Basic Physics: Principles and Concepts
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English Pages 1989 Year 2020
Table of contents :
Introduction: Units and Dimensions
Physical quantities and their units
Systems of units: the SI system
Relations among physical quantities, and their units
The dimension of a physical quantity
Basic and derived units
SI units, and dimensions
The seven base units
Dimensions related to units
Derived units: selected physical quantities
Units and dimensions of a few physical constants
Prefixes denoting multiples and submultiples
Other systems of units
Systems of units other than the SI system
Conversion from the SI to other systems of units
A few convenient non-SI units
Dimensional analysis
Principle of dimensional homogeneity
An application: Stokes' formula for viscous drag force
The principle of similarity
Physical quantities as scalars and vectors
Vectors
Introduction
Equality of two vectors
Magnitude of a vector
The null vector
Operations with vectors
Addition of vectors
Addition of two vectors
Addition of more than two vectors
Multiplication of a vector with a scalar
Features of vector addition and scalar multiplication
Unit vector
Scalar product of two vectors
Features of scalar product
Orthonormal triads of vectors
Cartesian components of a vector
Two dimensional vectors
Vector operations in terms of Cartesian components
Scalar product of two vectors in terms of Cartesian components
Direction cosines relating to a unit vector
The vector product of two vectors
Features of the vector product
Vector expression for a planar area
Scalar and vector components of a vector
The right hand rule
Transformation of vectors
Scalar and vector triple products
Scalar triple product
Vector triple product
Vector function of a scalar variable
The derivative of a vector function
Scalar function of a vector variable
The position vector
Scalar function of the position vector: scalar field
Vector function of a vector variable: vector field
Derivatives and integrals of scalar and vector fields
Derivatives of scalar and vector fields
Volume-, surface-, and line integrals
Mechanics
Introduction: frames of reference
Motion of a single particle
Introduction
Kinematic quantities
The position vector and its time dependence
Displacement
Velocity
Speed
Planar and rectilinear motions
Momentum
Kinetic energy
Acceleration
Newton's laws of motion: Introduction
Inertial frames. Newton's first law.
Newton's second law: Equation of motion
The concept of force
The second law
Equation of motion
The line of action of a force
The resultant of a number of forces
Forces in equilibrium
Motion along a straight line
Motion in a plane
Field of force
Transformations from one frame of reference to another
Transformation of velocity
Relative velocity
Transformations of displacement and time
Transformation of acceleration
Equations of motion in different frames of reference
Characterization of the inertial frames
Equations of motion of a particle in inertial frames
Equation of motion in a non-inertial frame
Force and work
Work in rectilinear motion. Potential energy.
Kinetic energy
Principle of conservation of energy in rectilinear motion
Kinetic energy, potential energy, and work
Kinetic energy and work
Potential energy. Conservative force-fields.
Principle of conservation of energy: the general context
Work and energy: summary
Energy as ability to perform work
Conservation of energy: a broader view
Mechanics of a single particle: overview
Mechanics of a system of particles
Internal and external forces. Equations of motion.
Newton's third law
Center of mass of a system of particles
The position and velocity of the center of mass
center of mass momentum
Determination of the center of mass
System of particles: center of mass motion
Principle of conservation of momentum
System of particles: principle of conservation of energy
Elastic and inelastic collisions
Introduction
Elastic and inelastic processes
The energy balance equation
Momentum balance
Relative velocities: normal and tangential
The center of mass frame
Describing the collision process
`Head-on' collision
Head-on collision in the `laboratory frame'
Elastic collisions in planar motion
Direction of energy transfer in elastic collisions
Impulse. Impulsive forces.
Impulse of a force or of a system of forces
Impulsive forces
Newton's laws and action-at-a-distance
Angular motion
Angular velocity of a particle about a point
Angular velocity about an axis
Circular motion
Centripetal acceleration
Uniform circular motion
Motion along a space curve
Radial and cross-radial accelerations in planar motion
Angular momentum
Angular momentum about a point
Angular momentum about an axis
Angular momentum in circular motion
Moment of a force
Moment of a force about a point
Moment of a force about an axis
Impulse of a torque
Angular motion of a system of particles
Principle of conservation of angular momentum
Rotational motion about an axis: moment of inertia
Work done in rotational motion
Potential energy in rotational motion
Calculation of moments of inertia
The theorem of perpendicular axes
The theorem of parallel axes
Radius of gyration
Additivity of moments of inertia
Moments of inertia: examples
Motion of rigid bodies
Translational and rotational motion of rigid bodies
Rolling motion
Precession
Precession under an applied torque
Precession of a heavy top
Precession of the earth's axis of rotation
Free precession
Rotating frames of reference
Reduction of a system of forces
Introduction
Concurrent forces
Non-concurrent forces
Concurrent systems in equilibrium
Two concurrent forces in equilibrium
Three concurrent forces in equilibrium
More than three concurrent forces
Moment of concurrent forces in equilibrium
Reduction of a system of forces acting on a rigid body
Reduction of a pair of like parallel forces
Unlike and unequal parallel forces
Equal and unlike parallel forces : couple
Composition of couples
A couple and a force in a parallel plane
Reduction of a system of co-planar forces
Reduction of non-coplanar forces: wrench
Static and dynamic friction
Introduction
Static friction
Dynamic friction
Indeterminate problems in statics: the ladder problem
The ladder problem
The mechanism underlying friction
Wet friction and lubrication
Rolling friction
Motion of a wheel under driving
Driving by means of a couple
Driving by means of a force
Simple Harmonic Motion
Oscillatory motion
Simple harmonic motion
The equation of motion
Solving the equation of motion
General and particular solutions
Relating the solution to initial conditions
Periodicity of motion
The phase
The amplitude
Graphical representation of the motion
Energy in simple harmonic motion
Potential energy
Kinetic energy in simple harmonic motion
Simple harmonic oscillations of physical quantities
Angular oscillations
The pendulum and the spring
The simple pendulum
The spring
Damped simple harmonic motion
Damped SHM: equation of motion
Underdamped and overdamped motions
Underdamped SHM
Overdamped SHM
Damped SHM: dissipation of energy
Forced SHM
Energy exchange in forced SHM. Resonance.
Gravitation
Introduction: Newton's law of gravitation
Principle of superposition
Gravitational intensity and potential
Gravitational intensity
Gravitational potential
Gravitational potential: summary
`Potential at infinity'.
Potential due to a point mass
Potential due to a number of point masses
Describing a gravitational field
Gauss' principle in gravitation
Flux of gravitational intensity
Gauss' principle
Application: a spherically symmetric body
Intensity and potential at an external point
A spherical shell
Gravitational interaction of two spherical bodies
Earth's gravitational field: acceleration due to gravity
Earth's gravitational field
Center of gravity
The weight of a body
Weight as a force of reaction: weightlessness
Weight reduction due to earth's rotation
Escape velocity
The motion of planetary bodies
Introduction
The equation of motion and the nature of trajectories
Kepler's laws
Circular orbits in an inverse square field
Tidal force
The orbit of the moon
The motion of a projectile
Gravitation: a broader view
Elasticity
Introduction: External and internal forces in a body
Strain and stress
Quantitative definition of strain: strain parameters
Tensile strain
Bulk strain
Shear strain
Mixed strain
Principal axes. Principal components of strain.
Stress in a deformable body
Tensile stress
Shear stress
Bulk stress
Mixed stress: principal components of stress
Stress-strain curve
A weightless wire with a load
The curve: principal features
Elastic and plastic deformations
Stress-strain relations: elastic constants
Young's modulus
Poisson's ratio
Modulus of rigidity
Bulk modulus
Principle of superposition
Relations between the elastic constants
Elastic properties of fluids
Strain energy
Mechanics of Fluids
Introduction: the three states of matter
Fluids in equilibrium
Internal forces in a fluid: pressure
Pressure in an incompressible liquid
Thrust of a fluid
Atmospheric pressure
Buoyancy: Archimedes' Principle
Equilibrium of fully or partly submerged body
Condition of equilibrium
Stability of equilibrium
Pascal's law: transmission of pressure
Fluids in motion: a few introductory concepts
Stream lines: steady flow
From laminar flow to turbulence
Rotational and irrotational flows
Equation of continuity
Ideal fluid: equation of motion
Energy conservation: Bernoulli's principle
Potential flow
Lift and drag forces: a brief introducion
The siphon
Viscosity and fluid flow
Introduction
Newton's formula for viscous force
Kinematic viscosity
Variation of viscosity with temperature
Viscosity and transport of momentum
Viscosity and turbulence
Non-Newtonian fluids
Poiseuille's flow
The origin of the viscous force: a brief outline
The boundary layer
Laminar boundary layer in Poiseuille's flow
Boundary layer on a flat plate
Boundary layer near a curved obstacle: boundary layer separation
Stability of fluid flow: vorticity and turbulence
Surface energy and surface tension
Introduction
Surface energy and surface tension: thermodynamic considerations
The tendency of a liquid surface to shrink
Surface tension as lateral force
Angle of contact
Pressure difference across a curved liquid surface
Capillary rise
A few phenomena associated with surface tension
Seepage of water through soil
Formation of raindrops and clouds.
Pouring oil over rough sea
Walking on water
Rayleigh-Plateau Instability: beads on cobweb threads
Velocity of surface waves.
Surfactants
Thermal Physics
Thermodynamic systems and their interactions
Adiabatic enclosures: Work
Diathermic enclosures: Heat
Examples of adiabatic and diathermic enclosures
Thermodynamic equilibrium
Thermodynamic processes
Adiabatic process
States and processes: thermodynamic state diagram
Quasi-static processes
Thermal equilibrium
The zeroth law of thermodynamics: Temperature.
Explaining the zeroth law
Temperature as a thermodynamic variable
Empirical scales of temperature
The SI scale of temperature
The direction of heat flow
Thermal reservoir: heat source and heat sink
Isothermal processes
Adiabatic processes between given states
The significance of adiabatic work
The quantitative definition of heat
The first law of thermodynamics
Equivalence of heat and work
Work performed by a gas in a quasi-static process
Summary of the first law.
Intensive and extensive variables
The kinetic theory of gases
Macroscopic and microscopic descriptions
Mole number
The ideal gas
Pressure of a gas in kinetic theory
The kinetic interpretation of temperature.
The ideal gas equation of state
Ideal gas: isothermal and adiabatic processes
Random motion of molecules: Molecular collisions.
Mean free path
Brownian motion
Mean speed and most probable speed
Maxwell's velocity distribution formula
Partial pressure
Reversible and irreversible processes
Entropy: thermodynamic definition
The second law of thermodynamics
Statistical physics: Boltzmann's formula
The statistical interpretation of entropy
Heat engines
Explaining the idea of a heat engine
The efficiency of a heat engine
An ideal heat engine: the Carnot cycle
The absolute scale of temperature
Scales of temperature: summary
The Rankine cycle
The Otto and Diesel cycles
The Otto cycle
The Diesel cycle
Refrigeration
Thermal expansion of solids, liquids, and gases
Thermal expansion of solids
Coefficients of expansion of a solid
Relation between the three coefficients for a solid
Instances of thermal expansion of solids
Thermal stress
Thermal expansion of liquids
Apparent expansion and real expansion of a liquid
The anomalous expansion of water
Thermal expansion of gases
Calorimetry
Thermal capacities of bodies
Specific heats of substances
Specific heats of an ideal gas
Adiabatic and isothermal expansion of gases
The fundamental principle of calorimetry
Change of state: phase transition
Change of state as phase transition
Transition temperature. Latent heat
Dependence of transition temperature on the pressure
Saturated vapor
The coexistence curve: Triple point
Gas and vapor
Saturated air
Saturation pressure and superincumbent pressure
Evaporation
Relative humidity
Dew Point
Transmission of heat
Conduction
Thermal conductivity
Thermal diffusivity
Stationary and non-stationary heat flow
Convection
Natural and forced convection
Thermal radiation
Stefan's law of radiation
Energy exchange in radiative transfer
Kirchhoff's principle
Newton's law of cooling
The greenhouse effect
Supplement: Random variables and probability distributions
Wave motion I: Acoustic waves
Simple harmonic oscillations of physical quantities
Oscillations transmitted through space: waves
Sound waves as variations in pressure: elastic waves
Sound waves in one dimension
Variation of excess pressure
Propagation of the monochromatic wave
Waves in three dimensions
The plane progressive wave
Waves of more general types
The principle of superposition
The wave equation
Sources and boundary conditions
The monopole source. Spherical wave.
Dipole and quadrupole sources
Sources and wave patterns: summary
Reflection and refraction of plane waves
Diffraction and scattering by obstacles
Finite extent of interface
Curvature of the interface
Wave incident on an uneven surface
Echo and reverberation of sound
Echo
Reverberation.
Velocity, energy density, and intensity
Formulation of the problem
Displacement and strain
Velocity of sound in a fluid
Velocity of sound in an ideal gas
Dependence on pressure, temperature, and humidity
Energy density and intensity
Spherical waves: the inverse square law of intensity.
Ultrasonic waves
Döppler effect
Introduction
Frequency related to rate of change of phase
Döppler effect:the general formula
Uniform motions of source and observer
Supersonic objects and shock waves
The production of shock fronts
Superposition effects
Interference
Introduction to the idea of coherence
Interference as superposition of coherent waves
Standing waves
Standing waves in an air column
Features of a standing wave
Superposition of propagating waves
Progressive waves and standing waves: a few points of distinction
Modes of standing waves in an air column
Beats
Wave packets: group velocity
Vibrations of strings and diaphragms
Transverse vibrations of stretched strings
Vibrations of stretched diaphragms
Musical instruments
Loudness, pitch, and quality of sound
Elastic waves in solids
Vibrations in a crystalline medium: normal modes
Elastic waves in an isotropic solid
Ray Optics
Introduction
Ray optics: basic principles
Image formation by rays originating from a point source
Image formation by reflection at a plane surface
Refraction at a plane surface
Image formation
Refraction through a layer with parallel surfaces
Total internal reflection
Prism
The basic formulae
Deviation
Limiting angle of incidence
Minimum deviation
Reflection and refraction at spherical surfaces
Spherical mirrors: a few definitions
Refraction at a spherical surface: definitions
Sign convention in ray optics
Image formation in reflection by a spherical mirror
Focal length of a spherical mirror
Aperture
Image formation: relation between object distance and image distance
Image for an off-axis object point
Image formation for short extended objects
Image formation by refraction at a spherical surface
Refraction at a spherical surface: image formation for a point object on the axis
Image formation for a short extended object
Spherical lens
Image formation by a thin lens
Real and virtual image formation by a convex lens
Image formation for off-axis points
Longitudinal and transverse magnifications
Angular magnification
Minimum distance between object and real image
Combination of thin lenses
Equivalent lens
Thin lenses in contact
Aberrations in image formation
Monochromatic and chromatic aberrations
Types of monochromatic aberration
Aberrations: an overview
Correcting an optical system for aberrations
Image imperfection: aberration and diffraction
The human eye
Optical instruments
The camera
The telescope and the compound microscope
The telescope
The compound microscope
Electrostatics
Introduction: elementary charges
Acquisition of charges by bodies
Transfer of elementary charges
Contact electrification and contact potential
Electrostatic force between charges
Coulomb's law
The principle of superposition
Electric field intensity and potential
Electric field intensity
Electrical potential
Electrical potential: summary
Potential `at infinity'
Potential due to a point charge
Potential due to a number of point charges
Deriving the intensity from the potential
Force on a thin layer of charge
Electric dipole and dipole moment
A pair of equal and opposite point charges
Dipole moment and dipole
Torque and force on a dipole in an electric field
Torque on a dipole
Force on a dipole
Potential energy of a dipole in an electric field
Electric lines of force and equipotential surfaces
Geometrical description of an electric field. Neutral points.
Characteristics of lines of force
Equipotential surfaces
Density of lines of force. Tubes of force.
Separations between equipotential surfaces
Gauss' principle in electrostatics
Flux of electric field intensity
Gauss' principle
Flux due to a single point charge
Solid angle
Gauss' principle: derivation
Applications of Gauss' principle
A charged spherical conductor
A spherically symmetric charge distribution
Potential energy of a uniformly charged sphere
An infinitely long cylindrical conductor
An infinitely extended planar sheet of charge
Conductors and dielectrics
Free and bound electrons
Electric field intensity and charge density within a conductor
Conductor: surface charge density.
Field intensity on the surface of a charged conductor
Force on the surface of a charged conductor
Accumulation of charge at sharp points
Polarization in a dielectric medium
The polarization vector. Electric susceptibility.
Electric field intensity and the displacement vectors
Field variables: the question of nomenclature
Electric field in a dielectric: summary
Field variables as space- and time averages
A brief note on relative permittivity
Capacitors and capacitance
Charges and potentials on a pair of conductors
The Uniqueness Theorem
Capacitance of a pair of conductors
The spherical condenser
A pair of concentric spherical conductors
Capacitance of a single conductor
Self-capacitance and mutual capacitance
The parallel plate capacitor
Charge distribution in the plates
Cylindrical capacitor
Energy of a system of charged conductors
Energy of a single charged conductor
Energy of a charged parallel plate capacitor
Electric field energy
Capacitors in series and parallel
Capacitors with dielectrics
The potential of the earth
Electricity I: Steady currents and their magnetic effects
Electrical Cells
The half cell
Electrochemical cell
Half-cell potential
Electromotive force of an electrochemical cell
The Galvanic cell
The electrolytic cell
Primary and secondary cells
Electrical conductors and electric current
The current set up by a Galvanic cell
Ohm's law. Electrical units
Current density and current
Resistance and resistivity
Temperature dependence of resistivity
Steady current in a conductor produced by an electrical cell
Transformation of energy
The pathway of energy flow
Electromotive force (EMF) and source of EMF
Heating effect of current: Joule's law of heating
Summary: electrical cells, EMFs, and currents
Series and parallel combination of resistances
The laws of series and parallel combination
Voltage division and current division
Voltage division
Current division
Analysis of DC electrical circuits
Kirchhoff's principles
Kirchhoff's first principle
Kirchhoff's second principle
The principle of superposition
The Wheatstone bridge
The magnetic effect of currents
Force between currents composed from elementary forces
Force between a pair of parallel current-carrying wires
Magnetic field intensity
The force on a moving charge in a magnetic field
Field variables: the question of nomenclature
Field due to a current loop. Principle of superposition.
Magnetic lines of force
Field intensity due to a straight wire
Infinitely long and straight wire
Magnetic field intensity due to a circular wire
Magnetic field of a solenoid
Ampere's circuital law
Applications of the circuital law
Ampere's law: field due to a long straight wire
Ampere's law: the tightly wound long solenoid
Infinitely long cylindrical current distribution
The magnetic dipole
Electric and magnetic dipole moments
Current loop: a surface distribution of dipoles
Torque and force on a magnetic dipole
Energy of a magnetic dipole in a magnetic field
Magnetic field: comparison with electrostatics
Currents and magnetic fields: overview
Magnetic properties of materials
Magnetization in a material body
Magnetic susceptibility and magnetic permeability
Field variables as space- and time averages
Dia- and paramagnetism
Paramagnetism
Diamagnetism
Ferromagnetism
Spontaneous magnetization
Magnetic domains
The magnetization curve: hysteresis
Residual magnetism: permanent magnets
Transition to paramagnetic behaviour
The earth as a magnet: geomagnetism
The chemical effect of current
Electrolytes and electrolysis
Farday's laws of electrolysis
Thermoelectric effects
Electricity II: Varying and alternating currents
Introduction
Electromagnetic induction
Magnetic flux
Farday's law of electromagnetic induction
Lenz's law
Motional EMF
The principle of DC and AC generators
Conducting frame rotating in a magnetic field
Rotating magnetic field: AC motors
The synchronous motor
The asynchronous motor
The principle of DC motors. Back EMF.
DC motor: back EMF
Self-inductance
Self-inductance of a long solenoid
Self-inductance of a toroidal solenoid
Inductor
Back EMF in an inductor
Mutual inductance
Varying currents in electrical circuits
Currents and voltages in an L-R circuit
Growth of current
Decay of current
Analysis of circuits with varying currents
Currents and voltages in a C-R circuit
Growth of charge
Decay of charge
Oscillations in an L-C-R circuit
Magnetic field energy
Alternating currents
Mathematical description of AC currents and voltages
Amplitude, frequency, and phase
Root mean squared values
The complex representation of AC quantities
An L-C-R circuit with an AC source
Impedance
Analysis of AC circuits
Power in an AC circuit
The three-phase supply
The transformer
Back EMFs
The loading of the primary
The current ratio
Energy losses in the transformer
The transformer in three phase distribution
Eddy currents
Wave motion II: Electromagnetic waves
Introduction
Electromagnetic theory
The electromagnetic field in free space
What the first equation means
What the second equation means
What the third equation means
What the fourth equation means
The four equations: an overview
Electromagnetic fields in material media
Electromagnetic waves
Sources of electromagnetic waves
Transmission of energy
The principle of superposition
The plane progressive monochromatic wave
Space-time field variations
Frequency, wavelength and velocity
The phase
The wave front and its propagation
The electromagnetic spectrum
Energy flux and intensity
Energy density and energy flux
Intensity
Velocity of energy transport
Radiation pressure
The state of polarization of an electromagnetic wave
Wave propagating in an arbitrarily chosen direction
Wave normals and rays
The complex representation of wave functions
Reflection and refraction of plane waves
Reflection
Refraction
Total internal reflection
Dispersion and absorption
Plane waves in a dielectric medium
Features of dielectric constant: summary
Plane waves in a conducting medium: attenuation
Negative refractive index: metamaterials
The monochromatic spherical and cylindrical waves
Wave packet and group velocity
Coherent and incoherent waves
Stationary waves
Wave Optics
Introduction
Experiments with an illuminated aperture
Spreading and bending of waves
Waves coming out of pin-holes and slits
Interference of coherent waves
Superposition of two plane waves
The resultant intensity.
Maxima and minima in I(r).
Conditions for interference
A simplified approach: interference of scalar waves
The complex representation of wave functions
Young's pattern with a pair of pin-holes
Phase difference and path difference
Young's pattern with a pair of slits
Young's fringes with partially coherent light
Young's pattern with unpolarized light
Quasi-monochromatic light
Coherence time
Coherence length
Thin film patterns
Fringes of equal inclination
Fringes of equal thickness
The color of thin films
Non-reflective coatings
Diffraction of light
Introduction
The basic approach in diffraction theory
The intensity distribution
Fraunhofer and Fresnel diffraction patterns
The single slit Fraunhofer pattern
Ray paths corresponding to secondary waves.
The intensity formula.
Absence of diffraction in the vertical direction.
The intensity graph
Fraunhofer fringes with a slit-source.
Phase in Fraunhofer diffraction
Coherence properties and diffraction fringes
The double slit Fraunhofer pattern
The diffraction grating
Resolving powers of optical instruments
Polarized and unpolarized light
The basic components: x-polarized and y-polarized light
Specifying the basic components and their phase relation
Correlations: polarized and unpolarized light
Elliptically polarized light
Circularly polarized and linearly polarized light
Intensity relations
Optical anisotropy: double refraction
Production of polarized light
Lasers: coherent sources of light
Emission and absorption as quantum processes
The state of a photon
Classical and quantum descriptions of the field
Stimulated emission of radiation
Stimulated emission and coherent waves
Population inversion
Light amplification in a resonant cavity
The laser as a coherent source of light: summary
Holography
Scattering of light
Rayleigh scattering
Rayleigh scattering by a single scatterer
Rayleigh scattering in a fluid
Mie scattering
Raman scattering
Wave optics and ray optics
Quantum theory
Introduction
Quantum and classical concepts: analogy from optics
Emergence of quantum concepts
Quantum and classical descriptions of the state of a system
Illustration: the free particle in one dimension
Wave-like features
Wave function: de Broglie relations
Quantum description of state: summary
The principle of uncertainty
Uncertainty in momentum
Momentum and position uncertainties
Observable quantities, probability distributions, and uncertainties
The simple harmonic oscillator
Bound system: quantization of energy
Digression: the continuous and the discrete
Harmonic oscillator: the uncertainty principle at work
Time evolution of states
Superposed states in quantum theory
Mixed states: incoherent superposition
Black body radiation: Planck's hypothesis
Harmonic oscillators in thermal equilibrium
Bohr's theory of the hydrogen atom
The hydrogen spectrum
Bohr's postulates and the hydrogen spectrum
Bohr's theory and the quantum theory of the atom
The hydrogen spectrum: mechanism
Applications of Bohr's theory
Bound and unbound systems: standing and traveling waves
Photoelectric effect: Einstein's theory
Features of photoelectric emission
The role of photons in photoelectric emission
Bound systems and binding energy
The basic equation for photoelectric emission
The Compton effect
Quantum theory goes deep: particles and fields
Relativity: the special and the general theory
Relativity: Introduction
Introduction: frames of reference, inertial frames
Introduction: the Galilean principle of equivalence
Introduction: the non-relativistic and the relativistic
Introduction: the equivalence principles
The special theory of relativity
Inertial frames and the velocity of light
The Lorentz transformation formulae
Space-time interval
Lorentz transformation: the general form
Consequences of the Lorentz trasformation formula
Relativity of simultaneity
Lorentz contraction
Time dilatation
Velocity transformation
Relativistic aberration
Space-time diagrams and world lines
Representation of events and world lines
The space-time diagram and Lorentz transformations
The invariant regions
Time-like and space-like separations
Space-time geometry
Geometry in `1+1' dimensions
The (1+3)-dimensional space-time geometry
Physical quantities as four-vectors
Vectors: the basic idea
Four-vectors
Four-vectors and tensors: a primer
The velocity four-vector
Relativistic mass, relativistic momentum, and relativistic energy
The energy-momentum four-vector
The Döppler effect
The force four-vector
The electromagnetic field as a tensor
The general theory of relativity: a brief introduction
Introduction: the general principle of equivalence
Tensor fields
Einstein's equation for the metric tensor
Equation of motion in a gravitational field
Gravitation and the electromagnetic field
The Schwarzschild solution
Schwarzschild solution: a few consequences
The Newtonian limit
Gravitational time dilatation and red shift
Black holes
The general theory of relativity: the classical and the quantum
Atoms, Nuclei, and Molecules
Introduction
The atomic nucleus: atomic volume and mass
Single-electron states
Single-electron states: elliptic orbits and degeneracy
Single-electron states: space quantization
Single-electron states: electron spin
Single-electron states: summary and notation
Building up the atom
Electronic configuration and electron shells
Electronic configurations and the periodic table
The atom as a whole
Screening of the nuclear charge
Quantum theory of atomic states: a brief outline
The indistuinguishability principle and its consequences
Electron-electron interaction: the central field
Electron-electron interaction: the spin-dependent residual term
Spin-orbit coupling: excited states of sodium and magnesium
The atom as a whole: summary and overview
Continuous and characteristic X-ray spectra
Bohr's theory and X-ray spectra
Atomic spectra
Physics of the atomic nucleus
The atomic number and the mass number
The nucleon: internal characteristics
The interaction force between nucleons
The saturation property of nuclear forces
The nucleus as a liquid drop: nuclear radius
Nuclear binding energy and mass: nuclear stability
The mass-energy equivalence principle
Units for nuclear masses
Relating nuclear mass to binding energy
Binding energy and nuclear stability
The binding energy curve
The starting point
Finite size effect: the surface correction
The effect of the nuclear charge
Other corrections: the mass formula
The graph
Single particle and collective nuclear excitations
Radioactive decay
Alpha decay
Beta decay
Gamma decay
Radioactive decay law
Successive radioactive disintegrations
Nuclear reactions
Introduction: examples of nuclear reactions
Conservation principles in nuclear reactions
Energy balance in nuclear reactions
Nuclear fission
Nuclear fusion
Introduction to elementary particles
The classification of elementary particles
Elementary particles and quantum numbers
Anti-particles
The quark structure of elementary particles
The basic interactions
The conservation principles
The mediating particles
Symmetries and the conservation laws
The Higgs field and the Higgs boson
The physics of molecules
The binding of atoms in molecules: molecular bonds
The ionic bond
The covalent bond
The hydrogen bond
Stationary states of molecules: molecular excitations
From molecules to solids
Electronics
Introduction
Electrical properties of semiconductors
Energy bands of electrons in a crystal
The filling up of the bands
The valence- and the conduction bands
Electrochemical potential and the Fermi level
Energy bands: summary
Conductors, insulators, and intrinsic semiconductors
Doped semiconductors
Intrinsic and doped semiconductors: summary
The p-n junction diode
The junction diode: structural features
The junction diode at thermal equilibrium
The junction diode in forward and reverse bias
Junction diode: current-voltage graph
Junction diode: summary
The diode as rectifier
Special-purpose diodes
The Zener diode
The light emitting diode
The laser diode
The bipolar junction transistor
The emitter, the base, and the collector
The two-diode model of the transistor
Transistor currents and voltages
The transistor in the active mode
The transistor in the saturation and cut-off modes
Transistor characteristics
The parameters and of the transistor
Convention for using notations
The common emitter input impedance
AC transistor operation: summary
Voltage amplification
DC bias: the Q-point
Blocking and bypass capacitors
AC operation of the amplifier: voltage gain
The operational amplifier (Op-amp)
The differential amplifier
Op-amp basics
Oscillators
Introduction to digital electronics
Boolean algebra
Digital circuits and binary numbers
Combinational and sequential circuits
The basic logic gates
The OR and AND gates with diodes
The NOT gate with a transistor
Logic families
The Exclusive-OR, NOR, and NAND gates
Boolean identities and Boolean expressions
De Morgan's identities
The binary numbers. Binary arithmetic
The Decimal, Binary, Octal, and Hex systems
Bits and Bytes
Eight-bit arithmetic
1's complement and 2's complement
Addition and subtraction in 8-bit arithmetic
Overflow and carry
Binary multiplication and division
The adder
Flip-flops
the SR flip-flop
the D flip-flop
The JK flip-flop
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