Battlefield Archaeology of the English Civil War 9781407310442, 9781407322490

Table of contents :
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
CONTENTS
List of Tables and Figures
Acknowledgements
Introduction
Chapter 1: The origins of battlefield archaeology in England
Chapter 2: A methodology for battlefield investigation
Chapter 3: Bullets and other battlefield artefacts
Chapter 4: Evidence on bullets
Chapter 5: The Battle of Edgehill 1642: a case study
Conclusion
Appendix 1: Bullet assemblages discussed in this study
Appendix 2: Guidance on handling and storage of metal artefacts
Appendix 3: The battle of Edgehill: a concordance of primary sources
Bibliography

Citation preview

BAR 570 2012 FOARD

Battlefield Archaeology of the English Civil War

BATTLEFIELD ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE ENGLISH CIVIL WAR

B A R

Glenn Foard

BAR British Series 570 2012

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Published in 2016 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR British Series 570 Battlefield Archaeology of the English Civil War © G Foard and the Publisher 2012 The author's moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher.

ISBN 9781407310442 paperback ISBN 9781407322490 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407310442 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Archaeopress in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2012. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2016.

BAR PUBLISHING BAR titles are available from:

E MAIL P HONE F AX

BAR Publishing 122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK [email protected] +44 (0)1865 310431 +44 (0)1865 316916 www.barpublishing.com

This book is dedicated to the memory of Clive Kibblewhite (1953 - 2007). Without his tireless effort and his excellent metal detecting and organisational skills the Edgehill survey could never have been completed, nor would the fieldwork have achieved such a consistently high standard.

CONTENTS List of Tables..........................................................................................................................................iv List of Figures ........................................................................................................................................iv Acknowledgements ...............................................................................................................................ix Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................xi Chapter 1: The origins of battlefield archaeology in England...........................................................1 The antiquarian phase .........................................................................................................................1 The evolution of modern battlefield studies........................................................................................5 Military history....................................................................................................................................8 Battle archaeology.............................................................................................................................10 Chapter 2: A methodology for battlefield investigation ...................................................................16 Military history..................................................................................................................................16 Historic terrain ..................................................................................................................................21 Setting the events within the historic terrain .....................................................................................27 Battle archaeology.............................................................................................................................33 Chapter 3: Bullets and other battlefield artefacts.............................................................................41 Gunpowder weapons. ........................................................................................................................41 Bullets ...............................................................................................................................................48 Association of calibre and weapon type............................................................................................62 Bullet types for small arms ...............................................................................................................77 Munitions for ordnance .....................................................................................................................83 Hand grenades ...................................................................................................................................93 Chapter 4: Evidence on bullets ...........................................................................................................94 Manufacture ......................................................................................................................................94 Use...................................................................................................................................................101 Post depositional effects ..................................................................................................................104 Chapter 5: The battle of Edgehill 1642: a case study .....................................................................121 Deployments ...................................................................................................................................124 Historic terrain ................................................................................................................................127 Placing the deployments within the historic terrain ........................................................................135 Battle archaeology...........................................................................................................................138 Reinterpreting the battle ..................................................................................................................175 Conclusion ..........................................................................................................................................187 Appendix 1: Bullet assemblages discussed in this study.................................................................190 Appendix 2: Guidance on handling and storage of metal artefacts ..............................................192 Processing and storage ....................................................................................................................192 Health and safety issues of working with lead ................................................................................194 Appendix 3: The battle of Edgehill: a concordance of primary sources.......................................197 Bibliography .......................................................................................................................................225

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List of Tables Table 1: Bore of weapon types Table 2: Bullet weight loss in firing experiments Table 3: Roundshot weights and hail-shot types for artillery pieces Table 4: Bore, roundshot weight, calibre and windage for artillery pieces Table 5: Range of artillery pieces Table 6: Data from hail-shot firing experiments Table 7: Classification of impact damage on bullets Table 8: Recovery rates in the Edgehill survey Table 9: Hail-shot recovery rates in intensive survey at Edgehill Table 10: Bullet recovery rates from Warwick and COTEC hail-shot firing experiments Table 11: Range of bullets from Ashdown firing experiments Table 12: Primary accounts for the battle of Edgehill Table 13: Location of eye-witnesses at Edgehill during the battle

List of Figures Frontispiece: Clive Kibblewhite (1953-2007) Figure 1: Bosworth battlefield as depicted in Saxton’s Atlas in 1576 Figure 2: Brooke’s 1857 plan of Shrewsbury battlefield Figure 3: Burne’s 1951 plan of Sedgemoor battlefield Figure 4: Markham’s 1870 plan of deployments at Marston Moor Figure 5: Peter Newman’s original survey map from fieldwalking at Marston Moor Figure 6: Map of Civil War battles and skirmishes in England Figure 7: Map of Civil War garrisons in England Figure 8: Table of mileages for Northamptonshire from Jenner’s 1643 pocket atlas of England Figure 9: Enclosure and drainage map of 1795 for Kings Sedgemoor Figure 10: Air photograph of earthworks on Sedgemoor battlefield Figure 11: Map reconstruction of the historic terrain of Sedgemoor battlefield Figure 12: Map of deployment and action within reconstructed terrain at Sedgemoor Figure 13: Map of deployments and battle archaeology set within the reconstructed terrain at Naseby Figure 14: Map of Civil War sieges, garrisons, and sites with impact scars in England Figure 15: Two battalions of infantry deployed Figure 16: Fixings on pikeman’s armour Figure 17: Fitments on a seventeenth-century baldric Figure 18: Musket priming pan cover Figure 19: Musket scourer Figure 20: Worm for a musket Figure 21: Possible musket pricker Figure 22: Contemporary illustration of a bandolier Figure 23: Powder box Figure 24: Powder box cap Figure 25: Priming flask nozzle Figure 26: Illustration of 1746 showing bullets found at Edgehill Figure 27: Experimentally cast bullet showing manufacturing evidence Figure 28: The Batavia: graph of bullet calibre in mm Figure 29: Edgehill: graph of bullet diameter at 0.1mm interval Figure 30: Edgehill: graph of calibre of balls at 0.1mm interval Figure 31: Edgehill: graph of calibre of balls at 0.25g interval Figure 32: Edgehill: graph of calibre of balls at 0.5g interval Figure 33: The Vasa: graph of calibre of balls at 0.5g interval Figure 34: Ballymore: graph of calibre of balls at 1g interval Figure 35: Ballymore: graph of calibre of balls at 0.5g interval Figure 36: Ballymore: graph of calibre of balls at 0.25g interval Figure 37: The Duart wreck: graph of bullet calibre Figure 38: Experimental casting: graph comparing calibre measurement types Figure 39: Experimental casting: graph of bullet calibre variation Figure 40: Graph comparing bullet calibre from the Vasa, Ballymore and experimental casting

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Figure 41: Littlecote collection: graph of barrel bore and length Figure 42: Littlecote collection: graph of barrel bore Figure 43: Littlecote and the Duart wreck: graph comparing bore and calibre Figure 44: Graph comparing bullet calibre between battlefields Figure 45: Easton Maudit: graph of bullet calibre Figure 46: Basing House: graph of bullet calibre Figure 47: Grafton Regis: graph of bullet calibre Figure 48: Beeston Castle: graph of bullet calibre Figure 49: Sandal Castle: graph of bullet calibre Figure 50: Northamptonshire finds: graph of bullet calibre Figure 51: Bosworth battlefield survey: graph of bullet calibre Figure 52: Edgehill: graph of bullet calibre, fired and unfired Figure 53: Edgehill and the Duart wreck: graph comparing bullet calibre Figure 54: Edgehill: graph of bullet calibre with correction for fired bullets Figure 55: Lead ball showing sprue snip Figure 56: Regular box type slug Figure 57: Possible slug Figure 58: Irregular hammered slug Figure 59: Dumbbell slug with intact sprue Figure 60: Impacted dumbbell slug Figure 61: Fired dumbbell slug Figure 62: Dumbbell slugs with firing evidence Figure 63: Capstan slug Figure 64: Surgical treatise showing hail-shot Figure 65: Impact scars on Berkeley church Figure 66: Bullet fired together with fine hail-shot Figure 67: Small calibre hail-shot bullet showing sprue snip Figure 68: Drawing of wired bullet Figure 69: Drawing of wired bullets from surgical treatise Figure 70: Bullets cut into quarters and eighths Figure 71: Belted rifle bullet Figure 72: Drawing of a wooden case from the Duart wreck Figure 73: Illustration of hail-shot containers from Ward 1639 Figure 74: Illustration of the tactical use of artillery from Norton 1628 Figure 75: Bullet fired as hail-shot Figure 76: Bullet fired as hail-shot Figure 77: Bullet experimentally fired as hail-shot Figure 78: Bullet flattened by experimental firing as hail-shot Figure 79: Fragment of wooden case showing silhouette of compressed bullets Figure 80: Bullet experimentally fired as hail-shot showing melting Figure 81: Two bullets welded by firing as hail-shot Figure 82: Bullets welded by firing as hail-shot, showing barrel impression Figure 83: Graph of bullet weight loss from firing as hail-shot Figure 84: Bullet fired as hail-shot showing fabric impression Figure 85: Hand grenade from 1691 battle of Aughrim, Ireland Figure 86: Seventeenth-century mould for casting a single musket calibre bullet Figure 87: Late sixteenth or seventeenth-century gang mould Figure 88: Chamber of mould showing latitudinal lines Figure 89: Small calibre hail-shot bullets attached to a casting bar Figure 90: Bullet showing heavy corrosion Figure 91: Bullets showing damage due to careless snipping of sprue Figure 92: Bullet showing latitudinal lines Figure 93: Bullet showing swaged sprue and mould line Figure 94: Bullet showing offset casting fault Figure 95: Pistol bullets with intact sprues Figure 96: Bullet showing intact flash Figure 97: Bullet showing swaged flash Figure 98: Bullets showing incomplete filling of mould Figure 99: Bullet showing latitudinal lines

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Figure 100: Bullets from the same mould chamber Figure 101: Bullets from the same mould chamber Figure 102: Bullet showing flash removed by paring Figure 103: Bullet showing extreme chewing Figure 104: Burred bullet Figure 105: Microscopic detail of striation on burred bullet surface Figure 106: Burred bullet Figure 107: Burred or bitten bullet smoothed by firing Figure 108: Bullet removed with a worm Figure 109: Experimentally fired bullet showing banding Figure 110: Heavily banded bullet Figure 111: Banded bullet possibly fired wadded Figure 112: Bullet showing melting from firing Figure 113: Experimentally fired bullet showing melting Figure 114: Bullet showing banding and melting Figure 115: Experimentally fired bullet showing banding and melting Figure 116: Bullet fired from rifle Figure 117: Detail of interior of rifled barrel Figure 118: Bullet probably fired as part of a multiple load Figure 119: Two welded small arms bullets Figure 120: Bullet probably fired as part of multiple load Figure 121: Domed bullet Figure 122: Drum bullet Figure 123: Bullet which has impacted a smooth surface Figure 124: Impacted capstan slug Figure 125: Experimentally fired bullet showing impact striations Figure 126: Bullet which has obliquely impacted on stonework Figure 127: Bullet impacted on stonework Figure 128: Bullet showing impact melting Figure 129: Experimentally fired bullet showing impact fragmentation Figure 130: Bullet fragment from experimental firing Figure 131: Bullets showing extreme fragmentation due to decay Figure 132: Bullet showing concretion deposits Figure 133: Bullet showing detail surviving below concretion deposit Figure 134: Bullet showing extreme concretion Figure 135: Bullet showing first stage of erosion Figure 136: Photograph of the unveiling of an interpretative panel in Kineton Figure 137: Photograph of the battlefield from Edgehill Figure 138: Edgehill: map of standard deployments after Roberts & Tincey Figure 139: Edgehill: plan of newly calculated frontages and depths of deployment Figure 140: Edgehill: map of historic road network of region Figure 141: Edgehill: Pannett’s plan showing terrain reconstruction and deployments Figure 142: Edgehill: map of the reconstructed historic terrain Figure 143: Edgehill: map of relevant field names Figure 144: Edgehill: landscape and deployments from Beighton 1725 Figure 145: Edgehill: mosaic of vertical aerial photographs from 1947 Figure 146: Edgehill: map of historic townships and parishes Figure 147: Photograph of ridge and furrow on Edgehill Figure 148: Edgehill: map of possible mass grave locations Figure 149: Edgehill: map of Pannett’s interpretation of deployments set with new terrain reconstruction Figure 150: Edgehill: location of graves shown on cartouche of Radway map Figure 151: Edgehill: map of standard deployment in newly reconstructed terrain Figure 152: Photograph of the silos of the munitions depot on Edgehill battlefield Figure 153: Edgehill: map of survey area showing land use Figure 154: Photograph showing the scarp of Edgehill and the Castle Inn Figure 155: Photograph of the battle monument beside Graveground coppice Figure 156: Photograph of Captain Gourdon’s gravestone in Warmington Figure 157: Edgehill: map of Grant’s finds distribution and survey intensity Figure 158: Edgehill: map of Grant’s survey coverage and find recovery rate

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Figure 159: Edgehill: map of Grant’s, GUARD’s and the 2004-7 survey extent Figure 160: Photograph of metal detecting survey on 10m transects Figure 161: Edgehill: map of survey field numbers and survey intensity Figure 162: Edgehill: graph of bullet recovery rates Figure 163: Edgehill: map of distribution of finds relative to densities of junk Figure 164: Edgehill: map of finds distribution Figure 165: Edgehill: graph of calibre groupings Figure 166: Edgehill: graph of calibre of all lead balls Figure 167: Edgehill: map of musket calibre balls from the base survey Figure 168: Edgehill: map of all musket bullets Figure 169: Edgehill: map of bullet distribution from the 1970s, 2002 and 2004-7 surveys in the core area Figure 170: Edgehill: map of burred bullets Figure 171: Edgehill: map of pistol bullets Figure 172: Edgehill: map distinguishing selected pistol calibres Figure 173: Edgehill: map of carbine bullets Figure 174: Edgehill: map of slugs Figure 175: Edgehill: graph of hail-shot bullets Figure 176: Edgehill: map of hail-shot bullets from the base survey Figure 177: Photograph of the density of distribution of hail-shot from experimental firing Figure 178: Edgehill: map of all hail-shot bullets from core area Figure 179: Plan of distribution of experimentally fired hail-shot bullets Figure 180: Edgehill: map of powder box caps and priming flask nozzles Figure 181: Edgehill: map of all coins from before 1685 Figure 182: Edgehill: map of possibly battle-related coins Figure 183: Edgehill: map of copper alloy bells Figure 184: Edgehill: map of copper alloy mounts Figure 185: Edgehill: map of all munitions from base survey Figure 186: Photograph of Edgehill from the northern sector of the battlefield Figure 187: Photograph of Bladon Hill from the north west Figure 188: Edgehill: map of reinterpreted deployments with munitions Figure 189: Edgehill: conjectural interpretation of the distribution of munitions in the infantry area Figure 190: Edgehill: reinterpreted deployments on a background of ridge and furrow Figure 191: Photographs of Kingsmill’s monument and effigy Figure 192: Edgehill: map of standard deployment with munitions Figure 193: Edgehill: map of reinterpreted deployments within historic terrain and relief Figure 194: Finds processing Figure 195: Finds labelling Figure 196: Finds storage Figure 197: Humidity monitoring Figure 198: Lead dust in finds boxes

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Acknowledgements First and foremost thanks are due to the late Clive Kibblewhite, who collaborated with me in supervising the Edgehill survey from January 2005 to October 2006. Then there are the other three members of the team - David Beaumont, Bryn Gethin and Lee Macfarlane - who saw the survey through from almost the very beginning right to the last day. Many others made an important contribution, particularly in the critical first year. Bob Kings worked with me in supervising the first stages of work and assisted in defining the initial survey methodology. Peter Burton and John Kliene also made a major contribution to the metal detecting in the first season. Others who assisted with the detecting for brief periods included Peter Ellis, Charles Macfarlane, Derek Batten, Brian Pollard, Ray Simpson and Jan Freeman. Elizabeth Beaumont undertook much of the finds imaging; Angie Bolton (Finds Liaison Officer for Warwickshire) and Bryn Gethin undertook identification of non weapon-related finds. I am also grateful to Lt Col. Ingle and Colonel White who facilitated access to the Ministry of Defence land, which encompasses the greater part of the battlefield, and to the various other landowners and tenants who allowed us access to their land. Dr Janet Jackson, historical ecologist at the University of Northampton, and Peter Marren assisted with the hedgerow survey. GetMapping provided the NextMap Britain dtm for Edgehill. Thanks are also due to David Pannett for providing a copy of his Edgehill plan of the historic landscape and battle deployments, and David Freeke for advice on the early enclosure of Westcote in Tysoe. Also the Battlefields Trust team that developed and implemented the wider project on the Edgcote to Edgehill Trail, within which the Edgehill Survey was conducted, and the Local Heritage Initiative who funded that project. Rewriting of my PhD thesis to create the present book was undertaken at the University of Huddersfield. I must thank Dr Derek Allsop, for advice on ballistics and his collaboration in leading experimental musket and hail-shot firing, together with Victoria Eyres, Dave Miller and various other of Derek’s MSc students at Cranfield University, at the Defence Academy, Shrivenham. Leeds University and English Heritage met travel costs for research on the Vasa and the Ballymore collections. Graeme Rimer and other staff at the Royal Armouries provided data, access to firearms in the collection and, in collaboration with LGC Forensics, access to the firing range at Leeds. I am also grateful to Minelab who provided two detectors for the survey. Various individuals and organisations provided access to and information on particular collections of bullets including Damian Shiels, Colin Martin, Theo Skinner, Peter Woods and Roy Turland, David Coppin, Lord Charles Fitzroy, Bob Kings, Mark Curteis, Lillian Ladle, Andrew Coulston, Fred Hocker of the Vasa Museum in Stockholm, National Museum of Ireland, and the Battle of Aughrim Interpretive Centre. Charles Haecker, Dan Sivilich and Douglas Scott provided advice on research on eighteenth and nineteenth-century battlefields and bullets in the USA. Wim de Clercq provided information on the bullet mould from Middelburg. Others who gave advice include Keith Roberts, John Tincey, Peter Harrington and Alan Humphreys. Thanks also to Simon Marsh for reading and commenting on the final draft and most importantly, together with Keith Roberts, correcting several errors that I had made in matters of troop numbers and deployments at Edgehill. I am also grateful for comments from Andre Schurgar on issues relating to calculation of calibre from diameter as opposed to mass. I also owe a debt of gratitude to Chris Taylor for his guidance, encouragement and sheer enthusiasm for the study of the English landscape, which played a key role in my decision to study landscape evolution, ultimately providing me with many of the skills needed to study historic battlefields. Last but not least, I must thank my wife Tracey Partida. She worked alongside me on various aspects of research undertaken on behalf of the Battlefields Trust, which has provided much of the data used in the present study. She has also provided support and understanding throughout more than five years of fieldwork, research, analysis and writing. The photograph of Clive Kibblewhite is courtesy of David Beaumont. Unless otherwise specified, all other photographs, maps and plans are copyright of the author.

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Introduction For centuries historians have been studying historic battles. Despite this, most battlefields in Britain are still poorly understood, with significant questions remaining as to the character of the terrain and even where the events took place. Yet this accurate placing of events in their contemporary landscape is critical. Only with this knowledge can one understand how effectively commanders dealt with the threats and opportunities that the landscape provided, and how the terrain influenced the flow of the action and sometimes the very outcome of the battle. There are two distinct aspects to be explored: the military events themselves – the battle – and the landscape context within which they took place – the battlefield. For many engagements over the last millennium there will be physical and documentary evidence for both. Yet, during the last century attention has focussed almost exclusively on the documentary record of the action. The present book demonstrates how major advances in the understanding of historic battles can be achieved through the application of the techniques of archaeology alongside those of military history, to exploit these neglected sets of evidence. It also provides examples of how results can be improved through the application of scientific expertise, in fields such as ballistics. However, this is such a new area of research that much remains to be done in implementing objective scientific principles by, for example, the rigorous application of statistical methods. The book is based on a PhD thesis submitted in 2008.1 It begins with a chronological review of battlefield studies in England, considering the effectiveness of the approaches that have been taken. Building upon this assessment, a detailed methodology is defined which seeks to exploit the full range of evidence that exists for these major historical events. Firstly the techniques for the reconstruction of the historic terrain are described, together with the ways in which the evidence from the primary sources for the battles can be used to place the military events more accurately within this context. As military history and landscape archaeology are well developed areas of research, their methodologies can be applied with little further development. It then shows how the hypotheses developed in such work can be validated and enhanced through analysis of the physical evidence left by the battles themselves. Because battle archaeology has received such limited attention in England there is a detailed discussion of the methodology for systematic survey of battle archaeology using metal detectors. However, given that lead bullets are the main form of archaeological evidence recovered from early modern battles, it is their analysis that forms the centrepiece of this study. Finally the effectiveness of the whole methodology is demonstrated through a major new field investigation and documentary study of the terrain, battle archaeology and military history of the battle of Edgehill.

1 Glenn Foard, (2008b) ‘Integrating the physical and documentary evidence for battles: A Case Study from 17th Century England’, PhD, University of East Anglia, http://ethos.bl.uk/Home.do

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Chapter 1: The origins of battlefield archaeology in England

The literature on battlefields of the pre-industrial period is expanding at an alarming rate and so it is not possible here to assess all that has been written which related to England, let alone worldwide. However, many of these studies are simply popular presentations, repeating evidence and arguments found in a few principal works. It is on the latter that our review is largely based.

of battle.6 Thus although the English Heritage Battlefields Register, established in 1995, acknowledges the existence of battle archaeology it fails to grasp its true potential. Also, while recognising the importance of historic terrain, it failed to adequately explore such evidence for any of the battlefields. These limitations are clear from comparison of the Register report to the subsequent detailed study of Naseby battlefield.

Not surprisingly over the last two centuries or more there have been major advances in methodology and in the availability of data. Thus the opportunities that existed for Hutton in the eighteenth century or Brooke in the nineteenth century in their investigation of battlefields were meagre compared to that available to Burne in the 1950s. In the subsequent half century there have been even more dramatic improvements. Yet while there has been substantial work over the last century on military history there has been no comparable overview of battlefield studies.1 The most useful works to date are on individual battlefields, such as Young’s series on the Civil War or Foss’s examination of Bosworth.2 Even the best general works, particularly those by Burne, comprise little more than a series of short studies of individual battles,3 while until recently almost nothing significant had been published on battlefield terrain or the archaeology of battles.4

What we must not do however is to attempt to create a separate area of research called battlefield archaeology. It is essential that in studying battlefields we integrate all the relevant research methodologies and strands of evidence, particularly from historical geography and military history. As a model of this approach one has to look no further than the study of the English landscape where, over the last fifty years, dramatic advances in understanding have been achieved by breaching the boundaries between disciplines. The antiquarian phase The study of battlefields originates in the work of antiquaries in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, although the roots of this interest can be traced much earlier. Camden and Leland make occasional comment upon battlefields and their physical remains, while a direct antiquarian connection exists with the events themselves through the writing of William Dugdale, who was actually a participant in the Civil War of the 1640s.9 This is part of a wider interest which is reflected in the depiction of battles RQHDUO\PDSVVXFKDV6D[WRQ¶VPDSRI/HLFHVWHUVKLUHRI ZKLFKVKRZVWKHVLWHRIWKHEDWWOHRI%RVZRUWKILJXUH  10 Antiquaries continued to take a passing interest in such matters during the eighteenth century, recognising the significance of artefacts, mentioning the location of mass graves, and using local traditions and topographical

Relevant developments in methodology have taken place in various separate disciplines, resulting in a lack of awareness amongst those studying battlefields as to the full range of techniques that already exist. In Newman’s view the failure to breach the boundaries between disciplines derived, in part, from archaeologists’ unwillingness to work in a context where archaeology is inevitably the ‘handmaiden of history’.5 A further complication is the prejudice amongst some historians and archaeologists against ‘military enthusiasts’ and ‘treasure hunters’. As a result some believe that there is no significant archaeology

௘ ([DPSOHV DUH JLYHQ LQ -DPHV %RQVDOO   µArchaeological Applications to Dark Coppice Field: A Scene of Retreat from the 1644 Battle of Cheriton¶ 'LVVHUWDWLRQ .LQJ $OIUHG¶V &ROOHJH :LQFKHVWHU chapter 1, 1.  ௘ 1DWLRQDO$UP\0XVHXPH Battlefield Register Report: Naseby 1645*OHQQ)RDUG Naseby: The Decisive Campaign. Whitstable, 3U\RU3XEOLFDWLRQV6HHDOVR*OHQQ)RDUG 5LFKDUG0RUULV The Archaeology of English Battlefields. York, CBA.  ௘ 7RP :LOOLDPVRQ  3DXO (YHUVRQ   The Archaeology of Landscape. Manchester, Manchester University Press. 9 ௘ (J /XF\7RXOPLQ 6PLWK   The itinerary of John Leland in or about the years 1535-1543. /RQGRQ*HRUJH%HOODQG6RQV3DUWV ,,,,6LU:LOOLDP'XJGDOH :LOOLDP+DPSHU The life, diary and correspondence of Sir William Dugdale,. London, Harding Lepard and Co., 20-21. 10 ௘ 1LJHO 1LFKROVRQ   The Counties of Britain: A Tudor Atlas by John Speed. /RQGRQ3DYLOLRQ:LOOLDP5DYHQKLOO Christopher Saxton’s Sixteenth-Century maps: the counties of England and Wales. 6KUHZVEXU\&KDWVZRUWK/LEUDU\ 6

௘ (J6DPXHO5DZVRQ*DUGLQHU History of the Great Civil War, 1642-1649.  /RQGRQ /RQJPDQV *UHHQ & + )LUWK  UHSULQWHG   Cromwell’s Army.  /RQGRQ 0HWKXHQ -RKQ .HQ\RQ  -DQH 2KOPH\HU   The Civil Wars: A Military History of England, Scotland and Wales. Oxford, Oxford University Press. 2 ௘ 0DUJDUHW 7R\QEHH  3HWHU