Bede and Anglo-Saxon England: Papers in honour of the 1300th anniversary of the birth of Bede, given at Cornell University in 1973 and 1974 9780860540052, 9781407321301
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English Pages [182] Year 1978
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Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
List of Figures
List of Plates
Preface
Chapter I: The Art and Archaeology of Bedan Northumbria
Chapter II: Some Implications of Bede's Latin Style
Chapter III: Bede, "Beowulf", and the Conversion of the Anglo-Saxon Aristocracy
Chapter IV: The Archer and Associated Figures on the Ruthwell Cross - A Reconsideration
Chapter V: The Evangelist Symbols and Their Parallels in Anglo-Saxon Sculpture
Chapter VI: Liturgical Innovations Associated with Pope Sergius and the Iconography of the Ruthwell and Bewcastle Crosses
Chapter VII: Grave Goods from Frilford Cemetary
Citation preview
Bede and Anglo-Saxon England Papers in honour of the 1 3 oath anniversary of the birth of Bede, given at Cornell University in 1973 and 1974 edited by Robert T. Farrell
British Archaeological Reports 46
1978
British Archaeological Reports 122, Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 78P, England
GENERAL EDITORS A. C. C. Brodribb, M.A. Mrs. Y. M. Hands
A. R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D. R. Walker, M.A. ADVISORY EDITORS
C. B. Burgess, B.A., F.S.A. Neil Cossons, M.A., F.S.A., F.M.A. Professor B. W. Cunliffe, M.A., Ph.D.! F.S.A. Sonia Chadwick Hawkes, B.A., M.A., F.S.A. Professor G. D. B. Jones, M.A., D.Phil., F.S.A. Frances Lynch, M.A., F .S.A. ·p. A. Mellars, M.A., Ph.D. P . A. Rahtz, M.A ., F .S.A •
B .A .R. 46, 1978: uBede and Anglo-Saxon England" © The I ndividual Authors The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860540052 paperback ISBN 9781407321301 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540052 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com
CONTENTS Page Preface 1 . David M • Wilson
The Art and Archaeology of Bedan Northumbria
2.
Winthrop Wetherbee
Some Implications of Bede's Latin Style
3.
Patrick Wormald
Bede, Beowulf and the Conversion of the Anglo-Saxon Aristocracy
4.
Robert T. Farrell
The Archer and Associated Figures on the Ruthwell Cross - A Reconsideration
5.
Ros�mary Cramp
The Evangelist Symbols and their Parallels 1 18 in Anglo-Saxon Sculpture
6.
Eamonn O 'Carrigain
Liturgical Innovations Associateq with Pope Sergius and the Iconography of the Ruthwell and Bewcijstle Crosses
131
7.
Robert G. Calkins
Grave Goods from Frilford Cemetery at Cornell University
148
✓
,
,
1 23 32 96
L IST OF F IGURES F igure 1
Page An i ma ls f ro m t he S t . N in ian ' sh ang ing b ow l n o . 2
7
c o mpared w ith ( bot to m ) a n i ma l f ro m t he L ind isfarne G ospe ls . 2
D iagram ma t ic p lan o fb u i ld ings e x is t ing i n t he t ime o f K ing E c tw in ( 6 16-32 )a t Yeaver ing , N or thumber land .
1 8
A . Ha l l ; B . T i mber 'Amph ithea tre ' ; C . Bu i ld ing a l leged b y t he e xcava tor t o b e ap agan t e mp le c onver ted t o Chr ist ian u se ; D .
B u i ld ing w ith a s unken f l oor .
T he i nse t s hows t he t imber h a l l ( A . )t o al arger s ca le . ( af ter H ope-Tay lor ) . 3
S h ie ld b oss, c ross s ect ion .
1 52
4
A .
S pear h ead
1 54
B .
S pear h and le
C .
K n ife
L IST OF PLATES
P late
Page I I
I I I V
An i ma l o rna men ted b ow l f ro m t he S t N in ian 's I s le t reasure
3
Hang ing b ow l f rom t he S t N in ian 's I s le t reasure
4
I nscr ibed c hape f rom t he S t N in ian 's I s le t reasure
5
The l argest p enannu lar b rooch f ro m t he S t N in ian 's I s le
6
t reasure V
S cu lptured s tone f ro m H ilton o f Cadbo l l , Easter Ross,
9
S cot land V I V I I
Ru thwel l c ross , D um fr iessh ire :
I nhab ited v ine-scro l l
1 0
Ar m o f B ischo fshofen , Austr ia , Cross
1 5
V I I I
Ru thwel l c ross h ead , n or th f ace
9 7
I X
Ru thwel l c ross h ead , s ou th f ace
9 8
X
Wa lrus i vory p ectora l f ro m V ictor ia a nd A lbert Museu m , London .
Above ) Eag le o n t er m ina l ;
b e low ) Archer i n
v ine s cro l l
1 01
Cross s haf t f rom S t Andrew Auck land , Co. Durha m
1 02
Bradbourne , Derbysh ire, Bot to m o f w est f ace
1 03
X I I I
Fragmen t w ith i nc l ined f igure, Ru thwe l l c hurch
1 19
X IV
Fragmen t w ith ? fow ler, Ru thwel l c hurch
1 20
XV
Hart c ross-head
1 21
XV I
Hart c ross-head
1 24
Part o f s urv iv ing c ross a rm f ro m S t. Andrew Auck land ,
1 25
X I X I I
XV I I
Co. Durha m XV I I I
S h ield b oss , p re l im inary r econstruct ion ( f ro m t he g rave o f
1 50
t he y oung Ang lo-Saxon ) X IX XX
S h ield b oss a f ter r estorat ion
1 51
S h ield h and le , k n ife a nd s h ie ld s tuds f ro m t he g rave o f t he
1 53
y oung Ang lo-Saxon XX I = I
S pear h ead f rom t he g rave o f t he y oung Ang lo-Saxon
1 56
Cruc ifor m f i bu lae w ith d etached k nob a nd c lasps f rom t he
1 57
g rave o f t he o ld Ang lo-Saxon wo man
P late
Page
XX II I
Cruc ifor m f i bu lae , s ide v iew
1 58
3 0C EV
Cruc ifor m f i bu lae , r everse ( before c lean ing )
1 59
Ro I leston 's s ketch o f t he g raves o f t he o ld Ang lo-Saxon
1 60
2 0 CV
wo man a nd o f t he l i t t le o ld Ro mano-Br i ton 2 0 (V I 2 0 CV I I X )O CV II I
Co f f in n a ils f ro m t he g rave o f t he l i t t le o ld Ro mano-Br iton
1 62
Aer ia l v iew o f t he Fr ilford s i te , 1 939
1 63
V iew n or th-east a long t he n or th f ace o f t he q uarry e scarpmen t , Fr il ford. The t r iangu lar s ign a t t he r ight
1 64
marks t he Ox ford- Wantage r oad ( 1973 )
PREFACE
The s tud ies i n t h is v o lu me a re l im ited i n t wo w ays.
A l l o r ig inated d ur ing
t he Bede c e lebra t ions a t Corne l l , a nd a l l d ea l w ith s o me a spect o f B ede 's l i fe, h is works, o r t he c u l tura l m i l ieu i n w h ich h e f l our ished.
1
The B ede o bserv-
a nces a t Cornel l e x tended t hrough t he a cade m ic y ears 1 972-3 a nd 1 973-4, i n c om me morat ion o f t he t h ir teen h undredth a nn iversary o f t he b irth o f Bede i n 6 73 a nd t he f ound ing o f h is monastery a t Monkwear mou th i n 6 74.
I n a dd it ion
t o f or ma l l ectures b y v is it ing s cho lars d ur ing b o th a cade m ic y ears, a s em ina r w as h eld i n 1 973 u nder t he a usp ices o f t he S oc iety f or t he Human it ies a nd as pec ia l s em inar o n t he a rt h istory a nd a rchaeo logy o f t he Ang lo-Saxon p er iod w as g iven d ur ing t he s pr ing o f 1 974.
The a nnua l meet ing o f t he Med ieva l
A cade my o f Amer ica t ook p lace a t C ornel l i n May 1 973, when t wo ma jor l ect ures were g iven b y P rofessors Rose mary C ra mp a nd Dav id Wi lson , whose p apers s erved a s b ases f or t he ir c on tr ibut ions t o t h is v o lu me. Apart f ro m Pro fessor 6 C arraga in 's c on tr ibu t ion , wh ich i s i ncluded f or t he f urther i n for ma t ion i tp rov ides o n t he Ru thwe l l c ross, a l l t he p apers i n t h is v o lu me w ere g iven a t C orne l l d ur ing t he y ears o f t he B ede c elebra t ions. D esp ite t h is c o m mon o r ig in , t he p apers a re w idely v ar ian t i n s cope a nd s ubj ec t ;
many o f t he w r iters h ad t o t ravel l ong d istances, a nd t hey w ere d eep ly
e ngaged i n t each ing a nd a dm in istrat ion a t t he ir own u n ivers it ies. n o t a l l a t C ornel l a t t he s a me t ime.
They w ere
The c o m mon f actor i s t hat t hey w ere a l l
g iven t o t he s a me g roup , t he C orne l l c o m mun ity , a nd i ti s h oped t ha t t he ir a ppearance i n t he p resen t f or ma t w i l l a l low a w ider c irc le o f r eaders t o make u se o f wha t w as g iven t o Corne l l o ver t he c ourse o f s evera l y ears. The p apers h ave b een g rouped t o s o me e x ten t b y s im i lar ity o f t op ic. F irst a re t hose o f Dr. Wi lson a nd P rofessor Wetherbee, d ea l ing r espec t ive ly w ith a dvances i n o ur k now ledge o f B ede 's c u l ture s ince 1 935 , a nd t he q uest ion o f B ede 's L at in s ty le.
N ex t c ome t he a rchaeo log ica l a nd a rt h istor ica l p apers
o f Professors , Cra mp , Farre l l , a nd Ö Carraga in , a l l c oncerned w ith o b jects a nd c oncep ts r elated t o what c an b e c a l led t he a ge o f B ede r ather t han t o h is o wn c orpus o f wr it ings a nd t he r elat ions o f t ha t c orpus t o o ther t rad it ions. P rofessor C a lk ins ' p aper i s ak ind o f c oda , a ppropr ia tely p laced i n t h is c o ll ect ion b ecause t he Ro mano-Br it ish a nd Ang lo-Saxon a rt ifacts f ro m a n e arly E ng l ish c emetery w ere r ed iscovered a t C orne l l b y f e l ic itous a nd f ortuna te c ircu ms tances d ur ing t he c ourse o f t he B ede c o m me morat ion.
These o b jects
w ere p u t o n d isp lay f or t he l at ter h a lf o f t he s er ies o f e ven ts , a nd s erved a s ap o in t o f i n terest f or t he me mbers o f t he Med ieva l Acade my o f Amer ica w ho a sse mbled a t I thaca i n t he s pr ing o f 1 973. I n t he f i rst p aper , Dr. Dav id Wilson s urveys a dvances i n t he s tudy o f t he a rchaeo logy a nd c u l ture o f B ede 's t ime, a nd o u t l ines s o me o f t he f unda men ta l c hanges i n a t t itude wh ich h ave c o me a bou t s ince 1 935 , w hen Tho mpson e d ited ac o llect ion t o c o m me morate t he a nn iversary o f Bede 's d eath. 2
Un less n ew
e v idence i s p u t f orward , w e must n ow v iew t he P icts a s a ma jor f orce i n t he c u lture o f N orthu mbr ia , c on tr ibu t ing much t o t he r ich ama lga m wh ich i s d ist inct ive o f t ha t a rea i n t he a ge o f Bede.
The e xchange w as n o t l im ited t o
b orrow ing a k ind o f t echno logy a t o ne r e move, a s w hen N echtan s ough t worke rs f ro m B ede 's monastery t o h elp h im b u ild c hurches j ux ta more R omanorum. Wi lson a lso f o l lows t hrough o n t he n ew a nd more g enera l l oca l isa t ion f or a w ho le r ange o f " insu lar" manuscr ip ts f i rst p roposed b y Masa i i n al ong-ignored work ,3 a nd more r ecen t ly s upported b y t he r esearch o f P rofessor J u l ian Brown . 4 The L ind isfarne Gospels, Durha m G ospels, a nd t he Book o f Durrow s how e c lect ic t aste , a nd e ven K e l ls i t se lf may w e l l h ave c ome i n to b e ing i n a n e astern S cot t ish c en tre, s ub ject t o N orthu mbr ian i n f luence.
Perhaps t he
most s ign if ican t a spect o f Professor Wi lson 's s urvey i s t he c lear e v idence h e a dduces f or t he s trong i n f luences Eng l ish t rad it ion i n a r t h ad o n s uch c lear ly European a rt ifacts a s t he Tass i lo c ha l ice, t he Rupertus c ross a nd t he FrancoS axon manuscr ip t o f c . 8 00.
A l l o f t hese a re ma ter ia l e v idence f or t he im-
p act o f t he c u l tura l a spec ts o f t he Eng l ish m iss ionary s choo ls wh ich h ad N orthu mbr ian , a nd u lt i ma tely B edean , t rad it ions a s t he ir b ase.
P ro fessor
Wetherbee h as a s i mp le b u t u sefu l p urpose, t o s how t hat wh i le Bede d id n ot i ndu lge i n t he e xcesses o f t he s o-ca l led H isper ic mode o f L at in s ty le , h is p rose w as a f u l ly e loquen t i nstru men t.
Bede w rot e c lear ly , b u t e legan t ly ;
d irect ly , b u t w ith r estra ined s k il l r ather t han t he p la inness o f o ne i ncapable o f g rea ter a rt.
I fP rofessor Wetherbee 's a na lys is i s a ccep ted , Bede 's s ty le
c onst itu tes a " pos it ive c on tr ibu t ion t o t he d eve lopmen t o f a med ieva l C hr ist ian Human is m."
I n h is s tudy , P ro fessor Wetherbee c a l ls o n a spects o f t he s ty les
o f b oth V erg i l a nd Gregory a s p o in ts o f c o mpar ison , b u t h o lds t hat B ede 's a cco mp l ish men ts i n t he H istor ia Ecc les iast ica a re s t i l l s u i g ener is.
Mr.
Wor ma ld 's p aper s urveys a v ery b road f i e ld t hat c anno t e as i ly b e s ummar ized. H is mater ia l c erta in ly p rov ides p ract it ioners o fb o th d isc ip l ines w ith a c aref u l s urvey o f ma jor t rends i n b oth f i e lds.
I n a dd it ion t o p rov id ing t he b as is
f or e va lua t ion o f what B ede a cco mp l ished , Wor ma ld g ives u s ad eta i led n ot ion o f what B ede d id n o t r ecord i n t he H istor ia a nd w hy h e d id n ot r ecord i t . i s p erhaps t he most u sefu l a spec t o f h is work .
Th is
Mr. Wor ma ld p resen ts
f urther e v idence t o s how t hat w e c an make s o me f a irly s ound a ssu mp t ions a bou t t he l ay G er man ic a ud ience a s i td eveloped i n Eng land t hrough a nd b eyond t he a ge o f Bede o n l ines p ara l lel t o t hose i n c on t inen ta l man ifestat ions o f G er man a r istocrat ic s oc iety .
I n Wor ma ld 's w ords w e h ave a n a pparen t
p aradox i n t hat h ero ic l i terature i n Eng land w as p reserved " essent ia l ly b ec ause t he e arly med ieva l c hurch was a n Adelsk irche."
Worma ld a lso c onsi-
d ers i n p ass ing t he i mpact o f Ce lt ic o r I nsu lar Chr ist ian ity . I n t wo c losely r elated p apers , Professor C ra mp a nd Id ea l w ith a spects o f t he i conography o f t he Ru thwe l l c ross.
Th is s p lend id b u t e n ig ma t ic monu-
men t h as b een t he s ub ject o f i n tense s tudy f or a l ong t ime ;
h opefu l ly , w e
h ave made i tp oss ib le t o u nderstand i tb et ter, a nd t o s ee more c learly t he t rad it ion o f wh ich i tw as t he most c o mp lex a nd a ccomp l ished p roduc t.
We
s urvey p ara l lels f or t he i conograph ic s equence f rom a b road r ange o f a reas —l iturgy , s cu lpture, s cu lptura l c o m men tary a nd l i terature among t he m. The c ross i s ar ich i nd icat ion o f as p lend id a ge , a nd t he i conography i s a n o u ts tand ing c u l tura l a ch ieve men t i n w h ich Early Chr ist ian t rad it ion i s u sed w ith af u l l u nderstand ing o f t he modes o f a ssoc ia t ion o f i cons.
I ti s o ur c on ten t ion
t ha t Ru thwe l l i s t o b e a ssoc ia ted b oth w ith Wear mouth-Jarrow , B ede 's own monastery , a nd a r ange o f s cu lptures e lsewhere. Pro fessor 0 Carraga in 's b r ief p aper p rov ides a l arger, t heo log ica l , i nt e l lectua l a nd l i turg ica l c on tex t f or t he t rad it ion wh ich u nder l ies t he c rosses. B ede a nd h is monast ic s uper iors w ere a l l v ery much aware o f wha t w as g o ing o n i n t he C hr ist ian world.
B ede 's a t t itudes t oward t he S aracens d eve lop a s
t he t ide o fI sla m washed o ver l arge a reas o f Chr ist ian Europe , a nd B ened ict B iscop made r epeated t r ips t o Ro me a nd o ther Chr ist ian c en tres i n o rder t o e nr ich t he s p ir itua l a nd i n te l lectua l l i fe o f Wear mou th-Jarrow. 5
I ti s t here-
f ore n o t u n l ikely t hat n ew f easts a nd o bservances w ou ld b e i ncorporated i n to t he l i turgy o f t he N orthu mbr ian c hurch.
Pope S erg ius was k nown t o B ened ict
B iscop , C eo lfr ith , Hwaetberht a nd Wi l fr id , a nd B ede men t ions h im i n t he H istor ia A bbatu m.
S erg ius , p erhaps b ecause s uch r i tes a nd f easts w ere p art
o f t he E astern t rad it ion f ro m wh ich h e c a me, f i rm ly e stab l ished t he f easts o f t he Annunc iat ion a nd t he Exa l tat ion o f t he c ross, a nd a lso t he c han t " Agnus De i, q u i T o l l is p eccata Mund i , M iserere n ob is" a s p art o f t he O rd inary o f t he Mass.
Professor 6 Carraga in s hows h ow t hese r ecen t c hanges a re r e-
f l ected i n t he i conograph ica l p rogra m me o f t he Ru thwel l c ross. The f i na l e ssay i n t he v o lume, P rofessor Ca lk ins ' s tudy o f t he F r il ford g rave-goods, d ea ls w ith ma ter ia ls w h ich t hough Ang lo-Saxon a l most c erta in ly p re-da te B ede b y more t han a c en tury.
They w ere r ed iscovered b y c hance,
i n t he c ourse o f mov ing c o l lect ions f ro m t he o ld Un ivers ity museum t o t he s p lend id n ew Herbert F . J ohnson Museum o f Art a t C ornel l.
The b ronze
b rooches a nd i ron o b jects w h ich w ere d ug u p i n t he l a te n ineteen th-cen tury a t Fr ilford , Berks. w ere c lear ly a s ource o f p erp lex ity f or a l ong-dead c urator, who h ad t he m w rapped i n t i ssue, p i led i n to a s hoe b ox a nd t hrust i n to t he b ack o f ac upboard.
P rofessor C a lk ins a nd Ih ad a s er ies o f a dven tures w ork ing
b oth w ith t he o b jects t he mse lves a nd w ith t he ir h istory.
A f ter Ih ad c o mp le-
t ed p r i mary c onservat ion a nd p rov is iona l r econstruct ion , Ih ad t o f ly w ith t he p ieces t o L ondon s o t ha t t hey c ou ld b e p roperly c onserved b y t he s taf f o f t he Br it ish Museu m Conservat ion L abora tory .
S ince t he c ap ture o f a irp lanes f or
p o l it ica l a nd p ecun iary g a in w as a m inor i ndustry a t t he t ime, s evera l t ense h ours w ere s pen t c onv inc ing v ery d ub ious a irport s ecur ity o f f ic ia ls a nd l ater t he FB I t hat t hough a s ix th-century s pearhead was t echn ica l ly a w eapon , i t c ou ld n ot , a nd i ndeed wou ld n ot , b e u sed i n a n a t te mp t t o " sky jack" t he a irc raf t .
L ater i n t he s a me a cade m ic y ear, Professor Ca lk ins h ad a n e qua l ly
e nterta in ing t ime t rac ing d own t he o r ig ins o f t he p ieces i n w r it ten e v idence b oth h ere a t Cornel l , a nd l ater i n Eng land.
I t s ee ms f i t t ing t hat t h is c o l lect ion
o f e ssays s hould c lose w ith a n a ccoun t o f r ed iscovery. There a re many a cknow ledge men ts, s ince many c on tr ibu ted t o t he mak ing o f t h is b ook . The Amer ican Counc i l o f L earned S oc iet ies a nd t he Amer ican Ph ilosoph ical S oc iety p rov ided f und ing f or me t o w ork o n t he a rt h istory a nd a rchaeo logy o f t he Ang lo-Saxon p er iod , a nd more p art icu lar ly o n t he s tudy a nd r ecord ing i n p ho tographs o f t he c rosses a t Ru thwe l l a nd Bewcast le. Fund ing f or t he s tudy a nd c onservat ion o f t he Fr i l ford o b jects was g enerously p rov ided b y t he Cornel l Human it ies Research Fund , a nd l ater b y t he N a t iona l Endowmen t f or t he Hu man it ies o f Wash ing ton , D .C. ( a f edera l a gency ).
Mrs.
L esl ie Webster w as a g rea t h elp i n p lac ing t he p ieces i n t he Br it ish Museu m
l abora tory f or c onserva t ion ;
t he Eng l ish d epar tmen t a t Cornel l p rov ided
sma l l g ran ts f or p hotographs a nd i l lustrat ions, a nd s ecretar ia l a ss istance f or t yp ing.
The a ss istance o f Mss. S he i la Bonde a nd S usan K ruse w as i n-
v a luab le, f or t he ir p a instak ing w ork i n c o mp i l ing a nd c heck ing mater ia ls made t he p leasan t t ask o f c o mpos ing t h is v o lume l ess t ime c onsu m ing t han i t wou ld o therw ise h ave b een .
Mrs. J anet G odden d id a t horough c heck o f
t he manuscr ip t f or e rrors i n f or m a nd c on ten t , a nd made many s uggest ions f or t he b et ter men t o f t he b ook .
Imost g ratefu l ly a cknow ledge t he g enerous
a id o f t hese p ersons, a nd c la im r e ma in ing f au l ts a s my own.
Robert T . F arrel l V il lage o f L ans ing J une, 1 976
FOOTNOTES
1 .
The p apers o f P rofessors C a lk ins a nd 0 C arraga in a re b oth l ack ing i n o ne o f t hese r espects ;
2 .
s ee b elow.
B ede, h is L ife, T i mes a nd Wr it ings, e d. A . Ha m ilton Tho mpson ( Ox ford , 1 935 ).
3 .
F ranco is Masa i, E ssa i s ur l es o r ig ines d e l a m in iature d ite I r landa ise ( Brusse ls, 1 947 ).
4 .
" Northumbr ia a nd t he Book o f K e l ls" , Ang lo-Saxon Eng land 1 ( 1 972 ), 2 19-46.
5 .
For B ede 's v iews o n t he S aracens a nd h is c hange i n s tance t owards t he m , s ee J . M. Wa l lace-Hadr i l l Bede ' s Europe, J arrow L ecture ( 1962 ).
I .
THE ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY OF BEDAN NORTHU MBR IA D av id M. Wi lson
Bede 's manhood c o inc ided w ith a t ime o f p eace a nd , a l though p eace i s n ot n ecessar i ly c onduc ive t o c u ltura l g row th , Bede 's l i fe t i me w as o ne o f t he most i n te l lectua l ly s t i mu la t ing a nd o r ig ina l p er iods i n t he h istory o f Br ita in. The a r t ist ic p roducts o f t hat p er iod — t he Book o f Durrow , t he L ind isfarne G ospe ls , t he Codex Am ia t inus , t he A r dagh c ha l ice , t he Ruthwe l l c ross , t he c hurch a t H exha m a nd t he monas tery o f J arrow — a re g reat a nd i nf luen t ia l i n tel lectua l a ch ieve men ts. I n t h is r e la t ive ly q u iet a nd p rosperous p er iod t he k ingdom o f N or thu mbr ia r ece ived i nsp ira t ion f ro m t he who le o f t he k nown wor ld a nd was t he d onor o f c ons iderab le c u ltura l r iches t o t he r est o f Chr ist ian i ty . I t i s my p urpose i n t h is c on tr ibu t ion t o s urvey t he n ature a nd i nf luence o f Nor thumbr ia i n t he a ge o f Bede , a nd t o o u t l ine t he c hanges i n s cho lar ly p erspec t ive o n t hat a ge wh ich h ave c o me a bou t i n t he f or ty-odd y ears , s ince t he c o mme morat ion o f Bede 's d eath i n t he v o lu me Tho mpson e d ited i n 1 935. As a n a rchaeo log is t Imust s tudy t he p er iod p r i mar i ly o n t he b as is o f i t s mat er ia l c u l ture , a nd c on f ine myse lf t o t he a na lys is o f s ty l ist ic a nd a r t h istor ica l e v idence.
The f i e ld i s b road , f or d iscover ies i n t he p ast f or ty y ears h ave
a dded g reat ly t o o ur p r i mary e v idence.
The e xcava t ion o f ma jor monas t ic
c entres s uch a s Wearmou t ha nd J arrow , t he S u t ton Hoo s h ip a nd t he S t . N in ian 's I s le t reasure a re b ut a f ew s pec tacu lar h igh p o in ts i n a much l arger c ontex t o f i nforma t ive b u t l ess e xc it ing d iscover ies.
I th as b eco me i ncrea-
s ing ly c lear t hat Nor thu mbr ia w as a ma jor c en tre w ith a t rad it ion i n a r t o f av ery h igh s tandard .
Wha t i s more , Nor thu mbr ia w as t he meet ing p lace f or
p roduct ive i n terchange w ith t he a r t o f t wo Ce l t ic t rad it ions , t he I r ish , a nd t he P icts t o t he n or th .
A s Iw i l l s how i n t he c ourse o f t h is p aper , t h is N or th-
umbr ian a r t , i t se lf t he p roduct o f s evera l c u ltures , h ad a n i n f luence o n t he c on t inen t o f Europe a s w e l l.
These f acets o f N or thu mbr ian c u l ture f orm t he
ma jor b urden o f t h is c hap ter t ogether w ith a s u m mary o f t he f ew a rchaeo log ica l f inds o f as ecu lar n ature i n N or thu mbr ia wh ich c an b e d ated t o w ith in B ede 's l i fet i me . P erhaps t he most i mpor tan t Br it ish a rchaeo log ica l f i nd o f r ecen t y ears i s t he t reasure d iscovered d ur ing e xcavat ions o n at iny p en insu la , S t N in ian 's I sle , o f f t he ma in land o f S het land .
The t reasure , wh ich Ic ons ider t o b e a
s ecu lar h oard , was b ur ied i n t he n ave o f a sma l l c hurch , p robab ly i n t he f ace o f V ik ing a t tack , a t t he e nd o f t he e igh th c entury o r a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he n inth .
A l l t he o b jects i n t he h oard a re o f s i lver a nd a l l b ut o ne a re o f P ic t ish
manu fac t ure.
1
The t reasure was o r ig ina l ly e nc losed i n al arch-wood b ox t oge ther w ith t he j aw-bone o f ap orpo ise .
I t c ons is ted o f t wen ty-e igh t s i lver o b jec ts , t he
1
ma jor ity o f t he m g i lt .
S even s ha l low b ow ls , u sua l ly w ith a n ompha los i n t he
b ase b u t i n o ne c ase o f s em i-he m ispher ica l s hape , a re d ecorated i n p o int ing t echn ique.
F ive h ave g eometr ic o r i n ter lace p at terns , b u t t wo a re embel l ished
w ith e labora te a n i ma l o rnamen t ( P l. I ) . With t hese b ow ls was t he o n ly p iece i n t he h oard wh ich m igh t h ave b een i mpor ted — a s i lver h ang ing-bow l ( Pl. I ) o f aw e l l-known t ype , p resumab ly o f N or thumbr ian o r ig in a nd p oss ib ly made d ur ing B ede 's l i fet i me. I ti s a n e labora te o b ject , r ibbed e x terna l ly w ith mou lded f ea tures i n t he f orm o f ad isp layed b oar , a nd w ith moun ts i ns ide a nd o uts ide , o ne o f wh ich i s o rna men ted w ith t rumpet s p ira ls a nd t he o ther w ith a n i ma l o rnamen t . A s i lver s poon , w ith a mode l led a n i ma l h ead a t t he j unct ion o f s te m a nd b ow l , a nd a s trange h ookedl ike o b ject , wh ich m igh t q u ite a ccurate ly b e d escr ibed a s aw ink le-p icker , a re c harm ing b u t r ather mean ing less o rnamen ts o f at ype p robab ly w orn o n aw oman 's c hate la ine. A sword p om me l i s i n tr icate ly d ecora ted w ith c h ip-carved a n i ma l o rnamen t ; w ith i ta re a p a ir o f s cabbard c hapes ( one p oss ib ly u nused ) c arved w ith e labo rate i n ter laced a n i ma ls a nd h av ing a n i ma l-headed t erm ina ls. One c hape ( P l . I I ) b ears a n i nscr ip t ion w h ich K enneth J ackson h as i n terpreted a s P ict ish : o n o ne f ace i tr eads Resad f i l l i S pusc io , o n t he o ther i n n om ine d [e i ] s [um m i l.
J ackson s ees t he t wo n ames ( Resad a nd S puc io ) a s P ict ish , a nd
t h is i den t if ica t ion h e lps t o p lace t hese o b jects a ga inst t he ir c u ltura l b ackg round. Three s i lver-g i l t o b jects , s haped l i ke p epper-po ts , a re a lmost c er ta in ly e laborate b u t tons — t he ir b ase p la tes a re v ery s im ilar i n f or m a nd s ize t o b one b u t tons f rom o ther s i tes i n Orkney a nd S het land . They a re e labora te ly d ecorated w ith a n i ma l i n ter lace a nd s p ira l o rnamen ts. There w ere t h ir teen p enannu lar b rooches i n t he h oard . The l argest ( P l. I V ) i s n ear ly 1c m i n d iameter a nd ( w ithou t i t s p in ) w e ighs n ear ly 1 50 g ram mes. l ike h ead .
These b rooches a re t ru ly p enannu lar a nd h ave p ins w ith a h ookThey a re d ecorated w ith i n ter lace o rnamen t a nd most o f t he m
h ave l obed t erm ina ls a nd r is ing c usps a t t he t erm ina ls a nd a t t he e nds o f t he p ane ls o n t he h oop .
S uch f eatures — t he t ru ly p enannu lar f orm a nd t he
c usped t erm ina ls — d ist ingu ish t hem f rom t he ir I r ish c on te mporar ies , wh ich Ih ave t ermed " pseudo-penannu lar ." I fb rooches o f t h is t ype a re p lot ted o n ad istr ibu t ion map i ti s c lear t ha t t he ir d istr ibu t ion i s l arge ly c on f ined t o t he P ict ish a rea o f S cot land a nd we may n ow b eg in t o c ons ider t he p oss ib i l i ty o f d ef i n ing a P ict ish s choo l o f me ta l work o f t he e igh th c en tury . The P ic t ish i den t i ty o f t h is t ype o fb rooch i s f ur ther s uppor ted b y t he r ecen t r e-d iscovery b y Mrs Cur ie o f c lay b iva lve mou lds f or s uch b rooches f ro m t he P ict ish l eve ls a t t he Broch o f B irsay i n O rkney .
2
The most s tr ik ing p ara l le ls t o t he a r t o f t he S t N in ian 's I s le t reasure a re n atura l ly w ith t he a r t o f t he l ate P ict ish s tones. The a n i ma ls w ith l ooped n ecks a nd s p ira l led h ind-quar ters e ncoun tered o n t he b ow ls a nd " pepper-pots" o f t he S t N in ian 's h oard a re d ist inct ive , a nd a re c lear ly p ara l le led o n af ew p ieces o f s cu lpture s uch a s t he Aber lemno s tone. 3 Bu t t he most i n terest ing p ara l le ls o u ts ide S co t land a re t o b e f ound i n t he a r t o f t he Ang lo-Saxon manuscr ip ts a nd p ar t icu lar ly i n t he a r t o f s uch o b jects a s t he L ind is farne Gospe ls , f or h ere a re a n i ma ls d rawn i n p o in t ing t echn ique e xact ly a na logous t o t hose f ound i n t he S t N in ian 's I s le c orpus.
On f o l. 9 5r o f t he L ind is farne
G ospe ls , f or e xamp le , t ucked b etween t he l egs o f t he monogram o f t he i n it ia l l e t ter o f t he w ord I n it ium , i s a n a n i ma l ( F ig . I ,1 ) i n a l l r espects s im i lar t o t ha t o n o ne o f t he S t N in ian 's b ow ls.
2
The G ospe ls p rov ide many s uch
' sI s le t reasure.
P la te I I
I nscr ibed c hape f ro m t he S t N in ian 's I s le t reasure.
F ig . 1
An i mals f rom t he S t N in ian 's h ang ing b ow l n o. 2 c o mpared w ith ( bot to m ) a n i ma l f ro m t he L ind isfarne Gospels. Copyr ight E . . W ilson .
7
p ara l le ls b u t c er ta in f eatures c arry t he a r t i nto t he e igh th
c entury , t o y ears
b eyond 6 98 when t he L ind isfarne G ospe ls w ere w r it ten a nd d ecora ted . Para ll e ls w ith t he Ro me G ospe ls ( Vat ican , Barber in i l a t . 5 20 ) a nd t he B ook o f Cerne i n t he Un ivers ity L ibrary , Cambr idge , a re c lose a nd s ign if ican t , a nd wou ld s uggest a d a te f or t hese o b jects i n t he l a t ish e igh th c entury .4 O ther p ara l le ls o ccur w ith manuscr ip t a r t a nd p ar t icu lar ly w ith t he Book o f K e l ls.
The e x traord inary t r ick o f s epara t ing t he h ead a nd h ind-
q uar ters o f a n a n i ma l b y an eck o r b ody c o mposed o f as er ies o f l oops , s een o n t he p o m me l a nd t he " but tons ," o ccurs c lear ly i n t he a r t o f t he B ook o f K e l ls . 5 Th is i s t he most s ign if ican t o f t he p ara l le ls w ith t h is g rea t manus cr ip t , b u t o thers d o o ccur . P ara l le ls w ith I r ish a r t a re r are i n t he S t N in ian 's I s le c orpus , b u t a tt en t ion s hou ld b e d rawn t o t he f eature , s een o n t he s word p om me l , f or e xamp le , where t he h ind l egs o f t he a n i ma l a re r eversed i n t he ir s p ira l c ont or t ion . Th is d e ta i l i s e ncoun tered o n t he Tara b rooch 6 — a n a l mos t c ert a in ly I r ish o b ject o f t he e igh th c entury — b u t , t o my k now ledge , i to ccurs i n n o o ther p lace i n t he c orpus o fI r ish meta lwork o r manuscr ipts — a l though r e la t ive ly c o m mon i n S co t land a nd N or thumbr ia. 7 The S t N in ian 's I s le h oard c an b e s een , t here fore , a s ad epos itory o f a h igh ly i nd iv idua l a r t , c lear ly n at ive t o t he k ingdom i n wh ich i t was f ound b ut d raw ing i t s i nsp ira t ion f rom e x terna l t rad it ions e lsewhere i n t he Br i t ish I s les. Tha t P ict ish a r t was s o i nf luenced h as b een c lear f or a l ong t ime. P ast s tud ies o f s tone s cu lpture h ave d rawn a t ten t ion t o t he c lose c orrespond ence b etween P ict ish a nd Nor thu mbr ian s ty les .8 The H ilton o f Cadbo l l s tone ( p l . V ) , f or e xa mp le , d e monstrates i n i t s b orders a n u nden iab le r e lat i onsh ip w ith t he i nhab ited v ine-scro l l o f Nor thumbr ian s cu lp ture , s een i n c lass ica l f orm , f or e xa mp le , o n t he Ru thwe l l c ross ( p l. V I ). An umber o f s ign if ican tb reak throughs h ave b een made i n t he c ourse o f t he l ast t wen ty y ears i n t he f i e ld o f P ict ish-Nor thumbr ian a rchaeo logy a nd s ty le h istory , s t i mu lated f irst b y t he l a te F . T . Wa inwr igh t 's s u m mer s choo l e n t it led " The Prob le m o f t he P icts ," t he l ectures t o wh ich w ere p ub l ished i n 1 955. 9 Ar t ic les a nd b ooks ( i n wh ich I sabe l H enderson ,1 0 R ober t S tevenson , Char les Tho mas ,
1 2
J u l ian Brown ,
1 3
1 1
Ka th leen Hughes 1 4 a nd myself 1 5 h ave
b een t he ma in p ro tagon is ts ) h ave p rov ided a b as is f or a r eappra isa l o f s ty l ist i c p rob le ms.
Char les Tho mas 's i ngen ious s tudy o f P ic t ish s cu lp ture h as
n ot s tood u p t o c r it ica l e xam ina t ion o f t he c hrono log ica l a nd a r t-h istor ica l b as is wh ich h e u sed , b u t t here d oes n ow s eem t o b e s o me b as ic u nders tand ing o f t he r e la t ionsh ip b etween P ict land a nd N or thumbr ia a nd a c loser d e f in i t ion o f t he mater ia l c u lture a nd s ty le-h istor ica l i nf luences wh ich made u p t h is f asc inat ing a nd a l most f orgo t ten c u lture. Bede w as w el l aware o f t he P ic ts — t he n e ighbours o f t he Nor thumbr ians — a nd e very s tudy o f t he P ict ish p rob le m i n t he e igh th c en tury h as s tar ted f rom t he i n troduct ion t o h is l ong a ccoun t o f C eo lfr i th 's l e t ter t o Nech tan , t he k ing o f t he P ic ts. Nech tan , k ing o f t he P ic ts , w ho l i ve i nt he n or thern p ar ts o f Br ita in , h av ing b een c onv inced b y a ss id ious s tudy o f e cc les ias t ical wr it ings , r enounced t he e rror wh ich h e a nd h is r ace h ad u n t i l t hen
8
P la te V
S cu lp tured s tone f rom H il ton o f Cadbo l l, Easter Ross , S cot land. Copyr igh t N a t iona l Museu m o f An t iqu it ies.
P late V I
Ruthwe l l c ross, Du mfr iessh ire :
I nhab ited v ine-scro l l.
h e ld a bou t t he o bservance o f E aster , a nd l ed a l l h is p eop le t o c e leb ra te w ith h im t he c a tho l ic t ime o f k eep ing t he L ord 's r esurrect ion .. s ough t h e lp f rom t he Eng l ish .. S o h e s en t messengers t o t he v enerab le C eo lfr ith , a bbot o f t he monastery o f t he a post les S t P e ter a nd S t Pau l [ a t Monkwearmou th a nd J arrow ] .. The k ing a sked t he a bbot t o s end h im i n forma t ion b y l et ter t o e nab le h im t o c on fute... t hose... who p resumed t o c e lebra te Easter a t t he wrong t ime ;
a lso
[ i n for ma t ion ] a bou t t he s hape a nd method o f t onsure b y wh ich i t was f i t t ing t ha t c ler ics s hou ld b e d ist ingu ished ...He a lso a sked f or b u i lders t o b e s en t t o b u i ld a c hurch o f s tone i n t he ir c oun try a f ter R o man f ash ion .. Abbot Ceo l fr i th c o mp l ied w ith h is p ious w ishes a nd r equests , s end ing t he b u i lders h e a sked f or a nd a lso a l et ter .1 6 Thus , a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he e igh th c en tury t here was a d irect e cc les iast i ca l c on tact a nd , i n v iew o f t he b u i lders s en t b y Ceo l fr ith , d irect c u l tura l c on tact b e tween N or thu mbr ians a nd P icts. Th is c ontact a f fords a s tr ik ing p ara l le l t o t hat e stab l ished w ith G au l b y B ened ic t B iscop a t t he t ime o f t he f ounda t ion o f t he j o in t monastery o f Monkware mou th a nd J arrow a f ew y ears e ar l ier . The a ctua l r esu l ts o f Bened ict 's r eques t f or masons a nd o ther c ra f ts men f ro m Gau l a re e asy t o o ver-est i ma te i n c u ltura l t er ms ;
b ut h is a ppea l i s i nd ica t ive o f at endency , a pparen t i n
s even th a nd e igh th c en tury Eng land , t o t urn t o t he Con t inen t f or c u ltura l i nsp irat ion .
For w e lded i n to t he f abr ic o f Eng l ish c u lture o f t h is p er iod i s much
o f t he l a te c lass ica l t rad it ion , most c lear ly s een i n manuscr ip t a r t , a rch itect ure , t ex ts a nd r e l ig ious o bservances.
S im ilar ly , N ech tan 's a ppea l t o
Ceo lfr i th may n o t h ave b een ( and a l most c erta in ly was n o t ) t he f irst , n or e ven t he mos t i mpor tan t , c ata lyst wh ich i n troduced Nor thumbr ian i n f luences i n to t he P ic t ish n or th ;
b ut i ti s c er ta in ly i nd ica t ive o f t he ma jor s ources o f
P ict ish i nsp irat ion , f or when t races o f f ore ign c u l ture a ppear i n P ict land t hey s ee m t o b e impregna ted w i th t he e ssence o f N or thu mbr ian/Merc ian i n f luence. The g rea t s tone s labs a nd t he m inute f igures c arved b y j ewe l lers s how t h is i n f luence c lear ly .
I n a rch itecture t he i n f luences a re l ess c lear .
Doug las
S i mpson 's i den t if icat ion o f t he l ower s tage o f t he t ower o f Restenneth P r iory i n Angus a s " in a l l p robab i l ity t he r e ma ins o f t he p or t icus o f t he c hurch b u i lt more R omanorum , b y masons f ro m Wearmou th a t t he o rder o f K ing N ec tan MacDer i le , a bou t t he y ear 7 10 ,"
1 7
may b e t oo d ef in ite , b ut t here a re u n-
d oub ted N or thumbr ian e le men ts i n t h is b u i ld ing wh ich c er ta in ly r e la te i tt o i nf luences f ro m Eng land. These i n f luences a re c en tra l t o t he i den t if icat ion o f o ne o f t he mos t imp or tan t Br it ish manuscr ip ts o f t he p os t-Bedan p er iod — t he Book o f Kei ls. Many h ave f e l t u nhappy a bou t p lac ing t h is manuscr ip t i n a n I r ish s cr ip tor iu m , b u t J u l ian Brown h as g rasped t he I r ish n e tt le a nd h as p ub l ished a mos t s ign if ican t p aper wh ich a rgues w ith c lar ity t owards a c onc lus ion s o o bv ious t ha t o ne i s l e f t a ghas t a t i t s s ense.
Brown 's c onc lud ing p aragraph r eads :
The B ook o f K e l ls i s t he most c omp lex a nd t he g rea tes t work o f H iberno-Saxon a r t .
I f i t s d ate i s b e tween t he 7 46 o f t he L en ingrad
Bede a nd t he 8 22 o f t he Macrego l G ospe ls , t hen Nor thu mbr ia , P ictl and , I ona a nd I re land a re a l l p oss ib le h o mes f or i t .
1 1
I ti s f or
a rchaeo logy t o s et t le t he q uest ion . P a laeography c an d o l i t t le more t han t e l l h er s ister where a nd when t o s tar t l ook ing : a t L ind isfarne , i n t he m idd le y ears o f t he e igh th c entury .
We c an
c er ta in ly a pp ly t o K e i ls Mrs H enderson 's words a bou t P ic t ish s cu lpture :
' i t w as .. t he c reat ion o f a r t ists f ree ly p ar t ic ipat ing
i n t he e vo lu t ion o f [ t he H iberno-Saxon ] s ty le a nd c on tr ibu t ing t o i t s o me o f i t s mos t d ar ing a nd magn if icen t monumen ts.' c haeo log ica l a nswer t o t he q uest ion o f o r ig in i s t h is :
My own a r' a g reat
i nsu lar c en tre .. s ub ject t o N or thu mbr ian i n f luence .. i n e astern S co t land '.
B ecause o f t he v igour a nd f reshness o f t he L ind isfarne
e le men ts t ha t t hey i nc lude , Ic annot e as i ly b e l ieve t hat e i ther Ke i ls o r t he r e lated a n t iqu it ies f ro m t he P ict ish a rea w ere made a f ter t he e nd o f t he e igh th c entury .
I fK e i ls w ere o f t he n in th
c en tury , Is hou ld w onder h ow t he s ty le a nd t echn ique o f E ad fr ith 's s cr iptor iu m a t L ind isfarne c ou ld h ave b een s o b r i l l ian t ly r ev ived a f ter a n i n terva l o f ac en tury .
1 8
" A g reat i nsu lar c en tre .. s ub ject t o Nor thu mbr ian i n f luence . . i n e astern S cot land ."
I ti s b eco m ing c learer , t he more w e s tudy t he a r t o f t he
Br it ish I sles i n t he p re-V ik ing Age , t ha t t he o ld a dage t ha t a l l t h ings b eaut ifu l c o me f ro m I re land i s n o l onger t rue. l i ty o f t he I r ish c ra f ts men ;
Th is i s n o t t o d eny t he a r t is t ic c apab i-
o ne o n ly h as t o l ook a t t he Tara b rooch a nd t he
Ardagh c ha l ice t o r ea l ise t hat t here was a r t i n I re land.
On t he o ther h and
l ook ing a t t he p anora ma o f i nsu lar a r t f ro m S ut ton Hoo o nwards, t he g reat a ch ieve men ts o f Durrow , L ind isfarne , a nd Ke i ls , t he Orms ide b ow l , t he Ruthwe l l c ross , a nd n ow t he S t N in ian 's I s le t reasure , i ti s c lear t ha t t here a re many e le men ts c o mp lete ly o u ts ide t he e xper ience o fI re land , a nd o f t he I r ish a r t ist .
I ti s d if f icu lt t o f ind a h igh q ua l ity I r ish manuscr ipt b e fore t he
Macrego l Gospe ls.
The Ca thach ,
1 9
Bangor a n t iphonary ,
2 2
2 °
t he Mun ich s acra men tary ,
t he S cha f fhausen Ada manan 2 3
2 1
t he
a nd t he Cad mug G ospe ls 2 4
p rov ide l i t t le t hat c an r estore o ur f a ith i n t he a b i l i ty o f t he I r ish s cr ibe . The Fahan Mura c ross , i fi ti s c orrect ly d a ted ( wh ich Id oubt ) , ma jor p iece o f I r ish s cu lp ture f ro m t he p er iod b efore 8 00. a t Ahenny ,
2 7
2 6
i s t he o n ly I ft he s ou th c ross
a nd t he I r ish h igh c rosses wh ich a re a l l ied t o i t , c an p erhaps
b e f orced w ith in t he e igh th c en tury , t hey may ( i n v iew o f t he a rgu men ts o f Rober t S tevenson ) b e d er ived f rom t he a rea wh ich p roduced t he Book o f K e i ls a nd r eached I re land b y way o fI ona a nd t he west o f S cot land • 28 I t i s i n meta lwork t ha t I r ish c raf ts mansh ip i s b est s een , b ut mos t o f t he mot ifs ( w ith t he e xcept ion o f t he t rumpet-sp ira l — au n iversa l p a t tern b ur ied i n Br it ish i mag inat ion s ince t he e ar ly Ro man I ron a ge ) h ave t he ir o r ig in o uts ide I re land .
The a n i ma l o rnamen t , s k i lfu l ly c on tor ted b y t he I r ish c ra f ts-
man , i s d er ived w ithout q uest ion f ro m t he German menager ie , p resumab ly b y way o f t he Ang lo-Saxons.
The u se o f e na me l r eached n ew h e igh ts i nt he
h ands o f t he I r ish masters , b u t a rchaeo log ica l work s ince t he war h as p rod uced amp le e v idence f or t he p resence o f workshops c apab le o f p roduc ing e na me l i n t he e ast o f Br ita in . 29
The c orpus o f me ta lwork i n l ate s even th-
a nd e igh th-cen tury I re land i s q ua l itat ive ly i mpress ive b u t i n mass sma l l — t he Ardagh c ha l ice ,
3°t he
K i l ma inha m b rooch ,
3 3
Tara b rooch ,
3 1
t he Moy lough b e lt s hr ine ,
ah and fu l o f b uck les a nd b rooches.
1 2
3 2
t he
Bu t t he c orpus
c la i med f or I re land h as b een r educed.
Work , a s y et u npub l ished , b y J ames
Graha m-Campbe 1 1 34 h as d e monstra ted b eyond p eradven ture t ha t t he Da lr iada b rooch a nd t he Roscrea b rooch , o nce t hough t t o b e long t o t h is p er iod , a re i n r ea l ity o f n in th-cen tury d a te.
The Copenhagen s hr ine 35
S cot t ish a s t he v ery s im i lar Monymusk r e l iquary , t he S a in t-Germa in o b jects 37 d er ive f ro m?
3 6
c ou ld e as ily b e a s
a nd who i s t o s ay where
The r eact ion a ga inst Franço ise
H enry h as i n t he l as t f ew y ears b een a l most u n fa ir i n i t s v igour .
I n s o me
c ases s ome o f t he p rotagon ists may o verstep t he mark i n t ak ing mater ia l f ro m I re land a nd e stab l ish ing i ti n e astern Br ita in , b ut It h ink t hat Brown 's w ork o n t he Book o f K e l ls , S tevenson 's s tudy o f t he I ona c rosses a nd t he r ecent w ork o n t he S t N in ian 's I s le b rooches , i nd icate t hat t h is h as b een d one o n ad ispass ionate b as is.
The a rgu men ts a re c onv inc ing a nd h ave n ot b een
s er ious ly c r it ic ised , a s y et , b y o ur I r ish c o l leagues. I n t he c entre o f t h is a r t is t ic mae lstro m was N or thumbr ia.
I tp roduced
a t t h is p er iod g reat works o f a r t o f wh ich t he L ind isfarne G ospe ls a nd t he C odex Am ia t inus , p roduced d ur ing B ede 's l i fet i me , a re t he u ndoub ted masterp ieces. 3 8
The Book o f Durrow a l most c er ta in ly b e longs t o t h is g roup , a s
d o t he E ch ternach G ospe ls a nd t he Durha m Gospe ls ( A. I I 1 7 ). 39
The p os it ion
i s t ha t l arge ly r eached b y Masa i i n 1 944 i n h is E ssa i s ur l es o r ig ines d e l a m in iature d ites i r landa ise.
N ow , h owever , we c an b ase o ur a rgu men ts o n
d e ta i led p a laeograph ica l c o mpar isons i mposs ib le t o a Be lg ian d ur ing war t i me. The ma jor i nsu lar manuscr ip ts o f t he l a te s even th a nd e ar ly e igh th c entury a re N or thumbr ian , n ot I r ish ;
t he d eta i led work o f L owe a nd Brown h as made
i tp oss ib le t o s ee t hat s uch a p os it ion i s q u ite t enab le.
Together w ith V erey "
t hey h ave s hown t ha t t he Durha m , E ch ternach a nd L ind isfarne Gospe ls were p roduced i n t he L ind isfarne s cr iptor iu m b etween s ay 6 90 a nd 7 10.
Manuscr ip ts
p roduced a t Wearmou th/ Jarrow i nc lude t he Codex Am ia t in ius , t he M idd le ton L eaves i n t he Br it ish L ibrary ,
t he L en ingrad B ede 42
4 1
a nd p robab ly t he
Br it ish L ibrary B ede ( Cot ton T iber ius A . I V ). 43 The B ook o f K e l ls h as l i nks w ith b o th Wear mou th/Jarrow a nd L ind isfarne a nd , a ccord ing t o Brown , must d a te t o t he midd le o f t he e igh th c entury ; i tl ooks a l most a s t hough i t must b e c ons idered a s P ict ish.
b ut
L ike t he c hurch
o f Res tenneth t h is manuscr ip t may n o t b e t he d irect p roduct o f t he c on tact e stab l ished b y Nechtan , b u t i ti s c er ta in ly we l l w ith in t he a tmosphere wh ich a l l ied t he c ultura l a reas o f P ict land a nd Nor thu mbr ia.
The s a me c on tac t i s
emphas ized b y t he S t N in ian 's I s le t reasure a nd t he l ate g roup o f P ict ish s tones w ith t he ir e c lect ic a r t . 44
N or thu mbr ia was a ma jor d onor t o t he a r t
o f t he P ict ish k ingdo m i n t he e igh th c en tury .
E ither Nor thu mbr ia o r P ict land ,
o r b o th , were ma jor d onors t o t he a r t o f I re land.
I s I ona w ith i t s c arved
c rosses a s tep t owards I re land? The impor tance o fI ona a s as tage i n t he t rans m iss ion o f i deas a nd o f a r t i s h ard t o e st i ma te.
I ona , a ccord ing t o i t s own a ccoun t , was a t ower ing
c en tre o f i n te l lectua l a c t iv ity.
S o was J arrow .
Bu t L ind isfarne , n ot a p ar-
t icu lar ly s trong i n te l lec tua l c en tre , was t he N or thu mbr ian c en tre wh ich p roduced p a in t ing o f t he h ighest s tandard , a nd t h is w e k now o n ly b y t he a cc iden t o f as ing le c o lophon .
Cou ld n ot s o me g reat P ict ish c en tre h ave b een
a s a r t is t ica l ly i n f luen t ia l a s L ind isfarne , wh ich a pparen t ly p roduced n o g reat s cho lar?
1 3
Nor thumbr ia h ad i n f luence o u ts ide I re land a nd P ict land . The c on t inen ta l miss ionar ies o f t he e igh th c en tury w ere f requen t ly t urn ing t o N or thumbr ia f or a id.
Bon iface c on t inua l ly a sked f or Eng l ish b ooks . 4 5
He e ven a sked
Egber t o f York f or c op ies o f t he w ork o f B ede h imse l f , a nd among t he b ooks h e managed t o o b ta in was o ne manuscr ip t o f Capuan o r ig in , wh ich w as b ound ( presumab ly i n Nor thumbr ia ) i n t he b est q ua l ity E ng l ish r ed l eather , a nd moun ted w ith s i lver o rnamen ts e xecuted i n ar a ther r un-of-the- m i l l E ng l ish s ty le 4 6 Wi lhe lm L ev ison d ef ined t he e igh th c en tury a s o ne o f t he t wo p er iods i n h istory i n wh ich " Eng land .. e xerc ised ab road , d eep a nd l ast ing i n f luence u pon c on t inen ta l ways o f t hough t a nd l i fe
4 7
. "The n ames o f Wilfr id , B on iface ,
Wi l l ibrord ,A lcu in , L u l lus a nd s o o n a re f am i l iar t o a l l med ieva l ists , a s f am i l iar a s t he g reat monumen ts o f t he Franco-Saxon s choo l o f manuscr ip ts. L ess f am i l iar , p erhaps , i s t he i mpor tan t r o le t ha t Eng l ish me ta lworkers p layed i n t he a r t o f t he Con t inen t .
Th is d oes n o more i n many ways t han
u nder l ine t he k nown f acts , b u t s ince G t in ther Hase lof f 's i mpor tant monograph , Der Tass i loke lch , a ppeared i n 1 951 4 8
ag reat d ea l o f n ew i n forma t ion h as
c o me t o l i gh t wh ich c lear ly d e monstrates t he i mpor tan t p os i t ion h e ld b y t he Ang lo-Saxon a r t ist i n E urope i n t he B edan p er iod. I t i s k nown , f rom t he L iber P on t if ica l is , t ha t members o f t he S cho la S axonu m i n Ro me made a l tar p la te f or t he b as i l ica o f S t P eter 's i n t h is p er iod a nd , wh i le t he p roducts o f t h is p ar t icu lar s choo l c anno t b e r ecogn ized , t he mass ive e ar ly n in th-cen tury r ing f ro m t he r iver a t B o logma 49 a nd E ng l ish o b jects o f s im i lar d a te f ro m P av ia 5 ° d e monstra te t he p enetrat ion o f I t a ly b y o b jects made i n Eng l ish workshops.
F ur ther , a l though t he t aste o ft he
Med iterranean p eop le w as v ery d i f feren t f rom t ha t o f t he Ang lo-Saxons a t t h is p er iod , e nough c o m mon G erman ic h er itage s urv ived t o a dm it s uch f ore ign t aste t o t he c en tre o f t he Chr ist ian w or ld. The me ta l moun ts o n t he C apuan D ia tesseron o f t he G ospe ls wh ich u ndoub ted ly b e longed t o S t B on iface h ave b een r e ferred t o a bove.
These a re m iserab le l i t t le moun ts , b ut t he i mpres-
s ed s i lver p lates i n tro \ ice u s , f or e xa mp le , t o t he r a ther more s p lend id o rna men t o f t he s ame t echn ique o n t he Orms ide b ow 1. 5 1 The p at tern o n t h is b ow l i s t he f am i l iar i nhab ited v ine-scro l l , r ather b arbar ized i n r espec t o f i t s a n i ma ls , b u t w e l l w ith in t he c lass ica l t rad it ion i mpor ted i n to N or thumbr ia b y Bened ic t B iscop a nd h is s uccessors. The s ame t echn ique a nd p a t tern c an b e s een o n t he Ruper tus c ross , f rom B ischofshofen n ear S a lzburg i n Austr ia. 5 2
Th is c ross ( des igned p re-
s umab ly a t t he o rder o f , o r i n me mory o f , B ishop R uper t o f S a lzburg a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he e igh th c en tury , t o h ang i n h is p r iva te c hape l , p erhaps e ven o ver h is t o mb ) i s 1 58c m h igh. I ti s o rnamen ted w ith a v ine-scro l l wh ich h as b ecome d egenera te ( p l. V I I ), t he a n i ma ls merg ing w ith t he p lan ts t o p roduce as ing le r unn ing mo t if , af eature wh ich o ccurs q u ite f requen t ly i n e igh thc entury i nsu lar meta lwork .5 3
The g lass i n lays o f t he c ross a ga in r ef lec t ,
o n av ery c oarse s ca le , s im i lar i nsu lar i n lays i n Br ita in .5 4 There c an b e l i t t le d oubt t ha t t h is o b ject was made b y a n Eng l ish a r tist , p resumab ly w orki ng i n t h is a rea o f t he C on t inen t , a n a rea wh ich h as a lso p roduced t hat r emarkab le Eng l ishin f luenced o b jec t , t he Tass ilo c ha l ice.
1 4
P late V II
Arm o f B ischofshofen , Austr ia, Cross. Copyr igh t Bayer isches Nat iona l museu m , Mun ich.
The Tass i lo c ha l ice w as made t o t he o rder o f Duke Tass ilo f or t he monastery o f Kre ms m t inster .5 5
The a bbey was f ounded i n 7 77 a nd Tass i lo
was d eposed b y Char le magne i n 7 88 , g iv ing a t erm inus p ost q ue m a nd a t erm inus a n te q ue m f or i t s p roduct ion .
Hase lo f f , i n h is s em ina l s tudy o f
t h is work , f irst d ef ined t he Eng l ish i nsp ira t ion o f t he a n i ma l o rnamen t wh i le s how ing t he e c lect ic n ature o f t he c ra f ts man 's p at tern b ook .
Th is s ty le was
w idespread i n L othar ing ia i n t he l ate e igh th c en tury a nd o b jects o rna men ted i n t h is f ash ion a re f ound a s f ar a par t a s n or thern Norway , s outhern Yugos lav ia a nd I re land.
5 6
The most s p lend id — b u t a lso t he l atest — e xa mp le o f t he
s choo l i s t he f a mous c over o f P ierpon t Morgan MS 1 , ag ospel b ook c onnected w ith t he monastery o f L indau b y t he Bodensee , b u t wh ich h as n o h istory e ar l ier t han t he b eg inn ing o f t he l as t c entury .5 7 The Tass i lo c ha l ice t akes u s t owards t he e nd o f t he e igh th c en tury , b u t t he s choo l wh ich i t r epresen ts was o bv ious ly a p ower fu l o ne o n t he C on t inen t t hroughout t ha t c entury ( i ndeed t he s a me t rad it ions s urv ive i n to t he t en th c en tury ).
I n t he s even th c en tury t he q ua l ity o f E ng l ish meta lwork w as h igher
t han t ha t o f a ny s urv iv ing meta lwork i n Chr ist ian E urope ;
t he s tory w h ich
s tar ted w ith S u t ton Hoo a nd r eached i t s p eak i n o ther p ar ts o f t he Br it ish I s les i n t he Ardagh c ha l ice a nd t he S t N in ian 's I s le t reasure a lso i n f luenced t he Con t inen t .
The Tass i lo c ha l ice , t he B ischofsho fen c ross a nd p oss ib ly
t he Enger r e l iquary ,
5 8
s tand i n t he s ame r e lat ion t o t he Orms ide b ow l a nd
t he Witha m p ins a s d oes t he manuscr ip t a r t o f t he Franco-Saxon s choo l o f t he e nd o f t he e igh th c en tury t o t he L ind isfarne G ospe ls a nd t he Book o f Ke l ls. A l l r ef lect t he e normous i nf luence o f t he i nsu lar , a nd more e spec ia l ly t he Eng l ish , m iss ions t o t he h ea then n a t ions o f Fr is ia a nd Ger many. P endan t t o t h is w e f ind f ur ther Eng l ish i nf luences o n t he Con t inen t i n a nother a r t f orm — s cu lpture. n if ican t i n t h is c on tex t .
Work i n b one a nd i vory i s p ar t icu lar ly s ig-
The t wo i vory p laques , 3 0cm h igh , f ro m t he c hurch
o f S t Mar t in a t G enoe ls-Elderen ( now i n Brusse ls )5 9
d e monstrate h ow t he
h u man ist f igura l t rad it ion o f t he Med iterranean i s f used w ith t he b o ld f l igh t f ro m n atura l is m i n h u man p ortraya l wh ich i s s o t yp ica l o f t he i nsu lar a r t o f t he e igh th c en tury , most s tr ik ing ly o bv ious i n t he e vange l is t p or tra its o f t he L ind isfarne Gospe ls.
The o bv ious i nsu lar i n f luences ( i nclud ing s pec if ica l ly
t he i nscr ip t ion ) c aused n o l ess a s cho lar t han Bern thard B ischof , i n al ecture i n L ondon , t o p ostu la te a N or thu mbr ian o r ig in f or t h is p iece.
Peter L asko 6 °
h as a h in t o f q ua l ita t ive c r it ic is m f or t hese t wo p ane ls i n p o in t ing o u t t ha t t hey were p roduced away f ro m t he c en tra l c our t o f Char le magne.
Th is may
b e d ue t o t he p oss ib i l i ty t ha t t hey b e long t o ap er iod e ar l ier t han t he e s tabl i sh men t o f t he emperor 's c our t s choo l u nder t he i n f luence o f ap ower fu l a nd h igh ly o r ig ina l Eng l ish t rad it ion .
Th is i s n ot a p a le r e f lect ion o f t he c our t
s choo l 's w ork b u t a German ic a t te mpt t o c o me t o t erms w ith c lass ica l n at ura l is m.
L eav ing emot ive j udgmen ts a s ide , i ti s c lear t ha t Eng l ish b one
a nd i vory s cu lpture o f ah igh s tandard e x isted a t t h is t ime , a lthough r e l ics o f i ta re v ery f ew a nd f ar b etween .
The s p lend id Eng l ish c asket wh ich made
i t s way t o t he German monastery o f G andershe im a nd i s n ow i n t he H erzog An ton U lr ich Museu m i n Brunsw ick , r ef lects b et ter p erhaps t han t he F ranks Casket 6 2
t he t rue q ua l ity o f c ra f ts mansh ip i n t h is med ium i n e igh th-cen tury
Eng land .
1 6
Eng land was a c en tre f or s tone s cu lpture i n t h is p er iod , a s t he h undreds o f c rosses , f r iezes a nd c arved s tone s t i l l e x tan t c lear ly s how .
One m ight
t herefore e xpect t o f ind Eng l ishinf luenced s cu lpture o n t he Con t inen t .
The
n earest w e g et t o t h is , h owever , i s t he f ragmen t o f a marb le c ho ir s creen f ro m t he monastery o f S t J ohann , Mt is ta ir , Sw itzer land
6 3
Here t he i n f luence
o f t he Ang lo-Caro l ing ian s choo l o f o rna men t wh ich p roduced t he Tass i lo c ha l ice i s p la in.
The r eason f or t he l ack o f s cu lp tura l mater ia l must l i e i n
t he i nf luence o f I ta l ian s cu lpture i n t he s ou th a nd t he p oss ib i l ity t ha t wood w h ich p er ishes , was o ne o f t he ma in med ia f or t hree-d i mens iona l a r t n or th o f t he A lps . I n s um , Eng land — a nd p ar t icu lar ly Nor thu mbr ia — was a ma jor d onor i n t he a r t o f western a nd n or thern E urope i n t he p er iod o f Bede 's l i fet i me. The a r t f o l lowed t he miss ionar ies a nd t he t eachers. The ma ter ia l men t ioned i n t h is s hor t e ssay a nd t he i deas p roduced h ere a re l arge ly t he p roduct o f a rchaeo log ica l a ct iv ity e ither i n t he f ie ld o r i n t he s tudy i n t he l ast t wenty-f ive y ears.
As a r esu l t t he i n f luences o f Eng land
o uts ide i t s own b oundar ies h ave b eco me c learer .
Con tac ts w ith P ic t land ,
I reland a nd t he C on t inen t a re s een more c lear ly a nd , b y u nderstand ing t hese c on tacts , w e a re n earer t o a n u nders tand ing o f t he v ery c o mp l icated r e la t ions o f t hese d i f feren t a reas w ith e ach o ther ; o bv ious ly p layed a l ead ing p ar t .
r e la t ions i n wh ich Nor thu mbr ia
The i mage o f t he l earned s cho lar Bede
s hou ld n ot , h owever , b l ind u s t o t he a ch ieve men t o f t he s ou th o f Eng land — a nd p ar t icu lar ly o f Merc ia a nd Can terbury .
N or s hou ld w e f orge t t hat t here
were p laces i n N or thu mbr ia o ther t han L ind isfarne , J arrow a nd Monkwearmouth w h ich were a lso c en tres o f l earn ing :
A lcu in was a p roduct o f York .
B u t a rchaeo logy h as a r espons ib i l ity t o c lo the t he s p lend id r e ma ins o f c u lture a nd ar t i n more mundane a ppare l. The a rchaeo log ist must p rov ide e v idence o f t he d a i ly l i fe o f t he p eop le who made t hese s p lend id o b jects : t h is w e h ave n ot y et b een e normous ly s uccessfu l.
i n
Rose mary Cra mp 's e xcava-
t ions a t Monkwear mou th a nd J arrow c lear ly d e monstrate t he r e l ig ious s ide o f t h is s p lend id p er iod , a nd h er p up i ls a nd a ss is tan ts h ave a lso b een e xcavat ing e lsewhere i n Bedan N or thu mbr ia o n s ecu lar s i tes , a s a t Har t lepoo l i n c oun ty D urha m , im med ia te ly o uts ide S t H ilda 's monastery .
S i tes l ike t h is ,
p roduc ing s ecu lar e v idence , r em ind u s t ha t B ede d id n ot t e l l t he who le s tory o f Nor thu mbr ia. O ne s er ies o f e xcava t ions i s h owever o f g reat i mpor tance i n r e la t ion t o t he p rob le ms d iscussed h ere.
Much o f t he ma ter ia l i s u npub l ished , b u t t he
e xcava t ions b y Br ian Hope-Tay lor a t t he r oya l s i tes o f Yeaver ing a nd Ba rnbrough , a nd a t O ld Dunbar , a re c en tra l t o t he p rob le m o f t he e x terna l r el a t ionsh ips o f N or thu mbr ia b o th b efore a nd d ur ing t he B edan p er iod. We k now a l i t t le more a bou t Y eaver ing t han we d o a bout t he o ther s i tes. Bede p ays p ass ing a t ten t ion t o t he s i te i n a we l l-known p assage r eferr ing t o t he y ear 6 27 : S o g reat i s s a id t o h ave b een t he f ervour o f t he f a ith o f t he N or thumbr ians a nd t he ir l ong ing f or .. s a lvat ion , t ha t o nce when Pau l inus c ame t o t he k ing a nd q ueen i n t he ir r oya l p a lace [ v i l la m r eg ia m ] a t Y eaver ing [ ad Gefr in ], h e s pen t t h ir ty-s ix d ays t here
1 7
0 C 4 , 4 O O .
4 ,z a . ) Z 4 )
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o ccup ied i n t he t ask o f c atech iz ing a nd b ap t iz ing .. Th is p a lace w as l ef t d eser ted i n t he t ime o f t he k ings who f o l lowed Edw in , a nd a nother was b u i l t i ns tead i n ap lace c a l led Mae lm in. 64 The s ite o f Y eaver ing ( f ig . 2 ) w as i den t if ied f ro m t he a ir b y J . K . S t J oseph i n 1 949 a nd w as e xcavated b etween 1 953 a nd 1 957. 65
One o f t he e ar l iest f ea-
t ures i s p robab ly t he l arge t imber-pa l isaded f or t wh ich may h ave b een u sed a s ar efuge i n t imes o f t roub le ; wh ich a re r e markab le.
b u t i ti s t he o ther s tructures o n t he s i te
A s er ies o f t imber h a l ls s pan a p er iod o f h a l f a
c entury o r more a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he s even th c en tury .
The p ub l ished p lan
p ostu lates t he s ite d ur ing t he r e ign o f Edw in , t he p er iod when P au l inus p reached t here.
The l arge b u i ld ing ( A ) i s p resu med t o b e t he r oya l h a l l. I t
was a bou t 2 7m l ong a nd i t s w a l ls w ere b u i lt o f mass ive u pr igh t t imbers s et i n af ounda t ion-trench .
I ts r oof was s uppor ted w ith t he a id o f e x terna l b u t-
t resses a nd i t s i n ter ior was a is led a nd h ad a s eparate r oo m a t o ne e nd. The o ther b u i ld ings s erved a nc i l lary p urposes, p erhaps a s l esser h a l ls, p erhaps a s s torage p laces.
Bu ild ing C may h ave b een , a ccord ing t o t he e xcava tor ,
at e mp le c onver ted i nto a c hurch , b u t t he a rgu men ts i n f avour o f t h is i nterp retat ion h ave n ot y et b een p ub l ished a nd must f or t he mo men t b e t rea ted w ith e x tre me s cept ic is m.
An o dd f eature i s t he e x traord inary s tructure ( B ), wh ich
c ons ists o f ab ank o f t iered s eats , c lear ly a n a sse mb ly p lace. Ro man t ics t ra ined t o t he Pro testan t t rad it ion may i mag ine P au l inus p reach ing t here — a l though i tm ight e qua l ly w e l l b e t he e qu iva len t o f ap ar l ia men t b u i ld ing o r Mad ison S quare G arden t he s pec ta tors ' .
— i t wou ld c er ta in ly h ave b een v ery d raugh ty f or
A r ecen t ly p ub l ished r econs truct ion o f t he s i te g ives s o me
i mpress ion o f i t s a ppearance .6 6 Excava t ions a t Th ir l ings a nd a t t he r oya l s i te o f B a mbrough w i l l a lso b e e x tre me ly i mpor tan t when i n format ion a bou t t he m i s r e leased.
We d o , h ow-
e ver , k now a l i t t le more a bou t o ne o ther s i te a lso d ug b y Hope-Tay lor , a nd t h is i s o f g reat i n terest i n a ny d iscuss ion o f t h is p er iod .
A t Doon H i l l ,
Dunbar , j ust s ou th o f t he F ir th o f F or th ( on ly 2 5 mi les f ro m Ed inburgh )‚ 67 Hope-Tay lor e xcavated a d e fended s even th-cen tury h a l l wh ich was i n many ways s im i lar t o t hose f ound a t Yeaver ing . f irst h a l l h av ing b een d es troyed b y f ire.
The h a l l h ad t wo p er iods , t he The u n its o f measure men t u sed i n
t he l ayou t o f t he f irst h a l l w ere e xact ly t he s a me a s t hose u sed a t t he r oya l s i te.
I tw as a bou t 2 3m l ong , al i t t le sma l ler t han t he Yeaver ing h a l ls. The
b u ild ing t echn ique i s r a ther d iferen t f ro m t ha t f ound a t Y eaver ing a nd t he g ab le w a l ls a re V -shaped i n p lan .
Hope-Tay lor p os tu la tes a Br it ish b u i ld ing
t rad it ion b eh ind t h is h a l l — i ti s c er ta in ly w ithou t p ara l le l i n t he Ang lo-Saxon o r German ic wor ld — a nd s uggests t hat s o me o f t he Br it ish t rad it ions i nf luenced t he N or thu mbr ian k ings when t hey b u i lt Yeaver ing.
S uch a t hes is
wou ld u nder l ine t he c onc lus ion wh ich many s cho lars h ave p u t f orward , t ha t Bern ic ia was l arge ly a Br i t ish k ingdo m w ith a n i mposed Ang l ian r u l ing e lemen t .
We may s ee , a s h as L es l ie A lcock , s uppor t f or t h is i dea i n t he e x-
t re me p auc ity o f Ang l ian g rave-goods o f t he p agan Ang lo-Saxon i n Bern ic ia. 6 8 By t he t ime o f Bede , h owever , t h is p ar t o f t he c oun try must h ave b een l arge ly Ang lo-Saxon a s r egards l anguage a nd a lso a s r egards c u lture.
The n orma l
c on tac ts were s outhwards w ith Can terbury a nd Gau l , b u t t here c an b e l i t t le d oubt t ha t t he n or thern N or thu mbr ians h ad c on tact n or thwards ( con tact wh ich i s e nshr ined i n t he P ict ish wars a nd i n t he miss ion o f Nech tan ) a nd westwards t o I ona a nd I re land. 1 9
NOTES
1 .
A . Sma l l , C . Tho mas a nd D . M. Wi lson , S t N in ian 's I s le a nd i t s Treasure , ( Ox ford , 1 973 ).
2 .
Iam g ratefu l t o Mrs Cur le f or a l low ing me t o s ee t h is mater ia l b efore p ub l icat ion.
3 .
Sma l l , Tho mas a nd Wi lson , S t N in ian 's I s le , p l . l v.
4 .
I b id., p p .125 f f .
5 .
I b id., p p137f f.
6 .
F . Henry , I r ish Ar t i n t he Ear ly Chr ist ian p er iod ( London , 1 965 ), p l. 4 2
7 .
Sma l l , Tho mas a nd Wi lson , S t N in ian 's I s le , p p.126f f .
8 .
I . Henderson , The P icts ( London , 1 967 ) , p .115f f .
9 .
F . T . Wa inwr igh t , The Prob le m o f t he P ic ts ( Ed inburgh , 1 955) .
1 0.
Henderson , The P icts.
1 1.
R . B . K . S tevenson , " P ict ish a r t ," Wa inwr igh t , Prob le m o f t he P icts ; p p.97-128, a nd i de m , " Scu lpture i n S cot land i n t he 6 th-9th Cen tur ies A .D . , " i n Ko l loqu iu m ü ber s pä tan t ike u nd f rühm it te la l ter l iche S ku lptur , ( ed. V . M i lo jc iC ), ( Ma inz , 1 971), p p .65-74 .
1 2.
A . C . Tho mas , " The a n i ma l a r t o f t he S cot t ish I ron Age a nd i t s o r ig ins ," The Archaeo log ica l J ourna l , 18 ( 1961), 1 4-64.
1 2.
T . J . Brown ,- " Nor thu mbr ia a nd t he Book o f K e i ls ," Ang lo-Saxon Eng land i l( 1972 ) , 2 19-46.
1 4.
K . Hughes , Ear ly Chr ist ian ity i n P ic t land ( Jarrow L ecture , 1 970 ).
1 5.
I n Sma l l , Thomas a nd Wi lson , S t N in ian 's I s le .
1 6.
Trans. B . -Co lgrave a nd R . A . B . Mynors , B ede 's Ecc les iast ica l H istory o f t he Eng l ish P eop le ( Ox ford , 1 969 ) , p p.533f f .
1 7.
W. D . S i mpson , " The e ar ly Ro manesque t ower a t Restenneth P r iory" The An t iquar ies J ourna l 4 3 ( 1963 ), 2 83.
1 8.
Brown , " Nor thu mbr ia a nd t he Book o f Ke i ls ," p .243.
1 9.
Henry , I r ish Ar t , p ls. 1 10 a nd N .
2 0.
I b id., p ls. 9 a nd 1 2.
2 1.
Cod ices L a t in i An t iqu iores , e d. E . A . L owe , 1 2 p ts ( Ox ford , 1 934-71) , I X , n o. 1 298.
2 2.
F . E . Warren , The Ant iphonary o f Bangor ( London , 1 893-5 ).
2 0
2 3.
Henry , I r ish Ar t , p l. v i i.
2 4.
CLA V I I I, n o. 1 198.
. 25. 2 6.
Henry , I r ish Ar t , p l. 5 4. R . B . K . S tevenson , " The c hrono logy a nd r elat ionsh ip o f s o me I r ish a nd S cot t ish c rosses ," J ourna l o f t he Roya l S oc iety o f An t iquar ies o f I re land , 8 6 ( 1956 ), 9 4.
2 7.
Henry , I r ish Ar t , p ls. 7 6-7.
2 8. _
S tevenson , " Chrono logy ."
2 9.
Sma l l , Tho mas a nd Wi lson , S t N in ian 's I s le , p p.108f .
3 0.
Henry , I r ish Ar t , p ls 3 3, 3 9 , Ca nd D .
3 1.
I b id., p ls. 2 8, 3 8, a nd 4 0-42.
3 2.
I b id. ,
3 3.
A . Mahr , Chr ist ian Ar t i n Anc ien tI re land ( Dub l in , 1 932 ), p l. 2 2, 2 .
3 4.
J . Graha m-Ca mpbe l l , i n U lster J ourna l o f Archaeo logy , f or thco m ing .
3 5.
Mahr, Chr ist ian Ar t , p l. 1 6.
3 6.
Sma l l , Tho mas a nd Wi lson , S t N in ian 's I s le , f ig . 4 1.
3 7.
Henry , I r ish Ar t , p l. 6 6.
3 8.
R . L . S . Bruce- M it ford , " The a r t o f t he Codex Am iat inus ," J ourna l
.3 4=5 .
o f t he Br it ish Archaeo log ica l Assoc iat ion 3 rd s er . 3 2 ( 1969 ), 1 -25. 3 9.
Brown , "Nor thu mbr ia a nd t he Book o f Kei ls ," p ass i m.
4 0.
I b id., p p.243-5.
4 1.
E . A . Lowe , Eng l ish Unc ia l ( Ox ford , 1 960 ), p .19, p l. x .
4 2.
E . A . Lo
, " A k ey t o Bede ' s s cr iptor iu m" S cr ip tor iu m 1 2 ( 1958 ),
1 82-90. 4 3.
I b id., p .189 a nd p l. 2 1 a -b.
4 4.
Sma ll , Tho mas a nd Wilson , S t N in ian 's I sle.
4 5.
These r equests a re c onven ien t ly l isted b y G . W. Greenaway ( Sa in t Bon iface ( London 1 955 ), p p.64f .).
4 6.
D . M. Wilson , " An Ang lo-Saxon b ookb ind ing a t Fu lda ( Codex Bon ifat ianus I ) ,
4.
An t iquar ies J ourna l 4 1 ( 1961) , 1 99-217 .
W. Lev ison , Eng land a nd t he Cont inen t i n t he e igh th c entury ( Ox ford , 1 946 ), p .1.
4 8.
Mun ich , 1 951.
4 9.
A . Peron i , Oref ic iere e meta l l i l avorat i t ardoan t ich i ea l to med ieva le d e l t err itor io d i Pav ia ( Spo leto , 1 967 ), f ig. 3 7.
5 0.
I b id., p l. i i, 2 4.
2 1
5 1.
T . D . Kendr ick , Ang lo-Saxon Ar t t o A .D . 9 00 ( London , 1 938 ), p l. l x .
5 2.
Kar l d er Grosse , Werk u nd Wirkung ( Aachen , 1 965 ), f ig . 1 07.
5 3.
E .g . D . M. Wilson , Ang lo-Saxon Orna men ta l Meta lwork , 7 00-1100, i n t he Br it ish Museu m ( London , 1 964 ), p l .
5 4.
Henry , I r ish Ar t , p l. D .
5 5.
G . Hase lof f , Der Tass iloke lch.
5 6.
XViii.
L isted i n D . M. Wilson , " The F e j0 c up " Ac ta Archaeolog ica 3 1 ( 1960 ) 1 72f .
5 7.
M. Harrsen , Centra l European Manuscr ip ts i n t he P ierpon t Morgan L ibrary ( New York , 1 958 ), p p.6f f .
5 8.
V . H . E lbern , " Ein f rank isches Re l iqu iar fragmen t i n Ov iedo , d ie Engerer Burse i n Ber l in u nd i hr Umkre is" , Madr ider Mitte i lungen 2 ( 1961), 1 87f f.
5 9.
P . L asko, Ars S acra 8 00-1200 ( Har mondswor th , 1 972 ), p l. 1.
6 0.
I b id., p .13.
6 1.
C . S cherer , D ie b raunschwe iger E lfenbe insa m m lung ( Le ipz ig , 1 931), p l. I .
6 2.
Br it ish Museu m Gu ide t o Ang lo-Saxon a nd F ore ign Teu ton ic An t iqu it ies ( London , 1 923 ), p l. v i i i.
6 3.
J . Werner , " Fr i thkaro l ing ische S i lberohrr inge v on Rastede ," G er man ia 3 7 ( 1959 ), p l. 2 6.
6 4.
Trans. Co lgrave a nd Mynors , Bede 's Ecc les iast ica l H istory , p . 1 89.
6 5.
The b es t s hor t a ccount o f t hese e xcavat ions o ccurs i n D . M. Wi lson a nd J . G . Hurst , "Med ieva l Br ita in i n 1 956," Med ieva l Archaeo logy , 1 ( 1957 ), 1 49f .
6 6.
The f u l l r epor t o f t he e xcava t ions i s p ro m ised f or 1 975.
T . H . Row land , Ang lo-Saxon Nor thu mbr ia ( Newcast le u pon Tyne ), p . 4 0f .
6 7.
D . M. Wi lson a nd D . G . Hurst , "Med ieva l Br ita in i n 1 965", Med ieva l Archaeo logy 1 0 ( 1966 ), 1 75f .
6 8.
L . A lcock , Ar thur 's Br ita in ( Pe l ican e d it ion ) ( Harmondsworth , 1 973), p .310.
2 2
I .
S OME I MPLICATIONS OF BEDE 'S LATIN S TYLE W in throp Wetherbee
There i s g enera l a greemen t a bou t t he s pec ia l q ua l it ies o f Bede 's L a t in : i ti s p ure , s imp le a nd e f f ic ien t , a nd c o m men tators h ave d i f fered c h ief ly i n t he a spects o f Bede 's l arger a ch ieve men t t o w h ich t hey h ave c hosen t o r e la te t hese q ua l it ies.
H is s ty le may b e v iewed a s t he m irror o f t ha t p rocess o f
s e lect ion a nd d is t il la t ion i n w h ich s o much o f h is w ork a s e duca tor a nd t ransm ittor o f t he c lass ica l h er i tage c ons isted ; i tc an b e s een t o mark t he d ec is ive emergence o f an ew Chr ist ian L a t in , who l ly emanc ipa ted f rom t he c onstra in ts o f l ate-c lass ica l a nd " H isper ic" r he tor ic a nd w ith i t s own Chr ist ian e qu ival en ts f or t he more s tr ict ly c lass ica l n orms o f p ur ity a nd d ecorum ; a nd i ti s h ard t o a vo id s ee ing i n B ede 's a ch ieve men t o f g rav itas t hrough t he p ursu it o f s imp l ic ity t he t r iumph o f as a in t ly p ersona l ity , as ingu lar b lend o f h umane s ens it iv ity a nd h um il itas. The p r i mary p urpose o f t h is p aper i s t o p o in t o ut s ome i mp l ica t ions o f B ede 's a cco mp l ishmen t a s a wr iter o f L at in a nd a p recep tor o f L a t in s ty le. Iw ou ld l i ke t o s uggest t ha t i n a dd it ion t o t he e x traord inary e f f ic iency o f B ede 's L at in i nt rans m it t ing a nd e xe mp l ify ing t he e ssen t ia ls o f l i teracy , i t s s imp l ic i ty a nd p ur ity a nd i t s f reedo m f ro m s ty l is t ic s el f-consc iousness c ons t itute i n t he mse lves a p os it ive c on tr ibut ion t o t he d eve lopmen t o f a med ieva l Chr ist ian h u man is m. The v ery a cuteness w ith wh ich B ede r ecogn ised t he e ducat iona l n eeds o f h is p lace a nd t ime a nd h is c lears igh ted , u nembarrassed i nd if ference t o s uper f ic ia l g races o f s ty le w ere q ua l it ies wh ich made i tp oss ib le f or h im t o a dop t ar e laxed a nd f am il iar a t t itude t oward c lass ica l a nd p agan c u l ture a nd a esthet ic v a lues w ithou t t ha t t rad it iona l f ear o f c on tam inat i on o f w h ich t he b est k nown e xe mp lum i s S t . J erome 's C iceron ian d ream. B ede w as u nusua l ly s ens it ive t o t hese v a lues :
w e n eed o n ly t h ink o f h is a c-
c oun t o f t he s ing ing o f C aedmon a nd a sk o urse lves h ow many e ar ly med ieva l e ducators wou ld h ave b een s o r eady t o c oncede t o v ernacu lar p oetry o n Chr ist ian t he mes a d ecor a nd d ign itas u ncap turab le i n L at in .1 B u t w e n ever q uest ion h is p erspec t ive , o r t he s ureness o f t ouch w ith wh ich h e h and les s uch mater ia ls :
Chr ist ianus e st , n on Verg i l ianus .
Th is s ureness o f t ouch i s e verywhere i n B ede 's w ork , o n t he l eve l o f l i terary i n ten t ion a nd i n t he c lear c oncep t ions o f h is e duca t iona l p rogram. I ta ppears i n t he c are w ith wh ich h e c u l led f rom a w ide r ange o f g ram mar ians , a nd made a ccess ib le t o p eop le f or who m L a t in was n ecessar i ly a t ex tbook s ub ject , t he p r inc ip les o f as erv iceab le L a t in i ty , i nc lud ing t he r e markab ly c lass ica l s yn tax o f h is own p rose. 2 I t i n forms h is c ons isten t c oncern t o s tress t he p edagog ica l ly e fec t ive a t t he e xpense o f r ece ived s tandards o f f ine w r it ing.
Th is i s most o bv ious i n h is f reedom f rom t he H isper ic manner-
i s ms w h ich e ncrust t he p rose o f A ldhe lm a nd s urv ive i n a n o ccas iona l p urp le
2 3
p atch i n B on iface ;3 b ut i ti s p resen t a lso i n h is measured r esponse t o s ty l ist ic t ra its wh ich h e c lear ly a pprec iated. H e c ou ld a dm ire t he e f fect o f h omo io te leu ton i n t he P reacher a nd i n e ar l ier Chr is t ian L a t in p oe try , y et g en t ly d ep lores i t s e xcesses i n t he works o f h is b e loved Gregory a nd a vo ids i ti n h is own .4 H is D e a r te metr ica i s among o ther t h ings a q u ite c onv inc ing d emonstra t ion o f t he v ir tues o f P ruden t ius , S edu l ius a nd t he Chr is t ian L at in p oets , a nd h is d iscuss ion o f v ers if icat ion i n p ar t icu lar s hows u nusua l d isc r im ina t ion :
h e i s a t p a ins t o p o in t o u t t he v ar ious c apac it ies o f t he h exa me-
t er a nd i t s a dapt ib il ity t o t he d eve lopmen t o f s us ta ined e f fects o ver s evera l l i nes. 5 H e i s , moreover , c apab le o f r is ing t o t h is s tandard i n h is o wn v erse , a s i n t he l i nes wh ich c l i max h is a ccoun t o f t he s pread o f t he Chr is t ian r eve lat i on i n t he Proe m t o h is metr ica l l i fe o f C u thber t :6 N ec i am o rb is c on ten ta s inu t rans a equora l a mpas S parg itur e f fu lgens , h u iusque Br itann ia c onsors Te mpor ibus g enu it f u lgur v enerab i le n os tr is , Aurea q ua Cu thber tus a gens p er s idera v i tam S candere c e lsa s u is d ocu it j am p ass ibus Ang los. Bu t f or t he most p ar t Bede 's v erse a dheres t o t he s imp ler p a t terns o f s choo lv erse , w ith i t s r egu lar c aesurae a nd i t s t endency t o make e ach l i ne o r h a l fl ine a s yn tact ic u n it .7
S uch v erse was more r ead ily i m itated a nd e as ier t o
c om m it t o me mory , v a lues wh ich f or Bede t he t eacher t ook p r ior i ty o ver h ero ic s ty le. 8 I n l im it ing a nd s imp l ify ing t he r ange o f p oe t ic e ffec ts Bede h e lped t o p rov ide a s tar t ing p o in t , a n a t ta inab le s tandard f rom wh ich med ieva l L a t in p oetry c ou ld d eve lop e f fects o f i t s own . The D e a r te metr ica i t se lf c on tr ibu tes t o t h is p urpose , a sser t ing i n a mat ter-o f-fact w ay t he Chr ist ian p oet 's p rerogat ive o f s uspend ing t he s tr ict l aws o f q uan t ity i n t he i n terests o f t he S p ir it ,
9
a nd t he t rea t ise h as b een s een a s as ign if ican t h arb inger o f t he
s h if t f ro m q uan t itat ive t oward a ccen tua l v erse A l l o f t hese e f fects o f Bede 's t each ing a nd wr it ing must o f c ourse b e s een a s s ubord inate t o t he s ing le g rea t t ask o f s yn thes izing a nd t rans m it t ing t hat p or t ion o f c lass ica l l earn ing e ssen t ia l t o t he p reserva t ion a nd d issem inat ion o f Chr ist ian k now ledge.
The i mpor tance o f t h is w ork a nd B ede 's s uccess i n
a ccomp l ish ing i th ave l ed h istor ians q u ite n a tura l ly t o dwe l l o n h is e f f ic iency , h is a b il ity , i n R . B . P a l mer 's w ords , " to s e lect , a dap t , d igest , a nd r ework h is s ources — h is e xce l lence i n s hor t a s at ex tbook wr iter ."
1 1
Bu t t here
a re o ther s ign if ican t f ea tures o f h is wr it ing a s s uch , c lose ly r e la ted t o h is p edagog ica l a ct iv ity a nd i n c er ta in r espects a s f ar-reach ing i n imp l ica t ion , wh ich t h is u nderstandab le emphas is h as t ended t o o bscure.
Iw il l t ry t o
c haracter ize s o me o f t hese a s t hey a ppear i n t he H is tor ia E cc les ias t ica a nd t he metr ica l l i fe o f Cu thber t . I tw ou ld b e i mposs ib le t o c haracter ize i n a ny u n i form w ay t he " s ty le" e ven o f t hose p or t ions o f t he H is tor ia wh ich r epresen t mos t s imp ly B ede 's own c on tr ibu t ion , f or t hey t end t o t he s ame d ivers ity a s t he ' o lder ma ter ia l , t he h ag iograph ica l a nd h is tor ica l wr it ings , e cc les iast ica l r ecords a nd c orr espondence , i ncorpora ted i n to t he w ork .
There a re , h owever , c er ta in
momen ts , s ome o f t hem among t he most r emarkab le i n t he H is tor ia , w hen B ede b r ings u s d ra ma t ica l ly s o c lose t o ap ar t icu lar s cene t ha t h is c haract er ist ic h ag iographer 's p erspect ive o n t he r e la t ions o f p ersons a nd e ven ts 2 4
d oes n ot who l ly g overn o ur s ense o f what i s t ak ing p lace. A t s uch momen ts t he l uc id ity a nd e cono my o f h is s ty le , t ogether w ith t he s ense o f d ecorum a nd t he r espons iveness t o d iferen t c u ltura l a nd a esthe t ic v a lues c i ted e ar l ier i n c onnect ion w i th h is t ex tbooks , a re made t o d o i n as ubt ler way what i s d one o n al arger s ca le i n t he H istor ia b y t he s h if ts o f f ocus b etween c hron ic le , h ag iography , t heolog ica l d ispu te a nd t he r ecords o f c hurch c ounc ils. We a re s hown , f rom a n imag inary p erspect ive wh ich c o mp le men ts t he r e l ig ious p ersp ect ive p rov ided b y Bede 's s ources a nd b y h is own l arger p urpose i n t he H is tor ia , h ow men o f ap ar t icu lar p lace a nd t ime r esponded t o t he r e l ig ious i n f luence a t w ork i n t he ir n a t iona l l i fe. The a ccoun t o f t he c ounc i l a t wh ich E dw in a nd h is r eta iners a ccept Chr is t ian ity i s p robab ly t he b est-known p ass age o f t h is s or t , c en tered a s i ti s a round t he h aun t ing i mage o f t he s parrow f l ee ing d e h i e me i n h ie me m t hrough t he N or thumbr ian b anquet-ha l l ;1 2 a n e qua l ly e f fec t ive e xa mp le f or o ur p urposes i s t he e p isode p rec ip ita ted b y B ishop A idan 's g iv ing away o f af i ne h orse b estowed u pon h im b y K ing Osw ine , ap assage w h ich Iw ou ld l i ke t o c ons ider i n d et a il 1 3 D onauera t [ rex ] e quum o p t i mum a n t ist it i A idano , i n q uo i l le , q ua mu is ambu lare s o l itus , v e l amn ium f l uen ta t rans ire , u e l s i a l ia q uae l ibet n ecess itas i ns isteret , u ia m p eragere p osse t.
C u i
c um p aruo i n ter jec t° t e mpore p auper q u idam o ccurreret e l i mosyn am p etens , d es i l iens i l le p raecep it e quum , i t a u t e rat s tratus r ega l iter , p auper i d ar;
e rat e n i m mu ltum m iser icors , e t c u l tor
p auperum , a c u e lu t p a ter m iserorum.
Hoc c um r eg i e sset r e la-
t u rn , d icebat e p iscopo , c um f orte i ngressur i e ssen t a d p rand ium : ' Qu id u o lu is t i , d om ine a n t istes , e quum r eg ium , q uem t e c onuen ieba t p ropr ium h abere , p auper i d are?
Numqu id n on h abu imus e quos
u i l iores p lur i mos , u e l a l ias s pec ies , q uae a d p auperum d ona s u ff i ceren t , q ua mu is i l lum e is e quum n on d ares , q uem t i b i s pec ia l iter p oss idendu m e leg i? Cu i s tat im e p iscopus : ' Qu id l oquer is , i nqu it , ' rex? Nu mqu id t i b i c ar ior e s t i l le f i l ius e quae , q uam i l le f i l ius De i?'
Qu ibus d ic t is i n traban t a d p randendum.
q u ide m r es idebat i n s uo l oco.
E t e p iscopus
P orro r ex , u enera t e n im d e u ena tu ,
c oep it c ons is tens a d f ocum c a lef ier i c um m in istr is ;
e t r epen te i n ter
c a lefac iendum r ecordans u erbum , q uod d ixera t i l l i a n t istes , d isc inx it s e g lad io s uo , e t d ed it i l lum m in istro , f es t inusque a ccedens a n te p edes e p iscop i c onru it , p os tu lans , u t s ib i p lacat u .s e sset , ' qu ia n u mquam ', i nqu it , ' de inceps a l iqu id l oquar d e h oc a u t i ud icabo , q u id u e l q uan tum d e p ecun ia n ostra f i l l i is D e i t r ibuas. Quod u idens e p iscopus , mu ltum p er t i mu it , a c s ta t im e xsurgens l euau i t e um , p ro m it tens s e mu ltum i l l i e sse p laca tum , d um modo i le r es idens a d e pu las t r ist it ia m d eponeret . Dumque r ex , i uben te a c p os tu lan te e p iscopo , l ae t it ia m r ec iperet , c oep it e c on tra e p iscopus t r ist is u sque a d l acr i marum p rofus ione m e f f ic i.
Que m d um p resby ter s uus l i ngua
p atr ia , q uam r ex e t d omest ic i e ius n on n oueran t , q uare l acr i maretur , i n terrogasset : ' Sc io ', i nqu it , ' qu ia n on mu l to t e mpore u ic turus e st r ex ; n umquam e n im a n te h aec u id i h um ilem r egem. Unde a n imaduer to i l lum c i t ius e x h ac u i ta r ap iendum ;
n on e n im d igna e st
h aec g ens t a lem h abere r ectore m. Nec mu l to p ost d ira a n t ist it is p raesag ia t r ist i r eg is f unere , d e q uo s upra d ix i mus , i mp leta s un t. 2 5
The r ead iness w ith wh ich t he l arge-sp ir ited b ishop , who m w e may i mag ine a s embarrassed a nd c onstra ined b y t he k ing 's l argesse , o ver-reacts t o ap oor man 's a ppea l f or a l ms i s s ugges ted b y t he a brup t r at t le o f B ede 's d escr ip t ion o f t he a ct : " praecep it e quu m/ ita u t e rat/stratus r ega l iter/pauper i d ar."
Th is i s a t o nce b a lanced b y t he s low , s onorous , r hy thm ica l p hrases
wh ich g loss A idan 's a ct ion i n s p ir itua l t erms : " era t e n i m mu ltum m iser icors , e t c u ltor p auperum , a c u e lu t p a ter m iserorum." The h umour o f O sw ine 's i nd ign .a t ion a t A idan 's h av ing s quandered , n ot j ust a h orse , b ut a n e quu m r eg ium o n t he p oor man , when a ny n u mber o f e quos u il iores w ou ld h ave d one a s w e l l , i s c augh t r hetor ica l ly i n A idan 's r e jo inder : " Numqu id t i b i c ar ior e s t i l le f i l ius e quae q ua m i l le f i l ius D e i?" T hen t he f l a mboyan t a l l i tera t ion o f " coep it c ons is tens...ca lef ier i...ca le f ic iendum..." s ets o f f t he p rocess b y wh ich , i n t he c ourse o f as ing le l ong s en tence , t he h eat o f t he f ire a t wh ich t he k ing i s warm ing h i mse lf a f ter h un t ing s ee ms t o g enera te t he s udden imp u lse t o c on tr it ion wh ich makes h im t hrow h i mse lf a t t he f eet o f A idan a nd p lace a l l o f h is t reasury a t t he b ishop 's d isposa l‚ 14 Then f o l low i n r ap id s uccess ion A idan 's i n it ia l f r igh t a t °sw ine 's a ct ion a nd h is h asty p rom ise t ha t h e b ears t he k ing n o i l l w i l l " i f o n ly h e w i l l s i t d own t o d inner a nd c ast o f f h is s adness"; b u t n o s ooner i s t he k ing 's u nhapp iness e ased t han A idan h i mse lf b ursts i n to t ears. The s cene e nds w ith t he b ishop , a s i fw i thdrawn t o a no ther p lane , u t ter ing h is d ira p raesag ia ( expressed i n h is n at ive I r ish , a nd h ence o bscure t o O sw ine a nd h is c our t ) t ha t s o h umb le a k ing mus t b e d est ined f or a n e ar ly d eath .1 5 There i s n oth ing p ar t icu lar ly Chr is t ian a bou t t he s er ies o f sweep ing emot iona l g es tures wh ich c onst itu te t he movemen t o f t he s cene , b ut t he t o lera nce , i ndeed t he o bv ious s ympathy w ith wh ich Bede d ramat izes t he e xcesses a nd i ncons istenc ies o f as oc iety a dap t ing i t sel f t o Chr ist ian ity a re a s e f fect ive , a nd i n t he ir w ay a s a ppropr ia te t o t he p urposes o f t he H istor ia , a s a more h ag iograph ica l ly s ty l ized r ender ing m igh t h ave b een . There w as i ndeed n o c onven t iona l means whereby h e m igh t h ave s ugges ted s o we ll t he c o mp lex r el a t ions b etween k ing a nd b ishop , s oc ia l a nd r e l ig ious v a lues , o r t he w ork ings o f ar e l ig ious s ens ib i l ity i n wh ich who l ly p agan a t t i tudes c oex ist w ith a n i mp er fect ly a ss im i la ted Chr ist ian e scha to logy . B u t t he p o in t Imost w ish t o emphas ize i s Bede 's u nobtrus ive b ut c omp lete l i ngu ist ic c on tro l o ver t he t one a nd move men t o f t he s cene.
Gregory o f Tours
f requen t ly s h if ts f ro m o ne p erspect ive t o a nother i n a manner s im ilar t o Bede 's , r epresen t ing t he Frank ish k ings n ow a s a gen ts i n t he s p ir itua l c onquest o f Europe , n ow a s h uman b e ings t o b e j udged b y t he ir i nner r esponse t o t he ir r o le. Iam c er ta in t ha t B ede 's s ense o f h is tory a nd h istor iography owes a g ood d ea l more t o Gregory t han s cho larsh ip h as s o f ar d e monstrated. 1 6 But t o c ompare w ith t he t echn ique o f t he p assage j ust c ons idered t he a rray o f s ty l ist ic e ccen tr ic it ies , c on trad ict ions a nd amb igu it ies b y wh ich Gregory s eeks t o man ipu la te h is d i f feren t p o in ts o f v iew i s t o a pprec iate t he g rea t a dv an tage Bede e n joyed i n t he p ossess ion , among o ther g i f ts , o f af l ex ib le a nd u ncoerc ive p rose , c apab le o f r e ma in ing who l ly c oheren t wh i le mak ing i t se lf who l ly a va i lab le t o t he t ask o f r e f lect ing n uance a nd i rony i n t he b ehav iour o f h is h uman s ub jec ts. O f c ourse t he H istor ia E cc les iast ica r e ma ins l arge ly s u i g ener is
T houzh
i th ad c ons iderab le i n f luence a s a mode l f or e ar ly med ieva l h istor iography , 2 6
i r
t he i mp l icat ions o f i t s more s tr ic t ly l i terary q ua l it ies were r ea l ized o n ly i n t he l ong c ourse o f t he e vo lu t ion o f med ieva l n arrat ive l i terature , a nd Iam c onsc ious t ha t my a t te mp t t o c ons ider t he m i n t he c on tex t o f B ede 's a t t itude t oward s ty le i s a t b est i mpress ion ist ic.
An a spec t o f Bede 's s ty l ist ic p rac-
t i ce wh ich c an b e d iscussed w i th more p rec is ion i s h is u se o f c lass ica l mat er ia l.
H is r e f ine men t o f a Chr ist ian c urr icu lu m f ro m t he s i lva o f l a te
c lass ica l p edagogy i s s o met i mes c ons idered t o h ave i nvo lved t he e l im inat ion o f a ny c on tam inat ing t race o f a nc ien t s ources , a nd i ti s t rue t ha t a n i mpor tan t f eature o f t he t reat ises o n me tre a nd r hetor ic i s t he ir e f fec t ive s ubs t itut ion o f Chr ist ian f or c lass ica l e xamp les.
Bu t t here i s a lso a g ood d ea l o f b or-
r ow ing f rom c lass ica l s ources i n Bede 's wr it ings.
S o me o f i ti s d ue , n o
d oubt , t o t he c o m mon p ract ice o f work ing t ogether p hrases f ro m s tandard a u thors i n wr it ing h exa meter v erse , a nd s o me i s p robab ly i nadver ten t o r who l ly a cc identa l ; l us ion ,
1 8
b ut a n umber o f i ns tances p la in ly r ef lect d e l ibera te a l-
a nd It h ink i ti s p oss ib le t o f ind o perat ing i n t hese t he s a me n atur-
a lness a nd s ureness o f t ouch w h ich t yp ify Bede 's s yn tax . Con trast ing Bede 's v erse w ith A lcu in 's , P eter Da le S co t t o bserves t ha t i n Bede 's p oet ic d ic t ion t he i nev itab le c lass ica l e le men ts a re " subord ina ted t o h is Pur i tan s ens ib il ity a nd mora l iz ing p urpose ," l eav ing h im " l it t le r oo m f or r hetor ica l i ndu lgence." 1 9
I t i s c er ta in ly t rue t ha t B ede 's wr it ing o f fers
n o th ing l ike t he r ich a nd o ccas iona l ly e n igmat ic b lend o f p agan a nd Chr ist ian r eference p resen t , f or e xamp le , i n F or tunatus ;
n e ither d oes h e i ndu lge i n
t he s or t o f mechan ica l Chr is t ian iz ing wh ich w i l l p lace t he T ityrus o f Verg il 's e c logue " sub t egm ine Chr ist i."
I t may b e s a id , i ndeed , t hat wha t t yp if ies
Bede 's c on tacts w ith c lass ica l p oetry i s t ha t t hey t ake p lace a l most i nvar iab ly o n r hetor ical ly n eu tra l g round.
The r esu l t i s , a s S co t t s uggests , t o r ender
Bede 's ma ter ia ls t ractab le t o h is own p urposes , b u t t he s ugges t ion o f t ens ion i n h is c haracter izat ion i s s l igh t ly m is lead ing , f or t he p ecu l iar e f fec t iveness o f Bede 's a ppropr ia t ion o f c lass ica l s ources s ee ms t o me l ess a ma t ter o f r igorous ly s ubord ina t ing t he m t han o f t ak ing t he m who l ly f or g ran ted. Though many o f t he c lass ica l t ags i n Bede 's v erse a re l ike ly t o h ave b een d rawn f ro m q uo ta t ions i n t he g ra m mar ians , i ts ee ms s a fe e nough t o t ake f or g ran ted a f irst-hand k now ledge o f Verg i 1. 20
S evera l a l lus ions t o t he
Aene id i n t he H istor ia s eem t o i mp ly a k now ledge o f t he c on tex t o f t he l ine o r p hrase q uoted , a s when a man r a ised f ro m t he d ead s peaks o f h av ing p assed t hrough t he o ther wor ld , l i ke Aeneas a nd t he S iby l , " so la s ub n octe p er umbras ," 2 1
o r a ga in when we h ear h ow Edw in , p ass ing a n a nx ious n igh t
among e ne m ies , " caeco c arperetur i gn i" l ike D ido a f ter meet ing Aeneas ,
2 2
o r s ee t he p r iest Co if i d es troy ing " eas q uas i pse s acrauera t a ras" a s as ign o f h is a cceptance o f Chr ist ian ity .2 3
I n t he metr ica l l i fe o f Cu thber t t he
b orrow ings a re b r iefer a nd more n u merous , a nd g ive a d ef in ite i mpress ion o f e asy a nd f am i l iar r e ference t o Verg il 's t ex t . I ti s j ust t h is f am i l iar ity t hat s ee ms t o me s ign if ican t i n Bede 's Verg i l ian e choes.
There i s n o a t te mp t t o e vade o r d isgu ise h is t ra f f ick ing w ith a
p agan a uthor , y et e ven t he most a pparen t ly d e l ibera te a l lus ions s ee m i n tended t o e voke t he a nc ien t t ex t o n ly o n t he mos t s uper f ic ia l l eve l.
I t wou ld p erhaps
b e p oss ib le o n t he b as is o f t he e choes f ro m Aene id I a nd V I, wh ich Bede t ends t o r e loca te i n v ery d if feren t c ontex ts , t o v iew h im a s a l lus ive ly c ont ras t ing t he d iscord ia a nd u ncer ta in ty o f t he Verg i l ian u n iverse w ith t he 2 7
s tab i l ity o f aw or ld o rdered b y
h ero ic s a in thood ;2 4
b u t t here s eems t o b e
l i t t le c orrespondence b etween t he e x ten t a nd v iv idness o f t he e choes a nd t he ir c on tr ibu t ion t o s uch a p oten t ia l ly a l lus ive c on tex t . 25
I t s eems c lear
t ha t Bede i s r espond ing t o Verg i l 's l anguage a nd c on tro l o f a t mosphere ma in ly f or t he ir own s ake ;
t ha t h e k new V erg i l w e l l a nd was f ond o f h is
p oetry , b u t a ppropr ia ted i t s e f fects f or h is own p urposes w ith l i t t le r egard t o t he ir s ource.
N oth ing i n h is u se o f t he Aene i d c orresponds t o t he c o mp lex
p a t terns o f p arody a nd s ubvers ion i n Pruden t ius o r t he f i f th-century p oets ' a dap tat ions o f Verg i l 's h ero ic i d io m t o t he g lor if ica t ion o f Chr ist ian h ero is m. He e xp lo its t he v iv idness , c onc iseness a nd f am il iar ity o f h is a uthor , a nd t he e f fect o f h is u se o f Verg i l 's w ords i s f ina l ly , a s i tw ere , t o d o mes t icate t he m. It h ink , h owever , t ha t p rec ise ly t h is d o mes t icat ion o f V erg il c an b e s een a s ac haracter ist ic a nd i mpor tan t a ch ieve men t o f B ede a s s ty l ist .
A s i n
d ea l ing w ith t he i n trac tab le e le men ts i n t he c u lture o f h is own d ay , h is a pproach t o t he most i n f luen t ia l o f c lass ica l a u thors i s o ne o f c lears ighted t o lerance , a nd e nab les h im t o e stab l ish a modus v ivend i i n w h ich t he p o ten t ia l ly d isrup t ive f orce o f Verg i l 's e loquence i s n eu tra l ized .
I ta lso ofers a s tr ik ing i l lustra t ion
o f Bede 's r o le i n t rans m it t ing a nd s hap ing med ieva l l i terary c u lture.
Verg i l-
i an l anguage s ets o f f t he s i mp l ic ity o f h is s ty le a s i ts ets of t he p ur ity o f t he h y mns o f Ambrose , wh i le t he d isar m ing s tra igh t forwardness o f h is b orrowing a n t ic ipa tes t he modest c lass ic is m o f A lcu in 's p oe t ic r ef lect ions o n monast ic o t iu m.
Bu t B ede 's a ppropr ia t ion o f Verg il i s n e i ther p rogra m mat ic n or
s i mp ly r ecreat iona l.
I th as n e ither t he p o le m ica l i n tens ity o f A mbrose n or
A lcu in 's t endency t o t reat Verg i l a s ac u l tura l s ymbo l , t hough i t c ons t itutes a n i mpor tan t s tage i n t he p rocess o f r edef in it ion w h ich made p oss ib le t he c e lebra ted " human is m" o f t he Caro l ing ians .
Bede s imp ly makes u se o f
Verg il 's w ords , a ccep t ing t he m w ith r espect , b ut a t t he s a me t ime w ith a c on f idence a nd u npreten t iosness s uch t hat t he ir d istrac t ing ly e voca t ive p owers b eco me i n h is h ands s ine v ir ibus i gnes.
I t i s o ne more e xa mp le o f h is u n ique
a b il ity t o r ecogn ize v a lue i n t he p roduct o f a n a l ien c u l ture a nd make i ts erve h is own s ure Chr ist ian p urpose.
NOTES L e isure t o p repare t he p resen t v ers ion o f t h is e ssay h as b een p rov ided b y af e l lowsh ip g ran ted b y t he J ohn S i mon Guggenhe i m Me mor ia l Founda t ion . 1 . " H ic e st s ensus , n on a u te m o rdo i pse u erborum , q uae d orm iens i l le c anebat ;
n eque e n im p ossun t c arm ina , q ua mu is o p t i me c o mpos ita , e x
a l ia i n a l ia m l ingua m a d u erbu m s ine d etr i men to s u i d ecor is a c d ign i ta t is t rans ferr i."
H is tor ia E cc les ias t ica I V.22.
T he t ex t f or t h is a nd a l l
s ubsequen t q uota t ions f ro m HE i s t ha t o f Char les P lu m mer ( Ox ford , 1 896 ). Bruno L u ise l l i ( "Beda e l ' inno d i Caed mon ," S tud i Med ieva l i 1 4 ( 1973 ), 1 013-36 ) , s ees B ede 's d ivergences f ro m t he word ing o f t he O ld Eng l ish a s d ic tated b y t heo log ica l c ons idera t ions.
S evera l a d justmen ts , f or
e xa mp le , s ee m i n tended t o a ch ieve a more c ons isten t f ocus o n God a s Crea tor , a nd s uch a p hrase a s " f i l i is h om inu m" may b e d e l iberate ly s ubst ituted f or t he " eordu b earnu m" o r " sons o f e ar th" wh ich h e may
2 8
h ave f ound i n h is Nor thu mbr ian o r ig ina l.
However Lu ise ll i 's a na lys is
d oes n o t s ee m t o me t o j ust ify h is a sser t ions ( pp. 1 018 a nd 1 033 ) t hat i n t he p assage I h ave j ust q uoted Bede i s c la im ing t o h ave a ch ieved b y h is a d justmen ts a n e qu iva len t t o t he d ecor o r d ign itas o f t he O ld Eng l ish o r ig ina l . 2 . On Bede 's modus o perand i i n c o mp il ing h is t ex tbooks s ee t he c arefu l a na lys is o f t he s ect ion d e l i t tera o f t he De a r te metr ica b y R . B . Pa l mer , "Bede a s t ex tbook wr iter : ( 1959 ), 5 73-84.
as tudy o f h is De a r te metr ica ," S pecu lu m 3 4
More g enera l i s B ron is las G ladysz, " E le men ts c lass iques
e t p os t-c lass iques d e l ' oeuvre d e Bede ' De a r te metr ica ,' " Eos ( Cornmen tar i i S oc ietat is Ph ilo logae Po lonoru m ) 3 4 ( 1933 ), 3 19-43.
On Bede 's
s yn tax s ee D . R . Druhan ( The S yn tax o f B ede 's ' H is tor ia E ccles ias t ica ,' Catho l ic Un ivers ity S tud ies i n Med ieva l a nd Rena issance L at in 8 (Wash ing ton D .C. , 1 938 ), who s hows c onv inc ing ly t hat Bede 's L a t in ity was i n many r espects c loser t o Augustan s tandards t han t hat o f Gregory , Cass iodorus a nd o ther Chr ist ian a uthors. 3 .
Pa lmer n otes i n p ass ing B ede 's e v iden t n eg lect o f A ldhe lm a nd V irg il ius Maro , among o thers , i n c o mp il ing h is t ex tbooks ( "Bede a s t ex tbook wr iter ," p . 5 75, n . 1 3 ), b ut h as n ot t o my k now ledge p ubl ished t he f ur ther s tudy p ro m ised o n t h is s ub ject .
On H isper ic L at in i n Eng land
s ee W. F . Bo l ton , A H is tory o f Ang lo-La t in L iterature 5 97-1066 I ( Pr inceton , 1 967 ), p p. 4 6-8.
However Bo lton 's l ist o f e xa mp les o f
" H isper ic" d ict ion i n t he metr ica l l i fe o f Cu thber t ( i b id., p . 1 39 ) i s misl ead ing , a s a l l t he words g iven a re f ound i n t he Chr ist ian L a t in p oets o f t he f ourth a nd f i f th c entur ies , who were Bede 's p referred e xa mp les o f " c lass ica l" e loquence.
For t he H isper ic a nd p re-H isper ic b ackground
o f t he Eng l ish t rad it ion o f " her meneut ic" L at in wh ich b eg ins w ith A ldhe lm , a nd f or t he l a ter h istory o f t h is t rad it ion , s ee t he impor tan t a r t ic le o f M ichael Lap idge , " The h ermeneut ic s ty le i n t en th-century Ang lo-La t in l i terature ," Ang lo-Saxon Eng land 4 ( 1975 ), p p. 6 7-111. 4 . S ee De s che mat ibus e t t rop is ( ed. Kar l Ha lm , Rhetores l at in i minores , L e ipzig , 1 863, p . 6 10 ) , where Bede q uotes t he Mora l ia i n J ob a nd c om ments :
" Et h u ius mod i o rat iones e sse r eor , q uas H ierony mus
c onc innas r hetoru m d ecla ma t iones a ppe l la t."
S ee a lso Pau l Meyvaer t ,
B ede a nd Gregory t he Great ( Jarrow L ecture , 1 964 ), p . 1 2. 5 . D e a r te metr ica ( ed. H e inr ich Ke i l , Gra m mat ic i l at in i V I I ( Le ipz ig , 1 878 ), p p . 2 42f f. 6 .
V i ta s anc t i C u thbert , l ines 2 5-9 , e d . Werner J aager , P a laes tra 1 98 ( Leipzig 1 935
p . 6 0 . The h igh s ty le o f t he p assage o f wh ich t hese l ines a re t he
c u lm inat ion s ee ms t o h ave b een mean t a s af or m o f h o mage t o t he s a int a nd a way o f d ign ify ing a nd p ro mot ing h is c u lt . For more s tr ict ly e ducat iona l p urposes Bede e lsewhere r educes t o s tra igh t forward p rose an u mber o f Pau l inus ' c lass ica l ly o rna te p oe ms o n S t Fe l ix ; L ev ison , " Bede a s h istor ian ,"
s ee Wilhe lm
i n Bede , h is L ife , T i mes a nd Wr it ings ,
e d. A . Ha m il ton Tho mpson ( Ox ford , 1 935 ), p p. 1 15-16. 7 . S ee A l ista ir Ca mpbe l l , " So me l ingu ist ic f eatures o f e ar ly Ang lo-Lat in v erse a nd i t s u se o f c lass ica l mode ls ," Transact ions o f t he Ph ilo log ica l S oc iety ( 1953 ), p p. 1 5-16. 2 9
8 . On t he impor tance o f f or ma l s tructure , n umer ica l p at terns a nd s ymbo l is m a s mne mon ic d ev ices i n Bede s ee Char les W. J ones , " Bede a s e ar ly med ieva l h istor ian ," Med ieva l ia e t Human ist ica 4 ( 1946 ) , 2 6-36. 9 . S ee De a r te me tr ica , p p. 2 51-2, where B ede d iscusses t he d i f f icu lty o f a dapt ing c er ta in Chr ist ian t erms t o c lass ica l metre ; h e n otes i n S edu l ius t he i rregu lar l ine " Cu m s ancto s p ir itu g lor ia magna p a tr i," a nd r e marks t ha t t he p oet " in o rder t o s ing c lear ly t he g lory o f t he s acred a nd u nd iv ided Tr in ity h as n eg lec ted t he r u les o f c orrect d ispos it ion ." 1 0. S ee G ladysz , " Ele men ts c lass iques e t p os t-c lass iques ," p p. 3 20 a nd 3 43. 1 1. " Bede a s t ex tbook wr iter ," p . 5 75. 1 2. HE 1 .13. 1 3. I b id., 1 1.14. 1 4. As Druhan p o in ts o ut ( Syn tax o f B ede 's " H is tor ia E ce les ias t ica , "p . x x i i ) , a naco louthon i s v ery r are i n B ede ;
b u t i n t he e f fect o f °sw ine 's o u tburs t ,
wh ich i n trudes u pon t he S yn tax o f t he s en tence a nd g ives i tas omewhat e l l ip t ica l move men t , a s i n t he h eavy r e l iance o n p ar t ic ip les i n t he f a mous " sparrow" p assage ( El I .13 ) , w e may s ee a w il l ingness t o t ake sma l l l i ber t ies w ith s yn tax t o a ch ieve a s pec ia l e f fec t . 1 5. Bede u ses d if ferences o f l anguage f or d ra ma t ic o r s ymbo l ic e f fec t a t s evera l p o in ts.
With A idan 's r evers ion t o I r ish h ere c f . t he emphas is o n
t he s pec ia l q ua l it ies o f C aed mon 's Eng l ish ( HE I V. 22, q uo ted a bove , n . 1 ) , a nd t he p u lcherr i mu m s pec tacu lu m o f Oswa ld t rans la t ing t he p reach ing o f A idan f ro m I r ish i n to Eng l ish f or t he b ene f it o f h is c our t ( i b id ., I I.4 ). 1 6. There h as b een n o s er ious a t te mp t , s o f ar a s Ik now , t o d eterm ine t he e x ten t o f Bede 's k now ledge o f a nd d ebt t o Gregory .
S ee t he s ugges t ive
c o m men t o f J . N . Wa l lace-Hadr i l l ( The L ong-Ha ired K ings ( London , 1 962 ) , p p. 6 1-2 ).
L ike Pau l Meyvaer t 's t en tat ive c o mpar isons b etween B ede
a nd Gregory t he Great , h owever , t hese s erve f ina l ly t o i nd icate h ow much work i s s t il l t o b e d one o n Bede 's l i terary r e lat ions. 1 7. S ee L ev ison , " Bede a s h istor ian ," p p. 1 49-50 . 1 8. No t a l l s cho lars w ou ld a gree.
P eter Hun ter B la ir , The Wor ld o f B ede
( London , 1 970 ), p p. 2 88-89 , s uggests t ha t Bede d e l iberate ly a vo ided c on tact w ith a nc ien t l i terature a nd t ha t "we n eed v ery s trong e v idence b efore we c an a dm it t hat a ny o f t he works o f c lass ica l a n t iqu ity w ere k nown t o Bede a t f irs t h and."
S ee a lso t he r emarks o f my f e l low c on-
t r ibutor t o t h is v o lu me , Pa tr ick Worma ld ( be low , p . 6 0 , n . 1 34 ). 1 9. " Alcu in a s ap oet ;
r hetor ic a nd b e l ief i n h is L a t in v erse ," Un ivers ity o f
Toron to Quar ter ly 3 3 ( 1963-4 ), 2 36 , a n a r t ic le w h ich p rov ides a n e xce ll en t i n troduct ion t o t he L at in c u l ture o f t he e igh th a nd n in th c en tur ies i n i t s l i terary a spect . 2 0. A l is ta ir Ca mpbe l l , " So me l i ngu ist ic f eatures o f e ar ly Ang lo-La t in v erse ," p . 5 , s uggests t ha t V erg i l 's s tature i n t h is p er iod w as s uch t hat a p hrase u sed b y h i m wh ich a ppeared i n a n Ang lo-La t in p oem w ou ld p robab ly h ave b een t aken a s aV erg i l ian e cho.
3 0
2 1. HE V .12 ;
Aene id 6 .268.
2 2. HE 1 .12 ;
Aene id 4 .2.
2 3. HE I .13; Aene id 2 .501-2. Here B ede may h ave b een s truck b y t he s uggest ion i n t he words t he mse lves , t hough n ot t he ir V erg i l ian c on tex t , o f s o me s uch c onvers ion f ormu la a s t he " ado r n q uod i ncend ist i , i ncende q uod a dorast i" u sed b y Gregory o f Tours , H is tor ia Francoru m 2 .29 ( 31) o f t he c onvers ion o f C lov is. 2 4. S ee. e .g . " venerab i le d onum ," V ita Cuthber t i 2 82, Aene id 6 .408 ; " ign is e dax ," VC 3 22 , Aen . 2 .758 ; 7 58 ;
" su m ma f as t ig ia ," VC 5 56 , Aen . 2 .302 ,
" corpus e xsangue ," VC 8 92, Aen . 2 .542 ;
VC 9 34-935 , Aen . 6 .732.
"mor ibunda... me mbra ,"
As J aager 's g enerous c r it ica l a pparatus
makes p la in , Verg i l ian l anguage may o f ten h ave b een " laundered" t hrough s uch i n termed iar ies a s J uvencus o r S edu l ius.
S ee a lso Ca mpbe l l 's r e-
marks o n t he l im its a nd a buses o f s uch s ource s tudy ( "So me l ingu ist ic f ea tures o f e ar ly Ang lo-La t in v erse ," p . 4 ). 2 5. The t wo mos t e labora te b orrow ings o ccur a t VC 3 02 :
" Du mque i t er
i ncep tu m p eragun t , v enere s ub amne m" ( c f . Aen . 6 .384 :
" Ergo i t er
i nceptu m p era gm t f l uv ioque p rop inquan t " ) ;
" V ix q uae
a nd VC 4 03 :
b is t ern i c erv ice s ub ire p oten tes" ( c f . Aen. 1 2.899 : s ex c erv ice s ub iren t" ).
" V ix i l lud l ect i b is
Ne ither s ee ms t o r ef lect a ny th ing more t han
f or tu itous r em in iscence t r iggered b y ac o inc idence o f d eta il.
C f . t he
i nser t ion o f Aen . 2 .1, " Con t icuere omnes , i n ten t ique o ra t eneban t ," i n HE 1 1.11.
3 1
I I.
BEDE, " BEO WULF" AND THE CONVERS ION OF THE ANGLO-SAXON AR ISTOCRACY Pa tr ick Worma ld
I n troduct ion :
Bede v ersus " Beowu lf"
The Venerab le B ede d id n o t b e l ieve i n b ir thdays. b e c o m me morated o n t he a nn iversary o f t he ir d ea ths.
He p referred men t o I t i s e n t ire ly i n k eep-
i ng w ith h is own p r ior it ies t hat we s hou ld k now much more a bout h is l ast h ours t han a bout a l l t he r est o f h is l i fe p ut t ogether .
I t i s t herefore most
u n l ike ly t hat , q u ite a par t f ro m h is f a mous h um i l i ty , h e wou ld h ave e ndorsed a Festschr if t , d es igned t o c o m me morate t he t h ir teen th c en tury o f h is b ir th . I ti s a s we l l t o b eg in b y mak ing t h is p o in t , a s t h is i s n ot t he o n ly r espec t i n wh ich B ede 's p r ior it ies w i l l h ave d if fered f ro m t hose o f modern h istor ians. Perhaps t he ma jor t rend i n t he h istor ica l s tudy o f B ede s ince t he l as t a nn iversary i n 1 935 , wh ich was marked b y a mass o f c e lebra tory l i tera ture , i n wh ich A . Ha m i lton Tho mpson 's Bede , h is L ife , T i mes a nd Wr it ings f ormed t he c en trep iece a nd t o wh ich Corne l l 's M. L .W . L a is tner made s o memorab le ac on tr ibut ion , h as b een t he g row ing awareness t hat Bede was n ot a h is tor ian l ike o urse lves , a nd t hat h e d if fered i n more t han j us t h is f a ith i n mirac les. I n t h is p aper , r ef lect ing t he t rend , Iw ish t o a rgue t ha t , i f a modern h is tor ian w ishes t o u nderstand t he c onvers ion o f t he Ang lo-Saxon a r istocracy , h e h as l ess t o l earn f ro m Bede , t han f ro m o ther s ources , s o me o f wh ich a re n o t w orks o f h istory a t a l l.
Th is migh t p erhaps s ee m a s trange w ay o f p ay ing t r ibu te t o a
master o f t he h istor ian 's c raf t , y et Iam c onv inced t ha t , e ven i f my a rgumen t b e a ccep ted , Bede 's s tature a s ah istor ian i s t hereby e nhanced , r ather t han d im in ished. 1 Un t i l r ecent ly , a nd c er ta in ly s t il l i n 1 935 , c om men ta tors were ma in ly c oncerned t o emphas ize , a nd t o p ra ise , t he many r espects i n wh ich B ede c a me u p t o t he ir own e xact ing s tandards , whe ther o f r e l ig ious o r thodoxy i n t he s ixt een th c entury , o r o f h istor ica l a ccuracy i n t he t wen t ieth.
F or e xa mp le , S ir
Frank S ten ton 's f ine p aragraph o n Bede i s , i n s o me w ays , af a irer p or tra it o f h is own g reat b ook t han o f Bede 's : [ Bede 's ] c r it ica l f acu lty was a lways a ler t ;
h is n arrat ive n ever d e-
g enerates i n to a t issue o f i l l-a t tested wonders , a nd i n r egard t o a l l t he n orma l s ubs tance o f h istory h is work c an b e j udged a s s tr ict ly a s a ny h istor ica l wr it ing o f a ny t ime.
H is p reface , i n wh ich h e
a cknow ledged t he h elp r ece ived f ro m l earned f r iends , r eads l i ke t he i n troduct ion t o a modern w ork o f s cho larsh ip .
3 2
But t he q ua l ity
w h ich makes h is w ork g rea t i s n o t h is s cho larsh ip , n or t he f acu l ty o fn arrat ive wh ich h e s hared w ith many c on te mporar ies , b u t h is a s ton ish ing p ower o f c o-ord ina t ing t he f ragmen ts o f i n format ion w h ich c ame t o h im t hrough t rad it ion , t he r e la t ion o f f r iends , o r d ocu men tary e v idence.... 2 T ha t Bede d id i ndeed p ossess t hese q ua l it ies i s n ot d ispu ted.
The E cc les iast ica l
H istory o ft he Eng l ish P eop le i s s o e xce l len t as ource o f k now ledge f or t he p er iod i tc oncerns t ha t i tw ou ld s carce ly b e a n e xaggera t ion t o s ay t hat w e k now more a bou t t he c onvers ion o f t he Eng l ish t han a bou t a ny s er ies o f e ven ts i n Br it ish H istory u n t il t he t we lf th c entury . Ye t i ti s p oss ib le t hat t he b ook 's v ery e xce l lence i s o ne o f i t s d rawbacks , i n t hat i tc oncea ls f rom v iew , a s l esser med ieva l h istor ians d o n o t , t ha t Bede 's c oncep t ion o f t he n ature a nd p urposes o f h istory w i l l h ave b een v ery d if feren t f ro m-o urs. S ince 19 35 s cho lars h ave made mass ive a dvances i n t he e d it ion a nd s tudy o f Bede 's n onh istor ica l w orks , f i e lds i n to w h ich i ti s n o t p oss ib le t o f o l low h im w ith t he s ame s ense o f f am il iar ity , a nd wh ich r em ind u s more o f what d ist ingu ishes u s f ro m B ede t han o f what we h ave i n c om mon w ith h i m. 3 Recen t ly , t oo , s tuden ts o f Bede h ave b eco me more c onsc ious t hat Bede 's H is tory w as i t se l f a me mber o f ap ar t icu lar h istor iograph ica l t rad it ion , wh ich was t hat o f t he Chr ist ian e ar ly M idd le Ages , a nd n o t t ha t o f t he V ictor ian u n ivers ity. 4 Th is h as n ot e n ta iled a d ec l ine i n r espect f or Bede 's a u thor ity . S o f ar a s f acts a re c onc erned , h is c hrono logy o f t he Ken t ish c onvers ion h as w ithstood c r it ica l e xam inat ion more s uccessfu l ly t han h as t ha t o f Gregory o f Tours f or t he b apt ism o f C lov is . 5 Bu t i th as mean t an ew t endency t o r ecogn ize t hat what Bede w i l l h ave c ons idered a ppropr ia te a d i nstruc t ionem p oster ita t is i s n ot n ecessar i ly what w e s hou ld w ish t o k now i fw e a re t o u nders tand t he e ven ts t ha t h e i s d escr ib ing . H ence , c hang ing a t t itudes t o B ede h ave b een a ccomp l ished b y t he a sk ing o f n ew q uest ions a bou t t he a ge t ha t h e d escr ibes , a nd t he s earch f or o ther a ng les o f a pproach t o i t , w hether h istor ica l o r , more p ar t icu lar ly , a rchaeo lo g ica l a nd a r t-h istor ica l. t he me c ou ld b e r educed t o :
A t i t s c rudest , t he Ecc les iast ica l H is tory 's ma in " At t h is t ime t he A p eop le r ece ived t he F a ith f rom
S a in t Bu nder t he r u le o f K ing C ". H istor ians a re n owadays k een t o k now n ot o n ly t ha t t h is was s o , b u t a lso h ow a nd why . I n t he p rocess , h istor ies o f t he e ar ly E ng l ish c hurch h ave l arge ly c eased t o b e c atenae o f t he a s ton ish ing s er ies o f im mor ta l s tor ies w ith wh ich Bede a dorns h is t heme , a nd H enry Mayr-Har t ing 's C om ing o f Chr ist ian ity t o Ang lo-Saxon Eng land h as b ecome p erhaps t he f irst t reatmen t o f t he s ub jec t t o g ive Wilfr id , A ldhe lm a nd Gu th lac , a ll o f who m s u f fer i n d if feren t ways f ro m Bede 's d om inan t p erspect ives , t he s a me we igh t a s i s g iven t o A idan , Chad a nd Cuthber t , who a re , o f c ourse , Bede 's s pec ia l h eroes. 6
The c onnect ion b etween t he r e invest iga-
t ion o fB ede 's h istor ica l w ork a nd f resh a pproaches t o h is a ge i s a lso made i n t he w ork o f J ames Campbe l l , who h as f o l lowed t wo s urveys o f Bede 's p lace i n t he h istor iograph ica l t rad it ion o f t he e ar ly med ieva l West w ith a r eassessmen t o f t he " F irst Cen tury o f Eng l ish Chr is t ian ity" i n t he l igh t o f f actors wh ich B ede 's H istory l argely i gnores :
t he g row th o f e cc les iast ica l w ea l th ,
t he e xpans ion o f monas t ic is m , a nd t he v ery c lose c on te mporary l i nks b etween Eng land a nd Gau 1. 7 I n t h is e ssay , Ii n tend t o c on t inue t he s earch f or a l ternat ive p erspect ives. S pec i f ica l ly , Iw ish t o s uggest t ha t w e c an s upp le men t a nd 3 3
mod ify Bede 's p or tra it o f t he c onvers ion o f t he e ar ly Eng l ish n ob i l ity b y c onsi dera t ion o f i t s v ernacu lar l i terature , a nd a bove a l l b y i nvest iga t ing f ur ther t he t he o ther ma jor masterp iece o f e ar ly E ng l ish l i terary c u l ture , Beowu lf . I n 1 935 i t wou ld h ave s ee med o u trageous t o most s cho lars , a nd t o many i t may s t i l l s ee m e x traord inary t oday , t o s uggest t ha t au n ique , a nonymous a nd s carce ly d atab le p oe m , c oncerned a l mos t who l ly w ith r ea l a nd l egendary e ven ts i n S cand inav ia a t l east a h undred y ears b efore t he c onvers ion o f t he E ng l ish r ea l ly g o t u nder way , m igh t i n s o me w ays t e l l u s more a bou t t he r ea l it ies o f s even th- a nd e igh th-cen tury Eng land t han a h istor ian who i s u n iversa l ly r ec ogn ized , a nd who h as b een a l most f ro m t he s tar t , t o b e among t he g reatest t hat h ave e ver l i ved .
Bu t i ti s n ot o n ly t he s tudy o f Bede t ha t h as c hanged.
Recen t d irect ions o f r esearch i n to Beowu lf , a nd a ssoc iated " hero ic" l i terature , h ave d one much t o e nhance i t s h istor ica l r e levance. Two d irect ions may b e d ist ingu ished i n p ar t icu lar , t he h istor ica l , a nd t he l i terary . Tha t Ang lo-Saxon p oetry s hou ld h ave s ome th ing t o t e l l u s a bou t e ar ly Eng l ish s oc iety h as b een a ccep ted s ince t he d ays o f J . M. K e mb le , a nd , i n t he h ands o f H . M. Chadw ick , t h is l i terature b ecame , f or a t ime , ad evas tat ing i ns trumen t o f h is tor ica l , a nd e ven s oc io log ica l , a ssau lt u pon t he n inet een th-cen tury s choo l o f e ar ly German ic s tud ies. 8 But i t was i n 1 935 i t sel f t hat R itch ie G irvan i n h is Beowu lf a nd t he S even th Cen tury p resen ted c loser p ara l le ls t han h ad e ver b efore b een n o t iced b etween t he wor ld o f t he p oe m a nd t ha t o f s even th-century Eng land .
L ike W. W. L awrence who h ad made
s ome o f t he s ame p o in ts i n h is B eowu l f a nd t he E p ic Trad it ion ( 1928 ) , G irvan was more c oncerned t o e luc idate t he p oe m i t se lf , t han i t s h istor ica l b ackground , b ut h is a rgumen ts i nc luded p rofound i ns igh ts , b ased o n h is k now ledge o f t he p oe m , i n to t he c u l ture a nd p o l it ics o f t he p er iod . 9 F or e xamp le , t he c entra l f igures o f t he p oe m a re f requen t ly f ound o u ts ide t he ir own " na t iona l" a nd " tr iba l" c on tex ts , s erv ing a s e x i les , a dven turers , r eta iners a nd l eaders o f warbands a t t he c our t o f " fore ign" k ings ; i tw as i n t h is c apac ity t ha t B eowu lf h i mse lf c ame t o t he c our t o f Hrothgar w ith h is e scor t .
Chadw ick h ad s hown
t ha t t h is was a lso a s ign if ican t f eature o f e ar ly Eng l ish s oc iety .
The w ay i n
wh ich K ing Osw ine o f De ira ( 642/4 - 5 1) b y h is " generos ity" a nd " cour tesy" c aused " nob le men f ro m a l mos t e very k ingdom t o f l ock t o s erve h im a s r et a iners ," i s c lose ly p ara l le led i n t he p oem b y t he w ay t ha t Hro thgar 's , " success i n war ( heresped ) h is g lory i n b a t t le", w ere s uch t ha t " h is b and o f y oung f o l lowers g rew i n to a m igh ty f o l low ing ( magodr ih t m ice l )" 1 °
G irvan 's a ch ieve-
men t w as t o s how h ow t he o pera t ions o f t h is mechan is m a ccoun ted f or t he p o l it ica l d eve lopmen ts o f s even th-century Br ita in , whereby t he f ron t ier k ingd o ms , B ern ic ia a nd D e ira , Merc ia a nd Wessex w ere c on t inua l ly g row ing s tronger , whereas t he o lder k ingdo ms o f t he s ou th a nd e ast , n otab ly K en t a nd East Ang l ia , w ere a trophy ing . Expand ing k ingsh ips , o f fer ing p rospec ts o f r ewards i n l oo t a nd l and , w ere a b le , l ike Hro thgar , t o a t tract t h is c lass o f wander ing warr ior t o t he ir b anners , a t t he e xpense o f t hose whose o u t le ts were b e ing b locked , a nd i t was b y a t tract ing s uch m i l itary s pec ia l ists t hat k ings w ere a b le t o c on t inue t he ir c ampa igns o f e xpans ion. I tw as a s nowba ll p rocess , i n w h ich t he g rea t g rew g rea ter , a nd t he w eak me l ted away . The p oss ib le i mpact o f G irvan 's v iews was i mmeasurab ly i ncreased b y d iscover ies i n as econd f i e ld , t ha t o f a rchaeo logy . Two o f t he most f amous
. 3 4
e xcavat ions s ince 1 935 h ave r evea led , a t Yeaver ing i n Nor thu mber land , a l arge c o mp lex o f wooden h a l ls t ha t i s i rres ist ib ly r em in iscen t o f Heoro t , a nd a t S u t ton Hoo , i n S u f fo lk , at reasure b oth f abu lous i n q uan t ity a nd v ene rab le i n a ge , much o f i ts how ing S cand inav ian c onnect ions , wh ich t hus r ec al led t he v ar ious h e ir looms d escr ibed b y t he Beowu lf p oet , a nd wh ich , i n terred a s i ti s w ith in a s h ip , a nd b enea th a b arrow , r ese mb les wha t w e s hou ld a ch ieve , i fw e c on f la ted t he o b ituary c ere mon ies f or S cy ld a t t he b eg inn ing , a nd Beowu lf a t t he e nd o f t he p oe m .1 I t may b e t hat t he s ign if icance o f t hese p ara l le ls h as b een e xaggerated , b u t , a t t he v ery l east , t he l av ish mat er ia l wor ld o f t he p oe m h as n ow b een g iven i t s c oun terpar t i n t he ma ter ia l d epos its o f s even th-century Br ita in . Th ird , a nd f ina l ly , P rofessor Doro thy Wh ite lock , i n h er c e lebra ted A ud ience o f B eowu lf ( 1951) w idened t he p oss ib i l it ies f or t he p oe m 's d a te i n to t he l ater e igh th c en tury , a nd b rough t t o l i gh t , ma in ly w ith t he h elp o f p lacen ames , a n a ud ience o f Ang lo-Saxons t o who m Grende l , h is mother a nd t he d ragon , t he monstrous f oes o f Beowu lf , w i l l h ave s ee med e very b it a s r ea l a s h uman e ne m ies. S he a lso d e monstra ted , f rom e x terna l e v idence , wha t t he p oe m i t se l fh ad a lready s uggested t o e ar l ier s cho lars , t hat t he p oet 's a ud ience must h ave b een f am il iar w ith a w ide v ar iety o f s im i lar s tor ies , t o t he e x ten t t hat h e c ou ld a f ford t o r efer t o t he m o n ly i n p ass ing .1 2 Beowu lf m igh t t hus b e s een t o r ef lec t n ot o n ly t he b ehav iour a nd mater ia l e nv iron men t , b ut a lso t he f ears a nd l i terary t astes , o f t he e ar ly Ang lo-Saxons. To s ay t h is i s n ot , o f c ourse , t o i gnore Professor Wh ite lock 's own warn ing a ga inst r ead ing " prec ise c on te mporary r e levance i nto p oe try w ith a p re ference f or t he t yp ica l s i tua t ion w ith a u n iversa l a pp l ica t ion".
Bu t i t was Marc B loch 's
v iew , s tunn ing ly p u t i n to p ract ice i n h is F euda l S oc iety , t hat , " in e very l i terat ure, s oCety c on te mp la tes i t s own i mage ," a nd l i terature c an s o me t i mes t e l l u s al o t a bou t t he s oc iety i n w h ich i ta rose , p rec ise ly b ecause i ti s n o t p r i mar i ly c oncerned t o t el l u s a ny th ing .1 3
The g enera l a t mosphere o f l i fe a s i tw as
l i ved b y B ede 's c on te mporar ies , g ive o r t ake a c oup le o f g enerat ions , p robab ly i s r ef lec ted i n Beowu lf . I tn ow s ee ms v ery l ike ly t ha t K ing Oswa ld o f t he B ern ic ians ( 633-42 ) was a ctual ly much more l ike K ing Hyge lac o f t he G ea tas t han a ny r eader o f Bede 's f a mous c hap ters wou ld i m med ia te ly a pprec ia te , a nd b oth k ings c er ta in ly me t t he s a me s or t o f d ea th . The i mpress ion g iven b y c lose a t ten t ion t o n arrat ive s ources , t o a rchaeo logy a nd e ven t o t oponymy s ugg ests t ha t , u n ique a s i ti s , B eowu l f r epresen ts s ign if ican t f eatures o f t he wor ld t ha t Bede d escr ibes , a nd g ives u s i mpor tan t c lues i n t he u nders tand ing o f i t . F or t h is t here i s , p erhaps , o ne p ar t icu lar r eason.
Beowu lf , F innsburh ,
Wa ldhere a nd t he l a ter Ba t t le o f Ma ldon a re l i terature a bou t , f or , a nd e ven b y , t he Ang lo-Saxon a r istocracy . The e ar ly l aw-codes e stab l ish t he e x istence o f a n a r istocracy o f b ir th i n Ang lo-Saxon Eng land , a s t hey d o n ot o n t he Cont inen t . 14 But q u ite a par t f ro m t he l ega l e v idence , t here a re amp le i nd icat ions , a s o n t he C on t inen t , o f ap ro m inen t d e f acto a r is tocracy .
One r evea l-
i ng s tory i n Bede d escr ibes h ow t he Nor thumbr ian t hegn I m ma was b etrayed a s aw arr ior , a nd t hus l i ab le t o v engeance , b y h is " appearance , manner a nd c onversa t ion. t , 15 I n e ar ly Ang lo-Saxon c harters , s evera l b ene f ic iar ies , o r w itnesses a re d escr ibed a s t he " fa i th fu l" o r " revered" " co mpan ion" o r
3 5
"m in ister" o f t he k ing , a nd i ti s t he ir c loseness t o h im t ha t c onst itu tes t he ir c la im o n h is g ra t itude. 1 6 P erhaps a bove a l l , a rchaeo logy d e mons tra tes t hat e ar ly Eng l ish s oc iety k new a c lass o f w ea lthy s pec ia l ized w arr iors . C er ta in g raves a re d ist ingu ished b y t he a ppearance i n t hem o f w eaponry t ha t i s o therw ise e x tre me ly r are — s words , h e l mets , c oa ts-o f- ma il — a nd w here t hey a re f ound , t he r est o f t he d epos it i s o f ten e x treme ly r ich .1 7
Qu ite a par t f rom
t he whens a nd where fores o f t he a ppearance o f c ava lry i n w estern E urope , p ossess ion o f t h is s oph is t ica ted e qu ipmen t must a lready h ave g iven i t s owner s o me o f t he s a me m i l itary s ign if icance a s t he l a ter moun ted k n igh t .
I ti s t hus
u nderstandab le , f irst t hat k ings s hou ld h ave s ough t t o a t trac t s uch f i gures t o t he ir s tandards ; s econd t ha t t hose k ings who c ou ld d o s o r ap id ly i ncreased t he ir m i l itary p ower ;
a nd t h ird t ha t t he warr iors t hemse lves s hou ld h ave
d eveloped , o n t he c lass ic Weber ian p rescr ip t ion , a n awareness t ha t t hey were a n e l ite. I t i s c lear e nough t hat w e e ncoun ter t h is c lass i n Beowu lf a nd i n a ssoc ia ted l i terature. Beowu lf h i msel f i s e scor ted a nd b ur ied b y t he s ons o f n ob le men , a nd t he p oe m i s s t if f w ith t he t erm ino logy o f t he r et inue. The word e or l , wh ich , i n t he e ar l ies t l aws , s ign if ies " nob le ," i n c on trast t o c eor l — " commoner"— i s u sed , i n t he p oe m , n o l ess t han s even t imes a s o f ten a s c eor l , t hus s ugges ti ng t hat t he p oet t ook t he n ob le s tatus o f h is s ub jects a l mos t f or gr an ted • i8 The mi l itary e qu ip men t wh ich a rchaeo logy r evea ls t o h ave b een r are a nd p rec ious i s v ir tua l ly u n iversa l i n Beowu lf , F innsburh , a nd Wa ldhere ( a lso i n t he O ld H igh German H i ldesbrands l ied ). B eowu lf h i mse l f d isposes o f t hree s e ts o f h e l met , c orse let a nd s word , a nd t he s ame c o mb inat ion i s a t tr ibuted t of our o ther i nd iv idua ls , a nd t o t hree g roups o f r e ta iners . As G irvan s a id , " everyt h ing s pec if ica l ly i nd ica ted i n t he p oe m i s g o ld ." 1 9 I tt hus s ee ms r easonab le t o u se h ero ic l i tera ture a s aw indow o n t he men ta l ity o f aw arr ior-ar is tocracy , whose e x istence a nd whose i mportance i s r ef lected b y o ther s ources , h istor ica l , l ega l a nd a rchaeo log ica l , b ut whose p reoccupa t ions d o n ot s eem t o b e d escr ibed e lsewhere. L east o f a l l a re t hey d escr ibe _d i n Bede. I ti s p oss ib le t o f ind e v idence i n Bede t ha t t he w or ld o f Beowu lf was t he s ame w or ld a s t ha t whose h is tory 4 1 3 .e de i s t e l l ing , b u t B ede 's i s a n E cc les iast ica l H is tory :
s ecu lar h eroes,
c our t-l ife , war fare i n g enera l , h ad n o p lace i n t he t rad it ion , a nd mons ters s t il l l ess o f o ne. F or a l t ha t t he p oet a nd t he h is tor ian s hare a c er ta in l oft iness o f t one , i ts ee ms l i ke ly t ha t t he b eg inner , c on fronted w ith s im i lar iv i l iza t rans lat ions o f e ach , w ou ld c onc lude t ha t t hey c ame f ro m d iferen t c t ions a l together . They a re s eparated b y wha t Pro fessor Mom ig l iano , i n a nother , n ot d iss im i lar , c on tex t , h as c a l led a " vas t z one o f s i lence." 2°That i s why Ang lo-Saxon h ero ic p oetry o f fers more t han a c o mp lement , i to f fers a n a l terna t ive p erspec t ive , t o B ede 's i mpress ion o f h is a ge , a l l t he more impor tan t f or t he f act t ha t i ti s ap erspect ive t o s ome e x ten t r epresen ta t ive o f ap ower fu l b ody i n s oc iety .2 1 I ti s t he emergence o f t h is l i terature i n s uch a c apac ity s ince 1 935 t hat e ncourages a h istor ian t o t ake a c loser l ook a t p ara l le l d eve lopmen ts i n a more " l iterary" f i e ld . I n 1 936 , o ne y ear a f ter t he l ast Bede a nn iversary , a nd i n t he s ame v o lu me o f t he Proceed ings o f t he Br it ish Acade my a s c on ta ined a c haracter is t ic p anegyr ic o n B ede b y R . W. Cha mbers , Professor J . R . R . To lk ien p ubl ished
3 6
h is " Beowu l f : t he monsters a nd t he c r it ics ," wh ich i t wou ld b e n o e xaggerat i on t o d escr ibe a s o ne o f t he most i n f luen t ia l works o f l i terary c r it ic ism o f t he c en tury , a nd s ince wh ich n o th ing i n Beowu lf s tud ies h as b een q u ite t he s ame. 22 T he a rgumen ts o fT o lk ien 's p aper w ere n ot u n iversa l ly a ccep ted , a nd s o me o f i t s e f fec ts wou ld p erhaps h ave b een d isowned b y t he a uthor , b u t i t s g enera l i mpact c ou ld b e s um mar ized b y s ay ing t hat mos t c r it ics h ave l earn t t o t ake t he B eowu l f p oet a g rea t d ea l more s er ious ly . To p rev ious g enerat ions o f c r it ics , v is ib ly o bsessed w ith t he Homer ic mode l , t here was l i t t le d ign ity i n t he h ero 's s trugg les w ith monsters t ha t w ere a t o nce i mprobab le a nd d isgus t ing , a nd t he v iew t hat t he p oe m was " cheap" o r " tr iv ia l" e ncouraged t he o p in ion t ha t i t was a lso i rre levan t :
t he r ea l e p ics
o f t he Ang lo-Saxons must h ave b een l ost .2 3 S im i lar ly , i t was g enera l ly a cc epted b y 1 936 t ha t B eowu lf w as l arge ly t he work o f as ing le a u thor , a nd was c o mposed i n wr it ing , b u t a s l ong a s s uch a uthor i ta t ive c r it ics a s K laeber , t he p oem 's most d ist ingu ished e d itor , c ont inued t o b e embarrassed b y t he p oe m 's s tructure , i tr e ma ined a s er ious p oss ib i l ity t hat t he p oe m h as d escended i n t he manner o f Homer , r a ther t han t ha t o f Verg i 1. 2 4 To lk ien a rgued p ower fu l ly t hat , f or t he German ic men ta l ity t hat g ave b ir th t o t he my th o f Ragnarok , t he mons ters o f t he p oe m were t he o n ly a ppropr ia te e ne m ies f or a g rea t h ero , a nd t hus s h ifted Beowu lf f ro m t he i rre levan t f r inges , t o t he v ery c en tre , o f t he Ang lo-Saxon t hough t-wor ld .
T h is n a tura l ly e ncouraged
ap re-ex isten t t endency t o s quare t he p oe m w ith what e lse was k nown o f t he " ser ious"leve ls o f Ang lo-Saxon t hough t — c h ief ly t he L a t in s cho larsh ip o f t he c hurch. S econd ly , To lk ien w en t f ar t owards v ind ica t ing t he s tructure o f t he p oe m b ya rgu ing t hat i t was ab a lance o f c on trast ing a nd i n ter lock ing h a lves. H is t hes is n ot o n ly c onv inced many c r it ics , b u t i nsp ired t he m t o f o l low h is e xa mp le , w ith t he r esu l t t ha t To lk ien 's own p os it ion h as b een o u t f lanked. Whereas p rev ious g enera t ions o f s cho lars , To lk ien i nc luded , h ad b een q u ite p repared t o e xp la in wha t t hey c ons idered s tructura l a nd s ty l is t ic b le m ishes a s i n terpo lat ions , modern wr iters s eek e v idence o f a r t ist ic r ef ine men t i n s o me o ft he p oe m 's l east p rom is ing f eatures . 2 5 As Beowu lf 's a ppearance h as c ome t o s ee m l ess u n t idy , o ne o f t he f ew r e ma in ing r easons f or d isbel i ev ing i n as ing le l i terate a u thorsh ip h as b een u nderm ined.
Th is i s p ar t icu-
l ar ly i mpor tan t , b ecause , o ver t he s ame p er iod , ad eter m ined a t temp t b y A . B . L ord , F . P . Magoun a nd t he ir p up i ls t o p rove t ha t B eowu lf a nd o ther s uch s uch l i terature was o ra l ly c o mposed s ee ms t o h ave met w ith d efea t , a t l eas t o n p o in ts . Tha t Ang lo-Saxon p oetry c on ta ins " ora l f ormu lae" s uch a s w ere o r ig ina l ly d iscovered b y M i lman P arry i n Homer a nd t he p oetry o f t he s ou thern S lays i sn ow a greed , b u t i th as a lso b een d e monstra ted t hat s upposed ly " ora l" f ormu lae a ppear i nu nden iab ly l i terate c on tex ts e lsewhere , wh ile c lose s tudy o f t he w ay i n wh ich t he B eowu lf p oet u sed f ormu lae h as made o ra l c ompos it ion s ee m l ess a nd l ess p laus ib le. I ndeed modern c r it ics h ave t urned t he t ab les o n t he " Ho mer ic" s choo l . I ti s a greed t ha t " for mu lar e cono my" a nd t he p rec ise r epet it ion o f s ubs tan t ia l p assages a re t yp ica l o f o ra l v erse , b ut Beowu lf i s n o tab ly l ack ing i n e i ther ; f or t he l a te Professor Campbel l , t he c loses t a na log ies t o Beowu lf i n s ty le o f c o mpos it ion were t o b e f ound i n l a te c lass ica l , r ather t han i n H o mer ic , e p ic. 2 6 F ew Eng l ish p oe ms h ave g rown a s much i n s tature o ver t he l ast f or ty y ears a s h as Beowu lf . More t o o ur p o in t , t he d eve lopmen t o f B eowu lf 3 7
c r it ic is m s ince 1 936 h as made t he p oe m s eem more r epresentat ive o fl earned c u lture i n t he a ge o f i t s c ompos it ion , a nd h as s treng thened t he t hes is t hat t he p oe m was c o mposed w ith p en , n ot h arp , i n h and ( s im ilar t rends i n t he s tudy o f t he o ther h ero ic p oe ms h ave made i ts eem l i ke ly t hat t he s a me i s t rue o f Wa ldhere a nd Ma ldon , i fn ot F innsburh ).
Bo th p o in ts h ave a n im med iate r e-
l evance f or s tuden ts o f e ar ly Eng l ish Chr is t ian ity .
I ft he p oet b e longed i n a ny
way t o t he ma instrea m o f Chr ist ian L a t in s cho larsh ip , a s i ncreas ing n umbers o f c r it ics s uppose , i ti s o bv ious t hat h e was Chr ist ian h i mse lf , a nd h igh ly l ike ly t ha t h e was s o me s or t o f p r iest . Bu t t he s ame i s p robab ly t rue e ven o f a n a b i l ity t o wr ite , i fi ndeed t he p oet c ou ld wr ite .2 7 S ince t he i ssue o f l i tera cy h as n ot e n tered t he d ebate o ver B eowu l f a s o f ten a s , p erhaps , i tm igh t h ave d one , i ti s wor th g iv ing t h is p o in t s ome emphas is.
I ti s s carce ly o pen
t o a rgumen t t ha t l i teracy r eached t he Ang lo-Saxons w ith t he c om ing o f Chr ist ian ity , a nd Id o n ot t h ink t ha t t he e v idence w i l l a l low u s t o p ostu la te much i n t he way o f l i teracy o uts ide t he r anks o f t he c lergy b efore 9 00. 28
We k now o f
o ne u nquest ionab ly l i tera te k ing b efore A lfred , t he I r ish-educated A ld fr i th o f Nor thu mbr ia.
We a lso k now t hat s o me l ay n ob lemen l earn t t o r ead , a pparen t ly
b y b e ing b rough tu p i n monaster ies . 2 9
I n A lfred 's d ay , w e k now f rom Asser 's
L ife t ha t t here w ere b ooks o f p oe ms a t t he Wes t S axon c our t , b ut w e d o n ot k now where , o rb y who m , t hey were wr it ten d own , n or d o w e k now w ha t s or t o f p oe ms t hey c on ta ined. I n f act , Asser o f fers p ower fu l e v idence a ga inst a w idespread l ay l i teracy a t l eas t i n n in th-cen tury E ng land.
D esp ite w hat h e
r epresen ts a s a n a l together e xcep t iona l e n thus iasm f ro m a n e ar ly a ge , A l fred d id n o t l earn t o r ead u n t i l h e w as n ear ly f or ty , a nd Asser 's d escr ip t ion o f t he r eact ion o fA lfred 's j udges t o t he r oya l i n junct ion t ha t t hey s hou ld a l l l earn t o r ead d oes n ot s uggest t ha t t he West S axon a r istocracy a l together s hared t he ir r u ler 's e n thus ias m. " There i s n oth ing f rom e ar ly Eng land t o match t he e v idence f or e x tens ive l ay l i teracy t ha t w e f ind i n c onte mporary I re land. 3 1 We d o n ot e ven h ave t he s or t o f e v idence f or l i teracy o uts ide r e l ig ious c o mmun it ies t hat i s f urn ished o n t he Con t inen t b y t he w r it ing-of f ices o f t he Frank ish o r L o mbard k ings , o rb y t he Caro l ing ian c our t-schoo ls a nd H ofb ib l io thek .
There a re n o i dent if iab le Ang lo-Saxon c our t- manuscr ip ts , e ven f ro m
t he t en th c en tury , a nd Ang lo-Saxon c har ters were a l mos t c er ta in ly t he w ork o f t he ir c ler ica l b ene f ic iar ies , o r o f t he n eares t r e l ig ious h ouse i ft he b enef i c iary were a l ay man a t l eas t u n t i l a f ter A l fred 's d ay. 3 2
Ang lo-Saxon Eng land
v as a c u l ture o f wha t a n thropo log is ts c a l l " res tr ic ted l i teracy , "a nd among 3 evera l i n teres t ing f ea tures t ha t i ts hared w i th A fr ican c u l tures u nder I s la m ic n f luence i n t he e igh teen th a nd n ine teen th c en tur ies w as a n e f fect ive c l er ica l n onopo ly o f i t s e duca t iona l p rocess .3 3 I f , t hen , Beowu lf i s l ayman 's work , i ti s ag rea t r ar i ty ;
a nd p rov ided o ne
t akes a f a ir ly b road v iew o f what c onst ituted a r e l ig ious c ommun ity i n e ar ly Ang lo-Saxon Eng land ( i t wou ld h ave t o i nc lude c a thedra l f am il iae , a nd s evera l more d ub ious c ongregat ions , a s we s ha l l s ee ), t he h istor ica l e v idence o f t he d istr ibu t ion o f Ang lo-Saxon l i teracy s uppor ts t ha t s chool o f c r it ics who h ave f e l t t ha t t he l e isured a nd e xpans ive t one o f t he O ld Eng l ish e p ic a rgues c o mpos it ion i n ar e l ig ious c om mun ity u nder c lass ica l , o r a t l eas t b ib l ica l , i nsp irat ion .3 4 A t t he v ery l east , i ti s d if f icu lt i n t he c ircums tances t o e nv isage a B eowu lf p oet who was b are ly t inged w ith Chr ist ian v a lues , o r e ven o ne who c ou ld wr ite Eng l ish , b ut n ot r ead L at in , a nd i ts ee ms r easonab le t o p roceed o n t he b as is
3 8
t ha t t he a u thor o f Beowu l f w as most p robab ly a c ler ic , o r a n a ssoc iate o f c lergy.
We s ha l l s ee t hat , e ven o n a n o ld-fash ioned r ead ing o f t he p oe m , t h is
i sb y n o means a s u n l ike ly a s i tm igh t a t f i rst l ook . The h is tor ica l s tudy o f B eowu lf o ver t he l ast f or ty y ears h as g rea t ly e nc ouraged t he v iew t ha t t h is , a nd s im i lar , p oe ms m igh t r epresen t many o f t he i n terests a nd v a lues o f t he Ang lo-Saxon warr ior-c lasses , t o wh ich Bede , f or h is own g ood r easons , d oes l ess t han j ust ice. A t t he s ame t ime , t he c r it ica l s tudy o f t he p oe m h as b rough tu s t o t he p o in t when , f or v ar ious r easons , i t d oes l ook a s t hough i t may h ave b e longed t o t he l i terary c u l ture o f e ar ly Ang loS axon Chr is t ian ity . Meanwh i le , s cho lars a re more aware t han t hey w ere t ha t Bede 's i s o n ly o ne impress ion , n o t n ecessar i ly t he most r epresen ta t ive , o f what w as g o ing o n i n s even th- a nd e igh th-cen tury Eng land.
There a re b ound
t o b e s er ious d if f icu l t ies a bou t s uggest ing t ha t Beowu lf c an t e l l u s a s much a bou t t he w or ld i n wh ich i to r ig ina ted a s Bede , n o t l east b ecause w e h ave v ery l i t t le d irec t e v idence t hat Beowu lf was c ons idered r epresen ta t ive o f a ny th ing a t t he t ime , o r e ven t hat i tw as much a dm ired , whereas Bede 's b ook was a n i nstan t b es t-se l ler .
N ever the less , i n t he l igh t o f t he a bove t rends i n t he
s tudy o f B eowu lf , i td oes l ook a s t hough t he p oe m m igh t h ave i mpor tan t i mp l icat ions f or o ur u nders tand ing o f t he c onvers ion o f t he Ang lo-Saxon a r is toc racy , a nd i n t he l i gh t o f wha t h as a lso h appened t o t he s tudy o f Bede , t he p o int d oes s ee m t o b e wor th i nvest iga t ing a t t h is s tage. I t was To lk ien who s uggested t hat , " Beowu lf i s ah is tor ica l d ocumen t o f t he f irst o rder f or t he s tudy o ft he mood a nd t hough t o f t he p er iod , a nd o ne p erhaps t oo l i t t le u sed b y h istor ians . " 35 I t i s t ime t ha t h istor ians o nce a ga in t ook u p t he c ha l lenge. Iw ish t here fore t o e xam ine t he r e levance o f h ero ic l i terature , a nd e spec ia l ly Beowu l f , f or s tuden ts o f r e l ig ious c hange i n e ar ly Eng land .
Is ha l l n eed t o
g ive my o wn a nswer t o t he q uest ion w ith wh ich e very Ang lo-Saxon h istor ian i s o ne d ay f aced : i s B eowu lf s ens ib ly d escr ibed a s a Chr ist ian p oe m? B u t i n s o d o ing Is ha l l r egard t he n a ture o f e ar ly Eng l ish Chr ist ian ity a s s t i l l a n o pen q ues t ion , a nd o ne o n wh ich B eowulf i t se l f may h ave a s much b ear ing a s Bede. Th is mus t n ot b e ac ircu lar a rgumen t , b ut i tw i l l b e o ne w ith t wo movab le a xes : t he e v idence o f Beowu l f , a nd t hat o f o ther s ources , must b e t aken i n t andem . I The r e l ig ious c harac ter o f " Beowu lf" E ven h istor ians c annot b e u naware t ha t t he r e l ig ious c haracter o f B eowu lf i s ah igh ly c on trovers ia l s ub ject .
D esp ite s uch a uthor ita t ive p ronouncemen ts
a s t ha t o f Professor Wh ite lock , t he p rob le m r e ma ins o ne o f t he mos t t horough ly t ramp led o f a l l t he c r it ics ' c abbage-patches. The p ub l ished o p t ions r ange f ro m t he v iew t ha t i ti s at h in ly v e iled i l lus trat ion o f s acr if ic ia l k ingsh ip , t o t he s uggest ion t ha t i ti s ar a ther l ess t ransparen t a l legory o f Chr ist ian b ap t ism. I t i s u nnecessary , a nd w ou ld i ndeed b e i mposs ib le , t o d iscuss a l l s uch i n terpret at ions , b ut i tm igh t , p erhaps , b e h e lp fu l t o r ev iew t he f eatures o f t he p oem wh ich h ave d r iven i t s c r it ics t o s uch d iverse c onc lus ions. T he f irst , a nd p erhaps t he b iggest , d i f f icu l ty i n Beowu lf i s t ha t t here i s a d iscrepancy b etween t he p ract ices a scr ibed t o t he p ro tagon ists a nd t he s en t imen ts t hat t hey e xpress. S o me o f t he p ract ices a re u nm istakab ly p agan . 3 9
Under p ressure f ro m Grende l , t he Danes r esor t t o t he w orsh ip o f i do ls. Beowu lf 's b ody i s c re mated ; s o i s t ha t o f Hnae f i n t he F innsburh e p isode , a nd t hus , t oo , t he Danes w ished t o h onour A Eschere. e ver b een r e mote ly t o lerab le i n Chr ist ian c irc les • 36
N e ither p rac t ice h ad On t he o ther h and b oth
t he p oet h i mse lf , a nd h is h eroes , r efer t o t he p ower , p rov idence , j us t ice , a nd g eneros ity o f as ing le G od . " Let t he w ise G od , t he h o ly L ord , a d judge t he g lory t o wh ichever p ar ty h e t h inks f i t ," s ays B eowu l f . " I t i s t ru th fu l ly s a id", a dds t he p oet w ith in t wen ty l i nes , " that m ighty God h as a lways r u led mank ind" . 3 7 I th as b een a rgued t hat t here i s n oth ing v ery Chr ist ian a bout t he God b e ing i nvoked , b u t h e i s ag ood d ea l more l ike t he J udaeo-Chr ist ian d e ity t han h e i s l i ke Woden , a nd i ti s h ard t o s ee where t he p oet g o t s o u nc o mprom is ing ly monothe ist ic a D iv in ity , i fn ot f rom t he B ib le. 38
T he c on-
t rad ict ion i n t he p oe m i s a t i t s most a cu te i n t he f a mous " Excursus" , where t he Danes w orsh ip i do ls o n ly a h undred l i nes a f ter t hey h ave b een e n ter ta ined b y as ong a bou t God 's Crea t ion o f t he Wor ld. T he p oet g oes o n t o c onde mn t hem f or i t , t hough n ot w ithout a n ote o f s ympa thy . To r e ject t h is p assage a s a n i n terpo la t ion d oes n ot , h owever , h e lp ma t ters , s ince i ti s o n ly a microc os m o f t he d i f f icu l ty r a ised b y t he e n t ire p oe m :
t he p oet s ee ms t o h ave k nown
t ha t h is h eroes w ere p agans , y et h e was p repared t o a t tr ibu te t o t hem s o me o f t he a pparen t ly Chr ist ian o p in ions t hat h e h e ld h i mse lf . 3 9 S econd , B eowu lf c an c onv inc ing ly b e a rgued t o b ear t races b oth o f Chr ist ian h om i ly a nd l i turgy a nd o f l i nger ing p agan b e l iefs.
S o me o ft he p oe t 's
v ocabu lary — f orscr ifan , c ande l , n on — s ee ms c lear e v idence t ha t h e a nd h is a ud ience h ad b een e xposed t o t he l anguage o f L a t in Chr is t ian ity .4 ° On t he o ther h and t he way t ha t h e u ses e acen t o d escr ibe b oth t he s treng th o ft he h ero , t he s word i n t he monster 's l a ir , t he l a ir i t se l f , a nd t he d ragon 's t reasure , s uggests t hat h e p ossessed a r es idua l f a ith i n p agan mag ic 4 1 Wyrd i nt he p oe m i s an o tor ious c rux ;
a t t imes , i ts ee ms t ha t t he p oet was f am i l iar w ith
t he Boeth ian c oncep t o f Fortuna ; a t o thers , a s w hen Dryh ten i s d escr ibed a s Wigspeda g ew iofu ( weaver o f v ictor ies ), o ne i s i mmed iate ly r em inded o f t he German ic g oddess o f f a te. 42 Th ird , t here i s t he p aradox o f t he s cr ip tura l r e ferences .
The r e ferences
t o t he B ib le a re e xp l ic it e nough , b u t t hey a re c onf ined t o t he e ar ly c hap ters o f Genes is , w ith s ome p oss ib le men t ions o f t he l as t j udgement .
Apar t f ro m
t he c rea t ion s ong , t here a re t wo r e ferences t o t he murder o f Abe l b y C a in , a nd o ne t o t he f l ood. I t c an b e a rgued t ha t t he p oe t t w ice f i nds i tn ecessary t o s ay t ha t Ca in k i l led h is b ro ther , a s i fk now ledge o f t he f act c ou ld n o tb e t aken f or g ran ted , a nd t hat i n t he manuscr ip t t ha t w e h ave Ca in i s c on fused w ith Cham , s on o f Noah . On t he o ther h and , i th as a lso b een p o in ted o ut t ha t t he p oet p ossesses , a nd a ssumes , ac ons iderab le k now ledge o f t he o bscure c orner o f Genes is d escr ib ing t he d escen t o f g ian ts a nd monsters f rom C a in a nd t he ir d es truct ion b y t he f l ood . 4 3
A f ter t he f l ood , we h ear n o more :
n o
Moses , n o I sa iah , n o Chr ist a nd n o P au l. C lark H a l l 's f a mous r e mark t hat • t here was l i t t le i n t he p oe m t o o f fend a " p ious J ew" h as o f ten b een q uo ted , b u t s o s par ing a re t he c i tat ions e ven f rom t he O ld T estamen t , t ha t ap ious J ew must h ave b een s carce ly l ess d issa t isf ied t han a p ious Chr ist ian .4 4
I t
s ee ms a l most a s t hough t here w ere a c onsc ious a vo idance o f N ew Tes tamen t d octr ines , l i ke r ede mp t ion . Any p os it ive i mpact t ha t t he b ib l ica l r e ferences m igh t o therw ise h ave i s t here fore d im in ished b y t he ir l im ited r ange. 4 0
F ina l ly , a nd c ruc ia l ly , t here i s ap rofound amb igu ity i n t he e th ica l t one o f t he p oem .
I t i s b oth u nques t ionab ly " secu lar" a nd a lmos t i dea l ist ic.
N o
f irst-t i me r eader o f Beowu l f c ou ld f a il t o b e s truck b y t he p leasure i tt akes i n t he g ood t h ings o f l i fe.
We h ear much a bou t d r ink ing a nd s ing ing .
Twen ty-
f i ve l ines d we l l o n t he p resen ts g iven b y Hro thgar t o Beowu lf a f ter t he h ero 's f i rst g rea t s uccess.
When B eowu lf l i es d y ing , a nd Wig la f i s r ansack ing t he
t reasure i n t he d ragon 's b arrow , w e a re t o ld t ha t " the messenger was i n h aste";
i fs o , t he p oet was n ot , b ecause h e d evo tes t h ir ty l ines t o a n a ccoun t
o f what Wig la f f ound . 45
Moreover , i th as r igh t ly b een a rgued t ha t Beowu lf
l acks a ny th ing l ike t he t r iu mphan t c on f idence a s r egards d ea th a nd t he l i fe a f ter d ea th o f ma instrea m Ang lo-Saxon Chr ist ian p oe try ;
j udgmen t i s o ccas ion-
a l ly p ro m ised , b ut i t s o utcome i s e ither b ad o ru ncer ta in .
I n wha t i s p erhaps
t he most f a mous p assage o f t he e n t ire p oe m , Beowu l f c onso les Hro thgar f or t he d ea th o f Aeschere.
" I t i s b et ter f or e veryone t ha t h e a venge h is f r iend ,
r a ther t han mourn h im l ong .
We must e xpect a n e nd i n t h is wor ld ;
w ho c an w in g lory b e fore d eath ; math".
l e t h e
f or a d ead warr ior , t ha t i s t he b est a f ter-
Th is i s n o t n ecessar i ly a h eathen s en t i men t , b u t i tc an s carce ly b e
d escr ibed a s a who l ly Chr is t ian o ne . 4 6
I n a l l t hese r espec ts , Beowu lf r e-
s e mbles h ero ic l i terature i n g enera l , whether Eng l ish , German ic o rI ndoE uropean . Yet a ga inst a l l o f t h is o ne must s et t he e levated t one o f t he p oe m , wh ich s o impressed K laeber a nd Cha mbers.
Th is d oes s ee m t o d ist ingu ish Beowu lf
f ro m t he N ibe lungen l ied , o r f ro m wha t Cha mbers c a l led t he "w i ld h eathen is m" o f t he N orse.
An i mpress ive i l lustrat ion o f t he e ssen t ia l " idea l is m" o f t he
Ang lo-Saxon e p ic i s f urn ished b y i t s v ery l ast l ines.
" I t i s r ight t ha t men
s hou ld h onour t he ir l ord i n w ords a nd c her ish h im i n t he ir t hough ts , when h e must d epar t f ro m t he b ody .
Thus i t was t ha t t he Gea tas , h is h ear th-co mpan ions ,
mourned t he f a l l o f t he ir L ord ;
t hey s a id t ha t h e was among a l l k ings o f t he
e ar th , t he k indest a nd most g rac ious o f men , t he g en t lest t o h is p eop le , a nd t he mos t e ager f or p ra ise".
K laeber , i n a much- m isquoted p assage , was
s uf f ic ien t ly moved t o r ecogn ize f eatures o f at ype o f Chr ist i n t he h ero.
Even
c r it ics o f t he p oe m 's Chr ist ian ity h ave c on fessed t o f ind ing i n i t a" per fect n ob il ity t ha t i s h ard t o c red it i n p agan t imes" . 4 7
Faced w ith t h is f unda men ta l
amb iva lence, s cho lars h ave b een i nc l ined t o r eact s ub ject ive ly . S o me h ave a scr ibed t he " gen t le n ob i l i ty" o f t he p oe m t o Chr ist ian i n f luence , wh i le o thers h ave c red ited i t s j oy i n t he manly v ir tues t o p agan is m.
Bu t Chr is t ian ity c an
s carce ly c la i m a monopo ly o f g en t le n ob i l ity , a ny more t han c an p agan is m o f t he man ly v irtues.
The t ru th i s t hat we d o n ot r ea l ly k now e nough a bou t t he
p oetry o f t he p agan Ang lo-Saxons t o b e s ure t ha t Beowu lf i s e ither s im i lar , o r d iss im i lar , t o what h ad b een c o mposed b efore t he c om ing o f Chr is t ian ity . No t a l l t hese p o in ts a re o f e qua l we igh t , b u t t hey t end t o b a lance e ach o ther o u t , a nd t h is i s t he ma in r eason why a gree men t a s t o t he r e l ig ious c hara cter o f Beowu lf h as b een s o d if f icu lt t o r each .
I nstead o f f o l low ing c r it ics
i nto f ur ther c on troversy a long t hese l ines , h istor ians m igh t s i mp ly p ause t o c ons ider t he s tar t l ing p rospect wh ich a lready c on fron ts t he m.
How i s i t
t ha t ap resu mab ly Chr ist ian , a rguab ly c ler ica l , p en h as p roduced a w ork whose C hr ist ian ity h as b een s o c on trovers ia l?
I t i s , o ne s uspec ts , t he t ens ion
b etween a Chr ist ian a u thorsh ip t ha t i s a rgued b y l i tera te c o mpos i t ion a nd a s ee m ing ly l ess t han who le-hear ted r e l ig ious c omm it men t t hat h as l ed s evera l 4 1
r ecen t s cho lars t o t he v iew t ha t t he p oe m d oes h ave a Chr ist ian mean ing , b u t t ha t i ti s h idden, t hat B eowu l f i s a n a l legory w ith a Chr ist ian message. The a l legor ica l e xpos it ion o f S cr ipture was , a f ter a l l , o ne o f t he d om inan t i nte ll ectua l i n terests o f t he e ar ly M idd le Ages , a nd s tuden ts o f B eowu l f h ad b een e ncouraged s ince 1 936 t o r e la te t he p oe m t o t he more s er ious c oncerns o f t he 8 a ge. 4 I tn ow s ee ms u n l ike ly t ha t a ny a l legor ica l s o lu t ion t o t he p rob lems o f Beowu lf w il l c o m mand a ssen t , p ar t ly b ecause i td oes n ot make a dequate s ense o f t he p oe m , a nd p ar t ly b ecause i td oes n ot make much s ense o f t he p r inc ip les o f e ar ly med ieva l a l legory . B ut e ven i fs uch a n a pproach d oes f a i l , i ti s t o t he c red it o f i t s ex ponen ts t ha t t hey h ave a t l eas t r ecogn ized t he e x is tence o f ap rob le m. Mos t modern s cho lars , l ike R . W. Chambers b efore t he war , h ave b een s u f f ic ien t ly i n f luenced b y t he Chr ist ian f eatures o f t he p oem , a s d escr ibed a bove , t o r egard i ta s a n a ccep tab le C hr ist ian p roduct . Y e t t he f act i s t hat , i n B eowu l f , ag rea t d ea l o f s pace h as b een d evo ted t o t he war l ike d eeds o f ap agan S cand inav ian , i n ap oe m w h ich s ee ms t o b e b rushed , r ather t han s u f fused , b y t he B ib le , a nd wh ich i s d om ina ted , a s To lk ien a rgued , b y t he s ense t hat b ygone d ays , h owever h ea then o r h ope less , w ere a lso n ob le. Much o fB eowu l f may e d ify ( l ike Hrothgar 's " sermon" ), b ut much o f i td oes n ot . I t i s w ide ly a greed t oday t ha t Beowu l f i s a bou t t he q ua l it ies o f t he " nob le p agan" ; f ew h ave r e me mbered Chadw ick 's l eg it ima te o b ject ion t ha t a Chr ist ian p oe t o f t he p er iod h ad n o b us iness t o b e c e lebra t ing t he s ecu lar v irt ues o f n ob le p agans , a nd t he f act i s t ha t , a s c ompared w ith t he n in th-century Wa lthar ius , o r t he t h ir teen th-century N ibe lungen l ied , t he B eowu lf p oe t i s u nu sua l ly e xp l ic it a bout t he p agan r i tes t ha t h is h eroes c e lebra ted .
There a re
r ea l d if f icu l t ies h ere , d ra mat ica l ly h igh l igh ted b y t he f act t hat t wo s uch a ckn ow ledged e xper ts a s Professor Wh ite lock a nd Dr S isa m c an c o me t o d ia met r ica l ly o pposed c onc lus ions a s t o t he l eve l o f Chr is t ian ity i n t he p oem. 49 I I Chr ist ian ity a nd s ecu lar G erman ic c u lture Wha t t he d ebate p erhaps c a l ls f or a t t h is s tage i s s ometh ing more i n t he way o f o b jec t ive c r i ter ia f or s cho lar ly j udgmen t , s ome f ur ther s tudy o f wha t C hr is t ian i ty wou ld h ave mean t i n e igh th-cen tury E ng land , a nd o f h ow t he C hr ist i ans o f t he p er iod m igh t h ave r eac ted t o B eowuU .
S o f ar a s Iam a ware , t here
h as n ever b een a n e x tended s tudy o f t he o r thodox a t t i tude t o h ero ic l i tera ture i n t he v ernacu lar , t o s e t a longs ide t he s tandard w orks o f Marrou , L a is tner a nd H enry C hadw ick o n C hr is t ian i ty a nd c lass ica l c u l ture . "
I ti s p erhaps a ppro-
p r ia te t ha t s o meth ing o f t he s or t s hou ld b e a t te mp ted i n aC orne l l v o lume . B u t mere ly t o l i s t t he r u les w i l l n o t b e e nough i n i t sel f . We s ha l l h ave t o s ee whe ther t he r u les w ere a l together o beyed , a nd t h is i s aq ues t ion wh ich h is tor ians , d azzled b y t he b r i l l iance o f B ede , h ave n o t a lways a nswered w i th much i n teres t o r s y mpa thy .
Ip ropose t o a sk t here fore , f i rs t o f a l l wha t t he o r thodox p os i t ion
r egard ing l i terature l ike Beowu l f was , a nd s econd ly , h ow o r thodoxy f ared i n s even th- a nd e igh th-cen tury Eng land. For t hese p urposes , t here i s o ne c ruc ia l p iece o f e v idence , wh ich h as l ong b een f am i l iar t o h istor ians a nd c r it ics , b ut whose i mp l ica t ions h ave
4 2
never been full y appreciated, because its historical context has not been examined. In a letter of£· 7 97 to Hygebald, bishop of Lindisfarne, the North umbrian scholar, Alcuin, wrote: "Let the word of God be read at the priestly repast. There should the reader be heard, not the harpist (citharistam); the sermons of the Fathers, not the songs of pagans (carmina gentilium). What has Ingeld to do with Christ? The House is narrow, it cannot hold both. The King of Heaven wishes to have no fellowship with so-called kings, who are pagan and lost; for the eternal king reigns in Heaven, the lost pagan laments in Hell. Hear the voices of readers in your houses, not the crowd of revellers in the streets".51 The Ingeld of this passage is easily identified. He must be the Heathobard prince, whose marriage to Freawaru, princess of his hereditary Danish enemies, resulted in further bloodshed and divided loyalties; the story is familiar to us through a garbled version in the ktter Danish his torian, Saxo Grammaticus, as well as through the English poems, Widsith and Beowulf itself.52 Here, then, a story which actually constitutes one of the digressions in Beowulf, and which must have involved some of the same sort of subject-matter, is roundly condemned as any concern of monks. Alcuin' s remarks thus have an obvious bearing on the subj ect under ·discussion. They have been dismissed on the grounds that Alcuin was a fanatic, that he says nothing about the written composition of literature about Ingeld, and that his ban could not have extended to such a poem as Beowulf-; even if it did proscribe other heroic literature, such as Finnsburh.53 But Alcuin was not a fanatic. His letter is simply a vigorous expression of cultural currents that ran right through the church of the early medieval West. Written or un written, we have seen that Beowulf is substantially "secular" in much of its tone, and its concern is with pagans. It is possible, by examining the tradition which Alcuin was articulating to show that, on both counts, Beowulf would probably have been considered every bit as unsuitable as any poem about Ingeld. I n the first place, Alcuin is representing the tradition of monastic and canonfcal hostility to the cultivation of secular literature in ecclesiastical contexts. ,For example, in a seventh-century rule for nuns, which has been plausibly connected with the circle of St Columbanus, we find: "There is to be silence, so far as concerns the otiose, frivolous, scurrilous, base and evil-minded tales (fabulis)" there are to be no fabulae superfluae, and an account is to be kept of "otiose words." Similar provisions appear in most The canons of churchmonastic rules including that of St Benedict.54 councils speak the same language; thus, the enormously influential third council of Toledo (589): "Because otiose fabulae are frequently put forward at tables, a reading of the divine scriptures is to be added to all priestly repasts, for this purpose, that their souls be edified, and that superfluous tales be forbidden". The eleventh-century English canonist, Archbishop Wulfstan (1002-23), echoed these norms when he specified in his 'Canons of Edgar' that no priest was to be an eal-scop (presumably an ale-minstrel).55 The evidence in fact suggests that these were already the views of the earlier English churchmen, quite apart from Alcuin, though some of them have been wrongly supposed to have been sympathetic to literature such as Beowulf. The English bishops, meeting at Clovesho in 7 46/7 forbade priests to chatter in church in the manner of secular poets, or corrupt the sacred
43
t ex t b y " trag ic" s ound ;
t h is d ecree h ard ly s uggests of ic ia l e ndorse ment o f
t rad it iona l f orms o f v ers if ica t ion .
5 6
B ede h i mse l f i s k nown t o h ave b een i n-
t erested i n t he v ernacu lar , a nd i n Eng l ish v erse , b ut t he o n ly p iece o f h is t hat w e h ave i s e xceed ing ly d evout , a nd t here i s n o e v idence t hat t he c ar m ina t hat h e k new w ere a ny d if feren t .
O f C a ed mon , t he l a te s eventh-cen tury Wh itby
c owherd , a nd p u tat ive f ounder o f v ernacu lar r e l ig ious p oetry , Bede wr ites t ha t h e h ad r ece ived h is g if t f ro m God , a nd h ence , " he c ou ld c o mpose n o f r ivol ous a nd f u t i le p oetry a t a l l , b u t o n ly t hose t h ings t ha t p er ta ined t o r e l ig ion s u ited h is p ious t ongue".
( I n C aed mon 's r epor ted l i st o f f ur ther w orks , t here
i s n oth ing r e mote ly l ike Beowu lf .)
The c hap ter wh ich i m med iate ly f o l lows i n
Bede 's H istory i nc ludes among t he s ins f or wh ich Co ld ingha m was ( i n Bede 's v iew , j ust ly ) c onde mned , b anquet ing , d r ink ing a nd " fabu lat ing".
O n ly t hree
c hap ters b efore , Bede h ad u sed t he word f abu lae o f s tor ies a bout r unes. Tw ice , i n h is c om men tary o n S a mue l , Bede s ee ms t o c onde mn l i br i g en t i l ium , f abu lae s aecu lares. 5 7
I td oes n o t l ook a s t hough h e f avored t he c u lt ivat ion o f a ny th ing
o ther t han d irect ly r e l ig ious v erse. s ecu lar v erse h as b een a ssu med .
A ldhe lm i s a nother whose a pprova l o f
A f a mous s tory i n Wi l l ia m o f Ma lmesbury ,
wr it ing i n t he e ar ly t we l f th c en tury a nd q uot ing K ing A l fred a s h is a u thor ity , t o ld t o ld h ow t h is f inest o f Eng l ish p oets u sed t o s ing a p oe m a t t he b r idges l ead ing o u t o f Ma lmesbury , a nd , b y g radua l ly i n troduc ing s cr ip tura l mat ter , d elay h is c ongregat ion 's p rec ip itate d epar ture f ro m c hurch .
But i th as n o t b een
s uf f ic ien t ly emphas ized t ha t t he p oe m i n q uest ion was r egarded b y W i l l ia m c ert a in ly , a nd p robab ly b y A lfred , a s t r iv ia l , a nd t hat b oth s ources f e l t i ti ncu mb ent u pon t he mse lves t o e xp la in why s uch " fr ivo lous" a nd " lud icrous" mater ia l was n ecessary ;
t hat i s why w e h ave t he s tor y .
A l fred 's a t t itude t e l ls u s
n o th ing d irect a bout A ldhe lm 's g enera l s ty le o f c o mpos it ion , b ut t he w ho le t endency o f t he p assage i s s uch a s t o s uggest t ha t A ldhe lm r egarded S cr ipture i t sel f a s t he p roper s ub ject o f v erse , a nd t ha t h e w ou ld h ave w ished t o s pe t he e d ify ing e le men t more o bv ious t han i ti s i n Beowu lf .
5 8
I n t he n ature o f t he e v idence , n one o f t hese t ex ts c an b e s hown t o p roscr ibe Beowu lf a s s uch.
I ti s n ot c er ta in b y a ny means t ha t e very f abu la r eferred t o
i n t he c anon ica l s ources c oncea ls a n i l l ic it f ancy f or s ecu lar l i terature , whether c lass ica l o r G erman ic.
But t hese r eferences d o e s tab l ish t ha t A lcu in 's r e-
marks d raw u pon a r ecogn izab le t rad it ion .
I t s ee ms t o g o b ack t o t he o r ig ina l
Chr ist ian a t t itude t o t he p agan c lass ics , a s u nforget tab ly e nunc iated b y Ter tu l l ian , J ero me a nd Gregory t he Grea t .
L ike Dr Hun ter B la ir , Ih ave t he
impress ion t ha t "What h as I nge ld t o d o w ith Chr ist?" i s ac onsc ious e cho o f , " How c an Horace g o w ith t he P sa l ter?"
5 9
I ft hese w ere t he p r ior it ies o f t he
r e l ig ious l i fe , i ti s h ard t o s ee h ow Beowu lf c ou ld h ave b een t o lerated i n i ts p resen t f orm , f or a l l i t s " Chr ist ian c o lor ing ." I t c ou ld b e a rgued , h owever , t ha t t hese a re t he s tandards e xpec ted o f c ler ics , a nd r e l ig ious c o m mn it ies ;
t hey d id n o t , p erhaps , a pp ly t o l aymen ,
o r t o t he r oya l c our ts , wh ich m igh t h ave b een e xpected t o a pprec iate t he p oe m. Th is a rgu men t c annot b e p ressed t oo f ar .
A l i tera te B eowu lf i s , a s w e h ave
s een , l ike ly t o h ave b een t he w ork o f s o meone who was a t l eas t o n t he f r inges o f c ler ica l s oc iety a nd , i n t he Ear ly M idd le Ages , t here was n o i ndependen t l ay e th ic , s uch a s d eve loped l ater , i n t he t h ir teen th c entury .
On t he c on trary
l aymen , a nd k ings e spec ia l ly , c a me u nder i ncreas ing p ressure t o c on form t o s acerdota l n orms. 6°
S o f ar a s t h is c oncerns s ecu lar l i terature , we f i nd 4 4
Gregory t he Great , i n h is n otor ious l et ter t o Des ider ius o f V ienne ( 601), wr it ing o f c lass ica l v erses u n f it t o b e r ec ited e ven b y ar e l ig ious l ayman ; a nd J onas, B ishop o f Or leans ( 8 18-43 ) i n aw ork e n t it led De I nst itu t ione l a ica l i u ses much t he s a me l anguage a s t he c anons a lready q uoted , a nd c i tes , o n t h is p o in t , as ermon o f Bede 's , wh ich was p resumab ly a ddressed o r ig ina l ly t o c lergy.
He c r it ic izes e spec ia l ly t hose whose d e l igh t i n v a in a nd o bscene c on-
f abu lat ion i s n owhere g reater t han when t hey g o t o c hurch .
6 1
The most s ig-
n if icant i l lus trat ion o f t h is p o in t , f or o ur p urposes , c o mes f ro m t he Caro l ing ian r oya l f am i ly i t se lf.
I n af amous p assage , E inhard d escr ibes h ow Char le magne
( 768-814 ) h ad wr it ten d own a nd c omm it ted t o me mory t he , " barbar ian a nd mos t a nc ient s ongs , i n wh ich t he d eeds a nd wars o f k ings o f o ld were s ung ."
Y e t
L ou is t he P ious , Char le magne 's s on a nd s uccessor ( 814-40 ) t hough t o therw ise. Accord ing t o h is b iographer Thegan L ou is , " never r a ised h is v o ice i n l augh ter , n or d id h e h ave t he m i l ic i , c lowns , a ctors o r h arp ists a t h is t ab le o n g reat f es t ivals, a nd h e n ever s howed h is wh ite t ee th i n a sm ile" ;
f ur ther , " the
p oet ic s ongs o f p agans ( carm ina g en t il ia ), wh ich h e h ad l earn t i n h is y ou th , h e r e jected , n or d id h e w ish t he m t o b e r ead , l earned o r t augh t" . 6 2
H ence
i f we u se t he e v idence o f E inhard t o s how t ha t a Chr ist ian c our t m igh t c o mm iss ion l i terature l ike Beowu lf , w e o ught a lso t o a cknow ledge t he e v idence o f Thegan t ha t , a ccord ing t o a n i n f luen t ia l s egmen t o f Chr ist ian o p in ion , i ts hou ld n ot h ave d one. The s econd c urren t o f o p in ion t ha t f inds e xpress ion i n A lcu in 's r e marks i s t he t each ing o f t he e ar ly med ieva l w estern Church o n u nbap t ized p agans. I ngeld was u nbap t ized , a nd h ad g one , t hough t A lcu in , t o h e l l ; i t was f or t h is r eason , a nd n ot b ecause h e was a Dane o r ac oward , t ha t A lcu in c ons idered h is s tory t o b e u nsu itab le ma ter ia l f or a Chr ist ian a ud ience.
Beowu l f h i mse lf ,
a nd t he o ther h eroes o f t he p oe m , w ere o pen t o t he s a me o b jec t ion .
S t P au l
h ad , o f c ourse , e nv isaged t hat G en t iles c ou ld a pprec ia te mora l t ru ths b y n at ural l aw , a nd wou ld b e j udged o n t hat b as is ;
wes tern wr iters l ike August ine
a nd Gregory were n ever p repared t o a sser t t hat God h ad c onde mned a l l p agans . 6 3
Never the less , t he t heo log ica l t rad it ion o f t he West , t ak ing i t s
i nsp ira t ion f ro m August ine , d iscouraged s angu ine s pecu lat ion a bout t he f a te o f t he u nbapt ized , a nd emphat ica l ly o pposed t he i ndu lgen t c e lebra t ion o f p agan v ir tues . 64 There w as n o s yste ma t ic c ase made a t t h is s tage f or t he r ede mp t ion o f t he u nbe l iev ing , s uch a s w e f ind i n a ssoc ia t ion w ith t he ' new ' s ecu lar l i tera tures o f t he t we lf th a nd t h ir teen th c en t ur ies
6 5
B ede , c on fron-
t ing a new t he c hal lenge o f t he P e lag ian , J u l ian o f E c lanu m , a dm it ted t ha t t here h ad b een j ust men among t he u nbap t ized , l ike J ob ;
f or B ede , h owever ,
s uch men were i mpor tan t ma in ly a s i l lustra t ions o f t he i ndependen t a ct iv ity o f D iv ine Grace , n ot o f j us t if icat ion b y h u man v ir tue.
The t roub le w ith
Beowu lf , a nd a lso , a pparen t ly , w ith I nge ld , i s t ha t a l though t hey may , o r may n o t , h ave h ad v irtues , t here was n o s uggest ion t ha t t hey h ad Grace. 6 6 Th is i s a l l t he more r e markab le s ince t he c onvers ion o f t he Ce l t ic a nd Ger man ic b arbar ians n atura l ly r a ised t he p rob le m o f t he c onde mned a ncestor i n a n a cu te f orm.
The t err ib le o ld Fr is ian K ing , Radbod s tepped b ack f ro m
t he e dge o f S t Wu lfra mn 's f on t o n o verhear ing a r e mark t o t he e f fect t hat h e wou ld n o t n ow j o in h is a ncestors i n d a mnat ion , a nd d eclared t hat , " he c ou ld n ot l ose t he c o mpany o f h is p redecessors , a nd s i t w ith a sma l l n umber i n h eaven". 67
Y et n o e v idence r ea l ly s uggests t ha t t he Church 's t each ing was 4 5
mod if ied a s a mat ter o f o f f ic ia l p o l icy , o r t hat t he e xper ience made a ny d if fere nce t o i t s a t t itude t o l i terature l i ke B eowu lf . I n h is c orrespondence w ith h is f e l low-coun trymen , S t Bon iface p layed h eav i ly o n t he i rony t hat t he p ur ity o f t he d amned S axons s hou ld s hame t he s exua l l i cence o f Chr ist ian Merc ian k ings , a nd a ppea led w ith p ass ion f or a ss istance i n t he s a lvat ion o f s o many l ost s ou ls , b u t i n e ach c ase i ti s t he f act o f d a mna t ion t ha t d om inates h is c onsc iousness. There i s al o t o f d if ference b etween t h is a t t itude a nd t ha t o f Beowu lf , i n wh ich p agan v ir tues a re p ra ised o ver t hree t housand l i nes , w ith a b r ief , p ass ing , r eference t o t he ir p robab le f u t i l ity .6 8 I th as i n f ac t b een s uggested t hat t he f l ex ib le m iss ionary methods a dvoca ted f or t he Ang lo-Saxons b y P ope Gregory t he Grea t a re r e levan t t o t he s urv iva l i n Eng land o f ah ero ic t rad it ion , f ocuss ing u pon a p agan p ast . 69 J ust p oss ib ly , t he f a mous s uggest ion t ha t p agan s hr ines a nd f es t iva ls b e c onverted t o Chr is t ian u se may h ave a b ear ing o n t he a dap ta t ion o f s coperae f t t o t he t each ing o f t he B ib le , b y s uch a s A ldhe lm a nd C aedmon , b ut i tc annot b e r ead a s a n e ndorsemen t f or t he h onor ing o f p agan a ncestors i n p oetry o r a nywhere e lse. Archb ishop Theodore ( 669-90 ) was s oaked i n t he wr it ings o f t he g rea t p ope , y e t h is Pen it en t ia l s pec if ies t hat when c hurches a re c onver ted , t he c adavera i n f ide l iu m i n terred t here in a re t o b e f l ung o ut .7 ° Another c lose s tuden t o f Gregory 's miss ion l i terature was P ope N icho las I( 858-67 ), t he g rea test c anon ist o f t he e ar ly M idd le Ages , who f aced a s er ies o f q uest ions , i nc lud ing o ne o n p agan a ncestors , f ro m t he n ew ly c onver ted Bu lgars.
H e s howed t yp ica l G regor ian
f l ex ib il ity i n , f or i nstance , p erm it t ing t he w ear ing o f t rousers , a nd i n wr it ing t ha t , t hough j okes a nd p ro fan it ies w ere t o b e d iscouraged a t a l l t imes , t he Bu lgars c ou ld n o t b e e xpected t o l ose t he ir n otor ious s ense o f h u mor o vern igh t , s o t hey c ou ld make a s tar t b y b e ing s er ious i n L en t . But when i tc ame t o a ncestors , N icho las w as f i rm : " As f or y our k insmen who d ied u nbel iev ing , o ne may n o t p ray f or t he m , b ecause o f t he s in o f i ncredu l ity , a ccord ing t o J ohn t he Apost le , who s a id , ' There i s as in u n to d ea th ; Is ay t hat i t may n ot b e p rayed f or ' : as in u nto d ea th i s t ha t o f t hose w ho d ie i n t he s ame s in". 7 1 Thus , wh i le i nd iv idua l m iss ionar ies may w e l l h ave t o ld t he ir f locks n ot t o d espa ir o f t he s a lva t ion o f t he ir a ncestors , t here i s , a s Chadw ick r igh t ly a rgued , n o e v idence f or a s choo l o f " l ibera l c hurchmen" i n e ar ly med ieva l Europe , a nd s uch e v idence a s w e h ave i nd ica tes , a s w e s ha l l s ee , t ha t t hose who i ndu lged a t aste f or s ecu lar l i tera ture a bout p agan h eroes were n o t s o much l i bera l a s d runk .7 2 Once a ga in , A lcu in c anno t b e c ons idered =repres en ta t ive o f t he ma instrea m t rad it ion , a nd o nce a ga in , i ti s h ard t o s ee h ow Beowu lf c an h ave b een e xe mp t f ro m i t s p rov is ions. T o t he a rgumen ts t ha t Ih ave b een p resen t ing s o f ar t here a re, i ti s t rue , a n i mpor tan t s et o f o b ject ions. S uppose t ha t A lcu in w ere c onsc ious ly r ef lecti ng t he c onven t iona l e cc les iast ica l h ost i l ity t o c lass ica l l e t ters : t he w ork o f L a is tner , L ec lercq , d e L ubac a nd o thers h as n ow r evea led h ow v ery a r t if ic ia l s uch h ost i l ity w as. A lcu in h i mse lf wrote s l igh t ing ly o f Verg i l iaca mendac ia o n more t han o ne o ccas ion , a s d id h is b iographer , y et A lcu in was o bv ious ly e x tre me ly f am i l iar w ith V erg iPs w orks. 7 3 S hou ld w e n ot , t herefore , t ake h is s tr ictures u pon s ongs a bou tI nge ld w ith s im ilar measures o f s a l t? S t August ine , i n h is D e Doctr ina Chr ist iana h ad a ccep ted t he e ducat iona l n ecess i ty o f t he c lass ics , a nd , a dap t ing a metaphor o f Or igen 's , h ad t augh t t hat p rofane l i tera ture c ou ld h ave a mora l s ign if icance , a s t he s po ils o f t he 4 6
E gyp t ians h ad b enef ited t he f l ee ing I srae l i tes. H raban Maur , p up i l o f A lcu in , a nd master o f t he s choo l a t F u lda ( 822-47 ) u sed t he s ame a rgu men t i n h is t rac t o n t he t each ing o f c lergy .
T heodu lf , b ishop o f O r leans ( 7 98-818) , h i m-
s e l f t he mos t g i f ted p oet o ft he C aro l ing ian R ena issance , wrote o f f i nd ing t ruths i n t he f r ivo la ...p lur i ma o f c lass ica l v erse .
7 4
Ye t Id oubt whe ther t hese
a rgu men ts a re r e levan t t o t he c ase o f B eowu lf ,z o r a ssoc ia ted l i tera ture . I n t he f i rst p lace , e ven i fB eowu lf i t se lf were a greed t o p ossess a s ing le e d ify ing message, t he s ecu lar a ppara tus o f t he p oe m , wh ich we h ave n o ted a b ove , r e ma ins e xcess ive . Hraban wrote t ha t wha tever i n g en t i le b ooks, "i s s uperf luous, c oncern ing i do ls, l ove , t he c are o f s ecu lar t h ings, t ha t we s ha l l c u t o f f" ; 7 5 m uch o f B eowu lf w ou ld h ave b een d isqua l if ied u nder t h is r u le . S econd ly, t he c lass ics migh t b e 'e duca t iona l ly i nd ispensab le , i nas much a s t hey w ere i nex tr icab ly e n tang led w i th t he who le c u lture o f t he C hr ist ian Fa thers ; b u t n oth ing s uggests t ha t t he v ernacu lar h ad a ny e duca t iona l u t i l ity b efore t he d ays o f A lfred ' s Eng land , a nd when A lfred d id e ven tua l ly f i nd au se f or S axon ica c ar m ina t here was n o n eed , a s t here was i n L a t in , t o u se p agan s tereo types r a ther t han f resh ly c o mposed r e l ig ious p oe try , wh ich c ou ld e d ify wh i le i ti ns tructed . 7 6 Th ird , a nd c ruc ia l ly , t he western Fa thers f ro m J ero me t o Hraban w ere wres t l ing w i th t he p rob le m o f ap re-ex isten t c orpus o f c lass ica l l i terat ure, t he u se a nd me mory o f w h ich c ou ld n ot b e b lot ted o u t .
Bu t when wr iters
l i ke t hese wrote o f s earch ing t he d ungheap o f t he c lassics f or g o ld , t hey d id n o t e ndorse t he c rea t ion o f more d ung t ha t more g o ld b e d ug o u t . 7 7 T hus, t here i s n o th ing t o s uggest t ha t a nyone i n t he western t rad it ion wou ld h ave a pproved t he u se o f o r ig ina l c o mpos it ions, s uch a s B eowu lf , i n p reference t o more d irect me thods o f i ns truct ion .
Hraban Maur a t F u lda was i nd irect ly
r espons ib le f or n o f ewer t han t hree ma jor monu men ts o f O ld H igh G erman v erse, b u t a l l a re v ers if ica t ions o f t he G ospe ls wh ich make t he message more a ccess ib le , r a ther t han n ew g en t i le b ooks, c onvey ing i tb y h ints .
Moreover ,
O tfr id , t he a uthor o f o ne , a nd a d evoted p up i l o f Hraban ' s , a ctua l ly wro te i n h is p reface t ha t h e h ad wr it ten h is t rans la t ion a s a n a l terna t ive t o s ecu lar l i tera ture , t o "t he s ound o fu se less t h ings" ,t he "o bscene s ong o f l aymen".
7 8
The o b ject ions t o a ny c o mpar isons b etween t he u se made o f c lass ica l l i te ra ture b y t he western Fa thers u nder a smokescreen o f o stens ib le d isapprova l, a nd t he c u lt iva t ion o f l i tera ture l i ke Beowu lf a re u nder l ined b y t he e v idence o f ma ter ia l s urv iva l . T he l i brar ies a nd s cr ip tor ia t ha t h ave p reserved f or u s most o f wha t w e k now a bout L a t in a n t iqu ity , h ave a lso b equea thed f ro m t he e ar ly p er iod o ne s hor t a nd t runca ted O ld H igh G erman l ay , t he H i ldebrands l ied , a nd o ne f u l lleng th e p ic , a lbe i t i n L a t in , t he Wa l thar ius, f ro m t he C on t inen t .7 9 F ro m E ng land , t hey h ave l e f t u s as ing le f u l lleng th v ernacu lar e p ic, B eowu lf , p reserved i n o ne manuscr ip t wh ich s ee ms t o owe i t s e x istence t o t he f act t ha t i ti s ac o mpend iu m o f t he monstrous . T hree o ther f ragmen ts o f "s ecu lar " p oetry , Wa ldhere , F innsburh , a nd Ma ldon ( a l l, b e i tn oted , f ro m o u ts ide t he med iu m o f t he ma in p oe t ic c od ices) ;
a nd t he s trange "c a ta logues " o f t he
Exeter B ook , Wids ith a nd D eor . 8 0 I n n one o f t hese c ases, e xcep t p erhaps t he v ery l ast , i s t here a ny s uggest ion t ha t "s ecu lar" t he mes w ere u sed t o p ut a cross C hr ist ian messages . O n t he o ther h and , a l most t en t imes a s much u nm istakab ly r e l ig ious p oe try h as s urv ived i n E ng land , a nd t he p roport ion o n t he C on t inent i s f ar h igher .
T o me , t hese d is ma l p ropor t ions t e l l t he ir own
s tory , a s i ndeed d oes t he d isappear a nce o f C har le magne ' sc o l lec t ion . 4 7
It h ink
i ti s o ne o f s evere i deo log ica l p ressures o n t he c hanne ls o f t rans m iss ion . We c annot a t l east i gnore t he f act o f d isappearance , n or f a i l t o a sk w hy i t was s o . S o much f or t he o r thodox p os i t ion . t i ce a re t he s ame t h ing .
Id o n ot p re tend t ha t t heory a nd p rac-
B ut , s e t i n i t s i deo log ica l c on tex t , i t s eems t ha t
A lcu in ' sf a mous l e t ter may , a f ter a l l , h ave impor tan t imp l ica t ions f or t he s tudy o f B eowu lf . T hose c r i t ics who h ave s upposed t ha t B eowu lf h as c o mparat i ve ly l i t t le t o d o w ith Chr ist ian i ty h ave ab et ter c ase, i n t heory , t han modern a uthor i t ies h ave u sua l ly b een w i l ling t o g ran t .
O n t he o ther h and , t he t endency
among s cho lars o ver t he l ast t h ir ty y ears t o i n tegra te t he c o mpos it ion o f t he Ang lo-Saxon e p ic w i th wha t e lse i s k nown o f t he l earned c u lture o f e ar ly Engl i sh C hr ist ian i ty i s o pen t o s o me s er ious o b ject ions .
T he p a tr ist ic w orks t ha t
h ave b een r ansacked f or c lues t o t he p oe t ' sa t t itude t o wea l th , s in a nd j udgement a lso c on ta in wha t a re ( by B yzan t ine , o r l a ter med ieva l s tandards , f or e xamp le) s urpr is ing ly t ough p rov is ions o n t he c u l t iva t ion o f s ecu lar l i terature a nd o n t he s a lva t ion o f p re-Chr ist ian a ncestors, a nd Iam n ot s ure w hether we c an d ivorce t he A ugust in ian h ierarchy o f l e t ters, o r A ugust in ian e cc lesio logy , f ro m t he p a tr ist ic l egacy t o Ang lo-Saxon E ng land .8 1 Nor c an i tb e a ssumed a s r ead i ly a s i to f ten h as b een t ha t a l l t hese works were w ide ly k nown t o t he e ar l ies t E ng l ish s cho lars . I ti s b o th d angerous t o r egard s uch c en tres a s Ma l mesbury , J arrow a nd Y ork a s t yp ica l, a nd u nsa t isfactory t o a ssu me t ha tb ooks k nown t o t he g rea test s cho lars n ecessar i ly c ircu la ted w ide ly . Wr it ing t he p reface t o h is G enes is c o m men tary f or B ishop A cca o f H exha m , B ede s a id t ha t much h ad b een wr it ten o n t he s ub ject b y Basi l , Ambrose a nd A ugust ine , b u t , " because a l l t h is i s s o c op ious a nd d eep t ha t t he b ooks c an s carce ly b e a cqu ired e xcep t b y t he r ich , a nd t hey a re s o p rofound t ha t t hey c an s carce ly b e e xam ined e xcep t b y t he l earned , y our h o l iness e n joined u pon me t he t ask ..." ( o f mak ing s e lect ions) .
8 2
I n s hor t , i ti s o f ten a ccep ted t oday t ha t B eowu lf r epresen ts t he w ork o f a n Eng l ish man w i th "a verage" p a tr ist ic c u lture . Bu t we k now wha t ap roduct o f t he l i brary a t York t hough t o f l i terature o f t h is t ype ; we may s trong ly s uspec t t ha t t he most d ist ingu ished s on o f J arrow w i l l h ave s hared h is o pin ion , a nd we h ave n o r eason t o b e l ieve t ha t t he o u tstand ing Ma l mesbury s cho lar t hough t a ny d if feren t ly . I f we a re s t i l l t o b e l ieve t ha t B eowu lf b e longs w ith in t he s ame t rad it ion , t hen t wo s t ipu la t ions a re s ure ly n ecessary . e nce must b e d e monstra ted , a nd n ot t aken f or g ran ted ;
F irst , p a tr ist ic i nf luwe must h ave s o me-
t h ing c oncre te t o s e t a ga inst wha t we k now o f A lcu in ' sp os i t ion .
S econd , i f
we a re t o a ccep t t ha t t here i s s uch i n f luence u pon B eowu l f , i t must b e a dm i t ted t ha t s o me th ing r a ther e x traord inary h ad h appened t o o r thodox p r ior it ies i n t he p oet ' sh ands, a nd i n t ha t c ase we must s earch n o t o n ly f or t he Med i terranean l egacy, b u t a lso f or wha t i t was, i n t he i nsu lar t rad i t ion , t ha t h ad d istor ted t he p erspect ive . O therw ise , A lcu in may b e l e f t i n p ossess ion o f t he f i e ld , a s ar epresen ta t ive me mber o f af l ex ib le , b u t n ot a l i bera l, t rad it ion , t ha t r an f rom A ugust ine v ia G regory , B ede a nd t he s choo l o f York t o A lcu in h imse lf , h is p up i l Hraban , a nd t he s choo l o f F u lda .
T he c oro l lary i s t ha t i fw e a re t o
u nderstand h ow B eowu l f , a nd o ther s uch l i tera ture , c ame t o b e c o mposed b y a Chr ist ian , e ven a c ler ica l , p en , t he i deo log ica l h er i tage o f western C hr ist ia n i ty i n t he e ar ly M idd le Ages i s t he wrong p lace t o l ook . a s f ar a s Iam p repared t o g o i n t h is d irect ion . Tha t , h owever , i s a s f ar a s Iam p repared t o g o i n t h is d irec tion . D espi te t he o f f ic ia l o ppos i t ion t o G er man ic s ecu lar l i tera ture , B eowu l f d id f ind i t s way i n to wr i t ing i n a n a ge when l i teracy was l argely a p reserve o f t he c lergy , a nd 4 8
w as c er ta in ly a C hr is t ian monopo ly . T h is a no ma ly , i fa no ma ly i tb e , r equ ires e xp lana tion . We n ow n eed , t here fore , t o a sk h ow w ide ly t he o r thodox p os i t ion was i n f ac t f o l lowed . I v T he s oc ia l a nd c u ltura l c on tex t o f s ecu lar G erman ic l i tera ture There h ave b een t wo n otab le a t te mp ts i n r ecen t y ears t o c onfron t C hadw ick ' s c ase a ga ins t a n e ar ly med ieva l "l i bera l C hr ist ian i ty" b y l ook ing a t wha t p ar t ic u lar c lasses o f c hurch men r ea l ly t hough t a bou t t he n ob le p agans o f t he ir h ero ic p as t .
Professor D onahue h as s ough t t o e xp la in t he e x istence o f a ma jor
e ar ly Eng l ish Chr ist ian p oe m a bout n ob le p agans, b y i nvok ing t he more e asyg o ing a t t i tude t owards t he p re-Chr ist ian p ast t ha t was c haracter ist ic o f t he I r ish . P rofessor D onahue ' se v idence t ha t t he P au l ine d octr ine o f n a tura l l aw h ad t aken r oo t among t he I r ish , a nd f l our ished t here more v igorous ly t han e lsewhere i nt he e ar ly med ieva l West i s most c onv inc ing a nd c an b e s upp lemen ted . O ne o f t he e ar ly I r ish s ynods, f or e xamp le , d ec lared : "I f we f i nd t he j udgemen t o f t he h ea thens g ood , wh ich t he ir g ood n a ture t eaches t he m , a nd i ti s n ot d isp leasing t o G od , w e s ha l l k eep t he m".
Ear ly I r ish l egend t ended
t o l ay s pec ia l emphas is u pon t he v ir tues o f s uch n ob le p agans a s C or mac a nd Morand , a nd o ne m igh t a dd t ha t e ar ly I r ish h ag iography o f fers e xa mp les o f t he " baptism" o f d ead h eroes ;
i n T irechan 's s even th-cen tury L i fe , S t . P a tr ic b ap-
t i zed t he g randson o f C ass , s on o f G lass , b y r a is ing h im t e mporar i ly f ro m a g rave i nw h ich h e h ad a lready s pen t ah undred y ears . I n G er many , S t B on i face h ad d i f f icu l t ies w i th a n I r ish h ere t ic n a med C le men t , who t augh t t ha t C hr is t h ad f reed a l l s ou ls when h arrow ing h e l l , " be l ievers a nd u nbel ievers , p ra isers o f G od a nd w orsh ippers o f i do ls" . 8 3 G iven t h is e v idence t ha t t he e ar ly I r ish made as er ies o f e f for ts t o r econc i le t he ir p as t a nd i t s h eroes w i th t he n ew d ispensa t ion , i ti s n ot a t a l l s urpr is ing t ha t d ur ing t he s even th a nd e igh th c en tur ies t hey were c omm i t t ing t he U lster C yc le , w ith a l l i t s p agan h eroes, t o wr it ing , a nd a t t he s ame t ime a dopt ing t he l earned l egacy o f western Chr ist ian i ty .
I t was b e-
l i eved t ha t t he Ta m nB o C ua l lnge was e xpor ted i n e xchange f or I s idore ' s E ty mo log iae .
8 4
I n v iew o f wha t h appened i n I re land i t se lf , i ti s av ery r easonab le s uggest ion t ha t Beowu lf , l ike much e lse i n e ar ly A ng lo-Saxon c iv i l iza t ion , was d irect ly o r i nd irect ly i nf luenced b y I r ish i deas, a nd s pec if ica l ly b y I r ish t o lerance o f a p agan p as t . The p oe m ' sr es tr icted r ange o fb ib l ica l a l lus ions a re l i ke t hose o ft he "T esta men t o f Morand"; t he c on fus ion o f C ain a nd C ham was w idespead i n I re land ( t hough i t was a l so made b y A lcu in h i mse lf ) ; monsters, i n C e lt ic s tor ies, d o s o me t i mes move f ree ly b enea th t he s ur face o f l akes, a s t hey d o i n Beowu l f , whereas , i n t he p oe m 's S cand inav ian a na logues , t he ir l a ir i s l oca ted i n ac ave b eh ind awa ter fa l l . I ti s p erhaps s ign if ican t t ha t A lcu in ' ss usp ic ions a bou t a n i n terest i n t he d eeds o f I nge ld f ocused t he mse lves u pon I r ish-founded L ind isfarne , where , a s Dr Mayr-Har t ing h as r ecen t ly s hown , s o meth ing s im il ar may h ave h appened o ne h undred y ears e ar l ier .8 5 C onversion b y t he I r ish may h ave made l i tera ture l i ke Beowu lf more a ccep tab le .
I ti s u n for tuna te ly
imposs ib le , h owever , t o e stab l ish a ny c onnect ion b e tween C e lt ic i n f luence a nd wha t l i t t le we k now o f h ero ic l i tera ture o n t he C ont inen t , s uch a s C har le magne ' s c o l lect ion o fb arbara e t a n t iqu iss i ma c arm ina , a nd p laus ib le t hough Professor D onahue ' sc ase i s , i t migh t t herefore b e munw ise t o d epend t oo h eav i ly u pon t he " Ir ish s o lut ion ." 4 9
Meanwh i le, Professor B enson h as a rgued t ha t t he o ut look o f t he I r ish was s hared b y t he Eng l ish m issionar ies t o G ermany , a nd t ha t t hey t hough t o f t he k indred p agans o f t he c on t inen ta l ma in land n ot w i th h orror , b ut w i th , "i n terest , s y mpa thy , o ccasiona l ly e ven a dm ira t ion ." T here i s i ndeed e v idence , among S t Bon iface ' sc onver ts, a s among t he e ar ly I r ish , o f al i nger ing i n terest i n h ero ic a ncestors, a nd i t was i n S t B on iface ' s own F u lda , ag enera t ion a f ter h is d ea th , t ha t o ur s o le manuscr ip t o f t he H i ldebrands l ied a ppears t o h ave b een wr it ten .8 6 A t t he s a me t ime , we h ave s een t ha t B on iface h i mse lf i su n l ike ly t o h ave d isagreed w i th A lcu in a bou t t he f a te o f t he u nbap t ized , o r t he i mpropr ie ty o f e x to l l ing t he ir v ir tues a t l eng th ; h e was s canda l ized b y C lement ' s e xcess ive ly g enerous i n terpre ta t ion o f t he "Harrow ing o f H e l l ." T here i s r ea l ly n o g ood e v idence o f at heory o f t he n ob le p agan among t he Eng l ish m iss ionar ies, s uch a s we f i nd among t he I r ish , a nd s uch a s we c ou ld u se t o e xp la in t he e x istence o f Beowu lf . I tt hus s ee ms u n l ike ly t ha t e i ther t he I r ish o r t he c on t inen ta l c onnec t ion w i l l s o lve o ur p rob le m o n i t s o wn . Bu t Professors D onahue a nd B enson h ave i n troduced impor tan t n ew e le men ts i n to t he d eba te o ver B eowu lf .
T he ir a rgu-
men ts p u t an ew p re m iu m n ot u pon h ypothet ica l d octr ina l f ounda t ions f or a l i tera ture o fp agan h ero is m , s o much a s o n c oncre te e v idence o f a n i n terest i n i t .
I n e ach c ase , t h is i n terest h as a r ecogn izab le h istor ica l c on tex t , a nd
ac u ltura l r a t iona le .
F or t he I r ish , t he k ey c ond i t ion was t he v igorous c on-
s erva t is m o f Ce lt ic l earned c u lture , p reserved a s i t was b y ap ower fu l a nd p r iv i ledge c lass o f p rofess iona ls, t he f i l id .8 7 Among t he Eng lish m iss ionar ies a nd t he ir c onver ts, we a re c on fron ted w ith a n u nderstandab le d eterm ina t ion n ot t o b e s epara ted f ro m a p ast t ha t was c lose ly l i nked t o n a t iona l o r ig ins ( t he Ang lo-Saxon r oya l g enea log ies, a s we s ha l l s ee , o f fer g ood e v idence o f a s urv iv ing awareness t ha t t he n or thern C on t inent was p ar t o f t he Eng l ish p ast) . Whe ther we a gree o r d isagree w i th t he a rgu men ts o f t hese s cho lars , w e c an t ake o ur c ue f ro m t he m , a nd l ook a ga in , b oth a t t he e v idence f or a c u l t o f t he h ero ic i n e ar ly Ang lo-Saxon E ng land , a nd a t t he s oc ia l a nd c u l tura l c on text i n wh ich i ti s f ound . It here fore r eturn , o nce a ga in , t o A lcu in ' sl e t ter .
O f ten a s t h is h as b een
q uoted , n o s ign if ican t a t ten t ion h as e ver b een p a id , s o f ar a s Ik now , t o t he c on tex t i n wh ich A lcu in ' ss tr ictures o ccur .
T he l e t ter i s f u l l o f f orebod ings
o f t he Apoca lypse , when t here s ha l l b e n o u se f or p rec ious s tones o r f or g o ld o r f i ne c lo thes. A lcu in s tresses t ha t wha t ma t ters i s t he min istry , n o tb anq ue ts ;
where i s t he h onor i n g roan ing t ab les, when C hr ist s tarves a tt he d oor?
Paupers s hou ld b e f ed r a ther t han a ctors ; d runkenness a nd p o mpous v est men ts a re i nsane . A lcu in wro te more t han o nce i n t h is v e in ; e ven t he a bbo t o f Monkwear mouth-Jarrow was g iven a warn ing s im i lar t o Hygeba ld ' s( we k now t ha t h is p redecessor h ad a ctua l ly s en t a broad f or a c i thar ista ) . The a rchb ishop o f Y ork was r ebuked f or p arad ing a round t he c oun trys ide w i th s o l arge an u mber o f r e ta iners t ha t h e was s evere ly s tra in ing t he r esources o ft he monaster ies t ha t were o b l iged t o p ut h im u p .8 8 I ti s n ot c er ta in t ha t a ny o f t hese men were a ctua l ly g u i lty o f s uch e xcesses, b u t i ti s r evea l ing t ha t t hese c r i t ic is ms s hou ld h ave b een v o iced , e ven i n g enera l t erms, s uggest ing a s t hey d o t ha t , a s we l l a s i ndu lg ing a t aste f or w or ld ly l i tera ture , t he Nor thumbr ian C hurch h ad a dop ted w or ld ly s tandards .
5 0
The c onnect ion i s b orne o u tb y t he v ery s im i lar c r it ic is ms t ha t w e f i nd e ar l ier i n t he e igh th c entury . T he C ounci l o f C lovesho ( 746/7) , whose o ppos it i on t o s ecu lar r hy th ms o f d ec la ma t ion Iq uoted e ar l ier , a lso s ees t he d anger i n aw ider c on tex t . Two o f i t s c lauses r efer t o t he c onduc t o f s ecu lar b usiness b y c hurchmen , t wo t o t he wear ing o f s ecu lar d ress, t wo t o a ssocia t ions w i th l aymen , w he ther w ith in t he monastery o r o n l ay g round . Two c lauses c onde mn d runkenness i n c ler ica l r anks, a nd o thers c ast iga te t he p a tronage o f "l ud icrous a r ts" i n monaster ies: p oe ts, h arp ists, mus ic ians a nd t he s tag ing o f h orser aces o n r e l ig ious f est iva ls. T he d ecrees o f t h is c ounc i l a ppear t o l i nk u p w ith a l et ter f ro m S t B on i face t o Archb ishop C u thber t o f C an terbury , ( 740-61) , d enouncing t he v ar ious a buses i n t he Eng l ish Church t ha t h ad c o me t o h is e ars . T hey i nc luded f oo l ish c usto ms i n d ress, c ler ics g o ing h un t ing a nd c arry ing a rms, a nd t he e p iscopa l c usto m o fn o t o n ly g et t ing d runk o nese lf , b u t a lso o f f orc ing o thers t o d o s o, a s, s ays t he s a in t , n e i ther t he F ranks, n or t he L o mbards, n or t he Ro mans , n or t he Greeks , b ut o n ly t he Eng l ish d o. 8 9 A s e ar ly a s 6 79-80, ac ounci l i n R o me o n t he a f fa irs o f t he Eng l ish C hurch p roh ib ited t he b ear ing o f a r ms b y c lergy men , j okes, g ames a nd t he p a tronage o f h arp is ts a nd s y mphon iaca ; wh i le Archb ishop T heodore ' sP en iten t ia l a ctua l ly b eg ins w i th a c o mp lex s ta tute o n t he r igh ts, a s we l l a s t he wrongs, o f d runken v om i t ing among t he c lergy .
9 0
I nto t h is c on tex t Iw ou ld l i ke t o b r ing a f ur ther p iece o f c ruc ia l e v idence a s t o t he s ta te o f a f fa irs i n t he e igh th-cen tury Eng l ish C hurch : t he l e t ter w h ich B ede wrote i n t he l ast y ear o f h is l i fe ( 734) t o h is p up i l, Archb ishop E gber t o fY ork .
L ike B on iface a nd A lcu in , B ede was b it ter ly d issa t isf ied a nd
i tl ooks a s t hough h e was o b ject ing t o s o me o f t he s ame t h ings.
I n p ar t icu lar ,
h e f e l t t ha t t here were t oo f ew b ishops a nd t oo many monaster ies.
T he l arge
s ize o f t he N or thu mbr ian d ioceses g uaran teed a h ea l thy e p iscopa l b ank-ba lance , b ut i td id n o th ing t o h e lp t he s ou ls o f t he f a ithfu l, who s aw t he ir b ishop o nce ay ear , i ft hen .
" Moreover i ti s r u moured a broad a bou t c er ta in b ishops t ha t
t hey s erve Chr ist i n s uch a manner t ha t t hey h ave w ith t he m n o men o f a ny r e l ig ion o r c on t inence , b u t r a ther t hose who a re g iven t o l aughter , j ests, t a les ( f abu lae) , f east ing , a nd t he o ther a t tract ions o f al ax l i fe , a nd who d a i ly f eed t he s t o mach w ith f easts more t han t he s ou l o n t he h eaven ly s acr if ice" . T he p ro l i fera t ion o f monaster ies was e ven more s in ister s ince many o f t he ir i nhabi tan ts were monks o n ly i n n a me , o f f icers o f t he k ing h av ing s ecured c har tered e ndowmen ts f ro m t he ir g ra tefu l master , o n t he p re tence t ha t t hey were g o ing t o f ound monaster ies, a nd t hen s i mp ly s e t t l ing d own a s a bbo ts i n c harge o f amot ley b and o f r e ta iners . o f s pec tac le"
I n a dd it ion - " av ery u g ly a nd u nheard
-t he v ery s ame men were n ow o ccup ied w i th w ives a nd t he
p rocrea t ion o f c h i ldren , t o w ho m t hey h oped t o p ass o n t he ir f ounda t ion i n h ered itary r igh t .
9 1
Mak ing e very a l lowance f or t he h igh ly-co lored t one o f t h is l et ter , t here i s n o d oub t t ha t B ede ' sd escr ip t ion i s s ubstan t ia l ly a ccura te .
T he e x istence
o f "s ecu lar" monaster ies i s a t tested b y ac anon o f t he C ounc i l o f C lovesho , wh ich s ays t ha t b ishops s hou ld v isit t hose monaster ies - "i fi tb e r igh t t o c a l l t he m t ha t" - wh ich , b ecause o f h u man g reed , c annot b e f orced t o c hange t o a Chr is t ian way o f l i fe , b ut h ave b een h e ld b y p resu mp tuous l aymen .
Arch-
b ishop E gber t ' s own D ia logue f aces t he q uest ion o f h ow t o p ar t i t ion ap r iva te monastery among t he a va i lab le h e irs o ft he i ncumben t a bbot . T here i s a lso 5 1
t he impress ive e v idence o f e x tan t c har ters a nd memoranda f ro m t he e ighth a nd n in th c en tur ies, r evea l ing t he h ered itary p r incip le a t work i n t he h ouses o f G od . 92 A s f or a l leged ly wor ld ly b ishops: t he w ho le c areer o f B ishop Wi lfr id , t o wh ich Is ha l l r eturn , i s p r i ma f ac ie , a n i l lustra t ion o f B ede ' sr e marks. S even th-and e ighth c entury s ources t hus s eem t o b r ing A lcu in ' ss usp ic ions i n to f ocus . Eng l ish men i n t he C hurch were e v iden t ly l i sten ing t o l i tera ture o f t he I n .ge ld t ype , a nd p a tron iz ing t he h arp ists, w hose s tock i n t rade s uch s tor ies w ere ; t hey w ere a lso l ead ing t he s a me k ind o f s p lend id l i fe a s we f i nd d escr ibed i n B eowu lf .
T hey h ad t aken w ith s o me e n thusias m t o t he p rofess ions
o f monk a nd b ishop , b ut w ithou t b other ing t o a bandon t rad it iona l p a t terns o f b ehav ior .
T he p ro m inence o f d r ink i s e spec ia l ly n otab le ;
more t han most
s oc ie t ies, t he e ar ly G er mans s ough t as oc ia l l ubr ican t i n a lchoho l .9 3
Iwou ld
s uggest t ha t , i n t hese c ircu mstances, t he s urv iva l o f as ecu lar l i terary t rad i t ion i s n ot s o h ard t o u nderstand . T he s ign if icance o f t hese d eve lop ments , a nd t he ir r e levance t o t he u nders tand ing o f B eowu lf c an b e u nder l ined b y o nce a ga in i nvok ing t he e v idence f rom t he c on t inen ta l c hurch , t ha t was u sed a bove t o e xp la in t he h ost i l ity o f A lcuin t o s ecu lar l i terary t astes .
C on t inen ta l s cho lars h ave h ad more t o s ay t han
t he ir Eng l ish c oun terpar ts a bout s ecu lar a nd h ered i tary monaster ies ; t hey h ave r ecogn ized i n t he m a n a spect o f t he r eg i me o f t he E igenk irche , o r p r iv a te c hurch , a nd w ha tever t he o r ig ins o f t he s yste m , i ti s c lear e nough t ha t t here v ery o f ten was a c onnect ion b e tween t he g overn men t o f a monastery a nd t he f am i ly o f i t s f ound ing a bbot . I ona i t se lf , where t en o r e leven o f t he f irst t h ir teen a bbots were me mbers o f S tC o lumba 's o wn b ranch o f t he U i N ei l l d ynasty , i s a we l l-known I r ish e xa mp le . I n Gau l , t he impor tan t a bbey o f N ive l les was r u led , d ur ing t he s even th c en tury , b y t he w idow , d augh ter a nd g rand-daugh ter o f P ipp in o f L anden , t he a ncestor o f C har le magne , a nd t here i s n o r eason t o b e l ieve t ha t t h is was v ery u nusua l .9 4
Recen t s tud ies b y German
s cho lars h ave a lso f ocussed t he mse lves u pon t he e xa l ted s ta tus o f e ar ly med ie va l b ishops, a nd i ti s i n t hese t er ms t ha t Dr Mayr-Har t ing h as e xp la ined W i lfr id ' s own a t t itude t o h is b ishopr ic. Two f amous c ases wh ich s canda lized S t B on i face i n t he m id e ighth c entury w ere M i lo, w ho was b ishop b oth o f Tr ier ( i n s uccess ion t o h is f a ther ) a nd o f Rhe i ms, b ut w ho was p robab ly n ever o rd a ined , a nd who met h is d ea th a t t he t usks o f ab oar ; a nd G ew i l ib o f Ma inz, a nother t o i nher i t h is s ee f ro m h is f a ther , who was d eposed o n ly when h e i ns isted u pon p ersona l ly a veng ing t he l a t ter ' sd ea th i nb a t t le a ga inst t he S axons .9 5 T he c on t inen ta l e v idence a lso i nd ica tes t he c onnect ion b e tween t hese f eat ures o f c hurch g overn men t a nd t he c u lt iva t ion ' ) fs ecu lar l i tera ture .
A t S t
G a l l, i n t he e ar ly t en th c entury , Ekkehard I , whose f am i ly was c lose ly l i nked t o t he a bbacy , wro te a v ers ion o f t he Wa l thar ius ( p oss ib ly n o t t he o ne w e p ossess ) a s as choo l e xerc ise .9 6 A rchb ishop F u lk o f R he ims ( 881-95 ) , o f a r is tocra t ic o r ig in a nd av ery a ct ive b ishop , c ou ld r efer i n t he s ame b rea th t o al e t ter o f G regory t he G rea t o n F rank ish k ingsh ip , a nd t o "T eu ton ic b ooks a bou t ac ert a in k ing H ermenr ic": t he r eference must b e t o t he G oth ic k ing o f t he f our th c en tury , who s ubsequen t ly a cqu ired a g r im r eputa t ion i n G erman ic s aga ( as i t was c er ta in ly g r im f or F u lk ) , a nd who a ppears i n B eowu lf .
9 7
T he h ouse o f
W i ldeshausen i n S axony was f ounded , i n t he m id n in th c entury , b y C oun t Wa ldber t , g randson o f t he Duke Widuk ind , who h ad l ed t he o r ig ina l S axon r es ts-
5 2
t a me t o C har le magne ' sb ruta l c onquest . Wa ldber t ' sc har ter s pec if ied t ha t o ne o f h is b od i ly h e irs s hou ld a lways b e t he r ector e t g uberna tor o f t he a bbey , a nd h e b ecame a bbot h i mse lf . I n t ha t c apaci ty , h e c o mm issioned R udo lf o f F u lda t o a dver t ize h is n ew f ounda t ion ' s most p rec ious a sse t , t he r e l ics o f S tA lexander ; a nd R udo lf , whose h ouse o f F u lda h ad , a s we h ave s een , p rod uced a manuscr ip t o ft he H i ldebrands l ied t wo g enera t ions e ar l ier , t hought i t a ppropr ia te t o p reface h is a ccoun t w ith a l ong d escr ip t ion o f t he v ir tues a nd v ictor ies o ft he p agan a ncestors o f t he S axons.
T hus Wi ldeshausen h ad c o me
t o r epresen tb oth f am i ly i n terests i n t he C hr ist ian f uture , a nd f am i ly t rad it ions f ro m t he p agan p ast .
98
O n t he C on t inen t a s i n Eng land , t her fore , where we
f i nd c ler ics l i v ing i n s o me ways l i ke h eroes o ut o f G erman ic s aga , we a lso f i nd l i tera ture l i ke Beowu lf b e ing c o mposed a nd a pprec ia ted . A s we l l a s r e inforc ing t he c onnect ion , moreover , c on t inen ta l s cho larsh ip o f fers a r a t iona le f or a l l t hese d eve lop men ts. A n o utstand ing f ea ture o f E uropean r esearch s ince t he war h as b een t he g enera t ion o f an ew i n terest i n t he s oc ia l a nd c u ltura l h istory o f t he a r istocrac ies t ha t d om ina ted b arbar ian E urope , a nd c an b e s een t o h ave i n f luenced t he s tructure a nd c iv i l iza t ion o f t he C hurch .
T he E igenk irche i s n ow a cknow ledged t o b e , among o ther t h ings,
"aman ifesta t ion o f G er man ic Ade lsherrscha f t i n t he ... M idd le Ages" .9 9
T he
s oc ia l p ro m inence o fb ishops c an b e u nderstood a s a r is ing f ro m t he ir b ackg round a s n ob le men , a nd t he ir s heer p o l it ica l a nd mi l itary i mpor tance i n a d eve lop ing f euda l s oc iety .
1 00
T he s i tua t ion a s r egards t he c on t inen ta l C hurch
i s s u m mar ized i n l ap idary t erms b y Professor Kar l S ch m id : "Ade l, K irche u nd K äh igsd ienst b i lde ten d ie L ebensbere iche d ieser G e ist l ichen" . T he t hough tw or ld o f t he e ar ly med ieva l c lergy was d om ina ted b y c oncep t ions o f n ob i l i ty , c hurch , a nd s erv ice t o t he k ing , a nd , Professor S ch m id c ou ld a l most h ave a dded , i n t ha t o rder .
1 01
Na tura l ly t he c haracter ist ic l i tera ture o f t he e ar ly
G er man ic a r istocracy i s t o b e f ound wr it ten i n t hese c irc les. As im i lar t rend h as y et t o e stab l ish i t se lf i n Ang lo-Saxon s tud ies. Much o f t he c anon ica l a nd l i terary e v idence f ro m t he s even th a nd e ighth c en tur ies t ha t Ih ave b een q uo t ing i s t rad i t iona l ly t aken a s i nd ica t ing t he " dec l ine" o f t he Ang loS axon C hurch , d ur ing a nd a f ter t he a ge o f Bede . B ut i ts ee ms l i ke ly t ha t B r it ish h istor ians m igh t h ave much t o l earn f ro m t he way i n wh ich t he c haract er o f e cc les iast ica l l i fe o n t he C on t inen t h as b een r e la ted b y E uropean s cho lars t o a r istocra t ic c usto ms a nd v a lues, a nd t ha t t he r esu lts c ou ld h ave a n impor ta n tb ear ing o n t he way i n wh ich we u nderstand t he emergence a nd s urv iva l o f a n e ar ly E ng l ish h ero ic l i tera ture . It herefore r e turn t o t he "a buses" d en ounced b y Bede , B on iface a nd A lcu in , p ar t ly i n o rder t o c onc lude i nvest ig a t ions i n to t he p robab le c on tex t o f B eowu lf , b ut a lso i n t he i nterests o f t ak ing ar a ther l e ss n ega t ive v iew o f e ighth-cen tury d eve lop men ts i n t he Eng l ish c hurch t han h as of ten b een f ash ionab le . Probab ly t he most impor tan t o f t hese a buses was t he f am i ly monastery a n i nst i tut ion p erhaps b et ter c a l led b y i t s Ang lo-Saxon t erm , minster . Bede d escr ibes s o me a t l east o f t he r ec ip ien ts o fb ogus e ndowmen ts a s n ob le men , a nd It h ink t ha t w e s hou ld a ccep t t ha t t he f ounda t ions h e s o much d is l iked w ere e ssent ia l ly e xpress ions o f t he u nderstandab le s ense o f k indred i n t he Ang loS axon u pper c lasses .
T o a ssoc ia te t he g overnmen t o f ar e l ig ious h ouse w i th
t he members o f "F ounder ' sK in" c ame n a tura l ly t o t he Ang lo-Saxons, a s t o many o ther s oc iet ies, C e lt ic a nd G er man ic . A s t he B eowu lf p oet p ut i t , 5 3
s ibb ' a efre n e maeg w ih t o nwendank .ami >e we lk encee . 102 I t wou ld p robab ly b e wrong , moreover , t o r egard e very s uch m inster a s ad en o f v ice .
No d oubt
t here w ere a buses, a nd "s ecu lar e ncroach ment" c ou ld , i n t he l ong r un , b e d isastrous, a s t he t en th-cen tury r efor mers a sser ted ; 1" b ut s evera l a ppare n t ly d ub ious h ouses s ee m t o h ave a ch ieved h igh s tandards o f Chr is t ian c u lture . T he e ar ly n in th-cen tury De A bba t ibus o f A Ethe lwu lf makes i tq u ite c lear t ha t t h is o therw ise u nknown N or thu mbr ian m ins ter w as r u led more t han o nce b y me mb ers o f t he f ounder 's f am i ly , y et t he i mpress ion g iven i n a nd s ober c o m mun ity . We h ear o fb ooks i l lu m ina ted a nd wh i le t he p oe t ' sL a t in , i fn o t e xact ly a mode l o f l uc id i ty , u n learned .1 04 I ti s l i ke ly t ha t i t was i n t he f orm o f s uch
t he p oe m i s o f as er ious o rna men ts made , i s c er ta in ly n ot
f ounda t ions t ha t C hr ist ian ity r eached most p ar ts o ft he Br it ish c oun trys ide , a nd i t s b est monu-
men ts may b e t he s urv iv ing e ar ly Ang lo-Saxon c hurches.
D eerhurst i n G lou-
c estersh ire i s ap ar t icu lar ly s tr ik ing e xamp le o f ac hurch whose a rch itec ture a ppears t o h ave b enef ited i n t he e ar ly n inth c entury f ro m t he p a tronage o f a n ob le Merc ian f am i ly , wh ich t rea ted minsters a s p ar t o f t he f am i ly p roper ty .1 05 O f p ar t icu lar impor tance f or t he s tuden t o f B eowu lf , wh ich h as s o much t o s ay o f k ings a nd k ingsh ip , i s t he e xten t t o wh ich monast ic is m a nd r oya l ty were i n tergra ted .
N or thu mbr ia o f fers t he e xamp les o f C o ld ingham , w here we
f i nd K ing Eg fr ith ( 671-85) b e ing e n ter ta ined t o d inner b y h is a un t , t he a bbess, a nd Wh itby , ac en tre d ist ingu ished ( un l ike C o ld ingham ) f or i t s p iety , w here t hree g enera t ions o f N or thu mbr ian p r incesses i n t he s even th c entury p resided o ver t he b ur ia l-p laces o f Edw in a nd O sw iu .1 06 A t t he o ther e nd o f t he c ountry , i n K en t , Eadberh t Praen emerged b r ief ly f ro m h o ly o rders i n o rder t ob eco me k ing ( 7 96-8) .
1"
But t he b est e v idence c o mes f ro m Merc ia .
Rep ton i n Derby-
s h ire was t he b ur ia l-p lace o f Merc ian k ings , was r u led b y a Merc ian p r incess , a nd i n t he e ar ly e igh th c entury was t he f i rst c ho ice o f r e trea t f or t he p r ince ly Merc ian wou ld-be h er m it , G uth lac, t o who m we s ha l l r e turn . I th as l e f t u s w i th o ne o f t he most n o tab le e ar ly Ang lo-Saxon c hurches .1 08 P e terborough i n N or thamptonsh ire was c lear ly c onnected w ith t he r oya l c our t : K ing O f fa s igned a c har ter t here i n 7 65, a nd t he a bbot o f P eterborough s evera l t imes a ppears a s aw itness i n g ran ts i ssued e lsewhere d ur ing t he s econd h a lf o f t he e igh th c ent ury .1 09 B o th O f fa ( 7 57-96 ) a nd h is s carce ly l ess f orm idab le s uccessor , C enwu lf ( 7 97-824) s ecured p apa l e ndorse men t f or t he ir r oya l E igenk irchen . A t Winchco mbe , i n G loucestersh ire , O f fa f ounded a c onven t ( 787) , t o w h ich C enwu lf a dded a m inster .
We k now t ha t t he Merc ian r oya l f am i ly a rch ives
were k ep t t here , a nd i t was t here t ha t C enwu lf ' ss on , K ene lm , was b ur ied , a nd r ap id ly d eve loped a h igh ly s pur ious c u l t . 10 I n s hor t , t here wa s ac lose c onnect ion b etween t he Merc ian d ynasty , w hose a ncestors a ppear i n B eowu l f , a nd wh ich , i nc iden ta l ly , p roduced s uccess ive k ings n a med B eornwu lf a nd Wig la f i n t he e ar ly n in th c en tury , a nd many o f t he most i mpor tan t r e l ig ious f ounda t ions o f t he t ime . 11 T he a ssoc ia t ion h ad s o me c on trovers ia l r esu lts, a nd l ed t o a ma jor c r is is i n r e la t ions b etween t he a rchb ishop o f C anterbury a nd t he Merc ian k ings ( 816-25) , b u t i ti s o n ly t o b e e xpected t ha t wha t was a lready c haracter ist i c o f t he Ang lo-Saxon n ob i l ity s hou ld b e p ract ised o n ar ega l s ca le b y k ings. 12 T o t urn f ro m t he c orrup t m insters o f B ede ' sl e t ter t o i t s p roud b ishops i s t o e ncoun ter im med ia te ly t he t ower ing f i gure o f S t W i lfr id , who was b ishop o fv ar ious p ar ts o f N or thu mbr ia a tv ar ious t imes b e tween 6 65-709. 13 I ti s c er ta in ly n o t d if icu lt t o f i nd e choes o f Beowu lf i n h is o utward ly wor ld ly c areer : 5 4
t he t hree d ays o f f east ing w ith t he k ing t o c e lebra te t he d ed ica t ion o f h is c hurch a t R ipon ;
t he h ero ic s trugg le o n aS ussex b each where h is 1 20 men
( n o mean e scor t ) were p i t ted a ga inst G ideonl ike o dds, a nd where t hey s wore t o f i nd , "e i ther d ea th w i th p ra ise o r l i fe w ith t r iu mph" ; t he f a mous d ea thbed s cene where W i lfr id d istr ibuted o ne p or t ion o f h is e x tens ive t reasure t o t he a bbots o f H exha m a nd R ipon , "s o t ha t t hey m igh t b e a b le t o b uy t he f r iendsh ip o f k ings a nd b ishops" ,a nd a no ther t o , "t hose who h ave l abored a nd s uf fered l ong e x i le w i th me , a nd t o who m Ih ave g iven n o l ands a nd e sta tes."
I ti s n ot ,
s omehow , s urpr is ing t o f i nd B ede r eferr ing s cornfu l ly t o d runkenness i n W i lfr id ' sh ouseho ld , o r t ha t t he West S axon s cho lar , A ldhe lm , i n ar e markab le l e t ter , s hou ld h ave c o mpared t he o b l iga t ions o f W i lfr id ' sp r iest ly f o l low ing w ith t hose o f as ecu lar r e t inue . 14 A s i n F rank ish Gau l , s uch s ecu lar ity i s b est u nderstood n o t a s b acks l id ing , b ut a s an a tura l f unct ion o f t he p lace o f b ishops i n s oc iety . S o me b ishops, l i ke Egber t h i mse lf , were t he b rothers a nd u nc les o f k ings ; b ishops w en t t o war i n E ng land , a s i n G au l, a nd a re f ound i n t he c asua lty l i sts o f t he Ang lo-Saxon Chron ic le . I n t he l aws o f A Ethe lberh t o f K en t , f ro m t he v ery e ar l iest y ears o f Ang lo-Saxon C hr ist ian ity , ab ishop ' sp roper ty was more g enerous ly a ssessed f or c o mpensa t ion t han a k ing ' s .
1 -5
B ishops l i ke t h is c ou ld n o more b e e xpected n ot t o c ut a s p lend id
f i gure f or C hr ist , t han c an t he ir modern c oun terpar ts b e e xpected t o a vo id t e lev is ion .
Wi lfr id h i mse lf was a ctua l ly f ar f ro m w or ld ly i n h is p ersona l l i fe ;
at ire less m issionary a s w e l l a s ab u i lder , ap a tron o f t he p oor a nd o f S t P eter ( each o fw ho m a lso r ece ived a s hare o f h is t reasure) , h e was t he g rea test , a l l t h ings c ons idered , o ft he e ar ly Ang lo-Saxon s a in ts.
He c hanne l led t he
v a lues o ft he a r istocracy f ro m wh ich h e c a me i nto t he s erv ice o f G od , a nd G od ' ss ervan ts h ad c ause t o b e g ra tefu l .
E ven l esser f i gures l i ke Archb ishop
E anba ld o fY ork , b era ted b y A lcu in f or h is e x travagan t f o l low ing , may a t l east b e u nderstood , s o l ong a s we r e me mber t he p rest ige w h ich , i n ab arbar ian s oc iety , ab ishop a u to ma t ica l ly p ossessed . T o c oncen tra te s i mp ly u pon wha t Chr ist ian i ty l ost b y i t s a dop t ion i n t he a r istocra t ic wor ld o ft he b arbar ian West i s a lso t o i gnore s o me r ea l g a ins . T he most o bv ious o f t hese i s Ang lo-Saxon r e l ig ious p oe try .
T he Dream o f t he
R ood i s n ow s een a s more t han j ust a r ef lect ion o f t he c om ita tus e th ic , b ut i t i s n one the less f ro m t ha t e th ic t ha t t he p oe m d raws s o much o f i t s g rea t p ower . 16 A ndreas i s a much l ess d ist ingu ished p roduct o f t he s ame t rad it ion , b ut i ts ee ms t o h ave b een i nf luenced b y t he v ocabu lary , a nd e ven t he t he me , o f Beowu lf i t s e lf .1 17 T he p o in t t ha t n eeds emphas is i s t ha t t h is i s more t han j ust a l i terary c ont inu i ty ; t he m irac le o f C d mon a nd t he o p in ions o f B ede n otw ithstand ing , t he i d io m o f e ar ly Eng l ish C hr ist ian p oetry i s a r istocra t ic , a nd t est if ies t o t he s oc ia l amb ience o f Ang lo-Saxon Chr ist ian i ty , a s much a s i td oes t o t he r ange o f i t s l i terary a nd p a tr ist ic l earn ing .
T he u sua l p oet ic t erm f or G od ,
Dryh ten , i s s t i l l u sed i n B eowu lf , a nd i n t he e ar ly K en t ish l aws , f or a s ecu lar l ord , a nd o r ig ina ted i n aword f or t he mi l i tary l eader o f ac om i ta tus .1 18 An e qua l, i fl ess o bv ious g a in i s t he f a mous s ty le o f manuscr ip t i l lum inat i on wh ich i s t o b e f ound i n t he L ind isfarne G ospe ls. T rad i t iona l ly , t he o r ig ins o f o f t he s ty le were a scr ibed t o e x terna l i n f luences. Bu t b r i l l ian t s tud ies b y Dr Bruce M i t ford h ave n ow d e monstra ted t ha t t he a r t ist , a bbot Ead fr i th 6 98) , w as i ndebted n ot o n ly f or h is a r t ist ic mot ifs, b ut a lso f or h is v ery t echn iques , t o t he e labora te s k i l ls a nd r ich r eper to ire o f C e l t ic a nd G er man ic 5 5
me ta l-workers.
1 19
Aga in , t here i s al i nk w i th B eowu lf , wh ich i s i t se lf s uch
p owerfu l e v idence o f t he a r istocra t ic t aste f or s oph ist ica ted t reasures. S t B on iface h i mse lf made t he p o in t c lear w hen h e wrote h o me f or , "t he l e t ters o f S t P eter , my l ord , wr it ten i n l e t ters o f g o ld , i n o rder t o s ecure h onor a nd r everence f or t he H o ly S cr ip tures when t hey a re p reached b efore t he e yes o f t he c arna l " .1 20 Wha t h ad o nce d ist ingu ished a p roud a nd wea lthy w arr ior was n ow t o g lor ify Chr ist . Iwou ld l i ke t o make t he s a me s or t o f p o in t a bout a spects o f Ang lo-Saxon h ag iography .
Professor Wh ite lock a nd Dr Mayr-Har t ing h ave b oth n o t iced
t he s uggest ive p ara l le ls b etween B eowu lf a nd t he e igh th-cen tury L i fe o f t he Merc ian r oya l s a in t , G uth lac ( d . 7 16) , b y F e l ix o f Crow land .
1 21
Wha t t he
o ver lap s ee ms t o amoun t t o i s t ha tG u th lac 's h ero ic s anc t i ty i s b e ing a r ticul a ted i n t er ms t ha t wou ld h ave b een f am i l iar t o a n a ud ience o f Beowu l f . F e l ix f o l lows h is Med i terranean mode l, A thanas ius ' L ife o f A n thony , ( 2 51-356) f a ir ly c lose ly , b ut t here a re s ign if ican t s h if ts o f emphas is .
T he monstrous
i s more t o t he f ore . G uth lac ' sc ho ice o f h erm i tage , o n t he s pot t ha t w ou ld l a ter b eco me Crow land a bbey , was a ctua l ly d icta ted b y t he t errors t ha t h e c ou ld a n t ic ipa te t here ; s a in t ' sc ho ice .
An thony ' st or men ts were mere ly t he c onsequences o f t he B oth s a in ts o ccupy t o mbs, b ut G uth lac ' si s r em in iscen t o f
t ha t wh ich B eowu lf ' sd ragon i nhab ited , a nd i ti s s i tua ted , l i ke Grende l ' sa bode , i n a marshy w i lderness. B oth s a in ts a re h aunted b y c rea tures o f ar e la t ive ly " nor ma l" t ype ( t hough t here i s n o c roak ing r aven i n A thanas ius) , b ut wha t h ad b een a p re l im inary , i fp a infu l , wh ipp ing i n A thanas ius, b eco mes, i n F e l ix , a n a dd i t iona l r a id b y a n o ut land ish menager ie , whose p hys ica l c haracter ist ics p erm it F e l ix t o s how o f f h is H esper ic v ocabu lary i n a l l i t s g lory .
A n thony h ad
p ro m ised t ha t d e mons c ou ld t ake t he f or m n ot o n ly o f r ep t i les a nd g ian ts , b ut a lso o f t roops o f s o ld iers ; f or G uth lac, a c h ief ta in who h ad b een i n e x i le a mong t he We lsh i n h is war l ike y outh , i t was a ppropr ia te t ha t t he d emons who t ossed h im o n g host ly s pears s hou ld h ave Br i t ish a ccen ts. 1 22 Ra ther l i ke t he I r ish S t Brendan , t herefore , G ' uth lac i s as a in t ly h ero i n s o me th ing o f at rad it i ona l s ecu lar mou ld .
T here i s af ur ther p o in t h ere .
S t G u th lac, l i ke S t
Wi lfr id , b e longs t o ac lass o f s a in t t ha t i s n ow k nown t o G erman s cho lars a s Ade lshe i l ige ( ar is tocra t ic s a in t ) . We a re t o ld a bou t h is d is t ingu ished f am i ly a ncestry , a nd a bout h is l i ve ly c areer i n t he wor ld b efore c onversion . H e i s t hree t imes b rought i nto c on tact w ith h is c ousin , A Ethe lba ld , t he f u ture k ing o f t he Merc ians a nd B re twa lda ( 7 16-57 ). T hese a re p ar t icu lar c harac ter ist i cs o f an ew h ag iograph ica l f ash ion i n t he s even th c en tury , a nd o ne w h ich a lso emphas ized , a s i n W i lfr id ' sc ase , i fn o t i n G uth lac ' s , t he p ub l ic s p lendor o f t he s a in t .1 23 T he f ash ion s ee ms t o a r ise , n ot f ro m f o l low ing a ny p ar t icu lar mode l , Med i terranean o r F rank ish , b ut s i mp ly f ro m wr i t ing h ag iography i n a b arbar ian e nv iron men t . T h is i s l i tera ture o f t he t aste o f aG er man ic a r istocr acy , a nd t hus r ef lect ing t he s oc ia l o r ig ins n o t o n ly o f G uth lac h i mse lf , b ut a lso o ft he c o m mun it ies f or who m h is d eeds were r ecorded . One f i na l a spect o f e ar ly Eng l ish C hr ist ian c u l ture i s n e i ther a" g a in" n or a "l oss ",b u t i s wor th c ons ider ing i n t h is c on tex t . Most o f t he Ang lo-Saxon r oya l g enea log ies t race t he v ar ious E ng l ish d ynast ies b ack t o Woden , w ho m t here i s s o me j ust if ica t ion f or r egard ing a s t he G od o f t he warband . S ten ton wrote o f , "t he a r istocra t ic c onven t ion wh ich r egarded Woden a s t he a ncestor o f most E ng l ish k ings" . 124 T he g enea log ies a lso c on ta in o ther memorab le n ames o f e ven g rea ter s ign if icance f or o ur p urposes: 5 6
S ceaf , S cy ld , B eaw ,
H ere mod , E or manr ic , O f fa o f A ng le , F inn a nd Hwa la ; t he f i rst s even a ppear i n B eowu lf ( s o me p ro m inen t ly) , a nd t he l ast f our a ppear i n W ids i th .
A s
K enneth S isam d e monstra ted , t hese l i sts o f n ames a re l arge ly f raudu len t a s r ea l f am i ly h istory , b ut s oc ia l a n thropo log ists h ave t augh t u s t ha t , e ven when f ar f ro m r e l iab le a s h istor ica l f ac t ,g enea log ies n ever the less e xpress wha t s oc ie t ies c hoose t o b e l ieve , e ven n eed t o b e l ieve , a bou t t he ir p ast . S een i n t h is l igh t , t he Ang lo-Saxon g enea log ies r epresen t e ar ly Eng l ish s ocie ty ' s w i l l ingness, a nd i ndeed d eterm ina t ion , t o r each b ack i n to t he p agan p ast i n o rder t o l end a dded d ist inct ion t o t he a ncestry o f i t s k ings . I tt hen b eco mes e specia l ly i mpor tan t t ha t S isam a lso d e monstra ted t ha t most o f t he g enea log ies t ha t we h ave must h ave b een l i tera te p roducts, p ut t oge ther a s ab ody a tt he e nd o ft he e ighth c en tury .
T he ir 'e duca ted ' c haracter i s f ur ther u nder l ined
b y t he a ppearance o f Caesar i nt he East A ng l ian g enea logy , a nd o f t he p a tr iachs f ro m Noah b ack t o Adam i n t he West S axon .1 25 Wha t t he Ang lo-Saxon r oya l g enea log ies t hus s uggest i s t ha t t he n eed f or a h ero ic p ast was s t i l l f e lt , e ven i n e duca ted , a nd t hus p resu mab ly c ler ica l, c irc les, 1 50 y ears a f ter t he c on v ers ion . J ust a s t he p oe t ic t echn iques o f h ero ic v erse s urv ived , s o t oo d id t he me mory o f t he h eroes t hemse lves a nd i n ac on tex t s uch a s t o a rgue t he ir c on t inu ing i mpor tance .
I n f ac t , A lcu in h i mse lf , i n ar e markab le l e t ter t o t he
men o f K en t , h igh l igh ted t he s urv iv ing r e levance o f h ero ic p rogen itors: h e l amen ts t he d ec l ine o f t he a nc ien t Eng l ish d ynast ies, u rges t he K en t ings t o p ick a n ob le l eader , a nd c o mmen ts: t he more t hey l ack v a lor". 1 26
"T he more o bscure t he o r ig in [ o f k ings ]
Th is s urvey o ft he c haracter o f t he e ar ly Eng l ish C hurch a nd i t s c u lture l eads t o t wo c onc lus ions . I n t he f i rst p lace , most , i fn ot a l l, o f t he f ea tures t ha t Ih ave d escr ibed a re p er fect ly we l l-known , b u t t hey a re n ot u sua l ly p laced s ide b y s ide .
T o me , t hey a l l s ee m t o b e i nterre la ted .
O f c ourse , Id o n o t
s uggest t ha t G uth lac wou ld h ave a pproved o f e very n ob le monk , o r t ha t W i lfr id c ou ld h ave e ndorsed a l l wor ld ly b ishops . Wha t Id o s uggest i s t ha t t hey a re a l l a spects o ft he s a me e ssen t ia l t ruth :
t he a r istocra t ic e nv ironmen t o f e ar ly
E ng l ish C hr ist ian ity . Iam n o t s ure t ha t ac iv i l iza t ion c ou ld h ave s pawned s o much t ha tw e a dm ire w ithout a lso g iv ing r ise t o wha t we h ave u sua l ly f o l lowed B ede i n r egard ing a s d egenera te . Iam s ure t ha t v ery l i t t le o f t he s pectacu lar c u ltura l a ch ieve men t o f t he s o-ca l led Nor thu mbr ian Rena issance w ou ld h ave b een p oss ib le w i thout t he e normous wea lth wh ich k ings a nd n ob le men b rough t w i th t hem i n to t he C hurch .
I f , t hen , h istor ians a re t o c on t inue t o d is m iss d e-
v e lop men ts i n t he Eng lish C hurch i n t he e igh th c en tury a s e v idence o f d ec l ine , t hey o ugh t p erhaps t o r t lect u pon wha t t hey a re t hrow ing o ut w ith t he b a th-wa ter . B ut i n a ny c ase t a lk o f d ec l ine misses t he p o in t , a nd i gnores e le men tary f acts o f e ar ly med ieva l l i fe .
When t he a r istocrac ies o f t he b arbar ian West b ecame
C hr ist ian , t hey d id n ot , a nd t hey c ou ld n ot , l ose t he ir a wareness o f b e ing a r is tocrac ies , a nd t h is i s a s t rue o f c hurch men a s o f l ay men .
I f we s tar t f ro m
t h is p o in t , t he a buses d enounced b y t he C hurch F a thers may l eg it i ma te ly b e s een a s e v idence , n ot o f C hr ist ian ity ' sf a i lure b ut o f o ne o f i t s g rea test t r iumphs: i th ad b een s uccessfu l ly a ss im i la ted b y awarr ior n ob i l ity , wh ich h ad n o i n ten t ion o f a bandon ing i t s c u lture , o r s er ious ly c hang ing i t s way o f l i fe , b ut which was w i l l ing t o t hrow i t s t rad it ions, c usto ms, t astes a nd l oya lt ies i n to t he a r t icu la t ion o f t he n ew f a i th , a nd whose p ers ist ing
s ecu lar i ty' was
a n i mpor tan t c ond it ion o f t he r ichness o f e ar ly Eng l ish Chr ist ian c iv i l iza t ion . Q u ite s i mp ly , t he Ang lo-Saxon C hurch b ecame p ar t o f t he E stab l ishmen t . 5 7
Second, though my argument in this paper has taken us a long way from the famllia� ·pastures of Beowulf criticism, it does seem to have yielded some thing like what we were looking for: a social and cultural context for the composition of heroic literature. It is clear from what the conciliar canons say about secular dress and armed clergy, for example, and it is clear, too, from what can find out about the history of the early Anglo-Saxon minster and about English bishops of the period that the crucial line between clerical and lay, the conventional distinction between ascetic and secular standards, had become blurred at a number of points, and especially, it may be noted, in the area around the king. 127 It is also clear that the Anglo-Saxon Church took over many of the tastes and interests of the secular world, whether for new purposes, as in illumination, hagiography of Christian poetry, or for old, as in genealogies. I can perhaps best put the conclusion in the form of a question. Does the composition by a literate poet, who was probably, therefore, a cleric, of a great secular poem about the pagan kings of the past still seem anomalous in a society where monasteries function partly as the royal court, and partly as royal family property, where bishops go to war, where Gospel-books have begun to look like secular treasures, and where the adventures of saints re semble so closely those of heroes? Is Beowulf an unthinkable product for a monastic scriptorium, when not o�y Alcuin, but also councils of the Church talk of drunkenness, banquets and the patronage of harpists in clerical environ ments; when the Mercian royal house, with whom many Beowulf critics have very reasonably felt that the poem may have a connection, was treating its religious foundations as a part of its hereditas? I began this paper by accept ing the view that Beowulf was par excellence literature of too aristocracy, and by suggesting that its primary value to the historian was that it opened a win dow onto the otherwise closed and unlmown thought-world of the Anglo-Saxon warrior-classes. We have now seen other evidence that the early English Church was, in a sense, dominated by aristocratic values itself. I conclude that Beow'Ulf is a very intelligible product of such a culture, and that the poem does indeed constitute vital evidence for what was involved in the conversion of the Anglo-Saxon aristocracy. V Bede The argument adopted in this paper leaves me with a final problem. The quest for II alternative perspectives" on the Age of Bede is perhaps character!. stic of modern studies. But if one is to argue that Beowulf is in some ways a better symbol of what was involved in the conversion of the Anglo-Saxon ari stocracy than Bede, one needs a stronger justification than intellectual fashion. It is necessary to show not only that Beowulf may well have been representative, at least in part, but also that Bede is himself, in some respects, an anomaly. And if Bede is to be regarded as an. anomaly, he is, like Beowulf, an anomaly that requires explanation. Thanks to the modern tendency to see Bede against the background of European historiography in the early Middle Ages, it is in fact possible to sug gest that he is a rather isolated figure, and, once again, the argument of this paper can be clarified by giving it a European dimension. Gregory of Tours, the sixth-century historian of the Franks, was certainly known to Bede, and 58
h e wrote wha t i s , a l l i n a l l, av ery d if ferent b ook f ro m t he E cc lesiast ica l H istory .
Most o f Gregory s t en b ooks were d evoted t o t he p er iod o f h is own
a ct ive l i fe a s b ishop o f T ours ( 5 73-91) , a nd n o sma l l p ar t o f t he m was t aken u p w i th v igorous d enunc ia t ions . A s h as b een o bserved , t h is i s i n marked c on trast t o B ede ' sf i ve b ooks, o f wh ich o n ly o ne c overs t he f or ty-f ive y ears o f h is own ma ture l i fe , wh i le t he p rev ious n inety a re s pread o ver f our , a nd i n wh ich Bede v e i ls h is d issa t isfac t ion b y d iscreet h in ts a nd s i lences .1 28
A nother
who m ight b e c o mpared w ith B ede t hough wr i t ing a f ter h is d ay , i s t he h is tor ian o ft he L o mbards, Pau l t he Deacon , ( f l . 7 74-99) .
N ot o n ly d oes Pau l t e l l s o me
r ous ing s tor ies o f t he s ecu lar l i fe ( usua l ly w ithout c ensure) ;
h e a lso s ays v ery
l i t t le a t a l l a bout h is p eop le ' sr e l ig ious h istory , whereas h e d oes s ay a l o t a bout t he ir p re-Chr ist ian p ast .
H e e ven r ecords o ne s tory i n wh ich t he L o mbards
g a ined b oth t he ir n ame o f "L ong-beards" ,a nd v ic tory o ver t he h a ted Vanda ls, u nder t he a usp ices o f Woden , a nd a l though h e c a l ls t he s tory r id icu lous h e d oes r epor t i t .
1 29
B ede , o f c ourse , i s a l most t ota l ly s i len t o n t he p re-
C hr ist ian a ch ieve men ts o f t he A ng lo-Saxons, a nd c onvers ion i s t he d om inant mo t if o f t he who le H istory .
F ina l ly , a nother l a ter h istor ian much more l i ke
P au l t han B ede was W iduk ind , t he h istor ian o f t he c on t inenta l S axons ( . 9 68) . We h ear s o much i n h is e ar ly c hap ters a bou t h is p eop le ' sh ea then h istory , t ha t Professor Kar l Hauck h as r ecen t ly b een a b le t o r econstruct t he p agan i conography o f t he Weser mund b ractea tes o n t he b as is o f Widuk ind ' sa ccount ; b u t t he c onversion o f t he S axons, p erhaps t oo p a infu l ly a ssoc ia ted w i th me mor ies o f Frank ish c onquest , i s p assed o ver i n as hor t c hap ter .1 30 Ic ite t hese c on t inen ta l p ara l le ls, p ar t ly t o s how t ha t Bede m ight h ave wr itt en q u ite a no ther s or t o f b ook , w i thout e ven a bandon ing t he g enre o f e ar ly med ie va l h istor iography , b ut a lso b ecause Ih ave t he impress ion t ha t , i fh e h ad , t he emergence o f Beowu lf wou ld h ave b een e as ier t o u nderstand . t an t p o in ts a re t hese :
T he t wo i mpor-
f irst , t he c on t inen ta l h istor ians g ive a c lear impress ion
o f a Chr ist ian ity t ha t was r ecogn izab ly b arbar ian , a nd d o n o t e ncourage i l lus ions a bou t t he n a ture o f c on te mporary s oc iety .
I t was t he s tar t l ing d if ference
i n t one b e tween t he Eng l ish h istor ian a nd h is c on t inen ta l c oun terpar ts t ha t e nc ouraged R . W . Chambers t o c on trast t he " barbarous" a nd " sord id" F ranks a nd L o mbards, "q uare l l ing o ver t he l oot o f t he Ro man Emp ire , u n t i l t hey l ost wha tever b arbar ic v ir tues t hey h ad f or mer ly p ossessed when t hey l i ved i n t he more a ustere s urround ings o f t he ir n a t ive f orests a nd swamps" ,w i th t he e ar ly Eng l ish who h ad n ot y e t b een b rough t i n to c on tam ina t ing c on tact w i th t he d egenera te wor ld o f d ecay ing R o me .
1 31
S econd , P au l a nd W idukind , e ven Gregory ,
p er m it n o r eader t o f or m t he impress ion t ha t t he ir p eop les h ad f orgot ten t he ir a ncestors .1 32 On b o th c oun ts, i tl ooks a s t hough c onvers ion o n t he C on t inen t h ad made c o mpara t ive ly l i t t le d if ference , a t l east i n it ia l ly . t he v iew t ha t o ne i s e ncouraged t o t ake b y Bede .
T h is i s s carce ly
Apar t f ro m t he f amous p as-
s age o n t he t r iba l o r ig ins o f t he Ang les, S axons a nd J utes, a f ew s hards o f K ent ish t rad it ion , a nd a s n ippe t o f N or thu mbr ian t r iba l p r ide c oncern ing t he d eeds o f K ing A Ethe lfr ith , c onvers ion f or Bede i s where t he s tory o f t he Ang loS axons b eg ins a nd t herea f ter i ti s as tory o f s a in ts, n ot s inners .
1 33
We t hus
m iss, i n t he Ecc les iast ica l H istory a t l east , a ny e x ten t t o wh ich t he Ang loS axons r e ma ined t i ed , b y c usto m o r me mory , t o t he ir p ast , a nd w ith i t we m iss t he c on tex t .t ha t Ih ave s uggested f or Beowu lf .
S o why i s Bede s o d if fer-
e n t f ro m c ont inen ta l me mbers o f t he t rad it ion i n wh ich h e wrote ?
5 9
W e must r ecogn ize , f i rst , t ha t h e was a f undamen ta l ist . Bede h as i ns p ired t he a f fect ion o f h is r eaders a s f ew o ther h is tor ians h ave, b ut t here i s s o meth ing i n h im o f t he i n te l lectua l w o lf i n s heep ' sc loth ing .
He w as c apab le
o f ad egree o f s cho lar ly r uth lessness w h ich i ti s n o t e asy t o p ara l le l e ven i n h is a cknow ledged d isc ip le , A lcu in . I n t h is c on text , i ti s o bv iously r e levan t t o t o r em ind o nese lf o f B ede ' sa t t itude t o t he t wo p r inc ip les wh ich p robab ly e xp la in A lcu in ' sh ost i l ity t o s ongs a bou t I nge ld . T hose f ro m who m B ede l earned most , J ero me , A ugust ine a nd G regory t he G rea t , n ever s hook o f f t he ir d ebt t o t he L a t in g ra m mar ian ' ss k i l ls, a nd t hus s ough t t o f i nd au se f or t he l i terary l egacy o f a n t iqu i ty .
B ede , h owever , p roduced ag rammar , i n wh ich n ear ly a l l
i l lustra t ions o f s ty l ist ic p o in ts c o me f ro m t he B ib le , a nd i n wh ich n one c o me f ro m s ecu lar l i tera ture ; i th as n ow b een s er ious ly d oubted whether h e h ad e ven r ead V erg 1 1 .
1 34
S o f ar a s o ne c an s ee f rom h is c o mmentar ies, more-
o ver , Bede a ccep ted t he f u l l i mp l ica t ions o f t he o r thodox v iew t ha t t he u nbapt i zed w ou ld p robab ly n ot b e s aved .
Where Augus t ine , t herefore , h ad p ub lic ly
d ebunked t he n ob le p agans o f R o me , B ede t urned u pon t he h eroes o f t he Eng l ish p re-Chr ist ian p ast h is u nr iva l led c apac ity f or w i ther ing s i lence .
1 35
B ede
u ndoubted ly p ossessed t he g rea t t eacher ' sg if t o f f l ex ib i l ity , a nd i n t h is r es pect h is r eputa t ion f or g en t leness i s a bundan t ly j us t if ied .
B ut h e a l so h ad t he
t eacher ' ss ense o f t he i rre levan t . T he t wo ma in k eynotes o f t he p re faces t o h is c o m men tar ies a re t he d es ire t o t each h is "l a zy" f e l low-coun trymen t he l essons t ha t h e c ons idered u rgen t ly n ecessary , a nd t he d e ter m ina t ion t o s t ick c lose ly t o t he v est ig ia p a tru m . When B ede c ame t o wr ite h is Ecc les iast ica l H istory , we may g uess f ro m t he t one o f t he l ast c hap ter , a nd we k now f ro m t he L et ter t o Egber t , t ha t h e h ad n o t l ost h is s ense o f u rgency a s h e g rew o ld , a nd h is c omm it men t t o t he s a lva t ion o ft he Ang lo-Saxons was a s s trong a s i t h ad b een when h e wrote a bout t he B ib le .
1 36
I n t hese c ircu mstances, at hinker
a s l oya l t o t he p r inc ip les o f L a t in Chr ist ian ity a s B ede was u n l ike ly t o waste t ime o n t e l l ing c heer fu l s tor ies a bout t he p agan p ast .
T here a re t hus n o s agas
i n Bede , a s t here a re i n P au l t he D eacon a nd i n W iduk ind , a nd t his i s av ita l r eason why modern h istor ians d o n o t u sua l ly r ecogn ize t he w or ld o f s aga i n Bede ' s Br ita in . T here a re o thers .
Bede ' si s , f i rst a nd f oremost , a n e cc lesiast ica l
h istory , a nd , a s t he e xamp le o f h is g ram ma t ica l w ork s hows , Bede w as o uts tand ing f or h is c apac i ty t o r e ma in f a i th fu l t o t he r u les o f ag enre. Where Pau l a nd W iduk ind were l a ter e xposed t o t he i nf luence o f t he "s ecu lar " t rad it i on , a s med ia ted a bove a l l b y c lass ica l h istor iography , B ede i s c loser t o t he mode l e stab l ished b y E useb ius i n t he e ar ly f our th c en tury t han a ny s uch wr i ter s ince E useb ius h i mse lf , a nd t h is c er ta in ly h e lps t o e xp la in h is o verwhe lm ing p reoccupa t ion w ith t he p rocess o f c onvers ion , a nd t he a f fa irs o f t he C hurch .1 37 Yet , e ven b y t hese s tandards, B ede ' sw ork h as p ecu l iar it ies , a nd c h ie f among t hese i s h is r e luctance t o e xpress c r it ic is m . I fB ede h ad f o l lowed G regory o f T ours o r t he m id s ix th-century We lsh p rophe t , G i ldas, ( whose work h e k new we l l , a nd who was t he o n ly h istor ian o ther t han h imse lf t o who m h e g ave t he l abe l h istor icus) , i n to e xpress ing i n p ub l ic t he c r i t ic is ms t ha t we k now h im t o h ave v o iced i n p r iva te , we s hou ld a l most c er ta in ly h ave f ormed av ery d iff eren t i mpress ion o f t he h istory o f e ar ly E ng l ish C hr ist ian i ty .
But B ede b e-
l i eved t ha t i t was wrong t o c r i t ic ize p r iests ( he w i l l men t ion t ha t ab ishop b ought h is s ee w ithou t aword o f c ensure) ; i nstead , h is me thod was t o h igh6 0
l i gh t t he g ood e xa mp le , b y way o f imp l ied c on trast , a nd i n af amous p assage , h e c o mpares t he l abours o f A ldan a nd h is d isc ip les w ith t he s egn it ia t e mpor is n ostr i . F or a l l t ha t h e wrote i n h is p reface t ha t men l earn b oth b y g ood a nd b y b ad e xamp le , we h ear much more a bout t he f ormer t han t he l a t ter .1 38 H ere t oo i ts ee ms p oss ib le t ha t we might f i nd a n e xp lana t ion i n Bede ' s p a tr ist ic b ackground .
T he t rad i t ion o f t each ing t o wh ich Bede b e longed was
a bove a l l t ha t o f Gregory t he G rea t , a s l a id d own i n h is D ia logues a nd i n h is Pastora l C are . One o f t he ma in p r inc ip les o f t h is t rad it ion was t ha t much c ou ld b e d one , e spec ia l ly f or t he s i mp ler k ind o f a ud ience , b y t he f orce o f p ersona l e xamp le , o rb y d escr ib ing t he l i ves o f h o ly men ;
i t was a s pec if i-
c a l ly monas t ic i nher itance . "T he L ives o f S a in ts a re of ten more e f fect ive t ha n mere i n struct ion f or i nsp ir ing u s t o l ove h eaven a s o ur h o me" ,wro te G regory i n t he p reface t o h is D ia logues .
I n t he Pastora l Care h e t aught t ha t
ap reacher w ho a ctua l ly p rac t ices wha t h e p reaches w i l l make a much b igger i mpress ion , t han o ne who mere ly h arangues h is c ongrega t ions, a nd , o n t he o ther h and , n o amoun t o f e loquence w i l l u ndo t he b ad e f fects o f t he f a i lure t o s e t ag ood e xa mp le . "There a re t hose who i nvest iga te s p ir itua l p recep ts w i th c unn ing c are , b ut wha t t hey p ene tra te i n t he ir u nderstand ing , t hey t ramp le u po n i n t he ir l i ves... Whence i th appens t ha t , when t he s hepherd wa lks t hrough s teep p laces , t he f l ock f o l lows t o t he p rec ip ice ...
„1 39
Bede c ou ld t hus l earn
f ro m h is p r incipa l men tor t ha t wha t ar e la t ive ly u nsoph ist ica ted a ud ience n eede d was t he e xa mp le o f l i ves l ed b y h o ly men ;
wha t t hey d id n o t n eed was f a m-
i l iar ity w ith b ad men , o r e ven w ith t hose g ood men whose c areers h ad d ub ious f ea tures -f or t ha t wou ld b e t o l ead t he s heep t o t he p rec ip ice . Is ugges t t ha t t h is i s t he r eason f or t he o therw ise r a ther s urpr is ing b a lance o ft he E cc lesiast ica l H istory , wh ich Mr C a mpbe l l h as we l l d escr ibed a s a "g a l lery o f g ood e xamp les" .1 40 Bede was t ry ing t o e ncourage im ita t ion a nd t ha t was ab asic r eason why h e wrote , b ut h e was a fra id t ha t h is f l ock m igh t f o l low t he wrong s hepherd .
W i lfr id c ou ld b e p ra ised f or h is many a ch ieve men ts,
b u t t o d escr ibe h is c areer i n f u l l might r un t he r isk o f s et t ing u p af l awed mode l , a nd i t was b e tter t o c oncen tra te o n t he v ir tues a nd m irac les o f t hose w i th a more p r ist ine p ub l ic image , s uch a s A idan o r C u thber t . B ede , t herefore , d iff ered f rom G i ldas n ot o n ly i n a ccuracy o r g ood s ense , b ut a lso i n h is s trong s ense t ha t h istory i s p roper ly a bout h o ly men ; a nd where G regory o f T our s h ad wr i t ten c op ious ly a bout t he s ins o f t he p resen t , Bede wrote f or p reference a bout t he g lor ies o f t he p ast .
Eng l ish h istory , u n l ike F rank ish , b egan n ot
w ith a no ther , "me lancho ly c a ta logue o f t he v ices a nd f o l l ies o f mank ind" ,b ut w ith av is ion o f an ew a posto l ic a ge . Among t he c onsequences o f t h is g ra t ify ing f act i s t he o ne t ha t h as most c oncerned me i n t h is p aper :
we h ave b een h a lf-
b l ind t o t he r ea l c haracter o f t he c on tex t f ro m wh ich B eowu lf p robab ly emerged , a nd s tuden ts o f t he p oe m h ave b een mis led i n t wo o ppos ite d irect ions, c onc lud ing e i ther , w i th Chadw ick , t ha t t he e ar l iest Eng l ish e p ic i s l arge ly h ea then , d esp ite i t s s tr iden t mono the is m , o r w i th C hambers t ha t i ti s u n i mpeachab ly C hr ist ian , d esp i te i t s u nconcea led s ecu lar ity . I ft here i s much i n p a tr ist ic t rad it ions t ha t w i l l e xp la in t he q ua l i ty o f "o therw ord l iness" i n B ede ' s mos t f a mous b ook , i tm igh t a lso b e p oss ib le t o o f fer a f i na l e xp lana t ion a long r a ther d if ferent l i nes .
We a re n owadays t augh t t o s ee
h istor ians a ga inst t he ir s oc ia l a nd c u ltura l b ackground , a nd , i n v iew o f t he
6 1
c en tra l a rgu men ts o f t h is p aper , i ti s p erhaps s ign if ican t t ha t , s oc ia l ly s peaki ng , B ede was w ithout ab ackground . T he o n ly t h ing h e e ver s ays a bout h is k indred i s t ha t t hey s urrendered h im a t t he a ge o f s even t o Bened ic t B iscop , a nd t henceforward , a s h e s ays i n h is f i ne h om i ly o n i t s f ounder , h is k indred was t he s p ir itua l f am i ly t o wh ich h e b e longed . B ede c ou ld h ave b een an ob le man h i mse lf , b ut , i fs o , h e h ad managed t o f orge t i t . T here i s , p erhaps , as ugg est ive c on trast h ere b oth w ith s o me o f t he o ther l ead ing f i gures o f e ar ly Ang loS axon C hr ist ian i ty , a nd w ith t he c on t inen ta l h istor ians who m Ih ave ment ioned . W i lfr id , f or i nstance , was a lready t h ir teen when h e went t o L ind isfarne , a nd h ad s pen t s evera l y ears wa i t ing o n t he g uests i n h is f a ther ' sa r istocra t ic h ouseho ld .
G u th lac s pen t t he n ine y ears b efore h is a dm ission t o R ep ton a t t he
a ge o f t wen ty-four i n ac haracter ist ica l ly a r istocra t ic c areer o f r ap ine .
O f
C uthber t ' sc areer , we k now l i t t le , b ut we d o k now t ha t h e h ad s erved i n a n a rmy .1 41 Iwou ld b e i nc l inded t o s ee a c onnect ion b etween t hese e nv iron men ts a nd wha t we h ave s een o f C hr ist ian c u lture a t Wi lfr id ' sH exha m , G u th lac ' s C row land a nd C uthber t ' sL ind isfarne .
S im i lar ly , t here i s n o d oub t ing t he a r i-
s tocra t ic b ackground o f P au l t he D eacon , a nd a l though Wic luk ind ' sb iography i s a s o bscure a s Bede ' s , h e n ever made a ny s ecre t o f h is s y mpa thy f or t he S axon n ob i l i ty , a nd b ore a n ame t ha t was i l lustr ious i n S axon t rad it ion .
Gregory
o f T ours was a Ro man n ob le man , a nd n o t ab arbar ian , s o t ha t r a ther d iferen t c ons idera t ions a pp ly ; n ever the less, h is me mbersh ip o f af am i ly o f many b ish ops t o s o me e x ten t c o mm it ted h im t o ap ar t icu lar t rad it ion o f p ub l ic s erv ice , e ven i fi t was n ot n ecessar i ly r espns ib le f or t he i n terest i n t he Frank ish p ast wh ich h e u ndoubted ly p ossessed .1 42 By c on trast , B ede ' sp ersona l h istory c ut h im o f f f ro m c on te mporary a r istocra t ic s oc ie ty a nd i t s v a lues, a nd b ur ied h im , f ro m b oyhood , i n awor ld o fb ooks . Bede , o f c ourse , was n ot t he o n ly o b la te o f t he p er iod , b ut t here i s t he f ur ther c ons idera t ion t ha t , a s Ih ave t r ied t o a rgue e lsewhere , Monkw ear mou thJ arrow p robab ly was r a ther a n e x traord inary p lace t o b e g row ing u p i n t he l a ter s even th c entury .
T o r ever t t o t he "n orms" t ha t we c ons idered e ar lier :
t he l i ves o f Monkwear mouth-Jarrow ' sa bbots s hare r e la t ive ly f ew f ea tures o f t he Ade lshe i l iger t rad it ion ;
t hey s ay n o th ing much a bou t f am i ly b ackgrounds,
a nd t hey a re p o l it ica l ly "n eutra l" ,s ho w ing n e ither a h ost i le , n or a p ar t icul ar ly s y mpa thet ic, a t t itude t owards k ings .1 43
Aga in , where Wi lfr id b eca me
ag rea tb ishop , a nd p assed h is monast ic f ounda t ions o n t o h is own k ins men , l i ke s o many o thers i n Br i ta in a nd a broad , B iscop n ever b ecame ab ishop a t a l l , a nd s pen t much o f h is l ast h ours a d jur ing h is monks t ha t o n n o a ccount was h e t o b e s ucceeded b y ar e la t ive ; h is s uccessor i nher i ted t h is a nx ie ty .1 44 A nd whereas t he H iberno-Saxon s ty le o f i l lu m ina t ion i s n ow r ecogn ized t o b e u n th inkab le w ithout i t s b ackground i n t rad it iona l i nsu lar me ta l-work , t he g rea te st o f Monkwear mouth-Jarrow ' s manuscr ip ts, t he C odex Am ia t inus, w h ich was a l most p rec ise ly c on te mporary w i th t he L ind isfarne G ospe ls, a nd wh ich was b e ing wr it ten wh i le Bede was g row ing u p i n t h e c o m mun i ty , s ee ms t o s tra in e very n erve i n o rder t o e scape f ro m i t s c on temporary e nv ironmen t . I t s h andwr it ing i s av ar ian t o f I t a l ian u ncia l, i t s t ext a nd d ecora t ion a re d ist inct , a s i n t he L a te An t ique t rad i t ion , a nd i t s a r t , wh i le b e tray ing i nd ica t ions o f i ns u lar t echn ique , s tr ives t o r eproduc9 t he u nfam i l iar efects o f a Med i terranean o r ig ina l : i ti s ab ook w i th i t s h or iz As b eyond t he A lps, a nd n ot i n b arbar ian N or thu mbr ia .
1 45
I am n ot c oncer i ied h ere w ith h ow a nd why B iscop c ame t o
6 2
s e tu p o n Nor thu mbr ian s oi l a n i s land o f Med i terranean c u lture t ha t was l apped , b u t n ot a t f i rst f l ooded , b y t he v a lues o ft i e n or thern wor ld o uts ide i t s h arbors . Wha t i s impor tan t i s t he way t ha t h is c o m mun ity s ee ms t o a n t ic ipa te a nd e xp la in t he v iews o f i t s g rea test s on . T he a ngry a uthor o f t he L et ter t o Egber t i s e as i ly r ecogn izab le i n t he p up i l o f af ounder w ith s uch s trong v iews o n t he s ucc ess ion o f a bbots . B ede ' sf a i lure , c o mpared t o Edd ius, t o r ef lect t he "t hough tw or ld" o f t he b arbar ian n ob i l ity i s i n te l l ig ib le i n a member o f ac o mmun ity w here t he c our t i s n ot k nown t o h ave f easted f or d ays a nd n igh ts o n e nd , a nd w here Ceo lfr i th f ough t t o d isc ip l ine r est less a r istocra ts.
1 46
Ab ib le wh ich was
f or many c en tur ies t hough t t o b e a n I ta l ian b ook may h e lp t o e xp la in h ow i t was t ha t Bede b egan w ith t wen tytwo c hap ters o n R o man Br ita in , t hen u tter ly i gn ored t he h istory o f h is own p eop le i n t he s ix th c en tury b efore b r ing ing S t A ugust ine t o K en t i n t he f ootsteps o f J u l ius Caesar . B iscop ' sl i brary wh ich P rofessor L a istner d id s o much t o i l lu m ina te , was t he mak ing o f B ede ' s l earn ing . Iwou ld f ur ther s uggest t ha t t hough h i mse lf an ob le man , B iscop ' s " u ltramon tan is m" h e lped t o i so la te Bede f ro m t he a r istocra t ic c u lture o f c ont e mporary C hr ist ian ity i n E ng land , when Ih ave t r ied t o s how t ha t t he p ast was r e me mbered i n l egend a s i n c usto m a nd t aste . Ano ma ly i s much t oo s trong a t erm f or Bede , b ut i ti s n ot , a f ter a l l , e nt i re ly u nreasonab le t o s ee h im a s s tand ing a par t f ro m t he wor ld h e wrote a bout . T he B ib le was n a tural ly r egarded a s t he most impor tan t o f a l l h istor ies i n t he Midd le Ages, a nd t he O ld T estamen t e spec ia l ly o f fered a l l e ar ly med ieva l h istor ians t he image o f ar ecorder o f e ven ts who was a lso t he ir c r it ic i n G od ' s n a me .
A l iena t ion i s t hus, t o s o me e x ten t , ab u i ltin c ond it ion o f h istor ica l
wr it ing t hroughout t he p er iod , a nd i t s p o ten t ia l i s a lready r evea led b y t he f act t ha t a "z one o f s i lence" b e tween t he s pec if ica l ly e cc les iast ica l , a nd t he p agan o r mere ly s ecu lar , t rad it ions e x isted a s e ar ly a s t he f our th c entury .
E ven s o ,
B ede was t he f irst ma jor h istor ian t o wr ite a s a monk , a nd , i n v iew o f t he c ircu mstances o f h is l i fe , i ti s n ot s urpr is ing t ha t n o o ther h istor ica l masterp iece o f t he M idd le Ages s o n ear ly j ust if ies t he d escr ip t ion , "o ther-wor ld ly . "1 47 A ga in , f ew e ar ly med ieva l h istor ians were o n ly h istor ians ;
most h ad p erfor med
i n o ther g enres, a nd r egu lar ly impor ted f ea tures o f t he ir a l terna t ive s ty le i nto t he ir h istor ica l wr i t ings . B u t Bede was t he o n ly i mpor tan t b arbar ian h istor ian w ho was a lso a Fa ther o f t he C hurch i n h is own r ight , a nd , e ven b y p a tr ist ic s tandards , h is c omm it men tt o t he s pread ing o f t he G ospe l was u nusa l ly s trong ( he n ever h ad t o f ace t he l i ve p rob le ms o f r unn ing a d iocese) . B ede ' s who le t ra in ing made h i m ac o mmen ta tor u pon , r a ther t han a r ecorder o f , e ven ts a nd h is i s t hus u nderstandab ly o ne o f t he most mora l ly d idact ic h istor ies o f t he who le med ieva l p er iod, i fa l so o ne o f t he most g racefu l ly e xpressed .
1 48
I f
B ede i s v iewed i n t h is s or t o f p erspect ive , t he d if ferences b etween h is E cc lesast ica l H istory a nd i t s c on t inen ta l c oun terpar ts f a l l i nto p lace , a nd t he g u lf wh ich s epara tes i tf ro m t he ma jor v ernacu lar monu men t o f e ar ly Eng l ish l i tera ture may b e u nderstood .
V I C onc lus ions The c onc lus ions t o w h ich t he a rgu men ts o f t h is p aper p o in t c an b est b e g rouped u nder t he t hree ma in h eads o f t he t op ics i n i t s t i t le . 6 3
F irst , a s r egards
B eowu lf : h istor ic is m c an d eb i l i ta te t he s tudy o f l i tera ture when i ts eeks t o d icta te t o c r i t ics i n t he n ame o f h istor ica l r ea lity , a nd Iam n ot h ere c oncerned t o l im i t t he r ange o f s ub ject ive r eact ion wh ich i s t he c r it ic ' sl eg it ima te , i nd eed n ecessary , b us iness. N everthe less, n ear ly a l l l i terary c r it ic is m d epends i n p ar tu pon h istor ica l a ssu mp t ions, a nd i tc anno t b e wrong f or h istor ians t o t est t he s treng th o f t hese f ounda t ions. T he h istor ica l e xam ina t ion o f e ar ly med ieva l C hr is t ian c u l ture i s ab e t ter me thod , i n my v iew , o f d ecid ing b etween a l terna t ive i n terpreta t ions o f B eowu lf t han a na logy w ith t he p lays o f S hakespeare . Iwou ld s uggest , t herefore , t ha t t he r igh t a pproach t o t he p rob lem o f t he C hr ist ian i ty o f Beowu lf i s i nd ica ted b y t wo t ypes o f h istor ica l e v idence .
I n
t he f i rst p lace , A lcu in ' sl e t ter t o Hygeba ld p robab ly d oes h o ld a n i mpor tan t c lue , i n t ha t i tt eaches u s t o l ook n ot t o t he p r inc ip les, b ut t o t he s oc ia l a nd c u ltura l m i l ieu o f e ar ly Eng l ish C hr ist ian i ty , i fw e a re t o u nderstand t he l i tera te c o mpos it ion o f h ero ic l i tera ture among t he Ang lo-Saxons. G iven t he ir c ont ex t i n e ar ly med ieva l c anon l aw a nd t heo logy , A lcu in ' sr e marks a rgue t ha t C hadw ick was p robab ly r igh t t o f ee l t ha t ac ler ica l p en h ad n o b usiness w ith s uch ma ter ia l a s B eowu lf , wherever i t was p l ied .
O n t he o ther h and , b oth
A lcu in a nd t he c onc i l iar c anons i nd ica te t ha t t rad i t iona l l i terary t astes d id s urv ive i n e cc les iast ica l , e ven monast ic , c irc les , a nd t he c on tex t i n t h is i ns tance i nd ica tes t ha t t h is was b ecause o f t he d om ina t ion o f t he c hurch b y ,the v a lues o f t he b arbar ian a r istocracy . T here i s a n a na logy h ere w ith t he o lder a nd l arger d eba te a bout C hr ist ian ity a nd t he c lass ics . -F ew w ou ld n owadays make t he mistake o f d ivorc ing t he C hurch F a thers a l toge ther f ro m t he l i terary l egacy o f a n t iqu ity , b u t t he f act i s t hat t he ir p ub l ished a t t itude t owards i t was s e ldo m s ympa thet ic a nd o f ten h ost i le .
I f we a re t ou nderstand t he s urv iva l
o ft he c lass ica l t rad i t ion , we n eed t o a pprec ia te t he e x ten t t o wh ich , i n a Chr ist ian c u lture t ha t was more o r l ess c rea ted i n . L a t in , t rad it iona l l i tera ture r e ma ined i nd ispensab le e qu ip men t f or a n e duca ted man . S im i lar ly , a l though t he "p ar tyl ine" o f t he western Fa thers was, i fa ny th ing , e ven l ess s y mpa thet ic t o s ecu lar l i tera ture i n t he v ernacu lar , t he h ero ic s ty le d id s urv ive , e ssen t ia l ly b ecause t he e ar ly med ieva l c hurch was a n Ade lsk irche . T h is s or t o f s o lut ion b y n o means e xc ludes t he p oss ib i l i ty o f I r ish i n f luence u pon t he g enes is o f Beowu lf .
T he c e lebra t ion o f t he ir a ncestors, r ea l o r my th ica l, must h ave
c o me n a tura l ly t o b arbar ian n ob le men , e ven a f ter t he ir c onvers ion , b ut t he more o p t im ist ic I r ish a t t i tude t o t he f a te o f t he u nbap t ized c ou ld h ave c on tr ib u ted t o i t , b y r e mov ing a p o ten t ia l s ource o f d iscourage men t .
I ndeed , t he
I r ish s ense o f t he c on t inu ing impor tance o f t he p re-Chr ist ian p ast may h ave b een o ne c ruc ia l r eason f or t he ir mass ive s uccess a s m issionar ies w i th G erman ic a r istocrac ies .1 49 S econd , t he s a me s pr to f p o in t i s made b y t he e v idence o f manuscr ipt s urv iva l .
On t he o ne h and , v ery l i t t le s uch l i tera ture a s Beowu lf , Wa ldhere a nd
F innsburh h as s urv ived f ro m e ar ly med ieva l E urope . T hose t o who m B eowu lf h as s ee med a n u nexcep t ionab le p roduct o f C hr is t ian o r thodoxy n eed t o s ay why o n ly a s ing le c opy h as s urv ived , i n a n u npro m ising manuscr ip t c on tex t , a nd why a na logous ma ter ia l i s s o h ard t o f ind . O n t he o ther h and s o me f rag ments o f G er man ic t rad it ion d id f i nd t he ir way o n to p archmen t i n a n a ge o f "r estr icted l i teracy" ,a nd t h is must b e e xp la ined b y t hose t o whom Beowu lf h as s ee med t o h ave n oth ing t o d o w i th C hr ist ian ity . The s uggest ion i n t h is p aper i s t ha t , g iven t he s oc ie ty a nd c u lture o f t he e ar ly med ieva l Church , t he s urv iva l o f as ecu lar 6 4
t rad it ion i s n ot a t a l l s urpr ising , a nd i ti s u nnecessary t o c ha l lenge t he many i nd ica t ions t ha t e ar ly Ang lo-Saxon l i teracy was e f fect ive ly a c ler ica l monopo ly i n o rder t o a ccoun t f or i t . B u t , g iven a lso t ha t o rthodox o p in ion s hou ld h ave b een u n favorab le t o t he c u l t iva t ion o f t h is s or t o f l i tera ture , i ti s n ot s urpr isi ng t ha t Beowu lf b are ly s urv ived t he Eng l ish "Caro l ing ian Rena issance" o f t he mid t en th c en tury , j ust a s t he H i ldebrands l ied b are ly s urv ived t he Frank ish ; a nd c r i t ics s hou ld n ot b e a shamed o f t he ir modern c onv ict ion t ha t t he p oe m i s a masterp iece , mere ly b ecause o f i t s p recar ious p reserva t ion . T he q uest ion , i s Beowu lf C hr ist ian?" e ngages t oo many o f t he p ersona l ' c onv ict ions o f c r it ics e ver t o e voke a gree men t u pon aw ide s ca le . T he amb iva lences o f t he p oe m a re t oo o bv ious, a nd i t s mora l q ua li ty t oo much a t v ar iance w ith wha t i s t oday u nderstood t o b e C hr ist ian ity . But i fA lcu in wou ld p robab ly n ot h ave t hough t t he E ng l ish e p ic C hr ist ian , ac oro l lary o f my a rgumen t i s t ha t modern c r it ics h ave t he o p t ion o f d isagree ing , i ft hey w ish . T he C hr ist ian C hurch i n t he s ix th t o n in th c en tur ies d irect ly c ha l lenged t he o ld p agan g ods, a nd o f f ic ia l ly d iscouraged n osta lg ia , b u t i tp resen ted l ess o f a t hrea t t o t he h ero ic e thos t han modern C hr ist ians m igh t e xpect . Much o f wha t b arbar ians h ad a lways c hosen t o b e l ieve a nd p ract ise c ou ld b e c on f irmed o u t o f t he O ld T estamen t , i fn o t t he New , t he Apocrypha i fn ot t he O ld T estamen t .1 50 P oets, moreover , u sua l ly wr i te n o t a bout
v h .a t
t hey mere ly k now , b u t a bou t wha t
c ap t iva tes t he ir imag ina t ion , a nd t he Beowu lf p oe t was n ot t he o n ly b arbar ian C hr ist ian t o b e e spec ia l ly i n terested i n al im ited , i fa lso q u ite r echerche , p or t ion o f J udaeo-Chr ist ian r eve la t ion .
Two o f t he e ar l iest p ieces o f O ld H igh
G erman v erse , t he Wessobrunner G abe t a nd t he Musp i l l i , c oncern r espect ive ly t he c rea t ion a nd t he j udge men t . S t C o lu mba , i n h is A l tus Prosa tor e xpressed al i ve ly i n terest i n t he monsters o f S cr ip ture , b o th g ian ts a nd d ragons, a nd t hough h e d oes men t ion t he T r in ity , h e was s carce ly more i n terested t han t he Beowu lf p oe t i n C hr ist a s Man a nd R edee mer . I th as r ecent ly b een s uggested t ha t Beowu lf r eads l i ke t he w ork o f a n Ar ian , a nd a l though t here a re a l most i nsuperab le o b ject ions t o t he t heory o f Ar ian i nf luence , t he s uggest ion d oes r em ind u s t ha t as izeab le p ropor t ion o f t he e ar ly G er man ic p eop les l ong r ema ined f a ith fu l t o ad octrina l s yste m i n wh ich t he r o le o f G od t he S on was p layed d own b y c o mpar ison w ith t ha t o f G od t he Fa ther .1 51 I n t hese c ircu mstances, i t i s p robab ly a m isuse o f t erm ino logy t o c a l l t he v ir tues o f t he h eroes o f G erman ic l i tera ture p agan ;
a nd i ts ee ms a p i ty t o t ake a s e v idence o f s uper f ic ia l
C hr ist ian i ty , o r o f l ack o f i nterest i n t he Fa ith , wha t a ctua l ly t e l ls u s s o met h ing more i n terest ing , a nd more moving : t he s or t o f impac t t ha t Chr ist ian r evela t ion made i n i t s n ew c u l tura l e nv ironmen t . I n B eowu l f , t he p oe t 's c onc ern was p robab ly n ot w i th t he i ncu lca t ion o f Chr ist ian p r inc ip les , b ut we s ha l l mass ive ly i ncrease t he b u lk o f 'p agan ' Eng l ish l i tera ture i fa l l t ha t we a re p rep ared t o c a l l Chr ist ian i s Parad ise L ost o r P i lgr im 's P rogress . Fro m Beowu lf , It urn t o t he c onversion o f t he Ang lo-Saxon a r istocracy . E uropean h istor ians o f r e l ig ious c hange a re h e irs t o ap ar t icu lar t rad it ion o f e cc les iast ica l h istor iography , wh ich i s e ssen t ia l ly t ha t o f t he New T esta men t , a nd b ecause Bede ' si s t he g rea test o f a l l e cc les iast ica l h istor ies, Eng l ish h ist or ians h ave b een p ar t icu lar ly e xposed t o i t ; b ut t he i nher itance i nc ludes c ert a in c r i t ica l r ef lexes wh ich a re h and icaps t o h istor ica l u nderstand ing o f t he p rocess. A bove a l l, we h ave f ar t oo c oncrete a c oncep t ion o f t he p rocess o f c onversion . D om ina ted b y t he a we-insp ir ing a sser t ion t ha t a man may , a nd 6 5
I ndeed must , b e b orn a ga in , h istor ians o f c onversion t h ink i nst inct ive ly o f t he who lesa le e xchange o f o ne s et o fv a lues f or a nother ; t here i s a n u nder ly ing a ssu mp t ion t ha t t he s e t o fv a lues a bandoned f or t he Fa i th were a s c o mpreh ens ive a nd c oheren t a s i s C hr ist ian ity i t se lf , a nd t hese v a lues a re g iven t he g ener ic l abe l o fp agan is m ' . A s ar esu lt , we d escr ibe a s s urv iva ls o f 'p agan is m ' wha t may n ot h ave v ery much t o d o w ith h ea then c u l t a t a l l , a nd wha t a re o f ten o n ly i nd ica t ions t ha t s oc ie ty h ad f a i led t o r e make i t se lf c o mp le te ly . H istor ians h ave , o f c ourse , a lways b een a ware t ha t a l l i s u sua l ly n ot r enewed i n t he f on t , b ut t hey make t he m istake o f a t tr ibut ing t oo much o f ar e l ig ious s ign if icance t o wha t s urv ives o f t he O ld Adam . T he l anguage o f p oetry a nd t he p rocess o f b lood-feud a re t wo a spects o f p ost-convers ion l i fe i n Br ita in wh ich h ave b een a dduced a s e v idence o f l i nger ing 'p agan is m ' ,a nd t he c r it ic is m o f Beowu lf h as s uf fered o nb oth c oun ts. Bu t i ti s t he h ero ic l i tera ture o f t he Ang lo-Saxons t ha t a ctua l ly e nab les u s t o make t he n ecessary d ist inct ions, a nd t h is i s p erhaps t he mos t i mpor tan t imp l ica t ion o ft he s tudy o f B eowu lf f or t he h istor ian o f t he c onvers ion o f t he e ar ly E ng l ish n ob i l ity . S een i n t he w ider c ontex t o f v ernacu lar c u l ture i n t he e ar ly med ieva l West , Beowu lf i s r ea l ly impress ive e v idence f or t he t o ta l ity o f t he Ang lo S axon c onvers ion . Vast r eserves o f i n te l lectua l e nergy h ave b een d evo ted t o t hresh ing t he p oe m f or g a ins o f a uthen t ic p agan b e l ief , b ut i t must b e a dm it ted t ha t t he h arvest h as b een meagre .
T he p oet may h ave k nown t ha t
h is h eroes were p agans, b ut h e d id n ot k now much a bou t p agan is m.
A spects
o f h is v ocabu lary h ave n um inous a ssoc ia t ions wh ich owe l i t t le t o t he Med iterr anean , b ut t here i s as tr ik ing c on trast b etween t h is s i tua t ion a nd t ha t r ev ea led b y t he e qu iva len t l i tera tures o f t he I r ish a nd O ld N orse .
P agan d e i t ies
d o n ot o f ten f i gure a s d ra ma t is p ersonae i n t he I r ish s agas, b ut s cho lars h ave n ever h ad much d if f icu lty i n d etect ing t he amp le e v idence o f t he o ld C e lt ic r e l ig ion b enea th t he ir s ur face .1 52 Even t he e v idence o f t he I r ish s agas, h owever , p a les i n to i ns ign if icance b es ide t ha t o f t he N orse , where we f i nd e xact ly wha t we d o n ot f i nd i n Beowu lf , n ame ly t he g ods o f t he G erman ic P an theon o n a ct ive s erv ice .
We h ave b een t o ld t ha t Ang lo-Saxon p oetry i s
"s teeped" i n p re-Chr ist ian r e l ig ion , b u t i ti s impor tan t n ot t o c on fuse i d io m w ith c on ten t o r e th ics w i th f a i th .1 53 O n t he c on trary , t he u nqua l if ied monot he is m o f Beowu lf a nd Wa ldhere i s o f ap iece w ith t he Ang lo-Saxon e v idence a s awho le .
We k now r e markab ly l i t t le a bout e ar ly E ng l ish h ea then is m , a nd a l-
t hough t he e v idence o f c onc i l iar c anons, a rchaeo logy a nd e ven p lace-names s uggest t ha t a nc ien t s uperst it ions l i ngered i n t he c oun trys ide , t he l i tera ture i s among o ther i nd ica t ions t ha t , b y t he e igh th c en tury a t l east , t he Ang lo-Saxon n ob i l i ty was s uf fer ing f ro m wha t amoun ts, b y C e l t ic o r S cand inav ian s tandards , t o c o l lect ive r e lig ious amnes ia .1 54 I ns tead o f t ry ing t o e ke o ut wha t s craps o f e v idence we h ave w ith t he a id o f S cand inav ian a na log ies, h istor ians wou ld d o b et ter , Is uggest , t o a sk why t he ma ter ia l i s s o s parse .
Why , f or i nstance ,
i s t here n o Eng l ish s yncret ist ic t rad it ion? Why a re t he Ang l ian s tone c rosses o f t he p re-V ik ing a ge s o u n l ike t he G osfor th c ross, w ith i t s r e markab le b lend o f N orse c rea t ion a nd C hr ist ian c ruc if ix ion? B ut t he d isappearance o f p agan G er man ic g ods i s n ot a t a l l t he s ame t h ing a s t he d isappearance o f p agan G er man ic h eroes, o r o f t he h ero ic way o f l i fe w ith wh ich t hey were a ssoc ia ted , a nd t hough t he d ist inct ion i s b lurred b y Bede , i ti s e stab l ished b y Beowu lf .
T he b a ff l ing d iscrepancy i n t he p oe m 6 6
b e tween p agan p rac t ice a nd C hr is t ian s en t i men t i s d ec is ive e v idence t ha t , a lt hough t he Ang lo-Saxon a r is tocracy was w i l l ing t o a ccept a n ew G od , i t was n o tp repared t o j et t ison t he me mory o r t he e xa mp le o f t hose who h ad worsh ipp ed t he o ld .
Ar is tocracies i nt hese c ircu ms tances v ery r are ly a re .
As a n-
t hropo log ica l s tudy o f s oc ie t ies n o t d iss im i lar f ro m t he Ang lo-Saxons h as s hown , me mor ies o f t he p as t a nd c u l tura l v a lues a re o f ten i nseparab le .
L i tera ture
l ike B eowu l f was impor tan t t o Ang lo-Saxon n ob le men n o t b ecause t hese S cand inav ian t a les d escr ibed a ny p ar t o f t he ir r ea l p as t ( so f ar a s we k now ) b u t b ec ause t hey e ncapsu la ted , a nd i ndeed i den t i f ied , t he s ocia l a nd c u l tura l v a lues o f t he c lass .
We s ha l l f a i l t o u nders tand t he p ers is tence o f t he ' hero ic c ode ' ,
u n less we c an a pprec ia te i t s r ea l s oc ia l r e levance t o as oc ie ty where c ourage , l oya l ty a nd g eneros i ty were f unda men ta l c ond i t ions o f an ob le man 's way o f l i fe . Hero ic s tor ies were more t han j us t e n ter ta inmen t .
1 55
T o a bandon t he m wou ld
h ave j eopard ized t he s oc ia l c onsc iousness o f a who le warr ior-c lass . L ike t he d isappearance o f h ea then is m , t he s urv iv ing impor tance o f ah ero ic p as t i s a lso i nd ica ted b y o ther t ypes o f e v idence .
The Ang lo-Saxon g enea log ies ,
a s we h ave s een , i nvoke h eroes f ro m t he c on t inen ta l t rad i t ion , a s we l l a s Woden ( i n a" euphe mer ized" f or m ) i na n e f for t t o b oos t t he p res t ige o f k ingsh ip .
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To j udge b y t he manuscr ip t e v idence , t he Wes t S axons , l i ke s o me c on t inen ta l p eop les , a ssoc iated t he d eeds o f t he ir f orebears w i th t he ir a nces tra l l aws .1 57 As h as a lways b een r ecogn ized , t he warr ior e th ic o f t he l a te-ten th-cen tury Ba t t le o f Ma ldon i s s t i l l t ha t o f t he h ero ic c om i ta tus , a nd e ven t hough i t s h eroes a re " na t iona l ," n o t c os mopo l i tan f igures , we a re s t i l l s o me way s hor t o f t he more o bv ious ly p a tr io t ic a nd c rusad ing o ver tones o f t he S ong o f R o land .
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N ow T o lk ien s aw , more c lear ly t han a ny b e fore h im , t ha t Beowu l f i s ap oe m a bouta bou t t he p as t , a nd i s mos t r e markab le f or t he i n tens i ty o f i t s f ee ling a bou t t he p as t .
I f we c an g rasp t he s treng th o f t he s ocia l a nd c u l tura l t ies t ha t b ind
a ny n ob i l i ty t o i ts p as t , we a re a l ong way t owards u nders tand i n g t he amb iva lence , t he ming led p r ide a nd s orrow , w i th wh ich t he p oe t l ooks b ack u pon h is h eroes . As a me mber o f t he warr ior-c lasses h i mse lf , t he p oe t mus t h ave a dm ired — p erhaps h e e ven im i ta ted — t he v ir tues i n wh ich h is work g lor i f ies .
As a
C hr is t ian , h e k new , a nd p erhaps h e l a men ted , t ha t h ero ic v ir tues a re n o t e nough . I ti s n o t s urpr is ing t ha t t he e th ica l q ua l i ty o f B eowu l f s hou ld h ave s ee med t o s o many t o p u l l i n t wo d i fferen t d irec t ions a t o nce .
T o me , t he l o f t iness o f
t one wh ich t ranscends t he mere ly s ecu lar i n t he p oe m i s al egacy n e i ther o f Chr is t ian i ty n or p agan is m ;
i ts pr ings f ro m a f unda men ta l t ens ion w i th in t he
p oe t 's s ou l . T he l ong a nd s hor t o f i ti s t ha t modern h is tor ians c an a f ford t o d is t ingu ish , e ven i fB ede , B on i face a nd A lcu in c ou ld n o t , b e tween t he e ssen t ia ls o f p agan b e lie f , a nd t he s ecu lar v a lues o f p re-Chr is t ian s ocie ty .
I ti s ab as ic e rror t o
c on fuse a c on t inui ty i n d ep th b e tween c ler ica l a nd s ecu lar s tandards w i th a l inear c on t inu i ty b e tween p agan is m a nd C hr is t ian i ty .
The ma in l esson o f t he
" a l terna t ive p erspec t ive" f urn ished b y v ernacu lar l i tera ture f or t he s tuden t o f Bede a nd h is Eng land i s t ha t , t o s o me e x ten t , we n eed t o r ep lace t he c onst r ic ted r ange o f v is ion t ha t i s c harac ter is t ic o f e cc les ias t ica l h is tory b y a n imag ina t ive mode l o f t he Ang lo-Saxon c onvers ion s im i lar t o t ha t s upp l ied b y Pau l t he D eacon f or t he L o mbards o r Widuk ind f or t he S axons .
T he c om ing
o f C hr is t ian i ty d isp laced t he o ld G ods , a nd d iver ted t rad i t iona l v a lues i n to n ew p as tures , b u t i td id n ot c hange t hose v a lues . 6 7
T he c onvers ion o f t he
Ang lo-Saxon a r is tocracy was a f ac t , a nd a r e markable o ne , b u t i t was n o t t he s or t o r mirac le t ha t B ede s ee ms t o d escr ibe .
P rec ise ly , p erhaps , b ecause
C hr is t ian i ty i s ar e l ig ion whose s tandards a re t hose o f a nother wor ld , i th as p roved r e markab ly a dap tab le i n t h is o ne , a nd t here h ave b een a l mos t a s many " convers ions o f C hr is t ian i ty" a s t here h ave b een s oc ie t ies i n r eceip t o f t he F a i th .
I n Ang lo-Saxon Eng land , t o a dap t t he d y ing w ords o f t he Emperor
J u l ian , t he G a l l i lean d id n o t w in a b lood less v ictory ; F ina l ly , It urn t o B ede .
b u t h as h e e ver?
I ti s ap r i mary imp l ica t ion o f t h is p aper t ha t
Bede i s a more i so la ted f igure t han h e h as u sua l ly b een c ons idered . Imake n o a po logy , s ince B ede i s i ndeed e x traord inary .
F or t h is ,
P rev ious g enera t ions
o f h is tor ians were r eady t o we lco me h im i n to t he ir o wn r anks , wh i le mak ing t he n ecessary e xcuse t ha t h is b e l ie f i n mirac les was a l egacy o f h is t ime ; t od ay we mus t r ecogn ize t ha t h e i s d is t ingu ished f rom h is f e l low-wr i ters i n t he e ar ly M idd le Ages b y more t han j us t a ccuracy , a nd f ro m u s b y more t han p ious s upers t i t ion .
H is tor ians a re n ow r ead ier t o a dm i t t ha t h is i s o n ly o ne v iew o f
wha t h appened i n s even th-cen tury Br i ta in , a nd i ti s n o t n ecessar i ly t he mos t r evea l ing j us t b ecause i t was t he o pin ion o f t he c leveres t man o f t he a ge .
B ede 's
monas t ic b ackground a nd p a tr is t ic c o mm i t men t p u t h im o u t o f s y mpa thy w i th much t ha t h ad h appened , a nd was h appen ing , i n t he c hurch o f h is own d ay ;
t he
r esu l t i s t ha t we h ave t aken s o me o f t he e v idence t ha t C hr is t ian i ty h ad b een a cc ep ted b y t he e ar ly Eng l ish a s i nd ica t ions e i ther t ha t t he message h ad n ot g o t t hrough , o r t ha t t here h ad b een d ec line f ro m o rig ina l ly h igh s tandards a nd we h ave , f or e xa mple , o ver-s i mp l i f ied t he c areer o f S t Wi l fr id b y s ee ing i ta s a mere c lash b etween p r inc iple a nd s el l-in teres t .
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B ede 's p a tr is t ica l ly j us t i-
f ied r e fusa l t o t ake a n i n teres t i n t he p re-Chr is t ian p as t o f h is p eop le h as g rea t ly c on fused t he i n terpre ta t ion o f t he o n ly O ld E ng l ish e pic , wh ich we m igh t h ave u nders tood b e t ter h ad i tb een L o mbard ic o r O ld S axon .
I n f ac t , ag enera l
f ea ture o f t he E cc les ias t ica l H is tory i s t ha t i ti s r are ly i l lum ina t ing o nt he p reo ccupa t ions o f t he Ang lo-Saxon a r is tocracy ;
a nd t h is i s o ne r eason why S ir
F rank S ten ton 's b ook i s c ur ious ly l i gh t o n t he s ta tus a nd c u l ture o f t he e ar ly Eng l ish n ob i l i ty ( and h as l i t t le t o s ay o f B eowu l f ) , whereas H ector Munro C hadw ick , whose e ar was a t tuned t o t he r hy thms a nd t he mes o f v ernacu lar p oe try , p ossessed a n i ns igh t i n to t he p o l i t ica l a nd c u l tura l h is tory o f t he e ar ly Ger man ic p eop les t ha t h as n ever p roper ly b een f o l lowed u p . Bu t t h is c an o n ly b e p ar t o f t he s tory .
As Ih ave s a id , t he E cc les ias t ica l
H is tory , u n l ike Beowu l f , was o ne o f t he g rea t i n terna t iona l b es t-se l lers o f t he e ar ly M idd le Ages , a nd i n t he e nd B ede c a me t o d om ina te t he h is tor ica l ima g ina t ions o f h is f e l low-coun try men . p la ined .
S uch a s uccess c an h ard ly b e l e f t u nex-
T he t ru th , It h ink , i s t ha t B ede was r epresen ta t ive o f h is r eaders i n
o ne c ruc ia l r espec t .
H e c rys ta l l ized t he e n thus ias m w i th wh ich t he Ang lo-
S axons , l i ke t he o ther e ar ly G er man ic p eop les , t hrew t he mse lves i n to t he b a lance o f t he o ld R o mano-Chr is t ian wor ld .
T he d om inan t n o te o f t he c on t in-
e n ta l Dark Ages , a s W. P . K er c lear ly r ecogn ized , was s ounded n o t b y t he e f for t t o p reserve t he p as t , b u t ( i ron ica l ly ) b y t he d e ter m ina t ion o f t he b arbari an p eoples t o i den t i fy w i th t he works o f R o me ( whe ther Augus tan o r P e tr ine ) .
1 60
The c o mm i t men t o f t he Ang lo-Saxon e duca ted c lasses t o t he v a lues o f t he Med it erranean i s j us t a s e v iden t i nt he e vange l is t-por tra i ts o f t he L ind is farne Gospe ls a s i s t he i nsu lar b ackground i n t he c arpe t-pages .
A f ter B ede , t he
mos t impor tan t e ar ly Ang lo-Saxon s cho lar was A ldhe lm , a nd h is e x tan t works
6 8
a re a s u nco mpro m is ing ly L a t in a s Bede 's , h owever much , l i ke P lum mer , we m igh t h ave p re ferred t o p ossess h is v ernacu lar p oe ms .1 61 S uch a c omm i tmen t i ndeed e xp la ins t he e f fec t ive a bandonmen t o f h ea then is m s uch a s Ih ave a rgued t ha t B eowu l f d e mons tra tes , a nd e nsured t ha t , i n t he l ong r un , t he l i kes o f A lcu in l arge ly h ad t he ir way a bou t t he h ero ic p as t a lso . men t t ha t i s i ncarna ted b y B ede .
I ti s t h is c omm i t-
The E cc les ias t ica l H is tory , av is ion o f t he
e ar ly Eng l ish C hurch t rans f igured b y t he N ew D ispensa t ion , p ro jec ted a n image o f as ocie ty wh ich , h owever i dea l ized , was n o t a t a l l u n l ike t he image o f i t se l f wh ich t ha t s ocie ty w ished t o s ee .
Wha t i s u n ique a bou t B ede , t here fore , i s
n o t h is i n teres t i n t he Med i terranean a nd a l l t ha t i t s tood f or , b u t t he e xc lus ive c harac ter o f t ha t i n teres t .
T he v ery s pec ia l r e la t ionsh ip wh ich s ubsequen t h is-
t or ians o f t he Ang lo-Saxons h ave d eve loped w i th t he ir p ro to type makes i tn ecess ary t o d we l l o ccas iona l ly o n wha t h e d oes n o t r e f lec t :
t he e ssen t ia l ly b arbar ian
c on tex t o f e ar ly C hr is t ian i ty i n B r i ta in , where t he p as t was n o t i m med ia te ly f orgot ten ;
b u t o f c ourse a p roper u nders tand ing o f t he Ang lo-Saxon c hurch mus t
t ake f u l l a ccoun t o f B ede a s w e l l a s B eowu l f .
B ede r epresen ts among t he
Ang lo-Saxons wha t c on te mporary h is tory h as g iven t he modern h is tor ian a g ood o ppor tun i ty t o a pprec ia te , n a me ly a n u nderdeve loped s oc ie ty 's c apaci ty , a nd i ndeed d e ter m ina t ion , t o b e l ieve i n i t s me ta morphos is b y " c iv i l iza t ion ."
Wha t
Ih ave t r ied t o s ugges t i n t h is p aper i s t ha t f or t he Ang lo-Saxons s uch a d e term ina t ion was n ot q u i te u nqua li f ied , a nd t ha t i n B eowu l f we may r ecogn ize n e i ther more n or l ess t han t he f orce o f h ab i t wh ich , e ven i n ac on tex t o f s h i f t ing r e l ig ious a l leg iances , b inds a s oc ie ty t o i t s p as t . Tha t t h is e ven n eeds t o b e s a id i s p aradox ica l ly t he u l t i ma te measure o f B ede 's g rea tness a s ah is tor ian . i s a s ton ish ing .
E ven i n c onven t iona l t er ms , h is a ch ieve men t
Bu t many h is tor ians h ave t o ld t he t ru th t o t he b es t o f t he ir
a b i l i ty , a nd s evera l h ave s ucceeded a s we l l a s B ede i n c ircums tances t ha t c an h ave b een s carce ly l ess t ry ing .
V ery f ew h is tor ians h ave u l t i ma te ly c hanged
as ocie ty 's who le c oncep tion o f t he ir p as t a nd t augh t t he m t o s ee i t s r e levance f or t he p resen t i n an ew l igh t , a s B ede d id . b ecause i ti s g rea t a r t .
6 9
H is i s g rea t h is tory a bove a l l
NOTES 1 .
O ne o f s evera l e ar l ier ( and s hor ter) d ra f ts o f t h is p aper was r ead a t C orne l l t o t he Bede c en tenary c lass i n t he s pr ing s e mester o f 1 973 .
I
h ave t o t hank C orne l l Un ivers ity f or t he ir o r ig ina l i nv ita t ion , a nd Profess or Farre l l b o th f or a rrang ing my v isi t , a nd f or h is many h e lp fu l c r it ic is ms o f my c on tr ibut ion .
A mu l t i tude o f o ther f r iends, f u l ly c o m men-
s ura te w ith t he s ize o f t h is p aper , h ave a ss isted t he f i na l emergence o f my v iews, w i thout d eserv ing a ny b la me f or my e rrors o f f act o r j udg men t ; Imust , i n p ar t icu lar , t hank M iss M .E . G r if f i ths, Dr B . M itche l l, Mr J . Ca mpbe l l a nd Dr M .T . C lanchy . Two a r t ic les wh ich h ave d eep ly i nf luenced t he t hough t o f my p aper i n g enera l t er ms a re P .R .L . Brown , "A spects o f t he c onvers ion o f t he Ro man a r istocracy ," S tud ies 5 1 ( 1961) , 1 -11;
J ourna l o f Ro man
a nd K . L eyser , "T he G erman a r istocracy f ro m
t he n in th t o t he e ar ly t we lf th c en tur ies: Past a nd Presen t 4 1 ( 1968) , 2 5-53 .
as oc ia l a nd c u ltura l s urvey" ,
F or B ede o n b ir thdays, s ee G .
Bonner , "Bede a nd med ieva l c iv i l iza t ion", Ang lo-Saxon Eng land 2 ( 1973) , 7 4 .
La istner t sf amous e ssary i s e nt it led "T he l i brary o f t he V enerab le
Bede ," Bede , h is L i fe , T i mes a nd Wr i t ings, e d . A . Ha m i lton T ho mpson , ( Oxford , 1 935) , 2 37-66 .
F or a c onspectus o f o ther c e lebra tory l i tera ture ,
s ee t he o ther e ssays i n T ho mpson ' sv o lu me , a nd W. F . Bo lton , "A Bede b ib l iography ," Trad it io 1 8 ( 1962 ) , 4 36-45 . 2 .
F . M . S ten ton , Ang lo-Saxon Eng land 3 rd e d . ( Ox ford , 1 970) ( hencefor th ASE) , 1 87 ;
c f . B . C o lgrave , "H istor ica l i n troduct ion" t o B ede ' s
E cc les iast ica l H istory o f t he Eng l ish Peop le , e d . B . C o lgrave a nd R .A .B . Mynors ( Ox ford , 1 969) , p .xv i i i .
C ita t ions i n t h is a r t ic le f ro m Bede ' s
E cc les iast ica l H istory ( HE) , H istory o f t he A bbots ( HA) a nd L et ter t o Egber t ( ep . Egb) , a re , u n less o therw ise s ta ted , b y p age r eference t o Venerab i l is Bedae O pera H istor ica , e d . C . P lu m mer ( Ox ford , 1 896) . 3 .
Ed i t ions o f ag ood p ropor t ion o f Bede ' st heo log ica l c o m men tar ies o n t he b ooks o f S crip ture n ow e x ist i n t he s er ies C orpus Chr ist ianoru m S er ies L a t ina ( hencefor th CCSL ) , most ly e d i ted b y D . H urst . Fro m a C orne l l s tab le h ave c o me M . L . W . L a istner ' se d i t ion o f t he Expos it io A ctuu m Aposto loru m ( Ca mbr idge , Mass., 1 939) ;
C .W . J ones ' se d it ion o f
Bedae O pera d e T e mpor ibus ( Ca mbr idge Mass., 1 943) ; e d i t ion o f I n Pr inc ip iu m G enes is, CCSL 18 ( 1967) . n ow e d ited
a nd J ones ' s
Professor J ones h as
t he Opera D idasca l ic ia i n CCSL . G . Musca I V enerab i le
Beda , s tor ico d e l l ' A lto Med ioevo ( Bar i , 1 973 ) , n ow s e ts Bede ' sh istor ic a l work i n t he c on tex t o f h is o ther wr it ings, a nd P . H un ter B la ir The Wor ld o f Bede ( London , 1 970) , t he most modern e x tan t s tudy i n Eng l ish , i s p erhaps t he f irst t o d escr ibe Bede ' sl i terary a ct iv i ty i n n on-h istor ica l f i e lds a s f u l ly a nd s y mpa the t ica l ly a s h is h istor ica l work . Carro l l ' s The Venerab le Bede :
S ister M .T .A .
h is S p ir i tua l T each ings ( Wash ing ton ,
1 945) was a no ther p ost-1935 l and mark , i nas much a s i t was t he f irst modern f u l lleng th t rea t men t o f Bede ' st heo logy . 7 0
Fa mu lus Chr ist i , E ssays i n
C o m me mora t ion o f t he T h ir teen th C en tenary o f t he B ir th o f t he Venerab le B ede , e d . G . B onne ( London , 1 976) o f fers a s er ies o f i mpor tan t p apers o n t he n on-h istor ica l w ork o f Bede , n otab ly b y P . Meyvaer t "Bede a s s cho lar ," a nd b y C . W . J ones "Bede a nd t he med ieva l s choo ls ." 4 .
R .W . Hann ing , The V is ion o f H istory i n Ear ly Br i ta in ( New York , 1 966) ; J .M . Wa l lace-Hadr i l l , Ear ly G er man ic K ingsh ip i n Eng land a nd o n t he C on t inen t ( Ox ford , 1 971) , 7 2-97 .
5 .
S ee R .A . Markus, "T he c hrono logy o f t he Gregor ian miss ions t o Engl and ," J ourna l o f E cc les iast ica l H istory 1 4 ( 1963) , 1 6-30 ;
P . Meyvaer t ,
Bede a nd Gregory t he G rea t ( Jarrow l ec ture , 1 964) , 8 -13 ;
a nd Append ix
1o f Dr . Mayr-Har t ing ' sb ook c ited i n t he n ex t n ote , f or e f fect ive c r it ic is m o f t he t hes is o f S . Brech ter , D ie Que l len z ur Ange lsachsen m iss ion G regors d es Grossen ( Munster , 1 941) , r esta ted i n S e t t i mane d i ...Spo leto 1 4 ( 1967) , 1 91-215 . S ee G . T ess ier , "L a c onvers ion d e C lov is e t l a c hr ist ian isa t ion d es Francs," i b id ., 1 49-89, f or t he c o mparab le Franki sh p rob le m . c is m :
N ot t ha t B ede ' sc hrono logy i n g enera l h as e scaped c r i t i-
W. L ev ison , "T he b eg inn ing o f t he y ear o f t he i ncarna t ion i n
Bede ," Eng land a nd t he C on t inen t i n t he E igh th Cen tury ( Ox ford , 1 946) , 2 65-79 ; P . Gros jean , "L a d a te d u C o l loque d e Wh itby ," Ana lecta B o l land iana 7 8 ( 1960) , 2 35-42 ; D .P . K irby , "Bede a nd N or thu mbr ian c hrono logy ," Eng l ish H istor ica l Rev iew ( henceforth EHR ) , 7 8 , ( 1963 ) , 5 14-27 ; J . Morr is, T he Age o f Ar thur ( London , 1 973) , 3 5-41; K . Harr ison , "The b eg inn ing o f t he y ear i n Eng land ," Ang lo-Saxon Eng land 2( 1 973) , 5 5-9 . 6 .
S ee H . Mayr-Har t ing , T he C om ing o f Chr ist ian i ty t o Ang lo-Saxon Eng land ( London , 1 972 ) , c hs . 9 ,12 , a nd 1 3 ;
f or Bede ' st rea t men t o f Wi lfr id ,
s ee J . Campbe l l, "B ede ," La t in H istor ians, e d . T . A .Dorey ( London , 1 966) , p p .177-9 a nd n n . 7 4-6 a t p p . 1 88-9 . 7 .
J . Ca mpbe l l , "Bede" ; Campbe l l ' si n troduct ion t o Bede , t he E cc les ia s t ica l H istory a nd o ther s e lect ions ( New York , 1 968) ; c en tury o f Eng l ish C hr ist ian ity ,"
8 .
9 .
a nd "The f irst
Amp lefor th J ourna l 7 6 ( 1971) ,12-29.
H .M . Chadw ick , Or ig ins o f t he Eng l ish Na t ion ( Cambr idge , 1 907) ; a nd T he Hero ic Age ( Cambr idge , 1 912) . R . G irvan , B eowu lf a nd t he S even th C en tury , 2 nd e d ., w i th n ew c h . b y R .L .S . Bruce M i tford ( London , 1 971) , e sp . 4 0-8 ;
c f . W. W . L awrence ,
Beowu lf a nd t he Ep ic T rad i t ion ( New York , 1 928 ) , 5 7-8 .
Re ferences
t o B eowu lf i n t h is p aper a re b y l i ne f ro m t he t ex t o f F . K laeber , Beowu lf a nd t he F igh t a t F innsburg , 3 rd e d . ( Lex ing ton 1 950) . 1 0 .
HE 1 1 .14, p p . 1 55-6 ;
B eowu lf , l i nes 6 4-7 ;
Chadw ick , H ero ic Age , 3 50-1.
F or o ther e v idence i n B eowu lf f or t h is t ype o f warr ior , s ee l i nes 3 315 5 , 3 72-89 a nd 4 57-78 ; i n Bede : HE 1 1 .24, p p . 1 77-8 ; e p .Egb., p p . 4 14-5 ;
i n o ther e ar ly Eng l ish s ources:
Edd i S tephan i V ita Wi lfr id i ,
c . l xv i e d . W. L ev ison , MGH , S cr ip t . Rer , Merov ., V I 2 61-2 ;
F e l ix ' s
L ife o f Guth lac , c c . x v i-x ix , e d . B . C o lgrave ( Cambr idge , 1 956) p p . 8 0-3 r eferences t o F e l ix h encefor th f ro m t h is e d it ion .
7 1
I I.
S ee Beowu lf , l i nes 6 7-85, 6 62-5, 7 14-26 , 7 67-82 , 8 34-6, a nd 9 20-7 f or s o me s ign if ican t r eferences t o Heorot ;
l i nes 4 52-5, 1 030-4 a nd
1 192-1214 f or t reasures, weapons a nd h e ir loo ms ;
l i nes 2 6-52 a nd
3 137-69 f or b ur ia l c usto ms .
On S ut ton H oo , s ee R .L .S . Bruce M i tford ,
T he S ut ton Hoo S h ip-Bur ia l :
a Handbook , 2 nd e d . ( London , Br i t ish Mus-
e um , 1 972 ) , a nd h is s upp le men tary c hap ter t o G irvan , Beowu lf , 8 5-98 . F or Yeaver ing s ee t he p rogress r epor t o f Dr H ope Tay lor ' se xcava t ion i n Med ieva l Archaeo logy ( hencefor th Med . A rch . )1 ( 1 957) , 1 48-9 ; a nd f or t he ir r e levance t o B eowu lf , R . Cramp , "B eowu lf a nd Archaeo logy" , i b id . ,5 7-77 . 1 2 .
D . Wh i te lock , T he A ud ience o f Beowu lf ( Ox ford , 1 951) , 3 9-53 , 7 1-7 a nd 7 9-82 .
1 3 .
D . Wh i te lock , "Ang lo-Saxon p oe try a nd t he h istor ian ," o f t he R oya l H istor ica l S oc iety 4 th s er ies 2 1 ( 1949) .
Transact ions
7 8-9 ; M . B loch ,
F euda l S oc ie ty , t r . L . A . Manyon ( London , 1 961) , 1 02 . 1 4 .
L aws o f Ae the lber t ( Abt ) 1 3 , 1 4, 7 5 ; 5 ;
o f H lo there ( H1) 1 ;
o f Wih tred ( W I)
o f I ne ( I n ) 3 0 , 3 4 :1, 4 5, 5 0 , 5 1, 5 4 , 6 3 , 6 8 , 7 0 , D ie G ese tze d er
Ange lsachsen , e d . F . L iebermann ( Ha l le , 1 903-16) ( references h encef or th t o t h is e d i t ion ) , 1 , 4 , 7 , 9 , 1 2 , 1 02-5 , 1 08-15 , 18-9.
F or f ur ther
d iscuss ion o f t he p rob le ms o f t he l ega l s ta tus o f t he e ar ly Ang lo-Saxon a r istocracy , s ee b e low Append ix A . 1 5 .
HE I V 2 2 , p .251
1 6 .
Car tu lar iu m S axon icu m e d . W. d e Gray B irch ( hencefor th BCS ) 1 54 i s a n otab le e xamp le ;
c f . Ang lo-Saxon Char ters :a n Anno ta ted L is t a nd
B ib l iography , e d . P .H . S awyer ( London , 1 968) ( hence for th S C) 8 9 ; Eng l ish H istor ica l D ocu men ts I , ( hence for th , E .H .D . )e d . D . Wh ite lock ( London , 1 955)453-4 . 1 7 .
S ee a lso BCS 1 57 , S C 9 4 ; a nd e p . Egb ., p p . 4 15-6 .
D . Wi lson , The Ang lo-Saxons, 2 nd e d . ( London , 1 971) , 1 08-26 ;
f u l l
s ta t ist ics, p erhaps i n n eed o f d e ta i led r ev ision , i n G . Ba ldw in Brown, T he Ar ts i n Ear ly Eng land I I ( London , 1 915) , 1 93-6 , a nd 2 04-8 . For c on t inen ta l c o mpar isons, s ee F . S te in , Ade lsgräber d es a ch ten J ahrhunder ts i n Deutsch land ( Ber l in , 1 967 ) a nd F . I rs ig ler , U n tersuchu ngen z ur G esch ich te d es f r i lfränk ischen A de ls ( Bonn , 1 969) , 1 86-220 . F or l ega l e v idence b ear ing o n t he v a lue o f t h is weaponry , s ee I n 5 4 :1, p p . 1 14-5 a nd t he much l a ter N or5 leoda L ogo 1 0 , p p . 4 60-1 ;
a nd , o n
t he C on t inen t , L ex R ibuar ia , x l 1 1, e d . F . B eyer le a nd R . B uchner , MGH L eg :
S ect . 1 , I I , 9 4-5 ;
L eges A h istu lf i 2 , 3 , e d . F . B eyer le ,
G ese tze d er L angobarden ( W itzenhausen ( Germanenerech te s er ies) , 1 962 ) , p p . 1 94-5 . 1 8 .
S ee Beowu lf , l i nes 2 596-7 , a nd 3 169-82 f or a r istocra t ic e scor ts . t he u se o f e ons b y t he p oe t , s ee K laeber ' sg lossary , p . 3 24 ;
F or
c eor l i s
u sed f our t imes i n a ssoc ia t ion w i th s no tor , l i nes 2 02 , 4 16, 9 08 a nd 1 591, o nce o f t he f a ther o f t he man o n t he g a l lows ( 2444) , a nd o nce , i ncongruo us ly , o f K ing O ngen theow , ( 2972 ;
7 2
c f . 2 951) .
1 9.
G irvan , Beowu lf , 4 1. F or weapons i n t he p oe m , s ee Beowu lf , l i nes 3 33-5 ( c f . 3 21-7) , 6 71-4 , 1 020-49, 110-13 , 1 242-6, 2 152-4 , 2 247-66, 2 611-18, 2 680 , 2 811-2 , a nd 2 971-88 ;
t hey a re p assed d own t he f am i ly
a s i n l a ter A ng lo-Saxon w i l ls, Beowu lf , l i nes 4 52-5 a nd 2 156-62 .
C f .
a lso Wa ldhere l i nes A 2 -5, 2 8 , B 1 -24 , Run ic a nd Hero ic P oe ms, e d . B . D ick ins ( Cambr idge , 1 915) , p p . 5 7-61 ; p p . 8 4-5 ;
H i ldebrandsl ied l i ne 6 2 , i b id .,
F innsburh . l i nes 1 2 , 1 4-15, 1 7 , 3 2 , 4 6-7 , i b id ., p p . 6 4-9
( hencefor th , r eferences t o t hese p oe ms a re t o t h is e d i t ion ) . 2 0 .
A . Mo m ig l iano, "Pagan a nd C hr ist ian h istor iography ," T he C onf l ict b e tween Pagan is m a nd C hr ist i a n ity i n t he F our th C entury , e d . A . Mo m ig l iano ( Oxford , 1 963) , 9 6 ; s uppor ters,"
c f . P .R . L . Brown , "Pe lag ius a nd h is
J ourna l o f Theo log ica l S tud ies
n .s .19 ( 1968) , p . 9 3 -
t he r eference i n e ach c ase i s t o t he l ack o f o ver lap b e tween wr iters i n t he p agan a nd c hr ist ian t rad i t ions ; C hambers, Beowu lf :
s ee b e low , p - 7 6
a nd n . 3 8. R . W .
a n I n troduct ion t o t he S tudy o f t he Poe m 3 rd e d .
( Cambr idge 1 959) , 1 28 a nd 3 29, was impressed b y t he s im i lar ity o f t one b e tween h istory a nd e p ic ; b ut c f . J .R . H u lber t , "T he G enes is o f Beowu lf , ac avea t ,"
Proceed ings o f t he Modern L anguage A ssoc ia t ion o f Amer ica
( hencefor th PMLA) 6 6 ( 1 951) , 1 170 . 2 1.
T h is i s n ot t o s ay t ha t Iwou ld d efend t he t rad it iona l d a t ing o f t he p oe m t o t he "a ge o f Bede ," i n d ef iance o f t he c o m mon-sense o f Professor Wh ite lock ( c f . a bove , p . 3 5, n n . 1 2 a nd 1 3 .) F or f u l ler d iscuss ion o f t he imp l ica t ions o f t he a rgu men t h ere a dvanced f or t he d a te o f Beowu lf , s ee b e low s upp lemen tary Append ix C .
A t t h is s tage , Ia ssu me o n ly t ha t Beowu lf i s l i ke ly
t o b e long t o t he p re-A lfred ian p hase o f Ang lo-Saxon c u lture ;
i t makes n o
d if ference t o my a rgu men t whe ther t he p oe m c o mes e ar ly o r l a te i n t ha t p er iod . 2 2 .
J .R .R . To lk ien , "Beowu lf , t he monsters a nd t he c r i t ics," Proceed ings o f t he Br it ish Acade my 2 2 ( 1936) , 2 45-95 ; a lso p r in ted i n An An tho logy o f B eowu lf Cr i t ic is m , e d . L .E . N icho lson , ( Notre Da me, 1 963) , 5 1-103 ( f ro m wh ich t he a r t ic le i s h encefor th q uoted ) .
F or r eserva t ions a bout
T o lk ien ' st hes is, s ee T .M . Gang , "Approaches t o Beowu lf ," Rev iew o f E ng l ish S tud ies
5 3 ( 1952) , 1 -12 ;
K . S isa m, T he S tructure o f
Beowu lf ( Ox ford , 1 965) . 2 3 .
W.P . Ker , Ep ic a nd R o mance ( rep ted New York , 1 957) , 1 65-7 ( and c f . 1 3-4 f or t he "H o mer ic" p erspect ive ) ; W.P. K er , T he Dark Ages ( London , 1 904) , 2 52-3 .
F or K er ' si nf luence u pon h is p up i l , Chambers, s ee R . W .
Chambers, Wids ith ( Cambr idge , 1 912 ) , 1 80-2 ;
a nd o n S ten ton , ASE,
1 94-5 2 4 .
E .g . K er , Ep ic , 1 57 ; Dark Ages, p p . 2 50-1; 1 0-11 ;
Chambers, I n troduct ion , 1 21-8 ;
L awrence , Ep ic Trad it ion ,
G irv a n , Beowu lf , 1 2-13 ;
K laeber , p p . c xv i i-cxx i i i ; b u t c f C hambers ' s I n troduct ion , 1 09 ; Chadw ick , Hero ic Age , 7 3-6 ;
S isa m , S tructure , 6 3-7 .
When s peak ing
o f " l i tera te c o mpos it ion ," Iam f u l ly a ware t ha t med ieva l wr iters o f ten d ic ta ted t he ir ma ter ia l t o as cr ibe , b ut s uch a p rocess i s s ign if ican t ly d if feren t f ro m o ra l c o mpos it ion , o r e ven f ro m t he p rocedure o f Caed mon , HE I V . 2 4, p p . 2 60-1, b ecause t he a u thor c an i nstan t ly r ead wha t h e h as
7 3
d icta ted ;
t he t echn iques o f a n o ra l p oe t a re c ond it ioned b y t he f act t ha t
h e c annot r ead a ny more t han h e c an wr i te . 2 5 .
F or e xa mp les o f c r it ics w ho h ave s ough t t o i n tegra te Beowu l f w ith t he s cho larsh ip o f L a t in C hr ist ian ity , s ee N icho lson ' s An tho logy , p aene p ass im . Two wr i ters i n p ar t icu lar , i n t ha t v o lu me who s hare To lk ien ' s c aut ion a bou t a more a l legor ica l a pproach , a re M .P. Ham i l ton , "The r e l ig ious p r inc ip le i n Beowu lf ," a nd R .E . Kaske , "S ap ien t ia e t F or t itudo a s t he c on tro l l ing t he me o f Beowu lf ," i b id ., 1 05-35 , a nd 2 69-310 . C f . a lso, M . W . B loo mf ie ld , "Pa tr ist ics a nd O ld Eng l ish l i tera ture ," 3 67-72 .
i b id .,
F or d ist ingu ished r eassess ments o f t he "a no ma l ies" o f Beowu lf ,
f o l low ing T o lk ien ' se xa mp le , A . Brodeur , The Ar t o f Beowu lf ( Berke ley , 1 959) ; 2 6 .
A . B on jour , The D igress ions i n Beowu lf ( London , 1 960) :
A .B . L ord , The S inger o f Ta les, ( Harvard , 1 960) ; F . P . Magoun , "The o ra l-for mu la ic c haracter o f Ang lo-Saxon v erse ," S pecu lu m 2 8 ( 1953) ( a lso i n N icho lson ' s An tho logy , 1 89-221) ; mak ing o f a n Ang lo-Saxon p oe m ," ( 1959) , 4 45-54 .
R . P. Creed , "The
J ourna l o f Eng l ish L iterary H istory 2 6
F or t he c r it ique , Brodeur , Ar t o f Beowu lf , c hs. 1 a nd 2 ;
L .D . Benson , "T he l i terary c haracter o f Ang lo-Saxon f or mu la ic p oe try ," PMLA 8 ( 1966) , 3 34-41; S .B . G reen f ie ld , The I n terpreta t ion o f O ld Eng l ish P oe ms ( London , 1 972 ) . , 3 1-59 a nd 1 22-30 . On t he g enera l c hara cter o f o ra l v erse , G .S . K irk , "F ormu la , l anguage a nd o ra l q ua l ity ," Ya le C lass ica l S tud ies 2 0 ( 1966) , 1 74 ;
W. Wha l lon , Formu la , L anguage
a nd C on tex t ( Cambr idge , Mass., 1 969) , 16 ; Trad it ion
a lso , J . Vans ina , Ora l
t rans . H .M . Wr igh t , ( London , 1 965) , 5 5-62 .
O n Beowu lf ' s
r ese mb lance t o l i tera te , r a ther t han o ra l , v erse , A . Ca mpbe l l, "T he u se i n Beowu lf o f e ar l ier h ero ic v erse ," Eng land b efore t he Conquest : S tud ies i n Pr i mary S ources p resen ted t o D orothy Wh ite lock ,
e d . P .
C le moes a nd K . H ughes ( hencefor th , Wh ite lock S tud ies) (Cambr idge , 1 971 2 7 .
( 283-92 ) .
K laeber , p .
c onc luded f ro m t he p oe t ' sl i teracy t ha t h e was p rob-
CXIX
a b ly a c ler ic , a s d id Professor Wh ite lock ( Aud ience , 1 9-20 ) .
I ti s s ig-
n if ican t t ha t t hose modern s cho lars most i nc l ined t o emphas ize t he r e lat i ve "p agan is m" o f t he Beowu lf p oe t h ave b een t hose most i n f luenced b y t he o ra l-formu la ic s choo l :
s ee Wha l lon , F or mu la
1 18 , t oge ther w ith
h is, "The Chr ist ian ity o f Beowu lf ," Modern Ph i lo logy ( hencefor th MP) , 6 0 ( 1962) , p p . 8 1-94, a nd "The I dea o f G od i n Beowu lf ," PMLA 8 0 ( 1965) , p p . 1 9-23 ;
R .D . S tev ick , "C hr ist ian e le men ts a nd t he g enes is o f
B eowu lf ," MP 6 1 ( 1963 ) , p p . 7 9-89 ; ( Mouton , 1 972) , 1 6-29 a nd 1 20-50 . 2 8 .
M .D . Chern iss, I nge ld a nd C hr ist
J . W . Tho mpson , T he L iteracy o f t he L a ity i n t he M idd le A ges ( rep ted N ew York , 1 963) , 1 16-20 , a nd J .W . Adamson , T he I l l itera te Ang lo-Saxon a nd o ther E ssays ( Cambr idge , 1 946) , 1 1-20, a rgue t he o ppos ite , b u t n e ither i s as a t isfactory b as is f or f ur ther d iscuss ion .
By f ar t he most
impor tan t s urvey o f t he p rob le m i n e ar ly med ieva l Europe a s a who le i s t ha t o f H . Grund mann , "L it teratusi l l itera tus," Arch ly f ar K u lturgeschi ch te 4 0 ( 1958) , 1 -65, a nd s ee a lso P . R iche , "L ' Ense ignement e t l a c u lture d es l a ics da ns 1 'O cc iden t p re-Caro l ing ien ," S et t im a na S po le to ,1 9 ( 1972) , 2 31-53 .
F or f ur ther d eba te u pon t he p rob le m, s ee
7 4
my, "The Uses of Literacy in Anglo-Saxon England and its neighbours" T. R.H. S. 5th series 27 (1977), 95-114. In suggesting that literate composition implies monastic authorship, I am differing both from Professor Whitelock, Audience, pp. 19-20, and from Professor Wallace-Hadrill, Early Germanic KingshiQ, p. 212; and this is a prospect no scholar can relish. Nevertheless, I cannot see the force of the argument that Beowulf is too massive an irrele vance fo r a monastic scriptorium, given that monks were prepared to be entertained by such literature (see pp.43 , and nn. 51,89,90), and given that at least one community, and arguably several, were prepared to "waste" valuable parchment on preserving Beowulf for posterity. 29.
For Aldfrlth, HE IV.26, p. 268 and V. 15, p. 317; HA xv, p. 380; Eddius xliv, p. 238. Cf. Plummer's note, II, 263-4, and, for Aldfrith' s identity with Aldhelm's Acircius, Aldhelmi Opera, ed. R. Ehwald. MGH, Auct. Antiq., XV, 61, n.l. For lay nobles and their education, HE IV. 13, pp. 312-13; Eddius xxi, p. 216; and also, P. Riche, Education et cultrue dans l'occident barbare (Parts, 1962), 369-70 and 445-6.
30.
Asser's Life of King Alfred, ed. W.H. Stevenson,, 2nd ed. (Oxford, 1959), chs. xxxii-xxv, pp. 19-22; lxxvii, pp. 58-63; lxxxvii-lxxxix, pp. 73-5 and cvi, pp. 94-5.
31.
D. A. Binchy, "The background of early Irish literature," Studia Hibernica i. (1969), 10-11; D. 0'Corrain, Ireland Before the Normans, (Dublin, 1972), 74-9.
32.
Compare, e.g., J. Fleckenstein, Die Hofkapelle der deutschen K6nige I (Stuttgart, 1959), esp� pp. 74-95 with P. Chaplais, "The origins and authenticity of the Anglo-Saxon royal diploma. "Journal of the Society of Archivists 3 (19659 ), 48-61 (and cf ibid., 160-6); and compare B. Bischoff, "Die Hoibib liothek Karls des Grossen," Karl der Grosse, ed. W. Braunfels II (Dusseldorf, 1965), 42-62, with N. R. Ker, Catalogue of Manuscripts : Containing Anglo-Saxon, (Oxford, 1957), nos 39 and 42; F. Wormald, The Benedictional of Aethelwold (London, 1959), 10; and F. Wormald, "The Winchester School before St. Aethelwold. " Whitelock Studies, 305-13.
33.
J. Goody, "Restricted literacy in Northern Ghana," Literacy in Tradi tional Societies, ed. J. Goody (Cambridge, 1968), 199-264. For early m edieval methods of education, Riche, Education et Culture, 499-520.
34.
Ker, Dark Ages, 250-2; Ker, Eeic, 79-93 and 116-22; A. Campbell, "The Old English epic style, "English and Medieval Studies for J.R.R. Tolkein, ed. N. Davis and C. L. Wrenn (London, 1962); cf also M. L. W. Laistner, Thought and Letters in W. Europe, 500-900 (London, 1955), 370, whose view is especially significant in that it was founded on the author's profound knowledge of early medieval culture as a whole.
35.
Tolkien, "Beowulf," 69.
36.
Beowulf, lines 175-83, 1107-24, 2124-30, 2802-8 and 3092-,182. Cf, e.g., Codex Theodosianus XVI x 12, ed. T. Mommsen (Hannover, 1905), pp. 900-1; Childeberti regis Praeceptum, Capitularia regum Francorum, ed. A. Boretius, MGH, Leg., Sect.II, I, 2; Charlemagne's Capitulare de partibus Saxoniae, vii, ix, ibid., p. 69; Indiculum Superstitionum, ibid., p. 223. Cf also an anonymous sermon of Charlemagne's time, printed, along with other relevant material, by W. Lange, Texte zur germanischen Bekehrungsgeschichte (Darmstadt, 1962), 168-72. 75
3 7 .
Beowu lf , l i nes 6 85-7 a nd 7 00-2 .
C f a lso 1 700-84 f or Hrothgar ' ss peech
t o Beowu lf , t he most c oncen tra ted p assage o f ' !C hr ist ian" w isdo m i n t he p oe m ;
a nd F . K laeber , "D ie c hr ist l ichen E le mente i n Beowu lf ,"
3 5 ( 1911-12) , 1 12-27 .
A s im i lar s ty le o f d e i ty a ppears i n Wa ldhere , A
2 3 , B 2 5-9, p p . 5 8-9, 6 2-3 ; 3 8 .
IAng l ia
a nd H i ldebrands l ied , 3 0 , 4 9, p p . 8 0-3 .
Professor Wha l lon h as a rgued t ha t t he p oet ' sw ords f or G od a re n o more C hr ist ian t han i s s im i lar t er m ino logy when u sed b y P la to o r Verg il, a nd t ha t t hey a re c ogna te w ith s im i lar t er m ino logy i n t he N orse E lder Edda . B ut G er man ic p agan is m , wh ich was t he o n ly s er ious a va i lab le a l ternat ive t o J udaeo-Chr ist ian r eve la t ion f or t he B eowu lf p oe t , was u ndoubted ly b as ica l ly p o ly the ist ic, a s i s e stab l ished b y t he n a mes f or t he d ays o f t he week , a nd b y t he O ld S axon b ap t is ma l f ormu la ( Cap itu lar ia I , 2 22 ) .
When
S cand inav ians g rav ita ted t owards monothe is m , t h is was e ither o u t o f l oya lty t o o ne G od among s evera l , o r u nder C hr ist ian i nf luence , a lready marked i n I ce land b y C . 9 00 .
S ee J . d e Vr ies , A ltgerman ische Re l ig ions-
g esch ich te , 2 nd e dn . ( Ber l in , 1 956-7) , I , 4 , 3 56-8 ;
K .D . S chm id t ,
D ie B ekehrung d er G er manen z um C hr isten tu m, ( Göt t ingen, 1 939) , p p . 1 58-60 ;
H . K uhn , "Das F or t leben d es g erman ischen H e iden tums n ach
d er C hr ist ian is ierung ,"
S et t i mana S po le to , 1 4, ( 1967) , 7 43-57 .
I t
must b e Chr ist ian i nf luence t ha t i s r espons ib le f or t he way i n w h ich S norr i a t tr ibu tes t o O th inn s o me o f t he q ua l it ies o f t he Chr ist ian G od , a nd , g enera l ly s peak ing , O th inn i s n e ither C rea tor n or J udge:
S ee G .
T urv i l le Pe tre , My th a nd Re l ig ion o f t he N or th , ( London , 1 964) , p p . 3 5, 5 5-6 ;
K . H e lm , A l tger man ische Re l ig ionsgesch ich te , ( He ide lberg ,
1 953 ) , I , 2 62-3 ;
d e Vr ies, I , 8 4-7 .
We k now t ha t Caed mon a nd t he
a u thors o f G enes is a nd Exodus a pp l ied t he s ame t erm ino logy t o t he ir Chr ist ian G od a s d id t he Beowu lf p oe t t o h is ;
i ts ee ms p erverse t o s ug-
g est t ha t s uch l anguage i s n ever the less e ssen t ia l ly p agan o n t he b asis o f S cand inav ian e v idence t ha t c an h ard ly b e p ure ly p agan i tse l f . 3 9 .
Beowu lf , l i nes 9 0-101 a nd 1 75-88 .
Brodeur , Ar t o f Beowu lf , 1 87-208 ,
s uccessfu l ly r ebuts t he s uggest ions i n T o lk ien ' s Append ix 9 1-103 a nd a rgues t ha t t he p oe t ' sa t t itude t o p agans was n o t =sympa the t ic . 4 0 .
Beowu lf , l i nes 1 06, 1 572 a nd 1 600 ;
Wh i te lock , Aud ience
5 -6 .
4 1.
Beowu lf , l i nes 1 98 , 1 663 , 2 140 , 2 280 a nd 3 051; G .V . Sm ithers , "Dest iny a nd t he h ero ic warr ior i n Beowu l f ", Ph i lo log ica l E ssays i n h onour o f H .D . Mer it t , e d . J .L . R os ier ( Mouton , 1 970) , 7 1-3 .
4 2 .
Beowu lf , l i nes 4 77-9, 5 72 ( c f 2 291-3 ) , 6 97 a nd 2 814-6 ;
b ut a lso 1 056-8
a nd 1 657-64 . Among c r it ica l a uthor it ies, c on trast B .J . T i mmer , "Wyrd i n Ang lo-Saxon p rose a nd p oe try ," N eoph i lo logus 2 6 ( 1 940-1) , 2 4-33 a nd 2 13-28 ; p agan is m ,"
a nd E .G . S tan ley , "The q uest f or Ang lo-Saxon
N o tes a nd Q uer ies i ( 1965) , 2 85-93 a nd 3 22-7 r epr in ted
a s ab ook u nder t he s ame t i t le ( London , 1 975) ; "B oe th ius a nd t he t hree f a tes o f Beowu lf ," ( 1962) , 3 86-400 ;
w ith A . Roper ,
Ph i lo log ica l Quar ter ly 6 1:1
a nd Sm ithers, "Dest iny ," 6 6-75.
F or t he b ackground
i n G erman ic p agan is m , K . He lm , A l tgerman ische Re l ig ionsgesch ich te I ( He ide lberg , 1 963) , 2 80-5 ;
J . d e Vr ies , A l tger man ische R e l ig ions-
g esch ich te , 2 nd e d . ( Ber l in , 1 956-7) I , 2 67-74 . 4 3 .
Beowu lf , l i nes 9 0-8 , 1 06-14 , 1 258-78 a nd 1 687-93 ;
f or j udgemen t,
5 88-9, 8 50-2 , 9 77-9 a nd 2 820 , a nd f or o ther p oss ib le e choes o ft he a f ter 7 6
l i fe , 1 201, 1 759-60 a nd 2 468-9 .
Among c r it ics, c on trast J . Ha lverson ,
"Beowu lf a nd t he p i tfa l ls o f p ie ty ,"
T oron to Un ivers ity Q uar ter ly 5 5
( 1965-6) , 2 68 a nd E . J ohn , "Beowu lf a nd t he marg ins o f l i teracy , "Bu l le t in o f t he J ohn R y lands L ibrary ," p p . 8 88-922 . Wh ite lock , Aud ience , 5 . 4 4 .
( hencefor th , BJRL ) 5 6 , ( 1973/4) ,
J . C lark Ha l l , Beowu lf a nd t he F igh t a t F innsburg :
a Trans la t ion i n to
modern Eng l ish Prose ( London , 1 901) , p . x xv i i i . 4 5 .
Beowu lf , l ines 4 91-8 , 6 11-31, 1 159-62 a nd 1 232 , f or w ine , wo men a nd s ong ;
4 6 .
1 020-49 a nd 2 752-87 f or t reasures.
Beowu lf , l ines 1 383-9 .
C f S isam , S tructure
1 1-13 .
C f C . Moor man , "The e ssen t ia l p agan is m o f
Beowu lf ," Modern L anguage Q uar ter ly 2 8 ( 1967 ) , 4 -6 ; E .G . S tan ley , "Hae thenra Hyh t i n B eowu lf ," S tud ies i n O ld Eng l ish i n H onour o f A . G . Brodeur ,e d . S .B . G reenf ie ld ( Oregon , 1 963) , 1 36-61. 4 7 .
Beowu lf , l ines 3 174-82 .
C f K laeber ' se d i t ion , p p . x l ixl i , a nd
"Chr ist l iche E le men te ,"
I V , Ang l ia 3 6 ( 1912 ) , 1 75-9 ;
I n troduct ion , 1 02 a nd 3 24-6 ;
Cha mbers,
Hu lber t , "G enes is o f B eowu lf " , p . 1 170
b u t c f Sm ithers, "Dest iny ," 7 6 a nd 8 0 . 4 8 .
N icho lson ' s An tho logy c on ta ins s evera l e xamp les o f t h is a pproach .
E .g .
D .W . R ober tson , "T he d octr ine o f c har ity i n med ieva l l i terary g ardens," A . C aban iss,
"Beowu lf a nd l i turgy ," M .B . Macnamee , "Beowu lf :
a n a l legory o f s a lva t ion?" s pec t ive i n Beowu lf ."
a nd M .E . G o lds m i th , "T he C hr ist ian p er-
C f a lso N icho lson ' s own e ssay , "T he l i tera l mean-
i ng a nd s y mbo l ic s tructure o f Beowu lf ,"
C lass ica e t Med ieva l ia 2 5 ( 1964)
a nd J . Gardner , "F u lgen t ius ... a nd t he p lan o f Beowu lf ," Language a nd L i tera ture 6 ( 1970) , 2 27-62 . t o t he a pproach i s n ow M .E . G o lds m i th ' s , Beowu lf ( London , 1 970) ;
Papers o n
T he most s tr ik ing monu men t T he Mode a nd Mean ing o f
c f h er c on tr ibut ion t o t he d eba te b e tween h er-
s e lf , Professor Wha l lon , a nd Professor C . Donahue , "A l legor ica l , t ypo log ica l o r n e ither?"
Ang lo-Saxon Eng land 2 ( 1973 ) , 2 89-90 .
F or
s o me e f fect ive o b ject ions , s ee Green f ie ld , I n terpre ta t ion , 1 40-54 ; A . B on jour , "Beowu lf e t l e d e mon d e 1 'a na log ie ," ( Neu fcha te l, 1 962) , 1 83-9 ;
Twe lve Beowu lf Papers
Donahue ' sc on tr ibu t ion t o t he d eba te i n Ang lo-
S axon Eng land 2 ( 1973 ) , 2 93-6 ;
a nd P . R o l l inson , "T he i nf luence o f
c hr ist ian d octr ine a nd e xeges is u pon O ld Eng l ish p oe try ," i b id ., 2 71-84 . S ee f urther , Append ix B . 4 9 .
Chambers, I n troduc t ion , 1 02 a nd 3 24-6 ; Chadw ick , Hero ic Age , 7 3 ;
T o lk ien , "Beowu lf ," 7 1 ;
Wh i te lock , Aud ience , 5 -12 a nd 1 9-22 ;
S isam , S tructure 7 2-9 . 5 0 .
H .I . Marrou, S a int A ugust in e t l a f in d e l a c u lture a n t ique ( Par is, 1 938) , p lus R e tracta t io, ( 1949) , 5 0 ; Marrou, H istory o f Educa t ion i n An t iqu ity , t r . G . L a mb, ( London , 1 956) , 3 18-24 ; M .L . W . L aütner , Chr ist ian ity a nd Pagan Cu lture i n t he L a ter Ro man Emp ire ( Corne l l , 1 951) ;
L a istner ,
Though t a nd L et ters , 4 4-54 a nd 1 08-10 ; H . Chadw ick , Ear ly C hr ist ian Though t a nd t he C lass ica l Trad it ion ( Oxford , 1 966) . T he o n ly s im i lar work o n German ic l i tera ture k nown t o me i s H . K uhn , "H e ldensage u nd Chr isten tu m ,"
K . Hauck , Z ur g erman ischdeutschen He ldensage
( Darms tad t , 1 965) , 4 16-26 , wh ich , l i ke most o f t h is s cho lar ' sv a luab le work , c ons isten t ly o verest i ma tes t he mutua l c o mpa t ib i l ity o f G erman ic a nd Med i terranean t rad i t ions .
Chern iss ) I nge ld a nd C hr ist , 7 7
a nd R .
L ev ine "I nge ld a nd Chr ist ‚a med ieva l p rob le m ,"
V ia tor 2( 1971) , p r i k
1 05-28 ed iscuss t he p rob le m f ro m a n a l most e xc lus ive ly l i terary a ng le . 5 1.
A lcu in i Ep isto lae , 1 24 , e d . E . D i i mm ler , MGH , Ep . S e i .
K aro l in i Aev i ,
I , p . 1 83 ( f uture r eferences t o A lc . Ep . b y p age r eference f ro m t h is e d it ion . ) 5 2 .
Beowu lf , 2 020-69 ;
Wids ith
4 5-9, e d . R .W . C ha mbers ( Cambr idge , 1 912) ,
a nd c f t he i n troduct ion , p p . 7 9-84 ( f uture r eferences t o Wids i th a re f ro m t h is e d i t ion ) . XXXIV-XXXVI
5 3 .
Chambers, I n troduct ion , 2 0-5 ;
a nd 2 02-3 .
T hus K uhn , "H e ldensage ," 4 16-7 ; a nd 3 32 ;
K laeber ' se d i t ion , p p .
a lso C hambers, I n troduc t ion , 1 23
Brodeur , Ar t o f Beowu lf , 2 16 ;
G o lds m ith , Mode , 1, 5 3
a nd 1 78 . 5 4 .
R egu la c u iusda m p a tr is a d V irg ines, i x , Pa tro log ia L a t ina ( hencefor th PL) 8 8 , c o ls . 1 061-2 .
On t he o r ig ins o f t h is R u le , s ee L . G ougaud ,
" Inven ta ire d es r eg les monast iques i r landa ises ," ( hencefor th R ev . Ben ) 2 5 ( 1908) , 3 28-31.
Revue Bened ict ine
F or o ther c o mparab le mon-
a st ic l eg is la t ion , c f Regu la Caesar i i a d V irg ines, wi t , e d . G . Mor in , S anc t i Caesar i i O pera I , ( Maret io l i, 1 942) , 1 05 : x x iv PL 6 6 , c o ls, 9 67-8 ;
Regu la F erreol i,
R egu la Bened ict x l i i i 1 8 , e d . A . d e Vogue ,
L a R eg le d e S a in t Benö i t , S ources Chre t iennes I ( Par is) , p p . 5 88-9, 6 02-3 a nd n o tes ;
Regu la L eandr i , v , v i i, PL 7 2 , c o ls . 8 83-4 ;
I s idor i , v i , i x , PL 1 03 , c o ls . 5 61 a nd 5 63 ;
Regu la
R egu la Dona t i, x x , PL 8 7 ,
c o ls . 2 81-2 . 5 5 .
C onc . T o l . I I ( 589) , v i i , C onc i l ios V is igo t icos e H ispano-Ro manos, e d . J . V ives ( Madr id , 1 963) , p . 1 27 ;
Wu lfstan ' sC anons o f Edgar , l i x ,
e d . R . F ow ler , Ear ly Eng l ish Tex t S oc ie ty , ( London , 1 972) , p p . 1 4-15 a nd 3 8-9 .
C f a lso , e .g ., Ad mon i t io G enera l is ( 789) , l xx i , Cap itu lar ia
I ,5 9 ; Ep iscoporu m r e la t io a d H ludov icu m r ege m ( 829) , l iv , i b id ., I p p . 4 5-6 . 5 6 .
C onc . C lovesho ( 746/7 ) , x i i , C ounc i ls a nd E cc les iast ica l Docu ments R e la t ing t o G rea t Br ita in a nd I re land , e d . A .W . Haddan a nd W . S tubbs ( Oxford , 1 871) ( hencefor th H&S) I I , p . 3 66 .
5 7 .
E p isto la d e o b itu Bedae , e d . P lu m mer , O pera H istor ica Ic lx i ; I V . 2 4, p p . 2 58-61 ;
I V . 2 5, p . 2 65 a nd I V . 2 2 , p . 2 50 .
HE
C f B ede ' s
p rose l i fe o f S t . C u thber t , c . x xv i i, Two L ives o f S t C uthber t , e d . B . C o lgrave ( Cambr idge , 1 940—) ,p . 2 46 ;
Bede , I n S am . Ix i i i 2 0 , x iv 2 7 ,
e d . D . H urst , CCSL 1 19 , p p . 1 12 a nd 1 14 .
S ee Hun ter B la ir , Wor ld
o f Bede 2 86-8 . 5 8 .
W i l l ia m o f Ma l mesbury G esta Pon t if icu m, e d . N . E .S . A .Ham i lton , R o l ls S er ies , 5 2 p . 3 36 .
5 9 .
T er tu l l ian , De Praescr ip t ione Haeret icoru m , v i i 9 , e d . E . D ekkers, CCSL 1 , p . 1 93 ;
c f Apo loge t icu m , x lv i 1 8 , i b id ., p . 1 62 ;
J ero me,
Ep isto lae , x x i i 2 9-30 , e d . I . H i lberg , C orpus S cr ip toru m E cc les iast ic oru m L a t inoru m ( hencefor th CSEL) 5 4 , p p . 1 88-91 ;
Gregor i i Magn i
Ep isto lae , X I 3 4 , e d . P . Ewa ld a nd L .M . Har t mann , MGH , E p .S e i. I , 3 03 .
C f t he l i tera ture r eferred t o a bove p . 4 2
Wor ld o f Bede , 2 82-3 .
7 8
n o .50 a nd H un ter B la ir ,
6 0
The e ar ly med ieva l West d eve loped a d ist inct ive l i tera ture o fb arbar ian k ingsh ip f ro m t he s even th c en tury a t t he l a test . "The V ia Reg ia o f t he C aro l ing ian Age ,"
S ee J .M . Wa l lace-Hadr i l l,
Trends i n Med ieva l Po l i t ica l
Though t , e d . B . Sma l ley ( Oxford , 1 964) , 2 2-41 ; K ingsh ip , p ass im ;
a nd h is Ear ly G erman ic
H .H . An ton , F ürstensp iege l u nd Herrschere thos i n
d er K aro l ingerze it , ( Bonn , 1 968) e sp . 3 57-446 ; W. U l l mann , T he Caro li ng ian Rena issance a nd t he I dea o f K ingsh ip ( London , 1 969) . B u t i n t he l ast r esor t t he most s tr ik ing f ea ture o f t h is i deo logy i s i t s u n itary p ers pec t ive :
k ings, b ishops , p r iests a nd l aymen a re a l l t o t ake t he ir mode l
f ro m t he s a me d iv ine h ierarchy o f v a lues, a s r evea led i n t he B ib le , a nd e nunc ia ted b y t he c hurch .
Dua l s tandards a ppear o n ly u nder Ar istote l ian
I n f luence i n t he t h ir teen th c en tury :
c f . G . K ur th , Pr inc ip les o f G overn-
men t a nd Po l it ics i n t he M idd le Ages, 2 nd e d . ( London , 1 966) , 2 31-79. 6 1
Greg . Ep . X I 3 4 ( c f a bove , p .44 , n . 5 9 ; J onas, De I nst itu ione l a ica l i , Ix i , x i i i, PL 1 06, c o ls 1 43-4 a nd 1 47 .
C f Bede , H om i ly I2 2 , Opera
Ho m i le t ica , e d . D . H urs t , CCSL 1 22 , p . 1 60 , a nd a lso t he r e marks o f t he C ounc i l o f Par is, C onc i l ia , e d . A . Wer m inghof f , MGH , L eg . S ect ., I I I , 6 57-8 . wh ich was h ere u nder J onas ' si n f luence :
An ton ,
F ürstensp iege l , 2 04-18 . 6 2
E inhard , V ita Caron , x x ix , e d . 0 . H o lder-Egger , MGH , i n u s . p . 3 3 ;
S cho l .,
Thegan , V ita H ludov ic i I mpera tor ls , x ix , PL 1 06 , c o ls . 4 13-4 .
A ttemp ts h ave b een made t o e vade t he imp l ica t ions o f t h is p assage b y d eny ing t ha t Thegan c an b e r eferr ing t o v ernacu lar v erse : C f G . K ur th , H isto ire p oe t ique d es Merov ing iens ( Par is, 1 893 ) , 5 5-6 ; b u t c f G rundmann
( See p . 3 8 a nd n . 2 8 a bove ) , p . 4 1 who r ight ly c ha l lenges K ur th ,
a nd l i nks L ou is ' sb ehav iour t o t he e xpressed p r inc ip les o f A lcu in . 6 3 .
Ro mans I . 1 8-23 , I . 6 -7 a nd 1 3-15 . C f A .D . H organ , "Re l ig ious a t t it udes i n Beowu lf ,"
E ssays a nd p oe ms p resen ted t o L ord Dav id Cec i l e d .
W . .W . R obson ( London , 1 970) , 9 -12 ; 1 10-13 ; 6 4 .
Ha m i lton , "Re l ig ious p r inc ip le ,"
Go lds m ith , Mode , 1 49-57 a nd 1 80-1.
P . Brown , August ine o f H ippo ( London , 1 967) 3 07-8 , q uot ing August ine ' s l e t ter t o B ishop Evod ius , Ep isto lae 1 64 , C SEL 4 4 , p p . 5 21-41. d id s ay t ha t "i n f ide les" s hou ld n ot b e p rayed f or :
G regory
Mora l ia i n J ob XXX IV
x ix , PL 7 6 c o l . 7 39 . 6 5 .
C .N .L . Brooke , T he Twe lf th-Cen tury Rena issance ( London , 1 969) 1 556 2 . T h is p o int i s missed b y K uhn , who a lso i gnores t he f ace t ha t , a lt hough many o f t he G oth ic h eroes, l i ke T heodor ic, were C hr ist ian , t hey were A r ian , a nd , a s s uch , d oub ly d amned .
6 6 .
Bede , I n Can t ica C ant icoru m , Praef . PL 9 1, c o ls. 1 075-6 .
M iss
Ha m i l ton h erse lf p o in ted o u t t ha t Ang lo-Saxon Chr ist ian p oe ts were o bs essed b y t he d if ference b e tween t he c hosen a nd t he d a mned , ( " Re l ig ious p r inc ip le ,"
1 11-12) a nd t h is i s p rec ise ly t he i ssue t ha t Beowu lf a vo ids :
E .G . S tan ley "Haethenra Hyh t ," 1 37-43 .
On a l l o f t h is , s ee t he e xce l-
l en t r emarks o f C . D onahue i n t he a rt ic les r eferred t o b e low , p p . 4 9 a nd n 8 3 6 7 .
Anna les Xan tenses, s .a . 7 18 , e d . G .H . Per tz, MGH , S cr iptores i n f o l ., p . 2 21. 7 9
6 8 .
B on iface Ep isto lae , 4 6 , 7 3 , e d . M . T ang l , D ie Br iefe d es He i l igen B on ifa t ius u nd L u l lus , MGH i n u s. s cho l , E p . S e i., I( reference t o Bon . Ep . h encefor th b y p age f ro m t h is e d i t ion ) , p p . 7 4-5, 1 50 ; p p . 7 53-4 .
c f EHD , I ,
F or a r a ther d if feren t i n terpre ta t ion o f t h is c orrespondence ,
s ee t he e ssay b y L .D . B enson , r eferred t o b e low , p p . 0 00, a nd n . 8 6 . 6 9 .
HE I . 2 7 , p p . 5 1-2 a nd 1 -30 , p p . 6 5-6 .
7 0 .
Pen iten t ia l o f T heodore , I 14 , 5 , H&S I I , p p . 1 90-1.
7 1.
N icho las, Ep isto lae , x c ix , Q u . 4 7 , 5 9, 8 8 , e d . E . P ere ls, MGH Ep .Se l . Kar Aev ., I V p p . 5 85-6 , 5 88 a nd 5 96 . Bede ' si n terpreta t ion o f t he p assage f ro m S t J ohn was, h owever , more l i bera l : PL 9 3, c o ls . 1 17-8 .
7 2 .
H .M . a nd N .K . Chadw ick , T he G row th o f L itera ture ( Ca mbr idge, 1 940 ) I , p p . 5 56-7 .
7 3 .
A lc .Ep . 1 36 , p . 2 09 ;
1 78 , p . 2 94 ;
3 09, p . 4 75.
e d . E . D t imm ler , MGH Poe t . L a t . I , p . 2 99 ;
C f h is Carmen l xxv i i i ,
V ita A lcu in i, i ,x v i, e d .
W. Arnd t , MGH , S cr iptores i n f o l . XV , 1 85 a nd 1 93 . F or t he a r t if i c ia l ity o f much o f t he h ost i l i ty t hus t rad it iona l ly e xpressed , s ee t he works c ited a bove p . 4 2
n .50 p lus J . L ec lercq , I . , ' Amour d es l et tres
e t l e d es ir d e D ieu ( Par is, 1 957) , 4 0-52 a nd 1 08-41 ;
H . d e L ubac,
EXegese Med ieva le ( Par is, 1 959-64) I , 6 7-73 a nd 2 90-6, I .1 , 5 3-77 ; P . Meyvaer t , Bede a nd G regory t he Grea t , 1 4 . 7 4 .
August ine , De Doc tr ina Chr ist iana I 4 0-2 , CCSL 3 2 , p p . 7 3-7 ; Marrou , S a in t August in 3 87-413 ; t u t ione , I I 1 8 PL 1 07 c o l 3 96 . 2 90-6 a nd I .i i, 1 82-97 ;
c f
Hraban Maur , De c ler icoru m I nst iC f d e L ubac , Exegese Med ieva le I
T heodu lf , "De l i br is q uos l egere s o leba m ...,"
e d . E . Da m m ler , MGH , Poe t . L a t . I , p p . 5 43-4 . 7 5 .
Hraban , De der , i nst . I I 1 8 , a s a bove .
7 6 .
A sser , l xxv , p . 5 9 .
7 7 .
Cass iodor i I nst itu t iones, I i 8 , e d . R .A. B . Mynors, ( Oxford , 1 937) , p .14 ;
C f J ero me Ep . e v i l 1 2 , CSEL .
5 5 , p . 3 03 .
A s Professor
D onahue p o in ts o u t i n h is c on tr ibu t ion t o t he "A l legor ica l ..." d eba te , ( Ang lo-Saxon Eng land 2 ( 1973) , 2 92-3) , August ine b e l ieved t ha t t eachers s hou ld n ot im ita te t he "s a lubr ious o bscur i ty" o f Ho ly Wr it ;
" the ir f irs t
a nd s pec ia l a im s hou ld b e t ha t t hey u nderstood" : De Doct . C hr ist . I V 8 , CCSL 3 2 , p p . 1 31-2 . 7 8 .
O tfr ids Evange l ienbuch , p raef ., e d . 0 . Erdmann ( Ha l le , 1 882 ) , p . 4 . T he o ther works a re t he t rans la t ion o f Ta t ian , s t i l l i n a Fu lda manus cr ip t , a nd t he He l iand i t se lf , wh ich i s b ased , i n p ar t , o n H raban ' s c o m men tary o n S t . Ma t thew , a nd o n Ta t ian . L e t ters
7 9 .
C f L a istner , T hought a nd
3 75-6 .
F or t he H i ldebrands l ied , s ee t he e d it ion a nd t ransla t ion b y D ick ins, c i ted a bove , p . 3 6
n . 1 9 ; Wa l thar ius, e d . K . S trecker , MGH , Poe t
L a t . V I .1 p p . 1 -85 .
8 0
8 0.
K er , C ata logue, n o. 2 15.
C f . K . Ma lone , The N owe l l Codex ,Early
E ng l ish Manuscr ipts i n F acs im ile 1 2 ( Copenhagen , 1 963 ), a nd K . S isam , " The c o mp ilat ion o f t he B eowu l f Manuscr ip t ," S tud ies i n t he H istory o f O ld Eng l ish L iterature, ( Ox ford , 1 953 ), 6 5-96. s cr ip t f ragmen ts o f F innsburh a nd Ma ldon a re n ow l ost ; h ere , K er, C ata logue , n o. 1 01.
The manu-
f or Wa ld-
Wids ith a nd Deor a re r espect ive ly
f . 8 4v-87 a nd 1 00-100v o f t he Exeter Book : c f . K er , C ata logue, n o. 16, a nd R .W . Chambers, M. F orster a nd R . F lower , The Exeter Book o f O ld Eng l ish Poetry ( London , 1 933 ). 8 1.
Greg . Mora l ia , Praef . i i c on ta ins a s ide-sw ipe a t s ecu lar l i tera ture , PL 7 5 , c o l. 5 13.
8 2.
Bede , I n Pr inc. Gen ., e d. C . W. J ones , CCSL 1 18 A , p . 1 .
Bu t Acca
h i mse lf was a n o ted b ook-co l lector , HE V .20 , p . 3 31, a nd q uoted J erome a nd August ine i n t he l et ter t ha t c a l led f or th Bede ' sI n L uc., e d. D . Hurst , CCSL 1 20 , p p. 5 -6.
C f . J . D . A . Og i lvy , Books Known t o
t he E ng l ish , 5 97-1066 ( Ca mbr idge Mass., 1 967 ) ( i t i s impor tan t t o u se t h is s econd e d it ion , i n t hat i ti ncorporates most o f t he r esearch o f E . A . Lowe , Cod ices L at in i An t iqu iores ( Ox ford , 1 935-71) ) ; Id oubt whether t he p a laeograph ica l e v idence w il l s uppor t Professor Og i lvy 's much-quoted a sser t ion ( p . 1 4 ) t ha t , i n g enera l , i t wou ld b e s afer t o a ssume t hat t he e ar ly Eng l ish k new a ny g iven work o f August ine 's t han t hey d id n ot . 8 3.
C . Donahue, " Beowu lf , I reland a nd t he N atura l Good ," T rad it io 7 ( 1949-51 ), 2 63-77 ;
" Beowu lf a nd t he Chr ist ian Trad it ion :
ar econ-
s truc t ion f ro m a Cel t ic s tandpo in t ," i b id., 2 1 ( 1965 ), 5 5-116;
Can .
H ib. I I 8 , The I r ish P en iten t ia ls, e d. L . B ie ler ( Dub l in , 1 963 ), p p. 1 68-9 ;
R . F lower, The I r ish Trad it ion ( Ox ford , 1 947 ), 8 .
C f . K .
Hughes, " Sanct ity a nd s ecu lar ity i n t he e ar ly I r ish Church ," S tud ies i n C hurch H istory , 1 0 , ( Ox ford , 1 973 ), 2 8; 8 4.
The T a in
Bon . Ep. 5 9, p p. 10- 1 2.
t rans. T . K inse l la , ( Ox ford , 1 970 ), p . 1 ;
F .J . Byrne,
" The I reland o f S t Co lumba ," I r ish H istor ica l S tud ies , V , e d. J .L . McCracken ( Dub l in , 1 965 ), 3 9 ;
" Seven th-cen tury d ocu men ts ,"
P roceed ings o f t he I r ish Catho l ic H istor ica l Co m m it tee ( 1965-7 ), 8 . Bu t C o l lect io Canonum H ibernes is LX 3 , e d. J . Wassersch leben , 2 nd e n e dn .
L e ipz ig , 1 885 , p . 2 26, i s at yp ica l c anon a ga inst l ax s tandards
o f e n terta inmen t i n c ler ica l c on tex ts. 8 5.
Donahue, " Beowu lf , I re land ," 2 73-4 ;
J . Carney , " The I r ish e le men ts
i n B eowu lf ," S tud ies i nI r ish L iterature a nd H istory , ( Dub l in , 1 955 ), e sp . 9 7-8, 1 02-12 a nd 1 14-22. For t he S cand inav ian a na logues G . V . Sm ithers, The Mak ing o f Beowu l f ( Durha m , 1 961), i s t he c u lm ina t ion o f at rad it ion t ha t b egan w ith L awrence, Beowu lf a nd t he Ep ic Trad it ion , 1 61-203. On L ind isfarne i n t he l a ter s even th c en tury , s ee Mayr-Har t ing , Com ing o f Chr ist ian ity , 2 25-6.
Mrs. Go lds m ith , Mode , p p. 2 2-39 ,
c anno tb e c ons idered t o h ave a nswered Professor Donahue 's c ase ;
t he
I r ish c hurch may h ave b een a s o r thodox d octr ina l ly , a nd e ven a s c osmopo l itan c u ltura l ly , a s most o thers , b u t t here r e ma ins o verwhe lm ing e v idence f or d ist inct i d iosyncrac ies i n t he Chr ist ian c iv i l iza t ion o f e ar ly I re land. S ee , e .g . B . B ischof f , "Wendepunk te i n d er Gesch ich te d er
8 1
l a te in ischen Exegese i m Fr t im it te la lter ," S acr is Erud ir i, 6 ( 1954 ) 1 96-220 ;
K . Hughes , The Church i n Ear ly I r ish S oc iety ( London , 1 966 ) ;
a nd F . J . Byrne , I r ish K ings a nd H igh-K ings ( London , 1 973 ).
Mrs.
Go lds m ith i gnores t he a c tua l e v idence f or a c u l t o f t he p agan h ero i n e ar ly I re land. 8 6.
L . D . Benson , " The p agan c o lor ing i n Beowu lf ," O ld Eng l ish P oetry : F if teen Essays , e d. R . P . Creed ( Prov idence , R .I., 1 967 ), 1 93-213. For t he manuscr ipt o f t he H ildebrands l ied , s ee B . B ischof f , " Pa l og raph ische F ragen d eutscher DenkmUler d er K aro l ingerze it ," F rühm it te la l ter l iche S tud ien 5 ( 1971 ), 1 12-3.
8 7.
D . A . B inchy , " The l ingu ist ic a nd h istor ica l v a lue o f t he I r ish l awt racts ," PBA 2 9 ( 1943 ), 1 95-227 ;
a nd " Background o f e ar ly I r ish
l i terature" ( see a bove , p .75 ,n .31 ) ; Byrne , I r ish K ings, p p . 1 2-15. Iam a lso i ndebted h ere t o a n u npub l ished p aper b y Dr . T . M. C har lesEdwards o n , " The c onvers ion o f t he I r ish l earned p rofess ions." 8 8.
A le. Ep. 1 24 , p p . 1 82-3;
2 0 , p p. 5 7-8;
6 7 , p . 2 11;
a nd 2 33, p . 3 78.
C f . Abbo t Cuthber t o f Monkwearmouth 's l e t ter t o L u l l , Bon . E p . 1 16, p p. 2 51-2. 8 9.
Conc. C lovesho ( 746 ), i , v i i i, i x , x i i, x v i , x ix , x x , x xv i i i, x x ix , H&S , p p. 3 63-76 ;
Bon . Ep. 7 8, p p . 1 70-1 ( and , f or t he c onnect ion , L ev ison ,
Eng land a nd t he Con t inen t , 8 6 , n . 1 ).
C f . a lso t he L egat ine C ounc il
( 786 ), x ix , A le. Ep . 3 , p . 2 7. 9 0.
Ro man Counc il :
H&S , p . 1 33 ( and c f . W. L ev ison , " D ie Ak ten d er
r öm ischen S ynode v on 6 79 ," Aus r he in ischer w ad f ränk ischer Frühze it , ( Dusse ldor f , 1 948 ), 2 67-94 , e sp. 2 84 )
P end . Theod , Ii , H&S , P P •
1 77-8. 9 1.
Ep. Egb., p p. 4 07-18;
t rans la t ion f ro m EHD, p p. 7 37-42.
9 2.
Conc. C lovesho ( 746 ), v , H&S , p . 3 64 ; D ia l. Eg i D., x i, i b id ., p . 4 08 ; BCS 1 54 , 2 20 , 2 41, 2 47-8, 3 78; S C89 , 1 411, 1 257 , 1 23, 1 25 , 1 434 ; c f . Conc. Che lsea ( 8 16 ) , v i i i, H&S , p p. 5 82-3;
a nd , g enera l ly , H .
Böh mer , " Das E igenk irchen tu m i n Eng land ," Festgabe f ür F . L ieber mann e d . M. Förster e t a l. ( Ha l le , 1 921), 3 34-45. 9 3.
For t he r e levan t p assages i n Beowu lf , s ee a bove p . 7 7, n .45. There i s n o c omparab le r eference i n t he p oe m t o t he c onsu mpt ion o f f ood ; c f . Tac itus , German ia ,
XX i,
x x i i i , e d. M . Hu t ton ( Harvard , L oeb
s er ies , )p p. 2 94-7. 9 4.
U . S tutz, " The p ropr ie tary c hurch ," t rans. G . Barrac lough , Med ieva l Germany :
Essays b y German H istor ians ( Ox ford , 1 938), 3 5-70.
For
s o me i n terest ing a rchaeo log ica l e v idence , s ee I rs ig ler , Un tersuchun pn , ( see a bove , p . 7 2 ,n .17 ), 2 07-8 a nd 2 12-3. Hughes, Church , 1 60-4 ;
For t he I r ish e v idence ,
By r ne , I r ish K ings , 2 58.
C f. a lso I . B .
Cowan , " The p ost-Co lu mb ian Church i n S cot land ," Proceed ings o f t he Church H istory S oc iety o f S co t land ( 1974 ) , 2 45-60. For t he F rank ish e v idence , F . Pr inz, Fr t ihes Mönchtu m i m Frankenre ich • ( Mun ich , 1 965 ), 1 85-7 , 1 90 , 2 78-9 a nd 5 02-3.
8 2
9 5.
E . Ew ig , "M ilo e t e iusmod i s im iles," S ank t Bon ifat ius Gedenkgabe ( Fu lda , 1 954 ) , 4 12-40. M it te la l ter ;
F . P r inz, K lerus u nd Kr ieg im f r t iheren
( S tut tgar t , 1 971), e .g . 1 04-13;
c f . Mayr-Har t ing ,
Com ing o f Chr ist ian ity , 1 30-9 ; J . M. Wa l lace-Hadr i l l , " Ro me a nd t he e ar ly Eng l ish c hurch : s o me p rob le ms o f t rans m iss ion ," S ett i mane S po leto 7 ( 1960 ), 5 40-1;
a nd " A b ackground t o S t . Bon iface ," Wh ite -
l ock S tud ies, 4 0-2. 9 6.
Ekkehard , Casus S anct i Ga l l i i x , e d. G . H . P er tz, MGH, S cr ip t i n f o l., I 17-8.
On t he Wa l thar ius , s ee S trecker 's i n troduct ion t o h is MGH
e d i t ion ( above p .80 ,n . 7 9) a nd L a istner , Thought a nd L et ters , 3 57-9. On a l l o f t h is , s ee L eyser , a r t . c i t a bove , p . 7 0, n . 9 7.
1 .e sp. 3 0-1.
F lodoard , H istor ia Re mens is E cc les iae , I V.5 , e d . J . He l ler a nd G . Wa itz, MGH, S cr ip t i n f o l., B eowu l f , l ines 1 197-1201;
X II I, p . 5 64 ;
f or Eor manr ic , c f .
Wids ith , p p. 1 5-36 ( where Cha mbers d oes
n o t c i te t he r eference f ro m F lodoard ). 9 8.
Rudo l f o f Fu lda , Trans lat io s anct i A lexandr i , e d. G . H . P er tz, MGH , S cr ip t i n f o l , I , p p. 6 73-7 ;
K . S ch m id , ' D ie Nach faren Widu ldnds ,"
Deu tsches Arch iv 2 0 ( 1964 ), 1 -47 ;
a nd " Re l ig iöses u nd s ippen-gebundenes
G eme inschaf tsbewusstse in i n Fr t ih m itte la lter l ichn Gedenkenbuche int rägen ," i b id. 2 1 ( 1965 ) , 6 3-4.
H . Grund mann , " D ie Frauen u nd d ie
L iteratur i m M it tela lter ," Arch iv f l ir t Ku l turgesch ich te 2 6 ( 1936 ), 2 196 1, c i tes Char le magne 's Dup lex Ed ictu m ( 789 ), x ix , Cap itu lar ia , I , p . 6 3 a ga inst t he wr it ing a nd s end ing o f w in ileodas ( apparen t ly l oves ongs ) b y n uns , a nd s uggests a c onnect ion b etween c o m mun it ies o f f e ma le r el ig ious a nd t he c o mpos it ion o f v ernacu lar l i terature ;
f or
s ome r eason , h e d oes n o t s uppor th is c ase w ith t he e xa mp le o f Wh itby , w here Bede b e l ieved Ang lo-Saxon r e l ig ious p oe try t o h ave o r ig inated. 9 9.
K . B osl ,
g er man ische K ont inu ität im d eu tschen M itte la lter ,"
Fr t th formen d er Gese l lschaf t i m m itte la lter l ichen Europa , ( Mun ich , 1 964 ), 9 3. 1 00.
Ew ig , "M ilo ," 4 30-40 ;
Pr inz, K lerus , 1 1-12, 7 3-104 a nd p ass i m.
1 01.
S chm id , " Re l ig iöses ," 6 9.
1 02.
B eowu lf , l ines 2 600-1. For t he M inster , M. Deanes ley , The Pre c onquest Church i n Eng land , 2 nd e d. ( London , 1 963 ), p p. 1 91-220. a nd C . A . Ra legh Rad ford , " Pre-Conquest M inster Churches," Archaeo log ica l J ourna l 1 30 ( 1973 ), 1 26-40. For t he i n terpre tat ion o f B ede 's l et ter t o Edgber t a dop ted i n t he t ex t , s ee E . J ohn , L and Tenure i nE ar ly Eng land ( Le icester , 1 960 ), 4 4-9 ;
" Fo lk land r econs idered ,"
Orb is Br itann iae a nd O ther S tud ies ( Le icester , 1 966 ), 8 3-91;
a nd
" Saecular iu m Pr ioratus a nd t he Ru le o f S t Bened ict ," Rev . B en . 7 5 ( 1965 ), 2 23-7.
I t i s u nnecessary t o g o i n to t he v exed q uest ion o f
w hether Ang lo-Saxon k indreds i ns isted u pon h ered itary t enure b efore t he c om ing o f t he c hurch , s ince a l l s cho lars a gree t hat b ook land was a t l east o pen t o t he c la i ms o f h e irs a f terwards ;
b u t Is hare s o me o f
t he r eserva t ions a bou t Mr J ohn 's impor tan t t hes is e xpressed b yD . A . B u l lough , " Ang lo-Saxon i nst itut ions a nd t he s truc ture o f O ld Eng l ish S oc iety ," Anna l i d e l la f ondazione i t a l iana p er l a s tor ia am m in istrat iva 2( 1965 ), 6 52. 8 3
1 03.
E . J ohn , " The k ing a nd t he monks i n t he t en th-cen tury r eforma t ion ," Orb is Br itann iae , 1 54-80.
1 04.
A Ethe lwu l f , De Abba t ibus , e d. A . Ca mpbe l l ( Ox ford , 1 967 ), p . x x i i Co mpare A lcu in i V ita Wil l ibrord i, i i, e d . W. L ev ison , MGH , S cr ip t . r er . Merov . WI , p p. 1 16-7 , a nd EHD, p p . 7 13-4, a nd c f . p . 7 7.
1 05.
For Deerhurst a nd i t s e n large men t i n t he p re-V ik ing p er iod , s ee H . M. a nd J . Tay lor , Ang lo-Saxon Arch itecture I( Ca mbr idge, 1 965 ), 1 93-209. For t he t ransact ions o f i t s p a trons , s ee BCS 2 74, 3 13 a nd 3 79 , S C 1 39, 1 187 a nd 1 433, a nd t he v a luab le c om men ts o f Professor Wh ite lock , EHD, p p. 4 71-3 a nd 4 76-7.
The e ven more c e lebrated c hurch a t Br ixwor th ,
Tay lor a nd Tay lor , Ang lo-Saxon Arch itec ture , I , 1 08-14, w as c onnec ted b y S ir Frank S ten ton , "Medeha mstede a nd i t s c o lon ies ," Prepara tory t o Ang lo-Saxon Eng land ,
e d. D . M . S ten ton ( Ox ford , 1 969 ), p p . 1 83-5 ,
t o t he mo ther-house a t P eterborough , a s w as t he a r t ist ica l ly i mpor tan t e ar ly f oundat ion a t Breedon-on-the-H i l l ;
a nd t he i n it iat ive a t Breedon
was t aken b y ap r inceps o f v ery c ons iderab le wea l th , a l though t here i s n o e v idence t hat s ubsequen t a bbo ts w ere c onnected w i th h is f am ily.
I
d o n o t o f c ourse ma in ta in t hat e very ma jor Ang lo-Saxon c hurch w as d om inated b y i t s f ound ing f am ily . 1 06.
Edd ius c . x xx iv , p p. 2 31-2 ; I V. 26, p p. 2 67-8;
HE 1 1.24 , p . 1 79 ;
I V , 2 3, p . 2 54 a nd
The Ear l iest L ife o f Gregory t he Great , e d . B .
Co lgrave ,(Kansas , 1 968 ), p p. 3 5 &3 9. 1 07.
A lc. Ep . 1 27 , p . 1 88;
Ang lo-Saxon Chron ic le , s .a. 7 96 , 7 98, Two o f
t he S axon Chron ic les P ara l le l , e d. C . P lu mmer ( Ox ford , 1 892 ) , p p. 5 6-7 ;
( f u ture r eferences t o t h is e d it ion ) , S ymeon o f Durha m , H istor ia
Regu m, e d. T . Arno ld , ( Ro l ls S er ies ) 7 5 , I , 5 9 ;
EHD, p p . 1 67-8, a nd
2 49. 1 08.
Fe l ix , c . x x , p p. 8 4-5 ;
D . P . K irby , " Bede 's n a t ive s ources f or t he
H istor ia Ecc les iast ica ," BJRL , 4 8 ( 1965-6 ), 3 70 ; Ang lo-Saxon Arch itecture I , 5 10-16 ;
Tay lor a nd T ay lor ,
H . M . Tay lor , "Repton r econs id-
e red ," Wh ite lock S tud ies, 3 51-89 ( w ith e spec ia l emphas is o n t he i mp or tance o f r oya l b ur ia ls f or t he a rch itecture o f t he c hurch ). 1 09.
BCS , 1 96 , S C 3 4 ;
S ten ton "Medeha mstede ," 1 91.
1 10.
L ev ison , Eng land a nd t he Con t inen t , 2 7-33 a nd 2 49-59.
1 11.
S isa m , S tructure , 5 0 ;
Wh ite lock , Aud ience , 5 8-64.
For o ther i l lus-
t rat ions o f Merc ian t reatmen t o f r oya l m insters, s ee , e .g ., BCS 2 34, 2 36 a nd 2 41; 1 12.
( § _g 1 16, 17 a nd 1 257 ).
BCS 3 84 ( 5.Q.1 436 ).
Th is c har ter , a nd t he c on f l ict u nder ly ing i t , h as
b een i l lu m inated a s n ever b efore b y Dr N . P . Brooks , i n h is f or thco mi ng s tudy , The Ear ly H istory o f Chr ist Church , Can terbury , w h ich h e was k ind e nough t o s how me. 1 13.
For Wil fr id 's c areer , HE V .19 , p p . 3 22-30 , a nd I , p p. 3 15-29.
1 14.
Edd ius, x i i i , p p. 2 07-8;
x v i i, p p. 2 11-12 ;
a nd l x i i, p p. 2 57-8 ;
Bede ,
" Ep . a d P legu ina m ," Bedae Opera d e Te mpor ibus, e d . J ones , P . 3 15 ; Gesta P on t if icu m ( see a bove , p . 7 8, n . 5 8 ), 8 4
p . 3 38-9 , a nd Wh ite lock ,
" Ang lo-Saxon p oetry ," p p . 8 9-90.
On t he i n terpretat ion o f Wil fr id 's
c areer , s ee Mayr-Har t ing , Co m ing o f Chr ist ian ity , c h. 9 ;
a nd E . J ohn ,
" The s oc ia l a nd p o l it ica l p rob le ms o f t he e ar ly Eng l ish Church ," Land, Church a nd Peop le :
Essays p resented t o H . P . R . F inberg , e d. J .
Th irsk, ( Read ing , 1 970 ), 3 9-63. 1 15.
For Egber t , e p. a d Egb., p . 4 12, a nd I , p . 3 78;
c f . A lcu in, Car men
d e p on t if ic ibus e t s anc t is Ecc les iae Eborancens is, l ines 1 250-2 a nd 1 273-5 , H istor ians o f t he Church o f York a nd i t s Archb ishops, e d. J . Ra ine , Rol ls S er ies 7 1, 3 86 ;
S y meon o f Durha m, H istor ia Ecc les iae
Dune lmens is, e d. Arno ld , I , 4 9.
For e p iscopa l c asualt ies , Ang lo-
S axon Chron ic le, 8 71, p p. 7 2-3;
f or e p iscopa l c o mpensat ion , Abt . 1 ,
p . 3 , a nd c f . D ia l. Egb., x i i, H&S , p p. 4 08-9. 1 16.
R. Woo lf , ' Doctrina l i n f luences o n t he Drea m o f t he Rood ," Med iu m Aev iun 2 7 ( 1958 ), 1 37-53;
J . V. F le m ing , " The Drea m o f t he Rood ;
a nd Ang lo-Saxon monast ic is m," Trad it io 2 2 ( 1966 ), 4 3-72. 1 17.
K . R . Brooks , Andreas a nd t he Fates o f t he Apost les ( Ox ford , 1 961), p p.
1 18.
2 0 (ii -XXVi
C . L . Wrenn , " The p oe try o f Caed mon ," PBA 3 2 ( 1946 ), 2 84-8;
D . H .
Green , The Caro l ing ian L ord ( Ca mbr idge, 1 965 ), 2 70-401. 1 19.
R . L . S . Bruce Mit ford , " The d ecorat ion ," T . Kendr ick , T . J . Brown a nd R . L . S . Bruce M it ford , Evangel ioru m Quat tuor Codex L ind isfarne ns is ( Lausanne, 1 956-60 ), I , 1 10-259, e sp. 2 5Of f ;
c f . Bruce Mitford 's
" Recept ion b y t he Ang lo-Saxons o f Med iterranean Art ," S et t i mane S po leto 1 4 ( 1967 ), 7 97-825.
And s ee Dav id Wilson 's e ssay i n t h is v o lu me ,
a bove , p p.1-22. 1 20. 1 21.
Bon . Ep. 3 5, p . 6 0. S ee a bove.
c f. Wh itelock , Aud ience, 8 0-2;
Mayr-Har t ing , Co m ing
o f Chr ist ian ity 2 30-9. 1 22.
Fe l ix , c c. x x iv a nd x xv , p p. 8 6-9 ; 1 08-11;
a nd c . x xxv i, p p. 1 14-7 ;
c . x xx i, p p. 1 00-7 ;
c . x x iv , p p.
c f . A thanas ius 's L ife o f Anthony ,
v i i-x , t rans. R . J . De ferrar i , Ear ly Chr ist ian B iograph ies, Fathers o f o f t he Church 1 5 (Wash ing t c 1 23.
F e l ix , c .
= CV,
p p. 10-13 :
a nd c . l i-l i i , p p. 1 60-7. Mönchtu m, 4 96-503 ;
,1 952 ), p p. 1 42-5. c . x l , p p. 1 24-7 ;
c . x l ix , p p. 1 48-51;
For t he Adelshe il iger , s ee Pr inz, Fr ees
K lerus, 5 8-62;
a nd h is. " He il igenku lt u nd
Ade lsherrschaf t im S p iegel merov ing ischer Hag iograph ie," H istor ische Z e itschr if t 2 04 ( 1967 ), 5 29-44 ; S peculu m H istor iale :
K . Bosl , " Der Adelshe il iger ,"
Festschr if t J . S pör l ( Mun ich , 1 965 ), 1 67-87.
For a r ather d if feren ta pproach , F . Graus, Vo lk , Herrscher u nd H e il iger i m Re ich d er Merov inger ( Prague, 1 965 ). 1 24.
d e Vr ies ( see a bove , p . 7 6, n . 3 8) I , 9 9-100, 1 05 a nd 1 53; S ten ton ,
1 25.
Ang lo-Saxon h eathen is m,
F . M.
P reparatory t o ASE, 2 95.
The O ldest Eng l ish T ex ts, e d. H . Sweet Ear ly Eng l ish Tex t S oc iety 8 3 ( London , 1 885 ;
r eptd 1 966 ), p p. 1 69-71;
8 5
Nenn ius, H istor ia
Br it tonu m, e d. T . Mo m msen , MGH Auct. An t iq. X I I I, 2 02-5 ; l ines 4 , 1 8, 5 3, 9 01, 1 068f f ., 1 201, 1 709, 1 949, 1 960-2;
Beowu lf ,
Wids ith , 1 4,
1 8, 8 8, 2 7, 3 5-44.
K . S isa m, " Ang lo-Saxon r oya l g enealog ies ," PBA
3 9 ( 1953 ), 2 87-346;
Goody a nd Wat t , " The c onsequences o f l i teracy ,"
( see a bove, p .75 ,n .33 ) , 3 1-4 ;
p .74 ,n .26 ) , 1 53.
Vans ina , Ora l Trad it ion ( see a bove,
For t he East Ang l ian g enealogy i n f u ll , s ee Bruce
Mitford , S u t ton Hoo , 6 2, ( and c f . B . Green i n An t iquar ies ' J ourna l 5 1 ( 1971), 3 21-3 ); p . 6 6.
f or t he West S axon , Ang lo-Saxon Chron icle, s .a. 8 55,
For a r ev ised d ate a nd p rovenance o f t he g enealogy c o l lec-
t ion , s ee n ow D .N . Du mv ille, " The Ang l ian c o l lect ion o f r oya l g enea log ies a nd
r egna l l i sts," Ang lo-Saxon Eng land , 5( 1976 ), 2 3-
5 0. 1 26.
A le. Ep. 1 29, p . 1 92;
o n a l l o f t h is, c f . M . C . W. H unter , " German ic
a nd Ro man a n t iqu ity a nd t he s ense o f t he p ast i n Ang lo-Saxon Eng land ," Ang lo-Saxon Eng land 3 ( 1974 ), 2 9-51, wh ich t he a uthor k ind ly s howed me b efore p ub l icat ion , when my own p aper was s t il l g erm inat ing . 1 27.
S tan ley , " Haethenra Hyht ," 1 36.
I n h is " Beowulf ," Cont inua t ions a nd
Beg inn ings , e d. E . G . S tan ley , ( London , 1 966 ), 1 39-40, Professor S tan ley c o mes c lose t o t he v iew a dopted i n t h is p aper . 1 28.
Gregor i i Turonens is H istor ia Francoru m , e d. B . Krusch a nd W. L ev ison , MGH, S cr ip t. Rer . Merov., I , 2 nd e dn. ( 1951).
For d iscuss ion o f
Gregory , s ee J . M. Wa l lace-Hadr il l , " The work o f Gregory o f Tours i n t he l igh t o f modern r esearch ," The Long-Ha ired K ings ( London , 1 962 ), 4 9-70 ;
a nd , " Gregory o f Tours a nd Bede," Fr i ih m it te la lter l iche S tud ien
2( 1968), 3 1-44 ;
f or f ur ther d iscuss ion o f t he c on trast w ith Bede,
Ca mpbe l l , " Bede," 1 72 a nd 1 76 -9 ; a bove, p . 7 1, i m . 6 , 7 ).
a nd Bede , p . x v ( f u l l r eferences
S ee a lso R .A. Markus Bede a nd t heTra -
d it ion o f Eccles iast ica l H istory ( Jarrow L ecture, 1 975 ). 1 29.
Pau l i D iacon i H istor ia L angobardoru m , I7 -9 e d. G . Wa itz, MGH, S cr ipt . Rer. L angobard., p p. 5 2-3; i n t he s a me e d it ion , p p. 2 -3.
c f . Or igo Gen t is Langobardoru m
There i s n o ma jor modern s tudy o f P au l ,
b u t s ee E . S estan , " La S tor iograf ia d e lPIta l ia l ongobarda," S et t i mane S po leto 1 7 ( 1970 ), 3 57-86. 1 30.
Widuk ind i Res Gestae S axon icae, P . L oh mann , MGH, i n u s. s cho l
i i-xv , e d. G . Wa ltz, P . H irsch a nd ,p p. 4 -25 ;
c f . K . Hauck , Go ldbrak t-
e aten a us S ievern (Mun ich , 1 970 ), e sp. 4 3-112.
On Widuk ind s ee,
a bove a l l , H . Beu mann , Widuk ind v on Korve i (We i mar , 1 950 ), a nd Beu mann 's " H istor iograph ische K onzep t ion u nd p o l it ische Z ie le Widuk inds v on Korve i," S et t i mane S po leto 1 7 ( 1970 ), 8 57-94. 1 31.
Cha mbers, " Bede," PBA, 2 2 ( 1936 ), 1 32 a nd 1 37-8.
1 32.
A t ten t ion s hou ld a lso b e d rawn h ere t o t he s ea-beast s aga w ith wh ich Fredegar amp l if ies Gregory 's a ccount o f t he p agan p ast o f t he Franks, Fredegar i i Chron icon I I, 9 , e d. B . Krusch , MGH S cr ip t. Rer . Merov . I , 9 5, a nd c f . J . M. Wa llace-Hadr il l , " Fredegar a nd t he h istory o f France," Long-Ha ired K ings, p . 8 4.
I t s hou ld b e emphasized t hat b oth
t he Franks a nd t he S axons e nv isaged a n o r ig ina l ly Med iterranean o r ig in f or t he ir p eop les ( Tro jan a nd Macedon ian r espect ive ly ).
L ike t he
East Ang l ians , t he ir p ast h ad t o d o w ith more t han p r i meva l G er man f orests ;
c f . L eyser ( above, p . 7 0, n .1
8 6
) , p p. 2 9-30.
1 33.
HE I . 1 5, p p. 3 0-3;
a nd I . 3 4, p p. 7 1-2.
1 34.
Bede , De S che mat ibus e t Trop is, e d. G . H . Tanenhaus, Quar ter ly J ourna l o f S peech 4 8 ( 1962 ), p p. 2 37-53;
c f . E . R . Cur t ius, European
L iterature a nd t he L at in M idd le Ages, t rans. W. R . Trask ( New York , ( 1953 ), 4 6-7;
Hun ter B la ir, World o f Bede, 2 82-97, a nd h is, " Fro m
Bede t o Aku in ," Fa mu lus Chr ist i, 2 39-60. 1 35.
Bede , Expos. i n Act . x v i i 2 3, e d. La istner ( see a bove, p . 7 1, n . 3) , P . 6 6 , o bserves t hat God was k nown i n J udaea a nd r e jected , a nd u nknown i n A chaea t hough s ough t .
He c o men ts t hat h e who d oes n o t k now God
i s h i mself i gnored, a nd h e who i s o bst inate i s p un ished , t hat n e ither i s immune f ro m b la me, b u t t hat t hose who n ever r ece ived t he Fa ith a re e xcusab il iores t han t hose who l a id h ands o n t he Chr ist t hey d id k now . For August ine 's t reatmen t o f t he n ob le p agans o f Ro me, s ee Brown , August ine, 2 99-312. 1 36.
Bede Exp lana t io Apoca lyps is , Praef., PL , 9 3 c o l. 1 34 ; Act . Praef . e p. a d Acca m , p . 3 ;
Expos. i n
HE v . 2 3, p p. 3 49-51 ( note e spec ia l ly
t he t wo c o mets, t he a dvance o f t he Arabs, t he c haos o f Ceo lwu lf 's r e ign a nd t he p ro l iferat ion o f monast ic is m, f or wh ich c f . e p. Egb. a s a bove, p .82 ,n .91 ) ;
Mayr-Har t ing , Co m ing o f Chr ist ian ity , p p. 2 17-
9 , h as br il l ian t ly c aptured t he u rgen t n ote i n Bede 's l i fe 's work .
For
ar ather d if feren t v iew , s ee Bonner 's a r t ic le ( c ited a bove, p .70 ,n . 1 ) , P . 8 4. 1 37.
Ca mpbel l, Bede, p p. x iv-xv i.
For c lass ica l i n f luences u pon P au l a nd
Widuk ind , s ee S estan , p p. 3 59-62, 3 84 ;
a nd Beumann , Widuk ind , p p.
1 8-21 a nd " H istor iograph ische Konzept ion ," p p. 8 72-3. 1 38.
For Bede o n G ildas, HE I . 2 2, p . 4 2 ( cf . I I. 1 7, p . 1 61);
f or h is u se
o f G ildas, Hann ing , V is ion o f H istory , 4 4-90, a nd Wa l lace-Hadr i l l , Ear ly German ic K ingsh ip , 7 4-6.
For t he u ncensured b ishop , HE I I. 7 ,
p . 1 41, a nd f or t he p r inc ip le o f n ot c r it ic iz ing p r iests, Bede , I n S a m. x v , 3 0-1, p . 1 35, x xv i, p p. 2 44-5 ;
c f . Carro l l , Bede 's S p ir itua l
T each ings, 1 50-2, a nd Ca mpbel l , " Bede," 1 77. 1 1.5 , p . 1 36; 1 39.
F or A idan , HE
a nd f or t he u se o f e xa mp le, HE P raef., p . 5 .
Gregory , D ia logues , e d. U . Mor icca , ( Ro me, 1 924 ), p . 1 6 ( trans. 0 . J . Z i m mer mann , F athers o f t he Church 3 9 (Wash ing ton , 1 959 ), p . 6 ) ;
L iber Regu lae P astora l is, I2 , PL 7 7 c o ls. 1 5-16 ;
( t rans. J .
Barmby , S elect L ibrary o f t he N icene a nd p ost-N icene Fathers 1 2 i , p . 2 ) ;
c f . a lso I 3 , I I 6 , PL 7 7, c o ls. 2 8-30 a nd 5 6-7, a nd A . d e
V ogue, " Sub r egu la v e l a bbate," Co l lectanea C isterc iana 3 3 ( 1971), 2 09-41. 1 40.
Ca mpbel l , " Bede," 1 82.
1 41.
HE V . 2 4 , p . 3 57 ; 1 94-5 ;
B ede, Ho m ily I1 3, p . 9 3;
Fe l ix c c. x v i i i-x ix , p p. 8 0-3;
c f. Edd ius c . i , p p.
Anon. V ita Cu thber t i Iv i i ( f or
e d it ion , s ee p . 7 8, n .57 ) , p . 7 3. 1 42.
F or Pau l , HL 1 V.37, p p. 1 31-2, c f . 1 .9, p p. 7 7-8, a nd Wa itz 's i n trod uct ion , p . 1 5 ;
c f . a lso S estan , 3 60-1, 3 74-5 ;
8 7
f or Widuk ind , Beu mann ,
Widuk ind , 2 -3, 2 2-4 , a nd " H istor iograph ische K onzept ion ," 8 70-2 ;
f or
Gregory , HF, p . x . 1 43.
C . P . Worma ld , " Bede a nd B ened ict B iscop ," F a mu lus Chr is t i, 1 416 9, e sp.
p . 1 51 a nd n . 8 0 ( p . 1 66 ).
Fr i f f les Mönch tu m ,
p . 4 57-64.
C f . a bove p .85 n .123 ,a nd Pr inz,
I t s hou ld b e n o ted t hat t he i ndependen t
V i ta Ceo lfr id i ( VC), e d ited b y P lu m mer i n t he Opera H istor ica , p p. 3 884 04 , s hares t he s a me t one a s Bede 's HA, wh ich c on f ir ms t ha t t h is t one i s af unct ion o f c o m mun ity t rad it ions , a nd n o t a n i d iosyncracy o f Bede 's. Bede 's l i fe o f Cu thber t i s v ery d if feren t , b u t h ere Bede was f o l low ing a n e ar l ier l i fe , a nd t he a dd it ions t hat h e makes h ave n o th ing t o d o w i th Adelshe i l iger n orms :
c f . C . G . L oom is , " The m iracle t rad it ion o f t he
Venerab le Bede," S pecu lu m 2 1 ( 1946 ), 4 04-18. 1 44.
HA x i, p p . 3 75-6 a nd x v i i, p . 3 81; c f . Edd ius c c. l x i i-lx i i i , p p. 2 58-9 ;
1 45.
VC x v i , p p. 3 93-4 a nd
XXV,
p . 3 96 ;
a nd HE I V.16, p . 2 37 .
E . A . L owe, Eng l ish Unc ia l ( Ox ford , 1 961) ;
R . L . S . Bruce M it ford ,
" The a r t o f t he Codex Am iat inus ," J ourna l o f t he Br it ish Archaeo log ica l Assoc iat ion 3 2 ( 1969 ), 1 -25 ;
C . N orden fa lk , " Before t he B ook o f
Durrow ," Acta Archaeo log ica 1 8 ( 1947 ), p p . 1 59-66 ; a bove ;
c f .
P .
8 5 a nd n .119
a lso R . W. S ou thern , " Bede ," Med ieva l Human is m a nd o ther
S tud ies ( London , 1 970 ), p . 2 . 1 46. 1 47.
VC v i i i , p p . 3 90-1. S ee
7 3
P .
a nd n .2 0 a bove.
Th is i s n ot t o d eny t hat Bede d oes, o n
o ccas ion , r ef lect t he v a lues o f Ger man ic s oc iety ; 1 .9 ,
P .
9 9 ;
1 1.14 , p . 1 55 ;
I V.15 , p . 2 36 ;
HE 1 .34 , p p. 7 1-2 ;
a nd I V.21,
P .
2 49 ;
wha t
r e ma ins s urpr is ing n ever the less , e spec ia l ly b y c o mpar ison w ith c on t ine n ta l wr iters, i s n o t t he e x istence o f e v idence t hat Bede was a s even thc en tury Barbar ian , b u t i t s p auc ity . 1 48.
Wa l lace-Hadr i l l , "Work o f Gregory o f Tours," 5 4-5 , emphas izes t he h ag iograph ica l t ra in ing f rom wh ich Gregory p roceeded t o h istory . Cass iodorus b eca me o ne o f t he most i mpor tan t m inor f athers a f ter h is ( l ost ) h istory o f t he Go ths was wr it ten , a nd a pparen t ly i t was a l most e n t ire ly s ecu lar a nd p o l it ic i n mo t iva t ion .
C f . A . Mo m ig l iano ,
" Cass iodorus a nd t he I ta l ian c u l ture o f h is t ime ," S tud ies i n H istor iog raphy ( 1966 ), 1 81-210 ;
s o a lso I s idore o f S ev il le 's H istor ia G othorum ,
e d. T . Mo m msen , MGH Auct . An t iq. X I ;
c f . J . Mess mer , H ispan ia-
i dee u nd Gotenmy thos ( Zur ich , 1 960 ), 8 5-137 a nd J . N . H i l lgar th , " H istor iography i n V is igo th ic S pa in ," S et t i mane S po leto 1 7 ( 1970 ), 2 95-9. 1 49. 1 50.
Ca mpbe l l , " F irst Cen tury ," ( see a bove , p .71, n . 7) , p p. 2 0-9. For t he b lood-feud , s ee Wh ite lock , Aud ience , 1 3-19 ;
a nd t he i mpor tan t
a r t ic le b y J . M. Wa l lace-Hadr il l , " The b lood-feud o f t he F ranks ," L ong-Ha ired K ings, 1 21 -4 7. For t he p opu lar ity o f t he Apocrypha, s ee R .E. K aske , " Beowu lf a nd t he Book o f Enoch ," S pecu lu m , 4 6 ( 1971), 4 21-31, a nd O g i lvy , Books Known t o t he Eng l ish , 6 6-74.
8 8
1 51.
For t he Wessobrunner G ebet a nd t he Musp il l i, s ee D ie k le ineren a lthochd eutschen S prachdenkmä l ler , e d. E . v on S te inmayer ( Ber l in , 1 916 ), p p. 1 6-19 a nd 6 6-81, a nd c f . K er , Dark Ages , 2 40-1.
For t he A l tus P rosator ,
The I r ish L iber Hymnorum , e d. J . H . B ernard a nd R . A tk inson , H enry Bradshaw S oc iety ( London , 1 898 ) I6 2-83, a nd I , 1 46 ;
Mrs Go lds m ith ,
Mode , p p. 4 2-7 i n tel l igen t ly d raws a t ten t ion t o t he i mag inat ive o ver lap b etween t h is p oe m a nd B eowu lf . For B eowu lf a nd t he Ar ians, J . Ha lvers on , " P it fal ls o f p iety ," ( see a bove , p • 7 6 ,n • 4 3) , p . 2 75 ; b ut t he d iff erence b etween t he Go th ic a nd i nsu lar t er m ino logy o f Godhead i s a c ruc ia l a rgu men t a ga inst Ar ian i n f luence :
Green , Caro l ing ian L ord ,
2 33-321, a nd W. Baetke , Das He i l ige i m German ischen ( Tub ingen , 1 942 ), 2 13-6 a nd 2 20-6.
For t he a ppea l o f Ar ian is m , s ee E . A . Tho mpson ,
The V is igoths i n t he T i me o f U lf ila ( Ox ford , 1 966 ), 1 07-10. 1 52.
K . H ughes, Ear ly Chr ist ian I re land ;
a n I n troduct ion t o t he S ources
( London , 1 972 ), 1 70-1. 1 53.
W. A . Chaney , " Pagan ism t o Chr is t ian ity i n Ang lo-Saxon Eng land ," Harvard Theo log ica l Rev iew 5 3 ( 1960 ), 2 00 ;
b u t c f . H . K uhn , " Das
For t leben ," S po leto ( 1967 ), ( see a bove , p . 7 6, n . 3 8), 7 43;
" besonders
i rreführend i st e s d as E th ische i n d en Begr if f d er Re l ig ionen a u fzunehmen ." E . G . S tan ley , " The q uest" s ee a bove , ( p . 7 6, n . 4 2) i s a n e n ter ta in ing c r i t ique o f t he p agan izers o f e ar ly Eng l ish l i terature. 1 54.
Cone C lovesho ( 746 ) i i, H&S , p p. 3 03-4 ; Hea then is m ," 2 81-97 ;
1 55.
c f . S ten ton , " Ang lo-Saxon
Mayr-Har t ing , Co m ing o f Chr ist ian ity 2 2-30.
Vans ina , Ora l Trad it ion , 9 6. For t he c ur ious ly s im ilar d eterm inat ion o f t he l ater Ro man a r istocracy n o t t o a ccep t t he August in ian d is m issa l o f t he l egends o f t he Repub l ic , o r t o a bandon V erg il a nd L ivy , t hough w i l l ing t o a ccept b ap t ism a nd p a tron ize Pruden t ius , c f . Mo m ig l iano , " Cass iodorus" ( see a bove, p .88 ,n .148 ), 1 85-6 ; c onvers ion" ( see a bove , p .70 ,n .
1 56.
a nd Brown , " The
I) , 1 0.
F or t he e uhe mer iza t ion o f Woden , s ee t he l et ter o f B ishop Dan ie l t o Bon i face, Bon .Ep. 2 3, p p. 3 9-41;
a nd t he Chron ic le o f AEthe lweard ,
e d . A . Ca mpbe l l , ( London , 1 962 ), p p . 7a nd 9 .
For t he g enea log ies ,
s ee a bove. 1 57.
K . H auck , " Lebensnormen u nd
K u ltmy then i n g er man ischen S ta mmes
-u nd Herrschergenea log ien ," S aecu lum , 6( 1955 ), 2 04-5 ,
P rofessor
H auck misses t he c ase o f t he West S axons , b u t c f . K er , Ca ta logue , n os. 3 9 a nd 1 80.
Ih ope t o c ons ider t he s ign if icance o f t h is p o in t i n as tudy
p rov is iona l ly e n t it led The Eng l ish L eg is lat ive Trad it ion a nd i t s Ana logues : A l fred t o Wu l fstan.
N ote a lso t he a ssoc iat ion b etween t he c od if icat ion
o f t he p oetry a nd t he l aws i n E inhard 's L ife o f Char le magne , x x ix , ( see a bove,P. 7 9 , n . 6 2. 1 58.
W. G . Ker , Ep ic a nd R o mance, 5 4-7 ;
Chadw ick , Hero ic Age , 3 0-40
a nd 3 29-32. 1 59.
J ohn , " Soc ia l a nd p o l i t ica l p rob le ms," ( see p . 8 4 g ood o n t he l im ita t ions o f t h is v iew .
8 9
a nd n .114 a bove ) i s
1 60.
Ker , Ep ic a nd Ro mance, 4 5-7.
1 61.
Bruce M it ford Codex L ind isfarnens is I , 1 26-73;
P lummer , I , p . 3 09 ;
c f . Mayr-Har t ing , Co m ing o f Chr is t ian ity , 1 92-204.
9 0
APPEND ICES
A :
THE EARLY ENGL ISH AR ISTOC RACY AND I TS S TATUS
F or t he l ega l e v idence b ear ing u pon t he e x istence o f a n a r istocracy i n s even th c en tury Eng land , s ee a bove , p .72 ,n . 1 4.
Between t he l aws o f
H lothere ( 6 85-6 ) a nd t hose o f W ih tred ( 695 ), t he word f or n ob le man c hanges f ro m e or l t o g es ith , a nd i ti s g es ith t ha t i s t he t erm i n t he l aws o f I ne ( a lso c . 6 93-4 ).
But f ro m t he s tar t , t he w ord g es ith h as t he s u f f ix cund :
e .g . Wi 5 , I n 3 4 :1, 4 5.
s ee ,
As P rofessor Wh ite lock p o in ts o u t , EHD , p . 3 62.
t h is e s tab l ishes t ha t , wha tever t he e tymo log ica l s ign if icance o f t he word g es ith , t he s tatus i tc on ferred p assed b y b ir th . The much l ater e v idence o f N or3leoda L aga 9 -12 , p p . 4 60-1 a ssoc iates t he ma in tenance o f n ob le s ta tus w ith t he i nher itance o f ap roper ty q ua l if icat ion o ver t wo g enerat ions : s ee L ieber mann , Vo l. I , S achg lossar , s .v. Ade l , s ect ions 1 , 3 , 4 , 1 1, p p. 2 687 0.
On a mat ter s uch a s t h is , o ne i s u nw i ll ing t o d if fer f ro m S ir Frank
S ten ton , b u t i ti s d if icu lt , i n t he l igh t o f t he a bove , t o a gree w ith ASE, p p. 3 03-4 , t ha tt he o ld h ered itary n ob i l ity o f t he Ang lo-Saxons h ad f a iled t o s urv ive t he i nvas ions ;
e spec ia l ly s ince o ne c an a dduce t he c on trary o p in ion o f
H . M. Chadw ick , S tud ies o n Ang lo-Saxon I nst itu t ions , ( Ca mbr idge , 1 905 ; New York r e issue , 1 963 ) , p p . 3 78-83.
For a modern c o mpro m ise , s ee
H . R . L oyn , "Ges iths a nd Thegns i n Eng land f ro m t he s even th t o t he t en th c en tur ies ," EHR , 7 0 ( 1955 ) , p p . 5 29-40 ; a nd , Ang lo-Saxon Eng land a nd t he Norman C onquest ( London , 1 963 ), p p. 2 00-9. S ten ton 's v iew was p resumab ly i n f luenced b y t he o r thodoxy t hen p reva i li ng w ith r egard t o Frank ish h istory .
S ee , e .g . H . Brunner , Deu tsche
Rech tsgesch ichte , 2 nd e d. ( Le ipz ig , 1 906 ) I , p p. 1 35-40 a nd 3 49-51.
I t
must o bv ious ly a f fect a Br it ish h istor ian 's v iew t ha t f ew c on t inen ta l s cho lars wou ld n ow a ccept t h is o p in ion o f t he e ar ly German ic p eop les w ithou t r eservat i on , d esp ite t he a bsence o f a n a r istocra t ic werg i ld f ro m most o f t he c on t ine n ta l c odes.
S ee H . Darmenbauer , " Ade l , Burg a nd Herrscha f t b e i d en
Ger manen ," Grund lagen d er m it te la l ter l ichen We lt ( S tu t tgar t , 1 958 ), p p. 1 217 8 ;
G . Duby , "La n ob lesse d ans l a Franc ie med ieva le :
s u ivre ," R evue H istor ique , 2 26 ( 1961 ) , p p . 1 -22 ;
u ne e nquete a p our-
L . G en ico t , " La N ob lesse a u
Moyen Age d ans l 'anc ie rme Franc ie ," Anna les 1 7 ( 1 962 ) , p p . 1 -22 ( c f C o mparat ive S tud ies i n S oc iety a nd H istory 5 ( 1962-3 ) , p p . 5 2-9 ) ;
K . F . Werner ,
" Bedeu tende Ade lsfa m il ien i m Re ich Kar ls d es Grossen ," Kar l d er Grosse , e d. W. B raun fe ls e t a l. V o l . I( Dusse ldor f , 1 965 ), 8 3-142 ; a nd F . I rs ig ler , Un tersuchungen , ( see p .72 , n . 1 7 ), who b eg ins w ith a u sefu l b ib l iograph ica l s urvey , a nd whose a rgumen ts h ave b een o f s pec ia l v a lue t o me. Bu t D . A . Bu l lough , " Europae Pater : Char le magne a nd h is a ch ieve men t ," EHR , 8 5 ( 1970 ) , p p. 7 3-82 , s ounds a n impor tan t warn ing n ote a ga inst t he e xaggerat ions o f t h is s choo l ; a nd , f or t he o lder v iew , c f R . S prande l , " S truk tur a nd Gesch ichte d es merov ing ischen Ade ls ," H istor ische Z e itschr if t 1 93 ( 1 961) , p p . 3 3-71 . 9 1
Th is i s n o p lace t o e n ter f ur ther i nto what s hou ld b e a ma jor t op ic o f r esearch i n i t s own r igh t , b u t t wo p o in ts t ha t a re w or th emphas iz ing p rov is iona l ly a re t hese.
F irst , n ob le f am i l ies m igh t e as i ly f a il t o ma in ta in t he ir
l ine b eyond t wo o r t hree g enera t ions i n e ar ly med ieva l c ircu mstances , a nd t h is migh t make e ven a h ered itary n ob il ity d if f icu l t t o t race f or l ong :
s ee
Duby , " La n ob lesse ," p p. 2 0-1, a nd c f K . B . Mac far lane , The N ob i l ity o f L ater Med ieva l Eng land ( Ox ford , 1 973 ), p p. 1 32-76.
S econd , e ven where
t i t le a nd p roper ty w ere i nher ited , r enewed r oya l p a tronage might r ema in v ery i mpor tan t ;
i tc ou ld h e lp t o e stab l ish n ov i h om ines , a s i nd ica ted i n t he
t ract , Ge ( lync70 , 2 , 3 , p p. 4 56-7 ; Nob i l ity , p p. 1 58-67 , Preparatory t o
c f Bu l lough , " Europae P ater , " ,
Macfar lane ,
a nd S ten ton 's " Thr iv ing o f t he Ang lo-Saxon c eor l ,"
Ang lo-Saxon Eng land ,p p. 3 83-93.
I t c ou ld a lso s upp ly a d-
d it iona l e ndowmen t s uf f ic ien t t o c ope w ith t he d if f icu l t ies o f p ar t ib le , o r d isp uted , i nher itance:
C f i n g enera l t erms , T . M. Char les-Edwards , " K insh ip ,
s tatus a nd t he o r ig ins o f t he h ide ," PP 5 6 ( 1972 ) , p p . 1 -33 ;
a nd J . C . H o l t ,
P o l it ics a nd p roper ty i n e ar ly med ieva l Eng land" , i b id. 5 8 , p p. 3 -52 .
A
Gebur tsade l migh t t hen n eed t o b e aD iens tade l a lso , wh ich wou ld a ccoun t f or t he c onnotat ions o f s erv ice i n s uch words a s Ges ith a nd Thegn , a nd f or t he e v idence o f e p. Egb. t hat Nor thu mbr ian
n ob les n eeded t o b e c on t inua l ly s eek-
i ng h ered itary e ndowmen ts f ro m t he k ing i n r eturn f or s erv ice a t h is c our t . Thus , n e ither t he " frag il ity" o f a n e ar ly med ieva l a r istocracy , n or i t s c lose r e la t ionsh ip t o r oya l p ower w e igh a ga inst t he p os it ive l ega l e v idence t hat t here was a n Ang lo-Saxon n ob il ity , wh ich was , i n s o me s ense , h ered itary .
B :
BEO WULF AS ALLEGORY
S ee a bove , p p.77 ,n .48 f or e xa mp les o f t he a l legor ica l a pproach a nd f or t he mos t e f fect ive o b ject ions t o i t . The a l legor ica l a pproach f a ils t o make s ense o f t he p oe m , b ecause i ti s s o d if icu l t t o b e s ure t ha t Beowu l f h as a ny o ne c oheren t message o f a n e d ify ing t ype ; r ecen t ly .
f ew s cho lars h ave t hough t s o u n t i l
I t c an p erhaps b e s uggested t ha t Beowu l f h i mse lf i s c r it ic ized b y
s ecu lar s tandards f or h is p ursu it o f t he d ragon , a nd t h is c ase i s made b y J . L eyer le , " Beowu lf , t he h ero a nd t he k ing ," Med ium Aevu m 3 4 ( 1965 ) . p p . 8 9-102 ; b u t c f . S . B . Green f ie ld , " Beowu lf a nd e p ic t ragedy ," Co mparat ive L iterature, ( 1962 ), p p. 9 1-105 ;
B . M itche l l , " Un t i l t he d ragon c o mes...," N eoph i lo logus ,
( 1963 ), p p . 1 31, 1 37 n . 3 0 ; i n Beowu lf ," p p. 8 0-1;
Sm ithers , " Des t iny a nd t he h ero ic
Donahue p p. 2 93-6.
warr ior
Mrs G o lds m ith 's c ase t ha t t he
h ero i s c r it ic ized f ro m t he s tandpo in t o f Chr ist ian mora l ity i s o pen t o more s er ious o b jec t ions.
I ti s d if f icu l t t o a gree t hat " the s ecu lar mater ia l" i n t he
p oe m i s , " concen tra ted w ith in o ne sma l l s phere o f i n teres t" ( Mode., p . 8 ). On t he c on trary , Mrs Go lds m ith 's i n terpre tat ion d epends h eav ily u pon a s ing le p assage i n t he p oe m , Hro thgar 's l ong a dmon it ion t o B eowu l f ( l ines 1 700-84 ), a nd i ti s n ot c lear t ha t e ven t h is p assage c onveys a n unamb iguous ly Chr ist ian c ase a ga inst s ecu lar v a lues , a s c o mpared , f or e xa mp le , w ith t he c on t inen ta l Wa lthar ius , l ines 8 57-75 , i n wh ich o ne o f t he h eroes l aunches i n to a n e loquen t d iscourse a ga inst g reed a s s uch .
9 2
As I r ead i t , t he s peech i s a
w arn ing , n ot o n ly a ga inst o ferhygd ( wh ich i s n ot n ecessar i ly t he s ame t h ing a s s uperb ia ), b u t a lso a ga ins t c omp lacency , c rue l ty t o r eta iners a nd a bove a l l p ars i mony ( no t c up id i ty ). P ars i mony , a s t he a n thropo log ists t each u s , i s a ma jor s o lec is m i n p r im i t ive s oc iet ies a nd w ide ly c onde mned , q u ite a par t f rom Chr ist ian t each ing : s ee M. Mauss , The G if t , t r . J . Cunn ison , r ev ised e dn . ( London , 1 969 ) ; a nd M. G luckmann , P o l it ics , L aw , a nd R itua l i n Tr iba l S oc iety ( Ox ford , 1 965 ), p p. 4 5-80.
Th is a spect o f t he s peech i s
a lso a rgued p ower fu l ly b yJ . G o lden , i n h is u npub l ished C orne l l P h .D. t hes is , " Soc ieta l b onds i n O ld Eng l ish Hero ic p oetry ," 1 970 , c h . 2 ; a nd c f . M. Chern iss , I nge ld a nd Chr ist , p p. 7 9-101. g no m ic a nd s en ten t ious ;
German ic p oetry was c ongen ita l ly
t here i s n oth ing v ery d ist inct ive a bou t t he Beowu lf
p oet 's a t t i tude t o t he " changes a nd c hances o f t h is f l eet ing w or ld ," a nd we f i nd t he s ame k eynote s truck b y K ing Ge l i mer o f t he Vanda ls , t rapped o n a Mauretan ian moun ta ins ide w i th t he Byzan t ine a rmy b eneath ( Procop ius , De B e l lo Vanda l ico , I V.v i 3 1-3, e d. H . B . Dew ing ( Harvard , L oeb s er ies , 1 963 ) , p p. 2 62-3 ). More g eneral ly , t hough B eowu lf h as i t s s tructura l p rob le ms , t hese w i l l n ot , i n t hemse lves , s u f f ice a s s ignposts t o h idden a l legory ( c f . J . E . Cross , L a t in t hemes i n O ld Eng l ish p oetry ( Lund , 1 962 ), p . 1 0 ); a nd Iam n ot c onv inced t ha t t he u nusua l c onc lus ion t o t he Dragon f igh t w ou ld i m med iate ly h ave r em inded a n Ang lo-Saxon a ud ience o f J ob , r a ther t han S igurd. Bu t a rgu men t o n t h is s or t o f p o in t i s s carce ly l i ke ly t o l ead t o p roof , a nd , where s o much d epends u pon s ub ject ive r eac t ion , i t wou ld b e u ngenerous n o t t o a cknow ledge t hat Iam much i ndebted t o Mrs Go lds m ith f or t he s t i mu lus o f h er i deas. Beowu lf a s a l legory i s , h owever , o b ject ionab le o n p r inc ip le a lso. The v ery s ecu lar med iu m whereby t he p oet s ough t t o t rans m it h is message ( i f h e h ad o ne ) a rgues t ha t h e w as a ddress ing a n a ud ience o f r e lat ive " beg inners ," o ne t ha t w ou ld r espond t he b et ter f or b e ing t augh t i n t he t erms t ha t w ere f am i l iar t o i t .
I n t he e ar ly M idd le Ages , h owever , i t was g eneral ly a greed
t ha t t he a l legor ica l a pproach w as f or s pec ia l is ts. Gregory t he Great was f o l low ing a t rad it ion t ha t w en tb ack t o Or igen , when h e d ec lared i n t he p reface t o h is Mora l ia i n J ob t hat , " just a s t he d iv ine word e xerc ises t he p ruden t b y i t s mys ter ies , s o i tg eneral ly n our ishes t he s imp le b y i t s s ur face. i n p ub l ic w hat f eeds t he l i t t le o nes ;
m irat ion t he minds o f t he more a dvanced" : 5 15 ;
I t h o lds
i tk eeps i n s ecret what s uspends i n a dMora l ia , Prae f i v , PL 7 5 , c o l .
c f . August ine De c a tech izand is r ud ibus , i x , e d. J . P . Chr istopher
( Wash ing ton , 1 926 ), p . 4 2 ; d e L ubac ( see a bove , n . 7 3 )I , 1 99 , 4 10 , 5 22-3 ; l .i i , 1 70-1; Brown , August ine , p p. 2 59-62. The Mora l ia h as o f ten b een i nvoked b y d efenders o f a n a l legor ica l Beowu lf , b ut i ti s w or th n ot ing t ha t Gregory h i mse lf was f ur ious t ha t wha t h e h ad p ub l ished a s t he p r iva te d isc ourses o f i n te l lectua ls i n C onstan t inop le w ere b e ing p ub l ic ly e xpounded b y t he b ishop o f Ravenna :
E p. X I I 6 , p . 3 52.
Here t hen i s ap a in fu l t ens ion
b etween t wo p re m isses i n t he a rgu men t t ha t Beowu lf i s a l legory : t he n a ture o f t he p oe m t hat i s b e ing u sed t o t each i s p u l l ing i n o ne d irect ion , i nd ica t ing a nu nsoph ist icated a ud ience ; t he method o f t each ing t ha t i s b e ing u sed , a rgui ng a r eadersh ip o f i n te l lectua ls , i s p u l l ing i n t he o ther .
9 3
There i s n o d oubt t hat med ieva l a l legory h ad a f uture , a nd i ti sp robab le t ha t s o me Ang lo-Saxon p oetry i s a l legor ica l : e .g. J . E . Cross , " The c onc ep t ion o f t he O ld Eng l ish Phoen ix ," Creed , E ssays ( c f . n . 8 6 ), p p. 2 19-52 ; c f . d e L ubac , I. i i , p p. 1 97-233. But i tw ou ld b e e as ier t o b e l ieve i n a n a ll egor ica l B eowu lf i fi t s d efenders c ou ld p o in t t o a ny th ing r emote ly s im i lar b e ing wr it ten f or t h is p urpose a t a ny th ing l ike s o e ar ly a d a te.
C :
THE DATE OF BEO WULF
S ee a bove , p .73 ,n .2 1
F or t he p urposes o f t h is p aper , Ih ave l ef t t he
q ues t ion o f t he d a te o f Beowu lf o pen , a l though Ih ave u sua l ly a ssumed t hat i t i s l i kely t o b e long t o t he f irst p re-Alfred ian p hase o f Ang lo-Saxon h is tory. The e v idence p resen ted i n t h is p aper o vera l l b ears i n t wo ways u pon t he d at i ng o f Beowu lf . F irst , i tp erhaps r e in forces t he u n l ike l ihood o f at en thc en tury d a te. I n e xc lud ing t he p os t-V ik ing p er iod , i ti s l ess r e levan t t hat t he p oet i s p roud o f S cand inav ians , t han t ha t h e i s c e lebrat ing a pparen t h eathens. A t l east i n Wessex a nd s ou thern Merc ia , K ing A l fred a nd h is s uccessors were t ry ing t o c rea te a " crusad ing" a tmosphere , a nd Is hou ld b e s urpr ised i fa nyo ne who h ad b een e f fect ive ly e xposed t o t h is movemen t w ou ld h ave w ished t o c ompose a work i n wh ich t he h eroes o ccas iona l ly p ract ised p agan r i tes , a nd ( except i n l i nes 1 75-88 ) w ithout c ensure ; t hey m igh t , o n t he o ther h and , h ave b een w i l l ing t o l i s ten t o s uch works :
R . L . Reyno lds , " An e cho o f B eowu lf
i n K ing Aethe ls tan 's c har ters?" Med iu m A evum , 2 4 ( 1955 ) , p p . 1 01-3 .
L a ter i n
t he t en th c en tury , w e a re n ot o n ly r each ing t he t erm inus a n te q uem f or t he n ecessary p rototypes o f o ur manuscr ipt , b ut a lso t he p er iod i n wh ich t he Caro l ing ian c urren ts t ha t o b l iterated much o f t he c on t inenta l mater ia l ( see a bove , p p. 7 8 a nd 7 9, i m . 5 5 , 6 1-2 ) were a t t he ir s tronges t i n Eng land. S ee , f ur ther , Chadw ick , Hero ic Age , p p. 3 0-40 , o n t he d i f feren t s ty le o f t en thc en tury h ero.
S econd , t hese a rgumen ts w ou ld c er ta in ly t end t o j us t ify Pro fes-
s or Wh ite lock 's e x tens ion o f t he p oss ib le d a t ing l im its f or t he p oem u p t o t he e nd o f t he p re-V ik ing p er iod , Aud ience , p p . 2 2-30 , 5 7-64 , 9 9-105 ).
The
" ar is tocra t ic" c l i mate o f e ar ly Eng l ish Chr ist ian ity i s , i fa ny th ing , more a pparen t i n t he Age o f O f fa t han i n t he Age o f B ede , a nd i fO f fa 's c our t was c apab le o f c omp i l ing r oya l g enea log ies o ut o f t a les o f S cand inav ian h eroes , t here i s n o r eason why t hey s hou ld n ot a lso h ave w r it ten u p t he t a les t he ms e lves. Two o ther c ons iderat ions t hat w e igh w ith me a re t hese : Aspects o f t he p oe m 's " archaeo logy" ( f or wh ich c f . Cramp , a s a bove , p .72 ,n . 1) p o in t t owards a n e ar l ier r a ther t han a p ost-V ik ing d a te. S econd ly , C hadw ick , Hero ic Age , p p. 6 4-6, made t he q u ite e xcep t iona l ly i n teres t ing p o in t , t o wh ich Ih ave s een n o s ubsequen t r e ference , t hat u n t i l a bou t 8 00 , Ang lo-Saxon
9 4
f a mil ies w ere c on t inu ing t o g ive t he ir s ons a nd d augh ters " hero ic" n a mes , b ut t ha t t he h ab it d ied away d ur ing t he n in th a nd t en th c entur ies.
Chadw ick 's
s tat is t ics wou ld n eed r ev is ion i n t he l igh t o f Dr S isa m 's work o n t he g enea log ies, b u t t h is wou ld n ot a l ter t he v a l id ity o f ac hange a fter 8 00 ( see a lso , C . E . Wr ight , The Cu lt ivat ion o f S aga i n Ang lo-Saxon Eng land , L ondon , 1 939, p p. 1 9-20 ).
Assu m ing t ha t l i ngu ist ic s cho lars, whose a rgu ments I c annot
c la im t oj udge, a re u nab le t o r each a gree men t o n t he d at ing o f t he p oe m 's l anguage , Iwou ld d efend d at ing l im its o f 6 75-875 , b ut wou ld w ish t o make n o f ur ther c o m mit men t o n h istor ica l g rounds.
9 5
I V .
THE ARCHER AND ASSOCIATED F IGURES
ON THE RUTH WELL CROSS — A RECONS IDERAT ION R . T . F arre l l
S ince a n u mber o f w ide ly v ar ian t o p in ions a re c urren t r egard ing t he s ign if icance o f t he a rcher o n Ru thwe l l a nd o ther Eng l ish c rosses , i t s eems n ecessary t o e xa m ine t he Ru thwe l l f igure y et a ga in , a s Ruthwe l l i s e ar ly i n t he s er ies o f Eng l ish s tone c rosses , a nd i s t hus o f c en tra l i mpor tance f or a l l d iscuss ions.
1
The c ross-head , i n i t s p resen t c ond it ion ,
2
( As w i l l b e n oted b e low , t he r econstruct ion i s i ncorrect .
a ppears a s f o l lows. The d escr ip t ion
g iven h ere i s p rov is iona l i n s o me m inor r espects , p end ing f ur ther e xam inat i on a nd p hotography .) Nor th Face ( p la te V I I I ) : T op . w ith h ead i n p rof i le.
F u l lleng th f ron ta l f i gure o f ab ird o fp rey ,
I t c lutches a p iece o f f o l iage i n i t s l ef t c law , a nd h o lds
i t s r igh t l eg c lose u p t o i t s b ody .
T here a re t races o f ar un ic i nscr ip t ion i n t he
b orders , b u tt hese a re n o h e lp i n i dent if ica t ion s ince o n ly o dd l et ters c an b e made o u t a t p resen t .
The t ranso m i s a modern i nsert ion .
f igures , s hown a bout h a lf-leng th ;
Bottom .
Two
t hough t he p ane l i s v ery w orn , i ta ppears
t hat t he l ef t f igure i s w inged , a nd t ha t t he r igh t f i gure h o lds a b ook i n d raped h ands a nd i s h a l f t urned w ith i nc l ined h ead t owards t he l ef t f igure. S ou th Face ( p la te I X ) : T op . t he r igh t .
T he f igure o f a man , p oss ib ly s ea ted , i s o n
H is h ead i s i nc l ined t owards a l arge b ird o n h is r ight .
h as i t s b eak t urned t owards t he h u man f igure. wr is t ;
T he b ird
One o f i t s c laws i s o n h is
t he o ther l eg i s e x tended a nd t he l arge c law i s p ar t ia l ly masked b y t he
d rapery f o lds o f t he h u man f igure. v is ib le. I N
There a re t races o f aL at in i nscr ip t ion
UM , g enera l ly e xpanded t o I N PR INCIP IO ERAT
VERBU M , t he f irst w ords o f S t J ohn 's g ospe l. i nser t ion .
Bot to m.
o f d raw ing h is b ow ;
The t ranso m i s a modern
An a rcher , s hown i n p ro f i le a nd h a l f l eng th , i nt he a ct
t he a rrow 's h ead i s c lear ly v is ib le i n t he u pper r igh t
h and c orner o f t he p ane l , a nd a q u iver c an b e s een o n t he l ower p ar t o f t he f igure.
The o n ly h in t a t i den t if icat ion f or a ny o f t hese f igures i s t he r econs tructed i nscr ip t ion a round t he t op o f t he p resen t s ou th f ace , wh ich l eads me t o i den t ify t he b ird a nd h u man f igure w ith J ohn t he E vange l ist a nd h is s ymbo l , t he e ag le. I t a ppears t ha t t he t op a rm o f t he c ross w as r estored b ack t o f ron t .
T he r ea-
s ons f or s uppos ing t h is c o me f ro m t he c ongru ity o f t he t wo e vange l is t p ane ls , J ohn a nd h is e ag le ( on t he t op a rm o f t he p resen t s ou th f ace ) a nd t ha t o f t he man w i th b ook a nd w inged f igure , wh ich c an b e i n terpreted a s Mat thew a nd h is a nge l , ( on t he b ot to m o f t he p resen t n or th f ace . 2a A r eversa l wou ld b r ing t he a rcher a nd t he b ird o nto t he s ame s ide o f t he c ross , t hough t he r e la t ions h ip b et ween t he t wo i s b y n o means a s c lear a s t hat b etween t he e vange l ist 9 6
P late V I I I
Ru thwe l l c ross h ead , n or th f ace. Copyr igh t Dav id Wilson.
P late I X
Ru thwe l l c ross h ead , s outh f ace.
Crown c opyr igh t .
f igures o n t he o ppos ite f ace.
I t must b e s tressed t ha t t he r eason f or a ssum ing
t he c ross-head t o b e t he wrong way r ound h as n oth ing t o d o w ith t he c on junct ion o f t he b ird a nd a rcher ;
t hey a re a ssoc iated b ecause a n e vange l is t s er ies o n
t he o ppos i te f ace s ee ms a v ery l ike ly p oss ib i l ity . We c an n ow t urn t o i nterpreta t ions o f t he a rcher made i n t he p as t f or ty y ears.
B a ldw in Brown s aw t he a rcher a nd e ag le a s l inked , p erhaps a s ar e-
p resen ta t ion o f as ecu lar t he me o f h un t ing , w ith t he b ird a s " no th ing b u t a n ob le q uarry , t ha t t he a rcher w il l p resen t ly t ransf ix w ith h is s ha f t" . 3 P ro fess or S chap iro s uppor ted a p redo m inan t ly s ecu lar i n terpretat ion o f t hese f igures , a nd was f i rm i n t he b e l ief t ha t t he a rcher a nd t he e ag le w ere b oth i mages o f f orce, w ith a p oet ic a nd emot iona l s ign if icance.
He c ited s cenes o f v io lence
e lsewhere i n med ieva l a r t , s uch a s t he Me ig le s tones i n S co t land , o n o ne o f w h ich Dan ie l w ith t he l ions i s s urrounded b y " hun ters , h ounds , ac en taur w ith t wo a xes , a man w ith a c lub , a nd a d ragon f igh t ing a h orned b east ."
4
No f ewer t han f our d if feren t r e l ig ious mean ings f or t he a rcher h ave b een p ut f orward .
Dr S ax l h e ld t ha t t he a rcher was a r epresen ta t ion o f " the
e ne m ies b y wh ich t he Ro man c hurch was s urrounded , p agans a nd h eret ics a l ike."
5
P rofessor Kan torow itz i den t if ied t he a rcher a s I shmae l , t he f igura
o f t he g ood man i n t he d eser t p rotected b y God , a nd c i ted S t J ohn Chrysosto m i n s uppor t o f h is i n terpretat ion .
6
H is a rgu men t was v igorous ly r efuted b y
S chap iro , w ho r e-s tated h is c oncep t ion o f t he s ecu lar n ature o f t he a rcher a nd t he e ag le , w ith f ur ther d ocumen ta t ion a nd a na logues . 7
The r ed iscovery i n
1 965 o f a n e leventh- o r t we l f th-cen tury wa lrus i vory r e l iquary c ross , n ow i n t he V ictor ia a nd A lber t Museum , l ed t o f ur ther d iscuss ion o f t he a rcher o n Eng l ish s cu lpture.
8
Th is r e l iquary , wh ich may h ave s erved a lso a s ap ectora l ,
h as a s p r inc ipa l d ecorat ion o f o ne o f i t s f aces t he f igure o f a n a rcher , h a l f l eng th , d raw ing h is b ow , a nd p o in t ing d irect ly a t ab ird ( a l most c er ta in ly n o t a n e ag le , b y p ose a nd s hape ) o n t he u pper p ar t o f t he s ha f t .9
Beckw ith i den-
t i f ied t he a rcher o n t he p ectora l a s I sh mae l , a nd s aw h im a s at ype o f t he O ld T esta men t , c it ing August ine f or t h is i n terpreta t ionl°
He l inked t he a rcher o n
t h is c ross t o Ruthwe l l : The r epresen ta t ion o fI sh mae l t he a rcher o n o ne s ide o f ac ross h ad b een c urren t i n Eng land f or a l ong t ime.
He a ppears i n a l-
most t he s a me p os it ion o n t he b ack o f t he Ru thwe l l c ross , Du mf r iessh ire , a bou t t he m idd le o f t he e igh th c en tury , a nd a ga in o n t he c ross a t S t Andrew , Auck land , Co. Durha m , t owards t he e nd o f t he e igh th c entury .1 1
Most r ecen t ly , Dr Raw , i n s tudy ing t he p ectora l o nce a ga in , a nd i t s s che me i n r elat ion t o o ther i vory a nd monu men ta l c rosses , s aw t he a rcher a nd h is a rrow o n t he p ectora l ( and o n Ru thwe l l a s wel l ) a s s ymbo ls o f God 's word a nd o f t he p reacher , r espect ive ly .1 2 There a re s evera l r easons f or q uest ion ing d irect r e la t ions d rawn b etween t he Ruthwe l l a rcher a nd t he a rcher o n t he wa lrus i vory p ectora l.
The w ide
d i f ference i n d ate a nd b ackground c an b e o ver looked , i n f act mus t b e o verl ooked , i ft he t wo c lose ly p ara l le l o ne a no ther , a nd i fn o o ther c o mparab le o b jects c an b e f ound.
However , t here a re s ign if ican t d if ferences b etween
9 9
t he p resen tat ion o f t he a rcher a nd t he e ag le o n t he t wo.
R u thwel l h as a n
e ag le o n t he t op o f i t s c ross-head ; b e low , s eparated b y t he c en tra l f i e ld o f t he t ranso m , i s a n a rcher . The p ectora l h as a n e ag le , b ut i ti s o n t he t ermi na l o f o ne o f t he a rms , n ot a bove t he a rcher , ( p l. Xa ). There i s i ndeed a b ird a bove t he a rcher o n t he p ectora l , b u t i ti s n ot a n e ag le , a nd i ti sn o n ob le b ird , w ith i t s l ong n eck t w isted a bou t , a nd i t s s crawny b ody . I t i s a lso s ign if ican t t ha t b oth t he a rcher a nd t he b ird o n t h is f ace o f t he p ectora l a re e nmeshed i n v ine-scro l l , wh i le n e ither f igure o n t he Ruthwe l l c ross i s s o t rea ted . The Ruthwe l l b ird g rasps a b it o f s ty l ized f o l iage , t he a rcher i s f ree-stand ing . W ith t hese d i f ferences b etween t he p ectora l a nd t he Ru thwe l l c ross i n m ind , t he r e la t ions o f t he Ruthwe l l a rcher w ith a rchers o n o ther s cu lpture c an b e c ons idered , a nd t he s pectrum o f r ecen t o p in ion r ev iewed . A s o lu t ion o f t h is p rob lema t ic f igure i s n ot e as i ly f ound , s ince w e h ave n o i nscr ip t ion o n t he c ross i t sel f t o i den t ify t he a rcher .
P rofessor S chap iro 's c oncep t o f s ecu-
l ar r epresen ta t ions o f f orce i s a t tract ive , t hough h is a na logues f or t he most p ar t c o me f rom a much l ater p er iod ,1 3 o r f rom t rad it ions i n c arv ing a nd i conography f ar r e moved f ro m Ruthwe l l . o f c rosses a re s ign if ican t ly d i f feren t . s cro l l ;
Those h e c i tes i n t he Eng l ish s er ies
The Ruthwe l l a rcher i s n ot i n av ine-
h e s tands f u l ly i ndependen t ly , among t he f i gure-scu lp ture , o n ad if-
f eren t f ace f ro m t he v ine-scro l l. S chap iro c i tes s cu lpture a t Hexham , Ha lton , S hef f ie ld , B ishop Auck land a nd e lsewhere a s h av ing " the s ame c oncep t ion o f a ab owman a nd a b ird" a s a t Ru t hwe l l• 14 L e t u s t ake e ach o f t hese i nt urn. The Hexha m p iece i s n ot a p ara l le l f or Ruthwe l l , f or i ti s c lear ly d er ived f rom t he c lass ic Ara P ac is s ty le .1 5 A t Ha lton a n a rcher a i ms a t ab ird , h over ing a bove h im ; t he b ird d oes n ot l ook l i ke a n e ag le , a nd i s e nmeshed i n v ine-scro l l , a s i s t he a rcher . The S t Andrew Auck land c ross ( p l. X I ) h as a n a rcher a t t he b ase , b u t h e i s s tand ing o n t he v ine-scro l l a nd a im ing u p a t ad ogl ike c reature i n a n i nhab ited v ine-scro l l ;
t here i s ab ird a bove.
The S hef f ield
c ross h as a n a rcher i n s ecu lar d ress p o int ing u p i nto a v ine-scro l l .
There
a re t wo f ur ther p ara l le ls n ot c i ted b y S hap iro. A f ragmen t f ro m B radbourne h as a n a rcher i n ap os it ion s im i lar t o t he S he f f ie ld F igure ( p l. X E I ) p o in t ing u p i n to a v ine-scro l l , a nd a c ross a t Bakewe l l p rov ides y e t a nother s im i lar e xa mp le.
I ti s c lear t hat n one o f t hese i nstances a re p ara l le ls f or
t he Ruthwe l l e ag le a nd a rcher .
As f ar a s Ik now , n o e ar ly Eng l ish s cu lpture
p ara l le ls t he R uthwe l l t rea tmen t o f t he a rcher a nd t he e ag le. Prov is iona l ly e xc lus ing S hap iro 's s ecu lar i n terpreta t ion o f t he a rcher a nd t he b ird , t he v ar ious r e l ig ious i n terpre ta t ions o f t he a rcher c an b e e xa m ined . Rough ly s peak ing , t hese c an b e d iv ided i n to t wo g roups.
The a rcher h as b een
i n terpreted a s ab en ign f i gure s tand ing f or e i ther ( 1 ) t he g ood man i nt he d eser t , o r ( 2 ) t he t each ings a nd t eachers o f t he c hurch . With n ega t ive s ign if icance , t he a rcher h as b een s een a s I shmae l-heret ic , o r , i n S ax l 's words c i ted a bove , " a l l t he e ne m ies b y wh ich t he Roman c hurch w as s urrounded , p agans a nd h eret ics a l ike." Bo th p os it ive i n terpre ta t ions a re b ased o n e v id ence f ar r e moved f ro m Ruthwe l l i n t ime , p lace a nd t heme. Though S t J ohn Chrysosto m i den t if ied I shmae l a s ag ood man i n t he d eser t , p rotec ted b y God , t he c l i mate o f o p in ion b y Bede 's t ime , a s r ef lec ted i n h is h istor ica l a nd e xeget i ca l wr it ings , w as o f a nother o rder e n t ire ly , a s w i l l b e p o in ted o u t b e low. Dr Raw 's c i tat ions f rom t he Fa thers , e spec ia l ly t hose wh ich i den t ify a rrows a s f igures o f G od 's word , a re c o m men tar ies o n P sa l m 19 , Psa lm 7 7 ,
1 00
2
P la te X
Wa lrus i vory p ectora l f rom V ictor ia a nd A lber t Museu m , L ondon .
Cr own c opyr igh t .
Above :
Eag le o n t erm ina l
Be low :
Archer i n v ine s cro l l
P la te X 1
Cross s ha f t f rom S t Andrew Auck land , C o. Durha m. ( Pho to T . M idd le mass )
P la te X I I
Bradbou me , Derbysh ire , Bo tto m o f w est f ace. ( Photo T .M idd le mass )
K ings I .25 , a nd o ther p assages n ot a ssoc ia ted w ith Ruthwel l. An i den t if icat ion o f a rcher a s p reacher i s made b y Hrabanus , b u t o n ly i n as er ies o f g losses , 1 6 a nd o n ly i n t he c on tex t o f J ob XL I. 19 : u t i n J ob :
" Sag it tar ius e st q u id l ibet p raed icator ,
' Non f ugab it e um v ir s ag it tar ius ' , q uod p er s ine a d jutor io D e i a
men te h om in is d iabo lu m e j icere n on p otest p raed ictor ."
Hrabanus a ss igns
s ag it ta t he mean ing s e nno De i i n t he c on tex t o f 2K ings 1 .25 , b ut man ifesto p ersecu t io i n t he c on tex t o f P sa lm 9 0.6. 1 7
Wh i le Dr Raw 's c i tat ions may
a pp ly t o t he i vory r e l iquary wh ich i s h er ma in o b ject o f i n terest , i tw i l l b e s hown b e low t ha t t he Ru thwe l l i conography i s more c lose ly a ssoc ia ted w ith P sa lm 9 0 a nd i n terpreta t ion o f t hat p sa l m. When o ne t urns t o e ar ly Eng l ish s ources f or d iscuss ions o f a rchers , t he f i eld o f r eference i s i ndeed d ark .
As S chap iro h as p o in ted o ut , Bede s aw
I shmae l-archer a s t he a ncestor o f t he S aracens , w icked , w ander ing , d estruct ive h ea thens. 1 8 H is c o m men tary o n Genes is XV I.11-12 makes q u i te c lear h is n egat ive v iew o fI sh mae l : E cce , a i t , c oncep ist i e t p anes f i l ium , e t v ocab is n o men e ius I s mahe l.
I s mahe l i n terpretatus " exaud it io De i", c ausaque
n om in is e xpon itur c um p ro t inus s ub in fer tur , E o q uod a ud ier it Do m inus a d f l ict ione m t ua m.
N otandu m a u te m q u ia h ic p r i mus
a n tequa m n asceretur s ecundus I saac a Do m ino n o men a ccep it , c er t i u t ique g rat ia myster i i , q u ia e tu eter is t esta men t i , q uod s ign if icatur i n I s mahe l , e t n ou i , q uod i n I saac , h aeredes a nte s ecu la f uerun t i n d iu ina e lect ione p raecogn it i.
H ic e r i t f erus
h o mo , manus e ius c on tra omnes , e t manus omn iu m c on tra c um , e t er eg ione u n iuersoru m f ra tru m s uoru m f i ge t t abernacu la . S ign if ica t s e men e ius h ab ita turu m i n e re mo , i d e st S aracenos u agos , i ncer t isque s ed ibus.
Qu i u n iuersas g en tes q u ibus d eser-
t u rn e x l a tere i ung itur i ncursan t , e t e xpugnan tur a b omn ibus. S ed h aec a n t iqu itus.
Nunc a u te m i n t an tu m manus e ius c on tra
omnes , e t manus s un t omn ia c on tra e um , u t A fr ica m t o ta m i n l ong itud ine s ua d i t ione p re man t , s ed e t As iae max i mam p ar te m , e t Europae n onnu l lam omnbus e xos i e t c on trar i i t enean t .
Quod
a u te m d ic it , F iget t abernacu la , more m g ent is a n t iquum o stend it , q uae i n t abernacu l is s e mper , n on i n d om ibus , h ab itare s o leban t .1 9
Thus , i ft he a rcher i s t o b e i den t if ied a s I shmae l-archer , t he v iew e xpress ed i n Bede i s h ard ly f avourab le.
The i den t if ica t ion o fI shmae l a s t he f ather
o f t he S aracens h as i t s b as is i n t he B ib le , f or i t was p ro m ised i n G enes is XV I I. 2 0 t ha t I shmae l wou ld b e f ather t o t we lve p r inces , a nd b ege t ag rea t n a t ion : S uper I shmae l q uoque e xaud iv i t e ;
e cce , b ened ica m e i , e t
a ugebo e t mu lt ip l icabo e um v a lde ;
d uodec im d uces g enerab it ,
e t f ac iam i l la m i n g en te m magnam . Th is i s t he t ex t t ha t u nder l ies S t J ohn Chrysostom 's v iew o fI sh mae l a s ag ood man i n t he d eser t , p rotec ted b y G od ;
b ut t he I shmae l ites , t hrough r eferences
i n t he O ld Testa men t , s ee m more o f ten t o b e s een a s t he r everse i mage o f t he c hosen p eop le.
I nstead o f h av ing a s et t led p lace o f a bode, t hey a re
1 04
w anderers — i n f act , a l l s or ts o f wander ing t r ibes w ere c a l led I shmae l ites i n t he O ld T esta men t , w i thou t r egard t o t rue r ace o r o r ig in . 2°
Thus , t he
c onnect ion o fI sh mae l ite-Saracen i s an a tura l o ne , e spec ial ly i n c onnect ion w ith t he d escr ipt ion o fI shmae l h i mse l f , a man h ost i le t o a l l men , w ith a l l a ga inst h i m. 2 1
Thus , i ft he a rcher i s t o b e s een a s I shmae l , an ega t ive i n-
t erpreta t ion i s a l most c er ta in ly t o b e e xpected i n e igh th-century Eng land. A more g enera l i n terpre ta t ion o f t he a rcher a nd h is a rrow a s af orce f or e v i l s ee ms l ikely , i n v iew o f t he c on junct ion o f an u mber o f s ources o f e v id ence.
T he Ruthwe l l c arver w as c arefu l t o s how t he a rrow c lear ly , a nd i t s
v ery l arge h ead i s s een i n t he u pper r igh t-hand c orner o f t he p ane l. d i t ion , aq u iver h as a p ro m inen t p ar t i n t he c o mpos it ion .
I n a d-
The i n terpretat ion
Iw ish t o p ropose h ere t akes t he a rcher a nd h is a rrow , t he e ag le , a nd t he p ortra it o f Chr ist o n t he b eas ts a s l inked ; f ound i n P sa lm 9 0 ,
2 2
t he b as is o f t h is c on junct ion i s
a nd c om men tar ies o n t ha t p sa l m.
t i on t o l ink t he Ruthwe l l c ross w ith P sa lm 9 0 ; a t te mp ted t o d o s o.
I ti s n o n ew s ugges-
b o th S ax l a nd S chap iro h ave
S ax l s aw a p oss ib le r e la t ion b etween t he i lus tra t ion o f
P sa lm 9 0 i n t he U trech t P sa l ter a nd t he Ru thwe l l a rcher , b u t f e l t t he e v idence t o b e i nconc lus ive : We a re r em inded o f t he " arrow t ha t f l ieth b y d ay" ( Psa lm 9 0.6 ) wh ich i n t he U trecht P sa l ter i s r epresen ted b y Chr ist s tand ing o ver t he Beas ts , b u t t he i nscr ipt ion a round t he a rcher i s u nf or tuna te ly e f faced , a nd t here i s n o e x terna l e v idence t o s uppor t t he c o mpar ison .2 3 S chap iro s aw Chr is t s tand ing o n t he b easts a s r e lated t o " the f am il iar t ype o f Chr ist t read ing o n t he l ion" 2 4
( i .e., a n i l lus tra t ion o f P sa lm 9 0 ) , t hough t he
i nscr ip t ion a round t he p ane l ( Judex a equ itat is :
b est iae e t d racones c ognover-
u n t i n d eser to s a lva tore m mund i ) a s r e la ted t o Mark 1 .13 ( "et e ra t i n d eser t° q uadrag in ta d iebus e t q uadr ig in ta n oct ibus , e t a nge l i min istraban t i l l i" ). Psa lm 9 0 i s i n terest ing i n f orm , a s i ti s av ery s trong s ta te men t o f God 's p rotect ion o f t he j ust man ; i ti s p ar t icu lar ly r e markab le i n i t s d ia logue f orm. The j us t man s peaks o f h ow h e i s p reserved , t he L ord p ro m ises p ro tec t ion. 2 5 The v erses t hat a re s ign if ican t f or t he s tuden t o f t he Ru thwe l l c ross a re t he f o l low ing ; 1
Qu i h ab ita t i n a d iutor io A lt iss im i i n protect ione De i c ae l i c o m morab itur
2
D icet Do m ino ; S uscep tor meus e s t u e t r efug iu m meum , d eus meus ; s perabo i n e um
3
Quon ia m i pse l i berav it me d e l aqueo v enan t iu m e t av erbo a spero
4
S capu l is s u is o bu mbrab it t i b i e t s ub p enn is e jus s perab is.
5
S cuto c ircu mdab it t e v er itas e jus ; n on t imeb is a t imore n octurno .
1 05
6
as ag it ta v o lan te i n d ie , an egot io p erambu lan te i n t enebr is , a b i ncursu e t d ae mon io mer id iano..
1
Quon ia m a nge l is s u is mandav it d e t e u t c us tod ian t t e i n omn ibus v i is t u is
1 2
I n man ibus p or tabun t t e n e f or te o f fendas a d l ap ide m p edum t uu m
1 3
S uper a sp ide m e t b as i l iscu m ambu lab is , e t c oncu lcab is l eone m e t d racone m ,
1 4
Quon ia m i n me s perav it l iberabo e um ; p rotega m e um q uon ia m c ognov it n o men meu m
1 5
C la mab it a d me , e t e go e xaud iam e um ; c um i pso s um i n t r ibu la t ione , e r ip ia m e um e t g lor if icabo e um.
1 6
L ong itud ine d ieru m r ep lebo e um , e t o s tenda m i l l i s a lu tare meum.
I ti s c lear t ha t t he D iv ine i s h ere p or trayed a s aw inged c reature , t hat t he a rcher i s af orce f or e v i l , a nd t hat t he t he me o f t he p sa lm i s p ro tect ion , s a lu tare i n Do m ino. j ects a n a nswer . a rcher .
The j us t man s peaks t o G od , a nd i s a nswered , o r p ro-
On Ru thwe l l , w e h ave a b ird , Chr ist o n t he b easts , a nd a n
Can t hese t hree b e l i nked?
The c o m men tar ies o f t he Fa thers o n
Psa lm 9 0 t end t owards s uch a c onclus ion , a nd t he u se o f P sa lm 9 0 a nd a ss oc iated t ex ts i n l i turgy a lso s uppor ts s uch a n i n terpretat ion . Fro m t h is p o in t , e v idence must b e f ound t o s how t ha t P sa lm 9 0 w ou ld h ave b een w e l l k nown i n t he e igh th-cen tury c hurch a nd s econd ly , t ha t c o m ment ar ies o n t h is p sa l m wh ich s uppor t t he i den t if ica t ion o f t he e ag le a s C hr ist , a nd t he a rcher a s s o me f ot-c e o f e v i l , w ere a lso a va i lab le t o t he e ar ly Ang loS axon c hurch .
I n t h is i nves t igat ion , Iam mak ing a n a ssump t ion , t ha t t he
Ru thwe l l c ross i s a ssoc iated w ith Bede 's m i l ieu , a nd t ha t t he c ross a nd i ts d ecorat ion , p ar t icu lar ly i t s r ich i conography , a re t o b e a ssoc iated w ith t he j o in t monastery o f Wearmou th .-Jarrow , t hough t he c ross i t se lf n eed n ot h ave b een e rec ted , a nd i ndeed p robab ly was n o t e rec ted , u n t i l a f ter Bede 's d eath . Professor Cra mp h as e lsewhere made a c ase f or s uch a l oca l izat ion .2 6 The p sa l ms w ere o f c ourse o f ma jor i mpor tance i n Chr ist ian w orsh ip , b oth p ub l ic a nd p r ivate f ro m t he e ar l ies t t imes.
One o f B ishop Wi l fr id 's
e ar l iest a cco mp l ishmen ts was h is c omm it t ing o f t he e n t ire p sa lter t o me mory .2 7 Th is , t o t he modern s cho lar , was n o mean a ccomp l ishmen t ;
b ut i n v iew o f
t he u se o f t he p sa l ms i n t he p r im it ive Church , n o t a s r e markable a s o ne migh t s uppose.
I n e astern monast ic is m , t he e n t ire p sa l ter was r epeated d a i ly , a
p ract ice a lso f o l lowed b y t he e ar ly Fa thers.
I n t he o lder Ro man r i te a nd t he
Bened ict io
o f f ice , t he p sa lter w as g one t hrough o nce a w eek , i n t he v ar ious
o f f ices. 2 8
The f ur ther q ues t ion a r ises , c an a n i ndependen tu se o f P sa lm 9 0
b e a t tes ted?
An a nswer i s n o t e asy t o f i nd .
P sa lm 9 0 ( 11, 1 2 ) i s t o c ourse
q uoted b y t he d ev i l i n t he a ccoun ts o f t he Te mp ta t ion i n Mat thew ( IV .6 ) a nd L uke ( IV . 10 ,11 ) . As h as b een p o in ted o ut a bove , i ti s ac o m monp lace i n
1 06
patristic commentary to mark Christ's victory by citing the next verse of the psalm, in which Christ tramples on the monsters and wild beasts that sym bolize the devil. In the later Roman rite, Paslm 90 is central to the liturgy of the first Sunday in Lent - where the various parts of the psalm are used as Introit, Gradual, Offertory, and Communion, while the Gospel is Matthew IV.1-11, the account of the Temptation, in which the devil quotes Psalm 90 and is con futed. The Epistle in this service is Paul to the Corinthians 2, VI.1-10. While we cannot be sure that the rite practiced in eighth-century England had exactly the same lectiones, we do lmow that the Epistle and Gospel were the same as the latter Roman use in many of the liturgies which are taken to be closest to those practiced in England. 29 We also know that Bede made an interpretation of Luke which linked the Temptation to Psalm 90 in the tradi tional manner: Scriptum est enim quod angelis suis mandauit de te ut conseruent te et quia in manibus tollent te ne forte offendas ad lapidem pedem tuum. Hoe in nonagesimo psalmo legimus, uerum ibi non de Christo sed de uiro sancto prophetia est. Male ergo interpretatur scripturas diabolus. Certe si uere de saluatore scriptum nouerat, debuerat et illud dicere quod in eodem psalmo contra se sequitur: Super aspidem et basiliscum ambulabis et conculcabis leonem et draconem. De .angelorum auxilio quasi ad infirmum loquitur de sui conculcatione quasi tergiuersator tacet.30 Thus, the linking of Psalm 90 to the Temptation was already accomplished, and the use of Psalm 90 in the Mass for Quadragesima Sunday (Dominica Prima in Quadregeslma) is a natural consequent step. Though I cannot prove that it had already taken place in liturgy in Bede's day, it is highly probable that this was the case. The readings throughout the Mass depend heavily on the psalms; in the modern (Tridentine) Roman liturgy, all the Introits are verses from the psalter. Though this was not always the case in the Middle Ages, the Introit would usually serve to announce the theme of the day.31 The appropriateness of Psalm 90 for Quadragesima cannot be doubted, especially in view of the common link between Christ's Temptation and the psalm made by the Fathers. In addition to the possible use of this psalm in the liturgy for Quadragesima, we do know that there were commentaries on Psalm 90 available to Bede which made interpretations which are in keeping with the relationship of eagle, archer, and Christ standing on the beasts on the Ruthwell cross. Bede also had available to him commentaries on the psalms by Augustine, Jerome, Cassiodorus, and Arnobius the Younger. He actually uses Augustine's, Jerome's and Arnobius's commentaries, 32 and since other products of Cassiodorus's Vivarium were well lmown in Bede's monastery, and Durham Cathedral Library has a copy of Cassiodorus's massive work on the psalms which is of Northumbrian provenance and dates to the mid eighth century (See C LA II, 152), it is highly probable that the work was known to Bede as well. In all four of these Fathers, the archer and his arrow are seen as forces for evil. Augustine has two commentaries on the psalm; in the first, he de107
v e lops t he i dea t hat t hose who y ie ld k now ing ly t o t e mp tat ion a re s truck b y t he a rrow v o lans p er d ie m. 3 3 c o m men tary :
He e xpresses h is v iew more s ucc inct ly i n t he s econd
" Ten tat iones i gnoran t iae , t imor n octurnus ;
p ecca ta s c ien t iae ,
s ag it ta v o lens p er d ie m ; i n n octe e n im i gnoran t ia i n te l l ig itur , i n d ie man ifest a t io."
3 4
Cass iodorus s aw s ag it ta v o lans p er d ie m a s man ifesto p ersecu t io
t yrannoru m , a n i n terpreta t ion l a ter e choed b y Hrabanus. 3 5 Arnob ius 's i n terpreta t ion o f t he p sa lm i s v ery b r ief , a nd t he p er t inen t l ines a re a s f o l lows : d ie m.
" L ib id inosae s i l icet v o lup ta t is , c u jus s ag it ta v o la t p er
Quod e n im i n a spectu l um in is c oncup isc itur , h u jus n egot ium i n t enebr is
p erpetratur , a ut i n r u ina , a ut i n d ae mon ia mer idano p er f ic itur ."
3 6
I n teres t-
i ng a s t hese c o m men ts a re , i ti s a l most c er ta in ly J ero me 's t wo c ommentar ies o n P sa lm 9 0 t ha t a re most i mpor tan t f or o ur p resen t p urpose , e spec ia l ly s ince b oth a re i n a gree men t o n c en tra l p o in ts o f i n terpretat ion . 37
H is e xp l icat ions
o f v erses 5 a nd 6 a re most r e levan t : I n s capu l is s u is ombu mbrab it t i b i.
Qu is o bu mbrab it?
U t ique p eus c ae l i , s icu t g a l l ina p u l los s uos , e t q uas i a qu ila n idu m s uu m.
Unde e t i n c an t ico I 4euterono m i i
d ic itur , q uod p opu lu m I srahe l i n h u mer is p or tdver it , e t q uas i a qu ila p rotexer it .
[ Deu terono my XXX II,32 :11 1 P otest e t
d e S a lvatore i n tel leg i, q uod i n c ruce s ua n os s u is a l is p rotexer it .
E t s ub p enn is e jus s perab is.
" tota
d ie e xpand i manus meas a d p opu lum n on c reden te m e t c on trad icen te m m ih i".
[ Ro mans 1 0.21 ] Manus Do m in i a d
c ae lu m l eva te , n on a ux i l iu m p ostu laban t , s ed n os miseros p rotegeban t . e jus :
S cu to c ircumdab it t e v er itas
h oc e st , i n g iru m c ircu mdaber is v er ita te.
E t q u id s equ itur?
Non t imeb is a t imore n octurno.
J ustus n on h abet n octurnu m t imore m , s ed d ie i. " Ven ite , f i l i i , a ud ite me , t imore m Do m in i d ocebo v os". [ Psa lm 3 3.12 ]
Qu i f i l i i s un t p rophetaru m ,
t imore m n on h aben t n octurnu m , n eque t enebraru m, s ed l uc is e t d ie i. r ectos c orde".
" Ut s ag it ten t i n a bscond ito [ Psa lm 1 0-3 ]
d ie n on m it tet , n e v ideatur .
D iabo lus s ag it tas s uas i n Omne e n im q uod i n
l uce f i t , man ifes tatur a l uce.
S ed d icat a l iqu is :
S i d iabo lus n on s ag it ta t i n d ie , q uo modo e rgo s equen t i v ers icu lo p sa lm is ta . d ic it , A s ag it ta t o lante p er d ie m?
Quae e st i s ta s ag it ta , q uae p er d ie m v o la t?
Doctr ina h aeret icoru m e st :
q uae q uas i p er d ie m , h oc e st ,
l ege m De i h uc i lucque v o l ita t , d um a dversus n os s o l l ic ite i nqu is ita c ongerun t t est i mon ia , q uae i n terpretat ion ibus s u is a v er itate d epravan t .3 8 Here w e h ave a r e la t ion d rawn b etween Chr ist a nd t he e ag le p rotec t ing h is y oung , w ith s pec if ic r eference t o h is p osture o n t he c ross a s a n i nd icat ion a nd t ype o f t h is p rotect ion .
The e ag le , a s Chr ist , i s l inked b y J erome t o
Moses ' l ast s ong i n Deu terono my , a nd i s t hus r e la ted t o p rotect ion i n t he d eser t :
1 08
Q uando d iv ideba t A l t iss i mus g en tes , q uando s eparaba t f i l ios Ada m , c onst itu it t erm inos p opu loru m j ux ta n u meru m f i l iorum I srae l ;
p ars a u te m Do m in i , p opu lus e jus ,
J acob f un icu lus h ered itat is e jus. I nven it e um i n t erra d eserta , i n l oco h orror is , e t v astae s o l itud in is ; C ircu mdux it e um , e t d ocu it ; e t c us tod iv it q uas i p u l lu m o cu lum s uu m q uas i a qu i la p rovocans a d v o landu m p u l los s uos , e t s uper e os v o l itans , e xpand it a las s uas , e t a ssumps it e um , a tque p or tav it i n h u mer is s u is.
( Deuterono my
3 0, C Xii .8-1 1)
I n h is s econd c o m men tary o n t he s a me p sa lm , J ero me s pec if ica l ly l inks t he e ag le a s C hr ist w ith o ur p ro tec t ion i n d eser to i s t ius s aecu l i.
The a rcher i s
a lso i den t i f ied i n t he s a me w ay a s i n t he f irst c o m men tary : I n s capu l is s u is o bu mbrab it t i b i.
Exa ltab itur i n
c ruce , e x tendet manus , e t p roteget n os. p enn is e jus s perab is.
E t s ub
Asp ic ies , i nqu it , manus e jus
c ruc if ixas , e t s i t e s erpens mo morder it , s anaber is. L icet ambu les i n d eser to i st ius s aecu l i :
s i t e
p ercusser it s corp io, s i r egu lus, s i a sp is, s i c e tera v enena ta a n i ma l ia , s ecurus e sto d e s an itate : s erpens i n e re mo s uspensus e s t. A s ag it ta v o lan te i n d ie.
Hu ic s ensu i q uas i v idetur
e sse c on trar iu m , as ag it ta v o lan te i n d ie.
S ag it ta
v olans d iabo l i v idetur m ih i s ermo e sse h aeret icoru m , e t p h i losophorum.
E t i s t i e n im l uce m s c ien t iae
p ro m it tun t , e t d icun t s e h abere d ie m ;
e t n on
p ossun t d ec ipere , n is i l uce m p ro m iser in t .
V eru m
l ux i s ta , q ua m p ro m it tun t , d e a rden t ibus s ag it t is e st .39 The s ong o f Moses i n D euterono my i n wh ich t he r epresen ta t ion o f God 's p rotect ive p ower a s a n e ag le was made i s p resen t i n a l l t he c o mp lete p sa l ters , Ro man a nd Ga l l ic ian , wh ich h ave c o me d own t o u s. 4 ° Bened ict h i mse lf s t ipu la ted f ur ther t hat t h is c an t ic le was t o b e u sed r egu lar ly i n L auds o n S aturdays :
" Sabbatoru m a u te m c en t is i mu m q uadrages i mu m s ecundum e t
c ant ieum d euteron iu m , q u i d iv idatur i n d uas g lor ias."
4 1
Thus , t he a ssoc ia t ion w ou ld h ave b een b r ing ing t ogether t ex ts t ha t w ere v ery w e l l k nown i n l i turg ica l u ses i n e igh th-cen tury Eng land. 42
There a re
f ur ther s ources wh ich s uggest t ha t t he i n terpreta t ion o f t he a rcher a nd h is a rrow a s f igures o f e v il h ad a ch ieved a w ider c urrency i n e ar ly Ang lo-Saxon Eng land .
A most s tr ik ing e xa mp le o f t h is i mage i n Ang lo-Saxon s ecu lar
l i tera ture i s f ound i n Beowu lf . 43
J ust b efore t he h ero 's d epar ture f ro m
Denmark , a fter h e h ad d estroyed t he u nho ly monsters wh ich h ad f or s o l ong r avaged t he k ingdo m , Beowu lf i s g iven g ood a dv ice b y t he o ld k ing Hrothgar .
1 09
The s peech i s o ne o f t he most i mpor tan t a nd r evea l ing s ta te men ts o f Chr is t ian e th ics i n t he p oem : Wundor i s t o s ecganne , h u mih t ig G od i D urh s idne s efan
manna c ynne s yn t tru b ry t ta7
e ard o nd e or lsc ipe ; Hw i lu m h e o n l ufan
h e a h e a lra g ewea ld . l a ete3 hwor fan
monnes mod-ge i Donc
maeran c ynnes ,
s ele3 h im o n e l D le t o h ea ldanne ,
e or i Dan wynne
h leo-burh w era ;
g ede3 h im s wa g ewea ldene
w oro lde d ae las
s ide r ice , I a et h e h is s e lfa n e m g f or h is u nsny t trum e nde g eP encean . Wuna3 h e i n w iste , a d l n e y ldo ,
n o h ine w ih t dwe le3
n e h im i nw it-sorh
o n s efan s weorce : -- ,
n e g esacu o hwa er
e cg-hete e owe3 ,
a c h im e a l w oro ld
w ende 3 o n w i llan .
H e I D a et wyrse n e c on ,
o d I Dat h im o n i nnan w eaxe3 , s awe le h yrde ;
o fer-hygda d l
o nne s e w eard s we fe3 , b id s e s laep t o f a es t ,
b isgu m g ebunden ;
b ona sw i3e n eah ,
s e p e o f f l an-bogan
f yrenum s ceote.
' D onne b i 3o n h re i Pre u nder h e lm d repen b iteran s tr le — h im b ebeorgan n e c on — w or n w undor-bed o dum w ergan g as tes. : p ince5 h im t o l y te l I D aet h e t o l ange h eo ld ; g y tsa3 g rom-hyd ig f a et te b eagas ;
n a l las o n g y lp s e le3
o ne h e I Da f or gescea f t
f orgy te3 o nd f orgyme 5 ,
I D a es 1 D e h im a er God s ea lde ,
wu ldres Wa ldend , w eor3- mynda d a e l. 4 4 I ti s aw ondrous t h ing t o s ay h ow m igh ty God d ea ls o u t t o mank ind w isdo m , He h as c on tro l o f a l l. S omet imes He
l ands a nd r ank , b y H is v ast s p ir it .
a l lows t he s p ir it o f man o f f a mous s tock t o w ander i n d e l igh t :
g ives h im i n
h is n a t ive l and e n joymen t o f t h is w or ld , af enced f or tress o f men t o h o ld ; makes r eg ions o f t he w or ld , as pac ious emp ire , s ub ject t o h im i n s uch w ise t ha t i n h is f o l ly h e h i mse lf t h inks i tw i l l n ever e nd . H e l i ves i n p len ty ; n oth ing — s ickness n or o ld a ge — s tands i n h is w ay . N o t roub le c aused b y ma l ice c louds h is t hough ts , n or d oes s tr ife b r ing a bout d ead ly war fare a nywhere , b u t a l l t he wor ld moves t o h is w i l l. H e k nows n o w orse e s ta te [ 20 (V 1 u n t il a measure o f o verbear ing p r ide waxes a nd g rows i n h im , when t he warder , t he s ou l 's g uard ian , s leeps. Tha t s leep i s t oo s ound , h edged i n w ith c ares : t he s layer i s v ery c lose , who f rom t he w inged b ow s hoots w ith e v il i n tent . Then h e i s s truck a t t he h ear t , u nder h is a rmour , b y t he p ierc ing a rrow , — t he c rooked myster ious p ro mpt ings o f t he a ccursed s pr ite. H e c anno t d efend h i mse lf .
Wha t h e h ad h e ld f or a l ong t ime s eems t o h im t oo l i t t le.
h os t i le i n m ind ;
H e c ovets ,
n ever g ives , i n p roud r e jo ic ing , c irc lets o ver la id w ith g o ld .
No t hough t h as h e a bout t he wor ld t o c o me , a nd h e d isda ins t he s hare o fh onours God , t he L ord o f G lory , g ave h im i n t ime p as t . ) 4 5 10
S . J . Craw ford s aw a p ara l le l t o t he Beowu lf p assage i n al e t ter o f Bon iface , i n w h ich h e w arned A the lba ld , k ing o f Merc ia , t o r epen t . 46
The p ara l le l i s
n ot e xact , f or Bon iface 's l et ter c a l ls t o m ind d angers men t ioned i n P sa lm 9 0 , b u t n ot i n B eowu lf .
I ti s t herefore more p robab le t ha t t he Bon i face l et ter ,
a nd t he Beowu lf image , e ach d er ive f ro m P sa lm 9 0 , a nd t he c o m men tar ies o n i t . f i l i c ar iss i me , c ares t i b i f ovea m , i n q ua m v id iste c oram t e a l ios e ec id isse. j acu la a n t iqu i h ost is
Cave t i b i
a d tende t i b i al aqueo
i ns id iator is , i n q uo v otos e t c om m i l itones t uos s trangu la tos e t p raesen te m v ita m e t f u tura m p endere. 47 I n t he c om mentary o n L uke b y B ede c i ted a bove , t he a rrows i n t he p sa lm i ti dent if ied i n t he v ery n ex t l i nes : E t r espondens J esus , a it i l l i :
D ictum e s t :
t en tab is Do m inu m Deu m t uu m.
N on
Fa lsas d e S cr iptur is
d iabo l i s ag it tas , v er is S cr ipturaru m f rang it c lype is. 4 8 F ina l ly , i ti s i mpor tan t t o n ote t ha t t he i mage o f t he a rrows o f s in a ppears f requen t ly i n o ther c on tex ts i n t he l i terature o f t he Ang lo-Saxon p er iod i n p oetry a nd p rose , i n b oth L a t in a nd t he v ernacu lar .
P au l e nds h is l e t ter t o
t he Ephes ians w ith a n i n junc t ion t ha t c ou ld w e l l b e a n e cho o f t he t rad it ion o f P sa lm 9 0 , i n wh ich h e e ncourages t he m t o b e c o mfor ted i n t he p ower a nd a rms o f t he L ord , a nd t o t ake u p " sacer tu m f ide i i n q uo p ess it is omn ia t e la n equ iss im i i gnea e x t inguere..." ( v i.16 ). 49 CONCLUS IONS There a re , t herefore , an u mber o f c ons iderat ions w h ich make i th igh ly p robab le t ha t t he i conography o f t he e ag le , t he a rcher , a nd Chr ist o ver t he b easts a re t o b e r e la ted t o P sa lm 9 0 a nd t ex ts a ssoc ia ted w ith i ti n t he l i turgy . I ti s n o n ew s ugges t ion t o l ink t he l one e ag le w ith Chr ist ; 5° i ti s s o meth ing o f ac hange t o l ink t he Ru thwe l l b ird w ith Chr is t a s p rotector , b u t t he p o in ts o f c oncord b etween l i turgy a nd p atr ist ic c o m men tary k nown t o Bede a re s uch t hat t h is i n terpreta t ion i s a t l eas t av ery s trong p oss ib i l ity .
The p sa lter was
a n i n tegra l p ar t o f w orsh ip i n t he c hurch f ro m t he e ar l iest t imes , a nd i t was r ec ited r igh t t hrough i nt he c ourse o f e very week i n t he n orma l c ourse o f monast ic w orsh ip . I n a dd it ion t o t h is r egu lar u se o f t he p sa l ms i n s er ies , b oth P sa lm 9 0 a nd t he a ssoc iated C an t ic le o f Moses i n Deuterono my a re s ing led o u t f or e sp ec ia l u ses , a s r ecorded a bove. F ina l ly , t he t est i mony o f t he Fa thers a dds f ur ther l i nks .
J ero me 's i den t if ica t ion o f t he p rotect ive w ings i n P sa lm 9 0
a s Chr is t o n t he c ross , a nd h is l ink ing o f Chr ist w ith t he e ag le i n Dueterono my i s p ar t icu lar ly a t tract ive , b ecause o f t he
e re met ica l a ssoc iat ions wh ich a re
i n a ccord b oth t he i conography o f t he S outh f ace o f t he Ruthwel l c ross , a nd t he t rad it ion o f monast ic is m w ith wh ich t he c ross i s a ssoc ia ted .
5 1
Chr ist , o n
t he c ross , p rotects u s a s a n e ag le , t he e ag le who p rotected t he c hosen p eop le
1 11
i n t erra d eser ta , i n l oco h orror is e t v astae s o l i tud in is ( Deu teronomy x xx i i. 1 0 ).
Th is p rotect ion w i l l n ot f a i l f or t he j ust man i n a ny a ge.
i n d eser to i st ius s aecu l i ;
s i t e p ercusser it s corp io , s i r egu lus , s i a sp is, s i
c etera v enena ta a n i ma l ia , s ecurus e sto d e s an ita te : s uspensus e st ."
5 2
"L ice t ambu les
s erpens i n e remo
Iam f u l ly aware t ha t t he a rgumen ts p resen ted h ere a re
n ot c onc lus ive , a nd Id o n ot w ish t o make more o f t he e v idence t han c an b e made.
The Ru thwe l l a rcher i s ap rob le mat ica l f igure ;
Professor S chap iro 's
c ase f or t he s ecu lar i n terpretat ion c annot b e d ism issed l i gh t ly , e ven t hough h is p ara l le ls f or t he Ru thwe l l a rcher a re n ot e xact .
However , i td oes a ppear
t hat a ny i n terpretat ion wh ich g ives a b en ign r e l ig ious s ign if icance t o t he f igure i s d ub ious.
I nsofar a s w e a re a b le t o k now t he c l i ma te o f o p in ion a bou t
a rchers , a nd I sh mae l a s a rcher i n e igh th-cen tury Eng land , i td oes n o t t end t owards a b en ign i n terpreta t ion .
I tt herefore s ee ms t o me h igh ly p robab le
t hat t he a rcher i s b est i n terpreted a s a n i n im ica l f igure , whose r e l ig ious s ign if icance c an b est b e s een i n r e la t ion t o t he o ther e ssen t ia l f igures o n t he c ross , t he e ag le o n t he h ead , a nd t he who le s er ies o n t he s ou th f ace.
NOTES 1 .
The d a t ing o f t he Ruthwe l l a nd Be i ,vcast le c rosses h as b een a s ource o f c ontroversy f or many y ears.
F or a n u mber o f r easons , s ty l is t ic ,
l ingu ist ic a nd h istor ica l , Id a te Ru thwe l l t o t he e ar ly p ar t o f t he e ighth c en tury .
Professor Rose mary Cra mp h as e lsewhere e xpressed r easons
f or t h is d a t ing ; 1 965 ).
s ee h er E ar ly Nor thu mbr ian S cu lp ture ( Jarrow L ecture ,
For a s urvey o f o ther v iews s ee E . Mercer , "The Ru thwe l l a nd
Bewcast le c rosses ," An t iqu ity 3 8 ( 1964 ), 2 68-76.
Dr . R . I . P age
I n troduct ion t o Eng l ish Runes ( London , 1 973 ) , p . 1 48 ) d ates R u thwel l 6 50-750. 2 .
I n 1 642 t he c ross was k nocked t o p ieced u nder a n " Ac t a nnen t I do la trous monu men ts o f Ruthwa l l ," a nd l ay i n f ragmen ts u n t i l 1 802, when i t was r e-erected i n t he g arden o f t he manse b y Dr H enry Duncan.
I n 1 823,
at ranso m was a dded , t he d ecorat ion b e ing e n t ire ly s pur ious a nd o ut o f k eep ing w ith t he r est o f t he monu men t .
I n 1 827 , t he c ross was moved
i n to a s pec ia l ly-constructed a pse i n t he c hurch.
S ee Dr H Duncan ,
" An a ccoun t o f ar e markab le monu men t...," Archaeo log ia S co t ica 4 , ( 1833 ) , 3 13-25. 2 a.
For a d iscuss ion o f t he e vange l ist s er ies , s ee b e low ,
3 .
Ba ldw in-Brown , The Ar ts i n Ear ly Eng land V ( 1921), 1 25.
4 .
M. S chap iro , " The b owman a nd t he b ird o n t he Ru thwe l l c ross ," Ar t Bu l let in 4 5 ( 1963 ), 3 51-5 , q uotat ion , 3 51.
5 .
F . S ax l , " The Ru thwe l l c ross ," J ourna l o f t he Warburg a nd Cour tau ld I nst itutes , 6( 1943 ), 1 -19 , q uota t ion , 6 .
Th is s uggest ion was made o n
t he b as is o f S ax l 's own r econstruct ion o f t he c ross-head , i n wh ich t he e ag le r epresen ts t he Ascens ion , a nd s tands o ver t he c en tra l p ane l o n t he h ead , wh ich S ax l r econstructs o n a na logy w ith t wo e leventh-century c ross-heads f ro m Durha m.
S ee b e low , p . 18 , n . 5 0 .
1 12
6 .
R . H . K an torow icz, " The a rcher o n t he Ru thwe l l c ross ," Ar t Bu l let in 2 7 ( 1960 )
5 7-9.
7 .
S chap iro , " The b owman a nd t he b ird o n t he Ruthwe l l c ross ," p p. 3 51-5.
8 .
J . B eckw ith
" A r ed iscovered Eng l ish r e l iquary c ross ," V ictor ia a nd
A lber t Museum Bu l let in 2 ( 1966 ), 1 22 , h o lds f or a d a te " towards t he e nd o f t he e leven th o r i n t he b eg inn ing o f t he t we lf th c en tury ." 9 .
Beckw i th ( i b id., p . 1 18 ), a rgues t hat t he a rcher i s o n t he f ron t o f t he p ectora l , s ince t he o ther s ide " is more r ubbed t han t he l id ." Th is w ear i s mos t e v iden t , s ays B eckw ith , o n t he S t L uke f igure a t t he b ot to m. The o ppos ite f ace h as t he Agnus De i w ith c ross-staf f i n t he c en tre , a nd e vange l ist s ymbo ls a t t he t er m ina ls.
The i n terven ing s pace i s f i l led
w ith a v ine-scro l l , c on ta in ing s ym metr ica l ly a rranged a n i ma ls.
I ft he
a rcher f ace i s t aken a s t he f ron t , t he r igh t s ide h as i nhab ited v ine-scro l l a l l o ver , w ith i n ter tw ined l ea fy s cro l ls c arved o n t he e nd o f t he a rm , wh i le t he l ef t s ide h as v ine-scro l l , w ith a magn if ican t e ag le , f ron ta l , w ings s pread , h ead i n p rof ile , o ccupy ing t he e nd o f t he l ef t a in i. 1 0.
Augus t ine, Enarra t iones i n P sa lm is , PL
3 7 , c o l. 1 603.
Beckw ith 's
i n terpretat ion o f t he s che me o f t he p ectora l i s h ard t o a ccep t , u n less o ne p os its a v ery d ebased u nders tand ing o f t ypo logy o n t he p ar t o f t he c arver o r d es igner o f t he work .
I shmael i s more u sua l ly p a ired w ith
I saac a s t ypes o f t he O ld a nd New Testa men ts , r espect ive ly .
Accord-
i ng t o Beckw ith , " on t he p ectora l c ross , h owever , t he a r t ist h as s ubst i tu ted f or I saac t he Agnus De i a nd t he s ymbo ls o f t he Evange l ists ," " A r ed iscovered Eng l ish r e l iquary c ross ," p . 1 20. 1.
I b id ., p . 1 18.
1 2.
B . R aw , " The a rcher , t he e ag le a nd t he l a mb ," J ourna l o f t he Warburg a nd C our tau ld I nst itu tes 3 0 ( 1967 ), 3 91-4.
1 3.
H is b ases s ee m t o b e i n Ro manesque a r t o f t he t we l f th a nd t h ir teen th c en tur ies ;
t he c oncep t o f a r t a s p ure d ecorat ion i s r ead ily a t tested b y
c ommentators o f t ha t p er iod , a s S chap iro h as s hown i n a nother e ssay , " The a esthet ic a t t itude i n r o manesque a r t ," Ar t a nd Though t : i n H onour o f A . K . C oomaraswa my ( 1948 ), p . 1 33f f .
E ssays
S chap iro 's c i ta-
t i on o f Dan ie l i n t he l i on 's d en o n o ne o f t he Me ig le s tones i s n ot t o t he p o in t , f or i ti s c lear t ha t t he v ar ious t rad it ions o f f ree-s tand ing c rosses d i f fer w ide ly , t hough t hey s ee m t o h ave s o me p ara l le l d eve lop men ts. The Me ig le c ross S chap iro c i tes ( No. 2 a ccord ing t o S teward Cruden 's e numerat ion , The E ar ly Chr ist ian a nd P ict ish Monu men ts o f S cot land , 2 nd e d . ( 1964 ), p p. 1 8-19 , a nd p l. 2 6-7 ) c an h ard ly b e v iewed a s a ny s or t o f p ara l le l f or Ru thwe l l. Mr Cruden s ays o f t he d ecora t ion : " The s ub ject- ma t ter i s an o tab le c o mb ina t ion o f n at ive-and-fore ign a nd p agana nd-Chr ist ian i deas.
The r ea l ist ic a nd s p ir ited h orse men a re c harac-
t er is t ica l ly ' P ict ish ' , t he c en taur a nd Dan ie l a re f a ith fu l ly r eproduced f rom f ore ign s ources : ( i b id ., p . 1 9 ).
t he c en taur i s ap agan mot if , Dan ie l i s Chr ist ian"
S im i lar mixed d ecorat ion i s f ound o n I r ish h igh c rosses
i n t he e ar ly Chr ist ian p er iod , b u t Dr Henry h as made a c onv inc ing c ase f or t he Chr ist ian i n terpre tat ion o f a pparen t ly p agan s cenes o n t hese
1 13
monu men ts.
S ee h er I r ish Ar t i n t he Ear ly Chr ist ian Per iod ( London ,
1 965 ), e sp. p p. 1 47-58. 1 4.
S chap iro , " The b owman a nd t he b ird o n t he Ruthwe l l c ross," p . 3 52.
1 5.
W. G . Co l l ingwood ( Nor thu mbr ian Crosses o f t he Pre-Nor man Age ( London , 1 927 ),
P .
2 2 ) s ta tes f lat ly :
" Th is s tone n ever s erved a s a
mode l f or a ny Ang l ian d es ign." 1 6.
Hrabanus , A l legor iae i n S acru m S cr ip turam , PL 1 12, c ols. 8 50-1088, 1 043-4.
1 7.
These a re n ot t he o n ly mean ings ;
d if feren t g losses a re g iven f or t he
v ar ious c on tex ts i n wh ich s ag it ta , s ag it tar ius , a nd a rcus a ppear i n v ar ious c on tex ts i n t he B ib le.
S ee Hrabanus , A l legor iae, p ass i m.
Throughout t h is p aper , t he Vu lgate n u mber ing o f b oth p sa l ms a nd v erses i s f o l lowed. 1 8.
S chap iro , " The b ow man a nd t he b ird o n t he Ruthwe l l c ross," p . 3 53. S ee a lso Bede , HE V .23 ( ed. P lu m mer I , 3 49 , a nd a lso I , 3 38-9 ).
As
Dr J . M. Wa l lace-Hadr i l l h as p o in ted o ut , Bede 's a n t ipathy t o t he S aracens s ee ms t o h ave b eco me s trong a f ter t he ir i ntervent ion i n S pa in i n 7 11. 1 9.
S ee h is Bede 's Europe ( Jarrow L ecture , 1 962 ), e sp. p p . 5 -7.
I n Genes im I V , CCSL 1 18A, p p. 2 00-201, S ign if ican t s er mon .. a b omn ibus i s f ro m J ero me , HQG
XVi,
1 2.
I shmael i s i dent if ied a s a n
a rcher i n ac o m men tary o n t he Pen tateuch ( PL 9 1, c o l. 2 4 ) wh ich h as b een a t tr ibuted t o Bede , b ut wh ich i s a pparen t ly s pur ious :
" Ismae l
s ag it tar ius d ic itur , n on i ncongrue p opu la J uda ico c onven it , h oc e st j ugu lando h ost ias Reg is ..". 2 0.
S ee Genes is 2 c cxv i i.25 , a nd 2 7-28;
x xx ix .1;
J udges v i i i.24 , P sal m 8 2.
7 , e tc. 2 1.
As S chap iro p o in ts o ut " The b ow man a nd t he b ird o n t he Ruthwe l l c ross ," p . 3 54 ), " a lready b efore I s la m t he Bedou ins were d escr ibed b y S t J ero me a s S aracens a nd I shmael ites who a t tack a c aravan o f Chr ist ians a nd e ns lave t he m."
S ee J ero me 's V ita Ma lch i Mona c h i ( PL 2 3, c ol. 5 7 ) ,
" a S aracen is p raedon ibus e tI sh mae l ites g rassator ibus o bv ia q uaque v astan t ibus."
The r e lat ion made i n J ero me a l most c er ta in ly s te ms f ro m
t he B ib le t rad it ion a s we l l. 2 2.
The word ing o f t he p sa lm i s s o meth ing o f ap rob le m.
O f t he t hree v ers ions
o f t he p sa l ms e x tan t we k now t hat t he t ex t o f t he Codex Am iat inus , ap rodu ct o f Bede 's monastery , was j ux ta Hebraeos, b ut t he o ther v ers ions were c er ta in ly c urren t , a nd s o me o f t he b est t ex ts o f t he Ro man p sa l ter f ro m e ar ly Eng l ish c on tex ts.
S ee R . Weber , Le P saut ier Ro ma in e t l es a utres
a nc iens Psaut iers Lat ins ( Ro me, 1 953 ). 2 3.
S ax l , " The Ruthwel l c ross ," p . 6 .
The U trecht Psa l ter ( f ol. 1 63 ) h as
Chr ist s tand ing o n t wo b easts a s i t s c en tra l f igure , a nd t wo a rchers p o in t t he ir s ha fts a t h i m.
The s a me i conography i s f o l lowed i n Tr in ity Col lege ,
Ca mbr idge , R. 17.1 ( The Can terbury Psa lter ) ,f o l. 1 63 .r .
1 14
2 4.
M. S chap iro , " The r e l ig ious mean ing o f t he Ruthwe l l c ross" Ar t Bu ll et in 2 6 ( 1944 ), 2 31-45 , q uota t ion , 2 33.
He s aw t he l i nk b etween t he
t wo e ven ts a s d ue t o p atr ist ic c o m men tary :
" The mot if o f Chr ist i n
t he d eser t b e longs t o t he Te mp ta t ion , wh ich a lready i n t he G ospe ls i s c onnected w ith P sa lm 9 0.
I n t he a ccoun ts o f t he e p isode i n Mat thew
( IV.6 ) a nd Luke ( IV.10 , 1), t he d ev i l , i n u rg ing Chr ist t o c as t h i mse lf d own f ro m t he p innac le o f t he t e mp le , q uotes P sa lm 9 0 , 1 1 a nd 1 2 .. J esus w il l n o t t e mp t t he L ord , a nd t he c o m men tar ies c e lebra te h is v ictory o ver t he d ev i l b yq uot ing t he n ex t v erse o f P sa lm 9 0 , i n wh ich t he f eet o f Chr ist t ramp le o n t he mons ters a nd w ild b eas ts t ha t s ymbo l ise t he d e mon .
The p assage i s i mp l ic it f or t he c o m men tators i n t he G ospe l
s tory a nd c o mp letes t he e p isode o f t he Te mpta t ion ;
i tr evea ls t he d e-
c e i t o f t he d ev i l , w ho , i n q uo t ing s cr ipture l eaves o u t , l ike t he h eret ics , t he e ssent ia l c onc lud ing l ine t ha t b etrays h i m" ( p . 2 33 ). 2 5.
As a h igh ly s pecu la t ive s uggest ion , i tm igh t b e p o in ted o u t t ha t s uch af orm i s n ot u n l ike t ha t o f t he Drea m o f t he Rood , w ith t he c ross p rom is ing p ro tect ion t o t he d rea mer .
S uch a r e la t ionsh ip i s o f e x tre me
i n terest b ecause t he r un ic i nscr ipt ions o n Ruthwe l l a re e i ther e xerp ted f rom a n e ar l ier v ers ion o f t he t en th-cen tury Drea m o f t he Rood , o r a t v ery l east s trong ly c onnected t o t he s a me v ernacu lar t ex tua l t rad it ion t ha t l ed t o t he t en th-cen tury p oe m. o f t he p sa lm a s f o l lows :
Cass iodorus o u t l ines t he s truc ture
" In p r i ma p ar te P sa lm ista p rof itetur omne m
f ide l iss i mum d iv ina p ro tect ione v a l lar i. Dom ino S a lva tor i.
S ecunda l aude m d ecan tat
Ter t ia v erba s un t P atr is a d omne m f i de le m , q ue m
i n s e d evot iss i me s perare c ognosc it , e t i n mundu m i s to d efens ione m , e t i n f uturo l i l i ( rec te
i l le ) p rae m ia c o mpro m it tens ," PL 7 0 , c o l.
6 50.
2 6.
S ee E ar ly Nor thu mbr ian S cu lpture.
2 7.
He h ad b een s en t o f f a s ay oung b oy t o h e lp o ne Cudda , who h ad t aken u p t he monast ic l i fe o n L ind is farne , when , s tr icken w ith p ara lys is : J am e n im i l le s ecundum p raeceptum r eg inae , a ccep ta d i l igen t i min istrat ione , d om ino s uo e t omn ibus s en ior ibus i n monaster io q uas i f i l ius e t c oe tane is q uas i f ra ter s ta t im i n amore f actus e st , p ro e o q uod omne m r egu lare m v i tam c um i n t i mo c ord is amore i n h um i l ita te e t o beden t ia a d i mp lere n i teba tur
e t omne m p sa l moru m s er ie m me mora l iter
e t a l iquandos l i bros d id ic it . Edd ius S tephanus , L ife o f B ishop Wi lfr id , e d . a nd t rans . B . C o lgrave ( Ca mbr idge , 1 927 ) , p . 6 . F or f ur ther d iscuss ion o n t he u se a nd p opu lar ity o f t he p sa l ter i n Ang lo-Saxon c on tex ts , s ee P eter Hun ter B la ir , The Wor ld o f Bede ( London , 1 970 ) p p . 2 54-8. 2 8.
S ee A . Bau mstark , C o mpara t ive L iturgy , r ev. Bernard Bo t te , a nd t rans. F . L . Cross , ( London , 1 958 ), p . 1 14.
2 9.
I ti s v ery d if f icu l t t o e stab l ish t he f orm o f t he p roper o f t he Mass f or Quadrages i ma S unday i n e igh th-cen tury Eng land. The p er icope o f t he L ind isfarne Gospe ls g ives Ma t thew I V.1-11 ( t he a ccoun t o f t he
1 15
Te mpta t ion ) a s t he r ead ing f or Quadrages i ma , ap ract ice wh ich r ef lec ts s o me e ar ly S pan ish u ses , a nd , a pparen t ly t hat o f Pope Gregory t he Grea t .
S ee S . Be isse l , " En tstehung d er P er ikopen d es Rom ischen
Messbuches Zur Gesch ich te d er Evange l ienbuche i n d er e rs ten h a llte d es M it tela lters ," S t i m mung a us Mara-Laach , Erganzungs-Band 2 4 , Erganzungsheft 9 6 ( Fre iburg i n Bres lau , 1 906-8 ), p p . 4 01-620. L ind isfarne , s ee p p. 5 09-19 ;
On
t he S pan ish r i te i s c i ted o n p . 4 79, a nd
Gregory 's u se o n p p. 4 60-4. 3 0.
I n L ucae Evange l iu m Expos it io , CCSL 1 20 , p . 9 7.
Once a ga in , Bede 's
s ource i s J ero me , I n Mat t . ( PL 2 6, c o ls. 3 2-4 ). 3 1.
S ee S . J . R . v an D i jk , O .F. M., " The B ib le i n l i turg ica l u se ," The Ca mbr idge H istory o f t he B ib le I , e d. G . W. H . La mpe ( Cambr idge , 1 969 ), p p. 2 20-51.
3 2.
S ee M. L . W. L a istner , " The l i brary o f t he Venerab le Bede ," I n tel lect ua l Her itage o f t he M idd le Ages ( I thaca , 1 957 ), p p. 1 17-49. ( First p r inted i n Bede :
H is L ife , T i mes a nd Wr it ings , e d. A . H . Tho mpson
( Ox ford , 1 935 ), p p. 2 37-66.
S ee a lso J . D . A . Og ilvy , Books Known
t o t he Eng l ish , 5 97-1066 ( Ca mbr idge , Mass., 1 967 ). 3 3.
August ine, Enarrat io i n Psa l mo x c , S ermo I , PL 3 7, c o ls. 149-58, S er mo I , c o ls. 1 158-70.
3 4.
I b id., c ol. 1 161.
3 5.
Cass iodorus , PL 7 0 , c o l. 6 52.
3 6.
Arnob ius j un ior is , Co m mentar i i i n P sa l mos , PL 5 3, c o l. 4 58.
3 7.
S ee Do m Ger manus Mor in , Anecdota Mareso lana I I, p t. 2 ( Maredsous , 1 897 ), 1 13-19 ;
p t. 3 ( Maredsous , 1 903 ), 6 7-72.
3 8.
I b id., p t . 3 , 6 8-9.
3 9.
I b id., p t . 2 , 1 14-5.
4 0.
On Hrabanus 's g loss , s ee a bove ,
S ee J a mes Mea n 's , The Can t ic les o f t he Chr ist ian Church , E astern a nd Western i n Ear ly Med ieva l T i mes ( Ca mbr idge , 1 914 ), e sp. p p . 5 2-88.
4 1.
H . L oge man , The Ru le o f S t . Benet , Ear ly Eng l ish Tex t S oc iety o r ig ina l s er ies 9 0 ( Ox ford , 1 888 ) p p. 4 3-4.
The t ex t i s t hat o f Br it ish L ibrary .
Cotton T iber ius A . 3. 4 2.
I t may f ur ther b e p o in ted o ut t ha t Moses i n Deu terono my p lays a n imp or tan t r o le i n t he Bangor a n t iphonary .
Th is p erp lex ing d ocumen t
b eg ins w ith Moses i n Deu terono my , a nd u ses a s i t s b ases t wo o ther c an t ic les , Moses i n Exodus , a nd t he S ong o f t he Three Ch ildren f ro m Dan ie l.
S ee a lso t he e d it ion b y H . E . Warren , Henry Bradshaw
S oc iety 4 ( London , 1 893 ). 4 3.
The d at ing a nd mil ieu o f Beowu lf a re t wo o f t he most d if f icu l t p rob le ms a ssoc ia ted w ith t he p oe m.
Id o n ot c i te t he p oe m a s n ecessar i ly d irect ly
a ssoc iated w ith Bede 's mil ieu , b ut r a ther a s a n e xa mp le o f t he c urrency o f t he image o f t he a rcher a s af orce f or e v il.
I ti s as trong p ersona l
c onv ict ion o f mine t hat Beowu lf a nd t he c ul tura l r ise o f Nor thumbr ia a re a ssoc iated p heno mena. 1 16
4 4.
Beowu l f , e d. C . L . Wrenn , 2 nd e d., ( London , 1 958 ).
4 5.
Beowu l f , t rans. J . R . C lark-Ha l l , r ev. C . L . Wrenn ( London , 1 949 ).
4 6.
"Beowu l f iana ," Rev iew o f E ng l ish S tud ies o .s. 7 , 4 48-9.
The l et ter
d ates f ro m c . 7 44-7. •
4 7.
Craw ford , i b id., p . 4 49.
Af ur ther p ara l le l f or t he a rcher a s d ev il h as
b een c i ted f ro m t he Verce l l i Ho m i l ies , n u mber 1 0 i n M. F orster 's e d it ion ( D ie Verce l l i-Ho m i l ien , B ib l iothek d er Ange lsächs ischen Prosa 1 2 ( Ha mburg , 1 932 ), p . 1 03 ).
When t he c onde mned a re s en t t o h e l l , t he
d ev i l a t tacks t he m w ith a b ow :
" se b oga b ig g eworh t o f o fer met tu m
[ The a rrows a re ] swa s wa man igra c ynna , swa swa mannes s ynna b ioä " 4 8.
S ee a bove , p . 1 04, a n .d n . 3 0 .
4 9.
I am i ndebted t o my c o l league Pro fessor Tho mas H i l l b o th f or i n format ion o n t h is p o in t , a nd f or h is c arefu l r ead ing o f t h is p aper i n d ra f t .
The
c on tex ts i n wh ich t he a rrows o f t he e ne my a re s een a re n u merous , i nc lud ing J u l iana ( espec ia l ly 3 82-109a ), Va ing lory ( 36b-39 ), A ldhe lm ( De L aud ibus V irg in ita t is X I I 1 2.5 ), a nd o thers.
S ee f ur ther J a mes
Doub leday , " The a l legory o f t he s ou l a s f or tress i n O ld Eng l ish P oe try , Ang l ia 8 8 ( 1970 ), 5 03-8 , a nd Fr . K laeber , " D ie c hr ist l ichen E le men te im B eowu lf I ," Ang l ia 3 5 ( 1922 ), e spec ia l ly 1 29-30. 5 0.
S ee S ax l , " The Ruthwe l l c ross ," p . 6 : " The e ag le a t t he s umm it must undoub ted ly b e i n terpreted a s as ymbo l o f t he Ascens ion ."
5 1.
The d eser t i n terest was s tressed b y S chap iro " The r el ig ious mean ing o f t he Ru thwe l l c ross ," a nd a ga in , l inked w ith t he Drea m o f t he Rood , b y J . F le m ing , The Dream o f t he Rood a nd Ang lo-Saxon monast ic is m ," Trad i t io , 2 2 ( 1966 ), p p. 4 3-72.
5 2.
J erome , o p.c it ., I I 2 , p . 1 15.
1 17
V .
THE EVANGELIST SYMBOLS AND THEIR PARALLELS I N ANGLO-SAXON S CULPTURE . R ose mary C ra mp
Among t he g rea t s tone c rosses wh ich s urv ive f ro m t he p re-V ik ing p er iod i n N or thu mbr ia , R u thwe l l s tands s upre me i n t he c o mp lex i conograph ic r elat ions h ips o f i t s f igura l p ane ls .
I ti s t rue t ha t t he f ragmen ts f ro m R othbury l h in t
a t a n e qua l c o mp lex i ty h ad t he monumen t b een c o mp le te , b u t , a s Ih ave s tressed e lsewhere , R o thbury a ppears t o d eve lop f ro m t he s a me s choo l a s Ru thwe l l . T he f or mu la f or t he o rna men t o f t he c ross i s v ery s im i lar : f igura l s cenes
2
f ro m t he l i fe a nd mirac les o f C hr is t o n t he b road f aces o f t he s ha f t , a nd a n i nh ab i ted s cro l l o n o ne n arrow f ace ;
f igura l s cenes o n t he c ross-head ; e ven t he
h eavy f igure s ty le a nd t ubu lar f o lds i n t he d rapery a re s im i lar . N ever the less t he i conography o f t he R othbury c ross i s more a dvanced a nd c lear ly l i nked w i th d eve lop men ts a lso f ound i n C aro l ing ian a r t .3 R u thwe l l w i th i t s a ssoc ia t ion o f p icture a nd e labora te i nscr ipt ions , d er iv ing b o th f ro m t he La t in l i turg y a nd v ernacu lar p oe try i s u n ique among Ang lo-Saxon c rosses .
I n a l l i ts d e ta i ls , a s
R ober t F arre l l s hows i n h is c on tr ibu t ion t o t h is v o lume , o ne i s c onsc ious o f ad eep ly a bsorbed t heo logy b eh ind t he p lann ing o f t he i conography.
I ts ee ms
moreover t o h ave e s tab l ished a t rad i t ion wh ich o ne c an s ee s urv iv ing i n N orthumbr ia f or 1 50 y ears . I n a t te mp t ing t o r econs truc t t he o n ly p ar t o f t he c ross n ow l os t , t he c en tre p iece a nd c ross a r ms o f t he h ead , Is ha l l c ons ider i t s s urv iv ing a f fi l ia t ions i n Ang lo-Saxon s cu lp ture .
T he f igures s urv iv ing o n t he h ead a re a s R ober t F arre l l
h as d escr ibed t he m more f u l ly a bove .
On t he n or th f ace i n t he t op a rm , i s t he
f u l l l eng th f igure o f ab ird o f p rey g rasp ing a p iece o f f o l iage , a nd i n t he l ower a rm , t wo f igures , t he l e f t o ne o f wh ich i s w inged , t he r igh t o ne o f wh ich h o lds ab ook i n i t s d raped h ands ( p l . V I I I ).
On t he u pper a rm o f t he s ou th f ace i s
ah u man f igure o n t he r igh t , a nd a b ird o f p rey o n t he l e f t . i s a n a rcher ( p l . I X ) .
On t he l ower a rm
Ia ccep t F arre l l 's h ypo thes is t ha t t he u pper a rm s hou ld
b e t urned t o b r ing t he t wo p a irs o f f igures o n to o ne f ace , a nd t ha t we s hou ld s ee t he m a s p or tra i ts a nd s y mbo ls o f t he E vange l is ts J ohn a nd Ma t thew . One c ou ld a dd t o t h is o ne o ther f ragmen t wh ich c an b e f i t ted i n to t he R u thwe l l h ead . I n t he c hurch a t R u thwe l l , n ow s e t i n a me ta l f ra me b es ide t he c ross , i s a mut i la ted f ragmen t o f t he r e ma ins o f t wo h u man f igures c arved i n t he s a me s t y le a s t he r es t o f t he h ead .
T h is c ou ld b e p ar t o f t he c en tre o f t he c ross b u t i n
s ca le i ti s b e t ter s een a s p ar t o f a n a rm .
On o ne f ace ( p l . X I I I ) , o n ly t he h ead
o f t he f igure s urv ives , s l igh t ly t urned a nd i nc l ined t o t he l e f t i n t he manner o f t he e vange l is t p or tra i ts o f S t Ma t thew a nd S t J ohn .
I ft he f igure i s a n e vange lis t ,
i t wou ld s tand b y a na logy w i th t he o thers o n t he r igh t o f i t s s y mbo l a nd s o w ou ld b e p ar t o f t he wes tern a rm o f t he c ross . f igure i np ro f i le : a re s hown .
On t he o ther f ace ( p l . X IV ) , i s a
t he h ead , s hou lders , a nd wha t a ppear t o b e f o lds o f as l eeve
Bu t t he f igure s ee ms t o b e e nmeshed i n s trands wh ich p ass o ver
18
P late X I I I
Fragmen t w ith i nc l ined f igure , Ru thwe l l c hurch . Copyr igh t R . Cramp.
P late X IV
Fragmen t w ith ? fow ler , Ruthwe l l c hurch. Copyr igh t R . Cramp.
P late XV
H ar t c ross-head. C opyr igh t R . Cra mp.
( Pho to T . M idd lemass )
h is s hou lders a nd n eck a nd a re h e ld e i ther b y h is a rm o r a nother s trand .
T he
p ro f i le f igure , i fp ar t o f ac ross a rm , w ou ld s tand t here fore o n t he l e f t o f t he a rcher f ac ing i n t he s a me d irec t ion .
C ou ld i tb e t ha t t h is i s ad ep ic t ion o f t he
f ow ler a nd h is s nare men t ioned i n P sa lm 9 0 , v erse 3 ?
I ti s j us t p oss ible t ha t
we a re t o s ee t he f igure a s t he v ict im i n t he s nare , b u t w i thou t t he f u l l s che me o n t he c ross-head , o ne c an o n ly g uess .
I fo ne a ccep ts t h is a s af ur ther s uppor t
f or F arre l l 's h ypo thes is o f t he i mpor tance o f P sa lm 9 0 o n t h is f ace , o ne f igure o n ly r e ma ins u nknown o n t he e as tern a rm : t he t arge t o f t he a rcher 's a rrow a nd t he h un ter 's s nare . My ma in p reoccupa t ion h ere , h owever , i s w i th t he n or th s ide o f t he c ross . I ft he e vange l is t p or tra i ts a nd s y mbo ls were o n t ha t f ace , t he d eser t f ace , t hey wou ld s tand a bove t he s y mbo l o f S t J ohn a nd t he A gnus D e i , a nd C hr is t , j udge a nd S av ior .
I n t h is p os i t ion t he ir a poca lypt ic n a ture w ou ld b e emphas ized .
H owever , l e t u s f i rs t e xa m ine t he ir r e la t ionsh ip w i th o ther c ross-heads . T he R u thwe l l h ead i s u n ique i n t ha t p or tra i ts a nd s y mbo ls o ccur t oge ther .5 T he s y mbo l o f t he e ag le i s f u l l l eng th b u t t he a nge l i s , a s o f ten e lsewhere , h a l f l eng th .4
T he s y mbo ls a re w inged , b u t a re w i thou t h a loes , a nd t he b ooks d e-
n o t ing t he e vange l is t a re h e ld b y t he p or tra i ts .
On ly t hree o ther c rosses h ave
f u l l l eng th s y mbo ls a nd a l l a re c lear ly s tress ing t he a poca lypt ic o r ig in o f t he c rea tures . A t H ar t i n C o . Durha m i s ar ecen t ly d iscovered c ross-head .
6
I ti s s o f ar
u npub l ished , a nd i n v iew o f i t s i conograph ic i mpor tance i td eserves d e ta i led d escr ipt ion . ( p l . XV ) .
T he l ower a rm , c en trep iece a nd o ne t ransverse a rm s urv ive
T he h ead s hape i s t he s a me a s t ha t o f R u thwe l l , b u t t h is i s at ype
wh ich r e ma ins p opu lar i n Durha m a nd N or thu mber land u p t o t he e leven th c ent ury . 2 0c m .
T he f ragmen t i s 6 8c m h igh a nd 7 1c m w ide , t he h e igh t o f e ach a rm i s T he c ross-head w ou ld s ee m t o h ave h ad o r ig ina l ly a s pan o f a bou t 9 0c m .
T he e dge i s s urrounded w i th a s ing le r o l l mou ld ing a nd t he c arv ing a ppears o n ly o n t he t wo b road f aces . F ace I
I n t he c en tre i s al a mb f ac ing r igh t b u t w i th h ead t urned b ack .
I ti s mot ion less a nd t here i s n o s ign o f ac ross b eh ind i t .
I t s h ead , w h ich i s
mu t i la ted , was f ra med w i th a h a lo o n wh ich t here a re t wo s unken r ounde ls . Two s im i lar r ounde ls a re f ound i n f ron t o f t he l a mb a nd b e tween i ts l egs . Bel ow i t s f ee t , w i th u pra ised w ings t ouch ing i t s h ooves , i s af ron ta l f ac ing f igure . I ta ppears t o h ave h orns , h as a n i mbus w i th s unken r ounde ls , a nd h o lds a b ook i n wh ich a s ing le r ounde l i s c en tra l ly p laced .
On t he r igh t-hand a rm i s af u l l
l eng th f igure w i th a s im i lar n i mbus , a nd b ook c lasped b e tween i ts t ow f ron t p aws .
I ti s w inged , w i th a pparen t ly t wo p a irs r a ised a nd o ne p a ir l owered o n
t o i t s b ack .
I ta ppears t o h ave a b lun t r ounded h ead .
T he l ack o f d e ta i l o n
t he f igures a nd t he s unken r ounde ls wh ich p resu mab ly r epresen t j ewe ls imply t ha t t he s cu lpture c ou ld h ave b een p a in ted .
B ecause o f t he i mprec is ion o f t he
b eas ts i ti s i mposs ib le t o b e c er ta in a bou t t he l ower a n i ma l b u t i ta ppears t o b e t he s y mbo l o f S t L uke a nd t he r igh t-hand f igure t ha t o f S t Mark .
T h is s che me
c an b e p ara l le led i n a n e igh th-cen tury manuscr ip t p a in t ing o f ac ross , i n t he c en tre o f wh ich i s Agnus D e i w i th b ack turned h ead , a nd j ewe l led h a lo , a nd e vang e lis t b us ts i n t he a r ms .7
1 22
F ace I
T he c en trep iece h as b een c h ipped a way b u t c ou ld h ard ly h ave
c on ta ined o ther t han a sma l l mo t i f ( p l . XV I ) .
T he a r ms a re c overed w i th a
t h in p lan t-scro l l i n wh ich t he l eaves a nd b err ies a re v ery worn a nd l ack h e lpf u l d iagnos t ic d eta i ls .
T he f l ow ing s pread ing p lan t-scro l l c over ing o ne f ace
o f ac ross-head i s af ea ture o f Y orksh ire c rosses , f or e xa mple , L as t ingha m , O t ley , Masha m , a l l o f wh ich d a te f ro m t he l a te e igh th - e ar ly n in th - c en tur ies . One migh t d a te t h is H ar t c ross t o t he n in th c en tury . T he o ther d ep ict ions o f f u l l l eng th s y mbo ls a lso s urround a l a mb - o n t he c ross-heads d iscovered i n t he f ounda t ions o f t he N or man C hap ter H ouse a t Durha m .
T hese c anno t b e e ar l ier t han t he e ar ly e leven th c en tury when t he
C o m mun i ty o f S t Cu thber t s e t t led o n t he p en insu la .
H owever t he C o m mun i ty ,
o r ig ina l ly f ro m L ind is farne a nd l a ter o ccupying C hes terle-S tree t a nd t hen Durha m , w ere e x traord inar i ly c onserva t ive i n t he ir s cu lptureS a nd c ou ld h ave b een u sing e ar l ier mode ls .
I n f ac t t he Durha m workshop i n t he e ar ly e leven th
c en tury s eems t o h ave h ad f our mo ti fs wh ich c ou ld b e a rbi trar i ly c o mb ined . T he h eads a re n u mbered a ccord ing t o G reenwe l l 's C a ta logue . 9 ( 2. ) . The a poca lypt ic s cene o f al a mb h o ld ing a b ook w i th a c ross o n ap ed es ta l b eh ind .
There i s a lso wha t c ou ld h ave b een a v es t ige o f t he c ha l ice
s uch a s a ppears o n t he G auze lin G ospe ls . 1° T h is c rea ture f aces t o t he s pect a tor 's l e f t a nd i s o n c ross XX s urrounded b y c rude r ender ings o f t he a pocal yp t ic s y mbo ls .
1 1
T he l a mb o ccurs a ga in o n N o . XX I I I w i thou t a t tendan t
s ymbo ls . @ _ )
Ab ap t is m o r a nno in t ing s cene wh ich S ax l1 2
g iv ing o f t he k eys t o P e ter .
h as i n terpre ted a s t he
T h is s cene w i th a cco mpanying f igures o f a pos t les
o r e cc les ias t ics o ccurs t hree t imes , t w ice w i th wha t a ppears t o b e ab ird a bove . ( 2. ) Ac ruci fix ion s cene .
T h is o ccurs i n d i f feren t f or m t hree t imes .
Once
o n N o . XX I Iw i th a man a nd b ird b e low . Mot i fs t ) a nd ( L ) c o mb ine t w ice , ( ) a nd ( 1 2 ) o nce , a nd C aL)a nd ( c ) o nce . S uch v ar ia t ions s ee m o f l i t t le u se f or d ec id ing o n t he i conography o f t he R u thwe l l h ead .
T here i s n o e v idence t ha t t he Durha m c ross i s a nyth ing more t han a
l a te a nd g arb led e d i t ion o f t he h is tor ia ted h eads s uch a s a re f ound a t R o thbury o r Dewsbury . The s econd t ype o f e vange l is t s y mbo l f ound o n N or thumbr ian c ross-heads i s t he bus t o f ac rea ture w i th w ings a nd h a lo h o ld ing a b ook .
T h is t ype d er ives
f ro m t he e ar ly wes tern a poca lypt ic d ep ic t ions where t he s y mbo ls emerge f ro m c louds .
1 3
T he o ne s urv iv ing a rm o f ac ross f ro m O t ley , Y orksh ire " s hows
t he s y mbo l o f S t L uke . a t H ar t .
T he b ack o f t he h ead was c arved i n to a p lan t-scro l l a s
O ne a rm a lso s urv ives f ro m t he h ead o f af a mous c ross f ro m S t
Andrew 's A uck land , C o Durham ( p l . XV I I ) .
T he c arv ing i s v ery worn a nd
i nd is t inc t , a nd t he i den t i ty o f t he s y mbo l i s n o t c lear , b u t i th as w ings , ab ook , a nd p oss ib ly a h a lo .
B o th O t ley a nd S t Andrew Auck land c ou ld d a te f ro m t he
l a te e igh th e ar ly n in th c en tury . The l amb a ppears a s ac en trep iece o n ac ross f ro m H oddo m , Dum fr iessh ire , as i te v ery n ear t o R u thwe l l a nd p roduc ing s cu lpture wh ich h as s o me a f f i l ia t ions w i th t he R u thwe l l c ross .
1 5
H owever o ne c anno t s ay whe ther o r n ot t he l a mb
o nt he H oddo m c ross was s urrounded b y e vange l is t s y mbo ls .
I ti s p oss ib ly
s ign i f ican t t ha t wherever t he s y mbo ls c an b e r es tored o n t he c ross-head a nd 1 23
P late XV I
H ar t c ross-head. Copyr igh t R . Cra mp.
( Pho to T . I V idd le mass )
P late XV I I
P ar t o f s urv iv ing c ross a rm f rom S t Andrew Auc Idand , Co. D urham.
l inked w i th a s ha f t t hey a re p ar t o f a n e labora te ly c once ived c ross w i th f igura l p ane ls .
B y t he t ime R o thbury was c arved t he f ash ion h ad d ied o u t .
A t H a l ton , I l k ley a nd S andbach h uman b us ts w i th a n i ma l h eads a re f ound o n t he c ross-sha f t . f igures .
A t H a l ton t hey a re h a l f l eng th w i th f ron ta l o r h a l f t urned
T hey h ave w ings , h a loes a nd b ooks .
J ohn a nd ?Luke , a re o n t he
b road f aces , Ma t thew a nd Mark o n t he n arrower . A t I l k ley ( m id n in th c en tury ) t here a re h a l f l eng th b us ts , w ing less , b u t w i th h a loes a nd b ooks . T he h eads o f Mark , L uke a nd J ohn a re t urned .
S t Ma t thew i s a t t he b o t to m o f t he s ha f t
a nd t hey r ead u pward i n t he o rder o f t he G ospe ls .I -6
A t S andbach , t he s y mbo ls
a re h a l f l eng th w i th w ings a nd b ooks , b u t o n ly t he s y mbo l o f S t Ma t thew h as a h a lo .
Ma t thew i s s hown f ron ta l , t he o thers i n t hree-quar ter v iew .
T hey a re
d isposed a round a c ruci f ix ion a nd r ead :
Ma t thew t op l e f t , Mark t op r igh t ,
Luke b o t to m l e f t , J ohn b ot to m r igh t .
T he p lac ing o f e vange l is t s y mbo ls o n
1 7
t he s ha f ts o f c rosses may h ave a d i f feren t t heolog ica l s ign i f icance f ro m p lacing t he m o nt he h ead . S evera l d i f feren t t rad i t ions a re r e f lec ted c lear ly i n t hese Eng l ish s che mes . I ti s d i f f icu l t t o c o mpare t he d ispos i t ion o f t he s y mbo ls o n c ross-heads w i th s er ies a s s e t o u t i n manuscr ipt C anon t ab les o r when t hey a re p a ired o n e i ther s ide o f s o me c en tra l f igure s uch a s ac ross o r a Ma jes tas .
O f ten Ma t thew
a nd J ohn a re p a ired a bove Mark a nd L uke a s i n S t R adegunde 's r ead ing d esk , t he MacDurnan G ospe ls , t he Am iens G ospe ls o r t he C odex Am ia t inus .
H ow-
e ver s carce ly l ess f requen t i s t he p a ir ing o f Ma t thew a nd Mark a bove L uke a nd J ohn a s o n C u thber t ' s c of f in o r t he L ich f ie ld G ospe ls . 18 The o rder o f t he Ru thwe l l e vange l is ts w i th J ohn a t t he t op a nd Ma t thew a t t he b o t to m i s f ound i n C aro l ing ian a r t where t he l i on i s o n t he s pec ta tor 's l e f t a nd t he b u l l o n h is r igh t . I n t he G ospe l o f S a in t G auzel in t hey s urround a n Agnus D e i , i n t he Mou t ier G randva l b ib le , a Ma jes tas . T h is c ou ld a lso b e t he o rder o f t he O t ley h ead , b u t t he H ar t c ross h as o r ig ins i n ad i f feren t s che me a s Ih ave s hown .
19
The I r ish H igh c rosses d o n o t p rov ide a ny c lose p ara l le ls
f or Ru thwe l l , a nd i ndeed t he a poca lyp t ic v is ion i s n o t f requen t ly f ound . F rancoise H enry s ays :
As
" I t r e ma ins h owever v ery s tr ik ing t ha t t he o n ly e xp l ic i t
I r ish r epresen ta t ion o f t he V is ion i s a t K e l ls o n t he T ower C ross .
T here
C hr is t i s c arved i n t he c en tre o f t he wes t s ide o f t he c ross , a nd h e i s s tand ing i n t he s a me a t t i tude , a s i n t he I r ish c arv ings o f t he L as t J udge men t" . i s i n t he c en tre ;
t o h is r igh t i s t he l i on a nd t o h is l e f t t he b u l l .
w inged a nd h o ld b ooks b u t h ave n o h a lo a bove . u p al a mb i n g lory .
2 0
C hr is t
B o th a re
T he s y mbo l o f S t Ma t thew h o lds
B e low i s a n e ag le w i th a b ook .
T he r eversed p os i t ion o f
t he e ag le a nd a nge l b r ings t he e ag le i n to j ux tapos i t ion w i th t he c ruci f ix ion s cene b e low . O therw ise i n I r ish t rad i t ion t he e vange l is t s y mbo ls r are ly a ppear o n t hese c rosses . T he e ag le a nd t he o x , w inged a nd h o ld ing b ooks b u t w i thou t h a loes , a re o n t he Du leek c ross ,2 1
a nd t he s y mbo ls o f S t Ma t thew a nd S t J ohn a ppear
o ver t he h ead o f a n e vange l is t p or tra i t o n t he s cr ip ture c ross a t C lonmacnoise . T h is i s t he ir p os i t ion o n many manuscr ipt p a in t ings , b u t o n t he t a l l c ross a t Monas terbo ice , F ranco ise H enry h as i n terpre ted t he t wo w inged c rea tures h e ld b y h u man s ea ted f igures a s e vange l is t s y mbo ls .
I ft h is a t tr ibu t ion i s
c orrec t t hese a re t he o n ly s cu lptura l p ara l le ls f or t he i n t i ma te d ep ic t ion o f p or tra i t a nd s y mbo l f ro m R u thwe l l .
T he Monas terbo ice f igures a re n o t
1 26
2 2
u nambiguous ly e vange l is t p or tra i ts w i th s y mbo ls . I tt here fore s ee ms t ha t t he c loses t p ara l le l f or t he R u thwe l l s che me i s t o b e f ound o n t he Ma jes tas p age o f t he C odex Am ia t inus ( f o l . 7 96v ) . C er ta in ly h ere we h ave p or tra i t f igures wh ich a re e longated a nd i nc l ined i n t he R u thwe l l manner . C an we , h owever , u se r e la ted s che mes o n s cu lp ture t o p u t f orward s ugg es t ions a s t o wha t wou ld h ave o ccup ied t he c en tre o f t he Ru thwe l l c ross-head? S ax 12 3
s ugges ts t ha t o n t he f ace w i th t he e vange l is t s y mbo ls , t he c en trep iece
s hou ld b e t he l a mb , a nd , o n a na logy w i th Durha m XX , t ha t t he o ther s ide w ou ld h ave a s cene o f Chr is t a nd S t P e ter h o ld ing t he k eys .
T here i s p len ty o f s uppor t
i n C hr ist ian a r t f ro m t he t h ird c en tury t o t he e leven th , f or t he Agnus D e i a s ap oss ible c en trepiece , a nd a s w e h ave s een t he l a mb i n i t s mo t ion less f or m , i ff ound a t H ar t w i th t he s urround ing s y mbo ls . N o o ther Ang lo-Saxon c arver s ee ms t o h ave u sed a l l t he a va i lab le s pace o n ac ross f or s uch a c o mp le te d idac t ic s che me a s o n t he R u thwe l l c ross . F or e xa mp le H ar t 5a nd O t ley 1 wh ich d o s how e vange l is t s y mbo ls o n o ne f ace c overed t he o ther s ide o f t he h ead w i th p lan t-scro l ls i n t he Y orksh ire manner . H owever t here a re e xa mp les o f s ea ted f igures o r b us ts o f C hr is t o ccupy ing t he c en tre o f ac ross , a s a t E asby where o ne f ace s urv ives , a nd H oddo m where t here was a c o mplete Ma jes tas f igure o n o ne s ide w i th a n a t tendan t a nge l i n t he s urv iv ing a rm , and o n t he o ther a b us t o f C hr is t h o ld ing a b ook w i th p a ired f igures o n t he a r ms .2 4
T he t wo s ides o f t he R u thwe l l h ead s hou ld b e c o mp le-
men tary , b u t i ti s imposs ib le t o b e d ogma t ic . We h ave s een h ow v ery o f ten t he Ma jes tas f igure i s a n a l terna t ive t o t he l amb c en trep iece , a nd i t s ee ms p robab le t ha t t he S av iour s hou ld b e s ea ted u nder t he e ag le , s y mbol o f h is s a lva t ion , o n o ne s ide o f t he h ead . H e , l i ke t he e vang e l is t p or tra i ts o n t ha t f ace c ou ld , i n t he manner o f o ne o f t he H oddo m f igures , b e h o ld ing ab ook . On t he o ther f ace C hr is t i n h is r ole a s j udge c ou ld h ave b een s urrounded b y t he e vange l is t f igures a nd t he ir s y mbo ls a s o n t he C odex Am ia t inus .
2 5
The C odex i s ap roduc t o f t he Wear mou th-Jarrow S cr ip tor ium , a nd i n d isc uss ing R u thwe l l -i t s i nhab i ted p lan t-scrol ls , i t s f igure s ty le a nd i t s i conography -o ne c ons tan t ly r e turns t o t ha t c en tre . I ti s t he c en tre where B ede wro te h is s cr iptura l c o m men tar ies a nd i ndeed a dv ice o n d ogma f or t he P ic t ish c hurch .2 6 P laced w i th in t he a nc ien t C hr is t ian t err i tory o f t he B r i tons wh ich i n 7 31 was r u led f or t he f irs t t ime b y a n E ng l ish b ishop a t Wh i thorn , i ti s f i t t ing t ha t t he c ross s hou ld b e s o r ich ly p rov ided w i th ma ter ia l f or d oc tr ina l a nd d evot iona l med i ta tion .
More r ich ly p rov ided i n f ac t t han o ne wou ld t h ink n ecessary f or
t he g enera l i ty o f t he s urround ing p opu la t ion . E v idence i n a l l f or ms f or t he a r t is t ic a nd i n te l lec tua l c on tr ibu t ion o f t he v ar ious monas t ic c en tres o f e ar ly C hr is t ian Eng land , i s v ery s parse ly d ist r ibu ted . I ti s t here fore e asy t o s ee t oo w ide a n i n f luence d er iv ing f ro m a f ew we ll k nown works .
O bv ious ly o ne c anno t c la im u na mb iguous ly t ha t t he
p rogra m me f or t he R u thwe l l c ross-head b es t f i ts wha t we k now o f t he a r t a nd t heo logy o f Wear mou th-Jarrow .
T h is wou ld b e e spec ia l ly d i f f icu l t s ince n o
ma jor c rosses h ave emerged f ro m t he wea l th o f a rch i tectura l c arv ings o n t hese s i tes .
H owever we d o k now t he t ype o f c ross f avored a t H exha m/R ipon
wh ich s eems t o b e b ased o n a me ta lwork p roto type ,
2 7
w i th a n a l mos t i cono-
c last ic l ack o f f igura l s cenes a nd d i f feren t h ead s hapes .
1 27
L ind is farne f avors
t he i nsu lar t rad i t ion o f o rna men t a nd a lso h as n o t rad i t ion o f g ood f i gure d raw ing , a l though t he d oub le c urved h ead s hape i s k nown t here .
2 8
T he Wh i tby
a nd C ar l is le c rosses h ave p la in h eads w i th i nscr ipt ions a cross t he t ranso m a s b y e ar ly t rad i t ion h ad t he B ewcas t le h ead .
2 9
T he R u thwe l l monu men t , l ike T he Drea m o f t he R ood , s tresses t ha t a spec t o f t he c ross wh ich s y mbo l izes p rotect ion a nd s a lva t ion b o th d ur ing t he i nd iv idua l h uman l i fe a nd a t t he f ina l j udge men t .
C hr is t 's c ruc i f ix ion e x is ts a s as epara te
s cene a t t he b o t to m o f t he s ha f t , p erhaps c arved a s as econdary f ea ture .
T h is
p lac ing o f t he c ruci f ix ion s cene o n t he s ha f t b e fore t he c ross i tse l f i s c once ived a s as tone c ruc i f ix ion i s a lso f ound a t H exha m a nd S t Andrew Auck land . " I t s ee ms t hen t o b e ap er iod f ea ture t o s tress t he a poca lypt ic s ign i f icance o f C hr is t i n Ma jes ty r a ther t han C hr is t s u f fer ing . T he p opu lar i ty o f t he Ru thwe l l p rogra m me i s , a s we h ave s een , c on f ined b y i t s l a ter o ccurrences , a l l o f wh ich a re o n c rosses wh ich h ave e labora te ly p lanned f igura l t he mes .
NOTES 1 .
W .G . C o l l ingwood , N or thu mbr ian C rosses o f t he P re-Nor man Age ( London , 1 927) , p p . 7 6-8 , 8 4 , 1 06 a nd f igs . 9 4 a nd 9 5 .
C . C . H odges ,
" The a nc ien t c ross o f R o thbury , "Archaeo log ia A e l iana , 4 th s er . 1( 1925 ) , p p . 1 59-68 .
Ad e ta i led d iscuss ion o f t he c ross i s i nc luded i n af or th-
c om ing p ubl ica t ion b y R .J . C ra mp a nd R . M iket , C a ta logue o f Ang loS axon An t iqu i t ies i n t he Un ivers i ty Museum , N ewcas t le u pon T yne . 2 .
S ee R .J . C ra mp , E ar ly N or thumbr ian S cu lp ture ( Jarrow L ec ture , 1 965 ) , J arrow u pon T yne .
3 .
S ee C ra mp a nd M ike t , N ewcas t le Museu m C a ta logue .
The p o in t i s a lso
d iscussed b y M iss E . C oa tswor th i n h er D urha m Un ivers i ty t hes is wh ich i s i n c ourse o f p repara t ion , T he C ruc i f ix ion i n Ang lo-Saxon S cu lp ture . . 4 .
E . K i tzinger , " The c o f f in r e l iquary , "i n T he R e l ics o f S t . C u thber t , e d . C .F . B a t t isco mbe ,
5 .
( Ox ford , 1 956 ) , p p . 2 02-304 , e sp . p .239 .
S ince w r it ing t h is, Ih ave n oted t hat t here i s a t Ayc l if fe, Co. D urha m , o ne a rm o f al ater c ross h ead w ith o n o ne s ide a b ird a nd o n t he o ppos ite f ace a p a ir o f h a loed f i gures p oss ib ly h o ld ing b ooks.
6 .
T h is was p loughed u p a t t he e as t e nd o f t he v i l lage i n 1 967 i n af i e ld c a l led O ld K irk F ie ld . p ar ish c hurch .
I ti s n ow i n t he wes tern e nd o f t he n ave i n t he
T he h ead i s c arved f ro m a v ery s o f t l imes tone wh ich
h as b een f ine ly d ressed .
T he c arv ing w ou ld a lways h ave b een s ha llow
b u t d e ta i ls o f t he r e l ie f h ave b een b ad ly e roded a way . 7 .
L aon 1 37 , O ros ius f o l . l b . E .H . Z i m merman , V orkaro l ing ishche Mini a turen U , T a fe l 1 44 , d a ted c .7 40 .
8 .
S ee R .J . C ra mp , " A c ross f ro m S t Oswa ld 's c hurch , Durha m , a nd i ts s tyl is t ic r e la t ionsh ips , "Durha m Un ivers i ty J ourna l 5 8 ( 1965-6 ) , 1 19-24 ; a nd G . A dcock , S cu lpture ,
A S tudy o f t he T ypes o f I n ter lace o n N or thumbr ian
u npub l ished M. P h i l . d isser ta t ion ( Durha m , 1 974 ) , c hap . 5 ,
e sp . p p . 2 09-15 . 9 .
F .J . H aver f ie ld a nd W. G reenwe l l , A C a ta logue o f t he I nscr ibed a nd S cu lp tured S tones i n t he C a thedra l L ibrary , Durha m ( Durha m , 1 899 ) , p p . 7 9-87. 1 28
1 0.
N ow i n Nancy C a thedra l .
J . H uber t , J . Porcher , a nd W. F . V o lbach ,
l 'E mp ire Carol ing ien ( Par is , 1 968 ) , 1 .
P .
1 32 .
A g rave-cover w i th a d ecora ted c ross , a lso f ro m Durha m , h as wha t c ou ld b e a poca lypt ic s y mbo ls w i th a n a nge l a t t he b ase o f t he c ross-head a nd t wo a nony mous w ing less a n i ma ls o n t he s ide a r ms .
The c en tre o f
t he c ross i s f i l led w i th a nother c ross , s ee Haver f ie ld a nd Greenwe l l , C a ta logue p p . 8 8-9 .
R ecen t ly M ichael Do l ley ( "The n u m mu lar b rooch
f ro m S u lgrave ," Eng land B e fore t he C onques t , e d . P . C le moes a nd K . Hughes ,
( Ca mbr idge , 1 971,
P .
3 43 ) , h as d en ied t he a poca lypt ic a sso-
c ia t ion o f t h is f igure , b u t t o me i ti s c lear ly p resen t . 1 2.
F . S ax l ,
" The Ru thwe l l c ross , "J ourna l o f t he Warburg a nd C our tau ld
I ns t i tu tes 6 ( 1 943 ) , 1 -19 , e sp . 6a nd n . 8 . 1 3 .
S ee t he s y mbo ls f ro m S t V i ta le , R avenna , a nd K i tzinger , " The c o f f in r e l iquary."
1 4 .
R .J . C ra mp, " The p osi t ion o f t he O t ley c rosses i n Eng l ish s cu lpture o f t he e igh th t o n in th c en tur ies ," K ol loqu iu m ü ber S pä tan t ike u nd Frühmi t te la l ter l iche S ku lptur I ( 1971) , p l . 4 5 ,
1 5.
( 4 ) a nd p . 6 2 , n o te 2 9 .
C .A . R a legh R ad ford , " Hoddo m ," Transact ions o f t he Du m fr iessh ire a nd G a l loway Na tura l H is tory a nd An t iquar ian S oc ie ty , 3 rd s er . ( 1952-3 ), 1 74-97 a nd p l . I V .
1 6 .
H a l ton :
Cra mp , " O t ley c rosses , "p l . 4 8 ( 2 ) a nd
P .
6 2 .
I lk ley :
W. G .
C o l l ingwood , Nor thumbr ian c rosses , f ig . 6 3. 1 7. 1 8 .
T .D . K endrick , Ang lo-Saxon Art t o A .D. 9 00 ( London , 1 938 ) , p l . XCIV . The d evelop men t a nd i nsu lar t ypes o f t he e vange lis t s y mbo ls h ave b een f u l ly d iscussed b y K i tzinger , " Co f f in r e liquary ."
S ee a lso R . C rozet ,
" Les q uatre e vange l is tes e t l eur s y mbo ls ," i n L es C ah iers T echn iques d e l 'Ar t ( S trasbourg , 1 962 ) , p p . 5 -26 ;
A . M. Fr iend ,
" The p or tra i ture
o f t he e vange l is ts i n Greek a nd L a t in manuscr ip ts , "Ar t S tud ies 7 ( 1930 ) , 3 -29 ;
a nd Mar t in Werner , " The f our e vange l is t s y mbo ls p age i n t he
B ook o f Durrow , "G es ta 8 ( 1 969 ) , 3 f . 1 9.
A bove p p.
2 0 .
F . H enry , I r ish Ar t Dur ing t he V ik ing I nvas ions : 1 967 ) ,
P .
I b id ., p l . 7 3
2 2.
I b id ., p ls . 9 1 a nd 9 5 .
2 3.
" The Ru thwel l c ross , "p . 6 .
2 4 •
C .A . Ra legh R ad ford , " Hoddo m , "p ls . Ia nd I I .
2 5 •
F lorence , B ib lio teca L aurenziana . , Am ia t inus I . B ede was e specia lly i n teres ted i n t he Apoca lypse o f S t J ohn . B onner ,
( London ,
1 64 a nd p l . 7 4 .
2 1.
2 6 •
8 00 - 1 020 ,
S ee G .I .
S a in t Bede i nt he Trad i t ion o f Wes tern Apoca lypt ic C o m men tary
( J arrow Lec ture , 1 966 ) .
1 29
2 7.
R . Cra mp , " Ear ly Nor thu mbr ian s cu lp ture a t Hexha m," S a in t Wilfr id a t Hexha m, e d. D . P . K irby , ( Newcas t le u pon Tyne, 1 974 ), p p. 1 154 0, e sp. p . 1 20.
2 8.
C . R . P eers, " The i nscr ibed a nd s cu lp tured s tones a t L ind isfarne ," Archaeo log ia 7 4 ( 1925 ), 2 55-70 , e sp. 2 69 a nd P late L IV ( 5 ).
2 9 .
A . S . Cook , S o me Accoun ts o f t he Bewcast le Cross , Ya le S tud ies i n Eng l ish 5 0 ( New Y ork , 1 914 ), p p. 1 28-33.
3 0.
E . Coatsworth , " Two e xa mp les o f t he c ruc if ix ion a t Hexham ," ( App end ix I I ), S ain t Wil fr id a t Hexha m, e d. K irby , p p. 1 80-4.
1 30
V I.
L ITURG ICAL I NNOVAT IONS ASSOCIATED WITH POPE S ERG IUS
AND THE I CONOGRAPHY OF THE RUTH WELL AND BE WCASTLE CROSSES E amonn ó C arragä in
I n t he ir p apers i nt he p resen t v o lu me , P rofessors Cra mp a nd F arre l l h ave a t te mpted t o e xplica te t he i conography o f t he Ru thwe l l c ross-head b y r eference t o e v idence f ro m a r t h is tory , l i turgy a nd p a tr is t ic wr i t ings .
I n t h is p aper , I
s ha l l a rgue t hat p ar t o f t he s equence o f p ane ls o n t he s ha ft o f t he Ru thwe l l c ross , a nd a lso t he t hree f igura l p ane ls o n t he Bewcas t le c ross , c an b es t b e u nders tood i nt he l i gh t o f l i turg ica l d eve lop men ts i n N or thu mbr ia i n t he e ar ly e igh th c en tury.
1
F irs t ly , Ia rgue t ha t t he p anels a t t he f oot o f t he s ou th f ace o f t he
Ru thwel l c ross r epresen ting t he a nnuncia t ion a nd t he c ruci fix ion ( see o u t l ine o f t he i conograph ica l p lan o f t he Ru thwe l l a nd B ewcas t le c rosses , b elow , p . 1 47 ) a re b es t u nders tood i n r ela t ion t o t he i n troduct ion i n to N or thumbr ian l i turg ica l p ract ice o f t he f eas t o f t he a nnuncia t ion o n 2 5 March , t he a nn iversary o f t he C ruci f ix ion .
S econd ly , t he p ane ls o n t he n or th f ace o f t he Ru thwe ll c ross a nd
o n t he wes t f ace o f t he B ewcas t le c ross , r epresen t ing J ohn t he Bapt is t b ear ing t he Agnus D e i a nd ( im med iately b elow ) Chr ist i n ma jesty o ver t he b easts i n t he d eser t , a re b es t u nders tood i n r e la t ion t o t he i n troduc t ion o f t he c han t ' Agnus Dei , q u i t o l l is p ecca ta mund i , m iserere n ob is ' i n to t he R o man Mass i n t he s even th c en tury.
The P au l a nd An thony p anel o n t he n or th f ace o f t he Ru thwel l
c ross s hou ld a lso , Is ugges t , b e r e la ted t o t he l i turgy o f t he Mass.
Th irdly ,
t he e rec t ion o f t he Ru thwell a nd B ewcas t le c rosses may h ave b een i nspired b y t he n ew impor tance o f t he f eas t o f t he e xa lta t ion o f t he c ross s te m m ing f ro m P ope S erg ius 's miracu lous f ind ing o f ar el ic o f t he t rue c ross i n S t P eter 's i n t he y ear 7 01.
Ia rgue t ha t t he c rosses r ef lect t he k een i n teres t i n R o man l i tur-
g ica l d eve lop men ts wh ich e x is ted i n e ar ly e igh th-cen tury N or thumbr ia ;
a nd ,
f ina lly , t ha t t he l i turg ica l l i nk b etween t he a nnunc ia t ion a nd t he c ruci f ix ion e nables u s b et ter t o u nders tand t he r e la t ion b etween t he c ruci fix ion p oe m i ns cr ibed o n t he Ru thwe l l c ross ( t he a nces tor o f The Drea m o t t he R ood c opied i n t he t en th c en tury i n to t he V erce l li Book ) a nd t he i conography o f t he R u thwel l c ross .
Perhaps t he mos t i l lu m ina t ing d iscuss ion o f t he i conograph ica l p a t tern o f t he Ru thwe l l c ross i s t ha t b y D r . S ax l .la
One o f t he v ery f ew weaknesses o f
h is a rgumen t i s t he a bsence o f ac onv incing e xp lana t ion f or t he p resence o n t he c ross o f ac ruc i f ix ion p ane l a t t he f oot o f t he s ou th f ace , u nder a p ane l r ep resen t ing t he a nnuncia t ion .
H e e xp la ined t he c ruci f ix ion p ane l , n o t i n r ela t ion
t o t he p ane l a bove i t , b u t i n r e la t ion t o t he n ow o b l i tera ted p ane l a t t he f oot o f t he n or th f ace.
S ax l s pecu la ted t ha t t h is p anel may h ave r epresen ted t he n a-
t iv ity , a nd wrote t ha t " the n a t iv i ty a nd t he c ruci f ix ion . . .s ign i fy t he b eg inn ing a nd e nd o f Chr is t 's i ncarna t ion . "2
Apar t f ro m t he f act t ha t t h is s tate men t
i s n ot , s tr ict ly s peak ing , t rue ( Chr is t 's i ncarna t ion d id n o t e nd w i th t he c ruci-
1 31
f ix ion ) , we d o n o t h ave t o r e ly o n s pecu la t ion a s t o wha t t he o b l i tera ted p ane l may h ave r epresen ted t o e xp la in t he p resence a nd p os i t ion o f t he c ruci f ix ion p ane l o n t he c ross .
An e duca ted Ang lo-Saxon o f t he e ar ly e igh th c en tury wou ld
h ave u nders tood t he c ruci f ix ion p ane l i n r e la t ion t o t he a nnuncia t ion p ane l d ir ec t ly a bove i to n t he s ou th f ace o f t he c ross :
h e w ou ld h ave k nown t ha t t he
c ruci f ix ion t ook p lace o n t he a nn iversary o f t he a nnunc ia t ion , o n 2 5 March . The c ruc i f ix ion was l i turg ica l ly c e lebra ted o n t he moveab le f eas t o f G ood Fr id ay ;
b u t i t was a lso a ssocia ted w i th 2 5 March .
F or e xa mp le , i n i t s e n try f or
2 5 March , t he C a lendar o f S t Wi l l ibrord r eads a s f o l lows : e s t :
e t s anc t i J acob i f ra tr is d orn in i :
" Do m inus c ruc i f ixus
e t im mo la t io I saac . "3
March 2 5 was
h e ld t o b e t he a nn iversary o f C hr is t 's d ea th a s e ar ly a s t he s econd c en tury : t he t rad i t ion , wh ich H . A . Wi lson c harac ter izes a s " h is tor ica l r a ther t han l i turg ica l i n c harac ter , ' 4 e xe mp l i f ied t he p r inc ip le t ha t " o mn ia p ropr i is l oc is e t t e mpor ibus g ess i t s a lva tor , "5 o r , a s t he B eowu l f p oet p u t i t , s e g ewea ld h afa s ae la o nd m la ;
i D aet i s s o b ' metod. 6
C hr is t 's n a t iv i ty was l i turg ica l ly c e lebra ted o n t he w in ter s o ls t ice o f t he J u l ian c a lendar , 2 5 D ece mber . I tf o l lowed t ha t h is c oncep t ion t ook p lace e xac t ly n ine mon ths p rev ious ly , a t t he s pr ing e qu inox ;7
a nd C hr is t -was b e l ieved t o h ave
d ied o n t he t h ir tyth ird a nn iversary o f h is c oncep t ion , e xac t ly t h ir tytwo y ears a nd t hree mon ths a f ter h is n a t iv i ty . Fro m t he e igh th c en tury o nwards , t h is t rad i t ion was t o b e o vershadowed b y t he c e lebra t ion o f t he a nnunc ia t ion o n 2 5 March ;
b u t t hroughou t t he Ang lo-
S axon p er iod t he i dea t ha t t he a nnunc ia t ion c o inc ided w i th t he a nn iversary o f t he c ruc i f ix ion was a p er fec t ly f am i l iar o ne .
T he O ld Eng l ish Mar tyro logy
d raws a n e x tended p ara l le l b e tween C hr is t 's c oncep t ion a nd h is d ea th o n t he c ross , i n i t s e n try u nder 2 5 March ;8
a nd i ti s c lear t ha t t he i dea t ha t 2 5 March
was t he a nn iversary o f t he c ruc i f ix ion was f am i l iar t o t he ma jor i ty o f t hose who c o mpi led t he mar tyro log ies wh ich s urv ive f ro m t he l a te Ang lo-Saxon p er iod . T he t rad i t ion l ong a n teda ted t he c e lebra t ion o f t he f eas t o f t he a nnunc ia t ion i n t he wes tern C hurch . T he a nnunc ia t ion was s low t o f ind a ccep tance i nt he wes t , l arge ly b ecause t he f eas t was b ound t o f a l l a l mos t a lways d ur ing Len t , a nd s o c ou ld n o t p roper ly b e c e lebra ted . t he p rob le m i n c lear t er ms :
T he C ounci l o f T o ledo , i n 6 56 A .D ., s ta ted
S i n a t iv i ta t is e t mor t is i ncarna t i V erb i d ies a bsque im mu ta t ione i t a c er tus h . abe tur , u t a bsque d ivers i ta te i n o rbe t o to t erraru m a b omn i c oncord i ter E cc les ia c e lebre tur , c ur n on f es t iv i tas g lor iosae Ma tr is e ius e ade m o bservan t ia , u no s i mu l u bique d ie , s im i l ique h abea tur h onore? 10 The e xp l ic i t s ta te men t t ha t t he c oinc idence o f t he a nnunc ia t ion a nd o f t he a nn iversary o f C hr is t 's d ea th was a cknow ledged " throughou t t he wor ld" i s i nt eres t ing .
The C ounc i l o f T o ledo , h owever , d ec ided t ha t , s ince t he f eas t c ou ld
n ot p roper ly b e c e lebra ted o n 2 5 March b ecause o f t he c oncurrence o f t he L ent en s eason , i n S pa in " an te o c tavu m d ie m , q uo n a tus e s t D om inus , g en i tr ic is q uoque e ius d ies h abea tur c e leberr i mus e t p raec larus . t i ll The e ar l ies t s urv iv ing r ecord o f t he c e lebra t ion a t R o me o f t he f eas t o f t he Annunc ia t ion o ccurs i n t he L iber P on t i f ica l is , a s p ar t o f ab iography o f P ope
1 32
9
S erg ius ( 686-701).
I n t he L iber P on ti f ica l is a ccoun t , we a re t o ld t ha t S erg ius
i ns t i tu ted p rocess ions t o c e lebra te f our Mar ian f eas ts :
t he a nnuncia t ion ( 25
March ) , t he d or m i tion o f t he V irg in ( 15 Augus t ) , t he n a t iv i ty o f t he V irg in ( 8 S ep te mber ) a nd t he p resen ta t ion i n t he t e mp le ( 2 F ebruary ) : C ons t i tu i t a u te m u t d iebus A dnun t ia t ion is D om in i , D or m i t ion is e t N a t iv i tat is s anc tae D e i G en i tr ic is s e mperque v irg in is Mar iae a c s anc t i S y meon is , q uod Ypapan t i G rec i a ppe l lan t , l etan ia e xea t as anc to H adr iano e t a d s anc ta m Mar ia m p opu lus o ccurra t .
1 2
The L iber P on t i f ica l is d oes n o t s ay t ha t S erg ius h i mse l f i ns t i tu ted t hese f eas ts ;
o n ly t hat h e g ave t he m a n ew s o le mn i ty.
Duchesne c onc ludes " qu 'e l les
o n t e t6 tab l ies ä Ro me d ans l e c ouran t d u s ep t ib me s ièc le . "1 3
The C hron icon
P ascha le a t tes ts t ha t t he f eas t o f t he a nnunc ia t ion was a lready c e lebra ted a t C ons tan t inop le i n t he f irs t h a l f o f t he s even th c en tury , a nd i t s i ns t i tu t ion was c on f ir med , d ur ing t he r e ign o f S erg ius h i msel f , b y t he C ounc i l " In T ru l lo" h e ld a t C ons tan t inop le i n 6 91-2 .
1 4
P ope S erg ius was b orn i n S ic i ly , b u t h is
f am i ly h ad c o me f ro m An t ioch i n S yr ia .
1 5
I ti s n a tura l , t here fore , t ha t f eas ts
l i ke t he a nnunc ia t ion , wh ich h ad l ong b een i ncorpora ted i n to t he e as tern l i turg ies b u t h ad o n ly r ecen t ly b een i n troduced i n to R o man u sage , s hou ld h ave b een emphas ized b y a ddi t iona l c ere mon ia l d ur ing h is p on t i f ica te .
I t may b e s upposed
t ha t t he a rgumen ts wh ich d ec ided t he C ounc i l o f T o ledo i n 6 56 t o r e jec t t he c e leb ra t ion o f t he a nnuncia t ion o n t he a nn iversary o f t he c ruci f ix ion were n o t w i tho u t we igh t i n R o me f or ty y ears l a ter ;
a nd t here fore S erg ius 's a ct ion i n o rder ing
t he s a me c e lebra t ions f or t he 2 5 March a s f or t he o ther t hree Mar ian f eas ts , t hough i tm igh t n o t a c tua l ly h ave i ns t i tu ted t he f eas t o f t he a nnunc ia t ion i n R o man o bservance , was p robab ly d ecis ive f or i t s f u ture s urv iva l . Though t he a nnunc ia t ion was a lready e s tab l ished i nt he e as tern c hurch , we c an b e p re t ty c er ta in t ha t t he f eas t was n ot c e lebrated i n E ng land b efore t he p on t i f ica te o f S erg ius - we h ave s een , f or e xa mp le , t ha t t he C a lendar o f S t W i l l ibrord makes n o men t ion o f i t .
1 6
N ever the less , t he f our f es t iva ls o f t he
B lessed V irg in h onoured b y S erg ius q u ick ly b eca me k nown i n Eng land . a re men t ioned b y A ldhe lm , who d ied i n 7 09 ;1 7
T hey
a nd Abbo t S igba ld , who d ied
( a f ter a l ong a bbacy ) i n 7 72 , i n troduced t he o bserva t ion o f t he f our f eas ts i n to t he monas tery ( dependen t o n L ind is farne ) wh ich A Ethe lwu l f l a ter d escr ibed i n h is p oe m D e Abba t ibus : s anc ta m c u mque d ie m s acrau i t u irgo Mar ia , q ua u o l i tans c ae los meru i t p ene trare p er a l tos , u e l q ua p resen t i g enera ta r edd i tur o rbi , u e l q ua p repu lchrae s uscep ta t g aud ia u i tae , u e l q ua c e ls i thronum meru i t g enerare t onan te m , u e lq uacu mque d ie , c um t e mp l i f es ta c oruscan t , omn ibus h is l ae tus n im ium p er g aud ia s anc ta a urea d u lcisonae r es taura t munera men t is . a c f ra tres p rec ibus mu lce t s o l le mpn ia f es ta a d l e tos c ae lebrare p ie g ene tr icis h onores .
1 8
Thus , i n t he l igh t o f t he d ocumen tary e v idence a dduced a bove , t he b es t e xp lana t ion f or t he j ux tapos i t ion o f t he c ruci fix ion a nd a nnuncia t ion p ane ls a t t he f oo t o ft he s ou th f ace o f t he R u thwe l l c ross i s t ha t t he Ru thwe l l c arvers
1 33
were a lso f am i l iar w i th t he r ecen t ly i n troduced c e lebra t ion o f t he a nnuncia t ion o n 2 5 March , a nd w ished t h is e xa mp le o f t he c on tro l o f p rov idence o ver t imes a nd s easons t o b e r e f lec ted o n t he c ross .
T he i nscr ipt ion a round t he a nnun-
c ia t ion p ane l , wh ich i s s t i l l p ar t ly l eg ib le , may p rov ide a c on fir ma tory h in t t ha t t he R u thwe l l s cu lptors were t h ink ing o f l i turg ica l p rac t ice . I tb eg ins " INGRESSUS A [ NGELUS ], "a nd i s a l most c erta in ly b ased o n L uke i , 2 8 ;1 9 t h is v erse o f S t Luke 's g ospe l r ecurs a s a n o f fer tory a n t iphon f or t he f eas t o f t he a nnuncia t ion i n t he e ar l ies t R o man a n t iphonar ies wh ich s urv ive .
2°
I P ane ls r epresen t ing S t J ohn t he B ap t is t h o ld ing t he Agnus De i o ccur b o th o n t he n or th f ace o f t he Ru thwe l l c ross a nd o n t he B ewcas t le c ross ;
o nb o th
c rosses , p ane ls r epresen t ing C hr is t b e ing a dored b y t he b eas ts i n t he d eser t o ccur im med ia te ly b e low t he Agnus D e i p ane ls . T he r ecurrence o f t he Agnus De i p ane ls o n t he c rosses , a nd t he c on tex t w i th in wh ich t hey o ccur , c an a lso b e e xp la ined b y r e ference t o al i turg ica l i nnova t ion a ssocia ted w i th t he p on t if ica te o f S erg ius . The L iber Pon t if ica l is s ta tes t ha t P ope S erg ius " s ta tu i t u t t e mpore c on fract ion is d om in ic i c orpor is Agnus D e i , q u i t o l l is p ecca ta mund i , miserere n ob is a c lero e t p opu lo d ecan te tur . "2 1
—
Th is i s t he e ar l ies t r e ference
t o t he Agnus D e i c han t i n t he R o man l i turgy o f t he Mass .
I ti s p oss ib le t ha t
t he L iber P on t i f ica l is i s o ver-s i mp l i fying t he f ac ts , a nd t ha t S erg ius d id n o t s o much i n troduce t he c han t a s g ive i t an ew impor tance ;2 2
b u t a s J ung mann
r e marks , e ven i fi t was n o t b rough t i n to R o me b y S erg ius h i mse l f , a S yr ian b y d escen t , s t i l l i t was d ur ing t he l a ter s even th c en tury , i n t he t ra in o f t hat g rea t i nrush o f G reek c ler ics f ro m t he E as tern l ands o verrun b y I s la m , a bove a l l S yr ia ; f or i ti s man i fes t ly a n e le men t f ro m t he E as tern l i turgy .
I n t he
E as t i th ad b eco me t he p rac t ice s ince t he s ix th c en tury t o r egard t he b reak ing o f t he s pecies o f b read a s ar e ference t o o ur L ord 's P ass ion a nd d ea th .
2 3
T he p hrase " a c lero e t p opu lo d ecan te tur" i n t he L iber P on t i f ica lis i s o f g rea t impor tance f or t he p resen t a rgu men t .
P ro fessor M ichae l D o l ley h as s tressed
t ha t " the Agnus D e i was v ery much a c han t o f t he c ongrega t ion a s o pposed t o t he c e lebran t , s o t ha t t he i nnova t ion i s o ne t ha t c ou ld n o t f a i l t o h ave b een r emarked b y t he p eople a s a who le . "2 4 T he Agnus D e i was j us t t ha t k ind o f i nnova t ion i n p ub l ic worsh ip wh ich we migh t e xpec t t o f ind r e f lected o n o u tdoor , p ub l ic monumen ts s uch a s t he R u thwe l l a nd B ewcas t le c rosses .
There i s g ood
e v idence t ha t t he Agnus D e i i nvoca t ion h ad r eached E ng land a s p ar t o f t he L it any o f t he S a in ts , b y t he y ear 7 00 ; a nd t ha t i t was w ide ly c opied a nd b eca me p opu lar i np r iva te d evot ion . 25 I n t he l i turgy o f t he Mass , a s J ungmann r e marks , t he c han t h ad a c lear d evot iona l f unc t ion ;
i t was " a r everen t ia l a nd , a t t he
s a me t ime , h umb le g ree t ing o f H i m who h as b een made p resen t u nder t he f or m o f b read . "2 6 I t was em inen t ly s u i tab le f or e ngag ing t he a t ten t ion o f t he c ong rega t ion " te mpore c on frac t ion is d om in ic i c orpor is ;" J ung mann i s o f t he o p in ion t ha t " or ig ina l ly t he o ne s i mp le v erse was r epea ted a s o f ten a s n ecess ary , "2 7
u n t i l t he b reak ing o f t he s pec ies o f b read a nd i t s d is tr ibu t ion i n
C o m mun ion h ad b een c o mp le ted ;
i t was o n ly l a ter , when t he r i te o f f rac t ion
was r endered s uper f luous b y t he i n troduc t ion o f u n leavened b read a nd sma ll
1 34
p ar t ic les , t ha t t he c han t " gradua l ly a ssu med t he h a l lowed n u mber t hree . "2 8 B y means o f t he c han t , t he c ongrega t ion p roc la i med t he ir r ecogn i t ion o f C hr is t 's p resence u nder t he s pec ies o f b read ;
i n p ar t icu lar , t hey p roc la i med t he ir r e-
c ogn i t ion o f C hr is t " in t he b reak ing o f b read , "a s t he d isc iples a t Em maus h ad d one :
" Et f ac tus e s t , d um r ecumbere t c um e is , a ccep i t p ane m e t b ened ix i t ,
a c f reg it , e tp orr igeba t i l l is .
E t a per t i s un t o cu l i e orum , e t c ognoverun t e um :
e t i pse e vanu i t e t o cu l is e orum." 29 I ti s s ign if ican t , t herefore, t hat i n b oth t he R u thwe l l a nd Bewcas t le c rosses , t he Agnus D e i p ane l i s j ux taposed t o t he p ane l i n wh ich " bes t iae e t d racones c ognoverun t i n d eser to s a lva tore m mund i . "3 ° T he B ewcas t le c ross emphas izes t he t he me o f ' r ecogn it ion ' i n t wo ways . F irs t , t he r un ic i nscr ip t ion " +gessus k r is tus" h as b een p laced o n t he c ross b e tween t he A gnus D e i p ane l a nd t he p ane l o f C hr is t a nd t he b eas ts : t he i mp l ic a t ion i s t ha t C hr ist i s t o b e r ecogn ized " in p ropr ia f igura , "a s t he b eas ts r ecogn ized h im , a nd a lso a s t he Agnus D e i .
S econd ly , t he p ane l a t t he f oo t o f
t h is s ide o f t he Bewcas t le c ross , wh ich It ake t o b e t he u n ique r epresen ta t ion o f J ohn t he e vangel is t s tand ing a nd b ear ing h is e ag le , a uc tor itas f or t he Agnus De i c han t .
3 1
g ives u s t he s cr iptura l
T he t ex t c hosen f or t he c han t i s f ound , n o t
i nt he s ynop t ic g ospe ls , b u t o n ly i n t he G ospe l a ccord ing t o S t J ohn : d ie v id it I oannes I esum v en ien te m a d s e , e t a i t :
" A l tera
E cce a gnus D e i , e cce q u i
t o l l i t p ecca tum mund i . "32 The p resence o n t he B ewcas t le c ross , n o t mere ly o f ap ane l r epresen t ing J ohn t he B ap t is t c arry ing t he Agnus D e i , b u t o f ap ane l r epresen t ing t he e vang e l is t who r ecords t he r ecogn i t ion o f C hr is t a s t he Agnus D e i
may r e f lec t a
c oncern o nt he p ar t o f t hose who e rec ted t he c ross t ha t t he s ign i f icance o f t he Agnus De i c han t s hou ld b e c lear ly u nders tood . T h is p o in t c an b e i l lus tra ted b y r e ference t o at heo log ica l c on troversy wh ich may p erhaps h ave i n f luenced S erg ius i n h is d ec is ion t o i n troduce t he Agnus D e i c han t i n to t he Mass .
I n
6 92 , t he C ounc i l " In T ru l lo" ( h e ld i n C ons tan t inop le u nder t he a eg is o f t he Emp eror J us t in ian I ) f orbade t he r epresen ta t ion o f C hr is t u nder t he image o f a l a mb .
3 3
B ecause t he c anons o f t he c ounc i l f a i led t o r epresen t p apa l i n teres ts
i n v ar ious w ays , P ope S erg ius r e jec ted t he m i n t o to . L ou is Duchesne h as s ugges ted t ha t S erg ius may h ave i nser ted t he Agnus D e i c han t i n to t he Mass a t t he f rac t ion i n o rder t o emphas ize t ha t n o l ess a n a u thor i ty t han S t J ohn t he B ap t is t h ad h a i led C hr is t a s t he Agnus D e i :
" I l Wes t p as d e fendu d e v o ir , d ans
c e d ecre t d e S erg ius , u ne p ro tes ta t ion c on tre l e c anon 8 2 d u c onc i le I n T ru l lo , q u i p roscr iv i t l a r epresen ta t ion s y mbo l ique d u S auveur s ous f or me d 'agneau . "3 4 H ere i s at heolog ica l c on troversy a bou t r e l ig ious a r t wh ich may h ave h ad a d irec t e f fec t o n l i turg ica l p rac t ice , a nd t hence i nsp ired t he i conograph ic p rog ra m me o ft he Bewcas t le c ross . C ons idered a s au n i f ied s equence , t he t hree p ane ls o nt he c ross s ugges t ac lear t heo log ica l s ta te men t , s uch a s " we r ecogn ize C hr is t a t t he f rac t io u nder t he f igure o f t he Agnus D e i ( t op p ane l ) e ven a s t he b eas ts r ecogn ized h im i n t he d eser t ( cen tra l p ane l ) ; a nd o ur a u thor i ty f or t h is i s n one o ther t han J ohn t he e vange l is t ( bot to m p ane l )." I ti s t e mp t ing , i ndeed , t o r ead i nt he i conograph ic p rogra mme o f t he B ewcas t le c ross a c lear s ta temen t o f a dherence t o t he p apa l p os i t ion , a nd a r e ject ion o f c anon 8 2 o f t he T ru llan c ounci l.
T h is t e mpta t ion s hou ld , h owever , b e r es is ted ;
e ven i f
S erg ius 's mo t ive f or i nser t ing t he Agnus D e i c han t a t t he f rac t ion was a p o lem ica l o ne ( a nd f or t h is we h ave o n ly c ircu ms tan t ia l e v idence ) , t he mo t ive o f t he Bewcas t le s cu lptors i s much more l i ke ly t o h ave b een d evo t iona l a nd d idac t ic .
1 35
They wou ld s ure ly h ave b een more c oncerned t o e ncourage a d eeper u nders tand ing o f a nd r esponse t o t he l i turgy o f t he Mass , t han t o r efu te t he c anons o f t he Tru l lan c ounc i l . On t he n or th f ace o f t he Ru thwe l l c ross , we a ga in f ind n o t o n ly J ohn t he Bap t is t a nd C hr is t o ver t he b eas ts , b u t ( a t t he t op o f t he c ross , i n a sma l l p ane l n ow mis taken ly r eversed ) 35 a r epresen ta t ion o f S t J ohn t he e vange l is t , b ear ing h is e ag le , a nd i den t i f ied b y t he o pen ing w ords o f h is g ospe l .
Th is
3 6
p ane l , h owever , a ppears t o h ave f or med a p rogra m me c ons is t ing o f t he f our e vange l is t p or tra i ts s urround ing ( on t he c en trep iece o f t he c ross ) e i ther a n Agnus D e i p ane l o r a ma jes tas d om in i ( t he p rogra m me o f t he n or th f ace o f t he c rossp iece i s d iscussed b y P ro fessor C ra mp , a bove , p p. 18-130 ).
I t c anno t ,
t here fore , b e a rgued t ha t t he p or tra i t o f S t J ohn t he e vange l is t s tands i n t he s a me r e la t ionsh ip t o t he p ane ls r epresen t ing J ohn t he Bap t is t a nd C hr is t o ver t he b eas ts a s o n t he B ewcas t le c ross . T he d evo t iona l s ign i f icance o f t he t wo l arge p ane ls i s , h owever , c lar i f ied o n t he R u thwe l l c ross b y t he L a t in i nscr ipt ions s urround ing t he m .
O f t he i nscr ipt ion a round t he Agnus De i p ane l , o n ly
o ne word s urv ives w i th c er ta in ty , [ A ]DORA MVS :
b ut i td irects o ur a t ten t ion t o
t he d evot iona l s ign i f icance o f t he Agnus De i c han t i n t he Mass .
3 7
T ha t t he'
t he me o f " recogn i t ion" was i n tended b y t he R u thwe l l c arvers i s made c lear b y t he i nscr ipt ion a round t he p ane l r epresen t ing C hr is t a nd t he b eas ts , w h ich emp has izes t ha t t he b eas ts " cognoverun t i n d eser to s a lva tore m mund i ."
3 8
N or
d o t he t wo l arge p ane ls s tand i n t he ma t ic i so la t ion o n t he R u thwe l l c ross :
a s
a t B ewcas t le , t hey a re t o b e i n terpre ted i n r e la t ion t o t he p anel b e low t he o ne r epresen t ing C hr is t a nd t he b eas ts . P au l a nd S t An thony , a nd i s i nscr ibed
A t Ru thwe l l , t h is p ane l r epresen ts S t S CS :
PAVLVS :
ET :
A . . .FRE-
GER [VNT ] : PANE M I N DESERT( ) ; .' 3 9 L ike t he Agnus D e i p anel , t h is Pau l a nd An thony p ane l i s t o b e r e la ted t o t he ' con frac t io d om in ic i c orpor is ' o f t he Mass . I n t he V i ta S anct i P au l i
t he t wo h er m i ts b reak a h eaven-sen t l oa f b e tween
t he m a s t he s o lu t ion t o ac o mpe t i t ion i n h um i l i ty :
S t P au l h ad i ns is ted o n S t
An thony 's r igh t t o d iv ide t he b read , a s g ues t , a nd S t An thony h ad u rged t ha t S t P au l , a s t he s en ior o f t he t wo , s hou ld d iv ide i t . 4 °A p assage i n A damnan 's l i fe o f S t C o l mc i l le imp l ies t ha t t he " con fract io d om in ic i c orpor is" w as , a t l eas t a t I ona , c arr ied o u t a s a" cofract io" p er formed b y t wo p r ies ts b reak ing t he s pec ies o f b read b e tween t he m , a nd t ha t t h is r i te was s y mbo lic o f t he h armony t ha t s hou ld e x is t w i th in a monas t ic c o m mun i ty .
Ada mnan t e l ls u s t ha t
ab ishop f ro m Muns ter v is i ted I ona , a nd h umb ly c oncea led h is e p iscopa l r ank . Thus , when ( as v is i tor ) h e was i nv i ted t o c e lebra te Mass , h e c a l led o n S t C o l mc i l le t o a ss is t h im a t t he f rac t io ' as t wo p resby ters t oge ther ';
b u t t he
s a in t h ad p erce ived t ha t t he v is i tor was a b ishop , a nd i ns is ted o n h im b reak ing b read a lone , " accord ing t o t he e piscopa l r i te" : N am a l ia d ie d om in ica a s anc to j usus C hr is t i c orpus e x more c on f icere s anc tu m a dvoca t , u t s i mu l q uas i d uo p resp i ter i d om in icu m p ane m f rangeren t .
S anc tus p ro inde a d a l tar iu m
a ccedens r epen te i n tu i tus f ac ie m e jus s ic e um c onpe l la t : ' Bened ica t t e C hr is tus , f ra ter . e p iscopus :
Nunc s c i mus q uod s is
q uare h ucusque t e o ccu l tare c ona tus e s , u t
t i b i an ob is d ebeta n on r eddere tur v enera t io? '
Quo a ud i to
s anct i v erbo h um i l is p er igr inus v a lde s tupe fae tus C hr is tu m 1 36
i n s anc to v enera tus e s t .
E t q u i i neran t p raesen tes n im is
am m ira t i g lor i f icarun t d eum .
4 1
I ti s s ure ly n ot u nreasonab le t o a rgue t ha t i n t h is e p isode Ada mnan p res en ted S t C o l mc i l le a nd t he b ishop f ro m Muns ter a s r e-enac t ing t he c on tes t i n c our tesy a nd h um i l i ty b e tween S t P au l a nd S t An thony . S t C o l mc i l le 's r emarkable i ns igh t h ad f ound a r eason f or g ran t ing t he b ishop t he h onour o f b reak ing t he c onsecra ted b read f or t he who le c o m mun i ty . d ence f or t he r i te o f c ofract io
a t I ona ,
4 2
B es ides b e ing e v i-
t he p assage imp l ies t ha t t he r i te
was i t sel f s een a s ac o m me mora t ion o f t he f ra terna l v ir tues o f S t P au l a nd S t An thony , t he mode ls f or C e l t ic monas t ic is m .
I n A da mnan 's mind , t he c o-
f rac t io o f t he Mass a nd t he c on tes t i n c our tesy b e tween S t P au l a nd S t An thony were a ssoc ia ted .
F or t hose who e rec ted t he Ru thwe l l c ross , t he way i n wh ich
S t P au l a nd S t An thony " fregerun t p ane m i n d eser to" wou ld h ave r eca l led t he way i n wh ich ( a t l eas t i n I ona a nd p robab ly i n monas ter ies r e la ted t o i t ) t he " con frac t io d om in ic i c orpor is" w as e nac ted i n t he Mass . T he t hree l arge c en tra l p ane ls o n t he n or th f ace o f t he Ru thwe l l c ross f or m a t r ip tych o f t he ma t ica l ly r e la ted s cenes .
T he c en tra l p ane l o f t he t r i-
p tych , C hr is t o ver t he b eas ts , r epresen ts i n p ropr ia f igura " Jesus C hr is tus I udex AEqu i ta t is , "a nd e xp l ic i t ly s ta tes t he t he me wh ich u n i f ies t he t r iptych : " bes t iae e t d racones c ognoverun t i n d eser to s a lva tore m mund i . ' 4 3
As S ax l
h as p o in ted o u t , t he p ane ls a bove a nd b e low t h is c en tra l p ane l a re r e la ted t o i tb y t he t he me " in d eser to" ;
b u t b es ides b eing a ssoc ia ted w i th t he d eser t ,
a nd s o w i th e re met ic monas t icis m , t he f igures o f J ohn t he B ap t is t h o ld ing t he Agnus Dei a nd o f P au l a nd An thony t oge ther b reak ing b read a re a ssoc ia ted w i th t he " con fract io
d om in ic i c orpor is" i n t he Mass .
T he u pper p ane l r e f lec ts
t he r ecen t lyin troduced R o man c han t f or t he c on frac t io , " Agnus d e i , q u i t o l l is p ecca ta mund i , miserere n ob is" ;
t he l ower p ane l r e f lec ts t he way i n wh ich ,
a t t he i den t ica l mo men t o f t he Mass , ac ofrac t io was e nac ted i n s o me monast er ies f o l low ing C e l t ic c us to ms . I ti s p oss ib le t o s ee , i n t he p a t tern o f t he t r ip tych o f p ane ls , a n e iren ic i n ten t ion .
One e le men t o f t he d evo t iona l mean ing o f t he t r ip tych i s s ure ly
t ha t monas ter ies o f b oth t he C e l t ic a nd t he R o man o bservance , h owever d i ff eren t ly t hey c e lebra ted t he E uchar is t , a greed i n r ecogn izing C hr is t , l i ke t he d isc ip les a t Em maus , i n t he b reak ing o f b read .
T hough i t may b e s ign i f ican t
t ha t t he Agnus De i p ane l ( reca l l ing t he n ew R o man c han t ) i s g iven t he p lace o f h onour a t t he t op o f t he t r ip tych , t h is monu men t o n t he b orders o f N or thu mbr ia s ee ms t o emphas ize wha t t he C e l t ic a nd R o man t rad i t ions h ad i n c o m mon , r a ther t han wha t h e ld t he m a par t .
S im i lar ly , a t t he f oo t o f t he s ou th f ace o f
t he c ross , t he j ux tapos i t ion o f t he c ruc i f ix ion a nd a nnunc ia t ion p ane ls h ad emphas ized t he d a te , 2 5 March , wh ich b o th C e l t ic a nd R o man t rad i t ions a greed was t he d a te o n wh ich C hr is t h ad b een c once ived a nd d ied . 44
T he Ru thwe l l
c ross may b e t aken a s e v idence t ha t t he E as ter c on troversy o f t he p reced ing c en tury was n o l onger a l i v ing i ssue , a nd t ha t a t l eas t o ne p a tron f am i l iar w i th b o th R o man a nd C e l t ic l i turg ica l t rad i t ions f e l t i t more impor tan t t o s tress t hose e le men ts o n wh ich t he u n iversa l C hurch was a greed , t hough i t s r i tes migh t v ary - i n t he words o f t he C ounc i l o f T o ledo i n 6 56 , wha t " absque immu ta t ione i t a c er tus h abe tur , u t a bsque d ivers i ta te i n o rbe t o to t erraru m a b omn i c oncord i ter E cc les ia c e lebre tur . "45
1 37
I I I ti s p oss ib le t ha t , i n a dd i t ion t o t hose Ih ave j us t d iscussed , at h ird l i turg ica l i nnova t ion a ssoc ia ted w i th P ope S erg ius may h ave i n f luenced t hose who e rec ted t he Ru thwe l l a nd B ewcas t le c rosses - t he c e lebra t ion o f t he f eas t o f t he e xa l ta t ion o f t he c ross .
I n t he words o f t he L iber P on t i f ica l is ,
H ic b ea t iss i mus v ir i n s acrar io b ea t i P e tr i a pos to li c apsa m a rgen tea m i n a ngu lo o bscur iss i mo i acen te m e t e x n igr id ine t ransac to a nnos i ta t is n ee s i e sse t a rgen tea a pparen te , Deo e i r eve lan te , r epper i t . e xpressu m a bs tu l i t ;
Ora t ione i t aque f ac ta , s ig i l lu m
l uce l lum a peru i t , i n q uo i n ter ius
p lumac iu m e x h o los ir ico s uperpos i tu m , q uod s taurac in d ic i tur , i nven i t ;
e oque a b la to , i n fer ius c ruce m d ivers is a c p ret ios is
l ap id ibus p erorna ta m i nspex i t .
D e q ua t rac t is 1 1 1 p e ta l is
i n q u ibus g e m mae c lausae e ran t , mire magn i tud in is e t i ne f fabi le m p or t ione m s a lu tar is l ign i d om in icae c rucis i n ter ius r epos i ta m i nven i t . Qu i e t ia m e x d ie i l lo p ro s a lu te h uman i g ener is a b omn i p opu lo c hr is t iano , d ie E xa l ta t ion is s anctae C ruc is , i nb as i l ica m S a lva tor is q uae a ppe l la tur C ons tan t in iana o scu la tur a c a dora tur . 46 Once more , t he b iography o f S erg ius i n t he L iber P on t i f ica l is i s t he e ar lies t e v idence we h ave f or t he c e lebra t ion o f af eas t a t R o me ; h as b een b rough t i n to R o man u sage f ro m t he E as t ; 47
o nce more , t he f eas t
a nd , t hough t he L iber
P on t i f ica l is d oes n o t s ay t ha t S erg ius i ns t i tu ted t he f eas t , i tc lear ly i mp l ies t ha t h is d iscovery o f t he r e l ic o f t he True C ross i n t he Va t ican g ave t he c e leb ra t ion o f t he f eas t an ew s o le mn i ty a t R o me . E ng land .
T he f eas t was s oon k nown i n
B ede k new a nd u sed t he L iber P on ti f ica l is ,
4 8
a nd p araphrased i t s
a ccoun t o f S erg ius 's f ind i n t he C hron ic le a ppended t o h is D e T e mporu m R at ione , u nder t he y ear 7 01. 49
As l ong a go a s 1 905 , A loys Brand l s ugges ted
t ha t T he Drea m o f t he R ood migh t h ave b een i nsp ired b y n ews o f S erg ius 's v is ion a nd t he r esu lt ing v enera t ion o f t he C ross ;
h e p o in ted o u t t ha t monks
f ro m J arrow were i n R o me i n 7 01 , s o t ha t t he n ews c ou ld n o t h ave t aken l ong t o r each N or thu mbr ia . "
Wha tever we t h ink a bou t B rand l 's t heory a bou t t he
o r ig in o f t he Ru thwe l l c ross c ruc i f ix ion p oe m ( t he R u thwe l l c ross d oes n ot p rov ide d irec t e v idence t ha t t he p oe m h ad t he f or m o f a' Trau mges ich t ' a t t h is e ar ly p er iod ) , i ti s n o t u n l ike ly t ha t t he i dea o f e rec t ing t he magn i f icen t s tone c rosses a t R u thwe l l a nd a t B ewcas t le s hou ld h ave b een s ugges ted b y a n i nc reased d evo t ion t o t he f eas t o f t he e xu lta t ion a s ar esu l t o f r ecen t d eve lop men ts i n R o me . I V As P ro fessor R ose mary C ra mp h as p u t i t , " we mus t . . .t h ink o f t he e ar l ies t s cu lpture a s ad irec t r e f lec t ion o f monas t ic c u l ture . "5 1
S te m m ing
f ro m s uch a c u l ture , we migh t e xpec t t he Ru thwe l l a nd B ewcas t le c rosses t o r e f lec t t he o pus d e i
t he p ub l ic worsh ip o f t he monas t ic c o m mun i ty , a s wel l
a s ( or e ven r a ther t han ) d evot iona l t he mes b ased o n wr i t ten t ex ts . 5 2 I ti s t o b e e xpec ted t ha t N or thumbr ian monumen ts o f t h is p er iod s hou ld r e f lec t r ecen t d eve lopmen ts i n t he Ro man l i turgy .
Both Edd ius S tephanus ( t he b iographer
o f S t W i lfr id ), a nd J ohn , t he a rch-can tor o f S t P eter 's a t Ro me,
t augh t l i -
t urg ica l c han t i n N orthumbr ia i n t he l ate s even th a nd e arly e igh th c en tur ies ;5 3 1 38
a nd i ti s n o t i mposs ib le t ha t i vory o r meta l p laques , b rough t f ro m R o me d ur ing t he many v is i ts o f Bened ic t B iscop , Wi l fr id a nd o ther N or thu mbr ian monks , p rov ided mode ls f or s o me a t l eas t o f t he p ane ls o n t he Ru thwe l l a nd B ewcas t le c rosses .
5 4
S t Wi l fr id o f York h ad o ccas ion t o v is i t R o me s evera l t imes , b oth
i n h is y ou th a nd d ur ing h is t roub led e p iscopacy ,5 5
wh i le h is f r iend a nd p a tron ,
k ing C aedwa l la o f Wessex , was b apt ized b y P ope S erg ius a nd d ied a t R o me .
5 6
Bened ict B iscop , a bbo t o f Monkwear mou th-Jarrow , v is i ted R o me s ix t imes b e tween 6 53 a nd 6 86; 5 7
a l though S erg ius s ee ms t o h ave c o me t o R o me f ro m
S ic i ly a s l a te a s t he r e ign o f P ope Adeoda tus ( 6 72-6 ) , a nd t o h ave b een o rda ined p r ies t a s l a te a s J une 6 83 , 5 8 h e w ou ld a lready h ave b een a ppo in ted " pr ior c ant orum" d ur ing Bened ic t B iscop 's l as t v is i t t o R o me ( 685-6 ) .
C eol fr id ( who
5 9
s ucceeded B enedic t B iscop a s a bbo t ) v is i ted R o me w i th h is p redecessor i n 6 78 , a nd was o n h is way t o R o me when d e d ied a t L angres i n 7 16. 6 ° C eo l fr id s en t am iss ion ( wh ich i nc luded Hwa e tberh t , who was t o s ucceed h im ) t o R o me i n 7 00-701, t o p rocure f ro m P ope S erg ius t he p r iv i leges f or Monkwear mou thJ arrow wh ich P ope Aga tho h ad g ran ted t o B ened ic t B iscop ;6 1 a nd a l e t ter o f S erg ius t o C eo l frid i s e x tan t . 62 O f C eo l fr id 's s uccessor , Hwaetberh t , B ede wro te ( in a p assage s tress ing h is s u i tab i l i ty f or t he p os i t ion o f a bbo t ) t ha t s cr ibend i , c an tand i , l egend i a c d ocend i f uera t n on p arua e xerc i ta tus i ndus tr ia .
R oma m q uoque t e mpor ibus b ea tae
me mor iae S erg i i p apae a ccurrens , e t n on p aruo i b ide m t e mpor is s pa t io d e mora tus , q uaequae s ib i n ecessar ia i ud icaba t , d id ic i t , d escr ips i t , r e tu l i t .6 3 Hwa e tberh t w as t yp ica l o f N or thumbr ian monas t ic c u l ture
D t o n ly i n c o m-
b in ing a n i n teres t i n l earn ing w i th a n i n teres t i n t he l i tu i,
( "can tand i" ) , b u t
a lso i n s ee ing R o me a s t he s ource f ro m wh ich wha tever was n ecessary f or t he monas t ic l i fe was t o b e l earned , c opied o r b rough t b ack t o N or thumbr ia . I ti s t e mp t ing b u t d angerous t o a rgue t ha t t he c lose c on tac ts b e tween Monkwearmou th-Jarrow a nd R ome d ur ing t he l i fe t i me o f S erg ius p rove t ha t t he R u thwe l l a nd B ewcas t le c rosses , wh ich r e f lec t ak now ledge a nd i n teres t i n R o man l i turg ica l o bservance , w ere p roduced b y monks f ro m Monkwear mou thJ arrow.
T he f igure o f Wi l fr id a lone s hou ld b e e nough t o r em ind u s t ha t o ther
N or thu mbr ian c en tres were i n c lose c on tac t w i th R o me d ur ing t h is p er iod . N ever the less , Professor R ose mary C ra mp 's s ugges t ion ( "no t . . .a p roven o r e ven p rovab le t heory" ) t ha t t he Ru thwel l c ross c arvers migh t h ave b een t ra ined a t Monkwear mou th-Jarrow 64 f i ts v ery we l l w i th t he a rgumen t o f t he p resen t p aper ( see a lso t he r e marks o f P ro fessor C ra mp , a bove , p p. 18-30 , a nd P rofessor F arrel l , a bove p p . 9 6-117 ). As t he S erg ian l i turg ica l i nnova t ions s ee m t o h ave s pread t o N or thumbr ia i n t he f irs t h a l f o f t he e igh th c en tury , t he p resen t a rgumen t r e in forces t he a ccu mu la t ing e v idence t ha t t he R u thwel l a nd B ewcas t le c rosses w ere e rec ted w i th in t ha t h a l f-cen tury ( 700-750 ) .
6 5
The t hree l i turg ica l i nnova t ions wh ich , Ih ave a rgued , a re r e f lec ted i n t he i conography o f t he R u thwe l l c ross d o n o t i n ter fere w i th t he d evo t iona l p rog ra m me o ft he c ross , b u t i ns tead r e in force a nd e nr ich i t .
6 6
The s urv iv ing
p ane ls o f t he n or th f ace o f t he c ross-sha f t a l l r e fer t o l i fe " in d eser to . "As D r S ax l h as r e marked , " the a ccumu la t ion o f s cenes r e la ted t o d eser t l i fe o n t he f ron t o f t he Ru thwel l c ross c an . . .h ard ly b e a scr ibed t o c hance . "6 7 T he i nscr ip t ions f or t he " Agnus De i t r iptych" emphas ize t he t he me , a nd i ti s
1 39
c on t inued b y t he p ane l u ndernea th t he " tr iptych , "wh ich r epresen ts Mary a nd J oseph c arry ing t he C hr is t-ch i ld a cross t he d eser t o f S ina i i n to E gyp t .
6 8
Awareness o f t he l i turg ica l a ssocia t ions b eh ind t he "Agnus De i t r ip tych" i n f ac t g ives n ew f orce t o t he d evot iona l t he me o f e re me t ic l i fe " in d eser to" b y f ocuss ing a t ten t ion o n t he c en tra l e ven t i n t he l i fe o f a monas t ic c o m mun i ty , o ne migh t a l mos t s ay i t s r a ison d 'btre :
p ar t ic ipa t ion i nt he Euchar is t .
The
p ane ls o nt he o ppos i te ( sou th ) f ace o f t he c ross s ee m t o b e u n i fied b y t he t he me o f r esponse t o C hr is t .
T h is t he me i s c lear ly s een i n t he p ane l r epresen t ing
t he c ure o f t he b l ind man ; S ax l i s s ure ly r igh t i n s ugges t ing t ha t " in t h is mir ac le i s s y mbo l ized . . .t he d iv ine p ower o f i l lum ina t ing a b el iev ing s ou l . "6 9 T he p ane l d irect ly a bove r epresen ts t he wo man who was a s inner a no in ting C hr is t 's f ee t ;
a nd i th as b een g enera l ly a greed t ha t t h is r epresen ts t he n ex t
s tage i n t he C hr is t ian l i fe , c onvers io moru m s pr ing ing f ro m r epen tance a nd p enance .
7 0
The p ane l a bove , whe ther i tr epresen ts t he V is i ta t ion n o r , a s
h as r ecen t ly b een s ugges ted , Mar tha a nd Mary ,7 2 c lear ly c on t inues t he t he mes o f r esponse t o C hr is t a nd t he s tages o f t he C hr is t ian l i fe ; at he me w h ich i s b rough t t o mov ing r eso lu t ion i n t he f igures o f t he a rcher a nd t he b ird a t t he h ead o f t he c ross ( Ia gree w i th P ro fessor F arre l l 's i n terpre ta tion o f t hese p ane ls, a bove, p p.96-117 ). The c ruc if ix ion a nd a nnunc iat ion p ane ls , a t t he f oo t o f t he c ross , f i t i n to t he d evo t iona l p rogram me o f t he s ou th s ide a s a who le -p rov ide , i n more s enses t han o ne , af i t t ing b as is f or t he p rogra mme .
The
s a lva t ion o f a l l Chr ist ian s ou ls d epended f unda men ta l ly o n Mary 's u nco mpreh end ing b u t o bed ien t r ecep t ion o f Gabr ie l 's message a t t he a nnuncia t ion , a nd o n t he c ross 's =co mprehend ing b u t o bed ien t b ear ing o f i t s L ord t o h is d ea th t h ir ty-three y ears l a ter :
at he me mos t mov ing ly e xpressed i n t he R u thwel l
c ross c ruci f ix ion p oe m , i nscr ibed i n r un ic l e t ters o n t he n arrow s ides o f t he c ross , a nd i n i t s d escendan t , The Drea m o f t he R ood i n t he V erce l l i B ook ( 9501 000 ) . V Is ha l l c onc lude t h is p aper b y s ugges t ing a c lose t he ma t ic l ink b e tween t he i conography o f t he s ou th f ace o f t he R u thwe l l c ross a nd t he c ruci fix ion p oe m i ns cr ibed i n r un ic l e t ters o nt he n arrow s ides o f t he c ross .
I n ap oe m c lear ly
d escended f ro m t he Ru thwe l l c ross c ruci f ix ion p oe m , The D rea m o f t he Rood , we a re e xp l ici t ly i nv i ted t o c o mpare t he g lory g iven t o t he c ross w i th t ha t g iven t o Mary : Hwa e t , me ' D a g eweor3ode
wu ldres Ea ldor
o fer h o l mwudu , h eofonr ices Weard , s wy lce swa h e h is modor e ac , Mar ian s y lfe , wl m ih t ig God , f or e a l le menn g eweor3ode o fer e a l l w ifa c ynn .7 3 As Is ha l l a rgue i n a no ther p aper ,
7 4
i n T he Dream o f t he R ood t he c ruci fix ion
i s p resen ted i n t er ms r em in iscen t o f t he a nnunc ia t ion ( al ink s ugges ted b y t he c oinc idence o f b o th e ven ts o n 2 5 March ) . h is c ross t o C a lvary :
I n t ha t p oe m , C hr is t d oes n o t b ear
t he c ross i s a lready s tand ing t here when i t s ees C hr is t
h as ten ing t o moun t u pon i t .
Th is d epar ture f ro m t he s cr ip tura l a ccoun ts o f
t he c ruc i f ix ion i s n o t a rb i trary :
i te nab les t he c ross t o d ra ma t ize i t s e xper ience
o f t he c ruc i f ix ion i n t er ms r em in iscen t o f Mary 's i nco mprehend ing o bed ience a t t he a nnunc ia t ion .
S uch a p resen ta t ion i s a lso f ound i n t he R u thwe l l c ross
1 40
c ruci f ixion p oe m . L ike Mary , who was t roubled a t t he Ange l 's g ree t ing ( " turb a ta e st .." , Luke I , 2 9 ) a nd d id n ot u nders tand wha t t he L ord d e manded o f h er ( "Quo modo f i e t i s tud . .." , L uke I , 3 4) t he c ross i n t he Ru thwe l l p oe m i s r epresen ted a s t roub led y et o bed ien t :
" buga ( i c n i d ors ta e ) , "75
" haelda
i c n i d ors ta e ," I p ic p ae t a l b ihea ld . s ara e i c waes miP s orgu m g idroe fid . "7 6 I s idore , G regory a nd B ede s aw C hr is t 's a c t ion a t t he a nnuncia t ion a s a n h eroic d e fea t o f t he p owers o f d arkness : De q uo p ropheta i n p sa l mo :
Do m inus
d om inus p otens i np roel io .
lo n im iru m p roe l io q uo
i nqu i t , f or t is e t p otens
potes ta tes a er ias d ebe l lare e t a b e aru m t yrann ide mundum u en ieba t e r ipere .
7 7
S im i lar ly , i n t he Ru thwel l c ross c ruci fix ion p oe m C hr is t a ppears a s a n h eroic f igure , " god a l me3t t ig ," "mod ig f ore ( a l l ) men ," " r i icnae k yn inc h ea funes h la fard , "who , i ns tead o f b eing l ed t o t he c ross,
a pproaches i ta nd moun ts i t
o f h is own w i l l
Th is p resen ta t ion o f C hr is t i s
h e wa lde o n g a lgu g is t iga ."
n o t a t a l l r em in iscen t o f t he l i turgy o f G ood F r iday , i n e i ther t he e igh th o r t he t en th c en tur ies ;
b u t i ti s r e markably c lose t o B ede 's d escr ip t ion o f C hr is t 's
a c t ion a t t he a nnuncia tion .
The o pin ion o f P ro fessor S chapiro , t ha t i n t he i cono-
g raphy o f t he Ru thwe l l c ross " we f ind l i t t le t ha t p er ta ins d irect ly t o t he p oe m" 78 s tands i n n eed o f r econs idera tion .
T he r ecen t ly-in troduced f eas t o f t he a nnun-
c ia t ion o n t he a nn iversary o f t he c ruci fix ion may h ave i nspired t he Ru thwel l c arvers , n o t mere ly t o j ux tapose c ruci fix ion a nd a nnunc ia t ion p ane ls o n t he s ou th f ace o f t he c ross , b u t t o i nscr ibe o n t he e ast a nd w est f aces p art o f a ( r ecen t ly c o mposed?) p oe m i n wh ich t he c ruci f ix ion i s p resen ted i n t er ms r emin iscen t o f t he a nnuncia t ion .
S erg ian l i turg ica l i nnova t ions , i ndeed , may
h ave i nsp ired b oth t he e rect ion o f t he Ru thwe l l c ross a nd t he c o mpos i t ion o f t he c ruci f ix ion p oe m i nscr ibed u pon i t ;
i n wh ich c ase l ines 9 0-94 o f The Drea m
o f t he Rood , wh ich e xp l ici t ly l i nk t he c ross w i th Mary , p reserve a t rad i t iona l i n terpreta t ion o f t he p oe m f am i l iar t o t he c arvers o f t he Ru thwe l l c ross . C ross a nd p oe m s te m f ro m a s ing le mi l ieu :
7 9
t ha t o f monas t ic d evot ion w i th in
al i turg ica l c on tex t .
NOTES 1 .
Iw ish t o t hank v ar ious s cholars who r ead v ers ions o f t h is p aper i n t ypes cr ip t a nd who o f fered me h e lp fu l c o m men ts o n i t s a rgu men t ;
i n p ar t icu lar
Ma lco l m Parkes , C .J .E . Ba l l , G era ld B onner , J ohn Bra idwood , R ose mary C ramp , Michae l Do l ley , W. G . E as t , R .T . F arre ll , H enry Mayr-Har t ing , A las ta ir Minus , J ane R ober ts a nd P a tr ick Wor ma ld . l a .
F . S ax l ,
" The Ru thwe l l c ross ," J ourna l o f t he Warburg a nd C our tau ld
I ns t i tu tes 6 ( 1 943) , 1 -19 . 2 . 9 t )
S ax l , "Ru thwel l c ross , "p. 5 . The C a lendar o f S t Wi l l ibrord , e d . H .A . Wi lson , H enry B radshaw S oc ie ty 5 5 ( London , 1 918 ) , f o l . 3 5v ( p la te I I ) , p . 5( t ranscr ipt ion ) , a nd p p . 2 4-6 ( no tes ) . x -x i ) .
Wi lson d a tes t he c a lendar b e tween 7 01 a nd 7 09 ( pp .
The r e ference t o I saac i s i n a no ther , l a ter h and .
1 41
4 .
Wi lson , C a lendar o f S t Wi l librord , p . 2 4.
F or a s urvey o f t he t rad i t ion ,
s ee V . L o i , " 1 1 2 5 Marzo d a ta p asqua le e l a c ronolog ia G iovannea d e l la P ass ione i n e ta p a tr is t ica ," E phe mer ides L i turg icae 8 5 ( 1971) , 4 8-69 . 5 .
Ambros ias ter , Quaes t iones Ve ter is e t N ou i T esta men t i , Quaes tio i v , e d. A . S ou ter , C orpus S cr iptoru m E cc les ias t icorum L a t inorum 5 0 ( Vienna , 1 908 ) , p . 1 00 , a s q uo ted i n L oi , " I l 2 5 Marzo d a ta p asqua le , "p. 5 3.
6 .
B eowu l f , 1 610b-11;
Ang lo-Saxon P oetic R ecords I V , e d . E .V .K . Dobbie
( New Y ork , 1 953) , p . 5 0 . 7 .
S ee B edae Opera d e T e mpor ibus , e d . C . W . J ones ( Ca mbr idge , Mass ., 1 943) , I n troduc t ion , p p . 6 -7.
B ede , who k new t ha t t he s pr ing e qu inox
f e l l o n 2 1 March , n ever theless r e marked t ha t many a nd w ise a u thor i t ies h e ld t he o ther v iew :
"mu ltoru m l a te e t s ap ien t iu m s ecu li , e t C hr ist ia-
n oru m s en ten t ia c laret" - D e T e mporu m R a tione XXX , e d. J ones, p . 2 35. 8 .
T he o ld Eng l ish Mar tyro logy . e d . G . H erzf ield , E ar ly Eng l ish T ex t S oc iety o .s . 1 16 ( London , 1 900 ) , p . 4 8 .
C e l ia S isa m ,
"An e ar ly f rag-
men t o f t he O ld Eng l ish Mar tyro logy ," R ev iew o f Eng l ish S tud ies , n . s . 4( 1 953 ) , 2 09-20 ( a t 2 17 )
h as a rgued t ha t t h is i s a Mercian t ex t wh ich
c ircu la ted i n t he s ou th o f Eng land f ro m t he l a te n in th c en tury . 9 .
S ee F . Wor ma ld , Eng l ish Ka lendars b e fore A . D. 1 100 S oc iety 7 2 ( London , 1 934 ) .
b y Wor ma ld e xp lic i t ly i nd ica tes t he c oinc idence : L ibrary MS 1 50 ,
f o l. 4 r :
Henry B radshaw
On ly o ne o f t he n ineteen c a lendars p r in ted " EQVINOCTIVM.
S a l isbury , C a thedra l
C oncep t io S anc tae Mar ie .
C ruci f ix io d om in i" ( Wor ma ld , Eng lish Ka lendars , p . 1 8 ).
F i f teen o f
t hese c a lendars , h owever , imp l ic i t ly i ndica te t he c oincidence , b y n ot ing " Resurreccio d om in i" u nder 2 7 March :
s ee , f or e xa mple , Ox ford , Bod-
l e ian L ibrary MS D igby 6 3 , f o l. 1 4v ( Worma ld , Eng l ish Kalendars
p . 4 ) .
On ly t hree o f t he c a lendars p r in ted b y Wor ma ld make n o r eference t o t he t rad i t ion ( see Wor ma ld , p p . 3 2 , 1 58 a nd 2 56) . 1 0 .
As q uo ted i n H . J ug ie , " La p re m iere fke mar ia le e n Or ien t e t e n Occiden t , l 'Aven t p r im i t i f ," E chos d 'Or ien t 2 2 ( 1923 ) , 1 29-52 ( a t 1 44) ;
s ee a lso
H . L ec lercq i n D ic t ionna ire d 'archeo log ie c hre t ienne e t d e l i turg ie ( Par is , 1 907) I , c o lu mns 2 241-67 u nder Annoncia t ion ( column 2 243). 1 1.
J ug ie , "La p re m iere fke Mar ia le ,
1 2 .
L . Duchesne , L e L iber P on t i f ica lis , 2v o ls . ( Par is , 1 886-92 ) I 3 76.
1 3.
Duchesne , L iber P on t i f ica l is
1 4.
p p. 1 44-5 .
L3 81.
S ee I . C ecchet t i , " L 'annunziazione :
i lr accon to b ib l ico e l a f es ta l i tur-
g ica , "B ol let t ino C eci l iano ( Tur in ) 3 8 ( 1943 ) , 4 6-8 a nd 9 8-114 ( a t 1 03); s ee a lso L ec lercq DACL , c o lu mn 2 244. 1 5 . 1 6.
Duchesne , L iber P on t i f ica l is I , 3 71. I t s a bsence i n S t Wi l librord 's C a lendar i s a l l t he more s tr ik ing when we c ons ider t ha t t he t hree o ther Mar ian f eas ts men t ioned i n t he L iber P on t if ica l is a ccoun t q uo ted a bove a re a l l e n tered i n t he c a lendar : Ca lendar, p p . 2 1 , 3 6-7 a nd 3 9.
1 42
s ee Wi lson ,
1 7.
A ldhe lm , " In Ecc les ia Mar iae a Bugge Exs tructa ," l ines 5 9-65 , e d . R . E h .wa ld , A ldhe lm i Opera , MGH Auc tores An t iqu iss im i XV ( Ber l in , 1 919 ) , p . 1 7.
S ee H . Mayr-Har t ing , The C om ing o f C hr is t ian i ty t o Ang lo-Saxon
Eng land ( London , 1 972 ) , p p . 1 89 a nd 3 08 . 1 8 .
AEthe lwu l f "De Abba tibus "e d . A . C a mpbel l ( Ox ford , 1 967) , l ines 4 609 , p p. 3 7-9 .
1 9 .
S ee E . O kasha , H and-L is t o f Ang lo-Saxon N on-Runic I nscr ip t ions ( Ca mb ridge , 1 971), p . 1 11.
2 0 .
An tiphona le Missaru m S ex tup lex , e d . R . J . H esber t ( Brusse ls , 1 935 ) , n o. 3 3 , p p . 4 2-5 ;
s ee a lso t he O ff ice a n t iphons p r in ted ( f ro m e leven th-
c en tury manuscr ipts ) i n C orpus An t iphona l ium O f f ici i , e d . R . J . H esber t a nd R . P revos t , 6v o ls . ( Ro me , 1 963) I I , n os 3 339-40 , p . 2 84 , a nd I n o. 5 1 , p p. 1 24-5 . 2 1.
Duchesne , L iber P on ti f ica l is I , 3 76.
2 2 .
S ee E . B ishop , L i turg ica H is tor ica ( Ox ford , 1 918 ) , p . 1 45 .
2 3 .
J .A . J ung mann , The Mass o f t he R o man R i te ( London , 1 959 ) p . 4 85 . J .A . J ung mann , Missarum S o l le mn ia , 4 th e d ., 2 v o ls . ( Freiburg , 1 958 ) I
4 12-23 , g ives t he r e ferences t o p r i mary s ources om i t ted i n t he a b-
r idged Eng lish e d i t ion . 2 4 .
M.Do l ley ,
" The n u m mu lar b rooch f ro m S u lgrave ," Eng land B efore t he
Conques t , e d . P . C le moes a nd K . Hughes ( Ca mbr idge , 1 971) , p p . 3 33-49 ( a t 3 44 ) .
Professor Do l ley i s h ere d iscuss ing t he i n troduct ion o f t he
v ar ian t d ona n obis p ace m i n t he l a te t en th c en tury , b u t t he p r incip le i s v a lid f or t he i n troduct ion o f t he c han t i n i ts o r ig ina l f or m . 2 5 .
S ee E . B ishop , " The L i tany o f t he S a in ts i n t he S towe Missa l ," L i turg ica H is tor ica ( Ox ford , 1 918 ) , p p . 1 37-64 ( especia l ly p p. 1 43 , 1 47-8 ).
2 6.
J ungmann , The Mass o f t he R o man R i te
2 7 .
I bid ., p . 4 87.
2 8 .
I bid ., p p. 4 86 , 4 88 .
2 9 .
Luke XX IV, 3 0-1;
3 0 .
S ee Okash .a , H andl is t , p . 1 10 , f or a f u l l t ranscr ip t o f t he i nscr ipt ion .
3 1 .
p . 4 86.
i t a l ics mine.
S ax l ,"Ruthwel l Cross," p . 9 , n . 6 , s ta tes t ha t " for t he s tand ing e vang el is t w i th h is s y mbo l n o Medi terranean mode l h as c o me t o my k now ledge" ; Rose mary Cra mp , Ear ly Nor thumbr ian S cu lpture ( Jarrow
L ec ture 1 965 ) ,
p . 8 , s ugges ts t ha t t he B ewcas t le c arver h ad a dap ted a s ea ted e vangel is t p or trai t t o as tand ing p os i t ion .
I t migh t b e s ugges ted t ha t t he r eason
f or t h is a dap ta t ion was t o make t he l ower p ane l f i t b e t ter i n s ty le w i th t he s t anding f igures o f t he midd le a nd u pper p ane ls o nt he c ross s ha f t . 3 2 .
J ohn I , 2 9;
i t s hou ld b e n oted t ha t t he p recise f or mu la ( "qu i t o l l is p ec-
c a ta mund i , • . .miserere n obis" ) c o mes n o t d irect ly f ro m S t J ohn 's Gospe l , bu t v ia t he l i turg ica l c han t , "G lor ia i n e xce ls is Deo ."
S ee F .
Cabro l , i n D ic t ionna ire d 'archeo log ie c hrg t ienne e t d e l i turg ie I( Par is , 1 907) , u nder Agnus D ei
c o lumns 9 65-9 ( colu mn 9 66) .
1 43
3 3.
T he e igh ty-second c anon o f t he c ounc i l , t oge ther w i th a La t in t rans la t ion , i s a va i lable i n C . K irch , Ench ir id ion F on t ium H is tor iae Ecc les iae An t iq uae , n in th e d i t ion ( Fre iburg i n B re isgau , 1 965 ) , p . 6 10.
3 4 .
Duchesne , L iber P on t i f ica l is L 3 81.
3 5 .
S ee R .T . F arre l l , a bove , p p. 9 6-7.
3 6.
S ee R . C ra mp , a bove , p . 18.
3 7.
F or a r ecen t s pecu la t ion o n t he n a ture o f t he c o mp le te i nscr ip t ion a round t he p ane l , s ee D . H ow le t t , " Two p ane ls o nt he Ru thwe l l c ross , "J ourna l o f t he Warburg a nd C our tau ld I ns t i tu tes 3 7 ( 1974 ) , 3 33-6 ( a t 3 34 ) .
Ih ad
d iscussed a n e ar ly f or m o f t he p resen t p aper w i th Dr H ow le t t i n 1 971; a nd h e a grees w i th me t ha t t he p ane l i s t o b e a ssoc ia ted w i th P ope S erg ius 's i n troduc t ion o f t he Agnus D e i i n to t he Mass ( p p . 3 33-4 ) . 3 8 .
°kasha , H and l is t , p . 1 10 .
3 9 .
I b id ., p . 1 10 .
4 0 .
S t J ero me ,V i ta S anc t i P au l i , PL , x x i i i , 1 7-28 ( co lumn 2 5 ).
4 1.
Ada mnan 's L i fe o f C o lumba , e d . A .O . Anderson a nd M .O . Anderson ( London , 1 961 ) , p . 3 04 .
4 2 .
The r i te o f c ofrac t io was n o t i nvar iab ly p rac t ised when t wo p resbyters were t oge ther ;
t he Andersons , i n t he ir e d i t ion o f Ada mnan 's L i fe , p . 1 24 ,
p o in t o u t t ha t o n o ther o ccas ions " Co lumba a ppears t o h ave c e lebra ted t he Mass a lone ." L . G ougaud , " Les r i tes d e l a c onsecra t ion e td e l a f rac t ion d ans l a l i turg ie c e l t ique d e l a messe ," P roceed ings o f t he N inet een th Euchar is t ic C ongress ( London , 1 909 ) , p p . 3 48-61 , h as w arned a ga ins t g enera l izing t oo w ide ly o n t he b as is o f t h is e p isode a bou t t he g enera l p rac t ice o f c o-frac t io i n C e l t ic l ands ( pp . 3 60-1 ) . 4 3.
Okasha , H and l is t , p . 1 10 .
4 4 .
March 2 5 i s u sua l ly n o ted a s t he a nn iversary o f t he c ruci fix ion i n e ar ly I r ish mar tyro log ies .
S ee T he Mar tyro logy o f T a l lagh t , e d . R . I . B es t
a nd H . J . L aw lor , H en ry B radshaw S oc ie ty 6 8 ( London , 1 931) , p . 2 7; T he Mar tyro logy o f Oengus t he C u ldee
e d . W . S tokes , H enry B radshaw
S oc ie ty 2 9 ( London , 1 905 ) , P . 1 01. T he Mar tyro logy o f G or man , e d ited b y W . S tokes H enry Bradshaw S ocie ty 9 ( London , 1 885 ), p . 6 3. ‘ 4 5 .
S ee a bove , p . 1 32.
I3 74 .
4 6.
Duchesne , L iber P on t i f ica l is
4 7.
I b id .,
4 8 .
S ee M. W. L . L a is tner , " The L ibrary o f t he V enerab le B ede , "i n B ede :
j
3 79 ;
E . B ishop , L i turg ica H is tor ica , p . 1 45 .
H is L i fe
T i mes a nd Wr i t ings , e d . A . H . Tho mpson ( Ox ford , 1 935 ) ,
p . 2 65 ;
J . D . A . Og i lvy , B ooks Known t o t he E ng l ish 5 97-1066 ( Ca m-
b r idge , Mass ., 1 967 ) , p p . 1 93-4 . 4 9 .
PL 9 0 , c o l . 5 69 .
5 0 .
A . B rand l , " Zum a gs . G ed ich te ' Traumges ich t v o m Kreuze Chr ist i,
1 44
" .
S itzungsber ich te d er k ön ig l ich p reuss ischen Akade m ie ( 1905 ) , p p . 7 16-23. S ee The Drea m o f t he R ood , e d . M. S wan ton ( Manches ter , 1 970 ) ,
P .
4 8 .
5 1.
Ear ly N or thu mbr ian S cu lp ture ( Jarrow , 1 965 ) , p . 7 .
5 2 .
S uch a s , f or e xa mple , t he Bedan p ara l le ls s ugges ted b y H ow let t , " Two p anels , "p . 3 35 .
5 3 .
S ee Venerabi l is Baedae Opera H is tor ica , e d . C . P lu m mer ( Ox ford , 1 896) I , 1 18-119.
5 4 .
S ee t he l i st o f p ictures a nd " sanc tarum imag inu m" g iven b y B ede , H is tor ia Abba tum
5 5 .
c hapters v i a nd i x ( P lu m mer
The L i fe o f B ishop Wi lfr id br idge , 1 927) , c hapters v ,
5 6.
5 7.
E dd ius S tephanus , e d . B . C o lgrave ( Ca mXXiX- XXXii,
Bede , H is tor ia E cc les ias t ica V . 7 ; Eddius S tephanus , V i ta
3 69 a nd 3 73 ).
j
1 -1v .
P lu m mer I 2 92-4 ;
L I
2 78-82 ;
c hap ters x li-x1i i .
S ee B ede , H is tor ia Abba tu m , i -v i i , P lum mer
L3 65-71
( t ex t ) ;
I , 3 56-
6 1 ( no tes ) . 5 8 .
Duchesne , L iber P on ti f ica l is
5 9 .
I bid ., I,P.
6 0 .
Bede , H is tor ia Abba tum
3 71.
a nd 3 85-6 ( t ex t ) ; 6 1. 6 2 .
L3 77.
I
v i i , x v a nd x x i-xx i i i , P lu m mer
L3 70 ,
3 79
3 61 , 3 65 a nd 3 69-70 ( notes ).
Bede , H is tor ia Abba tu m
x v ;
P lu m mer
L3 80
( t ex t ) ;
I
3 65 ( notes ).
S ee C ounci ls a nd Eccles ias t ica l Docu men ts r e la t ing t o Grea t Br i ta in a nd I reland , e d . A . W. Haddan a nd W. S tubbs , v o l . 3( Ox ford , 1 881) , p p . 2 48-50 . x v i i i ;
P lu m mer ,
L3 83.
6 3 .
Bede , H is tor ia Abba tu m
6 4 .
Ear ly N or thumbr ian S cu lpture , p p . 1 0-11.
6 5 .
S ee A . S . C . R oss , " The l ingu ist ic e v idence f or t he d a te o f t he ' Ru thwel l c ross , " Modern L anguage Rev iew 2 8 ( 1933 ), 1 45-55 ; A . Ca mpbe ll , O ld Eng l ish Gra m mar ( Ox ford , 1 959 ) , p . 4n o te 2 ;
E . Mercer , " The Ru thwel l
and B ewcas t le c rosses , "An t iqu i ty 3 8 ( 1964 ) , 2 68-76 ( a t 2 70 ) . 6 6.
Ia gree i n g enera l w i th t he i n terpreta t ions o f t he i conograph ic p rogra m me pu t f orward b y S ax l , " The Ru thwel l C ross , " ;
b y M. S chap iro " The r el i-
g ious mean ing o f t he Ru thwe l l c ross , " Ar t Bu l let in 2 6 ( 1944 ) , 2 32-45 , and b y R . T . F arre l l , a bove , p p. 9 6-119. 6 7.
S ax l , " Ru thwel l C ross , "p . 5 .
6 8 .
°kasha , Handbook
6 9 .
S ax l , "Ru thwe l l C ross ," p . 3 .
7 0 .
S ee S chapiro , "Re l ig ious Meaning , "p . 2 37.
7 1.
S ax l , "Ru thwe l l C ross , "p . 4 ;
7 2.
How le t t ,
p . 1 11.
S chap iro , "Re l ig ious Mean ing ," p . 2 38 .
"Two p ane ls o n t he Ru thwel l c ross , "p . 3 34.
1 45
7 3.
T he D rea m o f t he R ood , e d . M . S wan ton ( Manches ter , 1 970 ), l ines 9 0-4.
7 4.
"Cruci fix ion a s a nnunc ia t ion ;
t he r e la t ion o f T he Drea m o f t he Rood t o
t he l i turgy r econs idered , " to a ppear i n af estschr if t t o h onour Professor Pau l Chr istophersen . 7 5 .
The words i n b rackets i n t h is a nd t he f ol lowing q uo ta t ions f ro m t he Ru thwel l c ross p oe m a re n ot n ow l eg ib le , a nd h ave t o b e r econstruc ted f ro m t he Verce l l i t ex t .
Ih ave f o l lowed D . H owlet t , "A r econs truct ion
o f t he Ru thwel l C ruci f ix ion P oe m ," S tudia N eoph i lo log ica 4 8 :
1( 1976 ) .
Iam g ra te fu l t o Dr H ow le t t f or g iv ing me a p re-pub l icat ion t ypescr ip t o f t h is a r t ic le . 7 6.
F or f ur ther c ons idera t ion o f t h is p oin t , s ee my f orthco m ing a r t icle " Cruc i f ix ion a s a nnunc ia t ion ."
7 7.
B ede , H o me l iaru m Euange l i i L ibr i I , e d . D . Hurs t , C orpus C hr is t ian oru m , S er ies L a t ina 1 22 ( Turnho lt , 1 955 ) , H om i ly n o . 3 , p p . 1 4-20 ( a t
1 5 ) .
S ee a lso G regory t he Grea t , XL H om i liaru m i n Evange lia ,
B ook I , H om i ly x xx iv , PL , 7 6 , c o l . 1 251, a nd I s idor i H ispa lens is Episc op i E ty molog iaru m s ive Or ig inu m L ibr i XX , e d i ted b y W. M . L indsay , 2v ols ( Ox ford , 1 911) I B ook VL I
C hapter v " De Ange lis ," 1 0-11.
7 8 .
S chap iro , "Rel ig ious Mean ing , "p . 2 32.
7 9 .
R ose mary Woo l f h as a rgued t ha t " tha t p art o f t he p oe m wh ich f o l lows t he d escr ipt ion o f t he c ruci f ix ion mus t s ure ly b e al a ter a dd it ion b y a wr i ter o f t he s choo l o f C ynewu l f" - " Doctr ina l I n f luences o n T he Drea m o f t he Rood ," Med iu m A Evu m 2 7 ( 1958 ) , 1 37-53 ( a t b e s o ;
1 53 n ote 3 4 ).
T h is may
Imere ly b el ieve t ha t l a ter r ev isers o r r eaders were a ware o f ,
a nd s y mpathet ic t o , e ar l ier t rad i t ions o f i n terpret ing t he p oe m , a nd a tt e mpted t o c lar i fy a nd e xpress t he p oe m 's s en ten t ia i n t he l igh t o f t hese t rad i t ions .
1 46
RUTH WELL
BE WCASTLE
S ou th Face
N orth F ace
C rosshead ( n ow mistaken ly
C rosshead ( now mistaken ly
r eversed )
r eversed )
B ird c l ing ing t o f o l iage
S t J ohn t he Evange l ist a nd h is e ag le Crosshead Destroyed
T ranso m n ow l ost
T ranso m n ow l ost
L ower a rm o f c rosshead :
L ower a rm o f c rosshead :
a rcher, d raw ing h is b ow
S t Mat thew a nd h is s ymbo l ( ? )
T he V is i ta t ion ( ? ) o r Martha a nd Mary ( ? )
S t J ohn t he Bapt ist b ear ing
S t J ohn t he Bapt ist
t he Agnus De i ( co mpare
b ear ing t he Agnus
B ewcast le, West F ace )
De i ( compare Ru thwe l l , N orth Face ) Run ic i nscr ip t ion :
-
+ GESSUS KR ISTTUS
P en iten t w o man
Chr ist i n G lory , a dored
Chr ist i n G lory
a nno in t ing t he f eet
b y b easts ( co mpare
a dored b y b eas ts
o f Chr ist
B ewcast le , West F ace )
( compare Ru thwel l , N orth F ace )
Chr ist h ea l ing a
S ts P au l a nd An thony ,
b l ind man
b reak ing b read i n t he
Run ic i nscr ip t ion
d eser t The Annunc iat ion
The F l igh t i n to Egyp t
J ohn t he Evange l ist a nd h is e ag le
The C ruc if ix ion
Pane l o b l iterated
1 47
V I I .
GRAVE GOODS FRO M FRILFORD CE METERY R ober t G . C a lk ins
I n N ove mber 1 972 a g roup o f o b jec ts w as d iscovered a t C orne l l Un ivers i ty wh ich p roved t o b e t hose e xcava ted b y P ro fessor G eorge R o l les ton a t F r i l ford ( Berksh ire ) i n May 1 870 1 ,a nd s en t t o C orne l l Un ivers i ty i n t he s a me y ear . R o l les ton p ub l ished t wo a ccoun ts o f h is e xcava t ions a t F r i l ford i n Archaeo log ia , b u t o n ly t he s econd made b r ie f men t ion o f t he g rave-goods wh ich were s en t t o C orne 1 1 .
2
T he mos t c o mp le te a ccoun t o f t he 1 870 e xcava t ions a ppeared u nder
t he h ead ing " Recen t g i f ts" i n ar e la t ive ly i naccess ib le b u l let in w h ich c on ta ined t he a nnounce men ts o f c ourses a nd t he l i s t o f f acu l ty f or C orne l l U n ivers i ty f or t he y ear 1 870-71, b u t a l though h e p rov ided a f u l l d escr ipt ion o ft he s ke le tons a nd t he ir s i tua t ion i n t he F r i l ford g raves , R o l les ton g ave n ei ther d e ta i led d es cr ipt ions o f t he a r te fac ts n or a ny i l lus tra t ions o f t he m .
3
Among t hese g rave-goods were a p a ir o f b rooches wh ich h ave b een ment ioned i nt he l i tera ture o n Ang lo-Saxon a rchaeo logy a nd h ave b een i l lus tra ted o nce , b u t t he o ther o b jec ts h ave n o t b een d iscussed .4
An a t te mp t t o f ind t he
F r i l ford a r te fac ts a t C orne l l i n 1 962 was f ru i t less , a nd i t was p resu med t ha t t hey were i rrevocab ly l os t .
5
I t was t here fore a s tr ik ing c oinc idence t ha t t hey
were r ed iscovered a t t he t ime when p repara t ions were b e ing made f or a c o ll oqu iu m t o c e lebra te t he 1 300 th a nn iversary o f t he b ir th o f t he V enerab le B ede , t he r esu l t o f wh ich i s t he p resen t v o lume .
T h is r epor t e ndeavors t o p resen t
a nd ampli fy t he r ecord c oncern ing R o l les ton 's e xcava t ions o f 1 870 , a nd t o r el a te t he s ubsequen t v ic iss i tudes o f t he o b jec ts wh ich a re n ow r es tored a nd s a fe ly h oused i n t he H erber t F . J ohnson Museum o f Ar t a t C orne l l Un ivers i ty .
6
A ccord ing t o R o l les ton 's a ccoun t , a s p r in ted i n t he C orne l l R eg is ter a nd r epr in ted i n f u l l a t t he e nd o f t h is d iscuss ion , f our g raves were e xcava ted a t F r i l ford o n 2 3 a nd 2 7 May 1 870 .
R o l les ton 's i n teres t was p r i mar i ly i n t he
s ke le ta l r e ma ins f ro m t hese g raves a nd h e g ave t he m , t oge ther w i th t he ir a tt endan t a r t ifac ts , t o C orne l l U n ivers i ty t hrough t he g ood o f f ices o f h is f r iend G o ldw in Sm i th i n J u ly o f t he s a me y ear .7 T he s kele tons a nd t he g rave g oods were h oused i n a "Museum o f Z oo logy a nd P hys io logy" i n 1 871-72 , b u t t here i s n o men t ion o f t he m t herea f ter .
8
I n r esponse t o a n i nqu iry f ro m E .T . L eeds
i n 1 912 , C har les H . H u l l , G o ldw in Sm i th P ro fessor o f Amer ican H is tory a nd Dean o f t he F acu l ty o f Ar ts a nd S ciences , t ook t he p a ir o f b rooches a nd p erhaps s o me o ther F r i l ford o b jects t o L ondon o r Ox ford where t hey were e xa m ined , p ho tographed , a nd p oss ib ly d rawn b y L eeds .
9
I t may h ave b een a f ter t he a r te-
f ac ts were r e turned t o C orne l l i n t he f a l l o f 1 912 t ha t t hey were s tored away a nd f orgo t ten u n t i l N ove mber 1 972 when t hey w ere f ound o nt he t op s he l f o f a c upboard i n t he Andrew D ickson Wh i te Museum .
1°
s cr ibed b y R o l les ton h ad b y t h is t ime d isappeared ;
T he s ke le ta l r ema ins d eo n ly o ne s ku l l ( No . i i ,
May 2 3 , 1 870 ) h as b een f ound i n t he c o l lec t ion o f t he An thropo logy D epar t men t .
1 48
The f our g raves were t hose o f ( 1 ) a n " o ld R o mano-Br i ton" ma le , ( ? ) a ' y oung Ang lo-Saxen" ma le . o ld R o mano-Br i ton" ma le .
( ` a n " o ld Ang lo-Saxon wo man ," a nd ( ± ) a" l i t t le T he g oods f ro m e ach g rave a re d iscussed b e low
i n t he o rder o f R ol les ton 's d escr ip t ion .
1 °a
( 1 ) Two f rag men ts o f R o man p o t tery f ound n ear t he r e ma ins o f t he o ld R o mano-Br i ton were n o t among t he o b jects when t hey were r ed iscovered i n 1 972 . ( 2 ) An i ron s h ie ld-boss o r umbo was d iscovered b roken i n f ragmen ts a nd wrapped i np aper t owe l ing i n 1 972 .
1 1
A dd i t iona l p ieces were c on ta ined i n a
sma l l b irchwood b ox w i th t he i nscr ip t ion " Fragmen ts o f Umbo , May 2 3 , 1 870" i n R ol les ton 's h andwr i t ing .
T e mporary r econs truc t ion made b y R ober t F arre l l
r evea led a g en t ly c urved b oss o f a pprox i ma te ly 1 6.5c m i n d ia me ter a nd 7 cm i n h e igh t ( t he b o t to m l i p =2 cm ; t he v er t ica l r ise = 2 cm ; t he c urv ing s lope = 7 cm ; a nd t he t op p ro ject ion = . 8c m ) . T he b oss was r es tored a nd t rea ted b y Mrs D av idson a t t he Br i t ish Museum i n t he s pr ing o f 1 973 ( p la te X IX ).
T he f or m
o f t he b oss , w i th u ndercu t v er t ica l b and b lend ing i n to t he f la t r im a round t he b ase , as ub t ly c urved
u pward s ur face a nd s l igh t ly f la t tened b u t ton o n t he t er-
m ina l i s s im i lar t o t ha t o f a no ther Ang lo-Saxon b oss e xcava ted a t F r i l ford i n 1 873 a nd o f o thers f ro m t he v ic in i ty o f Ab ingdon .
The C orne l l umbo a ppears
1 2
t o h ave b een a t tached t o t he s h ie ld b y a t l eas t f our , probab ly f ive s tuds , t he h eads o f f our o f wh ich a re s t i l l a t tached t o t he r im .
Two o f t hese s tuds p ene-
i 3
t ra te t hrough t he r im , a nd a round t he l onges t o ne ( shown a t t he l e f t o f F ig . 3 ) a re f ragmen ts o f wood w i th t he g ra in c orrespond ing t o t he r ad ius o f t he b oss . I n i t s l ow , r ounded s hape a nd i n t he p robab le u se o f f ive s h ie ld s tuds , t he C orn e l l b oss i s most l i ke f i f th-cen tury G er man ic b osses a nd v ar ious s ix th-cen tury Ang lo-Saxon e xa mp les wh ich c on t inued t hese t rad i t ions .
1 4
R o l les ton f ound t he
b oss , a nd s h ie ld s tuds a nd h and le d iscussed b e low o ver t he p e lv ic a rea o f a y ound Ang lo-Saxon ma le .
Two f la t h eaded n a i ls were f ound i n 1 972 i n ab irch-
wood b ox marked " Sh ie ld s tuds ( ? ) Ang lo-Saxon , May 2 3 , 1 870 ."
T he l arges t ,
a pparen t ly c o mple te , i s 3 cm l ong w i th a h ead o f a pprox i ma te ly 1 .8c m i n d iame ter .
T he s econd , w i th t he s a me s ize h ead , i s o n ly 1 .3c m l ong .
As n oted
a bove , f our o ther h eads o f s tuds o f t he s a me d i mens ions a re p resen t o n t he r im o f t he r es tored b oss . A s h ie ld h and le , f ound i n t wo p ieces b y R o l les ton was i nf our f rag men ts when r ed iscovered i n 1 972 ( p la te XX ). Approx i ma te ly 1 4c m l ong a nd a verag ing a bou t 2 .5c m w ide , t h is h and le h as v es t iges o f t urned u p e dges a long t he s ides wh ich R o l les ton b e l ieved wrapped a round a wooden s uppor t o n to wh ich t he umbo a nd h and le were n ai led ( F ig . 4( 3 ) ) .
N ear t he
n eck o f b o th r ounded e nds o f t he h and le a re r e mnan ts o f wood , t he g ra in o f wh ich r uns a t r igh t a ng les t o t he a x is o f t he h and le . a ppear i nt he l e f t e nd .
T he r e mnan ts o f as tud
T he h and le mus t h ave b een s e t o f f-cen tre i n r e la t ion
t o t he b oss i n o rder f or i t s e nds t o l ine u p w i th t he p lace men t o f t he s tuds o n t he r im .1 5 An i ron k n i fe , f ound b y R o l les ton o n t he r igh t s ide o f t he p e lv is j us t a bove t he r igh t h ip , measures 1 1c m i n l eng th a nd 1 .8c m a t i t s w ides t p ar t ( p la te XX ) .
The b lade t apers t o b o th e dges , a nd a ppears t o h ave b een we l l
worn ( f ig . 4 (c ) ) .
Al ance-head o f a pprox i ma te ly 1 8c m i n l eng th a nd 2 .5c m
a t i ts w ides p ar t was a c tua l ly t he f irs t o b jec t R o l les ton f ound a ssoc ia ted w i th t he g rave o f t he y oung Ang lo-Saxon .
T he s pear-head c on ta ins a " V-shaped"
s l i t 5 .5cm i n l eng th a nd 1 .5c m i n d ia me ter a t i t s mou th i n to wh ich t he wooden s ha f t w as i nser ted .
S o me v es t iges o f wood r e ma in i n t h is s ocke t .
1 49
T he s ha f t
P late XV I I I
S h ie ld b oss , p re l im inary r econstruct ion ( f rom t he g rave o f t he y oung Ang lo-Saxon ).
P late X IX
S h ie ld b oss a f ter r estorat ion.
Cr a t
s
2 .
3
4
S
F ig . 3
S h ield b oss, c ross s ect ion.
1 52
K AN A 18TH S
2
3
1
4
5
2
6
7
8
. 9
1 0
1 1
31
41
13 51
I
P late XX
12
1 23-6
hA t R G ATE
t iii
14 M A DE
l i t h l
1
S h ie ld h and le , k n ife a nd s h ie ld s tuds f rom t he g rave o f t he y oung Ang lo-Saxon .
15
I N U S z
1
0
A
B
0 CM .
I
2 .
5
' I
S
F ig . 4 R Qc
A . S pear h ead ;
B . S pear h and le ;
C .
Kn ife .
w as f ixed b y ar ive t wh ich s t i l l r e ma ins , s e t a pprox i ma te ly 8m m f ro m t he o pen e nd ( p late XX I ) .
The b lade i s af l a t tened d ia mond s hape i n s ect ion ( f ig . 4( a ) )
w i th a f ine ly d e marca ted r idge r unn ing d own t he l eng th o f e ach s ide .
A s im i-
l ar l ance-head f ound a t F r i l ford i n t he e xcava t ions o f 1 869 , n ow i n t he A shmol ean Museum ( No . 1 872 .2636) , I s t hough t o d a te f ro m t he s ix th c entury . ( 3 ) Ap a ir o f b owed c ruc i form b rooches i n c as t b ronze , 8 .5c m i n l eng th , w ere f ounds b y R o l les ton i n t he g rave o f a n o ld Ang lo-Saxon w o man ( p la tes XX I I-XX IV ) .
T hese were l oca ted a t t he c o l larbones o f t he s ke le ton ( s ee
R o l les ton 's s ketch , p la te ) (XV ) , t oge ther w i th a f ragmen t o f as pear-shaped b ronze p in w h ich may h ave b een e i ther t he p in o f o ne o f t he b rooches o r a s hroud p in . I n a dd i t ion , t wo b ronze c a tches , p resu mab ly f ro m t he b rooches , a nd a d umb-be l l s haped t er m ina l were a lso f ound ( p la te XX I I ) . T he c a tches a re made o f s hee ts o f b ronze a nd were a pparen t ly b razed o r s o ldered o n to t he u nders ide o f t he b rooches ;
t here i s n o v is t ige o f a n i n tegra l c a tch , wh ich wou ld
h ave b een p ar t o f t he o r ig ina l c as t ing , h av ing b roken o f f ( p la tes XX I I I-)O C IV ) . B rooch A ( l e f t i n p la tes XXL E-XX IV ) l acks b oth l a tera l b osses , b u t o n t he r ev erse c lear ly s hows t he s em ic ircu lar c as t f lange b eh ind t he h eadp la te u pon w h ich t he p in was h inged .
B rooch B ( r igh t i n t he p la tes ) r e ta ined a f u l ly r ounded
d umb-be l l s haped b oss o n t he l e f t , a t tached t o t he p in f lange b enea th t he h eadp la te.
T he l oose b oss c lose ly a pprox i ma tes i n s ize a nd s hape t he o ne s t i l l
a t tached t o t he b rooch . g ina l c as t ing . b rooch .
T he k nob a t t he t op o f t he h eadp la te i s p ar t o f t he o r i-
I ti s f l a t o n t he b o t to m , a s i s t he r e ma inder o f t he b ody o f t he
T here a re t wo h or izon ta l d epress ions a cross t he s ur face o f t he h ead-
p la te c rea t ing a r ibbed e f fec t .
T he f oot o f t he b rooches b e low t he b ow c on ta ins
s im i lar r idges , a nd b o th t er m ina te i n a n e longa ted , s ub t ly modu la ted s nou t l i ke ah orse 's h ead w i th f l ared n os tr i ls . T hese b rooches f a l l w i th in t he s ty l is t ic g roup o f e ar ly c ruci for m o r " cruci for m l ong" b rooches wh ich a re t hough t t o d a te f ro m t he l as t q uar ter o f t he f i f th i n to t he f irs t q uar ter o f t he s ix th c ent ur ies .
B u t t hey c on ta in c harac ter is t ics wh ich p lace t he m b e tween . A berg 's
C lass I ( w i th f u l l-round k nobs ) a nd C lass I ( w i th " ha l f-round k nobs , f oo t w i tho u t l appe ts , a n i ma l h ead w i th s cro l l s haped n os tr i ls" ) b rooches .
1 6
The h al f-
r ound k nob a t t he t op , c as t i n au n i t w i th t he b ody o f t he f ibu la , i s aC lass I c harac ter is t ic , b u t t he f u l l-round l a tera l k nobs , c as t s epara te ly a nd a t tached w i th t he h inge o f t he p in t o t he f lange b enea th t he h eadp la te i s e ven more a rc ha ic t han t he s ys te m f ound o n mos t C lass Ib rooches .
I n many o f t he C lass
If ibu lae , t he f u ll-round l a tera l k nobs a re c as t w i th t he h eadp la te , s i mp ly a bu t ted a ga ins t i tw i th a p or t ion o f t he ir v o lu mes r is ing a bove i t s s ur face , a s i n t he C lass Ib rooch f ro m E as t S he f ford ( Newbury Museu m ) .1 7 T he k nobs o f t he C orne l l f ibu lae a re s e t e n t ire ly b enea th t he h eadp la te .
I n c on tras t , at y-
p ica l C lass I b rooch f ro m Wes t S tow H ea th ( Su f fo lk ) , n ow i n t he A sh mo lean Museum , h as t hree h a l f-round k nobs c as t o n to t he h eadpla te . 18 Ano ther r emarkab le f ea ture o f t he F r i l ford b rooches i s t he ir c o mpac tness i n t he p rop or t ion ing o f t he r e la t ive e lemen ts .
I n s ec t ion t hey a re s em ic ircu lar , whereas
o ther b rooches o f t h is g enera l t ype t end t o b e f la t ter a nd b roader .
T he h ead-
p la tes a re sma l l a nd l ack t he l a tera l e x tens ions o r w ings o f s im i lar c ruc i for m l ong b rooches s uch a s t hose men t ioned a bove .
T hus t he h ead o f t he b rooches ,
w i th k nobs i n tac t , wou ld h ave h ad a more n arrow a nd v er t ica l e f fec t , l ack ing t he b a lance o f ap ronounced h or izon ta l a x is p rov ided b y aw ider h ead a nd more w idely s paced k nobs o f t he E as t S he f ford a nd Wes t S tow H ea th f i bu lae .1 9 A lthough l ack ing t he l a tera l k nobs , b rooches w i th s im i lar n arrow p ropor t ions
1 55
19 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 f t I I N AM
1
1 6T H S
d J o t L i . lb
P late XX I
2
3
i 4
1
I l
5
2 1
t l I I I t I I I I I I I ft I t I 6
7
I I
Ii 1 t
8
II j i 9
I -A l R G ATE
I
3 1
I
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 10
4 1 l ii ,
1 1
12
13 1 23‹ .8
1 4 M A DE
IN
S pear h ead f ro m t he g rave o f t he y oung Ang lo-Saxon .
-
15 S
P late X .X I I
Cn ic iform f i bu lae w ith d etached k nob a nd c lasps f rom t he g rave o f t he o ld Ang lo-Saxon w o man.
m t v s . 1 1 6T N S I I
2 I
P la te ) OG1 1
3 1 1
I
4
5
2 1
6
7
8
9
hA I R G ATE
Cruc iform f i bu lae , s ide v iew.
,
,
P late XX IV
Cruc iform f i bu lae , r everse ( be fore c lean ing ).
P late K I (V Ro l leston 's s ketch o f t he g raves o f t he o ld Ang lo-Saxon w oman a nd o f t he l i t t le o ld Romano-Br iton.
were f ound i n S uf fo lk a nd a t C es terover n ear R ugby. "
N o e xac t c on t inen ta l
p ara l le ls h ave y et b een f ound , b u t i n t he ir n arrow p ropor t ions a nd i n t he h or iz on ta l r ibbing o f t he h eadp la te a nd f oo t , t he C orne l l f i bu lae h ave a g enera l r es e mb lance t o s o me e ar ly c ruc i for m b rooches f ro m S cand inav ia , p ar t icu lar ly o ne f ro m L inkop ing ( Ostergot land ) n ow i n t he S ta tensh istor iska Museu m , S tockh o lm , and w i th b rooches f ro m t he L ower E lbe r eg ion a nd S ch lesw ig , t he h o mel and o f t he e ar ly Ang les a nd S axons .
T hus t he C orne l l b rooches c ons t i tu te
i mpor tan t e v idence , a s L eeds a nd E v ison h ave n o ted , o f e ar ly p os t-invas ion o b jec ts i nd ica t ing t he e x ten t o f t he A ng lo-Saxon p ene tra t ion a long t he I ckn ie ld Way wes t a nd s ou th o f t he T ha mes i n t he l a te f i f th a nd e ar ly s ix th c en tur ies .
2 1
G iven t he ir u n ique f us ion o f d i f feren t c harac ter is t ics , p ar t icu lar ly w i th t he ir d e tached s ide k nobs a nd i n tegra l h a lf k nob o n t op , ad a te o f c . 4 75 t o 5 00 may n o t b e t oo f ar o f f .
2 2
A lso f ound i n t he g rave o f t he o ld Ang lo-Saxon wo man was p ar t o f av ery w orn k ni fe ( i n t wo f rag men ts i n 1 972 ) , 8 cm l ong a nd 1 .5c m b road , a nd v ar ious f ragmen ts t hough t t o b e t he r e ma ins o f ap a ir o f t weezers .
An i ron r ing wh ich
R o l les ton f ound o n t he l e f t h and ( wh ich h ad b een p laced a cross t he b ody t o t he r igh t h ip , s ee f ig . 8 ) , a nd wh ich was s en t t o C orne l l i n 1 870 , was n o t f ound w i th t he a r te facts i n 1 972 . ( 4 ) S ix l arge i ron n a i ls , f our o f t he m b en t , were f ound b y R o l les ton i n t he g rave o f a" l i t t le o ld R o mano-Br i ton" ma le wh ich was p ar t ia l ly u ndernea th t ha t o f t he Ang lo-Saxon wo man ( s ee p la te XXV ) .
T hese n a i ls v ary i n l eng th f ro m
5 cm t o 3 .5c m a nd h ave h eads o f a pprox i ma te ly 2 cm i n d ia me ter .
R o l les ton
s ugges ted t ha t t hey w ere c o f f in n a i ls ( p la te XXVI ) . The s i te wh ich R o l les ton a nd o thers e xcava ted i n t he n ine teen th c en tury h ad c hanged l i t t le b y t he t ime B ux ton p ub l ished a map o f h is e xcava t ions a t t he Fr i lf ord C e me tery i n 1 920 , a nd a pparen t ly h ard ly a t a l l b e tween t ha t t ime a nd 1 939 w hen a n a er ia l p ho tograph was t aken . 2 3 S ince t hen , h owever , d ras t ic c hanges h ave o ccurred . T he t r iangu lar d epress ion wh ich h ad b een t he n ine teen thc en tury q uarry .( p la te XXV I I ) , b y t he s pr ing o f 1 973 h ad e xpanded e as tward a lmos t t o t he Ox ford- Wan tage r oad a nd s ou thward a l mos t t o t he sma l l a ccess r oad b y t he s hed . E n t ire ly o vergrown w i th g rass , t h is h o l low i s n ow u sed a s t he t own d ump f or F r i l ford ( p la te XXV I I I ) . Un for tuna te ly , t he e xac t l oca t ion o f t he g raves e xcava ted b y R o l les ton i n 1 870 i s n o t k nown .
A ccord ing t o Bux ton 's map , t he Ang lo-Saxon g raves were
c oncen tra ted i n t he s ou th-eas tern q uadran t o f t he q uarry , b e tween t he d epress ion a nd t he r oad , a nd t he R o mano-Br i t ish o nes t o t he n or th a nd wes t o f t he q uarry f ace .
C ons ider ing t ha t t he Ang lo-Saxon g raves d ug u p b y R o l les ton o ver la id
R o mano-Br i t ish o nes , t hese may h ave b een s i tua ted i n t he n or th-eas tern f ace b e tween t he t wo c oncen tra t ions , b u t we c anno t b e s ure .
I n a ny e ven t , t he F r i l-
f ord c eme tery i s r e markab le f or t he u nusua l c on t inued u se o f ab ur ia l s i te o nce u sed b y t he Ro man ized B r i tons b y t he l a ter Ang lo-Saxons who r ep laced t he m . The C orne ll a r te fac ts o ccupy a s pec ia l p lace among t he many r e ma ins u ne ar thed b y v ar ious e xcava t ions a t F r i l ford .
T hey a re t hough t t o b e t he o n ly
Ang lo-Saxon g rave-goods i n t he Un i ted S ta tes Ir o m a known grave s ite. over ,
More-
s ince ma m , a t t ne o o jecis b un d i n ° t i ler e xcavations a t 1 ,r i l tord were
w idely d ispersed b y R ol les ton , s o me o f t he m g iven t o i ns t i tu t ions i n L e ipzig , Mon trea l , Aus tra l ia a nd e ven Mex ico , t he C orne l l a r te fac ts a ssume a n e ven
1 61
N A 1 T HS
2
3 1 1
P la te XXV I
4
5 2
6
7 8 FA IF IGATE i
31
9
1 0
4 1
1 1
J i l t f l t I J I IJ I IJ I I II fu h f 12 1 3 14 15 1 23-6
5 1
M A DE
I N
U S A
Co f f in n a ils f rom t he g rave o f t he l i t t le o ld R omano-Br iton .
Aer ia l v iew o f t he Fr i lford s i te,
C )
C 7. 3
P late XXV I I I
V iew n or th-east a long t he n or th f ace o f t he q uarry e scarpmen t , Fr iHord. T he t r iangu lar s ign a t t he r igh t marks t he Ox ford- Wan tage r oad ( 1973 ).
g rea ter impor tance a s ac ol lec t ion o f r e la ted o b jects f ro m e ach o f t hree s pec if ic a nd t yp ica l g raves a t t ha t s i te .
GEORGE ROLLESTON 'S " ACCOUNT OF S KULLS AND OTHER REL ICS S ENT TO CORNELL UN IVERS ITY"
[ 1 ] OLD RO MANO-BR ITON
S ku l l " No i i, May 2 3, 1 870 ,"
The s ku l l a nd
b ones l abe l led "No . i i , May 2 3 , 1 870 , "b e longed i n a l l p robab i l i ty t o aR o mani zed Br i ton i nas much a s t he s ke le ton o f wh ich t hey f or med a p ar t was f ound i n o ne o f t he R omano-Br i t ish g raves , d escr ibed i n Archaeo log ia ( 4 2 ( 1869 ) , 4 23 , ) a nd i nas much a s i t was f ound t o h ave a n Ang lo-Saxon s ke le ton ( No . v i i , May 2 3 , 1 870 , s en t h erew i th ) l y ing s uper f ic ia l ly t o i tb y ad is tance o f 1 8 i nches .
T h is
s ku l l a nd t he t hree o thers a l l a l ike c a me f ro m t he F r il ford C e metery d escr ibed , l oc .c i t .
T he s ku l l b e longs t o t he f our wh ich Ih ave s poken o f u nder t he n a me
o f t he "G lobose Ro mano-Br i t ish" t ype s ee Archaeo log is l oc .c i t . p . 4 55 a nd wh ich Ih ave s upposed t o c orrespond w i th t he " S ion T ypus" o f H is a nd R u t i meyer . Is ay t h is t o s ave r epet it ion i n manuscr ip t o f what t he S oc iety o f An t iquar ies h as p r in ted f or me i n t he Me mo ir s en t h erew ith • 24
The o ld a ge o f t he owner
o f t hese r ema ins a nd t he s igns o f h is h av ing b een e xposed t o r ough h and l ing ( see r ight c lav icle a nd h u merus ) a re p o in ts , a s Ih ave t hought , n ot w ithou t t he ir s ign if icance. Two f ragments o f Ro man p o t tery w ere f ound i n t he n e ighb ourhood o f t hese b ones
2 6
T he p ate l lae a ccompany ing t he o ther b ones s howed
t ha t t he s ke leton h ad l a in u nd is turbed s ince t he b ur ia l o f i t s owner. [ 2 ]
YOUNG ANGLO-SAXON
S ku l l " No. v i i, May 2 3, 1 870."
The s ke leton
t o wh ich t he s ku l l l abe l led " No . v i i, May 2 3, 1 870" b e longed was f ound l y ing w ith i ts f ee t a t t he n or th a nd i t s h ead a t t he s ou th , i n ag rave , t herefore , r unn ing n ear ly a t r igh t a ng les t o t hat o f t he Ro mano-Br iton N o. i i.
Th is l at ter
g rave was 1 8 i nches d eeper t han t he o ne c on ta in ing t he b ones a nd o ther r e l ics o f wh ich w e a re n ow t rea t ing , a nd a s i tr an u nderneath i t , must h ave b een d ug b efore i t .
N ow w ith t he s ke le ton t o wh ich s ku l l N o. v i i b e longed were f ound
t he u nm is takeably Ang lo-Saxon r e l ics wh ich Is end w ith i t , n a me ly a n umbo , as pear-head , a nd a k n ife o f i ron . There wou ld a ppear , t herefore , n o p oss ib le s ource o f f a l lacy t o b eset t he c onc lus ion t hat w e h ave h ere t o d ea l w ith a n Ang lo-Saxon a nd i n t he p rev ious c ase w ith a Ro mano-Br it ish i n terment . t h is a rgumen t i n p o int a nd i n d eta il s ee Me mo ir o n Fr i lford , p . 7 .) s ku l l was a bout 2 4 i nches f rom t he s ur face o f t he g round. i i u nder la id i t a t ad istance d eeper b y a bou t 1 8 i nches. a bout 1 7 i nches l ong ;
2 5
( For
The
The k nees o f N o. The f e mur was
n e ither t h is n or a ny o ther o f t he l ong b ones h ave b een
r ecovered u n in jured , t he y ou th o f t he s ub ject h av ing m il itated a ga inst o ur o b ta in ing t he m i n t he p erfect c ond it ion i n wh ich t he b ones o f No. i i a re s en t . The umbo w as f ound o ver ly ing t he p e lv is a nd l ower a bdo m ina l r eg ion .
The
k n ife was f ound o n t he r igh t s ide o f t he p e lv is j ust a bove t he r igh t h ip.
The
s pear h ead was k nocked o u t o f t he g round wh i lst w e w ere work ing o u t t he f e mora o f N o. i i, a nd i t s a ppearance was t he f irst h in t w e h ad o f t he p resence o f a n Ang lo-Saxon .
Consequen t ly w e d id n ot d iscover i t s e xact p os it ion r e-
l a t ing t o t he h ead o f t he Ang lo-Saxon ; n ear t o i t .
i t was , h owever , s o mewhere v ery
Two b road-headed n a ils a cco mpany t he o ther r e l ics.
1 65
It h ink
t hey may h ave b een s h ield s tuds ; u lna. s ay .
o ne o f t hem w as f ound c lose b y t he r igh t
The h and le o f t he umbo a ccompan ies i t , i n t wo p ieces Iam s orry t o Id o n ot t h ink t he Abbe Cochet i s r ight i n t h ink ing t hat t he h o l low i n t he
h and le was i n tended t o r ece ive t he f i ngers o f t he h and wh ich g rasped i t ;
i n-
d eed t he s pec i men s hows t ha t t h is h o l low w as i n tended t o r ece ive a wooden s uppor t o n t o wh ich t he umbo i t se lf was n a iled. S ou terra ine , p . 2 39.
p l. v i i i f igs. 2 & 3 ;
y oung Ang lo-Saxon man i s s ign if ican t .
( See Abbe Coche t , Normand ie
p l . x v i f ig . 5 .)
The y ou th o f t h is
S ee Memo ir o n Fr i lford , p . 2 9.
c ran ia l c haracters a lso h ave a n impor tance.
T he
S ee p p. 4 3 a nd 4 4 , l oc.c it .2 7
Ir e moved , It h ink , e very o ne o f t hese r e l ics myse l f , a s Id id a lso a l l t hose l abe l led N o. i i, w ith t he e xcep t ion o f t he s ku l l , wh ich a p erson p resen t a n t ic ipa ted me i n t ak ing u p f rom t he b o tto m o f t he g rave. [ 3 ] OLD ANGLO-SAXON WO MAN 1 870."
S ku l l " No. i v-a , May 2 3 a nd May 2 7 ,
The s ku l l a nd b ones l abe l led " No. i v-a , May 2 3" was [ s ic ] f ound w i th
t he s im ilar ly l abe l led Ang lo-Saxon o rna men ts , v iz., t wo b ronze f i bu lae , a n i ron k n ife , a nd a n i ron r ing , wh ich a re s en t w ith t he m
2 8
The s ke leton , l i ke
t he p reced ing o ne , h ad b een p laced i n ag rave w h ich c rossed a n o lder g rave c on ta in ing a s ke leton o f o ne o f t he c onquered R omano-Br itons ( No. i v-b , May 2 3, 1 870 ) l y ing a t al ower l eve l.
Bu t i td if fers f ro m t he p reced ing Ang lo-
S axon s ke leton , a s i tb e longed t o aw o man o f a dvanced a ge i nstead o f b e longi ng t o ay oung man , a nd a s i t was b ur ied w ith t he l ower l imbs b en t u pon t hems e lves a nd u pon t he t runk i nstead o f b e ing e x tended a t f u l l l eng th . Ro l leston 's d raw ing o f t hese t wo g raves, p l. XXV.] c overy o f t h is s ke le ton i s a s f o l lows.
[ See
The h istory o f t he d is-
S o me q uarry ing o perat ions h ad e xposed
as ku l l w ithou t d isturb ing i ti n s i tu , where a q uan t ity o f u nder m ined s o il h ad p ar ted away i n wha t t he workmen c a l l a" fa l l" f rom t he u nd isturbed , n ot u nderm ined g round .
On e ither s ide o f t ha t c ran iu m ( "No. i v-b., May 2 3" )
were s een t wo f l a t s tones p laced a s al ean-to , o ne o n e ither s ide o f t he s ku l l. On e ither s ide were s een p ha langes a nd t orsa l b ones ;
a nd o n f ur ther i nves-
t igat ion t he e nds o f t hree l ong b ones w ere a lso d iscovered i n t he n e ighbourh ood o f t he s ku l l.
The c om ing o n o f t he n ight o f Monday , May 2 3 , p reven ted
u s f ro m d o ing more t han f ind o u t t hat t hese l ong b ones o r r ather t he p arts o f t he m wh ich we were a b le t o e xpose i n t he v er t ica l f ace o f t he g round , a t t he t ime v ery d ry a nd h ard , w ere t he d ista l e nds o f at i b ia a nd f ibu la a nd t he p roxima l e nd o f ah u merus.
The s ku l l was r e moved t ha t e ven ing a nd w i l l h ave i t s
h istory g iven b e low u nder h ead ing i v , " No. i v-b May 2 3, 1 870."
T he p rob lem
o f t he r e lat ion o f t he l ong b ones t o t h is s ku l l was l ef t t o b e worked o u t o n t he Fr iday f o l low ing , v iz., May 2 7. On t ha t d ay Mr . G . H . Morrel l , M .A., o f Exeter Co l lege [ Ox ford ] who w as g ood e nough t o g ive h is h e lp , worked o ut t ha t p rob le m t o t he f o l low ing e f fect :-
The l ong l eg b ones w ere f ound t o b e long
t o ad if feren t s keleton f ro m t hat o f t he s ku l l o f w h ich h ad b een r emoved , a nd wh ich was a t ad eeper l eve l b y f ro m 7t o 4i nches i n v ar ious p arts , t he u pper g rave h av ing v ar ied i n d epth i n d if feren t p ar ts.
W ith t he more s uper f ic ia l ly
p laced s ke leton w ith wh ich w e h ave t o d ea l u nder t h is h ead ing ( "No . i v-a, May 2 3" ) w ere f ound t he f o l low ing o rna men ts c haracter ist ic o f t he f e ma le Ang lo-Saxon i n termen t i n t he n on-cre mat ion p er iod ( o f t rans it ion , s ee p . 2 0 , Me mo ir o n Fr i lford.) 29
F irst , t wo c ruc iform b ronze f i bu lae f ound a t t he
j unct ion o f t he c lav ic les w ith t he s ternu m , s uch a s may b e s een f igured , p l. v i i f ig . 3 1 o f N ev i l le 's " Saxon O bsequ ies ," t he d umb-bel l s haped l a tera l
1 66
b osses h av ing b een d e tached i n e very c ase, a nd r ecovered o n ly i n o ne. S econd ly , w ith t he f i bu la wh ich l ay u pon t he j unct ion o f t he l ef t c lav ic le w ith t he s ternu m w as f ound a s pear-shaped b ronze p in wh ich may h ave b een p oss ib ly t he t ongue o f t he b rooch :
b u t w h ich p robab ly was t he s hroud p in ( o f
wh ich Ih ave s poken , s ee Me mo ir , p . 5 6 ). 30
Th ird ly , t wo sma l l p ieces o f
b ronze wh ich w ere p robab ly t he c atches o f t he b rooches.
Round s evera l o f
t hese v ar ious p ieces a nd i mp lemen ts o f b ronze, b its o f t ex t ile f abr ic were a nd s t il l a re r ecogn izab le. 3 1
F our th ly , a n i ron r ing , s uch a s Abbé Cochet
i n h is Normand ie S ou terra ine , p . 2 16 , e d. 1 , s peaks o f a s h av ing b een f ound b y h im ' as a t iete mb rne i n Merov ing ian i n termen ts b ut wh ich h e s ays h ave n o t w ith in h is r eco l lect ion b een f ig ured b y Wy l ie, Sm ith , Troyon , L indensch m i t , d e Cau mon t , e tc.
I t was f ound o n t he l ef t h and , m idd le f inger , ( ? ) a nd a s
h av ing n o t race u pon i to f at ongue, w as p robab ly n ot a b uck le, b ut what i ti s s een t o b e , n a me ly a r ing .
F i f th ly , ak n ife, i n t wo p ieces , wh ich w as f ound
o n t he l ef t s ide b ut a l i t t le u ndernea th t he l ef t h ip , a nd i n t he i m med iate n e ighbourhood o f wh ich a r ectangu lar sma l l p iece o f t he s a me meta l was f ound , p robab ly f ro m t he f asten ings o f t he h and le o f t he k n ife. The l ower l eg b ones o f t he s ke leton t o wh ich s ku l l " No. i v-a May 2 3-27" b e longed , l ay a bout a f oo t t o t he e ast o f s ku l l " iv-b May 2 3," a nd t hey were a bou t 7i n . n earer t o t he s ur face o f t he g round . The l ong a x is o f t he t i b iae w as S .E., t he p ate l lae were i n s itu , t he l egs w ere c rossed , t he r ight b e ing u ppermost ; t he k nees w ere h igher b y 3 in . t han t he d is ta l e nds o f t he t ib iae. The f e mora r an i n aS . W. d irect ion n ear ly a t r igh t a ng les t o t he t i b iae ; t he ir l eng th was 1 8 in .
The h eads o f t he t h igh-bones w ere 2 6 i nches b e low
t he s ur face , t ha t i s t o s ay , t hey w ere f ive i nches l ower t han t he k nees.
The
a x is o f t he p e lv is l ay Eas t a nd West , a nd t he t runk a ga in v ery n ear ly N or th a nd S ou th ;
t he d ep th a t w h ich t hey l ay b e ing 2 6 i nches.
The h ead was r a ised
f ive i nches a bove t he s ternum b y t hree l imestones wh ich h ad b een p laced u nder i t ;
a nd p robab ly f rom h av ing h ad a s tone wh ich was a bove i tf orced
u pon i tw hen t he h ard g round w as b e ing p icked d own , i th ad s o me o f t he many f ractures w h ich i tu ndergone i n f l icted u pon i t .
Bu t t hese b ones h ad s uf fered
much a s s hal low ly b ur ied b ones h ave o ften b een o bserved t o d o , f ro m water wear , b efore t hey w ere e xcavated b y u s.
The a rms w ere c rossed a nd t he
h ands f o lded i nwards. [ 4 ]
S ku l l " No. i v , b , May 2 3, 1 870".
Th is s ku l l f ormed p ar t o f t he
s keleton o f al i t t le o ld R o mano-Br iton , o f s o me f ive f ee t t wo i nches i n h e igh t , who , u n l ike t he Ang lo-Saxon wo man b ur ied a bove h im , was b ur ied i n ac off in , a t l east i fw e may s ay s o u pon t he e v idence o f t he n a i ls wh ich were f ound i n c ons iderab le a bundance i n t he g rave. p robab ly b een d isturbed ;
The p a te l lae was n ot i n s i tu , h av ing
t hough n one o ther o f t he b ones a ppear t o h ave b een
s o, when t he Ang lo-Saxon b ody ( i v-a ) was p ut i n .
B etween t he p e lv is o f t he
d eeper l y ing s ke leton a nd t hat o f t he o ther t here w ere o n ly 4 i nches i n terv en ing ;
a nd i tw as i n f o l low ing u p t he p e lv is o f t he Ro mano-Br iton t hat t he
k n ife o f t he Ang lo-Saxon w o man a lready men t ioned , was c ome u pon , s o c lose t ogether were t hey .
Bu t b arr ing t he l oss o f t he p atel lae ,
I t was l i t t le h e r eeked a s t hey l e t h im s leep o n , I n t he g rave where a Br iton h ad l a id h i m.
1 67
Fragmen ts o f c harcoa l a nd o f b ones w ere f ound a bove t he s ke leton w here i t was n o t o ver la id b y t he Ang lo-Saxon o ne. ( For t h is s ee Memo ir , p . 1 0 ). 3 2 The s ku l l i s wha t Is hou ld c a l l at rans it iona l f orm b etween t he " g lobose" a nd t he " e longated" Ro mano-Br it ish s ku l ls s poken o f , Me mo ir p . 6 2.
For t he
g reat a ge a t ta ined t o b y t he c iv il ized Ro mano-Br it ish s ee i b id. p . 2 0. 3 3 t i b iae s how a t endency t o b e p la tycne m ic.
T he
Ih ave o bserved t he s ame i n a n
Ang lo-Saxon wo man 's s ke leton , a lso d ug u p a t F r i lford.
S o me o f t he b ones
s en t h erew ith w ere d ug o ut o n Fr iday , May 2 7 , a nd h ence s o me a re l abe l led i v i v R .B., f or Ro mano-Br iton , May 2 7 , 1 870 , i nstead o f i v-b., May 2 3, 1 870. The r econstruct ion wh ich t hese s ku l ls more o r l ess n eeded , t hey h ave f Ana to my r ece ived a t t he h ands o f Char les Rober tson , E sq., De monstrator o i n t he Un ivers ity Museu m.
G . M . Morre l l , E sq., M.A., a nd I , t ook o u t t he
v-a a nd i v-b , a nd It ak ing s ke letons a nd s ku l ls , Mr . Morre l l t ak ing o u t N os. i o u t N os. i i, May 2 3 a nd v i i i, May 2 3, 1 870. Ox ford , J u ly 4 , 1 870.
1 68
NOTES
1 .
Th is d iscovery was n o ted b y L esl ie E . Webster , "Med ieval Br ita in i n 1 972 :
2 .
I .
Pre-Conquest ," Med ieva l Archaeo logy 1 7 ( 1973 ), 1 38.
George Ro l leston , " Researches a nd e xcavat ions c arr ied o n i n a n a nc ien t c e metery a t Fr ilford i n 1 867-1868," Archaeo log ia 4 2 ( 1869 ), 4 17-485 ; a nd i de m " Fur ther r esearches i n a n Ang lo-Saxon c e metery a t Fr ilford , w ith r e marks o n t he n or thern l im it o f Ang lo-Saxon c re mat ion i n Eng land ," Archaeo log ia 4 5 ( 1 880 ) , 4 05-410.
3 .
Corne l l Un iversity Reg ister ( 1870-71), p p. 5 0-54.
4 .
S ee E . T . L eeds, The Archaeo logy o f t he Ang lo-Saxon S et t le men ts ( Ox ford , 1 913 ), p . 6 4 ;
L . H . D . Bux ton , " Excavat ions a t Fr ilford ,"
An t iquar ies J ourna l 1( 1920 ), 9 6;
L eeds, " The West S axon i nvas ion
a nd t he I ckn ie ld Way ," H istory 1 0 ( 1925 ), 1 03;
i de m, " The e ar ly S axon
p ene trat ion o f t he Upper Tha mes a rea ," An t iquar ies J ournal 1 3 n o. 3 ( 1933 ), 2 39-242 a nd P late 3 3c ; Oxon iens ia 1 9 ( 1954 ), 5 1;
i de m, " The g row th o f Wessex ,"
G . J . Cop ley , The Conquest o f Wessex i n t he
S ix th Cen tury ( London , 1 954 ), p p. 1 06 a nd 1 09 ;
A . Meaney , A Gazet-
t eer o f Ear ly Ang lo-Saxon Bur ia l S ites ( London , 1 964 ), p p. 4 6-7. 5 .
A r equest f or f ur ther i n forma t ion c oncern ing t he Fr i lford b rooches,
s en tb y Miranda Townsend t o Dr . Hencken o f t he Amer ican S choo l o f Preh istor ic Research , Peabody Museu m , Harvard Un iversity , a nd f orwarded t o C orne l l, r esu lted i n t he d isturb ing r ea l iza t ion t ha t n o t race o f t he o b jects c ou ld b e f ound .
Iam i ndebted t o Professor Freder ick
Waage f or mak ing t h is c orrespondence a va i lab le t o me .
H is u near th ing
o f t hese l e t ters made i tp oss ib le t o i den t ify t he o b jects w ith c er ta inty w ith in s evera l d ays o ft he ir r ed iscovery . 6 .
A cqu is it ion No. 7 3.84.
I t was t hrough Professor Farre l l t hat a r-
r ange ments were made w ith t he Br it ish Museu m f or t he ir r estorat ion , a nd t hrough h im a nd Tho mas W. L eav it t , D irector o f t he J ohnson Ar t Museu m t hat a n a pp l icat ion was made f or n ecessary f und ing .
Professor
F arrel l a nd I g ra tefu l ly a cknow ledge t hat t he r esearch o n t hese o b jects a nd t he ir s ubsequen t r estorat ion u nder taken b y Mrs . Dav idson o f t he Br it ish Museu m was s upported b y ag rant f ro m t he Nat iona l Endowment f or t he Ar ts i n Wash ing ton D .C., a F edera l a gency . 7 .
A lthough i t was s uspected t ha t Go ldw in Sm ith was r espons ib le f or R o l leston ' sg if t , t h is was n ot k nown f or c er ta in u n t i l Ih ad t he o pport un ity o f e xa m in ing R o lleston ' sn otes a t t he Ash mo lean Museu m, Oxford , w here Is awthe n ota t ion i n h is h andwr it ing "G iven t o C orne l l Un ivers ity t hrough G o ldw in Sm i th ."
Iam e x tre me ly g ra tefu l t o Dav id Brown o f t he
A sh mo lean Museu m f or mak ing Ro l leston ' sn otes a va i lab le t o me, f or p rov id ing me w ith p hotographs a nd c op ies o f c orrespondence , a nd f or 1 69
a cco mpany ing me t o t he s i te a t Fr ilford.
Ia lso w ish t o e xpress my
t hanks t o Dav id M iles who made i tp oss ib le f or me t o s ee t he Ang loS axon o b jects i n t he Coun ty Ha l l Museu m i n Ab ingdon .
T an ia D ick inson ,
i n h er c ensus, h as n u mbered Grave i , N o. 1 37 a nd Grave i i, No. 1 38. Iam i ndebted t o Mrs D ick inson f or h er h elpfu l s uggest ions. Cornel l Un ivers ity Reg ister ( 1871-2 ), p . 7 0. 9 .
L eeds " Ear ly Ang lo-Saxon p enetrat ion o f t he Upper Tha mes a rea," p p. 2 39-40, P late 3 3c.
Both b rooches a re s hown ( t he p rof ile v iew i s n o t
o f t he b rooch s hown i n t he f ronta l v iew ). 1 0.
A s hoebox c on ta in ing t he o b jects was d iscovered b y Caro l Murray , Reg istrar o f t he Museu m , a s t he b u ild ing was b e ing c leared i n p reparat ion f or mov ing i n to t he n ew Herber t F . J ohnson Museu m.
The i den-
t i f icat ion o f t he o b jects a s Ang lo-Saxon w as made b y me a nd c onf irmed b y Rober t Farre l l , b u t i t was s evera l d ays l ater b efore w e d eter m ined t hat t hey h ad c o me f ro m Fr ilford ( see a bove , p . 1 69, n . 5 ) . A p re l im ina ry r epor t o n t he Fr il ford a r t ifacts was made i n ap aper , " An Ang loS axon f i nd a t Corne l l" d e l ivered a t t he E igh th Con ference o n Med ieva l S tud ies, The Med ieva l I nst itu te o f Western M ich igan Un ivers ity , Ka la mazoo , M ich igan , i n May 1 973. 1 . 0a.
A l l t he Ro man a nd Ang lo-Saxon g raves a t Fr ilford h ave b een r enu mbered f ro m 1 - f or r epub l icat ion a s p ar t o f t he Corpus o f Ang lo-Saxon Graves a nd Gravegoods i n t he Upper Tha mes Va l ley b e ing p repared b y Dav id Brown .
1 1.
The n u mbers a re :
Corne l l n o.
Ii i o f 2 3 May 1 870
Grave 2 34
Cornel l n o.
I v i i o f 2 3 May 1 870
Grave 2 39
Cornel l n o. I I i va o f 2 3 a nd 2 7 May 1 870
Grave 2 35
Cornel l n o. I V i vb o f 2 3 May 1 870
Grave 2 36
Accord ing t o al et ter wr it ten b y Professor Hu l l t o E . T . L eeds, d ated 2 7 J une 1 912, t he umbo h ad b een b roken i n to s evera l p ieces b y t hat t ime.
1 2.
Now i n t he Ash mo lean Museu m , Ox ford ( No . 1 886.1436 ).
S ee a lso
L eeds a nd Harden , The Ang lo-Saxon Ce metery a t Ab ingdon , B erksh ire ( Ox ford , 1 936 ), p l. 1 9 , e spec ial ly n os. 4 a nd 6 9. 1 3.
S everal p ort ions o f t he r i m were m iss ing when a p re l im inary r econst ruct ion was made ( p l. XV I I I ).
The p lace men t o f t he s tuds p roceed ing
c lockw ise f ro m t he s tud w ith t he l ongest s urv iv ing s hank ( a t t he l ef t i n F ig . 4h ere d es ignated " 6 :00" ) i s a s f o l lows : ( 1 :00 ? -con jectura l) 3 :00 .
6 :00 ;
8 :30 ;
1 0 :30;
Two a dd it iona l s tuds were f ound l oose i n
a ssoc iat ion w ith t he b oss a nd h and le.
One o f t he m may h ave o ccup ied
t he p os it ion c on jectured a bove, b u t t he p lace ment o f t he o ther i s d iff i cu l t t o e nv isage. 1 4.
S ee Bernhard S a l in , D ie a ltgerman ische T h ierorna ment ik ( S tockho lm , 1 935 ), p . 9 4 a nd f ig . 2 27 :
b oss f ro m S elzen , Rhe inessen.
I n a dd it ion
t o t hose men t ioned a bove , o ther s i mi lar Ang lo-Saxon b osses w ere f ound a t Barr ing ton ( Ca mbr idgesh ire ;
1 . 70
i b id . f i g . 2 29) , a t Bu t tso le , Eastry
a nd S tow t ing ( Ken t ; I I :
G . B a ldw in Brown , The Arts i n Ear ly Eng land ,
S axon Ar t a nd I ndustry i n t he P agan P er iod ( London , p l. 2 2, n os.
2 a a nd 4 ) ;
a nd a t Fa ir ford ( G loucestersh ire ;
i b id., p l. 2 3, n o. 4 ).
Two s im ilar b osses f rom L ong Wittenha m ( Berksh ire ) a re i n t he Br it ish Museum ( nos. 7 5, 3 -10 , 2 7 a nd 7 5 , 3 -10, 2 4 ). 1 5.
A l ike ly p os it ion wou ld h ave b een b etween s tuds a t 1 0 :30 a nd 1 :00 ( con ject ura l ), i n wh ich c ase t he d irect ion o f t he wood g ra in wou ld h ave b een t he s ame a s o n t he s tud a t 6 :00.
Thus t he p rof ile o f t he b oss a s g iven
i n f ig . 4 , i ft he h and le w ere h e ld i n av er t ica l p os it ion , i s a long t he East- West a x is. 1 6.
N ils
A b er g,The
Ang lo-Saxons i n Eng land Dur ing t he Ear ly Cen tur ies
Af ter t he I nvas ion , Ar be ten u tg ivna med u nderst l id a v V i lhe l m Ek rnans Un ivers itetsfond , Uppsa la, 3 3 ( Uppsa la, 1 926, p p. 2 8-29,
e spec ia l ly
p . 3 3. 1 7.
L eeds " Ear ly Ang lo-Saxon p enetrat ion o f t he Upper Tha mes a rea ," P late =
1 8.
IV ( a ).
I l lus trated i n D . M. Wi lson , The Ang lo-Saxons ( Har mondswor th , 1 972), f ig . 2 0b ( see p p. 9 4 a nd 2 16 ), a nd Aberg Ang lo-Saxons i n Eng land p . 3 7, f ig . 5 9.
1 9.
O ther t yp ica l e xa mp les o f t h is t ype o f C lass I f i bu la a re t he b rooches f rom Tru mp ing ton ( Ca mbr idgesh ire : o gy a nd E thno logy .
Un ivers ity Museu m o f Archaeo l-
S ee R . J essup , Ang lo-Saxon J ewe lry ( London , 1 950 ),
P l. X II I, No. 1 a nd p p . 1 05-6 ) a nd f ro m Barr ing ton ( Ca mbr idgesh ire ). 2 0. 2 1.
Ba ldw in Brown ( 1915 ), Vo l. 3 , p l. XL, n o. 4 a nd i b id., p l. XL I, n o. 1 . L eeds " The West S axon i nvas ion a nd t he I ckn ield Way ," 9 7-109, e spec ia l ly p . 1 03;
i de m , " Ear ly Ang lo-Saxon p enetrat ion o f t he Upper
Tha mes a rea," p p. 2 29-251;
i de m , ( 1954 ), 4 5-60 ;
a nd V . J . Ev ison ,
The F if th Century I nvas ions S outh a nd West o f t he Tha mes ( London , 1 965 ), e sp. p . 3 . 2 2.
B a ldw in Brown ( 1915 ), v o l. 3 , p . 2 61 c ons idered Eng l ish f ibulae w ith s eparate s ide k nobs t o d ate p r ior t o A .D. 5 00.
2 3.
B ux ton " Excavat ions a t Fr il ford ," p p. 8 8-9.
2 4.
Ro l leston 's A r chaeo log ia a ccount ( 42 ( 1869 ), 4 17-85 ) was l a ter r epub l ished a s a n o f fpr int e n t it led Me mo ir o n Fr i lford, w ith s eparate p ag inat ion .
2 5.
These f ragmen ts were n o t w ith t he o b jects when t hey were r ed iscovered i n 1 972.
2 6.
Archaeo log ia 4 2 ( 1869 ), 4 23-4.
2 7.
I b id., p p. 4 44-5.
2 8.
As n oted a bove, t he r ing was n ot w ith t he g rave-goods when f ound i n 1 972.
2 9.
Archaeo log ia 4 2 ( 1869 ), 4 37.
3 0.
I b id., p . 4 72.
1 71
3 1.
No f abr ic was e v iden t when t he o b jec ts w ere d iscovered i n 1 972.
3 2.
Archaeo log ia 4 2 ( 1869 ), 4 25-6.
The c harcoa l a nd t he b ones h ave n ot
s urv ived. 3 3.
I b id., p . 4 36.
1 72