r d of W ü r z b u r g ( n t h century) commentaries which are nowhere else indicated (Ibid., p. 20, n. 4). 15 Berlière, op. cit., pp. 21-22. 16 Diarium

Italicum

( P a r i s , 1702), p. 354.

17 Cf. U. Chevalier, Répertoire des sources historiques bibliographie, II (new ed., 1905), col. 4397.

du moyen âge:

Bio-

18 T h e dedicatory letter associated with this commentary is given in Annales Camaldulenses ( I 7 5 5 - I 7 7 3 ) , H , 156, and is reprinted in PL, 143, col. 846.

THE

MEDIEVAL

COMMENTARIES

201

1

library of St. Mark's, Venice. ' Since the manuscript catalogue of the latter does not list Theuzo's commentary, it is possible that it was among the codices later removed to Rome. Berliere reports a second manuscript (sixteenth century) of this commentary preserved at L a Badia of Florence. 20 Another Theuzo of the same century is likewise associated with an exposition of the Rule. 21 In his bibliography of the commentaries, Calmet reports that Theuzo, disciple of St. J o h n Gualbert and abbot of Saint Paul of Raggiolo, wrote a commentary which is preserved in manuscript in the library of the grand duke of Tuscany, Florence. 22 Three of the f o u r twelfth-century commentaries have been printed but no one of them is a complete and orderly exposition of the Rule. T h e title of the one written by Rupert of Deutz indicates that it treats only of certain points of the Rule. 28 It is divided into f o u r books: the first concerns theological controversies; the second, the order of the psalms chanted in Matins and L a u d e s ; the third, the ordination of monks, the black color of their habit, and the use of f u r garments in winter; the fourth, the preeminence of the state of the monks as compared with that of the canons regular. The author died in 1135. Contemporary with Rupert of Deutz lived Peter the Deacon of Monte Cassino. H i s exposition of the Rule is a very uneven piece f instead of following the order of the Rule by chapters, it is divided into three books. The first of these is devoted to 19 J. Valentinelli, Bibliothcca (Venice, 1868), pp. 127-128.

manuscripta

ad S.

Marci

Venetiarum,

I

20 Op. cit., p. 22, n. 8. 21 Chevalier (op. cit., col. 4397) places his death in 1095. T h e editors of the Annates Comaldulenses caution against confusing this T h e u z o with the one previously mentioned: see PL, 143, col. 843. 22 Op. cit., bibliography, pp. 73-90. 23 It reads: Super quaedam capitula printed in PL, 170, cols. 477-538.

regulae

Divi

Benedicti

abbatis;

it is

24 It is published in Bibliotheca Casinensis, V, 8 2 - 1 7 4 Peter the Deacon also wrote an epitome Super regulam of three folio pages; cf. ibid., pp. 73-76.

202

BENEDICTINE

MONASTICISM

the Prologue of the Rule; the second and a great part of the third are abstract rhetorical treatments of subjects remotely connected with the Rule. Peter also wrote a brief commentary, entitled Explanatio brevis. It starts from the beginning of the Rule and gives a strictly literal interpretation of terms used in the first twenty-eight chapters. Then follow three columns of terse rules, customs, and penances. The author lifted bodily the whole of Smaragdus' Expositio, Gregory's Cura pastoralis, and a great part of Smaragdus' Diadetna monachorum into his major work. These borrowings he broke up into sections which he interspersed with his own discussions. He seems not to feel responsible for giving a thorough treatment, for he refers on several occasions to the work already done by his predecessors; 25 on the other hand, he states that he has tried to cull from the writings of certain Fathers the sentiments which seem to agree with those of the Rule. 20 The third twelfth-century commentator was Stephen of Paris, about whom little else is known than what is related in the autobiographical notes contained in his work. Judging from the title, Tractatus magistri Stephani Parisiensis in Régula S. BcnedictiStephen was a teacher in a school of Paris. In the course of the commentary, he relates that he was an eye witness to the elevation of Pope Eugenius I I I in 1 1 4 6 and that he visited Monte Cassino. His treatment in general is less literal than moral; he passes over in silence nearly all of the chapters of the Rule relating to the Divine Office.28 His commentary has not been printed, but is extant in two manuscripts : at Melk in the fifteenth-century M S . 12 of Epinal, once at Sens, and at Munich in the fifteenth-century M S . elm., 3029, once at St. Ulric of Augsburg. 28 25/birf., pp. 82, i n , 137, 1 6 5 ; among the names cited, that of Paul the Deacon (Warnefrid) is the only one mentioned in all these references. 26 Ibid., p. 83. 27 Berlière, p. 23, n. 2. 28 Histoire

littéraire

29 Berlière, loc. cit.

de la France,

X I I , 260.

THE

MEDIEVAL

COMMENTARIES

203

St. Hildegarde, abbess of the convent of Bingen, who died in the year 1189, has left a brief explanation of the Rule. It was written at the request of the convent of Huy, Belgium, and constitutes, as it were, one item of her extensive correspondence, rather than a commentary properly so-called. It is not a complete treatment, since it covers only thirteen columns in Migne's Patrology.30 In so f a r as it goes, it is more liberal than our Carolingian commentaries in the interpretation of the Rule. Bernard of Monte Cassino wrote an Expositio in regulam St. Benedicti which was edited by Dom Caplet in 1894. Bernard died in 1282, having been abbot at Monte Cassino during the twenty years preceding his death. His commentary is complete and systematic, and is practical and descriptive of contemporary life and thought. Although it contains more than sixty direct references to the exposition of Warnefrid and reflects his influence almost continually, it does not thereby lose its title to originality; the author does not hesitate to disagree with Paul or others whose opinions differ from his own. The next three commentaries, chronologically, are preserved in manuscript at Monte Cassino. Nicholas de Fractura, also known as Nicholas of St. Germain, wrote, according to a contemporary scribe who copied the Chronicle of Volturno, an exposition of the Rule in 1299. In the list of abbots appended to the chronicle, the scribe writes : "Nicholas de Fractura, monk of Cassino was a Doctor of Canon Law. In 1299 he wrote an exposition of the Rule of St. Benedict which I have copied." 3 1 Martene cites Arnold Wion as his authority for the explanation that Nicholas wrote the commentary at Monte Cassino before he was made abbot of St. Vincent's monastery at Volturno. 32 The manuscript of this commentary is No. 445 in the Monte Cassino collection.83 Richard of St. Angelo, also a 30 Vol. 197, cols. 1053-66. 31 Chronicon Vulturnense in Fonti per la storia d'ltalia, LX, 106. The quotation reads: " Nicolaus de Fractura monacus Casinensis. hie Decretorum doctor fuit. 1299 exposuit regulam sancti Benedicti, apud me manuscriptam." 32 Commenlarius, PL, 66, 209. 33 Bibliotheca Casinensis, I, Appendix, lxvii. Unfortunately this manu-

2Q4

BENEDICTINE

MONASTICISM

monk of Monte Cassino, is the author of a commentary of which only chapters eight to nineteen have survived in a manuscript fragment preserved in Codex 441 at Monte Cassino." Finally, the fourteenth-century Codex 4 1 2 at Monte Cassino contains, among other works ascribed to an Antoninus, a commentary entitled In regulam S. Benedicti Peter Bohier, a French monk, who later became abbot of St. Anianus (near Narbonne), and bishop of Orvieto in 1364, wrote two commentaries on the Rule. The first was written from the viewpoint of the canonist in 1 3 6 1 while Bohier was abbot. The second he wrote as bishop of Orvieto at the request of the monks of Subiaco, completing it in the year 1 3 7 3 . " It was published in 1908 at Subiaco. The method employed, of explaining the Rule word by word or phrase by phrase instead of by sentences or passages, tends to detract from the interest it might otherwise have. The purpose, indicated in the preface and pursued throughout the work, of illustrating the Rule from the writings of Jerome, Cassian, Basil, and Pachomius directs the attention of the author away from the practice and thought of the time in which he lived. Toward the close of the fourteenth century, John of Kastel in the Upper Palatinate composed a commentary which, according to Calmet, who wrote in the eighteenth century, was preserved in the library of St. Peter at Salzburg. 87 John Keck of Tegernsee, who was present at the Council of Basel, was likewise the author of an exposition of the Rule. It was preserved in manuscript in the library of Tegernsee at the time script catalogue ( B i b l . script analyzed in Vol. Codicum Casincnsium codices 400-500, but is

Casin.) is incomplete, MS. 358 being the last manuV . The 3d volume of the later manuscript catalogue, manuscriptorum catalogus, is scheduled to describe still in preparation.

34 Cf. Martene, loc. cit.; 35 Bibliotheca

Bibliotheca

Casinensis,

36 L. Allodi, Petri Boherii (Subiaco, 1908), xx-xxi. 37 Commentaire,

Casinensis,

loc. cit.

I, Appendix, lxvi-lxvii. in regulam

Bibliog., pp. 73-90.

Sancti

Benedicti

commentarium

THE

MEDIEVAL

COMMENTARIES

2C>5

38

Martene wrote his commentary ( 1 6 9 0 ) . Martene also reports that in the library of Weingarten is preserved the manuscript of a commentary written by John Vlitpacher, monk of Melk, Austria, after the reform of his monastery in 1 4 2 0 . " Cardinal J o h n Turrecremata (Torquemada), a Dominican and an eminent ecclesiastic at the time of the Councils of Constance and Basel, wrote a commentary about 1 4 4 1 which went through three printed editions before the close of the following century. 40 Butler considers it a commentary of great excellence. " Its interest lies in the fact that it reflects the ideas of the reforming efforts associated with the two Councils a f o r e s a i d . " 4 1 John of Trittenheim, known also as Trithemius, wrote a commentary shortly after becoming abbot of Spanheim in 1484. A phrase following the title indicates that the work was divided into two books but, unfortunately, only the first one has survived. This was published among his works in 1 6 0 5 and separately in 1608. 4 2 It covers only the Prologue and the first seven chapters of the Rule, and is concerned chiefly with religious discipline and fervor. B e f o r e the close of the fifteenth century, Christian of Salzburg wrote a commentary which, according to C a l m e t 4 3 and at the time he wrote, was extant in manuscript in the monastery of St. Blaze, Vienna. 38 Martene, Commentaries,

PL, 66, col. 210.

39 Ibid., loc. cit. Martene also mentions a commentary in the library of Tegernsee written by another monk of Melk, John Schlippacher (loc. cit.). Calmet (loc. cit.), however, thinks this author to be the same as the one above called John Vlitpacher. 40 The edition examined by the writer is bound with several other works in a volume entitled Regula S. Benedicti cum doctiss. et piiss. commentariis Joannis de Turre Cremata, S. R. E. cardinalis, et Smaragdi abbatis. . . (Cologne, 1575). 41 Benedictine and Basel.

Monachism,

p. 180. The councils are those of Constance

42 Cf. ibid., loc. cit. The earlier edition forms a substantial part of the volume entitled Joannis Trithemii . . . opera pia et spiritualia, . . . a R. P. Joanne Busaeo,... et in unum volumen, mendis expurgatis redacta (Maintz, 1605). 43 Loc.

cit.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Alamo, M., " La Règle de Saint Benoit éclairée par sa source, la Règle du Maître," Revue d'histoire ecclésiastique, X X X I V (1938), 740-755. Albareda, A . M., Bibliografia de la régla benedictina, Montserrat, Abbey press, 1933. Albers, Bruno, Consuetudines monasticae, 5 vols, in 4; Vol. I, Stuttgart, 1900; Vols. II-V, Monte Cassino, 1900-1912. Allodi, Leo, Pétri Boherii in régulant Sancti Benedicti commentarium, Subiaco, Abbey press, 1908. Altaner, Berthold, " Zur Geschichte der mittelalterlichen Orden," Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte, X L I X (1930), 54-64 Amann, É., " Pénitence public et pénitence privée à l'époque de la réforme carolingienne," Dictionnaire de théologie catholique, XII, 862-879. Amelli, A . M., Ars Donati quam Paulus Diaconus exposuit, Monte Cassino, Abbey press, 1899. , " L'epigramma di Paolo Diacono intorno al canto Gregoriano e Ambrosiano," Memorie storiche Forogiuliesi, IX (1913), 153-175. Antiquiores consuetudines monasterii Cluniacensis Udalrici, ed. Lue d'Achery in Spicilegium, I (Paris, 1773), 639-703; reprint in P L , 149, cols. 635-778. Baluze, Étienne, Capitula regum Francorum, Vol. II, Paris, 1780. Balzani, Ugo, Chronicon Farfense di Gregorio di Catino, 2 vols., Rome, 1903; Fonti per la storia d'Italia, X X X I I I - X X X I V . Benedict of Aniane, Codex regularum monasticarum et canonicarum, P L , 103, cols. 393-702, Concordia regularum, P L , 103, cols. 702-1380. , Excerptus diversarum modus poenitentiarum a Benedtcto abbate [Anianensi] distinctus de régula sancti Benedicti abbatis, PL, 103, cols. 1417-1420. Bernard de Montfaucon, Diarium Italicum, Paris, J. Anisson, 1702. Berlière, Ursmer, La Familia dans des monastères bénédictins du moyen âge, Brüssels, 1931 ; Mémoires de la classe des lettres de l'Académie royal de Belgique, X X I X . , L'Ascèse bénédictine des origines à la fin du XIIe siècle, Bruges, Desclée, 1927. , " Les Coutumiers monastiques des VIII« et IX e siècles," Revue bénédictine, X X V (1908), 95-107. , " L e s Écoles abbatiales au moyen âge," ibid., V I (1889), 499-511. , " Le Nombre des moines dans les anciens monastères," ibid., X L I (1929), 231-261; X L I I (1930), 31-42. , " L e s Oblats de Saint Benoît au moyen âge," ibid., III (1886-1887), 55-61, 1 0 7 - m , 156-160, 209-220, 249-255. , L'Ordre monastique, des origines au XIIe siècle, 3d ed., Lille, Desclée, 1924. 206

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Bernard, P., "Confession (du concile de Latran au concile de Trente)," Dictionnaire de théologie catholique, III, 894-926. Bethmann, L., " Paulus Diaconus, Leben und Schriften," Archiv der Gesellschaft für ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde, X (1849), 247-334. Bibliotheca Casinensis seu codicum manuscriptorum qui in tabulario Cassinensi asservaniur, 5 vols., Monte Cassino, Abbey press, 1873-1894. Bilfinger, Gustav, Die mittelalterlichen Hören und die modernen Stunden, Stuttgart, Kohlhammer, 1892. Bishop, Edmund, Liturgica historica: Papers on the Liturgy and Religious Life of the Western Church, Oxford, Clarendon press, 1918. Butler, Cuthbert, Benedictine Monachism, 2d ed. with supplementary notes, London, Longmans, Green and Co., 1924. , " The Cassinese Manuscripts of the Rule," Casinensia, I, 124-127, Monte Cassino, Abbey press, 1929. , Sancti Benedicti regula monasteriorum, 3d ed., critico-practical, Freiburg im Breisgau, Herder and Co., 1935. , Western Mysticism: The Teaching of SS. Augustine, Gregory, and Bernard on Contemplation and the Contemplative Life, 2d ed. with after thoughts, London, Constable, 1927. Calmet, Augustin, Commentaire lit tirai, historique et moral sur la règie de Saint Benoit, 2 vols in I, Paris, Emery, 1734. Capitula regum Francorum, Vol. I, ed. A . Boretius, M G H , L L , II, Hannover, 1883. Caplet, A. M., Bernardi I abbatis Casinensis in regulam S. Benedicti expositio, Monte Cassino, Abbey press, 1894. Chronicon Salemitanum, ed. G. H. Pertz, M G H , SS, III, 467-561. Cipolla, Carl, " Brevi appunti di storia Novaliciense," Memorie della reale accademia della scienza di Torino, X L V (1896), 150-166. , " Notizia di alcuni codici antica biblioteca Novaliciense," ibid., X L I V (1894), I93-242, " Note bibliografiche circa l'odierna condizione degli studi critici sul testo delle opere di Paolo Diacono," Miscellanea di storia Venetia, ser. 2, V I I I (1902), 1-43. Clark, J. M., The Abbey of St. Gall as a Center of Literature and Art, Cambridge, Cambridge University press, 1926. Codex diplomaticus Langobardia, Monumenta historiae patriae, X I I I , Turin, 18-3. Codicum Casinensium manuscriptorum catalogus, 2 vols., edited by the Benedictine monks of Monte Cassino, Monte Cassino, 1915-1934. Concilia aevi Karolini, Vol. I, i-ii, ed. A . Wenninghof!, M G H , L L , III, Hannover, 1906. Consuetudines Hirsaugienses, P L , 150, cols. 923-1146. Cottineau, L. H., Repertoire topo-bibliographique des abbayes et prieuris, 2 vols., Macon, Protat, 1935-1938. Delatte, Paul, Commentary on the Rule of St. Benedict, trans, from the French by J. McCann, London, Burns, Oates and Co., 1921.

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Deroux, M. P., Les Origines de l'oblature bénédictine, Vienne, 1927 ; Les editions de la Revue Mabillon, I. Dolhagaray, B., "Confession (science acquise en)," Dictionnaire de théologie catholique, III, 960-974. Dopsch, Alfons, Wirtschaftliche und soziale Grundlagen der europäischen Kulturentwicklung aus der Zeit von Caesar bis auf Karl den Grossen, 2 vols., 2d ed. revised and enlarged, Vienna, 1923-1924. Dören, Alfred, Italienische Wirtschaftsgeschichte, Jena, G. Fischer, 1934. Dulcy, Suzanne, La Règle de Saint Benoit d'Anione et la réforme monastique à l'époque carolingienne, Nimes, A . Larguier, 1935 ; Thesis, University of Montpellier. Ermini, Filippo, " La poesia enigmistica e faceta di Paolo Diacono," Memorie storiche Forogiuliesi, X X V (1929), 97-110. Evans, Joan, Monastic Life at Cluny, 910-1157, London, Oxford University press, 1931. Falco, G., " Lineamenti di storia cassinese nei secoli V i l i e IX," Casinensia, II. 457-548, Monte Cassino, 1929. Federici, V., Chronicon Vultumense, 3 vols, Rome, 1925-1938; Fonti per la storia d'Italia, L V I I I - L X . Frank, H., Der Klosterbischöfe des Frankenreiches, Münster in W., 1932; Beiträge zur Geschichte des alten Mönchtums und des Benediktinerordens, X V I I . Formulae Merovingici et Karolini aevi, ed. K . Zeumer, M G H , L L , V , Hannover, 1886. Gougaud, Louis, Anciennes Coutumes claustrales, Ligugé (Vienne), 1930. , Dévotions et pratiques ascétiques du moyen âge, Paris, Desclée, 1925. Grasshoff, Hans, Langobardish-fränkisches Klosterwesen in Italien, Göttingen, E. A . Huth, 1907 ; Dissertation, University of Gottingen. Hannay, J. O., The Spirit and Origin of Christian Monasticism, London, Methuen, 1903. Harnack, Adolf, Das Mönchthum: Seine Ideale und seine Geschichte, 5th ed., Giessen, Ricker, 1901. Hauck, Albert, Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands, Vol. II, 3d and 4th ed., Leipzig, Hinrich, 1912. Hefele, K . J., Histoire des conciles d'après les documents originaux, transi, from the 2d German edition, and augmented with critical and bibliographical notes, by Henri Leclercq, 10 vols., Paris, 1907-1938. Heimbucher, Max, Die Orden und Kongregationen der katholischen Kirche, 2 vols., 3d ed., Paderborn, Schoningh, 1933-1934. Herwegen, Ildefons, Geschichte der benediktinischen Professformel, Münster in W., 1912; Beiträge zur Geschichte des alten Mönchtums und des Benediktinerordens, III, ii. , St. Benedict: A Character Study, transi, from the German by Peter Nugent, London, Sands and Co., 1924. Hinschius, Paul, DecretaJes pseudo-Isidorianae et Capitula Angilramni, Leipzig, Tauchnitz, 1863.

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Holder, Alfred, Die Reichenauer Handschriften, 3 vols., Leipzig, 1906-1918; Die Handschriften der grossherzoglich badischen H o f - und Landesbibliothek in Karlsruhe, V - V I I . Hörle, G. H., Frühmittelalterliche Mönchs- und Klerikerbildung in Italien, geistliche Bildungsideale und Bildungseinrichtungen vom 6. bis sum ç. Jahrhundert, Freiburg im Breisgau, 1914; Freiburger theologische Studien, X I I I . Koschek, J., Die Klosterreform Ludwigs des Frommen im Verhältnis zur Regel Benedikts von Nursia, Greifswald, 1908; Dissertation, University of Greifswald. Kurtscheid, Bertrand, A History of the Seal of Confession, authorized translation by the Rev. F. A . M a r k s ; ed. Arthur Preuss, St. Louis, Herder, 1927. Labriolle, Pierre de, Histoire de la literature latine chrétienne, 2d ed., revised and enlarged, Paris, Société d'édition " Les Belles-lettres," 1924. Laistner, M. L. W . , Thought and Letters in Western Europe, A. D. 500-900, London, Methuen, 1931. , " T h e Christian Attitude to Pagan Literature," History, X X (1935), 49-54Leclercq, Henri, L'Ordre bénédictine, Paris, Rieder, 1930. , " Chaussure," Dictionnaire d'archéologie chrétienne et de liturgie, III, 1232-1257. , " Cenobitisme," ibid., II, 3047-3248. , " Oblat," ibid., X I I , 1857-1877. —•—, " Office divin," ibid., X I I , 1926-2017. Lesne, E., " L'Économie domestique d'un monastère au I X e siècle d'après les statuts d'Adalhard, abbé de Corbie," Melanges d'histoire du moyen âge offerts à M. Ferdinand Lot, pp. 385-423, Paris, Champion, 1925. Levillain, L., Les Statuts d'Adalhard pour l'abbaye de Corbie ( IX e -X® siècles), Paris, E. Bouillon, 1900; reprinted from Le Moyen Age, X I I I . Linderbauer, Benno, 6". Benedicti Regula monasteriorum, Bonn, 1928 ; Florilegium patristicum, X V I I . Lindsay, W . M., Isidori Hispalensis episcopi etymologiarum sive originum libri xx, 2 vols., Oxford, Clarendon press, 1911. Loening, Edgar, Geschichte des deutschen Kirchenrechts, 2 vols, Strassburg, Trübner, 1878. Loew, E. A., Die ältesten Kaiendarien aus Monte Cassino, Munich, 1908; Quellen und Untersuchungen zur lateinischen Philologie des Mittelalters, III, iii. Luzzatto, Gino, I servi nelle grandi propriété ecclesiastiche italiane dei secoli IX e X, Senigallia, Marchigiana, 1909. Lynch, C. H., Saint Braulio, Bishop of Saragossa (631-651) : His Life and Writings, Washington, 1938; The Catholic University of America Studies in Medieval History, new series, II. Maassen, Friedrich, Geschichte der Quellen und Literatur des canonischen Rechts im Abenlande bis zum Ausgange des Mittelalters, V o l . I, Gratz, Leuschner and Lubensky, 1870.

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Mabillon, Jean, Annales ordinis S. Benedicts, 6 vols, Paris, 1703-1739. Manitius, Max, Geschichte der lateinischen Literatur des Mittelalters, 3 vols., Munich, 1911-1931. Mansi, Johannes, Sacrorum conciiiorum nova et amplissima collectio, 31 vols., Florence and Venice, 1759-1798; new edition and continuation, vols. 32-53, Paris and Leipzig, 1901 ff. Marmion, Columba, Christ the Ideal of the Monk: Spiritual Conferences on the Monastic and Religious Life, trans, from the French by a nun of Tyburn convent, London, Sands and Co., 1926. Martène, Edmund, Commentarius in régulant S. P. Benedicti, Paris, 1690; reprinted in PL, 66, cols. 215-932. Mayer, H. S., Benediktinisches Ordensrecht, Vol. II, Beuron, Hohenzollern, Beuroner Kunstverlag, 1932. McCann, Justin, St. Benedict, New York, Sheed and Ward, 1937. , The Rule of Saint Benedict, translation with notes, Stanbrook Abbey press, 1937. McNeill, J. T., and Gamer, H. M., Medieval Handbooks of Penance: A Translation of the Principal Libri Poenitentiales and Selections from Related Documents, New York, 1938; Records of Civilization, X X I X . Mittermuller, R., " D e r Regel-Commentar des Paul Diakonus (Warnefrid), des Hildemar und des Abtes Basilius," Studien und Mittheilungen aus dem Benediktiner- und dem Cistercienserorden, IX (1888), 394-398. , Expositio regulae ab Hildemaro tradita ( P a r t III of Vita et régula SS. P. Benedicti una cum expositione regulae a Hildemaro tradita). Regensburg, Pustet, 1880. Morin, Germain, " La Journée du moine, d'après la règle et la tradition bénédictine," Revue bénédictine, VI (1889), 72-75, 181-185, 211-216, 309315. 350-355. 398-401, 458-463; VII (1890), 170-177, 324-327, " L'Ordre des heures canonicales dans les monastères de Cassiodore," ibid., XLIII (1931), 145-152. , " Les Quatres Plus Anciens Calendriers du Mont-Cassin ( V I I I e et IX« siècles)," ibid., X X V (1908), 486-497. Mullinger, J. B., The Schools of Charles the Great and the Restoration of Education in the Ninth Century, New York, Stechert, 1911. Narberhaus, Joseph, Benedict von Aniane: Werk und Persönlichkeit, Münster in W., 1930 ; Beiträge zur Geschichte des alten Mönchtums und des Benediktinerordens, XVI. Neff, Carl, De Paulo Diacono Festi epitomatore, Erlangen, 1891. , Die Gedichte des Paulus Diaconus, Munich, 1908 ; Quellen und Untersuchungen zur lateinischen Philologie des Mittelalters, III, iv. Paschini, P., " Paolo Diacono e la sua Expositio super regulam sancti Benedicti," Memorie storiche Forogiuliesi, XXV (1929), 67-88. Paul Warnefrid, Pauli Warnefridi diaconi Casinensis in sanctam regulam commcntarium, edited by the monks of Monte Cassino, Abbey press, 1880; also published in Bibliotheca Casinensis, IV (Florilegium Casinense, 1-173).

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Perez de Urbel, J., " La Règle du Maitre," Revue d'histoire ecclésiastique, X X X I V ( 1 9 3 8 ) , 707-739-, " Le Maitre et Saint Benoit," ibid., 756-764. Peter the Deacon, Petri Diaconi Casinensis explanatio regule sanctissimi patris nostri Benedicti, Monte Cassino, 1894; Bibliotheca Casinensis, V, 82-165. Poschmann, Bernard, Die abendländische Kirchenbusse im Ausgang des christlichen Altertums, Munich, 1928 ; Münchener Studien zur historischen Theologie, V I I . Rupert of Deutz, Super quaedam capitula regulae Divi Benedicti abbatts, P L , 170, cols. 477-538. Santi, P. de, " Paolo Diacono," Civiltà cattolica, series 17, X (1900), 398-415. Savage, J . J. H., " T h e Manuscripts of the Commentary of Servius Danielis on Vergil," Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, X L I I I (1932), 77-121. Seebass, O., " Benedikt von Aniane," Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie und Kirche, II (3d ed., Leipzig, 1897), 575-577, " Ueber die Statuta Murbacensia," Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte, X I I ( 1 8 9 1 ) , 322-332. , " Ueber zwei Turiner Handschriften des Capitulare monasticum," Neues Archiv der Gesellschaft für ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde, X I X (1894), 217-220. Selmer, Carl, Middle High German Translations of the Regula Sancii BeneDicti, Cambridge, 1933 ; Mediaeval Academy of America Publications, XVII. Smaragdus, Smaragdi abbatis Diadema monachorum, P L , 102, cols. 593-690. , Expositio in regulam B. Benedicti, P L , 102, cols. 689-932. Solmi, Arrigo, Storia del diritto italiano, 3d ed. revised and enlarged, Milan, Società editrice libraria, 1930. Spreitzenhofer, Ernest, Die historischen Voraussetzungen der Regel des. ht. Benedict von Nursia, Vienna, 1895. St. Caesarius of Arles, 5". Caesarii regula ad monachos, P L , 67, cols. 10981104. St. Hildegarde, Regula S. Benedicti juxta S. Hildegardim explicata, P L , 197, cols. 1053-1066. St. Isidore of Seville, Sancii Isidori Hispalensis episcopi regula monachorum, P L , 83, cols. 867-894. Stosiek, Konrad, Das Verhältnis Karls des Grossen zur Klosterordnung mit besonderer Rücksicht auf die regula Benedicti, Greifswald, 1909; Dissertation, University of Greifswald. Thompson, J. W., Feudal Germany, Chicago, University of Chicago press, 1928. Traube, L., Textgeschichte der Regula S. Benedicti, 2d ed. by H . Plenkers, Munich, 1910; Abhandlungen der königlich bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften : Philosophisch-philologische und historische Klasse, XXV.

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Trithemius, Joannis Tritkemii spanhemensis primum, deinde D. Jacobi m suburbano Herbipolensi, abbatis erudissimi opera pia et spiritualia. . . ed. Joannis Busaeus, Maintz, Albinus, 1605. Turrecrenata, Regula S. Bene die ti cum doctiss. et piiss. commentants Joannis de Turre Cremata, S. R. E. Cardinalis, et Smaragdi . . . Cologne, Caleni us, 1575. Valentineiii, Giusseppe, Bibliotheca manuscripta ad S. Marci Venetiarum, Venice, 1868. Valous, Guy de, Le Monachisme clunisien des origines au XV* siècle: Vie intérieure des monastères et organisation de l'ordre, 2 vols., Paris, A . Picard, 1935 ; Thesis, University of Paris. Vita Benedicti abbatis Anianensis et Indensis auctore Ardo, ed. G. Waitz, M G H , SS, X V , 198-220. Voigt, Karl, Staat und Kirche von Konstantin dem Grossen bis zum Ende der Karolingerzeit, Stuttgart, W . Kohlhammer, 1936. Volpe, G., " Per la storia giuridica ed economica de medio evo," Studi storici, X I V , 145-227. Workmann, H. B., The Evolution of the Monastic Ideal, 2d ed., London, Epworth press, 1927. Ziegelbauer, Magnoaldus, Historia rei literariae ordinis. S. Benedicti, 4 vols., Augsburg, 1754.

INDEX Aachen, capitulary of, 15n, 41, 42n, 43, 44, 45, 46, 78, 97, 114, 116n, 129, 134n, 136-137, 150n, 155, 175, 194; court of, 22, 23, 46; reform of, 59-60, 128, 194, 198 Abbot, authority of, 55-56, 63, 100; discretion required of, 57, 114; onerous position of, 56-57; as ordained, 57-58; as representative of Christ, 138-139; see also Canonical abbots Abstinence; see Fleshmeat Accretions to the liturgy, 156-160 Adalard of Corbie, 23, 44 Admission, of a boy oblate, 76-81; of a monk from another monastery, 73-74; of a lay novice, 6669; of a priest, 73 Admonitions, 61; secret and public, 92-93. 96; of the abbot, 140 Age periods, 80, 142, 145 Albers, B., 92n Altars, 27, 114-115, 158 Alcuin, 123 Allodi, L., 204n Amann, E., 86n, 96n Ambrose, St., 122, 124 Amelli, A. M , 123n, 154n Angilbert of Milan, 25 Annals of Lorsch, 155 Antoninus, 204 Ardo; see Smaragdus of Aniane Arichis. 23 Asceticism, as a means to an end, 171, 177, 195; of the Rule, 185; see also Austerities Atticus of Constantinople, 76 Augustine, St., 122, 124, 174, 192n Austerities, 172-186; corporal, 173178, 185-186; discretion in, 172173, 177-178; spiritual, 178, 185186, 195 Basil, St., 78, 185, 204 Bathing, 37-39 Beatific vision, 107 Bede, 122, 124 Benedict of Aniane, 54n, 58, 59, 73, 90n, 92, 114-115, 118, 128, 156, 157n. 158, 193-194, 197; Codex regularum. 198; Concordia regularum, 16, 198, 199; Diadema monachorum, 16, 202

Benedict, St., 5, 153, 186; tee alto Rule of St. Benedict Benedictine vows, 68, 70-73, 184; see also Religious profession Berliere, U., 54n, 70n, 78n, 83n, 107n, 108n, 110-111, 152n, 157n, 197, 200, 201, 202n Bernard of Monte Cassino, 19, 35n, 203 Bernard, St., 177 Bethmann, L., 19 Bibliographies, 197 Bilfinger, G., 108n Bishop, E., 157n Blood-letting, 141 Books (manuscripts), the copying of, 124-125; distribution of, 120121; preserved when not in use, 40n Boy oblates, 16; concessions in food of, 141-143; corporal punishment and, 145; courtesy in, 129-130; custody over, 65, 143-145, and the Divine Office, 143, 163; education of, 126-129; and expulsion, 88; how offered to the monastery, 7681; incentives offered to, 145-146; recreation of, 143 Bread, libra of, 32 Butler, C., 5, 27n, 73n, 103n, 107n, 108n, 111, 114, 116n, 142, 143n, 152n, 157n, 166n, 176, 178n, 180n, 184n, 185, 186n, 192n, 197, 205 Calefactorium, 47, 143 Calmet, A., 18, 99, 35n, 143n, 197, 201, 204 Camerarius, 37, 44, 47, 62, 63-64 Canonical abbots, 58-60 Canonical hours, 107, 109, 116; signals for, 109-110, 117-118; see also Divine Office, Prime, Matins, Laudes, Vespers Canons, 154; see also Clerics Caplet, A. M., 203 Cassian, 124, 147, 174n, 204; Institutes, 102, 185; Conferences of the Fathers, 127, 185 Cassiodorua, 124, 125, 174 Cells, 49-50 Cenobitic life, compared with the eremitic life, 186-188; predomi213

214

INDEX

nantly active or contemplative, 187-188, 191-192 Chapter, 64, 115-116 Charity, 130, 139, 181 Charlemagne, 23, 32, 49, 125n, 128, 152, 154, 155; letter of Warnefrid to, 30n, 31n, 33n, 37, 40n, 41, 42, 43n, 45, 175 Chastity, 181-182 Choice of state of life, and the adult novice, 67-68; and the boy oblate, 78-79 Christian of Salzburg, 205 Chronicon Farjense, 52n Chronicon Moissiacense, 154 Chronicon Vulturnense, 52n, 203 Church councils, of Aachen (789), 49n, 154; Aachen (816), 16n, 155; Aachen (817), 20, 31, 32n, 50, 58, 59, 70n, llOn, 128; Antioch, 74n; Basel, 204, 205; Chalcedon, 74n; Constance, 205; Frankfort (794), 32n, 49n; Macon (583), 79n; Neocaesarea, 74n; Nicaea, 67, 74n, 75; Rome (324), 96n; Rome (826), 20, 121n; Sardica, 75n; second of Toledo, 78n; fourth of Toledo, 79n; tenth of Toledo, 79n; second of Tours, 144n; third of Vaison, 78n; Worms (868), 79n Church of the monastery, 27, 157 Cipolla, C., 16n, 21n, 24n, 123n, 199 Circatores, 61, 83, 146 Clerics, 133, 134 Cloister, 28-29 Clothing, 41-47, 116 Cluny, customs of, 35n, 36n, 43, 4445, 80, 113, 136n, 156, 158 Columban, 72, 152, 174n Combs, 40 Commendatory letters, 73-76 Commentary, anonymous of Novalese, 5, 199 Commentary ascribed to Abbot Basil, 5, 24, 199 Commentary of Hildemar, 5, 16-18, 25, 129, 199; authenticity of, 19, 20-21; manuscripts of, 23-24, 129n Commentary of Paul Warnefrid, 5, 16-18, 25, 46, 129, 194, 197, 202n, 203; authenticity of, 19-21; manuscripts of, 5, 19 Cooks, 35-36, 47-48, 117, 133, 135 Confession, non-sacramental, 86; seal of, 85-86 Contemplation, 118, 164, 165-166, 167, 192

Conversion of morals, 185; conversatio morum, 70-73 Corporal punishment, 57, 94, 95, 96, 140, 145 Council, major matters of, 60-61 ; minor matters of, 61 Courtesy, 129-131 Cowl, 41-42, 43, 45 Crafts, 47, 132 Curtes 50 Custody, 80, 84-85, 97, 130, 143-147, 195 Deans, 55, 61-62, 83 Delatte, P., 34 , 35n, 43, 55n, 69n, 78n, 99-100, 103, 135, 167-168, 178n Departure from the monastery, 74, 87-88, 103-106, 187 Departures from the Rule, 58, 6668, 72, 89, 148, 149; see also Accretions to the liturgy, Innovations. Desiderius, King, 22n, 59 Discipline, and the enclosure, 8789; guardians of, 61-62; minor breaches of, 102 ; " regular," 9192. 96. 101-102 Divine Office, 118, 143, 152-165; of the Dead, 156-157; duplicated, 157-158; external performance of, 162-163; on festivities of the saints, 160-161 ; proper spirit for the recitation of, 163-165; on Sundays, 161-162 Domestic services, in the infirmary, 63, 134, 136; in the lay-guest kitchen, 51, 134; in the monastery proper, 52, 138; in the monastic kitchen, 35-36, 132-135, 136; performed by laymen, 51-52, 134, 138 Donatus of Besançon, 71 Donatus (grammarian), 123, 124 Doren, A., 51n Dormitory, 37; of lay guests, 28; of monk guests, 27 Dress, monastic, 41, 47 Education, 121, 123, 125-129 Enrollment, 54 Epistolary code, to prevent forgery, 75-76 Eugene II, Pope, 20, 58, 121 Evans, J., 107n Excommunication, for grave faults. 96-99 ; for light faults, 93; monastic and canonical, 99-102 Expulsion, and the boy oblates, 88 ; for grave faults, 97; for light faults, 86n, 94-95, 104

INDEX

Faculties, interior and exterior, 169, 170 Farfa, customs of, 36n, 37, 43, 44, 51n, 52n, 64n, 121n Falco, G., 23n, 179n Family spirit, 138-139 Fasting, imposed as a penalty, 57, 93-94, 145; Lenten, 173; on Wed. and Fri., 31n, 173; prescribed by the Rule, 173 Festivities of the saints, 142, 160-162 Festus, 20, 123, 124 Fleshmeat, and the boy oblates, 142; current interpretations regarding the use of, 174-175; forbidden to those in health, 33; and the infirm, 140-141; and Manichaeism, 176-177; reasons for abstinence from, 176; vagueness of the Rule regarding, 174-175 Foods, for boy oblates, 142; cooked and raw, 30; for individual needs, 140; variety of, 30-31; see also Bread, Fleshmeat, Mixtus, Wine Footwear, 36, 44-45 Frankland (Francia), 24, 106, 141, 150 Friuli, 21, 23 Gaiters, 45 Garden, 28-29, 49, 52 Gnosticism, 177 Gottschalk of Fulda, 79 Gougaud, L., 42n, 115n, 157n, 173n Government of the monastery, 54-55 Grammar, 122-123, 126 Gregory, St., 124, 125, 153, 156, 159, 166, 192n, 202 Grimwald, Abbot of St. Gall, 59 Grimwald, monk of Reichenau, 58n, 59n Guestmaster, 63, 64-65, 149 Guests, 48-49, 63, 65, 126, 147; department of, 27-28, 48-49, 150 Haito, 39n, 50 Hartmut of St. Gall, 59 Hauck, A., 23n, 39n, 128 Hefele-Leclercq, 49n, 76, 79n, 96n, 128, 154n Herwegen, I., 16n, 59n, 70-73, 78, 92n, 104 Hildegarde, St., 203 Hildemar, 5, 23, 24, 123 Hispana, 76 Historia Langobardorum, 32n

215

Holy Orders, choice of candidates for, 84-85; impediments to, 83-84, 100-101 Holy Week, 155-156 Horarium, 107, 110-117 Hörle, G., 123, 124n Hosius, 75n Hospitality, 147-151; to clerical guests, 48, 51, 150; to nobles, 48, 51, 148-149; to the poor, 48, 49, 51, 148-149, 150-151 Hour, of rising, 108-109, 113; as a unit of time, 107-109 Hucbald of St. Amandus, 200 Income, 49 Individual, importance of, 139-141 Infirmarían, 52, 64, 135 Infirmary, 27, 48, 63 Innovations, 159, 193 Isidore of Seville, 32, 43, 44, 122, 124; Etymologiae, 42; Monastic Rule, 91 n, 102 Jerome, St., 124, 174, 204 John of Kastel, 204 Journeys, 41, 46-47, 59, 89 " Justice," 136 Karlmann, capitulary of, 154n Keck, John, 204 Kitchen, of the abbot, 133; of lay guests, 51-52, 134; monastic, 35-36 Kurtscheid, B., 85n, 86n Language, Latin, 127; rustic, 127,131 Laudes, 107, 113, 157-158, 161, 162 Laundry, 36, 40, 52 Lay brothers, 53, 138 Leclercq, H., 26n, 44n, 157n; see also Hefele-Leclerq Lent, 116-117, 120-121, 173 Leutgar, 25, 59 Library, 120-121 Linderbauer, B., 27n Location, ideal, 26-27; relation to size, 54 Loening, E., 75n, lOOn Loew, E. A., 160n Lombards, 5, 15, 22, 59, 152 Louis the Pius, 155, 194 Luzzatto, G., 50n, 51n, 52n Maassen, F., 75-76 Mabillon, J„ 19, 24 McCann, J., 27n, 103n, 104n, 191n Magistri, 65, 80, 126, 145 Manitius, M., 22n, 124n

2l6

INDEX

Manual work, 31n, 43, 50-53, 112, 114, 116, 128, 132 Marmion, C., 187n Marquard of Wünburg, 200n Martene, E„ 18, 19, 24, 99, 203, 204n, 205 Mass, 116-117, 161-162, 167 Matins, 107, 112, 119, 159-162 Mayer, H. 8., lOOn Meals, 29, 116, 130, 142-143 Medieval texts, 123-124; alteration of, 125 Melota, 41-43; in the profession ceremony, 69-70 Milan, diocese of, 22, 24, 25, 160 Mittermüller, R., 20n, 21, 24 Mixtus, 33, 117, 135; see also " J u s tice " Monastery, of Bobbio, 51n; of Civate, 22, 25; of Corbie, 24, 44, 52n, 54n, 134n, 179; of Flavigny, 71-72; of Fulda, 49, 54n; of Hirschau, 36; of Inde, 54n, 58, 114, 127-128; of Reichenau, 54n, 124n, 128, 199; of St. Denis, 83n; of SS. Faustinus and Jovita, 25, 52; of St. Gall, 26, 34, 54n, 59, 128; of St. Peter on Monte Pedale, 22, 25; of St. Riquier, 26, 83n, 157n; of Volturno, 51n, 52n, 203; see also Columban, Cluny, Farfa, Monte Cassino, and Murbach Monastic State, advantages of, 188; essence of, 189-190; ideal of, 188, 190, 195; not for all, 68, 189; obligations of, 101, 185; viewed in a world-wide setting, 189 Monte Cassino, 5, 22, 23, 51n, 70, 71, 108, 114, 152; customs of, 30, 31, 32, 37, 40n, 42-43, 45, 159, 179, 203 Morin, G., 118n, 160n, 179n Mortification, 47, 180, 185; see also Austerities Motives, 190-191, 192 Murbach, Statutes of, 15n, 39, 41n, 46, 47, 50, 79, 97n, 126, 137, 150n, 152n, 155, 175 Mysticism, 166 Narberhaus, J., 39n, 44n, 60n, 62n Neff, K., 16n, 20, 21n, 23n, 31 Nicholas de Fractura, 203 Nobles, as guests, 48, 149; as oppressors, 27, 89, 149; manner of saluting, 131 Novitiate, for boy oblates, 80; length of, 66-67

Obedience, 172, 182-184, 190 Office, divine; see Divine Office; monastic, 153-156; Roman, 152156 Oratories, 27-28 Pachomius, 187n, 204 Paachini, P., 22n, 23, 160n Paul Wamefrid, 5, 21-23, 72-73, 123 Pavia, court of, 22, 59; synod of, 156 Pelisse, 45 Penal code, 87, 89, 92 Penance, canonical, 101-102; preprescribed by the Rule, 90; private, 86-87; public, 86-87, 100-102; and the readmitted monk, 106 Pepin, 154 Perseverance, 184-185 Peter Bohier, 19, 204 Peter the Deacon, 19, 30n, 201-202 Petronax of Brescia, 152 Poschmann, B., 70n, 86n, 91n, 96n, 102 Poverty, 180-181, 190 Prayer, private, 115, 165-166; public, 152, 163, 165; see also Divine Office Presence of God, 164-165 Priests, admission of, 73; correction of, 95-96; number of, 83; see also Holy Orders Prime, 115 Prior, 55, 61, 65 Priscian, 124 Prison, 88, 97 Provost, 39, 47, 55, 61-62, 83 Psalms, chanting of, 115, 158; distribution of, 153, 155; memorized, 126-127; study of, 113, 118; see also Divine Office Rampertus of Brescia, 24, 25, 52 Rank, 80-83, 106 Ratchis, King, 22 Reading, private, 113, 116, 118-119, J20-121, 127, 167-168; public, 118, 119-120, 122 Readmission, 95, 103-106 Recreation, 143, 147, 179 Redemption of man, 168-169 Refectory, 29-35, 129, 149 Remigius of Auxerre, 200 Religious profession, 68-70; formulas of, 70-73 Richard of St. Angelo, 203 Rüdiger of Echternach, 200n Rule of the Master, 71, 143n

INDEX

Rule of St. Benedict, 5, 15, 41, 56, 112, 153, 159, 168, 185; autographed copy of, 125; definitive text of, 26n; interpolated, 103-104; memorized, 126; read and explained, 15-16; textual study of, 72, 103n, 125; textus receptus, 104 Rupert of Deutz, 201 Rusticity, in dress, 47; in food, 128n; in speech, 127, 131 Ruthard of Hirschau, 200 Scapular; see Melota Scholastics, 126-127 Schools, for boy oblates, 126; for " externa," 128-129 Scriptures, 127, 128 Seasons, 107 Secular studies, 121-124, 126, 127-128 Seebass, 0., 19, 39n, 90n, 137, 154, 155n Self-denial, 172 Serfs, 51-53, 63 Servitor, meaning of, 134-138 Servius, 122, 124 Shaving, 40-11 Shoe dressing, 40 Sleep, 112-114 Silence, 118-119, 147, 178-180 Sin, classification of, 89-91, 101; and conditions of doubt, 174-175; in disobeying an unlawful command, 184; of immorality, 144; modifying circumstances of, 91, 101, 102103; occasion of, 28, 56, 149; original, 168, 169, 171, 172; in unlawful desire, 176; vices as inclinations to, 173 Smaragdus of Aniane (Ardo), 16,128 Smaragdus of Verdun, 16, 18, 198, 202 Soap, 36, 39-40 Spirituality, 168-170 Spreitzenhofer, E., 35, 99 Stability, 184-185; see also Profession formulas

217

Stephen of Paris, 202 Sylvester, Pope, 96n Theodemar, 23, 159 Theodulf, 147 Theuzo of Florence, 200 Theuzo of Raggiolo, 201 Thompson, J. W., 51n Time computation, Carolingian method of, 108-109; elements of, 109n; Roman method of, 107; in Middle Ages, 108n ; when St. Benedict wrote the Rule, 107 Towels, 36, 39-40 Traube, L., 16, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24n, 25, 54n, 59, 71n, 90n, 103n, 125n, 129n, 155n, 156, 199, 200 Trina oratio, 156, 158-159 Trithemius, 200, 205 Tunic, 42, 45 Turrecremata, 205 Ureo of Benevento, 20, 122 Valous, G. de, 78n, 80n, 135n, 137, 138n Vergil, 124 Vespers, 161, 162 Vestiarius, 61, 64; see also Camerariits Victorinus, 122, 124 Villas, 50-51 Vlitpacher, John, 205 Volpe, G., 62n Washing of the feet, ceremony of, 36, 151 Water clock, 109 Wattenbach, W., 22n, 23n, 128n Weekly reader, 134-135 Welfare, spiritual, 17, 55, 88; temporal, 17, 55, 57 Willibald, 152 Wine, hemina of, 32 Workman, H. B., 15n, 177, 181n, 190 Ziegelbauer, M., 197