Barbarians and Romans in North-west Europe: From the Later Republic to Late Antiquity 9780860546030, 9781407347585

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
Note on Abbreviations
Contributors
INTRODUCTION
Chapter 1: IDEOLOGY, SUBSIDIES AND TRADE: THE KING ON THE NORTHERN FRONTIER REVISITED
Chapter 2: THE USES OF ROMAN IMPERIALISM BY THE CELTIC BARBARIANS IN THE LATER REPUBLIC
Chapter 3: THE NATURE AND FUNCTION OF ROMAN FRONTIERS
Chapter 4: SUPPLYING THE SYSTEM: FRONTIERS AND BEYOND
Chapter 5: ROMAN AND BARBARIAN: THE ECONOMY OF ROMAN FRONTIER SYSTEMS
Chapter 6: FOOD FOR SOLDIERS, FOOD FOR THOUGHT
Chapter 7: BAUBLES, BANGLES AND BEADS: TRADE AND EXCHANGE IN ROMAN SCOTLAND
Chapter 8: BARBARIANS TO THE WEST
Chapter 9: ROMAN AND NATIVE IN ENGLAND NORTH OF THE TEES: ACCULTURATION AND ITS LIMITATIONS
Chapter 10: ACCULTURATION IN THE RHINE/MEUSE BASIN IN THE ROMAN PERIOD: SOME DEMOGRAPHICAL CONSIDERATIONS.
Chapter 11: BEYOND THE PALE: BARBARIAN SOCIAL DYNAMICS IN WESTERN EUROPE
Chapter 12: THE IMPACT OF THE ROMAN ARMY ON NORTH BRITAIN
CHAPTER 13: AFTERWORD: RENDER UNTO CAESAR...

Citation preview

Barbarians and Romans in North-West Europe from the later Republic to late Antiquity

edited by

John C. Barrett, Andrew P. Fitzpatrick and Lesley Macinnes

BAR International Series 4 71

1989

B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -S471, 1989: 'Barbarians and Romans in Iorth-West Europe' © The Individual Authors, 1989

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860546030 paperback ISBN 9781407347585 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860546030 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS.

Page

List of Figures.

3

List of Tables.

6

Note on Abbreviations.

7

Contributors

8

Introduction.

9

1.

2.

IDEOLO GY, SUBSIDIES AND TRADE: NORTHERN FRONTIER REVISITED. David Braund.

THE KING ON THE

14

THE USES OF ROMAN IMPERI.AbISM BY THE CELTIC BARBARIANS IN THE LATER REPUBLIC. A P Fitzpatrick.

27

3.

THE NATURE AND FUNCTiON OF ROMAN FRONTIERS. W S Hanson.

55

4.

SUPPLYING THE SYSTEM: C R Whittaker.

64

5.

ROMAN AND BARBARIAN: FRONTIER SYSTEMS. Michael Fulford.

FRONTIERS AND BEYOND. THE ECONOMY OF ROMAN

81

6.

FOOD FOR SOLDIERS, FOOD FOR THOUGHT. W Groenman-van Waateringe.

7.

BAUBLES, BANGLES AND BEADS: ROMAN SCOTLAND. Lesley Macinnes.

8.

96

TRADE AND EXCHANGE IN 108

BARBARIANS TO THE WEST. Barry Raftery.

117

ROMAN AND NATIVE IN ENGLAND NORTH OF THE TEES: ACCULTURATION AND ITS LIMITATIONS. N J Higham.

153

ACCULTURATION IN THE RHINE/M EUSE BASIN IN THE ROMAN PERIOD: DEMOGRAPHIC CONSIDERATIONS. J H F Bloemers.

175

BEYOND THE PALE: BARBARIAN SOCIAL DYNAMICS IN WESTERN EUROPE. M Parker Pearson.

198

12.

THE IMPACT OF THE ROMAN ARMY ON NORTH BRITAIN. David J Breeze.

227

13.

AFTERWORD: RENDER UNTO CAESAR. John C Barrett.

235

9.

10.

11.

1

L IST O F F IGURES 5 .1

D istribution o f c oins o f H adrian i n G ermany ( after D avies 1 983).

5 .2

D istribution o f R epublican c oin f inds i n G ermany ( after D avies 1 983).

5 .3

D istribution o f c oin f inds o f t he p eriod A D 2 94-317 i n G ermany ( after D avies

1 980 ) .

7 .1

P rincipal s ites m entioned i n C hapter 7 .

8 .1

W ooden r eplica o f H a C s word.

8 .2

B ronze h orse b its.

8 .3

B ronze h orse ' pendants'.

8 .4

B ronze s cabbard-plates a nd i ron s word.

8 .5

B ronze s pearbutts.

8 .6

L eather-covered w ooden s hield .

C oppagh , C o . K erry.

L ittleton B og,

C lonoura ,

C o

T ipperary . 8 .7

P ins a nd b rooches o f b ronze.

8 .8

B ronze N avan t ype b rooches.

8 .9

G old t orcs.

8 .10

Y ew-wood f igure.

8 .11

B ronze t rumpet f ragment.

8 .12

F ine-line o rnaments i n b ronze.

8 .13

B ronze ' spoons'.

8 .14

B ird-head h andle o f b ronze b owl.

8 .15

I ron a xe-mark o n t imber o f I ron A ge r oadway , C orlea, C o L ongford .

8 .16

I rish s cabbard

R alaghan , C o C avan .

s tyle .

L lyn C errig B ach, A nglesey .

K ershcarrigan , C o L eitrim .

D ecorative

d etail

o n b ronze

s cabbardplate .

R B ann . 8 .17

L ough C rew/Somerset s tyle .

8 .18

H illfort.

8 .19

I nland p romontory f ort.

8 .20

R athcoran, B altinglass H ill, C o W icklow .

C omparative d istributions .

K nockdhu , C o A ntrim . 1 , h illforts .

2 ,

I rish L a i nne m aterial,

e xcluding b eehive q uerns. 8 .21

I ron A ge s tructural r eamains.

D un A ilinne, C o K ildare.

3

8 .22

I ron A ge r ing b arrow .

8 .23

F ragment o f R oman s ilver p late.

9 .1

T he a gricultural e nvironment o f n orthern E ngland.

9 .2

S oil c onditions

a nd

t he

B alline , C o L imerick .

d istribution

o f

l ate

p rehistoric

a xes

a nd

t erritoria ,

a nd

h illforts i n n orthern E ngland . 9 .3

T he

R oman

f orts

o f

n orthern E ngland w ith n otional

1 0km r adius m arket z ones . 9 .4

E skdale i n t he R oman I ron A ge : m ilitary s ettlement a nd l and q uality i n W est C umbria .

9 .5

T he F rontier Z one o f N orthern B ritain .

1 0.1

S tructure o f I mperialism ( after G altung 1 973).

1 0 .2

D elta a nd h interland o f S cheldt, ( First

1 0 .3

o ccupation ,

M euse, R hine ,

i ndigenous

V echt

a nd E ms

t o t hird c enturies A D) .

R econstruction

o f

t he g eological

a nd

a rchaeological s ituation

i n

Z uid-Holland d uring t he R oman o ccupation ( after B loemers 1 979 ) . 1 0 .4

R elationship b etween b irthrate , c hild m ortality r ate a nd s urplus o f a ble-bodied m en , f or a 2 0 y ear p eriod .

1 0 .5

R elationship b etween t he n umber o f a ble-bodied m en p er h ousehold/20 y ears a nd t he n umber o f h ouseholds b odied m en .

1 0 .6

n ecessary

t o r ecruit

9 60

a ble-

T he r elationship b etween a s urplus o f a ble-bodied m en/20 y ears a nd t he r equired f armland p er h ousehold .

1 0 .7

T he r elationship b etween t he n umber o f h ouseholds

a nd r equired

l and

p er h ousehold f or a p opulated a rea o f 3 60 t o 4 40 s q k m . 1.1

R oman i mports o f t he f irst c entury B C ( after E ggers 1 951).

1.2

D istribution o f b lack-burnished p ottery ( a), i n r elation t o t he d istribution o f a ll p ottery ( b), a t t he l ater p re-Roman I ron A ge s ettlement a t H odde ( after S H vass 1 985) .

1.3

M ajor i mport g raves i n t he f irst c entury A D ( after E ggers 1 951).

1.4

F unen a nd s outhern J utland i n t he f irst c entury A D ( after A lbrectsen 1 956 ; 1 970 ; 1 973).

1.5

F unen

a nd

s outhern

J utland

A lbrectsen 1 956 ; 1 970 ;

i n

t he

s econd

c entury

A D

( after

1 973) .

1.6

M ajor i mport g raves i n t he s econd c entury A D ( after E ggers 1 951).

1.7

F unen a nd s outhern J utland i n ( after A lbrectsen 1 968 ;

t he

1 973).

4

t hird

a nd

f ourth

c enturies

A D

1.8

D istribution

o f v otive d eposits c ontaining m ilitary e quipment i n t he

w estern B altic i n t he L ate R oman a nd E arly H agberg

1.9

M ajor

G ermanic p eriods ( after

1 967 a nd L a B aume 1 971) .

i mportgraves

i n

t he

e arlier

t hird

c entury A D

( after

E ggers

1 951). 1.10

M ajor i mport g raves i n t he ( after

E ggers

l ater t hird a nd e arly f ourth c entury A D

1 951) .

5

L IST O F T ABLES 2 .1 1 0.1

S ome c ross-cultural e xchanges m entioned b y S trabo . P opulation e stimates b etween t he R hine a nd M euse ,

m id s econdcentury

A D . 1 0 .2

P ossible r atio o f u ninhabitable t o h abitable l and b etween R hine a nd M euse i n t he R oman p eriod .

6

N OTE O N A BBREVIATIONS T he b ibliographies e mploy t he C ouncil f or B ritish A rchaeology s tandard l ist o f a bbreviated t itles o f c urrent p eriodicals a nd t itles n ot i n t he l ist h ave b een a bbreviated t o t he s ame s tandard .

O ther a bbreviations a re l isted

b elow . C IL

C orpus I nscriptionum L atinarum .

B erlin ,

1 893 o nwards.

F IRA

SR iccobono 1 941:

I LS

H D essau ( ed ),

M AFF

M inistry o f A griculture, F isheries a nd F ood.

R CHM(E)

R oyal

F ontes I uris R omani A ntejustiani.

1 89219 16 :

F lorence.

I nscriptionum L atinae S electae .

B erlin .

C ommission o n t he A ncient Monuments a nd C onstructions o f

E ngland. R IB

C ollingwood , B ritain , 1 .

R IC

M attingly ,

R G a nd W right ,

R P 1 965 :

I nscriptions o n S tone. H B ,

S ydenham ,

T he R oman I mperial C oinage .

T he R oman I nscriptions o f

O xford.

E A a nd S utherland , L ondon .

7

C H V ( eds)

1 923 :

C ONTRIBUTORS JCB ARRETT D epartment o f A rchaeology , T he U niversity, G lasgow G 12 8 QQ . JH FB LOEMERS Albert E gges van G iffen I nstituut voor P rae- e n P rotohistorie ( IPP),

U niversiteit

van

A msterdam ,

S ingel

4 53,

N L- 1 012

W P

A msterdam . D C

B RAUND D epartment o f C lassics , U niversity o f E xeter , Q ueen 's B uilding , T he Q ueen 's D rive, E xeter E X4 4 QH ( and O riental I nstitute, O xford).

DJ

B REEZE H istoric B uildings a nd M onuments, S cottish D evelopment D epartment , 2 0 B randon S treet, E dinburgh E H3 5 DX .

A P

F ITZPATRICK D epartment o f A rchaeology , U niversity o f D urham , 4 6 S addler S treet , D urham D H1 3 NU.

M G

F ULFORD D epartment

o f A rchaeology ,

T he U niversity ,

W hiteknights ,

R eading

R G6 2 AA . W G ROENMAN-VAN W AATERINGE Albert E gges van G iffen I nstituut voor P rae- e n P rotohistorie ( IPP),

U niversiteit

van

Amsterdam ,

S ingel

4 53,

N L- 1 012

W P

A msterdam . W SH ANSON D epartment o f A rchaeology, T he U niversity , G lasgow G 12 8 QQ. NJH IGHAM D epartment o f E xtra-Mural S tudies , U niversity o f M anchester , O xford R oad, M anchester M 13 9 PL . LM ACINNES H istoric B uildings a nd M onuments,

S cottish D evelopment D epartment ,

2 0 B randon S treet, E dinburgh E H3 5 DX . M

P ARKER-PEARSON H istoric B uildings

a nd Monuments C ommission ( England ),

F ortress

H ouse, 2 3 S avile R ow , L ondon W 1X 2 HE. B

R AF1ERY D epartment o f A rchaeology , U niversity C ollege, U Z I ,- D ublin 4 .

CRW HITTAKER C hurchill C ollege, U niversity o f C ambridge, C ambridge C B3 O DS.

8

I NTRODUCTION J ohn C B arrett a nd A P F itzpatrick

T he

a rchaeology

o f

' culture

c ontact '

h as

b een t he

g eneral

t heme

o f

a

n umber o f r ecent s tudies o f t he l ate I ron A ge i n n orthern a nd c entral E urope . T hese h ave i solated t he o rganisational p roperties o f i ndigenous p re-contact

s ocieties,

d emonstrating t he w ay

t hese

p roperties

d etermined t he h istorical t rajectory o f t he c ontact p rocess . o ther d etermining f actor w as

t he

o rganisational

d emands

p artly

O bviously t he

o f R oman m ilitary

( and e conomic ) a ctivity . I t i s t he m ix o f t hese t wo , r elatively a utonomous p rocesses w hich s eemingly g ave r ise t o t he h istory o f a p articular f rontier r egion . W hilst t his l ine o f r easoning h as a nalytical s trengths , f or i t c learly h elps t o o rganise o ur t hinking, p roblems d o r emain .

I t i s t oo e asily

a ssumed t hat R oman a uthority w as t he d ominant f orce ; w hilst t his m ay b e t rue e lsewhere i t i s a n a ssumption w hich s urely n eeds m uch c loser e xamination i n f rontier r egions .

B ut a m ajor p roblem i n a rchaeology i s a lso t he w ay

n ative

s tudies

t raditionally

w hilst

R oman m ilitary h istory

A s

B urnham

h ave

a nd

J ohnson

l ain

r emains

h ave

n oted

w ithin

t he

t he

p reserve

( 1979 ,

2 )

s cope

o f

' p rehistory '

o f R oman a rchaeology . t his

d ivide

b etween

s pecialisations o ccurs a t t he v ery p oint w here t he p rocesses o f i ntegration n eed t o b e m ost c arefully a nalysed .

A f urther p roblem w hich a lso s ubverts

t he d emand f or h olistic s tudy i s t he d ifferent c onception o f h istory w hich b oth s pecialisations t end t o i mply . T he d ifference i s b est e xpressed i n t erms e laborated u pon b y B raudel ( 1980, 2 5 f f); b etween l ong c ycles o f h istorical m ovement , h istorical e vents .

t he

l ongue d urge ,

a nd t he s horter s urface r ipples

o f

F or s ome t ime n ow p rehistorians h ave b een c oncerned t o

u nderstand l ong-term p rocesses o f s ocial a nd e conomic c hange , j ust a s b y c ontrast R oman f rontier s tudies o ften r emain w edded t o t he p recise c hronologies o f e vents . c hronological

T his d istinction i s n ot j ust a m atter o f d ifferent

s cales o f a nalysis ,

n or o f d ifferent q ualities o f d ata ,

c oncerns p rofound d ifferences i n t he p erception d ifferences w hich a re n ot d irectly c ompatible .

o f

h istorical

b ut

p rocesses,

A u nified h istory m ust r ecognise , a s s ocial h istorians h ave a lways d one , t hat t he e vents o f i nvasion , c ampaigning a nd i mperial p olicy w ere f ormulated w ithin l onger t erm a nd d eeper s eated h istorical p rocesses . O thers h ave b egun t o e stablish t he w ay t his k ind o f h istory m ay b e w ritten f rom t he a rchaeology o f t his p eriod ( et B urnham a nd J ohnson 1 979 ; B randt a nd S loftra 1 983) a nd t he s tudies c ontained i n t his v olume c ontribute t o t hat e nquiry . T hey s pring f rom t wo c onferences h eld i n 1 984 a nd 1 985 . T he S cottish A rchaeological F orum m eeting , N ative S pace a nd R oman I nvaders h eld i n E dinburgh, a nd T he B arbarians h eld i n G lasgow , e xamined t he r elationship b etween I ron A ge i ndigenous c ommunities a nd R oman I mperial a uthority o n t he n orth-western l imits o f t he e mpire . E ach c onference w as s lightly d ifferent i n i ts a im .

T he F orum m eeting w as s pecifically c oncerned

w ith R oman/Native r elations, t he G lasgow c onference l ooked a t t he l ong-term h istory o f t hose s ocieties w hich e mpire . o f

c ommon

H owever , g round

l ay a t a nd b eyond t he m argins o f t he

b oth m eetings u ltimately e xplored a c onsiderable a mount a nd

t his

v olume h as

a risen f rom

t hat

s hared

e xperience .

P ublished h ere a re c ontributions d eriving f rom b oth c onferences a long w ith

9

s ome a dditional m aterial . F our m ain t hemes e merge . s ystems e ach

T he

f irst c oncerns

t he k inds o f

value

s ustained w ithin t he R oman a nd n ative w orlds w hich g uided t he w ay

d ealt

o nly a s

w ith

t he

o rganising

u pon w hich

o ther .

F itzpatrick

p rinciples

t hey m ight

f or

i nteract .

' barbarian ' p eoples a llows h im

A nd t o

i solates

p articular B raund 's

e xplain

k inship

s ocieties s tudy

t he

a nd w arfare

b ut

a s

n ot

p rinciples

o f R oman a ttitudes

p articular

p olicy ,

w hich h e i nterprets a s ' economic 'i mperialism ,

b eyond

t he n orthern f rontiers.

t o

f orm i mperial

t ook t owards n atives

T he e stablishment o f t hese f rontier z ones a round t he n orth-west o f t he e mpire f orms t he s econd t heme, f or t hese z ones w ith t heir m ilitary i nstallations p rocess .

i mposed

s omething

o f

t heir a wn l ogic u pon t he h istorical

H anson o utlines t he d evelopment o f R oman f rontiers a nd t he

m ilitary r equirements w hich w e m ight e nvisage f or t hese f rontier z ones a nd h ow t hese c hanging r equirements w ere s erviced b y t he m ilitary i nstallations t hemselves . B ut i t i s t he s upply o f t he f rontier, p articularly i n i ts m aterial r equirements , w hich d ominates a n umber o f t he p apers w hich c onsider t he d egree o f c ontrol t he R oman a uthorities m ay h ave b een a ble t o e xercise w ithin a nd b eyond t he f rontier z one . W hittaker r easserts t he i mportance o f u nderstanding t hat m echanisms e xisted t o s upply t he m ilitary n eeds o f t he f rontier f rom d eep w ithin t he e mpire . H e s uggests t hese m echanisms m ay h ave p layed a d ominant r ole i n t he m ovement o f m aterials t o b oth m ilitary a nd n on-military s ites, w ith

t hose

l eading t o t he c reation o f a h omogenous

t erritories w ithin

t he

f rontier

t hose t erritories w ithout t han t o t he r est o f t he p rovince . l ocal

z one

f rontier h aving g reater s imilarities B ut

t o

i t i s t he

r ather t han l ong d istance s upply o f r esources w hich m ost o ther

c ontributors

c onsider .

I n h is

p aper

F ulford

d isputes

t he

d egree

o f

i ntegration a nd i nterdependence o n b oth s ides o f t he F rontier e nvisaged b y W hittaker , a rguing i nstead t hat t he f rontier w as l argely s upplied f rom w ithin

t he

p rovinces .

G roenman-van W aateringe

c onsiders

t he

f luctuating

s ources o f g rain a vailable t o t he R oman a rmy i n n orth-western c ontinental E urope a nd s upply .

s uggests

t hat

t hey

o scillated

B loemers a lso c onsiders

b etween

l ong-distance a nd

l ocal

t his c hanging r elationship a nd p ays

p articular a ttention t o t he p reviously n eglected d emographic i mpact o f a s tanding a rmy , f irst a s a f orm o f c olonialism a nd s ubsequently t hrough i ts d emand f or l ocal r ecruits . H igham

l ooks

a t

o ne

r egion

i mmediately b ehind w hat h as u sually b een

c onsidered t o b e t he f rontier z one i n n orth-west E ngland .

H e e xamines t he

s orts o f e conomic c hanges w hich m ight b e r ecognised r esulting f rom t he s upply d emands o f t he R oman a rmy , s etting h is a nalysis i n t he c ontext o f l ong-term e cological

c hange .

H e

s uggests

p recluded l arge-scale ' r caanisation ' . r eviews

t he

e xtent

t hat t he d emands

M acinnes,

o f

t he m ilitary

i n h er s tudy o f S cotland ,

t o w hich R oman p roducts m ay h ave b een c irculating a nd

b eing d eposited b eyond t he f rontier . W hatever t he n ature o f t he e xchange o f t he s ubsistence r equirements f or t he a rmy , M acinnes a rgues t hat a lthough t he q uantity o f R oman m aterial

b eyond

t he f rontier m ay b e s mall

i n c omparison

w ith o ther a reas, i ts s ignificance s hould n ot b e u nderestimated a nd t hat i t w as p robably d irected t o s pecific g roups a mongst t he n ative e lites . T he

t hird

t heme

i s

t he

i ndependent

d evelopment

o f

a reas

b eyond

t he

f rontiers t hroughout t he p re-Roman I ron A ges . P arker P earson c onsiders s outhern S candinavia a nd n orthern G ermany . H e g ives a c ritical a ppraisal o f r ecent i deas c oncerning c ulture c ontact w hich e xplain s ocial c hanges i n r egions b eyond t he ' core a rea ' o f e mpire i n t erms o f p restige g ift e xchange

1 0

b y d emonstrating t he i mportance o f o ther , i nternal f actors , s uch a s w arfare a nd l ong-term c hanges i n t he c ontrol f or I reland ,

o f a gricultural

p roduction .

R aftery ,

s ynthesises h is o wn r ecent m onographs a nd c onsiders f ully t he

r ange o f a rchaeological d ata w hich d efine a n I rish I ron A ge w hose u ltimate t ransformation w as t o c reate t he k ingdoms o f t he e arly h istoric p eriod . T he r aised

f inal

b y

t heme

i s

o ne

o f

r eflection

t he a pproaches a nd q uestions p ut

o n

t he

d ifficulties

f orward i n t his

w hich

v olume .

a re

B reeze

c onsiders t he s hortcomings o f t he a rchaeological r ecord o f n orthern B ritain a gainst t hese d emands a nd f inds i t w anting i n e nvironmental a nalyses, p roblem-orientated e xcavations a nd i ntegrated a rtefact c oncludes

b y e mphasising

r equired .

t hat

a b etter u nderstanding o f

s tudies .

H e

'r omanisation ' i s

I n c ontrast, B arrett c hallenges t he v alue o f t his c oncept,

a rguing t hat i t

i s a s elf-fulfilling c oncept w hich h as r eached t he e nd o f

i ts u sefulness . t he i nteraction ,

H e p roposes a n a lternative a ttempt a t a n u nderstanding o f b ased n ot o n t he c ultural d iffusionism o f ' romanisation ' o r

' acculturation ' ,

b ut o n t he w ays i n w hich n ew c ultural v alues w ere a chieved

a nd s ustained , e mphasising t he i deological r ather t han t he m aterial . P erhaps t he m ost e ncouraging f eature o f t he v olume i s t he w ay t hat a ll t he

a uthors

c onsider

a rchaeological

b arbarian

a nd w ritten

a nd

R oman

s ources .

M ost

a like

a nd

a re

a lso

a ttempt w illing

t o

i ntegrate

t o

c onsider

v arying g eographical a nd c hronological s cales o f a nalysis a nd d raw o n e vide nce f rom e lsewhere i n E urope , a s w ell a s c omparative s tudies, a lbeit t o a l esser e xtent .

I deally t his s hould n ot o ccasion c omment a s t hese a re

a pproaches w hich m any s cholars w ould s ympathise w ith ,

b ut i t i s f air t o s ay

t hat s uch c atholicism h as b een r are i n t his f ield o f s tudy i n r ecent y ears . T he d ivide b etween R oman a nd b arbarian i s s till s harp i n , l atest L imeskongress a cta ( 1986) . p rogress w ill d epend o n i ntegrated t hose o n R oman c oins

f or e xample ,

A s m any c ontributors c omment , r esearch . A t p resent , s tudies

i nside a nd o utside t he f rontier i n G ermany ,

t he

f urther s uch a s

b y D avies

( 1983), o r o n s amian i n b arbaricum b etween P annonia a nd D acia , b y G abler a nd V aday ( 1986), a re n otable f or t heir r arity a s w ell a s t heir c ontent . T he i deas o utlined b y B loemers i n h is p aper a re i ntended t o f urther d evelop t he a rchaeology o f t he N etherlands w hich , a s W illems h as e legantly d emonstrated , i s a lready o utstanding i n t he q uality o f i ts i nformation a nd i nterpretation ( 1984) .

T his

i s t he s tandard w hich t his h oped f or r esearch m ust m atch a nd

s urpass. W hile t he p apers c ollected h ere a re c ertainly n either t he f irst n or t he l ast s tep , i t a ppears t o b e a s ure o ne i n w hat w e b elieve t o b e t he r ight d irection . N one t he l ess, d ifficulties s till r emain . W hile i t i s g enerally

a greed

t hat

p rogress

i s

s till

i nterpretation o f a rchaeological d ata, s ources i s o ften t hought t o b e e xempt

f rom t his .

a mongst

t hose p apers w hich a pproach

s ources

t o c haracterise t hem a s a n i deal

r eflects

t he

t imeless w orld w hich

r equired

B ut

t he b arbarians t he

i n

t he

c ollection

a nd

t he i nterpretation o f l iterary

a historical

a ncient

t here i s a t endency

p rimarily f rom w ritten t ype .

I n p art

b arbarians w ere

t his

t hought

t o

o ccupy o n t he f ringes o f t he k nown w orld b y t he c lassical w orld , b ut i t a lso r eflects o ne f acet o f m odern h istorical s tudy . I n c ontrast, t he c hronological d epth a vailable i n a rchaeological s ources p rompts a r ather d ifferent a pproach . W aateringe 's p aper ,

T his i s b rought o ut m ost c learly i n G roenman-van

w here s he d istinguishes a s eries o f c hanges w hich m ight

h ave b een m issed i f s he h ad a dopted a n h istorical c haracterisation . S ome a reas a re a lso n ot c overed s atisfactorily . W hile t he p resent v olume

s ubstantially

r eflects

a n

i ncreasingly

1

f ruitful

d ebate a cross

t he

s ubject b oundaries o f p rehistoric a nd R oman s tudies , i t a lso r eflects a s c learly t he g ap b etween R oman a nd e arly M edieval s tudies w hich w as a pparent a t

t he c onferences .

L astly ,

i mpressive t hough m uch o f

t he a nalyses

o utlined h ere a re , d iscussion o f t he s ocieties a nd a ctors i nvolved , b oth b arbarian a nd R oman , s till h as f ar t o g o . W e h ope t hat t hese p apers g ive g round f or o ptimism a nd d ebate i n t hese f ields .

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS T he S cottish A rchaeological F orum w as h eld i n E dinburgh a nd t hanks a re d ue t o t he F orum C ommittee a nd t he s taff o f E dinburgh U niversity f or t heir h elp w ith t he o rganization . T he ' Barbarians ' C onference w as h eld i n G lasgow . M ike P arker P earson h elped t hroughout i n t he o rganization o f t his c onference a nd w e w ould l ike t o t hank t he r esearch s tudents i n t he D epartment o f A rchaeology f or t heir h elp i n t he r unning o f t he c onference . T he c onference w as s upported b y g enerous g rants f rom G lasgow A rchaeological S ociety a nd t he R ussell T rust . L orraine

M cEwan h elped i n t he p reparation o f a n umber o f t he f igures

f or p ublication .

1 2

B IBLIOGRAPHY B RANDT , C ountries :

R W a nd S LOFSTERA ,

J

( FDS) 1 983 :

s pheres o f i nteraction .

( Oxford,

R oman a nd N ative i n t he L ow B rit A rchaeol

R ep I nt

S er

1 84). B RAUDEL,

F 1 980:

O n H istory . L ondon .

B URNHAM , B CA ND J OHNSON , HB J ohnson (bdote ,

1 979 :

I ntroduction .

H B ( Eds), I nvasion a nd R esponse : B rit A rchaeol R ep B rit S er 7 3),

DAVIES,

J A

1 983:

1 -8 .

A S urvey o f R oman C oin D istribution o n t he

F rontier w ith F ree G ermany . GABLER ,

I n B urnham , B Ca nd

t he c ase o f R oman B ritain .

D a nd VADAY,

S aalburg J ahrb 3 9 , A H ,

z wischen P annonien u nd D azien .

1 986:

B udapest ,

1 33-41 .

T erra S igillata i n B arbaricum F ontes A rcheol H ungariae ) .

S tudien z u d en M ilitärgrenzen R oms I II .

( Stuttgart ,

F orsch u B er v or-

u F rühgesch B aden Württemberg 2 0 ) . W ILLENS ,

W J H ,

1 984 :

D utch e astern R iver a rea , 1 984 ( 1986), 3 9-331 .

R omans a nd B atavians .

A r egional

s tudy i n t he

I I . B er R ijksdienst Oudheid B odemonderzoek 3 4,

1 3

C hapter 1 I DEOLOGY , S UBSIDIES A ND T RADE : T HE K ING O N T HE N ORTHERN F RONTIER R EVISITED D avid B raund

I n m y r ecent

b ook ,

R ome a nd t he F riendly K ing ( Braund 1 984) I h ave

t ried t o e xplore t he p olitics a nd d iplomacy o f t he r elationships b etween R ome a nd f riendly r ulers . I n t his p aper I n ow w ant t o p ay m ore a ttention t o t he s ocial a nd e conomic d imensions o f t hese r elations, w ith s pecial r eference t o t he n orth , C onventionally t he p eoples o f t he n orth a re t ermed ' barbarians ' ; I u se t hat t erm a s c onvenient s hort-hand , i mplying n either v aluejudgment n or i gnorance o f l ocal v ariations b etween p eoples . e stablish t hree b asic p ropositions , a s f ollows :

Iw ish t o

1 . T hat t he n otion o f a m oral b arrier o n t he R hine a nd D anube n eeds c onsiderable m odification , b ut , o nce m odified , h elps u s t o u nderstand t he i deology b ehind t ke p ayment o f s ubsidies a nd R uman r estrictions o n t rade . 2 . T hat t he f unctions o f s ubsidies c an o nly b e u nderstood i n t he c ontext o f b arbarian s ociety . 3 . T hat t rade w ith R ome i s i mportant, a nd p ossibly v ital, p osition o f t he f riendly k ing .

t o t he

A s Io bserved i n m y b ook , t he c ontinuity f rom R epublican t hrough e arly i mperial i nto l ate i mperial p ractice s eems g reater t han n ormally i magined . I n h is c lassic p aper a t t he f irst c ongress o n R oman f rontiers , A lföldi a rgued t hat ' the f rontier l ine w as a t t he s ame t ime t he l ine o f d emarcation b etween t wo f undamentally d ifferent r ealms o f t hought , w hose m oral c odes d id n ot e xtend b eyond t hat b oundary%(1) E ssentially , h e a rgued t hat t he R omans t hought t hat t o d eceive , m istreat o r m urder t hose b eyond t he R hineD anube f rontier w as s imply n ot a m oral i ssue . F rontier s tudies h ave c ome f ar s ince t he f irst c ongress . A nd , a s W hittaker h as r ecently o bserved , t hey n ow s it r ather u neasily w ith A lföldi 's m odel o f am oral b arrier .(2) A t t he s ame t ime , A lföldi 's m odel t ends t o c onflict w ith w hat w e m ay c all " the r ules o f i deology" , t hat i s, ' the ' R oman v iew o r a ttitude t ends t o v ary g reatly t o t he p oint o f s elfc ontradiction d epending u pon w hich R oman i s i n q uestion a nd u pon t he c ircumstances o btaining a t a ny g iven t ime a nd p lace . F or e xample, s ubsidies m ay b e v iewed a s s ubtle , d iplomatic g ifts w hen g iven b y a ' good ' e mperor e mperor

l ike T rajan , b ut a s t he p its o f d egradation w hen g iven b y a I me l ike D omitian .(3) W e s hould t herefore e xpect t he R oman v iew o f

n orthern b arbarians

t o b e a k aleidoscope o f c olours ,

n ot s imply b lack o r

w hite . W e s hould b ear i n m ind t hat m any o f t hese b arbarians w ere m en w ho h ad s erved w ith t he R oman a rmy a nd h eld c itizenship . M uch m ore i mportant , t here i s a lso t he t heme o f t he ' noble s avage ' . A c lassic t ext i s T acitus '

1 4

G ermania , w here t he a uthor f inds m uch t o r ecommend i n G erman s ociety . I n s everal r espects G ermans d isplay t he b est f eatures o f t raditional R oman m orality

- a m orality w hich ,

c orrupted

i n R ome

s ecret s hows

i tself .

l ove-letters a re n ot i s a bsent .

p olitical

d ebate .

T here

n o

i s

u sury:

v iew ,

s ays

h as

n ow b een

T acitus,

a dultery

l argely i s

r are ,

e xchanged a nd t he c orruption c aused b y p ublic

I n G ermany , T here i s

h e s ays,

s imple f ood ;

f unerals

c onspicuous e xpenditure . m otives .

o n T acitus '

I n G ermany ,

a re

t here i s

f reedom o f

f reedmen a re k ept

n ot

o ccasions

f or

s peech i n

i n t heir p lace . o stentation a nd

A nd h airdressing i s p ractised o nly f or t he b est o f

S uch i deas r ecur m uch l ater w ith r egard t o t he R ed I ndians o f t he

A merican W ild W est .

O f c ourse,

' ignoble s avage ' -n ot

l east i n t he G ermania i tself

t here a re a lso n egative m yths o f t he -b ut

t hese s hould n ot

b lind u s t o t he e xistence a nd p rominence o f t he p ositive a ttitudes t o b e f ound i n T acitus a nd e lsewhere . I t i s p erhaps w orth n oting t hat, u nlike s ome m odern s cholars T homas M ore w as w ell a ware o f t he p ositive f eatures o f t he G ermania a nd b uilt t hem i nto h is U topia .(4) A lföldi s tresses t he f act t hat R oman f orces a re o ften s aid t o d evastate a nd s laughter n orth o f t he R hine a nd D anube w ith t he a uthor 's e vident a pproval.

O f

c ourse

t his w as

n othing

n ew ;

p articular

c haracterised R oman I mperialism f rom t he f irst . (5) t hat s ome o f A lföldi 's i n p oint t owards

e xamples a ctually t ell a gainst h is a rgument .

i s D io 's a ccount o f t he A lamanni .

b rutality h ad

Y et i t m ust b e s tressed

C aracalla 's

d eceitful

a nd m urderous

Ac ase

v iolence

A lföldi f ails t o o bserye t hat D io r oundly c ondemns

C aracalla f or t his b ehaviour . T his i s n ot a g leeful a ccount o f R omans s laughtering b arbarians - q uite t he r everse . D io s tates : ' The G ermanic n ations

h owever

a fforded

h im n either

p leasure

n or

a ny

s pecious

w isdom o r c ourage ,

b ut p roved h im t o b e a d ownright c heat ,

a n a rrant

( Dio

c oward . '

7 7 .13 .3 ,

L oeb

t ranslation ) .

c laim

t o

a s impleton a nd

I ndeed

t his

c ase

a part ,

A lföldi v ery r easonably a dmits t hat m any o f h is e xamples a re m ore o r l ess e quivocal . (6) I n f act t here w as e ven s ome t radition a t R ome o f f air p lay a gainst s lots

e nemies ,

i nto

i ncluding

n ortherners .

A w ell-attested

l ong-standing R epublican t radition .

T his

u nderstandable d erision a mong s ome s cholars a nd i s l ip-service . r eduction i f ,

s uch l ip-service i s

a s A lföldi h olds ,

d imension . ' I

T acitus

f ind

S enate , c hief

e asily d ismissed a s m ere

B ut e ven i f w e r educe i t t o t hat

s implistic),

d ealings

w ith

a l etter w as

A dgandestrius ,

w ere s ent

l evel ( and I f ind t he

i tself s urely i ncomprehensible

f oreigners/northerners

h ad

n o m oral

s tates :

f rom c ontemporary a uthors, t hat

s tory i n T acitus

t radition m eets w ith

r ead

p romising

f or t he p urpose .

i n t he

w ho w ere members

t he

S enate

f rom t he

d eath o f A rminius

T he S enate r eplied t hat

i f

o f

t he

C hattan p oison

' it w as n ot

b y t reason n or i n t he d ark b ut o penly a nd i n a rms t hat t he R oman p eople t ook v engeance o n t heir f oes ' ,

a h igh s aying i ntending t o

p lace T iberius o n a l evel w ith t he o ld c ommanders w ho p rohibited a nd d isclosed

t he

( Toe A nn 2 .88 , O n

t his

t ext

t ransparent ,

Alföldi

h e

o ffer

t o

p oison K ing P yrrhus '

a dapted f rom L oeb v ersion ) . c laims

( Tiberius)

w ould

t hat h ardly m eets t he p oint :

' If

t he

s hrink

d eceit f rom

t he p assage

t hem .

a nd

t rickery

( Alföldi

w ere

1 952,

7 )

t oo b ut

i ndicates a c ertain t radition o f

f air p lay a nd s hows t hat s uch m atters c ould i ndeed h ave a m oral d imension . A nd w hy s hould T iberius s hrink f rom o pen d eceit i f m orality d id n ot c ount w here

b arbarians

w ere

c oncerned?

I f ind

A lföldi 's

d ismissal

o f

C ato 's

p rosecution o f C aesar f or h is r uthless a ttack u pon t he U sipetes a nd T encteri

1 5

n o m ore c ogent .(7) O f c ourse t his w as a p olitical m anoeuvre b ut i t w as o nly c onceivable a s s uch b ecause d ealings w ith b arbarians c ould h ave a m oral a nd l egal d imension . W e m ay a lso c ompare AL M . 1.19 w here T acitus f eels t he n eed t o j ustify C orbulo 's a ction a gainst G annascus . I n R oman t hought t he m orality o f a ctions ' beyond t he f rontier ' w as , p ace A lföldi , a n i ssue . I t w as e nmeshed w ith t he m orality o f a ctions ' inside ' t he f rontier a rea - n ot l east b ecause t he s ame i ndividuals w ere i nvolved i n b oth . T he e mperor w ho , l ike C aracalla , b ehaved i mmorally a broad w as l ikely t o d o t he s ame a t h ome . F inally ,

i t m ust a lso b e s tressed t hat m any p eoples w ithin t he e mpire

a s c onceived b y A lföldi a re r egularly v iewed i n t erms a s n egative a s t hose a pplied t o n ortherners - s avage S ardinians , s limy G reeks , c annibalistic , a nimal-worshipping E gyptians , e tc .(8 ) I n o ther w ords t here i s n o c lear-cut d ivide b etween ' us ' w ithin t he f rontiers a nd ' f lume o utside . O ccasional r hetoric a part , t he f rontiers a re s imply n ot r egarded a s c ritical l ines o f d ivision i n t hat s ense . Much m ore i mportant i n f act, a re t he l ines o f d ivision o perating w ithin R oman s ociety a nd w ithin t he e mpire a s c onceived b y A lföldi . A nd t hese l ines h ave m uch m ore t o d o w ith i deology t han w ith s imple g eography . T his f act p erhaps h elps t o a ccount f or t he s ettlement o f n ortherners w ithin p rovincial t erritory . D ifficult a nd d angerous t hough i t m ay b e , c ulturally a nd m orally a s w ell a s m ilitarily , b arbarians c ould b e c ivilised i nto ' b etter ' w ays .(9 ) B ut I d o n ot w ish t o d eny t he i mportance o f ar esidual t ruth , w hich s tands a l ittle a t o dds w ith m y l ast p oint . A lföldi m ust b e r ight t o t he e xtent t hat n orthern b arbarians a re i ndeed o ften r egarded i n n egative t erms a nd i t m ay r eadily b e a greed t hat t his n egative v iew i s i n f act t he d ominant v iew . C entral t o t his v iew i s t he n otion t hat b arbarians a pproximate t o a nimals a nd i n p articular t hat , l ike a n imals , t hey a re i rrational . I n t heir i rrationality t hey f luctuate w ildly b etween a bject s ubmission a nd t he m ost v iolent a ggression . F rgzouls h as r ecently d emonstrated t he p oint v ery w ell f or A mmianus , w ho r egards b arbarians i n p recisely t hese t erms . A nd A lföldi r ightly d raws a ttention t o V elleius ' v iew t hat t he G ermans a re a nimals w ho h ave n othing i n c ommon w ith h uman b eings e xcept t heir l imbs a nd v oices. ( 10) F rgzouls s tresses a nd A lföldi r ightly a ssumes t hat s uch a s tereotype m ust h ave h ad a p owerful i nfluence u pon d ecision-making a t R ome , c ontending w ith a nd u sually d efeating m ore p ositive a ttitudes . W e c annot h ope t o d etail o r q uantify t his i nfluence , b ut I w ould a rgue t hat s ubsidies a nd t rade c ontrols a re v ery a ppropriate t o t he s tereotype o f t he i rrational a nd d angerous b arbarian b east - t hat n egative R oman c onceptions o f b arbarians h elp t o e xplain a nd p rovide a c ontext f or R oman t reatment o f t hem . A s urprising h elp i s P lato 's R epublic . I n i t P lato c ompares t he A thenian p opular a ssembly t o ag reat b east a nd t ells u s t hat t o c ontrol t hat b east , p oliticians a ct i n t he m anner o f b east-trainers , p andering t o i ts l ikes a nd d islikes . T he k ey p oint i s t hat f or P lato , t he i rrational b east c an o nly b e c ontrolled i n m aterial a nd e motional w ays a nd n ot b y r eason . A nd P lato i s n o e xception . B east-training w as s till a m etaphor f or p olitical g overnment i n T acitus ' d ay ; h is c ontemporary , S tatius , c ompares a t yrannical e mperor t o a c ruel b east-trainer : a gain , t he t rainer c ontrols t he b east b y m aterial m eans - i n p articular , i ts f ood . (11) I f , a s s eems t o b e t he c ase , t he R oman g overnment w as i ndeed d isposed t o c onceive o f b arbarians a s i rrational a nimals , a nd i f i t w as h eld t hat i rrational a nimals w ere t o b e c ontrolled b y m aterial m eans , e specially f ood ,

1 6

t hen w e s hould e xpect R ome t o c ontrol b arbarians b y s uch m eans - o r a t l east t o t ry t o d o s o . T his, I s uggest, i s a n i mportant p art o f t he i deology b ehind t he p ayment o f s ubsidies a nd t rade c ontrol w here b arbarians a re c oncerned . I t w as o bvious a nd a ppropriate f or R ome t o s eek t o c ontrol b arbarians b y m aterial m eans f or t hat i s h ow o ne c ontrols a nimals a nd t hat i s e ssentially w hat t hey a re . Is tress ' o bvious a nd a ppropriate ' : w e n eed n ot s uppose t hat i t w as e ver e ntirely t hought o ut . s hould n ote t hat b oth V elleius p oint e xplicitly . (12)

I t w as s imply u nderstood ,

a nd T acitus

a lthough

w e

c ome v ery c lose t o m aking m y

M y s econd p roposition i s t hat t he f unctions o f s ubsidies c an o nly b e u nderstood i n t he c ontext o f b arbarian s ociety . O ur i nformation o n b arbarian s ociety i s n ot a ll t hat w e m ight w ish b ut w e c an p ut t ogether a f airly r eliable g eneral p icture . Iw ant t o d raw a ttention t o s ome c entral f eatures o f t hat p icture . W ealth i s o bviously c rucial t o a nyone w ith s ocial a nd p olitical a spirations i n b arbarian s ociety . T he p ower o f r eligion m ay p erhaps b e a llowed a s e xceptional . W ealth w as t he c ornerstone o f p atronage , w hich w as v ital : t he w ealthy m an a ttracted a nd m aintained a f ollowing b y d istributing h is w ealth . H e g ave h is f ollowers f ood a nd e ntertainment i n t he f orm o f f easts , t ogether w ith g ifts o f o ther g oods , n ot l east w eapons . H is f ollowers r esponded w ith s ervices a nd p erhaps a lso g oods . T he w ealthier t he p atron , t he b igger t he f ollowing a nd t hus t he g reater t he p ower a nd i nfluence o f t hat p atron . T he g reatest p atron w as t he r uler . T he c entrality o f t his s ort o f p atronage t o b arbarian s ociety i s a ffirmed a nd r e-affirmed b y o ur s ources f rom c lassical a ntiquity w ell i nto t he M iddle A ges .(13) A nother r ecurrent f eature i s t hat t his f ollowing w as e specially a w arf ollowing . A t t he s ame t ime , w arfare o r b andit-raids m ight c onstitute a r ite o f p assage i n b arbarian s ociety f rom b oyhood t o m anhood . (14) W arfare w as t hus e ndemic t o b arbarian s ociety i n g eneral a nd t o t hese f ollowings i n p articular , t hough w e m ust r emember t hat o ur R oman s ources i nevitably c oncentrate o n t he m ilitary a spect o f b arbarian s ociety . L et u s c onsider t he f unctions o f s ubsidies i n t he c ontext o f t his p icture o f b arbarian s ociety . B y s o d oing w e c an h elp t o m ake u p f or t he s hortage o f e xplicit e vidence o n t hese f unctions . T he p atron n eeded w ealth a nd t he g reatest p atron , t he k ing , n eeded t he g reatest w ealth . W ho r eceived s ubsidies p aid b y R ome? O ne i magines t hat t he k ing u sually r eceived t hem i n t he f irst i nstance , t hough t he e vidence i s s parse a nd r ather e quivocal . I t s hould n ow b e o bvious t hat s uch a r uler c ould e asily u se s uch s ubsidies w ithin t he c ontext o f b arbarian s ociety t o b olster h is o wn p osition a s r uler . I n o ther w ords , a p rimary f unction o f R oman s ubsidies t o t he r uler ' was t o k eep t hat r uler i n p ower . P aid e lsewhere , t hey c ould o bviously b e s ubversive b y t he s ame m echanism . As econdary f unction w ill h ave t herefore b een t o r ecommend R oman f riendship t o o thers . A t t he s ame t ime , R ome w as e specially c oncerned t hat t he f riendly r uler s hould p revent r aids o n R oman o r f riendly t erritory . B ut t his c ould b e d ifficult i n a s ociety i n w hich r aids w ere p art o f t he s ocial f abric a nd t o t ry t o s top r aids w ould b e t o b reak s ocial n orms . I f t he r uler w ere t o a chieve t hat , h e w ould n eed a ll t he r einforcement s ubsidies c ould b ring h im . I n p articular , h e m ight u se s ubsidies t o c ompensate t hose i n h is t ribe w ho w ould o therwise h ave t aken p art i n r aids , p art o f w hose f unction w as t he

1 7

a cquisition o f w ealth . t he m ost

s atisfactory

Y et t his c ould o nly m itigate t he p roblem . s olution w as

t o

d irect

t he

s ocial

n eed

P erhaps

f or w arfare

a way f rom R ome a nd h er f riends t owards p eoples h ostile t o R ome . A ll

t his ,

m inimize

I s tress,

t he k ing 's

i s e asier s aid t han d one .

p roblem ,

W e s hould n ot s eek t o

t hough R ome m ight n ot b e s o u nderstanding .(15)

A nd o f c ourse t he p roblem w ill o nly h ave i ncreased u nder t he P rincipate a s t he f rontier z one f lourished t hrough t he i nflux o f r esources f rom w ealthier p rovinces

a nd a s

R ome

a nd

h er

f riends

t hus

o ffered

e ver

m ore

a ttractive

t argets. ( 16) A t

t he

s ame

t ime,

i n

s o

f ar

a s

s ubsidies

s trengthened

a t ribe

( especially b y p romoting t he s tability o f i ts g overnment ), t hey h elped i t t o p erform i ts f unction a s a b uffer f or R ome a gainst o ther t ribes . I n p articular ,

t hose i n r eceipt o f R oman s ubsidies m ight p ass t hem o n t o o ther

h ostile p eoples .

Z osimus r egards s ubsidies p aid t o t he B osporan k ingdom a s

ap rincipal f actor i n o bstructing p otential S cythian r aids u pon t he p rovince o f A sia a nd

i t

i s

i nteresting t hat h e s peaks o f t rade i n t he s ame b reath .

D io t ells u s t hat t he y oung B attarius a nd h is f ollowers r eceived m oney f rom M arcus A urelius a nd t hen h eld b ack a h ostile n eighbour w ho d emanded m oney f rom t hem w ith m enaces .

T hey p resumably h eld h im b ack b y p aying w ith

Marcus ' m oney . Moreover , T acitus t ells u s t hat t he p ayment t raditional p ractice i n G erman i nter-tribal r elations e nough ,

T acitus

t radition .(17) w ithin o ften t hat

t he

r elates

O nce

m ore

p re-existing

c onceived

t he w e

s ubsidies

f ind

t hat

s tructures

i n q uasi-moral

t hey c an n ow b e s een a s

t erms

p aid

R oman

b y

o f s ubsidies w as a nd , i nterestingly

R ome

s ubsidies

o f

b arbarian s ociety .

a s

' bribes '

v ery u seful,

o r

a s

t o

w ere

t hat

v ery

e asily

u sed

S ubsidies a re

' tribute ' .

i f n ot n ecessary ,

I h ope

f or k ing a nd

R ome a like . B y p aying s ubsidies R ome h elped t he k ing d o w hat s he w anted h im t o d o , t o t heir m utual b enefit . F inally o n t his t opic , w e s hould n ote t hat ' subsidies ' a re o ften c alled ' gifts ' b y o ur s ources . A s s uch , t hey s uit b oth k ing a nd R oman e mperor i n a nother w ay . T he c onferral o f g ifts b y ab eneficent e mperor w as c entral t o t he i deology o f t he P rincipate , a nd t he b arbarian k ing - a s T acitus s tates e xpected t o r eceive g ifts a s am ark o f h onour .

S ubsidies c ould t hus s atisfy

n ot o nly h arsh s ocial a nd e conomic r ealities b ut a lso t he v alue-system o f b oth

d onor

a nd

r ecipient .(18 )

B ut

o f

v iew o f s ubsidies t ends t o p redominate ,

c ourse ,

f or a ll

t hat ,

t he

n egative

b oth i n a ntiquity a nd t oday .

M y t hird p roposition i s t hat t rade i s i mportant t o a nd p ossibly v ital t o t he p osition o f t he f riendly k ing . T here i s p lenty o f e vidence f or p roblems o f f ood s upply a mong t he b arbarians . T he m ost o bvious s ymptom i s b arbarian l and-hunger , g enerated b y w arfare a nd a gro-climatological p roblems .(19 ) I t i s b ecoming e ver m ore a pparent t hat s hortages .(20) o r i mport

e ven t he b est g rain-producing a reas m ight s uffer r ecurrent F aced b y s uch p roblems , t he t ribe m ight e ither m ove , s tarve

t hrough t rade o r s eizure ,

n on-essential g oods .(21)

a nd o f c ourse t here w as a lso t rade i n

T he e arly h istory o f t he L ombards a s t old a t t he

b eginning o f P aul t he D eacon 's H istoria L angobardorum i s o ne o f m any a vailable i llustrations o f t he i mpact o f f ood s hortage i n t he n orth, w hatever

i ts

p recise

h istoricity .

B arbarians

t rade w ith R ome .

1 8

b oth

w anted

a nd

n eeded

t o

Y et R ome w as a lso c oncerned t o l imit a nd c ontrol t rade . a re r epeated :

T wo r easons

1 . T he w ish n ot t o s trengthen e nemies b y s upplying t heir d eficiencies ( et m y f irst p roposition ) . 2 . T he f ear t hat t rade n ight a llow e spionage .(22) B oth r easons r elate t o t hose h ostile t o R ome . T he i mplication , p rima f acie , m ust b e t hat f riendly b arbarians c an s upply t heir n eeds a nd t rade w ith R ome . E xamples a re e asy t o f ind . I n t he s econd c entury B C a N orican k ing s ought a nd w as g ranted p ermission t o e xport h orses f rom I taly . M aroboduus s eems t o h ave e njoyed as pecial t rading r elationship b y v irtue o f h is f riendship w ith R ome . T he H ermunduri a re m ost o ften c ited . T he j urist P aulus, a s q uoted b y t he D igest, p uts i t i n t hese t erms: ' As w ith i ron , g rain o r s alt, i t i s n ot p ermitted , o n p ain o f d eath , t o s ell t he f lints n eeded f or s triking f ire t o e nemies ( hostibus)% (23) O n o ne l evel, t his m ay b e s een a s t he e xtension o f a p rohibition o n a iding a h ostis w hich s eems a s o ld a s R ome i tself . T hat p rohibition r elates e specially t o R omans w ho h ave t ransgressed t he l aw s o s eriously a s t o b e p unished b y d egradation t o t he s tatus o f h ostis . O ur q uotation f rom P aulus, I s uggest, e mbodies t he a pplication o f t his o ld p rohibition t o t he c ase o f t rade w ith h ostile p eoples . T hat a pplication a ccords w ith t he a ncient R oman p ractice o f r egulating i nter-state t rade b y l aw , t he i us c ommercii , w hereby t rading b estowed o n f riends . I n o ther w ords, r eaching d eep d own i nto R oman h istory . g eneral p rinciple h eld i t r ight t o h elp e conomic m atters o r o therwise .

r ights a re c onceived a s p rivileges P aulus ' s tatement h as f irm r oots I t i s p art o f am orality w hich a s a f riends a nd h arm e nemies , w hether i n

T rading p rivileges c an o nly h ave r einforced t he p osition o f t he f riendly k ing a nd b ecause o f t his f riendship h is p eople a te - o r , l ess d ramatically , p rospered . H erod 's w ell-documented r eign p rovides a g raphic i llustration w hich m utatis m utandis m ight e asily b e t ransferred t o t he n orth . (24) W e s hould n ote A mmianus ' s tatement t hat a mong t he B urgundians , when t he c rop f ailed, t he k ing was d eposed . This i s t he i nstitutionalization o f t he s ocial u nrest t o b e e xpected i n t he f ace o f f amine . C ompare A mnianus ' s tatement t hat m ost o f t he Alamanni d eserted A thanaric b ecause t hey w ere ' worn o ut b y t he l ack o f t he n ecessities o f l ife ' . I t i s a n a nthropological c liche t hat t he w orth o f t he r uler m ay b e c onceived i n t erms o f n atural f ertility . A s H omer 's O dysseus p uts i t , f or t he g ood k ing ' the b lack e arth b ears w heat a nd b arley a nd t he t rees a re l aden w ith f ruit, t he s heep b ring f orth u nfailingly a nd t he s ea p rovides a n a bundance o f f ish , a ll o ut o f h is g ood g uidance , a nd t he p eople p rosper u nder h im% (25 ) W hen a griculture , s tock-raising a nd/or f ishing f ail, t he k ing i s d eemed a b ad k ing w ho m ust b e d eposed s o t hat p rosperity m ay b e r egained. I n s uch c ircumstances t he a bility t o t rade w ith R ome f or f ood ( and t o r eceive f ood s ubsidies f rom R ome ) w ill h ave b een i nvaluable . W ith R oman h elp t he k ing c ould m itigate t he p roblem b y s upplying t he d eficiences o f n ature a nd t hereby p erhaps e stablish h imself a s ag ood k ing a fter a ll, r ather a s H erod d id . R ome w ould w ish t o h elp h er f riend , i f o nly t o k eep h im i n p ower , t hough o ther c onsiderations c ould a lways p ull h er i n t he o ther d irection , o f c ourse . F or f ood w e m ay s ubstitute l and , w hich i s a l ongt erm f ood s upply . T he d ynamic i s m uch t he s ame .(26)

1 9

C onclusion I n t he c ontext o f t he B atavian r evolt o f A D 7 0 , T acitus m akes t he r ebel T utor a rgue a s f ollows : o bedience m ean .

' As f or t he G ermans,

T hey i nvariably a ct a s

t hey d o n ot k now w hat o rders o f

t he f ancy t akes

t hem .

M oney a nd

g ifts a re t he o nly m eans o f s educing t hem a nd t hese a re a vailable i n g reater q uantity o n t he R oman s ide%(27) L ike T acitus ' T utor , w e m ust a ppreciate t hat R oman i mperialism o perated n ot o nly t hrough m ilitary f orce a nd p owerp olitics , b ut a lso t hrough R oman e conomic s trength v is-à-vis t he b arbarians . Ih ope t o h ave e stablished t hree p ropositions w hich h elp t o i lluminate b oth t he R oman i deology b ehind t his e conomic i mperialism a nd t he p ractical o peration a nd a pplication o f b arbarian s ociety ,

t hat

e conomic

i mperialism i n

t he

c ontext

p articularly w ith r egard t o t he b arbarian k ing .

2 0

o f

N OTES. 1 .

A lföldi 1 952,

2 .

W hittaker 1 983,

3 .

1 . 1 21 w ith a stute r emarks o n A ppian a nd A elius A ristides .

S ee B raund 1 984 ,

6 2-3 ;

c f t he d ebate a t P rocopius B ell P ers 2 ,10 .

1 9-

2 4. 4 .

M iller a nd S avage 1 978 i s v ery u seful o n m yths a bout R ed I ndians . e sp T ac G erm 1 9 ( sexual m orality ), 2 5

( freedmen ),

2 6 ( no u sury ),

2 7

2 2

( free s peech ) ,

( moderate f unerals),

2 3

S ee

( simple f ood ),

3 8 ( hairdressing

f or t he b est m otives ; c f B raund 1 983) . E arl 1 967 g ives a g ood o utline o f t he R oman m os m aiorum . S herwin-White 1 970 , e sp 4 0 , w ho t ends t o u nderestimate t he p ositive f eatures o f t he G ermania ; c ontrast S urtz a nd H exter ,

1 965 ,

c lxii .

5 .

A lföldi 1 952, 8 ; c f

6 .

A lföldi

7 .

S ee A lföldi 7 a nd 4 r espectively .

8 .

B alsdon 1 979 c ollects a g reat d eal o f t he e vidence .

9 .

1 952,

H arris 1 979 .

7 -8 ,

S te C roix 1 981 A pp 3 l ists m uch o f t he e vidence . p roud

l anguage o f I LS

s ettlement

9 85;

o f b arbarians

N ote f or e xample , t he

c f C laudian D e c ons S til 3 ,150-3 . w ithin

p rovincial

c onsidered i n i ts h istorical c ontext .

t erritory

i s

T he

s eldom

A n i nscription r ecords a l etter

o f P hilip V o f M acedon t o t he c ity o f L arissa r ecommending R oman ' openness ' a s a s ource o f s tre rmth ( Syll 3 . 5 43 w ith W albank 1 981, 1 50 ; c f H ammond a nd G riffith 1 979 , c h 2 0 o n P hilip Irs p ractice ) . C icero ( pro B albo 5 1;

c f 3 1) a nd C laudius

( ILS 2 12) m ake m uch t he s ame p oint

a s P hilip V : t he t radition o f ' openness ' w as t raced b ack t o t he v ery f oundation o f t he c ity o f R ome : s ee M ayor o n J uv 8 ,273 a nd O gilvie o n L ivy 1 ,8 .5-6 . C f B raund 1 984 P art I , s ection 3 a nd t hroughout , w here i t i s r epeatedly o bserved t hat k ingdoms a nd p rovinces w ere i nterwoven a nd t o a l arge e xtent i nterchangeable ,

j e i n c rude t erms t here w ere a lways

f oreign/barbarian e nclaves w ithin p rovincial t erritory - e g t he C ottii i n t he M aritime A lps , C ilicia T racheia , t he T hracian k ingdom (s) e tc , n ot t o m ention t he f ree c ities . P rovinces w ere s ometimes d e-annexed t hough s till w ithin t he f ramework o f t he e mpire - t he f luctuating s tatus o f C ommagene i n t he f irst c entury A D i s a c ase i n p oint ( Braund 1 984,

1 87) .

W e c an t herefore t race a c ertain t radition b ehind t he

s ettlement o f b arbarians e ffective p ractice o f ( ibid ,

9 2 a nd 1 985) .

O n t he B raund 1 0 .

1 984,

F r& "zouls

' within ' t he e mpire .

1 981

t o t he p irates

s ee

S herwin-White

1 970 ,

1 213 ;

s ection 1 .

A lföldi

1 952 ,

6 ,

c iting

t ranslation c ompletely i nverts t he s ense ) . e ven h ave h uman v oices : B raund 1 980 . 1.

l ands

W ere b arbarian r aiders s o v ery d ifferent?

' civilising ' o f b arbarians, P art I ,

C ompare t oo t he o ld a nd

s topping p iracy b y g iving

Plato R ep 4 93; S tat S ilvae 3 ,3 .71-5 . S cullard 1 974 , 2 1819 .

2 1

V ell

P at

2 ,117 .2

( the L oeb

T he m ost d evilish a nimals

C f P lut Moralia

1 2,968 w ith

1 2 . V eil P at 2 ,117 .2; T ac H ist 4 ,76 . 1 3.

F or e xample T ac G erm e sp 1 314 . O n G erm 1 4 ,3 A nderson w ell o bserves t hat i n A nglo-Saxon p oetry t he t hrone o f a l eader i s c alled a ' g iftc hair ' a nd h is r esidence a ' g ift-hall ' . C ompare a lso t he v ery e xplicit t estimony o f t he N ibelungenlied ( 1969 ) . 2 01 ; c f 7 2 . F or a s imilar m echanism o n a n i nter-tribal s cale s ee A mm A marc 1 8 ,2 .13 w ith B raund 1 984 , 9 8 . A frica o ffers a lluring p arallels : M air 1 964 e sp 1 667 2 . O n p atronage i n t he G reco-Roman w orld , s ee V eyne 1 976 ; M illar 1 977 ; S ailer 1 982 . I n g eneral, M auss 1 974 ; G ellner a nd W aterbury 1 977 ; E isenstadt a nd R oniger 1 984 . A thenaeus, c iting P osidonius a s h is s ource ( 4 .137d-e ; c f S tr 4 . 19 1) , p rovides a v ery g raphic e xample o f t he d istribution o f w ealth b y a G allic l eader i n t he f orm o f T ac G erm 1 3 .2 w ith s ources o n t he t hat o f t he G ermans ) . E bel 1 976 , A thenaeus ' e xample i n t he c ontext H adrill 1 971 .

m oney a nd f easting ( et A nderson o n s imilarity o f G allic p atronage t o 6 5 i s t empted , w ith r eason , t o s et o f e mpire-building, c f W al l ace-

F or t he n umismatic a nd s ocial c ontext : N ash 1 981,

1 316 .

1 4.

C aes B G 6 . 2 3 ; c f 2 1; T ac G erm 1 4 ; 3 1 . Ip ass o ver l ocal v ariations , b ut c f c ontra T ac G erm 3 5-6 . S haw 1 984 i s v ery h elpful, t hough o nly i ndirectly r elevant .

1 5.

I n t he l ate t hird c entury B C T euta o f I llyria h ad b een i n a v ery s imilar s ituation : s ee D ell 1 967 . F or R oman p leasure i n f ighting b etween d ifferent c ommon t heme .

1 6 .

b arbarian t ribes ,

s ee

f or e xample ,

T ac G erm 3 3 ,

a

S ee B irley 1 981 ; W hittaker 1 983 . T he f indings o f D ent 1 983 r em ind u s t o p ay a ttention t o o n-going l ocal d evelopment : R ome d id n ot o f c ourse m ove i nto a v acuum .

1 7.

Z os 1 ,31 w ith B raund 1 984, 9 1104 o n t he b uffer m odel. D io 7 1,11.1 ( Battarius); T ac G erm 1 5 . C f G ordon 1 948 1 86 f or p ossible u ses o f s ubsidies p aid t o P ersia .

1 8 .

A s b y Z os

1 3 1;

G ordon 1 948 c ollects m uch o f t he a vailable e vidence .

T ac G erm 1 3. 1 9 .

S ee W hittaker 1 983 w ith n 9 a bove .

2 0 .

S ee G arnsey e t a l 1 985.

2 1.

W hittaker 1 983 o bserves t he f low o f f ood i n t he f rontier z one . T he e mperor Maximillus T hrax h ad o nce h ad a f arm i n T hrace w hence h e

1 984 o n T hessaly .

O n G aul

a nd C yrenaica ,

c f

B raund

t raded w ith G oths n orth o f t he D anube i n t he c ontext o f p ersonal r elationships o f f riendship w ith t hem ( cemented , i t s hould b e n oted , b y g ifts ) : S HA M ax T hrax 4 . T here i s n o s uggestion t hat s uch a ctivity w as u nusual ( except p erhaps f or a n e mperor-to-be ) . T he b arbarian a ppetite f or ' southern ' g rain i s f urther i ndicated b y t he p ayment o f s ubsidies i n t he f orm o f f ood ; T hompson 1 966 , 3 8 c ollects s ources . C f a lso B rogan 1 936 , 2 18 ( including l egal e vidence ) a nd G lodariu 1 976 o n t he D anubian f rontier .

2 2

2 2.

T ac G erm 4 1 a nd D io 7 1 ,112 ( still m ore e xplicit ) a re e choed b y t he l ater l egal e vidence : C od J ust 4 ,41 .2 a nd 4 ,63 .4 ( though t he l atter r efers t o t he e astern f rontier o nly ) . C f , t hough n ot i n ac ontext o f t rade , X en A nab 7 ,4 .13 . O n t he w hole i ssue o f t rade a nd s ecurity s ee C rawford 1 980 , 2 12 a nd t he w ork o f A ndreotti t here c ited .

2 3 .

L ivy 4 3 ,59 ; T ac A nn 2 ,62 ( though t he m eaning o f T acitus i i us c ommercii i s n ot c ertain ): G erm 4l (Hermunduri) . C f D io 7 1.15 ; W hittaker 19 83 . C f D ig 39 , 4 .11 ( Paulus ) .

2 4 .

B raund

2 5 .

A mm M arc 28 ,5 .1 4 ; 3 1,2 .8 .

2 6 .

O f c ourse , R ome m ight a lways c hoose t o r efuse r equests m ade b y f riends : a n o bvious c ase i s t hat o f t he a gri d ecumates i n T ac A nn 1 3 ,54-5 , o n w hich s ee n ow H ind 1 984 .

2 7 .

1 984 , 8 3 .

T ac H ist 4 ,76

H o r n O d 19 . 11114 .

( after P enguin t ranslation )

2 3

c f 4 ,64 .

B IBLIOGRAPHY A LFOLDI , ( ed ),

A

1 952 :

T he M oral B arrier o n R hine a nd D anube .

T he C ongress o f R oman F rontier S tudies , ANDERSON,

g ermanorum .

J G C

19 38:

D urham ,

I n B irley ,

E

1 16 .

C ornelii T aciti . D e o rigine e t s itu

O xford .

B ALSDON , J P V D

K ing ,

1 949 .

1 979 :

R omans a nd A liens . L ondon .

B IRLEY , A R 1 981: T he E conomic E ffects o f R oman F rontier P olicy . I n A C & H enig , M ( eds) T he R oman W est i n t he T hird C entury . ( Oxford ,

B rit A rchaeol R ep I nt S er 1 09 ) , 3 9-53 . B RAUND , M thly 5 ,

B RAUND , 5 8-9 .

D C

1 980 :

C orocottas :

B andit a nd H yena .

L iverpool C lass

1 314 . D C

1 983 :

C icero o n H iempsal I I a nd J uba :

d e

l eg . a gr .

B RAUND ,

D C

c li ent k ingship . B RAUND ,

19 84 :

R ome a nd t he F riendly K ing : t he c haracter o f

L ondon .

D C

1 985:

T he S ocial

a nd E conomic C ontext o f t he R oman

Annexation o f C yrenaica . I n B arker, G D , C yrenaica i n A ntiquity . B ROGAN ,

0

1 936 :

JR oman S tud 2 6 ,

( Oxford ,

L loyd, J &

R eynolds, J ( eds),

B rit A rchaeol R ep I nt S er 2 36) ,

3 1025 .

T rade B etween t he R oman E mpire a nd t he F ree G ermans .

1 95-222 .

C RAWFORD , M H

19 80:

E conomia i mperiale e c ommercio e stero .

S pallino , A ( ed ) T ecnologia , e conomia e s ocietä n el m ondo R omano . d el c onvegno d i C omo . C omo , 2 0716 . D ELL , HJ 1 6 ,

2 .

L iverpool C lass M thly 8 , 8 7-89 .

1 967 :

T he O rigin a nd N ature o f I llyrian P iracy .

I n A tti

H istoria

3 44-58 . D ENT ,

J S

1 983 :

T he I mpact o f R oman R ule o n N ative S ociety i n t he

T erritory o f t he P arisi . E ARL D C E BEL C

1 967 : 1 976 :

B ritannia 1 4 ,

3 5-44 .

T he M oral a nd P olitical T radition o f R ome . L ondon . T ransalpine G aul: t he e mergence o f a R oman p rovince .

( Leiden , S tud D utch A rchaeol H ist S oc I V) . E ISENSTADT ,

S N A ND

R ONIGER ,

I

1 984 :

P atrons , C lients a nd F riends :

i nter-personal r elations a nd t he s tructure o f t rust i n s ociety . F RE-Z OULS, E

1 983:

d 'apr's A mmien M arcellin .

C ambridge .

L es d eux p olitiques d e R ome f ace a ux b arbares I n F rgzouls ,

l es p rovinces e uropgenes d e-T lgmpire .

E ( ed ),

S trasbourg ,

G ARNSEY , P DA , G ALLANT , TA ND R ATHBONE, D G rain S upply o f R ome D uring t he S econd C entury B C .

2 4

C rise e t r gdressement d ans 1 75-9 1 . 1 984:

T hessaly a nd t he

JR oman S tud 7 4 ,

3 0-44 .

G ELLNER ,

E A ND W ATERBURY ,

J

( eds),

1 977 :

P atrons a nd C lients .

L ondon . G LODARIU , ( Oxford ,

I

1 976 :

D acian T rade w ith t he H ellenistic a nd R oman W orld .

B rit A rchaeol R ep S upp S er 8 ) .

G ORDON ,

C D

1 948 :

T he S ubsidisation o f B order P eoples a s aR oman

P olicy o f I mperial D efence .

P hD D iss , M ichigan U niv .

HAMMOND, N G L AND GRIFFITH, M acedonia , V ol 2 , 5 50-336 B C . O xford . H ARRIS , W V

1 979 :

G T

19 7 9 :

A

H istory

o f

W ar a nd I mperialism i n R epublican R ome , 3 27-70 B C .

O xford.

1 4 ,

H IND , J GF 1 87-92 . M AIR , L P M AUSS, M MAYOR ,

1 984 :

1 964 : 1 974 :

W hatever h appened t o t he a gri d ecumates? B ritannia

P rimitive G overnment .

L ondon .

The G ift . ( Trans), L ondon .

J E B

1 893:

T hirteen S atires o f J uvenal w ith C ommentary .

L ondon . M ILLAR , F L ondon .

1 977 :

T he Emperor i n t he R oman W orld , 3 1 B C-AD 3 37 .

MILLER , DHA ND S AVAGE , WWJ r 1 978 : E thnic S tereotypes a nd t he F rontier : aC omparative S tudy o f R oman a nd A merican E xperience . I n M iller , D H & S teffen , J 0 ( eds ), T he F rontier . C omparative S tudies . N orman , 1 093 7. NASH , D 1 981: C oinage a nd S tate D evelopment i n C entral G aul. I n C unliffe , B W ( ed ), C oinage a nd S ociety i n B ritain a nd G aul : s ome c urrent p roblems . ( Counc B rit A rchaeol R es R ep 3 8 ), 1 017 . N IEBENLUNGENLIED : O GILVIE ,

R M

( Trans) 2 , H armondsworth , 1 969 .

1 965 :

AC ommentary o n L ivy . B ooks 1 -5 .

O xford .

S TE . C ROIX , G M E , D E W orld . L ondon .

1 981:

S ALLER , C ambridge.

P ersonal P atronage u nder t he E arly E mpire .

S CULLAAD , L ondon . S HAW ,

BD

R P 1 982:

H H

1 984 :

1 971:

T he C lass S truggle i n t he A ncient G reek

T he E lephant i n t he G reek a nd R oman W orld .

B andits i n t he R oman E mpire .

P ast & P resent 1 05 ,

1 52. S HERWIN-WHITE , C ambridge .

A W

1 970 :

R acial P rejudice i n I mperial R ome .

2 5

S URTZ ,

E ,

H EXTER ,

S J A ND H EXTER J H

T homas M ore V ol 4 : U topia . T HOMPSON , E A V EYNE ,

P

W ALBANK ,

1 966 :

T he

L e

p ain

1 976: F M

1 981:

W ALLACE-HADRILL , o n t he C ontinent . W HITTAKER ,

T he C omplete W orks o f S t .

V isigoths i n t he T ime o f U lfila . O xford . e t

l e

c irque .

P aris .

T he H ellenistic W orld .

J M

1 971:

L ondon .

E arly G ermanic K ingship i n E ngland a nd

O xford . C R

1 983 :

T rade

G arnsey , P D A & Whittaker , C R A ntiquity .

1 965 :

N ew H aven .

( Cambridge ,

a nd

( eds),

F rontiers

o f

C ambridge P hilol S oc S upp 8 ) ,

2 6

t he R oman E mpire .

I n

Trade a nd F amine i n C lassical 1 10-27 .

C hapter 2 T HE U SES O F R OMAN I MPERIALISM B Y T HE C ELTIC B ARBARIANS I N T HE L ATER R EPUBLIC APF itzpatrick

I ntroduction I n c onsidering w ritten s ources a nd t he s tudy o f t he E uropean I ron A ge T imothy C hampion h as a rgued o f p roblems

o f

a ccess,

w orthwhile b ody o f d ata, ( Champion 1 985,

t he

a ssessment

l iterary s ources a nd

t hat

i nterpretation ,

' despite a ll t hey

t he

r epresent

a

t he t rue v alue o f w hich h as n ot y et b een r ealised.'

1 7).

W riters s uch a s P osidonius o ffer v aluable i nsights i nto t he n ature o f l ater I ron A ge C eltic s ociety a t

t he

t ime

t hat

i t w as

w ith t he e xpanding R oman s tate i n t he l ater R epublic .

c oming i nto c ontact H owever , i n o rder t o

m ake t he f ullest u se o f t hese s ources a nd t he i nformation t hey o ffer f or t he s ubject

o f

t his

p aper ,

t he

i mportance

o f

p re-conquest

c ontact

a nd h ow i t

c hanged C eltic s ociety - i f a t a ll - i t i s a lso n ecessary t o t ry a nd s tand h ow R ome a pproached h er b arbarian n eighbours , U sing t his l iterary e vidence,

u nder-

a nd t hey h er .

i nterpretations o f C eltic a nd R oman

s ociety w ill b e o utlined a nd, b ased o n t his, s ome w ays i n w hich C eltic s ociety ,

p articularly t heir g lite ,

m ay h ave a dopted s ome a spects o f R oman

i mperialism t o t heir o wn a dvantage w ill b e e xplored .

T his a pproach i s i n

c ontrast t o t he v iew t hat R oman c ontact w as r eceived p assively , i mpact w as i n s ome w ay i nevitable .

o r t hat i ts

I nstead i t w ill b e s uggested t hat t he

n ature o f t he b arbarian s ocieties p layed a d ecisive r ole i n d etermining t he f orms o f c ontact w ith R ome , w hich w ere t hemselves o f g reat i mportance i n t he s ubsequent i ntegration o f t hese c ommunities i nto t he R oman e mpire . A rchaeology p rovides e vidence w hich b oth c omplements a nd e xpands t hat o ffered b y t he w ritten s ources . T he s cale o f a rchaeological e vidence f or p re-conquest R oman t rade a nd e xchange w ith t he C eltic b arbarians i s b arely h inted a t b y t he l iterary r ecord . I n t hese s ources t rade w ith t he c lassical w orld i s o ften m entioned a s a n i ndex o f v irtue o r o f ' civilization ' ( Dauge 1 981; T impe 1 985 , 2 80-4) .

A rchaeological e vidence a lso s uggests s ome f orms

o f c ontact w hich a re n ot m entioned

i n t he w ritten s ources .

a s t o t he p rimacy o f o ne f orm o f e vidence o ver t hat

b oth a re r ecords

o f

p ast

B ut q uestions

t he o ther a re m isplaced i n

s ocieties w ith t heir o wn s trengths a nd

w eaknesses a nd b oth m ust b e c onsidered o n t heir o wn m erits ( Finley 1 985 ,

7 -

2 6). A lthough d iscussion h ere w ill p rimarily b e o f t he C elts o f G aul i n t he l ater I ron A ge a nd l ater R epublic ,

t he e vidence f or R oman c ontact w ith t he

o ther C eltic b arbarians o f c entral a nd w estern E urope d uring t his p eriod b roadly s peaking t he l ast t wo c enturies B C

-will a lso b e c onsidered .

I t

i s i ntended t o t ry a nd p rovide a n a ssessment o f t he r ange o f c ontacts w hich m ay h ave e xisted b etween t he t wo g roups a nd t he m ain t hrust o f t he a rgument

2 7

will be that the Celts must be regarded as knowledgeable individuals aware of the consequences of their own actions. Two caveats must be entered. One is that the summary interpretations advanced below undoubtedly obscure regional and chronological differences between barbarian as well as Roman societies. In particular the degree of hellenization of the south of Gaul to which many sources refer is unlikely to be representative of all Celtic societies and the situation described in De hello gallico may, by its nature, be atypical. Secondly any rapprochement of history and archaeology runs the risk of circular argument and the criticism of the selective acceptance of arguments from one discipline or the other as suits the case. Celtic Society Classical sources provide us with a picture of a stratified Celtic society divided into three principal groups. The dominant group is a warrior elite who owned land and livestock, secondly there is a dependant group of free landowners and specialists such as -the Druids and, lastly, there are the unfree plebs who do not own enough land to be able to fulfill the property requirements which determined access to the free clients. While there is the theoretical possibility of social mobility, the extent of its reality is uncerta.in. The system, which worked through dues and obligations, can be characterised as one of patron-client (cf Eisenstadt and Roniger 1984). While this characterisation is severely restricted and the literary sources are biased towards this group, the elite expressed their status in a variety of public displays_ many of which were connected with warfare. Archaeologically this is. · seen in the expenditure and/ or . destruction of wealth in the building of hillforts, votive offerings of weaponry deposited at shrines and in watery places and the maintenance of a rm e d r e t i n u e s p a y e d i n p r e c i o u s m e t a l coin. Le ss t a n g i b l e archaeologically are the giving of feasts of the elite, possibly intimately associated with both secular and sacred authority (cf Berger 1963), and the patronage of the Bards by the elite because of their role in singing the praises of the elite and presenting society as being 'natural' and traditional. Status was measured in part by military prowess and success and in part by wealth and the two were closely linked. By the nature of the society competition and rivalry both within and between groups was intense (Nash 1981, 13-16; 1985, 46-9; Fitzpatrick 1984, 183-8) . Despite the many problems of interpretation of the classical sources, notably the gross scale of analysis and the validity of their 'alien wisdom' (Momigliamo 1975, 50-73), the unison with which they describe Celtic society and its emphasis on warfare leaves little doubt as to its essential correctness. But there are also differences between the sources and while these have been used to cast doubt on their integrity either in part or in· whole (eg Tierney 1960), it seems more likely that the differences document The comparative study of the · changes within Celtic society (Nash 1976a). early Irish sources provides some insights (eg Wightman 1975; 1978), but it is this probability of changes within the later Iron Age societies documented by the classical sources which flaws attempts to fuse the Irish and classical texts in an interpretation of a timeless and unchanging 'traditional' Celtic society. Interpretations of Celtic society as being in some way 'feudal' (eg Luwuil Ion 1975) are difficult to accept for the same reasons. As Champion and Champion have noted, two major social changes are distinguishable in the literary sources for later Iron Age Celtic societies 28

( 1986, 6 6) . T he f irst i s t hat u ntil P osidonius, w ho p robably o bserved C eltic s ociety i n F rance i n t he e arly f irst c entury B C , t here i s n o m ention o f k ingship a s a n i nstitution . I n t he f irst c entury B C , h owever , t here a re n umerous r eferences t o k ings ( Collis 1 984 , 1 612) . T he s econd d evelopment w as t he a ppearence o f e lected m agistrates i n a s mall a rea o f c entral a nd e astern F rance b y t he m id-first c entury B C . O ne o f t he p rincipal p urposes o f t his s ystem w as t he p revention o f i ndividuals g aining a nd r etaining p ower . A lthough a g reat d eal o f a ttention h as b een d evoted t o t he s econd d evelopment a s a n e xample o f ' secondary s tate f ormation ' ( Nash 1 976b ; 1 978 ; R oymans 1 983) , i t i s t he a ppearance o f k ingship w hich i s l ikely t o b e o f g reater s ignificance a s i ts d istribution w as f ar m ore w idespread t han t hat o f ' secondary s tate f ormation '. O ne a spect l ikely t o b e c ommon t o b oth k ingdoms a nd ' archaic s tates ' i s t he f orming o f a lliances b etween i ndividuals . T he c learest e xamples a re g iven b y J ulius C aesar w ho d escribes m ilitary a lliances b etween O rgetorix o f t he H elvetii, D umnorix o f t he A deui a nd C asticus o f t he S equani, a ll n eighbouring p eoples ( BG I , 2 -4 ) . M arriages w ere a lso a n i mportant a spect o f a lliances a nd t he s a le m ilitary a lliance w as b ound b y m arriages b etween t he f amilies o f O rgetorix a nd D umnorix , w hile O rgetorix h ad m arriage t ies w ith t he B ituriges - w ho l ay b eyond t he A deui a nd S equani - a nd w ith f amilies f rom o ther t ribes . C hampion a nd C hampion s tress t he i mportance o f t hese a lliances ( 1986 , 6 7) a nd w here i t h as b een t hought t hat a rchaeological e vidence f or t he m ovement o f f emales h as b een r ecorded , a s a t Manching ( Krämer 1 961, 3 15) , i t i s p ossible t hat t his m ay i llustrate t hese m arriage a lliances . F or o ur p resent p urposes , h owever , i t i s s ufficient t o r ecognise t hat t he i ntense c ompetition f or s tatus i n C eltic s ociety m ade u se o f a lliances w ithin a nd w ithout t he c ommunity . R ome O verseas R oman s ociety i n t he l ater R epublic w as a lso c learly s tratified w ith a ccess t o t he s enatorial e lite b eing d etermined b y w ealth w hich w as s ubstantially f ounded o n t he o wnership o f l and . T he p eriod h as b een s tudied i ntensively ( cf C rawford 1 978 ; B eard a nd C rawford 1 985) b ut h ere a ttention w ill b e r estricted t o an umber o f r ecent a rguments c oncerning t he e xpansion o f R oman i nfluence o utside t he I talian p eninsula. H opkins h as a rgued t hat t he e ffect o f ap eriod o f a lmost u ninterrupted w arfare w as t hat t he i nflux o f b ooty a nd c aptives i nto I taly r esulted i n a h eightening o f s ocial d ifferentiation ( Hopkins 1 978) . I n p articular , a bsence o n m ilitary s ervice o f o ne i n t hree o f t he f ree y eoman a nd p easants i n t he f irst c entury B C l ed t o t heir b eing b ought-out o r r eplaced b y s laves w hich c ontributed t o t he c reation o f l arge s lave-worked e states . B y t his t ime i t i s t hought t hat b etween 2 5-30% o f t he R oman p opulation w ere s laves ( Badian

1 982) .

H opkins

a rgues

t hat

t he

s ubstantial

d epopulation o f

t he

l andscape a nd t he c onsequent c hanges i n o wnership a nd l abour , w hich t hemselves l ed t o a d isplacement o f p opulation a nd a ttendant u rban g rowth , a ll f ollowed f rom t he a lmost c ontinual o verseas w arfare. U ntil r ecently a s ignificant s chool o f t hought ,

e xemplified b y B adian

( eg 1 968 ) a rgued t hat t his w arfare w as e ssentially d efensive i n c haracter . C entral t o t his a rgument o f ' Defensive I mperialism ' i s t he t hesis t hat e very w ar w as ' a j ust w ar ' w ith R ome d eclaring w ar o nly f or f ear o f h er o wn s ecurity , t o p rotect h er o wn b oundaries o r t o d efend h er a llies . I t i s

2 9

d ifficult t o a ccept t his i nterpretation w hereby R ome , w hile s till a R epublic a nd n ominally a c ity s tate , a cquired a lmost b y a ccident o ne o f t he l argest e mpires t he w orld h as s een .

I t i s e qually h ard t o b elieve t hat t he f low o f

b ooty , c aptives, t axes a nd t he a ttendant k udos w ere n ever s eriously i ntended a nd

t he p ossibilities t hey o pened w ere n ot

r ecognised b y t he R oman

w ho c ommanded t he R oman a rmies a nd w ho s hared t he h onours,

l ite

o ffices a nd

p rivileges. T he i deological b ase o f t his a rgument h as b een r efuted b y B runt w ho h as d emonstrated t hat t he e xpansion o f t he l ater R epublic w as

s anctioned b y a n

i deology w hich i nstitutionalised t he d ivine r ight o f R ome t o m ilitary s uccess ( Brunt 1 978 ) . d iscussing

t he

A r elated v iew h as a lso b een p roposed b y F inley i n

c oncept

o f

' empire '

i n

t he

G raeco-Roman w orld

( 1978).

F inley e mphasises t wo a ssumptions . O ne i s t hat ' domination w as " Natural" , w hether o f m en o ver w omen , o f t he f ree o ver s laves, o r o f s ome c ommunities o ver

o thers . '

T he

o ther

a ssumption

' the u niversal r ule t hat

w as

t o t he v ictor b elongs t he s poils , i ncluding

t erritory , p roperty , a nd p eople , c ivilians a s w ell a s s oldiers , m en , w omen , a nd c hildren , f ree o r s lave . t o t he f ull,

T he v ictor d id n ot a lways e xercise h is r ights

b ut t hat w as h is u nilteral c hoice . '

( Finley 1 978 ,

5 ) .

F or t he R epublic t he p ositive w illingness o f R ome t o g o t o w ar h as b een a rgued m ost c ogently a nd d iligently b y H arris

( 1979 ;

c f H arris ( ed )

1 984)

a nd h is v iews h ave b een d efended a gainst t he c riticisms o f S herwin-White b y N orth i n a c ritique ( 1981) w here h e s ummarised t he m ajor t enents o f H arris ' a rguments a s f ollows: F irstly t hat h igh a nd

' Both t he e xpectations a nd t he s ocial e thos o f R omans o f

l ow s tatus w ere g eared

t o

r egular w ar-making,

t hey h ad

t he

a ttitudes a nd h abits w hich g o w ith t his w ay o f l ife.' S econdly ' Many R omans , i ncluding a ll t hose w ho h ad a m ajor i nfluence o n p olicy d ecisions m ade , o ut o f t he e xpansion o f T hirdly ,

a nd k new t hey m ade ,

l arge p rofits o ut o f w arfare a nd

t he E mpire . '

t hat ' Expansion w as a p ublicly s tated a im , u ninhabited b y t he

s upposed i deology o f t he i us F ourthly f ormally Even a rguments,

s o . '

' Roman w ars w ere ( North

1 981,

o ften a ggressive i n i ntention ,

e ven i f n ot

1 ) .

s o, N orth d oes n ot a ccept t he e mphasis o f a ll o f H arris ' d iffering n otably o n t he e ffect t o w hich s enators d iscussed t he

j ustification

f or

e ach w ar ,

a rguing t hat

t he m ilitary e thos H arris a rgues

f or s o c arefully w ould f ree t hem o f t his b urden o f c onscience .

N orth a lso

p laces g reater e mphasis t han H arris o n t he e conomic s ignificance o f b ooty a s t he p rincipal

f actor i n r etaining t he

l oyalty o f

t he I talian a llies .

C onsequently N orth i s l ead t o p ropose a n i nterpretation o f t he d evelopment o f R oman I mperialism w hich e mphasises t he c onsequences o f a n i deology w hich l egimates w arfare a nd t he e conomic s ignificance o f t his a ttitude ,

n ot o nly

i n t he e xecution o f c ampaigns b ut a lso i n t he a dministration o f t he E mpire . I t s hould b e n oted, h owever , t hat H arris d isagrees w ith s ome o f N orth 's p oints ( 1984 , 1 8-20 , 3 01) . T he c ontemporary a wareness o f t he e conomic a nd s ocial p otential o f w arfare i n t he l ater R epublic i s a ccepted b y m any r ecent c ommentators ( eg H arris ( ed) 1 984; B eard a nd C rawford 1 985, 7 2-84) . A lthough s ome a uthors r emain c autious a s t o t he e xtent t o w hich t he

3 0

e xpansion w as d eliberate ( Dyson 1 985, 2 70-9 ), a nd S herwin-White ( 1984) m aintains m uch o f B adian 's t hesis i s c orrect, ' defensive i mperialism ' c urrently f inds f ew a dherents .

T he P ossible N ature o f F oreign C ontact W hile t he s ummary i nterpretations o f C eltic a nd R oman s ocieties a dvanced a bove c ould b e e laborated , i t i s n oteworthy t hat b oth h ave a c ommon e mphasis o n t he i mportance o f w arfare , a lbeit f or d ifferent r easons , a nd o n a v astly d ifferent s cale , i n s ocieties w here c lientage w as a n i nstitution . I t i s i mportant t o b ear t hese s imilarities i n m ind w hen t urning t o c onsider t he p ossible n ature o f t he c ontacts b etween t he t wo c ultures . A v ariety o f f orms o f c ontact c an b e d istinguished ; t rade a nd e xchange , d iplomacy ( including g ifts a nd s ubsidies ) , m ercenary s ervice , w arfare a nd t he e xercise o f p ower ( which m ay t ake m any f orms, c f F inley 1 978). A s

V end lh as o bserved,

a rchaeologists

a re p rone t o n eglect

t he

p ossibility o f w arfare a nd i ts s ignificance , c oncentrating i nstead o n t rade a nd e xchange ( Vend l1 984), a lthough t his f ailing i s n ot u nique t o a rchaeologists ( Finley 1 985 , 6 7-87 ) . A lthough t he h istorical e vidence i s f ar f rom c omplete , C eltic r aids o n , a nd m igrations t o , t he M editerranean w orld s eem t o h ave l argely c eased b y t he s econd c entury B C ( Dehn 1 979 ; C hampion 1 98f f l . W arfare b etween t he C elts a nd R omans t hereafter w as t hat w hich f acilitated t he e xpansion o f R ome . I n G aul t his w as l imited t o c omparatively s mall-scale w ars p receding t he f inal a nnexation o f t he R oman p rovince ( Badian 1 966 ;

S teven 1 980a ;

D yson 1 985, 1 26-73).

M ost r ecent a rchaeological s tudies h ave , h owever , c oncentrated o n t rade a nd t he m ost p opular i nterpretation o f c ontact h as b een t he s uggested e xchange o f p eople a nd r aw m aterials f or f oreign c ommodities a nd f inished g oods . I n p articular i t h as b een a rgued t hat g roups i n b arbarian s ocieties c ould i ncrease t heir s tatus b y g aining p rivileged a ccess t o f oreign t rade : t he s o-called ' prestige g oods m odel' . T his i nterpretation h as b een p roposed f or b oth e arlier ( Frankenstein a nd R owlands 1 978 ; W ells 1 980 ) a nd l ater ( Haselgrove 1 982) E uropean I ron A ge s ocieties. Ad evelopment o f t his i nterpretation h as a ppeared i n t he e mployment o f c omparative s tudies d rawn f rom t he m odern w orld e conomy , n otably W allerstein 's w orld s ystem m odel ( 1974) , w hich c onsider t he e ffects o f a n e xpanding r egional e conomy o n a' developing ' e conomy . T his r elationship h as b een d ubbed ' core-periphery ' a nd t he E uropean I ron A ge h as b een c onsidered t o e vidence a n umber o f e xamples , i ncluding l ater I ron A ge G aul ( Ekholm a nd F riedman

1 980 ,

7 2-3) .

A s t he p restige g oods s ystem i n t his c haracterisation i s b ased o n e xternal c ontact i t i s i nherently u nstable . I f t hose w ho s upply t he f oreign g oods c hoose t o g o o r a re e nticed e lsewhere t hen t he s tatus o f t he t hose w ho h ave a ttempted t o e xercise o r e nhance t heir a uthority b y u sing p restige g oods i n s ocial t ransactions w ill b e d iminished . A s t he i nitial c ontact i s f oreign i t i s u nlikely t hat b oth t he p arties i nvolved w ill b e b ound b y t he s ame c onventions s o t he f oreigners m ay h ave l ittle c ompunction i n r educing o r t erminating t he s upply o f t heir g oods . T he m ost l ikely r eaction o f t he r ecipients i n t his s ituation i s t o a ttempt t o i ncrease t he q uantity o f g oods b eing e xchanged i n a n a ttempt t o r etain t he i nterest o f t he f oreigners . T his m ay i nvolve i ncreasing a gricultural o r c raft p roduction o r t he s upply o f s laves .

I f t he l atter , t hen i t i s l ikely t hat

3 1

a dditional

p eople w ill h ave t o b e p rocurred b y e xternal w arfare .

I f t he

a ttempt f ails a nd i f t he g roup(s) e xploiting t he p restige g oods h ad p laced g reat

e mphasis

o n

t hem i n m aintaining

o r e levating

t heir

s ocial

p osition

t hen i t i s p ossible t hat t he c onsequent l oss o f s tatus m ay u ndermine t heir p osition . D espite t he e nthusiasm w ith w hich t he m odel h as b een a pplied, p resents a n umber o f d ifficulties . e arlier E uropean I ron A ge p roposed

i t

C onsidering t he i nterpretation o f t he b y F rankenstein a nd R owlands i n t heir

i nfluential p aper, G osden ( 1985) h as c riticised i t o n t he g rounds t hat w ealth a nd s tatus i n C eltic s ociety w ere b ased o n t he o wnership o f l and a nd t hat t his s elf-sufficiency a nd i ndependence w as m ore i mportant

t han a ccess

t o f oreign t rade . O n t he s ame g rounds G osden h as a lso c hallenged t he a pplicability o f t he p articular m arriage n etwork s uggested b y F rankenstein a nd R owlands ( 1978 ) . W hile t here i s m uch i n G osden 's a rguments ( et a lso M an ( ns) 2 1, w hich

c ould b e

s upported

b y a n a nalysis

o f

t he

l iterary

1 986 ,

s ources

7 45-8 )

f or

t he

l ater I ron A ge, i t i s d ifficult t o a ccept h is i nterpretation o f C eltic s ociety w hich d raws h eavily o n I rish t exts u p t o am illennium l ater t han t he p eriod u nder d iscussion .

A lthough G osden i s c areful t o a void c laiming t hat

t he h istorical I rish s ocieties a nd t hose o f

t he e arly I ron A ge

E urope w ere o rganised o n e xactly t he s ame p rinciples ( 1985 ,

i n c entral

4 79-80) ,

i t i s

a rguable t hat t he c lassical s ources b arely d iscussed b y h im ( ibid , 4 82) p rovide e vidence n earer i n b oth s pace a nd t ime t o t he p re-Roman I ron A ge o f E urope w hich a re o f g reater v alue . A m ore p ersuasive a rgument f or t he i mportance o f f oreign t rade t o C eltic s ocieties i s t hat p roposed b y N ash f or t he l ater I ron A ge i n c entral G aul . W hile h er i nterpretation i s b ased o n a s imilar t heoretical p osition t o t hat e xpressed b y F rankenstein a nd R owlands i n 1 978 , i t i s i ntegrated w ith t he m ore e xtensive a nd c ontemporary h istorical e vidence f or l ater I ron A ge s ocieties R epublican

( Mash 1 976b ) .

c ontact

( eg

W hile o ther s tudies h ave

F euvrier-Pr&votat

1 978 ;

c overed

D aubigny

1 983 ;

t his

l ater

T chernia

1 983) o r s tressed t he i mportance o f t rade a s a c ritical s timulus , N ash 's i s t he o nly i nterpretation w hich s atisfactorily c onsiders t he s ocial c ontext .(1) A s s uch i s i t w orth e xamining i n d etail b efore t urning t o o ther f orms o f c ontact .

C entral G aul a nd R ome i n t he l ater I ron A ge N ash a rgues t hat R oman e xpansion i n t he l ater R epublic e ffects o n C eltic s ociety . S he s uggests t hat b efore

h ad p rofound t his p eriod

i mmigration a nd m ercenary s ervice w ere i mportant w ays o f r educing p opulation p ressure , o f G aul.

g aining s tatus a nd a cquiring b ooty a nd l uxury g oods f or t he C elts A n i ncrease i n p opulation p ressure c ould b e m et i n p art b y

i ncreased s ettlement o f l and p reviously c onsidered m arginal b ut w here t here w as n ot e nough l and t o e nsure i nheritance r ights - o f c rucial i mportance i n C eltic s ociety - t his c ould r esult i n ad rop o f s tatus u nless t hey m igrated . A s s tatus a chieved a s w arriors c ould n o l onger b e w on i n m ercenary s ervice o r

o n

w arring

r aids

o n

t he

i ncreased .

M editerranean w orld , T his w arfare

p rovided

N ash t he

s uggests

t hat

o pportunity

i nter-polity

f or m ilitarily

s uccessful n obles t o i ncrease t heir s tatus a nd a uthority , t hereby c reating a s ituation i n w hich a s mall n umber o f f amilies c ould c reate a n o ligarchy . N ash a rgues t hat t rade w ith t he R oman w orld p rovided a c rucial s pur t o

3 2

t his w arfare , p articularly b ecause o f i ts r ole a s as ource o f c aptives w hich c ould b e e xchanged w ith t he R oman w orld . S he s uggests t hat s laves w ere t he p rincipal c ommodity s ought b y t he R omans a nd w ere u sed o n t he l atifundia o f I taly a nd a s C eltic s ociety d id n ot m ake e xtensive u se o f s laves t hey w ere p rocured a s c aptives i n w arfare . T he u nlimited s upply o f f oreign g oods , p articularly w ine a nd o ther g oods u sed i n f easting , w hich c ould b e u sed i n c ompetitive g ift e xchange f urther s timulated t his w arfare . N ash s ees t he i ncreased q uantities o f c oinage i ssued i n C entral G aul i n t he s econd h alf o f t he s econd c entury B C a s r eflecting t his s uggested w arfare . T he d evelopment o f t he C entral G aulish o ppida i s a lso s een b y N ash a s b eing r elated t o w arfare a s a r esponse t o t he n eed f or a c entralised a dministration f or t he c oercion o f t he e nlarged , o ligarchic , p olities i n o rder t o e xploit t heir p roducts m ore e fficiently a nd t o c ontrol t he p otentially d isruptive f oreign t rade . N ash c onsiders t hese d evelopments t o r eflect t he i nstitution o f t he a rchaic s tate w hich J ulius C aesar r ecognised w hen h e c alled t he C entral G aulish p olities c ivitates r ather t han t ribes ( Nash 1 976b ; 1 978 ) . N ash 's a rguments h ave b een w idely a ccepted ( eg R oymans 1 983) b ut w hile h er a nalysis o f t he l iterary e vidence f or C eltic s ociety i s c ogent , t he a rchaeological e vidence o n w hich m uch o f h er i nterpretation i s b ased s hould b e r eviewed . N ash l aid g reat s tore o n t he c oncentration o f R oman i mports i n w hat s he c onsidered t o b e t he a rea o f ' secondary s tate f ormation ' ( 1976b , 1415 , 1 28-9 ) b ut s ubsequent r esearch h as s hown t his c oncentration t o b e a r eflection o nly o f d ifferential r esearch a nd t hat t he o verall d istribution i n G aul i s e qually i mpressive . A s a m ore r epresentative s ample o f s ites h as b een e xcavated i t h as e merged t hat m ay o f t he s ites m ost p rolific i n i mports w ere v irtually u nknown u ntil t he 1 970s ( Fitzpatrick 1 987 ; c f M ills 19 85) . T here i s n o d oubt t hat t he s cale o f p re-conquest t rade, p articularly i n w ine , w as s ubstantial ( Tchernia 1 983 ; 1 986 , 9 0-3) a nd i t i s p ossible t hat N ash 's a rgument c ould b e r e-phrased t o a rgue t hat i t w as t he s cale o f i mportance w hich s he r egarded a s ' effectively u nlimited ' ( 1976b , 1 28 ) t hat w as i mportant . U nfortunately t he l ack o f q uantified d ata f rom C entral F rance p recludes s erious d iscussion o f t his p ossibility b ut t he s low i ncrease o f g ood p ublications f rom o ther r egions o f F rance ( eg B oudet 1 987) w hich d ocument l arge q uantities o f f inds d oes n ot e ncourage t he v iew t hat C entral G aul r eceived a d isproportionate q uantity o f i mports . A s F ulford h as p ointed o ut i t i s a lso d ifficult t o r ecognise a rchaeologically t he s udden i ncrease i n i mports p ostulated b y N ash , n or , f rom a n I talian v iewpoint , i s i t e asy t o e nvisage t hat t he a vailability o f i mports w as e ither s udden o r u nlimited ( Fulford 1 985 , 9 6-7) , u nless o f c ourse t rade w as c losely l inked w ith m ilitary s upply . D ifferent i nterpretations m ay a lso b e m ade o f s uch i nformation a s t here i s . G oudineau s uggests t hat t he i mport o f R oman a mphorae i n s outhern F rance i ncreased t enfold a fter t he c onquest i n t he 1 20s B C a nd t he e vidence o f s hipwrecks s upports t his . H owever , w hile G oudineau ( 1983 , 7 9-81) c hooses t o e mphasise t he t enfold i ncrease o f a mphorae a s ap roportion o f t he t otal c eramic a ssemblage c 1 00 B C , t he a ppearance o f I talian a mphorae a s a s ingle c ategory a lso s hows a t enfold i ncrease c 1 75 B C : . W hich i s m ore i mportant? T he l imited a rchaeological e vidence f rom t emperate E urope s uggests t hat R oman i mports b ecame a vailable g radually i n t he s econd h alf o f t he s econd c entury B C a s i s e videnced b y b urials f rom D ühren ( Schumacher 1 911) a nd A rmsheim ( Stümpel 1 961) a nd t ransitional G raeco-Italic/Dressel L A a mphorae a re k nown f rom a n umber o f s ites , w hile W ill ( 1987) s uggests t hat a bout h alf t he M anching a mphorae a re G raeco-Italics , w ith s ome d ating b ack t o c 2 00 B C . (2) T his c ould s uggest a n e ven l onger c hronology f or c entral a nd s outhern F rance w hich w ould a lmost c ertainly h ave b een r eceiving R oman i mports e arlier . T he p roposal t hat t he

3 3

a nnexation o f t he P rovince w as a d ecisive e vent i n d etermining t he a vailability o f i mports ( eg C unliffe 1 984, 4 ) m ay b e c onvenient i n c onstructing

a c hronology

b ut

t here a re

d angers

o f

c ircular a rgument

( et

F itzpatrick 1 985 , 3 07-8 , 3 1516) . I t i s a lso d ifficult t o r econcile t his c hronology w ith t hat o f t he a mphorae w hose c hronology c an b e e stablished f rom e lsewhere i n t he M editerranean w orld a nd a ppears t o b e l onger ( cp W ill 1 982) .

B ut

i t w ould b e r ash t o a ssert a ny s ingle r egional

i ntrinsically b etter g iven t he v arious m ethodological

c hronology i s

b ases ;

h istorical,

t ypological a nd c hronometric d eterminations , f rom w hich t hey d erive . I f w e t urn t o a nother c ategory o f e vidence , N ash h as d emonstrated t hat t he c hronology o f C eltic c oinage a rgued b y C olbert d e B eaulieu , u sing v irtually t he s ame h istorically b ased i nterpretation o f t he s ignificance o f t he a nnexation o f t he P rovincia , i s u ntenable ( Nash 1 975) a nd t his d ating h as b een b orne o ut o n o ther g rounds b y P olenz 's work i n c entral E urope ( Polenz

1 9 8 2 ) .

I t

i s a s w ell, t herefore ,

t o r eserve s ome c aution a s t o t he

s uggested d ramatic i ncrease i n R oman i mports .

L astly ,

i t s hould b e p ointed

o ut t hat t here i s l ittle f irm e vidence t o s upport t he d egree o f u rbanisation i n l ater I ron A ge C entral G aul c laimed b y N ash . T his i s n ot t o d eny i ts e xistence b ut r ather t o p oint o ut t hat t he a rchaeological e vidence p resently a vailable d oes n ot o ffer d ecisive e vidence o ne w ay

o r

t he

o ther

( Ralston

1 984). I n c onsidering f oreign t rade N ash a rgued f orcibly t hat i ts s ignificance w as s ocial a s w ell a s e conomic . B y c ontrast h er a ttitude t o R oman t rade i s b ased u pon t he s upposed p resence o f e ntrepreneurial R oman m erchants s upplying w ine , f ine p ottery t ablewares a nd m etal v essels, a ll p robably c onnected w ith f easting . I t i s a lso i mplicit i n h er a nalysis a nd v irtually a ll o thers ( eg T chernia 1 983 ;

1 986 ,

9 1 0-3 ;

F ulford 1 985) t hat a s e ither a ll

o r t he b ulk o f t he i mported g oods w ere I talian i n o rigin, t he t rade r eflected b y t hese g oods w as a l ong d istance o ne b etween I taly a nd G aul . B efore a ttempting t o j ustify t hese o bservations , h owever , i t i s n ecessary t o t urn t o t he f ull r ange o f c ontact w ith R ome r ather t han r estricting d iscussion t o t rade i n g eneral a nd t he w ine t rade i n p articular .

D iplomatic R elations P erhaps t he e arliest e vidence f or d iplomatic a s o pposed t o m ilitary r elations w ith t he C elts o utside t he a rea w hich b ecame t he p rovince i s t he p robability t hat

t he A deui e ntered i nto a n a lliance i n R ome i n 1 23122 B C .

I t s eems l ikely t hat a lliances w ere a lso m ade w ith t he A rverni a nd R uteni i n 1 21 B C ( Stevens 1 980) . A s D yson c omments , b e s uspected b ut n ot p roved ( 1985 , 1 44-6 ;

e arlier d iplomatic m issions m ay c f E bel 1 976 ; G oudineau 1 978 ,

6 86) a nd w e k now o f aR oman e mbassy a mongst t he w estern C elts i n 2 18 B C ( Livy 2 1,20) . J ulius C aesar g ives a n umber o f e xamples o f c lient k ings o f R ome , i n t he G allic w ars,

s uch a s A riovistus ( BG I ,

3 5),

b oth

b ut a lso b efore s uch a s

t he A deui ( I , 5 3) a nd C atamantaloedis o f t he S equani ( I , 3 ) .

T he s tatus o f

A mytos ,

f rom

B itoukos ,

B itovis ,

K aiantolos

a nd

R igantokis,

a ll

s outhern

F rance w ho d escribed t hemselves i n g reek o n c oins a s b asileus i s n ot c lear ( Allen a nd N ash 1 980 , 12) . T hese d iplomatic a lliances o bviously r eflect a d ifferent

a spect

o f

c ontact

f rom t rade a nd w hile

t hey a re n ot s o r eadily

i dentifiable i n t he a rchaeological r ecord a s i mports, t o a ccord t hem a ny l ess a s ignificance .

i t w ould b e m istaken

C learly i t w as n either d esirable

n or p ossible f or R ome t o b e a t w ar w ith m any o f h er n eighbours a t a ny o ne

3 4

t ime s o s ome f orm o f t reaty o r a lliance w ould b e e ntered i nto a nd i t s eems l ikely t hat a s eries o f s uch a lliances w ere m ade a round t he f rontiers o f t he n ewly c reated p rovince ( Dyson 1 985 , 1 54-9 ) . I f ac lient r elationship w as e stablished t he f riendly k ing g ained m any a dvantages ( Braund 1 984) . P erhaps t he m ost p otent o f t hese w as t he a llegiance t o t he m ilitary p ower o f R ome . E ven i f i ntervention c ould n ot b e g uaranteed , t he p ossibility o f i t a nd t he s tatus o f b eing a llied t o t he m ost e fficient f ighting f orce i n a ntiquity w ould h ave b een o f g reat s ignificance i n a w arrior s ociety . A lthough N ash m aintains t hat R oman e xpansion e xcluded t he p ossibility o f t he m ercenary s ervice w hich s he a rgues t o h ave b een s o i mportant t o t he C elts ( Nash 1 976b ; c f N ash 1 985) t his w as n ot n ecessarily s o . T he i nternal d issention w hich s plit t he R oman w orld c ontinued t o p rovide a t l east s ome o pportunities a nd w hile t he c onditions o f s ervice w ould h ave d iffered f rom t hat w ith t he h ellenistic a rmies ( Keppie 1 984 ; G riffith 1 90 2 , t he p ossibility o f a cquiring b ooty a nd k udos w ere n ot c ompletely c losed (3) . T here w ere o ther a dvantages t o t he c lient k ing . S ubsidies m ight b e p aid a nd c hildren c ould b e e ducated e ither i n R ome o r w ithin t he R oman w orld a nd f or t he G auls a t Marseilles i n p articular ( Goudineau 1 983 , 8 3 ; B onner 1 977 , 1 57-8 ) w here t hey w ould b ecome k nown t o a nd p ossibly p atrons o f i nfluential R omans ( Badian 1 958 ; c f S ailer 1 982) a nd w e k now t hat C ontoniatus s pent t ime i n R ome ( Diod 3 4-6) . H ostages m ight a lso b e ' educated ' b ut t his s eems t o h ave b een a m ore w idespread p ractice a mongst t he h ellenistic k ingdoms o f t he e ast ( eg S ullivan 1 980 ) . T he g ifts r eceived i n t he c onfederal o f f riendship c ould b e u sed i n p ublic d isplay . A t a s lightly l ater d ate t han t hat c onsidered h ere , t he u nique c ollection o f R oman i mports i ncluding f urniture a nd s tatuary a s w ell a s m any w ine a mphorae f ound i n t he L exden T umulus a t C olchester i n E ngland ( Foster 1 986) m ay r eflect p recisely t he k ind o f c eremonies u ndergone b y B ritish k ings i ntimated b y S trabo ( IV , 5 ) . F riendly k ings w ere n ominally , a nd f or m ost p urposes a ctually , f ree f rom R oman i ntervention y et t he s tatus t hey a chieved b y b ecoming c lients w as p robably c onsiderable . T he e xisting s ystem o f c lientage i n C eltic s ociety w as a dapted t o t his r elationship a nd a s w e h ave s een , l ong d istance a lliances i nvolving m arriages a re k nown ( et M illar 1 984 , 1 3 a lso ) . A lthough c itizenship w as c onferred w idely u nder t he p rincipate i t d oes n ot s eem t o h ave b een b estowed t o t he C elts u nder t he R epublic v ery o ften , a lthough i t d id o ccur ( Badian 1 958 , 1 58 , 2 57-8 , 2 63-5 , 3 05-7). I n h er t urn R ome c ould m aintain h er m ilitary c ommitments a nd s he r eceived t he b enefits o f a n a mbiguous a nd p ermeable z one w hich i ntegrated a nd d ivided t he ' civilised ' a nd ' barbarian ' w orlds . P robably t he m ost i mportant o f t hese b enefits w as t he f low o f i nformation . R ome a lso i ncreased t he p ool o f a llies w ho c ould b e c alled u pon i n t imes o f n eed a nd t his r elationship i s ac entral f eature o f C aesar 's d escriptions o f t he G allic w ar . A lthough i t i s o ften o verlooked , R ome a lso a ccrued k udos f rom t hese a lliances w hich f urther e mphasised h er m ight a s t he l isting o f t he k ings w hom A ugustus s upported a nd t he e mbassies r eceived i n t he R es G estae ( 31-3) c learly d emonstrates t his.

R oman ' Exports' T he a ttention d evoted t o t he w ine t rade b y s o m any s cholars i s d ue i n p art o t t he r elative e ase w ith w hich a mphorae m ay b e i dentified a mongst t he m aterial f rom I ron A ges s ites a nd i n p art t o D iodorus ' f amous p assage r ecounting t he e xchange o f a s lave f or a n a mphora ( V, 2 60) w hich h as

3 5

e ncouraged

a n a pparently

s traightforward

i nterpretation o f

t he w ine

a mphorae . B ut a mphora-borne c ommodities w ere n ot o f c ourse t he o nly g oods -a nd i deas - f rom t he R oman w orld w hich a rrived i n b arbaricum i n t he l ater R epublic. O f t hese o ther c lasses o f a rchaeological m aterial C ampanian f ine w ares w ere t he m ost i mportant .

A s w ith a mphorae t he g reatest n umber o f f inds i s

f rom s outhern F rance b ut t he d istribution i s q uite w ide ( Nash 1 976b , F ig 9 ; M orel 1 985 , 1 81) . C ampanian w ares w ere m anufactured i n a p rodigious r ange o f f orms ( Morel 1 981) b ut t he r ange f round i n G aul i s r estricted a nd d rinking v essels a re p oorly r epresented ( Morel 1 985) . O n t he b asis o f t he h eavy w ear o f s ome v essels a nd t he s uggestion t hat t hey a re f ound i n r elatively ' rich ' d eposits ( although t here i s a n e lement o f c ircularity i n t he d efinition ) , M orel p roposes t hat t he p ottery m ay h ave b een v aluable i n G aul ( ibid , 1 84) . T his v alue m ay e xplain i ts c omparatively s mall d istribution v is-ä-vis a mphorae , a lternatively i t m ay b e t hat i t w as n ot v alued e nough t o b e w orth t rading f urther n orth . I n e ither c ase, t he q uantity o f C ampanian w ares i s t iny i n c omparison w ith t he a mphorae . M orel h as s hown t hat t he C ampanian w ares a re b roadly c ontemporary w ith t he G raeco-Italic a nd D ressel 1 a mphorae ( 1978) b ut t he s ource o f t he v essels f ound i n G aul i s n ot c lear w ith m any p ublications f ailing t o d istinguish b etween t he ' 2 0 , II 'a nd ' C ' v arieties ( probably f rom N aples a nd I schia , E truria a nd S yracuse o r s outhern I taly r espectively ) a nd t he s oc alled i mitations . F or e xample b oth s cientific a nalyses a nd t ypology s uggest t hat m any o f t he S wiss f inds a re f rom N orth I taly ( Morel 1 985 , 1 86 ; K aenal 1 985 , 1 54-5) a nd s o m ay h ave a rrived v ia a d ifferent r oute f rom t he D ressel 1 a mphorae a nd s ome o f t he o ther C ampanian w ares f ound t here . U ntil c omparable w ork i s u ndertaken o n F rench f inds i t i s d ifficult t o a ssess w hether t hey r epresent o ne o r s everal

t rades .

A lthough C ampanian

w ares w ere n ot t he o nly M editerranean f ine w ares t o r each G aul ( Mayet 1 975 ; M orel 1 985, 1 85) t hey w ere t he m ost i mportant q uantitatively . G lass v essels a lso r eached I ron A ge E urope i n sm all n umbers ( Berger a nd J ouve 1 980 ;

V enclovä 1 981;

C ollis 1 984 , 1 41) b ut l arge g lass v essels o nly

b ecame m anufactured w idely i n t he l ast c entury B C ( Grose 1 983), s o i ts r arity i s u nsurprising , w hich a gain m ight s uggest t hat s uch v essels w ere h ighly v alued i n b arbarian E urope . U ndoubtedly t he m ost v aluable R oman v essels s urviving f rom l ater I ron A ge C eltic E urope a re t he t hree s ilver c ups f rom b urials i n B ritain ( Strong 1%7) w hich b elong t o as mall g roup o f l ater R epublican v essels ( Strong 1 966 ; L ipinsky 1 969 ) . T he r eliability o f t he p rovenance o f t he A lesia c up , t he o nly o ther v essel o f t his g roup o utside I taly , i s u ncertain ( Lejeune 1 983a ) b ut i t i s l ikely t hat d iscarded v essels w ere s crapped a nd r ecycled i n I ron A ge E urope r ather t han d eposited i n b urials a s t he B ritish f inds w ere. I t

i s

a ttractive

t o

s ee

t hese

t able w ares

a s a ccompanying

t he w ine

a mphorae a nd b eing u sed i n t he c ompetitive a nd p ublic f easting d escribed b y P osidonius ( IV, 3 6-7, 4 0) a nd D iodorus ( V, 2 8) . A thenaeus, q uoting P osidonius ( 4alitz 1 983 , 1 89 ) , s pecifically d escribes w ine a s t he d rink o f t he C eltic e lite . T his c achet m ay n ot a lways h ave e xisted , p articularly l ater i n t he f irst c entury w hen w ine w as m ore w idely a vailable b ut i t a grees w ell w ith G oody 's a rguments f or d ifferentiation i n c uisine ( 1982) . I n c ontrast R oman f ood p reparation v essels a re r are . M ortaria o ccur o nly o ccasionaly o utwith s outhern F rance ( eg A ulnat : C ollis 1 984 , 5 7 , F ig 5 -6 , d ) a lthough t hey w ere p robably m ade t here ( Py 1 978 , 2 51) a nd d espite t heir l ong h istory ( Goudineau 1 970 ; P ucci 1 975) P ompeian-Red W are ' non-stick '

3 6

v essels a ppear t o b e a bsent . T his s uggests t hat t he i mpact o f R oman c uisine , a s o pposed t o d rink a nd p ossibly t able m anners , w as s uperficial . I n t his r espect t he r ole o f t he w ell-known b ronze v essels s tudied b y W erner ( 1954 ; 1 978 ) i s n ot c lear . D espite t he f requent a ssertions t hat t he v essels w ere p art o f a' wine s ervice ' ,

t heir p urposes a re f ar f rom c lear

( Kunow 1 983 , 9 6-7) a nd i n t he R oman w orld a t l east i t s eems l ikely t hat t hey h ad m any u ses . O ne p articularly i nteresting t ype h ere i s t he s o-called ' strainer ' w hich i s f ound w idely i n b arbarian E urope . A lthough s imilar b ronze v essels a re n ot f ound i n I taly i t i s p robable t hat t hey i mitate t he c ontemporary R oman s ilver s trainers ( J1bert 1 985 , 8 7-9 ) . I t i s u sually a rgued t hat t hese v essels w ere u sed f or s training w ine b ut t here a re m any l iterary r eferences t o C eltic b eer ( eg A thenaeus I V, 3 6 ; D iod V , 2 6 ; S trabo I V , 5 ) w hich c ould a lso h ave n eeded a s trainer t o c atch a dditives s uch a s f ruit . T he G ermans a lso d rank b eer w hich c ould h ave n eeded s training ( Kunow 1 983 , 7 5-7 ) b ut t hese s mall s trainers a re n otably a bsent f rom t hese a reas ( eg C ollis 1 984 , F ig 9 -8 ) a s a re w ine a mphorae ( Fitzpatrick 1 985 , 3 11-12) a nd i t i s t empting t o s ee t his a s e vidence f or t he u se o f t he s trainers w ith w ine . T he d istribution o f t he s trainers i s , h owever , m uch w ider t han t hat o f t he a mphorae , p articularly i n c entral E urope ( Fitzpatrick 1 985 , 3 30 ; W aldhauser 1 983 , 3 35 , O br I ; S vobodovg 1 985 , 6 64-5 , O br 2 , 1 01 2) w here a mphorae a re s o r are t hat t his h as l ed t o t he a uthenticity o f s ome f inds b eing d oubted ( Meduna 1 982) . A ccordingly t he s trainers c ould b e r egarded a s i nferential e vidence f or w ine t raded t o c entral E urope i n s kins o r t he b arrels w hich S trabo l ater m entioned w ine b eing t ransferred t o a t A quilea ( V , 1 .8 ) a nd r emains o f w hich m ay h ave b een r ecovered a t M anching ( Maier 1 985 ,

2 9 , A bb 6 ) .

O ther t ypes o f R oman a rtefact a ppear t o b e f ew . L amps a re n otable b y t heir r arity , w ith f inds i n c entral a nd w estern E urope f rom o nly V illeneuveS aint-Germain ( Debord 1 984 , 3 1, F ig 1 0 ) a nd t he A ltenburg ( Fischer 1 985 , 2 98 , A bb 6 ) . F inds l ike t he c eramic e x v oto f rom B asel Gasfabrik ( FurgerG unti a nd B erger 1 980 , 9 7, T af 1 9 , 4 39 ) o r t he s eal-box f rom A ltenburg ( Fischer 1 985 , 2 96-7 , A bb 5 ) a re e xceptional a nd p ose i mportant q uestions o f i nterpretation . T he A ltenburg f inds h ave b een t aken t o i ndicate t he p resence o f t he R oman a rmy i n t he l ater f irst c entury B C , b ut , a s F ischer p oints o ut t hey c ould a s w ell i ndicate t he p resence o f m erchants a t t he s ite b efore t he c onquest ( 1985, 2 98) . T he p resence o f m erchants a lso h as a b earing o n t he i nterpretation o f t he e vidence f or w riting i n C eltic o ppida . G reek g raffito a re q uite c ommon o n C ampanian w are i n s outhern G aul ( Ba rme n 1 977 ; L ej k ine 1 983b , 7 37 , 7 43-51) a nd M orel s peculates t hat t hey c ould i ndicate t he p resence o f G reek o r Massiliote m erchants ( 1985, 1 85) . H owever , t he e vidence , p articularly f or s tylii i s w idespread ( Jacobi 1 974) a nd t he d iscovery o f p art o f t he G reek a lphabet i ncised o n ap ot a t M anching w ith o ther g raffiti f rom t he o ppidum ( Kramer 1 982) a nd s uch f inds a s t he f amous s word o f K orisios f rom P ort ( less 1 954) a nd C aesar 's o wn t estimony ( BG I , 2 9 ; V I, 1 4; V , 4 8 ( inferential)) c annot b e a ll b e e xplained b y m erchants o r R oman p risoners . I nstead t he e vidence s trongly s upports t he s ort o f c onditional l iteracy s uggested b y P iggott ( 1968 , 4 6-8 ) a nd w hile n ot a s s triking a s t he a rchaeological e vidence f or t he w ine t rade, a s w ith d iplomatic r elations i ts s ignificance s hould n ot b e u nderestimated . T he p otential w hich l iteracy o ffers f or i ncreasing t he c ontrol o f k nowledge a s w ell a s c reating i t w here i t w as p reviously h eld i n a n o ral t radition , i n t his c ase b y t he D ruids , a re e normous ( et G oody 1 977) . N or n eed m erchants h ave b een t he a gents t hrough w hom t his c onditional l iteracy w as l earnt f or a s w e h ave s een d iplomatic m issions o r s chooling i n t he M editerranean w orld a lso p rovided o pportunities .

B ut a s S trabo ( IV ,

3 7

4 .5) r eminds u s w e s hould

b e c autious a s t o h ow w idespread t his s kill w as .

M ercatores, N egotiandi c ausi a nd P ublicani I n t he b ello g allico C aesar m entions t raders a n umber o f t imes . U nfortunately i n c ommon w ith o ther s ources ( ed D iod V , 2 2) i t i s n ot a lways c lear i f t he m erchants a re G aulish r ather t han R oman ( eg B G I , 1 5;

I II,

R oman .

1 , 3 9 ;

I I ,

1 ) a lthough t he c ontext d oes s uggest t hat t hey p robably w ere

T here i s a n i mportant d istinction b etween t hese m ercatores a nd t he

n egotiandi c ausa m entioned i n b ook V II , 3 , 3 8 , 4 2 a nd 5 5 .

T he

l atter w ere

c itizens b ased i n o ppida a nd p rotected b y G aulish a llies o r R oman t roops b ut w ho w ere a mong t he v ictims o f t he r evolt o f 5 2 B C n one t he i nstances

t hey

c ontrolled

t he

s upply o f g rain a nd

a ppellation i ndicates a n a dministered m entions

a n umber

R alston 1 986, c ontrast

o f

3 86;

b etween

t he

i t

l ess .

I n t wo

s eems t hat

t he

s upply o r d istribution w hich C aesar

t imes

i n h is w orks

T impe

1 985,

( Labisch 1 975 ;

2 67) .

I t i s

n egotiandi c ausa a nd

B uchsenschutz a nd

i nteresting t o n ote

t he m ercatores

t he

e ncamped o utside

t he r amparts o f C icero 's c amp a t t he t ime o f aG erman a ttack ( BG V I, 3 7) a lthough t hey m ay h ave b een i n a n o fficial c anabae ( BG V I , 3 2 ; T impe 1 985 , 2 75) .

A pparently i ndependent m erchants , ' I f, ( ,x v

b y D iodorus ( V, 5 0 , 4 ) .

z !

c ,t o c

,a re m entioned

2 6) a nd i n a n e nclave a t V ienne i n 6 2/61 B C ( Cass D io X IVI,

A lthough t he e vidence r elating t o t he C elts o f c entral a nd w estern

b arbarian E urope i s s light, i t d oes s uggest t hat a t l east s ome R oman m erchants o perated b eyond t he f rontiers b ut a t t he s ame t ime i t a lso s hows t hat w e a re n ot d ealing s olely w ith t hese i ndividuals b ut w ith a m ore c omplext

s ystem .

F rom C icero 's w orks

i t

i s

c lear

t hat

n egotiatores w ere

a lso i nvolved i n av ariety o f a ctivities i n t he p rovinces ( Feuvrier-Pr votat 1 981) .

I n t his

H ere h e

d escribes

r espect h is

c omments i n p ro F onteio ( 1112) a re p ertinent .

t he p rovince i n t he 7 0s B C a s f ull

o f m en o f b usiness ,

c olonists, p ublicani , f armers a nd r anchers . I t i s t empting t o s ee s ome c onnection b etween t he p ublicani m entioned b y C icero w ho , h aving o btained a s tate c ontract,

c ollected g rain a nd w ere r esponsible f or i ts

t ransport t o

t he a rmy o r t o R ome d uring t he R epublic ( Badian 1 972 ; G arnsey 1 983 , a nd t he n egotiandi c ausa m entioned b y C aesar ( cp B raund 1 983) .(4)

1 21-6)

G rain w as d oubtless t he m ost i mportant a spect o f a rmy s upply b ut w ine w as a lso a s taple ( Middleton 1 983 , 7 5-8 r efuting T chernia 1 983 , 9 2-3) . I f w e a ccept t he t hrust o f M iddleton 's i nterpretation o f t he c rimes w ith w hich F onteius w as c harged a s c omplicity w hile g overnor i n t he e xtortionate e xploitation o f a w ine t rade c onnected w ith m ilitary s upply , t hen i t i s p ossible t o s ee h igh-level, i f n ot n ecessarily o fficial, R oman i nterest i n t he s upply i f s ome g oods i n s outhern F rance .

T he e xact r elationship b etween

t he v arious p arties i nvolved r emains u ncertain a nd t he w hole t opic o ne o f g reat d ebate ( Hopkins 1 983 ; C rawford 1 985) b ut i t s eems c lear t hat I talian g oods d id n ot a rrive i n s outhern F rance s olely

i n

t he

i n p ro-Fonteio

c ourse

a nd

o f a n I talian ' export '

a nd p ro Q uinctio

( 12)

b eyond i n t rade .

s uggest

t hat

t he

l ater R epublic

C icero 's d escriptions t he w ine

a nd

o ther

c ommodities c ontained i n m any o f t he a mphorae f ound i n s outhern F rance w ere c onsumed b y R omans . I n r ecognising t hat t he s ituation o utwith t he p rovince w as m ore c omplex t han t hat r epresented b y t he i mage o n e ntrepreneurial m erchants, i t i s a s w ell t o r emember t hat c ontracts w ith C elts a re m entioned b y S trabo ( IV , 4 . 5 , p ossibly f ollo w ing P osidonius ; M alitz 1 983 , 1 69-98 ) a nd t here i s c onsiderable e vidence f or t hem f rom t he M agdalensberg g raffiti . W e s hall r eturn t o t his t heme.

3 8

C eltic ' Exports' I f o ther a spects o f R oman c ontact s uch a s d iplomatic r elations a nd c lient k ings a re a llowed g reater i mport i t i s p ossible t o t urn t o t he q uestion o f w hat w as e xchanged f or t he R oman i mports . I t i s u sually a rgued t hat s laves w ere t he m ost i mportant c ommodity e xchanged b y t he C elts o f G aul . A s D aubigny a nd T chernia h ave p ointed o ut , i n v iew o f t he r arity o f r eferences t o s laves , t he o ccurence o f t hree r eferences t o G aulish s laves w ithin 2 0-40 y ears o f e ach o ther i s s urely s ignificant ( Cic p ro Q uinctio V I , 2 ; A fric G ram l at I , 19 ; D iod V , 2 6, T chernia 1 983, 9 7-9 ; D aubigny 1 979 ;

1 983 ) .(5) H owever , e nslavement w ithin a R oman p rovince w as i llegal s o t he b ulk o f

a mphorae f inds w ithin i t m ust , a s C rawford h as p ointed o ut , b e d iscounted a s s imply r eflecting a s lave t rade ( 1985 , 1 70) , e ven i f m any f inds i n c entral F rance a nd b eyond c ould b e i nterpreted i n t his w ay . B ut i f t he s ources o f R oman s laves a re e xam ined i t a ppears t hat t he p rincipal s upply w as f rom t he e nslavement o f t hose v anquished i n w arfare . S lave-trading o n i ts o wn w as o f l esser s ignificance a nd a pparently p rimarily w ith t he E ast ( Harris 1 980 ) . A ccording t o H opkins ' i nterpretation o f t he l ater R epublic , l atifundia w ere i n p art a c onsequence o f w arfare n ot o f s lave t rading s o w e s hould b e c autious i n r eceiving t he a ccepted w isdom c oncerning G aulish e xports a nd , a s R ich h as p ointed o ut , t he n eed f or m anpower i n I taly m ay a lso h ave b een e xaggerated ( Rich 1 983) . T chernia h as a rgued t hat m etals w ere e xported , n otably s ilver f rom w estern G aul ( 1983 , 9 5-6 ; 1 986 , 9 3-3) b ut a lso g old a nd t in . T his i s a p uzzling s uggestion f or t here i s n o d oubt t hat t he C elts r egarded g old a s a p recious m etal a nd i t w as t raditionally u sed a s a m easure o f w ealth . P ositing t hat i ts e xploitation a nd w orking w ere u nder s trict c ontrol, i t i s d ifficult t o s ee t his a ccepted a nd c ontrolled f orm o f w ealth b eing e xchanged f or a n ew b ut p otentially u ncontrollable o ne s uch a s w ine, u nless t he p articipants w ere w holly o r s ubstantially u naware o f t he p otential c onsequences o f t heir a ctions . T he s ame o bjection a pplies t o t he a rgument t hat S wiss a nd G erman R hinegold w as a lso e xchanged . D espite A thenaeus ' r eference ( VI , 2 5 ) i t i s d ifficult t o p rove t hat t his s ource w as a ctually b eing e xploited o n a s ignificant s cale a t t his t ime ( Furger-Gunti 1 982 , 3 6 , A nm 1 23 ; 1 984) . T he s uggestion t hat t here w as a t rade i n B ritish t in i n t he l ater A ge i s a lso d ifficult t o r econcile w ith t he r esounding s ilence o f t he c ontemporary l iterary s ources a nd t he l ack o f a rchaeological e vidence f or c ontact .(6) T chernia 's r emarks t hat t he r arity o f f inds o f D ressel 1 a mphorae a long t he w estern a nd n orthern c oasts o f F rance s uggests a d irect c oastal r oute f or B ritish t in ( 1983 , 9 6-7) f all p rey t o e xactly t he s ame c riticisms o f d ifferential r esearch a s t hose w hich h e h imself i s s o c areful t o p oint o ut ( ibid , 8 8-9 1) , f or m any f inds i n t hese a reas h ave s ince b een p ublished ( eg F itzpatrick 1 987 ; R oman 1 983 ; B audet 1 987 ) .

b een

C ontrary t o T chernia 's s uggestions , i ron i s t he l ikeliest m etal t o h ave e xported f rom b arbarian E urope , a s t he q uality a nd q uantity o f i ts

w orking w ere v ery h igh ( Fischer 1 983) a nd t he N orican i ron e xported t he M agdalensberg m ay o nly b e t he b est k nown e xample o f i ts e xport 1 984, 8 7-92) . O n t he c ontrary i t m ay b e w ondered i f b ullion i mported o r g ive a s s ubsidies t o G aul? T he b est k nown e xpample o f

t hrough ( Collis w as n ot b ullion

r eaching b arbaricum i n t he l ater R epublic i s t he d iscovery o f p rodigious n umbers o f d enarii i n D acia . C rawford s uggests t hat t hey m ay r epresent p ayment f or s laves ( 1977a ; 1 985 , 2 18-39 ) b ut C4tescu ( 1981, 2 4-5) d isputes t he l ikelihood o f t he s ign ificant e xport o f p eople a t t his t ime a rguing t hat

3 9

t hey c ould a ll h ave b een u sed i n D acia . m ade

b y F ulford

I nstead w hat 1 985 , 9 67) .

t hat

a rrival

o f

P erhaps m ore i mportant i s t he p oint

b ullion m ay n ot

b e

u nique

t o D acia .

i s u nusual i s i ts d eposition i n u nrecovered h oards ( Fulford R oman R epublican c oinage i s r are i n G aul a nd m ost f inds a re

p ost-Caesarian a nd 3 31, A pp 5 7) .

t he

a re m ixed w ith G aulish c oins

i n h oards

( Crawford

1 985 ,

B ut t here a re a f ew a pparently e arly f inds f rom G aul s uch a s

t he h oard f rom A ime ( ibid ,

1 65 ,

3 18 , A pp 4 4) a nd t here i s t he f amous f ind o f

d enarii ,

C eltic s ilver c oins a nd

1 981) .

A f ew d enarii

b rooches

f rom s ettlements

f rom L auterach

s uch a s

t hose

( Rieckhoff-Pauli

f rom A ltenburg a nd

B asel-Müsterhügel c ould b e I ron A ge r ather t han e arly R oman i ntroductions ( Kaenal 1 980 ,

3 3) .

T hese f ew f inds h int t hat m uch o f t he e xtensive s ilver

c oinages o f G aul, m any o f w hich , t he s o-called G allic q uinarii, a re b ased o n R oman

s ystems ,

c ould

b e m ade

o f

r e-coined R oman i ssues .

c ertainly t rue i n s ome c ases ( Allen a nd N ash 1 980 , t o e xplain t he o therwise p uzzling 1 985 ,

1 68 ,

T his

i s a lmost

3 5-6) a nd i t c ould h elp

l ack o f R oman c oinage i n G aul ( Crawford

1 71) .

A B alance o f T rade? I n a ttempting t o a nswer w hat t he C elts e xchanged f or w ine a nd C ampanian t ablewares Morel h as w ritten ' Et c lassique

t rilogie

u ellement e n roccurance . ' t he

j e n 'ai a ucun 6 . 16ment ä a jouter ä l a

maau. x -salaisons-esclaves, ä l aquelle o n ( Morel

1 985 ,

1 85).

p ense

T chernia h as

h abit-

d ispatched

l arge s cale e xport o f G aulish h ams t o R ome f rom s erious c onsideration

a nd b ack t o t he p ages o f F laubert ( Tchernia 1 983,

9 7) b ut e ven s o i t i s

w orth e xamining t he a ssumptions w hich u nderlie M orel 's c onclusions a s t hey a re r epresentative

o f m any a rguments .

F irstly i t m ay b e o bserved t hat a rchaeologically v isible R oman i mports m ust a pparently b e m atched b y a rchaeologically i nvisible e xports t o e nsure w hat a ppears t o b e ab alance o f t rade .

I t i s t rue t hat Morel's c lassic

t rilogy a re a ll m entioned b y l iterary s ources ( rimpe 1 985 , 2 77-8 ), b ut t here i s n o r eason t o e xclude a rchaeologically i nvisible i mports .

A n e xamination

o f S trabo 's s lightly l ater r eferences t o e xchanges o utside t he R oman E mpire i n n orthern E urope e mphasises t his ( Table 2 . 1) a nd i t i s a s w ell t o r emember t hat t he i mport o f h orses i s m entioned ( BG I V , 2 ;

c f L ivy X LIII , 5 ) a nd a s

C ollis p oints o ut t he b ulk o f t he c eltic e xports a ttested b y t he M agdalensberg g raffiti a re n ot r ecognisable a rchaeologically ( Collis 1 984 , 1 45) .

I n c ommon w ith N ash 's e xpectations o f e ntrepreneurial R oman t raders

t his i mplicit b alance o f t rade i s d ifficult t o r econcile w ith w hat w e k now o f e ither t he R oman e conomy ( Hopkins 1 983) o r o f R oman f oreign c ontact . F or

t he

s ame

r easons

R oman 's

c laim

t hat

i mperialism ' o ver G aul i n t his p eriod ( 1985 ,

R ome

e xercised

' economic

1 98 ) m ust b e r ejected .

T he s econd a ssumption i s t hat a s t he b ulk o f R oman i mports i n G aul a re I talian i t i s a ssumed t hat t he t rade w as b etween G aul a nd R ome . p articularly d ifficult t o j ustify t his . A s w e h ave a lready s een ,

I t i s C icero

c ommented t hat i n t he 7 0s B C s outhern G aul w as f ull o f R omans a nd C rawford h as a rgued o f t he w ine a nd p ottery t rade t hat

' part o f

t he a nswer i s

t o b e

f ound i n t he R oman p resence i n G aul r ather t han i n aR oman d emand f or s laves f rom G aul ' .

( Crawford

1 985 ,

1 70) .

I t w as a rgued a bove

t hat

t his

f orces

t he r ecognition t hat R oman m aterial f ound i n l ater I ron A ge E urope p robably r epresents n ot a s ingle l ong-distance t rade b ut a c omplicated n etwork o f s eparate t ransactions .

I n c onsidering t he o rigins o f t he w ine t rade

M iddleton h as a rgued t hat i t w as e ssentially m ilitary ( 1983) . T his i s a ttractive i n t hat i t r aises t he p ossibility t hat t he f irst R oman w ine t rade

4 0

T able 2 . 1 C ommodities i nvolved i n c ross-cultural e xchanges i n t he n orth M editerranean a nd t emperate E urope m entioned b y S trabo . I t s hould b e n oted t hat t he c ommodities a re n ot l isted b y S trabo b ut a re i nterspersed t hrough t he t ext . T he t able i s n ot e xhaustive .

L ocation

I ndigenous G oods

G oods E xchanged

R eference

R oman G enua ( emporion)

T imber f or s hipbuilding , f locks, h ides, m oney

O live-oil, I talian w ine

I V , 6 . 2 .

A quilea ( emporion)

S laves, c attle, h ides

S ea-products, w ine, o live-oil

V ,

B ritain

C orn , c attle, g old,

I vory o racelets & n ecklaces, a mber

I V , 5 . 2 -4.

s ilver , h ides, s laves, h unting-dogs

1 . 8 .

g lassware ' and s imilar p etty t rifles' S ea-Traders

C assiterides

T in , l ead, c attle-hides

P ottery, s alt &

I II, 5 .

1.

c opper u tensils C elts i n V alleys A lpine a rea ( Celts i n M ountains)

R esin , p itch , t orch-pine w ax , h oney , c heese

F ood

I V , 6 .

9 .

w ith G aul w as a s econdary o ne d eriving f rom t he s upply o f t he S panish a rmies . T his i s c ompatible w ith t he a rgument t hat R ome a nnexed s outhern F rance i n o rder t o s ecure t he o verland r oute t o S pain ( Ebel 1 976 ; S teven 1 980) a nd a lso w ith G oudineau 's r evival o f M ommsen 's s uggestion t hat R ome b egan t o e xercise a uthority o ver a t l east p art o f t he r egion i n t he f irst h alf o f t he s econd c entury B C ( Goudineau 1 978 , 6 86) . T he r elative t rends o f t he i mport o f a mphorae i n s outhern F rance a re, a s s uggested a bove, s usceptible o f e ither i nterpretation . I n t his s ituation i t m ay b e w ondered i f p art o f t he e xchanges f or w ine i n G aul w ere d estined n ot f or e ither G aul o r I taly b ut S pain? C orn w as c ertainly b ought b y t he s tate i n s ome p rovinces ( Crawford 1 977b ) a nd C icero s tates i n h is d efence o f F onteius t hat c orn w as s ent a s s upplies t o t he S panish a rmies i n t he 7 0s B C ( pro F onteio 1 3) a lthough h ow i t w as p aid f or , i f a t a ll, i s n ot m ade c lear . A s M illar h as p ointed o ut , t here i s n o r eason t hat t he o bjects e xchanged w ith R oman g oods i n t he M editerranean s hould h ave a rrived i n I taly r ather t han b eing m oved d irectly f rom o ne p rovince ( or b eyond ) t o a nother ( Millar 1 984 , 2 2 ; c f T chernia 1 986, 9 6-97, n 1 58).

4 1

A lthough C icero d escribes a p artnership f ormed t o e xport G aulish g oods t o I taly i n h is p ro Q uinctio, t he c umulative e ffect o f t he s uggestions a dvanced a bove i s t o r aise t he p ossibility t hat t he n ature a nd s cale o f t rade b etween G aul, b oth b arbarian a nd R oman , a nd I taly w as n ot a s f ormidable a s T chernia s uggests a nd t hat t he a ssumption o f a ' b alance o f t rade ' i s m isplaced . I n d escribing t he w ine t rade w ithin G aul C icero d istinguished t he t rade b eyond t he P rovince a s a d h ostem a nd i t w as t axed a t t he b oundary . B eyond t his p oint p art o f t he t rade w as e xecuted b y m ercatores w ho t hemselves w ould b e l iable t o C eltic t olls ( eg B G I , 1 8 ; I , 4 5 ; I II , 1 ; S trabo I V , 1 ; I V , 3 , 5 : I V , 6 ) . I f t hese m ercatores w ere i n s ome w ay a ssociated w ith t he p ublicani i t i s p ossible t hat e ven t his t rade w as u ltimately p art o f a l arger a nd m ore c omplex s ystem o f R oman t rade . S laves m ay h ave b een e xchanged f or t he g oods c arried b y t he m ercatores b ut m uch o f t he e xchange c ould h ave b een f or l ocal g oods w hich w ere e xchanged o r s old f or c oin w ithin t he P rovince e ither t o b e c onsumed t here o r i n S pain o r i n I taly .(7) L astly , t he p ossibility t hat t he s hips r eturned t o I taly o nly p artly l oaded o r e ven i n b allast s hould n ot b e f orgotten . I f a l ess d ramatic I talian t rade i s e ntertained i t i s w orth c onsidering t o w hat e xtent i t h ighlights e xisting i ndigenous e xchange s ystems? A lthough m any i mports a re f ound i n o ppida , i n B ritain a nd n orthern F rance a t l east , t hey a re a lso f ound i n s maller s ettlements ( eg F itzpatrick 1 987 , T able 4 ) , o ften a longside t he i tems o f l ocal o r r egional e xchange . T he b est e vidence f or t hese i nternal e xchange n etworks i n I ron A ge E urope c omes f rom c areful s tudies i n B ritain ( eg M orris 1 985) b ut t hey m ust b e a nticipated i n c ontinental E urope t oo . A f ew s tudies i ndicate t heir e xistence , t he b est k nown o f w hich i s t he t rade i n c entral E urope o f n ot o nly c ooking p ots b ut a lso t he g raphite b earing c lay f rom w hich t hey w ere m ade . D espite c overing a v ery l arge a rea t he e xchange s eems t o h ave b een q uite r estricted a s t he f ew f inds o utside t he n ormal d istribution , a t A ulnat a nd A quilea , a re e xceptional ( Collis 1 984 , 9 6-8 , F ig 7 -7-8 ; F ischer 1 985 , 2 94-6, A bb 4 ) . T he s mall s cale d istribution o f q uerns f rom t he B lack F orest ( Joos 1 975) o r t he r ather l arger o ne f rom M ayen , a lbeit t hrough m uch o f t he I ron A ge , ( Joachim 1 985 ) a re s uggestive a nd f urther r esearch w ill s urely r eveal o ther e xamples p articularly i n F rance w here t hey a re v irtually u nknown a t p resent . T heir e xistence i n F rance m ay p erhaps b e i ndicated b y t he w ide d istributions o f s ome c oins ( Collis 1 984 , 1 49-53) a lthough t heir i nterpretation i s c omplicated b y t he C aesarian d iaspora , a nd p ossibly b y S trabo 's l ater c omments ( IV , 1 90-9 ) . S light t hough t his e vidence i s , i t d oes s uggest t hat t he a nalytical s eparation o f i nternal a nd e xternal t rade i s m isleading .

C onclusion I t h as b een a rgued a bove t hat t he t rade i n I talian g oods w ith b arbarian E urope w as

n ot

e xclusively a d irect

t rade w ith I taly a nd

t hat

t he

t rade

i tself w as m ore c omplex t han t he p icture o f e ntrepreneurial m ercatores w ould a llow . A s T chernia h as p ointed o ut t he v alues o f R oman a nd b arbarian d iffered a nd w hat w as c onsidered v aluable b y o ne c ulture m ay n ot h ave b een s imilarly r egarded b y t he o ther ( 1983 , 1 00) . T o a n e xtent i t i s p ossible t o u se t his d iscontinuity t o e xplain t he a pparent l ack o f b alance i n t he t rade, b ut t he s uggested C eltic ' exports ' a re u nconvincing . N or d oes b arbarian C eltic E urope i n t he l ater I ron A ge r epresent a c ase o f ' trade f ollowing t he f lag ' f or a p ositive d ecision w as n ecessary t o a dmit f oreign

4 2

t rade a nd c ases w here b arbarians r ejected t rade o utright ( BG I I , 1 5 , t he N ervii ) o r e xcluded c ertain c ommodities ( BG I V , 2 , t he S uebi ; S trabo V III , 3 , 1 . B urebista , b oth t rying t o b an w ine) a re k nown . M ost c ommentators

a gree

t hat

t he

C eltic

e lite w ould h ave

r ecognised

t hat f oreign t rade c ould s timulate i ncreased h ierarchisation a s w ell b e d isruptive a nd s o w ould h ave a ttempted t o c ontrol c ontact . F or e xample , C ollis p roposes t hat t rade c an b e r ejected , c ontrolled b y a c entralised m onopoly , c arried o ut b y f oreign m erchants o r c onducted a t a p ort o f t rade ( 1984, 1 61) . A ll a re v ariations o n c ontrol b y i solation a nd f rom o ur k nowledge o f C eltic s ociety a nd t he t ypes o f i mport a rriving i n b arbaricum t his s eems t o b e t he m ost l ikely a pproach , a lthough w e s hould n ote t he a ssumption

t hat

a ' central

p lace '

i s

i n s ome w ay n ecessary .

I n c ontrast

C rumley ( 1974) a rgued t hat a n i ndependent a rtisan a nd ' middle c lass ' d eveloped t o m eet t he d emands f or g oods t o b e e xchanged w ith R ome, r epresenting a p eriod o f ' primitive i ndustrialisation ' . T his d evelopment , s he a rgued , p roduced a w ider d istribution o f w ealth w hich c ut a cross t he e xisting v alue s ystems a nd w hich l ed t o t he d evelopment o f a p arty r ather t han a k in-based p atronage l eading t o t he c reation o f t he a rchaic s tate . I n o rder t o m aintain t his C rumley h as t o s uggest t hat C aesar d eliberately s uppressed t he t rue o rganisation o f C eltic s ociety ( 1974 , 7 5-6 ) . H owever , a rchaeological e vidence d oes n ot s upport a r apid i ncrease i n t he t rade i n C eltic m anufactured g oods g iving r ise t o o r c onsequent o n t he a ppearance o f am erchant c lass . I nstead t he i ncrease i n m anufacturing w hich m ay h ave l ead t o t he a ppearance o f s pecialist c raftspersons ( et C ollis 1 984 ; P leiner 1 979 ; F ischer 1 983) t hrough i ts o wn i nternal d evelopment h as a m uch l onger h istory f rom a t l east t he m id-second c entury B C . T he e vidence i s c ompatible w ith t he d istribution o f g oods w ithin t he e xisting c lientage n etworks w hich a s C hampion a nd C hampion h ave a rgued m ay w ell d ate b ack t o t he t hird c entury B C ( 1986 , 6 2-4) . I t i s t hrough s uch n etworks t hat m any o f t he l ater R oman i mports m ay h ave c irculated a longside o ther g oods a nd d ues . I f o ppida w ere c entral t o t he d istribution o f t he l ater i mports ( Timpe 1 985 , 2 67-72) t hen i t i s t he e arly d evelopment o f a t l east s ome o f t hem w hich m ay h ave a ctually f acilitated t he f oreign t rade r ather t han v ice v ersa ( Collis 1 984 , 1 87 -e ) . G iven t he e vidence f or C eltic s ociety i n t he l ater I ron A ge a nd t he w ays i n w hich w ealth w as s ocially s pecified w ithin i t , i t i s d ifficult t o e nvisage t he d ependance o f t he e lite o n p restige g oods w hich h as b een s uggested b y s ome w riters . E qually , o ver-dependance o n d irect R oman s upport f or t he m aintenance o f a uthority w as a lso c learly a n i nherently u nstable s trategy ( BG V , 2 5 , 2 9 , 5 4 ; ? III , 1 7 ; C hampion a nd C hampion 1 986) a nd t he C elts s hould b e c redited w ith t he k nowledge o f t his. C onsidering t he r ange o f p ossible c ontacts

i t

i s

d ifficult

t o e scape

t he c onclusion t hat t rade h as b een t aken t o b e t he s ingle m ost i mportant f orm o f c ontact b etween t he C eltic b arbarians a nd R ome s imply b ecause o f i ts a rchaeological v isibility . a lliances c ould h ave b een a s

I nstead d iplomatic r elations a nd m ilitary i mportant i f n ot m ore s o t o b oth C eltic a nd

R oman e lites . I ndeed , d iplomatic r elations m ay h ave b een c entral t o t he a ccessibility o f R oman t rade , n ot i n t he s ense o f n egotiated c ontracts b ut i n d etermining w hether f oreign c ontact w as t o b e e ntertained . I t w ould b e w rong, h owever , t o a scribe t o R ome a n e fficient d iplomatic s ervice a nd c oherent f oreign p olicy . T his i s n ot b e d eny , a s D yson p oints o ut ( 4985 , 1 60), t hat R ome w as a ware o f t he c onsequences o f h er a ctions, b oth s trategically a nd a dministratively , b ut d ecisions w ere o ften o n a n a d h oc b asis b ased o n l ong a nd d ifficult l ines o f c ommunication ( Millar 1 982) a nd

4 3

t he j udgement o f a g eneral o r g overnor o n t he s pot . I n t his s ituation c ompeting i nterests a mongst t he R oman e lite c ould , a nd i n t he m otives b ehind t he c apture o f B ituitus i n t he 1 20s B C d id, l ead t o c ontradictory a nd c ontroversial d ecisions ( Dyson 1 985 , 1 53) . N or w ould i t b e p articularly h elpful t o c onsider f rontiers w hen i t i s c lear t hat t he R omans t hemselves h ad l ittle o r n o c onception o f t hem a t t his p eriod ( Brunt 1 978 ; D yson 1 985 ; H anson c h 3b elow ). I nstead a l ess t angible n etwork o f a lliances b ound b y g ifts , e xchanges , a mbassadors a nd g overnors s hould b e e nvisaged . O f t his t rade f orms o nly a s mall p art a nd t he r elationships b etween p ublicani, n egotiatores, a nd m ercatores w hich a rticulated t he e xternal t rade m ay t hemselves h ave b een r ooted i n am ore l ucrative t rade s timulated n ot b y am arket o rientated r egional o r e ven ' world e conomy ' ( contra E kholm a nd F riedman 1 979 , 5 3) b ut i n a n a dministered s upply s timulated b y t he l arge-scale m ovement o f p eople a nd a nimals i n w arfare ( et H umphreys 1 978 , 1 59-74 ) . T he w idespread t rade i n w ine w ith t he C eltic b arbarians i n t he l ater R epublic m ay i tself o nly h ave b een f acilitated b y a n i ncrease a nd d iversification i n i ts c onsumption i n I taly ( Purcell 1 985) . T he c ommon f eature o f c lientage i n b oth R oman a nd C eltic s ocieties s uggests t hat d iscrete b ut m utual s upport b y t he e lites i n m ilitary a nd d iplomatic a lliances m ay h ave b een t he m ost i mportant f eature o f t his c ontact a nd i t m ay h ave b een t his r elationship w hich f ormed t he b asis o f t he u ltimate s uccessful i ncorporation o f s ome o f t he C eltic b arbarians i nto t he R oman e mpire. B ut

w e

s hould

n ot

t hink

t hat

t he

t error g allicus

( Peyre

1 970)

d isappeared o r t hat t he C eltic b arbarians w ere r egarded b y R ome a s a nything o ther t han t hat ( Saddington 1 961) . H owever , w hile a rchaeological r esearch n eeds t o p roceed a long t he l ines s uggested b y F ulford ( 1985), b oth a rchaeologists a nd h istorians s hould t ake n ote o f t he h istory a nd s ocieties o f b oth c ultures i nvolved a nd c redit b oth p arties a nd n ot j ust t he o ne , w ith a n a ppreciation o f t he c onsequences o f t heir o wn d ecisions a nd a ctions.

4 4

N OTES 1 .

F euvrier-Pr votat 's d iscussion i s f lawed b y h er i nterpretation o f t hird a nd s econd c entury B C s ettlements a s i ndicating t hat o wnership o f l and w as w eakly d eveloped i f a t a ll i n G aul a t t his t ime . c onsidering N ash 's c ritique o f t he ( 1975),

s he

s till

r egards

C eltic

s o-called c oinage

S imilarly w hile

' Arvernian H egemony ' i ntroduced

t o

f acilitate l ong-distance t rade . D espite M auss ' i nterpretation , i t a lso d ifficult t o f ollow T chernia i n r egarding f oreign e xchange

a s m oney

i s a s

r epresenting a p otlach g iven t hat C eltic s ociety w as s tructured , i n o ne w ay , b y c lientage . M uch o f D aubigny 's a nalysis i s i n b road a greement w ith t hose a dvanced b y N ash b ut u nlike D aubigny I a m n ot c onvinced t hat t he o ccurance o f m agu a nd a mbactes i n t he c lassical s ources i ndicates t he w idespread e xistance o f s lavery ,

l et a lone t he w idespread e xistance

o f ag eneralised f orm o f p ara-esclavagiste d ependency . 2 .

O ff

t he B ritish c oast,

P logastel-Saint-Germain ,

l 'Ile R onde,

t he

T itelberg , B asel Gasfabrik , ( Fitzpatrick 1 985 , A pp 1 ) , L evroux ( Colin 1 984 , 1 65) . F or o ther f inds s ee N ash 1 978 , A pp 3 .1, f or M anching s ee W ill 1 987. 3 .

A quitanians s erved in t he S ertorian w ars B C I II ,

2 3 ;

c f p ro F onteio

1 3),

i n S pain i n t he 7 0s B C ( Caes

t he a rmies o f B rutus a nd C assius

P hilippi i ncluded C elts f rom t he w est ( App B C iv I I , a lso s erved w ith J uba I ( Caes B C I I , B J I 2 0 ;

A ntiq X V,

F rance ( BG I , S uetonius

I II , o n

4 0),

C leopatra a nd H erod ( Joseph

C aesar r aised a n umber o f f orces i n s outhern 2 0 ;

V II ,

C aesar 's

6 5 c f B C I ,

e xtensive

u se

3 9 ; o f

B Mr V I ,

m ilitary

3 ) a nd

a lliances

2 8 ) .

G arnsey s tates t hat p ublicani w ere a pparently n ever e mployed i n G aul ( 1983,

5 .

7 . 1 . 5 ;

c ommented

( Div J ulius 4 .

7 ) .

a t

7 01) a nd f orces

1 23) b ut C icero p ro F onteio 1 2 a ppears t o c ontradict t his.

I t i s d ifficult t o u nderstand C rawford 's q uerying t he r elevance o f t he O lbia g raffito ( 1985 , g iven i ts

1 69 , n 1 5 o bjecting t o G oudineau 1 983 ,

l ocation o n t he s outhern F rench c oast .

1 93 ,

n 7 )

C f D yson 1 985 ,

1 47 ,

n 1 22. 6 .

M itchell 's 1 983 a rguments a re t enuous w hile t he a rchaeological e vidence r ehearsed b y B oon ( 1977) i s a lso d ebatable .

I t i s d ifficult t o a ccept

t he P aul h oard o f n orth I talian c oins a s ag enuine d iscovery a nd o ther I ron A ge i mports f rom t he s outh-west p eninsula a re r are ( Quinnell a nd H arris

1 985,

1 30)

a lthough

t he d iscovery

o f m any m ore D ressel

1

a mphorae m ay b e a nticipated . 7 .

T he s ignificant n umber o f I berian f inds i n F rance m ay b e r elevant h ere i n s pite o f R oman 's d ismissal o f t hem ( 1983, c ontext o f aF ranco-Iberian t rade.

4 5

1 49-72) s olely i n t he

C f a lso N ash 1 978 , A pp 3 .3;

4 ).

B IBLIOGRAPHY A LLEN ,

D F A ND

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5 2

JR oman S tud 7 5 ,

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ROMAN,

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S

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S 1 984 :

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t he

I n

P roblem

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C eltic

G lass

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v , v C echach ( Konfrontace

Z averecny h orizont o ppid

v ykladü h istorick ch p raemenü n umismatiky a a rcheologie . ( Schlusshorizont d er k eltischen o ppida i n B ohmen ( Konfrontation d er D eutung h istorischer Q uellen , d er N umismatik u nd A rchaologie ) . S lovenskä A rcheol 3 1, 3 2556 . W ALLERSTEIN , IM 1 974 :

T he M odern W orld S ystem .

N ew Y ork .

W ELLS , P S 1 980 : C ulture C ontact a nd C ulture C hange . c entral e urope a nd t he m editerranean w orld . C ambridge .

2 0 ,

W ERNER , 4 3-73 .

J 1 954 :

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D ie B ronzekanne

v on K elheim .

D ie B ronzekanne v on K elheim .

B ayer V orgeschichtsbl 4 3 ,

e arly I ron A ge

B ayer V orgeschichtsbl

R ückblick u nd A usblick .

1 -18 .

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a r eappraisal.

W YSS , R 1 954: D as S chwert d es K orisios . Z ur E ntdeckung g riechischen I nschrift . J ahrb B ernisches H ist M us 3 4 , 2 0221 .

5 4

e iner

C hapter 3 T HE N ATURE A ND F UNCTION O F R OMAN F RONTIERS W S H anson

W hen o ne t hinks o f R aman f rontiers , H adrian 's W all i mmediately s prings t o m ind ,

t he

B ritain . l inear

s tudy o f w hich h as t ended t o d ominate L imesforschung i n

I t i s i mportant t o r emember,

b arriers

w as

m erely

o ne

h owever,

a pproach

t o

t he

t hat t he p rovision o f

p roblems

t hat

t he R omans

f aced o n t he b orders o f t heir E mpire .

M y i ntention h ere i s t o l ook a t h ow

a nd w hy

w hat

f rontiers

c ame

i nto b eing,

f orm t hey

t ook a nd h ow t hey

d eveloped, i n t he h ope t hat t his w ill a llow u s t o s ay m ore a bout t heir i ntended f unction . W e

o ught

t o b egin w ith s ome

( Prescott 1 978 ,

3 1-3) :

d efinitions .

A f rontier

i s

a z one

a n a rea o f i nteraction b etween t wo c ultures a s w ell

a s t he r elatively s implistic c oncept o f t he i nterface b etween t he R oman a rmy a nd n ative o pposition . W ithin t hat f rontier z one t here m ay , o r m ay n ot, a lso h ave b een a m arked b oundary ,

t hat i s a l ine w hich p recisely d emarcated

t he l imit o f t he t erritory a dministered b y R ome . T he t wo s hould n ot b e c onfused , t hough a ll t oo f requently t hey a re . T he w ord l imes a lso r equires c omment .

T he L atin w ord c ame t o m ean a b oundary w ithin a f rontier

( from

w hich i s d erived t he E nglish w ord l imit), t hough t he R omans a lso u sed i t t o m ean f rontier , p resumably i n t he s ame c onfused w ay t hat w e m ix t he t erms t oday .

I ts e arlier m eaning i n am ilitary c ontext w as a p athway , e specially

t he s trip o f

l and a long which a c olumn o f

t erritory ( Jell P at 2 , 1 20) . f or ,

a s w e

s hall

s ee ,

i t

t roops a dvanced i nto e nemy

T his c hange o f m eaning i s e ntirely a ppropriate

r eflects

s omething

o f

t he

d evelopment

o f

R oman

f rontiers. F rom a s ingle c ity s tate , c entury

B C .

p eninsula g enerals,

S he

c ontinued

i n p iecemeal u ntil

r ationalised

t he

R ome c ame t o d ominate I taly b y t he m id-third t o

f ashion ,

e xpand, s ometimes

e stablishment

t he p rocess .

H owever

o f

a nnexing

t erritory

b eyond

o nly a t t he w him o f t he

e mpire

u nder

t he

i ndividual

A ugustus

who

r eluctant t he R omans m ay h ave b een

o riginally t o t ake a dministrative r esponsibility f or c onquered t erritory , t here c an b e n o q uestion o f t he e xpansionist n ature o f R oman p olicy i n t he l ater R epublic .

N or c an t here b e a ny d oubt a bout t he t acit a ssumption t hat

s he w ould a lways b e v ictorious : w ith A ugustus .

Though p erhaps

i n t he e nd s he a lways h ad b een . b est

k nown

f or

t he

S o i t w as

a dmonition

t o

h is

s uccessor , T iberius, t o r estrict t he E mpire w ithin i ts p resent f rontiers ( rac A nn I , 1 1), i t s hould n ot b e f orgotten t hat t his c ame a t t he e nd o f s ome 4 0 y ears i n p ower a nd w as a d ecision s trongly i nfluenced b y t he c ombined e ffects o f a m ajor r evolt

i n P annonia i n A D 6 a nd

t he d isastrous

l oss o f t hree l egions i n G ermany i n A D 9 . T hat t he v iews o f A ugustus w ere b asically e xpansionist i s s een i n t he w ritings o f h is c ourt p oet , V ergil: 'T o t he R omans I s et n o b oundaries i n s pace o r t ime . I h ave g ranted t hem d ominion w ithout e nd ( imperium s ine f ine d edi)' ( Aen I ,

2 79 ).

o r i n h is o wn a ccount o f h is a chievements:

5 5

'I h ave

e xtended

t he

t erritory

o f a ll

R oman p eople o n w hose b oundaries g overnment '

A gainst

( RG

t hose

p rovinces

l ay p eoples n ot s ubject

o f

t he

t o o ur

2 6) .

t his b ackground

e xpansion i s i ncongruous .

t he

c oncept o f

s et b oundaries o r l imits t o

T he p rocess w e s ee a t w ork w as o ne o f o vercoming

o pposition b y p olitical n egotiation o r m ilitary a ction ; b eing d irectly r elated ,

s ince i t w as o ften t he

f acilitated t he f ormer .

S ubsequent c ontrol

t he t wo a pproaches

t hreat o f t he

l atter w hich

o f t he a rea w as a ssured b y t he

t aking o f h ostages o r t he e stablishment o f as trategically l ocated g arrison ( Caes B G I II , 2 9 ; V II , 9 0) . G enerally s peaking , h owever , t roops d o n ot s eem t o h ave b een w idely d ispersed ( Caes B G V , 2 4) . T he l egions i n G ermany u nder A ugustus , f or e xample , w ere c oncentrated i n l arge b ases o n t he R hine , t hough o ur k nowledge o f t he d isposition o f C aesar 's t roops d uring a nd i mmediately a fter t he c onquest o f G aul i s s urprisingly s canty g iven t he d etailed

i nformation

p rovided

i n

h is

c ommentaries

o n

t he

w ars

( Wig l atman

1 977; D rinkwater 1 983, 1 22-3) . W hat i s c lear i s t hat A ugustus ' R hine b ases w ere l ocated i n r elation t o l ines o f e astward p enetration ( Wells 1 972, 9 5101),

t he

c oncentration o f

c ampaign f orce .

H ere ,

t roops

f acilitating t he r eady a ssembly o f a

t hen , w e s ee a d irect a rchaeological m anifestation

o f R ome 's e xpansionist p olicy . T his i s n ot t o s ay t hat t here w ere n o f rontiers, o r e ven b oundaries , a t t his t ime . B ut t hese w ere o f a s omewhat d ifferent c haracter f rom t hose o f l ater d ate w ith w hich w e h ave b ecome f amiliar, a nd a re u sually v ery d ifficult t o i dentify . T ribes w ho s igned t reaties w ith R ome a nd b ecame c lient

o r

f riendly

( Sands 1 908 ,

1415),

s tates

l ay ,

l egally s peaking ,

o utside R oman t erritory

b ut i t i s q uite c lear f rom t he w ay i n w hich R ome o ften

i nterfered i n t heir a ffairs t hat t hey w ere r egarded d e f acto a s p art o f t hat t erritory .

T hus

w e

s ee

A ugustus

p roposing

d ynastic

m arriages,

a rranging

r elationships b etween s tates a nd e ven a ppointing a g uardian w hen a k ing w as t oo y oung t o r ule i n h is o wn r ight . I n t he w ords o f S uetonius , " he n ever f ailed t o t reat t hem a ll w ith c onsideration a s i ntegral p arts o f t he e mpire" ( Aug 4 8 ),

t hough t he v ery f act

t hat t his

i s s tated i mplies

t hat

t hey w ere

n ot . T here w ould p resumably h ave b een a l egal b oundary b etween E mpire a nd c lient t erritory , b ut n o r eason w hy t his n eed h ave b een p recisely d emarcated o n t he g round b y a nything m ore t han o ccasional b oundary s tones . T his d id n ot m ake c lient k ingdoms a ny l ess e ffective i n t erms o f f rontier d efence . A ny t hreats t o R oman t erritory w ere i n e ffect f iltered o ut o r a bsorbed w ith m inimal i nvolvment o f R oman t roops ( Luttwak 1 976 , 2 0-7 ; B raund 1 984 , 9 1 4 ) . T he g eographical

p osition o f c lient

s tates,

u sually o n t he f ringes o f t he

e mpire , m eant t hat a ny p otential i nvader w ould f irst h ave t o p ass t hrough t heir t erritory . T hey w ere a lso s een a s p articularly e ffective a gainst b anditry a nd s imilar s mall-scale l ocal d isturbances ( Str X IV, 6 71) . E ven w here t he R omans p roceeded b y d irect c onquest , a s d ifficult

t o d etermine w here t he f rontier

l ay .

R oman a rmies c ampaigned a s f ar e astwards a s t he E lbe , r egarded , R oman

a t

l east f or p ropaganda p urposes,

t erritory a t

t he

t ime

( RG 2 6;

t hat r iver a pparently

a s d emarcating t he b oundary o f

S uet

A ug 2 1).

a rchaeological e vidence w hich w ould p ick i t o ut a s s uch : k nown

b eyuad

A nreppen

o ver

2 00

k m

t o

r efer t o t he e stablishment o f g arrisons a nd E lbe u nder D rusus

( II ,

3 0 ; 2 6) .

t he

i t c an n ow b e j ust

D uring A ugustus ' r eign

s outh-east ,

Y et

t here

i s n o

n o R oman b ases a re t hough F lorus

i n m any p laces o n t he M aas,

d oes W eser

D espite t he f act t hat A ugustus f orbade

h is g enerals t o c ross t he r iver a t o ne t ime ( Str V II ,

2 9 1),

t here i s

d oubt t hat t his w as m eant o nly a s a t emporary r estriction :

5 6

l ittle

D rusus h ad

f ailed i n h is a ttempt ,

b ut A henobarbus

w as r ewarded w ith a t riumph ( Dio L V .

s ucceeded i n c rossing t he E lbe a nd

1 . 3 ;

L V .

1 0 .

2 ;

T ac A nn I V .

4 4 .

3 ) .

W hatever t he l ong-term i ntentions , t he E lbe s erved o nly b riefly a s t he f ormal n orth-east b oundary o f t he E mpire, f or b y A D 9 t roops h ad b een w ithdrawn b ehind t he R hine . I n

t his

c onvenient

p eriod

p oints

p recise

a t w hich

l ines,

t o h alt

i f

s pecified

a waiting

a t

f urther

a ll,

w ere m erely

a dvance .

T hus

e ven

a fter t he w ithdrawal f rom G ermany , t he l egionary f orces o n t he R hine , t hough t echnically w ithin t he p rovince o f G allia B elgica , c ontinued t o r egard t hemselves u ntil t he r eign o f D omitian a s t he a rmy o f t he t wo G ermanies a cross t he R hine ( Mann 1 974, 5 18) . R oman c ontrol, t he f rontier z one, e xtended a s f ar b eyond t he f ormal b oundary a s h er t roops c ould r each . T he G erman e pisode, a s m any h ave r ecognised ( eg W ells 1 972), w as a t urning p oint . I t c learly h ad a m ajor i nfluence o n A ugustus ' l ater y ears a nd

o n

t he

c eased ,

a ctions

o f h is

s ucccessor ,

T iberius .

A s

t he

t he a pproach t o f rontiers w as b ound t o c hange .

f orward m ovement

I t i s i n t his s ense

t hat Mann i s c orrect i n h is r ather d ismissive r emark ' congealed a round t he b orders o f t he e mpire ' ( 1974 , 5 13) .

t hat f rontiers T he p rocess o f

c hange w as a g radual o ne a nd t he p rogression w as n either s mooth n or u niform . M ore e mphasis w as p laced o n s ecuring t erritory a lready h eld a nd o n d efining i ts

l imits u nambiguously .

C ertain e mperors

t raditional e xpansionist p olicy ,

d id a ttempt

t o r esurrrect

t he c ase o f C laudius a nd t he i nvasion o f B ritain ( Suet C laud 1 7 , 1 974) .

G radually ,

h owever ,

c hange o f a ttitude .

e ven t he

p ropagandists

b egan t o

1 ;

B irley

r eflect

A risteides, w riting i n t he m id-second c entury A D ,

s tress o n t he w alls e ncircling t he e mpire ( Orat 8 0-81). w riting s ome 2 0 y ear ' s

l ater ,

t he

t hough u sually f or p ersonal r easons a s i n t he l ays

W hile A ppian ,

s tarts h is h istory b y d efining t he b oundaries

o f e mpire a nd d ismisses a s w orthless t hose a reas o utside i t , i ncluding p arts o f

B ritain O ur

( Praef 1 -7) .

k nowledge o f

p re-Flavian m ilitary d ispositions

i n t he R hine

a nd

D anube r egions i s p oor , b ut w e b egin t o s ee e vidence o f t he s preading o ut o f t roops

a long

f orts w ere

r ivers

( Schönberger

l inked b y r oads ,

c ommunication r outes .

t he

1 54-5 ;

t he

r ivers ,

M ocsy

1 974 ,

t oo ,

s erved

4 8-50 ) . a s

T he

i mportant

O ne o f t he m ost i mpressive r oads i s t hat t hrough t he

D anube G orge w hose c onstruction , 1 698 a nd v alleys .

1 969 ,

t hough

d ated b y i nscriptions t o A D 3 3-4

( CIL I II ,

1 3813b ), f acilitated a ccess b etween t he u pper a nd l ower D anube T hat t he t wo r ivers w ere , o r r apidly c ame t o b e , s een a s m arking

n orth-east

b oundary o f

t he

e mpire

i s

i mplicit

i n C laudius '

r ecall

o f

C orbulo b ehind t he R hine a nd t he a ctions o f P lautius S ilvanus , w hen g overnor o f M oesia u nder N ero , i n s ettling o n R oman t erritory p eoples f rom b eyond t he D anube ( ILS 9 86) .

B y t he F lavian p eriod t his a ttitude t owards t he t wo

r ivers i s c onfirmed a s m ilitary d ispositions b ecome b etter k nown ( eg W ilkes 1 983 ,

2 65-7),

t hough a lready R oman g arrisons w ere b eing p laced

b eyond

t he

u pper r eaches o f t he R hine a nd D anube i n o rder t o s horten t he r oute b etween t hem a cross t he a gri d ecumates ( Schönberger 1 969 , T he

n ext

d evelopment

s eems

t o

b e a r eduction

g arrisons a nd t he i nterposing o f s mall o n m ovement .

1 55-7) . i n

t he

T his i s b est e xemplified a long t he C ask R idge i n S cotland o r

i n t he T aunus a nd W etterau i n G ermany ( Breeze 1 982 , 6 1-5 ; 1 59 ),

s pacing b etween

t owers t o f acilitate a c loser w atch

b oth s ystems b eing D omitianic i n d ate .

I t

S chönberger 1 969 ,

i s p erhaps n o c oincidence

t hat i t i s a t t his t ime t hat t he t erm l imes f irst a ppears w ith t he m eaning o f a l ateral f rontier l ine r ather t han a s a l ine o f p enetration ( Frontinus S trat I ,

3 .

1 0;

T ac G erm 2 9 a nd A gr 4 1).

5 7

T he n ext

s tage,

i n

t he

s econd

c entury,

s ees

t he

c onstruction o f

a rtifical b arriers l ike H adrian 's W all, t he G erman p alisade a nd s ubsequently t he A ntonine W all . A ll v ary i n d etails o f c onstruction a nd d evelopment , b ut t he p rinciple w hich t hey h ave i n c ommon i s t he f urther r estriction a nd c ontrol o f m ovement i nto R oman t erritory .

F inally f rom t he t hird c entury w e

s ee a g reater e mphasis o n d efensive s trongpoints a s r eflected a rchaeologically i n t he m assive s tone w alls w ith p rojecting b astions w hich c haracterise l ate R oman f ortifications ( Petrikovits 1 971; J ohnson 1 983 , C h 2 ) . I n s ome a reas a n i ncrease i n t he d epth o f t he f ortified z one i s a pparent , b ut n ot o n t he s ystematic s cale t hat h as b een i mplied ( Mann 1 979 , 1 801 c ontra L uttwak 1 976 , C h 3 ) . H aving l ooked b riefly a t t he n ature a nd h istorical d evelopment o f R oman f rontiers,

w e m ust n ow r eturn t o

l ook m ore c losely a t

t he q uestion o f w hy

t hey a rose w here t hey d id a nd w hat f unction t hey w ere m eant t o p erform . A c onstantly e xpanding

e mpire ,

r ather

l ike

p yramid

s elling

l etters , i s a lright i n t heory , b ut h as p hysical c onstraints . w orld

c ommunications

a nd

t ransport

w ere

s low

a nd

o r c hain

I n t he a ncient

c entral

c ontrol

c onsequently m ore a nd m ore d ifficult t he f urther a way f rom t hat c entre . A dded t o t his w ere t he p roblems i mposed b y t he n ature o f t he t errain e ncountered :

d esert

i n

t he

s outh a nd

e ast

o r

t hick f orest

i n t he n orth .

A ll t hese f actors w ere b ound t o i nfluence t he e ventual l ocation o f i mperial f rontiers .

B ut

e xplanation .

g eographical

d eterminism a lone

O ther p rocesses w ere a t w ork .

r equire c ooperation . t o

c ontrol

t he

l ocal

e very

f ew m iles

p opulation .

w ell

e stablished

S imilarly

i n

s implistic a n

o n a p ermanent

F urther

p rocesses o f a ssimilation a nd a cculturation : R oman c ivilisation c onquest b y C aesar ,

t oo

T he R oman e mpire c ould n ot h ave g rown f ar i f

b een n ecessary t o s tation t roops o rder

i s

G overnment a nd a dministration i t h ad

b asis

i n

e xpansion d epended u pon

t he a cceptance a nd a doption o f

a nd i ts v alues . T hus l ess t hat a c entury a fter i ts a nd d espite m ajor i nternal r evolts , G aul h ad b ecome a

a nd

f ully

s outh-east

r omanised

B ritain .

p rovince

W ithin h alf

( Drinkwater a c entury

o r

1 983 , l ess

1 88-9 ) . o f

t he

C laudian i nvasion t he p rogress o f r omanisation w as c onsiderable , a llowing t he a rmy t o m ove o n a nd u ndertake f urther c onquests . U nless t he i ndigenous p opulation h ad d eveloped a s ocial o rganisation c apable o f i ntegrating w ith t he R oman w ay o f l ife a nd a n e conomic s ubstructure a ble t o s ustain t he a dditional d emands o f t he a rmy a nd i ts d ependants, f urther a dvance w as u nlikely t o s ucceed n o m atter h ow e ffective t he m ilitary f orce ( Groenman-van W aateringe 1 980) . T his i s n ot t o s ay ,

h owever ,

w ere i n s ome w ay p redetermined . e mpire

t hat t he e xact l imits o f t he R oman e mpire

F rontiers d id n ot s imply c ongeal a round t he

j oining p oints o f f urthest R oman p enetration .

T here w as a n e lement

o f c hoice i n t heir l ocation . T he R hine f rontier , f or e xample , l ay w ell t o t he r ear o f t he a rea i n w hich t he a rmy w as a ctive d uring t he r eign o f A ugustus . T here w as a lso c onsiderable t hrough t ime , n ot o nly i n B ritain , b ut

f luctuation o f f rontier l ocation i n t he a gri d ecumates b etween t he

R hine a nd D anube, i n D acia a nd i n t he e ast, b rought a bout b y s trategic n ecessity , e conomic a dvantage , p olitical e xpediency , b arbarian p ressure o r m erely i mperial w him . T he f actors w hich i nfluenced t he p recise c hoice o f f rontier l ine a fter a dvance o r r etreat a re d irectly r elated t o t he f unction i t w as i ntended t o p erform . M ost o bvious i s m ilitary e ffectiveness . R oman f rontiers w ere u ndeniably m ilitary i n c haracter :

t hey w ere b uilt a nd o perated b y t he a rmy

5 8

a nd h oused t he t roops w ho d efended t he e mpire a gainst e xternal

t hreat .

B ut

w hen w e l ook m ore c losely a t f rontiers w e s ee t hat t he r equirements o f m ilitary d efence w ere l ocation . f or

n ot

t he

o nly c riteria a pplied

A part f rom t he s ea ,

d efensive

p urposes w as

i n d etermining

b y f ar t he b est n atural

a m ountain r ange w hose

f eature

t heir

t o u tilise

p asses c ould e asily b e

b locked b y t he s trategic d isposition o f t roops, o r d eserts w here t he c ontrol o f o ases w as c rucial . M ountain n orthern D acia ( Gudea 1 979 , 7 3-7), e xample

o f

a d esert

f rontier ,

c entury ( Trousset 1 974) . b y

f rontiers a re k nown , a s f or w hile N orth A frica p rovides

p articularly

i n T ripolitania

e xample i n a n o bvious

i n

t he

t hird

Y et t he m ost c ommon g eographical

f eatures e mployed

t he R omans w ithin t heir f rontier s ystems w ere r ivers ,

d espite t he f act

t hat

t hey

s erve

b arriers .

m ore

a s

n atural

l ines

o f

T hey a re f ar t oo e asy t o c ross .

c ommunication T hey a re ,

t han

h owever ,

e ffective

l ines w hich

a re p recisely a nd e asily l ocated b oth o n t he g round a nd o n am ap .

T hey a re

g eographically c onvenient l ines o f d emarcation . T he s ame p rinciple a pplies t o t he c onstruction o f l inear b arriers w hich ,

i t

s eems ,

w ere i n

s ome w ays r egarded a s

t he e quivalent o f r ivers :

t he t wo a re n ever f ound i n u se t ogether e xcept a s c omplementary p arts o f t he s ame

s ystem .

T his

i s

w ell

i llustrated

b y

t he

r elationship b etween t he

u pper G erman l imes a nd t he r ivers R hine a nd N eckar , l imes a nd t he D anube . t he

I n b oth c ases

t he

a nd b etween t he R aetian

l inear b arrier o ccurs o nly w here

l ine o f t he r iver i s n ot b eing f ollowed .

I n p urely m ilitary

t erms ,

s uch b arriers w ere n either s trategically n or t actically e fficient .

T heir

c onstruction w ould n ot h elp t he R oman a rmy t o c ombat a ny m ajor i ncursion s ince o pposing f orces c ould m ass a t w hatever p oint t hey c hose , o utnumber t he d efenders,

a nd

t hus

o verrun

t he

l inear b arrier w ith

e ase .

N or d o

t hese

b arriers s eem t o h ave b een c onstructed w ith d efensive t actics i n m ind .

I t

i s u nlikely t hat i t w as e ver i ntended t o f ight f rom t heir t ops, a s t he c onstruction o f G erman

l imes

t han a w ooden p alisade, f ollowed

b y

s hould i ndicate ,

t he A ntonine W all

F ossatum A fricae

( Birley

f or i t

c onsisted o f n o m ore

w hile t he d efensive c apabilities o f t he 1 956 ,

( Hanson 2 9 )

a re

a nd

M axwell

1 983 ,

f requently p oor .

1 62-3)

l ine

a nd

T he m ost

t he

e xtreme

c ase i s t he o uter G erman l imes w hich f ollows a s traight l ine f or s ome 8 1 k m ( 50 m iles)

b etween M iltenburg

a nd L orch w ithout

r egard

f or

t opography

o r

l ocal t actical a dvantage . T his s urely p roclaims i ts b ureaucratic o rigins . T hus i t s eems c lear t hat t he c hoice o f f rontier l ine a nd , i ndeed , t he v ery d efinition o f a p recise c onvenience .

b oundary ,

w as

l argely a m atter

o f

a dministrative

I t i s s urely n o c oincidence t hat t his d evelopment c ame a bout

d uring t he r eign o f H adrian w ho i s r enowned f or h is t ours o f t he p rovinces a nd c lose a ttention t o m atters o f o rganisational H ad X I,

d etail

( Dio L XIX .

9 ;

S HA

1 ).

T his i s n ot t o s ay t hat w alls a nd r iver b oundaries d id n ot h ave a m ilitary f unction . l ocal

m ovement

T hey d id f acilitate t he c loser c ontrol o f s mall-scale

a cross

t he

f rontier .

T he

p rovision

o f

r egular

g arrisons

e very f ew m iles , a ugmented b y w atchtowers , a llowed f or a c lose w atch o n a ll f orms o f t raffic .

W alls i n p articular h elped t o d eter m inor r aiding .

W hile i t m ay h ave b een p ossible u nder c over o f d arkness o r f og t o c ross i nto R oman t erritory , w ith b ooty ,

i t w ould b e e ntirely a nother m atter t o g et b ack l aden d own

e specially i f

p rinciple m ay h ave i nscriptions

t he a larm h ad b y t hen b een

b een i n f orce a long r iver

f rom t he D anube

w ere p rovided a long r obbers ( latrunculi) .

b end

( ILS

3 95)

l ines .

s how h ow

r aised .

A s imilar

T he f amous C ommodan s mall

p osts

( burgi )

t he r iver b ank i n o rder t o m inimise t he a ctivities o f T he s ystem w as o perated b y t he a rmy, w hose r ole h ere

w as t o p olice t he b order.

5 9

T hese

l inear b oundaries ,

w hether d emarcated b y w alls o r r ivers ,

w ere

n ot i ntended s olely a s b arriers, o therwise t he w alls i n B ritain w ould n ot h ave b een p rovided w ith g ateways e very m ile a t t he m ilecastles o r f ortlets . S ince a g ateway i s ap otential w eakspot i n a ny d efensive c ircuit , a dditional e xamples w ould n ot h ave b een c onstructed w ithout g ood c ause . W hile t here m ay h ave b een g ood m ilitary l ogic b ehind t he o riginal p rovision o f m ilecastles o n H adrian 's W all ( Breeze a nd D obson 1 978 ),

t heir c ontinued u se ,

o nce t he m ain g arrison h ad b een m oved u p t o t he l ine o f t he W all,

a nd t he

i nclusion o f s imilar f ortlets i n t he b lueprint f or t he A ntonine W all s uggest t hat p assage t hrough t he b arrier w as e nvisaged f or p urposes o ther t han t he p urely m ilitary . T he s ort o f m ovements a nticipated a re q uite w ell i llustrated b y s urviving l iterary r eferences t o t he m ajor E uropean r iver f rontiers .

A fter

t he

d efeat

o f

t he

I azyges

b y M arcus A urelius i n A D

1 79

t heir t reaty w ith R ome a llowed t hem t o p ass t hrough R oman c ontrolled D acia t o c ommunicate w ith t he R oxolani, b ut o nly a fter t hey h ad o btained t he p ermission o f t he R oman g overnor ( Dio L XXI, 1 9 ), w hile a ccess t o R oman m arkets f requently a ppears a s p art o f t he t reaty t erms b etween R ome a nd t he t ribes

b eyond

t he D anube

i n

t he

s econd

c entury

( Möcsy

1 974 ,

c h .

6 ) .

S uch

c ontrol o f m ovement c learly h ad e conomic s ignificance , a llowing R ome t o r egulate t rade a nd l evy c ustoms d ues o n a ny g oods c rossing t he b order . T hat

t hey

d id

t his

i s

a mply

a ttested

b ut

p erhaps

m ost

g raphically

i llustrated b y o ne i nscription f rom Z arai i n N orth A frica w hich r ecords t he r ates

l evied o n d ifferent g oods

i n t ransit ( CIL V III ,

4 508 ) .

B ut c ontrol

o f t rade a lso h ad p olitical s ignificance a nd c ould b e u sed a s a p unishment o r a r eward . T hus i n t he f irst c entury t he H ermunduri a pparently e njoyed s pecial t rading p rivileges w ith R ome a s a d irect r esult o f t heir p ro-Roman p olitical s tance ( rac G erm 4 1) . T he T encteri , o n t he o ther h and , c omplained o f t he t he l imitations p laced o n t heir m ovement o n e ither s ide o f t he R hine a nd

f orced

t he

R oman

c olonists

o f

r estrictions o n t rade ( Tac H ist I V ,

C ologne

t o

r epeal

a ll

t axes

a nd

6 4-5 ) .

T hese l ines o f d emarcation , w hether d efined b y r ivers o r a rtificial b arriers , d id n ot n ecessarily f ollow t he b oundary o f R oman t erritory d e i ure ,

f or

t heir

c onvenience .

l ocation w as

d ictated

b y

a dministrative

a nd

g eograpical

B ut i f p eople e ntering t he p rovince w ere d isarmed a nd c ustoms

d ues l evied a s t hey c rossed t hese l ines, i t i s p robable t hat t hey e ventually c ame t o d efine t he R oman b order d e f acto . T his i s n ot t o s ay t hat R oman i nfluence a nd c ontrol d id n ot e xtend b eyond t hem , f or i t c learly d id, e mphasising a gain

t he

z onal

n ature

o f

f rontiers .

D iplomatic

c ontrol

w as

e xercised w ell b eyond t he R hine i n t he f irst a nd s econd c enturies A D : T acitus

e mphasises R ome 's

M arcomanni a nd Q uadi

c lose

( Germ 4 2) ,

r elationship w ith

p rovision o f a k ing f or t he Q uadi ( RIC 6 20) . i ndicated .

O utpost

f orts w ere

t he

r ulers

w hile a c oin o f A ntoninus P ius

o f

t he

c laims

t he

More d irect c ontrol

i s a lso

l ocated w ell b eyond b oth H adrian 's W all a nd

t he A ntonine W all, a nd p robably t he O ldenwald-Neckar s ection o f t he G erman p alisade ( Schönberger f orts

1 969 ,

1 68 ) .

N or i s i t n ecessary t o a ssume t hat s uch

l ay w ithin f ormally a nexed R oman t erritory .

T here a re e xamples o f

g arrisons b eing p laced i n t he t erritory o f f riendly k ings o r e ven i n b arbarico .

T hus M arcus A urelius e stablished f orts i n t he t erritory o f t he

M arcomanni a nd Q uadi ( Dio L XXI .

2 0) a s d id V alentinian ( Amm M arc 2 9 ,

w hile t he N otitia D ignitatum r ecords t wo f orts D ig O cc

3 2 ,

4 1;

3 3 ,

6 . 2 ) ,

i n S armatian t erritory ( Not .

4 8 ) .

T o w hat e xtent t he c lose c ontrol o f m ovement a cross d efined b oundaries s hould a lso b e s een a s p art o f a d eliberate p olicy o f a cculturation i s d ebateable .

I t h as

l ong b een a rgued t hat s ince

e ffective m ilitarily a gainst

b order

6 0

r aiding ,

l inear b arriers w ere o nly

t heir i ntroduction

i ndicates

c onsiderable c oncern f or t he p rotection o f t he p opulace a t a l ocal

l evel,

w hich w ould b e a n e ssential p rerequisite i n t he p rocess o f e ncouraging t hem t o a ccept t he b enefits o f t he R oman p resence ( Birley 1 956) . T his s hould n ot b e s een a s a n e xample o f R oman a ltruism , h owever , f or t he n eed t o w in o ver t he h earts a nd m inds o f t he s ubject p opulation i s a s trategy j ustifiable i n p urely m ilitary a nd p olitical t erms. I f

t he p romotion o f r omanisation w as t he d eliberate i ntention ,

t han a n i ncidental r esult, b oundaries, d estruction .

r ather

o f t he c onstruction o f c losely c ontrolled

i t i s i ronic t hat t he p olicy a lso s owed t he s eeds o f t heir T he v ery c onstruction o f a n a rtifical b arrier i s l ikely t o

h ave p romoted o pposition , f or i t w ould h ave c ut a b road s wathe a cross t he c ountryside w ithout r egard f or l ocal l and o wnership o r t ribal t erritory . I t w as p erhaps f or t his r eason t hat t he o riginal p lan o f t he A ntonine W all h ad t o b e m odified t o p rovide m ore t roops m ore w idely d ispersed a long i ts l ine ( Hanson a nd M axwell 1 983 , 1 65) . F urthermore , a s t he R oman s ide o f t he l ine b ecame m ore m arkedly d ifferent f rom t hat o utside , s o i t s erved a s a g reater a ttraction t o p eople f rom b eyond t he f rontier . T here a re f requent e xamples f rom t he s econd c entury o nwards o f p ressure f rom t ribes b eyond t he f rontier r esulting i n t heir b eing b rought o ver a nd s ettled o n l and w ithin t he E mpire ( eg D io L XXI , 1) . H ad t hey n ot b een a ccommodated , t he w ealthy r omanised c ommunities w ould h ave b een a m ore f requent f ocus f or r aiding . T he h istory o f t he R hine a nd D anube f rontiers i n t he t hird a nd f ourth c enturies A D i llustrates t he r esulting b reakdown i n c ontrol o f a s tatic p erimeter a nd a r eturn t o am ore f lexible a pproach d ictated p rimarily b y t he r equirements o f d efence ( Johnson 1 983 , c h 1) .

A cknowledgement Ia m g rateful t o D r DJB reeze f or h is c omments o n ad raft o f t his p aper .

6 1

B IBLIOGRAPHY B IRLEY , A R 1 974 : R oman F rontiers a nd R oman F rontier P olicy . A rchitect A rchaeol S oc D urham N orthumberland 3 , 1 3-25 . B IRLEY ,

E 1 956:

H adrianic

F rontier P olicy .

C arnuntina, V orträge b eim i nternationalen C arnuntum 1 955 . G raz & C ologne , 2 5-33 . B RAUND , D C 1 984 : k ingship .

R ome a nd t he F riendly K ing :

E ( ed),

A ltertumsforscher

t he c haracter o f c lient

L ondon .

B REEZE ,

D J 1 982 :

B REEZE ,

D J A ND D OBSON ,

D RINKWATER ,

T he N orthern F rontiers o f R oman B ritain .

J F

1 983 :

B 1 978 :

H adrian 's W a11 .2

R oman G aul .

GROENMAN-VAN WAATERINGE, W 1 980: F rontier

o f

t he

R oman Empire .

R oman F rontier S tudies 1 979 . 4 4. G UDEA , 6 3-87.

N 1 979 :

H ANSON ,

L ondon .

U rbanisation a nd t he N orth-West W S & K eppie,

L J F ( eds),

( Oxford , B rit A rchaeol R ep I nt S er 7 1),

M AXWELL ,

S ystem o f R oman D acia .

G S 1 983 :

1 037-

B ritannia

R ome 's N orth-west F rontier :

1 0 ,

t he

E dinburgh .

J OHNSON ,

S 1 983 :

L UTTWAK ,

E N 1 976 :

M ANN ,

L ondon .

L ondon .

I n H anson ,

T he D efensive

W S A ND

A ntonine W all .

H ( ed ),

I n S woboda ,

K ongress

T rans

L ate R oman F ortifications .

J C 1 974 :

L ondon .

T he G rand S trategy o f t he R oman E mpire .

T he F rontiers o f t he R oman P rincipate .

B altimore .

I n T emporini ,

A ufstieg u nd N iedergang d er r ömischen W elt I I , 1 . B erlin & N ew Y ork ,

5 08-33. MANN ,

J C 1 979 :

J R oman S tud 6 9 , M OCSY ,

P ower,

F orce

a nd

t he

F rontiers

A 1 974 :

P ETRIKOVITS ,

P annonia a nd U pper Moesia .

H V ON

1 971:

F ortifications

i n

S ANDS,

F rontiers a nd B oundaries .

P C 1 908 :

T he C lient P rinces

J R oman S tud ,

T ROUSSET , W ELLS ,

E mpire .

N orth-Western R oman

o f

1 78-218 .

L ondon . t he R oman Empire u nder

C ambridge .

S CHONBERGER , H 1 969 : s urvey .

t he

JR oman S tud 6 1,

J 1 978 :

t he R epublic .

t he

L ondon .

E mpire f rom t he T hird t o t he F ifth c enturies A D . P RESCOTT ,

o f

1 75-83 .

P 1 974 :

C M 1 972 :

T he R oman F rontier i n G ermany :

5 9 ,

a n a rchaeological

1 44-97 .

R echerches s ur l e l imes T ripolitanus . T he G erman P olicy o f A ugustus .

6 2

O xford .

P aris .

W IGHTMAN , E M 1 977 : M ilitary A rrangements , N ative S ettlements R elated D evelopments i n E arly R oman G aul . H elinium 1 7 , 1 05-26 . W ILKES , JJ 1 983:

a nd

R omans, D acians a nd S armatians i n t he F irst a nd

S econd C enturies . I n H artley , BR &W acher , P rovinces . G loucester , 2 55-89 .

6 3

J S ( eds) R ome a nd H er N orthern

C hapter 4 S UPPLYING T HE S YSTEM :

F RONTIERS A ND B EYOND

CRW hittaker

I deologies a nd R eality T he R omans t hemselves w ere s chizophrenic a bout f rontiers . A r ecent a rticle b y P rofessor M illar ( 1982) h as a gain e mphasised f or u s t he i deology t hat

i nfluenced

a R oman e mperor ,

f luctuating b etween ,

o n t he

d esire t o m aintain t he t radition o f e xpansion - l aus i mperil o ther ,

a g rowing w ish

o bstacles,

r ivers,

t o m aintain a n e mpire

' hedged

o ne h and ,

-a nd ,

a

o n t he

a bout w ith m ajor

d itches a nd m ountains o r d esert r egions w hich w ere

d ifficult t o c ross ' , t o u se t he w ords o f t he h istorian H erodian ( II , 1.5) . A nd a lways, a s M illar h as b een t elling u s f or s o m any y ears, t here w ere t he l imitations o f t he p ersonal c haracter o f t he e mperor 's d ecision ( or n ond ecison ) m aking p rocess, b ased u pon s low c ommunications, o ut-of-date i nformation

a nd

p erhaps

i mproperly

i nfluenced b y

t he

l egate

T he r esults w ere n ot l ikely t o h ave b een o f t he h ighest s trategic o rder .

I t i s p erhaps s ignificant t hat ,

o n t he

s pot .

t actical a nd

e ven w hen w e c an j ustify

s ome d irect i mperial d ecision o n m ilitary o r s trategic g rounds - C laudius ' v eto o n C orbulo 's c ampaign a gainst t he C hauci ( Toe A nn X I ,19 ), f or i nstance , o r

D omitian 's

w ithdrawal

o f

A gricola

f rom

B ritain

( Toe

A gr

3 9 )

-

c ontemporaries i nterpreted t hem a s p olitical a cts . All

t his

n eeds

t o b e k ept

i n m ind w hen w e

t ry

t o m ake

s ense

o f

f rontiers . W ill w e e ver u nderstand t he s trategy o f t he c urious b ackwards a nd f orwards m ovements b etween H adrian 's W all a nd t he A ntonine W all i n t he y ears A D 1 22164? S trategy , a s M illar p oints o ut , w as t he o ne t hing t hat a ll t he b ooks e ntitled S trategemata w hich w ere w ritten i n t he f irst a nd s econd

c enturies A D

s trategy .

d id n ot

c ontain .

T hey w ere m ore s trategems t han

H ow m uch d id A ntoninus P ius r eally k now a bout t he V otadini ,

t he

B rigantes o r t he p eoples i nhabiting t he n orthern a nd w estern c oasts , f actors w hich w e d iscuss w hen w e a re t rying t o u nderstand h is d ecision t o a dvance o r w ithdraw ( eg H anson a nd M axwell 1 983, 6 Off)? W hat t his m eans i n e ffect i s t hat , w hile i deology m ay h ave e xerted a g eneral i nfluence i n c reating a c limate f or e xpansion o r r etrenchment , p recise d ecisions a bout t he c onstruction o f f rontiers w ere t he p roduct o f a v ariety o f l ocal p ressures i ncluding i gnorance a nd i ncompetence . i deology w as o ne o f i mperialism n ot o f f rontier s trategy . m ay

b e

p eople

r ight

i n

r egarded

s aying

' After

t he E mpire a s

t he

g reat

a c oherent

e xpansion o f g eographic

T he

S o , w hile M illar t he A ugustan p eriod

a nd

s trategic

e ntity

b ounded b y t he t hree g reat r ivers , R hine , D anube a nd E uphrates ' . ( Millar 1 982, 1 9 ), i t t ells u s v ery l ittle a bout h ow f rontiers t hemselves w ere c onceived .

I t

i s p erfectly t rue ,

f or i nstance ,

t hat T acitus s ays ( Ann 1 ,9 )

' The E mpire w as h edged a bout b y t he s ea o f O ceanus a nd r emote r ivers ' .

B ut

h is s tatement i s n o m ore i nformative s trategically o r p olitically t han t he c laim b y C ato a nd o thers i n t he s econd c entury B C t hat t he A lps w ere t he f inem a nd p rotecting w all o f I taly ( Livy X XXIX ,54 .12 . e tc ) . A t t he t ime t he A lps w ere i n n o s ense a f rontier c ontrolled b y R ome a nd I d oubt i f T acitus w as a ny m ore p recise .

A fter a ll, h e k new p erfectly w ell t hat

6 4

B ritain w as t echnically b eyond O ceanus ( Caes B G 1 ,1) .

A nd h is d escription

w as c ertainly n ot t rue o f t he T aunus Wetterau r egion o f H esse n orth o f F rankfurt . T he r eality t here , a s T acitus k new f rom h is e xperience a s a n a ctive s erving o fficer , w as t hat t he R omans h ad e xtended t heir f rontiers a nd t heir p allisades a nd f orts s ome 6 0 t o 7 0km b eyond t he R hine . H e a lso k new w hy , s ince h e w as a ware o f t he u nusual c oncentration o f t he C hatti , t heir m ilitary p ower a nd t he e xtent o f t heir t erritory , w here ' the h ills r un o n a nd o nly t hin o ut g radually . a nd f inally s et t hem d own i n t he p lain ' -a d escription w hich c orresponds e xactly t o w hat a rchaeology t ells u s o f t he e xtent o f t he l ate L a T ene o f t he u plands o f H esse a nd W estfalia , p etering o ut i n t he p lains o f L ower S axony . I t i s i ronic t hat A ppian i s o ften q uoted a s a n e xample o f t he ' laager ' m entality o f R oman i deology i n t he s econd c entury A D , w hen w hat h e a ctually w rites i s , C elts b eyond t he R hine ' ( praef 4 /14 -15) .

' The R omans r ule s ome o f t he

T he s tory o f t he D anube i s m uch t he s ame , a lthough t he d etails a re l ess c lear . D espite a n e arly r ecognition o f t he D anube a s s ome s ort o f g eographical d ividing l ine ( Str V I ,4 .2 ; R G X XX ,2) , t he d evelopment o f t he H ungarian T ransylvanian p lain e ast o f t he D anube i n t he f irst c entury A D m akes i t l ook a s i f i t w as n ot s o m uch t he D anube a s t he R iver T iza w hich w as r egarded a s t he l imit o f R oman r ule ( Whittaker 1 983, 1 13) . K eeping D acians a nd S armatians a t a d istance f rom t he D anube i s w hat F lorus s ays ( 11 ,28-29 ) o f s econd c entury A D R oman p olicy . I t i s c lear f rom t he d aily r ecord s heet o f a R oman m ilitary u nit t hat t hey c onsidered t he t ransD anubian W allachian p lain i ntra p rovinciam f or c ollecting s upplies e ven b efore T rajan a nnexed D acia ( Fink 1 971, 2 27) . T his a rea w as i n j ust t hat s tate o f a mbiguity t hat o ne d etects i n t he S cottish l owlands i n A ntoninus P ius ' r ule -whether t o b e o r n ot t o b e p art o f ap rovince . W hat t his o ught t o t ell u s , t herefore , i s t hat w hen S uetonius c alled ' friendly k ings ' m embra p artesque i mperii ( Aug 4 8 ), h e m eant e xactly w hat h e s aid . T hey w ere n ot a n e arly w arning s ystem i n t he o uter b arbarian d arkness b ut a n a ctual p art o f t he f rontier , d efending a nd b eing d efended b y R ome i n j ust t hose a mbiguous a reas w here R omans w ere u nsure w hether t hey o ught t o i nstall a p rovincial g overnor o r n ot ( Braund 1 984 , e sp P art I I , s ec 3 ) . T his w as h ow S trabo s aw t he c ondition o f R ough C ilicia ( XIV ,5 .6) , w hich w as f inally l eft u nder i ts n ative r uler . B ut i n s uch c ases t he R omans o ften i nstalled g arrisons o r s ent a id t o s tiffen t he n ative d efenders - j ust a s C laudius d id i n A rmenia a nd t he B osphorus k ingdom , j ust a s D omitian d id i n A lbania a nd a s M arcus A urelius d id a gain i n A rmenia i n A D 1 64 . T his l ast d ate i s i nterestingly j ust a bout t he s ame a s w hen t he p uzzling r eoccupation o f t he S cottish A ntonine W all ( Antonine P hase I I ) t ook p lace , w hen o nly s ome o f t he f orts s eem t o h ave b een g arrisoned a nd w hen H adrian 's W all w as a lso p artly o ccupied . I nstead o f t hinking o f t his p hase a s t he r ee stablishment o f a p rovincial f rontier , p erhaps w e s hould r egard i t a s t he b uttressing o f f riendly k ings , a s i n A rmenia . I n s um , w e a re i nclined t o b e t oo r igid i n o ur v iew o f R oman f rontiers o f t he W est , f orgetting t he d ifference b etween a n a dministrative b orderline a nd a f rontier b orderland . O n t he U pper G erman f rontier f or i nstance , n o o ne i n h is r ight m ind w ould b uild a s trategic o r t actical f rontier f rom M iltenberg t o L orch , a d istance o f o ver 8 0km , i n ad ead s traight l ine . A gain i t i s i nteresting t o f ind h ere, a s i n c ontemporary B ritain i n t he s econd c entury A D , t hat t wo l ines o f f orts , t he o ld N eckar l ine a nd t he n ew M iltenberg l ine, w ere p robably o ccupied s imultaneously f or s ome t ime ( Schönberger 1 969 , 1 69 ) . T he b orderline , t he w all o r r ow o f f orts , w as n ot t he f rontier b ut o nly p art o f i t . W hatever t he i deological s tatements o f

6 5

t he l iterati , R oman c ommanders o n t he g round k new t hat a s uccessful f rontier w as a lways a z one w ith a n ' invisible ' f rontier b eyond.

T he P olitical E conomy o f F rontiers G iven t hat f rontiers a re a lways z ones o f t his s ort , Ih ave p ut f orward f our m ain p ropositions a bout f rontier f ormation ( Whittaker 1 983) , w hich I c an r epeat b riefly b y i llustrating t hem i n ad ifferent w ay . 1 . R oman f rontiers n ormally c ut t hrough a reas o f r elative c ultural h omogeneity . T he i nadequacy o f t he n otion p ropagated b y J ulius C aesar a nd h is s uccessors t hat t he R hine f ormed a c ultural f rontier b etween G ermans a nd C elts w as d emonstrated a c entury a go ( Müllenhoff 1 887 ) a nd i s c onfirmed b y t he a rchaeology o f t he l ate L a r nne s ince . A lthough t he m ajority o f t he C hatti l ay b eyond t he f rontier l ine , t here w as w hat i s b elieved t o h ave b een a s ub-group , c alled t he C attharenses , s erving a s s couts a nd i rregulars a t t he T aunus f rontier f orts o f H eftrich a nd Z ugmantel . K iechle , w ho d rew a ttention t o t his ( Kiechle 1 962) , w as p robably r ight i n b elieving t hat t he i nhabitants o f t he h illtop a nd R ingwall s ites j ust b eyond t he f orts i n t his r egion

m ust

h ave

b een

w orking

f or

t he

R omans

t o

h ave

k ept

t heir

f ortifications ; a nd i n s upport h e c ited t he D omitianic i nscription ( ILS 8 855) r eferring t o a R oman o fficial i n c harge o f a d istrict ( chora ) w hich w as h yperlimitanes n ear B ad-Cannstatt . T acitus b elieved t hat t he B atavi , t oo ,

o n t he R oman s ide o f t he R hine d elta h ad o riginally b een p art o f t he

C hatti ( Tac H ist I V ,12) . T o t ake a nother e xample , i t i s p lausible t hat i n A frica R oman o ccupation s plit t he t ribal g roups w ho t raditionally m oved f rom p re-desert t o u plands s easonally . T roussees w ork o n t he T unisian f rontier c onfirms t he h ypothesis t hat w alls w ere d esigned f or c ontrol, n ot t o k eep p eople o ut ( Trousset 1 978 ) . 2 . R oman f rontiers c an b e e xplained a ccording t o L attimore 's m odel o f e conomic m arginality ( Lattimore 1 962) . T his m odel a pplies , o f c ourse , i n t he u ndeveloped W est a nd n ot w here R ome m et P arthia o r P ersia . T he d emarcation b etween d irect p rovincial a dministration a nd i ndirect c ontrols s topped w here t hey d id n ot f or a rbitary r easons, a ny m ore t han f or s ome c entral, s trategic, i deological p olicy , b ut b ecause o f t he n eed f or r esources t o s upport a R oman o ccupation . T he p oint o f a rrest i s n ot l ikely t o b e a s udden e cological o r e conomic b oundary b ut a m arginal z one o f s witchover f rom i ntensive t o e xtensive f ood p roduction . T he p rinciple i s i mplied b y A ppian 's c omment o n B ritain w hen h e s ays , ' They h ave o ccupied t he b etter a nd t he g reater p art o f i t b ut d o n ot c are f or t he r est . I ndeed t he p art t hey d o o ccupy i s n ot v ery p rofitable t o t hem ' ( praef 5 ) . T hat s eems t o h ave b een t he c ase o n t he L ower R hince, t oo . T he B atavians a nd C ananefates w ere p opulous p eoples w ho s erved i n s urprisingly l arge n umbers i n t he R oman a uxiliary f orces f rom t he s tart o f t he R oman o ccupation o f t he r egion . B y c ontrast t he n orthern D utch r egions o f D renthe , F riesland a nd G roningen c an b e s hown t o h ave h ad a r elatively s parse p opulation u ntil t he m id-second c entury A D ( Van E s 1 967 , 5 27 ,531) . W hile t he F risii h ad t heir l ands ' marked o ut ' a nd c ontrolled b y af ort, a ccording t o T acitus ( Ann X I ,19 ), t hey w ere n ot f ormally a nnexed . I s uspect t he s ame c ontrast c ould b e d rawn b etween t he l ands n orth a nd s outh o f t he R hine f urther u p b etween t he S outh R uhr a nd B ohemia i f t he e vidence w ere m ore a ccessible ( et T odd 1 975 , 1 12) ; a part , o f c ourse , f rom t he c orridors o f t he L ippe-Ruhr v alley ( the s o-called H ellweg) a nd t he Main-Taunus s alient , w here t he R omans d id a dvance . T he g eneral p overty o f g rave g oods

6 6

i n t he l ate L a T ane a nd e arly R oman p eriod i n T huringia , H esse a nd W estfalia h as l ed t o i t b eing d ubbed a ' zone v ide ' ( lamougeot 1 9 69 , 2 7 9 ) . T hose r egions n orth o f t he b order t he R omans p referred t o c ontrol t hrough f riendly k ings . M en l ike V annius o f t he S uebi , s upported b y a rmed ' terror ' f rom P annonia b y C laudius ( nac A nn X I 1 ,29 30 ) , were b etter a ble t o c ope w ith t he g eographical a nd p olitical c onditions o f m arginal l ands . T hey w ere r egarded a s ' subjects ' , a s w e w ere t old o f t he F risii , w ho h ad t o s end p rovisions f or t he R oman a rmy ( Toe A nn I V ,7 2 ) . But, s ince t he l ands w ere m arginal, t he d ecision w hat t o d o w ith t hem w as a lways e quivocal a nd h istory d id n ot s tand s till . S o , f or i nstance , r ex Q uadis d atus ( RIC I II 6 2 0 ) was o ne o f t he f ew f oreign p olicy d ecisions o f A ntoninus P ius w hich m anaged t o m ake i mperial h eadlines - a long w ith h is n ew W all i n S cotland . A fter h im , M arcus A urelius c ontemplated a nnexation ( SHA M arc 2 7 ) , only t o h ave C ommodus r evert t o t he D anube l ine ( Herod 1 , 6 . 8 ) i n r eturn f or g uarantees o f s upplies a nd g ood b ehaviour . W hile i t i s a ll t oo e asy t o e xplain t his i n t erms o f a mbitious o r c apricious e mperors , i t i llustrates p recisely t he p roblem p osed b y m arginal l ands . I t h as b een p lausibly s uggested t hat o ne r eason f or a dvancing t he b oundary l ine o f B ritain t o t he F orth-Clyde l ine w as b ecause o f t he e conomic p rosperity o f t he V otadini a nd t he a ttraction o f t heir f ood s upply Manson a nd M axwell 1 9 8 3 , 6 8 ) . Perhaps one r eason f or p ulling b ack t o H adrian 's W all s o s oon a fter , j ust a s C ommodus h ad d one i n M arcomannia , w as b ecause s upplies h ad b ecome a ssured w ithout a nnexation .

3 .

T he t hird p roposition f ollows f rom t his a spect o f s upply - t hat i s , t he e conomic a nd s ocial i ntegration o f t he f rontier z ones b efore a nd b ehind t he

b orderline t hrough a s ymbiotic r elationship o f e xchange . T acitus 's e vidence o f R oman q uartermasters s ending t heir a gents t o t he F risii t o c ollect t he t ribute i n h ides n eeded f or t ents a nd c lothing c an b e m atched b y t he w ellk nown w ax t ablet f ound i n t he n ative o ppidum o f T olsum i n F riesland ( FIRA I II , 1 3 7 ) , r ecording i n L atin ( note ) t he c ontract p urchase o f c attle b y w hat l ooks l ike a m ilitary b uyer , G argilius S ecundus a ssisted b y t wo c enturions a s w itnesses .(1) L ixae a nd n egotiatores w ere a ll o ver t he r egion w hen t he G erman r ebellions b roke o ut i n A D 6 9 ( Tac H ist 1 V ,15 ; c f A nn 1 ,6 2 ) . E ven i f i t i s n ot e asy t o b e p recise a bout t he d etails o f t he s ymbiotic e xchange t hat d eveloped, t here c an b e l ittle d oubt o f i ts e xistence f rom t he a rtefacts . O bviously R oman m oney w as u sed b y t hose p roximi t o t he f rontier f orts , a s T acitus n otes ( Germ 5 ) a nd a s i s c onfirmed b y t he d istribution o f c oins i n t he b order z ones o f B ritain a nd t he R hine-Danube ( Robertson 1 9 70 ; L üders 1 9 5 5 ) . S ince t he G ermans w ere a lways f amed f or t he n umbers o f t heir c attle - p ecorum f ecunda -while t heir g rain p roduction w as o nly m odest w hen

t he R omans a rrived ( Lac G erm 5 ; Caes BG IV,1) and p robably i nsufficient f or a ny i ncrease i n p opulation ( Coco R-V I ,29 ) , there i s a g ood c ase f or s upposing t his f ormed t he b asis f or e xchange . T he r ecently p ublished s tudies o f t he R hine-Maas b asin i llustrate g raphically t he p roximity o f t he c oastal r egions o f H olland n orth o f t he R hine , s tudded w ith t hree-aisled f arm b uildings d esigned f or c attle r earing a nd o f t he s outhern w heat-growing v illas w hich d eveloped i n P icardy a nd o ccupation ( Bloemers 1 9 8 3 , 1 8 1 ) .

t he

A rdennes

a fter

t he R oman

C ertainly a n i mportant r ole i n c reating t his s ymbiosis m ust h ave b een t hrough t he r ecruiting a nd u se o f e thnic u nits o f ' barbarians ' w hich r emained a c onstant f eature o f R oman m ilitary p olicy ( Speidel 1 9 7 5 ) . T his p ossibly a ccounts f or t he b unching o f R oman a rtefacts o n n ative s ites , w here t he e lite w arriors l ived i n t he ' free . ' z ones . A part f rom T raprain L aw , f or i nstance , s urprisingly f ew R oman g oods h ave b een f ound a mong t he V otadini . T acitus t ells o f a F risian l eader , C ruptorix , w ho r etired f rom t he R oman

6 7

a rmy t o h is ' villa ' i n t he B aduhenna w oods ( rac A nn I V , 7 3) . ' Villa ' i s a w ord t hat a ppears o n t he w ax c attle c ontracts , t oo , a nd m any h ave s een t his a s a d escription o f t he H errenhof t ype o f b uildings w hich h ave b een e xcavated a t F ochteloo a nd f ound t o b e r ich i n R oman S amian a nd b ronzes ( Jankuhn 1 976 , 9 4-5; T odd 1 975,100) . Möcsy h as d iscounted t he i dea o f c ertain R oman-looking b uilding f ound i n M oravia a nd S lovakia w ell t o t he n orth o f t he P annonian b order a s b eing m ilitary f orts s imply b ecause t hey h ave l egionary t iles a nd p ottery o n t he s ite a nd h e , t oo , t alks o f v illas b elonging t o l ocal c hieftains ( Möcsy 1 974 ,89ff . ) O n t he G erman f rontier , a bout 3 0km i n f ront o f t he f rontier f ort o f A ltenstadt , t he C hatti R ingwall h ill-fort o f G lauberg s hows t he s ame p resence o f R oman p ottery a nd l egionary t iles ( Kiechle 1 962 ,

1 71) .

T wo c haracteristics s tand o ut i n t hese f rontier z ones ;

t he i ncreasing

s ettlements o f ' barbarians ' w ithin t he R oman p rovincial j urisdiction ( de S te C roix 1 981, A pp I II ) ; a nd t he i ncreasing d efinition o f t he V orlimes a s a n i nvisible f rontier b etween R omanised a nd n on-Romanised p eople b eyond - a s eparation t hat e xisted e x h ypothesi b efore t he R omans a rrived . T here i s n o n eed t o r epeat t he a nalysis o f E gger 's d istribution m aps o f R oman e xports t o f ree G ermany d one b y H edeager ( 1978 ) o r o f t he c oins b eyond t he R hineD anube c harted b y L üders ( 1955; r eproduced b y T odd 1 975, 4 0)(2) w hich i llustrate t he d ifference i n t he a ssemblages g oing t o t he V orlimes z ones f rom t hose b eyond . A s t he f rontiers s tabilised , t here t ook p lace a s ort o f ' nativisation ' o f t he R oman h interland a nd a ' Romanisation ' o f t he n ative b orderlands . T his d oes n ot, o f c ourse m ean t hat t he t wo g roups b ecame c ulturally i dentical i n t erms o f t he a rtefacts . B ut t hey w ere c ertainly d rawing c loser . T he r ange o f f inds i s c omparable , e ven i f t he R oman g oods a re , a s m ight b e e xpected , m uch g reater w ithin t he l imes ( Fulford 1 985 ,100 ) . I n t he t erritory o f t he C ananefates w ithin t he R oman p rovince t he n ative s ite o f R ijswijk i s c loser i n i ts a ssemblages t o W ijster b eyond t he f rontier i n D renthe t han i t i s t o t he m unicipium n ear b y o r t o t he m ilitary v icus ( Bloemers 1 983 , 1 76) . 4 . T he f ourth a nd f inal p roposition i s t hat f rontiers a re , b y t he v ery n ature o f t heir e xistence , a gents o f t heir o wn d estruction . W ithout g oing i nto t he h istory o f t he l ater E mpire , t his p roposition t akes i ssue w ith t he f requently e choed v iew t hat ' peace c ould b e m aintained b y . - e conomic d evelopment a long t he f rontiers o f t he e mpire ' ( Birley 1 956 , 3 2) . T here i s o bviously a c ertain i mmediate a ttraction i n at heory w hich s eems t o e xplain t he c onspicuous m onuments o f f rontier t owns, t he m ilitary v ici a nd t he r elatively g reater a grarian a ctivity w ithin t he f rontier - t he s ort o f t hing f ound o n t he N umdian b orders o r s outh o f t he S olway F irth i n B ritain ( Fentress 1 979 ; J ones a nd W alker 1 983) . A ccording t o t his v iew , l ands w hich b egan a s m arginal w ere s timulated b y t he p resence o f t he m ilitary m arkets i nto p roducing s urpluses w hich t ransformed r ude , s ubsistence f rontier t ribes i nto s table , u rban-based , l andlord-peasant c ommunities . N evertheless , d issenting v oices h ave b een r aised a gainst t oo s implistic a n e xplanation o f t he m atter . M any o f t he s upposed a grarian i nnovations i n A frica , b eing u ndated, c ould b e p re-Roman ( Shaw 1 983, 1 49 ) . T here i s n othing t o s upport t he p opular n otion t hat t he R omans i mproved p roductivity i n B ritain ( M K J ones 1 981) . W hereas t he a rmy m ay i ndeed h ave i ncreased g ross p roduction l ocally b y c reating t he s tability n ecessary f or a r ise i n p opulation , i t i s n ot a t a ll c lear t hat p er c apita p roductivity a nd w ealth i ncreased a s w ell . T he l esson f rom t he S olway f armsteads , f rom t he W elsh m arches a nd f rom t he v ici o n t he L ower D anube i s g enerally t hat t he e conomy o f t he c amps i mpinged s urprisingly l ittle o n t he m ajority , d espite t he

6 8

s ubstantial

i ncrease i n t he n umber o f s ettlements i n t he s hadow o f t he

f rontier ( G DBJ ones 1 984, D avies a s

1 983 ,

1213) .

7 8 ;

P oulter 1 980,

7 37-8 ;

B ennett 1 983;

2 08 ;

S uch a l ack o f m aterial c hange c ould b e i nterpreted

t he e ffect u pon a c ommunity w hich p aid

i ts

s urpluses

o ver a s

t axes

i n

k ind a nd w as o therwise n ot i nvolved i n t he m ilitary m arket .(3) S o, w hile w e must n ot r ule o ut t he f act t hat s ome f armers a nd s ome c o m munities a ttached t o m ilitary v ici d id d o w ell o ut o f t he m ilitary f orts ( as a t O ld C arlise ),

a nd t hat

s ome

l ocal

e lites ,

t oo ,

t heir c onspicuous s pending b y c reaming t he r ising p opulation ( as i n N oord B rabant a nd Z uid H olland ), t hat

t he

f orced l ong

a rmy ,

a fter

l evying w hat

-t o g et m uch o f i ts

d istance

s uppliers o f

i t

c ould

b ulk g oods

l ocally ,

f rom b eyond

t he p rovinces

e vidently i ncreased

p rofits o ff t he g rowing o ne g ets t he i mpression

( Sommer

p referred

t he

-o r w as

f rontiers

1 984 ,

3 9 ) .

o r

f rom

A nalysis

o f

w heat g rains i n b oth H olland a nd S cotland s uggests t hey w ere i mported ( Willems

1 9e3 ,142 ;

T he G uardian A ug 1 4 ,1985) .

B ut t he s ame p rocess w as t aking p lace b eyond t he f rontiers a nd n ot j ust o n

t he

R oman

s ide .

H ere,

t oo,

w e

f ind

p opulation

i ncreases,

s elect

c oncentration o f m aterial r esources a nd h ence t he g rowth o f p olitical p ower . I t w as m uch l ess d ramatic . t he

d anger

t his

t he

f rontiers

B ut a lready S eneca i n N ero 's d ay w as a ware o f

p osed ( de i ra

t hemselves

( Braund, C h 1a bove) .

1 ,11 .4) .

e ncouraged

R oman

t he

d iplomacy

a nd

g ifts

b eyond

f ormation o f c entralised k ingship

. A g eneration a fter S eneca T acitus n oted h ow t he

C hatti a lone o f G erman t ribes c ould o rganise , n ot j ust f or b attle b ut f or w ar ( Tac G erm 3 0) . T he p opulation i ncreases o n t he c lay t erpen ( or W urten ) a nd s andy g eest r egions o f H olland a nd i n t he W eser r egion o f L ower S axony c an b e p roved b y t he e xcavations o f W ijster , m any o thers .

F lögeln ,

F eddersen W ierde a nd

I t i s n ot y et c lear h aw m uch c rowding w as c reated i n t he l oss

o f l ands d ue t o t he L äte R oman m arine t ransgression b ut, c ame q uite l ate,

s ince t hat p eriod

t here c an b e l ittle d oubt a bout t he a bsolute r ise i n

n umbers o f p eople p ressing f or m ore l and a nd r esources ( well s urveyed b y S chmid 1 978 ) . T he h ypothesis t hat I h ave p ut f orward , s uggesting i t w as t he f amiliar b ut h ungry R omanised p eople o f t he f rontier z ones ,

n ot m ysterious,

d ark, n ew h ordes w ho c onstituted t he m ain f orce o f w hat w e c all t he ' barbarian i nvasions' o f t he l ater R oman Empire, h as r eceived p owerful s upport

b y G offart

( 1980) .

S upplies a nd T raders T his

l ast p oint i s o f s pecial

q uestion o f h ow t he f rontiers w ere h ave h ad u pon t he

i mportance i f w e c onsider m ore t he

s upplied

i nhabitants w ithin t he

a nd

z ones .

o f

t he

A part

e ffect

t his w ould

f rom t he

s upplies

w hich c ame f rom t he f rontier z ones t hemselves ( which w as p erhaps r ather l ess t han

i s

s ometimes

s upposed )

b y t ax u pon t hose w ithin t he p rovincial

o rbit

a nd b y t ribute f rom s ubject a llies l ike t he F risii a nd t he M arcomanni ; a nd a part f rom t he g oods w hich r eached t he f rontiers t hrough t he l ocal t rading a ctivities o f n egotiatores l ike G argilius S ecundus, w ho w ere ' wanderi n g a ll o ver t he p lace ' ( vagi i s T acitus ' w ord i n F riesland , H ist I V,13) i n t imes o f p eace ;

a part

f rom a ll

t his,

n egotiatores w ere

a lso

i nvolved

i n a q uite

d ifferent k ind o f b usiness , p roviding f rontiers w ith l ong-distance s upplies f rom w ithin t he R oman E mpire . T hese a ctivities h ave a b earing o n t he d evelopment o f t he f rontiers t hemselves a nd t he s ocieties t here . s ome e xamples .

6 9

H ere a re

( 1) T he w ine a mphorae t ype D ressel 2 -4 o f t he e arly E mpire w ere m anufactured a t a n umber o f s ites , p articularly i n t he P ompeian v illas o f C ampania i n I taly , b ut a lso i n S pain a nd i n G aul . B ut P ompeian D ressel 2 4 , u nlike t heir S panish-Gallic c ounterparts, a re f ound i n t he w estern p rovinces a lmost e xclusively o n t he f rontiers a nd o nly i n v ery l imited q uantities i n t he i nterior o f G aul ( Panella 1 981, 7 6) . U0 T he s tory o f s outhern G allic w ine o f t he f irst-third c enturies A D , e xported i n f lat-based D ressel 3 0 c ontainers , i s e ssentially t he s ame . T heir d istribution i s a lmost e ntirely a long F rench i nland w aterways l eading t o t he R hine a nd t hen o n t o B ritain ; r oute ( Peacock

b ut t hey d o n ot c ome t o B ritain v ia 1 978 , 5 0 ) .

t he c heaper A tlantic

( 2) O il e xports f rom S pain w ere a lways c arried d uring t he h igh i mperial p eriod i n t hose u biquitous D ressel 2 0 a mphorae , b eginning i n t he A ugustan a ge . B ut t here i s a n i nteresting , i f n ot a bsolutely c lear-cut , c ontrast b etween r oughly c ontemporary a mphorae o f t he m id- t o l ate- f irst c entury A D , o ne s et p ainted w ith t he n ame C . A ntonius Q uietus , a nother w ith t he t itle M IN E . I t i s n ormally a ssumed t hat b oth r epresent t he n ames o f t he s hipper- n egotiatores . B ut o f t he Q uietus a mphorae o nly a f ew a re f ound i n f rontier c amps a nd t he g reat m ajority a re o n p rovincial s ites o f t he G allic i nterior , e specially i n t he L oire b asin , a s w ell a s b eing a ll o ver B ritain a t s ites s uch a s S ilchester , C aerwent , L ancaster . T he M IM a mphorae , b y c ontrast , a re v ery o bviously a n a lmost e xclusively R höne-Rhine e xport a nd a re a lmost n owhere e lse , e xcept s cattered i n B ritain o n b oth m ilitary a nd c ivilian s ites , w ith a f ew a lso o n m ilitary s ites i n A frica ( Tchernia 1 96 0 .

y ears

( 3) T he t hird e xample i s o ne t o w hich P eacock d rew a ttention a f ew a go - t he s catter o f c ertain f abrics o f p eak-handled R hodian w ine

a mphorae . A lthough R hodian w ine w as f avoured o n m ilitary s ites s ince t he A ugustan a ge i n G ermany , t here w as a s urge i n t he p opularity o f t hese p articular f abrics i n t he C laudian p eriod , e specially o n m ilitary s ites o f t he p re-Flavian B ritish i nvasion ( Peacock 1 977 , 2 70 ) . ( 4)

A s tudy

o f

t he

d istribution

o f

o il

l amps

i n

S witzerland

( Leibundgut 1 977; M orel 1 979 ) s hows a n a stonishing c ontrast b etween t he n umbers o f l amps , b oth l ocally m ade a nd i mported , f ound o n f irst c entury A D s ites c ompared w ith a t otal i n t he n ext t hree c enturies - a bout 3 ,000 t o 1 00 . T he i mbalance i s e xplicable o nly b y t he f act t hat t he l egionary c amp a t V indonissa m oved f orward i nto G ermany a fter t he F lavian r eorganisation . T his i s n ot d issimilar t o t he m ilitary-orientation o f g oods f ound i n W ales ( Davies 1 984) . I n S witzerland t here i s a lso q uite a s triking c ontrast b etween t he p rofusion o f l amps u sed b y l egionaries a nd t heir a lmost t otal a bsence i n t he c astella o f t he a uxiliaries o r i n t he c ountry h ouses o f r ich , l ocal n otables . ( 5)

F inally t here a re t he e ccentricities o f t he d istribution o f

i nscriptions c ommemorating n egotiatores a nd s eviri A ugustales i n F rance a nd G ermany , t o w hich a ttention h as b een d rawn b y G oudineau ( 1980 ) a nd M iddleton ( 1979 ) . A gain t he p icture i s n ot a bsolutely c lear c ut . B ut b y f ar t he m ajority h ave b een f ound a long t he m ain m ilitary r outes l eading t o t he n othern f rontiers . W hy a long t hese r outes a nd n ot o n o ther m ajor a xes , s uch a s t he N arbonne-Bordeaux r oute o r a long t he L oire-Seine r oute? A s w e c an s ee b y t he d istribution o f S panish o il a nd w ine a mphorae o f t he e arly f irst c entury A D , m any p ainted w ith s hipper n ames o n t hem , t hese l atter r outes w ere c ertainly u sed .

7 0

T he w ay t o r econstruct t he j igsaw p uzzle i s o bviously w ith c aution , s ince s o m any p ieces a re m issing . I t i s a ll t oo e asy t o t alk g libly a bout a ' m ilitary m arket ' a s t hough t hat a nswers t he p roblem . P rima f acie t he e vidence l ooks l ike a s pecialised s ystem o f s upplies f or t he a rmy , w hich t hen t o a l imited e xtent s pills o ver i nto c ivilian a reas a long t he r oute . B ut t he o ne t hing t his i s n ot i s t he d istribution p attern c reated b y f ree m arket c ompetition o r b y am arket o pen t o a ll b uyers . P eacock s uggested t hat t he s udden s urge o f R hodian a mphorae o n C laudian s ites w as d ue t o t he f act t hat C laudius r emoved R hodes ' t ax i mmunity a nd t hat o ur e vidence s hows t he t ax a rriving i n k ind a t t he f rontier ( Peacock 1 977, 2 70) . H is e xplanation i s u nproveable b ut h is i nstinct i s r ight . T he w ord ' market ' i s i nappropriate . D istribution o f t hat s ort m ust b e c aused b y s tate m onopolies ( tax i n k ind , m ilitary w orkshops o n s ite , e tc ) o r b y t he s tate s ubsidies o r b y b oth . Y et t he n otion t hat m ilitary s upplies w ere u sually o btained t hrough t he s upply a nd d emand o f t he o pen m arket s eems t o b e g aining c urrency i n r ecent p ublications ; f or e xample , i n t he i nteresting c hapter o n t he f ine w are a t U sk b y G reene ( 1979 , 1 39-42) o r i n B reeze 's s timulating s tudy o f t he f ort a t B earsden ( Breeze 1 977 ) . L et m e s tart w ith t he c onfusion s urrounding t he t erm ' m ilitary c ontract ' . B oth t hese s tudies a re a t p ains t o d emonstrate t hat p roduction w as n ot n ormally s timulated b y s pecial m ilitary o rders . T hat s eems t o m e t o b e t rue , j ust a s i t i s , i n g eneral, i mpossible t o s peak o f a d irect l ink v ia p urchase p rices b etween p roduction a nd c onsumption i n t he a ncient e conomy a s aw hole ( Finley 1 985 , 1 77 f f ) . W hilst i t i s p ossible t o f ind s ome e xamples w here t he s tate p laced o rders f or i tems o f e quipment d irectly w ith p roducers - b lankets a nd s o -t he w hole h istory o f R oman m ilitary a nd c ivil s upply s ystems w as b ased o n t he u se o f m iddle m en , p ublicani o r c onductores . B ut t hese m en w ere n evertheless c ontractors . T hey b id f or s tate c ontracts , n ot t o p roduce b ut t o p rovide s upplies . T his h ad n othing t o d o w ith w hether t he g oods w ere o riginally p urchased ( in t he o pen m arket , b y r equisitioned p rice , b y c ontract , e tc ) o r w hether t hey w ere c ollected a s t ax , l ike S icilian g rain f or R ome . I t w as b y l ocatio-conductio t hat t he c ity o f R ome i tself w as s upplied w ith f ood a nd n o p rudent e mperor e ver r elied u pon m arket f orces a lone t o b ring b idders t o t he a uction . P rivileges ( in t he f orm o f t ax i mmunities ) a nd p ressures ( in t he f orm o f c ompulsory c ontracts a nd t ransport s ervices ) w ere a pplied ( Whittaker 1 985 ) . L ike s upplies f or R ome , s upplies f or t he a rmy c ould n ot b e l eft t o c hance v agaries o f t he m arket . O ne o nly h as t o t hink o f t he a nnual v ariation o f w heat y ields w ithin t he R oman E mpire t o r ealise t he n eed f or s tate c oncern ( et H opkins 1 983 , 9 0 f f ) . ' They a re e specially c oncerned t hat w hatever s eems n eeded b y t he a rmy s hould n ot b e s hort i n t he c amp ' , s ays V egetius ( de r e m il 1 1 ,11) . A l ook a t t he w ritten a nd e pigraphic e vidence c oncerning m ilitary s upplies a nd n egotiatores m akes i t f airly c lear t hat t he s ystem o f l ocation o f c ontracts h ad n ot c hanged i n t he E mpire . ' Concerning g oods t hat g overnors o rder t o b e t ransported f or t hemselves , d ivus H adrian w rote t hat w henever a p erson s ends s omeone t o p urchase t hem f or t he u se o f c ommanders o f p rovinces o r f or a rmies . h e s hall s ign a n ote ( libellus ) w ith h is o wn h and a nd s end i t t o t he c ustoms m an ( publicanus ) , s o t hat i f h e t ransfers m ore t han i s o rdered i t s hall b e l iable t o t ax ( munificus ) ' -D ig X XXIX ,4 .4 .1 ( Paulu s ) .

c ame

T his m eans t hat g oods f or t he u se o f m ilitary a nd g overnment s ervicemen i n t ax f ree a nd o n o rder . r es e xercitui p aratas p raestitioni

7 1

v ectigalium s ubici n on p lacet - D ig X XXIX ,49 .7 ( Paulus) .

I n a nother l aw w e

h ear o f c oncessions t o t he f rumentariis n egotiatoribus - D ig L ,5 .9 .1 ( Paulus ) , a lthough n ot e xplicitly r eferring t o m ilitary s upplies . G overnors c ould c ontrol n egotiatores b y t heir r ight t o e xclude p ersons f rom t aking p art i n n egotia p ublica - w hich I a ssume t o b e p ublic c ontracts - D ig X LVIII ,19 .9 .8

( Ulpian ) .

A lthough t he l aws q uoted h ere w ere n ot f ormulated b efore t he m id-second c entury A D , i t w ould b e w rong t o s uppose t he p rinciple o f t ax c oncessions f or e ssential s upplies o nly b egan t hen . T he i nscription c oncerning r equisitioning o f t ransport i n P isidia ( Mitchell 1 976) d ates f rom t he r eign o f T iberius a nd m akes i t c lear t hat t hose q ui f rumentum a ut a liquid t alep ortant w ere n ot p ermitted t o d emand f ree t ransport i f t he g oods w ere f or p rivate u se o r f or s ale . T he c ontrast b etween o ffical c ontracts a nd p rivate s upplies i s e vident . B ut t his s hows a nother i nteresting f act , i n t hat t he v ery n eed t o i ssue s uch a n i nstruction m eans t hat t he s ame m en w ho c ontracted f or o fficial s upplies u sed s tate t ransport f or t heir p rivate p rofit , i f t hey c ould . E ven i f t ax w as p aid o n t he s upplementary c argo , t he t ransport w as t he s ame a nd t hus e ffectively s ubsidised w hen t he g oods c ame t o t he m arket. S o w here a re w e i n t he a rgument? A n a rmy o f i nvasion , a s w e m ight e xpect , p rovided i ts a wn s upply s ystem , i ncluding i ts o wn m etal s miths , p otters , e tc . T hat i s a bundantly c lear f rom t he e arly p ottery a t U sk a nd f rom t he c ooking p ots a nd l amps a t V indonissa ( et P eacock 1 982, 1 36ff ; D arling 1 977) . A rmy s upply o fficers t hemselves c ould g o f ar a field i n t heir s earch f or c orn a nd c lothing , a s w e s ee f rom t he r ecord o f aD anubian c ohort o fficer i n G aul ( Fink 1 971 , 2 27 ) . S tate r equisitioning o f s upplies a s t ax o r c ompulsory p urchase w as , Ih ave a rgued , m uch c ommoner t han i s g enerally a llowed ( Whittaker 1 980 , 7 ) . B ut a ll t his i s q uite s eparate f rom t he q uestion o f c ontracted s uppliers . T he a rmy c ontracted n egotiatores b oth a s s upply a gents a nd a s t ransporters . J ulius C aesar h ad s uch a m an i n G aul q ui r ei f rumentariae i uss C aesaris p raeerat - c alled C . F ufius C ita ( Caes B G V II , 3 . 1) . G argilius S ecundus w ho p urchased F riesian c ows l ooks t he s ame . I n B elgium M ertens c omes t o t he c onclusion t hat t he e arly v ici a t s ites l ike B avay , T ongres e tc , w ere t he c entres f or ' negotiatores w orking f or t he a rmy ' ( Mertens 1 983 , 1 63 ) . F rom t he s tart , h owever , t here w as n o c lear l ine d rawn b etween w hat c ame a s m ilitary s upplies , w hich w ere e xempt f rom t ax , a nd w hat w as c arried a nd d ispensed i n m arkets a long t he r oute o r i n t he f rontier z one . B ut , i t m ust b e s tressed a gain , s uch g oods w ere p rivileged a nd c arried h idden s ubsidies . I f t he r eliefs o n t he t ombstones a t N ijmegen , s howing s hips c arrying w ine b arrels , a re i n f act r epresentations o f m ilitary n ot c ivil t ransports ( Ellmers 1 978 , 7 ) (5) , a nd i f t he c lassis B ritannica ' played a n i mportant r ole i n t ransporting g oods f rom G aul t o B ritain ' ( Peacock 1 982 , 1 46) , t he g oods c arried t his w ay w ere h ardly l ikely t o r eflect a t rue c ost i n t he m arket p lace i n c ompetition w ith o ther s imilar c ommodities . W illiams a nd P eacock h ave r ecently o bserved t hat o live o il i mported i nto B ritain i n D ressel 2 0 a mphorae s hows u p o n u rban c ivilian s ites i n a lmost e xactly t he s ame p roportions a s o n m ilitary s ites ; f rom w hich t hey c onclude t hat t he a rmy w as o btaining i ts o il t hrough a c ivil s ystem ( Williams a nd P eacock 1 983 , 2 70 ) . B ut w hy n ot t he o ther w ay r ound? B ritain , a s a lready n oted , w as u nusual i n g etting m ost o f i ts s upplies t hrough t he m ilitary r oute v ia t he R hine f rontier , n ot t hrough t he c heaper A tlantic r oute . O ne o f t hose n egotiatores B ritannici w ho h as l eft h is n ame o n ad edication t o N ehalennia o n t he S chelde e stuary , n amed P lacidus , i s p lausibly t he s ame P lacidus w hose

7 2

i nscription

h as

b een

f ound

i n

t he m ilitary c entre

o f Y ork

( Hassa n

1 978 ,

4 2). H idden

s ubsidies

o n s upplementary

r emember t hat s mall p ottery ,

f rom

c argoes b ecome i mportant w hen w e

w hich m any o f t he c onclusions a bout f ree

m arket c ompetition h ave b een d rawn , n ever s eems t o h ave t ravelled o n i ts o wn m arket v alue . s amian

T his i s g raphically c lear f rom F ulford 's d emonstration o f t he

i mports

e ntering

B ritain ,

w hich b ear

n o

r elation

t o

t he

d istance

t ransported a nd must, t herefore, h ave b een t ied t o o ther b ulk m ilitary s upplies ( Fulford 1 984) . S hipwrecks c onfirm t he h ypothesis t hat s mall p ottery w as c arried o n t he b ack o f l arge c argoes ( Morel 1 983) a nd t he a lmost e xclusively m ilitary c ontext o f t he d istribution o f A rretine i n A ugustan G aul a nd G ermany , f rom t he e vidence o f f orts s uch a s H altern , l ooks l ike t he w ork o f p ublic c ontract s uppliers ( Wells 1 977) . G iven d oes ,

t his

t hat

t he

w idely u sed

e vidence ,

i t

i s

s urely n ot

p ossible

t o

a rgue ,

a s

G reene

s am ian p roduced a t L yon i n t he e arly f irst c entury A D a nd

o n m ilitary

' independent m erchants '

s ites w as

o perating

d istributed

' freely ' ;

b y m arket

f orces

w ith

a nd t hen i n t he s ame p aragraph

t o s ay t hat L yon 's p roduction d eclined i n t he l ater f irst c entury ' probably b ecause f f ) .

o f

t he

g rowth o f

i ndustries

a t L a G raufesenque '

( Greene

1 979 ,

1 40

T hat o bscures t he f act t hat M illau ( La G raufesenque ) i s s ome 2 00km o r

s o s outh o f L yon a nd f ar l ess a ccessible .

I t c ould n ot b y a ny s ort o f c ost-

a ccounting b e s hown t o h ave p ut L yon o ut o f b usiness b y n ormal, f ree m arket c ompetition i n t he m ilitary m arkets o f t he N orth . B y s pecial m ilitary c ontract a nd

l inked t o o ther b ulk s upplies ,

( 1980) h as s uggested ,

y es .

T his i s w hat M iddleton

l inking t he M illau p roduction t o t he m ining r egions o f

t he R uteni a nd t he p assage o f d onkey t rains t o N arbonne a long t he m ilitary r oute .

S peculation ,

m ore p lausible o rganised

a lso ,

i t

i s

t han G reene 's

t rade

f acilities

t rue ,

b ut a k ind o f

s peculation w hich i s

v iew t hat Millau h ad

t o m eet

' the r ight k ind o f

t he n eeds o f f ar-flung c ustomers . '

I t

i s, i ncidentally , n ot t rue t hat L yon b ecame a ' backwater ' t hrough t he l oss o f t his p roduction , a s a lleged . I t r emained f or a l ong t ime ' the g reatest t rading c ity o f H igh R oman G aul ' ( Drinkwater H ow

t hen

d o

c omplexity o f C learly n ot

w e

e xplain

t he

p roblems

1 983 , p osed

1 97) . b y B reeze

t he p ottery a ssemblages f ound i n t he

i n

t erms

o f

t he

p ottery

i tself,

i f

c oncerning

f ort a t

t his

t he

B earsden?

t ype o f p ottery

t ravelled m ainly a s s econdary c argo , c ollected b y n egotiatores a t s ource a nd a t t he v arious c entres t hey v isited . i s n ot p aralleled b y t hose o f

T he f act t hat t he B earsden a ssemblage

t he o ther f orts ,

i ndicating n o s ingle g rand

m ilitary c ontractor , s ays m ore a bout t he p etty s tatus o f n egotiatores i n t he a ncient e conomy a nd t he c abotage s tyle o f t heir v oyages t han i t d oes a bout t he

n ature

o f

t he

m arket .

T here

i s

n othing

i mplausible

h ypothesis t hat a g ood d eal o f t he s mall p ottery w as,

a bout

B reeze 's

u ltimately ,

s old i n

t he v ici o r t o t he s oldiers d irect, s ince p rivate s ales ( at s ubsidised p rices) w as w hat b oosted t he p rofits o f t he c ontractors . p oint

i s

g oods.

t hat

B ut

t he i mportant

t hey w ere s ubsidised a nd c ould t herefore c ompete w ith l ocal

T he r ationality o f t he m arket w as o nly l ocal.

C onclusion I t m ight w ell a nd

f rontiers .

b e a sked w hat a ll t his h as t o d o w ith f rontier p eoples

A part

f rom

t he

g eneral

p oints

I h ave a lready m ade

( with

s ome r eservation ) a bout m ilitary f rontiers s timulating p roduction a nd l ocal m arkets ,

a nd a part

f orm t he o ther p oint

7 3

I m ade a bout n ew c onsumers w ithin

t he i nvisible f rontiers o f t he Vorlimes, i f Ia m r ight a bout t he l ongd istance s uplies f or t hese t wo m arkets b eing s ubsidised , t his o ught t o m ean t hat f rontier z ones ( in t he b road s ense ) d iffered i n t heir c onsumer h abits b oth

f rom

j ustice

t o

d eepest t he

b arbaricum

a nd

p oint w ould n eed

f rom

t he

p rovincial

a nother p aper .

B ut

h interland .

t here

a re

T o

d o

s ome h ints

t hat t his w as t he c ase. T he d ifference b etween t he V orlimes z one a nd t he l ands b eyond n eeds n o f urther c omment . B ut w hat a bout w ithin t he p rovinces? T here a re t wo w ellk nown e xamples i n R oman-Britian . B lack B urnished W are I I i s f ound w idely d istributed i n S cotland a nd o n t he W all

b ut

i t

S hields , C orbridge o r e ven i n s outh-west S cotland .

i s n ot

f ound a t S outh

N o d oubt t his i s b ecause

t he g oods c ame u p t he E ast c oast b y s hip ( Breeze 1 977, 1 39) . B ut i t i llustrates h ow m ilitary n egotiatores s upplied t he m ilitary-cum-civil c ommunity a ttached t o t he f rontier a nd h ow t hey d iffered e ven i n t his t rivial w ay f rom t he h interland . T he s ame l esson c an b e d rawn f rom t he d istribution o f E ast A nglian m ortaria f ound o nly i n t he W all a rea b ut n ot i n t he p rovincial h interland ( Hartley 1 973 , q uite l ocal t rade w ithin t he p rovince . o live o il,

g arum ,

4 3) . B oth t hese e xamples a re o f A t a l onger d istance a mphorae o f

w ine a nd f ine s amian ,

w hich c ame m ainly t o t he f rontier

r egion w ere a lso s old o r e xchanged b eyond . a

r egion

o f

n orth-east

S erbia ,

a

O n t he U pper M oesian f rontier i n

t eam

o f

American

a nd

J ugoslav

a rchaeologists a nd a nthropologists d escribe a c ultural r egion o f w hich t he D anube w as n ot t he l imit b ut t he m id-way p oint b etween N orth a nd S outh . T o t he S outh o f t his r egion t hey s peak o f ab and w ithin t he p rovince ' devoid o f R oman p resence ' w hich w as s eemingly a s m uch a f rontier z one f or t he R omans a s t he n orthern a rea a bove t he D anube ' ( Bartel 1 980-81, M y c onclusion c omes i n t he f orm o f aq uestion . t he f rontier z ones t here w ere m any b arbarians m ore t han w ere r ural p rovincial

' R omans '?

2 2) .

D oes t his m ean t hat i n ' Roman ' i n t heir h abits

T o a nswer t his q uestion w e n eed m ore

q uantitative s tudies o f t he ' buffer z ones ' , a s F ulford ( 1985) h as p ointed o ut . B loemers ( 1983) h as m ade a v aluable s tart i n c omparing t he p ottery a ssemblages o f p rovincial n ative s ettlements, ' Roman ' p rovincial t owns, m ilitary v ici a nd t he G erman s ettlements o f t he V orlimes . S o f ar i t a ppears a s i f t he t wo t ypes o f r ural s ettlements h ave m ore i n c ommon w ith e ach o ther t han t hey d o w ith t he t owns o r v ici .

T he r esult i n t he e nd w ill h ave

p rofound i mplications f or o ur u nderstanding o f t he t ransformation a nd c ontinuity o f t he l ater R oman E mpire. ( 6)

7 4

N OTES 1 .

T he d ate o f t he t ablet i s u nfortunately n ot e asy t o d etermine , b ecause

t he

l egionary

n umbers

t o

w hich

t he

c enturions

w ere

p artly

a ttached

c annot b e r econciled w ith k nown R hine l egions. 2 .

T he b road p icture i s a ccepted b y F ulford ( 1985),

d espite s ome i mportant

r eservations h e m akes a bout t he p ossible m isleading a bsence o f m etal g oods i n t he R oman o rbit , 3 .

F or t he r ising p opulation i n B elgica a nd t he R hine d elta , s ee G roenman— v an W aateringe 1 983,

4 .

T here

i s

d olia

t o

a r eal G aul

1 49 , a lthough I d o n ot a ccept h er a rgument.

p ossibility

a longside

t hat

D ressel

P ompeian w ine w as 2 -4

a mphorae ,

c arried o ut o n t he w reck a t G rand R ibaud , H esnard s hows b oth t ypes o f c ontainers f or t his I a m

b eing

s hipped i n

t herefore

d ifferent k ind o f e vidence i n t he G allic i nterior .

5 .

l uxury

d ue t o r eworking o f m etal .

l eaving

i n t he b ay o f T oulon ,

i n o ne s hip .

a

C urrent w ork b eing b y A

M y t hanks t o h er

i nformation .

g rateful

t o

N .

H annestad

f or

t he

r epresentations m ay b e s imple s tereotypes ,

s uggestion

t hat

t hese

m uch a s ay oung c hild w ill

d raw a b attleship t o r epresent a ny b oat. 6 .

A s s o o ften i n t he p ast , G arnsey a s

s ounding

c ritical r esponses,

S ince

t his

Ih ave u sed t he

b oards

f or m y

i deas

l ate M oses F inley a nd P eter a nd

I a m g rateful

f or t heir

e ven w hen t hey d isagreed .

a rticle w as w ritten

i n

1 986 ,

I h ave d eveloped

t he

i deas

p resented h ere i nto a b ook w hich w ill s hortly a ppear, p ublished b y t he C ollege d e F rance .

7 5

B IBLIOGRAPHY B ARTEL , B 1 980-81: C olonialism a nd C ultural R eponses: r elated t o R oman p rovincial a nalysis . W orld A rchaeol 1 2 , 1 1-26 . B ENNETT ,

J 1 983 :

T he E nd o f R oman S ettlement

C hapman & Mytum ( eds) , B IRLEY ,

H adrianic F rontier P olicy .

G raz & C ologne ,

( Oxford ,

B LOEMERS ,

E ( ed),

1 984 :

M ilitary a nd C ivilian i n R oman

B rit A rchaeol R ep B rit S er 1 36) .

J H F 1 983 :

R oman P eriod : B RANDT ,

I n S woboda ,

2 5-33 .

B LAGG , T F CA ND K ING , A C ( EDS),

A cculturation i n t he R hine/ M euse B asin i n t he

a p reliminary s urvey . R W A ND

C ountries :

I n

Vorträge b eim I nternationalen K ongress Alterumsforscher

C arnuntum 1 955 .

B ritain .

i n N orth E ngland .

2 05-32 .

E 1 956:

C arnuntina,

p roblems

S LOFSTRA ,

I n B randt & S lofstra ( eds) ,

J ( EDS),

s pheres o f i nteraction .

1 983 :

1 59-209 .

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C hapter 5 R OMAN A ND B ARBARIAN :

T HE E CONOMY O F R OMAN F RONTIER S YSTEMS M ichael F ulford

T his c ontribution i s c oncerned w ith t he p eriod o f t he m ore o r l ess s tatic f rontiers w hich d eveloped a s R oman e xpansion g round t o ah alt i n t he f irst a nd e arly s econd c enturies A D . M aterial e vidence d emonstrates a w ide r ange o f c ontacts b etween a dministered R oman t erritory a nd s ocieties , b oth t hose , a s i n G aul a nd B ritain , t hat w ere e ventually a nnexed a nd t hose , a s i n t he E ast o r i n C entral E urope , t hat r emained p ermanently b eyond t he l imits o f t he e mpire . T he d evelopment o f f ixed f rontier s ystems w ith r egularly d isposed f ortresses a nd f orts d id n ot r upture c ontacts w ith s ocieties b eyond t hem b ut , b ecause o f t heir g reater p ermanence , t hey h ad a m ore m arked i mpact o n t hose c ommunities w ith w hich t he g arrisons h ad a n i ntimate a nd l asting c ontact . I n s ome a reas, s uch a s i n t he n orth o f B ritain t he l ong-term p resence o f f orts a nd t heir g arrisons s erved t o p romote c ivilian s ettlements , n otably t he d ependent v ici w hich g rew u p o utside e very f ort , w here n o c omparable n ucleation h ad o ccurred b efore . A lthough t he d evelopment o f f rontier s ystems h as b een v ery m uch t he p reoccupation o f m ilitary h istorians a nd a rchaeologists w orking w ithin a n h istorical f ramework , t he e conomic c onsequeness o f t heir e xistence h ave n ot b egun t o i nfluence t he d irection o f c urrent r esearch . I n a r ecent p aper , f or e xample , W hittaker h as a rgued t hat ' availability o f r esources a nd t rade o r e conomic n eeds m ay o ffer a m ore c omprehensive e xplanation b oth f or t he l ogic

o f

f rontier

f ormation a nd

f or

t he

e ventual

c ollapse '

( 1983 ,

10 ) .

T his w as a p refatory r emark i n a p aper w hich I w ish t o e xamine i n d etail . T he p aper c oncluded t hat ' They ( the f rontiers) c rumbled n ot b ecause o f d ark e ruptions o f n ew b arbarian h ordes , e ven i f t hat c ontributed , b ut b ecause f rontiers a re a lways z ones , c onstantly s hifting a nd i n f erment , a mbivalent i n t heir l oyalties a nd o ften h aving m ore i n c ommon w ith t he ' other s ide ' , a s i t w ere , t han w ith t heir o wn p olitical c entre . O ne o f t he m ajor f actors i n c reating t his f erment w as f ood a nd t rade i n s taples ' ( 1983, 1 21122) . W hittaker 's t heory ( et C h 4 a bove ) i s f ounded o n f our p ropositions : 1 . ' Raman f rontiers f requently c ut t hrough z ones o f r elative h omogeneity a nd i n p articular o f e conomic o r s ocial h omogeneity ' . ( original e mphasis ) . 2 ' that f rontiers s hould n ot b e r egarded a s l inear b arriers b ut a s " zones o f d ifferentiation" . T hat i s t o s ay , f rontiers a re r eally r egions w hich a re m arginal b ecause t hey a re m ixed b oth s ocially a nd e conomically , r epresenting a s t hey d o t he c hange o ver f rom i ntensive t o e xtensive p roduction , w here t he c apacity t o c ollect f ood s urplus i s o ffset b y s ocial s ystems t hat a re i ncapable o f p roducing t hose s urpluses ' . 3 . ' zones o f d ifferentiation a re b y d efinition z ones o f s ymbiotic e xchange e xchange b etween s ystems o f i ntensive a nd e xtensive p roduction ' . 4 .

' frontiers a re b y t heir m arginal n ature n ecessarily a gents o f c hange .

8 1

T he v ery s tability a nd t he e conomic s timulation o f t he e xchanges a lters t he m arginality o f b oth t he e conomic a nd m ilitary b alance'. T he t hrust o f W hittaker 's a rguments , a s h is c oncluding r emarks r eveal, i s t hat a s t he p opulation o f b arbarian s ocieties b eyond t he f rontier g rew ( itself a q uestionable a ssumption ) , s o d id i ts d ependence o n t he s upply o f s taples f rom w ithin t he e mpire ( 1983 , 17) . A s t he l atter i ncreasingly f ailed t o s atisfy b arbarian n eeds i n t he l ater e mpire , s o i t b ecame s ubject t o t heir a ttacks . T he d estruction c aused b y t hese r aids a nd t he R oman r esponses o nly s erved t o e xaggerate t he u nderlying p roblem , a s carcity o f b asic r esources . T he i mplication i s t hat a m utual i nterdependence o f R oman a nd b arbarian w hich h ad d eveloped d uring t he f irst a nd s econd c enturies c ollapsed a s a c onsequence o f t he c umulative e ffect o f i nherent i nadequacies o f t he f rontier s ystem . T he

m ajor

p rop

o f

W hittaker 's

t hesis

r ests

o n

h is

f irst

t hree

p ropositions w hich a re t hemselves i nter-related : R oman f rontiers t ended t o b e a t t he l imits o f t he r egion o f i ntensive a gricultural e xploitation , a nd s o i nterrupted s ymbiotic e xchange w ith r egions o f e xtensive e xploitation . W hile i t i s d ifficult t o t ake i ssue w ith t he o bservation t hat f rontiers w ere a rbitrary i n t erms o f t heir r elation t o n ative s ocieties a nd t heir a gricultural s ystems , m ore c ontentious i s t he e valuation o f t he e conomic r elationship b etween c ommunities d ivided b y t hose f rontiers . S tudies o f t he r egions a ffected b y f rontier s ystems h ave n ot y et b egun t o e valuate t he b efore a nd a fter e ffect o f t heir c onstruction . T here i s n o e vidence y et a t o ur d isposal t o g auge t he e ffect o f , s ay , H adrian 's w all o n t he c ommunities i t d ivided . I t i s d ifficult e nough , w ithout r ecourse t o C 14 d ating , e ven t o d istinguish s ettlements o f r elevant d ate , l et a lone d etermine w hether t here w ere e xchanges b etween c ommunities , w hose r upture o r c ontrol m ight h ave a s erious e ffect o n t hem S uggestions a bout p opulation g rowth a nd d ecline d uring t he R oman p eriod n orth o f H adrian 's W all a re v ery d ependent o n t he a ssumption t hat t he b eginning a nd e nd o f a s ettlement 's l ife c an b e d ated b y t he d ateable R oman m aterial f rom i t, w hereas t he p resence o r a bsence o f s uch m aterial i s m ore l ikely t o r elate t o s ocial a nd e conomic f actors ( et J obey 1 974 ; B urgess 1 984 , 1 71) . H adrian 's W all i tself i s a n e xample o f a f rontier s ystem w hich d oes n ot o bviously m ark a d ivision b etween i ntensive ( ie p redominantly a rable ) a nd e xtensive ( predominantly p astoral) e xploitation , b ut eich l ies w ithin a r egion w hose e mphasis w as o n p astoral f arming , t hough b y n o m eans t o t he e xclusion o f a rable . S imilarly , i t i s b y n o m eans c lear h ow t he e xistence o f t he f rontier o f t he R hine a nd D anube a ctually a ffected t he s ocieties l iving o n t he o pposing b anks . T hat t hey s hared c ertain c haracteristics h as b een d emonstrated , a s w ith t he e xample o f o ppida i n t he f irst c entury B C ( Wells, 1 972, 1 4-31), b ut t he e xtent o f t he u nderlying c ross-river t raffic i s f ar f rom c lear . I n a ny c ase , a t t he t ime o f t he A ugustan o ffensive i nto G ermany t he m ajor o ppida w ere d estroyed a t t he h ands o f t he G ermanic t ribes s uch a s t he B oil ( Collis 1 984 , 5 0 ) . W e s hould d o w ell t o r emember t hat t he f rontiers h ardened a gainst s ocieties w hich w ere t hemselves s tatic o r i n as tate o f e volution o r d isintegration . A lthough t he E uropean f rontier w as l ocated t owards t he l imit o f t hat p art o f E urope w hich h ad p romoted m ajor n ucleated s ettlement i n t he l ast c entury B C , w hich W hittaker w ould r egard a s t he l imit o f i ntensive a s o pposed t o e xtensive a griculture , i t i s b y n o m eans c lear h ow f ar t he l ess a griculturally d eveloped G ermanic t ribes w hich e merge f rom t he p ages o f T acitus ' Germania w ere d ependent o n s ocieties t o t he w est a nd s outh . A d istinction h as t o b e m ade b etween i nterdependence a t t he l evel o f

8 2

s ubsistence a nd i nterdependence i n t he e xchange o f p restige g oods . J ust a s i n B ritain t he c lear d istinction b etween h ighland a nd l owland z ones ( ' extensive ' a nd ' intensive ' ) i s n o l onger v alid s ince i t c an b e s hown t hat c ereal c ultivation p layed a p art i n t he h ighland e conomy ( Evans e t a l 1 975 ) a s p astoralism d id i n t he l owland z one , s o a lso i t i s c lear t hat s ocieties b eyond t he R hine a nd D anube p ractised m ixed f arming s trategies ( Thompson 1 965 , 4 -8 , 2 6-8 ; 1 966 , 2 5-34 ; G ent 1 983 ) . N evertheless , t he o rganisation o f t hese s ocieties a nd t h eir e conomies w as n ot s uch a s t o p roduce s urpluses t hat c ould r eadily b e g athered b y a t ax-gathering s ystem s uch a s t hat u pon w hich t he R omans d epended . A lthough t here i s s ubstance i n t he f irst t hree o f W hittaker 's p ropositions , w e n eed t o c onsider ( while r ecognising t hat t he i mposition o f a f rontier s ystem m ay p resent s hort-term d ifficulties f or s ubsistence a griculture ) w hether s ocieties h ad t o , a nd d id , a djust i n t he l onger t erm t o i ts e xistence . S econdly , t he d egree o f i nterdependence o f d ivided s ocieties a t s ubsistence l evel r emains q uestionable , n ot l east b ecause s o l ittle h as b een d one t o e xamine t his i n t he c ontext o f t he p ref rontier s ituation . A s f or t he t raffic i n p restige g oods, t he d ata c ollected o n R oman m aterial b eyond t he f rontier ( eg E ggers 1 951 ; K unow 1 983) m akes i t c lear t hat t he d evelopment o f t he f rontier c reated n o d etectable i nterruption . I f w e a re t o a ttach i mportance t o t he t rans-frontier t raffic w hich c an b e t raced i n t he h istorical a nd a rchaeological r ecord , t o t he e xtent t hat i t h ad a s ignificant e ffect o n t he b ehaviour o f b arbarian s ocieties , w e n eed t o d evelop s öme m eans o f m easuring t he d egree o f m utual d ependence u pon i t . W e c an a pproach t his f irst f rom t he R oman s tandpoint b y c onsidering h ow t he f rontier s ystem a s am ilitary o rganisation w as m aintained . E stablishment c osts w ere b orne o ut o f t he g eneral r evenue a ccruing t o t he e mpire . W here t he m oney w as s pent t o m aintain t he f rontier s ystem w ill r epresent t he e xtent o f t he f ron tier 's h interland . C ommunities c lose t o t he f rontiers w ill h ave s upplied a p roportion o f w hat w as r equired ; a n a mount t hat w ould v ary b oth a ccording t o t he s ize o f t he e stablishment t o b e s upplied , t he c apacity o f t he n ative c ommunities t o d eliver a nd t he d egree o f c oercion o n t he p art o f t he R omans . I t m ight h ave a mounted t o n o m ore t han w hat w as e xtracted a s t ax . I n m ost c ases t he a uthorities h ad t o l ook m uch f urther a field f or t heir r equirements a nd c ertain b asic n eeds , a s B reeze ( 1984) h as s hown , s ometimes h ad t o b e s ought a t a d istance i n n eighbouring p rovinces . I t w ill h ave b een m ore d ifficult t o r equisition f rom s ocieties w ith a d ispersed p attern o f s ettlement w hich l acked i dentifiable c entral p laces . T he p roblem t hen i s h ow t o i dentify t hat I ly it exaan oC . f rom w hich t he f rontier s ystem r egularly d rew u pon f or t heir n eeds . T here a re s everal w ays t o a pproach t his p roblem : f irstly , b y e xamining g rain d eposits i n f orts i t m ay b e p ossible t o d emonstrate b y t he t ype o f c ereal a nd t he a ssociated s eeds t he e nvironment w here t hey w ere g rown . P rofessor G roenman v an W aateringe , f or e xample , d raw s a ttention ( Ch 6 b elow) t o t he c onsistent p resence o f w heat i n t he f orts o f t he l ower R hineland w hen t he a vailable e vidence f rom n eighbouring n ative s ettlements p oints t o b arley a s t he m ajor c ereal ( Körber-Grohne 1 981) . T he i mplication i s t hat t he w heat w as i mported f rom o utside t he R hine d elta . A t C aerleon t he p resence o f s eeds o f c ertain w eeds a ssociated w ith a p articular d eposit o f g rain p ointed t o a n o rigin o utside B ritain ( lelbaek 1 96 4) . A nalysis o f f aunal r emains c an a lso b e e qually h elpful . I t h as b een s hown t hat t he p ax R omana i n n orth-west E urope l ed t o t he b reeding o f l arger d omesticates w ithin t he e mpire ( Bökönyi 1 974 , 1 28-33 ; B oessneck a nd v on d en D riesch 1 978 , 3 1-3) ; m etrical a nalysis o f s urviving b one a ssemblages m ay h elp t o c larify h ow f ar t he f ort a nd v icus a ssemblages a re c omparable w ith t hose f rom n ative f armsteads . M altby h as

8 3

n oted t hat , o n t he b asis o f t he s mall a vailable s ample , i n t he s outh-west a nd t he ' highland z one ' s maller ' Iron A ge ' s tock i s p revalent i n t he R oman p eriod ( Maltby 1 981, 1 85192) . M uch m ore w ork i s n ecessary t o d efine t he s ource o f t he a nimal p opulations u pon w hich t he f rontier e stablishments d epended . T he c ontinental E uropean e vidence f or t he l ack o f l arger a nimals o utside t he f rontier i s i n i tself a r evealing i nsight i nto t he l ack o f m ovement a nd b reeding b etween p opulations . S ince m ost o f t he r egular s uppli£s

t o

t he

f rontier c onsisted o f

p erishable i tems o f f ood , c lothing , f uel e tc , w e h ave t o r ely o n ' tracer e lements ' t o d etermine t heir s ource . R ecently t he i dea h as b een d eveloped t hat f or i t t o b e e conomic f or c ertain l ow-value g oods t o b e t raded l ong d istances , t hey w ould h ave t o h ave f ormed a m inor c omponent o f l arger a nd o therwise m ore v aluable l oads . S o M iddleton h as a rgued t hat t he e xtensive t rade i n s igillata i n G aul a nd t he R hineland w as p arasitic o n t he s upply r outes t hat s upported t he R hineland f rontier ( 1979 ) . A s imilar c ase c an b e a rgued f or e arly R oman B ritain a nd , a s l ate a s t he l ate s econd c entury , w e c an p resent a c ase f or t he n orthern f rontier 's d ependence o n ah interland w hich c onsisted o f a lmost t he e ntire p rovince . T his i s d educed f rom t he n umber a nd d iversity o f s ources o f t he v arious c oarse p ottery w ares t hat a re f ound i n f rontier e stablishments ( Fulford 1 981 ; 1 984) . T he a ssumption i s t hat t he p ottery w as a ttracted n orthwards a long s upply l ines w hich c arried t he o fficial r equisitions . I n t he c ourse o f t ime t he d ependence o f t he n orthern f rontier o n l ong d istance s upply r outes g radually d iminished , p artly a s ar esult o f t he r eduction i n t he s ize o f t he g arrison a nd p artly , p erhaps, b ecause o f i ncreased p roductivity f rom l owland f armers t hus r educing t he c atchment a rea f rom w hich i t w as n ecessary t o d raw s upplies . U ndoubtedly c ommunities n earer t he f rontier g arrison c ontributed a s w ell, i f o nly i n t he f orm o f t axation . I f w e a re t o u se m aterial e vidence a s a n i ndicator o f t he e xtent o f t he i nteraction b etween R oman a nd n ative c lose t o t he f rontier , t hen t he v ery l ack o f R oman m aterial o n n ative s ites i n n orthern B ritain i s s urely s ignificant . C oinage o n n ative s ites t here i s s o r are a s t o m ake i t h ighly i mprobable t hat i t w as u sed a s a nything b ut a n o bject o f b arter ( Robertson 1 970 ; 1 983) . T he p overty o f t he m aterial a ssemblage o f n ative s ites i n g eneral i s w ell k nown , t hanks t o G eorge J obey 's m eticulous w ork i n t he n orthern f rontier r egion ( cf J obey 1 982) . S outh o f H adrian 's W all t here a re f ewer e xcavated s ites f rom w hich t o m ake e xhaustive c omparisons , b ut r ecent w ork i n C umbria o n n ative s ettlements h as p roduced s imilar e vidence . H owever , t hough r elatively p oor i n t erms o f t he R oman m aterial p resent c ompared w ith s outhern s ites , t he C umbrian s ites a ppear t o b e al ittle r icher t han t heir c ounterparts n orth o f H adrian 's W all ( Higham 1 982 ; H igham a nd J ones 1 985 , 9 9120 ; c f C h 9b elow ) . T his m ight s uggest t hat t he a uthorities t ended t o l ook f or t heir n eeds w ithin t he f rontier w herever p ossible, e ven t hough s ocieties o n b oth s ides o f t he f rontier s hared a s imilar e conomy . I n t he c ase o f t he n orthern f rontier a s aw hole i n , s ay , t he s econd c entury , t he c haracter o f t he n ative e conomy a nd s ocial o rganisation s eem t o h ave p recluded a ny d ependence o n t hat s ector , b ut , t he a rea m ight b e r egarded a s a s ource o f ' tople ' s upplies . I n m ids econd c entury B ritain t he e ntire p rovince w as , i n t he s ense t hat I h ave d efined , t he f rontier z one . T he p attern a long t he f rontiers v aried c onsiderably , d epending u pon t he k ind o f o rganisation a nd e conomy t hat t he R omans e ncountered . W e h ave a lready r eferred t o t he l ower R hineland i n t he c ontext o f t he i nitial c onquest ; b y t he s econd a nd m id-third c entury s ufficient a djustments h ad b een m ade t o t he n ative e conomy w ithin t he f rontier t hat R oman a nd n ative

8 4

h ad b ecome m ore i ntegrated a s t heir m aterial a ssemblages r eveal ( Bloemers 1 983) . T his R omanisation w ithin t he f rontier z one o nly s erved t o e mphasise d ifferences b etween c ommunities e ither s ide o f t he R hine ( Willems 1 983 , 1 21) . A s t he n ative e conomy w ithin t he f rontier r esponded t o t he n eeds o f t he R oman e stablishment, s o t he d ependence o n t he l ong-distance s upply r outes d iminished a s t he e vidence o f e xtra-regional i mports s hows . W hat t he B ritish a nd R hineland e vidence r eveals i s t hat t he e veryday n eeds o f t he f rontier w ere m et f rom w ithin t he e mpire . W hen l ocal e conomies w ere i nadequate t he i mperial a uthorities w ere p repared t o l ook d eep w ithin t heir o wn t erritory f or t he n ecessary r equirements . T he o nly c ircumstances w here t he R omans m ight h ave l ooked a cross t he f rontier i s w here t here w as a s ufficient d egree o f c entralisation a nd s tability t o m ake a p racticable a rrangement . W here s uch c ircumstances p revailed t he R omans g enerally t urned t o a nnexation a s a s olution , B ritain ,

a s i n t he c ase o f ( southern )

t he a gri d ecumates a nd D acia .

T his b eing s o , i t i s s till n ecessary t o a ccount f or t he R oman m aterial t hat d id f ind i ts w ay a cross t he f rontier . A t t he o utset i t h as t o b e a dmitted t hat a b asic p roblem i nhibiting o ur u nderstanding o f t he s ignificance o f R oman f inds b eyond t he l imes i s t he l ack o f d etailed s tudies o f R oman m aterial i nside t he f rontier s o t hat u seful c omparison c an b e m ade . W e d esperately n eed , f or e xample , t he k ind o f a nalysis o f R oman m aterial f rom n ative s ites s outh o f t he S cottish b order , i ncluding s outh o f H adrian 's W all t hat P rofessor R obertson h as m ade o f f inds t o t he n orth . H ow e lse c an w e g auge a ccurately t he e ffect o f t he f rontier o n t he c irculation o f g oods o n e ither s ide o f i t? A t p resent w e c an s imply o bserve t hat R oman f inds a re s carce f rom n ative s ites i n S cotland , p articularly a fter t he e arly t hird c entury w hen w e n o l onger h ave t o c ontend w ith t he p roblem o f r ecognising l osses f rom t roops o n c ampaign o r i n g arrison o n t he A ntonine W all . W e n eed t o i nvestigate f urther H igham 's o bservation t hat n ative 3 ites i n C umbria a re r icher i n R oman m aterial t han s ettlements i n ‘ T orthumberland ( Higham 1 982; H igham a nd J ones 1 985, 9 9120) . H ow m uch r icher? A re w e c omparing s ettlements o f ac omparable s tatus? W e c an a lso o bserve t hat a fter t he w ithdrawal o f R oman f orces f rom S cotland t he p attern o f c oins l ost t here b ears n o r elation t o t he p attern f rom s outhern E ngland ( Robertson 1 970 ; 1 983) . E ven i f t hese c oins h ad a c ompletely d ifferent v alue t o c oinage w ithin t he f rontier - i f t hey w ere r egarded o nly f or t heir m etal c ontent , f or e xample -we s till m ight e xpect t o s ee s ome c orrelation i n t he p attern o f l osses e ither s ide o f t he f rontier i f t he l evel o f t raffic w as s ufficiently h igh t o l eave r esidues t hat r eflected t he p rovincial p attern o f l oss ( Casey 1 984) . O ur v iew o f R oman m aterial b eyond t he f rontier w ill t ake o n a d ifferent c onnotation w hen w e h ave c omparable d ata f rom n orthern E ngland a s aw hole . T he c lassic s tudy o f R oman m aterial b eyond t he E uropean f rontier r emains t hat o f E ggers ( 1951), a lthough i t h as b een m odified i n d etail b y m ore r ecent s tudies ( Kunow 1 983) . T he p atterning o f R oman f inds b eyond t he R hine a nd D anube h as g iven r ise t o t he t erm ' buffer z one ', a r egion e xtending u p t o 2 00km b eyond t he f rontier , w here t he n umber a nd c haracter o f f inds h as s uggested t o H edeager ( 1978), f or e xample, a l imited m oney e conomy , p erhaps i ncluding m arkets a nd a m erchant c lass a nd , i n W hittaker 's v iew , a z one i ntimately r elated t o t he e xistence o f t he f rontier s ystem . A s w ith B ritain , t he e mphasis o n f inds o utside t he f rontier t o t he e xclusion o f d istribution p atterns w ithin m ay h ave a ffected o ur p erspective ( Fulford 1 985).

8 5

F ig 5 .1

D istribution o f E ach

s ymbol

e xcluding

c oins

( and

s ite

o n

o f H adrian F igs

5 .2

c oncentrations

5 0km .

8 6

i n G ermany ( after D avies

& 5 .3)

r epresents

a nd h oards ,

c oin

1 983) .

l oss,

i n a n a rea o f 5 0km b y

T hanks t o t he F undmünzen d er r ömischen Z eit i n D eutschland v olumes w e c an n ow m ake p reliminary s urveys o f t he p attern o f c oin l oss a cross c ertain p arts o f G ernany w hich i nclude t he f rontier .

J ohn D avies h as n ow d one t his

w ith i nteresting r esults ( 1983) . U sing t he e vidence o f t he c oinage o f H adrian , w e c an s ee t hat t here i s a s harp c ontrast b etween t he a mounts o f c oinage l ost i nside a nd o utside t he f rontier ( Fig 5 . 1) . W e c an a lso s ee t hat t he a ctual b uild-up o f c oinage i s n ot v ery p ronounced a long t he f rontier i tself ; t he l atter w as w ell i ntegrated i nto t he e c000my o f t he h interland .

H owever o ne m ay r egard t he w ay i n w hich c oinage w as u sed ,

t he

d ifference b etween i ntra-mural a nd e xtra-mural f inds s uggests t hat t he f rontier d id i ndeed h ave a b arrier-like e ffect a nd t hat t he R oman a uthorities d id n ot l ook b eyond t he f rontier t o s atisfy i ts e conomic n eeds t o a nything l ike t he s ame e xtent a s i t d id w ithin t he l imes . W hile c oinage m ight b e r egarded a s a s pecial c ase ,

s adly t here a re f ew o ther

s tudies o f

R oman m aterial w hich i nclude i ntra-mural a nd e xtra-mural f inds . S everal c eramic d istributions m ay b e c ited a s c omplementing t he c oin e vidence : G allo-Belgic w ares o f t he f irst c entury B C t o t he m id-first c entury A D ( rimby 1 982) , c entral a nd E ast G aulish w ares o f t he s econd t o m id-third c enturies A D ( King 1 981), l ate t hird t o e arly f ifth c entury A rgonne w are ( Hübener 1 968 ) . T hese d istributions a ll s how a p ronounced c ut o ff a t t he f rontier . W hile f inds b eyond t he f rontier m ay b e n umbered i n t heir h undreds o r , r arely , t housands , t hose w ithin t he f rontier h ave o ften b een t oo n umerous t o d efy a uthoritative c ataloguing ( Hedeager 1 978 ) . A lthough t here i s a d anger o f e xaggerating t he i mportance o f t he ' buffer z one ' a nd i ndeed b eyond , t o t he e conomic s urvival o f t he f rontier s ystem , t here a re a f ew a reas w here t he a mount o f R oman m aterial f rom s ettlement c ontexts s uggests a g reater d egree o f i nterdependence t han s eems t o b e t he c ase g enerally . O ne s uch a rea i s F risia w here s ettlements h ave p roduced q uantities o f f inds , i ncluding m any o f l ow-value t ype , s uch a s p ottery a nd b rooches , w hich s uggest t hat r elations w ere n ot s imply c onfined t o t he e lite ( Eggers 1 981) . A nother a rea i s t he a gri d ecumates, t he t riangle o f l and b etween t he R hine a nd D anube , w hich w as a ctually p art o f t he e mpire b etween t he l ater f irst c entury a nd t he m id-third c entury A D . A lthough t he n umismatic e vidence f rom t he p re-annexation p eriod ( ie F lavian p eriod ) i s a mbiguous ,

s ince w e c annot b e s ure h ow m uch p re-Flavian c oinage

w as a ctually l ost b efore a nnexation , i t d oes s uggest t hat t he u se o f c oins w ithin t he n ative e conomy i n t his r egion h ad r eached a c omparable l evel t o t hat w ithin t he f rontier , w est o f t he R hine . C omparison w ith t he a rea t o t he n orth ( C , Münster), w hich i s p oor i n f inds, i s a lso s uggestive ( Fig 5 .2) . A c omparable p attern c an b e d etected w ith e arly f ourth c entury c oins ; w hile t here i s am arked c ontrast b etween t he a gri d ecumates , t hen n o l onger p art o f t he e mpire , a nd t erritory t o t he w est o f t he R hine , t here i s a lso a c lear d ifference b etween t he p attern o f l oss i n Münster a nd t he v alley o f t he L ippe a nd t he s outhern G erman r egion ( Davies 1 980) ( Fig 5 .3) . T he a gri d ecumates

a nd F risia ,

t hen ,

c an s erve a s e xamples o f a reas

b eyond t he f rontier w hich , m ore t han o ther r egions , w ere i nter-related w ith e conomies o f t he f rontier p rovinces . I t r emains u nclear h ow m utually i nter-dependent t hese r egions w ere o n t he e mpire ; t he e vidence o f i ronw orking f rom F edderson W ierde , f or e xample , c annot b e r egarded a s r eplacing a n i ndustry w ithin t he f rontier . W e c annot y et e asily t race i ron t o i ts s ource ; n or c an w e e asily c ompare t he r elative o utput o f d ifferent c entres ( cf W hittaker 1 983 , 15 ) . R oman m aterial f rom t hese a reas i s d istinguished b y i ts c omparatively h umble c haracter a nd t he f act t hat i t d erives m ostly f rom s ettlements r ather t han b urials o r v otive d eposits , w hich a ccount f or m ost o f t he f inds o f R oman m aterial f rom c entral E urope a nd S candinavia a nd

8 7

F ig 5 .2

D istribution

o f

R epublican

c oin

1 983).

8 8

f inds

i n

G ermany

( after

D avies

0 . 1 -5 c o ins p e r 2 0 y ea rs

A rea C

•

0 . 1 -1 0

•

5 . 1 -1 0

•

1 0 . 1- 2 5

•

2 5 1.

•

2 51-50

•

5 01 75

•

7 5 . 1. H oa rds S i te C oncen t ra t ion

• . .

F ron t ie r

A rea B

0

F ig 5 .3

D istribution o f c oin ( after D avies 1 980) .

f inds

1 00

o f

8 9

t he

2 00

p eriod

A D

3 00

2 94-317

k i lome t res

i n G ermany

p oint t o ac irculation c onfined t o t he e lite . T hus w e c an c onclude t hat t he s urvival o f R oman f rontier s ystems ,

f rom

a n e conomic s tandpoint , w as o nly m arginally d ependent o n s ocieties o utside t he f rontier . T o a l arge e xtent t he f rontiers f orm t he o uter l imit o f a s elf-contained w orld . E ven f or c ommunities i n t he i mmediate h interland w ithin t he f rontiers , t here w as a m ixed d egree o f d ependence w hich v aried b oth r egionally a nd c hronologically a ccording t o l ocal c ircumstances s uch a s s ocial o rganisation a nd f arming e conomy . B ut e ven i f e conomic r elations w ith t he b arbarian w orld w ere n ot c ritical t o t he e conomic s urvival o f f rontiers , t hey e xisted n evertheless a nd i t i s i mportant t o a ssess t heir s ignificance a s a m ore g eneral p henomenon o f R oman r elations w ith t he b arbarian w orld . I t i s c lear f rom t he c ontexts o f t he m ajority o f f inds o f R oman m aterial f rom c entral a nd n orthern E urope a nd S candinavia t hat t hese o bjects w ere h ighly r egarded b y n ative s ociety . F inds o ccur m ainly i n g raves o r a s v otive o fferings ; t hey c irculated a mong t he e lite a nd t heir p ossession a nd d isposal c an b e r egarded a s c ritical i n b oth p romoting a nd s upporting a h ierarchical s ociety . T he m echanisms b y w hich t his m aterial e ntered b arbarian s ociety v aried ; s ome a rrived a s d iplomatic g ifts o r a s s ubsidies t o d efuse t hreatening p olitical c onfrontations a gainst t he f rontier - t he s ilver v essels w hich T acitus ( Germ 5 ) i nforms u s w ere g iven t o G erman e nvoys a nd c hiefs s erves a s a n a ppropriate e xample , o r t he p ayment m ade t o t he M aeatae i n S cotland b y V irius L upus i n t he l ate s econd c entury ( Dio L XXV , V ) . M any o f t he f inds p robably a rrived i n e xchange f or l uxury g oods s uch a s a mber o r f urs . S uch m echanisms , v arious a s t hey w ere , r egulating l ong d istance t raffic , m ust b e s een a s d istinct f rom a ny r egular i ntercourse u pon w hich t he e conomic s urvival o f t he f rontier s ystem d epended . R eciprocal

e xchange s ystems b etween t he R oman a nd b arbarian w orld a t

t he l evel o f l uxury g oods a re n ot , o f c ourse , c onfined t o E urope a lone . M uch m ore i mportant , a t l east i n t erms o f t he v alue o f e xchanges , w ere t he c onnections w ith I ndia a nd A sia w hich s upplied , m ost i mportantly , s ilk a nd s pices t o t he R oman w orld . A ccording t o P liny , w riting i n t he f irst c entury A D , t he a nnual c ost o f t he t rade t o I ndia w as 5 5 m illion H S ( Nat H ist V I , 1 01) ; l ater h e e stimated t he a nnual c ost o f t rade w ith C hina , I ndia a nd w estern A sia a t 1 00 m illion H S Mat H ist X II , 8 4) . T he a ccuracy o f t hese f igures i s n ot i mportant h ere ; s uch t ransactions ( and P liny 's r elative s ilence o n t he s ubject) p ut R ome 's e conomic r elations w ith b arbarian E urope i n p erspective . T his l uxury t raffic c an b e s een a s s eparate f rom t he s pecific i ssue o f f rontiers , h aving i ts o rigin l ong b efore t heir e xistence a nd c ontinuing t hereafter . S tudy o f t he E uropean f inds i ndicates t hat t here w as n o a ppreciable c hange i n t he f low o f R oman g oods t o c entral E urope a nd S candinavia a s aw hole d uring t he R oman p eriod ( Hedeager 1 978 ) .

H owever ,

c hanging d istributions d o s how t hat d ifferent g roups w ere

g aining a ccess t o t his m aterial a t d ifferent t imes . I t i s n ot p ossible t herefore t o r elate a ny o f t he p eriods o f b arbarian u nrest w ith a ny i nterruptions o r d iminution i n t he m ovement o f g oods a cross t he f rontier . I ndeed , w here w e c an a dduce s ubstantial c hanges i n i mperial e xpenditure t his i s n ot r eflected i n t rans-frontier f inds . I t i s i mportant t o o bserve t hat a r eduction o f a bout 5 0% i n t he c ombined m ilitary e stablishment o f B ritain a nd t he G ermanies ( which i tself i mplies a 5 0% c ut i n e xpenditure ) b etween t he l ater f irst a nd m id-second c entury A D h ad n o o bvious i mpact o n t raffic a cross t he f rontier n or a ny c ontemporary r esponse f rom B arbaricum ( et F ulford

1 984) .

9 0

N onetheless i t i s c lear t hat p eace w as b ought , n ot j ust b y f orce o f a rms b ut b y t he p ayment o f s ubsidies , u sually o f g old o r s ilver , b ut a lso , a ccording t o T hemistius ( Orat X . 1 35B ), o f g rain a nd s hip-loads o f c lothing . W hether h e i s r eferred t o a l ong e stablished p ractice o f s ending g rain o r a d evelopment t hat w as a ssociated w ith V alens i s n ot c lear . I n g eneral o ur s ources a re n ot c lear a s t o w hich t ribes b enefited f rom t hese p ayments ; n or d o w e h ave m uch i nformation a s t o t heir s ize a nd r egularity . T he p ractice s eems t o b e a n e xtension o f t he d iplomatic g ift a nd w as e stablished b y t he f irst c entury A D ( see B raund , C h 1a bove ) . P ayment w as p resumably d irected t o t he t ribal l eadership a nd i t w as t heir c oherence a nd t he r elations w ith t heir r etainers t hat w ere t hreatened i f s ubsidies w ere d iscontinued . W hen t his h appened , a s i t d id w ith t he V isigoths i n t he f ourth c entury , w ar w ith R ome d id n ot f ollow a s a n i mmediate a nd i nescapable c onsequence ( Thompson 1 966 , 1 314) . W e k now t oo t hat i n t he c ase o f t he V isigoths, t he i nterruption o f t rading r elations r educed t hem t o g reat h ardship ' owing t o t he l ack o f t he n ecessities o f l ife ', s o h elping Valens t o v ictory o ver t hem i n A D 3 69 ( Thompson 1 966, 1 9 , c iting A mm Marc X XVII, 5 . 7 ) . T his s eems c lear e vidence o f t he d amage t hat c ould b e c aused b y c ompletely b reaking o ff n ormal t rading r elations , a s o pposed t o t he s trict r egulation o f t rade w hich w as w idely p ractised . e mbargo w ere f elt o n

I t i s e vident t oo t hat t he e ffects o f a c omplete b oth s ides ( Themistius O ra X , 1 35 C D) . T wo

u ncertainties a rise f rom t he V isigothic e vidence ; f irstly t he e xtent t o w hich t rade w as d evoted t o s taples a s o pposed t o l uxuries , s econdly h ow f ar w e c an g eneralise f rom t he e vidence w hole . G iven t he e xpense i nvolved o verland , i t w ould s eem u nlikely f ormed i tems o f l ong d istance a s

o f t he l ower D anube t o t he f rontier a s a i n m oving b ulky c ommodities l ike g rain t hat p erishables o f t hat k ind c ommonly o pposed t o l ocal t rade . W ithin t he

e mpire , f or e xample , i t r equired i mperial i ntervention t o p ay f or f ood a nd i ts t ransport t o r elieve f amine i n A ntioch i n A D 3 62-3 ( Julian M isop 3 69 ) . I t h as a lso t o b e r emembered t hat j ust a s i t w as d ifficult t o e xtract s urplus a s t ax f rom a s ociety o f d ispersed s ettlement a nd l acking a c entralising s ocial o rganisation , s o t oo w ould b e t he r everse, o f d istributing c ommodities l ike g rain w ithin s uch a s ociety . T he i nherent d ifficulties o f p aying s ubsidies i n t he f orm o f b ulky c ommodities l ike g rain m ay w ell e xplain w hy t he p referred m edium t hroughout t he R om an p eriod w as o f p recious m etal . T o c onclude : w e s hould d iscriminate b etween a d ay-to-day m aintenance o f f rontier s ystems t hat w as t o av ery l arge e xtent d ependent o n t he p rovincial e conomies o f t he e mpire a nd t he c ontinuing u ndercurrent o f l ong d istance t raffic i n l uxuries a cross t he f rontier . E ven w here w e c an d etect e vidence o f r egular i nteraction , t his h as n ot b een o bserved a t a l evel w here , i n t he f orm o f a rtefact d istributions , i t o bscures t he f rontier i tself . I n t he l ater e mpire , t he u nrest a mong b arbarian s ocieties c ould b e s oothed , a lbeit t emporarily , b y s ubsidies o f v arious s orts f rom t he i mperial g overnment . W e c learly n eed t o u nderstand a g reat d eal m ore a bout t he c onflicts w ithin b arbarian s ociety i n t he l ater e mpire , b ut i t i s d ifficult t o s ee h ow t hese c ould h ave a risen t hrough a ny b reakdown i n t he l onger t erm h abitual e conomic r elations b etween R ome a nd t he b arbarian w orld . T his i s n ot t o d eny g rave e conomic a nd s ocial p ressures w ithin b arbarian s ociety , b ut t heir d evelopment c annot b e a ttributed t o t he f rontier a nd t he v icissitudes i n R oman a nd b arbarian r elations .

T he R oman E uropean f rontier w as m ore o f a

b arrier t han a s emi-permeable m embrane a nd t he l evel o f t raffic , g enerally s trictly c ontrolled , w as n ot s o g reat a s t o p roduce a n h omogeneous c ulture

9 1

o n e ither s ide o f i t . I nterdependence b etween R ome a nd t he b arbarian w orld w as , w ith f ew e xceptions , l imited a nd t he l ack o f d evelopment a mong t ransf rontier s ocieties i s m ore a pparent t han g rowth ( et F ulford 1 985 ) .

W hether

i n t he f orm o f t rade o r a s s ubsidies , t he e conomic l inks a cross t he E uropean f rontier s hould n ot b e o verestimated . E vidence t hat t he v olume o f t raffic a nd b arbarian d ependence o n i t h ad g rown d uring t he l ater e mpire i s f ar f rom c onclusive .

I ndeed

i f s uch w as t he c ase , a nd w e w ere t o a ccept t he m odel

o f i nterdependence , w e w ould e xpect t o f ind e vidence o f c omparable g rowth w ithin t he f rontier p rovinces o ver t he s ame t ime p eriod , b ut t his r emains t o b e d emonstrated . E ven i f t he r esources o f f ood e tc . w ere a vailable w ithin t he e mpire a s a w hole , a nd t hat i s u nlikely , i t i s d oubtful w hether t here w ere t he m eans a vailable t o m obilise t hem t o s atisfy t hose s ocieties w hose c ircumstances g ave t hem n o a lternative o ther t han t o a ttack a nd i nvade t he e mpire . I n o rder t o r efine o ur k nowledge o f t he c haracter o f t hese r elations , w e n eed a g reat d eal m ore i nformation o n t he s imilarities a nd c ontrasts b etween s ettlement , m aterial c ulture a nd e conomy o f s ocieties o n b oth s ides o f t he f rontier . O nce m arshalled , t he a rchaeological e vidence c an p rovide t his i nformation , b ut n ecessarily w ithin a b road c hronological f ramework , w hich c an t hen b e s et a longside t he s lender , p articularistic , b ut c hronologically m ore p recise h istorical r ecord .

9 2

B IBLIOGRAPHY B LOEMERS ,

J H F

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A cculturation i n t he R hine/Meuse B asin i n t he

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B OESSNECK , J A ND D RIESCH A , VON D EN 1 978: T he S ignificance o f M easuring A nimal B ones f rom A rchaeological S ites . I n M eadow , RH &Z eder M A ( eds),

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H istory o f D omestic M ammals i n C entral a nd E astern

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s pheres o f i nteraction .

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R oman a nd N ative i n t he L ow

( Oxford,

B rit A rchaeol

R ep

I nt

S er

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D emand a nd S upply o n t he N orthern F rontier . I n

M iket & B urgess ( eds), 2 64-86. B URGESS ,

C B

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s peculative s urvey . C ASEY ,

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T he P rehistoric

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1 26-75.

R oman C oinage o f t he F ourth C entury i n S cotland .

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( EDS)

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e arliest t owns n orth o f t he Alps .

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J A

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A S patial a nd C hronological S urvey o f R oman

C oinage i n T hree A reas R elated

t o t he F rontier w ith F ree G ermany .

U npub

D iss, U niv R eading . D AVIES,

J A

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A S urvey o f R oman C oin D istributions o n t he

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1 ) .

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T he E ffect o f

C ounc B rit A rchaeol

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a nd

1 981:

s ocial

R oman P ottery :

c hange .

P roduction a nd D istribution : R ep I nt S er

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F irst

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a nd

I n

t owards

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H

ac eramic v iewpoint .

t he

i nvestigation o f

& Morris, ( Oxford ,

E L

( eds)

B rit A rchaeol

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S econd

D emonstrating B ritannia 's E conomic D ependence i n

C enturies .

I n B lagg,

M ilitary a nd C ivilian i n R oman B ritain . 1 36), 1 29-42 .

9 3

T F C & K ing,

A C ( eds),

( Oxford , B rit A rchaeol R ep B rit S er

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R oman M aterial i n B arbarian S ociety c 2 00 B C -c

A D 4 00 . I n C hampion , TC & M egaw , J V S ( eds) , S ettlement a nd S ociety : a spects o f w est e uropean p rehistory i n t he f irst m illennium B C . L eicester , 9 1108. G ENT , H 1 983: C entralised S torage i n L ater P rehistoric B ritain . P roc P rehist S oc 4 9 , 2 43-67 . H EDEAGER , L

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AQ uantitative A nalysis o f R oman I mports i n E urope

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a nd t he q uestion o f R oman-Germanic E xchange .

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E ine S tudie z ur s pätrömischen R ädchensigillata

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i nterpretation .

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D er r ömische I mport i n d er G ermania l ibera b is z u d en

M arkomannenkriegen ( Neumünster , G öttinger S chr V or- F rühgesch 2 1). M IDDLETON , R oman B ritain . R esponse : 7 3 ,

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o n t he

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9 4

T HOMPSON , EA

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T HOMPSON , EA T IMBY , a tion ,

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J R 1 982 :

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A S tudy i n

O xford .

c haracteris-

d istribution a nd d evelopment d uring t he f irst c enturies B C

a nd A D .

U npub P h DD iss , U niv S outhampton . W ELLS, C M W HITTAKER , G arnsey, A ntiquity .

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I ntroduction A lthough t he t opic o f m ilitary s upply h as a nalysis , i t h as a lways b een f rom t he p oint o f

l ong f ormed a s ubject o f v iew o f t he a rmy . V ery

r arely a re t he r epercussions o n t he b arbarians c onsidered . Y et t he c onsequences f or t he n ative c ultivators m ust h ave b een v ery f ar r eaching i ndeed .

I h ave a lready e xamined a spects o f t he e ffects o f t he R oman

o ccupation i n t wo p revious p ublications, w hich f orm t he s tarting p oint o f t his p aper . ( Groenman-van W aateringe 1 980 ; 1 983) . I n 1 980 I p osited t hat a p ermanent R oman o ccupation w as o nly p ossible i f t he b arbarian i nfrastructure w as s o w ell-organized t hat t he R omans c ould u tilise i t f rom t he o utset f or t he s upply o f t heir a rmy 's n eeds a s w ell a s b eing a ble t o p roject t heir s ocial a nd a dministrative s ystem o n i t w ithout m uch t rouble . T his,

t herefore ,

i mplies a t

l east a ( proto )

u rban s tructure ,

w ith c entral

p laces , w hich c ould f orm a b asis f or a m arket e conomy . I n 1 983 I c laimed t hat t he c onsequence o f t he R oman o ccupation , e specially t he s tationing o f l arge o ccupying

f orces

i n a reas w ith a h ighly s egmented t ribal

e ventually l ed t o a n u ntenable s ituation ,

s tructure ,

p rimarily a s a r esult o f o ver-

e xploitation . T his

p aper e laborates o n t hose a rticles a nd i s

p roblems c oncerning w arfare ,

i ntended

t o p ose s ome

c onquest a nd o ccupation i n g eneral,

t o t ry t o

a nalyse t hese a nd t o s ee i n h ow f ar t hese a re r elevant f or t he R oman p eriod . I n a ddition , Iw ill e xamine w hat a rchaeological d ata c an o ffer t o t he s olution o f

t hese

p roblems .

C ontemporary w ritten s ources h ave b een u sed

n ow a nd t hen t o i llustrate m y i deas , b ut t hey a re n ot s tudied e xhaustively h ere.

M arching A rmy F rom t he o utset w e m ust d istinguish b etween a m arching a rmy a nd a s tanding a rmy . T he p roblems c oncerning t he f ood s upply a re e ntirely d ifferent ,

r equiring

t otally d ifferent

a rrangements w hich ,

a ccompanied b y v ery d ifferent c onsequences

t herefore ,

f or t he n ative p opulation .

a re B y

' native p opulation ' Im ean t hose n ative p eoples l iving i n c ontinental E urope o n t he n orth-western f ringes o f

t he R oman E mpire ,

b e i t

i nside

o r

o utside

t he L imes. T he p roblems c oncerning t he f ood s upply o f am arching a rmy a re b rought t o t he f ore i n t he w orks o f C aesar ( et L abisch 1 975) . c ommander s oldiers .

i n c hief , F or

w hose m ain c oncern w as

a nother

p eriod

a nd

o ther

t he

a reas

H ere

s peaks a r eal

d aily p rovisioning t here a re

s tudies

o f s uch

h is a s

t hose b y A dams ( 1976) f or t he e astern p art o f t he R oman E mpire , b y E ngels ( 1978 ) w ho d escribes t he l ogistics o f A lexander t he G reat a nd t he M acedonian a rmy a nd f or t he n orthern f rontier o f B ritannia b y B reeze ( 1984 ;

1 986-87) .

L abisch 's w ork m akes q uite c lear t he d ependence o f t he R oman a rmy o n l ocally

9 6

a vailable

f ood

s tores

( le

t hose

o f

t he

n ative

p opulation ),

p articularly

g rain , b e i t o n t he s talk o r a lready h arvested ( for e xample a c ampaign c ould n ot s tart b efore t he g rain w as r ipening a nd a nimal f odder w as g rowing w ell) . F rom E ngel 's

s tudy w e

c an

s ee

j ust

h ow i mportant

g ood

s upply

r outes

w ere , m eans

s ince f ood h ad t o b e t ransported a s e conomically a s p ossible . T hat t hat b ulk f oods c ould o nly b e t ransported o ver l arge d istances b y

b oat ,

s ince

p ack a nimals

a lso h ave

t o e at a nd t hey a lso f orm a l ong a nd

u nmanageable b aggage t rain ( et T ac A nn I I, 5 ; T he

c ampaigns

o f

t he

R oman

a rmy

X III, 5 3).

a gainst

t he

b arbarians

c an

b e

c haracterised a s a ctions o f a r egular a rmy a gainst i rregular f ighting f orces a nd

t hus

a s

a k ind o f g uerilla w arfare .

F or

t he s ubjugation o f

t he

b arbarians t he s ame p rinciple a pplies a s i n t he m ore r ecent c olonial w ars : t he b attle w as n ot a gainst a h ostile a rmy b ut a gainst a h ostile p eople . B ecause o f t he t ribal o rganisation o f t he b arbarians i n t he n orth-western f ringes ( Roymans

1 983),

t he a im o f t he w ar w as n ot s pecific ,

f or e xample t he

k ing, t he c apital o r t he a rmy . S ome p assages i n C aesar 's D e b ello g allico(1) m ay s how t he d ifferences b etween t he c onquest o f G aul a nd t he c onquest i n t he l ower R hine a rea . ' I

l ed

m y

a rmy

i nto

t he

c ountry

o f

t he

S uessiones,

n eighbours o f t he R emi, a nd b y a f orced m arch w e c ame t o t he o ppidum

o f

[ our

a larmed t he e nem 7 . . .and t hey s ent e nvoys

o f

N oviodunum . . . .The

s ize

t o m e

s iege] t o

w orks. .

a sk f or

t erms

f or s urrender-- a nd t hey h anded o ver a ll t he w eapons i n t he o ppidum .

I t hen

S uessiones . '

( BG

f inally

I I ,

a ccepted

t he

s urrender

o f

t he

1 213) .

T he s ame h appened w ith t he B ellovaci .

T he s urrender o f t heir o ppidum

B ratuspantium m eant t he s urrender o f t he w hole t ribe. ' I s et

o ff

f or B ourges,

t he

l argest a nd b est f ortified

o ppidum i n t he t erritory o f t he B ituriges , e xtremely f ertile p art o f t he c ountry .

a nd o ne l ying

i n a n

Iw as s ure t hat o nce i t

h ad b een t aken I s hould b ring t he w hole t ribe

i nto

s ubmission . '

( BG VII, 1 3) . T hus, o ppidum .

t he

s urrender o f

a t ribe b y m eans

o f

t he

s urrender o f

i ts

B ut n ot s o i n t he a rea o f t he b arbarians a t t he n orth-western f ringes a s w e c an r ead f rom b ook V I, 3 3-34: ' I m yself t ook t he r emaining t hree l egions a nd d ecided t o p roceed t o t he r iver S cheldt, w hich f lows i nto t he Meuse, a nd t o t he w estern e dge o f t he A rdennes . .

A s

I h ave a lready s aid,

t here w as n o r egular e nemy f orce a ssembled ,

n o o ppidum ,

a nd n o

g arrison t o o ffer a rmed r esistance . ' I n t his l ast c ase t he o bjective m ust b e w hatever t he b arbarians p rize m ost , f locks

i n o ther w ords, a nd

t hey h ave

t o b e

t heir p roperty ( Callwell

r eached

1 906 ,

1 29 ) .

t hrough

t heir c rops ,

M oreover ,

m ust n ot o nly b e b eaten , b ut m ust b e b eaten t horoughly ( Ibid , a djusted i mmediately ,

i f n ecessary ,

1 51) .

t o s uch a k ind o f w arfare ,

w rote:

9 7

t heir

s uch a n e nemy C aesar

b ecause ,

h e

' I f

I w anted

t he b usiness f inished o ff . . .I h ad t o d ivide m y

t roops i nto a n umber o f s mall d ifferent d irections . . . '

d etachments a nd s end t hem o ut

i n

a nd ' Every v illage a nd e very b uilding t hey s aw w as s et o n f ire . C attle w ere t aken f rom e very p art a nd d riven o ff a s b ooty . M uch o f

t he g rain h ad b een f lattened

b y t he

s easonal

r ains a nd t he

r est w as c onsumed b y t he g reat n umbers o f a nimals ( BG V I, 4 3) .

a nd m en . '

W hereas , s een f rom a p urely m ilitary v iewpoint t he b est t actic a c ase i s c omplete d estruction , i t i s a d angerous p olicy w hen t he o perating s o f ar f rom i ts s upply b ase t hat i t i s c ompelled t o l ive l and t hrough w hich i t m arches . A gain C aesar w as w ell a ware o f

i n s uch a rmy i s o ff t he t his a s

t he n ext p assage w itnesses: ' B efore t he a ttack , C aesar h ad g iven o rders t hat n othing w as t o b e s et o n f ire ; t his w as t o e nsure a dequate s upplies o f g rain a nd f odder i f h e c hose t o a dvance f arther ' . ( BG V III , 3 ) . T he k ind o f w ar t hat w as w aged o n t he n orth-western f ringes m ight h ave c aused c oncern i n t he R oman a rmy , b ut f or n ative s ociety t he c onsequences w ere m uch g raver a s g uerilla w arfare i s h ighly d isruptive . I n a r egion w ithout a c entral o rganisation t he d estruction m ust b e o n a m uch l arger s cale t han i n a n a rea w here t he c onquest o f o ne o ppidum i s e nough t o s ubject t he w hole p eople . H owever , t he d efeat o f t he o pponent w as n ot t he o nly o bjective o f t he R omans b ecause t hey a lso a imed f or a nnexation a nd p acification . C onquest s hould i deally t ake p lace w ith a s l ittle d estruction a s p ossible . O nly t hen c ould t he o pening-up a nd t he d evelopment o f t he r egion , f or e xample t hrough r oad c onstruction , t he e stablishment o f a n a dministrative s ystem e tc p roceed i mmediately . T hus i n a reas w here t his k ind o f i nfrastructure d evelopment w as m ost n eeded , t he k ind o f w arfare t otal d estruction - i n f act m ade i t m uch m ore d ifficult f or t he R omans a fterwards, b ecause t here w as p ractically n othing l eft t o b egin w ith . C an

t hese

d isruptions

i n

b arbarian

s ociety

a lso

b e

t raced

a rchaeologically? T o a nswer t his q uestion I w ill c oncentrate o n f ood p roduction . I n t he p ollen d iagrams f rom m y s tudy a rea m aximum v alues f or c ereals a nd c ulture i ndicators a re f ound j ust b efore t he R oman i ntrusion , b ut a t t he s tart o f t he R oman e xpansion a s harp d ecline i n c ereals a nd c ulture i ndicators o ccurs ( Kalis 1 984 a nd p ers c omm ; T eunissen 1 980 ; K ramm 1 978 ; I senberg 1 979 ) . T his d ecline w ill b e c aused b y t he c ontinuing a ctions o f w ar , b e i t l ocally o r i n n eighbouring t erritories .

T he p olitical

c limate f or h usbandry a nd i n p articular f or a rable f arming , w as c ertainly n ot f avourable . C ereal c ultivation c ompels a f armer t o s tay w here h e i s , a t l east u ntil t he h arvest i s g athered . Even t hen m oving i s f ar f rom s imple i f t he h arvest h as

t o b e t ransported .

O n t he o ther h and a c attle

b reeder i s m uch m ore m obile . H e c an l eave w ith h is a nimals a nd h ide i n t he w oods u ntil t he d anger i s o ver . R egardless o f w hether s tock-raising w as a lready d ominant i n s ome a reas b efore t he R oman e xpansion , a s witch-over t o a lmost e xclusively c attle b reeding h as g reat a dvantages i n t he t urbulent s ituation o f a ctive c ampaigning . T he f requently e xpressed o pinion o f c lassical a uthors t hat t he G ermans p ractised l ittle o r n o a rable f arming , c an b e e xplained b y t his c hange-over , s ince p alaeobotanical r esearch ( pollen , s eeds a nd f ruits) a nd t he e xistence o f C eltic f ields p rove 9 8

c onclusively t hat c ereal c ultivation w as b y n o m eans u nimportant i n t he p reR oman I ron A ge . S tanding A rmy W hereas t he f ood s upply f or a m arching a rmy i s m ainly a l ogistic p roblem a nd a m atter o f s hort-term p olicy , f or a s tanding a rmy i t b ecomes a q uestion o f t he c arrying c apacity a nd t he s tability o f t he e conomic s ystem o n w hich t he f ood s upply i s b ased. W hat w e w ant t o k now i s h ow g reat t he i mpact o f t he a rmy i n t he f rontier z one w as o n t he n ative p opulation . T o e xpress i t i n m odern t erminology , w hat w as t he h eight o f t he d efence b udget i n r elation t o t he n ational i ncome? B ased o n c alculations o f t he p opulation s ize a nd t he e stimated s trength o f t he a rmies B ean ( 1973 , 2 12 ; c f a lso H opkins 1 980 ) c oncludes t hat i n t he R oman p eriod u p t o 6 % o f t he n ational i ncome w as s pent f or t he d efence o f t he E mpire , l ess t han 1 % i n m edieval E urope , m ore t han 2 % i n t he s ixteenth c entury a nd t hat o nly i n t he e ighteenth c entury w as f igure o f t he R oman p eriod r eached a gain a nd t hen e xceeded .

t he

I n e very w ar t he c onqueror w ill t ry t o e nsure t hat t he a reas t o b e c onquered p ay a s m uch a s p ossible t owards t heir o wn c onquest a nd o ccupation . T hus w e m ust t race i n h ow f ar t his h igh a ssessment o n t he ' national i ncome ' w as p aid b y t he p opulation a t t he n orth-western f ringes o f t he E mpire . S ince t he f ood s upply o f t he a rmy i n t hat p eriod c an b e s een a s o ne o f t he m ain e xpenses, w e w ill e xam ine t his a spect i n p articular . T o t hat e nd i t i s n ecessary t o s tudy t he f arming p ractises o f t he L ate I ron A ge i n t he l ower R hine r egion . F rom p alaeo-ethnobotanical a nd z ooarchaeological w ork , a s w ell a s t he k nowledge g leaned f rom h ouse p lans , w e c an b e q uite c ertain t hat m ixed f arming p revailed , a lthough f or t he t ime b eing w e c an n ot q uantify t he r atio b etween a rable f arming a nd c attle b reeding ( et J ones 1 983) . H unting p layed n o r ole a t a ll . B arley w as t he m ost c ultivated c ereal a nd t he b est a dapted t o t he s oil c onditions o f t he p oor P leistocene s ands o r t he c onditions o f t he m ore o r l ess s aline c oastal a reas . T he R oman s oldier , h owever , p referred w heat f rom w hich b read c ould b e b aked ; b arley s erved o nly a s a s ubstitute i n p eriods o f w heat s hortage o r f or p unishment ( cf L abisch 1 975, 3 9 ). T he q uestion n ow i s, d id t he R oman s oldier a t t he n orth-western f ringes o f t he E mpire - m ost o f t hem b eing a uxiliaries w ith a n ative b ackground - i ndeed g et w heat ,

o r h ad t hey

t o b e c ontent w ith t he l ocally g rown b arley? A lthough d ata o n c ereal f inds i n R oman f orts i n t he s tudy a rea a re s canty , t here a re , h owever , o ther d ata , w hich i ndicate t hat w heat i ndeed b ecame i ncreasingly i mportant i n t he n orthw estern p art o f t he R oman E mpire ( et v an Z eist 1 981 , 1 92 , A bb 2 4-5 ; R andsborg 1 985 , T ab 9 . 3) .

1 968 ,

1 974 ;

K örber-Grohne

T he d ata f rom ( semi) m ilitary c ontexts a re : 1 .

A mongst t he c ereal g rains f ound i n t he p eriod 3 f ort o f V alkenburg Z H a re h igh a mounts f or w heat ( Triticum d icoccum , T . a estivum s .1 a nd T . s pelta) b esides b arley ( van Z eist 1 968);

2 .

N ear t he L imes f ort o f W oerden ( Laur im) a R oman s hip o f t he s econd h alf o f t he s econd c entury A D w as e xcavated i n 1 978 ( Haalebos 1 986), i n w hich w heat ( Triticum d icoccum )(2) h ad b een t ransported .

9 9

3 .

T he s eed c ontent o f aR oman w ell, d ated c . A D 9 0-150, a nd p robably b elonging t o t he v icus o f w heat

r emains

t he

f ort

( Triticum s pelta,

o f

B utzbach ,

c onsisted m ainly o f

T . m onococcum a nd T . s pec"

b esides

n on-cereals ( Knörzer 1 973); 4 .

I n

t he

c ivil

s ettlement o f X anten ( Knörzer

1 981)

a pproximately e qual

a mounts o f H ordeum a nd T riticum w ere f ound i n s amples o f t he f irst c entury A D , w hereas i n t he s amples o f t he s econd a nd t hird c enturies, T riticum d ominated. 5 .

O nly w heat w as f ound i n t he p art o f t he f ort a t N euss ( Novaesium ) w here t he r emains o f ag ranary w ere e xcavated ( Knörzer 1 970 ,

1 28 ), w hereas i n

o ther e xcavated a reas b arley d ominated t he s amples. T hus a part f rom t he i mpossibility o f o btaining e nough f ood l ocally i n t he

l ower

R hine

c ultivated

w as

a rea a lso

( Groenman-van W aateringe t he

l ess

d esirable

1 980), o ne,

t he

a t

g rain

l east

t hat

f or

w as

h uman

c onsumption .( 3) I f t he R oman a rmy w as n ot t o r emain e ntirely d ependant o n l ong-distance s upply a c hange-over f rom b arley t o w heat h ad t o t ake p lace i n n ative a rable f arming . W heat d oes n ot t hrive w ell o n s andy s oils , m oreover , i t e xhausts t he l and m ore t han a ny o ther c rop . T his m eans n ot o nly a s witch-over t o a nother c rop, b ut a lso t o a nother s oil t ype, h eavier a nd m ore f ertile, p robably s upplemented w ith ( heavier) m anuring . d evelopment

o f

t he

g rowth o f a s ite c entury ,

v illas

i n

t he

T his m ay e xplain t he

r iver c lay a rea ( Willems

l ike R ijswijk ( Bloemers

1 978 ,

4 8 f f ),

1 986) a nd t he

b oth i n t he

s econd

c oupled w ith i ncreasing R oman i nfluence a nd l arge a mounts o f R oman

i mports , m ainly i n t he s econd a nd e arly t hird c entury i n n ative s ettlements o utside t he L imes,

s uch a s a t S chagen ( Therkorn 1 984),

b roekpolder ( Therkorn i n p rep"

V erhagen 1 986) a nd

t he U itgeester-

t he A ssendelver P olders

( van B eek 1 987), a ll t hree i n t he p rovince o f N orth-Holland . I n S chagen a l arge d icoccum )(4)

w as

c ereal

e xcavated

i n

f ind

w hat

o f w hich

s eemed

t o

9 1 0% w as w heat

b e

a c ollapsed

( Triticum f our-poster

g ranary. T he a bsence o f w heat f rom t he c ereal f inds o f t he s econd a nd t hird c entury s ettlements i n t he A ssendelver P olders ,

d espite t he c lear e vidence

f or w heat c ultivation p rovided b y p ollen a nalysis a nd P als 1 983 ,

( Goenman-van W aateringe

1 44-5) m ay i ndicate t hat t he w heat g rown b y t he n atives w as

m eant f or e xport t o t he L imes g arrisons . s ettlement o f W ijster .

T he s ame i s p robably t rue f or t he

T here t oo , T riticum t ype p ollen h as b een i dentified ,

b ut n o T riticum w as f ound i n t he s eed s amples ( van Z eist

1 967 ,

5 68-73 ,

e sp

5 71). T he

g rowing

i mportance

o f

w heat

c ultivation a nd

c onsumption m ay

b e

d emonstrated b y t he f ollowing f our e xamples: F irstly K örber-Grohne a nd P iening ( 1979 ) a nalysed s amples f rom a R oman v illa i n B aden-Württemberg , i n w hich t wo p eriods c ould b e d istinguished , w hich w as p receded b y a n I ron A ge s ettlement .

T he c ereal

I ron A ge s amples w as 3 5 .5% b arley a nd 4 4% w heat s pecies ; p eriod ,

d ated t o a round A D

9 0 ,

c ontent o f t he

t he e arliest R oman

c ontained o nly a f ew b arley g rains b ut t he

s econd p eriod, d ated A D 1 50-260, c ontained 9 5.5% w heat a nd o nly 0 .1% b arley. S econdly

v an

Z eist

( 1968)

a nalysed

1 00

s amples

f rom

a R oman

c ivil

s ettlement a t O uddorp , p rovince o f Z eeland , d ating f rom c A D 7 5 t o t he t hird c entury . A s ample d ated c A D 8 0 c ontained m ainly H ordeum v ulgare ( 17 ,300 s eeds a gainst o nly t hree o f T riticum a estivum a nd t hree o f T . s pelta), w hereas a s ample d ated t o t he s econd h alf o f t he s econd a nd f irst h alf o f t he t hird c enturies A D c onsisted m ainly o f w heat ( T . a estivum s . 1 . , s eeds , a gainst t hree s eeds o f H ordeum v ulgare .

A D

c 1 ,600

T hirdly a c ereal s ample f rom A ardenburg , p rovince o f Z eeland , d ated t o 1 70-270 c onsisted e ntirely o f T riticum a estivum s . l . ( van Z eist 1 968 ,

1 24-8 ;

1 974, 2 33-4, T ab 4 4).

F ourthly a c ereal

s ample f rom R oman M aastricht ,

p rovince o f L imburg ,

c ontained c 2 ,750 s eeds o f T riticum a estivum s . l . a nd 4 1 s eeds o f T . s pelta , w hereas a nother s ample , a lthough n ot q uantitatively a nalysed , w as d ominated b y T . a estivum s . 1

( van Z eist

1 968 ,

19-24) .

S pecialised w heat c ultivation o n t he r icher s oils m ay h ave c aused a d ecline i n c ereal c ultivation o n t he u nrewarding p oor s andy s oils i n c omparison t o t he I ron A ge . T his p rocess w as p erhaps q uickened b y e xcessive e xhaustion o f t he s oil w hen f armers n evertheless t ried t o c ultivate w heat t here , o r w hen t hey t ried t o e xtract m ore f requent y ields o f b arley f rom t he s ame p lot w ithout a dequate m anuring . E xhaustion a nd a bandonment w ill, i n t he e nd , l ead t o a p artial r ecovery o f t he w oods . T his c ould e xplain w hy c ereals a nd o ther c ulture i ndicators s eldom r each t he v alues o f t he I ron A ge i n t he R oman p art o f t he p ollen d iagrams . M oreover , t he C eltic f ields , w hich r epresent t he s ystem o f a rable f arming o n t he P leistocene s oils i n c ontinental n orth-western E urope , c ame t o a n e nd d uring t he s econd c entury A D ( Brongers 1 976, 6 4). F arming c ould o nly b e s uccessful i n t he R oman p eriod i f i t s pecialised o n w heat c ultivation o n t he r icher s oils o r o n c attle b reeding , t ogether w ith b arley c ultivation , o n t he p oorer s oils a nd i n t he s aline c oastal a reas . T he r eplacement o f s mall f our-poster g ranaries b y g ranaries 2 0m o r m ore i n l ength , s hows t he g rowing n eed f or a n i ncrease o f t he s torage c apacity , a s f or e xample , i n t he s ettlements o f O ss-Ussen ( van d er S anden 1 988 ) a nd i n R ijswijk ( Bloemers 1 978 ) . T his d oes n ot n ecessarily m ean a n i ncrease i n p roduction , b ut i t p oints t o p rovisioning o f t he R oman a rmy b y t he n ative f armers . T ogether w ith t he l ack o f m ilitary t ype g ranaries i n f orts l ike V alkenburg

Z H

( Groenman-van W aateringe

1 977)

o r

Z wammerdam-Nigru r n p ullum

( Haalebos 1 977) t his m ay b e e vidence f or a s ystem i n w hich t he R oman a rmy d id n ot b uy i ts e ntire w inter s upply o f g rain f rom t he n ative f armer a ll a t o nce . T he a dvantage o f t his s ystem w as , e specially i n t he w et c onditions i n t he w estern p art o f G ermania i nferior , t hat a ny d ecay b y r otting, m oulding o r d amage b y i nsects a nd o ther a nimals m eant a l oss f or t he n ative f armer , b ecause t he R oman a rmy w ould c ertainly h ave i nsisted u pon t he s upply o f g ood q uality g rain ( Groenman-van W aateringe a nd v an B eek 1 988 ) .

D iscussion O n t he b asis o f t his e vidence I c onclude t hat i n t he l ower R hine a rea t he p rovision o f s ufficient g rain t o m eet t he n eeds o f t he R oman a rmy w as h ighly p roblematical f or c onsiderable p eriods o f t ime . I t i s p ossible t o d istinguish t hree p rinciple p eriods : t he f irst w as d uring t he c ampaigns . S ince l iving f rom t he l and w as h ardly f easible ,

t he R oman a rmy h ad t o k eep

t heir s upply l ines c ontinually i n m ind . T here w ere n o e asily o btainable f ood s upplies ( et G roenman-van W aateringe 1 980 ) a nd t hose p resent c ould n ot 1 01

m eet t he a rmy's d emands i n e ither q uality o r i n q uantity . T he s econd p eriod w as d uring t he e arly p hase o f

t he o ccupation ,

t he m iddle o f t he f irst t o t he e arly s econd c enturies A D . d educed f rom t he R oman i mports,

w hich s uggest

f rom

T his m ay b e

t he e stablishment o f r egular

t rade c ontacts i n t he s econd c entury a nd f rom T acitus ( Hist I V,

2 6) w here h e

r emarks t hat b ecause o f t he l ow w ater l evel o f t he R hine i n A D 6 9 f ood c ould n ot b e i mported a nd s upplies w ere t ight . T he r eason f or t he s hortage w as t he d isruption o f t he h usbandry o f t he I ron A ge , a lthough p ractices c ould n ever h ave c ontinued i n t he s ame w ay a s b efore t he o ccupation b ecause

t he d emands o f t he R omans d iffered b oth

q ualitatively a nd q uantitively f rom t hose o f t he n atives . e ntirely n ew h ad t o b e c onstructed a nd t hat t ook t ime . u nderstandable

t hat

t he R oman

l and a round

t he f orts

P etrikovits

1 960 ;

s oldiers w ere

f orced

t o

S omething T hus i t i s

c ultivate m ilitary

t hemselves ( or h ave i t c ultivated f or t hem )

M öcsy 1 967) .

I t

s eems

( cf v on

t hat o nly d uring t he s econd

t o

t he t hird c enturies w as a l ocal f ood s upply g uaranteed . H owever, t he c ontents o f t he R oman s hip f ound a t W oerden w ith c lear e vidence o f i mport f rom G aul ( laalebos 1 986, 1 72) may b e a n i ndication t hat u nder s pecial c ircumstances i mportation m ight s till b e n ecessary. T he

t hird

p eriod w as

s econd h alf o f t he r emaining

t roops

t owards

w ill

h ave

h ad

A rable f arming w ill h ave b ecome b ecause

o f s oil

t he

e nd

o f

t he R oman o ccupation i n

t hird c entury a nd t he f ourth c entury w hen t heir

h ands

f ull

l ess a ttractive

t he

t he f ew

f rontiers .

t o t he n ative p opulation

e xhaustion a nd e rosion c aused b y o ver-exploitation o n t he

p oorer s oils ( et G roenman-van W aateringe 1 983) . i n m arine ,

g uarding

t he

C hanges i n t he w ater l evel

p erimarine a nd r iverine a reas c aused t he m ore f ertile s oils b est

s uited f or w heat c ultivation t o b ecome u nable t o s upport c ereal c ultivation . T he g eneral p olitical u nrest o f t he t ime c an b e c ompared t o t he s ituation i n t he e arly R oman p eriod .

I n t he p ollen d iagram t his i s r eflected i n a

m arked d ecline i n c ereals a nd c ulture i ndicators . I n t he f ourth c entury ,

g rain w hich h ad b een s hipped i n

f rom o verseas

( as a ttested b y h istorical s ources) t o t he a rea o f t he R hine e stuary, a pparently h ad t o b e s tored s afely, a s c an b e c oncluded f rom t he t hree d endrochronologically d ated e xcavated

i n t he

d endrochronological i ndicate

t hat

t his

W aateringe 1 986) .

l ate

t hird/early

f ourth c entury g ranaries

f ormer f ort a t Valkenburg Z H . d ates

f rom

b uilding w as

f oundation r epaired

Also f ourth c entury

p osts

f rom

u nder

d uring

t his

p eriod

t he

p rincipia

( Groenman-van

T he s iting o f V alkenburg Z H c ould n ot b e b etter , s tanding

a s i t d oes a t t he h ead o f a n O ld D une r idge r unning n orth-south a nd o n t he b ank o f t he R hine ,

t hus e nsuring t ransport t o t he h interland .

T he s torage a nd m arket f unctions o f g eneral a nd i n p eriod 7 i n p articular ,

t he f ort o f Valkenburg Z H i n

i s p erhaps t he b est e xplanation f or

t he v ignette d rawn a t t he s ite o f P raetorium A grippinae o n t he P eutinger T able . T his d epicts a b uilding t hat m ay b e c ompared w ith a c aravanserai , w ith

i ts

t hreefold

f unction

o f

i nn ,

m agazine

a nd m arket .

A lthough

t he

c ategories a nd v ignettes o n t he P eutinger T able s eem t o h ave b een a pplied i n a r ather h aphazard m anner , t hey a lways i llustrate a n i mportant f unction o f t he s ite c oncerned , w hether a s i nn , t emple , o r m arket o r a c ombination o f t wo o r m ore o f t hese ( et B ender 1 975 , 1 30) . T he j ustification f or b oth t he n ame a nd t he v ignette o f t he s ettlement w ould t hen l ie i n t he i mportance o f V alkenburg Z H i n t he g rain t rade ( et G roenman-van W aateringe 1 977).

1 02

S ummary T he g rain s upply f or t he R oman a rmy s tationed a long t he c ontinental n orth-western f rontier o f t he R oman E mpire m ust h ave b een p osed a s ignificant p roblem f or c onsiderable p eriods o f t ime . O f t he t hree p rinciple p eriods t he f irst w as i n t he p hase o f c onquest . H ere p roblems w ere c aused b y t hree f actors . O ne w as t he t ribal o rganisation o f b arbarian s ociety , w ithout c entral p laces a nd l arge f ood s tores, w hich m ade i t d ifficult t o b ring t ogether s ufficient f ood f or l arge c oncentrations o f R oman t roops . A nother r eason w as t hat t he c onduct o f h ostilities i n t hese a reas , c onditioned a s i t w as b y t he t ribal m ode o f o rganisation , w as n ot c onducive t o a gricultural a ctivities . T his i s r eflected i n a d ecline i n c ereal p ollen a nd c ulture i ndicators a s c ompared t o t he p re-Roman I ron A ge s ituation . L astly , i t w as n ot o nly i n q uantity t hat t he b arbarians w ere u nable t o s atisfy t he R oman d emands f or g rain b ut a lso i n q uality , s ince t he e mphasis o f p roduction l ay o n b arley , w hich w as u nsuitable f or m aking b read , w hile t he R oman s oldiers p referred w heat f rom w hich g ood q uality b read c ould b e m ade . S econdly ,

d uring

t he

e arly

p hases

o f

t he

o ccupation

b ecause

a gricultural p ractices h ad t o b e a dapted f rom a m ixed f arming e conomy w ith b arley o n t he p oor P leistocene s andy s oils t o a f arming e conomy b ased o n w heat o n t he r ich c lay s oils. T hirdly , t owards t he e nd o f t he R oman o ccupation i n t he s econd h alf o f t he t hird a nd f ourth c enturies A D, f arming w ill a gain h ave b ecome l ess a ttractive t o

t he n ative p opulation f or a v ariety o f r easons .

S oil

e xhaustion a nd e rosion w as c aused b y o ver-exploitation o f t he p oorer s oils a nd c hanges i n t he w ater l evel i n m arine , p erimarine a nd r iverine a reas r esulting i n t he m ore f ertile s oils n o l onger b eing s uitable f or c ultivation . T he g eneral p olitical u nrest o f t he t ime , c omparable t o t he s ituation i n t he e arly R oman p eriod a lso c ontributed t o t he s ituation . I n t he p ollen d iagrams t his i s i ndicated b y as trong d ecline i n t he c ereals a nd c ulture i ndicators . T he r egular f low o f R oman i mports i n n ative s ettlements m ay i ndicate t hat t he s upply o f f ood t o t he R oman a rmy b y t he n ative p opulation w as m ore o r l ess g uaranteed o nly d uring t he s econd a nd t he f irst h alf o f t he t hird c enturies A D.(5)

1 03

N OTES 1 .

T ranslations f rom W iseman a nd W iseman 1 980.

2 .

I dentified b y D rs J P P als , A lbert E gges v an G iffen I nstituut v oor P rae- e n P rotohistorie , U niversiteit v an A msterdam ( IPP ) , p ollen o f T riticum t ype i dentified b y CD T roostheide , I PP .

3 .

I n a b urnt l ayer f ound i n a b uilding i nterpreted a s a s table i n t he f ort o f D ormagen ( l ü lörzer 1 979 ) o nly f ive f ragments o f w heat ( Triticum d icoccum a nd T . s pelta) w ere f ound i n c ontrast t o 8 7% o f s eeds o f p asture p lants , 2 2 f ragments o f o ats ( A :vena s ativa/fatua ) a nd 1 41 o f b arley ( Hordeum v ulgare).

4 .

I dentified b y CD

T roostheide.

5 .

T he t ext o f t his p aper w as c ompleted i n J anuary 1 986 a nd s lightly r evised i n F ebruary 1 987.

1 04

B IBLIOGRAPHY 976 : L ogistics o f t he R oman I mperial Army : m ajor A DAMS, J P 1 he e astern f ront i n t he f irst t hree c enturies A D . A nn A rbor . c ampaigns o n t B EAN , 2 03-21.

973 : R 1

W ar a nd t he B irth o f t he N ation S tate .

B EEK , BL V AN

1 987 :

c ampaigns 1 9781980 . E v an d er

( eds ) ,

A ssendelver P olders :

JE con H ist 3 3 ,

t he R oman i mports f rom t he

I n B randt , RW , G roenman-van W aateringe , W &L eeuw ,

T he A ssendelver P olders P roject I .

( Amsterdam ,

S

C ingula

1 0), 2 . B ENDER , H 1 975 : A rchäologische U ntersuchungen z ur A usgrabung A ugstK urzenbettli. E in B eitrag z ur E rforschung d er r ömischen R asthäuser. ( Basle ,

A ntigua 4 ) .

B LOEMERS, J H F 1 978 : R ijswijk ( ZH), ' De B ui e . C ananefaten . ( Amersfoort , N ederlandse O udheden 8 ) . B RANDT , C ountries : 1 84).

R

A ND

S LOFSTRA ,

J ( EDS)

s pheres o f i nteraction .

E ine S iedlung d er

1 983 :

R oman a nd N ative i n t he L ow

( Oxford ,

B rit A rchaeol R ep I nt S er

B REEZE , D J 1 984 : 'D emand a nd S upply o n t he N orthern F rontier . I n M iket , R & B urgess , C B ( eds ), B etween a nd B eyond t he W alls : e ssays o n t he p rehistory a nd h istory o f n orth B ritain i n h onour o f G eorge J obey . E dinburgh ,

2 64-86 .

B REEZE , D J 1 986-7: T he L ogistics o f A gricola 's F inal C ampaign . T alanta 1 8/19 , 1 9867 ( 1988) . B RONGERS , N etherlands .

J A 1 976 : A ir P hotography a nd C eltic F ield R esearch i n t he ( Amersfoort , N ederlandse O udheden 6 ) .

C ALLWELL , CE 1 906 :

S mall W ars:

t heir p rinciples a nd p ractice .3

L ondon . E NGELS, D W 1 978 : A lexander t he G reat a nd t he L ogistics o f t he M acedonian A rmy . B erkeley . G ROENMAN-VAN WAATERINGE, W 1 977: G rain S torage a nd S upply i n t he Valkenburg c astella a nd P raetorium A grippinae . I n B eek , B L van , B randt , R W & G roenman-van W aateringe , W ( eds ), E x H orreo . ( Amsterdam , C ingula 4 ) , 2 26-40 . G ROENMAN-VAN WAATERINGE, W 1 980 :

U rbanization a nd t he N orth-West

F rontier o f t he R oman E mpire . I n H anson , W S &K eppie , L J F ( eds), R oman F rontier S tudies 1 979 . ( Oxford , B rit A rchaeol R ep I nt S er 7 1) , 1 0374 4. G ROENMAN-VAN W AATERINGE , O ccupation .

W 1 983 :

T he D isasterous E ffect o f t he R oman

I n B randt & S lofstra ( eds ) ,

1 47-57 .

G ROENMAN-VAN WAATERINGE, W 1 986: T he H orrea o f V alkenburg Z H . I n S tudien z u d en M ilitärgrenzen R oms I II . ( Stuttgart , F orsch u B er V or- u F rühgesch B aden-Württemberg 2 0) , 1 59-65 .

1 05

GROENMAN-VAN WAATERINGE, W AND B EEK, B L VAN 1988: D e R omeinse c astella t e V alkenburg Z H , 1 7e o pgravingscampagne 1 980 . I n B loemers , J H F ( ed ) , A rcheologie e n e cologie v an H olland f ussen R ijn e n V rie ( Assen , S tud P rae-en P rotohist 2 ). G ROENMAN VAN W AATERINGE , WA ND P ALS , JP 1 983 : P roject :

i ntegrated e cological r esearch .

T he A ssendelver P olders

I n J ones ( ed ) ,

1 35-61 .

H AALEBCG , JK 1 977 : Z wammerdam N igrum P ullum . E in A uxiliarkastell a m N iedergermanischen L imes . ( Amsterdam , C ingula 3 ) . HAALEBOS, J K 1 986: Ausgrabungen i n W oerden ( 1975-1982). I n S tudien z u d en M ilitärgrenzen R oms I II . ( Stuttgart , F orsch u B er V or- u F rühgesch B aden-Württemberg 2 0 ) , 1 69-74 .

4 00) .

H OPKINS, K 1 980 : T axes a nd T rade i n t he R oman E mpire ( 200 B C -A D J R oman S tud 7 0 , 1 01-25 . I SENBERG ,

E 1 979 :

P ollenanalytische U ntersuchungen z ur V egetations -

u nd S iedlungsgeschichte i m G ebiet d er A bhandl L andesmus N aturkunde M ünster 4 1 ( 2) . J ONES , M K ( ED ) 1 983 : I ntegrating t he B rit A rchaeol R ep I nt S er 1 81) .

Grafschaft

B entheim .

S ubsistence E conomy .

( Oxford ,

K ALIS, A J 1 984: F or t d e l a B resse ( Vogezen ) , V egetatie lumdige e n p ollenanalytische o nderzoekingen n aar d e b osgeschiedenis v an e en c entraal E uropees m dddelgebergte . U trecht . K NORZER ,

K H 1 970 :

L imesforschungen K NORZER ,

R ömerzeitliche P flanzenfunde a us N euss .

( Berlin ,

1 0) .

K H 1 973 :

B utzbach ( Hessen ) .

R ömerzeitliche P flanzenfunde a us e inem B runnen i n

S aalburg J ahrb 3 0 ,

K NORZER , KH 1 979 :

7 1114 .

V erkohlte R este v on V iehfutter a us e inem S tall d es

r ömischen R eiterlagers v on D ormagen .

R heinische A usgrabungen 2 0 , 1 30-7 .

KNaRZER, K H 1 981: Römerzeitliche P flanzenfunde a us X anten . ( Cologne , A rchaeo-Physika 1) . K ORBER-GROHNE , U 1 981:

P flanziche A bdrücke i n e isenzeitlicher K eramik

-S piegelbild d amaliger N utzpflanzen? 2 11. K aRBER-GROHNE ,

U

AND

W ildpflanzenreste a us B ondorf , 4 , 1 52" 69 .

P IENING ,

F undber B aden-Württemberg 6 ,

U

1 979 :

K reis B öblingen .

V erkohlte

1 65-

N utz- u nd

F undber B aden-Württemberg

K RKMM , E 1 978 : P ollenanalytische H ochmooruntersuchungen z ur F lorenu nd S iedlungsgeschichte zwischen Ems und Hase. Abhandl L andesmus N aturkunde M ünster 4 0 ( 4 ) . LABISCH, A 1 975 : Frumentum commeatusque. N ahrungsmittelversorgung d er H eere C aesars . M eisenheim a m G lan .

1 06

Die

MOCSY,

A

19 67:

Zu

d en M ilitärgrenzen R oms P ETRIKOVITS,

den

Prata

( Cologne & G raz,

H V ON

19 60:

Legionis.

D as R ömische R heinland .

F orschungen s eit 1 945 . ( Cologne , A rbeitsgemeinschaft W estfalen , G eisteswissenschaften 6 8 ) . R ANDSBORG ,

K 1 985 :

S ubsistence

a nd

E urope i n t he F irst M illennium A D .

S tudien

B hft B onner J ahrb 19 ) ,

S ettlement

I n B arker ,

B eyond D omestication i n P rehistoric E urope .

zu

2 1114 .

A rchäologische

F orsch N ordrhein-

i n N orthern T emperate

G D & G amble ,

L ondon ,

C S ( eds ),

2 33-65 .

R OYMANS , N 1 983 : T he N orth B elgic T ribes i n t he i st C entury B C : a h istorical-anthropological p erspective . I n B randt & S lofstra ( eds), 4 3-69 . S ANDEN , W V AN D ER a rchaeology

o f

t he

P raehist L eidensia 2 0, T EUNISSEN, ( Nijmegen ,

D

( 1988) :

p eriod

7 00

-250 A D ;

l arge s cale s ettlement

a p reliminary

19 80:

T HERKORN , L L 1 984 : M 1 986 :

Drusus,

d e

Elterberg e n d e D rususgracht .

S chagen :

Muggenburg .

U itgeest 5 4 .

H olland 1 6 , 2 1516 .

E en p aleo-ethnobotanisch ( Amsterdam ,

W ILLENS, W J H 1 986: R omans a nd B atavians . t he D utch E astern R iver A rea . A mersfoort . W ISEMAN ,

A nal

1) .

n aar d e e xploitatie v an e en v eenlandschap .

( Trans) ,

r eport .

9 5123.

M eded a fd B iogeol

V ERHAGEN ,

T he U ssen P roject : B C

A A ND W ISEMAN P 1 980 :

J ulius C aesar .

o nderzoek

I nternal r eport ) .

A R egional S tudy i n

T he B attle f or G aul .

L ondon .

Z EIST ,

W V AN 1 967 :

I n E s, W A , 1 50-425 A D . Z EIST , N etherlands . Z EIST ,

A P alaeobotanical S tudy o f t he W ijster S ettlement .

v an , W ijster , aN ative V illage B eyond t he I mperial F rontier , ( Groningen , P aleohistoria 1, 5 6873) .

W V AN 1 968 :

P rehistoric a nd E arly H istoric F ood P lants i n t he

P alaeohistoria 1 4 , W V AN 1 974 :

4 1173 .

P alaeobotanical S tudies o f S ettlement S ites i n t he

C oastal A rea o f t he N etherlands .

P alaeohistoria 1 6 ,

1 07

2 23-371 .

C hapter 7 B AUBLES, B ANGLES A ND B EADS:

T RADE A ND E XCHANGE I N R OMAN S COTLAND

L esley M acinnes

I ntroduction A lthough m uch h as b een w ritten o n t he s ubject o f t he R oman o ccupation o f

S cotland ,

m ost

h as

c oncentrated

o n

i ts

m ilitary

a spects .

C ertainly ,

l imited e xcavation o f n ative s ites a nd s evere p roblems o f d ating h ave c ombined

i n

m ilitary

c ampaigns

H owever ,

t he

p ast

t o m ake

d irectly

i t

t o

d ifficult

t heir

t o

e ffect

r elate

o n

t he

w ell-documented

t he i ndigenous p opulation .

o ur u nderstanding o f n ative s ociety a t t he t ime o f t he R oman

o ccupation i s i ncreasingly b eing e nhanced b y e xcavation ( Harding 1 982 p assim ),

w hile

t he d istribution o f R oman m aterial

w ithin

t his

s ociety h as

a lready b een b roadly c atalogued ( Robertson 1 970) . A g eneral c ase c an b e m ade t hat r egions o n t he f ringes o f t he R oman e mpire w ere o nly m inimally a ffected b y t he R oman w orld ( Fulford 1 985 ,

1 04-6) a nd t his

v iew h as f ound

s upport i n t he p articular c ase o f n orthern E ngland ( Ingham 1 986 ,

1 86) .

T he

p urpose o f t his p aper i s t o l ook i n m ore d etail a t t he e vidence f or e xchange b etween R oman a nd n ative i n S cotland a nd t o e xamine t he s ignificance o f t his i n i ts l ocal c ontext ( Fig 7 .1). T he c ourse o f R oman c ampaigns i n S cotland i s w ell-attested ( Breeze 1 982). S cotland f irst c ame i nto d irect c ontact w ith R ome i n t he f irst c entury

A D ,

p articularly

S cotland w as

a nnexed

t hrough

t he

b y a n etwork o f

f ringes ( Kenworthy 1 981

p assim ;

c ampaigns

o f

f orts

r oads

a nd

H anson 1 987) .

A gricola w hen u p

t o

t he

l owland H ighland

T his o ccupation w as h alted

b y a r eduction i n R oman m anpower a nd t he a rmy h ad f ully w ithdrawn f rom S cotland b y c A D

1 05 .

s ought e lsewhere

i n t he e mpire r ather t han i n t he

1 982,

6 6) .

T he r eason f or t his w ithdrawal

s hould p robably b e

l ocal

s ituation ( Breeze

W ith t he c reation o f H adrian 's W all, w hich e stablished t he

n orthern b oundary o f t he p rovince a cross t he T yne-Solway i sthmus , w as e xcluded f rom t he o ccupied p rovince f or a t ime . r eoccupied

a round

A D

1 42

w hen

t he

m arked

b y

n orthern

f rontier w as

i sthmus

1 983 ,

T his e xpansion o nly l asted a s hort t ime , h owever ,

6 9 ) .

1 63 .

t he A ntonine W all

a dvanced

F orth-Clyde A D

a nd

S cotland

S outhern S cotland w as ( Hanson a nd

t he

o nly u ntil c

T hereafter t here w ere o nly s poradic c ampaigns n orthwards

1 978 ) w ith t he n orthern f rontier r e-established a t H adrian 's W all . n ow l ay p ermanently o utside t he b oundary o f t he p rovince .

t o

M axwell Manson S cotland

I n e ffect , t hen ,

t he c ountry w as n ever p ermanently a nnexed a nd h ad d irect c ontact w ith

t he

o ccupying

t he

a rmy

o nly

f or

s hort

p eriods ,

a lthough

i t

i s

p robable

t hat

L owlands c ontinued t o f all u nder t he s upervision o f t he a rmy e ven w hen t hey w ere n ot o ccupied ( Breeze 1 982, N evertheless ,

i t

h as

b een

1 24). s uggested

t hat

i n

S cotland ,

a s

i n o ther

f rontier a reas i n E urope , n ative s ociety w as n ot s ufficiently a dvanced t o b e r eceptive t hat

t o

t his

a ssimilation

f act

i nto

t he R oman w orld

( Fulford

1 985 ,

r ather t han p ressures o n R oman m ilitary

u ltimately r esponsible f or i ts e xclusion f rom t he p rovince . h owever ,

1 05-6)

a nd

r esources w as I t

i s,

i mportant t o r emember t hat t he R omans o ccupied S cotland o nly f or a

1 08

DUN MOR V AUL

A d e D d A R L U N G I E

HURLY

HAWK IN

• LO WLAND 0

BROCH

PR INC IPAL S ITES MENT IONED I N THE TEXT

2 6

4 0

61 0

I KMS 1 00

TRA,P ß, A IN L AW U

BLACKBURN

H ILL

•

NE WSTEAD

J

CAR L ING WARK L OCH

F ig 7 .1

P rincipal S ites M entioned i n t he T ext.

s hort t ime, w hich w as p robably n ot s ufficient t o a llow t he p rocess o f a cculturation t o a dvance v ery f ar . M oreover , r ecent s tudies o f s ettlement a nd s ociety w ithin S cotland h ave s uggested t hat t he a rea w as m ore c omplex a nd o rganised t han m ight o nce h ave b een t hought ( Macinnes 1 982) . C ertainly t here i s n o r eason t o s uppose t hat s ociety t here w as l ess w ell d eveloped t han p arts o f n orthern E ngland o r W ales , w hich w ere i ncluded w ithin t he p rovince ,

a lthough a dmittedly t heir d egree o f a ssimilation m ay h ave b een

s light ( Higham 1 986 , 1 86 ; H anson a nd M acinnes f orthcoming ) . F urthermore , i t n ow s eems p robable t hat p re-Roman s ociety i n e astern S cotland a t l east h ad t he c apacity t o p roduce t he a gricultural s urplus t hat w ould h ave b een a n ecessary p re-requisite t o p articipation i n t he R oman e conomy ( Halliday 1 982 ; H anson a nd M acinnes 1 981) . I ndeed , a ll t he e vidence w ould p oint t o 1 09

a h ierarchical t ribal s ociety i n S cotland i n w hich w ealth a nd p ower w as i nvested i n t he l and a nd t he s tock i t s upported a nd w here e xchange w as e mbedded i n t he s ocial s ystem . T he q uestion o f w hether o r n ot S cotland , e ven t hough n ot p ermanently a nnexed , m ight h ave p articipated i n t he R oman e conomic s ystem m ust n ow b e e xamined i n m ore d etail .

R oman M aterial i n S cotland T he d ifficulties i nherent i n c onsidering t his m aterial h ave t o b e s tressed . F irstly , t he a ctual q uantity o f R oman m aterial f ound i n S cotland i s s mall a nd s ometimes o f i ndifferent q uality . I ndeed , i t h as b een a rgued t hat t his i s i ndicative o f i ts s tatus a s a b uffer z one ( Fulford 1 985 , 1 023 ) . S econdly , i n a n a rea w hich p roduces l ittle i ndependent d ating e vidence , t he R oman a rtefacts t hemselves h ave b ecome a m ajor i ndicator o f d ate . T herefore , c ontemporary s ettlements t hat d id n ot o btain R oman m aterial c annot r eadily b e i dentified . M oreover , i t c an s ometimes b e d ifficult t o d etermine t he p recise d ate o f s ome R oman m aterial, p articularly t he m etalwork , o r e ven d istinguish b etween R oman a nd n ative m anufacture f or i tems s uch a s d ress f asteners . D espite t hese l imitations , t he o bservable d istributions o f R oman g oods i n S cotland d o s eem t o h ighlight d istinctions i mportant t o t he s tudy o f t he r elationship b etween R oman a nd n ative . R oman m aterial o f p re-Antonine d ate i s f ound p redominantly i n s outhern a nd e astern S cotland ( Robertson 1 970 , 2 02-5) . S amian i s m ost c ommon a nd i ncludes d ecorated b owl s herds a t , f or e xample , H yndford c rannog , C raig 's Q uarry a nd G lenhead f ort , a nd p latters f rom T orwoodlee a nd H urly H awkin . I n c ontrast t here i s v ery l ittle c oarse w are , a lthough t his h as b een f ound a t T orwoodlee , H yndford a nd a f ew o ther s ites . G lass h as b een r ecovered i n t he f orm o f c ups , a s a t T orwoodlee , a nd b awls, a s a t T raprain L aw . G lass o rnamentation i n t he f orm o f m elon b eads h as a lso b een f ound a t s ites s uch a s K eir H ill . I n g eneral, h owever , g lass h as b een f ound o nly i n v ery s mall q uantity a nd a lmost e ntirely s outh o f t he F orth . S imilarly , b ronze o bjects a re n ot f requently f ound a nd a re m ainly l ocated s outh o f t he F orth , w here p aterae o ccur i n h oards a s a t F riar 's C arse a nd D owalton L och . B rooches o r p ins a re o nly o ccasionally f ound o n s ettlement s ites a s a gain a t T orwoodlee . A lthough t his m aterial h as b een f ound i n s mall q uantity o n ar ange o f s ettlement t ypes i ncluding s mall f orts l ike C raig 's Q uarry , a nd h omesteads l ike K eir 's H ill, a f ew s ites h ave p roduced l arger a ssemblages . Most n otably , t hese i nclude t he c rannog a t H yndford , w hich h ad s amian , c oarse w are a nd g lass, t he b roch a t T orwoodlee , w ith a f ull r ange o f R oman m aterial, a nd t he s o-called ' minor o ppidum ' a t T raprain L aw . I t i s i nteresting t o n ote , t herefore , t hat t hese s ites a re d istinguishable f rom t he m ajority o f s ettlements i n s outhern S cotland b y t heir u nusual s ize ( Macinnes

1 984a ,

f orm o r

2 41) .

S econd c entury m aterial i s f ound i n g reater q uantity o ver a l arger a rea o f S cotland a nd w ithin a g reater r ange o f s ettlement s ites ( Robertson 1 970 , 2 05-10 ) . S amian i s s till t he m ost c ommon f ind i n av ariety o f f orms , b ut i t i s f ound m ore w idely t hroughout t he c ountry . I n a ddition t o t he n umerous f orts , s amian h as b een r ecovered f rom a n umber o f c rannogs , s uch a s B uston ; s outerrains , l ike P itcur ; a nd b rochs , s uch a s D un N or V aul . S amian s herds w hich h ave b een r eused i n a v ariety o f w ays r ecur , f or e xample, w ith s moothers f rom D un N or V aul, s everal s pindle w horls f rom T raprain L aw a nd d iscs f rom H urly H awkin . S uch r euse i s p aralleled e lsewhere i n t he e mpire a nd h as b een t entatively i nterpreted a s a f orm o f p rimitive c urrency ( Brandt

10

1 983 , 1 38-42) . C oarse w are a lso h as a w ider d istribution i n t he A ntonine p eriod , m uch o f i t f rom n orth-west S cotland , w here i t i s f ound o n a n umber o f b rochs a nd d uns . B oth g lass a nd b ronze a rtefacts a re a lso m ore c ommon , b ut i n c ontrast t o t he p ottery , a re m ainly r estricted t o t he r egion s outh o f t he F orth a nd p articularly o n t he e astern s ide o f t he c ountry . B oth v essels , a s a t C astlelaw , a nd o rnaments , s uch a s L ochlee , a re r epresented a mong t he g lass f inds , w hile b rooches a re t he m ost c ommon b ronze o bjects f rom s ettlement s ites o f a ll t ypes . P aterae a re m ost o ften f ound i n h oards , s uch a s t hose a t B lackburn M ill a nd L amberton M oor. T he g reater a vailability o f t his m aterial i s r eflected i n t he g reater r ange o f s ettlement t ypes o n w hich i t o ccurs . T o t he s outh m any o f t hose s ites w hich h ad t he l argest a ssemblages i n t he p re-Antonine p eriod a lso s how a r ange o f m aterial o f t he l ater p eriod b ut i t i s T raprain L aw t hat i s s ingularly i mpressive f or t he r ange , q uality a nd q uantity o f i ts a ssemblage ( Jobey 1 976, 1 98-202). M aterial o f t he p ost-Antonine p eriod i s f ound i n v ery r estricted a mounts , b oth s outh o f t he F orth a nd i n n orthern S cotland ( Robertson 1 970 , 2 1012) . A lthough i t i s c oarse w are t hat i s m ost c ommon a t t his t ime , t here a re o utstanding i tems, i ncluding p ainted g lass f rom C lickhimin , a G aulish b rooch f rom C arlungie a nd a g lass j ug f rom C rock C leugh . H owever , o nly T raprain L aw h as p roduced a g ood r ange o f m aterial, w ith b oth f ine a nd c oarse w ares, b ronze o rnamentation a nd f ragments o f e ngraved g lass. W ithin t his o verall p attern , s pecial a ttention m ight b e p aid t o t he c oinage , b ecause o f i ts p otential i mportance i n r elation t o t he a doption o f am onetary e conomy a nd s ome b ronze i tems , w hich c ould b e o f e ither R oman o r n ative m anufacture . I n f act, t he d istribution o f t he c oinage l argely r eflects t hat o f t he o ther m aterial a nd g ives n o i ndication t hat t he i ndigenous s ociety a dopted a m onetary e conomy ( Robertson 1 970 , 2 08 ) . T he e arly c oinage i s u sually o f g old o r s ilver a nd i s f ound m ainly t o t he s outh a nd e ast . T he w ider A ntonine d istribution e xtends i nto n orthern S cotland a nd i ncludes a h igher p roportion o f b ronze a nd s ilver . T hereafter , b ronze c oinage i s m ost c ommon , w ith a p articular c oncentration o n T raprain L aw ( Sekulla 1 982), w hile t here a re a lso a f ew n otable h oards , s uch a s t hat a t F alkirk ( Robertson 1 975). S ome m etalwork , i ncluding s words a nd a v ariety o f t orcs ( Kilbride-Jones 1 980 , 1 42-9 ) ; S tevenson 1 966 , 2 5-30 ; M anning 1 981) , h as b een i dentified a s C eltic r ather t han R oman i n s tyle , a lthough i t h as b een f ound i n b oth R oman a nd n ative c ontexts . I t h as b een s uggested t hat i t r eached S cotland e ither f rom s outhern B ritain , f or w hich t here s eems t o b e n o s upporting e vidence , o r t hrough a uxiliary s oldiers ( Manning 1 981, 5 9 ) . T here s eems t o b e n o c ompelling r eason , h owever , t o a rgue a gainst a m ore l ocal o rigin f or t his m aterial ( Kilbride-Jones 1 980 ,

1 65) a nd i t m ay r epresent a nother e lement i n

t he e xchange t hat t ook p lace b etween R oman a nd n ative . Moreover, t he r ecovery o f am ould f rom T raprain L aw f or a d ress f astener o f a t ype f ound i n b oth R oman a nd n ative c ontexts ( Kilbride-Jones 1 980 , 1 65 ) s uggests t hat l ocal m anufacture o f s uch m etalwork w as i ndeed t aking p lace . F rom t he s ame s ite t here i s a lso e vidence f or t he m anufacture o f g lass o rnaments o f at ype a lso f ound i n b oth R oman a nd n ative c ontexts ( Guido 1 978 , 3 5-6) . F urthermore , av ariety o f l ocal g oods, s uch a s q uerns a nd s tone d iscs , h ave b een r ecovered f rom R oman m ilitary s ites s uch a s N ewstead ( Robertson 1 9 70 , 2 02) . A ltogether , t his e vidence r aises t he p ossibility o f l ocal p roduction f or R oman c onsumption a nd

s tresses

t hat

t wo c ultures w as n ot o ne-sided. 11

t he m aterial

e xchange b etween t he

I n s ummary , t hen , R oman m aterial r eaches n ative s ites i n a r estricted d istribution i n t he p re-Antonine p eriod , b ut t his w idens c onsiderably i n t he m id s econd c entury , w hen i t i s d ispersed m ore w idely t hroughout S cotland a nd o n a v ariety o f s ettlements . T he m ore l imited d istribution o f t he p ostA ntonine p eriod i s d ominated b y T raprain L aw . T his p attern s eems t o i ndicate t hat R oman m aterial w as m ost a ccessible t o n ative s ettlements i n t he p eriods o f a ctual o ccupation , b ut t he d emonstrable d ifferences i n d istribution s uggest t hat t he m echanism b y w hich i t r eached i ndividual s ettlements w as b y n o m eans u niform .

T he N ature o f t he C ontact T here a re v arious m echanisms b y w hich R oman m aterial m ight h ave r eached n ative s ites :

g ifts, b ooty o r e xchange , t he l atter p erhaps a b y-product o f

t he p ayment o f t ribute . A rchaeologically , g ifts m ight b e d etected a s c oncentrations o f R oman g oods , e specially t hose o f s eemingly h igh v alue , o n a l imited n umber o f s ites . I n n orth B ritain s uch a n i nterpretation h as b een a dvanced f or t he m aterial a t S tanwick Manson a nd C ampbell 1 986 , 7 7) ; b ooty m ight b e r ecorded a s s poradic a nd v aried c ollections o f m aterial o f s ome i ntrinsic v alue ; e xchange , o n t he o ther h and , n ight b e p erceived a s a t wow ay p rocess i n w hich m aterial w as p assed f rom t he i ndigenous s ociety i n r eturn f or i tems a ccessible o nly f rom R oman s ources , w hether t raders o r e stablished m arkets . M ost p robably t his w ould i nvolve R oman a rtefacts o n t he o ne h and a nd e ssential r esources o n t he o ther, a lthough t his c ould i nvolve

l ocal

p roduction

f or

R oman m arkets .

R oman

a rtefacts

t hemselves

m ight b e v alued b y t he n ative p opulation e ither f or t heir i ntrinsic w orth o r f or t heir s ymbolic s tatus , b y w hich t hey w ould e mphasise t he p ower o f e lite g roups t o o btain m aterial n ot a vailable t o e very s ection o f c ontemporary

s ociety .

I n S cotland i n t he p re-Antonine p eriod , i t w as n oted t hat t he s mall q uantity o f R oman m aterial w as l argely r estricted t o a f ew s ettlements , a nd t his w as p articularly t rue o f b ronze a nd g lass i tems . T hese s ites i ncluded t he s o-called ' minor o ppidum ' a t T raprain L aw a nd l owland b rochs a nd c rannogs , a ll o f u nusual a rchitectural f orm . I t i s , t herefore , p robable t hat e xchange b etween R aman a nd n ative a t t his t ime i nvolved o nly t he e lite o f n ative s ociety r ather t han t he w hole r ange o f t he p opulation . T he q uality o f t he m aterial i s n ot p articularly c o mensurate w ith h igh s tatus g ifts, h owever , a nd m ay i nstead r epresent a m ore g eneral e xchange m onopolised b y t he n ative e lite g roups . T he l ack o f m aterial c learly p red ating t he m ilitary o ccupation m ight i ndicate t hat t he a rmy i tself p layed a n i mportant r ole i n t his i nitial c ontact , w hich s eems t o h ave t aken p lace w ithin t he c onstraints o f t he e xisting s ocial h ierarchy a nd d id n ot i nvolve g eneral a ccess t o R oman m arkets. I n t he A ntonine p eriod R oman m aterial h ad a b roader d istribution , b oth g eographically a nd i n t erms o f s ettlement t ypes . T he q uantity o f m aterial w as f ar g reater b ut a lthough p ottery h ad a n a lmost u niform d istribution t hroughout t he c ountry , t hat o f g lass a nd b ronze i tems r emained m ore c oncentrated i n l owland S cotland . T he g reater a vailability o f t his m aterial t o aw ider r ange o f s ettlements , a lbeit i n s mall a mounts , s uggests n ot o nly t hat i t h as l ess v alue b ut a lso t hat t here w as a w ider a ccess t o p ersonal i tems , l ike b rooches, t han t hat o f t he e arlier p eriod , w hen v essels w ere m ore c ommon , w hich m ight i ndicate t hat i t w as o btained a nd u sed o n a m ore i ndividual b asis t han e arlier . S uch a w idening o f d istribution m igh h ave r esulted f rom a l onger p eriod o f c ontact b etween t he R oman a rmy a nd t he 12

n ative p opulation i n g eneral . Y et t he c ontrast b etween t he c ollection o f R oman m aterial o n T raprain L aw a nd m ost o ther s ettlements i ndicates t hat t his c ontact s till d id n ot t ake p lace u niformly w ithin n ative s ociety . A lthough t hose s ites w hich p roduced t he g reatest c oncentrations o f R oman m aterial i n t he e arlier p eriod g enerally c ontinued t o o btain t hese g oods , t he c oncentration o n T raprain L aw i n t he A ntonine p eriod s uggests t hat t his s ite g ained a scendency o ver t he o th ers . T his f act , t ogether w ith t he m ore p ersonal n ature o f t he R oman m aterial i tself , m ight r eflect a l oosening o f t he e xisting s ocial s ystem . I t i s n ot c lear t o w hat e xtent t his d evelopment w as r elated t o t he R oman o ccupation i tself , s ince t here a re i ndications t hat c hanges w ere b eginning t o t ake p lace w ithin t he s ettlement p attern b efore t he R oman p eriod ( Macinnes 1 982 , 6 7) . N evertheless , i t i s p ossible t hat t he a scendency o f T raprain L aw w as a t l east m aintained b y a p referential c ontact w ith R ome a nd i ts a pparently c entral r ole i n t he c ontact b etween R oman a nd n ative . E xchange b etween R oman a nd n ative i n g eneral w as c learly m ore c ommon i n t he A ntonine p eriod a nd i n a m ilitary z one i t m ight b e e xpected t hat v ici p layed a f ocal r ole a s c entres f or t he p ayment o f t ribute a nd c oncomitant t rade ( Sommer 1 984) . S uch s ites a re a ttested i n S cotland , b ut h ave n ot s een m uch e xcavation ( Hanson a nd M axwell 1 983 , 1 88-90) . H owever , t heir p otential i mportance t o t he r elationship b etween R oman a nd n ative h as b een s tressed b y i ndications o f t he e xtent o f t he v icus a t I nveresk , w hich w as c learly a n i mportant R oman c entre ( Richmond 1 980) . T he f act t hat T raprain L aw a lso f lourished s o c lose t o t his v icus u nderlines t he i mportance o f t he n ative s ite a nd w ould s eem s ignificant b etween t he t wo s ides.

i n u nderstanding

t he

r elationship

F irstly , t he c ollection o f R oman g oods a t T raprain L aw g reatly e xceeds t hat o f a ny o ther n ative s ite i n t he m id s econd c entury i n r ange , q uality a nd q uantity . S econdly , i t a ppears t o h ave p rovided a f ocal p oint f or l ocal r ural s ettlement ( Macinnes 1 984b , 1 92-3) a nd w as t herefore i n a g ood p osition t o p rovide a l ink b etween t he R oman a rmy a nd t he n ative p opulation . T he i ndications f rom t he s ite o f t he m anufacture o f i tems w hich h ave b een f ound o n b oth R oman a nd n ative s ites , t ogether w ith t he p ossibility t hat i t c ontinued t o b e d efended a t t his t ime ( Jobey 1 976 , 1 99 ), f urther s uggests t hat T raprain L aw m ay i ndeed h ave p layed a p rimary r ole i n t he c ontact b etween R oman a nd n ative i n t he e astern l owlands . R ecent s peculation C ai n 1 987 ) t hat t he i mportance o f T raprain L aw i n t his p eriod w as a s as anctuary r ather t han a s ettlement d oes n ot e xplain a ll t he e vidence . T he p otential e xtent o f i ts i nfluence m ust r emain a m atter o f s peculation i n t he a bsence o f p roper e xamination o f c omparable s ites , s uch a s E ildon H ill N orth , a nd i t i s p ossible t hat t he o ther ' minor o ppida ' f ulfilled s imilarly i mportant f unctions i n t heir o wn l ocalities . N onetheless, t he e xcavation o f B urnswark s tands i n m arked c ontrast t o T raprain L aw i n i ndicating a c ontraction i n s ize , i f n ot a cutal a bandonment , b y t he m id s econd c entury ( Jobey 1 978 ), w hile r ecent e xplorations a t E ildon H ill N orth h ave p roduced o nly a l imited r ange o f R oman m aterial i n u pper l evels ( Owen 1 986 a nd p ers c omm ) . I t r emains p ossible , t herefore , t hat t he i nfluence o f T raprain L aw s pread c onsiderably b eyond i ts i mmediate v icinity . T he o bvious i mportance o f t his s ite , t ogether w ith t he p resence o f m aterial o f n ative m anufacture o n R oman s ites , s erves t o u nderline t he p robability t hat c ontact b etween t he t wo c ultures w as c loser t han p reviously t hought a nd t hat r egular e xchange w as t aking p lace . L ess d irect c ontact w ith R ome f ollowing t he A ntonine w ithdrawal f rom S cotland i s r eflected i n t he m ore l imited d istribution o f R oman g oods 13

t hroughout t he c ountry , s upporting t he s uggestion t hat t he a rmy p layed a n i mportant r ole i n t he e xchange s ystem . T he s poradic f iner m aterial f ound i n a b road d istribution m ight b e t he r esult o f l imited t rade , p erhaps d uring l ater R oman c ampaigns n orthwards , o r n ative r aiding . T he c oin h oards o f t his p eriod m ight b e s een i n a s imilar l ight, a lthough t hey m ight a lso r epresent s pecific p ayments b y R oman a uthorities t o n ative l eaders a ttested i n t he l iterary s ources ( Robertson 1 970 , 2 10 ) . N or s hould o ne f orget t hat a bandoned R oman f orts w ere b eing u sed a s q uarries , s ince R oman d ressed s tone h as b een r ecovered f rom C astlelaw a nd C richton . O nce a gain , h owever , i t i s o nly T raprain L aw t hat h as p roduced a ny a ppreciable a ssemblage o f R oman a rtefacts a nd i t a lone s eems t o h ave m aintained a r egular d egree o f c ontact w ith t he R oman w orld.

C onclusion S cotland w as c learly n ever f ully a ssimilated i nto t he R oman p rovince a nd t he d egree o f c ontact b etween R oman a nd n ative t here i s u ndoubtedly s light i n t he c ontext o f t he e mpire a s aw hole . T his w as p robably d ue , a t l east i n p art , t o t he s hort d uration o f t he R oman o ccupation , w hich d id n ot a llow a g reater d egree o f i nteraction t o d evelop . N evertheless , i t i s a rguable t hat t he d egree o f i nteraction b etween R oman a nd n ative i n S cotland w as m ore s ignificant w hen v iewed i n i ts l ocal c ontext . T he e ffect o f t he o ccupation o n t he m ajority o f s ettlements w as p robably m inimal a nd R oman g oods m ay i ndeed h ave b een n o m ore t han i nsignificant , t hough i nteresting , t rinkets . Y et t he u pper l evels o f s ociety , p articularly i n l owland S cotland , s eem t o h ave s ucceeded i n e stablishing c loser l inks w ith t he R oman w orld , w ho p referred t o m aintain t he s tatus-quo b y d ealing w ith t he l ocal e lite g roups . T he f ailure b y R ome t o h old e ven l owland S cotland m ay , t herefore , h ave b een d ue a s m uch t o t heir o wn p olitical o r m ilitary d ictates a s t o i ndigenous s ocial f actors ( Breeze 1 982, 6 6-7, 1 23) . T he o bvious i mportance o f T raprain L aw m ight r eflect a p articularly c lose r elationship w ith R ome , p erhaps c lient s tatus . C ertainly l owland S cotland w ould h ave p rovided a n i mportant b uffer z one b etween t he p rovince t o t he s outh a nd t he l argely u nconquered t erritory t o t he n orth , w hich d id i ndeed b ecome t he f ocus f or u nrest i n t he l ate R oman p eriod. T he

d evelopment

o f

c ontact

b etween R oman

a nd

n ative

c onsistent w ith t hat o f o ther f rontier a reas w ithin D enmark ( Hedeager 1 978), w here t he d istribution c onstrained b y i nternal s ocial a nd p olitical f actors .

i n S cotland i s

t he e mpire , s uch a s o f R oman g oods i s I t i s o nly w hen s uch

m aterial i s e xamined i n i ts l ocal c ontext t hat t he i mportance o f i ndigenous f actors i n t he a ssimilation o f t ribal g roups i nto t he R omanised w orld c an b e u nderstood .

E xchange b etween t he n ative p opulation a nd o ccupying f orces o n

t he f ringes o f t he e mpire m ay b e a t a c omparatively l ow l evel, b ut i t w as c learly n ot u niform a nd i t d id h ave s ignifi ance w ithin t he l ocal s ociety . I n c onsidering t he b road i nteraction b etween t he R oman w orld a nd n ative s ocieties, t hen , i t i s i mportant t o r ealise t hat t he p articular c ircumstances p revailing i n t he f rontier a reas m ay h ave b een m ore s ignificant t hat t he g eneralised v iew o ften a dmits .

14

B IBLIOGRAPHY B RANDT , R W 1 983 : A B rief E ncounter A long t he N orthern F rontier . I n B randt , RW & S lofstra J ( eds), R oman a nd N ative i n t he L ow C ountries: s pheres o f i nteraction . ( Oxford , B rit A rchaeol R ep I nt S er 1 84) , 1 29-45 . B REEZE , D J 1 982 :

T he N orthern F rontiers o f R oman B ritain .

L ondon .

F ULFORD , M G 1 985 : R oman M aterial i n B arbarian S ociety c 2 00 B C - cA D 4 00. I n C hampion, T C & Megaw , J V S ( eds), S ettlement a nd S ociety : a spects o f w est E uropean p rehistory i n t he f irst m illennium B C . L eicester , 9 1108 . G UIDO , M 1 978 : T he G lass B eads o f t he P rehistoric a nd R omano-British P eriods i n B ritain a nd I reland . ( London , R ep R es C mte S oc A ntiq L ondon 3 5 ) . H ALLIDAY , S P 1 982 : I n H arding ( ed) , 7 5-91 .

L ater P rehistoric F arming i n S outh-East S cotland .

H ANSON , W S 1 977-78 : R oman C ampaigns N orth o f t he F orth-Clyde I sthmus : t he e vidence o f t he t emporary c amps . P roc S oc Antiq S cot 1 09 , 1 977-78 ( 19 78), 1 4050 . H ANSON , W S 1 987 :

A gricola a nd t he C onquest o f t he N orth .

H ANSON , W SA ND C AMPBELL , DB 1 986 : c onquest . B ritannia 1 7 , 7 3-89 . HANSON , W SA ND MACINNES , L 1 981: K enworthy ( ed ) , 9 8113 . H ANSON ,

W SA ND MACINNES ,

W ales a nd S cotland .

T he B rigantes :

f rom c lientage t o

F orests, F orts a nd F ields .

L f orthcoming :

I n J ones , R FJ

L ondon .

I n

S oldiers a nd S ettlement i n

( ed ) , R oman B ritain .

HANSON, W S AND MAXWELL, G S W est F rontier : t he A ntonine W all . E dinburgh .

19 83 :

Rome's

North-

HARDING , D W ( ED) 1 982: L ater P rehistoric S ettlement i n S outhE ast S cotland . ( Edinburgh , U niv E dinburgh D ept A rchaeol O ccas P ap 8 ) . H EDEAGER , L 1 978 : A Q uantitive A nalysis o f R oman I mports i n E urope N orth o f t he L ines ( 0-400 A D ), a nd t he Q uestion o f R oman-Germanic E xchange . I n Kristiansen , K and P aludan-Mi iller, C ( eds), N ew D irections i n S candinavian A rchaeology . ( Copenhagen , S tud S candinavian P rehist E arly H ist

1 ) ,

1 9 1216 .

H IGHAM ,

N J 1 986 :

T he N orthern C ounties t o A D 1 000 .

H ILL , PH 1 982 : B roxmouth H ill-Fort E xcavations , r eport . I n H arding ( KO, 1 41-88 . H ILL , P H 1 987 : T raprain S cot A rchaeol R vw 4 , 8 5-96 .

L aw :

1 15

t he

L ondon .

1 977-78 ;

Votadini

a nd

a n i nterim

t he

R omans .

J OBEY , G 1 976 : T raprain L aw : a s ummary . I n H arding , D W ( ed), H illforts : l ater p rehistoric e arthworks i n B ritain a nd I reland . L ondon , 1 92-204 . J OBEY , G 1 977-78 : B urnswark H ill , D umfriesshire . G alloway N atur H ist A ntiq S oc 1 977-78 ( 1978 ) , 5 7104 . K ENWORTHY, ( Edinburgh ,

J ( ED),

Agricola's

C ampaigns

i n S cotland .

S cot A rchaeol F orum 1 2) .

K ILBRIDE-JONES ,

H E 1 980 :

MACINNES , L 1 982 : H arding ( ed ), 5 7-73 . MACINNES , S cotland .

1 981:

T rans D umfriesshire

C eltic C raftsmen i n B ronze .

P attern a nd P urpose :

L 1 984a :

B rochs

a nd

P roc S oc A ntiq S cot 14 ,

L ondon .

t he s ettlement e vidence .

I n

t he R oman O ccupation o f L owland

2 35-49 .

M ACINNES , L 1 984b : S ettlement a nd E conomy : E ast L othian a nd t he T yneF orth p rovince. I n Miket, R & B urgess, C B ( eds), B etween and B eyond t he W alls : e ssays o n t he p rehistory a nd h istory o f n orth B ritain i n h onour o f G eorge J obey . E dinburgh , 1 76-98 . M ANNING , WH 1 981:. N ative a nd R oman M etalwork i n N orthern B ritain : q uestion o f o rigins a nd i nfluences .

I n K enworthy ( ed) ,

a

5 2-61 .

O WEN , 0 19 86 : A n I nterim R eport o n T rial E xcavations o n t he F ort o n E ildon H ill N orth , R oxburghshire , 19 86 . E dinburgh . R ICHMOND , IA 1 978-80 : A R oman F ort a t I nveresk , M idlothian , H anson ) . P roc S oc A ntiq S cot 10 , 1 978-80 ( 1980 ) , 2 86-304 . R OBERTSON , A S 1 970 : B ritannia 1 , 1 98-226 .

R oman F inds

f rom N on-Roman S ites

( ed W S

i n S cotland .

R OBERTSON , A S 1 975 : T he R omans i n N orth B ritain : t he c oin e vidence . I n T emporini , H ( ed), A ufstieg u nd N iedergang d er r ömischen W elt, 1 1 .3 . B erlin & N ew Y ork , 3 64-426 . S EKULLA , M F 1 982: T he P roc S oc A ntiq S cot 12 , 2 85-94 .

R oman

C oins

f rom

S OMMER , C S 1 984 : T he M ilitary V ici i n R oman B ritain . A rchaeol R ep I nt S er 1 29 ) . S TEVENSON ,

R B K 1 966 :

T raprain

Law .

( Oxford , B rit

M etalwork a nd s ome o ther O bjects i n S cotland

a nd t heir c ultural A ffinities . A ge i n N orthern B ritain . E dinburgh ,

I n R ivet, 1 7-44 .

16

A L F ( ed),

T he I ron

C hapter 8 B ARBARIANS T O T HE W EST B arry R aftery

I ron A ge b eginnings i n I reland a re o bscure . b ronze ,

H allstatt s words o f

l ate i nsular v ersions o f t he c ontinental G ündlingen s words a nd t he

r elated w inged c hapes , a ppear i n t he I rish a rchaeological r ecord p robably i n t he l atter p art o f t he s eventh c entury B C . A c ontemporary r eplica i n w ood o f aH allstatt C s word f rom C appagh , C o K erry ( Fig 8 . 1) c learly d emonstrates c omplete n ative f amiliarity w ith t he i mported s word t ypes ( J R aftery 1 960

F ig 8 .1

W ooden

r eplica

o f

H allstatt

P hoto : N at M us I reland .

17

C s word .

C appagh ,

C o

K erry .

2 4 ,

F ig

1 2) .

A f ew H allstatt b racelets o f b ronze a nd a s mall

n umber o f

d ress f asteners h ave a lso b een r ecovered f rom t he c ountry a nd s everal o ther i tems s urvive w hich r eflect i nfluence f rom f oreign H allstatt t raditions ( Eogan 1 964 , 3 20-3 ; E ogan 1 965 , B . R aftery , 1 984 , 7 14) .

a ll

T he a re

s ignificance s tray f inds ,

1 315 ,

2 1 ;

H erity a nd E ogan 1 977 ,

2 19-24 ;

o f t hese o bjects c ontinues t o b e d ebated a s a lmost m ainly f rom r ivers , a nd s o w ithout a rchaeological

c ontext . T he f ew c ontexts w hich d o e xist a re , h owever , u nequivocally n ative . E xcavations a t N avan F ort , C o A rmagh , f or e xample , h ave p roduced a w inged c bape f ragment o f H allstatt C t ype i n o ccupation l evels o therwise p roducing n ormal, i ndigenous L ate B ronze A ge b ronzes ( Mallory a .p .s . , L ynn 1 986 , 1 6 ) a nd a p enannular , k nob-ended b racelet o f e ast F rench H allstatt o rigin , w as f ound i n ah oard a t K ilmurry , C o K erry w ith b ronzes o f l ocal m anufacture Mogan 1 983 , N o 9 0) . A n o ccupation l evel i n a c rannog a t R athtinaun , C o . S ligo c ontained a s wan 's n eck p in o f i ron a nd w as a ccompanied b y s everal o ther i ron o bjects i ncluding a f leshhook a nd a s haft-hole a xehead R aftery 1 972, 3 ) . A gain , h owever , t he m ass o f t he m aterial f rom t his s ite i s c learly i n t he l ocal L ate B ronze A ge t radition . T he l imited a rchaeological e vidence t hus s uggests t hat o ur e arliest " Iron A ge" w as a g radual d evelopment u naccompanicd b y a ny s ignificant c hanges i n p opulation . A t R athtinaun , i ndeed , t he v ery a ct o f t ransition f rom b ronze-using t o i ron-using m ay b e p resent f or t he i ron s haft-hole a xehead d iscovered t here i s l ikely t o h ave b een m ade l ocally ( B R aftery 1 983 N o 5 83) . S uch a t echnologically t ransitional s tage m ay a lso b e r epresented b y s everal s tray a rtefacts o f i ron s uch a s t wo l ooped a nd s ocketed a xeheads f rom A ntrim ( Raftery 1 983 , N os 5 67 , 5 77) a nd a r iveted , s heet-iron c auldron f rom C avan ( Scott 1 974 , 1 6 ; R aftery 1 983 , N o 5 55 ; 1 984 , 9 )

T he I rish L a T ane H orizon T here

i s

g rcat

u ncertainty

d evelopments i n I reland F rom a bout 3 00 B C o nwards ,

c oncerning

t he

n ature

o f

c ultural

i n t he y ears b etween a bout 6 00 a nd 3 00 B C h owever , o bjects o f L a T ane c haracter b egin t o

a ppear i n t he I rish a rchaeological r ecord . I t i s n ot , h owever , c ertain i f w e a re j ustified i n u sing t he t erm ' culture ' t o d escribe t his b ody o f m aterial. T he L a T ane p resence i n I reland c learly c onstitutes a r ecognisable a rchaeological e ntity m ade u p o f a rtefacts o f s pecific t ypes , f requently b earing d ecoration o f L a T ane i nspiration .

B ut t his e ntity i s

c omposed a lmost t otally o f s cattered o bjects , g enerally w ithout a ssociation a nd o ften w ithout f ind s pot . T here a re f ew r elated b urials a nd v irtually n o s ettlement s ites . I t s hould a lso b e r emembered t hat t he L a T ane o bjects d o n ot b elong t o a s ingle c hronological h orizon b ut a re r ather t he p roduct o f t hree o r f our h undred y ears o f m anufacturing a ctivity . T hus, i n h istorical t erms , t he i mpact o f t his a rchaeological h orizon o n c ontemporary s ociety a t a ny g iven t ime n eed n ot h ave b een d ramatic . T he l atter p oint i s w orth b earing i n m ind w hen d ebating t he o rigins o f L a T ane I reland . F olk i ntrusions o n a s izable s cale , o ften i mbued w ith l inguistic s ignificance , a re f requently i nvoked a s am odel t o e xplain t he L a T ane p resence h ere . T he a ppearance o f L a T ane e lements i n I reland i s t hus s ometimes t aken a s e vidence o f ' Celtic ' i mmigration . L inguists , h istorians a nd a rchaeologists h ave a rgued t his p oint b ut t here i s , a s y et , n o a greed s olution t o t he q uestion o f I rish C eltic o rigins , m uch l ess L a T ane o rigins . I t m ust

b e

e mphasised ,

h owever ,

t hat

t he o verwhelming m ajority o f o ur L a

18

2

3

F ig 8 .2

B ronze

h orsebits .

A ttymon ,

C o G alway

1 ,

K innefad

( Scale 2 :5) .

19

B ridge ,

C o

O ffaly .

2 ,

n o

p rov

3 ,

T ane

a rtefacts

a re

o f

n ative m anufacture w ith

b ut

a h andful

o f

i mports .

I nfluences , s pread o ver s everal c enturies f rom d ifferent a reas o f t he L a T ane w orld o utside , a re c learly d etectable i n t he I rish m aterial . I f w e m ust u se t he m ovement o f p eople a s a n e xplanation f or t he L a T ane p resence i n I reland i t c an o nly h ave b een o n a n e xtremely l imited s cale a nd m ust h ave t aken p lace g radually o ver m any g enerations . T he b asic e thnic s tability o f I reland d uring m ost

o f

t he

l ast

m illennium B C

c annot

h ave

b een g reatly

d isrupted. T he p roper i nterpretation o f t he I rish L a T ane h orizon i n s ocial a nd e conomic t erms i s n ot e asy . T he m aterial s eems i n v ery l arge m easure t o b e r epresentative o f a s elect s tratum o f s ociety c onsiderably r emoved f rom t he m undane a ctivities o f t he m ajority o f t he p opulation . G old c ollars, e ngraved s cabbards o r t he g reat , s heet-bronze t rumpets a re h ardly t he s tuff o f e veryday l ife . T he p easant f armer , u ndoubtedly t he n umerically d ominant e lement i n a ny p re-industrial s ociety , i s p oorly r epresented i n t he a rchaeological r ecord . O ur p icture o f L a T ane I reland i s t hus b ased o n b iased a nd i ncomplete e vidence .

2

F ig 8 .3

B ronze h orse A ughrim ,

' pendants '

C o G alway ( 1 ,

. 1 , T ara-Skreen , t otal L 3 3 .0cm ; 1 20

2 ,

C o M eath .

2 ,

U rraghry ,

t otal L 3 0 .6cm ) .

H orse t rappings , h ardly t hc n ormal p ossessions o f t he h umble t illers o f t he s oil, c onstitute b y f ar t he l argest g roup o f s urviving m etal o bjects i n t he I rish L a T ane h orizon ( Haworth 1 971; B R aftery 1 983 , N os 1 -234 ; 1 984 , 1 5-57) . T hree l ink b ridle-bits, u sually o f b ronze , a re f ound i n e very a rea o f

t he I rish L a

8 . 2) .

T ane p rovince a nd n ow n umber

T here a re

9 5 o f

1 39 r ecordcd s pecimens ( Fig

t he s o-called ' pendants '

o f Y -shape ,

u niquely

I rish

a rtefacts a ssociated i n s ome u nknown w ay w ith t he h orse h arness ( Fig 8 .3) . T he b its a nd t he ' pendants ' a re f ine c astings , n ot i nfrequently a dorned w ith c ast , e ngraved o r c hamplevg o rnament . T he p ainstaking r epairs w hich w ere c arried o ut o n m any e xamples i ndicate t hat t hese w ere v aluable a nd p rized p osses9ions .

M ost a re i ndividual f inds w hich m ay

u sed i n h orse r iding .

s uggest t hat t hey w ere

T he o ccasional d iscovery o f m atching p airs

a nd t he

p resence o f a symmetric o rnament o n a n umber o f s pecimens s hows t hat t hey a lso f unctioned i n p aired d raught . W e c annot, h owever , s ay w hether t his i s e vidence f or t he u se o f c hariotry ( Jope 1 955) . T his i s o therwise h inted a t b y a f ew b ronze f ittings , a ll l ater t han t he b irth o f C hrist, a nd a w ooden h orse-yoke f rom Dungannon , C o T yrone ( B R aftery 1 984, 5 6-61) . W ooden f ragments,

r ecently d iscovered u nder a m id-second c entury B C r oadway

b og a t C orlea , c art ,

C o L ongford ( B R aftery 1 986),

b ut a gain n ot n ecessarily a c hariot .

I reland t hey a re

I f s uch d id ,

l ikely t o h ave b een t he s imple ,

d cscribed b y G reene

( 1972)

b lock-wheels s uch a s

a nd H arbison

i n a

m ay b e p ortions o f aw agon o r

( 1969 ) .

t hose f rom D oogarymore ,

i n f act e xist

i n

u tilitarian v ehicles a s

T hey

c ould

e ven h ave h ad

C o R oscommon ( Lucas 1 972,

2 9-

3 0). W eapons, which a gain r eflect

t he w arrior e lement o f

s urprisingly r are f rom L a T ane I reland .

T ane a nd r elated t ypes f rom t he c ountry ( Fig 8 .4) d ozen :

s ociety,

a re

T he n umber o f i ron s words o f L a i s

s till

l ess t han t wo

o nly o ne n ew f ind ( Rynne 1 983-84, 8 10) c an b e a dded t o t hose l isted

i n t he w riter 's R ynne 1 982 ,

1 983 c atalogue :

9 3-7) .

i n l ength ,

( B R aftery ,

s ome e ven b elow 4 0cm .

a nd j abbing i s t hus i mplied . p lates w ith

c ast ,

N os 2 60-75 ;

N os 2 38-59 ;

1 984 ,

6 2-73 ;

T heir u se a t c lose q uarters f or s tabbing

T he f ew s urviving s cabbards a re m ade o f b ronze

o penwork c hapes

1 984 ,

o rnamented a long

1 983,

A ll h ave e xtremely s hort b lades, a lways l ess t han 5 0cm

7 4107 ,

t heir

a t

t heir n arrowed

F ig 8 .4) .

t ips

( B R aftery 1 983,

T hese s cabbards a re o ften p rofusely

l ength w ith r ocked-graver d esigns .

T hey i llustrate

m ore t han a nything e lse t he a ristocratic c ontent o f t he s urviving m etalwork h orizon .

S pears w ere ,

i n a ll p robability ,

w idely u sed i n L a T ane I reland .

D ifficulties o f d ating i ndividual s pecimens , h owever , m ake i t i mpossible t o e stablish h ow m any o f t he e xamples i n o ur v arious m useums a re o f l ron A ge d ate

( B R aftery 1 983, N os 2 81-5 ;

f errules 1 983 ,

w hich

N os

d ecorated

2 88-9 1)

a nd

t he

t he

1 984 ,

1 0810) .

s pearshafts

a re ,

b ronze b utts w hich

A f ew c ylindrical b ronze h owever ,

f itted

o nto

k nown

( B

t he

e nds

R aftery o f

t he

s hafts a re f airly w ell r epresented i n t he a rchaeological r ecord ( B . R aftery 1 983 , N os 2 92-359 ; t wo

t ypes ,

t he

1 984 10-28 , F ig 8 .5) .

' L isnacrogher '

t he Y lo m ia lob ' t ype , a lso

k nown ,

s ome

t ype ,

T hese i nclude k nobbed b utts o f

a n e xclusively n orth-eastern

c ommoner w est o f t he S hannon .

o f h ammered

s heet-bronze ,

f orm a nd

L ong t ubular b utts a re

t he m ajority c ast .

T hese a re

g enerally r iver f inds a nd h ave a d istinctly , t hough n ot e xclusively , w estern d istribution . s pecimen .

A f ourth t ype o f s pearbutt

i s

t he c onical o r t rumpet-shaped

T hese n arrow s harply f rom o ne e nd t o t he o ther a nd h ave a b road

c ollar a round t he w ider e nd . i n c onsequence ,

T hey a re n ever d ecorated a nd t heir d ating i s ,

t o a l arge e xtent g uesswork .

A s ingle c omplete s hield o f p robable L a T ane d ate i s k nown f rom I reland ( Fig

8 .6) .

T ipperary ,

T his

i s

as mall,

t he

l eather-covered w ooden e xample

f rom C lonoura ,

C o

r ectangular s hield o nly 5 7cm i n l ength ( B R aftery 1 983 ,

1 21

F ig 8 .4

N o 2 79 ;

B ronze s cabbard-plates a nd i ron s word . 1 , R . B ann , T oome, C o A ntrim . 2 -5 , L isnacrogher , C o A ntrim ( Scale a pprox . 1 :4) .

1 984 ,

1 29-33) .

I t r etains t he s cars o f b attle o n i t a nd i s l ikely

t o b e m ore t ypical o f t he n ormal, f unctional i mplement u sed i n t hese i slands d uring t he I ron A ge t han a re t he m agnificently d ecorated m etal s hields s uch a s t hose f ound i n s outhern E ngland . T he o nly o ther c ontemporary e vidence f or t he u se o f t he s hield i n I reland i s t he f ragmentary e xample f rom a n i ntrusive f irst c entury b urial d iscovered o n L ambay I sland , C o D ublin ( Rynne 1 976 , 2 36 ; B R aftery 1 983 , N o 2 80 ; 1 984 , 1 29 ) ; a lthough s ome i ron m ounts f ound i n t he e xcavations a t N avan F ort , C o A rmagh m ay a lso b e f rom a s hield ( C . L ynn , p ers c o rm ) . P ersonal o rnament i s a s ignificant c omponent o f o ur I rish L a n 'ne h orizon b ut a gain t he q uantity o f s urviving m aterial i s s mall . C ommonest i tems a re p ins a nd b rooches w hich a re u sually o f b ronze . I n a ll, t he r ecordcd n umber o f e xamples i s u nder 7 0 . T he p rincipal t ypes a re s afetyp in f ibulae , r ingheaded p ins a nd N avan-type b rooches ( Fig 8 .7-8 ) .

1 22

F ig 8 .5

B ronze s pearbutts . 1 , L isnacrogher , C o A ntrim . 2 , R oscommon . 3 , C londalee , C o M eath . 4 , R . S hannon , B anagher , C o O ffaly ( Scale 1 :2).

B oth r od-bow a nd l eaf-bow f ibulae a re k nown ( B R aftery 1 983 , N os 3 648 8 ; 1 984 , 1 44-53 ; H awkes 1 982) . A lmost a ll a re o f l ocal m anufacture s o t hat a bsolute d ating i s v ague b ut t he m ajority b elong t o a d eveloped p hase o f t he L a T ene f ibula t radition a nd s ome a re l ikely t o d ate a fter t he b irth o f C hrist . F ibulae a re c onspicuously a bsent i n n orth-east U lster . T he l eaf-bow v ariant i s c oncentrated i n s outh-central U lster w hile w est o f t he S hannon t he r od-bow f orm a lone i s f ound . A f ew c ome f rom b urials a nd s everal a re f rom o ccupation s ites . T he m ajority a re s tray f inds . C raftsmanship i s , i n s ome i nstances , o f e xceptionally h igh q uality . T his i s s hown i n p articular b y t he f inely-modelled b ird 's h ead f oot o f t he L ecarrow , C o S ligo e xample ( B R aftery 1 983, N o 3 75; 1 984, P 1 4 7:2, F ig 8 .7:6) a nd t he s uperb , s inuous t rumpets o n a f ibula f rom C logher , C o T yrone ( B R aftery 1 983 , N o 3 76 ; 1 984 , P 1 4 5 ; F ig 8 .7 :5) . R ingheaded p ins , c haracterised b y a r ing , a n a ngular s houlder a nd a s traight o r c urved s hank , w ere a lso w orn ( B R aftery 1 983, N os 3 94-431;

1 23

F ig 8 .6

L eather-covered w ooden s hield . T ipperary . ( L 5 5 .4cm ) .

1 984 ,

1 57-7 9 .

L ittleton B og,

C lonoura,

C o

P hoto : N at Mus I reland . .

T hese a re a n e xclusively

i nsular

t ype

a nd

i nfluence

f rom

s outhern B ritain m ay h ave c ontributed t o t he I rish d evelopment .

T he

s implest , a nd p erhaps t he e arliest, a re t hose w ith u nadorned , a nnular r ings ( Fig 8 .7 :1) . M ore e laborate v ersions , c reated i n I rish w orkshops , p ossess r ings c ast w ith r aised s piral a nd l eaf d esigns ( Fig 8 .74) o r r ings w ith b road

r ecesses

E xamples

o f

a t

t he

b oth I rish

f ront t ypes

f or

t he r etention o f e namel

h ave

b een f ound

s tuds

( Fig 8 .7 :2) .

i n B ritain ( B R aftery

1 984 ,

1 68 , 1 71) . A f inal, m ore d isparate , g roup o f I rish r ingheaded p ins i ncludes t hose w ith r ingheads c ast i n t he s hape o f s inuously-curving b ird 's h eads ( Fig 8 .7 :3) .

T hese o ften h ave a s harply-curving p in .

R ingheaded p ins a re s cattered f airly w idely i n L a T ane a reas I reland .

I t

c oncentrated f ibula

i s

i s

n oticeable,

h owever,

i n n orth-east U lster ,

a bsent .

I t

i s

n ot

i n

c lear

c hronologically

s ignificant ,

f or

n earest w e h ave

t o a n o bjective

t he

t hat v ery

t o w hat

d ating d ate

i s

t hey

a rea w here

e xtent

c ontemporary

w ith ,

o r

t his

v irtually

s lightly

e arlier

t he

s afety-pin

i s c ulturally o r n on-existent .

1 24

1 983 ,

t han ,

o f

p articularly

f or a ny I rish r ingheaded p in i s

e xample f rom t he N avan F ort e xcavations ( B R aftery e ither

a re

t he

N o 4 07) . l atest

T he t he

T his i s p hase

o f

2

•

4

4 ' e z ze e

V •

F ig 8 .7

•

et

6

5

P ins a nd b rooches o f b ronze . 1 , n o . p rov . 2 , L isnacrogher , C o A ntrim . 3 , R . S hannon . 4 , O 'Connor 's I sland , G range , C o S ligo . 5 , C logher ,

C o T yrone . 6 , L ecarrow , C o S ligo ( Scale 1 :2) .

c onstruction a t t he s ite w hich w as d ated b y d endrochronology t o a bout 1 00 B C ( C L ynn , p ers c omm ) . A f orm o f d ress-fastener c onfined t o I reland i s t he N avan-type b rooch , s o-called b ecause t wo o f t he f ive k nown s pecimens a re s aid t o h ave b een f ound i n t he l ast c entury a t N avan F ort , C o A rmagh ( B R aftery 1 983 , N os 3 899 3 ; 1 984 , 1 53-7 ) . T hese h ave a n o penwork b ow , p rofusely o rnamented w ith r aised t rumpet c urves ( B R aftery 1 984 , P 1 5 0 ) . F our o f t he b rooches o f t his g roup h ad t he p in j oined a t t he b ack b y m eans o f a b all-socket m echanism . T his t echnique a ppcars t o h ave b een i ndependently i nvented b y t he n ative I rish c raftsmen , p robably i n t he f irst c entury A D .

1 25

2

F ig 8 .8

B ronze N avan-type b rooches . 1 , 3 , N avan F ort , C o A rmagh . 2 , n o p rov . 3s hown w ith p in d etached ( Scale 1 :1) . P hoto : N at Mus I reland.

A s w ell a s p ins a nd b rooches , b racelets o f b ronze , j et a nd g lass ( B R aftery 1 983 , N os 4 61-74 ; 1 984 , 1 94-7) , f inger ( and t oe? ) r ings o f b ronze ( ibid 1 97-8 ) a nd , p ossibly , e ar-rings ( . 7 R aftery 1 944 , 3 3) w ere w orn . B eads o f g lass a nd b one a dorned n ecks , a nkles a nd w rists ( B R aftery 1 984 , 1 982 05) . T he m ost s pectacular i tems o f p ersonal o rmament w ere , h owever , u ndoubtedly t he v arious n eck-rings o f g old . T hese i nclude t he f used-buffer t orc o f E arly L a T ane t ype f ound w ith a r ibbon t orc o f t he s ame m etal a t C lonmacnois , C o . O ffaly ( B R aftery 1 983 , N os 4 51, 4 54 ; 1 984 , 1 75-81 ( Fig 8 .9 :1)) a nd t he l ate L a T ane t orc a nd a ssociated n ecklets o f g old f rom B roighter , C o D erry ( Warner 1 982; 1 81-92) ( Fig 8 .9 :2) . A g old r ibbon b ronzes a t S omerset, C o G alway ( B o ther I rish r ibbon t orcs m ay a lso

BR aftery 1 983, N os 4 50, 4 56-9 ; 1 984, t orc w as a lso f ound w ith f irst c entury R aftery 1 983, N o 4 53) a nd s ome o f t he b elong t o t he I ron A ge ( B R aftery 1 984 ,

1 78-81). M agnificent g old o bjects s uch a s t hose f rom C lonmacnois a nd B roighter a re q uite o bviously e xceptional p ieces a nd t he q uestion i s i nevitably r aised a s t o w hether t hey w ere p rimarily o f v otive s ignificance . I ndeed , i t i s n ot c ertain i f t he l arge t orc f rom B roighter w as e ver i ntended t o b e w orn . T here a re , a t a ny r ate , g ood g rounds f or b elieving t hat t he C o D erry h oard i s ar itual d eposit b ut t he w hole q uestion o f a lleged ' ritual s ignificance ' , s hould b e a pproached w ith c aution i n o ur a rchaeological i nterpretation . I n s ome c ases , h owever , n o o ther e xplanation s eems a ppropriate . F or e xample , t he c arved s tones , b oth i conic a nd a niconic , c an o nly b e r egarded i n t his l ight ( B R aftery 1 984 , 2 9 1-303) a nd t he s ame a pplies t o t he w ooden f igure f rom R alaghan , C o C avan ( B R aftery 1 983, N o 8 28 ; 1 984, 3 08 ; F ig 8 . 10 ) . T he s heet-bronze t rumpets , t oo , o utstanding e xamples o f I ron A ge 1 26

2 F ig 8 .9

G old t orcs . 1 , ( Scale 1 :2).

B roighter ,

C o D erry .

2 ,

C lonmacnois ,

C o O ffaly

b ronzework , m ay w ell a lso h ave b een m ade t o s ound o n c eremonial o ccasions ( B R aftery 1 983, N os 7 81-4; 1 984, 1 34-43) . T he f our s pecimens f ound i n L oughnashade , as mall l ake a t t he f oot o f N avan F ort , C o A rmagh , a re l ikely t o h ave b een p laced t here i n t he c ourse o f s ome r itual a ctivity a nd t he s ame i s p robably t rue o f t he I rish t rumpet f ragment f rom t he p resumed c eremonial d eposit o f L lyn C errig B ach , A nglesey i n W ales ( B R aftery 1 983, N o 7 84; 1 27

F ig 8 .11

B ronze

t rumpet f ragment .

L lyn C errig B ach , Anglesey , W ales ( Total L 3 5 .2cm ) . P hoto: N at Mus W ales.

F ig 8 .10

Y ew-wood

R alaghan , P hoto :

C o,

f igure .

C avan

( Scale

a pprox .

N at M us I reland.

1 28

1 :6).

1

3

2

F ig 8 .12

F ine-line o rnament i n b ronze . 1 , " Petrie C rown" , n o p rov . 2 , d isc , C amus, L oughan I sland, R . B ann , C o D erry . 3 , o rnamental h ead-gear ,

1 984 ,

1 39 ;

F ig 8 . 11) .

C ork C ity ( Scale

1 :4) .

T he d elicacy a nd b reath-taking c raftsmanship o f t he

b ronze h orns f rom C ork a nd f rom t he P etrie c ollection ( the ' Petrie C rown ' ) a re o ften t aken t o i ndicate t hat t hese o bjects t oo f ulfilled a r itual f unction , p erhaps a s c eremonial h eadgear ( B R aftery 1 983 , N os 8 201 ; 1 984 , 2 68-75 ; F ig 8 .12) . T he e nigmatic n ature o f i tems s uch a s t he B ann D isc ( Fig 8 . 12) a nd t he M onasterevin-type d iscs ( B R aftery 1 983 , N os 7 93-92 , 7 969 2 ; 1 984 , 2 68ff" 2 76-82) , t he ' spoons ' ( B R aftery 1 983 , N os 8 22-7 ; 1 984 , 2 64-7 ; F ig 8 13) , e ven t he b one f lakes f rom L ough C rew , C o M eath ( B R aftery 1 983 , N os 6 21780 ; 1 984 , 2 51-63 ; F ig 8 . 17) h as t empted s ome c ommentators t o i mbue t hese o bjects w ith r itual s ignificance . O n o ccasion t he s plendidly-made , b ird-handled c up f ound i n a t ributary o f t he S hannon a t K eshcarrigan , C o . L eitrim ( B R aftery 1 983, N o 5 67; 1 984, 2 14-23; F ig 8 . 14) h as a lso b een t aken a s ar itual p iece . C learly , h owever , ap rimarily r itual f unction i s i n n o i nstance d emonstrated . I t i s, n one t he l ess, e vident t hat t he f ine a nd c ostly c raftsmanship i nvolved i n t he m anufacture o f s uch a rtefacts s ets t hem a part f rom t he o rdinary p opulation o f L a T ane I reland . T hat o rdinary p opulation i s , a s e arlier i ndicated , p oorly r epresented i n t he c ontemporary a rchaeological h orizon . A part f rom b eehive q uerns w hich a re w idely s pread a cross t he n orthern t wo t hirds o f t he c ountry ( Caulfield 1 977 ), t here i s o nly a s mall h andful o f o bjects p reserved w hich r eflect t he e veryday p ursuits a nd a ctivities o f t he m ajority p opulation . S everal a xes a nd a dzes, a s ickle a nd a f ew o ther i mplements a re t he o nly s urviving d omestic t ools ( B R aftery 1 984 , 2 38-42) . N umerous a xe , a dze a nd c hisel m arks h ave , h owever b een r ecently d iscovered o n t imbers o f t he I ron A ge b og r oad a t C orlea , C o . L ongford ( B R aftery 1 986 , F ig 8 . 15) . T he s ame s ite h as a lso p roduced s taves o f w ooden v essels w hich a re n o d oubt t ypical o f t he 1 29

2

F ig

8 .13

B ronze ' spoons' . N at M us I reland .

N o

p rov.

( L

1 2.7cm

a nd

1 2.8cm).

P hoto:

c ontainers u sed i n c ontemporary h ouseholds . A s mall n umber o f c ouldrons i s k nown a nd t hese m ay a lso h ave b een e mployed i n t he h ome ( B R aftery 1 983 , N os 5 55-61 ; 1 984 , 2 26-36 ), a nd t he b owls o f b ronze a nd w ood , t he b ronzeb ound w ooden t ankard f rom C arrickfergus , C o A ntrim a nd t he b ronze t azza s aid t o b e f rom E denberry , C o O ffaly m ay a lso b e i tems o f e veryday u se ( B R aftery 1 983 , N os 5 62-74 ; 1 984 , 2 14-26) . T here i s s till a t otal a bsence o f a ny d omestic p ottery f rom I ron A ge I reland . T he e arliest L a T ane o bjects i n I reland h ave a d irectly E uropean b ackground b ut t he q uantity o f m aterial i nvolved i s n ot g reat . A f ew i mports r eached t he w est o f I reland . T hese i nclude t he C lonmacnois t orc , m ade a round 3 00 B C a nd t he a nthropoid-hilted s word f rom B allyshannon B ay , C o D onegal m anufactured a bout t wo c enturies l ater i n s outh-west G aul ( B R aftery 1 984 , 3 26-7) . I t i s i n t he n orth-east o f t he c ountry , h owever , t hat t he e arliest e vidence o f a n e stablished t radition i s t o b e f ound . T his i s p rovided b y s words a nd s cabbards f rom t he R iver B ann a nd f rom t he e nigmatic b og s ite o f L isnacrogher i n C o A ntrim ( B R aftery 1 984 , 7 5 f f ) . T here c an b e n o d oubt t hat t hese w ere m ade l ocally a nd t hat s omewhere i n t he v icinity o ne o r m ore c entres o f s killed c raftsmanship e xisted . T he o rnament o n t he s cabbards - t he I rish S cabbard S tyle - d isplays a p recise a nd i ntimate a cquaintance w ith a ll t he i ntricacies o f C ontinental s cabbard e ngraving ( Fig 8 . 16) . S ome d etails o f d esign i ndicate d irect E uropean i nspiration a nd t he e arliest s cabbards c annot b e f ar r emoved f rom t he b eginning o f t he E uropean M iddle L a T ane h orizon . T he c linging I rish c hapes a nd t he t hree h ollow , t wo-piece b ronze r ings f rom L isnacrogher ( Fig 8 . 4) s upport t his s uggested e arly , C ontinental c ontribution t o t he I rish S cabbard S tyle ( B R aftery 1 984, 9 9-107) . B ut t he c raftsmen w orking i n 1 30

F ig 8 .14

B ird-head h andle o f b ronze b owl . K eshcarrigan , o f

h andle

6 .2cm ) .

P hoto : N at Mus I reland .

131

C o L eitrim ( Max L ,

F ig 8 .15

I ron a xe-mark o n t imber o f I ron A ge r oadway , C orlea , C o L ongford ( units o f

s cale ,

5 cm ) .

P hoto : B R aftery .

n orth-east U lster w ere i n c lose t ouch w ith c ontemporary d evelopments i n t he n eighbouring i sland a nd t here i s e vidence o f t echnical a nd s tylistic o verlap w ith t he t raditions o f t he T orrs-Witham-Wandsworth b ronzes

( ibid

9 5-9 ).

T here w as c ross-fertilisation b etween c raft c entres i n B ritain a nd I reland a nd t his s oon c reated a d istinctive i sland s tyle w hich w as i ncreasingly d ifferent

f rom c ontemporary a rtistic t rends o n t he E uropean m ainland .

p resence o f I rish e xports a t C oll,

A lnham ,

T he

L lyn C errig B ach a nd e lsewhere

r emind u s t hat t he m ovement o f i nfluences w as i n b oth d irections b etween t he t wo i slands . T he n ew a rt

s tyle ,

w hich d eveloped i n I reland a round t he t urn o f t he

m illennium ,

h ad m uch i n c ommon w ith

B ritain a nd

d erived i nspiraiion f rom t hat q uarter ,

v igorous

a nd

i ndependent

p ath .

T he

c ontemporary a rtistic m ovements f reehand ,

b ut

v egetal

i n

i t p ursued i ts o wn c ompositions

w hich

d istinguished t he e arlier S cabbard S tyle ( Fig 8 . 16) g ave w ay a t t his t ime t o o rnamentation b ased o n c arefully p lanned , g eometric p atterns e xecuted b y s killed a nd i ngenious u se o f t he c ompass ( Fig 8 . 17 ) . D ecoration w as t wod imensional

o r i n t he r ound a nd w as b ased o n c ircles

a nd

a rcs

o f

c ircles

c ombined t o g reat e ffect t o p roduce n ew d esigns a nd n ovel v ersions o f l ong e stablished m otifs . I n r elief , a n ew c reation , t he t rumpet c urve c aptured 1 32

F ig 8 .16

I rish S cabbard S tyle . D ecorative d etail o n b ronze s cabbard p late . R .

B ann ( max W 3 .2cm ) .

P hoto : B rit M us L ondon .

t he i magination o f t he I rish c raftsmen a nd r emained a d ominant e lement o f t he n ative a rtistic r epertoire f or m ost o f t he m illennium . T he w riter h as e lsewhere r eferred t o t his n ew s tyle a s t he L ough C rew-Somerset S tyle , n amed a fter t wo k ey a ssemblages w ith t ypical m aterial ( B R aftery 1 984 , 3 201) . I t d isplays s triking h omogeneity i n s tylistic d etails o ver t he w hole o f t he I rish L a T ane p rovince . T he s ame d esigns r ecur , i rrespective o f t he m edium u sed a nd i t i s e vident t hat c raftsmen i n w idely s eparated a reas o f t he c ountry d rew o n c ommon w ells o f a rtistic i nspiration . T he c limax o f n ative L a T ane m etalworking w as r eached b y t he a rtists o f t he ' Petrie C rown ' s chool w ho , i n t he f irst o r s econd c entury A D , p roduced r aised , f ine-line o rnament a nd r epouss6 c urves o f e xceptional q uality a nd e xcellence ( ibid 3 22-3 ; 8 .12).

F ig

T he p eriod o f t he d eveloping L ough C rew-Somerset S tyle w as a t ime o f i ncreasing c ontacts b etween I reland a nd B ritain . T his i s e vident i n t he a rchaeological r ecord n ot o nly i n m any d etails o f s tylistic o verlap b etween t he t wo i slands b ut a lso i n t he p resence o f i mported i tems w hich w ere c arried b oth e astwards a nd w estwards a cross t he I rish S ea a nd t he N orth C hannel ( B R aftery 1 984 , 3 28-33) . S outhern B ritain w as i mportant ( iope a nd W ilson 1 957 ; B R aftery 1 984 , 3 32-3) , b ut l inks w ith n orthern a reas o f t hat i sland w ere e specially c lose ( B R aftery 1 982 , 8 5-7 ; W arner 1 983) . I n m any a spects o f m aterial c ulture i t s eems t hat a c ommon H iberno-Scottish c ulture p rovince w as d eveloping i n t he e arly c enturies o f t he C hristian e ra .

1 33

3

F ig 8 .17

L ough C rew/Somerset S tyle . 1 ,3, d ecorated b one f lakes, L ough C rew , C o M eath . 2 , b ronze b rooch , S omerset , C o G alway ( Scale 1 ,3 , 1 :1;

2 ,

3 :4) .

O ccupation s ites O ur f ailure t o i solate t he n ormal s ecular h abitation s ites o f t he l ast h alf m illennium B C i s p erhaps t he s ingle g reatest o bstacle t o a p roper u nderstanding o f t he I rish I ron A ge . J R aftery 's s tatement , w ritten h alf a c entury a go , t hat ' settlement s ites o f t he p eriod a re d istinguished b y n othing s o m uch a s t heir m ystifying r arity ' ( 1937 , 4 10 ) r etains t oday i ts e ssential v alidity , f or l ittle h as c hanged o ver t he i ntervening y ears . F ibula f ragments h ave b een r ecovered a s c hance f inds f rom s everal s ites a nd t his m ay i ndicate t hat b rief o ccupation t ook p lace t here d uring t he L a nne p eriod ( ORiordgin 1 954 ,

3 60 ;

C ollins

1 977 , 1 34

2 4-5 ;

B R aftery 1 983 ,

N o 3 65) .

P hoto : JK C o W icklow . H i 1l fo rt . T hese ,

h owever ,

s hed l ittle

l ight o n c öntemporary s ettlement .

S imilarly ,

t he h abitation l ayer w ith a ssociated L a T ane m aterial, f ound i n w hat a ppears t o h ave b een a p re-ringfort p hase a t F eerwore ,

C o G alway

C JRaftery

1 944),

y ielded s cant i nformation a bout l ate p reh istoric o ccupation i n I reland . T he o rnate b one f lakes a nd o ther o bjects r ecovered w ithin a h illtop P assage G rave a t L ough C rew ,

C o M eath c an h ardly r epresent t he d ebris o f a n ormal

d omestic h abitation ( B R aftery 1 983,

N os 6 21-780 ; 1 35

1 984 ,

2 51-63) .

O ne t ype o f I rish f ield m onument o ften t acitly a ssumed t o b e I ron A ge i n d ate i s t he h illfort . T his b elief i s l argely b ased o n e vidence f rom o utside

I reland w here

i t

h as

b een e stablished

t hat

s uch

s ites w ere m ajor

c ultural c entres t hroughout t he I ron A ge . I n I reland, h owever, f ew h illforts h ave b een e xcavated a nd n one i s s ecurely d ated . T here a re a lso a cute p roblems o f d efinition , e xistence

o f

t he h illfort

q uestion ( Waddell 1 978 ,

a s

1 27) .

t o s uch a n e xtent,

a t ype

i n

t he

i ndeed,

c ountry h as

t hat t he v ery

b een c alled i nto

B ut h illforts d o o ccur i n I reland ( Fig 8 . 18 )

e ven t hough g enuine e xamples a re f ewer t han h as b een s uggested i n t he p ast ( B R aftery t wo

1 972 ,

d ozen m ay

b e

5 5) .

O f 5 0 o r 6 0 p ossible c andidates n o m ore

a ccepted

w ithout

q ualm a s

t rue ,

p rehistoric

t han a bout h illforts .

G reat i mpressive e nclosures s uch a s R athcoran , C o W icklow ( Evans 1 966 , 2 13), M ooghaun ,

C o C lare ( B R aftery 1 976 ,

K nockadigeen ,

5 36 ,

P 1 V III ;

C o T ipperary ( unpublished)

C ody 1 981,

F ig 1 617) o r

a re b y a ny s tandard c lassic

h illforts. H illforts i n I reland a re ,

o n a verage s maller t han t heir c ounterparts

a broad . T he l argest e xample ( possibly , r ather t han c ertainly , ah i nfort) i s B allylin ,

C o

L imerick .

T his

c overs

a n a rea o f

2 0 .5ha

( Cody

1 981) .

T he

m ajority f all b etween 2 ha a nd 1 4ha i n a rea .

R amparts a ppear i n g eneral t o

b e o f s tone w ith d itches s ometimes p resent .

E ntrances , w here r ecognisable ,

a re

a lways

s imple g aps .

S tructural

d etails

a re

r arely

e vident

b ut

m urus d uplex c onstruction a nd i nternal t erraces, s uch a s h ave b een r ecognised a t f orts o n t he A ran I slands a nd e lsewhere i n t he w est ( Westropp 1 910 ; H arbison 1 971, 2 03-4), m ay h ave b een m ore w idespread t han t he a vailable e vidence s uggests . T he p resence o f t imberlacing h as n ot b een p ositively d emonstrated a t a ny h i nfort .(1) I rish h illforts h ave b een d ivided o n m orphological g rounds i nto t hree m ain c lasses ( B R aftery 1 972) . T hese a re : I , c ontour f orts w ith a s ingle l ine o f d efence ; I I , c ontour o r c liff-top f orts w ith t wo o r m ore w idelys paced

l ines

o f d efence ;

I II ,

i nland p romontory f orts .

T hese g roups a re

b ased s olely o n s uperficially-observed d etails o f s iting a nd g round-plan a nd i t

c annot

t hus

b e

e mphasised

t oo

s trongly

t hat

t he

c ultural

a nd

c hronological r elationships o f o ne t ype t o a nother o r , i ndeed , o f i ndividual h illforts w ithin a s ingle g rouping, a re q uite u nknown . T his i s p articularly e vident i n t he c ase o f t he i nland p romontory f orts w hich , t hough f ew i n n umber ,

d isplay c onsiderable d iversity i n s ize a nd d efensive

c onstruction . L urigethan a nd Knockdhu i n C o A ntrim , f or e xample ( Fig 8 . 19 :2) a re l arge f orts , 1 3ha a nd 8 ha r espectively i n a rea , w ith c loselys paced , m ultivallate d efences ( Evans 1 966 , 4 9 ;

BR aftery 1 972 , P 1 V ) .

p romontory s ites f ar t o t he s outh-west i n K erry , R aftery

T wo

C aherconree ( Lynch 1 899 ;

B

1 976 , 5 38 , P 1 X ; F ig 8 . 19 :2) a nd B enagh ( MacDonagh 1 985), n otionally

b elong t o t he s ame c lass a s t he Antrim f orts . B ut t hese a re i n e xceptionally i naccessible s ituations m ore t han 6 00m a bove s ea l evel, t hey a re

l ess

t han o ne h ectare i n a rea a nd t hey a re d efended i n o ne

c ase

b y a

s ingle , i nternally-terraced w all a nd i n t he o ther b y a p air o f w alls b uilt 1 00m a part . T hus , o nly t he c ommon e xploitation o f a p romontory s ituation l inks t he A ntrim a nd K erry f orts ;

t hey a re o therwise q uite d istinct .

O ur p erception o f t he d istribution o f h illforts i n I reland h as a ltered s omewhat s ince t he p ublication o f a p reliminary d istribution m ap i n 1 972 ( B R aftery 1 972, 4 1, F ig 1 4).

N ew f orts h ave b een d iscovered a nd a m ore

c ritical c onsideration o f s ome o f t he s ites t hen i ncluded h as r aised d oubts a s t o t heir i ntegrity a s g enuine h illforts .

T he p icture w hich n ow e merges

i s o f ah eavy s outhern b ias i n t he I rish h illfort d istribution w ith n o g reat g eographical d isparity b etween C lass I a nd C lass I I s tructures ( Fig 8 .20 :1) .

1 36

' 2 : 7 =

200 m .

KNOCKDHU , CO . ANTR IM

•

F ig 8 .19

I nland

I t c an b e s een ,

p romontory f ort . K nockdhu ,

t herefore ,

C o A ntrim ( after H arper 1 9 66 ) .

t hat d iscussion o f I rish h illforts i s a t a

b asic , s peculative l evel a nd w ill r emain s o u ntil a r epresentative s ample o f s ites h as b een e xcavated . T hus f ar w e c an s ay o nly t hat w here e xcavation h as t aken p lace e vidence o f o ccupation h as b een f ound d ating t o t he L ate B ronze A ge ( B R aftery 1 976 ) , t he e arly c enturies A D ( B R aftery 1 969 ) a nd t he e arly m edieval p eriod ( Warner 1 972 ; BR aftery 1 976 , 3 47) . I n n o i nstance h as t he a ctual c onstruction o f t he h illfort d efences a t a ny s ite b een p ositively d ated . T he r elevance o f t he h illfort i n I rish I ron A ge c ultural d evelopments

i s

t hus h opelessly v ague b ut t heir s outhern c oncentration

s uggests t hat t hey m ay b elong t o ac ultural h orizon d istinct f rom t hat r epresented b y t he L a T ane m aterial w hich i s c onspicuously a bsent i n l arge a reas o f s outhern I reland . W e d o n ot , h owever , k now w hich g roups b uilt t hem n or ( Fig 8 . 20 :2) c an w e a ssess t o w hat e xtent t hey w ere p ermanently o ccupied o r m erely p laces o f r efuge o r c eremonial . I n a ll p robability d ifferent e vident .

h illforts s erved d ifferent f unctions . O ne p oint i s , h owever , T he v ery a ct o f c onstructing a h illfort c learly r epresents a

l arge-scale , c orporate u ndertaking b y a s izable n umber o f p eople w orking u nder s trong m otivation a nd s trong l eadership . W hatever p urpose t he i ndividual h illforts f ulfilled , t here c an b e l ittle d oubt t hat t hey w ere c entres o f t ribal s ignificance . 1 37

• sl .aojT T TI I

A

1 38

P s a iae t i ,

J ust a s o bscure a s f unction a nd c hronology i s t he q uestion o f o rigins . E xternal i nspiration f or t he c ustom o f h illfort b uilding i n I reland i s o ften s ought a nd t hey a re Valera 1 979 , 2 3).

s ometimes s een a s e vidence o f f olk i ntrusion ( eg D e B ut s uch a rguments a re b ased a lmost e ntirely o n

a nalysis o f v isible f eatures, e xcavation ,

l argely u nsupported b y t he e vidence o f

s o t hat t heir i nherent w eakness i s s elf e vident .

T hus t he o ft-

s uggested I berian c ontribution t o t he g enesis o f C lass I I f orts ( Evans 1 966 , 2 3 ; B R aftery 1 972, 4 9-51; H erity a nd E ogan 1 977 , 2 45), n otwithstanding t he p resence o f c hevaux d e f rise a t s ome w estern s ites ( see H arbison 1 971) , m ust b e r egarded a s u nsubstantiated . t hat

t he

i nland

p romontory

E qually s peculative i s t he s uggestion

f orts o f L urigethan a nd K nockdhu i n C o .

m ight o we t heir d istinctive c haracter t o i nfluences p romontory f ort b uilders ( B R aftery 1 976 ,

3 56) .

B ut t he p resence o f c losely-spaced m ultivallation a t c learly s ets

A ntrim

f rom C ornish o r B reton

t hese t wo f orts

t hem a part f rom t he o ther I rish h illforts a nd i t m ay w ell b e

t hat t hey s hould b e m ore c orrectly g rouped w ith t he c oastal s ites ( which a re o ften d oes

s imilarly n ot,

d efended)

h owever,

s hed

r ather a ny

t han w ith

a dditional

t he

i nland

l ight

o n

s tructures .

t he

o rigins

T his o r

t he

c hronology o f o ur I rish h illforts f or i n t his c ountry t he c oastal f orts a re , i f a nything , s hrouded i n e ven g reater m ystery t han a re t he i nland h illforts . E xcavation 19 52 ;

a t

B arry

s everal 19 81) .

s ites

h as

O utside

b een f rustratingly u nproductive

t he

c ountry

t he

I ron A ge

c oastal p romontory f orts h as b een e stablished .

( O 'Kelly

c haracter

o f m any

T he o nly h int a t s uch

d ating i n I reland i s t he d iscovery b y t he w riter o f a s herd o f f irst c entury A D G aulish s amian w are i n a d isturbed o ccupation l evel w ithin t he m ultivallate d efences o f t he c oastal p romontory f ort a t D rumanagh, L oughshinny ,

C o D ublin ( Unpublished .

M us c f BR aftery 1 976 ,

3 56 ,

5 39 ,

I dentification b y M s CJ ohns , B ritish

P 1 X I) .

R oyal S ites A t

t he

d awn o f h istory

s ociety

i n

I reland w as

o rganised o n a t ribal

b asis w ith w ell d efined b oundaries a nd s ignificant r egional c entres .

T here

i s n o r eason n ot t o a ssume t hat i n t he l ate p rehistoric p eriod t he c ountry w as s imilarly o rganised . T he g reat t ravelling e arthworks s uch a s t he s oc alled D anes ' C ast , t he B lack P ig 's D yke a nd t he D orsey , t o t he l ast c enturies B C ( Lynn 1 982), m ay i n f act m ark s uch

t ribal

r egions

a nd

s everal

r oyal

c apitals

n ow k nown t o d ate t he b oundaries o f

h ave

b een

r eliably

i dentified. W est

o f

t he

S hannon

t he

c entre

o f

C onnacht

w as

C ruachain ,

n ow

r ecognised a s a n e xtensive c omplex o f v aried e arthworks s cattered o ver a n a rea o f u p t o 1 00 s q k m a round t he m odern v illage o f T ulsk i n C o R oscommon ( Waddell,

1 983 ;

H erity 1 983a ,

1 984) .

T he m ost r ecent s urvey ( Herity

1 984)

h as l isted n o f ewer t han 1 49 v isible m onuments , i ncluding m ounds , e nclosures a nd a lignments b ut n o d ating e vidence i s a vailable m any o f t hese b elong t o I ron A ge C ruachain . C ruachain d uring

t his

p eriod

i s

t hus

u nclear

s o w e d o n ot k now h ow

T he p recise c haracter o f f or

t here

a ppears

t o

b e

n o

o bvious f ocus a nd t here i s n o m ajor e nclosure c omparable t o t hose p resent a t t he k nown r oyal s ites o f T ara ,

D un A ilinne a nd E main M acha ( M ayan F ort)

i n

e astern p arts o f t he c ountry . T hese e astern s ites a re h illtop e nclosures o f c onsiderable s ize .

I n

e ach c ase t here i s ad eep d itch a round t he i nner p erimeter o f t he e nclosing r ampart .

A t

T ara

m ounds ,

a lignments

a nd

1 39

o ther

e arthworks

r eminiscent

o f

t hose a t C ruachain a re a lso p resent ( Swan 1 978) .

T he w eight o f m yth ,

t radition , p rotohistory a nd p lace-name e vidence l eaves l ittle r oom t o d oubt t hat

t hese

s ites w ere

e xceptional

c entres

o f

r itual

a nd

a ssembly

( Wailes

1 982) a nd t he e vidence o f e xcavation d oes n othing t o c ontradict t his .

T he

p resence o f i nternal d itches a t a ll t hree s ites s trengthens t he v iew t hat t heir r ole w as n ot p rimarily d efensive s o t hat t he u se o f t he t erm h illfort t o d escribe t hem s eems i nappropriate . A t R ath n a R iogh, T ara ,

C o .

Meath e xcavation h as b een c onfined t o a

n arrow t rench t hrough t he b ank a nd d itch i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f R ath

o f

t he S ynods

( 6Riordäin ,

1 971,

9 ) .

T his

t he

r evealed e vidence f or t he

f ormer e xistence o f a n i nternal p alisade a nd a lso b rought t o l ight i ron s lag f rom t he f ill o f t he d itch .

Dün Ailinne I ts m i kaalla I r e pe r ial

ud

1 974

a l i der

• 10

f eata nm e

ealy

Co . E nd ue

10

P ahsade Uen Ces(e «ep l 1 W

0

0

P W-bees

M ts

C en t res o ff e ms t ruc lu m Wp ro wna le ,

: r tZ :: 72 , 70 . 1 7 2 ; ; . ) I . : ::

V is ib le b u t u nexcara ted

Mo l in e

F ig 8 .21

I ron A ge s tructural r emains, W ailes , 1 974 , F ig 1 ) . 1 40

T h in A ilinne,

C o K ildare ( after

t r im I v"

A .e e t l ee Y g r ese mecat ed

I nvestigations a t D un A ilinne , C o K ildare ( Wailes 1 973 ; 1 974 ; 1 976) a nd N avan F ort , C o . A rmagh ( Selkirk a nd W aterman 1 970 ; M alory n d ) h as b een m ore e xtensive . A t e ach s ite i t h as b een r evealed t hat a s eries o f l arge, c ircular t imber-built s tructures s tood o n t he h illtop d uring t he I ron A ge . A t t he K ildare s ite t here w ere t hree s uccessive c ircular c onstructions v arying f rom 2 2m t o 3 7m i n i nternal d iameter . T he f irst o f t hese w as r epresented b y as ingle p alisade t rench , t he s econd b y t hree c losely-spaced , c oncentric t renches , t he t hird b y a p air o f s imilar , c oncentric t renches . A r ing o f l arge , f ree-standing p osts w as t hen e rected a fter t he t imbers o f t he e arlier p hases h ad b een r emoved . I n i ts f inal p eriod o f u se a ll t he s tructures w ere d ismantled a nd t he h illtop w as t he s cene o f w hat a ppears t o h ave b een i ntensive , t hough s poradic , o pen-air f easting ( Fig 8 . 21) . O ccupation a t N avan F ort e xtended f rom t he s eventh t o t he f irst c enturies B C . I nitially a s mall p alisaded d omestic s ettlement e xisted t here b ut a round 1 00 B C t he c haracter o f t he s ite c hanged a nd a g reat t imber s tructure a lmost 4 0m i n d iameter w as e rected . T his c onsisted o f f ive c oncentric r ings o f p osts w ith e xternal w alling a nd a t all u pright o f o ak a t t he c entre . I t m ay h ave b een r oofed b ut t his i s n ot c ertain . S oon a fter t his w as b uilt, t he o uter w all w as d eliberately b urned a nd t he w hole c onstruction s ealed b y ah igh c airn o f s tones . T ree-ring a nalysis o f t he p reserved s tump o f t he c entral p ost e nabled t he f elling d ate o f t he t imber t o b e p laced i n t he f irst d ecade o f t he l ast c entury B C ( M . B aillie 1 986 ; 1 988 ) . A s a t D un A ilinne , t here w as a d earth o f d omestic d ebris h ere a nd a mongst t he f aunal r emains a n o verwhelming d ominance o f p ig b ones . M ost a stounding o f a ll, h owever , w as t he d iscovery o f an orth A frican B arbary a pe s kull w hich d emonstrates , a bove a ll e lse , t he o utstanding i mportance o f N avan i n l ate p rehistoric t imes . B oth D un A ilinne a nd N avan h ave p roduced a rtefacts o f L a T Zne c haracter s o t hat t hese a re t he o nly s ignificant I rish f ield m onuments w hich m ay b e r elated t o t he n ative L a nne c ultural h orizon . T heir i mportance i s t hus c onsiderable f or t he i nternally-ditched e nclosures r epresent l onge stablished n ative t raditions r eaching b ack t o t he e arlier B ronze A ge a nd b eyond . T he o ccupation s equence a t N avan s eems a lso t o e mphasise p opulation c ontinuity t hroughout t he l ast p re-Christian m illennium .

B urials B urials o f d emonstrably I ron A ge d ate i n I reland a re f ew i n n umber b ut d isplay c onsiderable v ariety i n m onument a nd r itual ( B R aftery 1 9 81) . I n c onsidering t hem t he a bsence o f a f irm c hronology i s a cutely f elt a nd i t m ust b e s tressed t hat t he k nown e xamples a re l ikely t o s pan a t l east h alf a m illennium . T hose b urials w hich w e g roup t ogether a s ' Iron A ge ' t hus r epresent a l imited , g eographically a nd c hronologically d ispersed s ample w hich c annot n ecessarily B oth c remation I reland , b ut t here r ite . T he c ustom m iddle o f t he f irst

b e e quated w ith a s ingle c ultural c ontinuum .

a nd i nhumation w ere p ractised d uring t he I ron A ge i n a re g rounds f or b elieving t hat c remation i s t he o lder o f c remation d id , h owever , c ontinue a t l east u ntil t he C hristian m illennium a s i s s uggested b y t he e vidence o f

a r ecently e xcavated b urial a t F urness , C o . K ildare ( Grogan 1 983 0 . T he d ead w ere s ometimes c overed b y m ounds s uch a s T umulus I I a t C ush , C o . L imerick ( 6Riördgin , 1 940) o r i n r ingbarrows s uch a s T umulus V III a t C arrowjames , C o . M ayo ( J R aftery 1 940-41 ; F ig 8 .22) . T hese a re m odest i n s ize c ompared t o t he g reat s epulchral m onuments o f e arlier e ras; t he

1 41

\ Ne w

0\ \* 1 1 11

eT il i le i r/ 4 / 7 4 5 4 , 4 , 0

. i _ . . , „ . . ! ! . , :f e , z t * , , / . , •

C

• = _ _ _ . _ .. . _ _ _ _ . ., _ _ - =

\

t -0• 1 ; . 7 a * v i __

2 6

. "

,Ac x

= _ _

« --_ _ _ _ _ .

, -' -= : : -\

„ .

4

_ . • ' L _ __

T

/J e A;

e

.

e•

2 . , : 9 :' 9 °1 . \1

• e i l i l i f i lVe ••

IM I

F ig 8 .22

F IND S

'

C REMATED B ONE

u s BURNT EARTH n CHARCOAL

C Im m r = l om l a 5M

I ron A ge r ing b arrow ( after J R aftery 1 940-41) .

r ingbarrows i n p articular r arely e xceeded o ne m etre i n h eight . S ometimes o lder m ounds w ere r eused f or b urial p urposes d uring t he I ron A ge a s f or i nstance a t C arrowbeg N orth , C o G alway ( Willmot 1 938-39 ; o r K iltierney , C o F ermanagh ( Raftery 1 981, 8 7) a nd o n o ccasion b urials w ere p laced i n t he g round w ithin s imple e mbanked e nclosures s uch a s t he e arthworks o n t he s ummit o f C arbury H ill, C o K ildare ( dillmot 1 938 , 1 30-40) . S everal u naccompanied c remations i n p its w hich m ay b e I ron A ge i n d ate a re k nown , n otably t hose f rom t he n ot y et p ublished s ite o f C ullen , C o T ipperary ( Herity 1 983b , 1 42-3) . S imple i nhumations , e ither u nprotected o r i n c ists a nd o ften g rouped i n c emeteries , a lso o ccur a nd s ome a t l east o f t hese m ay b elong t o t he n ative I ron A ge ( eg R ynne 1 972-3; 1 974; 1 974-75; E ogan 1 9 58 ,

3 65-73 ;

1 974 ,

6 8-87) .

I ron A ge g raves i n I reland a re s imply f urnished ( B R aftery 1 981) . C ommonest g ravegoods a re i tems o f p ersonal a dornment s uch a s f ibulae , b eads , r ings , b racelets a nd p endants . A f ew ' gaming p ieces ' h ave b een r ecovered a nd , i n o ne i nstance , a n i ron s hears a ccompanied a n i nhumation . T races o f t extile h ave b een f ound a dhering t o a b ronze ' locket ' w hich h ad l ain o n t he s houlder o f af emale s keleton a t C arrowbeg N orth , C o G alway ( B R aftery 1 983, 1 42

N o 5 35 ; 1 984, 2 05-6, P 1 6 4) . I n t he f ew i nstances w here e vidence i s a vailable , d ating i s p redominantly i n t he c enturies o n e ither s ide o f t he b irth o f C hrist ( B R aftery 1 981, 1 95-8 ; H awkes 1 982 , 5 9-64) , M aterial f rom i nhumation b urials a ppears i n g eneral t o b e s everal c enturies l ater t han t hat f rom c remations . T he m ajority o f r ecognisable I ron A ge b urials i n I reland a re o f n ative c haracter t hus s uggesting o nce a gain a s trong m easure o f p opulation s tability f rom e arlier t imes . D iscussion o n t his t opic i s, h owever , g reatly h ampered b y o ur s cant k nowledge o f l ate B ronze A ge b urial c ustoms . B ut w e d o k now t hat d uring t he l ate B ronze A ge b urials c onsisting o f s imple c remations i n p its t ook p lace a nd t hat t hese w ere s ometimes w ithin a r ingd itch ( B R aftery 1 973) . I t i s a lso p ossible t hat t he c ustom o f r ingbarrow c onstruction w as a lready i n e xistence a t t his p eriod ( B R aftery 1 981, 1 737 ) . A s f ar a s w e c an t ell, t he e arliest o f o ur I ron A ge b urials a re c remations i n r ingbarrows s o t hat c ontinuity i s s trongly h inted a t . T he v ery p aucity o f b urials d uring t he I ron A ge , e specially i n i ts e arlier p hase , m ay a lso s upport t he c oncept o f c ontinuity t hrough t he l ast p reC hristian m illennium f or i t c ould b e t hat t hose c onditions w hich h ave , f or w hatever r eason , r endered b urials o f t he L ate B ronze A ge v irtually u ndetectable t o u s p ersisted w ithout c hange i nto t he I ron A ge y ielding t he s ame n egative e vidence . W hile m ost o f o ur I ron A ge b urials m ay b e r egarded a s c ontaining t he r emains o f i ndigenous i nhabitants , t here i s as mall n umber w hich u ndoubtedly r epresent t he l ast r esting p laces o f i mmigrants . I n g eneral t hese h ave r icher g ravegoods t han i s t he c ase w ith t he n ative i nterments . T he p resumed c remation d eposit f ound a t 1 ,oughey ', n ear D onaghadee , C o D own c ontaining g lass b eads, b racelets , r ings , t oilet i mplements a nd a b ronze f ibula i s c learly t hat o f af oreign l ady , w ho c ame f rom e ither t he s outh o f E ngland o r f rom t he c ontinent s ometime a round t he b irth o f C hrist ( Jope a nd W ilson 1 957 ; H enderson 1 987 ) . O n t he i sland o f L ambay o n t he e ast c oast o f I reland a s mall p arty o f i mmigrants f rom R oman B ritain s ettled f or a t ime a nd s ome o f t heir n umber w ere b uried t here ( Rynne 1 976 ; W arner 1 976 , 2 73-4 ; 2 79-80 ) . T he b urials w ere , u nfortunately , d estroyed i n 1 927 b ut a t l east t wo c rouched i nhumations a pppear t o h ave b een p resent . O ne w as a w arrior g rave a ccompanied b y a l ong i ron s word i n i ts s cabbard a s w ell a s as hield , t he b ronze b oss o f w hich s urvived . O ther o bjects r ecovered i ncluded f ive R oman f ibulae o f b ronze , a b eaded t orc o f t he s ame m etal, a n i ron m irror , t wo d ecorated b ronze d iscs , o ne c ircular , t he o ther t riangular , a l ignite b racelet a nd a c ollection o f s heet b ronze f ragments a nd r osette s tuds . S ome o f t hese o bjects m ay i ndicate t hat a f emale g rave a lso e xisted . T he L ambay c emetery d ates t o t he l atter p art o f t he f irst c entury A D a nd a B rigantian b ackground f or t he c olonisers h as b een p lausibly s uggested ( Rynne o p c it 2 42-3 ; W arner o p c it) . P olitical u pheavals i n B ritain i n t he 6 0s a nd 7 0s A D m ay h ave c aused a n e xodus f rom e astern E ngland b ringing a h andful o f r efugees a s f ar a s t he s hores o f I reland . B y t his t ime t he p ower o f R ome h ad s pread t o t he I rish S ea a nd t he b arbarians t o t he w est c ould n ot r emain u naffected .

I reland a nd t he R om an W orld T here

i s

n o

s olid

e vidence

t o

s how t hat a n o fficial

R oman m ilitary

c ampaign t o I reland e ver t ook p lace b ut s uch a p ossibility h as n ot b een w holly d iscounted b y s ome s cholars ( Killeen 1 976 , 2 1315) . T here c an b e n o d oubt , h owever , t hat s ubstantial s tretches o f t he I rish c oast , e specially 1 43

t he e ast a nd s outh , w ere w ell k nown t o m erchants f rom t he f irst c entury o nwards . T acitus t ells u s a s m uch ( Kenney 1 929 , 1 32) a nd i t m ay b e a ssumed t hat t he n ot i nconsiderable a ccuracy o f P tolemy 's m ap o f I reland a nd t he i nformation w hich i t c ontains d erive i n t he m ain f rom t he o bservations o f g enerations o f s eafarers . M erchants w ere n ot, h owever, t he o nly h arbingers o f R oman c ultural i nfluences t o I reland ( Warner 1 976) a nd s mall p opulation m ovements t o a nd f rom t he R oman w orld m ust h ave r epeatedly t aken p lace , f or v arying r easons , t hroughout t he e arly c enturies o f t he C hristian e ra . T he c learest i ndication o f s uch m ovements i s p rovided b y t he e xotic b urials w hich a re o ccasionally f ound i n t he c ountry . T he ' Loughey ' a nd L ambay i nterments h ave a lready b een r eferred t o . M ore s triking , p erhaps , i s t he b urial f ound i n t he e arly n ineteenth c entury a t S toneyford , C o . K ilkenny . T his a ppears t o h ave b een o f c lassic s econd c entury R oman t ype . D etails a re n ot p recise a s t he o nly r ecord o f t his d iscovcry c onsists o f m anuscript n otes a nd s ketches p reserved i n t he R oyal I rish A cademy i n D ublin ( MS 2 4 E 3 4; B ateson 1 973, 7 2-3; BR aftery 1 981, 1 94, F ig 4 1:1-2) . I t s eems e vident , h owever , t hat t he b urial w as a c remation c ontained i n ag lass c inerary u rn w hich h ad b een s ealed b y a t inned-bronze d isc m irror . A ccompanying i t w as a s mall g lass b ottle a nd p ossibly , t hough n ot c ertainly , a p ronged , b ronze ' toilet i mplement ' . W arner h as d rawn a ttention t o t he s trategic l ocation o f t he f ind s pot w hich i s n ear a c rossing o f t he r iver N ore a nd n ot f ar f rom the p ort o f W aterford t o t he s outh . H e h as t hus s uggested t he p ossibility t hat a s mall R oman s ettlement o f s ome s ort, p erhaps a t rading p ost , m ight h ave e xisted i n t he v icinity ( Warner 1 976 , 2 74) . T his i s b y n o m eans i mprobable a nd w ould, i ndeed, e xplain t he p resence i n t he c ountry o f a f ragile g lass c inerary u rn . O ther b urials w hich a ppear t o h ave b een t hose o f p rovincial R omans , w ere t he i nhumations i n l ong s tone c istS, d iscovered - a nd d estroyed - o n B ray H ead i n t he n ineteenth c entury . T hese a re s aid t o h ave b een a ccompanied b y c oins o f T rajan a nd H adrian ( Bateson 1 973 , 4 5 ) . R ecently e xcavated i nhumations i n c ists a t B ettystown , C o . M eath m ay a lso h ave a p rovincial R oman b ackground ( Kelly f orthcoming ; B R aftery 1 981, 1 9 2 ' ) . I t i s p ossible t hat t he s ame b ackground i nfluenced t he t rend a way f rom c remation i n I reland i n t he e arly c enturies A D f or a t t his t ime s uch a c hange w as t aking p lace i n t he R oman w orld ( Raftery o p c it ,

2 002) .

T he b urial e vidence c learly d emonstrates t hat f oreigners f rom p rovincial R ome a ctually s et f oot i n I reland . S cattered a rtifacts o f R oman o rigin i n t he c ountry a re n ot s o r eadily e xplained a nd o ther m eans o f i ntroduction s uch a s t he a gency o f r eturning e m igrants o r s imple t rading c ontacts c ould e qually e xplain t heir p resence h ere . T he p roblem o f t he m odern a ntiquarian i mportation o f R oman o bjects m ust a lso b e b orne i n m ind ( Bateson 19 73) . B ateson h as i dentified t wo m ain h orizons o f R oman i nfluence i n I reland . T he e arlier o f t hese c omprises m aterial d ating t o t he f irst a nd s econd c enturies A D w hich o ccurs i n t he e astern c oastal l owlands a nd a long t he n orthern c oasts o f A ntrim , D erry a nd D onegal . T he l ater o bjects d ate t o t he f ourth a nd f ifth c enturies A D . T heir d istribution o verlaps w ith t hat o f t he e ariler g roup b ut e xpands i nland i n t he s outh o f t he c ountry i n a d iscontinuous b and o f f inds f rom K ilkenny t o t he S hannon . M ost o f t he o bjects a re c hance d iscoveries b ut a f ew a re f rom s ettlements a nd s everal h oards h ave a lso c ome t o l ight .

1 44

F ig 8 .23

C oins ,

F ragments o f R oman s ilver p late . N at M us I reland .

B alline ,

C o L imerick .

P hoto :

b ronze b rooches a nd s herds o f S amian a nd ' Arretine w are a re t he

c ommonest R oman f inds i n I reland b ut t he q uantity o f m aterial i s s mall . T here a re o nly s ixteen r eliably d ocumented c oin f inds ( including s everal l arge h oards) a nd t welve o r t hirteen f ibulae w hich a re a cceptable a s g enuine , a ncient f inds .

T he q uantity o f o ther R oman p ottery f rom t he

c ountry i s a lso l imited a nd t he p ossibility o f l ater i mportation i n s ome i nstances h as b een m ooted , a lthough f ar f rom p roven ( Warner 1 976 , 2 85 -4 ) . M iscellaneous i tems o f R oman m anufacture f rom I reland i nclude a n o culist 's s tamp f rom G oldenbridge , C o . T ipperary ( Bateson 1 973 , 7 4) a nd a b ronze l adle f rom B ohermeen , C o . M eath ( ibid 6 6) . T he w ire n ecklaces f rom t he B roighter , C o . D erry h oard a re p robably e arly R oman i mports f rom I taly o r A lexandria ( B R aftery 1 983 , N os 4 58-9 ; 1 984 , 1 90-9 1; W arner 1 982 , 2 9 ) a nd a n I talian o rigin f or ( Hughes 1 972 , 1 03-4) . c oin h oards

( Bateson

t he e namel l umps f rom T ara h as a lso b een s uggested M ajor h oards , a part f rom a f ew l ate s econd c entury

1 971;

1 973 ,

4 4) ,

f orm a f ourth/fifth c entury h orizon

t estifying , p erhaps, t o t he t roubled t imes o f t he l ate R oman e mpire . A mong t hese i s t he h oard o f s ilver i ngots a nd h acked p late f rom B alline, C o L imerick ( Bateson

1 973 ,

7 3-4 ;

F ig

8 .23)

a nd

t he

g reat

s ilver

a ssemblage

f rom B allinrees , C oleraine , C o D erry w hich c ontained i ngots , h acked p late a nd n o f ewer t han 1 701 c oins ( Mattingly a nd P ierce 1 937) . T he h oard o f g old o rnaments f ound a t N ewgrange i n t he n ineteenth c entury i s p robably a lso l ate R oman i n o rigin , b ut i n t his i nstance d eposition m ay h ave b een v otive i n i ntent ( Topp 1 956 ; C arson a nd O 'Kelly 1 977 , 5 34) . R oman g old c oins f rom t he v icinity o f N ewgrange a re s ometimes a lso t aken a s v otive o fferings 1 45

( Carson a nd O 'Kelly o p c it) b ut

i t

s hould b e b orne i n m ind t hat t he r ecent

e xcavations a t t he g reat C o M eath t umulus p roduced a r ange o f R oman a nd s ubR oman d omestic m aterial w hich i ndicates t hat a s ettlement o f s ome s ort e xisted

t here

i n

t he

e arly

c enturies

o f

t he

C hristian

e ra

( ibid).

F reestone H ill, C o . K ilkenny , a n ative h illfort a lso y ielded R oman i mports w hich i ncluded b ronze b racelets o f m id-fourth

c entury

c opper c oin

' Lydney '

( B R aftery

t ype ,

' toilet

1 969 ) .

M ore

i mplements ' a nd a i mportant

i s

t he

R ath o f t he S ynods , T ara , C o M eath w hich p roduced g lass a nd p ottery o f R oman o rigin ,

a R oman l ock a nd, m ost s ignificant o f a ll,

a R oman l ead s eal

( 6RfOrdäin , 1 971, 2 6) . C learly i n t he f irst f ew c enturies A D . t he o ccupants o f t he h ill o f T ara w ere i n i ntimate c ontact w ith t he w orld o f R ome.

E pilogue T here

i s

n o

c lear e nd

t o

t he

I rish

I ron A ge .

R oman i nfluences w ere

g radually a bsorbed g iving r ise t o d evelopments i n a rt a nd t echnology . T he i ntroduction o f t he C hristian f aith , i tself a p roduct o f R oman c ontacts , b rought m aterial a s w ell a s s piritual c hange a nd a r estructuring o f t he e xisting s ocial o rder .

B ut c hange w as g radual a nd l ong-established C eltic

t raditions s urvived i nto f ully h istoric t imes . A s E urope m oved i nto a d ark a ge I reland , d rawing o n i ts I ron A ge r oots, w as p reparing f or a g olden o ne .

1 46

N ote 1 .

R ecent e xcavations a t C athedral H ill, D ownpatrick , C o . D own h ave s hown t hat t he h illtop e nclosure t here i s p robably m edieval r ather t han p rehistoric i n d ate ( N B rannon p ers c omm). T he v itrified f ort a t B anagher G lebe, C o . D erry h ardly f alls i nto t he h illfort c ategory ( Warner 1 9e3 , 1 76-8 ) a nd i t i s n ot c lear i f t he s uggested t imber-laced r ampart d iscovered a t C logher , C o T yrone O R Warner p ers c omu) i s , i n f act , p art o f ah illfort .

1 47

B IBLIOGRAPHY B ARR ,

T B 1 981:

C ounty K erry , B ATESON ,

A rchaeological E xcavations a t D unbeg P romontory F ort ,

1 977 .

P roc R oy I r A cad ( C)

J D 1 971:

G iant's C auseway .

I r A cad ( C)

C AULFIELD,

2 95-32%

T he F inding o f R oman S ilver C oins i n t he V icinity o f t he

U lster J A rchaeol 3 4, 5 0-7.

B ATESON , J D 1 973: P roc R oy

8 1,

7 3 ,

R oman Material f rom I reland: a r e-examination . 2 1-97 .

S 1 977 :

T he B eehive Q uern i n I reland .

JR oy S oc A ntiq I r 1 07 ,

S 1 981:

C eltic P roblems i n t he I rish I ron A ge .

1 04-39 . C AULFIELD, ( ed), 2 0115. C ODY , E

1 981:

A H illfort a t B allylin , C ounty L imerick w ith a n ote o n

M ooghaun , C ounty C lare.

JR oy S oc A ntiq I r 1 11,

C OLLINS, A E P 1 977: U lster J A rchaeol 4 0, 2 1-6. E OGAN , G R esearch.

1 964:

7 0-80.

A S and-Dune S ite a t

t he W hite R ocks,

C o A ntrim .

T he L ater B ronze A ge i n I reland i n t he L ight o f R ecent

P roc P rehist S oc 3 0, 2 68-351.

E OGAN , G

1 965:

C atalogue o f I rish B ronze S words.

EOGAN, G 19 68: Excavations P roc R oy I r A cad ( C ) 6 6 , 2 99-400 . E OGAN ,

I n O 'Corrain

G

1 974:

a t

Knowth,

D ublin C o

Meath,

R eport o n t he E xcavation o f s ome P assage G raves,

U nprotected I nhumation B urials a nd a S ettlement S ite a t K nowth , P roc R oy I r A cad E OGAN , G

( C)

1 983:

7 4 ,

C o . M eath .

1 1112 .

H oards o f t he I rish L ater B ronze A ge.

E VANS, E E 1 986: G REENE , D ( ed), 5 9-73.

19 62-65.

D ublin

P rehistoric a nd E arly C hristian I reland: a g uide.

L ondon .

T he C hariot a s d escribed i n I rish l iterature .

I n T homas

1 972 :

G ROGAN , E 1 983-84 : E xcavation o f a n I ron A ge B urial M ound a t F urness . K ildare A rchaeol S oc 1 6, 2 98-316» H ARBISON ,

P

1 969 :

T he C hariot o f C eltic F unerary T radition »

0 .4 1 ( ed ), M arburger B eiträge z ur A rchäologie d er K elten . H essen B hft 1 ) , 3 4-57 . H ARBISON ,

P

W estern E urope .

1 971:

W ooden a nd

S tone

P roc P rehist S oc 3 7 ,

HARDING , D W ( ED) 1 976: B ritain a nd I reland . L ondon

I n F rey ,

( Marburg ,— F unber

C hevaux de frise

i n C entral

a nd

1 95-225 .

H illforts:

1 48

l ater p rehistoric e arthworks i n

JC o

H AWKES ,

C F C

t he I rish.

1 982 :

T he W earing o f t he B rooch :

H AWORTH , R G 1 971: A rchaeol 3 4, H ERITY ,

T he H orse H arness o f t he I rish E arly I ron A ge .

M 1 983a :

H ERITY,

A S urvey o f t he R oyal

t he M onuments a nd T opography. M 1 983b :

L ongstone,

M 1 984 :

H UGHES , M J 1 972 :

J OPE ,

J OPE ,

E M 1 955 :

L ondon .

9 8-107.

C hariotry a nd P aired-Draught i n I reland d uring t he E arly

t he e vidence o f s ome h orse-bridle-bits. E M A ND W ILSON ,

K ILLEEN , J F 1 976 : 7 6

d e ( ed),

S ite o f C ruachain i n C onnacht ,

I reland i n P rehistory.

B C S 1 957 :

f rom ' Loughey ' n ear D onaghadee.

A cad ( C )

B ,

1 42-3 .

A T echnical S tudy o f O paque R ed G lass o f t he I ron A ge i n

P roc P rehist S oc 3 8 ,

I ron A ge:

I n B reffny,

I ,

1 21-42.

1 25-38 .

H ERITY , MA ND E OGAN , G 1 977:

B ritain .

L ondon ,

A S urvey o f t he R oyal

J R oy S oc A ntiq J r 14 ,

S ite o f C ruachain i n C onnacht ,

JR oy S oc A ntiq J r 13,

C o T ipperary .

I reland : a c ultural e ncyclopaedia . H ERITY ,

U lster J

2 6-49 .

I ntroduction ,

I I .

E arly I ron A ge d ress a mong

I n S cott ( ed), 5 1-73.

U lster J A rchaeol 1 8 , 3 7-44.

A B urial G roup o f t he F irst C entury A D

U lster J A rchaeol 2 0, 7 3-94.

I reland i n t he G reek a nd R oman W riters .

( Colloquium o n H iberno -q Roman R elations

a nd

P roc R oy J r

M aterial

R emains),

2 0715. K ENNEY, J F 1 929 :

T he S ources o f t he E arly H istory o f I reland.

C olumbia .

L UCAS, A T 1 972: P rehistoric B lock-Wheels f rom D oogarymore, R oscommon , a nd T imahoe E ast , C o K ildare . JR oy S oc A ntiq J r 1 02 , 1 9-48 . L YNCH , PJ 1 899 : L YNN ,

C o

C aherconree, C o K erry. J R oy S oc A ntiq I r 2 9 , 5 17.

CJ 1 982: T he D orsey a nd O ther L inear E arthworks . I n S cott ( ed ),

M ACDONAGH , S MALLORY ,

1 985:

J P n d

1 21-8 .

AV isitor's G uide t o t he D ingle P eninsula. D ingle. [ 1985]:

N avan F ort . T he a ncient c apital o f U lster .

B elfast . ( unpaginated). MATTINGLY ,

H A ND P EARCE ,

J

1 937 :

T he C oleraine H oard .

A ntiquity 2 ,

3 9-45. O 'CONNOR, A ge

t o

A AND

C LARKE,

D V C ( EDS)

19 83:

From

t he

S tone

t he ' Forty-Five : s tudies p resented t o R BK S tevenson . E dinburgh .

6 C ORRÄIN ,

D ( ED )

1 981:

t o P rofessor M J O 'Kelly . O 'KELLY , M J 1 952 : A cad ( C ) 5 5 , 2 5-59 .

I rish A ntiquity : e ssays a nd s tudies p resented

C ork . T hree

P romontory

1 49

F orts

i n

C o

C ork .

P roc R oy I r

Ö RIORDÄIN S P 1 940 : A cad ( C ) 4 5 , 8 3181 .

E xcavations

a t

C ush ,

C o

L imerick .

P roc R oy I r

, O RIORDAIN , S P 1 954 : L ough G ur E xcavations : N eolithic a nd B ronze A ge h ouses a t K nockadoon . P roc R oy I r A cad ( C ) 5 6 , 2 97-459 . O RIORDAIN ,

SP 1 971:

R AFTERY , B 1 969 : c airn .

T ara :

t he m onuments o n t he h ill .

F reestone H ill:

P roc R oy I r A cad ( C) 6 8 ,

R AFTERY , B1 972: R AFTERY ,

a n I ron A ge h illfort a nd B ronze A ge

1 108 .

I rish H illforts.

B 1 973:

D undalk .

R athgall:

I n T homas, ( ed), 3 7-58 .

a L ate B ronze A ge b urial

i n I reland .

A ntiquity 4 7, 2 93-5. R AFTERY , B 1 976 : ( ed), 3 39-57.

R athgall

a nd

I rish H illfort P roblems .

I n H arding

R AFTERY ,

B 1 981:

I ron A ge B urials i n I reland .

R AFTERY , ( ed), 7 5-92.

B 1 982 :

K nobbed S pearbutts o f t he I rish I ron A ge .

I n S cott

R AFTERY , B 1 983 : AC atalogue o f I rish I ron A ge A ntiquities . V eröff V orgesch S eminar M arburg S onderbd 1 ).

( Marburg ,

I n O 'Corrain ( ed ) ,

1 73-

2 04.

RAFTERY , c hronology .

B 1 984: ( Marburg ,

R AFTERY , B 1 986:

L a T ene i n I reland : p roblems o f o rigin V eröff V orgesch S eminar M arburg S onderbd 2 ) .

A n I ron A ge T rackway i n I reland.

a nd

A ntiquity 6 0, 5 0-3.

R AFTERY , J 1 937: A bstract, p p 4 0911. I n M ahr , A N ew A spects a nd P roblems i n I rish P rehistory . P roc P rehist S oc 3 , 2 62 4 66 .

I I .

R AFTERY , J 1 940-41: T he T umulus C emetery o f C arrowjames , C o M ayo , P art JG alway H ist A rchaeol S oc 1 9 , 1 6-88 .

R AFTERY , J 1 944 : A ntiq I r 7 4, 2 3-52.

T he T uroe S tone a nd t he R ath o f F eerwore .

JR oy S oc

RAFTERY , J 1 960 : N ational Museum o f I reland, A rchaeological A cquisitions i n t he Y ear 1 958. JR oy S oc A ntiq I r 9 0 , 1 -42. R AFTERY , T homas ( ed),

J 1 972 : 1 10.

I ron A ge a nd I rish S ea :

R YNNE , E 1 972-73 : A thlone S oc 1 ,

A ncient B urials n ear C oolatore , C o W estmeath .

I n

JO ld

1 84 .

R YNNE , E 1 974: P roc R oy I r A cad ( C ) R YNNE ,

p roblems f or r esearch .

E xcavations a t ' Maddens 's 7 4 , 2 67-75 .

E 1 974-75:

K iltale , C o M eath .

A ncient B urials a t B allinlough ,

K ildare A rchaeol S oc 1 5 , 4 30-3 .

1 50

C o L aois .

J

R YNNE , E 1 976 : T he L a Une a nd R oman F inds f rom L ambay , C o D ublin : a r e-assessment . P roc R oy I r A cad ( C) 7 6 ( Colloquium o n H iberno-Roman R elations a nd M aterial R emains), R YNNE , ( ed),

E 1 982 :

2 31-44 .

A C lassification o f P re-Viking I rish S words .

I n S cott

9 3-7.

R YNNE ,

E 1 983-84 :

M ilitary a nd C ivilian S words f rom t he R iver C orrib .

JG alway A rchaeol H ist S oc 3 9 , 5 -26 . S COTT , I reland .

B G 1 974:

S ome N otes o n t he T ransition f rom B ronze t o I ron i n

I r A rchaeol R es F orum 1 ,

S COTT ,

B G ( ED)

n d

h onour o f M V D uignan .

[ 1982]:

9 -24 . S tudies o n E arly I reland :

e ssays i n

B elfast .

S ELKIRK , A A ND W ATERMAN , D M 1 970 :

N avan F ort :

C urr A rchaeol 2 2 , 3 04-

8 . S WAN ,

D L 1 978 :

p hotography . T HOMAS ,

T he H ill

o f T ara ,

J R oy S oc A ntiq I r 1 08 , C E

ON »

1 972 :

C o M eath :

t he e vidence o f a erial

5 1-66 .

T he I ron A ge i n t he I rish S ea P rovince .

( London ,

C ounc B rit A rchaeol R es R ep 9 ). VALERA ,

R D E

1 979 :

A ntiquities o f t he I rish C ountryside .

R iordgin , 5 th e d, r ev b y R d e V alera. WADDELL ,

J 1 978 :

A ntiquity 5 2, W ADDELL ,

T he

S P 6

L ondon .

I nvasion

H ypothesis

i n

I rish

P rehistory .

1 21-8 . J 1 983:

R athcrogan - a R oyal S ite i n C onnacht .

J I r A rchaeol

1 , 2 1-46. W AILES , B 1 973 :

E xcavation a t D in A ilinne , n ear K ilcullen , 1 973 .

J C o

K ildare A rchaeol S oc 1 5 ( 3), 2 34-42. W AILES , B 1 974 :

E xcavation a t D ün A ilinne , n ear K ilcullen , 1 974 .

K ildare A rchaeol S oc W AILES ,

B 1 976 :

1 5

J C o

( 4), 3 45-58 .

D im A ilinne :

a n i nterim r eport .

I n H arding ( ed ), 3 19-

3 8 . WAILES, B 1 982:

T he I rish ' Royal S ites ' i n H istory a nd A rchaeology .

C ambridge M ed C eltic S tud 3 , WARNER ,

R B 1 972:

1 -29 .

T he E xcavations

a t

C logher a nd

t heir C ontext .

C logher R ec 8 , 5 12. W ARNER ,

R B 1 976 :

S ome O bservations o n t he C ontext a nd I mportation o f

E xotic M aterial i n I reland f rom t he F irst C entury B C t o t he S econd C entury A D . P roc R oy I r A cad ( C) 7 6, ( Colloquium o n H iberno-Roman R elations a nd M aterial R emains) , WARNER ,

2 67-92 .

R B 1 982:

T he

i conography o f t he c ollar .

B roighter

H oard :

I n S cott ( ed ),

1 51

2 9-38 .

a r eappraisal,

a nd

t he

W ARNER , R B 1 983 :

I reland , U lster a nd S cotland i n t he E arlier I ron A ge .

I n O 'Connor & C larke ( eds), W ESTROPP,

T J 1 910 :

P roc R oy I r A cad ( C) 2 8 ,

1 60-87. T he F ort

o f D un A engusa

W ILLMOTT , G F 1 938 : T hree B urial JR oy S oc A ntiq I r 6 8 , 1 30-42 . W ILLMOTT ,

G F 1 938-39 :

B elclare, C o G alway .

i n

I nishmore,

A ran .

1 46. S ites

a t

C arbury H ill,

C o K ildare .

T wo B ronze A ge B urials a t C arrowbeg N orth ,

JG alway A rchaeol H ist S oc 1 8,

1 52

1 21-40.

Chapter 9 ROMAN AND NATIVE IN ENGLAND NORTII OF TIIE TEES: ACCULTURATION AND ITS LIMITATIONS N J Higham Roman colonialism and Britain The sequence of events by which Britain was incorporated into the Roman Empire invites an analysis of the consequent processes of cultural change; these involved principally the indigenous but also the inmrlgrant conmunity, via the contact that occurred as a direct result of 'Romanisation'. It-is almost obligatory to suppose that Roman official policies, or at least guidelines, provided the framework withln whTch 'Romanisation' occurred. The reverse process of the 'Britannisation' or 'provincialisation' can afso be seen to have occurred and in certain respects this, too, was controlled or stimulated by offical policy.(!) Rome as the colonial power had several options available in the establishment of this policy. 1.

Local provincial populations could be eradicated by a policy of physical and cultural genocide.

2.

The authorities could have encouraged conditions in which a relatively slow and more or less controlled cultural change could occur among the indigenous populations.

3.

The immigrant conmunity could practice a policy of social and cultural isolation, seeking to maintain two cultures in tandem under a system of 'separate coexistence' with modern parallels in apartheid (Horvath 1972; Blagg 1980). In practise, the first option was rarely adopted by Roman authorities (excluding the fate of Carthage and a small number of further instances), and Roman policy and experience was preponderately directed towards the second and third options.

The Roman absorption of Britain was accomplished by a mass iunnigration of tens of thousands of men (for the numbers of soldiers cf Breeze and Dobson 1976; Holder 1982) and, arguably, significant numbers of attendant women and children. After an initial generation lapse, their successors were established as part of the local community in those areas of England and Wales (and briefly Southern Scotland) least able to support them. They and their successors remained largely within those locations for a period varying between two and thirteen generations. Northern England, like neighbouring regions, entered the Roman Cultural Province as a result of the application of superior force by a colonial power. The arbiters of that power; officialdom and the garrisons, subsequently attracted to the region artefacts and artificers and were themselves clothed, fed, housed and entertained within a cultural system that was very largely imported, and 153

supported by external funding. To find material relics of Roman culture in the region is unsurprising and much can be explained without recourse to models of culture change. What remains is to assess the cultural interaction between the indigenes of the region and the colonial power. Acculturation was a conscious comporunent of Roman imperial policy in West-e rn urope. Tacitus described the policy of his father-in-law; Agricola, who actively encouraged the social and political elite o the Britis province south of the Humber (at least) to adopt the immi rant cultural pac ge via its liberal arts, architecture, clothing and language (� 20 . Tacitus implied that this was seen y t e co onia aut orit as a valuable aspect of the mechanics of control, by which parts at least of t e process of rovincial overrnnent cou e transferre to a relia6le, indigenous aristocrac within rovince and in control-of the local political administration. Official encouragement of tribal aristocracies to adopt Roman culture provided a climate favourable to widespread investment by or on behalf of Imperial usurers in the new province to the point where attempts to withdraw both public and private loans from the Trinovantes and neighbouring tribes did much to fuel the broader appeal of the Boudicca rebellion in c AD 60. Throughout the Lowland Zone of Britain, archaeological evidence illustrates the eventua success of the policy to which Agrico a an other governors lent their support. By the end of the first century AD the countryside was studded with villas of varying qua ity, signifying the adoption by what had been a tribal aristocrac of a cultura age consciously imitati Roman civilisation. By the mid-second centu the construction of aristocratic town houses was well underway; we should not doubt that the emergence of provincial Roman architecture reflected the ambitions or aspirations of t e l-0cal aristocracy of the civitates (eg Walthew 1975; Blagg 1980 • The process of acculturation was aimed at the aristocracy and within those social parameters was demonstrably success u ; y t ose means the Roman administration recruited the active co-operat on of local aristocrac es. The price was pai by their soc a and economic subordinates, for whom the conquest eventually meant a steep decline in status, under the control of land-owners no longer dependant on their military support provided by them as clients. In this respect, acculturation was socially conscious and the opportunities for cultural symbiosis between the rulers and the ruled were arguably less than between the Imperial inmigrants and the provincial aristocracy (cf Bartel 1980-81). What then of Britain beyond the Humber and the Severn? In marked contrast, the Roman cultural package epitomised by villa and townhouse made little headway among the indigenes of Northern Eng and or the far West of Britain. Beyond the last pocket of Southern England - the Yorkshire Wolds - the distribution of villas thins rapidly with only Holme House by Piercebridge (Britannia 2, 1971, 251-2) and the bath-house at Old Durham (Richmond et al 1944; Wright and Gillam 1951; 1953) providing certain examples. A less than convincing case has been made for Apperley Dene (Clack 1982; cf Greene 1978), and a handful of further possibles have been suggested on the basis of aerial observations. West of the Pennines, the Eaton example near Tarpoorley in the Dee valley (Britannia 12, 1981, 333) is at present, at least, a solitary outpost of rural civilisation which lacks parallels in the west or to the north as far as the Wal 1 and beyond.

154

I t

i s

l ikely

t hat

s outh o f t he M ersey t he p articular p roblems f acing

a erial a rchaeologists h ave a rtificially d epressed t he a ggregate o f r ecorded v illa s ites . H owever , i n L ancashire a nd C umbria t he c ontrast i s a rguably n ot t he r esult o f d ifferential f ieldwork , b ut a r eal r eflection o f d ifferences i n t he u nderlying d istribution . I t i s d ifficult t o d emonstrate t hat t he u rban m odel a ttracted c onverts a mong t he n orthern i ndigenous p opulation . T he t ypical u rban c ommunity t hat d eveloped i n t he n orth b eyond t he T ees w as t he v icus . T hese s ites l ocated a t t he g ates o f t he f ort w ere l inked t o t he w ages a nd n eeds o f t he g arrison a nd f ew w ere a ble t o g enerate s ufficient l ocal t rade o r o ther f unctions t o e nable t hem t o s urvive t he d eparture o f t he g arrison . I t i s p ossible t o a rgue t hat a t l east C arlisle a nd C orbridge w ere l aid o ut l ate i n t he s econd c entury a s c ivilian c entres , b ut n either w as c ompleted i n t his f orm a nd b oth r emained i nextricably a ssociated w ith t he a rmy ; e ach a rguably h ad a p ermanent a rmy p resence a nd a cted a s a p ort o f e ntry . (2) T he r emaining c andidates a s u rban c entres ( as d istinct f rom v ici ) a re g rouped w holly i n t he n orth-east , i n t he r elatively w ell-developed T ees b asin . T he e xtent t o w hich v ici r ecruited i nhabitants f rom a mong t he l ocal i ndigenes i s u nknown . A long t he w all, o nly t he i nscription f rom B eltingham c hurchyard ( probably u ltimately f rom C hesterholm ) i mplies t he p resence o f a l ocal n ative a ristocracy , t he l eaders o f t he T extoverdi , l inked i n s ome w ay t o t he v icus f ort ( RIB 1 695) . I n t he h interland , t he i nscription f rom O ld P enrith t hat n ames F lavius Martius, s enator o f t he C arvetii, m ay b e s ignificant ( RIB 9 33) . A t O ld C arlisle , B rougham a nd O ld P enrith , t hose w ho d edicated t o B elatucadrus m ay , b ut n eed n ot, h ave b een l ocal m en . E lsewhere, d edications w ere v ery l argely t he w ork o f t he m ilitary . A lthough i t i s p ossible t hat l ocals e ntered t he v ici a t av ariety o f s ocial l evels , w here t he o rigin o f t he v icani c an b e d etermined , t he m ajority w ere i mmigrants t o t he a rea , o r t o t he p rovince ( Salway 1 965, 1 7) . T here i s l ittle e vidence o f a l ocal a ristocracy t aking u p r esidence i n t he v ici a nd l ess o f a R omanised c ommunity o utside . D id t he i ndigenous p opulations n ot p erceive a n eed f or R oman c ulture ; w as a ccess t o i t f easible , a nd , i f s o , d id t hey n ot h ave a vailable t he r esources b y w hich t o i nvest i n t hat c ul t ura l p ackage ?

T he N orthern R esource B ase I t i s n ot d ifficult t o d emonstrate t hat a s teep g radient e xisted i n t he a gricultural c limate a nd e nvironment b etween t he n orth a nd w est a nd s outh a nd e ast o f B ritain ( eg F ox 1 943 ) . T his i s n ot j ust a m atter o f l atitude . C limate i s, a nd w as , s everely a ffected b y g eographical f actors . A lthough m odern c limatic d ata i s n ot d irectly r elevant t o t he l ate I ron A ge/Roman p eriod , p arallels a nd c omparisons b etween o ne d istrict a nd a nother c an p roperly b e t ransferred t o t hat p eriod . O ver r ecent d ecades , t he g rowing s eason ( the p eriod c onsistently a bove 6 . 1 °C ) e xceeds 3 00 d ays i n l owland C ornwall a nd a long t he s outh c oast a nd l ay b etween 2 50 a nd 3 00 d ays t hroughout l owland E ngland . T hroughout t he N orth i t d id n ot a ttain 2 50 d ays , a nd i n t he u plands h overed a round , i f n ot b elow , 2 00 d ays . T here i s as ignificant g radient i n r ainfall f rom s outh a nd e ast, n orthwards a nd w estwards , a nd a r everse g radient i n p otential s ummer t ranspiration t o t he p oint w here, e ven i n s ummer , r ainfall o ver m uch o f t he n orth e xceeds t ranspiration . T he r esult i s l eaching t hroughout t he y ear , a nd t he c onsequent a cidity ,

e xclusion o f o xygen a nd

1 55

l ow f ertility .

A s a g eneral

A

Day s

/7 /

/ %

GR O WI NG

1 00

O bo

1 5 0 GR A ZI N G GR AZI N G

A

AB C D E F G

A BC D E F G

1 200 — mm

4 50 — R i m

0

2 50

AB C DE F G

F ig 9 .1

A B C DE F G

T he A gricultural E nvironment o f n orthern E ngland.

1 56

1 .

T he a gricultural

e nvironment o f n orthern E ngland :

a s eries o f g raphs

b ased o n d ata d erived f rom M AFF 1 976b . A .

T he g rowing a nd g razing s easons e xpressed i n n umbers o f d ays.

B .

T he g rowing a nd g razing s easons e xpressed a s a p ercentage ; R iding o f Y orkshire i s t aken a t 1 00% .

C .

P otential T ranspiration .

D .

E xcess W inter R ainfall.

D istricts:-

A .

E ast R iding ;

B .

N orthumberland l owlands;

C .

D urham l owlands;

D .

F urness l owlands;

E .

S olway l owlands;

F .

C heviot u plands;

G .

L ake D istrict u plands a nd N orth P ennines.

1 57

t he E ast

r ule o f t humb , t he g rowing s eason i s r educed b y 1 5-20 d ays f or e very 1 00m i ncrease i n a ltitude , a nd t he g razing s eason - o f g reatest i mportance i n t he n orth

-i n n ecessarily

s horter

t han t he g rowing s eason ( MAFF 1 964 ;

1 976a ;

1 976b ) . T hese f actors h ave c ontributed t o t he p resence o f w idespread p oor s oils i n t he n orth a nd m ean t hat h ectare f or h ectare t he c arrying c apacity o f n orthern E ngland i s a nd w as f ar l ower t han t hat o f t he s outh . T his p attern h ad a lready e merged i n a ll m ajor f acets b y t he R oman p eriod . I t i s l ogical, t herefore , t o a rgue t hat t he i ndigenous p opulation d ensity w as l ower a nd t hat t he i ndigenous a ristocracy o n t he e ve o f c onquest w as b oth p oorer a nd m ore t hinly d istributed t han e lsewhere i n t he p rovince . I t i s q uite c onceivable t hat i n m any l ocalities t he s ocial e lite i n t he n orth ( or t he w est) c ould n ot c ommand t he r esources a dequate f or t he a doption o f t he v illa o r t he t ownhouse , e ven w hen t he a ssimilation o f t he a rea i nto t he R oman w orld m ay h ave p laced t hese c ultural t rappings a t t heir d isposal, a nd c reated a s ocial a nd e conomic e nironment i n w hich t o a dopt t hem w as p lainly a dvantageous. A p eculiarity o f t he n orth i s t he i mportance o f l ocal e nvironmental f actors , w hich c reate s teep e nvironmental g radients o ver s hort d istances ( Fig 9 . 1) . R elatively s mall t racts o f a dvantageous t errain ( often c onducive t o m odern c ultivation ) a re s eparated b y t racts o f l and w hich a re i n e ither s ome o r a ll r espects d isadvantageous a nd a round w hich e xisted , a nd s till e xists, a t hreshold b eyond w hich p ermanent s ettlement f ailed t o p enetrate . R ecent s tudies o n b oth s ides o f t he P ennine a nd C heviot r anges h ave s uggested t hat t his t hreshold m oved ' down-hill ' b etween t he m id-second m illennium B C a nd t he s econd c entury A D , a lthough i n s ome a reas w est o f t he P ennines i t i s p ossible t hat t he l atter r epresented a p artial r evival f rom a n e ven l ower p osition d uring p arts o f t he l ater f irst m illennium B C . T here a re p owerful i ndications t hat s ubsequent m ovement o f t his t hreshold h as r emoved s ubstantial a reas f rom i ntensive e conomic u se . T his p henomenon c an p erhaps b est b e i llustrated a long t he n orth f acing s lopes o f C heviot a bove T eviotdale , o r a t s ites i n s imilar p ositions o n t he n orth s ide o f t he L ake D istrict M assif .

S ocial a nd E conomic S trategies D uring l ater p rehistory , c ommunities n orth o f t he T ees h ad b een m ost s uccessful i n d iverting r esources t o c onspicuous a nd a rchaeologically i dentifiable m onuments i n n orthern N orthumberland a nd s outh-east S cotland , a lthough e ven t here t he d ensity o f m etal w ork d oes n ot r ival t hat f rom t he E ast R iding . A round t he M ilfield B asin a nd m iddle T weed V alley a stride t he m odern f rontier w ith S cotland l ies t he d ensest c oncentration o f f orts i n t he N orth a nd h ere , i n t he r ainshadow o f t he C heviots a nd o ther r anges w est o f T eviot , c ommunities w ere a ble t o t ake a dvantage o f p roductivity b ased u pon a w ide e xpanse o f a dequately d rained , l owland t errain i n t he M ilfield a nd L ower T weed B asin , a nd a lmost u nlimited g razing ( Fig 9 .2) . T he s ame c ombination o f f actors a llowed e arlier g roups t o c onstruct t he l argest c omplex o f h enges n orth o f t he T ees ( Harding 1 981), a nd l ater g roups t o e rect t he p alace a nd a ssembly c omplexes a t Y eavering , S prouston ( Hope-Taylor 1 977 ; R eynolds 1 980 ) .

M ilfield a nd p erhaps

T he e xtent t o w hich t hese f orts w ere s till i n o ccupation i n t he f ew c enturies b efore t he c onquest i s a t p resent u nknown , a lthough i n s ome c ases a t l east t he d efenses w ere l ong o ut o f u se b y t he c onquest ( eg H ill, 1 982) . H owever , t he h illforts o f t his a rea e xcel o ver o ther e xamples i n n orthern E ngland i n a ll r espects : t hey a re m ore d ensely c oncentrated ; t hey d isplay o n

1 58

= 4 4 At e

J I i i h

A r d L

F ig 9 .2

S oil C onditions a nd t he D istribution o f

l ate P rehistoric A xes a nd

H illforts i n n orthern E ngland . S oils

a s

a n

a gricultural

p rehistoric a xes

m edium

a nd h illforts

i ncluding S chmidt a nd B urgess a re

l ined h orizontally ,

a nd

t he

d istribution

i n n orthern E ngland 1 981) .

1 59

l ate

v arious,

l owland

s oils

v ertically .

I ntermediate s oils a re n ot m arked

( extracted f rom t he s oil s urvey o f E ngland a nd W ales S heet 1 ).

o f

B adly d rained a nd u pland s oils

a nd w ell-drained ,

U nclassified s oils a re d otted .

( sources

1 :250 ,000 s eries ,

a verage a g reater i nput o f l abour o n t he d efenses ; t hey a re m ore l ikely t o h ave b een r efurbished o r t he o bject o f m ajor s tructural a lteration ; t he l argest e xamples a re l arger t han t hose i n a djacent a reas o f n orthern E ngland . C hronic i nsecurity m ay h ave p rovided t he s pur , b ut t he d ensity a nd c omplexity o f t hese m onuments r epresents a m ajor c ommitment o ver m any g enerations b y as ubstantial, l ocal, c ommunity . I f c ommunities n orth o f T eesdale w ere g iven t he o pportunity t o a dopt t he v illa, t he s ocial a nd p olitical e lite i n c ontrol o f t he r esources o f n orthern N orthumberland a re t hat g roup w hose a ncestors h ad b est d emonstrated t he a dequacy o f t he l ocal r esource b ase t o s upport c apital i nvestment i n p rojects f or w hich n o d irect e conomic r eturn c ould b e e xpected . T here i s n o e vidence t hat t his g roup a dopted t he v illa . T he b revity o f t he i ncorporation o f t his a rea i n t he p rovince , t he e ndemic i nsecurity o f t he f rontier z one a nd t he i naccessibility o f m arkets c ombine t o e ffectively d eny t he v illa a nd t he v illa e conomy t o t he l ocal a ristocracy . E lsewhere

i n

t he

n orth ,

o ther

l owland

z ones

h ad

a ttracted

l ate

p rehistoric m etalwork a nd h ad a chieved , i f t o a l esser e xtent , t he e conomic c apacity t o i nvest i n h illforts . E ast o f t he P ennines , h ospitable c limatic c onditions c haracteristic o f t he l owlands f urther s outh w ere t o s ome e xtent o ffset b y t he s carcity o f w ell-drained s oils a nd i nsecurity m ay h ave b een l ess o f a p roblem , a s t he p re-conquest c ivitas o f t he B rigantes e merged . I n t he w est , l owland c ommunities a ttracted m etalwork i n s mall q uantities , a s , f or e xample , o n P lain F urness, w here l ate m etalwork c lusters a round a h illfort w hich w as r emarkable o nly f or t he u tter i nadequacy o f i ts d efence a nd w hich w as l ocated o n t he d ryer , m ore p rotected, e astern s ide o f t he p eninsula w here w idespread l imestone o ffered w ell-drained p astureland . T he w estern f ell s lopes a ppear t o h ave b een m ore a dversely a ffected b y t he i ncreased r ainfall o f c 1 200-600 B C ; t he t hreshold o f s ettlement h ad f allen t o a l ower l evel t han i n t he e ast, a nd r ecovery w as d elayed . T hroughout t he L ake D istrict f ells , e xposed r ock t akes u p a s ignificant p roportion o f t he g round s urface . T here w as a n e nvironmental g radient i n o peration b etween b oth t he u plands a nd t he v alleys o f n orthern N orthumberland a nd t he w est c oast o f C umbria ( or G alloway ) w hich c an b e d emonstrated ( Fig 9 .2) . T he p rocess o f p auperisation i n m any a reas, p articularly w est o f t he P ennines , i s r eflected i n t he f ailure o f t he l ess w ell-placed c ommunities t o a ttract l ater p rehistoric m etalwork , w hich i s c oncentrated i n t he n orth i n e ast Y orkshire , n orthern N orthumberland a nd t he L othians ( eg S chmidt a nd B urgess 1 981) . I f t here w as a r ecognisable p rocess o f p auperisation i n N orthern E ngland , i t s hould h ave b een e ven m ore i nfluential i n s ettlement a nd s ocial s trategies f urther n orth . H owever , i n B ritian b eyond t he N ith a nd t he T weed , b rochs a nd d uns w ere o ccupied i n t he R oman p eriod a nd a re r espectable c andidates f or h igh s tatus s ettlement ( eg M acKie 1 979 ; Main 1 979 ) . C oncentrations o f t he f ormer e xist o n t he a gricultural l owlands o f n orthern a nd w estern S cotland , t he l atter i n t hose a reas e ventually t o f orm t he D ark A ge K ingdoms o f D alriada a nd S trathclyde . S outerrains w ere a lso a ssociated w ith R oman p eriod o ccupation o n b oth s ides o f t he F orth a lthough t hey b arely p enetrate N orthumberland ( Jobey 1 975) . S haring a b roadly c omparable d istribution , a lthough w ith a p owerful b ias t owards t he e ast , t here o ccurs a v ariety o f p ersonal a dornment a lso l ikely t o r epresent h igh s tatus . W ith t he e xception o f o utliers o n t he T yne , t hese d o n ot p enetrate s ignificantly s outh o f t he T weed ( Stevenson , h ere).

1 966 ;

f or a p racis

1 60

c f B reeze

1 982 ;

F ig

9 . 5

O ne o bject o f r ecent a erial s urvey i n t he S olway-Eden b asin h as b een t o i dentify v illa-type s ites . H owever , n one h ave b een l ocated a nd t here i s l ittle s ign o f a n i ndigenous s ettlement h ierarchy o f a ny s ort i n t he a rea ( Higham 1 981a ; J ones a nd W alker 1 983) . T he d ominant s ettlement f orm h ere , a s i n t he n orth-east, i s t he e nclosed f arm , n ormally c ontaining o nly a s ingle h ouse . S everal e xcavated e xamples h ave d emonstrated t hat a t radition o f r ectangular b uilding w as a dopted , t hough p robably n ot b efore t he S everan p eriod ( Blake 1 960 ; H igham 1 981a ; 1 981b ; H igham a nd J ones 1 983) . T his t radition m ay o we s omething t o R omanisation - t he o bvious m odel l ay i n t he v ici a nd n o e xamples h ave y et b een i dentified a t a ny d istance f rom a v icus . H owever , n o o ther s ignificant c hanges i n t he s ettlements a ccompanied t he a doption o f a n ew a rchitectural s tyle . T he e nclosures w ithin w hich t hey w ere c onstructed c ontinued i n u se a s f armyards . s mall a nd f limsy f armhouses b e d escribed a s

I n n o s ense c an t hese v illas .(3) W ithin t his

s cattered n etwork o f s ites o ccupied b y af arming p opulation , o nly t he f orts a nd v ici a re i ndicative o f a s ite h ierarchy . T he n earest s tructural e quivalent t o t he s outhern v illas t hroughout m ost o f t he n orth w as t he f ort c ommander 's h ouse . E ven w ithin t he b est a gricultural t errain o f t he f rontier z one , t he v illa w as n ot a dopted b y t he i ndigenous c ommunity o r i ts l eaders , w ho h ave t o d ate , p roved e lusive t o t he p oint o f e xtinction , w ithin t he a rchaeological r ecord . L ike t he D anube f rontier z one ( Bartel 1 980-81), t he n orthern f rontier z one . o f R oman B ritain o n b oth s ides o f t he W all s hows c ontinuity o f c ulture w ithin t he i ndigenous c ommunity f rom t he p receding p eriod , w ith o nly a s mall, a nd v ariable q uantity o f ' Roman ' a rtefacts o f l ow v alue r eaching t he s ettlements o f t he l ocal i nhabitants . A cross m uch o f b oth n orthern a nd w estern B ritain , t his a rguably r eflects t he s hortcomings o f t he p roductive b asis o f s ociety . H owever , w ithin t he p ockets o f a dvantageous a gricultural l and, t he a bsence o f v illas m ay i mply t hat c ultural e quilibrium i n as egregated s ystem m ay h ave b een d eliberate p olicy o n t he p art o f t he a uthorities . T his b rings t o t he f orefront t he p roblem o f t he t erritorium a ttached t o e ach R oman f ort . E pigraphic e vidence f rom R ibchester ( RIB 5 83) a nd C hester-le-Street C RIB 1 049 ) d emonstrates t hat t racts o f l and w ere a ssigned t o t he n orthern f orts . I f t he t ract c alculated f or t he f ort a t X anten i s o f a ny r elevance , t he a rea o f l and a ppropriated b y t he a uthorities c ould b e a s g reat a s 3 ,444ha ( 8 ,500a) ( MacMullen 1 963; B reeze 1 981; S alway 1 965, 1 88 ) . M ost o f t he l ong-occupied f orts i n t he h interland o f t he w all a re l ocated c lose t o l imited t racts o f a dvantageous t errain - t he L une a nd E den c orridors a nd t he S olway p lain a re o bvious c ases i n p oint . O thers , l ike R avenglass, a re l ocated c lose t o t he o nly s oils i n a l ocality s uitable f or c ultivation . T his i s n ot t o a rgue t hat r esource c onsciousness p layed a m ajor r ole i n t he i nitial c hoice o f s ites ; t here i s an atural c oincidence o f a griculturally a dequate s oils a nd t he r oute c orridors t o w hich t he m ilitary w ere a ttracted f or s trategic r easons . I t i s u nlikely t hat t he a rmy i nvolved i tself d irectly i n a gricultural p roduction . T he f orts s uch a s O ld s hould d ispel a ny l ink t he v icus o f i f , v ia o fficials

l arge n umber o f h omesteads s cattered i n t he v icinity o f C arlisle , B rougham o r O ld P enrith ( Higham a nd J ones 1 974) s uch s uggestions, a lthough t racks a nd f ields d o a ppear t o t he f irst o f t hese w ith a gricultural p roduction . H owever , s uch a s t he c enturio r egionarius r ecorded a t R ibchester ,

t he m ilitary d rew o ff t he p rofits o f t he n orthern t erritoria a s r ents i n a ddition t o t he t axation t he i ndigenes m ust b e p resumed t o h ave p aid i n k ind , t here w as l ittle s cope r emaining f or a n i ndigenous a ristocracy ,

1 61

p articularly i n t he v alleys o f t he T yne a nd I rthing , E amont o r t he D erwent ( Fig 9 . 3) . T o t ake a s e xamples

t he I rt a nd E sk ,

t he

t he r emote a nd l ong-lived f ort a t R avenglass ,

a nd

t he m ore s hort-lived s econd c entury f ort a t H ardknott, h interland w as o f

l ow a gricultural

d rained a nd w ooded p asturland ; t he l ow f ells ,

v alue .

m ost o f t he a djacent

E skdale w as a rguably a b adly

E skmeals s ands w ere a griculturally u seless ;

c leared a nd c ultivated i n t he B ronze A ge w ere b y t his s tage

p robably t ending t owards l ow-grade p asture o r s crub l and . t he

l owlands

d rift

o ffered

s oils

a round G osforth .

w ithin a ny ( Fig 9 . 4) .

I t

o f

a gricultural

s eems

l ikely

q uality

t hat

t his

O nly o ne a rea o f

-t he

g lacio-fluvial

a rea w as

i ncorporated

t erritorium t hat w as a ppropriated f or t he R avenglass g arrison T here i s n o p articular c oncentration o f R oman f inds o n t his

t errain - a lthough s uch d o o ccur ( Cherry 1 979 ) - b ut t he a rea h as b een e xtensively c ultivated i n t he p ost-Roman p eriod , b efore b eing e nveloped i n p asture s ince t he R ailway A ge . I t i s e asier t o f ind u pstanding s ites o f l ikely l ate p rehistoric o r R oman d ate j ust b eyond t he m argins o f m odern l and i mprovements .

O ne

s uch

s ite

i s

t he

s tone-walled

s ingle s tone h ut b ase o n W aberthwaite F ell(4),

e nclosure

c ontaining a

o ccupying a s light r ise i n

t he h eart o f a c airnfield , p arts a t l east o f w hich h ad a rguably a lready b een a bandoned f or m any g enerations w hen t he c onquest o ccurred . T wo

c ollapsed

s tone-malls

r un i n p arallel

d esigned t o a ssist i n h er c ontrol.

s tream ( the W hitrow B eck ) h as d eveloped , r idge .

t owards

t he

s ite ,

f ollowing a b izarre b ed a long t he

I t c an n ot f orm p art o f t he n atural d rainage p attern ,

r esulted

f rom c hanges

p erhaps

B etween t hem a y oung a nd v igorous

i n d rainage d ue

t o

t his

l ast

b ut a rguably

e pisode o f h uman

s ettlement i n w hat w as a lready a f ragile e cosystem e ven a s l ow a s 2 00m a bove O D , i n a l ocality w ith o ne o f t he h ighest r ainfall f igures i n E ngland . A t B arnscar t o t he n orth , a n e nclosed s ite h as l ikewise p robably b een i ntruded i nto a t ypical B ronze A ge l andscape ( Dymond 1 893 ; W alker 1 965) . E skdale

o n

B ronze A ge

B uLl iwoor

t here

c ommunicaties

a re m ore

h ave

l eft

e levated t races

o f

u plands l and

F urther u p

( 260-320m )

c learance ,

o n

w hich

s ettlement ,

e nclosure a nd b urial, b ut t he a rea a pparently f ailed t o a ttract s ettlement i n t he R oman p eriod ,

d espite t he p ropinquity o f H ardnott f ort .

O ne i s l eft

w ith t he i mpression t hat t he g arrisons a t b oth R avenglass a nd H ardnott r elied

h eavily

h interland e xploited ;

o n

w hich

i mports t hey

f or

p rovisions,

s upervised

o r

a r eoccupation o f m arginal

e ven

p erhaps

i f ,

w here

e ven

t errain o n t he

p ossible ,

' owned '

w as

t he

b eing

v alley s ides w as

a

t ypical p henomenon o f t he l ate R oman a nd s ub-Roman p eriods ( Pearsall a nd P ennington 1 973) , m atching t he e xploitation o f l ocal c lay a nd f uel f or t he k iln a t Muncaster e arly i n t he s econd c entury . I f t he b etter-drained a gricultural t erritorium o f R avenglass,

t here w as

l and a round G osforth l ay w ithin t he

l ittle o pportunity i n E skdale o r t he

n eighbouring l owlands f or a ny n ative a ristocracy t o u tilise t heir c ontrol o f l ocal

r esources

t o

a dopt

R oman

c ulture .

A v ariety

o f

s culpted

m asonry

e mphasised t he i mportance o f t his l imited t errain t o t he A nglo-Scandinavian a ristocracy l ater i n t he m illenium . W ith o r w ithout t erritoria , t he a rmy o f o ccupation w as a v ast e ngine o f d emand, s ucking i nto t he n orth r aw m aterials, manufactured g oods a nd p rovisions o f a ll k inds ( Davies t he

l ocal

c ommunity

t ap

t his

1 971;

B reeze 1 981) .

e normous m arket ,

f ed ,

T o w hat e xtent c ould v ia

t axation ,

s urplus p roducation o f w ealthier r egions a nd p rovinces? A s a rchaeological e vidence g oes, t he a nswer i s r elatively l ittle . o f m ost m anufactured g oods w as o rganised v ia e xtended ,

1 62

b y

t he

f ar a s t he T he s upply

p resumably s ea-borne

F ig 9 .3

T he R oman F orts o f n orthern E ngland w ith N otional t erritoria a nd 1 0km R adius M arket Z ones . T he R oman f orts o f n orthern E ngland w ith n otional t erritoria a nd n otional 1 0km r adius market z ones. F illed c ircles: t owns. E nvironmental f actors e xpressed a s i n F ig 9 2 . N ote t hat H ardknott i s o mitted, b ecause o f t he e nvironmental p roblems f aced b y l ocal p rovisioning o r m arketing .

1 63

• •

F or t F arm

*

F ind

•

Ca irnf ie ld

SO ILS O

O

We l l-dra ined L e ss B ad ly

•

Mar sh

O

Dunes

o Upland

C on tour a t 3 05m

F ig 9 .4

E skdale i n t he R oman I ron A ge : m ilitary o ccupation a nd i ndigenous s ettlement i n W est C umbria ( sources i nclude C herry 1 9 79 ) , s et a gainst t he e nvironmental c onditions i n w hich t hey o perated .

l ines o f c ommunication , b ringing p ottery , f or e xample , f rom t he s outh ( in t he l ater f ourth c entury f rom Y orkshire ) o r f rom t he c ontinent ( Hartley 1 972 ; B rewster 1 972 ; G illam 1 971) . T he s upply d epended u pon h ighly c apitalised i ndustries i n w hich s killed w orkers w ere o rganised i nto f actoryl ike p roduction c entres . I n t he n orth n either t he c apital n or t he s kills w ere a vailable . I mmigrant p otters w ere a ctive a t C orbridge a nd e lsewhere ; s ome p ottery m anufacture i n t he n orth w as u ndertaken b y a rmy u nits , b ut o nly w hen s upplies f rom t he s outh w ere i nadequate - h ence t he s hort-lived p otteries a nd t ileries a t M uncaster , S calesceugh a nd B rampton ( Cumbria ) . A rtificers , b e i t w orkers i n m etal, l eather , s tone o r g lass w ere a ttraced t o t he v ici , b ut a s y et i t c annot b e d emonstrated t hat t he l ocal c ommunity p rovided a s ignificant c ontingent . T he a rmy g enerated a s poradic b ut v ast d emand f or t imber ( Hanson 1 978) a nd b uilding s tone . B oth t hese w ere o btained f rom t he n orthern h interland b ut i n n either c ase i s i t l ikely t hat t he l ocal c ommunity o btained a ny r ecompense f or t hese r esources, p articularly i f t hey w ere d rawn f rom t he i mmediate v icinity o f m ilitary i nstallations a nd t herefore f rom t hat t errain w hich w as m ost l ikely t o l ie w ithin t he t erritoria o f t he g arrison . N or i s t he l ocal c ommunity l ikely t o h ave b enefitted m aterially f rom t he w orking o f t he o res a nd m ineral r esources o f t he n orth , w hich w ere p robably b oth e xtensive a nd l ucrative , f or e xample , i n t he A lston a rea . I f t he l ocal c ommunity g ained a ny b enefit

1 64

f rom s upplying t he a rmy , i t w as e ither a s i ndividual r ecruits, o r b y t he s ale o f s urplus p roduction , s urplus t hat i s t o t he s ubstantial q uantity a lready e armarked t o p ay t axes , a nd l ess c ertainly r ent . T he s uggestion t hat l ocal g rain p roduction c ould h ave p layed a s ignificant r ole i n f ort p rovisioning w as p ut f orward i n a n i mportant a rticle b y P rofessor M anning , i n w hich t he a gricultural a dequacy o f s pecific t racts o f l and i n W ales w as u nderlined ( Manning 1 975 ) . d oubt t hat t here w as a g rowing l evel o f a gricultural

T here c an b e n o p roduction i n t he

n orth-east o f E ngland d uring t he R oman p eriod i f n ot b efore . T o t his e xtent t he p icture o f t he n orth a s t he h ome o f f ootloose C eltic c owboys ( Piggott 1 958 ) c an n ow b e s een t o b e a n e xaggeration . H owever , o n p urely e nvironmental g rounds , t he m ost a dvantageous a rea f or c ereal c ultivation l ay i n n orthern N orthumberland , b eyond t he f rontier l ine a nd w ell b eyond t he z one f rom w hich o verland t ransport m ade f ort p rovisioning a n e conomic p roposition . F ield s ystems o f a t ype a pparently l aid o ut f or c ultivation h ave

b een

i dentified a t Y eavering

( Hope-Taylor

1 977)

a nd o n t he m arginal

t errains o n t he l ower s lopes o f t he C heviots a nd b etween R edesdale a nd t he W ansbeck ( Gates 1 981) , b ut e xamples r emain s carce . I n t he l owlands t hroughout n orth-east E ngland t he t ypical f armstead w as r ectilinear i n p lan . I n t he S olway b asin , r ectilinear f arms w ere m ost c ommonly a ssociated w ith f ield s ystems ( Jones 1 979 ) a nd i t m ay b e t hat w e s hould c ontrast a n a rable f arming r egime i n t hese a dvantaged a reas w ith t he p astoralism t hat d ominated l and-use i n t he C heviots a nd t he L ake D istrict . S outh o f t he w all , e xtensive f ield s ystems s uch a s t hose a t E ller B eck ( Lowndes 1 963 ; H igham 1 979 ) o r C robsy G arrett F ell ( RCHM(E) 1 936 ; H igham 1 978) w ere a rguably l aid o ut f or t he p urpose o f a gricultural u se . I n L owland C umbria , a t l east , f ield s ystems a re c ommon-place , a nd a ssociated w ith m any o f t he f arms i dentified f rom t he a ir . T rial e xcavations o f t he d itch s eparating a R omano-British f arm s ite a t C roftlands ( North o f B assenthwaite L ake ) f rom a djacent f ields y ielded a g rain o f b arley ( Higham 1 982) ; b arley , e mmer a nd s pelt w ere f ound a t C oxhoe , W esthouse , C o D urham , p ossibly i n ap re-Roman c ontext ( van d er V een a nd H aselgrove 1 983) a nd b arley w as a lso i dentified a t D oubstead , n ear S cremerston , N orthumberland ( Jpbey 1 982) . P ollen d iagrams f rom C o . D urham a nd C leveland i ndicate a s ubstantial l evel o f c ereal c ultivation i n t he R oman p eriod ( et C lack 1 9 189 . T he a vailable e vidence s upports t he h ypothesis t hat a h igh l evel o f a gricultural p roduction o ccurred o nly i n t hose a reas w hich b oth e njoyed a dvantageous e nvironmental c onditions a nd w here R oman i nterests p rovided a s timulus t o p roduce b eyond t he n eeds o f s ubsistence . S uch c onditions e xisted i n m id-Teesdale a nd o ther a reas o f s outhern D urham , o n t he s outh s ide o f t he S olway B asin , a nd i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f s ome o ther f orts . E lsewhere c orn w as c ultivated w herever e nvironmental c onditions a llowed a nd t his w as b y t he e nd o f t he R oman p eriod t o i nclude s ome t errain w ithin t he L ake D istrict .

H owever ,

t his m ore w idespread p roduction w as

p robably

s ubsistance o rientated , a nd n ot d esigned t o p roduce a l arge s urplus . W est o f t he P ennines a nd i n t he l ess a dvantageous a reas t hroughout t he n orth , c onditions w ere p robably n ot c onducive t o t he c ultivation o f w heat , a nd m any c ommunities c ould h ave p rovided t he a rmy w ith o nly s mall q uantities o f g rain o f aq uality a nd t ype s uited b etter t o t he p alate o f c avalry m ounts t han o f t heir m asters . T his i s n ot t o u nderestimate t he p otential f or a n a gricultural s urplus f or t axation , r ent o r s ale i n p arts o f t he S olway B asin , t he m id-Tees v alley a nd l owland C o D urham , b ut e lsewhere i n t he n orth d istance f rom m arkets a nd a d isadvantageous e nvironment m ade t he p roduction

1 65

o f a d isposable c ereal s urplus i mprobable . I n s outhern D urham t he r elatively l ow l evel o f g arrisoning ( for e xample , P iercebridge w as n ot g arrisoned f or m any g enerations ) d iminishes t he l ocal l ink b etween m ilitary c onsumers a nd i ndigenous p roducers , a nd m ay h ave a llowed t he l ocal e mergence o f a v illa a nd e state o wning a ristocracy c entred o n o ne o r m ore c ivilian t owns. I f t he r emainder o f t he n orthern c ommunity p roduced a nd s old a t ruly s ignificant s urplus , i t w as i n t he f orm o f l ivestock . T he a rmy h ad a n a lmost i nexhaustible d emand f or b eef a nd h ides , a nd l eather w orking w as a n ot u ncommon a ctivity i n v ici a nd f orts . T he b ones f rom C hesterholm ( 9 1 .7% o f e stimated m eat ( 96 .5% ) ( Hodgson 1 977 ; 1 968 ) r epresent a d emand s imilar d ominance o f c attle r emains f rom t he

h igh p roportion o f c attle c onsumption ) a nd C orbridge t hat f inds a n e cho i n t he ' temple ' s ite a t Y eavering

o ccupied a f ew c enturies l ater ( Hope-Taylor 1 977) . T he n orth w as c attle c ountry w ith t he p otential f or l arge h erds o n w ide s ummer p astures t o p rovide a l arge a nnual c ull ; p astoralism w as a s trategy a vailable t o t he w hole r ural c ommunity a nd n ot o nly t o t hose o ccupying t he m ost a dvantageous t errain . U nfortunately , t he e quation o f d emand f or b eef a nd h ides c an n ot

l ocal c attle w ith t he l ocal m ilitary y et b e d omonstrated a rchaeologically ,

a lthough t he g rowing e vidence f or t rackways l inking f arms a nd m arkets o n t he S olway o ffers o ne w ay f orward . E ven i f i t o ccurred , i t c ertainly d id n ot l ead t o t he d eposition o f R oman c oinage o n a ctive f arms .

A mong t he e ntire

r ange o f e asily m ovable R oman a rtefacts, c oinage i s t he l east w ellr epresented . T he d ribble o f R oman w ares i nto t he h omes o f t he i ndigines c onsisted e ntirely o f c heap p roducts - m ass p roduced p ottery , l ocal c opies t hereof , b eads , b angles a nd t he l ike , i n q uantities t hat c ould h ave b een p urchased i n m ost c ases b y t he s ale o f a h andful o f a nimals, o r o ne p ackhorse l oad o f g rain . T he e xotica f ound o n n ative s ites s outh o f t he W all d o p rovide e vidence o f a n e xchange e conomy ( eg H igham 1 981a ) b ut n ot , i n g eneral, o ne t hat w as e ither c ontinuous o r p articularly s ignificant w ithin t he f arming e conomy ( Higham a nd J ones 1 983, 6 3) . T he r ate o f d eposition o n n ative s ites w as f ar r emoved f rom t hat o f t he f orts a nd v ici . N orth o f t he W all t he d ribble o f a rtefacts q uickened i n t he A ntonine p eriod , t hen a ll b ut d ried u p i n t he a ftermath . S outh o f t he W all, a f lurry o f d eposits m ay m ark t he H adrianic p eriod , f ollowed b y ad earth i n t he A ntonine r e-advance a nd m ost p ottery b elongs t o t he t hird o r f ourth c enturies . T he p resence o r a bsence o f f orts , v ici a nd t heir m arkets w ithin a h alf-day 's j ourney o f t he n ative c ommunity w as p robably a s ignificant f actor i n t he l ocal p enetration o f R oman g oods ( Fig 9 . 3) . V ici w ere c ommonest o n t he m ain a rterial r outes a nd a long t he W all .

I t w ould b e v ery d angerous t o a ssume

w ithout g ood c ause t hat n ative s ites e lsewhere w ere n ot o ccupied a t s ome s tage d uring t he R oman p eriod j ust b ecause n o r ecognisable a rtefacts r eached t he s ite a nd i t i s h eartening t hat i n N orthumberland , a t l east , r adio-carbon d ating h as n ow b ecome a n ormal d ating m echanism ( eg J obey 1 978 ) . I mprecise i t m ay b e a s ac hronological i ndicator ,

b ut i t d oes o ffer a w ay f orward .

C onclusions C ertain c haracteristics r equire t hat w e d istinguish a f rontier z one i n N orthern B ritain f rom t he S outhern P rovince a nd f rom t he u nconquered p eoples o f S cotland . I n b oth t he l atter r egions t here i s a rchaeological e vidence o f a n i ndigenous s ocial a nd p olitical h ierarchy , h owever d ivergent t he f orms i t

t ook .

B etween t he t wo l ies a r egion i n w hich ,

1 66

e xcluding t he a rmy ,

t he

F ig 9 .5

T he F rontier Z one o f N orthern B ritain . T he a rchaeological i dentification o f a f rontier z one i n R oman B ritain . T he t owns a nd v illas o f R oman B ritain b arely p enetrate t he n orthern c ounties b eyond t he M ersey a nd t he T ees ; b eyond t he N ith a nd t he T weed i ndigenous s ettlement t ypes a nd t raditions o f m etal w orking ( ' massive a rmlets ' a nd D onside T errets) b etray t he e xistance o f a t ribal a ristocracy . B etween t hese t wo z ones a n i ndigenous a ristocracy i s b arely r ecognisable, i f a t a ll, a nd t he R oman a rmy g arrisons, b ureaucracy a nd v icani p rovide t he o nly i dentifiable e lements o f a s ocial h ierarchy ( based o n B reeze 1 982 a nd B ranigan 1 980 ; C ontour a t 1 83m ).

1 67

a dministration a nd t he v icani , v ery l ittle t race o f s uch a h ierarchy h as s o f ar b een i dentified , d espite c ertain i rregularities i n t he s ize o f t he s ettlement s ites i n a reas s uch a s t he B eamish V alley ( Northumberland ) a nd C rosby R avensworth ( Cumbria ) . T he a pproximate g eographical b oundaries o f t his z one l ie i n t he e ast o n t he T ees a nd t he T weed , i n t he w est o n t he M ersey , a nd i n s outh-west S cotland o n t he C entral U plands ( Lowther H ills a nd M oorfoot H ills e tc ) a nd t he R iver N ith . T his z one e ncompasses b oth t hat r egion t hat w as f or l ong h eavily g arrisoned i n t he h interland o f t he W all a nd t hose a reas b eyond i t i n w hich t he R oman a rmy t ook a p articular i nterest i n t he H adrianic a nd p ost-Hadrianic p eriods ( Fig 9 . 5) . I t m ust b e r ight t o a rgue t hat t he f rontier z one d id n ot e njoy t he c arrying c apacity o f t he s outhern R oman p rovince , y et p arts o f i t c ompare f avourably w ith t he r egions b eyond . T here a re , a nd w ere , s ubstantial t racts o f a dequate a gricultural l and w hich w ere i ntensively f armed i n t he R oman p eriod . T hese f ormed t he h eartland o f v arious t ribal u nits i n l ater p rehistory a nd o f v arious l ocal k ingdoms w ithin t he s ub-Roman p eriod . Y et w ithin t he R oman p eriod , d espite t he a pparent e conomic o pportunities , n o i ndigenous a rtistocracy h as b een i dentified . V illas d o n ot e xist i n t he n umbers w e m ight h ave a nticipated . N or h as i t s o f ar b een d emonstrated t hat t he t own h ouses o f a r ent-supported , l and-owning a ristocracy p layed a s ignificant r ole w ithin t he v ici . T acitus ' d escription o f a cculturation i n t he A gricola c annot b e d emonstrated i n t he f rontier z one , w here t he p rocess o f c ivilianisation o f t he i ndigenous c ommunity d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave b een a ttended b y m uch o f t he t rappings o f c ivilisation . T he f actors w hich l imited t he p rocess o f a cculturation s hould m ost p robably b e s ought i n t he n ature o f t he r elationship b etween t he a uthorities, t he m ilitary g arrisons a nd t he i ndigenous c ommunity . T here c an b e l ittle d oubt t hat t his r elationship w as a n i ntimate o ne i n c ertain r espects . T he r ural c ommunity p aid a s ubstantial p art , i f n ot a ll, o f t heir a gricultural s urplus i n k ind t o t he g arrisons a s t axation . I n a ddition , i t s eems p ossible t hat t he g arrisons e xercised p roprietorial r ights o ver s ome o f t he f rontier z one , a t l east s outh o f t he W all . S uch r ights c an o nly h ave o perated t o t he d etriment o f t he r ural c ommunities , e ither b y d isestablishment , a s p robably o ccurred i n t he T yne V alley , o r b y a n i ncrease i n o utgoings . D espite t he a dequacy o f s ome a t l east o f t he f rontier z one a s a gricultural t errain , t he p ressure o f c ompulsory o utgoings f rom t he f arming c ommunity d enied t hat g roup m ore t han o ccasional a ccess t o t he p rovincial e conomy v ia t he m arket p lace, o r t o t he c oinage w hich l ubricated t hat e conomy . T he m ovement o f p rovincial g oods o nto t he f arm s ites d epended u pon t he p ropinquity o f m arkets a nd o ther f actors , b ut e ven w here f arms l ay w ithin a o ne h our w alk o f a n e xtensive v icus , a nd w ithin y ards o f am ajor r oad ( as a t P enrith , H igham a nd J ones 1 983) , t he e xotics e ntering t he f arm g ate w ere c haracteristically f ew a nd c heap . I n s uch c ircumstances t here w as n o m echamism w ithin t he i ndigenous c ommunity b y w hich c apital a ccretion c ould o ccur a nd t herefore n o o pportunity f or e conomic g rowth v ia d iversification . T he

e mergence

o f

c ivitas C arvetiorum

i n

t he

e arly

t hird

c entury m ay

i mply t hat s ome a lteration s hould b e m ade t o t his m odel ; a lternatively i t c ould b e a rgued t hat t he c ivitas w as c reated f or , a nd s taffed b y , t he v icani o f t he r egion , a mong w hom i ndigenes c laimed f ew p laces .

1 68

I n a ddition , c ertain c ults i n t he r egion ( Belatucadrus, B rigantia , C oventina e tc) s uggest a r everse p rocess o f a cculturation b y w hich t he i mmigrant c ommunity c onsciously a dopted i ndigenous d eities . T he R oman a dministration w as , h owever , n otoriously a ccessible t o f oreign d eities a nd t his p henomenon i n n orthern B ritain n eed o ccasion l ittle r emark .

I n t he

l ast r esort , t he n orthern B ritons a dopted C hristianity , a n i mperial i mport ; a lthough e ventually a m ajor f acet o f l ate R oman c ultural p olicy , t he i mpact o f C hristianity a mong t he i ndigenes b efore t he c ollapse o f t he E mpire c annot b e m easured a nd w as a rguably s light . I n c onclusion , i t c an b e s aid t hat t wo e conomies a nd c ultures e xisted i n t he z one , w ith o nly l imited b ridges b etween . O nly t he i ndigenous c ommunity w as d ependent o n t he l ocal r esource b ase . C onstrained b y t he n atural d isadvantages o f t hat r esource b ase a nd b y t he s ubstantial a nd c ompulsary f low o f f arm p roduction t o t he a dministration a nd g arrisons , t he i ndigenes c ould b orrow l ittle f rom t heir m ore a ffluent n eighbours a nd w ere u nable t o s upport a c onspicuous s ocial h ierarchy . T hey w ere d enied a ccess t o p rovincial c ivilisation e ven i f s ome a mong t hem p received a n eed t o a dopt i t .

I n r eturn f or t he f arming s urplus, t he a rmy s upplied n o m ore t han

a uthority a nd p hysical s ecurity . T he m aintenance o f ad ual c ultural s ystem i n e quilibrium w as a rguably i nitially e ncouraged b y o fficial c olonial p olicy . O nly t he a rmy a nd t he v icani h ad a ccess v ia a rchaeologically d iscernable s upply n etworks t o R oman c ulture a nd m arkets i n t he s outh a nd i n E urope . E xcept f or t hose o f t he i ndigines w ho w ere a ble t o e nlist , a ccess t o R oman c ulture w as h ardly a n o ption t hat e xisted , a nd t he p rocess o f a cculturation w as t hereby s everely l imited .

1 69

N OTES 1 .

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t hanks

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B lagg

1 980 ;

B ohannon a nd

B artel

1 980 ;

M y

t o P rofessor B arn i J ones f or h is h elpful d iscussion o f a spects

o f t hese p roblems a nd s ee J ones 1 984 . 2 .

My

t hanks

t o

e xcavations

I an

i n

C aruana

C arlisle

f or a nd

h is t o

c orrespondence

J ohn

D ore

f or

o n

h is

t he

h elp

r ecent i n

t he

i nterpretation o f R oman C orbridge. 3 .

W ith t he p ossible e xception o f t he s tructure a t R isehow w hich w as 2 1 x 1 5.5m a nd a rguably c onstructed a round a c ourtyard ( Blake 1 960).

4 .

My t hanks t o M iss C lare F ell f or h er c orrespondence c oncerning a s urface f ind f rom t his s ite w hich w ould s uggest a n o ccupation d ate i n t he

l ate

p rehistoric/Roman p eriod .

T he

s eparation o f m iddle B ronze

A ge f rom R omano-British l andscape f eatures i n t his a rea i s s till p roblematic ( eg W ard 1 977; C herry 1 979 ; L eech 1 983; H igham 1 986).

1 70

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1 979 :

E xcavations

a t L eckie ,

S tirlingshire ,

1 97078 .

I n

5 2-5 . R

1 963:

S oldier a nd C ivilian i n t he L ater R oman E mpire .

M ass .

M AIN , L 1 979 : E xcavations a t t he F airy K nowe , B uclyvie , S tirlingshire . B reeze ( ed ), 4 7-51 . M ANNING ,

W H

1 975 :

E conomic

I nfluence

o n L and-Use

i n

t he M ilitary

A reas o f t he H ighland Z one . I n Evans, J G L imbrey , S a nd C leere, H F ( eds), T he E ffect o f M an o n t he L anscape : t he H ighland Z one . ( London , C ounc B rit A rchaeol R es R ep 1) , MINISTRY

OF

T he F armer's W eather. MINISTRY

OF

1216 .

AGRICULTURE,

FISHERIES

ARGRICULTURE,

C limate a nd D rainage .

AND

FOOD

19 64:

( London , H MSO, M AFF B ull 1 65). FISHERIES

AND

FOOD

19 7 6a.

( London , HMSO , M AFF T ech B ull 3 4) .

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, FISHERIES AND FOOD 19 7 6b: T he A gricultural C limate o f E ngland a nd W ales . ( London , HMSO, MAFF T ech B ull 3 5). P EARSALL ,

W H

A ND P ENNINGTON , W

1 973 :

1 73

T he L ake D istrict .

L ondon .

P IGGOTT , B ritain . 1 27.

S 1 958 :

I n

R ENFREW ,

N ative E conomies a nd t he R oman O ccupation o f N orth

R ichmond ,

A C

C urr A nthrop 1 0,

1 979 :

D ark A ge T imber H alls a nd t he B ackground t o E xcavation

S cot A rchaeol F orum 1 0 ,

R ICHMOND ,

IA ,

RCHM ( E) W estmorland .

R OMANS ,

19 36 : L ondon .

P

SCHMIDT,

P

4 1-60 .

TA ND W RIGHT , RP

An

1 965 :

1 944 :

A C ivilian B ath-House

A rchaeol A eliana 4 s er 2 2 ,

Inventory o f

K

AND

BURGESS,

R BK 1 960 :

C

( Munich ,

1 -21.

t he H istorical Monuments o f

T he F rontier P eople o f R oman B ritain .

o f S cotland a nd N orthern E ngland . S TEVENSON ,

E dinburgh ,

T rade a nd C ulture P rocess i n E uropean P rehistory .

o f t he R oman P eriod a t O ld D urham .

S ALWAY ,

R oman a nd N ative I n B ritain .

1 51-69 .

R EYNOLDS N 1 980 : a t B albridie .

I A ( ed ),

B

19 81:

C ambridge . The

P rähist B ronzefunde I X ,

Axes 7 ) .

M etal-work a nd s ome o ther O bjects i n S cotland

and t heir C ultural A ffinities . I n R ivet, A L F ( ed), T he I ron Age i n N orthern B ritain . E dinburgh , 1 7-44 V EEN , M V AN D ER A ND H ASELGROVE , CC 1 983 : f rom C oxhoe ,

C o . D urham .

WALKER,

D

E vidence f or P re-Roman C rops

A rchaeol A eliana 5 s er 1, 2 3-5 .

19 65 :

Excavations

at

C umberland W estmorland A ntiq A rchaeol S oc n s er 6 5 , W ALTHEW ,

C V

1 975 :

Barnscar.

Trans

5 3-65 .

T he T own H ouse a nd t he V illa H ouse .

B ritannia 6 ,

1 89-205. W ARD ,

J E

1 977 :

C airns o n C orney F ell .

A ntiq A rchaeol S oc n s er 7 7, W ELLS ,

P S

1 980a :

T rans C umberland W estmorland

1 -5 .

C ulture C ontact a nd C ulture C hange : e arly I ron A ge

c entral E urope a nd t he M editerranean w orld .

C ambridge .

W ELLS , P S 1 980b : C ontact a nd C hange : a n e xample o n t he f ringes o f t he c lassical w orld . W orld A rchaeol 1 2 , 1 10 . W RIGHT , O ld D urham . W RIGHT , O ld D urham .

R P A ND G ILLAM ,

JP

1 951:

A rchaeol A eliana 4 s er 2 9 . R P A ND G ILLAM ,

JP

1 953 :

A rchaeol A eliana 4 s er 3 1,

1 74

S econd R eport o n R oman B uildings a t 2 03 . T hird R eport o n R oman B uildings a t 16 .

C hapter 1 0 A CCULTURATION I N T HE R HINE/MEUSE B ASIN I N T HE R OMAN P ERIOD: S OME D EMOGRAPHICAL C ONSIDERATIONS. JH FB loemers

I ntroduction T his

p aper

d iscusses

h ow a rchaeological

r esearch o n R oman a nd

n ative

i nteraction i s b eing c arried o ut w ithin t he R hine a nd M euse b asin - t hat i s , i n

t he

N etherlands

a nd

a djacent

r egions

o f

B elgium

a nd

G ermany .

U navoidably t his i s ap ersonal v iew , t he s ubject i s o f s uch c urrent i nterest i n H olland,

t hat m any o thers

a pproaches.

a re d eveloping t heir o wn v iewpoint a nd

T his i s r eflected i n t he a ppearance,

w ithin t he B ritish

a rchaeological R eport s eries , o f av aried v olume , s temming f rom a c onference e ntitled : R oman a nd N ative i n t he L ow C ountries : ( Brandt a nd S lofstra 1 983) .

s pheres

o f

i nteraction

My c ontribution t o t hat p ublication ( Bloemers 1 983) c onsisted o f a p reliminary s ynthesis o f t he D utch s ituation w ithin a g eographical t hematic r esearch a pproach .

b ut t aking t hat p aper a s t he s tarting p oint , t he

c haracteristics

o f

a nd

T he s ynthesis i s t oo l engthy t o d eal w ith h ere ,

t he

c ultural

Iw ill a ttempt t o e laborate o n

s ystems

i nvolved

a nd

f actors w hich m ay h ave i nfluenced t he i nteraction p rocess .

t he

e ssential

T o t hat e nd , I

w ill f irst d escribe s ome c oncepts I f ind i mportant , a s w ell a s t he e lements d etermining m y r esearch t heme .

S ubsequently ,

Iw ill a pply p art o f t his t o

s ome a spects o f D utch p roto-history ; a nd f ollow t his w ith a s hort d iscussion o f p roblems a nd p rospectives f or f uture r esearch . F ollowing D avid C larke ,

( 1978 ,

1 34 ,

F ig 2 3) I d efine t he s ocio-cultural

s ystem c omprising f ive c omponent s ub-systems - t he p sychological, r eligious, s ocial, e conomic a nd m aterial c ulture - c oupled w ithin a m oving e quilibrium h aving f ive c omponent e nvironmental s ub-systems - f lora , f auna , g eology , c limate a nd t he e ffects o f a lien s ociocultural s ystems . I n a ddition , t here a re t hree s pecific s ocio-political s tructures o f g reat i mportance: t he t ribe , t he s tate a nd t he e mpire . T he t ribe i s e galitarian , r ecognizes n o c entral

a uthority

( Service 1 971,

a nd

i s

t o

a l arge

1 25-6; Kloos 1 976,

d egree

2 8) .

e conomically

s elf-supporting

T he c hiefdom i s am ore h ighly

d eveloped f orm o f t ribe . I t e xhibits t he b eginnings o f s ocial s tratification , h as a f orm o f c entral - o ften i nherited - a uthority , a lthough i t h as n o l egitimized p ower f or c oercing a uthority a nd u nity . S urplus p roduction s upports t he a uthority s ystem , w hich , i n t urn , i s i n c harge o f t he r edistribution o f g oods . T he s tate h as a v aried s ocial h ierarchy , a nd c entralised c ontrol w ith a uthorised m eans o f c ontrol ; t he e conomy p rovides f or t he m aintenance o f s tate a pparatus ( Claessen a nd S kalnik 1 981) . T he e mpire h as t he s ame c haracteristics a s t he s tate, b ut c ombines d iffering c ultural o r e thnic g roups a nd p olitical s tructues o f v arying l evels u nder o ne d enominator ( Service 1 971, 1 66 ; T hapar 1 981, 4 10 ; E kholm a nd F riedman 1 980 , 7 0) . T he e conomic d istribution s ystem o f t ribes a nd c hiefdoms i s n ot b ased o n am onetary s ystem , t he

s ystem

o f

s ocial

r elations

o f

t he

1 75

b ut i s r ather e mbedded i n

s ociety

a nd

o f

t hose

b etween

s ocieties .

F or e arly s tates a nd i n t he p eriphery o f m ore d eveloped s tates

o r e mpires ,

t he d istributive s ystem i s o ften o nly p artly s eparated f rom t he

s ocial s ystem a nd c ommercialised ( Dalton 1 968 , x ii-xvii ; S mith 1 976) . I nternal a nd e xternal c onflicts a lso f all w ithin t he s ocial s ystem . M uch a ctive a nd p assive i nformation f lows t hrough t he n etworks o f e xchange a nd w arfare. O ne

o f

C larke 's

f ive

e nvironmental

s ub-systems ,

t he

e ffects

o f

a lien

s ociocultural s ystems , p lays a c entral r ole i n s tudy o f t he R oman p eriod d ue t o t he e xpansion b y t he I mperium R omanum . T he r elation b etween a lien a nd a utochtonous s ociocultural s ystems m ay a lso b e e xpressed b y t he c oncepts o f w orld-systems . T oday , t he c oncepts c ore a nd p eriphery a re u sed i n a nalysis o f E uropean c olonialism a nd o f t he r elationships b etween w estern a nd t he n on-western w orld ( Wallerstein 1 980) . T he c ore h as a r elatively h igh d egree o f d evelopment , w ith a h igh d egree o f s ocio-economic d ifferentiation ; t he p eriphery , i n c ontrast , i s l ess d eveloped a nd h as a s imple e conomic a nd p olitical s tructure . T he p eriphery f unctions a s a s trategic a nd e conomic b uffer z one i n r elation t o t he c ore a rea . T he b orders a re f lexible b etween t hese a reas . I n t his r elationship , t he c oncept o f i mperialism p lays a n i mportant p art a nd i s u nderstood a s t he d omination o f s tronger a nd m ore h ighly d eveloped s tates o ver t he w eaker a nd l ess d eveloped ( Brewer 1 980 , 8 0 ; E kholm a nd F riedman 1 980, 7 1) . A ccording t o m ost c urrent t heories o n i mperialism , t he c auses o f t he i mpetus b ehind w estern i mperialism m ust b e s ought e xclusively w ithin t he c ore i tself a nd i n i ts c onscious s triving f or e conomic o r s ocio-political d omination ( cf . Mommsen 1 980, 8 1) . M ore i nteresting a re i deas a bout p eripheral i mperialism . I mperialistic e xpansion i s -o utside t he c ontrol o f t he c ore - i n p art c aused b y f actors w ithin t he p eriphery : c ollaboration o f t he e lite , m aintenance o f p eace a nd o rder a nd h igh-handed a ctions t aken b y c ore r epresentatives i n t he p eriphery . E xpansion o f t he s phere o f i nfluence i s n ot c onsciously s ought b ut i s a n a rbitrary p rocess o ut o f c ontrol - w hat F ieldhouse l abels r eluctant i mperialism ( Robinson 1 976 ; F ieldhouse 1 981) . J ohan G altung h as r ecently a ttempted t o c ombine t heories o f i mperialism f ocused e ither o n t he c ore o r o n t he p eriphery i nto o ne s ystem ( 1973; 1 981) . A s tructural r elation o f d ependence e xists b etween c ore a nd p eriphery , p ossibly o nly t hrough c o-operation b etween t he e lite o f b oth a reas t o s erve t heir o wn s ocial p osition . T hose w ithin t he c ore a nd p eriphery n ot b elonging t o t he e lite h ave c ontrasting s ocial i nterests , a s t he n on-elite i n t he c ore a rea p rofit b y i mperialism w ielded o ver t he p eriphery . T he c onflict o f i nterests b etween t he e lite a nd n on-elite i n t he c ore a rea i s t herefore n ot a s g reat a s i n t he p eriphery ( Fig 1 0 .1) . I n c onsidering i mperialism a nd c olonialism , i t i s u seful t o r efer t o t he d efinitions a nd i mplications o f t he d ynamic t erms ' force ' a nd ' power ' a s u nderstood b y L uttwak ( 1976 , 1 95-200 ) . ' Force ' a nd ' power ' a re r elated t o e ach o ther a s ' input ' i s t o ' output ', e g t he n umber a nd t ype o f t roops e mployed o n t he b attle-field . E fficiency r equires t he m inimization o f f orce , f or i t c onsumes t he e nergy o f t hose e xerting i t . P ower o n t he o ther h and w orks b y e liciting r esponses o f a ctors , e g t hose s ubject t o p ower . I t i s t hey w ho s upply t he d ynamic e nergy t hrough t heir o bedience, w ithout c onsuming

t he

e nergy o f

t hose u sing

l atter t o m aximize t he u se o f p ower .

t he p ower .

I t

i s

e fficient

f or t he

T he a bility t o r ealize t his i s n ot a

f unction o f t he a bility t o c ontrol c osts a nd b enefits , b ut r ather o f t he p erceived a bility t o d o s o . I n o ther w ords , t he f irst s tage o f t he p ower p rocess i s p erceptual a nd p ower i s t herefore i nitially a s ubjective p henomenon : i t c an o nly f unction t hrough t he m edium o f o thers ' p erception . T his d istinction b etween p ower a nd f orce i s e qually a pplicable i n a 1 76

Centre Centre Per iphery

Centre Per iphery Per iphery

Har mony o f i nterest D ishar mony o f i nterest

F ig 1 0 .1

T he S tructure o f I mperialism .

A fter G altung 1 973.

d istinction b etween i mperialism a nd c olonialism i n t he s trict s ense . I mperialism i s a s W illems h as f ormulated - a p atron-client r elationship , b ased o n af low o f i nformation w hich a llows a l ow-cost d omination b ecause o f t he c lient 's p erception o f t he p atron 's p ower . C olonialism , o n t he o ther h and i s c haracterised b y t he u se o f d irect f orce . I t i s n ot a f low o f i nformation b ut m akes

a f low o f

e nergy w hich

i s

d ecisive

i n

c olonialism a r elatively e xpensive e nterprise

t his

c ase .

( Willems

1 983,

T his 1 06) .

T his c orresponds t o H orvath 's a rgument t hat t he i mportant d ifference b etween c olonialism a nd i mperialism a ppears i n t he p resence o r a bsence o f s ignificant n umbers o f p ermanent s ettlers i n t he c olony f rom t he c olonizing p ower ( Horvath 1 972, W hat

t hen i s

4 7) .

t he

c onnection b etween s ocio-political

s ystems,

t he

r elationship b etween c ore a nd p eriphery a nd t he c oncept o f p eripheral i mperialism?

T he m ore h ighly d eveloped c ore c an s o a ccelerate d evelopment

i n t he p eriphery t hat s econdary s tate f ormation b egins .

I mportant i n t he

p rocess i s t he n ature a nd e xtent o f t he e xchange a nd w arfare n etworks, t hrough w hich m uch

i nformation

a nd

e nergy

i s

e xchanged

e lites o f c ore a nd p eriphery p lay a n i mportant p art . t he e xtent

t o w hich t he a lien a nd a uthochtonous

c onjunction w ith

t he

e nvironmental

s ystem ,

i s

a nd

i n w hich

s ocio-cultural a ble

s urplus f or m aintaining a d ynamic e quilibrium .

t he

E qually e ssential i s t o

s ystem ,

i n

p roduce a n e nergy

T he e quilibrium o f a

c omplex s ystem w ith a h igh d egree o f s pecialization m ay b ecome u nstable s o t hat a lterations

i n c onditions

l ead t o i ts

c an i ncrease t he e ffect o f o ne o f ' multiplier e ffect ' . s uch p rocesses

' Castastrophe

s udden

c ollapse .

t he t ransformations,

C oincidence t he s o-called

t heory ' o ffers a n e xplanatory m odel

( Renfrew 1 979 ) .

1 77

f or

W hen t wo c ulture s ystems m eet , a cculturation c an o ccur . B y t his I m ean t he c ontinuous p rocess o f i nteraction b etween t wo o r m ore a utonomous c ulture s ystems a nd t he r esulting c hange . T he s tudy o f t he p rocess o f a cculturation r equires t he e xamination o f t he f ollowing f our m ain a spects ( Bees 1 974 , 19 ). 1 .

C ultural s ystems a nd t heir c haracteristic f eatures.

2 .

C onditions u nder w hich i nteraction t akes p lace .

3 .

T he n ature o f t he r elations b etween t he d ifferent c ultures .

4 .

T he p rocess t hus s et i n m otion .

%-

I n m y 1 983 p aper, I c onfined m yself t o t he s econd a nd t hird a spects l isted a bove , n amely t he c ircumstances o f c ontact a nd t he n ature o f t hese c ontacts . I n t his p aper I w ill e xamine m ore c losely t he p rocesses . T he t erm o ften u sed t o d enote p rocesses o f a cculturation d uring t he R oman p eriod i n N orthwestern E urope i s ' romanization% H owever , t his s uggests a u nilateral a nd c omplete a bsorption o f R oman c ulture b y t he i ndigenous p opulation . G allic a nd G ermanic c ultures i n t heir t urn a lso i nfluenced t he R oman c ulture , a lbeit o n s pecific l evels a nd a t s pecific t imes . S o i f t he t erm r omanization i s u sed a t a ll, i t i s a lso n ecessary t o i nclude t he t erm g ermanization i n o ne 's v ocabulary , t oo , c ertainly w ith r egard t o t he t hird a nd f ourth c enturies A .D . A s t he a rea o f r esearch l ies o n t he b oundary o f t he R oman E mpire , c oncepts ' frontier' a nd ' boundary ' m ust n ow b e c onfronted . A s d efined b y K ristof,

t he

a ' frontier ' i s ' an a rea w hich w as p art o f a

w hole , s pecifically t hat p art w hich w as a head o f t he h interland ' , i t i s ' outer-oriented . . T he b orderlands o ften d evelop t heir o wn i nterests q uite d ifferent f rom t hose o f t he c entral g overnment ' . I t i s ' a m anifestation o f c entrifugal f orces ' a nd i s ' an i ntegrating f actor b eing a z one o f t ransition f rom t he s phere o f o ne w ay o f

l ife

t o a nother

' A

' boundary ' i ndicates c ertain w ell e stablished l imits o f t he g iven p olitical u nit ' a nd i s ' inner-oriented a nd c reated a nd m aintained b y t he w ill o f t he c entral g overnment . I t h as n o l ife o f i ts o wn I t i s t he m ediated w ill o f t he p eople . 1; ' the b oundary i ndicates t he r ange a nd v igor o f c entripetal

f orces,

. .

t he

b oundary

i s

a s eparating

f actor

. . ,

i t

i mpedes i ntegration a cross t he b orderline ' . I n s hort, a f rontier h as a d ynamic c haracter , ab oundary i s s tatic . T here i s, s chematically , a c asual l ink b etween i mperialism , p ower a nd f rontier , o n t he o ne h and l eading t o L uttwak 's ' hegemonic e mpire ' a nd , c olonialism , f orce a nd b oundary o n t he o ther h and , w hich r esults i n t he ' t erritorial

e mpire '

( Kristof

19 59 ,

2 69-73) .

T o a pply s ome o f t hese a bove c oncepts t o t he s tudy o f t he R hine-Meuse b asin t he t ime , p lace a nd t he p articipants , m ust n ecessarily b e d escribed . T he p eriod t hat m ay b e s panned b y t his r esearch e xtends f rom C aesar 's n orthern e xpansion i n c 5 0 B C t o c4 10 A D , w hen H onorius w ithdrew f rom t he n orthern r egions .

I n p ractice ,

h owever ,

t his.

1 78

i t

i s

n ecessary

t o

l ook

b eyond

T he g eographical t erritory o f t he N etherlands b elongs t o a l arger a rea w hich m ay b e s een a s a s elf-contained w hole . I h ave t ried t o d efine t he l imits o f t his a rea o n t he b asis o f t he r ivers w hich f low t hrough t he L ow C ountries t o t he N orth S ea . I t m ay b e a ssumed t hat t raffic o ver w ater a nd l and w ithin t his a rea w as r elatively e asier t han t hat b etween t his a rea a nd o utlying r egions .(1) T he A rdennes, E ifel a nd S aarland f orm c onvenient n atural b orders i n t he s outh-east , t he R hine a nd M euse p roviding t he o nly a pproaches t owards t he s outh . T o t he s outh-west a nd n orth-east t he l andscape w as m ore a ccessible a nd t he f rontiers s hould t herefore b e m ore l oosely d efined . T he N orth S ea c oast-line p rovided a l ink w ithin t he a rea , w hile p ermitting c ontact w ith t he o utside w orld o nly i n t he s outh-west a nd n orth-east . T he i nternal c oherence o f t his r egion i s c omparable w ith a n o bviously s elf c ontained u nit s uch a s B ritain . T he L ow C ountries, g enerally s peaking , c over t he d elta o f t he m ajor r ivers i n t his r egion : t he S cheldt , M euse , R hine a nd E ms .

F or a d etailed s tudy o f t he R oman p eriod i n

t he N etherlands i t i s n ecessary t o e xamine r elationships w ithin t he l arger a rea t ransected b y t he f rontier o f t he R oman E mpire d uring m ost o f t he R oman p eriod . I t w ould b e d ifficult t o f ind a m ore d istinct c onfrontation b etween a n i ndigenous p rehistoric c ulture a nd a d eveloped c ivilization w hich h ad l ong s ince e ntered t he a nnals o f h istory , t han t hat i n n orth-west E urope . C hronologically , g eographically a nd c ulturally , t he a rchaeology o f t he R oman p eriod i n t he N etherlands c oncerns a f rontier a rea , t hereby p roviding a u nique o pportunity f or t he s tudy o f i nteractions , p rocesses a nd d ifferences . I n o rder t o a nalyse t he p rocess o f a cculturation i t i s n ecessary , t o a scertain t he p rime a gents , w hich l evel w e a re d ealing w ith , t o d istinguish b etween f orm a nd c ontent a nd t o e stablish t he t ime a nd l ocation c oncerned . T reating t he c ourse o f e vents a s as traightforward c ase o f R omans v ersus t he n ative

p opulation w ould b e

t o

o versimplify m atters .

I p ropose

t o

t ake

' Romans ' t o m ean p eople f rom I taly , o r m ore g enerally , t hose f rom t he M editerranean r egion . T he n ative p opulation f acing t hem w as p redominantly G ermanic i n o rigin .

T hose l iving t o t he s outh o f t he R hine w ill b e t ermed

n ative-Roman , t hose w ho l ived t o t he n orth o f t hat f rontier w ill b e r eferred t o a s n ative-Germanic . B ut b etween t he R oman a nd t he G ermanic p eoples t here e xisted a n i mportant i ntermediate g roup : t he ' Gallo-Romans ' . T hese w ere t he p opulation o f t he o riginal C eltic t erritory , w ho w ere q uick t o u ndergo a s trong R oman i nfluence , b ut w ho , c onversely , a lso c ontributed n umerous e lements o f t heir o wn c ulture t o t hat o f t he R omans . T he d egree o f a cculturation d epends o n t he l evel a t w hich i t t akes p lace , b e i t s tate o r c ivil l aw , a dministration a nd o rganization . I t m ay c oncern m atters o f s patial o rganization , t he e conomy o r r eligion . O n a ll t hese l evels a d istinction m ust b e m ade b etween f orm a nd c ontent . P urely R oman f orms w ere o ften g iven a G allo-Roman c ontent , e specially i n t he e arly s tages o f t he p rocess . I t i s a lso i mportant t o c onsider t he t ime o f a ction .

T he f irst c entury

A D i s ap eriod m arked b y m ilitary c onquests a nd t he s ubsequent e stablishment o f c ivil o rganizations a fter t he R oman m odel . V iolent r eactions w ere n ot u nusual: t he G ermans u nder A rminius r ebelled i n A D 9 , t he F risians i n A D 2 8 a nd t he B atavians i n A D 6 9 ( Dyson 1 975) . I n t he s econd c entury A D t he e mphasis s hifted t o t he d evelopment o f c ivil l ife, r esulting i n r apid e conomic

g rowth .

T he

t hird

c entury

A D

i s

a

t ime

o f

i ncipient

d isintegration a s ac onsequence o f t he g rowi n g i nfluence a nd p ressure o f t he f ree G ermanic p eoples ; t he f ourth c entury i s o ne o f r eorgan ization a nd f ission .

1 79

\ CHAUC I MA IORES RES \ % to

F ig 1 0.2

D elta a nd h interland o f S cheldt, M euse , R hine , Vecht a nd E ms ( first t o t hird c enturies A D ) . 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 .

B oundaries o f p olygons ( uncertain). B oundaries o f p olygons ( likely). L imits o f r esearch a rea . F rontier o f t he R oman E mpire b etween c A D 5 0 a nd 4 00 . C apitals o f c ivitates.

6 . 7 .

C oncentrations o f n ative h abitation . T ribes, k nown f rom f irst t o t hird c enturies s ources.

C apitals o f p rovinces a nd c ivitates: 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 .

F orum H adriani/Municipium A elium o r A urelium C ananefatium ( Voorburg-Arentsburg); U lpia N oviomagus B atavorum ( Nijmegen ); C olonia U lpia T raiana ( Xanten ); C olonia C laudia A ra A grippinensium ( Cologne); G anuenta ( ?);

6 . 7 . 8 .

A tuatuca T ungrorum ( Tongeren ); C astellum M enapiorum ( Kassel); T arvanna ( Therouanne);

9 . 1 0 .

N emetacum ( Arras); B agacum ( Bavai);

1. 1 2. 1 3. 1 4 .

S amarobriva ( Amiens); A ugusta V iromandorum ( Saint Q uentin ); A ugusta S uessionum ( Soissons); D urocortorum ( Reims);

1 7.

M ogontiacum ( Mainz).

1 80

F inally,

t he

l ocation

f rontiers o utlined a re, d etailed g eographical,

o f

t he

i nteraction i s

o f c ourse,

o f

i mportance .

s ketchy a nd s till

e pigraphical a nd a rchaeological

T he

i n n eed o f m ore

v erification .

B ut

a djustments w ill n ot , I t hink , m uch a ffect t he o verall p icture . T he a rea w e a re c oncerned w ith c an b e g iven s tructure b y t racing h ypothetical p olygons a round t he m ain t owns , R hine ( et H odder a nd O rton 1 976 ,

t he c apita , 5 4-73) .

o f t he c ivitates

s outh o f

t he

T hese c ivitates u sually c oincided

w ith t he t erritories o f t he m ain i ndigenous t ribes . N o c apita e xisted n orth o f t he R hine , b ut i n t hat a rea s imilar p olygons m ay a t l east b e p lotted a round t he c oncentrations o f s ettlements a long t he c ost ( Fig 1 0 .2) . z ones m ay b e d istinguished: t he b orderlands s outh o f t he R hine,

T hree i e t he

c ivitates i n t he f ront l ine ( 'frontline s tates ' a s w e w ould c all t oday ) .

R oman p rovince o f G ermania I nferior .

T he c ivitates i n t he s econd a nd t hird

l ines r epresented t he h interland w hich s upported t he f rontier z one ; b elonged f or t he m ost p art t o t he p rovince o f G allia B elgica . T he

t hem

T hese w ere f or t he m ost p art s ituated w ithin t he t erritory o f t he

e nvironment

o f

t he

l arge r ivers a nd t he s ea .

r egion

i s

i nfluenced

T he i nhabitability o f

m ost

i mportantly

t hey

b y

t he

l ow-lying a reas a long t he

c oast a nd i n t he b asin o f t he R hine a nd M euse w as e ntirely d ependent o n t he s ea a nd r iver l evels , a nd t he d egree o f n atural d rainage . T he e xtensive p eat d esposits b etween t he c oast a nd p leistocene s ands w ere a lmost e ntirely u nsuitable f or o ccupation .

T he p leistocene s oils ,

m ainly c over-sands

a nd

t he m ore s outherly f ertile l oess s oils, l ent t hemselves f or p ermanent o ccupation t hrough t heir h igher e levation . D uring t he p ast 1 0 y ears , a n umber o f a rchaeological

i nstitutions h ave e stablished

l ong-term r egional

p rojects i n v arious l andscapes o n b oth s ides o f t he R oman b order . E ach o ffers t he p ossibility o f s tudying i nteraction b etween c ultural a nd e nvironmental s ystems a t t he r egional p ossible t o s tudy t hese s ystems a t

l evel .

I n c ombination i t s hould b e

t he m acro-level .

A t

t his

l evel,

t he

r elation b etween t he r egion a nd t he R oman E mpire c ould b e t he d etermining f actor ,

a s

t he

r egions

a re

s ituated

a long

a c ultural

a nd

e nvironmental

g radient.

T he E conomic a nd E nvironmental S ubsystem Iw ill c onsider s ome a spects o f t he e conomic s ubsystem i n t he r elation t o t he e nvironmental s ystem ,

i ncluding t he a lien s ocio-cultural

t he p ossible

p rocess

o f

s ystem t o

d iachronically

i llustrate

i nteraction w ithin

a rea o f s tudy .

Iw ould e mphasize t hat t he d emography o f t he i ndigenous a nd

t he

t he a lien s ocio-cultural s ystems a re p art o f t he e nvironmental s ystem . T he p ossibility f or o ccupation a nd e xploitation o ffered b y h olocene

l andscape w as d etermined b y t he s ea a nd

t he m ainly

l arge r ivers .

T he

b eginning o f o ur e ra f ell w ithin a r egression p hase i n t he l ong-term c ycle o f m arine t rans-and r egression . N ew a reas c overed w ith o ften f ertile s ediments w ere a vailable f or s ettlement ( Fig 1 0 .3). A t t hat t ime, t he n ative p opulation a ppears t o h ave i ncreased a nd t o h ave c olonized n ew t erritory ( Louwe K ooijmans 1 980 , 1 27-31; H allewas a nd V an R egteren A ltera 1 980, 1 17-83; Müller-Wille 1 981, 1 93-203). S ettlement w as b ased o n a s ubsistence e conomy, h usbandry . d istance

t rade

s ubsistence , s urplus

t ypified b y a griculture a nd p articularly a nimal

E xchange m ust h ave o ccurred a t a pparently

c onfined

s uch a s q uern s tones

i nvested

f ortifications,

i n

e nergy

o r

t o

t he r egional p roducts

f rom t he E ifel. w ealth

i n

h oards o r g old a re s carce a nd

1 81

t he

l evel w ith l ong-

d irectly

l inked

t o

I ndications f or a f orm

o f

m onuments,

l imited t o B elgium a nd

✓

V ✓

✓

V • V

✓

• V

V V

V ' N /

V V

V

V

V V

V

V

V V

V

V V

V V

V

V

V V

V V

V

V V

V

V

V

V

V V

V V

V

V

V

V

V

V

✓

V

V

V

V

V

V

V

V

✓

V

V

V

v

v

w

1

v

•

V V

V

F ig 1 0 .3

V

V

V

V

V

R econstruction o f t he g eological a nd a rchaeological s ituation i n Z uid-Holland d uring t he R oman p eriod .

A fter B loemers 1 979 ,

2 . 3 . 4 .

O lder d une a nd b each s ands. P re-Roman m arine a nd f luvial d eposits. P eat, p ossibly w ith l akes. P re-Roman c hannel d eposits.

5 . 6 . 7 .

R ijswijk ' De B ult'. M unicipium A elium/Aurelium C ananefatium . R oman f orts.

8 . 9 .

R oman f orts, l ikely . R oman a nd n ative-Roman f ind-spots.

1 82

V V V

9 .

V V

V

v v

V

V

V

V

V

V

V V

V

V V

V

V

V

V

V

V

V

V

V

e r '-o ded

v

V

V

s outhern H olland . H ere a lso t he s ocio-political l evel c losely a pproached t hat o f C hiefdoms ( Roymans 1 983 , 5 1-4) . T he R hine a nd M euse b asin w as t he s tage f or e xtensive m ilitary a ctivity f rom a bout 1 5 B C o nwards . U ntil A D 1 00 c f our o r m ore l egions a nd a uxiliary t roops , t hat i s 3 0-40 ,000 m en , o f v arying c omposition , o ccupied G ermania I nferior . U p t o t he m id-first c entury A D t he m ilitary f orces h ad a n o ffensive t ask , t he c onquest o f G ermania ( Von P etrikovits 1 980 , 9 7112) . T roop s tations a s y et h ad l ittle p ermanency - t his w as a c lear c ase o f a f rontier , n ot a b oundary . T here m ust h ave b een a c onsiderable n eed f or m en , r esources a nd p rovisions , f or t he m ost p art , s upplied b y t he G aulish h interland a s i ndicated b y l egionary a nd a uxiliary e nlistment a nd t he o ften r ecovered ' Belgic ' a nd G aulish s amian w ares s how . I t i s s triking t herefore t hat t hese a ctivities a re b arely r epresented i n m aterials r ecorded o utside o f t he R oman f orts b efore A D 7 0 i n w estern a nd c entral H olland ( Bloemers 1 978 , 1 986 ;

Z oetbrood

1 985) .

H owever ,

8 8- 9 2 ; W illems 1 981,

f rom t he w ritten s ources ,

1 36-9 ;

w e k now o f

t he

l arge s cale e nlistment o f n ative a uxiliary t roops d uring t he s ame p eriod : a n a la a nd p ossibly a c ohort f rom a mong t he C ananefates i n t he w est ; e ight t o n ine c ohort a nd a n a la f rom a mong t he B atavians t o t he e ast ( that i s , a t n ormal s trength a bout 1 000 a nd 5 000 m en , r espectively ) . T hey w ere c ertainly c ommanded i n p art b y t heir o wn l eaders o f w hom C aius I ulius C ivilis i s t he m ost f amous , a s i nstigator o f t he r evolt o f A D 6 9 ( Bloemers 1 978 , 8 03) . T hese w ere t herefore l eaders f rom t he p eriphery w ho w ere p repared t o c ollaborate w ith t hose o f t he c ore a rea , a nd g ratefully g arnished t hemselves w ith R oman c itizenship a nd t ria n omina s tatus i ndicators . T he s urplus o f e nergy i n t he f orm o f a ble b odied m en w as q uickly m obilized . I t i s c onceivable t hat c ontribution i n t his f orm b efitted t he s ocial s tructure o f a t ribal, w arrior s ociety b etter t han t ribute i n t he f orm o f a grarian o r t echnological p roducts a t t he l evel o f t he s ubsistence s ystem . T ypical f or t his p articular m anner o f i nteraction a re t herefore : 1 .

T he i ntermediary r ole o f t he n ative e lite.

2 .

T he c ontext o f a rmy a nd w arfare w ithin w hich i nteraction t akes p lace.

3 .

T he l op-sided c omposition o f t he p opulation i nvolved ,

b oth R oman a nd

n ative , o f m en e xclusively i n t he a ble-bodied a ge g roup . T he

p articipation

o f

t he

i ndigenous

e lite

i s

e xpressed

i n h istorical

a nd

e pigraphic s ources , s uch a s t he w ell-known d edication b y F laus , t he s ummus m agistratus o f t he B atavians , d ated t o t he m id-first c entury A D ( Bogaers 1 960-61, 2 68-71; B loemers 1 978 , 8 3) . T he r are i nstances o f R oman i mports i n m id-first c entury A D n ative g raves i s o ff-set b y t he s omewhat l arger g rave s tructures, w hich c ould r elate t o t he h igher s tatus o f t he d eceased ( Bloemers , L ouwe-Kooijmans a nd S arfatij 1 981, 13 ( Oss-Ussen ) ; B ogaers a nd H aalebos 1 985 , 1 -0 . T he c ontext o f a rmy a nd w arfare l imited i nteraction t o t he f orts a nd t he b attlefield . T he a daption-phase l a f ort a t V alkenburg , d ating t o a bout A D 4 2 i s a n e xample ; t he c onstruction t echniques a nd t he r emarkably l arge q uantities o f n ative p ottery t here h ave b een c orrelated w ith n ative t roops ( Glasbergen a nd G roenman-van W aateringe 1 974, 1 719 ) . T he o ffensive t ask w hich t he a rmy h ad a t t his t ime a nd t he c orrespondingly n ecessary m obility , w as e qually n ot c onducive t o s ettlement a nd t he d evelopment o f a c ivilian p opulation a round t he f orts . T he o ne e xception i s t he l arge s ettlement a round t he V alkhof a t N ijmegen w hich c ould d ate t o t he p eriod A D 3 070 . T he c ivilian o r m ilitary s tatus o f t his s ettlement i s n ot e ntirely c lear , b ut t he R oman c haracter i s c ertain a s s hown b y ar egular l ay-out, c raft p roduction a nd t he p reponderence o f G allo-Roman f inds ( Noviomagus

1 979 ,

3 0-6;

B loemers

1 985, 1 83

3 2-3,

3 6) .

T he

t wo

m ilitary

Ch i ld morta l ity 60 n

40

20

6

5

0

0 ,5

1 ,0

8

7

1 ,5

2 ,0

B irths

2 ,5

Ab le-bod ied men

F ig 1 0.4

T he

r elationship

b etween

t he

b irthrate,

t he

r ate

o f

c hild

m ortality a nd t he s urplus o f a ble-bodied m en f or a 2 0 y ear p eriod .

C hild M ortality

2 0%

3 0%

4 0%

B irths 5 6 7

0 ,9 1 ,3 1 ,65

0 ,67 1 1 ,3

0 ,44 0 ,65 0 ,95

) ) able) bodied

8

2

1 ,6

1 ,15

)m en

A s urplus o f 0 .6 - 1 .8 m en a nd a c hild m ortality r ate o f 2 0-40% i s s hown b y t he s haded a rea .

p opulations, o ne R oman t he o ther n ative t roops, w ere s trongly b iased d emographically a nd f unctionally . D emographically b ecause m en i n t he a geg roup 2 0-40 w ould b e i n t he m ajority a nd f unctionally b ecause m ost o f t hem w ould h ave h ad a p urely m ilitary f unction w hich o ffered l ittle i n t he w ay o f i nteraction w ith t he n ative i nhabitants o ther t han t hrough m ilitary c ontact . A dditionally , t he i ndigenous m en w ere m ore o r l ess p ermanently w ithdrawn f rom t heir o wn s ocial s ystem , w hich w as o ne c ause , a ccording t o C ivilis , f or t he B atavian a uxiliary t roop r ebellion o f A D 6 9 . R ecruiting n ative t roops p laced a s ubstantial b urden o n t he n ative c ultural s ystem . I n t his r espect o ne c an p oint o ut t hat t here w as o nly o ne f armstead a t t he n ative s ettlement o f R ijswijk d uring t he e ntire f irst c entury A D . I f t he s urplus o f a ble-bodied m en p er h ouse - t hat i s , o f an uclear f amily - i s c ompared w ith t he n umber o f h ouses - t hat i s f am ilies n eeded t o s upply 9 60 a ble-bodied m en f or p ermanent m ilitary s ervice ( and o ne m ust c onsider a p ossible d oubling o f t he n ative p opulation i n t he 2 nd-3rd c entury , a p oint t o w hich I w ill r eturn ) -t hen 5 35 t o 190 h ouses/nuclear f amilies w ere 1 84

F ar msteads 2500

_

2000

1 500

1 000

500

960 ab le-bod ied men

0 .5

tO

1 .5

2 .0

2 .5

Ab le-bod ied men per f ar mstead/20 y ears

F ig 1 0 .5

R elationship

b etween

t he

n umber

o f

a ble-bodied

m en

p er

h ousehold/20 y ears ( based o n a b irthrate o f 5 -8 c hildren a nd a c hild m ortality r ate o f 2 0-40%) a nd t he n umber o f h ouseholds n ecessary t o r ecruit 9 60 a ble-bodied m en . T he c urve i s b ased b y d ividing t he r equired n umber o f 9 60 m en b y t he s urplus o f m en/20 y ears p er h ousehold .

f a ble-bodied m en p er h ouse/nuclear n ecessary , d epending o n t he s urplus o ne t o t wo m ales e very 2 0 y ears ( Fig f amily . T his ' surplus ' c an v ary f rom o n i nfluential f actor i n d emographic 1 0 .4) . C learly t his c ould h ave b een a B loemers 1 978 , 5 8-63 , 1 0310) . a nd s ettlement d evelopment ( Fig 1 0 .5; T he

s ituation

a lters

d rastically

d uring

t he

l ater

f irst

c entury A D ,

e specially a fter t he r ebellion o f t he B atavians i n A D 6 9-70 . T he e xisting s eries o f f ortifications a long t he R hine w as e xpanded a nd b ecame p ermanent . A fter c A D 1 00 t he s ituation w as s o s table t hat t he t roop s trength o f a bout 3 9 ,000 m en w as d ecreased b y a t l east t wo l egions ( Von P etrikovits 1 980 , 9 712) . T he l imes g ained a b oundary c haracter a nd v ici a nd c amp v illages a rose

o utside

t he

f orts .

H ouse

f orms ,

p ottery c omposition ,

t he

l evel

o f

c rafts a nd e pigraphic i nformation p oint t o a p opulation c omposed i nitially

1 85

o f G allo-Romano i mmigrants r ather t han l ocal n atives .

T he c anabae l egionis

a t N ijmegen i s t he f inest e xample o f t his d evelopment . I ron a nd g lass w ere p roduced a round t he f ortress o f t he 1 0th l egion a nd a g igantic f orum o r m arket p lace , a n a mphitheatre a nd m onumental g raves w ere a ll c onstructed . Along t he l imes r oad, o ne k ilometre f rom t he V alkenburg f ort a l arge s ettlement d eveloped b efore t he m id-second c entury w hich s hows p urely R oman v icus c haracteristics i n l ay-out , h ouse f orm a nd f inds . R egional p ottery p roduction a lso s tarted a round t hese m ilitary s ettlements , a s i s i llustrated b y t he p otter 's k iln a t H aider . I n t he s ame p eriod c apita a ppear i n t he c ivitates, a nd t heir n ames r eflect t heir f unction a s m arket c entres: F orum H adriani a mong t he C ananefates, a nd U lpia N oviomagus o r If lpian N ewmarket ' , a mong t he B atavians . T he r ural p opulation g rew a s w ell, i n p art t hrough n ew c olonization s uch a s n ear D ruten , w here n ative a nd R oman c onstruction t echniques a re c ombined, b ut a lso t hrough t he g rowth o f e xisting s ettlements s uch a s a t R ijswijk . F rom t he b eginning o f t he f irst t o t he m iddle o f t he s econd c entury t he n umber o f h omesteads g rows f rom o ne t o t hree .

R oman i mports a lso s tart t o b ecome a n ormal f eature i n t he

c ountryside ( Bloemers 1 983 , 1 70-83 ; W illems 1 981, t his f orm o f i nteractions a re : 1 .

1 36-9 ;

1 986) .

T ypical f or

I nteraction w as i n t he c ontext o f a p artically c ommercialised e conomy m ore d irected a t r egional p roduction a nd m arkets . C rafts a nd t rade a ppear t o b e c arried o ut b y t he G allo-Roman p opulation i n t he l arger s ettlements , w hile a griculture a nd l ivestock r earing w as c arried o ut b y t he r ural n ative p opulation a nd w hereby t he R oman m onetary s ystem a lso h ad s ome i mportance .

2 .

A s

a c onsequence ,

t he i mbalance b etween R oman a nd n ative p opulations

c ould h ave d ecreased d emographically a s t he g ender a nd a ge s tructure o f t he c ommunities b ecame m ore b alanced t han b efore . C raft e xchange , a dministration a nd r eligion e nriched t he p reviously p redominantly m ilitary i nteraction . A nalogous t o f rontier p opulations o f t he h istorical p eriod , R oman p opulation i n t he v ici a nd t owns m ay h ave c haracteristics i n t his i nitial p hase: a .

R elatively f ast g rowth ,

s hown t he

t he G allof ollowing

p rimarily g enerated b y i mmigration a nd t o a

l esser b ut s ignificant e xtent, b y h igh f ertility . b .

Y oung p opulations, b iased h eavily i n t he 2 0-25 a ge r ange .

c .

S ignificantly m ale b ias i n t he s ex r atio .

d .

I ncomplete f amily a nd h ousehold u nits.

Ay oung , m ale d ominated p opulation r esults i n h igh p roducer-consumer r atios , l eading

t o

a p otentially

h ighly

p roductive

p opulation

p er

c apita

a nd ,

p erhaps m ore i mportantly , a h igh p otential f or d ifferentiation . W hen a c hange i n a ge s tructure a nd s ex r atio c omes a bout t hrough i nternal g rowth a nd r eplacement, ( ie w hen t he p opulation a ges a nd f amilies i ncrease t o c omplete u nits), p roducer-consumer r atios d ecrease ( Green 1 980, 2 20-2; L efferts 1 977 , 4 8-5 4) . I t i s n ot e asy t o s pecify f urther t he p art p layed b y t he g lite . O ne m ay a ssume t hat t hey f ulfilled t heir i ntermediary f untion w ithin t he a dministrative a nd e conomic s phere a s d ecurio o r v illa o wner .

A t t he s ame t ime ,

v eterans f rom t he

a nd a round t he c entres . 1 86

l egions r egularly s ettled i n

T o w hat

e xtent w as t he b oundary z one c apable o f o ffering a n e conomic

b ase f or t his d ifferent a nd m ore i ntensive i nteraction? P opulation d ensity a nd e xploitation p ossibilities i n t he b order z one f orm t he p arameters a nd I w ill u se t he e xample o f t he t ribal a rea o f t he C ananefates b etween t he m ouths o f t he R hine a nd M euse . T he p opulation f igures f rom a bout t he m iddle o f t he s econd c entury m ight h ave b een a s f ollows ( Bloemers 1 978 , 1 031 2 , 1 24-6 ; T able 1 0 .1) .

T able 1 0.1 N ative P opulation ( growth f actor 2 x f irst c entury A D)

6 400 - 1 5,000/19 ,000

G allo-Roman P opulation F orum H adriani

1 050 ( to c 3 ,000)

F orts

2 400 - 2 880

V ici

1 920 - 4 080

5 370 - 8 010

( 9960)

T he r atio o f R oman t o n ative p opulation m ay t hus h ave v aried f rom 1 :1

t o

1 :2 . T he a rea o f u ninhabitable t o i nhabitable l and i s r elatively e asily q uantified b y r econstruction o f t he R oman p eriod l andscape ( Bloemers 1 978 , 8 7-8 ; T able 1 0.2).

T able 1 0.2 N ative H interland I nhabitable U ninhabitable

3 60 - 4 40 s q k m

A long t he R hine 7 0 -1 45 s q k m

9 68 s q k m

T he a rea s uitable f or n ative s ettlement a nd a vailable f or t he n ative p opulation c ould c ontain a m aximum o f 7 90-2380 f armsteads o f t he R ijswijk t ype , e ach h aving a n a creage o f 1 8 .5 - 4 5 .5 h a . W ith a g rowth f actor o f t wo f or t he n umber o f f armsteads f rom t he f irst t o t he s econd c enturies , t he m aximum n umber o f d wellings t hat c ould b e a ccommodated i n t he a rea a vailable f or h abitation i n t he f irst c entury i s a pproximately t he s ame a s t he n umber o f f armsteads n eeded t o b e a ble t o r ecruit 9 60 a ble-bodied m en ( Fig 1 0 .6 ) . A s s uch , t he n ative h abitat b ecame e xploited m aximally d uring t he s econd c entury a nd t he p opulation d ensity w as e ven g reater t han s hown b y f inds : a t l east t wo s ettlements p er s q k m , w hich i s c omparable t o a ctual o bservations 1 87

F ar msteads 3000 _

2 500

2000

1 500

1 000

Gro wth f actor

500

2

0 .5

1 . 0

1 . 5

2 .0

. 1 0

30

40

2 .5

3 .0