Avoidance Behavior in Conflict Situations

561 20 5MB

English Pages 98

Report DMCA / Copyright

DOWNLOAD FILE

Polecaj historie
International Law and Governance of Natural Resources in Conflict and Post-Conflict Situations 110709383X, 9781107093836
International Law and Governance of Natural Resources in Conflict and Post-Conflict Situations 110709383X, 9781107093836

Natural resource wealth is conducive to a country's development. Nevertheless, the last few decades have shown a ha

681 71 5MB Read more

Education and Reconciliation: Exploring Conflict and Post-Conflict Situations 9781350091245, 9781441119490
Education and Reconciliation: Exploring Conflict and Post-Conflict Situations 9781350091245, 9781441119490

What is the relationship between education and reconciliation initiatives? Who encourages and enacts it and who discoura

188 81 2MB Read more

Family Situations: An Introduction to the Study of Child Behavior [Reprint 2016 ed.] 9781512800760
Family Situations: An Introduction to the Study of Child Behavior [Reprint 2016 ed.] 9781512800760

This book is a volume in the Penn Press Anniversary Collection. To mark its 125th anniversary in 2015, the University of

147 37 12MB Read more

Mapping Fragile and Conflict-Affected Situations in Asia and the Pacific : The ADB Experience [1 ed.] 9789292576486, 9789292576479
Mapping Fragile and Conflict-Affected Situations in Asia and the Pacific : The ADB Experience [1 ed.] 9789292576486, 9789292576479

This study maps out the major weaknesses of each fragile situation on the latest country performance assessment exercise

151 119 7MB Read more

The Urben Voter: Group Conflict and Mayoral Voting Behavior in American Cities
The Urben Voter: Group Conflict and Mayoral Voting Behavior in American Cities

384 29 2MB Read more

Spacecraft Collision Avoidance Technology 0128180110, 9780128180112
Spacecraft Collision Avoidance Technology 0128180110, 9780128180112

Spacecraft Collision Avoidance Technology presents the theory and practice of space collision avoidance. The title gives

581 127 6MB Read more

Meanings and Situations 1138980676, 9781138980679
Meanings and Situations 1138980676, 9781138980679

Meanings and Situations is an account of the ‘interactionist’ position. It is a committed account in the sense that it s

191 25 320KB Read more

The Mindful Guide to Conflict Resolution: How to Thoughtfully Handle Difficult Situations, Conversations, and Personalities [Paperback ed.] 1507211325, 9781507211328
The Mindful Guide to Conflict Resolution: How to Thoughtfully Handle Difficult Situations, Conversations, and Personalities [Paperback ed.] 1507211325, 9781507211328

Successfully handle difficult conversations, remain civil, and end an argument peacefully with this straightforward and

607 137 1MB Read more

Roots of Behavior: Genetics, Insect, and Socialization in Animal Behavior
Roots of Behavior: Genetics, Insect, and Socialization in Animal Behavior

Psychiatry is awash with concepts and theories. Unfortunately, many are untestable, and few have been rigorously confirm

811 83 11MB Read more

Un théâtre de situations 9782072756023
Un théâtre de situations 9782072756023

362 94 395KB Read more

Avoidance Behavior in Conflict Situations

Citation preview

This dissertation has been microfilmed exactly as received

6 7 - 1 1 ,3 8 1

FRENCH, Elizabeth Godbeer, 1916AVOIDANCE BEHAVIOR IN CONFLICT SITUATIONS. Y ale U niversity, Ph.D „ 1942 Psychology, experim ental

University Microfilms, Inc., A nn Arbor, Michigan

Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

©

Copyright b y ELIZABETH GODBZZR FRENCH

1967

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

Avoidance B ehavior i n C o n flic t S itu a tio n s

tgr E liz a b e th G odbeer French

An e s s a y p r e s e n te d t o th e F a c u lty a n d t h e G rad u ate S chool o f i a l e U n iv e r s ity i n c a n d id a c y f o r th e d e g ree o f D octor o f P h ilo so p h y

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

D ig e st The p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n was an a tte m p t t o d eterm in e u n d e r l h a t c o n d itio n s g o i n g - o u t - o f - t h e - f l e l d o r e sc a p e re s p o n s e s o c c u r i n c o n f l i c t s i t u a t i o n s . Two ty p e s of c o n f l i c t , t h e d o u b le a p p ro ach -a v o id a n ce in v b ic h th e r e i s i n s t i g a t i o n t o a p p ro a c h a n d a v o id e a c h o f two g o a ls , a n d t h e s i n g l e a p p ro ach -a v o id a n ce i n w hich t h e r e i s i n s t i g a t i o n to ap p ro ach and a v o id a s i n g l e g o a l, w ere s tu d ie d . The e x p e rim e n ta l g ro u p s were e s ta b li s h e d i n t h e f o llo w in g way. The s u b je c ts w ere d iv id e d i n t o s i x m atched groups on t h e b a s is o f t h e i r b e h a v io r i n a p r e ­ lim in a r y o b s e rv a tio n p e r io d . Then, i n t h e f i r s t p a r t o f t h e e x p e rim e n ta l p e r io d , a m ild ly p l e a s a n t a f f e c t f o r two t a s k s was a r t i f i c i a l l y in d u ced i n th e s u b j e c t s o f two o f t h e g ro u p s, a n e u t r a l a f f e c t f o r th e same t a s k s in th e s u b je c ts o f tw o g ro u p s, and an u n p le a s a n t a f f e c t f o r t h e ta s k s i n t h e s u b je c ts o f two g ro u p s. When t h i s had b e e n accom plished, one group p o s s e s s in g each ty p e o f a f f e c t was i n s t r u c t e d t o s e l e c t one o f th e t a s k s and work lo n g e r on i t , and th e o t h e r group o f each ly p e was t o l d w hich one to do. Thus double ap p ro a ch -a v o id a n c e c o n f l i c t s i n which t h e i n s t i g a t i o n was p r im a r ily ap p ro ach , i n w hich i t was e q u a l, an d i n w hich i t was p r im a r ily av o id an ce w ere e s ta b ­ l i s h e d i n t h r e e o f t h e g ro u p s. S im ila r g ro u p s were e s ta b lis h e d f o r th e s in g l e a p p ro a c h -a v o id a n c e t y p e . A f te r t h e s u b je c ts had b e e n i n s t r u c t e d a s to t h e i r f u r t h e r work th ey were t o l d t h a t t h e ex p e rim e n te r would have t o be gone from t h e room f o r a p e r i o d o f tim e tw ic e a s lo n g a s was r e q u ir e d f o r t h e co m p le tio n o f t h e t a s k b u t t h a t th e y were t o i l n i s h i t and w a it f o r h e r . T h e ir b e h a v io r d u rin g t h i s p e r io d was o b serv ed th ro u g h a one way v is io n m irr o r an d r e c o rd e d a t f i v e second i n t e r v a l s . I n t h e room d u rin g t h e e n t i r e p e r io d w e re , a s w e l l - a s t h e t a s k s , s e v e r a l games p la c e d a p p a r e n tly a t random, which w ere in te n d e d to s e rv e a s i n s t i g a t o r s e x t r i n s i c to th e c o n f l i c t s itu a rtio n . The r e s u l t s showed t h a t t h e s u b je c ts who had t o choose betw een two un­ p l e a s a n t a l t e r n a t i v e s made t h e g r e a t e s t re sp o n s e t o t h e e x t r i n s i c o b je c ts b e f o re t h e y began a t a s k ; th o s e who had to do one u n p le a s a n t t a s k showed t h e n e x t g r e a t e s t ; th o s e who had to do one n e u t r a l , n e x t; th o s e who had to choose b etw een two n e u t r a l , n e x t; and th o s e who had o n ly p le a s a n t a f f e c t made no such r e s p o n s e s . The amount o f o s c i l l a t i o n , m o t i l i t y , and b lo c k in g a t th e moment o f d e c is io n w ere fo u n d to in c r e a s e i n th e same o r d e r . Except f o r t h e o r d e r o f th e two n e u t r a l g ro u p s, t h e s e r e s u l t s were i n a c c o rd w ith t h e p r e d i c t i o n s , b a se d on t h e s tim u lu s r e s p o n s e p r i n c i p l e s , t h a t th e amount o f r e s p o n s e to t h e e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r and o t h e r m a n if e s ta tio n s o f b e h a v io r d i s r u p t i o n would i n c r e a s e writh t h e number and r e l a t i v e s t r e n g th o f th e av o id an ce i n s t i g a t i o n s p r e s e n t. The r e v e r s a l I s ^ d is c u s s e d i n te rm s o f t h e a f f e c t p r e s e n t . I t was f u r t h e r d em o n stra te d t h a t t h e o s c i l l a t i o n , m o t i l i t y and b lo c k in g o c c u rre d p r i m a r i l y j u s t b e f o re a c h o ic e was made and a t t h e tim e t h e ap p ro ach i n s t i g a t i o n was becom ing s tr o n g e r due t o th e n e a r n e s s o f t h e tim e l i m i t . The p o s s i b i l i t y o f g e n e r a liz in g from t h i s e x p erim en t t o l i f e s i t u a t i o n s i s d is c vis s e d . The b e h a v io r to b e e x p e c te d a f t e r a ta s k was s e le c t e d and some work had been done on i t i s d is c u s s e d i n te rm s o f t h e o r i g i n a l a f f e c t f o r th e t a s k and th e p r o b a b le e f f e c t o f t h e b e h a v io r t h a t a f f e c t had c a u se d . I t was found t h a t t h e s tim u lu s re s p o n s e p r i n c i p l e s , w hich to o k i n t o a c c o u n t t h e f a c t t h a t be­ h a v io r i s a seq u en ce an d n o t a s e r i e s o f i s o l a t e d e v e n ts , w ere a b le to p r e ­ d i c t a c c u r a t e l y w hat t h i s su b se q u e n t b e h a v io r would b e . I t was e x p e c te d t h a t t h e s u b je c t w ith s tr o n g i n s t i g a t i o n to a v o id a t t h e b e g in n in g would have e q u a lly s tr o n g i n s t i g a t i o n to avoid a f t e r a t a s k was s t a r t e d bub t h a t h i s I n i t i a l d e la y ,c a u s e d b y t h e s t r o n g a v o id an ce,w o u ld n o t le a v e him tim e enough to le a v e t h t a s k a g a in . Those who had m ild i n s t i g a t i o n t o a v o id ,o n t h e o t h e r hand,w ould s t a r soon enough so t h a t t h e y w ould b e a b le to le a v e th e t a s k from tim e to tim e snd s t i l l f i n i s h b e f o r e t h e l i m i t . T h is was w hat a c t u a l l y o c c u rre d .T h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f p r e d i c t i o n from t h e s tim u lu s r e s p o n s e p r i n c i p l e s and from t h e f i e l d t h e o r e t i ­ c a l s y ste m o f Lewin a r e com pared.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

Acknowledgment The w r i t e r wishe s to acknow ledge h e r in d e b te d n e s s t o P r o f e s s o r R o b ert R. S e a rs f o r h i s a i d d u rin g t h e fo rm u la tio n of t h e problem and t h e c o u rse o f th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n a s w e l l as h i s h e lp f u l c r i t i c i s m of th e m a n u sc rip t.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

C ontents D ig e st I n tr o d u c tio n

1

The P r e s e n t P roblem

7

P ro c e d u re

19

Measurement

27

R e s u lts

28

D is c u ss io n

53

Appendix A. I n d iv id u a l d a t a

i i

B. Summary of t h e s tim u lu s re sp o n se work on c o n f l i c t x i i i

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

A voidance B e h a v io r i n C o n f li c t S i tu a t io n s

"*■

w*

I I n tr o d u c tio n

T h is in v e s tig a tio n i s an a tte m p t t o a n a ly se e x p erim e n tally th e e scap e, o r a s Lewin (1935) d e s c rib e s i t , t h e "going o u t o f t h e f i e l d " resp o n se t h a t o c cu rs i n c e r t a i n ty p e s o f c o n f l i c t s i t u a t i o n s .

That

such resp o n ses do o c cu r, o r w i l l u n le s s s p e c i f i c a l l y p rev e n te d , in c o n f l i c t s where avoidance i n s t i g a t i o n i s s u f f i c i e n t l y s tro n g , has been re c o g n ise d by many e x p e rim e n te rs.

S in ce th e y d e sire d to study th e r e ­

s o lu tio n o f t h e c o n f l i c t th e y to o k some p a in s t o p rev e n t th e o ccurren ce o f such b e h a v io r.

Thus knowledge o f th e s u b je c t i s f o r th e most p a rt

based on c a su a l o b s e rv a tio n s and such t h e o r e t i c a l d isc u ssio n s a s t h a t o f Lewin. T h e o r e t i c a l l y , a c c o rd in g t o Lewin, "g o in g o u t o f t h e f i e l d " sh o u ld n o t o ccu r w here t h e c o n f l i c t s i t u a t i o n in v o lv e s two p o s i t i v e g o a ls , b u t i t may b e e x p e c te d when th e c h o ic e i s betw een two n e g a tiv e g o a ls , o r when t h e in d iv id u a l w ish e s to ap p ro ach some g o a l b u t i s a f r a i d o r p r e v e n te d fro m d o in g so b y some b a r r i e r .

I n t h e c a s e o f th e

c h i l d ifco h a s to d e c id e w h e th e r t o go on a p ic n ic o r p la y w ith h i s f r i e n d s (Type 1 c o n f l i c t > a l l v e c to r s a r e diagrammed a s p o in tin g i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e g o a l a n d a s t a b l e e q u ilib r iu m e x i s t s a t t h e p o in t o f c h o ic e .

He d ia g ram s t h e s i t u a t i o n o f t h e c h i l d # 1 0 w ants to f e tc h a

r u b b e r swan from t h e w a te r bub i s a f r a i d (Type 2 c o n f l i c t ) a s c o n s is t i n g o f a c o n v e rg e n t f i e l d c o rre s p o n d in g to t h e p o s i t i v e v a le n c e o f t h e swan, o v e r la id b y a sec o n d fie L d v tiic h c o rre s p o n d s t o t h e n e g a tiv e v a le n c e o f

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

2

t h e w a te r .

A ccording to t h e d iag ram t h e c h i l d m ust more t o - t h e

p o in t o f e q u ilib r iu m b etw een th e two f i e l d s .

T h is p o i n t w i l l ap p ro ach

and r e t r e a t from t h e w a te r a c c o rd in g t o t h e momentary o s c i l l a t i o n s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n , an d such o s c i l l a t i o n s w i l l b e r e f l e c t e d i n t h e b e h a v io r o f th e c h ild .

L eav in g t h e f i e l d o ccu rs a f t e r r e p e a te d a tte m p ts t o

overcome t h e b a r r i e r .

T h is i s u s u a ll y n o t perm anent a t f i r s t , b u t

a f t e r r e p e a te d r e t u r n s t h e c h i l d w i l l le a v e n o t t o r e t u r n a g a in .

A

t h i r d ty p e o f c o n f l i c t i s e x e n p l i f ie d by t h e case o f t h e c h i l d fo rc e d to do a d is a g r e e a b le t a s k u n d e r t h e t h r e a t o f p u n ish m en t.

H ere, s in c e

th e v e c t o r s p o in t away fro m t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e g o a ls , th e c h i l d i s f o r c e d o u t o f t h e f i e l d once he le a v e s th e p o i n t o f e q u ilib r iu m .

Thus he w i l l

alw ays go o u t o f t h e f i e l d i f n o t p re v e n te d . T h is ty p e o f b e h a v io r may b e e i t h e r p h y s ic a l, a c t u a l l y le a v i n g t h e s i t u a t i o n bodL ly, o r i t may b e p s y c h o lo g ic a l i n t h a t t h e c h i l d o c c u p ie s h im s e lf w ith so m e th in g e l s e o r " e n c y s ts " .

Lewin d is c u s s e s going o u t o f t h e f i e l d from a p r a c t i c a l p o in t o f view in h i s c h a p te r on rew ard and punishm ent (1935).

He p o in ts o u t,

f o r example, t h a t p a re n ts who u se th e t h r e a t o f punishm ent t o f o r c e t h e i r c h ild r e n to p erfo rm a h a te d t a s k mast be c a r e f u l t o e r e c t a b a r r i e r around th e t o t a l s i t u a t i o n i f t h e t h r e a t o f punishm ent i s t o be e ffe c tiv e .

He m entions ru n n in g away, co n cealin g from th e a d u lt th e f a c t

t h a t some o th e r c ircu m stan ce made t h e com pletion o f t h e t a s k u n n ecessary , and fa n ta s y in g co m p letio n , a s p o s s ib le means used by th e c h ild to lea v e th e f i e l d .

The c a se s he d e s c r ib e s in v o lv e a l l o f th e s e m ethods i n

v a rio u s co m b in atio n s.

I f th e b a r r i e r i s v e ry f ir m and t h e c o n f l i c t v e ry

se v e re , t h e r e may be no a lte rn a tiv e ^ l e f t f o r th e c h il d b u t s u ic id e .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

F o llo w in g t h e ap p ro ach o f Lewin, Dernbo (1931) found t h a t in h e r e x p erim e n t on a n g e r , wheih a l l t h e r e a l s o lu ti o n s had b een ex­ h a u s te d , t h e s u b je c ts te n d e d to r e s o r t t o f a n ta s y s o l u t i o n s .

F ajan s

( 1 9 3 3 ) found i n a s u c c e s s an d f a i l u r e ex p erim en t, t h a t c o n s o la tio n o r a s u b s t i t u t e f o r r e a l s u c c e s s very o f te n was a s e f f e c t i v e a s a c t u a l su c c e ss f a r th e young c h i l d . A1 a l t e r n a t i v e ap p ro ach to t h e f i e l d t h e o r e t i c a l one, and one t h a t w i l l p o s s ib ly e x p la in more o f t h e d a ta a n d i n more d e t a i l , i s t h e stim u lu s re s p o n s e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

C o n f lic t b e h a v io r h a s b een

a n a ly s e d t h e o r e t i c a l l y and o b s e rv e d e x p e rim e n ta lly from t h i s p o in t o f view by M ille r (1937, 1 9 4 2 ), Brown (1940, 1 9 4 2 ), Hovland and S e a rs ( 1 9 3 8 , 1 9 4 1 ) , a n d o th e r s , who have s e c u re d a c e r t a i n amount o f ev id en ce r e l e v a n t t o t h e p r e s e n t p ro b le m .^ A c o n f l i c t s i t u a t i o n i s d e f in e d a s one i n w hich i n s t i g a t i o n t o make in c o m p a tib le re s p o n s e s i s p r e s e n t .

These may be approach

re s p o n s e s , i . e . , g o in g to w ard a g o a l o r p erfo rm in g a n a c t ; o r th e y may be av o id an ce r e s p o n s e s , i . e . , r u n n in g away from a g iv e n p o in t o r a tte m p tin g to escap e p e rfo rm in g a g iv e n a c t .

I n s t i g a t i o n t o t h e s e two

ty p e s o f re s p o n s e s may a p p e a r i n v a r io u s co m b in a tio n s, and ■various ty p e s o f c o n f l i c t a re d is tin g u is h e d on t h e b a s is o f th e s e c o m b in a tio n s. Hovland and S e a rs (1938) have d is tin g u is h e d f o u r ty p e s o f c o n f l i c t o n t h i s b a s i s , t h e f i r s t t h r e e o f f h ic h c o rre sp o n d w ith Lewin’ s ty p e s m en tio n ed above.

I n Type 1 , d e s c rib e d a s a n a p p ro a ch -a p p ro ach

c o n f l i c t , t h e r e i s sim u lta n e o u s i n s t i g a t i o n t o tw o in c o m p a titie ^ a p p ro a c h resp o n ses.

I n Type 2 (a p p ro a c h -a v o id a n c e ) th e r e i s i n s t i g a t i o n t o

1 . T h is work i s sum m arized i n t h e ap p e n d ix . The f in d in g s p e r e p e n t t * t h e p r e s e n t p ro b lem o f g o in g o u t of t h e f i e l d w i l l b e prejgjpMted^here, a s w e l l a s a n ex p erim en t b y Brown (1942) i n w hich he a c t u a l l y d e a lt w ith t h e p ro b le m .

Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

I

approach an d av o id a s in g l e g o al*

I n Type 3 (a v o id a n c e -a v o id a n c e ) .,

two in c o n p a tib le avcd. dan ce reap onaea a r e aim ultaneou s l y in e tig a te d * The f o u r th ty p e , Which i s n o t m en tio n ed b y Lewin, i a a co m b in atio n o f t h e p re v io u s t y p e s .

T h is o c c u rs when th e r e i s b o th approach and

av o id an ce i n s t i g a t i o n to each o f two in c o m p a tib le r e s p o n s e s .

T h is

ty p e i s c a l l e d a d o u b le a p p ro a c h -a v o id a n c e , o r a Type 4 c o n f lic t* Of th e s e f o u r ty p e s , o n ly two commonly o ccu r i n un co m p licated form i n human s u b je c ts .

T hese a re t h e s in g le a p p ro ach -a v o id a n ce and

th e d o u b le a p p ro a c h -a v o id a n c e .

Those w hich a p p e a r on t h e s u r f a c e t o b e

p u re ap p ro ach -ap p ro ach o r a v o i d ance-avoidanc e ty p e s a r e u s u a lly found, on a n a l y s i s , to b e c a s e s o f d o u b le a p p ro a c h -a v o id a n c e . S e a rs , 1 938, G odbeer, 1940, M ille r , 1 9 4 2 ). th e n , t h e r e a re two ty p e s .

(H ovland and

For p r a c t i c a l p u rp o s e s ,

The double a p p ro ach -a v o id a n ce may v a ry i n

i t s re sem b lan c e t o t h e p u re a p p ro ach -a p p ro ach o r t h e p u re a v o id a n c e av o id an c e ty p e d ep en d in g on t h e r e l a t i v e s tr e n g t h o f t h e i n s t i g a t i o n s p re s e n t* I n Type 1 c o n f l i c t , o r Type 4 c o n f l i c t t h a t c l o s e ly resem b les i t , no b e h a v io r d i s r u p t i o n was e x p e c te d o r fo u n d ( H&viand'aqd3Se&rs, 1938, K le b a n o ff, 1939)*

When a v c id a n c e i n s t i g a t i o n becomes a l i t t l e

s tr o n g e r , some h e s i t a t i o n a p p e a rs (G odbeer, 1 9 4 0 ), b u t a c h o ic e may s t i l l b e made*

When t h e av o id an ce i n s t i g a t i o n i s e q u a l to t h a t o f

ap p ro ac h , r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e c o n f l i c t becom es d i f f i c u l t a n d b lo c k in g and o s c i l l a t i o n o c c u r a t t h e c h o ic e p o in t (H ovland and S e a r s , 1938)*

As

th e i n s t i g a t i o n t o a v o id c o n tin u e s to in c r e a s e i n s t r e n g t h , so t h a t th e s i t u a t i o n comes to s im u la te t h e avoidanc e -a v o id a n c e t y p e , b lo c k in g be­ comes a more f r e q u e n t ty p e o f re s p o n s e , and r e s o l u t i o n i s more d i f f i c u l t . (Hovland and S e a rs , 1 9 3 8 , K le b a n o ff, 1939* W earac^ntt H ovland, 1941, and

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

and M U le r, 1 9 4 2 ). I n t h e c«ase o f t h e s i n g l e a p p ro a c h -a v o id a n c e c o n f l i c t , be­ h a v io r d is r u p t i o n i s l e s s s e v e r e th a n i n t h e d o u b le ty p e (H ovland and S e a r s , 1 9 3 8 ).

C o n f lic t b e h a v io r r e a c h e s a maximum when t h e o p p o sin g

i n s t i g a t i o n s a r e e q u a l i n s t r e n g t h ( M ille r , L ip o fa k y , an d B roun, 1940) b u t b lo c k in g i s n e v e r a s f r e q u e n t a s i t i s i n t h e d o u b le a p p ro a c h av o id a n c e c o n f l i c t s u n d e r s i m i l a r c o n d itio n s o f e q u a l i t y o f s tr e n g t h o f in s tig a tio n .

I f one c r t h e o th e r I n s t i g a t i o n becomes s u f f i c i e n t l y

s tr o n g , th e a p p r o p r ia te re s p o n s e s i l l b e made w ith o u t h e s i t a t i o n ( M ille r , L ip fs k y , a n d B roun, 1 9 4 0 ). B e sid e s t h e r e l a t i v e fre q u e n c y o f t h e d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f be­ h a v io r d i s r u p t i o n i n t h e d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f c o n f l i c t two o t h e r f a c t s w hich a r e o f u s e i n th e p r e s e n t d is c u s s io n have b een a s c e r t a i n e d .

One

i s t h a t a t t h e p o i n t w here th e c o n f l i c t i n g i n s t i g a t i o n s a re a p p ro x im a te ly e q u a l, t h e s u b je c t w i l l o s c i l l a t e back and f o r t h among t h e p o s s ib le re s p o n s e s ( M ille r , L ip o fsk y , a n d Brown, 1 9 4 0 ).

The o th e r i s t h a t i n ­

s t i g a t i o n s w ith r e s p e c t t o t h e same re s p o n s e , w hether i n t h e same o r d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s , may summate a l g e b r a i c a l l y t o p ro d u c e an e f f e c t i v e re s p o n s e s t r e n g t h . One e x p e rim en t on Type 4 c o n f l i c t w hich b e a rs d i r e c t l y on t h e p ro b lem o f g o in g o u t o f t h e f i e l d i s t h a t o f Brown (1 9 4 2 ).

He t r a i n e d

r a t s t o d is c r im in a te betw een a b r i g h t an d a dim l i g h t i n a Y-maze s itu a tio n .

H alf o f t h e a n im a ls w ere shocked f o r m aking a n i n c o r r e c t

d is c r i m i n a t i o n , an d h a l f m e re ly r e c e iv e d no fo o d .

H alf o f each o f t h e s e

g ro u p s was th e n p la c e d o n a one h o u r h u n g er d r iv e a n d t h e o th e r h a l f on a 4 6 h o u r d r iv e ,

fiie h o f t h e f o u r g ro u p s th u s o b ta in e d was f u r t h e r su b ­

d iv id e d i n t o 3 g ro u p s f o r p u x p o ses o f t e s t i n g i n t h r e e im p o s s ib le d i s ­

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

c r im in a tio n s i t u a t i o n s : two s t i x m l i i d e n t i c a l w ith t h e o r i g i n a l p o s i t i v e s tim u lu s , two s ti m u l i h a l f way betw een th e p o s i t i v e an d t h e n e g a tiv e , and two s ti m u l i i d e n t i c a l w ith t h e o r i g i n a l n e g a tiv e s tim u lu s .

G oing o u t o f t h e f i e l d , a s in d i c a t e d by r e t r e a t fro m t h e

c h o ic e p o in t i n t o t h e stem o f t h e T, was m ost f r e q u e n t when tw o n e g a tiv e s t i m u l i w ere p r e s e n te d , n e x t i n t h e in te r m e d ia te s i t u a t i o n , an d l e a s t when t h e a n im a ls were c h o o s in g betw een two p o s it i v e s t i m u l i . W ith in t h e s e g ro u p s m ost o f t h e g o in g o u t o f th e f i e l d o c c u rre d when a v o id a n c e p ro d u ced b y shock f o r i n c o r r e c t c h o ic e i n t h e le a r n in g s i t u a ­ t i o n was opposed t o one h o u r d r iv e .

The g r e a t e s t amount o f i n d i s ­

c r im in a te ap p ro ach o c c u rre d when t h e 4 6 h o u r d r iv e w as opposed t o no shock f o r w rong c h o ic e .

T hese co m p ariso n s d e m o n stra te t h e g r e a t e r

fre q u e n c y of go i n g - o u t - o f - t h e - f i e l d i n Type U c o n f l i c t s t h a t most n e a r ly ap p ro ach t h e p u re a v o id a n c e -a v c id a n c e Type 2 .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

The P r e s e n t Problem The d is c u s s io n o f t h e h y p o th e s is o f t h e p r e s e n t p a p e r may b e most e a s i l y u n d e rsto o d i n c o n n e c tio n w ith t h e s p e c i f i c e x p e rim e n ta l s itu a tio n .

F or th e p u rp o se o f t h e g r e a t e s t c l a r i t y , th e n , a b r i e f

d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e ex p erim en t w i l l b e p r e s e n te d , th e n a d is c u s s io n o f th e t h e o r e t i c a l e x p e c ta tio n s b a s e d on t h e p r i n c i p l e s m entioned above, and f i n a l l y an a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e d is c u s s io n t o t h e ex p erim e n ta l g ro u p s. The e x p e rim e n ta l s i t u a t i o n The p r e s e n t e x p e rim en t may b e b r i e f l y d e s c rib e d a s f o llo w s . T hree d e g re e s o f a f f e c t , r a n g in g from m ild ly p le a s a n t t o d is a g r e e a b le , were a r t i f i c a l l y e s ta b li s h e d f o r two t a s k s , c a r d s o r t i n g an d m ir r o r draw ing, i n human s u b j e c t s .

H a lf o f t h e s u b je c ts i n each o f t h e

t h r e e groups were th e n t o l d to do m ore work on one o f t h e t a s k s t h a t th e eoqperim enter s p e c i f i e d , an d t h e o th e r h a l f were t o l d to s e l e c t one o f t h e t a s k s and work o n i t .

The s i x groups o f s u b je c ts th u s form ed

w ere given tw ic e a s much tim e a s was n e c e s s a ry f o r th e c o m p le tio n o f th e t a s k s a n d th e y w ere aware fro m t h e b e g in n in g t h a t th e y would h a v e t h i s e x t r a tim e .

O th e r a c t i v i t i e s w hich were t o p ro v id e t h e e x t r i n s i c

i n s t i g a t i o n , a j i g saw p u z z le , a t a b l e b o w lin g game, and a F lip p game, w ere a v a i l a b l e t o th em d u rin g t h i s p e r io d b u t were n o t m entioned by th e e x p e rim e n te r.

D u rin g t h i s c h o ic e p e r io d th e s u b je c ts were l e f t a lo n e ,

so t h a t t h e i r b e h a v io r w ould b e a s u n in h ib ite d a s p o s s i b l e , a n d th e y were o b se rv e d th ro u g h a one way v i s i o n m ir r o r . I n s t i g a t i o n t o ap p ro ach t h e m ir r o r draw ing o r c a r d so rtin g ., m ig h t h av e been c a u se d b y a nunfcer o f f a c t o r s .

F ir s t , th e ta s k i t s e l f

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

m ight have b e a n i n t r i n s i c a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g to th e su b je c t* had b e e n p r a i s e d f o r h i s work on i t .

Second, he

T h ir d , th e i n s t r u c t i o n s them ­

s e lv e s s e re a s o u rc e o f i n s t i g a t i o n to a p p ro a c h .

F i n a l ly , t h e s u b je c ts

were p a id f o r t h e i r s e r v ic e s , and i t i s n o t u n lik e l y t h a t t h e r e was some m o tiv a tio n to f i n i s h th e ex perim ent and c o l l e c t t h e money. The i n s t i g a t i o n t o a v o id t h e ta s k s was c o n tr ib u te d m ainly by t h e n a tu r e of t h e t a s k s th e m se lv e s , w hich had been made u n p le a s a n t enough to c a u se a c e r t a i n amount o f avoidance o f them (e x c e p t i n th e group 8 i n w hich m ild ly p le a s a n t a f f e c t was c r e a t e d ) .

In th e c a se s

w here th e s u b je c t d i d l i k e t h e t a s k , a s l i g h t a v o id a n c e g r a d ie n t m ight have been p ro d u ced b y t h e n e c e s s ity o f c h o o sin g betw een them , i . e . , a n i m p l i c i t Type 4 c o n f l i c t may have e x is te d , a lth o u g h th e r e was n o th in g i n t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s t h a t p re v e n te d them from d o in g b o th . G oing b ack to t h e i n d i v id u a l groups now i t may b e seen t h a t th e s u b j e c t s vho w ere t o l d t o do one o f th e t a s k s d e s ig n a te d by t h e ex­ p e r im e n te r were p la c e d i n sin g L e a p p ro ach -a v o id a n ce c o n f l i c t s i t u a t i o n s w ith t h e r e l a t i v e s tr e n g t h s o f th e i n s t i g a t i o n t o approach and a v o id th e t a s k v a r y in g from s tr o n g ap p roach and l i t t l e o r no a v o id an ce th ro u g h a p p ro x im a te ly e q u a l s t r e n g t h o f b o th , t o s tr o n g av o id an ce and w eaker approach*

The s u b je c ts vho w ere t o l d to s e l e c t a ta s k th em selv es aid

work on i t w ere p la c e d i n douhLe approach-avo id a n c e c o n f l i c t s w ith t h e same ran g e o f v a r i a b i l i t y o f r e l a t i v e s tr e n g th o f i n s t i g a t i o n .

The

gro u p s t h u s form ed, t h e ty p e o f c o n f l i c t , and t h e ty p e o f e f f e c t i v e i n s t i g a t i o n p r e s e n t have b een summ arized i n T a b le 1 . P re v io u s i n v e s t i g a t i o n s have R em o n strated t h a t when in d iv id u a ls a r e p la c e d i n v a r io u s ty p e s o f c o n f l i c t s i t u a t i o n s th e y behave i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w ays, a n d c e r t a i n a s p e c ts o f t h e i r b e h a v io r can b e p r e -

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

T a b le 1 The ty p e s o f c o n f l i c t and t h e p red o m in an t ty p e s o f i n s t i g a t i o n i n t h e s i x e x p e rim e n ta l groups*

Group

Type o f C o n f lic t

Type o f i n s t i g a t i o n

I

Double a p p ro a c h -a v o id a n c e

ap p ro ach

II

Double a p p ro a c h -a v o id a n c e

n e u tra l

III

Double q p p ro ach -av o id an c e

a v o id an ce

17

S in g le a p p ro a c h -a v o id a n c e

approach

V

S in g le a p p ro a c h -a v o id a n c e

n e u tra l

VI

S in g le a p p ro a c h -a v o id a n c e

av o id an ce

d i e t e d from r e l a t i v e l y f e e s tim u lu s re s p o n s e p r i n c i p l e s .

The p r e s e n t

e x p e rim e n t, o u t l i n e d above, d e a l s w ith t h e b e h a v io r to b e e x p e c te d when a new v a r i a b l e , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f e s c a p e from t h e c o n f l i c t s i t u a t i o n a l t o g e t h e r , i s in tro d u c e d f o r a l i m i t e d p e r i o d o f t im e .

The l e s s

s o lu b le c o n f l i c t s u s e d a r e c a p a b le of b e in g m o d ifie d t o become more e a s i l y s o lu b l e .

The o r i g i n a l i n s t i g a t i o n t o make t h e re sp o n se

t h a t p r o v id e s t h e e sc a p e i s n o m in al. P r e v io u s ly a c o n f l i c t was shown t o be m ost d i f f i c u l t t o r e ­ s o lv e when ap p ro ach and a v o id a n c e i n s t i g a t i o n w ith r e s p e c t t o a s in g l e g o a l i s o f a p p ro x im a te ly e q u a l s t r e n g t h , an d when a v o id a n c e i n s t i g a ­ t i o n w ith r e s p e c t t o each o f t h e tw o in c o n p a tib le g o a l r e s p o n s e s e q u a l o r ex ce ed i n s t i g a t i o n t o a p p ro a c h t h e same g o a ls .

In th e l a t t e r case,

t h e s e v e r i t y o f c o n f l i c t a s m easured b y th e amount o f d i s r u p t i o n o f b e h a v io r , becomes g r e a t e r w ith i n c r e a s e i n t h e r e l a t i v e s tr e n g th o f th e i n s t i g a t i o n t o a v o id .

G iven t h e same r e l a t i v e s t r e n g t h o f o p posing

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

i n s t i g a t i o n , t h e d o u b le a p p ro a c h -a v o id a n c e ty p e o f c o n f l i c t s i l l b e l e s s s o lu b le th a n t h e s i n g l e a p p ro a c h -a v o id a n c e ty p e .

A c o n f l i c t is

r e a d i l y s o lu b le when o n ly ap p ro ach i n s t i g a t i o n i s p r e s e n t (Type 1 i

c o n f l i c t ) , a Type U c o n f l i c t , when t h e ap p ro ach i n s t i g a t i o n a r e s u p e r io r enough i n s tr e n g t h t o th e av o id an ce t h a t th e r e i s no e f f e e t i v e i n t e r f e r e n c e w ith a p p ro a c h r e s p o n s e s , o r a Type 2 c o n f l i c t , when t h e s tr e n g t h s o f t h e ap p ro a c h and a v o id an ce i n s t i g a t i o n a r e so u n eq u al t h a t one o r t h e o th e r re sp o n s e may be aad e w ith o u t i n t e r f e r e n c e .

The

d i f f i c u l t y o f r e s o l u t i o n of t h e c o n f l i c t depends o n t h e r e l a t i v e s tr e n g t h a n d n u a b e r o f av o id a n c e i n s t i g a t i o n s p r e s e n t.

From t h i s

a n a l y s i s i t w i l l b e s e e n t h a t i n c r e a s i n g t h e s tr e n g t h o f t h e in s ti g a r t i o n to a p p ro a c h , v h i l e h o ld in g t h e i n s t i g a t i o n t o a v o id c o n s ta n t, w i l l _ make an i n s o lu b le c o n f l i c t s o lu b le * S e v e r a l co n seq u en ces m a y b e e x p e c te d from t h e e x p e rim e n ta l-/ s i t u a t i o n d e s c rib e d ab o v e.

( 1 ) Going o u t o f t h e f i e l d , w hich f o r then,

p u rp o se s o f t h i s ex p erim en t i s d e s c rib e d a s a response t o a n e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r , i s e x p e c te d t o o c c u r when t h e re s p o n s e s to t h e o r i g i n a l In­ s t i g a t o r s a r e I n h ib i t e d due t o a c o n f l i c t n o t r e a d i l y s o lu b le ; i t w i l l n o t o c c u r vhen th e c o n f l i c t i s r e a d i l y s o l u b l e .

( 2 ) I f , a f t e r th e

re s p o n s e t o t h e e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r h a s o c c u rre d , some means such as a tim e l i m i t f o r m aking a c h o ic e i s u s e d t o f o r c e t h e s u b je c t b a c k i n t o t h e c o n f l i c t s i t u a t i o n , th e n o s c i l l a t i o n betw een t h e c o n f l i c t i n s t i g a t o r s and t h e e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r sh o u ld o c c u r j u s t b e f o r e a c h o ic e i s made* ( 3 ) The amount o f o s c i l l a t i o n s h o u ld in c r e a s e w ith t h e d e g r e e t o w hich t h e c o n f l i c t was o r i g i n a l l y d i f f i c u l t to re so lv e *

( 4 ) The g e n e r a l m o t i l i t y

o f t h e s u b je c t lik e w is e s h o u ld b e g r e a t e s t j u s t b e fo re a c h o ic e i s made an d s h o u ld v a ry p o s i t i v e l y w i t h t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f r e s o lv in g t h e c o n f lic t*

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

( 5 ) B lo c k in g i s e x p e c te d t o f o llo w t h e same p a t t e r n a s o s c i l l a t i o n and m o tility .

The t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s f o r th e s e e x p e c ta tio n s w i l l b e d i s ­

c u s se d below , an d th e n a p p lie d s p e c i f i c a l l y to t h e p r e s e n t p ro b le m . The r e l a t i o n b etw een so t ry? n u t o f t h e f i e l d and d eg ree o f d i f f i c u l t y of re s o lu tio n o f th e c o n f lic t. When t h e o r i g i n a l re s p o n s e s a r e i n h i b i t e d by a c o n f l i c t , r e ­ sp o n se s to e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r s a r e n o t o n ly p e r m itte d b u t th e y may be s tr e n g th e n e d .

T h at t h i s s h o u ld b e so can b e s e e n on c o n s id e r a tio n

o f t h e way i n ifc ic h t h e v a r io u s i n s t i g a t i o n s p r e s e n t w i l l automate.

It

h a s b ee n s t a t e d p r e v io u s ly t h a t when i n s t i g a t i o n s t o in c o m p a tib le re s p o n s e s a re e q u a l i n s t r e n g t h th e y w i l l em anate to g iv e an e f f e c t i v e i n s t i g a t i o n , t o e i t h e r r e s p o n s e ,o f z e r o .

Bub t h e i n s t i g a t i o n s "c a n c e l*

e a c h o th e r o n ly liie n t h e re s p o n s e s a r e in c o n p a tib le .

I f , i n a d o u b le

ap p ro a c h -a v o id a n c e c o n f l i c t w here th e i n s t i g a t i o n i s p r im a r i ly n e g a tiv e , a new re s p o n s e i s p e rm itte d , on e t h a t i s in c o n p a tib le w ith b o th a v o id a n c e r e s p o n s e s , t h e i n s t i g a t i o n s to a v o id s h o u ld summate p o s i t i v e l y w ith t h e i n s t i g a t i o n t o make t h e new re s p o n s e , th e re b y i n c r e a s in g t h a t /

in s tig a tio n .

However, such a re s p o n s e would presum ably b e in c o n p a tib le

w ith t h e ap p ro ach re s p o n s e s i n th e c o n f l i c t s i t u a t i o n , i f any s h o u ld e x i s t , and th e i n s t i g a t i o n t o make t h e l a t t e r re sp o n s e s d io u ld sub­ t r a c t fro m t h a t t o make t h e new r e s p o n s e .

I f t h e ap p ro ach and avoidance

i n s t i g a t i o n s to t h e c o n f l i c t r e s p o n s e s a r e e q u a l, t h e r e f o r e , n o t o n ly w i l l t h e e f f e c t i v e i n s t i g a t i o n t o e i t h e r o o n f l i c t re s p o n s e b e z e ro , b u t t h e e f f e c t o f t h e s e i n s t i g a t i o n s on t h e new re sp o n s e w i l l c a n c e l each o t h e r . T h is re sp o n s e may s t i l l b e m ade, how ever, b e c a u se t h e new o b j e c t i s assumed t o h av e some in d ep en d en t v a lu e a s a n i n s t i g a t o r and t h e o th e r p o s s ib le re s p o n s e s i n t h e s i t u a t i o n a r e b lo c k e d b y th e o o n f l i c t .

Should

th e i n s t i g a t i o n to a p p ro a c h t h e c o n f l i c t re s p o n s e s b e g r e a t e r th a n t h a t

Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

t o a v o id them , re s p o n s e t o t h e e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r sh o u ld b e p re ­ v e n te d u n le s s t h a t i n s t i g a t o r i s t h e so u rce o f a good d e a l o f approach i n s t i g a t i o n by i t s e l f .

The same r e l a t i o n s h i p s sh o u ld h o ld in t h e c a s e

of t h e s i n g l e a p p ro a c h -a v o id a n c e .

H ere, however, s in c e th e r e i s o n ly

one so u rc e o f av o id an ce i n s t i g a t i o n , i t can add o n ly h a l f as much to t h e i n s t i g a t i o n t o a p p ro ac h t h e new resp o n se as t h e two s o u rc e s i n th e d o u b le ap p ro a ch -a v o id a n c e, p ro v id e d t h e s tr e n g th s a r e e q u a l.

Thus i t

h a s b e e n shown t h a t t h e re s p o n s e t o t h e e x t r in s i c i n s t i g a t o r depends on th e nunfoer and th e s tr e n g th o f t h e a v o id a n c e i n s t i g a t i o n s p r e s e n t . The i n s o l u b i l i t y o f t h e c o n f l i c t a l s o depends on th e s e f a c t o r s .

T here­

f o r e a h ig h c o r r e l a t i o n betw een th e two i s e j e c t e d . O s c i l l a t i o n betw een t h e e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r s and t h e c o n f l i c t i n s t i g a t o r s a s t h e c o n f L ic t becomes s o lu b le I f t h e c o n f l i c t i s to become more s o lu b l e , i t m ust m eet th e con­ d itio n s o f a s o lu b le c o n f l i c t d e s c rib e d above, nam ely, t h e i n s t i g a t i o n to approach m ust b e g r e a t e r th a n t h a t t o a v o id .

I n t h i s c a s e t h e so u rc e o f

th e a d d i t i o n a l approach i n s t i g a t i o n i s th e a p p ro ach in g tim e l i m i t .

This

i n s t i g a t i o n t o approach th e c o n f l i c t i n s t i g a t o r s w i l l , by summ ation, de­ c r e a s e t h e i n s t i g a t i o n t o a v o id t h e e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r s .

The n e a rn e s s

o f t h e tim e l i m i t a l s o may c r e a t e s p e c if ic i n s t i g a t i o n t o av o id th e l a t t e r which d o e s not d e r iv e fro m in c r e a s e d i n s t i g a t i o n t o ap p ro a c h th e fo rm e r.

T h is w i l l te n d t o b r in g ab o u t a s t a t e o f e q u ilib r iu m betw een i n ­

s t i g a t i o n t o a p p ro a c h c o n f l i c t and e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r s .

A ccording to

p re v io u s s t u d i e s ( M ille r , L ip o fsk y , and Brown, 1940) o s c i l l a t i o n betw een t h e two i n s t i g a t o r s s h o u ld t a k e p la c e a t t h a t tim e .

When t h e ap p ro ach

i n s t i g a t i o n has become g r e a t e r th a n t h a t o f avoidance a c h o ic e w i l l be made.

T h e re fo re , th e s t a t e o f e c y iilib riu m a n d t h e o s c i l l a t i o n i t p ro d u ces

w i l l o ccu r j u s t b e fo re t h e s u b je c t makes a ch o ice*

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

R e la tio n o f t h e «tou"+ re s o lu tio n : Of t h e Q O PfllSl

*a t h e o r i g i n f t . f t f f i c u l t v o f

When t h a t av o id an ce i n s t i g a t i o n i a much s tr o n g e r th a n t h a t o f approach i n a c o n f l i c t s i t u a t i o n , a s i n Groups i l l and VI i n t h e p r e s e n t ex p erim en t, th e re w i l l have to b e a c o n s id e ra b le i n c r e a s e i n t h e s tr e n g th o f t h e l a t t e r fa o r d e r to make th e c o n f l i c t become r e a d i l y so lu b le *

T h e re fo re , a lth o u g h th e r e o b v io u sly can be o n ly one

p o in t o f e x a c t e q u a l i t y o f i n s t i g a t i o n , t h e r e w i l l b e a c o n s id e ra b le p e r io d o f tim e i n w hich t h e i n s t i g a t i o n i s a p p ro x im a te ly equal*

T h is

means t h a t th e r e w i l l b e $ome tim e i n which moment t o moment v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e i n s t i g a t i o n can s h i f t t h e e q u ilib r iu m and c o n s e q u e n tly p ro d u ce o s c i l l a t o r y b e h a v io r.

When, a s i n t h e c a s e o f Groups I I and V, i n ­

s t i g a t i o n to a p p ro a c h an d av o id an ce r e s p o n s e s i n t h e c o n f l i c t s i t u a t i o n a r e a p p ro x im a te ly e q u a l i n t h e b e g in n in g alm ost any in c r e a s e i n t h e approach i n s t i g a t i o n m i l l r c a u s a : t h e . c o n f l i c t t o become e a s ily s o lu b le . The p e r io d o f ap p ro x im a te e q u a lity o f i n s t i g a t i o n befo re a c h o ic e i s made w i l l th e r e f o r e not b e a s lo n g a s i n t h e p re v io u s c a s e and t h e o s c i l l a t i o n w i l l n o t b e a s g re a t* Number a s w e ll a s s t r e n g t h o f av o id an ce i n s t i g a t i o n s d io u ld b e a f a c t o r i n t h e amount o f o s c i l l a t i o n *

I n th e s in g le a p p ro a c h -a v o id a n c e

s i t u a t i o n , a r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e c o n f l i c t s h o u ld o c c u r a s soon a s t h e i n ­ s t i g a t i o n t o ap p ro ach h a s become g r e a t e r th a n t h a t to avoid*

I n th e

dou b le a p p ro a c h -a v o id a n c e , how ever, t h e r e a r e two p o s s ib le r e s o l u t i o n s of th e c o n flic t.

When th e ap p ro ach i n s t i g a t i o n com es, th ro u g h p a s s a g e

o f tim e , t o d o m in ate, t h e s u b je c t w i l l s t i l l e x p e rie n c e d i f f i c u l t y i n making up h i s m ind w hich re sp o n s e t o make an d may o s c i l l a t e b ack and f o r t h b etw een t h e two*

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

C o r r e la tio n betw een g e n e ra l m o t i l i t y an d original re s o lu tio n o f th e o o n flic t

r»f

Nob o n ly sh o u ld t h e o e d i l a t i o n o f t h e s u b je c t i n c r e a s e a t th e tim e when t h e i n s t i g a t i o n s in v o lv e d a re a p p ro x im a te ly e q u a l and a c h o ic e i s a b o u t t o be made, b u t t h e g e n e r a l m o t i l i t y w ith r e s p e c t t o a l l p o s s i b l e re s p o n s e s s h o u ld i n c r e a s e a s w ell*

T h is s h o u ld b e

m ost a p p a re n t when t h e o r i g i n a l d i f f i c u l t y o f r e s o l u t i o n i s g r e a t e s t . I n su c h c a s e s , when t h e av o id a n c e o f t h e e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r s b u ild s up d u e to in c r e a s e d p r e s s u r e on th e s u b je c t to make a c h o ic e , h e sh o u ld te n d in c r e a s in g ly to le a v e w h a te v e r e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r i s occu p y in g him a n d move i n t h e d i r e c tio n o f t h e t a s k s .

But s in c e

a v o id an c e t o th e s e i s s t i l l s tr o n g , t h i s movement sh o u ld n o t p ro g re s s v ery f a r , and t h e s u b je c t s h o u ld t e n d t o moVe back a g a in to w ard t h e e x trin s ic in s tig a to r s .

I t i s to b e e x p e c te d on t h e b a s i s o f chance

t h a t , p a r t o f t h e tim e a t l e a s t , he s h o u ld r e t u r n -to one d i f f e r e n t from t h a t h e h a s j u s t l e f t ,

s in c e i n s t i g a t i o n t o ap p ro ach t h e e x t r i n ­

s i c o b je c ts i s l a r g e l y d e term in e d by av o id an ce o f t h e c o n f l i c t t a s k s , and a l l su ch e x t r i n s i c o b j e c t s a r e e q u a lly c o m p a tib le w ith t h e a v o id an ce resp o n ses.

I n o th e r w o rd s, g r e a t e r m o t i l i t y s h o u ld o ccu r b ecau se

g r e a t e r o s c i l l a t i o n d o e s , and b e cau se e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t i o n i s l a r g e l y o v e r-d e te rm in e d * C o r r e l a t io n betw een th e amount o f b lo c k in g and th e o r i f ^ * ^ - ^ . f f i c u l t v of r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e conflict F o llo w in g t h e argum ent p r e s e n te d i n c o n n e c tio n w ith in c r e a s e i n b o th amount o f o s c i l l a t i o n b etw een th e c o n f l i c t an d t h e e x t r i n s i c in ­ s t i g a t o r s a n d amount o f g e n e r a l m o t i l i t y , i t i s e x p e c te d t h a t p u re b lo c k in g w i l l a l s o o ccu r a t t h e tim e when t h e s u b je c t i s a b o u t t # make a c h o ic e an d t h a t i t w i l l b e g r e a t e s t when t h e c o n f l i c t i s g r e a t e s t .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

I f t h e a n x ie ty c r e a t e d b y n o t c o m p le tin g a ta s k d r iv e s t h e s u b je c t away from a l l t h e e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r s so t h a t h e i s no lo n g e r a b le t o re sp o n d t o any o f them ev en t e n t a t i v e l y , com plete b lo c k in g sh o u ld r e s u l t b efo re a c h o ic e i s made.

T his b e h a v io r h a s been shown t o

o c c u r m ost f r e q u e n tly when c o n f l i c t i s m ost s e v e r e .

When i t d o es

a p p e a r i t s h o u ld b e a f t e r th e s u b je c t h a s c e a s e d a l l re s p o n s e s t o o th e r o b j e c t s .

I n l e s s s e v e re c o n f l i c t s i t may n o t o c c u r a t a l l b u t

d i f f i c u l t y i n making a c h o ic e may be m a n ife s te d by o s c i l l a t i o n betw een th e t a s k s . B eh a v io r p r e d ic te d f o r Group I I n Group I th e s u b je c ts were t o l d to ch o o se one o f two t a s k s f o r i h i c h t h e y had a m ild ly p le a s a n t a f f e c t .

In t h i s case a l l o f th e

s o u rc e s o f ap p ro ach i n s t i g a t i o n w ere o p e r a tin g .

The o n ly p o s s i b l e

s o u rc e o f i n s t i g a t i o n t o a v o id t h e t a s k s was t h e f r u s t r a t i o n in v o lv e d i n g iv in g up one o r t h e o th e r*

T h is , i f i t e x is t e d a t a l l , was p ro b a b ly

s l i g h t f o r t h e r e a s o n , p o in te d o u t ab o v e, t h a t t h e r e was n o th in g t o p re v e n t him from d o in g b o th i f he w anted t o .

A nother re a s o n f o r ex­

p e c t i n g a l i g h t av o id a n ce i s t h a t two o f t h e s o u rc e s o f i n s t i g a t i o n t o a p p ro a c h , i n s t r u c t i o n s an d p a y , would make f o r i n d is c r im in a te a p p ro a c h , s in c e t h e ta s k i s o n ly a means t o a n e n d .

Hence t h i s s i t u a t i o n may be

d e s c rib e d a s a d o u b le a p p ro a c h -a v o id a n c e w hich v e r y c l o s e l y ap p ro x im a te s t h e a p p ro a c h -a p p ro a c h t y p e .

T h e re fo re a minimum o f b e h a v io r d i s r u p t i o n ,

and no w ith d ra w a l from t h e s i t u a t i o n , i s t o be e x p e c te d on th e bauds o f th e p r e s e n t h y p o th e sis* B ehav io r p r e d i c t e d f o r Group I I The s u b j e c t s i n Group I I w ere i n s t r u c t e d t o choose betw een two

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

ta s k s f o r ifc ic h th e y f e l t eome d ie t a s t e .

Two o f t h e s o u rc e s o f

m o tiv a tio n , i n s t r u c t i o n s and p a y , w ere o p e r a tin g .

The n a tu r e o f th e

o r i g i n a l e x p e rie n c e s w ith t h e ta s k s was h e r e presum ably a so u rc e o f av o id an ce i n s t i g a t i o n , which i s assumed t o b e e q u a l to o r s l i g h t l y g r e a t e r th a n i n s t i g a t i o n to a p p ro a c h , th u s p ro d u c in g a d o u b le a p p ro ach av o id an ce c o n f l i c t in te rm e d ia te betw een t h e extrem es o f ap p ro ach -ap p ro ach and a v o id a n c e -a v o id a n c e .

H ere th e s u b je c t sh o u ld re sp o n d t o th e ex­

t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r s u n t i l t h e approach o f t h e tim e l i m i t in c r e a s e s t h e i n s t i g a t i o n t o ap p ro ach t h e t a s k s and produces a c o rre s p o n d in g d e c re a s e i n t h e e f f e c t i v e s tr e n g th o f t h e e x t r in s i c i n s t i g a t o r s .

S in c e th e

ap p ro ach and avoidance i n s t i g a t i o n w ith r e s p e c t t o t h e ta s k s a r e n e a r ly eq u al a n d n o t v ery s tr o n g , t h e d u r a tio n o f re sp o n s e to th e e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r s s h o u ld n o t be v e ry g r e a t.

In c re a s e d o s c i l l a t i o n and m o t i l i t y

sh o u ld b e found j u s t b e f o re r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e c o n f l i c t ta k e s p la c e * Only a s m a ll amount o f b lo c k in g sh o u ld o c c u r. B eh a v io r p r e d ic te d f o r Group I I I The s u b je c ts i n Group I I I w ere t o l d t o choose one o f two ta s k s t h a t th e y v e ry much d i s l i k e d .

Here i n s t i g a t i o n t o approach t h e t a s k s ,

p ro v id e d b y i n s t r u c t i o n s and e x p e c ta tio n o f p ay , i s assum ed t o be h e a v ily outw eighed b y t h e d i s l i k e o f t h e t a s k s .

T h is s i t u a t i o n t h e r e ­

f o r e r e p r e s e n t s a d o u b le ap p ro a c h -a v o id a n c e c o n f l i c t t h a t c l o s e ly ap p ro ach es t h e p u re a v o id a n c e -a v o id a n c e ty p e .

A g r e a t e r d e g re e o f

d i f f i c u l t y o f r e s o l u t i o n i s e x p e cted h e r e th a n i n t h e p re c e d in g s i t u a ­ t i o n s , and a g r e a t e r re sp o n s e to e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r s s h o u ld o c c u r. The am ount o f o s c i l l a t i o n betw een ta s k s and e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r s , g e n e r a l m o t i l i t y and b lo c k in g sh o u ld b e g r e a t e r , and t h e i r p r e d i c t e d d i s t r i b u t i o n i n tim e c l e a r l y o b se rv a b le *

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

The above p r e d i c t lo n e f o r t h e ^ i r i t t h r e e g ro u p s c o rre sp o n d w ith t h e r e s u l t s o b ta in e d w ith r a t s b y Brown w ith r e s p e c t t o g o in g out o f t h e f i e l d (1 9 4 2 ).

I n c o n n e c tio n w ith a l l o f h is s tim u lu s p a i r s ,

when t h e ap p ro ach te n d en cy was v ery much s tr o n g e r th a n th e a v o id a n c e te n d e n c y , he found a lm o st no g o in g o u t o f t h e f i e l d ; when t h e te n d e n c ie s w ere n e a r ly e q u a l, he fo u n d some; and when t h e a v o id a n c e te n d e n c ie s were s tr o n g e r , th e g r e a t e s t amount o f going o u t of t h e f i e l d occu rred ,. B ehavior p r e d ic te d f o r Group IV T here ahould have b een no d is r u p tio n o f b e h a v io r i n Group IV s in c e t h e r e w ere no i n s t i g a t i o n s t o in c o m p a tib le r e s p o n s e s .

The sub­

j e c t was sim p ly i n s t r u c t e d t o do a ta s k f o r which h e had p o s i t i v e in s tig a tio n .

He sh o u ld a c c o r d in g ly b e found t o have gone d i r e c t l y to

th e t a s k and to have w orked on i t u n t i l i t was com pleted* B ehav io r p r e d i c t e d f o r Group V The s u b je c ts i n Group V w ere i n s t r u c t e d to p erfo rm a ta s k f o r vti ic h th e y had a c e r t a i n amount o f d i s l i k e .

P resum ably t h e i n s t i g a t i o n

t o a v o id was a b o u t eq u al i n s tr e n g t h to t h e i n s t i g a t i o n t o approach p ro v id e d by t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s and t h e p a y , th u s p ro d u c in g a s i n g l e ap p ro ac h -a v o id a n ce c o n f l i c t .

By t h e h y p o th e s is t h e r e s h o u ld b e some

s l i g h t amount o f re s p o n s e t o t h e e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r s , b u t n o t so much as i n Group I I s in c e i n t h e l a t t e r t h e r e w ere two s o u rc e s o f av o id an ce in s tig a tio n .

A l i t t l e p r e s s u r e from t h e a p p ro a c h in g tim e l i m i t s h o u ld

fo rc e t h e s u b je c t t o make a c h o ic e , and o s c i l l a t i o n , g e n e r a l m o t i l i t y and bL ocking s h o u ld b e l e s s marked th a n i n Group I I * B ehav io r p r e d i c t e d f o r Group V I These s u b je c ts w ere i n s t r u c t e d t o p e rfo rm a t a s k w h ich th e y d i s -

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

l i k e d v e ry much.

I a t h i s 7oaae t h e s tr e n g th o f t h e i n s t i g a t i o n t o av o id

th e g o a l i s much g r e a t e r t h a n t h e s tr e n g th o f t h e i n s t i g a t i o n to ap p ro a ch .

A ccording t o t h e h y p o th e s is , th e t i n e e la p s in g b e f o re t h e

t a s k i s s t a r t e d , and th e re s p o n s e t o t h e e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r s , sh o u ld be g r e a t e r th a n i n Group 7 .

They s h o u ld be l e s s th a n i n Group I I I ,

how ever, b e c a u se i n Group VI t h e r e was o n ly one so u rc e o f av o id an ce in s tig a tio n .

The same r e l a t i v e in c id e n c e o f o s c i l l a t i o n , m o t i l i t y

and b lo c k in g i s exp ected *

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

Ill

•*

P ro c e d u re T asks and a p p a r a tu s The ta s k s t o b e u s e d a s t h e s o u rc e s o f c o n f l i c t i n t h e ex p erim en t m ust meet t h e re q u ire m e n ts p e c u l i a r t o t h i s ty p e o f s itu a tio n .

I n t h e f i r s t p la c e t h e y m ust be such t h a t th e same d e ­

g re e o f s u c c e s s may i n o n e c ase b e c a H i d good, and in a n o th e r b a d . T h e re fo re no t a s k w here t h e r e i s a p o s s i b i l i t y o f a p e r f e c t s c o re c o u ld b e u s e d .

They s h o u ld a ls o r e q u ir e a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t p e r f o r ­

mance tim e so t h a t tim e s c o re s c o u ld b e f a l s i f i e d i f n e c e s s a ry w ith ­ o u t a r o u s in g th e s u b j e c t 's s u s p ic io n .

I t i s e a s i e r to add o r sub­

t r a c t seco n d s fro m a s c o r e w ith o u t c a u s in g s u s p ic io n t h a n to do t h e same w ith m in u te s .

The tim e f o r each in d i v i d u a l t r i a l sh o u ld be

a p p ro x im a te ly t h e same a f t e r a c e r t a i n l e v e l o f p r a c t i c e h a s b een a tta in e d .

The t a s k s sh o u ld be am enable t o a u to m a tic r e c o r d in g s o t h a t

th e f a c t t h a t h i s p erfo rm an ce i s b e in g re c o rd e d i n th e ab sen ce o f th e e x p e rim e n te r may b e im p re s s e d o n t h e 's u b j e c t ; and i t s h o u ld n o t b e p o s s i b l e e a s i l y t o f a ls if y * th e r e c o r d s .

F i n a l l y , th e t a s k s s h o u ld be

c l e a r l y d i v i s i b l e i n t o s e p a r a te s u b - p a r ts su ch a s t r i a l s . The t a s k s s e l e c t e d w ere c a r d s o r t i n g and m ir r o r d raw in g . seemed to f i t a l l t h e re q u ire m e n ts .

T hese

The m ir r o r d raw in g , i n a d d i t i o n ,

f u r n is h e d a n ex cu se f o r t h e p re s e n c e o f a m ir r o r w hich s e rv e d a s a one way v i s i o n window i n a s e t t i n g t h e r e i t m ight have been rem arked and s u s p e c te d o th e r w is e .

C ard s o r t i n g h a s b een u se d i n p re v io u s ex ­

p e r im e n ta tio n by S e a rs (1 9 4 2 ), who fo u n d t h a t a d e s ir e d a f f e c t c o u ld r e a d i l y be b u i l t up to w a rd i t .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

The games u s e d a s e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r s w ere a t a b l e b o w lin g game, a l i n e a r j i g s a w .p u z z le , a n d a F lip p game in which s u b je c t a tte m p te d t o la n d c o lo r e d c o u n te r s i n t h e c o rre s p o n d in g ly c o lo r e d s l o t s fay m a n ip u la tio n o f a l e v e r . These t a s k s and games were d i s t r i b u t e d ab o u t t h e e x p e rim e n ta l room a p p a r e n tly a t random a s shown i n t h e diagram i n f ig u r e 1 . room i t s e l f was b a re w ith p a in te d w a lls and cement f lo o r * e n te r e d by a d o o r a t one end, o p p o s ite w hich was a window.

The

I t was The door

c o n n e c tin g i t w ith t h e n e x t room w hich s e rv e d a s t h e o b s e rv a tio n cham ber was alw ays k e p t lo c k e d .

S e v e ra l c o lo re d p o s te r s o f S w itz e r ­

la n d v h ic h w ere hung on t h e w a lls p ro v id e d th e o n ly b r ig h t n o te i n th e room. F o r t h e c a r d s o r t i n g t a s k u se was made o f c a rd s h a v in g t h e same g e n e r a l ap p earan ce a s th o s e u s e d in th e Duke ESP e x p e rim e n ts. d eck c o n ta in e d 50 c a r d s , 10 each o f f i v e d i f f e r e n t d e s ig n s .

Each S in c e i t

was n e c e s s a ry to make t h e s u b je c t t h i n k t h e r e would be a check on a c c u ra c y , a d i f f e r e n t d e sk o f p resu m ab ly p r e -a r r a n g e d c a r d s was p ro ­ v id e d f o r each t r i a l he w ould h av e t o do i n t h e absence o f t h e ex­ p e rim e n te r* The a p p a ra tu s u se d t o r e c o r d p erfo rm an ce on t h i s t a s k con­ s i s t e d o f a s e r i e s o f 5 c h u te s (one f o r each k in d o f c a r d ) , t h e to p op en in g s o f w hich ex ten d ed beyond t h e to p o f t h e box i n w hich th e y were e n c lo s e d a n d were m arked w ith t h e symbol o f ope of th e c a r d s . These c h u te s em p tied i n t o draw ers a t t h e b ottom o f t h e box.

As e ach

c a r d t r a v e l l e d down t h e c h u te , i t d e p re s s e d a l e v e r which c lo s e d th e e l e c t r i c c i r c u i t a c t u a t i n g a r e l a y , a n d t h i s , i n t u r n , moved a m arker on a c o n s ta n t sp e e d p o ly g ra p h .

Each c h u te was r e l a t e d t o a d i f f e r e n t

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

°Y

\

M V 0

—

(I

/

■ rp ri«

0

w—

s

R

P A E°

F

n ^F 0 p 0 bO

MD

E

H

L

1H v o |

\

F ig u re 1 Diagram o f th e e x p e rim e n ta l room from above w ith th e w a lls l a i d b ac k . W, t h e window; Y, th e w a ll p lu g ; 0 , c h a i r s ; A, p o ly g ra p h ; CS, c a r d s o r t i n g a p p a r a tu s ; D, p o s te r s o f S w itz e rla n d ; V, c lo c k ; S, s in k ; E, s to p w a tc h ; MD, m ir r o r draw ing a p p a r a tu s ; M, o b se rv a ­ t i o n m ir r o r ; F, F lip p game; P , p u z z le ; B, bow ling game; H, d o o rs; L, lo c k e r ; N, n o te l e f t on t h e d o o r t e l l i n g th e s u b je c t t o w a it f o r th e e x p e rim e n te r.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

marker*

Thus t h e d i s p o s i t i o n o f each c a r d mas raoorddd i n p ro p e r

sequence* The m ir r o r d raw ing a p p a ra tu s c o n s is t e d o f t h e c o n v e n tio n a l o u t l i n e o f a s t a r c u t i n a b r a s s p l a t e mounted on a p ie c e o f b a k e l i t e . T his was f a s t e n e d o n a p la tf o r m o f t a b l e h e ig h t b e f o r e t h e one way v is i o n m i r r o r , and was s h ie l d e d fro m th e d i r e c t view o f t h e s u b je c t by a wooden s c r e e n .

The s u b je c t was p ro v id e d w ith a m e ta l s t y l u s

w ith w hich to t r a c e t h e o u t l i n e o f t h e s t a r a s seen i n th e m irro r* Whenever t h e b r a s s was c exit a c te d b y t h e s t y l u s a n e l e c t r i c c i r c u i t was co m p leted w hich c a u s e d a m arker on t h e p o ly g ra p h t o move* The r e c o r d in g o f t h e t a s k p erfo rm an ce as d e s c r ib e d above was done p u r e ly to im p ress upon t h e s u b je c t t h a t a u to m a tic r e c o r d s w ere b e in g ta k e n o f h i s p erfo rm an ce, and t h a t t h e s e would o o n tin u e to b e ta k e n w h eth er o r n o t th e e x p e rim e n te r was i n t h e room.

T hese r e c o rd s

were n e v e r r e a d o r u sed i n an y way, s in c e t h e d a ta o b ta in e d from them. was i n no way p e r t i n e n t t o t h e e x p e rim e n t.

However, g r e a t c a r e was

ta k e n to make t h e s u b je c t th i n k th e y were im p o r ta n t. O b se rv a tio n o f t h e s u b je c ts A ll t h e a c t u a l r e c o rd in g f o r th e p u rp o se o f th e ex p e rim e n t was done b y t h e e x p e rim e n te r b e h in d a one way v i s i o n m irro r* The s u b j e c t s w ere 84 c o l l e g e freshm en and 6 h ig h s c h o o l s e n io r s . The fre sh m e n w ere o b ta in e d fro m t h e Y ale b u re a u o f s tu d e n t a p p o in tm e n t and w ere p a id f o r t h e i r s e r v i c e s .

A ll t h e s u b je c ts w ere d i r e c t e d t o th e

e x p e rim e n ta l room a t t h e in fo r m a tio n d e sk o f t h e I n s t i t u t e o f Human R e la tio n s , and upon a r r i v a l w e re i n s t r u c t e d by a n o te to w a it f o r th e e x p e rim e n te r.

The s u b je c t t h e r e f o r e e n t e r e d th e room and was a lo n e

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

th e r e f c r f i v e m in u tes b e f o r e h a v in g any c o n ta c t A a l l w ith t h e ex­ p e rim e n te r.

A ll t h e a p p a ra tu s d e s c rib e d above was p r e s e n t a t t h e tim e

and a rra n g e d a c c o rd in g t o t h e d iag ram i n F ig u re 1 .

A ll s u b je c ts w ere

o b se rv e d th ro u g h t h e one way m ir r o r f o r th e f iv e m in u te p r e lim in a r y p e r io d .

R ecords were made w i t h r e s p e c t t o th e amount o f a t t e n t i o n

p a id t o t h e c a r d s o r t i n g , m ir r o r d ra w in g , and e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r s , and t h e g e n e r a l l e v e l o f m o t i l i t y .

The gro u p s w ere m atched a s e v e n ly i

as p o s s i b l e on t h e s e b a s e s . F o llo w in g t h e i n i t i a l o b s e r v a tio n p e r io d t h e e x p erim en ter e n te r e d t h e room, a p o lo g iz e d f o r b e in g l a t e , a n d c a ll e d t h e s u b je c t* s a t t e n t i o n t o th e f i r s t t a s k .

The o r d e r o f th e t a s k s was v a r i e d from

s u b je c t t o s u b je c t so t h a t h a l f d id m ir r o r draw ing f i r s t a n d t h e o t h e r h a lf d id card s o rtin g . The i n s t r u c t i o n s f o r t h e c a rd s o r t i n g , g iv e n w h ile t h e ex­ p e r im e n te r d e m o n stra te d , w ere a s f o llo w s : "Always p u t t h e f i r s t c a r d i n t h e f i r s t c h u te h e r e .

Then p u t

th e f o llo w in g c a r d i n th e c h u te t h a t b e a r s t h e same d e s ig n as t h e f i r s t c a r d , and so o n.

T h at i s , p u t each c a r d in th e c h u te t h a t b e a r s th e

same d e s ig n a s t h e p re c e d in g c a r d .

Work a s r a p i d l y b u t as a c c u r a te ly

a s p o s s ih L e ; b o th sp e e d an d a c c u ra c y c o u n t.

T ry a few and s e e how i t

g o e s ." The s u b je c t was t h e n a llo w e d t o f i n i s h s o r t i n g t h e deck t h a t t h e e x p e rim e n te r had s t a r t e d i n o r d e r t o make su re t h a t he u n d e rs to o d . A f te r t h i s p r a c t i c e t r i a l t h e e x p e rim e n te r s t a r t e d th e p o ly g ra p h and th e s u b j e c t s o r t e d c a r d s f o r a p re d e te rm in e d l e n g th o f tim e .

When t h a t

tim e h a d e la p s e d t h e s u b je c t was t o l d t h a t was enough f o r t h e p r e s e n t and he was s h o rn th e m i r r o r d raw ing a p p a r a tu s .

The i n s t r u c t i o n s f o r

Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

" S i t h e re and lo o k o n ly i n t h e m ir r o r . s h ie ld .

D o n 't p eek u n d er th e

Now p ic k up t h e s t y l u s , h o ld i t l i k e a p e n c i l , an d pub th e

p o in t o f i t on t h i s p o in t of t h e s t a r . th is d ire c tio n .

Now t r a c e th e s t a r , g o in g i n

Keep on t h e b la c k p a r t b e cau se ev ery tim e you h i t

t h e s id e i t makes a c o n t a c t and c o u n ts a s a n e r r o r . you c an w ith o u t making any m is ta k e s .

Go a s f a s t a s

T ry i t once f o r p r a c t i c e . "

A f te r th e f i r s t p r a c t i c e t r i a l t h e perform ance was re c o rd e d and t h e s u b je c t w orked an t h e ta s k f o r th e same p e r io d as h e had on th e o t h e r .

At th e end o f t h i s tim e t h e e x p e rim e n te r e x p la in e d t h a t

she h ad to le a v e f o r a b o u t h a lf an h o u r to a t t e n d to a n o th e r ex p erim en t, b u t t h a t i n h e r ab sen ce she w ould l i k e t h e s u b je c t t o c o n tin u e w orking. He was i n s t r u c t e d a s f o llo w s : "W hile I am g>ne I w ould l i k e t o have you do X (X was a number o f t r i a l s s e l e c t e d , a c c o rd in g t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l s p re v io u s perform ance, so a s to consume a b o u t 15 m in u te s ) t r i a l s on th e c a rd s o r t i n g o r X t r i a l s on th e m ir r o r d raw in g .

( I n th e ca se o f s u b je c ts who were given

no c h o ic e t h e a l t e r n a t i v e w as o f c o u rse o m itt e d .) d i f f e r e n c e w hich you d o .

I t d o e s n 't make any

T h is w i l l t a k e you o n ly a b o u t 15 m in u tes

and you w i l l have a h a l f h o u r i n f h ic h to do i t .

T here i s a n o th e r p a n t

to t h e ex p erim en t so p l e a s e w a it u n t i l I come b a c k .

The e x t r a tim e i s

co u n te d i n t h e two h o u rs you s ig n e d up f o r , so you w i l l b e th ro u g h on tim e .

I f y o u do t h e c a r d s o r t i n g u s e a d i f f e r e n t pack f o r e a c h t r i a l ,

so t h a t I c a n ch eck th em .

W ill you p le a s e remember t o p u l l t h i s p lu g

o u t when you have f i n i s h e d so t h a t to o much p a p e r w i l l n o t b e w a s te d . Do you u n d e rsta n d -*> ( e i t h e r ) X t r i a l s on t h e c a rd s o r t i n g ( o r X t r i a l s on t h e m ir r o r d ra w in g ), u s e a d i f f e r e n t pack o f c a r d s each t r i a l , and

Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

p u l l o u t th e p lu g when y o u 'r e th ro u g h ." I n e a s e t h e s u b je c t a s k e d how t h e e x p e rim e n te r o o u ld check ig> on th e tim e an d e r r o r s , t h e r e c o r d in g sy stem was e x p la in e d to him . In a d d itio n , p a r t i c u l a r c a r e was tak en d a r in g t h e ex p erim en t t o i n ­ d ic a te t o th e s u b je c t t h a t r e c o r d s w ere b e in g ta k e n In d e p e n d e n tly o f th e e x p e rim e n te r. D uring t h e h a l f h o u r p e rio d t h e s u b je c t was o b serv ed th ro u g h th e one way v i s i o n m ir r o r .

A n o t a t i o n i n sym bols was made d e s c r ib in g

h is b e h a v io r a t th e b e g in n in g o f each f i v e second p e r io d , a s s ig n a l l e d by an a u to m a tic a lly tim e d f l a s h o f l i g h t .

A f te r each l e t t e r symbol

in d i c a t i n g w hat t h e s u b je c t was d o in g , a number, 1 , 2 , o r 3 » was p la c e d to i n d i c a t e th e d eg re e t o w hich he was d o in g i t .

Number 1 in d ic a te d

t h a t t h e s u b je c t was m e re ly re g a rd in g t h e o b je c t to w ard v h ic h h is a t t e n t i o n was d i r e c t e d , 2 meant t h a t he was h a n d lin g i t ,

and 3 meant

th a t he was a c t i v e l y engaged i n m a n ip u la tin g i t a c c o rd in g t o some p l a n . A

sample from a r e c o rd i l l u s t r a t e s t h e r e c o r d in g te c h n iq u e :

CSi CSi + MDi UD2 +S^ Sj_ S 3 S3 H-l •

2

+ + CS^

T r a n s la te d , t h i s w ould r e a d t h a t

th e s u b je c t w alked aro u n d t h e room f o r 1 0 se c o n d s, lo o k e d a t t h e c a r d s o r tin g a p p a ra tu s f o r 1 3 se c o n d s, w alked away and approached t h e m ir r o r draw ing a p p a ra tu s which h e re g a rd e d f o r 3 seco n d s and i d l y h an d led f o r 3 more seco n d s, ap proached t h e s in k w hich he lo o k e d a t f o r 1 0 s e c o n d s,

t e s t e d t h e r e s u l t s o f t u r n i n g on t h e g a s , a i r an d vacuum f a u c e ts f o r 10 seconds more, and f i n a l l y ap p ro ach ed t h e window and s to o d lo o k in g o u t

id ly . 2. S e a rs (1942) h as u s e d a s i m i l a r sy stem f b r r e c o rd in g re s p o n s e s , b u t w ith a d i f f e r e n t m eaning a tta c h e d to th e n u n b e rs. He u s e d Nl n t o i n d i c a t e a u t i s t i c b e h a v io r , n2 N to i n d i c a t e environm ent d i r e c t e d o b s e r ­ v a tio n , and " 3 " t o i n d i c a t e o b je c t m a n ip u la tio n o r o v e r t movement. The p r e s e n t sy ste m was in te n d e d t o i n d i c a t e , from " I " t o n3n, p ro ­ g r e s s iv e d e g re e s o f t h e s u b j e c t 's in v o lv em en t i n w hat he was d o in g .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

At t h e c o n c lu s io n o f t h e h a l f h o u r p e r io d t h e e x p e rim e n te r r e ­ e n te r e d th e room, exam ined th e r e c o r d s an d r e q u e s te d t h e s u b je c ts t o do a n u qber o f t r i a l s , e x p e c te d t o ta k e 10 m in u te s, on t h e ta s k n o t done in t h e o b s e rv a tio n p e r io d .

A f te r t h a t h e was ask ed t o f i l l o u t a

q u e s tio n n a ir e d e sig n e d t o check on th e k in d and d e g re e o f a f f e c t he had f o r th e t a s k s .

T h is co n clu d ed t h e e x p e rim e n t.

The w hole p e r io d

l a s t e d from an hour a n d a h a l f t o two h o u rs depending on th e group i n which t h e s u b j e c t was p laced * C re a tio n o f a f f e c t Such was t h e g e n e r a l p ro c e d u re fo llo w e d f o r a l l s u b j e c t s . d if f e r e n c e i n a f f e c t was p ro d u ced i n two ways. a t t i t u d e o f t h e e x p e rim e n te r to w ard t h e s u b je c t .

The

The f i r s t was t h e Those i n Group I and

Group 17, i n which t h e p l e a s a n t a f f e c t f o r t h e ta s k s was t o b e c r e a te d , w ere alw ays p r a i s e d f o r t h e i r p e rfo rm an ce.

T h e ir s c o r e s , o r f a l s e

s c o re s i f n e c e s sa x y , w ere t o l d to them a f t e r each t r i a l and com pared f a v o ra b ly w ith th o s e o b ta in e d b y d i e a v e ra g e s u b je c t.

The e x p e rim e n te r

to o k tim e r e c o r d s on a s to p w atch ni n o r d e r to b e a b le to t e l l t h e sub­ j e c t h i s sc a re r i g h t a n a y .n

(T h is r e c o rd a ls o h e lp e d t o gauge th e

p ro p e r number o f t r i a l s f o r t h e O b s e rv a tio n p e r i o d .)

She ap p eared

f r i e n d l y to w ard t h e s u b je c t an d i n t e r e s t e d i n h i s perform ance* I n Group 8 I I and V th e e x p e rim e n te r made no a tte m p t to make th e ta s k e n jo y a b le to t h e s u b je c t.

She a p p e a re d a b s tr a c t e d and u n i n t e r e s t e d

i n him a lth o u g h a b s o rb e d in th e r e c o r d h e was making.

H is s c o re s w ere

t o l d to him o n ly i f h e a sk e d a b o u t them , and no comment on them was made.

He was made to f e e l more l i k e a " g u in e a p ig " a n d a n e x p e rim e n ta l

pawn th a n l i k e an i n d i v i d u a l .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

Toward tb s s u b je c ts i n Groups I I I a n d VI t h e e x p e rim e n te r showed a d e f i n i t e l y h o s t i l e a t t i t u d e .

A lthough s h e r a r e l y spoke t o

them , vhen s h e d i d i t was i n a n im p a tie n t to n e .

She a p p e a re d in ­

t e r e s t e d i n and d e f i n i t e l y d is p le a s e d w ith t h e r e c o r d s and n e v e r t o l d th e s c o r e s to t h e s u b je c t u n l e s s h e ask ed , vfcich he d id o n ly in f r e q u e n tly I f t h e s u b je c t made an y s l i g h t e r r o r in f o llo w in g i n s t r u c t i o n s h e was c o r r e c te d i n a n ex trem e ly s h o r t manner* The seco n d m ethod o f v a ry in g t h e a f f e c t c o n s is te d i n v a r y in g th e amount o f tim e t h e s u b je c t was r e q u ir e d t o keep a t th e ta s k s *

T h is

was t h e same f o r t h e s u b je c ts i n Groups I , I I , IV , and V, i . e * , 20 m in u te s.

The s u b je c ts i n Groups I I I and V I, i n a d d iti o n t o h a v in g th e

t a s k s made d e f i n i t e l y d is a g r e e a b le f o r them , w ere re q u ire d t o work a t each f o r 40 m inutes* I f an y s u b je c t ask ed th e p u rp o se o f t h e e x p e rim e n t, h e was t o l d , a t t h e end cf th e p r e lim in a r y p e r io d , t h a t i t was d e sig n e d t ° compare th e e f f e c t s o f p a r t i a l l y ( c a r d s o r t i n g ) and c o m p le te ly (m irro r-d ra w in g ) im c o n p a tib le p r e v io u s h a b i t s on t h e a c q u ir in g o f new ones*

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

IV M easurements The r e s u l t s can ue most c o n v e n ie n tly p r e s e n te d b y co n p a rin g t h e s i x gro u p s w ith r e s p e c t to each m easurem ent s e p a r a t e ly .

The r e ­

s u l t s w i l l be s y n th e s iz e d t o g iv e a p i c t u r e o f g o in g o u t o f t h e f i e l d o r e sc a p e b e h a v io r i n d i f f e r e n t k in d s o f c o n f l i c t s it u a t i o n s * I n a d d itio n t o t h e d a ta o b ta in e d i n t h e p r e lim in a r y p e r io d , t h e ob­ s e r v a tio n s y ie ld e d t h e f o llo w in g in fo r m a tio n : B efo re s t a r t i n g a t a s k ( l ) t h e amount o f re s p o n s e t o th e ex­ t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r and t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f su ch re s p o n s e s i n tim e , ( 2 ) t h e amount o f b lo c k in g an d t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f i t , ( 3 ) a s a c o r r o l l a r y o f ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) , t h e amount o f d e la y b e fo re a c h o ic e was made, ( 4 ) th e number o f o s c i l l a t i o n s betw een th e t a s k s and t h e ex­ t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r s and t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e s e o s c i l l a t i o n s , ( 5 ) t h e g e n e r a l l e v e l o f m o t i l i t y and i t s d i s t r i b u t i o n . A f te r a t a s k w as begun ( 6 ) th e amount o f av o id an ce o f t h e t a s k , ( 7 ) t h e amount o f re sp o n s e t o t h e e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r , ( 8 ) t h e number o f o s c i l l a t i o n s betw een t h e t a s k s and t h e e x t r in s i c i n s t i g a t o r s , ( 9 ) t h e m o t i l i t y , and ( 1 0 ) t h e number o f tim e s a s u b je c t l e f t th e t a s k b e fo re f i n i s h i n g i t . A f te r a t a s k was f i n i s h e d

(1 2 ) t h e amount o f re s p o n s e t o th e

e x trin s ic in s tig a to r s .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

R e s u lts P re lim in a r y p e rio d As n o te d i n th e d is c u s s io n o f t h e p ro c e d u re , th e amount o f re sp o n s e t o th e t a s k s an d t h e e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r s and t h e amount o f m o t i l i t y o f th e s u b je c t d u r in g th e p r e lim in a r y p e r io d were com­ p u te d f o r each s u b je c t and t h e groups w ere m atched on th e s e m easures. Com parisons o f a l l t h e g ro u p s o n th e s e p r e lim in a r y m easures a r e p r e ­ s e n te d i n T a b le s 1 and 2 o f t h e ap p e n d ix .

The d if f e r e n c e s betw een

t h e means th u s o b ta in e d a r e a l l e x tre m e ly s m a ll and i n no c a s e does a d if f e r e n c e ap p ro ach r e l i a b i l i t y . P e r io d b e fo re a t a s k was s t a r t e d (1 )

Amount o f re s p o n s e t o th e e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r s .

r e s u l t s f o r t h e s i x g ro u p s i n te rm s o f t h e mean number o f f iv e second p e r io d s s p e n t re sp o n d in g to th e e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r s betw een th e tim e t h e e x p e rim e n te r l e f t th e room and t h e s u b je c t began a t a s k a r e p r e ­ s e n te d i n T ab le 2 and g r a p h ic a lly in F ig u re 2 .

I t w i l l b e n o te d t h a t

th e means a r e , i n o r d e r , fro m Groups I - V I, 0 .0 0 , 8 .0 0 , 63.73# 0 .0 0 , 1 2 .6 0 , and 3 8 .8 0 .

The d i f f e r e n c e s betw een t h e s e means a re

re lia b le

a t t h e f i v e p e r c e n t l e v e l w ith t h e e x c e p tio n of th o s e betw een Groups I and IV a n d Groups I I and V (T ab le 3)*

The f a i l u r e o f t h e f o r a e r p a i r

t o show any d i f f e r e n c e s a c c o rd s w ith th e p r e d i c t io n s made i n C h a p te r I , s in c e presum ably t h e c o n f l i c t i s s o lu b le f o r b o th g ro u p s. Groups I I an d V p r e s e n t a p ro b lem , how ever.

Not o n ly i s th e

d if f e r e n c e betw een them net r e l i a b l e , b u t n h a t d if f e r e n c e t h e r e i s i s i n t h e wrong d i r e c t i o n .

The p r e d ic tio n s made w ere t h a t t h e r e w ould b e

Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

The

iVPRRi

Table 2

D u ra tio n o f re sp o n s e s t o e x te r n a l i n s t i g a t o r s b e fo re s u b je c ts began ta s k Number o f 5 second p e r io d s Group II III IV

S u b je c t

I

1 2

13 14 15

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Mean m

0 .,00 0 . 00

3 4 5 6

7 8

9 10 11 12

0 1 0 0 0

60 0 0 0

23 0 0

125 10 10

152 0 12 130

17 72 21 10

181

0

60 16

18

150

23

8 .0 0

4 .4 0

6 3 .7 3 9 .7 3

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0

V

VI

0 0 0 0

53

0 0 0

72 61

0

0 0

33 53

3

56

0

0 0 0 0 0 0

104 104 64 50 43 75

1 2 .6 0

3 8 .8 0 9 .0 0

6 .7 8

T a b le 3 D if fe r e n c e s betw een g ro u p s w ith r e s p e c t t o d u r a tio n o f re s p o n s e s to o u ts id e i n s t i g a t o r s

Group II -I III-I III-II V -IV VI-IV VI-V VI - I I III-V I

D if fe r e n c e 8 .0 0

63.73 55.73 1 2 .6 0 3 8 .8 0 2 6 .2 0

4 .6 0 2 4 .9 3

D if f 4 .4 0 9 .7 3

t 1 .8 8

P

11.27 8 .0 3

2 .3 2

.967 .999 .999 .961 .999 .9 8 4

.5 8

.7 2 2

1 3 .2 6

1 .8 8

.964

1 0 :6 8 6 .7 8 9 .0 0

6 .5 5 5 .1 7 1 .8 6

4 .3 1

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

5 SECOND PERIODS

60

40

20

1

I

Q GROUP

ZL

RESPONSE TO EXTRINSIC INSTIGATOR F ig u re 2 Bar g ra p h show ing th e a v e ra g e number o f f i v e second p e r io d s each group s p e n t re s p o n d in g t o t h e e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r b e­ f o r e s t a r t i n g a t a s k . The number f o r Groups I and IV i s 0 .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

more re s p o n s e to th e e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r i n t h e d o a b le ap p ro a c h av o id an c e ty p e o f c o n f l i c t th a n i n t h e s i n g l e a p p ro ach -a v o id a n ce. The f o llo w in g d is c u s s io n o n th e s u c c e s s in b u ild in g up t h e a f f e c t i n t h e v a r io u s g ro u p s may e x p la in t h e d is c re p a n c y • S u c ce ss

building up t h e r e q u ir e d a f f e c t .

One h y p o th e s is t o account

f o r th e d is c re p a n c y b etw een th e r e s u l t s and t h e p r e d i c t io n s m entioned above i s t h a t th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e e x p e rim e n ta l te c h n iq u e a r e r e s p o n s ib le .

The ra n g e o f a f f e c t t h a t m ight be ex p ected t o o c c u r h e r e

i s n e c e s s a r i l y narrow , s in c e t h e s i t u a t i o n i s one in which t h e s u b je c t i s not lik e ly * t o become d e e p ly involved*

I n Groups I , I I an d H I i t

was n o t o n ly n e c e s s a ry to c r e a t e t h r e e c l e a r l y d i s t in g u is h a b l e d e g re e s o f a f f e c t f o r th e tw o t a s k s bub i t w as n e c e s s a ry to have th e a f f e c t f o r b o th t a s k s t h e same f o r any one s u b je c t* G e ttin g e q u a l i t y o f a f f e c t i s somewhat d i f f i c u l t a t t h e two extrem es a s d e m o n stra te d b y th e d a ta o b ta in e d from one o f t h e s u b je c ts i n Group I I I *

T h is s u b j e c t f a i l e d t o show an y o f t h e b e h a v io r t h a t

was e x p e c te d o f t h e s u b je c ts i n t h a t group and w hich t h e o th e r s showed. Nor d i d an y o f h is b e h a v io r o r c o n v e r s a tio n p r i o r to t h e o b s e rv a tio n p e rio d i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e a tte m p t t o make b o th t h e ta s k s d is a g r e e a b le t o him had su c c ee d ed .

I t was i n p o s s ib le to d e s tr o y .h is i n t e r e s t i n

th e c a rd s o r t i n g b y an y o f t h e means em ployed i n t h e e x p erim en t, a lth o u g h t h e r e q u i r e d a f f e c t f o r th e m i r r o r draw ing had been e a s i l y b u ilt up.

P resum ably no c o n f l i c t e x is t e d f o r t h i s s u b je c t s in c e h e

was a b le to a v o id a t a s k t h a t h e d i d i ' t l i k e by d o in g one t h a t h e d id . H is re s p o n s e to t h e c a rd s o r t i n g m ight even have been mare prom pt th a n i t would h av e b e e n o th e rw is e b e c a u se i t o b v ia te d t h e n e c e s s i t y o f d o in g m ir r o r d ra w in g .

T his was th e o n ly s u b je c t o f t h a t group w hich

Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

d e p a r te d n o tic e a b ly from t h e group norm. On th e w h o le , how ever, t h e a f f e c t f o r t h e extrem e group a was s a tis fa c to ry .

Such comments a s , "T his i s f u n ," " I t ' s easy once you

g e t t h e h an g o f i t , ” "Are t h e r e an y mere e x p e rim e n ts l i k e t h i s one up h e r e ? " , an d t h e l i k e w ere t y p ic a l o f t h e s u b je c ts i n Groups 1 a n d IV .

Those i n Groups I I I an d VI e x p re ss e d th e m se lv e s i n q u ite a

d i f f e r e n t m anner.

T h e ir comments c o n s is te d o f , "How much lo n g e r does

t h i s go o n ? " , " I n e v e r was

any good a t t h i s s o r t o f s t u f f " , "This

g e ts w orse and w o rse " , an d so o n . The s u c c e s s o f t h e

a tte m p ts to b u i l d a f f e c t f o r t h e ta s k s i s

f u r t h e r d e m o n stra te d by th e b e h a v io r o f t h e s u b je c t* a f t e r t h e t a s k re q u ire m e n t w as c o m p le te d .

On t h e o r e t i c a l gro u n d s th e i n s t i g a t i o n

to perform t h e t a s k s t h a t r e s u l t e d from t h e e x p e c ta tio n o f p ay sh o u ld dro p o u t when t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s w ere f u l f i l l e d , s in c e w ork in g lo n g e r would n o t, p resu m ab ly , in c r e a s e t h e p a y .

W hatever i n s t i g a t i o n was

p ro v id e d by t h e t a s k i t s e l f w ould not necessarily d is a p p e a r a t t h a t tim e , how ever.

T h is i n t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t i o n t o approach t h e ta s k s was

e x p e c te d to b e p r e s e n t o n ly i n Groups I and IV .

They sh o u ld , t h e r e ­

f o r e , b e t h e o n ly o n e s t o w ork o v ertim e on th e t a s k s .

The d a ta on t h i s

p o i n t r e v e a l t h e f o llo w in g group m eans, i n o r d e r from I t o V I, i n term s o f t h e number o f f i v e seco nd p e r io d s t h e s u b je c ts worked on th e t a s k a f t e r t h e re q u ire m e n t had b e e n s a t i s f i e d : 2 .6 7 , 0 .0 0 .

7*06, .9 3 , 0 .0 0 , 3 7 .AO,

T hese d i f f e r e n c e s a re a l l r e l i a b l e e x c e p t t h a t betw een

Groups I I a n d V.

Groups I and IV , a s e x p e c te d , c o n tin u e d a t t h e t a s k

lo n g e r th a n t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s r e q u i r e d , v h i l e t h e s u b je c ts i n Groups I I I and VI s to p p e d a s soon a s th e y c o u ld .

T h is , t h e n , may b e ta k e n a s

a d d i t i o n a l p r o o f o f th e d e g re e and so u rc e o f t h e i n s t i g a t i o n t o ap p ro ach t h e t a s k s i n t h e s e g ro u p s.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

However, th e s u b je c ts i n Groups I I and V d id more th a n was re q iire d , to o . d ic a te d ,

A more c a r e f u l ex a m in a tio n o f th e s e groups i s i n ­

A good d e a l o f m r i a b i l i t y m ust have been p r e s e n t w ith in

th e s e g ro u p s, w ith p a r t o f t h e s u b je c ts p e rfo rm in g a c c o r d in g t o th e mean o f one o f t h e extrem e groups and t h e o th e r h a l f p erfo rm in g a c c o rd in g to t h a t o f t h e o t h e r ex trem e g ro u p .

R e fe re n c e to T a b le 2

w here t h e d a t a l b r t h e in d iv id u a l s u b je c ts a r e p r e s e n te d w i l l show th a t th is is tru e .

I n b o th I I an d V t h e s ta n d a rd e r r o r o f t h e mean

i s n o u g ily h a l f t h e mean w h ile f o r Group I I I i t i s o n ly one sev e n th and i n Group VI i t i s l e s s t h a n one f o u r t h .

Such la r g e v a r i a b i l i t y

✓

w ith in two g ro u p s t h a t a re n o t e x p ected t o be very d i f f e r e n t , even i d e a l l y , would p re c lu d e a r e l i a b l e d i f f e r e n c e betw een th e two means. However, t h e r e i s one more p o in t t o b e c o n s id e re d .

A lthough

th e d i f f e r e n c e betw een th e tw o g ro u p s i s n o t r e l i a b l e w ith e i t h e r t h i s o r any o f t h e o t h e r m easu res, e x a m in a tio n o f t h e com parisons betw een t h e s e two g ro u p s on a l l t h e p o i n t s m easured i n t h e co m p arativ e t a b l e on p a g e 34

w i l l show t h a t th e d i f f e r e n c e t h a t i s o b ta in e d i s con­

s i s t e n t l y i n t h e d i r e c t i o n n o t e x p e c te d b y t h e h y p o th e s is .

T hat i s ,

th e s u b je c ts i n Group I I , who a r e i n a d o u b le ap p ro a c h -a v o id a n c e c o n f l i c t s i t u a t i o n an d s h o u ld th e r e f o r e e x h ib it more re sp o n se t o t h e e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r a n d a l l o th e r m a n if e s ta tio n s o f b e h a v io r d is r u p ­ t i o n m en tio n ed th a n do th o se o f Group V who a r e i n a s in g l e sp p ro a c h av o ld an ce s i t u a t i o n , a c t u a l l y show l e s s o f t h e p r e d ic te d b e h a v io r .

But

s in c e i t has b een shown t h a t t h e a f f e c t was n ot alw ay s w hat was d e s ir e d i n th e s e m id d le g ro u p s, i t i s r e a s o n a b le to su p p o se t h a t , a s i n t h e c a s e o f t h e s u b je c t m en tio n ed in Group I I I , t h e a f f e c t m ight b e uneven f o r s u b je c ts i n Group I I .

That i s , a s u b je c t m ight l i k e one of t h e

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

ta s k s and n o t t h e o t h e r so t h a t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f g e t t i n g o u t o f a more d is a g r e e a b le ta s k by p erfo rm in g a l e s s d is a g r e e a b le one would make t h e s e le c t io n o f t h e l a t t e r e a s i e r th a n i t would h av e been w ith o u t such an i n c e n tiv e f o r c o n p le tin g i t .

T h e re fo re , t h e r e ­

sp o n se t o t h e p r e f e r r e d t a s k i n Group I I sh o u ld have o c c u rre d more r e a d i l y th a n t h e re sp o n s e t o t h e s in g le t a s k i n Group V, which by chance sh o u ld have b een t h e n o n - p r e f e r r e d ta s k a b o u t 50% o f t h e tim e . T hese c o n s id e r a tio n s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e d a ta fro m G roups I I and V do nob n e c e s s a r i l y c o n t r a d i c t t h e e x p e c ta tio n t h a t th e re sp o n s e t o th e e x t r in s i c i n s t i g a t o r o c c u r re d a s a f u n c tio n o f t h e d eg ree o f d i f f i c u l t y o f r e s o lu tio n of th e c o n f lic t. (2 )

The amount o f b lo c k in g .

The p r e d i c t io n s s t a t e d t h a t i n c a s e

th e c o n f l i c t was a t a l l s e v e r e t h e s u b je c ts would b lo c k , o r "do n o th in g " , a c e r t a i n amount o f t h e tim e b e fo re a ta s k was s e le c te d , and f u r t h e r t h a t t h i s do n o th in g b e h a v io r would o c c u r j u s t b e f o r e t h e s u b je c t s t a r t e d to wo ric on a t a s k and a f t e r h e had become u n a b le to resp o n d to any o f t h e e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r s .

B eh a v io r t a b u l a t e d a s b lo c k in g

in c lu d e d su ch t h i n g s as w a lk in g a b o u t t h e room w ith o u t a p p a re n t aim , s i t t i n g and drumming t h e f i n g e r s o n th e t a b l e , lo o k in g o u t o f t h e window a t n o th in g i n p a r t i c u l a r , e t c .

None of t h i s b e h a v io r c o u ld be

d e s c rib e d a s re s p o n s e s to e x t e r n a l s t i m u l a t i o n from o b je c t s i n t e n t i o n a l l y p ro v id e d a s e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r s .

The mean amount o f t h i s b e h a v io r f o r

th e s i x g ro u p s i n te rm s o f t h e number o f f i v e second p e r io d s s p e n t r e O sp o n d in g t o t h e s i t u a t i o n i n t h i s m anner i s p r e s e n te d i n T a b le 4 t o ­ g e th e r w ith t h e s ta n d a rd e r r o r o f t h e m eans. The means a r e , r e s p e c t i v e l y , 3 . The i n d iv id u a l d a t a f a r a l l m easu res a r e p r e s e n te d i n t a b l e s

com parable to t a b l e s 2 and 3 i n th e ap p e n d ix . t e x t m erely sum m arise.

The t a b l e s i n th e

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

? a b le 4 Com parison o f t h e group means w ith r e s p e c t t o th e m easures ta k e n b e fo re a ta s k was s t a r t e d \

Group M easure Response to e x trin s ic in s tig a to r

M

SD

M

SD

U

V

IV

III

II

I

SD

M

SD

M

VI SD

It

9 .7 3 0 .0 0 0 . 0 0 1 2 .6 0 6 .7 8 3 8 .8 0

SD 9 .0 0

0 .0 0 0 .0 0

8 . 0 0 4 .4 0

6 3 .7 3

Amount o f b lo c k in g

0 .0 0 0 .0 0

5 .1 3 2 .2 5

58179 15 .1 5

.1 3

.4 2

Amount o f d e la y

0 .0 0 0 .0 0 1 3 .2 0 7 .2 8 121.05 20.89

.1 3

.1 7 2 2 .4 0 9 .8 3 71.59 1 9 .0 2

Nunber cf o s c illa tio n s 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 betw een t a s k and i n s t i g a t o r M o tility

0 .0 0 0 .0 0

.2 8

3 .2 7

.6 8 0 . 0 0 0 .0 0

2 .2 7 ! . ! 7

1 3 .3 3

3 .1 8 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

.5 3

5 .4 0 4 .7 5 3 2 .2 6 1 2 .8 5

.4 6

1 .3 3

0 .0 4

3 .3 3 1 .6 7 1 1 .2 6

3 .3 6

.6 7

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

T ab le 5 R e l i a b i l i t i e s o f th e d if f e r e n c e s betw een th e means w ith r e s p e c t t o th e s e v e r a l m easures u se d

M easure Group

B lo c k in g

Delay

.967

.9 8 4

.957

.946

.9 6 8

R esponse t o E x tr in s ic

O s c i ll a t i o n

M o tility

I

-II

I

-III

> .9 9 9

.>.999

> .9 9 9

> .9 9 9

> .999

II -III

> .9 9 9

.999

> .9 9 9

.999

.998

.9 6 1

.9 1 2

.989

.940

.970

IV -VI

> .9 9 9

.989

.999

.995

.999

V -V I

.9 6 4

.9 7 0

.9 8 4

.8 5 8

.981

.6 1 6

.758

--------------

IV -V

I

^V

—

—

I I -V

.7 2 2

.5 0 0

.758

.6 1 6

.689

III-V I

.9 6 4

.9 1 2

.948

.9 8 8

.9 8 2

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

T able 6 The r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e o b ta in e d d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e v a rio u s re s p o n s e s m easured -------------------------- 1--------

Response Response t o e x t r i n s i c in s tig a to r Group

% in

X2

P

1 s t h a lf

M o tility

O s c illa tio n

%in

X2

P

2 nd h a l f

II

98

3 4 .5 8 < .0 0 1

III

71

1 5 7 .2 8

< .0 0 1

7 5 .5

U

63

2 5 .2 6

< .0 0 1

7 0 .0

VI

77

1 3 9.46

< .0 0 1

68

8 7 .5

6 .0 0

.1 0

3 0 .2 6 < .0 1

2

% in

X

P

2 nd

f

71

6 .3 6

.1 0

58 . 57 . 36

< .0 1

7 .0 0

.0 7

76

1 6 .2 9

< .01

1 3 .0 0

.0 3

70

29.50

< .0 1

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission

0 .0 0 , 5 .1 3 , 5 8 .7 9 ,

.1 3 , 5 .4 0 , mad 3 2 .2 6 .

The r e l i a b i l i t i e s o f t h e d if f e r e n c e s betw een t h e means p re s e n te d in T a b le 5 a r e a l l s a t i s f a c t o r y e x c e p t f o r th o s e betw een Groups I and IV a n d Groups I I and V.

The f i r s t p a i r was n o t ex p ected t o show a

d if f e r e n c e and t h e second p a i r h as b een d is c u s s e d b e f o r e .

The p re ­

d i c t i o n t h a t b lo c k in g w ould b e g r e a t e s t where th e c o n f l i c t i s p re ­ sumably m ost d i f f i c u l t t o r e s o lv e i s b o rn o u t. The f u r t h e r p r e d i c t i o n was made t h a t t h i s b e h a v io r would o ccu r when t h e s u b je c t h ad begun t o e x p e rie n c e a n x ie ty about n o t g e t t i n g th e ta s k s done, so t h a t he was u n a h le t o make f u r t h e r re s p o n s e s to th e o t h e r o b je c ts , b u t was s t i l l u n ab le t o make a c h o ic e .

T h is was r

t e s t e d by d i v i d i n g t h e p e r io d b e fo re a ta s k was s t a r t e d i n h a l f f a r each s u b je c t a n d d e te rm in in g th e amount o f tim e s p e n t re sp o n d in g t o t h e e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r s an d t h e amount o f tim e s p e n t b lo c k e d in each h a l f f o r each s u b je c t.

The o b ta in e d d i s t r i b u t i o n o f re s p o n s e

t o t h e e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r s and b lo c k in g b e h a v io r f o r each s u b je c t was compared w ith t h a t w hich would b e e x p e c te d by c h a n ce, assum ing a f i f t y - f i f t y d i s t r i b u t i o n a s c h a n c e , by t h e Chi sq u a re m ethod.

The C hi

sq u a re s f o r t h e in d iv id u a l s u b je c ts i n each group w ere added and t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t t h e t o t a l d if f e r e n c e was a r e a l one was found from a C h i sq u a re t a b l e .

The p r o b a b i l i t i e s a r e a l l l e s s th a n .0 0 1 t h a t t h e

d i s t r i b u t i o n , w hich conform ed t o e x p e c ta tio n s , was o b ta in e d b y c h a n c e . T hese d a t a a r e p r e s e n te d i n T a b le 6 .

The assu m p tio n t h a t t h e g r e a t e s t

amount o f b lo c k in g w ould o c c u r j u s t b e fo re a c h o ic e was made i s v e rifie d *

(q ) The amount o f d e la y b e fo re a choice was made.

I f th e amount

o f resp o n se to th e e x tr in s ic i n s t i g a t o r and th e amount o f b lo c k in g i n -

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

3*

c r e a s e d w ith in c r e a s e i n d i f f i c u l t y o f r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e c o n f l i c t th e n t h e t o t a l amount o f c h o ic e tim e s h o u ld h a re i n c r e a s e d a s w e l l . The mean number o f f i v e seco n d p e r io d s t h a t t h e s u b je c ts d ela y e d a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b le 4*

I t w i l l be n o te d t h a t th e s e m eans, i n

o r d e r , a r e : 0 .0 0 , 1 3 .2 0 , 1 2 1 .0 5 , 0 .1 3 , 2 2 .4 0 , an d 71*59*

The

d if f e r e n c e s a r e a l l r e l i a b l e a t t h e f i v e p e r c e n t l e v e l w ith t h e u s u a l e x c e p tio n s o f G roups I and IV and I I and V (T ab le 5)*

In

a d d i t i o n , f i v e o f t h e s u b j e c t s i n Group I I I an d two i n Group VI d e la y e d lo n g e r th a n 180 p e r i o d s , (1 5 m in u te s, t h e e s ta im te d tim e l i m i t ) an d t h r e e s u b je c ts i n Group I I I d e la y e d e x a c t ly 180 p e r i o d s . (A la r g e c lo c k was p la c e d i n th e zoom t o a i d t h e s u b je c ts i n t h e i r tim e e s t i m a t e s .)

The r e s u l t s o f t h i s d e la y w i l l be d is c u s s e d l a t e r .

T hese f i g u r e s show t h a t t h e p r e d i c t i o n ab o u t t h e in c r e a s e o f d e la y w ith i n c r e a s e o f re s p o n s e to e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r s and b lo c k in g was v e rifie d . (4 )

The am ount a n d tim e o f o c c u rre n c e o f o s c i l l a t i o n betw een

t h e c o n f l i c t s i t u a t i o n an d t h e e x b z ln s ic i n s t i g a t o r s .

The p r e d i c t i o n

was made t h a t when t h e a n x i e t y a b o u t n o t h a v in g s t a r t e d a t a s k h a d , p re su m a b ly , c r e a t e d a v o id a n c e t o t h e e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r s an d i n ­ c r e a s e d t h e i n s t i g a t i o n t o ap p ro a c h t h e t a s k s , a p o in t would be re a c h e d w here th e ap p ro ach and a v o id a n c e i n s t i g a t i o n t o t h e ta s k s and to th e e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r s w ould b e e q u al an d a c e r t a i n amount o f o s c i l l a ­ t i o n w ould o c c u r .

A lso , i t was p r e d ic t e d t h a t th e number o f t h e s e

o s c i l l a t i o n s w ould in c r e a s e w i t h th e nuntoer and s tr e n g th , o f t h e av o id ­ an ce i n s t i g a t o r s , s in c e such i n c r e a s e s would te n d to p r e v e n t i n ­ c r e a s i n g l y t h e c o m p le tio n o f ap p ro ach re s p o n s e s to th e ta s k s *

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission

39

D a ta o n t h e f i r s t p o i n t r e g a r d in g th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f th e o s c i l l a t i o n s , o r t e n t a t i v e a p p ro a c h e s t o th e ta s k s and to th e ex­ t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r s , w ere o b ta in e d by c o u n tin g th e number o f su c h o s c i l l a t i o n s i n t h e f i r s t and t h e second h a lv e s o f t h e d e la y p e r io d f o r e a c h s u b je c t, an d com paring t h e d a ta o b ta in e d w ith t h a t v h ic h would be e x p e c te d b y c h a n c e .

An o s c i l l a t i o n was c o u n te d i f t h e

s u b je c t ap p ro ach ed on e o f t h e t a s k s and re g a rd e d t h e a p p a ra tu s o r h a n d le d i t w ith o u t e i t h e r c o m p le tin g h a l f a t r i a l o r w orking on i t f o r more t h a n 30 se c o n d s, an d t h e n a p p ro a c h e d one o f t h e o th e r ob­ j e c t s and re g a rd e d o r h a n d le d i t w ith o u t p l a n .

F or exam ple, i f th e

s u b je c t had b e e n w orking on t h e j i g saw p u z z le , s to p p e d , approached th e m ir r o r draw ing an d h a n d le d t h e s ty l u s f o r 1 0 se co n d s, dropped i t , ap p ro ach ed t h e F lip p and f l i p p e d t h e h an d le o n ce o r tw ic e , w ent over t o t h e c a r d s o r t i n g and p ic k e d up a deck o f c a rd s f o r 5 se c o n d s, r e ­ tu r n e d t o t h e p u z z le f o r 1 0 se c o n d s, and f i n a l l y ap p roached t h e m ir r o r draw ing an d s t a r t e d t o work on i t , two o s c i l l a t i o n s w ould b e c o u n te d .

The m easurem ent o f o s c i l l a t i o n in v o lv e d sim p ly a c o u n tin g

of t h e number o f a l t e r n a t i o n s o f th e s e ttl M and " 2 " re s p o n s e s . When t h e C h i s q u a re s o f in d iv id u a l s u b je c ts were com bined by g ro u p s, t h e p r o b a b i l i t i e s t h a t th e d i f f e r e n c e s w hich were In th e ex­ p e c te d d i r e c t i o n s were due t o ch an ce w e re found t o b e .1 0 f o r Group I I , < .0 1 f o r G rorp I l l ,

.0 7 f o r Group V, an d .0 3 f o r Group V I.

The d is ­

t r i b u t i o n , t h e C hi s q u a re s and t h e r e l i a b i l i t i e s a r e p r e s e n te d i n T a b le 6 .

The r e l i a b i l i t i e s f o r Groups I I I and VI a r e s a t i s f a c t o r y .

Those f o r Groups I I and V a r e l e s s s o th a n i s d e s ir a b l e .

B u t, a s

p r e v io u s ly s t a t e d , w ith e q u a l i t y o f a p p ro a c h and av o id an ce i n s t i g a ­ t i o n t o t h e t a s k r e s p o n s e s , t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n i s e x p e c te d t o b e l e s s

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

clearL y d iv id e d .

These com parisons te n d t o confirm th e e x p e c ta tio n

of a c e r t a i n amount o f o s c i l l a t i o n betw een th e ta sk and th e e x tr in ­ s ic i n s t i g a t o r s j u s t before a ta s k i s chosen* According t o th e p r e d ic tio n s t h e o s c i l l a t i o n d e sc rib e d should occur b efo re th e b lo c k in g d isc u sse d in th e prev io u s s e c tio n .

The very

s h o rt tim e i n t e r v a l ifcich t h e e n ti r e t r a n s i t i o n to o k made confirm a­ t i o n o f t h i s p re d ic tio n im p o s sib le . a t about t h e same tim e .

Both ty p es o f resp o n se occurred

Also d is tin g u is h in g between th e p e rio d of

o s c i l l a t i o n between t h e ta s k s and t h e e x tr in s ic i n s t ig a t o r s and between t h e two ta s k s was n o t p o s s ib le in most c a s e s .

T herefore no

d a ta can b e p resen te d on th e s e p o in ts . D ata i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e second p o in t w ith r e g a r d t o o s c i l l a t i o n , nam ely t h a t i t sh o u ld be more f r e q u e n t when th e c o n f l i c t i s m ost d i f f i c u l t t o r e s o lv e , j u s t a s i s com plete b lo c k in g , a r e p re s e n te d in T ab le 4 a n d 5 .

The t o t a l number o f such o s c i l l a t i o n s i s n o t v e ry

la r g e b u t t h e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e i r i t h e e x p e c te d d i r e c t i o n , t h a t i s , th e y in c r e a s e a s t h e i n s o l u b i l i t y o f t h e c o n f l i c t was shown t o in ­ cre a se .

The means a r e 0 .0 0 , .5 3 , 3 .2 7 , 0 .0 0 , .6 7 , and 1*33.

The

d i f f e r e n c e s betw een th e means, e x c e p t t h a t betw een Groups I I and V, a re s a tis f a c to r ily r e lia b le .

The sm a ll number o f such re sp o n s e s ob­

ta i n e d i s u n d o u b ted ly due to t h e f a c t t h a t a good d e a l o f such sw inging from on e re sp o n se t o a n o th e r w ould ta k e p la c e i m p l i c i t l y i n s o p h is tic a te d s u b je c ts *

The a c t u a l g ro ss movements w ould b e e x p ected more f r e q u e n tly

i n a n im a ls and s m a ll c h i l d r e n . d a ta .

T h is view i s s u p p o rte d b y c o n p a r a tiv e

A nim als in su ch s i t u a t i o n s do a c t u a l l y move back an d f o r t h

( c f . M i l l e r , 1942, Brown, 1942, and K le b a n o ff,1 9 3 9 ). C h ild re n make head an d eye movements more f r e q u e n t l y th a n b o d i l y ones ( B a r k e r ,1942,

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

G odbeer,1940) and a d u lts i n some s i t u a t i o n s m erely bLock ( s e e Hovland and S e a rs, 1938)* (5)

M o tility a n d th e t-ima of i t s o c c u rre n c e .

I n th e

t h e o r e t i c a l d is c u s s io n i n C h a p te r I i t was deduced t h a t m o t i l i t y would in c r e a s e as th e r e s o lu tio n o f t h e c o n f l i c t became more d i f f i ­ c u l t , f o r th e re a so n t h a t a s a n x ie ty o v e r re sp o n d in g to one o f t h e e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r s b u i l t u p , t h e s u b je c t would le a v e t h a t , and i f th e i n h i b i t i o n o f t h e re sp o n s e t o th e c o n f l i c t s i t u a t i o n was s t i l l to o g r e a t, w ould be e x p e c te d , i n many c a s e s , t o go b y chance t o a n o th e r e x t r i n s i c o b j e c t . T a b le s 4 and 5 .

The d a ta on t h i s p o in t a r e p r e s e n te d i n

They w ere o b ta in e d by sim p ly c o u n tin g th e number o f

tim e s each s u b je c t sto p p e d d o in g one th in g and s t a r t e d t o do some­ th in g e l s e . and 11*26.

The means a r e , i n o r d e r , 0*00, 2 .2 7 , 13*33» 0 .0 0 , 3»33> The e x p e c ta tio n s o f i n c r e a s e w ith in c r e a s e i n s e v e r i t y

o f t h e c o n f l i c t a r e c o n firm ed , t h e o rd e r o f in c r e a s e s b e in g th e same as t h a t found i n t h e p re v io u s m easu res.

The r e l i a b i l i t i e s of

th e d if f e r e n c e s betw een th e means a r e p re s e n te d i n T a b le 5*

The

d i f f e r e n c e betw een Group I I I and Group VI i s n o t v e r y r e l i a b l e b u t what d i f f e r e n c e t h e r e i s i s i n t h e r i g h t d i r e c t i o n . I t was f u r t h e r deduced t h a t t h e g r e a t e s t m o t i l i t y would o ccu r to w ard th e end o f t h e d e la y p e rio d ih e n t h e a n x ie ty was b e g in n in g t o become e f f e c t i v e .

The d i s t r i b u t i o n was o b ta in e d as i n t h e c a s e o f th e

number o f o s c i l l a t i o n s above.

The amount o f m o t i l i t y was ta b u la te d

s e p a r a t e l y f o r t h e f i r s t and seco n d h a lv e s o f th e d e la y .p e rio d and th e d a t a o b ta in e d w ere com pared w ith chance e x p e c ta tio n s by t h e Chi s q u a re m ethod.

The Chi s q u a re s and t h e i r p r o b a b i l i t i e s a r e p r e s e n te d

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

i n T ab le 6 .

The d i s b r i b u t i o n w i l l b e s e e n t o b e s u f f i c i e n t l y

r e l i a b l e to w a rra n t a c o n c lu s io n f a v o r a b le to t h e h y p o th e s is . C h i s q u a re s f o r t h e groups a r e :

The

I I - .0 1 , I I I - 2 ,0 1 , IV - 2 .0 1 ,

an d VI - 2 .0 1 . A f te r a t a s k was begun So f a r t h e d is c u s s io n h a s b e e n con cern ed w ith t h e b e h a v io r b e f o re a t a s k was chosen and w ork s t a r t e d on i t .

Now t h e b e h a v io r

t h a t m ig h t b e e x p e c te d o n ce a ta s k was ch o sen and p a r t i a l l y com­ p l e t e d may be c o n s id e re d .

P o s i t i n g t h e g r a d ie n t o f ap p ro ach , th e

s u b je c ts i n Groups I and IV w ould be e x p e c te d t o c o n tin u e w orking a t t h e t a s k u n t i l c o m p le tin g i t .

D if f e r e n t b e h a v io r m ight w e ll b e

e x p e c te d fro m t h e s u b j e c t s who have shown p r e v io u s ly a c e r t a i n amount o f av o id a n c e o f t h e t a s k s and s t a r t e d work on one o n ly when t h e tim e l i m i t became d o s e .

Once th o s e s u b j e c ts who s t a r t e d w ith tim e

t o s p a r e have co m p leted a c e r t a i n amount o f t h e re q u ire m e n t, th e a n x ie ty sh o u ld d e c r e a s e .

S in c e t h e a p p ro a c h in g tim e l i m i t was t h e

c a u se o f t h e a d d i t i o n a l p r e s s u r e t h a t f o r c e d t h e s u b je c t t o choose a t a s k , t h e s u b je c t may b e s a i d t o have b e e n made s u f f i c i e n t l y a n x io u s to 'c h o o s e a f t e r a c e r t a i n tim e had e la p s e d .

I f a c h o ic e o c c u rre d

a f t e r f i v e m in u te s h a d e la p s e d , i t c o u ld b e s a id t h a t t h e s u b je c t was s u f f i c i e n t l y a n x io u s to ig n o r e h i s d i s t a s t e f o r t h e t a s k when he had two t h i r d s a g a in a s much tim e a s he n e ed ed .

A f te r he had w orked f o r

f i v e m in u te s he would have te n m in u te s m ore work t o do and tw e n ty m in u te s , o r tw ic e a s much tim e a s h e n e e d e d , i n w hich t o do i t . f o r e , h i s a n x ie ty s h o u ld d e c r e a s e .

T h ere­

I t i s p o s s ib le th a t a c tu a l p e r ­

form ance o f t h e t a s k h as made i t more d i s t a s t e f u l th a n e v e r , w hich w i l l

Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission

in c r e a s e t h e avo id an ce i n s t i g a t i o n t o i t , b u t t h a t assum ption i s n o t n e c e s s a ry t o t h i s d e d u c tio n .

I f i t i s assum ed t h a t i n t h e c a s e ,

o f such a s u b je c t t h e a n x ie ty was s tr o n g e r th a n t h e d i s t a s t e f o r th e t a s k o n ly whan t h e r a t i o o f tim e r e q u ir e d t o tim e a v a i l a b l e was 1 : 1*67 o r l e s s , th e n when t h e r a t i o became 1 :2 t h e a n x ie ty sh o u ld

drop enough to p erm it th e s u b je c t t o r e t u r n t o t h e e x t r in s i c re sp o n se s.

I n o t h e r w a rd s, th e summ ation o f t h e g r a d ie n t o f a v o id ­

an ce o f t h e t a s k s w ith t h a t o f approach t o t h e e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r s a g a in r e s u l t s i n e f f e c t i v e i n s t i g a t i o n t o make t h e e x t r in s i c r e ­ sp o n ses.

The s u b je c ts s h o u ld c o n tin u e t o re sp o n d t o th e o th e r in ­

s t i g a t o r s u n t i l t h e r a t i o o f tim e r e q u ir e d t o tim e a v a il a b le i s a g a in 1 :1 .6 7 , a t w hich tim e he s h o u ld r e t u r n t o th e c o n f l i c t .

T his

c o u ld b e r e p e a te d as lo n g as t h e r e was more th a n s u f f i c i e n t tim e to p erfo rm t h e t a s k s . Now assum ing f o r th e moment t h a t a v a ila b l e tim e i s e q u al f o r a l l s u b j e c t s , i t s h o u ld be e x p e c te d t h a t th e amount o f i n h i b i t i o n d ev elo p ed t o t h e c o n f l i c t i n g t a s k r e s p o n s e s , as m easured b y o r i g i n a l d e la y , d io u ld rem ain a f a c t o r i n w ith d ra w a l from t h e ta s k re sp o n se to t h e e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r s , o s c i l l a t i o n , and m o t i l i t y , once t h a t t a s k h a s been s t a r t e d .

T h a t i s , th o s e most i n h i b i t e d by th e c o n f l i c t

s i t u a t i o n d io u ld m ost f r e q u e n t l y ev id en ce t h e a b o v e ty p e s o f b e h a v io r a f t e r a s w e ll a s b e f o r e s t a r t i n g a t a s k .

I t w i l l b e r e c a l l e d from

T ab le 4 t h a t d e la y b e f o re s t a r t i n g was g r e a t e s t in Group I I I , n e x t i n Group V I, n e x t i n Groups V and I I , an d n o n - e x is ta n t in Groups I and IV .

I n T a b le 7 i t w i l l b e s e e n t h a t a v o id a n c e o f th e t a s k s ( 5 ) ,

re s p o n s e to t h e e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r s ( 6 ) , o s c i l l a t i o n ( 7 ) , and m o t i l i t y ( 8 ) r e s p e c t i v e l y , a lth o u g h a b s e n t i n Groups I an d IV , a r e

Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

g r e a t e s t i n Group \ I , n e x t i n Group I I I , and l e s s i n Groups V a n d I I . I n o t h e r w o rd s, i n s t e a d o f t h e c r d e r b e in g I I I , V I, V, I I , i t i s V I, I I I , V, I I , e x c e p t in t h e case o f o s c i l l a t i o n w here i t i s V I, I I I , I I , and V.

None c f th e d if f e r e n c e s b etw een Groups I I and V, I I and

I I I , o r I I I and V i s r e l i a b l e (s e e T a b le 8 ) . These d if f e r e n c e s a r e , n e v e r th e le s s , q u i t e i n l i n e w ith p r e ­ d i c t i o n when i t i s r e a l i z e d t h a t th e tim e a v a ila b le a f t e r s t a r t i n g t h e t a s k s was n o t t h e same f o r a l l s u b je c ts , a s was assumed f a r t h e p u rp o se s o f t h e d is c u s s io n .

Where t h e i n s o l u b i l i t y o f t h e c o n f l i c t

was v e ry g r e a t i t was t o be e x p e c te d t h a t some o f t h e s u b je c ts would d e la y s t a r t i n g u n t i l no more th a n en o u ^i tim e rem ained f o r c o m p le tin g th e ta s k .

I n t h e i r c a s e s t h e a n x ie ty c a u se d b y t h e tim e l i m i t c o u ld

n e v e r s u b s e q u e n tly d im in is h , b ec au se t h e r a t i o o f tim e a v a i l a b l e to tim e r e q u ir e d w ould re m a in e i t h e r 1 o r l e s s t h a n 1 . I t w i l l b e remembered t h a t th e r e were f i v e s u b je c ts i n Group I I I who d e la y e d lo n g e r th a n 180 p e r io d s an d t h r e e who d e la y e d j u s t 1 8 0 . T here were two who d ela y e d more th a n 180 p e r io d s i n Group V I.

The

o p p o r tu n ity to sto p w ork was th u s much g r e a te r i n Group VI th a n i n Group I I I an d t h e i n h i b i t i o n of t h e re sp o n se t o th e c o n f l i c t s i t u a t i o n was alm o st a s g r e a t .

T h e re fo re th e g r e a t e s t amount o f av o id an ce o f

th e t a s k s a f t e r one h as b een s t a r t e d and th e b e h a v io r t h a t h a s p r e ­ v io u s ly b ee n c o r r e l a t e d w ith a v o id a n c e , i s to be e x p ected in Group V I. I n G r o u p .I I I p a r t o f t h e s u b je c ts had tim e t o d e la y and p a r t h ad n o t. Those who d id have tim e sh o u ld have done so i f th e assu m p tio n s a b o u t t h e im p o rtan ce o f t h e tim e f a c t o r a r e c o r r e c t .

E xam ination o f t h e

d a ta r e v e a le d t h a t i n evexy c a s e (e x c e p t f o r one s u b je c t d is c u s s e d e a r l i e r ) f a i l u r e t o show av o id an ce i s c o r r e l a t e d w ith la c k o f tim e t o

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.



F a ja n s , S . (1933) S u c c e ss, p e r s i s ta n c e , and a c t i v i t y i n t h e i n ­ f a n t an d t h e s m a ll c h i l d . P sy c h o l. F o r s c h ., 1 2 , 268-305.

8.

G odbeer, E. (1940) F a c to rs in d u c in g c o n f l i c t i n t h e c h o ic e be­ h a v io r o f c h ild re n * Unpub. M a s te r 's t h e s i s . T a le U n iv e r s ity .

P s y c h o l. F o r s c h .,

9." Hov ia n d , C .I . and S e a rs , R.R. (193S) E xperim ents on m otor con­ f l i c t . I . Types o f c o n f l i c t and t h e i r modes o f r e s o lu ­ t i o n . J . e x p e r . P s y c h o l., 2 2 , 477-493. 10.

.

11

H u ll, G .L. (1932) The g o a l- g ra d ie n t h y p o th e s is and maze l e a r n i n g . P s y c h o l. R e v ., 2 2 , 25 -4 3 . (1934) The r a t ' s sp e e d o f lo co m o tio n g r a d ie n t i n approach to fo o d . J . comp. P s y c h o l., ! £ , 393-422.

12.

K le b a n o ff, S.G . (1939) E x p erim en tal a n a ly s is o f ap p ro ach -ap p ro ach and a v o id a n ce-av o id an ce c o n f l i c t . Unpub. U l s t e r 's t h e s i s , T a le U n iv e r s ity .

13.

Lew in, K. (1935) H ill.

Dynamic th e o r y o f p e r s o n a l i t y . New T ork: McGraw-

si

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

14. 15.

M il l e r , N.E. (1 9 3 7 / A n a ly s is of t h e form o f c o n f l i c t r e a c t i o n s . P sychol. B o il, 34. 720. . (1942) E x p e rim e n ta l s tu d ie s on c o n f l i c t i n Handbook o f P e re n w ^ l^ y a n d t h e B eh a v io r D is o rd e rs . McV. H unt, e d i t . , R onald ■ ’P l a i t i n g Go*

J.

16.

M ille r , N . E . , L ip o fsk y , H ., an d Broun, J . S . (1 9 4 0 ). A pproachav o id an ce c o n f l i c t a s a f u n c tio n o f s tr e n g th of d r iv e and p u n ish m en t, i n G e n e r a lis a tio n o f approach and av o id an ce re sp o n s e s in r e l a t i o n to c o n f l i c t b e h a v io r. Brown, Pft.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Y ale U n iv e r s ity ,

17.

S e a rs , R.R. an d H ovland, C .I . (1941) E xperim ents on m otor c o n f l i c t . I I . D e te rm in a tio n o f mode o f r e s o l u t i o n by co m p arativ e s tr e n g th s o f c o n f l i c t i n g re s p o n s e s . J . e x p e r. P s y c h o l., 28, 280-286.

18.

S e a rs , R .R . (1937) I n i t i a t i o n o f th e r e p r e s s io n sequence by ejqperiytenced f a i l u r e . J . e x p e r. P s y c h o l,, 20, 5 70 - 5 8 0 .

19.

(1 942j S u ccess and f a i l u r e . A s tu d y .o f m o t i l i t y i n S tu d ie s i n P e r s o n a lity c o n tr ib u te d i n honor o f Lewis Terma n . e d i t . McNemar an d M e r r i l l . New York: M cGraw-Hill.

permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

A ppendix A T ab les

-trvH-iH rfnal d a ta

■■ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

T able 1. Com parison o f m easures

group means w ith r e s p e c t t o th e i n t h e p r e lim in a r y p e r io d Group ........

11

I

III

.. .. .

V

IV

VI

SD

M

SD

M

SD

M

SD

M

R esponse to e x t r i n s i o 1 4 .5 4 in s tig a ­ to r

3 .7 7

12.00

3 .5 9

1 2 .6 0

4 .4 5

1 6 .2 7

4 .9 6

1 3 .2 9

3.29

1 3 .4 7 i

R esponse to card s o rtin g or m ir r o r draw ing

2 .0 7

1 .1 7

1 .9 7

1 .1 6

1.60 1.35

1 .9 7

1 .0 8

1 .8 0

1 .1 2

5.20 k

M o ti l i t y

7 .4 0

.22

7 .6 7

1 .0 9

7.06 1.24

7 .4 7 1 .4 8

7 .2 7

.9 7

7.20 3

Measure

M

SD

M

i !

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

R e l i a b i l i t i e s o f t h e d if f e r e n c e s betw een th e swans w ith r e s p e c t t o th e v a rio u s m easures used

M easure Group

Response t o Response t o c a r d e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r s o r t i n g o r m irro r

M o tili ty

I

-II

• 688

.523

.5 7 8

I

-III

.616

.558

.578

I

-IV

.523

.500

I

-V

.552

.539

I

-V I

.616

.752

.539

II -III

.539

.539

.652

I I -IV

.616

.500

.539

I I -V

.6 1 6

.539

.539

.752

.616

.539

.578

.500

.539

I I -V I III-IV

.539

III-V in -v i

.539

.781

.539

IV -V

.688

.539

.539

IV -V I

.653

.752

.539

V -VI

.616

.781

.500

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

T a b le 3 Amount o f "d o -n o th in g " o r b lo c k in g b e fo re a t& ak i s s e le c t e d

o b je c t

I

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Kean crm

0 0

Number of 5 second p e r io d s Group II 17 in 0 0 0 0 0 20 0 0 0 25 0 5 18 0 9 5 .1 3 2 .2 5

43 8 13 52 0 168 53 5 119 159 78 19 00 131 34 58.79 1 5 .1 5

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 .1 3 •42

V

VI

0 13 0 0 0 53 0 0 15 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 3 0 0 10 0 82 150 0 7 87 114 11 8 13

5 .4 0 4 .7 5

32.26 1 2 .8 5

T ab le 4

Group I l 'i - I III-I III-II II- III VI -IV V I* -II IV - I V -II I I I -VI

D iffe re n c e 5 .1 3 58.79 53.66 5 .27 3 2 .1 3 2 7 .8 6 .1 3 .1 7 2 6.53

° " D iff . 2 .2 5 1 5.15 1 5 .2 1 4 .7 7 12.87 1 3 .7 1 .4 2 5 .2 6 1 9 .8 5

t 2 .2 8 3 .8 8 3 .5 6 1 .1 3 2 .5 0 2 .0 3 .3 1 .0 3 1 .3 7

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

P .9 8 4 > .9 9 9 .999 .912 .989 .970 .616 .500 .9 1 2

TabU 3 m M t o f *8* — t b i n f * o r b lo c k in g b e fo re a task le iselected jfU b o r Sub.1 so t

I

11

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

0 0 0 c 0 c c 0 c c 0 0 0 0 0

0 c 0 0 0 20 0 0 0

11 12 13 14 15

0

Mean 0*ia

0

at

5 ■eeond p e r io d s dro o p

in 43 8

13

IV

V

VI

0 0 0 0 -0 0 0 0

0 13 0 0 0 53 0 0

0 3 0 0 10 0

0

15

0

52 0 168 53 5 119 159 78 19 0 131

9

34

0

5 .1 3 2 .2 5

58.79 1 5 .1 5

.1 3 .4 2

25 0 5 18

0 0 0 2

0

82

150 0

0 0 0 0 0 0

7 87 114 11 8 13 5 .4 0 4 .7 5

3 2 .2 6 1 2 .8 5

Table 4

Croup II -I 1 II-I 1 II-II II- III VI -IV VI - I I IV - I V -II III

-Y I

Difference 5 .1 3 58.79 53.** 5 .2 7 3 2 .1 3 27.86 .1 3 .1 7 2 6 .5 3

D if f 2 .2 5 1 5 .1 5 15.21 4 .7 7 1 2 .8 7 1 3 .7 1 .4 2 5 .2 6 1 9 .8 5

2 .2 8 3.88 3 .5 6 1 .1 3 2.50 2 .0 3 .3 1 .0 3 1 .3 7

.9 8 4 > .9 9 9 .999 .9 1 2 .989 .970

Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

.616 .500 .9 1 2

T a b le 5 Time e la p s i n g ' b e fo re s v fe je c ts began t a s k

S u b je c t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Mean

Cm

Number o f 5 second p e rio d s Group I ________ I I ________ I I I ________ IV________ V________ VI 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 80 0 0 0 48 0 5

0 .0 0 0 .0 0

0 27

168 18 23 204* 0 180 183* 22 191* 180 88 200* 23 147 184*

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0

1 3 .2 0 7 .2 8

121.05 20.89

0 .1 3 «,17

a

8 13 0 0 72 114 0 0 73 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 .4 0 9 .8 3

0 55 0 0 13 0 115 203* 0 111 191* 178 61 51 88 7 1 .5 9 1 9 .0 2

* Delay longer, th an 180 seconds. t

T able 6 D iffe re n c e s betw een groups w ith r e s p e c t to tim e e la p s in g b e fo re s u b je c ts began ta s k

Group

I I II IV IV V I II VI

-II -III -III -IV -VI -VI -IV -V -III

D if fe r e n c e 1 3 .2 0 1 2 1.05 1 0 8 .8 5 2 2 .2 7 7 1 .4 6 4 9 .1 0 0 .1 3 9 .2 0 4 8 .4 4

° D iff 7 .2 8 20.89 2 2 .1 3 9 .8 3 1 9 .1 0 21.48 0 .1 7 1 2 .2 4 2 8 .3 0

P

t 1 .8 1 5 .8 2 4 .9 2 2 .5 2 3 .7 4 2.29 0 .7 4 0*74 1 .7 1

.957 * .9 9 9 3**999 .989 .999 .9 8 4 .758 .7 5 8 .948

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

T ab le 7 Number o f ap p ro ach es to a ta s k b e f o r e one was s e le c t e d Number o f ap p ro ach es

Group III

IV

V

VI

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 2 0 3

5 7 2 5 0 0 6 2 6 1 1 3 2 1 8

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 5

0 0 0 0 2 0 2 4 0 0 4 4 0 1 0

.53 .2 8

3 .2 7 .69

0 .0 0 0 .0 0

.67 •46

1 .3 3 .0 4

S u b je c t

I

II

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0

Mean fa

T a b le 8 D if fe r e n c e s betw een groups w ith r e s p e c t t o t h e number o f ap p ro ach es to a t a s k b e fo re one was s e le c te d Group

II -I III-I III-II V -IV VI -IV VI -V V -II II I-V I

D if fe r e n c e .5 2 3 .2 8 2 .7 4 .6 7 1 .3 3 .6 7 .1 4 1 .9 4

®~Diff .2 8 .6 8 .7 4 .a .4 0 .6 1 .5 0 .79

t 1 .8 9 4 .8 1 3 .7 0 1 .6 3 3 .3 3 1 .1 1 .2 8 2 .5 4

P .946 ■S'.999 .999 .940 .995 .858 .616 ' .988

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

T able 9 Amount o f m o ti l it y b e fo re s u b je c ts began ta s k

Sub.i e c t

I

Number o f Changes Group III IV II

1 2 ' 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 U 15

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 0 1 11 0 11

26 2 5 30 0 3 26 6 27 10 9 13 3

Mean

0.00 0.00

2 .2 7 1 .1 7

V

VI

0 0 0 0 3 14 0 0 15 0 0 0 0 0 18

0 6 0 0 5 0 13 29 0 5 36 31 11

36

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

13.33 3.18

0.00 0 .0 0

3.33 1 .6 7

1 1 .2 6 3.36

A

A

28

T able 10 D iffere n ce between groups w ith re s p e c t to th e number o f changes i n a c t i v i t y b e fo re a ta s k was s e le c te d Group XI - I III-I III-II V -IV VI -IV VI -V V -II I II - V I

permission of

D iffere n ce

o ’D iff

2 .2 7 13.33 1 1 .0 6 3 .3 3 13.26 9.93 1 .0 6

2 .0 7

copyright o w n e , FX

1 .1 7 T.18 3 .3 8 1.67 4.43 4 .43 2 .0 4 4.62

1 .9 4 4 .1 9 3 .2 7 1.99 3 .33 2 .1 4 .52 .45

.968 ^ .9 9 9 .998 .970 .999 . .981 .689

r repr„ duotion prohibited w#hout ^

J

T ab le 11 Tims s p e n t away from t h e ta s k a f t e r once h a v in g s t a r t e d

S u b je c t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

a

9 .110

n 12 13 14 15 Mean ym

Number o f 5 second, p e r io d s Group II III IV

I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ,,00 0 ,,00

0 0 0 0 23 27 65 8 0 50 41 0 15 3 13 1 6 .3 3 4 .3 6

0 168 0 0 0 0

80

80 0 0 18 88 10 0 2 4 .2 6 1 3 .2 7

V

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0

0 38 0 12 9 100 0 12 0 32 0 49 0 21 3 1 8 .4 6 7 .1 0

VI 19 187 49 200 0 83 133 0 0 7 0 26 34 100 91 6 8 .4 8 1 5 .7 5

T a b le 12 D if f e r e n c e b etw een t h e groups w ith r e s p e c t t o tim e s p e n t a v o id in g t h e t a s k a f t e r s t a r t i n g Group II -I III-I III-H VI -IV VI -V V -IV IV - I V -II VI - I I I V -III

D if fe r e n c e 1 6 .3 3 2 4 .2 6

9 .8 3 6 8 .4 6

5 0 .0 0 1 8 .4 6 0 .0 0 2 .1 3

4 4 .2 0 5 .8 0

t

P

3 .7 5 1 .8 3 .7 0 4 .3 5 2 .9 0 2 .6 0

4 .3 6 1 3 .2 7 1 3 .9 6 1 5 .7 5 1 7 .2 7 7 .1 0

.999 .956 .7 5 4 * -.9 9 9 .996 .991

.2 6 2 .0 6 .3 8

8 .3 3 2 1 .4 6

.598 .970 .650

° P iff

1 5 .0 5

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

Number o f re sp o n s e s to t h e e x t r i n s i c in s tig a to rs a f t e r s ta r tin g a ta s k

S u b je c t

I

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Mean cm .

.

Number of 5 second p e r io d s Group II III IV 0 0 0 0 8 27 55 3 0 3 1 0 10 1 9

0 . 00 0 .0 0

7 .7 3 3 .8 6

V

0 94 0 0 0 0 0 50 0 0 8 0 22 8 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 12 0 0 4 61 0 4 0 30 0 39 0 21 0

1 2 .1 3 6 .4 4

0 .0 0 0.Q0,

1 1 .4 0 5 .5 8

VI 0 80 29 163 0 54 97 0 0 6 0 14 30 48 83 4 0 .2 6 1 0 ,8 7

T able 14 D if f e r e n c e betw een t h e g roups w ith r e s p e c t t o tim e s p e n t re s p o n d in g to e x t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r s a f t e r s ta rtin g

Group

II -I III-I III-II V -IV VI -IV VI -V V -II VI - I I I I II-V

D if fe r e n c e

**D iff

7 .7 3 1 2 .1 3 4 .4 0 1 1 .4 0 4 0 .2 6 2 8 .8 6 3 .6 7 2 8 .1 3 .7 3

3 .8 5 6 .4 1 7 .5 0 5 .5 8 1 0 .8 6 1 2 .2 0 6 .7 8 1 2 .6 2 8 .5 2

t 2 .0 1 1 .8 6 .29 2 .0 4 3 .7 0 2 .3 7 .5 5 2 .4 5 .0 8

P .970 .961 .616 .971 .999 .985 .700 .986 .500

Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

Ix

T ab le 15 Number o f o s c i l l a t i o n s between ta s k and ex­ t r i n s i c i n s t i g a t o r s a f t e r s t a r t i n g a ta s k Number o f o s c i l l a t i o n s Group II III

S u b je c t

I

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 3 0 0 0

Mean fa.

0 .0 0 0 .0 0

.3 3 .2 0

IV

V

VI

0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 1 1 3 0 1 3 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 3

.3 3 .1 4

0 .0 0 0 ,0 0

•86 .33

.2 7 .1 4

T a b le 16

D iffe re n c e between th e groups w ith re s p e c t to th e number of o s c i l l a t i o n s a f t e r a ta s k was s t a r te d Group II -I III-I III-II V -IV VI -IV VI -V V -II VI - I I I III-V

D if fe r e n c e

D iff

.3 3 .2 7

20 14

1 .6 4 1 .9 3

.942 .964

.27 .3 6 .59 .06 .5 3

14 33 36 24 36 20

1 .9 3 2 .6 1 1 .6 4 .2 5 1 .4 8 .3 0

.964 .991 .941 .597 .925 .616

.06

Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further

-

T able 17 , Amount o f m o t i l i t y a f t e r s u b je c t began ta s k

S u b je c t

I

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

11 12 13 14

-o

no

Mean

Unsere Partner sammeln Daten und verwenden Cookies zur Personalisierung und Messung von Anzeigen. Erfahren Sie, wie wir und unser Anzeigenpartner Google Daten sammeln und verwenden. Cookies zulassen