Axis of Glory: A Biblical and Theological Analysis of the Temple Motif in Scripture 9781453900796, 1453900799

Table of contents :
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Editor’s Preface ix
Acknowledgments xi
Chapter 1: Prologue 1
Chapter 2: The Garden of Eden as a Primordial Temple or Sacred Space for Humankind 5
Chapter 3: The Priestly Activity of God’s People in Sacred Spaces during the Early Biblical Period 17
Chapter 4: The Tabernacle and Temple as a Continuation of the Temple-Garden in Eden 33
Chapter 5: The Depictions of God’s Heavenly Temple in Isaiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel 39
Chapter 6: The Temple Motif in the Synoptic Gospels 53
Chapter 7: The Temple Motif in the Fourth Gospel 67
Chapter 8: The Temple Motif in Acts and Hebrews 77
Chapter 9: The Temple Motif in the Writings of Paul and Peter 87
Chapter 10: The Temple Motif in the Book of Revelation 105
Chapter 11: Epilogue 135
Bibliography 137
Subject Index 165
References Index 167

Citation preview

Axis of Glory A Biblical and Theological Analysis of the Temple Motif in Scripture

DAN LIOY

Studies in Biblical Literature 138

In Axis of Glory, Dan Lioy conducts a biblical and theological analysis of the temple motif as a conceptual and linguistic framework for understanding Scripture. His investigation takes a fresh look at the topic, assesses a representative group of the Judeo-Christian writings through the various prisms of secondary literature, and offers a synthesis of what appears in the biblical data. The author notes that references and allusions connected with the temple motif crisscross the entire literary landscape of Scripture. An additional finding is that the presence of the shrine concept is comparable to a series of rhetorical threads that join the fabric of God’s Word and weaves together its seemingly eclectic and esoteric narratives into a richly textured, multicolored tapestry. The author concludes that the Bible’s theocentric and Christocentric emphases are heightened in their intensity and sharpened in their focus due to the temple motif making its way through the pages of the sacred text, beginning with the opening chapter of Genesis and ending with the final chapter of Revelation.

DAN LIOY earned his Ph.D. in New Testament from North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus, South Africa). Currently, he is a senior academic at South African Theological Seminary (Rivonia, South Africa) and an affiliate faculty member at Southwestern College (Winfield, Kansas). His previous Peter Lang publications are The Search for Ultimate Reality (2005), The Decalogue in the Sermon on the Mount (2004), and The Book of Revelation in Christological Focus (2003). He is also the author of The Divine Sabotage: An Expositional Journey through Ecclesiastes (2008) and Jesus as Torah in John 1–12 (2007).

www.peterlang.com

Axis of Glory

Studies in Biblical Literature

Hemchand Gossai General Editor Vol. 138

PETER LANG

New York y Washington, D.C./Baltimore y Bern Frankfurt y Berlin y Brussels y Vienna y Oxford

Dan Lioy

Axis of Glory A Biblical and Theological Analysis of the Temple Motif in Scripture

PETER LANG

New York y Washington, D.C./Baltimore y Bern Frankfurt y Berlin y Brussels y Vienna y Oxford

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Lioy, Dan. Axis of glory: a biblical and theological analysis of the temple motif in scripture / Dan Lioy. p. cm. — (Studies in biblical literature; v. 138) Includes bibliographical references (p. )and indexes. 1. Temple of God. 2. Bible—Theology. I. Title. BS680.T4L56 220.6’4—dc22 2010004066 ISBN 978-1-4539-0079-6 ISSN 1089-0645

Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek. Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the “Deutsche Nationalbibliografie”; detailed bibliographic data is available on the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de/.

The paper in this book meets the guidelines for permanence and durability of the Committee on Production Guidelines for Book Longevity of the Council of Library Resources.

© 2010 Peter Lang Publishing, Inc., New York 29 Broadway, 18th floor, New York, NY 10006 www.peterlang.com All rights reserved. Reprint or reproduction, even partially, in all forms such as microfilm, xerography, microfiche, microcard, and offset strictly prohibited. Printed in Germany

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To my beloved wife, Marcia, for her affection and companionship; and to my precious son, Joshua, for his love and playfulness.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Editor’s Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi Chapter 1: Prologue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Chapter 2: The Garden of Eden as a Primordial Temple or Sacred Space for Humankind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Chapter 3: The Priestly Activity of God’s People in Sacred Spaces during the Early Biblical Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Chapter 4: The Tabernacle and Temple as a Continuation of the Temple-Garden in Eden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Chapter 5: The Depictions of God’s Heavenly Temple in Isaiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Chapter 6: The Temple Motif in the Synoptic Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Chapter 7: The Temple Motif in the Fourth Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Chapter 8: The Temple Motif in Acts and Hebrews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Chapter 9: The Temple Motif in the Writings of Paul and Peter . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Chapter 10: The Temple Motif in the Book of Revelation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Chapter 11: Epilogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 References Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

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EDITOR’S PREFACE

M

ore than ever the horizons in biblical literature are being expanded beyond that which is immediately imagined; important new methodological, theological, and hermeneutical directions are being explored, often resulting in significant contributions to the world of biblical scholarship. It is an exciting time for the academy as engagement in biblical studies continues to be heightened. This series seeks to make available to scholars and institutions, scholarship of a high order, and which will make a significant contribution to the ongoing biblical discourse. This series includes established and innovative directions, covering general and particular areas in biblical study. For every volume considered for this series, we explore the question as to whether the study will push the horizons of biblical scholarship. The answer must be yes for inclusion. In this volume, Dan Lioy explores and extends the scholarly discourse of the biblical and theological implications of the Temple motif in Scripture generated from the perspective of viewing both the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament as an organic whole. Noting that even though the Temple motif within the biblical canon is indeed a significant motif, there remains a lack of consensus. The author’s aim in this extensive study is not necessarily to provide consensus or attempt to be exhaustive, but rather to extend the discourse; in this respect this study most assuredly accomplishes the goal. Scholars who are engaged in this area of scholarship will find much here to examine, reflect on, challenge, and I believe above all else, allow for a serious expansion of the discourse of this significant motif. The horizon has been expanded. Hemchand Gossai Series Editor

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

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variety of people have read portions of the manuscript and offered kind and intelligent critique. In this regard, I particularly want to thank Dr. Kevin Smith (Vice-Principal, South African Theological Seminary), Dr. Bill Domeris (Rector, The College of Transfiguration), Dr. R.J. Gore (Associate Dean of Ministry, Erskine Seminary), Dr. Loyd Melton (Director of the Doctor of Ministry Program, Erskine Seminary), Dr. Mark Pretorius (Senior Assessor, South African Theological Seminary), Dr. Stephen Vantassel (Lecturer, Midlands Bible College and Divinity School), and Rev. Rick Hogaboam (Senior Pastor, Sovereign Grace Fellowship of Nampa, Idaho). Others have attentively listened while I expounded on this idea or that theory related to the investigations undertaken in this study. I wish to express my thanks for their careful reading and comments both perceptive and constructive. Others, friends and travelers, have shared stimulating conversation over aspects of the concepts and arguments, and in ways unknown to themselves given encouragement and direction. I especially want to express my love for and appreciation to my wife, Marcia. Without her encouragement, affection, and companionship, the long hours of writing would not have been possible. My son, Joshua, likewise remained patient and understanding during the manuscripting process. Finally, I am indebted to my other family members and friends for their prayers and support during this venture.

Dan Lioy Salem, Oregon February 2010

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CHAPTER ONE Prologue

he main title of this study—Axis of Glory—owes its inspiration to observations made by Meredith Kline. In his discussion of Eden, he refers to it as a “temple-garden” (2006:48) and the archetypal “holy mountain of God” (49; cf. Gen 2:8–3:24). This implies that the primordial sanctuary is representative of all future shrines and provides the conceptual framework for understanding and appreciating their purpose. Kline also speaks of Eden as the “vertical cosmic axis of the kingdom” and the metaphysical link “extending from earth to heaven”. Later, in recounting the “dream episode” Jacob experienced at Bethel (cf. 28:10–22), Kline pointed to the “stair-structure” that the patriarch saw as representing the “cosmic-axis, the holy mountain focus, the Presence-place of the Lord of glory” (375). Succinctly put, a variety of terrestrial shrines in Scripture are regarded as sacred points of contact between the God of glory and His creation. Expressed in a different way, each of these sanctums is a physical localization of the axis mundi (or global nexus) that establishes a link “between heaven and earth” (Waltke 2007:255; cf. Cohen 1981:54; McCurley 1983:126–127). This “world axis” extends “invisibly beyond what [can] be seen” of it “into the heights and into the depths” (Talmon 1997:3:439). The preceding observations broach one important aspect of the temple motif as a conceptual and linguistic framework for understanding the “drama of brokenness and restoration” detailed in Scripture (Brueggemann 2005:558; cf. the discussion in the following chapter). As the project unfolds, a number of equally significant facets of the motif are also explored (cf. the discussion appearing in the subsequent chapters of the study). The preceding remarks are made against the backdrop of extensive scholarly discourse about the concept of the “temple” within numerous ancient corpora. The latter include the following texts: the Old Testament (or Tanakh), the New Testament, and the Jewish writings penned during the intertestamental period (approximately 432–5 B.C.) and the era of Second Temple Judaism (approximately 515 B.C.–A.D. 70.; cf. Koester 1989:ix; Stevens 2006:3). Admittedly, there is some overlap between the intertestamental period and the era of Second Temple Judaism. (Unless otherwise noted, the dates used throughout this study are based on the timeline appearing in the Zondervan TNIV Study Bible, 2006:1656–1658).

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The current discussion raises the important question, “What is the temple?” In brief, it may be defined as a “sacred, demarcated place” (Lundquist 2008:xi) in which the deity resides and “cultic rituals” (Walton 2006:113) are performed (cf. Haran 1995:13; Lundquist 1994a:273; Marshall 1989:207). (The word “cult” here refers to a group’s “social experience of the deity” through the “performance” of rituals; McKenzie 1974:37). It was from “very obscure beginnings” that the notion of the “heavenly dwelling of God” became firmly entrenched in the “mind of Judaism” and expanded to include the “traditional hope of the eschatological or new temple” (McKelvey 1969:40). Like other religious symbols from the ancient Near East, the shrine concept is a “multivalent … iconic vehicle” and thus cannot be “reduced to simply one meaning” (Ollenburger 1987:19). The predominant “sources of information” about the temple cultus include “material artifacts and literary texts, both biblical and extrabiblical” (Stevens 2006:7). On the one hand, archaeologists have mainly focused on the “constituent elements and minutiae”, with the goal of surfacing “ancient Near Eastern parallels for architectural features, furnishings, and decorative motifs”. On the other hand, specialists in biblical and theological studies have pondered the “general religious significance of the structure” (Bloch-Smith 1994:18; cf. Baltzer 1965:263). In keeping with the latter aim, the goal of this project is to take a fresh look at the biblical and theological implications of the temple motif in Scripture, especially as a connected, chronological narrative. This involves bringing together information from separate passages that contribute to a unified treatment of the subject. The undertaking also includes factoring in the importance of historical distinctions among a variety of sacred texts from different periods. The endeavor necessitates remaining sensitive to changes in function and administration within the temple across diverse cultures and religious traditions (cf. Martins 2007:226– 227). Furthermore, as a representative group of the Judeo-Christian Scriptures is engaged, these writings are assessed through the various prisms of secondary literature and a synthesis is offered of what appears in the biblical data. Throughout the study, the underlying historical accuracy and reliability of God’s Word is affirmed (cf. Dillard and Longman 1994:21–25; Hill and Walton 2009:68–69; LaSor, Hubbard, and Bush 1996:40–43; Lioy 2005:28–31; Payne 1962:17; Schreiner 2008:12–13; Smith 1993:109, 114; Thielman 2005:41–42; Vos 2000:67–68; Waltke 2007:77). The motivation for undertaking the preceding task is the realization that there is no scholarly agreement regarding the notion of the “temple” in the canon of God’s Word. Even though there is general consensus that the “symbolism of the temple in both testaments is a highly significant strand of biblical theology” (Beale 2004a:373), interpreters part company over the specific ways in which the temple

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concept is pertinent. They also propose conflicting theories about how the metaphorical notion of the “temple” contributes to an understanding of the theological trajectory of the Bible. In short, the shrine concept in Scripture remains contested and shows every indication of provoking further debate within the academic community (cf. Barr 1999:605). Admittedly, there is also no scholarly accord regarding the conceptual nucleus around which to elucidate the meaning of Scripture, whether the Old and New Testaments as a whole or even as separate literary entities (cf. Hasel 1991:27, 139, 167; Helyer 2008:47; Kaiser 2008:13; Merrill 1991a:11–12; Waltke 2007:2). In this regard, Nelson (1993:x–xi) portrays God’s Word as a “chorus of different voices and perspectives in which dissonance and conflict are as common as harmony”. In contrast, Hasel (1991:168) maintains that “God/Yahweh” is the “dynamic, organizing” nucleus of the Old Testament. When it comes to the New Testament, Schreiner (2008:23) proposes a trinitarian matrix, namely, that these writings are “God-focused, Christ-centered, and Spirit-saturated”. Kline (2006:1) both expands and sharpens the focus of the discussion when he advocates the “kingdom of God” as the metanarrative of the entire Bible. Elsewhere, I have proposed that progressive covenantalism be regarded as one viable working model for comprehending the relationship between the Old and New Testaments (cf. Lioy 2006). For parallel reasons, Wright (1993:xi) favors “covenant theology” as a plenary framework for making sense of Scripture, especially “Pauline theology”. Specifically, the “covenant purposes of God” arrived at their “climatic moment in the events of Jesus’ death and resurrection”. Och (1995:226) goes in a slightly different (though related) direction when he argues that the “doctrine of creation”, far from being a “cosmic foil” having only “secondary importance”, is the “fundamental theme” that “underlies the Biblical text”. Waltke (2007:144) affirms the latter when he posits that the “Bible is about God bringing glory to himself by restoring Paradise”. Specifically, this is a “place without pain, without suffering” and where “love and peace flourish” (248). Beale (1997:23) moves the discussion ahead by proposing the following as the most exegetically defensible and theologically incisive focal point of the Judeo-Christian Scriptures: “Christ’s life, and especially death and resurrection through the Spirit, launched the end-time new creation for God’s glory”. Furthermore, Beale (2002:164) clarifies that the latter statement includes an emphasis “on the messianic king who reigns over the new creation and is himself the beginning of that creation”. This study harbors no illusions of bringing universal consensus to the larger debate. That said, there is value in undertaking a biblical and theological analysis of the temple motif in the Judeo-Christian Scriptures in order to build on and ex-

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tend the preceding discussion in a meaningful way. The Hebrew Bible and the New Testament are treated as an organic whole, viewed from a Christ-centered perspective, and examined using a canonical, integrative approach. In order to keep the size and scope of the inquiry reasonable, the project only considers a limited number of passages from the Protestant biblical corpus. The observations Barr (1999:59) made in connection with writing a book on Old Testament theology also apply to a work examining the concept of the temple in Scripture. In both cases, the paradox is that in order for any book to “be comprehensive”, it also needs to be “selective”. This is due to the fact that no scholarly work, regardless of its scope, length, and erudition, “can contain all the material or even give references to it all”. With the preceding observations in mind, an underlying objective of this study is to clarify the biblical and theological development of the shrine concept in Scripture. In doing so, however, no pretense is made that the discussion is either plenary or exhaustive, or that the analysis of the sacred text masquerades for a detailed, verse-by-verse critical and exegetical commentary. Such an undertaking would duplicate what is already in print and result in several massive tomes. For similar reasons, it is beyond the scope of this investigation to explore in detail the temple ideology found in non-biblical texts (e.g. ancient Near Eastern documents, the Dead Sea scrolls, the Apocrypha, Pseudepigrapha, and religious writings from the Second Temple period of Judaism). For a representative (though not exhaustive) list of various works providing a meticulous analysis of the extra-biblical literature related to the concept of the temple, one is encouraged to consult the bibliography included at the end of this study. Even though a broad range of publications have been utilized to guide, inform, and substantiate the examination of God’s Word, the discussion seeks to be as clear and accessible as possible for the benefit of both specialist and non-specialist readers. That said, it may be that some in the academic guild will take issue with the choice of external sources listed and cited in this study, even to the point of mentioning other authoritative works that are not included. Ultimately, though, a determination has to be made regarding when a sufficient number of sources have been consulted to achieve the intent of the investigation. Furthermore, the decision to enter into conversation with only a modest number of scholarly treatises is driven by the realization that (to draw upon the words of Wright 1996:xvi) there is a “huge quantity of contemporary writing” about the topic addressed in this work. As well, “any serious attempt to engage in dialogue with even a small proportion” of the secondary literature would “result in a hopeless morass of footnotes”.

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CHAPTER TWO The Garden of Eden as a Primordial Temple or Sacred Space for Humankind

he gateway for this study is Eden with its idyllic garden (Gen 2:8). The focus of the narrative is not limited to the origin of the human race, but also includes the “beginnings of life” (Fretheim 1994:1:336). The account of the latter starts in 1:1, the first words of which identify God as the originator of all creation. In fact, He is at the center of this narrative. Concededly, atheists insist that the notion of God is a fabrication (cf. Lioy 2008:18), and that each person is the “center, the springboard, and the only frame of reference for moral guidelines” (Hamilton 1990:166). Be that as it may, the opening chapters of Genesis proclaim that “creation is not a careless, casual, or accidental matter” (Brueggemann 1982:17). As the source of “ultimate Reality”, God alone gives “meaning and significance to everything else”. Indeed, apart from Him there cannot be any “meaning at all” (Gese 1981:222). Even individual human existence finds its selfhood and purpose in the Creator-King (cf. Johnson 2006:45; Lioy 2005:33). With respect to Eden, the Hebrew noun rendered “garden” (gan; 2:8) denotes a “fenced-off enclosure”, especially one that is “protected by a wall or a hedge” (Dumbrell 2002:56; cf. 2 Kings 25:4; Neh 3:15; Jer 39:4; 52:7). It would be comparable to a “park of trees” (von Rad 1972:77; cf. Hamilton 1990:161; Leupold 1981:1:117; Renckens 1964:199–200; Walton 2003b:202; Wallace 1992a:2:281). In Genesis 2:8, “Eden” is more than a symbol. It refers to a “geographical designation” (Speiser 1964:16). A number of conceptual and linguistic parallels in Scripture indicate that this lush, bucolic spot was a primordial temple or sacred space for humankind (cf. Stordalen 2000:294; Wenham 1994:399, 401). The Creator did not bring Eden into existence “strictly for the habitation of humans”; instead, they were stewards whom He “invited to enjoy and cultivate” His garden (Wallace 1992b:2:907). The underlying premise is that ever since the dawn of time, the entire world has been God’s sanctuary (cf. Levenson 1994:86; Lioy 2005:27). The preceding

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truth is affirmed in Isaiah 66:1, in which the Almighty declared that the heavens are His “throne”, and the earth is His “footstool”. (Unless otherwise noted, all Scripture quotations are taken from Today’s New International Version, hereafter abbreviated, TNIV). The exalted King is depicted as reposing on His glorious royal seat and stooping down from His celestial temple to gaze at the heavens and the earth (cf. Isa 40:22, 26; Ps 113:4–6). According to 102:25, the Creator “laid the foundations of the earth”. As well, the vast stretches of the universe are the “work of [His] hands”. He is so powerful that, metaphorically speaking, He dresses Himself in a robe made out of light and stretches out the heavens like a tent curtain (104:2). He also uses the clouds as His chariot, and He rides upon the wings of the wind (v. 3). Moreover, the Lord of all creation placed the earth firmly on its foundations, ensuring that it will never be upended (v. 5; cf. 93:1–2). From these sorts of passages one discerns that the entire universe is a “sacramental place” as well as a window into “transcendent reality” that points people beyond themselves and their material world to the “beauty, truth and power” of the Creator (Vander Zee 2004:41). At one end of the axis of glory are the “heavens” (Amos 9:6), where God built the upper rooms of His “palace”. At the other end is the “earth”, the spot where the Lord placed the foundation supports of the entire cosmos. In this depiction of reality, the “primary axis is vertical”. It signifies the “relation between heaven and earth” as well as the “cosmic order in relation to the social order” (Anderson 1999:204). The original pristine universe that God brought into existence served as the prototype and archetype that looked ahead to future venues in which the Lord and the covenant community would enjoy fellowship together (cf. Hasel 1972:20; Starke 1996). These include the garden in Eden, the Israelite tabernacle in the wilderness, the temple in Jerusalem, and the new heavens and the new earth (cf. Brown 1986:3:787; Hyers 1984:54; Lundquist 2008:xii). Excluding the last-named item, perhaps the rest could be understood as smaller representations of what the universe in its unfallen state signified and prefigured (cf. Currid 1997:28; Palmer 2004:15). Based on the premise that these sanctuaries were “in some way a replica of the divine heavenly abode”, the veneration people offered in them were attempts to “reenact creation” (Wenham 1994:400). Admittedly, unlike the later-appearing shrines in early Israel, Eden had “no architectural structure” (Beale 2005a:7). In point of fact, “it is not necessary for a sanctuary to be an edifice or structure” (Parry 1990:482). Furthermore, the cumulative evidence indicates that Eden functioned as a primordial temple-garden (cf. Poythress 1991:31). For that matter, throughout the ancient Near East, the “first sacred spaces” existed apart from “buildings” and were “defined by some natural form that had come to possess some religious significance” (Turner

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1979:15; for example, a hill, one or more trees, a stone, or a cave). Moreover, Eden, as a “sacred center”, was the “earthly reproduction of the heavenly reality” (Kline 1996). Because Adam communed with God in Eden, the latter was the temporal analog for the celestial archetype (cf. Wenham 1994:400–401). According to Genesis 3:8, the first man and woman “heard the sound” of their Creator as He was “walking in the garden” at the breezy time of the day. The reader senses that “God could make his presence known throughout the garden” (Longman 2001:6). Later, in reference to the tabernacle, the Lord declared to the Israelites that He would put His “dwelling place” (Lev 26:11) among them. He also pledged to “walk among” (v. 12) them to signify that He was their God and they were His chosen people. Centuries after that, the Lord told King David that during the 40 years the Israelites wandered in the desert, God moved from “place to place with a tent” as His “dwelling” (2 Sam 7:6; cf. v. 7). Similarly, Moses clarified to a new generation of Israelites who were about to enter the promised land that their camp had to be kept “holy” (Deut. 23:14) because the Lord moved about in their midst (cf. Beale 2004b:197; Palmer 2004:15; Parry 1994b:144). God’s decision to bring humankind into existence was no afterthought; rather, it was His final and climactic act, making the human race the “apogee of creation” (Helm 2000:204; cf. Ciampa 2007:257 Cohen 1989:12; Curtis 1992:3:390; Lioy 2005:49). This truth notwithstanding, people remain creatures who are utterly dependent on God for their existence and are accountable to Him for their actions (cf. Paul 1997:4:360). Genesis 1:26 begins with God decreeing, “Let us make human beings in our image, in our likeness”. The deliberative Hebrew plural pronoun rendered “us” marks the “significance and sublimity of the Creator’s action” (Bonhoeffer 1997:61). Most likely, God and His heavenly court of angelic beings are in view (cf. 1 Kings 22:19–22; Job 1:6–12; 2:1–6; 38:7; Isa 6:8), though it is God who alone brings humankind into existence (Isa 40:14; 44:24; cf. Miller 2006:68; Newsom 1992:1:249; von Rad 1962:145; Scullion 1992a:2:943; Stager 2000:39; Walton 2001:129; Walton 2006:94). On the one hand, Adam and Eve are depicted as being “real people”; on the other hand, they symbolize “every man and every woman” who has ever lived (Waltke 2007:250). The Hebrew noun translated “image” (selem; Gen 1:26) is typically used in reference to such replicas as models and statues (cf. Eichrodt 1967:122; FletcherLouis 2004:83; Jacob 1958:166–167; Scroggs 1966:12). In contrast, the noun rendered “likeness” (demût) is an abstract term derived from a verbal root that means “to resemble” (cf. Dyrness 1977:83; Kaiser 2008:40; Levenson 1994:111; Renckens 1964:121). These observations notwithstanding, in this verse the two words are virtually synonymous (cf. Curtis 1992:3:389; Hafemann 2001:222; Kid-

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ner 1967:50; Leupold 1981:1:89; von Rad 1962:144–145; von Rad 1972:58) and collectively mean “according to a similar but not identical representation” (LaSor, Hubbard, and Bush 1996:23). From a literary standpoint, “poetic repetition” (Hess 2003:18) is used, in which “likeness” provides an “amplification and specification” of what “image” means (Clines 1968:90). From a theological perspective, humans are the “visible corporeal representative of the invisible, bodiless God” (101). More generally, because every person is a “psychosomatic unity” (85–86), the image of God in them is reflected in both the material and immaterial aspects of their existence (cf. von Rad 1972:58; Van Leeuwen 1997:4:644). Furthermore, the divine likeness encompasses the moral character of individuals and the roles/tasks they undertake during their earthly sojourn (cf. Brown 1999:44; Helm 2000:210–211; Roop 1987:322; Walton 2006:212). For believers, the image of God not only includes temporal (physical) life, but also eternal life (cf. Gage 2001:23; Dahl 1964:434–435; Kreitzer 1993a:14; Kreitzer 1993e:810; Scroggs 1966:68–69). Down through the centuries, the scholarly discussion about the divine likeness in humanity has often been an “atomizing and reductionist approach” (Bird 1994:33). Despite this, the opinions of specialists have coalesced around three main areas of concern—on the ability of people to reason, make ethical decisions, and exercise dominion (cf. Clines 1968:61; Dumbrell 1985:175–176; Longman 2001:4–5). Possessing high mental abilities and behaving morally concern the nature of human life, while governing the rest of creation deals with the function of human life (cf. Bonhoeffer 1997:66–67; Kline 2006:43–44; Scullion 1992a:2:944). From a New Testament perspective, the spiritual character of the redeemed needs to be considered. In brief, becoming increasingly more like the Messiah is closely connected with bearing the image of God (cf. Rom 8:29; 2 Cor 3:18; 4:4; Eph 4:22–24; Col 1:15; 3:9–10; Heb 1:3; Hamilton 1990:145–146; Smith 1993:245; Wright 2006:424). Even though within fallen humanity the image of God has been defaced through sin, people still bear the divine likeness to some degree (cf. Gen 5:1; 9:6; Jas 3:9), and this sets them apart from the rest of earth’s creatures (cf. Birch 2005:37, 43; Childs 1993:569; Merrill 1991a:19; Van Leeuwen 1997:4:645). The more immediate context of Genesis 1:26–28 encompasses both the male and female genders (cf. Branch 2003:240) and focuses on rulership; in other words, the mandate for men and women to govern the world as benevolent vice-regents of the true and living God, is a reflection of His image in them (cf. Gen 9:2; Ps 8:5–8; Heb 2:5–9; Bird 1994:338–339; Levenson 1994:112–113; McCartney 1994:2; Paul 1997:4:360). By ruling over the rest of creation in a responsible fashion, people bear witness to the divine likeness placed within humanity (cf. Eichrodt

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1967:127; Renckens 1964:126–127; Scroggs 1966:13). Also, as His sacerdotal agents mediate His presence, they actualize His will on earth (cf. Matt 6:10; Brown 1999:44–45; Cohen 1989:22–23; Hafemann 2001:25). According to Genesis 2:8, the Creator planted an “orchard of various fruit trees” in Eden (Brown 1999:138). Deliberate representations of these were found in the “wood carvings” placed within the temple of Solomon and which gave it a “garden-like atmosphere” (Beale 2005a:8; cf. Stager 2000:39, 41). The intent of the “temple design” was to “recreate the primordial landscape of creation” (Carroll 2005) and draw attention to its “luxurious, pristine, and life giving” character (Lundquist 2008:xiv). First Kings 6:18 notes that the stone walls throughout the shrine were entirely covered with cedar paneling. In turn, the latter were overlaid with carvings of “gourds and open flowers”. Verse 29 adds that the walls of the inner and outer rooms of the sanctuary had carvings of cherubs, palm trees, and flowers in bloom (cf. vv. 32, 35). A similar pattern could be found on the latticework that decorated the capitals of the two bronze pillars placed at the entrance to the holy place of the temple. Artisans encircled the latticework of both capitals with two rows of 200 pomegranate-shaped ornaments (7:17–18, 20). Also, the tops of the two pillars inside the portico were shaped like “lilies” (v. 19; cf. Gage 2001:57). Genesis 2:9 discloses that the Creator placed in the middle of the antediluvian sanctuary two distinctive trees: the first bore life-giving fruit; the second produced fruit that, when people consumed it, gave them a heightened awareness of right and wrong (cf. Childs 1962b:4:696; Dyrness 1977:100; Gow 2003:286; Piper 1962:3:43; Walker 1997b:4:1259–1260). This ethical insight turned on the “issue of moral autonomy” (Dunn 1998:83), especially the “capacity to make the correct decision when confronted with alternatives” (Hamilton 1990:166; cf. Deut 1:39; 1 Kings 3:9). The ability to select the best possible option had “sexual, intellectual, and social implications” (Wallace 1992c:6:658). The “tree of … knowledge”, which symbolized the “freedom of choice over good and evil” (LaSor, Hubbard, and Bush 1996:26), foreshadows the deposit of the two stone tablets within the ark of the covenant (cf. Brown 1999:388–389; Dalman 2002:40–41; Ross 1988:95; Stordalen 2000:465; Waltke 2007:150; Wenham 1994:402–403). On the tablet were inscribed the Ten Commandments (Exod 25:16, 21; Heb. 9:4), which many consider to be the moral law, or the basic list of God’s universal ethical norms for proper human conduct (cf. Lioy 2004:6). Moreover, in the shrine-garden was the “tree of life”, whose fruit enabled the first humans to enjoy unending existence in all its beauty and fullness with God (cf. Seebass 1986b:1:84–85; Smick 1988:4:901–902; Starke 1996; Wallace 1992c:6:658). This tree was the prototype of the arboreal-looking lampstand that

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was placed within the holy place of the tabernacle and temple (cf. Barker 1991:90; Levenson 1994:94; Longman and Reid 1995:50; Parry 1994b:128–129). Its various accessories (i.e. cups, flower buds, and almond blossoms) were attached on six branches and formed one solid piece with its stem and base. An ideal number of seven lamps (representing fullness and flawlessness) were mounted on the six branches and the central supporting shaft in order to provide continual light (cf. Exod 25:31–37; Averbeck 2003:816–817; Birch 1986:3:559; Friberg 1992:4:1145; Pope 1962:3:564; White 1976:4:460). This light was intended to be a visible representation of the Lord’s glorious presence and redemptive power among His people (cf. Exod 29:43; Zech 4; Rev 1:13, 20; 2:1, 5; 11:4; Fletcher-Louis 2004:89– 90, 93–94; Walton 2001:148, 182; Walton 2006:125). In John’s vision of the eternal state, he observed that a “tree of life” (Rev 22:2) grew on each side of the “river of the water of life”. One possibility is that the Greek noun rendered “tree” (xulon) should be taken in a collective sense to refer to an orchard lining both sides of the riverbank. In any case, the apostle noted that the tree bore 12 different kinds of fruit, with a new crop appearing each month of the year. The fruit gave life, and the leaves were used as medicine to heal the nations. The presence of healing leaves does not mean there will be illness in heaven. Rather, the leaves symbolize the health and vigor that believers will enjoy in eternity (cf. Ezek 47:12). As noted earlier, a tree of life first existed in the garden of Eden, and it must have been lush. After Adam and Eve had sinned, God did not allow them to eat the fruit of the tree. In eternity, however, the all-powerful Lord will allow the redeemed to partake fully of eternal life, which is symbolized by the tree and its fresh, abundant fruit (cf. Gen. 2:9; 3:22; Bauckham 1993:316; Brighton 1999:627–628; Ford 1975:339; Mounce 1998:399; Osborne 2002:771–772; Slater 1999:199; Stefanovic 2002:592–593; Wall 1991:256). Genesis 2:10 discloses that a river flowed in Eden and watered the templegarden. Then, beyond this sacred locale, the river divided into four headstreams to distribute water throughout the remainder of the planet (cf. Clifford 1972:101– 102; Dalman 2009:131; Giese 1997:4:1151; Stordalen 2000:276). The Solomonic shrine was portrayed as being a lush, fertile place (cf. Parry 1994b:129–130; Walton 2001:148; Wenham 1994:402). For instance, Psalm 36 describes God’s sacred house as a spot where the redeemed could “feast” (v. 8) on His “abundance”. Also, there His people could “drink from [his] river of delights”. The poet explained that in the Lord’s presence was “the fountain of life” (v. 9), whose “light” gave sustaining life to worshipers. Jeremiah, in his appeal to God for vindication, referred to the temple as the Lord’s “glorious throne” (Jer 17:12), which was “exalted from the beginning” and the “place of [His people’s] sanctuary”. Verse 13 points to God as the “spring of living water”. Those who put their “confidence” (v. 7) in

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Him were comparable to a tree planted by a riverbank and whose roots extended deep into the water (v. 8). Despite the presence of excessive heat or prolonged drought, its leaves remained green and its branches continued to bear fruit (cf. Ps 1:3). The imagery is even more evocative in apocalyptic portions of Scripture (cf. Taylor 2004:70). For example, one of the most impressive descriptions in the entire book of Ezekiel is that of the river that flowed from the eschatological temple (47:1–12; cf. Joel 3:18; Zech 14:8; Barrois 1980:63–64; Joyce 2007:147). Wherever the river went, it gave life (cf. Caird 1999:280; Strong 1997:4:1319). Similarly, in John’s vision of the eternal state, he saw a river that was crystal clear and whose waters gave life. It flowed from God’s throne down the middle of the new Jerusalem’s main thoroughfare (Rev 22:1). The river and its water are a symbol of the fullness of eternal life that proceeds from the presence of God (cf. Giese 1997:4:1151–1152; Roloff 1993:246; Stefanovic 2002:592; Walton 2003b:205). In this vision of the future, the Father and the Son are joint owners of the heavenly throne (cf. Bauckham 1993:139; Johnson 2001:322; Morris 1992:99; Moyise 1995:81; Slater 1999:167, 198; Thompson 1990:64). Priestly terminology, which was later used in reference to the Israelite tabernacle and temple, first appears in Genesis 2:15 (cf. Stordalen 2000:458; Walton 2001:149, 185). The verse states that the Creator placed Adam in the shrine-garden “to work it and take care of it”. The underlying Hebrew verbs—‘abad and šamar, respectively—can also be rendered “serving / worshiping” and “guarding / protecting” (cf. Dumbrell 2002:59–60; Hafemann 2001:228; Parry 1994b:143– 144; Walton 2003a:165). Corresponding passages of Scripture focus on priests performing their duties in the sanctuary and keeping it undefiled from profane objects (cf. Num 3:7–8; 8:25–26; 18:5–6; 1 Chron 23:32; Ezek 44:14; Kline 2006:85–86; von Rad 1962:241–242; Walton 2003b:205–206). The logical inference is that the Creator originally wanted Adam and Eve to perform sacerdotal responsibilities in the garden of Eden, including the cultivation and upkeep of the sacred space (cf. Averbeck 2003:817; Sailhamer 1990:2:45). Genesis 3 reveals that the couple failed in their priestly role when they succumbed to the beguiling influence of the serpent (cf. Gow 2003:286; Sarna 1966:24; Waltke 2007:259). Tragically, even though Adam and Eve had all their earthly needs met, they still transgressed the “one injunction given to them” (Wenham 2008:35). In turn, the introduction of sin and death to the human race led God to banish His sacerdotal agents from the hallowed orchard (Gen 3:23; cf. Rom 5:12). The Lord also stationed angelic sentinels (literally, “cherubim”) to police the garden and stand guard over the path to the “tree of life” (Gen 3:24; cf. Baldwin 1986:1:280; Kline 2006:47–48; Miller 2006:66; Steinmann 2003:112;

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Walker 1997a:4:1260). This episode is later commemorated in ancient Israel by the placing of two “cherubim of the Glory” (Heb 9:5) on both ends of the lid of the ark of the covenant (cf. Bloch-Smith 1994:24; Poythress 1991:19, 31; Lundquist 2008:xv). The pair were “hybrid creatures composed of the body of a lion with eagles’ wings” (Hiebert 1992a:6:510). The cherubim were symbolic guardians and protectors of God’s kingly presence in the most holy place of the tabernacle and temple (cf. Exod 25:18–20; 1 Sam 4:4; 2 Sam 6:2; 2 Kings 19:15; Ps 99:1; Averbeck 2003:817; Harrison 1979b:1:643; Parry 1994b:132–133, 139; Wenham 1994:401). According to Genesis 3:24, the entrance to the orchard in Eden faced “east” (cf. Lundquist 2008:24; Parry 1994b:131–132). Both the Solomonic shrine and the future temple envisioned by Ezekiel were to face east and be located on a hallowed mountain (cf. Ezek 40:2, 6; 43:12; Dalman 2002:49–50; Turner 1979:48–49). Ezekiel 28 adds that Eden was called the “garden of God” (vs. 13) and the “holy mount of God” (v. 14; cf. v. 16; Clifford 1972:172; Dumbrell 2002:58–59; von Rad 1962:141). It was the “primordial hillock”, that is, the “place that first emerged from the waters covering the earth during the creative process” (Carroll 2005; cf. Stager 2000:37; Turner 1979:25). In this biblical paradigm, God’s cosmic mountain bore “witness to the order and permanence of the created world” (Cohen 1981:31). Similar characterizations are found in Scripture in connection with the Jerusalem temple as the “architectural embodiment of the cosmic mountain” (Lundquist 1994c:84; cf. Parry 1994b:137; Talmon 1997:3:437). For instance, the Lord’s “holy mountain” (Isa 11:9) is Zion (Pss 2:6; 87:1–2; 99:1–3, 9), which is also known as the “mountain of [His] inheritance” (Exod 15:17), the consecrated spot reserved for His own “dwelling”, and the “city of God” (Ps 87:3; cf. Barker 1991:69; McKelvey 1969:11; Roberts 1982:100). Moreover, “within the cult tradition of Jerusalem”, Zion was a “symbol of security and refuge”, that is, the place where the ever-present Creator-King defended the righteous by vanquishing their foes (Ollenburger 1987:65–66; cf. Pss 9:1–20; 10:1–18; 20:1–9; 24:1–10; 46:1–11; 48:1–14; 76:1–12; 89:1–18; 93:1–5). Zion is first mentioned in 2 Samuel 5:7 as a Jebusite fortress on a hill. After being captured by David, this fortress was called the City of David. Here Israel’s king brought the ark of the covenant, thereby making the hill a sacred site (6:10–12; cf. Batey 2000:559; Clifford 1972:131; Eliav 2005:2–3; Groves 2005:1022; Klouda 2008:936; Strong 1997:4:1314). Israel’s sacred mountain conceptions and traditions draw upon mythological imagery, symbols, and archetypes found in nearby cultures, namely, “Mesopotamian, Canaanite, Babylonian, Persian, [and] Hellennistic” (Donaldson 1985:25; cf. Renz 1999:83; VanGemeren 2008:481). (For a systematic and detailed

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study of the meaning and function of the cosmic mountain theme in the Canaanite and Israelite religious traditions, cf. Clifford 1972; Donaldson 1985; Eliav 2005; and Niehaus 1995.) In general, religious mountain symbolism denotes “more than a mere geographical location” (Clifford 1972:7). The ancient Near Eastern idea refers to a “place set apart because of a divine presence or activity” among a group of people. According to this understanding of reality, the earth is the “base of the mountain” (i.e. at one end of the axis of glory) and the “top of the heavens” is its summit (i.e. at the other end of the axis of glory; 190). Moreover, the action of “natural forces” at the “point where the earth touches the divine sphere” gives the planet order, stability, and fertility (7–8). The people of the ancient Near East regarded the “universe … as a gigantic world-mountain” that extended from the “entrance of the subterranean abyss to the highest point of heaven” (Clements 1965:2). Furthermore, in the temple ideology of the era, such a mountain-shrine functioned as a “powerful earthly center and point of contact with the heavens” (Lundquist 2008:xiv; cf. Walton 2006:278). For these reasons, the cosmic mountain was the de facto reference point for “everything else” (Levenson 1984:283). By way of implication, the ancient Israelites viewed their shrine as the axis mundi, or “peripheral pivot” and “beginning point” (Cohen 1981:57), for the entire cosmos. In this schema, the temple was the “navel of the world” (De Lacey 1991:396), having its “roots in the underworld and its peak in the heavens” (Donaldson 1985:26). Moreover, because the sanctum and all of the creation stood “in an intimate and intrinsic connection” (288), the temple became the “moral center of the universe, the source from which holiness and a terrifying justice radiated” (298; cf. Cohen 1981:32–33; McCurley 1983:127; Turner 1979:10–11, 21). Concerning the garden within Eden (or possibly adjoining it; cf. Cornelius 1997:4:555; Stordalen 2000:284–286; Walton 2003b:202), the archetypal sanctuary was analogous to the holy place of “Israel’s later temple” (Beale 2005a:10). Here the Lord’s “priestly servant” worshiped Him by living in obedience to His covenant stipulations. Similarly, Eden proper was akin to the most holy place of the Jerusalem shrine. This is where God—who is the “source of both physical and spiritual life”—manifested His ineffable presence. In keeping with this comparison, the remainder of the earth beyond the confines of the antediluvian sanctuary was “roughly equivalent to the outer court of Israel’s subsequent temple”. According to the “gradation in holiness” reflected in this depiction, the rest of the planet’s continents and oceans would be comparably less sacrosanct than Eden proper and its orchard (cf. Abrahams and Rothkoff 2007:19:423; Lundquist 2008:25, 36; Walton 2001:168, 173–174, 181–183, 193–194; Walton 2004:144– 145; Walton 2006:125).

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It would be incorrect to conclude that the majority of earth is inconsequential (cf. Kline 1996). After all, Genesis 1:28 says that God “blessed” humans, which means He endowed men and women with the ability to flourish and be successful in serving as His vice-regents across the entire planet (cf. Carroll 2000:24; Patrick 1992:2:436; Lioy 2005:52; Sailhamer 1990:2:38; Smith 1993:171–172). For Adam and Eve before the Fall, the creation mandate included expanding the “contours of the garden” (Dumbrell 2002:62) until it encompassed all of the earth. Humanity’s populating the world and bringing it under their control in a responsible fashion would be a testimony to God’s abiding presence in and blessing on their lives. In the time period of Moses, the focus would have been primarily agricultural. Such endeavors as domesticating animals, using trees to build homes, cultivating fields, and extracting mineral resources from the land would all be involved. Even today, as people use the resources of the environment in a sensible and responsible manner (e.g. in such vocations as agriculture, art, business, science, government, journalism, entertainment, scholarship, etc.), they are fulfilling God’s original command to subdue the earth (cf. Ps 8:5–8; Walton 2009:149; Westermann 1982:98–99). Genesis 1:31 declares that everything the Creator brought into existence was “very good” or “completely perfect” (von Rad 1972:61). From a theological standpoint, it is clear that “God, by his powerful Word, transforms the chaos into a holy and blessed creation” (Ross 1988:114). Here God is depicted neither as a “mighty warrior” nor as a “cunning conqueror”, but as an “omnipotent artisan” and an “omniscient architect” (Kline 2006:26) who is also “serenely and supremely in charge” (Brueggemann 2005:153). Expressed differently, He is the quintessential virtuoso, who “having completed his masterpiece, steps back a little and surveys his handiwork with delight, for both in detail and in its entirety it had emerged from his hand” (Cassuto 1978:59; cf. vv. 4, 10, 12, 18, 21, 25). The Creator is also like a “master chef ” who brings a “multicourse banquet before admiring guests”. In a manner of speaking, “God kisses his fingers with each new delicacy that he brings from his creative workshop” (Wright 2006:398). Walton (2006:197) advances the discussion by noting that the first chapter of Genesis is “framed in terms of the creation of the cosmos as a temple in which Yahweh takes up his repose”. In turn, God resting on the seventh day (cf. 2:1–3) is the functional equivalent of Him “being enthroned” and assuming His “role as sovereign ruler of the cosmos” (cf. Hafemann 2001:29–30; Walton 2003a:165; Walton 2009:162; Wenham 1994:403). In this portrayal, God operates as the “transcendent referent” whose “purpose and … will for creation” is the basis for its “ultimate meaning” (Brueggemann 1982:12–13). Moreover, God commissioned the human race to be His “vice-regents” and “reflect his glory throughout his cre-

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ation”, especially as they manage responsibly the planet on which they live (Ciampa 2007:257). The latter includes “care-giving, even nurturing” the global ecosystem over which God has given them authority (Fretheim 1994:1:346).

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CHAPTER THREE The Priestly Activity of God’s People in Sacred Spaces during the Early Biblical Period

e now turn our attention to the early biblical period. This encompasses the priestly activities of such luminaries as Noah and the patriarchs, whom God chose to “reinstate the original creation blessings” (Och 1995:231). We learn in Genesis 4–6 that some of Adam’s early descendants, such as Cain and Lamech, were ungodly people, while other descendants of Adam’s, such as his son Seth, were godly. Nonetheless, it appears that by the time of Noah, who lived many generations after Adam, wickedness had almost wholly eclipsed righteousness in the human race (cf. Anderson 1999:93; Blenkinsopp 1992:74– 75; Brueggemann 1982:80; Cassuto 1978:301; Cassuto 1984:54; Hamilton 1990:23; Kikawada 1992:4:1123; Leupold 1981:1:260; Sarna 1966:37, 48, 52). Consequently, the Lord decided to bring judgment on the world (cf. Hafemann 2001:65; Marks 1962:2:278–279; Ross 1988:193). He did so by sending a “catastrophic deluge” (Lewis 1992:2:798) to wipe out all life—all that is except for one godly man (Noah), his family, and the animals they would gather (cf. Vos 1982:2:317–318; Westermann 1982:39–40). The flood-event “demonstrates convincingly” that the planet is far from being a “docile environment” over which people “exercise dominion” (Turner 2003:353). Against the backdrop of Noah’s “corrupt world”, he “emerges not merely as the best”, but also “as a remarkably complete man of God” (Kidner 1967:87). God gave Noah—the “protagonist of the Flood narrative” (Lewis 1992:2:799)—instructions for building and stocking an ark that could rise up on the floodwaters. When these preparations were complete, the waters began to cover the earth and do their destructive work. Noah was 600 years old when the Flood began (Gen 7:6); and the rains lasted 40 days and 40 nights (v. 12), covering the earth for a total of 150 days (v. 24). Noah, his family, and the animals were on the “floating shrine” amid a “sea of resurgent chaos” (Walton 2003c:322) for about another six months before the Lord commanded them to come out (8:13– 15)—over a year after they went into the ark (cf. Averbeck 2003:817; Hamilton

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1990:307; Sarna 1966:49). Indeed, it was only after the waters receded that all the occupants of the ark disembarked from the vessel (v. 18). As Noah and his family exited from the ark, a new era in history began. From here on out, the small band of people would repopulate areas devastated by the Flood. It was appropriate, therefore, that God and the remnant mark the occasion by reaffirming their relationship (cf. Cassuto 1984:100; Hunt 2003:606–607; Leupold 1981:1:321; Vos 2000:51). Noah’s encounter with God was a sacred occasion, one that was reminiscent of the exchange that occurred between the Lord and the first human couple in the antediluvian sanctuary (cf. Cohen 1989:25–26). Indeed, there is a sense in which the place where Noah met with the Lord became consecrated because of His holy presence (cf. Exod 3:5; Lundquist 2008:5; Parry 1994b:126; Talmon 1997:3:436). This inference is evident from the priestly activities performed by Noah (cf. Fretheim 1994:1:393; Kline 2006:194, 196; Wenham 1994:403). For instance, as an “act of thanksgiving and worship” (Hawk 2003:36), he built a crude altar out of uncut rocks and dirt and offered burnt sacrifices (cf. Haak 1992:1:162–163; Galling 1962:1:97; Longman 2001:15, 18; Walton 2003c:318; Wiener, Caldecott, and Armerding 1979:1:102). Even though an “architectural building” was not “constructed there”, this hallowed site and others like it built by the patriarchs functioned as “impermanent, miniature forms” of shrines (Beale 2005a:14). Moreover, as God did with Adam and Eve, so too God spoke to Noah “as the representative of creation” (Williamson 2003b:139) and the bearer of the divine image (cf. Birch 2005:56; Sailhamer 1990:2:91; Sarna 1966:56). The Creator made a promise to Noah, pronounced a blessing, gave instructions, and established a covenant (Gen. 8:19–22; cf. Bush 1986:3:691; Eichrodt 1961:37; Gage 2001:9; Lioy 2006:89–90; Mendenhall and Herion 1992:1:1188; Vos 2000:23). Implicit in the latter are such notions as “treaty”, “charter”, “contract”, and “compact” (cf. McCarthy 1982:76; Mendenhall 1962a:1:715–716; Merrill 1991a:26; Speiser 1964:52; Thompson 1979:1:790, 792; Weinfeld 2007:5:249). A covenant signified a “legal relationship” (von Rad 1962:130) between “two parties of unequal status” (129), in this case, God (the superior) and Noah (the subordinate). In response, Noah sacrificed burnt offerings, which were pleasing to God. The sacrifice showed Noah’s devotion, which contrasted sharply with the spiritual rebellion of the people who had been killed by the Flood (cf. Kidner 1967:93). The Lord promised never again to send such a deluge upon the earth. He made that commitment despite humanity’s evil tendencies. Though wickedness would again show itself on the earth, God would not dispatch another such flood to destroy all life. His promise would last as long as the earth endured (cf. Blenkinsopp 1992:84; Dyrness 1977:116–117; Scullion 1992a:2:948; Smith 1993:152; Wester-

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mann 1982:88). Next, the Lord “blessed” (9:1) the survivors (cf. 1:28, in which the same Hebrew verb is used; Kaiser 2008:22; McKeown 2003:87; Patrick 1992:2:436; Smith 1993:172). Then, God gave Noah and his sons the ability to reproduce for the purpose of ruling over the earth as the Lord’s vice-regents. In truth, His declaration of blessing ensured the remnant’s success. God reminded the survivors that His earlier command for them to have children and spread out across the earth was still in effect (9:1; cf. 1:28). It would be incorrect to regard chapter 9 as “simply a replay” of chapter 1 (Hamilton 1990:313). After all, God is not dealing with “primeval disorder (chaos), but with the disorder created by the misuse, or abuse of human freedom” (Anderson 1999:94). The preceding observations notwithstanding, there are a number of ways in which the Flood account corresponds to the Creation account (cf. Clines 1994:302–304; Dillard and Longman 1994:52–53). For instance, in the Flood, water came from the sky as well as from the earth (7:11). This detail suggests that the separation of water from water, which occurred on the second day of Creation, was in a way overcome in the Flood; in other words, Genesis presents the Flood as a kind of de-creation of the world (cf. Brown 1999:54–55; Niehaus 1995:169, 171). Through the Flood, however, God did not merely destroy; He also re-created (cf. 2 Pet 3:5–7; Ciampa 2007:262; Kline 2006:229–230). Noah was a kind of Adam (cf. Brown 1999:175; Levenson 1994:76). His family and the animals were given a renewed command to multiply (8:17 and 9:1; cf. 1:22, 28). Also, Noah’s family members were given renewed dominion over the rest of creation (9:2–3; cf. 1:28–30). Moreover, the image of God in humans was reaffirmed (9:6; cf. 1:26– 27; Gage 2001:11; Och 1995:231; Waltke 2007:296). This included the truth that all life is sacred, with “human life” being “supremely so” (Kidner 1967:101). The “sanctity of life marks the basic limit beyond which humanity must not go in its dominion” (Roop 1987:71; cf. George 2009:2; Guinness 2008:13). There were subsequent “Adam-like figures” (Beale 2005a:12) whom the Lord raised up and commissioned as His priestly representatives to fulfill His mandate in the sacramental place known as earth. Concededly, each of these individuals enjoyed only partial success in accomplishing what God intended (cf. Beale 1997:25–26, 28–29; Toews 2002:42). Despite humankind’s “propensity to sinfulness”, people experienced “not only God’s judgment but also his determination to save” (Clines 1994:306). Indeed, it is a “faithful, loving God” who is present and active throughout the biblical narrative (Sailhamer 1990:2:117). Ultimately, it would take the redemptive work of the Messiah—the “Last Adam and true king-priest” (Beale 2005a:29)—to bring to pass all that the Creator originally intended for humankind in the temple-garden of Eden (cf. Rom 5:12–21; Wright 1993:35–36).

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In terms of the biblical record, the next Adam-like figure was Abraham (otherwise known as Abram; cf. Brown 1999:61; Köstenberger and O’Brien 2001:28– 29; Verhoef 1997:4:351; Waltke 2007:306; Wenham 2008:36). Archaeological research indicates that he was the “product of an advanced culture” and representative of the “upper-class patriarch of his day” (Harrison 1979a:1:17). God called Abraham at the age of 75 to leave everything that he found to be significant—his culture, his relatives, and his family (12:1, 4; cf. Merrill 1996:28–29; Millard 1992:1:35; Williamson 2003b:143–144). In short, the Lord directed an elderly man to leave the security of his homeland and set out for an unknown destination (cf. Burge 2009:40; Hafemann 2001:68–69; Hicks 1962a:1:16; Westermann 1982:21). This must have seemed painful and risky to the patriarch (cf. Bush 1986:3:692; Och 1995:233). Be that as it may, along with Abraham’s call came a blessing that surely acted as a powerful incentive for him to obey God (cf. Dyrness 1977:27; Kaiser 2000:18; Sarna 1966:100; von Rad 2005:63; Weinfeld 2007:5:251–252). The blessing, which is conveyed in the form of a series of seven promises, ensured the “fulfillment of God’s purposes” in the life of the patriarch (Dumbrell 1985:131) as well as to all redeemed humanity (cf. Alexander 2003:657; Hamilton 1982:94; Hamilton 1997a:4:665; Schmidt 1982:61–62; Scullion 1992a:2:953; Waltke 2007:149). (In Scripture, seven was often viewed as the symbolic number of perfection; cf. Birch 1986:3:559; Cassuto 1978:12; Cassuto 1984:321; Friberg 1992:4:1145; Pope 1962:3:564; Turner 2003:356; White 1976:4:460.) The divine plan included the “election of Israel, its status as a nation, and the gifts God intends to bestow” on His chosen people (Clements 1978:34). The culmination of the Father’s redemptive program would be the advent of His Son, the Messiah of Israel (cf. Gen 49:10; Deut 18:15, 18; 2 Sam 7:11–16; 2 Chron 17:10–14; Pss 2:7–9; 110:1–7; Isa 7:14; 9:6–7; Mich 5:2; Matt 1:20–21; Luke 1:31–33; Heb 1:1–4; Leupold 1981:1:413– 414). First, God promised to make Abraham’s descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2). Second, the Lord would personally bless the patriarch. Third, God would make Abraham famous. Fourth, the Lord would make the patriarch a blessing to others. Fifth, God would bless anyone who blessed Abraham (v. 3). Sixth, the Lord would curse those who cursed Abraham. Seventh, all the families of the earth would blessed through (and because of) the patriarch (cf. Hamilton 1990:372– 373; Kaiser 2008:54–56; Kline 2006:308–309, 329–330; Okoye 2006:47–48; Ross 1988:263–264; von Rad 1962:134–135; Verhoef 1997:4:354–355). To sum up, the “patriarchs and their descendants” were to be “channels of blessing to others”, in addition to a “paradigm of faith to which others might aspire” (Carroll 2000:24). In response to God’s call, Abraham left Haran with his wife Sarah (otherwise

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known as Sarai) and his nephew Lot to travel hundreds of miles to Canaan (v. 4). The entourage took with them considerable possessions, slaves, and hired servants (v. 5). Besides being old, Abraham was also childless, so his response to God was truly a step of faith (cf. Cassuto 1984:316; Hamilton 1982:102). As the patriarch’s “epic voyage” unfolded, he became the archetype of the faith journey of all God’s chosen people (Speiser 1964:88; cf. Acts 7:2–5; Rom 4:1–3, 9–22; Heb 12:8– 19). Abraham traveled through the land from north to south, stopping at Shechem, Bethel, and the Negev area (Gen. 12:6). His lifestyle mirrored that of other “pastoralists” of the era, namely, “sheep-breeders who move[d] their encampments periodically in search of water and pasturage” (Dever and Clark 1977:115). The “great tree of Moreh” possibly refers to a well-known holy place (such as a sacred tree) for the veneration of local deities (cf. Barrois 1962a:4:566; Cassuto 1984:325– 326; Turner 1979:17–18, 92). Abraham, however, communed with and worshiped the Lord there (cf. Barrois 1980:15; Hawk 2003:36; Kidner 1967:115). God honored the patriarch’s faith and obedience by appearing to him and promising to give the land of Canaan to his descendants (v. 7). This is the first time, according to the text, that God had appeared to Abraham since he left Ur, and the first time we know that God explicitly promised Canaan to the patriarch. Other portions of the Old Testament refer to Canaan in ways that are reminiscent of the temple-garden of Eden (cf. Poythress 1991:24, 71; Wright 1993:23). For example, before the destruction of Sodom, the whole region of the Jordan was called the “garden of the Lord” (13:10). Also, just as Eden was verdant before the Fall, so too was Israel’s homeland prior to God’s judgment of His people (Joel 2:3; cf. Deut 7:13–15; 8:7–9). God promised that in a future day He would make the deserts of the promised land blossom like “Eden” (Isa 51:3) and Canaan’s barren wilderness as lush as the “garden of the Lord”. Moreover, even though for a while the land was desolate, a time was coming when it would become like the “garden of Eden” (Ezek 36:35). In response to the Lord’s appearance, Abraham built an “altar out of fieldstones” (Barrois 1980:23) and offered sacrifices on it. This priestly act of devotion showed that he believed the Lord and was thankful for what He would do for him (cf. Clements 1965:11–12; Fretheim 1994:1:424; Millard 1992:1:35). At Bethel, the patriarch built another altar and again worshiped God (Gen 12:8). These sorts of actions were “like planting a flag and claiming the land” (Longman 2001:20) in fulfillment of what the Lord declared in His covenant (cf. Cassuto 1984:303; Pagolu 1998:54, 70). Furthermore, these “small-scale sanctuaries” anticipate the “larger-scale construction of Israel’s temple” (Beale 2004a:108). Next, Abraham continued south, where he settled for awhile (v. 9). Throughout the patriarch’s sojourn in Canaan, we find God’s blessing of creation now

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being carried forward to him as His sacerdotal vice-regent (cf. 13:4, 18; McKeown 2003:85). In the garden, God had blessed Adam and Eve, giving them a fruitful place, endowing them with the ability to multiply, and making them rulers over creation. That was all ruined at the Fall. Then, as God began to build His covenant people, He promised to give Abraham’s descendants a fruitful land, a great nation, and kingship (cf. Alexander 2003:658; Williamson 2003b:146–147). From our perspective in time, we can see some of the ways these promises were fulfilled. Abraham became the progenitor of the Hebrew nation. In his own day he was rich, and ever since, he has been famous. His greatest descendant, Jesus Christ, has spread God’s spiritual blessings to people from all nations; yet Abraham did not know about these fulfillments. He had to accept the blessing and obey the call by faith (Heb 11:8–10; cf. Brueggemann 1982:122–123; Sheriffs 2003:281; Vos 2000:83). Amazingly, despite the patriarch’s limited vantage point, he could discern that the prophetic trajectory of Scripture pointed to the Savior (cf. John 8:56; Rev 19:10; Bowman and Komoszewski 2007:96; Payne 1962:259; Rhodes 1992:162; Schreiner 2008:639). The Lord’s blessing on Abraham is reaffirmed in Genesis 17 (cf. Dyrness 1977:117; Jacob 1958:216; Mendenhall and Herion 1992:1:1190). According to verse 1, the patriarch was 99 years old when God appeared to him again. Twentyfour years had passed since Abraham had left Ur for Canaan; and 13 years had elapsed since the birth of Ishmael. In short, the patriarch still did not have the son promised to him by the Lord. Such matters, though, would not deter “God Almighty” from fulfilling His pledge. El-Shaddai is the Hebrew phrase underlying the TNIV rendering. A variety of etymological reconstructions notwithstanding, the primary emphasis is on God’s sovereignty as King over the world (cf. Barrois 1980:18; Block 2005:339–340; Congar 1962:4; Dalman 2002:54; Eichrodt 1961:181; Hartman 2007:7:673; Oswalt 2008:246; Wright 1982:2:506; Zimmerli 1978:42). Genesis depicts God as the creator of life, the master of death, the source of blessing, the protector of His covenant people, and the judge of all humankind (cf. Anderson 1962c:2:412; Baker 2003:361; Bromiley 1979b:1:803; Dyrness 1977:27–28, 45–46; Kline 2006:308–309; Rose 1992:4:1005). Even the ability of people, who were created in His image, to be fruitful and fertile as God’s priestly representatives on earth rested with Him (cf. Gen 1:26–27; 5:1; Jas 3:9). The truth of the Lord’s omnipotence was the basis for His injunction to Abraham to live blamelessly. Expressed differently, the patriarch was to serve God faithfully and operate in a manner characterized by integrity. The Lord was summoning His sacerdotal vice-regent to be faithful—though not perfect—in His presence. This truth suggests that apart from a context of devotion to God, all outward forms

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of piety are meaningless (cf. Brown 1999:61; Cassuto 1984:49; Fretheim 1994:1:458; Hamilton 1990:277, 461; Ross 1988:331; Speiser 1964:124). Next, the Lord declared His intent to confirm His covenant with the patriarch (Gen 17:2). In 15:18–21, God had ratified part of His pledge to Abraham, namely, that his descendants would live in Canaan. Even so, the Lord had yet to guarantee explicitly the promise of numerous descendants and eternal possession of the land. These other aspects of the covenant are now in view. The expression “fell facedown” (17:3) means either the patriarch dropped to his knees and placed his forehead on the ground or that he completely prostrated himself. In either case, Abraham realized that he was in the holy presence of God and thus responded in a reverential manner. As the patriarch worshiped, the Lord declared that part of His covenant included making His servant “the father of many nations” (v. 4). Then, as the patriarch lay stretched out on the ground in humility, the Lord changed His servant’s name from “Abram” (v. 5) to “Abraham” (cf. Alexander 2003:658; Burge 2009:106). “Abram,” which means “exalted father”, pointed to the past and underscored the noble lineage from which the patriarch came. The linguistic variant “Abraham” was similar in sound to a Hebrew expression meaning “father of a multitude” (cf. Harrison 1979a:1:15; Hicks 1962a:1:15; Sarna 2007:1:280–281; Seebass 1986a:1:76; Verhoef 1997:4:351; Williamson 2003a:8–9). This new name pointed to the future, especially God’s promise to make Abraham the ancestor of many peoples. The idea is that through the patriarch’s yet-to-be-born son, multitudes of nations would arise. On the one hand, Abraham became the biological father of numerous descendants (cf. 25:1–4, 12–18; 36:1–43). On the other hand, the patriarch became the spiritual ancestor of a huge number of people from all races and lands (cf. Rom 4:16–17; Gal 3:16, 29; Hamilton 1990:464; Millard 1992:1:39; von Rad 1972:199–200). At the dawn of time, the Creator-King blessed humankind and commanded them to be productive in their service as His priestly, ruling representatives (Gen. 1:28). Despite the entrance of sin within the human race, God did not abandon His original intent. In fact, He reiterated it when He promised to make Abraham “very fruitful” (17:6; cf. Leupold 1981:1:517; Sailhamer 1990:2:138–139; Williamson 2003a:16). The Hebrew text is more literally rendered “exceedingly, exceedingly fruitful”, which spotlights the seriousness of God’s intention to enable His servant to flourish and be productive in all his endeavors. Next, the Lord reiterated aspects of His covenant with Abraham that He had previously revealed. Specifically, the patriarch’s countless descendants would represent many nations, and monarchs would be among them. Furthermore, God pledged to confirm His covenant and make it a perpetual arrangement between Himself and His servant.

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This “everlasting covenant” (v. 7) would extend to Abraham’s descendants for innumerable generations. The latter especially included the Lord being the God of the patriarch and his offspring. God then pledged to give the entire region to the patriarch and his descendants as a permanent, hallowed possession (v. 8). Throughout Abraham’s life, he sojourned as an alien in the land of Canaan. In fact, the Bible outlines his life in the promised land as tent-pitching and altar-building. These were symbols of his faith in and veneration of the Lord in a variety of sacred places and witnessed by his pagan neighbors (cf. Carroll 2000:28–29; Clowney 2002:24). This is the same sort of sacerdotal trust Abraham’s descendants were to have in the Lord as their God. Put another way, the close relationship between God and Abraham would be mirrored by the relationship between God and His servant’s progeny (cf. Kline 2006:203–204, 375; Pagolu 1998:57) When Abraham was 116, the Lord tested his faith by commanding the patriarch to sacrifice his 16-year-old son, Isaac (22:2; cf. Hamilton 1982:109; MartinAchard 1992:3:463; Turner 2003:354). (Abraham’s age of 116 is premised on the date of his birth being 2166 B.C. and the time of his offering of Isaac being 2050 B.C. Isaac’s age of 16 is premised on the date of his birth being 2066 B.C.) At this time, Abraham was living in Beersheba, at the southernmost point of the promised land (cf. 21:33–34). Genesis 22:2 does not state where the “region of Moriah” is, but the verse does say that the patriarch traveled three days to get there (v. 4). This is about how long it would have taken him to go from Beersheba to the vicinity of what is now Jerusalem. According to 2 Chronicles 3:1, Solomon built the temple on Mount Moriah (cf. Dalman 2002:55; Bredin 2003:45, 49; Speiser 1964:163; Wiener, Caldecott, and Armerding 1979:1:102). Thus, the spot (approximately, at least) where Abraham nearly sacrificed his son became the sacred place where for centuries his descendants would offer animals (cf. Burrows 1962:2:846; Dalman 2009:61; Eliav 2005:7; Fretheim 1994:1:496; Hawk 2003:36; McCurley 1983:175). Also, nearby was the hallowed spot where the Messiah would become the all-sufficient sacrifice (cf. Heb 13:11–14). In short, at the sacrosanct mount of Moriah, the Father spared Abraham’s son but not His own (cf. Isa 53; Kline 2006:374; Leupold 1981:2:621; Ratzinger 2007:309; Ross 1988:397, 402). Though Abraham’s test could hardly have been more severe, he did not hesitate to demonstrate his confidence in the promises of the covenant (cf. Bush 1986:3:691; Hicks 1962a:1:19; Kaiser 2008:57; von Rad 1962:174; Waltke 2007:336). For instance, before the sacrifice, the patriarch reassured his son that God would provide an animal for the offering (Gen. 22:8). This was a “statement of utter trust and confidence” (Brueggemann 1982:188). Next, when God had

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done so (v. 13), Abraham called the place where he sacrificed the ram as a burnt offering, “The Lord Will Provide” (in Hebrew, Yahweh-Yireh; v. 14). After that, God’s angel called to the patriarch from the throne room of heaven to reiterate the blessings that awaited Abraham and the numerous descendants who would come from him (cf. Brueggemann 2005:165; Gaster 1962a:1:129; Konkel 1997:4:724; LaSor, Hubbard, and Bush 1996:49; Niehaus 1995:187, 191–195; Verhoef 1997:4:353). The author of Hebrews described how the patriarch, by faith, was willing to offer Isaac—whom Abraham saw as the beginning of the fulfillment of God’s promise to him—as a sacrifice to the Lord (11:17–18). Thus Abraham, as God’s priestly servant, was willing by faith to give up what he valued most. The patriarch believed God to be so powerful that He could give the dead new life; and the Lord did just that when He made a provision for Isaac to live. Indeed, having Isaac alive was for Abraham like getting his son back from the dead (v. 19; cf. Brueggemann 1982:110; Hafemann 2001:75–76; Kidner 1967:143; Luter and Klouda 2003:448; Millard 1982a:2:884; Seebass 1986a:1:76; Vos 2000:83–84). The covenant promises that the Creator-King made to Abraham are reiterated to his son, Isaac, and grandson, Jacob (cf. Konkel 1997:4:724; Merrill 1991a:28; Merrill 1996:44). To be sure, Isaac is overshadowed in Genesis by his father and son (cf. Childs 1993:126; Luter and Klouda 2003:446; Martin-Achard 1992:3:462; Ross 1988:83; Scullion 1992a:2:951; Turner 2003:353); yet in chapter 26, we read about one period in Isaac’s life in which a famine struck (cf. Pagolu 1998:68–69). The patriarch moved his clan to the Philistine town of Gerar (v. 1). Evidently, Isaac was planning to keep going all the way to Egypt, but the Lord told him to settle down as a temporary resident where he was and be God’s priestly representative there (v. 2). The Lord pledged to abide with Isaac, bless him, and deed all the surrounding territory to his descendants (v. 3). Moreover, God solemnly assured the patriarch that he would be given as many descendants as there were stars in the heavens. In fact, through Isaac’s progeny all the nations of the earth would be blessed (v. 4). The Lord explained that all these promises would be fulfilled because His sacerdotal vice-regent, Abraham, obeyed Him and kept all His edicts (v. 5). While in Gerar, Isaac became involved with the Philistine king in a conflict over the patriarch’s wife, Rebekah. Nonetheless, Isaac grew wealthy in Gerar; and for this reason, he was forced to move back to the vicinity of Beersheba (vv. 6– 23). It was there that the Lord once again repeated the promises of blessing connected with the Abrahamic covenant (v. 24). Isaac, as God’s priestly servant, responded by building an altar and calling on “the name of the LORD” (v. 25). The latter phrase is used in the Old Testament to designate the worship of God

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through prayer and sacrifice (cf. 4:26; 12:8; 13:4; 21:33). The phrase also denotes “proclaiming [God’s] reputation and attributes” (Walton 2001:279; cf. Brueggemann 1982:124–125; Fretheim 1994:1:425; Hamilton 1990:378; Pagolu 1998:62, 107; Ross 1988:267). The Genesis narrative spends a considerable amount of time recounting the life of Jacob. Chapter 27 relates how he used deception to steal his father’s blessing from Esau, Jacob’s older brother. Isaac’s pronouncement of covenant blessing, which is recorded in verses 27–29, bequeathed to Jacob the kingdom promises the Lord originally made to Adam and later solemnly conveyed to Abraham and Isaac. The latter asked that God would always give Jacob plenty of dew for healthy crops and abundant harvests of grain and wine. Isaac also foretold that many nations would one day become the servants of Jacob’s descendants and that he would rule over his extended family members (cf. Kidner 1967:156; Roop 1987:185; Ross 1988:478; Sailhamer 1990:2:192; Westermann 1982:104–105). Not long afterward, before Isaac sent Jacob off to Paddan Aram (that is, northwestern Mesopotamia), Isaac again prayed for the Creator-King’s richest blessings on Jacob (28:3–4). It was Isaac’s desire that almighty God (Hebrew, ElShaddai) would give Jacob many descendants, who in turn would become a great assembly of nations. Isaac foretold that the land of Canaan, where he and his father lived as foreigners, would one day become the possession of Jacob’s descendants. Ultimately, Jacob received these blessings of the Abrahamic covenant because God wanted him to have them, not because of his duplicity. Probably for the first time in Jacob’s life, he left Beersheba (v. 5) and set out on his 450-mile trip for Haran (v. 10; cf. Burge 2009:44). One of Jacob’s stops along the way was at a place near the town of Luz (vv. 11, 19). Jacob, being weary from his journey, decided to lay down to sleep. He took one of the nearby stones and placed it under his head before drifting off. His use of a stone to support his head may seem unusual, but in ancient times, stones and even pieces of metal were commonly used as headrests. Also, many ancient cultures viewed certain types of stones as being magical or sacred (cf. Leupold 1981:2:771–772; Lundquist 2008:26). Perhaps Jacob felt the stone he used as a pillow contained some spiritual power. In a short while, what looked like an ordinary object would be transformed into a sanctuary, for Jacob would come to regard it as the residence of God (v. 22; cf. Clements 1965:13; Jacob 1958:257). Jacob, while sleeping, experienced a dream in which he saw a stairway that reached from earth to heaven (v. 12). Some mistakenly envision this to be a wooden ladder with rungs. In actuality, Jacob’s stairway resembled a large stone ramp with steps that mounted the sloping side of a Mesopotamian temple-tower called a ziggurat (which literally means “pinnacle” or “mountain peak”; Bruegge-

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mann 1982:243; Foulkes 1997:4:741; Speiser 1964:218; von Rad 1972:284). Such a structure was square at its base and pyramid-like in shape. At the apex of this massive, lofty, and solid-brick edifice was a small shrine that supposedly served as the gateway between heaven and earth (cf. 11:4; Dumbrell 2002:57-58; Lundquist 2008:7; McKenzie 1974:51; Ross 1988:489; Walton 2006:114, 118, 173). Sometimes the shrine was covered with blue enamel so that it would more easily blend in with the sky, the reputed celestial home of the gods. Across the cultures of the ancient Near East, the “temple mountain” expressed the “idea of a successive ascension toward heaven” (Carroll 2005; cf. Dalman 2009:59; Fretheim 1994:1:541; Lundquist 1994c:93-94; Walton 2001:373-374, 570-571). Jacob saw angels of God going up and coming down the other-worldly ramp (28:12; cf. Gaster 1962a:1:130). These heavenly emissaries were the “ministers of God’s interposition for the sustenance, guidance, and protection of Jacob” (Vos 2000:96). The activity of angels in the place where Jacob slept indicates that the locale was sacred, representing the meeting point along the axis of glory between the human sphere and the heavenly realm (v. 19; cf. Hawk 2003:36; Talmon 1997:439; Westermann 1982:26; Weinfeld 1983:107). From this spot where “earth, heaven, and netherworld converge”, Jacob “enjoyed a peek into eternity” (McCurley 1983:140). (Incidentally, Bethel, as the “house of God”, foreshadowed the Lord Jesus; cf. John 1:51; Brueggemann 1982:245; Leupold 1981:2:773; McCartney 1997:509.) As Jacob slept, he saw God standing at the top of the stairway or ramp. It is also possible Jacob experienced the divine presence either beside or directly over him (cf. Clowney 1973:158; Southwell 1997:4:440; Walters 1992:3:602). The Almighty spoke to Jacob, identifying Himself as the Lord, the God of Abraham and Isaac. The ever-living, all-powerful Creator was making Jacob the recipient of the same covenant promises bestowed on his grandfather and father. In particular, Jacob and his descendants would inherit Canaan (Gen 28:13). Moreover, the patriarch’s offspring would become as numerous as the dust of the earth. Indeed, they would cover the promised land from east to west and from north to south. Furthermore, all the families of the earth would be blessed through the priestly representative and his descendants (v. 14). The idea is that Jacob and his progeny would become a channel or source of blessing for others. It is also possible this verse declared that others would regard Jacob as a noteworthy example of divine blessing. In this case, they would use his name and that of his descendants as they pronounced blessings on one another (cf. Gen 48:20; Ruth 4:11). The Creator was not like pagan deities, whom people of the day believed protected them only within specific regions. The Lord promised to be with Jacob and sustain him wherever he traveled. Moreover, God pledged to bring His sacerdotal vice-regent back to Canaan, the promised land. In fact, the Almighty would be

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with Jacob constantly, ensuring that all the covenant promises were fulfilled (Gen 28:15; cf. Leupold 1981:2:774; Rigsby 2003:463). When Jacob woke up, he realized that the Lord was in the place where he had been resting and Jacob had not even been aware of it (v. 16). Given the solemnity of the occasion, Jacob was understandably afraid. The emotion was most likely a mixture of terror, reverence, and adoration (cf. Hiebert 1992a:6:509). He reasoned that the spot where he lodged for the night was especially holy. The locale was awesome, being none other than the dwelling place (or house) of God, the gateway to heaven (v. 17; cf. Hicks 1962b:2:784; Schmidt 1982:57; Turner 1979:2324). Jacob got up early the next morning, took the stone he had used as a headrest and set it upright as a pillar. In ancient times, such a stone could be used as a shrine (as in this case), a burial object, or a boundary marker (cf. Fretheim 1994:1:542; Roop 1987:192). The stone would serve as a memorial of the vision Jacob had seen at the campsite. The sacred object would also be a reminder of the ramp that stretched along the axis of glory from earth to heaven and on which the Lord stood. Jacob consecrated (or set apart) the stone by pouring olive oil over it (v. 18), which was a common practice in ancient times (cf. Exod. 30:25-29; Pagolu 1998:163; Ross 1988:492; Sarna 1966:192). The oil also stained the stone so that others who came along later could properly identify it. Next, Jacob called the place “Bethel” (Gen. 28:19), which in Hebrew means “house of God”. Prior to this episode, the town had been called “Luz”, which means “almond tree”. Bethel was located in the hill country of Canaan, about 12 miles north of Jebus (later Jerusalem) and close to Ai. By Jacob’s day, the bare mountaintop near Bethel had served as a center of worship for hundreds of years. “Bethel” may have been the name of the mountaintop sanctuary, while “Luz” referred to the town nearby. Verse 19 seems to refer to Bethel as a place and Luz as a town. Early Hebrew manuscripts of Joshua 16:2 indicate that Bethel and Luz were separate but close localities (cf. Brueggemann 1982:247; Cassuto 1984:329, 331; Fretheim 1994:1:541; Roop 1987:192; Sailhamer 1990:2:196; Speiser 1964:220). The Lord’s promise to always be with Jacob was so meaningful to him that he vowed to make the Almighty his God (Gen 28:15, 20-21). Jacob did not ask the Creator for either fame or riches. Instead, the 77 year old wanted to establish a personal relationship with God. (Jacob’s age of 77 is premised on the date of his birth being 2006 B.C. and the time of his fleeing to Haran being 1929 B.C.) Furthermore, Jacob took the Lord at His word concerning His promises by translating the general pledges God had made into specifics relating to the patriarch’s situation. The Lord’s priestly representative would trust God to remain with him, protect him on his journey, give him food and clothing, and one day bring him

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safely back to Canaan (cf. Leupold 1981:2:780; Sheriffs 2003:282). By reiterating the covenantal promises, Jacob claimed them as his own. The patriarch then designated the rough stone column as “God’s house” (v. 22); in other words, the pillar would serve as a memorial and place for venerating the Lord. Jacob also pledged to give the Lord one-tenth of his possessions. By this formal act (evidently a one-time gift), the patriarch expressed his gratitude to God, acknowledged the Lord as his Creator and King, and declared his willingness to commit everything to the Lord in wholehearted trust. Years after Jacob’s first visit to this locale, he fled from Laban, his father-inlaw. At that time, the patriarch received another divine revelation from the God of Bethel, who directed his priestly representative to return to his “native land” (31:13; cf. Eichrodt 1967:24). Along the way back to Canaan, Jacob met and reconciled with his brother, Esau (chaps. 32–33). However, before the two reunited, Jacob had an encounter with a “mysterious antagonist” (von Rad 1972:320) while the patriarch was alone on the north side of the Jabbok River at a point west of Mahanaim (32:22-24; cf. Walters 1992:3:605). Though this surprise adversary had the appearance of a man, he probably was the angel of the Lord (cf. Bamberger 2007:2:151; Gaster 1962a:1:130; Jacob 1958:75; Kline 2006:370; Miller 2006:72; Newsom 1992:1:250; Niehaus 1997:4:1249; von Rad 1962:286). The account of Jacob’s “nocturnal struggle” (Speiser 1964:256) with God was intended to “epitomize” (Sailhamer 1990:2:210) the overall tenor of his life. Specifically, he compulsively strove to “obtain a blessing from God” (cf. Ross 1988:84). Not surprisingly, before the current struggle ended, God’s sacerdotal vice-regent demanded a blessing (v. 26). Hosea 12:4 reveals that Jacob “wept and begged for [the LORD’s] favor”; but before God blessed the patriarch, He changed Jacob’s name to “Israel” (Gen 32:28). The name Jacob means “he grasps the heel” (a Hebrew idiom for “he deceives”), and thus it points to his struggle with people (cf. 25:26). The name Israel means “he struggles with God” and commemorated Jacob’s previous struggle with the Lord over who would control the patriarch’s life (cf. Dumbrell 1985:132-133; Knauth 2003:453; Lee 1982:2:907; Mayer 1986:2:304-305; Millard 1982:2b:948; Seebass 1986a:1:76; Stevens 2006:2). Once Jacob had received the Lord’s blessing, he named the place “Peniel” (32:30), which means “face of God” (cf. Bromiley 1982:2:496; Dyrness 1977:42; Foulkes 1997:4:742; Hicks 1962b:2:785; Jacob 1958:77-78; von Rad 1962:172). In the light of the early dawn, Jacob had glimpsed the countenance of his opponent. According to common belief, catching a sight of God was supposed to cause death (cf. Exod 33:20; Judg 6:22; 13:22); and yet, the Creator had let his priestly representative survive (cf. Eichrodt 1967:35-36; Fretheim 1994:1:566; Smith 1993:109). Whereas before this encounter, Jacob had been known as a schemer

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and trickster, the remainder of his life would be characterized by integrity and virtue (cf. Anderson 1962d:2:422; Brown 1999:223; Hamilton 1982:125; Kidner 1967:169; Rigsby 2003:465; Vos 2000:99; Walters 1992:3:605; Waltke 2007:343344). After Jacob and his family safely relocated to the city of Shechem in Canaan (Gen 33:18), he took the important step of buying a plot of ground from the family of Hamor (v. 19). To commemorate the significance of this initial claim on the promised land, the patriarch built an altar and named it “El Elohe Israel”, which literally means “God, the God of Israel”. The phrase can be more loosely rendered “the God of Israel is God” or “the God of Israel is mighty” (cf. Anderson 1962c:2:413; Baker 2003:361; Bromiley 1982:2:497; Eichrodt 1961:184; Hartman 2007:7:672; Rose 1992:4:1004; Wright 1982:2:505; Zimmerli 1978:42). This episode is followed by chapter 34, which contains the tragic account of the rape of Jacob’s daughter, Dinah, by a son of Shechem’s ruler. The section also details the revenge that two of Jacob’s sons, Simeon and Levi, enacted on the town. After the latter incident, the patriarch’s family had to leave the area. The Creator intervened by directing His sacerdotal vice-regent to resettle his clan in Bethel and “build an altar there to God” (35:1). In preparation for that solemn occasion, Jacob purged his family of idol worship (vv. 2-4; cf. Barrois 1980:16; Dalman 2009:59 84-85; Foulkes 1997:4:742; Hamilton 1982:126-127; Sheriffs 2003:283; Walters 1992:3:606). Next, as the group started out on their journey, the Lord protected them by placing the local inhabitants under a tremendous fear of Him (v. 5). After the clan arrived at their destination (v. 6), Jacob built an altar and named the sacred place “El Bethel” (v. 7), which means “God of Bethel”. The patriarch did so to memorialize the Lord’s previous revelation of Himself to Jacob when he was escaping from the clutches of Esau (cf. Anderson 1962c:2:412; Merrill 1996:46; Millard 1982:2b:953). Sometime after the entire family had relocated to Canaan, the Lord once again appeared to Jacob, blessed him (v. 9), and reaffirmed the patriarch’s name change from “Jacob” (v. 10) to “Israel”. Moreover, the Lord identified Himself as “God Almighty” (El-Shaddai; v. 11) and confirmed the promises of the Abrahamic covenant. In words that point back to the Creation narrative, the Lord directed His sacerdotal vice-regent to flourish throughout the hallowed region he and his many descendants would inherit. God declared that from Jacob’s progeny would come monarchs and nations (cf. 17:4-8; 28:3-4). Additionally, the Creator would deed Canaan to Jacob (35:12). After the Lord’s angel departed (v. 13), God’s priestly representative commemorated the encounter by setting up a sacred “stone pillar” (v. 14) or “com-

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memorative stele” (Speiser 1964:271). He then consecrated the hallowed object by pouring on it a drink offering and olive oil. Moreover, by performing this ritual, Jacob fulfilled the pledge he made to God years earlier when the patriarch first encountered the Lord at Bethel (v. 15; cf. 28:20-22; Fretheim 1994:1:585; Pagolu 1998:168-170; Ross 1988:581; Sarna 1966:193-194). Then, toward the end of the patriarch’s life, when his entire clan had relocated to Egypt, he repeated the covenantal promises to Joseph, whom Pharaoh had appointed as his vice-regent over the entire nation (cf. 48:3–4). Sailhamer (1990:2:242) observes that aspects of Joseph’s life as the grand vizier of Egypt are reminiscent of the “portrait of Adam in … the Creation account”. For instance, the latter discloses that Adam relied on God for his understanding of “good and evil” (cf. 2:9). Similarly, God gave Joseph the ability to discern between “good” (or beneficial) and “evil” (or adverse) circumstances, as well as to prudently handle both of them (cf. 41:25–27, 39). The Creator imparted the breath of life into Adam’s nostrils (cf. 2:7). Likewise, the sovereign Lord placed within Joseph “the spirit of God” (41:38). The Creator mandated that Adam (along with Eve) govern the world as His benevolent vice-regent (cf. 1:26–28). Similarly, Pharaoh appointed Joseph as his viceroy over all Egypt (cf. 41:40–43). Adam carried out his ruling responsibilities as a bearer of the divine image (cf. Gen 1:26–27; Ps 8:5–8). Likewise, Pharaoh authorized Joseph to function as the king’s second-in-command by giving the former Hebrew prisoner the signet ring off his own finger, clothing him in fine linen robes, and hanging a chain made of solid gold around his neck (cf. Gen 41:42). The Creator fashioned a woman for Adam from his own flesh and bones (cf. 2:21–23). Similarly, Pharaoh gave Asenath (the daughter of Potiphera, who was a prominent Egyptian priest) to Joseph as his wife (cf. 41:45). Finally, the Creator endowed Adam (as well as Eve) with the ability to be “fruitful” (cf. 1:28) as His vice-regent on earth. Likewise, Joseph called the second of his two sons “Ephraim” (cf. 41:52). Most likely, his name means “to bear fruit” and is derived from a verb that means “twice fruitful” or “double fruitfulness”. “Ephraim” reminded Joseph that in a land where he had endured so much suffering, God had made him prosperous (cf. 49:22). From start to finish, Genesis is a book of history, and its historical account concerning such luminaries as Noah, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph is trustworthy because it was inspired by God. That said, readers should not expect Genesis to provide a complete or systematic history of time from its origin until the Hebrews’ Egyptian sojourn. The author’s concern was not history for history’s sake. Instead, he used bona fide historical figures and events to teach truths about God and humankind. For instance, consider the fact that Genesis, which opened with the beginnings of life on earth (cf. 1:1), ended with a dead man in a coffin

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(namely, Joseph; cf. 50:26). In Romans 6:23, Paul declared that the wages of sin is death. Even so, the believers’ hope for eternal life can be found in the faith of the patriarchs. Each patriarch, including Joseph, died in full confidence of God’s grace (cf. Heb 11:22). The Lord’s redemptive program began with the family of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob; but His plan all along was to bless all peoples throughout the earth (cf. Gen 12:2–3). Moreover, He is doing this as people everywhere put their temporal lives and eternal future in the hands of the Savior, the Lord Jesus.

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CHAPTER FOUR The Tabernacle and Temple as a Continuation of the Temple-Garden in Eden

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he present chapter might appear to be an interlude, especially due to its relative brevity in comparison to most of the other chapters in this book. Be that as it may, the discussion that follows is pivotal in calling attention to the shrine motif as a conceptual and linguistic framework for understanding Scripture. Chapter 2 provides the theoretical basis for this endeavor, especially its discussion of the ways in which the garden of Eden was a primordial temple for humankind. An examination of the scriptural data indicates that this sacred space operated as the antecedent for the tabernacle in the wilderness and temple in Jerusalem (cf. Fletcher-Louis 2004:82, 89; Parry 1994b:126; Stordalen 2000:406, 449). From a theological perspective, the “creation, tabernacle, and … land of Israel” all shared a mutual function, namely, to “represent a world in perfect conformity with the designs of the Creator” (Okoye 2006:31). The preceding observations are substantiated by similar wording between the following passages: (1) Genesis 1:31 “God saw all that he had made, and it was very good”. Exodus 39:43 “Moses inspected the work and saw that they had done it just as the LORD had commanded”.

(2) Genesis 2:1 “Thus the heavens and the earth were completed in all their vast array”. Exodus 39:32 “So all the work on the tabernacle, the tent of meeting, was completed”. (3) Genesis 2:2 “By the seventh day, God had finished the work he had been doing”. Exodus 40:33 “And so Moses finished the work”. Joshua 19:51 “And so they finished dividing the land”.

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Axis of Glory (4) Genesis 2:3 “Then God blessed the seventh day”. Exodus 39:43 “So Moses blessed them”.

(5) Genesis 2:3 “and made it holy”. Exodus 40:9 “consecrate it and all its furnishings, and it will be holy”.

Before proceeding any further, it is important to clarify that during the history of the Jewish people, there have been three temples built in the holy city, specifically, Solomon’s temple (cf. 1 Kings 6; 7:13–51; 2 Chron 3–4), Zerubbabel’s temple (cf. Ezra 1–6; Haggai 1–2; Zech 1–8), and Herod’s temple (cf. Matt 21:12–17; 24:1–2; Mark 11:15–17; 13:1–2; Luke 19:45–46; 21:5–6; John 2:13–22; 4:20–21; Barker 1991:5; Eliav 2005:2; Haran 1995:43–45). Also worthy of mention are the visions experienced by Ezekiel and John of a glorious temple existing at the end of the age and into the eternal state (cf. Ezek. 40–48; Rev. 21–22). An analysis of the Old Testament indicates that the “history of the prediluvian temple” is “synthetically paralleled in the histories of the postdiluvian temple” (Gage 2001:4–5). The precursor to all the aforementioned shrines was the tabernacle constructed during the time of the Israelites’ exodus from Egypt and their subsequent wandering in the Sinai desert (cf. Exod 25–40; Lundquist 2008:31; Palmer 2004:11; Welch 2009:33). The theophanic tent was analogous to a “mobile mountain” or a sacred “moving dwelling place” (Parry 1990:484). Whether it was the tabernacle or temple, the ultimate goal of the Israelites was to build a sanctuary in which the Lord could manifest His glorious presence among His people (cf. Exod 25:8; Beckwith 2004:78; Walton 2004:144). While each of the Jerusalem temples described in Scripture were more embellished in their layout, construction, and furnishings than the tabernacle, they still followed its same basic design (cf. Exod 25:9, 40; 1 Chron 28:19). Therefore, elaborating on the tabernacle serves as a way to concisely convey information that is generally applicable to the later-appearing shrines (cf. Beale 2004b:193; Brown 1986:3:787; Martins 2007:230). The space limitations of this study preclude a fuller, detailed discussion of the various temples described in Scripture (cf. Barker 1991:20–32; Bloch-Smith 1994:18–26; Edersheim 1980b; Hurowitz 1992:224–259; Hurowitz 2007:69–87; Longman 2001:25–61; Lundquist 2008:1–43; Parry 1994a:417–435; Poythress 1991:15–30; Stevens 2006:28–41; Stinespring 1962:4:534–559; Westerholm 1988b:4:759–776; Yadin 2007:19:601–627). For the purposes of this investigation, the tabernacle is understood to be a prototype of the later-appearing Jerusalem shrines. Also, conclusions drawn from the tabernacle are regarded as being applicable to the broader conceptual and linguistic importance of the temple in the Bible. Furthermore, with respect to the “plan, size, date and architectural details”

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of the shrine complex that King Solomon built, Stager (2000:47) clarified that these “fit squarely into the traditions of sacred architecture known in Syria (and probably in Phoenicia)” dating from the “tenth to eighth century B.C.E.” An examination of the biblical text indicates that the tabernacle was a portable, tent-like structure that could be carried around by the Israelites on their wilderness sojourn (cf. Abrahams and Rothkoff 2007:19:418–424; Averbeck 2003:808–815; Feinberg 1976:572–583; Friedman 1992:6:292–300; Miller 2006:145–155; Westerholm 1988a:4:698–705). The northern, western, and southern sides of the tabernacle were constructed on a wooden framework to give it greater stability and security than ordinary tent poles could provide. Only the eastern side, or front of the structure, was essentially a linen screen. The entire tabernacle was covered by a tent and over the tent there were further coverings (cf. von Rad 1962:234–235). The total structure consisted of three parts. First, there was the outer court, which was enclosed by curtains placed over its top and which hung down on each side. The entire structure was supported on pillars. It was oblong in shape (100 by 50 cubits) and possibly had a flat roof. (A cubit was the distance from a person’s elbow to his or her fingertip; cf. Lundquist 2008:19.) On the eastern side was the entrance. Second, within the courtyard, facing the entrance, was the altar of burnt offerings. Behind it, towards the west, was the laver for the priests’ ceremonial washing. Third, in the western portion of the courtyard was the sanctuary proper or the tabernacle. This was divided into two chambers by a “veil” or hanging curtain. The first of these was the holy place, which only the priests could enter. It contained the table of showbread, the lampstand, and the altar of incense. The second of the chambers was called the holy of holies or the most holy place. It contained the ark of the covenant. The high priest entered this area once a year on the day of atonement. Precious metals and finely woven colored materials were employed in the construction of the most holy place. Also, only objects made of rare and costly materials were located near the sacred space. The objects placed further away were made of bronze and ordinary woven cloths (cf. Heb 9:1–7). Every detail of the exterior construction and interior contents of Israel’s tabernacle and temples were patterned after the divine sanctuary in heaven (cf. Exod 25:9, 40; Num 8:4; Heb 8:5; Abrahams and Rothkoff 2007:19:423; Davies 1962b:4:506; Clifford 1972:123; Hayward 1996:10; Lundquist 2008:9). For that reason, these temporal shrines were regarded as a “symbol, an echo, a shadow of the heavenly residence”, believed to be “a link, a bond, or even a portal” along the axis of glory to the “heavenly residence” (Walton 2006:113–114; cf. Stager 2000:37), and intended to function as an “earthly microcosm of the cosmic realm” (Turner 1979:10; cf. Levenson 1994:86; Okoye 2006:34; Walton 2001:149). More-

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over, the artifacts contained in these earthly sanctums highlighted the Lord’s “triumphant enthronement and endorsement of the monarchy” (Bloch-Smith 1994:27). For instance, the ark of the covenant was “so intimately connected with Yahweh’s presence” that it was considered His “throne on which he was thought to be invisibly seated” (Clements 1965:28; cf. 1 Kings 6:23–28; 8:6–7; 2 Chron 3:10–13; 5:7–8). The physical sanctuaries were analogous to a “cosmogram”, that is, a “model of the universe” which served the purpose of “welding … heaven and earth” (Carroll 2005). In this schema, the most holy place symbolized the “invisible heavenly dimension” (Beale 2005a:16); the holy place stood for the “visible heavens”; and the “outer courtyard” epitomized the “visible sea and earth”, where people dwelt (cf. Hayward 1996:8; Nelson 1993:27–28; Poythress 1991:34). Hebrews 9:11 refers to the celestial sanctuary as the “greater and more perfect tabernacle”, which was “not made with human hands”. Similarly, verse 23 labels Israel’s earth-bound shrine and its furnishings as “copies of the heavenly things”. Furthermore, verse 24 categorizes the heavenly tabernacle as being the “true” sanctuary and the place of “God’s presence” (cf. Bruce FF 1985:199–200, 218–220; Craddock 1998:12:107, 112–113; Hughes 1979:289–290; Kent 1981:170, 178–179; Kistemaker 1984:248–249, 262–263; Lane 1991b:236, 247–248; Morris 1981:12:85, 90–92; Westcott 1980:256, 270–271). It would be incorrect to infer from these observations that in heaven there is some sort of physical counterpart to the earthly shrines. Rather, the writer of Hebrews was implying that Israel’s tabernacle and temples were like preliminary sketches and silhouettes of vastly greater and more nuanced eternal realities (8:5). In short, “Israel’s temple was a miniature model of God’s huge cosmic temple that was to dominate the heavens and earth at the end of time” (Beale 2005a:16) and in which His “glorious presence” fills the entire universe (18). Moreover, “even the furniture” located in the shrine “individually represented God’s presence to his people” (Longman and Reid 1995:40). The scholarly consensus is that the “temple was the central socioeconomicreligious institution in ancient Israel” (Stevens 2006:24). In modern-day parlance, the shrine complex would be like having the “IRS, Supreme Court, National Cathedral, Congress, and CitiBank” all rolled up into one multipurpose institution. To begin, they had an indispensable theological function to serve. It was the place where the Lord manifested His holy presence in Judea. It was also the spot where sacrifices were made in response to God’s gracious choice of Israel as His people. In the sanctuary, God’s people could spend time in prayer. Moreover, its design, furniture, and customs were object lessons that prepared the people for the Messiah (cf. Baltzer 1965:264; Fletcher-Louis 2004:82; Haran 1995:1; Koester

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1989:1; Lundquist 1994c:94; Marshall 1989:207; McKelvey 1969:1–2; Salier 2004:122; Taylor 1999:711). Additionally, the temple had important political and economic roles to play in Jewish society. It was the institution that held together the entire covenant community—the past as well as the present and the future. The shrine gave political identity to the people. Access to its courts identified who was properly a citizen and who was excluded. From an economic perspective, rooms in the temple functioned as a treasury—in effect, the society’s bank. Because of the sanctuary’s demands for tithes and offerings, a large portion of the Jewish economy passed through the temple personnel and storehouses. In brief, without the shrine, God’s people had little opportunity to pull together as a coherent society to face the challenges of the future and experience the fulness of God’s kingdom blessings (cf. Bonnington 2004:152–155; Barrois 1980:61–63; Head 2004:102–104; Lundquist 1994a:273–275; Lundquist 1994b:217–223; Lundquist 2008:xii, xvi–xvii, 22–23; Palmer 2004:12–13; Poythress 1991:12–13; Skarsaune 2002:88–98; Turner 1979:54–57; Walton 2006:128–129). The blessings that God originally promised to Adam and confirmed to the patriarchs were subsequently conveyed to the people of Israel. The reality of this circumstance further confirms that the tabernacle in the wilderness and shrine in Jerusalem were extensions and refinements of what existed in pristine form in Eden. For instance, the Book of Exodus begins by naming the sons of Jacob, who had gone to Egypt with their father during the famine (1:1–4). At least 70 members of the patriarch’s family took Joseph up on his offer to live in Goshen (v. 5). Apparently, Jacob’s progeny—the Israelites—liked Goshen, for they did not return to Canaan when the famine was over. Indeed, they were to remain in Goshen for 430 years (cf. 12:40–41; cf. Gen. 15:13; Acts 7:6). During that time, Jacob’s descendants populated the land at a phenomenal rate. Exodus 1:7 uses language that is reminiscent of the creation account when it says that the chosen people were “exceedingly fruitful”, “multiplied greatly”, “increased in numbers”, and “became so numerous that the land was filled with them” (cf. Gen 47:27; Brown 1999:67). In only a few hundred years, God’s promise to Abraham—that a nation would emerge from him (12:1–3)—was being fulfilled (cf. Brueggemann 1994:1:694; Cassuto 1983:9; Childs 1976:2; Cole 1973:53; Durham 1987:5; Fretheim 1991:25–26; Kaiser 1990:2:303). Moreover, the Creator-King enabled His original commission to Adam and Eve to come about in the offspring of the patriarchs (cf. 1:28). By way of example, Moses explained to a new generation of Israelites who were about the conquer the promised land, that the Lord wanted to faithfully keep the covenant promises He made on oath to their ancestors (Deut 7:12). He would lavish His

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love on them in Canaan by blessing them with lots of children and abundant crops (v. 13). Indeed, there was the potential for no barrenness among their families and livestock (v. 14; cf. Exod 32:13; Lev 26:9; Deut 1:10–11; 8:1; 30:5, 16; Christensen 1991:159, 164; Clements 1998:2:350–351; Craigie 1976:180; Kalland 1992:3:73; Miller 1990:113; Thompson 1974:132). Psalm 107 draws attention to the fulfillment of these truths by reciting the Lord’s unfailing benevolence to His people. He is remembered for transforming deserts into pools of water and dry land into abundant, flowing springs (v. 35). It was to this land of abundance that He brought the hungry to settle and establish cities where they could live (v. 36). He enabled them to cultivate fields, plant vineyards, and reap an abundant harvest of crops (v. 37). His blessing resulted in them raising large families and maintaining an ever-increasing number of livestock (v. 38; cf. Anderson 1983:756–757; Goldingay 2008:257–258; Kidner 1975:386; Leupold 1984:761; McCann 1996:4:118; Perowne 1989:282; VanGemeren 1991:5:687). Isaiah 51:1 reminded God’s covenant people that they were like rocks drawn from the same quarry. Verse 2 adds that they were all descendants of Abraham (and, by way of extension, Adam) through Isaac and Jacob. For a while it looked as though Abraham’s family might never come into being, because well into old age, Abraham and Sarah had no children; but the Creator who summoned Abraham while he was living in Ur had also given him many descendants (cf. Grogan 1986:6:294; Leupold 1982:2:199–200; Oswalt 1998:333–335; Seitz 2001:6:447; Young 1983:3:306–308).

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CHAPTER FIVE The Depictions of God’s Heavenly Temple in Isaiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel

he temple motif as a conceptual and linguistic framework is evident in the depictions of God’s heavenly sanctuary recorded in Isaiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel (cf. Dumbrell 1985:55). Together, these portrayals emphasize the biblical truth that the Lord abides in “heaven in the midst of His holy courtroom of angels and ministering spirits” (Poythress 1991:96). Furthermore, the record of what these Old Testament prophets saw and experienced fundamentally shaped the literary direction and theological emphases of their respective writings. In the case of Isaiah, his description of the mountain of the Lord (cf. Isa 2:1–5), the prophet’s vision of a celestial throne room (cf. 6:1–13), and his record of God’s promise to create a new heavens and a new earth (cf. 65:17–25), all point back to the Edenic imagery of the creation account. In a corresponding manner, Ezekiel’s revelatory experience allowed him to catch a glimpse of the Lord in His awesome glory, which filled His heavenly sanctuary (cf. Ezek 1:1–28). With respect to Daniel, the vision he had of a cosmic courtroom scene was central to his message that the resplendent Lord is in control of heaven and earth (Dan 7:8–10, 13–14). Isaiah 2:1–5 describes an eschatological age of righteousness, justice, and peace in which redeemed Jerusalem will be a sacred city of God for all the nations (cf. Mic 4:1–5; Chisholm 2002:18; Delitzsch 1982:1:113; Leupold 1982:1:75; Talmon 1997:3:446–447; Young 1983:1:99). The Lord’s rule from His holy mountain will be preeminent, and His government alone will be established over all the kingdoms of the world (Isa 2:1; cf. Mic 4:7–8; Childs 2001:30; Kaiser 2008:173– 174; Köstenberger and O’Brien 2001:41; Rowley 1945:40; Weinfeld 1983:111). With the mountain’s apex “reaching to the skies”, it symbolizes “the closest connection in the environment between earth, the domain of humanity, and heaven, the realm” of its Creator. The grandeur of this lofty peak will foster a “sense of awe” among the redeemed. It is not difficult to imagine the emotions felt by onlookers at the sight of the mountain being “heightened” and the mystery con-

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nected with the towering alp being intensified as “cloud banks” of a suddenly appearing “thunderstorm veil the summit from view” (Hiebert 1992a:6:506). The prophet was describing a new era that will alter human history in every dimension, and it is the destiny toward which all human events are moving (cf. Grogan 1986:6:34; Tucker 2001:6:67). The Creator-King will finally establish Himself in the eyes of all races and nations as the only true and living God. This is in stark contrast to the hopelessness Isaiah saw all around him. In the prophet’s day, Zion was anything but the throne room of God’s reign (cf. Smith 2007:120; Oswalt 1986:113). During the final age, God’s cosmic mountain will erase the “boundary between heaven and earth” (Cohen 1981:39). This will encourage all the nations of the earth to stream to the Lord’s towering mountain-shrine to worship and serve Him (cf. Clifford 1972:157; Delitzsch 1982:1:114; Okoye 2006:111; von Rad 2005:116). Both Gentiles and Jews will want to learn His ways and walk in righteousness (cf. Leupold 1982:1:76; Motyer 1999:51–52; Seitz 1993:38; Smith 2007:131; Young 1983:1:105). Far from what Isaiah saw in contemporary Jerusalem, Zion will be the center of moral instruction and everyone will want to obey the Lord (Isa 2:3; cf. Jer 3:16– 18; 31:31–34). Assuredly, Zion’s “radical elevation” means that it will be the “locus of the divine sovereignty” (Cohen 1981:40). In that future day, righteousness and justice will prevail. Equity will characterize God’s settling of disputes between nations. Peace, not war, will typify the relationship between all races and peoples (cf. Chisholm 1991:322–323; Goldingay 2001:43–44; Grogan 1986:6:35; Tucker 2001:6:66). In perhaps the most famous and vivid illustration of the coming peace under the Lord’s reign, the prophet saw nations converting their weapons of war into instruments to be used for peaceful means (Isa 2:4). This is a definitive promise of a true world order, the likes of which could never be established by human hands nor even conceived by secular, utopian society. It is telling, then, that Isaiah invited the redeemed to walk in the Lord’s guiding light (v. 5; cf. Delitzsch 1982:1:117; Kaiser 2000:73; Leupold 1982:1:79; Oswalt 1986:119; Webb 1996:45; Young 1983:1:115). Isaiah 6 is the prophet’s record of how he heard and responded to God’s call (cf. Freeman 1983:193; VanGemeren 1990:255; Wood 1979:297). The Lord dramatically summoned Isaiah to his ministry “in the year that King Uzziah died” (Isa. 6:1), namely, 740 B.C. Uzziah was a ruler of Judah, and he helped restore the nation to some of its former glory. Isaiah reported that he “saw the Lord” (in Hebrew, ’adonay, which can be rendered “sovereign master”; cf. v. 11; Anderson 1962c:2:414; Block 2005:340; Eichrodt 1961:203–204; Jacob 1958:59; Hartman 2007:7:674–675; Oswalt 2003:853; Rose 1992:4:1008; Williamson 2007:127; Wright 1982:2:507–508). According to John 12:41, the prophet actually witnessed the

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preincarnate glory of the divine Messiah in His heavenly sanctuary (cf. Bowman and Komoszewski 2007:97; Köstenberger and O’Brien 2001:207; Hurtado 2003:374–375; Rhodes 1992:163–164; Schreiner 2008:243, 639). In point of fact, Isaiah did not physically see the Lord’s innermost nature with the naked eye (cf. Exod 19:21; 20:19; 33:20; Deut 18:16; Judg 13:22; John 1:18; Childs 2001:55; Leupold 1982:1:128; Smith 2007:187; Young 1983:1:235); rather, the prophet was able to perceive the Lord in appearance seated upon a heavenly throne with the hem, or fringe, of His robe filling the celestial temple. This description expresses the overwhelming presence of God as both King and Judge over all creation (cf. Delitzsch 1982:1:120; Dumbrell 1985:8; Mettinger 1982:125; Smith 2007:188; Tucker 2001:6:101). The Lord is “depicted in human terms, not because He has a body like a human being, but because He is a person” with a manifest “personality” (Clines 1968:71). It is a “temporary manifestation” to accommodate human sensibilities (72). Isaiah’s lofty view of God gives the reader a sense of the Lord’s greatness, mystery, and power (cf. Bromiley 1982:2:497; Motyer 1999:70; Williamson 2007:129–130). It is revealed that He is not only the “greatest of gods”, but also the “only God” (Oswalt 1997:4:72). The Lord used Isaiah’s vision to commission him as His messenger to His people (cf. Dillard and Longman 1994:276). As it happens, Isaiah was given a difficult assignment. He had to tell people who believed they were blessed by God that the Lord was going to destroy them because of their disobedience (cf. Tucker 2001:6:102; Young 1983:1:238). Accompanying the Lord were “seraphs” (Isa 6:2), that is, spiritual beings who served as God’s attendants (cf. Eichrodt 1967:204; Miller 2006:66; Wilson 1979:1:124). The meaning of the Hebrew noun translated “seraphs” is “burning ones”, which suggests these creatures had a fiery appearance (cf. Beyer 2007:62; Chisholm 2002:24; Gaster 1962a:1:132; Jacob 1958:68–69; Rhodes 1992:215). Evidently, they were bright creatures, even though they had to hide their faces before God’s brighter light. Nowhere else are they spoken of in the Old Testament. The seraphs Isaiah saw had six wings, two of which covered their faces in reverence and awe before the Lord. Because they had no glory to compare with God’s, they could not look on Him directly. Two of the seraphs wings covered their feet, which suggests lowliness. They remained humble before the Lord, even though they engaged in divine service. The seraphs final two wings were used to fly, which signifies that they existed to do God’s bidding (cf. Delitzsch 1982:1:191; Grogan 1986:6:55; Leupold 1982:1:130; Oswalt 1986:179; Seitz 1993:64; Webb 1996:59). The Creator-King was the focus of this heavenly scene (cf. Kaiser 2008:176– 177; Mettinger 1982:112; Motyer 1999:71). The angels lauded God with the thunderous chorus, “Holy, holy, holy is the LORD Almighty” (v. 3). The three-fold

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repetition was the strongest way in the Hebrew language to stress that nothing is as holy as God (cf. Isa 26:3; Ezek 21:27; Chisholm 2002:25; Beyer 2007:62; LaSor, Hubbard, and Bush 1996:301; Smith 2007:190; Young 1983:1:244). The basic meaning of “holy” is to be set apart from that which is commonplace. The word also refers to what is special or unique (cf. Anderson 1962d:2:424; Bromiley 1982:2:499; Hartley 2003:430; Jacob 1958:86; Muilenburg 1962:2:617; Oswalt 1997:4:728; Oswalt 2003:849). When applied to the Lord, it points to Him as being “veiled in mystery”. He alone is “the ineffable, the wholly other, the transcendent” (Anderson 1999:43). That the entire earth is filled with God’s glory emphasizes the cosmic perspective of Isaiah’s prophecies. He would proclaim that the Lord reigns supreme over all creation and that His salvation and judgment encompass all nations (cf. Chisholm 1991:305; Dyrness 1977:52–53; Goldingay 2001:59; Grogan 1986:6:56; Zimmerli 1978:41). God’s regal position is the basis for His moral authority as the absolute and sovereign Judge. Also, His holy character establishes the ethical standard for upright conduct and gives Him the right to decree to humankind how they should behave. Moreover, His infinite holiness is the basis for people worshiping Him. Indeed, God’s holiness is the theme of worship in heaven (cf. Rev 4:8; Childs 1993:681; Childs 2001:55; McKenzie 1974:56–57; Payne 1962:124–125; Wright 2006:372–373). Often in the Old Testament, phenomena such as earthquakes, smoke, fire, and lightning accompany a manifestation of God (cf. Exod 19:16–18; 20:18, 21; Deut 5:5, 22–26; Davies 1962c:4:619–620; Davies 1992:6:49; Hiebert 1992a:6:507; Johnson 1962:3:447–448; Muilenburg 1962:2:617–618). Isaiah said that the thunderous chorus of the seraphs shook the “doorposts and thresholds” (Isa 6:4) of the celestial temple. Also, smoke filled the entire heavenly sanctuary. The Hebrew noun rendered “smoke” possibly reflects the cloud of God’s glory that filled the tabernacle, which Moses had built in the wilderness (cf. Exod 13:21; 14:19; 40:34; 1 Kings 8:10; Isa 4:5; Oswalt 1986:182; Tucker 2001:6:102–103; Young 1983:1:247). In any case, the broader emphasis is on the Lord’s “powerful, sovereign, transcendent presence” (Brueggemann 2005:671). Furthermore, both the shaking and the smoke that Isaiah described were manifestations of God’s holiness, especially as it related to judgment (cf. Ps 18:8; Delitzsch 1982:1:194; Leupold 1982:1:133). Isaiah’s encounter with the Lord proved to be a life-changing experience for him (cf. Childs 2001:56; Oswalt 1986:176). First, God’s presence made him realize the depth of his sinfulness (cf. Chisholm 2002:25; VanGemeren 1990:255; Webb 1996:60; Wood 1979:300). Second, seeing even the seraphs humbly covering themselves before the Lord must have reminded the prophet of his moral im-

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perfection. His “reaction to his vision of Yahweh” draws a sharp “contrast between the majesty of God and human insufficiency” (Smith 1993:193). These emphases are reflected in the Hebrew term rendered “woe” (Isa 6:5), which conveys a feeling of great sorrow or distress (cf. Beyer 2007:62; Grogan 1986:6:56; Niehaus 1997:4:1248; Young 1983:1:247). When the prophet exclaimed, “I am ruined!”, he made it seem as if his destruction had already occurred. Isaiah could have made excuses, pleaded for mercy, or fallen back on his good deeds; but he did none of these things. Instead, he fully accepted God’s judgment. Isaiah knew that what he had seen and heard had left him totally helpless before the Lord. Isaiah confessed that he and his people were guilty of “unclean lips”. This means the people’s lips were instruments of religious hypocrisy and false professions of faith in God (cf. Delitzsch 1982:1:195–196; Leupold 1982:1:133; Oswalt 1986:182; Smith 2007:192). Other Old Testament prophets and Jesus consistently charged God’s people with worshiping with their lips, while their hearts were far from the Lord. Similarly, though the people of Judah claimed to believe in God, they violated His laws and worshiped idols. Isaiah was careful to include himself in this indictment. Also, though he did not have to confess the sins of his people, he did so anyway. The prophet realized his need for the Lord to cleanse and purge him of his wrongdoings. In addition, he needed his lips purified so that he could praise the Lord with the seraphs and declare God’s message to the people (cf. Grogan 1986:6:56–57; Motyer 1999:71; Seitz 1993:55; Tucker 2001:6:103; Young 1983:1:252). Amazingly, despite Isaiah’s moral depravity, he was still permitted to see “the King, the LORD Almighty”. The depiction is one of a divine warrior who commanded the hosts of heaven and earth from His cosmic throne room (cf. Abrahams 2007:7:653; Craigie 1988:4:1019; Longman 1982:292; Longman 1997:4:549; McCurley 1983:26; Miller 2006:164–165; Newsom 1992:1:249; Reid 1993:947; Scullion 1992b:2:1047; Seow 1992:3:507; Toombs 1962:4:799–800; Waltke 2007:402). The broader literary context is that of a “conflict between Israel’s God and the forces of chaos in the universe as a whole”. There is an underlying assurance that despite the age-old battle between good and evil, the remnant is “preserved from all threats against it” (Hiebert 1992b:6:877). Indeed, at the eschatological consummation of history, the Lord will “defeat all the illicit claimants against public power” (Brueggemann 2005:241; for a sampling of differing exegetical and descriptive treatments of the divine warrior motif in Scripture, cf. Lind 1980; Longman and Reid 1995; and Miller 2006). Upon the prophet’s confession of his sinfulness, a seraph flew over him with a hot coal that had been taken from the celestial altar (Isa 6:6). This coal symbolized the redeeming power of God to purge and forgive sins (cf. Delitzsch

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1982:1:196–197; Motyer 1999:72; Oswalt 1986:184; Smith 2007:192). When the angel touched Isaiah’s lips with the coal, both his iniquity and guilt were removed; also, his sin was forgiven (v. 7). Of course, the coal did not atone Isaiah’s transgressions; rather, God did so through the offering of a sacrifice, namely, the redeeming work of the Messiah on the cross (cf. Rom 4:25–26; Beyer 2007:65; Leupold 1982:1:135). It would be incorrect to think that this incident is an account of Isaiah’s conversion. The prophet was already a fervent believer and true servant of God. Isaiah’s purification served to prepare him for his future ministry as God’s spokesperson (Isa 6:8–13; cf. Goldingay 2001:60; Grogan 1986:6:57; Tucker 2001:6:101–102; Webb 1996:60; Young 1983:1:252–253). Throughout the prophet’s long ministry (740–681 B.C.), the Lord used him to urge the chosen people to leave behind the world’s darkness and follow God’s ways. They were to obey His ordinances in anticipation of the future glorious kingdom He promised to establish in conjunction with creating a “new heavens and a new earth” (65:17). So glorious will the new creation be that God said the events of the past “will not be remembered” and no one will think about them anymore. Those “former things”, such as weeping and crying, will give way to new things, including gladness, rejoicing, and delight (cf. Anderson 1999:298; Chisholm 2002:135; Dyrness 1977:71; Ladd 1982:2:131; Okoye 2006:147; VanGemeren 1990:286). The Lord commanded His people to “be glad and rejoice forever” (v. 18). They were to express joy over what God would create. He pledged to make the new Jerusalem as a place of happiness, and the people inhabiting her would be a source of joy for the community of the redeemed. Revelation 21:2 discloses that God will send “the Holy City, the new Jerusalem” down from heaven. The Lord will also magnificently adorn the new Jerusalem (the bride) for her husband (the groom). The implication here is that the city will surpass the beauty of everything else God had made (cf. Grogan 1986:6:351; Leupold 1982:2:366; Webb 1996:245; Young 1983:3:514). God will find joy in the new creation. He will “rejoice over Jerusalem, and take delight in [His] people” (Isa. 65:19). This stands in sharp contrast to the Lord’s previous dismay over His chosen nation. In the holy city, no one will ever again hear “the sound of weeping and of crying”. It remains unclear whether this is to be taken as a literal city where God’s people dwell for all eternity or a symbol of the redeemed community in heaven. In either case, the Old Testament clearly reveals that a new world is promised, and it will be glorious beyond imagination (cf. Delitzsch 1982:2:489; Dim 2005:110; Oswalt 1998:658; Seitz 2001:6:544; Weinfeld 1983:114). In the New Testament, John likewise revealed that in the eternal state, God

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will permanently dwell, or tabernacle, among the redeemed of all ages. They will be His people, and He will be their God. Also, five scourges of human existence will not be present in the eternal state—tears, death, sorrow, crying, and pain. The new order of things will eliminate all these forms of sadness (Rev 21:3–4; cf. Bauckham 1993:311; Boring 1989:221; Caird 1999:264–265; Ford 1975:362; Roloff 1993:236; Stefanovic 2002:577; Wall 1991:243). Peter, too, mentioned that Christians await with expectancy the new heavens and new earth of the end times (2 Pet 3:13). In Isaiah 65:20–25, the prophet described what the new creation would be like for God’s people. Specialists differ over whether these verses refer to the heavenly state (the metaphorical view) or to a future period in which the Messiah will rule on earth (the literal view). Regardless of how one interprets the passage, it contains four promises of blessing. Those who will live in the newly created Jerusalem (1) will have long lives, (2) will not labor in vain, (3) will be speedily answered by God when they pray, and (4) will dwell in an environment without hostility (cf. Childs 2001:537; Delitzsch 1982:2:489–490; Leupold 1982:2:367; Motyer 1999:398–399). Seen together, these blessings apparently indicate that the effects of the Fall will be reversed in the new heavens and new earth and new Jerusalem. The first blessing is longevity (v. 20). The Old Testament reports that in early human history, lives stretching to hundreds of years was the rule. Similarly, in the new creation, infant mortality will drop to zero, and all will live to adulthood. Moreover, a tombstone recording a life span of 100 years will not be remarkable for denoting a long life, as in our day, but for denoting a short life (cf. Dim 2005:108; Grogan 1986:6:351; Oswalt 1998:659; Seitz 2001:6:544). The second blessing in the new creation is profitable toil (vv. 21–23). The people of Isaiah’s time lived and died with the vagaries of agricultural life. Droughts and pestilence caused great damage. The pagans prayed to fertility and weather gods and goddesses; but the Lord’s chosen people were supposed to trust Him to supply all their needs. After the Fall, God’s curse on humanity included the declaration that labor to earn food would be difficult (Gen. 3:17–19). In the new creation, people will continue to work, but they will have no worries about not receiving the fruits of their labor. Others (perhaps unscrupulous rich people or invaders) will never take what they have earned with their own hands. Generation after generation, the people of God will be blessed (cf. Childs 2001:538; Delitzsch 1982:2:490; Motyer 1999:399; Young 1983:3:516). Isaiah related the preceding truths in terms that could be understood. For instance, God’s people will live in the houses they built and eat the fruit of their vineyards (Isa 65:21). The Lord will prevent invaders from taking these from them.

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In fact, God will enable His people to live a long life and enjoy the “works of their hands” (v. 22). The labor of the redeemed community will not be in vain, and their children will not be “doomed to misfortune” (v. 23). After all, the Lord will bless them and their children with safety, health, and prosperity. Such blessings will be both physical and spiritual in nature (cf. Dim 2005:113; Leupold 1982:2:368; Oswalt 1998:660; Young 1983:3:517). The third blessing in the new creation is answered prayer (v. 24). In the garden of Eden, Adam and Eve enjoyed the immediate presence and conversation of the Lord. Similarly, while people in the new creation are praying, even before they make the request, God will answer them (cf. Rev 22:3–4). Of noteworthy mention is the fourth blessing in the new creation, namely, peace (Isa 65:25). The Fall introduced hostility into the world, and murder was committed by the next generation; but in the new creation, even the animals will stop preying on one another. Also, perfect harmony will reign (Childs 2001:539; Delitzsch 1982:2:491; Goldingay 2001:369; Seitz 2001:6:544). This expectation for wellness and wholeness is repeated in the New Testament. God promised to give water from the life-giving fountain to everyone who was thirsty (Rev 21:6). This pledge is a vivid reminder of the refreshment and satisfaction believers will enjoy in heaven (cf. Ford 1975:363; Roloff 1993:237). In the eternal state, God will satisfy the yearnings of the soul. This assurance is grounded in the Lord’s own nature. Those who overcome in this life will receive an eternal inheritance and an eternal relationship. They will be the eternal children of the eternal God (v. 7). In the new Jerusalem, God will be worshiped face-to-face. The city will be a cosmopolitan place, where redeemed humanity in all its cultural diversity will live together in peace. God will vindicate the faith of the redeemed by not permitting anything immoral or wicked to enter the holy city (vv. 22–27). Ezekiel 1 records a “chariot vision” (Hill and Walton 2009:562) of the Lord’s “transcendent glory” (Merrill 1991b:367). The “imagery” used to describe the prophet’s visual experience is “strange, almost hallucinatory, and yet compelling” (Blenkinsopp 1990:18). This is partly due to the fact that the account “fused ancient Israelite conceptions with other, Near Eastern representations evidently known to the exiles” (LaSor, Hubbard, and Bush 1996:363). For instance, God’s other-worldly presence is depicted as being “enthroned on a palladium” and “supported by four cherubim” (Waltke 2007:843). Moreover, this surreal experience, which occurred by the Kebar River in 593 B.C. (vv. 1–3), is conveyed in the “graphic, anthropomorphic terms” (Kutsko 2000:2) of a thunderstorm and “sets the tone of the book” (Dumbrell 1985:56). Be that as it may, it is an “utter oversimplification” to think of the divine as merely a “thunderstorm god” (von Rad 1962:240). Instead, when the Lord un-

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veils His fearsome presence, His “absolute uniqueness is communicated” (Hamilton 2008:817) and the remnant learns that His “rule extends to the farthest corners of the earth” (Block and Job 1997:4:618). These truths were made clear to Ezekiel when he noticed an intense storm blowing in from the north, which was a harbinger of God manifesting Himself (cf. Ps 18:12; Nah 1:3; Hab 3:3–6; Block 1997:92; Hiebert 1992a:6:505; Clements 1965:31, 35; Newman 1997b:396). Most likely, the storm phenomenon witnessed by the prophet included “violent winds, lightning, hail, and driving rain” (Hiebert 1992a:6:509). From an enormous cloud came thunderbolt flashes. The cloud’s edge radiated with dazzling brightness, and its fiery center looked like glowing, molten metal (cf. Chisholm 2002:232; Cooper 1994:63; Darr 2001:6:1114; Duguid 1999:58; Feinberg 1979:18; Rooker 2005:18; Taylor 1969:54). Ezekiel saw emerging from the cloud’s center what appeared to be four living beings who were part-human and part-animal (Ezek 1:5). They were cherubim (cf. 10:15, 20; Bamberger 2007:2:152; Harrison 1979b:1:642; Steinmann 2003:113; Wilson 1979:1:124), with each one having four faces and four wings (1:6). Each hybrid creature also had a human face in front, a lion’s face on the right side, an ox’s face on the left side, and an eagle’s face in back (v. 10). It is likely these angelic entities portrayed various aspects of the divine majesty (cf. Allen 1994:31; Cooper 1994:65; Eichrodt 1967:202; Jacob 1958:69; Lind 1996:30; Merrill 1991b:367; Zimmerli 1979:120). For instance, the human face possibly symbolized wisdom. The face of a lion could have denoted either mobility or majesty. The face of an ox perhaps represented either strength or faithfulness. The face of an eagle could have symbolized either speed or control (cf. Ezek 10:14, 22; Rev 4:7; Block 1997:96; Duguid 1999:58–59; Haran 1995:258–259; Niehaus 1995:256–257; Taylor 1969:55; Vawter and Hoppe 1991:27). All over the bodies of the cherubim—including their backs, hands, and wings—were eyes (Ezek 10:13). This was suggestive of the Lord’s all-seeing nature (cf. Zech 3:9; 4:10; Rev 4:6; Block and Job 1997:4:629; Feinberg 1979:20; Rooker 2005:21). Though the legs of the angelic beings were straight like those of humans, the soles of their feet resembled the hooves of agile calves and gleamed like polished bronze (Ezek 1:7; cf. Ps 29:6; Mal 4:2). The prophet saw human hands under each of their four wings (Ezek 1:8; cf. 10:8, 21). These creatures spread out two of their wings, so that when their wing tips touched, it formed a square. This arrangement enabled the cherubim to move straight ahead in any direction without turning their bodies (1:9). With their remaining two wings, the heavenly beings covered their bodies (vv. 11, 23). Regardless of the direction in which the “spirit” (v. 12) went, that is where the cherubim traveled. In the middle of the celestial entities, Ezekiel saw what appeared to be

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bright coals of fire or blazing torches (v. 13; cf. Gen 15:17; Ps 18:8). Moreover, the prophet noticed lightning streak back and forth among the creatures, and they also darted to and fro with the speed of lightning (Ezek 1:14). Four wheels could be seen touching the ground beside each of the cherubim (v. 15). These wheels, which symbolized mobility (cf. Ezek 10; Dan 7:9), were exactly the same in appearance and construction (called “the whirling wheels” in Ezek 10:13). Each of them gleamed like “topaz” (1:16; cf. 10:9), which is a yellow or pale blue precious stone (cf. Exod 28:20). Each object looked like a wheel at right angles to another wheel and thus appeared to be spherical in structure (cf. Ezek 10:10). This shape enabled the globe-like wheels to move in any direction without turning, regardless of where the cherubim traveled (1:17; cf. Alexander 1986:6:757; Block 1997:101; Chisholm 2002:232; Cooper 1994:66; Darr 2001:6:1115; Feinberg 1979:19; Vawter and Hoppe 1991:28). The rims of the four wheels were immense, frightening, and covered with eyes all the way around (v. 18; cf. 10:12), perhaps to symbolize the omniscience of God (cf. Pss 92:5; 147:5; Isa 40:28; Rom 11:33; Allen 1994:34; Blenkinsopp 1990:22; Duguid 1999:60; Lind 1996:30; Taylor 1969:69). Because the spirit of the angelic beings was in their respective wheels, the former completely controlled the latter. Consequently, the wheels stopped and moved wherever the living creatures traveled, regardless of whether it was horizontally or vertically (Ezek 1:19– 21; cf. 10:11, 16–17). Spread out above the cherubim was an awesome, ice-blue platform that glistened like crystal (cf. Alexander 1986:6:759; Taylor 1969:58; Thomas 1993:25; Vawter and Hoppe 1991:29; Zimmerli 1979:122). This dome-shaped “vault” (1:22) separated the angelic beings from the glory of the Lord in His heavenly temple (cf. Gen 1:6–8; Ps 19:1). Whenever the living creatures flew, their two raised wings sounded like waves crashing against the shore, the maelstrom of a powerful army on the march, or the thunderous “voice of the Almighty” (Hebrew, Shaddai; Ezek 1:24; cf. 10:5). Then, when the cherubim stopped, they folded their wings against their bodies. At that moment, Ezekiel heard a voice coming from the platform beyond the angelic beings (1:25). The prophet also saw above the “vault” (v. 26) a blue, sapphire-shaped royal seat (cf. 10:1). Moreover, on the “chariot-throne” (Taylor 2004:63) was a figure who resembled a human being (1:26; cf. Allen 1994:36; Hamilton 2008:817; Zimmerli 1979:122). Evidently, the cherubim “constituted a resting place, or throne, for God’s invisible presence or glory” (Meyers 1992:1:900; cf. 2 Kings 19:15; Isa 37:16). The “heavenly chariot of God’s throne” could “easily bring his presence east, west, north, or south” (Kaiser 2008:205–206). This remarkable depiction sets the scene for the “coming of the Divine Warrior”

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(VanGemeren 1990:328). The preceding observations notwithstanding, Ezekiel’s characterization of the theophanic glory involved “blurring the details rather than presenting them with precision” (Eichrodt 1967:21). The prophet did so to “abstract Yahweh from appearing as a deity limited to a physical locale” (Kutsko 2000:79). For all that, the depiction does not take anything away from the “greatness” of the divine presence “here envisaged in parabolic terms” (Eichrodt 1967:33). Centuries earlier, an entourage of Israel’s leaders on Mount Sinai saw a “vision” of the God of Israel “enthroned in glory” (Propp 2006:296; cf. Exod 24:9; Cassuto 1983:314; Childs 1976:506–507; Durham 1987:344; Fretheim 1991:260; McCurley 1983:143; Stuart 2006:556; Welch 2009:24). Beneath the feet of the Creator-King, these men noticed what resembled tiles made out of brilliant-blue sapphire. Also, the pavement was as translucent as a cloudless sky (v. 10; cf. Alexander 1986:6:757; Chilton 1992:6:640–641; Cooper 1994:70; Rooker 2003:861; Niehaus 1995:197–198, 252, 258–259; VanGemeren 1990:323). In Ezekiel’s vision, the torso and head of the figure he saw had the appearance of glowing, yellow amber in the middle of a fire. Also, from the waist down, the Lord looked like a burning flame, while all around Him was a “brilliant light” (Ezek 1:27). His dazzling “radiance” (v. 28) was as bright-hued as a rainbow that appears after a storm (cf. Gen 9:12–16; Alexander 1986:6:759; Darr 2001:6:1117; Duguid 1999:59; Feinberg 1979:20; Lind 1996:31; Taylor 1969:59). When the prophet realized he was gazing on the “glory of the LORD” (Ezek 1:28), he fell face downward on the ground (cf. Block 1997:105; Jacob 1958:81; Niehaus 1997:4:1248). In this depiction, an “infinite difference and distance” is implied between humankind and the divine. Assuredly, people cannot be “remotely compared with the fiery, intensely radiant light” (von Rad 1962:146) of the Lord in His “effulgent glory” (Zimmerli 1978:80). For the rest of Ezekiel’s life, he would carry the memory of his surreal encounter with the Creator-King (cf. Alexander 1986:6:756–757; Cooper 1994:63–64, 72; Thomas 1993:31; Vawter and Hoppe 1991:30). Daniel 7:9–10 records the elder statesman’s vision of a cosmic courtroom scene, the immediate backdrop of which is God’s plan for judging the wicked and vindicating the upright (cf. Collins 1993:300; Goldingay 1989:188; Miller 2006:67– 68; Newsom 1992:1:252; VanGemeren 1990:348). The broader literary context is Daniel’s dream concerning the four world empires of Babylon, Medo-Persia, Greece, and Rome (cf. Freeman 1983:279; Hill and Walton 2009:576; Kaiser 2008:213; Longman and Reid 1995:66; Merrill 1991b:393; Wood 1979:353; Westermann 1982:151–152). The “balanced poetry” of verses 9 and 10 “conveys the order and beauty” that “surround the divine judge”. This contrasts sharply with

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the “chaos of the sea and its beasts” (Baldwin 1978:141) agitating in the tyrannical waters of human rebellion (cf. vv. 2–8; Anderson 1999:309). Theologically speaking, the “Holy One irrupts in wrath against his opponents”. From this redeemed humanity learns that all would-be antagonists are “ultimately silenced and condemned” by the Lord (Waltke 2007:145). In his vision, Daniel saw thrones being set up, followed by “the Ancient of Days” (v. 9) taking His place to administer justice. In this verse, God is “pictured in human form, as a venerable, wise, and powerful judge” (Dillard and Longman 1994:350). Paul referred to Him as the “King of kings and Lord of lords” (1 Tim. 6:15), the one who alone possesses immortality, who dwells in “unapproachable light” (v. 16), and upon whom no human is able to look directly. Daniel noticed that the attire of the eternal God was white as snow, and His hair was white like pure lamb’s wool (cf. Collins 1993:301; Longman 1999:186; Wood 1972:189). The “chariot throne” (Niehaus 1995:324) on which the Lord sat was ablaze and mounted on fiery wheels (cf. Pss 50:3; 68:4; 97:3; 104:3–4; Isa 6:1–4; 19:1; 66:15; Ezek 1:27; Nah 1:3). A “river of fire” (Dan 7:10) streamed out from the all-glorious throne. It was as if flames emanated like solar flares from all around Him. The heavenly host who attended to the Creator-King and served Him were countless in number (cf. Bamberger 2007:2:152; Goldingay 1989:189; Miller 1994:205; Shepherd 2009:89). This was the awe-inspiring backdrop for convening the divine tribunal (cf. Pss 82:1; 94:2; 96:13; Archer 1985:7:89; Baldwin 1978:141; Chisholm 2002:308; Porteous 1979:108; Smith-Christopher 1996:7:103). Daniel 7:13–14 spotlights the coronation and investiture of the Son of God as the supreme Ruler over the coming “kingdom of salvation” (Ratzinger 2007:327). Daniel’s reference to Him as “one like a son of man” (v. 13; cf. Mark 8:31; Rev 1:13) emphasizes that He both “embodies the people of God” (Schreiner 2008:225) and “represents them” (226). As the divine Messiah approached the heavenly throne room, He was surrounded by clouds (cf. Matt 26:64; Mark 14:62; Luke 22:69; Rev 1:7). A cortège of angels escorted Him into the presence of the Ancient One. To the Son of God was conferred ruling “authority” (Dan 7:14), honor, and royal sovereignty so that all people of every race, nation, and language would worship and serve Him (cf. Archer 1985:7:91; Baldwin 1978:143; Baldwin 1997:4:501; Miller 1994:208; Wood 1972:194). Unlike earthly rulers and empires, the “dominion” of the second Adam is eternal, His authority will never cease, and His “kingdom” will never be “destroyed” (cf. Pss 2:7–9; 110:1–7; Isa 9:6–7; Luke 1:30–33; Phil 2:9–11; Rev 5; Goldingay 1989:192; Longman 1999:198; Porteous 1979:110; Smith 1993:425–426; VanGemeren 1990:348). As an aside, the word “glory”, when applied to God in Scripture, refers to the luminous manifestation of His being; in other words, it is the brilliant revelation

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of Himself to humanity (cf. Anderson 1999:32, 110; Eichrodt 1961:277; Eichrodt 1967:30–31; Hurtado 2003:375–376; Payne 1962:47; Rooker 2005:24; Zimmerli 1979:124). This definition is borne out by the many ways the word is used in the Bible. For example, brilliant light consistently went with manifestations of God (Matt 17:2; 1 Tim 6:16; Rev 1:16). Moreover, the word “glory” is often linked with verbs of seeing (Exod 16:7; 33:18; Isa 40:5) and of appearing (Exod 16:10; Deut 5:24), both of which emphasize the visible nature of God’s glory (cf. Blenkinsopp 1990:18–19; Darr 2001:6:1117; Davies 1962a:2:401–402; Harrison 1982:2:478– 479; Huttar 1996:288; Newman 1997b:396). The rabbis later described the glory of the Lord abiding with Israel as shekinah, from the Hebrew word for “dwelling”. God’s shekinah dwelt with the Israelites in the wilderness period, came to Solomon’s temple when it was built, and then departed when the temple was destroyed. One tradition of the rabbis says that God’s glory returned to heaven, while another says that some of the shekinah remains even today in the Western (or Wailing) Wall in Jerusalem, the last remnant of Herod’s temple (cf. Kohler and Blau 2002; Unterman 2007:18:440–441). The Evangelist in the Fourth Gospel depicts Jesus as God’s shekinah returned to earth (John 1:14). In a similar vein, Paul said it was possible to see God’s glory in Jesus when He was on earth and that believers have the promise of sharing in that glory (Rom 5:2). The latter will occur at the resurrection, when the bodies of believers are transformed into the same kind of glorified body that Jesus had after His resurrection (1 Cor 15:35–57; Phil 3:20–21).

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CHAPTER SIX The Temple Motif in the Synoptic Gospels

he temple motif is a conceptual and linguistic framework for the Synoptic Gospels’ presentation of Jesus as the “eschatological prophet of Israel” who ministered to bring about the “restoration” of the covenant community (Scott 2002:131). Given the fact that the temple was an “overwhelmingly dominant presence in Judaism during the life of Jesus” (Welch 2009:ix), it is not surprising that the Jerusalem shrine was a “significant element in the religious, social and political setting” for the Messiah’s “life and ministry” (Wise 1992:811). On one level, the temple stood as a “massive and proud symbol” in the Jewish “national consciousness”; yet, on another level, the sanctum was “built by a corrupt half-pagan king and run by a religiously corrupt and compromised hierarchy” (Wenham 1995:172). Herod’s temple functioned as the staging area for Jesus’ efforts to reinstate the “originally intended divine order for earth, with man properly situated as God’s vice-regent” (McCartney 1994:2; cf. Skarsaune 2002:141–143). Overall, the Synoptic Gospels set forth a “positive depiction” of the temple on account of its “historic role in the advent of God’s eschatological salvation” and the shrine’s “anticipated future eschatological” reconstitution (Head 2004:106). On the one hand, Jesus displayed “immense respect” for the sanctuary; on the other hand, He censured the “abuses” and “formalism” perpetuated by the religious elite (Congar 1962:112). His upbraiding was “rooted in the prophetic traditions of cult criticism” (Hogeterp 2006:193). In this multivalent portrayal (cf. Goppelt 1981:96; Walker 1996:12–13, 32, 68), the temple “appears mainly as a house of public prayer, piety, and true service of God” (Head 2004:106). Moreover, the sanctum is depicted as a locale of “divine revelation and prophetic proclamation of God’s word”, as well as a “place of potential intimacy with God and protection under his care” (Weinert 1981:8587). The preceding ideological stance is especially evident in the following episodes (among many that could be mentioned): the announcement to Zechariah of John the Baptizer’s birth (Luke 1:5–25), the announcement to the shepherds of Jesus’ birth (2:8–20), the presentation of the Christ child in the Jerusalem temple (vv. 21–

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40), the incident involving Jesus at 12 years of age in the shrine precincts (vv. 41– 52), the baptism of Jesus by John (Matt 3:13–17; Mark 1:9–11; Luke 3:21–22), and the transfiguration of Jesus on a mountain (Matt 17:1–8; Mark 9:2–8; Luke 9:28–36). Beginning with the Lukan narrative, it is recognized as the “work of an extraordinary literary artist” (Grant 1962:2:879). In 1:5–25, the author details the announcement to Zechariah of John the Baptizer’s birth, with the Jerusalem temple forming the literary backdrop for the account (cf. Brodie 1979:22; Chance 1988:47–48; Turner 1979:107). Zechariah and Elizabeth, the parents of John, were both descended from Aaron. Zechariah belonged to the priestly division of Abijah (Luke 1:5; cf. DeSilva 2004:316; Girzone 2000:2–3). Zechariah and Elizabeth diligently kept the commandments, and both of them had such a genuine spirituality of the heart that they were regarded as being “righteous” (v. 6) and blameless (cf. Deut 6:25; Isa 33:15; Morris 1990:197; Pao and Schnabel 2007:254; Schreiner 2008:631). Nevertheless, their faithful service to God did not guarantee that their family legacy would continue, for they were both old and childless (Luke 1:7; cf. Bock 1994c:77–78; Culpepper 1995:9:45; Geldenhuys 1983:62). When the tribe of Levi grew so large that not all the priests could minister in the sanctuary, King David divided them into 24 groups (1 Chron 24:1–18). These family units were each appointed a shift for temple service, and this was Zechariah’s special week to enter the holy place (Luke 1:8). Ancient records indicate that the priests drew lots among themselves to determine which duty they would individually perform; on this day it was Zechariah’s privilege to “burn incense” (v. 9). At the same time that Zechariah performed his service in the shrine, the people of Israel, both in the outer court and beyond, were “praying” (v. 10). The incense, offered each morning and evening, possibly was a symbol of their prayers and praises rising to meet with God at the beginning and ending of each day (cf. Bock 2002:58; Edersheim 1980a:1:133–134; Edersheim 1980b:157–158; Ellis 1983:68–69; Hurst and Green 1992:634–635; Marshall 1983:52; Niswonger 1988:121; Pentecost 1981:40–41). It was about 400 years since God had, in any fashion, spoken to His people through a prophet (cf. Geldenhuys 1983:60; Ladd 1997:31). What a special day this would become, not just for Zechariah, but for all the Jewish people, when “an angel of the Lord” (v. 11) showed himself to the priest. This visitation signified the “renewal of God’s involvement among his people” (Pao and Schnabel 2007:255) and was meant for encouragement and proclamation; be that as it may, the appearing of the celestial being “startled” (v. 12) Zechariah. The angel, whose name was “Gabriel” (v. 19), announced to Zechariah, “Do not be afraid, … your prayer has been heard” (v. 13; cf. Wilson 1979:1:125). Possibly this implies the

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couple had been praying for the messianic redemption of Israel. More likely, however, they had asked God for a child (cf. Bock 1994c:82–83; Brown 1992:3:413; Culpepper 1995:9:46; Edersheim 1980a:1:137; Marshall 1983:56; Marshall 2004:130). The emissary from God’s throne room blessed the couple’s obedience by granting their deep desire. The angel promised the birth of a son, and instructed Zechariah to “call him John”. The angel also told Zechariah that this birth would make many people joyful and glad (vv. 14–17). After the angel had spoken, Zechariah asked how he could be sure Elizabeth’s pregnancy would occur. Zechariah was questioning the truth of the revelation he had received and perhaps was seeking a sign of confirmation. The angel declared that because of Zechariah’s unbelief, he would not be able to speak until the Lord’s promise was fulfilled (vv. 18–22; cf. Girzone 2000:3; Kennard 2007:15; Schreiner 2008:441; Witherington 1992a:62–63). After Zechariah had completed his week of service in the temple, he returned to his home in the hill country of Judea (v. 23). Just as the angel had promised, Elizabeth became pregnant. For the next five months she did not leave her house, perhaps to reflect on what had happened and to quietly express her joy (vv. 24–25). Luke 2:8–20 recounts the announcement to the shepherds of Jesus’ birth. Around 6 or 5 B.C., the unnamed herders were watching a flock of sheep at night near Bethlehem (v. 8; cf. Mic 5:2, 4; Pao and Schnabel 2007:267; Schreiner 2008:70–71). Evidently, these herdsmen represented the “lowly and humble who respond to God’s message” (Bock 1994c:214). Much to the shepherds’ amazement, “an angel of the Lord” (Luke 2:9) suddenly stood in front of them, and the effulgence of the Lord’s presence engulfed them. In that moment, they found themselves in a sacred place where “heaven and earth seemed to mingle” along the axis of glory (Edersheim 1980a:1:187). The angel encouraged the frightened workers to remain calm, for he came to announce to them (and everyone as well) the occurrence of a great and joyful event (v. 10). The wonderful news is that the “Savior” (v. 11), “Messiah”, and “Lord” was born in Bethlehem to provide redemption from sin (cf. Kaiser 2008:23; Kennard 2007:395–396; Marshall 2004:131). These “descriptions in the infancy portrait” emphasize the uniqueness of the Christ child as “coming from heaven itself ” (Bock 1994a:102). The angel gave the shepherds a confirming sign by which to recognize the newborn. They would find the baby wrapped snugly in strips of “cloth and lying in a manger” (v. 12) or feeding trough (cf. Girzone 2000:9; Tremmel 1989:77). Just then, a vast heavenly army dispatched from the Creator’s throne room appeared to offer God praise (v. 13). They declared that “glory” (v. 14) or honor be-

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longed to the one who dwelt in the “highest heavens” and that on earth His “peace” rested on those who enjoyed His favor. The idea is not so much a general feeling of goodwill toward all people, but rather that God’s favor rested on those who experience true peace through faith in the Messiah (cf. Bock 1994c:220; Bock 2002:67; Culpepper 1995:9:65; Geldenhuys 1983:113; Rhodes 1992:183– 184). A corresponding thought is found in Matthew 6:9–10, where Jesus affirmed that the holiness of God’s name was to be honored and that His promised rule would one day be fully manifested on earth as it already was in heaven. After the angelic host departed, the shepherds decided to stop what they were doing, journey into Bethlehem, and see for themselves the wonderful event declared by the Lord through His celestial emissary (Luke 2:15). In their excitement, the herders evidently ran to the nearby village, where they found Mary, Joseph, and the baby (v. 16). Doubtless, the unexpected arrival of the shepherds turned out to be a “confirmatory sign to Mary” (Marshall 1983:111). This episode is a touching picture of God’s grace to those in humble circumstances. Jesus came to identify with such people. The Lord’s angel had said the shepherds would find Jesus lying in a feeding trough, and He was. Luke was careful to note the accuracy of what transpired: the shepherds found everything “just as they had been told” (2:20). Moreover, they could not keep this wonderful news to themselves. They heralded the Messiah’s advent to all who would listen (v. 17). Those who heard the shepherds’ declaration were taken aback by the report. There was a mixture of amazement and pondering at work as the local residents considered the surprising events that had occurred (v. 18; Culpepper 1995:9:66; Marshall 1983:113; Pentecost 1981:62). At first Mary, too, must have been astonished by what the shepherds said concerning her firstborn; but she did more than just remember what took place. She also “treasured up” (v. 19) the incident and sought to fathom its significance. At some point, the latter must have included trying to discern the “exact character of Jesus’ messianic ministry” (Bock 1994c:223). Mary was undeterred in her effort, despite the fact that she did not fully understand all the ramifications of the events that were unfolding around her. Meanwhile, the shepherds returned to their fields, all the while offering God honor and praise for the privilege of what they had experienced (v. 20; cf. Geldenhuys 1983:114; Kennard 2007:17). Mary and Joseph were careful to fulfill the requirements of the Mosaic law (cf. Pazdan 1992:4:585; Taylor 1999:713–714). In the case of Jesus, while He was God’s Son, He was not born above the law. Thus it was fitting for Jesus’ family to observe its customs (cf. Niswonger 1988:125; Schreiner 2008:636). Accordingly, eight days after Jesus’ birth, Mary and Joseph had Him circumcised (Luke 2:21; cf. Gen 17:12; 21:4; Lev. 12:3). Circumcision symbolized the Jews’ unique relationship

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with God. It was also customary for Jewish boys to be named when they were circumcised (cf. Payne 1962:392). Together these actions identified infants as members of the “covenant community” (Culpepper 1995:9:69). In the case of Mary’s firstborn son, she and Joseph named Him “Jesus” (Luke 2:21). The latter is the Greek form of “Joshua”, which means “the Lord saves” (cf. Matt 1:21; Ellis 1983:73; Geldenhuys 1983:117). The name given to the Christ child was in accordance with the directive of the heaven-sent emissary before the infant was conceived in Mary’s womb (cf. Luke 1:31; Girzone 2000:10; Tremmel 1989:77–78). A woman who had given birth to a male child was considered to be ceremonially unclean for seven days (cf. Lev 12:2). Then for 33 more days she was not to touch any sacred thing, nor was she to enter the sanctuary (v. 4). After 40 days, she was required to go to the temple to be purified in the prescribed manner (Luke 2:22–24). The woman’s purification included the offering of a sacrifice. According to Leviticus 12:6, this offering was to be a year-old lamb for a burnt offering and a young pigeon or a dove for a sin offering; but the law also said that if the woman could not afford a lamb, two pigeons or doves would suffice (v. 8). Mary evidently chose the second option due to her modest financial situation (Luke 2:24; cf. Bock 1994c:235; Brown 1986:3:790; Edersheim 1980b:344; Ellis 1983:82; Kennard 2007:70; Pentecost 1981:64). According to the Mosaic law, the woman’s firstborn son was considered holy, and thus had to be dedicated to the Lord in service (Luke 2:23; cf. Exod 13:2, 11– 16). This requirement went back to that night in Egypt when the firstborn sons were saved from death by the blood of a lamb that was applied to the doorposts (cf. Exod 12:12–13); but since the entire tribe of Levi was chosen for service, a firstborn son could be released from service by payment of a ransom (cf. Num 3:11–13; 18:15–16; Bock 2002:68; Edersheim 1980a:1:193–194). This act of buying back, or redeeming, the child from God was performed during a presentation ceremony at the Jerusalem temple, probably at the same time as the mother’s purification ceremony (Luke 2:22; cf. Culpepper 1995:9:69; Marshall 1983:116–117). A sacrificial offering was the means by which the ransom was paid. In this way, the parents acknowledged that their firstborn belonged to God, who alone had the power to give life. This truth notwithstanding, in this special circumstance, Jesus was a gift from the Father to the whole world (cf. John 3:16). In the midst of the fulfillment of legal requirements, God put the stamp of approval on His Son with the unusual but blessed ministries of Simeon and Anna, both of whom hung out at the temple (Luke 2:25–38; cf. Schreiner 2008:443–444; Witherington 1992a:63). Their accounts provide a valuable reminder that God rewards the faithful. He preserved the lives of Simeon and Anna until they saw the Lord (cf. Kaiser 2008:244–245; Pentecost 1981:65–66). Verse 39 indicates that by

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bringing Jesus to the Jerusalem temple to be presented before the Lord, His parents sought to perform everything required by the Mosaic law. This pious couple wanted to ensure that they reared Jesus according to the teachings and traditions of the Jewish faith (cf. Culpepper 1995:9:73; Pao and Schnabel 2007:270). Now that their business in the capital was completed, Joseph and Mary returned to Galilee with Jesus, to their own town of Nazareth. Luke, however, neither mentioned the events recorded in Matthew 2 nor any specific event that may have happened until Jesus was 12 years old. Most likely, Joseph and Mary had children of their own during this time, for the Scriptures mention four of Jesus’ halfbrothers, James, Joseph, Simon, Judas (Matt 13:55), and Jesus’ sisters (v. 56; cf. Bauckham 1996:18–19). During Jesus’ childhood years, He physically matured and became strong (Luke 2:40). With reference to His human nature, Jesus experienced normal development in body, mind, spiritual awareness, and social acceptance (cf. Caird 1995:286; Cullmann 1963:97; Erickson 1991:21, 79; Rhodes 1992:191). All these things occurred with the perfection that is suited to each phase of life through which He passed (vv. 40, 52; cf. Berkouwer 1966:210; Geldenhuys 1983:122, 129; Macleod 1998:164). As Jesus gained knowledge through observation, asking questions, and seeking instruction, He progressively became filled with wisdom (v. 40; cf. Isa 11:1–3). The latter, for Jesus, was more than mere intellectual knowledge. It included the ability to use the understanding He acquired to the best advantage (cf. Pao and Schnabel 2007:274; Pentecost 1981:74–75). Even though the Messiah did not attend a rabbinical college, He received a common education, which was primarily religious and which prepared Him for the practical duties of life (cf. Grant 1962:2:879–880; Kennard 2007:71). Luke also noted that the Father’s grace was upon His Son. Because Jesus was human as well as divine, during His earthly life He depended on His heavenly Father for all things, just as we do. Nonetheless, Jesus was sinless, and God’s favor upon Him was for reasons unique to His earthly life and ministry. Jesus’ body and spirit responded to His heavenly Father much as a bud grows into a beautiful and perfect blossom (cf. Edersheim 1980a:1:226; Rhodes 1992:191–192). From a theological standpoint, the “divine within Jesus progressively found more explicit expression through the freedom of the human person Jesus” (Johnson 2006:54). After Jesus had turned 12 (Luke 2:42), He went with His parents to Jerusalem for the Passover festival (v. 41). Jesus’ visit to the holy city is the only account we have about Him between His birth and His baptism (cf. Sanders 1997). Verses 43–50 reveal that the relationship between Jesus and His parents was not without difficulties. It was a learning experience for the Messiah as well as for Joseph and Mary (cf. Bromiley 1986a:3:270). In the episode under consideration, Joseph and

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Mary remained in Jerusalem the full seven days of the feast and then started for home, but Jesus remained behind (v. 43). It was not until the parents had walked a day’s journey that they realized Jesus was not with them. So the parents started to look for Jesus, but without success (v. 44). The parents then turned around and went back to Jerusalem to find Jesus (v. 45; cf. Geldenhuys 1983:126–127). Most likely, the parents traveled to Jerusalem for Passover in a caravan that included their relatives and acquaintances as well as traders taking their goods to sell to the crowds of pilgrims attending the religious festival. Caravans provided some safety for journeys in the Holy Land, since bands of robbers frequently attacked travelers (cf. 10:30). A caravan would be a noisy, busy group. If later custom was followed, the women and younger children were positioned at the front of the caravan, followed by the men and older boys. Thus, Joseph or Mary each could have thought Jesus was with the other parent, or that He was traveling with relatives and friends (cf. Bock 1994c:265; Edersheim 1980a:1:248; Ellis 1983:85– 86; Marshall 1983:127). Luke did not blame either Jesus or His parents for what had happened. Perhaps from our standpoint, we might assume that Jesus should have told His parents what He was doing. In God’s plan, however, the unfolding events served to highlight Jesus’ unusual spiritual giftedness. We can well imagine Jesus’ thrill and exuberance on His visit to Jerusalem and the temple. This was no ordinary event. Perhaps it was the most dramatic thing that had occurred thus far in His life. Undoubtedly, Jesus followed the inspiration of His heart and the unique genius that was His nature. Joseph and Mary had traveled with the caravan one day north toward Galilee, and it required a day for them to return to Jerusalem. Then they spent a day searching throughout the city for Jesus. They finally found Him in the “temple courts” (2:46) engaging in dialogue with the teachers of the Mosaic law. This scene also drew interested observers as well. They were flabbergasted at Jesus’ ability to parley with renowned specialists in their understanding of Scripture (v. 47). It is quite possible that these sorts of discussions in the courts of the Jerusalem shrine occurred on a daily basis. The opportunity to exchange questions and answers drew Jesus’ interest. It was highly unusual for the scholars to invite a youth into their theological debates, but Jesus asked such intelligent questions that they included Him. Luke did not record the content of these deliberations. Perhaps they concerned matters of rabbinical history and traditions. If so, this would have been more like a gathering of legal experts talking about matters of interest. Jesus, of course, listened and respectfully asked probing questions. He was able to follow the various arguments and, surprisingly, was also able to answer challenging queries put to Him.

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The religious experts were taken aback by Jesus’ understanding of the law and His ability to answer interpretative questions regarding it. Joseph and Mary were also feeling overwhelmed (v. 48). At this point, they were not focusing on Jesus’ ability to hold His own among the legal scholars of the day. Instead, the couple were concerned for Jesus’ well being. Interestingly, when Jesus’ parents found Him, it was Mary who addressed Him, and there was surprise and frustration in the mother’s words. This was the natural response of a concerned parent who temporarily had lost track of her child (cf. Culpepper 1995:9:77). Joseph and Mary were good parents, but they were not perfect. They were so focused on their search that they did not understand why Jesus had to be at the temple (cf. Bock 2002:74; Edersheim 1980a:1:191). Though they could see that the gathered crowd was impressed with Jesus, His parents did not make the connection between the one who is “Immanuel” (which means, “God with us”; Matt 1:23) and the sacred place over which He was Lord (cf. Bowman and Komoszewski 2007:137; Kennard 2007:471). Jesus’ answer, as recorded in Luke 2:49, must have cut deeply into the hearts of His parents. In essence, the Messiah said, “You just don’t really understand me” (cf. Girzone 2000:15; Pentecost 1981:77). These words, when voiced by a disobedient or rebellious child, are generally a reflection of the nature of that child; but when voiced by “the boy Jesus” (v. 43), the world’s only perfect youth, they were true. In many ways, Joseph and Mary did not comprehend the unique nature of their son (v. 50). Later, during Jesus’ earthly ministry, His disciples would also fall short of understanding Him (cf. 9:45; 18:34; Niswonger 1988:126–127). Jesus’ answer showed that He had a clear understanding of the relationship between Himself and His heavenly Father (cf. Bock 1994a:94, 102–103; Marshall 2004:131). Throughout Jesus’ public ministry, He referred to this relationship again and again . The Son knew that He was one with His Father. For instance, Jesus’ statement to Mary, “Didn’t you know I had to be in my Father’s house?” (or “be about my Father’s business”; 2:49), reveals Jesus’ awareness of His status as the Son of God and the realization that His life was on a divine schedule (cf. Culpepper 1995:9:77; Ellis 1983:85). This is the first clue we find in the Gospels that Jesus was not just an ordinary child from Nazareth. His pilgrimage to the Jerusalem shrine was a divinely ordained mission. In fact, Jesus’ response to God’s call resulted in the Messiah engaging the highest level of learning in the Jewish nation. Though Joseph and Mary had some awareness of the special relationship Jesus had with God, they did not fully grasp its implications (v. 50). Jesus had a strong desire to talk to His Father. Jesus also sought to learn what His Father expected of Him. In fact, there was no better place to ascertain this than at the temple, the sacred place where God uniquely manifested His presence (cf. Bock

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1994c:270–271; Wilson 1989:40). Perhaps Mary was for the first time learning what Simeon had told her about her heart being pierced (v. 35). Some see this event as the first step in that painful separation. Ultimately, the Lord Jesus’ divinely appointed mission would lead to His death on the cross of Calvary (cf. Ellis 1983:86; Marshall 1983:128). After the brief visit to Jerusalem and its temple, Jesus returned to Nazareth to live with His parents. Verse 51 notes that over the next 18 years, Jesus obeyed His parents. This implies that in every way He submitted to their will. This is perhaps the most peculiar relationship that a person could ever imagine. How could a perfect individual, who is God incarnate, put Himself under the authority of imperfect human parents? Strange as it may seem, the Bible states that this is what Jesus did. The role of parents is so crucial in God’s plans for relationships that Jesus was willing to model that role by being obedient to His earthly parents. Mary, for her part, “treasured all these things in her heart”. Indeed, she was a godly woman of great faith and humility. To set the scene for the beginning of Jesus’ redemptive work, all four Gospels first spotlight John the Baptizer and the divine commission he received to prepare the way for the Messiah (cf. Matt 3:1–12; Mark 1:9–11; Luke 3:1–20; John 1:6–8, 15, 19–34; cf. Bowman and Komoszewski 2007:160; Edersheim 1980a:1:255; Goppelt 1981:41; Jeremias 1971:43; Kümmel 1973:27). There is a sense in which the Baptizer “formed the real bridge across the imaginary divide that many incorrectly make between the two Testaments” (Kaiser 2008:234). More specifically, John played a key role as an “eschatological prophet” (Pao and Schnabel 2007:255) in the inauguration of Jesus’ public ministry (cf. Bock 1994a:93; Farmer 1962:2:962; Hollenbach 1992:3:887; Pinnock 1976:3:442; Schweizer 1992:17). Indeed, “from the earliest days of the Christian movement”, John’s baptism of Jesus was considered to be a “defining and indispensable” episode in His brief earthly sojourn (Edwards 2002:34). Though John had foretold that the Messiah was coming, he was shocked when one day Jesus approached him at the Jordan and asked to be baptized (Matt. 3:13). John later said of that time, “I myself did not know [Jesus]” (John 1:31). Perhaps this indicates the two had not seen each other for years, or John may not have known Jesus was the Messiah until John saw the Spirit rest on Jesus like a dove (cf. Girzone 2000:19; Jeremias 1971:45). After Jesus’ baptism, John humbly recognized that his ministry would decline even as Jesus’ ministry increased (3:27–30). Nonetheless, their ministries still paralleled each other, as they both suffered at the hands of the authorities and faced prison and death. The Greek verb rendered “tried to deter” (Matt. 3:14) implies that John did all he could to prevent the baptism of Jesus from happening (cf. Bock 2002:87;

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Carson 1984:8:107; Pentecost 1981:92; Wenham 1995:100–101). John reasoned that it would be far more appropriate for him to be baptized by the Messiah, not the other way around. Jesus listened, but disagreed. He explained that by being baptized, He would “fulfill all righteousness” (v. 15). From a theological perspective, Jesus is the “climactic moment of redemptive history” and His “life recapitulates that of ancient Israel because he is the true Israel” (Helyer 2008:171). One way in which the Son carried out all that the Father required was by bringing to pass all the Old Testament “biblical patterns and predictions about the Messiah” (Turner 2008:119). A second consideration is that Jesus, though sinless, voluntarily conformed with all that the Father required of fallen humanity (cf. Edersheim 1980a:1:280; Filson 1982:2:1110; Vos 2000:319; Witherington 1992b:387). Third, through this visible display of solidarity, Jesus showed that He is humanity’s genuine representative and intercessor with God (cf. France 2007:122; Keener 1999:132; Nolland 2005:152). Fourth, Jesus, as the suffering Servant, died on the cross as an atoning sacrifice for sin, in obedience to the divine will (cf. Isa 42:1– 4; 53:11; Kennard 2007:75; Lowery 1994a:22; Niswonger 1988:143; Schweizer 1992:27). When John heard Jesus’ explanation, he consented to baptize his Lord. As Jesus emerged from the waters of the Jordan, He spent a few moments in prayer (cf. Luke 3:21; Morris 1990:192). In doing so, the Son was “separating Himself to the Father’s will and work”, which Jesus would “accomplish as Messiah” (Pentecost 1981:95). Furthermore, the act of prayer added “solemnity to the setting, as if Jesus knows he is about to embark on his mission” (Bock 1994c:337). Suddenly, the heavens split apart (Mark 1:10), after which the Spirit descended in the form of a dove and settled on the Son (Matt 3:16; cf. Isa 64:1; Test of Judah 24:1–3; Test of Levi 18:6–8; Kaiser 2008:238–239; Hawthrone 1997:491; Watts 2007:120). Some consider the dove to be a symbol in Scripture for “purity, innocence and loveliness” (Geldenhuys 1983:146). Another possibility is that the “same Spirit that hovered over the old creation” (cf. Gen 1:2) “now rested upon Jesus” and pointed to the inauguration of the “new creation work of God” (Schreiner 2008:437). In any case, at that moment the spot became especially sacred. Fittingly, it became the scene for an anointing experience that equipped and empowered Jesus for His upcoming redemptive mission (cf. Edersheim 1980a:1:284; France 2002:74; France 2007:121; Nolland 2005:155). Next, the voice of God the Father declared from His throne room in the celestial temple that Jesus was His dearly loved and cherished Son, the one whom the Father had chosen and in whom He took great delight (Matt 3:17; cf. France 2007:124). Moreover, the Father verbally gave His approval to His Son as the divine Messiah and suffering Servant so that all around

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could hear it (cf. Gen 22:12, 16; Ps 2:7; Isa 41:8; 42:1; Bowman and Komoszewski 2007:88; Blomberg 2007:14; Bock 1994a:103; Hurtado 2003:338; Ladd 1997:163– 164; Thielman 2005:65; Vos 2000:321). In this episode, which signals the onset of the “messianic age” (Carson 1984:8:109), we learn that both the Holy Spirit and the Father authenticated and endorsed the Son for His ministry and work (cf. Bock 1994c:344; Bock 2002:86; Grant 1962:2:881; Jeremias 1971:55; Lowery 1994a:32; Lowery 1994b:68). In rabbinic literature, the sound from heaven was called the bat qôl, which literally means “daughter of a voice”, that is, an “echo of a heavenly voice”. Köstenberger (2004:382) notes the common belief in the Second Temple period of Judaism that the “prophetic office had ceased and would not be renewed until the onset of the messianic age”. Allegedly, the bat qôl was all that God’s people could anticipate until then. In contrast with the rabbis, who “thought of the divine voice as a mere echo”, the “voice from heaven”—which accredited the Son—came from the Father. The idea, then, is that the heavenly voice, along with the testimony of John the Baptizer and the witness of Scripture, helped confirm the divine, messianic identity of Jesus (cf. Edwards 2002:35; France 2002:79; France 2007:122; Keener 1999:133–134; Marshall 1983:384; Turner 2008:120). The transfiguration of Jesus in A.D. 29 was another episode in which the Father endorsed His Son (cf. Matt 17:1–8; Mark 9:2–8; Luke 9:28–36). Mark 9:1 records Jesus’ statement that some of His hearers would not experience “death” before they saw “the kingdom of God come with power”. About six days after making the preceding declarations, Jesus split up His group, taking three of the disciples with Him up the side of a “high mountain” (v. 2). The Messiah’s intent was to take them “as far as possible from other people and everyday life” (France 2007:46) in an attempt to “find solitude” (France 2002:349). The locale, which is “reminiscent of Sinai” (Longman and Reid 1995:119), temporarily became the “locus of God’s particular closeness” (Ratzinger 2007:308; cf. Ezek 40:2; Rev 21:10). The literary context seems to indicate that the Transfiguration occurred in the vicinity of Caesarea Philippi (cf. Mark 8:27; Edwards 2002:261). Because Mount Tabor, the traditional site of the event, is some distance from the city and only 1,800 feet in height, it is unlikely that it took place there. Mount Hermon fits better in that it is close. Also, three different mountains to the southeast of Caesarea Philippi are each over 4,000 feet. Any of these could fit the context and provide the solitude Jesus desired for the Transfiguration (cf. Bock 1994c:866; Bock 2002:234; Edersheim 1980a:2:92; Liefeld 1992:835; Riesner 1992:40; Scharlemann 1988b:4:888–889). The latter seems to parallel the episode in which Aaron, Nadab, Abihu, and 70 of Israel’s elders accompanied Moses up Mount Sinai (cf. Exod

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24:1; Blomberg 2007:55; McCurley 1983:171–172; Rooker 2003:861; Turner 2008:419). This suggestion harmonizes with the truth that Jesus is the end-time prophet like Moses foretold in Deuteronomy 18:15 (cf. Chilton 1992:6:640; Donaldson 1985:142–143; Keener 1999:438). Why Jesus specifically chose Peter, James, and John is subject to debate. The Bible does describe Peter’s special role because of his confession concerning Jesus (cf. Matt 16:16–19), John as the disciple whom Jesus loved (cf. John 13:23), and James as the first of the Twelve to be martyred for the Lord (cf. Acts 12:2). In general, Peter, James, and John enjoyed an especially close relationship with the Savior, and now they would be privileged to witness an unparalleled revelation of the Messiah’s glory at the sacred spot (cf. Nolland 2005:698–699). In addition to this occasion, Jesus allowed only Peter, James, and John to accompany Him when He raised the daughter of Jairus from the dead (cf. Mark 5:37; Luke 8:51) and while Jesus prayed in the Garden of Gethsemane (cf. Matt 26:37; Mark 14:33; Culpepper 1995:9:205). During Jesus’ time of prayer on the mountain, He was “transfigured” (Mark 9:2). The Greek verb used is a form of metamorphoo, which means “an essential change in form”. This term is the origin of our English word metamorphosis (cf. Liefield 1986:3:862; Liefeld 1992:834, 837; Pentecost 1981:256; Turner 2008:416). The glow on Jesus’ face was translucent, coming from within, like a lampshade’s luminance when the bulb inside is turned on (cf. Baltzer 1965:275; Edersheim 1980a:2:96; Edwards 2002:263; Rhodes 1992:217). Mark noted that Jesus’ garments became radiantly white—indeed, far more than any launderer on earth could bleach them (vs. 3). Matthew 17:2 adds that Jesus’ countenance shone with the brightness of the sun. In Scripture, God’s glory is often associated with “shining brilliance or bright light” (Lane 1974:318). Thus, in the Transfiguration, Jesus’ heavenly glory was unveiled (cf. France 2002:355; France 2007:647; Guthrie 1981:392; Kümmel 1973:123). Additionally, this incident revealed the “true nature of Jesus’ messiahship” (Ellis 1983:142). Without question, what the three disciples witnessed was a marvelous sight. Moses’ face also shone with the glory of God when the lawmaker came down from Mount Sinai. His brightness, however, had been external and fading (cf. Exod 34:29–35; 2 Cor 3:13). In contrast, Jesus’ glory was internal and always present, though it was veiled by His human form, that is, except during His transfiguration (cf. John 1:14; Phil 2:6–11; Col 1:15; Heb 1:3; Caird 1995:68, 92; Turner 2008:419–420; Williams 2002a:22). As if the Lord’s transfiguration in glory was not enough, two former heroes of the faith—Moses and Elijah—appeared (Mark 9:4). These two “forerunners or models” for Jesus’ prophetic, redemptive role were seen talking with Him (Mar-

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shall 2004:69). Luke 9:31 reveals that the subject of their conversation was Jesus’ approaching death. From a theological standpoint, His atoning sacrifice ushers in a new eschatological exodus for the people of God (cf. Bock 2002:234; Pao and Schnabel 2007:311; Schreiner 2008:172). Most likely, Moses and Elijah appeared because Moses (the nation’s number-one lawgiver) represented the Law and Elijah (a premier spokesperson for the Lord) represented the Prophets. Together, the pair “connect the preexilic and postexilic communities” (Watts 2007:187). The appearance of the two was a visual reminder that Jesus fulfilled the Law and the Prophets (cf. Matt 5:17; Luke 24:44; John 5:46; Allison 1992a:563; Broyles 1992:560–561; Bultmann 2007:1:47–48; Kümmel 1973:53; Rhodes 1992:218; Strecker 2000:385; Tremmel 1989:58). Expressed differently, the entire Old Testament revelation culminated in Him (cf. Rom 10:4; 2 Cor 1:20; Childs 1993:274– 275; Edwards 2002:266; Goppelt 1981:104–105; Lioy 2007:35–36; Marshall 1983:385; Wenham 1995:220). The Old Testament prophets had foretold the Messiah’s suffering and glory to follow (cf. 1 Pet. 1:10–11). Peter, however, having just witnessed Jesus’ glory during His transfiguration, evidently assumed that His glorification was immediately coming (cf. Carson 1984:8:385–386). Peter clearly did not grasp the significance of Jesus’ transfiguration, at least not while it was occurring. In fact, Mark 9:6 explains that Peter and his peers were so terrified that he was at a loss for words. According to verse 5, Peter spoke to Jesus on behalf of the other two disciples and offered to build “three shelters—one for you, one for Moses and one for Elijah”. Presumably, the Jewish feast of Tabernacles forms the backdrop of Peter’s remarks (cf. Zech 14:16–19; Tobit 13:11; Bock 1994c:871; Chilton 1992:6:641; Scharlemann 1988a:4:887–888). It seems that Peter’s intent in building huts was to prolong the experience. His wording shows that he was thinking of Jesus as being on a par with the other two luminaries (cf. France 2007:649; Liefeld 1992:839). Peter failed to recognize that Moses and Elijah were secondary figures compared to Jesus (cf. Thielman 2005:92–93, 97, 122; Turner 1979:110; Turner 2008:418; Williams 2002a:24). Furthermore, though Peter’s motive seemed laudable (at least on the surface), his timing was out of sync with that of God and the Old Testament messianic prophecies. In short, Peter was eager to experience Jesus’ promised glory without the suffering that Jesus had foretold (cf. Carson 1984:8:386; Culpepper 1995:9:206; Lane 1974:319; Williams 2002b:23). Peter’s mistake was pointed out to him by none other than the Father. While Peter was still speaking, a bright cloud (representing God’s glorious presence) enveloped the people on the top of the holy mountain (Mark 9:7; cf. Exod 40:34– 38; 1 Kings 8:10–11; France 2002:354; Keener 1999:438–439; Longman and Reid

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1995:120; Nolland 2005:703). Then the Father, while speaking from the cloud, gave His stamp of approval to His Son as the “eschatological king” (Fossum 1992:6:134). Now that Jesus was about to experience the Cross, the Father’s voice saying, “This is my Son” (Mark 9:7; cf. Ps 2:7; Isa 42:1), affirmed Jesus’ earthly ministry before His disciples as the divinely chosen, suffering Servant (cf. Aune 1988:4:577; Bauer 1992:775; Donaldson 1985:146–147; Hurtado 2003:338; Johnson 1962a:4:409; Johnson 1962b:4:414–415; Marshall 1992:776; McCurley 1983:174–175). It is worth noting that the Father, in making this pronouncement, rebuked Peter by pointing out that Jesus was not just another hero of the faith, but rather His very Son (cf. Bock 1994a:103; Edwards 2002:267–268; Kennard 2007:397). Furthermore, the Father expressed His love and endorsement of Jesus. The Son had come to earth with a difficult mission, yet He was being completely obedient to God. In light of this, the three disciples—and all people—should have listened to and obeyed Jesus’ words (cf. Deut 18:15; Matt 7:24–27; John 15:9–17; Blomberg 2007:55–56; Bock 1994c:874; Rhodes 1992:219). Admittedly, the Twelve had often listened to Jesus’ teachings, but frequently they did so without understanding or obeying His words. So now, the Father commanded that the Son’s teachings were to be taken to heart and heeded (cf. Edersheim 1980a:2:98; Pentecost 1981:258; Watts 2007:186; Williams 2002b:26). According to Matthew 17:6, the three disciples were terrified by hearing the voice of God and fell prostrate. The ancient Israelites had felt the same kind of fear when they heard the voice of God from the cloud on Mount Sinai (cf. Gen 15:12; 28:17; Deut 5:25–26; Ezek 1:28; Dan 8:17–18; 10:7–9; Heb 12:19; Rev 1:17; Eichrodt 1967:16–17; Muilenburg 1962:2:617–618; Niehaus 1997:4:1248). With genuine sensitivity and compassion, Jesus came, gave the disciples a reassuring touch, and said, “Get up. … Don’t be afraid” (Matt 17:7). Jesus’ actions reflected His deep affection for these three men. Mark 9:8 clarifies that when the disciples looked up, suddenly Jesus alone was with them. Moses, Elijah, and the cloud were gone and the extraordinary experience was over (cf. Bock 2002:235; France 2007:651; Girzone 2000:91–92).

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CHAPTER SEVEN The Temple Motif in the Fourth Gospel

he temple motif is a conceptual and linguistic framework for the Fourth Gospel’s presentation of Jesus as the divine Messiah (cf. Lieu 1999:51, 56, 67–68; Salier 2004:121, 134). The apostle began his account by stepping outside the normal parameters of time to focus on the eternal preexistence of the divine Word. John’s intent was to emphasize how the triune God, though above and beyond His creation, made Himself known to the world through the life, death, and resurrection of the Son (cf. Lindars 1986:76; Lioy 2005:65–66; Morris 1995:66–67; O’Day 1995:9:496). John 1:1, in a direct reference to Genesis 1:1, disclosed that the Word enjoyed primacy over the cosmos because He eternally existed before the formation of the world (cf. Carson 1991:113–114; Köstenberger 2007:421; Keener 2003:365; Ridderbos 1997:24–25). Though the Son is distinct from the Father and the Spirit, He eternally remains in loving fellowship with the other members of the Godhead (John 1:2). These profound verities did not preclude the Son from entering the sphere of time-bound human existence. Expressed differently, the second person of the Trinity left the grandeur of heaven to take upon Himself a full and genuine human nature, including a human body (v. 14), without surrendering any of His divine attributes (cf. Phil 2:6–8). The result was the perfect union between the Messiah’s divine and human natures in one person (cf. Col 1:19; 2:9; Heb 1:3; Wright 1992:416). John used the Greek verb skenoo to refer to the divine Word dwelling among humanity. A more literal rendering would be “tabernacled”, which recalls the Israelite shrine in the wilderness in which the glory of the Lord was manifested (cf. Exod 25:8; 40:34– 35; 1 Kings 8:10–11; Brown 1966:13; Koester 1989:102; Morris 1995:91; Palmer 2004:20). Jesus of Nazareth, by taking up temporary residence among the people of His day, voluntarily chose to live within the limitations of natural human experience (cf. Carson 1991:127; Haenchen 1984:119; Keener 2003:408–409; Köstenberger 2004:41; Ridderbos 1997:50–51). Throughout the Savior’s earthly ministry, His followers carefully scrutinized Him in all sorts of situations. John, as one of the Twelve, could personally attest

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to the “glory” (John 1:14) of the one who came from heaven (e.g. in Jesus’ transfiguration; cf. Matt 17:1–13; Mark 9:2–13; Luke 9:28–36). The idea behind the Greek term dóxa includes notions of splendor and grandeur; but perhaps even more than this, dóxa implies the presence of worth, significance, and honor (cf. Harris 1994:194; Ladd 1997:311; Tenney 1984:9:33). When applied to the Son (cf. Phil 2:9–11; Heb 1:3), it means He fully deserves to be worshiped as the Creator and Ruler of the universe (cf. John 20:28). Furthermore, because the Son is “full of grace and truth” (1:14), He is the “climactic eschatological revelation of God’s covenant love and faithfulness” (Köstenberger 2007:423). The glorious life and ministry of the Son (as witnessed by John and others) included the miracles Jesus performed (cf. 2:11; 11:4), as well as His life, death, resurrection, and ascension (cf. 7:39; 12:23; 13:31–32; 17:1, 4–5). Above all, it was in the ignominy of the cross-event that the divine glory shined brightest (cf. Bultmann 2007:2:42; Köstenberger and O’Brien 2001:208; Lindars 1986:79–80; Morris 1995:93; Palmer 2004:20). In 1:14, the apostle referred to the Messiah as the “one and only Son, who came from the Father”. This historic event points to the truth that the cosmos is important because “God in Christ entered creation” to “bring about its complete renewal” (Vander Zee 2004:19). In this arrangement, Jesus is the “new and final sacrament” who offered Himself in “perfect obedience and love to God”. Like verse 14, verse 18 stresses the absolute uniqueness of the Savior as God’s “one and only Son”. Also, in harmony with verse 1, verse 18 emphasizes that the Word is fully God (cf. Lindars 1986:98–99; Lioy 2005:85; Tenney 1984:9:33). Though the Son abides in intimate relationship with the Father (as well as the Spirit), this did not prevent the Son from becoming a human being in space and time (cf. Haenchen 1984:119, 121). Making the Creator-King known to earth’s inhabitants was the explicit purpose of the incarnation of the Word. As the “quintessential sacrament” of “God made flesh”, Jesus is the “visible sign of the invisible grace of God” (Vander Zee 2004:45). Additionally, the Son makes it possible for the entire creation once again to become a “sacramental place” for redeemed humanity to worship and serve the Creator” (51). The Greek verb exegéomai, which the TNIV renders “has made him known”, means “to expound” or “to set forth in great detail” (Lioy 2005:86). The general idea is that what could not previously be explained about the triune God is now elucidated by the incarnate Son (cf. Brown 1966:18; Carson 1991:135; Keener 2003:424; Kümmel 1973:282; O’Day 1995:9:523; Ridderbos 1997:59; Schweizer 1992:36). In short, only Jesus—who is “the image of the invisible God” (Col 1:15), in whom “all the fullness of the Deity lives in bodily form” (2:9), and who is “the exact representation of [God’s] being” (Heb 1:3)—has revealed the Godhead with

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stunning clarity. It is no wonder that Jesus declared to Philip, “Anyone who has seen me has seen the Father” (John 14:9). These truths are reinforced by the Savior’s response to Nathaniel (cf. Lioy 2007:71–72). The latter acknowledged Jesus to be both the “Son of God” (1:49) and the “king of Israel”. Through the use of these descriptors, Nathaniel stressed Jesus’ divine, exalted status as the Messiah (cf. Ps 2:6–7; Anderson 1988:4:572; Bauer 1992:775; Haenchen 1984:166; Hurtado 2003:359; Johnson 1962:4:412– 413; Thielman 2005:156–157). He is both the “true Israel” and the one who “fulfills the promises made to David” (Schreiner 2008:236). In response, Jesus asked whether Nathaniel believed what he declared simply because the Nazarene had previously seen Nathaniel meditating alone under a fig tree (cf. John 1:48). The incarnate Word would confirm Nathaniel’s confession of faith by performing “greater things than that” (v. 50; cf. 5:20; 14:12; O’Day 1995:9:532; Keener 2003:489; Ridderbos 1997:92; Tenney 1984:9:41). Next, Jesus solemnly affirmed that the disciples would see heaven open and God’s angels going up and down on the “Son of Man” (1:51). This phrase harks back to Daniel 7:13–14 and highlights Jesus’ self-understanding as the “representative of humanity” (McCartney 1994:9) who exercises “divine prerogatives” (10; cf. Matt 9:6; 12:8; 26:64; Mark 2:10, 28; 14:62; Luke 6:5; 22:69). The Messiah’s allusion to Jacob’s dream at Bethel (cf. Gen 28:12) emphasized both Jesus’ “preexistence and exaltation” (Harris 1994:186; cf. Johnson 1962b:4:415; Ladd 1997:281–282; Marshall 1989:211–212; Marshall 1992:777; Nickelsburg 1992:6:146; Turner 1979:139–141). Bethel, as the “house of God”, foreshadowed Jesus as the “new temple” (Keener 203:1:490) of the Lord. The Savior has become the “place of God’s revelation” (Hoskins 2002:197) and the “locus for the manifestation” (183) of God’s glory (John 1:51; cf. Exod 29:43; Carson 1991:164; Haenchen 1984:166; McKelvey 1969:77). The temple motif is part of the conceptual and linguistic backdrop of Jesus’ cleansing of the Jerusalem shrine (cf. Matt 21:12–13; Mark 11:15–17; Luke 19:45– 46; John 2:13–22; Fuglseth 2005:118–119; Lindars 1986:135; Welch 2009:ix). This incident was an “extremely dramatic, if not apocalyptic, act” (Wise 1992:816) that had religious, messianic, prophetic, and political implications (cf. Herzog 1992:820). Of the various Gospel accounts of the Jerusalem temple cleansing, the one recorded in John is the longest and most introspective, and thus forms the basis for the discussion that follows. The version of the incident found in the Fourth Gospel “accentuates even more the aggressive nature of Jesus’ actions” (Bredin 2003:44). The Nazarene is shown to be “ardent and utterly committed to put right that which offends him in the temple” (47). While the three Synoptic Gospels place the event at the end of Jesus’ public

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ministry, the Fourth Gospel locates the episode at the beginning. Those favoring the view that the episodes in John’s Gospel are topically arranged consider the two temple-clearing incidents as being one and the same. In contrast, those who regard the material in the Fourth Gospel as being sequenced chronologically argue for two separate episodes (cf. Brown 1966:117–118; Carson 1991:177–178; Congar 1962:120–121; Fuglseth 2005:144–145; Haenchen 1984:182; Hogeterp 2006:169–170; Keener 2003:518–519; O’Day 1995:9:543; Ridderbos 1997:115; Tenney 1984:9:44). The latter view is supported by the writer’s emphasis throughout his narrative on mentioning specific times, places, facts, and details. Also, the content and wording of the Fourth Gospel and the Synoptic Gospels about the temple-clearing incident are markedly different. Regardless of which view is preferred, Jesus’ statement in John 2:19 most likely forms the basis for the accusations voiced by false witnesses at the Redeemer’s trial before the Sanhedrin (cf. Matt 26:61; Mark 14:58) and for the spectators’ taunting remarks at His crucifixion (cf. Matt 27:40; Mark 15:29). The temple area Jesus entered with His disciples was a complex of courts, porticoes, and buildings on a large raised platform. The court of the Gentiles, where the money changers and merchants were set up, was the outermost section of the temple complex. It was paved with marble and formed a square three-quarters of a mile in circumference. Several porticoes or meeting places located there were often used by Jesus for teaching. According to Jewish tradition, this was also the place where the Levites who assisted the priests ate and slept. This outer court was the only spot in the temple where the Gentiles were allowed. It was separated from the inner courts by a stone balustrade a few feet high. Warnings were posted along the balustrade in Greek and Latin, telling Gentiles they would be put to death if they entered any of the other, inner courts (cf. Betz 1967:95; Bonnington 2004:153; Carson 1991:178–179; Köstenberger 2004:105; Morris 1995:169– 170). On the day Jesus arrived, the temple courts were filled with activity and noise as merchants and bankers did business with worshipers. Every day, and especially during the Passover celebration, pilgrims who had traveled from near and distant locations offered many types of sacrifices (John 2:13). Vendors close to the temple sold ceremonially pure animals to the worshipers for this purpose. Money changers converted foreign coins into the proper currency so that visitors could buy the animals they needed and also pay the required half-shekel temple tax (cf. Exod 30:13–16). Tragically, the presence of all this commercial activity prevented Gentile converts to Judaism from being able to worship and pray in the only approved spot of the temple area (John 2:14; cf. Brown 1966:119; Keener 2003:524; Tenney 1984:9:215).

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The Messiah, being filled with indignation at the enormity of the injustice, took bold and decisive action. To symbolize God’s authority and judgment, Jesus made a whip out of cords of rope and began to flail it in the air, perhaps in a wide, circular motion. He chased people out of the temple area, and opened the pens housing their sheep and cattle to let these animals escape. He also turned over the tables of the moneychangers and scattered their coins on the ground (v. 15). Next, Jesus went to the merchants selling doves and ordered them to remove the birds from the area. Perhaps He opened some of the cages in which the doves were kept so they could more easily fly away. He ordered that the rest be removed and that the house of His Father no longer be turned into a marketplace of merchants (v. 16). The latter comment is possibly an allusion to Zechariah 14:21, wherein the Hebrew term rendered “Canaanite” could also be translated “merchant” or “trader” (cf. Carson 1991:179; Köstenberger 2004:107; Lindars 1986:139; Morris 1995:171). The idea is that in the day the Lord established His messianic kingdom, He would remove all those involved in commercial activity from His temple. Jesus, in cleansing the shrine, was not “attacking the institution as such”, but rather the “abuses that had come to be tolerated” (McKelvey 1969:64). Also, His actions did not mean that no true worship of God occurred in the temple. For example, there are Gospel accounts of devout people such as Zechariah, Simeon, and Anna humbly worshiping God in the sanctum (cf. Luke 1:8–10; 2:25–38). From Jesus’ earliest years, He was aware of His special relationship with His heavenly Father, including God’s desire that the temple in Jerusalem be a sacred place for worship and prayer (cf. Luke 2:49). This attitude is reflected in Jesus’ efforts at the start of His earthly ministry to clear the temple area of all profane activity. It would be incorrect to insinuate that the episode pointed to the wholesale “rejection of Israel” (Juel 1977:131). Instead, as Burge (2000:94) clarifies, Jesus, in “attacking the financial machinery of the festival system”, placed Himself “at odds with Caiaphas and the temple leadership”. In turn, they were the ones being censured for their hubris, greed, and abuse of authority. The temple-cleansing incident set in motion a long chain of events that led to Jesus’ crucifixion at Calvary. Salier (2004:129) observes that the Messiah not only “replaces the Temple as the locus of the divine presence”, but also He brings to fruition its “function as the place of reconciliation with a holy God” by the offering of Himself as sacrifice of atonement. Kerr (2002:67) advances the discussion by maintaining that John 2:17 “brings the death of Jesus into view and that his death is the death of God’s Paschal Lamb”. Accordingly, there is “no future for the old Temple and its sacrifices. God no more dwells within its walls, and its sacrifices have been replaced by Jesus, the Passover sacrifice. Jesus is now the

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house of the Father. God dwells in Jesus” (82). After the Messiah’s resurrection from the dead, His disciples remembered the prophecy recorded in Psalm 69:9, which foretold that Jesus’ fervent devotion for the Lord’s house burned in Him like a fire (cf. Haenchen 1984:184; Keener 2003:528; Köstenberger 2007:433; Ridderbos 1997:117–118). As the second half of this verse prophesies, the Redeemer’s love for the things of God would raise the ire of His enemies (cf. Rom 15:3). The antagonists did not realize that the insults they hurled at the Father, fell on the Son. As the divine Messiah, Jesus is the Lord and the Messenger of the covenant about whom Malachi 3:1–4 said would come to spiritually purify and morally refine God’s people. This is in keeping with the Old Testament teaching that God maintained a burning zeal and passion for the covenant community and would deal with all rivals firmly. As John 2:17 indicates, anyone who was spiritually unfaithful to the Lord Jesus would experience His hand of discipline (cf. Prov 3:11–12; Heb 12:5–6). At some point, the temple authorities were alerted to the unfolding events and rushed to the scene to investigate. When they saw what Jesus had done, they demanded an explanation for His actions (John 2:18). They considered Jesus to be a counterfeit rabbi who operated “without being ordained” (Daube 1956:217). They were also convinced that whatever claim Jesus made to exercise divine authority was illegitimate. In short, they regarded Him to be a “false prophet” (219). For these reasons, the religious leaders demanded proof of Jesus’ legal right to disrupt the commercial activities occurring in the temple area. The Greek noun rendered “sign” most likely refers to some sort of miracle that would certify Jesus’ status as the Son of God (cf. 1 Cor 1:22; Bultmann 2007:2:59–60; Kennard 2007:25–26; Köstenberger and O’Brien 2001:206; Ladd 1997:308; Morris 1990:242). Ironically, Jesus’ resurrection is the only authentication of His divine nature that He promised to give the authorities (cf. Rom 1:3). They failed to understand His claim that if they tore down the temple of His body, He would build it again within three days. The religious leaders thought the Messiah was referring to the temple of Herod the Great, which the king began to renovate and reconstruct around 19 or 20 B.C. The shrine was not completed until A.D. 64, during the reign of Herod Agrippa. A 46-year timeline implies a date of around A.D. 27 for the Passover mentioned in John 2:13. On other occasions (recorded in the Synoptic Gospels), Pharisees and teachers of the law demanded to see Jesus perform a sign to authenticate His divine authority. In response, He declared that the only certifying mark they would receive was that of Jonah. The prophet was facing certain death during the three-day period in which he lay entombed in the belly of a huge sea creature (cf. Jonah 1:17). The Lord restored Jonah to life by setting him free from his predicament. This

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foreshadowed Jesus spending a comparable amount of time buried in the depths of the earth. Jesus’ own resurrection from the dead would be the supreme validation of His messianic power and authority and serve as a sign that He was superseding the “old temple order” (Keener 2003:1:517; cf. Matt 12:38–41; 16:1–4; Luke 11:16, 29–32). After Jesus’ body was raised from the dead, the Holy Spirit enabled the disciples to remember what the Redeemer had said, including the meaning and significance of His teachings (John 2:22; cf. 14:26). What the Son had prophesied, fulfilled what the Father had promised in the Old Testament. Jesus’ disciples believed the Scriptures and the sayings Jesus had spoken about them. In the Fourth Gospel, there is theological significance to the clearing of the temple courts as one of Jesus’ first public acts. From the start of the Savior’s earthly ministry, the judgment of God rested on the established civil and religious authorities. Kerr (2002:67) maintains that Jesus’ bold action at the Jerusalem shrine is an end-time event that “signals that the day of the Lord has come or is very near”. It is in this “eschatological ethos” that “judgment will begin at the house of the Lord and a new Temple will be raised.” The latter was the reason why the old order, represented by the shrine built by Herod the Great, would give way to the new order, represented by the temple of Jesus’ body. With the advent of the Messiah as the final expression of God’s Word (cf. 1:1, 14, 18), all the divine blessings anticipated under the old covenant were brought to fruition, including being cleansed from sin, experiencing the delight of salvation, and enjoying unbroken fellowship with the Lord (cf. Isa 25:6– 9; 56:7; Jer 31:31–34; Rev 21:22). Lincoln (2000:45) notes that the lawsuit motif found in the Fourth Gospel is a reworking of the lawsuits recorded in Isaiah 40–55. Moreover, in John’s Gospel, Israel becomes the “representative of the world” (46), especially as the evidence is presented in the universal court of justice regarding Jesus and His messianic claims. The nations are “represented through the Samaritans”, who affirm that Jesus is the Savior of humankind (John 4:42), and the Greeks, who want to meet Jesus (12:20–22). Furthermore, Jesus’ “climactic trial before Pilate … sets the lawsuit squarely on the world stage and in the context of the nations” (256). Throughout the forensic process (as seen in the Fourth Gospel’s cosmic-trial metaphor), Jesus functions as “God’s authorized agent and chief witness” (46). The irony is that the person who is eventually tried and condemned by the religious and civil authorities of the day turns out to be their Creator and Judge (as well as that of all humankind; cf. Harris 1994:170). Hanson (1991:43) thinks that the Evangelist’s intent in John 2:17–22 was to

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“present Jesus as the true Temple, the house of God”. Likewise, Coloe (2001:3) states that the “Temple, as the dwelling place of God, points to the identity and role of Jesus”. Moreover, Hoskins (2002:157), based on his analysis of John 1:14, 1:51, 2:18–22, and 4:20–24, concluded that the Messiah’s advent “inaugurates a new phase in the relationship between God and his people”. The Son, as the “true Temple” of God, “fulfills, surpasses, and replaces” the shrine in Jerusalem (iv), along with the religious festivals associated with it, namely, “the Passover, Feast of Tabernacles,” and “Feast of Dedication” (v). It is through the death, resurrection, and exaltation of the Son that the Father replaces the old temple order with the new temple order. Jesus, as the “antitype” of the Jerusalem sanctuary, has become the “locus of God’s presence, glory, revelation, and abundant provision” (iv). We next turn our attention to 4:20–24, the literary context of which is Jesus’ conversation with a Samaritan woman. She was stunned by the Nazarene’s detailed knowledge of her personal life (cf. vv. 16–18) and sensed that He was not an ordinary person. Jesus’ interlocutor deduced that in order for Him to have such remarkable discernment, He must be a prophet (v. 19; namely, a divinely inspired person with supernatural knowledge and insight; cf. Freeman 1983:39; VanGemeren 1990:42–43; Wood 1979:67). Perhaps in an attempt to deflect the conversation away from her sinful lifestyle, the woman brought up the controversy between Samaritans and Jews regarding the proper place to worship (v. 20; cf. Köstenberger 2004:153; Morris 1995:236). Still, to her the issue was a suitable religious question for a prophet to give his authoritative assessment (cf. Carson 1991:221–222; Keener 2003:610; Lindars 1986:187; Ridderbos 1997:161). The Jews recognized that God had instructed Solomon to build a temple in Jerusalem. They could go there to offer sacrifices and to worship Him. Meanwhile, the Samaritans argued that worship of God should be performed at Mount Gerizim, where they claimed many blessed events occurred (cf. Deut 11:29; 27:12; Josh 8:33). The Samaritans taught that Abraham proved his faithfulness and obedience to God when the patriarch offered his son, Isaac, on Mount Gerizim. The Samaritans also taught that Abraham and Melchizedek met on this mountain. More importantly, the Samaritans believed the Lord commanded Moses to build an altar on Mount Gerizim for God’s people to worship Him (cf. Bock 2002:436; Brown 1966:171–172; Edersheim 1980a:1:402–403, 410; Haenchen 1984:222; Köstenberger 2007:439; Welch 2009:29). Since the Samaritans regarded only the Pentateuch as sacred, they naturally dismissed the Jewish belief that the center of worship should be at the temple in Jerusalem. In contrast, the Jews claimed that the Samaritans distorted the Scriptures. This controversy over the proper place to worship God only added to the enmity between the Jews and Samaritans (cf. Fuglseth 2005:179–180; Tenney 1984:9:55; Williamson 1992:728).

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Jesus used the woman’s mention of the inter-racial debate to strike at the heart of her problem (cf. O’Day 1995:9:567; Ridderbos 1997:162). She was concerned with an external aspect of worship, that is, the right place to venerate God. Jesus made her focus on the internal aspect of worship, namely, venerating God with a cleansed heart. Here we see that the woman’s frame of reference needed to be adjusted. Jesus began to do this by stating that in the coming day of eschatological fulfillment, it would not matter where people worshiped, be it Mount Gerizim or Mount Zion (John 4:21; cf. Carson 1991:222; Köstenberger 2007:439–440), for the Messiah was the “new centering symbol, absorbing the functions of city and temple” (Cohen 1981:78). Indeed, the Messiah surpassed in importance all earthly shrines and sanctuaries, even the temple in Jerusalem (cf. McKelvey 1969:80; Morris 1995:239). Kerr (2002:167) states that with the advent of the Messiah, a “new era” has dawned. From the post-resurrection perspective of the Evangelist, “Moses and the law, including the Temple and associated rituals and festivals, are not ends in themselves, but signposts pointing towards Jesus Christ”. The Son becomes the fundamental reason for the existence of “Judaism” in which worship is “no longer centered in a place, but in Spirit and truth”. Keener (2003:281) proposes that the Evangelist addressed a “community of predominantly Jewish Christians” who, due to their “faith in Jesus”, had been “rejected by most of their non-Christian Jewish communities”. One can imagine the religious elite of the day making the following claims: (1) Judaism is a “religion of Torah”; and (2) the “prophetic, messianic Jesus movement has departed from proper observance of God’s Word (particularly from orthodox monotheism)” (364). The Evangelist responded in the Fourth Gospel with these counterclaims: (1) the Messiah is the “full embodiment of Torah” and completes “what was partial (but actually present) in Torah”; (2) the Son “embodies the hope of Judaism” (417); (3) the decision to become a follower of the Savior “entails true observance of Torah”; and (4) because “Jesus himself is God’s Word,” no person is able to “genuinely observe Torah without following Jesus” (364). Next, Jesus addressed the issue His interlocutor had raised. The Samaritans acknowledged the true God, but they worshiped Him in ignorance. Since they considered only the Pentateuch as sacred, they ignored the prophets. The Jews worshiped God as He revealed Himself in the entire Hebrew Bible. The Messiah clearly sided with the Jews on this issue by identifying Himself with them through the emphatic use of the Greek word rendered “we” (4:22; cf. Keener 2003:610; O’Day 1995:9:568; Ridderbos 1997:162). God had chosen the Jews to be the vehicle through which He would reveal His plan of redemption. Put another way, “Judaism is the trajectory of religious history through which God has been at work” (Burge 2000:145).

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Nonetheless, the time was soon coming when a Jew, a Samaritan, or any other person could freely worship the Lord—as long as that person did so in spirit and truth (v. 23). Indeed, the opportunity had been inaugurated with the Messiah’s advent (which included His death, resurrection, and ascension; cf. Lindars 1986:189; Marshall 2004:499; Morris 1990:254). Jesus’ declaration that “God is spirit” (v. 24) points to the truth that the divine is immaterial in His existence (cf. Lioy 2007:101– 102). It would be incorrect to conclude that God is merely an impersonal force that gives experience to everything else. Instead, He is a sentient being who “possesses personality” (Clements 1978:58). The latter includes planning, speaking, acting, and feeling in ways that are comparable to human beings. To worship in spirit is to do so from the heart, not merely to go through the motions of worship. The latter is frequently characterized by an obsession with being at the right place and performing approved rituals. To worship in truth is to reverence the Father as He has disclosed Himself in the Son (v. 24; cf. 1:18), not as would-be worshipers have created God in their own minds (cf. Carson 1991:225–226; Girzone 2000:59; Haenchen 1984:223; Pentecost 1981:133). In point of fact, He actively seeks people who worship Him with sincerity and dedication (cf. Dyrness 1977:47–48, 143–144; Fuglseth 2005:182–184; Harris 1994:198; Ladd 1997:328; Schreiner 2008:134, 138). Upon hearing the truths Jesus declared, the Samaritan woman started to wonder whether He was more than just a prophet (v. 25). The woman thus voiced the hope of both Samaritans and Jews, namely, that the Messiah would come. Whitacre (1999) comments that the Samaritans did not expect a “Davidic king, but rather the Taheb”, a name that means the “one who returns”. This person “would be primarily a lawgiver, teacher, restorer, revealer”. In Bible times, it was commonly believed that whenever the Anointed One came, He would explain all the conundrums of life (cf. Anderson 1988:4:307; Anderson 1992:5:946; Gaster 1962b:4:194; Williamson 1992:727; Williamson and Evans 2000:1059). Teeple (1957:114) points to the common belief of the day that the “Samaritan Prophet-Messiah will teach the existing Samaritan law to Jews and gentiles”. Ellis (1984:71) adds that while “little is known about the messianic expectations among the Samaritans”, the Evangelist “makes it clear that Jesus is the fulfillment of whatever the Samaritans expected in the way of a Messiah”. At this point, Jesus directly told the Samaritan woman that He was the Messiah (v. 26). Evidently, the political overtones associated with Jewish misconceptions of the Messiah did not prevail in Samaria, thus making it relatively safe for Jesus to identify Himself unambiguously in this way (cf. Köstenberger 2004:158; Tenney 1984:9:56).

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CHAPTER EIGHT The Temple Motif in Acts and Hebrews

he temple motif is part of the conceptual and linguistic framework of the discussion found in Acts and Hebrews concerning Jesus as the divine Messiah (cf. Lundquist 2008:152, 154–155; Motyer 2004:178; Sanders 1997; Thomas 1994:479; Taylor 1999:709; Walton 2004:135; Weinert 1981:85). With respect to Acts, the “Gentile mission” is “comparable to the spokes of a wheel” that extend “beyond the central hub” of Jerusalem and its temple, yet remain “supported by it and linked to it” (Chance 1988:101; cf. Luke 24:47; Acts 1:8). This emphasis on the temple is manifest in the outpouring of the Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:1–4), an event in which “God’s heavenly tabernacling and [revelatory] presence began to descend on his people” (Beale 2005b:74; cf. Kline 2006:16, 32). The threefold purpose of Pentecost was to demonstrate that the “gospel is truly of divine origin, meets with divine approval, and is advanced by divine agency” (Evans 1993a:26). After Jesus’ ascension (1:9–11; cf. Kreitzer 1997b:859), His disciples returned to Jerusalem, where they met in an upper room (vs. 12). Such spaces of large homes were often rented out to the poor. It is possible that this was the same place where Jesus had celebrated His final meal with the disciples (cf. Mark 14:14– 15; Luke 22:11–12; cf. Bock 2007:77; Bruce 1988:40; Lincoln 1997:904; Longenecker 1984:9:260; Marshall 1980:62; Reese 2000:18; Wall 2002:10:44). With the exception of Judas Iscariot, all the apostles and several of the women who had followed Jesus were gathered for prayer. Mary, the mother of Jesus, and His brothers were also present (Acts 1:13–14). Fifty days after Jesus’ ascension, the Holy Spirit came upon the Savior’s disciples while they were meeting together in one place (2:1). The locale served as a temporary, sacred spot for the Lord’s eschatological community. Also, the permanent, abiding presence of the Spirit within each believer made them individually and collectively the temple of the Lord (cf. 1 Cor 3:16–17; 6:19; Eph 2:19–22; 1 Pet 2:4–5; Beckwith 2004:78–79; Walaskay 1998:34– 35; Witherington 1998:114). All at once and unexpectedly, the disciples heard a sound from heaven that resembled a turbulent “wind” (Acts 2:2). The noise filled the entire house where

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they were meeting. In the context of this incident, the wind was a physical indication of the presence of the Spirit. In Scripture, wind and breath are common symbols of God’s Spirit (cf. Exod 3:2–6; Ezek 37:9–14; John 3:8; Guthrie 1981:537; Hawthrone 1997:492–493; Machen 1976:64; Marshall 2007:531). The sight of “tongues of fire” (Acts 2:3) was even more unusual than the sound of wind, and perhaps reminiscent of the thunder and lighting that accompanied God’s giving of the law to Moses on Mount Sinai (Exod 19:16–19; cf. Davies 1962c:4:619–620; Davies 1992:6:49; Eichrodt 1967:16–17; Evans 1993b:214–215; Hiebert 1992a:6:507; Johnson 1962:3:447–448; Muilenburg 1962:2:617–618; Niehaus 1995:350, 372). The tongue-shaped flames appeared to stand over each disciple’s head (Acts 2:3). This incident was significant, for it indicated that God’s presence was among Jesus’ followers in a more powerful and personal way than they had ever experienced before. The disciples could sense the Spirit’s coming audibly (through wind) and visibly (through fire). Moreover, they were filled with the Holy Spirit (v. 4). His “outpouring” was “clinching evidence that the last days had arrived” (Köstenberger and O’Brien 2001:131; cf. Num 11:29; Isa 32:15; Ezek 36:27). As further evidence of the Spirit’s presence, He enabled Jesus’ followers to speak in other tongues (cf. Bock 1994a:98; Pelikan 2005:52; Tremmel 1989:143–144). Apparently, these were actual languages or dialects uttered by the disciples to the many visitors from other countries who were in Jerusalem (cf. Andrews 1962:4:671; Davids 1997:1178; Johnson 1992:6:597, 599; Reese 2000:49; Robeck 1988:4:871–872; Robeck 1993:939–940). The Spirit had come to empower Jesus’ followers to reach out to the lost with the saving message of the Gospel (cf. 1:8; Lincoln 1997:905; Paige 1993:408–409; Schnabel 1997:766; Schreiner 2008:444, 454). Some think Jesus’ followers were in one of the courts of the Jerusalem temple at that moment (Luke 24:52–53). In a few instances, Luke uses the Greek word for “house” in Acts to refer to the temple, and Luke’s Gospel closes with the statement that the disciples “stayed continually at the temple, praising God” (24:53). Those who hold this view also suggest that the disciples had an optimal opportunity to attract a large crowd in the temple precincts rather than in a secluded space. Others who think the Spirit came upon the disciples in the upper room of a house, argue that “one place” (Acts 2:1) most likely refers back to the upper room mentioned in 1:13. They also point out that Luke more often uses the common Greek word for temple rather than the word for house (cf. Bock 2007:94; Bruce 1988:50–51; LaSor 1982:2:1028; Longenecker 1984:9:269–270; Marshall 1980:68; Reese 2000:46–47; Wall 2002:10:57; Walton 2004:136; Witherington 1998:131–132). Since the entire city of Jerusalem was filled with pilgrims, the disciples could have attracted a large crowd by coming down to the street after the

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Holy Spirit had come upon them. We next direct our attention to the theme of fulfillment found in the address Stephen delivered before the Sanhedrin. On one level, his remarks stand as a “reasoned defense of his cause”; but on another level, they are rhetorically closer to a “prophetic proclamation” (Wiens 1995:11), in which Jesus of Nazareth is declared to be Israel’s promised Messiah and Redeemer (cf. Bruce 1988:130; Longenecker 1984:9:337; Reese 2000:271; Wall 2002:10:124; Witherington 1998:259). Stephen statements take into account Exodus 25–40, which “describes the construction of the tabernacle”, and Psalm 132, which “recalls David’s desire to establish a tent sanctuary in Jerusalem” (Koester 1989:98). Furthermore, Stephen’s proclamation fits “within theological currents from the Maccabean period to the second century A.D.” (96). In one sense, Stephen’s speech is not a “denial of the Temple’s past validity” (Walker 1996:66); in another sense, his declaration portends the emancipation of believers from their “moorings at Jerusalem” and their conveyance by the “winds of God’s Spirit to the ends of the earth” (McKelvey 1969:91). Here Stephen envisioned a “new house of God composed of his people” (Marshall 2007:571). Through the proclamation of the gospel, the “invitation is held out to repentance, faith, and a return to God” (Brown 1986:3:793). In particular, Stephen’s oration sets forth a refutation of the three points of reference on which some first century A.D. Jews placed an idolatrous emphasis: the land, the law, and the temple (cf. Barrett 1991:350; Boismard 1992:6:208–209; Fletcher–Louis 2004:98; Kilgallen 1976:31–32; Walaskay 1998:74–75; Walton 2004:138, 143). Concerning the Jews veneration of the promised land, Stephen argued that while Judah remained important, God’s activities in Israel’s history often took place outside of Palestine. Also, wherever God is present, that locale is considered holy (Acts 7:2–36; cf. Bruce 1988:130; McCartney 1997:509; Pelikan 2005:104). Moreover, the Jews revered the law and, in turn, the one who gave them the law— Moses; but Stephen reminded his listeners that this legendary figure clearly pointed to a coming Prophet who was greater than Moses and the law. Likewise, the people rejected Moses and embraced idol worship, just as they spurned Jesus (vv. 37– 43). Finally, the Jews fixated on the temple as a symbol of God’s past workings with the nation of Israel and the source of their future hope (cf. Barrett 1991:363; Bock 2007:303–304; Marshall 1980:132)—so much so that they ended up worshiping the shrine rather than their Creator-King (cf. Clowney 1973:159; Kilgallen 1976:91–92; Longenecker 1984:9:345; Wall 2002:10:129). Tragically, many also seemed to confine God’s work to the sanctuary alone, instead of recognizing that He “transcends … anything made with human hands” (Sylva 1987:270; cf. Isa 66:1–2; Acts 17:24).

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Consequently, God’s chosen people could neither see Him living among them in the person of Jesus, nor recognize the work of the Holy Spirit. Furthermore, rather than listen to the Messiah, they schemed with the civil authorities to have Him killed, as they did the previous messengers whom God had sent (Acts 7:44– 53). Since Stephen, like a “master dramatist” (Wiens 1995:14), had knocked down the three pillars of the Jewish faith and proclaimed that Jesus is the Messiah, the long-awaited “Righteous One” (v. 52), the religious leaders’ natural reaction was to brand Stephen as a blasphemer and take him out to be stoned (vv. 54–60; cf. Bruce 1988:157–158; Luter 1997:718; Machen 1976:72–73; Reese 2000:303). His martyrdom, though, was not in vain, for the Son stood at the Father’s right hand as “Stephen’s defendant” to plead “his case before God” (Schreiner 2008:229). Moreover, the Son, “functioning as Judge, welcomed Stephen into heaven”. In this way, the Lord Jesus “honored” Stephen, “despite [the] earthly rejection” he experienced at the hands of his antagonists (Bock 1994a:111). The Book of Hebrews expands on and further develops the seminal ideas broached by Stephen in his oracle (cf. Bruce 1985:xlii; Lane 1991a:cxlvii–cxlvii; Motyer 2004:180, 182, 189). The unidentified author of the epistle displayed a “rich mix of skills, both rhetorical and rabbinic”. He also made use a variety of “ancient texts at his disposal” and expounded on them “in light of his received christocentric tradition”. In doing so, he sought to offer “strong encouragement to a beleaguered community” (Guthrie 2007:919). While the historical context and homelitical approach found in the epistle possibly represents a “mixture or merging of thought traditions”, the Old Testament construct (as opposed to a GrecoRoman one) predominates (Schenck 2007:3). Also prevalent are the apocalyptic idioms and ideology of “Hellenistic Judaism” and “primitive Christianity” (4). It is especially with respect to the consideration of “tabernacle imagery” (7) that the writer ably used a pastiche of religious and eschatological motifs in “new and unique” ways in response to his “own particular situation and theology” (6; cf. 1 Enoch 90:28–29; Test of Levi 5; deSilva 2000a:28). The anonymous letter occupies a distinctive place among the New Testament writings for its emphasis on the superiority of the Messiah to leading figures and institutions existing during the Old Testament era (cf. Bultmann 2007:1:111; Chilton, Comfort, and Wise 2000:1181; Dunn 1992:1:985; Gordon 1991:437; Hughes 1979:2–3; Johnson 2006:32; Lane 1991a:cxxxvii–cxxxviii). The Savior is depicted as the “representative man” who has received “dominion” and the one through whom “man’s vice-regency is representatively restored” (McCartney 1994:6; cf. Gen 1:26–28; Ps 8:3–8; Dan 7:13–14). The “new and living way” (Heb 10:20) the Son opened up for believers does not mean the old way was depraved; rather, despite all its virtues, it was “obsolete” (8:13). The deficiencies connected

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with the latter might explain why the Messiah “bequeathed no sanctuaries, altars, sacred objects” to His followers, as well as no “plans or instructions” from which to “design a church building and its contents” (Turner 1979:150). The epistle argues that because of who Jesus is and what He has done, He is the realization of the types and rituals connected with the wilderness tabernacle and the Jerusalem shrine (cf. deSilva 2000a:30; Dunn 1992:1:989; Kreitzer 1997b:862; Thompson 2008:23). The latter assertion remains valid, even though the author does not “actually employ direct references to the Temple and Temple practices” (Motyer 2004:179; cf. Lindars 1991:410, 147; Turner 1979:125). Evidently, the tabernacle functions as a “cipher for the Jerusalem temple” (Koester 1989:152). The author’s usage of this approach “enabled him to develop his argument at a strictly theological level” (Walker 1996:207). Motyer (2004:180) explains that a “full-frontal assault on Temple and cult” would have proven to be entirely “counter-productive”, especially in light of the “violent reaction” Stephen received from religious zealots to his “perceived attack” on the Jewish homeland, Mosaic law, and Jerusalem shrine. The writer of Hebrews makes his case by examining three areas: (1) the Levitical priesthood or divine mediation (7:1–28; 10:19–22). There is a new priesthood that provides the necessary divine mediation (cf. Ps 110:4). (2) the sacrifice or divine redemption (Heb 9:11–10:18). There is a new and final sacrifice that provides divine redemption (cf. Ps 40:6–8). (3) the old covenant or divine promises (Heb 8:8–13; 9:15–22). There is a new covenant that provides full and final forgiveness (cf. Jer 31:31–34). Hebrews sets out to show that Christianity is superior to Judaism because of the person of the Son. He stands at the peak of revelation, being superior to angels (1:1–2:9) and to Moses (3:1–6). Jesus is the outshining of God’s glory and the very character and essence of the divine (1:3). Whatever revelations appeared before Jesus’ incarnation were but shadows or outlines of what He disclosed (cf. Attridge 1989:25; Attridge 1992:3:100–101; Baehr 1986:3:40–41; Chilton, Comfort, and Wise 2000:1181; Fanning 1994a:388, 390; Kaiser 2008:359; Witherington 1997a:153–154). The Messiah is the supreme and exalted High Priest (4:14). Whereas earthly priests inherited their office, Jesus was appointed by the direct call of God (5:5– 6). Also, whereas earthly priests followed in the lineage of Aaron, Jesus—who has no successors—is a priest forever, according to the order of Melchizedek (7:17). Whereas earthly priests ministered within humanly constructed temples, the Redeemer ministers within the true sanctuary, namely, the eternal house of God (8:2; 9:24). Moreover, whereas earthly priests offered animal sacrifices for their sins as well as for those of the people, Jesus offered the one perfect sacrifice that never needs to be offered again—His sinless self (5:3; 10:4–14; cf. Congar 1962:173–175;

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Guthrie 1997:849–850; Fanning 1994a:391–392; Hurst 1997:965–966; Nelson 1993:141–144; Thompson 2008:111; Wright 1992:409–410). As the unique Son of God who made the supreme sacrifice of Himself to the Father, Jesus is described by the writer of Hebrews as the “pioneer of [our] salvation” (2:10), the “perfecter of our faith” (12:2), and the “great Shepherd of the sheep” (13:20; cf. Caird 1995:200; deSilva 2000a:53; Johnson 2006:49; Sheriffs 2003:281). Jesus rescues His people from sin and death, and He saves them for fellowship with God (cf. Attridge 1989:28; deSilva 1997a:360; Rhodes 1992:206– 207). In Hebrews, salvation is metaphorically called the “rest” of God (4:1), “eternal inheritance” (9:15), and the “Most Holy Place” (9:12). Furthermore, the way in which “God dealt with Israel” during the Old Testament era and what He declared to His people now “applies to the Christian community” (Giles 1997:198). The author’s three main emphases—namely, Jesus as Son, High Priest, and Savior—are drawn together in 5:8–10 (cf. Bruce 1985:xxi; Craddock 1998:12:11, 63; Kent 1981:101; Kistemaker 1984:11–12; Strecker 2000:611–612). In light of the Messiah’s preeminence, the author urged his readers to hold fast to the true confession and endure whatever suffering or reproach was necessary on its behalf (4:14; 6:18; 13:13; cf. Goppelt 1982:251–252; Johnson 2006:56; Lane 1991a:cxliii; Lane 1997:453; Marshall 2004:708). The exhortation to persevere in the pilgrimage of faith is grounded in the writer’s proof that the Old Testament itself testified to the imperfection of the covenant at Sinai and its sacrificial system, thereby pointing ahead to a new High Priest—Jesus Christ (cf. Attridge 1989:28; Guthrie 1981:483; Morris 1990:305–306; Newman 1997a:248; Schreiner 2008:110–111, 385). Collectively, the “levitical priesthood, the wilderness tabernacle and its sacrifices” functioned as an “earthly pattern or type of the heavenly benefits” the Messiah obtained for believers (Seifrid 1997a:274). The Son is better than the mediators, sanctuary, and sacrifices of the old order (including that of the Jerusalem temple and cult). In association with the Son, there is greater grace and glory, as well as greater accountability, which now have arrived in the new covenant mediated by Jesus. Unlike the earthly and external aspects of the Old Testament tabernacle and shrine, the Redeemer sanctifies believers for the true worship of God, so that they can draw near to heaven itself with clean consciences. The Messiah is the guarantee of this better covenant bond, for He links believers inseparably with the Lord of grace (cf. Averbeck 1997:4:1016–1017; deSilva 2000a:55; Fanning 1994a:398–399; Kaiser 2008:367; Morris 1981:12:76; Rowland 2007:476–477; Thielman 2005:596). The preceding truths form the theological backdrop for 12:18–29, which is “narratively linked to the Zion tradition” found in the Old Testament (Newman 1997d:562). The author maintained that while Mount Sinai (where the law was

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given) was great, Mount Zion (representing the Messiah’s kingdom) is greater still (cf. Betz 1967:106; Clowney 2002:20; Lane 1991b:449; O’Brien 2002:95; Thompson 2008:261). In this regard, the homilist foresaw the “removal of the created order” (Schenck 2007:128), since its “associations” were with “the old age” as well as “the old covenant” (142). Because the latter had fulfilled its divinely-ordained intent, it was “destined to be removed/transformed” (117). It would be incorrect to conclude that the writer was somehow discrediting Mount Sinai, for he affirmed the central role it occupied in salvation history (cf. Attridge 1989:372; Caird 1995:264; Guthrie 2007:988). By way of example, when Moses was receiving the law from God on Sinai, the mountain was “burning with fire” (v. 18) and covered with “darkness, gloom and storm”. There was a trumpet blast and the sound of God’s voice, which the listeners could not bear to listen to (v. 19; cf. Dyrness 1977:72). The voice would not even permit animals to touch the mountain, since it had been made holy with His presence (v. 20). The display of God’s awesomeness was such that even Moses, God’s prophet, was terrified (v. 21; Bruce 1985:371–372; Craddock 1998:12:158; deSilva 2000a:465; Johnson 2006:329; Morris 1981:12:141–142). All of these details are confirmed in the Old Testament (cf. Exod 19:12, 13, 16–19; Deut 9:19). In contrast, new covenant believers have not journeyed to Mount Sinai but to Mount Zion. Also, unlike Mount Sinai, which “can be touched” (Heb 12:18), Mount Zion is impalpable. Mount Sinai is a physical mountain, whereas the eschatological Mount Zion is not (cf. Barrois 1962b:4:960; Hughes 1979:542–543; Thompson 2008:262; Westcott 1980:410–411). The author described the latter as “the city of the living God, the heavenly Jerusalem” (v. 22; cf. 11:10, 13–16; 13:14). By making use of both “spatial and temporal imagery”, the writer sought to “demonstrate the comparable yet provisionary character of the Sinai covenant” (Newman 1997a:249). In Galatians 4:24–31, Paul constructed an allegory using Mount Sinai and Mount Zion (cf. vv. 21–23; Mowry 1962:1:83; Ridderbos 1984:175–176; Schoddie 1979:1:15; Silva 1993:635–636). The “deeper meaning” the apostle drew from the passage emerged from his own “ideas and frame of reference” (Betz 1979:243). It is as if Paul “serves up a cake, the basic ingredients of which are typological but which has some allegorical icing” (Lincoln 1981:14). The apostle endeavored to show that God’s plan to give Abraham a son was fulfilled, not by human effort, but by God’s keeping His promise in a miraculous way (cf. Boice 1984:10:482; Dumbrell 1985:29–30; Gorman 2004:212; Guthrie 1984:123; Kaiser 2008:256). The apostle figuratively interpreted Old Testament passages (e.g. Gen 16; 17:15– 21; and 21:1–21) to illustrate the difference between law and grace (cf. Bruce 1982:217–218; Hansen 1994:145; Kline 2006:308; McKelvey 1969:141; McKnight

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1995:228–229; Silva 1996:180–181). Paul considered Hagar’s literal slavery to be symbolic of the spiritual slavery caused by the law given at Mount Sinai (cf. Brueggemann 1982:112; Calvert 1993:5–6; Dunn 1998:146; Eastman 1999:78; Hays 2000:11:300–301; Ridderbos 1984:174–175). Hagar corresponds to Jerusalem of the apostle’s day, for it was the center of the Jewish religion and the hometown of the Judaizers (i.e. religious legalists). The apostle personified the city of Jerusalem and said she was enslaved with her children, meaning the Jews. They were still bound to the law because they had not found freedom in the Messiah. In contrast, Jesus’ followers are the children of another mother, namely, the Jerusalem that is above, and she is free. In the coming day of eschatological fulfillment, the latter will be the “metropolis of the Christian community” (Cohen 1981:77). Additionally, the Savior’s disciples are the spiritual heirs of the “divine promise made to Abraham” (Betz 1979:249). Paul quoted Isaiah 54:1 to show how the heavenly Jerusalem can be said to be the mother of all Christians (cf. Boice 1984:10:484; Bruce 1982:222; Guthrie 1984:125; Hansen 1994:148–149; Hogeterp 2006:230–232; McKnight 1995:231). In making this analogy, Paul utilized “earthly realities” to teach truths about “realities which transcend time and space” (Lincoln 1981:29). It would be incorrect to conclude from this that the apostle was attacking either the Jewish people or their religion; instead, the target of his “polemic” was the “Jewish-Christian Missionaries” who were “disrupting his Gentile churches” (Hays 2000:11:300). Moreover, Paul was not showing contempt for the existing “Temple, city and Law” (Sweet 1991:389); as it happens, he remained appreciative of and faithful to his Jewish roots in all its multifaceted expression (cf. Rom 3:1–2; 7:12; 9:2–5; de Lacey 1991:401; Wilson 1989:8). With respect to Hebrews, the writer explained that in coming to Mount Zion, Jesus’ followers had encountered several eternal blessings. The first one is “thousands upon thousands of angels in joyful assembly” (12:22). Second is “the church of the firstborn, whose names are written in heaven” (vs. 23). This “worshiping community” includes all Christians on earth (Giles 1997:198; cf. Attridge 1989:375; O’Brien 1993b:301–302; Lane 1991b:468; Thompson 2008:263). Because of Jesus, they will be treated like privileged inheritors of heaven (cf. Rom 8:17), where they already have their names enrolled. The third blessing is “God, the judge of all” (Heb 12:23). As the “eschatological judge of all creatures” (Johnson 2006:333), the Father will not condemn, but rather justify those who believe in His Son (cf. Bruce 1985:377–378; Hughes 1979:549; Kistemaker 1984:394; Morris 1981:12:142). Fourth is “the spirits of the righteous made perfect.” These are probably believers from the Old Testament era, such as the people mentioned in chapter 11. They have been made perfect in the sense that their souls have been cleansed from

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sin through the Messiah (cf. vs. 40). The fifth blessing is “Jesus the mediator of a new covenant” (12:24; cf. 8:6). Moses was the mediator of the old covenant by receiving the law from God and delivering it to the Israelites. Similarly, Jesus mediated the new covenant by teaching about faith and dying so that sinners can be reconciled with God. Sixth is “the sprinkled blood that speaks a better word than the blood of Abel” (12:24). The “sprinkled blood” is what Jesus shed on the cross. Whereas Abel’s blood cried out for retribution (cf. Gen. 4:10), Jesus’ blood makes forgiveness possible (cf. Bruce 1985:379; Craddock 1998:12:158; deSilva 2000a:468; Kent 1981:273–274; Lane 1991b:473–474; Westcott 1980:417–418). The Book of Hebrews urged Jesus followers not to “refuse him who speaks” (12:25), which is a reference to God. The author mentioned the Exodus generation as an example of what not to do. When God dwelt with the Israelites, He repeatedly warned them not to disobey Him; but they did rebel against Him, and so He punished them on several occasions. Moreover, virtually all of them died in the Sinai desert before the nation entered the promised land (cf. Num 14:26–35). Given that this was the fate of those who refused to heed the divine message given by Moses, it is even less likely that people today will be able to escape God’s judgment if they reject the Lord Jesus, who issues His warning from the throne room of heaven (Heb. 12:25). In short, the Messiah demands faithfulness from His followers (cf. Attridge 1989:379; deSilva 1997b:440; Hughes 1979:555; Kistemaker 1984:397; Ladd 1997:632; Thompson 2008:263). Verse 26 reveals the dire consequence of renouncing the Savior. In the time of Moses, there was a violent earthquake at Sinai (cf. Exod 19:18); but at the Messiah’s second coming, God promised not only to upturn the earth, but also the heavens (Heb 12:26; cf. Hag 2:6). This latter episode will be much more serious than the former one. At the consummation of the age, all of creation will be shaken, and only what is unshakable will survive (Heb 12:27). The latter refers to the Savior’s kingdom, which is unshakable and will survive the coming demise (cf. 2 Pet 3:10–13; Craddock 1998:12:159; Johnson 2006:336; Kent 1981:275–276; Lane 1991b:482–483; Morris 1981:12:144; Westcott 1980:420–421). The writer of Hebrews drew two conclusions from the truth that believers will inherit an unshakable kingdom (12:28). First, they should “be thankful” that the Father, in His grace, allows them to be saved through faith in His Son (cf. Eph 2:8– 9). Second, the writer of Hebrews enjoined believers to offer worship that is pleasing to God, namely, with “reverence and awe” (12:28). Put differently, before God’s majestic presence, believers should exercise humility, especially as they offer Him praise (cf. Caird 1995:183; Kim 1997:633; Marshall 2004:611). In support of his second conclusion, the author quoted Deuteronomy 4:24 (cf. Exod 24:17; Deut 9:3; Isa 33:14), which says that “God is a consuming fire” (Heb. 12:29). The idea

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is that the Lord tolerates no rivals, whether real or imaginary (cf. Jas 4:4–5). Ultimately, people must face God either as a purifying fire or as a punishing fire, that is, to be cleansed or to be consumed (cf. deSilva 2000a:477; Guthrie 1981:103; Porter 1997:1240; Schreiner 2008:592; Seifrid 1997b:622).

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CHAPTER NINE The Temple Motif in the Writings of Paul and Peter

he temple motif is part of the conceptual and linguistic framework of the writings of Paul and Peter (cf. Bonnington 2004:152; McKinlay 1994:492; Peterson 2004:161; Sanders 1997). The key passages in this regard are 1 Corinthians 3:5–17; 6:14–20; 2 Corinthians 4:14–5:10; Ephesians 2:14–22; and 1 Peter 2:4–9. These epistles portray the body of Christ as a “divinely created entity” (O’Brien 1993a:126; O’Brien 2002:92), the “visible expression of the invisible kingdom of God” (Waltke 2007:167), and the permanent dwelling place of the Spirit (cf. Fletcher-Louis 2004:99; Walton 2001:194–195). The notion of the “community of the faithful as a spiritual temple” has its roots in “Palestinian Judaism”, as demonstrated by an analysis of the Dead Sea scrolls discovered at Qumran (McKelvey 1969:56; cf. de Lacey 1991:403; Hogeterp 2006:105–106, 318; Lincoln 1981:151). Despite this “formal parallelism between Paul and Qumran”, much of the apostolic teaching finds no counterpart in the Dead Sea scrolls (Walker 1996:120– 121). For instance, before the advent of the Messiah, Jerusalem and its temple were considered the focal point for God’s holy presence and redemptive activity; but now the latter is centered in the risen Lord and His spiritual body, which “in a geographical sense [has] become pluriform” (Turner 1979:137). Additionally, the Pauline and Petrine letters reveal that the “community of the faithful” is regarded as the “fulfillment of the ancient hope” that the Lord would “dwell with his people in a new and more intimate way” (McKelvey 1969:98). Here, one discovers that Scripture is not just about theology. It also is a record of the triune God reaching out to humankind in love and grace. In some ways, the progressive unfolding of divine revelation, as recorded in the Bible, is an exposition of the missionary intent of God. For instance, in the Old Testament, the Lord “called and elected” Israel for “service unto the nations of the earth” (Kaiser 1996:7). This indicates that the nation was “chosen … as the means by which salvation could be extended to others throughout the earth” (Wright 2006:263). In point of fact, the “world of nations” was supposed to “come to Israel” (Peters 1982:21). Thus, Israel was supposed to be the “mediator between God and the na-

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tions” (23). More specifically, Israel was to be the “priesthood of God among the nations to mediate God’s revelation, salvation, and purpose” (cf. Gen 12:1–3; Exod 19:6; Ps 67:1–2; Isa 2:1–4; 61:6; Mic 4:1–3; Fanning 2009:2–4; Köstenberger and O’Brien 2001:30, 35–36; McKenzie 1974:294–295; Okoye 2006:4, 11; Rowley 1945:14–15, 32, 38–39; Van Rheenen 1996:29–30). The eschatological office and function that once belonged to Israel (and its consecrated monarchs) is fulfilled in the Messiah (cf. Bultmann 2007:1:65–66; Dahl 1964:422, 431; Witherington 1993:113). Indeed, as the last Adam, He is the representative head of a new, redeemed humanity (cf. Childs 1962a:1:44; Dunn 1992:1:984; Kreitzer 1993a:11; Minear 1962:1:615–616; Ridderbos 1975:81, 85; Wright 1993:26–27, 59–60). Furthermore, the missionary function of Israel has been transferred, at least temporarily, to the church (cf. Bowers 1993:618; Kaiser 2008:262–263; Martins 2007:247–248). The body of Christ has become the witness, the priesthood, the servant, the salt, and the light of the risen Lord to a lost and dying world (cf. Bromiley 1979a:1:693; Conzelmann 1969:42–43; Moulder 1986:3:965; Schnabel 1997:754; Taylor 1992:6:752). In this scheme, the church goes out into all the world heralding the gospel and bringing the lost to the Savior (cf. Chance 1988:22–23; Clowney 2002:46–47; Congar 1962:ix; Dumbrell 1985:135; Marshall 2004:35–36, 157, 186; Schreiner 2008:675). In the Jewish apocalyptic writings of the day, the temple—more specifically, the most holy place within the Jerusalem shrine—was considered the dwelling place of God (cf. Lincoln 1981:151). That said, it would be incorrect to assume that the Jewish apocalyptic writings were akin to a literary monolith characterized by wholesale ideological agreement (cf. Allison 1992a:17; Aune 1993:25–26; Bowman 1962:2:135–136; Collins 2000:45; Kreitzer 1993c:254–255; Kreitzer 1997a:55– 56; Ladd 1979:1:151–152; Rist 1962:1:158–159). On the contrary, while it is possible to discern the general contours of a “first-century perspective”, the views espoused by the “original authors, redactors or editors of the different strands of material” were diverse and polychromatic (Wright 1992:262). Now, as a result of Jesus’ incarnation, He has become the quintessential “new Temple”. Moreover, “in a derivative sense that status” is transferred to believers through the abiding presence of the Holy Spirit (Walker 1996:170). Because the saints abide with the Messiah in the “heavenly dimension” (O’Brien 1993a:125), they have the assurance that when He “appears”, they will also “appear with him in glory” (Col 3:4). These truths imply more than a local congregation being just a small element of a larger “universal or heavenly reality”. Every corporate gathering of believers can be “regarded as an earthly expression of the heavenly” sanctum (Peterson 2004:172). Consequently, it would be erroneous to think only of the church as congre-

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gants who “meet together in certain buildings at certain times” and who offer “worship … to God on particular occasions” (McKelvey 1969:185). More broadly, the church is understood to be a “community of faith, learning, and living” (Wilson 1989:189) that is comprised of all true believers for all time (cf. Coenen 1986:1:300–301; Conzelmann 1969:44–45; Giles 1997:195; Ratzinger 2009:49). This statement recognizes the church to be made up of all those who are truly saved (cf. Caird 1995:215–216; Marshall 1989:219, 222; Minear 1962:1:608–609; Schreiner 2008:713–714). Scriptural support for this notion comes from Ephesians 5:25, where Paul said that “Christ loved the church and gave himself for her”. The apostle used the Greek term rendered “church” to refer to all those whom Jesus died to redeem. So great is the Father’s plan for the church that He has exalted the Son to a position of highest authority for its sake (cf. 1:22–23). Turning now to Corinth, on the one hand, it had a strong Greco-Roman culture; on the other hand, the presence of a sizable “Jewish community” suggests the believers in the city were familiar with “Jewish temple-theological ideas” (Hogeterp 2006:323). Moreover, given the fact that “Paul addresses” the “former pagan life” of his readers in a “negative way” (cf. 1 Cor 12:2), it would be antithetical to his “purpose to derive his temple imagery … from a pagan context” (342). Instead, “Palestinian-Jewish sources contemporary” to the apostle formed the “theological background” for his remarks about the “body as Temple” (344). One of the most immediate problems the believers faced was division within their ranks. Some claimed to adhere to the teachings of Paul, Apollos, Peter, or Jesus (1:12). Paul was not taking issue with these individuals or their teachings. Rather, the apostle opposed the divisiveness of people who said they preferred one church leader’s instruction over that of another to the point of being factional. In 3:5, Paul explained that people like Apollos and himself were nothing more than God’s servants helping people to trust in Jesus as their Savior. Each servant performed the task the Lord had assigned him or her to do (cf. Blomberg 1995:73; Ciampa and Rosner 2007:703; Ellis 1993:185; Kaiser 2008:272; Lowery 1994c:250; Thielman 2005:282). Paul conveyed his meaning using garden imagery that possibly was reminiscent of the primordial sacred space existing in Eden. The apostle wrote that God had appointed him to plant seeds—in essence, to establish new churches. In contrast, Apollos had been called to water the planted seeds—in essence, to help existing churches grow and mature. Figuratively speaking, the two were “humble field hands”, namely, the “plowboy and the water boy”, who together “engaged in manual labor” (Garland 2003:111). Paul and Apollos were fellow workers striving for the same goal; and yet beyond the work of either minister was the work of God Himself, who was solely responsible for enabling the church to grow (v. 6;

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cf. Bruce 1986:43; Fee 1987:132; Johnson 2004:73;Morris 2001:63; Prior 1985:57; Thiselton 2000:302). In verses 7–9, Paul elaborated on what he had just told the Corinthians. Though he was primarily referring here to those engaged in full-time Christian ministries, the apostle also conveyed four points about the work of all believers. First, they cannot produce any spiritual results on their own (v. 7) for they are God’s servants, attendants to what God produces and grows as He establishes His kingdom on earth (cf. Matt 6:10; Barrett 1968:85; Fitzmyer 2008:194; Furnish 2003:36; Grosheide 1984:82; Hays 1997:52). Second, though Christians may have various functions in the work of the church, they all have only one ultimate purpose (1 Cor. 3:8a). Thus, they have to be unified in their goal and willing to work together to accomplish the aim of the Creator-King. Third, each believer will be rewarded according to his or her faithfulness in fulfilling a God-given task (v. 8b). Even though believers are to be unified in their endeavor, they are individually responsible to God and will be evaluated on an individual basis (cf. Fee 1987:133; Johnson 2004:73; Lenski 1961:129; Seifrid 1997b:623). Fourth, as servants of God, Christians are fellow laborers who work together in God’s church (v. 9; Blomberg 1995:73; Mare 1984:10:305; Morris 2001:63; Prior 1985:58). At the end of verse 9, Paul switched from using gardening imagery to using construction imagery, as he compared the Corinthians to a sacred edifice belonging to God (cf. Bruce 1986:43; Ratzinger 2009:53; Thiselton 2000:307). The fact that the job was ongoing implied that the church was “still a work in progress” (Garland 2003:113). Next, the apostle compared himself to an expert builder who, because God had graciously given him the ability to do so, had laid the structure’s foundation, that is, by proclaiming the gospel. Others, such as Apollos, were like laborers who had built the sanctuary on its foundation, namely, by teaching the people how to become more spiritually mature (v. 10; cf. Fitzmyer 2008:196; Ridderbos 1975:430; Sampley 1995:10:828). Paul realized that the Lord will one day scrutinize all that His servants have done. That is why the apostle threw in a note of caution. Ministers need to be careful how they perform their tasks (v. 10). Paul added to the warning by writing that there is not to be any foundation other than the Messiah (v. 11). No worldly belief system is an acceptable basis for the Lord’s eschatological community. Only the good news about Jesus is a foundation firm enough to support the kind of church God wants (cf. Barrett 1968:87; Fee 1987:139; Gorman 2004:245; Grosheide 1984:85; Hays 1997:53; Prior 1985:59; Schnelle 1998:70). After issuing this warning to the Corinthians, Paul turned his attention to the types of material ministers might use to build upon the foundation of God’s spir-

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itual temple. Those who proclaim the gospel and behave in a way consistent with its teaching are like laborers who select the most precious stones available for constructing the sanctuary. Those who compromise the gospel and behave in ungodly and careless ways are like laborers who use wood, hay, and straw to construct the edifice (v. 12; Blomberg 1995:74; Fitzmyer 2008:198; Mare 1984:10:207; Morris 2001:65–66; Thiselton 2000:311). Paul wrote that a time of evaluation is coming in which the deeds of all believers will be judged. This evaluation will take place at Jesus’ return. The apostle said the works will be tested by the fire of God’s justice. Whatever is constructed with imperishable materials will remain standing; in contrast, whatever is constructed with perishable materials will be reduced to ashes (v. 13). God will reward those ministers who do their work faithfully, building the church with quality materials (v. 14). He will also save those who go about their work less faithfully (assuming, of course, they are true believers)—but just barely (v. 15). The implication is that they will miss out on some rewards (cf. Bruce 1986:44; Garland 2003:119; Guthrie 1981:861–862; Thielman 2005:283–284). Paul said that the less faithful ministers “will suffer loss”. Bible scholars differ on what this “loss” is. Some claim it is the regret these ministers will experience when, at the judgment, they do not have any works to present to the Messiah. Others say that the loss is the ministers’ missing out on the reward of those who have diligently labored for the kingdom of God (cf. Barrett 1968:89–90; Grosheide 1984:87–88; Fee 1987:143–145; Morris 2001:66; Prior 1985:60; Sampley 1995:10:829; Thiselton 2000:314–315). Paul made it clear to the Corinthian believers why it was important to be careful how they performed their tasks. The apostle asked a rhetorical question to emphasize that all believers are God’s “sacred community” (Peterson 2004:162) and the abode of the Holy Spirit (v. 16; cf. Chilton, Comfort, and Wise 2000:1179; Comfort 1993:924; Ridderbos 1975:430). In ancient Israel, God made His presence known in the tabernacle and temple (cf. Hays 1997:57; McCartney 1997:509); but since the day of Pentecost, the triune God’s abode had become the hearts of His people through the permanent indwelling of the Holy Spirit (cf. Averbeck 2003:825–826; Beasley-Murray 1993:63–64; Furnish 2003:33). It is astonishing to imagine that the Corinthians, while assembled in their “cramped, diminutive house churches”, could be the “temple of God”. After all, this “ramshackle” group of believers could neither match the “grand temples in Corinth” nor the “magnificent temple in Jerusalem” (Garland 2003:120). Nonetheless, even though the circumstance might seem foolish to the world, this is how the Lord, in His infinite wisdom operated, to unite dissimilar people from assorted backgrounds into one spiritual body (cf. 1:18–31). Because Jesus’ followers were now the localized dwelling place for God, He

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was intensely concerned about their welfare. To Him, believers—individually and collectively—were His temple; indeed, they were more glorious to God than Solomon’s legendary shrine complex (Blomberg 1995:75; Ciampa and Rosner 2007:73). Furthermore, believers were sacred, for they had been set apart to worship and serve God exclusively (cf. Guthrie 1981:748; Von Medling 1986:3:784). Therefore, Paul warned against defiling or damaging the church. Anyone who did could count on God’s retribution (3:17). Implicit in the apostle’s words was a warning to Christian ministers who might lead believers away from gospel truth (cf. Hays 1997:58; Mare 1984:10:208; O’Brien 1993a:127; Thiselton 2000:318; Wenham 1995:206). In 6:12–20, Paul dealt with the issue of sexual immorality among the Corinthians. In his extended diatribe, he noted that the believer’s body will be raised from the dead just as the Messiah’s body was raised (v. 14; cf. Bruce 1986:63; Fee 1987:256–257; Prior 1985:100). Therefore, the purpose of the body goes beyond the present moment. The apostle encouraged his readers not to overlook the eternal perspective when deciding what to do with their bodies. When the Corinthians kept in mind God’s eternal plans for them, they would be less inclined to do that which was spiritually detrimental (cf. Blomberg 1995:126; Furnish 2003:55; Marshall 2004:256–257; Morris 2001:95; Thielman 2005:296). Paul then told his readers that their bodies had been united with the spiritual body of Christ (cf. Bass 1979:1:530; Garland 2003:232; Grosheide 1984:147; Mare 1984:10:225). Because their bodies formed a union with the temple of Jesus’ metaphysical body, they should not unite themselves with those of prostitutes (v. 15). Such a sinful act was equal to desecrating the body of Christ. In verse 16, the apostle indicated that a sexual act is more than physical; in other words, it is not completely divorced from the spiritual realm. When a man is physically intimate with a woman, he becomes “one flesh” with her (cf. Gen 2:24; Barrett 1968:149; Bruce 1986:64; Prior 1985:101; Thiselton 2000:467). To Paul, the sexual act is an expression of two people’s entire personalities. It is a way two people reveal and commit themselves to each other (cf. Ciampa and Rosner 2007:713; Fitzmyer 2008:267; Hays 1997:104; Sampley 1995:10:863). Physical unions in themselves are not bad; but a Christian also has a spiritual union with God (1 Cor 6:17). When people come to faith in the Messiah, they are allied with the Holy Spirit and become spiritually one with the Lord (cf. Garland 2003:235; Meye 1993:915; Morris 2001:98; Paige 1993:407). It was repulsive to Paul that any believer united with God would also become joined with a prostitute. So the apostle told his readers to shun all forms of sexual immorality (v. 18). Put differently, they were to run away from temptations to express their sexuality in morally illicit ways (cf. Blomberg 1995:126; Bruce 1986:65; Comfort 1993:924;

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Fee 1987:262; Furnish 2003:58–59; O’Brien 1993a:127). Next, Paul refuted what may have been a Corinthian slogan—“all other sins people commit are outside their bodies”. Evidently, the latter was a warped interpretation of what the apostle taught (cf. Gorman 2004:249). Paul explained that the sexually immoral person risks weakening and perverting his or her own physical strength. That person also forfeits his or her moral character (cf. Barrett 1968:150; Mare 1984:10:225; Grosheide 1984:151; Johnson 2004:103). The apostle reminded the Corinthians that their bodies were temples for the Holy Spirit. Therefore, the believer’s body is not his or her own; it belongs to God (v. 19; cf. Test of Joseph 10:3; Chilton, Comfort, and Wise 2000:1179; Fitzmyer 2008:270; Goppelt 1982:122; Sampley 1995:10:864; Vos 2000:155). In addition to using the analogy of a sanctuary to describe the way a Christian belongs to God, Paul also used the image of a slave market. He told the church at Corinth that they had been bought with a price. In short, Jesus had purchased them through His death on the cross, somewhat like wealthy people buying slaves. Metaphorically speaking, “God now has the title deed to their bodies” (Garland 2003:239). Because all believers belonged to God, Paul urged his readers to glorify the Lord with their bodies by fleeing immorality and being sexually pure (1 Cor 6:20; cf. DeSilva 2004:571; Hays 1997:107; Ladd 1997:585–586; Thiselton 2000:478–479; Wenham 1995:183). The concept of the believer’s physical body as an earthly tent, or special dwelling place of the Spirit, forms the backdrop of Paul’s comments in 2 Corinthians 4:14–5:10. Despite all the suffering he endured as an apostle, Paul’s faith remained strong. His hope, however, went beyond deliverance from temporal dangers. The apostle knew that after he had finally faced death, the Lord would certainly raise him and all other believers from the dead (4:14). Just as the Father had raised His Son from the dead, the Father will also raise from the dead all those who believe in His Son. Paul’s phrase “with Jesus” does not refer to a resurrection occurring simultaneously with that of the Messiah, but to the fact that the believers’ new life will result from their spiritual union with Him (cf. Bruce 1986:198; Guthrie 1981:832; Harris 2005:353; Martin 1986:90; Thrall 1994:343). Paul had earlier referred to the day of the Lord, when the apostle would boast of the Corinthians and they of him in the presence of the Redeemer (cf. 1:14). In 4:14, Paul returned to this expectation, elaborating on his future hope, when he, along with his converts, would be presented before the Savior as part of His church. The apostle was assured this glorious event would someday arrive, and he never stopped longing for it. Of course, his thankfulness and praise for that hope were directed toward the Messiah, who through His death and resurrection had made it possible for Paul, his converts, and all believers throughout the ages to

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stand face-to-face with the Lord (cf. Barnett 1997:242–243; Garland 1999:236– 237; Marshall 2004:285; Plummer 1978:134). The preceding truths were why the apostle could endure so much on behalf of the believers at Corinth and put so much energy into building them up in their faith (v. 15). He knew that their steadfastness in the faith would ultimately bring glory to God both during their lifetime on earth and when they stood together before the Lord in His celestial sanctuary. Thus, Paul confidently looked forward to the day when he and his children in the faith were finally in the presence of their Savior (cf. Furnish 1984:286; Harris 2005:356; Kistemaker 1997:156; Sampley 2000:11:82; Thrall 1994:345). With God’s transforming power at work in the apostle’s life now (cf. vv. 7–12), and with the prospect of a glorious resurrection in his future (v. 14), Paul repeated that he did not lose heart in his present circumstances (v. 16; cf. v. 1). Even though his mortal frame was “wasting away” (v. 16) and gradually moving closer to the grave, the apostle realized that renewal was taking place within him. He said the physical toll that his evangelistic work had taken on him had been more than compensated for by the work of the Holy Spirit in his life. The eternal life for which Paul longed was already at work in his life (cf. Barnett 1997:246; Belleville 1996:127; Bruce 1986:199; Garland 1999:240; Hughes 1980:153–154; Matera 2003:116). From any other vantage point, the apostle’s suffering must have appeared extremely grievous and long lasting; but as Paul thought about the glory of the eternal life ahead of him, he regarded his afflictions as merely “light and momentary” (v. 17). When compared to the overwhelming weight of the glory that lay ahead for him, his sufferings were almost weightless. When the apostle said that his troubles were “achieving” this glory, it would be incorrect to take his words to mean that his suffering was in some way meriting a place in heaven. Paul thought of his salvation as a gift from God. Thus, the idea of the apostle earning his future glory would have contradicted what he had taught in other letters (cf. Eph 2:8–10; Phil 3:8–11). Rather, Paul’s purpose here was to contrast the insignificance of his own sufferings with the magnitude of God’s grace (cf. Furnish 1984:290; Harris 2005:362–363; Kistemaker 1997:160; Lenski 1961:992; Martin 1986:92). With such a future in store for the apostle, he focused his attention on eternal realities rather than on his human frailty and suffering. Though invisible, the spiritual realm and eternal glory in the heavenly tabernacle are real and never ending, while the afflictions of this world are only temporal (2 Cor 4:18). The apostle was not suggesting that his readers lose interest in the things of this world; instead, he simply wanted them to possess a proper perspective, one that realizes the value of the unseen and would lead them to adjust their lives accordingly (Gar-

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land 1999:244; Hughes 1980:159; Plummer 1978:139; Sampley 2000:11:83; Thrall 1994:356). Though the believers’ future glory cannot yet be seen, the Lord had revealed to Paul many things about it, some of which he had already shared with the Corinthians. The apostle’s reference to the destruction of the “earthly tent” (5:1), or tabernacle, probably refers to the demise of the mortal body that will take place at death (cf. Bultmann 2007:1:291–202; Harris 2005:369; Matera 2003:119; Wenham 1995:208). The prospect of death, however, did not discourage the apostle, for he knew that another abode awaited him, an everlasting one made by God (cf. Furnish 1984:292; Lincoln 1981:60–61; Martin 1986:103). When Paul wrote 1 Corinthians, he told his readers about this new tabernacle that believers will receive at the return of the Lord. The apostle explained that the perishable, temporal bodies of Christians were unfit for heaven, and so they needed to be transformed into imperishable, immortal ones (15:53; cf. Anderson 1999:335; Caird 1995:267; Furnish 2003:115–116; Ladd 1997:408–409; Lowery 1994c:260, 273, 291). Paul’s focus on his future glorified body kept him from becoming dismayed at the diminishing faculties of his temporal dwelling. Also, knowing that his “earthly tent” (2 Cor 5:1) was meant to be dismantled helped him weather the persecution and tribulations inflicted upon him. Through Jesus’ resurrection, someday Paul’s old, worn-down abode would be replaced with a new, heavenly, and eternal tabernacle (cf. Barnett 1997:260; Belleville 1996:132; Bruce 1986:201–202; Garland 1999:252; Harris 1976:54–55; McKelvey 1969:146–147). The apostle’s groaning did not stem from a complaining nature or from his desire to die; rather it arose from his eager longing to take up residence in his heavenly sanctuary, that is, his resurrection body (2 Cor 5:2; cf. Rom 8:18–23). The apostle desired to be alive when the Messiah returned and granted him his spiritual dwelling place; yet Paul also realized that he would eventually be given a resurrection body, even if he died before the Lord’s return (cf. 1 Cor 15:51–57; 1 Thess 4:13–18; Harris 2005:380; Kistemaker 1997:170; Matera 2003:121; Plummer 1978:145; Thrall 1994:367, 379). The resurrection body of believers will be real, literal, and fully adapted to their glorified state of existence. (cf. Kreitzer 1993e:808–809). Moreover, the saints will experience an “enduring rationality”, a “consistency of personality”, and a “persistence of memory” (Kreitzer 1993b:75). Paul described the interim between the death of the physical body and the reception of the spiritual body as a time of being “naked” (2 Cor 5:3). Over the centuries, Bible interpreters have proposed many theories about when believers will be granted eternal, spiritual bodies. For instance, some have taken the biblical comparison of death to sleep quite literally. Their view, called “sleep of the soul”, is based on passages such as Matthew 9:24 and 1 Corinthians 15:20 and 51. They

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maintain that dead believers remain in a state of unconsciousness until they are raised up at the Messiah’s second coming (cf. Bultmann 1999:3:17; Caird 1995:268–269; Conzelmann 1969:190; Guthrie 1981:835–836). The more traditional understanding, however, is that while the earthly body dies (to be raised later as a transformed spiritual body), the soul goes to be with the Lord (cf. Kaiser 2008:276; Kümmel 1973:240; Ladd 1982:2:140–141; Ladd 1997:599–600; Matera 2003:122). Jesus’ parable recorded in Luke 16:19–31, His statement to the thief on the cross (23:43), and Paul’s looking forward to dying so that he could enter Jesus’ presence (Phil 1:23) all seem to indicate a consciousness immediately after death. Thus, it is more commonly held that the biblical references to sleep are metaphors for death, and that the souls of deceased believers reside in the presence of the Lord (cf. Barnett 1997:263; Bruce 1986:294; Kistemaker 1997:172; Kreitzer 1993d:439; Thielman 2005:337). Accordingly, the period between death and the resurrection is a time in which the believer’s soul, while absent of any sort of body, resides in the Redeemer’s sacred presence. During this interim, the souls of believers wait to be clothed with their eternal, resurrection bodies (cf. Belleville 1996:135; Helyer 2008:299–300; Lincoln 1981:66–67; Martin 1986:105; Ridderbos 1975:500–501; Sampley 2000:11:84). This longed-for event is nothing less than the “glorious reintegration of the soul and body in an incorruptible union” (Hughes 1980:171). By way of implication, the physical “body is not the prison, the shell, the exterior” of a person; rather, one’s “body belongs to a person’s essence” (Bonhoeffer 1997:76–77). Though Paul expressed his hope that Jesus would return before the apostle experienced death, he still had a positive view of this time. Paul recognized that though his soul would be without a body, his soul would nonetheless be with the Savior (cf. Phil 1:23), and that nothing, not even death, could separate the apostle from the Messiah’s love (cf. Rom 8:38–39). Paul clearly longed to be alive when the Lord returned, rather than face death and separation from his “earthly tent” (2 Cor 5:1). The apostle had this desire not because the interim period (in which the soul is present with the Messiah) is bad, but because the final result—that of receiving a “heavenly dwelling” (vv. 2, 4) adapted to the spiritual world—will be very good. The resurrection of believers in our “eternal house in heaven” (v. 1; cf. John 14:2– 3) is the completion of our victory over death (cf. 1 Cor 15:54–57; Barnett 1997:265; deSilva 1998:91; Harris 1976:55; Harris 2005:387–388; Lenski 1961:1005; Longman and Reid 1995:156–157). The blessedness of that future time caused Paul to groan in anticipation. This process, however, is totally of God. Indeed, the Lord created us so that we, in our transformed bodies, might dwell forever with Him (2 Cor 5:5). This promise of eternal life does not come as the result of human effort or workmanship. It is the

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Father’s gift to us when we trust in His Son. Paul said that as believers, our resurrection is guaranteed by our reception of the Holy Spirit, who is the Father’s down payment on, or foretaste of, our future glory (cf. Acts 2:1–4; 1 Cor 12:13; Eph 1:13–14; Eastman 1999:53; Garland 1999:263; Gorman 2004:304; Guthrie 1981:832; Plummer 1978:150; Ridderbos 1975:504; Thrall 1994:385). Thus, what God has done for us in the past assures us of what He will do for us in the future. When Paul wrote about the believers’ future with the Lord, the apostle was not engaging in wishful thinking or theory making. Paul spoke with confidence that the Lord will do the things He promised (cf. John 14:2–3). Indeed, the Lord will take care of believers, both living and dead. According to 2 Corinthians 5:6, being at home in the body means being absent from the Lord. While Jesus reigns from His eternal throne in the heavenly sanctuary, believers on earth are separated from His physical presence (though, of course, they still have His abiding presence through the Spirit). This means they must live their earthly sojourn by faith in the Son and not by the sight of Him (v. 7; Barnett 1997:268; Belleville 1996:139–140; Furnish 1984:301; Harris 2005:398–399; Kistemaker 1997:178; Martin 1986:110; Matera 2003:125). Just as being at home in the body means being away from the Lord, so being away from the body means being at home with the Lord (v. 8). This underlines the reality of the believers’ hope for the future, when they will be secure in the Lord’s sacred presence. For Paul, though death meant separation from the body, it also meant abiding with the Savior forever. Understandably, the latter prospect was what the apostle intensely desired. Knowing something about the eternity that lay ahead of him, Paul consciously made it his goal to be pleasing to the Lord (v. 9). Whether Jesus’ return takes place while believers are alive or dead, all of them will be ushered into Jesus’ presence to give an account of their lives (cf. John 5:27; Acts 10:42; 17:31; Rom 2:16;14:10, 12; 1 Cor 3:13–15; 4:5). That is why the apostle established as his goal pleasing the Lord in all that he did. Also, by Paul’s example, he encouraged his readers to do the same (2 Cor 5:10; cf. DeSilva 1998:92; Eastman 1999:54; Garland 1999:266; Hughes 1980:178; Plummer 1978:155; Sampley 2000:11:85; Thrall 1994:394–395). The physical arrangement of the temple in Jerusalem again is the dominant image behind the explanation Paul offered his readers in Ephesians 2:14–22. When these believers were reconciled with God (vv. 11–13), they were also spiritually brought together with Jewish believers (vv. 14–18). Of course, Jews and Gentiles are still distinct ethnic groups; but as far as the temple of Christ’s metaphysical body is concerned, the Savior has merged the two groups (v. 14; cf. Best 2001:251; Foulkes 1979:81; Gorman 2004:511; Hendriksen 1967:133; Lincoln 1990:140– 141; Muddiman 2001:126). Previous religious and ethnic backgrounds do not mat-

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ter for their status in the church, for all are equals in Christ (cf. Caird 1995:234; Kaiser 2008:24; Ratzinger 2009:82; Taylor 1992:6:750; Vlach 2009:115; Waltke 2007:324). Thus, from a theological standpoint, “believers do not have a private faith”; instead, “they have corporate relationship and responsibility to each other” (Bock 1994b:308) Paul described this union as Jesus tearing down the middle wall of partition, a barrier of hostility, which once separated Jews and Gentiles. Paul may have been thinking of the wall at the Jerusalem temple mount that separated the court where all were welcome, from the courts where only Jews could go (cf. Acts 21:27–31). This “balustrade” also stood as a symbol for the Mosaic law, which in Paul’s day “turned into an instrument of division” between Jews and non-Jews (McKelvey 1969:109). The Court of the Gentiles, in particular, permitted non-Jews to come near the sanctuary and worship God; but a barrier separated this enclosure from another section where only Jews could go (cf. Bonnington 2004:153; Barth 1974:283; Perkins 2000:11:399; Schreiner 2008:718; Talbert 2007:79; Turner 1979:41). Paul was saying that in the church, Jewish believers and Gentile Christians could mingle freely (cf. Best 2001:253; Lincoln 1990:142; Marshall 2004:384; Muddiman 2001:129; Robinson 1979:60; Schnelle 1998:311; Wood 1984:11:40). Paul noted in Ephesians 2:15 that Jesus’ death nullified, or rendered inoperative, the commandments and ordinances of the law of Moses (cf. Strecker 2000:143; Ridderbos 1975:65; Thielman 2005:402; Thielman 2007:817; Wenham 1995:227–228, 274–275). This does not mean that God had cast off the upright ethical principles of the law; rather, Jesus makes it possible for the righteous standards that people could never achieve to be attained by believers (cf. Bultmann 2007:1:262; Conzelmann 1969:224–225; Goppelt 1982:226–227; Guthrie 1981:696–697; Helyer 2008:266; Kümmel 1973:184; Nelson 2006:17; Wilson 1989:28–29). Originally, the Mosaic law had been given to the Jews, and because of that many felt superior to Gentiles; but Jesus, by dying on the cross, became the means of salvation for all people (cf. Childs 1993:546–547, 553–554; deSilva 2004:515; Ladd 1997:546–547; Morris 1990:62, 120). Thus eternal redemption by faith in the Messiah superseded the law, with the result that many of its “prescriptions” are no longer “binding upon Jesus’ disciples” (Schreiner 2008:662). On the whole, the Old Testament legal code “points forward to Jesus as Lord and must be interpreted in the light of his coming” (620). Paul depicted Jewish and Gentile believers as distinct human entities. The apostle said Jesus has made one new metaphysical body out of those two groups (cf. Bass 1979:1:531; Barth 1974:265, 311; deSilva 2004:723, 725; Fung 1993:80; Hoehner 2002:378–379; Talbert 2007:81). From a spiritual perspective there are no longer Jews and Gentiles. Expressed differently, “human distinctions are dis-

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mantled”; also, an “egalitarian community is formed” (Wall 1992:1:1106). Moreover, a new temple of the Spirit has come into existence—the church—resulting in peace. To be specific, Jesus’ death reconciles Jews and Gentiles to God as well as to each other (Eph. 2:16). The Messiah brings an end to the hostility between sinners and God, and terminates the hostility between Jews and Gentiles (cf. Best 2001:263; Guthrie 1981:490–491; Ladd 1997:498; Muddiman 2001:131; Snodgrass 1996:135; Wright 2006:313). Because the Son died on the cross, the enmity between people and God can die there too. Since Jesus never made Gentiles the prime focus of His earthly ministry, verse 17 must refer to the spread of the gospel to Gentiles. The apostles and other Christians were responsible for this evangelistic effort. Thus, through Jesus’ early followers, He proclaimed peace through the gospel to Gentiles (who were far away from God) and to Jews (who were somewhat nearer to God; cf. Kaiser 2008:294; Hendriksen 1967:136; O’Brien 1999:207; Strecker 2000:569; Taylor 1992:6:750; Wood 1984:11:41). Due to the fact that sin entered the human race and controlled the lives of people, God in His pure righteousness could not permit human beings in His presence. Also, sin caused people to rebel against God and live without any consideration of their Creator. As a result of Jesus’ work on the cross, God has dealt with sin and entered into a relationship with believers. For reconciliation to be applied individually, it is necessary that each person accept Jesus’ work for herself or himself. Thus the Messiah, through His atoning sacrifice, spiritually united believing Jews and Gentiles in a new eschatological community (cf. Belleville 1993:235–236; Blackman 1962:4:17; Bromiley 1988:4:56; Comfort 1993:925; de Lacey 1993:335; Tuckett 1992:1:521; White 2001:992–993). Centuries earlier Isaiah had foretold a day when the peace of God would be proclaimed to those near and far (cf. Isa 57:19; Acts 2:39). Paul declared the fulfillment of Isaiah’s prophecy through the Messiah and the proclamation of the gospel. Jews had been, in a sense, nearer to God than Gentiles because the chosen people had the Old Testament revelation and because the Messiah had ministered among them; but now both Jews and Gentiles—indeed, all people—have equal access to the Father through the same Holy Spirit because of what the Son has done at Calvary. All three persons of the Trinity make this possible (Eph 2:18; cf. Foulkes 1979:84–85; Hoehner 2002:388; Muddiman 2001:138; Robinson 1979:66; Wood 1984:11:41). Paul told his readers that they were no longer outcasts. The Greek adjective rendered “foreigners” (v. 19) refers to transients who had no rights or privileges; and the adjective rendered “aliens” describes residents who, by the payment of a minor tax, received protection but not full citizenship. Both terms indicate an in-

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ferior status. This was the standing of Gentiles before trusting in the Messiah. Instead of being inferior, every believer was now a fellow citizen with the saints (all of God’s holy people) and members of God’s household (His spiritual family); in other words, like Jewish believers, saved Gentiles now were in a personal relationship with God (cf. Best 2001:278; Dahl 1964:436–437; Hendriksen 1967:141; Lincoln 1990:150; O’Brien 1999:210–211; Perkins 2000:11:402). After discussing the new status of both Gentiles and Jews in Christ, Paul next drew his conclusion. To do this, he used a construction metaphor. He said Gentiles and Jews form a single sacred building with Jesus, the “chief cornerstone” (v. 20), being the foundation of the believers’ faith (cf. Isa 28:16; Hoehner 2002:406; Kaiser 2008:182; Schreiner 2008:313–314). In ancient times it was common practice for builders to place a stone at the corner where two walls of an edifice came together. The intent was to bind together and strengthen the intersecting walls. This practice was augmented by the fact that builders made their more permanent structures out of stone that was precisely cut and squared (cf. Caragounis 1997:1127–1128; Congar 1962:164–165; McKelvey 1969:115–117; Muddiman 2001:142; Snodgrass 1996:138; Talbert 2007:84). The Lord’s spiritual temple of believers is like an edifice that has been erected on the foundation of the New Testament apostles and prophets (cf. Eph 3:5). The Messiah is the cornerstone, or capstone, of the entire structure (2:20; cf. Barth 1974:317–318; Lincoln 1981:152–153; O’Brien 1999:216–217; O’Brien 2002:102– 103; Perkins 2000:11:402). Just as a cornerstone joins two walls together, Jesus unites the entire structure (i.e., the eschatological community of the redeemed; cf. Ridderbos 1975:431; Robinson 1979:69; Saucy 1972:35; Thielman 2007:818). Moreover, the Savior enables it to grow into a holy temple for the Lord (v. 21). The Greek noun rendered “temple” did not stand for the entire sanctuary complex, but only for the inner sanctum where God’s holy presence dwelt (cf. Dumbrell 1985:76; Chilton, Comfort, and Wise 2000:1179; Motyer 2004:178). In keeping with this designation, Paul told his Gentile readers that they, as well as Jewish believers, were part of a dwelling—the church—in which God lives by His Spirit (v. 22; cf. Johnson 2004:75; Meye 1993:910; Muddiman 2001:144; Schreiner 2008:487; Vos 2000:155). Like Paul, Peter used the analogy a temple made from stones to stress the position of honor that believers have in union with the Messiah (cf. Davies 1997:1155; Fanning 1994b:445). The apostle began by noting the importance of coming to the Lord Jesus. This, of course, includes initial repentance and faith; nonetheless, the verb tense of the original also suggests a continual drawing near to the Savior (cf. Achtemeir 1999:153; Bartlett 1998:12:265; Blum 1981:12:229; Grudem 1988:97–98). In a figurative sense, the Messiah is the “living Stone” (1 Pet

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2:4) or rock, for He imparts new life to all who trust in Him. Likewise, He establishes a deep and abiding relationship with His followers. Other passages of Scripture draw upon temple imagery in calling the risen Messiah the living bread and the source of life and light for all believers (cf. John 1:4; 6:51). The salvation purchased by the Son’s atoning sacrifice on the cross opens a “new and living way” (cf. Heb 10:20) into the holy presence of God’s heavenly throne room. Jesus gives His followers living water, that is, eternal life (cf. John 4:10). The Savior also provides for them streams of living water, which is a reference to the Holy Spirit (cf. 7:38–39; Selwyn 1983:159). It is appropriate to apply these and other temple typologies to the Messiah, since the Jerusalem shrine “stood for revelation and purification”; in other words, the temple was “both the meeting place of heaven and earth” as well as the “place of sacrifice for purification” (Peterson 2004:167). Despite all the wonderful things that could be said about the Messiah, most people “rejected” (1 Pet 2:4) Him. The latter renders a Greek verb that refers to the disapproval and repudiation of someone (cf. Davids 1990:85; Marshall 1991:67; Schreiner 2003:104; Stibbs and Walls 1983:98). Though Jesus created the world as a sacred place and lived on earth for a time, the world spurned His messianic claims. Even His own people, the Jews, in large part repudiated His assertion to be the Son of God (cf. John 1:10–11). In fact, both Jews and Gentiles had a part in sentencing and executing the Savior (cf. Acts 2:23). Despite the fact that people rejected the Son, the Father chose and honored Him. Indeed, the Son is precious to the Father and the object of His approval (cf. Matt 3:17; Mark 9:7; John 12:28). After the Son died on the cross, the Father raised Him to the highest place and honored His name above all others. Consequently, all people will one day bow the knee to the Son and acknowledge Him as Lord (cf. Phil 2:8–11). If Jesus is the supreme living Stone, His followers are comparable to subordinate “living stones” (1 Pet 2:5). In this analogy, Peter was stressing the believers’ spiritual union with and resemblance to the Messiah (cf. Caird 1995:176; deSilva 1997a:361; Waltke 2007:578–579). Paul likewise underscored the new life the Savior gives to believers when he called Jesus “a life-giving spirit” (1 Cor 15:45). The Redeemer takes His people and uses them to build a “spiritual house” (1 Pet. 2:5) or temple. The background for this comparison is the Jerusalem shrine, which was the place where the Lord manifested His presence (cf. Blum 1981:12:229; Jobes 2005:148; Marshall 1991:68; McCartney 1997:510). The Holy Spirit imparts new life to believers and indwells them so that they become the true edifice of God (cf. 2 Cor 6:16; Heb 3:6; Guthrie 1981:782; Saucy 1972:36; Schreiner 2008:496–497). Believers are not only living stones for God’s temple, but also a “holy priest-

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hood” (1 Pet 2:5). In the Old Testament era, priests represented the people before God (cf. Grudem 1988:100; Nelson 1993:1–2). Every person who trusts in the Son is part of the priesthood of believers. They have equal and immediate access to the Father and personally serve Him (cf. Minear 1962:1:612; Moulder 1986:3:965; Smith 1996:344). Moreover, the Spirit enables the entire body of Christ to offer “spiritual sacrifices” to the Father. The Son, as the Advocate for His followers (cf. 1 John 2:1), makes these offerings acceptable to the Father. These spiritual sacrifices include praise, good works, and charitable giving (cf. Rom 12:1; Phil. 4:18; Heb. 13:15–16). The priesthood of believers also represents God before humankind, intercedes for people before God, and reflects the Lord’s holiness (cf. Achtemeir 1999:156; Marshall 2004:646; McKelvey 1969:129–130; Selwyn 1983:160; Thielman 2005:573–574). Peter, in his epistle, repeatedly drew upon the Old Testament as well as the “interpretive traditions of Judaism”. The apostle did so “in light of the new reality inaugurated by Christ’s resurrection” (Jobes 2005:142). For example, Isaiah 28:16 is quoted in 1 Peter 2:6 to refer to the Messiah as a choice and precious “cornerstone” (cf. Bowman and Komoszewski 2007:168; Caragounis 1997:1128; Schreiner 2003:108). As previously noted, some people trust in the Messiah, recognizing that He is the “precious” (v. 7) cornerstone. Others, however, reject Him. Peter quoted from Psalm 118:22 to stress the supreme importance of the Son in determining a person’s eternal destiny. The stone that the builders did not want turned out to be the “capstone” (1 Pet. 2:7). The apostle was saying that the Son was the most important stone in the Father’s spiritual temple (cf. Blum 1981:12:230; Davids 1990:89–90; Grudem 1988:105). In verse 8, Peter quoted from Isaiah 8:14 to note the effect that the Messiah has for some people. To those who refuse to believe the gospel, Jesus is like a stone that causes them to stumble and a rock over which they trip and fall (cf. Achtemeir 1999:162; Bartlett 1998:12:266; Marshall 1991:73; Selwyn 1983:164; Stibbs and Walls 1983:103; Strecker 2000:638). The apostle commented that these individuals are so offended by the message of truth that they completely reject it. Furthermore, this lamentable outcome is the destiny God planned for them. The broader theological point is that the Messiah, as the “foundation of God’s redemptive work” (Jobes 2005:144), is the “only means of salvation and the one by whom all will be judged” (Carson 2007:1029). There are three primary ways to understand the last part of 1 Peter 2:8. One group thinks that God decrees all unbelief to end in eternal destruction. A second group argues that God sovereignly predetermines who will spiritually fall and be lost. A third group maintains that God in His foreknowledge sees the response of unbelief that some have to the gospel, and based on this awareness of their re-

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sponse determines them to be lost (cf. Anderson 1962b:2:313–314; Bromiley 1986b:3:945–946; Elwell 1993:228–229; Klooster 2001:370–371; Mendenhall 1962b:2:76–77; Schreiner 2000:452–453; Shogren 1992:2:443–444). Regardless of which perspective is taken, it is clear that those who reject the Messiah suffer eternally tragic consequences. Verse 9 stresses the wonderful future that awaits God’s people. The apostle’s intent was to show that there is no shame or disappointment for having trusted in the Messiah. Indeed, believers collectively are a “chosen people”. Today, the “West tends to focus on individuals relating to God”; in contrast, Peter was “more conscious” of God communing with Jesus’ followers as “part of a new corporate entity” (Davids 1990:91). This new spiritual circumstance is reminiscent of God’s having selected Israel from all the nations of the earth to be His special people (cf. Deut 10:15). He did this because He loved them and because He wanted the world to know how great He is (cf. 1 Sam 12:22; Blum 1981:12:231; Grudem 1988:111; Jobes 2005:163; Vlach 2009:111). Just as God called the Israelites His chosen people in the Old Testament, so Peter indicated that New Testament believers are the elect of God and a “royal priesthood” (1 Pet 2:9; cf. Achtemeir 1999:165; de Lacey 1993:338). Jesus, as a result of redeeming repentant sinners, enables them to experience a new “exodus” from “slavery to sin” and to come under the “dominion of the high king of the universe” (Carson 2007:1030). The emphasis here is on the entire body of Christ, as the Lord’s eschatological community, ministering in a sacerdotal capacity. Of course, this does not contradict the notion of believers relating to God on an individual basis. First Peter 2:9 can be more loosely rendered “the king’s priesthood” (cf. Nelson 1993:159; Stibbs and Walls 1983:103; Wright 2006:525). The latter emphasizes the fact that the church is a priesthood and that it belongs to the King of kings (cf. Rev 19:16; Davids 1990:91–92; Fanning 1994b:445–446, 453–454; Marshall 1991:74; Selwyn 1983:166). Peter furthered declared that the recipients of his letter were a “holy nation” (1 Pet 2:9). By this he meant that God had established and set apart the church for His distinctive use. Israel was once a “holy nation” (Exod 19:6) whom the Lord chose to declare His praises (Isa. 43:21). Based on this, some think the church is the new Israel of God and replaces Israel in His redemptive plan. Others, however, think Israel and the church remain separate entities with distinct roles in God’s program (cf. Campbell 1993:441–442; Campbell 1997:211–212; Giles 1997:199; Groningen 1996:384–385; Kaiser 2008:29–31; Motyer 2000:585–586; Motyer 2001:618–619; Schreiner 2008:857–861; Vlach 2009:157–205; Waltke 2007:322–323). Regardless of which view is taken, it is clear that all New Testament believers

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belong to the triune God. In union with the Son and “through the Spirit”, they individually and collectively “experience the presence” of the Father (Snodgrass 1996:139), especially as they “function with communal self-awareness” (Wilson 1989:190). Moreover, the Lord wants the faith community to declare to the world His mighty deeds and in this way help to establish His kingdom on earth (cf. Matt 6:10; Achtemeir 1999:166; Clowney 2002:44–45; Stibbs and Walls 1983:104; Wright 2006:133). The Father’s noble acts include creating the world and providing redemption through the Son. Peter specifically mentioned the Lord’s calling his readers out of spiritual darkness into the marvelous light of salvation (1 Pet 2:9; cf. Acts 26:18; Bartlett 1998:12:267; Bromiley 1979a:1:694; Carson 2007:1031; Davids 1990:92–93). Next, the apostle reminded his readers what their relationship to God was like before they were redeemed. At one time, they were not the Lord’s people, but now they belonged to Him as His chosen and precious spiritual children. In the past, they had never received mercy, but now they enjoyed the Father’s mercy through faith in the Son (1 Pet 2:10). Throughout Scripture, “mercy” refers to God’s display of favor to those who have offended Him. In His compassion, the Lord delays punishing those who have violated His will. Instead, He chooses to withhold judgment. This is a free act on His part, for the recipients of His mercy can make no direct claim to it (cf. Blum 1981:12:231; Guthrie 1981:635; Jobes 2005:164; Ladd 1997:646; Marshall 1991:76). Peter’s statements once had applied to the Israelites. During the nation’s period of rebellion, the Lord called His people Lo-Ruhamah (“not loved”) and LoAmmi (“not my people”; cf. Hos. 1:6, 9). The Lord promised to one day restore the Israelites so that He could once again call them His people, whom He loved (2:1, 23). Interestingly, Paul applied Hosea 1:10 and 2:23 to the Gentiles (cf. Rom. 9:25–26). God took a group of individuals who were not His people—the Gentiles—and brought them into an intimate relationship with Himself. Whereas the Gentiles were originally not God’s people, now by divine grace and mercy, they were called “children of the living God” (cf. Achtemeier 1999:168; Bartlett 1998:12:267–268; Davids 1990:93; Grudem 1988:113; Selwyn 1983:168; Stibbs and Walls 1983:105).

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CHAPTER TEN The Temple Motif in the Book of Revelation

he temple motif is part of the conceptual and linguistic framework of Revelation (cf. Lundquist 2008:224–225; Turner 1979:127; Walker 1996:243). This is evident from a literary analysis of the Apocalypse, which indicates the book has a chiastic structure that is comprised of seven throne room scenes: 1:9–20; 4:1–5:14; 8:2–6; 11:19; 15:1–16:1; 16:18–21; and 19:1–10 (cf. Aune 1997:xcvii; Bauckham 1993:21–22; Beale 1999:114–115; Fiorenza 1998:175; Helyer 2008:353; Lioy 2003 163; Roloff 1993:16; Stefanovic 2002:36–37). Three theological emphases arise from this arrangement of material, which is “exquisitely and artistically constructed” (Ford 1975:46): the sovereign rule of the triune God, the Son’s judgment of the wicked, and His vindication of the upright. Each of the juridical episodes stresses that the Messiah is fully just in His evaluation and censure of humankind (cf. a similar truth being made about the Lord in Ps 51:4; Dan 9:4–14; and Rom 3:3–4). The throne room scenes collectively point out that the Son judges all people according to what they have done and that He shows no partiality or favoritism in His dealings with either the church or the wicked (cf. Deut 10:17; Ps 62:12; Prov 24:12; Matt 16:27; Acts 10:34; Rom 2:6, 11; Rev 20:11–15). He begins with the faith community and then deals with the godless (the latter with progressively heightened intensity; cf. 1 Pet 4:17–18; cf. Boring 1989:29; Guthrie 1981:866–867; Lioy 2003:58–59; Osborne 2002:40– 41). A perusal of Revelation indicates it is filled with depictions that seem alien to modern sensibilities. For instance, the book narrates the demise of civilization and its achievements. Also, the drama is filled with fantastic creatures, including beasts, scorpions, dragons, locusts, demons, and angels. Concededly, the outlandish visions and symbols challenge the skills of the most seasoned exegetes. The latter observations notwithstanding, it is pivotal to recognize that the Apocalypse more than anything else spotlights various facets about the last Adam. This includes His character, His mission, and His final goal of bringing all things into subjection to His Father’s perfect will (cf. 1:5–8; Beasley-Murray 1997:1035; Kaiser 2008:383; Schreiner 2008:37; Stefanovic 2002:9). In short, from beginning to end,

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the Apocalypse is about the triumph of the Messiah (cf. 1:1; 22:21; Harris 1994:167, 242; Johnson 2001:21; Köstenberger and O’Brien 2001:243, 248; Wall 1991:39). A content analysis of Revelation indicates that it makes rich and subtle use of temple motifs found in the Old Testament, especially from the prophetic writings. John did not employ these sacred texts in a mechanical, rote, or haphazard way; rather, the apostle drew upon these materials in a creative, responsible, and judicious manner. It is as if he availed himself of their patterns of thought—images, symbols, metaphors, and figures of speech—to enrich and supplement his own writings (cf. Bauckham 1993:x–xi; Beale and McDonough 2007:1081; Charles 1994:1:lxvi; Childs 1993:320; deSilva 2009:157; Ford 1975:27; Helyer 2008:375; Morris 1992:41; Slater 1999:17, 94; Strecker 2000:522; Thomas 1992:41). John could make extensive use of the Old Testament because he was so steeped in the history, tradition, and interpretation of these Jewish writings. On the one hand, the apostle remained respectful of and sensitive to the original contexts of the material he used in writing the Apocalypse. On the other hand, he viewed those writings through the prism of Jesus’ death and resurrection. Also influential was the subsequent birth of the church and its dramatic but steady growth even in the midst of persecution (cf. Beale 1999:97; Beckwith 1967:215; Fiorenza 1998:101–102; Guthrie 1981:980–981; Johnson 2001:13; Michaels 1997:850–851; Moyise 1995:145–146; Osborne 2002:26; Roloff 1993:12; Thompson 1990:50). Because of these momentous historical events, the Apocalypse reflects a paradigm-shift with respect to salvation. No longer is the sphere of redemption limited to the people of national Israel in Palestine; rather, individuals from all geographical locales—regardless of their race, gender, socio-economic status, and so on—are partakers of salvation in the Messiah and heirs of His eternal kingdom (cf. 5:9–10; 7:9–10). John saw the Lord Jesus as the fulfillment of all that was foretold in the Old Testament concerning salvation. The apostle’s extensive use of apocalyptic Old Testament and intertestamental writings was intended to emphasize that Jesus is the “climax of prophetic revelation” (Bauckham 1993:xi; cf. 19:10). The Apocalypse reflects the eschatological mindset of Daniel 2 in which the prophesied kingdom of God finds its inauguration and fulfillment in the Messiah (cf. Beasley-Murray 1997:1026; Collins 1992:5:705; Moyise 1995:46–47). In both books, evil is judged, the righteous are vindicated, and the divine kingdom is established. These correspondences are supported by the literary and thematic correlations between Daniel 9:27 (cf. 11:31), the Synoptic Gospels (Matt 24; Mark 13; Luke 21), and the first six seal judgments of the Apocalypse (Rev 6). This suggests there are common eschatological motifs among these various writings and

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that the Apocalypse reflects a continuing development of these themes (cf. Beale 1999:51; deSilva 2009:149, 168; Lioy 2003:65; Lucas 2008:241–242; Luter 1997:719). Worthy of mention is Revelation 1:19, along with 1:1, 4:1, and 22:6, as eschatological expressions that allude to Daniel 2:28–29 and 45 (cf. Bauckham 1999:11; Beale 1999:93–94, 137–138, 153–154, 168; Lioy 2003:64). In the case of Revelation 1:19, it represents more than just a literary or historical structural marker. More importantly, it signifies the apocalyptic motif of the entire book. In brief, that which seems to be anticipated in the Book of Daniel has already begun to be realized in the Apocalypse. Thus, the appearance of similar phrasing throughout Revelation should not be narrowly interpreted to refer only to future eschatological events. Rather, the focus is on all of redemptive history and its eschatological implications for the past, present, and future. Moreover, an examination of the Prologue to the Apocalypse (1:1–8) indicates that it sets the tone for the material to follow. As the “revelation from Jesus Christ” (v. 1), the book is not one apocalypse among many; rather, it is the premier unveiling of God’s salvation history (vv. 2–3). In John’s opening greeting, the apostle mentioned the Trinity, saying that his words came from the Father, the Spirit, and the Son (cf. Bauckham 1999:23; Morris 1992:49; Mounce 1998:44–45; Stefanovic 2002:62–63; Thomas 1992:67). In referring to God the Father, John stressed His eternal existence. God governs all time, including the past, the present, and the future (v. 4; cf. Aune 1997:30; Boring 1989:75; Malina 1995:261; Newman 1997c:427; Osborne 2002:32). The name of God in this verse is a form of the divine name recorded in Exodus 3:14–15 (cf. von Rad 1962:180–181; Schreiner 2008:163; Wall 1991:57). The mention of the “seven spirits” (Rev. 1:4) could be a reference to seven angels who stand before the throne of God (cf. 8:2); however, John may have been symbolically referring to the perfection and completion of the Holy Spirit and His ministry (cf. Isa 11:2; Rev 4:5; Aune 1997:34; Bauckham 1993:35, 162; Bauckham 1999:110; Beale and McDonough 2007:1089; Harris 1994:202; Paige 1997:1120; Schreiner 2008:502). The reference to the Messiah in Revelation 1:5 gives particular emphasis to the Son, which is in keeping with the Christological focus of the Apocalypse. He is spotlighted as the one who was especially faithful in testifying to the truth of God (cf. Ps 89:36–37; Rev 3:14; 19:11). The firm and unwavering witness that the Son bore ultimately resulted in His death; but, as Romans 1:4 makes clear, His resurrection from the dead validated His messianic claims (cf. Collins 1992:5:705; Guthrie 1981:389; Helyer 2008:355; Luter 1997:719; Schweizer 1992:161). Perhaps John also had the preceding truth in mind when he referred to the Messiah as “the firstborn from the dead” (Rev. 1:5). This expression emphasizes

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Jesus’ exalted position as head of the redeemed (cf. Bowman and Komoszewski 2007:105; Fiorenza 1998:70–71; Ford 1975:41; Roloff 1993:24–25; Travis 1997:1017). The Son’s glorified status is likewise accentuated when John declared Him to be the ruler of all earthly kings. This truth appears elsewhere in Revelation. For instance, the Lamb is said to be “Lord of lords and King of kings” (17:14). Similarly, in 19:16, the victorious Messiah is identified as “King of kings and Lord of lords”. The various sovereignty titles appearing in the Apocalypse emphasize that all of the Father’s promises to the redeemed were valid and certain to be fulfilled through the Son (cf. Arnold 1997a:939–940; Kennard 2007:407; Malina 1995:262; Witherington 1997b:672). The number three in Revelation sometimes denotes completion (cf. Birch 1986:3:558; Friberg 1992:4:1145; Pope 1962:3:564; White 1976:4:460). This seems to be the case with the three titles of Christ in 1:5, which correspond to the threefold title for God in verse 4. In the former case, the purity and perfection of the Messiah appear to be underscored. A similar threefold emphasis may be seen with respect to the redeemed, who are mentioned in verses 5 and 6. John noted that the Messiah loves them and freed them from their sins. Concerning the latter, there is a strong Exodus motif present. Just as the Lord delivered Israel from bondage to Egypt, so too the Savior frees the redeemed from slavery to sin (cf. Luke 9:31; 1 Cor 5:7). The Son also lets them rule as kings and serve as priests in His spiritual temple before “his God and Father” (Rev 1:6; cf. John 20:17; deSilva 2009:162–163; Fiorenza 1998:72; Guthrie 1981:430; Hughes 1990:19; Morris 1990:296; Saucy 1972:39). Revelation 1:6 further draws upon covenant truths from the Old Testament that originally pertained to the nation of Israel but now are applied to the church (cf. Bultmann 2007:2:180; Caird 1995:56; Giles 1997:200; Mounce 1998:50). For instance, in Exodus 19:6 the Lord declared that the Israelites would “be for me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation” (cf. Isa 61:9). Now the church, as the new “Israel of God” (Gal 6:16), is a “chosen people, a royal priesthood, a holy nation” (1 Pet. 2:9; cf. Eph 2:11–22). Also, as “the church of the firstborn” (Heb. 12:23) and as a “holy priesthood” (1 Pet. 2:5), the redeemed “offer spiritual sacrifices” that are “acceptable to God through Jesus Christ.” Under the Mosaic covenant, the Israelites were God’s chosen and holy people, His “treasured possession” (Deut 7:6). They enjoyed this special status because the Lord was being faithful in His covenant love to them (vv. 7–8). Similarly, the risen and exalted Savior has singled out the redeemed to be His priestly servants in His eternal kingdom (Rev 1:6; cf. Beale and McDonough 2007:1090; Osborne 2002:66; Slater 1999:208; Smith 1996:344). It is only fitting, then, that they praise the one who eternally reigns (cf. Boring 1989:79; Newman 1997b:395; Stefanovic 2002:66).

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The Messiah’s unending rule, which is anticipated in Daniel 7:13–14 (cf. Pss 2:6–9; 110:1; Isa 9:6–7; Dan. 2:44), finds its inauguration and fulfillment in Revelation 1:7 (cf. Charles 1994:1:17; Moyise 1995:51; Roloff 1993:27; Wall 1991:59). Elsewhere in the Old Testament, it is only God who comes on the clouds (cf. Ps 104:4; Isa 19:1). Correspondingly, the “son of man” (Dan 7:13) originates in heaven and comes by divine initiative (cf. Aune 1997:54; Harris 1994:187; Nickelsburg 1992:6:148; Schreiner 2008:224). As Revelation 14:14 makes clear, the person coming with the clouds is none other than the risen and exalted Redeemer (cf. Mark 8:38; 13:26). The emphasis in Revelation 1:7 is on the Parousia of the Messiah, a truth reiterated in the epilogue of the Apocalypse (cf. 22:7, 12, 17, 20) as well as the rest of the New Testament (cf. Matt 24:30; 25:31–32; John 14:1–3; Acts 1:11; 1 Thess 4:18; Bowman and Komoszewski 2007:179–180; deSilva 2004:913; Kreitzer 1997b:869). John, in a clear allusion from Zechariah 12:10 (cf. John 19:34, 37), noted that all humankind would mourn at the sight of the Messiah’s return. Some think the wailing will be out of fear of impending eschatological judgment, while others think it is because of the sins they have committed (cf. Boring 1989:80; Fiorenza 1998:102; Malina 1995:71; Morris 1992:50–51; Osborne 2002:68–69). Both ideas seem complementary. The Greek term amen, which appears at the end of both Revelation 1:6 and 7, could be freely translated “let it be so”. It signifies a strong affirmation of the prophetic truths of the Messiah’s eschatological judgment of the wicked and eternal reign in glory with the redeemed. Such was certain to occur, especially in light of the Lord God’s declaration of Himself in verse 8. The divine name recorded here, which is derived from Exodus 3:14, serves as a reminder that God is sovereign over all that takes place in human history and is directing its final consummation (cf. Bassler 1992:2:1052; Mounce 1998:52; Schreiner 2008:164; Stefanovic 2002:69). Revelation 1:9–11 details the harsh circumstances John faced while exiled on the island of Patmos for speaking about the Savior (cf. Beagley 1997b:127; Brighton 1999:48; Caird 1995:40; Johnson 2001:18). The apostle was also a partner with other believers in suffering for the Messiah. John’s commissioning and prophetic mandate came from the risen and glorified Savior, whom the apostle described in a vivid, impressionistic way. When John turned around to see who was speaking to him, he saw “seven golden lampstands” (v. 12), which verse 20 says represented the seven churches mentioned in verse 11. The lampstands John saw may have symbolized the seven churches “in their light-bearing or witness-bearing function” (Poythress 2000:77; cf. Zech 4:2, 11; Matt 5:14–16). The phrase “son of man” (Rev 1:13) is a reference to the risen Messiah (reminiscent of the vision in Dan 7:13 and 10:5–6; cf. Beale and McDonough

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2007:1090; Beckwith 1967:437; Charles 1994:1:27; Collins 1992:5:705). Connected with the expression’s usage in Revelation 1:13, is a detailed description in verses 13 through 15 of the glorified Messiah as the supreme Judge and Ruler. It is revealed that, just as the glory of the Lord descended to dwell in the tabernacle and temple (Exod 40:34–38; 1 Kings 8:10–11), so the Messiah walked among the churches as their Lord and Shepherd (cf. Kennard 2007:482; Schreiner 2008:749; Wall 1991:62). The apostle saw the Redeemer wearing the full-length robe of a high priest (cf. Exod. 28:4; 29:5). A sash was fastened to His robe and made out of gold, which was appropriate for the exalted Lord. His white head and hair symbolized His purity, majesty, and divine authority (cf. Isa 1:18; Dan 7:9). His eyes radiating like fire may denote His penetrating insight (Rev 1:14). Jesus’ feet glowing like red-hot bronze underscored His stability and strength, while His booming voice reflected His awe-inspiring power (v. 15). These were appropriate symbols for the one who judges all evil and who goes into the presence of the Father on behalf of those who have believed in the Son (cf. John 5:26–27; Heb 9:11–14; Boring 1989:83; Hughes 1990:26; Mounce 1998:59; Roloff 1993:36). John said that the Messiah held seven stars in His right hand (Rev 1:16), which verse 20 says are the angels of the seven churches. In ancient times, the right hand was a symbol of authority. Also, in Roman times, stars appeared on coins as a symbol of imperial power (cf. Brighton 1999:51; Malina 1995:75, 217, 263; Osborne 2002:92). The imagery of verse 16 suggests that the Messiah, not the Roman emperor or any other evil entity (such as Satan), had absolute control over His people and their destinies. The apostle noted that a long, sharp, two-edged sword came out of the Savior’s mouth. This seems to be a symbol of both the Word of God and divine judgment (cf. Isa 11:4; 49:2; Heb 4:12; Aune 1997:98; Longman and Reid 1995:181; Moyise 1995:31–32; Stefanovic 2002:100). The glory of the risen Lord is evident from the appearance of His face, which beamed like the sun at its brightest time in the day (usually noon). In fact, the light of His glory is so brilliant that no one can approach it (cf. 1 Tim 6:16). John noted that, at the sight of the glorified Messiah, he was filled with fright and became as motionless as a dead person (Rev 1:17). The apostle’s response is reminiscent of similar encounters with supernatural entities recorded in Scripture and intertestamental literature (cf. Isa 6:5; Ezek 1:28; Dan 8:17; 1 Enoch 14:24; Luke 24:5). In this case, the Savior did not leave John in an immobilized condition; rather, the Messiah touched him, perhaps both to strengthen him physically and comfort him emotionally. The Redeemer then told John to stop being afraid, for He is “the First and the Last” (Rev 1:17) and “the Living One” (v. 18). The emphasis here is that Jesus’ fundamental essence is characterized by life (cf. Bauck-

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ham 1999:26; Jacob 1958:54; Morris 1992:55; Schreiner 2008:420; Wall 1991:63). Moreover, the Savior is “assuring his people of their future resurrection and vindication in the age to come” (Bowman and Komoszewski 2007:179). After commissioning the apostle to his prophetic task (v. 19), the exalted Savior explained the mystery behind the seven stars and the seven angels (v. 20). He revealed that the seven stars represented the angels of the seven churches (cf. v. 16). He also disclosed that the seven golden lampstands represented the seven churches (cf. v. 12). John’s vision of the exalted Messiah helps set the stage for the material appearing in 2:1–3:22, which is characterized by both censure and commendation. The Savior’s intimate knowledge of and care for each church is highlighted by the way in which He addressed each congregation according to its particular needs. Jesus’ appearance among the congregations in overwhelming glory suggests that He was ever present to watch over His followers in times of hardship, guide them in times of uncertainty, and discipline them in times of moral laxity (cf. Caird 1999:25; Mounce 1998:63; Seifrid 1997b:622; Slater 1999:96). In 3:21, Jesus declared that those who were victorious would sit with Him on His celestial throne. Then, what follows in chapter 4 is a heavenly throne room scene involving the Lord God (reminiscent of Exod 19; Isa 6; Ezek 1–2; and Dan 7; cf. Beale 1999:158; Beale and McDonough 2007:1098–1099; Malina 1995:78; Osborne 2002:220; Roloff 1993:68). Revelation 4 and 5 are closely tied together in structure and literary form and introduce the material to follow in the Apocalypse. These two chapters, with their emphasis on the covenantal relationship between the Messiah and the redeemed, mirror similar emphases found in the Hebrew Scriptures. As noted earlier, just as the Lord originally made His people “a kingdom of priests” (Exod 19:6), so too Revelation 4 and 5 places an emphasis on the divine kingdom. There is the depiction of the Lord on His heavenly throne in His celestial temple (4:2–3). There are also innumerable celestial beings in attendance, who give the Lord praise for His sovereign rule (vss. 4–11). Moreover, there is the portrayal of the Lamb as both Ruler and Judge (5:5, 10, 12–13; cf. Boring 1989:100; Brighton 1999:107; deSilva 2004:915; Stefanovic 2002:41). The tabernacle and temple were at the heart of the Mosaic covenant (cf. Exod 25–30). A similar emphasis is found in the heavenly temple of Revelation 4 and 5. God manifests His presence on His cosmic royal seat, which is depicted as being in a heavenly courtroom and surrounded by a divine council (cf. Kim 1997:634; Osborne 2002:33; Thompson 1990:57). Pronouncements are made and worship occurs, all of which is reminiscent of activity that would have taken place in the Israelite sanctuary. Various sacrifices and offerings were a core part of the rituals performed in the Hebrew tabernacle and temple (cf. the material in Leviticus and Deuteronomy). A similar motif comes into focus when, in Revelation 5:6, John

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saw a “Lamb, looking as if it had been slain”. The sacrificial role of the exalted Messiah is unmistakable (cf. Guthrie 1981:475; Mounce 1998:132; Thomas 1992:391; Wall 1991:102). In terms of the vision John experienced, he saw a door standing open in heaven, and this allowed him to enter into the celestial realm. He heard the penetrating voice of the Son directing him to come up to heaven and receive special revelation concerning the future (4:1). The Spirit immediately took control of John, perhaps putting him in a trance. The apostle found himself standing before a throne in heaven, and he saw the Lord sitting on it. In ancient times, royal seats were symbols of power, sovereignty, and majesty. The throne of God radiated His glorious presence (v. 2; cf. 1 Kings 22:19). Rather than describe how God looked, which undoubtedly exceeded human comprehension (cf. Exod 33:20; 1 Tim 6:16), John instead focused on the appearance of various precious stones, the creatures surrounding the throne, and storm phenomena (cf. Aune 1997:284; Caird 1995:184; Moule 1962:2:431; Newman 1997c:427; Roloff 1993:69). The splendor, holiness, power, sovereignty, and eternality of the Lord are all emphasized in these images recorded in Revelation 4:2–11. The apostle first mentioned that the figure seated on the throne was like “jasper and ruby” (v. 3) in appearance. Jasper is usually green or clear, while ruby varies in color from deep crimson or purple to pale rose. John also described seeing the glow of an emerald (light green) encircling God’s throne like a rainbow. The picture was one of a transparent jewel radiating the splendor of God (cf. Helyer 2008:330; Morris 1990:294; Schreiner 2008:164). In ancient times, a king would permit lesser rulers (such as tribal judges) to sit on thrones next to his. In John’s vision, he saw 24 thrones encircling God’s royal seat, and 24 elders were on these thrones. They wore white clothes, which represent purity and uprightness. They also wore gold crowns, which symbolize honor, splendor, and victory (v. 4). These elders may have been exalted angels who served God in His heavenly court, or they could have been glorified saints in heaven. Some think the number 24 is a symbolic reference to the 12 tribes of Israel in the Old Testament and the 12 apostles in the New Testament. This suggests that all the redeemed of all time (both before and after the Savior’s death and resurrection) are represented before God’s throne and worship Him in His heavenly sanctuary (cf. Brighton 1999:117; Ford 1975:72; Mounce 1998:121–122; Stefanovic 2002:186). John saw flashes of lightning and roars of thunder coming from God’s throne (v. 5). These storm phenomena symbolized the power and majesty of the Lord. The episode also recalled the natural disturbances on the summit of Mount Sinai in Moses’ day (cf. Exod 20:18–19; Davies 1962c:4:619–620; Davies 1992:6:49; Eichrodt 1967:16–17; Hiebert 1992a:6:507; Johnson 1962:3:447–448; Muilenburg

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1962:2:617–618). Seven lampstands with burning flames—which represented the seven spirits of God—stood in front of the throne (Rev 4:5). The lampstands symbolized the perfection, completeness, and fullness of the Holy Spirit (cf. Bauckham 1993:35; Guthrie 1981:569; Osborne 2002:231; Thomas 1992:351). He worked through the redeemed in their various churches to shine the light of the gospel to a lost world (cf. Bauckham 1999:85; Paige 1997:1120; Schreiner 2008:503). The apostle also saw in front of God’s throne something that looked like a sea made of glass, and it was clear and sparkling like crystal (v. 6). In New Testament times, glass was a rare item, and crystal-clear glass was virtually impossible to find. The celestial ocean in John’s vision may symbolize the magnificence and sacredness of God (cf. Boring 1989:105; Caird 1999:68; Mounce 1998:123). Next, John saw four living creatures in the center around God’s throne. The eyes covering the front and back of each creature may symbolize their unceasing watchfulness. It is possible that these entities were representations of God’s attributes or symbols of the natural order of creation. More likely they were angels, perhaps similar to the cherubim of Ezekiel 1 and 10 or the seraphs of Isaiah 6 (cf. Bauckham 1999:33; deSilva 1997b:441; Ford 1975:74; Moyise 1995:68–69; Wall 1991:94). The four living creatures guarded the throne of God, proclaimed His holiness, and led others in worship. It is possible that these angelic beings portrayed various aspects of divine majesty (Rev 4:7; cf. Ezek. 1:5–10). Each of the living creatures had six wings, and their bodies (including the underside of their wings) were covered with eyes, which is suggestive of alertness and intelligence (Rev. 4:8; cf. Brighton 1999:124; Morris 1992:89; Stefanovic 2002:190). Day after day and night after night, the angelic beings John saw declared God to be absolutely holy (cf. Isa 6:3; Guthrie and Martin 1993:363; Thomas 1992:362; Wu 1997:662). Their refrain also stressed that He is the all-powerful Ruler of the universe. Further, they emphasized that He is not bound by the limitations of time (cf. Arnold 1992:5:446; Arnold 1997a:939; deSilva 2000a:1029; Goppelt 1982:184). John saw that the living creatures never stopped praising, honoring, and thanking the Lord. The apostle also noticed that the 24 elders prostrated themselves before God’s throne and placed their crowns at the base of His royal seat. These were fitting acts of worship to give to the one who controls all time and all people (Rev 4:9–10). Whereas the living creatures praised God for His holiness, the elders lauded Him for His creative acts (v. 11). He not only brought all things into existence, but also sustains them. The idea is not of some superhuman creature (such as the Greek god Atlas) holding up the world. Rather, it is of the Creator-King maintaining the existence of the universe and bearing it along to its divinely ordained conclusion (cf. Bauckham 1999:27; Boring 1989:36–37; Guthrie

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1981:93; Osborne 2002:242). With the opening of the fifth chapter, the focus of John’s vision shifts from the Father to the Son, and from the Lord’s sovereign acts in creation (4:11) to His redemptive acts in re-creation (5:1ff). As the apostle looked, he saw that God held a scroll in His right hand. This roll of papyrus or leather had writing on the inside and outside, and it was sealed in seven different places (v. 1; cf. Aune 1997:341; Beagley 1997c:1084; Ford 1975:84; Stefanovic 2002:196). This made it absolutely inaccessible and virtually impossible for an unauthorized person to open. Scrolls usually had writing on only one side and were sealed in one place. The writing on the front and back indicates that the decrees of God recorded on the scroll were extensive (cf. Caird 1999:71; Roloff 1993:77; Wall 1991:101). The number seven, representing completion or perfection, indicates how thoroughly the contents of the scroll were sealed for secrecy. There are varying views about the contents of this sealed scroll, including God’s covenant, His law, His promises, and a legal will. The close parallel with Daniel 12:4, however, suggests the scroll of Revelation 5:1 contained God’s eschatological plan for the future, including the destiny of the world and humankind. The idea is that, unless the seals of the scroll were broken, God’s purposes would not be accomplished, including the Messiah’s judgment of the wicked and vindication of the upright (cf. Bauckham 1993:248; Bauckham 1999:80; Beale 1999:339; Brighton 1999:134; deSilva 2009:100; Fiorenza 1998:53; Moyise 1995:77). In the vision, these seals are opened in Revelation 6. John saw a mighty angel issue a call from the heavenly temple for someone to come forward and break the seals, revealing the scroll’s contents. Interestingly, the angel did not ask who was able, influential, or powerful enough. He asked who was worthy to perform the task. Only someone who was morally perfect could do so (5:2). No one in all of God’s creation responded to the angel’s summons. John was so caught up in this drama that he wept repeatedly when no one came forward to open the scroll. Evidently, the apostle sensed the urgent significance of the document. In the midst of the apostle’s anguish, one of the 24 elders seated around the celestial throne told John to stop weeping. Lamenting was unnecessary, for there was someone who had the virtue and authority to bring history to its final conclusion (vv. 3–5). The elder revealed the one who was worthy to take the scroll from God’s hand and open its seals—“the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the Root of David” (vs. 5). Both of these metaphors are familiar Old Testament titles, and together summed up Israel’s hope for the coming Messiah (cf. Gen 49:9–10; Isa 11:1, 10; Jer 23:5). God’s people had called Judah—the founder of the tribe—a lion, and now the elder applied the name to the greatest of all the members of

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Judah. The lion represented power and victory, and these were typified in the risen Messiah. The Greek word translated “Root” (Rev 5:5) describes a shoot or sprout out of the main stem. As the “Root of David”, Jesus is identified as the Messiah who sprang from the house and lineage of David (cf. Ford 1975:86; Guthrie 1981:258; Osborne 2002:254; Wright 2006:349–350). When John looked, he did not see a mighty lion, but instead a Lamb that looked as if it had once been slaughtered (v. 6). This unexpected image portrays sacrificial death, thus linking the Messiah to the Old Testament Passover lamb (cf. Exod 12:5–6; Isa 53:7; Harris 1994:193–194; Longman and Reid 1995:181; Fiorenza 1998:73; Miles 1992:4:134; Seifrid 1997a:284). A lamb is a gentle animal, and so suggests one who is approachable. Additionally, a lamb was a sacrificial animal, and so suggests salvation and forgiveness. While this Lamb bore the marks of death, it also possessed the symbols of divine power and the abundance of knowledge (cf. Goppelt 1982:187; Malina 1995:112–113; Slater 1999:169). The seven horns may denote royal power in all its perfection (cf. Deut 33:17; Ps 89:17; 92:10; Dan 7:8; 8:3), and the seven eyes may indicate the Lamb’s perfect knowledge, understanding, and awareness (cf. Judg 18:6; 2 Chron 16:9; Ps 139:16; Prov 15:3; Zech 4:10). The “seven eyes” (Rev 5:6) are also a reference to the perfection of the Holy Spirit. The idea is that the eternal, life-giving Spirit was upon the Messiah without measure or limit (cf. John 3:34; Rom 8:11; 1 Cor 15:45; cf. Bauckham 1993:30, 164–165; Beale and McDonough 2007:1098 1101–1102; Keener 1997a:641–642; Schreiner 2008:503). In a scene that brings to mind Daniel 7:13–14, John saw the Lamb come forward and take the scroll from God’s hand. By allowing this action, the Father authorized His Son to carry out His end-time plan for the world (Rev 5:7; cf. Nickelsburg 1992:6:148; Osborne 2002:257–258; Stefanovic 2002:207; Schnelle 1998:535; Wall 1991:103). After the Lamb obtained the scroll, the four living creatures and the 24 elders around the throne fell down in worship before Him. They played harps or lyres, the instruments used to accompany the singing of psalms (v. 8; cf. Pss 33:2–3; 43:4). Their golden bowls full of incense were symbolic of the prayers of God’s people (cf. Deut 33:10; Ps 141:2), which probably were petitions for the full and final realization of His kingdom program (cf. Rev 8:3–4). The worshipers mentioned in 5:8 began to sing a new song, for the Lord was about to inaugurate the new redeemed order of His kingdom (v. 9; cf. Pss 40:3; 96:1; Isa 42:10). The participants sang this hymn to the Lamb as Redeemer. They praised His worthiness to take the scroll and open its seals (cf. Boring 1989:112; Brighton 1999:141; Caird 1999:76; Ford 1975:95). The fact that the Messiah died for the sins of the whole world is reflected in the declaration that the redeemed will come from “every tribe and language and

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people and nation” (Rev 5:9). The result of the Redeemer’s sacrificial death is that He made His people a kingdom of priests to serve their God. The Messiah will be the rightful King, and His people will compose His kingdom. They will reign with Him forever (v. 10; cf. Exod 19:6; Isa 61:6). John’s vision of the Savior provided consolation and strength to believers as they endured unimaginable difficulties. Though the Lamb’s wrath will fall in judgment on the wicked, He will bless the upright with His goodness and grace. Despite the calamity that will eventually overtake the world, the Savior is still orchestrating all the events of history (cf. Dahlberg 1962:4:908; Guthrie 1981:103; Helyer 2008:357; Kennard 2007:322; Porter 1997:1239; Seifrid 1997a:283; Travis 1992:6:997). In the apostle’s vision, he next heard the singing of countless numbers of angels around God’s royal seat, along with the voices of the living creatures and of the elders (Rev 5:11). This is an allusion to the throne room scene of Daniel 7:10 (cf. Jude 1:14; Rev 7:9) and perhaps stressed that the eschatological judgments anticipated in Daniel’s day were in the process of being fulfilled through the Messiah. The heavenly choir praised the Lamb for His worthiness (Rev 5:12). It was fitting for Him to receive glory, power, and praise for who He is and what He has done. He alone, as the Son of God, had died on the cross so that those who trusted in Him might become His servants in His kingdom (cf. Bowman and Komoszewski 2007:34; Osborne 2002:262; Roloff 1993:81; Slater 1999:172). Jesus, of course, did not remain in the grave. He conquered sin and death when God resurrected Him. Through faith in the Messiah, repentant sinners are identified with His death and resurrection. This means His victory over the forces of evil also becomes their victory (cf. Brighton 1999:143; Morris 1992:98; Motyer 1997:261–262; Stefanovic 2002:209). John next heard every creature in heaven, on earth, under the earth, and in the sea sing hymns in adoration to the Father and the Son. The idea in verse 13 is that all entities in the universe joined their voices to give unending praise. When the four living creatures affirmed their praise by declaring “Amen” (v. 14), the 24 elders responded by prostrating themselves in worship before the celestial throne. The focus next shifted from heaven to earth. The Lamb’s opening of the seven seals showed that He alone was worthy to unlock the future course of history and bring it to its final conclusion (chap. 6). Be that as it may, the opening of the seventh seal is dramatically delayed while the Lord reassured His people that He had not forgotten them. They might see and experience some of the suffering and devastation that the various seal judgments unleashed (cf. 13:7; 20:4); nevertheless, the Messiah revealed in the sealing of the 144,000 and the appearing of a great multitude from every nation that He knew the afflictions of His people (cf. Aune 1998a:455; Bauckham 1993:216; Beckwith 1967:212; Caird 1995:244; Gop-

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pelt 1982:191–192; Thomas 1992:470). He also promised to care for and watch over them in the midst of their calamities, and He pledged to bring them through every ordeal. This truth suggests that the “human agent” in the Lord’s work is “not so much the warrior as the prophet” (Lind 1980:23). Moreover, instead of depending on “soldiers and weapons”, for their “defense”, God’s spokespersons “heralded a message” that was fulfilled by a divine “miracle” (32). Revelation 7:4–8 states that God placed His seal on the foreheads of 144,000 people from all the tribes of Israel (cf. Ezek 9:4–6). The Lord chose 12,000 people from each tribe. The identity of the 144,000 saints in Apocalypse is unclear. They could be a select group of people from the literal 12 tribes of Israel, or they could be a specific number of believers whom God will in some way shield during a final period of distress. It could be that 144,000 (calculated using 12 as a multiple of 12) is a symbolic number for the fullness of the people of God (cf. Aune 1998a:460; Beale and McDonough 2007:1106–1107; Fiorenza 1998:182; Moyise 1995:71; Osborne 2002:17; Roloff 1993:97; Schreiner 2008:614, 751; Strecker 2000:532). Expressed differently, the Lord will bring all His followers safely to Himself. He will protect them either by removing them from the earth (this is called the Rapture) or by giving them the strength they need to endure persecution and remain loyal to Him. Concerning the identity of the “great multitude” (Rev 7:9), many ideas have been suggested. This host of believers could be the saved of all the ages, only Gentile believers, or martyrs killed during a final period of great distress, to name three common views (cf. Boring 1989:131; Ford 1975:124; Giles 1997:200; Kim 1997:635–636; Morris 1992:113; Thielman 2005:627–628; Wall 1991:118–119). One remarkable aspect of the scene John saw in heaven is the position of the believers before God. While the earth is about to feel the full force of God’s wrath, these saints are standing before His throne, a place of safety and security. The Lord has accepted and honored them as His true servants. The early readers of Revelation might have associated white clothing with the garb of Roman generals, who dressed in this fashion when celebrating their triumphs. The long white robes worn by the saints in heaven represent the purity, righteousness, and glory of the Messiah. The palm branches they carry represent total victory and unending joy (cf. 1 Maccabees 13:51; 2 Maccabees 14:4; John 12:13; Beale and McDonough 2007:1108–1109; deSilva 2009:113; Mounce 1998:162; Thomas 1992:488–489). Everything about the scene points to the acceptance of these believers before God. They are celebrating triumph in a place of honor before the Lord and the Lamb (cf. Arnold 1992:5:446; Brighton 1999:194; Caird 1999:100– 101; Stefanovic 2002:265). The preceding truth is reflected in the chorus that the multitude in heaven

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shouted before the throne. They acknowledged that salvation comes only from God the Father and the Lamb, His Son (Rev. 7:10). John noted that all the angels who stood around God’s royal seat knelt in front of it with their faces to the ground; also the elders and the four living creatures knelt there with the angels. Together they worshiped God and sang a chorus of praise to Him (vs. 11). “Amen” (vs. 12) introduces the sevenfold doxology, and “Amen” closes it. The heavenly choir first used the term to register their approval of the cry of the multitude, and they shout “Amen” at the end to affirm the reliability of each quality of God. The angels, elders, and four living creatures ascribe seven different attributes to God. Each term in the doxology is accented in the original language by the definite article “the”—in other words, the praise, the glory, the wisdom, and so forth. The idea is that God is perfect in every way, and thus He deserves unlimited praise from His creatures (cf. Aune 1998a:471; Ford 1975:119; Morris 1992:114; Mounce 1998:163; Osborne 2002:321–322; Slater 1999:172). John was curious about the identity and origin of the vast number of people who were clothed in white robes and standing before God’s throne. One of the elders evidently discerned this, and thus rhetorically asked the apostle about the multitude (v. 13). Rather than try to bluff his way through an inaccurate response, John humbly admitted that he did not know the answer to the elder’s question. The apostle looked to the speaker for clarification. Based on the elder’s response, some identify the “great tribulation” (v. 14) with a final period of persecution shortly before the return of the Messiah. Others, however, note that believers have endured affliction and grief throughout history, so that the entire church age can be seen as a time of distress (cf. 2 Thess 1:5–6; 2 Tim 3:1, 12; Baker 2001:1217–1218; Erickson 1998:1224–1230; Grudem 1994:1131–1135; Payne 1980:607–609; Price 1996:416–417). Perhaps John intended to comfort both first-century Christians as well as God’s people living during a time of final crisis. The mention of the “blood of the Lamb” (Rev 7:14) indicates this vast throng, like all believers, was saved on the basis of the Messiah’s atoning sacrifice (cf. Rom 3:25; 5:9; 1 Cor 10:16; 1 Pet 1:2). The elder revealed that the glorified state will include service for God in His heavenly sanctuary; but labor for the Lord will be a delight, performed without the fatigue and boredom that so often mark activities in this life. Scripture does not tell us what that service will entail, but surely it will involve worship, adoration, and continuous praise (Rev 7:15). The Greek verb rendered “spread his tent” has a rich Old Testament heritage. It comes from a term that also means “to dwell” and was used for God’s presence with Israel in the tabernacle and later in the temple. The verb refers to God sheltering and protecting His people with His presence (cf. Beale and McDonough 2007:1109; Brighton 1999:201; Ford 1975:119; Stefanovic

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2002:268). In eternity, the Lord’s glorious presence will never fade away from us as it did from Israel. This scene in heaven tells suffering believers that their struggles are worth the effort. Their oppressors may think they are the winners; but in actuality these victims are the real champions. Suffering believers can look forward to celebrating a tremendous victory in God’s presence. The persecutors, however, will face God’s wrath (cf. Kim 1997:634–635; Morris 1992:115; Mounce 1998:166; Thielman 2005:622–623). Revelation 7:16 and 17 present a dramatic contrast to the death, famine, war, and sorrow of chapter 6. The believers who have endured hardship will find rest and relief from their pain. For all believers heaven will be a blessed contrast to the suffering felt on earth. The Bible does not tell us all we would like to know about the nature of life in eternity. From what Scripture does say, we know that God will take care of our every need. In the Lord’s presence we will experience joy, blessing, and comfort. As seen in Genesis 3:22–24, God expelled Adam and Eve from the garden of Eden so they would not eat fruit from the tree of life (cf. Smick 1988:4:902; Walker 1997a:4:1261). God did not want them to live forever in their sinful state; but in Revelation 7:17, the Messiah leads the redeemed to the waters of life. The motif is that of a shepherd (cf. 2 Sam 7:7; Isa 44:28; Jer 3:15) guiding his sheep to a freshwater spring in the desert (cf. Isa 49:10; Beyreuther 1986:3:568; Burge 2009:52–53; Johnson 1992:751–752; 332). The ultimate focus of the preceding image is heaven, where the righteous enjoy unending life. In some way, their Savior-Shepherd (cf. Heb 13:20; 1 Pet 2:25) prevents the past hurts of His people from ever again bringing them remorse (cf. Isa.25:8; Rev 21:3–4; Keener 1997b:1092; Mounce 1998:167; Roloff 1993:100; Thomas 1992:504). The elder told John that God will wipe away all tears from the eyes of the upright. Pain, suffering, sickness, grief, and death will never be experienced by them in heaven. Having taken His people to His dwelling place, the Lord will not abandon them. His presence will always be with them, bringing them happiness. God Himself will provide for the needs of Jesus’ followers in eternity. Those facing almost certain death at the hands of Roman authorities could take heart at this vivid glimpse of the glory that awaited them. Also, a vast number of Christians throughout history have received courage to face life’s trials by meditating on these words. Revelation 8:1 resumes the main flow of the literary sequence with the breaking of the seventh seal. As a result, the scroll mentioned in 5:1 became completely opened (cf. Bauckham 1993:30; Brighton 1999:212; Beagley 1997c:1085; Wall 1991:122). The events narrated in 8:2–11:18, and perhaps throughout the rest of the Apocalypse, are subsequently enacted. Of particular interest is 11:1–6, in which John noted that someone (possibly an angel) gave him a reed to use as a measur-

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ing stick to calculate the dimensions of the temple and its altar. The Greek noun rendered “temple” (v. 1) refers to the inner shrine of the sanctuary, rather than the entire sacred complex (cf. Charles 1994:1:276; Ford 1975:169; Osborne 2002:410; Stefanovic 2002:336; Thomas 1995:81). The altar would have been in the priest’s court in front of the holy place. The apostle was to count the number of worshipers who were present in the temple. They evidently were in the court of Israel, which was adjacent to the court of priests. John, however, was not allowed to measure the courtyard outside the temple building, for it had been given to the Gentiles, who would overrun the holy city (namely, Jerusalem) for 42 months, or three and a half years (v. 2). There are two primary ways of understanding these verses. Some think John was referring to an actual shrine that the Jews will rebuild in Jerusalem during the first half of a seven-year period of tribulation. At the midpoint of this cycle, Antichrist will exalt himself to be worshiped. Gentiles then will seize control of the holy city and persecute God’s people (cf. Dan 7:25; 2 Thess 2:4). Others think the temple symbolizes the presence of God on earth through the church. Likewise, the altar and the worshipers are a symbol of the church, whom God seals and spiritually protects. In this case, John’s measurement of the sanctuary represents God’s knowledge of and care for His people. The Gentile control of the outer court and oppression of the holy city symbolize the attack of the wicked on God’s people (cf. Aune 1998a:596–598; Bauckham 1993:272; Beale and McDonough 2007:1118; Boring 1989:143; Caird 1999:131–132; Morris 1992:141–142; Thompson 1990:88–89; Waltke 2007:579–580). God revealed to John that He would empower His two witnesses to proclaim His message of judgment and repentance for 1,260 days, or three and a half years (Rev 11:3). It is possible this could refer to a literal period of time that is characterized by distress and intense conflict between God’s people and their opponents before the return of the Messiah. From a symbolic point of view, three and a half years could represent a complete period of suffering cut short by half. In this case, the time reference concerns a limited period of tyranny, whether recurring throughout church history or in the closing days preceding the Second Coming. The idea is that God will bring a definite end to the reign of evil (cf. Brighton 1999:289–290; Ford 1975:171, 177; Malina 1995:155; Osborne 2002:414; Roloff 1993:130; Schreiner 2008:112, 752–753). The two witnesses will wear sackcloth to press home the seriousness of their declarations. Verse 4 says they are the two olive trees and the two lampstands that stand before the Lord, who rules the earth. The imagery is reminiscent of Zechariah 4:3, 12, and 14, where the two anointed ones are Joshua the high priest and Zerubbabel the governor. They overcame all obstacles by the power of the

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Spirit and by God’s grace (cf. Charles 1994:1:282; Morris 1992:144; Mounce 1998:218; Thielman 2005:630–631). The exact identity of these two witnesses remains unclear. If they are two literal human beings, they could be unnamed Christian prophets who were martyred shortly before the fall of Jerusalem in A.D. 70.; or they could be two prophets who will appear just before the return of the Messiah. It is also possible the two witnesses are symbolic figures for God’s people. The two might represent testifying Christians alive during a final period of crisis before the return of the Messiah; or the two might symbolize witnessing believers throughout the history of the church (cf. Aune 1998a:598–603; Bauckham 1993:273; Bauckham 1999:84; Beckwith 1967:594–595; Stefanovic 2002:348; Thomas 1995:88–89; Wall 1991:143–144). In any case, God will give the two witnesses amazing supernatural abilities. They will burn their enemies with fire flashing from their mouths. The two also will be able to prevent rain from falling, turn water into blood, and cause all kinds of plagues (Rev. 11:5–6). These powers bear a strong resemblance to those of Moses and Elijah. For instance, Moses called plagues down on Egypt, and Elijah performed miracles against the corrupt government of Israel (cf. Exod 7—11; 1 Kings 18:41–45). Whether Revelation 11:5–6 is taken literally or symbolically, the Christ-centered focus remains evident, that is, the Savior worked powerfully through His servants to bring glory to His name (cf. Brighton 1999:296; Caird 1999:134–135; deSilva 2009:224; Köstenberger and O’Brien 2001:245). Despite the calamities associated with the first and second woes (mentioned in 9:12 and 11:13, respectively), the people of the earth ultimately remained entrenched in their sinful ways (cf. 16:10–11). Thus, the Lamb will release the devastations associated with the third woe (11:14). Meanwhile, the blowing of the seventh trumpet introduced a throne room scene (v. 15). John saw countless worshipers announce that the world had become the kingdom of the Father, and of His Son, who is the Messiah (cf. Exod 15:18; Ps 10:16; Zech 14:9). This is in keeping with the Old Testament, which reveals that the Messiah of Israel will one day rule the world (cf. Isa 9:6–7). The heavenly chorus prompted the 24 elders to leave their thrones, fall prostrate on their faces, and worship the true God (Rev 11:16). In their praise, these creatures acknowledged that the Lord was all-powerful and eternal (v. 17). In a possible allusion to Psalms 2:1–9, 46:6, and 48:4, which are messianic in their emphases, the elders gave thanks to almighty God for using His power to judge the wicked, vindicate the upright, and establish His unending reign (Rev 11:18; cf. Bassler 1992:2:1054; Newman 1997c:426; Osborne 2002:443; Porter 1997:1239). While the unrepentant of the earth were enraged by the thought of the Lamb subduing them, there was nothing they could do to overturn His will. The elders

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will praise God for overthrowing those who wreaked havoc on the earth and for redeeming those who loved, served, and revered Him. The elders will also announce God’s vindication of the faith of all who have remained loyal to Him. This includes the least to the greatest of believers. God will ensure that all His people receive their eternal inheritance (cf. Boring 1989:149; Mounce 1998:228; Morris 1992:149; Wall 1991:154; Stefanovic 2002:361). Verse 19 indicates that as John watched, he saw someone (perhaps an angel) open the entrance to the divine temple in heaven. There before the apostle’s eyes was the ark of the covenant. Like its Old Testament counterpart (cf. Exod 25:10– 22; Deut 10:1–2; 1 Kings 8:1–13; Heb. 9:3–5), the chest symbolized the throne of God and His divine presence (cf. Clements 1965:28–29; Davies 1997:1156; Roloff 1993:138). The ark also served as a reminder that the Lamb would fulfill His promises in judging the wicked and vindicating the upright. John noted several phenomena in heaven—flashes of lightning, the crash and roar of thunder, an earthquake, and a hailstorm (Rev 11:19). Together these were a “clear allusion to the Sinai theophany” (Bauckham 1993:202) recorded in Exodus 19:16–19 (cf. Pss 18:13; 104:7; Isa 30:30) and signaled that the Savior, in all His majesty and power, was about to bring His eschatological judgments to an end. There would be no more delay, especially as He answered the prayers of the saints for justice (cf. Rev 6:9–17; 8:3–5). Chapters 12–14 detail an intense spiritual conflict between the triune God and the unholy trio of Satan, the beast from the sea, and the beast from the land. John focused on these and other entities, which appear in symbolic form, to add depth and detail to the nature of the forces lined up on either side of the cosmic battle (cf. Arnold 1997b:1078, 1080; Beasley-Murray 1997:1027–1028; Brighton 1999:325; Goppelt 1982:189). The apostle pointed out that the saints follow the Messiah’s example by renouncing the values and goals of fallen humanity and by bearing witness for Him. Despite maltreatment from the forces of darkness the eschatological community is urged to remain loyal to the Son (cf. Beale and McDonough 2007:1131; Kim 1997:636; Osborne 2002:452; Schreiner 2008:162). Encouragement to do so is found in the vision John had of the Lamb (or the Messiah) standing on Mount Zion (14:1). The significance of the reference to Zion is debated. Some think it denotes the true Christian church, while others maintain it is Jerusalem on earth, namely, the future capital of the Messiah’s kingdom. Still others think Zion symbolizes the eternal dwelling of God and His people, namely, heaven (cf. Heb 12:22–24; Rev. 21:2–3; Ford 1975:233; LaSor 1982:2:1031; Mounce 1998:264–265; Strong 1997:4:1320). With the Savior are 144,000 people. John last mentioned this group in Revelation 7:4, and there they may represent the fullness of the people of God.

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The presence of believers with the Messiah indicates that despite the horrors they experience from Satan and his deputies, God will bring the eschatological community safely through their ordeal (cf. Bauckham 1993:230, 285; Guthrie 1981:480; Helyer 2008:359). The 144,000 have the Messiah’s name, along with His Father’s name, written on their foreheads. The inscription contrasts sharply with the mark of the beast mentioned in 13:16 and signifies that God owns and protects His people. While the Lord may not shield them from physical harm, He ensures that they safely reach their eternal home with Him in heaven (14:1). These imprints (whether real or figurative) placed the people of the world in two distinct categories—those who were owned by the Lamb and those who were owned by the forces of darkness (cf. Fiorenza 1998:181–182; Malina 1995:188; Morris 1992:170; Slater 1999:192; Wall 1991:179). As John listened, he heard a loud, melodic chorus being sung by harpists (v. 2), who stood in the Lord’s presence before His throne (v. 3). Some think a throng of angels was singing, while others maintain it was either the 144,000 or a distinct group of instrument players (cf. Boring 1989:172; Brighton 1999:368–369; Caird 1999:178; Stefanovic 2002:436). In any case, the resulting sound was comparable to the reverberation of a waterfall or the rolling of mighty thunder (v. 2). According to verse 3, no one could learn the song except the 144,000, whom John said had been “redeemed from the earth”. The idea seems to be that only they could sing the chorus since it praised the Lamb’s deliverance of His people from worldly ways of thinking and acting. Possibly the “new song” was reminiscent of and contrastive to the Song of Moses recorded in Exodus 15:1–18, which celebrated “Yahweh’s cosmic victory” in redeeming the Israelites from bondage in Egypt (McCurley 1983:36; cf. Hamilton 1997b:4:1240; Roloff 1993:183; Taylor 1997:4:952; Thompson 1990:61). The singers in John’s vision were surrounded by four living creatures and 24 elders (Rev 14:3). In verse 4, John mentioned several distinguishing characteristics of the 144,000. He noted that they “did not defile themselves with women”. Some take this literally to mean that the 144,000 are an elite group of believers who either never married or engaged in licentious activity. Others maintain the apostle was using sexual imagery to refer metaphorically to the spiritual purity of all the Messiah’s followers. In this case, despite the pressure from a pagan world, the redeemed remained loyal to the Son as His pure bride (cf. Eph 5:25–27; Rev 21:9). In fact, they followed the Lamb regardless of where He led them as their SaviorShepherd (Rev 14:4; cf. Aune 1998a:812; Bauckham 1993:231; deSilva 2009:226; Ford 1975:234; Morris 1992:171–172; Slater 1999:193; Strecker 2000:532–533). The Messiah, in turn, purchased 144,000 from the evil world system to present them as “firstfruits” to Himself and the Father. This is an allusion to an an-

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cient Israelite practice in which the people designated the first-born of all their livestock and the first part of their harvest as being special and belonging to the Lord. Some think John was teaching that, in the time of the end, the salvation of the 144,000 will precede the salvation of a larger group of Israelites (cf. Isa 2:3; Rom 11:25–27). Others maintain that John was referring to all the redeemed, whom the Messiah saved with His blood as a choice offering to God (cf. Brighton 1999:371–372; Fiorenza 1998:74; Mounce 1998:267–268; Stefanovic 2002:437). Revelation 14:5 indicates that no one could accuse the 144,000 of telling lies, for they were blameless in their conduct and refused to believe the falsehoods spread by the dragon’s subordinates. In a sense, the redeemed were genuine trophies of the Lamb’s grace and brought Him honor, especially as they worshiped Him in praise before His royal seat (cf. Arnold 1997b:1080; Beckwith 1967:650; Osborne 2002:531; Wall 1991:181). A corresponding throne room scene is spotlighted in chapter 15. There John noted seeing something that looked like a sea of glass mixed with fire. Also, standing by this fire-glowing sea were those who were victorious over the anti-God forces of the world by obeying the Lord’s commands and remaining faithful to the Savior (cf. 12:11; 14:12; Bauckham 1999:77; Bultmann 2007:2:173–174; Guthrie 1981:814–815; Helyer 2008:341–342; Morris 1990:294). The saints held harps that God had given them (15:2), and they sang a chorus of praise to the Lord for His faithfulness in delivering them and judging the wicked (vs. 3; cf. Pss 111:2; 145:17). John first labeled the refrain the “song of Moses” (Rev 15:3). This ode recalled Israel’s triumphant refrain on the shore of the Red Sea (cf. Exod 15:1–18; Deut 32:1–47). Just as the people of God in ancient times had been victorious over their foe, Egypt, so too the new people of God—the followers of the Messiah— had triumphed over their antagonists. This explains why the chorus in Revelation 15:3 is also called “the song of the Lamb”. His atoning sacrifice made victory possible for the saints (cf. 5:6; Beale and McDonough 2007:1133–1134; Brighton 1999:402; Slater 1999:195; Thompson 1990:78). In the unfolding drama, seven angels emerged from the celestial sanctuary dressed in robes of pure white linen and wearing belts made of pure gold (15:5– 6). One of the four living creatures gave each of them a golden bowl filled with God’s wrath (v. 7). The unleashing of the bowls stressed that the Lamb had not ignored the prayers of His followers for the vindication of their faith (cf. 6:9–11). What follows are seven rapidly occurring scourges. These calamities, like the trumpet disasters, resemble the various plagues that the Lord brought upon Egypt through Moses (cf. Boring 1989:174; Osborne 2002:569; Roloff 1993:184; Stefanovic 2002:478). John’s intent was to point out how severe the Lamb’s final judgments were on wicked humanity (cf. Isa 66:6). The Christ-centered backdrop to

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John’s vision is brought into sharp relief in Revelation 16:15. The Savior urged His followers to resist the persuasive and deceptive propaganda of the unholy triumvirate mentioned in verses 13 and 14. Rather than believers exposing themselves to and soiling themselves with the shameful deeds of darkness, they were to remain prepared for the Messiah’s sudden advent (cf. Matt 24:43–44; Luke 12:39–40; 1 Thess 5:2–4; 2 Pet 3:10). Their unflinching vigilance would result in divine blessing. With the unleashing of the seventh bowl, the cycle of divine judgments was brought to a close (Rev 16:17). The mighty shout from the throne of the temple in heaven declared, “It is done!” Though the actual terminus does not appear until 21:6, it is anticipated and announced in 16:17. What follows in 16:18–18:24 is the demise of “Babylon” (cf. Aune 1992:2:606; Collins 1992:5:706; deSilva 2009:207– 208; Morris 1992:194; Mounce 1998:302). John used a cauldron of images pertaining to the squalid whore and the scarlet beast to draw a sharp contrast between these entities and the Messiah (cf. Bauckham 1999:131; Beagley 1997a:111; deSilva 2000a:1029–1030; Malina 1995:215–216; McKelvey 1969:167–168). Regardless of whether “Babylon” is understood in a literal or figurative sense, the name remains a fitting label for all that is corrupt within humankind and counterfeit to the Lamb (cf. Beagley 1997b:128–129; Newman 1997d:564; Seebass 1986c:1:142; Watson 1992:1:566; Wiseman 1997:4:432). The apostle began by positioning his visionary experience against the backdrop of the heavenly temple and the divine throne (16:18–21). In doing so, John emphasized that nothing which transpired concerning the godless forces of evil occurred apart from the Messiah’s sovereignty and control. Thus, even at the end of history, He remained active to judge the wicked and vindicate the faith of the upright (cf. Brighton 1999:428; deSilva 2009:165, 305; Travis 1992:6:997–998; Wall 1991:196). The eschatological portents witnessed by the apostle stressed that fallen humanity, despite its vaunted claims and lofty aspirations, faced utter ruin. John also emphasized that repentance, not a calloused rejection of the Messiah, should have been the response of the wicked in the face of severe judgments from the Lord. The tragedy is that, even in the midst of terrible plagues, they chose to slander their Maker and Judge. Following the account of the demise of the sinister world system, the focus shifts in chapter 19 to the triumph of the Messiah over the forces of evil. Whereas legions on earth will bewail the downfall of Babylon, multitudes in heaven will rejoice when the Savior defeats the wicked (cf. Beasley-Murray 1997:1031; Ford 1975:309; Osborne 2002:662; Roloff 1993:210). The heavenly setting is reminiscent of the throne room scene in chapter 4, including the presence of the 24 elders, the four living creatures, and choruses of praise. The literary backdrop of the

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celestial sanctuary emphasizes the absolute holiness and sovereignty of the Lamb, His covenant faithfulness to His people, and His unbending resolve to bring divine justice to bear on the wicked. The demise of the great whore, which the fallen of the earth lamented in 18:9–19, is lauded by the righteous in 19:1–5 (cf. Boring 1989:191; Caird 1999:232; Malina 1995:223; Mounce 1998:341). This carries forward the Christ-centered theme of rejoicing found in 18:20, in which the Messiah’s holy people were summoned to exult over the fact that Babylon had been judged. They learned that it was only after the Lamb’s victory over the powers of the evil one (17:14) that His wedding could begin (19:7–9). John remembered hearing a vast crowd in heaven shouting “Hallelujah!” (v. 1). This celestial throng praised God for His salvation. This includes more than just the Messiah’s deliverance of believers from sin and all its dire consequences. Here salvation also denotes Jesus’ final victory over the principalities of this world that crucified Him and murdered His followers (cf. Brighton 1999:488; Stefanovic 2002:542; Thomas 1995:357; Wu 1997:662). The heavenly choir declared that glory and power belonged to God alone, for His judgment of the wicked was honest and fair. This is seen in the way He punished the filthy prostitute. As a lover of iniquity, she had corrupted humanity with her shameful deeds. Also, as an enemy of righteousness, she had murdered believers. Thus it was right for the Lord to make her pay for her crimes (v. 2). John once again heard the throng in heaven praise God for overthrowing Babylon. They noted that the smoke from her burned body will never stop rising (v. 3). It is possible that these worshipers are an angelic host. They could also be the saved of all the ages or martyrs killed during a final period of great distress. As God sat on His throne, the 24 elders and the four living creatures knelt before Him and shouted, “Amen, Hallelujah!” (v. 4). A voice from the throne then commanded all God’s servants to praise Him (v. 5). The worshipers are not limited to one group. All believers from every social class and economic level join together in revering God. John next heard what sounded like the shout of a huge crowd, the roar of mighty ocean waves, and the crash of loud thunder all mixed together. A multitude praised God for being the sovereign and all-powerful King (v. 6). His triumph over evil set the stage for the wedding of the Lamb (v. 7; Beckwith 1967:726; Morris 1992:220; Mounce 1998:345; Wall 1991:222). Scripture teaches that the church—which consists of all true believers—is the bride of Christ (cf. 2 Cor 11:2; Eph 5:25–32). In a sense the church right now is betrothed to the Messiah and awaits the day when He will claim her as His bride. At His return, He will join Himself to His people in intimacy, love, and joy. Throughout the centuries, the Savior’s bride has been preparing herself for the day when she will meet Him. In contrast to the gaudy clothing worn by the prostitute

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(cf. Rev 17:4; 18:16), Jesus’ bride is wearing a wedding dress made of pure and fine linen. This outfit symbolizes the upright deeds believers have done in the Messiah’s power and for His glory (19:8; cf. Eph 2:10; Phil 2:13; Boring 1989:193; Osborne 2002:675; Roloff 1993:212). At the command of an angel, John wrote that God’s blessing rests on all whom He invites to the wedding feast of the Lamb. This is no idle promise. What the Lord has pledged is true and will surely take place (Rev 19:9). The Near Eastern marriage banquet is a fitting symbol of the celebration that will occur when Jesus consummates His union with the church. This joyous feast stands in sharp contrast to the carnage noted in verses 17 and 18. It is clear that eternal rewards await the righteous, while unending loss awaits the wicked (cf. Brighton 1999:520; Malina 1995:227; Saucy 1972:49; Stefanovic 2002:547). John possibly felt overwhelmed by what he had seen and heard. Thus, he knelt at the feet of the angel and began to worship him; but the angel stopped him, explaining that he was a servant of God, as was John and his fellow believers. They not only believed the witness Jesus bore in His life and death but also told others about their faith in the Savior. The angel urged John to worship God, who is the source of all genuine revelation. The prophecies of Scripture, in turn, ultimately concern the Savior. Of course, the message He declared is the essence of prophetic truth. Angels, on the other hand, are God’s servants whom He sends to help believers (v. 10; cf. Heb 1:14; Bauckham 1992:3:816; Bauckham 1993:120, 134, 161; Bauckham 1999:59; Ford 1975:312; Thompson 1990:69). The victorious throne room scene of Revelation 19:1–10 is followed in verses 11–21 by the defeat and judgment of the Messiah’s adversaries. John saw heaven open and a conqueror riding on a white horse (v. 11; cf. Ezek 1:1; Matt 3:16; John 1:51; Acts 7:56; 10:11). The victor is the Redeemer, and the stallion suggests triumph over His enemies. He comes as the divine warrior and conquering king who will trounce the “primordial chaos” embodied in sin and death, and judge fallen humanity (Hiebert 1992b:6:878; cf. Craigie 1988:4:1020–1021; Dumbrell 1985:168; Klassen 1992:6:871–872; Kreitzer 1997b:871; Longman 1982:298–299; Longman 1997:4:549; Longman and Reid 1995:87, 187; McCurley 1983:71; Miller 2006:158– 159, 173–174; Reid 1993:948, 952; Seow 1992:3:307; Toombs 1962:4:800). The apostle called the Messiah “Faithful and True” (Rev 19:11), which means He is genuine, upright, and loyal in His character. He also guarantees the certainty of whatever He declared (cf. Bauckham 1999:105; Beckwith 1967:732; Hughes 1990:203; Slater 1999:214; Thomas 1995:383). John noted that the Messiah’s eyes were like flames of fire (v. 12; cf. 1:14; 2:18), a description that symbolized His great power and wisdom (cf. Osborne 2002:680; Slater 1999:222–223; Wall 1991:230). The Savior wore many crowns on

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His head, after the manner of ancient kings who wore multiple crowns to represent their authority over many nations (cf. the contrasting references to the dragon in 12:3, the sea beast in 13:1, land beast in 13:11, and the scarlet beast in 17:3, 7). John saw a new name written on the Savior that only He knew (19:12). Interpretations vary regarding what the apostle meant. In the least, the verse suggests that there is much about the Messiah that remains beyond human ability to fathom. For instance, His nature and person are so exalted that they transcend comprehension (cf. Aune 1998b:1005; Beale and McDonough 2007:1143; Brighton 1999:510; Ford 1975:313; Mounce 1998:353). In his vision, John saw the Redeemer clothed with a robe that had been dipped in blood (v. 13). The mention of blood may refer to the Messiah’s sacrificial death. Another possibility is that John was talking about the blood shed by the Messiah’s enemies, whom He would slay in battle (cf. Isa 63:1–6; Charles 1994:2:133; Roloff 1993:218; Schreiner 2008:815). Revelation 19:13 states that the Father will give His victorious Son a designation that summed up all that He is, namely, the “Word of God” (cf. Wisdom of Solomon 18:15–19; John 1:1; 1 John 1:1; Caird 1995:330; Guthrie 1981:330). This distinctive title spotlights the role of the Son, as the Warrior-King, in consummating the Father’s end-time program (cf. Harris 1994:192; Hughes 1990:204; Johnson 2001:272). The Son will vanquish “all human and political institutions”, including those that tried to thwart the Father’s will and maltreat His people. Furthermore, the Son will reconstitute “both natural and political orders” to “ensure the well-being of God’s people” (Hiebert 1992:6:879). At the Messiah’s return, He will not be alone. Behind Him will be all the armies of heaven clothed in white and riding upon white horses (Rev 19:14). These legions could be angels, believers, or a combination of both (cf. Deut 33:2; Ps 68:17; 2 Thess 1:7–10; Jude 1:14–15; Helyer 2008:360). John noted that the Savior had a sharp sword proceeding from His mouth (Rev 19:15; cf. 1:16; 2:12). It is a symbol of the conqueror’s might—as the “eschatological judge” (Beale and McDonough 2007:1092)—to defeat those who refuse to accept divine truth (cf. Porter 1997:1239; Mounce 1998:355; Schreiner 2008:425). As 19:15 makes clear, the Son will rule the nations with an iron scepter (cf. Ps 2:9) and trample His enemies as in a winepress, causing their lifeblood to pour out (cf. Rev 14:14–20). The winepress is a symbol of the wrath of the divine (cf. Isa 63:3–6; Guthrie 1981:103; Kennard 2007:483; Malina 1995:193). On the Messiah’s robe and on His thigh is written the name “King of kings and Lord of lords” (Rev 19:16). This title, which stands in sharp contrast to the epithets ascribed to the whorish Babylon (cf. 14:8; 17:5; 18:2, 10, 21), sums up who the Messiah is in relation to the rest of the universe. In a civilization where there was an emperor and many lesser kings and lords, John wanted his readers to

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know that there was one who is the most powerful of all. Every human ruler is subservient to Him, and one day His kingship will be most fully exercised (cf. Phil 2:9–11; Arnold 1997a:939; Aune 1998b:1063; Boring 1989:196; Osborne 2002:686; Slater 1999:219). John next saw an angel invite carrion birds, perhaps similar to vultures, flying high in the sky to attend God’s great feast (Rev 19:17). The fowl gorged themselves on the corpses of the wicked who were slain in battle (v. 18; cf. Ezek 39:17–20; Brighton 1999:521; Moyise 1995:81; Roloff 1993:220; Wall 1991:233). Under the command of the beast, the rulers and people of earth tried to defeat the Messiah and His army (Rev 19:19; cf. Ps 2:2; Rev 16:12–14); however, the insurrection was doomed to failure, and the resulting human carnage was horrific (Rev 19:21). In 20:1–3, John detailed the binding of Satan for 1,000 years. This is followed by the resurrection of the righteous and their reign with the Messiah for 1,000 years (vv. 4–6). Then, at the end of this period of idyllic peace, there is the release and second defeat of Satan (vv. 7–10; cf. Arnold 1997b:1081; Johnson 2001:294; Travis 1997:1017–1018). Regardless of whether this passage is understood literally or figuratively, the sovereignty of the Redeemer, His rout of the wicked, and His vindication of the upright are undisputed emphases (cf. Dodd 1997:739; Clouse 2001:770–771; deSilva 2004:924–925; Ford 1992:4:832–834; Guthrie 1981:869– 874; Kreitzer 1997b:871–872; Montgomery 1986:3:360–361; Morris 1986:3:667– 670). Unlike human victories, the Messiah’s triumph does not end on the battlefield, but before the pure and holy throne of God. Earth and heaven will flee from the Lord’s presence, yet there will be no place they can hide (v. 11). Some think it is at this time that God will destroy the present heaven and earth and replace them with a new heaven and earth. In any case, John saw the dead, both small and great, standing before their Creator-King. No great reputation or noteworthy lifestyle will exempt anyone. Similarly, there is no human life so humble or insignificant that God will overlook it. It is not clear who will actually stand before God’s throne. Some say the judgment involves only unbelievers, while others maintain that both saved and unsaved will appear before God. Either way, God’s judgment will be fair and impartial. Only those who have trusted in Messiah will be saved from eternal condemnation (cf. Goppelt 1982:194–195; Osborne 2002:721–722; Schreiner 2008:834; Stefanovic 2002:570). John saw God open several books that contain a record of the deeds of every human being. The Lord will judge all people according to their works. This did not mean that salvation is based on good deeds, but that God keeps a record of what people do in this life. Then, God will open “the book of life” (v. 12), which records the names of those who put their faith in the Redeemer for salvation (cf. Allen

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1997:4:447; Burge 2009:107; Morris 1992:234; Strecker 2000:532). The Lord will deliver from judgment only those whose names appear in this book. For those who spurn the Messiah, all that remains is for God to condemn them. It will be a terrifying scene as He issues a verdict of guilty against the unsaved. Next, John saw the sea giving up the dead who were in it, and death and Hades (the realm of dead) also giving up their dead (v. 13). The idea is that no one will escape judgment. God will cast death and Hades into the eternal lake of fire. John called this the second death because it is the final state of everlasting torment (v. 14). The documents detailing humanity’s deeds will be a sobering witness that cannot be refuted. God will banish forever from His presence those who do not have their names listed in the Lamb’s book of life. No unsaved person will escape this fate (v. 15; Boring 1989:212; Brighton 1999:587; Ford 1975:359; Johnson 2001:299; Roloff 1993:232). Revelation 21 and 22 spotlight the new creation that awaits all believers. John made a direct reference to Isaiah 65:17 when he said that the “new heaven” (Rev 21:1) and “new earth” will be total replacements for their old counterparts, which God had destroyed (cf. Bauckham 1999:49; Dumbrell 1985:167; McKelvey 1969:169–170; Mounce 1998:30). Evidently, He did this to eliminate any corrupting presence or influence of sin (cf. 2 Pet 3:7, 10–13). God will also eliminate the vast and mysterious seas. In the Old Testament, the sea was a symbol for the agitation and restlessness associated with evil (cf. Isa 57:20; Jer 49:23; Aune 1998b:1119; Bauckham 1993:69; Brown 1999:398; Waltke 2007:184, 259). In Revelation, the sea is the source of the satanic beast and a burial site for the dead (cf. Rev 13:1; 20:13). In the eternal state, there can be no symbolic place for this seething cauldron of wickedness (cf. Niehaus 1995:348–349; Stefanovic 2002:575– 576; Wall 1991:243). John’s attention quickly passed from the creation of the new heaven and earth to “the Holy city, the new Jerusalem” (Rev. 21:2), which originates from God’s heavenly sanctuary (cf. Caird 1999:263; LaSor 1982:2:1031–1032; Morris 1992:237). The Lord magnificently adorned the new Jerusalem, the bride, for her husband, the groom (cf. Isa 61:10). This harks back to the marriage of the church to the Messiah (cf. Rev 19:7–9). As before, the focus is on believers having intimate fellowship with the Messiah throughout eternity (cf. Beale and McDonough 2007:1150; Johnson 2001:304; Vos 2000:155). In 21:9–27, John gave a stunning description of the new Jerusalem. The angel that the apostle mentioned in verse 9 is one of the seven who had emptied the bowl plagues (cf. 16:1). The celestial being may also be the same angel who had revealed to John the judgment of the prostitute (cf. 17:1). The heavenly abode the apostle saw stands in sharp contrast to the earthly city of Babylon (cf. 14:8; 16:19; Newman 1997d:564; Thielman

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2005:645; Thomas 1995:439). Despite the vaunted greatness of the latter, it is the cesspool of every immoral and filthy thing among fallen humankind (17:5). Also, unlike depraved Babylon, the new Jerusalem is known as the Lamb’s bride and wife (21:9; cf. DeSilva 2004:920; Ford 1975:339; Kim 1997:636–637). Suddenly, the apostle found himself being transported by the Spirit to a huge, majestic mountain (cf. Lundquist 2008:xv, 11, 225–226; Malina 1995:238; McKelvey 1969:173). “Spirit” (v. 10) could also refer to John’s human spirit. In either case, the apostle seemed to have been in a trancelike state as he viewed the holy city—the new Jerusalem—descending out of heaven from God. This “perfected salvation community” (Roloff 1993:240) is the final dwelling place of those who followed the Messiah. John noted that the eternal abode of the redeemed is filled with the glory of God and its radiance is like an extremely precious jewel. Indeed, the holy city is crystal clear like a prized jasper stone (v. 11). The new Jerusalem sparkling like a gem suggests that it radiates the majesty of the Lord (cf. Beale and McDonough 2007:1152; Mounce 1998:390; Osborne 2002:749; Schreiner 2008:162–163, 848–849). The city is an exactly proportioned, gigantic cube and the same shape as the most holy place in the tabernacle and temple (cf. Ezek 40–48; Brighton 1999:615; Caird 1999:271; Chance 1988:32; Morris 1992:244). In all likelihood, the “shapes and proportions” of the everlasting sanctum are not adopted for “practical or aesthetic” reasons; instead, the new Jerusalem epitomizes in its “perfections and harmonies the very nature of heaven itself ” (Turner 1979:58). Accordingly, the city has a massive, high wall with 12 gates. On the latter are the names of the 12 tribes of the nation of Israel, and there are 12 angels stationed at the gates (Rev 21:12). In terms of distribution, the east, north, south, and west sides of this magnificent abode each have three gates (v. 13). Moreover, the wall of the new Jerusalem has 12 foundation stones, and on them are inscribed the 12 names of the 12 apostles of the Lamb (v. 14). The length, width, and height of the new Jerusalem are equal (about 1,400 miles), making it perfectly symmetrical (vv. 15–16). The wall is about 200 feet thick (or high; v. 17) and made of jasper. The pristine city is pure gold, like transparent glass (v. 18), while its foundation stones are inlaid with 12 gems (vv. 19–20). Each of the 12 gates is made from just one pearl. The main street of the new Jerusalem is pure gold, as transparent as glass (v. 21). All the dimensions of the new Jerusalem are multiples of 12, which symbolically designates the fullness of God’s people (cf. Ford 1975:341; Johnson 2001:310; Stefanovic 2002:587; Walker 1996:247). Also, the Lamb is very prominent in the new Jerusalem, along with the Father and the Spirit. The splendor and opulence of the city reflect the beauty and majesty of the triune God. The believers’ eternal home is characterized by awesomeness and durability. Revelation

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takes a pastiche of literary motifs that once pertained to Israel and applies them to the “church of Jews and Gentiles who are part of the city-temple complex” (Beale and McDonough 2007:1153). Unlike the Jerusalem of Bible times, the eternal city does not have a temple within it (v. 22). The reason is that “the Lord God Almighty and the Lamb” are the temple for the metropolis (cf. Osborne 2002:760; Roloff 1993:245; Thielman 2005:646). Similarly, the new Jerusalem has no need for the sun or the moon, for “the glory of God” (v. 23) illuminates the city and “the Lamb” is the source of light for the abode of the righteous (cf. Beckwith 1967:763; Harris 1994:205; Morris 1992:247). All “the nations” (v. 24) walk in the light of the “eschatological divine presence” (Newman 1997b:397). Likewise, “the kings of the earth” bring their glory and honor to the city. The new Jerusalem truly is the center of life for the redeemed in eternity. It is such a safe and secure haven that during the day its gates are never closed (v. 25). Even night—with all the fears and uncertainties connected with it—is eliminated. Moreover, the grandeur and wealth of the nations will stream into the new Jerusalem (v. 26). As well, the inhabitants of the new Jerusalem will only be those whose names are recorded in “the Lamb’s book of life” (v. 27). In the unfolding vision, John saw “the river of the water of life” (22:1) and “the tree of life” (v. 2). These images, which evoke the initial happiness of humanity in the original “garden in Eden” (Gen 2:8), suggest the final happiness of God’s elect in the eternal state (cf. Ezek 47:1–12; Zech 14:8; Childs 1962b:4:697; Giese 1997:4:1151–1152; Moyise 1995:81; Wallace 1992c:6:659). Indeed, what Genesis introduces is brought to closure in Revelation, which makes the latter the “concluding chapter in God’s cosmic struggle with evil powers” (Wall 1991:30; cf. Dillard and Longman 1994:55; Miles 1992:4:134; Vos 2000:28; Waltke 2007:168– 169). For instance, while in Genesis the sun is created, in Revelation the sun is not needed. Satan appears to have the upper hand in Genesis, while in Revelation the evil one is defeated. In Genesis, sin enters the human race, and in Revelation sin is banished (cf. Anderson 1962a:1:731–732; Kline 1996; Thomas 1997:56, 60, 63, 69; Toews 2002:40, 51–52). Genesis recounts how Adam and Eve tried to hide themselves from God, but in Revelation people are invited to live with Him forever. Whereas in Genesis people suffer under the curse of sin, in Revelation the curse is removed. Beginning in Genesis, the presence of sin leads to tears and anguish, but in Revelation there no longer is any sin, tears, or sorrow. In Genesis, even the temple-garden and the rest of earth are cursed, while in Revelation, the city of God is glorified and the entire planet is made new. Genesis reveals that people languish under the specter of death, whereas in Revelation, death is defeated and believers live forever with the

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triune God (cf. Aune 1992:2:598; Beale 2002:170–171; Beale 2004b:192–193; Dahl 1964:425–428; Dumbrell 1985:4; Dumbrell 2002:62–65). Closure to the message John received begins with words of reassurance from the interpreting angel. He declared that God’s prophecies about the eschaton— for instance, the Lamb’s overthrow of evil and the joys awaiting His followers in the eternal state—were true, trustworthy, and certain to take place at the divinely appointed time (Rev 22:6). One prominent aspect of John’s message was the return of Jesus at the end of the age (v. 7). The certainty of His future appearing should have comforted His followers in times of hardship and motivated them to be obedient and faithful in times of temptation. Moreover, in the sixth beatitude of Revelation, which mirrors the first beatitude recorded in 1:3, the upright are reminded that, by remaining devoted to the Messiah, they will be eternally “blessed” (cf. Bauckham 1993:30; Brighton 1999:644; Johnson 1997:131; Stefanovic 2002:606). The Apocalypse began by stressing the certainty of the Lamb’s return (1:7), the importance of remaining faithful to Him (v. 3), and the genuineness of the prophecy John had received (vv. 1–2). These same themes are emphasized in the conclusion of the book (22:12). As the apostle wrote, he and other believers faced intense persecution (1:9). Also, throughout history Christians have endured abuse from enemies of the faith. Jesus’ promise that He was “coming soon” (22:12) would prove to be a source of comfort for His beleaguered followers down through the centuries (cf. Caird 1999:285; Goppelt 1982:23; Mounce 1998:407). They could rest assured that no one would thwart the will of the one who is the beginning and conclusion of all reality (v. 13; cf. Johnson 2001:326; Rhodes 1992:171–172; Schreiner 2008:421). With respect to the seventh and final beatitude of the Apocalypse (v. 14), the Messiah declared that divine favor rests on those who had been cleansed from sin through His atoning sacrifice (cf. 7:14; Hughes 1990:238; Johnson 1997:131; Osborne 2002:789). Jesus allows the faithful—namely, those who have not defiled themselves by the corrupt world system—to live with Him in heaven and enjoy the blessings of eternal life (cf. John 14:1–3). In contrast, the Lamb banishes from His presence those of low moral and spiritual character (Rev 22:15; cf. Phil 3:2). The undeviating message of the Apocalypse is that, at the end of the age, the Lamb rewards people for what they have done. While eternal joy is the heritage of the righteous, unending sorrow is the lot of the wicked (cf. Beale and McDonough 2007:1157; Harris 1994:232–233; Morris 1992:253; Slater 1999:207). Ultimately, the way people live is an indicator of whether they are regenerate or unregenerate (cf. Matt 7:15–20; 1 John 1:6–7). The Messiah assured His followers that the message of the Apocalypse is true

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and could be trusted (Rev 22:16). He could guarantee what He had declared, for He is the Messiah who came from the house and lineage of David. Also, as the “bright Morning Star” (cf. 2:28), He ensured that a new day of salvation is dawning. On the basis of these promises and their assured fulfillment, God’s Spirit and His people extended an invitation for everyone to come to the Messiah in faith and experience the joys of salvation (22:17). All are welcomed to drink from the water of eternal life, which the Savior offers free of charge (cf. John 4:10, 14; 7:37–39; Bauckham 1993:167; Boring 1989:225; Ford 1975:369; Kreitzer 1997b:870; Smith 1996:352; Thomas 1995:512–513).

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his study has undertaken a biblical and theological analysis of the temple motif as a conceptual and linguistic framework for understanding Scripture. To date, interpreters disagree over the significance of the shrine concept. Be that as it may, this investigation was based on the premise that there is value in appraising the temple theme. The goal has been to take a fresh look at the topic, assess a representative group of the Judeo-Christian Scriptures through the various prisms of secondary literature, and offer a synthesis of what appears in the biblical data in an effort to build on and extend prior research in a meaningful way. This undertaking involved treating God’s Word as an organic whole, viewing it from a Christ-centered perspective, and analyzing it using a canonical, integrative approach. The project began with the temple-garden in Eden, primarily because it is regarded as the starting point for fellowship between God and redeemed humanity. Moreover, the Lord’s ongoing encounter with the covenant community is discernible in the priestly activity of God’s people in sacred locales during the early biblical period, as well as in the sacerdotal practices connected with the wilderness tabernacle and various subsequent Jerusalem shrines. The prominence of the temple in later biblical literature can be seen in the depictions of God’s heavenly sanctuary recorded in Isaiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel. All of these sanctums are understood to be manifestations of the axis of glory, a concept that was first broached in the Preface; in other words, these shrines function as sacred points of contact between the God of glory and His creation. As the study unfolded, a number of equally significant facets of the temple motif were explored. To sum up, the Old Testament affirms the role of the temple—both in its literal and symbolic forms—as being archetypal to God’s relationship with His chosen people and His involvement in the cosmos. The Creator-King not only reveals Himself through a succession of temporal, earthbound sanctuaries, but also communes with the covenant community in these hallowed settings. Additionally, these shrines foreshadow the prophesied advent of the Messiah as the perfect, complete, and final locus of divine, revelatory activity. All the while, the celestial sanctuary remains the primary locale where God manifests His ineffable presence.

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The above mindset reverberates throughout the New Testament. Indeed, the temple motif as an ideological paradigm looms large across its pages. The presentations of Jesus as the Messiah in the four Gospels, depict Him as the culmination of all the types, rituals, and festivals connected with the Jerusalem tabernacle and temple. In a manner of speaking, He is the shrine incarnate, by which is meant the locus of the glorious presence of the triune God among believers. The theological implications of this perspective are further developed and nuanced in Acts and Hebrews. In particular, the Son of God is heralded as being greater than and supreme over all the religious institutions, practices, and beliefs connected with the various Israelite shrines. The Pauline and Petrine writings advance the discourse by portraying the Anointed One as the cornerstone of the glorious temple existing at the end of the age and into the eternal state. Furthermore, these writings, along with Acts and Hebrews, stress that the sacred presence of the ascended Messiah occurs through the Spirit indwelling and empowering believers. Finally, the Apocalypse showcases the Messiah as the realization of all the redemptive-historical types, prophecies, and expectations, especially in connection with the descent of the new Jerusalem, the holy city of the triune God. The preceding observations lead to the following general conclusions. First, references and allusions connected with the temple motif crisscross the entire literary landscape of Scripture. In fact, there are places where the canvas of the Old and New Testaments is saturated with the shrine concept. Second, the presence of the temple motif is comparable to a series of rhetorical threads that join the fabric of the Judeo-Christian writings and weave together their seemingly eclectic and esoteric narratives into a richly textured, multicolored tapestry. Indeed, the Bible’s theocentric and Christocentric emphases are heightened in their intensity and sharpened in their focus due to the temple motif making its way through the pages of the sacred text, beginning with the opening chapter of Genesis and ending with the final chapter of Revelation. Third, the dominating presence of the shrine concept is part of the reason why God’s Word remains relevant in today’s sophisticated, postmodern world of science and technology. The temple motif not only connects with readers on an emotional level, but also speaks to them with power and authority. As they immerse themselves in this grand narrative of the Bible, spiritual growth is fostered in their lives. Without question, the people of God are enriched in their faith and enlivened in their earthly sojourn as a result of better understanding and more fully appreciating the shrine concept of Scripture. It is my hope that in some modest way God uses this book to bring the latter about for His glory.

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Wallace HN 1992a. Eden, garden of. In DN Freedman (ed.), The anchor Bible dictionary, vol. 2:281– 283. New York: Doubleday. ——— 1992b. Garden of God. In DN Freedman (ed.), The anchor Bible dictionary, vol. 2:906–907. New York: Doubleday. ——— 1992c. Tree of knowledge and tree of life. In DN Freedman (ed.), The anchor Bible dictionary, vol. 6:656–660. New York: Doubleday. Walters SD 1992. Jacob narrative. In DN Freedman (ed.), The anchor Bible dictionary, vol. 3:599–608. New York: Doubleday. Waltke BK 2007. An Old Testament theology: an exegetical, canonical, and thematic approach. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. Walton JH 2001. Genesis: The NIV application commentary. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. ——— 2003a. Creation. In TD Alexander and DW Barker (eds.), Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch, 155–168. Downers Grove: InterVarsity. ——— 2003b. Eden, garden of. In TD Alexander and DW Barker (eds.), Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch, 202–207. Downers Grove: InterVarsity. ——— 2003c. Flood. In TD Alexander and DW Barker (eds.), Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch, 315–326. Downers Grove: InterVarsity. ——— 2006. Ancient near Eastern thought and the Old Testament: introducing the conceptual world of the Hebrew Bible. Grand Rapids: Baker. ——— 2009. The lost world of Genesis one: ancient cosmology and the origins debate. Downers Grove: InterVarsity. Walton S 2004. A tale of two perspectives? The place of the temple in Acts. In TD Alexander and S Gathercole (eds.), Heaven on earth, 135–149. Carlisle: Paternoster. Watson DF 1992. Babylon in the NT. In DN Freedman (ed.), The anchor Bible dictionary, vol. 1:565– 566. New York: Doubleday. Watts RE 2007. Mark. In GK Beale and DA Carson (eds.), Commentary on the New Testament use of the Old Testament, 111–249. Grand Rapids: Baker. Webb B 1996. The message of Isaiah: on eagles’ wings. Downers Grove: InterVarsity. Weinert FD 1981. The meaning of the temple in Luke–Acts. Biblical Theology Bulletin. 11:85–89. Weinfeld M 1983. Zion and Jerusalem as religious and political capital: ideology and utopia. In RE Friedman (ed.), The poet and the historian: essays in literary and historical biblical criticism, 75–115. Chico: Scolars Press. ——— 2007. Covenant. In M Berenbaum and F Skolnik (eds.), Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. 5:249–253. Detroit: Macmillan Reference. Welch, JW 2009. The sermon on the mount in the light of the temple. Farmham: Ashgate. Wenham D 1995. Paul: follower of Jesus or founder of Christianity? Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. Wenham GJ 1994. Sanctuary symbolism in the garden of Eden story. In RS Hess and DA Tsumura (eds.), “I studied inscriptions before the flood”: ancient Near Eastern, literary, and linguistic approaches to Genesis 1–11, 399–404. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns. ——— 2008. Genesis. In KJ Vanhoozer (ed.), Theological interpretation of the Old Testament, 29–41. Grand Rapids: Baker. Westcott BF 1980. The epistle to the Hebrews: the Greek text with notes and essays. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. Westerholm S 1988a. Tabernacle. In GW Bromiley (ed.), The international standard Bible encyclopedia, vol. 4:698–706. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. ——— 1988b. Temple. In GW Bromiley (ed.), The international standard Bible encyclopedia, vol. 4:759– 776. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. Westermann C 1982. Elements of Old Testament theology. DW Stott (trans.). Atlanta: John Knox Press. Whitacre RA 1999. John. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity. Website: http://www.biblegateway.com/resources/commentaries/index.php. White REO 2001. Reconciliation. In WA Elwell (ed.), Evangelical dictionary of theology, 992–993. Grand Rapids: Baker.

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White W 1976. Number. In MC Tenney (ed.), The Zondervan pictorial encyclopedia of the Bible, vol. 4:452– 461. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. Wiener HM, Caldecott WS, and Armerding CE 1979. Altar. In GW Bromiley (ed.), The international standard Bible encyclopedia, vol. 1:100–104. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. Wiens DL 1995. Stephen’s sermon and the structure of Luke–Acts. N. Richard Hills: BIBAL Press. Williams S 2002a.The transfiguration of Jesus Christ. Themelios. 28(1):13–25. ——— 2002b.The transfiguration of Jesus Christ (part 2)—approaching sonship. Themelios. 28(1):16–27. Williamson HGM 1992. Samaritans. In JB Green and S McKnight (eds.), Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels, 724–728. Downers Grove: InterVarsity. ——— 2007. Temple and worship in Isaiah 6. In J Day (ed.), Temple worship in biblical Israel: proceedings of the Oxford Old Testament seminar, 123–144. London: T&T Clark. Williamson HGM and Evans CA 2000. Samaritans. In CA Evans and SE Porter (eds.), Dictionary of New Testament background, 1056–1061. Downers Grove: InterVarsity. Williamson PR 2003a. Abraham. In TD Alexander and DW Barker (eds.), Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch, 8–17. Downers Grove: InterVarsity. ——— 2003b. Covenant. In TD Alexander and DW Barker (eds.), Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch, 139–155. Downers Grove: InterVarsity. Wilson JM 1979. Angels. In GW Bromiley (ed.), The international standard Bible encyclopedia, vol. 1:124– 127. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. Wilson MR 1989. Our father Abraham: Jewish roots of the Christian faith. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. Wise MO 1992. Temple. In JB Green and S McKnight (eds.), Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels, 811– 817. Downers Grove: InterVarsity. Wiseman DJ 1997. Babylon. In WA VanGemeren (ed.), New international dictionary of Old Testament theology and exegesis, vol. 4:430–433. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. Witherington B 1992a. Birth of Jesus. In JB Green and S McKnight (eds.), Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels, 60–74. Downers Grove: InterVarsity. ——— 1992b. John the Baptist. In JB Green and S McKnight (eds.), Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels, 383–391. Downers Grove: InterVarsity. ——— 1993. Christology. In GE Hawthorne and RP Martin (eds.), Dictionary of Paul and his letters, 100–115. Downers Grove: InterVarsity. ——— 1997a. Christ. In RP Martin and PH Davids (eds.), Dictionary of the later New Testament and its developments, 152–159. Downers Grove: InterVarsity. ——— 1997b. Lord. In RP Martin and PH Davids (eds.), Dictionary of the later New Testament and its developments, 667–678. Downers Grove: InterVarsity. ——— 1998. The acts of the apostles: a socio-rhetorical commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. Wood AS 1984. Galatians. In FE Gaebelein (ed.), The expositor’s Bible commentary, vol. 11:3–92. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. Wood LJ 1972. A commentary on Daniel. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. ——— 1979. The prophets of Israel. Grand Rapids: Baker. Wright CJH 1982. God, names of. In GW Bromiley (ed.), The international standard Bible encyclopedia, vol. 2:504–508. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. ——— 2006. The mission of God: unlocking the Bible’s grand narrative. Downers Grove: InterVarsity. Wright NT 1992. The New Testament people of God. Minneapolis: Fortress Press. ——— 1993. The climax of the covenant: Christ and the law in Pauline theology. Minneapolis: Fortress Press. ——— 1996. Jesus and the victory of God. Minneapolis: Fortress Press. Wu JL 1997. Liturgical elements. In RP Martin and PH Davids (eds.), Dictionary of the later New Testament and its developments, 659–665. Downers Grove: InterVarsity. Yadin Y, et al. 2007. Temple. In M Berenbaum and F Skolnik (eds.), Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. 19:601– 627. Detroit: Macmillan Reference.

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Young EJ 1983. The book of Isaiah. Volumes 1 through 3. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. Zimmerli W 1978. Old Testament theology in outline. DE Green (trans.). Edinburgh: T&T Clark. ——— 1979. Ezekiel 1: a commentary on the book of the prophet Ezekiel, chapters 1–24. RE Clements (trans.). Philadelphia: Fortress Press.

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SUBJECT INDEX

‘abad (serving, worshiping) 11 Abraham (Abram) 17, 19–25, 26, 27, 31, 32, 37, 38, 74, 83–84 Adam and Eve 7–11, 17–19, 22, 26, 31, 37, 46, 119, 132 ’adonay (sovereign master) 40 altar 18, 21, 24, 30, 74, 120 amen (let it be so) 109, 118 Ancient of Days 50 angel of the Lord, angel of God 25, 27, 29, 30, 54–56, 57 ark of the covenant 9, 12, 35, 36, 38, 122 axis of glory 1, 6, 13, 27, 28, 35, 55, 135 Babylon 125, 126, 128, 130–131 bat qôl (daughter of a voice) 63 Bethel 1, 21, 26–29, 30, 31, 69 Bethlehem shepherds 53, 55–56 bless, blessing 14, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 23, 25, 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 37, 38, 45, 46, 84– 85, 96, 119, 125, 127, 133 book of life 129–130, 132 Canaan, promised land 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 33, 37, 38, 79, 81, 85, 106 chaos 14, 17, 19, 43, 50, 127 cherubim 11–12, 46–48, 113 cosmic mountain 1, 12–13, 27, 34, 36, 39– 40, 63–64, 65–66, 77–78, 83, 109, 112, 122, 131 covenant, covenantalism, covenant theology 3, 18, 23, 25, 27, 28, 30, 37, 53, 73, 82, 83, 85, 108, 111, 114, 126 creation, doctrine of 3 creation mandate 14 creation, new 3, 19 death 11, 115, 127, 128, 129, 130, 132–133 demût (likeness) 7–8 dóxa (glory) 68 Eden, garden of 1, 5–15, 21–22, 33, 37, 46, 119, 132 El Bethel (God of Bethel) 30 El Elohe Israel (God, the God of Israel) 30 El–Shaddai (God Almighty) 22, 26, 30 eternal life, salvation 8, 11, 32, 82, 85, 94, 96, 101, 102, 106, 115, 122, 123, 126, 127, 129, 132–134

eternal state, eternity 10–11, 34, 44, 45, 46, 97, 103, 118, 119, 122, 123, 130–134 exegéomai (to expound, to set forth in great detail) 68 firstborn (from the dead) 84, 107–108 firstfruits 123–124 flood event 17–19 fulfillment of Genesis themes in Revelation 132–133 gan (garden) 5 glory of God 1, 3, 14–15, 34, 36, 39, 40–42, 44, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50–51, 55–56, 64, 65, 67, 68, 74, 81, 92, 94–95, 97, 109, 110, 112, 117, 118, 119, 121, 122, 126, 127, 131–132, 135, 136 God, creator 3, 5–15 holy, holiness 7, 13,18, 21, 23, 28, 34, 36, 41– 42, 44, 56, 83, 85–86, 102, 108, 112, 113, 117, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 133, 136 image of God 7–9, 14–15, 18, 19, 22, 31 Immanuel (God with us) 60 Isaac 17, 24–25, 26, 27, 31, 32, 74, 83–84 Jacob (Israel) 1, 17, 25–31, 32, 37, 69 Jerusalem, new 11, 44, 45, 46 Jesus as a boy in the temple 54, 58–61 Jesus’ baptism 54, 61–63 Jesus’ return (second advent) 95–97, 109, 120, 125, 126, 127, 128–129, 133 Jesus’ spiritual body (the Church) 77–79, 84, 87–104, 123, 126–127, 128, 130–134, 136 Jesus’ transfiguration 54, 63–66, 68 John the Baptizer’s birth 53, 54–55 Joseph 31–32, 37 kingdom of God 3 lampstand 9–10, 35, 109, 112, 120 law, moral, Mosaic 9 lawsuit motif 73 light 10 metamorphoo (an essential change in form) 64 missionary intent of God 20, 22, 23, 27, 30, 32, 87–88, 103 Moriah 24 name of the Lord 25–26

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166 new heavens, new earth 6, 39, 44–45, 129, 130–134, 136 Noah 17–19, 31 one hundred forty four thousand (significance) 116–117, 122–124 paradise 3 Peniel (face of God) 29 presentation of the Christ child 53, 56–58 priesthood of believers 101–104, 108, 111, 112, 115, 116 reality, ultimate 5–6, 14, 84, 133 reconciliation 99 replacement theory 82, 84, 85, 103, 108, 111, 112, 131–132 resurrection 51, 72–73, 76, 92, 93–97, 101, 102, 106, 107, 109, 110, 115, 116, 129 predestination 102–103 šamar (guiding, protecting) 11 sanctity of life 19 Satan, serpent 11, 110, 122, 123, 129, 130, 132 Scripture, organizing matrix 3 second (last) Adam 19, 50, 88, 105 selem (image) 7–8 seraphs 41–44, 113 seven (significance) 10, 20, 114 seventh day 14 Shaddai (Almighty) 48 sin 11, 18, 22, 23, 32, 42, 43, 44, 45, 73, 81– 82, 85, 99, 103, 108, 109, 115, 116, 121, 126, 127, 132, 133 shekinah (God’s dwelling or settling presence) 51, 65–66 skenoo (tabernacled) 67 son of man 50, 69, 109–110

Axis of Glory tabernacle, Israelite 6–7, 10–12, 33–38, 42, 51, 67, 79, 80–86, 91, 110, 111, 118, 135 Taheb (one who returns) 76 temple cleansing 69–74 temple, definition 2 temple, eschatological, heavenly 6, 10–12, 34, 35, 36, 39–51, 53, 69, 73, 74, 75, 77, 81, 83–86, 88, 90–91, 94–95, 99–101, 111, 112, 114, 116, 117, 118, 119–120, 122, 124, 125, 126, 129, 130–134, 135, 136 temple, Herod 34, 51, 53, 54–55, 56–61, 69– 75, 77–80, 81, 82, 84, 87, 88, 91, 98, 101, 120 temple motif, temple theology 1–4, 27, 33, 39, 53, 67, 69, 77, 87, 105, 106, 135–136 temple, primordial 1, 5–7, 9, 13, 21, 33, 34, 37, 39, 89, 132, 135 temple, Solomonic 6, 9–13, 21, 24, 33–38, 51, 74, 81, 91, 92, 110, 111, 118, 135 temple, Zerubbabel 34 ten commandments 9 three (significance) 108 tree of the knowledge of good and evil 9 tree of life 9–11, 119, 132 twelve (significance) 112, 121 twenty four (significance) 112 upper room 77–79 warrior, divine 14, 43, 48–49, 108, 117, 123, 127, 128, 129 xulon (tree) 10 Yahweh–Yireh (the Lord will provide) 25 ziggurat (Mesopotamian temple–tower) 26– 27 Zion 12, 40, 75, 82–86, 122

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Old Testament Genesis

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1 19 1:1 5, 31, 67 1:2 62 1:6–8 48 1:22 19 1:26 7 1:26–27 19, 22, 31 1:26–28 8, 31, 80 1:28 14, 18, 19, 23, 31, 37 1:28–30 19 1:31 14, 33 2:1 33 2:1–3 14 2:2 33 2:3 34 2:7 31 2:8 5, 9, 132 2:8–3:24 1 2:9 9–10, 31 2:10 10 2:15 11 2:21–23 31 2:24 92 3 11 3:8 7 3:17–19 45 3:22 10 3:22–24 119 3:23 11 3:24 11–12 4–6 17 4:10 85 4:26 26 5:1 8, 22 7:6 17 7:11 19 7:12 17 7:24 17 8:13–15 17 8:17 19 8:18 18 8:19–22 18

9 19 9:1 18–19 9:2 8 9:2–3 19 9:6 8, 19 9:12–16 49 11:4 27 12:1 20 12:1–3 37, 88 12:2 20 12:2–3 32 12:3 20 12:4 21, 23 12:5 21, 23 12:6 21 12:7 21 12:8 21, 26 12:9 21 13:4 22, 26 13:10 21 13:18 22 15:12 66 15:13 37 15:17 48 15:18–21 23 16 83 17 22 17:1 22 17:2 23 17:3 23 17:4–8 30 17:6 23 17:7 24 17:8 24 17:12 56 17:15–21 83 21:1–21 83 21:4 56 21:33 26 21:33–34 24 22:2 24 22:4 24 22:8 24 22:12 63 22:13 25

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168 22:14 25 22:16 63 23:12–18 23 25:1–4 23 25:26 29 26 25 26:1 25 26:2 25 26:3 25 26:4 25 26:5 25 26:6–23 25 26:24 25 26:25 25 27 26 27–29 26 28:3–4 26, 30 28:5 26 28:11 26 28:12 26, 27, 69 28:13 27 28:14 27 28:15 28 28:16 28 28:17 28, 66 28:18 28 28:19 26, 27, 28 28:20–21 28 28:22 26, 29 28:10–22 1 31:13 29 32:22–24 29 32:26 29 32:28 29 32:30 29 32–33 29 33:18 30 33:19 30 34 30 35:1 30 35:2–4 30 35:5 30 35:6 30 35:7 30 35:9 30 35:10 30 35:11 30 35:12 30 35:13 30 35:14 30 35:15 31

Axis of Glory 36:1–43 23 41:25–27 31 41:38 31 41:39 31 41:40–43 31 41:42 31 41:45 31 41:52 31 47:27 37 48:3–4 31 48:20 27 49:9–10 114 49:10 20 49:22 31 50:26 32 Exodus

1:1–4 37 1:5 37 1:7 37 3:2–6 78 3:5 18 3:14 109 3:14–15 107 7–11 121 12:5–6 115 12:40–41 37 13:2 57 13:11–16 57 13:12–13 57 13:21 42 14:19 42 15:1–18 123, 124 15:17 12 15:18 121 16:7 51 16:10 51 19 111 19:6 88, 103, 108, 111, 116 19:12 83 19:13 83 19:16–18 42 19:16–19 78, 83, 122 19:18 85 19:21 41 20:18 42, 112 20:19 41, 112 20:21 42 24:1 63–64 24:9 49 24:10 49

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References Index 24:17 85 25–30 111 25–40 34, 79 25:8 34, 67 25:9 34, 35 25:10–22 122 25:18–20 12 25:40 34, 35 25:31–37 10 28:4 110 28:20 48 29:5 110 29:43 10, 69 30:13–16 70 30:25–29 28 32:13 38 32:20 29 33:18 51 33:20 41, 112 34:29–35 64 39:32 33 39:43 34 40:9 34 40:33 33 40:34 42 40:34–35 67 40:34–38 65, 110 40:43 33 Leviticus 12:2 57 12:3 56 12:4 57 12:6 57 12:8 57 26:9 38 26:11 7 26:12 7

Numbers

3:7–8 11 3:11–13 57 8:25–26 11 14:26–35 85 18:5–6 11 18:15–16 57

169 Deuteronomy

1:10–11 38 4:24 85 5:5 42 5:22–26 42 5:24 51 5:25–26 66 6:25 54 7:6 108 7:7–8 108 7:12 37 7:13 38 7:13–15 21 7:14 38 8:1 38 8:7–9 21 9:3 85 9:19 83 10:1–2 122 10:15 103 10:17 105 11:29 74 18:15 20, 64, 66 18:16 41 18:18 20 23:14 7 27:12 74 30:5 38 30:16 38 32:1–47 124 33:2 128 33:10 115 33:17 115 Joshua

8:33 74 16:2 28 18:6 115 19:51 33 Judges

6:22 29 13:22 29, 41 Ruth

4:11 27

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170 1 Samuel

4:4 12 12:22 103 2 Samuel

5:7 12 6:2 12 6:10–12 12 7:6 7 7:7 7, 119 7:11–16 20 1 Kings

6 34 6:18 9 6:23–28 36 6:29 9 6:32 9 6:35 9 7:13–51 34 7:17–18 9 7:19 9 7:20 9 8:1–13 122 8:6–7 36 8:10 42 8:10–11 65, 67, 110 18:41–45 121 22:19 112 22:19–22 7 2 Kings

19:15 12, 48 25:4 5 1 Chronicles 23:32 11 24:1–18 54 28:19 34

2 Chronicles 3:1 24 3:10–13 36 3–4 34 5:7–8 36 16:9 115 17:10–14 20

Axis of Glory Ezra

1–6 34 Nehemiah 3:15 5 Job

1:6–12 7 2:1–6 7 38:7 7 Psalms

1:3 11 2:1–9 121 2:2 129 2:6 12 2:6–7 69 2:6–9 109 2:7 63, 66 2:7–9 20, 50 2:9 128 8:3–8 80 8:5–8 8, 14, 31 9:1–20 12 10:1–18 12 10:16 121 18:8 42, 48 18:12 47 18:13 122 19:1 48 20:1–9 12 24:1–10 12 29:6 47 33:2–3 115 36:8 10 36:9 10 40:3 115 40:6–8 81 43:4 115 46:6 121 46:1–11 12 48:4 121 48:1–14 12 50:3 50 51:4 105 62:12 105 67:1–2 88 68:4 50

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References Index 68:17 128 69:9 72 76:1–12 12 82:1 50 87:1–2 12 87:3 12 89:1–18 12 89:17 115 89:36–37 107 92:5 48 92:10 115 93:1–2 6 93:1–5 12 94:2 50 96:1 115 96:13 50 97:3 50 99:1 12 99:1–3 12 99:9 12 102:25 6 104:2 6 104:3 6 104:3–4 50 104:4 109 104:5 6 104:7 122 107 38 107:35 38 107:36 38 107:37 38 110:1 109 110:1–7 20, 50 110:4 81 111:12 124 113:4–6 6 118:22 102 132 79 139:16 115 141:2 115 145:17 124 147:5 48 Proverbs

3:11–12 72 15:3 115 24:12 105 Isaiah

1:18 110

171 2:1 39 2:1–4 88 2:1–5 39 2:3 40, 124 2:4 40 2:5 40 4:5 42 6 40, 111, 113 6:1 40 6:1–4 50 6:1–13 39 6:2 41 6:3 41, 113 6:4 42 6:5 43, 110 6:6 43 6:7 44 6:8 7 6:8–13 44 6:11 40 7:14 20 8:14 102 9:6–7 20, 50, 109, 121 11:1 114 11:2 107 11:3 58 11:4 110 11:9 12 11:10 114 19:1 50, 109 25:6–9 73 25:8 119 26:3 42 28:16 100, 102 30:30 122 33:14 85 33:15 54 37:16 48 40–55 73 40:5 51 40:14 7 40:22 6 40:26 6 40:28 48 41:8 63 42:1 63, 66 42:1–4 62 42:10 115 43:1 103 44:24 7 44:28 119

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172 49:2 110 49:10 119 51:1 38 51:2 38 51:3 21 53 24 53:7 115 53:11 62 54:1 84 56:7 73 57:19 99 57:20 130 61:6 88, 116 61:9 108 61:10 130 63:1–6 128 63:3–6 128 64:1 62 65:17 44, 130 65:17–25 39 65:18 44 65:20 45 65:20–25 45 65:21 45 65:21–23 45 65:22 46 65:23 46 65:24 46 65:25 46 66:1 6 66:1–2 79 66:6 124 66:15 50 Jeremiah

3:15 119 3:16–18 40 3:31–34 73 17:7 10 17:8 11 17:12 10 17:13 10 23:5 114 31:31–34 40, 81 39:4 5 49:23 130 52:7 5 Ezekiel

1 46, 113

Axis of Glory 1–2 111 1:1 127 1:1–3 46 1:1–28 39 1:5 47 1:5–10 113 1:6 47 1:7 47 1:8 47 1:9 47 1:10 47 1:11 47 1:12 47 1:13 48 1:14 48 1:15 48 1:16 48 1:17 48 1:18 48 1:19–21 48 1:22 48 1:23 47 1:24 48 1:25 48 1:26 48 1:27 49, 50 1:28 49, 66, 110 9:4–6 117 10 48, 113 10:1 48 10:5 48 10:8 47 10:9 48 10:10 48 10:11 48 10:12 48 10:13 47, 48 10:14 47 10:15 47 10:16–17 48 10:20 47 10:21 47 10:22 47 21:27 42 28:13 12 28:14 12 28:16 12 36:35 21 37:9–14 78 39:17–20 129 40–48 34, 131

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References Index 40:2 12, 63 40:6 12 43:12 12 44:14 11 47:1–12 11, 132 47:12 10 Daniel

2 106 2:28–29 107 2:44 109 2:45 107 7 111 7:2–8 50 7:8 115 7:8–10 39 7:9 48, 49, 50, 110 7:10 49, 50, 116 7:13 39, 50, 109 7:13–14 69, 80, 109, 115 7:14 39, 50 7:25 120 8:3 115 8:17 110 8:17–18 66 9:4–14 105 9:27 106 10:5–6 109 10:7–9 66 11:31 106 12:4 114 Hosea

1:6 104 1:9 104 1:10 104 2:1 104 2:23 104 12:4 29

173 Jonah

1:17 72 Micah

4:1–5 39 4:1–6 88 4:7–8 39 5:2 20, 55 5:4 55 Nahum

1:3 47, 50 Habakkuk 3:3–6 47 Haggai 1–2 34 2:6 85

Zechariah

1–8 34 3:9 47 4 10 4:3 120 4:10 47, 115 4:12 120 4:14 120 12:10 109 14:9 121 14:16–19 65 14:18 11, 132 14:21 71 Malachi

3:1–4 72 4:2 47

Joel

New Testament

Amos

1:20 20 1:21 20, 57 1:23 60 2 58

2:3 21 3:18 11 9:6 6

Matthew

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174 3:1–12 61 3:13 61 3:13–17 54 3:14 61 3:15 61 3:16 62, 127 3:17 62, 101 5:17 65 6:9–10 56 6:10 9, 90, 104 7:15–20 133 7:24–27 66 9:6 69 9:24 95 12:8 69 12:38–41 73 13:55 58 13:56 58 16:1–4 73 16:16–19 64 16:27 105 17:1–8 54, 63 17:1–13 68 17:2 51, 64 17:6 66 17:7 66 21:12–13 69 21:12–17 34 24 106 24:1–2 34 24:30 109 24:43–44 125 25:31–32 109 26:21 70 26:37 64 26:64 50, 69 27:40 70 Mark

1:9–11 54, 61 1:10 62 2:10 69 2:28 69 5:37 64 8:27 63 8:31 50 8:38 109 9:1 63 9:2 63, 64 9:2–8 54, 63 9:2–13 68

Axis of Glory 9:3 64 9:4 64 9:5 65 9:6 65 9:7 65, 66, 101 9:8 66 11:15–17 34, 69 13 106 13:1–2 34 13:26 109 14:14–15 77 14:33 64 14:58 70 14:62 50, 69 15:29 70 Luke

1:5 54 1:5–25 53, 54 1:6 54 1:7 54 1:8 54 1:8–10 71 1:9 54 1:10 54 1:11 54 1:12 54 1:13 54 1:14–17 55 1:18–22 55 1:19 54 1:23 55 1:24–25 55 1:30–33 50 1:31 57 1:31–33 20 2:8 55 2:8–20 53, 55 2:9 55 2:10 55 2:11 55 2:12 55 2:13 55 2:14 55 2:15 56 2:16 56 2:17 56 2:18 56 2:19 56 2:20 56 2:21 56, 57

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References Index 2:21–40 53–54 2:22 57 2:22–24 57 2:23 57 2:24 57 2:25–38 71 2:35 61 2:35–38 57 2:39 57–58 2:40 58 2:41 58 2:41–52 54 2:42 58 2:43 59, 60 2:43–50 58 2:44 59 2:45 59 2:46 59 2:47 59 2:48 60 2:49 60, 71 2:50 60 2:51 60 2:52 58 3:1–20 61 3:21 62 3:21–22 54 6:5 69 8:51 64 9:28–36 54, 63, 68 9:31 65 9:45 60 10:30 59 11:16 73 11:29–32 73 12:39–40 125 16:19–31 96 18:34 60 19:31 108 19:45–46 34, 69 21 106 21:5–6 34 22:11–12 77 22:69 50, 69 23:43 96 24:5 110 24:44 65 24:47 77 24:52–53 78 24:53 78

175 John

1:1 67, 68, 73, 128 1:2 67 1:4 101 1:6–8, 15, 19–34 61 1:10–11 101 1:14 51, 64, 67, 68, 73, 74 1:18 41, 68, 73, 76 1:31 61 1:48 69 1:49 69 1:50 69 1:51 27, 69, 127 2:11 68 2:13 70, 72 2:13–22 34, 69 2:14 70 2:15 71 2:16 71 2:17 71, 72 2:17–22 73 2:18 72 2:18–22 74 2:19 70 2:22 73 3:8 78 3:16 57 3:27–30 61 3:34 115 4:10 101, 134 4:14 134 4:16–18 74 4:19 74 4:20 74 4:20–21 34 4:20–24 74 4:21 75 4:22 75 4:23 76 4:24 76 4:25 76 4:26 76 4:42 73 5:20 69 5:26 110 5:27 97, 110 5:46 65 6:5 101 7:37–39 134 7:38–39 101 7:39 68

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176 8:56 22 11:4 68 12:13 117 12:20–22 73 12:23 68 12:28 101 12:41 40 13:23 64 13:31–32 68 14:1–3 109, 133 14:2–3 95, 97 14:9 69 14:12 69 14:26 73 15:9–17 66 17:1 68 17:4–5 68 19:34 109 19:37 109 20:17 108 20:28 68 Acts

1:8 77, 78 1:9–11 77 1:11 109 1:12 77 1:13 78 1:13–14 77 2:1 77, 78 2:1–4 77, 97 2:2 77 2:3 78 2:4 78 2:23 101 2:39 99 7:2–5 20 7:2–36 79 7:6 37 7:37–40 79 7:44–53 80 7:52 80 7:54–60 80 7:56 127 10:11 127 10:34 105 10:42 97 12:2 64 17:24 79 17:31 97

Axis of Glory 21:27–31 98 26:18 104 Romans

1:3 72 1:4 107 2:6, 11 105 2:16 97 3:1–2 84 3:3–4 105 3:25 118 4:1–3 20 4:9–22 20 4:16–17 23 4:25–26 44 5:2 51 5:9 118 5:12 11 5:12–21 19 6:23 31 7:12 84 8:11 115 8:29 8 8:17 84 8:18–23 95 8:38–39 96 9:2–5 84 9:25–26 104 10:4 65 11:25–27 124 11:33 48 12:1 102 14:10 97 14:12 97 15:3 72 1 Corinthians 1:12 89 1:18–31 91 1:22 72 3:5 89 3:5–17 87 3:6 89 3:7 90 3:7–9 90 3:8 90 3:9 90 3:10 90 3:11 90 3:12 91

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References Index 3:13 91 3:13–15 97 3:14 91 3:15 91 3:16–17 77 3:17 92 4:5 97 5:7 1–8 6:12–20 92 6:14 92 6:14–20 87 6:15 92 6:16 92 6:17 92 6:18 92 6:19 77, 93 6:20 93 10:16 118 12:13 97 15:20–21 95 15:35–57 51 15:45 101, 115 15:51–57 95 15:54–57 96 12:2 89 2 Corinthians

1:14 93 1:20 65 2:16 101 3:13 64 3:18 8 4:1 94 4:4 8 4:7–12 94 4:14 93, 94 4:14–5:10 87, 93 4:15 94 4:16 94 4:17 94 4:18 94 5:1 95, 96 5:2 95, 96 5:3 95 5:4 96 5:5 96 5:6 97 5:7 97 5:8 97 5:9 97

177 5:10 97 11:2 126 Galatians

3:16 23 3:29 23 4:21–23 83 4:24–31 83 6:16 108 Ephesians

1:13–14 97 1:22–23 89 2:8–9 85 2:8–10 94 2:10 127 2:11–13 97 2:11–22 108 2:14 97 2:14–18 97 2:14–22 87, 97 2:15 98 2:16 99 2:17 99 2:18 99 2:19 99 2:19–22 77 2:20 100 2:21 100 2:22 100 3:5 100 4:22–24 8 5:25 89 5:25–27 123 5:25–32 126 Philippians

1:23 96 2:6–8 67 2:6–11 64 2:8–11 101 2:9–11 50, 68, 129 2:13 127 3:2 133 3:8–11 94 3:20–21 51 4:8 102

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178 Colossians

1:15 8, 64, 68 1:19 67 2:9 67, 68 3:4 88 3:9–10 8 1 Thessalonians 4:13–18 95 4:18 109 5:2–4 125

2 Thessalonians 1:5–6 118 1:7–10 128 2:4 120 1 Timothy

1:16 110 6:15 50 6:16 50, 51, 112 2 Timothy 3:1 118 3:12 118

Hebrews

1:1–4 20 1:1–2:9 81 1:3 8, 64, 67, 68, 81 1:14 127 2:5–9 8 2:10 82 3:1–6 81 4:1 82 4:12 110 4:14 81, 82 5:3 81 5:5–6 81 5:8–10 82 6:18 82 7:1–28 81 7:17 81 8:2 81 8:5 35, 36 8:6 85 8:8–13 81

Axis of Glory 8:13 80 9:1–7 35 9:3–5 122 9:4 81 9:5 12 9:11 36 9:11–14 110 9:11–10:18 81 9:12 82 9:15 82 9:15–22 81 9:23 36 9:24 36 10:4–14 81 10:19–22 81 10:20 80, 101 11 84 11:8–10 22 11:10 83 11:13–16 83 11:17–18 25 11:19 25 11:22 32 11:40 85 12:2 82 12:5–6 72 12:8–19 20 12:18 83 12:18–29 82 12:19 66, 83 12:20 83 12:21 83 12:22 83, 84 12:22–24 122 12:23 84, 108 12:24 85 12:25 85 12:26 85 12:27 85 12:28 85 12:29 85 13:11–14 21 13:13 82 13:14 83 13:15–16 102 13:20 82, 119 James

3:9 8, 22 4:4–5 86

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References Index 1 Peter

1:2 118 1:10–11 65 2:4 100–101 2:4–5 77 2:4–9 87 2:5 101, 102, 108 2:6 102 2:7 102 2:8 102 2:9 103, 104, 108 2:10 104 2:25 119 4:17–18 105 2 Peter

3:5–7 19 3:7 130 3:10 125 3:10–13 85, 130 3:13 45 1 John

1:1 128 1:6–7 133 2:1 102 Jude

1:14 116 1:14–15 128 Revelation

1:1 106, 107 1:1–2 133 1:1–8 107 1:2–3 107 1:3 133 1:4 107, 108 1:5 107, 108 1:6 108, 109 1:5–8 105 1:7 50, 109, 133 1:8 109 1:9 133 1:9–11 109 1:9–20 105 1:11 109 1:12 109, 110

179 1:13 10, 50, 51, 109, 110 1:14 110, 127 1:15 110 1:16 110, 111, 128 1:17 66, 110 1:18 110 1:19 107, 111 1:20 10, 109, 110, 111 2:1 10 2:1–3:22 111 2:5 10 2:12 128 2:18 127 2:28 134 3:14 107 3:21 111 4 111, 125 4–5 111 4:1 107, 112 4:1–5:14 105 4:2 112 4:2–11 112 4:3 112 4:4 112 4:5 107, 112, 113 4:6 47, 113 4:7 47, 113 4:8 42, 113 4:9 113 4:10 113 4:11 113, 114 5 50 5:1 114, 119 5:2 114 5:3 114 5:4 114 5:5 111, 114, 115 5:6 111–112, 115, 124 5:7 115 5:8 115 5:9 115, 116 5:9–10 106 5:10 111, 116 5:11 116 5:12 111, 116 5:13 111, 116 5:14 116 6 106, 114, 116, 119 6:9–7 122 6:9–11 124 7:4 122

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180 7:4–8 117 7:9 116, 117 7:9–10 106 7:10 118 7:11 118 7:12 118 7:13 118 7:14 118, 133 7:15 118 7:16 119 7:17 119 8:1 119 8:2 107 8:2–6 105 8:2–11:18 119 8:3–4 115 8:3–5 122 9:2 121 11:1 120 11:1–6 119 11:2 120 11:3 120 11:4 10, 120 11:5 121 11:6 121 11:13 121 11:14 121 11:15 121 11:16 121 11:17 121 11:18 121 11:19 105, 122 12–14 122 12:3 128 12:11 124 13:1 128, 130 13:7 116 13:11 128 13:16 123 14:1 122, 123 14:2 123 14:3 123 14:4 123 14:5 124 14:8 128, 130 14:12 124 14:14 109 14:14–20 128 15 124 15:1–16:1 105 15:2 124

Axis of Glory 15:3 124 15:5–6 124 15:7 124 16:1 130 16:10–11 121 16:12–14 129 16:13 125 16:14 125 16:15 125 16:17 125 16:18–21 105 16:18–24 125 16:19 130 17:1 130 17:3 128 17:4 127 17:5 128, 130 17:7 128 17:14 126 18:2 128 18:9–19 126 18:10 128 18:16 127 18:20 126 18:21 128 19 125 19:1 126 19:1–5 126 19:1–10 105, 127 19:2 126 19:3 126 19:4 126 19:5 126 19:6 126 19:7 126 19:7–9 126, 130 19:8 127 19:9 127 19:10 22, 127 19:11 107, 127 19:11–21 127 19:12 127, 128 19:13 127, 128 19:14 128 19:15 128 19:16 103, 108, 128 19:17 127, 129 19:18 127, 129 19:19 129 19:21 129 20:1–3 129

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References Index 20:4 116 20:4–6 129 20:7–10 129 20:11 129 20:11–15 105 20:12 129 20:13 130 20:14 130 20:15 130 21–22 34, 130 21:1 130 21:2 130 21:3–4 119 21:9 123, 130, 131 21:9–27 130 21:10 131 21:11 131 21:12 131 21:13 131 21:14 131 21:15 131 21:16 131 21:17 131 21:18 131 21:19 131 21:20 131 21:21 131 21:22 132 21:23 132 21:24 132 21:25 132 21:26 132 21:27 132 22:1 11, 132 21:2 44, 132 21:2–3 122 21:3–4 45 21:6 46, 125 21:7 46 21:10 63 22:12 133 21:22 73 21:22–27 46 22:2 10 22:3–4 46 22:6 107, 133

181 22:7 109, 133 22:12 109, 133 22:13 133 22:14 133 22:15 133 22:16 134 22:17 109, 134 22:20 109 22:21 106 Old Testament Apocrypha 1 Maccabees 13:51 117

2 Maccabees 14:4 117 Tobit

13:11 65 Wisdom of Solomon 18:15–19 128

Old Testament Pseudepigrapha 1 Enoch

14:24 110 90:28–29 80 Testament of Joseph 10:3 93

Testament of Judah 24:1–3 62

Testament of Levi 5 80 18:6–8 62

Studies in Biblical Literature This series invites manuscripts from scholars in any area of biblical literature. Both established and innovative methodologies, covering general and particular areas in biblical study, are welcome. The series seeks to make available studies that will make a significant contribution to the ongoing biblical discourse. Scholars who have interests in gender and sociocultural hermeneutics are particularly encouraged to consider this series. For further information about the series and for the submission of manuscripts, contact: Peter Lang Publishing Acquisitions Department P.O. Box 1246 Bel Air, Maryland 21014-1246 To order other books in this series, please contact our Customer Service Department: (800) 770-LANG (within the U.S.) (212) 647-7706 (outside the U.S.) (212) 647-7707 FAX or browse online by series at: WWW.PETERLANG.COM