Authoritarian El Salvador : politics and the origins of the military regimes, 1880-1940 9780268023751, 0268023751, 9780268076993, 2013030743

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Authoritarian El Salvador

R E C E N T T IT L E S

FR O M T H E H E L E N

K ELL O G G

IN S T IT U T E

F O R IN T E R N A T IO N A L S T U D IE S Scott Mainwaring, series editor The University o f Notre D am e Press gratefully thanks the Helen Kellogg Institute fo r Inter­ national Studies fo r its support in the publication o f titles in this series.

Carlos Guevara Mann Political Careers, Corruption, a n d Impunity: Panama' Assembly, 1984—2 0 0 9 (2011)

Gabriela Ippolito-O’Donnell The Right to the City: Popular Contention in Contemporary Buenos Aires (2012)

Susan Fitzpatrick-Behrens The M aryknoll Catholic Mission in Peru, 1943—1989: Transnational Faith a n d Transfor­ mation (2012)

Barry S. Levitt Power in the Balance: Presidents, Parties, a n d Legislatures in Peru a n d Beyond (2012)

Sérgio Buarque de Holanda Roots o f B razil (2012)

José Murilo de Carvalho The Formation o f Souls: Imagery o f the Republic in B razil (2012)

Douglas Chalmers and Scott Mainwaring, eds. Problems Confronting Contemporary Democracies: Essays in Honor o f A lfred Stepan

(2012) Peter K. Spink, Peter M. Ward, and Robert H. Wilson, eds. Metropolitan Governance in the Federalist Americas: Strategies fo r Equitable a n d Integrated Development (2012)

Natasha Borges Sugiyama Diffusion o f Good Government: Social Sector Reforms in B razil (2012)

Ignacio Walker Democracy in Latin America: Between Hope a n d Despair (2013)

Laura Gómez-Mera Power a n d Regionalism in Latin America: The Politics o f M E R C O SU R (2013)

Erik Ching Authoritarian el Salvador: Politics a n d the Origins o f the M ilitary Regimes, 1880—1940

(2013) For a complete list of titles from the Helen Kellogg Institute for International Studies, see http://www.undpress.nd.edu

authoritarian el salvador Politics and the Origins o f the Military Regimes, 1880-1940

erik ching University o f Notre Dame Press Notre Dame, Indiana

Copyright © 2014 by University of Notre Dame Press Notre Dame, Indiana 46556 www.undpress.nd.edu All Rights Reserved Manufactured in the United States of America

Library o f Congress Cataloging-in-Publication D ata

Ching, Erik Kristofer. Authoritarian El Salvador : politics and the origins of the military regimes, 1880-1940 / Erik Ching. pages cm. — (From the Helen Kellogg Institute for International Studies) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-268-02375-1 (pbk.) — ISBN 0-268-02375-1 (paper) — ISBN 978-0-268-07699-3 (e-book) 1. El Salvador— History— Revolution, 1932. 2. El Salvador— History— 1838—1944. 3. Authoritarianism—El Salvador— History. 4. Military government—El Salvador— History— 20th century. I. Title. F1487.5.C54 2013 972.8405'2— dc23 2013030743

oo T h e paper in this book m eets the guidelines fo r perm anence a n d durability o f the C om m ittee on P roduction G uidelines fo r B ook Longevity o f the C ouncil on Library Resources.

To J A C K a n d D A V I D

c o n t e n t s

L ist o f T ables L ist o f A c ro n y m s a n d A b b re v ia tio n s A c k n o w le d g m e n ts M aps

ix xi xiii xviii 1

In tro d u c tio n

CHAPTER

1

T h e R ules: F o rm a l a n d In fo rm a l

35

CHAPTER

2

N a tio n a l-L e v e l N e tw o rk s in C o n flic t in

77

th e N in e te e n th C e n tu r y CHAPTER 3

B u ild in g N e tw o rk s a t th e L ocal Level

101

CHAPTER 4

M u n ic ip a l E le c tio n s a n d M u n ic ip a l A u to n o m y ,

139

ca. 1 8 8 0 -1 9 3 0 CHAPTER

5

T h e N e tw o r k o f th e S tate: M e lé n d e z -Q u iñ ó n e z ,

173

1 9 1 3 -1 9 2 6 CHAPTER

6

F acin g th e L e v ia th a n : P ío R o m e ro B o sq u e

208

a n d th e E x p e rim e n t w ith D em o c racy , 1 9 2 7 -1 9 3 1 CHAPTER 7

P o litics u n d e r th e M ilita ry R e g im e , 1 9 3 1 -1 9 4 0

24 6

CHAPTER

P o p u list A u th o rita ria n is m , 1 9 3 1 -1 9 4 0

28 7

8

C o n c lu s io n

33 6

Appendix Notes Bibliography Index

35 7 369 437 453

a c r o n y m s

a n d

a b b r e v i a t i o n s

AGN

A rc h iv o G e n e ra l d e la N a c ió n , S an S alvador, El S alv ad o r

AGS

A rc h iv o d e G o b e rn a c ió n S o n so n a te , El S alv ad o r

AMI

A rc h iv o M u n ic ip a l d e Izalco, E l S alv ad o r

AMJ

A rc h iv o M u n ic ip a l d e Ju a y ú a , E l S alv a d o r

AMS

A rc h iv o M u n ic ip a l d e S o n so n a te , E l S alv ad o r

ARENA

A lia n z a R e p u b lic a n a N a c io n a lis ta (N a tio n a lis t R e p u b lic a n A llia n ce )

CN

C o le c c ió n d e N u lo s

FA

F o n d o A lca ld ía

FO

F o re ig n O ffice

FRTS

F e d e ra c ió n R e g io n a l d e T ra b a ja d o re s S alv a d o re ñ o s (R eg io n al F e d e ra tio n o f S a lv a d o ra n W o rk e rs)

FW TP

F re d e ric k W illia m T ay lo r P apers, U C L A D e p t. o f S pecial C o lle c tio n s

IF C

Ism ae l F u e n te s C o lle c tio n

MG

M in is te rio d e G o b e rn a c ió n

ORDEN

O rg a n iz a c ió n D e m o c rá tic a N a c io n a lis ta (N a tio n a lis t D e m o ­ cra tic O rg a n iz a tio n )

PB

“P re -B u rn ” C o lle c tio n

PCN

P a rtid o

d e C o n c ilia c ió n N a c io n a l (N a tio n a l C o n c ilia tio n

Party) PCS

P a rtid o C o m u n is ta S a lv a d o re ñ o (C o m m u n is t P a rty o f E l S alv ad o r)

PND

P a rtid o N a c io n a l D e m o c rá tic o (N a tio n a l D e m o c ra tic P arty)

PRO

P u b lic R e c o rd O ffice, L o n d o n , E n g la n d

PRU D

P a rtid o R e v o lu c io n a rio d e U n ific a c ió n D e m o c rá tic a (R e v o lu ­ tio n a ry P a rty o f D e m o c ra tic U n ific a tio n ) xi

xii Acronyms and Abbreviations RG RGASPI SI SRI SS SSV U SN A W NRC

R ecord G roup Russian State A rchive o f Social and Political H istory, M oscow , Russia Sección Indiferente Socorro R ojo Internacional (International Red A id) Sección Sonsonate Sección San V icen te U nited States N ation al Archives, W ashington, D C W ashington N ation al R ecord Center, Suitland, M aryland

a c k n o w l e d g m e n t s

A n y p ro je c t in th e w o rk s as lo n g as th is o n e w ill in v a ria b ly a c c u m u la te m u c h in d e b te d n e ss. A s I ta k e th is o p p o r tu n ity to c o n s id e r th e d e b ts I h av e ac c ru e d a lo n g th e way, I fin d it p e rso n a lly h u m b lin g a n d p ro fe ssio n a lly e y e -o p e n in g to realize th e a m o u n t o f s u p p o r t fro m in d iv id u a ls a n d in s ti­ tu tio n s th a t is n ec essary to b r in g a p ro je c t lik e th is to fru itio n . R e se a rc h ­ in g , w ritin g , a n d rev isin g are so lita ry effo rts, b u t th e y o n ly o c c u r b ec au se o f h ig h ly co llectiv e n e tw o rk s o f s u p p o rt. In a reverse c h ro n o lo g y , I o p e n w ith th o se w h o m o s t re c e n tly h e lp e d to m a k e th is p o ssib le. T h e first is m y h o m e in s titu tio n , F u rm a n U n iv e r­ sity, w h ic h g ra n te d m e a y e a rlo n g sa b b a tic a l a w a rd fo r 2 0 1 1 —2 0 1 2 th a t m a d e tim e availab le fo r th e fin al r o u n d o f rev isio n s. S in c e c o m p le tin g th e in itia l v ersio n o f th is m a n u s c r ip t as a d iss e rta tio n a t th e U n iv e rsity o f C a li­ fo rn ia , S a n ta B a rb a ra, in 1997, I h av e w o rk e d ste a d ily b u t in te r m itte n tly over th e years o n rev isin g it in to a b o o k . M e a n w h ile , I w as d ra w n in to v ario u s o th e r p ro je c ts o n S a lv a d o ra n h isto ry . In fact, I w as e m b a rk in g o n y e t a n o th e r o f th o se fo r m y sa b b a tic a l w h e n S c o tt M a in w a rin g , e d ito r o f th e series in w h ic h th is b o o k is b e in g p u b lis h e d , c o n ta c te d m e to tell m e h e h a d b e e n w o rk in g o n a n e w s tu d y in c o m p a ra tiv e p o litic s, a n d E l S al­ v a d o r w as o n e o f h is cases. H e su g g e ste d I s u b m it m y w o rk to th e U n iv e r­ sity o f N o tr e D a m e Press. As a resu lt, I d ire c te d a p o r tio n o f m y sa b b atical leave to w ard s c o m p le tin g th e rev isio n s to th is p ro je c t. I w o u ld lik e to th a n k S c o tt fo r h is s u p p o r t a n d fo r e n c o u ra g in g m e to set asid e a n o th e r n e w en d e a v o r a n d fo cu s o n th is o n e. T h e research fo r th is p ro je c t w as d o n e u n d e r th e au sp ices o f v ario u s in s titu tio n s a n d o rg a n iz a tio n s. T h e A lb e rt J. B e v erid g e G ra n t fo r R esearch in th e H is to r y o f th e W e ste rn H e m is p h e re fro m th e A m e ric a n H isto ric a l A sso c iatio n fu n d e d m y e x p lo ra to ry trip to th e S a lv a d o ra n archives. T h e

xiii

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A ckn o w led g m en ts

s u b s e q u e n t y e a rlo n g tr ip w as m a d e p o ssib le b y a F u lb rig h t g ra n t, w h ic h also in c lu d e d trip s to M o sc o w a n d L o n d o n . T h e w ritin g o f th e in itia l v e r­ sio n o f th is study , m y d iss e rta tio n , w as d o n e w ith g ra n t s u p p o r t fro m th e h is to ry d e p a r tm e n t a n d th e g ra d u a te d iv isio n a t U C S a n ta B a rb a ra, a n d fro m th e A c a d e m y fo r E d u c a tio n a l D e v e lo p m e n t. A ll o f th e p u b lic a tio n p ro je c ts th a t I h av e u n d e r ta k e n sin c e a rriv in g at F u rm a n h av e in fo rm e d th is p ro je c t a n d m a d e it b e tte r a n d m o re c o n te x tu ­ alized. T h u s , th e rese arch e n d e a v o rs fo r th o se p ro je c ts are s o m e w h a t sy n ­ o n y m o u s w ith th is o n e. F u lb rig h t, o n c e ag ain, s u p p o r te d a n e x te n d e d research tr ip to El S alv a d o r in 2 0 0 5 , a n d th e R e sea rch a n d P ro fessio n al G ro w th C o m m itte e a t F u rm a n h as fu n d e d m u ltip le s h o r t- te r m trip s to El S alv ad o r sin c e m y arriv al in 1998. A g ra n t fro m th e A sso c iate d C o lleg es o f th e S o u th ’s (A C S) F a c u lty R e n ew a l P ro g ra m fu n d e d a rese a rc h tr ip to El Salvador. F o llo w -u p rese a rc h in M o sc o w w as m a d e p o ssib le b y th e A C S ’s G lo b a l P a rtn e rs P r o je c t-C e n tr a l E u ro p e a n d R u ssia T ask Force. M y p a rtic ip a tio n o n F u rm a n ’s L a tin A m e ric a s tu d y a b ro a d p ro g ra m h as also b e e n a v alu a b le asset to th is p ro je c t. B e tw e e n 2 0 0 4 a n d 2 0 1 2 , it k e p t m e r e tu r n in g to El S alv a d o r m o re o r less a n n u a lly . W h ile m y m issio n o n th o s e p ro g ra m s w as to te a c h s tu d e n ts , th e n ec essity o f c re a tin g o p p o r ­ tu n itie s fo r th e m p ro v id e d m e w ith m a n y u n e x p e c te d c o n ta c ts a n d re ­ search th re a d s th a t I la te r fo llo w e d o n m y ow n . I e x te n d special th a n k s to H e c to r L in d o -F u e n te s , m y c o a u th o r o n

M odernizing M in d s in E l Salvador a n d Rem em bering a Massacre in E l Sal­ vador. H e h as b e e n w ith m e sin c e th e s ta rt o f m y g ra d u a te career a n d h as b e e n a c o n tin u a l s o u n d in g b o a rd a n d so u rc e o f s u p p o rt. So to o h as K n u t W alter, h is to ria n o f E l S alvador, w h o m I first m e t o n m y in itia l research tr ip to El S alv ad o r in 1993. I w o u ld n o t h a v e m a d e it th is far w ith o u t th e tw o o f th e m . I w o u ld also lik e to th a n k o th e r sch o lars, m o s t o f th e m S alv a d o ra n ists, w h o h av e h e lp e d m e a lo n g th e w ay as c o lla b o ra to rs, c o m m e n te rs , s o u n d ­ in g b o ard s, o r rese arch c o m p a n io n s , in c lu d in g A ld o L a u ria -S a n tia g o , V ir ­ g in ia Tilley, M ic h a e l S ch ro e d e r, C a rlo s G re g o rio L ó p ez B e rn a l, P au l A lm e id a, Je ff G o u ld , E lle n M o o d ie , B ra n d t P ed erso n , A lfre d o R am írez , M a ría E u g e n ia L ópez, A ld o G a rc ía G u e v a ra , R afael L a ra -M a rtín e z , C a rlo s H e n r íq u e z C o n sa lv i, L eig h B in fo rd , B o b H o ld e n , H e n r ik R o n sb o , Ja n S uter, P atric ia A lv are n g a V e n u to lo , Ja m es M a h o n e y , H é c to r P érez B ri-

A c k n o w led g m en ts

xv

g n o li, a n d R e n é A g u ilu z . T h a n k s also to m e m b e rs o f m y d iss e rta tio n c o m m itte e — S a ra h C lin e , F e rn a n d o L ó p ez A lves, a n d R o b e rt C o llin s— a n d to G e ra ld H o rn e , fo rm e rly o f th e B lack S tu d ie s D e p a r tm e n t a t U C S B . M y fello w h is to ria n s in th e h is to ry d e p a r tm e n t at F u rm a n U n iv e rsity hav e b e e n as m u c h frie n d s as co lleag u es. T h e y h a v e c re a te d a n u r tu r in g p ro fe ssio n a l e n v iro n m e n t a n d h av e b e e n n o th in g b u t e n c o u ra g in g , o fte n ­ tim es p ic k in g u p th e slack w h e n I w as a b ro a d , o n fa m ily leave, o r clois­ te re d aw ay in m y office. T h e y h a v e p ro v id e d m e w ith in te lle c tu a l in sig h ts a n d s tim u la te d m a n y id e as a n d c o n c e p ts th a t h a v e c o n trib u te d to th is s tu d y a n d to th e o th e rs I h av e w o rk e d o n . I a m g ra te fu l to b e p a r t o f th e ir c o m m u n ity . M a n y o f m y n o n - h is to r ia n co lleag u es h e re at F u rm a n h av e b e e n eq u a lly h e lp fu l in a n in te rd is c ip lin a ry c o n te x t. T h e tw o a n o n y m o u s review ers w h o e v a lu a te d th e m a n u s c r ip t fo r U N D Press offered ex c ellen t su g g e stio n s. R ev iew er # 1 , in p a rtic u la r, p r o ­ v id e d th e m o s t c o m p re h e n siv e rev ie w I ’ve ever seen , o r w ritte n , fo r th a t m a tte r. I a m p a rtic u la rly a p p re c ia tiv e o f th a t rev ie w er’s a tte n tiv e n e ss to a n d s u p p o r t fo r th e m a n u s c rip t. T h e a c q u isitio n s e d ito r a t U N D Press, S te p h e n L ittle, h as b e e n g rac io u s a n d e n c o u ra g in g th r o u g h o u t th e p u b li­ c a tio n process. I th a n k K ellie H u ltg r e n fo r h e r carefu l w o rk in c o p y e d it­ in g . I a m esp ecially g ra te fu l to d esig n e r B ria n F a u lk e n b e rry o f F u rm a n U n iv e rsity ’s M a rk e tin g D e p a r tm e n t fo r c re a tin g a n d rev isin g th e m a p s fo r th is b o o k . A h is to ria n is u tte rly re lia n t o n arch iv es a n d th u s eq u a lly d e p e n d e n t u p o n arch iv e a n d lib ra ry staffs. I ’ve b e e n in v a ria b ly im p re sse d b y th e sta ff m e m b e rs I h a v e w o rk e d w ith across m u ltip le c o n tin e n ts , b u t especially th o se in El Salvador, w h o la b o r u n d e r adverse c o n d itio n s b u t w h o h av e alw ays b e e n g rac io u s a n d eager to assist m e . T h e sta ff m e m b e rs a t th e n a ­ tio n a l arch iv e (A rch iv o G e n e ra l d e la N a c ió n , o r A G N ) in E l S alvador, in p a rtic u la r, hav e h a d to e n d u re m e o n m u ltip le o ccasio n s, b u t especially fo r th a t lo n g year in 1994 a n d 1995 w h e n I w as a fix tu re in th e b u ild in g n e a rly every day, fro m o p e n in g u n til clo sin g . O u r p h y sic a l s u rro u n d in g s w ere less th a n id eal, a n d th e arc h iv e w as still in s o m e th in g o f a sh a m b le s, b u t th e y p a tie n tly n e g o tia te d m e as th e y w e n t a b o u t th e ir b u sin e ss o f b r in g in g o rd e r to th e ch a o s a ro u n d th e m . S o, to M ig u e l A n g el, Isabella, M a ria E u g en ia , L uís, M a u ric io , Sebas, a n d so m e o th e rs w h o m I a m u n ­ d o u b te d ly o v e rlo o k in g , I e x te n d m y h e a rtfe lt th a n k s. I also w o u ld lik e to

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ac k n o w led g e th e a d e p t assistan ce o f S v etla n a R o s e n th a l in th e C o m in te rn A rch iv e in M osco w , R ussia. S h e w as g rac io u s a n d a c c o m m o d a tin g . A lso, th e lib ra ry sta ff a t F u rm a n U n iv e rsity h as b e e n n o th in g b u t s u p p o rtiv e in h e lp in g m e w ith m y se e m in g ly u n e n d in g re q u e sts fo r a rc a n e a n d h a rd -to fin d so u rces over th e p a st fiftee n years. A ld o L a u ria -S a n tia g o , P a tric ia A lv are n g a V e n u to lo , a n d I u tiliz e d th e archives in El S alv a d o r a t a d is tin c t m o m e n t, th e la te 1 9 80s a n d early 1990s, w h e n th e archives w ere o p e n e d to th e p u b lic fo r th e first tim e a n d th e sta ff m e m b e rs w ere still ta k in g s to c k o f th e m o n u m e n ta l ta sk o f o rd e r­ in g a n d p ro te c tin g th e n a tio n ’s d o c u m e n ta ry p a trim o n y . S till, th e y g ra n te d us g racio u s a n d lib e ra l access to th e m a te ria ls. W i th o u t th a t lib e ra l access, th is p ro je c t w o u ld n e v e r h av e b e e n p o ssib le. As I d e sc rib e in m o re d e ta il in th e in tr o d u c tio n , I w as ab le to sift th r o u g h every p a g e o f d o c u m e n ta tio n in th e G o b e rn a c ió n c o lle c tio n , a lo n g w ith o th e r c o lle c tio n s in n a tio n a l, reg io n a l, a n d m u n ic ip a l archives. A s tre n g th o f th is p ro je c t is th e e x te n t to w h ic h its co n c lu sio n s are b a se d o n a c o m p re h e n siv e su rv ey o f th e e x ta n t d o c u m e n ta ry rec o rd . A ccess to th e m a te ria ls is n o w m o re stric t a n d c o n ­ tro lle d , as it s h o u ld b e. B u t w ith o u t a sim ila r d eg ree o f access, esp ecially in th e ab sen c e o f d e ta ile d in d ic e s a n d h ig h levels o f o rg a n iz a tio n in th e c o l­ le ctio n s, re c re a tin g th is rese a rc h w o u ld b e, I believe, n e x t to im p o ssib le , especially fo r a so lita ry researcher. I w o u ld like to th a n k Ja c k B e rm in g h a m a n d D a v id R o ck , m y u n d e r ­ g ra d u a te a n d g ra d u a te ad v iso rs respectively. Ja c k trig g e re d m y d esire to teach , a n d h e h as sin c e s u p p o r te d m e m o re tim e s th a n I ca n c o u n t. D a v id n ev e r p la n n e d to h av e a S a lv a d o ra n ist u n d e r h is tu te la g e , b u t h e e n d u re d m e p a tie n tly a n d s u p p o r te d m e avidly. In re c o g n itio n , I d e d ic a te th e b o o k to th e m . I w o u ld n o t b e w ritin g th e se w o rd s w ith o u t fa m ily a n d frie n d s. As to th e latter, m o s t o f th e m w o u ld n o t care o n e w ay o r th e o th e r i f I m e n tio n th e m in w ritin g , so fo r th e sak e o f sim p licity , I w ill sim p ly say, th a n k s, y o u k n o w w h o y o u are. A s to th e fo rm e r, m y p a re n ts H a r rie tte a n d W o o d y , m y sister N issa, a n d m y in -la w s M a tt a n d C a ro l a n d R o b a n d Ja im e h av e b e e n th e re to h e lp o u t so m u c h , I c a n n o t even b e g in to d o th e m ju stic e in w o rd s. A n d last b u t n o t least, m y w ife C a th y a n d m y c h ild re n , A n d e rs a n d H alle: th e y are m y fo u n d a tio n o f s u p p o rt, a n d , n a tu ra lly , th e y h a d to deal w ith m y se lf-se q u e ste rin g m o re th a n a n y o n e else. *

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xvii

S m all p o rtio n s o f c h a p te rs 6, 7 , a n d 8 h a v e b e e n p u b lis h e d p reviously, a n d th e y re a p p e a r in th e p re s e n t w o rk w ith p e rm issio n o f th e resp e ctiv e p u b ­ lishers: “In S earch o f th e P arty: C o m m u n is m , th e C o m in te rn a n d th e R e b e l­ lio n o f 1932 in El S alv ad o r.” The Americas 55, n o . 2 (1 9 9 8 ): 2 0 4 —3 9 . R e­ p r in te d w ith p e rm issio n o f The Americas. “In d ia n s, th e M ilita ry a n d th e R e b e llio n o f 1 9 3 2 in El S alv ad o r,” b y E rik C h in g a n d V irg in ia Tilley, Journal o f Latin American Studies 3 0 , n o . 1 (1 9 9 8 ): 1 2 1 - 5 6 . R e p rin te d w ith p e rm issio n o f C a m b rid g e Jo u rn a ls. M a te ria l fro m Modernizing Minds in El Salvador: Education Reform

and the Cold War, 1960—1980, b y H é c to r L in d o -F u e n te s a n d E rik C h in g , © 2 0 1 2 , is u se d a n d re p r in te d b y p e rm issio n o f th e U n iv e rsity o f N e w M e x ico Press. M a te ria l fro m “ P a tro n a g e a n d P o litic s u n d e r M a rtín e z , 1 9 3 1 - 3 9 : T h e L ocal R o o ts o f M ilita ry A u th o rita ria n is m in El S alv ad o r,” b y E rik C h in g , fro m Landscapes o f Struggle: Politics, Society and Community in El Salvador, e d ite d b y A ld o L a u ria a n d L eig h B in fo rd , © 2 0 0 4 , is u se d a n d re p r in te d b y p e rm issio n o f th e U n iv e rsity o f P itts b u rg h Press.

HONDURAS

Map 1. El Salvadors Fourteen Departments and Their Capital Cities (Contemporary)

1824

1852

M ap 2.

con tin u ed

1869

M ap 2.

con tin u ed

introduction

O n D e c e m b e r 2, 1931, E l S a lv a d o r’s civ ilian p re sid e n t, A rtu ro A ra u jo , w as d e p o s e d in a q u ic k ly ex e c u te d m ilita ry co u p . H e w as re p la c e d b y his vice p re sid e n t, G e n e ra l M a x im ilia n o M a rtín e z .1 A t th e tim e , th e 1931 c o u p se e m e d u n e x c e p tio n a l. El S alv a d o r a n d its n e ig h b o rin g c o u n trie s h a d e x p e rien c e d p le n ty o f co u p s, a n d m a n y m ilita ry officers h a d serv ed as p re sid e n t. In h in d s ig h t, th e 1931 c o u p w as a w a te rsh e d in S a lv a d o ra n h is­ tory. A rtu ro A ra u jo h a d b e e n elec ted in a rela tiv e ly free a n d fair e lec tio n , th e first o f its k in d in E l S alvador. S ix ty years w o u ld pass b e fo re d e m o c ra c y re tu r n e d to E l S alvador. U n b e k n o w n s t to a n y o n e a t th e tim e , th e M a r ­ tín e z reg im e w o u ld u sh e r in five d ecad es o f d ic ta to ria l m ilita ry ru le , th e lo n g e st r u n o f u n in te r r u p te d m ilita ry ru le in L a tin A m e ric a n h isto ry . T h a t series o f m ilita ry reg im es w as fo llo w e d b y tw elv e years o f d e v a sta tin g civil w a r b e tw e e n 1980 a n d 1992. N o t u n til afte r th e w a r d id d e m o c ra c y re tu r n to El S alvador, a n d o n ly th e n b ec au se th e w a r c a u se d th e m ilita ry to b e re s tru c tu re d a n d th e p o litic a l sy stem to b e re fo rm e d . T h e M a rtín e z re g im e exem plifies a n a u th o rita ria n tr a d itio n in El S al­ v ad o r. H e w as a ste rn , e so te ric m a n , a n d h is a d h e re n c e to th e o s o p h y g a r­ n e re d h im th e n ic k n a m e E l brujo (th e w itc h o r so rce re r). H e e n d e d th e n a s c e n t e x p e rim e n t w ith d e m o c ra c y a n d u se d sta te p o w e r to v io le n tly s u p ­ press p o p u la r d isse n t. T h e m o s t e x tre m e ex a m p le o f h is re g im e ’s repressive ch a ra c te r ca m e in re sp o n se to a p e a s a n t u p ris in g in th e w e ste rn zo n e s o f

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Authoritarian El Salvador

th e c o u n try in J a n u a ry 19 3 2 , ju s t six w eek s afte r h e ca m e to pow er. D u r ­ in g th e u p risin g , p e a sa n t rebels a tta c k e d ro u g h ly o n e d o z e n to w n sh ip s, k illed a p p ro x im a te ly o n e h u n d r e d p e o p le , a n d d a m a g e d a v a rie ty o f b u s i­ nesses a n d resid e n ce s o w n e d b y lo cal elites. I n resp o n se , g o v e rn m e n t so l­ d iers sw ep t th r o u g h th e w e ste rn c o u n try sid e , k illin g u n to ld th o u s a n d s o f p eo p le, so m e tim e s in h ig h ly o rc h e s tra te d m ass ex e cu tio n s. T h e k illin g s o f 1932 w o u ld p ro v e to b e o n e o f th e w o rs t ep iso d es o f sta te -sp o n so re d re ­ p ressio n in m o d e rn L a tin A m e ric a n h isto ry . I n v ario u s w ays, th e ev en ts s u r ro u n d in g G e n e ra l M a rtin e z ’s rise to p o w e r a n d th e 1 9 3 2 u p ris in g ex­ e m p lify El S alv a d o r’s w e ll-e a rn e d re p u ta tio n as a n a tio n lo n g o n a u th o ri­ ta ria n is m a n d s h o r t o n dem o cracy . T h e c o m p e llin g a n d tra g ic ev e n ts o f th e la te 1920s a n d early 1 9 30s in El S alv ad o r in s p ire d q u e s tio n s th a t le d to th is study. W h a t w ere th e o rig in s o f th e M a rtín e z regim e? H o w d id th e p o litic a l sy stem o p e ra te d u r in g his reign? D id it rese m b le p a s t regim es? W as th e re in d e e d a d e m o c ra tic in te r ­ lu d e p r io r to M a rtín e z , a n d i f so, h o w d id it fu n c tio n ? W h a t w ere th e causes o f th e 19 3 2 u p risin g , a n d h o w d id th e ev en ts o f 1 9 3 2 affect th e c o n s o lid a tio n o f th e re g im e u n d e r M a rtín e z , as w ell as th e m ilita ry -le d reg im es th a t su c c e e d e d h im ? I h av e g ro u p e d m y resp o n se s to th o se q u e s tio n s in th e fo llo w in g five a rg u m e n ts. F irst, p o litic s in El S alv a d o r w as in d e e d d e fin e d b y a lo n g ­ s ta n d in g sy stem o f n o n d e m o c r a tic a u th o rita ria n is m th a t d ates to th e ea rli­ est days o f th e re p u b lic , b u t w h ic h to o k fu ll fo rm w ith th e rise o f th e coffee e c o n o m y a n d sta te c e n tra liz a tio n in th e la te n in e te e n th c e n tu ry . T h e sy stem w as c h a ra c te riz e d b y a c o m p le x series o f p a tro n a g e -b a s e d alli­ ances th a t fu n c tio n e d a c c o rd in g to a se t o f in fo rm a l ru les th a t ev ery p o ­ litica l ac to r u n d e rs to o d , b u t w h ic h w ere n e v e r co d ified . T h is sy stem o f n o n d e m o c r a tic a u th o rita ria n is m w as c h a lle n g e d b e tw e e n 1 9 2 7 a n d 1931 u n d e r th e le a d e rsh ip o f P re sid e n t P ío R o m e ro B o sq u e. H e a n d a c o te rie o f sta te b u re a u c ra ts a tte m p te d to c h a n g e th e in fo rm a l ru les b y d ire c tin g th e sy stem aw ay fro m p a tro n a g e a n d to w a rd s a m o re g e n u in e dem o cracy . T h a t re fo rm in itia tiv e re su lte d in th e e le c tio n o f A rtu ro A ra u jo in 1931. T h e reg im e o f G e n e ra l M a rtín e z o v e rtu rn e d th o se re fo rm s a n d re tu r n e d to th e s tru c tu re s a n d p ra c tic e s o f th e p re -R o m e ro era. T h e re fo re , c o n ti­ n u ity is th e first a n d fo re m o s t th e m e a d v a n c e d b y th is study. T h e m ilita ry re g im e th a t b e g a n in D e c e m b e r 1931 w as r o o te d in th e s tru c tu re s a n d p rac tice s o f th e lib e ral d ic ta to rs h ip s p r io r to 1927.

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3

El S a lv a d o r’s n o n d e m o c r a tic p o litic a l sy stem e x h ib ite d so m e h ig h ly p ara d o x ica l tra its, in c lu d in g a v ig o ro u s a n d re g u la r e lec to ra l pro cess w ith h ig h v o te r tu r n o u t, a n d a p o litic a l d isc o u rse th a t c e le b ra te d dem o cracy , fre e d o m o f suffrage, a n d in d iv id u a l lib erty . A se c o n d cla im o f th is s tu d y is th a t a fu n d a m e n ta l d is c o n n e c t ex iste d b e tw e e n w h a t p o litic a l ac to rs said a n d w h a t th e y d id , b e tw e e n th e ir r h e to r ic a n d reality, b e tw e e n th e fo rm a l legal codes a n d th e in fo rm a l ru les o f h o w p o litic s was ac tu a lly p ra c tic e d . O u t o f th e se p ara d o x es e m e rg e d a d is tin c t p o litic a l c u ltu re o f a u th o rita r i­ a n ism th a t b e c a m e a d e te r m in a n t v aria b le in s e ttin g th e p a ra m e te rs b y w h ic h S alv a d o ra n s p ra c tic e d p o litic s. T h u s , a n e x te n sio n o f th is se c o n d a rg u m e n t is th a t c u ltu re m a tte rs in e x p la n a tio n s o f h o w a n d w h y El S alva­ d o r ’s p a rtic u la r p o litic a l sy stem c a m e to exist. El S a lv a d o r’s m a te ria l c o n d i­ tio n s m a y o r m a y n o t h a v e p re d isp o s e d it to w a rd s a u th o rita ria n is m , b u t its in h a b ita n ts ’ decisio n s, p rac tice s, a n d h a b its m a tte re d . T h e era o f P re sid e n t R o m e ro B o s q u e offers a p a rtic u la rly rev e alin g w in d o w o n h o w th e in f o r ­ m a l ru les fu n c tio n e d . H e a d v o c a te d fo r g e n u in e d e m o c ra tic re fo rm s, a n d h is a c tio n s p r o m p te d local p o litic a l ac to rs, a c c u s to m e d to th e tra d itio n a l p ractices, to b o m b a rd th e c e n tra l g o v e rn m e n t w ith re q u e sts fo r clarifica­ tio n . W h y w ere th e m in is try ’s officials re je c tin g th e u su a l p rac tice s, a n d w h y d id th e y se em to b e c h a n g in g th e m e a n in g o f th e te rm s democracy a n d

freedom o f suffrage? A s o n e m ig h t ex p ect, th e u n e q u a l re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n la n d e d elites a n d th e ir la b o re rs se rv e d as a fo u n d a tio n fo r p a tro n a g e re la tio n s a n d th e a tte n d a n t p a tro n - c lie n t rela tio n s. B u t class in e q u a lity w as n o t th e sole in s p ira tio n fo r n o n d e m o c r a tic p o litic a l p rac tice s. A th ir d a rg u m e n t o f th is s tu d y is th a t p e a sa n t c o m m u n itie s e m p lo y e d th e sa m e ex c lu sio n a ry p ra c ­ tices as th e ir e lite c o u n te rp a rts . T h e n u m b e r o f cases available to s u p p o r t th is claim is n o t extensive, b u t th o se cases th a t d o exist sh o w p e a sa n t c o m ­ m u n itie s m a n ip u la tin g lo cal p o llin g sta tio n s ju s t as th e ir elite rivals d id . N o t su rp risin g ly , th o se e lec tio n s te n d e d to p ro d u c e u n a n im o u s resu lts in fav o r o f th e p e a sa n ts’ c a n d id a te s, even th o u g h th e ir m e m b e rs c o n s ti­ tu te d th e o v e rw h e lm in g m a jo rity o f th e v o tin g p o p u la tio n a n d p re s u m ­ ab ly w o u ld h av e w o n th e elec tio n s, h a d th e y b e e n c o n d u c te d freely a n d fairly. T h e se discoveries su g g est th a t n o n d e m o c r a tic p rac tice s w ere d e e p ly e n tre n c h e d in S a lv a d o ra n so c ie ty a n d p o litic a l c u ltu re . T h e y also sh o w th a t p e a sa n ts a n d p o o r p e o p le p a rtic ip a te d in th e c o n s tru c tio n o f th e ir n a tio n ’s p o litic a l system s. E lites m a y h a v e set th e te rm s o f d e b a te , in p a r t

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b y c ra ftin g th e law s th a t g o v e rn e d p o litic a l p ro c e d u re s, b u t p o o r p e o p le p u rs u e d th e ir in te re sts th r o u g h th e e x ta n t sy stem s. N o n e lite s th e re fo re to o k p a r t in th e n o rm a liz a tio n o f n o n d e m o c r a tic a u th o rita ria n is m in El Salvador. A f o u r th a rg u m e n t o f th is s tu d y o p e ra te s a lo n g a sim ila r v e in : lo n g ­ s ta n d in g co n flicts ex iste d b e tw e e n in d ig e n o u s p e a sa n t c o m m u n itie s a n d la d in o ( n o n - I n d ia n ) elites th r o u g h o u t th e w e ste rn h ig h la n d s fo r c o n tro l over local p o litic a l office. O n c e ag ain , th e se p o litic a l co n flicts to o k p la ce b e tw e e n rival p a tro n a g e -b a se d n e tw o rk s, n o t n ecessarily b e tw e e n p o o r ad ­ vo cates o f d e m o c ra tiz a tio n a n d e lite a d h e re n ts o f n o n d e m o c r a tic a u th o ri­ ta ria n ism . T h e co n flicts ca m e to a h e a d ju s t p r io r to th e 1932 u p risin g , in th e m id s t o f th e R o m e ro re fo rm s, th e M a rtín e z c o u p , a n d th e g ro w in g im p a c t o f th e G re a t D e p re ss io n . T h e se rev e latio n s a b o u t lo cal p o litic a l co n flicts su g g est th e n e e d fo r a rev isio n ist in te r p re ta tio n o f th e 1932 u p ris ­ in g , ro o tin g its causes in lo n g -s ta n d in g lo cal affairs a n d th e o rg a n iz a tio n a l a u to n o m y o f p e a sa n t c o m m u n itie s , ra th e r th a n th e tra d itio n a l v ersio n th a t stresses th e o rg a n iz a tio n a l im p e tu s o f th e S a lv a d o ra n C o m m u n is t Party. T h e re b e llio n d e m o n s tra te d p o o r p e o p le ’s a b ility to press th e ir d e ­ m a n d s a n d fo rce th e e x istin g sy stem to a c k n o w le d g e th e ir n ee d s. T h e su c ­ cession o f m ilita ry g o v e rn m e n ts afte r 1932 d u tifu lly p la c e d th e n e e d s o f c o m m o n S alv a d o ra n s a t th e c e n te r o f p o litic a l rh e to ric , even th o u g h th e ir a c tu a l p o licies p a le d in c o m p a ris o n to it. T h e 1932 u p ris in g d e m o n s tra te d th e risks asso ciate d w ith v io le n t in su rg e n c y fo r th e lo n g -te rm in te re sts o f p e a sa n ts a n d p o o r p e o p le . T h e re b e llio n e n fla m e d elites’ p assio n s a n d m a d e th e m m o re re a c tio n a ry a n d re sis ta n t to ch a n g e , h a llm a rk s o f th e ir ac tio n s in s u b s e q u e n t decades. Finally, th e g o v e rn m e n t’s re sp o n se to th e 1932 u p ris in g c re a te d a m o d e l th a t all su ccesso r m ilita ry reg im es w o u ld follow . T h e M a rtín e z re ­ g im e u se d v io le n c e o n a colossal scale to b e a t b a c k th e th re a t o f a n a u to n o ­ m o u s p ea sa n try ; as p a r t o f th a t p ro cess, it re tu r n e d th e p o litic a l sy stem to its p re -re fo rm is t n o rm , b u t w ith a n even m o re in te n sifie d c e n tra liz a tio n o f p o w e r in th e c e n tra l g o v e rn m e n t. B u t it also in siste d th a t re fo rm , o r at least th e id e a o f re fo rm , w as a n essen tial c o u n te r p a r t to rep re ssio n a n d p o ­ litica l a u th o rita ria n is m . R e g im e b u re a u c ra ts s o u g h t a n o rd e re d a n d sta b le society, o n e in w h ic h e c o n o m ic p ro d u c tio n c o u ld p ro c e e d u n a b a te d . T h e y realized th a t d e a d a n d re b e llio u s p e a sa n ts d id n o t m a d e g o o d w o rk e rs. As

In tro d u c tio n

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a resu lt, th e y a d o p te d a stra te g y in w h ic h th e y rep resse d w h e n th e y felt it n ecessary a n d clo sed d o w n th e a b b re v ia te d d e m o c ra tic o p e n in g , b u t si­ m u lta n e o u s ly called fo r so cial re fo rm s as a w ay to p re v e n t re b e llio n . In p a rtic u la r, th e y id e n tifie d o n e so u rc e o f th e p ro b le m as u n s c ru p u lo u s elites w h o e x p lo ite d w o rk e rs a n d th u s c re a te d fe rtile g r o u n d fo r c o m m u n is t ag i­ ta tio n . S u c h calls fo r re fo rm w ere a c c o m p a n ie d b y th e s ta n d a rd rh e to ric a l ap p eals to d e m o c ra c y a n d free suffrage. T h is re fo rm /re p re ss d ic h o to m y w as fu lly e v id e n t in th e re sp o n se to th e 1 9 3 2 u p risin g , w h ic h su g g ests th a t th e u p ris in g re p re se n te d a k e y m o m e n t in th e s h a p in g o f m ilita ry ru le in E l S alvador. E v e n th o u g h th e M a rtín e z re g im e d id little to im p le m e n t re ­ fo rm s, it set a p re c e d e n t o n w h ic h its successors w o u ld e x p a n d . F o r b e tte r o r w o rse, th e c o m b in a tio n o f re fo rm a n d rep re ssio n b e c a m e th e s ta n d a rd stra te g y o f m ilita ry g o v e rn a n c e fo r fifty years. T h e relev an c e o f th e se five a rg u m e n ts c a n b e f u rth e r clarified b y p la c ­ in g th e m in th e b ro a d e r c o n te x t o f S a lv a d o ra n h isto rio g ra p h y . T h e n a tu re o f m ilita ry ru le in E l S alv a d o r a n d th e c o rre s p o n d in g re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n la n d e d elites a n d th e m ilita ry h av e b e e n th e to p ic s o f m u c h a c a d e m ic d is­ cu ssio n . A p re v a ilin g n a rra tiv e p o sits th a t la n d e d elites a n d th e m ilita ry fo rm e d a u n ite d fro n t. T h e elites su rre n d e re d c o n tro l over th e offices o f g o v e rn m e n t in e x c h an g e fo r security. T o th a t e n d , th e m ilita ry b e c a m e th e P ra e to ria n G u a r d o f th e la n d e d elites (p rim a rily coffee g ro w ers), a n d m ili­ ta ry officers w ere allo w ed to e n jo y w h a te v e r priv ileg es c a m e w ith office­ h o ld in g . In ex ch an g e, th o se officers g u a ra n te e d th a t elites w ere free to o rg an iz e th e ir e c o n o m ic affairs as th e y w ish e d . T h e m ilita ry ’s b r u ta l re ­ sp o n se to th e p e a sa n t u p ris in g o f 1 9 3 2 se e m e d to e m b o d y th a t a rra n g e ­ m e n t, as d id th e m a n y s u b s e q u e n t ep iso d es o f sta te rep re ssio n o f th e w o rk in g p o o r. P o litic al sc ie n tist W illia m S ta n le y s u m m a riz e d th is re la ­ tio n s h ip s u c c in c tly in th e title to h is 1996 s tu d y o f El S alv ad o r: The Pro­

tection Racket State? T h e p re s e n t s tu d y m o re o r less su sta in s th a t a rg u m e n ta tiv e th re a d , b u t stresses th e n e e d to lo o k a t it w ith a n u a n c e d eye. T o o easily w e c a n fall in to a rig id in te rp re tiv e fra m e th a t im p lie s th a t th e re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n la n d o w n e rs a n d m ilita ry officers w as seam less. In fact, it w as f ra u g h t w ith co m p lex itie s. N e ith e r th e m ilita ry n o r th e elites o p e ra te d as u n ifie d blocs. E ac h w as ch a ra c te riz e d b y in te r n a l d iv isio n s a n d m e ssy p o litic a l rivalries, so m e m e re ly p e rso n a l o r o p p o rtu n is tic , a n d o th e rs th a t w ere id e o lo g ic al

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Authoritarian El Salvador

a n d b a se d o n d iffe rin g v isio n s o f th e c o u n try ’s fu tu re . W h e n th o se c o m ­ p lic a te d assem blag es o f elites a n d officers m e t in th e p o litic a l a re n a to m a k e p o lic y a n d d e te rm in e th e p e rs o n n e l o f g o v e rn m e n t, th e p ro sp e c ts fo r c o m p le x ity in c re a se d e x p o n e n tia lly . C e rta in ly , c o n serv ativ e officers fo u n d c o m m o n cause w ith co n serv ativ e elites, a n d to g e th e r th e y c o u ld fo rm a fo rm id a b le p o litic a l b lo c . B u t ch a lle n g ers a b o u n d e d , a n d s o m e ­ tim es th e y b o n d e d over an a lte rn a tiv e id e o lo g ic a l v isio n , even over a sh a re d b e lie f in th e n e e d fo r so cial re fo rm . S o m e tim e s lo y a lty to in s titu tio n tr u m p e d ideology, as w h e n so ld iers, fo r ex a m p le , b a n d e d to g e th e r a n d a d h e re d to th e in te rn a l ru les o f th e a rm e d forces, regardless o f o th e r sta k e ­ h o ld e rs ’ in terests. Ironically, th e e so te ric a u th o rita r ia n G e n e ra l M a rtín e z h ig h lig h ts th is n e e d fo r n u a n c e . H e m a y h av e rep resse d w ith o u t q u a rte r a n d d e fin e d e c o ­ n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t as e x p o rt-a g ric u ltu ra l p r o d u c tio n le d by la n d e d elites, b u t h e also raised th e call fo r re fo rm a n d d e m o n s tra te d a n ev o lv in g re la ­ tio n s h ip w ith elites. N o t th e least e x a m p le o f th is c o m p le x ity w as h is g o v ­ e r n m e n t’s a tte m p t to e n d th e sy stem o f p la n ta tio n -o w n e d sto res a n d sto p th e elites’ cu s to m a ry p ra c tic e o f p a y in g w o rk e rs in c o u p o n s r a th e r th a n legal currency. E v e n i f h e failed in th a t p a rtic u la r a tte m p t, a n d even i f th e overall b y p ro d u c ts o f h is re fo rm p ro g ra m w ere m o d e st, M a rtín e z c re a te d th e u n p re c e d e n te d e x p e c ta tio n th a t g o v e rn m e n t, w ith its ca p ac ity fo r a u ­ to n o m o u s a c tio n , w as o b lig a te d to lo o k o u t fo r c o m m o n p e o p le . A n d even i f elites d id n o t fin d th e m se lv es overly th re a te n e d by M a rtín e z ’s p o li­ cies, th e y fea re d th a t fu tu re reg im es (m ilita ry o r civilian) m ig h t b e w orse. In d e e d , M a rtín e z ’s su ccesso rs fo llo w ed h is lead , even i f th ey d isa v o w ed h is n a m e , a n d p u rs u e d re fo rm s m o re aggressively, e v e n tu a lly im p le m e n tin g a la n d re fo rm , a n act th a t elites w o u ld n e v e r fo rg e t a n d n e v e r forgive. H o w ­ ever m u c h elites m ig h t h a v e b e n e fitte d fro m m ilita ry ru le , m a n y o f th e m b e c a m e h ig h ly su sp ic io u s o f m ilita ry le a d e rs’ c o m m itm e n t to th e ir p r i­ o rities o f e c o n o m ic lib e rta ria n is m a n d th e sa n c tity o f p riv a te p ro p e rty . If n o th in g else, th is stu d y seeks to d e m o n s tra te th a t th e fo u n d a tio n a l years o f m ilita ry ru le in E l S a lv a d o r d e m o n s tra te th e n e e d fo r a n u a n c e d a p ­ p ro a c h . A se co n d , p ara llel h isto rio g ra p h ic a l d e b a te is th e ro le o f E l S a lv a d o r’s p o o r o r “s u b a lte rn ” p e o p le s in th e m a k in g o f th e ir n a tio n ’s h isto ry . It is safe to say th a t u n til th e la tte r h a lf o f th e tw e n tie th ce n tu ry , th ey w ere

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larg ely ab s e n t fro m h isto ric a l n a rra tiv e s. D u e in n o sm a ll p a r t to th e su rg e in p o p u la r m o b iliz a tio n in th e 1 9 60s a n d 1970s, p ro g re ssiv e in te lle c tu a ls lo o k e d to rec tify th is ab sen ce. O n e o f th e in itia l c o n trib u tio n s ca m e fro m th e fa m e d p o e t a n d a c tiv ist R o q u e D a lto n . In tw o b r ie f h isto ric a l surveys p u b lis h e d in th e early 1960s, E l Salvador a n d E l Salvador: monografía, b o th o f w h ic h re m a in in p r in t today, D a lto n c h a lle n g e d th e p re v a ilin g n arrativ es th a t w ith h e ld c ritiq u e s fro m elites a n d d e n ie d ag e n cy to su b a l­ te rn actors. S u b s e q u e n t stu d ie s b u ilt o n D a lto n ’s fo u n d a tio n a n d c o n s o li­ d a te d a su b a lte rn c o u n te rn a rra tiv e o f n a tio n a l h isto ry . T h e p re s e n t s tu d y show s th e v alu e o f th a t c o u n te rn a rra tiv e . A d m itte d ly , th e sy stem o f p a ­ tro n a g e a n d clie n te lism th a t p re v a ile d in th e n in e te e n th a n d early tw e n ti­ e th c e n tu rie s w o rk e d to th e lo n g -te rm b e n e fit o f elites a n d th e d e trim e n t o f th e w o rk in g p o o r. A fte r th e a tte m p t to c re ate a m o re g e n u in e ly d e m o ­ cra tic sy stem failed in 19 3 1 , M a rtín e z re tu r n e d to p a st p o litic a l p a tte rn s a n d re ste d h is sy stem o f g o v e rn a n c e o n p a tro n a g e -b a se d , h ie ra rc h ic a l class rela tio n s. In th e M a rtín e z sy stem , local elites serv ed as m u n ic ip a l p o litic a l lead ers a n d w o rk e rs a n d p e a sa n ts c o n s titu te d th e r a n k a n d file. B u t p e a s­ a n ts a n d th e w o rk in g p o o r w ere n o t a b s e n t fro m th e p ro cess. T h e y b a r ­ g a in e d c o n s ta n tly w ith elites a n d in th e pro cess s h a p e d th e m a n n e r a n d w ay in w h ic h S a lv a d o ra n h is to ry u n fo ld e d . N o t th e le ast ac t o f “b a rg a in ­ in g ” w as th e 1932 u p risin g . T h e re a fte r, few, i f any, lead ers in E l S alv ad o r d a re d ru le w ith o u t a t le ast p a y in g lip serv ice to th e n e e d fo r so cial re fo rm . A n d w h a te v e r m o tiv e d th e e v e n tu a l e n a c tm e n t o f re fo rm s, p a rtic u la rly th e la n d , b a n k in g , a n d e x p o rt re fo rm s afte r 1979, b e it c o n v ic tio n o r e x p e d i­ ency, th e m o b iliz e d d e m a n d s o f p o o r p e o p le w ere larg ely re sp o n sib le fo r m a k in g th e m h a p p e n .3 N ev e rth ele ss, o n e o f th e d is tin g u is h in g fea tu re s o f El S alvador, at least c o m p a re d to so m e o th e r c o u n trie s in L a tin A m e ric a , is th e a b sen c e o f a clearly d e fin e d m o m e n t in th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry w h e n p le b ia n m asses, e ith e r u r b a n o r ru ra l, a rtic u la te d th e ir d e fin itio n o f civic re p u b lic a n ism a n d s o u g h t to in s e rt th a t d e fin itio n in to th e n a tio n a l b o d y p o litic . S c h o l­ ars w h o h av e c o n d u c te d rese a rc h in M e x ico , C o lo m b ia , P eru , C h ile , a n d A rg e n tin a , fo r ex a m p le , h av e f o u n d e v id en c e o f th e se m o m e n ts .4 W h e th e r th e failu re to d o so in El S alv a d o r reflects a n ac tu a l d iffe ren ce fro m th e se o th e r c o u n trie s, th e p e c u lia ritie s o f th e d o c u m e n ta ry re c o rd o r th e d is tin c ­ tiveness o f th e sch o lars w h o h a v e d o n e rese a rc h in it c a n b e d e b a te d .

8

Authoritarian El Salvador

R egardless, fo r th e tim e b ein g , E l S alv a d o r seem s to re p re se n t a d is­ tin c t case. A s s h o u ld b e e v id e n t, th is s tu d y ’s p o in t o f d e p a rtu re is p o litic s a n d electio n s. T h e p o litic a l a re n a w as th e sp ace in w h ic h S alv a d o ra n s n e g o ti­ a te d w ith o n e a n o th e r over th e ir so c iety a n d its fu tu re . E le c tio n s w ere rev e­ la to ry m o m e n ts in th e p ro cess. N o p o litic a l le a d e r in El S alvador, w h e th e r d ic ta to r o r d e m o c ra t, serv ed in office w ith o u t th e s a n c tio n o f a n e lec tio n , h o w ev er fe tte re d th e v o tin g m ig h t h av e b e e n . E v en th o u g h El S alv ad o r h as b e e n ty p ifie d b y a u th o rita ria n a n d d ic ta to ria l p o litic s th r o u g h o u t its m o d e rn histo ry , it w as also th e site o f v ig o ro u s e lec to ra l activity. E lec­ tio n s h a p p e n e d w ith g re a t reg u larity , a n d m a n y p e o p le tu r n e d o u t to v o te. A t so m e level, th e se e lec to ra l p ro c e e d in g s w ere p o litic a l th e ate r, o r “civic c e re m o n ie s,” as P ete r G u a r d in o d escrib es th e m in M e x ic o .5 B u t th e y w ere essential to p ro v in g a le a d e r’s a b ility to ru le . G e ttin g lo ts o f p e o p le to th e p o lls a n d th e n c o n tro llin g th e e lec to ra l o u tc o m e p ro v e d th a t a c a n d id a te d eserv ed to h o ld office. A n d sim ilarly, w h e n p o litic s tu r n e d v io le n t, a le a d ­ er’s a b ility to e n a c t v io le n c e w as m e a n t to b e u n d e rs to o d , in th e w o rd s o f h is to ria n R o b e rt H o ld e n , “b y its w itn esses, v ic tim s, a n d p e rp e tra to rs alike as a d e m o n s tr a tio n o f fitn ess to ru le .”6 B y e x a m in in g p o litic a l activ ities a n d electio n s, th e p re s e n t s tu d y seeks to sh o w h o w th e p o litic a l sy stem fu n c tio n e d a n d th e re b y c o n trib u te to a n u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e n a tio n ’s e n d u r in g a u th o rita ria n is m . T h is s tu d y b e g in s in e a rn e st in th e la te n in e te e n th ce n tu ry , w h e n th e lib eral o lig a rch ic sta te c o n s o lid a te d in c o n ju n c tio n w ith th e rise in coffee ex p o rts. T h u s , th e b a c k g ro u n d is o n e o f s ta te c e n tra liz a tio n a n d its h ig h ly p ara d o x ica l n a tu re . A s tro n g sta te m a d e p o ssib le th e m o d e rn m ilita ry a u ­ th o r ita ria n reg im e th a t b e g a n w ith M a rtín e z in 19 3 1 , b u t as th e h is to ria n a n d th e o ris t C h a rle s T illy o bserves, a lm o st n o d e m o c ra tic sy stem in th e w o rld h as c o m e in to ex iste n ce in a so c iety c h a ra c te riz e d b y a w e a k s ta te .7 In d e e d , it w as o n ly afte r th e S a lv a d o ra n sta te b e c a m e s tro n g e r a n d m o re c e n tra liz e d in th e la te 1 9 20s th a t a d e m o c ra tic p ro ce ss em e rg e d . A n d it w as o n ly w ith th e p o w e r o f th e n e w ly c e n tra liz e d sta te th a t M a rtín e z d e ­ stro y e d th e fled g lin g d em o cracy . A n u n d e r s ta n d in g o f h o w th e S a lv a d o ra n sta te c e n tra liz e d in th e la te n in e te e n th a n d early tw e n tie th c e n tu rie s a n d w h a t th a t p ro cess m e a n t to th e d a y -to -d a y p ra c tic e o f p o litic s is th e re fo re essential to a n sw e rin g q u e s tio n s a b o u t th e p e rsiste n c e o f a u th o rita ria n is m

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in El Salvador. T h e s tu d y lo o k s a t th e early a n d m id d le n in e te e n th c e n tu ry as w ell, b u t selectively, se e k in g o u t g en e ral p a tte rn s . T h e p rim a ry o b je ctiv e is to arrive a t th e p iv o ta l m o m e n t in th e la te 1920s a n d early 1 9 30s w ith a c o n te x tu a liz e d a n d e x p la n a to ry eye. T h e s tu d y is d e fin e d b y its d is tin c t so u rces. M o s t of th e e v id en c e c o n ­ sists of d o c u m e n ts fro m S a lv a d o ra n archives, especially th e n a tio n a l ar­ chive, th e A rc h iv o G e n e ra l d e la N a c ió n (A G N ). I first w e n t to th e A G N in 1993, s h o rtly afte r th e civil w a r e n d e d a n d ju s t a few years afte r its d o o rs w ere o p e n e d to th e p u b lic fo r th e first tim e .8 I h av e sin c e re tu r n e d n u m e r ­ ou s tim es. Its co lle c tio n s are o f m ix e d u se fu ln e ss fo r a s tu d y o f p o litics. S o m e p o te n tia lly k ey c o llec tio n s, su c h as m ilita ry rec o rd s a n d p re sid e n tia l p ap e rs, are n o t h o u s e d th e re . T h e y h av e e ith e r b e e n d e stro y e d o r s to re d secretly elsew here. A lso, th e A G N h o ld s a lm o st n o re c o rd s after th e 1940s, w h e n m in iste ria l offices m o v e d o u t o f th e N a tio n a l P alace to d isp a ra te n e w lo c a tio n s th r o u g h o u t th e cap ita l. F u rth e rm o re , re c o rd s fo r th e p e rio d p r io r to 1889 are sc a n t, b ec au se th e o rig in a l arc h iv e b u r n e d d o w n th a t year. N ev e rth ele ss, th e A G N h o ld s m a n y u se fu l d o c u m e n ts fo r th e s tu d y o f p o litic s b e tw e e n 1890 a n d th e 1940s, especially th e p a p e rs o f th e M in is try o f G o v e rn m e n t (M in iste rio d e G o b e rn a c ió n , o r M G ) , th e m a in b o d y o f so u rces fo r th is stu d y . T h a t c o lle c tio n c o n ta in s c o rre sp o n d e n c e b e tw e e n th e local, d e p a rtm e n ta l, a n d n a tio n a l levels o f g o v e rn m e n t a n d in c lu d e s su b sta n tiv e m a te ria l o n e lec tio n s a n d p o litic a l affairs. T h e c o lle c tio n c o n ­ sists o f ro u g h ly five h u n d r e d arc h iv al boxes a n d o n e h u n d r e d a n d fifty b u n d le s (ro u g h ly e q u iv a le n t to a n o th e r th re e h u n d r e d a n d fifty boxes) fo r th e years 1889 to 19 4 4 . T h e m a te ria ls are o rg a n iz e d o n ly b y year, a n d d o c u m e n ts re la tin g to p o litic s are in te rm ix e d w ith all o th e r c o rre s p o n ­ d en ce. T h e o n ly w a y to fin d re le v a n t in f o rm a tio n is to sift th r o u g h th e e n tire c o lle c tio n o n e p ag e a t a tim e . In d e e d , m y g o al w as to g e t th ro u g h every b o x a n d b u n d le o f d o c u m e n ta tio n , w h ic h w as a ch a lle n g e, b u t th a n k s to g en e ro u s access g ra n te d b y th e sta ff o f th e A G N , a lo n g w ith th e use o f a p o rta b le p h o to c o p ie r, I a c c o m p lish e d m y g o al a n d sifte d th ro u g h every d u s ty a n d m o ld - r id d e n p age. In d o in g so, I g a in e d a c o m p re h e n siv e o v erv iew o f th e e x ta n t d o c u m e n ta ry re c o rd . I w a n te d to m o v e f u rth e r b a c k in to th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry to see if th e p a tte rn s I w as f in d in g afte r 1890 h a d p re c e d e n ts. A t first th is se e m e d a n im p o ssib le task, o w in g to th e la c k o f d o c u m e n ta tio n . F o rtu n a te ly , th e

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Authoritarian El Salvador

A G N c o n ta in s th e p a p e rs o f G o b e rn a c ió n S an V ic e n te (th e office o f S an V ic e n te ’s d e p a rtm e n ta l g o v e rn o r). T h e se m a te ria ls h a d b e e n s to re d in S an V ic e n te a n d th u s w ere n o t lo st to th e fire o f 1889, a n d th e y also su rv iv ed th e 1936 e a rth q u a k e th a t d e stro y e d m u c h o f S an V ic e n te C ity. T h e rec o rd s d a te b a c k to th e 1840s a n d c o n ta in c o rre sp o n d e n c e b e tw e e n th e m in is try o f g o v e rn m e n t, th e d e p a rtm e n ta l g o v ern o r, a n d m u n ic ip a l p o litic a l offi­ cials. In a d d itio n to th o se m a te ria ls, th e A G N h o ld s six te e n file d raw ers o f d o c u m e n ts th a t w ere p u lle d fro m th e e m b ers o f th e 1889 fire; th e y offer f u rth e r ev id en c e o f p o litic s in th e early d ec ad e s o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry . I also trav eled to th e m u n ic ip a l arc h iv e o f S o n s o n a te C ity, w h ic h a t th a t tim e c o n ta in e d re c o rd s fro m as early as th e 1790s, in c lu d in g in v a lu a b le electo ral d a ta d a tin g b a c k to th e 1820s, w h e n th e v ery first e lec tio n s w ere h e ld in E l Salvador. T h is d isc o v ery p r o m p te d m e to seek o u t m a te ria ls in o th e r m u n ic ip a l archives th r o u g h o u t th e w e ste rn re g io n , a n d w h ile th e ir co llec tio n s w ere n o w h e re n e a r as ex ten siv e as th a t o f S o n so n a te , th e y d id p ro v id e v alu ab le evid en ce. In a d d itio n to arch iv es in E l S alvador, I c o n s u lte d archives in th e U n ite d S tates (S ta te D e p a r tm e n t rec o rd s), E n g la n d (th e p a p e rs o f th e F o r­ eig n O ffice), a n d M o sc o w (th e arc h iv e o f th e C o m in te rn ) . T h e la tte r sh e d p a rtic u la rly v alu a b le in s ig h t o n th e ev e n ts s u r ro u n d in g th e 1932 u p risin g , in th e fo rm o f c o rre sp o n d e n c e b e tw e e n El S a lv a d o r’s fle d g in g C o m m u n is t Party, th e C o m in te rn , a n d th e C o m in te r n ’s re g io n a l office, th e C a rib b e a n B u rea u in N e w Y ork C ity .9 T h e G o b e rn a c ió n rec o rd s c o n s titu te th e m a in b o d y o f ev id en c e fo r th is study, a n d lik e a n y so u rce , th e y are p a rtic u la r. T h e y resid e in a h y b rid p la ce b e tw e e n th e p u b lic a n d p riv a te sp h eres. T h e y w ere n o t in te n d e d to b e c irc u la te d pub licly , u n lik e n e w sp a p e rs o r b ro a d sid e s, w h ic h are p r in te d w ith th e in te n t o f in f o rm in g a p u b lic c o m m u n ity , sw ay in g o p in io n , a n d c o n trib u tin g to H a b e rm a s ’s “ra tio n a l-c ritic a l p u b lic d e b a te .”10 B u t n e ith e r w ere th e y th e clo sed c o rre sp o n d e n c e o f a sm a ll g ro u p o f in d iv id u a ls o p ­ e ra tin g in a n in s titu tio n a liz e d s tru c tu re , as w ere th e le tte rs a n d re p o rts ex c h an g e d b e tw e e n th e S a lv a d o ra n c o m m u n is ts a n d th e C o m in te rn . A d ­ m itted ly , so m e o f th e G o b e rn a c ió n rec o rd s are lik e th e C o m in te r n m a te r i­ als, b u t m o s t o f th e m are th e c o n s e q u e n c e o f v ery p u b lic events, su c h as electio n s, th e resu lts o f w h ic h w ere o fte n p u b lis h e d in p u b lic ly c irc u la te d n ew sp a p ers. F u rth e rm o re , th e in d iv id u a ls p a rtic ip a tin g in th e G o b e r-

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n a c ió n c o rre sp o n d e n c e w ere n o t n ecessarily close affiliates in a clo sed b u reau cracy . T h e y w ere o fte n se p a ra te d b y v ast d ista n c e s— g eo g ra p h ica l, p ro fe ssio n a l, a n d social— a n d th e p a rtic ip a n ts in th e c o rre sp o n d e n c e d id n o t n ecessarily k n o w o n e a n o th e r, n o r d id th e y d e p e n d u p o n o n e a n o th e r fo r th e ir p ro fe ssio n a l fu tu re . I n fact, so m e tim e s th e a u th o rs w ere rivals. T h u s , th e ir c o rre sp o n d e n c e is as m u c h a re fle c tio n o f a p u b lic p o litic a l p ro cess as a closed, in tra s ta te “c o m m u n ity o f d isc o u rse .” 11 C o n se q u e n tly , th e G o b e rn a c ió n rec o rd s allo w th e p u r s u it o f a v a rie ty o f research track s. T h e y ca n reveal s o m e th in g o f th e h id d e n tra n sc rip ts o f th e su b a lte rn v oice, th r o u g h th e p e titio n s c o n ta in e d th e re in , a lth o u g h th e y are n o t as effective a t d o in g so as, fo r ex a m p le , th e so u rces R ic a rd o S alv ato re e m p lo y e d to lo o k a t th e paysanos o f B u e n o s A ires, o r as th e a r ti­ san al n ew sp a p e rs th a t Ja m es W o o d u se d to s tu d y S a n tia g o ’s s e m i-u rb a n p le b e ia n s .12 T h e G o b e rn a c ió n m a te ria ls can illu m in a te th e w ays p e o p le c o m m u n ic a te d w ith o n e a n o th e r a b o u t p o litic s, b o th as c o n fid a n ts a n d as stran g e rs. B u t n o rm a lly th e ir d isc o u rse w as n o t in te n d e d fo r th e p u b lic sp h e re , a n d so w h e n I s o u g h t to b e tte r u n d e r s ta n d th e w ays th e y d ia lo g u e d p u b lic ly a b o u t d e m o c ra c y a n d p o litic s, I tu r n e d to m o re p u b lic , a lb e it less a b u n d a n t, sou rces, su c h as p e rio d ic a ls a n d n ew sp a p ers.

I n tro d u c in g E l S alv ad o r

El S alv ad o r fo llo w e d th e g e n e ra l c h ro n o lo g ic a l p a tte r n o f th e rest o f L a tin A m eric a. It ac h ie v ed in d e p e n d e n c e fro m S p a in in th e 1820s a n d th e n e n ­ te re d in to a n e x te n d e d p e rio d o f p o litic a l in s ta b ility a n d e c o n o m ic m a l­ aise. A g lo b a l e c o n o m ic d o w n tu r n th a t la ste d u n til th e la tte r n in e te e n th c e n tu ry adversely affec ted all o f L a tin A m e ric a , w ith few c o u n trie s ab le to fin d b u y ers fo r th e ir p ro d u c ts . P e ru w as a n ex c e p tio n , w ith its su p p lie s o f b ird g u a n o , w h ic h w ere u se d to m a k e fertilizer. El S alv a d o r also p r o d u c e d a c ro p th a t re ta in e d m a rk e t v alid ity : in d ig o , a b lu e d y e d e riv e d fro m a p la n t th a t h a d b e e n g ro w n th e re sin c e p re c o lo n ia l tim es. R egardless, th e m id - n in e te e n th c e n tu ry w as a c h a lle n g in g tim e fo r all o f L a tin A m e ric a , El S alv ad o r in c lu d e d .13 A n e c o n o m ic revival b e g a n in th e 1870s a n d 1880s in th e fo rm o f an e x p o rt b o o m th a t la ste d u n til th e G re a t D e p re ss io n in th e 1930s. D u rin g

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th a t b o o m , a lm o st ev ery c o u n try in L a tin A m e ric a e x p e rie n c e d a ra p id su rg e in N o r t h A m e ric a n a n d E u ro p e a n m a rk e ts fo r its p rim a ry c o m m o d i­ ties. El S a lv a d o r’s c ro p w as coffee, in d ig o h a v in g b e e n d isp la c e d b y o th e r so u rces (B ritish In d ia ) a n d th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f s y n th e tic dyes. C o ffee to o k over as th e n a tio n ’s m a in e x p o rt c ro p b y th e 1870s a n d w e n t o n to d o m i­ n a te th e S alv a d o ra n e c o n o m y . B y th e 1 9 20s it a c c o u n te d fo r as m u c h as 9 0 p e rc e n t o f th e n a tio n ’s e x p o rt re v e n u e s.14 T h r o u g h o u t L a tin A m eric a, th e e x p o rt b o o m g re w e c o n o m ie s a n d sta b iliz e d p o litic s, b u t it also re ­ su lte d in e c o n o m ic in e q u ity a n d p o litic a l d ic ta to rsh ip . El S alv a d o r w as n o ex c ep tio n , a n d a sm a ll g ro u p o f elite fam ilies ca m e to c o n tro l th e lio n ’s sh a re o f w e a lth a n d p o w e r.15 T h e in e q u itie s a c c o m p a n y in g th e e x p o rt b o o m e v e n tu a lly p r o m p te d calls fo r re fo rm th r o u g h o u t L a tin A m e ric a . B e g in n in g in th e early tw e n ti­ e th ce n tu ry , m o s t L a tin A m e ric a n c o u n trie s w itn e sse d a risin g tid e o f la b o r activ ism a n d re fo rm -o rie n te d p o litic a l m o v e m e n ts. T h e M e x ic a n R e v o lu ­ tio n o f 1910 to 1 9 4 0 a n d th e re fo rm m o v e m e n t in U ru g u a y u n d e r P resi­ d e n t José B atlle are ju s t tw o o f th e m o re w ell k n o w n , a lb e it diverse, exam ples. In E l S alv a d o r th e re fo rm m o v e m e n t w as d elay e d a n d s h o r t­ lived, ta k in g th e fo rm o f a b r ie f d e m o c ra tic o p e n in g b e tw e e n 1 9 2 7 a n d 1931 a n d a p e a sa n t u p ris in g in 19 3 2 . B u t fo llo w in g th e p a tte r n o f m a n y o th e r c o u n trie s in w h ic h th e o n s e t o f th e G re a t D e p re ss io n h a d trig g e re d re a c tio n a ry resp o n se s, E l S alv a d o r w itn e sse d th e c o u p th a t b r o u g h t G e n ­ eral M a rtín e z to po w er, re su ltin g in a th irte e n -y e a r d ic ta to rs h ip .16 D e p re ss io n -e ra d ic ta to rs lik e M a rtín e z f o u n d it d ifficu lt to w e a th e r th e w ave o f d e m o c ra tiz a tio n th a t sw e p t across L a tin A m e ric a w ith th e A llie d v ic to ry in W W I I . In m a n y c o u n trie s, n e w lead ers c a m e to p o w e r th r o u g h d e m o c ra tic e lec tio n s o r m a ss-b a se d p o p u lis t m o v e m e n ts, p u s h in g th e co n serv ativ es a n d re a c tio n a rie s b a c k .17 T h e d e m ise o f G e n e ra l M a r ­ tín e z in 1944 p ro v id es a ty p ic al ex a m p le . H e w as u n d o n e b y a risin g tid e o f a p o p u la r d is c o n te n t th a t c u lm in a te d in a g en e ral s trik e .18 It a p p e a re d th a t E l S alv ad o r m ig h t re in v ig o ra te its m o r ib u n d d e m o c ra c y o f 1931 a n d jo in o th e r c o u n trie s u n d e rg o in g d e m o c ra tiz a tio n , lik e n e ig h b o rin g G u a te ­ m ala. B u t a re a c tio n a ry c o u n te rc o u p p u t a q u ic k e n d to th a t p ro s p e c t a n d u sh e re d in a n o th e r fo u r years o f d ic ta to ria l m ilita ry g o v ern a n ce. N ev e rth ele ss, El S alv a d o r e x p e rie n c e d its o w n v e rsio n o f p o p u lis t re ­ fo rm ism . E ven th o u g h m ilita ry officers c o n tin u e d to c o n tro l g o v e rn m e n t,

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each successive re g im e to u te d th e cau se o f so cial re fo rm m o re th a n its pred ecesso rs h a d . T h e c o n serv ativ e re g im e o f 1944 to 1948 fell in a c o u p to a g ro u p o f y o u n g , re fo rm ist officers w h o p o rtra y e d th em selv es as d e ­ fen d e rs o f th e c o m m o n p e rso n a n d e n e m ie s o f u n s c ru p u lo u s elites. U lti­ m ately, th e “re v o lu tio n a rie s” w ere m o re ta lk th a n a c tio n , a n d th e y refu sed to d e m o c ra tiz e , b u t th e y fo llo w ed th e c o n tin e n ta l p a tte r n afte r W W I I o f a p p e a lin g to th e m asses a n d le g itim iz in g th e calls fo r ju stic e a n d re fo rm . T h e y fell fro m p o w e r in O c to b e r 1 9 6 0 to a c o m b in e d c iv il-m ilita ry m o v e ­ m e n t th a t p ro m is e d to a d v a n c e th e cause o f re fo rm even f u rth e r .19 T h e c o n s o lid a tio n o f th e C o ld W a r a n d th e v ic to ry o f th e re v o lu tio n ­ aries in C u b a in 1959 p o la riz e d L a tin A m e ric a a n d re in v ig o ra te d th e c o n ­ serv ativ e rig h t, w h ic h asso cia te d re fo rm ism w ith c o m m u n is m a n d a d v o ­ c a te d a n in c re a se d use o f v io le n c e to d e fe n d its e lf fro m e n e m ie s a t h o m e a n d a b ro a d . T h is g ro w in g p o la riz a tio n re su lte d in seizu res o f p o w e r by m ilita rie s o r co n serv ativ e m o v e m e n ts, w h ic h th re w re fo rm ists a n d p o p u ­ lists o u t o f office. W i th few e x c ep tio n s, a lm o st every c o u n try in L a tin A m e ric a ca m e to b e c o n tro lle d by a n a n tic o m m u n is t m ilita ry d ic ta to r ­ sh ip . S o m e ex am p les in c lu d e th e o u ste r o f P re s id e n t Ja c o b o A rb e n z in G u a te m a la in 1954, th e c o u p b y G e n e ra l A u g u sto P in o c h e t a g a in st P resi­ d e n t S alv ad o r A lle n d e in C h ile in 19 7 3 , a n d th e A rg e n tin e m ilita ry ’s sei­ zu re o f p o w e r in 1 9 5 4 a n d th e n ag ain in 1976. In El Salvador, th e p o st—C u b a n R e v o lu tio n b a c k la sh c a m e in th e fo rm o f a m ilita ry c o u p in J a n u a ry 1961 th a t o u ste d th e c iv il-m ilita ry re ­ fo rm e rs o f O c to b e r 1960 a n d ac cu sed th e m o f b e in g c o m m u n is ts . T h e n e w lead ers fo llo w ed th e p a tte r n o f a t tr ib u tin g p o p u la r d e m a n d s fo r c h a n g e to c o m m u n is m .20 T h e y u se d v io le n c e a n d in tim id a tio n to q u ell th e so -called c o m m u n is t th re a t, a n d th e y sta y ed in p o w e r th r o u g h m assive v o tin g f ra u d in th e p re sid e n tia l e lec tio n s o f 1 9 7 2 a n d 1977. T h e y also p e r p e tra te d in c re asin g ly b r u ta l acts o f v io le n c e in th e c o u n try s id e in h o p e s o f q u e llin g m ass o rg a n iz a tio n . B u t th e y also trie d to m a in ta in p o p u la r s u p p o r t b y a p p e a lin g to th e re fo rm ist s p irit o f th e ir p red ecesso rs. A n d th e y p u rs u e d m o d e rn iz in g re fo rm s m o re aggressively, h o p in g to stav e o ff lo o m ­ in g fin an c ial r u in b y d iv e rsify in g th e e c o n o m y a n d c re a tin g jo b s fo r th e sw ellin g m ass o f la n d less la b o re rs. T h e y o p e n e d u p th e p o litic a l sy stem to p r o p o rtio n a l re p re s e n ta tio n in th e 1960s, e n a c te d a m assive e d u c a tio n re ­ fo rm in 1968 d e sig n e d to b o o s t sc h o o l e n ro llm e n t a n d tra in s tu d e n ts fo r

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a n e m e rg e n t in d u s tria liz in g e c o n o m y , e m b a rk e d o n w id e s p re a d in fra ­ s tru c tu ra l im p ro v e m e n ts , a n d e v e n tu a lly trie d to e n a c t a la n d re fo rm in 1976. T h e ir stra te g y failed , a n d th e in c re a sin g p o la riz a tio n c u lm in a te d in th e civil w a r o f 1 9 8 0 to 1 9 9 2 .21 N o t every c o u n try in L a tin A m e ric a e x p e­ rie n c e d a full-scale civil w a r lik e th a t in E l S alvador, b u t m o s t every n a tio n e x p e rien c ed a co n serv ativ e b a c k la sh a g a in st re fo rm ism in th e 1960s a n d 1970s, d e fin e d b y s ta te -sp o n so re d te rro r a n d a c o rre s p o n d in g rad ic aliza tio n o f o p p o s itio n . El S alv ad o r fo llo w ed m a n y L a tin A m e ric a —w id e p a tte rn s , a n d th u s q u e s tio n s a b o u t its h is to ry o f a u th o rita ria n is m c a n b e a n sw e re d in p a rt b y c o m p a rin g it to o th e r L a tin A m e ric a n case stu d ie s. B u t L a tin A m e ric a e x h ib ite d tr e m e n d o u s diversity, a n d a n y g e n e ra liz a tio n s n e e d to b e p la c e d w ith in th e c o n te x t o f d istin c tiv e n e ss. A s a case in p o in t, El S alv a d o r w it­ nessed, as m e n tio n e d p reviously, b o th th e lo n g e st r u n o f in te r r u p te d m ili­ ta ry ru le (1 9 3 1 —1 9 79) a n d o n e o f th e sin g le m o s t v io le n t acts o f sta te s p o n s o re d rep ressio n (th e m a ssac re o f 19 3 2 ). E l S alv a d o r th u s h a d m u c h less ex p e rien c e w ith p o p u lis t re fo rm ism th a n th e re st o f L a tin A m eric a. W h e re a s a lm o st every c o u n try in L a tin A m e ric a h a d e x p e rie n c e d a t least o n e e x te n d e d le ft-le a n in g o r p ro g ressiv e g o v e rn m e n t, E l S alv a d o r h a d su s­ ta in e d n e x t to n o n e . Basically, th e p o litic a l rig h t h as ru le d El S alv ad o r th r o u g h o u t its m o d e rn h isto ry . In a d d itio n , E l S alv a d o r is th e sm a lle st c o u n try in L a tin A m e ric a , a s itu a tio n th a t has h a d m u ltip le c o n se q u e n c e s. O n e o f th e se is a h ig h p o p u ­ la tio n c o n c e n tra tio n . E v en in th e early tw e n tie th c e n tu ry , few v a c a n t areas ex isted in El Salvador. T h e c o u n try s id e w as h ea v ily c u ltiv a te d a n d d en sely p o p u la te d , a n d so to o w as it h ig h ly d e fo re ste d . In th e w e ste rn h e m isp h e re , o n ly H a iti is m o re d e fo re ste d th a n El S alvador. A n o th e r c o n s e q u e n c e o f El S a lv a d o r’s sm all size w as a d is tin c t ex p e rie n c e w ith sta te c e n tra liz a tio n . T h e d eb a te s b e tw e e n c e n tra lists a n d fed e ra lists th a t w ere so im p o r ta n t to o th e r n a tio n s in L a tin A m e ric a m a tte re d less in E l S alvador. A n d o n c e th e sta te d id cen tralize , th e p o te n tia l fo r re g io n a l fa c tio n a lism w as n o t great. T h e e c o n o m y o f E l S alv a d o r w as o n e o f th e m o s t m o n o c ro p in L a tin A m eric a. W i th as m u c h as 9 0 p e rc e n t o f its e x p o rt rev e n u es d e riv e d fro m coffee b y th e la te 1920s, El S alv a d o r re lie d o n a sin g le c ro p fo r e c o n o m ic survival m o re th a n m o s t a n y o th e r co u n try . E v en w ith e c o n o m ic d iv ersifi­ c a tio n in th e 1940s a n d 1950s, in th e fo rm o f c o tto n p r o d u c tio n a n d so m e

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m o d e s t in d u s tria liz a tio n , coffee c o n tin u e d to p re d o m in a te . El S a lv a d o r’s m o d e s t la n d area also m e a n t th a t its coffee p la n ta tio n s w ere d istin c t. W h e re a s coffee g ro w ers in B razil, fo r ex a m p le , c o u ld m o v e o n to n e w la n d o n c e th e ir c u rre n t la n d d e te rio ra te d , n o su c h o p tio n ex iste d fo r S alva­ d o ra n grow ers. A larg e coffee p la n ta tio n in B razil m ig h t b e m a n y t h o u ­ sa n d s o f acres in size, w h erea s in E l S alv a d o r p la n ta tio n s a p p ro a c h in g o n e th o u s a n d acres w ere rare. C o n s e q u e n tly , g ro w ers in El S alv a d o r b e c a m e so m e o f th e m o s t efficien t in th e w o rld . N ev e rth ele ss, c o n tro l over E l S al­ v a d o r’s coffee e c o n o m y a n d th e w e a lth th a t d e riv e d fro m it re m a in e d h ig h ly exclusive. E l S alv a d o r w as n o t C o s ta R ic a o r V en ezu ela, w h e re sm a llh o ld ers th riv e d .22 In El S alvador, a sm all h a n d fu l o f p e o p le o w n e d m o s t o f th e n a tio n ’s a ra b le la n d a n d c o n tro lle d th e p ro c e ssin g a n d m a rk e t­ in g o f coffee. T h e re m a in in g m a jo rity o f th e p o p u la tio n e ith e r w o rk e d fo r th e m o r b are ly su rv iv e d o n tin y p lo ts o f m a rg in a l la n d . A n o th e r d is tin c t fe a tu re o f El S a lv a d o r’s e c o n o m y w as its lim ite d d e ­ gree o f fo re ig n in v e s tm e n t. M o s t o f th e m a jo r e c o n o m ic u n its in El S alva­ dor, especially its coffee p la n ta tio n s , w ere o w n e d b y S alv a d o ra n s. T h e re w as n o U n ite d F ru it C o m p a n y , as in n e ig h b o rin g G u a te m a la , H o n d u ra s , a n d C o s ta R ica. N o r w as th e re a s u b sta n tia l im m ig r a n t p re se n c e in th e coffee eco n o m y , as w ith th e G e rm a n s in G u a te m a la . A d m itte d ly , so m e im m ig ra n ts ca m e to El S alv a d o r a n d m a d e a fo rtu n e in coffee a n d c o m ­ m e rc e, su c h as th e H ills a n d th e D u k e s, b u t th e y m a rrie d in to w ellestab lish ed S a lv a d o ra n fam ilies a n d b e c a m e p a r t o f th e tra d itio n a l S alva­ d o ra n elite .23 W h e n h a r d e c o n o m ic tim e s h it in El S alvador, th e re w ere n o fo re ig n m u ltin a tio n a l c o rp o ra tio n s to ta rg e t; in s te a d it w o u ld b e S alva­ d o ra n versus S a lv a d o ra n . W i th reg a rd to its e th n ic id e n tity , E l S alv a d o r o n c e a g a in offers a d is­ tin c t case. It is c o m m o n to h e a r S alv a d o ra n s d e sc rib e th e ir n a tio n as th e m o s t m e stiz o in L a tin A m eric a. In d e e d , th e in d ig e n o u s p re se n c e in El S alv ad o r d e c lin e d sig n ific a n tly over tim e , m o re so th a n in m o s t o th e r c o u n trie s th a t h a d larg e in d ig e n o u s p o p u la tio n s a t th e tim e o f in d e p e n ­ d en ce. S tatistic s re la tin g to e th n ic id e n tity are in v a riab ly v ag u e a n d d iffi­ c u lt to co m e by, b u t a t th e tim e o f in d e p e n d e n c e E l S a lv a d o r’s in d ig e n o u s p eo p les m ay h av e c o m p rise d a n e a r m a jo rity o f th e p o p u la tio n . By th e tu r n o f th e tw e n tie th ce n tu ry , th e ir p r o p o rtio n h a d d e c lin e d to ro u g h ly 2 0 p e rc e n t, a n d b y th e m id - tw e n tie th c e n tu ry it h a d p ro b a b ly fallen b e lo w

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10 p e rc e n t. B y th a t tim e S alv a d o ra n s c o m m o n ly c la im e d th a t th e ir c o u n ­ try h a d n o in d ig e n o u s p e o p le a t all. T h e causes o f th e d e c im a tin g d e c lin e in in d ig e n o u s id e n tity are m a n ifo ld a n d co m p le x , b u t th e y re se m b le c o n ­ tin e n ta l p a tte rn s . A ssim ila tio n ist p ressu res a n d d is c rim in a to ry p ra c tic e s in b o th th e p u b lic a n d p riv a te se cto rs m a d e it d iffic u lt fo r in d ig e n o u s p e o p le to re ta in th e ir id e n tity fro m o n e g e n e ra tio n to th e n e x t. T h e se p ressu res w ere p a rtic u la rly in te n s e in th e la te n in e te e n th a n d early tw e n tie th c e n tu ­ ries, a m id s t ra p id e c o n o m ic e x p a n sio n a n d s ta te c e n tra liz a tio n . T h e d e ­ clin e in in d ig e n o u s id e n tity m a y h a v e b e e n m o re p re c ip ito u s in E l S alv ad o r th a n in o th e r c o u n trie s, b u t it w as p a r t o f a b ro a d e r p a tte r n . N ev e rth ele ss, E l S alv ad o r sta n d s in c o n tra s t to its n e ig h b o r G u a te m a la , w h e re th e p r o ­ p o r tio n o f in d ig e n o u s p e o p le n e v e r d r o p p e d b e lo w 50 p e rc e n t. E ven if in d ig e n o u s p eo p le s w ere u n d e r g re a t p re ssu re in E l S alvador, th e issu e o f e th n ic ity a n d e th n ic re la tio n s p la y e d decisive ro les at k e y m o m e n ts in th e n a tio n ’s h isto ry . A case in p o in t is th e 1932 u p risin g . T h e g e o g ra p h ic c e n te r o f th a t u p risin g , th e w e ste rn h ig h la n d s, w as a d e m o g ra p h ic c e n te r o f in d ig e n o u s p eo p le , a n d m o s t o f th e m u n ic ip a litie s th a t e x p e rie n c e d sig­ n ific a n t reb el ac tiv ity w ere d is p ro p o rtio n a te ly in d ig e n o u s .24 Finally, as w ith a n y n a tio n , El S a lv a d o r’s d is tin c t g e o g ra p h y sh a p e d its so c io e c o n o m ic h isto ry . As m e n tio n e d p reviously, El S alv a d o r is a sm all c o u n try , a p p ro x im a te ly o n e h u n d r e d fifty m iles lo n g a n d six ty m iles w id e. It ru n s fro m G u a te m a la in th e w e st to th e G u lf o f F o n sec a in th e east, a n d fro m th e P acific O c e a n in th e s o u th to th e H o n d u r a n b o rd e r in th e n o r th .25 F o r th o se rea d ers n o t fa m ilia r w ith S a lv a d o ra n geo g rap h y , a v isu ­ aliza tio n exercise m ig h t b e u seful. Im a g in e E l S alv a d o r as a series o f th re e step s c lim b in g o u t o f th e P acific O c e a n a n d e n d in g in H o n d u ra s . T h e first ste p is th e coastal p la in , w h ic h sits ro u g h ly a t sea level a n d is a n y w h e re fro m a few h u n d r e d y ard s to tw e n ty m iles w id e. T h e se c o n d ste p is th e c e n tra l p la te a u , w h ic h sits a t a p p ro x im a te ly tw o th o u s a n d fee t ab o v e sea level a n d is ro u g h ly th ir ty m iles w id e. It is d e fin e d b y a s trin g o f ro u g h ly o n e d o z e n v o lcan o e s o r v o lc a n ic u p w ellin g s th a t re a c h elev a tio n s as h ig h as seven th o u s a n d feet. T h e th ir d ste p is a m o u n ta in ra n g e th a t ru n s m o re or less th e e n tire ty o f th e H o n d u r a n b o rd e r. T h e ty p ic a l e le v a tio n o f th e ra n g e is fo u r th o u s a n d to five th o u s a n d fee t ab o v e sea level. El S alv ad o r h as o n e m a in river, th e L e m p a , w h ic h b e g in s in th e far n o rth w e s t a n d ru n s east u n til it reach es th e m id d le o f th e co u n try , w h e re it tak es a sh a rp tu r n a n d ru n s s tra ig h t fo r th e P acific O c e a n . T h e o n c e w ild riv er h as b e e n re ­

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stra in e d b y a series o f th re e d a m s th a t w ere c o n s tru c te d b e tw e e n th e 1940s a n d 1970s, b u t th e lo w er e n d o f th e sy stem , th e so -ca lle d B ajo R ío L em p a, still ex p erien ces seaso n al flo o d in g . El S alv ad o r h as few n a tu ra l reso u rces b e y o n d its fe rtile so il a n d th e la b o r o f its p e o p le . In v ariab ly , th e c o u n try ’s e c o n o m ic h isto ry , a n d th e d e v e lo p m e n ta l p ro g ra m s th a t p o lic y m a k e rs h av e p u rsu e d , re v o lv e d a ro u n d ag ric u ltu re . T h e h o t, lo w -ly in g co a sta l p la in is su ite d to g ro w in g tro p ic a l p ro d u c ts lik e sugar, c o tto n , a n d fru it, a n d su b s e q u e n tly it h as p la y e d a rele v an t ro le in th e n a tio n ’s e c o n o m ic h isto ry . A sig n ific a n t p o r tio n o f th e n a tio n ’s p o p u la tio n h as liv e d th e re . B y c o n tra st, th e m o u n ta in ra n g e a lo n g th e H o n d u r a n b o rd e r is c o m p ris e d o f n u tr ie n t-p o o r , ro c k y soil a n d th u s h as b e e n th e p o o re s t a n d least d e n se ly p o p u la te d o f El S a lv a d o r’s th re e steps. T h e m id d le step , th e c e n tra l p la te a u , h as b e e n th e e c o n o m ic a n d d e m o g ra p h ic c e n te r o f S a lv a d o ra n h isto ry . M o s t o f El S a lv a d o r’s larg est cities are lo c a te d th e re . D u r in g th e c o lo n ia l era a n d in th e early n in e te e n th ce n tu ry , in d ig o w as g ro w n o n th e relativ ely flat flo o r o f th e p la te a u in th e ea ste rn re g io n o f c o u n try , in w h a t are to d a y S an M ig u e l a n d S an V ic e n te d e p a rtm e n ts . B u t s ta rtin g in th e la te n in e te e n th c e n tu ry , w h e n th e coffee e c o n o m y to o k off, E l S a lv a d o r’s v o lc a n ic u p w ellin g s o ffered so m e o f th e b e s t co ffee -g ro w in g la n d s in th e w o rld . T h e re are th re e m a in coffee­ g ro w in g areas: th e w e ste rn h ig h la n d s s itu a te d a t th e in te rs e c tio n o f S o n so n a te , A h u a c h a p á n , a n d S a n ta A n a d e p a rtm e n ts ; th e c e n tra l h ig h la n d s a r o u n d th e S an S alv a d o r v o lc a n o a n d th e cities o f S an S alv a d o r a n d N u e v a S an S alv ad o r (n o w S a n ta T ecla); a n d th e h ig h la n d s in th e east, a ro u n d U s u lu tá n . T h e la tte r w as s o m e th in g o f a n a g ric u ltu ra l fro n tie r w h e n th e coffee e c o n o m y em e rg e d . T h e tw o w e ste rn reg io n s, b y c o n tra st, w ere d en sely p o p u la te d , especially b y in d ig e n o u s p e o p le liv in g o n c o m m u n a l la n d th a t th e y h a d in h e rite d fro m th e S p a n ish cro w n . T h e p riv a tiz a tio n o f th o se la n d s in th e 1880s a n d th e ir e n tra n c e in to th e m a rk e tp la c e fo r coffee c u ltiv a tio n w as a d e fin in g m o m e n t in S a lv a d o ra n h isto ry .

T h e o riz in g D e m o c ra c y in El S alv a d o r

M o s t p e o p le in El S alv a d o r h av e liv e d m o s t o f th e ir lives u n d e r a u th o ri­ ta ria n regim es. In th is re g a rd , E l S alv a d o r is s o m e th in g o f a sy m b o l fo r m o s t n a tio n s , b ec au se d e m o c ra c y h as b e e n th e e x c e p tio n ra th e r th a n th e

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ru le in m o d e rn h isto ry . S ch o la rs a n d p ra c titio n e rs alik e h av e ask ed c o u n t­ less tim es a b o u t w h a t v ariab les cause a so c ie ty to d e m o c ra tiz e . It w o u ld b e fo o lish to try to u n d e r s ta n d El S a lv a d o r’s ex p e rien c e w ith o u t d ra w in g u p o n th e w isd o m c o n ta in e d in th e v ast a n d sp ra w lin g lite ra tu re o n d e m o ­ cra tic theo ry . F o rtu n a te ly , so m e stu d ie s h av e sy n th e siz e d th e d e b a te s a n d p la c e d th e m in a L a tin A m e ric a n c o n te x t, w h ic h h elp s to e lu c id a te th e S alv a d o ra n case. B efore m o v in g in to th o se d eb a te s, it is n ec essary to d e fin e th e k ey te rm s in use here: democracy a n d authoritarianism . F o r th e sake o f s im ­ plicity, th e p re s e n t s tu d y follow s th e le a d o f P au l D ra k e in h is h isto ric a l o v erv iew o f d e m o c ra c y in L a tin A m e ric a . H e focuses o n e lec tio n s a n d electo ral c o m p e titio n a n d a d o p ts w h a t h e calls a “b in ary , m in im a lis t d efi­ n itio n .” H e defin es a d e m o c ra tic so c ie ty as o n e in w h ic h p o litic a l lead ers are ch o sen in relatively free a n d fair e lec tio n s a n d th e civil lib e rtie s o f th e citizen ry are g en erally re sp e c te d . In c o n tra st, a n a u th o rita r ia n so ciety is o n e in w h ic h th o se c o n d itio n s are a b se n t, w h e re lead ers c o m e to p o w er arb itrarily , m ilitarily , o r th r o u g h e lec tio n s th a t are n o t free a n d fair, a n d in a so cietal c o n te x t in w h ic h civil lib e rtie s are n o t re sp e c te d . T h e te rm a u ­

thoritarian is s o m e tim e s asso cia te d n a rro w ly w ith th e m ilita ry reg im es o f th e la tte r tw e n tie th ce n tu ry , b u t fo llo w in g D ra k e ’s lead , th e te rm is u se d m o re b ro ad ly h e re as b e in g ro u g h ly s y n o n y m o u s w ith “d ic ta to ria l” a n d “n o n d e m o c ra tic .”26 F ro m th e se d e fin itio n s it th e n fo llo w s th a t th e te rm democratization refers to th e p ro ce ss by w h ic h a so ciety tra n s itio n s fro m a u th o rita ria n is m to d em o cracy . It also sta n d s to re a so n th a t so cieties c a n e x h ib it degrees o f d e m o c ra tiz a tio n , w h e re b y a h ig h ly d e m o c ra tic so ciety w o u ld allo w “b ro a d e r suffrage, h o ld m o re h o n e s t e lec tio n s a n d p r o te c t m o re civil lib e r­ ties” th a n its m o re m in im a lly d e m o c ra tic c o u n te rp a rts .27 It is w idely a c c e p te d a m o n g sc h o lars o f p o litic a l th e o ry th a t poverty, in eq u ity , a n d so cietal fa c tio n a lism h in d e r d e m o c ra c y a n d p r o m o te a u ­ th o rita ria n is m . So i f a so c ie ty is g e n e ra lly p o o r, o r its e x ta n t w e a lth is d i­ v id e d u n eq u ally , o r its citizen s are d eep ly d iv id e d by e th n ic ity o r relig io n , th e n th e sense o f co llectiv e tr u s t n ecessary to b u ild a la stin g d em o crac y w ill b e a b se n t. T h is m a te ria l/s tru c tu ra l e x p la n a tio n fo r th e o rig in s o f d e ­ m o c ra c y is ex e m p lifie d b y a s tu d y c o a u th o re d b y a n e c o n o m is t a n d a p o ­ litica l scien tist, D a r o n A c e m o g lu a n d Ja m es R o b in so n , w h o a p tly title d

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th e ir w o rk Economic Origins o f Dictatorship a n d Democracy .28 D ra k e h as m a d e a g en e ral o b se rv a tio n a b o u t L a tin A m e ric a th a t ad v an ces a sim ila rly m a te ria list a p p ro a c h , p o in tin g o u t th a t th e fo rm e r co re area o f th e S p a n ish e m p ire, ro u g h ly th e h ig h la n d sp in e s tre tc h in g fro m M e x ico th r o u g h C e n ­ tra l A m e ric a in to th e A n d e s, h as b e e n less d e m o c ra tic th a n reg io n s o n th e c o lo n ial p erip h e ry , su c h as C h ile , A rg e n tin a , a n d U ru g u a y . D ra k e ex p lain s th is d iv e rg e n ce b y re fe rrin g to L a tin A m e ric a ’s m a te ria l/e c o n o m ic h isto ry , in w h ic h th e fo rm e r co re areas h a d la rg e in d ig e n o u s p o p u la tio n s a n d th e p e o p le w h o se t u p th e g o v e rn m e n ts a n d e c o n o m ie s in th o se areas w a n te d access to labor. T h e y g a in e d it th r o u g h racial h ie ra rc h ie s a n d h ig h ly c o e r­ cive p rac tice s d u r in g b o th th e c o lo n ia l era a n d m o d e rn n a tio n h o o d after in d e p e n d e n c e . C o m p a ra tiv e ly sp e a k in g , p e rip h e ra l areas e x h ib ite d less d i­ visiveness b ecau se th ey w ere s e ttle d la te r in th e c o lo n ia l era fo r rea so n s o th e r th a n th e e x p lo ita tio n o f n a tiv e lab o r. C e n tra l A m e ric a n is ts h av e e m p lo y e d a sim ila r c o m p a ra tiv e a rg u m e n t to ex p lain th e d iv e rg e n t p o litic a l o u tc o m e s o n th e is th m u s .29 In fact, C e n ­ tra l A m e ric a p ro v id e s s o m e th in g o f a la b o ra to ry fo r s tu d y in g d e m o c ra tiz a ­ tio n b ec au se its five n a tio n s sh a re sim ila r h isto rie s a n d a close g eo g rap h y , y e t th e y hav e p ro d u c e d d iv e rg e n t p o litic a l sy stem s. C o s ta R ic a e m e rg e d as a relatively sta b le a n d fu n c tio n in g d em o cracy , w h ile its n e ig h b o rs re ­ m a in e d e n tre n c h e d in a u th o rita ria n is m . S o m e C e n tra l A m e ric a n is ts ex­ p la in th is d iv e rg e n ce w ith an a rg u m e n t sim ila r to D ra k e ’s c o m p a riso n b e tw e e n co re a n d p e rip h e ra l areas o f th e S p a n ish e m p ire . A c c o rd in g to th is e x p la n a tio n , C o s ta R ic a w as p a r t o f D ra k e ’s c o lo n ia l p e rip h e ry b e ­ cause it h a d a m in im a l c o n c e n tra tio n o f in d ig e n o u s p e o p le s a n d so, d e ­ sp ite b e in g s e ttle d early in th e c o lo n ia l era, it re m a in e d a sm a ll a n d in sig n ific a n t o u tp o s t o f th e S p a n ish e m p ire . By c o m p a riso n , th e re st o f C e n tra l A m eric a , a n d especially El S alv a d o r a n d G u a te m a la , h a d larg e i n d ig e n o u s p o p u la tio n s a n d b e c a m e m o re im p o r ta n t e c o n o m ic ce n te rs b ased o n th e e x p lo ita tio n o f lo cal labor. By th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry , C o s ta R ic a w as still p o o r a n d relatively iso lated , b u t it a v o id e d th e in te n s e so cial h ie ra rc h ie s a n d racial h o stilitie s o f its n e ig h b o rs. So w h e n th e e x p o rt b o o m c a m e a lo n g a n d C o s ta R ica em e rg e d as a coffee p ro d u c e r, lik e its n e ig h b o rs El S alv a d o r a n d G u a te ­ m ala, it d id so differen tly , in a m a n n e r th a t w as less coerciv e o r co n flictiv e.

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S u b seq u en tly , p o litic a l lead ers in C o s ta R ica c o u ld d ire c t p re c io u s fin a n ­ cial reso u rces to w a rd s th in g s o th e r th a n w a r th a t w o u ld p a y a r e tu r n o n th e ir in v e s tm e n t, lik e e d u c a tio n . B y c o n tra st, lead ers in E l S alv a d o r a n d G u a te m a la felt th e y h a d to in v e st in th e m ilita ry to p rese rv e th e coercive m e c h a n ism s th a t m a d e th e ir d is tin c t m e th o d s o f p r o d u c tio n p o ssib le. T h e s e c o m p a ra tiv e a rg u m e n ts reveal th a t E l S alv a d o r e x h ib ite d m a n y o f th e s tru c tu ra l v ariab les th a t p r o m o te a u th o rita ria n is m ra th e r th a n d e ­ m ocracy. C o m p a r e d to so m e o f th e la rg e r co re areas o f th e S p a n ish e m p ire — M e x ico a n d P eru , fo r in sta n c e — El S alv a d o r w as a n im p o v e rish e d a n d m a rg in a l p lace, a n d it d id n o t h av e th e o p p o r tu n ity to create a h ig h ly e d u c a te d p o p u la tio n o r a s tro n g e c o n o m ic fo u n d a tio n . T h r o u g h o u t its histo ry , m o s t o f its p e o p le h av e b e e n p o o r a n d illite ra te , liv in g a p re c a rio u s h a n d - to - m o u th ex iste n ce in th e c o u n try sid e . A t th e tim e o f in d e p e n d e n c e , fo r exam p le, El S alv a d o r w as a n a tio n o f ro u g h ly 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p le w ith a m in isc u le p ro fe ssio n a l class c o n s istin g o f a ro u n d tw o d o z e n law yers, d o c ­ to rs, a n d p h a rm a c is ts. B y 1930 it w as a n a tio n o f 1.5 m illio n , m o s t o f w h o m w ere still u n e d u c a te d ru ra l dw ellers. B u t c o m p a re d to C o s ta R ica, El S alv ad o r w as a co re area o f th e c o lo n ia l e n te rp rise , a n d so it e n te re d in d e p e n d e n c e fac in g th e legacies o f c o lo n ia lism — c o e rc io n a n d racial h ie ra rc h y — a k in to th o se in G u a te m a la , M e x ico , a n d P eru . W h e n El S al­ v a d o r e n te re d n a tio n h o o d it p o ssessed, as h is to ria n H é c to r L in d o -F u e n te s p u t it, “w e a k fo u n d a tio n s ” fo r e c o n o m ic a n d p o litic a l m o d e rn iz a tio n .30 A rguably, El S a lv a d o r’s b e s t c h a n c e to av o id a u th o rita ria n u n d e rd e v e l­ o p m e n t w as d u r in g th e coffee era in th e la te n in e te e n th a n d early tw e n ti­ e th ce n tu ries, w h e n sp e c ta c u la r p ro fits fro m a g ric u ltu re c o u ld h av e b e e n in v e ste d in b ro a d e r a n d m o re s u sta in a b le d e v e lo p m e n t in itia tiv e s. H o w ­ ever, th a t d id n o t h a p p e n , a n d b y th e 1950s th e w in d o w o f o p p o r tu n ity w as closing. By th e n , El S a lv a d o r’s s tru c tu ra l p ro b le m s w ere fully e v id e n t to a n y o n e w h o ca re d to see th e m . T h e n a tio n ’s p o p u la tio n w as e x p lo d in g , its a g ric u ltu ra l fro n tie r h a d all b u t d isa p p e a re d , it re lie d o n im p o r te d oil fo r energy, a n d its e c o n o m ic su rv iv al h in g e d o n fickle in te r n a tio n a l m a r ­ k ets fo r a g ric u ltu ra l c o m m o d itie s. E v en i f th e p o litic a l w ill h a d ex isted in th e 1950s a n d 19 60s to e n a c t m assive s tru c tu ra l re fo rm s, w h ic h it d id n o t, a v o id in g lo n g -te rm e c o n o m ic c a ta stro p h e w o u ld h av e b e e n d ifficu lt. In h in d s ig h t, El S alv a d o r w o u ld h av e h a d to h av e in v e ste d th e su rp lu s w e a lth fro m coffee differen tly , in a m a n n e r a k in to C o s ta R ica. B u t in o rd e r to d o

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so, th e c o u n try n e e d e d a sense o f c o m m o n p u rp o s e a n d w e ll-d e v e lo p e d sy stem o f d e m o c ra tic a lly b a se d exch an g e; tragically, n e ith e r o f th o se ex isted .31 C h a rles T illy ’s s tu d y o f d e m o c ra c y illu stra te s th e ch allen g es th a t a p la ce lik e E l S alv a d o r fac ed in c re a tin g a m o re in c lu siv e sy stem . T illy i d en tifies th re e p re c o n d itio n s fo r d e m o c ra c y or, as h e calls th e m , th re e “d e m o c ra c y -p ro m o tin g causal m e c h a n is m s .” F irst, n e tw o rk s o f tr u s t a n d co n fid e n c e th a t o p e ra te o n a p e rso n a l o r lo cal level h a v e to b e in te g ra te d in to th e n a tio n a l p u b lic aren a. In o th e r w o rd s, a so c iety h as to b u ild c o l­ lective tru s t, a n d its p e o p le h av e to cease o p e ra tin g as a u to n o m o u s islan d s w h e re tr u s t exists o n ly w ith in iso la te d c o m m u n itie s o f fa m ily o r frie n d s ra th e r th a n in th e collective, n a tio n a l e n te rp rise . S e c o n d , p u b lic p o litic s h as to b e iso la te d fro m e c o n o m ic in e q u ality . T h is m e a n s th a t e ith e r th e in e q u ity o f a so c ie ty n ee d s to b e re d u c e d , o r p o litic s h as to fin d a w ay to o p e ra te o u ts id e it. Lastly, lo cal c e n te rs o f a u to n o m o u s po w er, su c h as w a r­ lo rd s, p a tro n a g e n e tw o rk s, o r lo cal m ilitia s, h a v e to b e e lim in a te d . A s tro n g , h o m o g e n iz in g sta te creates a s itu a tio n in w h ic h all citizen s fin d th em selv es b o u n d to g e th e r in a collectiv e e n te rp rise , ra th e r th a n d e d ic a t­ in g th e ir lo y alty to lo cal p o w e r c e n te rs th a t w e a k e n co llectiv e c o n s c io u s­ ness. T illy em p h asizes th a t d e m o c ra c y m o v e m e n ts a lm o st n e v e r e m erg e in n a tio n s w ith w e a k states; a s tro n g sta te is a n ec essary p re c u rso r to d e m o c ra tiz a tio n .32 W h e n T illy ’s analysis is a p p lie d to E l S alvador, w e see th a t o n ly o n e o f h is d e m o c ra c y -c a u sin g m e c h a n ism s ex iste d th e re b y th e la te 1920s: a s tro n g sta te th a t e ra d ic a te d re g io n a l bases o f a u to n o m o u s pow er. T h e em erg en c e o f th a t o n e m e c h a n is m h e lp s e x p lain th e sh o rt-liv e d d e m o ­ cra tic e x p e rim e n t th a t c u lm in a te d in th e e le c tio n o f A rtu ro A ra u jo in 1931. B u t th e failu re o f th e o th e r tw o ca teg o ries h elp s e x p lain w h y d e m o c ­ racy failed to w ith s ta n d th e m ilita ry c o u p o f D e c e m b e r 1931. A so ciety ’s m a te ria l c o n d itio n s m a y p re d isp o se it to w a rd s d e m o c ra c y o r a u th o rita ria n is m , b u t th e y are n o t destin y , n o r d o th e y e ra d ic a te v a ri­ a tio n w ith in ca te g o rie s.33 T ak e th e ex am p les o f M e x ic o a n d P eru . C a rlo s F o rm e n t, a h is to ria n o f n in e te e n th - c e n tu ry L a tin A m e ric a n p o litics, show s th a t M e x ico a n d P e ru e x h ib ite d g re a t v a ria tio n in d e m o c ra tic p o te n tia l. F o rm e n t ack n o w le d g e s th a t b o th c o u n trie s w e re a u th o rita r ia n a n d fo l­ lo w e d th e p re d ic ta b le p a th o f fo rm e r co re areas o f th e S p a n ish E m p ire .

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B u t F o rm e n t sh o w s th a t p u b lic life in th e tw o so c ieties w as v a stly d if­ fe re n t, a n d th e re fo re th e ir p o te n tia l fo r d e m o c ra c y d iv erg ed . H e focuses o n th e p rese n ce o f civic a sso cia tio n s— clu b s a n d o rg a n iz a tio n s— a n d th e ex isten ce o f p r in t c u ltu re , su c h as n ew sp a p e rs. H e sh o w s th a t M e x ic o h a d a ro b u s t a n d v ig o ro u s c iv ic-asso cia tio n a l life a n d a n activ e p r in t c u ltu re , w h ereas P eru ’s w ere m o r ib u n d . F o rm e n t believes th a t th e p re se n c e o f civic asso ciatio n s is im p o r ta n t b ec au se ju s t as th e re n o w n e d th e o ris t o f d e m o c ­ rac y A lexis d e T o q u e v ille a rg u e d m a n y d ec ad e s ago, civ ic asso c ia tio n s m a k e d e m o c ra c y m o re likely. W h e n citizen s p ra c tic e d e m o c ra c y lo cally o r g a th e r to discuss p la n s fo r th e ir asso cia tio n , th e y are m u c h m o re lik ely to d e m a n d d e m o c ra c y in p u b lic p o litic s. A c c o rd in g to F o rm e n t, M e x ico possessed a g re a te r p o te n tia l fo r d e m o c ra c y th a n P eru , a n d th u s i f M e x ico fa ile d to ac h ie v e d e m o c ra c y , s o m e o th e r c o n t in g e n t v a ria b le s m u s t b e b la m e d . O n e su c h c o n tin g e n c y , a c c o rd in g to F o rm e n t, w as fo re ig n in v a sio n — first b y th e U n ite d S tates in th e 1840s a n d th e n b y F ra n c e in th e 1 860s.34 O n e im p lic a tio n o f F o rm e n t’s s tu d y is th e d e c o u p lin g o f p o litic a l p rac tice s fro m so c io e c o n o m ic stru c tu re s. I f M e x ico a n d P e ru w ere ro u g h ly alike in th e ir stru c tu re s, y e t d iv e rg e n t in th e ir c iv ic-asso cia tio n a l lives, th e n p e rh a p s th e ir d is tin c t c u ltu re s o r p rax es o f p o litic s fu n c tio n e d in d e ­ p e n d e n tly a n d g u id e d th o se n a tio n s ’ resp e ctiv e h isto rie s. T h is s tu d y offers sim ila r p o te n tia l, to th e e x te n t th a t it su g g ests th a t E l S a lv a d o r’s p o litic a l p rac tice s p re c e d e d th e o n se t o f th e coffee e c o n o m y in th e la te n in e te e n th ce n tu ry . T h e r e is little d o u b t th a t th e d is tin c t n a tu re o f El S a lv a d o r’s coffee e c o n o m y a n d th e d is trib u tio n o f th e rew ard s o f coffee g ro w in g c o n trib ­ u te d to th e a u th o rita r ia n p ra c tic e s o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry . B u t i f th e p o litic a l p rac tice s p re c e d e d coffee, th e n e ith e r th e m a te ria l e x p la n a tio n n ee d s to b e p u s h e d b a c k earlier in to E l S a lv a d o r’s h isto ry , o r th e e x p la n a ­ to ry v aria b le is less m a te ria l a n d m o re c u ltu ra l/d isc u rsiv e . P erh ap s E l S al­ v a d o r’s coffee e c o n o m y w as d e te rm in e d b y its p o litic s a n d n o t vice v ersa.35 M a n y sch o lars agree w ith F o rm e n t’s c la im th a t in te rn a tio n a l p ressu re ca n b e an im p o r ta n t c o n tin g e n c y in p r o m o tin g e ith e r d e m o c ra c y o r a u ­ th o rita ria n is m . I f a p o w e rfu l fo re ig n g o v e rn m e n t, su c h as th e U n ite d S tates o r th e U n ite d K in g d o m , creates in c e n tiv e s fo r a L a tin A m e ric a n n a tio n to d em o cra tiz e , th e n it is p o ssib le th a t d e m o c ra tic m o v e m e n ts w ill b e in v ig o ra te d . B y th e sa m e to k e n , i f p o w e rfu l fo re ig n g o v e rn m e n ts to le r­ ate a u th o rita ria n is m , th e n d e m o c ra c y ’s p ro sp e c ts d im in is h . In th e case o f

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El S alvador, th e U n ite d S tates w as th e m a in fo re ig n p o w e r in th e reg io n , a n d it te n d e d to e n c o u ra g e a u th o rita ria n is m . It s to o d o n th e sid e o f d e ­ m o c ra c y in th e 1 9 20s u n d e r th e au sp ices o f th e 1923 W a s h in g to n T reaties, w h ic h called fo r d ip lo m a tic re c o g n itio n to b e w ith h e ld fro m a n y g o v e rn ­ m e n t th a t ca m e to p o w e r in a n o n d e m o c r a tic m a n n e r. A cco rd in g ly , th e U n ite d S tates w ith h e ld re c o g n itio n fro m M a rtín e z afte r th e D e c e m b e r 1931 c o u p . B u t w h e n fac ed w ith M a rtín e z ’s o b stin acy , it w as u n w illin g or u n a b le to d o a n y th in g , a n d e v e n tu a lly it re c o g n iz e d th e M a rtín e z g o v e rn ­ m e n t in 1934. A rg u ab ly , it even b o lste re d M a rtín e z b y to le ra tin g h is h a rsh resp o n se to th e 1 9 3 2 u p risin g in th e n a m e o f a n tic o m m u n is m . By c o n ­ trast, th e U n ite d S tates p r o m o te d d e m o c ra tic re fo rm s in n e ig h b o rin g N i ­ carag u a a t ro u g h ly th e sa m e tim e in th e early 1930s, iro n ic ally in th e m id s t o f a U .S. m ilita ry o c c u p a tio n .36 A n o th e r e x p la n a tio n fo r d e m o c ra tiz a tio n revolves a r o u n d th e tim in g a n d n a tu re o f elite fa c tio n a lism a n d m a ss-b a se d m o b iliz a tio n . P o litic al sc i­ e n tis t D e b o r a h Y ashar h as c o n trib u te d to th is a re n a w ith a c o m p a ra tiv e stu d y o f G u a te m a la a n d C o s ta R ic a in th e m id - tw e n tie th c e n tu ry . S he isolates th e v ariab les o f elite u n ity a n d m ass d e m a n d s to arg u e th a t w h e n a so c iety ’s elites fa c tio n a liz e a t th e sa m e tim e th a t a m ass m o v e m e n t co ales­ ces, th e n d e m o c ra tiz a tio n w ill likely o ccu r. I f e ith e r v aria b le tra n sp ire s in d e p e n d e n tly , c h a n g e is u n lik e ly .37 A c e m o g lu a n d R o b in s o n a d v a n c e a sim ila r claim in Economic Origins o f Dictatorship a n d Democracy. In re ­ sp o n se to th e q u e s tio n “W h y d o es a n o n d e m o c r a tic e lite ever d e m o c ra ­ tize?” th e y answ er, “ B ecause th e d ise n fra n c h ise d citizen s c a n th re a te n th e elite a n d fo rce it to m a k e c o n c e ssio n s.”38 T h is analysis ca n b e u se fu lly a p ­ p lie d to El Salvador. A m o d e s t v a ria tio n o f elite d iv isio n a n d m ass d e m a n d o c c u rre d in th e la te 1920s a n d early 1930s, p r o m o tin g th e b r ie f p ro ce ss o f d e m o c ra tiz a tio n , b u t n e ith e r v a ria b le w as su ffic ie n tly ro b u s t to su sta in d e ­ m ocracy, a n d th u s a u th o rita ria n is m r e tu r n e d in th e m ilita ry c o u p o f 1931. T o su m m a riz e , sch o lars o f p o litic s h av e id e n tifie d v ariab les th a t te n d to p r o m o te e ith e r d e m o c ra c y o r a u th o rita ria n is m . S o m e o f th o se variab les are lo n g -te rm stru c tu re s, w h ile o th e rs are s h o r t- te r m c o n tin g e n c ie s. S o m e are d o m e stic , a n d o th e rs fo re ig n . El S alv a d o r possessed few o f th e variab les th a t p r o m o te d e m o c ra tiz a tio n . Its s tru c tu re s p u t it o n a p a th to w ard s a u th o rita ria n is m , a n d w h e n c o u n te rv a ilin g c o n tin g e n c ie s fa v o re d d e m o c ­ ra tiz a tio n , they w ere in su ffic ie n t to cre ate la stin g ch an g e.

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D e m o c ra tic D isc o u rse a n d th e In fo rm a l R u les o f Politics

F o llo w in g th e d e fin itio n o f d e m o c ra c y p ro v id e d b y D ra k e , a d e m o c ra tic ele c tio n is o n e in w h ic h m u ltip le c a n d id a te s p re s e n t p la tfo rm s to a v o tin g p o p u la tio n a n d th e m e m b e rs o f th a t p o p u la tio n g o to th e p o lls o f th e ir o w n v o litio n a n d ch o o se th e ir p re fe rre d c a n d id a te . B y th a t d e fin itio n , d e m o c ra tic elec tio n s h a v e a lm o st n e v e r o c c u rre d in El S alvador. In ste a d , elec tio n s w ere h ig h ly m a n a g e d affairs w ith m o re o r less p re d e te rm in e d o u tc o m e s a n d u n a n im o u s o r n e a r-u n a n im o u s resu lts. O n so m e o ccasio n s o n ly o n e c a n d id a te ra n , b u t o n m a n y o cc asio n s m u ltip le c a n d id a te s c o m ­ p e te d , o r a t least w a n te d to c o m p e te , a n d so th e c h a lle n g e fo r th e e v e n tu a l v ic to r w as to c o n tro l th e p o llin g s ta tio n s a n d m a k e su re th a t v o tin g w e n t h is way. C a n d id a te s e m p lo y e d a v a rie ty o f tactics to ach iev e th a t goal, m a n y in v o lv in g so m e d eg re e o f p h y sic a l c o e rc io n o r v io le n ce . T h e d o m i­ n a n t c a n d id a te o fte n u se d v io le n c e to fe n d o ff rivals a n d se cu re c o n tro l o f th e p o llin g s ta tio n , a n d h is rivals re s p o n d e d w ith v io le n c e in d e sp e ra te a t­ te m p ts to d islo d g e h im . E ven th o u g h e lec tio n s in El S alv a d o r w ere n o t d e m o c ra tic , a n y s tu d y o f th e m n ee d s to a c k n o w le d g e tw o o v e rw h e lm in g p ara d o x es: 1) th a t elec­ tio n s o c c u rre d c o n s ta n tly a n d o fte n tim e s w ith larg e tu r n o u ts ; a n d 2 ) th e y w ere a c c o m p a n ie d b y a n u n r e le n tin g d e m o c ra tic d isc o u rse th a t c e le b ra te d free suffrage, liberty , a n d in d iv id u a l w ill. E ven in a sm a ll c o u n try lik e El Salvador, th e scale o f th e se p ara d o x es is m in d -b o g g lin g . El S alv a d o r h a d b e tw e e n 2 0 0 a n d 2 4 8 m u n ic ip a litie s a t a n y g iv e n m o m e n t in its m o d e rn histo ry . E le ctio n s fo r m u n ic ip a l officials a n d legislative d e p u tie s o c c u rre d every y ear o r every o th e r year, d e p e n d in g o n th e p a rtic u la r tim e p e rio d , a n d elec tio n s fo r n a tio n a l officials (c o n g re ssio n a l re p re se n ta tiv e s a n d p re si­ d e n t) o c c u rre d every tw o o r fo u r years. T h u s , d u r in g E l S a lv a d o r’s first c e n tu ry o f in d e p e n d e n c e , lite ra lly te n s o f th o u s a n d s o f p e o p le oversaw s o m e th in g lik e tw e n ty th o u s a n d e lec tio n s a n d p ro d u c e d u n to ld th o u s a n d s o f pages o f p o litic a lly b a se d d o c u m e n ta tio n , m u c h o f w h ic h e n d e d u p in arch iv al sto rag e. F u rth e rm o re , m o s t o f th o se p e o p le liv e d in sm all, h ig h ly in tim a te c o m m u n itie s in w h ic h th e y a n d th e ir fam ilies in te ra c te d w ith o n e a n o th e r co n stan tly . T h e d o c u m e n ta ry re c o rd reveals th a t all th o se p e o p le in all th o se places over all th a t tim e c o n s iste n tly v io la te d th e fo r-

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m a l, w ritte n ru les o f p o litic s a n d a d h e re d to a n in fo rm a l, u n w ritte n co d e ty p ifie d b y p a tro n a g e a n d c lie n te lism . S im ilarly, all o f th o se p e o p le over all o f th a t tim e a n d sp ace e m p lo y e d d e m o c ra tic -s o u n d in g la n g u a g e to d e ­ scrib e w h a t th e y w ere d o in g , even th o u g h th e re w as little o r n o th in g d e m o c ra tic a b o u t th e ir p rac tice s. A n y sc h o la r w h o tak es s to c k o f th a t s itu a tio n c a n n o t h e lp b u t ask h o w th e sy stem fu n c tio n e d so c o n s iste n tly over tim e . H o w d id p o litic a l acto rs fro m o n e g e n e ra tio n to th e n e x t le a rn th e in fo rm a l, u n w ritte n rules? A n d i f p o litic a l ac to rs w ere aw are th a t th e y w ere b e tra y in g th e fo rm a l, w ritte n ru les o f p o litic s, w o u ld a rese arch e r n o t ex p e ct to see th e fap ad e fall aw ay a t so m e p o in t in th e d o c u m e n ta tio n ? W o u ld p o litic a l ac to rs n o t at so m e p o in t sp e ak to o n e a n o th e r m o re fra n k ly a b o u t w h a t th e y w ere d o in g a n d reveal th e ir u n d e r s ta n d in g o f h o w th e sy stem really w o rk e d ? A n d given th a t elites w ere in v a ria b ly c o n c e rn e d a b o u t m ass a u to n o m o u s a c tio n , w h y w o u ld th e y e m p lo y su c h a n e g a lita ria n -s o u n d in g d isc o u rse a n d co d ify electo ral ru les th a t stressed d e m o c ra c y a n d lib e rty ?39 M a y b e th e se q u e s tio n s a n d th e ir c o rre s p o n d in g p ara d o x es ca n b e easily ex p lain e d . A fte r all, e lec tio n s w ere h ig h ly m a n a g e d affairs, so th e fact th a t th e y to o k p la ce re g u la rly a n d w ith h ig h tu r n o u ts m ig h t b e in sig ­ n ific a n t; elites m ig h t h a v e c o n tro lle d th e m a n d fo rc e d p o o r re ta in e rs to c o m e to th e p o lls a n d v o te a c c o rd in g to th e ir o rd ers. B y ex te n sio n , th e d e m o c ra tic d isc o u rse m ig h t h av e b e e n e m p ty rh e to ric , a la n g u a g e th a t p o w e rfu l p e o p le u se d to m a s k th e ir n o n d e m o c r a tic p rac tice s. E v en i f su c h a d isc o u rse risk e d in c itin g th e m asses’ d esire fo r equality, El S alv a d o r w as h a rd ly u n iq u e in th is reg a rd . A s th e h is to ria n F lo re n c ia M a llo n w rite s in h e r s tu d y o f n a tio n -s ta te fo rm a tio n in M e x ic o a n d P eru , elites in b o th o f th o se c o u n trie s s o u g h t to “c o n s tru c t n a tio n -s ta te s a ro u n d h e g e m o n ic n a tio n a l-d e m o c ra tic d isc o u rses.”40 E ven a w ave o f re v isio n ist sc h o la rsh ip th a t h as rev ealed th e ex isten ce o f g e n u in e ly d e m o c ra tic p rac tice s in n in e te e n th - c e n tu ry L a tin A m e ric a agrees th a t th o se e x p la n a tio n s m ig h t suffice.41 F o r ex a m p le , th e h is to ria n Jo rg e M yers, w h o s tu d ie d e lec tio n s a n d p o litic a l la n g u a g e in n in e te e n th c e n tu ry A rg e n tin a , fo u n d a v ig o ro u s “d isc o u rse o f R e p u b lic [th at] b e c a m e th e sin g le le g itim a te m e d iu m o f p u b lic e x p re ssio n afte r 1 8 2 0 .”42 Yet h e c o n te n d s th a t d e m o c ra tic a n d re p u b lic a n “p rin c ip le s c o u ld b e p ro c la im e d w h ic h n o t o n ly w ere s im u lta n e o u s ly b e in g v io la te d b u t w h o se v io la tio n

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w as e x p la in e d aw ay in te rm s w h ic h th e d o m in a te d c o u ld ex p o se o n ly th r o u g h a n a rd u o u s p ro ce ss o f class-specific re s e m a n tiz a tio n .” In o th e r w o rd s, M y ers says th a t ric h , p o w e rfu l p e o p le c o u ld c re ate a n exclusive sy stem o f ru le b y b u ild in g u p a n e x p la n a to ry sy stem th a t c e le b ra te d d e ­ m o c ra c y a n d in d iv id u a l rig h ts a n d th a t w as d iffic u lt fo r p o o r m asses to challen g e. M y ers goes o n to say th a t “w h a t w as b e in g p ro c la im e d as a p r in ­ ciple fo r all c o u ld b e u n d e r s to o d fro m th e v a n ta g e p o in t o f th e d o m in a to rs as in fac t a p p lic a b le o n ly to th e r u lin g few .” R e c o g n iz in g th e m o d e r n ­ s o u n d in g p o litic a l d isc o u rse th a t a c c o m p a n ie d e lec tio n s in A rg e n tin a , h e co n c lu d e s th a t “re v o lu tio n s in p o litic a l la n g u a g e c a n ta k e p la c e w ith o u t c o n c o m ita n t p o litic a l re v o lu tio n s. T h u s w e h av e to lo o k closely a t th e la n ­ g u ag e th e y u se d a n d h o w th e y c o d e d it to m a k e sense to th e m se lv es in th e ir social c o n te x t.”43 A n o th e r h is to ria n o f n in e te e n th - c e n tu ry A rg e n tin a , H ild a S á b a to , o p era tes in a sim ila r v e in as M y ers, b u t in th e b ro a d e r c o n te x t o f elec to ra l p rac tice s in n in e te e n th - c e n tu ry L a tin A m e ric a as a w h o le . S h e first ac­ k n o w led g e s th e p re d o m in a n c e o f electio n s: “ T h r o u g h o u t th e n in e te e n th ce n tu ry , in m o s t areas o f L a tin A m eric a, e lec tio n s to ch o o se local, re g io n a l a n d n a tio n a l rep rese n tativ es, b o th d ire c t a n d in d ire c t, w ere h e ld re g u la rly a n d v ery fre q u e n tly — in m a n y places, several tim e s a year. T h e y w ere th e p re sc rib e d w ay to p o litic a l office.”44 L ik e M y ers, S á b a to reco g n izes th a t th o se elec tio n s w ere o fte n a c c o m p a n ie d b y a v ig o ro u s, m o d e rn - s o u n d in g p o litic a l r h e to ric th a t h a ile d d em o cracy , c itiz e n sh ip , a n d fre e d o m o f choice. B u t sh e says th a t th e n e w ly e m e rg in g c o n c e p t o f a “m o d e rn c itiz e n ” o v e rla p p e d w ith m o re tra d itio n a l c o lo n ia l o r even p re c o lo n ia l c o n c e p ts— p u eb lo s, comunidades, a n d so o n . S h e goes o n to say th a t “th e c o n c e p t o f m o d e rn re p re s e n ta tio n w as to o a b s tra c t to b e ra p id ly a c c e p te d b y v ast sec­ to rs o f th e p o p u la tio n .”45 T h e s e a rg u m e n ts b y M e y ers a n d S á b a to offer rea so n s w h y w e n e e d n o t ta k e to o serio u sly th e p ara d o x es o f S a lv a d o ra n e lec tio n s. T h e ir stu d ie s allo w us a c o u p le o f o p tio n s : e ith e r S a lv a d o ra n elites b eliev e d th a t w h a t­ ever th e y w ere d o in g a c tu a lly c o n s titu te d d em o cracy , o r elites u n d e rs to o d th e d ile m m a s th e y w ere fac in g a n d c o n scio u sly e m p lo y e d a d e m o c ra tic s o u n d in g r h e to ric to m a s k th e ir a u th o rita ria n p rac tice s. B u t M y ers, Sáb a to , a n d o th e r lik e -m in d e d sc h o lars see th e s itu a tio n in m o re c o m p le x te rm s. A s o n e ex a m p le , D ra k e c o n fro n ts th e c o n u n d r u m in h is su rv ey o f p o litic s a n d elec tio n s in L a tin A m e ric a . H e to o o bserves th e ex iste n ce o f

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th e p arallel un iv erses o f fo rm a l, w ritte n p o litic a l ru les a n d in fo rm a l, u n ­ w ritte n p o litic a l p rac tice s, o r w h a t D ra k e calls “c u s to m .”46 H e re a d ily ac­ k n o w led g e s th e c h a lle n g e to u n d e r s ta n d h o w th e tw o sy stem s o p e ra te d sid e b y sid e over lo n g ex p an ses o f tim e a n d across v ast g e o g ra p h ic spaces. In h is search fo r an an sw e r h e tu rn s to th e field o f s tu d y k n o w n as social in s titu tio n a lis m o r d iscu rsiv e in s titu tio n a lis m .47 S ch o la rs o p e ra tin g in th o se arenas c o n te n d th a t o n c e c e rta in p ra c tic e s g e t u p a n d ru n n in g , th e y c a rry a n a u to n o m o u s m o m e n tu m th a t ca n b e d iffic u lt to d iv e rt. C e rta in p rac tice s b e c o m e th e a c c e p te d n o r m ; th e y b e c o m e in g ra in e d in to th e c u l­ tu ra l a n d social m ilie u , su c h th a t p o litic a l ac to rs sim p ly c o u ld n o t c o n ­ ceive o f th e w o rld w o rk in g a n y o th e r way. In th e w o rd s o f o n e in s titu tio n ­ alist scholar, “c o m p lia n c e o cc u rs in m a n y c irc u m sta n c e s b ec au se o th e r ty p es o f b e h a v io r are in c o n ce iv ab le; ro u tin e s are fo llo w ed b ec au se th e y are ta k e n fo r g ra n te d as ‘th e w a y w e d o th e se th in g s .’”48 “ H e n c e th e n a tu ra l­ ness o f th e lie,” declares H o ld e n , “fo r w ith o u t th e c o n s titu tio n a l disguises th a t m a d e it p o ssib le fo r p o litic a l a u th o ritie s to c la im a p u re ly leg alistic b u t sp u rio u s legitim acy, th e h a rd p a trim o n ia l co re o f p o litic s c o u ld scarcely hav e su rv iv ed .”49 T w o sch o lars o f c o n te m p o ra ry L a tin A m e ric a n p o litic s, G re tc h e n H e lm k e a n d S tev e n Levitsky, h a v e c o m e to sim ila r c o n c lu sio n s in th e ir a tte m p ts to d o c u m e n t a n d u n d e r s ta n d th e p ara llel ex iste n ce o f fo rm a l a n d in fo rm a l in s titu tio n s . T h e y d e fin e in fo rm a l in s titu tio n s as “so cially sh a re d rules, u su a lly u n w ritte n , th a t are c re ate d , c o m m u n ic a te d a n d e n fo rc e d o u ts id e officially s a n c tio n e d c h a n n e ls.” T h e y c o n te n d th a t th e ex iste n ce o f in fo rm a l ru les is o fte n “less a p r o d u c t o f a c to r d esig n th a n th e (o fte n u n ­ in te n d e d ) c o n s e q u e n c e o f a p a rtic u la r h isto ric a l ex p e rien c e th a t creates c e rta in socially sh a re d e x p e c ta tio n s.” H e lm k e a n d L ev itsk y re c o g n iz e th e d ifficu lty o f s tu d y in g in fo rm a l in s titu tio n s th a t d o n o t exist in w ritin g a n d ca n b e d o c u m e n te d o n ly b y o b se rv in g th e m in p ra c tic e . T h e y d e sc rib e th e diverse m e th o d s th a t p o litic a l sc ie n tists h av e e m p lo y e d to resolve th is d i­ le m m a in th e c o n te m p o ra ry era, w ith o n e o f th e p rin c ip a l m e th o d s b e in g sim p ly a closely d e ta ile d “e th n o g ra p h ic ” case stu d y . T h e p re s e n t w o rk is an ex am p le o f th a t m e th o d . It is h isto ric a l, ra th e r th a n c o n te m p o ra ry , b u t it show s h o w th e in fo rm a l ru les in E l S alv a d o r f u n c tio n e d b y s tu d y in g th e im p r in t th e y le ft o n th e d o c u m e n ts th a t S alv a d o ra n s u se d to c o n d u c t th e ir d a y -to -d a y p o litic a l affairs.50

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A sp irin g p o litic a l ac to rs in El S alv a d o r w ere e x p o se d o n ly to th e in fo r­ m a l ru les o f p o litic s, a n d th e y ca m e to b eliev e th a t e lec tio n s w ere m a n a g e d affairs th a t o n e d e s c rib e d w ith a d e m o c ra tic -s o u n d in g la n g u ag e . T h e y ac­ c e p te d th a t n o r m a n d a c te d acco rd in g ly . In th e p ro cess, th e y fa ile d to see c o n tra d ic tio n in e ith e r th e u se o f d e m o c ra tic -s o u n d in g la n g u a g e a m id st n o n d e m o c r a tic p rac tice s o r in th e a d h e re n c e to in fo rm a l ru les th a t failed to c o rre s p o n d to th e fo rm a l, w ritte n ru les. I f th e y d id n o t see th o se c o n tra ­ d ic tio n s, th e n it is n o t lik ely th a t th e y w o u ld h av e ta lk e d a b o u t th e m as su c h in th e ir w ritte n d o c u m e n ta tio n . I f m o s t o f th e p o litic a lly active p o p u la tio n a c c e p te d th o se ru les as n o rm a l, a b id e d b y th e m , a n d p assed th e m d o w n fro m o n e g e n e ra tio n to th e n e x t, th e n a n y o n e w ith a n a lte rn a ­ tive v isio n w h o s o u g h t to c h a n g e th e sy stem w o u ld h a v e c o n fro n te d an o v e rw h e lm in g w e ig h t o f in s titu tio n a liz e d p ra c tic e o r “c u s to m .” T h a t is precisely w h a t h a p p e n e d in El S alv a d o r in th e p e rio d b e tw e e n 1 9 2 7 a n d 1931, w h e n a n e w p re sid e n t, P ío R o m e ro B o sq u e, trie d to re fo rm th e elec to ra l system . A n o th e r w ay o f d e s c rib in g th e s itu a tio n is th a t E l S alv a d o r e x h ib ite d a d is tin c t p o litic a l c u ltu re o f a u th o rita ria n is m . F o llo w in g th e le a d o f sc h o l­ ars lik e P ete r G u a rd in o a n d C o n s u e lo C ru z , p o litic a l c u ltu re is d e fin e d h e re as “d isco u rses a n d p ra c tic e s c h a ra c te riz in g p o litic s ,” w h ic h are “n e i­ th e r m o n o lith ic n o r sta tic .”51 T h e y are c re a te d b y h u m a n s in te ra c tin g in a so cial aren a, a n d w h ile c u ltu re m a y b e s tu b b o r n ly re sis ta n t to ch a n g e , a n d w h ile its ex isten ce m a y n o t even b e a p p a re n t to th e su b je c ts w h o are a c tin g it o u t, it is m u ta b le in th e h a n d s o f h u m a n acto rs. T h u s , regardless o f a so c iety ’s s tru c tu ra l o r m a te ria l p re d isp o s itio n s, c u ltu re ca n b e a n a u to n o ­ m o u s a n d causal v ariab le. In h e r c o m p a ra tiv e s tu d y o f p o litic a l r h e to ric in C o s ta R ic a a n d N ic a ­ rag u a , C r u z p ro v id e s c o m p e llin g e v id en c e th a t p o litic a l c u ltu re p lays a ro le in g u id in g a so c ie ty to w a rd s a p a rtic u la r p o litic a l o u tc o m e . C r u z b e ­ g ins h e r c o m p a ris o n a t th e c u s to m a ry s ta rtin g p o in t— d e fin in g C o s ta R ica as d e m o c ra tic a n d N ic a ra g u a as a u th o rita ria n . B u t C r u z th e n b rea k s w ith th e s ta n d a rd m a te ria list a rg u m e n t a n d in sists th a t th o se o u tc o m e s w ere n o t p r e d e te rm in e d b y g eo g ra p h ic , e th n ic , o r e c o n o m ic h isto ry . In ste a d , sh e in sists th a t th e e x ta n t p o litic a l c u ltu re s in ea ch so c ie ty (i.e., th e w ay th a t C o s ta R ican s a n d N ic a ra g u a n s ca m e to see th e m se lv es a n d d e fin e th e ir societies) c o n trib u te d to th e c re a tio n o f th e ir d iv e rg e n t p o litie s. S p e­

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cifically, sh e says th a t th e re is “n o fixed ru le as to w h ic h co m es first,” c u l­ tu ra l o r m a te ria l s tru c tu re s .52 C r u z digs in to th e d o c u m e n ta ry re c o rd as far b a c k as th e early co lo ­ n ia l p e rio d to reveal th a t th e p e o p le w h o liv e d in th e la n d s th a t w o u ld b e c o m e C o s ta R ic a a n d N ic a ra g u a d e fin e d th e m se lv es d istin ctly . C o s ta R ic a n s p o ssessed a “h ig h - w o rth collectiv e id e n tity ,” w h erea s N ic a ra g u a n s h a d a “lo w -w o rth co llectiv e id e n tity .” T h is d iv e rg e n ce m e a n t th a t C o s ta R ica n s, a n d p a rtic u la rly elite C o s ta R ic a n s, d e fin e d th e ir p o p u la tio n , a n d especially th e ir p o o r p e o p le , as in h e re n tly m e rito rio u s . W h e n th e y c re a te d law s, th e y d id so to p r o te c t p e o p le a n d release th e ir p ro d u c tiv e capacity. B y c o m p a riso n , N ic a ra g u a n elites c o n s id e re d th e ir p e o p le flaw ed a n d so c re ate d law s to c o n tro l th e m . O n e o f th e m a n y c o n se q u e n c e s o f th e se d i­ v erg en ces w as d iffe re n t e x p e c ta tio n s fo r le a d e rsh ip . In C o s ta R ica, g o o d lead ers w ere d e fin e d as th o se w h o trie d to m e e t th e n ee d s, ex p e c ta tio n s, a n d w elfare o f th e w h o le o f th e p o p u la tio n a n d w h o se t asid e p e rso n a l p o ­ litica l in te rests. In N ic a ra g u a , le a d e rsh ip w as seen m o re p essim istic ally ; it w as w id ely a c c e p te d th a t lead ers w o u ld su rre n d e r to p e rso n a listic d isp u te s w ith o u t m u c h c o n c e rn fo r th e g e n e ra l w elfare. Ironically, C r u z reveals th a t N ic a ra g u a ’s p o litic a l sy stem w as m o re electo ral th a n C o s ta R ica’s: m o re e lec tio n s o c c u rre d in N ic a ra g u a , a n d th e y b e g a n a t a n earlier d ate. B u t C r u z in sists th a t w h a t c o u n ts are th e p o licies th a t p o litic a l le ad e rs im p le m e n te d , reg ard less o f h o w th e y ca m e to pow er. E ven th o u g h p o litic a l lead ers in C o s ta R ica av o id e d elec to ra l a c c o u n ta b ility m o re th a n th e ir N ic a ra g u a n c o u n te rp a rts , th e y w ere m o re “d e m o c ra tic ” in th e ir p o lic y m a k in g . B u ild in g u p o n C r u z ’s fo u n d a tio n , I c o n te n d th a t El S alv a d o r w as m o re lik e N ic a ra g u a th a n C o s ta R ica. B o th G u a r d in o a n d C r u z in sist th a t in th e s tu d y o f p o litic a l cu ltu res, a c to rs’ in te rn a l a n d p riv a te th o u g h ts m a tte r less th a n th e ir a c tio n s a n d sta te m e n ts . It is n e x t to im p o s sib le to d e te rm in e w h a t p e o p le ac tu a lly th o u g h t b ased o n o u r e x ta n t d o c u m e n ta ry re c o rd . B u t th a t is b e sid e th e p o in t, G u a rd in o says, b ec au se “p u b lic s ta te m e n ts a n d p ra c tic e s are in fact w h a t actu a lly d efin e p o litic a l c u ltu re , w h ic h is u ltim a te ly a b o u t w h a t p e o p le say a n d d o r a th e r th a n w h a t th e y th in k .”53 H e goes o n to say th a t “fo r u n d e r s ta n d in g p o litic a l c u ltu re a n d h o w it c h a n g e d over tim e , p e o p le ’s p riv a te beliefs are stra n g e ly irre le v a n t.” C r u z c o n c u rs, sa y in g th a t “th e a n a ­ lyst n e e d n o t b e c o n c e rn e d w ith th e sin c e rity o f th e ac to r(s), b u t ra th e r

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w ith th e b lu n t q u e s tio n : A re th e ir a c tio n s c o n s is te n t w ith th e ir w ords? In th e c ru d e st te rm s, d o th e y ad h e re, d o th e y d eliv er?”54 I agree w ith th e m , a n d th r o u g h o u t th is s tu d y I fo cu s o n w h a t p e o p le said a n d d id . B u t at th e sa m e tim e I c a n n o t h e lp b u t p o se th e q u e s tio n : W h a t w ere p o litic a l ac to rs in E l S alv a d o r really th in k in g w h e n th e y p ra ise d d e m o c ra c y a n d p ra c tic e d a u th o rita ria n ism ? W e re all th o se p e o p le in all th o se places w h o c o n d u c te d all th o se e lec tio n s over all th o se years d u p in g them selves? W e re th e y aw are o f th e p a ra d o x , b u t s o m e h o w u n a b le to ar­ tic u la te it in th e ir c o rre s p o n d e n c e w ith o n e a n o th e r? W e re th e y ig n o ra n t o f th e p aradox? W e re th e y su b je c t to th e h e g e m o n ic p o w e r o f a sm a ll co­ te rie o f ric h ac to rs w h o p u lle d th e strin g s fro m b e h in d th e scenes? A g ain , I reco g n ize th a t th e se q u e s tio n s are s o m e w h a t b e sid e th e p o in t, to say n o th in g o f b e in g to o g ra n d io se to en g ag e in a m e a n in g fu l w a y h ere . F o r­ tu n a tely , o th e r sc h o lars o f L a tin A m e ric a n p o litic a l h is to ry h av e p o se d th e m , a n d it is w o rth lo o k in g a t h o w th e y re sp o n d e d . In h is s tu d y o f n in e te e n th - c e n tu ry p o litic s a n d e lec tio n s in A rg e n tin a , M y ers n o te s a p a ra d o x sim ila r to th a t d isc u sse d h e re — p o litic a l a c to rs e m ­ p lo y e d a h ig h ly s o p h is tic a te d p o litic a l r h e to ric th a t a p p e a le d to all o f th e m o d e rn re p u b lic a n p rin c ip le s, even th o u g h th e ir e lec tio n s w ere h ig h ly m a n a g e d , n o n d e m o c r a tic affairs d e sig n e d to m e e t th e in te re sts o f a select few. H e ac k n o w led g e s th a t so m e tim e s th o se elite ac to rs e m p lo y e d d e m o ­ cra tic d isc o u rse “w ith o u t a n d o u t c y n ic ism a n d a b r u ta l d isd a in fo r e th ic a l c rite ria .” B u t h e also c o n te n d s th a t th e y “fre q u e n tly fe rv e n tly b e lie v e d ” in w h a t th e y w ere sa y in g a n d w o u ld h av e “in v o k e d th e m [th e values o f th e d e m o c ra tic d isc o u rse ] . . . even w h e n th e ir im m e d ia te fu n c tio n a lity ” h a d e x p ire d .55 M y ers fin d s h im s e lf c o m p e lle d to ask i f th o se a c to rs tru ly b e ­ lieved w h a t th e y w ere saying. In re sp o n se to th a t q u e s tio n h e d raw s u p o n th e w o rk o f P a u l V eyne, a F re n c h sc h o la r o f a n c ie n t G re e c e a n d R o m e , w h o re s p o n d e d to th e q u e s tio n o f w h e th e r th e a n c ie n t G re e k s tru ly b e ­ lieved in th e ir g o d s w ith “a n a m b ig u o u s a n d re tic e n t . . . yes a n d n o .” In o th e r w o rd s, M y e rs is u n sa tisfie d w ith a tra d itio n a l “f u n c tio n a lis t” e x p la­ n a tio n th a t p o litic a l lead ers in n in e te e n th - c e n tu ry A rg e n tin a w ere aw are o f th e c o n tra d ic tio n s b e tw e e n th e ir r h e to ric a n d th e ir p ra c tic e s a n d th u s th e ir la n g u ag e w as a n in te n tio n a l sm o k e sc re e n . L ik e D ra k e , M y e rs fin d s h im s e lf a d v o c a tin g fo r a s o rt o f in s titu tio n a lis t e x p la n a tio n w h e re b y th e d ifferen ce b e tw e e n in te n tio n a l, c o n sc io u s a c tio n collapses w ith m o re lo n g ­ s ta n d in g n o rm s o f c o n d u c t th a t a c to rs a c c e p t as th e p ro p e r o rd e r o f th in g s.

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It is fo r th is re a so n M y e rs ch o o ses to fo cu s o n th e “a m b ig u ity a n d c o m ­ p le x ity o f th is p h e n o m e n o n , o n th e fre q u e n t o p a c ity o f its effects . . . a n d o n th e m a n n e r in w h ic h a n id e o lo g ic a l p o s tu la te elev ated to a p o s itio n o f c e n tra lity in th e c o n s titu tio n o f all p u b lic d isc o u rse, c o u ld n o t b u t d isp erse— p rism a tic a lly — in to a d a z z lin g a rra y o f s im u lta n e o u s m e a n in g s a n d effects.”56 A n o th e r ed ify in g e x a m p le is p ro v id e d b y th e U .S. S o u th in th e n in e ­ te e n th ce n tu ry . M a n y s o u th e rn p la n te rs e m p lo y e d a h ig h ly re p u b lic a n ­ s o u n d in g p o litic a l r h e to ric th a t to u te d d e m o c ra c y a n d fre e d o m o f ch o ice. A ll th e w h ile , o f co u rse, th e y p re sid e d over a h ig h ly u n e q u a l society, b o th b efo re a n d afte r e m a n c ip a tio n . A B ritis h trav e ler to th e U n ite d S tates in th e 1820s a s tu te ly o b se rv e d su c h tra its a m o n g s o u th e rn p la n te rs: “L o o k a t th e m a t h o m e ; y o u w ill see th e m w ith o n e h a n d h o is tin g th e cap o f liberty, a n d w ith th e o th e r flo g g in g th e ir slaves.”57 V ario u s sc h o lars o f th e n in e te e n th - c e n tu ry U n ite d S tates h av e d isc u sse d th e in te n s e in te lle c tu a l a n d id e o lo g ic a l c o m p a rtm e n ta liz a tio n th a t ex iste d in th e m in d s o f s o u th ­ e rn elites to allo w th e m to e m p lo y th e ir lib e ral r h e to ric so w h o le h e a rte d ly , fu lly b eliev in g w h a t th e y w ere say in g , w h ile liv in g in a s itu a tio n th a t th e y fu lly u n d e r s to o d to b e c o n tra d ic to ry .58 O f co u rse, th e issu e o f rac e w as a k ey v aria b le in th a t c o m p a rtm e n ta liz a tio n , w h ic h w as n o t th e case in E l Salvador. N o n e th e le ss, th e U .S. S o u th th u s p ro v id e s a n o th e r e x a m p le o f c o n tra d ic to ry r h e to ric a n d re a lity re sid in g sid e b y side. In E l Salvador, a m assiv e d isc o n n e c t ex iste d b e tw e e n th e la n g u a g e o f p o litic s a n d th e p ra c tic e o f p o litic s, a n d b e tw e e n th e in fo rm a l a n d fo rm a l ru les o f p o litic s. A t th e v e ry least, d o c u m e n tin g th e ex iste n ce o f th a t d is­ c o n n e c t a n d s h o w in g its fu n c tio n a l ex iste n ce over tim e goes a lo n g w ays to w a rd e x p la in in g w h y E l S alv a d o r h as h a d su c h a lo n g a n d e n d u r in g tr a ­ d itio n o f a u th o rita ria n is m a n d w h y p ro d e m o c ra c y ad v o c ates h av e faced su c h o v e rw h e lm in g h u rd le s in try in g to im p le m e n t re fo rm s, even in to th e tw e n ty -first cen tu ry .

S tru c tu re o f th e B o o k

T h e b o o k is d iv id e d in to e ig h t c h a p te rs a n d fo llo w s a b ro a d ly c h ro n o lo g i­ cal p a tte rn , a lth o u g h th e first fo u r c h a p te rs are o rg a n iz e d so m e w h a t

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th e m a tic a lly as w ell. C h a p te r 1 sets o u t th e ru les o f p o litic s in E l S alv ad o r in b o th th e ir fo rm a l a n d in fo rm a l guises. T h e fo rm a l ru les— th a t is, th e le tte r o f th e law — in c lu d e th e c o n s titu tio n a lly d e fin e d law s g o v e rn in g p o litic s a n d electio n s, as w ell as th e sp ecific ru les re la tin g to th e m e th o d s b y w h ic h v o tin g w as s u p p o s e d to occur. T h e s e fo rm a l ru les s ta te d th a t El S alv ad o r w as a d e m o c ra tic re p u b lic in w h ic h p o p u la r w ill w as to b e ex­ p ressed th r o u g h free e lec tio n s th a t w o u ld d e te rm in e p u b lic o ffic eh o ld in g . T h e in fo rm a l ru les reveal th e w ays in w h ic h S alv a d o ra n s a c tu a lly p ra c tic e d elec tio n s a n d h o w th o s e p rac tice s o fte n s tu c k to th e le tte r o f th e law, b u t fu n d a m e n ta lly su b v e rte d th e s p irit o f th e la w as it re la te d to d em o cracy . C h a p te r 2 sh o w s th o se p ra c tic e s in a c tio n in a series o f case stu d ie s o f n atio n a l-le v e l p o litic s in th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry . T h e lim ita tio n s in so u rce m a te ria l p re v e n t th e p re s e n ta tio n o f a seam less n a rra tiv e o f n in e te e n th c e n tu ry p o litics, b u t th e available d o c u m e n ta tio n allow s fo r th e re c o n ­ s tru c tio n o f so m e d is tin c t cases b e tw e e n 1845 a n d 1894. T h e y s ta n d as m e ta p h o rs fo r th e w h o le. T h e cases reveal th a t p o litic s c o n s iste d o f re g io n ­ ally b ased p a tro n a g e em p ire s c o n s ta n tly jo c k e y in g w ith o n e a n o th e r fo r p o s itio n . T h e lead ers o f th o se m in ia tu r e em p ire s re lie d o n th e s u p p o r t o f allies in th e m u n ic ip a litie s w h o c o u ld d eliv er th e p o litic a l c a p ita l n ec essary to su sta in th e m . T h a t c a p ita l in c lu d e d v o te s p rim a rily , b u t also so ld iers, m o n ey , fo o d , a n d w a r m a te ria l w h e n th in g s tu r n e d v io le n t. T h e c h a p te r re m a in s fo cu se d o n th e n a tio n a l level, le av in g th e d etails o f n e tw o r k b u ild ­ in g a t th e m u n ic ip a l level to th e n e x t tw o c h a p te rs. C h a p te rs 3 a n d 4 s h ift th e fo cu s fro m th e n a tio n a l to th e m u n ic ip a l level. C h a p te r 3 lo o k s a t th e m e th o d s th a t m u n ic ip a l-le v e l p o litic a l bosses e m p lo y e d to b u ild th e ir n e tw o rk s. T h e tr a d itio n a l d isp a rity b e tw e e n la n d e d elites a n d th e ir la b o re rs w as o n e m e c h a n is m th a t allo w ed fo r th e c re a tio n o f a p o litic a l n e tw o rk . B u t it w as h a rd ly th e o n ly o n e. F a m ily a n d e th n ic ity w ere o th e r m e th o d s . A n d m ilita ry officers, w h o m ig h t n o t h av e h a d m u c h p e rso n a l w e a lth , c o u ld also b e effective p o litic a l players. C h a p te r 4 th e n b u ild s o ff th e m e th o d s e x a m in e d in c h a p te r 3 a n d show s h o w local n e tw o rk s c o m p e te d w ith o n e a n o th e r fo r c o n tro l over local office in m u n ic ip a l elec tio n s. T h e se c o n d h a lf sh o w s h o w th e e m e r­ g en c e o f a m o re p o w e rfu l a n d c e n tra liz e d s ta te s h a p e d th e lo cal n e tw o rk s. I n th e p ast, n atio n a l-le v e l p o litic a l ac to rs w ere m e re ly re g io n a l s tro n g m e n w h o h a d c o b b le d to g e th e r frag ile c o a litio n s w ith o th e r re g io n a l stro n g -

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m e n . N o w , w h o e v e r sa t in n a tio n a l-le v e l office p re sid e d over a p o w e rfu l e n tity th a t w as less su sc e p tib le to a tta c k . In th is n e w s tru c tu re , in s te a d o f try in g to rep la c e o n e p a tro n a g e n e tw o rk w ith a n o th e r, ev e ry o n e o p e ra te d w ith in th e co n fin e s o f a sin g le n e tw o rk th a t c o n tro lle d th e state. C h a p te r 5 b e g in s a su c ce ssio n o f fo u r c h a p te rs th a t a d h e re to a m o re s tric t ch ro n o lo g ic a l flow. T h is first c h a p te r lo o k s at th e M e lé n d e z Q u iñ ó n e z dynasty, w h ic h b r o u g h t th e sy stem o f c e n tra liz e d a u th o rita r ia n ­ ism to its h ig h e st level to d ate. T h e c h a p te r lo o k s a t th e strateg ie s a n d tactics u se d b y th e m e m b e rs o f th e M e lé n d e z a n d Q u iñ ó n e z fam ilies to c o n tro l electio n s, illu s tra tin g th a t p a tro n a g e a n d p a tro n - c lie n t n e tw o rk s c o n tin u e d to d efin e p o litic a l activity, even w ith th e in c re a sin g c e n tra liz a ­ tio n o f sta te a u th o rity . It tak es as its m a in ex a m p le a p a ir o f a s p irin g p o ­ litica l acto rs w h o fe lt a lie n a te d fro m th e M e lé n d e z -Q u iñ ó n e z m a c h in e a n d trie d to ta k e th e ir p re sid e n tia l a s p ira tio n s o u ts id e th e e sta b lish e d n o r m b y o rg a n iz in g in d e p e n d e n t p o litic a l bases, sim ila r to c a m p a ig n s o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry . T h e y le a rn e d q u ic k ly a n d b ru ta lly th a t su c h e n ­ d eavors h a d se rio u s co n se q u e n c e s. C h a p te r 6 is d e d ic a te d to th e a d m in is tra tio n o f P ío R o m e ro B o sq u e (1 9 2 7 —1931) a n d especially to R o m e ro ’s d e m o c ra tic re fo rm p ro g ra m . It ex am in es R o m e ro ’s ta ctics a n d th e in s u r m o u n ta b le o b stacles th a t h e faced in try in g to in je c t a g e n u in e ly d e m o c ra tic s p irit in to e lec to ra l p rac tice . R o m e ro B o sq u e u ltim a te ly failed in h is en d eav o r, b u t th e d o c u m e n ta ry re c o rd o f his effo rts p ro v id es a n in v a lu a b le lo o k in to th e h e a rt o f th e p o ­ litica l system . C h a p te rs 7 a n d 8 fo cu s o n th e first o f th e m o d e rn m ilita ry reg im es u n d e r G e n e ra l M a rtín e z . B o th c h a p te rs ex a m in e th e fo rm a tiv e p e rio d o f 1931 to 1940, b u t ea ch c h a p te r analyzes a d is tin c t a sp ec t o f M a rtin e z ’s ru le. C h a p te r 7 lo o k s a t p o litic s. M a rtín e z ’s re g im e tu r n e d b a c k th e clo ck o n R o m e ro B o sq u e a n d re in v ig o ra te d th e p a tro n a g e sy stem as it h a d fu n c ­ tio n e d u n d e r M e lé n d e z -Q u iñ ó n e z . C h a p te r 8 lo o k s a t so cial policy. T h e re b e llio n o f 1932 p r o m p te d th e m ilita ry to a p p re c ia te th e n e e d fo r social re fo rm , o r a t least th e n e e d to a p p e a r s u p p o rtiv e o f th e id e a o f re fo rm . T h is c h a p te r d e lin e a te s th e id e o lo g y b e h in d th e re fo rm s a n d d etails th e specific p o licies p u rs u e d b y th e M a rtin e z reg im e. O n e b y p ro d u c t o f th is s tu d y is a rea liz a tio n o f th e c o m p le x re la tio n s th a t ex isted b e tw e e n e c o ­ n o m ic elites a n d th e m ilita ry -le d g o v e rn m e n ts in tw e n tie th -c e n tu r y El

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Salvador. M a rtin e z ’s re fo rm p ro g ra m m ig h t n o t h a v e th re a te n e d elites greatly, b u t it clearly a n ta g o n iz e d th e m . It b e g a n a d e c a d e s-lo n g pro cess th r o u g h w h ic h elites re m a in e d su sp ic io u s o f m ilita ry lead ers in office, b e ­ liev in g th a t th o se le ad e rs’ c o m m itm e n t to laissez-faire c a p ita lism w as c o n ­ s ta n tly in flux even as th e elites av id ly w e lc o m e d th e m ilita ry ’s coercive o p p o s itio n to in d e p e n d e n t la b o r o rg a n iz in g , especially in th e c o u n try sid e .

C H A P T E R

1

the rules Formal and Informal

L eaders o f n e w ly in d e p e n d e n t n a tio n s th r o u g h o u t th e A m eric as in th e la te e ig h te e n th a n d early n in e te e n th c e n tu rie s fac ed th e c h a lle n g e o f d e te r m in ­ in g w h a t ty p e o f g o v e rn in g sy stem b e s t su ite d th e ir so cieties. R egardless o f th e ex am p les o f th e U n ite d S tate s’ b re a k fro m G re a t B rita in a n d o f S p a in ’s fo rm e r c o lo n ie s, n a tio n a l le ad e rs in w h a t ca m e to called L a tin A m e ric a te n d e d to e q u a te in d e p e n d e n c e w ith lib e ra lism a n d m o d e rn is m , b u t fea re d th e ex te n sio n o f lib e rty to th e m asses o f society. H e n c e , th e y o fte n e n d e d u p liv in g in co m p le x , p a ra d o x ic a l sy stem s, h y b r id so cieties o f so rts. T h e y to u te d th e m e rits o f e q u a lity a n d s tr u c tu re d th e ir societies as re p u b lic s in w h ic h p o p u la r e lec tio n s d e te rm in e d o ffic eh o ld in g , a n d y e t th e y o p e ra te d u n d e r a d iffe re n t set o f in fo rm a l ru les th a t c o n s tra in e d fre e d o m a n d c o n ­ c e n tra te d a u th o rity . E l S alv a d o r w as o n e o f th e se n e w n a tio n s, a n d its te n ­ d e n c y to fall in to th is p a tte r n re se m b le d th a t o f its n e ig h b o rs. T h is c h a p te r lo o k s a t th e fo rm a l a n d in fo rm a l ru les th a t g o v e rn e d p o ­ litica l life in E l S alvador. T h e fo rm a l ru les w ere officially la id d o w n in c o n s titu tio n s a n d o rd in a n c e s, a n d th e y e x p la in e d h o w e lec tio n s w ere s u p ­ p o se d to w o rk a n d h o w p o litic s w as ex p e c te d to tra n sp ire . T h e in fo rm a l ru les w ere th e w ays in w h ic h p e o p le ac tu a lly b e h a v e d w h e n th e y d id p o li­ tics a n d c o n d u c te d e lec tio n s. T h e in fo rm a l ru le s te n d e d to stic k to th e le tte r o f th e fo rm a l ru les; after all, p e o p le v o te d , a n d p o litic a l lead ers to o k

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office o n ly afte r h a v in g w o n a n e le c tio n . B u t th e in fo rm a l ru les d iv e rg e d su b sta n tia lly fro m th e s p irit o f th e law. I f th e b a sic p re m ise b e h in d th e c o n c e p ts o f p o p u la r w ill a n d fre e d o m o f su ffrag e w as th a t in d iv id u a l v o t­ ers h a d th e rig h t to select th e ir lead ers fro m a ra n g e o f o p tio n s w ith o u t d u ress o r co e rcio n , th e n d e m o c ra c y w as fle e tin g th r o u g h o u t th e first c e n ­ tu r y o f E l S a lv a d o r’s existence. T h e fo llo w in g v ig n e tte fro m th e vice p re sid e n tia l e le c tio n o f 1895 is p re s e n te d as a m e ta p h o r fo r th e b ro a d e r w h o le o f p o litic s a n d e lec tio n s in El S alvador. M o s t o f th e re m a in in g e v id en c e in th is c h a p te r w ill b e d ra w n fro m th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry in o rd e r to set u p th e n e x t c h a p te r’s series o f ch ro n o lo g ic a lly o rd e re d case stu d ies.

The Vice Presidential Election of 1895 T h e v ic e p re s id e n tia l e le c tio n o f 1895 le ft b e h in d s o m e o f th e m o s t d e ta ile d re c o rd s o f a n y e le c tio n in El S alv ad o r. T h e re c o rd s c o n s ist o f m u n ic ip a lity -b y -m u n ic ip a lity v o tin g resu lts, as w ell as a slew o f te leg ram s a n d re p o rts ex c h a n g e d b e tw e e n th e m u n ic ip a l a n d n a tio n a l levels, in c lu d ­ in g so m e rare c o m m u n iq u e s b e tw e e n c a n d id a te s a n d th e ir lo cal elec to ra l activists. T h is cach e o f e v id en c e reveals h o w n a tio n a l-le v e l p a tro n a g e n e t­ w o rk s a n d th e a c c o m p a n y in g e lec to ra l sy stem f u n c tio n e d a t a p a rtic u la r m o m e n t in tim e. T h e 1895 vice p re sid e n tia l e le c tio n o c c u rre d in th e w a k e o f a c o u p d ’é ta t le d b y G e n e ra l R afael G u tié rre z ( 1 8 9 4 -1 8 9 9 ) th a t o v e rth re w P resi­ d e n t C a rlo s E zeta (1 8 9 0 -1 8 9 4 ) . In th e s u b s e q u e n t p re sid e n tia l e lec tio n , G u tié rre z r a n u n o p p o s e d a n d w o n b y a m a rg in o f 6 1 ,0 8 0 v o tes to 9 1 — in o th e r w o rd s, b y th e ty p ic a lly u n a n im o u s o r n e a r-u n a n im o u s re su lt o f an u n riv a le d p o litic a l b o ss.1 H o w ev er, G u tié rre z h a d b e lo w h im tw o p o w e rfu l allies, P ru d e n c io A lfaro a n d C a rlo s M e lé n d e z — th e la tte r w o u ld g o o n to h o ld th e p re sid e n c y in 1913. In th e m e a n tim e , b o th A lfaro a n d M e lé n d e z h a d p la y ed le a d roles in E zeta’s o v erth ro w , b u t o n ly o n e o f th e m c o u ld b e c o m e vice p re sid e n t. G u tié rre z a p p a re n tly d e c id e d n o t to ch o o se b e ­ tw ee n h is tw o as p irin g u n d e rlin g s a n d in s te a d allo w ed th e m to b a ttle it o u t in a n elec tio n . A lfaro w o n th e c o n te s t w ith 3 8 ,0 0 6 v o tes to M e lé n d e z ’s 1 8 ,7 9 2 , w ith th e re m a in in g 4 ,0 0 0 v o te s b e in g d iv id e d u p b e tw e e n fo u r lesser ca n d id a tes.

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37

T h o s e resu lts m a k e it a p p e a r th a t th e e le c tio n w as g e n u in e ly c o m p e ti­ tive, a n d in d e e d a t so m e level it w as. C a n d id a te s fac ed off, v o te rs fro m across th e c o u n try cast v otes, th o se v o tes w ere ta llie d u p , a n d a w in n e r w as d eclared . B u t m o re rev e alin g th a n th e fin al re su lt is th e m a n n e r in w h ic h v o tin g w as c o n d u c te d a t th e m u n ic ip a l level. R e co rd s reveal th a t v o tin g w ith in each m u n ic ip a lity w as n o t v e ry c o m p e titiv e ; in m o s t cases it w as d e c id e d b y u n a n im o u s o r n e a r-u n a n im o u s resu lts, a n d p a tro n a g e n e t­ w o rk s w ere clearly in o p e ra tio n . T h e e le c tio n w as b u ilt a ro u n d th e p ra c ­ tic e o f each c a n d id a te c o n ta c tin g p o w e rfu l allies in th e d e p a r tm e n t ca p itals w h o in tu r n called u p o n s u b o rd in a te p o litic a l bosses in th e m u n ic ip a litie s. T h e m u n ic ip a l bosses w ere ex p e c te d to c o n tro l th e p o lls in th e ir to w n s a n d p re v e n t affiliates o f th e rival c a n d id a te s fro m d o in g th e sam e. A close ele c tio n su c h as th is o n e, b e tw e e n tw o p o w e rfu l p o litic a l p lay ers su c h as A lfaro a n d M e lé n d e z , w o u ld n o rm a lly h av e e n d e d in b lo o d sh e d , ju s t as th e riv alry b e tw e e n G e n e ra ls G u tié rre z a n d E ze ta h a d . F o rtu n a te ly , in th is case, th e p rese n c e o f an u n d is p u te d s u p e rio r a u th o rity , G e n e ra l G u tié rre z , e n s u re d a p ea ce fu l p rocess. A lfaro ’s p o in t m a n in S o n so n a te D e p a r tm e n t w as A b ra h á n R ivera, a p r o m in e n t la n d o w n e r a n d a risin g p o litic a l bo ss in S o n so n a te C ity .2 In th e fo llo w in g letter, R iv era in fo rm s A lfaro o f h is success in S o n so n a te D e p a r t­ m e n t o n e le c tio n day. D r. d o n P ru d e n c io A lfaro M y d e a r frie n d : As w e e x p e cted , in th is d e p a rtm e n t, w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f Izalco a n d A rm e n ia , w h e re th e re w as im p o s itio n o f c o m a n d a n te s w o rk in g o n b e h a lf o f o th e r c a n d id a te s, o u r tr iu m p h h as b e e n co m p le te : T h e g rea t m a jo rity h as v o te d in o u r favor. In N a h u iz a lc o , w h ic h is th e to u g h e s t m u n ic ip a lity in te rm s o f elec tio n s, w e h a v e w o n w ith a lm o st u n a n im ity . A t th e la st m in u te th e y h a d c h a n g e d th e c o m a n d a n te w ith th e in te n tio n o f a lte rin g th e v o tin g in fav o r o f Pérez, b u t in th e e n d th is c o m a n d a n te c o u ld d o n o th in g o n a c c o u n t o f th e efficien t w o rk o f C o lo n e ls M a rc e lo B rito a n d L ucas P e ñ a te a n d o f d o n A b ra h á n G u e rra w h o h av e c a rrie d th e d a y lik e tr u e c h a m p io n s . In Ju a y ú a, w h ic h is a n o th e r im p o r ta n t village, o u r tr iu m p h is c o m p le te . C o lo n e l T ad e o Pérez [no re la tio n to c a n d id a te Pérez] to o k th e b a to n a n d a id e d us w ith g rea t fo rtitu d e . In S an Ju liá n a n d th e o th e r co a sta l villages w e hav e tr iu m p h e d sp le n d id ly d u e to th e c o o p e ra tio n o f d o n D io n isio

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Authoritarian El Salvador

H e rre ra a n d th e S eñ o res C h in c h illa a n d d e L eó n . In all th e m u n ic i­ p alitie s s u r ro u n d in g th is c ity [S o n so n a te] I h av e h a d v e ry g o o d ag e n ts a t w o rk , su c h th a t y o u w o n a lm o st b y u n a n im ity . In th is p o p u la tio n w h e re th e re h as b e e n th e m o s t w o rk o f th e M e le n d ista s, I h av e p u t a close w a tc h o n th e se ra b b its [conejos] . . . so th a t d e sp ite th e g re a t a m o u n t o f w o rk th a t w as b e in g d o n e o n b e h a lf o f M e lé n d e z , w e re ­ d u c e d th e ir s u p p o rte rs to a n in sig n ific a n t n u m b e r. A b ra h á n R ivera, S o n so n a te , J a n u a ry 16, 1 8 9 5 3 R ivera’s le tte r offers a ra re a n d v iv id d e s c rip tio n o f a p a tro n a g e -b a s e d p o ­ litica l n e tw o rk in a c tio n . In h is le tter, R iv era lists ea ch lo cal s u b a lte rn b y n a m e a n d describ es h o w th e y n e u tra liz e d th e local affiliates o f th e rival c a n d id a te s. As R iv era p o in ts o u t, h is allies re ig n e d s u p re m e in all b u t tw o o f th e d e p a r tm e n t’s f o u rte e n m u n ic ip a litie s. F in a l re tu rn s fro m th e elec­ tio n c o n firm h is claim . E x c lu d in g th o se tw o o u tlie rs, Izalco a n d A rm e n ia , A lfaro w o n th e d e p a r tm e n t b y a c o m b in e d to ta l o f 2 ,5 6 5 v o te s to 6 5 .4 C o m p le te re tu rn s fro m th e 1895 e le c tio n p ro v id e a n a tio n w id e v iew o f th e m o n o p o liz a tio n o f p o llin g s ta tio n s a n d d e m o n s tra te th a t w h a t tra n s p ire d in S o n so n a te w as ty p ic al. V o tin g o c c u rre d in all 2 4 8 m u n ic i­ p alitie s in th e n a tio n . In 176 o f th e se m u n ic ip a litie s th e v ic to rio u s c a n d i­ d a te w o n w ith m o re th a n 9 5 p e rc e n t o f th e v o te , in c lu d in g 9 6 m u n ic i­ p alitie s w h e re v o tin g w as u n a n im o u s . A lfaro ’s n e tw o rk d o m in a te d seven o f th e fo u rte e n d e p a rtm e n ts (L a Paz, U s u lu tá n , S an M ig u e l, L a U n ió n , M o ra z á n , A h u a c h a p á n , a n d S o n so n a te ), w in n in g th e m b y a c o m b in e d to ta l o f 2 0 ,3 2 0 to 2 ,5 7 4 . T o h is d e trim e n t, M e lé n d e z c o n tro lle d o n ly tw o d e p a rtm e n ts b y c o m p a ra b le m a rg in s, S an V ic e n te a n d C a b a ñ a s: 4 ,9 3 1 v o tes to 6 0 0 . In th e re m a in in g five d e p a rtm e n ts (C u sc a tlá n , C h a la te n a n g o , S a n ta A n a , S an S alvador, a n d L a L ib e rta d ) th e tw o c a n d id a te s sp lit th e d e p a rtm e n tw id e v o te evenly, b u t v o tin g a t th e m u n ic ip a l level w as sta rk ly d iv id e d . C u s c a tlá n D e p a r tm e n t p ro v id es a clear ex a m p le . A lfaro a n d M e lé n d e z ea ch to o k 50 p e rc e n t o f th e v o te , b u t in th ir te e n o f th e d e ­ p a r tm e n t’s se v en te e n m u n ic ip a litie s th e v ic to rio u s c a n d id a te w o n w ith m o re th a n 9 4 p e rc e n t o f th e v o tes, in c lu d in g six m u n ic ip a litie s th a t w ere d e c id e d b y u n a n im ity (see ta b le 1.1). A sim ila r re su lt is fo u n d in C h a la te n a n g o D e p a rtm e n t, w h e re A lfaro rec eiv e d ju s t over 4 ,0 0 0 v o te s a n d M e ­ lé n d e z ju s t u n d e r 3 ,0 0 0 , a rela tiv e ly even sp lit. In tw e n ty -se v e n o f C h a la te n a n g o ’s th irty -fiv e m u n ic ip a litie s v ic to ry w as a tta in e d w ith a t least 91

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p e rc e n t o f th e v o tes. U n fo rtu n a te ly , th e h isto ric a l re c o rd d o es n o t c o n ta in d e ta ile d le tte rs fro m affiliates in o th e r d e p a rtm e n ts c o m p a ra b le to R iv era’s c o rre sp o n d e n c e fro m S o n so n a te . It c a n b e safely a ssu m e d th a t in ea ch o f th o se d e p a rtm e n ts , m e n lik e R iv era w ere d ilig e n tly w o rk in g o n th e b e h a lf o f A lfaro o r M e lé n d e z in th e sa m e w ay th a t R iv era w as d o in g in S o n ­ so n a te . W h e n A lfaro a ssu m e d th e office o f vice p re sid e n t, h e k n e w th a t h e o w ed th o se d e p a rtm e n ta l bosses s o m e th in g fo r th e ir s u p p o rt, o r th a t h e h a d b u r n e d th r o u g h so m e o f th e p o litic a l c a p ita l th a t h e h a d a c c ru e d previously.

Table 1.1

Voting in Cuscatlán Department, Vice Presidential Election, 1895 C andidate A lfaro

M unicip a lity

El Carmen Tenancingo Aguacayo Santa Cruz Analci Cojutepeque El Rosario Guayabal San Pedro Perulapán San Cristobal Santa Cruz Michapa Suchitoto San Ramón Oratorio de Concepción Monte San Juan San Rafael Candelaria Perulapía Totals

M eléndez

Votes

%

Votes

%

0

0

278

100

12 66 0

5 79 0

222 18 120

95 21 100

13 0

3 0 11

345 151 238

97 100

97 59 6

30 68 169 248

29 825 98 11 795 0 127 0 482 8 166

76 0

98 3 100

176 1 366 8 241 0

2,632

49.5%

2,679

99 0

Source: Asamblea Nacional, “Elección de 1895,” AGN, MG, unclassified box.

89 3 41 94 24 100 1 100 2 97 0 50.5%

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Authoritarian El Salvador

In th o se d e p a rtm e n ts w h e re v o tin g w as d iv id e d evenly, n e ith e r c a n d i­ d a te ’s n e tw o rk ac h ie v ed d e p a rtm e n tw id e su p rem a cy ; th e re w ere n o e q u iv a ­ le n ts to S o n s o n a te ’s A b ra h á n R ivera. In s te a d th e c a n d id a te s se ttle d fo r as m a n y m u n ic ip a litie s as th e ir s u b o rd in a te s c o u ld m u ste r. In a re c u rre n t scene, o n e m u n ic ip a lity p ro v id e d n e a r-u n a n im o u s s u p p o r t fo r o n e c a n d i­ d ate, w h ile a n e ig h b o rin g m u n ic ip a lity , s o m e tim e s lo c a te d ju s t a few k ilo ­ m e te rs d o w n th e ro a d , p ro d u c e d a n eq u ally c o m p le te v ic to ry fo r a rival c a n d id a te . O v erall, th e resu lts o f th e 1895 e le c tio n h ig h lig h t th e g o ld e n ru le o f p o litic s in El S alv ad o r: to w in a n e le c tio n , a n e tw o rk h a d to m o ­ n o p o liz e v o tin g . T h e 1895 e le c tio n also reveals th e d e m o c ra c y -la d e n d isc o u rse th a t ac­ c o m p a n ie d th e se n o n d e m o c r a tic p ro c e d u re s. C a rlo s M e lé n d e z w as s u p ­ p o r te d in h is elec to ra l b id b y th e n e w sp a p e r La Verdad, b a se d in th e c ity o f N u e v a S an S alvador. U n fo rtu n a te ly , n o co p ies o f th a t n e w sp a p e r are k n o w n to hav e su rv iv ed . B u t w e k n o w s o m e th in g o f th e claim s m a d e in

La Verdad b ecau se after th e e le c tio n , A lfa ro ’s s u p p o rte rs re s p o n d e d to th e m in a p a ir o f le n g th y ed ito ria ls in th e g o v e rn m e n t’s official n ew sp a p er,

D iario Oficial. It seem s th a t M e lé n d e z d id n o t ta k e h is d e fe a t in strid e . A lth o u g h h e h a d s u p p o r te d G e n e ra l G u tié rre z d u r in g th e 1894 c o u p , h e b ro k e w ith h im afte r h is fa ile d b id to b e c o m e vice p re sid e n t. S h o rtly after th e elec tio n , M e lé n d e z ’s s u p p o rte rs (a n d p ro b a b ly M e lé n d e z h im s e lf), la u n c h e d a v ig o ro u s p u b lic re la tio n s c a m p a ig n in th e pag es o f La Verdad, c la im in g th a t th e p a s t e lec tio n s fo r b o th p re s id e n t a n d vice p re s id e n t h a d b e e n d o n e fra u d u le n tly a n d a g a in st p o p u la r w ill. In th e w o rd s o f th e D ia ­

rio O ficial e d ito ria lists, La Verdad c la im e d th a t “th e re h a d b e e n n o lib e rty in th e elec tio n s,” th e “v ic to rio u s c a n d id a te s fo r th e ex ecu tiv e offices h a d b e e n im p o s e d ,” a n d th u s th e “n e w g o v e rn m e n t w as illegal.”5 G u tié rre z ’s s u p p o rte rs in D iario O ficial re s p o n d e d to th o se claim s in m u ltip le w ays. F irst, th e y d ism isse d L a Verdad o n id e o lo g ic al g ro u n d s, ac­ c u sin g it o f b e in g “a clerical, C a th o lic n e w s p a p e r” o p p o s e d to lib e ralism . T h e n th ey d isc re d ite d th e claim s o f e lec to ra l im p o s itio n in th e vice p re si­ d e n tia l e le c tio n by sh o w in g th e d e p a rtm e n tw id e resu lts th a t th e y to u te d as p r o o f th a t m u ltip le c a n d id a te s receiv ed votes. In th e San Salvador D epartm ent A lfaro rec eiv e d 4 ,5 4 3 votes; M e lé n ­ dez received 2 ,6 9 6 .

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Santa A na. — P érez 1 ,9 0 1 . A lfaro , 1 ,2 1 0 . R e g alad o , 4 3 2 . La Libertad. — M e lé n d e z , 2 ,7 5 2 . —A lfaro 1 ,0 0 1 . R e g alad o , 4 7 2 . Sonsonate. — A lfaro 3 ,6 4 5 — Pérez. 5 9 0 — M e lé n d e z , 188 — H u rta d o , 177.

San Vicente. —M e lé n d e z , 3 ,1 7 0 —A lfaro , 2 6 0 . Ahuachapán. —A lfaro , 2 ,6 3 5 —M e lé n d e z , 2 ,6 3 4 . La Paz. —A lfaro, 3 ,3 3 4 —M e lé n d e z , 4 0 8 . Usulután. —A lfaro , 3 ,0 9 6 —M e lé n d e z , 2 7 0 . Chalatenango. —A lfaro , 4 ,2 7 8 —M e lé n d e z , 2 ,7 5 0 . A rm e d w ith th a t ev id en c e, th e a u th o rs in siste d th a t “o n ly a lo sin g c a n d i­ d a te b lin d e d b y p a r ty lo y a lty ” c o u ld fail to see “th a t th e n u m e ric a l resu lts p ro v e th a t a n im p o s itio n u n d e r su c h c irc u m sta n c e s w as im p o s sib le .” T h u s , th e y su m m a riz e d , “th e e le c tio n fo r th e vice p re s id e n t . . . h as b e e n fre e.”6 D e fe n d in g th e p re sid e n tia l e le c tio n w as m o re o f a c h a lle n g e b ecau se, afte r all, G u tié rre z h a d b e e n e le c te d b y u n a n im ity w ith o u t an o p p o n e n t. T h e a u th o rs in D iario Oficial ex p la in e d th a t “th e u n a n im ity is th e re su lt o f th e p restig e o f th e A p ril [1894] R e v o lu tio n , th e re sp e c t its le ad e rs h av e sh o w n fo r p u b lic lib erty , a n d th e h o n o r d e m o n s tra te d b y th e P ro v isio n al G o v e rn m e n t.” T h u s , th e a u th o rs c o n c lu d e d th a t th e execu tiv e officers’ rig h t to g o v ern h a d b e e n esta b lish e d b y “th e S a lv a d o ra n p e o p le freely exer­ cisin g th e ir r ig h t to v o te in th e m o s t re c e n t e le c tio n s.”7 In m a n y a n d d iv erse w ays, th e vice p re sid e n tia l e le c tio n o f 1895 sy m ­ bolizes th e n a tu re o f e lec to ra l p o litic s in n in e te e n th - a n d early tw e n tie th c e n tu ry El S alvador. F irst a n d fo re m o st, it reveals th a t a lo t o f p e o p le v o te d in electio n s. A ssu m in g th a t w id e s p re a d b a llo t stu ffin g d id n o t sw ell th e n u m b e rs o f v o te rs, th e m o re th a n six ty th o u s a n d v o tes cast re p re se n te d at least 4 0 p e rc e n t o f elig ib le v o te rs.8 T h a t is a lo t o f p e o p le p h y sic ally m a k ­ in g th e ir w ay to a p o llin g s ta tio n o n e le c tio n day, especially c o n s id e rin g th a t a sizeable p o r tio n o f th o se p e o p le w h o d id n o t v o te w ere p ro b a b ly s u p p o rte rs o f th e re c e n tly o u ste d E ze ta n e tw o rk a n d th u s w o u ld n o t h av e b e e n allo w ed to v o te . I f n o th in g else, th e h ig h tu r n o u t in d ic a te s th a t p o ­ litica l lead ers to o k e lec tio n s seriously. H o w e v e r p re d e te rm in e d th e o u t­ c o m e m a y hav e b e e n , as in th e case o f G u tié rre z ’s p re sid e n tia l e le c tio n , or h o w ev er m a n a g e d th e v o tin g w as a t a n y g iv en p o llin g s ta tio n , su c h as d u r ­ in g th e vice p re sid e n tia l c o n te st b e tw e e n A lfaro a n d M e lé n d e z , p o litic a l

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lead ers n e e d e d th e ir ru le sa n c tifie d b y a n e le c tio n , a n d th e y w a n te d p e o p le s h o w in g u p o n e le c tio n d a y to le g itim iz e th e process. A n o th e r c h a ra c te ristic rev e ale d b y th is e le c tio n is th e a b sen c e of p o ­ litica l p la tfo rm s , p o lic y p ro p o sals, o r id e o lo g ic a l v isio n . T h e c a n d id a te s m a d e n o a p p a re n t a tte m p t to e x p lain th em selv es to v o te rs o r a p p e a l to th e ir p a rtic u la r in te re sts— or, a t least, n o e v id en c e survives to in d ic a te th a t th e y d id . In ste a d , th e e le c tio n c o n siste d sim p ly o f tw o p o w e rfu l n a tio n a llevel p o litic a l acto rs lin in g u p allies in m u n ic ip a litie s to c o n tro l v o tin g at p o llin g sta tio n s. W h a te v e r m e a n s n a tio n a l p o litic a l bosses e m p lo y e d to b u ild alliances a t th e lo cal level, a n d h o w ev e r lo cal p o litic a l bosses c o n ­ s tru c te d th e ir n e tw o rk s in th e m u n ic ip a litie s, b e it co e rc io n , p e rsu a sio n , o r b o th , th e y p u t th e m to w o rk o n e le c tio n d a y b y g e ttin g v o te rs to th e p o lls in s u p p o r t o f th e n a tio n a l-le v e l boss. T h e fact th a t v o tin g o c c u rre d in th e m u n ic ip a litie s, u n d e r th e p u r ­ v iew o f m u n ic ip a l a u th o ritie s , p ro v id e d th e ra w m a te ria l fo r b u ild in g th e co m p le x w ebs o f p a tro n a g e th a t b o u n d local, reg io n a l, a n d n a tio n a l acto rs to g e th er. I n fact, th e e lec to ra l m a c h in e ry u se d in n a tio n a l elec tio n s, su c h as v o te r re g is tra tio n lists (e x a m in e d in m o re d e ta il b elo w ), h a d b e e n in ac­ tio n ju s t a few w eek s p r io r in m u n ic ip a l elec tio n s. T h u s , th e a b ility to d eliv er v o tes fo r a n a tio n a l-le v e l p o litic ia n w as a d ire c t c o n tin u a tio n o f d eliv erin g th e sa m e fo r o n e s e lf o r o n e ’s allies in a re c e n t m u n ic ip a l e lec tio n . T h e success o f n a tio n a l-le v e l c a n d id a te s h in g e d u p o n th e ca p ab ilities o f w o rth y a n d d u tifu l allies a t th e d e p a rtm e n ta l a n d m u n ic ip a l levels, m e n lik e A b ra h á n R iv era in S o n so n a te C ity . It is n o t clear w h a t R iv era receiv ed fro m A lfaro fo r h is successfu l effo rts in S o n so n a te . P erh ap s R iv era w as re ­ p a y in g a d e b t to A lfaro. P erh ap s h e receiv ed a g o v e rn m e n t p o s itio n in S an Salvador. P erh ap s h e sim p ly a c c ru e d p o litic a l ca p ita l fo r h is o w n b a ttle s in S o n so n a te — assu ra n ce th a t a f u tu re p e titio n fro m h im w o u ld receive a fa ­ v o ra b le rev iew a t th e n a tio n a l level. T h e av ailab le ev id en c e d o es n o t reveal e n o u g h a b o u t R iv era’s career to say fo r c e rta in , b u t un less h e w as so m e h o w ex c ep tio n al, h e is lik e ly to h av e a p p lie d o n e o r a n o th e r o f th e se o p tio n s . Finally, th e vice p re sid e n tia l e le c tio n o f 1895 sh o w s th a t a r h e to ric o f d e m o c ra c y a c c o m p a n ie d elec tio n s. B o th M e lé n d e z a n d A lfaro a p p e a le d to th e p rin c ip le s o f p o p u la r w ill, free suffrage, a n d d e m o c ra tic lib e rty to ju stify th e ir assessm en ts o f th e e le c tio n . N o o n e d isp a ra g e d dem o cracy . R ath er, th e y accu sed o n e a n o th e r o f fa ilin g to live u p to th e h ig h s ta n d a rd s

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o f d e m o c ra tic fre e d o m , d e s p ite th e fac t th a t b o th o f th e m fo llo w ed th e sa m e n o n d e m o c r a tic p ro c e d u re s d u r in g th e e le c tio n . N e ith e r sid e allo w ed o p p o s itio n v o te rs to cast b a llo ts in areas w h e re th e ir allies c o n tro lle d th e polls. In m o s t every m u n ic ip a lity , v o tin g w as d e c id e d b y u n a n im ity or n e a r u n a n im ity . E a c h c a n d id a te w a n te d to c o n tro l p o llin g s ta tio n s a n d m a x im iz e th e n u m b e r o f v o tes in h is fav o r w h ile lim itin g o r e lim in a tin g v o tes fo r h is rivals. E v en i f M e lé n d e z ’s s u p p o rte rs in L a Verdad h a d ex­ p o se d th e fallacies b e h in d th e ir o p p o n e n ts ’ sta tistic a l d efe n se in D iario

Oficial b y in s is tin g th a t m u n ic ip a l-le v e l re su lts p ro v e d th a t A lfa ro ’s allies h a d p re v e n te d M e lé n d e z ’s s u p p o rte rs fro m v o tin g , th e ir case w o u ld h av e b e e n n o stro n g er, b ec au se th e y h a d d o n e th e sa m e th in g . N ev e rth ele ss, ev ery o n e e m p lo y e d a c o m m o n r h e to ric o f d e m o c ra tic liberty. T h e s e g e n e ra liz e d c o m m e n ts w ill b e flesh e d o u t in g re a te r d e ta il in th e c o m in g pages. S uffice it to say fo r n o w th a t th e vice p re sid e n tia l elec­ tio n o f 1895 p ro v id e s a re v e a lin g in tr o d u c tio n to th e c o m p le x a n d sp ra w l­ in g n a tu re o f p o litic s in El S alv a d o r in th e n in e te e n th a n d early tw e n tie th ce n tu ries. I w ill n o w b a c k u p in c h ro n o lo g y a n d sh o w th e fo rm a l elec to ra l ru les th a t h a d b e e n p u t in p la c e in th e d ec ad e s le a d in g u p to th a t m o m e n t in 1895.

The Formal Rules of Politics in Republican El Salvador In 1821, after n e a rly th re e h u n d r e d years o f S p a n ish c o lo n ia l ru le , C e n tra l A m e ric a d ec la re d its in d e p e n d e n c e . T h is b re a k w ith th e c o lo n ia l m o th e r ­ la n d ca m e w ith o u t w ar, b u t it o c c u rre d w ith in a d is tin c t c o n te x t o f social in e q u ality . A sm a ll m in o r ity o f th e p o p u la tio n , th e creoles (A m e ric a n b o r n S p an ia rd s), h a d c h a m p io n e d th e cau se o f in d e p e n d e n c e a n d i n ­ te n d e d to m a ste r th e n e w o rder. T h e y c o n s titu te d less th a n 10 p e rc e n t o f th e to ta l p o p u la tio n o f C e n tra l A m e ric a , a n d a n even sm a lle r p r o p o rtio n in El S alvador, y e t th e y b eliev e d th a t th e y w ere th e rig h tfu l h e irs to S p a in ’s a u th o rity .9 T h e y ju stifie d th is c la im o n th e g ro u n d s th a t th e y w ere th e o n ly p e o p le in C e n tra l A m e ric a q u a lifie d to g o v ern , b ec au se th e re m a in ­ in g 9 0 p e rc e n t o f th e p o p u la tio n c o n s iste d o f In d ia n s, A fric an s, a n d m e s­ tizos, w h o m th e creoles c o n s id e re d to re p re se n t th e regressive fea tu re s o f A m e ric a n society. T h e creoles a s su m e d th a t th e se d a rk -s k in n e d a n d m o stly

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illite ra te m asses s h o u ld n o t b e allo w ed to p a rtic ip a te freely in p o litic s, b e ­ cause th e y w o u ld su re ly use p o litic a l p o w e r to th e d e trim e n t o f th e creoles a n d so ciety as a w h o le. T h e d a u n tin g ta sk o f b u ild in g a n e w n a tio n fro m th e d isp a ra te r e m ­ n a n ts o f th e fo rm e r S p a n ish e m p ire w as n o t u n iq u e to th e creoles o f C e n ­ tra l A m e ric a . T h r o u g h o u t L a tin A m e ric a , creoles stru g g le d to give fo rm to th e ir n a tio n a lis m a n d d e te rm in e th e ty p e o f g o v e rn m e n t th a t w o u ld b e st serve th e ir in te re s ts .10 N a tu ra lly , in te n s e d e b a te s e n su e d , w ith o n e o f th e m o s t c o m m o n d iv isio n s o c c u rrin g b e tw e e n so -ca lle d co n serv ativ es a n d liberals. T h e fo rm e r w ish e d to re ta in m u c h o f th e o ld c o lo n ia l o rd er, w h ereas th e la tte r w ish e d to tra n s fo rm so c iety in w ays c o n s is te n t w ith m o re m o d e rn -lo o k in g stru c tu re s. W i th th e e x c e p tio n o f a h a n d f u l o f rad ic al liberals, w h o d re w in s p ira tio n fro m ev e n ts lik e th e F re n c h R e v o lu ­ tio n a n d called fo r m ass e m p o w e rm e n t, m o s t co n serv ativ es a n d liberals sh a re d c o n c e rn s over m ass p o litic a l a c tio n . W h a te v e r s tru c tu re s th e y h o p e d to p u t in p la ce in th e ir n e w ly in d e p e n d e n t n a tio n s , th e y w a n te d to b e able to m a in ta in c o n tro l. T h e process is w ell sy m b o liz e d b y th e in v e te ra te lib e ra l creo le S im ó n B olívar, th e “L ib e ra to r,” w h o v a n q u is h e d S p a in ’s co lo n ia l arm ies a n d th e n faced th e ta sk o f b u ild in g a n a tio n in th e re g io n k n o w n as G ra n C o lo m ­ bia. B olívar ste ad fa stly b eliev e d th a t th e s tru c tu re s o f g o v e rn m e n t in B rit­ ain, F ran ce, a n d th e U n ite d S tates w ere m o d e ls o f m o d e rn ity a n d p ro g ress, a n d especially o f n a tio n a lis m , b u t h e re je c te d fo r h is o w n la n d w h a t h e c o n s id e re d to b e th o se n a tio n s ’ excessive c o m m itm e n t to lib e rty .11 B olívar h e ld th e c o n v ic tio n th a t h e a n d h is fello w creoles w ere in c o n flic t n o t o n ly w ith S p ain , b u t also w ith th e m asses, o r as h e p u t it, “w e are d is p u tin g w ith th e n ativ es fo r titles o f o w n e rsh ip .” 12 B o lív ar s o u g h t to c re ate a g o v ­ e r n m e n t in w h ic h lib e rty a n d d e m o c ra c y w o u ld b e h a ile d , b u t c u rta ile d . “A ll s h o u ld n o t b e le ft to c h a n c e a n d th e o u tc o m e o f e le c tio n s,” B olívar said fa m o u sly b e fo re th e C o n g re ss o f A n g o s tu ra in 1819, “th e p e o p le are m o re easily d eceiv ed th a n is N a tu r e p e rfe c te d b y art. . . . A b s o lu te lib e rty in v a ria b ly lapses in to a b s o lu te p o w e r.”13 B o lív a r a d o p te d m e a su re s to m a k e g o v e rn m e n t exclusive, lik e a h e r e d ita r y se n a te , w ith a p o w e rfu l e x e c u tiv e .14 S im ila r c o n c e rn s s h a p e d th e f o u n d a tio n s o f g o v e rn m e n t in C e n tra l A m e ric a .15 T h e creoles o f C e n tra l A m e ric a d id n o t w av er in th e ir b e lie f th a t th e m asses s h o u ld b e h in d e re d fro m p a rtic ip a tin g in p o litic s, a lth o u g h th e y

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d isag reed as to w h a t ty p e o f g o v e rn m e n t w o u ld b e s t s u it th e ir n ee d s. S o m e co n serv ativ e creoles re m a in e d loyal to th e id e a o f a m o n a rc h y a n d h o p e d fo r th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a n e m p ire , i f n o t th e r e tu r n o f th e S p a n ish cro w n . O t h e r creoles, how ever, fa v o red a fo rm o f re p u b lic a n ism , a g o v e rn m e n t r u n b y elec ted re p re se n ta tiv e s. P arallel to a n d p a r t o f th is c o n flic t b e tw e e n m o n a rc h is m a n d re p u b lic a n is m w as a d e b a te b e tw e e n fed eralists a n d ce n ­ tralists. C e n tra lists w a n te d th e five fo rm e r in te n d a n c ie s o f th e K in g d o m o f G u a te m a la (n o w th e five in d e p e n d e n t re p u b lic s o f m o d e rn C e n tra l A m erica) to b e c o n s o lid a te d u n d e r a sin g le d o m in a n t reg im e. F ed eralists b eliev ed th a t th e tra d itio n a l a n im o sity b e tw e e n th e d is tin c t reg io n s d e­ m a n d e d th e c re a tio n o f a fed e ra l g o v e rn m e n t th a t w o u ld g r a n t ea ch p ro v ­ in c e a u to n o m y over its o w n affairs.16 T h e s u p p o rte rs o f re p u b lic a n is m a n d fe d e ra lism p rev a iled , a lth o u g h local co n serv ativ es, especially in G u a te m a la , in itia lly h e ld th e u p p e r h a n d a n d s u p p o r te d C e n tra l A m e ric a ’s in c o rp o r a tio n in to th e M e x ic a n e m p ire u n d e r A g u stín Itu rb id e . T h a t e m p ire c o llap sed in 1823, fre e in g th e n e w lead ers o f C e n tra l A m e ric a to fra m e a c o n s titu tio n th e fo llo w in g y ear to fo rm a liz e th e in s titu tio n s o f th e ir n e w g o v e rn m e n t, th e U n ite d P ro v in ces o f C e n tra l A m e ric a . T h e re s u lta n t c h a rte r o f 1824 re fle c te d th e diverse m o tiv es th a t in s p ire d it. It a b o lish e d slav ery a n d re je c te d th e id e a th a t citiz e n sh ip d e p e n d e d u p o n o n e ’s c o n tin e n t o f o rig in in fav o r o f th e m o re m o d e rn c o n c e p ts o f p la ce o f b ir th a n d n a tu ra liz a tio n .17 It o u tlin e d a fe d ­ eral re p u b lic a n d h e ra ld e d th e v irtu e s o f re p re se n ta tiv e d em o crac y : “th e g o v e rn m e n t o f th e R e p u b lic is p o p u la r, re p re se n ta tiv e a n d fe d e ra l.”18 It estab lish ed p o p u la r e lec tio n s as th e m e th o d o f tra n sfe rrin g p o litic a l p o w e r a n d se p a ra te d th e g o v e rn m e n t in to th re e b ra n c h e s: legislative, executive, a n d ju d ic ia l. In s h o rt, it esta b lish e d d e m o c ra tic re p u b lic a n is m as th e n o r ­ m a tiv e order, b u t d e m o c ra c y w as a m o re w o rriso m e p ro s p e c t th a n re p u b lic a n is m .19 T h e c h a rte r o f 1824 lim ite d m ass p a rtic ip a tio n b y m a k in g all elec­ tio n s in d ire c t, a ta c tic a d o p te d fro m S p a in ’s C á d iz C o n s titu tio n o f 1812. H is to ria n o f M e x ic o P ete r G u a r d in o says th a t th e C á d iz C o n s titu tio n w as n o t d e sig n e d to e n c o u ra g e c o m p e titiv e n e ss. It w as b u ilt a ro u n d th e n o tio n o f in d iv id u a ls w o rk in g in c o rp o ra te c o m m u n itie s , su c h as g u ild s, w h o w o u ld se n d e n lig h te n e d le ad e rs to re p re se n t th e ir in te re sts a t th e g o v e rn ­ in g level.20 T h e C e n tra l A m e ric a n is t h is to ria n s M a rio R o d ríg u e z a n d Jo rd a n a D y m co n c u r, p o in tin g o u t th a t th e C á d iz C o n s titu tio n se rv e d as a

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m o d e l fo r C e n tra l A m e ric a ’s 1824 c o n s titu tio n . V o tin g lists fro m so m e o f th e first elec tio n s in El S alv a d o r in th e 1820s a n d 1830s, f o u n d in th e m u n ic ip a l arch iv e in S o n s o n a te C ity, reveal th e fu n c tio n in g o f in d ire c t electio n s. V o ters cast th e ir v o tes fo r electores (electo rs o r deleg ates), w h o th e n v o te d fo r th e a c tu a l c a n d id a te s o n th e ir b eh a lf. T h e d ista n c e b e tw e e n th e c o m m o n v o te r a n d th e c a n d id a te s in c re a se d w ith th e scale o f th e elec­ tio n . In m u n ic ip a l ele c tio n s th e se le c tio n o f electo res o c c u rre d in o n e ro u n d , m e a n in g th a t c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n v o te r a n d c a n d id a te w as re la ­ tively close. B u t in e lec tio n s fo r th e offices o f p re sid e n t, vice p re sid e n t, a n d rep rese n tativ es to th e fed e ra l congress, th e se le c tio n o f electo res o c c u rre d in th re e ro u n d s . O n ly in th e first r o u n d d id th e c o m m o n v o te r p a rtic ip a te , a n d w ith each successive ro u n d , th e n u m b e r o f electo res g re w sm aller. By th e fin al r o u n d o f v o tin g th e electo res a n d c a n d id a te s w ere far re m o v e d fro m th e c o m m o n v o te r a n d h a d little a c c o u n ta b ility . O th e r ta ctics th a t lim ite d th e p o w e r o f th e c o m m o n p e rso n in c lu d e d lite ra c y a n d w e a lth re ­ q u ire m e n ts fo r o ffic eh o ld in g . T h u s , as R o d ríg u e z ac k n o w led g e s, th e first g o v e rn m e n t o f C e n tra l A m e ric a a p p e a le d to th e p rin c ip le s o f lib e ra lism a n d dem ocracy, b u t fu n c tio n e d m o re a k in to a m o n a rc h y .21 A lth o u g h th e creoles fro m th e v a rio u s re g io n s o f C e n tr a l A m e ric a ag reed a b o u t th e n e e d to c u rta il m ass e m p o w e rm e n t, th e y failed to se ttle th e ir o w n p ro v in c ia l rivalries. J u s t as th e creoles o f Paraguay, th e B a n d a O rie n ta l (U ru g u a y ), a n d U p p e r P e rú (B olivia) d e fin e d tru e in d e p e n d e n c e as lib e ra tio n fro m b o th S p a in a n d A rg e n tin a , th e creoles o f ea ch C e n tra l A m e ric a n re g io n c o n s id e re d th e ir p a rtic ip a tio n in th e U n ite d P ro v in ces to b e a lm o st as stiflin g as c o lo n iz a tio n b y S p ain . T h e riv a lry b e tw e e n El S al­ v a d o r a n d G u a te m a la w as p a rtic u la rly in te n se . E l S alv a d o r p ro d u c e d m a n y a g ric u ltu ra l c o m m o d itie s, especially in d ig o , a n d th e in fa m o u s m e rc h a n ts o f G u a te m a la so u g h t to c o n tro l th e m a rk e tin g o f th o se g o o d s. E l S alv ad o r in tu r n resisted th e G u a te m a la n m o n o p o ly , c o n s id e rin g it a c o n tin u a tio n o f S p a in ’s m e rc a n tilis t ec o n o m y . S im ila r rivalries ra g e d b e tw e e n all th e p ro v in ce s, a n d s o o n th e p e a c e o f in d e p e n d e n c e gave w ay to c h ro n ic w a r­ fare a n d in stab ility . B y 1839 c o n d itio n s h a d d e te rio ra te d so b a d ly th a t w h e n J o h n L lo y d S te p h e n s, th e ro v in g a m b a ssa d o r fro m th e U n ite d S tates, arriv ed o n th e scen e h e w as u n a b le to lo c a te a fu n c tio n in g g o v e rn m e n t. “A fter d ilig e n t se a rc h ,” h e w ro te to h is su p e rio rs in W a s h in g to n , “n o g o v ­ e r n m e n t fo u n d .”22

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A lth o u g h th e d e m ise o f th e fe d e ra tio n w as asso cia te d w ith w id e s p re a d d iso rd er, in El S alv a d o r th e tra n s itio n fro m fe d e ra tio n to re p u b lic rev ealed a d egree o f c o n tin u ity . It d id n o t in c ite a re v o lu tio n a ry c h a n g e in p o w er; rath e r, th e sa m e m e n w h o h a d re p re se n te d El S alv a d o r in th e fe d e ra tio n assu m ed th e rein s o f le a d e rsh ip in th e n e w n a tio n . A few o f th e se m e n w ere E d u a rd o V ega, José C a m p o , a n d V ic e n te G ó m e z o f S o n so n a te , a n d G e ra rd o B arrio s o f S an M ig u e l. T h e y a n d o th e rs lik e th e m h a d p a rtic i­ p a te d in fed era l p o litic s a n d w e n t o n to h o ld th e h ig h e s t-ra n k in g offices in th e n e w n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t.23 T h e s e m e n b r o u g h t to El S alv a d o r th e sa m e p o litic a l p h ilo s o p h y th a t h a d p r e d o m in a te d in th e fe d e ra tio n , n a m e ly a b e lie f th a t g o v e rn m e n t s h o u ld b e re p re se n ta tiv e , a n d th a t d e m o c ra c y w as a h e ra ld e d p rin c ip le , even th o u g h its ac tu a l p ra c tic e w as d isc o n c e rtin g . D e s p ite th e ir su sp ic io n s a b o u t d em o cracy , th e in itia l lead ers o f El S al­ v a d o r set im p o r ta n t p re c e d e n ts fo r m ass p o litic a l p a rtic ip a tio n in th e c o u n try ’s first c o n s titu tio n o f 1841. T h e y esta b lish e d re p re se n ta tiv e d e ­ m o c ra c y as th e g o v e rn in g s ta n d a rd a n d e lim in a te d so m e o f th e re stric tio n s o n m ass p a rtic ip a tio n in th e 1824 c o n s titu tio n . T h e 1841 c h a rte r d iv id e d th e p o w ers o f g o v e rn m e n t in to executive, ju d ic ia l, a n d legislative b ra n c h e s. It m a d e p o p u la r ele c tio n s d e te r m in a n t fo r all o ffic e h o ld in g . It m a d e su f­ frage u n iv ersa l fo r all m e n over th e age o f tw e n ty -o n e , regardless o f e th ­ nicity, literacy, o r w e a lth . “A ll p o litic a l p o w e r e m a n a te s fro m th e p e o p le ,” it reads, “th e base o f th e e lec to ra l sy stem is th e p o p u la tio n .” It re ta in e d in d ire c t v o tin g fo r m u n ic ip a l e lec tio n s, w h ic h in so m e ru ra l p re c in c ts e n ­ h a n c e d th e p o w e r o f la rg e la n d o w n e rs b ec au se th e b o u n d a rie s o f v o tin g p re c in c ts o fte n c o in c id e d w ith th e b o rd e rs o f h a c ie n a d a s. H o w ev er, th e 1841 c h a rte r m a d e n a tio n a l ele c tio n s d ire c t, even th o u g h n a tio n a l-le v e l c a n d id a te s still h a d to m e e t w e a lth re q u ire m e n ts . D e p u tie s a n d se n a to rs to th e N a tio n a l A sse m b ly h a d to p ro v e p o sse ssio n o f 5 0 0 a n d 4 ,0 0 0 pesos respectively, a n d th e p re s id e n t a n d vice p re s id e n t h a d to o w n at le ast 8 ,0 0 0 pesos each. A n in d iv id u a l w h o w as e le c te d d e p u ty fo r S a n ta A n a D is tric t in 1849 h a d to resig n h is office b ec au se h e d id n o t “m e e t th e c o n s titu ­ tio n a l re q u ire m e n ts o f p o sse ssin g 5 0 0 p eso s’ w o rth o f c a p ita l, a n d m o r e ­ over, th e m o n e y w h ic h h e c la im e d as h is ac tu a lly b e lo n g e d to h is m o th e r.”24 T h e 1841 c o n s titu tio n d id n o t e stab lish w e a lth re stric tio n s fo r m u n ic ip a l officials, a lth o u g h so m e m u n ic ip a litie s c re a te d th e ir o w n w e a lth -b a se d re ­ q u ire m e n ts fo r o ffic e h o ld in g . In S o n s o n a te C ity a n d S an V ic e n te C ity , fo r

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in sta n c e , c a n d id a te s fo r lo cal office h a d to q u a lify as “hacendados y pro p i­

etarios” (la n d o w n e rs).25 E ac h c o n s titu tio n th a t su c c e e d e d th e o rig in a l c h a rte r in 1841 e n ­ h a n c e d th e electo ra l p o w e r o f th e citizenry. T h e c o n s titu tio n o f 1864 a b o l­ ish e d w e a lth re q u ire m e n ts fo r n a tio n a l o fficeh o ld ers, a n d th e c o n s titu tio n o f 1872 d is c o n tin u e d in d ire c t e lec tio n s a t th e m u n ic ip a l level. A ll o f th e se e x ten sio n s o f elec to ra l lib e rty w ere re ta in e d in th e fin al c o n s titu tio n o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry , w h ic h w as ra tifie d in 1886. T h u s , b y th e 1870s, legally sp e ak in g , th e p o litic a l sy stem o f El S alv a d o r w as w id e o p e n . A ll a d u lt m ales w ere e n fra n c h ise d , all e lec tio n s w ere d ire c t, a n d n o re stric tio n s o n o ffic e h o ld in g existed. N o ta b ly , th is ste a d y ad v a n ce o f legal rig h ts o c ­ c u rre d regardless o f th e o ste n sib le id e o lo g ic al o rie n ta tio n o f th e c o n s titu ­ tio n s ’ a u th o rs, b ec au se th e c o n s titu tio n s o f 1872 a n d 1886 w ere d ra fte d b y so -called liberals, a n d th o se o f 1841 a n d 1 8 6 4 w ere d ra fte d b y so -ca lle d conservatives. T h is d eg ree o f elec to ra l fre e d o m in El S a lv a d o r’s legal co d es c o n tra sts w ith so m e o th e r ex am p les in L a tin A m e ric a , su c h as C o lo m b ia . M ass su f­ frage w as co d ifie d in C o lo m b ia in 1853, in p a r t b ec au se elites d esp e ra te ly n e e d e d m ass s u p p o r t in th e ir in c e ssa n t b a ttle s w ith o n e a n o th e r. R e co g ­ n iz in g th is, th e m asses b a rg a in e d fo r legal rig h ts. L ib e ra l elites in p a rtic u la r w ere w illin g to e x te n d v o tin g rig h ts to th e m in e x c h an g e fo r th e ir s u p p o r t a g a in st co n serv ativ es. B u t b y th e 1870s a n d 1880s, elites o n b o th sides o f th e s p e c tru m ca m e to w o rry a b o u t th e d eg re e o f m ass e m p o w e rm e n t. D u r in g th e so -ca lle d R e g e n e ra tio n p e rio d th a t b e g a n in th e 1870s, a n d th e n specifically in th e n e w C o lo m b ia n C o n s titu tio n o f 1886, elites b a n d e d to g e th e r a n d re tra c te d so m e o f th e e lec to ra l priv ileg es th e y h a d g ra n te d in th e 1 8 5 0 s.26 S im ilarly, in N ic a ra g u a in th e early 1880s v o te rs still h a d to q u alify as a “c itiz e n ” to b e allo w ed to v o te a n d h o ld p o litic a l office, a n d to ach iev e c itiz e n sh ip a p e rs o n h a d to o w n a t least 100 p eso s.27 In El S alv ad o r th e o p p o s ite o c c u rre d . R e stric tio n s c o d ifie d in th e early years o f th e fe d e ra tio n a n d re p u b lic ste ad ily fell aw ay w ith ea ch successive c o n s titu tio n , so th a t b y th e 1870s n o re stric tio n s re m a in e d . T h e rea so n s fo r th is d iv erg en ce are sp e cu la tiv e . El S alv a d o r w itn e sse d p le n ty o f in tr a ­ elite fa c tio n a lism a n d in fig h tin g , a n d elites d re w u p o n m ass s u p p o r t fo r th e ir resp ectiv e c o n fla g ra tio n s, b u t th a t fa c tio n a lism w as m o re p e rso n a l th a n id eo lo g ical, so p e rh a p s elites sh a re d o p in io n s a b o u t th e legal co d e

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a n d n o fa c tio n felt th e n e e d to su d d e n ly re tra c t th e a c tio n s o f th e ir p re ­ decessors. R esea rch h as sh o w n w ith so m e d efin itiv en e ss th a t S a lv a d o ra n elites te n d e d to sh a re a g en e raliz ed lib e ral ideology. E ven th o u g h th e y so m e tim e s fra m e d th e ir d isp u te s w ith o n e a n o th e r in th e s ta n d a rd co n serv a tiv e /lib e ra l r h e to ric o f th e day, th e fac t re m a in s th a t m o s t o f th e m w ere b asically liberals. T h is u n ity o f id e o lo g y w as c a u se d in n o sm a ll p a r t b y a sh a re d a n im o s ity fo r G u a te m a la , w h e re a m o re id e o lo g ic a lly d riv e n c o n ­ se rv a tism h e ld sw ay th r o u g h o u t m u c h o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry .28 P er­ h a p s th e m asses in El S alv a d o r sim p ly m a n a g e d to k e e p th e p re ssu re o n elites lo n g e r a n d m o re effectively th a n th e ir C o lo m b ia n c o u n te rp a rts . O r p e rh a p s th e S a lv a d o ra n m asses h a d n e v e r p u t a d eg re e o f p re ssu re o n th e ir elites c o m p a ra b le to th a t im p o s e d b y th e C o lo m b ia n m asses, so th e S alva­ d o ra n elites d id n o t fear c o d ify in g m ass p o litic a l p a rtic ip a tio n . W h a te v e r th e cause o f th e d iv e rg e n ce , th e c o m p a ris o n b e tw e e n El S alv a d o r a n d C o ­ lo m b ia h ig h lig h ts th e fo rm e r’s a d v a n c e o f m ass e lec to ra l rig h ts a n d th e la tte r ’s re tra c tio n o f th e m .29 Still, El S a lv a d o r’s elites w ere c o n c e rn e d a b o u t a u to n o m o u s m ass ac­ tio n , a n d th u s it is c u rio u s th a t th e y w ere so w illin g to a d v a n c e a m o d e r n ­ lo o k in g electo ra l co d e. In fa c in g th is c o n u n d r u m , S a lv a d o ra n elites w ere h a rd ly u n iq u e in th e c o n te x t o f n in e te e n th - c e n tu ry L a tin A m e ric a . R e ­ search o n o th e r n a tio n s reveals a c o n s ta n t te n s io n a m o n g n in e te e n th c e n tu ry elites w ish in g to p a rtic ip a te in c u ttin g -e d g e fo rm s o f n a tio n -s ta te fo rm a tio n , w h ic h o fte n m e a n t e m b ra c in g lib e ral p rin c ip le s, w h ile still p ro te c tin g th e m se lv es fro m th e vagaries o f a u to n o m o u s m ass a c tio n . E lites th r o u g h o u t C e n tra l A m e ric a w ere clearly aw are o f fo re ig n m o d e ls a n d th e b ro a d e r id e o lo g ic a l tre n d s re la tin g to th e la n g u a g e o f re p u b lic a n d e m o c ­ racy. As ju s t o n e ex a m p le , C o s ta R ic a n elites in c lu d e d e le m e n ts o f F ra n c e ’s D e c la ra tio n o f th e R ig h ts o f M a n in th e ir sta te c o n s titu tio n o f 1 8 2 4 .30 It also seem s a p p a re n t th a t elites in El S alvador, lik e th e ir c o u n te rp a rts in C o lo m b ia a n d M e x ico , b eliev e d th a t p o te n tia lly d isru p tiv e m ass a c tio n c o u ld b e c u rta ile d th r o u g h e d u c a tio n a l d isc ip lin e . In C o lo m b ia , fo r ex­ am p le, C e rb e le ó n P in z ó n d ra fte d a p rim a ry -s c h o o l te x t in 1864, Cate­

cismo repúblicano para instrucción popular, to in c u lc a te th e m asses w ith resp e ct fo r social o rd er. H e w ro te th e te x t afte r m ass su ffrag e h a d b e e n g ra n te d in th e 1850s, in te n d in g , in th e w o rd s o f h is to ria n Ja m es S an d ers, to “d isc ip lin e th e m asses, te a c h th e m th e ir re sp o n sib ilitie s a n d d u tie s, so

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th a t th e y w o u ld n o t in te r p re t th e ir n e w rig h ts in to o ra d ic a l a m a n n e r, [and] k n o w th e ir p la c e b e h in d lib e ral le ad e rs.”31 S im ila r ca te ch ism s a p ­ p e a re d in o th e r L a tin A m e ric a n n a tio n s .32 In El S alv a d o r a c o m p a ra b le tex t, Cartilla del ciudadano (C a te c h is m o f c itiz e n sh ip ), w as w ritte n in 1874 b y th e lib eral m a n o f le tte rs F ra n cisc o G a lin d o . It b e c a m e a re q u ire d te x t in sch o o ls. In it G a lin d o d is tin g u is h e d b e tw e e n th e “p e o p le ” (el

pueblo) a n d “ra b b le ” (el populacho), id e n tify in g th e fo rm e r as th e f o u n d a ­ tio n o f th e n a tio n a n d th e la tte r as a social p r o b le m .33 N ev e rth ele ss, so m e fea tu re s th a t lim ite d v o te r fre e d o m re m a in e d in p la ce in El S a lv a d o r’s e lec to ra l sy stem . T h e m a in o n e w as o ral v o tin g .34 T h e secret b a llo t w as n o t e sta b lish e d in El S alv a d o r u n til th e C o n s titu tio n o f 1950, m e a n in g th a t u n til th e n all v o tin g w as c o n d u c te d o rally a n d in p u b lic . (In cid en tally , fe m a le suffrage w as g ra n te d in th a t sa m e c h a rte r in 1 950.) O n e le c tio n d a y v o te rs g a th e re d a t th e assig n ed p o llin g s ta tio n a n d aw a ite d th e fo rm a tio n o f th e e lec to ra l b o a rd (directorio). O n c e th e b o a rd h a d b e e n fo rm e d , v o te rs filed b e fo re its m e m b e rs a n d a n n o u n c e d th e ir v o te, w h ic h w as w ritte n o n a ta lly sh e e t (pliego) b y a b o a rd official. V o ters w ere d ism isse d w ith o u t b e in g allo w ed to v erify th e ir v o te . A N o r t h A m e ric a n re s id e n t in El S alv a d o r in th e early tw e n tie th c e n tu ry o n c e b o re w itn e ss to o ral v o tin g : “T h e r e is n o se cret b a llo t,” h e w ro te to h is w ife, “b u t th e re are 15 clerks w h o ta k e d o w n th e w ish es o f th e v o te rs in th e ir b o o k s as th e b a llo t is p assed a r o u n d th e ta b le. T h e v o te r sim p ly states w h o h e w ishes to v o te for, p u b licly , a n d th e clerks m a k e th e re c o rd .”35 T h e ta lly sh eets th a t h av e su rv iv e d in to El S a lv a d o r’s n a tio n a l arc h iv e offer p h y sic al ev id en c e o f th is sy stem a t w o rk . A n e x a m in a tio n o f th e m reveals th a t each c o n ta in s o n ly o n e style o f h a n d w ritin g , th a t o f th e b o a rd m e m b e r w h o re c o rd e d th e votes. E le ctio n s in El S alv a d o r o c c u rre d fre q u en tly . M u n ic ip a l c o u n c ils w ere elec ted every year, as w ere re p re se n ta tiv e s to th e n a tio n a l congress. P resi­ d e n tia l elec tio n s o c c u rre d ev ery tw o years u n til th e 1864 C o n s titu tio n a n d th e n every fo u r y ears th e re afte r. A ll o f th e se e lec tio n s w ere h ig h ly re g i­ m e n te d affairs th a t fu n c tio n e d m o re o r less in th e fo llo w in g m a n n e r. V o t­ in g fo r all elec tio n s to o k p la c e in th e m u n ic ip a lity a n d w as ov erseen by m u n ic ip a l officials. V o tin g in m u n ic ip a l ele c tio n s la ste d o n e day, usually th e first o r se c o n d S u n d a y o f D e c e m b e r. V o tin g fo r n a tio n a l elec tio n s la ste d th re e days a n d o c c u rre d ro u g h ly th re e w eeks later, d u r in g th e first or se c o n d w e e k e n d o f Ja n u ary . In th e m o n th le a d in g u p to a n e le c tio n , v o te rs

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w ere re q u ire d to reg ister th e ir n a m e s in th e re g is tra tio n b o o k (libro de

registros) th a t w as lo c a te d in th e m u n ic ip a l h a ll (cabildo), w h ic h n a tu ra lly w as u n d e r th e c o n tro l o f th e re ig n in g m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il. T h e re g istra tio n b o o k w as u se d o n e le c tio n d a y to cro ss-ch e ck v o te rs fo r eligibility, a n d th a t sa m e re g is tra tio n b o o k w as u se d fo r b o th m u n ic ip a l e lec tio n s a n d n a tio n a l elections. A t 8 :0 0 a .m . o n th e m o r n in g o f a n e le c tio n , th e re ig n in g m u n ic ip a l officers g a th e re d in f ro n t o f th e m u n ic ip a l h all to oversee th e se le c tio n o f th e elec to ra l b o a rd , w h ic h w as to b e c o m p rise d o f a t le ast fo u r o f th e to w n ’s re sid e n ts. T h e e lec to ra l b o a rd w as ch o se n b y a v o te o f w h o m e v e r h a p p e n e d to b e s ta n d in g in f ro n t o f th e m u n ic ip a l h all a t th a t early h o u r. O n c e th e elec to ra l b o a rd h a d b e e n c h o sen , its m e m b e rs sa t d o w n b e h in d a ta b le in sid e th e m u n ic ip a l h all a n d p ro c e e d e d to a c c e p t p e o p le ’s v o tes, s ta rtin g a t 9 :0 0 a .m . V o ters filed b e fo re b o a rd m e m b e rs, a n n o u n c in g th e ir n a m e a n d th e ir v o te . I f th e b o a rd m e m b e rs d e te rm in e d th a t a v o te r w as eligible in th e re g is tra tio n b o o k , th e y re c o rd e d h is v o te o n a ta lly sh e et. V o tin g e n d e d a t 5 :0 0 p .m ., a n d th e re su lts w ere e ith e r c a rrie d p h y sic ally o r te le g ra p h e d (o n c e th a t b e c a m e available) to th e d e p a rtm e n ta l g o v e rn o r’s officer fo r c o u n tin g a n d v e rific a tio n .36 A t th e local level, c a n d id a te s c o m p e te d fo r fo u r offices— alcalde, re g i­ dor, sín d ico , a n d ju e z d e paz. T h e alcald e (m ay o r) w as th e m u n ic ip a l ex­ ec u tiv e w h o p re sid e d over c o u n c il m e e tin g s, m a d e p o litic a l a p p o in tm e n ts , ru le d o n su c h th in g s as d isp u te s over la n d a n d w ate r, a n d c o n tro lle d th e m u n ic ip a l po lic e. H e a p p o in te d th e alguaciles (sheriffs) w h o p a tro lle d th e

cantones (n e ig h b o rh o o d s o r p re c in c ts) a n d ru ra l areas o u tsid e th e m u n ic i­ pality. R eg id o res (c o u n c il m e m b e rs) su p e rv ise d a d m in is tra tiv e affairs a n d s to o d in fo r th e alcald e in case o f h is ab sen ce. E a c h m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il h a d a t least tw o a n d as m a n y as te n reg id o res, d e p e n d in g o n th e size o f th e m u n ic ip a lity . T h e sín d ic o o v ersaw fin a n c ia l affairs a n d m o n ito re d m u ­ n ic ip a l em plo y ees. T h e ju e z d e p a z (ju stic e o f th e p eace) a d m in is te re d local ju stic e .37 A t th e n a tio n a l level, c a n d id a te s c o m p e te d fo r th e office o f p re si­ d e n t a n d vice p re s id e n t a n d fo r seats in th e legislative co n g ress. A ll o th e r n atio n a l-le v e l g o v e rn m e n t offices w ere a p p o in te d b y th e p re sid e n t, in c lu d ­ in g c a b in e t p o sitio n s, ju d g e sh ip s, a n d d e p a rtm e n ta l g o v ern o rsh ip s. El S al­ v a d o r sta n d s o u t fro m larg er c o u n trie s in L a tin A m e ric a in th a t it d id n o t hav e sta te g o v e rn m e n ts a n d th e re fo re d id n o t h av e sta te -le v el le g islatu res

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o r electio n s. In ste a d , El S alv a d o r w as d iv id e d in to d e p a rtm e n ts , w h ic h w ere a d m in is tra tiv e s u b u n its o f th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t. D e p a rtm e n ta l officials (p a rtic u la rly th e d e p a rtm e n ta l g o v e rn o r a n d th e d e p a rtm e n ta l m ilita ry c o m m a n d e r) w ere a p p o in te d b y th e p re s id e n t o r th e c o m m a n d ­ in g m ilita ry officer (w h o , m o s t o f th e tim e , w ere o n e a n d th e sa m e). El S alv ad o r h a d fo u r d e p a rtm e n ts in 1824 (S o n so n a te , S an S alvador, S an V i­ cen te, a n d S an M ig u e l), a n d b y 1875 it h a d its m o d e rn -d a y e q u iv a le n t o f f o u rte e n d e p a rtm e n ts (see m a p 2). E v en th o u g h e lec tio n s o c c u rre d at o n ly tw o levels— m u n ic ip a l a n d n a tio n a l— th e d e p a r tm e n t w as a n im p o r ta n t c o m p o n e n t o f th e p o litic a l sy stem b ec au se its officers (th e g o v e rn o r a n d m ilita ry c o m m a n d e r) p re sid e d over affairs th r o u g h o u t th e ir d e p a rtm e n ts a n d re p re se n te d im p o r ta n t in te rm e d ia rie s b e tw e e n th e lo cal a n d n a tio n a l levels. E le cto ral n u llific a tio n w as an im p o r ta n t legal p ro c e d u re in E l S alva­ d o r th a t w as d e sig n e d to e n su re a d h e re n c e to e lec to ra l law. E a c h c o n s titu ­ tio n s tip u la te d th a t e lec tio n s c o u ld b e n u llifie d i f th e y w ere p ro v e n to h av e b e e n c o n d u c te d irreg u larly . T h e decisive q u e s tio n , o f co u rse, w as w h o d e ­ c id e d th e m e a n in g o f regular a n d irregular? T h e an sw e r to th a t q u e s tio n w ill b e ex p lo re d in g re a te r d e ta il in f o rth c o m in g c h a p te rs. S uffice it to say th a t th e ru les o f e lec to ra l n u llific a tio n w ere q u ite ex p licit. I f e v id en c e ex­ iste d th a t v o tin g fo r a n y e le c tio n ra n c o n tra ry to th e s ta te d law s, th e n o f­ ficials a t th e d e p a rtm e n ta l a n d n a tio n a l levels h a d th e a u th o rity to n u llify th e elec tio n . In itia l n u llific a tio n re q u e sts w ere s e n t b y a c o m p la in a n t at th e m u n ic ip a l level to e ith e r th e d e p a rtm e n ta l g o v e rn o r o r th e m in is te r o f g o v e rn m e n t in S an S alvador. I f th o se h ig h e r officials n e e d e d fu rth e r ev idence, th e y h a d th e a u th o rity to se n d a n in v e stig a tiv e te a m to th e m u ­ n ic ip a lity to p ro d u c e a w ritte n re p o rt. T h e te a m c o u ld in te rv ie w local re sid e n ts, a n d i f necessary, re le v a n t w itn e sses c o u ld b e called in to th e o f­ fices o f h ig h e r a u th o ritie s to p ro v id e te stim o n y . I f a v ic to rio u s c a n d id a te w as f o u n d g u ilty o f m isd ee d s, h is e le c tio n w as n u llifie d a n d a re p la c e m e n t ele c tio n w as sc h e d u le d fo r a la te r d ate. E v id e n c e sh o w s th a t n u llific a tio n s w ere a c o m m o n fe a tu re o f elec tio n s. El S a lv a d o r’s n a tio n a l arc h iv e c o n ­ ta in s m o re th a n th re e h u n d r e d c o m p le te n u llific a tio n cases b e tw e e n 1889 a n d 1936, as w ell as su rv iv in g d o c u m e n ta tio n fro m a few d o z e n m o re cases fo r th e p e rio d p r io r to th e 1889 arc h iv e fire. M a n y o th e r n u llific a tio n p ro c e d u re s, fo r w h ic h th e re are n o su rv iv in g rec o rd s, are m e n tio n e d in

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p e rip h e ra l d o c u m e n ts , su g g e stin g th a t th e a c tu a l n u m b e r o f cases w as even g reater.38 A s w ill b e sh o w n in th e fo llo w in g pages, th e se n u llific a tio n re ­ q u ests, w h ic h serve as th e c o u rt cases o f p o litics, p ro v id e v alu a b le ev id en ce in to th e n a tu re o f elec to ra l p ro c e d u re s. In su m m a ry , th e le tte r o f th e la w in E l S alv a d o r called fo r th e c re a tio n o f a re p re se n ta tiv e d em o cracy . S in ce th e b e g in n in g o f th e re p u b lic , th e re h a d b e e n few re stric tio n s o n v o tin g , a n d w h a te v e r re stric tio n s w ere in p la ce ste ad ily e v a p o ra te d th r o u g h o u t th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry . E le c tio n s o c ­ c u rre d fre q u e n tly a n d a t re g u la rly sc h e d u le d in te rv a ls. A n d , as w e are a b o u t to see, v o te rs w e n t to th e p o lls. V ic to rio u s c a n d id a te s a ssu m e d o f­ fice, a n d n o b o d y h e ld office w ith o u t th e s a n c tity o f a n e le c tio n . S o m e elec tio n s w ere h ig h ly c o m p e titiv e , su c h as th e vice p re sid e n tia l e le c tio n o f 1895. A lm o s t every e le c tio n , c o m p e titiv e o r n o t, te n d e d to fo llo w th e le tte r o f th e law. B u t a t a d eeper, m o re fu n d a m e n ta l level, th e y d e v ia te d fro m th e s p irit o f th e la w as it re la te d to d e m o c ra c y a n d in d iv id u a l liberty. V o tin g d id n o t reflec t th e o p in io n s o f a u to n o m o u s in d iv id u a ls se lec tin g fro m a ra n g e o f a lte rn a tiv e p la tfo rm s a n d id eo lo g ie s. In ste a d , v o tin g re ­ flec ted p o litic a l n e tw o rk s ’ ab ilities to m o n o p o liz e p o llin g s ta tio n s a n d e n ­ su re th a t w h o e v e r c a m e to th e p o lls v o te d acco rd in g ly .

The Informal Rules of Politics in Republican El Salvador W h a t c o m p e lle d p e o p le to seek a n d h o ld p o litic a l office in El Salvador? T h is is a sp ra w lin g q u e s tio n th a t c a n d ra w u p o n a m o ra ss o f th e o rie s a b o u t h u m a n b eh av io r. I w ill av o id th a t m ess a n d stic k to th e basics. F irst, it s h o u ld b e p o in te d o u t th a t so m e p e o p le d id n o t w a n t to h o ld p o litic a l o f­ fice. A b ro a d ly a c c e p te d tru is m in El S alv a d o r is th a t elites p re fe rre d to av o id p o litics a n d lo o k e d d o w n o n p o litic a l o ffic e h o ld in g as a d irty b u s i­ ness th a t g o t in th e w ay o f m a k in g m o n e y .39 T o th e e x te n t th a t su c h a b e ­ lie f actu a lly ex isted , it seem s to h av e b e e n a tw e n tie th -c e n tu ry p h e ­ n o m e n o n ; in th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry m a n y elites h e ld office, in p a r t b ecau se th e a c c u m u la tio n o f p riv a te w e a lth o fte n d e p e n d e d u p o n p u b lic p o lic y o r p u b lic favors. F u rth e rm o re , th r o u g h o u t m u c h o f th e n in e te e n th ce n tu ry , th e lo n g m id c e n tu ry e c o n o m ic d o w n tu r n h a d c irc u m sc rib e d o p ­ p o r tu n itie s fo r p riv a te p ro fit in th e m a rk e tp la c e . P u b lic o ffic e h o ld in g w as

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o fte n a r o u te o f asce n t, even i f th e g o v e rn m e n t’s trea su ries w ere m e ag e r a n d fre q u e n tly p lu n d e re d . P eo p le s o u g h t p o litic a l office fo r d iv erse re a ­ sons: so m e w ere d riv e n b y h ig h ly selfish desires, w h ile o th e rs felt called b y a ltru is m a n d h o p e d to im p ro v e society. R egardless o f m o tiv e , p e o p le p u r ­ su e d p o litic a l office to m a k e p o lic y a n d w ie ld po w er, a n d a n y o n e w h o w a n te d to g et a n y th in g d o n e h a d to h av e in flu e n c e in th e p u b lic sp h e re o f g o v e rn m e n t. E v e n i f a p e rso n d id n o t w a n t to h o ld office h im self, h e w a n te d to b e allie d w ith s o m e o n e w h o d id . A t th e local level, m u n ic ip a l officers p re sid e d over su c h th in g s as la n d a n d w a te r d isp u te s, ju d ic ia l ru lin g s, th e re g is tra tio n o f b irth s , d e a th s, a n d m a rria g es, a n d va rio u s o th e r fa c to rs o f re sid e n ts’ d aily lives a n d liv e lih o o d s. T h e c e n tra l g o v e rn m e n t w as w e a k a n d s o m e w h a t po w erless th r o u g h o u t m u c h o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry , a n d m u n ic ip a l officials e n jo y e d a lo t o f la titu d e . In a d d itio n , m u n ic ip a l officials o v ersaw v o tin g fo r n a tio n a l elec­ tio n s, a n d th u s, in ev itab ly , th e y w ere d ra w n in to n a tio n a l-le v e l p o litic a l affairs. M u c h th e sa m e c a n b e sa id fo r n a tio n a l-le v e l officials. P o litic al office a t th e n a tio n a l level b e s to w e d u p o n its h o ld e rs v ario u s p o w ers a n d re s p o n ­ sib ilities in th e ju d ic ia l, e c o n o m ic , a n d social aren as, in c lu d in g su c h areas as p en sio n s, in fra s tru c tu re , taxes, a n d e d u c a tio n , to n a m e ju s t a few. W h a te v e r c o m p e lle d a s p ira n ts to p u rs u e n a tio n a l-le v e l office a n d affect p o licies in o n e o r m o re o f th o se aren as, b e it p e rso n a l a g g ra n d iz e m e n t or a ltru istic service, n o p o litic a l a c to r la u n c h e d o r su c c e e d e d in a career w ith ­ o u t c re a tin g a n e tw o rk tie d in to b ro a d -b a s e d allian ces a t th e d e p a rtm e n ta l a n d m u n ic ip a l levels. T h o s e alliances are th e m a in fo cu s o f th is b o o k . T h e fo u n d a tio n o f p o litic a l p o w e r a t th e m u n ic ip a l level is th e su b je c t o f c h a p te rs 3 a n d 4 . In th o se c h a p te rs I lo o k a t lo cal e lec tio n s a n d th e w ays in w h ic h m u n ic ip a l-le v e l p o litic a l p lay ers b u ilt u p th e ir n e tw o rk s a n d u se d th e m to c o n tro l p o llin g sta tio n s a n d fe n d o ff rivals. F o r now , it is e n o u g h to n o te th a t o n e o f th e m o s t c o m m o n m e th o d s o f b u ild in g a lo cal p o litic a l n e tw o rk w as fo r lo cal p o w e r p lay ers (u su a lly e lite la n d o w n e rs) to u n ite a n d ac q u ire a g ro u p o f loyal u n d e rlin g s, o r clien ts, w h o c o u ld b e en liste d o n e le c tio n d a y to d o th e ir b id d in g . T h e e c o n o m ic d isp a rity b e tw e e n la n d o w n e rs a n d la b o re rs w as a b a sic m e c h a n is m th a t allo w ed fo r th e ac­ c u m u la tio n o f clien ts. B u t it w as h a rd ly th e sole ro u te to b u ild in g a local n e tw o rk . As w e w ill see, fa m ily ties a n d e th n ic b o n d s, a m o n g o th e r fac­

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to rs, tra n s c e n d e d e c o n o m ic d isp a rity a n d allo w ed p e o p le to c re ate n e t ­ w o rk s a t th e local level. In fact, so m e m u n ic ip a l-le v e l p o litic a l bosses, especially in im p o v e rish e d areas o f th e c o u n try , w ere q u ite p o o r rela tiv e to th e ir c o u n te rp a rts in o th e r areas o f th e c o u n try , b u t th e y re m a in e d p o liti­ cally re le v a n t b ec au se o f th e v o te s th e y p re sid e d over, esp ecially i f th e y h a p p e n e d to live in d e n se ly p o p u la te d zo n es. A t th e n a tio n a l level, p o litic a l p lay ers su c c e e d e d o r failed d e p e n d in g o n th e ir a b ility to b u ild p o litic a l n e tw o rk s o u t o f d isp a ra te d e p a rtm e n ts a n d m u n ic ip a litie s. T h e s tre n g th o f a n y o n e p e rso n ’s n e tw o rk d e te rm in e d h is a b ility to su c c e e d in b o th e lec to ra l p o litic s a n d w arfa re. M y m a in c o n ­ te n tio n is th a t p o litic s in El S alv a d o r a n d th e b u ild in g o f th e se p o litic a l n e tw o rk s o p e ra te d a c c o rd in g to a n in fo rm a l set o f ru les rev o lv in g a ro u n d p a tro n a g e . S ch o la rs o f L a tin A m e ric a h av e lo n g re c o g n iz e d th e ex isten ce o f p a tro n a g e in p o litic s, b u t as h is to ria n L u is R o n ig e r p o in ts o u t, o n ly re c e n tly hav e th e y b e g u n to s tu d y it sy stem atically .40 E arly w o rk s o n p a ­ tro n a g e te n d e d to d e sc rib e it in th e lim ite d c o n te x t o f ca u d illism o , th e n o to rio u s “lead ers o n h o rse b a c k ” w h o w ere as m u c h p lu n d e rin g b a n d its as p o litic a l officials, w h o re w a rd e d th e ir s u p p o rte rs w ith sto le n b o o ty ac­ q u ire d th r o u g h m ilita ry a d v e n tu ris m .41 L ater stu d ie s h a v e ta k e n a m o re n u a n c e d a p p ro a c h , e n d o w in g p a tro n a g e w ith m o re s u b tle ty a n d flexibility. T h e y d e m o n s tra te th a t th e ty p ic a l p a tro n w as a local la n d o w n e r a n d p o ­ litica l official w h o ca m e to p o w e r th r o u g h a n e le c tio n — a lb e it a rig g ed o n e — a n d w h o d is trib u te d p ayoffs in th e fo rm o f a p p o in tm e n ts a n d jo b s ra th e r th a n rich e s g a in e d th r o u g h p lu n d e r. T h e in s titu tio n s o f c a c iq u ism o in M e x ic o a n d c o ro n e lism o in B razil hav e a ttra c te d sc h o la rly a tte n tio n a n d in s p ire d s u b sta n tiv e a n d e n lig h te n ­ in g stu d ie s o f p a tro n a g e a n d p a tro n a g e n e tw o rk s. T h e c a c iq u e a n d th e c o ro n e l f u n c tio n e d in ro u g h ly th e sa m e m a n n e r in th e ir resp e ctiv e n a tio n s as in El S alvad o r; th e y w ere lo c al- o r reg io n a l-lev e l p o litic a l bosses w h o p re sid e d over th e ir im m e d ia te p a tro n a g e n e tw o rk s a n d w h o ta p p e d in to b ro a d e r n e tw o rk s a t th e n a tio n a l level, w h ic h in th e case o f M e x ic o w ere le d b y p o w e rfu l cau d illo s. U ltim a te ly , th e p o w e r base o f a c a c iq u e o r a c o ro n e l w as th e b o d y o f lo cal clien ts o r re ta in e rs h e c o u ld c o u n t o n to p ro v id e v o tes o r to serve as so ld iers in s u p p o r t o f h ig h e r-le v e l p o litic a l allies.42 E l S alv a d o r d id n o t h av e te rm s th a t w ere u se d re g u la rly in p o litic a l p arla n ce , a lth o u g h o cc asio n ally p o w e rfu l p o litic a l p a tro n s w ere re fe rre d to

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as jefe (boss) o r cacique, a n d so m e tim e s as notables (n o ta b le p e rso n s). F ro m th is p o in t fo rw a rd I w ill use th e te rm p olitical boss to refer to th e se p o litic a l acto rs at b o th a t th e m u n ic ip a l a n d n a tio n a l levels. A b r ie f case s tu d y fro m th e m u n ic ip a lity o f C h a lc h u a p a (S a n ta A n a D e p a rtm e n t) in 1919 m a k e s clear h o w th e p o w e r o f a p p o in tm e n t c o u ld b e u se d to in flu e n c e a n e lec to ra l o u tc o m e . T h e in c u m b e n t alca ld e’s p o ­ litica l n e tw o rk h o p e d to e x te n d its te n u re in office fo r a n o th e r year, b u t it faced a stiff ch alle n g e fro m a riv al n e tw o rk . T h e alcald e fea re d th a t h is al­ guaciles w ere n o t g o in g to s u p p o r t h im in th e e le c tio n , even th o u g h h e h im s e lf h a d a p p o in te d th e m . W h y th e alguaciles m ig h t h av e sh ifte d lo y a l­ ties re m a in s u nclear. R egardless, th e alcald e p u t th e p o w ers o f h is office to w o rk b y d ism issin g all o f th e m a few days p rio r to th e e le c tio n a n d a p ­ p o in tin g n e w ones, w ith th e u n d e r s ta n d in g th a t th e y w o u ld a rre st o p p o s i­ tio n s u p p o rte rs. O n e o f th e a p p o in te e s te stifie d th a t th e alca ld e “to ld us th a t h e w as su re th a t in re c e iv in g o u r n e w a p p o in tm e n ts w e w o u ld w o rk to en su re th e v ic to ry o f h is c a n d id a te .”43 W h e n a n a ly z in g th e se p a tro n a g e alliances a n d th e ir a tte n d a n t p a tro n c lie n t re la tio n s at th e lo cal level, w e m u s t k ee p in m in d th e ir c o m p le x itie s a n d th e n e e d fo r n u a n c e in d e s c rib in g th e m . A s J u s tin W o lfe , a h is to ria n o f n in e te e n th - c e n tu ry N ic a ra g u a , in sists, w e m u s t av o id “s im p listic n o ­ tio n s o f ca u d illo p o litic s . . . [in w h ich ] local elites c o n tro lle d th e m asses th r o u g h p a tro n a g e a n d c o e rc io n a n d d e p lo y e d th e m lik e p a w n s in p o ­ litica l d e m o n s tra tio n s , strikes, a n d re g io n a l u p ris in g .”44 As W o lfe a n d m a n y o th e r sch o lars o f L a tin A m e ric a n p o litic a l h is to ry reveal, m ass acto rs d e m o n s tra te d th e c a p a c ity fo r a u to n o m o u s th o u g h t a n d a c tio n .45 H o w ­ ever h ie ra rc h ic a l a sy stem m ig h t h a v e b e e n , a n d h o w ev e r effective elite acto rs w ere a t c re a tin g a h e g e m o n ic n o r m th a t b e n e fitte d th e m , th e m asses w ere ca p ab le o f in te r p re tin g affairs fro m th e ir p ersp e ctiv es a n d se ek in g sa tisfac tio n o f th e ir d e fin e d in te re sts. T h u s , p o litic a l allian ces b e tw e e n elites a n d c o m m o n e rs in v o lv e d so m e fo rm o f n e g o tia tio n , ju s t as d id th e alliances b e tw e e n th e elites th em selv es. R e tu r n in g to th e v ice p re sid e n tia l ele c tio n o f 1895 as a n ex a m p le , th e n a tio n a l-le v e l p o litic a l player, P ru ­ d e n c io A lfaro, b a rg a in e d w ith re g io n a l bosses lik e A b ra h á n R iv era in S o n so n a te , w h o b a rg a in e d w ith m u n ic ip a l bosses th r o u g h o u t S o n so n a te D e p a rtm e n t, w h o in tu r n b a rg a in e d w ith th e m asses o f v o te rs w h o cast th e ir v o tes a t th e p o lls o n e le c tio n day. E a c h o f th o se in te ra c tio n s h a d a

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histo ry , w h e th e r p e rso n a l o r in s titu tio n a l. M o s t p o litic a l ac to rs liv e d in close p ro x im ity to th e p e o p le w ith w h o m th e y p ra c tic e d p o litic s, a n d th e ir p o litic a l re la tio n sh ip s w ere in tim a te ly tie d in to all o th e r so cial in te ra c tio n s. T h e h isto ry o f th o s e in te ra c tio n s a n d th e w ays in w h ic h in d iv id u a l ac to rs re m e m b e re d th e m c o n s titu te d th e ra w m a te ria l o f p o litic a l re la tio n sh ip s. A lth o u g h th e so u rce s su rv iv in g in th e S a lv a d o ra n d o c u m e n ta ry re c o rd te n d to b e b u re a u c ra tic ra th e r th a n p e rso n a l, o ffe rin g lim ite d in s ig h t in to th e se o n - th e - g r o u n d realities, th e y still reveal s o m e th in g o f th e c o m p le x ity o f p e o p le ’s in te ra c tio n s. A t th e least, th e y d e m o n s tra te th e n e e d to k eep th e se co m p lex itie s in m in d as w e re a d o f th e m . A t th e fo u n d a tio n o f th e ir p o litic a l em p ires, bosses tra d e d to o th e r bosses th e services o f th e ir lo cal n e tw o rk s in r e tu r n fo r favors, su c h as a p ­ p o in tm e n t to p o litic a l office, assistan ce in p o litic a l b attle s, a n d fav o rab le ru lin g s fro m h ig h e r a u th o ritie s in legal d isp u te s, a m o n g m a n y o th e r fo rm s o f fav o r a n d p ay b a c k . O n e c o m m o n fo rm o f p a tro n a g e re w a rd , especially in th e n in e te e n th ce n tu ry , w as m ilita ry p r o m o tio n .46 A lo cal official o n c e d escrib ed a p a tro n a g e re la tio n s h ip as b e in g “en servicio” (in service) to s o m e o n e else. H e n o te d th a t in h is ju ris d ic tio n p a tro n a g e w as c o m m o n ly u se d to in flu e n c e ju d ic ia l o u tc o m e s . C e rta in c rim in a ls, h e claim ed , n ev e r receiv ed p u n is h m e n t b ec au se w e ll-p o sitio n e d allies se c u re d le n ie n t ru lin g s fro m th e p o lic e a n d ju d g e s.47 P a tro n a g e k n it d isp a ra te bosses to g e th e r in to p o w e rfu l p o litic a l m a ­ ch in es th a t p ro p e lle d th e ir le ad e rs in to office by c o n tro llin g e lec tio n s a n d fig h tin g o ff rivals. P a tro n a g e n e tw o rk s re se m b le d p o litic a l p a rtie s in th a t th e y w ere m e c h a n ism s o f p o litic a l ascen t, a n d o cc asio n ally th e se n e tw o rk s w ere even refe rre d to as partidos (p artie s). B u t th e y d iffe red fro m a n y m o d ­ e rn c o n c e p t o f p o litic a l p arties. T h e y d id n o t offer p la tfo rm s o r p o litic a l ag en d as, n o r d id th e y c o m p e te fo r p o p u la r ap p eal. In s te a d th e y w ere h ig h ly p erso n a listic , ty p ic ally h ie ra rc h ic a l u n its d e sig n e d to m o n o p o liz e v o tin g , c o n tro l p u b lic office, a n d m ilita rily resist rival n e tw o rk s w h e n necessary. T h e n o m e n c la tu re o f n e tw o rk s reflects th e ir m a k e u p . T h e y d id n o t b ea r d is tin c t n a m e s b e y o n d th o se o f th e ir re ig n in g bosses. A n e tw o rk led b y a M e lén d e z , fo r in sta n c e , w as re fe rre d to as th e Melendistas; a n o th e r, le d b y a R ivera, w as called th e Riveristas. T h e n a m e s c h a n g e d w ith ch a n g es in le ad e rsh ip . N o t u n til th e 1920s, a n d th e n o n ly a t th e n a tio n a l level,

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w ere a tte m p ts m a d e to fo rm p o litic a l p a rtie s. D u rin g th e n in e te e n th c e n ­ tu r y p o litic a l acto rs re fe rre d to p a r ty n a m e s o n ly in th e a p p lic a tio n o f th e te rm s liberal a n d conservative to p o litic a l fa c tio n s, as in th e “lib e ral p a rty ” o r th e “co n serv ativ e p a rty .” T h e s e w ere n o t official p a rtie s, b u t ra th e r la ­ bels u se d to d isp a ra g e o p p o n e n ts a n d ju stify o n e ’s o w n a s p ira tio n s b ased o n h y p e rb o lic ac c u sa tio n s.48 N e tw o rk s g rew a n d c o n tra c te d over tim e as n e w p a tro n a g e deals w ere s tru c k a n d o ld o n es w ere b ro k e n . H o w ev er, n e t ­ w o rk s te n d e d to re m a in sta b le over tim e . It w as n o t u n c o m m o n fo r a p o ­ litica l a c to r to m a in ta in so m e o f th e sa m e p a tro n a g e alliances th r o u g h o u t h is e n tire p o litic a l life. B ro ad ly sp e a k in g , th e sy stem in El S alv a d o r fu n c tio n e d in th e fo llo w ­ in g m a n n e r. A t th e m u n ic ip a l level, p o litic a l bosses a c c u m u la te d re ta in e rs o r c lien ts a n d m a rsh a le d th e m to a sce n d th e h e ig h ts o f lo cal po w er. A c­ c o m p lis h in g th is ta sk m e a n t fe n d in g o ff lo cal rivals, p e rh a p s th r o u g h th e use o f v io len ce, in o rd e r to c o n tro l th e a n n u a l m u n ic ip a l e le c tio n . O n c e in ch a rg e in h is m u n ic ip a lity , a bo ss e n te re d in to p a tro n a g e re la tio n s w ith larg er p o litic a l n e tw o rk s a t th e d e p a rtm e n ta l a n d n a tio n a l levels. O n e o f th e k ey assets available to a lo cal b o ss in n e g o tia tio n s w ith o u tsid e rs w as th e v o tes o f h is m u n ic ip a lity , s o m e th in g th a t o u ts id e a sp ira n ts d esp e ra te ly w a n te d . S im ilarly, w h e n p o litic a l affairs tu r n e d v io le n t a n d n a tio n a l-le v e l bosses n e e d e d reso u rces fo r c o m b a t, lo cal bosses se rv e d as th e c o n d u it fo r th e p re c io u s c o m m o d itie s o f m e n , fo o d , m o n e y , a n d w a r m a te ria l. It w as th e local b o ss’s d u ty to g e n e ra te v o tes a n d reso u rces in h is m u n ic ip a lity a t th e b e h e st o f h is larg er p a tro n s . In r e tu r n h e h o p e d to e ith e r c lim b th e la d d e r o f p o litic s o r receive s u p p o r t fro m p o w e rfu l o u tsid e rs in p o litic a l c o n fla g ra tio n s a t h o m e . A t a c e rta in

level, n a tio n a l-le v e l bosses w ere sim p ly successful

m u n ic ip a l-le v e l bosses. T h e y ty p ic a lly ca m e fro m w e a lth a n d h a d a local p o w e r base (th e ir la n d , a n d a s tro n g h o ld o f frie n d s, fam ilies, a n d re ta in e rs a t e ith e r th e m u n ic ip a l o r re g io n a l level) th a t th e y c o u ld rely u p o n w h e n n e e d e d . B u t rarely, i f ever, w as th a t p e rso n a l base alo n e su fficie n t to p ro p e l a p o litic a l a s p ira n t to th e h e ig h ts o f n a tio n a l office. F o r th a t, asp ira n ts n e e d e d allies, lo ts o f th e m , c a p a b le lead ers in d o ze n s o f d isp a ra te m u n ic i­ p alitie s w h o c o u ld p ro d u c e th e v o te s a n d reso u rces n ec essary to a d v a n c e a p o litic a l career.

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B u ild in g P y ram id s

T h e e x te n t o f p o p u la r p a rtic ip a tio n in e lec tio n s in n in e te e n th - a n d early tw e n tie th -c e n tu r y L a tin A m e ric a is a p o in t o f h isto rio g ra p h ic a l d e b a te . R eceived w isd o m h o ld s th a t e lec tio n s d u r in g th o se years w ere c h a ra c te r­ ized b y a n ex tre m e ly re s tric te d fra n c h ise in w h ic h elites e x c lu d e d th e p o p u la r secto rs e ith e r th r o u g h fo rm a l law s o r in fo rm a l p rac tice s. R e v isio n ­ ists c h a lle n g e th is a s s u m p tio n b y o ffe rin g ev id en c e o f a b ro a d e r fra n c h ise a n d even g e n u in e ly d e m o c ra tic p ra c tic e s.49 A sim ila r d e b a te ra g e d in th e 1960s a n d 1970s a b o u t U .S. co lo n ia l h isto ry .50 T h e rev isio n ist lin e h o ld s g re a t p ro m ise , b ec au se it b rin g s n e w evi­ d e n c e to lig h t a n d em p lo y s rev e alin g th e o re tic a l fra m e w o rk s, su c h as th o se th a t g r a n t ag e n cy to su b a lte rn acto rs. B u t th e rev isio n ist lin e d o es n o t seem to d escrib e th e S a lv a d o ra n case v ery w ell. I n E l S alvador, elec tio n s te n d e d to b e all o r n o th in g . T h e g o al o f p o litic a l a c tiv ity w as to e lim in a te th e o p p o s itio n , c o n tro l th e p o llin g p lace, a n d m o n o p o liz e v o tin g . C o m ­ p e tin g n e tw o rk s d id n o t sh a re th e sp o ils o f g o v e rn m e n t, a n d p o litic a l o p ­ p o n e n ts d id n o t sit to g e th e r o n th e sa m e m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il. T h e tra d itio n a l ro u te o f a sc e n t fro m lo cal to n a tio n a l p o litic s lay th r o u g h th e N a tio n a l A ssem bly. H is to ria n A la in R o u q u ié ’s d e fin itio n o f th e s ta te as “th e p la ce fo r tra n sa c tio n s a n d b a rg a in in g b e tw e e n lo cally p r o p e r tie d g ro u p s,” ap p lies lite ra lly to th e N a tio n a l A sse m b ly in E l S alva­ d o r.51 T h e th re e d o z e n o r so m e m b e rs o f th e assem b ly w ere re g io n a l s tro n g m e n w h o h e ld th e ir p o sitio n s a t th e b e h e st o f th e ir p o litic a l n e t­ w o rk s. T h e y a rriv e d in S an S alv a d o r lo o k in g to fo rm alliances w ith o th e r bosses in h o p e s o f b u ild in g ev er-larg er p y ra m id s, a n d w h o e v e r assem b led th e larg est n e tw o rk s c o u ld c o m p e te fo r th e u ltim a te p o litic a l p rize , th e presidency. E ac h m e m b e r o f th e assem b ly h a d a b a rg a in in g c h ip to offer p o te n tia l allies: th e reso u rces o f h is lo cal n e tw o rk . W h e n h e o r h is allies n e e d e d a c e rta in elec to ra l resu lt, h e h a d to b e able to g e n e ra te th e n e e d e d v o tes fro m h is local affiliates. W h e n p o litic a l d isp u te s tu r n e d v io le n t, h e h a d to p r o ­ d u c e soldiers, m o n e y , o r w a r m a te ria l. A s a resu lt, ea ch m e m b e r o f th e as­ se m b ly w ag e d p o litic a l b a ttle s o n tw o fro n ts : a t th e n a tio n a l level, w h e re h e stru g g le d to su sta in h is alliances, a n d a t th e lo cal level, w h e re h e h a d to

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g u a rd a g a in st th e m a c h in a tio n s o f o p p o n e n ts a t h o m e , w h o w ere b u sy se ek in g o u t alliances w ith o th e r n a tio n a l-le v e l p a tro n s . In th is way, n a ­ tio n a l p o litic s c o m p rise d o f a series o f c o n s ta n t a n d crisscro ssin g in te r ­ ac tio n s b e tw e e n local, d e p a rtm e n ta l, a n d n a tio n a l levels. A lth o u g h m a n y local co n flicts h a d n o th in g to d o w ith n a tio n a l p o litic s, so m e lo cal p o ­ litica l b a ttle s g rew d ire c tly o u t o f n a tio n a l-le v e l d isp u te s, a n d in tu r n m o s t n a tio n a l co n flicts w ere fo u g h t o u t in th e m u n ic ip a litie s. S in ce th e ro a d to n a tio n a l p o w e r lay th r o u g h th e N a tio n a l A ssem bly, p o litic a l acto rs w h o a sp ire d to n a tio n a l-le v e l office u su a lly la u n c h e d th e ir careers in th e ir o w n leg islativ e p re c in c ts b y w in n in g e le c tio n as a re p re se n ­ ta tiv e to th e assem bly. U n til 1883 th e assem b ly c o n siste d o f tw o h o u se s, th e c h a m b e r o f d e p u tie s a n d th e se n ate . E a c h se n a to r a n d d e p u ty w as elec ted fro m h is resp e ctiv e p a rish (parroquia). T h e s e n a to r’s p a ris h w as k n o w n as a circle (circulo), w h ic h c o n siste d o f u p to th ir ty th o u s a n d i n ­ h a b ita n ts , a n d th e d e p u tie s ’ p a rish e s w ere called d istric ts (distritos), w h ic h h a d n o m o re th a n fifte e n th o u s a n d in h a b ita n ts . T h e larg est m u n ic ip a lity in each p a rish w as d e s ig n a te d as th e ca p ita l (cabacera) a n d serv ed as th e a d m in istra tiv e cen ter. T h e to ta l n u m b e r o f p arish e s in th e n a tio n h o v e re d a r o u n d fo u r d o ze n , a c c o u n tin g fo r th e ro u g h ly th re e d o z e n d e p u tie s a n d o n e d o z e n sen ato rs. E a c h d e p a r tm e n t ty p ic ally h a d tw o circles c o n sistin g o f tw o o r th re e d istric ts, ea ch o f w h ic h c o n ta in e d ro u g h ly six m u n ic i­ p alities. In 1883 th e a d m in is tra tiv e sy stem c h a n g e d slightly. T h e n e w c o n s ti­ tu tio n th a t year (o n e o f m a n y in th e 1880s th a t fin ally c u lm in a te d in th e d u ra b le c h a rte r o f 1 8 86) a b o lish e d th e se n ate , le av in g o n ly th e c h a m b e r o f d e p u tie s ( th a t is, th e N a tio n a l A ssem b ly ) as th e sole legislative body. E ac h d e p u ty to th e assem b ly w as e le c te d in d e p a rtm e n tw id e elec tio n s ra th e r th a n b y in d iv id u a l p arish e s. E a c h d e p a r tm e n t elec ted th re e d e p u ­ ties, fo r a to ta l o f fo rty -tw o m e m b e rs in th e assem bly. T h is sy stem re ­ m a in e d in p la ce u n til after W o rld W a r II. P rio r to th e ch a n g es o f 1883, th e p a rish w as th e first ste p o f th e p o ­ litica l la d d e r b e y o n d th e m u n ic ip a lity . P arish p o litic s gave a lo cal p o liti­ cian h is first o p p o r tu n ity to fo rm e x tra m u n ic ip a l alliances. H e a n d th e bosses o f th e o th e r five o r six m u n ic ip a litie s in h is d is tric t o r circle h a d to elect o n e d e p u ty o r o n e s e n a to r to th e n a tio n a l le g islatu re. E a c h boss w a n te d th e v o tes o f th e o th e r m e m b e rs ’ m u n ic ip a litie s, a n d ea ch h o p e d to

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use h is o w n v o te s as leverage to e x tra c t favors fro m h is c o u n te rp a rts o r to in flu e n c e th e ch o ic e o f ca n d id a te s. T h e re ig n in g bosses o f th e p a rish c a p ita l w ere th e m a in a rb ite rs o f electo ral pow er. T h e y w ere u su a lly p r o m in e n t la n d o w n e rs, a n d sin c e th e ca p ita l w as th e la rg e st c ity in th e area, its bosses h a d a t th e ir d isp o sal th e g rea test n u m b e r o f v otes. M o reo v e r, th e ca p ita l w as th e a d m in istra tiv e c e n te r o f th e p a rish a n d serv ed as th e site o f v o te c o u n tin g , m e a n in g th a t th e o th e r m u n ic ip a litie s h a d to se n d th e ir b allo ts to th e ca p ita l to b e ta l­ lied, g iv in g th e bosses o f th e ca p ita l even m o re in flu e n c e . A ty p ic al ex­ a m p le o f th e v o te -c o u n tin g o rd ers th a t w e n t fro m th e c a p ita l to o u tly in g m u n ic ip a litie s read s, “th e v o te c o u n te rs o f . . . ea ch v o tin g d istric t are to arrive a t th e m u n ic ip a l h a ll o f th is m u n ic ip a lity a t tw elv e o ’clo ck n o o n , n e x t S u n d a y th e fo u rte e n th o f th is m o n th , b r in g in g w ith th e m th e pliegos [ballots] . . . in o rd e r to effect th e c o u n tin g o f th e v o te s.”52 T h e e le c tio n o f 1870 in th e p a rish c a p ita l o f Izalco reveals a ty p ic al ex am p le o f th e a b ility o f local bosses to d o m in a te affairs. O f th e offices to b e ch o sen th a t year, a n d o f th e fo u r p o sitio n s to b e filled o n th e elec to ra l co u n c il, all b u t o n e o f w ere filled b y Iz a lq u e ñ o s (see ta b le 1.2). T h e elec­ tio n also reveals th e re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n la n d , fam ily, a n d p o litic s. Tw o fam ilies, B a rrie n to s a n d C a stillo , b o th p r o m in e n t la n d o w n in g clans, ac­ c o u n te d fo r th re e o f th e fo u r e le c te d p o sitio n s, as w ell as th e p re s id e n t o f th e d ire c to rio .53

Table 1 .2

Assembly Elections, Izalco Parish, December 1870

(each official’s m unicipality o f origin is listed in parentheses)

Senator: Substitute Senator: Deputy: Substitute Deputy:

Mariano Fernández (n.a.) Ramón Barrientos (Izalco) Benigno Barrientos (Izalco) Aristides Castillo (Izalco)

Members of Directorio:

Ramón Barrientos, President (Izalco) Antonio Menéndez (Izalco) Manuel Díaz (Izalco) Faustino Quiñónez (Izalco)

Source:

Ju n ta Electoral, San Julian, D ecem ber 6, 1870, A G N , FA, Box “# 2 .2 ”; an d Ju n ta Elec­

toral, Izalco, D ecem ber 6, 1870, A M S, Box “Elecciones, 1 8 7 0 -9 .”

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D e p u tie s a n d se n a to rs ty p ic a lly ra n u n o p p o s e d a n d w o n th e ir offices b y u n a n im o u s v o te . A ll o f th e c a n d id a te s in th e 1870 e le c tio n in Izalco, fo r ex am p le, w o n b y u n a n im ity . E le c to ra l resu lts fro m o th e r tim e s a n d places reveal sim ila r resu lts. T h e d e p u ty fro m S a n ta A n a D is tric t, fo r ex­ am p le, w o n h is e le c tio n in 1841 w ith 1 2 7 u n a n im o u s v o tes. T h e d e p u ty o f S o n so n a te D is tric t w o n h is e le c tio n in D e c e m b e r 1841 w ith 3 2 0 u n a n i­ m o u s votes, a n d in O c to b e r 1842, th e d e p u ty fro m S o n so n a te D is tric t w o n w ith 3 0 7 u n a n im o u s v o te s.54 B u t c o n g re ssio n a l ele c tio n s d iffe red fro m m u n ic ip a l e lec tio n s in th a t th e d o m in a n t bosses o f th e ca p ita l city d id n o t p h y sically c o n tro l ea ch p o llin g s ta tio n , a n d as a resu lt, th e ir ab ility to c o n tro l v o tin g in ea ch m u n ic ip a lity d e p e n d e d u p o n th e s tre n g th o f th e ir p a tro n a g e ties a n d th e fo rtitu d e o f th e ir lo cal allies. W h e n adversaries o f th e re ig n in g bosses in th e ca p ita l c a m e to p o w e r in a n o u tly in g to w n , v o tin g c o u ld b e c o n te ste d . T h e d e p u ty e le c tio n o f 1883 in A tiq u iz a y a D is tric t offers a ty p ic a l ex­ a m p le o f a c o n te s te d p a ris h e le c tio n (see ta b le 1.3). F o u r o f th e d is tric t’s five m u n ic ip a litie s u n a n im o u s ly s u p p o r te d R afael G u e rre ro , th e c a n d id a te p u t f o rth b y th e A tiq u iz a y a bosses. B u t officials in o n e o u tly in g m u n ic i­ pality, A p an eca, o p p o se d G u e rre ro a n d gave all 141 o f th e ir v o te s to an alte rn a tiv e c a n d id a te . A lth o u g h G u e rre ro w o n th e ele c tio n a n d w e n t o n to S an S alv ad o r as th e d e p u ty fro m A tiq u iz ay a , h is a b ility to b u ild p a tro n a g e alliances at th e n a tio n a l level w as w e a k e n e d b y A p a n e c a ’s o p p o s itio n b e ­ cause h e c o u ld n o t g u a ra n te e th e u n a n im o u s v o te o f h is o w n p arish .

Table 1.3

Deputy Election, Atiquizaya District, December 30, 1883 Candidates, a n d Votes Received

M unicip a lity

R afael Guerrero

D om ingo León

Atiquizaya El Refugio San Lorenzo Turin Apaneca

381

0 0 0 0 141

Source:

83 121 97 0

Ju n ta Electoral, A tiquizaya, D ecem ber 3 0 , 1883, A G N , M G , Box “ 1882, 1884, 1886,

1887, 1888.”

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S o u rces d o n o t reveal th e m o tiv a tio n s b e h in d A p a n e c a s d efia n ce . B u t th e ra n g e o f p o ssib ilities is lim ite d . E ith e r th e bosses o f th e re ig n in g n e t­ w o rk in A p a n e c a d isa g re ed w ith th e ch o ic e p u t f o rth b y th e lead ers in A tiq u iz ay a , o r th e y w ere a c tin g in c o n c e rt w ith n a tio n a l-le v e l o p p o n e n ts o f th o se leaders. W h a te v e r th e case, th e e le c tio n illu stra te s th e fu n c tio n in g o f n atio n a l-le v e l p o litic s d u r in g th e n in e te e n th ce n tu ry . E a c h m u n ic ip a lity ty p ic ally v o te d u n a n im o u s ly a c c o rd in g to th e d ic ta te s o f th e re ig n in g local n e tw o rk . A n d i f o n e n e tw o rk fell to a n o th e r, th e n th e c a n d id a te a n d his a tte n d a n t v o te rs c h a n g e d , b u t th e resu lts w ere th e sa m e— u n a n im ity or n e a r u n a n im ity . T h e g o al o f p o litic s w as n o t to sw ay v o te rs a n d allo w fo r a c o m p e titiv e fra n ch ise, b u t ra th e r to c re ate p a tro n a g e alliances th a t c o u ld c o n tro l v o tin g . E ac h Jan u ary , d u r in g assem b ly e lec tio n s, a s p irin g bosses across th e n a tio n g ra p p le d w ith o n e a n o th e r fo r d o m in a n c e in th e ir resp e ctiv e p a r ­ ishes. E a c h p a rish b o ss w a n te d to g e t h im s e lf o r o n e o f h is im m e d ia te allies elec ted to th e assem b ly a n d th u s in p o s itio n to b ro k e r deals w ith bosses fro m o th e r p arish e s a n d d e p a rtm e n ts th r o u g h o u t th e c o u n try . P arish bosses u su a lly h a d to n e g o tia te w ith th e ir resp e ctiv e d e p a r tm e n t c a p ita l first a n d th u s c o u ld n o t b ro k e r deals in d e p e n d e n tly a t th e n a tio n a l level. E ven b efo re 1883, w h e n p a rish e s c o n tro lle d th e se le c tio n o f d e p u tie s a n d sen ato rs, th e d e p a rtm e n ta l ca p ita l still h a d a lo t o f po w er. I t h a d its o w n s e n a to r a n d d ep u ty , g iv in g it c o n tro l over as m u c h as o n e - th ird o f th e d e ­ p a r tm e n t’s a llo tm e n t o f c o n g re ssio n a l rep rese n tativ es. In a d d itio n , bosses in th e d e p a r tm e n t ca p ita l w ere u su a lly its m o s t p r o m in e n t la n d o w n e rs a n d h a d fa m ily a n d la n d sp re a d th r o u g h o u t th e d e p a rtm e n t, g iv in g th e m at least so m e in flu e n c e over o u tly in g p arish e s. A fte r 1883 th e d e p a r tm e n t ca p ita l h e ld an even g re a te r ta ctica l ad v a n ta g e, b ec au se its officials oversaw th e selec tio n o f all th re e o f th e d e p a r tm e n t’s d e p u tie s to th e N a tio n a l A ssem bly. T h e d e p a r tm e n t ca p ita l w as also in a p riv ile g e d b a rg a in in g p o s itio n b ecau se it h o u s e d tw o p o w e rfu l officials a p p o in te d a t th e n a tio n a l level, th e d e p a rtm e n ta l g o v e rn o r a n d th e d e p a rtm e n ta l c o m m a n d e r (coman­

dante), b o th o f w h o m h a d w id e ju ris d ic tio n . T h e g o v ern o r, as th e d e p a r t­ m e n ta l executive, ru le d o n e v e ry th in g fro m e lec to ra l irre g u la ritie s to la n d d isp u te s a n d la b o r c o n tra c ts . T h e c o m m a n d e r p re sid e d over th e d e p a r t­ m e n ta l g arriso n , o rg a n iz e d th e m ilitia , a n d c o m m a n d e d th e m ilita ry

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p atro ls. T h e sa m e p e rs o n o fte n h e ld b o th p o sitio n s, g iv in g h im tr e m e n ­ d o u s la titu d e . W h e n o n e o r b o th o f th e m allie d w ith th e re ig n in g p o litic a l n e tw o rk in th e d e p a rtm e n ta l ca p ita l— m e a n in g th a t th e p re s id e n t in S an S alv ad o r h a d c h o se n th e m fro m th a t n e tw o rk — th e y fa c ilita te d th e p o ­ litica l u n ific a tio n o f th e e n tire d e p a rtm e n t. W h e n e ith e r th e g o v e rn o r or c o m m a n d e r was n o t allie d w ith th e re ig n in g p o litic a l n e tw o rk in th e d e ­ p a r tm e n t cap ital, p o litic s to o k o n a m o re fre e w h e e lin g q u ality , rife w ith co n sp iracies a n d f re q u e n t v io le n t clashes. R eg ard less, p a rish bosses ty p i­ cally ac q u ie sce d to th e d e p a r tm e n t ca p ita l, re c o g n iz in g th a t it was b e tte r to b e a s u b o rd in a te m e m b e r o f a p o w e rfu l n e tw o rk th a n th e le a d e r o f an in c o n s e q u e n tia l n e tw o rk . D e p a rtm e n ta l ca p ita ls p ro d u c e d m o s t every m a jo r p la y er in n a tio n a llevel p o litics. In th e first d ecad es afte r in d e p e n d e n c e th e se p lay ers in c lu d e d R afael C a m p o a n d V ic e n te G ó m e z o f S o n so n ate ; D o ro te o V asconcelos, G e n e ra l In o c e n te M a rín , a n d G e n e ra l In d a le c io M ir a n d a fro m S an V i­ cente; G e n e ra l G e ra rd o B arrio s a n d G e n e ra l J o a q u ín G u z m á n fro m S an M ig u e l; a n d F ra n c isc o D u e ñ a s a n d M a n u e l G a lla rd o fro m S an S alv ad o r (L a L ib e rta d ). In th e la tte r d ecad es o f th e n in e te e n th ce n tu ry , n e w p e o p le fro m o th e r d e p a rtm e n ts ro se to p ro m in e n c e , su c h as G e n e ra l Jo sé M a ría R ivas o f C u s c a tlá n , G e n e ra l F ra n cisc o M e n é n d e z o f A h u a c h a p á n , a n d R a ­ fael Z a ld ív a r a n d G e n e ra l T o m á s R e g alad o o f S a n ta A n a, to n a m e ju s t a few. T h e em erg en c e o f p o litic a l p lay ers fro m d e p a rtm e n ts lik e A h u a c h a p á n a n d S a n ta A n a reflec te d th e su rg e in coffee p ro d u c tio n , tu r n in g th o se o n ce m a rg in a l areas in to e c o n o m ic a n d p o litic a l p o w e rh o u se s. T h e m a jo r p o litic a l bosses ty p ic ally m ig ra te d b a c k a n d f o rth b e tw e e n th e ir h o m e ca p ita l a n d th e n a tio n a l ca p ita l in a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e ir p o ­ litica l fo rtu n e s . T h e s ta n d a rd ro u te o f a sc e n t b e g a n in th e d e p a r tm e n t ca p ita l w ith serv ice o n n u m e ro u s e le c tio n co u n c ils a n d in v a rio u s m u ­ n ic ip a l offices. T h e n , o n c e a boss h a d p o s itio n e d h im s e lf a to p th e h ie r ­ arc h y o f th e d e p a r tm e n t ca p ita l, h e g o t elec ted to th e N a tio n a l A ssem bly, g iv in g h im a n o p p o r tu n ity to b u ild alliances a t th e n a tio n a l level. I f h e p ro v e d a d e p t a t p o litic a l d e a l-m a k in g a t th e n a tio n a l level a n d to o k a d v a n ­ tage o f o p p o r tu n itie s w h e n th e y p re s e n te d th em selv es, a n d i f h e receiv ed th e fu ll electo ral a n d m a te ria l s u p p o r t o f h is h o m e n e tw o r k w h e n h e n e e d e d it, h e h a d th e c h a n c e to asce n d to h ig h e r offices, su c h as ju d g e ­ ships, th e c a b in e t, th e vice p resid en cy , o r th e p resid en cy . In th e e v e n t th a t

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h e cam e to h o ld o n e o f th e se h ig h -ra n k in g offices b u t f o u n d h im s e lf o u ste d fro m p o w e r in a m ilita ry a c tio n o r a reversal o f e lec to ra l fo rtu n e , h e sim p ly re tu r n e d to h is h o m e ca p ita l a n d re e n te re d m u n ic ip a l p o litic s. In th e ev e n t th a t h is d e fe a t w as f u rth e r c o m p o u n d e d b y a n o u ste r fro m his p o s itio n in th e d e p a rtm e n ta l c a p ita l, h e sim p ly re tre a te d o n e ste p fu rth e r to h is p riv a te estate, w h e re h e a n d h is allies a w a ite d a n o p p o r tu n ity to re ­ s u m e p o litic a l activity. In th e w o rst-c a se sc en a rio , h e w as fo rc e d in to exile, le av in g h is p o litic a l a n d e c o n o m ic fo rtu n e s b e h in d . T h e p o litic a l career o f R a fa el C a m p o , a n im p o r ta n t p o litic a l p la y er fro m S o n so n a te C ity in th e early d ec ad e s o f th e re p u b lic , illu stra te s th e u p s a n d d o w n s o f p o litic s a n d th e m o v e m e n t to a n d fro m th e n a tio n a l cap ital. In 1840 C a m p o serv ed as a n e lec to r in th e a n n u a l m u n ic ip a l elec­ tio n s in S o n s o n a te C ity. In th e n e x t tw o years h e w as e le c te d to th e as­ se m b ly as a d ep u ty . H e also w as a p re sid e n tia l c a n d id a te in 1842. In 1843 h e re tu r n e d to S o n s o n a te a n d h e ld th e p o s itio n o f re g id o r o n S o n s o n a te ’s m u n ic ip a l co u n c il. T h e available so u rces d o n o t reveal h is p o litic a l ac­ tiv ities over th e n e x t te n years, b u t in 1856 h e ac h ie v ed w h a t h e h a d failed to d o in 1842: h e b e c a m e p re s id e n t o f th e re p u b lic . W h e n h is tw o -y ea r te rm e n d e d in 1858, h e re tu r n e d to S o n s o n a te a n d te m p o ra rily re tire d fro m p o litics. W h e n h is n a tio n a l-le v e l rival, G e ra rd o B arrio s o f S an M ig u e l, a sc e n d e d to th e p re sid e n c y in 1860, C a m p o re m a in e d in S o n ­ so n a te b u t k e p t a lo w pro file, se rv in g o n ly o n e tim e in m u n ic ip a l p o litic s— as a n elec to r in 1862. In 1863 C a m p o jo in e d th e re b e llio n a g a in st B arrio s le d b y F ran cisc o D u e ñ a s. C a m p o w as a m o n g th o se w h o arre ste d M ig u e l Saizar, B arrio s’s d e p a rtm e n ta l g o v e rn o r in S o n s o n a te C ity. D u e ñ a s se t u p a p ro v isio n a l g o v e rn m e n t in S o n so n a te a n d n a m e d C a m p o m in is te r o f fo re ig n re la tio n s. L ater th a t sa m e year, C a m p o w as se lec ted to serve as first d esig n ate to th e p re sid e n t. In th e years 1864, 1865, 1868, a n d 1869 C a m p o was b a c k in S o n s o n a te C ity, se rv in g o n e lec to ra l co u n c ils. W h e n G e n e ra l G o n z á le z o u ste d D u e ñ a s in 1871, h e ch o se C a m p o as a d esig n a te to th e p re sid e n t, p re s u m a b ly as a c o n c ilia to ry m o v e to s u b d u e th e o p p o s i­ tio n . A p p a re n tly th e ta c tic failed , b ec au se o n e y ear la te r C a m p o w as fo rc e d in to exile in N ic a ra g u a , su sp e c te d o f p lo ttin g a g a in st th e G o n z á le z g o v e rn ­ m e n t.55 T h e arc h iv al tra il o f C a m p o s career e n d s th e re , b u t it m a p s th e p a th o f a p o litic a l bo ss as h e m a n e u v e re d th r o u g h th e tw ists a n d tu rn s o f p a tro n a g e -b a s e d p o litic a l activity.

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T h r o u g h o u t th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry , n a tio n a l p o litic s fo llo w ed to a g rea t e x te n t th e rise a n d fall o f alliances b e tw e e n d e p a rtm e n ta l n e tw o rk s. F o r in sta n c e , in th e m id -1 8 4 0 s S an V ic e n te a n d S an M ig u e l w ere allied a g a in st S o n s o n a te a n d S an S alvador. B y th e la te 1850s, afte r so m e t u r n ­ overs a t th e d e p a rtm e n ta l level, S an V ic e n te allie d w ith S o n s o n a te ag a in st S an S alv ad o r a n d S an M ig u e l. D u r i n g th e early years o f n a tio n h o o d , S an M ig u e l, S an V ic e n te , S an S alvador, a n d S o n so n a te c o n s titu te d th e m a in seats o f p ro v in c ia l po w er. B y th e la tte r h a lf o f th e n in e te e n th ce n tu ry , th e ir p re d o m in a n c e h a d b e e n u s u rp e d b y th e u p s ta rt c o ffe e -p ro d u c in g d e p a r t­ m e n ts o f S a n ta A n a a n d L a L ib e rta d , a n d to a lesser e x te n t A h u a c h a p á n a n d U s u lu tá n . T h e in d ig o -p ro d u c in g reg io n s o f S an M ig u e l a n d S an V i­ c e n te w a n e d , as d id S o n so n a te , w h ic h w as a m in o r coffee p ro d u c e r in c o m p a ris o n to its n e ig h b o rs. C u s c a tlá n w as an im p o r ta n t d e p a r tm e n t th r o u g h o u t th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry . In th e first h a lf o f th e c e n tu ry it w as a n in d ig o p ro d u c e r, a n d even th o u g h its e c o n o m ic im p o rta n c e d e c lin e d in th e se c o n d h a lf o f th e n in e te e n th ce n tu ry , it re m a in e d p o litic a lly re le v a n t b ecau se it w as th e h o m e o f a h ig h ly sk illed boss, G e n e ra l José M a ría Rivas, w h o m a d e th e d e p a r tm e n t a p o w e rfu l fo rc e d e sp ite its d e c lin in g e c o n o m ic fo rtu n e s. T h e re m a in in g d e p a rtm e n ts o f C h a la te n a n g o , L a Paz, C a b a ñ a s, M o ra z á n , a n d L a U n io n w ere o f m a rg in a l im p o r ta n c e in n a tio n a l p o litics. T h e d e p a rtm e n ta l g o v e rn o r s to o d a t th e c e n te r o f th e se in te r d e p a r t­ m e n ta l co n fla g ra tio n s. As lia iso n b e tw e e n th e lo cal a n d n a tio n a l levels, h e p a rtic ip a te d in m o s t p o litic a l co n flicts. F o rtu n a te ly , g o v ern o rs, u n lik e p re sid e n ts, te n d e d to leave b e h in d c o p io u s re c o rd s th a t sh e d lig h t o n th e w ra n g lin g . In a lm o st every case, p re sid e n ts ch o se th e ir g o v ern o rs a n d c o m m a n d e rs fro m th e p o o l o f p o litic a l bosses in th e d e p a r tm e n t ca p ita l ra th e r th a n fro m o u ts id e th e d e p a rtm e n t, a fa c t th a t reflects th e w eak n ess o f c e n tra l a u th o rity in th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry . L ik e fe u d a l b a ro n s in m e ­ dieval E u ro p e , w h o p re sid e d over th e ir estates as i f th e y w ere th e ir p e rso n a l p a trim o n y ra th e r th a n th e m o n a rc h ’s p ro p e rty , p o litic a l bosses in d e p a r t­ m e n ta l cap itals c o n s id e re d th e p o sitio n s o f g o v e rn o r a n d c o m m a n d e r to b e th e irs, a n d se ld o m d id th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t h av e th e p o w e r to resist th e m . T h e c o n s titu tio n o f 1841 even s tip u la te d th a t th e p re s id e n t h a d to ch o o se h is g o v e rn o r fro m a list o f c a n d id a te s s e n t to h im b y officials in th e d e p a rtm e n ta l cap ita l, effectively g iv in g th e m c o n tro l over th e se lec tio n

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p ro ce ss.56 P re sid e n ts o fte n d iso b e y e d th e ru le b y ig n o rin g th e list, b u t th e y d id n o t go o u ts id e th e d e p a r tm e n t to m a k e th e ir se lec tio n s u n til th e tw e n ­ tie th cen tu ry , w h e n a stro n g e r c e n tra l sta te gave th e m th e p o w e r to d o so. P re sid en ts u se d th e ir p o w e r o f a p p o in tm e n t to re w a rd allies a n d p u n ­ ish en em ies. T h e y m ig h t n o t h av e a p p o in te d o u tsid e rs to d e p a rtm e n ta l p o sitio n s, b u t n e ith e r d id th e y a p p o in t m e m b e rs o f a n o p p o s itio n n e t­ w o rk fro m w ith in th e d e p a rtm e n ts . T h is p ra c tic e h a d rea so n s b o th p ra c ­ tical a n d p o litic a l. P ractically, p re sid e n ts w a n te d g o v e rn o rs w h o m th e y c o u ld tr u s t to c a rry o u t th e ir o rd ers. Politically, th e y u se d a p p o in tm e n ts as p a tro n a g e rew ard s to s tre n g th e n ties to a d e p a rtm e n t. B e ca u se a p re s id e n t a lm o st assu red ly ca m e to p o w e r w ith th e s u p p o r t o f a fra c tio n , i f n o t a m in o rity , o f th e n a tio n ’s d e p a rtm e n ta l ca p itals, h is g u b e rn a to ria l a p p o in t­ m e n ts o fte n w ere d ra w n fro m w e a k e r local fa c tio n s. I n th e se cases, th e g o v e rn o r p re sid e d over a h o stile d e p a r tm e n t a n d h e ld th e d iffic u lt p o s itio n o f b e in g a n in te rm e d ia ry b e tw e e n h is p a tro n o n th e o n e sid e a n d lo cal o p ­ p o n e n ts o n th e o th e r. E v en in d e p a rtm e n ts w h e re th e re ig n in g n e tw o r k in th e ca p ita l so lid ly s u p p o r te d th e p re sid e n t, a n d w h e re th e g o v e rn o r w as d ra w n fro m th a t n e tw o rk , o n e o r tw o m u n ic ip a litie s lik e ly b e lo n g e d to th e o p p o s itio n a n d trie d to m a k e life d iffic u lt fo r th e g o v ern o r. F o rtu n a te ly fo r h isto ria n s, th e se co n flicts te n d e d to g e n e ra te re v e a lin g e v id en c e in to h o w p o litic s fu n c tio n e d , as w e w ill see in fo rth c o m in g ch a p te rs.

Battling for the Presidency: The Pinnacle of Politics T h e p re sid e n c y w as th e u ltim a te g o al o f p o litic a l activity, a n d co n flicts over p re sid e n tia l su c ce ssio n ex e m p lifie d th e p o litic a l sy stem . Bosses w h o asce n d ed to th e p re sid e n c y w ere th o se w h o h a d a ssem b led th e m o s t sta l­ w a rt n e tw o rk s. B ecause e lec tio n s w ere th e c o rn e rs to n e o f p re sid e n tia l su c ­ cession, e le c tio n d a y w as th e m o m e n t w h e n a b o ss so lid ifie d h is cla im to p o w e r b y d e m o n s tra tin g h is a b ility to b e tte r h is o p p o n e n ts in th e a rt o f electo ral c o n tro l. T h e n e tw o r k th a t m o n o p o liz e d a m a jo rity , i f n o t all, o f th e p o llin g sta tio n s in th e c o u n try w as th e v icto r. V io le n t clashes b e tw e e n c o m p e tin g n e tw o rk s c o m m o n ly p re c e d e d e lec tio n s. T h e s e clashes ca m e in th e fo rm o f co u p s d ’é ta t o r p ro tra c te d w ars th a t s o m e tim e s la ste d m o n th s a n d o ccasio n ally in v o lv e d arm ies fro m n e ig h b o rin g states.

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A lth o u g h th e p re sid e n c y c h a n g e d h a n d s fifty -e ig h t tim e s b e tw e e n 1841 a n d 1898, a n d th irty -th re e d iffe re n t p e o p le h e ld th e office (see ta b le A 1 in th e a p p e n d ix ), th e s itu a tio n is less c o m p le x th a n it a p p e ars b ec au se o n ly th ir te e n tra n sfe rs to o k p la c e b e tw e e n rival p a tro n a g e n e tw o rk s (see ta b le 1.4). T h e tra n sfe rs lis te d in ta b le 1.4 o m it m in o r sh u fflin g w ith in a d o m in a n t n e tw o rk , as w ell as in sta n c e s in w h ic h rivals h e ld office o n ly fo r a few days. T ab le 1.4 lists o n ly su b sta n tiv e chan g es, w h e n a re ig n in g n e t­ w o rk s u c c u m b e d to a c o m p e tito r, o r to its o w n in te rn a l d iv isio n s. E ac h n e tw o r k lis te d in ta b le 1.4 a sc e n d e d to th e p re sid e n c y b ec au se o f its a b ility to estab lish p o litic a l d o m in a n c e , b u t o p p o n e n ts w ere alw ays p re se n t. C e rta in m u n ic ip a litie s, i f n o t e n tire d e p a rtm e n ts , o p p o se d th e d o m in a n t n e tw o rk . T h e ty p ic a l p ro b le m fa c in g ea ch p re s id e n t w as h is i n ­ a b ility to ce n traliz e p o w e r p e rm a n e n tly , even in th e w a k e o f m ilita ry v ic ­ tory. O p p o n e n ts w a ite d fo r th e rig h t m o m e n t to strik e , u su a lly w ith th e a p p ro a c h o f a n e le c tio n , h o p in g to k n o c k th e in c u m b e n ts o u t o f pow er. A llies o f a s ittin g p re s id e n t also lo o k e d to e lec tio n s ex p ectan tly , h o p in g to b e c h o se n as successor. I n so m e cases, a p re s id e n t s h u n n e d all c o m ers a n d a tte m p te d to re m a in in p o w e r— a m o v e th a t u su a lly re q u ire d th e d ra ftin g

Table 1 .4

M ain Transfers of Power between Rival Networks at the National

Level, 1841-1903 1841-1844 1844-1851 1851-1854 1854-1856 1856-1858 1858-1863 1863-1871 1871-1876 1876-1885 1885-1890 1890-1894 1894-1898 1898-1903

Francisco Malespín, Juan Lindo, Escolastico Marín Joaquín Eufrasio Guzmán, Eugenio Aguilar, Doroteo Vasconcellos Francisco Dueñas José María San M artín Francisco Dueñas, Rafael Campo Gerardo Barrios, Joaquín Eufrasio Guzmán Francisco Dueñas Santiago González Rafael Zaldívar Francisco Menéndez Carlos Ezeta Rafael Antonio Gutiérrez Tomás Regalado

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o f a n e w c o n s titu tio n e x e m p tin g th e m fro m th e s ta n d a rd p r o h ib itio n a g a in st co n sec u tiv e te rm s. H o w ev er, c h a n g in g th e c o n s titu tio n w as risk y b u sin ess. N o t o n ly d id it e x a ce rb a te th e o p p o s itio n , it also tu r n e d allies in to rivals b y f ru s tra tin g th e ir h o p e s o f risin g in th e p o litic a l ra n k s. B ecause c o p io u s e v id en c e exists fo r th e 1895 vice p re sid e n tia l elec­ tio n , it is a n in fo rm a tiv e case study. B u t as a m e ta p h o r fo r n in e te e n th c e n tu ry p o litic s, it m a y n o t b e id e al d u e to th e la te d a te a t w h ic h it o cc u rre d . H o w m u c h d id th e 1895 e le c tio n reflec t ea rlier e lec to ra l p a t­ te rn s, su c h as th o se o f th e 1840s a n d 1850s? T h e ab sen c e o f eq u a lly c o m ­ p re h e n siv e elec to ra l d o c u m e n ta tio n fo r ea rlier years, m o s t lik e ly b u r n e d in th e fire o f 188 9 , m a k es it d iffic u lt to an sw er th is q u e s tio n . B u t p a rtia l d a ta fro m m u n ic ip a l a n d d e p a rtm e n ta l archives in d ic a te th a t th e m o n o p o liz e d v o tin g o f 1895 m im ic k e d p r io r e lec to ra l p a tte rn s . F o r exam p le , in th e p re sid e n tia l e le c tio n o f D e c e m b e r 1841 (o n e o f th re e p re sid e n tia l e lec tio n s h e ld th a t y ear), m u ltip le c a n d id a te s p a rtic i­ p a te d in th e e le c tio n , su g g e stin g th a t n o sin g le b o ss w as ab le to estab lish u n m itig a te d su p rem a cy . B u t w h e n a c a n d id a te w o n a p a rtic u la r v o tin g d istric t, h e te n d e d to d o so u n a n im o u s ly .57 In S o n so n a te C ity, w h e re v o t­ in g w as c o n d u c te d in th e ru ra l c a n to n e s, resu lts w ere u n a n im o u s in fo u r o f th e city ’s six c a n to n e s, w h ile fo u r d iffe re n t c a n d id a te s ea ch w o n a t least o n e c a n tó n ea ch (see ta b le 1.5). S im ilarly, in th e e le c tio n o f A u g u st 1841, J u a n L in d o w o n all 183 v o tes fro m A tiq u iz a y a D is tric t. In D e c e m b e r 1843, th e m u n ic ip a lity o f S an A n to n io re p o r te d all 7 7 o f its v o tes in fav o r o f Ja c in to H u e z o , w h ile th e n e ig h b o rin g c a n tó n o f S o n z a c a te gave all 50 o f its v o tes to E u g e n io A guilar. In a la te r e le c tio n , D e c e m b e r 1853, th e m u n ic ip a lity o f S a n ta C a ta rin a M a s a h u a t cast all 100 o f its v o tes fo r José M a ría Silva, w h o w as o n e o f m a n y c a n d id a te s r u n n in g in th a t c o n te s t.58 T h is a d m ix tu re o f re ­ su lts suggests stro n g ly th a t w h e n m u ltip le n e tw o rk s c o m p e te d fo r p o w er a t th e n a tio n a l level in th e 1840s a n d 1850s, ea ch lo cal boss fell in lin e b e h in d h is p a rtic u la r p a tro n a n d e n d e a v o re d to p ro d u c e a u n a n im o u s re ­ s u lt in h is favor. By c o n tra st, u n a n im o u s resu lts at th e n a tio n a l level o c c u rre d on ly w h e n o n e n e tw o rk d o m in a te d , m e a n in g it h a d e lim in a te d its rivals th r o u g h n e g o tia tio n o r fo rce. T h e e le c tio n o f G u tié rre z in 1895 offers o n e su c h exam p le. T h e e le c tio n o f 1891 offers a n o th e r. It w as h e ld in th e w ak e

70 Table 1 .5

Authoritarian El Salvador

Results from Sonsonate City, Presidential Election of December 1841

V oting D istric t

C andidate

Votes

% of Total

Santo Domingo

Antonio José Cañas

43

100

San Antonio

Manuel José Arce

23

100

Nahuilingo

José Mariano Campo

56

100

Barrio del Angel

Pedro Arce

29

100

Barrio el Sur

José Mariano Campo Pedro Arce Manuel José Arce

22

47 40

José Mariano Campo Juan José Guzmán Antonio José Cañas Pedro Arce Manuel José Arce three others

26

Barrio el Norte

Source:

19 9

19

17 14

38 25 20

5 4 1 each

7 6 4

Ju n ta de Elección, Sonsonate, M ay 11, 1841, A M S, Box “Elecciones, 1840--9.”

o f G e n e ra l C a rlo s E ze tas successful c o u p a g a in st P re sid e n t M e n é n d e z in 1890. E zeta w o n th e e le c tio n b y a m a rg in o f 5 2 ,3 4 2 v o te s to 19, w ith his b ro th e r, G e n e ra l A n to n io E zeta, g a in in g th e vice p re sid e n c y b y a n a lm o st id e n tic a l m a rg in .59 In a n o th e r ex a m p le , F ra n cisc o D u e ñ a s ra n u n o p p o s e d in th e e le c tio n o f 1852 a n d th e n c o m m e n te d o n th e “u n a n im o u s v o ic e o f th e c itiz e n ry ” th a t h a d p u t h im in office.60 In th e e le c tio n o f 1864, D u e ñ a s ag ain ra n u n o p p o s e d , th is tim e after fo rc in g G e ra rd o B a rrio s fro m p o w er in a m ilita ry in v a sio n fro m G u a te m a la . P a rtia l resu lts fro m th a t ele c tio n su g g est th a t D u e ñ a s ’s v ic to ry w as a p p ro p ria te ly u n a n im o u s . H e w o n S o n ­ so n a te D e p a r tm e n t b y a m a rg in o f 1 ,4 4 2 v o tes to 2 0 . A ll tw e n ty “o p p o ­ s itio n ” v o tes w e n t to D u e ñ a s ’s close allies, in c lu d in g R afael C a m p o o f S o n so n a te a n d M a n u e l G a lla rd o o f N u e v a S an S alv ad o r.61

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71

In su m , a lth o u g h n in e te e n th - c e n tu ry e lec to ra l re tu rn s are in c o m ­ p le te, th e y sh o w a r e c u rre n t p a tte r n . W h e n a sin g le n e tw o rk w e n t u n c h a l­ len g ed , v o tin g w as u n a n im o u s ; w h e n m u ltip le n e tw o rk s c o m p e te d , local affiliates p ro d u c e d u n a n im o u s resu lts a t th e m u n ic ip a l level in fav o r o f th e ir n atio n a l-le v e l p a tro n .

The Discourse of Democracy E le cto ral c o n te sts w ere a c c o m p a n ie d b y a sp ecific d isc o u rse, a u n iq u e la n ­ g u ag e o f p o litic s in w h ic h b o th in c u m b e n t a n d ch a lle n g e r re c ite d c e rta in w o rd s a n d p h ra se s as p a r t o f th e ir p a rtic ip a tio n in a n e le c tio n . T h e d is­ c o u rse w as lace d w ith ap p e als to d e m o c ra c y a n d referen ces to th e v alu e o f electo ral liberty. P o litic a l ac to rs c e le b ra te d th e p rin c ip le s o f dem o cracy , fre e d o m o f suffrage, a n d p o p u la r w ill. T h e y d id so n o t o n ly in th e ir in te r ­ n a l c o rre sp o n d e n c e , b u t also in p u b lic p r o n o u n c e m e n ts . F u rth e rm o re , th e y d id so w ith o u t re g a rd fo r th e ir s u p p o s e d id e o lo g ic al d ifferen ces. L ib ­ erals a n d co n serv ativ es alik e e m p lo y e d th e d isc o u rse o f d e m o c ra c y w ith eq u a l verve. A few ex am p les h e re w ill suffice to illu stra te b ro a d e r p a tte rn s , w ith m o re ex am p les a p p e a rin g in th e pag es ah e ad . O n e ex am p le co m es fro m th e n a tio n a l level in th e la te 1840s a n d early 1850s, d u r in g th e tra n s itio n fro m th e G u z m á n -A g u ila r-P a la c io s n e tw o rk to th e D u e ñ a s n e tw o rk . T h e fo rm e r h e ld p o w e r b e tw e e n 1844 a n d 1851, a n d th e la tte r fo r th e n e x t th re e years, b e tw e e n 1851 a n d 1854. (See ta b le 1.1 above, a n d ta b le A 1 in th e a p p e n d ix .) T h e G u z m á n -A g u ila rP alacios n e tw o rk w as “lib e ra l,” w h erea s th e D u e ñ a s n e tw o rk w as “c o n s e r­ vativ e,” m a k in g th is a p a rtic u la rly clear e x a m p le .62 A s h isto ria n s L ow ell G u d m u n d s o n , H é c to r L in d o -F u e n te s , a n d S ajid H e rre ra h av e p o in te d o u t, th e te rm s liberal a n d conservative m a tte re d little in El S alv ad o r in te rm s o f a c tu a l id e o lo g ic a l d ifferen ces. E d ito ria lists a n d sp o k e sp erso n s u se d th e labels to d isp a ra g e o n e a n o th e r, as w e sa w above in th e case o f th e 1895 vice p re sid e n tia l e le c tio n , w h e n s u p p o rte rs o f th e v ictor, P ru d e n c io A lfaro , d ism isse d th e n e w sp a p e r th a t s u p p o r te d th e ir rival as “clerical a n d C a th o lic .” T h e m e m b e rs o f th e G u z m a n -A g u ila rP alacios n e tw o r k id e n tifie d th e m se lv es as lib e ra l a n d re fe rre d to th e ir rivals

72

Authoritarian El Salvador

as “c o n serv ativ e m e n ” w h o w a n te d to d isc re d it El S a lv a d o r’s “lib e ra l in s ti­ tu tio n s .”63 B u t th e m o re c e n tra l p u rp o s e o f c ritic iz in g th e ir rivals w as to h ail th e ir o w n c o m m itm e n t to d em o cracy . A s ju s t o n e ex a m p le , Isid ro M e n é n d e z , th e fa m e d ju ris t a n d p rie s t o f lib e ral p o litic a l p ersu a sio n s, d e ­ liv ered a sp e ec h in th e N a tio n a l C a th e d ra l in S e p te m b e r 1848 c e le b ra tin g th e “ex p ressio n o f th e e n lig h te n e d a n d free w ill o f th e g re a t m a jo rity o f th e p o p u la tio n , w h ic h is th e b asic fo u n d a tio n o f a n y p o litic a l associ­ a tio n .”64 S im ilarly, th e le ad e d ito ria l in th e g o v e rn m e n t’s official n e w sp a p e r (th e n n a m e d La Gaceta) in A u g u st 1849 a c cu sed co n serv ativ es o f b e in g re tro g ra d e s w h o b eliev e d th a t “liberty, d e m o c ra c y a n d re p u b lic a n is m are w o rth le ss p h rase s.” T h e e d ito ria l w e n t o n to c laim th a t th o se “a b s o lu tis t” en e m ie s w o u ld b e b e a te n b a c k b y th e “irre sistib le fo rc e o f p e o p le ’s o p in ­ io n s .” It th e n h a ile d th e U n ite d S tates as a m o d e l fo r th e w o rld b ec au se its “d e m o c ra tic in s titu tio n s m a rc h fo rw a rd stead ily ,” p ro v in g to th e w o rld th a t “th e ideas o f lib e rty a n d e q u a lity are n o t u to p ia n ism s, b u t realizab le g oals.”65 A few w eeks later, v ario u s ed ito ria ls in La Gaceta c e le b ra te d th e lib e rty o f th e re c e n t ele c tio n to ch o o se a n e w p re sid e n t, th e su ccesso r to D o ro te o V asconcelos. T h a t e le c tio n w as in fa c t a classic ex a m p le o f a n in sig n ific a n t shuffle w ith in a re ig n in g p a tro n a g e n e tw o rk . N e v e rth e le ss, o n e e d ito ria l o p e n e d by d isp a ra g in g co n serv ativ es as “en e m ie s o f p o p u la r, re p u b lic a n a n d c o n s titu tio n a l sy stem s, a n d o f e v e ry th in g d e m o c ra tic .” E v en th o u g h n o n e o f th o se rivals h a d c o m p e te d in th e e le c tio n , ed ito ria lists p ro c e e d e d to p ro c la im th a t c o n serv ativ es’ failu res in th e m o s t re c e n t e lec tio n s p ro v e d El S alv ad o r to b e g u id e d b y “th e p e o p le ” a n d “p o p u la r in s titu tio n s .”66 A n ­ o th e r e d ito ria l h a ile d th e e lec tio n s as h a v in g c h o se n th e p re s id e n t “a c c o rd ­ in g to th e w ill o f th e m a jo rity o f S a lv a d o ra n s,” w h ic h “presage[s] p ea ce a n d p rogress fo r th e n a tio n .”67 W hen

th e g o v e rn m e n t th e n

c h a n g e d h a n d s fro m

th e “lib e ra l”

G u z m á n -A g u ila r-P a la c io s n e tw o rk to th e “c o n serv a tiv e ” D u e ñ a s n e tw o rk , th e d isc o u rse re m a in e d u n c h a n g e d . A d m itte d ly , a n o cc asio n al e d ito ria l a p p e a re d in th e p ag es o f La Gaceta c a u tio n in g S alv a d o ra n s a g a in st u n tr ie d a n d u n te s te d n e w m e th o d s b a se d o n “u to p ia n , im p ra c tic a l th e o rie s”— w h ic h w as c o d e fo r lib e ralism . B u t D u e ñ a s a n d h is allied sp o k e sp e rso n s c o n tin u e d to ce le b ra te p ro g re ss a n d d e m o c ra c y w ith th e sa m e e n th u s i­ asm as th e ir pred ecesso rs. E ven th o u g h D u e ñ a s h a d c o m e to p o w e r in a

T h e R ules

Ti

n o n d e m o c r a tic m a n n e r, a n d h e a n d h is allies re m a in e d in p o w e r th ro u g h eq u a lly n o n d e m o c r a tic m e a n s, h e h a ile d th e “p o p u la r v o te ” th a t p u t h im in th e p re sid e n c y o n c e ag ain in 1 8 5 3 .68 S h o rtly th e re afte r, th e le ad e d i­ to ria l in La Gaceta c e le b ra te d th e “re p re se n ta tiv e sy stem ” fo r g u a ra n te e ­ in g “p e rso n a l lib e rty ” a n d fo r b e in g g u id e d b y “p e o p le ’s d e m a n d s .”69 Ju st tw o w eeks later, th e p re s id e n t o f th e N a tio n a l A sse m b ly to o k th e clo sin g o f th a t y ea r’s c o n g re ssio n a l sessio n as an o p p o r tu n ity to d escrib e p u b lic o p in io n as th e “su re g u id e o f re p re se n ta tiv e g o v e rn m e n ts.” D u e ñ a s, to o , sp o k e u p o n th e assem b ly ’s clo sin g , d e s c rib in g th e c o n g re ssio n a l b o d y as th e “o rg a n o f p u b lic o p in io n .”70 A sim ila r e x a m p le is p ro v id e d b y th e rh e to ric a l ex p ressio n s o f L u c i­ a n o H e rn á n d e z , a n in te lle c tu a l a n d m ilita ry official w h o h e ld v ario u s h ig h -ra n k in g p o sts in b o th th e se c o n d re ig n o f th e “c o n se rv a tiv e ” F ra n ­ cisco D u e ñ a s (1 8 6 3 —1871) a n d th e s u b s e q u e n t “lib e ra l” re g im e o f R afael Z a ld ív a r (1 8 7 6 —1 8 8 5 ). D u r in g th e D u e ñ a s era, H e rn á n d e z w ro te th a t “p o p u la r suffrage, th e in d e p e n d e n c e o f th e th re e b ra n c h e s o f g o v e rn m e n t a n d a free press . . . c o n s titu te th e essence o f a re p u b lic a n , p o p u la r a n d re p re se n ta tiv e sy ste m .” A few years la te r h e w ro te , “ T h is g o v e rn m e n t af­ firm s to th e p o p u la tio n a n d to th e p o p u la r o p in io n in g e n e ra l th a t th e in s titu tio n o f d ire c t re p re s e n ta tio n is th e m o s t ex p licit g u id e fo r th e p ro te c tio n o f th e so cial w e llb e in g th a t w e e n jo y b y v irtu e o f n a tu re .” H e c o n tin u e d , “T h e co llectiv e w ill o f th e n a tio n is th e m o s t p o w e rfu l ex e cu ­ to r o f th e law s th a t p r o te c t o u r ju stic e , peace, lib e rty a n d la b o r.”71 A few ex am p les fro m th e m u n ic ip a l level f u rth e r reveal th e d isc o u rse o f d e m o c ra c y th a t a c c o m p a n ie d p o litic a l a c tiv ity in El S a lv a d o r’s p a tr o n ­ age sy stem . In 1866 th e lo se r o f a n e le c tio n in S an V ic e n te C ity ac cu sed th e v ic to r o f “s u p p la n tin g th e g re a te r p o r tio n o f th e v o tin g . . . w h ic h is c o u n te r to free su ffrag e in a R e p u b lic a n c o u n try .” In 1874, in A tiq u iz a y a (A h u a c h a p á n D e p a rtm e n t) , a n o p p o s itio n n e tw o rk d e sc rib e d th e ta ctics o f th e in c u m b e n ts as “c o u n te r to th e values o f m a jo rity ru le .” In 1892 a m e m b e r o f a d e fe a te d n e tw o rk d e n o u n c e d th e v ic to rs b ec au se th e y “p re ­ v e n te d us fro m g iv in g o u r free v o te fo r th e p e rso n th a t w e w a n te d to elect.” A n d in 1925, in th e village o f S an C ris to b a l (C u sc a tlá n D e p a rtm e n t) , th e ch allen g ers d e sc rib e d th e m se lv es as “free c itiz e n s” w h o w ere u p h o ld in g “th e ju s t p rin c ip le s o f th e la w [against] . . . a sm a ll g ro u p o f p o o rly in te n tio n e d citizen s tra in e d in th e a rt o f c o n tro l.”72

74

Authoritarian El Salvador

In th e m id s t o f a p o litic a l sy stem d o m in a te d b y p a tro n a g e a n d clien telism , th e se referen ces to d e m o c ra c y se em o u t o f p la ce u n til th e y are cast in th e p ro p e r c o n te x t. T h e referen ces to d e m o c ra c y o rig in a te d in th e c o n ­ s titu tio n s a n d th e c o rre s p o n d in g fo rm a l ru les. T h o s e ru les d e c la re d El S al­ v a d o r to b e a d e m o c ra tic re p u b lic in w h ic h m ass o p in io n re ig n e d su p re m e . T h e e g a litarian la n g u a g e w as a p p ro p ria te d b y ch a lle n g ers, b u t g iv e n n e w m e a n in g . T h e ir ap p e a l to d e m o c ra c y w as n o t m e a n t to cre ate a g e n u in e d em o cracy . R a th e r, ch a lle n g ers a p p e a le d to d e m o c ra c y as a w ay o f d e ­ m a n d in g th a t th e in c u m b e n t n e tw o rk ste p aside. A p o litic a l c o n fla g ra tio n in th e c o ffe e -p ro d u c in g m u n ic ip a lity o f A leg ría (U s u lu tá n D e p a rtm e n t) in th e early tw e n tie th c e n tu ry illu stra te s th e a c tu a l m e a n in g o f d e m o c ra tic d isc o u rse. T h e e le c tio n p itte d R a m ó n B a u tista , th e challen g er, a g a in st A lo n z o Iglesias, th e in c u m b e n t. O n th e eve o f th e m u n ic ip a l e le c tio n o f 19 2 7 , B a u tista a c cu sed Iglesias o f p la n ­ n in g to m o n o p o liz e th e e le c tio n in th e sa m e m a n n e r th a t h e h a d fo r th e p r io r d ecad e. “Iglesias h as a c te d lik e a n o lig a rc h fo r th e p a s t fo u rte e n lo n g years,” c la im e d B a u tista , “e m p lo y in g th e m ilita ry a n d civil p o w ers a t h is d isp o sal to th re a te n h u m b le w o rk e rs w h o se o n ly c rim e w as h a v in g tr i­ u m p h e d legally in th e e le c tio n s.” B a u tista p resse d o n , sa y in g th a t “ [if] th in g s c o n tin u e in th is way, fre e d o m o f su ffrag e is a m y th . . . . W e o n ly ask fo r lib e rty fo r a free p e o p le ab le to v o te fo r w h o m th e y w ish .”73 A t first g lance, B a u tista ’s d e n u n c ia tio n su g g ests th a t th e 1 9 2 7 ele c tio n rev o lv ed a r o u n d class-b ased c o n flic t— a n e lite w as d e n y in g free suffrage to lo cal m asses w h o w a n te d to se lec t s o m e o n e else as th e ir p u b lic re p re se n ta ­ tive. In d e e d , Iglesias w as a w e a lth y coffee g ro w e r w h o h a d m o n o p o liz e d m u n ic ip a l g o v e rn m e n t sin c e at le ast 1921. U p o n fu rth e r in s p e c tio n , th e s to ry b ec o m e s m o re co m p le x , b ec au se B a u tista w as as m u c h a n e lite p o ­ litica l boss as Iglesias. B a u tista to o w as a la n d o w n e r. O n h is fin c a “S a n ta C la ra ” h e g rew coffee a n d raise d ca ttle. M o reo v er, h e w as th e h e a d o f a p a tro n a g e n e tw o rk th a t h a d tra d e d p o w e r b a c k a n d f o rth w ith Iglesias’s n e tw o rk fo r th e p re v io u s fo rty years. S in c e th e 1890s, A leg ría h a d k n o w n o n ly th e ru le o f B a u tista o r Iglesias. N o w , in 1927, after Iglesias h a d h e ld p o w e r fo r th e p a s t d ecad e, B a u tista b eliev e d th a t it w as h is tu r n to h o ld p o w e r o n c e again , b u t Iglesias w as re fu sin g to ste p aside, w h ic h p r o m p te d B a u tista to d e n o u n c e h im as a n a n tid e m o c ra tic o lig a rch . B a u tista e v e n tu ­ ally w o n th e ele c tio n o f 19 2 7 . In su c c e e d in g years, h e c o n d u c te d p o litic s

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in th e tra d itio n a l m a n n e r. E ith e r h e o r h is so n , o r a loyal s u b o rd in a te , c o n tro lle d p o litic a l office. T h is p a tte r n w e n t o n u n til 19 3 7 , w h e n Iglesias re g ro u p e d h is forces a n d re g a in e d c o n tro l o f th e m u n ic ip a l g o v e rn m e n t y e t a g a in .74 T h e ev e n ts in A leg ría illu stra te h o w th e d e m o c ra c y -la d e n d is­ c o u rse o f th e ch a lle n g ers g rew o u t o f lo n g -s ta n d in g co n flicts b e tw e e n c o m p e tin g bosses. A c c o rd in g to th e in fo rm a l ru les, all p o litic a l bosses h a ile d d e m o c ra c y a n d d ec la re d th e m se lv es d e fe n d e rs o f p o p u la r w ill. B u t a slig h t v a ria tio n in th e ru les o c c u rre d w h e n in c u m b e n ts re s p o n d e d to ch a lle n g e rs’ a c c u sa tio n s o f n o n d e m o c r a tic c o n d u c t. It w as a t th a t m o m e n t th a t in c u m b e n ts o c c a ­ sio n a lly vilified d em o cracy . W h e n th e y d id so, th e y c h a ra c te riz e d d e m o c ­ racy as a dep rav ity , ac c u sin g th e ch a lle n g ers o f s tirrin g u p th e m asses a n d risk in g m o b ru le , w h ic h w o u ld d e s tro y th e lives o f all h o n e s t citizen s. A n ex am p le o f th is v a ria n t o f p o litic a l d isc o u rse is p ro v id e d b y th e in c u m b e n t n e tw o rk in th e m u n ic ip a lity o f S an R afael (C u sc a tlá n D e p a rtm e n t) d u rin g th e ele c tio n o f 1895. T h e in c u m b e n t re fe rre d to th e c h a lle n g e r in th e fo l­ lo w in g te rm s: “F o r m o re th a n o n e y ea r th is in d iv id u a l o f p e rn ic io u s c h a r­ ac te r . . . h as trie d to e n su re in th e lo cal e lec tio n s th e tr iu m p h o f c a n ­ d id a tes th a t d o n o t c o rre s p o n d in a n y w a y to o u r social a n d p o litic a l in te rests, b ecau se th e y [th e ca n d id a tes] are c o m p rise d o f th e ig n o ra n t class, w ith all o f th e ir M a c h ia v e llia n se d u c tio n s, h o p in g to d ic ta te th e ir w ill u p o n th e p u b lic a n d so cial in te re sts o f th is m u n ic ip a lity .”75 M o s t p o ­ litica l bosses sh a re d th is v ie w o f dem o cracy , regardless o f w h e th e r th e y w ere ch a lle n g e r o r in c u m b e n t. B u t w ith in th e p e c u lia r co n fin e s o f th e S alv a d o ra n p o litic a l sy stem a n d its in fo rm a l ru les, o n ly in c u m b e n ts d is­ c re d ite d d e m o c ra c y in th a t m a n n e r. It w as th e ir w ay o f te llin g ch a lle n g ers to a b a n d o n th e ir b id fo r pow er. I n c u m b e n ts s o m e tim e s e m p lo y e d a v a ria tio n o f th is stra te g y b y ac cu s­ in g ch allen g ers o f a c tin g im m o ra lly b y lo o k in g to alter th e sta tu s q u o . F o r ex am p le, in 1845 th e g o v e rn o r o f S an V ic e n te ch a stise d a m u n ic ip a l-le v e l p o litic a l boss fo r ally in g w ith a rival n e tw o r k se e k in g to o u st th e in c u m ­ b e n ts: “Y our a c tio n s c a n o n ly b e ta k e n as c o n tra ry to th e c u rre n t a d m in is ­ tr a tio n . . . a n d th e re fo re w ill in c lu d e y o u a m o n g s t th o se w h o are o f im m o ra l p rin c ip le s a n d a g a in st th e d e c e n t c u s to m s o f th e n a tio n . . . . It is y o u r re sp o n sib ility to d e fe a t th e so u rces o f d isc o rd , to p ro c u re th e u n ity o f y o u r village, to n o t c o n fu se g o ssip w ith tr u e p a trio tis m , a n d to av o id

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in d iv id u a ls w ith w h o m it is n o t p ro p e r to asso ciate.”76 A n d in 1895, th e g o v e rn o r o f S an M ig u e l D e p a r tm e n t d e m a n d e d th a t a rival n e tw o rk “re ­ fra in fro m a d v a n c in g p o litic a l lic e n tio u sn e s s” a n d e n g a g in g in acts o f “im ­ m o ra lity . . . a n d in d e ce n cy .”77 *

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T h e vice p re sid e n tia l e le c tio n o f 1895 is a re v e la to ry m o m e n t in th e h is­ to ry o f p o litics in E l S alv a d o r b e c a u se its u n iq u e ly c o m p re h e n siv e d o c u ­ m e n ta tio n su rv iv e d in to th e arc h iv al re c o rd . As fo r th e e le c tio n itself, th e re w as n o th in g p a rtic u la rly u n iq u e a b o u t it— a fac t th a t allow s it to s ta n d as a m e ta p h o r fo r th e b ro a d e r w h o le o f e le c to ra l p o litic s in n in e te e n th - a n d early tw e n tie th -c e n tu r y E l S alvador. I n it w e see a n im p re ssiv e a d h e re n c e to a fo rm a l sy stem o f p ro c e d u re s in w h ic h m u ltip le c a n d id a te s c o m p e te d in elec tio n s fo r w h ic h m a n y p e o p le tu r n e d o u t to v o te — at least 4 0 p e r ­ c e n t o f th e eligib le elec to ra te . T h e resu lts sh o w th a t it w as a re a so n a b ly c o m p e titiv e race b e tw e e n th e tw o m a in c a n d id a te s, P ru d e n c io A lfaro a n d C a rlo s M e lén d e z . B u t th e v o tin g resu lts, w h e n s tu d ie d in close d etail, re ­ veal clearly th a t a set o f in fo rm a l ru les w as in play. E le c tio n s w ere h ig h ly m a n a g e d affairs in w h ic h w h o e v e r c o n tro lle d v o tin g in th e m u n ic ip a litie s p ro d u c e d u n a n im o u s o r n e a r-u n a n im o u s resu lts in fav o r o f th e ir p a r ­ tic u la r c a n d id a te . T h e k ey to e lec to ra l success a t th e n a tio n a l level w as th u s to c o b b le to g e th e r alliances w ith as m a n y m u n ic ip a litie s as p o ssib le a n d th e n use th e p o litic a l ca p ita l o f th o se m u n ic ip a litie s to b e a t b a c k r i­ vals. I n p eacefu l e lec to ra l c o n te sts th a t ca p ita l c a m e in th e fo rm o f v o tes, w h ereas in v io le n t clashes it to o k th e fo rm o f so ld iers a n d w a r m a te ria l. B u t even i f th e o u tc o m e s o f a n e lec to ra l c o n te s t w ere p re d e te rm in e d b y a v io le n t clash in w h ic h o n ly o n e n e tw o rk w as le ft sta n d in g , n o p o litic a l le ad e r a ssu m ed office w ith o u t first p ro v in g h is a b ility to p ro d u c e a n elec­ tio n in h is favor. T h a t p a ra d o x ic a l a d h e re n c e to th e le tte r o f d e m o c ra c y w h ile fo llo w in g a p ra c tic e o f a u th o rita ria n is m d e fin e d p o litic a l life in El Salvador.

C H A P T E R

2

national-level networks in conflict in the nineteenth century

El S alv ad o r w as n o t B razil, w h e re in d e p e n d e n c e fro m P o rtu g a l ca m e w ith in ta c t p o litic a l in s titu tio n s a n d a c e n tra liz e d g o v e rn m e n t. W h e n N a p o ­ le o n in v a d e d th e Ib e ria n P e n in su la in 1807, th e P o rtu g u e se m o n a rc h y fled to B razil a n d b r o u g h t w ith it a c o m p le te g o v e rn m e n t. P ro m in e n t B razil­ ian s m ig h t hav e resisted th e arriv al o f th e m o n a rc h y as a th re a t to th e ir re sid e n t a u th o rity , b u t as h is to ria n R ic h a rd G ra h a m p o in ts o u t, B razilians o f w e a lth a n d p r o p e r ty a c c e p te d th e n e w situ a tio n , b ec au se “i f fo rc e d to ch o o se b e tw e e n lib e rty a n d o rd er, th e p r o p e r tie d c h o se o rd e r.”1 E lite B ra ­ zilians p la c e d a h ig h p r e m iu m o n sta b ility b ec au se o f th e ir re lia n c e o n slavery, b eliev in g th a t even m in o r d is ru p tio n s in so c iety m ig h t le ad to s o m e th in g h o rrific lik e th e H a itia n R e v o lu tio n .2 O v e r th e n e x t e ig h t decad es, B razil w as c h a ra c te riz e d b y a sta b le p o ­ litica l sy stem . T w o e m p e ro rs h e ld p o w e r fo r th e se v e n ty years b e tw e e n in d e p e n d e n c e a n d th e fo rm a tio n o f th e first re p u b lic in 1889. T h e e m ­ p e ro r w as th e u n d is p u te d c e n tra l a u th o rity , a n d b e n e a th h im w ere th e N a tio n a l C o n g re s s a n d p re sid e n ts o f th e states, w h o in tu r n p re sid e d over reg io n a l a n d m u n ic ip a l a u th o ritie s . T h e e n tire sy stem w as h e ld to g e th e r b y a v ast a n d in tric a te n e tw o rk o f p a tro n a g e in w h ic h su p e rio r a u th o ritie s

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h a d th e p o w e r to a p p o in t, a n d su b o rd in a te s o ffered services in h o p e s o f rec eiv in g a p p o in tm e n t. A lo cal ju r o r o n c e re fe rre d to th e sy stem as th e “G re a t P y ra m id .”3 P o litics in E l S a lv a d o r w as also b a se d u p o n p a tro n a g e , b u t u n d e r d if­ fe re n t circ u m sta n c e s th a n in B razil. L ik e M e x ic o a n d C o lo m b ia , E l S alva­ d o r la ck e d c e n tra l a u th o rity a t th e o u ts e t o f in d e p e n d e n c e .4 W h e n C e n tra l A m e ric a g a in e d its in d e p e n d e n c e fro m S p a in in 1821, a c e n tra liz e d a d ­ m in is tr a tio n failed to em erg e. T h e fed eral g o v e rn m e n t c o llap sed u n d e r th e w e ig h t o f in so lv e n c y a n d re g io n a l rivalries b e tw e e n its lead ers. T h u s , a lth o u g h in d e p e n d e n c e h a d c o m e w ith o u t th e w a rfa re th a t rav a g ed m u c h o f th e rest o f S p a n ish A m e ric a , p e a c e so o n c o llap sed in to in c e ssa n t b a ttle s th a t ex a ce rb a te d th e alre ad y d e sp e ra te fin a n c ia l s itu a tio n . B e tw ee n 1824 a n d 1842 E l S alv a d o r p a rtic ip a te d in fo rty in te rs ta te b a ttle s, se c o n d o n ly to G u a te m a la ’s fifty -o n e .5 F o llo w in g th e co llap se o f th e fe d e ra tio n , in s ta ­ b ility re ig n e d in E l S alvador. S ta te in s titu tio n s w ere b o r n d e fu n c t, a n d n o sin g le p o litic a l g ro u p c o u ld g e n e ra te su fficie n t s tre n g th to c o n s o lid a te a u ­ th o rity . In ste a d o f o n e g re a t p y ra m id , th e p o litic a l sy stem o f El S alv ad o r c o n siste d o f n u m e ro u s little p y ra m id s, d is tin c t p a tro n a g e n e tw o rk s th a t b a ttle d o n e a n o th e r fo r c o n tro l over th e c e n tra l sta te — h o w ev e r d e c re p it a n d in so lv e n t it m a y h av e b ee n . M a k in g sense o f n in e te e n th - c e n tu ry p o litic s in El S alv a d o r ca n b e a ch a lle n g e. T h e g o v e rn m e n t c h a n g e d h a n d s fre q u e n tly , a n d d is tin c tio n s b e tw e e n a d m in is tra tio n s c a n b e d iffic u lt to d is c e rn . T h e p re s id e n c y c h a n g e d h a n d s fo rty -tw o tim e s b e tw e e n 1841 a n d 1861 a n d a n a d d itio n a l six teen tim es b e tw e e n 1861 a n d 1899 (see ta b le A1 in th e a p p e n d ix ). E ven w h e n th e lo n g re g im e s o f F ra n c isc o D u e ñ a s (1 8 6 3 —1 8 71) a n d R afael Z a ld ív a r (1 8 7 6 —1885) are in c lu d e d in th e c a lc u la tio n , th e average a d m in ­ is tra tio n la ste d ju s t over o n e year.6 H o w ev er, th is tu rn o v e r b e c o m e s m o re in te llig ib le w h e n it is e x a m in e d in th e c o n te x t o f p a tro n a g e allian ces. M a n y p e o p le h e ld th e p resid en cy , b u t th e y b e lo n g e d to o n ly a h a n d f u l o f p o litic a l n e tw o rk s, a n d m u c h o f th e tu rn o v e r in office re su lte d fro m i n ­ c o n s e q u e n tia l sh u fflin g w ith in in d iv id u a l n e tw o rk s. T h e n u m b e r o f a c tu a l tra n s itio n s b e tw e e n riv al p o litic a l n e tw o rk s w as sm all, as w as th e n u m b e r o f p e o p le w h o h e ld p o sitio n s o f g e n u in e le a d e rsh ip in th o se n e tw o rk s. W h a t follow s is a series o f v ig n e tte s s h o w in g p a tro n a g e -b a s e d p o litic a l n e tw o rk s o p e ra tin g a t th e n a tio n a l level in th e n in e te e n th ce n tu ry . L im i­

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ta tio n s in th e d o c u m e n ta ry re c o rd p re v e n t th e c o n s tru c tio n o f a seam less n a rra tiv e o f n in e te e n th - c e n tu ry p o litic s. B u t rec o rd s allo w fo r th is series o f su b sta n tiv e g lim p ses in to seven d is tin c t m o m e n ts , s ta rtin g w ith a case s tu d y fro m S an V ic e n te D e p a r tm e n t in 1845 a n d e n d in g w ith a c o u p in 1894. A d d itio n a l in fo rm a tio n p ro v id e s a lo o k a t José M a ría R ivas, a re ­ g io n a l s tr o n g m a n fro m th e re g io n a r o u n d C o ju te p e q u e , a n d a t th e p o ­ litica l b a ttle s over d e p a rtm e n ta l b o u n d a rie s. T h e c h a p te r focuses o n th e n a tio n a l level, le av in g analysis o f th e d etails o f n e tw o rk b u ild in g a t th e m u n ic ip a l level to th e n e x t tw o c h a p te rs.

S e n su n te p e q u e , 1845

T h e first ex a m p le o f p a tro n a g e -b a se d p o litic s derives fro m d isc o rd in S an V ic e n te D e p a r tm e n t in 1845, a y ea r o f g re a t p o litic a l in stab ility . T h e re ­ g im e o f F ra n c isc o M a le sp ín h a d b e e n o v e rth ro w n after m u c h w a r a n d b lo o d sh e d , a n d G e n e ra l J o a q u ín E u fra sio G u z m á n o f S an M ig u e l w as in pow er. M o s t o f S an V ic e n te D e p a rtm e n t, in c lu d in g S an V ic e n te C ity , s u p p o r te d G u z m á n .7 G u z m á n fac ed a v a rie ty o f a c tu a l a n d p o te n tia l c o n ­ spiracies, a n d h e lo o k e d to c o n s o lid a te h is re g im e b y b o ls te rin g th e a rm y a n d in fu s in g m o n e y in to th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t’s coffers. H e o rd e re d each d e p a r tm e n t to c o n trib u te reso u rce s to th a t cause. In S an V ic e n te ’s case th e p ric e w as tw o h u n d r e d m e n a n d 5 ,0 0 0 pesos. T h e g o v e rn o r o f S an V ic e n te s e n t o u t circ u lars to th e alcaldes: “T h e S u p re m e G o v e rn m e n t h as o rd e re d th is d e p a r tm e n t to re c ru it 2 0 0 m e n to a u g m e n t th e forces w h ic h su sta in th e te rrito ria l in te g rity a n d p u b lic lib e rtie s o f El S alvador. T h e fo llo w in g d is trib u tio n h as b e e n esta b lish e d fo r ea ch m u n ic ip a lity ; th e m e n are to b e p re s e n t in th is city b y th e la st d a y o f th e p re s e n t m o n th .”8 D e p e n d in g o n a n y g iv en to w n ’s size, it w as e x p e c te d to p ro d u c e b e tw e e n fo u r a n d th ir ty m e n . A ll six tee n m u n ic ip a litie s in th e d e p a rtm e n t, w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f o n e re tic e n t m u n ic ip a lity , s u p p o r te d G u z m á n a n d se n t th e soldiers to S an V ic e n te C ity c a rry in g d e c la ra tio n s o f a d h e sio n to th e go v ern o r. T h e d e fia n t m u n ic ip a lity w as S e n su n te p e q u e , w h ic h re fu se d to se n d its a llo tm e n t o f tw en ty -fiv e m e n .9 S e n s u n te p e q u e ’s o p p o s itio n is o d d , g iv en th a t it w as th e b irth p la c e a n d p o litic a l s tr o n g h o ld o f D o ro te o V asco n celo s, a m a jo r p o litic a l p lay er

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fro m th e d e p a r tm e n t a n d a n ally o f G u z m á n . B u t in 1845, S e n s u n te p e q u e w as r u n b y a n o p p o s itio n n e tw o rk le d b y C o m a n d a n te S a n to C u e lla r, w h o w as allied w ith G e n e ra l Jo sé E sco lástico M a rín , a n o th e r m a jo r p la y er in S an V ic e n te D e p a r tm e n t w h o h a d b e e n p re s id e n t o f th e re p u b lic o n tw o o ccasio n s in 1 8 4 2 .10 Ju st afte r S e n s u n te p e q u e receiv ed th e o rd ers to p r o ­ d u c e th e tw en ty -fiv e so ld iers, G u z m á n ’s fears se e m e d c o n firm e d ; a cache o f w ea p o n s, in c lu d in g tw o c a n o n s, h a d b e e n u n c o v e re d in th e h o u s e o f o n e o f M a rín ’s allies in S an V ic e n te C ity .11 T h e g o v e rn o r re fe rre d to M a rín as “el faccioso” (th e fa c tio n a l o n e) a n d “th e e n e m y o f th e n a tio n .” T h e la n g u a g e th a t th e g o v e rn o r u se d to ca stig ate C u e lla r a n d h is fel­ lo w bosses in S e n s u n te p e q u e ex e m p lifie d in te rp a tro n a g e co n flict: “ D e ­ sp ite th e w a rn in g s th a t I h av e d ire c te d a t C o m a n d a n te C u e lla r, y o u c o n tin u e w o rk in g in a c o n tra ry m a n n e r, w h ic h w ill fo rc e m e to u se w h a t­ ever m e asu res are n ec essary to en su re th e tr a n q u ility a n d w e ll-b e in g o f th e S alv a d o ra n p eo p le . As y o u are m y s u b a lte rn s [subalternos] a n d f u n c tio n a r ­ ies [funcionarios], I w ill n o t to le ra te a n y ac t o f d iso rd er, to say n o th in g o f su b v e rsio n a g a in st th is g o v e rn m e n t th a t I re p re se n t.” 12 T h e g o v e rn o r w as in f o rm in g th e officials o f S e n su n te p e q u e , in n o u n c e rta in te rm s, th a t h e ex p e cted th e m to re c o g n iz e h is a u th o rity a n d fo llo w h is o rd ers. H is d is­ c o u rse estab lish e d h ie ra rc h y , h im s e lf as th e d e p a rtm e n ta l executive, th e officials o f S e n s u n te p e q u e as h is u n d e rlin g s. T h e te rm s subalterno a n d f u n ­

cionario w ere s ta n d a rd w o rd s u se d b y u p p e r-le v e l bosses w h e n c o m m u n i­ c a tin g w ith th o se th e y p e rc e iv e d as in ferio rs. S h o rtly after th e arriv al o f th e g o v e rn o r’s th re a t, S e n s u n te p e q u e ca­ p itu la te d a n d s e n t th e tw en ty -fiv e m e n to S an V ic e n te . In less th a n tw o w eeks, how ever, m o s t o f th e re c ru its h a d d e se rted , p r o m p tin g y e t a n o th e r co n flict w ith th e g o v ern o r. H e o rd e re d C u e lla r a n d h is c o h o rts to ro u n d u p th e d eserters: “T h e so ld iers h av e c o m m itte d th e u n fo rg iv a b le c rim e o f d e s e rtin g th e arm y, a n d as it is p ro b a b le th a t th e y h av e re tu r n e d to th a t village, I o rd e r y o u to ta k e activ e m e a su re s to c a p tu re a n d r e tu r n th e m h e re .”13 T h e m u n ic ip a lity ’s slu g g ish re sp o n se to th e re q u e st, c o m b in e d w ith its c o n tin u e d allian ce w ith M a rín , in c ite d y e t a n o th e r d e n u n c ia tio n fro m th e g o v ern o r: “Y our c o n tin u e d a s so c ia tio n w ith M a rín ca n o n ly e n ­ co u ra g e p lo ts a g a in st th e a c tu a l a d m in is tra tio n a n d a id e n e m ie s o f th e S tate, as w ell as in v o lv e yo u rselv es in im m o ra l acts a g a in st th e g o o d c u s­ to m s o f th e p eo p le . . . . It is y o u r o b lig a tio n to resist th e m o tiv e s o f d isc o rd

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a n d w o rk fo r u n ity in y o u r re g io n a n d n o t c o n fu se tr u e p a trio tis m w ith scan d als th a t are in n o w ay c o n v e n ie n t to fa c ilita te .”14 In th is le tter, th e g o v e rn o r o n c e ag ain e m p lo y e d th e a rc h e ty p a l la n g u a g e o f p a tro n a g e d is­ p u te s. H e d e fin e d S e n s u n te p e q u e ’s o p p o s itio n as “im m o ra l” a n d “d isc o r­ d a n t,” te rm s th a t w o u ld b e u se d c o n s ta n tly over th e n e x t o n e h u n d r e d years as bosses d e n o u n c e d o n e a n o th e r. U n fo rtu n a te ly , th e re m a in in g p o r ­ tio n s o f th e g o v e rn o r’s lo g b o o k are lo st, a n d th u s th e o u tc o m e o f th e c o n ­ flict o f 1845 is u n k n o w n . N e v e rth e le ss, th e e v id en c e is su fficie n t to expose in te rp a tro n a g e b a ttlin g . T h e g o v e rn o r w as p re s id in g over a d e p a r tm e n t th a t w as u n ifo rm ly b e h in d h im ex c ep t fo r o n e m u n ic ip a lity , S e n su n te p e q u e , w h ic h b e c a m e a fo cal p o in t o f c o n flict.

A g u ila r/P a lac io s, 1846

A n o th e r g lim p se in to th e w o rk in g s o f a p a tro n a g e n e tw o rk in a c tio n co m es fro m th e tu m u l t over th e p re sid e n c y in 1846. A s w e saw in th e p r io r case stud y , in th e a fte rm a th o f th e fall o f F ra n cisc o M a le sp ín in 1844, J o a q u ín G u z m á n o f S an M ig u e l a ssu m e d th e p re sid e n c y to c o m p le te M a le sp ín ’s te rm . In F e b ru a ry 1846, in a ty p ic a l e x a m p le o f m in o r sh u fflin g w ith in a n in c u m b e n t p a tro n a g e n e tw o rk , S e n a to r F e rm ín P alacios su c ­ ce ed e d G u z m á n a n d serv ed as in te r im p re s id e n t w h ile th e N a tio n a l A s­ se m b ly elected a G u z m á n ally, E u g e n io A g u ilar, to serve as p re s id e n t fo r th e te rm o f 1846 to 1848. B u t a p p a re n tly P alacios d id n o t ta k e k in d ly to th e ap p ro v a l o f A g u ila r as G u z m á n ’s successor, b ec au se fo r rea so n s n o t m a d e clear b y th e av ailab le ev id en ce, h e te a m e d u p w ith B ish o p Jo rg e de V ite ri y U n g o a n d o v e rth re w A g u ila r in a c o u p fo u r m o n th s later. T h e c o u p to o k A g u ila r b y su rp rise , b u t h e a n d h is allies q u ic k ly o rg a n iz e d th em selv es. Jo sé M a ría S an M a rtín , a p r o m in e n t p o litic a l fig u re in S an S alv ad o r a n d a n ally o f A g u ilar, c o n ta c te d D o ro te o V asco n celo s, th e n g o v ­ e rn o r o f S an V ic e n te , w h o fire d o ff le tte rs to allies in S an M ig u e l a n d C o ju te p e q u e (C u sc a tlá n D e p a rtm e n t) . “O u r P re sid e n t w as fo rc e d to s u rre n ­ d e r p o w er to S e n a to r F e rm ín P alacio s,” w ro te V asco n celo s, rally in g th e tro o p s. “It is u rg e n t th a t w e o p p o se th e se fata l a n d sa d resu lts . . . w e m u s t o p e n ly s u p p o r t th e le g itim a te P re sid e n t.”15

82

Authoritarian El Salvador

A n o ta b le ally in S an M ig u e l w as G e ra rd o B arrio s, w h o w as th e n serv ­ in g as d e p a rtm e n ta l c o m m a n d e r a n d w h o w as also G u z m á n ’s so n -in -law . A few days after s e n d in g o u t h is le tte rs, V asco n celo s receiv ed c o n firm a tio n fro m B arrios a n d th e o th e rs a n d s e n t a le tte r b a c k to S an M a rtín , a n ­ n o u n c in g th e rea d in ess o f th e allian ce. M e ssen g e rs w ere ex c e p tio n a lly b u sy d u r in g crises su c h as th ese, r u n n in g c o rre s p o n d e n c e b a c k a n d f o rth b e ­ tw ee n d e p a rtm e n ts , sin c e th e te le g ra p h w as n o t y e t available. V asco n celo s ad d re ssed S an M a r tín as “th e Jefe w h o c o m m a n d s o u r fo rces.” H e w ro te , “I say w ith a n tic ip a tio n th a t in th e D e p a r tm e n t o f S an M ig u e l, as in th a t o f ‘L a Paz’ a n d in th a t w h ic h I c o m m a n d , w e d isa v o w w h a te v e r in d iv id u a l co m es to p o w er b y w ay o f u n c o n s titu tio n a l m e a n s.” B ack ed b y th e se s u p p o rte rs, A g u ila r la u n c h e d a c o u n te rc o u p th a t fo rc e d P alacios to ste p d o w n . B ish o p V ite ri y U n g o fled in to exile in H o n ­ d u ras. T h e r e tu r n o f A g u ila r in c ite d y e t a n o th e r c o u n te rc o u p , th is tim e b y o n e o f M a le sp ín ’s b ro th e rs, w h o in v a d e d E l S alv a d o r w ith a sm all a rm y fro m H o n d u ra s . B u t B arrio s a n d o th e rs re p u lse d th e in v a s io n .16 A g u ila r re m a in e d in office fo r th e d u ra tio n o f h is te rm a n d th e n h a n d e d p o w e r o ff to V asconcelos, w h o sta y ed in office u n til 1851.

S an V ic e n te C ity, 1852

Six years later, in 18 5 2 , a n o th e r p o litic a l c o n f r o n ta tio n b ro k e o u t in S an V ic e n te D e p a rtm e n t, p ro v id in g f u rth e r in s ig h t in to in te rp a tro n a g e riv a l­ ries. T h e p re s id e n t a t th e tim e w as F ra n cisc o D u e ñ a s, w h o ca m e to p o w e r d e s p ite th e o p p o s itio n o f m o s t o f S an V ic e n te D e p a rtm e n t, w h ic h re ­ m a in e d a n ally o f G u z m á n a n d h is c o h o rts in S an M ig u e l. D u e ñ a s ’s g u ­ b e rn a to ria l a p p o in tm e n t in S an V ic e n te C ity fac ed th e d iffic u lt ta sk o f su p e rv isin g a u n ifo rm ly h o stile d e p a rtm e n t. It w as ex actly th e o p p o s ite o f w h a t a p rev io u s g o v e rn o r h a d fac ed in th e 1845 case s tu d y above, w h e n th e e n tire d e p a r tm e n t w as lo y al to h im a n d th e p re sid e n t, w ith th e ex c ep ­ tio n o f th e lo n e m u n ic ip a lity o f S e n su n te p e q u e . In 1852, S an V ic e n te C ity w as u n d e r th e c o n tro l o f th e V asco n celo s fam ily. T h e g o v e rn o r re ­ fe rre d to th e m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il o f th e c ity as “e l partido de oposición o p p o s itio n p a r ty ) .17

(th e

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D u e ñ a s su sp e c te d th e V asco n celo s clan o f o rg a n iz in g a re b e llio n fro m S an V ic e n te , so h e in s tru c te d h is g o v e rn o r to b o lste r th e b a rra c k s in S an V ic e n te C ity b y re c ru itin g tro o p s fro m o th e r m u n ic ip a litie s. T h e g o v e rn o r o rd e re d each m u n ic ip a lity in th e d e p a r tm e n t to se n d h o rses a n d so ld iers “to th e c e n tra l p la z a o f th is city to s u p p o r t th e forces o f th e n a tio n a l g o v ­ e r n m e n t.”18 N o t su rp risin g ly , m o s t o f th e m u n ic ip a litie s ig n o re d th e re ­ q u e s t, a n d th e few so ld iers w h o d id arriv e q u ic k ly d e se rte d . T h e g o v e rn o r p u t a five-peso b o u n ty o n th e h e a d o f ea ch deserter, b u t n o n e o f th e m u ­ n ic ip alitie s re s p o n d e d to th e re w a rd . T h e g o v e rn o r th e n raise d th e b o u n ty to fifteen pesos, a n d still n o n e o f th e m u n ic ip a litie s c o m p lie d . “N o n e o f th e deserters h av e b e e n c a p tu re d ,” h e w ro te , “ [o w in g to] th e in e rtia o f th e A lcald ías o f th is d e p a rtm e n t, p rin c ip a lly th e officials o f th is city [San V i­ ce n te ], w h o hav e re je c te d m y re p e a te d re q u e sts.” 19 T h e e m e rg in g d isp u te b e tw e e n th e g o v e rn o r a n d th e m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il o f S an V ic e n te to o k o n a c u rio u s sp a tia l e le m e n t in th a t th e ir offices w ere lo c a te d ju s t a c o u p le o f b lo ck s f ro m o n e a n o th e r, a n d m e ssen g e rs fo r th e o p p o s in g sides m u s t h av e cro ssed p a th s as th e y c a rrie d th e c o rre sp o n d e n c e b a c k a n d f o r th b e tw e e n th e offices. A s th e m u n ic ip a l e lec tio n s o f 1852 a p p ro a c h e d , th e g o v e rn o r h o p e d to o u st th e V asco n celo s clan, a n d th e ta c tic h e ch o se w as ac c u sin g th e V a sc o n c e lo s-d o m in a te d m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il o f im p ro p rie tie s. In O c to b e r h e d e ta ile d a lita n y o f in a p p ro p ria te b e h a v io r a n d abuses, su c h as fa ilin g to m a in ta in th e city ’s in fra s tru c tu re a n d a b s c o n d in g w ith m u n ic ip a l fu n d s. T h e a c cu satio n s w ere ty p ic a l o f th e c ritic ism s th a t n e tw o rk s u se d in th e ir a tte m p ts to n u llify rivals. N o rm a lly , so m e o n e o th e r th a n th e g o v e rn o r w o u ld s u b m it th e in itia l d e n u n c ia tio n , le av in g h im in a p o s itio n to a p p e a r as a n e u tra l ju d g e . B u t in th is case th e g o v e rn o r to o k it u p o n h im s e lf to w rite th e d e n u n c ia tio n . W h e th e r o r n o t th e a c c u sa tio n s w ere tr u e is im ­ p o ssib le to d e te rm in e a n d effectively irre le v a n t; all th a t m a tte rs fo r o u r p re s e n t analysis is th a t th e y gave th e g o v e rn o r th e p re te x t o n w h ic h to d e ­ m a n d th e rem o v a l o f th e c o u n c il’s m e m b e rs. T h e g o v e rn o r c o n tin u e d to b e ra te th e m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il in a series o f re p o rts, a n d h e also b e g a n m e n tio n in g h is p o w e r to d is b a n d th e c o u n c il. B u t b efo re h e a c te d o n th is th re a t h e f o u n d a n e w an g le o f a tta c k . In late O c to b e r h e ac cu sed D o lo re s H e rn á n d e z , o n e o f th e m u n ic ip a lity ’s re g i­ dores, o f ste a lin g a h o rse f ro m h is h a c ie n d a . T h e g o v e rn o r d e m a n d e d

84

Authoritarian El Salvador

H e rn á n d e z ’s re sig n a tio n . A g ain , th e t r u th o f th e g o v e rn o r’s d e n u n c ia tio n is im p o ssib le to d e te rm in e , a lth o u g h H e rn á n d e z d e n ie d th e ch a rg e a n d refu sed to ste p d o w n . T h e re m a in d e r o f th e c o u n c il s u p p o r te d h im a n d to o k th e ir a p p e al to th e S u p re m e C o u r t, w h o se m e m b e rs m u s t h av e o p ­ p o se d D u e ñ a s, b ec au se it ru le d in H e rn á n d e z ’s fav o r a n d o rd e re d th e g o v ­ e rn o r to w ith d r a w h is re q u e st fo r th e re g id o r’s re sig n a tio n . T h e g o v e rn o r’s le n g th y resp o n se to th e c o u r t sta n d s as a te s ta m e n t to n in e te e n th - c e n tu ry p o litics. H e in fo rm e d th e c o u r t th a t th e p re s id e n t o f th e re p u b lic is th e “Jefe M á x im o ” a n d a u th o rity o rig in a te d w ith h im , n o t th e c o u rt. H e i n ­ sisted th a t b o th th e c o u r t a n d th e g o v e rn o r are se rv a n ts to th e p re sid e n t, ju s t as th e m e m b e rs o f S an V ic e n te ’s m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il are s u b a lte rn s to h im . H e c la im e d th a t e v e ry o n e ’s d u ty is to o b e y th e o rd e rs o f th e ir s u p e ri­ ors: “I f th e officials o f S an V ic e n te w ere allo w ed to a b id e b y th e C o u r t ’s ru lin g , n o su b a lte rn e m p lo y e e w o u ld c o m p ly w ith th e o rd ers o f th e E x ec u ­ tive. F or th is rea so n , a b asic te n e t o f p u b lic a u th o rity is th e E x ec u tiv e h a v in g all n ecessary in d e p e n d e n c e to g u a rd h is em p lo y ees fo r fau lts or excesses w h ic h th e y m ig h t c o m m it in th e exercise o f th e ir p o sitio n s. . . . A ll o f th is seem s b asically fu n d a m e n ta l e n o u g h fo r m e to c o n te n d th a t th e C o u r t h as n o a u th o rity to c o m m a n d m e w ith o u t p rio r d e c la ra tio n fro m th e S e n a te .”20 T h e g o v e rn o r’s ap p e a l to th e se n a te re fle c te d th e fac t th a t it w as safely u n d e r th e c o n tro l o f D u e ñ a s a n d h is n e tw o rk . T h e g o v e rn o r’s re sp o n se to th e c o u rt p o rtra y e d a p o litic a l o rd e r th a t every p a tro n a g e b o ss h o p e d for, o n e in w h ic h h e h e ld th e p re sid e n c y a n d all p o w e r flo w ed d o w n w a rd fro m h im . It w as n o t u n til w ell in to th e tw e n ­ tie th c e n tu ry th a t su c h a c o n d itio n ca m e to exist in El S alvador. U n til th e n , n e tw o rk s re ig n e d o n ly te m p o ra rily , u n a b le to c o n s o lid a te a u th o rity a n d fac in g c o n s ta n t acts o f su b te rfu g e o n th e p a r t o f o p p o n e n ts . T h e 1852 case fro m S an V ic e n te C ity is a n e x a m p le o f th e ev ery d ay fo rm s o f p o ­ litica l c o n flict in m id - n in e te e n th - c e n tu ry El S alvador. F u n c tio n a rie s o f th e in c u m b e n t n e tw o rk k e p t a vig il fo r reb e llio u s ac tiv ities a n d w o rk e d c o n ­ stantly, i f rarely successfully, to u n d e r m in e th e ir rivals’ p o litic a l base.

B arrio s, 1 8 5 9 -1 8 6 3

T h e c o n flic t s u r ro u n d in g th e a sc e n t a n d re ig n o f G e ra rd o B arrio s (1 8 5 9 — 1863) p ro v id es a n o th e r e x a m p le in w h ic h p a tro n a g e alliances are e v id e n t.

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B arrios h a d b e e n a m a jo r p o litic a l p la y er fro m S an M ig u e l D e p a rtm e n t th r o u g h o u t th e p re c e d in g tw o d ecades, b u t 1 8 5 7 m a rk e d th e m o m e n t at w h ic h h e b e g a n h is c lim b to th e to p o f th e p o litic a l h ie ra rc h y . In th a t year, B arrios re tu r n e d to El S alv a d o r afte r se rv in g as a c o m m a n d e r in th e a rm y d is p a tc h e d to N ic a ra g u a to fig h t th e A m e ric a n filib u ste r W illia m W alker. O n J u n e 7, 1857, B arrio s la n d e d h is forces, n u m b e rin g a r o u n d 1 ,5 0 0 m e n , a t th e p o r t o f L a L ib e rta d . T h e p re s id e n t at th e tim e w as R afael C a m p o o f S o n so n a te , a B arrio s adversary. B arrio s se n t w o rd to C a m p o th a t h e in te n d e d to b r in g h is v ic to rio u s a rm y to th e ca p ita l city, w h ic h at th a t tim e w as lo c a te d in C o ju te p e q u e b ec au se S an S alv a d o r h a d b e e n d e­ stro y e d in a n e a rth q u a k e in 1854. C a m p o a n d o th e r h ig h -ra n k in g officials d is tru s te d B arrio s, su sp e c tin g th a t h e w o u ld u se h is a rm y to seize pow er. O n e o f C a m p o s allies d u r in g th e tu m u l t w as R a m ó n B elloso, w h o h a d b e e n th e m a in c o m m a n d e r o f th e S a lv a d o ra n tro o p s in N ic a ra g u a . B elloso a n d o th e r m e m b e rs o f th e o fficer co rp s ac cu sed B arrio s o f tre a so n , a n d o n J u n e 10 C a m p o reliev ed B arrio s o f h is c o m m a n d a n d n a m e d h im s e lf c h ie f o f th e E x p e d itio n a ry A rm y. B arrio s re s p o n d e d b y p ro c la im in g h im s e lf to b e in re b e llio n a g a in st th e g o v e rn m e n t a n d b e g a n m a rc h in g h is a rm y to ­ w a rd C o ju te p e q u e . In th e m e a n tim e , C a m p o h a d b e e n p re p a rin g fo r b a ttle . H e h a d p la c e d C o lo n e ls C iria c o C h o to a n d J u a n C h o to , b o th o f S o n so n a te , in ch a rg e o f o rg a n iz in g th e c a p ita l’s d efen ses. T h e y d re w so ld iers a n d s u p ­ plies fro m th e ir h o m e re g io n as w ell as fro m S a n ta A n a, a n allie d d e p a r t­ m e n t. A m ilita ry clash se e m e d in e v ita b le , h a d it n o t b e e n fo r th e tim e ly in te rje c tio n o f Jo sé M a ría S an M a rtín , w h o n e g o tia te d a deal b e tw e e n th e o p p o s in g chiefs. T h e specifics o f th e deal are u n k n o w n , b u t th e y p ro b a b ly rev o lv ed a ro u n d th e q u e s tio n o f w h o w o u ld su c ce ed C a m p o after h is te rm ex p ire d in J a n u a ry 1858. O n J u n e 13 B arrio s tu r n e d c o m m a n d o f h is a rm y over to C a m p o , a n d o n J u n e 2 0 C a m p o a n n o u n c e d th a t th e c o n flic t h a d b e e n reso lv ed . H e m a d e sp ecific m e n tio n o f “th e re c ru its, m o s t o f th e m v o lu n te e r so ld iers, se n t b y S o n so n a te a n d S a n ta A n a D e p a rtm e n ts ,” to d e fe n d th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t.21 W h e n C a m p o s te p p e d d o w n in 1858, B arrio s a n d h is allies w ere th e p rin c ip a l beneficiaries. M ig u e l S a n tín d el C a stillo b e c a m e p re sid e n t. H e w as b o r n in S an V ic e n te a n d o w n e d fa m ily p ro p e rtie s th e re , b u t as a y o u n g m a n h e h a d m o v e d to S an M ig u e l a n d b e c o m e a n o m in a l ally o f B a rrio s.22 T h e vice p re sid e n c y w e n t to J o a q u ín G u z m á n , B a rrio s’s fa th e r-in -la w a n d

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h is closest ally. T h e p o s itio n o f first d e sig n a te to th e p re s id e n t w e n t to o n e o f C a m p o ’s allies, L o re n z o Z e p e d a o f S o n so n a te . B arrio s b e c a m e se c o n d d esig n ate to th e p re s id e n t a n d also th e m in is te r o f fo re ig n re la tio n s. In J u n e 1858 S a n tín s te p p e d d o w n te m p o ra rily fro m th e presid en cy . H is d e p a rtu re w as o ste n sib ly d u e to illness, b u t it p ro b a b ly h a d m o re to d o w ith p o litic s a n d th e lo o m in g c o n flic t over th e lo c a tio n o f th e n e w n a ­ tio n a l ca p ita l in e ith e r S an S alv a d o r o r in th e n e w city o f N u e v a S an S alva­ d o r (n o w S a n ta T ecla). B arrio s a ssu m e d th e p re sid e n c y a n d h e ld it u n til S e p te m b e r 1858, w h e n S a n tín r e tu rn e d . R e la tio n s b e tw e e n S a n tín a n d B arrios disso lv ed s h o rtly th e re a fte r, fo r rea so n s th a t re m a in u n clea r. S a n tín lik ely s u sp e c te d B arrio s o f h a r b o r in g desig n s o n th e p resid en cy . F o r w h a t­ ever rea so n , h e o rd e re d B arrio s to re tire h is p o s t as c o m m a n d e r o f th e arm y. B arrios ag re ed to resig n o n th e c o n d itio n th a t S a n tín re sig n fro m office as w ell. In Ja n u a ry 1859 th e y b o th s te p p e d d o w n , a rra n g in g fo r th e N a tio n a l A sse m b ly to ch o o se th e n e x t p re sid e n t. B arrios, w h o w as se rv in g as a s e n a to r fro m S an M ig u e l, p ro p o s e d h is fa th e r-in -la w , J o a q u ín G u z m á n . S a n tín h a d sin c e f o rm e d a n allian ce w ith S o n so n a te a n d o p p o se d G u z m á n , k n o w in g fu ll w ell th a t h e a n d B arrio s w ere v irtu a lly th e sam e. T h e N a tio n a l A sse m b ly b e c a m e c e n te r stag e fo r th e d e b a te over S a n tín ’s successor. R e p re se n ta tiv e s fro m ea ch d e p a rtm e n ta l n e tw o rk h a d to ch o o se sides. S an M ig u e l, S an S alvador, a n d S a n ta A n a s u p p o r te d B a r­ rios. S o n so n a te , S an V ic e n te , a n d C u s c a tlá n b a c k e d S a n tín , as d id th e bosses o f N u e v a S an S alvador, d issid e n ts fro m S an S alv a d o r D e p a r tm e n t.23 M a n u e l G a lla rd o d e sc rib e d th e c o n flic t in h is m e m o irs. H e w as th e n serv ­ in g as a d e p u ty fro m S u c h ito to D is tric t in C u s c a tlá n D e p a rtm e n t. It w as o n ly h is first year in th e assem bly, b u t h e w as p re s id e n t o f th e C h a m b e r o f D e p u tie s a n d th u s h e ld a n im p o r ta n t ta ctica l p o s itio n in th e c o m in g v o te . H e w ro te o f th e in te n s e lo b b y in g to w h ic h h e a n d th e o th e r d e p u tie s w ere su b je ct. “B arrios c o n s ta n tly d e m a n d e d th a t I sid e w ith h im ,” h e w ro te .24 B arrios u ltim a te ly p rev a iled , d e sp ite G a lla rd o ’s o p p o s itio n , b ec au se h e h a d a c c u m u la te d e n o u g h allies in th e assem b ly to g e t G u z m á n elec ted p re si­ d e n t a n d also to pass a re s o lu tio n d e c la rin g S a n tín a n d h is allies to b e in o p e n reb e llio n . T h e b u lk o f S a n tín ’s s u p p o rte rs, in c lu d in g F ra n cisc o D u e ­ ñ as a n d th e C h o to fam ily, fled in to exile in G u a te m a la . G u z m á n th e n re ­ tire d fro m office six w eeks later, allo w in g B arrio s to b e c o m e p re s id e n t.25 B arrios assu m e d th e p re sid e n c y o n M a rc h 9, 1859, a n d re m a in e d in office fo r m o s t o f th e n e x t fo u r years. It w as a tim e o f h ea v y c o n flict, o w in g

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to th e b itte r p o litic a l e n v iro n m e n t. B a rrio s in v e ste d m o s t o f h is tim e a n d en e rg y in p re p a rin g fo r w a r w ith th e exiles, w h o h a d allied w ith R afael C a rre ra in G u a te m a la a n d w ere p re p a rin g to jo in C a rre ra ’s in v a sio n o f El S alvador. N e e d in g to b o lste r h is defenses, B arrio s in itia te d a b ro a d m o b i­ liz a tio n c a m p a ig n to r e c ru it so ld iers a n d a c c u m u la te su p p lies. O n e o f his first acts w as to seize th e la n d s a n d p ro p e rtie s o f th e exiles a n d sell th e m o ff to allies. A s o n e o f th e n a tio n ’s w e a lth ie st p e o p le , D u e ñ a s h a d m u c h to lose, in c lu d in g tw o ex c e p tio n a lly fe rtile p la n ta tio n s o u ts id e N u e v a S an Salvador, “El E s p in o ” a n d “S a n ta E le n a ,” as w ell as n u m e ro u s u r b a n p r o p ­ erties in S an S alv ad o r.26 B arrios th e n o rd e re d ea ch d e p a r tm e n t to p ro d u c e so ld iers, m o n e y , a n d w a r m a te ria l. B a rrio s’s g u b e rn a to ria l a p p o in te e s o v ersaw th e co llec­ tio n . F o rtu n a te ly , m a n y o f th e le tte rs a n d c o m m u n iq u é s b e tw e e n th e g o v ­ ern o rs a n d th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t h av e su rv iv ed . T h e y d e p ic t a c o n s ta n t sh u fflin g o f tro o p s, th e c o lle c tio n o f lo an s, b o th fo rc e d a n d v o lu n ta ry , th e tra n sfe r o f m u le s a n d su p p lies, a n d th e m o b iliz a tio n o f m ilitia s.27 Ju st as in S an V ic e n te in 1845 a n d 18 5 2 , th o se reg io n s loyal to B arrio s re a d ily f u r ­ n is h e d th e m a n d a te d reso u rces, w h ile o p p o s in g d e p a rtm e n ts b a lk e d , b e ­ c o m in g p o in ts o f n e v e r-e n d in g c o n flic t fo r th e reg im e. T h e ex am p le o f S o n so n a te is ed ify in g . T h e d e p a r tm e n t w as a c e n te r o f o p p o s itio n to B arrio s, a n d its stra te g ic lo c a tio n close to th e G u a te m a la n b o rd e r e n s u re d th a t it w o u ld b e a n im p o r ta n t re g io n in th e c o m in g w ar. A s all th e m a in fam ilies o f S o n s o n a te w ere o p p o se d to B arrio s, h e w as fo rc e d to ch o o se a rela tiv e n o b o d y , M ig u e l Saizar, as h is g o v ern o r. O n ly o n c e in th e p re v io u s tw o d ec ad e s h a d S aizar b e e n in v o lv e d in p o litic s in S o n so n a te C ity, a n d th e n o n ly as an e le c to r in a m u n ic ip a l e le c tio n . S aizar w as aw are o f h is fo rtu n e in b e in g p r o m o te d to o n e o f th e m o re im p o r ta n t offices in th e c o u n try a n d e n d e a v o re d to p lease h is p a tro n . H e s e n t a c o n ­ s ta n t s tre a m o f le tte rs to S an S alvador, la d e n w ith o p tim is tic assessm ents. H e w ro te o f S o n s o n a te ’s rea d in ess to face th e in v a sio n , c o n d e m n e d th e lo w m o ra l ch a ra c te r o f th e o p p o s itio n — w h o m S aizar called th e “culebras” (sn ak es)— a n d h e ra ld e d th e g rea tn ess o f th e B arrio s reg im e. B u t a closer re a d in g o f th e c o rre sp o n d e n c e reveals th a t Saizar faced u n e n d in g p ro b le m s. Saizar failed to s u b d u e th e o p p o s itio n o r p ro d u c e reso u rces fo r B a rri­ os’s arm y. N o n e o f th e lo cal la n d o w n e rs w illin g ly gave m o n e y , a n d all o f th e m resisted S aiz ar’s a tte m p ts a t fo rc e d lo an s. W h e re a s th e g o v e rn o rs o f o th e r d e p a rtm e n ts w ere g e n e ra tin g th o u s a n d s o f peso s in rev e n u e, S aizar

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m a n a g e d o n ly a few h u n d r e d . L a n d o w n e rs re fu se d to su rre n d e r th e ir la ­ b o rers fo r m ilitia tra in in g , a n d S aizar’s re c ru itin g ag e n ts re p e a te d ly re ­ tu r n e d to S o n so n a te fro m th e s u r ro u n d in g e n v iro n s e m p ty -h a n d e d . O n e o f th e se ag en ts, w h o h a d b e e n s e n t to re c ru it a ro u n d th e p o r t city o f A caju tla , r e p o rte d th a t h is “effo rts w ere in v a in .” H e also w ro te o f “th e n e ­ cessity o f p ro c u r in g a ja il fo r th is m ise ra b le v illage in o rd e r to h o ld th e re c ru its.”28 O f th e c o n sc rip ts th a t S aizar d id o b ta in , m a n y d e s e rte d a n d m o s t o f th e rest w ere n e e d e d in S o n so n a te to g u a rd a g a in st co n sp ira cies a n d sa b o tag e b y lo cal o p p o n e n ts . D e s p ite S o n s o n a te ’s resistan ce, B arrio s a ssem b led a sizable arm y, b u t n o t o n e s tro n g e n o u g h to h o ld o ff th e G u a te m a la n s a n d th e S a lv a d o ra n exiles. T h e y in v a d e d El S alv a d o r fro m th e w est in M a rc h 18 6 3 . B a rrio s’s forces w ere p u s h e d ste a d ily b a c k to w a rd S an S alvador. In Ju n e , B arrios receiv ed a fatal b lo w w h e n o n e o f h is m a in c o m m a n d e rs , S a n tia g o G o n ­ zález, c h a n g e d sides. H e a n d h is e n tire a rm y o f fo u r th o u s a n d m e n jo in e d th e in v a d in g force. By S e p te m b e r, B a rrio s’s arm y h a d b e e n d riv e n all th e w ay b a c k to th e ca p ita l city. T h e in v a sio n c u lm in a te d in O c to b e r w ith th e siege o f S an S alvador, fo rc in g B a rrio s a n d th e re m n a n ts o f h is arm y to flee to th e east. D u e ñ a s b e c a m e th e n e x t p re sid e n t, h is se c o n d s tin t in th a t ro le .29 O v e r th e n e x t tw o years B arrio s w as to b e fo u n d in C o s ta R ic a a n d N ic a ra g u a , p lo ttin g th e o v e rth ro w o f D u e ñ a s. In 1865, th e first e le m e n t o f h is p la n w as p u t in to a c tio n in S an M ig u e l. G e n e ra l Jo sé T rin id a d C a b a ­ ñas, B a rrio s’s b ro th e r-in -la w , seized th e m u n ic ip a l p la z a in S an M ig u e l. D u e ñ a s se n t a n arm y u n d e r th e c o m m a n d o f S a n tia g o G o n z á le z a n d I n ­ dalecio M ir a n d a o f S an V ic e n te to d e fe a t th e re b e llio n . T h e y d id so a n d ex e cu ted C a b a ñ a s in th e p ro cess. B arrio s w as la te r a rre ste d in N ic a ra g u a . T h e N ic a ra g u a n g o v e rn m e n t a g re ed to e x tra d ite h im to El S alv a d o r o n D u e ñ a s ’s p ro m is e th a t h e w o u ld n o t b e h a rm e d , b u t D u e ñ a s h a d h im exe­ c u te d anyw ay. B arrios is c o m m o n ly p o rtra y e d by s tu d e n ts o f S a lv a d o ra n h isto ry as a m a rty r o f C a rre ra ’s e x p a n sio n ist aim s a n d D u e ñ a s ’s tre a so n o u s acts. A case fo r th is a rg u m e n t c a n b e m a d e . M o re re le v a n t to th e p re s e n t d isc u ssio n , how ever, is h o w th e rise a n d fall o f B arrio s sy m b o lizes th e p a tte r n o f in te r ­ n a l S alv a d o ra n p o litic s. B arrio s w as th e classic n in e te e n th - c e n tu ry p o litic a l player. H e w as a m ilita ry c o m m a n d e r, la n d o w n e r, a n d p o litic a l boss. H e

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first ro se to p o w e r in h is h o m e base o f S an M ig u e l a n d w e n t o n to h o ld n u m e ro u s civil a n d m ilita ry p o sts a t b o th th e n a tio n a l a n d d e p a rtm e n ta l levels. H is p o litic a l n e tw o rk w as b u ilt u p o n a so lid f o u n d a tio n o f fa m ily ties. H is tw o closest allies w ere h is fa th e r-in -la w , J o a q u ín G u z m á n , a n d h is b ro th e r-in -la w G e n e ra l C a b a ñ a s. H e h a d m a d e a career p a rtic ip a tin g in a n d n e g o tia tin g alliances b e tw e e n d e p a rtm e n ta l n e tw o rk s. H e ro se to p o w e r o n th e s tre n g th o f h is alliances, a n d h e fell b ec au se h is o p p o n e n ts h a d th e ca p ac ity to fo rm bigger, s tro n g e r alliances, in th is case w ith an o u tsid er, C a rre ra o f G u a te m a la .

J u n ta s d e N o ta b le s, 1876 a n d 1890

W h e n a sin g le n e tw o rk d o m in a te d , its le a d in g m e m b e rs fac ed th e d ifficu lt ta sk o f selec tin g th e o n e p e rso n fro m a m o n g th e ir ra n k s w h o w o u ld serve as p re sid e n t. U n less th e y c o u ld re c o n c ile m e m b e rs ’ c o m p e tin g a sp ira tio n s peacefully, in tr a n e tw o r k c o n flic t b e c a m e a real po ssib ility . I f a re ig n in g n e tw o rk s u c c u m b e d to a n in te rn a l p o w e r stru g g le , it b e c a m e v u ln e ra b le to a tta c k b y rivals a n d th u s faced th e p ro s p e c t o f lo sin g p o w e r entirely. W e saw in th e p re v io u s c h a p te r th a t in 1895, th e d o m in a n t n e tw o rk le d b y G e n e ra l G u tié rre z u se d a n e le c tio n to se ttle th e c o m p e titio n over th e vice p re sid e n c y b e tw e e n P ru d e n c io A lfaro a n d C a rlo s M e lé n d e z . T h is a p ­ p ro a c h w as v ia b le fo r a v ice p re sid e n tia l e le c tio n b ec au se G u tié rre z w as an u n d is p u te d a u th o rity fig u re a n d k e p t p o litic a l p assio n s in ch eck . B u t in p re sid e n tia l elec tio n s th e re w as o fte n m o re th a n o n e a s p ira n t a n d n o su c h a u th o rity to e n su re o rd er. O n a t le ast tw o o ccasio n s, o n c e in 1876 a n d ag ain in 1890, th e m e m b e rs o f th e d o m in a n t n e tw o r k so u g h t to n e g o tia te a p eacefu l s o lu tio n to in te rn a l d e b a te s over p re sid e n tia l su c ce ssio n b y o r­ g a n iz in g Juntas de Notables, m e e tin g s o f th e le a d in g m e m b e rs o f th e n e t­ w o rk d e sig n e d specifically to select th e n e x t p re sid e n t. T h e J u n ta o f 1876 w as h e ld in th e w a k e o f th e o v e rth ro w o f G e n e ra l S a n tia g o G o n z á le z (1 8 7 1 —1 8 7 6 ), w h o h im s e lf h a d c o m e to p o w e r in a c o u p a g a in st F ra n cisc o D u e ñ a s (1 8 6 3 —1 8 7 1 ). G o n z á le z p re c ip ita te d his o w n p o litic a l d e m ise b y try in g to sta y in p o w e r fo r a n a d d itio n a l te rm . In th e elec tio n o f 1 8 7 6 h e e n s u re d th a t h is close ally A n d ré s V alle w as v ic to ­ rio u s a n d th e n to o k fo r h im s e lf th e p o sitio n s o f vice p re s id e n t a n d

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c o m m a n d e r in c h ie f o f th e arm y. H is a c tio n s w ere ty p ic a l p o litic a l b e h a v ­ ior, a n d so to o w as th e a p p e a ra n c e o f an o p p o s itio n m o v e m e n t. G o n z á le z m ig h t h av e b e e n ab le to h o ld o ff th e in e v ita b le o p p o s itio n if it h a d re m a in e d solely d o m e stic in n a tu re , b u t h is a n d V alle’s days in p o w e r ca m e to a s u d d e n close w h e n th e ir re la tio n s h ip w ith P re s id e n t Ju sto R u fin o B arrios o f G u a te m a la so u re d . In F e b ru a ry 1876, a t th e b e g in n in g o f V alle’s te rm , G o n z á le z a n d B arrio s allied in o p p o s itio n to th e G a rc ía re g im e in H o n d u ra s . T h e ir allia n ce d e te rio ra te d w h e n G o n z á le z re fu se d to s u p p o r t B a rrio s’s p la n to in v a d e H o n d u ra s . B arrio s w e n t a h e a d w ith th e m o v e m e n t ag a in st G a rc ía anyw ay; it failed m iserab ly , c a u sin g a ra p id d e te ­ r io ra tio n in re la tio n s b e tw e e n G o n z á le z a n d B arrio s. In A p ril w a r b ro k e o u t b e tw e e n G u a te m a la a n d E l S alvador. B arrio s g o t th e b e tte r o f G o n z á le z by in v a d in g E l S alv a d o r fro m tw o d ire c tio n s, east a n d w est, p in c h in g G o n z á le z ’s tro o p s in b e tw e e n . A fte r tw o w eeks o f fig h tin g , G o n z á le z su e d fo r peace. B arrios a g re ed to w ith d ra w i f G o n z á le z a n d V alle w o u ld resig n fro m office a n d allo w th e ir o p p o n e n ts to c o n d u c t a J u n ta d e N o ta b le s to select th e n e x t p re sid e n t. T h e ju n ta w as h e ld in S a n ta A n a in la te A p ril. O n e o f th e p a rtic ip a n ts w as M a n u e l G a lla rd o , w h o re fe rre d to th e ev e n t in h is m e m o irs, say in g th a t th e p a rtic ip a n ts s e ttle d o n tw o m a in c a n d id a te s, R afael Z a ld ív a r o f S a n ta A n a a n d G e n e ra l In d a le c io M ir a n d a o f S an V i­ cen te. A c c o rd in g to G a lla rd o , B arrio s fo u n d b o th o f th e m a c ce p ta b le, b u t Z a ld ív a r w o n th e day b ec au se h e rec eiv e d a s tro n g e n d o rs e m e n t fro m th e p re s id e n t o f C o s ta R ica, w ith w h o m Z a ld ív a r h a d fo rm e d a close re la tio n ­ sh ip w h ile w o rk in g in C o s ta R ica as a p ro fe sso r d u r in g th e G o n z á le z a d ­ m in is tr a tio n .30 T h e se c o n d J u n ta d e N o ta b le s w as h e ld in 1890 a t th e b e h e st o f P resi­ d e n t F ran cisco M e n é n d e z . H e h a d c o m e to p o w e r in 1885 in a c o u p a g a in st Z a ld ív a r (1 8 7 6 —1 8 8 5 ), w h o h a d se rv e d a n u n p re c e d e n te d n in e years in office. T h e p u rp o s e o f th e ju n ta w as to ch o o se M e n é n d e z ’s su cces­ sor. M e n é n d e z in v ite d a p p ro x im a te ly tw o d o z e n o f h is closest p o litic a l al­ lies, a m o n g th e m F ra n cisc o C a s ta ñ e d a o f L a P az D e p a rtm e n t, w h o la ter w ro te a b o o k a b o u t th e M e n é n d e z p re sid e n c y in w h ic h h e d e sc rib e d th e J u n ta o f 1890. C a s ta ñ e d a w ro te th a t th e a ssem b led p a rtic ip a n ts n e g o tia te d fo r th e b e tte r p a r t o f o n e d a y b e fo re v o tin g . T h e resu lts o f th e v o te a p ­ p e a re d in th e D iario O ficial?1 F o u r p e rso n s receiv ed v o tes, th re e o f w h o m w ere m e m b e rs o f G o n z á le z ’s c a b in e t. T h e to p re c ip ie n t, Ju lio In te ria n o ,

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receiv ed f o u rte e n v o tes, w h ile th e o th e r c a n d id a te s receiv ed o n e o r tw o v o tes each. F o llo w in g th e ju n ta , In te ria n o a n d M e n é n d e z b e g a n m o b iliz ­ in g th e ir local allies to c o n d u c t th e c u s to m a ry o n e -sid e d elec tio n . Ironically, th e ju n ta d id n o t ach iev e its b asic goal, w h ic h w as to m a in ­ ta in th e cohesiv en ess o f th e n e tw o r k b y fa c ilita tin g n e g o tia tio n s a m o n g its le a d in g m e m b e rs. T h e ju n ta m e m b e rs h a d ch o se n In te ria n o , b u t o n e o f th e o th e r c a n d id a te s felt slig h te d . H e w as G e n e ra l C a rlo s E ze ta, th e c o m ­ m a n d e r o f S a n ta A n a, a n d o n e o f M e lé n d e z ’s s u p p o rte rs in th e c o u p o f 1885. E zeta w a n te d th e p resid en cy , a n d h a v in g n o t receiv ed it in th e ju n ta , h e d e c id e d to ta k e it b y fo rce. H e la u n c h e d a re b e llio n in J u n e 1890 th a t to p p le d th e M e n é n d e z g o v e rn m e n t. M e n é n d e z h im s e lf w as k ille d d u rin g th e s to rm in g o f th e p re sid e n tia l palace. In a la te r d e c la ra tio n o f victory, E zeta referre d sp ecifically to th e “c o n s p ira to ria l . . . J u n ta d e N o ta b le ” th a t h a d e x c lu d e d h im .32 T h e tw o J u n ta s d e N o ta b le s, d e s p ite th e ir d iffe rin g o u tc o m e s , sh a re d a c o m m o n go al: k e e p in g th e re ig n in g n e tw o rk in p o w e r b y a llo w in g its p rin c ip a l m e m b e rs to m e e t a n d n e g o tia te p re sid e n tia l su ccessio n . In th is, th e ju n ta s ex e m p lifie d n in e te e n th - c e n tu ry p o litic s b y d isre g a rd in g th e m asses a n d e x c lu d in g rivals.

T h e C o u p o f 1894

T ransfers o f p o w e r b e tw e e n rival p a tro n a g e n e tw o rk s se ld o m o c c u rre d peacefully. O f th e th ir te e n sh ifts in p o w e r liste d in ta b le 1.4, a t least n in e in v o lv e d so m e fo rm o f v io le n t act, e ith e r a c o u p d ’é ta t o r a p r o lo n g e d w ar. C o u n tle ss o th e r u n su c ce ssfu l p lo ts w ere la u n c h e d as w ell. T h e se v io le n t grabs fo r p o w e r w ere b u ilt u p o n th e sa m e fo u n d a tio n o f in te r d e p a r tm e n ­ tal alliances as a n y o th e r p o litic a l activity. T h e p lo tte rs w ere d e p a rtm e n ta l bosses w h o , fo r o n e re a so n o r a n o th e r, d e c id e d th a t th e in c u m b e n ts h a d to b e fo rc efu lly e v icte d fro m office. T ypically, it w as w h e n in c u m b e n ts d e ­ c id e d to re ta in th e p re sid e n c y fo r a n a d d itio n a l te rm th a t th e o p p o s itio n g rew im p a tie n t a n d re s p o n d e d w ith v io le n ce . T h e p lo tte rs fo ste re d alli­ ances w ith s tro n g m e n fro m o th e r d e p a rtm e n ts . S o m e tim e s th e se s tro n g ­ m e n w ere a p p o in te e s o f th e in c u m b e n ts , su c h as d e p a rtm e n ta l c o m m a n d ­ ers w illin g to b e tra y th e ir c u rre n t p a tro n in h o p e s o f re ta in in g o r su rp a ssin g

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th e ir p o s itio n u n d e r th e n e w reg im e. I f th e so lic ite d s tro n g m e n w ere o u t o f pow er, th e y jo in e d th e c o u p in h o p e s o f b e in g a p p o in te d g o v e rn o r or c o m m a n d e r, o r to so m e o th e r p o s itio n . T h e s ta n d a rd p ro c e d u re fo r over­ th ro w in g a p re s id e n t w as fo r th e m a in in s tig a to r to in itia te a n assau lt b y e ith e r seizin g c o n tro l o f th e b a rra c k s in h is h o m e d e p a r tm e n t o r la u n c h in g a n in v a sio n fro m a n e ig h b o rin g c o u n try . H is allies in ea ch d e p a r tm e n t th e n la u n c h e d sm a lle r p lo ts in o rd e r to n e u tra liz e th e re g im e ’s lo cal affili­ ates. I f e n o u g h d e p a rtm e n ts sid e d w ith th e rebels a n d th e m a in assau lt fo rce possessed su ffic ie n t stre n g th , th e p re s id e n t a n d h is allies h a d n o ch o ice b u t to resig n , flee, o r face d e a th . A fte r ta k in g po w er, th e n e w le a d ­ ers d o le d o u t rew ard s to th e ir s u p p o rte rs in th e fo rm o f m o n e y , p r o m o ­ tio n s, a n d offices. T h e c o u p o f 1894 le ft b e h in d a p a rtic u la rly ric h v e in o f e v id en c e re ­ v ea lin g th e m a n n e r in w h ic h su c h o v e rth ro w s w ere c a rrie d o u t. T h a t co u p , w h ic h o u ste d G e n e ra l C a rlo s E zeta, o rig in a te d in S a n ta A n a u n d e r th e le a d e rsh ip o f G e n e ra l R afael G u tié rre z . H e w as s u p p o r te d b y ro u g h ly fo u r d o z e n la n d o w n e rs fro m th e re g io n , w h o are re fe rre d to as “th e F o rty -F o u r.” T h e c o u p su c ce e d e d n o t o n ly b ec au se o f G u tié rre z ’s s tro n g s u p p o r t in S a n ta A n a, b u t also b ec au se o f th e fo rtitu d e o f his allies in all th e d e p a r t­ m e n ts ex cep t o n e, M o ra z á n . S o n so n a te D e p a r tm e n t p ro v id e s a ty p ic a l ex­ a m p le o f w h a t tra n sp ire d . G u tié rre z ’s m a in ally th e re w as th e d e p a rtm e n ta l c o m m a n d e r, C a rlo s Z e p e d a . B efore G u tié rre z even h a d tim e to se n d tro o p s to S o n so n a te , Z e p e d a h a d arre ste d E ze tas m a in s u p p o rte rs. W h e n th e E x p e d itio n a ry A rm y ev e n tu a lly d id arrive, its c o m m a n d e r, G e n e ra l J o a q u ín B ran o f S an M ig u e l, s e n t th e fo llo w in g r e p o r t to G u tié rre z :

C o m an d a n te C arlos Z ep e d a has p u t at m y disp o sitio n th e prisoners M a n ­ ual G odoy, Isaac Rivas, R ito A m aya, R osendo Ferrera, D elfino Berrios, E n riq u e Baxter, A n to n io C astellanos, A m b ro ico M én d ez a n d M arcelino E cheverría. They, as w ell as D r. Francisco G alin d o , are being d etain ed u n d er the au th o rity o f th e Provisional G o v ern m e n t th a t y o u n o w control. W e are at yo u r orders. W e have a co lu m n o f cavalry, 1,000 in fa n try a n d all o f th e artillery fro m th e east. . . . In San M iguel I have n a m e d G eneral C arlos T iberio Avilez as in te rim G o v ern o r an d C o m a n d a n te . H e has w orked energetically to reorganize th e au th o rities o f th e m un icip alities o f th a t region. In G o te ra [capital o f M o razán D ep a rtm en t] G eneral Juan

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B ran has b een n a m e d G o v ern o r a n d C o m a n d a n te , b u t h e is being th rea t­ en ed by G eneral Escalón, w h o has p ro claim ed against y o u r G o v ern m e n t.33

F o r w h a te v e r rea so n , G e n e ra l P ed ro Jo sé E sca ló n , th e d e p a rtm e n ta l c o m ­ m a n d e r in M o ra z á n , re m a in e d lo y a l to th e d o o m e d E z e ta g o v e rn m e n t. D u r in g th e c o u p h e to o k a p p ro x im a te ly tw o h u n d r e d a n d fifty m e n a n d fled in to th e n e a rb y m o u n ta in s . T h e y b e g a n ste a lin g m u le s a n d o th e r s u p ­ plies fro m th e lo cal p o p u la tio n in p re p a ra tio n fo r a p r o tra c te d resistan c e c a m p a ig n . B a c k in S o n so n a te , G e n e ra l B ra n re c o g n iz e d th e p ro b le m s th a t E scaló n c o u ld p o se . H e w as w ell a rm e d a n d w ell su p p lie d , a n d h e w as o p e ra tin g close to th e refu g e o f th e H o n d u r a n b o rd e r. B ra n in s tru c te d G o v e rn o r A vilez in S a n M ig u e l to av o id a n ta g o n iz in g h im a n d to se n d a c o m m issio n to n e g o tia te fo r E sca ló n ’s su rre n d e r. A vilez d id so, a n d w ith in o n e w ee k h e h a d se c u re d E sca ló n ’s s u p p o rt. T h e te rm s o f th e d eal are n o t k n o w n , b u t E sca ló n ’s c a p itu la tio n su g g ests th a t h e g o t w h a t h e w a n te d .34 O n e b y o n e, E ze tas d e p a rtm e n ta l allies fell. T h o s e w h o w ere n o t d e ­ fe a te d e ith e r su rre n d e re d o r fled, as d id E ze ta h im self. O n e o f G u tié rre z ’s c o m m a n d e rs re p o r te d th e su rre n d e r “o f C o lo n e ls A y ala a n d G o n z á le z w h o hav e p la c e d th e m se lv es a n d th e ir so ld iers a t m y c o m m a n d in o rd e r to av o id a n effu sio n o f b lo o d .”35 G u tié rre z ’s n e w g o v e rn o r in U s u lu tá n re ­ p o r te d th a t th e fo rm e r g o v e rn o r fled w ith 3 ,0 0 0 p eso s fro m th e g o v e rn ­ m e n t’s co ffers.36 In th e w ak e o f h is success, G u tié rre z fac ed a fin a n c ia l crisis. D e m a n d s fo r cash w ere p o u r in g in fro m h is allies across th e n a tio n , b u t E ze ta h a d left b e h in d a n e m p ty treasury. G u tié rre z ’s c o m m a n d e rs h a d p ro m is e d p a y ­ m e n t to th e ir tro o p s, a n d n o w th e y w ere a n x io u s to ap p e ase th e m . T h e jefes o f S o n so n a te , fo r in sta n c e , re q u e ste d 5 ,0 0 0 peso s in o rd e r to p a y o ff th e ir “a rm y o f lib e ra tio n .”37 T h e c o m m a n d e rs in S an M ig u e l re p o r te d th a t “o u r fu n d s are e x h a u ste d a n d w e are u n a b le to p a y th e d e p a rtm e n ta l g a r­ riso n n o r can w e a tte n d to th e p a y m e n t o f th e forces o f G e n e ra l A n d in o .”38 O th e r allies ex p e c te d G u tié rre z ’s g o v e rn m e n t to cover lo a n s im p o s e d b y E zeta d u r in g th e c o u p o f 1 8 9 0 .39 L a c k in g fu n d s, G u tié rre z tu r n e d to th e o n ly r e m a in in g so u rc e o f re a d y cash: p riv a te lo a n s. S o m e allies w ere w ill­ in g to m a k e lo a n a rra n g e m e n ts w ith th e g o v e rn m e n t. T h e n e w c o m ­ m a n d e r o f S an M ig u e l c la im e d th a t in lig h t o f th e fin a n c ia l d ifficu lties o f th e n e w reg im e, so m e m e rc h a n ts in S an M ig u e l “are p re p a re d to e n te r in to

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lo a n n e g o tia tio n s .”40 B u t in o p p o s itio n d e p a rtm e n ts , th e g o v e rn m e n t h a d to re s o rt to fo rc e d lo a n s. T h e g o v e rn o r o f L a P az w as o rd e re d to sq u eeze 6 ,0 0 0 pesos o u t o f h is d e p a r tm e n t.41 G u tié rre z also re w a rd e d allies w ith m ilita ry p r o m o tio n s . S e rg e a n t A n ­ drés C a rb a llo w as p r o m o te d to th e r a n k o f lie u te n a n t fo r “serv ice le n t d u r in g th e m o s t re c e n t re v o lu tio n .”42 F o u r y ears earlier, C a rlo s E zeta h a d e m p lo y e d th e sa m e ta c tic , b u t to a m u c h g re a te r e x te n t. H e d o le d o u t n o few er th a n th irty -tw o p r o m o tio n s to officers ab o v e th e r a n k o f c a p ta in fo r th e ir “v alo r a n d d efe n se o f th e n a tio n in th e R e v o lu tio n o f J u n e 1 8 9 0 .”43 I n su m , m ilita ry o v e rth ro w s f u n c tio n e d a c c o rd in g to th e sa m e p a tro n a g e p rin c ip le s as a n y o th e r p o litic a l activity. I n te r d e p a rtm e n ta l alliances w ere th e b a c k b o n e o f a b o ss’s s u p p o rt, a n d h e w as ex p e c te d to re w a rd h is allies in th e ev e n t o f success.

Jo sé M a ría R ivas— S y m b o l o f a W e a k S ta te

E ac h n in e te e n th - c e n tu ry p re s id e n t faced th e c o m m o n ch a lle n g e o f sta y in g in p o w e r d e sp ite th e w ea k n ess o f th e sta te over w h ic h h e p re sid e d . O ffic e ­ h o ld e rs d id n o t possess a sense o f b e lo n g in g to a n in s titu tio n o f g o v e rn ­ m e n t; rath e r, th e y saw th e m se lv es first a n d fo re m o s t as m e m b e rs o f th e ir resp ectiv e p a tro n a g e n e tw o rk s. P re sid e n ts ro se to p o w e r o n th e b ac k s o f th e ir n e tw o rk s a n d sta y ed in p o w e r o n ly so lo n g as th e y m a in ta in e d th e ir allies. T h e tim e ly d e fe c tio n o f o n e o r tw o w e ll-p la c e d allies c o u ld tip th e b a la n c e in favor o f a n o p p o n e n t a n d e n su re a successful c o u p . B arrios le a rn e d th is lesso n in 1863 w h e n G o n z á le z d e fe c te d . P re sid e n ts lo o k e d to p re v e n t su c h b etra y als, as w ell as to e lim in a te p o c k e ts o f o p p o s itio n th r o u g h o u t th e c o u n try . W e saw e v id en c e o f th is in th e m u n ic ip a lity o f S e n s u n te p e q u e in 1845, in S an V ic e n te D e p a r tm e n t in 1852, a n d in S o n so n a te D e p a r tm e n t b e tw e e n 1860 a n d 1863. B u t th e lim its o f th e sta te p re c lu d e d a p re s id e n t fro m c o n s o lid a tin g a u th o rity . I f h e in v e ste d th e re ­ so u rces n ecessary to e lim in a te o n e rival, h e fac ed th e lik e lih o o d o f b e in g a tta c k e d fro m b e h in d b y a n o th e r o p p o n e n t, i f n o t b y o n e o f h is allies. T h e career o f G e n e ra l Jo sé M a ría R ivas ep ito m iz e s th e d ile m m a o f n in e te e n th - c e n tu ry p re sid e n ts a n d illu stra te s th e w eak n ess o f c e n tra l gove r n m e n t.44 R ivas w as a m a jo r p o litic a l p la y er fro m C u s c a tlá n D e p a rtm e n t

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w h o d re w m u c h o f h is s u p p o r t fro m th e lo cal in d ig e n o u s p o p u la tio n . R ivas a p p a re n tly g e n e ra te d lo y a lty a m o n g th e lo cal p e o p le b y p o rtra y in g h im s e lf as th e ir b e n e fa c to r as w ell as th e ir m ilita ry c o m m a n d e r. F ra n c isc o C a s ta ñ e d a cla im e d in h is 1893 b o o k th a t R ivas in h e rite d h is h ig h sta tu s in C u s c a tlá n fro m h is fam ily , esp ecially h is fa th e r, w h o h a d also b e e n a m ili­ ta ry m a n a n d a p o litic a l p la y er in th e d e p a r tm e n t.45 R ivas ro se to n a tio n a l p r o m in e n c e in th e early 1860s, w h e n h e o rg a ­ n iz e d resistan c e th r o u g h o u t C u s c a tlá n D e p a r tm e n t to P re sid e n t B a rrio s’s a tte m p ts to c o n s c rip t so ld iers th e re . R ivas a n d h is fo llo w ers sk irm is h e d c o n s ta n tly w ith B a rrio s’s r e c ru itin g p a tro ls u n til 1863, w h e n B arrio s w as faced w ith th e in e v ita b le in v a sio n fro m G u a te m a la a n d th e n a tte m p te d to tu r n R ivas in to a n ally. H e n a m e d R ivas g o v e rn o r o f C u s c a tlá n a n d al­ lo w ed h im to k e e p h is forces u n d e r a rm s. R ivas a c c e p te d th e p o s itio n b u t la te r tu r n e d o n B arrio s d u r in g th e siege o f S an S alv a d o r a n d jo in e d th e in v a d in g arm y. O n e o f th e few h a n d w r itte n d o c u m e n ts b y R ivas th a t h as su rv iv ed in to th e h isto ric a l re c o rd discusses th e ev en ts o f 18 6 3 . It is a te s­ tim o n y b y R ivas o n b e h a lf o f o n e o f h is officers, w h o w as re q u e s tin g a m ilita ry p e n s io n in 1875. R ivas w ro te , “L ie u te n a n t J u a n Jo sé M a rtín e z w as u n d e r m y c o m m a n d d u r in g th e c a m p a ig n o f 1863 w h ic h e n d e d in th e siege o f th e C a p ita l a g a in st G e n e ra l G e ra rd o B a rrio s.”46 F o r h is b e tra y a l o f B arrios, R ivas receiv ed ag ain , th is tim e fro m F ra n cisc o D u e ñ a s, th e g o v er­ n o rs h ip o f C u s c a tlá n . T h e re a fte r, R ivas e m b a rk e d u p o n a tw en ty -fiv e -y e ar p o litic a l career o f s u p p o r tin g th e c u rre n t a d m in is tra tio n o n ly to b e tra y it to its successor. In 1870 R ivas jo in e d S a n tia g o G o n z á le z in th e o v e rth ro w o f F ra n cisc o D u e ñ a s a n d ag ain w as re w a rd e d w ith th e g o v e rn o rsh ip o f C u s c a tlá n . R ivas re tire d te m p o ra rily to h is a g ric u ltu ra l p ro p e rtie s, a n d it is n o t k n o w n w h a t role, i f any, h e p la y e d in th e tra n s itio n fro m G o n z á le z to Z a ld ív a r in 1876. B u t u n d e r Z ald ív ar, R ivas o n c e ag a in h e ld th e g o v e rn o rsh ip o f C u s c a tlá n . In 1885 h e sid e d w ith G e n e ra l M e n é n d e z in th e o v e rth ro w o f Z a ld ív a r a n d ag ain b e c a m e g o v e rn o r o f C u s c a tlá n .47 N o d o u b t b y th is tim e s ittin g p re sid e n ts k e p t a w a ry eye o n C o ju te p e q u e a n d its fickle g o v ern o r. In 1888 R ivas re v o lte d a g a in st M e n é n d e z , a p p a re n tly b ec au se M e n é n ­ dez refu sed to ch o o se h im to fill a v a c a n c y in th e v ice p resid e n cy .48 T h e rev o lt failed, b u t R ivas w as allo w ed to re m a in in C u s c a tlá n . R ivas re v o lte d y e t ag ain in 1890, th is tim e b ec au se M e n é n d e z re fu se d to a p p o in t h im

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g o v e rn o r a n d c o m m a n d e r o f C u s c a tlá n .49 M e n é n d e z s e n t G e n e ra ls C a rlo s E zeta a n d H o ra c io V illa v ic en c io to s u b d u e th e re b e llio n , w h ic h th e y d id , b u t th e y failed to c a p tu re R ivas, w h o fled to H o n d u ra s . C u s c a tlá n re ­ m a in e d in su c h a sta te o f d isa rra y th a t M e n é n d e z h a d to ca n ce l e lec tio n s in th e reg io n , a n d so th e d e p a r tm e n t w e n t w ith o u t re p re s e n ta tio n in th e N a tio n a l A sse m b ly th a t year.50 F lu sh fro m th e ir d e fe a t o f R ivas, E zeta a n d V illa v ic en c io tu r n e d o n M e n é n d e z a n d o u s te d h im in th e c o u p o f 1 8 9 0 .51 U p o n a s su m in g pow er, E zeta believ ed th a t G u a te m a la in te n d e d to in v a d e E l S alv ad o r, so h e a n d h is b ro th e r, G e n e ra l A n to n io E zeta, a n d V illa v ic en c io p o s itio n e d th e a rm y a lo n g th e G u a te m a la n b o rd e r. W h ile m o b iliz in g fo r w ar, E ze ta su sp e c te d V illa v ic en c io o f p lo ttin g a c o u p , so h e h a d h is b r o th e r a tta c k h im a n d chase h im in to exile. R ivas to o k a d v a n ta g e o f th e crisis in E ze tas c o m m a n d . H e te le g ra p h e d E zeta, o ffe rin g to c o m e to S a n ta A n a a n d jo in th e d efen se a g a in st G u a te ­ m a la i f E zeta w o u ld re in s ta te h im as g o v e rn o r o f C u s c a tlá n . E zeta a c c e p te d th e offer. R ivas a ssem b led a n a rm y o f th re e th o u s a n d a n d se t o u t fo r th e G u a te m a la n b o rd e r. U p o n a rriv in g in N u e v a S an S alvador, how ever, R ivas re v o lte d a n d o c c u p ie d th e p o o rly d e fe n d e d ca p ita l c ity o f S an S alvador. N o w E zeta h a d h o stilitie s o n tw o fro n ts , th e G u a te m a la n s to th e w est a n d R ivas to th e east. H a v in g n o ch o ice b u t to reg a in c o n tro l over th e ca p ita l, E zeta s e n t h is b r o th e r b a c k to S an S alv a d o r a t th e h e a d o f a n e x p e d itio n a ry arm y. H e r e to o k S an S alvador, c a p tu re d R ivas, a n d ex e c u te d h im , b r in g ­ in g to a s u d d e n close h is n e a rly th ir ty years o f p o litic a l in trig u e . F o rtu ­ n a te ly fo r th e E zetas, th e G u a te m a la n s w ith d re w fro m th e b o rd e r, u n a b le to ta k e a d v a n ta g e o f th e strife in sid e El S alv a d o r b ec au se o f th e ir o w n d o ­ m e stic p o litic a l p ro b le m s .52 R ivas w as re p e a te d ly a p p o in te d g o v e rn o r a n d c o m m a n d e r o f C u sc a tlá n D e p a r tm e n t d e s p ite h is tra c k re c o rd o f b e tra y a l a n d b ro k e n alliances. I n th a t reg ard , R ivas sy m b o liz e d th e lim its o f c e n tra l a u th o rity . P re sid e n ts c o u ld n o t c o n tro l h im , n o r c o u ld th e y ig n o re h im . O n e o f h is d e tra c to rs referre d to h is p o litic a l e m p ire as “six th o u s a n d a rm e d In d ia n s in C o ju te p e q u e th a t c o n s titu te a sta te w ith in a sta te . . . a n in d e p e n d e n t re p u b lic w ith in th e R e p u b lic o f E l S alv ad o r.”53 E a c h p re s id e n t in su c ce ssio n b o u g h t o ff R ivas b y g iv in g h im c o m m a n d o f C u s c a tlá n , b u t in so d o in g each m o rtg a g e d h is o w n fu tu re . T o h is cre d it, R ivas w as a n a d ro it p o litic a l

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player. H e h a d a n u n c a n n y a b ility to d e te c t c o m in g re g im e chan g es, a n d h e re p e a te d ly jo in e d th e w in n in g side.

T h e P o litics o f S pace

El S alv a d o r’s g e o g ra p h y d id n o t le n d its e lf to v astly d iffe re n t a n d w id e ly se p a ra te d p a tro n a g e em p ires. El S alv a d o r is a sm a ll co u n try , sm a lle r th a n m o s t states in M e x ic o o r A rg e n tin a , w h e re th o u s a n d s o f m iles o f te rrito ry , m o u n ta in rang es, a n d d eserts m ig h t se p a ra te p o litic a l s tro n g h o ld s. A d m it­ tedly, tr a n s p o r ta tio n in E l S alv a d o r c o u ld b e slow, d u e to p o o r ro ad s, esp e­ cially d u r in g th e ra in y season, a n d th u s even s h o rt g e o g ra p h ic a l d istan c es c o u ld b e effectively iso la tin g . T h is fac t w as e v id e n t even in th e 1920s. F re d e ric k W illia m T aylor, th e N o r t h A m e ric a n a g ric u ltu ra l e x p e rt h ire d as a c o n s u lta n t b y th e S a lv a d o ra n g o v e rn m e n t, n o te d in 1 9 2 4 th e d ifficu lty o f re a c h in g v a rio u s c o tto n p la n ta tio n s in S an S alv a d o r D e p a r tm e n t o w in g to th e la ck o f ro a d s a n d th e n e e d to w a d e sw ellin g ste a m s.54 N ev e rth ele ss, th r o u g h o u t th e n in e te e n th a n d early tw e n tie th c e n tu rie s, El S a lv a d o r’s p o ­ litica l sy stem w as n o t c h a ra c te riz e d b y v astly d iffe re n tia te d re g io n a l areas. R ath er, p o litic a l bosses f o u g h t over th e se e m in g ly in n o c u o u s ju ris d ic tio n a l b o u n d a rie s th a t se p a ra te d m u n ic ip a litie s, d istric ts, a n d d e p a rtm e n ts . T h e se b o u n d a rie s w ere m u c h m o re th a n m e re a d m in is tra tiv e d iv isio n s; th e y d e ­ m a rc a te d p o litic a l em p ires. T h e m o re te rrito ry a bo ss h a d u n d e r h is a u th o rity , th e m o re reso u rces a n d v o tes h e h a d at h is d isp o sal. A s a resu lt, sp ace w as a h ea v ily p o litic iz e d c o m m o d ity . Bosses so m e tim e s s tru c k a t th e ir rivals b y m a n ip u la tin g ju ris ­ d ic tio n a l b o u n d a rie s . A t th e sa m e tim e , o p p o s itio n fa c tio n s w ith in c e rta in ju ris d ic tio n s so m e tim e s w ere an x io u s to d iv id e th e ju ris d ic tio n a n d lay claim to th e ir o w n p o litic a l d estin ie s. T h e p o litic a l im p o rta n c e o f sp ace is e v id e n t in th e c o n fla g ra tio n d e ­ sc rib e d above b e tw e e n S e n s u n te p e q u e a n d th e g o v e rn o r o f S an V ic e n te in 1845. S e n s u n te p e q u e w as a d is tric t ca p ita l. O n e o f th e m u n ic ip a litie s u n d e r its ju ris d ic tio n , D o lo re s, w as c o n tro lle d b y a rival n e tw o rk loyal to th e g o v e rn o r a n d P re sid e n t G u z m á n . As th e c o n flic t b e tw e e n th e g o v e rn o r a n d S e n s u n te p e q u e h e a te d u p , th e bosses in D o lo re s re q u e ste d th a t th e y b e allo w ed to seced e fro m S e n s u n te p e q u e D is tric t a n d jo in th e d istric t

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h e a d e d b y S an V ic e n te C ity. T h e g o v e rn o r saw th e p ro p o sa l as an o p p o r ­ tu n ity to w ea k en th e p o w e r o f h is adversaries a n d ex p ressed h is s u p p o r t fo r th e id ea:

I have received th e A ct celebrated in y o u r m u n ic ip a lity requesting th a t the Suprem e G o v e rn m e n t allow th e village to separate fro m S ensuntepeque an d fall u n d e r th e a u th o rity o f San V icente. It is very sensible to solicit separation given th e co n d itio n s o f discord. You share m y desire to guard an d conserve o rder in th e d e p a rtm e n t . . . an d foster security an d defense as a single fam ily o f one o p in io n sh arin g the sam e sen tim en ts. I w ill p resent y o u r req u est to th e Suprem e G o v e rn m e n t.55

A lth o u g h it is n o t k n o w n h o w th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t re s p o n d e d to th e p ro p o sa l, th e re q u e st itself, in c o n ju n c tio n w ith th e g o v e rn o r’s re sp o n se to it, illu strate s th e p o litic iz e d n a tu re o f ju ris d ic tio n a l b o rd e rs. A sim ila r p r o ­ cess w as a t w o rk in S an V ic e n te in 1852. T h e g o v e rn o r w as b e m o a n in g th e close allian ce b e tw e e n th e jefes o f S a n to D o m in g o a n d h is ad v ersaries in S an V ic e n te C ity , b u t h e to o k solace in n o tin g th a t a t least S a n to D o ­ m in g o “b elo n g s to th e p a rish o f S an S e b a stiá n ,” w h ic h w as c o n tro lle d b y th e g o v e rn o r’s allies.56 O n e o f th e m o re re n o w n e d p o litic a l d isp u te s over sp ace o c c u rre d w ith th e re lo c a tio n o f th e c a p ita l city in 18 5 8 . T h e o rig in a l ca p ita l o f S an S alva­ d o r h a d b e e n d e stro y e d b y a n e a rth q u a k e in 1854. T h e m u n ic ip a lity o f N u e v a S an S alv ad o r w as f o u n d e d in 1854 o n la n d s ju s t to th e s o u th o f th e S an S alv ad o r v o lc a n o as th e site o f th e n e w c a p ita l.57 In th e m e a n tim e , th e offices o f g o v e rn m e n t h a d b e e n re lo c a te d to C o ju te p e q u e in C u s c a tlá n D e p a rtm e n t. W h e n th e tim e ca m e in 1858 to e ith e r r e tu r n th e ca p ita l to S an S alv ad o r o r estab lish it in its n e w h o m e in N u e v a S an S alvador, th e p o litic a l im p lic a tio n s o f th e d e c isio n b e c a m e a p p a re n t. A lth o u g h th e tw o cities w ere lo c a te d ju s t a few k ilo m e te rs a p a rt, a n d b o th w ere lo c a te d in S an S alv ad o r D e p a rtm e n t, ea ch w as c o n tro lle d b y a d iffe re n t p o litic a l n e t­ w o rk . N u e v a S an S alv a d o r w as th e s tro n g h o ld o f F ra n cisc o D u e ñ a s a n d h is allies. S an S alv a d o r w as th e s tr o n g h o ld o f D u e ñ a s ’s lo n g -s ta n d in g rivals José M a ría S an M a r tín a n d E u g e n io A g u ilar, a m o n g o th e rs. T h e se le c tio n o f o n e city o r th e o th e r as th e c a p ita l w o u ld re su lt in fin a n c ia l a n d p o litic a l g ain fo r th e c o rre s p o n d in g n e tw o rk . T h e bosses o f N u e v a S an S alv ad o r

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w a n te d to c u t in to th e tra d itio n a l p o w e r o f th e ir c o u n te rp a rts in S an S al­ v ad o r. T h e bosses o f S an S alv a d o r w a n te d to p rese rv e w h a t th e y alre ad y h a d in v e ste d . U n d e r th e d ire c tio n o f I n te rim P re sid e n t G e ra rd o B arrios, th e g o v e rn m e n t re tu r n e d to S an S alvador, d e liv e rin g a s tro n g b lo w to th e D u e ñ a s fa c tio n . N o t su rp risin g ly , B arrio s a n d D u e ñ a s b e c a m e s ta u n c h e n e m ie s.58 E ven b efo re th e c o n flic t over th e ca p ita l h a d d ev e lo p e d , D u e ñ a s h a d in d ic a te d h is d esire to b re a k aw ay fro m S an S alvador. T h e d e c isio n o f 1858 o n ly in te n sifie d th a t desire, b u t h is p la n s h a d to w a it u n til after th e B arrios a d m in is tra tio n w as d estro y e d . In 18 6 5 , o n c e h e h a d c o m e to pow er, D u e ñ a s jo in e d forces w ith M a n u e l G a lla rd o , w h o h a d re c e n tly m o v e d to N u e v a S an S alv a d o r a n d b e g u n to p la n t coffee th e re , to carve th e d e p a r tm e n t o f L a L ib e rta d o u t o f th e w e ste rn h a lf o f S an S alv a d o r (see m a p 2). G a lla rd o b e c a m e a p o litic a l fix tu re in th e n e w d e p a rtm e n t, serv ­ in g n u m e ro u s te rm s in th e N a tio n a l A sse m b ly a n d h o ld in g a v a rie ty o f p o sts o n th e m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il o f N u e v a S an S alvador, th e n e w d e p a r t­ m e n ta l c a p ita l.59 N o t o n ly d id D u e ñ a s b o lste r h is o w n p o litic a l c lo u t b y c re a tin g L a L ib e rta d , h e also s tr u c k a t B a rrio s’s p o w e r b ase b y b re a k in g u p th e m ig h ty d e p a r tm e n t o f S an M ig u e l. W h e n D u e ñ a s c a m e to office in 18 6 3 , S an M ig u e l w as b y far th e la rg e st d e p a r tm e n t in th e n a tio n , c o m p ris in g th e e n tire w e ste rn th ir d o f th e n a tio n . W h e re a s every o th e r d e p a r tm e n t c o m ­ p rise d o n ly tw o o r th re e d istric ts, S an M ig u e l h a d six.60 T h e sa m e y ea r th a t L a L ib e rta d w as cre ate d , C a b a ñ a s la u n c h e d his failed in s u rre c tio n in S an M ig u e l. F o llo w in g th e d e fe a t o f C a b a ñ a s, D u e ­ ñ as carv ed u p S an M ig u e l a n d c re a te d tw o n e w d e p a rtm e n ts in th e p r o ­ cess, U s u lu tá n a n d L a U n ió n . N o w D u e ñ a s h a d m o re p a tro n a g e to d is­ trib u te , in th e fo rm o f g o v e rn o rsh ip s a n d c o m m a n d e r p o sts, a n d S an M ig u e l w as n o lo n g e r th e th re a t it o n c e w as. T h e c o m b in e d im p a c t o f th e d iv isio n o f th e d e p a rtm e n t, th e d e a th s o f B arrio s a n d C a b a ñ a s, a n d th e d em ise o f in d ig o as a cash c ro p re su lte d in th e ste a d y d w in d lin g o f S an M ig u e l’s p o litic a l in flu e n c e . *

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N a tio n a l-le v e l p o litic s in n in e te e n th - c e n tu ry El S alv a d o r c o n siste d o f m u ltip le p a tro n a g e -b a s e d n e tw o rk s a t th e re g io n a l level b a ttlin g o n e a n ­ o th e r fo r c o n tro l over th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t. T h e fo rtu n e s o f a n y o n e

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n e tw o rk re ste d o n th e d u ra b ility o f its alliances. W h e n th o se alliances h e ld , th e lead ers o f th a t n e tw o rk h a d th e c a p a c ity to seize c o n tro l o f th e sta te a n d h o ld o n to it fo r so m e tim e . W h e n th o se alliances w ere w e a k or te n u o u s , th e n e tw o rk ’s lead ers e ith e r failed to g ain c o n tro l o f th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t o r h e ld it o n ly te m p o ra rily . P o litical in c u m b e n ts a t th e n a tio n a l level c o u n te re d th e ir a s p irin g r i­ vals in v ario u s w ays. O n e w a y w as to b u ild alliances w ith d iss id e n t n e t­ w o rk s a t th e m u n ic ip a l level in th e rivals’ h o m e re g io n (s), th e re b y fo rc in g th e m to d eal w ith lo cal affairs ra th e r th a n d ire c t th e ir u n d iv id e d a tte n tio n a t d islo d g in g th e in c u m b e n ts fro m n a tio n a l office. S im ilarly, rivals so u g h t to w ea k en th e in c u m b e n ts b y m o b iliz in g o p p o s itio n in th e ir h o m e re ­ g io n s. O n e ex a m p le is p ro v id e d b y th e case o f S an V ic e n te D e p a r tm e n t in 1845, in w h ic h th e e n tire ty o f th e d e p a r tm e n t s to o d b e h in d P re sid e n t G u z m á n w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f o n e m u n ic ip a lity , S e n su n te p e q u e , w h o se p o litic a l lead ers allie d w ith th e o p p o s itio n . S even years later, th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t h a d sh ifte d to a n e w p o litic a l n e tw o r k u n d e r th e c o n tro l o f P re sid e n t F ran cisc o D u e ñ a s, p re s u m a b ly le av in g a lm o st all o f S an V ic e n te D e p a r tm e n t o p p o s e d to th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t (w ith th e likely ex­ c e p tio n o f th e n e tw o rk in S e n su n te p e q u e , un less s o m e th in g th e re h a d c h a n g e d in th e in te r im — availab le so u rce s d o n o t p ro v id e a n an sw e r). A n d so it w e n t, b a c k a n d fo rth , th r o u g h o u t m o s t o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry : p a tro n a g e -b a s e d n e tw o rk s jo c k e y in g fo r p o s itio n , risin g a n d fa llin g o n th e ir lead ers’ abilities to b u ild a n d su sta in alliances. T h e case s tu d y o f G e n e ra l R ivas fro m C o ju te p e q u e fu rth e r illu stra te s th e n e e d fo r su c h al­ lies. H e excelled a t b u ild in g allian ces w ith risin g p o litic a l n e tw o rk s a n d th e n b e tra y in g th e m a t ju s t th e m o m e n t w h e n a s tro n g rival w as o n th e rise a n d ready to seize pow er.

C H A P T E R

3

building networks at the local level

T h e last tw o c h a p te rs fo c u se d o n jo c k e y in g a t th e n a tio n a l a n d re g io n a l levels, b u t th o se s u p ra m u n ic ip a l n e tw o rk s re ste d o n a fo u n d a tio n o f m u n ic ip a l-le v e l alliances. T h is c h a p te r tu rn s to th e m u n ic ip a l level, lo o k ­ in g in to th e m e a n s b y w h ic h m u n ic ip a l-le v e l p o litic a l ac to rs b u ilt u p th e ir local p o litic a l em p ires. A s w ill b e sh o w n , w e a lth in e q u a lity a n d th e c o rre ­ s p o n d in g sy stem o f clie n te lism w as o n e basis fo r th e ir ex p a n sio n . B u t it w as h a rd ly th e o n ly o n e. Fam ily, m ilita ris m , a n d e th n ic ity w ere o th e r v a ri­ ables. T h e p rim a ry g o al o f a n y local p o litic a l n e tw o rk w as to w in th e a n ­ n u a l m u n ic ip a l ele c tio n s a n d th e n , b y ch o ic e o r b y fiat, to e n te r in to alliances w ith re g io n a l- a n d n a tio n a l-le v e l p o litic a l p lay ers. T h is c h a p te r lo o k s a t h o w lo cal n e tw o rk s w ere b u ilt, a n d th e n e x t c h a p te r w ill sh o w h o w th ey o p e ra te d . A t th e e n d o f th e la st c h a p te r, w e le ft o u r n a tio n a l-le v e l c h ro n o lo g y at ro u g h ly th e y ear 19 0 0 . T h e b u lk o f th e e v id en c e fo r th is c h a p te r also draw s fro m th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry , b u t so m e lo o k s a h e a d to th e tw e n tie th ce n tu ry . T h e tw e n tie th -c e n tu ry e v id en c e is u se d specifically to s u p p o r t th is c h a p te r’s th e m e s, a n d I a v o id lin k in g it to th e n a tio n a l-le v e l c h r o n o l­ ogy, w h ic h w ill re a p p e a r at th e e n d o f c h a p te r 4 a n d fe a tu re especially in c h a p te r 5.

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C lie n te lis m

C lie n te lis m is b y d e fin itio n h ie ra rc h ic a l, a n d th e a c c u m u la tio n o f clien ts n o r m a lly o c c u rre d in th o s e p la ce s w h e re so c ial in e q u a lity w as m o s t p r o n o u n c e d — o n ru ra l la n d . In m a n y cases in S a lv a d o ra n h isto ry , p a tro n s w ere la n d o w n e rs, a n d clien ts w ere th e la b o re rs fro m th e ir p ro p e rtie s. In 1873, fo r exam p le , o n e lo cal p a tro n re fe rre d to th e clien ts o f h is rivals as “th e em p lo y ees o f th e h a c ie n d a s o f M é n d e z a n d C ó rd o v a .” 1 O n a n o th e r occasio n , an o b se rv e r c a p tu re d th e essence o f m u n ic ip a l p o litic s w h e n h e d es c rib e d p a rtis a n d ifferen ces as “lo cal clashes w h ic h o c c u r in all m u n ic i­ p alities, w h e re th e m o s t p o w e rfu l [el más pudiente] s u r ro u n d th em selv es w ith e le m e n ts o f th e p ro le ta ria n class a n d exercise p re ssu re over th e se m o s t w ea k in d iv id u a ls [las más débiles]. O u t o f th is is b o r n th e o p p o s in g b a n d s a n d fro m th e se e m e rg e lo cal clash es.”2 A fo re ig n tra v e le r in E l S alv a d o r n o te d th a t “th e h a c e n d a d o lead s h is re ta in e rs to th e p o llin g -b o o th a n d sen d s o r restra in s th e m fro m p a rta k in g in re v o lu tio n s.”3 T h e te rm s th a t p o litic a l ac to rs in E l S alv a d o r u se d to refer to p a tro n s a n d clien ts reflec t th e ir rela tiv e so cial sta tu s. C lie n ts w ere called obreros,

jornaleros, o r mozos, c o m m o n te rm s d e n o tin g a la b o re r o r a p e rs o n o f in fe ­ rio r social s ta n d in g . P a tro n s w ere re fe rre d to as jefe o r cacique (b o ss or c h ie f), a n d so m e tim e s as notables (n o ta b le p e rso n s). T h e g o v e rn m e n t’s lists o f lo cal la n d o w n e rs w ere called listas de notables (lists o f n o ta b le p erso n s). C lie n ts c o n s titu te d p o litic a l c a p ita l. T h e y w ere th e f o u n d a tio n u p o n w h ic h a p a tro n b u ilt h is p o litic a l e m p ire . H e u se d h is clien ts e ith e r to s u p ­ p o r t h is o w n b id fo r office o r to b o lste r a n ally’s c a n d id a c y a n d a c c u m u la te p a tro n a g e in th e p ro cess. D e p e n d in g o n th e c irc u m sta n c e s, c lie n ts w ere u se d e ith e r as v o te rs o r fig h ters. W h e n a p a tro n w e n t u n c h a lle n g e d o n ele c tio n day, m e a n in g th a t h is c o n tro l o f th e p o llin g s ta tio n w as se cu re a n d h is rivals h a d c o n c e d e d to h im , h e sim p ly s e n t h is clien ts to th e p o lls a n d cla im e d v ic to ry a t th e e n d o f th e day. W h e n rivals refu sed to b a c k d o w n a n d p e rsiste d w ith th e ir ch allen g es, c lie n ts w ere c o n v e rte d in to fig h ters, a n d v io le n t clashes b e tw e e n riv al p a tro n a g e fa c tio n s en su ed . B ecause th e p a tro n -c lie n t re la tio n s h ip w as in h e re n tly h ie ra rc h ic a l, e c o n o m ic in e q u a lity w as a n im p o r ta n t ra w m a te ria l in its e v o lu tio n . T h e

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em erg en c e o f th e coffee e c o n o m y th u s assu m es sp ecial im p o rta n c e in El S a lv a d o r’s d e v e lo p m e n t, b ec au se coffee a d v a n c e d so cial d iffe re n tia tio n . In so m e c o ffe e -p ro d u c in g c o u n trie s th r o u g h o u t L a tin A m e ric a , p e a sa n ts re ­ s p o n d e d to m a rk e t o p p o r tu n itie s a n d excelled in coffee p r o d u c tio n .4 T h is w as n o t th e case in E l S alvador, w h e re c re d it w as a m a jo r im p e d im e n t to sm a llh o ld ers, as w as access to q u a lity la n d .5 C o ffee in s p ire d th e p riv a tiz a tio n o f th e c o m m u n a l la n d s in th e 1880s a n d 1890s. T h e in c e n tiv e to p riv a tiz e la n d e x te n d e d fro m th e p o te n tia l p ro fit in coffee a n d th e a sc e n d a n c e o f lib e ra lism , w h ic h h e ld th a t la n d w as m o re p ro d u c tiv e in p riv a te ra th e r th a n c o m m u n a l h a n d s . B efo re th e in itia l p riv a tiz a tio n d ecree w as h a n d e d d o w n in 1881, c o m m u n a l a n d sta te o w n e d ( baldio ) la n d a c c o u n te d fo r m o re th a n h a lf o f all p r o p e r ty in El Salvador, a n d o n th a t la n d re sid e d a n ex ten siv e a n d th riv in g p ea sa n try . W i th in tw o d ecad es, v irtu a lly all th e c o m m u n a l a n d s ta te -o w n e d la n d s h a d b e e n tra n sfe rre d to p riv a te o w n ers. T h e p riv a tiz a tio n p ro ce ss w o rk e d to th e lo n g -te rm d e trim e n t o f th e p easan try , a lth o u g h rese arch reveals th a t its d e m ise w as m o re d ra w n o u t th a n sch o lars h a d in itia lly b eliev ed . S o m e la n d sp e c u la to rs a n d p ro sp e c tiv e coffee b a ro n s to o k p e a sa n t c o m m u n a l la n d s, b u t m o s tly th e y title d p r o p ­ erties th a t h a d b e e n ly in g fallow. M u c h o f th e c u ltiv a te d la n d w as tu r n e d over to th e p e a sa n t p ro d u c e rs w h o w ere w o rk in g it a t th e tim e . T h e p riv a ­ tiz a tio n decrees gave p re fe re n c e to p e o p le alre ad y u sin g th e la n d , a llo w in g b o th I n d ia n a n d la d in o ( n o n -In d ia n ) p e a sa n ts to e m p lo y legal c h a n n e ls to title c o m m u n a l h o ld in g s .6 It to o k dec ad e s fo r th e in ju rio u s co n se q u e n c e s o f th e p riv a tiz a tio n p ro cess to b e c o m e fu lly e v id e n t. M o s t o f th e p e a sa n t p lo ts w ere to o sm all to s u p p o r t successive g e n e ra tio n s o f fa m ily m e m b e rs. As th e p o p u la tio n grew , c o m p e titio n fo r la n d b e c a m e a c u te . W i th ea ch p a ssin g y ea r m o re m e m b e rs o f p e a sa n t h o u se h o ld s h a d to leave th e la n d e ith e r se aso n a lly or p e rm a n e n tly in se arch o f p a id w o rk . S o m e m a d e th e ir w a y to u r b a n areas; m a n y sim p ly tu r n e d to th e coffee p la n ta tio n s , se a rc h in g fo r e ith e r w ages o r la n d to p la n t su b siste n c e c ro p s as colonos (sh a re c ro p p e rs). C o ffee also ac ce le ra ted la n d c o n c e n tra tio n b y in c re a sin g th e v alu e o f la n d . S o m e sm a llh o ld ers so ld o ff th e ir p lo ts to sp e c u la to rs a n d la rg e r la n d o w n e rs. H is ­ to ria n A ld o L a u ria -S a n tia g o , w h o first su b je c te d th e p riv a tiz a tio n pro cess

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to th e s c ru tin y o f arch iv al ev id en ce, d escrib es th e c o n tra d ic tio n th a t p riv a ­ tiz a tio n m e a n t fo r th e p e a sa n try : “T h u s a t th e sa m e tim e th a t th e pro cess c re ate d a p e a s a n try w ith clear c o n tro l over th e la n d s it possessed, it also o p e n e d th e d o o r fo r th e e v e n tu a l im p o v e ris h m e n t o f th e p a rtic ip a n ts a n d c e rta in ly th e p o te n tia l fo r p ro le ta ria n iz a tio n o r la n d lessn ess fo r th o se w h o d id n o t p a rtic ip a te in it.”7 In su m , th e coffee era in El S alv a d o r w as c h a r­ ac terized b y advan ces in in e q u a lity a n d , as w e w ill see in th e c o m in g pages, clien telism fo llo w ed in k in d . B u t th e ex iste n ce o f c lie n te lism d id n o t d e ­ p e n d solely o n in e q u a lity in p ro d u c tio n , a p o in t th a t b e c o m e s e v id e n t w h e n w e lo o k a t th e e ra b e fo re coffee. In e q u a lity w as n o t th e p r e d o m in a n t fe a tu re o f p re-co ffe e El S alvador. R esearch o n a g ric u ltu ra l p ro d u c tio n d u r in g th e p e rio d 1840 to 1880 re ­ veals th a t th e e x p o rt se c to r w as lim ite d , p e a sa n ts h a d access to la n d , a n d m a n y large estates sa t s ta g n a n t o r su ffe re d d ec lin e . A t th e tu r n o f th e n in e ­ te e n th ce n tu ry , El S alv a d o r h a d a p p ro x im a te ly fo u r h u n d r e d p la n ta tio n s / h ac ie n d as, a c c o u n tin g fo r ro u g h ly o n e - th ird o f all la n d in th e n a tio n . S o m e o f th e se estates w ere n o t even in p ro d u c tio n . A n e s tim a te d fiftee n th o u s a n d p eo p le, o u t o f an a p p ro x im a te n a tio n a l p o p u la tio n o f tw o h u n ­ d re d a n d fifty th o u s a n d , re sid e d o n th e estates as w o rk e rs a n d re n te rs. A p o r tio n o f th e se te n a n ts h a d o n ly su p e rfic ial e c o n o m ic ties to la n d lo rd s, a n d as a re su lt th e y w ere less su sc e p tib le to th e p o litic a l m a c h in a tio n s o f th e elites. T h u s th e p o te n tia l p o o l o f clien ts w as sm a ll.8 In d ig o w as th e m a in e x p o rt c ro p d u r in g th e p re-co ffe e era, a n d w h ile h a c ie n d a s p ro d u c e d so m e o f it, sm a llh o ld e r p r o d u c tio n p re d o m in a te d . T h e p e c u lia r n a tu re o f in d ig o p r o d u c tio n allo w ed sm a llh o ld e rs to p ro d u c e a h ig h -q u a lity cro p th a t c o u ld c o m p e te w ith th e b ig e states.9 W i th access to la n d a n d a v ia b le e x p o rt cro p , p e a sa n ts w ere n o t fo rc e d to d e p e n d u p o n th e estates fo r la n d o r w ages. T h e re su lt w as a m a rk e t th a t fav o red lab o rers, w ith estates fac in g c h ro n ic sh o rta g e s o f w o rk e rs .10 L a u ria -S a n tia g o , o n ce again, su m m arize s th e situ a tio n :

T h e colonial in h e ritan c e o f El Salvador in c lu d ed a few large an d m a n y m edium -size haciendas, b u t these w ere never able to fully in c o rp o rate or functionalize th e p easantries w ith w h ich th ey cam e in to co n tac t. . . . A successful an d exp an d in g sector o f sm all pro du cers— In d ian a n d L adino com m unities, in d e p e n d e n t labradores, squatters an d peasant ten an ts—

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began to em erge in response to th e diverse o p p o rtu n ities offered b y local an d in te rn a tio n a l m arkets. . . . T h e pre-1 8 8 0 changes p ro d u ce d an in d e­ p e n d e n t an d d y n am ic peasan t an d sm allh o ld er ec o n o m y th a t co m p eted effectively w ith h acien d a p ro d u c tio n — w h ich was itself lim ite d b y the scarcity o f cheap labor, capital, an d o th e r barriers to elite-led eco n o m ic dev elo p m e n t.11

In s h o rt, th e d isp a rity b e tw e e n la n d lo rd a n d p e a sa n t w as less p r o n o u n c e d in th e p re-co ffe e era. N ev e rth ele ss, c lie n te lism w as a fe a tu re o f p re-co ffe e S a lv a d o ra n p o li­ tics. In th e first p lace, d is tin c t p o in ts o f in e q u a lity ex iste d in th e sy stem o f p r o d u c tio n , d e sp ite th e rela tiv e in d e p e n d e n c e o f th e p e a sa n t sector. F o r ex am p le, in 1852 a g ro u p o f p e a sa n ts w e n t to th e alca ld e o f T e p e titá n (San V ic e n te D e p a r tm e n t) re q u e s tin g th a t h e a id th e m in th e ir n e g o tia tio n s w ith n e a rb y h a c ie n d a s. T h e p e a sa n ts cam e, n o te d th e alcalde, “o w in g to th e sm all a m o u n t o f c o m m u n a l la n d th e y h av e availab le to g ro w p ro d u c ts o f p r im a ry necessity, re q u e s tin g th is office to see i f th e o w n e rs o f th e h a c i­ en d a s ‘S an Isid ro ’ a n d ‘C o b o ’ c o u ld r e n t th e m la n d in o rd e r to p la n t th e ir c ro p s.” T h e alca ld e su rm ise d th a t th e la n d o w n e rs w o u ld re je c t th e offer b ecau se “th e y are d e d ic a tin g th e ir la n d s to th e p ro d u c tio n o f to b a c c o .” 12 A sh o rta g e o f c re d it gave larg e la n d o w n e rs a d e c id e d ad v a n ta g e . B an k s w ere v irtu a lly n o n e x is te n t, so larg e la n d o w n e rs ty p ic ally po ssessed th e lo n e so u rces o f c re d it fro m fo rtu n e s b u ilt d ecad es o r c e n tu rie s earlier. S m allh o ld ers, p a rtic u la rly th e in d ig o grow ers, h a d to tu r n to th e larg e es­ tates fo r lo an s. E sta te o w n ers u se d th is o p p o r tu n ity to assert c o n tro l over th e m a rk e tin g o f in d ig o . As José F e rn á n d e z reveals in h is s tu d y o f in d ig o p r o d u c tio n , larg e la n d o w n e rs d o m in a te d th e in d ig o e c o n o m y b y c o n tro l­ lin g m a rk e tin g a n d c r e d it.13 F e rn á n d e z e n d e d h is e x a m in a tio n in th e early n in e te e n th ce n tu ry , b u t a d d itio n a l e v id en c e su g g ests th a t h is d e s c rip tio n o f in d ig o p r o d u c tio n ap p lies to la te r p e rio d s as w ell. In th e w o rd s o f th e g o v e rn o r o f S an V ic e n te in 1855, “T h e p ro d u c tio n o f in d ig o is c o n tro lle d larg ely b y th e o w n ers o f th e larg e h a c ie n d a s w h o sp e c u la te in th e cro p s p ro d u c e d b y sm all cu ltiv a to rs, w h o p ro d u c e a b e tte r c ro p th a n th e larger grow ers. 14 L arge la n d o w n e rs also u se d c re d it to c irc u m v e n t th e d e p re sse d la b o r m a rk e t. R eco rd s fro m S o n s o n a te D e p a r tm e n t fro m th e 1860s a n d 1870s

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in d ic a te th a t la n d o w n e rs e x te n d e d cash lo a n s to p e a sa n ts in e x c h an g e fo r labor. T h e lo an s n o rm a lly ra n g e d in a m o u n t b e tw e e n o n e a n d th re e d o z e n pesos a n d sig n ifie d b e tw e e n a few w ee k s’ a n d a few m o n th s ’ w o rth o f w o rk . P easan ts o cc asio n ally u se d th e sy stem to th e ir a d v a n ta g e b y in c u r ­ rin g d e b ts a n d r u n n in g o ff.15 T h e archives, especially th e m u n ic ip a l a r­ chive in S o n so n a te , c o n ta in m a n y cases re la tin g to th e p u n is h m e n t o f ru ra l d w ellers w h o re n e g e d o n th e ir deals. T h e g o v e rn m e n t re c o g n iz e d th e d e b ts as a legal c o n tra c t, a n d in th e ev e n t th a t d eserters w ere c a p tu re d , th e y w ere su b je c te d to th e ju d g m e n t o f g o v e rn in g officials. N o rm a lly th e y w ere o rd e re d to fu lfill th e ir o b lig a tio n s to th e la n d o w n e r a n d th e n p e r ­ fo rm a d d itio n a l la b o r o n p u b lic -w o rk s p ro je c ts. O n e o f th e v erd ic ts reads, “A d ec isio n a g a in st José M a ría M u s ú n , u n m a rrie d , d a y la b o re r [jornalero ], re sid e n t o f Izalco, 2 8 years o ld , fo r h a v in g d e s e rte d h is fin c a “ L a T rin id a d ” o n F e b ru a ry 12, 1878, g iv en th a t h e w as in d e b t service to h is patrón F e r­ n a n d o C e ré n fo r te n pesos, h e is s e n te n c e d to fifte e n days o f p u b lic w o rk s a n d is o rd e re d to re p a y h is te n pesos o b lig a tio n to C e ré n .”16 A la ck o f c o m p re h e n siv e d a ta p r o h ib its a d e ta ile d s tu d y o f th e la b o r m a rk e t a n d th e ro le o f d e b t in se c u rin g la b o re rs. B u t th e ex iste n ce o f m a n y d o ze n s o f th e se c o u r t cases fro m o n e d e p a r tm e n t over a lim ite d p e rio d o f tim e suggests th a t th e y w ere a n im p o r ta n t p a r t o f th e sy stem o f p r o d u c tio n , a n d th a t la n d o w n e rs u se d d e b t in o rd e r to g a in access to a n d ex ert c o n tro l over la b o r in th e ab sen c e o f a n a d v a n c e d e x p o rt e c o n o m y .17 T h u s , p re-co ffe e El S alv ad o r offered p o c k e ts o f in e q u a lity th a t c re a te d th e p o te n tia l fo r p a tro n - c lie n t re la tio n s. T h e y w o u ld b e c o m e m o re c o m m o n p la c e d u rin g th e coffee era. T h e o ral v o te e n s u re d th a t a n y g iv en p o litic a l bo ss k n e w h o w h is cli­ en ts v o te d . T o th e e x te n t th a t a p a tro n c o u ld co erce a p e rso n , h e c o u ld c o n tro l h is fra n ch ise. A lo cal official o n c e c o m m e n te d o n th e im p a c t o f o ral v o tin g : “T h e r e is h e re a coffee g ro w e r w h o in te n d s to e n su re th a t th e local a u th o ritie s o f th is v illage a n d o f th e village o f C a lifo rn ia are p e rso n s a t h is c o m m a n d . . . . T h is coffee grow er, as h e h as d o n e o n n u m e ro u s o th e r o ccasio n s, is c a p a b le o f falsify in g th e e lec tio n s . . . b y b r in g in g th e

mozos a n d coffee c u tte rs fro m h is p ro p e rtie s a n d fro m th e s u rro u n d in g ju ris d ic tio n to v o te as h e c o m m a n d s .”18 T h e o ral v o te fa c ilita te d c lie n t a c c u m u la tio n . It allo w ed a boss to id e n tify p e o p le as p ro sp e c tiv e clien ts a n d , b y v irtu e o f h is a b ility to k n o w

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th e ir v o te , c o n s c rip t th e m in to h is service. C e rta in ly la b o re rs, o r p e rso n s w h o w ere e c o n o m ic a lly su b se rv ie n t to th e boss, w ere m o s t su sc e p tib le to c o n s c rip tio n . B u t th e o ral v o te allo w ed a bo ss to m a k e a c lie n t o u t o f a n y p e rso n w h o c o u ld n o t s ta n d u p to h im , o r w h o w as n o t alre ad y in th e service o f a n o th e r boss. T h is c o e rc io n so m e tim e s o c c u rre d o n a p e rso n a l level, b u t it also to o k p la c e o n a v illag e -w id e level. O n e c o m m o n ta c tic w as fo r a boss a n d h is m a in re tin u e o f fo llo w ers to p a tro l th e m u n ic ip a lity p r io r to a n e le c tio n a n d o rd e r th e p o p u la tio n to v o te fo r its c a n d id a te s. I n 1903, fo r exa m p le , th e in c u m b e n t bosses in S an A n to n io M a s a h u a t (L a Paz D e p a rtm e n t) w ere a c cu sed o f “g o in g a b o u t th re e days p r io r to th e elec tio n , a b u s in g th e ir a u th o rity a n d p ra c tic in g fo rc e over th e c itiz e n ry . . . th r e a te n in g th o se w h o d id n o t o b e y th e m w ith im p r is o n m e n t in th e c u a r­ tel [b arrack s].”19 A n o th e r c o m m o n p lo y w as to p o s t a g a n g o f th u g s o u t­ sid e th e m u n ic ip a l h all o n e le c tio n day. T h e ir p re se n c e d e liv e re d a n u n ­ m is ta k a b le m essag e to a n y o n e th in k in g o f v o ic in g s u p p o r t fo r o p p o s itio n c a n d id a te s. T o th e e x te n t th a t th e p e rp e tra to rs o f th e se sc h em e s w e n t u n ­ ch a lle n g e d b y o th e r bosses, th e y c o n tro lle d th e fra n c h ise o f a n e n tire village. N o t o n ly d id th e o ral v o te allo w a n in d iv id u a l b o ss to g a in a n d c o n ­ tro l h is clien ts a n d ex c lu d e th e clien ts o f h is rival, it also allo w ed bosses in g en e ral to h in d e r a u to n o m o u s a c tio n b y th e m asses. Bosses c o m p e te d w ith o n e a n o th e r fo r office, b u t th e y ag re ed o n o n e ax io m : in d e p e n d e n t p o litic a l ac tiv ity o n th e p a r t o f th e m asses th re a te n e d so cial o rd er. P easants a n d sm a llh o ld e rs n o t u n d e r th e c o m m a n d o f a p o litic a l bo ss h a d d ifficu lty c o m in g to p o lls a u to n o m o u s ly a n d in d e p e n d e n tly ; to h av e d o n e so w as ta n ta m o u n t to social re v o lu tio n . S o m e tim e s th is m e a n t th a t e lec tio n s w ere sm all affairs w ith o n ly a few p a rtic ip a n ts . B u t bosses c a re d m o re a b o u t w h o v o te d a n d u n d e r w h a t c irc u m sta n c e s v o tin g o c c u rre d th a n th e n u m ­ b e r o f v o tes cast. I n s h o rt, th e o ral v o te w as a cru c ial to o l allo w in g th e p o w e rfu l to c o n tro l th e su ffrag e o f th e less p o w e rfu l a n d k ee p p o litic a l p o w e r secu rely in th e ir p o ssessio n . T h e p a tro n -c lie n t re la tio n sh ip w as h ie ra rc h ic a l a n d o fte n b a se d u p o n c o e rc io n ; how ever, it also c o u ld b e b a se d u p o n p a te rn a lis m a n d n e g o tia te d ex change. T h is w as, in p a rt, b ec au se th e p o w e r o f th e p a tro n w as n o t w ith o u t lim its. As so c io lo g ist A n th o n y G id d e n s p o in ts o u t, “n o m a tte r h o w im b a la n c e d th e y [p o w er rela tio n s] m a y b e . . . a c to rs in s u b o rd in a te

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p o sitio n s are n ev e r w h o lly d e p e n d e n t, a n d are o fte n v e ry a d e p t a t c o n v e rt­ in g w h a te v e r reso u rce s th e y p ossess in to so m e d eg re e o f c o n tro l over th e c o n d itio n s o f re p r o d u c tio n o f th e sy ste m .”20 H is to ria n P a tric ia A lv are n g a V e n u to lo gives e m p iric a l w e ig h t to G id d e n ’s o b se rv a tio n in h e r s tu d y o f v io le n ce in ru ra l, w e ste rn E l S alv ad o r. S h e reveals th a t la n d o w n e rs re c o g ­ n iz e d th e lim its o f th e ir h e g e m o n y over th e c o u n try sid e , even i f th e y s o m e ­ tim es ex ceed ed it w ith ab u siv e b e h a v io r to w a rd th e ir w o rk e rs. A lv are n g a V e n u to lo show s th a t la n d o w n e rs av o id e d tra v e lin g alo n e o u ts id e th e ir p ro p e rtie s fo r fear o f b e in g a m b u s h e d b y w o rk e rs .21 It is also lik e ly th a t fear o f w id e s p re a d m ass rev o lt, to say n o th in g o f a c tu a l ep iso d es o f in s u r ­ re c tio n , served as a c o n s ta n t re m in d e r to p a tro n s o f th e n e e d fo r re stra in t in th e ir re la tio n s w ith s u b o rd in a te s .22 S o m e in stan c e s o f p a tro n - c lie n t in te ra c tio n w ere b a se d u p o n p o sitiv e rew ard s. Bosses m a y h av e h a d n o ch o ic e b u t to offer rew ard s fo r s u p p o rt. O th e rs w ith m o re lim ite d h e g e m o n y m a y h av e a stu te ly re c o g n iz e d th a t v o lu n ta ry s u p p o rte rs w ere b o th easier to c o n tro l a n d m o re d e p e n d a b le . T h e rew ard s th e y d o le d o u t v a rie d fro m th e m a te ria l to th e social. Bosses o cc asio n ally th re w p a rtie s o n th e eve o f a n e le c tio n a n d d is trib u te d fo o d , m o n ey , o r liq u o r to th e m e m b e rs o f th e ir n e tw o rk . O n e lo cal bo ss o b ­ serv ed th a t h is rival w as “p u tti n g to w o rk th e p o w e r o f m o n e y a n d guaro [liq u o r].”23 A lth o u g h clien ts d id n o t h a v e a ch o ice in th e se e lec tio n s, m a te ­ rial rew ard s eased th e p ro cess. C lie n ts w h o d e m o n s tra te d e x te n d e d lo y a lty receiv ed g rea ter m a te ria l rew ard s, su c h as p r o m o tio n w ith in th e b o ss’s cliq u e o r to h ig h e r sta tu s o n th e estate, p e rh a p s as a n a d m in istra to r. L uis C o te ra o f S a n ta L u cia (S an V ic e n te D e p a rtm e n t) sta n d s o u t as a n e x a m p le o f a m id lev e l clien t. In 1852, C o te ra a t o n c e w o rk e d as th e a d m in is tra to r fo r a lo cal h a c ie n d a , se rv e d as alcald e in th e m u n ic ip a lity , a n d h e ld th e r a n k o f se c o n d lie u te n a n t in th e lo cal m ilitia . V irtu a lly every p o litic a l boss w o re m u ltip le h ats: la n d o w n e r, m ilita ry officer, a n d e le c te d official. C o te ra re p re se n te d th e s u b o rd in a te v ersio n o f each . H e w as n o t a la n d o w n e r, b u t h e w as far fro m b e in g a mozo.14 S o m e bosses e n c o u ra g e d lo y a lty n o t o n ly th r o u g h m a te ria l rew ard s, b u t also b y ta p p in g in to th e reg io n a l, e th n ic , o r n a tio n a l id e n titie s o f th e ir follow ers. A classic e x a m p le o f th is ty p e o f re la tio n sh ip is o ffe re d b y G e n ­ eral José M a ría R ivas o f C o ju te p e q u e . As seen in th e p re v io u s c h a p te r, R ivas w as th e u n d is p u te d p o litic a l boss o f C u s c a tlá n D e p a r tm e n t th r o u g h ­ o u t m o s t o f th e se c o n d h a lf o f th e n in e te e n th ce n tu ry . H is base o f p o w er

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lay in th e in d ig e n o u s p o p u la tio n a n d h is a b ility to field a fo rm id a b le a rm e d fo rce fro m a m o n g s t th e m . T h e b o n d o f lo y a lty b e tw e e n R ivas a n d h is s u p p o rte rs re m a in e d s tro n g even w h e n rivals c h a se d h im in to exile. R esearch sugg ests th a t R ivas in h e rite d so m e o f h is p o litic a l e m p ire fro m h is fath er, a n o th e r s tro n g m a n fro m th e re g io n , a n d b u ilt it u p b y ca stin g h im s e lf as a b e n e fa c to r to h is fo llo w ers a n d a p p e a lin g to th e ir e th n ic id e n tity .25 T h e lim ite d d o c u m e n ta ry re c o rd p re v e n ts a d e ta ile d e x a m in a tio n o f th e re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n G e n e ra l R ivas a n d h is fo llo w ers in C u s c a tlá n . I t ca n o n ly b e a ssu m e d th a t th e re la tio n sh ip ty p ifie d th e co m p le x itie s o f n in e te e n th - c e n tu ry p a tro n a g e -b a s e d p o litic s. R ivas a n d h is fo llo w ers m u s t hav e b e e n in v o lv e d in c o n tin u a l n e g o tia tio n s w ith o n e a n o th e r, a n d th e in e v ita b le fac tio n a lism s a n d co m p le x itie s w ith in th e in d ig e n o u s p o p u la ­ tio n o f th e re g io n m o s t lik e ly p la y e d in to th o se n e g o tia tio n s. L a u ria S a n tia g o has sh o w n th a t fa c tio n a l d iv isio n s ex isted in th e c o m m u n itie s o f in d ig e n o u s p e a sa n ts in a n d a ro u n d th e m u n ic ip a lity o f Iza lco in w estern E l S alv ad o r in th e la tte r h a lf o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry , esp ecially afte r co f­ fee b e g a n to d o m in a te th e lo cal eco n o m y . H e sh o w s th a t alliances w ere m a d e b e tw e e n in d ig e n o u s c o m m u n itie s th r o u g h o u t th e w estern re g io n a n d p o w e rfu l p o litic a l bosses at th e n a tio n a l level w h o w ere se e k in g m e n a n d resources. T h e lim ite d e v id en c e o f th o se alliances su g g ests th a t so m e s o rt o f n e g o tia te d b a rg a in in g o c c u rre d . L a u ria -S a n tia g o claim s th a t th e n a tio n a l s tro n g m e n a p p e a le d to th e ir lo cal allies b y d ra w in g u p o n “c o rp o ­ rate , e th n ic , p erso n a listic , id e o lo g ic al, reg io n a l, n a tio n a l a n d even e x tra ­ n a tio n a l” ap p e a ls.26 R e sea rch fro m o th e r n a tio n a l se ttin g s, su c h as P eter G u a r d in o ’s stu d ie s o f O a x a c a a n d G u e rre ro in M e x ico , a n d Ja m es S a n d ­ ers’s e x a m in a tio n o f th e C a u c a re g io n in C o lo m b ia , sh o w s th a t E l S alv ad o r w o u ld hav e b e e n a n e x tre m e o u tlie r h a d it av o id e d th e b a rg a in in g th a t w e n t in to th e c o n s tru c tio n o f p a tro n - c lie n t p o litic a l re la tio n s elsew here. P erh ap s R ivas h a d a re la tio n sh ip w ith h is fo llo w ers in C u s c a tlá n th a t b o re so m e rese m b la n c e to th e re la tio n s h ip th a t G u a r d in o d o c u m e n te d b e tw e e n h ig h la n d in d ig e n o u s c o m m u n itie s in O a x a c a a n d u rb a n elites in O a x a c a C ity. I f so, th e n in e x c h an g e fo r le n d in g R ivas th e ir s u p p o rt, th e c o m m u ­ n itie s g a in e d a u to n o m y , a n d R ivas h a d to m a in ta in in flu e n c e a t th e n a ­ tio n a l level in o rd e r to p r o te c t th a t a u to n o m y , to say n o th in g o f p re se rv in g h is p o s itio n as a re g io n a l c a u d illo o r s tr o n g m a n .27

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T h e la c k o f e v id en c e m a k e s a n y c o n c lu sio n s a b o u t th e d a y -to -d a y fu n c tio n in g o f p o litic s in El S a lv a d o r’s p re-co ffe e era te n ta tiv e . I a m n o t try in g to sta k e o u t a c o n tra ria n cla im versu s th o se sc h o lars w h o h av e a d ­ v a n c e d th e p o litic a l a u to n o m y o f th e p e a s a n try d u r in g th e p re-co ffe e era, e ith e r in El S alv a d o r o r in o th e r L a tin A m e ric a n case s tu d ie s .28 O n e o f th o se sch o lars, R ic a rd o S alv ato re, offers a rev e alin g d e s c rip tio n o f th e p ro b le m s w ith th e tra d itio n a l a rg u m e n ts in h is s tu d y o f th e ‘“ p aysanos ” o f B u e n o s A ires in th e m id - n in e te e n th c e n tu ry : “th e y se rv e d to lo c a te th e su b a lte rn in a p a rtic u la r, c o n v e n ie n t site: a s u b o rd in a te , c o n tra d ic to ry , al­ m o s t im p o ssib le lo c a tio n , d e v o id o f agency.”29 In fact, I h av e a rg u e d fo r th e n e e d to in te r p re t ru ra l ev en ts, su c h as th e 1932 in s u rre c tio n in w e ste rn El Salvador, th r o u g h th e le n s o f p e a sa n t a u to n o m y .30 A n d th e ev e n ts o f 1932 o c c u rre d w ell afte r p e a sa n t a n d in d ig e n o u s c o m m u n itie s h a d b e e n su b je c te d to decad e s o f in te n se ly tra n sfo rm a tiv e p ressu res fro m th e ex­ p a n d in g coffee e c o n o m y . In th e p re-co ffe e era, w h e n th e y h a d access to large tra c ts o f la n d a n d th e p ressu res o f e x p o rt-le d p ro d u c tio n w ere m o d ­ est, p e a sa n ts u n d o u b te d ly h a d a m a te ria l b ase fro m w h ic h th e y c o u ld i n ­ te rp re t th e ir w o rld a n d act acco rd in g ly . L a u ria -S a n tia g o ad v an ces p recisely th a t claim in h is s tu d y o f la n d a n d p o litic s in n in e te e n th - c e n tu ry El S al­ v ad o r, w h ic h h e b a se d larg ely o n re c o rd s re la tin g to la n d a n d p ro p e rty tra n s a c tio n s .31 F u rth e rm o re , w e h a v e th e case o f th e w av e o f in d ig e n o u s reb e llio n s in th e la te 1820s a n d early 1830s, h ig h lig h te d b y th e A q u in o re b e llio n o f 1831 to 1832. E ven i f w e k n o w little a b o u t th o se ev en ts, th e y c e rta in ly reveal a p e a s a n try a c tin g a u to n o m o u sly . N ev e rth ele ss, El S alv a d o r d o es n o t se em to h av e e x p e rie n c e d a d e fin i­ tive m o m e n t w h e n p e a sa n ts a n d p le b ia n s a rtic u la te d a v e rsio n o f civic re ­ p u b lic a n is m a n d in je c te d it in to th e b ro a d e r b o d y p o litic . In o th e r w o rd s, El S alv ad o r seem s to s ta n d d is tin c t fro m w h a t S a n d e rs sh o w s us to h av e o c c u rre d in C o lo m b ia ’s C a u c a re g io n in m id - n in e te e n th c e n tu ry , o r w h a t C e cilia M é n d e z sh o w s fo r th e H u a n ta re g io n o f P e ru in th e 1820s, o r w h a t Jam es W o o d s sho w s to h av e h a p p e n e d in th e p e ri-u rb a n e n v iro n s o f S a n ­ tiag o d e C h ile in th e 1840s a n d 1850s, o r th a t S alv a to re d e m o n s tra te s in reg a rd to th e A r g e n tin e paysanos in th e 1850s. A d m itte d ly , El S a lv a d o r’s d istin ctiv en e ss in th is re g a rd m a y b e d u e to a la ck o f ev id en ce, p e rh a p s o n a c c o u n t o f th e n a tio n a l arc h iv e fire in 1889. O r p e rh a p s it is d u e to m y relian ce o n a p a rtic u la r k in d o f ev id en ce, p rim a rily G o b e rn a c ió n rec o rd s, w h ereas S an d ers a n d S alv a to re rely o n p e titio n s , c o u rt cases, a n d m ilita ry

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files, a m o n g o th e r rec o rd s, a n d W o o d s em p lo y s th e n e w sp a p e rs th a t S a n ­ tia g o ’s artisa n a l p le b es p ro d u c e d . P erh ap s f u tu re rese a rc h w ill p ro v e m y claim w ro n g . A t th e least w e ca n d ra w a c o u p le o f c o n c lu sio n s fro m E l S a lv a d o r’s e x ta n t d o c u m e n ta ry re c o rd : first, th a t th e f o u n d a tio n s o f th e p a tro n -c lie n t sy stem w ere b e in g la id d o w n in th e p re-co ffe e era; a n d se c o n d , th a t clien te lism w as n o t sta tic , b u t ra th e r w as flu id a n d ca m e in d iffe re n t fo rm s, ra n g in g fro m th e coercive to th e rec ip ro c al. C o m m o n to all p a tro n -c lie n t re la tio n s w as p e rso n a lism . C lie n ts p r o m o te d th e p o litic a l careers o f th e ir p a tro n s , w h e th e r th a t p e rso n w as a lo cal o r a n o u tsid er, a n d w h e th e r th e y k n e w h im p e rso n a lly o r n o t; th e p a tro n m a y o r m a y n o t h av e d is trib u te d rew ard s in r e tu r n fo r th e ir s u p p o rt. In th e ab sen c e o f o rg a n iz e d effo rts to d ire c t th e sy stem to w a rd s a m o re e g a lita ria n e n d , th e sy stem w o rk e d in th e lo n g r u n to b e s to w p o litic a l p o w e r u p o n a sm a ll h a n d f u l o f p eo p le.

F a m ily a n d P a tro n a g e

F am ily w as a b e d ro c k o f p a tro n a g e p o litic s. F am ily m e m b e rs b u ilt e c o ­ n o m ic em p ire s to g e th e r, p assed th e ir w e a lth o n to o n e a n o th e r th ro u g h in h e rita n c e , a n d e n te re d in to p o litic s to d e fe n d th e ir m u tu a l in te re sts. Fa­ th e rs a n d so n s d id b u sin e ss to g e th e r, a n d b u sin e ss o fte n tra n s la te d in to p o litics. W h e n b ro th e rs, u n cles, a n d b ro th e rs -in -la w e n te re d th e fray, a sin g le fa m ily c o u ld assem b le a s u b sta n tia l p o litic a l fo rce. G ra n te d , fa m ily ties w ere n o t s y n o n y m o u s w ith p o litic a l alliances. In E l S alvador, as in a n y society, fam ilies h a d th e ir in te r n a l d isp u te s a n d p e rs o n a lity co n flicts. B u t fo r th e m o s t p a rt, fa m ily a n d p o litic s re in fo rc e d o n e a n o th e r, b ec au se in a so c iety w h e re th e fo rm a l ru les o f p o litic s se ld o m a p p lie d , fa m ily re la tio n s o ffered p o litic a l security. T h e g o v e rn o r o f S an V ic e n te D e p a r tm e n t rev ealed th e in te rre la tio n ­ sh ip o f fa m ily a n d p o litic s in th e a fte rm a th o f th e 1852 m u n ic ip a l elec­ tio n s, w h ic h to o k p la c e afte r F ra n cisc o D u e ñ a s b e c a m e p re sid e n t. As w e saw in th e p re v io u s c h a p te r, D u e ñ a s ro se to p o w e r d e s p ite th e o p p o s itio n o f m o s t o f S an V ic e n te D e p a rtm e n t, in c lu d in g th e le a d in g p o litic a l n e t­ w o rk in S an V ic e n te C ity. D u e ñ a s ’s g u b e rn a to ria l a p p o in te e in th e d e p a r t­ m e n t d esp ised th e m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il th a t c am e to p o w e r in S an V ic e n te

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C ity in 1852 b ec au se its m e m b e rs w ere close fam ilial re la tio n s o f h is a rc h ­ enem y, D o ro te o V asco n celo s, a m a jo r p o litic a l p la y er fro m S an V ic e n te D e p a r tm e n t w h o tw ic e h a d b e e n p re sid e n t. T h e n e w alcald e in S an V i­ c e n te w as F a u stin o V asco n celo s, D o ro te o s b ro th e r. O n e o f th e reg id o res, Ja c in to A rtig a, w as m a rrie d to th e V asco n celo ses’ sister a n d , a c c o rd in g to th e g o v ern o r, w as “o n e o f th e m o s t n o to r io u s p o litic a l ac to rs in th e city.” T h e g o v e rn o r also n o te d h is d isp lea su re w ith th e e lec to ra l resu lts in a n e a rb y m u n ic ip a lity b ec au se “its officials h a v e fa m ily ties w ith S an V ic e n te C ity a n d th e y all e x c h an g e frie n d ly c o m m u n ic a tio n s .”32 A lth o u g h c o m m e n tin g m a n y years later, th e in d iv id u a l in a p rio r c h a p te r w h o refe rre d to p a tro n a g e as b e in g en servicio to a n o th e r p e rso n , a n d w h o n o te d th a t lo cal crim in a ls o fte n g o t o ff d u e to th e ir p a tro n a g e ties, also affirm ed th e im p o rta n c e o f fa m ily to p a tro n a g e re la tio n s. “ T h e a u th o rs o f crim es,” h e w ro te , “are th e sa m e a u th o ritie s , o r are th e ir fam ily m e m b e rs, w h o are o rd e re d to in v e stig a te th e crim es. . . . T h e g u ilty p a rty tu rn s o u t to b e a co u sin , u n c le , g o d fa th e r, o r close frie n d o f th e fa th e r o f th e in v e stig a to r.”33 T h e alcald e o f a n e ig h b o rin g m u n ic ip a lity c o m ­ m e n te d th a t “th e re a lm o f ju stic e re q u ire s re fo rm a tio n , b ec au se as it fu n c ­ tio n s th e se days, c o n n e c tio n s o f frie n d s h ip a n d fa m ily allo w in n o c e n ts to b e c o n d e m n e d a n d tr u e c rim in a ls to b e ab so lv ed .”34 W h ile th e se la st tw o c o m m e n ts w ere m a d e w ith re g a rd to ju d ic ia l affairs, th e y still reveal th e im p o rta n c e o f fa m ily to m a tte rs o f lo cal pow er. B lo o d re la tio n s w ere th e m o s t d u ra b le fo rm o f p o litic a l alliances, a n d fa th e r-s o n te am s w ere a c o m m o n fe a tu re o f p o litic a l life. In th e fo llo w in g pages w e see th a t th e r ig h t- h a n d m a n to G e n e ra l R ivas in T a c u b a w as h is so n , D r. R afael R ivas Jr. In A tiq u iz a y a (A h u a c h a p á n D e p a r tm e n t) , a fa th e r-s o n te a m r a n th e to w n th r o u g h o u t m o s t o f th e 1870s. T h e fa th e r w as A g u stín P iñ e d a , a n a s p irin g coffee grow er. W h e n P iñ e d a lo st to a rival n e tw o rk in 1874, h e h a d h is so n b re a k in to th e m u n ic ip a l h a ll a n d steal th e v o tin g lists.35 W h e n p a tro n a g e ties w e n t b e y o n d th e im m e d ia te fam ily, th e y ty p i­ cally c o n siste d o f n o m o re th a n tw o o r th re e d is tin c t fam ilies. F o r ex­ am p le, in Jiq u ilisc o , a c o ffee -g ro w in g m u n ic ip a lity in U s u lu tá n D e p a r t­ m e n t, th e d o m in a n t p a tro n a g e n e tw o rk in th e 1890s c o n s iste d o f th re e fam ilies. T h e d e p a rtm e n ta l g o v e rn o r d e sc rib e d th e m as “a p a rty [partido ] o f th re e w e ll-to -d o [acomodadas] fam ilies th a t h as te n a c io u sly c o n tro lle d

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th is m u n ic ip a lity fo r m a n y years in o rd e r to p rese rv e th e ir larg e la n d h o ld ­ ings a n d cover u p th e ir m a n y m isd e e d s [pilladas ] w h ic h th e y h av e c o m ­ m itte d .”36 P o litical allian ces n o t b a se d o n b lo o d ty p ic ally rev o lv ed a r o u n d m a r ­ riage. S o n s o f a p a tro n o fte n m a rrie d th e d a u g h te rs o f h is allies. T h e m u ­ n ic ip a lity o f Ju a y ú a offers a g o o d e x a m p le o f th is a sp ec t o f p o litic s. In th e la te n in e te e n th ce n tu ry , a g ro u p o f th re e a s p irin g fam ilies, M a ta , C e a, a n d Salaverría, jo in e d p o litic a l forces a n d in tim e b e c a m e b o u n d b y m a rria g e. A C e a s o n m a rrie d a S alav erría d a u g h te r, a n d a n o th e r S alav erría d a u g h te r m a rrie d a M a ta . In th e 1910s a H o n d u r a n im m ig ra n t, a w e a lth y d o c to r b y th e n a m e o f M á x im o Jerez, m a rrie d in to th e S alav erría fam ily, g a rn e rin g h im s e lf n o t o n ly a larg e coffee finca, b u t re p e a te d p o sitio n s o n th e m u ­ n ic ip a l c o u n c il.37 M u n ic ip a l e lec tio n s a n d m u n ic ip a l co u n c ils o fte n to o k o n d istin c tly fam ilial o v erto n e s. In A h u a c h a p á n C ity in 1887, th e alcald e a n d sín d ic o w ere b ro th e rs , a n d o n e o f th e reg id o res w as th e ir n e p h e w .38 S im ilarly, in Ju a y ú a in 1891, th e alcald e a n d sín d ic o w ere b ro th e rs a n d o n e o f th e re g i­ d o res w as th e ir b ro th e r-in -la w .39 F am ilial co llu sio n o f th is s o rt w as illegal a n d p ro v id e d o p p o n e n ts w ith a n o p p o r tu n ity to s u b m it d e n u n c ia tio n s . O n e o f th e se d e n u n c ia tio n s , fro m th e village o f C h in a m e c a in 1911, n o te d th a t th e m u n ic ip a l se c re ta ry w as th e so n -in -la w o f th e alcalde, a n d to ­ g e th e r “th e y are b u ild in g a tr u e d ic ta to rs h ip in th is m u n ic ip a lity .”40 In Izalco, in 192 0 , th e alcald e in c u rre d th e w ra th o f h is rivals b y h ir in g o n ly h is o w n fam ily m e m b e rs fo r p o sitio n s in th e m u n ic ip a l office.41 T h e re ­ cu rre n c e in th e h isto ric a l re c o rd o f th e se ty p es o f d e n u n c ia tio n s a g a in st n e p o tis m in d ic a te s th a t a close re la tio n s h ip ex iste d b e tw e e n fa m ily a n d p o litic s .42 T h e in c o m p le te resu lts fro m th re e m u n ic ip a l ele c tio n s in tu r n -o f - th e c e n tu ry S a n to D o m in g o d e G u z m á n (S o n so n a te D e p a rtm e n t) d e m o n ­ stra te th e lin k s b e tw e e n fa m ily a n d p o litic s. T h e e lec tio n s o c c u rre d in 1896, 1900, a n d 1901 respectively, a n d ea ch w as c o n tro lle d b y a sin g le p a tro n a g e n e tw o rk d o m in a te d b y a select few p e o p le b e a rin g a n even sm aller n u m b e r o f su rn a m e s. In th e e le c tio n o f D e c e m b e r 1896, tw o s u r ­ n a m e s, G a rc ía a n d Pérez, a c c o u n t fo r five o f th e six p o sitio n s o n th e m u ­ n ic ip a l c o u n c il (see ta b le 3 .1 ). In th e n e x t e le c tio n fo r w h ic h re c o rd s are available, D e c e m b e r 19 0 0 , th e sa m e tw o su rn a m e s a c c o u n t fo r e ig h t o f

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th e eleven p o s itio n s o n th e c o u n c il a n d th e d ire c to rio c o m b in e d . S im ila r n a m e s a p p e a r in th e e le c tio n o f D e c e m b e r 1901. In to ta l, fo r th e th re e elec tio n s o n ly seven su rn a m e s are lis te d , a n d fo u r o f th e m p re d o m in a te : Pérez, G a rc ía , V ásquez, a n d R a m íre z . A lth o u g h it is n o t c e rta in th a t th o se p erso n s w h o b o re th e sa m e s u rn a m e s w ere re la te d , in a sm all v illage like S a n to D o m in g o it w as h ig h ly likely, a n d th u s th e resu lts fro m ta b le 3.1 su g g est a stro n g in te rre la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n fam ily, p a tro n a g e , a n d elec tio n s.

Table 3 .1

Municipal Officials, Santo Domingo de Guzmán, 1896, 1900, 1901

M u n ic ip a l C ouncil

M em bers o f Directorio

(December 1896) A) Bacilio Vásquez R) Irene Pérez

n.a.

R) Laureano Pérez S) Luis García J) Mauricio García J) Eleno Pérez (December 1900) A) Riviano Ramos R) Irene Pérez R) Macario Pérez S) Gabriel Pérez

P) Aniceto García VP) Máximo García E) Pedro Ramos E) Guillermo Ramírez Se) Wenceslas García Se) Luis García (December 1901)

A) Bacilio Vásquez R) Catarino Ramírez R) Laureano Pérez S) Aniseto Vásquez

Source:

P) Aniseto García VP) Luis García E) Fidel López E) Hermenejildo Sánchez Se) Fidel Ramírez Se) Atiliano Pérez

Juntas de Elecciones, Santo D o m in g o de G uzm án, 1896, 1900, a n d 1901, A G N , M G , SS,

Box “Política 1 8 9 0-1899, 1 9 0 0 -1 9 0 8 .” K ey:

A) A lcalde, R) Regidor, S) Síndico, J) Juéz, P) President, V P) V ice President, E)

Se) Secretary

E s c r u ta d o r ,

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J u s t as p o litic s w as a fa m ily affair, so to o w as it a g e n d e re d affair in w h ic h w o m e n rarely p a rtic ip a te d openly. S in ce w o m e n c o u ld n o t v o te, th e y w ere n o t s o u g h t o u t as clien ts. N o r d id ric h w o m e n f u n c tio n p u b lic ly as p o litic a l bosses. It is clear fro m lists o f la n d o w n e rs a n d fin a n c ia l elites th a t so m e w o m e n possessed s u b s ta n tia l a m o u n ts o f la n d a n d w e a lth . F or ex am p le, in 1893 th e g o v e rn m e n t c o m p ile d a list o f th e m o s t im p o r ta n t la n d o w n e rs in L a L ib e rta d D e p a rtm e n t. T h e list c o n ta in s fifty -n in e n a m e s a n d estim a tes th e ir c o m b in e d w o r th a t m o re th a n fo u r m illio n co lo n es. T h re e o f th e p e o p le liste d are w o m e n w h o a c c o u n t fo r m o re th a n 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 pesos, o r ro u g h ly 8 p e rc e n t o f th e to ta l.43 A n o th e r ex a m p le o f a ric h w o m a n is th e w id o w o f A g u stín R eg alad o , w h o as o f 1926 o w n e d m o re th a n o n e th o u s a n d m a n z a n a s o f c u ltiv a te d coffee la n d in S o n s o n a te D e ­ p a r tm e n t, m a k in g h e r o n e o f th e la rg e st coffee g ro w ers in th e n a tio n .44 N ev e rth ele ss, th e se w e ll-o ff w o m e n ra re ly tra n s la te d th e ir w e a lth in to p o ­ litica l pow er, a t least in a n o v e rt way. In n o n e o f th e available re c o rd s is th e re a n in d ic a tio n th a t w o m e n o p e ra te d as p o litic a l bosses. R ic h w o m e n m ig h t w ell hav e d ire c te d p o litic a l em p ires fro m b e h in d th e scenes, p re ­ s u m a b ly th r o u g h m a le facades, b u t i f th e se in sta n c e s o c c u rre d , th e y w ere n o t e v id e n t in th e h isto ric a l re c o rd . O n e iso la te d in s ta n c e o c c u rre d in 1909, w h e n a w o m a n fro m a sm all m u n ic ip a lity in S an S alv a d o r D e p a r tm e n t d e n o u n c e d a p o litic a l n e tw o rk a n d re q u e ste d a n e le c tio n n u llific a tio n .45 It w as c o m m o n p ra c tic e fo r p o ­ litica l n e tw o rk s to u se th e ir m o s t h u m b le m e m b e rs to s u b m it d e n u n c i­ a tio n s in o rd e r to give th e solicitudes (s o lic ita tio n s ) m o re validity. P easan ts a n d d a y la b o re rs ty p ic ally s u b m itte d th e in itia l d e n u n c ia tio n s o r n u llific a ­ tio n s, a n d th e n th e p a tro n s o r la n d o w n e rs e n te re d as w itn e sses to c o rro b o ­ ra te th e ir clie n ts’ sto ries. G iv e n th e u n p r e c e d e n te d n a tu re o f th e case fro m S a n tia g o , it w o u ld a p p e a r th a t, fo r w h a te v e r re a so n , th e n e tw o rk to o k th is stra te g y to a d is tin c t level a n d h a d a w o m a n sig n th e solicitud . N o tw ith ­ s ta n d in g th is ex a m p le , th e p rin c ip a l ro le o f w o m e n in p o litic s a p p e ars to hav e rev o lv ed a r o u n d th e c o n s tru c tio n o f p a tro n a g e allian ces th ro u g h w ed lo c k . T h e m a in p o litic a l d u tie s, su c h as a c c u m u la tin g clien ts, n e g o ti­ a tin g p a tro n a g e deals, a n d fig h tin g it o u t o n e le c tio n day, w ere p e rfo rm e d b y m e n . W e are th e re fo re le ft to assu m e th e d iv erse a n d m a n ifo ld w ays in w h ic h w o m e n m a n e u v e re d b e h in d th e scenes a n d n e g o tia te d th e g e n d e re d h ie ra rc h y o f S a lv a d o ra n p o litic s in th e sa m e w a y th a t p o o r la b o re rs n e g o ti­ a te d th e class h ierarch y .

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T h e h o m e , as th e s tr o n g h o ld o f a fa m ily ’s e m p ire , o fte n to o k c e n te r stage in p o litic a l d ra m a . It p ro v id e d se clu sio n fro m th e p ry in g eyes o f r i­ vals a n d also serv ed as a sy m b o l o f a b o ss’s p o w e r over h is clien ts. Bosses fre q u e n tly h e ld p o litic a l m e e tin g s in th e ir h o m e s .46 N o rm a lly th e se m e e t­ ings w ere p riv a te affairs th a t to o k p la c e a m id s t g re a t secrecy, b u t o n o c c a ­ sio n th e y sp illed o u t in to th e p u b lic aren a. In 1891 in th e village o f Lisliq u e (L a U n ió n D e p a rtm e n t) , fo r in sta n c e , a n e tw o rk h a d b e e n g a th e rin g reg u la rly in th e h o u s e o f o n e o f its a d h e re n ts to p lo t stra te g y fo r th e f o r th ­ c o m in g elec tio n . D u r in g o n e o f th e m e e tin g s, th e p a rtic ip a n ts d e c id e d to c o n d u c t a “p re -e le c tio n v o te ,” th e resu lts o f w h ic h , n o t su rp risin g ly , re ­ su lte d in a v ic to ry fo r th e n e tw o rk ’s c a n d id a te s. A fte r th e v o te th e b a llo tcasters sp illed o u t in to th e stree t, s h o u tin g slo g an s su c h as “th e c a n d id a te s to b e elec ted hav e alre ad y b e e n d e c id e d u p o n .” S u c h m a n ife s ta tio n s c o n ­ tin u e d to em erg e fro m th e h o u s e o n a d a ily basis as e le c tio n d a y d re w n ea r.47 In 1899 in S a n ta C la ra (S an V ic e n te D e p a rtm e n t) , a b o ss’s h o m e serv ed as th e site o f a sim ila r “p re -e le c tio n ” v o te . T h e in c u m b e n t n e tw o rk , le d b y th e la n d o w n in g B o n illa -A rtig a fam ily, g a th e re d in th e B o n illa h o u se a n d h e ld a p riv a te v o te a m o n g s t its a d h e re n ts. T h e fo llo w in g day, th e le a d ­ ers b r o u g h t th e resu lts to th e ir o p p o n e n ts , in f o rm in g th e m th a t a n y w h o d id n o t ac ce p t th e resu lts w o u ld h av e to face th e w e a p o n s s to c k p ile d in th e B o n illa h o m e .48 N o t o n ly w as th e fa m ily h o m e a base o f o p e ra tio n s, it also p ro v id e d san ctu ary . F o r in sta n c e , in 1 8 9 7 in th e village o f U lu a z a p a (S an M ig u e l D e p a rtm e n t) , an o p p o s itio n n e tw o r k g a in e d a ta ctica l a d v a n ta g e in th e c e n tra l p la za d u r in g th e m u n ic ip a l e le c tio n , fo rc in g th e e lec to ra l b o a rd to a b a n d o n th e m u n ic ip a l h all a n d c o n tin u e th e e le c tio n fro m th e f ro n t d o o rs o f its m e m b e rs ’ h o m e s .49

T h e M ilita ry a n d P olitics

In h is s tu d y o f th e re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n th e m ilita ry a n d s ta te -b u ild in g in n in e te e n th a n d early tw e n tie th -c e n tu ry C e n tra l A m e ric a , h is to ria n R o b e rt H o ld e n in sists th a t w e re fra in fro m d ra w in g a c o n tin u u m b e tw e e n m ili­ ta ry a n d civ ilian ru le , as i f th e y w ere e ith e r/o r o p tio n s . W i th h is a rg u m e n t ex em p lified b y th e p h ra se “arm ies w ith o u t n a tio n s ,” H o ld e n c o n te n d s th a t

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th e d ifferen ce b e tw e e n c o m b a tiv e civilians a n d p o litic a l officers w as m in i­ m a l.50 In a p o litic a l sy stem in w h ic h p o w e r so m e tim e s e m a n a te d fro m th e b arrel o f a g u n , m ilita ry m e n a u to m a tic a lly possessed p o litic a l cap ital. T h e y h a d access to w e a p o n s a n d c o u ld d ra w u p o n alliances w ith o th e r o f­ ficers. T h e y also w ere tra in e d in th e a rt o f c o n s c rip tio n , fin d in g th e a c c u ­ m u la tio n o f so ld iers to b e a k in to , i f n o t s y n o n y m o u s w ith , th e a c c u m u la ­ tio n o f clients. O ffic ers also o fte n e n jo y e d a r e p u ta tio n fo r v io le n ce , w h ic h fa c ilita te d a successful career in p o litics. E ac h o f El S a lv a d o r’s c o n s titu tio n s p r o h ib ite d a c tiv e -d u ty officers fro m p a rtic ip a tin g in p o litic s. B u t re c u rre n t d e n u n c ia tio n s o f p o litic a lly active officers su g g e st th a t th e ru le w as ig n o re d . “M ilita ry serv ice,” rea d o n e o f th e se d e n u n c ia tio n s in 1849, “is in c o m p a tib le w ith lo cal office­ h o ld in g , th e re fo re , c o n d u c t n e w e lec tio n s th r o u g h o u t C u s c a tlá n D e p a r t­ m e n t d u e to m e m b e rs o f th e a rm y b e in g e le c te d as alcaldes a n d re g id o re s.”51 “A ctive d u ty ” w as a v ag u e sta tu s, p a rtic u la rly d u r in g th e n in e te e n th c e n ­ tury, w h e n th e c e n tra l g o v e rn m e n t w as to o w e a k to en fo rc e o rd e r o n its s u p p o s e d em p lo y ees. A ctiv e d u ty m e a n t th a t o n e rec eiv e d a g o v e rn m e n t salary, b u t th e g o v e rn m e n t w as c o n s ta n tly in arrears, a n d th e so u rc e o f o n e ’s salary v a rie d greatly. S o m e tim e s p a y m e n t c a m e fro m g o v e rn m e n t coffers, b u t a t o th e r tim e s it w as d o le d o u t b y a p a tro n fro m reso u rce s th a t h a d b e e n e ith e r d o n a te d o r e x tra c te d fo rc ib ly fro m lo cal elites. R a n k , to o , w as a ra th e r h a p h a z a rd d e s ig n a tio n . H ig h r a n k m ig h t h av e b e e n th e p r o d ­ u c t o f years o f m ilita ry tr a in in g a n d service, o r it m ig h t h av e reflec te d n o th in g m o re th a n a n im p r o m p tu p r o m o tio n g iv en o u t b y a n e m b a ttle d g en e ral o r p re s id e n t se e k in g to a u g m e n t h is b e le a g u e re d forces. R a n k ty p i­ cally c o rre s p o n d e d to th e level a t w h ic h o n e p a r tic ip a te d in p o litic s. G e n ­ erals in v o lv e d th e m se lv es in n a tio n a l p o litic s, w h ile co lo n els a n d lesser officers p a rtic ip a te d in m u n ic ip a l p o litic s. M o s t p o litic a l bosses h e ld so m e fo rm o f m ilita ry r a n k a n d c a rrie d th e title o f th e ir ra n k w ith th e m th r o u g h ­ o u t th e ir lives. M o s t officers w ere in a s e m ip e rm a n e n t s ta te o f re tire m e n t, w a itin g to r e s p o n d to th e call o f a p a tro n , w h ile in th e m e a n tim e b u sy in g th em selv es w ith th e ir o w n fin a n c ia l a n d p o litic a l affairs. O fficers to o k p a r t in lo cal p o litic s to v a ry in g degrees. A t th e lo w est level, a n officer serv ed as th e g u n - to tin g e n fo rc e r o f a lo cal p a tro n . O n e boss rose to p o w e r in L a U n io n C ity in th e 1890s “b y w a y o f th e a rm e d forces,” as h is o p p o n e n ts re fe rre d to th e assistan ce h e rec eiv e d fro m th e

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local c o m m a n d e r.52 In m u n ic ip a litie s la c k in g a p e r m a n e n t m ilita ry force, bosses w e n t o u ts id e th e m u n ic ip a lity to se arch fo r m ilita ry allies. In 1895, a boss in A p o p a (S an S alv a d o r D e p a rtm e n t) f o u n d a n ally in th e c o m ­ m a n d e r o f th e P o licía M o n ta d a (th e m o u n te d p o lic e), th e ro v in g p re c u r­ so r to th e N a tio n a l G u a rd . T h e bo ss w as J u a n M e rin o , a lo cal la n d o w n e r, w h o w as c h a lle n g in g th e in c u m b e n t n e tw o rk le d b y Jose D u q u e , also a p r o m in e n t la n d o w n e r. O n th e m o r n in g o f th e e le c tio n th e c o m m a n d e r ro d e in to th e m u n ic ip a lity a n d w a tc h e d as D u q u e ’s n e tw o rk m o n o p o liz e d th e e le c tio n o f th e e lec to ra l b o a rd , se le c tin g D u q u e as p re sid e n t. T o th e a s to n is h m e n t o f D u q u e ’s follow ers, th e c o m m a n d e r a rre ste d D u q u e a n d re m o v e d h im fro m th e m u n ic ip a lity .53 T h e d ifficu lty o f an e n fo rc e r’s ta sk d e p e n d e d u p o n th e in te n s ity o f th e local rivalry. T h e c o m m a n d e r o f th e M o n ta d a h a d a n easy tim e o f it in A p o p a . In c o n tra st, in 1914 th e c o m m a n d e r o f S a n ta E le n a (U s u lu tá n D e p a rtm e n t) , V ic e n te B o lañ o s, fo u n d h im s e lf c a u g h t u p in a h e a te d c o n ­ flict. B o lañ o s w o rk e d o n b e h a lf o f th e L o z a n o fam ily, w h ic h o w n e d n u ­ m e ro u s p ro p e rtie s a ro u n d S a n ta E len a. T h e L o za n o s faced so m e d e te r­ m in e d ch allen g ers, a n d B o la ñ o s re a so n e d th a t th e b e s t stra te g y w as to d e n y th e m access to th e m u n ic ip a l h all. T h e n ig h t p r io r to th e e le c tio n , h e o c c u p ie d th e c e n tra l p la za a n d p o s te d a rm e d g u a rd s a t ea ch o f its fo u r en tra n ce s. O n th e m o r n in g o f th e e le c tio n th e o p p o s itio n g a th e re d a few b lo ck s aw ay a n d p re p a re d to s to rm th e m u n ic ip a l h all. B o la ñ o s a n d seven o f h is m e n ro d e o u t o n h o rses to en g ag e th e ch a lle n g ers a n d m e t th e m tw o b lo ck s aw ay fro m th e plaza. B o la ñ o s a n d h is m e n fire d g u n s in to th e air, s c a tte rin g th e c h a rg in g o p p o n e n ts . T o d e te r f u rth e r raid s, B o la ñ o s se t u p a m a c h in e g u n in th e m id d le o f th e p laza. N o t su rp risin g ly , a m e m b e r o f th e L o za n o fam ily, P ab lo L o za n o , w as e le c te d alca ld e w ith o u t f u rth e r in te rr u p tio n .54 O fficers a sp irin g to b e m o re th a n m e rc e n a rie s b u ilt th e ir o w n n e t­ w o rk s. M ilita ry m e n w ere f o rtu n a te in th a t th e y d id n o t h av e to b e ric h in la n d to b e successfu l in p o litic s. C o lo n e l T ad e o P érez o f Ju a y ú a is an ex am p le o f a m ilita ry o fficer w h o w as n e ith e r a la n d o w n e r n o r a m e m b e r o f a w e a lth y fam ily, a n d y e t b e c a m e a p r o m in e n t p o litic a l fo rc e in th e village d u r in g th e 1 8 80s a n d 1890s. P érez g a th e re d a few clien ts o f his o w n a n d fo rm e d a n allian ce w ith o n e o f th e v illag e’s lesser co ffee -g ro w in g fam ilies, th e M e n d o z a s. T o g e th e r th e y c h a lle n g e d th e d o m in a n t n e tw o rk

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r u n b y th e M a ta -C e a -S a la v e rría allian ce. O n tw o o ccasio n s, in 1886 a n d 1891, P érez a n d M e n d o z a b e tte re d th e d o m in a n t g ro u p in th e m u n ic ip a l e le c tio n s.55 A n o th e r ex a m p le o f a la n d less m ilita ry officer m a k in g it b ig in local p o litic s is G e n e ra l R ivas o f T ac u b a. W h e n R ivas re tire d in th e 1910s, h e w as lan d less a n d a rriv e d in T a c u b a w ith o n ly h is fam ily, so m e g u n s, an d , m o s t im p o r ta n t, a ru th le ss sense fo r p o litic s. R ivas allied w ith th e local p o lic e c h ie f a n d a few la n d o w n e rs, in c lu d in g L e o p o ld o C u e n c a a n d F ra n ­ cisco M o rá n , a n d a ssem b led a su b s ta n tia l n e tw o rk . R ivas a n d h is allies ra n th e to w n d u r in g th e 1910s a n d 1920s. C u e n c a , fo r in sta n c e , se rv e d as al­ cald e fo r a to ta l o f five years d u r in g th is p e rio d . R ivas h im s e lf d id n o t h o ld office, c h o o s in g in s te a d to c o n v e rt h is n e w fo u n d p o litic a l c lo u t in to fin a n ­ cial g ain . H e b e c a m e th e v illag e’s le a d in g m e rc h a n t in su g a r a n d m ilk a n d to o k u p resid e n c e in a larg e h o u se n e a r th e c e n te r o f to w n . G e n e ra l R ivas d e m o n s tra te d h o w a career in th e m ilita ry c o u ld b e tra n s fo rm e d in to p o ­ litica l a n d e c o n o m ic su ccess.56 I f a lan d less officer c o u ld su c ce ed as a p o litic a l b o ss, a m ilita ry m a n w ith p r o p e r ty h a d a n even g re a te r ad v a n ta g e. P ro p e rtie d officers h a d re a d y -m a d e p a tro n a g e n e tw o rk s. F ro m th e ir la n d s th e y receiv ed w e a lth a n d clients; fro m th e ir fam ilies th e y g a in e d p o litic a l allies; a n d fro m th e ir m ilita ry careers th e y d re w ex p e rien c e. C o lo n e l H ip ó lito B a lib re ra o f Ju c u a p a (U s u lu tá n D e p a rtm e n t) ex em p lifies a la n d e d m ilita ry o fficer e n g a g ­ in g in p o litics. In th e la te n in e te e n th c e n tu ry , J u c u a p a h a d b e c o m e a relativ ely im p o r ta n t c o ffe e -p ro d u c in g m u n ic ip a lity w h e re so m e tw o d o z e n fam ilies h a d p la n te d a lm o st tw o th o u s a n d m a n z a n a s o f coffee. B a lib rera o w n e d o n e coffee p la n ta tio n . A lth o u g h h e h a d p o litic a l asp ira tio n s, h e faced a fo rm id a b le o p p o n e n t, a p o w e rfu l allian ce o f fo u r la n d o w n in g fam ilies: C a stillo , H id a lg o , C a stro , a n d A ra u jo . B u t B a lib re ra w as a m a n o f m a n y h ats. A s a fa m ily p a tria rc h , la n d o w n e r, a n d m ilita ry officer, h e possessed all th e re q u ire m e n ts fo r success in p o litic s. B a lib re ra a ssem b led a p a tro n a g e n e tw o rk c o n s istin g o f h is fa m ily m e m b e rs a n d th e c lie n ts fro m h is p ro p e rtie s a n d m a d e a p o w e r g rab in th e e le c tio n o f 18 9 7 . T h e e n s u in g co n flict w as in te n se . B a lib rera w o n th e in itia l e le c tio n , b u t h is o p p o n e n ts m a n a g e d to o u st h im a n d fo rc e a n o th e r e le c tio n . B a lib re ra th e n w o n th e se c o n d elec tio n , o n ly to b e fo rc e d fro m office y e t ag ain . H is o p p o n e n ts

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assu m ed office in M a y 1898, b u t B a lib re ra c o n v in c e d th e re g id o re s to re tire fro m office a n d fo rc e d th e m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il to d isb a n d . T h e in te n s ity o f th e c o n flic t in J u c u a p a is rev e ale d in th e d isc o u rse e m p lo y e d b y B a lib re ra s o p p o n e n ts . T h e y ac cu sed h im o f u n le a s h in g th e p o litic a l w ill o f th e p ro le ta ria n s, a d e n u n c ia tio n ty p ic a l o f an in c u m b e n t n e tw o rk w h e n fac ed w ith a fo rm id a b le ch allen g er. “C o lo n e l H ip ó lito B ali­ b re ra ,” c la im e d h is o p p o n e n ts , “h as p u t th e ig n o r a n t p e o p le in a sta te o f d iso rd e r a n d in th a t is th re a te n in g th e p rin c ip le o f a u th o rity a n d p u b lic o rd er.” U n fo rtu n a te ly , a la ck o f d o c u m e n ts p re v e n ts us fro m le a rn in g th e u ltim a te resu lts o f th e 1 8 9 7 e le c tio n . R egardless, B a lib re ra d e m o n s tra te d th a t p r o p e r tie d m ilita ry officers c o u ld b e to u g h p o litic a l p la y ers.57 A s la n d ­ ow ner, p o litic a l a s p ira n t, a n d m ilita ry officer, h e w as a p ro to ty p ic a l p o ­ litica l boss.

E th n ic ity a n d P o litic s

I n reg io n s w ith s u b s ta n tia l in d ig e n o u s p o p u la tio n s , p o litic a l n e tw o rk s c o m m o n ly d ev e lo p e d a lo n g e th n ic lines. In d ig e n o u s p eo p les, o r In d ia n s , as I w ill refer to th e m h ere after, w ere rarely allo w ed to h o ld m u n ic ip a l o f­ fice o r f u n c tio n as p o litic a l bosses, p a rtly b ec au se o f ra c ism a n d p re ju d ic e , b u t also d u e to class d iv isio n s. In d ia n s w ere, fo r th e m o s t p a rt, p e a sa n ts a n d lab o rers ra th e r th a n h a c e n d a d o s a n d fin q u e ro s, a n d as su c h serv ed as clien ts a n d su b a lte rn s in s te a d o f alcaldes a n d reg id o res. In c e rta in m u n ic i­ palities, how ever, th e y c o m p e te d d ire c tly w ith th e la d in o s a n d even c o n ­ tro lle d m u n ic ip a l g o v e rn m e n t. In th e se in sta n c e s, In d ia n s p ro v e d to b e eq u a lly as a d e p t in c o n tro llin g v o tin g a n d m o n o p o liz in g g o v e rn m e n t offices. S tatistics re m a in in d is p u te as to th e p e rc e n ta g e o f In d ia n s in El S alva­ d o r ’s p o p u la tio n across tim e . F igures h av e ra n g e d fro m a lo w o f 5 p e rc e n t to a h ig h o f 30 p e rc e n t fo r a n y g iv e n tim e p e rio d after in d e p e n d e n c e . T h e d isp a ritie s in n u m b e rs are ca u se d in p a r t b y th e la c k o f c o n se n su s as to w h a t c o n s titu te s I n d ia n id e n tity , as w ell as a b asic p ro b le m o f p o o r r e c o rd ­ k ee p in g . In re c e n t research , G e o rg e L ovell a n d C h ris to p h e r L u tz in d ic a te th a t in 1807 In d ia n s a c c o u n te d fo r m o re th a n 3 0 p e rc e n t o f th e to ta l p o p u la tio n o f E l S alvador. V irg in ia T ille y h as c o n d u c te d ex ten siv e research

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o n I n d ia n d e m o g ra p h ic s in th e la te n in e te e n th a n d early tw e n tie th c e n tu ­ ries b y su rv e y in g b ir th rec o rd s to d e te rm in e th e e th n ic classificatio n o f n e w b o rn s. S h e c o n c lu d e s th a t a t th e tu r n o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry In d ia n s a c c o u n te d fo r ro u g h ly 10 p e rc e n t o f th e p o p u la tio n a n d h e ld ste a d y at th a t ra te u n til th e 1950s, w h e n m u n ic ip a litie s ceased d e n o tin g eth n icity . T illey ’s research also co n firm s th a t th e w e ste rn d e p a rtm e n ts c o n ta in e d th e g rea test p r o p o r tio n o f In d ia n s. In 19 0 0 , th e d e p a rtm e n ts o f S o n so n a te a n d A h u a c h a p á n w ere ro u g h ly 50 p e rc e n t In d ia n . T h e d e p a r tm e n t o f S an S alv ad o r w as close b e h in d , a n d th e d e p a rtm e n ts o f L a L ib e rta d , C u sc a tlán , L a Paz, a n d M o ra z á n c o n ta in e d lesser b u t sig n ific a n t p e rc e n ta g e s.58 M o s t In d ia n s liv ed in d is tin c t c o m m u n itie s (comunidades) th a t serv ed as th e p o litica l, relig io u s, a n d e c o n o m ic fo u n d a tio n o f I n d ia n life. T h e c o m m u n itie s w ere b y -p ro d u c ts o f th e c o lo n ia l era, w h e n I n d ia n a n d S p a n ­ ish societies w ere se p a ra te d fo rm a lly in to a república de los indios a n d a

república de los españoles.59 T h e I n d ia n to w n sh ip s re sid e d a lo n g sid e th e official m u n ic ip a litie s. F o r in sta n c e , th e m u n ic ip a lity o f Izalco in S o n ­ so n a te D e p a r tm e n t c o n siste d o f th e fo rm a l m u n ic ip a lity c o n tro lle d b y la ­ d in o s a n d tw o I n d ia n c o m m u n itie s , A s u n c ió n Izalco a n d D o lo re s Izalco .60 A lth o u g h su b je c t to th e fo rm a l law s o f th e n a tio n , I n d ia n c o m m u n itie s w ere s e m ia u to n o m o u s in th e ir p o litic a l a n d e c o n o m ic affairs. T h e y se­ le c te d th e ir o w n p o litic a l a n d relig io u s lead ers. T h e e c o n o m ic b ase o f th e c o m m u n ity w as its c o m m u n a l la n d s, p o te n tia lly larg e tra c ts th a t in m o s t cases h a d b e e n g ra n te d to th e In d ia n s b y th e S p a n ish c ro w n . T h e s e la n d s w ere th e official d o m a in o f th e c o m m u n ity , a n d access to th e m w as g o v ­ e rn e d b y c o m m u n ity leaders. T h e p o litic a l a n d social life o f I n d ia n c o m m u n itie s in El S alv a d o r h as n o t b e e n s tu d ie d extensively, b u t availab le e v id en c e allow s fo r a ro u g h sk e tc h .61 R o d o lfo C a rd e n a l h as c o n d u c te d rese arch in c h u rc h archives a n d su m m arize s w h a t I n d ia n c o m m u n itie s lo o k e d lik e in n in e te e n th - c e n tu ry El Salvador. T h e cofradía (a C a th o lic b ro th e r h o o d ) w as th e h e a rt o f th e c o m m u n ity , g u id in g th e s p iritu a l a n d p o litic a l life o f its m e m b e rs. T h e ra n k in g m e n o f th e c o m m u n ity h e ld th e p o sitio n s o f a u th o rity in th e c o ­ frad ía. T h e h ig h e st o f th e se p o sitio n s w as th e alcalde, fo llo w ed b y th e re g i­ dor, th e m a y o rd o m o , a n d fin ally th e alg u acil. E a c h p o s itio n c a m e w ith c e rta in relig io u s a n d p o litic a l resp o n sib ilitie s. T h e o ffic eh o ld ers c o n d u c te d th e a d m in istra tiv e affairs o f th e c o m m u n ity , in c lu d in g ta x a tio n a n d th e

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a llo c a tio n o f reso u rces, a n d also p re sid e d over th e relig io u s ic o n s ( im á ­

genes), p ro cessio n s, a n d festivals. W e a lth d e te rm in e d o n e ’s rise u p th e la d ­ der, fo r th e m o re im p o r ta n t th e p o s itio n , th e m o re fin a n c ia l re sp o n si­ b ilities it p la c e d u p o n its h o ld e r. A h ig h -le v el official, fo r in sta n c e , h o ste d th e a n n u a l relig io u s festival, a n ev e n t th a t r e q u ire d a n o u tp o u r in g o f fo o d a n d d r in k at h is ex p e n se .62 E v id e n c e sug g ests th a t c o m m u n itie s u se d so m e fo rm o f e le c tio n to d e te rm in e w h ic h o f th e ir m e m b e rs w o u ld o c c u p y p o sitio n s o f a u th o rity . E ac h year th e c o m m u n itie s h a d to s u b m it th e n a m e s o f th e ir n e w officials to th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t. T h e la n g u a g e o f th e se re q u e sts in d ic a te s th a t th e officials w ere elected . T h e I n d ia n c o m m u n ity o f Ju a y ú a s u b m itte d a ty p ic al re q u e s t in 1867: “T h e C o m m u n ity o f In d ia n s [C om ún de Indíge­

nas] o f th e village o f Ju a y ú a , o r b e tte r said, th e p e rso n s w h o possess its c o m m u n a l la n d s, a n n o u n c e th e e le c tio n o f th e fo llo w in g , fo r alcalde. . . .”63 E v id e n ce also suggests th a t o n ly h ig h -ra n k in g m a le m e m b e rs o f th e c o m ­ m u n ity v o te d in th e se e lec tio n s. F o r in sta n c e , in 1888 th e tw o I n d ia n c o m m u n itie s o f Izalco ea ch h a d to elect a ju e z partidor, th e in d iv id u a l w h o w o u ld re p re se n t th e c o m m u n ity d u r in g th e p riv a tiz a tio n o f its c o m m u n a l la n d s. In b o th cases, th e d o c u m e n ta tio n refers to th o se p e rso n s allo w ed to v o te as th e “individuos más caracterisados [sic],” a p h ra s in g c o m m o n ly u se d to refer to senior, w ell-e sta b lish e d p e rso n s, su g g e stin g th a t th e re m a in in g m e m b e rs d id n o t v o te .64 W h a te v e r m e th o d w as u sed, it is clear th a t I n d ia n a n d la d in o o ffic ia ld o m w ere se p a ra te fro m o n e a n o th e r; In d ia n s r a n th e ir c o m m u n itie s , a n d la d in o s g o v e rn e d th e fo rm a l m u n ic ip a lity . W e d o n o t k n o w e n o u g h a b o u t th e h is to ry o f in d ig e n o u s c o m m u n i­ ties in E l S alv ad o r to k n o w th e e x te n t o f th e im p a c t o n th e ir id e n titie s o f n e w n a tio n a l law s, su c h as th e c o n s titu tio n a l e x te n sio n o f c itiz e n sh ip to all a d u lt m e n a n d th e p riv a tiz a tio n o f c o m m u n a l la n d s. In cases o f in d ig e ­ n o u s c o m m u n itie s in o th e r c o u n trie s, it is e v id e n t th a t th o se tw o legal d e v e lo p m e n ts sig n ific a n tly affec ted in d ig e n o u s p e o p le s’ a b ility to p rese rv e th e ir id e n tity . T h e fo rm e r c h a lle n g e d th e tra d itio n a l h ie ra rc h ie s o f office­ h o ld in g in c o m m u n itie s , w h ic h w ere u su a lly b ased o n age. C o n s titu tio n s th a t m a d e all p e o p le eq u a l b e fo re th e law su d d e n ly p u t y o u n g I n d ia n m e n o n a n eq u a l f o o tin g w ith th e ir elders a n d p ro d u c e d s im m e rin g i n ­ tr a c o m m u n ity riv alrie s.65 S im ilarly, th e a b o litio n o f c o m m u n ity -m a n a g e d p r o p e r ty to o k aw ay th e m a in m a te ria l fo u n d a tio n o f c o m m u n ity id e n tity

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a n d e lim in a te d o n e o f its m o s t im p o r ta n t b u re a u c ra tic re sp o n sib ilitie s— m a n a g in g th e la n d a n d c o n tro llin g access to it. B u t as J u s tin W o lfe, a h is to ria n o f n in e te e n th - c e n tu ry N ic a ra g u a , p o in ts o u t, in d ig e n o u s id e n ­ tity d id n o t d e p e n d w h o lly o n c o n tro l over la n d o r sp ecific relig io u s o b ­ lig a tio n s. A d m itte d ly , th o se th in g s c o u ld g rea tly fa c ilita te th e su rv iv al o f in d ig e n o u s id e n tity , b u t u ltim ately , lik e a n y o th e r id e n tity , in d ig e n o u s s e lf-c o n c e p tu a liz a tio n w as b a se d o n h o w in d iv id u a l p e o p le ch o se to see th e m se lv es.66 In th e case o f El S alvador, it is a p p a re n t th a t d e s p ite th e p riv a tiz a tio n o f c o m m u n a l la n d s in th e 1880s, in d ig e n o u s c o m m u n ity id e n tity su rv iv ed a n d th riv e d th r o u g h o u t th e first th re e d ec ad e s o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry . In a t least tw o sp ecific cases, In d ia n s cro ssed th e p o litic a l b o rd e rs o f th e ir c o m m u n ity a n d c h a lle n g e d la d in o s fo r d ire c t c o n tro l over a m u n ic ip a lity . T h e cases are fro m N a h u iz a lc o a n d C u is n a h u a t b e tw e e n 1880 a n d 1930. B o th m u n ic ip a litie s are lo c a te d in S o n so n a te D e p a r tm e n t, a n d b o th h a d p o p u la tio n s th a t w ere n e a rly 9 0 p e rc e n t I n d ia n .67

N ahuizalco N a h u iz a lc o is lo c a te d n o rth w e s t o f S o n so n a te C ity a t th e base o f th e coffee h ig h la n d s in S o n s o n a te a n d A h u a c h a p á n D e p a rtm e n ts .68 T h e v illage h as in d ig e n o u s o rig in s a n d h as ex iste d sin c e at least th e tim e o f th e c o n q u e st; it has lo n g b e e n re c o g n iz e d as a co re o f El S a lv a d o r’s I n d ia n p o p u la tio n . It is a sizable village th a t ty p ically a c c o u n te d fo r at least 10 p e rc e n t o f th e e n tire p o p u la tio n o f S o n so n a te D e p a rtm e n t. In th e y ear 1858 its p o p u la ­ tio n w as ju s t u n d e r 5 ,0 0 0 ; b y 1 9 0 0 it w as 9 ,0 0 0 ; a n d in 1913 it w as ro u g h ly 1 4 ,0 0 0 . O f 2 ,3 1 9 m a les liv in g th e re in 1858, 2 ,2 8 4 w ere liste d as ““ jornaleros , ” w h ic h in th e la n g u a g e o f th a t d a y m e a n t p e a sa n t a g ric u ltu r­ ists. A lth o u g h th e sta tistic fails to d is tin g u is h b e tw e e n a d u lts a n d c h ild re n , it reveals th e d eg re e to w h ic h sm a llh o ld in g p r e d o m in a te d th e v illag e’s ec o n o m y . W h e n th e p riv a tiz a tio n d ecrees w ere h a n d e d d o w n in th e 1880s, c o m m u n ity m e m b e rs rec eiv e d titles to m u c h o f th e c o m m u n a l la n d , a n d sm a llh o ld in g c o n tin u e d to prev ail, a lth o u g h a few la d in o -o w n e d coffee p la n ta tio n s a n d ca ttle ra n c h e s e m e rg e d as w ell. A g o v e rn m e n t survey o f N a h u iz a lc o in 1913 to o k n o te o f th e e m e rg e n c e o f th e coffee fincas a n d c a ttle h a c ie n d a s a n d n o te d th a t In d ia n s w ere w o rk in g o n th e m . B u t th e

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su rv ey also n o te d th a t “o n e o f th e c irc u m sta n c e s th a t m o s t c o n trib u te s to th e d e v e lo p m e n t a n d w e ll-b e in g o f th is d is tric t [comarca] is th e m a n n e r in w h ic h th e ru ra l p r o p e r ty is d iv id e d u p ; h e re ea ch in h a b ita n t possesses a p ie ce o f la n d w h e re h e g row s h is su b siste n c e c ro p s.” S u c h e v id en c e p o r ­ trays N a h u iz a lc o as a p r e d o m in a n tly I n d ia n v illage in w h ic h In d ia n s re ­ ta in e d a s u b sta n tia l e c o n o m ic p re se n c e d e s p ite th e p riv a tiz a tio n d ecrees a n d th e em e rg e n c e o f la d in o s.69 T h e arch iv al e v id en c e o f N a h u iz a lc o ’s p o litic a l h is to ry b e g in s in th e year 1884 w ith a re b e llio n . O n th e n ig h t o f O c to b e r 5, as m a n y as tw o th o u s a n d In d ia n s a tta c k e d th e to w n a n d k ille d th e m u n ic ip a l officials, le av in g o n ly th e p rie st alive, a n d th e n b u r n e d th e m u n ic ip a l h all, th e a r­ chives, a n d th e h o m e o f a lo cal la d in o w h o w as d e sc rib e d as b e in g th e “g rea test o p p re sso r” o f th e In d ia n s. T h e rebels k ille d m o re th a n tw o d o z e n p eo p le, all o f th e m la d in o . A fter su p p re ss in g th e re v o lt a n d r e tu r n in g th e la d in o s to pow er, th e g o v e rn m e n t la u n c h e d a n in v e stig a tio n a n d e v e n tu ­ ally ex e cu ted te n p e o p le fo r le a d in g th e re v o lt.70 T h e reb e ls’ m o tiv e s are u n clear, b u t th e ir a c tio n s reveal in te n s e a n im o s ity b e tw e e n In d ia n s a n d la d in o s, as w ell as th e fa c t th a t in 1884 la d in o s c o n tro lle d th e m u n ic ip a l co u n c il. J u s t over o n e y ear later, how ever, in th e e lec tio n s o f 1885, th e In d ia n s g a in e d c o n tro l o f th e c o u n c il a n d h e ld o n to it fo r th e n e x t eig h ­ te e n years. T h e In d ia n s ro se to p o w e r in N a h u iz a lc o in 1885 p ro b a b ly as a re su lt o f th e o v e rth ro w o f P re sid e n t R afael Z a ld ív a r (1 8 7 6 —1 8 85) in M a y o f th a t year. T h e c o u p a g a in st Z a ld ív a r w as le d b y G e n e ra l F ra n cisc o M e n é n d e z , w h o w e n t o n to serve as p re s id e n t u n til 1890. M e n é n d e z w as a id e d in th e c o u p b y a n u m b e r o f o th e r g en erals, in c lu d in g G e n e ra l R afael G u tié rre z , w h o , a c c o rd in g to re p o rts fro m th e U .S. c o n su l, le d a fo rc e o f I n d ia n so l­ d iers fro m N a h u iz a lc o .71 I f th a t is tru e , w e ca n o n ly assu m e th a t so m e i n te re s tin g n e g o tia tio n s w e n t o n b e tw e e n th e in d ig e n o u s p e o p le o f N a h u iz a lc o a n d G e n e ra l G u tié rre z . T h e u n f o rtu n a te la c k o f d o c u m e n ta tio n p re v e n ts us fro m k n o w in g w h a t th e y sa id to o n e a n o th e r a n d th e p ro m ise s th a t m ig h t hav e b e e n m a d e b e tw e e n th e m . B u t available e v id en c e suggests th a t 1885 w as n o t th e first tim e th a t th e in d ig e n o u s in h a b ita n ts o f N a ­ h u iz a lc o h a d b e e n re c ru ite d in s u p p o r t o f a n a tio n a l-le v e l p o litic a l c o n fla ­ g ra tio n . W itn esse s to th e re b e llio n o f 1884 te stifie d th a t so m e o f th e rebels w ere d ressed in m ilitia u n ifo rm s, su g g e stin g a p re e x istin g lin k a g e b e tw e e n

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local forces a n d n a tio n a l-le v e l p o litic a l p la y ers.72 It is lik e ly th a t th e I n d i­ ans w ere given c o n tro l o f th e m u n ic ip a lity in D e c e m b e r 1885 in ex ch an g e fo r th e ir service to th e c o u p leaders. It is n o ta b le th a t N a h u iz a lc o ’s In d ia n s m a k e th e ir a p p e a ra n c e in th e p o litic a l re c o rd in th e m id -1 8 8 0 s , a t ro u g h ly th e sa m e tim e th a t th e p riv a ­ tiz a tio n decrees w ere b e in g im p le m e n te d . A la ck o f e v id en c e p re v e n ts us fro m k n o w in g i f p riv a tiz a tio n in s p ire d N a h u iz a lc o ’s In d ia n s to rise u p in re b e llio n in 1884, o r ally w ith G u tié rre z in 1885, o r se ek c o n tro l o f th e m u n ic ip a l g o v e rn m e n t. B u t so m e th e c o in c id e n c e s are n o te w o rth y . A fter all, p r io r to p riv a tiz a tio n , th e In d ia n s w o u ld h av e h a d little n e e d to b o th e r w ith m u n ic ip a l g o v e rn m e n t. T h e y w o u ld h a v e liv e d in a fu n c tio n in g c o m m u n ity w ith c o n tro l over a v ast c o m m u n a l p ro p e rty , so m u n ic ip a l g o v e rn m e n t m ig h t h a v e b e e n a d istra c tio n . B u t afte r p riv a tiz a tio n , it is p o ssib le th a t In d ia n s d e c id e d to e n te r in to m u n ic ip a l p o litic s in h o p e s o f b e in g able to u se th e p o w e rs o f lo cal g o v e rn m e n t to p r o te c t th em selv es a n d p re v e n t th e ir la d in o rivals fro m ta k in g th e ad v a n ta g e. It is a m id s t th e se ev e n ts th a t an I n d ia n b y th e n a m e o f N ic o la s L ú e b e c a m e alcald e in N a h u iz a lc o in D e c e m b e r 18 8 5 . F o r th e n e x t se v e n te e n years th e In d ia n s re ta in e d c o n tro l o f th e m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il. S o m e o f th e I n d ia n s u rn a m e s th a t p r e d o m in a te in th e lists o f m u n ic ip a l officials are L úe, T epas, L ip e, C u m il, N o la sc o , a n d C ó rte z (see ta b le 3 .2 ). A p a ir o f n u llific a tio n re q u e sts fro m 1 8 8 7 a n d 1894 su g g est th a t th e In d ia n s w ere d iv id e d in to a t le ast tw o c o m p e tin g fa c tio n s, b ec au se b o th re q u e sts w ere s u b m itte d b y In d ia n s in d e n u n c ia tio n o f o th e r In d ia n s .73 U n fo rtu n a te ly , a la ck o f d o c u m e n ta tio n p ro h ib its th e re c o n s tru c tio n o f th e rival n e tw o rk s, a n d th e ste a d y tu rn o v e r in office m a k es it im p o s sib le to id e n tify th e p r in ­ cipal leaders o f ea ch n e tw o rk o r to tra c e th e e v o lu tio n o f th e ir p o litic a l rela tio n s. In th e ir s tu d y o f e th n ic p o litic s in th e re g io n , h isto ria n s Je ff G o u ld a n d A ld o L a u ria -S a n tia g o also n o te d th e se in tr a -I n d ia n d iv isio n s a n d su g g est th a t th e y re fle c te d e c o n o m ic d iffe re n tia tio n as a re su lt o f th e e x p a n sio n o f coffee. T h e y su g g e st th a t so m e o f th e m o re p ro sp e ro u s I n d i­ ans m a y h av e th ro w n th e ir lo t in w ith la d in o s, b elie v in g th a t th e ir in te re sts a n d p ro sp e c ts w o u ld b e b e tte r p r o te c te d u n d e r la d in o le a d e rsh ip .74 R e ­ gardless o f m e a n s, how ever, it is clear th a t b e tw e e n 1885 a n d 19 0 3 , I n d i­ ans c o n tro lle d m u n ic ip a l g o v e rn m e n t.

Table 3 .2

Election Results in Nahuizalco during the Years of Indian Rule,

1885—1901 (partial results) D ecem ber 1885

D ecem ber 1 8 8 6

D ecem ber 1 8 8 7 (annulled)

A) Nicolás Lúe

A) José María Arias R) Isidoro Tepas R) Hipólito Campo R) Nazario Lúe R) Juan Crúz Merío S) Cipriano País

A) Manuel Hernández R) Francisco Cortéz R) Juan Cerén R) Isidrio Cortéz R) Candelario Lipe S) Francisco Crúz

M a y 1 8 8 8 (replacement)

D ecem ber 1889

D ecem ber 1890

A) Isidoro Pérez R) Pedro Pérez R) Norbeto Lúe R) José Hernández R) Norbeto Rafael S) Juan Ramos Hernández

A) Matías Beltrán R) Jesús Hernández R) M . Merío R) Nazario Cumil R) Rosalio Hernández S) Norbeto Crúz

A) Manuel Hernández R) Francisco Cortéz R) Santiago Blanco R) Catarino Cortéz R) Cresencio Quinteros S) Manuel Ortíz

D ecem ber 1891

D ecem ber 1893

D ecem ber 1895

A) Santiago Nolazco R) Serapio Galicio R) Enrique Cortéz R) Leandro Juárez R) Ascencio Cerén S) Saturino Arias

A) Andrés Martínez R) Manuel Esquina R) Yanuario Esquina R) José Nolazco R) Juan Pérez S) Feliciano Pérez

A) Ruperto Martínez R) Demetrio López R) Candelario Lipe R) Antonio Lúe R) Francisco Cortéz S) José María Hernández

D ecem ber 1 8 9 6

D ecem ber 1 9 0 0

D ecem ber 1901

A) José María Tepas R) Leandro Juárez R) Manuel Tesorero R) Manuel Valentín R) Estanislao Lipe R) José Ramos Hernández R) Norberto Lúe S) Norberto Guzmán

A) Indalecio Cortéz R) Gerónimo Cortéz R) Esteban Pérez R) Victoriano Rafael R) Nicolás Merced R) Juan Cena R) Albino Elena S) Norberto Guzmán

A) Rúperto Martínez R) Eulojio Tesorero R) Salvador Milan R) Simon Lipe R) Pataleon Pérez R) Encarnación Ortíz R) Buenaventura Páis S) Lorenzo Pérez

Source:

Libro del G obernador, N azario Salaverría, Sonsonate, Ju n e 1885 to January 1886, A G N , M G ,

unclassified box; Juntas de Elecciones, N ahuizalco, A G N , M G , SS, Box “Política 1890-1899, 1900­ 1908.” K ey:

A) Alcalde, R) Regidor, S) Síndico

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T h r o u g h o u t th e first d e c a d e o f In d ia n ru le , th e la d in o s o f N a h u iz a lc o k e p t a lo w p ro file. T h e y d id n o t c h a lle n g e th e I n d ia n co u n c ils in th e a n ­ n u a l electio n s, un less th e y w ere s u rre p titio u s ly w o rk in g th r o u g h fa c tio n a l I n d ia n allies. B u t in th e e le c tio n o f 1896 th e la d in o s e m e rg e d a n d p u b lic ly ch a lle n g e d th e In d ia n s fo r c o n tro l over m u n ic ip a l g o v e rn m e n t. T h e la d i­ n o s w ere le d b y th e B rito fa m ily a n d in p a rtic u la r E d u a rd o B rito , th e fa ­ m ily p a tria rc h . B rito w as an a s p irin g c a ttle ra n c h e r, a n d h e a n d h is fa m ily cam e to o w n tw o sizable p la n ta tio n s in N a h u iz a lc o . T h e B rito s allied w ith a n o th e r la d in o fam ily, V aldés, w h o se p rin c ip a l re p re se n ta tiv e w as S eb as­ tiá n V aldés, o w n e r o f th e p la n ta tio n “S a n ta T eresa.” T h e V aldés fa m ily to o w as em e rg in g as a p r o m in e n t la n d o w n in g clan , e v e n tu a lly p o sse ssin g five p la n ta tio n s in th e re g io n .75 A local citiz e n o f N a h u iz a lc o d e sc rib e d th e p o litic a l b a ttle o f 1896 in p la in te rm s, a lth o u g h h is sy m p a th ie s w ere w ith th e In d ia n s : “D u r i n g last S u n d a y ’s elec tio n s fo r lo cal a u th o ritie s in th is village, so m e [algunos cuán­

tos] la d in o s a tte m p te d to elect as A lca ld e S e b a stiá n V ald és; b u t th e p eo p le, th a t is th e In d ia n s, re je c te d sa id in d iv id u a l a n d in ste a d ch o se th e I n d ia n José M a ría T epas as A lc a ld e a n d o th e r In d ia n s fo r th e re m a in in g p o sts. T h o s e p erso n s w h o s u p p o r te d th e c a n d id a c y o f V aldés are d issatisfied a n d are w o rk in g to n u llify th e e lec tio n s c o n tra ry to th e w ill o f th e p e o p le .”76 T h e la d in o s d id n o t fin d allies a t th e n a tio n a l level to s u p p o r t th e m in th e ir b id to o u s t th e In d ia n s fro m th e m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il. T h e p re s id e n t a t th e tim e , G e n e ra l R afael G u tié rre z , w as th e m a n w h o h a d m o b iliz e d N a h u iz a lc o ’s In d ia n s in 18 8 5 , a n d so it a p p e a rs th a t th e la d in o s d id n o t hav e a s y m p a th e tic ear in th e c u rre n t a d m in is tra tio n . T h e g o v e rn m e n t re je c te d th e la d in o s’ n u llific a tio n re q u e st a n d allo w ed th e In d ia n s to re ­ m a in in pow er. B u t th e m e re ex iste n ce o f th e n u llific a tio n a tte m p t fo re ­ to ld o n g o in g In d ia n /la d in o rivalries. I f it is tr u e th a t th e G u tié rre z g o v ­ e r n m e n t re je c te d th e p e titio n b ec au se its lo cal allies w ere in p o w e r in N a h u iz a lc o , th e n w e w o u ld h av e a classic e x a m p le o f r e p a y m e n t o f a p a ­ tro n a g e favor. T h e la d in o s m a d e a se c o n d g rab fo r p o w e r in 19 0 1 , a n d a lth o u g h th e y failed o n c e ag ain , th e y m a d e a sh o w o f stre n g th . T h e n o ta b le fe a tu re o f th e e le c tio n w as th e d ra m a tic in c re ase in v o tin g a m o n g th e In d ia n s. In p r io r electio n s, th e n u m b e r o f I n d ia n v o te rs ra n g e d b e tw e e n a lo w o f 52 (in th e e le c tio n o f 1890) a n d a h ig h o f 187 (in th e e le c tio n o f 1 8 9 5 ). B u t

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in 1901, In d ia n s cast 6 5 1 v o tes. T h e v ic to rio u s I n d ia n c a n d id a te s w o n w ith 6 4 9 v o tes apiece, d e m o n s tra tin g th e ir c a p a c ity to c o n tro l v irtu a lly all of th e v o tin g . B u t th e la d in o c a n d id a te s w ere n o t e x c lu d e d en tire ly : E d u ­ ard o B rito receiv e d o n e v o te fo r sín d ic o . H is a b ility to e n su re th a t even th is sin g le v o te w as re c o rd e d in h is fav o r reflects th e g ro w th o f h is p o litic a l clo u t. M o reo v er, th e s u d d e n su rg e in th e overall n u m b e r o f v o te rs suggests th a t th e In d ia n s c o n s id e re d th e la d in o s to b e a g e n u in e th re a t a n d d e c id e d to rely u p o n th e ir s tre n g th in n u m b e rs . T h e in c re ase also m a y reveal a d im in u tio n o f in tr a -I n d ia n fa c tio n a lism . In e ith e r case, th e n e a r u n a ­ n im ity o f th e e le c tio n in d ic a te s th a t th e In d ia n s e x c lu d e d th e la d in o s fro m v o tin g a n d k n e w h o w to c o n d u c t e le c tio n s a c c o rd in g to th e in fo rm a l ru les o f p o litic s .77 In th e ele c tio n o f 19 0 3 , th e la d in o s fin ally p re v a ile d over th e In d ia n s b y seizin g c o n tro l o f th e p o llin g s ta tio n a n d p re v e n tin g th e ir adversaries fro m v o tin g . E d u a rd o B rito w as elec ted p re s id e n t o f th e e lec to ra l b o a rd , a n d a m e m b e r o f th e V aldés fam ily, A rc a d io V aldés, w as e le c te d alcalde. T h e seven o th e r p e o p le e le c te d to th e m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il a lo n g w ith V aldés w ere M a r tín H e rn á n d e z , E u la lio G u z m á n , A m b ro c io Pérez, A n d ré s M a u ­ ricio , P ed ro C rú z , E u la lio T ad e o , a n d José Z a c a p a . S o m e o r all o f th e m m ig h t hav e b e e n I n d ia n — at least so m e o f th e s u rn a m e s su g g e st th a t th e y w ere. B u t n o n e o f th e m a p p e a r in c o rro b o ra tin g d o c u m e n ts th a t w o u ld allo w e ith e r th e ir e th n ic ity o r th e ir p o litic a l loy alties to b e tra c e d . N o n e o f th e m h a d b e e n in office d u r in g th e p r io r e ig h te e n years o f I n d ia n ru le . I f th e y w ere In d ia n s, th e y w ere lik e ly e s tra n g e d fro m th e I n d ia n h ie ra rc h y a n d s h ifte d th e ir alliances to th e la d in o s in h o p e s o f c lim b in g th e p o litic a l lad d er. R egardless, th e la d in o s c o n tro lle d th e e le c tio n o f 1903. T h e resu lts o f th e n e x t e le c tio n (1 9 0 4 ) are n o t k n o w n , b u t th e e le c tio n o f 1905 re ­ su lte d in y et a n o th e r la d in o victo ry . S e b a stiá n V aldés w as elec ted alcalde, a n d a n o th e r V aldés a n d a B rito serv ed o n th e e lec to ra l b o a rd .78 T h e resu lts o f th e n e x t e ig h te e n e lec tio n s are n o t k n o w n , b u t it a p ­ p ears th a t In d ia n s su ccessfu lly c o m p e te d in th e m . A lo cal o b se rv e r c o m ­ m e n te d in 1926 th a t In d ia n s “a lm o st alw ays are in c o n tro l o f th is M u n ic i­ p ality .”79 In 1923 In d ia n s w ere in p o w e r a n d w ere c o n f r o n te d b y th e la d in o s, le d b y R o d o lfo B rito , th e h e ir to E d u a rd o B rito ’s p o litic a l e m p ire , a n d A n to n io C o n tre ra s , R o d o lfo ’s n ep h e w . T h e y c o n v in c e d so m e m e m ­ bers o f a n e a rb y N a tio n a l G u a rd p o s t to assist th e m in p re v e n tin g In d ia n s

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fro m e n te rin g th e p o llin g p la c e d u r in g th e e le c tio n . A n to n io C o n tre ra s w as elec ted alcalde, b u t h e w as la te r fo rc e d fro m p o w e r in a n u llific a tio n process; th is su g g ests o n c e a g a in th a t th e In d ia n s h a d m a n a g e d to b u ild loyalties w ith n a tio n a l-le v e l p o w e r p la y ers.80 T h e stak es o f th e 1923 elec­ tio n w ere h ig h b ec au se th e g o v e rn m e n t o f P re sid e n t A lfo n so Q u iñ ó n e z M o lin a h a d c h a n g e d th e te n u re o f m u n ic ip a l office to fo u r years, so w h o ­ ever g o t c o n tro l o f th e c o u n c il in 1923 w o u ld h o ld it u n til 1927. T h e d o c u m e n ta tio n su g g ests th a t th e n e x t fo u r years w ere tu m u ltu o u s , w ith la d in o a n d I n d ia n re p re se n ta tiv e s m o v in g in to a n d o u t o f m u n ic ip a l o f­ fice. A d o c u m e n t fro m S e p te m b e r 1926 states th a t th e alcald e w as a n I n ­ d ia n b y th e n a m e o f P ed ro R o d ríg u e z , b u t five m o n th s ea rlier a le tte r w ritte n b y th re e la d in o s, e v id e n tly e s tra n g e d fro m th e B rito -C o n tre ra s n e tw o rk , states th a t th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t h a d m a d e a m is ta k e b y al­ lo w in g B rito a n d C o n tre ra s to r e tu r n to po w er, b ec au se th e y m is tre a te d In d ia n s .81 E v id e n ce o f lo cal p o litic s in N a h u iz a lc o in th e 1 9 20s a n d 1930s re ­ veals m u c h a b o u t p o litic s a t th e n a tio n a l level a n d th u s c o u ld b e rese rv e d fo r la te r ch a p te rs, b u t I h av e p re s e n te d th e e v id en c e h e re b ec au se it h ig h ­ lig h ts th e o n g o in g e th n ic basis o f p o litic a l n e tw o rk b u ild in g a t th e m u ­ n ic ip a l level. W i th th e a sc e n sio n o f P ío R o m e ro B o s q u e to th e p re sid e n c y in 1927, th e In d ia n s h a d a n o p p o r tu n ity to re g a in c o n tro l o f th e m u ­ n ic ip a l c o u n c il o n c e a n d fo r all, b ec au se th e R o m e ro g o v e rn m e n t e m p h a ­ sized g e n u in e ly d e m o c ra tic p ro c e d u re s, a n d b y v irtu e o f th e ir o v e rw h e lm ­ in g n u m b e rs th e In d ia n s h a d a g re a t ad v a n ta g e. In d e e d , In d ia n s w o n th e m u n ic ip a l e le c tio n o f D e c e m b e r 1927, b u t th e B rito c liq u e d id n o t s u r ­ re n d e r p o w e r easily. R o d o lfo B rito c o n te n d e d th a t th e v ic to r, P ed ro M e n ­ doza, w as illite ra te a n d d e m a n d e d th a t h is e le c tio n b e a n n u lle d ; illite ra te p e o p le w ere n o t legally allo w ed to h o ld p u b lic office. T h e R o m e ro g o v e rn ­ m e n t in v e stig a te d th e d e n u n c ia tio n a n d ev e n tu a lly ru le d in B rito ’s favor, d e s p ite th e ad v ice o f th e m ilita ry c o m m a n d e r o f S o n s o n a te D e p a rtm e n t, w h o w ro te th a t “it is b e tte r to h av e fo u r th o u s a n d c o n te n t In d ia n s ra th e r th a n fo u r c o n te n t la d in o s, w h o h av e u se d th e m u n ic ip a l offices o n ly to sw in d le th e In d ia n s .”82 T h e re a fte r, N a h u iz a lc o b e c a m e a h o tb e d o f e th n ic a lly b a se d p o litic a l co n flict. W h ic h e v e r g ro u p w as in po w er, In d ia n s o r la d in o s, th e o th e r b a rra g e d th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t w ith a c o n tin u a l s trin g o f d e n u n c ia tio n s

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a n d n u llific a tio n re q u e sts.83 T h e d e n u n c ia tio n s a rriv e d n o t o n ly at elec­ tio n tim e , b u t in th e in te r im as w ell. In o n e o f th e se in te r im n u llific a tio n req u e sts, s u b m itte d b y th e la d in o s in 1930, m e m b e rs o f th e B rito fam ily ch a rg e d P ed ro M e n d o z a , th e n se rv in g o n th e m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il— d e sp ite h is illiteracy, it w o u ld se em — w ith d ru n k e n n e ss, a n o th e r ch a rg e th a t if p ro v e n tr u e m a d e o n e in e lig ib le fo r p u b lic office. M e n d o z a d e fe n d e d h im ­ se lf b y say in g th a t B rito ’s re q u e st w as “m o tiv a te d b y n o th in g m o re th a n b itte rn e ss over th e ir loss in th e la st e le c tio n .”84 T h e g o v e rn m e n t, how ever, ru le d th a t M e n d o z a w as a d r u n k a r d a n d n u llifie d h is e lec tio n . O v erall, th e In d ia n s failed to re g a in c o n tro l o f th e m u n ic ip a l g o v e rn ­ m e n t afte r 1927 , ex c ep t fo r o n e in sta n c e in th e e le c tio n o f D e c e m b e r 1929. T h e la d in o s w ere p o w e rfu l b e y o n d th e ir n u m b e rs . T h e y p o ssessed sig n ific a n t fin an c ia l reso u rce s a n d c o n tro lle d th e m u n ic ip a l p o lic e. T h e la d in o s also h a d o th e r e le m e n ts in th e ir favor. T h e R o m e ro g o v e rn m e n t, w h ile s u p p o rtiv e o f d e m o c ra tic ideals, w as far re m o v e d fro m th e local co m p lex itie s o f N a h u iz a lc o . G o v e rn m e n t a u th o ritie s p ro b a b ly h a rb o re d th e sa m e ste re o ty p ic a l a ttitu d e s a b o u t In d ia n s u se d b y N a h u iz a lc o ’s la d i­ n o s in th e ir d e n u n c ia tio n s . S u c h bias p ro b a b ly m a d e it easier fo r n a tio n a llevel officials to b eliev e th a t M e n d o z a w as a d ru n k , w h e th e r h e w as o r n o t. T h e R o m e ro g o v e rn m e n t w as also o v e rw h e lm e d b y th e m u ltitu d e o f n u l­ lific atio n req u e sts p o u r in g in to S an S alv a d o r a t th e tim e . G o v e rn m e n t o f­ ficials f o u n d it d iffic u lt to fin d th e tim e to c o n d u c t p ro p e r in v e stig a tio n s, a n d in a p in c h it w as easier to en fo rc e th e sta tu s q u o , w h ic h in N a h u iz a lc o afte r 1926 m e a n t fa v o rin g th e la d in o s. H o w ev er, in o n e n o ta b le ex c e p tio n , th e g o v e rn m e n t’s la c k o f k n o w le d g e ac tu a lly w o rk e d to th e a d v a n ta g e o f th e In d ia n s. In th e e le c tio n o f D e c e m b e r 1929 th e la d in o s w o n th e in itia l elec tio n , b u t in a n iro n ic tw ist, th e In d ia n s c h a rg e d th e v icto r, R o d o lfo B rito , w ith d ru n k e n n e s s a n d d e m a n d e d th a t h is v ic to ry b e n u llifie d . In resp o n se to th e In d ia n s ’ re q u e st, th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t d is p a tc h e d th e d e p u ty d e p a rtm e n ta l g o v e rn o r (th e re g u la r g o v e rn o r w as o c c u p ie d w ith o th e r n u llific a tio n re q u e sts), w h o w as so b u sy w ith h is o w n b a c k lo g o f cases th a t h e a b a n d o n e d all h o p e o f d isc o v e rin g w h e th e r o r n o t B rito a c tu ­ ally w as a d r u n k a n d ru le d in fav o r o f th e In d ia n s sim p ly b ec au se “th e y p re s e n te d m o re w itn e sses th a n th e o p p o s itio n .”85 N o tw ith s ta n d in g th is o n e ex am p le, su c h ca p ric io u sn e ss rarely b e n e fite d th e In d ia n s, a n d b y th e m u n ic ip a l e le c tio n o f Ja n u a ry 1932 th e y h a d r u n o u t o f p a tie n c e .

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T h e m u n ic ip a l ele c tio n s th a t to o k p la c e in J a n u a ry 1 9 3 2 h a d b e e n p o s tp o n e d fro m th e o rig in a l d a te o f D e c e m b e r 1931 b ec au se o f p o litic a l tu m u lt a t th e n a tio n a l level, w h ic h w ill b e d e s c rib e d in la te r c h a p te rs. T h e tim in g w as p r o p itio u s , b ec au se th r o u g h o u t th e w e ste rn re g io n , I n ­ d ia n c o m m u n itie s w ere m o b iliz in g fo r a n a rm e d in s u rre c tio n , a n d th e d a y o f th e e le c tio n a lm o st c o in c id e d w ith th e d a y o f th e p la n n e d rev o lt. In th e ele c tio n o n e slate w as le d b y a m e m b e r o f th e B rito fam ily, F ra n cisc o B rito , w h ile th e o th e r slate w as h e a d e d b y a n In d ia n , P a b lo C ru z . W h e n it ca m e tim e to v o te, th e la d in o s seized c o n tro l o f th e m u n ic ip a l h all a n d allo w ed In d ia n s to v o te , b u t re c o rd e d th e ir v o tes in fav o r o f B rito . T h e In d ia n s p ro te s te d a n d d e m a n d e d a n u llific a tio n . T h e y s e n t th e ir in itia l re q u e st to th e g o v e rn o r o f S o n s o n a te o n Ja n u a ry 16. N u llific a tio n s n o rm a lly re q u ire d tw o m o n th s to b e p ro ce ssed , a n d d ec isio n s se ld o m a rriv e d in less th a n fo u r m o n th s . A lth o u g h th e In d ia n s k n e w th is, th e y w a n te d im m e d ia te a c tio n . F o u r days later, o n J a n u a ry 2 0 , h a v in g rec eiv e d n o resp o n se , th e In d ia n s s e n t a n o th e r le tte r to S o n so n a te re q u e s tin g a re sp o n se to th e ir p e titio n , b u t still n o w o rd ca m e b ac k . T h e y s e n t y e t a n o th e r p e titio n th e fo llo w in g day. T h e failu re to a c t o n th e th ir d re q u e st, th e y w a rn e d , w o u ld h av e grave co n seq u e n ces: “ C e rta in ly it w as n o t y o u r in te n tio n to fo rg e t o u r p e titio n , n o r is it n o rm a lly o b lig a to ry to r e s p o n d in su c h s h o r t tim e , b u t failu re to tr a n s m it even a v erb a l a c k n o w le d g m e n t o f o u r p e titio n is n o w a th re a t to th e social o rd e r.”86 N o re sp o n se arriv ed , a n d o n th e n e x t d a y N a h u iz a lc o w as ta k e n over b y a rm e d p ea sa n ts.

Cuisnahuat T h e m u n ic ip a lity o f C u is n a h u a t offers a n o th e r case in w h ic h In d ia n s p a rtic ip a te d d ire c tly in m u n ic ip a l p o litic s. C u is n a h u a t w as a re m o te , m e d iu m -s iz e d v illage lo c a te d in th e e a ste rn p a r t o f S o n so n a te D e p a r t­ m e n t, close to th e b o rd e r w ith L a L ib e rta d D e p a rtm e n t, in w h a t w as th e n k n o w n as th e “b a lsa m co a st.” It w as a n a g ric u ltu ra l village d e d ic a te d p r i­ m a rily to th e p r o d u c tio n o f su b siste n c e c ro p s, a lth o u g h d u r in g th e n in e ­ te e n th c e n tu ry it h a d also p ro d u c e d b a lsa m w o o d . A n 1858 a g ric u ltu ra l su rv ey b y th e d e p a rtm e n ta l g o v e rn o r re p o rte d th a t th e “m a jo rity o f th e la n d is u n c u ltiv a te d a n d c o m p rise s h ig h la n d fo rests a n d v irg in m o u n ­ tain s. . . . T h e p rin c ip a l o c c u p a tio n o f th e in h a b ita n ts is th e c u ltiv a tio n

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a n d e x p lo ita tio n o f b a lsa m .” T h e g o v e rn o r also to o k n o te o f th e p r e d o m i­ n a n tly I n d ia n m a k e u p o f th e p o p u la tio n : “T h e la n g u a g e o r d ia le c t u se d b y th e in h a b ita n ts is N a h u a t. . . . G e n e ra lly th e m e n dress in n o th in g m o re th a n th e calzoncillo a n d camisa de m anta a n d th e w o m e n in a sk irt

[refajo] o f ty p ic a l fa b ric a n d a w ra p [tapadera o r toalla de m adapollan ].” T h e p o p u la tio n o f th e village in 1858 w as e s tim a te d a t 7 5 0 . In 1903 it h a d risen to 3 ,2 3 5 , w h ic h q u a lifie d it as th e six th la rg e st in th e d e p a rtm e n t. By th e 1920s th e a g ric u ltu ra l p ro d u c tio n o f th e village w as still p r e d o m in a te d b y sm a llh o ld ers, a n d o n ly th re e p ro p e rtie s o f m e d iu m size w ere id e n tifie d officially as h ac ie n d a s. A g o v e rn m e n t su rv ey in 1913 r e p o rte d th a t “th e p a trim o n y o f th e in h a b ita n ts co n sists o f th e c u ltiv a tio n o f cereals a n d th e e x p lo ita tio n o f so m e b alsam . T h e re are n o h a c ie n d a s o r fincas o f g re a t im ­ p o rta n c e , a n d th e ru ra l p r o p e r ty is in th e h a n d s o f th e In d ia n s .”87 T h e arch iv al e v id en c e o f C u is n a h u a t’s p o litic a l h is to ry b e g in s in th e year 1885 w ith th e In d ia n s alre ad y in c o n tro l o f th e m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il. It is n o t clear w h e n o r h o w th e In d ia n s o rig in a lly a sc e n d e d to pow er, o r if th e y d id so in th e sa m e a p p a re n t m a n n e r as N a h u iz a lc o ’s In d ia n s in 1885— in allian ce w ith a p o w e rfu l n a tio n a l-le v e l p o litic a l player. R e g a rd ­ less, C u is n a h u a t’s In d ia n s c o n tro lle d all b u t o n e e le c tio n over th e fiftee n year sp a n b e tw e e n 1885 a n d 19 0 0 . It a p p e a rs th a t th e In d ia n s w ere n o t d iv id e d , as w ere th e ir c o u n te rp a rts in N a h u iz a lc o , b ec au se ea ch m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il a n d electo ra l b o a rd w as d o m in a te d b y in d iv id u a ls w h o h a d h e ld p o sts in p a s t years. J u a n In o c e n te M a rtín e z , A lb in o C la ra , B e rn a rd in o R am írez, a n d L uís H e rn á n d e z w ere a m o n g th e p rin c ip a l I n d ia n lead ers (see ta b le 3 .3 ). P o litics in th e v illage w as d iv id e d a lo n g e th n ic lines, la d i­ n o s o n o n e side, In d ia n s o n th e o th e r. In 1 9 0 0 th e In d ia n s lo st p o w e r to th e la d in o s after a b itte r c a m p a ig n . T h e la d in o s h e ld th e m u n ic ip a l c o u n ­ cil fo r th e n e x t tw o years u n til th e In d ia n s su c c e e d e d in o u s tin g th e m . T h e In d ia n s th e n h e ld th e c o u n c il fo r a t least th e n e x t five years. L a n d w as a t th e c e n te r o f th e p o litic a l c o n flic t in C u is n a h u a t, as is e v id e n t in th e e le c tio n o f 19 0 0 . T h e la d in o s w o n th e e le c tio n , a n d th e In d ia n s s u b m itte d a n u llific a tio n re q u e st. F o rtu n a te ly , b o th sides o f th e d is p u te p ro v id e d lo n g e x p la n a tio n s o f th e ir p o sitio n s. T h e In d ia n s w ere re p re se n te d b y A lb in o C la ra , th e s ta n d in g alcalde, a n d B e rn a rd in o R a ­ m írez. T h e y accu sed th e la d in o s o f e n listin g th e services o f a rm e d m e n w h o u se d fo rc e a n d v io le n c e to e n su re a la d in o v ic to ry : “T h e a rm e d m e n

Table 3 .3 Municipal Councils in Cuisnahuat, Sonsonate Department, 1885—1899 (partial results) D ecem ber 1 8 8 5 (Indian)

D ecem ber 1 8 8 6 (Indian)

D ecem ber 1 8 8 7 (Indian)

A) Damian Hernández R) Juan Incocente Martínez R) Coronado Ruis S) Margarito Pintín

A) Luís Hernández R) Ignacio Coreto R) Monico Augustín S) Juan Antonio Zosa

A) Bernardino Ramírez R) Jesús Leonardo Carías R) Marcelo Santos S) Luis Conce

D ecem ber 1 8 8 8 (Indian)

D ecem ber 1 8 8 9 (Indian)

D ecem ber 1 8 9 0 (Ladino)

A) Juan Incocente Martínez R) Manuel Constante R) Felix Hernández S) ? Flores

A) Juan Inocente Martínez A) Antonio Chacón R) Oracio Espinoza R) Jesús Leandro Gómez S) José María Rivas

D ecem ber 1891 (Indian)

D ecem ber 1893 (Indian)

D ecem ber 1 8 9 6 (Indian)

A) Luís Conce R) Prudencio Valenica R) Pedro Guerra S) Romualdo Bardales (Directorio) Bernardino Ramírez Narcisco Hernández Damian Hernández Macario Reyes Venancio Hernández

A) Juan Inocente Martínez R) Remigio Flores R) Francisco Ramírez S) Simon García (Directorio) Bernardino Ramírez Fidel Hernández Perfecto Constante Luís Hernández

A) Albino Clara R) Norberto Crúz R) Inocente Augustín S) Perfecto Constante

D ecem ber 1 8 9 9 (Indian)

A) Albino Clara Source:

Libro del G obernador, N azario Salaverría, Sonsonate, June 1885 to January 1886, A G N , M G ,

unclassified box; an d Ju n tas de Elecciones, C u isn ah u at, A G N , M G , SS, Box “Política, 1890—1899, 1 9 0 0 -1 9 0 8 .”

K ey:

A) Alcalde, R) Regidor, S) Síndico

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w ere w o rk in g o n th e b e h a lf o f Jo sé M a ría H e rn á n d e z , w h o is th e p rin c ip a l re p re se n ta tiv e o f th e la d in o s, w h o h av e re c e n tly a rriv e d in th is re g io n a n d hav e ta k e n th e b e s t la n d aw ay fro m th e In d ia n s. T h e la d in o s w a n t to g ain c o n tro l o f th e p o sitio n s o f lo cal a u th o rity fo r th em selv es, as th e y d id in 1891, w h ic h re su lte d in th e loss o f p ro to c o l in th e M u n ic ip a lity , fo r th e y u se d u p all th e m u n ic ip a l fu n d s fo r th e ir o w n p u rp o se s a n d d is trib u te d th e g rea ter p o r tio n o f th e la n d s to th e m se lv e s.”88 T h e la d in o s re s p o n d e d to th e I n d ia n d e n u n c ia tio n in k in d :

Since m a n y years ago, th e n u m b e r o f ladinos in this region has been in ­ creasing an d suffering fro m th e d ictato rial a ttitu d e o f th e In d ian s in re­ gard to th e h o ld in g o f m u n ic ip a l office. T h e y have c o n te m p t for everything outside th e ir p rim itiv e custom s an d th e ir idolatrous an d im m o ra l habits, an d they reject everything th a t is progressive. T h e y b eat th eir children an d have n o respect for th e p ro p e rty o f peo p le ou tsid e th e ir com m unity. W e p resent th e follow ing list o f com plaints: 1) I f there is a co m p lain t against a jo rn alero , th e In d ian A lcalde in stead orders the arrest o f th e solicitor. 2) T h e y sp en d th e m u n ic ip a l fu n d s in th e bar. 3) Five o r six caciques d o m in a te th e rest o f th e p o p u la tio n an d do n o t w an t any pow er to go to th e ladinos for fear o f losing th eir power. . . . 8) T h e In d ian A lcalde Luis H e rn á n d e z used m u n ic ip a l funds to purchase p ro p e rty for him self, an d co n trary to th e law, forced ladinos to p ay a tax

[canon]. 9) It is th e only village in th e n a tio n th a t is governed solely by In d ian s.89

T h e s e d e n u n c ia tio n s reveal th a t b o th th e In d ia n s a n d th e la d in o s p ro f­ fered th e sa m e c o m p la in ts: th e m o n o p o liz a tio n o f la n d a n d p o litic a l p o w er b y th e o th e r g ro u p . T h e e th n ic clash over la n d is rev e ale d in th e case o f th e h a c ie n d a “T o n alá.” In 1890, a lo cal la d in o b y th e n a m e o f J u a n M a th é c o m p la in e d to th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t th a t In d ia n s w ere s q u a ttin g illegally o n p o r ­ tio n s o f T o n alá. T h e h a c ie n d a h a d b e e n m e a su re d b y th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn ­ m e n t a n d p u rc h a s e d b y M a th é in th e y ea r 1888, th e sa m e y ear th a t th e c o m m u n a l la n d s o f C u is n a h u a t w ere m e a su re d a n d p riv a tiz e d . T h e In d i­ ans c la im e d th a t T o n a lá w as p a r t o f th e ir c o m m u n a l d o m a in a n d th a t M a th é h a d n o rig h t to title it fo r h im self. T h a t T o n a lá b e c a m e th e c e n te r

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135

o f a legal d is p u te w o u ld n o t h a v e su rp rise d a n y o n e fa m ilia r w ith th e a g ri­ c u ltu ra l r e p o r t o f 1858, b ec au se in th a t r e p o rt th e In d ia n s ’ ties to T o n a lá are m a d e clear. D u r in g h is v isit to C u is n a h u a t in 1858, th e g o v e rn o r in te r ­ v ie w e d so m e o f th e o ld e r villagers (ancianos), w h o in fo rm e d h im th a t th e ir an c esto rs o rig in a lly h a d liv e d in th e “la n d s o f T o n a lá ” b u t w ere m o v e d in th e early e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry to w h a t is n o w C u is n a h u a t d u e to th e flo o d ­ in g o f th e R ío G ra n d e . T h e an c ia n o s c la im e d th a t th e S p a n ish c ro w n (au­

toridad regia) g ra n te d th e ir la n d s to th e m as ejidos, o r c o m m u n a l la n d s, b u t th a t th e titles h a d sin c e b e e n lo st. M a th é c la im e d th a t th e la n d s o f T o n a lá w ere s ta te -o w n e d baldio la n d a n d th a t h e h a d p u rc h a s e d th e m le ­ gally fro m th e g o v e rn m e n t. T h e m in is try o f g o v e rn m e n t in v e stig a te d , ru le d in fav o r o f M a th é , a n d in s tru c te d th e m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il o f C u isn a h u a t, w h ic h a t th e tim e w as c o n tro lle d b y In d ia n s, to re sp e c t M a th é ’s rig h ts a n d assist h im in p re v e n tin g in c u rsio n s. T h e c o u n c il ag re ed to a b id e b y th e g o v e rn m e n t’s d ec isio n b u t c o n tin u e d to refer to T o n a lá as th e “al­ le g e d ” baldio la n d . R egardless o f w h o h e ld th e le g itim a te c la im to T o n alá, th e c o n flict reveals th a t th e I n d ia n le a d e rsh ip h e ld th e c o n v ic tio n th a t la ­ d in o s w ere b e n e fitin g a t th e ir ex p e n se .90 It is e v id e n t th a t c e rta in la d in o s h e ld su b s ta n tia l p o rtio n s o f C u isn a h u a t’s la n d w e a lth . J u a n M a th é is o n e clear ex a m p le . O n a n 1 8 9 7 list o f village in h a b ita n ts , o n ly o n e p e rso n is ca te g o riz ed as a notable, a la d in o b y th e n a m e o f F ra n cisc o L e m u s w h o h a d serv ed o n th e la d in o -c o n tro lle d c o u n c il o f 190 1 . O n ly la d in o s a p p e a r o n lists o f th e p rin c ip a l ca ttle r a n c h ­ ers in th e village. O f th ese, F ra n cisc o R e cin o s serv ed o n th e 1901 c o u n c il, a n d A n to n io C h a c ó n se rv e d o n th e 1901 c o u n c il a n d also th e la d in o c o n tro lle d c o u n c il o f 1890. A t th e sa m e tim e , c e rta in In d ia n s p o ssessed d is p ro p o rtio n a te a m o u n ts o f la n d . A list o f th e p rin c ip a l a g ric u ltu rists in th e village c o n ta in s n in e n a m e s, th re e o f w h ic h are In d ia n : B e rn a rd in o R am írez, A lb in o C la ra , a n d A n a sta c io H e rn á n d e z , th re e o f th e fo u r m a in I n d ia n p o litic a l lead ers in th e re g io n . R a m íre z also o w n e d o n e - th ird o f a n e a rb y h a c ie n d a . It is n o t clear h o w th e se In d ia n s a c c u m u la te d th e ir la n d ­ h o ld in g s . It is lik e ly th a t th e y fo llo w ed th e p a tte r n se t b y w e a lth y In d ia n s in a lm o st every o th e r c o m m u n ity : th e y o r th e ir fam ilies h a d g a in e d access to ex tra p o rtio n s o f c o m m u n a l la n d p rio r to th e era o f p riv a tiz a tio n a n d th e n a c q u ire d titles to th e la n d d u r in g th e p riv a tiz a tio n p ro c e ss.91 U n fo r ­ tu n a tely , la ck o f e v id en c e p re v e n ts us fro m k n o w in g h o w th e se w e a lth ie r In d ia n s le g itim iz e d th e ir w e a lth a n d c o n tin u e d to c u rry fav o r a m o n g th e ir

136

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p o o re r b re th re n . P re su m a b ly th e y re lie d o n tr a d itio n a l in d ig e n o u s c u ltu ra l m e c h a n ism s, su c h as th e ag e -b ase d h ie ra rc h y w ith in th e c o fra d ía .92 T h e I n d ia n a n d la d in o elites o f C u is n a h u a t e m p lo y e d id e n tic a l ta ctics to g ain p o litic a l po w er. T h e y c o n tro lle d th e p o llin g s ta tio n , e le c te d th e m ­ selves to th e elec to ra l b o a rd , e x c lu d e d o n e a n o th e r ’s s u p p o rte rs fro m v o t­ in g , a n d p u t th em se lv es in office. In th e e le c tio n o f 19 0 0 , fo r ex am p le, th e la d in o s c o n tro lle d th e p o llin g s ta tio n a n d re fu se d to allo w In d ia n s to v o te. T h e y even w e n t so far as to sta te in th e official ele c tio n r e p o r t th a t “th e g re a te r p a r t o f th e I n d ia n c itiz e n ry d id n o t p a rtic ip a te [no concurrió] in th e e le c tio n d e sp ite b e in g re g iste re d to v o te .”93 In clear v io la tio n o f th e fo rm a l rules, b u t in k e e p in g w ith th e tr a d itio n o f m o n o p o liz e d electio n s, b o th In d ia n s a n d la d in o s e le c te d p e rso n s to th e m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il w h o also h a d serv ed o n th e e lec to ra l b o a rd . F o r ex a m p le , in th e e le c tio n o f 1900, José M a ría H e r n á n d e z se rv e d o n th e b o a rd a n d w as also elected sín d ico . In th e e le c tio n o f 19 0 1 , A n to n io Q u in ta n illa , F ra n cisc o L em u s, a n d A n to n io C h a c ó n h e ld p o sitio n s o n th e b o a rd a n d w ere elec ted to th e co u n c il. In th e e le c tio n o f 19 0 3 , B e rn a rd in o R a m íre z w as elec ted alcald e afte r h a v in g serv e d o n th e b o a rd . W h e n th e la d in o s re p o rte d th e ir elec­ to ra l resu lts, th e y d id n o t in d ic a te i f v o tin g w as u n a n im o u s , a n d a lth o u g h th e In d ia n s re c o rd e d “o p p o s itio n ” v o tes in 19 0 3 , o n ly m e m b e rs o f th e ir n e tw o rk receiv ed th e se v o tes (see ta b le 3 .4 ). T h e resu lts o f th e e le c tio n o f 1903 e x h ib it th e ty p ic al v o tin g p a tte r n in w h ic h a sin g le p o litic a l n e tw o rk m o n o p o liz e d th e e le c tio n . O n e o f th e c a n d id a te s (C h a c ó n ) w h o lo st th e p o s itio n o f alcald e p ro c e e d e d to w in th e office o f reg id o r, w h ile a n o th e r c a n d id a te w h o lo st th e p o s itio n o f re g id o r w o n th e office o f sín d ic o . A c u rio u s fe a tu re o f th e e le c tio n o f 1903 is th e in c lu s io n o f C h a c ó n , a la ­ d in o , o n th e I n d ia n -c o n tro lle d c o u n c il. E ith e r th is re p re se n ts a rare case in w h ic h a m e m b e r o f th e o p p o s itio n w as g iv en a p o s itio n o n a m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il as a co n c essio n , o r C h a c ó n h a d jo in e d forces w ith th e In d ia n s. U n fo rtu n a te ly , th e availab le e v id en c e d o es n o t m a k e clear w h a t tra n sp ire d . R egardless, C h a c ó n ’s in v o lv e m e n t d o es n o t u n d e r m in e th e p o in t th a t th e In d ia n s c o n tro lle d th e elec tio n . In s h o rt, th e tw o c o m p e tin g fa c tio n s o f C u is n a h u a t lo o k e d v ery m u c h lik e a n y tra d itio n a l p a tro n a g e n e tw o rk . B o th o f th e m w ere r u n b y a h a n d ­ fu l o f local elites w h o e m p lo y e d th e tra d itio n a l to o ls o f e lec to ra l m a n ip u ­ la tio n to g ain p o w er; th e y m o n o p o liz e d v o tin g a n d d is trib u te d th e spoils

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Table 3 . 4 Election Results, Cuisnahuat, Sonsonate Department, 1900, 1901, 1903 (partial results) M u n ic ip a l C ouncil

A) Apolinario Rivas R) Adolfo Cierra R) Justo Rodríguez S) José María Hernández

A ) Antonio Quintanilla R) Antonio Chacón R) Francisco Recinos S) Francisco Lemus

A) Bernardino Ramírez Anastacio Hernández Antonio Chacón R) Antonio Chacón Regimio Flores R) Isidoro Martínez Crisanto Barrera S) Crisanto Barrera Remigio Flores Source:

K ey:

Votes Cast

December 1900 (Ladino) n.a.

December 1901 (Ladino) n.a.

December 1903 (Indian) 154 19 1 166 6 68 1

M em bers o f Directorio

José María Hernández Francisco Lemus

Antonio Quintanilla Francisco Lemus Antonio Chacón Indalecio Sierra

Bernardino Ramírez Antonio Chacón Vicente Chacón Román Jacinto Fidel Hernández

173 1

Juntas de Elecciones, C u isn ah u at, A G N , M G , SS, Box “Política, 1890—1899, 1900—1908;

A) Alcalde; R) Regidor; S) Síndico

o f office a m o n g th em selv es. E th n ic ity d id n o t a lte r th e fu n c tio n in g o f p a tro n a g e -b a s e d p o litic s, b u t sim p ly gave it a u n iq u e lo o k . I f a n y th in g , e th n ic ity m a d e p o litic a l b o sses’ lives easier, b ec au se th e s u p p o rte rs w ere m o tiv a te d b y th e ir e th n ic id e n titie s. N ev e rth ele ss, th e bosses w ere th e p rin c ip a l ben e ficia ries. D e m o c ra c y w as n o m o re a p p a re n t w ith in th e e th ­ n ic ally b a se d n e tw o rk s th a n in a n y o th e r p a tro n a g e alliance. *

*

*

138

Authoritarian El Salvador

L ocal p o litic a l n e tw o rk s w ere b u ilt o n d iv erse fo u n d a tio n s . O f t e n ­ tim es th e y rev o lv ed a ro u n d th e ste re o ty p ic a l p a tro n -c lie n t re la tio n sh ip o f a la n d e d elite a n d h is d e p e n d e n t la b o re rs. T h e elite s o u g h t to h a v e his clien ts d o h is b id d in g . B u t th e clien ts w a n te d s o m e th in g to o . E v en i f th e ir b a rg a in in g p o s itio n w as lim ite d b ec au se o f th e ir e c o n o m ic v u ln e ra b ility , th e ir in te ra c tio n s w ith th e p a tro n w ere a re la tio n sh ip , a n d lik e a n y o th e r re la tio n sh ip , it w as c o m p lic a te d a n d o p e n to n e g o tia tio n . W e h av e little d ire c t ev id en c e o f th o se re la tio n sh ip s, b u t w e can su rm ise th a t th e y w ere co m p lex . I f n o th in g else, th is c h a p te r sh o w s th e d iv e rsity o f th e f o u n d a ­ tio n s o f local p o litic a l n e tw o rk s, p a rtic u la rly in th e case o f e th n ic ity . I n m u n ic ip a litie s w ith sig n ific a n t in d ig e n o u s p o p u la tio n s , as in th e cases o f N a h u iz a lc o a n d C u is n a h u a t, e th n ic b o n d s p ro v id e d a basis fo r p o litic a l r e c ru itm e n t. P o w e rfu l, e th n ic ity -b a se d p o litic a l n e tw o rk s in b o th m u n ic i­ p alitie s b a ttle d fo r c o n tro l over m u n ic ip a l office w ith rival la d in o n e tw o rk s th a t w ere sim ila rly u n ite d a lo n g e th n ic lines. T h e s e e th n ic n e tw o rk s d e m ­ o n s tra te d a n im p re ssiv e a d h e re n c e to th e in fo rm a l ru les o f p o litic s. E ven th o u g h th e in d ig e n o u s m a jo rity w as lik e ly to w in a n y e le c tio n in w h ic h p e o p le v o te d u n e n c u m b e re d , th e in d ig e n o u s n e tw o rk s p ra c tic e d p o litic s in th e sa m e m a n n e r as th e ir la d in o c o u n te rp a rts , b y c o n tro llin g th e p o ll­ in g s ta tio n s a n d re s tric tin g th e fra n c h is e to th e ir su p p o rte rs.

C H A P T E R

4

m u n ic ip a l e l e c t io n s a n d m u n ic ip a l autonom y

, CA. 188 0-1930

T h e last c h a p te r sh o w e d h o w lo cal p o litic a l n e tw o rk s w ere b u ilt. T h is c h a p te r lo o k s a t w h a t th o se n e tw o rk s d id o n e le c tio n d a y to g ain c o n tro l o f m u n ic ip a l office. It lo o k s at th e n a tu re o f th e ch a lle n g e b e tw e e n rival n e tw o rk s, th e ta ctics th e y u se d in th e ir a tte m p ts to c o n tro l v o tin g , a n d th e w ays th e y u se d v io le n c e a n d th e n u llific a tio n pro cess in s u p p o r t o f th e ir b id s fo r office. A ll o f th is w as h ig h ly re g im e n te d , a n d y e t it all fu n c tio n e d a c c o rd in g to in fo rm a l ru les th a t ev e ry o n e u n d e r s to o d a n d a c c e p te d as th e n o rm a l w ay o f d o in g th in g s. T h is is a g o o d m o m e n t to re m in d o urselves o f th e fre q u e n c y o f elec­ tio n s in E l S alvador, as w ell as th e ir in tim a te se ttin g s. In its first c e n tu ry o f existence, El S alv a d o r e x p e rie n c e d s o m e th in g in th e ra n g e o f tw e n ty t h o u ­ sa n d electio n s, in v o lv in g te n s o f th o u s a n d s o f e lec to ra l overseers a n d c a n ­ d id a tes a n d h u n d r e d s o f th o u s a n d s o f v o te rs. M o s t o f th o se e lec tio n s to o k p la ce in sm all c o m m u n itie s , su c h as th o se d e sc rib e d in th e pages below , w h e re m o s t every p o litic a l p la y er k n e w ev e ry o n e else in v o lv e d in th e p r o ­ cess. W h a te v e r h a p p e n e d in a n y o n e e le c tio n w o u ld b e re m e m b e re d a n d c a rrie d over in to th e n e x t o n e — to say n o th in g o f its im p a c t o n in te r p e r ­ so n a l a n d p ro fe ssio n a l re la tio n sh ip s in th e in te rim . E v en in th e larger u rb a n areas, a n y o n e w ith p o litic a l c lo u t k n e w ev e ry o n e else o f relevance. G iv e n th a t elec tio n s fo r n a tio n a l offices o c c u rre d in th e m u n ic ip a litie s,

139

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a n d th a t th e y w ere r u n b y th e m u n ic ip a l a u th o ritie s w h o h a d c o m e to p o w e r in m u n ic ip a l e lec tio n s ju s t o n e m o n th p rio r, th e m u n ic ip a l se ttin g w as g r o u n d zero fo r all p o litic a l affairs in E l S alvador. T h is c h a p te r is d iv id e d in to tw o in te rre la te d p a rts th a t tra n s itio n in to th e n a tio n a l n a rra tiv e in th e n e x t c h a p te r. T h e first p a r t stick s closely to th e d etails o f elec to ra l b a ttle s a t th e m u n ic ip a l level. T h e se c o n d p a r t b e ­ g ins b y r e tu r n in g to th e n a tio n a l level, s h o w in g h o w re la tio n s b e tw e e n th e m u n ic ip a l a n d n a tio n a l levels c h a n g e d fro m th e early tw e n tie th c e n tu ry o n w a rd w ith th e c o n s o lid a tio n a n d c e n tra liz a tio n o f sta te pow er. T h r o u g h ­ o u t m o s t o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry , re g io n a l- o r n a tio n a l-le v e l p o litic a l n e tw o rk s h a d lim ite d a b ility to c o n tro l e lec to ra l h a p p e n in g s in th e n a ­ tio n ’s m u n ic ip a litie s, a n d even s o m e tim e s in th e ir o w n stro n g h o ld s. B u t slow ly a n d steadily, s ta rtin g a r o u n d 1900, th a t b e g a n to c h a n g e as th e p o w e r o f th e c e n tra l sta te grew . N a tio n a l-le v e l a u th o ritie s b e g a n to im p o s e th e ir w ill m o re readily, a n d in re sp o n se m u n ic ip a l-le v e l officials d e fe n d e d th em selv es w ith th e c o n c e p t o f m u n ic ip a l a u to n o m y .

L ocal E le c tio n s

O n c e a local p o litic a l bo ss a ssem b led a n e tw o rk o f s u p p o rte rs (clien ts, stra te g ic allies, frie n d s, fam ily, e th n ic k in s m e n , a n d so o n ), h e w as re a d y to c o n te n d fo r p o w e r in th e a n n u a l m u n ic ip a l elec tio n s. T h e s e e lec tio n s r e p ­ re se n te d p recise m o m e n ts w h e n th e s tre n g th o f p o litic ia n a n d n e tw o rk w ere p u t to th e test. A t sta k e w as c o n tro l over th e m u n ic ip a l g o v e rn m e n t a n d all th e rew ard s th a t o ffic e h o ld in g b ro u g h t, in c lu d in g th e o p p o r tu n ity to b u ild o r re in fo rc e allian ces w ith m o re p o w e rfu l p o litic a l ac to rs o u tsid e th e m u n ic ip a lity . M o n th s o f p la n n in g a n d p re p a ra tio n h a d to c o m e to g e th e r o n elec­ tio n d a y i f a n e tw o rk w as to s ta n d v ic to rio u s a t th e e n d o f th e day. It h a d to c o n tro l v o te rs, se cu re th e s u p p o r t o f any n ecessary allies, a n d o u tm a n e u v e r o p p o n e n ts . M o s t im p o r ta n t, a n e tw o rk h a d to c o n tro l th e p o llin g s ta tio n . E le ctio n s w ere c o n te ste d affairs, b u t v o tin g w as n o t. C a n d id a te s c o m p e te d w ith o n e a n o th e r fo r c o n tro l over th e p o lls in o rd e r to m o n o p o ­ lize v o tin g . A n e tw o r k g a in e d c o n tro l o f th e p o lls e ith e r physically, by o c ­ c u p y in g th e p o llin g s ta tio n o n th e m o r n in g o f th e e le c tio n , o r m e ta -

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pho rically , b y e n s u rin g th a t th e officials w h o c o n d u c te d th e e le c tio n w ere allies. L ike th e n a tio n a l-le v e l e lec tio n s e x a m in e d in th e p re c e d in g ch a p te rs, m u n ic ip a l elec tio n s w ere d e c id e d b y o v e rw h e lm in g m a rg in s, a n d u su a lly b y u n a n im ity . T h is w as th e case in b o th in d ire c t e lec tio n s p r io r to 1872 a n d d ire c t elec tio n s th e re afte r. T h e m u ltitu d e o f v o tin g re c o rd s s c a tte re d th r o u g h o u t S a lv a d o ra n archives sta n d s as e v id e n c e .1 In N a h u ilin g o (S o n so n a te D e p a rtm e n t) , th e m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il th a t ca m e to p o w e r in 1840 d id so w ith all n in e e lec to ra l v o tes in its favor.2 T h e v illage o f S a n ta C la ra (S an V ic e n te D e p a rtm e n t) re p o rte d , as th e resu lts o f its e le c tio n o f 1843, “th e eig h t electo res h av e g a th e re d . . . a n d h a v e elected , b y a u n a n im ity o f v otes, S e ñ o r C o ro n a d o P a n a m e ñ o as A lca ld e .”3 In S o n so n a te C ity in 1864 th e m u n ic ip a l officials w ere e le c te d “b y a u n a n im ity o f v o te s.”4 In N a h u iz a lc o in 19 0 8 , th e J u n ta d e E le ccio n es re p o r te d th a t “in th e a c t o f v o t­ in g b y th e citiz en s o f th is m u n ic ip a lity fo r th e officials to serve in th e n e x t year, it h as re su lte d th a t th e fo llo w in g p e rso n s w ere e le c te d b y a u n a n im ity o f 4 5 4 v o tes ea ch .”5 In th e ev e n t th a t v o tin g in a n in d ire c t e le c tio n d id n o t go a c c o rd in g to th e p la n s o f th e d o m in a n t n e tw o rk , th e lead ers o f th e n e tw o rk sim p ly ca n ce le d it a n d h e ld a d d itio n a l r o u n d s o f v o tin g . D u r in g th e e le c tio n o f 1854 in S an M ig u e l C ity, th e d o m in a n t n e tw o r k ca n ce le d v o tin g th re e tim es b ec au se so m e o f th e electo res v o te d fo r o th e r c a n d id a te s. O n th e f o u rth ro u n d , th e d o m in a n t n e tw o rk re in e d in th e d issen te rs a n d o b ta in e d th e d esire d u n a n im o u s re su lts.6 R esu lts fro m th e e le c tio n o f 1883 in th e village o f A ta c o (A h u a c h a p á n D e p a rtm e n t) are in d ic a tiv e o f th e o v e rw h e lm in g m a jo rity th a t w as ach iev ed in th e a b sen c e o f u n a n im ity . A to ta l o f 106 v o tes w ere cast, a n d all o f th e c a n d id a te s o b ta in e d m o re th a n 9 0 p e rc e n t o f th e v o tes (see ta b le 4 .1 ). L ocal ele c to ra l officials o fte n d id n o t even b o th e r to re c o rd th e o p ­ p o n e n ts ’ v o tes in su c h lo p s id e d c o n te sts. T h e y d ism isse d th e tin y m in o r ity o f o p p o s itio n v o tes in te rm s sim ila r to th o se u se d in 1889 b y th e p re s id e n t o f th e electo ra l b o a rd in Is h u a tá n (S o n so n a te D e p a rtm e n t) : “ O th e r c a n ­ d id a tes receiv e d v o te s fo r sa id offices, b u t in n u m b e rs so in sig n ific a n t th a t . . . th e citizen s liste d ab o v e are e le c te d .”7 A lth o u g h d o m in a n t n e t­ w o rk s p re fe rre d to e lim in a te th e ir o p p o n e n ts fro m a n e le c tio n , o c c a sio n ­ ally, e ith e r as a c o n c essio n o r as p a r t o f a n e g o tia te d deal, th e d o m in a n t

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n e tw o rk allo w ed its rivals to cast so m e v o tes. T h e d a n g e r in su c h g estu res b e c a m e a p p a re n t w h e n th e o p p o s itio n re fu se d to a c c e p t its p re d e te rm in e d d efe at a n d s e n t la rg e n u m b e rs o f v o te rs to th e p o lls. T h e d o m in a n t n e t­ w o rk th e n h a d to ta k e d ra stic a c tio n in o rd e r to p rese rv e its victo ry . S u c h a n e v e n t o c c u rre d in a m u n ic ip a l e le c tio n in th e p o r t to w n o f A ca ju tla (S o n so n a te D e p a rtm e n t) in th e la te 1880s. T h e d o m in a n t n e tw o rk al­ lo w ed its rivals to ca st so m e v o tes b u t th e n d isc o v ered th a t it w as lo sin g th e elec tio n . V o tin g w as ca n ce le d a n d , in th e w o rd s o f th e d e p a rtm e n ta l go v ern o r, “v ario u s d is tu rb a n c e s ” b ro k e o u t.8 A llo w in g th e o p p o s itio n to p a rtic ip a te in a n e le c tio n w as th e ex c ep ­ tio n to th e ru le. I n a lm o st all cases w h e re m o re th a n o n e c a n d id a te receiv ed v o tes fo r th e sam e office, ea ch c a n d id a te b e lo n g e d to th e sa m e p o litic a l n e tw o rk . T h e c a n d id a te w h o lo st th e e le c tio n fo r o n e office ty p ic a lly w o n a d iffe re n t office in th a t sa m e e le c tio n . T h e resu lts fro m th e m u n ic ip a l ele c tio n o f 1849 in th e village o f G u a d a lu p e (S an V ic e n te D e p a rtm e n t) illu stra te th is p h e n o m e n o n (see ta b le 4 .2 ). T h e e le c tio n w as in d ire c t, a n d G u a d a lu p e w as a sm a ll village, so o n ly te n electo res p a rtic ip a te d — fo r th e

Table 4 .1

Election Results, Ataco, Ahuachapán Department, 1883

Position

C andidate

# o f Votes

% o f Votes

Alcalde

Isidro Rivas Andrés Avelino Sesario Vicente

101 4 1

95 4 1

Regidor #1

Baleriano Enriques Lucas Gómez

96 10

91 9

Regidor #2

Juan Secundino Lucas Gómez Baleriano Enriques

104 1 1

98 1 1

Síndico

Sinecio Juares Domingo Carlos

104 2

98 2

Source:

Ju n ta Electoral, A taco, D ecem ber 17, 1883, A G N , M G , Box “ 1882, 84, 86, 87, 88.’

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sake o f c o m p a riso n , in th a t sa m e y ear m o re th a n fifty electo res p a rtic i­ p a te d in th e e le c tio n in th e la rg e r m u n ic ip a lity o f S o n s o n a te C ity .9 T h e ele c tio n offers a ty p ic a l e x a m p le o f a n e le c tio n th a t w as d o m in a te d b y a sin g le n e tw o rk . M u ltip le c a n d id a te s receiv ed v o tes, b u t all o f th e m w ere m e m b e rs o f th e sa m e n e tw o rk , a n d th e losers o f o n e office sim p ly w o n d if­ fe re n t offices. B e n tu ra C o rn e jo lo st th e p o s itio n o f alcald e b u t w o n re g id o r # 1 , a n d Ig n ac io P a ra d a lo st re g id o r # 2 b u t w o n th e office o f sín d ico . T h e resu lts fro m th e m u n ic ip a l e le c tio n o f 1886 in Ju a y ú a (S o n so n a te D e p a rtm e n t) offer a sim ila r case (see ta b le 4 .3 ). T h e e le c tio n w as d irec t, w h ic h ex p lain s th e larg e n u m b e r o f v o tes rela tiv e to G u a d a lu p e in 1849, b u t th e resu lts are sim ilar. M u ltip le c a n d id a te s receiv ed v o tes fo r ea ch o f­ fice, b u t all o f th e p a rtic ip a n ts w ere p a r t o f th e sa m e p o litic a l n e tw o rk , a n d each o f th e fo u r re g id o re s h a d lo st a t least o n e o th e r office in th a t sa m e electio n . T h e ev id en c e d o es n o t m a k e clear w h e th e r th e resu lts in ta b les 4 .2 a n d 4 .3 sh o w m e m b e rs o f th e sa m e p a tro n a g e n e tw o rk c o m p e tin g w ith o n e a n o th e r fo r office, o r i f th e w in n e rs w ere p re d e te rm in e d b y th e u p p e r

Table 4 .2 Municipal Election, Guadalupe, San Vicente Department December 1849 (Indirect Voting)

Office

C andidate

Alcalde

Ciriaco Piñeda Bentura Cornejo Rafael Morales

7 2 1

Regidor #1

Bentura Cornejo Rafael Morales

9 1

Regidor #2

Liverate Aguilar Ignacio Parada

9 1

Síndico

Ignacio Parada Apolinario Platero

6 4

Source:

# o f Votes

Ju n ta Electoral, G uadalupe, D ecem ber 16, 1849, A G N , M G , SSV, 1849, unclassified box.

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Table 4 .3 Municipal Election, Juayúa, Sonsonate Department, December 1886 (Direct Voting)

O ffic

Candidates (N u m b e r o f votes in parentheses)

Alcalde

Tadeo Pérez (163); Ramón Mendoza (25); Adolfo Cea (24)

Regidor #1

Ramón Mendoza (158); Felipe González (25); Margarito Mata (11)

Regidor #2

Luciano Siete (133); Luciano Mendoza (28); Felipe González (23); Román Mendoza(12)

Regidor #3

Luciano Mendoza (85); Luciano Siete (33); two others with less

Regidor #4

Margarito Mata (90); Luciano Mendoza (24); two others with less

Síndico

Isidoro Josa (135); Zeferino Alfaro (72)

Source:

Ju n ta E lectoral, Juayúa, D ecem ber 1886, A G N , M G , SS, Box “Política, 1 8 90-9, 1 9 0 0 -0 8 .”

ec h elo n s o f th e n e tw o rk . O n e p o ssib ility is th a t th e le a d in g bosses o f a n e tw o rk d id n o t w a n t to a lie n a te th e ir u n d e rlin g s b y c h o o s in g o n e over an o th e r, a n d th u s allo w ed th e m to c o m p e te fo r office, ju s t as o c c u rre d in th e vice p re sid e n tia l e le c tio n o f 1 8 9 5 . T h e d a n g e r in a llo w in g g e n u in e c o m p e titio n w as th e p o ssib ility o f rivalries d e v e lo p in g w ith in a n e tw o rk . R egardless, th e resu lts in ta b les 4 .2 a n d 4 .3 reveal a sin g le p o litic a l n e t­ w o rk d o lin g o u t th e sp o ils o f office to its o w n m e m b e rs. O v erall, tab les 4 .1 , 4 .2 , a n d 4 .3 e m p h a siz e th e g o ld e n ru le o f p o litic s in El S alvador: electo ral v ic to ry re q u ire d th e m o n o p o liz a tio n o f p o llin g sta tio n s.

T h e N a tu r e o f th e C h a lle n g e

T h e sy stem o f p a tro n a g e -b a s e d p o litic s p r o m o te d a m o n o p o ly o n office­ h o ld in g , b u t th e sy stem also fu n c tio n e d b e s t w h e n it allo w ed fo r so m e tu rn o v er. P o litical bosses o u t o f p o w e r h a d to feel th a t th e y w o u ld b e given

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a fig h tin g c h a n c e to o u s t th e in c u m b e n t a n d ta k e th e ir tu r n in office. If a n o p p o s itio n bo ss w as p e rp e tu a lly d e n ie d access to po w er, h e m ig h t ta k e h is b id o u ts id e th e sy stem b y tu r n in g p o p u lis t a n d try in g to ta p in to th e p o litic a l w ill o f th e m asses. R ic h a rd G ra h a m d escrib es a sim ila r pro cess a t w o rk in B razil: “S in ce so m e w h o d e e m e d th em selv es w o rth y o f p o w er w o u ld in e v ita b ly n o t h o ld it, th e ir p ro te s t m u s t b e a c c o m m o d a te d i f it w ere n o t to th re a te n stability. A m e a n s h a d to b e d ev ised th a t w o u ld assure th e m th a t th e ir tim e w o u ld c o m e .” 10 W h ile exclusive, p o litic a l office h a d to b e sh ared . T h e fo rm a l ru les o f m u n ic ip a l elec tio n s, w h ic h re m a in e d basically u n ­ c h a n g e d b e tw e e n 1840 a n d 19 4 0 , w ere d e sig n e d to sa fe g u ard th e sy stem b y e n c o u ra g in g tu rn o v e r in o ffice.11 T h e ru les s tip u la te d th a t elec tio n s w ere to o c c u r a n n u a lly a n d th a t m u n ic ip a l officials c o u ld n o t b e e le c te d to co n sec u tiv e te rm s. D u r i n g th e early years o f th e re p u b lic , officials h a d to re m a in o u t o f office fo r tw o years b e fo re re g a in in g th e ir elig ib ility ; it w as la te r c h a n g e d to o n e y e a r.12 T h e ru les also p r o h ib ite d fa m ily d y n asties. M u n ic ip a l officials w h o sh a re d fo u r degrees o f c o n s a n g u in ity w ere n o t al­ lo w ed to serve to g e th e r. In so m e cases th is re s tric tio n w as a p p lie d to m e m ­ bers o f co n se c u tiv e co u n c ils. T h e ru les also fo rb a d e m u n ic ip a l officials fro m c a m p a ig n in g o n th e b e h a lf o f f u tu re c a n d id a te s, th e re b y lim itin g th e ir o p p o r tu n ity to use official p o w ers to b o o s t allies. F inally, th e ru les s tip u la te d th a t all elig ib le v o te rs w ere re q u ire d to b o th reg ister a n d v o te. T h is p ro v isio n w as d e sig n e d to p re v e n t in c u m b e n ts fro m re s tric tin g th e fra n c h ise to th e ir s u p p o rte rs. G ra n te d , all o f th e se ru les w ere ig n o re d to v a ry in g degrees, b u t n o t so m u c h as to th re a te n th e lo n g -te rm survival o f th e system . P o litic a l p o w e rb ro k e rs re c o g n iz e d th a t th e b e st in su ra n c e a g a in st lo sin g p o w e r p e rm a n e n tly w as to give u p p o w e r te m p o ra rily . In so m e cases, ch a lle n g ers h a d to w a it u p to a d e c a d e b e fo re c o m in g to pow er, b u t in v a ria b ly th e in c u m b e n ts s te p p e d aside.

T h e T actics o f th e C h a lle n g e

In o rd e r to asc e n d to pow er, a c h a lle n g e r u ltim a te ly h a d to b e a t th e i n ­ c u m b e n ts a t th e ir o w n g a m e b y asse m b lin g a b o d y o f c lie n ts a n d s u p ­ p o rte rs, b u ild in g alliances w ith o th e r p o litic a l bosses, a n d c o n tro llin g th e

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m a c h in e ry o f th e e le c tio n . I f a n e le c tio n w as u n c o n te s te d , m e a n in g th a t o p p o s itio n n e tw o rk s d e fe rre d to a single, d o m in a n t n e tw o rk , v o tin g w as a r o u tin e process. T h e d o m in a n t n e tw o rk c o n tro lle d th e e lec to ra l b o a rd a n d allo w ed o n ly its v o te rs to a p p e a r b e fo re th e b o a rd m e m b e rs o n ele c tio n day. W h e n o p p o n e n ts p e rsis te d w ith th e ir ch a lle n g e, v o tin g b e c a m e d iso r­ d ered , b ecau se o n ly o n e n e tw o r k c o u ld c la im v ic to ry a t th e e n d o f th e day. O p p o n e n ts c o u ld la u n c h a c h a lle n g e a t a n y sta g e o f th e e lec to ra l p r o ­ cess. T h e first o p p o r tu n ity w as d u r in g th e p e rio d o f re g istra tio n , w h e n every v o te r w as s u p p o s e d to m a k e h is w ay to th e m u n ic ip a l h all a n d reg is­ te r h is n a m e in th e re g istra tio n b o o k (libro de registros). T h e in c u m b e n t m u n ic ip a l officials su p e rv ise d th e re g is tra tio n b o o k a n d so m e tim e s u se d th e ir p o w er to d is c rim in a te a g a in st rivals. R e g istra tio n officials in th e m u ­ n ic ip a lity o f Ja y a q u e (L a L ib e rta d D e p a rtm e n t) in 1890 m y ste rio u sly d is­ a p p e a re d w h e n e v e r o p p o n e n ts a rriv e d to register. “T h e A lca ld e a n d h is M u n ic ip a l S ecretary ,” a c cu sed th e o p p o s itio n , “refu se to d o it [register us], m a k in g excuses a n d re tirin g a t th e m o m e n t w e arriv e to in sc rib e o u rselves.”13 In th e village o f Y o lo aiq u ín (M o ra z á n D e p a rtm e n t) , th e alcald e a rb itra rily a lte re d th e ru les o f re g is tra tio n in o rd e r to d isq u a lify h is o p p o ­ n e n ts . T h e n a m e s o f v o te rs c u s to m a rily w ere c a rrie d over fro m o n e y e a r’s re g istra tio n b o o k to th e n e x t, b u t in 1889 h e o rd e re d th a t v o te rs n o w h a d to c o m e to th e m u n ic ip a l h a ll to reg ister anew . O f c o u rse , h e c o n v e n ie n tly failed to in fo rm h is o p p o n e n ts o f th e ch a n g e . O n e le c tio n d a y o n ly th e s u p p o rte rs o f h is n e tw o rk w ere re g iste re d .14 W h e n m u n ic ip a l officials re so rte d to d ev io u s ta ctics, o p p o n e n ts re ­ s o rte d to sim ila r m e asu res. In th e m u n ic ip a lity o f Jo c o ro (M o ra z á n D e ­ p a r tm e n t) , fo r in sta n c e , th e in c u m b e n t n e tw o rk re fu se d to allo w its o p ­ p o n e n ts to reg ister th r o u g h o u t th e la te 1870s a n d early 1880s. B y ele c tio n d ay o f 1885, th e o p p o n e n ts h a d r u n o u t o f p a tie n c e . T h e y s e n t a g ro u p o f th e ir a d h e re n ts p o sin g as v o te rs in to th e m u n ic ip a l h all. W h e n th e y a r­ riv ed b efo re th e e le c tio n tab le, th e y p u lle d o u t w e a p o n s, g ra b b e d th e reg ­ is tra tio n b o o k , a n d trie d to r u n o ff w ith it. A fig h t e n su e d , a n d in th is case th e o p p o s itio n lo s t.15 N o tw ith s ta n d in g th e se ex am p les, th e re g is tra tio n b o o k w as n o t th e id eal p lace to en g ag e in e lec to ra l m a n ip u la tio n , b ec au se i f a p o litic a l deal w as s tru c k ju s t p r io r to th e e le c tio n , a n e tw o rk m ig h t d isco v er th a t it h a d e x c lu d e d its o w n s u p p o rte rs. M o reo v e r, th e re g istra tio n list w as th e official

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reg istry o f th e m u n ic ip a lity , a n d officials u se d it fo r n o n -e le c to ra l p u r ­ poses, su c h as tax c o lle c tio n a n d la b o r r e c ru itm e n t. So lim itin g th e p o p u ­ la tio n ’s a b ility to re g iste r c o u ld p ro v e c o u n te rp ro d u c tiv e o n c e th e ele c tio n w as over. W h e n e le c tio n d a y arriv ed , th e se le c tio n o f th e e le c tio n b o a rd o ffered th e n e x t o p p o r tu n ity fo r c o n flict. As w ith th e re g istra tio n b o o k , th e i n ­ c u m b e n t n e tw o r k h e ld a n a d v a n ta g e b ec au se th e c u rre n t m u n ic ip a l offi­ cials su p e rv ise d th e se le c tio n o f th e e le c to ra l b o a rd . It w as u p to th e o p p o s itio n to p o s itio n its s u p p o rte rs in f ro n t o f th e m u n ic ip a l h all a t th e a p p ro p ria te h o u r a n d fo rc e th e officials to a c c e p t its slate o f c a n d id a te s fo r th e b o a rd . It w as p rec isely a t th is m o m e n t, 8 :0 0 a .m . o n th e m o r n in g o f a n elec tio n , th a t o p p o s in g n e tw o rk s fac ed off. T h e lead ers o f ea ch n e tw o rk to o k th is o p p o r tu n ity to su rv e y th e s tre n g th o f o n e a n o th e r ’s forces a n d d ec id e w h e th e r o r n o t to p e rsist in th e b id fo r po w er. T h e v ic to r s to o d to g ain m u n ic ip a l p o w er; th e lo ser risk e d lo sin g th e s u p p o r t o f h is allies a n d so m e tim e s even h is life. T h e e le c tio n o f 1911 in th e city o f S a n ta A n a offers a case in w h ic h o n e n e tw o rk d e c id e d to acq u iesce. T w o n e tw o rk s c o n te s te d fo r p o w e r in th e elec tio n . T h e in c u m b e n ts w ere le d b y th e A yalas, a n im p o r ta n t coffee­ g ro w in g fam ily. T h e ch a lle n g ers w ere le d b y G e n e ra l M e d in a , also a coffee grow er. M e d in a p o s itio n e d h is s u p p o rte rs in f ro n t o f th e m u n ic ip a l h all at 8 :0 0 a.m . in p r e p a ra tio n fo r th e se le c tio n o f th e e lec to ra l b o a rd . L o o k in g o u t over th e plaza, th e in c u m b e n ts d e te rm in e d th a t M e d in a h a d e n o u g h s u p p o rte rs to c o n tro l th e b o a rd , so th e y d e c id e d to fo rg o th e e le c tio n a n d a p p o in t th e ir o w n b o a rd . S h o rtly after e ig h t o ’clock, a m e m b e r o f th e i n ­ c u m b e n t g ro u p ste p p e d o u t o f th e m u n ic ip a l h a ll a n d in fo rm e d th e cro w d th a t an electo ra l b o a rd h a d b e e n c h o se n a n d v o tin g c o u ld c o m m e n c e . W h e n M e d in a a n d h is fo llo w ers rea lize d w h a t w as h a p p e n in g , M e d in a a n d tw o o f h is allies w e n t in to th e m u n ic ip a l h all to n e g o tia te . B u t th e in c u m b e n ts refu sed h is o v ertu res, a n d afte r a few m in u te s h e re tu r n e d e m p ty -h a n d e d . B elie v in g th a t th e in c u m b e n ts h a d th e s tre n g th to d efe at h im i f th in g s tu r n e d ro u g h , h e w ith d re w h is s u p p o rte rs fro m th e p la za a n d a c c e p te d d e fe a t.16 N e tw o rk s e m p lo y e d a v a rie ty o f ta ctics to se cu re c o n tro l over th e se­ le c tio n o f th e e le c to ra l b o a rd . In p a rtic u la r th e y to o k a d v a n ta g e o f p o s ­ session o f th e m u n ic ip a l h all. F o r in sta n c e , in th e e le c tio n o f 1874 in

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A tiq u iz a y a (A h u a c h a p á n D e p a rtm e n t) th e in c u m b e n ts in itia lly in v ite d rep rese n tativ es o f th e o p p o s itio n o n to th e b o a rd b u t th e n o u s te d th e m at th e last m in u te . “A ll w as g o in g w ell,” c la im e d m e m b e rs o f th e o p p o s itio n , “u n til w e w ere to ld to leave a n d a n e w b o a rd w as fo rm e d . W h e n w e trie d to rec laim o u r p o sitio n s th e d o o r o f th e m u n ic ip a l h a ll w as clo sed b efo re us. As a re su lt th e c a n d id a te s s u p p o r te d b y th e A lca ld e w o n .”17 In 1903 in C h in a m e c a (S an M ig u e l D e p a rtm e n t) th e alcald e ca n c e le d tw o b o a rd elec tio n s b ecau se th e o p p o s itio n c o n tro lle d th e m .18 In 1891 in Ju a y ú a (S o n so n a te D e p a rtm e n t) th e in c u m b e n t n e tw o rk lo st th e e le c tio n fo r th e electo ral b o a rd , so th e alcald e “to re th e ta lly sh e ets in h a lf . . . a n d d ec la re d A d o lfo C e a P re sid e n t o f th e D ire c to rio .” 19 I n c u m b e n ts a n d ch a lle n g ers alike fre q u e n tly trie d to o u td o th e ir rivals b y sim p ly w a k in g u p earlier. O n n u m e ro u s occasio n s, th e lead ers o f a n e tw o r k arriv ed to th e m u n ic ip a l h all a t 8 :0 0 a.m . o n ly to d isco v er th a t a rival n e tw o rk h a d tu r n e d o u t h o u rs earlier to select a n e lec to ra l b o a rd .20 T h e im p o rta n c e o f c o n tro llin g th e b o a rd b e c a m e e v id e n t o n c e v o tin g b eg a n . T h e m e m b e rs o f th e b o a rd h a d th e p o w e r to c h a n g e o r ig n o re v o tes as th e y saw fit. In 1891 in C h a p e ltiq u e (S an M ig u e l D e p a rtm e n t) , th e b o a rd m e m b e rs a p p e a re d to b e a c c e p tin g v o tes fro m ea ch o f tw o c o n te n d ­ in g n e tw o rk s; how ever, th e y a c tu a lly re c o rd e d o p p o s itio n v o tes in fav o r o f th e ir c a n d id a te s .21 S im ilarly, in M e rc e d e s (L a P az D e p a rtm e n t) in 1908, th e b o a rd m e m b e rs allo w ed o p p o s itio n v o te rs to e n te r th e m u n ic ip a l h all, b u t w h e n th e y arriv e d b e fo re th e e le c tio n ta b le th e y w ere allo w ed o n ly to give th e ir n a m e w h ile th e ir v o tes w ere re c o rd e d a c c o rd in g to th e desires o f th e b o a rd m e m b e rs .22 N e tw o rk s also en g a g ed in m o re u n iv e rsa l fo rm s o f electo ral fra u d , su c h as h a v in g th e ir s u p p o rte rs v o te m o re th a n o n c e a n d b r in g in g in v o te rs fro m n e ig h b o rin g m u n ic ip a litie s .23 A n o th e r m e th o d th a t n e tw o rk s o cc asio n ally u se d w as f o rm in g a sec­ o n d elec to ra l b o a rd in a n o th e r p a r t o f to w n a n d s e ttin g u p a p ara llel elec­ tio n . In 1899 in S an M ig u e l C ity, fo r ex a m p le , th e o p p o s itio n n e tw o rk successfully c o n tro lle d th e e lec to ra l b o a rd , b u t w h e n th e in c u m b e n ts s u r ­ re n d e re d th e m u n ic ip a l h all, th e y to o k th e re g istra tio n b o o k w ith th e m a n d c o n d u c te d th e ir o w n ele c tio n o n th e o th e r sid e o f to w n . E a c h g ro u p filled o u t se p a ra te ta lly sh eets a n d s u b m itte d th e m to th e d e p a rtm e n ta l g o v e rn m e n t fo r v e rific a tio n . T h e ch a lle n g ers c la im e d to h a v e receiv ed p re ­ cisely n in e h u n d r e d v otes, w h erea s th e in c u m b e n ts lis te d six h u n d r e d

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v o te s.24 A sim ila r p ro ce ss to o k p la ce in th e village o f S a n tia g o d e M a ría (U s u lu tá n D e p a rtm e n t) in 19 2 7 , w h e n tw o ev en ly m a tc h e d n e tw o rk s faced o ff in th e e le c tio n . T h e lo cal p o lic e c h ie f d e sc rib e d th e event: “A t tw elve o’clo ck to d a y tw o D ire c to rio s c o n d u c te d v o tin g fo r th e e le c tio n o f m u n ic ip a l officials. F o r th e p o s itio n o f A lcald e, o n e D ire c to rio re c o rd e d 7 5 4 v o tes in fav o r th e c a n d id a te D o n A u g u s tin G o tu z z o ; also re c o rd in g o n e v o te fo r D o n R a ú l A vila a n d a n o th e r v o te fo r D io n is io J. G u e rre ro . . . . T h e o th e r D ire c to rio . . . re c o rd e d fo r th e p o s itio n o f A lc a ld e a to ta l o f 6 4 4 v otes, all in fav o r o f R a ú l A vila.”25 It w as u p to n a tio n a l-le v e l a u th o ri­ ties to s o rt o u t th e se m esses (a n d in th e se tw o p a rtic u la r cases, th e g o v e rn ­ m e n t’s d ec isio n s are n o t k n o w n ). E le ctio n s te ste d th e p o w e r o f a bo ss a n d h is n e tw o rk . H e c o u ld b o a st o f h is im p o r ta n c e a n d lay c la im to le a d e rsh ip in th e m u n ic ip a lity , b u t u n til h e p ro v e d h is sta tu s in th e p u b lic a re n a, h is claim s m e a n t n o th in g . H e h a d to d e m o n s tra te h is c a p a c ity to m o n o p o liz e th e m a c h in e ry o f th e elec tio n , c o n tro l th e a c tio n s o f h is o w n s u p p o rte rs, a n d sim u lta n e o u sly th w a rt th e a s p ira tio n s o f h is rivals. W h o e v e r su ccessfu lly p e rfo rm e d th e se tasks se cu red p o litic a l office.

E le c tio n N u llific a tio n s

I f a n e tw o rk trie d all o f th e se v a rio u s ta ctics a n d still f o u n d its e lf lo sin g an elec tio n , it h a d o n e la st c h a n c e to av o id defeat: re q u e st th a t th e e le c tio n b e n u llifie d d u e to irre g u la ritie s. A s m e n tio n e d p reviously, ea ch c o n s titu tio n in El S alv ad o r m a d e p ro v isio n s fo r e lec tio n s to b e n u llifie d i f th e y w ere p ro v e n to b e irre g u la r. T h e decisive facto r, o f co u rse, is w h o d e c id e d th e m e a n in g o f regular a n d irregular. In itia l re q u e sts fo r n u llific a tio n w ere se n t b y su p p lic a n ts in th e m u n ic ip a lity to e ith e r th e d e p a rtm e n ta l g o v e rn o r o r th e m in is te r o f g o v e rn m e n t in S an S alvador. T h o s e officials h a d th e p o w e r to se n d in v e stig a to rs to th e m u n ic ip a lity to a c c u m u la te ev id en ce. If a v ic to r was f o u n d g u ilty o f m isd ee d s, h is e le c tio n was n u llifie d a n d a re ­ p la c e m e n t ele c tio n w as sc h e d u le d fo r a la te r d a te . O ste n sib ly , th e n u llific a ­ tio n p ro c e d u re ex isted to p re v e n t e lec to ra l m a n ip u la tio n b y g iv in g c a n d i­ dates th e rig h t to h av e o p p o n e n ts in v e stig a te d fo r illegal p rac tice s. S u c h in v e stig a tio n s w ere su p p o se d to b e c o n d u c te d b y n e u tra l o u tsid e rs. L ik e

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m o s t p o litic a l p ro c e d u re s, how ever, th e n u llific a tio n p ro ce ss w as su b v e rte d a c c o rd in g to th e in fo rm a l ru le s o f p o litic s. L ocal bosses s u b m itte d n u llifi­ c a tio n req u e sts in o rd e r to so lic it th e a id o f p o w e rfu l bosses o u ts id e th e m u n ic ip a lity in th e ir local co n fla g ra tio n s. W h e th e r o r n o t o u tsid e rs re ­ s p o n d e d to local p leas d e p e n d e d u p o n a v a rie ty o f c irc u m sta n c e s, n o ta b ly th e im p o r ta n c e o f th e m u n ic ip a lity a n d th e p o litic a l in d e b te d n e s s o f th e official w h o receiv e d th e re q u e st. T h e g o al o f th e p e o p le w h o s u b m itte d th e re q u e st w as clear: fo rc e th e v ic to rs o u t o f office. N u llific a tio n s w ere a re c u rrin g e le m e n t o f lo cal p o litic a l b a ttle s. As m e n tio n e d previously, E l S a lv a d o r’s n a tio n a l arc h iv e c o n ta in s m o re th a n th re e h u n d r e d c o m p le te cases b e tw e e n 1889 a n d 19 3 6 , as w ell as a few d o z e n m o re cases fo r th e p e rio d p r io r to 1 8 8 9 .26 M a n y o th e r n u llific a tio n p ro c e d u re s, fo r w h ic h th e re are n o su rv iv in g rec o rd s, are m e n tio n e d in p e rip h e ra l d o c u m e n ts , su g g e stin g th a t th e a c tu a l n u m b e r o f cases w as even greater. D u r in g p a rtic u la rly in te n s e c o n flicts, local n e tw o rk s u tiliz e d th e n u llific a tio n p ro cess rep e ate d ly . In Izalco, fo r ex am p le, th e e le c tio n o f 1890 re su lte d in th re e n u llific a tio n req u e sts, a n d th e e le c tio n o f 1900 p r o ­ d u c e d five.27 In o rd e r to file a n u llific a tio n , a s u p p lic a n t h a d to d e n o u n c e th e v ic ­ to rs b y p ro v id in g a s u m m a ry o f th e ir offenses. T h e s e d e n u n c ia tio n s v a rie d g rea tly in c o n te n t. S o m e o f th e m d e sc rib e d se e m in g ly real events, w h ile o th e rs c o n ta in e d p u r e fa b ric a tio n s. D e te r m in in g th e d iffe ren ce re q u ire s a carefu l re a d in g o f th e d o c u m e n ta tio n . N u llific a tio n re q u e sts b a se d o n real ev en ts te n d to c o n ta in d e ta ile d a n d w e ll-d o c u m e n te d in f o rm a tio n th a t ca n b e c o rro b o ra te d b y o th e r ev id en ce. B y c o n tra st, fa b ric a tio n s are th in in d e ta il a n d sp e a k in g en e ral te rm s, su c h as “d istu rb a n c e s o c c u rre d in th e p a s t e le c tio n ” a n d “th e officials im p o s e d th em selv es d u r in g th e e le c tio n .”28 M a n y o f th e fa b ric a te d a c c u sa tio n s a v o id e d a lto g e th e r th e ev e n ts re ­ la te d to elec tio n s a n d c o n c e n tra te d in ste a d o n p e rso n a l a tta c k s a n d c h a r­ ac te r assassin atio n . O n e c o m m o n fo rm o f p e rso n a l d e n u n c ia tio n w as to accuse a p e rso n o f b e in g a d ru n k a rd . A n u llific a tio n fro m S a n ta R o sa (La U n ió n D e p a rtm e n t) reads, “T h e A lcald e, th e F irst R eg id o r, th e S e c o n d R egidor, th e T h ir d R eg id o r, a n d th e S ín d ic o are d ru n k s . . . a n d th e re fo re I s u b m it th is re q u e st fo r n u llific a tio n .”29 O th e r c o m m o n ly u se d ac cu sa­ tio n s in c lu d e d g am b ler, v a g ra n t (vago), crazy p e rs o n (loco), a n d th e alle n c o m p a ssin g “d is h o n o ra b le .”30 V ic to rs c o u n te re d b y se e k in g o u t “h o n o r -

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ab le” p e rso n s to te stify o n th e ir b eh a lf. A n in v e stig a to r o n c e b a se d his ju d g m e n t o n th e “h o n o r ” o f th e w itn esses. H e w ro te , “I c o n s id e r th e w it­ nesses th a t ca m e to th e d efe n se o f th e a c cu sed to b e . . . o f m o re ro b u s t m o ra lity th a n th o se w h o c o rro b o ra te d th e d e n u n c ia tio n ; th e re fo re , I d e ­ clare th e n u llific a tio n v o id .”31 O f co u rse, th e q u a lity o f o n e ’s h o n o r lay in th e eyes o f th e b e h o ld e r, a n d m o re o fte n th a n n o t it in c re a se d in d ire c t p r o p o rtio n to p o litic a l a n d e c o n o m ic c lo u t. W h e n a n u llific a tio n re q u e st w as reje cte d , th e v a n q u is h e d p o litic ia n h a d few alte rn a tiv e s b u t to w a it u n til th e n e x t e le c tio n a n d h o p e h is o w n p a tro n a g e alliances re m a in e d s tro n g e n o u g h to su rv iv e th e in te rim . O n e set o f c irc u m sta n c e s th a t in v a ria b ly re su lte d in n u llific a tio n w as w h e n th e v ic to r o f an e le c tio n u se d th e n a m e o f a s u p e rio r official w ith o u t h is p e rm issio n . In 1897, in th e village o f Is h u a tá n (S o n so n a te D e p a r t­ m e n t), th e v ic to rio u s n e tw o rk w o n th e ele c tio n b y a n n o u n c in g th a t its c a n d id a te s w ere th e official c a n d id a te s o f th e g o v e rn o r a n d w h o e v e r d id n o t v o te fo r th e m w o u ld b e s e n t to th e a rm y b a rra c k s in S o n so n a te C ity. In fact, th e g o v e rn o r d id n o t s u p p o r t th e p a rtic u la r c a n d id a te s, a n d w h e n h e b e c a m e aw are o f th e s itu a tio n h e n u llifie d th e e le c tio n im m e d ia te ly .32 In su m m a ry , n u llific a tio n s w ere an e x te n sio n o f th e c o m p e titio n b e ­ tw ee n p a tro n a g e n e tw o rk s. T h e y reveal o n e m a n n e r in w h ic h th e fo rm a l ru les o f p o litic s w ere su b v e rte d to th e n e e d s o f p a tro n a g e a n d c lien telism . T h e d e fin e d re a so n fo r th e n u llific a tio n p ro ce ss w as to p re v e n t elec to ra l fra u d , b u t in p ra c tic e it w as ju s t a n o th e r w e a p o n in p o litic a l ac to rs’ arse­ nals, allo w in g th e m to tu r n to m o re p o w e rfu l o u tsid e rs w h e n all o th e r m e th o d s h a d failed.

E le c to ra l V io le n c e

V io le n c e w as a r e c u rre n t fe a tu re o f e le c tio n s.33 In a p o litic a l sy stem b ased o n h ie ra rc h y a n d co e rc io n , th e d iffe ren ce b e tw e e n a m o n o p o liz e d ele c tio n a n d a v io le n t g rab fo r p o w e r w as sm all. W h e n an e le c tio n tu r n e d v io le n t, th e in h e re n tly coerciv e n a tu re o f th e p o litic a l sy stem a sc e n d e d to its u lti­ m a te level, p h y sic a l fo rce. W h o e v e r c o u ld p h y sic a lly b e a t h is o p p o n e n t in to s u b m is s io n w as re w a rd e d w ith c o n tro l o v er th e m u n ic ip a l g o v e rn ­ m e n t. In m o s t so cial c o n te x ts, th e e m e rg e n c e o f v io le n c e in d ic a te s a la c k

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o f o rd e r a n d a b re a k d o w n in so cial n o rm s . B u t in El S alv ad o r, p o litic a l a c to rs re c o g n iz e d th a t v io le n c e w as p o ssib le, i f n o t likely, in a n y g iv e n e lec to ra l exercise. W h e th e r o r n o t a n e le c tio n tu r n e d v io le n t d e p e n d e d u p o n a v a rie ty o f c irc u m sta n c e s, n o t th e le a st o f w h ic h w as in d iv id u a l p e rs o n a lity a n d p re fe re n c e fo r s e ttlin g d ifferen ces th r o u g h fo rce. B u t th e lik e lih o o d o f p o litic s tu r n in g v io le n t w as also p re d ic ta b le . E le c to ra l v i­ o le n c e ty p ic a lly o c c u rre d w h e n th e c o m p e tin g n e tw o rk s w e re e v e n ly m a tc h e d . A p o litic a l bo ss w h o w as clearly in fe rio r d id n o t in itia te v io le n c e fo r fear o f lo sin g h is life, to say n o th in g o f th e e le c tio n , a n d d o m in a n t n e tw o rk s fo u n d n o re a so n to p u s h a n a lre a d y d e fe a te d o p p o n e n t in to a reckless ac t o f self-d efen se. B u t w h e n rivals o f eq u a l s tre n g th fac ed o ff a n d n e ith e r g ro u p c a p itu la te d , th e co n se q u e n c e s c o u ld b e fatal. V io le n ce ca m e in degrees, b e g in n in g w ith th e th re a t o f u sin g it. A boss w h o h o p e d to c o n tro l a f o rth c o m in g e le c tio n o fte n th re a te n e d his o p p o n e n ts w ith v io le n c e i f th e y ch a lle n g e d h im . T h re a ts c o u ld b e d e liv ­ ered directly, fro m o n e p e rs o n to a n o th e r, o r in d ire c tly b y w a y o f th e r u m o r m ill. D u r in g a n e lec to ra l c o n flic t in S an M ig u e l C ity, a p re sid in g official g o t th e r u m o r m ill c h u r n in g b y p ro c la im in g , a c c o rd in g to th e te s­ tim o n y o f a n o th e r official, “in th e p re se n c e o f o th e r p e rso n s th a t o n th e d a y o f th e e le c tio n h e in te n d e d to p la c e g u a rd s b e fo re th e m u n ic ip a l h all w ith o rd ers to in c a rc e ra te [ th e o p p o s itio n ] in o rd e r to im p e d e th e p a r tic i­ p a tio n o f th e s u p p o rte rs o f G e ra rd o B a rrio s.”34 T h e m o re n o to rio u s a b o ss’s r e p u ta tio n , th e m o re lik e ly it w as th a t h is th re a ts w o u ld h av e th e d esire d effect. I t w as u p to th e re c ip ie n t o f a th re a t to e ith e r s u rre n d e r o r s ta n d h is g r o u n d . In 1848 in A h u a c h a p á n C ity, a n o p p o s itio n n e tw o rk cam e to p o w e r b y w ay o f a th re a t. In th e days le a d in g u p to th e e le c tio n , a r u m o r c irc u la te d th a t th e to w n w o u ld suffer v io le n t r e tr ib u tio n i f th e i n ­ c u m b e n ts d id n o t ste p aside a n d allo w th e n e w c o m e rs to ta k e pow er. T h e in c u m b e n ts g a th e re d th e ir fo llo w ers in th e c e n tra l p la za o n th e m o r n in g o f th e elec tio n , b u t th e y w ith d re w u p o n th e arriv al o f th e ch a lle n g ers, w h o ro d e in to to w n o n h o rse b a c k , e sta b lish e d th e m se lv es in th e m u n ic ip a l hall, a n d d ec la re d th e m se lv es th e v ic to rs.35 I f v erb a l th re a ts failed , p o litic a l bosses re so rte d to display. In S an A n ­ to n io M a s a h u a t (L a Paz D e p a rtm e n t) , fo r ex am p le, th e e le c tio n o f 1903 saw th e alcalde a n d h is allies s ta n d in g in th e d o o rw a y o f th e m u n ic ip a l hall, h o ld in g m a c h e te s. T h e y p e r m itte d th e ir clien ts to e n te r b u t ch ased

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aw ay th e s u p p o rte rs o f th e ir o p p o n e n ts .36 In 19 0 7 , th e alca ld e o f M e rc ed e s e m p lo y e d a sim ila r fo rm o f in tim id a tio n , b u t h is w e a p o n o f ch o ic e w as a lo a d e d revolver.37 In Ju a y ú a in 1911, th e lead ers o f o n e n e tw o rk h a d its m e m b e rs p a tro l th e m u n ic ip a lity w ith m a c h e te s a n d g u n s to in tim id a te o p p o n e n ts . A m e m b e r o f th e o p p o s itio n d e sc rib e d o n e o f th e a rm e d p a ­ tro ls as “a b a n d o f d ra g o n s” w h o th re a te n e d p o te n tia l v o te rs b y te llin g th e m to “w a tc h o u t w h e n y o u leave y o u r h o m e s, b ec au se w e h av e o rd ers to e n su re th e v ic to ry o f M a u ro S alav erría.”38 I f th re a ts a n d displays p ro v e d in effectiv e, p o litic a l bosses ra ise d th e stakes. F o r in sta n c e , in R o sa rio d e M o ra (S a n S alv a d o r D e p a r tm e n t) in 1911, a g an g o f fo rty m e n arriv ed a t th e m u n ic ip a l h all o n th e m o r n in g o f th e elec tio n , s h o rtly b e fo re v o tin g w as to ta k e p la ce fo r th e e lec to ra l b o a rd . T h e le ad e r o f th e g an g , T e o d o ro S egovia, w as allie d w ith N a tiv id a d M u r cía, a la n d o w n e r a n d h e a d o f th e o p p o s itio n n e tw o rk . T h e alcald e re je c te d Segovia’s re q u e st to p a rtic ip a te in th e se le c tio n o f th e e lec to ra l b o a rd . Segovia re s p o n d e d b y d ra g g in g th e alcald e o u t o f th e m u n ic ip a l h all a n d b e a tin g h im in p u b lic view. H e th e n ov ersaw th e v o tin g , w h ic h re su lte d in h is e le c tio n as p re s id e n t o f th e e lec to ra l b o a rd . In th e a c tu a l e le c tio n , M u r ­ cia w as elec ted alcald e a n d S egovia w as ch o se n as first re g id o r.39 T h e b e a tin g o f m u n ic ip a l officials w as a r e c u rre n t fe a tu re o f th e local p o litics. F or ex a m p le , G e n e ra l R afael R ivas e m p lo y e d th is ta c tic d u r in g his rise to p o w e r in T a c u b a (A h u a c h a p á n D e p a rtm e n t) in th e 1910s. F ro m his h id e o u t in th e s u r ro u n d in g m o u n ta in s , h e la u n c h e d n u m e ro u s ra id s in to to w n . O n m o s t o f th e se forays h e sim p ly ro d e th r o u g h to w n s h o o tin g his p isto l in to th e air, h u m ilia tin g h is p o litic a l o p p o n e n ts . O n o n e o f h is raid s, how ever, h e d ra g g e d th e sín d ic o o u t o f th e m u n ic ip a l h a ll a n d w h ip p e d h im in th e c e n te r o f th e m u n ic ip a l p la za .40 T h e b e a tin g o f a m u n ic ip a l o f­ ficial in d ic a te d a c o m in g re g im e ch a n g e , b ec au se th e a b ility to d ra g a n o f­ ficial o u t o f his office a n d p u m m e l h im in v ie w o f h is s u p p o rte rs sig n ified b o th th e official’s w eak n ess a n d th e s tre n g th o f h is o p p o n e n ts . T h e elec tio n o f 1 8 9 7 in S an S e b a stiá n (S an V ic e n te D e p a rtm e n t) il­ lu stra te s w h a t c o u ld o c c u r w h e n tw o ev en ly m a tc h e d n e tw o rk s re fu se d to b a c k d o w n . O n e o f th e n e tw o rk s w as r u n b y a n allia n ce o f th re e fam ilies, R osa, R ivas, a n d A b arca , th a t h a d h e ld p o w e r b e tw e e n 1891 a n d 1894. T h e o th e r n e tw o r k w as le d b y Jo sé M a ria A y ala a n d h a d b e e n in p o w e r sin ce 1894. O n th e eve o f th e e le c tio n o f 1897, th e R o sa-R iv a s-A b a rc a

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n e tw o rk b eliev ed th a t th e tim e fo r its r e tu r n to p o w e r h a d c o m e a n d d e ­ m a n d e d th a t A y ala ste p d o w n , b u t A y ala refu sed . O n th e m o r n in g o f th e ele c tio n a d o z e n m e m b e rs o f th e R o sa-R iv a s-A b a rc a n e tw o rk , a rm e d w ith p isto ls a n d m a ch e te s, a p p e a re d in f ro n t o f th e m u n ic ip a l h a ll a n d in siste d th a t th e e le c tio n b o a rd b e p la c e d u n d e r th e ir c o n tro l. A y ala re s p o n d e d b y o rd e rin g th e c h ie f o f p o lic e, P e d ro R ivas ( n o re la tio n to th e R ivas n e t­ w o rk ), to d isa rm th e su p p lic a n ts. U p o n h e a rin g th e o rder, th e a rm e d m e n d re w th e ir w e a p o n s a n d o p e n e d fire. O n e o f A yala’s fo llo w ers fell d e a d o n th e sp o t. A yala a n d th e re m a in d e r o f h is allies fled in to th e m u n ic ip a l h all w ith th e attac k ers in h o t p u rs u it. T w o m o re o f A yala’s m e n w ere k ille d in a h allw ay a n d a n o th e r w as k ille d fu rth e r in sid e. A y ala to o w as sh o t, b u t o n ly w o u n d e d . T h e m a n w h o s h o t A y ala w as G e ro n im o A b arca , w h o m A y ala h a d rep la c e d as alcald e in 18 9 4 . A c o u n te ra tta c k b y A yala’s m e n ex­ p e lle d th e assailan ts fro m th e m u n ic ip a l h a ll a n d b r o u g h t th e m e le e to a close, b u t th e R o sa-R iv a s-A b a rc a n e tw o r k w e n t o n to w in th e e le c tio n .41 A fter th e fata l ev e n ts o f D e c e m b e r 1897, th e o p p o s in g n e tw o rk s in S an S eb astiá n re tu r n e d to p o litic s as u su al. O v e r th e n e x t tw o d ecad es th e y tra d e d p o w e r b a c k a n d f o r th every th re e years o r so. T h e v io le n t clash o f 1897 d id n o t r u p tu r e th e p o litic a l sy stem , b u t fu n c tio n e d in ste a d as p a r t o f th e o n g o in g e b b a n d flo w o f p o w e r tran sfe rs. T h e case o f S an S eb astiá n h ig h lig h ts an im p o r ta n t fe a tu re o f p o litic s in El S alv ad o r: bosses c o n s id e re d v io le n c e to b e a n o th e r, a lb e it m o re in te n se , f o rm o f p o litic a l n e g o tia tio n .

As th e S ta te G ro w s, th e M u n ic ip a litie s D e c lin e

T h e p r o d u c tio n o f coffee, th e e x p a n sio n o f sta te rev e n u es, a n d th e p ro fe s­ s io n a liz a tio n o f th e m ilita ry w ere th re e m u tu a lly re in fo rc in g e le m e n ts o f sta te c e n tra liz a tio n . C o ffee g e n e ra te d th e w e a lth , so m e o f w h ic h e n d e d u p as sta te rev en u es, w h ic h in tu r n allo w ed th e sta te to e x p a n d its b u re a u c ra c y a n d p ro fe ssio n a liz e th e m ilita ry . C o ffee ex p o rts f ro m El S alv a d o r b e g a n in e a rn est in th e 1860s a n d e x p a n d e d ste a d ily d u r in g th e su c c e e d in g d ecad es. In 1864 El S alv a d o r e x p o rte d a m e re 5 ,0 0 0 q u in ta le s o f coffee. In 1870, ex p o rts h a d risen to 5 9 ,0 0 0 q u in ta le s; b y 1881 th e y w ere 1 4 5 ,0 0 0 q u in ­ tales; a n d b y 1890 th e y w ere u p to 3 3 0 ,0 0 0 q u in ta le s .42 T h e m o n e ta r y

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v alu e o f ex p o rts g re w as w ell, a re fle c tio n n o t o n ly o f in c re a se d p r o d u c ­ tio n , b u t also o f th e ste a d y g ro w th in th e p ric e o f coffee o n th e w o rld m a rk e t. D u r in g th e 1860s th e average a n n u a l v alu e o f coffee ex p o rts fro m El S alv ad o r w as 2 0 4 ,0 0 0 pesos. D u r in g th e 1870s it w as 1 ,1 3 6 ,0 0 0 pesos; in th e 1880s it w as 2 ,7 5 4 ,0 0 0 pesos; a n d in th e 1890s it w as 5 ,7 2 9 ,0 0 0 p eso s.43 T h e sta te b e n e fite d fro m th e coffee e c o n o m y p rim a rily b y w ay o f im ­ p o r t d u tie s. E x p o rt d u tie s w ere v irtu a lly n o n e x is te n t, so p ro fits fro m co f­ fee sales a b ro a d p a id fo r im p o r te d g o o d s a n d th e ir c o rre s p o n d in g taxes. I m p o r t d u tie s ev e n tu a lly b e c a m e th e sin g le la rg e st so u rc e o f g o v e rn m e n t rev en u e. B etw ee n 1850 a n d 1870, w h e n coffee p r o d u c tio n w as still in its infancy, sta te rev e n u es re m a in e d s ta g n a n t a t a ro u n d U S $ 1 m illio n p er year. A s coffee p r o d u c tio n in c re a se d in th e 1880s, rev e n u es ro se to a n a n ­ n u a l average o f ro u g h ly U S $ 4 m illio n p e r year. B y th e tu r n o f th e c e n tu ry , th e a n n u a l average w as u p to U S $ 8 m illio n . In 1912 rev e n u es re a c h e d an a ll-tim e h ig h o f n e a rly U S $ 1 5 m illio n .44 H is to ria n s a n d c o n te m p o ra rie s alike n o te d th e im p a c t th is n e w m o n e y h a d o n th e e x p a n sio n o f th e sta te b u rea u cracy . H é c to r L in d o -F u e n te s d e ­ scribes th e v ario u s p u b lic se cto rs th a t w ere fin a n c e d b y th e n e w w e a lth , in c lu d in g th e e d u c a tio n a n d ju d ic ia l sy stem s, tr a n s p o r ta tio n , c o m m u n ic a ­ tio n , a n d c re d it in s titu tio n s .45 In 1901 th e m in is te r o f th e in te r io r to o k n o te o f th e ra p id e x p a n sio n o f th e sta te , re fe rrin g to it as “th e p ro ce ss o f c e m e n tin g to g e th e r th e in s titu tio n s . . . o f o u r c o u n try .”46 B y far th e la rg e st re c ip ie n t o f th e n e w f o u n d fin a n c ia l reso u rces w as th e arm y. A m o d e rn , h ig h ly o rg a n iz e d m ilita ry w as a c o n s ta n t d esire o f n in e te e n th - c e n tu ry p re sid e n ts w h o w a n te d to b o lste r th e ir reg im es a n d e x te n d th e ir a u th o rity . C o n s c rip te d so ld iers a ssem b led b y lo cal p a tro n a g e allies p e rfo rm e d p o o rly o n th e b a ttle fie ld a n d d isp e rse d as s o o n as th e fig h tin g w as over, i f n o t so o n e r. P re sid e n ts w a n te d p ro fe ssio n a l arm ies re a d y to d e fe n d th e ir reg im es a g a in st e n e m ie s b o th fo re ig n a n d d o m e stic . A s a resu lt, g o v e rn m e n t p la n n e rs m a d e m ilita ry p ro fe ssio n a liz a tio n a p r i­ ority. G e ra rd o B arrio s is c o m m o n ly c re d ite d w ith in itia tin g th e first efforts to p ro fe ssio n a liz e th e arm y. H e in tr o d u c e d n e w w a r m a te ria l a n d b r o u g h t in fo re ig n adv iso rs. H is su ccesso rs c o n tin u e d h is p ro g ra m s, w ritin g a n e w m ilita ry co d e a n d c re a tin g a n officer tr a in in g sc h o o l, th e E scu e la P o lité c ­ nica, w h ic h w as o fte n staffed b y fo re ig n ad v iso rs.47

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T h e sc o p e o f m ilita ry p ro fe ssio n a liz a tio n e x p a n d e d ra p id ly in th e 1880s a n d 1890s. S uccessive p re sid e n ts c e n tra liz e d m ilita ry c o m m a n d , i n ­ creased th e n u m b e r o f p e r m a n e n t so ld iers, a n d esta b lish e d n e w a rm y p o sts th r o u g h o u t th e co u n try . T h e so ld iers in th e se p o sts p a tro lle d th e ir im m e ­ d ia te reg io n s a n d e n fo rc e d o rder. T h e y also ov ersaw th e o rg a n iz a tio n o f th e m ilitia b y e n listin g a n d tr a in in g local m e n ev ery S u n d ay . P a tric ia A lvare n g a V e n u to lo f o u n d ev id en c e su g g e stin g th a t b y 1892 th e re w ere m o re th a n six ty th o u s a n d m ilitia m e m b e rs, w h ile th e re g u la r a rm y h a d th re e th o u s a n d p e r m a n e n t so ld iers.48 A n o th e r facet o f th e p ro fe ssio n a liz a tio n sch em es w as th e c re a tio n o f elite m ilita ry u n its . T h e first o f th e se, th e P o licía M o n ta d a (m o u n te d p o lic e), w as c re a te d in 1889 to p a tro l th e c o u n try sid e , en fo rc e v a g ra n c y law s, a n d g u a rd a g a in st c rim in a l activity. T h is m o d e s t fo rc e o f a few d o z e n m e n w as re p la c e d in 1 9 1 2 b y a m u c h larg er a n d m o re a m b itio u s en tity , th e G u a r d ia N a c io n a l (n a tio n a l g u a rd ). T h e G u a r d ia w as tra in e d b y S p a n ia rd s w h o m o d e le d it after th e ir o w n G u a r d ia C iv il. I t ra p id ly b e c a m e th e p re e m in e n t m ilita ry u n it in th e n a ­ tio n , w h ile also g a rn e rin g a r e p u ta tio n fo r b r u ta l ta ctics. G u a r d ia u n its w ere b e tte r tra in e d a n d b e tte r e q u ip p e d th a n th e re g u la r arm y, a n d th e ir m e m b e rs receiv ed h ig h e r p a y — as m u c h as th re e tim e s th e salary o f a re g u ­ lar soldier. T h e first G u a rd ia p a tro ls o p e ra te d in th e w e ste rn coffee d e p a r t­ m e n ts w ith few er th a n fo u r h u n d r e d tro o p s. B y th e 1920s th e n u m b e r o f g u ard ia s h a d rise n to n e a rly o n e th o u s a n d a n d p o sts h a d b e e n e sta b lish e d in all fo u rte e n d e p a rtm e n ts .49 T h e g ro w th a n d e x p a n sio n o f th e m ilita ry h as lo n g b e e n a fo cu s o f sch o lars o f tu r n -o f - th e - c e n tu r y E l S alvador, w h o see in it th e seeds o f E l S a lv a d o r’s m o d e rn a u th o rita ria n state. F o r th e m , th e m ilita ry serv ed as th e P ra e to ria n G u a r d o f th e coffee b a ro n s, m a k in g E l S alv a d o r safe fo r coffee, c a p ita lism , a n d th e g ro w in g m a ld is trib u tio n o f w e a lth .50 T h is p ersp e c tiv e is a c cu rate to th e e x te n t th a t it reflects o n e ro le th a t th e m ilita ry p la y e d in S alv a d o ra n histo ry . H o w ev er, th e m ilita ry p la y e d a n o th e r ro le as w ell, o n e less c o m m o n ly d isc u sse d in th e h isto rio g ra p h y , th a t o f d isc ip lin in g local elites. M ilita ry p o sts sa t o n th e f ro n tlin e o f sta te c e n tra liz a tio n , a n d th e so ld iers m a n n in g th e se p o sts o fte n h a d to s u b d u e lo cal p a tro n a g e n e t­ w o rk s a n d b r in g s tu b b o r n p o litic a l bosses in to th e fo ld o f th e c e n tra liz in g sy stem . M ic h e l G o b a t f o u n d th e N ic a ra g u a n G u a rd ia N a c io n a l to p la y a sim ila r role, alb e it u n d e r th e d ire c tio n o f U .S. m ilita ry c o m m a n d e rs

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w h o w ere try in g to re in in re g io n a l s tro n g m e n as p a r t o f th e ir o c c u p a tio n strateg y .51 P o litical c e n tra liz a tio n w as at o n c e th e m o s t s o u g h t after a n d th e m o s t elusive g o al in th e p re-co ffe e p o litic a l aren a. P re sid e n ts lo n g e d to b e th e s u p re m e p atro n a g e -g iv e r, ab le to c o n tro l ea ch a n d every e le c tio n th r o u g h ­ o u t th e n a tio n . B u t as w e saw in p re v io u s c h a p te rs, a d m in is tra tio n s in th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry w ere h in d e re d b y th e w e a k a n d d e s titu te g o v e rn m e n t over w h ic h th e y p re sid e d . W h o e v e r h e ld th e p re sid e n c y d id so a t th e h e a d o f a c o a litio n o f p a tro n a g e allian ces th a t w as o n ly slig h tly — a n d u su a lly te m p o ra rily — m o re p o w e rfu l th a n its ad v ersaries. E a c h p a tro n a g e n e tw o rk c o n tro lle d th e e lec tio n s in its re g io n , a n d fo r th e m o s t p a r t it elec ted w h o m e v e r it w a n te d , b o th fo r m u n ic ip a l offices a n d seats o n th e N a tio n a l A ssem bly. A fter th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f th e coffee ec o n o m y , r u lin g n e tw o rk s f o u n d th em selv es in c h a rg e o f a n in c re a sin g ly p o w e rfu l in s titu tio n in th e fo rm o f th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t. W i th m o re m o n e y a n d reso u rce s a t th e ir d is­ p osal, ru lin g n e tw o rk s w ere b e tte r able to c o n tro l e le c tio n s a n d c o n s o li­ d a te th e ir p o litic a l a u th o rity . A tr e n d e m e rg e d afte r 1880 in w h ic h th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t a n d th e p o litic a l bosses w h o c o n tro lle d it (o fte n tim e s h ig h -ra n k in g officers th em selv es) in c re a sin g ly in flu e n c e d lo cal e lec tio n s in ev er-larger p o r tio n s o f th e n a tio n . Slow ly b u t surely, th e n u m e ro u s p a ­ tro n a g e n e tw o rk s w ere b e in g c o n s o lid a te d u n d e r th e a u th o rity o f th e n a ­ tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t. A sy m b o l o f th e e m e rg in g tr e n d ca m e in 1885, w h e n th e g o v e rn m e n t o f P re sid e n t F ra n c isc o M e n é n d e z a tte m p te d to d ra ft a n e w c o n s titu tio n . M e n é n d e z ’s o p p o n e n ts in th e assem b ly c o n s ta n tly resisted h is effo rts a n d u ltim a te ly m a n a g e d to b lo c k m o s t o f th e ch a n g es h e w ish e d to in se rt. I n ­ ste a d o f b e n d in g to th e ir w ill, M e n é n d e z sim p ly d isso lv ed th e assem bly a n d s e n t th e o p p o s itio n d e p u tie s h o m e . H e th e n w a ite d u n til th e fo llo w ­ in g y ear to rea ssem b le th e le g islatu re, afte r h e c o u ld e n su re th e e le c tio n o f m o re s u p p o rtiv e d e p u tie s .52 T h e b y p ro d u c t w as th e c o n s titu tio n o f 1886. A n o th e r sy m b o lic ev e n t w as th e c o u p o f 1898. F o r th e n e x t th re e d e ­ cades, p re sid e n ts ca m e to p o w e r as th e h a n d -c h o s e n su ccesso rs o f th e s it­ tin g p re sid e n t. G e n e ra l T o m á s R e g alad o h e ld office u n til 19 0 3 , w h e n h e ch o se P ed ro José E sca ló n to su c ce ed h im . E sca ló n re m a in e d in p o w e r u n til 1907, w h e n h e a n d a c o te rie o f allies ag re ed to select G e n e ra l F e rn a n d o

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F ig u ero a as th e successor. F ig u e ro a sta y e d in office u n til 1911, w h e n h e p assed p o w er to h is vice p re sid e n t, M a n u e l A ra u jo . A ra u jo w as assassi­ n a te d in 1913, e v id e n tly fo r rea so n s u n re la te d to th e issue o f p re sid e n tia l succession. B ecau se A ra u jo ’s vice p re s id e n t h a d re c e n tly re sig n e d , th e first d esig n ate, C a rlo s M e lé n d e z , ca m e to po w er, b e g in n in g w h a t w o u ld b e ­ c o m e th ir te e n years o f u n in te r r u p te d ru le b y m e m b e rs o f th e M e lé n d e z Q u iñ ó n e z fam ily .53 T h e U .S. ch a rg é s u m m a riz e d th is e lec to ra l sy stem in 1910, o n th e eve o f th e p re sid e n tia l e le c tio n o f 1911: “p o p u la r su ffrag e is b u t a fictio n . . . . T h a t th e official c a n d id a te w ill b e e le c te d in 1911, is ac­ c o rd in g to g en e ral o p in io n , a fo re g o n e c o n c lu sio n .”54 T h e p eacefu l a n d c o n tro lle d n a tu re o f th e se p o w e r tra n sfe rs after 1 8 9 8 d id n o t m e a n th a t o p p o s itio n h a d su d d e n ly d isa p p e a re d . A fte r th e c o u p b y R eg alad o in 1898, fo r ex a m p le , th e c o m a n d a n te o f S an M ig u e l, H o ra c io V illa v ic en c io (w h o h a d in te n d e d to la u n c h h is o w n c o u p in 1898 b u t h a d b e e n b e a te n to th e act b y R e g alad o ), m o b iliz e d h is allies an d , ju d g in g fro m th e in flu x o f re p o rts a n d d e n u n c ia tio n s a rriv in g in S an S al­ v a d o r fro m across th e n a tio n , rele n tle ssly h a ra sse d R e g a la d o ’s s u p p o rte rs .55 R eg alad o to le ra te d th is a c tiv ity fo r a b r ie f w h ile , b u t h e s u sp e c te d V illa v i­ cen cio o f p lo ttin g a c o u p . H e s e n t G e n e ra l M a n u e l Rivas, a rela tiv e a n d p o litic a l d iscip le o f Jo sé M a ría R ivas o f C u sc a tlá n , to S an M ig u e l to d is­ p en se w ith V illav ic en c io . R ivas to o k S an M ig u e l w ith o u t a sh o t, a n d V il­ lav icen cio fled th e c o u n try .56 O p p o s itio n ex isted d u r in g o th e r a d m in is tra tio n s as w ell. In 19 0 6 , a v a rie ty o f p o litic a l a sp ira n ts o p p o s e d th e se le c tio n o f G e n e ra l F ig u e ro a as th e successor to E sca ló n . G e n e ra l L u is B a ra h o n a w as th e m o s t p o w e rfu l o f th e m , b u t h is a tte m p t to c h a lle n g e F ig u e ro a in th e e le c tio n w as fo re sta lled w h e n F ig u ero a th re w h im in jail a n d cra c k e d d o w n o n h is su p p o rte rs. S h o rtly th e re afte r, M a n u e l R ivas o rg a n iz e d a rev o lt th a t w as d e fe a te d b y tro o p s loyal to F ig u e ro a .57 P ru d e n c io A lfaro (th e v ic to r in th e 1895 vice p re sid e n tia l elec tio n ) o rg a n iz e d a re v o lt a g a in st F ig u e ro a in J u n e 19 0 7 . H e g a th e re d a sm all g ro u p o f s u p p o rte rs in N ic a ra g u a a n d saile d to th e p o r t o f A ca ju tla , w h e re th e y w ere q u ic k ly d e fe a te d b y lo cal officials loyal to th e g o v e rn m e n t. In 1911 A lfaro w as o rg a n iz in g y e t a n o th e r re v o lt w h e n p o lic e ag en ts u n c o v e re d h is p la n s a n d a m b u s h e d h im a t h is h id e o u t n e a r S a n ta A n a C ity .58 W h e n P re sid e n t A ra u jo w as assassin ate d in 1913, m a n y p e o p le accu sed A lfaro o f m a s te rm in d in g th e o p e ra tio n , w h ic h h e v ig o ro u sly d e ­ n ie d in a ra m b lin g , v in d ic tiv e d e fe n se .59

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T h e s e ex am p les o f o p p o s itio n c o n s titu te ju s t a sa m p lin g o f m a n y sm aller co u p s a n d co n sp ira cies. T a k e n to g e th e r, th is m u ltitu d e o f ex­ am p les in d ic a te s th a t th e re w as n e v e r a s h o rta g e o f a sp ira n ts to th e p re si­ d e n c y p re p a re d to re so rt to d e sp e ra te m e asu res to a tta in th e h ig h e s t office. B u t th e n o ta b le fe a tu re o f all th e c o n sp ira c ie s afte r 1898, e x c e p tin g V illa v ice n cio ’s a p p a re n tly w id e s p re a d m a c h in a tio n s , is th e ir lim ite d a n d local n a tu re , as w ell as th e ir a b s o lu te w ea k n ess vis-a-vis th e arm y. T h e p o w e r o f th e c e n tra l g o v e rn m e n t w as re a c h in g im p re ssiv e h eig h ts. F u rth e r in s ig h t in to th e w o rk in g s o f th is in c re a sin g ly c e n tra liz e d p o ­ litica l sy stem ap p e ars in a U .S. S ta te D e p a r tm e n t m e m o r a n d u m fro m th e U .S. em b assy in El S alv a d o r re g a rd in g th e f o rth c o m in g p re sid e n tia l elec­ tio n o f 1911. T h e m e m o revolves a r o u n d a c o n v e rsa tio n b e tw e e n th e c u r­ r e n t p re sid e n t, F ig u ero a, a n d H . P. G a rth w a ite , a n A m e ric a n th e n se rv in g as d ire c to r o f a m in in g c o rp o ra tio n in El S alvador. G a rth w a ite w as p la y in g th e ro le o f in te rm e d ia ry b e tw e e n P re sid e n t F ig u e ro a a n d th e U .S. em b assy o n th e d elica te to p ic o f p re sid e n tia l su ccessio n . F ig u e ro a w as lo o k in g fo r th e U n ite d S ta te s’ re a c tio n to h is p o ssib le ch o ice s fo r h is successor, k n o w ­ in g th a t w h o ev e r h e ch o se w as assu red to b e th e n e x t p re sid e n t. F ig u ero a to ld G a rth w a ite th a t h e w as le a n in g to w a rd s T o m á s P a lo m o o r F ran cisco D u e ñ a s a n d a g a in st M a n u e l E n riq u e A ra u jo , b ec au se th e la tte r h a d s u p ­ p o se d ly m a d e to o m a n y p ro m ise s to a c liq u e o f coffee gro w ers. In h in d ­ sig h t, w e k n o w th a t A ra u jo e n d e d u p as th e c a n d id a te a n d b e c a m e th e n e x t p re sid e n t. W e also k n o w th a t P a lo m o a n d D u e ñ a s, w h o w ere close allies a n d relatives, re m a in e d p o w e rfu l, a lb e it fru s tra te d , p o litic a l acto rs fo r th e n e x t tw o d ecad es, th r o u g h o u t th e M e lé n d e z -Q u iñ ó n e z years ( 1 9 1 3 -1 9 2 6 ) a n d th e re fo rm ist P ío R o m e ro B o sq u e era ( 1 9 2 7 -1 9 3 1 ) . U n ­ able to b re a k th r o u g h as th e c h o se n su ccesso r in 1910 o r in th e years th e re ­ after, P alo m o e v e n tu a lly to o k h is q u e s t fo r th e p re sid e n c y o u ts id e th e estab lish ed sy stem . H e c h a lle n g e d A lfo n so Q u iñ ó n e z M o lin a fo r th e p re si­ d e n c y in 1919 b y m o b iliz in g a n in d e p e n d e n t base a n d try in g to g ain e n o u g h lo cal s u p p o rte rs to g u a ra n te e c o n tro l over p o llin g sta tio n s o n elec­ tio n d ay in 19 2 0 a n d se cu re h is v icto ry . H e c o n tin u e d to b e s u p p o r te d b y D u e ñ a s, as w ell as v a rio u s o th e r w e a lth y fam ilies. P a lo m o ’s stra te g y in 1919 w as re m in is c e n t o f th e era b e fo re p o litic a l c e n tra liz a tio n , a n d in d e e d it re su lte d in a v a rie ty o f v io le n t clashes b e tw e e n h is a n d Q u iñ ó n e z ’s local allies, w h ic h are d e ta ile d in th e n e x t c h a p te r. It w as ex actly th e k in d o f sc en a rio th a t F ig u e ro a w a n te d to k ee p in th e p ast. F o r w h a te v e r rea so n , h e

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ch o se A ra u jo a n d m a n a g e d to k ee p P a lo m o a n d D u e ñ a s a t bay, a llo w in g fo r a n orderly, p re d ic ta b le e le c tio n .60 It is n o t e v id e n t fro m th e S ta te D e p a r tm e n t’s c o rre sp o n d e n c e w h e th e r th e U n ite d S tates h a d a p re fe rre d c a n d id a te fro m a m o n g F ig u ero a’s o p ­ tio n s o r i f it in flu e n c e d h is d ec isio n m a k in g in a n y way. B u t in th is p a r ­ tic u la r m e m o o n G a rth w a ite ’s c o n v e rsa tio n w ith F ig u ero a, th e U .S. em b assy seem s to h av e ask ed F ig u ero a, naively, w h y h e w o u ld n o t allo w th e e le c tio n to b e c o n d u c te d freely a n d fairly, th a t is, b y re fu sin g to ch o o se a n official c a n d id a te a n d sim p ly g u a ra n te e in g o rd e r a n d a llo w in g m u ltip le c a n d id a te s to c o m p e te fo r th e office. A c c o rd in g to G a rth w a ite , F ig u ero a re s p o n d e d b y say in g th a t “th is w o u ld b e im p o s sib le a n d w o u ld re su lt in th e a p p e a ra n c e o f a c ro w d o f c a n d id a te s w h o w o u ld b r in g a b o u t g rea t d iso rd e rs.” F ig u e ro a a p p a re n tly w e n t o n to say th a t a n y v ic to r fro m su c h a c o m p e titio n “w o u ld u n d o u b te d ly b e a d e m a g o g u e o f th e w o rs t ty p e .”61 If th e c o n te n t o f th a t m e m o a c c u ra te ly reflects w h a t F ig u e ro a said, th e n tw o in sig h ts can b e d ra w n fro m it. T h e first in s ig h t is th a t F ig u e ro a w as sp e a k ­ in g as a classic p a tro n a g e boss, b u t w ith in th e c o n te x t o f a re c e n tly c e n tra l­ ized system . T h e w o rs t p ro s p e c t fo r su c h a p o litic a l le a d e r w o u ld b e a r e tu r n to a d e c e n tra liz e d era in w h ic h e lec tio n s w ere c o m p e titiv e , n o t in th e tra d itio n a l sense o f c a n d id a te s c o m p e tin g fo r p o p u la r s u p p o r t b y tr y ­ in g to sw ay p u b lic o p in io n , b u t r a th e r in th e m a rs h a lin g o f p a tro n a g e alli­ ances th r o u g h o u t th e c o u n try to c o n tro l p o llin g sta tio n s o n e le c tio n day. S u c h c o m p e titio n ty p ic a lly re su lte d in h ig h levels o f v io le n ce . F ig u e ro a d id n o t w a n t th a t. T h e se c o n d in s ig h t relates to F ig u ero a’s re fe re n c e to “d em a g o g u e ry .” A lth o u g h F ig u e ro a d id n o t e la b o ra te u p o n h is m e a n in g , it im p lie s th a t h e w as c o n c e rn e d a b o u t th e p ro s p e c t o f a u to n o m o u s a c tio n o n th e p a r t o f S alv a d o ra n m asses, w h o w o u ld select a p o p u lis t c a n d id a te w ith re fo rm ist te n d e n c ie s. O n th e o n e h a n d , su c h a c o m m e n t c a n b e in te r p re te d fro m th e p ersp e ctiv e o f tr a d itio n a l p o litic a l d isc o u rse in a p a tro n a g e -b a s e d p o ­ litica l sy stem . P o litic al bosses c u s to m a rily d isp a ra g e d d e m o c ra c y w h e n th e y w ere th e in c u m b e n ts , a n d ch a lle n g ers u se d a d e m o c ra c y -la d e n r h e to ­ ric to accuse th e m o f m o n o p o liz in g po w er, even th o u g h th e y th em selv es h a d n o g e n u in e d e m o c ra tic p rete n ses. In th is case, F ig u e ro a a n d h is allies re p re s e n te d th e in c u m b e n c y , a n d a n y w h o c h a lle n g e d th e m w o u ld b e d e ­ sc rib e d as p o p u lis t d e m a g o g u e s. O n th e o th e r h a n d , it is p o ssib le th a t

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F ig u ero a w as g e n u in e ly c o n c e rn e d a b o u t a u to n o m o u s m ass a c tio n , al­ th o u g h th e re w ere few ex am p les in El S a lv a d o r’s re c e n t h is to ry to su g g est th a t su c h a p ro s p e c t lo o m e d . S till, E l S alv a d o r w as g o in g th r o u g h e c o ­ n o m ic a n d social c h a n g e a t th e tim e , a n d p e rh a p s F ig u e ro a w as m u s in g o n th e p ro s p e c t th a t su c h ch a n g es m ig h t h av e p o litic a l ra m ific a tio n s. U n d e r th e im p a c t o f th e coffee e c o n o m y , E l S a lv a d o r’s d e m o g ra p h ic p ro file w as b e c o m in g m o re co m p le x . T h e ru ra l p o p u la tio n w as in flu x as a c o n se ­ q u e n c e o f th e p riv a tiz a tio n p ro ce ss th a t b e g a n in th e early 1880s, a n d th e u rb a n p o p u la tio n w as g ro w in g a n d c o m in g to in c lu d e a n a s c e n t u rb a n w o rk in g class a n d a sm all b u t g ro w in g m id d le class. P erh ap s F ig u e ro a re c ­ o g n iz e d th a t th e se n e w d e m o g ra p h ic se cto rs w ere less su sc e p tib le to th e tra d itio n a l sy stem o f p a tro n a g e -b a se d p o litic s a n d th u s re p re se n te d th e p ro s p e c t o f a n a lte ra tio n o f th e p o litic a l sy stem , as c o u n trie s su c h as M ex ico , A rg e n tin a , a n d U ru g u a y w ere c o m in g to d isco v er.62 U n f o r tu ­ nately, th e e x ta n t d o c u m e n ta ry re c o rd d o es n o t m a k e clear F ig u ero a’s u n ­ d e rs ta n d in g o f th e situ a tio n , n o r d o es it fu rth e r clarify th e m e a n in g o f his w o rd s to G a rth w a ite in la te 1910. R egardless, h is n o te w o r th y c o m m e n ts offer in s ig h t in to El S a lv a d o r’s c e n tra liz in g p o litic a l sy stem in th e early tw e n tie th cen tu ry . F ig u ero a’s c o m m e n t o c c u rre d in a p riv a te sp h e re o f clo sed c o rre s p o n ­ d e n c e b e tw e e n p o litic a l c o n fid a n ts. A few years later, a ra re b u t n o te w o r ­ th y d ia trib e a g a in st d e m o c ra c y w o u ld a p p e a r in th e p u b lic sp h e re in th e fo rm o f a n e d ito ria l essay. T h e a u th o r w as a p r o m in e n t law y er b y th e n a m e o f A lfo n so Reyes G u e rra , a n d h is p ie c e w as p u b lis h e d in 1913 in a sm all b u t re a so n a b ly in flu e n tia l p e rio d ic a l d e d ic a te d to a rts a n d le tte rs, El

Ateneo de E l Salvador. T h e p ie c e is ra th e r lo n g , c o n s istin g o f five p u b lis h e d pages d iv id e d in to fo u r se ctio n s. T h e o ste n sib le in s p ira tio n fo r R eyes’s w o rk w as d eb a te s in in te rn a tio n a l p o litic a l circles a t th e tim e over th e m e rits o f th e se cret b a llo t. Reyes s ta u n c h ly o p p o se d se cret v o tin g , a n d in th e p ro cess o f e x p la in in g w h y h e m a k es a v a rie ty o f s tro n g ly d isp a ra g in g c o m m e n ts a b o u t th e p ro s p e c t o f a u to n o m o u s m ass a c tio n a n d its th re a ts to a g e n u in e a n d real d em o cracy . In R eyes’s w o rd s, u n iv e rsa l su ffrag e ex­ p ressed th r o u g h se cret v o tin g “n o t o n ly resu lts in a ru d e a n d d e te sta b le a b s u rd ity th a t ru n s c o n tra ry to th e w ise law s th a t are d e sig n e d to p e rfe c t h u m a n ity , b u t also sta g n a te s a n d falsifies D e m o c ra c y .” E c h o in g F ig u ero a’s r h e to ric a b o u t d em ag o g u e ry , R eyes c la im e d th a t th e se cret v o te “is a

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fla tte rin g in c e n tiv e to v a n ity a n d th e in s tin c ts o f th e m asses; it h as p r o ­ m o te d a n d w ill p r o m o te d e sta b iliz in g d e m a g o g u e s.” Reyes w e n t o n to claim th a t u n fe tte re d m ass o p in io n in th e fo rm o f th e se cret v o te c o n tra ­ d ic te d g e n u in e lib e rtie s b ec au se it g e n e ra te d in s ta b ility a n d th re a te n e d th e social order. As e v id en c e fo r h is c la im , h e c ite d cases o f v o te r fra u d in th e U n ite d S tates u n d e r th e sy stem o f se cret v o tin g .63 Yet a g a in , th e e x ta n t h isto ric a l re c o rd d o es n o t allo w us e n o u g h evi­ d e n c e to fu rth e r ex p lo re th e rea so n s fo r R eyes’s h ig h ly p u b lic d e n u n c ia tio n o f u n iv ersal suffrag e a n d th e se cret b a llo t. H e m a k es a b r ie f referen c e to u n n a m e d p o litic a l figures in El S alv a d o r w h o s u p p o se d ly w a n te d to re ­ fo rm th e c o n s titu tio n to allo w fo r se cret v o tin g . I f th is w as so, th e n R eyes’s essay m ig h t re p re se n t th e ra re v o ic e o f elite, esta b lish e d El S alv a d o r p u b ­ licly fre ttin g over th e e m p o w e rm e n t o f th e m asses. R egardless o f R eyes’s in te n tio n s as a n a u th o r, h is p ie c e c e rta in ly c o u ld h av e b e e n re a d th a t way. H ow ever, it is also p o ssib le th a t h is d ia trib e w as sim p ly p a r t a n d p arc el o f th e s ta n d a rd p o litic a l d isc o u rse o f c e n tra liz e d , p a tro n a g e -b a s e d p o litics, d isp a ra g in g d e m o c ra c y as a w ay o f u n d e r m in in g ch a lle n g ers to th e in c u m ­ b e n ts. W e d o n o t k n o w e n o u g h a b o u t Reyes a n d h is p o litic a l affiliatio n s to d e te rm in e w h ic h o f th e se o p tio n s is m o re likely. B u t th e a p p e a ra n c e o f his a n tid e m o c ra tic d isc o u rse in a p u b lic ly c irc u la te d p e rio d ic a l in 1913 is a n o ta b le a n d rare o c c u rre n c e .

T h e R ise o f “M u n ic ip a l A u to n o m y ”

T h e m o s t rev ealin g e v id en c e fo r p o litic a l c e n tra liz a tio n o rig in a te s a t th e local level. B e g in n in g in th e la te 1880s, th e arc h iv al re c o rd offers m a n y ex am p les o f th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t’s a tte m p ts to in flu e n c e lo cal p o litics, especially v o tin g p ro c e d u re s in m u n ic ip a l a n d assem b ly e lec tio n s. F o r ex­ am p le, in 1892 th e d e p a rtm e n ta l c o m m a n d e r o f U s u lu tá n w ro te to th e m in is te r o f g o v e rn m e n t to re m in d h im th a t “p ro b a b ly d u e to y o u r b u sy sc h ed u le , y o u hav e n o t y e t in fo rm e d m e as to w h o s h o u ld b e elected D e p u tie s fo r th e n e x t A ssem bly.” T h e c o m m a n d e r w e n t o n to list th e v ario u s a sp ira n ts w h o h a d alre ad y a n n o u n c e d th e ir ca n d id a c ie s, u n d e r ­ s c o rin g th e im p o rta n c e o f re c e iv in g th e m in is te r ’s p r o m p t d ire c tiv e in o rd e r to av o id fa c tio n a l d is p u te s .64 In 1896, th e “Jefe P o lític o ” (g o v ern o r) o f L a Paz D e p a r tm e n t s u b m itte d to th e m u n ic ip a litie s u n d e r h is ju risd ic -

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tio n a le tte r o n th e b e h a lf o f th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t th a t c o n ta in e d a list o f p erso n s w h o m th e g o v e rn m e n t w a n te d to b e e le c te d in th e f o rth c o m in g m u n ic ip a l elec tio n s. A t le ast o n e o f th e m u n ic ip a l co u n c ils, th a t o f S an J u a n N o n u a lc o , re je c te d th e p ro p o s e d c a n d id a te s, sa y in g th a t w h ile th e y w ere h o n o ra b le m e n , th e c o u n c il w o u ld stic k w ith its in itia l c h o ice s.65 T h e resp o n ses o f th e re m a in in g m u n ic ip a litie s in th e d e p a r tm e n t are n o t k n o w n , n o r is th e g o v e rn m e n t’s re a c tio n to S an J u a n ’s resistan ce, b u t th e m e re ex isten ce o f th e list reveals a n a tte m p t b y th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t to ce n tralize th e p ro cess o f ele c tin g lo cal officials. T h e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t also lo o k e d to in flu e n c e o th e r m u n ic ip a l offices, especially th a t o f m u n ic ip a l secretary. E a c h m u n ic ip a lity h a d o n e secretary, w h o w as a p p o in te d b y th e m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il. H is d u tie s w ere a d m in istra tiv e , th e m o s t im p o r ta n t b e in g re c o rd in g th e p ro c e e d in g s o f th e w eek ly c o u n c il m e e tin g s in th e libro de actas, th e official re g istry o f th e m u n ic ip a lity . T h e se c re ta ry also m o n ito re d th e v o lu m e s o f p a p e rw o rk th a t w ere p ro d u c e d d u r in g th e c o u rse o f a n a d m in is tra tio n . T ra d itio n ally , th e se creta ry w as th e o n e official w h o re ta in e d h is p o s itio n fro m o n e ele c tio n to th e n e x t, so n e w secretaries w ere a p p o in te d o n ly w h e n th e p r io r o n e h a d retire d , d ie d , o r le ft office in se arch o f a n o th e r p o s itio n . T h e se creta ry th u s re p re se n te d a p o in t o f c o n tin u ity in m u n ic ip a l g o v e rn m e n t a n d w as lik ely to b e w ell in fo rm e d in lo cal p o litic a l affairs. O fficials in th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t lo o k e d to c o n tro l th e p o s itio n o f se c re ta ry a n d b e g a n e x e rtin g p ressu re o n m u n ic ip a l co u n c ils to a p p o in t c e rta in p e rso n s to th e p o st. In 1895, fo r exam p le , th e m u n ic ip a lity o f L a C e ib a ( C h a la te n a n g o D e p a r t­ m e n t) f o u n d its e lf in c o n flic t w ith th e m in is te r o f g o v e rn m e n t w h o , o p e r­ a tin g th r o u g h th e d e p a rtm e n ta l g o v ern o r, h a d re je c te d th e c o u n c il’s ch o ice fo r a n e w se cre ta ry b ec au se th e c a n d id a te h a d n o t b e e n a p p ro v e d b y th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t. L a C e ib a ’s m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il re s p o n d e d to th e re ­ je c tio n b y p o in tin g o u t th a t th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t h a d n o c o n s titu ­ tio n a l rig h t to re je c t th e c o u n c il’s d e c isio n .66 U n fo rtu n a te ly , th e o u tc o m e o f th is case is u n k n o w n . N a tio n a l officials a tte m p te d to fo rc e th e m u n ic ip a lity o f N a h u iz a lc o (S o n so n a te D e p a rtm e n t) to alter its c h o ic e fo r se c re ta ry in 1899. T h e n a ­ tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t w a n te d F ra n cisc o B u rg o s to h o ld th e p o s itio n , b u t th e c o u n c il a p p o in te d a d iffe re n t c a n d id a te , p r o m p tin g th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn ­ m e n t to levy a tw e n ty -fiv e -p e so fin e o n ea ch m e m b e r o f th e c o u n c il fo r “h a v in g d iso b e y e d th e o rd e r th a t w as g iv en to th e m . . . b y th e S u p re m o

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P o d er E je cu tiv o .”67 L ik e th e c o u n c il in L a C e ib a , th e N a h u iz a lc o c o u n c il referre d to its c o n s titu tio n a l rig h t to ch o o se its o w n secretary. T h e re su lt o f th is c o n flic t is n o t k n o w n eith er, b u t th e w illin g n ess o f b o th L a C e ib a a n d N a h u iz a lc o to resist th e n a tio n a l-le v e l d irectiv es suggests th a t th e y d id n o t fear rep e rc u ssio n s. N e v e rth e le ss, th e se tw o cases reveal th e g ro w in g d esire o f th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t to in flu e n c e lo cal affairs. In tim e , lo cal officials w o u ld b e u n a b le to resist. T h e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t d eliv ered its o rd e rs to th e m u n ic ip a l level th r o u g h a c h a in o f c o m m a n d th a t u ltim a te ly e n d e d w ith th e local m ilita ry p o s t. T h e p re s id e n t a n d h is im m e d ia te ad v iso rs w o rk e d th r o u g h th e m i n ­ ister o f g o v e rn m e n t, w h o p assed o rd ers o n to th e d e p a rtm e n ta l g o v ern o rs, w h o in tu r n s e n t c o m m a n d s to th e alcaldes a n d m u n ic ip a l co u n c ils. W h e n th e lo cal officials ig n o re d th e g o v ern o r, h e a n d h is su p e rio rs tu r n e d to th e ir sole rep rese n tativ e s a t th e lo cal level, th e m ilita ry c o m m a n d e rs a n d th e G u a r d ia N a c io n a l p o sts. It is h e re th a t th e p ro fe ssio n a liz a tio n o f th e m ili­ ta ry as su m e d special im p o rta n c e . In p rio r d ecad es, lo cal m ilita ry officials h a d ta k e n o rd ers fro m th e ir p a tro n a g e n e tw o rk s, a n d o fte n tim e s th e al­ cald e a n d th e local c o m a n d a n te w ere th e sa m e p e rso n , o r at le ast b e lo n g e d to th e sa m e p o litic a l n e tw o rk . B u t to w a rd s th e tu r n o f th e tw e n tie th c e n ­ tury, th a n k s to th e p ro fe ssio n a liz a tio n p ro g ra m s a n d th e c re a tio n o f n e w a rm y p o sts a n d m ilita ry u n its , th e c h a in o f c o m m a n d w as c e n tra liz e d , a n d local m ilita ry officials in c re a sin g ly to o k th e ir o rd ers fro m th e ir su p e rio rs in th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t. G ra n te d , th is to o w as a n u n e v e n a n d d ra w n -o u t process. As w e saw in p r io r ch a p te rs, m ilita ry officials c o n tin u e d to eng ag e in v ario u s fo rm s o f p o litic a l su b te rfu g e d u r in g th e la te n in e te e n th a n d early tw e n tie th ce n tu rie s. B u t th e d y n a m ic s o f p o litic a l a c tiv ity w ere c h a n g in g , h o w ev e r gradually. O n e sig n o f th is c h a n g e w as th e e m e rg e n c e o f n e w fo rm s o f c o n flic t b e tw e e n th e local a n d n a tio n a l officials. L ocal officials, p a rtic u la rly th e m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il a n d th e lo cal p o lic e, b e g a n to clash w ith u n its o f th e a rm y a n d G u a rd ia N a c io n a l. T h e s e co n flicts fre q u e n tly reg ressed in to v i­ o le n t e n c o u n te rs b e tw e e n p o lic e officers a n d so ld iers. P olice officers w ere local re sid e n ts e m p lo y e d b y th e m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il, w h erea s so ld iers a n d g u ard ia s w ere p a id b y th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t a n d lik e ly c a m e fro m fa r­ aw ay reg io n s. E lites a t th e lo cal level h e ld h ig h ly a m b iv a le n t view s a b o u t th e ex p a n sio n o f a rm e d forces u n d e r th e au sp ices o f th e n a tio n a l g o v ern -

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m e n t. T h e y s u p p o r te d th e a rm y w h e n it e n fo rc e d v a g ra n c y law s, p ro te c te d a g a in st th e ft, a n d p re v e n te d p e a sa n t u p risin g s, b u t th e y v ie w e d th e arrival o f a m ilita ry p o s t w ith su sp ic io n , k n o w in g th a t its so ld iers o b ey e d o rd ers fro m su p e rio rs o u tsid e th e m u n ic ip a lity . W h e n e v e r a n e w m ilita ry p o st w as estab lish e d in a m u n ic ip a lity , it b r o u g h t w ith it n e w p o te n tia l fo r co n flict. T h e case o f th e village o f T e c a p a p ro v id e s a v iv id e x a m p le o f th e k in d o f c o n flict th a t so m e tim e s e r u p te d w h e n a n e w m ilita ry p o s t w as estab ­ lish ed . T ecap a w as a n im p o r ta n t co ffee -g ro w in g m u n ic ip a lity in th e d e ­ p a r tm e n t o f U s u lu tá n . U n til 18 8 9 , it d id n o t h av e its o w n m ilita ry p o st; in s te a d it sh a re d o n e w ith tw o n e ig h b o rin g m u n ic ip a litie s, E sta n z u e la s a n d E l T riu n fo . L e a d in g officials in T ec ap a h a d h a d o n ly a few e n c o u n te rs w ith so ld iers fro m th a t p o s t b ec au se p a tro ls ca m e th r o u g h th e village i n ­ freq u en tly . In 18 8 9 , how ever, as p a r t o f its p la n to e x p a n d th e n u m b e r o f c o m m a n d p o sts a n d p r o m o te th e o rg a n iz a tio n o f m ilitia u n its , th e m ili­ ta ry h ig h c o m m a n d in S a n S a lv a d o r d e c id e d to p la c e a m ilita ry p o s t in each o f th e th re e m u n ic ip a litie s. T h e m ilita ry e x p la in e d its d ec isio n b y re fe rrin g to “th e slo w d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e m ilitia in th e D is tric t o f J u c u a p a [in w h ic h T ec a p a w as lo c a te d ], a n d . . . th e v ario u s re sp o n sib ilitie s o f th e A lcaldes w h ic h p re v e n t th e m fro m effectively p e rfo rm in g a d d itio n a l d u ­ ties as th e C o m a n d a n te s .” T h e m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il o f T ec ap a o p p o s e d th e p la n v e h e m e n tly . In its resp o n se to th e m ilita ry , it p ro fe ssed th a t “w e h av e c o rre s p o n d e d alw ays w ith th e s ta n d in g m ilitia re g u la tio n , a lth o u g h it seem s c o n v e n ie n t to su s­ p e n d said m e a su re g iv e n th e g re a t d a m a g e th a t it causes th e a g ric u ltu ra l in d u stry , w h ic h co n sists h e re o f th e p r o d u c tio n o f coffee. . . . A ll h a n d s are n e e d e d to h a rv e st th is p re c io u s f ru it.” T h e c o u n c il w as q u ic k to p o in t o u t th a t coffee p ro d u c tio n w as th e fo u n d a tio n o f th e n a tio n ’s w e a lth — “ [it] en ric h es o u r c o u n try ”— a n d th a t h in d e rin g its c o lle c tio n w o u ld h av e farre a c h in g co n se q u e n c e s: “th e loss o f th e se ex p o rts w o u ld d e s tro y th e g lo ri­ ou s ad v an tag es w h ic h are en jo y e d b y fam ilies, m u n ic ip a litie s in th e fo rm o f rev en u es, a n d th e sa m e goes fo r th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t.” T h e c o u n c il c o n s id e re d th e p ro p o s e d d iv isio n to b e p a r t o f a b ro a d p ro g ra m o f m ilita ry e x p a n sio n in th e re g io n , n o tin g th a t “alre ad y w e h av e seen m a n y tim e s in o th e r m u n ic ip a litie s th e fata l co n se q u e n c e s o f m ilita ry p re p o n d e ra n c e .” T h e c o u n c il p ro v id e d a n o th e r, rev e alin g re a so n fo r w h y th e y d id n o t w a n t

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th e m ilita ry to p la c e a p o s t in th e ir m u n ic ip a lity : “C o n flic ts in e v ita b ly exist b e tw e e n L ocal C o m a n d a n te s a n d A lcald es w h e n th e se p o sitio n s are filled b y d is tin c t p e rso n s.” T h e m ilita ry c o m m a n d re je c te d T ec ap a s re q u e st, p r o m p tin g th e al­ cald e o f T ec ap a to se n d a last p le a in w h ic h h e d e n o u n c e d th e p ro p o s e d c o m m a n d e r, S e c o n d L ie u te n a n t V ic e n te M e jía , as a p o litic a lly b ia se d a d ­ h e re n t o f a fo rm e r p re s id e n t w h o w o u ld en g ag e in p a rtis a n p o litic s in th e m u n ic ip a lity . T h e alca ld e th e n su g g e sted to m ilita ry officials th a t i f th e y in siste d o n esta b lish in g a p o s t in th e m u n ic ip a lity , a t least th e y s h o u ld se­ le ct a lo cal p e rs o n as c o m m a n d e r, su c h as “C a p ta in Isid o ro C a stillo , w h o is a c c e p te d b y th e p o p u la tio n a n d d o es n o t sig n ify a th re a t.” T h e h ig h c o m m a n d re je c te d th e se p ro p o sa ls, a n d th e p o s t w as f o u n d e d w ith M e jía as its c o m m a n d e r.68 T h e m ilita ry ’s in tra n sig e n c e p ro v e d to b e its d e m ise in T ecap a. T h re e w eeks afte r th e c o m m a n d p o s t w as e sta b lish e d , “a g ro u p o f a rm e d p e o p le ” d e stro y e d it, a c c o rd in g to sp a rse re p o rts a rriv in g in U s u lu tá n C ity .69 T h e p e rp e tra to rs o f th e a tta c k w ere n o t id e n tifie d . R egardless, th e d e s tru c tio n o f th e p o s t sy m b o lizes th e d eg ree to w h ic h th e e x p a n sio n o f th e m ilita ry clash ed w ith local in te re sts. T h e m e m b e rs o f T ecap a’s m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il c a p tu re d th e essence o f th e e m e rg in g c o n flic t b e tw e e n th e lo cal a n d n a ­ tio n a l levels. T h e c o u n c il m e m b e rs u n d e r s to o d th a t th e ir a d v e rsary w as n o t a tra d itio n a l p a tro n a g e bo ss sw o o p in g d o w n to in c o rp o ra te th e ir m u ­ n ic ip a lity in to h is p o litic a l n e tw o rk . R a th e r, th e ir a d v e rsary w as s o m e th in g n e w a n d fo rm a l, s o m e th in g th a t h a d b e e n w itn e sse d in o th e r m u n ic ip a li­ ties a n d h a d re su lte d in , as th e c o u n c il m e m b e rs p u t it, “fata l c o n se ­ q u e n c e s.” T h e c o u n c il m e m b e rs re fe rre d to th is n e w ad v e rsary as “m ilita ry p r e p o n d e ra n c e ,” b u t w h a t th e y essen tially w ere d e s c rib in g w as th e c o n s o li­ d a tio n o f p o litic a l a n d m ilita ry p o w e r u n d e r th e c e n tra l state. T h e clash a t T e c a p a in 1889 p re sa g e d m a n y sim ila r clashes th r o u g h ­ o u t th e c o u n try b e tw e e n lo cal officials a n d th e e m e rg in g n a tio n a l sta te . In o n e m u n ic ip a lity afte r a n o th e r, lo cal la n d o w n e rs a n d m u n ic ip a l officials expressed d issatisfa c tio n over th e arriv al o f m ilita ry tro o p s. L ik e th e c o u n ­ cil in T ecapa, la n d o w n e rs c o m m o n ly c o m p la in e d a b o u t th e m ilita ry d ra w ­ in g la b o re rs aw ay fro m th e p la n ta tio n s fo r m ilitia tr a in in g a n d p u b lic w o rk s p ro jec ts. O n e su c h le tte r w as s e n t b y th e o w n e r o f th e h a c ie n d a “La M iz a ta ” n e a r T e o te p e q u e in L a L ib e rta d D e p a rtm e n t. T h e o w n e r ap p e a le d to th e se creta ry o f sta te as a fello w la n d o w n e r:

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T h e colonos o f m y H ac ien d a w a n t to leave because th e Local C o m a n d a n ­ tes in the region co n tin u ally d em an d fro m th e m certain services, such as guarding th e place k n o w n as “B ocana de M izata” at n ig h t. . . . I ap p ro ach you in confidence, because y o u to o have ow n ed a h acien d a a n d k n o w th e difficulties o f m a in ta in in g servants an d mozos in regions w h ich are located far from a village, even w ith o u t th e local C o m an d a n tes w ho arrive at all hours to assign these ridiculous obligations.70

S im ila r le tte rs a rriv e d fro m o th e r la n d o w n e rs, su c h as V ic e n te Sol, a m a jo r coffee g ro w er in th e re g io n o f S a n ta T ecla.71 N o tw ith s ta n d in g th e se ex am p les, lo cal a u th o ritie s m o s t c o m m o n ly m a n ife s te d th e ir o p p o s itio n to th e e x p a n d in g n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t a n d its n e w m ilita ry p o sts b y e m p lo y in g th e p rin c ip le o f “m u n ic ip a l a u to n o m y .” A c o rn e rs to n e o f lib e ra l id e o lo g y (to th e e x te n t th a t lib e ra lism ex iste d as a u n ifie d id e o lo g ic a l c o n s tru c t) w as th e re je c tio n o f c e n tra liz e d g o v e rn m e n t as s o m e th in g ak in to m o n a rc h y . L ib e ra lism called fo r d e c e n tra liz e d g o v ­ e r n m e n t th a t c o n s iste d of, as th e a u th o rs o f a s tu d y o n lib e ra lism in L a tin A m e ric a p u t it, “in d e p e n d e n t b ra n c h e s lin k e d to g e th e r to p re v e n t d o m i­ n a n c e o f o n e [b ra n c h ].”72 L ib e ra l id e o lo g u e s w o rld w id e , a n d in El S alva­ d o r to o , c o n s id e re d th e in d e p e n d e n c e o f th e m u n ic ip a lity to b e a basic e le m e n t o f d e c e n tra liz e d g o v e rn m e n t. E a c h o f E l S a lv a d o r’s c o n s titu tio n s called fo r th e “in d e p e n d e n c e o f th e m u n ic ip a lity .”73 L ib eral sp o k e sp e rso n s h e ra ld e d m u n ic ip a l a u to n o m y as a k e y e le m e n t o f g o v e rn m e n t. F ran cisco C a sta ñ e d a , w h o h e ld v ario u s g o v e rn m e n ta l p o sitio n s d u r in g th e lib e ral a d m in is tra tio n s o f th e 1880s a n d 1890s, w ro te in 1893 th a t “th e in d e p e n ­ d e n c e o f th e m u n ic ip a lity signifies th e tr iu m p h o f lib e rty over th e h a te d c e n tra liz a tio n o f g o v e rn m e n t . . . s u s ta in in g th e so v e re ig n ty o f th e n a tio n , as in e pluribus un u m o f th e A m e ric a n s.”74 E l S a lv a d o r’s m in is te r o f th e in te rio r w ro te in h is a n n u a l r e p o rt o f 1901 th a t m u n ic ip a l g o v e rn m e n ts “are th e basis o f o u r re p u b lic a n g o v e rn m e n t a n d h av e fu n c tio n e d in th e p a st year w ith all th e in d e p e n d e n c e th a t th e law s b e s to w u p o n th e m .”75 H is to ria n D a v id B u sh n e ll p o in ts o u t, how ever, “th e e x te n t to w h ic h th e liberals [across L a tin A m erica] b y fre q u e n t v io la tio n o f th e ir s ta te d p r in ­ ciples estab lish e d a s tro n g n a tio n -s ta te .”76 T h is w as th e case w ith th e n o to ­ rio u s lib eral P o rfirio D ía z in M e x ico , as o n e ex a m p le , a n d also w ith th e su ccessio n o f lib e ral reg im es in El S alv a d o r afte r 1880.

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R eferences to m u n ic ip a l in d e p e n d e n c e ra n g h o llo w to officials a t th e m u n ic ip a l level in El S alv a d o r b ec au se th e y b eliev e d th e y w ere e x p e rie n c ­ in g a g en e ral d im in u tio n in th e ir fre e d o m . In th e p ro ce ss o f re je c tin g o r­ ders fro m th e ir d e p a rtm e n ta l g o v e rn o r, w h o h a d s u b m itte d to th e m a list o f c a n d id a te s fo r th e n e x t e le c tio n , th e m e m b e rs o f th e m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il o f S an J u a n N o n u a lc o a p p e a le d to “o u r p o litic a l c o n s titu tio n w h ic h g u a r­ an tees fo r us in A rtic le 117 o u r fre e d o m to ch o o se w h o e v e r w e b eliev e w ill e n c o u ra g e th e a g g ra n d iz e m e n t a n d p ro g re ss o f th is p o p u la tio n .”77 A sim ilar, i f less fo rm a l, ap p e a l to m u n ic ip a l a u to n o m y w as m a d e b y th e m u n ic ip a l a u th o ritie s in M e jic a n o s (S a n S alv a d o r D e p a r tm e n t) after th e y a rre ste d a m a n r u n n in g th r o u g h th e to w n a n d b ra n d is h in g a g u n . T h e p o lic e in M e jic an o s c h a rg e d h im w ith illegally c a rry in g a fire a rm in p u b lic . T h e m a n tu r n e d o u t to b e D a v id C a stillo , a s e c u rity a g e n t w o rk in g fo r th e m in is try o f g o v e rn m e n t, w h o w as in p u r s u it o f a fu g itiv e. C a stillo p re ­ s e n te d h is cre d en tia ls fro m th e m in is tr y a n d even h a d th e m in is te r se n d a te le g ra m to M e jic a n o s o rd e rin g th a t h e b e released a n d th a t h is fire a rm b e r e tu rn e d . B u t th e m u n ic ip a l se c re ta ry ig n o re d th e o rd ers, te llin g C a stillo , a c c o rd in g to th e s u b s e q u e n t p o lic e re p o rt, th a t “M in iste rs h a v e n o ju ris ­ d ic tio n in th e village a n d th e y [ th e m u n ic ip a l officials] are n o t o b lig e d to o b ey a n y o rd ers fro m a n y M in iste r, a n d o n ly w ill a tte n d to th e ru le o f law .”78 W h e th e r im p lic it o r ex p licit, th is a p p e a l to m u n ic ip a l a u to n o m y lay a t th e co re o f w h a t b e c a m e a n e p id e m ic o f clashes b e tw e e n lo cal officials a n d th e m ilita ry re p re se n ta tiv e s o f th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t. In m a n y o f th e se exam ples, as in th e case o f T ecap a, th e se le c tio n o f th e lo cal m ilita ry c o m m a n d e r w as th e p o in t o f c o n te n tio n . L o ca l officials p re fe rre d to h av e s o m e o n e in th e p o s t w h o w as k n o w n o r su b se rv ie n t to th e m . T h e g o v er­ n o r o f A h u a c h a p á n , fo r ex a m p le , in fo rm e d th e m in is te r o f g o v e rn m e n t in 1891 o f “th e ree m e rg e n c e o f d isc o rd b e tw e e n th e L ocal C o m a n d a n te a n d th e M u n ic ip a lity [m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il] o f A p a n e c a w h ic h , as is ty p ic al, h as re su lte d in d issen sio n b e tw e e n th e m a n d a d iso b e d ie n c e o f m y o rd e rs.” T h e g o v e rn o r a tte m p te d to ease th e d is p u te b y a p p o in tin g a n e w c o m ­ m a n d e r a n d “th r e a te n i n g ] th e M u n ic ip a l C o u n c il.” B u t u ltim a te ly h e h a d to confess th a t h e failed to resolve th e p ro b le m , as e v id e n c e d b y tw o local citizen s w h o , u n d e r th e ch a rg e o f th e alcalde, c o n tin u e d to en g a g e in “grave activ ities” a g a in st th e m ilita ry p o s t.79

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In h e r s tu d y o f ru ra l v io le n c e in El S alvador, A lv are n g a V e n u to lo cites n e w sp a p e r a c c o u n ts o f e ig h t v io le n t clashes b e tw e e n m u n ic ip a l p o lic e a n d m ilita ry u n its in five cities o v er a six-year p e rio d s ta rtin g in 1 9 0 6 .80 A c o m m o n p o in t o f c o n te n tio n in th e se co n flicts w as th e local m ilita ry c o m m a n d e rs ’ service as th e p o litic a l a rm o f th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t. A m e m b e r o f th e m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il o f O r a to r io d e C o n c e p c ió n (C u s c a tlá n D e p a rtm e n t) , fo r in sta n c e , d e n o u n c e d th e lo cal c o m m a n d e r fo r re fu sin g to allow th e c o u n c il’s p re fe rre d c a n d id a te s to receive a n y v o tes in th e m u ­ n ic ip a l e le c tio n .81 A n o th e r le tte r fro m a m e m b e r o f th e m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il o f C o ju te p e q u e (C u sc a tlá n D e p a rtm e n t) n o te d th a t th e d e p a rtm e n ta l c o m m a n d e r s e n t o u t o rd ers to th e lo cal c o m m a n d e rs in ea ch m u n ic ip a lity te llin g th e m w h o m to s u p p o r t in th e e le c tio n s.82 S im ila r d e n u n c ia tio n s arriv ed fro m m u n ic ip a litie s across th e c o u n try , su c h as S an R afael (L a P az D e p a rtm e n t) , S a n ta A n a C ity, B e rlín (U s u lu tá n D e p a rtm e n t) , T e n a n c in g o (C u sc a tlá n D e p a rtm e n t) , a n d Ju a y ú a (S o n so n a te D e p a rtm e n t) . T h e case o f T acu b a, d isc u sse d above, is a n o th e r e x a m p le .83 In ea ch o f th e se cases, th e p la in tiffs re q u e ste d th a t a m ilita ry p o s t b e re m o v e d fro m th e v illage b ecau se its m e m b e rs h a d m e d d le d in lo cal p o litic a l affairs. W h e n lo cal officials la c k e d a n ex p lic it re a so n to d e m a n d th e rem o v a l o f a m ilita ry p o st, th e y u se d w h a te v e r e x a m p le o f m ilita ry in tra n sig e n c e th e y c o u ld fin d . A n a c c u sa tio n a g a in st a g u a rd ia fo r r a p in g a g irl in th e m u n ic ip a lity o f S an M a rtín (S an S alv a d o r D e p a rtm e n t) p r o m p te d th e alcald e o f th a t m u n ic ip a lity to re q u e st th a t th e G u a rd ia p o s t b e d is b a n d e d fo r f o m e n tin g “social d isc o rd .”84 T h e m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il o f Jiq u ilisc o (U su lu tá n D e p a rtm e n t) also d e m a n d e d th a t its lo cal G u a rd ia p o s t b e d is­ b a n d e d , b u t it p ro v id e d n o sp ecific re a so n , s ta tin g sim p ly th a t th e m u n ic i­ p a lity w as d o in g w ell e c o n o m ic a lly d u e to coffee p ro d u c tio n a n d th a t th e G u a rd ia w as “c o u n te rp ro d u c tiv e to th e social in te re sts o f th is lo cality .” It in siste d th a t m u n ic ip a l p o lic e c o u ld h a n d le lo cal affairs.85 Rarely, i f ever, d id th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t re m o v e m ilita ry p o sts at th e b e h e st o f lo cal officials. B u t so m e h ig h -ra n k in g m ilita ry a u th o ritie s to o k in to a c c o u n t th e p ro b le m s th a t c o u ld arise o u t o f co n flicts w ith local p o w e r h o ld e rs. In 1915, fo r in sta n c e , th e d e p a rtm e n ta l c o m m a n d e r o f S an V ic e n te D e p a rtm e n t re c o m m e n d e d to th e m in is te r o f w a r th a t th e a rm y n o t fo llo w th r o u g h w ith its p la n to e sta b lish a m ilita ry p o s t in th e m u n ic i­ p a lity o f V erapáz. “I a m o f th e o p in io n th a t a d e ta c h m e n t o f th e a rm y

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s h o u ld n o t b e p o s te d in V erap á z,” s ta te d th e c o m m a n d e r, “b ec au se . . . it w ill n o t create h a r m o n y b e tw e e n m ilita ry a n d civil a u th o ritie s , b ec au se in th a t village th e y [th e civil a u th o ritie s] alw ays h av e s o u g h t to nullify, even ab o lish th e m ilita ry .”86 S u c h a c c o m m o d a tin g s e n tim e n ts fro m h ig h ra n k in g officials, how ever, w ere rare. M o re o fte n th e y p resse d fo rw a rd w ith w h a te v e r th e y w a n te d to do. A rev e alin g case is p ro v id e d b y G e n e ra l R afael R ivas, th e fa m e d jefe o f T a c u b a in A h u a c h a p á n D e p a rtm e n t. In th e 1910s, G e n e ra l R ivas re tire d fro m th e m ilita ry a n d to o k u p re sid e n c e in th a t re m o te village, w h e re h e b u ilt fo r h im s e lf a sm a ll p o litic a l e m p ire . R ivas a p p e a rs to h av e e a rn e d th e g e n u in e s u p p o r t o f m u c h o f th e lo cal p o p u la tio n a n d u se d th a t s u p p o r t to resist ch allen g es to h is a u th o rity . R ivas’s m o s t p e rs is te n t o p p o n e n t w as th e local G u a rd ia N a c io n a l p o st. T h e d is p u te b e tw e e n R ivas’s n e tw o rk a n d th e G u a rd ia la ste d fo r m a n y m o n th s a n d o c c asio n ally re a c h e d v io le n t p r o p o r ­ tio n s. T h e G u a rd ia u ltim a te ly gave u p d u e to its n e a r-c o m p le te la c k o f s u p p o r t fro m th e lo cal p o p u la tio n , w h ic h re fu se d to tu r n o n R ivas. In ac­ c e p tin g failu re, th e c o m m a n d e r o f th e G u a rd ia w ro te to h is su p e rio rs th a t “T h e p e o p le h e re b e lo n g to h im [Rivas] b o d y a n d so u l a n d w ill n o t say a n y th in g a g a in st h im ; ev e ry o n e h e re tells us th a t G e n e ra l R ivas a n d h is so n are th e ir padrinos [p ro te c to rs/g o d fa th e rs] a n d th a t th e y h o ld h im in th e g rea test esteem a n d ow e h im g re a t g ra titu d e .”87 O n e in c id e n c e o f c o n flic t b e tw e e n th e G u a rd ia a n d G e n e ra l R ivas’s p o litic a l n e tw o rk o c c u rre d o n O c to b e r 11, 19 2 1 , w h e n a p a ir o f n a tio n a l g u a rd s m e n o n p a tro l c a m e across tw e n ty o f R ivas’s s u p p o rte rs lo u n g in g o n a stre e t co rn er. T h e m e n w ere d rin k in g , a n d o n e o r m o re o f th e m w as in a sta te o f stu p o r. T h e g u a rd ia s in te rro g a te d th e m e n , a sk in g th e m i f th e y “h a d a licen se to b e in p u b lic in su c h a c o n d itio n .” U n sa tisfie d w ith th e resp o n ses, th e y arre ste d o n e o f th e m o re o b s tin a te in d iv id u a ls. D r. R afael A lfo n so R ivas, G e n e ra l R iv as’s so n , w h o serv ed as lia iso n fo r h is fa th e r a n d s p e n t m u c h tim e fra te rn iz in g w ith h is fa th e r ’s follow ers, w as in a n e a rb y b u ild in g . H e o v e rh e a rd th e e v o lv in g c o n flic t a n d s te p p e d in to th e fray, re fu sin g to allo w th e g u a rd ia s to d e p a rt w ith th e ir p riso n e r. A c c o rd ­ in g to G u a rd ia re p o rts, R ivas to ld th e m th a t “w h ile th e m e n d id n o t h av e th e re q u ire d license, h e h a d g iv e n th e m th e n ec essary g u a ra n te e s a n d to ld th e m th a t th e y w ere allo w ed to g o a b o u t [an d ar] a t w h a te v e r h o u r th e y p re fe rre d .” R ivas th e n p ro c la im e d th a t i f th e g u a rd ia s d id n o t w ith d ra w h e

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“w o u ld d e m o n s tra te h is im p o r ta n c e . . . b y ra isin g th e v illage [pueblo] u p a g a in st th e m .” T h e g u a rd ia s re tire d a n d , in th e ir re p o rt, d e sc rib e d D r. R ivas as “th e so n o f th e C a u d illo .”88 T h e in c id e n t o f O c to b e r 11 re p re se n ts a m o m e n t in w h ic h th e p ro v e rb ia l c a p ta in o f a local p a tro n a g e n e tw o rk s to o d u p to th e s ta te ’s m ilita ry fo rc e— iro n ic a lly h is fa th e r ’s fo rm e r p r o ­ fession. In su m , th e ste a d y e x p a n sio n o f th e c e n tra l sta te p r e c ip ita te d co n flicts w ith local p o w e r h o ld e rs w h o m a n ife s te d th e ir c o n c e rn in v a rio u s w ays. T h e y ig n o re d th e s ta te ’s o rd ers re g a rd in g e lec tio n s a n d a p p o in tm e n ts ; th e y ap p e a le d to th e p rin c ip le o f m u n ic ip a l a u to n o m y ; th e y clash e d w ith local c o m m a n d e rs a n d m e m b e rs o f th e G u a rd ia N a c io n a l. W h ile th e y sc o re d so m e v icto ries a lo n g th e way, th e y u ltim a te ly lo st th e w a r as th e c e n tra l sta te e x p a n d e d steadily. *

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M u n ic ip a l elec tio n s re m a in e d c o n s is te n t w ith th e p a tte rn s o f p o litic a l b e ­ h a v io r in El S alv a d o r d isc u sse d in p a s t c h a p te rs: officers fo rm e d elec to ra l b o ard s, v o te rs p assed b e fo re th e b o a rd s ’ m e m b e rs, v o tes w ere a n n o u n c e d a n d re c o rd e d o n ta lly sh eets, a n d th e resu lts w ere u ltim a te ly s e n t o ff to th e d e p a rtm e n ta l g o v e rn o r’s office o r to th e m in is try o f g o v e rn m e n t in S an Salvador. B u t th is su p e rfic ial a d h e re n c e to th e fo rm a l ru les o f p o litic s w as a c c o m p a n ie d b y a m u c h m o re c o m p le x series o f in fo rm a l p ra c tic e s th a t saw m u n ic ip a l-le v e l ac to rs e m p lo y in g a w id e a rra y o f ta ctics to c o n tro l v o tin g a n d w in lo cal elec tio n s. T h e s e m u n ic ip a l-le v e l e lec to ra l b a ttle s w ere h ig h ly p a ra d o x ic a l affairs, in th a t th e y w ere a t o n c e p a ro c h ia l ev en ts th a t o c c u rre d in rela tiv e iso la­ tio n a n d events o f c e n tra l im p o rta n c e to n a tio n a l-le v e l p o litic s. W h o e v e r c o n tro lle d v o tin g at th e m u n ic ip a l level d e te rm in e d h o w v o tin g w o u ld tra n s p ire in n a tio n a l-le v e l elec tio n s. A n d n a tio n a l-le v e l c a n d id a te s d e s p e r­ ately w a n te d th o se votes. U n til ro u g h ly th e tu r n o f th e tw e n tie th ce n tu ry , th e a b ility o f a n y o n e n atio n a l-le v e l p o litic a l n e tw o rk to c o n tro l affairs in th e m u n ic ip a litie s w as lim ite d to th e re a c h o f its p a tro n a g e -b a s e d alliances. A t a n y g iv e n m o ­ m e n t, a n in c u m b e n t fac ed h o stile reg io n s w h e re m u n ic ip a l a u th o ritie s d id w h a t th e y w a n te d to d o , a lb e it in a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e ir resp e ctiv e p o litic a l alliances. S ta rtin g a r o u n d 19 0 0 , w ith th e g ro w th in sta te pow er, th e areas

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th a t re m a in e d o u ts id e th e re a c h o f th e s ittin g n e tw o rk d e c lin e d steadily. O n e w ay th a t lo cal ac to rs trie d to resist th is g ro w in g n a tio n a l a u th o rity w as to a p p e al to m u n ic ip a l a u to n o m y . S u c h ap p e als w ere little m o re th a n th e vestiges o f a p o litic a l sy stem in a stag e o f tra n s itio n . As w e are a b o u t to see, th e c o n s o lid a tio n o f th e c e n tra l sta te d id n o t c h a n g e th e f u n d a m e n ta l s tr u c tu re o f p o litics; it m e re ly a lte re d its m a n n e r o f fu n c tio n in g .

C H A P T E R

5

the n et w o r k of the state

Meléndez-Quiñónez, 1913—1926

O n th e eve o f th e p re sid e n tia l e le c tio n o f 18 9 8 , G e n e ra l T o m á s R e g alad o o v e rth re w P re sid e n t R afael G u tié rre z in a q u ic k ly ex e c u te d c o u p d ’é ta t. To p a rtic ip a n ts a n d o n lo o k e rs alike, th e c o u p se e m e d a r o u tin e exercise. T h e in s u rg e n t w as a o n e -tim e ally o f th e p re s id e n t w h o h a d g ro w n im p a tie n t w ith G u tié rre z ’s refu sal to re lin q u is h p o w e r a n d h is p la n s to rig th e f o r th ­ c o m in g e le c tio n to re m a in in office. O v e r th e p re c e d in g five d ecad es, th e n a tio n h a d w itn e sse d co u n tle ss su c h ev en ts, so m a n y th a t th e pro cess se em e d n o rm a l a n d th e n a m e s o f th e p a rtic ip a n ts h a rd ly m e m o ra b le . T h e r e w as n o in d ic a tio n th a t th is o n e w as a n y d iffe re n t. B u t u n b e k n o w n s t to everyone, th e c o u p o f 1898 w o u ld b e th e la st tim e a s ittin g p re s id e n t w as cast o u t o f office in a v io le n t o v e rth ro w b y a rival u n til D e c e m b e r 1931. T h e c o u p o f 1898 h o ld s real a n d sy m b o lic im p o r ta n c e as a fo recast o f th e c o m in g c h a n g e in th e fu n c tio n in g o f p o litic s in E l S alvador. A t th e tu r n o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry , E l S alv a d o r w as in th e m id s t o f a c e n tra liz a tio n o f p o litic a l a u th o rity a n d a m a n ifo ld in c re ase in th e p o w ers o f th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t. A s in th e re st o f L a tin A m e ric a , th is pro cess o f c e n tra liz a tio n w as fu e le d b y th e o n se t o f th e in d u s tria l re v o lu tio n in E u ­ ro p e a n d th e U n ite d S tates a n d th e c o n s e q u e n t in c re ase in d e m a n d fo r p rim a ry m a te ria ls p ro d u c e d b y L a tin A m e ric a n n a tio n s. I n th e case o f El Salvador, coffee w as th e so le p r o d u c t c o m p e titiv e o n th e in te rn a tio n a l 173

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m a rk e t. It b r o u g h t u n p re c e d e n te d a m o u n ts o f w e a lth , w h ic h gave th e c o u n try b o th th e m e a n s a n d th e m o tiv a tio n to in c re ase th e size a n d p o w ­ ers o f th e state. P ro sp e ctiv e coffee g ro w ers n e e d e d n e w p u b lic services, su c h as b a n k s to p ro v id e in v e s tm e n t c a p ita l, ro a d s a n d ra ilro a d s to d eliv er th e ir cro p s to p o r t, a n d s e c u rity forces to p r o te c t p riv a te p r o p e rty a n d e n ­ fo rce v ag ra n cy law s. P la n te rs also n e e d e d a safe c lim a te fo r in v e s tm e n t— in c e ssa n t w arfa re a n d p o litic a l in s ta b ility d id n o t e n c o u ra g e b u sin e ss v e n tu re s. T h e s e in itia tiv e s w ere b e y o n d th e sc o p e o f th e in d iv id u a l g ro w ­ ers a n d th e lo cal g o v e rn m e n ts over w h ic h th e y p re sid e d ; th e y w ere e n d e a v ­ ors o f n a tio n a l p ro p o rtio n s , w h ic h o n ly a g o v e rn m e n t o f e q u a l e x te n t c o u ld u n d e rta k e . I t is te m p tin g to a ssu m e th a t th e c e n tra liz a tio n o f th e sta te n ec essi­ ta te d th e d em ise o f p a tro n a g e a n d c lie n te lism . H o w c o u ld th e sta te “in s ti­ tu tio n a liz e ,” as R o b e rt W illia m s d escrib es th e pro cess o f sta te g ro w th , if p o litic a l bosses c o n tin u e d to h o ld sw ay in th e m u n ic ip a litie s a n d serve th e ir resp ectiv e n e tw o rk s ra th e r th a n th e c e n tra l g o v e rn m e n t? 1 R ic h a rd G ra h a m en g a g ed th is d ile m m a in h is s tu d y o f n in e te e n th - c e n tu ry B ra z il­ ia n p o litics. H e c o n te n d s th a t p a tro n - c lie n t re la tio n s are n o t n ecessarily “s u p e rse d e d b y th e in e v ita b le tr iu m p h o f a n im p e rs o n a l a n d u n iv e rsa listic ‘r a tio n a l’ b u rea u c ra c y .” In ste a d , th e B raz ilian sta te “a d v a n c e d th e in te re sts o f th e p r o p e rtie d p rin c ip a lly b y re p ro d u c in g a n d m a in ta in in g th e p a tro n c lie n t sy stem itself.”2 A sim ila r p ro ce ss w as a t w o rk in El S alvador. T h e g ro w th o f c e n tra l a u th o rity in El S alv a d o r re in fo rc e d p a tro n c lie n t rela tio n s. T h e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t b e c a m e th e su p re m e p a tro n a g e n e tw o rk a n d s u b s u m e d th e fa c tio n a lism o f th e in d iv id u a l n e tw o rk s. L ocal bosses re ta in e d th e ir clien ts a n d m o n o p o liz e d v o tin g in th e m u n ic ip a litie s, b u t n o w th e y d id so o n b e h a lf o f th e sta te a n d w h o e v e r h a p p e n e d to b e p re s id in g over it. T h is p ro ce ss o f c e n tra liz a tio n w as p r o lo n g e d a n d u n ­ even. It la ste d ro u g h ly fo u r d ecad es b e tw e e n th e m id -1 8 8 0 s a n d th e m id 1920s, th e p e rio d in w h ic h coffee b e c a m e th e u n d is p u te d e n g in e o f th e S alv a d o ra n eco n o m y . T h e lo n g d u r a tio n o f th e pro cess reflects n o t o n ly ex tern al v ariables, n a m e ly th e g ro w th o f th e in te rn a tio n a l coffee m a rk e t, b u t also in te rn a l processes, especially th e re sista n c e to sta te c e n tra liz a tio n o n th e p a r t o f so m e lo cal p o litic a l bosses. A lth o u g h m o s t lo cal elites saw th e g ro w th o f th e sta te as e c o n o m ic a lly ad v a n ta g e o u s, so m e c o n s id e re d it a th r e a t to th e ir p o w e r b ec au se th e y w o u ld a lm o st c e rta in ly h av e less v o ice

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in th e n a tio n a l sta te th a n th e y h a d in th e ir lo cal p o litic a l em p ires. T h is ero sio n o f local a u th o rity w as th e p ric e o f n a tio n a l stab ility , a n d so m e bosses a c c e p te d it m o re g ru d g in g ly th a n o th e rs. T h o s e w h o resisted gave rise to n e w m o d e s o f c o n flic t a n d a p o litic a l d isc o u rse th a t c e le b ra te d local a u to n o m y . T h e m e rc u ria l p ro cess o f sta te c e n tra liz a tio n c u lm in a te d d u r in g th e a d m in is tra tio n s o f Jo rg e M e lé n d e z (1 9 1 9 —1 9 23) a n d A lfo n so Q u iñ ó n e z M o lin a (1 9 2 3 —1 9 2 7 ). T h e y w ere b ro th e rs -in -la w a n d close p o litic a l allies w h o c re ate d th e P a rtid o N a c io n a l D e m o c rá tic o ( P N D ), th e N a tio n a l D e m o c ra tic Party. C o n tra ry to its n a m e , th e P N D w as n e ith e r d e m o c ra tic n o r a p o litic a l p arty . It w as, how ever, n a tio n a l in sco p e. It w as th e first p a tro n a g e n e tw o rk to ach iev e n a tio n a l d im e n sio n s. M e lé n d e z a n d Q u iñ ó ­ n e z d isallo w ed p o litic a l a c tiv ity o u ts id e th e co n fin e s o f th e P N D a n d , w ith o n ly a few ex c ep tio n s, p la c e d th e lo cal p o litic a l n e tw o rk s u n d e r th e ir a u ­ th o rity . It w as d u r in g th is p e rio d th a t El S alv a d o r fin ally c o n s tru c te d its o w n v ersio n o f B razil’s “G re a t P y ra m id .” T h e p re s e n t c h a p te r p ic k s u p th e s to ry o f n a tio n a l p o litic s in th e 1910s, w ith th e a sc e n sio n to p o w e r o f C a rlo s M e lén d e z , w h o a ssu m e d th e p re sid e n c y afte r th e a ssassin atio n o f M a n u e l E n riq u e A ra u jo in 1913.

M e lé n d e z -Q u iñ ó n e z , 1913—1919

U n d e r th e a d m in is tra tio n s o f th e M e lé n d e z a n d Q u iñ ó n e z fam ilies, th e sta te re a c h e d its m o s t c e n tra liz e d sta tu s to d ate. C a rlo s M e lé n d e z w as th e first m e m b e r o f th e fa m ily to serve as p re sid e n t. H e ca m e to p o w e r in 1913 to c o m p le te th e fin a l tw o years o f A ra u jo ’s te rm . M e lé n d e z w as th e n elec ted to h is o w n fo u r-y e a r te rm in 1915. H e w as su c c e e d e d in 1919 b y h is b ro th e r, Jo rg e M e lé n d e z , w h o w as fo llo w ed in 1923 b y h is a n d C a rlo s’s b ro th e r-in -la w , A lfo n so Q u iñ ó n e z M o lin a . Q u iñ ó n e z a n d C a rlo s M e lé n dez, th e eld est o f th e th re e , w ere se a so n e d p o litic ia n s; b o th h a d h e ld n u ­ m e ro u s p o litic a l a n d a d m in is tra tiv e p o sts sin c e th e la te n in e te e n th cen tu ry . B o th h a d serv ed at le ast tw ic e o n th e m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il o f S an S alvador. C a rlo s M e lé n d e z h a d b e e n a m a jo r p la y er in p re sid e n tia l p o litic s in th e 1890s a n d 1900s, in c lu d in g c o m p e tin g w ith P ru d e n c io A lfaro in th e vice p re sid e n tia l e le c tio n o f 1 8 9 5 .3 B y c o n tra st, Jo rg e M e lé n d e z w as a p o litic a l

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no v ice, h a v in g re m a in e d a lo o f fro m p o litic s a n d d e d ic a te d h im s e lf to a g ri­ c u ltu ra l p u rsu its. T h e p re sid e n c y w as th e o n ly p o litic a l p o s t h e w o u ld ever h o ld . T h e M e lé n d e z a n d Q u iñ ó n e z fam ilies w ere fa b u lo u sly w e a lth y a n d o w n e d v ast trac ts o f la n d , esp ecially in th e v ic in ity o f S a n S alv ad o r. A n a g ric u ltu ra l cen su s fro m 1929 reveals th a t Jo rg e M e lé n d e z o w n e d m o re th a n h a lf o f th e la n d a r o u n d th e m u n ic ip a lity o f S o y a p a n g o , to th e east o f S an Salvador, th e c e n te rp ie c e o f w h ic h w as th e su g a r p la n ta tio n “P ru ssia.”4 T o g e th e r th e fam ilies o w n e d six te e n p la n ta tio n s th r o u g h o u t S an S alv ad o r D e p a r tm e n t.5 T h e fam ilies o w n e d a few coffee p la n ta tio n s b u t m a d e m o s t o f th e ir m o n e y o ff sugar. In fact, th e M e lé n d e z fa m ily w as th e larg est su g ar p ro d u c e r in th e n a tio n .6 N o r t h A m e ric a n a n d E u ro p e a n c h ro n ic le rs w h o trav e led to El S alv a d o r in th e 1910s a n d 1920s a n d h a d th e o p p o r tu n ity to m e e t m e m b e rs o f th e tw o fam ilies c o m m e n te d o n th e ir v ast w e a lth a n d th e fo re ig n sc h o o lin g o f th e ir c h ild re n . A B r ito n b y th e n a m e o f A rth u r R u h l a rriv ed in El S alv a d o r in 1 9 2 7 a n d d e s c rib e d h is v isit w ith Jo rg e M e lé n d e z :

I visited th e electric-light a n d pow er p la n t in w h ich he is interested, in th e hills ju st outsid e th e capital, an d drove th en ce o u t to his c o u n try house an d sugar p la n tatio n . T h e spacious an d entirely m o d e rn villa, w ith its gardens an d m ag n ificen t view, was ju st th e place in w h ich a sim ilarly wellto -d o English fam ily w o u ld p refer to sp en d m o st of th eir tim e. . . . T h ere was a sugar-m ill, th e storage sheds of w h ich w ere p iled h ig h w ith th e fra­ g ran t new sugar, corn, a n d coffee, vegetables a n d fruits o f all sorts, som e 5 0 0 peasants w ere regularly attach ed to th e estate, w hile 2 0 0 m o re cam e for the coffee picking.7

F re d e ric k W illia m T aylor, th e A m e ric a n a g ro n o m ist, w ro te to h is w ife afte r a v isit to so m e o f Jo rg e M e lé n d e z s p la n ta tio n s , “M e le n d e s [sic] is a v ery w e a lth y m a n w ith all so rts o f ac tiv ities g o in g o n . . . . T h e y d o th in g s a t h is places o n a v e ry larg e scale. H e ex p ects a b o u t 1 0 ,0 0 0 sacks o f coffee th is year, a n d g re a t lo t o f su g ar.”8 W h e n C a rlo s M e lé n d e z e n te re d office in 1913, h e lo o k e d to fo rm a liz e th e p o litic a l c o n tro l o f th e sta te . T o th is e n d h e f o u n d e d th e “ C lu b M e le n d ista ,” a p se u d o p o litic a l p a r ty th a t h e in te n d e d to use as a m e c h a n is m to reg u la te elec tio n s a t th e lo cal a n d d e p a rtm e n ta l levels. L o ca l p o litic a l

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a sp ira n ts w ere su p p o se d to receive ap p ro v a l fro m th e c lu b b e fo re b e in g allo w ed to r u n in a n e le c tio n . T h e id e a w as th a t ea ch m u n ic ip a lity w o u ld hav e a local b r a n c h lin k e d to a c e n tra l c o m m itte e in S a n S alv a d o r th ro u g h in te rm e d ia ry b ra n c h e s in th e d e p a rtm e n ta l ca p itals. T h e sy stem fu n c ­ tio n e d to a c e rta in degree. In 1914, fo r ex a m p le , th e c o m m itte e se creta ry o f th e clu b in S e n s u n te p e q u e , th e m a in c lu b fo r C a b a ñ a s D e p a rtm e n t, s u b m itte d a le tte r to th e c e n tra l c o m m itte e th a t c o n ta in e d th e n a m e s o f c a n d id a te s to b e a p p ro v e d fo r th e f o rth c o m in g m u n ic ip a l e lec tio n s. T h e se creta ry assu re d th e c o m m itte e th a t ea ch o f th e c a n d id a te s h a d b e e n c h o se n in th e ir lo cal clu b s a n d th a t th e y w ere “loyal M e le n d ista s .”9 T h a t sa m e year, th e alcald e o f E l R e fu g io ( A h u a c h a p á n D e p a r tm e n t) receiv ed fro m th e d e p a rtm e n ta l g o v e rn o r th e n a m e o f th e c a n d id a te w h o w as to b e elec ted in th a t m u n ic ip a lity . T h e alcalde, how ever, d id n o t a p p ro v e o f th e c a n d id a te a n d ask ed th e c e n tra l c o m m itte e to rec o n sid er, sa y in g th a t th e re is a n o th e r p e rso n in th e m u n ic ip a lity w h o b e tte r re p re se n ts th e “so u l o f th e M e le n d is ta p a rty .”10 T h is p a rtic u la r re q u e st is in te re stin g , b ec au se it reveals an a tte m p t b y a lo cal p o litic a l official to m a n e u v e r w ith in th e e m e rg in g system . H e o p p o s e d th e c a n d id a te p ro p o s e d a t th e n a tio n a l level, b u t h e re c o g n iz e d th e n ec essity o f w o rk in g w ith in th e C lu b M e le n d ista . In d o in g so h e d e m o n s tra te s th e e x te n t to w h ic h p o litic a l success re q u ire d ap p ro v a l fro m th e c e n tra l au th o rity . T h e c e n tra l c o m m itte e o f th e C lu b M e le n d is ta h a d to g u a rd ag a in st o p p o n e n ts p o sin g as s u p p o rte rs. In 1913 th e g o v e rn o r o f S an V ic e n te , fo r ex am p le, receiv e d fro m th e m u n ic ip a lity o f A p a ste p e q u e a w a rn in g th a t “th e P re s id e n t o f th e D ire c to rio a n d th e c a n d id a te fo r A lcald e p ro c la im e d to b e M e len d ista s, b u t in a c tu a lity are B a ra h o n ista s [ a n ad v e rsary o f M e lé n d e z ].”11 In J a n u a ry 1915, th e U .S. c h a rg é in c lu d e d in h is r e p o r t to W a s h in g to n a d e s c rip tio n o f th e m u n ic ip a l e lec tio n s o f 1914, n o tin g th e extensive v io le n c e th a t h a d a c c o m p a n ie d v o tin g in ru ra l a n d o u tly in g areas.

T h ese disturbances to o k place am o n g M elendistas, so-called. T h e p o ­ litical intriguers, unw illing to com e o u t in to th e o p en a n d an n o u n c e their candidacies, or to declare them selves in favor o f another, p ro d u ce d p o ­ litical division by causing several aspirants w h o p re te n d e d to be of th a t p arty to ru n fo r th e sam e office. T h is sp lit th e M elen d ista p a rty in som e places an d resulted in th e election o f a few m u n ic ip a l officers w h o are n o t n o w favorable to D o n C arlos M eléndez or in sy m p ath y w ith his

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aspirations, and, in effect, these “A lcaldes” selected are n o th in g b u t his political o p p o n en ts. It is n o t th o u g h t, however, th a t these officers can amass such force or v o tin g pow er as to en d an g er th e success of M eléndez at th e poles [sic] a n d it is believed th a t after th e elections are over an d th e in a u g u ra tio n has taken place, even these w ill see it to th eir advantage to change th eir a ttitu d e an d be friendly. N o one w o u ld p re te n d to say th a t the elections w ere free b u t ju st h o w th e pressure was exercised it was n o t easy to d eterm in e .12

T h e c h a rg é’s d e s c rip tio n reveals tw o th in g s: th e m a in p o litic a l fo rc e in th e n a tio n w as th e C lu b M e le n d is ta , a n d o p p o s in g fac tio n s w ere try in g to g ain office u n d e r its aegis. T h e r e p o rt in d ic a te s th a t th e re w as o p p o s itio n , b u t th a t it w as u n w illin g to p re s e n t its e lf as a c o h e re n t m o v e m e n t d u e to a lm o st c e rta in failu re . T h e ch a rg é ’s d e s c rip tio n p ro v id e s e v id en c e o f th e degree to w h ic h th e p ro ce ss o f p o litic a l c e n tra liz a tio n h a d b e e n successful. D e s p ite th e se a n d o th e r ex am p les o f th e C lu b M e le n d is ta ’s in v o lv e ­ m e n t in p o litics, M e lé n d e z failed to g e t th e c lu b o p e ra tin g o n a fu lly n a ­ tio n a l sc ale .13 T h e c lu b ex isted o n ly in c e rta in reg io n s, a n d even th e re it o fte n o p e ra te d in fo rm ally . S till, th e c re a tio n o f th e c lu b c o n s titu te d an im p o r ta n t p o litic a l step . It re p re se n te d a p re s id e n t a tte m p tin g to fo rm a liz e p o litic a l c e n tra liz a tio n a n d to n a m e th e e m e rg in g p o litic a l p y ra m id . M o r e ­ over, th e C lu b M e le n d is ta w as th e p re c u rso r to th e P N D , w h ic h w o u ld b e s tr u c tu re d in m u c h th e sa m e m a n n e r b u t w o u ld fu n c tio n o n a m o re c o m ­ p re h e n siv e scale. C a rlo s M e lé n d e z a n d h is fa m ilia l successors, Jo rg e M e lé n d e z a n d A l­ fo n so Q u iñ ó n e z M o lin a , saw th e m se lv es as a rc h ite c ts o f a sin g le c e n tra l­ ized n e tw o rk . T h e y in te rp re te d th e p o litic a l sta b ility o f th e tw o p rio r decades as th e re su lt o f c e n tra liz a tio n , a n d th e y to o k a d v a n ta g e o f o p p o r ­ tu n itie s to d ra w c o n tra sts w ith th e fa c tio n a lism o f earlier eras. C a rlo s M e lé n d e z offered su c h a n assessm en t in a sp e e c h in A u g u st 1914, o n th e o cc asio n o f re sig n in g th e p re sid e n c y to h is vice p re sid e n t, A lfo n so Q u iñ ó n e z M o lin a , in o rd e r to q u a lify fo r th e e le c tio n o f 1915. T h e c o n s titu ­ tio n s tip u la te d th a t c a n d id a te s fo r th e p re sid e n c y c o u ld n o t h av e b e e n p re s id e n t fo r a t least six m o n th s p r io r to an e le c tio n . T h e la w s u p p o se d ly e n c o u ra g e d tu rn o v e r in office, b u t ju s t as in o ffic e h o ld in g at th e m u n ic ip a l level, th e fo rm a l ru les se ld o m h e ld sw ay over in fo rm a l g u id e lin e s. M e lé n dez g o t a r o u n d th e s p irit o f th e la w b y g iv in g p o w e r te m p o ra rily to

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Q u iñ ó n e z . In h is sp e ec h M e lé n d e z d e fe n d e d th is c o n tro lle d su c ce ssio n b y c o m p a rin g it to th e in s ta b ility o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry . H e re fe rre d to th e tra n s itio n as “a p h e n o m e n o n o f h ig h m o ra l sig n ific an c e [th a t has] filled m e w ith p r o u d h o p e s a n d o n c e m o re c a u se d m e to u n d e r s ta n d th a t th e S alv a d o ra n p e o p le are a n h o n o ra b le , in d u s trio u s , a n d p ea ce fu l p eo p le, a n d th a t th e y w ere tire d o f m ilita ry m e e tin g s, rio ts o f th e p o p u la c e , a n d o f re v o lu tio n s o f p o litic a l bosses, w h ic h h as h a p p ily all d o n e its tim e , th a n k s to th e g o o d sense o f th e c o m m o n p e o p le a n d to th e h ig h m o ra l level o f th e o th e r social classes.”14 T h re e years later, Jo rg e M e lé n d e z e m ­ p lo y e d a v ery sim ila r d isc o u rse to la u d h is b r o th e r ’s g o v e rn m e n t. In a b o o k le t e n title d Economic Orientations o f President M eléndez, h e p r o ­ cla im e d th a t th e M e lé n d e z a d m in is tra tio n w as th e c u lm in a tio n o f th e v ic ­ to r y o f “civilized g o v e rn m e n t” over c a u d illism o :

W h y w o u ld capitalists risk th eir m o n e y by investing it in a tra n sp o rt busi­ ness, for exam ple, w h en in th e m o rn in g G eneral X, jefe o f a rev o lu tio n ary b an d , expropriates it? W h y w o u ld th ey p u t th e ir m o n e y in to useful e n te r­ prises w h en ju st as quickly it is extracted b y an exaggerated trib u te de­ creed by som e irresponsible g o v ern m en t b o rn in th e clam or o f gunfire? . . . I t is necessary th a t politics be guided along a p a th th a t little by little dis­ penses w ith th e gangrene o f personalism , th e p rim o rd ial cause o f o u r instability.15

B o th o f th e se p ro c la m a tio n s c o n ta in sig n ific a n t doses o f lib e ral rh e to ric , a n d th e y are b are ly d istin g u ish a b le fro m su c h classic lib e ra l e d icts as S a rm ie n to s C ivilization a n d Barbarism. B u t th e M e lé n d e z b ro th e rs w ere n o t sim p ly e x to llin g a g en e ral p o litic a l id eo lo g y ; th e y w ere a n n o u n c in g El S a lv a d o r’s passage fro m th e fa c tio n a liz e d p a tro n a g e o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry to a sy stem o f ce n tra liz e d p a tro n a g e u n d e r th e ir c o m m a n d in th e tw e n tie th cen tu ry .

T h e P re sid e n tia l E le c tio n o f 1919

W h e n C a rlo s M e lé n d e z ’s te rm w as d ra w in g to a close, tw o c a n d id a te s em e rg e d as h is m o s t lik e ly successors. O n e o f th e m w as A lfo n so Q u iñ ó n e z M o lin a , h is vice p re sid e n t; th e o th e r w as T o m á s P a lo m o , w h o h a d h e ld

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tw o m in iste ria l p o sts u n d e r M e lé n d e z : g o v e rn m e n t a n d h a c ie n d a . P a lo m o w as M e lé n d e z ’s p e rso n a l p h y sic ia n a n d a close fa m ily frie n d . P re c e d e n t called fo r M e lé n d e z to select o n e o f th e se tw o m e n a n d th e n p u t h is p o ­ litica l m a c h in e to w o rk to e n su re th e c a n d id a te ’s v ic to ry o n e le c tio n day. In a n ac t re m in is c e n t o f h is 1895 vice p re sid e n tia l c a m p a ig n , M e lé n d e z refu sed to ch o o se b e tw e e n th e tw o m e n a n d le ft th e issue o f su c ce ssio n to b e s e ttle d b y th e m . M e lé n d e z d id n o t reveal— a t least, in a n y so u rc e th a t h as su rv iv ed in to th e h isto ric a l re c o rd — w h y h e ch o se th a t ro u te . A vailable so u rces su g g est th a t h e b a lk e d at th e u n sa v o ry p ro s p e c t o f c h o o s in g b e ­ tw ee n tw o loyal a n d p o w e rfu l allies.16 E ith e r way, th e e n s u in g elec to ra l c a m p a ig n w as a n in te n s e a n d re v e a lin g e p iso d e in th e p o litic a l e v o lu tio n o f E l S alvador. O n e im p o r ta n t c o n s e q u e n c e o f th e c a m p a ig n w as th e fo r­ m a tio n o f th e P N D . F o rtu n a te ly , w e h av e tw o h ig h ly rev e alin g view s o f th e electio n : re p o rts fro m th e U .S. le g a tio n in S an S alvador, w h ic h to o k a special in te re s t in th e c o n te st, a n d th e m e m o ir o f E n riq u e C ó rd o v a , th e m in is te r o f w ar w h o w itn e sse d th e ev e n ts as th e y u n fo ld e d . T h e c a m p a ig n b e tw e e n Q u iñ ó n e z a n d P a lo m o b e g a n in ea rn est a ro u n d th e m id d le o f 1918. B o th c a n d id a te s ta rg e te d th e m u n ic ip a l elec­ tio n s o f D e c e m b e r 8 as a cru c ia l m o m e n t in th e c a m p a ig n ; w h o e v e r c o u ld c o n tro l th e m o s t m u n ic ip a litie s w o u ld b e ab le to m o n o p o liz e th e g rea ter p o r tio n o f th e v o tin g in th e p re sid e n tia l e le c tio n five w eeks later, b e tw e e n J a n u a ry 13 a n d 15. Q u iñ ó n e z w as a fo rm id a b le o p p o n e n t. H is w e a lth , his lineage, a n d h is years in office, n o t to m e n tio n h is c u rre n t p o s itio n as vice p re sid e n t, e n d o w e d h im w ith a g re a t n u m b e r o f c o n ta c ts a n d allies. B u t P alo m o w as n o p o litic a l n o v ice. As m in is te r o f g o v e rn m e n t a n d h a c ie n d a , h e to o h a d b u ilt u p a c o te rie o f alliances, a n d h e w as closely re la te d to th e D u e ñ a s fam ily, o n e o f th e w e a lth ie st a n d m o s t in flu e n tia l a t th e tim e . F u rth e rm o re , P re sid e n t F ig u e ro a h a d se rio u sly c o n s id e re d P a lo m o as his successor in 1910 b e fo re s e ttlin g o n M a n u e l A ra u jo . B o th c a n d id a te s in i­ tia te d th e ir o rg a n iz a tio n a l ac tiv ities b y c a llin g u p o n allies in th e m u n ic i­ p alitie s a n d th e d e p a rtm e n ta l ca p ita ls to p re p a re to c o n tro l th e p o llin g sta tio n s. In th is re g a rd as w ell, th e e le c tio n re se m b le d th e vice p re sid e n tia l ele c tio n o f 1895, e x c ep t fo r o n e m a jo r differen ce: in 1895 th e re w as an u n d is p u te d le ad e r w h o k e p t e lec to ra l p assio n s in ch eck . B ecause b o th c a n d id a te s w ere w e ll-p o sitio n e d g o v e rn m e n t officials, th e a p p a ra tu s o f th e sta te , a n d especially th e m ilita ry , a p o te n tia lly cru c ial

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p illar o f s u p p o r t in p o litic a l tussles, b e c a m e a p o in t o f d isp u te . P a lo m o in v e ste d m u c h e ffo rt in b u ild in g alliances w ith m ilita ry officers, a n d b y all available a c c o u n ts h e w as successful in c o n v in c in g m a n y o f th e m to jo in h is cause. E n riq u e C ó rd o v a c o m m e n te d re p e a te d ly in h is m e m o ir o n P alo m o ’s s u p p o r t in th e m ilita ry . As ju s t o n e ex a m p le , C ó rd o v a w ro te th a t “it m u s t b e re m e m b e re d th a t th e m a jo rity o f th e D e p a rtm e n ta l C o m a n ­ d a n te s . . . w ere ac tiv e s u p p o rte rs o f P a lo m ism o . . . . A s a re su lt o f th e C o m a n d a n te s ’ s u p p o r t fo r P a lo m o , th e Q u iñ ó n e z m o v e m e n t a c cu sed h im o f im p o s itio n s, a n d th e tr u th is th a t m a n y im p o s itio n s w ere c o m m itte d , b u t th e y w ere n o t th e exclusive w o rk o f th e C o m a n d a n te s , th e g re a te r p a r t w as ca rrie d o u t b y th e se c u rity forces o f H a c ie n d a , w h o o b e y e d th e d ire c t o rd ers o f th e M in is te r o f H a c ie n d a , P a lo m o .”17 T h e U .S. ch arg é, to o , n o te d th e m ilita ry ’s s u p p o r t fo r P alo m o . In o n e o f h is re p o rts to W a sh ­ in g to n h e in c lu d e d a d e s c rip tio n o f a p o litic a l clash in S an M ig u e l: “A h e a te d d iscu ssio n , te rm in a tin g in a scuffle, to o k p la c e a few days ago at S an M ig u e l a n d w as s to p p e d b y G e n e ra l C a ld e ró n , th e G o v e rn o r, w h o , b e in g a s tro n g P o lo m ist [sic], arre ste d te n o f th e Q u iñ ó n e s [sic] p a rtic i­ p a n ts a n d s e n t th e m to th e C a p ita l fo r tria l.”18 T h is sp lit w ith in th e m ili­ ta ry w o u ld p ro v e to b e a n e n d u r in g leg acy o f th e 1919 elec tio n . It w as in th e m id s t o f th e h e a te d e lec to ra l c a m p a ig n th a t Q u iñ ó n e z fo u n d e d b o th th e P N D a n d th e L ig a R o ja. T h e P N D w as a p o litic a l m a ­ ch in e, a n d th e L ig a R o ja w as a p a ra m ilita ry o rg a n iz a tio n . As w ill b e sh o w n in th e n e x t sec tio n , th e L iga w as o rg a n iz e d p ara llel to th e P N D ; local c o m ­ m a n d e rs o f th e L iga w ere th e sa m e lo cal p o litic a l bosses allie d w ith Q u iñ ó n e z th r o u g h th e P N D , a n d its r a n k a n d file w ere th e clien ts o f th e se bosses. C ó rd o v a w ro te o f th e Liga, “d o n A lfo n so , in o rd e r to assure h is su ccessio n at th e a p p ro p ria te tim e , o rg a n iz e d th e L iga R oja, a n assault fo rce [cuerpo de asalto y gritos] th a t w o rk e d a t all costs fo r th e im p o s itio n o f its Jefe, d isc re d itin g th e G o v e rn m e n t a n d a la rm in g th a t se c to r o f th e p o p u la tio n n o t allie d w ith Q u iñ ó n e z .” 19 N ee d less to say, th e p o te n tia l fo r electo ral v io le n c e u n d e r th e se c irc u m sta n c e s w as h ig h . T h e m u n ic ip a l e lec tio n s o f D e c e m b e r 8 a rriv e d a m id s t th is g ro w in g p o litic a l te n sio n . C ó rd o v a s ta te d th a t o n th e d a y b e fo re th e e le c tio n h e receiv ed n u m e ro u s te leg ram s fro m across th e n a tio n d e s c rib in g th e ra p id m o b iliz a tio n o f Q u iñ o n is ta a n d P a lo m ista fa c tio n s. “V ery early o n th e e ig h th o f D e c e m b e r,” C ó rd o v a w ro te , “I se n t o u t g ro u p s to m o n ito r th e

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tw o p a rtie s a n d th e y in fo rm e d m e th a t h e re in S an S alv a d o r Q u iñ ó n e z h a d th e m a jo rity o f th e city ’s la b o re rs, b u t P a lo m o h a d a g re a t n u m b e r o f ca m p e sin o s w h ic h h a d b e e n b r o u g h t in to th e c ity fro m th e fincas o f th e D u e ñ a s fam ily, o f G u ille rm o M e lé n d e z [a b r o th e r o f C a rlo s M e lé n d e z w h o h a d sid e d w ith P a lo m o ], a n d o f th e V ila n o v a fam ily.”20 T h e elec tio n s w ere p a rtic u la rly v io le n t, w ith v ery few v o te s b e in g cast. O p p o s in g b a n d s sim p ly b a ttle d o n e a n o th e r fo r c o n tro l over th e p o llin g sta tio n s. T h e U .S. le g a tio n p la c e d th e in itia l e stim a te o f casu alties at o n e h u n d r e d k ille d a n d tw o h u n d r e d w o u n d e d , b u t it la te r d e te rm in e d th a t th e ac tu a l n u m b e rs w ere m u c h h ig h e r (n o p rec ise fig u re w as g iv e n ).21 Q u iñ ó n e z w as th e o v er­ w h e lm in g v ictor, at le ast a c c o rd in g to C ó rd o v a a n d th e U .S. le g a tio n .22 A d o c u m e n t fro m th e m u n ic ip a lity o f N a h u iz a lc o in S o n s o n a te D e ­ p a r tm e n t offers a g lim p se in to th e level o f v io le n c e a n d d isc o rd th a t ac­ c o m p a n ie d th e e lec to ra l seaso n o f 1 9 1 8 /1 9 1 9 . T h e d o c u m e n t co m es fro m a rare so u rce in El S alvador, a p riv a te c o lle c tio n o f p e rso n a l p a p e rs b e ­ lo n g in g to Ism ael F u e n te s ( 1 8 7 8 -1 9 3 4 ) , th e fo rm e r se c re ta ry g en e ral o f Q u iñ ó n e z ’s elec to ra l c a m p a ig n . F u e n te s is a b it o f a n e n ig m a . H e w as o r­ p h a n e d at a y o u n g age, a n d h is p a re n ta g e is u n c e rta in , w h ic h a t th e tim e in El S alv ad o r w as u su a lly a n in s u r m o u n ta b le h u rd le to so cial c lim b in g . B u t h e received a n e d u c a tio n in th e m ilita ry a c a d e m y a n d m a rrie d w ell, in to th e P a lo m o fam ily, th e re b y b e c o m in g a c o u sin o f th e D u e ñ a s fam ily.23 Yet, fo r w h a te v e r rea so n , h e re je c te d P a lo m o ’s c a n d id a c y a n d jo in e d forces w ith Q u iñ ó n e z . T h e d o c u m e n t in q u e s tio n is a r e p o r t to F u e n te s fro m th e h e a d o f Q u iñ ó n e z ’s p a r ty in N a h u iz a lc o d e ta ilin g th e clashes th a t o c c u rre d b e tw e e n th e Q u iñ o n is ta s a n d th e P alo m ista s in th e fo u r m o n th s le a d in g u p to th e m u n ic ip a l e le c tio n in D e c e m b e r 1918. A c c o rd in g to th e a u th o r o f th e re p o rt, b o th fa c tio n s w ere larg e a n d s tro n g in N a h u iz a lc o , a lth o u g h th e P alo m ista s h a d th e a d v a n ta g e o f b e in g s u p p o r te d b y th e so ld iers s ta tio n e d in th e v illage a n d se e m in g ly also b y th e d e p a rtm e n ta l g arriso n in S o n so n a te C ity. T h e first m a jo r c o n fla g ra tio n o c c u rre d in S e p te m b e r 1918 as b o th sides b e g a n g e a rin g u p fo r th e elec­ tio n . M e m b e rs o f th e tw o p o litic a l clu b s se e m to h a v e cro sse d p a th s, a n d a m e lee e n s u e d th a t in v o lv e d m a n y d o ze n s o f p e o p le . In th e e n d , six ty -th re e Q u iñ ó n e z s u p p o rte rs w ere a rre ste d a n d s e n t to th e m ilita ry b a rra c k s in S o n so n a te C ity. T e n sio n s p re s u m a b ly re m a in e d h ig h fo r th e n e x t fo u r m o n th s , b u t th e a u th o r sk ip s a h e a d to th e n ig h t b e fo re th e e le c tio n to

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d escrib e th e r e tu r n to v io le n ce . T h a t n ig h t, a le a d in g P a lo m ista a n d so m e so ld iers a p p a re n tly p assed b y Q u iñ ó n e z ’s e le c tio n h e a d q u a rte rs a n d o p e n e d fire o n th e b u ild in g . T h e fo llo w in g m o rn in g , a c c o rd in g to th e a u th o r, a p ­ p ro x im a te ly 1 ,5 0 0 Q u iñ ó ñ e z s u p p o rte rs w ere s ta n d in g o u tsid e th e m u ­ n ic ip a l hall, w a itin g to v o te . A g ro u p o f h ea v ily a rm e d P alo m ista s sh o w e d u p a n d a n n o u n c e d th a t th e e le c tio n w as ca n ce le d . T h e e n s u in g clash d e ­ vo lv ed in to a n e x te n d e d s h o o t- o u t th a t re su lte d in m a n y d e a th s. T h e a u ­ th o r id e n tifie d b y n a m e fo rty -o n e Q u iñ ó n e z s u p p o rte rs w h o w ere k illed a n d a n o th e r tw elve, in c lu d in g h im self, w h o w ere w o u n d e d . H e d o es n o t m e n tio n h o w m an y , i f any, casu alties th e P alo m ista s su ffered . T h e a u th o r cla im e d th a t so m e o f th e casu alties ca m e fro m a g ro u p o f Q u iñ ó n e z s u p ­ p o rte rs w h o h a d ta k e n refu g e in a c h u rc h , b u t th e P alo m ista s p u lle d th e m o u t after s h o o tin g d o w n th e d o o r.24 T h e v io le n c e th a t a c c o m p a n ie d th e 1918 m u n ic ip a l e lec tio n s fo l­ lo w ed th e c u s to m a ry p a tte rn s o f p a tro n a g e -b a s e d p o litic s. W h e n tw o evenly m a tc h e d bosses fac ed o ff w ith o u t a s u p e rio r a u th o rity to c o n s tra in th e co n flict, h ig h levels o f v io le n c e e n su e d . A lth o u g h P a lo m o w as an u n ­ d e rd o g relativ e to th e p o w e rfu l m a c h in e th a t th e M e lé n d e z -Q u iñ ó n e z fam ily h a d b u ilt, h e m a n a g e d to assem b le a fo rm id a b le fo rce, p a rtic u la rly w ith h is s u p p o r t fro m se g m e n ts o f th e m ilita ry . A s a c o m p a ra tiv e ex am p le, th e exact o p p o s ite h a d o c c u rre d in th e 1895 vice p re sid e n tia l e lec tio n . E v en th o u g h tw o p o w e rfu l bosses, C a rlo s M e lé n d e z a n d P ru d e n c io A lfaro , h a d c o m p e te d w ith o n e a n o th e r fo r th e p riz e o f th e vice p resid en cy , a s u ­ p e rio r official, G e n e ra l G u tié rre z , re ig n e d u n d is p u te d ab o v e th e m a n d k e p t th e v io le n c e in ch eck . Q u iñ ó n e z likely w o u ld h av e g o n e o n to w in th e p re sid e n c y h a d it n o t b e e n fo r an u n e x p e c te d d e v e lo p m e n t. O n D e c e m b e r 11, ju s t th re e days afte r th e m u n ic ip a l e lec tio n s, C a rlo s M e lé n d e z b e c a m e sick. A ll available so u rces d escrib e h is a ilm e n t as a n “a tta c k o f p araly sis,” w h ic h w as p ro b a b ly a s tro k e o r a h e a r t a tta c k . T h e p araly sis s tru c k h im tw ic e in th re e days a n d ev e n tu a lly re su lte d in h is d e a th th e fo llo w in g year. In th e m e a n tim e , h e w as u n a b le to re m a in in office. O n D e c e m b e r 2 1 , d u r in g a m o m e n ta ry recovery, h e tu r n e d th e p re sid e n c y over to V ic e P re sid e n t Q u iñ ó n e z . Q u iñ ó n e z fo u n d th is a sc e n t to th e p re sid e n c y a m ix e d b lessin g . O n th e o n e h a n d , P alo m o im m e d ia te ly w ith d r e w fro m th e race, c itin g th e c o n flic t o f in te re s t in h a v in g h is o p p o n e n t s ittin g in th e p resid e n cy .25 O n th e o th e r

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h a n d , Q u iñ ó n e z te c h n ic a lly w as d isq u a lifie d fro m r u n n in g fo r p re sid e n t, b ecau se h e w as h o ld in g th e office w ith in th e s ix -m o n th w in d o w p r io r to th e elec tio n . S u d d en ly , E l S alv a d o r h a d n o c a n d id a te s fo r p re sid e n t. In th is v a c u u m , Jo rg e M e lé n d e z e m e rg e d as th e P N D ’s c a n d id a te . A c ­ c o rd in g to C ó rd o v a , Q u iñ ó n e z in itia lly ask ed F ra n c isc o M a rtín e z S uárez, th e se creta ry o f fo re ig n affairs, to r u n , b u t h e re je c te d th e offer.26 Q u iñ ó n e z th e n a p p a re n tly c o n s id e re d r u n n in g h im self, d e s p ite h is in elig ib ility . O n e ith e r D e c e m b e r 31 o r Ja n u a ry 1, h e h a d h is m in is te r in H o n d u ra s ask th e U .S. le g a tio n in T eg u c ig alp a to c o n ta c t th e S ta te D e p a r tm e n t to i n ­ q u ire i f th e U n ite d S tates w o u ld rec o g n ize h im i f h e w ere elec ted p re si­ d e n t. It is n o t k n o w n h o w o r even i f th e S ta te D e p a rtm e n t re s p o n d e d to th e in q u iry , b u t Q u iñ ó n e z a b a n d o n e d th e n o tio n a n d tu r n e d to h is n o v ic e b ro th e r-in -la w , Jo rg e M e lé n d e z , a n n o u n c in g h im as th e P N D c a n d id a te less th a n o n e w ee k b e fo re th e elec tio n . In y e t a n o th e r o d d tu r n o f ev en ts, a p o litic a l n o v ic e b y th e n a m e o f A rtu ro A ra u jo a n n o u n c e d th a t h e w o u ld ch a lle n g e M e lé n d e z in th e elec­ tio n . A ra u jo w as a n e n ig m a tic figure. H e w as a w e a lth y la n d o w n e r fro m th e re g io n o f A rm e n ia in S o n so n a te D e p a r tm e n t w h o h a d a tte n d e d u n i­ v ersity in E n g la n d , receiv ed a n e n g in e e rin g d egree, a n d b e c o m e s o m e ­ th in g o f a n A n g lo p h ile . H e m a rrie d a n E n g lish w o m a n a n d a d m ire d g rea tly th e B ritis h L a b o u r Party. U p o n h is r e tu r n to El S alv a d o r h e b e g a n c u ltiv a tin g a p ro la b o r r e p u ta tio n . H e re p o rte d ly p a id h is w o rk e rs m o re th a n th e average d a ily w ag e a n d p ro v id e d th e m w ith h o u s in g a n d m e d ic a l care. In 1918, a t a n a tio n a l m e e tin g o f a rtisa n s in A rm e n ia , w h ic h h e h a d h e lp e d to org an iz e, h e w as g iv e n th e title “B e n e fa c to r o f W o rk e rs.”27 M e lé n d e z a n d Q u iñ ó n e z d id n o t ta k e k in d ly to A ra u jo ’s s u d d e n e n ­ tra n c e in to th e race. A lth o u g h th e y a n n o u n c e d th a t h e w o u ld b e allo w ed to p a rtic ip a te freely in th e e le c tio n , th e y m a d e su re th a t h e w o u ld receive a lm o st n o votes. F irst, th e y o rd e re d th e ir s u b a lte rn s in th e m u n ic ip a litie s to p re v e n t A ra u jo s u p p o rte rs fro m v o tin g . T h e n , in a se e m in g a tte m p t to h u m ilia te A ra u jo , th e y a rra n g e d fo r a th ir d p e rso n w h o w as n o t even a c a n d id a te in th e ele c tio n to receive m o re v o tes th a n A ra u jo . T h is p e rso n w as P ío R o m e ro B o sq u e, th e n c h ie f ju stic e o f th e S u p re m e C o u r t. E vi­ d e n c e o f th e se m a n ip u la tio n s is fo u n d in te le g ram s fro m lo cal officials ac­ k n o w le d g in g re c e ip t o f th e ir o rd ers fro m S an S alvador. F o r ex a m p le , th e alcald e o f S an S e b a stiá n w ro te , “I u n d e r s ta n d y o u r te le g ra m re fe rrin g to

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th e v o tin g in fav o r o f D r. R o m e ro B o sq u e; I h a v e c o m m u n ic a te d it to th e D ire c to rio in o rd e r th a t it b e p u t in to effect.”28 T h e alcald e o f V erap áz in fo rm e d h is d e p a rtm e n ta l g o v e rn o r th a t “to d a y a t o n e o ’clo ck in th e a fte rn o o n , I in s tru c te d th e D ire c to rio to a d ju d ic a te v o tes in fav o r o f P ío R o m e ro in ste a d o f Jo rg e M e lé n d e z .”29 T h e U .S. c h a rg é re p o r te d th a t “it w as carefu lly p la n n e d th a t D r. P ío R o m e ro B o sq u e s h o u ld receive th e se c o n d g re a te st n u m b e r o f v o tes a n d a c c o rd in g ly v o te rs w ere se n t b y th e M e le n d e z -Q u in o n e z [sic] p a r ty to cast th e ir v o tes fo r D r. B o sq u e .” T h e ch a rg é w e n t o n to d e sc rib e a p a rtic u la rly ex p licit case o f f ra u d th a t, u n b e k n o w n s t to h im , w as s ta n d a rd p rac tice : “M r. S alv a d o r Sol, a le a d in g Q u iñ o n is ta , v isite d th re e to w n s w ith tw o h u n d r e d m e n fro m h is p la n ta ­ tio n w h o reg iste re d th e ir v o tes in th e th re e p la ce s.”30 T h e fin al resu lts fro m th e e le c tio n h a d M e lé n d e z re c e iv in g 1 6 6 ,4 4 1 v otes, P ío R o m e ro B o sq u e 4 ,3 7 0 v otes, a n d A ra u jo 1 ,0 2 2 v o te s.31 Q u iñ ó n e z w as elected vice p re sid e n t, a n d R o m e ro w as se lec ted as m in is te r o f w ar. T h e m in is te r o f fo re ig n affairs w as J u a n F ra n cisc o P ared es, w h o , ac­ c o rd in g to th e U .S. le g a tio n , h a d serv ed as th e “c h ie f o f th e Q u iñ o n is ta p a rty ” in h is h o m e re g io n o f A h u a c h a p á n .32 In c e n se d o v er th e resu lts o f th e e le c tio n , A ra u jo s p e n t th e n e x t year p la n n in g th e o v e rth ro w o f th e M e lé n d e z g o v e rn m e n t. In M a rc h 1920 a g u n b a ttle b ro k e o u t b e tw e e n h is s u p p o rte rs a n d g o v e rn m e n t tro o p s o n h is h a c ie n d a “E l S u n z a ” o u tsid e A rm e n ia . R e p o rts fro m th e U .S. le g a tio n in d ic a te th a t th e g o v e rn m e n t d isc o v ered A ra u jo ’s c o n s p ira to ria l ac tiv ities a n d s e n t tw o d o z e n g u a rd ia s to h is p la n ta tio n to arrest h im . A ra u jo ’s s u p ­ p o rte rs h e ld th e g u a rd ia s a t b a y lo n g e n o u g h fo r th e ir le a d e r to flee to H o n d u ra s , w h e re in th e c o m in g w eeks h e a ssem b led b e tw e e n th re e h u n ­ d re d a n d o n e th o u s a n d m e n .33 In M a y h e cro ssed in to El S alv a d o r a n d seized th e to w n o f A rc a ta o in C h a la te n a n g o D e p a r tm e n t a n d a tta c k e d tw o m ilita ry sta tio n s in th e s u r ro u n d in g re g io n . T h e M e lé n d e z g o v e rn m e n t re s p o n d e d q u ic k ly to th e in v a sio n b y r e q u is itio n in g a u to m o b ile s in th e ca p ita l a n d s e n d in g tro o p s to th e b o rd e r. A ra u jo w as d e fe a te d ag a in a n d re tu r n e d to H o n d u ra s , w h e re h e re m a in e d q u ie tly u n til 19 2 3 , w h e n th e Q u iñ ó n e z g o v e rn m e n t allo w ed h im to r e tu r n to h is a g ric u ltu ra l p u rs u its in A rm e n ia .34 A s fo r Ism ae l F u e n te s, h e c o n tin u e d to w o rk fo r Jo rg e M e lé n d e z ’s ele c tio n afte r Q u iñ ó n e z ’s fo rc e d w ith d ra w a l in la te 1918. As a re su lt o f

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M é le n d e z ’s v ic to ry a n d h is loyal service, F u e n te s w as a w a rd e d a series o f d ip lo m a tic p o sts in S p a in a n d U ru g u ay . S o m e o f th e le tte rs in h is p e rso n a l c o rre sp o n d e n c e are fro m lo w e r-ra n k in g Q u iñ o n is ta activ ists th r o u g h o u t th e c o u n try w h o c la im e d to h av e serv ed h im a n d th e P N D d u r in g th e ele c tio n a n d w ere h o p in g to en list F u e n te s’s s u p p o r t in so m e p e rso n a l or p ro fe ssio n a l m a tte r b e fo re h e le ft th e c o u n try a n d h is in flu e n c e w a n e d .35 It is a p p a re n t fro m so m e o f th e se le tte rs th a t P a lo m o s u p p o rte rs c o n tin u e d to suffer th e co n se q u e n c e s o f th e ir c a n d id a te ’s loss. A le tte r fro m a Q u iñ o ­ n is ta in th e to w n o f S an F ra n cisc o d a te d la te M a rc h 1919 in fo rm s F u e n te s th a t P alo m istas c o n tin u e d to la n g u ish in ja il.36 In su m , th e p e rio d 1913 to 1919, w h ic h b e g a n w ith th e a sce n sio n o f C a rlo s M e lé n d e z a n d e n d e d w ith th e e le c tio n o f Jo rg e M e lé n d e z , illu s­ trates th e e x te n t to w h ic h th e c e n tra liz e d p o litic a l sy stem o f th e early tw e n tie th c e n tu ry w as a p ro v e rb ia l n e w w in e in a n o ld b o ttle . V o tin g re ­ m a in e d u n d e r th e c o n tro l o f p o litic a l bosses, w h o h a d sim p ly b e e n b r o u g h t u n d e r th e aegis o f a c e n tra liz e d a u th o rity . W h e n th is a u th o rity d issip ate d , as it d id in 1918 w h e n C a rlo s M e lé n d e z re fu se d to ch o o se h is successor, th e sy stem b ro k e d o w n in to its c o n s titu e n t p a rts a n d o p e ra te d v e ry m u c h as it h a d in th e n in e te e n th ce n tu ry , w ith in te rp a tro n a g e rivalries v y in g fo r v o tes a n d p o litic a l office.

T h e P N D , th e M ilita ry , a n d th e L iga R oja, 1919—1923

F o llo w in g th e ir v ic to ry in th e e le c tio n o f 1919, Jo rg e M e lé n d e z a n d A l­ fo n so Q u iñ ó n e z M o lin a w o rk e d to c o n s o lid a te th e ir a u th o rity a n d e x p a n d th e P N D . T h e ir b asic goals m irro re d th o se o f th e C lu b M e le n d ista : p re ­ v e n t p o litic a l fa c tio n a lism a n d cre ate a sin g le p y ra m id o f p a tro n a g e in w h ic h th e y w ere th e u ltim a te a u th o ritie s . A s o n e lo cal P N D affiliate p u t it, th e e n e m y w as “políticos in d e p e n d ie n te s lo cal bosses w h o e n g a g e d in p o li­ tics w ith o u t p a r ty a ffilia tio n .37 A n o th e r lo cal affiliate re fe rre d to o u tsid e rs o f th e P N D sim p ly as “th e en em y. . . . It is n ec essary to sto p all o f th e ir in trig u e s; th e e n e m y alw ays is th e en e m y .”38 T h e s tru c tu re o f th e P N D re se m b le d th a t o f its m a n y p red e cesso r n e tw o rk s. It w as h ie ra rc h ic a l a n d h ig h ly c e n tra liz e d . T h e p a r ty w as h e a d e d b y “o u r g ra n d , n o b le a n d illu strio u s Jefe,” w h o w as u su a lly A lfo n so Q u i-

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ñ ó n e z .39 H e p re sid e d over th e n a tio n a l c o m m itte e , w h ic h m o n ito re d th e d e p a rtm e n ta l c o m m itte e s, w h ic h in tu r n w a tc h e d over th e m u n ic ip a l c h a p te rs k n o w n as “c lu b s.” T h e p a r ty w as in d is tin g u is h a b le fro m th e g o v ­ e rn m e n t. T h e m in is te r o f g o v e rn m e n t sa t o n th e n a tio n a l c o m m itte e , d e p a rtm e n ta l g o v e rn o rs c o n d u c te d th e b u sin e ss o f th e d e p a rtm e n ta l c o m ­ m itte e s, a n d alcaldes p re sid e d over th e m u n ic ip a l clubs. P a tro n a g e g o v ­ e rn e d th e re la tio n sh ip s b e tw e e n th e v ario u s levels. H ig h - ra n k in g bosses h a d th e p o w e r to a p p o in t, a n d lo w -ra n k in g bosses h o p e d to b e a p p o in te d . T h e success o f th e sy stem re q u ire d o b e d ie n c e to o n e ’s su p e rio rs, as is su g ­ g ested b y th e fo llo w in g d e s c rip tio n fro m a lo cal affiliate: “T h e C o n s titu ­ tio n o f th e p a r ty is o b lig e d to a id us m u tu a lly , ea ch o n e o f us is to su sta in th e o th e r, w h e th e r as in d iv id u a ls o r as p a r t o f th e g e n e ra l a sso c ia tio n , in all th a t relates to o u r p o litic a l a n d social life; b u t in o rd e r to h av e th is m u tu a l aid a n d th e p r o te c tio n o f th e p arty , it is n ec essary to b e h o n o ra b le , sin cere a n d fa ith fu l to o u r p rin c ip le s a n d to o u r Jefes Supremos, th e f o u n d a tio n s o f th e edifice.”40 In o th e r w o rd s, m u tu a l p ro g re ss w o u ld re su lt o n ly w h e n i n ­ d iv id u a ls p ro p e rly serv ed th e ir su p e rio rs. A n in te re s tin g asp ec t o f th e P N D is th e e x te n t to w h ic h its d isc o u rse re se m b le d th a t o f p a tro n a g e n e tw o rk s fro m th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry . F or in sta n c e , in 1921 th e g o v e rn o r o f A h u a c h a p á n re fe rre d to th e p o litic a l ac­ tiv ities o f a local fa c tio n o p e ra tin g o u ts id e th e ju ris d ic tio n o f th e P N D as “a n ti-p a trio tic c o n d u c t . . . s o rd id a n d p erv e rse w o rk o f a c e rta in d ia b o lic a l s p irit th a t seeks to b re a k a p a rt th e G re a t P a rty [el Gran Partido ].”41 T h e c a n o n o f a n y p a tro n a g e n e tw o rk d e fin e d u n ity as p a trio tic a n d m o ra l, w h ereas o p p o s itio n w as im m o ra l a n d tra ito ro u s . S u c h d isc o u rse w as c o n ­ sis te n t w ith p o litic a l la n g u a g e u se d th r o u g h o u t th e p re c e d in g d ecad es, su g g e stin g c o n tin u ity b e tw e e n th e P N D o f th e 1 9 20s a n d its p red e cesso r n e tw o rk s. Ism ael F u e n te s’s arch iv al c o lle c tio n reveals th a t p o litic a l in sid e rs e m ­ p lo y e d th is sa m e la n g u a g e in th e ir p riv a te c o rre sp o n d e n c e w ith o n e a n ­ o th er. T h e c o lle c tio n c o n ta in s p e rso n a l le tte rs th a t F u e n te s rec eiv e d d u rin g h is tim e in S p a in fro m v ario u s h ig h -ra n k in g figures in th e P N D a n d w ellp o s itio n e d g o v e rn m e n t officials, in c lu d in g P re sid e n t M e lé n d e z a n d V ic e P re sid e n t Q u iñ ó n e z . S u c h p e rso n a l c o rre sp o n d e n c e is a ra re so u rc e in El Salvador. S o m e o f th e le tte rs w ere h a n d w ritte n , a n d th e a u th o rs u se d th e in fo rm a l “t u ” in a d d re ssin g o n e a n o th e r; th e y also d isc u sse d a v a rie ty o f

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p e rso n a l a n d fa m ily m a tte rs th a t d id n o t a p p e a r in c u s to m a ry g o v e rn m e n t c o m m u n iq u e s . Invariably, th e a u th o rs tu r n e d to th e s u b je c t o f p o litics, a n d o n e m ig h t e x p e ct th a t in d o in g so th e y w o u ld le t d o w n th e ir g u a rd a n d sp e ak fra n k ly a b o u t th e ir n o n d e m o c r a tic tactics. A fter all, F u e n te s h a d sp e a rh e a d e d th e P N D ’s e lec to ra l e n d e a v o rs in 1918, a n d b o th h e a n d h is c o rre s p o n d e n ts possessed in tim a te k n o w le d g e o f th e m e th o d s e m ­ p lo y e d to secu re victo ry . B u t, in fact, th e y re ta in e d th e s ta n d a rd d isc o u rse o f d em o cracy , d e s c rib in g th e ir ac tiv ities as legal a n d b a se d o n th e p r in ­ ciples o f fre e d o m a n d liberty. A s ju s t o n e ex a m p le , in a le tte r d a te d N o ­ v e m b e r 5, 1919, P re sid e n t M e lé n d e z refers to th e ir p o litic a l ad v ersaries as “false p a trio ts ” a n d “e te rn a l e n e m ie s o f leg ality ” w h o “o v erflo w w ith p o ­ litica l p assio n ” a n d c re ate a “b itte r s itu a tio n ” th r o u g h th e ir “d e sp e ra te stru g g le .” By c o n tra st, M e lé n d e z d escrib es h im s e lf a n d h is allies as p u r s u ­ in g “p a trio tic id e als,” in p a r t th r o u g h th e ir s u p p o r t o f a “free p ress.”42 A s p ira n ts to p o litic a l office h a d to receive ap p ro v a l fro m th e P N D in o rd e r to b e elected , as illu s tra te d in th e fo llo w in g le tter, in w h ic h th e g o v ­ e rn o r o f C h a la te n a n g o D e p a r tm e n t in fo rm s th e m in is te r o f g o v e rn m e n t o f p ro b le m s w ith a m u n ic ip a l elec tio n .

T h e candidacy o f th e m u n ic ip a l au th o rities approved b y th e C o m m ittee o f the P artido N acio n al D em o crático a n d re c o m m en d e d in p articu la r by the Superiors o f th e Party, so th a t th ey [th e candidates] w o u ld triu m p h w ith o u t alteratio n in th e election o f th e 11th in this m unicipality, d id n o t com e to be victorious as I h a d in stru c ted th e A lcalde, for th e Secretary, H éc to r T rujillo, rejected th e referred candidacy an d organized a n o th e r at his convenience. . . . In this m a tte r I req u est in stru ctio n s as to w h at to do.43

W h e n local affiliates s o lic ite d h ig h -ra n k in g m e m b e rs ( th a t is, th e p e o p le w h o h e ld th e p o w e r to a p p o in t), th e y w ere q u ic k to m a k e referen c e to th e services th e y h a d p e rfo rm e d o n b e h a lf o f th e p arty . F o r ex am p le, o n e so lic ito r w ro te in h is le tte r to th e m in is te r o f g o v e rn m e n t, “ You are w ell aw are o f m y ro le in th e m o s t re c e n t e lec to ra l stru g g le a n d o f m y lo y ­ alty to th e D e m o c ra tic [P N D ] cause, fo r I a m a c tu a lly th e vocal o f th e C o m ité C e n tra l o f th e P a rtid o N a c io n a l D e m o c rá tic o o f th is m u n ic ip ality .”44 A n o th e r so lic ito r p o in te d o u t th a t h e w as “th e P re sid e n t o f th e

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C lu b Q u iñ o n is ta a n d h a d b e e n o n e o f th e first to en list a n d w o rk fo r th e p arty ,” especially d u r in g “th e e le c to ra l im p o s itio n o f 1918—19 1 9 .”45 W h e n local p o litic a l fa c tio n s o u ts id e th e o rg a n iz a tio n a l re a lm o f th e P N D refu sed to d esist in th e ir a tte m p ts to g a in m u n ic ip a l office, M e lé n dez a n d Q u iñ ó n e z tu r n e d to c o e rc io n , w h ic h in so m e in sta n c e s m e a n t th e m ilitary . In th e m u n ic ip a l e lec tio n s o f 1920, fo r ex a m p le , Jo rg e M e lé n d e z le a rn e d o f tw o m u n ic ip a litie s in S an M ig u e l D e p a r tm e n t in w h ic h th e P N D c a n d id a te s w ere n o t b e in g p u t in to office by th e lo cal elec to ra l b o ard s. H e o rd e re d tw o d e ta c h m e n ts o f so ld iers to th e re g io n to en su re th a t th e p ro p e r c a n d id a te s w o n .46 D u rin g th a t sa m e e le c tio n , P ío R o m e ro B o sq u e, as m in is te r o f w ar, in fo rm e d th e m in is te r o f g o v e rn m e n t th a t “th e A lcald e o f S an F e rn a n d o (C h a la te n a n g o D e p a rtm e n t) h as d ire c te d to m e a c o m m u n ic a tio n c o n ta in in g in fo rm a tio n th a t a g ro u p o f in d iv id u a ls b e ­ lo n g in g to a c o n tra ry b a n d is a tte m p tin g to use fo rc e to m a k e p re v a le n t th e ir ideas in th e n e x t ele c tio n fo r lo cal a u th o ritie s ; I h av e d ire c te d to th e D e p a rtm e n ta l C o m a n d a n te o rd ers to ta k e w h a te v e r m e a su re s are n e c e s­ sa ry to av o id su c h fric tio n in th e c ite d p o p u la tio n .”47 O n e d ifficu lty fo r th e P N D arose w h e n th e se lo cal d isp u te s h a d n o th in g to d o w ith b ro a d e r p o ­ litica l issues a n d in s te a d g re w o u t o f co n flicts b e tw e e n m e m b e rs o f th e sa m e fa c tio n . F o r ex a m p le , in 1922 a p o lic e a g e n t re p o rte d th e e m e rg e n c e o f a p o litic a l fig h t b e tw e e n m e m b e rs o f th e sa m e m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il in th e village o f C h ila m a ta l (L a L ib e rta d D e p a rtm e n t) . T h e a g e n t re ­ p o r te d th a t th e so u rc e o f th e fa c tio n a lism w as a d e b a te over w h o w o u ld receive th e g re a te r sh a re o f rev e n u es fro m th e se llin g o f licenses to v e n d o rs fo r th e a n n u a l E aster c e le b ra tio n s.48

C o n flic ts w ith th e M ilita ry

D e s p ite th e se tw o ex am p les o f M e lé n d e z ’s re lia n c e u p o n th e m ilita ry to u n d e r m in e a lo cal fa c tio n , th e sp lit th a t e m e rg e d w ith in th e m ilita ry d u r ­ in g th e e le c tio n o f 1918 re m a in e d a lin g e rin g p ro b le m . E n riq u e C ó rd o v a , th e m in is te r o f w a r w h o h a d c o m m e n te d ex ten siv ely o n Q u iñ ó n e z ’s re la ­ tio n s w ith th e m ilita ry in 1918, in d ic a te d th a t afte r th e e le c tio n secto rs o f th e m ilita ry re m a in e d actively o p p o se d to th e M e lé n d e z g o v e rn m e n t. “F or a p e rio d o f tim e ,” h e w ro te , “th e re w as a m u tin y in th e cu a rtele s every

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fifteen d ays.”49 C o rd o v a ’s c o m m e n t seem s slig h tly e x a g g erated in h in d ­ sig h t, b u t still it reflects h is o p in io n th a t re la tio n s b e tw e e n M e lé n d e z a n d so m e secto rs o f th e m ilita ry w ere stra in e d . T h re e gen erals, in a d d itio n to G e n e ra l José T o m á s C a ld e ró n (m e n tio n e d above), a p p e a r in th e arch iv al re c o rd as b e in g o p p o s e d to M e lé n d e z . T h e y are G e n e ra ls José M a ría P er­ alta a n d J u a n A m ay a , w h o h a d le d A ra u jo ’s in v a sio n fro m H o n d u ra s in M a y 1920, a n d A rm a n d o L lan o s, th e c o m m a n d e r o f th e m ilita ry sc h o o l. T h e m ilita ry ’s o p p o s itio n to M e lé n d e z g re w p a rtly fro m a c o m b in a ­ tio n o f s u p p o r t fo r P a lo m o a n d o p p o s itio n to M e lé n d e z ’s p o lic ie s.50 In th e p o s t—W o rld W a r I e c o n o m ic crisis o f 1919, fo r in sta n c e , th e g o v e rn m e n t, su ffe rin g fro m a d efic it in rev en u es, d e c id e d th a t it w o u ld d eal w ith th e fiscal crisis b y p la c in g a rm y salaries in arrears. T h e U .S. ch a rg é n o te d in early 1920 th a t “th e a rm y . . . h as b e c o m e d issatisfied b ec au se o f d elay o f th e p a y m e n t o f th e tro o p s a n d re o rg a n iz a tio n o f th e G u a rd ia N a c io n a l, a b ra n c h o f th e p o lic e fo rce, w h ic h h as ro b b e d th e a rm y o f m a n y o f its d u ­ ties a n d s u p p la n te d th e m in im p o rta n c e .”51 T h e ch a rg é la te r n o te d th a t even th e salaries o f th e N a tio n a l G u a rd w ere in a rre a rs.52 A n o th e r in d ic t­ m e n t o f M e lé n d e z ca m e fro m G e n e ra l S alv a d o r P eñ a T rejo. In h is 1964 m e m o ir a b o u t th e m ilita ry c o u p o f 1931, P eñ a T rejo d isc u sse d h is m e m ­ o ry o f m ilita ry affairs in th e 1910s a n d 1920s a n d id e n tifie d 1918, th e y ear o f th e electo ral c o n flic t b e tw e e n Q u iñ ó n e z a n d P a lo m o , as decisive. U n til th a t year, h e claim ed , th e m ilita ry h a d b e e n p a id o n tim e a n d in fu ll, b u t u n d e r M e lé n d e z a n d Q u iñ ó n e z a rm y p a y o fte n w e n t in to arrears, a n d even w h e n soldiers w ere p a id , th e y o fte n receiv ed o n ly h a lf th e ir d u e .53 M e lé n d e z ex a c e rb a te d h is stra in e d re la tio n s w ith th e m ilita ry in 1920 w h e n h e a n n o u n c e d h is in te n tio n to re fo rm th e m ilita ry to lim it its in flu ­ en ce o n b o th g o v e rn m e n t a n d society. H e aire d th e se id eas in th e a n n u a l p re sid e n tia l ad d re ss b e fo re th e N a tio n a l A sse m b ly in F eb ru ary . “ F o r a lo n g tim e , a n d in ac c o rd a n c e w ith u n w ise c u s to m ,” M e lé n d e z said, “th e A rm y h as b e e n th e a rb ite r o f so cial d e s tin y in o u r co u n try . M y d esire— a n d in th is I a m in te llig e n tly s u p p o r te d b y m y co lleag u es in th e G o v e rn m e n t— is fo r th is n o b le in s titu tio n to fulfill its d u ty in te rm s w h ic h are called fo r b y th e C o n s titu tio n a n d th e c u ltu re o f th e R e p u b lic . T o th is e n d , w ith o u t n e g le c tin g m ilita ry a n d ta c tic a l tra in in g , th e re h as b e e n u n d e r ta k e n i n ­ te n se w o rk to tu r n th e m ilita ry c o rp s m o re in to c e n te rs o f le a rn in g a n d g en e ral e n lig h te n m e n t.”54 M e lé n d e z also p ro p o s e d th a t th e sy stem o f m ili-

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ta ry ju stic e b e re fo rm e d so th a t th e m ilita ry w o u ld b e m o re a c c o u n ta b le to civ ilian co u rts, a n d h e called fo r th e c re a tio n o f a civ ilian c o m m issio n to devise a n e w sy stem a n d s u b m it it to th e assem b ly fo r ap p ro v a l. T h e se w ere b o ld p ro p o sals, a n d a lth o u g h th e re is n o e v id en c e th a t M e lé n d e z fo l­ lo w ed u p o n th e m , th e ir p r o n u n c ia tio n c e rta in ly d id n o t w in h im s u p p o r t in th e m ilitary . S h o rtly after M e lé n d e z ’s sp e ec h , G e n e ra l L lan o s re sig n e d as d ire c to r o f th e m ilita ry sc h o o l, c itin g as h is re a so n fo r le av in g th e g o v e rn m e n t’s failu re to p a y th e m ilita ry c a d e ts.55 B u t M e lé n d e z c o n s id e re d L la n o s to b e a “P alo m ista” w h o se re sig n a tio n w as m o tiv a te d b y b ro a d e r p o litic a l issues a n d o rd e re d h im to b e exiled. L la n o s w as e sc o rte d b y a rm e d g u a rd s to th e p o r t o f A caju tla , w h e re h e w as s h ip p e d to C o s ta R ica. T h e U .S. ch a rg é m e t w ith M e lé n d e z as L la n o s w as b e in g e sc o rte d aw ay a n d re p o r te d th e fo llo w in g co n v e rsa tio n : “T h e P re sid e n t in fo rm e d m e th a t th e y [L lanos a n d G e n e ra l Ju lio S alinas, L la n o s’s p red ecesso r] w ere a g a in st th e G o v e rn ­ m e n t a n d c o u ld n o t b e re lie d u p o n . H e fu rth e r sa id th a t h e w as c o n s id e r­ in g th e clo sin g o f th e P o ly te c h n ic S c h o o l [m ilita ry school] a n d s e n d in g a n u m b e r o f m e n to th e U n ite d S tates to b e e d u c a te d as officers. H e said th a t th e y w ere dislo y al a n d u n tru s tw o rth y .”56 T w o m o n th s la te r a b arrac k s rev o lt b ro k e o u t in S an S alvador, c o in c id in g w ith A ra u jo ’s in v a sio n fro m H o n d u ra s . T ro o p s loyal to M e lé n d e z q u ic k ly su p p re sse d th e re v o lt b u t failed to c a tc h th e o fficer w h o h a d in s tig a te d it, allo w in g h im to flee to H o n d u ra s a n d jo in A ra u jo .57 In 1922, tw o m ilita ry c o u p s b ro k e o u t a g a in st th e M e lé n d e z g o v e rn ­ m e n t. T h e first o c c u rre d in F e b ru a ry in th e m ilita ry sc h o o l. A ll six ty -th re e cad ets m a rc h e d o u t o f th e sc h o o l a n d se t u p b a rric a d e s a t stra te g ic p o in ts o f tra n s it to th e c a m p u s. A c c o rd in g to re p o rts fro m th e B ritish le g a tio n , th e cad ets a m b u s h e d tro o p s loyal to th e g o v e rn m e n t a n d c a u se d as m a n y as fifty causalities. N o n e o f th e o th e r b a rra c k s in th e c a p ita l jo in e d th e re ­ v o lt, a n d th e ca d ets w ere su p p re sse d in o n e day. M e lé n d e z clo sed d o w n th e sc h o o l in th e w a k e o f th e rev o lt, a n d it w as n o t r e o p e n e d u n til 1 9 2 6 u n d e r P re sid e n t Q u iñ ó n e z . T h e se c o n d re b e llio n b ro k e o u t in M a y a m o n g so ld iers o f th e S ix th I n fa n tr y b a rra c k s in S an S alvador. A p p ro x im a te ly o n e -h a lf o f th e fo u r h u n d r e d so ld iers in th e b a rra c k s p a rtic ip a te d . T h e y g a in e d c o n tro l o f th e f o rt a t a p p ro x im a te ly 1:00 a .m . o n M a y 2 2 a n d w ere jo in e d b y D r. V alle, a p o litic ia n w h o m M e lé n d e z h a d exiled in 1921. T h e

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rebels a p p a re n tly d e c la re d V alle to b e p re s id e n t a n d c o m m a n d e r in c h ie f o f th e arm y. T h e re v o lt e n d e d w h e n th e rebels failed to c a p tu re a se c o n d b arrac k s (Z a p o te ) th a t w as s itu a te d closer to th e c e n te r o f to w n . Im m e d i­ ately afte r th e reb e llio n , th e B ritish m in is te r m e t w ith M e lé n d e z , w h o to ld h im th a t 160 o f th e 2 0 0 rebels e sca p ed a n d th e re st h a d b e e n e ith e r c a p ­ tu r e d o r k ille d .58 T h is a m a lg a m a tio n o f e v id en c e re la tin g to M e lé n d e z ’s d ifficu lties w ith th e m ilita ry does n o t su g g est th a t M e lé n d e z faced a c o m p le te b re a k d o w n in th e m ilita ry c h a in o f c o m m a n d . B u t it d o es sh o w th a t so m e in d iv id u a ls a n d g ro u p s in th e m ilita ry w ere d issatisfied w ith h is re g im e a n d also th a t h e w as aw are o f th e ir o p p o s itio n . T h e d eg ree o f c o n flic t b e tw e e n M e lé n dez a n d th e m ilita ry w as u n p re c e d e n te d in th e fo rty o r so years sin c e 1880, w h e n th e p ro cess o f p ro fe ssio n a liz a tio n h a d b e g u n .

T h e L iga R o ja

It w as w ith in th e c o n te x t o f th e se hassles w ith th e m ilita ry th a t M e lé n d e z a n d Q u iñ ó n e z c re a te d a p a ra m ilita ry o rg a n iz a tio n , th e L ig a R oja. S ch o la rs in itia lly saw in its v io le n t a n d a u th o rita ria n m e th o d s a sy m b o l o f th e M e lé n d e z -Q u iñ ó n e z era as w ell as th e m ilita ry reg im es afte r 19 3 1 . In p a r ­ ticu lar, it s tru c k th e m as s o m e th in g o f a p re c u rso r to th e p a ra m ilita rie s o f th e 1960s a n d 1970s, su c h as th e O rg a n iz a c ió n D e m o c rá tic a N a c io n a lista ( O R D E N , th e N a tio n a lis t D e m o c ra tic O rg a n iz a tio n ), th a t w ere se t u p to o p p o se th e g ro w in g w av e o f ru ra l m o b iliz a tio n . U n fo rtu n a te ly , m a n y o f th e se in itia l stu d ie s w ere fo rc e d b y sh e er p a u c ity o f e v id en c e to in c lu d e o n ly g en e raliz ed d e s c rip tio n s o f th e Liga. T h e o p e n in g o f th e S a lv a d o ra n archives h as b r o u g h t n e w e v id en c e to lig h t a n d p r o m o te d a re v isio n ist i n ­ te rp re ta tio n , a lth o u g h th e to ta l a m o u n t o f e v id en c e re la tin g to th e L iga re m a in s m o d e st. T h e rev isio n ist lin e d escrib es th e L ig a as a se m ip o p u list o rg a n iz a tio n , o n e c re a te d b y th e M e lé n d e z -Q u iñ ó n e z p o litic a l m a c h in e b u t c o m p rise d o f p o o r p e o p le w h o m a d e th e L ig a th e ir o w n a n d w h o u se d it to m o b iliz e a g a in st th e sy stem o f in ju s tic e in El S alv a d o r.59 I f th a t a r­ g u m e n t is co rrec t, it w o u ld re p re se n t o n e o f th o se p re c io u s h is to ric m o ­ m e n ts w h e n su b a lte rn ac to rs a c te d a u to n o m o u s ly a n d b a rg a in e d w ith elites to achieve s o m e th in g fo r th em selv es. T h e c irc u m sta n c e s s u r ro u n d -

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in g th e L igas c re a tio n le n d c re d e n c e to th is a p p ro a c h , b ec au se th e y are c o n s iste n t w ith o th e r case stu d ie s in w h ic h su b a lte rn s fo u n d n e g o tia tin g space. T h e L iga w as c re a te d in th e m id s t o f in tra -e lite b a ttle s th a t p r o m p te d o n e fa c tio n , M e lé n d e z -Q u iñ ó n e z , to re a c h o u t to n e w ac to rs to c o u n te r ­ b a la n c e its loss o f a m o n o p o ly o v er th e m ilita ry .60 W h ile th e re v isio n ist a rg u m e n t is p la u sib le , th e available ev id en ce does n o t s u p p o r t it v ery w ell. In ste a d , th e e v id en c e su g g ests th a t th e L iga R o ja re m a in e d m o re a d ire c t p a ra m ilita ry a rm o f th e M e lé n d e z -Q u iñ ó n e z p o litic a l m a c h in e , a n d w h e n Q u iñ ó n e z d is b a n d e d it in 19 2 3 , h e a p p e ars to h av e b e e n m o re c o n c e rn e d w ith lo cal elites u sin g it to a d v a n c e th e ir se c ta ria n in te re sts a t th e co st o f th e c e n tra l sta te , ra th e r th a n ru ra l m asses u sin g it to ch a lle n g e th e fu n d a m e n ta l s tr u c tu re o f th e sy stem . A d m itte d ly , th e se tw o a rg u m e n ts d o n o t h av e to b e m u tu a lly exclusive. Ju st as a rev i­ sio n ist a r g u m e n t h as sh o w n th e c o m p le x ity o f th e p a ra m ilita ry o rg a n i­ z a tio n O R D E N in th e 1 9 60s a n d 1970s, it is p o ssib le th a t even i f th e L iga R o ja re m a in e d a n e lite -d ire c te d p a ra m ilita ry en tity , su b a lte rn s f o u n d b a r ­ g a in in g sp ace w ith in it.61 I d o n o t b eliev e th a t th e ev id en c e is su fficie n t to sh o w th e n a tu re o f th e re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n L ig a lead ers a n d ra n k -a n d -file m e m b e rs. N ev e rth e le ss, in th e ab sen c e o f n e w m a te ria ls, I fin d th a t th e s tre n g th o f th e rev isio n ist claim is lim ite d . S o m e o f th e first re p o rts o f L iga a c tiv ity a p p e a re d in th e n e w sp a p e r

D iario del Salvador in th e w a n in g m o n th s o f 1918, as th e e lec to ra l c o n flic t b e tw e e n Q u iñ ó n e z a n d P a lo m o in te n sifie d . T h e re p o rts d e sc rib e v io le n t clashes in v ario u s m u n ic ip a litie s b e tw e e n b ra n c h e s o f th e L iga a n d s u p ­ p o rte rs o f P a lo m o . In terestin g ly , m a n y o f th e P alo m ista s in th e re p o rts w ere m ilita ry p e rso n n e l, e ith e r local c o m m a n d e rs o r m ilita ry p a tro ls ac­ tively d e fe n d in g th e P a lo m o c a m p ( th u s p ro v id in g f u rth e r ev id en c e o f P a lo m o ’s success in g a in in g th e s u p p o r t in so m e se cto rs in th e m ilita ry ).62 R eferences to L iga a c tiv ity c o n tin u e to a p p e a r over th e n e x t fo u r years, especially d u r in g e lec to ra l p e rio d s (a lth o u g h m u n ic ip a l e lec tio n s c a m e less fre q u e n tly afte r 19 2 0 , w h e n M e lé n d e z a n d Q u iñ ó n e z c h a n g e d th e d u r a ­ tio n o f m u n ic ip a l o ffic e h o ld in g fro m o n e to tw o years). T h e close a s so c ia tio n b e tw e e n th e L ig a R o ja a n d th e P N D is m a d e e v id e n t b y th e n u m e ro u s re q u e sts fro m lo cal affiliates a n d a s p irin g office­ h o ld e rs, w h o an x io u sly re fe rre d to th em selv es as m e m b e rs o f b o th th e P N D a n d th e Liga. In Y a y a n tiq u e (L a U n ió n D e p a rtm e n t) , a g ro u p o f

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p e o p le s u b m itte d a n u llific a tio n re q u e st fo r th e e le c tio n o f D e c e m b e r 1921 in w h ic h th e y re fe rre d to th e ir c a n d id a te as th e “P re sid e n t o f o u r local C lu b a n d Jefe o f th e L ig a R o ja .”63 F ro m th e m u n ic ip a lity o f M e jic a ­ n o s, lo c a te d ju s t o u ts id e S an S alvador, a le tte r to Jo rg e M e lé n d e z arriv ed in J a n u a ry 1920, in f o rm in g h im th a t th e P N D h a d w o n th e re c e n t ele c tio n b u t w as b e in g c h a lle n g e d b y a n o p p o s in g fa c tio n . T h e a u th o r o f th e le tte r en c o u rag es M e lé n d e z to ac t in d efe n se o f th e v ic to rs, w h o are “fa ith fu l m e m b e rs o f y o u r p a rty ,” a n d o n e o f w h o m “b e lo n g s to th e L ig a R o ja .”64 In 1921 in th e m u n ic ip a lity o f C h ila n g a (M o ra z á n D e p a rtm e n t) , th e tw o p o litic a l fa c tio n s fa c in g o ff in th e m u n ic ip a l e le c tio n b o th c la im e d to b e th e local re p re se n ta tiv e o f th e L ig a R oja. T h e g o v e rn m e n t h a d to se n d o u t a n in v estig ativ e te a m to d e te rm in e w h ic h fa c tio n w as g e n u in e .65 In 1921 th e secretary o f th e S a n ta A n a c h a p te r o f th e L ig a d e fin e d its ro le as su s­ ta in in g th e “in itia tiv e o f o u r g o v e rn in g p a trio t, D o n Jo rg e M e lé n d e z , u p ­ h e ld b y th e G re a t P a rtid o N a c io n a l D e m o c rá tic o a n d th e L iga R oja, w h ic h in its a b u n d a n c e n o w exists th r o u g h o u t th e e n tire c o u n try , a n d w h ic h recognizes as its illu strio u s jefe, D r. A lfo n so Q u iñ ó n e z M o lin a .”66 T h e L iga R o ja w as p a rtic u la rly activ e in 1 9 2 2 in d efe n se o f A lfo n so Q u iñ ó n e z M o lin a ’s b id fo r th e p re sid e n c y a g a in st M ig u e l M o lin a . L ocal L iga c h a p te rs o rg a n iz e d a v arie ty o f p u b lic p ro c e ssio n s to d e m o n s tra te s u p p o r t fo r Q u iñ ó n e z . O n e o f th e se d e m o n s tra tio n s w as sta g e d in S an S alv ad o r o n D e c e m b e r 10, 1922, a n d w as d e s c rib e d in a lo cal n ew sp a p er. “T h e m a rc h e rs,” rea d s th e article , “w ere lin e d u p in p e rfe c t o rd er, s u b je c t to th e d isc ip lin e o f th e ir v a rio u s jefes, fo r th e P a rtid o N a c io n a l D e m o c rá ­ tic o is n o t a n u n ru ly a n d in c o h e re n t m o b . . . b u t a n o rg a n iz e d c o n g lo m ­ e ra tio n o f m e n th a t m o v es as a n arm y, o b e d ie n t to th e o rd ers o f th e ir c a p ta in s . . . th a t g re a t m e e tin g o f m e n m o v e d h a rm o n io u s ly as b a tta lio n s th a t w o u ld pass rev ie w in a m ilita ry p a ra d e . It w as a b rillia n t sp e cta cle .”67 W h e n Q u iñ ó n e z re s o rte d to v io le n c e a g a in st M o lin a in la te 1 9 2 2 — as w ill b e sh o w n b elo w — th e L iga R o ja to o k th e le ad in th e rep ressio n . T h e re c u rre n t a n d p u b lic p re se n c e o f th e L ig a R o ja d re w th e a tte n tio n o f th e U .S. a n d B ritish le g a tio n s, b o th o f w h ic h w ere ta k in g a n in c re a se d in te re s t in p o litic a l affairs.68 T h e officers in th e le g a tio n s p ro v id e a n u m b e r o f rev ealin g d e s c rip tio n s o f th e Liga, n o tin g th a t its m e m b e rs w o re a u n i­ fo rm th a t re se m b le d th e m ilita ry ’s a n d b o re a d istin c tiv e in sig n ia o f a b le e d in g m a c h e te .69 In J a n u a ry 1 9 2 2 th e B ritish M in is te r le a rn e d th a t

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m e m b e rs o f th e L iga R o ja in S o n so n a te C ity w ere h a ra ssin g th e S alva­ d o ra n em p lo y ees o f th e lo cal b ra n c h o f th e B ritish -o w n e d S alv a d o r R a il­ w ay C o . H e w e n t to S o n so n a te a n d re p o r te d th a t u p o n “a rriv in g at S o n s o n a te , I sa w M r. W ils o n a n d th e o th e r B ritish su b je c ts w h o sta te d th a t sin c e th e arriv al o f th e R e d L ea g u e, th e to w n h a d b e e n in a tu r m o il, th a t b a n d s o f m e n , m e m b e rs o f th e R e d L ea g u e, m o s t o f w h o m w ere i n to x ic a te d , h a d m a d e d e m o n s tra tio n s a g a in st th e fo re ig n e rs, a n d h a d r o a m e d th e to w n , s m a sh in g a n d lo o tin g h o u se s, u tte r in g cries o f ‘d e a th to th e fo re ig n e rs.’”70 T h e d ip lo m a tic officers w ere q u ic k to p o in t o u t th a t th e ra n k a n d file o f th e L iga w as d ra w n fro m th e lo w est classes o f society. A r e p o rt fro m th e U .S. le g a tio n reads, th e “ R e d L eag u e [is] c o m p o se d p rin c ip a lly o f illite ra te In d ia n s a n d th e m o s t d e g ra d e d e le m e n ts o f th e p o p u la tio n .”71 T h is refe re n c e to In d ia n s m a y reveal a c tu a l in d ig e n o u s m e m b e rs h ip in th e Liga, b u t it c a n n o t b e ta k e n literally, b ec au se le g a tio n officers o fte n u se d th e te rm to refer to a n y b o d y w h o a p p e a re d to b e a p ea sa n t. N ev e rth ele ss, th e r a n k a n d file o f th e L iga R o ja w as in d e e d c o m p rise d o f lab o rers a n d p e a sa n ts fro m th e ru ra l areas. T h e y w ere in c o rp o ra te d in to th e L iga n o t in d e p e n d e n tly , b u t ra th e r th r o u g h th e local p o litic a l bosses a n d la n d o w n e rs allie d w ith th e P N D . T h e U .S. ch a rg é o ffe re d o n e o f th e m o s t rev e alin g d e s c rip tio n s o f th e m a n n e r in w h ic h M e lé n d e z a n d Q u iñ ó n e z g a th e re d m a n y h u n d r e d s o f L ig a m e m b e rs in to th e c a p ita l in D e ­ ce m b e r 1922 fo r a c ra c k d o w n o n th e o p p o s itio n . “ T h e R e d L ea g u e,” h e w ro te , “ap p ears to b e o rg a n iz e d s o m e w h a t o n th e lin es o f th e a n c ie n t fe u ­ d al sy stem , v a rio u s la n d o w n ers b e in g ex p e c te d to fu rn is h th e ir resp ectiv e q u o ta s. M r. S alv a d o r Sol, fo rm e rly m in is te r to th e U n ite d S tates, fo r i n ­ stan ce, s u p p lie d th e g o v e rn m e n t w ith tw o h u n d r e d m e n fro m h is estates, a n d o th e r p erso n s h a v e s e n t larg e r n u m b e rs .”72 A lth o u g h th e L iga R o ja w as a k ey p illa r o f th e M e lé n d e z -Q u iñ ó n e z reg im e, th e d o c u m e n ta ry re c o rd p ro v id e s s u rp risin g ly few n a m e s (a ro u n d o n e d o zen ) o f lo cal L ig a jefes a n d even few er n a m e s o f th e r a n k a n d file. T h is p rec lu d es a c o m p re h e n siv e lo o k a t th e so cial a n d re g io n a l m a k e u p o f th e Liga. B u t th e few availab le ex am p les re p re se n t a w id e g e o g ra p h ic a l cro ss-sectio n o f th e n a tio n a n d p a in t a su g g estiv e p o rtra it. T h e y in d ic a te th a t th e local jefes o f th e L ig a w ere e ith e r la n d o w n e rs o r m u n ic ip a l officers u n d e r th e P N D , o r b o th . S alv a d o r Sol, fo r in sta n c e , w as a m e m b e r o f o n e

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o f th e m a jo r co ffee -g ro w in g fam ilies. H e o w n e d tw o h a c ie n d a s in S o n so n a te a n d te n u r b a n p ro p e rtie s in S an S alv ad o r.73 In th e v illage o f N a h u iz alc o , a n e w sp a p e r sto ry o n th e L ig a id e n tifie d R o d o lfo B rito as a p rin c ip a l fig u re in th e lo cal L ig a c h a p te r.74 H e w as a la d in o a n d a m e m b e r o f th e la n d o w n in g B rito fa m ily th a t w as a t th e fo re fro n t o f th e c a m p a ig n to w re st c o n tro l o f th e m u n ic ip a l g o v e rn m e n t aw ay fro m th e In d ia n s, as d iscu ssed in c h a p te r 3 .75 In N u e v a C o n c e p c ió n ( C h a la te n a n g o D e p a rtm e n t) , th e tw o jefes o f th e L iga R o ja w ere th e b ro th e rs F ra n cisc o a n d R u b é n P arrilla. T h e y w ere th e larg est la n d o w n e rs in th e re g io n , a n d a lth o u g h N u e v a C o n c e p c ió n w as n o t lo c a te d in a co ffee -g ro w in g re g io n , it d id p ro d u c e larg e a m o u n ts o f p rim a ry cro p s a n d ca ttle, as w ell as so m e sugar, a n d it h a d a m in e . T h e P arrilla b ro th e rs o w n e d th re e o f th e re g io n ’s e ig h te e n h a c ie n d a s, o n w h ic h th e y raised ca ttle a n d g rew su g a rc an e . T h e y h a d th re e su g a r-p ro c e ssin g m ills, o n e o f w h ic h w as o p e ra te d b y h y d ra u lic ra th e r th a n a n im a l pow er, a n d th e y o w n e d th e so le m in e . F ra n cisc o P arrilla h a d se rv e d as a n alcald e fo r th e P N D in 1 9 2 1 .76 In Y a y a n tiq u e (L a U n ió n D e p a rtm e n t) , th e p e rso n w h o id e n tifie d h im s e lf as “Jefe o f th e L ig a,” D o m in g o G u z m á n , o w n e d o n e o f o n ly tw elv e h a c ie n d a s in th e re g io n . A lth o u g h Y a y a n tiq u e w as a relativ ely p o o r, c o rn -g ro w in g m u n ic ip a lity , G u z m á n w as a ric h m a n a n d a m a jo r la n d o w n e r b y lo cal s ta n d a rd s .77 T h e le ad e r o f th e L iga R o ja in C h a lc h u a p a (A h u a c h a p á n D e p a r t­ m e n t) w as C a rlo s P o rtillo . H is sta tu s as a L iga jefe w as m e n tio n e d in a 1930 n e w sp a p e r a rtic le th a t r e p o rte d o n h is e lec to ra l activ ities. C h a lc h u a p a w as o n e o f th e m a jo r co ffee -g ro w in g m u n ic ip a litie s in th e n a tio n , a n d th e P o rtillo fa m ily w as o n e o f th e m u n ic ip a lity ’s b ig g e st g row ers, o w n ­ in g th re e coffee p la n ta tio n s .78 In th e m u n ic ip a lity o f C o ló n (L a L ib e rta d D e p a rtm e n t) , a p o litic a l c o n fla g ra tio n in 1929 re su lte d in th e id e n tific a ­ tio n o f Isid o ro G o n z á le z a n d A lb e rto G u a d r ó n as fo rm e r lead ers o f th e L iga R oja. T h e ac c u sa tio n c a m e fro m th e ir p o litic a l o p p o s itio n , so it m u s t b e ta k e n in p ersp e ctiv e, b u t b o th G o n z á le z a n d G u a d r ó n h a d se rv e d o n th e m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il u n d e r th e P N D fo r five y ears (1 9 2 2 —1 9 27). T h e y w ere also p r o m in e n t la n d h o ld e rs in th e re g io n , o w n in g co ffee -g ro w in g la n d a r o u n d th e area o f El Jab alí, w h ic h is lo c a te d o n th e sid e o f th e S an S alv ad o r v o lc a n o o p p o s ite th e ca p ita l city.79 A v e ry sim ila r p o litic a l d is p u te to o k p la ce in th e m u n ic ip a lity o f T e n a n c in g o (C u sc a tlá n D e p a rtm e n t) in

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1929. Elias B a rrie re w as id e n tifie d b y h is o p p o n e n t as b e in g th e fo rm e r jefe o f th e L iga R o ja in th e village. B a rrie re h a d se rv e d as sín d ic o fo r th e P N D in 1923. H e also w as a o n e o f th e few larg e la n d o w n e rs in th e re ­ g io n . T h e m u n ic ip a lity w as n o t a m a jo r a g ric u ltu ra l p ro d u c e r, a n d it h a d o n ly five h ac ie n d a s, b u t B a rrie re o w n e d o n e o f th e m .80 In su m , th is a m a l­ g a m a tio n o f e v id en c e re la tin g to th e id e n tity o f L iga jefes is n o t ex h a u s­ tive, b u t it is suggestive. It in d ic a te s th a t L ig a jefes w ere lo cal elites, a n d th a t th e o rg a n iz a tio n a l s tru c tu re o f th e L ig a ra n p ara llel to th a t o f th e P N D . In lig h t o f su c h in fo rm a tio n , th e L iga a p p e ars to h av e b e e n m o re a m ilita riz e d w in g o f a p o litic a l/p a tro n a g e n e tw o rk th a n a p o p u lis t o rg a ­ n iz a tio n . O n e o f th e m o re in tr ig u in g pieces o f e v id en c e is a referen c e to th e L igas c o m p o s itio n in Izalco (S o n so n a te D e p a rtm e n t) . It a p p e a re d in o n e o f th e m a in d a ily n e w sp a p e rs a t th e tim e , D iario del Salvador, in th e m id s t o f Q u iñ ó n e z ’s q u e s t fo r th e p re sid e n c y in 1 9 2 2 .81 T h e refe re n c e id e n tifie d tw o o f th e L ig as jefes in Izalco as José F elic ia n o A m a a n d Felix T u rish , a n d d ec la re d th a t th e village h a d 9 6 5 affiliates b e h in d th e m . Izalco h a d a larg e in d ig e n o u s p o p u la tio n , a n d A m a a n d T u rish w ere b o th lo cal in d ig e n o u s leaders. So th e fac t th a t Q u iñ ó n e z a n d th e P N D w o u ld ch o o se in d ig e n o u s lead ers to h e a d th e lo cal b r a n c h o f th e L iga R o ja w o u ld se em to c h a lle n g e th e claim m a d e ab o v e th a t th e L ig a w as n o t a p o p u lis t o rg a n iz a tio n . I n ­ d ee d su c h ev id en c e carries th a t p o te n tia l. H ow ever, su c h e v id en c e c a n also b e u se d to s u p p o r t a p a tro n a g e b ased a rg u m e n t. Q u iñ ó n e z a n d th e P N D w a n te d s o m e th in g o u t o f Izalco— v otes, m a in ly — w h ic h A m a a n d T u rish c o u ld p o te n tia lly deliver. In r e tu rn , A m a a n d T u rish w a n te d o u ts id e s u p p o r t fo r th e ir lo cal affairs, p re s u m a b ly d efe n se o f in d ig e n o u s issues in d isp u te s w ith lo cal la d in o elites. B y ally in g w ith A m a a n d T u rish , Q u iñ ó n e z r a n th e risk o f a lie n a tin g local lad in o s, ju s t as ally in g w ith th e la d in o R o d o lfo B rito in N a h u iz a lc o r a n th e risk o f a lie n a tin g th e p o litic a lly activ e in d ig e n o u s c o m m u n ity in th a t m u n ic ip a lity . It is n o t clear w h y Q u iñ ó n e z a n d th e P N D c h o se th e la d in o m in o r ity in N a h u iz a lc o a n d th e in d ig e n o u s m a jo rity in Izalco, b u t su c h w as th e c u rio u s n a tu re o f p a tro n a g e -b a se d p o litic a l d eal m a k in g in El Salvador. R egardless, th e a ffilia tio n w ith th e in d ig e n o u s c o m m u n ity in Izalco d id n o t n ecessarily p r o m o te th e cau se o f dem o cracy . As w e saw in th e case

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o f N a h u iz a lc o in c h a p te r 3, w h e n e v e r th e in d ig e n o u s c o m m u n ity p a rtic i­ p a te d in electo ra l co n flicts w ith th e lo cal la d in o p o p u la tio n , it d id so in ro u g h ly th e sa m e n o n d e m o c r a tic m a n n e r as its la d in o rivals. It w as co n sis­ te n t w ith th e s tr u c tu re a n d f u n c tio n o f p a tro n a g e -b a s e d p o litic s fo r a local p o w e r player, in th is case a n in d ig e n o u s c o m m u n ity , to seek o u t alliances w ith p o w e rfu l o u tsid e rs to p r o m o te lo c al causes. W e h av e little re c o rd o f th e local p o litic a l a c tiv ity o f th e in d ig e n o u s p e o p le in Izalco u n d e r A m a ’s le ad e rsh ip . B u t th e e v id en c e sh o w s h im re a c h in g o u t to Q u iñ ó n e z , th e P N D , a n d th e L iga R o ja. W e k n o w n o th in g a b o u t w h a t A m a a n d h is fo l­ low ers m ig h t hav e g a rn e re d fro m th e ir s u p p o r t fo r Q u iñ ó n e z , b u t th e p a c t w as p a r t o f an e m e rg e n t p a tte r n o f a llia n c e -se e k in g b y A m a . As w e w ill see in th e n e x t tw o c h a p te rs, A m a ag a in re a c h e d o u t to a p o w e rfu l o u ts id e r in 1929, in th e r u n - u p to th e 1931 p re sid e n tia l e le c tio n . T h a t o u ts id e r w as th e c a n d id a te A lb e rto G ó m e z Z á ra te , w h o h a d b e e n a loyal fu n c tio n a r y o f th e M e lé n d e z -Q u iñ ó n e z n e tw o rk a n d w h o se c a n d id a c y m o s t a d v a n c e d elite in te rests. N o ta b ly , A m a ch o se n o t to ally w ith A rtu ro A ra u jo , th e p ro la b o r p o p u lis t fro m ju s t d o w n th e ro a d in A rm e n ia . A n d w h e n G ó m e z Z á ra te lo st th e ele c tio n to A ra u jo , A m a sh ifte d h is allia n ce to y e t a n o th e r o u tsid er, th e C o m m u n is t Party, in th e m u n ic ip a l e lec tio n s in la te 1931 a n d e v e n tu a lly in th e r u n - u p to th e u p ris in g o f J a n u a ry 1 9 3 2 .82 A ll o f th is ev id en c e show s a lo c al p o w e r player, in th is case a n in d ig e n o u s le a d e r fro m Izalco, m a k in g alliances w ith p o w e rfu l o u tsid e rs regardless o f id e o lo g ic al o rie n ta tio n , in a tra d itio n a lly p a tro n a g e -b a s e d m a n n e r, w ith b o th p a rtie s h o p in g to g et s o m e th in g o u t o f th e ir re la tio n sh ip w ith o n e a n o th e r. T h e first ev id en c e w e h av e o f A m a p la y in g th a t ro le w as w ith Q u in ó n e z a n d th e L iga R oja. A lfo n so Q u iñ ó n e z M o lin a d is b a n d e d th e L ig a R o ja afte r h e w o n th e p re sid e n tia l e le c tio n in J a n u a ry 1923. T h e U .S. c h a rg é r e p o rte d in Ju ly 1923 th a t “th e L iga R o ja, so far as th e p u b lic k n o w s, h as b e e n v e ry largely d isso lv ed .”83 A g ain in 1925 h e w ro te th a t “th e so -ca lle d L ig a R o ja, w h ic h w as o f m a te ria l assistan ce to th e p a rty a t th e tim e o f th e la st e lec tio n s h as b e e n disso lv ed a n d n o lo n g e r exists.”84 L ittle e v id en c e exists to e x p lain w h y Q u iñ ó n e z d isso lv ed th e o rg a n iz a tio n th a t h a d b e e n su c h a n im p o r ta n t p a r t o f h is a n d Jo rg e M e lé n d e z ’s p o litic a l e m p ire . O n e a rg u m e n t claim s th a t it w as b ecau se th e p e a sa n ts w h o c o m p rise d th e L iga w ere a c tin g a u ­ to n o m o u sly , a n d Q u iñ ó n e z fea re d th e p ro s p e c t o f a so cial re v o lu tio n .85 It seem s m o re lik e ly th a t th e e m e rg e n t in d e p e n d e n c e o f th e L ig a reflec te d

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m a c h in a tio n s o f lo cal elites w h o w ere lo o k in g to u se it to re g a in so m e o f th e ir lo st a u to n o m y . T h e U .S. ch a rg é w ro te in 1923 th a t th e lead ers o f th e L iga “w ere g rea tly d is a p p o in te d a t n o t o b ta in in g th e p o litic a l p lu m th e y h a d h o p e d fo r as th e re su lt o f th e ir effo rts d u r in g th e e lec tio n s, a n d th e re is a ch a n c e o f c o n sid e ra b le tro u b le arisin g fro m th is d iso rd e rly e le m e n t s h o u ld c o n d itio n s se em to give th e m a c h a n c e fo r m a k in g tro u b le .”86 A 1923 case re la tin g to th e P arrilla b ro th e rs in N u e v a C o n c e p c ió n reveals th e e x te n t to w h ic h an elite -le d , lo cal b ra n c h o f th e L ig a a c te d in ­ d e p e n d e n tly fro m th e P N D . In S e p te m b e r 19 2 3 , th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t receiv ed re p o rts th a t p o litic a lly m o tiv a te d v io le n c e h a d e ru p te d in N u e v a C o n c e p c ió n . T h e g o v e rn m e n t s e n t a m ilita ry p a tro l o f tw en ty -fiv e so ld iers to th e village; u p o n arriv in g , th e y d isc o v ered th a t th e m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il, c o n s istin g o f th e P arrilla b ro th e rs a n d th e ir allies, w as h o le d u p in th e m u ­ n ic ip a l h all a n d th e lo cal c o m m a n d e r w as th re a te n in g to a rre st th e m . T h e c o m m a n d e r o f th e n e w ly a rriv e d p a tro l allo w ed th e c o u n c il to leave th e m u n ic ip a l h all a n d th e n c o n d u c te d a series o f in te rv ie w s to le a rn w h a t h a d tra n sp ire d . H e c o n c lu d e d th a t th e P arrilla b ro th e rs , u p o n re c e iv in g w o rd th a t th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t in te n d e d to by p ass th e m in th e f o rth c o m in g m u n ic ip a l e le c tio n o f D e c e m b e r 19 2 3 , h a d m o b iliz e d th e lo cal c h a p te r o f th e L iga to a tta c k th e a rm y p o s t— th e m o s t im m e d ia te re p re se n ta tiv e o f th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t. T h e lo cal c o m m a n d e r re p e lle d th e a tta c k a n d c o rn e re d th e P arrilla b ro th e rs in sid e th e m u n ic ip a l h a ll.87 I f th is case fro m N u e v a C o n c e p c ió n is a t all re p re se n ta tiv e o f b ro a d e r p rocesses a t w o rk , it suggests th a t b y r e in in g in th e L iga, Q u iñ ó n e z w as se alin g a cra ck th a t h a d d e v e lo p e d in h is p o litic a l em p ire.

Q u iñ ó n e z , 1 9 2 3 —1926

In J a n u a ry 19 2 2 , P re sid e n t M e lé n d e z h a d a p a ir o f e x te n d e d p riv a te c o n ­ v ersa tio n s w ith a m e m b e r o f th e U .S. d ip lo m a tic co rp s. T h e s u m m a ry o f th o se co n v e rsa tio n s, w h ic h th e o fficer p ro v id e d in a m e m o to th e S tate D e p a rtm e n t, offers a p e n e tr a tin g lo o k in to th e s tru c tu re o f th e P N D a n d th e p o litic a l sy stem as it fu n c tio n e d in El S alv a d o r a t th e tim e . T h e d ip lo ­ m a tic officer b eliev e d th a t M e lé n d e z c o n s id e re d h im a frie n d a n d c o n fi­ d a n t, a n d th u s h e a ssu m e d th a t M e lé n d e z w as sp e a k in g w ith h im o p e n ly a n d frankly. T h e o fficer o p in e d th a t M e lé n d e z e m b ra c e d h is frie n d sh ip

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b ecau se h e felt iso la te d fro m m a n y o f h is fello w c o u n try m e n , o w in g to h is p o litic a l in e x p e rie n c e a n d th e s tro n g o p p o s itio n o f m a n y p o w e rfu l fa m i­ lies, especially T o m á s P a lo m o a n d h is m a n y allies, in c lu d in g th e D u e ñ a s fam ily. T h e officer even c la im e d th a t M e lé n d e z felt a lie n a te d fro m his b ro th e r-in -la w , A lfo n so Q u iñ ó n e z M o lin a , b ec au se th e la tte r w as su c h a “s ile n t a n d u n c o m m u n ic a tiv e p e rs o n th a t a lth o u g h th e y b o th lu n c h e d to ­ g e th e r daily w ith h is m o th e r, h e w as n o t in h is b ro th e r-in -la w ’s p o litic a l co n fid e n c e a n d k n o w s little o f h is p la n o r a c tio n s .” In h in d s ig h t, th e offi­ ce r’s assessm en t o f M e lé n d e z seem s n aiv e. In p a rtic u la r, h e seem s in c a p a b le o f re c o g n iz in g th a t M e lé n d e z , n o tw ith s ta n d in g a n y feelin g s o f g e n u in e frie n d s h ip th a t h e m ig h t h av e h a d fo r th e officer, p ro b a b ly h o p e d to achieve a d ip lo m a tic g o al b y s p e a k in g w ith h im . In p a rtic u la r, it seem s a p ­ p a re n t th a t M e lé n d e z w a n te d to assure h im th a t h is re g im e sh a re d th e U n ite d S tates’ d e m o c ra tic valu es a n d th a t th e fo rth c o m in g p re sid e n tia l elec tio n s w ere n o t g o in g to cause in s ta b ility in th e re g io n . In o rd e r to p ro v e th e la tte r claim , M e lé n d e z d e s c rib e d th e m a n n e r in w h ic h his b ro th e r-in -la w h a d p u t th e n ec essary c o m p o n e n ts in p la c e to d o m in a te th e f o rth c o m in g e lec tio n s w ith o u t d istu rb a n c e s o r v io le n ce . In th e o fficer’s w ords:

H e [M eléndez] w e n t o n to say th a t D r. Q u iñ ó n e z h a d w o rk ed steadily an d for years w ith all sorts o f people, th a t h e was th e titu la r an d real h ead o f the P artid o N acio n al D em o cratico [sic], a n d th a t th ro u g h this an d th ro u g h the w o rk o f th e Liga R oja . . . he h a d b u ilt up so stro n g a personal follow ing th a t even if th e n ex t elections w ere absolutely free a n d o p en to all, he w o u ld be elected. H e said he was g ettin g in th e h an d s o f th e p arty all the m in o r jobs an d offices o f im p o rta n ce a n d prestige such as local al­ caldes, chiefs o f police a n d justices, w h o co u ld be d ep e n d ed u p o n to w o rk for the success or th e ir p a rty a n d in cid en tally them selves.88

In o th e r w o rd s, M e lé n d e z w as re v e a lin g th e m a n n e r in w h ic h a h ig h ly c e n tra liz e d p a tro n -c lie n t n e tw o rk a d v a n c e d th e cause o f o n e o f its lead ers th r o u g h th e use o f p o litic a l a p p o in tm e n ts a n d p a ra m ilita ry in tim id a tio n . In d e e d , as M e lé n d e z p re d ic te d , A lfo n so Q u iñ ó n e z M o lin a w o n th e p re sid e n tia l e le c tio n o f J a n u a ry 1923 as th e c a n d id a te o f th e P N D , b u t th e p ro cess d id n o t g o as s m o o th ly as p re d ic te d . R u m o rs flo a te d a b o u t fo r

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m a n y m o n th s th a t so m e P a lo m ista s u p p o rte rs w o u ld rally a r o u n d a m e m ­ b e r o f th e D u e ñ a s fa m ily to c h a lle n g e Q u iñ ó n e z , b u t in th e e n d Q u iñ ó n e z s o p p o n e n t tu r n e d o u t to b e M ig u e l T o m á s M o lin a , a law yer, a la n d o w n e r, o n e -tim e m in is te r o f g o v e rn m e n t u n d e r M e lé n d e z , a n d a c o u sin to Q u iñ ó n e z . It is n o t clear w h y so m e o n e o f su c h p e d ig re e a n d p o s itio n w o u ld c h a lle n g e Q u iñ ó n e z ra th e r th a n jo in h im , b u t su c h w as th e c o m p lic a te d n a tu re o f a h ig h ly c e n tra liz e d p a tro n -c lie n t sy stem , as P a lo m o ’s c a n d id a c y fo u r years earlier h a d also d e m o n s tra te d . P erh ap s M o lin a felt s lig h te d b y th e sy stem . It is also p o ssib le th a t M o lin a w as m o ­ tiv a te d b y a m ild c o m m itm e n t to p o litic a l re fo rm , a p re c u rso r to P ío R o m e ro B o sq u e, w h o w o u ld la u n c h fu ll-fle d g e d d e m o c ra tic re fo rm s fo u r years later. T h e B ritish c h a rg é w as n o t a b ig fan o f M o lin a b u t d e sc rib e d h im n o n e th e le ss as “a h a rd -w o rk in g a n d c o n sc ie n tio u s m a n [w hose] a b so ­ lu te h o n e s ty a n d in te g rity are n e v e r q u e s tio n e d .”89 M o lin a in s in u a te d his b e lie f in th e n e e d fo r p o p u la r w ill in to h is p u b lic d isc o u rse. O n e o f his p a r ty ’s p o litic a l b ro a d sid e s reads, “G o v e rn m e n ts c a n n o t a n d s h o u ld n o t b e d iv o rc e d fro m P u b lic O p in io n . T h e y n e e d its fo rce, w h ic h is lik e a so lid social b ase u p o n w h ic h th e y c a n allo w th em selv es to en g ag e in d ire c t p o ­ litica l a c tio n . . . . El S alv a d o r n ee d s a G o v e rn m e n t w ith P u b lic O p in io n .”90 M o lin a ’s refere n c e to “p u b lic o p in io n ” s o u n d s lik e a n y o th e r p o litic a l c h a l­ le n g er w h o a p p e a le d to d e m o c ra c y to c h a lle n g e a n in c u m b e n t. I f th is w as M o lin a ’s in te n tio n , h is use o f th e te rm seem s v ag u e a n d m ild in c o m ­ p a ris o n to th e e x p lic it ap p e als to d e m o c ra c y m a d e b y p r io r p o litic a l bosses in th e sa m e p o s itio n . W h a t is n o ta b le a b o u t M o lin a ’s d isc o u rse is th a t h e p re s e n te d it p u b licly , in th e fo rm o f a b ro a d sid e th a t w as h a n d e d o u t a n d p o s te d o n w alls in S an S alvador. Previously, su c h ap p e als h a d te n d e d to re m a in in in te rn a l d o c u m e n ts e x c h a n g e d b e tw e e n p o litic a l fu n c tio n a rie s. N ev e rth ele ss, it w as th e tra d itio n a l ro le o f ch a lle n g ers w ith in th e p a tr o n ­ age sy stem to u se a d e m o c ra c y -la d e n d isc o u rse a g a in st in c u m b e n ts , esp e­ cially th o se w h o h a d b e e n e n tre n c h e d in p o w e r fo r so m e tim e . M o lin a a p p e a le d d ire c tly to w o rk e rs, w h o w ere in an e m b ry o n ic stage o f o rg a n iz a tio n . In a n o th e r o f its b ro a d sid e s, M o lin a ’s p a r ty w ro te o n th e so -called w o rk e r q u e s tio n . “ F ra n k ly sp e a k in g ,” it reads, “h e re w e d o n o t hav e a tr u e stru g g le b e tw e e n ca p ita l a n d la b o r; b u t th is d o es n o t m e a n th a t w e s h o u ld ig n o re th e w e ll-b e in g o f th a t so cial class th a t lives b y w o rk ­ in g w ith its m u scles. . . . I f w e s tu d y th e c o n c e rn o f w o rk e rs, w e w ill see

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th a t m a n y a b n o rm a litie s exist, p rin c ip a lly : T H E L A C K O F O R G A N I ­ Z A T I O N ; T H E L O S S O F T IM E ; a n d T H E A B S O L U T E A B S E N C E O F P R O T E C T IV E LA W S [caps in o rig in a l].”91 It also w as h ig h ly u n c o m ­ m o n fo r a c a n d id a te to m a k e su c h ap p e als to th e w o rk in g class as a p o ­ litica l fo rc e.92 In s h o rt, regardless o f h is u ltim a te in te n tio n s in th e e lec tio n , M o lin a h a d b ro k e n so m e lo n g -s ta n d in g ta b o o s o n p ro p e r p o litic a l b e ­ havior. T h e d istin ctiv e n e ss o f M o lin a ’s c a m p a ig n m ig h t e x p lain w h y Q u iñ ó n e z to o k M o lin a ’s c h a lle n g e seriously, even th o u g h th e e x te n t o f M o li­ n a ’s s u p p o r t w as lo calized . M o lin a d id n o t b e g in h is c a m p a ig n in e a rn e st u n til tw o m o n th s p r io r to th e e le c tio n , g iv in g h im very little o p p o r tu n ity to org an ize. A lso, b ec au se M e lé n d e z a n d Q u iñ ó n e z h a d c h a n g e d th e te rm o f m u n ic ip a l o ffic e h o ld in g to tw o years in 1921, th e re w ere n o m u n ic ip a l elec tio n s in D e c e m b e r 1 9 2 2 a r o u n d w h ic h M o lin a c o u ld m o b iliz e s u p ­ p o rt, as P alo m o h a d d o n e in 1918. M o reo v e r, M e lé n d e z h a d p la c e d th e e n tire n a tio n u n d e r a sta te o f siege, w h ic h d isa llo w e d p o litic a l rallies. M o ­ lin a a n d h is to p - ra n k in g aides c o m p la in e d in c e ssa n tly to th e U .S. le g a tio n a b o u t th e ir in a b ility to en g a g e in e le c to ra l activ ity o w in g to su rv eillan c e a n d h a ra s s m e n t fro m th e g o v e rn m e n t.93 E v id e n c e o f th e level o f su rv e il­ la n ce is f o u n d in a le tte r fro m a lo cal P N D affiliate in th e m u n ic ip a lity o f V erapáz, in f o rm in g th e u p p e r e c h e lo n s o f th e p a r ty a b o u t th e ac tiv ities o f M o lin a ’s su p p o rte rs: “U n til to d a y in m y ju ris d ic tio n th e re h as b e e n n o w o rk ca rrie d o u t in fav o r o f th e cause o f th e C o n s titu tio n a lis ts [M o lin a ’s p a rty ]. M y fello w citiz en s are affiliates o f th e P a rtid o N a c io n a l D e m o ­ crá tico . . . w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f 15 w h o w ere P alo m ista s . . . a n d n o w are affiliated w ith th e p a rty o f D r. M ig u e l T o m á s M o lin a . By w ay o f p o s t I w ill se n d to y o u th e n a m e s o f th e se p e rso n s w h o are ad v erse to D r. Q u iñ ó n e z M o lin a , th e a c tu a l Jefe o f th e N a tio n .”94 In h is b ro a d sid e s, M o lin a accu sed th e g o v e rn m e n t’s se cu rity forces, especially th e L ig a R o ja, o f re ­ p ressin g h is s u p p o rte rs .95 U ltim a te ly , M o lin a ’s c a m p a ig n w as c o n fin e d to g rea ter S an S alv a d o r a n d a few d e p a rtm e n ta l cap itals. M e lé n d e z a n d Q u iñ ó n e z to le ra te d M o lin a ’s c a m p a ig n u n til D e c e m ­ b e r 2 5 , th e d ay w h e n M o lin a o rg a n iz e d a p o litic a l rally in d o w n to w n S an Salvador. W h a t to o k p la ce th a t a fte rn o o n c a m e to b e k n o w n as th e C h r is t­ m a s D ay M assacre. O n e ey ew itn ess to th e ev e n t w as th e B ritish ch argé, w h o su b s e q u e n tly w ro te a le n g th y re p o rt. H e sa id th e p ro c e ssio n w as c o m p rise d o f m e n , w o m e n , a n d c h ild re n w h o m a d e th e ir w ay th ro u g h

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d o w n to w n , w a v in g b a n n e rs a n d signs in s u p p o r t o f M o lin a . A t a ro u n d 4 :0 0 p .m ., p o lic e officers, so ld iers, a n d esp ecially m e m b e rs o f th e L iga R oja, w h o m th e ch a rg é id e n tifie d b y th e ir c o n s p ic u o u s b le e d in g -m a c h e te in sig n ia, b e g a n firin g in to th e cro w d . T h e d e m o n s tra to rs fled in all d ire c ­ tio n s w h ile s e c u rity forces sh o t, c lu b b e d , a n d slash ed . T h e ch a rg é h im s e lf r a n in to a p h a la n x o f five n a tio n a l g u a rd s m e n w h o fire d th e ir g u n s over his car.96 M o re th a n o n e h u n d r e d p e o p le w ere h o sp ita liz e d d u r in g th e c ra c k ­ d o w n , a n d d o ze n s w ere sa id to h av e b e e n k illed . M o lin a a n d te n o f his closest advisors to o k a sy lu m in th e S p a n ish em bassy.97 H is fo llo w ers w ere s u b je c t to o n g o in g rep re ssio n b y th e s e c u rity forces in th e fo llo w in g days. O n e o f th e m o s t n o to r io u s in c id e n ts w as th e arrest a n d e v e n tu a l ex e c u tio n o f A lb e rto E sc a la n te , a y o u n g a rtisa n w h o w as p re s id e n t o f th e S an V i­ c e n te c h a p te r o f M o lin a ’s p arty . T h e p e r p e tra to r o f th e c rim e w as R o se n d o “C h a ja z o ” B a ra h o n a , a g u a rd ia w h o w as o p e ra tin g u n d e r th e o rd ers o f G e n e ra l C alv o , c o m m a n d e r o f th e G u a rd ia N a c io n a l. W h y E sc a la n te w as sin g led o u t fo r m u r d e r w as n e v e r d e te rm in e d . B u t th e in c id e n t g e n e ra te d a n e n o rm o u s a m o u n t o f press five years later, w h e n th e R o m e ro g o v e rn ­ m e n t trie d to b r in g th e p e rp e tra to rs to ju stic e . B a ra h o n a ’s m e n a c in g lo o k a n d sc arre d face p ro v id e d a p p ro p ria te ly c o m p e llin g n e w sp a p e r p h o to s to a c c o m p a n y th e a c c u s a tio n s .98 A few days after th e m assacre, Jo rg e M e lé n d e z m e t w ith th e U.S. chargé, w h o re p o r te d th e fo llo w in g d isc u ssio n : “In a re c e n t c o n v e rsa tio n w ith m e, P re sid e n t M e lé n d e z h as ex p ressed g re a t re g re t th a t th e c irc u m ­ stan ces d o n o t p e r m it a n u n re s tric te d p o litic a l c a m p a ig n su c h as is c o n ­ d u c te d in th e U n ite d S tates. H e h as s ta te d th a t th e te m p e ra m e n t o f th e S alv a d o ra n p e o p le re n d e rs a b s o lu te fre e d o m o f elec tio n s, as p rev ails in m o re e n lig h te n e d n a tio n s , im p o ssib le in th is co u n try , w h e re tru th fu lly , h e says, th e ele c to ra te is u n a b le to exercise th e fra n c h ise in te llig e n tly .”99 In ex p ressin g th is d isreg a rd fo r dem o cracy , M e lé n d e z o ffered th e classic d is­ c o u rse o f a n in c u m b e n t p o litic a l boss. F u rth e r in s ig h t in to h is c h a ra c te r w as revealed o n e y ear later, w h e n h e re p o rte d ly e n te re d th e b a r a t th e In te r n a tio n a l C lu b a n d o rd e re d d rin k s to to a st th e ev e n ts o f C h ris tm a s 1 9 2 2 .100 O n J a n u a ry 5, 19 2 3 , M o lin a issu ed a s ta te m e n t fro m exile te llin g h is s u p p o rte rs to b o y c o tt th e e le c tio n .101 Q u iñ ó n e z w e n t o n to w in th e ele c tio n u n a n im o u sly , re c e iv in g 1 7 8 ,0 0 0 v o te s.102 P ío R o m e ro B o sq u e w as elec ted vice p re s id e n t a n d w as also ch o se n as m in is te r o f w ar. T h e a c tio n s

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ta k e n b y M e lé n d e z a n d Q u iñ ó n e z in th e e le c tio n o f 1923 reveal th e d eg ree to w h ic h p o litics h a d b e c o m e c e n tra liz e d . T h e y also su g g est th a t M e lé n ­ dez a n d Q u iñ ó n e z h a d le a rn e d a lesso n d u r in g th e e le c tio n o f 1919, n a m e ly th a t th e o p p o s itio n c o u ld n o t b e allo w ed to m o u n t a n o rg a n iz e d ch allenge. P o litically sp e ak in g , th e n e x t fo u r years u n d e r Q u iñ ó n e z w ere u n ­ ev e n tfu l in th a t h e sim p ly e x te n d e d th e p o litic a l o rd e r u n d e r th e P N D . To fac ilita te th is pro cess, h e h a d th e te rm o f m u n ic ip a l office e x te n d e d to th re e years fo r h a lf o f th e m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il, w ith th e o th e r h a lf to b e re ­ p la c e d afte r tw o years. T h e d o c u m e n ta ry rec o rd s re la tin g to th e elec tio n s o f 1923 a n d 1925 in d ic a te th a t th e y w ere sim ila r to earlier e lec tio n s u n d e r th e P N D . A s p ira n ts h a d to receive ap p ro v a l fro m th e P N D h ie ra rc h y , a n d w h ile th e re w as a d eg re e o f n e g o tia tio n a n d jo c k e y in g fo r p o s itio n b e tw e e n local a sp ira n ts a n d th e u p p e r e c h e lo n s o f th e P N D , u ltim a te ly th e c e n tra l c o m m itte e set th e slate o f c a n d id a te s. T h e fo llo w in g sa m p le s o f le tte rs il­ lu s tra te th e b ro a d e r p ro cess. In th e first o n e, a g ro u p o f lo cal elites asks th e m in is te r o f g o v e rn m e n t to select a n e w alcald e fo r th e ir m u n ic ip a lity .

Q uezaltepeque, S eptem ber 2 5 , 1923 Señor M in ister o f G o v ern m en t, Señor: u n d er y o u r au th o rity a n d as g o o d citizens of th is village, we com e to d en ounce th e b ad acts o f th e m u n ic ip a l authorities. . . . For these abuses you sh o u ld su sp en d said fu n ctio n ary . T h o se listed below, S eñor M inister, plead [le rogamos] th a t for th e n ex t te rm y o u n am e us an A lcalde th a t is honorable, progressive, a n d o f th e people, one th a t has n e ith e r am bitions or b ad faith .103

A se c o n d le tte r fro m a lo cal c a n d id a te in El C á rm e n (L a U n ió n D e p a r t­ m e n t) expresses fear th a t h is o p p o n e n ts are p lo ttin g a g a in st h im . H e tries to c o n v in ce th e n a tio n a l c o m m itte e th a t h is cre d e n tia ls in th e P N D are so u n d .

O cto b e r 9, 1923 Sr. M in ister o f G o v ern m e n t I am aware th a t in recen t days . . . th ere o ccurred a m eetin g in th e house o f d o n N icolás C anales . . . w ith th e o bject o f m isin fo rm in g against m e

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before y o u r a u th o rity to th e effect th a t m y candidacy w o u ld n o t be ap­ proved for A lcalde in th e n ex t election. M y candidacy has b een p u t fo rth by the P N D C lu b o f this p o p u la tio n an d by th e D e p a rtm e n ta l C o m m it­ tee for y o u r approval. It is m y h o n o r to m ake clear to y o u th a t all o f the individuals w h o d en o u n c e m e are persons w h o o n ly are try in g to d en i­ grate this h o n o rab le p o p u la tio n , b ein g c o n tra ry to o u r p a rty as w ell as the good p rop o sitio n s o f o u r c o n stitu ted g o v ern m e n t.104

A n o th e r ty p ic a l e x a m p le o rig in a te d in th e e le c tio n o f 1925 in El R efu g io (A h u a c h a p á n D e p a rtm e n t) , in w h ic h P re sid e n t Q u iñ ó n e z h im s e lf n a m e d th e c a n d id a te s w h o h a d receiv ed h is a p p ro v a l: “So th a t it w ill ta k e place, I a m in f o rm in g y o u th a t th e C e n tr a l C o m m itte e o f th e P a rtid o N a c io n a l D e m o c rá tic o h as a p p ro v e d th e fo llo w in g c a n d id a te s fo r E l R efu g io : 2 n d R egidor, M o isés Jim é n e z , a n d S ín d ic o , J u a n M a rtín e z .”105 T h e se ex am p les in d ic a te th e e x te n t to w h ic h p o litic a l c e n tra liz a tio n h a d b e c o m e fo r­ m alized .

M e a su rin g C o n t in u ity in th e P N D

L ists o f m u n ic ip a l officials p ro v id e v alu a b le e v id en c e in to th e n a tu re o f o ffic e h o ld in g a t th e lo cal level. T h e se lists reveal w h o m th e P N D ap ­ p o in te d a n d th e e x te n t to w h ic h P N D lead ers re lie d u p o n a select few p e o p le to h o ld m u n ic ip a l office. I n o rd e r to m e a su re th is c o n tin u ity m o s t effectively, w e w o u ld n e e d c o m p le te e lec to ra l resu lts fo r all o f th e P N D era elec tio n s (1 9 1 8 , 1919, 19 2 0 , 19 2 1 , 1923, a n d th e p a rtia l e le c tio n o f 1 925). U n fo rtu n a te ly , su c h c o m p le te e v id en c e d o es n o t exist. In ste a d , w e hav e c o m p le te rec o rd s fo r every e le c tio n in all fo u rte e n d e p a rtm e n ts fo r th e years 1921 , 19 2 3 , a n d 19 2 5 , a n d rec o rd s fro m o n ly tw o d e p a rtm e n ts , A h u a c h a p á n a n d S an V ic e n te , fo r o n e a d d itio n a l year, 19 2 0 . T h u s , evi­ d e n c e exists fo r th e fo u r co n se c u tiv e e lec tio n s fo r o n ly tw o d e p a rtm e n ts , b u t th e resu lts are rev ealin g . I p o se d tw o q u e s tio n s o f th a t ev id en ce. F irst, d id a n y official serve in m o re th a n o n e a d m in is tra tio n , a n d i f so w h o , a n d in w h a t years w as h e elected? S eco n d , d id a n y b o d y b e a rin g th e sa m e s u rn a m e serve in m o re th a n o n e a d m in is tra tio n , a n d i f so, in w h ic h years? A s u m m a ry o f th e se

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in q u irie s is p re s e n te d in ta b le A 2 in th e a p p e n d ix . T h e resu lts reveal th a t in te n o f th e tw elve m u n ic ip a litie s in S an V ic e n te D e p a r tm e n t a t least o n e official served in m u ltip le a d m in is tra tio n s . In all tw elve o f th e m u n ic ip a li­ ties a t least tw o p e o p le b e a rin g th e sa m e s u rn a m e serv ed o n d iffe re n t m u ­ n ic ip a l co u n cils. T h e ev id en c e fro m A h u a c h a p á n D e p a r tm e n t offers a lm o st id e n tic a l results. T h e m u n ic ip a lity o f T a c u b a w as e x c lu d e d fro m th e analysis, o w in g to th e p e c u lia r in flu e n c e o f G e n e ra l R afael R ivas, as w as d isc u sse d earlier. In eig h t o f th e d e p a r tm e n t’s eleven re m a in in g m u n ic ip a litie s, a t le ast o n e p e rso n serv ed in m u ltip le a d m in is tra tio n s . A n d o f th o se e ig h t m u n ic ip a li­ ties, all b u t o n e o f th e m h a d at le ast tw o p e o p le se rv in g in m u ltip le a d m in ­ istra tio n s. In all elev en m u n ic ip a litie s in A h u a c h a p á n , a t least tw o d iffe re n t su rn a m e s sh o w ed u p in m u ltip le a d m in is tra tio n s . T h is ev id en c e suggests th a t th e P N D w as a clo sed p o litic a l n e tw o rk th a t relied u p o n th e sa m e few p e o p le to h o ld office a t th e m u n ic ip a l level. W h e n it is recalle d th a t p o litic a l n e tw o rk s d id n o t allo w ad v ersaries to serve w ith th e m o n th e m u n ic ip a l co u n c ils, th e c o n tin u itie s in ta b le A 2 in th e a p p e n d ix serve as a te s ta m e n t to th e exclusive n a tu re o f o ffic e h o ld in g u n d e r th e P N D . E ssentially, th e sa m e p o litic a l n e tw o rk a t th e lo cal level w as s a n c tio n e d b y th e P N D a n d h e ld office fo r th e d u ra tio n . A d m itte d ly , th e ev id en c e o f th e su rn a m e s is in c o n c lu siv e , fu n c tio n in g as a r a th e r b lu n t to o l to m e a su re p o litic a l re la tio n sh ip s. F am ily ties w ere o f cru c ial im p o r ­ ta n c e to p o litic a l alliances, b u t th e e v id en c e d o es n o t p ro v e th a t p e o p le b e a rin g th e sa m e s u rn a m e w ere a c tu a lly re la te d o r w ere n ecessarily allies. B u t g iven th e lim ite d n u m b e r o f p o litic a lly activ e p e rso n s in th e se m u n ic i­ palities, especially th e less p o p u la te d o n es, th e e v id en c e is h ig h ly su g ­ gestive. *

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El S alv ad o r e x p e rie n c e d so m e sig n ific a n t ch a n g es d u r in g th e first th re e decades o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry . T h e e c o n o m y g re w d ra m a tic a lly a n d b e c a m e in c re asin g ly d e p e n d e n t o n coffee. In th e re a lm o f p o litic s, th e c h a ­ o tic tra n s itio n s o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry , th e c o n s e q u e n c e o f m u ltip le p a tro n a g e n e tw o rk s c o m p e tin g w ith o n e a n o th e r, ca m e to a n e n d . C o u p p lo ttin g d id n o t c o m e to e n d , b u t su ccessfu l c o u p s d id . P o litics w as still u n d e m o c ra tic a n d b a se d o n p a tro n a g e . V io le n c e a n d in trig u e c o n tin u e d to a c c o m p a n y elec tio n s. B u t tra n s itio n s b e tw e e n reg im es b e c a m e m o re

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sta b le a n d p re d ic ta b le . As th e s ta te c e n tra liz e d a n d th e p o w ers o f th e n a ­ tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t in c re ase d , th e n e tw o r k th a t h a p p e n e d to h a v e c o n tro l fo u n d its e lf w ith a n u n p re c e d e n te d a b ility to ex e rt a u th o rity over rivals at th e local a n d re g io n a l levels. T h e pro cess o f c e n tra liz a tio n re a c h e d its a p o ­ gee d u r in g th e M e lé n d e z a n d Q u iñ ó n e z e ra in th e la te 1910s a n d 1920s. T h e m u ltip le a n d c o m p e tin g p y ra m id s o f p a tro n a g e th a t h a d d o tte d E l S a lv a d o r’s p o litic a l la n d sc a p e d u r in g th e p re c e d in g d ecad es h a d b e e n re ­ p la c e d b y a single, c e n tra l p y ra m id . P o litic a l bosses w h o h o p e d fo r a n y real ch a n c e o f p o litic a l a sc e n t n o w w o rk e d w ith in th e o n e ex istin g n e tw o rk ra th e r th a n try in g to o v e rth ro w it a n d rep la ce it fro m o u tsid e . W e k n o w little a b o u t th e tw o ch a lle n g ers fo r th e p resid en cy , T o m á s P alo m o in 1918 a n d M ig u e l M o lin a in 19 2 2 . B u t M o lin a at least, a n d p o s ­ sib ly P alo m o as w ell, sig n a le d a p o te n tia l s h ift in th e p o litic a l w in d s fro m a sy stem b ased o n p a tro n a g e , p e rso n a lism , a n d c o n tro lle d ele c tio n s to o n e th a t w as m o re m o d e rn , p a rty -b a se d , a n d even d e m o c ra tic in o rie n ta tio n . R egardless o f w h e th e r th o se tw o a sp ira n ts ac tu a lly e m b o d ie d th o se v ir­ tu es, s o m e th in g w as a fo o t in E l S alv a d o r in th e m id -1 9 2 0 s . W h e n th e last m e m b e r o f th e M e lé n d e z -Q u iñ ó n e z d y n a sty le ft office in early 1927, El S alv ad o r w as a b o u t to ex p e rie n c e s o m e th in g u n p re c e d e n te d : a g e n u in e a tte m p t a t d e m o c ra tic re fo rm .

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fa c in g the le v ia t h a n

Pío Romero Bosque and the Experiment with Democracy, 1927—1931

T h e p re sid e n tia l e le c tio n o f M a rc h 1 9 2 7 a rriv e d a m id s t th e u su a l sp e c u la ­ tio n s: W h o w o u ld P re sid e n t Q u iñ ó n e z M o lin a ch o o se as h is successor? W o u ld so m e o n e c h a lle n g e h im ? W o u ld th e re b e violence? Q u iñ ó n e z M o ­ lin a ex a ce rb a te d th e in c e r titu d e b y p ro v id in g n o h in ts a b o u t h is p re fe r­ ence. “T h e P re sid e n tia l s itu a tio n re m a in s th e sa m e ,” w ro te th e A m e ric a n a g ro n o m is t F re d e ric k W illia m T ay lo r to h is fa m ily in la te 19 2 6 , “o n ly seven w eeks to th e e le c tio n a n d n o a n n o u n c e m e n t o f c a n d id a te s.”1 Q u iñ ó ­ n e z M o lin a ’s h e s ita tio n seem s to h av e b e e n in s p ire d b y h is d esire to g et h im s e lf reelected . T o d o so, h o w ev er, h e w o u ld h av e h a d to c irc u m v e n t th e c o n s titu tio n a l p ro h ib itio n a g a in st a p re s id e n t se rv in g co n se c u tiv e te rm s in office, regardless o f w h e th e r o r n o t h e re sig n e d six m o n th s p r io r to th e c o m in g te rm . T h e p re s id e n t trie d to h a v e a n e w c o n s titu tio n w ritte n th a t w o u ld allo w fo r re e le c tio n . In Ju ly a n d A u g u st 1926 h e called fo r th e fo r­ m a tio n o f cabildos abiertos, to w n -h a ll m e e tin g s in w h ic h th e g en e ral p o p u ­ la tio n th e o re tic a lly d isc u sse d a n d th e n v o te d u p o n p ro p o s e d ch a n g es to th e c o n s titu tio n . B u t o n ly a h a n d f u l o f m u n ic ip a litie s a c tu a lly h e ld th e cab ild o s, a n d Q u iñ ó n e z M o lin a q u ic k ly a b a n d o n e d th e id ea. S u c h a m o v e w o u ld h av e g e n e ra te d so m e d eg re e o f d o m e s tic o p p o s itio n . B u t a c c o rd in g to re p o rts fro m th e U .S. le g a tio n , it w as th e in te r n a tio n a l c o n te x t th a t

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c o n c e rn e d Q u iñ ó n e z M o lin a th e m o st. H e re p o rte d ly failed to g e t th e U .S. le g a tio n to p ro m is e re c o g n itio n i f h e w ere to p ro c e e d .2 A c c o rd in g to th e W a s h in g to n T reaties o f 19 2 3 , th e U n ite d S tates w o u ld g ra n t re c o g n i­ tio n o n ly to th o se g o v e rn m e n ts in C e n tra l A m e ric a th a t a c h ie v ed p o w er b y legal m e an s. A lth o u g h a n a lte re d c o n s titu tio n w as te c h n ic a lly legal, it d id n o t in sp ire c o n fid e n c e in th e U .S. S ta te D e p a r tm e n t fo r f u tu re p o ­ litica l sta b ility in El S alvador. A n d so, as th e y ea r 1926 w o u n d to a close, Q u iñ ó n e z M o lin a tu r n e d to h is vice p re s id e n t a n d m in is te r o f w ar, P ío R o m e ro B o sq u e . N o b o d y s te p p e d fo rw a rd to c h a lle n g e h im , a n d h e w o n th e ele c tio n o f J a n u a ry 1926 b y th e c u s to m a ry u n a n im o u s resu lt. B y all in d ic a tio n s , R o m e ro B o s q u e w as g o in g to ca rry o n th e c e n ­ tra liz in g tr a d itio n o f M e lé n d e z a n d Q u iñ ó n e z a n d d e fe n d th e p o litic a l m o n o p o ly o f th e P N D . B u t all w as n o t as it a p p e a re d . H e b ro k e w ith th e o ld w ays a n d in itia te d a series o f p o litic a l re fo rm s d e sig n e d to fo ste r g e n u ­ in e d em o cracy . T h o s e re fo rm s w ere as u n p re c e d e n te d as th e y w ere u n e x ­ p e c te d , a n d th e ro a d to re fo rm w as n o t a n easy o n e. R o m e ro B o sq u e faced a le v ia th a n , a n esta b lish e d p o litic a l sy stem th a t h a d b e e n fu n c tio n in g fo r m o re th a n e ig h t d ec ad e s a c c o rd in g to ru les q u ite c o n tra ry to dem o cracy . E n tre n c h e d p o litic a l bosses s to o d to lo se i f th e re fo rm s w ere im p le m e n te d , a n d n o t surp risin g ly , th e y re siste d th e m . A lth o u g h h is u ltim a te g o al o f c re a tin g d e m o c ra c y in E l S alv a d o r d id n o t c o m e to fru itio n , w h a t P ío R o m e ro B o sq u e a c c o m p lish e d in fo u r years is n o th in g s h o r t o f re m a rk ­ able. T h e c a p sto n e o f th e re fo rm s w as th e p re sid e n tia l e le c tio n o f 1931, in w h ic h A rtu ro A ra u jo w as elec ted to office in a m o s tly free a n d fair d e m o ­ cra tic process. T h e re fo rm s, h o w ev er, h a d m u c h less success a t th e m u ­ n ic ip a l level, w h e re th e lo g istic al p ro b le m s o f m o n ito rin g e le c to ra l p ro c e ­ d u res in ro u g h ly 2 4 0 m u n ic ip a litie s w ere m o n u m e n ta l. N e e d le ss to say, it w as m u c h easier to d ire c tly a p p o in t 2 4 0 p o litic a l bosses a n d give th e m c a rte b la n c h e to m a in ta in lo cal o rd e r th a n it w as to e n su re 2 4 0 d e m o c ra tic electio n s, w h ic h m e a n t in v e stig a tin g th e m u ltitu d e o f c o m p la in ts a n d d e ­ n u n c ia tio n s th a t su c h e lec tio n s in v a ria b ly g e n e ra te d . T h e g o al o f th e p re s e n t c h a p te r is tw o fo ld . T h e first g o al is to d o c u ­ m e n t th e R o m e ro re fo rm s. W h ile p r io r sc h o lars h av e n o te d th e u n iq u e ­ ness o f th e R o m e ro B o sq u e years, la ck o f d o c u m e n ta tio n h as p re v e n te d th e m fro m d e ta ilin g th e a c tu a l p ro ce ss o f th e refo rm s, th e c o n te x t w ith in w h ic h th e y w ere e n a c te d , a n d th e e x te n t to w h ic h R o m e ro B o sq u e w as

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c o m m itte d to th e m .3 S e c o n d , a n d m o re im p o rta n tly , th is c h a p te r w ill use th e re fo rm s as a w in d o w in to th e co re o f E l S a lv a d o r’s p o litic a l sy stem . T h e s e years re p re se n te d a ra re m o m e n t in S a lv a d o ra n h is to ry w h e n th e sta te a c te d a u to n o m o u s ly as a n e u tra l th ir d p a r ty b e h o ld e n u n to n o th in g o th e r th a n a p o litic a l id e a l.4 R o m e ro B o sq u e a n d h is associates in v e ste d tim e a n d en erg y in in v e stig a tin g p o litic a l d e v e lo p m e n ts in th e m u n ic ip a li­ ties, a n d th e re s u ltin g d o c u m e n ta tio n sh e d s a n u n p r e c e d e n te d d eg ree o f lig h t o n th e tra d itio n a l sy stem o f p o litics.

T h e U n lik e ly R e fo rm e r

P ío R o m e ro B o sq u e ’s cre d e n tia ls as a p o litic a l in sid e r w ere im p e c c a b le . H e h a d e n te re d g o v e rn m e n t in th e early 1890s as a d e p u ty in th e N a tio n a l A ssem bly. S h o rtly th e re a fte r h e rec eiv e d a la w d eg re e fro m S an S a lv a d o r’s N a tio n a l U n iv e rsity a n d w as a p p o in te d to a series o f p ro v in c ia l ju d g e sh ip s. In 1899 h e w as m a d e a ju d g e o n th e S u p re m e C o u r t, afte r w h ic h h e h e ld a su ccessio n o f h ig h -ra n k in g g o v e rn m e n t p o sts, in c lu d in g m in is te r o f g o v ­ e r n m e n t (1 9 0 3 -1 9 0 7 ) , c h ie f ju stic e o f th e S u p re m e C o u r t (1 9 0 4 -1 9 1 9 ) , m in is te r o f w a r ( 1 9 1 9 -1 9 2 7 ), a n d vice p re s id e n t ( 1 9 2 3 - 1 9 2 7 ) .5 R o m e ro B o sq u e w as a la n d o w n e r, a lth o u g h n o t n e a rly a t th e level o f th e M e lé n d e z Q u iñ ó n e z fam ily. H e q u a lifie d as a notable in h is h o m e d e p a r tm e n t o f La Paz, o w n in g tw o h a c ie n d a s: “N a h u a la p a ,” n e a r S a n tia g o N a n u a lc o in La Paz D e p a rtm e n t, a n d “El R o sa rio ,” o n a h illto p o u tsid e S an S alv a d o r in th e c a n tó n o f P lan e s d e R e n d e ro s.6 T h e la tte r p r o p e rty p ro d u c e d coffee.7 H e h a d im p o r ta n t fam ily c o n n e c tio n s , a cru c ia l asset fo r any p o litic a l ca­ reer. H is d a u g h te r w as m a rrie d to Ju lio M e jia , w h o se fath er, F ed eric o M ejia, w as m in is te r to th e U n ite d S tates b e tw e e n 1 9 0 7 a n d 1913. T h e M ejías, in tu r n , w ere in te rm a rrie d w ith th e D u k e s, o n e o f th e ric h e st a n d m o s t p o w e rfu l fam ilies in th e n a tio n .8 R o m e ro B o sq u e c o u ld n o t h a v e re ta in e d h is n u m e ro u s h ig h -ra n k in g offices w ith o u t h a v in g s u p p o r te d th e e lec to ra l m a c h in a tio n s a n d in trig u e s re q u ire d by th e p ro je c t o f sta te c e n tra liz a tio n . As m in is te r o f g o v e rn m e n t in th e E scaló n a d m in is tra tio n ( 1 9 0 3 -1 9 0 7 ) , h e w as th e p o in t m a n fo r all p o litic a l a n d elec to ra l affairs; u n fo rtu n a te ly , th e arc h iv al re c o rd fo r th e se years is to o le an to p ro d u c e a n ex p licit lin k b e tw e e n h im a n d su c h ac-

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tivities. T h e re is, how ever, d ire c t e v id en c e fro m R o m e ro B o s q u e ’s te n u re as m in is te r o f w a r in th e 1 9 20s lin k in g h im to th e d efe n se o f th e P N D . F o r ex am p le, a d o c u m e n t fro m D e c e m b e r 1921 reveals th a t h e o rd e re d th e lo cal c o m a n d a n te o f S an L uis d e la R e in a (S an M ig u e l D e p a rtm e n t) to e n su re th e v ic to ry o f lo cal P N D c a n d id a te s w h o w ere b e in g c h a lle n g e d b y a n o u ts id e fa c tio n .9 E ven b efo re Q u iñ ó n e z M o lin a h a d c h o se n h im as h is successor, R o m e ro B o sq u e h a d d e v e lo p e d a re p u ta tio n w ith th e U .S. le g a tio n as a y e s -m a n fo r th e p re sid e n t. T h e U .S. ch a rg é n o te d in 1925 th a t h e w as th e p re s id e n ts closest a d v iso r.10 T h e ch a rg é la te r d e s c rib e d h im as “w e a k a n d irre so lu te ” a n d as a “k in d ly o ld g e n tle m e n w h o h as n e v e r d o n e a n y o n e a n y special h a r m .”11 R o m e ro B o sq u e c o n trib u te d to th is im p re ssio n w ith a sp eech d eliv ered in D e c e m b e r 1 9 2 6 u p o n re c e iv in g th e n o m in a tio n fro m Q u iñ ó n e z M o lin a a n d th e P N D . As re p o r te d b y th e U .S. ch arg é, h e p r o m ­ ised to d e fe n d th e p o litic a l sta tu s q u o : “ D r. P ío R o m e ro B o sq u e d e ­ clared . . . th a t h e to o k a n o a th to s u p p o r t th e P a rty ’s p ro g ra m . H e said th a t h is o n e a m b itio n w o u ld b e to c o n tin u e th e efficien t p o lic ie s a n d m e th o d s o f a d m in is tra tio n w h ic h P re sid e n t Q u iñ ó n e z h a d so effectively c a rrie d o u t d u r in g th e p a st fo u r y ears.”12 A fte r th e e le c tio n , a le g a tio n o f­ ficer referre d to R o m e ro B o sq u e as a m a n “o f n o p a rtic u la r fo rce, a n d w ith p ro b a b ly n o su p e rflu o u s a m o u n t o f b a c k b o n e .”13 T h e ch a rg é o p in e d th a t Q u iñ ó n e z M o lin a ch o se R o m e ro B o sq u e p rec isely fo r h is s u p p o s e d w e a k ­ ness, so th a t h e c o u ld r u n th in g s fro m b e h in d th e scenes. I f P ío R o m e ro B o sq u e seem s a n u n lik e ly c a n d id a te to ca rry o u t a c a m p a ig n o f d e m o c ra tiz a tio n , w h y d id th is career in sid e r a b a n d o n h is p o ­ litica l h e rita g e a n d ta k e u p th e b a n n e r o f refo rm ? U n fo rtu n a te ly , a s u b ­ s ta n tia te d an sw e r to th is q u e s tio n re m a in s elusive, b ec au se cru c ia l d o c u ­ m e n ta tio n , su c h as R o m e ro B o sq u e ’s p re sid e n tia l a n d p e rso n a l p a p e rs, is m issin g . B u t so m e s p e c u la tio n is p o ssib le. F irst a n d fo re m o st, it is n o t u n c o m m o n fo r p o litic a l re fo rm e rs to e m erg e fro m w ith in a u th o rita ria n regim es. T h e y te n d to b e d riv e n b y d iv erse m o tiv e s, so m e m o re selfish th a n o th e rs. F o r ex a m p le , p o litic ia n s w h o re a c h a glass c e ilin g w ith in an ex istin g sy stem m ig h t fin d th a t re fo rm ism is th e o n ly w a y to a d v a n c e th e ir o w n careers. A n o th e r a rg u m e n t— o n e o f th e m o s t c o m m o n , in fac t— focuses o n th e e m e rg e n c e o f m ass m o b iliz a tio n . W h e n a n a u th o rita ria n style reg im e is fac ed w ith a s u d d e n su rg e in m ass a c tio n , it c a n r e s p o n d in

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o n e o f tw o w ays: re fo rm o r rep ressio n . W h ile m a n y reg im es h av e re so rte d to rep ressio n , m a n y o th e rs h av e ch o se n re fo rm . S ch o la rs h av e d isco v ered th a t ad v o cates o f re fo rm w ith in exclusive reg im es o fte n c o n s titu te a tin y m in o r ity o f h ig h -ra n k in g officials w h o u se th e ir p o sitio n s a n d skills to w a rd o ff th e ir a u th o rita r ia n asso cia te s.14 T h e y ty p ic ally b eliev e th a t re ­ fo rm in g th e sy stem is th e o n ly w ay to save it, b ec au se a fa ilu re to re fo rm w ill in c ite th e m asses, w h o are lik e ly to ta k e m u c h m o re i f th e y rev o lt. N o ta b ly , R o m e ro B o sq u e o n c e ex p la in e d th e re fo rm p ro g ra m as th e p ro g ­ e n y o f a select few p e o p le at th e n a tio n a l level in a sp e e c h b e fo re th e N a ­ tio n a l A ssem b ly in 1930, sa y in g th a t “h ap p ily , th e n a tio n a l in te re sts h av e n o w b e e n c o n fin e d to a select . . . g ro u p , w h o u n d e r all c irc u m sta n c e s sh o w th e ir a tta c h m e n t to th e b e s t causes o f th e c o u n try .” 15 T h is a p p ro a c h h as f o u n d re so n a n c e w ith sc h o lars o f E l S alvador, w h o hav e e x a m in e d R o m e ro B o sq u e ’s d e m o c ra tiz a tio n a n d su g g e sted th a t h e a d o p te d p o litic a l re fo rm a t le ast p a rtly in re sp o n se to a su rg e in w o rk e r rad ic alism a n d /o r m ass m o b iliz a tio n in th e 1 9 2 0 s.16 T h a t a rg u m e n t h as p ro m ise . T h e g ro w th o f th e coffee e c o n o m y c h a n g e d El S a lv a d o r’s social c o m p o s itio n . C itie s h a d g ro w n a n d so to o h a d th e ir m id d le a n d w o rk in g classes. A n o rg a n iz e d la b o r m o v e m e n t b e g a n to coalesce in th e 1920s, m o s t n o ta b ly in th e fo rm o f th e F e d e ra c ió n R e g io n a l d e T ra b ajad o res S al­ v a d o re ñ o s (F R T S , R e g io n a l F e d e ra tio n o f S a lv a d o ra n W o rk e rs), w h ic h w as fo u n d e d in 1924. T h e u n io n e x p a n d e d ste a d ily th r o u g h o u t th e re st o f th e d ecad e, a lth o u g h it te n d e d to re m a in h ig h ly u r b a n in o rie n ta tio n . In 1928 a rad ic al w in g e m e rg e d w ith in th e F R T S a n d to o k c o n tro l in 1929. T h e rad icals ev e n tu a lly w e n t o n to fo rm th e P a rtid o C o m u n is ta S a lv a d o r­ e ñ o (P C S , th e C o m m u n is t P a rty o f El S alv ad o r) in 1 9 3 0 .17 A v a ria n t o f th is a rg u m e n t is th a t R o m e ro B o sq u e ’s re fo rm ism em e rg e d fro m a m o re ex p lic it p o litic a l necessity. A s w ill b e d e m o n s tra te d below , s h o rtly afte r c o m in g to office R o m e ro B o sq u e b ro k e ties w ith h is predecessor, A lfo n so Q u iñ ó n e z M o lin a , a n d th e re b y a lie n a te d th e p o w e r­ fu l P N D p o litic a l m a c h in e a n d all o f its lo cal a d h e re n ts. W i th o u t a p a ra l­ lel o rg a n iz a tio n to s u p p o r t h im , R o m e ro B o sq u e fac ed iso la tio n , a w ea k p o s itio n fro m w h ic h to resist th e co n sp ira cies th a t every p re s id e n t faced. In ca stin g a b o u t fo r a n e w b ase o f s u p p o rt, h e m ig h t h a v e tu r n e d to th e n e w ly e m e rg e n t m id d le a n d w o rk in g classes o f th e u rb a n areas, especially in S an S alvador. B u t in o rd e r to ap p e a l to th e m , h e h a d to offer th e m

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s o m e th in g d iffe re n t— re fo rm ism a n d dem o cracy . In th e ir s tu d y o f p o litic s in th e la te 1920s as a p re lu d e to th e 1932 u p risin g , h is to ria n s Je ff G o u ld a n d A ld o L au ria -S a n tia g o ad v a n ce th is a rg u m e n t. It is also s u p p o r te d b y case stu d ies fro m o th e r c o u n trie s, in w h ic h p o litic ia n s w h o w ish to b u ild a c o a litio n m u s t deal w ith u rb a n c o n s titu e n c ie s d iffe re n tly th a n th e ir ru ra l c o u n te rp a rts , b ec au se th e u rb a n ite s, in c lu d in g th e u rb a n p o o r, are n o t s u b je c t to th e sa m e ty p es o f d e p e n d e n c ie s as ru ra l w o rk e rs a n d p e a s a n ts .18 T h e p o litic a l e x p la n a tio n fo r R o m e ro B o s q u e ’s re fo rm s is p la u sib le , a n d so to o is th e a rg u m e n t th a t h is re fo rm s w ere a re sp o n se to a rise in m ass m o b iliz a tio n . B u t th e la tte r a r g u m e n t rests o n sh a k ie r evid en ce. R o m e ro B o sq u e e m b a rk e d u p o n h is re fo rm ism im m e d ia te ly u p o n a s su m ­ in g office, b e fo re th e ra d ic a l la b o r m o v e m e n t h a d em e rg e d . A t th e tim e , th e g o v e rn m e n t h a d g o o d re la tio n s w ith th e ex istin g la b o r o rg a n iz a tio n s, in c lu d in g th e F R T S , w h ic h w as th e n re c e iv in g a g o v e rn m e n t subsidy. As la te as J a n u a ry 1929, th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t w as still s e n d in g a n a n n u a l C h ris tm a s card to th e u n io n .19 T h e r e is n o t m u c h e v id en c e to su g g e st th a t a g ro u n d sw e ll o f p o p u la r d e m a n d fo r d e m o c ra c y h a d arisen in th e years o r m o n th s p re c e d in g R o m e ro B o s q u e ’s arriv al in office. P eo p le a t th e local level, elites a n d c o m m o n e rs alike, w ere n o t e x p e c tin g d e m o c ra tic refo rm s, a n d as w ill b e sh o w n , o n c e th e R o m e ro B o sq u e a d m in is tra tio n in itia te d th e refo rm s, locals o f all strip e s fo u n d th e m se lv es b e w ild e re d b y th e m . I f n o th in g else, th e R o m e ro re fo rm s reveal th e im p o r ta n c e o f sta te c e n tra liz a tio n to th e s to ry o f S a lv a d o ra n p o litic s. R e fo rm w as p o ssib le b ecau se th e sta te h a d b e c o m e e m p o w e re d , a n d b ec au se th e tra d itio n a lly d e c e n tra liz e d sy stem o f p a tro n a g e -b a se d p o litic s o f th e la te n in e te e n th c e n tu ry h a d b e e n c o n s o lid a te d in to a sin g le u n ifie d sy stem b y th e m id 1920s. T h o s e d e v e lo p m e n ts gave s o m e o n e lik e R o m e ro B o sq u e th e ca­ p a c ity to ca rry o u t a re fo rm p ro g ra m , reg ard less o f th e m o tiv a tio n s b e h in d it. O n e th in g is c e rta in a b o u t R o m e ro B o s q u e ’s a p p ro a c h to p o litic a l re ­ fo rm : h e w as c o m m itte d to se ein g it th ro u g h . A n in d ic a tio n o f his g e n u ­ in e n ess co m es, iro n ically , fro m o n e o f h is m o s t v e h e m e n t d e tra c to rs, M a n u e l A n d in o . In 1 9 3 0 A n d in o , w h o b y h is o w n a d m issio n w as a p o ­ litica l o p p o n e n t o f R o m e ro B o sq u e, w ro te a b o o k o n th e p re sid e n tia l c a m ­ p a ig n o f 1931. T h e b o o k ’s sta te d p u rp o s e w as to p ro v e th a t R o m e ro B o sq u e ’s p la n w as a farce a n d th a t h is re fo rm ism w as n o th in g m o re th a n a

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co n c ea le d a tte m p t to re m a in in office fo r a n o th e r te rm . F o r all h is p o s tu r ­ in g , how ever, A n d in o failed to p ro v id e a n y ex am p les o f m isd e e d s o r evi­ d e n c e th a t R o m e ro B o sq u e h a d d esig n s o n c o n tin u in g b e y o n d h is te rm . T h e b o o k read s m o re as a te s ta m e n t to R o m e ro B o s q u e ’s successes.20 A n ­ o th e r e n d o rs e m e n t co m es fro m E n riq u e C ó rd o v a , o n e o f th e c a n d id a te s in th e e le c tio n o f 19 3 1 . D is a p p o in te d over h is loss, a n d su sp ic io u s th a t R o m e ro B o sq u e m ig h t h av e s o m e h o w a id e d th e v ic to r, A rtu ro A ra u jo , C ó rd o v a n o n e th e le ss w ro te th a t “n o o n e c a n d e n y th a t d o n P ío . . . gave a m p le g u a ra n te e s to all th e p a rtie s, a n d th e e lec tio n s o f th a t p e rio d p ro v e d to b e a p ro cess th a t w as d e m o c ra tic , in stru c tiv e , a n d rea lize d in p e a c e d e ­ sp ite th e ex istin g law s w h ic h w ere in su ffic ie n t b y th em selv es to g u a ra n te e fre e d o m o f su ffrag e.”21 T h e R o m e ro re fo rm s w o u ld p ro v e h ig h ly sim ila r to a d e m o c ra tic ex­ p e r im e n t ta k in g p la ce in n e ig h b o rin g N ic a ra g u a a t ro u g h ly th e sa m e tim e , u n d e r th e auspices o f U .S. o c c u p a tio n . A s rev ealed im p re ssiv e ly b y th e re ­ search o f h is to ria n M ic h e l G o b a t, th e U n ite d S tates d e c id e d th a t o n e o f th e b est strateg ie s fo r lo n g -te rm sta b ility in N ic a ra g u a w as to c e n tralize th e p o w e r o f th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t b y b re a k in g th e p o w e r o f re g io n a l s tro n g m e n , a n d th a t o n e o f th e m o s t effective w ays to a c c o m p lish th a t g oal w as to h o ld g e n u in e ly d e m o c ra tic elec tio n s. T h e lo g ic b e h in d th e U .S. p la n w as th a t d e m o c ra tic p ro c e d u re s w o u ld w o rk a g a in st th e re g io n a l cau d illo s a n d m a k e b o th th e e le c to ra te a n d th e n e w ly e le c te d officials loyal to th e c e n tra liz in g p ro cess. G o b a t sh o w s th a t in fac t th e N ic a ra g u a n G u a r ­ d ia N a c io n a l, w h ic h , iro n ically , w o u ld b e c o m e n o to r io u s fo r se rv in g as th e a rm e d e n fo rce r o f th e lo n g -s ta n d in g S o m o z a fa m ily d ic ta to rsh ip , w as c re ­ a te d b y th e U n ite d S tates expressly fo r th e p u rp o s e o f p r o m o tin g th is d e m o c ra tic process. A c c o rd in g to G o b a t, th e U n ite d S tates a n d th e G u a r ­ d ia to o k th e ta sk seriously, even p la c in g a m a rin e in ch a rg e o f ev ery p o llin g s ta tio n to e n su re th a t irre g u la ritie s d id n o t occu r. N o t su rp risin g ly , th e U n ite d S tate s’ effo rts p ro d u c e d m ix e d resu lts. H o w c o u ld th e y n o t, w h e n th e m a rin e s a t th e p o llin g sta tio n s b a re ly sp o k e S p an ish ? N e v e rth e le ss, o n e o f th e freest elec tio n s in N ic a ra g u a n h is to ry re su lte d in th e e le c tio n o f José M o n c a d a as p re s id e n t in 1 9 2 8 .22 In E l S alvador, R o m e ro B o sq u e p la y e d th e ro le o f th e U n ite d S tates, a n d as w e are a b o u t to see, h e to o e n liste d th e m ilita ry to s u p p o r t h is re fo rm ist a g e n d a. A lth o u g h th e re is n o e v id en c e to su g g est as m u c h , it seem s p la u sib le th a t p a r t o f th e in s p ira tio n fo r th e

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R o m e ro refo rm s w as a d esire to c u rry fav o r w ith th e U n ite d S tates, given its d e m o c ra tiz a tio n p ro g ra m in n e ig h b o rin g N ic a ra g u a .

B re a k in g w ith Q u iñ ó n e z

T h e first sig n th a t s o m e th in g o rig in a l w as a fo o t w ith R o m e ro B o sq u e w as th e r a p id ity w ith w h ic h h e b ro k e ties w ith h is pred ecesso r. Q u iñ ó n e z M o ­ lin a h a d re m a in e d v e ry close to th e seat o f p o w e r in R o m e ro B o sq u e ’s g o v e rn m e n t. H e w as th e official h e a d o f th e P N D , a n d h e h e ld th e p o s i­ tio n o f first d e sig n a te to th e p re sid e n t, w h ic h p la c e d h im s e c o n d in lin e to th e p re sid e n c y b e h in d th e vice p re sid e n t, G u sta v o V id es, w h o h a d also b e e n h a n d p ic k e d b y Q u iñ ó n e z M o lin a . (V id es serv ed as m in is te r o f fi­ n a n c e d u r in g th e Q u iñ ó n e z a d m in is tra tio n .) 23 B u t ju s t as m a n y b a ttle s s ta rt sm all a n d g ro w in size, so to o d id th e c o n flic t b e tw e e n R o m e ro B o sq u e a n d Q u iñ ó n e z M o lin a . T h e c o n flic t b e g a n w ith tw o m in o r p o ­ litica l a p p o in te e s, th e u n d e rse c re ta rie s o f fo m en to (d e v e lo p m e n t) a n d p u b lic in s tru c tio n , M a rc o s L e to n a a n d S alv ad o r R ivas, w h o h a d re ta in e d th e ir offices a t Q u iñ ó n e z M o lin a ’s in siste n c e . O n e m o n th afte r ta k in g o f­ fice, R o m e ro B o sq u e fo rc e d L e to n a to resig n a n d ac cu sed R ivas o f a p ­ p r o p ria tin g m o n e y e a rm a rk e d fo r sch o o ls; R ivas also re sig n e d .24 Q u iñ ó n e z accu sed R o m e ro B o sq u e o f re n e g in g o n h is p ro m ise , a n d a c c o rd in g to v ario u s re p o rts th e tw o h a d h e a te d v erb a l ex ch an g es, o n e o f w h ic h to o k p la ce in R o m e ro B o sq u e ’s office a n d e n d e d in Q u iñ ó n e z b e in g e sc o rte d o u t b y s e c u rity g u a rd s.25 T h e U .S. ch a rg é o p in e d th a t th e a tta c k s o n th e u n d erse creta rie s w ere “s im p ly p a r t o f th e c a m p a ig n to d o aw ay w ith th e Q u iñ ó n e z in flu e n c e .”26 S o o n th e c o n flic t tu r n e d to Q u iñ ó n e z h im self. In A p ril, R o m e ro B o sq u e lifte d th e sta te o f siege th a t h a d b e e n m a in ta in e d th r o u g h o u t Q u iñ ó n e z ’s p re sid e n c y .27 Press c e n so rsh ip a n d th e b a n o n p u b lic d e m o n ­ s tra tio n s d isa p p e a re d , a n d th e s tu d e n ts o f th e N a tio n a l U n iv e rsity im m e ­ d ia te ly to o k to th e stree ts to p ro te s t Q u iñ ó n e z ’s p o s itio n as first d esig n a te to th e p re sid e n t. T h e y m a rc h e d b e fo re th e N a tio n a l A ssem bly, th e N a ­ tio n a l Palace, a n d even Q u iñ ó n e z ’s p riv a te h o m e . R o m e ro B o sq u e a d ­ d ressed o n e o f th e rallies, sa y in g in refe re n c e to Q u iñ ó n e z ’s p o sitio n , a c c o rd in g to re p o rts fro m D iario Latino, th a t “it seem s th a t su c h an

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a p p o in tm e n t is u n c o n s titu tio n a l. . . . I alw ays w ill b e w ith th e p eo p le, u p h o ld in g a n d d e fe n d in g th e ir rig h ts .”28 In J u n e a d e b a te e ru p te d in th e N a tio n a l A ssem b ly b e tw e e n Q u iñ ó n e z ’s a n d R o m e ro B o sq u e ’s s u p p o rte rs over w h e th e r o r n o t a fo rm e r p re s id e n t legally c o u ld serve as first d esig ­ n a te .29 T h e issue w as reso lv e d a few days la te r w h e n Q u iñ ó n e z re sig n e d a n d to o k h is fa m ily in to exile in F ra n ce . T h e U .S. m ilita ry a tta c h é cla im e d th a t so m e h ig h -ra n k in g m ilita ry officers p re ssu re d Q u iñ ó n e z to leave in re tr ib u tio n fo r p a s t tran sg re ssio n s a g a in st th e m ilita ry .30 S h o rtly afte r Q u iñ ó n e z d e p a rte d , R o m e ro B o sq u e b e g a n to c h ip aw ay a t th e M e lé n d e z -Q u iñ ó n e z r e p u ta tio n . H is g o v e rn m e n t o p e n e d a n in v e s­ tig a tio n in to th e m u r d e r o f A lb e rto E sca la n te. As m e n tio n e d in th e p rio r ch a p te r, E scalan te, th e p re s id e n t o f th e S an V ic e n te c h a p te r o f M ig u e l M o lin a ’s p o litic a l p arty , h a d d isa p p e a re d d u r in g th e c ra c k d o w n o f D e c e m ­ b e r 1 9 2 2 . T h e tria l th a t re su lte d fro m th e in v e stig a tio n b e c a m e a h ig h ly p u b lic iz e d ev e n t th a t la ste d m o re th a n tw o years. T ra n sc rip ts o f th e tria l w ere p u b lis h e d in th e n e w sp a p e rs, a n d M e lé n d e z h im self, as w ell as h is m in is te r o f g o v e rn m e n t, A rtu ro A rg ü e llo , h a d to testify, as d id m a n y d o z ­ ens o f o th e r p eo p le , in c lu d in g G e n e ra l C alv o , th e fo rm e r d ire c to r o f th e G u a rd ia N a c io n a l, w h o s u p p o se d ly o v ersaw th e C h ris tm a s D a y re p re s­ sio n . E sca la n te b e c a m e s o m e th in g o f a m a rty r, a n d w h e n h is re m a in s w ere re tu r n e d to S an S alv a d o r fro m th e site n e a r th e G u a te m a la n b o rd e r w h e re h e h a d b e e n k illed , a larg e p u b lic d e m o n s tra tio n to o k p lace, le d b y E s­ c a la n te ’s w idow . E sc a la n te ’s b u ria l site b e c a m e s o m e th in g o f a sy m b o l o f p a s t g o v e rn m e n t o p p re ssio n . O n e o f th e c a n d id a te s in th e 1931 p re s id e n ­ tial elec tio n , fo r ex a m p le , o rg a n iz e d a ra lly th e re to o p e n h is c a m p a ig n .31 Q u iñ ó n e z ’s d e p a rtu re fo re to ld h is d e c lin in g in flu e n c e in S a lv a d o ra n p o litics, b u t h e d id n o t su rre n d e r w ith o u t a fig h t. In D e c e m b e r 1927, h e a n d Jo rg e M e lé n d e z o rg a n iz e d a c o u p a g a in st th e R o m e ro g o v e rn m e n t. T h e available d o c u m e n ta ry so u rces, in c lu d in g th e m e m o ir o f E n riq u e C ó rd o v a , n e w sp a p e r a c c o u n ts, a n d in te llig e n c e re p o rts fro m th e U .S. le ­ g a tio n , offer a lm o st id e n tic a l v ersio n s o f th e ev en ts, w ith m u c h o f th e ev id en c e c o m in g fro m th e te stim o n ie s o f p a rtic ip a n ts arre ste d afte r th e c o u p .32 A c c o rd in g to th e se so u rces, th e c o u p p ro c e e d e d m o re o r less as follow s: Jo rg e M e lé n d e z w as th e p rin c ip a l o rg a n iz e r a n d fin an c ier. In th e w eeks le a d in g u p to D e c e m b e r, h e e n liste d th e s u p p o r t o f so m e o f his a n d Q u iñ ó n e z ’s fo rm e r allies, in c lu d in g F ed eric o K reitz, w h o w as c h ie f

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o f p o lic e u n d e r Q u iñ ó n e z a n d , a c c o rd in g to o n e so u rce , a o n e -tim e jefe o f th e L iga R o ja. K re itz w as jo in e d b y C o lo n e l J u a n A b erle , c h ie f o f th e a rm y ’s m a c h in e sh o p , a n d M a jo r M a n u e l N o g u e ra , d e p u ty c h ie f o f p o lice. M e lé n d e z also a ssem b led as m a n y as five h u n d r e d so -ca lle d p e o n e s a n d a rm e d th e m w ith m a c h e te s. T h e s e w o rk e rs in c lu d e d la b o re rs fro m M e lé n dez’s m a n y h a c ie n d a s, in c lu d in g th e m a in o n e, “P ru ssia,” as w ell as o th e r p e a sa n ts w h o h a d b e e n re c ru ite d fro m o u tly in g areas, even as far aw ay as H o n d u ra s . K re itz h a d b e e n in ch a rg e o f asse m b lin g th e p e o n e s a n d a rm ­ in g th e m . T h e p la n w as fo r A b e rle a n d N o g u e r a to g a in c o n tro l o f th e b a rra c k s o f th e F irst In fa n try a n d th e p o lic e h e a d q u a rte rs in S an S alv a d o r a n d th e n q u ie tly d ep o se R o m e ro B o sq u e. A t th e sa m e tim e , th e w o rk e rs fro m P ru s ­ sia w o u ld b e tru c k e d in to th e ca p ita l to c re ate a d iv e rsio n a ry d istu rb a n c e . A t th e a p p o in te d tim e o n th e m o r n in g o f D e c e m b e r 6, A b e rle a n d N o ­ g u e ra p re s e n te d th e m se lv es b e fo re th e c h ie f o f p o lic e, C o lo n e l L eitzelar, a n d in fo rm e d h im th a t a m ilita ry ju n ta h a d elec ted A b e rle as p re s id e n t a n d N o g u e ra as c h ie f o f p o lic e. L eitzelar d e m a n d e d c o n firm a tio n fro m th e c o m m a n d e r o f th e F irst In fa n try , G e n e ra l C a rm o n a , w h o w as s u p p o se d ly a c o u p su p p o rte r. B u t w h e n ask ed to c o n firm A b e rle ’s claim , C a rm o n a b a lk e d a n d said h e k n e w n o th in g o f th e c o u p . A n id e n tic a l sc e n a rio p la y e d o u t w ith th e s e c o n d -in -c o m m a n d o f th e b a rrac k s. A b e rle th e n s u rre n d e re d to L eitzelar, w h o to o k h im a n d N o g u e ra to R o m e ro B o sq u e in th e N a ­ tio n a l Palace. U p o n b e in g p re s e n te d to R o m e ro B o sq u e, A b e rle m a d e o n e last effo rt to g a in th e p resid e n cy . H e to ld R o m e ro B o sq u e th a t a m ilita ry ju n ta h a d ele c te d h im p re sid e n t, a n d th a t i f R o m e ro B o sq u e re sig n e d peacefully, h e a n d h is fa m ily w o u ld b e g u a ra n te e d safe passage o u t o f th e c o u n try . R o m e ro B o sq u e h a d th e tw o c o n s p ira to rs arrested , a n d w ith in fo rty -e ig h t h o u rs th e y h a d b e e n c o u rt-m a rtia le d a n d ex e c u te d b y firin g sq u a d . T h e w o rk e rs fro m P ru ssia n e v e r a rriv ed in th e cap ital. In th e a fte rm a th o f th e c o u p , m o re th a n o n e h u n d r e d p e o p le w ere arrested , in c lu d in g K reitz, G e n e ra l C a rm o n a , a n d a n u m b e r o f m id d le level m ilita ry c o m m a n d e rs a n d g o v e rn m e n t b u re a u c ra ts w h o se n a m e s cam e u p as affiliates o f th e c o n s p ira to rs. A m o n g th o se arre ste d w ere a large n u m b e r o f th e la b o re rs fro m P ru ssia. Jo rg e M e lé n d e z m a n a g e d to av o id arrest. H e h a d b e e n o n h is h a c ie n d a “V alen cia” d u r in g th e c o u p , a n d u p o n h e a rin g re p o rts o f its failu re, h e s ta rte d w a lk in g to w a rd s H o n d u ra s . O n e

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o f h is associates w e n t to th e U .S. le g a tio n a n d ask ed i f M e lé n d e z c o u ld receive asy lu m , b u t th e U .S. ch a rg é d e n ie d th e re q u e st. M e lé n d e z arriv ed in H o n d u ra s tw e n ty days later, afte r w h a t m u s t h av e b e e n a n e v e n tfu l o v e rla n d jo u rn ey . H e e v e n tu a lly e n d e d u p in C o s ta R ica, w h e re h e in ­ v ested in th e su g a r in d u s try .33 T h e failu re o f th e c o u p h a d m a n y im p lic a tio n s . I t b r o u g h t th e M e lé n d e z -Q u iñ ó n e z in flu e n c e to a d e c id e d e n d a n d le ft R o m e ro B o sq u e u n q u e s tio n a b ly in c h a rg e o f th e g o v e rn m e n t. In F e b ru a ry 19 2 8 , fro m his p o s t in exile in P aris, Q u iñ ó n e z h a d a c o n v e rsa tio n w ith a fo rm e r U .S. ch a rg é in E l S alv a d o r in w h ic h h e s u m m a riz e d th e b re a k b e tw e e n h im a n d R o m e ro : “You k n o w , o f co u rse, th a t w e are n o lo n g e r frie n d s w ith R o m e ro B o sq u e. W e w ere o ld frie n d s. H e w as in m y g o v e rn m e n t. I h e lp e d h im greatly. B u t w e h av e n o th in g to d o w ith ea ch o th e r n o w .” D u r in g th e c o n ­ v e rsa tio n , Q u iñ ó n e z d id n o t a d m it to o rg a n iz in g th e c o u p , b u t h e ex­ p ressed s y m p a th y fo r it a n d c o n d e m n e d R o m e ro B o sq u e fo r ex e c u tin g A b erle a n d N o g u e ra .34 T h e failed c o u p also sh e d s lig h t o n R o m e ro B o s q u e ’s c o m p le x re la ­ tio n s w ith th e m ilita ry a n d th e decisiveness th a t h e c o u ld e x h ib it in d e a lin g w ith p o te n tia lly reb e llio u s officers. T h e e x e c u tio n o f A b e rle a n d N o g u e ra w as a b o ld m o v e th a t d eliv ered an u n m is ta k a b ly clear m essag e to a n y ­ o n e th in k in g o f fu tu re co n sp ira cies. A n o th e r ex a m p le o f R o m e ro B o sq u e ’s a b ility to deal w ith th e m ilita ry ca m e in A p ril 192 8 , w h e n a g ro u p o f m ili­ ta ry officers d e m a n d e d th a t a n a c tiv e -d u ty officer b e p la c e d in th e p o s itio n o f su b se c re ta ry o f w ar. T h in k in g th a t th e officers w ere p la n n in g a c o u p , R o m e ro B o sq u e g a th e re d th e m to g e th e r a n d to ld th e m , “ I f y o u d o th is, I w a rn y o u th a t y o u h a d b e tte r s h o o t m e first, fo r i f y o u d o n o t, I shall s h o o t all o f y o u .”35 As w ill b e f u rth e r rev ealed below , R o m e ro w as a sk illed n e g o tia to r w ith th e m ilita ry , a n d th e s u p p o r t h e rec eiv e d fro m so m e o f th e h ig h e s t-ra n k in g officers w as cru c ia l to th e success o f h is re fo rm ism .

T h e F irst E x p e rim e n t: T h e M u n ic ip a l E le c tio n s o f D e c e m b e r 1 9 2 7

R o m e ro B o sq u e first sig n a le d h is in te n t to in itia te re fo rm s in a sp e ec h in J u n e 1927, s h o rtly afte r Q u iñ ó n e z le ft fo r F ra n ce . H e p ro c la im e d in th e sp eech th a t h e w o u ld “ce d e to th e w ill o f th e citizen s. . . . [W ]e all k n o w

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th a t i f th e e v o lu tio n o f a n a tio n is slo w a n d g ra d u a l, g re a t sc h ism s w ill n o t b e o p e n e d u p in th e p o litic a l sp h e re , b ec au se th e re w ill n o t b e c o n fu sio n in th e d e te r m in a n t fo rc es. I p re s e n t th is t r u th in o rd e r to m a k e clear a t th is tim e th e im p o r ta n c e o f th e w o rk th a t w e s h o u ld u n d e rta k e to ach iev e su c ­ cess in o u r p o litic a l a n d a d m in is tra tio n o rg a n iz a tio n .”36 T w o p h ra se s s ta n d o u t in th is sp e ec h . T h e first is “ced [in g ] to th e w ill o f th e c itiz en s,” h is first h in t a t d em o cracy . T h e se c o n d is th e in siste n c e o n “slo w a n d g ra d u a l” ch a n g e. I t is n o t clear w h e th e r R o m e ro B o s q u e h a d a d e ta ile d p la n m a p p e d o u t fo r h is re fo rm s, b u t h is la n g u a g e in d ic a te s th a t h e saw re fo rm as a d r a w n -o u t pro cess. A s it tu r n e d o u t, h e u se d ea ch successive e lec tio n , s ta rtin g w ith th e m u n ic ip a l e lec tio n s o f D e c e m b e r 1927, to p u s h h is re ­ fo rm is t a g e n d a a b it fu rth e r. I n th e m o n th s fo llo w in g h is J u n e sp e ec h , R o m e ro B o s q u e issu ed a series o f s tro n g ly su g g estiv e h in ts th a t th e e lec tio n s o f D e c e m b e r 1927 w o u ld b e d e m o c ra tic , o r at le ast th a t c a n d id a te s w o u ld n o t b e im p o s e d b y th e g o v e rn m e n t. R o m e ro B o s q u e d id n o t issu e a n y th in g re se m b lin g an official d ecree. R a th e r, h e p re s e n te d h is in te n tio n s to p a rtic u la r p e o p le w h o th e n p assed o n th e n ew s b y w o rd o f m o u th a n d in s ta te m e n ts m a d e to n e w sp a p e r re p o rte rs. I t is n o t clear w h y R o m e ro B o s q u e ch o se th is c ir­ c u ito u s r o u te to d iss e m in a te h is p la n s, b u t it p ro b a b ly h a d s o m e th in g to d o w ith h is c o n c e p tio n o f a “slo w a n d g ra d u a l” p ro cess. T h e first ex a m p le w as a n e d ito ria l in D iario del Salvador in A u g u st. T h e c o m m e n ta ry b e g a n w ith a d e s c rip tio n o f th e ex istin g p o litic a l sy stem a n d th e n e x p la in e d h o w life u n d e r R o m e ro B o sq u e w o u ld b e d iffe ren t:

O u r adm inistrative co rru p tio n is such th a t th e alcaldes, all th e w ay dow n to th e m o st insignificant pueblos, have b een im p o sed by su p erio r au ­ thority, an d we have arrived at su ch a state o f c o rru p tio n th a t there is n o such th in g as a m u n ic ip a lity of th e p eople. . . . B u t th e cu rren t jefe of the Executive office, Pío R om ero B osque, assures us th a t there w ill n o t be any im p o sitio n : th a t th e o m in o u s epoch, in w h ich a P resid en t im m ersed h im ­ self in an y th in g an d everything, is over. W e will be left free to m ake use o f o u r rights a n d choose o u r ow n m u nicipality.37

T w o m o n th s la te r a n a n o n y m o u s e d ito ria list fro m th e m u n ic ip a lity o f G u a z a p a w ro te th a t “w e are s ta n d in g o n th e v erg e o f a sig n ific a n t d a te ”

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w h e n im p o s itio n s w o u ld e n d , “th e tim e w h e n th e in stig a to rs o f in trig u e s a n d false p a trio ts w ill h av e to rec ed e to th e b a c k g ro u n d u n til th e y ca n fin d th e ir civic d ig n ity .”38 T h e U .S. ch a rg é re p o r te d th a t R o m e ro B o sq u e to ld h im in th e co u rse o f c o n v e rsa tio n th a t h e d esire d th e f o rth c o m in g m u ­ n ic ip a l elec tio n s to b e d e m o c ra tic .39 N o t all re a c tio n s to th e h in t o f c h a n g e w ere p o sitiv e. O n e e d ito ria list in D iario del Salvador a rg u e d th a t R o m e ro B o sq u e ’s in te n tio n s w ere m isp la c e d , b ec au se th e S a lv a d o ra n p o p u la c e w as n o t p re p a re d fo r dem o cracy . B u t even th is n eg a tiv e e d ito ria l reveals th a t p e o p le w ere aw are th a t c h a n g e w as a fo o t.40 R o m e ro B o sq u e officially d is b a n d e d th e P N D in S e p te m b e r a n d a n ­ n o u n c e d th a t c a n d id a te s w o u ld n o t b e allo w ed to in v o k e th e n a m e o f th e P N D w h e n c a m p a ig n in g fo r office. T h e closest th in g to a n official p r o ­ n o u n c e m e n t o n th e ele c tio n s w as an in te rv ie w th a t M a n u e l M e n d o z a , R o m e ro B o sq u e ’s m in is te r o f g o v e rn m e n t a n d a close p o litic a l associate, gave to th e n e w sp a p e r D iario Latino o n N o v e m b e r 2 5 , 1927. M e n d o z a said th a t “first th e m a in g o al is to g u a ra n te e th e fre e d o m o f th e v o te , th a t is th e m a in jo b . . . . T h is g o v e rn m e n t d o es n o t fav o r a n y c a n d id a te s a n y ­ w h ere; th e g o v e rn m e n t’s in te re s t is sim p ly in g u a ra n te e in g lib e rty .”41 B ased o n p e titio n s th a t a rriv e d in S an S alvador, n ew s o f R o m e ro B o sq u e ’s re fo rm ist a g e n d a w as m a k in g its w ay o u t to d is ta n t m u n ic ip a li­ ties. A p o litic a l a s p ira n t fro m A leg ría (U s u lu tá n D e p a rtm e n t) , fo r in ­ stan ce, b e g a n a p e titio n b y sa y in g th a t, “I a m a n im a te d b y th e d e m o n s tr a ­ tio n s th a t th e S u p re m e Jefe o f th e N a tio n a n d h is fa ith fu l associates h av e m a d e in reg a rd to th e ir firm p ro p o sa l in fav o r o f lib e rty so th a t th e p e o p le ca n exercise freely a n d a m p ly th e ir rig h t o f S u ffrag e.”42 A n o th e r p e titio n fro m th e village o f S an Ju liá n (S o n so n a te D e p a rtm e n t) b e g a n , “ I h av e co n fid e n c e in th e p ro c la m a tio n o f S e ñ o r P ío R o m e ro B o sq u e, a n d ra p id ly is th e d ay a rriv in g in w h ic h w e w ill ch o o se th e M u n ic ip a lity th a t w ill g u id e us in th e c o m in g year, a n d resp e c tfu lly w e ask i f rea lly th e re w ill b e lib e rty to ch o o se a M u n ic ip a lity th a t is a t th e service o f th e p e o p le ? ”43 A c o rre ­ s p o n d e n t fro m S an S e b a stiá n (S an V ic e n te D e p a rtm e n t) w ro te th a t “th e d e c la ra tio n s o f th e G o v e rn m e n t th a t th e ele c tio n s w ill b e e n tire ly free h av e b e e n receiv ed w ith g re a t a p p la u se .”44 T h e m essag e w as g e ttin g o u t, b u t so m e lo cal p o litic a l p lay ers in te r ­ p re te d it in w ays c o n tra ry to R o m e ro B o sq u e ’s in te n tio n . T h e y e ith e r ig ­ n o re d it o r f o u n d it to b e n o th in g m o re th a n a n o d d ly ex p licit fo rm o f

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tra d itio n a l p a tro n a g e -b a s e d d isc o u rse. “H a v e n o t th e se sa m e p ro m ise s,” a sk e p tic al e d ito ria list m u se d , “b e e n so n g s in th e m o u th s o f all p a s t P re si­ d e n ts? ”45 A lth o u g h R o m e ro B o sq u e w as th e in c u m b e n t, h e still p re sid e d over a p o litic a l n e tw o rk c re a te d b y h is p red ecesso r, a n d th u s h is ap p e als to d e m o c ra c y easily c o u ld h av e b e e n in te r p re te d as n o th in g m o re th a n a m e s ­ sage to P N D affiliates th a t a c h a n g e in n o m e n c la tu re w as fo rth c o m in g . As th e d ay fo r th e e lec tio n s d re w near, th e u su a l m ass o f p e titio n s flo w ed in to th e N a tio n a l P alace fro m lo cal p a rtisa n s se e k in g re c o g n itio n as th e official c a n d id a te s a n d assistan ce in assaults o n th e ir rivals. A p o litic a l fa c tio n in A rm e n ia (S o n so n a te D e p a rtm e n t) , fo r ex am p le, in fo rm e d R o m e ro B o sq u e th a t “we h av e d e c id e d to sa ck th e c u rre n t A l­ calde, D o n E m e trio T o rres, in th e n e x t e le c tio n . . . . W e ask th a t y o u c h a n g e th e C o m a n d a n te L o c a l . . . a n d th a t i f we c o n tin u e w ith th is in d i­ c a te d p la n in y o u r fav o r y o u se n d us a m ilita ry tr o o p o n th e d a y o f th e e le c tio n .”46 In A tiq u iz a y a (A h u a c h a p á n D e p a rtm e n t) , a lo cal g ro u p cre­ a te d th e P ío R o m e ro B o sq u e P a trio tic C lu b , a n d u n d e r its title , s u b m itte d to th e g o v e rn m e n t a slate o f c a n d id a te s fo r a p p ro v a l.47 A n o th e r le tte r a r­ riv ed fro m th e m u n ic ip a lity o f S an A g u stín (U s u lu tá n D e p a rtm e n t) in w h ic h th e a u th o r asks P ío R o m e ro to “a d ju st h is lis t” to in c lu d e th e ir d e ­ sired c a n d id a te s.48 A p o litic a l fa c tio n in th e m u n ic ip a lity o f Is h u a tá n (S o n so n a te D e p a rtm e n t) a p p e a le d to th e g o v e rn m e n t o n th e g ro u n d s th a t its m e m b e rs h a d b e e n re sp o n sib le fo r g e n e ra tin g v o te s fo r R o m e ro B o sq u e in th e p re sid e n tia l e le c tio n o f J a n u a ry 19 2 7 , w h erea s th e ir rivals h a d failed to even tu r n o u t to v o te .49 T h e list o f ex am p les goes o n .50 M a n y o f th e so lic ito rs d e m o n s tra te d a n im p re ssiv e c a p a c ity to c o u c h th e ir req u e sts in th e d e m o c ra c y -la d e n r h e to ric th a t th e y th o u g h t R o m e ro B o sq u e w a n te d to hear. A fa c tio n fro m S an P ed ro P u x tla (A h u a c h a p á n D e p a rtm e n t) su g g e ste d th a t sin c e “ev e ry o n e in th e v illag e” alre ad y s u p ­ p o r te d th e m , th e g o v e rn m e n t a c tu a lly w o u ld “c o m p ly w ith th e p rin c ip le o f free su ffrag e” b y m a k in g th e ir c a n d id a te s o fficial.51 R o m e ro B o sq u e h a d to c o n te n d w ith th is sk e w e d sen se o f d e m o c ra c y a m o n g b o th lo cal p o litic a l p lay ers a n d h ig h -ra n k in g m e m b e rs o f h is b u ­ reaucracy. A p rim e e x a m p le o f th e la tte r is H o ra c io V illa v ic en c io , g o v e rn o r o f S an V ic e n te a n d th e fo rm e r g o v e rn o r o f S an M ig u e l u n d e r Q u iñ ó n e z . In N o v e m b e r 1 9 2 7 h e s u b m itte d a re p o rt, a t R o m e ro B o s q u e ’s re q u e st, o n th e p o litic a l s itu a tio n in S an V ic e n te C ity . V illa v ic e n c io u se d th e r e p o r t as

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a n o p p o r tu n ity to d e m o n s tra te h is a b ility to p la y th e p o litic a l g a m e ac­ c o rd in g to h is in te r p re ta tio n o f R o m e ro B o s q u e ’s ru les. H e o p e n e d th e r e p o r t w ith a le n g th y d e n u n c ia tio n o f p a s t p o litic a l p ro c e d u re s: “T h e sys­ te m o f m a n a g in g th e m u n ic ip a litie s h as b e e n a disaster, fo r th e m , fo r th e G o v e rn m e n t, a n d fo r th e P re sid e n t. A lw ays h as b e e n e m p lo y e d th e w e a p o n o f in trig u e , c a u sin g th e d isg race o f th e villages; it is d iffic u lt to im a g in e th e la ck o f p ro g ress o f th e villages o w in g to th e fac t th a t th e y h av e b e e n r u n b y in c o m p e te n t p erso n s. . . . I h av e b e e n a w itn e ss to th is in S an M ig u e l.” H e th e n p ro fe ssed h is lo y a lty to R o m e ro : “ I a m a fa ith fu l a n d e n th u sia stic se rv a n t o f m y fa th e rla n d , a n d o f y o u , fo r y o u r elev a ted p o s itio n as Jefe o f th e N a tio n , a n d fo r y o u r p e rso n a l c h a ra c te r.” Finally, w h e n V illa v ic en c io g o t a r o u n d to d e s c rib in g p o litic s, h e in fo rm e d R o m e ro th a t th re e d iffe re n t fa c tio n s h a d e m e rg e d in S an V ic e n te C ity , a n d th a t o n e o f th e m sh o u ld receive th e g o v e rn m e n t’s s u p p o r t b ec au se its m e m b e rs “are frie n d s o f y o u r g o v e rn m e n t” a n d its p rin c ip a l le ad e rs “are p e rso n a l frie n d s o f y o u rs.”52 If R o m e ro B o sq u e w as g o in g to e n c o u ra g e d e m o c ra c y in S an V ic e n te , h e first w as g o in g to h av e to g e t h is g o v e rn o r to u n d e r s ta n d w h a t h e m e a n t b y it. In h is N o v e m b e r in te rv ie w w ith D iario Latino, M e n d o z a m e n tio n e d th e se p a rtis a n req u e sts fo r g o v e rn m e n t re c o g n itio n a n d assistance. H is i n ­ terv iew er w ro te th a t “th e M in is te r d e sc rib e d . . . so m e p e o p le w h o h av e ask ed th e M in is te r w h e n th e y c a n ex p e ct th e arriv al o f th e in s tru c tio n s , say in g th a t th e ‘b o y s’ [ muchachos ], th a t is to say th e se rv a n ts o f c e rta in i n ­ terests, are re a d y to o b e y th e G o v e r n m e n t’s o rd e rs.” M e n d o z a sa id th a t “ I hav e to ld th e m th a t n o in s tru c tio n s are c o m in g a n d th a t th is g o v e rn m e n t is g o in g to g u a ra n te e im p a rtia lity .”53 A s th e d ay fo r e le c tio n d re w near, p e rh a p s th e sin g le g re a te st p ro b le m fo r R o m e ro B o sq u e w as th e p le th o ra o f c a n d id a te s th a t c a m e fo rw a rd to c o m p e te in th e elec tio n s. T h e U .S. c h a rg é o b se rv e d th a t “in so m e d istric ts w h e re alcaldes are b e in g e le c te d th e re are as m a n y as five o r six c a n d id a te s, all o f w h o m are p re s u m e d to b e r u n n in g o n in d e p e n d e n t o r free tic k e ts.”54 U nless R o m e ro B o sq u e ’s b u re a u c ra c y h a d th e ca p a c ity to m o n ito r every m u n ic ip a l e le c tio n in th e n a tio n , w h ic h it d id n o t, th e lik e lih o o d o f v i­ o le n ce w as h ig h . I f th e p r io r e ig h t d ec ad e s o f e lec to ra l h is to ry p ro v id e d a n y h i n t as to w h a t w as fo rth c o m in g , it w as th a t v ario u s fa c tio n s w o u ld jo c k ey fo r p o s itio n a n d th e n , o n e le c tio n d a y o r th e e v e n in g b efo re, th e y

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w o u ld v io le n tly ru s h to g a in c o n tro l o f th e m u n ic ip a l h all. S u re ly m e m o ­ ries o f th e v io le n c e in 1918 w ere fre sh in R o m e ro B o sq u e ’s m in d . T h e fac t th a t th e M e lé n d e z -A b e rle -N o g u e ra c o u p o c c u rre d ju s t te n days p r io r to ele c tio n d ay f u rth e r e x a c e rb a te d th e p o ssib ility o f v io le n ce . R o m e ro B o sq u e re s p o n d e d to th is f o re b o d in g s itu a tio n w ith a n ex­ c e p tio n a lly p ra g m a tic a p p ro a c h . H e re c o g n iz e d th a t g e n u in e p o p u la r p a r ­ tic ip a tio n w as im p o ssib le , so h e se ttle d fo r a n a lte rn a tiv e o p tio n o f socalled c o n c ilia tio n c a n d id a te s. R o u g h ly tw o w eeks p rio r to th e e le c tio n , h e in s tru c te d th e g o v e rn o rs a n d c o m m a n d e rs o f th e d e p a rtm e n ts , as w ell as th e local c o m m a n d e rs , to in fo rm th e v a rio u s fa c tio n s in ea ch m u n ic ip a lity th a t n o n e o f th e m w o u ld b e allo w ed to w in th e e le c tio n . R a th e r, th e y h a d to c o m e u p w ith a slate o f c a n d id a te s ag reeab le to all. In h is N o v e m b e r in terv iew , M e n d o z a sa id th a t “w e are s tu d y in g th e p o ssib ility o f fin d in g c o n c ilia tio n ca n d id a te s; th is is m e d ia tio n , n o t in te r v e n tio n .”55 T h e g o v er­ n o r o f U s u lu tá n re p o r te d o n h is p ro g ress. H e w as h a v in g success in m o s t o f th e d e p a r tm e n ts m u n ic ip a litie s, b u t in Jiq u ilisc o th e c a n d id a te s w ere b e in g o b stin a te . H e w ro te , “Y esterday I in te rv ie w e d E u g e n io F lores, F ab io G u e rre ro , a n d F ed eric o C a stro , th e th re e c a n d id a te s fo r A lc a ld e in th e m u n ic ip a lity o f Jiq u ilisc o , a n d I trie d to e n c o u ra g e th e m to c o m e to an a g re e m e n t in th e w a y o f c o n c ilia tio n in o rd e r to a v o id th e co n se q u e n c e s o f a b a ttle b e tw e e n th e th re e p a rtie s, b u t it h as n o t b e e n p o ssib le y e t.”56 N e w s p a p e r re p o rts c o m m e n te d p ro d ig io u s ly o n th e p ro ce ss o f “c o n ­ c ilia tio n ,” as it ca m e to b e k n o w n . “M o tiv a te d b y th e d e m a n d s o f th e g o v e rn o r’s office to fo rm a fu sio n o f c a n d id a te s,” rea d s o n e o f th e re p o rts fro m C h a lc h u a p a (A h u a c h a p á n D e p a rtm e n t) , “w e h av e le a rn e d th a t d o n José M a ría E sca n cilla is p re p a re d to u n ite , a n d o th e rs are p re p a re d to d o so as w ell.”57 In a ta p e d in te rv ie w (a v e ry ra re h isto ric a l so u rc e in El S alv ad o r) fro m s o m e tim e in th e 1960s, G e n e ra l A n to n io C la r a m o u n t L u c e ro recalls th e ele c tio n o f 1927. H e w as th e n se rv in g as d e p a rtm e n ta l c o m m a n d e r in U s u lu tá n , a n d h e rec alle d g a th e rin g c a n d id a te s to g e th e r to g e t th e m to se ttle o n c o m p ro m is e c a n d id a te s. H e sa id th a t th e pro cess w as re a so n a b ly successful in p re v e n tin g a b re a k d o w n in so cial o rd er; d u r in g th e elec tio n s, h e recalled, o n ly tw o p e o p le d ie d a n d te n w ere w o u n d e d th r o u g h o u t th e d e p a rtm e n t, w h erea s in th e p ast, u n d e r su c h c irc u m sta n c e s d o ze n s o f p e o p le w ere k ille d .58 E v en H o ra c io V illa v ic en c io o f S an V ic e n te g o t in o n th e process. In o n e r e p o rt h e w ro te , “I u n d e r s ta n d y o u r circu lar. I a m

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e n d e a v o rin g to m e e t w ith th e d iv erse g ro u p s th a t h av e p u t f o rth c a n d i­ d ates. . . . I w ill r e p o rt as s o o n as p o ssib le as to th e p ro g re ss . . . o f fo rm in g a sin g le slate o f c a n d id a te s.”59 In th o se m u n ic ip a litie s w h e re c o n c ilia tio n w as ac h iev ed , c a n d id a te s w o n th e ir elec tio n s b y u n a n im ity . “T o d a y a t 1 2 :0 0 ,” r e p o rte d th e d ire c to r o f p o lic e fro m A tiq u iz a y a , “th e D ire c to rio h a n d e d over to th e M u n ic i­ p a lity 4 2 ta lly sh e ets [pliegos] c o n ta in in g 1 3 4 2 u n a n im o u s v o tes . . . h a v in g b e e n elec ted th e slate o f c a n d id a te s th a t I h a d r e p o rte d to y o u p rev iously.”60 S u c h elec tio n s h a rd ly reflec te d p o p u la r suffrage, b u t th e y w ere g en e rally p ea ce fu l a n d th e y re p re se n te d th e first ste p o n R o m e ro ’s d ifficu lt ro a d to re fo rm . In th o se m u n ic ip a litie s w h e re g o v e rn m e n t a u th o ritie s failed to achieve c o n c ilia tio n , lo cal fac tio n s se ttle d th e ir d ifferen ces in a n y n u m b e r o f w ays. As G e n e ra l C la r a m o u n t L u ce ro n o te d above, so m e o f th e m re s o rte d to v io le n ce . In th e village o f S a n tia g o d e M a ría (U s u lu tá n D e p a rtm e n t) , th e tw o p o litic a l fa c tio n s c o n d u c te d tw o d is tin c t e le c tio n s.61

M e a s u rin g th e T ra n sitio n in 1 9 2 7

F ro m th e elec tio n s o f 1 9 2 7 w e h av e a c o m p le te list o f th e m u n ic ip a l offi­ cials fro m S an V ic e n te D e p a rtm e n t a n d a list o f th e alcaldes in A h u a c h a p á n D e p a rtm e n t. It is p o ssib le to c o m p a re th is d a ta w ith th e lists fro m 1 9 2 0 to 1925 to g ain a ro u g h id e a o f th e e x te n t to w h ic h th e R o m e ro re fo rm s sh ifte d p o litic a l o ffic e h o ld in g aw ay fro m th e P N D sta lw arts w h o h a d m o ­ n o p o liz e d it. I p o se d tw o q u e stio n s: F irst, d id th e m u n ic ip a l officials serve u n d e r a n y o f th e P N D a d m in is tra tio n s th a t ca m e to p o w e r b e tw e e n 1920 a n d 1925? S eco n d , d id a n y p e o p le b e a rin g th e sa m e s u rn a m e serve in a n y o f th o se a d m in istra tio n s? T h e resu lts a p p e a r in th e a p p e n d ix in ta b le A 3. In S an V ic e n te D e p a rtm e n t, in n in e o f th e tw elve m u n ic ip a litie s at least o n e o f th e m u n ic ip a l officials e le c te d in 19 2 7 h a d se rv e d in a n a d ­ m in is tr a tio n u n d e r th e P N D . A n d in eleven o f th e tw elv e m u n ic ip a litie s a t least o n e p e rso n b e a rin g th e sa m e s u rn a m e h a d se rv e d in a P N D a d m in ­ is tra tio n . T h e resu lts fro m A h u a c h a p á n are sim ilar, a lth o u g h w ith o n ly th e n a m e s o f th e alcaldes, th e d a ta is less c o m p le te . (T a c u b a w as e x c lu d e d o n c e ag ain fo r rea so n s re la tin g to G e n e ra l R ivas, as d isc u sse d in th e p rio r ch a p te r.) O n ly o n e o f A h u a c h a p á n ’s elev en m u n ic ip a litie s h a d a n alcalde elec ted in 1 9 2 7 w h o h a d se rv e d in a P N D a d m in is tra tio n , a n d in five o u t

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o f th e eleven m u n ic ip a litie s p e o p le b e a rin g th e alca ld e’s sa m e s u rn a m e h a d serv ed u n d e r th e P N D . A s m e n tio n e d in th e last c h a p te r, th is d ata, esp ecially th e su rn a m e s, allow s fo r a n im p re c ise b u t n o n e th e le ss v alu a b le e x a m in a tio n o f p o litic a l c o n tin u itie s . T h e resu lts su g g e st th a t P ío R o m e ro B o sq u e h a d lim ite d su c ­ cess in effectin g a sh ift in p o litic a l p o w e r a t th e lo cal level. M e m b e rs o f local n e tw o rk s fo rm e rly affiliated w ith th e P N D re ta in e d th e ir h o ld o n pow er. H o w ev er, it is n o ta b le th a t so m e m u n ic ip a litie s e x p e rie n c e d a c o m ­ p le te b re a k w ith th e p ast, especially S an V ic e n te C ity , in w h ic h n o t o n e p e rso n , o r even o n e su rn a m e , c a rrie d over fro m th e a d m in is tra tio n s o f 1920 to 1925.

T h e O n g o in g P rocess: In v e stig a tio n s, E n listin g th e M ilita ry

D u r in g an in te rv ie w w ith a r e p o rte r fro m D iario del Salvador in Ju n e 1929, R o m e ro B o sq u e gave th is re sp o n se to a q u e s tio n a b o u t th e f o r th ­ c o m in g m u n ic ip a l e lec tio n s o f D e c e m b e r 1929: “D u r in g m y a d m in is tra ­ tio n th e re hav e b e e n tw o stages o f liberty, a n d in th is, th e la tte r o n e, th e S alv a d o ra n p o p u la c e is d e m o n s tra tin g its s p irit o f o rd e r a n d d isc ip lin e, as is ch a ra c te ristic o f c u ltu re d p e o p le .”62 T h is c o m m e n t su g g ests th a t R o m e ro B o sq u e saw h is re fo rm c a m p a ig n in tw o stages se p a ra te d b y th e tw o -y ea r g ap b e tw e e n th e e lec tio n s o f 1 9 2 7 a n d 19 2 9 . T h e first stag e c o n siste d o f h is b a ttle s w ith M e lé n d e z a n d Q u iñ ó n e z , a n d th e m u n ic ip a l e lec tio n s o f D e c e m b e r 1927. T h e se c o n d stag e e n c o m p a sse d th e flu rry o f elec tio n s b e g in n in g w ith th e m u n ic ip a l e lec tio n s o f 19 2 9 , w h ic h w ere fo llo w e d b y a n o th e r r o u n d o f m u n ic ip a l e lec tio n s ju s t o n e y ear la te r b ec au se in 1928 R o m e ro B o sq u e h a d re tu r n e d th e d u r a tio n o f m u n ic ip a l o ffic e h o ld in g to o n e year. T h e c u lm in a tin g m o m e n t w o u ld b e th e p re sid e n tia l e le c tio n in J a n u a ry 1931. B ro ad ly sp e ak in g , a p re v a ilin g fe a tu re o f R o m e ro ’s re fo rm m o v e m e n t w as its relian ce o n th e ex istin g legal fra m e w o rk . R o m e ro d id n o t pass n e w laws; rath e r, h e lo o k e d to en fo rc e th e c u rre n t law s in b o th le tte r a n d sp irit. H e s o u g h t to p u ll th e p o litic a l sy stem o u t o f th e m ire o f p e c u lia r in te r p re ­ ta tio n s a n d tra d itio n s th a t h a d le d it to o p e ra te a c c o rd in g to th e in fo rm a l g u id e lin e s. R o m e ro c o n s ta n tly p re s e n te d h is re fo rm s in th e c o n te x t o f th e ir legality. S e ld o m d id h e discuss h is v isio n o f a d e m o c ra tic El S alv ad o r

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w ith o u t re fe rrin g to “la Ley ” (th e law ). “C o m p le te lib e rty in sid e o f th e legal estab lish ed o rd e r,” h e s ta te d in th e J u n e 1929 in te rv ie w w h e n ask ed a b o u t h is v isio n o f th e fu tu re . “I w ill o p p o se p o litic a l h ie ra rc h y to th e g rea test e x te n t p o ssib le, b u t alw ays w ith in th e law .”63 T h is d e p e n d e n c e o n th e e x istin g legal sy stem m e a n t th a t R o m e ro B o s q u e h a d to c o n fro n t so m e lim ita tio n s to re fo rm . A m o n g o th e r th in g s, it m e a n t th a t v o tin g re m a in e d oral, w h ic h w as o n e to o l o f p o litic a l c o e r­ cio n . In 1930, o n e o f th e U .S. d ip lo m a ts in El S alvador, R a y m o n d Leslie B uell, o b se rv e d th a t “th e re is n o p ro v isio n fo r se cret b a llo t . . . a n d u n til a n e w electo ral la w . . . p ro v id e s fo r th e se cret b a llo t, th e re ca n b e n o g u a ra n te e o f a fair e le c tio n .”64 In terestin g ly , in A p ril a n d M a y 19 2 7 , th e R o m e ro g o v e rn m e n t trie d to revise th e c o n s titu tio n a n d even w e n t so far as to d ra ft p o rtio n s o f a n e w c h a rte r th a t called fo r th e se cret v o te .65 F or u n k n o w n reasons, th e re v isio n failed . B u t a t least th e a tte m p t m e a n t th a t so m e o f th e h ig h e s t-ra n k in g m e m b e rs in th e a d m in is tra tio n , m a y b e even R o m e ro B o sq u e h im self, re c o g n iz e d th e se rio u sn ess o f th e issue. In a n i n ­ te rv ie w in N o v e m b e r 1927, M in is te r o f G o v e rn m e n t M a n u e l M e n d o z a s ta te d th a t “o u r e lec to ra l law s n e e d re fo rm in g ; th e se cret v o te in sp ire s th e g rea test c o n fid e n c e in e lec to ra l acts.”66 S till, n o th in g c a m e o f it, a n d th e secret v o te w as n o t in sta lle d u n til 1950. N ev e rth ele ss, R o m e ro B o sq u e a n d h is associates w o rk e d d ilig e n tly to e n c o u ra g e so m e fo rm o f d e m o c ra tic p rac tice s. H is strateg y w as s tra ig h t­ fo rw ard . H e s u r ro u n d e d h im s e lf w ith a c o te rie o f loyal, lik e -m in d e d b u ­ re a u crats w h o u se d th e p o w ers o f th e sta te to en fo rc e th e e lec to ra l law s. O f th e se b u re a u c ra ts, by far th e m o s t in d u s trio u s a n d th e closest to R o m e ro B o sq u e w as M in is te r M e n d o z a . V irtu a lly every o rd e r re la tin g to p o litic a l o r electo ral affairs th a t e m e rg e d fro m S an S alv a d o r b e tw e e n 1 9 2 7 a n d 1931 ca m e fro m e ith e r R o m e ro B o sq u e ’s o r M e n d o z a ’s desk. T h e y w o rk e d lo n g h o u rs a n d p ro d u c e d a v o lu m in o u s a m o u n t o f p a p e rw o rk in th e p r o ­ cess. T h e g rea test w e a p o n a t th e ir d isp o sal w as th e d u a l pro cess o f in v e sti­ g a tio n a n d n u llific a tio n , w h ic h c re a te d th e ab ility to en fo rc e a n e w p o litic a l ag e n d a. B u t o f co u rse th is m e a n t th a t th e y h a d to in v e stig a te th e se e m ­ in g ly in fin ite n u m b e r o f d e n u n c ia tio n s a n d alleged m isd e e d s th a t e m e rg e d fro m a n y g iv en e le c tio n cycle, w h ic h re q u ire d e n o rm o u s a m o u n ts o f tim e , energy, a n d m a n p o w e r, m o re th a n R o m e ro B o sq u e a n d M e n d o z a h a d at th e ir disposal.

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E ac h in v e stig a tio n re q u ire d th a t a sta te official trav e l to th e resp ectiv e m u n ic ip a lity , ta k e te stim o n y , a n d a c c u m u la te ev id en c e o f alleg ed w ro n g ­ d o in g . U su ally th e in v e stig a to rs w ere th e d e p a rtm e n ta l g o v ern o r, th e d e p ­ u ty go v ern o r, th e d e p a rtm e n ta l c o m m a n d e r, o r a n o th e r p e rso n so m e h o w affiliated w ith th e m in is try o f g o v e rn m e n t. A fter e v id en c e w as co llec te d , th e case w e n t b e fo re th e d e p a rtm e n ta l g o v ern o r, w h o w as allo w ed to ru le o n cle a r-c u t cases. B u t in m o re c o m p lic a te d cases, o r i f th e g o v e rn o r’s d e c i­ sio n w as ch a lle n g e d , it w e n t to S a n S alv a d o r to b e rev ie w ed b y M e n d o z a o r R o m e ro B osq u e. W e can see fro m ta b le 6.1 th a t th e n u m b e r o f n u llific a tio n p ro c e e d ­ ings in c re a se d d ra m a tic a lly d u r in g th e R o m e ro B o sq u e era. T h e a n n u a l average n u m b e r o f n u llific a tio n p ro c e e d in g s b e tw e e n 1919 a n d 1923 w as less th a n n in e , w h erea s b e tw e e n 1 9 2 7 a n d 1 9 3 0 it w as m o re th a n th irty . A lso o f in te re s t is th e in c re a se d le n g th o f ea ch p ro c e e d in g . B e tw ee n 1918 a n d 1923, th e average n u m b e r o f pages o f ea ch in v e stig a tio n w as tw enty, w h ereas b e tw e e n 1 9 2 7 a n d 1930 it g re w to m o re th a n forty. T h e b u lk o f a n y g iv en in v e stig a tio n w as d e d ic a te d to te s tim o n y fro m w itn esses a n d p a rtic ip a n ts , so th is su rg e in p a p e rw o rk serves as a ro u g h in d ic a tio n th a t th e R o m e ro a d m in is tra tio n c o n d u c te d m o re th o r o u g h in v e stig a tio n s. In 1928, th e R o m e ro g o v e rn m e n t also in tr o d u c e d a n e w p ro ce ss o f electo ral in v e stig a tio n . In ste a d o f w a itin g u n til afte r th e e le c tio n , th e m i n ­ is try o f g o v e rn m e n t n o w c o n d u c te d in v e stig a tio n s p rio r to th e e le c tio n in h o p e s o f ad d re ssin g p ro b le m s b e fo re th e y c o u ld re su lt in m isd ee d s. B efore th e m u n ic ip a l e lec tio n s o f 19 2 9 , th e m in is try c o n d u c te d a n im p re ssiv e six ty -e ig h t o f th e se in q u irie s, m e a n in g th a t it in v e stig a te d a lm o st o n e th ir d o f all th e m u n ic ip a litie s in th e n a tio n d u r in g th is th r e e -m o n th sp a n . A n ­ o th e r fifty -e ig h t o f th e se in v e stig a tio n s w ere c a rrie d o u t p r io r to th e elec­ tio n s o f D e c e m b e r 1930. T h is m e a n t a n e n o rm o u s a m o u n t o f w o rk fo r M e n d o z a a n d h is assistan ts. In so m e o f th e in v e stig a tio n s, f ra u d a n d irre g u la ritie s w ere o b v io u s, a n d th u s a r u lin g w as easy. B u t in m o s t cases, cla rity p ro v e d elusive, a n d it w as w ith in th e c o n te x t o f th e se d iffic u lt in v e stig a tio n s th a t th e R o m e ro g o v e rn m e n t c o n fro n te d its e n e m y in all its g ra n d e u r. R o m e ro B o sq u e a n d M e n d o z a q u ic k ly d isc o v ered th a t in m o s t cases, n e ith e r th e g ro u p s u b m ittin g th e d e n u n c ia tio n n o r th e g ro u p b e in g d e n o u n c e d w as c o n ­ d u c tin g p o litic s a c c o rd in g to th e official ru les. In ste a d , all p a rtie s w ere

228 Table 6.1

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N ullification Proceedings C onducted by the M inisterio de

G obernación, 1913—1930 N um ber o f

Average N u m b e r o f

Year

Proceedings

Pages per Proceeding

1913 1914

2

n.a.

3

n.a.

1915 1916

2

n.a.

2

n.a.

1917 1918

2

n.a.

3

9

1919 1920

8

22

8

20

1921

9

13

1923

9

15

1925

1

10

1927

34

40

1929

40

46

1930

22

52

Source: N o te :

Records o f nullification co n tain ed in A G N , C N .

O n ly proceedings th a t were com plete were in cluded in the tabulation o f pages per

proceeding.

en g a g in g in so m e fo rm o f e lec to ra l m a n ip u la tio n a n d u sin g th e n u llific a ­ tio n p ro cess as a n excuse to in v ite a m o re p o w e rfu l ally to c o m e to th e ir rescue. R o m e ro B o sq u e a n d M e n d o z a o fte n fo u n d th e m se lv es in th e d if­ ficu lt p o s itio n o f n o t b e in g ab le to ru le in a n y o n e ’s favor, effectively s u r­ re n d e rin g th e e le c tio n to th e tra d itio n a l p rac tice s. In h is in te rv ie w in N o v e m b e r 1927, M e n d o z a c o m m e n te d ex ten siv ely o n th e d iffic u lty o f th e in v estig ativ e process.

It is difficult to guaran tee [the freedom o f th e vote] given th e m a n y p eti­ tions an d solicitudes th a t arrive o n m y desk. T h e sheets for a n d against a candidate are m o stly exaggerations o f eith er his virtues or his defects; nevertheless this is all p a rt o f th e process. I also am receiving co n stan t denu n ciatio n s against candidates w h o supposedly have ju d icial processes

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p en d in g against th e m , or for th e ir in v o lv em en t in vice or p ro stitu tio n . All o f these have to be stu d ied as well. . . . Particularly im p o rta n t are th e de­ n u n ciatio n s fro m sm all villages, w here this class o f civil struggle can p ro ­ voke g enu in e arm ed conflicts betw een th e p articip an ts.

M e n d o z a th e n d e sc rib e d so m e o f th e tr a d itio n a l tactics: “O n e w a y is to m o v e v o te rs fro m o n e p la c e to a n o th e r to v o te tw o o r th re e tim e s ac c o rd ­ in g to th e in te re sts o f th e p o w e rfu l in d iv id u a ls w h o se service th e y are u n d e r a n d w h o exercise c o n tro l over v a rio u s m u n ic ip a litie s . A n o th e r w ay is to in tr o d u c e c la n d e stin e ly fic titio u s lists o f v o te r re g istra n ts, p e rso n s w h o exist o n ly in th e m in d s o f th e p e rso n s w h o p u t th e list th e re .”67 A few ex am p les o f in v e stig a tio n s h ig h lig h t th e g e n e ra l p ro cess. T ake fo r in s ta n c e th e case o f Jiq u ilisc o ( U s u lu tá n D e p a r tm e n t) in th e ele c tio n o f D e c e m b e r 19 2 7 . S h o rtly afte r th e e le c tio n , a g ro u p o f p e o p le s u p p o r t­ in g th e c a n d id a c y o f G re g o rio C h á v e z fo r alcald e re q u e ste d n u llific a tio n o n th e g ro u n d s th a t th e in c u m b e n ts h a d in tim id a te d th e m w ith th re a ts o f vio len ce. C h á v e z p re s e n te d w itn e sses w h o c la im e d to h av e o v erh e ard m e m b e rs o f th e m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il te llin g h im th a t i f a n y o f h is s u p p o rte rs cam e to v o te “th e y w o u ld b e so rry .” T h e m e m b e rs o f th e e le c to ra l b o a rd o ffered a d iffe re n t story, c la im in g th a t it w as C h á v e z w h o th re a te n e d v i­ o lence. A c c o rd in g to th e m , in th e w eek s le a d in g u p to th e e le c tio n C h á v e z p u rc h a s e d all o f th e m a c h e te s fro m th e lo cal sto res to a rm h is su p p o rte rs. H e th e n sp re a d th e r u m o r th a t “b lo o d w o u ld flo w ” i f h is o p p o n e n t, G u e r ­ rero , w as elected . T h e m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il c o n s e q u e n tly o rd e re d th e local c o m m a n d e r to p a tro l th e stree ts to p ro te c t th e citizen ry , n o t to in tim id a te th e o p p o s itio n . I n resp o n se to th is ch a rg e a n d c o u n te rc h a rg e , th e d e p a rtm e n ta l g o v er­ n o r trav eled to Jiq u ilisc o to c o n d u c t a n in v e stig a tio n , o n e o f m a n y p r o ­ c e e d in g s im u lta n e o u s ly in h is d e p a rtm e n t. H e a c c u m u la te d a lm o st six ty pages o f te s tim o n y fro m lo cal citizen s a n d th e n r e tu r n e d to h is office in U s u lu tá n to m a k e a d ec isio n . A fte r tw o w eeks o f d e lib e ra tio n h e ru le d th a t G u e rre ro ’s e le c tio n s h o u ld b e n u llifie d , c itin g te s tim o n y fro m p e rso n s w h o c o rro b o ra te d C h á v e z s a c c o u n t. G u e rre ro a p p e a le d , so th e case w as s e n t to M e n d o z a in S an S alvador. T h e m in is te r re lu c ta n tly rev ersed th e g o v e rn o r’s d e c isio n b ecau se b o th sides h a d a n id e n tic a l n u m b e r o f eq u a lly reliab le w itnesses, w h ic h p re c lu d e d a d e fin itiv e re s o lu tio n .68

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T h e case fro m Jiq u ilisc o p ro v id e s a n e x a m p le o f th e m o s t fre q u e n t p ro b le m th a t R o m e ro B o sq u e a n d M e n d o z a fac ed in th e in v e stig a tiv e p r o ­ cess: exactly c o n tra ry a c c o u n ts b ased o n a sim ila r n u m b e r o f w itn esses w h o a p p e a re d to b e eq u a lly reliab le. C o n f r o n te d w ith th is d ile m m a , a n d o v e rw h e lm e d b y th e n u m b e r o f cases in th e ir d o ck e ts, g o v e rn o rs o fte n b ased th e ir d ecisio n s o n se e m in g ly b iz a rre o r d is c rim in a to ry fo u n d a tio n s . I n resp o n se to a n u llific a tio n re q u e st fro m th e m u n ic ip a lity o f N a h u iz a lc o (S o n s o n a te D e p a rtm e n t) , fo r in sta n c e , th e g o v e rn o r ru le d in fav o r o f o n e sid e sim p ly b ecau se it p re s e n te d m o re w itn e sses.69 In a n o th e r case fro m A tac o (A h u a c h a p á n D e p a rtm e n t) , th e g o v e rn o r ru le d a g a in st o n e sid e b e ­ cause its w itn esses w ere “fo r th e g re a te r p a r t illite ra te la b o re rs, w h ereas th o se fo r th e o th e r sid e are m o s tly a rtisa n s a n d a g ric u ltu rists, w h o fo r th e ir im p ro v e d social p o s itio n a n d e d u c a tio n h a v e a g re a te r sense o f th e ir re ­ sp o n sib ility in te stify in g .”70 T o rea ch a d e fin itiv e c o n c lu sio n in a n y o f th e se in v e stig a tio n s, th e g o v e rn m e n t n e e d e d a c o m b in a tio n o f p h y sic al ev id en c e, a c a p a b le in v e sti­ g a to r w h o c o u ld trip u p u n tr u th f u l w itn esses, a n d a larg e in v e s tm e n t in tim e a n d h u m a n reso u rces. A n e x a m p le o f a su ccessfu l case c o m es fro m S a n ta M a ria (U s u lu tá n D e p a rtm e n t) , w h e re th e g o v e rn o r fo u n d th a t tw o o f th e w itn esses fo r o n e sid e gave c o n flic tin g te stim o n ie s, p ro v in g th a t th e y h a d fa b ric a te d th e ir sto ries. B u t g e ttin g to th is p o in t re q u ire d d o zen s o f in te rv ie w s.71 In a n o th e r case, fro m th e m u n ic ip a lity o f T ec o lu ca (San V ic e n te D e p a rtm e n t) , th e g o v e rn o r d isc o v ered th a t o n e g ro u p h a d p a s te d th e n a m e s o f so m e o f its v o te rs in to th e re g istra tio n b o o k afte r th e ele c tio n h a d ta k e n p la c e .72 In th e se cases th e ev id en c e w as clear a n d th e ru lin g s w ere easy. A n o th e r case fro m Jiq u ilisc o illu stra te s th e g o v e rn m e n t’s e n o rm o u s c o m m itm e n t o f tim e a n d reso u rce s to e n s u rin g so m e d eg ree o f lo n g -te rm sta b ility in a m u n ic ip a lity . A fte r th e c o n flic t in th e 1 9 2 7 e le c tio n , p a rtisa n d ifferences re m a in e d in te n s e a n d flared u p as th e e le c tio n o f 1929 a p ­ p ro a c h e d . T h e m in is try o f g o v e rn m e n t la u n c h e d tw o p re -e le c to ra l i n ­ v estig a tio n s in th e m u n ic ip a lity in re sp o n se to a c c u sa tio n s o f w ro n g d o in g . T h is , how ever, w as n o t e n o u g h to p re v e n t o n e sid e fro m s u b m ittin g a n u llific a tio n re q u e st afte r th e e le c tio n . T h e g o v e rn m e n t th e n la u n c h e d a n ­ o th e r in v e stig a tio n th a t d ra g g e d o n fo r six m o n th s a n d re su lte d in th e n u llific a tio n o f th e e le c tio n . A s u p p le m e n ta l e le c tio n s c h e d u le d fo r J u n e 1 9 3 0 in c ite d still m o re a lleg a tio n s o f m isd ee d s, b r in g in g y e t a n o th e r gov-

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e r n m e n t in v e stig a tio n . T h is tim e b o th P ío R o m e ro B o sq u e a n d M a n u e l M e n d o z a g o t in v o lv e d . T h e y e x c h a n g e d d o ze n s o f le tte rs a n d te leg ram s w ith p e o p le in Jiq u ilisc o in h o p e s o f se ttlin g th e m y ria d d isp u te s. T h e J u n e e le c tio n fin ally satisfied all sides, a n d n o m o re d e n u n c ia tio n s arriv ed fro m th e village u n til th e n e x t e le c tio n , ju s t six m o n th s la te r.73 T h e case offers s o m e th in g o f a success s to ry in th a t a t o n e p o in t all sides fin ally ac­ c e p te d th e resu lts o f a n e le c tio n . B u t g e ttin g to th a t p o in t re q u ire d n o less th a n five g o v e rn m e n t in v e stig a tio n s a n d th e p e rso n a l in v o lv e m e n t o f th e p re sid e n t. A n d Jiq u ilisc o w as ju s t o n e v illage in a n a tio n o f m o re th a n tw o h u n d r e d a n d fo rty m u n ic ip a litie s. T h e p ro ce ss o f b u ild in g su sta in a b le d e m o c ra tic in s titu tio n s w as in d e e d lo n g a n d d ifficu lt. L ocal p a rtisa n s w h o sim p ly re fu se d to a b id e b y th e g o v e rn m e n ts r u l­ ings raise d th e sp e c te r o f v io le n ce . I n th e m u n ic ip a lity o f S a n M ig u e l de M e rc ed e s (C h a la te n a n g o D e p a rtm e n t) , fo r in sta n c e , th e g o v e rn m e n t n u l­ lified th e 1929 e le c tio n o f A n a sta c io H e r n á n d e z as alcald e. T h e p a s t m u ­ n ic ip a l c o u n c il w as to re m a in in office u n til a s u p p le m e n ta l e le c tio n c o u ld b e h e ld a t th e e n d o f Ja n u ary . B u t w h e n th e fo rm e r c o u n c il m e m b e rs a t­ te m p te d to r e tu r n to th e ir offices o n th e m o r n in g o f J a n u a ry 1, th e y w ere c o n fro n te d b y H e rn á n d e z a n d a p p ro x im a te ly e ig h ty o f h is fo llo w ers a rm e d w ith s h o tg u n s a n d m a c h e te s. F o u r p e o p le w ere k ille d a n d tw o m o re w ere w o u n d e d in th e e n s u in g v io le n c e b e fo re a g ro u p o f so ld iers a n d g u a rd s­ m e n a rriv ed fro m C h a la te n a n g o C ity .74 T h is case fro m S a n M ig u e l d e M e rc e d e s su g g ests th e im p o r ta n t ro le th a t th e m ilita ry p la y e d in th e R o m e ro refo rm s. L ik e h is pred ecesso rs, R o m e ro B o sq u e u ltim a te ly tu r n e d to th e m ilita ry to c o n tro l b e llig e re n t local bosses. H is m o tiv e s w ere d iffe re n t; h e w as u sin g th e m ilita ry to d e ­ fe n d electo ral lib e rtie s ra th e r th a n to im p o s e p o litic a l a p p o in te e s, b u t th e p rin c ip le re m a in e d th e sa m e. V io le n t o p p o s itio n b y lo cal s tro n g m e n w as m e t w ith m ilita ry fo rce. T h u s , a cru c ia l a sp ec t o f th e re fo rm p ro g ra m w as R o m e ro B o sq u e ’s a b ility to e n list th e s u p p o r t o f th e m ilita ry .

P ío R o m e ro B o sq u e a n d th e M ilita ry

R o m e ro B o sq u e h a d d ev e lo p e d a so lid w o rk in g re la tio n sh ip w ith m a n y h ig h -ra n k in g m ilita ry officers d u r in g h is e ig h t-y e a r te n u re as m in is te r o f w a r (1 9 1 9 —1 9 2 7 ), even th o u g h h e se rv e d u n d e r P re sid e n ts M e lé n d e z a n d

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Q u iñ ó n e z , w h o h a d a n a n ta g o n is tic re la tio n sh ip w ith so m e secto rs o f th e m ilitary . In 1925, th e U .S. ch a rg é sa id th a t h e b eliev e d th a t th e m ilita ry officers’ co n flicts w ith Q u iñ ó n e z a n d M e lé n d e z ac tu a lly h e lp e d R o m e ro B o sq u e, b ec au se th e y f o u n d h im to b e th e ir sole ally in g o v e rn m e n t: “D r. R o m e ro B o sq u e [is] s u p p o r te d b y n u m e ro u s a rm y officers,” c la im e d th e ch a rg é in 1925, “w h o , as th e D e p a r tm e n t h as p re v io u sly b e e n in fo rm e d , are a lm o st all h o stile in se cret to D r. Q u iñ ó n e z o n a c c o u n t o f th e c o n ­ te m p tu o u s w ay in w h ic h h e tre a te d th e m w h ile in office.”75 U .S. le g a tio n officers o p in e d th a t o n e o f R o m e ro B o sq u e ’s g rea te st assets u p o n e n te rin g office in 1927 w as h is g o o d s ta n d in g in th e m ilitary . “ H e [R o m e ro B osque] is u n q u e s tio n a b ly v e ry p o p u la r in th e A rm y ,” o b se rv e d th e ch a rg é in 1926, w h e n ru m o rs o f R o m e ro B o sq u e ’s c a n d id a c y b e g a n to c irc u la te .76 T h e sa m e ch a rg é n o te d afte r th e in a u g u ra tio n th a t “th e m ig h ty a rm y g ro u p . . . hav e b e e n closely asso cia te d w ith th e n e w P re sid e n t fo r so m e years, d u rin g h is te n u re as M in is te r o f W ar, a n d a p p a re n tly h av e b e e n le d to b eliev e th a t w ith h is in d u c tio n in to office th e y w o u ld b e ab le to re a p a m p le re w a rd fo r th e efficien t a n d e n th u s ia s tic s u p p o r t th e y gave h is c a n d id a c y fo r p re si­ d e n t. In fact, w ith o u t th e ir s u p p o r t it is ex tre m e ly d o u b tf u l th a t h e w o u ld ever hav e b e e n c o n s id e re d b y D r. Q u iñ ó n e z as h is su ccesso r.”77 In his m e m o ir, G e n e ra l P e ñ a T rejo c re d ite d R o m e ro B o sq u e w ith d o in g a g rea t d eal to e n h a n c e m ilita ry d isc ip lin e a n d tr a in in g d u r in g h is te n u re as m in ­ ister o f w a r a n d also n o te d th a t as p re sid e n t, R o m e ro B o sq u e rev e rse d th e p o licies o f h is p red e cesso rs b y p a y in g th e m ilita ry p r o m p tly a n d in fu ll.78 R o m e ro B o sq u e d e m o n s tra te d a g re a t c a p a c ity fo r flex ib ility in his re la tio n s w ith m ilita ry officers. H e p u n is h e d a n d th re a te n e d a t th e sa m e tim e th a t h e cajo le d a n d re w a rd e d . E x a m p le s o f th e fo rm e r in c lu d e h is w illin g n ess to ex e cu te tw o m ilita ry officers a n d arrest m a n y o th e rs fo r p a r ­ tic ip a tin g in th e a tte m p te d c o u p o f 19 2 7 . H e re w a rd e d C o lo n e l L eitzelar fo r h is lo y alty d u r in g th e re b e llio n b y p r o m o tin g h im to b rig a d ie r g en eral. W e also saw in 1928 R o m e ro B o sq u e ’s a b ility to ta k e a s tro n g v erb a l sta n ce w ith officers h e s u sp e c te d o f p lo ttin g a g a in st h im . B u t h e a c c e d e d to th e se sa m e officers b y a p p o in tin g a n a c tiv e -d u ty officer, G e n e ra l A n d ré s M e n é n dez, to serve as u n d e rse c re ta ry o f w ar. A sim ila r ac t o f ac q u ie sce n ce ca m e la te r in 19 2 8 , w h e n th e in v e sti­ g a tio n in to th e m u r d e r o f A lb e rto E sc a la n te im p lic a te d tw o h ig h -ra n k in g officers, in c lu d in g G e n e ra l C a lv o , th e fo rm e r d ire c to r o f th e G u a rd ia N a -

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cio n al. R o m e ro B o sq u e s u d d e n ly issu ed an u n c o n d itio n a l a m n e sty fo r b o th officers.79 In th e a fte rm a th o f th a t d ec isio n , R o m e ro B o sq u e m a y w ell hav e q u e s tio n e d h is s u p p o r t fo r fre e d o m o f th e press, b ec au se th e ire o f m a n y p e o p le over th e a m n e sty w as aire d o u t in th e n ew sp a p e rs. E s­ c a la n te ’s w id o w w ro te a le tte r th a t m a d e th e f ro n t p ag e o f D iario Latino. In it sh e c a stig a te d R o m e ro B o sq u e fo r im p e d in g th e in v e stig a tio n in to tw o p e rso n s w h o a p p e a re d to h av e b e e n in v o lv e d in th e m u r d e r o f h e r h u s b a n d .80 R o m e ro w ro te a w ea k ly w o rd e d re sp o n se in w h ic h h e sta te d th a t h e “alw ays trie d to d o h is b est a n d to d o ju stic e w h ile in office.”81 A b a rb e d e d ito ria l fro m E n riq u e C ó rd o v a re fe rre d to th e a m n e sty as b e in g “e n tire ly p o litic a lly m o tiv a te d .”82 In h is re la tio n s w ith th e m ilita ry R o m e ro B o sq u e e m p lo y e d a stra te g y o f d iv id e a n d ru le , ta k in g a d v a n ta g e o f th e d iv isio n b e tw e e n o ld e r officers w h o h a d a sce n d e d th r o u g h th e ra n k s a n d y o u n g e r u p sta rts w h o h a d g ra d u a te d fro m th e m ilita ry sc h o o l. H is n e w u n d e rs e c re ta ry o f w ar, M e n é n d e z , w as a classic ex a m p le . H e b e g a n h is career as a lo w ly p riv a te in 1889 a n d ste a d ily c lim b e d th e la d d e r to b e c o m e a co lo n e l in 1915 a n d fi­ n a lly a g en e ral in 1 9 2 0 .83 S o m e o th e r ex am p les o f o ld e r officers w h o w ere close to R o m e ro a n d s u p p o r te d h im w ere C o lo n e l S alv a d o r C a sta n e d a C a stro , g o v e rn o r o f C u sc a tlá n ; G e n e ra l M a x im ilia n o H e r n á n d e z M a r ­ tín ez, d ire c to r o f th e m ilita ry sc h o o l, w h ic h h a d b e e n re o p e n e d in J a n u a ry 1 9 2 7 u n d e r th e n e w n a m e o f E scu e la M ilita r; G e n e ra l A n to n io C la ra m o u n t L u cero , c o m m a n d e r o f U s u lu tá n ; G e n e ra l Jo sé T ra b a n in o , p re si­ d e n t o f th e C írc u lo M ilita r (th e o fficer’s clu b ); a n d G e n e ra l Jo sé T o m á s C a ld e ró n , th e c o m m a n d e r o f S an M ig u e l, w h o in 1 9 3 0 w o u ld b e ch a rg e d w ith assem b lin g th e g o v e rn m e n t’s p ro d e m o c ra c y b o o k le t, “ F ree S u ffrag e.” A c c o rd in g to c o m m e n ts fro m th e U .S. le g a tio n a n d fro m P ío R o m e ro B o s q u e h im se lf, th e p r e s id e n t u se d m ilita ry p r o m o tio n s a n d a p p o i n t­ m e n ts to k ee p officers in ch e ck . “ H e h as c h a n g e d several m ilita ry c o m ­ m a n d e rs s u s p e c te d o f e n g a g in g in su c h [p o litical] a c tiv itie s,” n o te d th e U .S. ch arg é in A p ril 1930. “ In th e m a tte r o f A rm y p r o m o tio n s ,” th e ch arg é la te r sta te d , “h e [R o m e ro B osque] h as a d v a n c e d th o se , p re su m a b ly , w h o w ill b e s t serve h im . T h e n o m in a tio n s are sa id to h av e b e e n m a d e in d iv id u ­ ally a n d , after h a v in g b e e n c o n firm e d b y th e A ssem bly, are re ta in e d b y th e P re sid e n t fo r s ig n a tu re u n til h e sees fit to release th e m , so h o ld in g th e a d ­ v a n c e m e n ts in h is o w n h a n d .”84 In a 1 9 3 4 in te rv ie w , R o m e ro B o sq u e

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lo o k e d b a c k u p o n h is re la tio n s w ith th e m ilita ry a n d said, “as y o u know , m y success in k e e p in g th e c o u n try a t p ea ce fo r fo u r years w as larg e ly d u e to th e fact th a t I n e v e r allo w ed a n y o f th e G e n e ra ls to o m u c h fo re g ro u n d , n ev e r tr u s te d a sin g le o n e o f th e m , a n d c o n s ta n tly sh ifte d th e m fro m o n e p o s t to a n o th e r.”85 U n fo rtu n a te ly , th e d o c u m e n ta ry re c o rd d o es n o t reveal w h ic h c o m m a n d e rs w ere c h a n g e d , w h e n th e y w ere c h a n g e d , o r fo r w h a t rea so n s.86 R o m e ro B o sq u e ’s c a lc u la te d d ea lin g s w ith th e m ilita ry p a id o ff w h e n h e n e e d e d s u p p o r t fo r h is refo rm s. G e n e ra l T ra b a n in o d eliv ered a sp e ec h in S e p te m b e r 1929, o n th e o c c a sio n o f b e c o m in g th e d ire c to r o f th e C ír ­ cu lo M ilita r, in w h ic h h e first d e n o u n c e d p a s t m ilita ry in te rv e n tio n s in p o litic s a n d th e n d e c la re d th e m ilita ry ’s s u p p o r t fo r R o m e ro B o sq u e: “In th e p a st . . . th e A rm e d F o rces h av e n o t g u a ra n te e d th e free exercise o f th e rig h ts o f th e citizenry, b u t h av e v io la te d th e C o n s titu tio n a l lib e rtie s. B u t if to err is h u m a n , so to o is it h u m a n to forgive. I f o u r b la m e is large, so to o s h o u ld b e o u r a m e n d s. A n d it is in th is m o m e n t, in w h ic h o u r G o v e rn ­ m e n t h as p ro m is e d to re sp e c t th e lib e rtie s b e sto w e d b y th e M a g n a C a rta , th a t th e a rm y w ill fulfill its m issio n b y re c o g n iz in g th e se w o rd s .”87 T rab a n in o ’s sp e ec h p a v e d th e w a y fo r a n even m o re su b sta n tiv e d e c la ra tio n o f s u p p o r t fro m th e m ilita ry . In N o v e m b e r 1930, o n th e eve o f th e 1930 m u n ic ip a l elec tio n s a n d th e 1931 p re sid e n tia l e le c tio n , th e m ilita ry issu ed a m a n ife sto to th e n a tio n sig n e d b y m o re th a n six h u n d r e d officers, essen ­ tia lly every officer ab o v e th e r a n k o f se rg e an t. T h e sig n a to rie s c la im e d th a t th e m a n ife sto w as th e first tim e in h is to ry th a t th e a rm e d forces h a d a d ­ d ressed th em selv es d ire c tly to th e p e o p le o f E l S alv a d o r a n d th a t th e im ­ p o rta n c e o f th e c o m in g e lec tio n s m e rite d su c h a g ro u n d b re a k in g ev en t. T h e m a n ife sto d e c la re d th e m ilita ry ’s s u p p o r t fo r R o m e ro B o sq u e ’s p o li­ cies in th e fo rth c o m in g elec tio n s, a n d it d e liv e re d a p ro m ise th a t th e m ili­ ta ry w o u ld n o t s u p p o r t p a rtic u la r c a n d id a te s a n d in s te a d w o u ld d e fe n d c o n s titu tio n a l lib e rtie s .88 T h e fo llo w in g d a y th e n a tio n a l p o lic e issu ed a sim ila r d e c la ra tio n .89 P ro c la m a tio n s su c h as th e se d o n o t n ecessarily tr a n s ­ la te in to rea lity o n th e g ro u n d , as lo w -ra n k in g officers ca n m a n ip u la te o r­ ders to th e ir lik in g a n d h ig h -ra n k in g officers c a n h a r b o r u lte rio r m o tiv es. B u t c e rta in ly th e p ro c la m a tio n s w ere u n p re c e d e n te d , a n d th e y su g g est th a t R o m e ro B o sq u e h a d g a in e d so m e d eg re e o f m ilita ry s u p p o rt. T h e m ilita ry w o u ld p ro v e to b e a v alu a b le asset in th e elec tio n s, especially in

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th e p re sid e n tia l e le c tio n o f 19 3 1 . R o m e ro B o sq u e u se d a rm e d u n its to m a in ta in order, th e re b y c re a tin g a sta b le e n v iro n m e n t in w h ic h h is offi­ cials w ere b e tte r ab le to m o n ito r e lec to ra l p ro c e d u re s.

E le ctio n s, 1 9 2 9 -1 9 3 1

R o m e ro B o sq u e ’s p ra g m a tis m seem s to h av e b e e n in p la y d u r in g th e elec­ tio n s fo r d e p u tie s to th e N a tio n a l A sse m b ly in J a n u a ry 1928. It a p p e ars h e sacrificed a n y p re te n se o f d e m o c ra c y in th o se elec tio n s, h o p in g to fo cu s o n th e n e x t r o u n d o f m u n ic ip a l elec tio n s. T h e archives in El S alv a d o r c o n ta in v ery little in f o rm a tio n o n 1928 d e p u ty e lec tio n s, a n d press coverage w as eq u a lly th in . A c c o rd in g to re p o rts fro m th e U .S. le g a tio n , R o m e ro B o sq u e w ith h e ld th e p re te n se o f d e m o c ra c y in b o th th is e le c tio n a n d th e fo llo w ­ in g d e p u ty elec tio n s in Ja n u a ry 19 2 9 . W i th re g a rd to th e e lec tio n s o f 1928, th e U .S. c h a rg é w ro te th a t “It m a y b e o f in te re s t to th e D e p a rtm e n t to k n o w th a t th e [d ep u ty ] e le c tio n s p a sse d o ff in a v e ry tr a n q u il m a n n e r. A s a m a tte r o f fa c t th e y w ere an a b s o lu te farce, all th e c a n d id a te s elec ted in ac c o rd a n c e w ith th e w ish es o f th e p re s e n t G o v e rn m e n t.”90 T h e elec tio n s o f J a n u a ry 1929 elic ite d th e fo llo w in g c o m m e n t in a n e d ito ria l in th e n e w sp a p e r E lD ia : “Year b y year El S alv a d o r h as w h a t is called th e ele c tio n o f d e p u tie s . T h e c u s to m is o ld . A n d ju s t as o ld as th is s im u la tio n o f elec­ tio n s is th e c u s to m o f c ritic iz in g th e G o v e rn m e n t fo r th e sy stem fo r w h ic h w e are all to b la m e .”91 A p p a re n tly b o th e lec tio n s w ere c a rrie d o u t in th e tra d itio n a l m a n n e r: th e g o v e rn m e n t se lec ted a set o f c a n d id a te s afte r n e g o ­ tia tin g w ith lo cal elites. It is n o t clear w h y R o m e ro B o sq u e h e ld o u t th is d o u b le s ta n d a rd fo r m u n ic ip a l a n d d e p u ty e lec tio n s. O n e p o ssib ility is th a t h e d id n o t w a n t to p la ce th e p o w e r o f im p e a c h m e n t in th e h a n d s o f p o te n tia l en em ies. F o r th e elec to ra l sp a n s ta rtin g w ith th e m u n ic ip a l e lec tio n s o f D e c e m ­ b e r 1929 a n d e n d in g w ith th e p re sid e n tia l e le c tio n o f 19 3 1 , how ever, R o m e ro B o sq u e e m p lo y e d n e w strateg ies a n d s o u g h t to in sta ll g e n u in e d e m o c ra tic p ro c e d u re s. P rin c ip a l a m o n g th e se p ro c e d u re s w as m ix e d elec­ to ra l b o a rd s. T h e tra d itio n a l m e th o d o f ele c tin g th e b o a rd fro m th e m u ­ n ic ip a lity a t larg e o n th e m o r n in g o f th e e le c tio n w as ta n ta m o u n t to allo w in g th e d o m in a n t fa c tio n to m o n o p o liz e it. R o m e ro B o sq u e b eliev e d

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th a t th is sy stem c o u ld b e im p ro v e d i f at le ast o n e re p re se n ta tiv e fro m each p o litic a l fa c tio n sa t o n th e b o a rd . S ta rtin g w ith th e e le c tio n o f D e c e m b e r 1929, h e o rd e re d h is d e p a rtm e n ta l g o v e rn o rs a n d c o m m a n d e rs to as­ se m b le lists o f th e re g iste re d c a n d id a te s in ea ch m u n ic ip a lity a n d th e n , o n e w eek p r io r to th e e le c tio n , g a th e r th e se c a n d id a te s to d e c id e u p o n th e electo ral b o a rd .92 O n e m a jo r ro a d b lo c k to th is pro cess w as fa c tio n s th a t refu sed to p a rtic ip a te in th e p ro cess. A te le g ra m fro m th e g o v e rn o r o f S o n so n a te re p o rte d th a t in six o f th e d e p a r tm e n t’s f o u rte e n m u n ic ip a litie s at least o n e fa c tio n h a d re fu se d to p a rtic ip a te . I n m o s t cases, th e re lu c ta n t g ro u p s w ere th e d o m in a n t o n es th a t h a d th e m o s t to lo se b y s h a rin g seats o n th e b o ard s. T h e p ro b le m u su a lly w as re c tifie d w h e n th e g o v e rn m e n t to ld th e m th a t i f th e y d id n o t p a rtic ip a te , th e y w o u ld b e e x c lu d e d fro m th e ele c tio n a lto g e th e r.93 A v a ria tio n o n th e m ix e d e lec to ra l b o a rd s w as se p a ra te b o a rd s. In ste a d o f o n e p o llin g s ta tio n w ith re p re se n ta tiv e s fro m ea ch fa c tio n , a d is tin c t b o a rd w as cre ate d fo r ea ch p a r ty a n d a c c e p te d v o tes o n ly fro m its o w n s u p p o rte rs. O th e r p a rtie s w ere allo w ed to p o s t o n e o r tw o o b serv ers a r o u n d th e tab les o f th e ir c o m p e tito rs to w a tc h fo r irre g u la ritie s. U su ally th is ta c tic w as a p p lie d in la rg e r m u n ic ip a litie s w h e re m a n y p e o p le v o te d a n d th e p o te n tia l fo r clashes b e tw e e n rivals s ta n d in g in th e sa m e lin e w as m u c h g reater. T h e p ra c tic e w as u se d w id e ly d u r in g th e p re sid e n tia l elec­ tio n o f 1 9 3 1 .94 In S an S alvador, fo r in sta n c e , th e m in is try o f g o v e rn m e n t d re w u p a d e ta ile d m a p o f th e city w ith ex act lo c a tio n s fo r ea ch p a r ty ’s p o llin g s ta tio n .95 T h e g o v e rn m e n t also s o u g h t to in c re ase its p re se n c e in o u tly in g m u ­ n ic ip alitie s d u r in g e lec tio n s. T h is c a m e in th e fo rm o f o b se rv a tio n team s, u su a lly m ilita ry u n its . “T h e c o u n try w ill b e a n a rm e d c a m p ,” p re d ic te d th e U .S. ch a rg é o n th e eve o f th e m u n ic ip a l e lec tio n s o f 1 9 2 9 .96 G e n e ra l P eñ a T rejo c la im e d in h is m e m o ir th a t “ P ío R o m e ro B o sq u e o rd e re d m a n y officers o f th e a rm y to pass th r o u g h th e p rin c ip a l p o p u la tio n s o f th e re ­ p u b lic in th e ca p a c ity o f o b serv ers a n d c o o rd in a to rs . . . a n d in th e e v e n t o f electo ral d istu rb a n c e s to m a in ta in o rd e r a n d g u a ra n te e fre e d o m o f su f­ frag e.” P eñ a T rejo also id e n tifie d h im s e lf as b e in g o n e o f th e seven a rm y officers to sta ff th e office o f g en e ral in s p e c to r o f th e arm y, w h ic h w as ch a rg e d w ith ov erse ein g th e m ilita ry ’s e lec to ra l o b se rv a tio n te a m s .97 A n ­ o th e r ta c tic to in c re ase th e g o v e rn m e n t’s p re se n c e in th e m u n ic ip a litie s

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w as e m p lo y e d o n th e eve o f th e p re sid e n tia l ele c tio n o f 19 3 1 . D e p a r tm e n ­ tal g o v ern o rs g a th e re d to g e th e r p a rty re p re se n ta tiv e s fro m ea ch o f th e m u n ic ip a litie s a n d e n d e a v o re d to in still in th e m a n u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e g o v e rn m e n t’s in siste n c e th a t e lec to ra l ru les b e o b e y e d .98 T h e g o v e rn m e n t also lo o k e d to e stab lish m o re d ire c t c o n ta c t b e tw e e n th e local a n d n a tio n a l levels. T h is pro cess u su a lly w as c o n d u c te d fro m th e offices o f P ío R o m e ro B o sq u e a n d M a n u e l M e n d o z a . F o r h is p a rt, R o m e ro B o sq u e issu ed e x p lic it d e c la ra tio n s o f h is a n d h is g o v e rn m e n t’s in te n tio n s fo r th e electio n s. “ T h e e lec tio n s w ill b e free,” d e c la re d th e D iario O ficial in Ju ly 1929 in referen c e to fo rth c o m in g e le c tio n s.99 In th e sa m e m o n th R o m e ro B o sq u e w ro te in re g a rd to th e p re sid e n tia l ele c tio n s o f 1931 th a t “th e S alv a d o ra n p e o p le w ill select freely th e ir f u tu re P re sid e n t w ith o u t re c ­ o m m e n d a tio n o f im p o s itio n o f a n y k in d .”100 In N o v e m b e r 1929, R o m e ro B o sq u e s e n t a d e c la ra tio n to ev ery m u n ic ip a lity in th e n a tio n , in fo rm in g th e m th a t “th e G o v e rn m e n t h as n o official c a n d id a te s in a n y p a r t o f th e c o u n try a n d is firm ly c o m m itte d to g u a ra n te e in g th e rig h t o f free su f­ frag e.”101 In A p ril 1930, R o m e ro B o sq u e w ro te a d e ta ile d six -p ag e m e m o a b o u t h is in te n tio n s fo r th e f u tu re p re sid e n tia l e le c tio n . T h e m e m o w as d is trib u te d th r o u g h o u t all levels o f th e sta te b u rea u cracy , a n d it is s u m ­ m a riz e d in o n e se n te n c e : “I m a k e th is fo rm a l call to o u r p a trio tis m th a t in th is n e x t ste p to resolve th e p o litic a l p ro b le m o f th e p re sid e n tia l su cces­ sio n , th a t w e b e re a d y to s u p p o rt, in a n y w ay p o ssib le, th e fo rm th a t th is p ro cess takes, as a re fle c tio n o f o u r p ru d e n c e a n d a c o n firm a tio n o f o u r p re p a ra tio n fo r a d e m o c ra tic life.”102 M e n d o z a o v ersaw m u c h o f th e d a y -to -d a y c o rre sp o n d e n c e w ith th e m u n ic ip a litie s. H is le tte rs a n d te leg ram s to a n d fro m th e c o u n try s id e re ­ veal th a t m a n y lo cal fa c tio n s still d id n o t u n d e rs ta n d , h a d n o t h e a rd a b o u t, o r ch o se to ig n o re th e refo rm s. A p o litic a l a s p ira n t in S an V ic e n te C ity, fo r in sta n c e , w ro te to P ío R o m e ro B o sq u e in M a rc h 1930 re q u e s tin g s u p ­ p o r t fo r h is p o litic a l fa c tio n . H e p re fa c e d h is re q u e st b y p o in tin g o u t th a t “I h av e b e e n y o u r u n c o n d itio n a l s u p p o rte r sin c e b e fo re th e S a lv a d o ra n p e o p le ch o se y o u to d ire c t th e d e s tin y o f th e n a tio n , a n d w h e n in 1926 th e y c o n d u c te d th e e le c tio n , I, fu ll o f e n th u sia sm , b r o u g h t o u t 6 0 0 v o tes in th is city; I w as jo in e d b y G e n e ra l d o n T e o d o r A vila, w h o a t th a t tim e w as C o m a n d a n te o f th is D e p a rtm e n t.”103 I f n o th in g else, th a t le tte r is a rev ealin g te s tim o n y to th e tra d itio n a l m a n n e r in w h ic h p a s t e lec tio n s h a d

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b e e n c o n d u c te d . A sim ila r le tte r a rriv e d fro m th e v illage o f P a n c h im a lc o (S an S alv ad o r D e p a rtm e n t) . T h e m in is try o f g o v e rn m e n t h a d s e n t a te le ­ g ra m to th e village re q u e s tin g th a t a list o f th e c a n d id a te s fo r th e f o rth ­ c o m in g m u n ic ip a l e lec tio n s b e s u b m itte d so th a t m ix e d e lec to ra l b o a rd s c o u ld b e fo rm e d . T h e a u th o r to o k th e te le g ra m as a n o p p o r tu n ity to re c ­ o m m e n d official c a n d id a te s, a n d in s te a d o f s u b m ittin g lists o f th e v ario u s c a n d id a te s, h e s u b m itte d to M e n d o z a “th e fo llo w in g n a m e s o f p e rso n s w o rth y o f fu lfillin g th e p o s itio n o f m u n ic ip a l a u th o ritie s ” a n d th e n w ro te th a t “w e ask th a t w ith y o u r a u th o rity y o u give th e m th e h e lp th a t th e y d eserve.”104 T o th is re q u e st, a n d m a n y o th e rs lik e it, M e n d o z a re sp o n d e d , “I n reg a rd to y o u r te le g ra m r e c o m m e n d in g sp ecific citizen s as c a n d id a te s in th e c o m in g te rm . . . I say to y o u th a t n o t in th is p o p u la tio n , o r in a n y o th e r p o p u la tio n in th e R e p u b lic h av e I g iv en su c h o rd ers o r r e c o m m e n ­ d a tio n s o f th is m a n n e r.” 105 F ro m th e m u n ic ip a l e lec tio n s o f D e c e m b e r 1929 w e h av e a c o m p le te re c o rd o f th e officials elec ted in A h u a c h a p á n D e p a rtm e n t. I ask ed th e sa m e q u e s tio n s o f th e se rec o rd s as I d id o f th e rec o rd s fro m 1927: D id a n y o f th e officials ele c te d in 1929 serve u n d e r a n y o f th e P N D a d m in is tra ­ tio n s th a t cam e to p o w e r in 1920, 19 2 1 , 19 2 3 , o r 1925? D id a n y p e rso n s b e a rin g th e sa m e s u rn a m e serve in a n y o f th o se a d m in istra tio n s? T h e re ­ su lts are c o m p ile d in th e a p p e n d ix in ta b le A 4 . T h e y reveal th a t th e ra te at w h ic h p o w e r s h ifte d p o w e r aw ay fro m P N D sta lw arts in 1929 w as sim ila r to th a t o f 1927. In th re e o f th e d e p a r tm e n t’s eleven m u n ic ip a litie s th e re w ere n o d ire c t carry o v ers o f officials fro m th e P N D . In terestin g ly , th e se sa m e th re e m u n ic ip a litie s (El R efu g io , S an L o re n zo , a n d T u rin ) a p p e a r in th e d a ta fro m 1 9 2 7 (ta b le A 3 ) as also h a v in g n o ties to th e P N D . T h is su g ­ gests th a t in th o se villages w h e re th e P N D w as p u s h e d o u t o f po w er, it stay ed o u t.

T h e P re sid e n tia l E le c tio n o f 1931

T h e p re sid e n tia l e le c tio n o f 1931 w as a m a jo r e v e n t th a t g e n e ra te d m a n y e x p e c ta tio n s a n d larg e a m o u n ts o f d o c u m e n ta tio n . It w as to b e a n in n o v a ­ tio n , a n d R o m e ro B o sq u e saw it as th e c a p sto n e o f h is fo u r-y e a r te n u re a n d p e rh a p s o f h is e n tire p o litic a l career. H is m e m o o f A p ril 1930 to o k a

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p h ilo s o p h ic a l to n e w h e n h e w ro te th a t “ [if ] th is f o u rth y ea r o f w o rk . . . resu lts in a n era o f p e a c e a n d liberty, w e w ill h a v e w o n fo r o urselves a d e ­ cisive v icto ry .”106 T h e m u n ic ip a l e lec tio n s o f D e c e m b e r 19 3 0 , a n d even th e d e p u ty elec tio n s o f th e p re c e d in g Ja n u ary , w ere w a rm -u p s fo r th e 1931 p re sid e n tia l elec tio n s. T h e p re sid e n tia l c a n d id a te s u se d th e m to m o ­ b ilize s u p p o r t a n d to te st th e ir ca p ac ities to g e n e ra te v otes. L o ca l c a n d i­ dates b e g a n to o p e ra te u n d e r th e b a n n e r o f th e ir resp e ctiv e n a tio n a l p arties, w h ic h o fte n w o rk e d o n th e b e h a lf o f th e ir lo cal p a rtisa n s b y s u b ­ m ittin g d e n u n c ia tio n s a n d s o lic ita tio n s to th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t.107 R a th e r th a n d isc u ssin g th e se p re lim in a ry ele c tio n s in a n y d etail, I w ill fo cu s h e re o n th e e le c tio n o f J a n u a ry 1931, fo r it serves as a m e ta p h o r fo r th e e n tire p e rio d fro m 1929 to 1931. Six c a n d id a te s r a n in th e e le c tio n .108 T h e y w ere A lb e rto G ó m e z Z á ra te , w h o h a d h e ld a series o f p o sitio n s u n d e r M e lé n d e z a n d Q u iñ ó n e z a n d w as se rv in g as m in is te r o f w a r u n d e r R o m e ro B o sq u e u n til h e resig n e d to p a rtic ip a te in th e elec tio n ; E n riq u e C ó rd o v a , w h o w as w o rk in g p r i­ v ately as a law yer; G e n e ra l M a x im ilia n o H e rn á n d e z M a rtín e z , w h o re ­ sig n e d as d ire c to r o f th e m ilita ry sc h o o l fo r th e elec tio n ; G e n e ra l A n to n io C la r a m o u n t L u ce ro , w h o re sig n e d as c o m m a n d e r o f U s u lu tá n fo r th e electio n ; A rtu ro A ra u jo , w h o h a d b e e n en g a g e d in p riv a te b u sin e ss affairs sin ce h is failed c o u p a tte m p t in 1920; a n d M ig u e l T o m á s M o lin a , th e c h a lle n g er in th e 1922 e le c tio n w h o h a d sin c e b e e n w o rk in g in th e p riv a te sector. T h e electo ra l c a m p a ig n w as a p e c u lia r affair in th a t it fo ste re d a g e n u ­ in e sense o f c o m p e titio n , b u t g e n e ra te d v irtu a lly n o real d ifferen ces b e ­ tw ee n th e c a n d id a te s, w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f A rtu ro A ra u jo a n d h is P a rtid o L a b o rista (see b elo w ). A ll o f th e c a n d id a te s c a m p a ig n e d w ith v a ry in g d e ­ grees o f vigor. T h e y can v assed th e n a tio n to d r u m u p s u p p o rt, deliver speeches, a n d o rg an iz e lo cal c h a p te rs o f th e ir resp e ctiv e p arties. B u t th e p la tfo rm s o n w h ic h th e y ra n are v irtu a lly in d is tin g u is h a b le fro m o n e a n ­ o th e r a n d are n o ta b le fo r th e ir b a n a lity a n d v ag u en ess. T h e y m a d e im ­ p recise p ro m ise s o f fin a n c ia l in te g rity a n d a d m in is tra tiv e resp o n sib ility , b u t b e y o n d th a t sa id v e ry little . A ll o f th e c a n d id a te s se e m e d to w a n t to av o id b e in g id e n tifie d w ith a n y o n e p a rtic u la r se c to r o f society. T h is v agueness w as n o tic e d b y b o th U .S. a n d B ritish d ip lo m a tic officers, w h o

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w ere k e e p in g a close eye o n th e e le c tio n a n d f o u n d it stra n g e th a t n o o n e s te p p e d fo rw a rd as th e c a n d id a te o f th e coffee p la n te r s .109 T h e o n e e x c e p tio n w as A ra u jo , w h o ra n o n a d e c id e d ly p a rtis a n p la t­ fo rm g eared to w a rd th e w o rk in g m asses. J u s t as h e h a d d o n e in 1920, A ra u jo ra n u n d e r h is P a rtid o L a b o rista (L a b o r P arty ) a n d p re s e n te d h im ­ se lf as th e w o rk e rs’ c a n d id a te . T w o o f A ra u jo ’s m o re r e n o w n e d s u p p o rte rs w ere A lb e rto M asfe rre r, th e w id e ly re sp e c te d p h ilo s o p h e r a n d se m iso c ia l­ ist, a n d F elip e R e cin o s, th e fo rm e r d ire c to r g en e ral o f th e F R T S , w h o h a d b e e n exp elled fro m th a t o rg a n iz a tio n in F e b ru a ry 1930 w h e n th e ra d ic a l fa c tio n to o k c o n tro l o f th e u n io n . O n e o f th e P a rtid o L a b o rista b ro a d sid e s w as a n “O p e n L e tte r D ire c te d to th e S a lv a d o ra n W o rk e rs a n d C a m p e s i­ n o s ” th a t p itc h e d A ra u jo as a “tr u e frie n d o f th e w o rk in g class . . . w h o k n o w s th e ir [th e w o rk e rs’] su fferin g s, th e p re c a rio u s s itu a tio n in w h ic h th e y live, a n d w h o listen s to th e ir a n g u ish e d v o ices.” 110 T h is sa m e m essag e w as d eliv ered c o n s ta n tly in speech es b y A ra u jo a n d re p re se n ta tiv e s o f his party. O n e o f A ra u jo ’s c a m p a ig n w o rk e rs sta te d , in a J u n e 1 9 3 0 sp e ec h in th e to w n o f G u a z a p a , th a t “A ra u jo is a m illio n a ire w h o h as re d is trib u te d p a r t o f h is ca p ita l to th e w o rk e rs a n d c a m p e sin o s.”111 B y ta rg e tin g la b o r as th e core o f h is s u p p o rt, A ra u jo o b v io u sly w as b a n k in g o n th e g o v e rn ­ m e n t’s a b ility to c re ate a n e lec to ra l e n v iro n m e n t in w h ic h w o rk e rs w o u ld in d e e d b e ab le to freely tu r n o u t to th e polls. It ap p ears th a t o n e ta c tic u se d b y P a rtid o L a b o rista o rg an iz ers to d r u m u p s u p p o r t w as to p ro m ise la n d re d is trib u tio n . A ra u jo d e n ie d p u b ­ licly th a t h e s a n c tio n e d su c h a n id ea, o r th a t h is fu n c tio n a rie s w ere even m a k in g su c h p ro m ise s, b u t th re e se p a ra te so u rce s su g g e st o th e rw is e .112 T h e first is a r e p o rt in th e n e w sp a p e r E l Espectador, fo u n d e d b y M a n u e l A n d in o in 1930 sp ecifically to r e p o rt o n th e e lec to ra l c a m p a ig n . A n a rtic le in a J u n e 1930 issu e d e s c rib e d A ra u jo ’s o rg an iz ers in th e m u n ic ip a lity o f Q u e z a lte p e q u e (C h a la te n a n g o D e p a rtm e n t) m a k in g p ro m ise s o f la n d re ­ d is tr ib u tio n .113 A s e c o n d so u rc e is in te rn a l d o c u m e n ta tio n fro m th e C o m ­ m u n is t P a rty th a t c o n ta in s re p o rts fro m o u tly in g p a rty cells m e n tio n in g th e activ ities o f th e P a rtid o L a b o rista a n d its p ro m ise s o f la n d r e d is trib u ­ tio n . T h is issue w as esp ecially im p o r ta n t fo r th e P C S b ec au se its lead ers b eliev ed th a t su c h p ro m ise s c o u ld u n d e r m in e th e ir o rg a n iz a tio n a l eff o rts .114 T h e fin al so u rc e is th e m e m o ir o f G e n e ra l P e ñ a T rejo, in w h ic h h e w rites th a t follow ers o f A ra u jo p ro m is e d th a t th e ir c a n d id a te w o u ld “red is-

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tr ib u te th e g re a t p la n ta tio n s o f th e ric h a m o n g th e c a m p e sin o s in o rd e r th a t th e y can p la n t a g ric u ltu ra l p r o d u c ts .”115 T h e tw o fro n t- r u n n e r s in th e e le c tio n w ere A ra u jo a n d G ó m e z Z á ra te . T h e c o m p e titio n b e tw e e n th e m c a p tu re d th e real a n d sy m b o lic issues at sta k e in th e e le c tio n . W h ile A ra u jo w as c h a sin g th e la b o r v o te , G ó m e z Z á ra te w as r u n n in g a n in te n se , i f d e m u re , c a m p a ig n th a t lo o k e d to ap p e al to ev ery o n e a n d o ffe n d n o o n e. O f th e six c a n d id a te s, G ó m e z Z á ra te w as th e m o s t closely asso cia te d w ith th e re m n a n ts o f th e P N D a n d th e legacy o f M e lé n d e z a n d Q u iñ ó n e z . A ra u jo re c o g n iz e d th is a n d e n d e a v o re d to u n ­ d e rm in e G ó m e z Z á ra te b y in v o k in g u n sa v o ry m e m o rie s o f th e M e lé n d e z Q u iñ ó n e z years, su c h as th e C h ris tm a s D a y m a ssac re o f 1 9 2 2 .116 L ists o f p a r ty affiliates in S o n so n a te , S an V ic e n te , a n d S an S alv ad o r D e p a rtm e n ts reveal th a t G ó m e z Z á ra te d id in d e e d h av e a d is p r o p o r tio n ­ ate n u m b e r o f s u p p o rte rs a m o n g th o se p e o p le w h o h a d se rv e d u n d e r th e P N D , b u t h e c e rta in ly w as n o t th e o n ly c a n d id a te to h av e fo rm e r P N D officials h o ld in g p o sitio n s in lo cal p a rty b ra n c h e s. T h e d a ta fro m S o n ­ so n a te a n d S an V ic e n te co n sist o f c o m p le te lists o f th e s e v e n -m e m b e r elec­ to ra l b o a rd s fo r th e lo cal e lec tio n s o f D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 0 th a t sh o w th e p a rty affiliatio n o f ea ch m e m b e r. T h e d a ta fro m S an S alv a d o r D e p a rtm e n t co m es fro m th e m u n ic ip a lity o f N e ja p a a n d co n sists o f lists o f p e o p le w h o h e ld p o sitio n s o n th e ex ecu tiv e co u n c ils o f th e local w in g o f ea ch o f th e n a tio n a l p artie s. I c o m p a re d th e n a m e s o n th e se lists w ith th e n a m e s o f th e officials w h o h a d serv ed o n m u n ic ip a l co u n c ils b e tw e e n 1 9 2 0 a n d 1925. O u t o f 2 5 7 n a m e s liste d in th e d o c u m e n ta tio n , o n ly 16 h a d h e ld office b e tw e e n 1920 a n d 1925 (see ta b le 6 .2 ). O f th e se 16, 8 b e lo n g e d to G ó m e z Z á ra te ’s party, 4 to A ra u jo ’s, 3 to C ó rd o v a ’s, a n d 1 to C la r a m o u n t L u c e ro ’s. (M a rtín e z a n d M o lin a h a d n o t y e t d e c la re d th e ir ca n d id a c ie s a t th is p o in t.) T h is in f o rm a tio n suggests th a t th e n a tio n a l c a n d id a te s fo rm e d alliances w ith a n y o n e in th e m u n ic ip a litie s w illin g to s u p p o r t th e m , a n d th u s even A ra u jo h a d fo rm e r P N D officials in h is party. O n e w ee k b e fo re v o tin g w as to b e g in o n J a n u a ry 11, a c u rio u s allian ce em e rg e d b e tw e e n A rtu ro A ra u jo a n d G e n e ra l M a x im ilia n o H e rn á n d e z M a rtín e z . T h e la tte r a b a n d o n e d h is c a m p a ig n to b e c o m e th e vice p re s id e n ­ tial c a n d id a te u n d e r th e P a rtid o L ab o rista. T h is allia n ce to o k th e re m a in ­ in g c a n d id a te s b y su rp rise, as A ra u jo a n d M a rtín e z h a d s h o w n n o p rio r degree o f asso cia tio n . P resu m ab ly , ea ch saw in th e o th e r a n o p p o r tu n ity to

Table 6 .2 Local Affiliates of Candidates in the 1931 Election W ho H ad Served on Municipal Councils under the PN D between 1920 and 1925 A lberto G óm ez Z arate’s A ffiliates

Rubén Ceferino Ceceña, Armenia (Sonsonate) Pedro Martínez Cuéllar, Sonzacate (Sonsonate) Antonio Rodríguez, Nahuilingo (Sonsonate) José Calvo Díaz, Izalco (Sonsonate) Francisco Rivas Alfaro, San Sebastián (San Vicente) Raúl Gómez, Santo Domingo (San Vicente) Manuel Esquivel, Nejapa (San Salvador) Pedro Esquivel Jr., Nejapa (San Salvador) A rtu ro A ra u jo ’s A ffiliates

Santos Hernández Morán, Cuisnahuat (Sonsonate) Manuel Vega Ruíz, Izalco (Sonsonate) Cecilio Jovel, Nejapa (San Salvador) Doroteo Flores, Nejapa (San Salvador) E nrique Córdova’s A ffiliates

Jorge Mazzini, Sonsonate City (Sonsonate) Vicente Herrera, Nahuilingo (Sonsonate) Fernando Novao, Nejapa (San Salvador) A n to n io C laram ount’s Affiliates

José Angel Colindres, San Antonio del M onte (Sonsonate) Sources:

List o f D irectorios for Sonsonate D ep artm en t, Jan u ary 27, 1931, A G N , M G , SS, Box

“Política, 1930—9”; “N o m in a de las personas que integran los D irectorios de Elecciones en el D ep a rtm e n to ,” San V icente, D ecem ber 1930, A G N , M G , SSV, 1930, Box 6; List o f persons w ho com prise local branches o f national-level political parties in N ejapa, D e p artm en t San Salvador, in B enjam ín A rrieta Rossi, G overnor o f San Salvador D ep artm en t, to M inister o f G overnm ent, July 4, 1930, A G N , M G , unclassified box.

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ad v a n ce h is o w n p o s itio n . M a rtín e z h a d b e e n m a k in g a p o o r s h o w in g in th e e le c tio n a n d w as su re to lose. B y jo in in g a f ro n t- r u n n e r lik e A ra u jo , h e h a d a g o o d ch a n c e o f b e c o m in g vice p re sid e n t. F o r h is p a rt, A ra u jo g a in e d a h ig h -ra n k in g a n d w e ll-c o n n e c te d m ilita ry o fficer w h o m ig h t fa c ilita te re la tio n s w ith th e m ilita ry . I f th is w as A ra u jo ’s m o tiv e , it b a c k fire d o n h im , b ecau se h e w o u ld b e o u s te d in a m ilita ry c o u p in D e c e m b e r 1931 a n d M a rtín e z w o u ld su c ce ed h im as p re sid e n t. B u t fo r th e tim e b e in g , th e deal se em e d m u tu a lly b en eficial. In th e days le a d in g u p to th e e le c tio n , a n d d u r in g th e th re e days o f v o tin g , h u n d re d s o f c o m p la in ts a rriv e d in th e n a tio n a l ca p ita l in th e fo rm o f te leg ram s d e s c rib in g every s o rt o f e lec to ra l m a n ip u la tio n . J u d g in g b y th e n u m b e r o f resp o n se s th a t M e n d o z a s e n t o u t, h e m u s t h av e sle p t v ery little d u r in g th o se days. H e s e n t o u t a c o n tin u o u s stre a m o f o rd ers, th re a ts, a n d in q u irie s to lo cal officials a c cu sed o f en g a g in g in f ra u d u le n t a c ts.117 A ty p ic al ex am p le o f M e n d o z a ’s re sp o n se w as s e n t to th e alcald e o f Izalco o n J a n u a ry 9: “I h av e b e e n in fo rm e d th a t y o u are try in g to im p o s e a c a n d i­ d ate. A b sta in fro m th is illegal act, fo r th e e lec tio n s s h o u ld b e p ra c tic e d freely b y th e citizen s, a n d th e fu n c tio n a rie s are o b lig e d to o b se rv e th e s tric te s t im p a rtia lity . I f y o u p e rsist y o u w ill b e re sp o n sib le fo r th e d iso rd e rs th a t w ill o c c u r a n d th e a c tio n s w h ic h w ill b e ta k e n a g a in st y o u .”118 G iv e n th e sh eer v o lu m e o f c o m p la in ts, so m e irre g u la ritie s m u s t h av e ta k e n place. B u t n o t o n e c o m p la in t c o n ta in e d re p o rts o f v io le n ce , a n d all o f th e c a n d i­ dates a c c e p te d th e resu lts o f th e elec tio n . T h e U .S. ch a rg é s u m m a riz e d th e e le c tio n in th e fo llo w in g g lo w in g term s: “D u r in g th e e lec tio n s, th e o rd er, a n d real fre e d o m o f v o tin g , w h ic h ex isted th r o u g h o u t th e e n tire re p u b lic is w ell w o rth y o f p ra ise .”119 M o re th a n 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 v o te s w ere cast, w ith th e fo llo w in g ro u n d e d - o ff results: A ra u jo , 1 0 1 ,0 0 0 ; G ó m e z Z á ra te , 6 4 ,0 0 0 ; C ó rd o v a , 3 2 ,0 0 0 ; C la r a m o u n t L u cero , 1 6 ,0 0 0 ; a n d M o lin a , 4 ,0 0 0 . B ecause A ra u jo d id n o t h av e an o u t­ rig h t m a jo rity , th e e le c tio n w e n t to th e assem bly. C ó rd o v a gave th e v o tes o f h is d e p u tie s to A ra u jo , w h o th u s b e c a m e th e official w in n e r a n d su c ­ ce ed e d R o m e ro B o sq u e in M a rc h 19 3 1 . S h o rtly afte r a s su m in g office, A ra u jo issu ed a m a n ife sto to th e n a tio n th a t sta te d , “ I c a n n o t b e in d iffe r­ e n t to th e cause o f th e w o rk e rs fo r th e y c o n s titu te th e g re a t m a jo rity in th e ra n k s o f th e p a rty w h ic h h as ra ise d m e to po w er. I a m lo y ally lin k e d to

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th e se as w ell as to all p e rso n s w h o are tru ly d e siro u s o f b e tte r in g th e c o n d i­ tio n s o f la b o r.”120 *

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In O c to b e r 1929 , a m a n b y th e n a m e o f L uís Silva to o k th e p re sid e n tia l elec tio n s o f 1931 as a n o p p o r tu n ity to w rite a le n g th y e d ito ria l o n d e m o c ­ racy a n d th e R o m e ro re fo rm s. S u c h a n e d ito ria l w as n o t a n u n c o m m o n o c c u rre n c e in El S alv a d o r d u r in g th e p e rio d fro m 1 9 2 7 to 19 3 1 , b ec au se th e q u e s tio n o f d e m o c ra c y g e n e ra te d m u c h p u b lic d isc u ssio n , a n d w ith th e liftin g o f press ce n so rsh ip , n e w sp a p e rs w ere a n a tu ra l o u tle t fo r d eb a te .121 Silva’s article , how ever, is p a rtic u la rly n o te w o r th y fo r its in sig h tfu l analysis. H e w ro te in re sp o n se to a p r io r e d ito ria l th a t h a d h a ile d P ío R o m e ro B o sq u e fo r b rin g in g d e m o c ra c y to El S alvador. S ilva sh a re d th a t a u th o r ’s e n th u s ia s m fo r p o p u la r suffrage a n d a p p la u d e d R o m e ro B o sq u e ’s efforts as w ell, b u t h e c a u tio n e d a g a in st ill-p la c e d o p tim is m . H e first p o in te d o u t th e m a n ife s t d ifficu lties in try in g to re sh a p e a p o litic a l sy stem rid d le d w ith p e o p le a c c u s to m e d to a n d e x p e rie n c e d in th e p rac tice s o f im p o s itio n a n d p a tro n a g e . Silva to o k th e issu e a ste p fu rth e r b y in sistin g th a t “lib e rty ” w as n o t a g ift b e s to w e d u p o n a n a tio n b y a p re sid e n t, b u t ra th e r a rig h t th a t e m e rg e d fro m w ith in a n a tio n its e lf a n d th a t w o u ld su rv iv e o n ly w ith th e d o g g e d d e te r m in a tio n o f a p o p u la c e c o m m itte d to to le ra n c e o f d iffe rin g o p in io n s . Silva g o t to th e h e a rt o f th e issue b y p o rtra y in g d e m o c ra c y n o t as an ev en t, b u t as a pro cess. H is in te r p re ta tio n d raw s p arallels to th e c o n te m ­ p o ra ry n o tio n o f so cial ca p ita l, a te rm th a t refers to th e “fea tu re s o f social o rg a n iz a tio n , su c h as tru s t, n o rm s a n d n e tw o rk s,” th a t fa c ilita te “v o lu n ­ ta ry c o o p e ra tio n . . . re c ip ro c ity [and] civic e n g a g e m e n t.”122 As a p u b lic g o o d , social ca p ita l is a c o m m o d ity th a t e n h a n c e s so cial a n d p o litic a l in te ra c tio n . As m o re p e o p le in a so c ie ty tr u s t o n e a n o th e r a n d b eliev e th a t th e ru les o f society, b o th d e fa c to a n d d e ju re , are le g itim a te a n d w ill b e e n fo rc e d ju d ic ia lly b y th e g o v e rn m e n t, th e m o re w illin g th e y are to in v e st th em selv es in th e fu n c tio n in g o f th a t society. S ocial ca p ita l, in th is sense, is se lf-rein fo rcin g . T h e lo n g e r it exists, th e m o re in g ra in e d it b e c o m e s, a n d th e m o re e n tre n c h e d are th e n o rm s th a t m a k e in s titu tio n s su c h as a d e ­ m o c ra c y po ssib le. R o m e ro B o sq u e w as b u ild in g so cial c a p ita l. H e u se d th e p o w ers o f th e sta te to en fo rce a n e w se t o f ru les th a t h e h o p e d w o u ld serve as th e fo u n d a -

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tio n fo r th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f b e tte r in s titu tio n a l n o rm s. A ra u jo ’s victory, especially in lig h t o f th e p ro la b o r a g e n d a o n w h ic h h e ra n , sta n d s as a te s ta m e n t to R o m e ro B o sq u e ’s efforts. W h a t w o u ld h av e h a p p e n e d h a d th e R o m e ro re fo rm s b e e n allo w ed to p ro c e e d is, n atu ra lly , sp e c u la tiv e a n d o u ts id e th e re a lm o f th e p re s e n t stu d y . As th e n e x t c h a p te r show s, how ever, th a t q u e s tio n is m o o t, b ec au se th e n a s c e n t d e m o c ra tic sy stem c a m e c ra sh ­ in g d o w n in D e c e m b e r 1931 in a m ilita ry c o u p th a t w o u ld u sh e r in five decades o f u n in te r r u p te d — a n d d e c id e d ly n o n d e m o c ra tic — m ilita ry ru le.

C H A P T E R

7

p o lit ic s u n d er the m ilit a r y r e g im e

, 1931-1940

T h e A ra u jo g o v e rn m e n t la ste d o n ly te n m o n th s . It a rriv e d a m id c a u tio u s o p tim is m a b o u t a n e w p o litic a l p ro cess a n d le ft in ig n o m in y , in a m ilita ry c o u p d u r in g th e first w e e k o f D e c e m b e r 19 3 1 . In th e c o n fu se d a fte rm a th o f th e c o u p , A ra u jo ’s vice p re sid e n t, G e n e ra l M a x im ilia n o H e rn á n d e z M a rtín e z , assu m e d th e p resid en cy , o ste n sib ly to c o m p le te th e re m a in d e r o f A ra u jo ’s te rm (1 9 3 1 —1 9 3 5 ). M a rtín e z (w h o w e n t b y h is m a te rn a l n a m e ) c o m p le te d th a t te rm a n d sta y ed in office fo r a n o th e r n in e years, in c lu d in g a se c o n d te rm (1 9 3 5 —1 9 3 9 ), a n d th e g re a te r p a r t o f a th ird , six-year te rm (1 9 3 9 —1 945). H e w as fo rc e d fro m office in 19 44 , s h o rtly b e fo re th e s u b ­ se rv ie n t N a tio n a l A sse m b ly w as to elect h im to a n o th e r six-year te rm th a t w o u ld hav e left h im in office u n til 1950. T h e M a rtín e z era c o n s titu te s a cru c ia l p e rio d o f tra n s itio n b e tw e e n th e p a tro n a g e -b a s e d d ic ta to rs h ip s o f th e n in e te e n th a n d early tw e n tie th c e n tu rie s a n d th e m o d e rn m ilita ry reg im es o f th e la tte r h a lf o f th e tw e n ti­ e th cen tu ry . It w as h a rd ly th e first tim e th a t a n o fficer h a d sa t in th e p re si­ d e n t’s ch a ir in El S alvador, b u t th e re w as s o m e th in g n e w a b o u t th e M a r ­ tín e z era: a ra n k in g officer in a p ro fe ssio n a liz in g , c e n tra liz in g a rm y w as in ch a rg e o f th e g o v e rn m e n t, a n d several o f h is h ig h - ra n k in g c o u n te rp a rts h e ld k ey offices. T h e m ilita ry d id n o t fo rm a lly ta k e c o n tro l o f th e sta te as a n in s titu tio n a n d ru le it lik e th e “b u re a u c ra tic a u th o rita ria n ” reg im es in

246

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247

B razil, C h ile , a n d A rg e n tin a d u r in g th e 1960s a n d 1970s. B u t M a rtín e z b e g a n five d ecad es o f in te r tw in e d re la tio n s b e tw e e n m ilita ry officers a n d g o v ern a n ce in El S alvador. T h e d is tin c t s u b c u ltu re o f m ilita ry p o litic s w o u ld b e c o m e sta te p o litic s, a n d o n c e officers g o t h o ld o f p u b lic office, a w h o le n e w r o u te fo r career e n h a n c e m e n t b e c a m e availab le to th e m . I n ad ­ d itio n to c lim b in g th e ra n k s in sid e th e m ilita ry , th e y n o w h a d g o v e rn m e n t p o sitio n s at th e ir d isp o sal, a n d th e y w ere n o t an x io u s to give th e m u p . T h e lo n g e r a n officer h e ld th e p resid en cy , th e m o re y o u n g officers to o k it fo r g ra n te d th a t th e ir ra n g e o f f u tu re career o p tio n s w o u ld i n c lu d e p o litic a l office. B etw ee n officers’ e x p e c ta tio n s, civ ilian elites’ to le ra n c e o f th e m se rv in g in g o v e rn m e n t, a n d th e m asses’ in a b ility o r u n w illin g n e ss to p re ­ v e n t it all fro m h a p p e n in g , m ilita ry g o v e rn a n c e in E l S alv a d o r p ro v e d to b e h ig h ly d u ra b le . E v en tu ally it w o u ld ta k e tw elv e years o f civil w ar (1 9 8 0 —1992) to a m e n d th e sy stem a n d d islo d g e th e officers fro m pow er. T h is c h a p te r a n d th e n e x t d escrib e th a t in a u g u ra l m ilita ry reg im e. B o th c h a p te rs lim it th em selv es to th e p e rio d fro m 1931 to 19 4 0 , w h e n M a rtín e z c o n s o lid a te d h is h o ld o n pow er. T h e se c o n d c h a p te r is d e v o te d to social po lic y a n d th e re g im e ’s re la tio n sh ip to th e p e a sa n t re b e llio n o f J a n u a ry 1932. T h e p re s e n t c h a p te r ex a m in e s p o litic s a n d sh o w s h o w M a r ­ tín e z rev ersed th e R o m e ro re fo rm s a n d r e tu r n e d p o litic s to th e h ig h ly c e n ­ tralize d p a tro n a g e sy stem th a t h a d o p e ra te d u n d e r th e P N D . U n d e r M a r ­ tín ez, p o litic s o n c e a g a in fu n c tio n e d as a p y ra m id in w h ic h th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t w as th e su p re m e d isp e n se r o f p o w e r a n d p o s itio n . M a rtín e z c h a n g e d th e n a m e o f th e official p o litic a l p a rty to th e P a rtid o N a c io n a l P ro -P a tria , b u t fo r all in te n ts a n d p u rp o se s th e sy stem fu n c tio n e d as it h a d as th e P N D u n d e r M e lé n d e z a n d Q u iñ ó n e z — th o u g h m o re efficiently, in n o sm all p a r t b ec au se M a rtín e z en jo y e d a se cu re m o n o p o ly over th e to o ls o f co e rcio n . T h e p o litic a l sy stem u n d e r M a rtín e z w ill b e e x a m in e d h e re at b o th th e local a n d n a tio n a l levels. A t th e n a tio n a l level, M a rtín e z g u a rd e d a g a in st o p p o n e n ts , b o th real a n d im a g in e d , a n d c o n s ta n tly fo u g h t o ff rival officers w h o w a n te d to o u st h im a n d o fte n a tte m p te d c o u p s in h o p e s o f as su m in g h is p o s itio n a to p th e p y ra m id . (T h is p a tte r n o f m ilita ry p o li­ tics w o u ld b e c o m e c o m m o n p la c e over th e n e x t fifty years.) A t th e local level, M a rtín e z a n d h is fello w a d m in is tra to rs s o u g h t o u t loyal bosses w h o c o u ld m o n o p o liz e p o llin g sta tio n s a n d p ro d u c e v o tes fo r th e g o v e rn m e n t’s

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c a n d id a te s, in c lu d in g th e a n n u a l slate o f d e p u tie s fo r th e N a tio n a l A sse m ­ bly, a n d fo r M a rtín e z h im s e lf d u r in g h is re p e a te d b id s fo r th e presid en cy . L ocal p o w e r p lay ers jo c k e y e d fo r p o s itio n w ith in th e ra n k s o f P ro -P a tria , a n d th o se w h o rec eiv e d th e p a r ty ’s b le ssin g w ere allo w ed to h o ld sw ay over th e ir localities. E le c tio n s b e c a m e , o n c e ag ain , h ig h ly m a n a g e d affairs w ith u n a n im o u s o r n e a r-u n a n im o u s results. S alv a d o ra n elites fo u n d m u c h to fear in th e la te 1920s a n d early 1930s: th e d e m o c ra tiz a tio n p la n s o f P ío R o m e ro B o sq u e, th e p o p u lis t re ­ fo rm is m o f A rtu ro A ra u jo , th e e c o n o m ic collap se o f th e G re a t D e p re ssio n , a n d a rad ic alize d p e a s a n try th a t ro se u p in re b e llio n in J a n u a ry 19 3 2 . W ith G e n e ra l M a rtín e z a t th e h e lm , th e y sle p t easier a t n ig h t. T h e y g o t security, c o n tro l over th e ir m u n ic ip a litie s, a n d a g o v e rn m e n t th a t av id ly s u p p o r te d e x p o rt-o rie n te d a g ric u ltu re . B u t as w ill b e d e m o n s tra te d in th e fo llo w in g pages, th e y h a d to m a k e a F a u stia n b a rg a in to g e t th o s e th in g s — even if th e y d id n o t fu lly realize th e y w ere d o in g so a t th e tim e . A lo n g w ith se c u ­ r ity ca m e th e m ilita ry as an in s titu tio n , a n d its m e m b e rs d id n o t alw ays sh a re th e elites’ c o m m itm e n t to th e fre e w h e e lin g laissez-faire ca p ita lism th a t h a d allo w ed th e m to a c c u m u la te u n p re c e d e n te d a m o u n ts o f p riv a te w ea lth . T h e m ilita ry w o u ld e m erg e as a n ad v o c a te o f so cial a n d e c o n o m ic refo rm s, a n d its m e m b e rs w o u ld b la m e so -ca lle d u n s c ru p u lo u s elites fo r El S a lv a d o r’s p ro b le m s. E v en as th e m ilita ry m a in ta in e d a s tric t v ig ilan c e over th e m asses’ a u to n o m y a n d c ru sh e d a n y signs o f in d e p e n d e n t o rg a n iz ­ in g , th e y w o u ld press th e cau se o f social re fo rm in b o th r h e to ric a n d p ra c ­ tice. T h e social re fo rm ism o f th e M a rtín e z re g im e m a y h av e b e e n m ild , b u t it set p re c e d e n t, a n d so m e o f M a rtín e z ’s p o licies w ere e n o u g h to give elites th e jitte rs. As w e w ill see in th e n e x t c h a p te r, th e y w ere o n ly p a rtia lly successful in re sistin g th e M a rtín e z g o v e rn m e n t’s d esire to c h a n g e th e w ay th e y d id th in g s o n th e ir o w n p ro p e rtie s.

F ro m A ra u jo to M a rtín e z

A ra u jo e n te re d office a t a n in a u sp ic io u s tim e , w h e n th e G re a t D e p re ss io n w as b e g in n in g to h av e a m a rk e d ly n eg a tiv e im p a c t o n th e n a tio n ’s fin a n ­ cial s itu a tio n . B e tw ee n 1929 a n d 19 3 2 , th e v alu e o f S a lv a d o ra n coffee d r o p p e d fro m U S $ 1 6 .7 0 p e r q u in ta l to U S $ 7 .5 0 p e r q u in ta l.1 C o ffee ex-

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p o rts d r o p p e d acco rd in g ly , fro m 120 m illio n p o u n d s in 1931 to 8 7 m il­ lio n p o u n d s in

1932, a n d im p o rts fo llo w e d su it, p lu m m e tin g fro m

U S $ 1 7 .8 m illio n in 1929 to U S $ 5 .1 m illio n in 19 3 2 , c a u sin g a c o rre ­ s p o n d in g re d u c tio n in c u s to m s re v e n u e s.2 A lre a d y in 19 3 0 , th e U .S. a n d B ritish le g atio n s w ere c o m m e n tin g o n th e g o v e rn m e n t’s f o re b o d in g fin a n ­ cial s itu a tio n .3 T h e y re p o r te d th a t th e g o v e rn m e n t w as b o rro w in g h ea v ily fro m S alv a d o ra n b a n k s a n d a c c u m u la tin g a sizable in te r n a l d e b t. F u rth e r ­ m o re , th e g o v e rn m e n t c o u ld n o t se cu re a n e x te rn a l le n d e r d u e to a la c k o f co llateral. T h e m a in so u rc e o f rev e n u e, c u s to m s d u tie s, w as already ac­ c o u n te d for: 7 0 p e rc e n t o f c u s to m s d u tie s w e n t to w a rd s in te re s t o n th e 1922 lo a n , w h ile th e re m a in in g 3 0 p e rc e n t w as b e in g d isb u rse d b y th e U .S. cu s to m s ag e n t, M r. R e n w ick , to S a lv a d o ra n b a n k s in p a y m e n t fo r in te re s t o n th e flo a tin g d e b t.4 In O c to b e r 1930 th e B ritish c h a rg é re p o rte d th a t “th e fin an c ia l s itu a tio n is serio u s, th e [in te rn a l] lo a n raise d in A u g u st fo r U S $ 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 is d e p le te d . T h e sc h o o l te ac h ers h av e n o t b e e n p a id fo r six m o n th s .”5 B y 1931 th e fin a n c ia l s itu a tio n w as o n ly g ro w in g w o rse, a n d A ra u jo h a d th e a d d e d p ro b le m o f m e e tin g n o t o n ly n o rm a l sta te e x p e n d itu re s, b u t also h is c o n s titu e n ts ’ ex p e c ta tio n s. Im m e d ia te ly afte r h is v ic to ry in J a n u a ry 1931, A ra u jo w as s w a m p e d w ith p e titio n e rs a n d p o sitio n -se e k e rs arriv in g a t h is h o m e a n d la te r a t h is office in se arch o f w o rk o r la n d .6 T h e B ritish ch a rg é n o te d th a t, to its d e trim e n t, “th e n e w a d m in is tra tio n h as fo u n d n o s o lu tio n to its m o s t p re ssin g p ro b le m s, n a m e ly w h e re to fin d m o n e y fo r c u rre n t ex p en ses.”7 A c c o rd in g to th e U .S. le g a tio n , b y M a y 1931 th e flo a tin g d e b t h a d rise n to m o re th a n U S $ 1 .5 m illio n fro m ju s t U S $ 4 0 0 ,0 0 0 n o t six m o n th s p rio r. In A p ril th e g o v e rn m e n t p u t b efo re th e N a tio n a l A sse m b ly a p ro p o sa l to c o n tra c t a n ex te rn a l lo a n o f u p to U S $ 2 m illio n . In d o in g so, th e g o v e rn m e n t ig n o re d th e ad v ice o f its o w n C o n s e jo E c o n ó m ic o , a g ro u p o f p riv a te citizen s in c lu d in g so m e o f El S al­ v a d o r’s le a d in g fin an c iers, su c h as R o d o lfo D u k e , th a t h a d b e e n a p p o in te d by th e g o v e rn m e n t to analyze th e fin a n c ia l situ a tio n . It h a d c o n c lu d e d th a t f u rth e r lo a n s w ere u n w ise .8 In Ju ly th e N a tio n a l A sse m b ly n e v e rth e ­ less a p p ro v e d th e lo a n p ro p o sa l. F in d in g a w illin g le n d er, h o w ev er, w as difficu lt, a n d th u s th e lo a n re m a in e d in lim b o . N e v e rth e le ss, th e m e re p o ssib ility o f in c u rrin g y e t a n o th e r lo a n g e n e ra te d a g ro u n d sw e ll o f o p ­ p o s itio n , especially a m o n g p e o p le su c h as th e u n iv e rsity s tu d e n ts , w h o

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asso ciated lo a n s w ith se llin g o u t th e n a tio n to fo re ig n ers. T h e w e e k after th e assem b ly m a d e its d e c isio n , u n iv e rsity s tu d e n ts o rg a n iz e d a d e m o n ­ s tra tio n . A lth o u g h th e g o v e rn m e n t fo rb a d e th e m a rc h , so m e n in e h u n ­ d re d s tu d e n ts tu r n e d o u t, a n d a v io le n t c o n f r o n ta tio n e n s u e d b e tw e e n th e m a rc h e rs a n d th e G u a rd ia N a c io n a l. A n u n d e te r m in e d n u m b e r o f s tu ­ d e n ts w ere w o u n d e d , a n d as m a n y as th ir ty w ere a rre ste d .9 A t th e sam e tim e th a t th e g o v e rn m e n t w as p ro p o s in g to solve its fi­ n a n c ia l s tra in w ith a fo re ig n lo a n , it w as d ra w in g u p a b u d g e t fo r th e fiscal year 1932 th a t w as a lm o st g u a ra n te e d to a lie n a te p o w e rfu l in te re s t g ro u p s. O n e p ro p o sa l, fo r in sta n c e , se t asid e o n e m illio n c o lo n es (a p p ro x im a te ly U S $ 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 , o r 8 p e rc e n t o f th e to ta l b u d g e t) to p u rc h a se a g ric u ltu ra l p ro p e rtie s at m a rk e t p ric e to b e d iv id e d u p a n d th e n re n te d o u t to lan d less w o rk e rs a t b e lo w m a rk e t v alu e. A lb e rto M a sfe rre r, th e re n o w n e d m a n o f le tte rs a n d ad v o c ate fo r so cial re fo rm , h e ld a se at in th e N a tio n a l A sse m b ly u n d e r A ra u jo ’s P a rtid o L a b o rista a n d w as th e m a in p r o p o n e n t o f th is p la n .10 A n o th e r p ro p o sa l w as to stre a m lin e th e m ilita ry b y e lim in a tin g th o se officers w h o d re w salaries b u t d id n o t p e rfo rm a c tu a l d u tie s. T h e g o v e rn m e n t actu a lly a tte m p te d to im p le m e n t th is p la n in A u g u st 1931, b u t seven o f th e ta rg e te d officers in fo rm e d th e g o v e rn m e n t th a t th e y w o u ld n o t ac ce p t th e p ro p o sa l, a n d th e g o v e rn m e n t b a c k e d d o w n .11 U ltim a te ly it w as th e fin a n c ia l crisis, A ra u jo ’s h a n d lin g o f it, a n d his stra in e d re la tio n sh ip w ith th e m ilita ry th a t le d to h is p o litic a l d em ise. In A u g u st, d esp e ra te ly s h o r t o f fu n d s, th e g o v e rn m e n t s u s p e n d e d m ilita ry pay, d e m o n s tra tin g th a t it w as e ith e r u n a w a re o f o r u n w illin g to le a rn fro m th e ex a m p le o f th e M e lé n d e z g o v e rn m e n t in 1919, th a t fa ilu re to p a y m ilita ry salaries w as a re c ip e fo r in trig u e . A c c o rd in g to th e m e m o ir o f S alv ad o r P eñ a T rejo, s h o rtly th e re a fte r th e e v e n tu a l le ad e rs o f th e D e c e m ­ b e r c o u p b e g a n p lo ttin g a g a in st A ra u jo . T h re e m o n th s later, o n th e n ig h t o f D e c e m b e r 2, th e c o u p b e g a n w ith a m a c h in e -g u n assau lt o n th e p re si­ d e n tia l palace. M o s t o f th e b a rra c k s in th e c a p ita l s u p p o r te d o r a t least ig n o re d th e reb e llio n , le av in g o n ly th e P re sid e n tia l G u a rd to d e fe n d A ra u jo . O v e rw h e lm e d a n d fa c in g d efe at, A ra u jo a n d a co re g ro u p o f s u p ­ p o rte rs a n d g o v e rn m e n t officials fled th e c a p ita l. M o s t o f th e m escap ed u n h a rm e d , w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f M in is te r o f F in a n c e José E sp in o sa , w h o w as k ille d in crossfire. A ra u jo fled to N u e v a S an S alvador, w h e re h e h o p e d to o rg an iz e a c o u n te ra ss a u lt. B u t u p o n a rriv in g th e re h e d isc o v ered th e

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b arrac k s to b e in a sta te o f d isa rra y a n d g e n e ra lly o p p o s e d to h im . H e th e n re tre a te d to S a n ta A n a, w h e re h e w as jo in e d b y a few h u n d r e d su p p o rte rs. D e s p ite th is display, A ra u jo c o n c lu d e d th a t h is c h a n c e fo r success w as n il, a n d o n th e m o r n in g o f D e c e m b e r 4 h e tu r n e d over th e p re sid e n c y to th e first d esig n ate a n d fled in to G u a te m a la .12 In th e co n fu se d a fte rm a th o f A ra u jo ’s d e p a rtu re fro m th e ca p ita l, th e m a in co n s p ira to rs, elev en m id lev e l officers, f o rm e d a m ilita ry d ire c to ra te a n d assu m ed c o n tro l o f th e ex e cu tiv e’s p o w ers. T w o days la te r th e y tu r n e d p o w e r over to th e vice p re sid e n t, G e n e ra l M a rtín e z , w h o s u p p o se d ly h a d b e e n ja ile d o n th e first d a y o f fig h tin g . M a rtin e z ’s a sc e n t to th e p re sid e n c y h as g e n e ra te d m u c h h isto rio g ra p h ic a l d e b a te . S o m e w rite rs c la im th a t h e actu a lly w as a c o c o n s p ira to r a n d th a t h is arrest w as fa b ric a te d in o rd e r to give h im le g itim a c y as p re sid e n t. O th e rs a c c e p t th e s to ry o f h is arrest a n d su g g est th a t th e c o u p w as in d e e d h a tc h e d b y th e lo w e r-ra n k in g officers w h o w ere e m b itte re d over th e issue o f p ay .13 A fte r re a d in g th e arch iv al d o c u m e n ts in th e M in is te rio d e G o b e rn a c ió n , I c o n c u r w ith K n u t W a l­ te r ’s assessm en t o f th e d e b a te , th a t th e d o c u m e n ta tio n is to o in c o n c lu siv e to d e te rm in e M a rtin e z ’s ro le o n e w ay o r th e o th e r.14 T h e issue is s o m e w h a t irre le v an t, b ec au se e ith e r sid e o f th e a rg u m e n t sh o w s M a rtín e z to h av e b ee n , above all, a sh re w d p o litic a l p la y er w h o c o n s ta n tly p la c e d h im s e lf in th e r ig h t p la ce a t th e rig h t tim e to achieve a ra p id c lim b u p th e p o litic a l lad d er, fro m d ire c to r o f th e m ilita ry sc h o o l in 1930 to p re s id e n t ju s t fif­ te e n m o n th s later. M u c h h as also b e e n w ritte n a b o u t M a rtin e z ’s a ty p ica l relig io u s a n d p h ilo s o p h ic a l beliefs. H e w as a th e o s o p h is t w h o b eliev e d in re in c a rn a tio n . H e also w as a te e to ta lin g v e g e ta ria n w h o a sc rib e d to cromoferapia, o r cu re b y colors. H e is sa id to h av e s to re d b o ttle s o f c o lo re d w a te r in th e s u n fo r m e d ic in a l p u rp o se s a n d to h a v e p re sc rib e d th e m to frie n d s as cu res fo r a v a rie ty o f ailm e n ts. O n e o f th e m o re b itin g a n d a t th e sa m e tim e e n g a g in g d e s c rip tio n s o f M a rtin e z c o m es fro m a C a n a d ia n jo u rn a lis t w ith a self­ d ec la re d le ftist b e n t w h o in te rv ie w e d M a rtin e z in 1944. T h e jo u rn a lis t cla im e d to h av e c u t th e in te rv ie w s h o r t b ec au se it w as a stru g g le to m a in ­ ta in c o m p o s u re in th e face o f M a rtin e z ’s ra m b lin g s, b u t h e n ev e rth ele ss c o n c lu d e d th a t M a rtin e z w as a “p o w e rfu l p e rso n a lity .”15 In d e e d , fo r all h is ec ce n tricitie s, M a rtin e z p ro v e d to b e an ex tre m e ly a d ro it leader. H e a d o p te d stric t e c o n o m ic m e a su re s to b rin g th e g o v e rn m e n t’s rev e n u es in to

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lin e, a n d h e h a d a skill fo r sta y in g in p o w e r b y c ru s h in g h is en e m ie s a n d re w a rd in g h is follow ers, to th e p o in t th a t h e e lim in a te d th e o p p o s itio n a n d fo ste re d lo y a lty a m o n g h is co re su p p o rte rs. M a rtín e z ’s p o litic a l p e r ­ so n a lity w as ch a racterize d , a c c o rd in g to th e B ritis h ch arg é, b y a carefu lly b a la n c e d use o f th e “iro n h a n d ” a n d th e “v elv et glove.”16 M a rtín e z c e rta in ly a ssu m e d office in th e m id s t o f a v o la tile p o litic a l s itu a tio n in w h ic h n u m e ro u s p ressu res b o re d o w n u p o n h im . T h e issues th a t d e m a n d e d h is im m e d ia te a tte n tio n , b e y o n d th e se le c tio n o f a n e w g o v e rn m e n t, w ere e lec tio n s a n d fin an ces. M u n ic ip a l e lec tio n s w ere s c h e d ­ u le d to o c c u r less th a n o n e w e e k afte r h e b e c a m e p re sid e n t, a n d elec tio n s fo r d e p u tie s to th e N a tio n a l A sse m b ly w ere to o c c u r fo u r w eek s after th a t. T h e fin an c ia l s itu a tio n re m a in e d c h a o tic a n d p ro m is e d to g ro w o n ly w orse. M e a n w h ile , o p p o n e n ts , b o th a c tu a l a n d p o te n tia l, w ere to b e f o u n d o n all sides. A m o n g th e m w ere p o w e r-h u n g ry m ilita ry officers, as w ell as s u p p o rte rs o f R o m e ro B o s q u e ’s n o w b e le a g u e re d re fo rm s. O n e o f th e m o re fo rm id a b le o p p o n e n ts w as th e U .S. g o v e rn m e n t, w h ic h b y th e e n d o f D e c e m b e r h a d c o n c lu d e d th a t M a rtin e z ’s rise to p o w e r v io la te d th e W a s h in g to n T reaties o f 19 2 3 , a n d th u s h is re g im e w o u ld n o t receive d ip ­ lo m a tic re c o g n itio n . T h e U .S. d is p a tc h e d a sp ecial envoy, Je fferso n C a ffery, to E l S alv ad o r in h o p e s o f p re ssu rin g M a rtin e z to re sig n .17 In a d d itio n , M a rtín e z faced a n in c re a sin g ly ra d ic a l p e a s a n try in th e w e ste rn coffee­ g ro w in g d e p a rtm e n ts ; th e y w o u ld rise u p in a m assive re b e llio n d u r in g th e th ir d w ee k o f J a n u a ry 1932, ju s t six w eek s after h e b e c a m e p re sid e n t. A ll o f th e se p ro b le m s w ere ex a c e rb a te d b y M a rtin e z ’s la c k o f a n o rg a n iz e d p o ­ litica l m a c h in e th a t h e c o u ld u se to c o n s o lid a te h is h o ld o n po w er. El P a rtid o N a c io n a l R e p u b lic a n o , th e sm a ll p o litic a l p a r ty th a t h a d s p o n ­ so red h is c a n d id a c y in 1930 a n d early 1931, h a d w ith d ra w n its s u p p o r t in J u n e 1931 w h e n h e jo in e d w ith A ra u jo .18 N o r c o u ld M a rtin e z lo o k to th e re m a in in g la b o rista s fo r s u p p o rt, b ec au se th e y c o n s id e re d h im a tra ito r. T h e fact th a t M a rtin e z sta y ed in p o w e r a m id s t th e se m y ria d ch allen g es is a te s ta m e n t to h is p o litic a l ca p ab ilities. U p o n ta k in g office, M a rtin e z first re lie d u p o n th e v elvet glove in h o p e s o f assu ag in g th e o p p o s itio n . O n e o f h is first tasks w as to select his c a b in e t a n d m a k e a v a rie ty o f o th e r h ig h -ra n k in g a p p o in tm e n ts . M a rtin e z w as careful to give th e se p o sitio n s to re p re se n ta tiv e s o f c e rta in s ta k e h o ld ­ ers. F o r exam p le, th e th re e h ig h e s t-ra n k in g lead ers o f th e c o u p w ere given

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p o sts: C o lo n e l J o a q u ín V aldés as m in is te r o f w ar; C a p ta in M a n u e l U rb in a as c h ie f clerk to th e p re sid e n t; a n d C o lo n e l O s m ín A g u irre as c h ie f o f p o ­ lice. M a rtín e z b a la n c e d th is y o u n g e r a n d p o te n tia lly reb e llio u s m ilita ry p rese n ce w ith tw o tr u s te d o ld e r officers, G e n e ra l S alv a d o r C a s ta n e d a C a s­ tro , w h o w as g iv e n th e k e y p o s t o f m in is te r o f g o v e rn m e n t, a n d C o lo n e l José A scensio M e n é n d e z , w h o b e c a m e th e u n d e rs e c re ta ry o f w ar. M a rtín e z h a d a co re g ro u p o f civ ilian s in h is g o v e rn m e n t, in c lu d in g M ig u e l A n g el A ra u jo , a w e ll-k n o w n law yer, as m in is te r o f fo re ig n affairs.19 T h e p o s itio n o f m in is te r o f fin a n c e also w e n t to a civ ilian , b u t it w as le ft v a c a n t u n til M a rtín e z d e c id e d to p r o m o te A ra u jo ’s u n d e rse c re ta ry o f fin an c e, P ed ro F o n seca, to th e p o s itio n in th e in te rim . I n F e b ru a ry 1 9 3 2 , M a rtín e z re ­ p la c e d F o n sec a w ith M ig u e l T o m á s M o lin a , w h o le n t c re d ib ility to th e g o v e rn m e n t b ec au se o f h is w e ll-k n o w n p ro d e m o c ra c y sta n c e .20 M a rtín e z left low er-level officials in th e ir places, b o th in th e c a p ita l a n d in o u tly in g reg io n s, p ro c la im in g afte r a p p o in tin g h is c a b in e t th a t “all o th e r a p p o in t­ m e n ts re m a in u n c h a n g e d fo r th e p re s e n t.”21 T h e U .S. ch a rg é o b se rv e d th a t M a rtín e z “h as th u s far d ism isse d fro m office v e ry few o f h is [A rau jo ’s] a p ­ p o in te e s .”22 L ab o ristas in th e s e c u rity forces, how ever, w ere n o t to le ra te d . In S a n ta A n a seven p o lic e ag e n ts w ere d ism isse d b ec au se o f th e ir a ffilia tio n w ith th e L ab o r P arty .23 T h e M a rtín e z g o v e rn m e n t p o rtra y e d its e lf as a n a g e n t o f c o n c ilia tio n ra th e r th a n o f rep re ssio n a n d d iv isio n . O n D e c e m b e r 8, 19 3 1 , G e n e ra l C a s ta n e d a C a stro d is trib u te d a n a tio n w id e m e m o in w h ic h th e n e w g o v ­ e r n m e n t p re s e n te d its e lf to th e n a tio n . T h e m e m o stressed th e g o v e rn ­ m e n t’s c o m m itm e n t to “h a rm o n y , p e rso n a l lib e rties, a n d th e p re se rv a tio n o f p riv a te p ro p e rty .” A n d , in w o rd s q u in te sse n tia l to M a rtín e z , th e m e m o d escrib ed th e g o v e rn m e n t’s d e te r m in a tio n to “in still a s e n tim e n t o f love fo r E l S a lv a d o r” a m o n g th e p o p u la c e .24 T h e g o v e rn m e n t also d e c la re d its c o m m itm e n t to e lec to ra l lib e rtie s a n d a n n o u n c e d th a t all p o litic a l p arties, in c lu d in g th e c o m m u n is ts a n d th e la b o ristas, w o u ld b e allo w ed to p a rtic i­ p a te in th e fo rth c o m in g m u n ic ip a l e le c tio n s.25 In th e e n s u in g w eek s g o v ­ e r n m e n t sp o k e sp e rso n s re p e a te d ly u se d th e te rm democracy. F o r ex am p le, in o n e o f his m a n y circu lars, C a s ta n e d a C a stro a n n o u n c e d th a t “th e civil a n d m ilita ry a u th o ritie s o f th is g o v e rn m e n t w ill le n d g u a ra n te e s to all p e r ­ so n s w h o s u p p o r t . . . th e d e m o c ra tic in s titu tio n s o f th e n a tio n .”26

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W h ile th e g o v e rn m e n t p re s e n te d its frie n d ly face to th e p u b lic , b e ­ h in d th e scenes it m o n ito re d p o te n tia l adversaries. P rin c ip a l a m o n g th e m w ere fo rm e r m e m b e rs o f th e R o m e ro B o s q u e g o v e rn m e n t a n d th e c a n d i­ dates o f th e 1931 p re sid e n tia l e le c tio n . O n e w e e k after a s su m in g pow er, M a rtín e z g a th e re d th e fo u r re m a in in g c a n d id a te s fro m th e e le c tio n (M ig u e l M o lin a , A lb e rto G ó m e z Z á ra te , A n to n io C la r a m o u n t L u ce ro , a n d E n ­ riq u e C ó rd o v a ) in to h is office a n d a tte m p te d to g e t th e m to p ro c la im th e ir s u p p o r t fo r h is g o v e rn m e n t. M o lin a re s p o n d e d to th is call, a c c e p tin g th e p o s itio n o f m in is te r o f fin a n c e , a n d so to o d id G ó m e z Z á ra te , w h o o r­ d e re d h is c o n s titu e n ts to s u p p o r t th e g o v e rn m e n t’s slate o f c a n d id a te s in th e d e p u ty e le c tio n o f J a n u a ry 1 9 3 2 .27 In r e tu r n G ó m e z w as a p p o in te d c h ie f ju stic e o f th e S u p re m e C o u r t, a p o s itio n h e h e ld fo r th e d u r a tio n o f M a rtín e z ’s years in office. E n riq u e C ó rd o v a d id n o t s u p p o r t M a rtín e z , a n d as a re su lt h e w as p la c e d u n d e r p o lic e su rv eillan c e. In h is m e m o ir h e w rite s o f p o lic e ag en ts a rriv in g a t h is h o u s e s h o rtly afte r th e m e e tin g w ith M a r ­ tín ez. H e also d escrib es th e ex p e rie n c e o f M a n u e l M e n d o z a , R o m e ro B o sq u e ’s m in is te r o f g o v e rn m e n t, w h o gave u p sle e p in g a t h o m e b ec au se o f th re a ts a n d h a ra s s m e n t fro m th e s e c u rity forces. B o th C ó rd o v a a n d M e n d o z a w ith d re w fro m p u b lic life a n d k e p t lo w p ro files.28 C la r a m o u n t L u cero d id n o t c o m e o u t in s u p p o r t o f M a rtín e z , b u t h e te m p o ra rily re ­ m a in e d p o litic a lly active, especially fo r th e 1931 m u n ic ip a l e lec tio n s, as w ill b e sh o w n b elo w .29 H ow ever, it w as n o t civ ilia n p o litic ia n s, b u t ra th e r h is c o h o rts in th e a rm y th a t M a rtín e z n e e d e d to w a tc h m o s t closely. C iv ilia n p o litic ia n s h a d little h o p e o f c h a lle n g in g th e w e a p o n ry o f a m ilita ry re g im e w ith o u t a m ass d e m o n s tra tio n o f p o p u la r s u p p o rt, w h erea s a m ilita ry o fficer n e e d e d o n ly w e a p o n s, so m e loyal so ld iers, a n d a b it o f tim in g a n d lu c k to o v er­ th ro w th e g o v e rn m e n t. T h e D e c e m b e r c o u p p ro v e d th is p o in t, a n d it w as th e lead ers o f th a t c o u p w h o m M a rtín e z d is tru s te d th e m o st. T h e y w ere y o u n g , dissatisfied , u p w a rd ly asp irin g , a n d h a d p ro v e n th e ir w illin g n e ss to c a rry o u t m a rtia l p lo ts. A t th e m ilita ry sc h o o l th e y h a d sh a re d th e sa m e in s tru c to r, th e C h ile a n G e n e ra l C a rlo s Ib a ñ e z d el C a m p o . M a rtín e z k n e w th a t lo y a lty to in s tru c to r a n d g e n e ra tio n w ere so m e o f th e stro n g e s t b o n d s b e tw e e n officers; th e sa m e p rin c ip le u ltim a te ly w o u ld le a d h im to rely u p o n officers o f h is o w n g e n e ra tio n . M a rtín e z in itia lly s o u g h t to d iv id e th e p lo tte rs. A fte r g iv in g th e th re e h ig h e s t-ra n k in g officers p o sitio n s in h is g o v e rn m e n t, h e d is p a tc h e d th e re m a in in g e ig h t c o n s p ira to rs to re m o te

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a n d in c o n s e q u e n tia l p o sts in o u tly in g re g io n s.30 H e s o o n d isp o se d o f th e o th e r th re e as w ell, a n d th r o u g h o u t h is te n u re in office, co n flicts w ith re ­ b ellio u s officers c o n s titu te d o n e o f h is m a in p re o c c u p a tio n s. O n e o f th e m o re p re ssin g c o n c e rn s fo r M a rtín e z w as th e f o rth c o m in g electio n s, sc h e d u le d fo r D e c e m b e r 13, 1931 (m u n ic ip a l e lec tio n s), a n d J a n u a ry 12, 1932 (d e p u ty elec tio n s). T h o u s a n d s o f m u n ic ip a l officials a n d th e fo rty -tw o d e p u tie s o f th e assem b ly w ere to b e elected , a n d th e in fa n t M a rtín e z re g im e w as n o t in a s tro n g p o s itio n to c o n tro l th e p ro cess. M a r ­ tín e z a p p ro a c h e d th e s itu a tio n p rag m a tic ally . H e re c o g n iz e d th a t u n d e r th e c irc u m sta n c e s, o b e d ie n t d e p u tie s w ere m o re im p o r ta n t th a n su b se rv i­ e n t alcaldes, b ec au se th e assem b ly w o u ld b e g ra p p lin g w ith so m e decisive issues, in c lu d in g M a rtín e z ’s o n g o in g p re sid e n c y a n d th e n a tio n ’s fin a n c ia l affairs. M a rtín e z c o n c e n tra te d h is effo rts o n th e d e p u ty e lec tio n s a n d le ft th e m u n ic ip a litie s m o re o r less to th e ir o w n devices. F o r th e m u n ic ip a l elec tio n s, th e g o v e rn m e n t issu ed a n o rd e r sta tin g th a t n e ith e r v io le n c e n o r d iso rd e r w o u ld b e to le r a te d .31 R e p o rts fro m local officials a b o u t th e p o te n tia l d istu rb a n c e s, esp ecially in th e w estern re g io n , w ith its in c re a sin g ly m o b iliz e d p e a sa n try , p r o m p te d M a rtín e z to p o s tp o n e th e e le c tio n s fro m th e ir sc h e d u le d d a te o f D e c e m b e r 13 to J a n u a ry 3, 19 3 2 . In so m e areas o f th e w est, ele c tio n s w ere p u s h e d b a c k y e t again, u n til th e first w e e k o f F e b ru a ry .32 B u t in m o s t o f th e n a tio n , th e m u n ic ip a l elec tio n s to o k p la c e o n J a n u a ry 3. T h e y g e n e ra te d th e s ta n d a rd a m o u n t o f d e n u n c ia tio n s a n d a c c u s a tio n s o f w ro n g d o in g . N o ta b ly , th e a u th o rs o f th e se solicitudes re c o g n iz e d th e p o litic a l sh ift in S an S alv a d o r a n d a d ju s te d th e ir d isc o u rse acco rd in g ly . T h e y a p p e a le d to th e m ilita ry b y id e n tify in g th e ir o p p o n e n ts as la b o rista s o r as “a d h e re n ts o f A ra u jo .” A c a n d id a te in S an Ju liá n , fo r in sta n c e , w ro te in h is s o lic ita tio n th a t h is ad v ersary is “a n activ e la b o rista ” a n d th a t i f th e g o v e rn m e n t w o u ld h e lp h im g et in to office, h e w o u ld serve as its “loyal s e n try ” a g a in st A ra u jistas in th e re g io n .33 It ap p ears th a t th e g o v e rn m e n t d id n o t r e s p o n d to th e se re q u e sts a n d sim p ly le t th e e lec to ra l co n flicts r u n th e ir c o u rse . M a rtín e z d id , how ever, fo llo w th r o u g h w ith h is p ro m ise to allo w th e P C S to p a rtic ip a te in th e electio n s, a n d th e c o m m u n is t sla te in S an S alv a d o r ra n a v e ry close th ird , a lth o u g h rep re ssio n o f s u sp e c te d c o m m u n is ts in th e c o u n try s id e c o n tin u e d .34 C o m p re h e n s iv e resu lts fro m th e e lec tio n s are n o t available, so it is im p o s sib le to d e te rm in e w h e th e r o n e p a rtic u la r p a r ty d o m in a te d th e

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electio n s. B u t re p o rts fro m th e U .S. le g a tio n , as w ell as d e s c rip tio n s in

D iario Latino, in d ic a te th a t C la r a m o u n t L u c e ro ’s p a r ty m a d e a s tro n g sh o w in g , n o ta b ly w in n in g S an S alv a d o r.35 T h e d e p u ty e lec tio n s o f J a n u a ry 12 to 14 w ere d e c id e d ly m o re p re d e ­ te rm in e d . T h e m ilita ry s u b m itte d slates o f c a n d id a te s to ea ch d e p a r tm e n t a n d d id n o t allo w c o m p e titio n . G e n e ra l C a s ta n e d a C a stro sig n a le d th e g o v e rn m e n t’s in te n t fo r th e e le c tio n w h e n , tw o w eek s p r io r to th e e lec tio n , h e ask ed th e U .S. S ta te D e p a r tm e n t i f it w o u ld a c c e p t h is in te r p re ta tio n o f th e w o rd “e le c tin g ” as re fe rrin g o n ly to p o p u la r e lec tio n s fo r p re s id e n t a n d n o t fo r d e p u tie s .36 A p p a re n tly th e S ta te D e p a r tm e n t d id n o t even b o th e r to r e s p o n d to th e in q u iry . T h e re s u lta n t e lec to ra l farce is rev ealed in th e fo llo w in g te leg ram , s e n t fro m th e alcald e o f S an Ju liá n to th e g o v e rn o r o f S o n so n a te , c o n firm in g th a t th e e lec to ra l b o a rd w as c h a n g e d in ac c o rd a n c e w ith th e g o v e rn m e n t’s o rd ers: “I u n d e r s ta n d th e c o n te n t o f to d a y ’s te le ­ g ra m in w h ic h I a m o rd e re d to s u b s titu te in th e o rg a n iz a tio n o f th e D ire c ­ to rio fo r th e d e p u ty elec tio n s, R afael A g u e d a fo r A tilio M a rte lli a n d as S ecre tary Jesus P e ñ a fo r M a n u e l d e L e o n .”37 A fte r th e e le c tio n , th e U .S. ch a rg é r e p o rte d th a t “th e official re tu rn s in d ic a te th a t th e e n tire m e m b e r ­ sh ip o f C o n g ress w ill b e c o m p o s e d o f d e p u tie s b a c k e d b y a n d fav o rab le to th e M a rtín e z reg im e a n d th e re w ill a p p a re n tly n o t b e a n y o p p o s itio n g ro u p in th e n e w A ssem bly.”38 T h e n e w sp a p e r D iario Patria d e s c rib e d th e elec tio n s as “th e a d o p tio n b y th e n e w g o v e rn m e n t o f th e o ld p ro c e d u re s w h ic h d isc re d ite d th e exercise o f su ffrag e a m o n g s t u s.”39 T h e m ilita ry ’s c o n tro l o f th e d e p u ty e lec tio n s w as an im p o r ta n t ste p in c o n s o lid a tin g its h o ld o n po w er. H o w ev er, ju s t o n e w e e k after th e elec­ tio n s, th e g o v e rn m e n t w as c o n fro n te d w ith p e rh a p s its sin g le g re a te st challen g e, th e p e a sa n t re b e llio n o f J a n u a ry 1932. L ate in th e n ig h t o f J a n u a ry 2 2 a n d early in th e m o r n in g o f J a n u a ry 2 3 , p e a sa n ts ro se u p in re b e llio n th r o u g h o u t El S a lv a d o r’s fo u r w e s te rn m o s t d e p a rtm e n ts . In a m a tte r o f th re e days th e y g a in e d c o n tro l over ro u g h ly o n e d o z e n m u n ic i­ palities, in c lu d in g th e im p o r ta n t a n d p o p u lo u s to w n sh ip s o f N a h u iz a lc o , Izalco, a n d Ju a y ú a in S o n so n a te D e p a rtm e n t. L o cal m ilita ry u n its w ere o v erw h elm ed , a n d at first th e re b e llio n se e m e d a p o te n tia lly m o rta l b lo w to a re g im e alre ad y s ta n d in g o n th e b r in k o f collapse. H o w ev er, th e g o v ­ e r n m e n t’s re sp o n se to th e re b e llio n e n d e d u p b o ls te rin g M a rtín e z . T h e g o v e rn m e n t s e n t re in fo rc e m e n ts to th e w e st o n th e m o r n in g o f th e tw e n ty fifth , a n d th e se tro o p s u n le a sh e d a re ig n o f te rro r over th e p e a sa n t p o p u la -

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tio n . In ro u g h ly tw o w ee k s’ tim e , m ilita ry u n its k ille d u n to ld th o u s a n d s o f p e o p le th r o u g h o u t th e w e ste rn c o u n try sid e . T h e m ilita ry assau lt is k n o w n sim p ly as la m atanza, “th e m a ssac re.” A lth o u g h cru c ial issues a b o u t th e m a ta n z a re m a in o b sc u re , su c h as w h o o rd e re d th e k illin g a n d th e precise m o tiv es b e h in d th e o rd ers (fo r in sta n c e , w e d o n o t k n o w i f M a rtín e z sp e ­ cifically o rd e re d th e b r u ta l resp o n se ), th e a fte rm a th o f th e sla u g h te r le ft n o q u e s tio n as to w h o w as in ch a rg e o f El S alv a d o r— M a rtín e z a n d th e m ili­ tary. E ven U .S. S e c re ta ry o f S ta te H e n r y S tim so n la m e n te d in h is p e rso n a l d ia ry th a t “th e m a n [H e rn á n d e z M a rtín e z ] w h o is p re s id e n t a n d w h o is th e o n ly p illar a g a in st th e success o f w h a t seem s to b e a n a s ty p ro le ta ria n re v o lu tio n . . . w e are u n a b le to rec o g n ize u n d e r th e 1923 ru le .”40 T h e 1932 u p ris in g w o u ld p ro v e to b e a m a jo r ev e n t in S a lv a d o ra n histo ry , a n d its leg acy c o n tin u e s to affect th e n a tio n to th is day. T h e u p ris ­ in g a n d th e g o v e rn m e n t’s re sp o n se to it w ill b e d isc u sse d in g re a te r d e ta il in th e n e x t c h a p te r. S uffice it to say fo r n o w th a t th e u p ris in g p la y e d a m a jo r ro le in s h a p in g M a rtín e z ’s stra te g y o f g o v e rn a n c e . A m o n g o th e r th in g s, it in c ite d a re fo rm ist r h e to ric th a t p la c e d w o rk in g p e o p le ’s in te re sts a t th e fo re fro n t o f g o v e rn m e n t d isc o u rse. It also allo w ed M a rtín e z to c o n s tru c t a sizeable p o lic e sta te th a t w o u ld b e c o m e th e b a c k b o n e o f his th irte e n -y e a r ru le. A fter th e re b e llio n , th e M a rtín e z g o v e rn m e n t ca p ita liz e d o n its e n ­ h a n c e d p o s itio n b y d ire c tin g its a tte n tio n to th e fin a n c ia l situ a tio n , a n ­ o th e r p o te n tia l so u rc e o f d e s ta b iliz a tio n . T h e g o v e rn m e n t sla sh ed s p e n d ­ in g , c u t in te re s t rate s b y 4 0 p e rc e n t, a n d p la c e d a m o r a to riu m o n all o p e ra tio n s w ith in te re s t fo r fo u r years. In a b o ld m o v e , th e g o v e rn m e n t also ceased all p a y m e n ts o n th e 1922 lo a n , th e re b y a llo w in g m o s t o f th e c u sto m s d u tie s to pass d ire c tly in to th e g o v e rn m e n t’s coffers.41 M a rtín e z u se d p a r t o f th a t re v e n u e to k ee p th e m ilita ry p a id p r o m p tly a n d fully.42 In su m m ary , b y th e se c o n d q u a rte r o f 19 3 2 , th e M a rtín e z g o v e rn m e n t h a d w e a th e re d th e w o rs t o f th e s to rm a n d w as o n its w a y to c o n s o lid a tin g its h o ld o n pow er.

C o n s o lid a tin g P o w er

M a rtín e z a d o p te d a p o litic a l stra te g y in w h ic h h e first se c u re d c o n tro l over S an S alv ad o r a n d th e n e x te n d e d h is a u th o rity o u tw a rd to th e re st o f th e

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n a tio n . As lo n g as th e o u tly in g m u n ic ip a litie s d id n o t b e c o m e b re e d in g g ro u n d s fo r co u p s o r o p p o s itio n m o v e m e n ts, M a rtín e z w as w illin g to ig ­ n o re th e m w h ile h e g u a rd e d a g a in st co n sp ira cies in S an S alv a d o r a n d in th e m ilita ry b arrac k s. M a rtín e z in itia lly fo c u se d h is s u sp ic io n o n tw o o f th e th re e re m a in in g a rc h ite c ts o f th e 1931 c o u p , C o lo n e ls A g u irre a n d V aldés. R u m o rs o f c o n s p ira c y sw irled a r o u n d th e m , a lth o u g h it is n o t clear w h e th e r th e y a c tu a lly p lo tte d a g a in st M a rtín e z . T h e U .S . ch argé, W illia m J. M cC afferty , su g g e sted th a t “M a rtín e z in te n d s to se cu re c o m ­ p le te c o n tro l o f th e a rm y b y b re a k in g th e p o w e r o f th e y o u n g m ilita ry o f­ ficers a n d p la c in g o ld e r a n d m o re d e p e n d a b le a rm y officers in c h a rg e o f m ilita ry p o sts.”43 A g u irre w as th e first to go. H e re p o rte d ly m o v e d ag a in st M a rtín e z s h o rtly afte r th e re b e llio n o f 19 3 2 . T h e a c tu a l tim in g a n d n a tu re o f A g u irre ’s alleg ed c o n sp ira c y are n o t k n o w n , b u t th e B ritish m in is te r n o te d in M a y th a t A g u irre ’s p lo t h a d b e e n stifle d a n d th a t h e h a d b e e n d e m o te d fro m th e c h ie f o f p o lic e to th e g o v e rn o rsh ip o f C u s c a tlá n D e ­ p a r tm e n t (w h ere h e re m a in e d u n til 1 9 4 4 ).44 C o lo n e l V aldés w as n o t as lu c k y as A g u irre . In Ju ly 1 9 3 2 h e w as re p o r te d to h av e a tte n d e d a d rin k in g session w ith so m e fello w officers, in c lu d in g th e g o v e rn o r o f L a L ib e rta d . D u r in g th e rev elry so m e d isp a ra g in g re m a rk s w ere m a d e a b o u t M a rtín e z , a n d ru m o rs o f a c o u p b e g a n to c irc u late. M a rtín e z re s p o n d e d b y re m o v in g V aldés as m in is te r o f w a r a n d d is p a tc h in g h im to S p a in o n a “sp ecial m is ­ s io n ,” o th e rw ise k n o w n as d ip lo m a tic exile. V aldés re m a in e d in p o litic a l o b s c u rity fo r th e re m a in d e r o f th e M a rtín e z re g im e .45 M a rtín e z ’s p ro b le m s w ith u p p ity y o u n g officers d id n o t e n d th e re ; in fact, th e y w ere ju s t b e g in n in g . In N o v e m b e r 1 9 3 2 a g ro u p o f y o u n g offi­ cers in S an M ig u e l re p o rte d ly ro se u p a n d trie d to seize th e b arrac k s. T h e c o n s p ira to rs w ere ja ile d , b u t th e ir u ltim a te p u n is h m e n t is n o t k n o w n . M a rtín e z d e n o u n c e d th e re v o lt as a “c o m m u n is t p lo t,” a n a c c u sa tio n h e w o u ld use m a n y tim e s in th e c o m in g years to d e n o u n c e c o n s p ira to rs.46 M a rtín e z ’s p o litic a l stra te g y is e v id e n t in th e m u n ic ip a l e lec tio n s o f D e c e m b e r 1932 a n d th e d e p u ty ele c tio n s o f J a n u a ry 19 3 3 . Ju st as h e h a d d o n e w ith th e elec tio n s th e p r io r year, h e ig n o re d th e m u n ic ip a l elec tio n s a n d c o n c e n tra te d in s te a d o n th e d e p u ty e lec tio n s. T h e g o v e rn m e n t in te r ­ v e n e d o n ly in th o se m u n ic ip a litie s w h e re e lec to ra l v io le n c e h a d o c c u rre d o r w as ex p ected . T h is in te r v e n tio n closely re se m b le d th a t o f R o m e ro B o sq u e in 1927; g o v e rn m e n t officials b r o u g h t th e rival fa c tio n s to g e th e r a n d g o t th e m to se ttle o n a c o m p ro m ise c a n d id a te .47

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C o m p re h e n s iv e re su lts fro m th e d e p u ty e lec tio n s h av e su rv iv ed . T h e y reveal th a t th e g o v e rn m e n t’s sla te o f c a n d id a te s r a n v irtu a lly u n o p p o s e d a n d w o n th e ir e lec tio n s u n a n im o u sly . In o n ly 4 o f th e 2 3 5 v o tin g d istric ts d id a se c o n d sla te o f c a n d id a te s a p p e a r o n th e b a llo t. It is n o t clear i f th is slate actu a lly c o n s titu te d o rg a n iz e d o p p o s itio n to th e g o v e rn m e n t, o r if th e g o v e rn m e n t sim p ly allo w ed so m e a d d itio n a l s u p p o rte rs to a p p e a r o n th e b a llo t. In e ith e r case, n o n e o f th e se c o n d slates rec eiv e d m o re th a n eleven v otes, a n d ea ch o f th e m lo st b y a n average o f 9 9 .9 p e rc e n t o f th e v o te .48 T o f u rth e r b o lste r h is reg im e, M a rtín e z b u ilt u p th e in te llig e n c e w in g o f th e s e c u rity forces. A n u n d e te r m in e d n u m b e r o f p o lic e ag e n ts w ere c o n v e rte d in to spies a n d p la c e d a t th e d isp o sal o f d e p e n d a b le officers a n d g o v ern o rs. T h e ra n k s o f th is in te llig e n c e a p p a ra tu s w ere a u g m e n te d b y civ ilian co lla b o ra to rs, k n o w n as th e orejas, o r “ears,” o f th e g o v e rn m e n t. S o m e orejas w ere e m p lo y e d fo rm ally , su c h as th e s c h o o lte a c h e r in S o n so n a te D e p a r tm e n t w h o d o u b le d as a sp y a n d s u b m itte d re p o rts to th e m ilita ry .49 M o s t civ ilia n in fo rm a n ts , how ever, w ere in c o rp o ra te d in f o r ­ m ally. H e re , th e m ilita ry re lie d o n its a b ility to c u ltiv a te a n e n v iro n m e n t o f su sp ic io n a n d in trig u e , su c h th a t p e o p le w o u ld b e w illin g to c o m e f o rth w ith a n y in fo rm a tio n th a t m ig h t g a rn e r th e m a fin a n c ia l rew ard . T h e la b o r o rg an iz e r a n d C o m m u n is t P a rty m e m b e r M ig u e l M á rm o l d e sc rib e d th e effectiveness o f th e orejas. W h ile try in g to sta y o u t o f th e g o v e rn m e n t’s clu tch e s after su rv iv in g th e m a ta n z a o f 19 3 2 , h e w as ab le to a v o id th e u n ifo rm e d officials, b u t h e f o u n d it n e a rly im p o s sib le to d e te rm in e w h o m ig h t b e an in f o rm a n t fo r th e p o lic e. It w as a n o re ja w h o ev e n tu a lly f in ­ g ere d h im in 1 9 3 4 .50 In a n o th e r ex a m p le , a P a le stin ia n sh o p k e e p e r, Jo rg e A b u lla rd e , e n c o u n te re d th e o reja sy stem in J u n e 1933 at a sm a ll social g a th e rin g o f “frie n d s.” A b u lla rd e v o ic e d h is c ritic ism s o f th e M a rtín e z g o v ­ e rn m e n t, a n d th e n e x t d a y h e f o u n d h im s e lf in jail, ac cu sed o f c o n s p irin g to o v e rth ro w th e g o v e rn m e n t.51 T h e ex p erien ces o f M á rm o l a n d A b u ll­ ard e le n d c re d e n c e to th e assessm en t b y th e B ritish m in is te r s ta tin g th a t “all p erso n s o p p o s in g th e g o v e rn m e n t are k n o w n a n d closely w a tc h e d a n d hav e h a d little o p p o r tu n ity to act, especially sin c e C o lo n e l J o a q u ín V aldés, m in is te r o f w ar, w as s e n t in to exile.”52 T h e g o v e rn o r o f S o n so n a te , C o lo n e l Ju lio C é sar C a ld e ró n , la te r re fe rre d to so m e “se cret ag e n ts” u n d e r h is a u ­ th o r ity a n d th e ir in te llig e n c e -g a th e rin g m issio n s, w h ic h h a d b e e n o p e ra t­ in g fo r a n u m b e r o f y e a rs.53

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In Ju ly 1933, p o litic a l te n sio n s in c re a se d ra p id ly w h e n M a rtín e z a n ­ n o u n c e d h is in te n tio n to r u n fo r p re s id e n t fo r th e te rm o f 1935 to 1939. T h is d e c isio n w as a reversal o f h is earlier p ro m ise to leave office afte r th e c o m p le tio n o f A ra u jo ’s te rm . A lth o u g h M a rtín e z d id n o t ad d re ss sp ecifi­ cally th e issue o f c o m p e titio n , o b serv ers rig h tly a ssu m e d th a t h e p la n n e d to r u n u n o p p o s e d . T h e B ritish m in iste r, fo r in sta n c e , c o m m e n te d th a t “n o o rg a n ise d o p p o s itio n w o u ld b e to le ra te d , a n d th e te rm ‘e le c tio n s’ is a re c ­ o g n ise d e u p h e m is m .” T h e m in is te r also sa rcastically a d d e d th a t “th e tim e h o n o r e d p ro c e d u re in su c h cases w as n o t to b e n e g le c te d .”54 M a rtin e z ’s d e c isio n to r u n a lie n a te d th e p ro d e m o c ra c y sector. M ig u e l M o lin a , fo r in sta n c e , re sig n e d as m in is te r o f fin a n c e in p r o te s t.55 M o lin a w as le ft in relativ e p eace afte r h is re sig n a tio n , b u t o th e r s u sp e c te d ad v o c ates o f d e ­ m o c ra c y receiv ed less b e n ig n tre a tm e n t. M a n u e l M e n d o z a , fo r in sta n c e , su ffered an in crease in p o lic e v ig ilan ce. T w ice h e a p p e a le d fo r a rep riev e, p ro m is in g th a t h e w as n o t o p p o s in g th e g o v e rn m e n t, b u t h is ap p eals b r o u g h t n o relief.56 P ío R o m e ro B o sq u e a n d A n to n io C la r a m o u n t L u ce ro w ere exiled after M a rtin e z ac cu sed ea ch o f th e m o f o rg a n iz in g “c o m m u ­ n is t s e d itio n .” C la r a m o u n t L u ce ro w as s e n t to G u a te m a la in A u g u st 1933, a n d R o m e ro B o sq u e w e n t to C o s ta R ica in D e c e m b e r o f th e sa m e year. It ap p e ars th a t b o th o f th e m w ere exiled fo r try in g to o rg an iz e c a m p a ig n s to ch allen g e M a rtin e z in th e e le c tio n . In a n in te rv ie w w ith th e U .S. m ilita ry a tta c h é in C o s ta R ica, R o m e ro B o sq u e d e n ie d th a t h e h a d p lo tte d a g a in st M a rtin e z a n d cla im e d th a t h is exile w as a p r o d u c t o f h is s u p p o rte rs try in g to g et h im o n to th e b allo t. C la r a m o u n t L u ce ro to o w as re p o r te d to h av e b e e n m o b iliz in g h is s u p p o rte rs .57 M a rtín e z ’s d e c isio n to r u n w as a p re s c rip tio n fo r m ilita ry re v o lt b e ­ cause it d a s h e d th e h o p e s o f m a n y a n officer w h o w a n te d to b e c o m e p re si­ d e n t. R o m e ro B o sq u e c o m m e n te d o n th is p ro b le m d u r in g h is in te rv iew : “th is v ery m ilita ry o rg a n iz a tio n m a y p ro v e M a rtín e z ’s u n d o in g . In b u ild ­ in g u p th e a rm y to th e p o in t h e has, p la c in g h ig h -ra n k in g a rm y officers in m o s t o f th e p o sitio n s o f p o w e r a n d tru s t, a n d in c id e n ta lly lu c ra tiv e , h e h as also aw a k e n e d m o re th a n o n e d o r m a n t a m b itio n .”58 A c c o rd in g to th e U .S. chargé, M a rtín e z w as su ffic ie n tly w o rrie d : “It h as b e e n q u ite e v id e n t d u r ­ in g th e p a st few w eeks th a t th e M a rtín e z G o v e rn m e n t feels c o n sid e ra b le n erv o u sn e ss . . . a n d is ta k in g ev ery p re c a u tio n a g a in st su b v ersiv e activ ities.”59 M a rtin e z re s p o n d e d to th e p o te n tia l fo r a rm e d re b e llio n b y o rd e r-

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in g h is s e c u rity forces to r o u n d u p s u sp e c te d o p p o n e n ts o f th e reg im e, civ ilian a n d m ilita ry alike. T h e U .S. ch a rg é c o m m e n te d o n a r u m o r th a t d is c o n te n te d a rm y officers asso cia te d w ith civ ilian p lo tte rs h a d b e e n im ­ p ris o n e d a n d p o ssib ly e x e c u te d .60 M ig u e l M á rm o l n o te d in h is te s tim o n y to R o q u e D a lto n in th e la te 1 9 60s th a t d u r in g h is te n u re in p ris o n in 1934, h is fello w p riso n e rs in c lu d e d a “g ro u p o f cavalry officers” a n d “so m e y o u n g officers ac cu sed o f b e in g p a rtisa n s w ith G e n e ra l C la r a m o u n t.”61 T h e B ritish le g a tio n r e p o rte d in 1934 th a t “w ith in th e a rm y a c e rta in a m o u n t o f d is c o n te n t lin g e rs, p a rtic u la rly a m o n g ju n io r officers w h o , u n d e r fo rm e r g o v e rn m e n ts, w ere ab le to h o ld m a n y p o sitio n s a t o n c e a n d d ra w several salaries. T h is is n o lo n g e r p o ssib le a n d officers w h o in th e p a s t m ig h t hav e d ra w n 3 0 0 C o lo n e s p e r m o n th n o w receive as little as 6 0 after d e d u c tin g taxes, c o n trib u tio n s , etc .”62 M a rtin e z ’s p ro b le m s w ith th e m ilita ry p e a k e d in la te J a n u a ry 1934, w h e n a n a tte m p te d c o u p w as d isco v ered . A m o n g th e ac cu sed c o n s p ira to rs w as G e n e ra l C a s ta n e d a C a stro , th e m in is te r o f g o v e rn m e n t a n d a tru s te d c o n fid a n t o f M a rtín e z . B y th e g o v e rn m e n t’s a c c o u n t— th e o n ly v ersio n c u rre n tly available— C a s ta n e d a C a stro co n fe ssed to h is in v o lv e m e n t in th e c o u p . H e su p p o se d ly p la n n e d to b rin g a n e w p o litic a l p a r ty to pow er, o n e th a t w o u ld ta k e g o v e rn m e n t aw ay fro m b o th th e m ilita ry a n d th e p o o r a n d give it over to w e a lth y p la n te rs .63 S u c h a d e n u n c ia tio n s o u n d s s u sp i­ cio u s b ecau se it p r o m o te d M a rtin e z ’s im a g e as a p o p u lis t (see n e x t c h a p ­ ter) a t th e sa m e tim e th a t it d e n o u n c e d C a s ta n e d a C a stro . W h e th e r C a s­ ta n e d a C a stro p a rtic ip a te d in th e c o u p re m a in s u n c e rta in . T h e U .S. ch a rg é d escrib ed h im as a m a n o f “P re sid e n tia l tim b e r,” a n o p in io n C a sta n e d a C a stro e v id e n tly sh a re d , ju d g in g fro m th e fac t th a t h e b riefly a ssu m e d th e p re sid e n c y in 19 4 4 . 64 H o w ev er, it is p o ssib le th a t C a s ta n e d a C a stro h a d n o in v o lv e m e n t in th e c o u p . T h e B ritish m in is te r n o te d th a t M a rtín e z u se d th e c o u p “as a g o o d excuse to g e t r id o f m a n y tro u b le s o m e in d i­ v id u a ls b y d e p o r ta tio n .”65 M a rtín e z m ig h t h av e fa b ric a te d C a s ta n e d a C a s­ tro ’s p a rtic ip a tio n in a n e ffo rt to e lim in a te a p o te n tia l rival. E ith e r way, C a s ta n e d a C a stro w as a rrested , jaile d , a n d p la c e d o n a list o f “p o litic a l en e m ie s” th a t M a rtín e z k e p t.66 H e re m a in e d in ja il fo r a few w eeks a n d w as th e n released, o n ly to b e ex iled to P a n a m a in 1935 fo r alleg ed ly p a r ­ tic ip a tin g in a n o th e r p lo t.67 O n e o f th e c o n s p ira to rs fro m th e J a n u a ry 1934 co u p , a M e x ic a n law yer, d ie d in p ris o n . T h e g o v e rn m e n t cla im e d

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th a t h e c o m m itte d su ic id e , b u t as th e B ritish m in is te r n o te d , “it is b eliev ed h e w as k illed , b u t n o th in g c o u ld ever b e p ro v e d .”68 S u c h a c tio n s su g g est th a t M a rtín e z in te n d e d to h av e n o th in g to s ta n d in h is w ay o f re e le c tio n . A s R o m e ro B o sq u e p u t it, “i f M a rtín e z w ish es to re-ele ct h im self, th e re is n o p o w e r o n e a rth to sto p h im , b ec au se th r o u g h th e p o n d e ro u s m ilita ry o rg a n iz a tio n h e h as b u ilt u p h e c o n tro ls th e c o u n try ab so lu te ly .”69 A c c o rd ­ in g to th e B ritish m in iste r, “n o th in g s h o rt o f a ssassin atio n c a n p re v e n t h im fro m b e in g ree lec te d in Ja n u ary , 1 9 3 5 .”70

P ro -P a tria

In Ju ly 1933, s h o rtly afte r a n n o u n c in g th a t h e w o u ld r u n fo r p re s id e n t in 1935, M a rtín e z fo u n d e d th e P a rtid o N a c io n a l P ro -P a tria (th e N a tio n a l P a rty o f th e F a th e rla n d ). P ro -P a tria w as c re a te d u n d e r th e g u ise o f M a rtín e z ’s p o litic a l p a r ty fo r th e c a m p a ig n , b u t in a c tu a lity it b e c a m e h is p a ­ tro n a g e n e tw o rk , th e h e ir to th e P N D , w h ic h M a rtín e z w o u ld u se to c o n s o lid a te p o litic a l c o n tro l th r o u g h o u t th e n a tio n . In a d d itio n to le a d in g th e ch a rg e o n M a rtín e z ’s c a m p a ig n , P ro -P a tria c o n tro lle d th e se le c tio n o f m u n ic ip a l officials a n d d e p u tie s . In th e im m e d ia te sense, o f co u rse, c o n ­ tro llin g m u n ic ip a l e lec tio n s a n d w in n in g th e e le c tio n o f 1935 w ere tw o sides o f th e sa m e c o in . M a rtín e z n e e d e d loyal s u p p o rte rs in th e m u n ic i­ p alitie s w h o c o u ld m o n o p o liz e v o tin g a n d g u a ra n te e h is v ic to ry in 1935. T h e su p re m e c o u n c il (C o n se jo S u p re m o ) o f P ro -P a tria w as e sta b ­ lish e d in S an S alv a d o r in Ju ly 1933 a n d c h a rg e d w ith b u ild in g th e p a rty in to a n a tio n w id e in s titu tio n . In A u g u st its m e m b e rs o u tlin e d a n efficien t o rg a n iz a tio n a l s tr u c tu re th a t closely re se m b le d th a t o f its p red ecesso r, th e P N D . P ro -P a tria c h a p te rs (called “d e le g a tio n s”) w o u ld b e esta b lish e d at th e d e p a rtm e n ta l, m u n ic ip a l, a n d c a n to n a l levels. L ik e th e P N D , P ro ­ P a tria w as in d is tin g u is h a b le fro m g o v e rn m e n t. M a rtín e z c o n tro lle d th e s u p re m e c o u n c il, g o v e rn o rs o v ersaw th e d e p a rtm e n ta l d e le g a tio n s, a n d alcaldes m o n ito re d th e m u n ic ip a l d e le g a tio n s. T h e d e p a rtm e n ta l a n d m u ­ n ic ip a l d eleg a tio n s c o n s iste d o f a n execu tiv e c o m m itte e (directiva) o f u p to tw o d o z e n p erso n s a n d an u n lim ite d n u m b e r o f m e m b e rs. C a n to n a l d e le ­ g a tio n s c o n s iste d o n ly o f ra n k -a n d -file m e m b e rs .71

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P ro -P a tria g rew e x p o n e n tia lly b ec au se ea ch d e le g a tio n w as e x p e cted to o rg an ize th e level im m e d ia te ly b e lo w it. T h e su p re m e c o u n c il oversaw th e fo rm a tio n o f th e f o u rte e n d e p a rtm e n ta l d e le g a tio n s. A ffiliates fro m th e d e p a rtm e n ta l d e le g a tio n s th e n tra v e le d to th e o u tly in g m u n ic ip a litie s to oversee th e fo rm a tio n o f m u n ic ip a l d e le g a tio n s, w h o se m e m b e rs in tu r n v e n tu re d o u t to o rg an iz e c a n to n a l d e le g a tio n s. In d e e d , th is stra te g y sh o w ed d e m o n s tra b le resu lts. A lth o u g h w e h av e c o m p re h e n siv e d a ta fo r o n ly o n e d e p a r tm e n t (S o n so n a te ), P ro -P a tria s d ra m a tic g ro w th in th a t re g io n is e v id e n t. B y O c to b e r 19 3 3 , m u n ic ip a l d e le g a tio n s h a d b e e n fo u n d e d in n in e o f th e d e p a r tm e n ts six te e n m u n ic ip a litie s, a n d b y J u n e o f th e fo llo w in g y ea r d ele g a tio n s ex iste d in all eleven m u n ic ip a litie s. A t least seven o f th e six te e n m u n ic ip a l d e le g a tio n s h a d c a n to n a l d e le g a tio n s; th e o th e r n in e p ro b a b ly d id as w ell, b u t w e lack th e c o rre s p o n d in g lists. By O c to b e r 1934 , S o n s o n a te D e p a r tm e n t h a d n e a rly 1 0 ,0 0 0 c a rd -c a rry in g m e m b e rs, w ith a n a d d itio n a l 6 ,5 0 0 m e m b e rs w a itin g fo r carnets (m e m ­ b e rs h ip cards) to arriv e fro m th e cap ita l. T w o m o n th s la te r th e to ta l n u m ­ b e r o f affiliates h a d rise n to a lm o st 2 0 ,0 0 0 . W i th o u t c o rre s p o n d in g lists fro m th e rest o f th e n a tio n , it is im p o s sib le to say i f P ro -P a tria s ra te o f g ro w th in S o n so n a te w as e x c e p tio n a l. B u t it is clear th a t P ro -P a tria c h a p ­ ters w ere b e in g esta b lish e d n a tio n w id e , a n d in tim e th e y w ere to b e fo u n d in v irtu a lly every c o rn e r o f th e c o u n try . As ju s t o n e in d ic a to r o f th e d eg ree to w h ic h P ro -P a tria e x p a n d e d , th e g o v e rn m e n t a ssem b led a c o m m issio n in 1940 to c o n d u c t a th o r o u g h su rv ey o f all th e “societies, o rg a n iz a tio n s, a n d clu b s in th e n a tio n .” T h e c o m m issio n c o n c lu d e d th a t “in a lm o st all th e p o p u la tio n s , th e re d o es n o t exist a n y so c ie ty ex c ep t fo r th e s u b ­ c o m m itte e o f th e P a rtid o P ro -P a tria .”72 P ro -P a tria d e le g a tio n s m irro re d lo cal so cial h ie ra rc h ie s. T h e m u ­ n ic ip a l d e leg a tio n s, a n d especially th e ex e cu tiv e c o m m itte e s o f th e se d e le ­ g atio n s, w ere d o m in a te d b y lo cal elites, th e sa m e p e o p le w h o h o p e d to serve o n th e m u n ic ip a l c o u n c ils. I n c o n tra st, th e c a n to n a l d e le g a tio n s, as w ell as th e r a n k a n d file o f th e m u n ic ip a l d e le g a tio n s, c o n siste d o f c o m m o n e rs — d a y la b o re rs, p e a sa n ts, a n d in th e w e ste rn reg io n s, In d ia n s. It w as P ro -P a tria ’s o b je ctiv e n o t to e x c lu d e c o m m o n e rs, b u t ra th e r to in ­ c o rp o ra te th e m in to th e ra n k s o f th e p a r ty in o rd e r to c o n tro l th e ir fra n ­ chise. P ro -P a tria w a n te d to p la c e th e v o tin g p o w e r o f th e n a tio n u n d e r its d ire c t au th o rity .

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T h e m u n ic ip a lity o f N a h u iz a lc o offers a n ex e m p la ry case o f th e s tr u c ­ tu re o f a P ro -P a tria d e le g a tio n . T h e m u n ic ip a l d e le g a tio n h a d 2 9 m e m ­ bers, a n d th e 17 c a n to n a l d ele g a tio n s h a d a c o m b in e d to ta l o f 2 8 3 m e m b e rs. T h e m u n ic ip a l d e le g a tio n w as d o m in a te d b y th e sa m e so cially p r o m in e n t la d in o s w h o h a d c o n tro lle d N a h u iz a lc o ’s p o litic a l scen e sin c e 1923: B rito , M a g a ñ a , O liv a re s, A g u irre , a n d M e jia . In c o n tra st, th e 2 8 3 m e m b e rs o f th e c a n to n a l d e le g a tio n s c o n siste d o f p e a sa n ts, n o t o n e o f w h o m ap p ears o n lists o f N a h u iz a lc o ’s la n d o w n e rs o r m o n e y e d citiz en ry .73 R e co g n izab ly I n d ia n su rn a m e s p e rm e a te th e c a n to n a l m e m b e rs h ip lists, in c lu d in g L úe, G alicia, C ru z , T épaz, C ú m e t, Z e tin o , S h ú l, a n d C a m p o s. I f w e in c lu d e o th e r su rn a m e s c o m m o n to N a h u iz a lc o ’s In d ia n s, su c h as Pérez, C o rté s, a n d H e rn á n d e z , it is safe to e s tim a te th a t In d ia n s a c c o u n te d fo r w ell over 7 0 p e rc e n t o f P ro -P a tria s m e m b e rs h ip in N a h u iz a lc o . T h e d e le g a tio n o f S o n s o n a te C ity fo llo w ed a sim ila r p a tte r n . T h e ex­ ecu tiv e c o m m itte e c o n siste d o f th irty -fiv e o f S o n s o n a te ’s m o s t p r o m in e n t p erso n s, in c lu d in g th e p re s id e n t o f th e c o m m itte e , L isa n d ro L a rin , w h o h a d served as g o v e rn o r o f S o n so n a te D e p a r tm e n t u n d e r P ío R o m e ro B o sq u e a n d as th e alcald e o f S o n so n a te C ity o n tw o o cc a sio n s.74 A n o th e r m e m b e r o f th e c o m m itte e w as H é c to r H e rre ra , w h o o w n e d at least fo u r h a c ie n d a s in th e v ic in ity o f S o n s o n a te a n d h a d also se rv e d as n a tio n a l a u d ito r u n d e r M a rtin e z in 1 9 3 2 .75 In c o n tra st, th e re g u la r m e m b e rs o f S o n s o n a te ’s m u n ic ip a l d e le g a tio n c o n siste d m o s tly o f d a y la b o re rs. U n fo r ­ tu n a tely , we h av e o n ly fo u r o f th e se v e n te e n pages o f th e list o f re g u la r m e m b e rs, b u t th e su rv iv in g pages c o n ta in th e n a m e s o f 119 p e o p le , 8 2 o f w h o m are lis te d as jo rn a le ro s, o r d a y la b o re rs. O f th e re m a in in g th irty seven n am es, o n ly tw o are liste d as agricultores (la n d o w n in g fa rm ers), w hile th e rest are liste d as so m e ty p e o f artisa n . D a ta fro m o th e r m u n ic i­ p alitie s in S o n so n a te fo llo w th e p a tte r n set b y N a h u iz a lc o a n d S o n so n a te . F ro m Ju a y ú a, fo r in sta n c e , w e la ck th e lists o f th e c a n to n a l d eleg a tio n s, b u t hav e th e list o f th e m u n ic ip a l d e le g a tio n , w h ic h read s lik e a w h o ’s-w h o o f th e re g io n ’s coffee grow ers, in c lu d in g M á x im o Jerez, S e c u n d in o M a ta , F ran cisco V illa c o rta , M a x im o R a u d a S alaverria, V ic e n te M a g a ñ a , a n d Jesús C e a .76 P ro -P a tria w as th o ro u g h ly b u re a u c ra tiz e d . O fficials k e p t d e ta ile d m e m b e rs h ip lists, ea ch m e m b e r receiv ed a carnet, a n d th e h e a d o f each d e le g a tio n h a d to s u b m it fre q u e n t re p o rts d e ta ilin g h is g r o u p ’s ac tiv ities a n d s p e n d in g .77 T h e p a rty w as v e ry h ie ra rc h ic a l as w ell, p la c in g g re a t im -

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p o rta n c e o n serv ice to o n e ’s su p e rio rs. A n in d ic a tio n o f th is is f o u n d in th e p a rty ch arter, w h ic h rea d , “ In o rd e r to e stab lish d isc ip lin e , o rd e r a n d u n ity o f a c tio n in th e w o rk o f th e P a rtid o . . . th e C a n to n a l D e le g a tio n s w ill k n o w o n ly o f th e ac tiv ities o f th e L o cal D e le g a tio n ; L o cal D e le g a ­ tio n s o f th e D e p a rtm e n ta l D e le g a tio n ; a n d th e D e p a rtm e n ta l D e le g a tio n s o f th e S u p re m e C o u n c il.”78 In so m e m u n ic ip a litie s w o m e n ’s c o m m itte e s w ere fo rm e d , p re su m a b ly fo r p ro p a g a n d a a n d o rg a n iz a tio n a l w o rk , sin c e w o m e n still w ere n o t allo w ed to v o te .79 T h e a m o u n t o f w o rk th a t a n in d i­ v id u a l h a d to p e rfo rm as p a r t o f h is o r h e r m e m b e rs h ip in P ro -P a tria v a r­ ie d w ith th e m e m b e rs h ip level. O ffic ers o n th e ex ecu tiv e c o m m itte e s h a d m o re resp o n sib ilitie s th a n re g u la r m e m b e rs, a n d m e m b e rs in th e b ig g er cities h a d m o re ac tiv ities to a tte n d to th a n m e m b e rs in th e c a n to n e s. T h e average m e m b e r in a c a n to n a l d e le g a tio n w as e x p e c te d to p e rfo rm so m e n o m in a l o rg a n iz a tio n a l w o rk , tu r n o u t fo r th e o cc asio n al c o n fe re n c e or p a ra d e , a n d , m o s t im p o rta n tly , sh o w u p o n e le c tio n day. D u r in g th e m u n ic ip a l e lec tio n s o f D e c e m b e r 1933, P ro -P a tria sw u n g in to a c tio n a n d b e g a n g a in in g c o n tro l o v er th e n a tio n ’s e lec to ra l p rocess. R o u g h ly six w eeks p r io r to th e e le c tio n , M a rtín e z in fo rm e d ea ch o f his f o u rte e n d e p a rtm e n ta l g o v e rn o rs th a t th e m u n ic ip a l officials a b o u t to b e elec ted m u s t first m e e t th e ap p ro v a l o f P ro -P a tria . H e in s tru c te d th e g o v ­ ern o rs to m a k e u se o f th e ir c o n ta c ts in th e m u n ic ip a litie s to p ro d u c e a list o f th re e p o te n tia l c a n d id a te s fo r alcald e fro m ea ch m u n ic ip a lity . T h e se n a m e s w ere to b e fo rw a rd e d to S an S alvador, w h e re th e s u p re m e c o u n c il w o u ld m a k e th e fin al d ec isio n . T h e g o al o f th is p ro cess, a c c o rd in g to th e circular, w as “to ch o o se p e rso n s th a t m o s t m e e t th e n e e d s o f th e n a tio n , th e d e p a r tm e n t a n d th e P a rtid o N a c io n a l.”80 T h e c irc u la r o p e n s a w in d o w o n to h o w th e p a tro n a g e sy stem fu n c tio n e d u n d e r P ro -P a tria . A lth o u g h M a rtín e z a n d th e su p re m e c o u n c il h a d th e fin al say o n w h o w o u ld b e elected , it w as th e d e p a rtm e n ta l g o v e rn o r a n d p e o p le a t th e lo cal level w h o assem b led th e o rig in a l list. T h u s , u p a n d d o w n th e v ario u s a d m in is ­ tra tiv e levels, th e re w ere favors to b e g iv en a n d rec eiv e d a n d p a tro n a g e to b e d isp e n sed . T h is p ro ce ss is rev ealed in f u rth e r d e ta il b y a le tte r fro m G u ille rm o B a rrie n to s, a p o litic a l jefe in th e m u n ic ip a lity o f S an Ju liá n (S o n so n a te D e p a rtm e n t) , w h o w ro te to a m e m b e r o f P ro -P a tria s d e p a rtm e n ta l d ele­ g a tio n in S o n s o n a te C ity . B a rrie n to s h a d b e e n g iv e n th e ta sk o f fin d in g c a n d id a te s in th e m u n ic ip a litie s o f S an Ju liá n , C u is n a h u a t, a n d Ish u a tá n .

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O b v io u sly th is w as a h ig h ly e n v iab le resp o n sib ility , fo r it gave B a rrie n to s th e p o w er to d e te rm in e w h o se n a m e s w ere s e n t o n to th e n e x t level fo r ap p ro v al. O n c e B a rrie n to s h a d s e ttle d u p o n th e c a n d id a te s, it w as in his in te re s t to see th a t th e y g o t elected , a n d so in h is le tte r h e lo b b ie d o n th e ir b eh alf: “T h e se p e rso n s are th e b e st th a t w e c o u ld h o p e to fin d fo r b e in g in a g re e m e n t w ith th e a s p ira tio n s o f th e N a tio n a l P a rty ; fo r th is re a so n I e n ­ co u ra g e y o u to hav e a p r o m p t in te rv ie w w ith th e G o v e rn o r, p u ttin g b efo re h im th is list o f n a m e s.” B a rrie n to s also n o te d in h is le tte r th a t th e pro cess o f selec tin g c a n d id a te s h a d g e n e ra te d o p p o s itio n a m o n g s t th o se fac tio n s h e h a d p assed over: “T h e r e is n o la c k o f p e rso n s in th e se places, m o tiv a te d b y o n e rea so n o r a n o th e r . . . w h o w a n t to u n d e r m in e o u r sin c e re efforts a n d c h a n g e th e se n a m e s.”81 T h is la st c o m m e n t b y B a rrie n to s p re d ic te d th e m u ltitu d e o f req u e sts th a t w o u ld p o u r in to th e d e p a rtm e n ta l ca p ita ls a n d th e n a tio n a l ca p ita l fro m lo cal p o litic a l fa c tio n s lo o k in g to c o n v in c e th e g o v e rn m e n t to c h a n g e its slate o f c a n d id a te s. I t is in te re s tin g to n o te th a t fro m th e list o f th e six tee n fin al c a n d i­ dates fo r S o n s o n a te D e p a rtm e n t, o n ly o n e o f th e m h a d s u p p o r te d M a r ­ tín e z d u r in g th e e le c tio n o f 19 3 1 . O f th e fifte e n re m a in in g c a n d id a te s, n in e h a d s u p p o r te d G ó m e z Z á ra te , o n e w as a M o lin ista , a n d fo u r are id e n tifie d as h a v in g b e e n n e u tra l. T h is list reveals th e issue m e n tio n e d above, th a t M a rtín e z la c k e d a fo u n d a tio n o f s u p p o rte rs w h e n h e ca m e in to office in 1931. T h e list also reveals th e re w a rd th a t G ó m e z Z á ra te , a n d b y e x te n sio n h is fo llo w ers, receiv ed fo r h is s u p p o r t o f th e M a rtín e z re g im e .82

T h e E le c tio n o f 1935

A s th e p re sid e n tia l e le c tio n o f J a n u a ry 1935 d re w near, it b e c a m e in c re a s­ in g ly e v id e n t th a t M a rtín e z ’s v ic to ry w as v irtu a lly g u a ra n te e d . H e h a d ex­ iled, arrested , o r p la c e d u n d e r su rv e illa n c e all p o te n tia l ch a lle n g ers, a n d m o s t o f th e m ilita ry w as firm ly u n d e r h is c o n tro l. M o reo v er, th e m u n ic ip a l elec tio n s o f 1933 a n d 1934 h a d g iv en M a rtín e z tw o o p p o r tu n itie s to p lace p e o p le in m u n ic ip a l office w h o w ere b e h o ld e n to h im a n d h is p a r ty a n d th u s w o u ld associate th e ir p o litic a l su rv iv al w ith p r o d u c in g fa v o rab le re ­ su lts o n ele c tio n day. A u n a n im o u s v ic to ry in th e e le c tio n w as M a rtín e z ’s

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goal. T h e ele c tio n w as n o t a ro te exercise o f p o litic a l p ro to c o l, b u t ra th e r a p u b lic d e m o n s tra tio n o f M a rtin e z ’s pow er, p r o o f o f h is c a p a c ity to serv e as th e s u p re m e p o litic a l boss. T h e m o re v o tes h e c o u ld g e n e ra te , th e m o re h e p ro v e d th a t su p e rio rity . F o r th e e le c tio n to q u a lify as a n a c tu a l d e m o n s tra tio n , h o w ever, p e o p le h a d to g et o u t a n d p a rtic ip a te in it. P re d e te rm in e d e lec tio n s te n d e d to g e n e ra te apath y . T h e assem b ly e lec tio n s o f J a n u a ry 1932 re p o rte d ly d re w o n ly 3 7 9 v o te rs in th e e n tire ty o f S an S alv a d o r d u r in g th re e days o f v o t­ in g .83 F or th e e le c tio n o f 1935, th e g o v e rn m e n t d ev ised a series o f ta ctics to g et p e o p le o u t to th e po lls. G o v e rn m e n t em p lo y ees w ere in fo rm e d th a t th e y h a d to v o te . O n e w e e k p rio r to th e e le c tio n th e y receiv ed th e ir orders: “y o u are o b lig a te d to m a k e u se o f th e ir rig h t to v o te b y tu r n in g o u t at th e electo ral p olls in th e n e x t e le c tio n s.”84 T h e P ro -P a tria d e le g a tio n in S o n so n a te C ity p u t f o rth a n in n o v a tiv e id e a to g e n e ra te v o tes. Its m e m b e rs re a so n e d th a t a sim p lifie d v o tin g p ro cess w o u ld e n c o u ra g e g re a te r p a rtic i­ p a tio n a n d th e re fo re sta te d , “T h is D e le g a tio n p re se n ts to th e S u p re m e C o u n c il th e id e a th a t ea ch citiz en , u p o n p re s e n tin g h im s e lf a t th e elec to ra l u rn s, o n ly n e e d sh o w h is resp e ctiv e p a r ty carnet to cast h is v o te .” B u t s im ­ p lify in g th e v o te w as n o t lik e ly to g e n e ra te m o re v o te rs, sin c e th e pro cess w as alread y q u ite sim p le. S o n s o n a te ’s d e le g a tio n e v e n tu a lly s e ttle d o n a m o re tim e -p ro v e n m e th o d o f d ra w in g p e o p le to th e polls: b rib ery . “T h is D e le g a tio n has d e c id e d th a t o n th e eve o f th e e le c tio n , w e w ill e n te rta in th e p u b lic w ith a m o v ie in th e early e v e n in g a n d th e n in v ite ev e ry o n e to a d e s ig n a te d p la ce a t th re e o ’clo c k in th e m o r n in g fo r coffee, ta m ales a n d b rea d , so th a t th e y w ill b e g a th e re d to g e th e r a n d o rg a n iz e d to g o to th e electo ral u rn s w h e n th e y o p e n in th e m o r n in g .”85 T h e n a tio n a l g o v e rn ­ m e n t fo llo w ed S o n s o n a te ’s lead , ag re ein g th a t a sa tia te d c itiz e n w as m o re lik ely to v o te. It o ffered its o w n id e a fo r largesse: d u r in g th e e le c tio n , elec­ tric ity a n d w a te r w o u ld flo w w ith o u t th e c u s to m a ry d a ily ra tio n in g .86 A few days b e fo re v o tin g b e g a n , g o v e rn o rs d ire c te d th e m u n ic ip a l o f­ ficials to c o n firm th e ir o rd ers as to w h o w as to b e p la c e d o n th e d ire c to rio s a n d w h ic h p e rso n s w ere to receive v o tes as d e p u tie s (asse m b ly e lec tio n s to o k p lace s im u lta n e o u s to th e p re sid e n tia l e le c tio n ). O n e g o v e rn o r’s o r­ ders read , “Serve in s tru c tio n s to th e A lcaldes to e n su re th a t n o v a ria tio n s are re p o r te d in th e e le c tio n o f th e D ire c to rio s fro m th o se n a m e s w h ic h hav e b e e n s e n t to th e m b y th e S u p re m e C o u n c il o f th e P ro -P a tria P arty.”87

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T h e alcald e o f o n e m u n ic ip a lity a c k n o w le d g e d h is o rd ers fo r th e d e p u ty electio n : “I u n d e r s ta n d w h ic h c a n d id a te s s h o u ld b e e le c te d as D e p u tie s .”88 W h e n th e e le c tio n fin ally arriv ed , th e p e rfo rm a n c e ca m e o ff w ith o u t a h itc h . A c c o rd in g to th e g o v e rn m e n t’s sta tistics, 7 7 p e rc e n t o f re g iste re d v o te rs cast th e ir b a llo ts d u r in g th e e le c tio n , a 2 0 p e rc e n t in c re ase over th e 1931 e le c tio n .89 W h e th e r th is m a n y p e o p le ac tu a lly v o te d is n o t k n o w n . If n o t, m e m b e rs o f th e v a rio u s e le c to ra l b o a rd s p re se rv e d th e facad e w ith ste ad fast d e te rm in a tio n . T h r o u g h o u t th e th re e days o f v o tin g th e y s u b ­ m itte d d aily a n d so m e tim e s tw ic e -d a ily re p o rts d e s c rib in g th e p ro g ress o f th e ele c tio n a n d th e th ro n g s o f citiz en s tu r n in g o u t to v o te . T h e c o m ­ m a n d e r o f C a b a ñ a s D e p a r tm e n t p ro v id e d a ty p ic a l re p o rt: “T h r o u g h o u t C a b a ñ a s D e p a r tm e n t ele c tio n s fo r su p re m e a u th o ritie s are b e in g c o n ­ d u c te d in th e g re a te st o f o rder. V o tin g is u n a n im o u s in fav o r o f th e n o b le cause p o s tu la te d b y G e n e ra l M a x im ilia n o H . M a rtín e z . . . . P eo p le are p ro v id in g a civic a n d p a trio tic d e m o n s tra tio n . W e ex p e ct c o m p le te su c ­ cess.”90 Ju a y ú a re p o r te d th a t “T h e n u m b e r o f v o te s re c o rd e d to d a te is 1,2 1 4 , b e in g th e n u m b e r re c o rd e d to d a y 3 9 4 . A ll v o tin g is b e in g g a th e re d w ith to ta l s p o n ta n e ity in c o m p le te calm . A ll th e citizen s h a v e c o m e to v o te freely.”91 T h e fin a l ta lly c o u n te d 3 2 9 ,5 5 5 v o te s u n a n im o u s ly in s u p p o r t o f G e n e ra l M a rtín e z . T h e B ritish m in is te r o ffered th e fo llo w in g s u m m a ry o f th e electio n : “T h e e le c tio n itself, o n th e 1 3 th to th e 1 5 th Ja n u ary , w as th e u su al farce. T h e r e w as n o o th e r c a n d id a te , b u t th e p e o p le w ere n e v e r­ theless u rg e d to re c o rd th e ir v o tes. . . . T h e ele c tio n s fo r th e N a tio n a l A s­ se m b ly [also] to o k p lace, all th e c a n d id a te s elec ted . . . b e in g M a rtín e z m e n . T h e re is n o O p p o s itio n .”92

L ocal P o litics u n d e r P ro -P a tria , 1 9 3 5 —1939

D u r in g th e te rm fro m 1935 to 19 3 9 , lo cal p o litic a l affairs c o n tin u e d to b e g o v e rn e d b y th e sa m e p o lic ie s th a t h a d b e e n e m p lo y e d in th e m u n ic ip a l elec tio n s o f 1933 a n d 1934. P ro -P a tria re m a in e d th e p o litic a l m a c h in e , a n d local officials h a d to receive a p p ro v a l fro m th e p a rty in o rd e r to h o ld p o w e r in th e m u n ic ip a lity . L o cal P ro -P a tria d e le g a tio n s a ssem b led th e p re ­ lim in a ry lists o f c a n d id a te s, w h ic h w ere se n t to th e d e p a rtm e n ta l level a n d u ltim a te ly to th e n a tio n a l level fo r a p p ro v a l.

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J u s t as b efo re, local p e o p le w h o h a d g a in e d th e c o n fid e n c e o f th e d e ­ p a r tm e n ta l go v ern o r, o r o f so m e o th e r h ig h -ra n k in g p a rty official, h a d tr e m e n d o u s p o w e r to d e te rm in e c a n d id a te s. O n e o f th e se p e o p le w as G a b in o M a ta Jr., a ca ttle ra n c h e r a n d coffee g ro w e r in th e m u n ic ip a lity o f Ju a y ú a (S o n so n a te D e p a rtm e n t) . A series o f le tte rs b e tw e e n M a ta a n d th e g o v e rn o r o f S o n so n a te , Ju lio C a ld e ró n , reveals th e p ro ce ss b y w h ic h c a n ­ d id a tes w ere s e ttle d u p o n . M a ta o w n e d la n d in N a h u iz a lc o , a n d th e g o v ­ e rn o r o fte n so lic ite d h is ad v ice fo r th a t to w n s h ip as w ell. I n o n e le tter, fo r in sta n c e , M a ta re c o m m e n d e d th e c a n d id a te R afael R e n d e ro s fo r th e p o s i­ tio n o f alcalde in N a h u iz a lc o . M a ta rev ealed th a t h e a n d R e n d e ro s h a d b e e n ex c h an g in g le tte rs fo r a p e rio d o f tim e , a n d as a re su lt o f th e se ex­ ch an g es, h e h a d d e c id e d to s u p p o r t R e n d e ro s. “ I h av e c h o se n in R e n ­ d ero s,” w ro te M a ta , “a p e rso n w h o k n o w s to p e rfo rm h is d u tie s to th e sa tisfac tio n o f th o se w h o are m o s t ab le to a p p re c ia te h is w o rk .” T h is is sim p ly a n o th e r w ay o f sa y in g th a t R e n d e ro s w o u ld b e a loyal p a r ty m a n a n d a d u tifu l fo llo w er o f M a ta a n d , b y ex te n sio n , o f th e g o v ern o r. M a ta th e n m a d e a su g g e stio n a b o u t th e d e p u ty e le c tio n : “A t th e sa m e tim e . . . p e r m it m e, S e ñ o r G o v e rn o r, to r e c o m m e n d th a t A lfre d o S ch le sin g e r o f Ju a y ú a b e s u b s titu te d fo r R ic a rd o V ila n o v a fo r th e p o s itio n o f D e p u ty .”93 J u s t a few days later, R e n d e ro s d e c id e d to ta k e a n a d m in is tra tiv e p o s itio n in S an Salvador, a n d th u s M a ta a n d th e g o v e rn o r h a d to c o m e u p w ith a n o th e r c a n d id a te . T h e g o v e rn o r s e n t a n o te to M a ta a sk in g h im w h a t h e th o u g h t o f R o d o lfo B rito , to w h ic h M a ta re sp o n d e d , “ In re g a rd to th e slate th a t y o u h av e m e n tio n e d fo r N a h u iz a lc o w ith th e c a n d id a te R o d o lfo B rito . . . I hav e n o d o u b t th a t h e w ill fo llo w th e p a trio tic id eals o f o u r c u rre n t o rd e r o f th in g s .”94 I f local bosses w a n te d to c h a n g e th e sla te o f c a n d id a te s, th e y h a d to c o n v in c e th e P ro -P a tria h ie ra rc h y to a p p ro v e alte rn a te s. “T h o s e sig n e d below ,” read s o n e p e titio n to th e m in is te r o f g o v e rn m e n t, “c o m e to re ­ q u e s t: th a t in th is p o p u la tio n a se e m in g ly v e ry v a lid r u m o r is r u n n in g th a t H é c to r C ó rte z A lfaro h as b e e n p ro p o s e d b e fo re y o u r a u th o rity as th e in d i­ v id u a l w h o s h o u ld exercise th e jefatura o f th e m u n ic ip a lity in th e n e x t p e rio d ; w e c o n s id e r h im to b e a n u n w o rth y p e rs o n fo r th e g re a te r p o r tio n o f th is village. . . . W e sin c erely ask o f y o u th a t w h ic h e v e r o th e r p e rso n w o u ld b e g iven th e jefatura o f th e m u n ic ip a lity w ill h av e o u r re sp e c tfu l s y m p a th y a n d a d h e sio n .”95

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In su c h n e g o tia tio n s, th e c u rre n t m e m b e rs o f P ro -P a tria h a d a n e x p o ­ n e n tia lly b e tte r c h a n c e o f c o n v in c in g th e d e p a rtm e n ta l- o r n a tio n a l-le v e l officials to sid e w ith th e m . T h e re a p p e a rs to h av e b e e n a v e ry close p ara llel b e tw e e n th o se p e rso n s w h o h e ld m u n ic ip a l office a n d th o se p e rso n s w h o w ere c a rd -c a rry in g m e m b e rs o f P ro -P a tria a n d w h o h e ld p o sitio n s o n th e local executive c o m m itte e s. F o r in sta n c e , in th e m u n ic ip a lity o f Izalco in 1939, o f th e te n p e rso n s w h o m a d e u p th e m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il, five o f th e m h e ld p o sitio n s o n th e execu tiv e c o m m itte e o f P ro -P a tria ; o f th e re m a in in g five, th re e h a d im m e d ia te fa m ily m e m b e rs o n th e c o m m itte e .96 O n c e th e u p p e r e c h elo n s o f P ro -P a tria d e c id e d w h o m th e y w ere g o in g to s a n c tio n in th e m u n ic ip a litie s, th e y s e n t to th e g o v e rn o r th e n a m e s o f th o se p erso n s. In th e fo llo w in g te leg ram , th e su b se c re ta ry o f g o v e rn m e n t in s tru c ts th e g o v e rn o r o f A h u a c h a p á n to in sta ll a p a rtic u la r sla te o f c a n d i­ dates in A h u a c h a p á n C ity.

D ecem ber 2, 1937 G overnor, A h u ach ap án You are in fo rm ed th a t th e su p erio r au th o rities have approved definitively the follow ing perso n n el fo r th a t M u n icip ality : Alcalde, D r. José M o rán R egidores fro m n u m b e rs one to eig h t: A lfonso Salaverría, M arco A n to n io V ásquez, D r. M ig u el A ngel C h acó n , Prof. V icente M orales D u rá n , Rogelio Alvarez, José Ignacio Tobar, Juan G ertru d is H errera, R u b é n A n to n io López, S índico: D r. Juan Padilla I t is reco m m en d e d th a t this list n o t be altered. H erm ogenes A lvarado h ., S ubsecretary o f G o v ern m e n t97

T h e ch o sen c a n d id a te s th e n b r o u g h t th e ir clien ts o u t to th e p o lls to c o m ­ p le te th e electo ra l p ro cess. P ro -P a tria k e p t fairly c o m p le te resu lts fo r m u ­ n ic ip a l elec tio n s afte r 19 3 5 , a n d th e d a ta fro m th e se e lec tio n s sh o w th a t u n a n im o u s v o tin g w as th e n o r m . In a ty p ic al e x a m p le o f th e k in d o f re ­ p o r t th a t w as s e n t to S a n S alv a d o r fro m a lo c a lity afte r a n e le c tio n , a local boss fro m G u a z a p a (S a n S alv a d o r D e p a r tm e n t) w ro te afte r th e m u n ic ip a l elec tio n s o f 1937 th a t “v o tin g h as b e e n clo sed w ith seven h u n d r e d tw e n ty ( 7 2 0 ) v o te rs in fav o r o f A lca ld e Jo a q u ín M a y o rg a M e la ra . . . . T h e m o s t

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c o m p le te o rd e r re ig n e d .”98 T h e re p o rts c o n ta in e d o n ly th e n u m b e r o f v o tes cast, fo r th e re w as n o re a so n to m e n tio n o p p o s itio n un less a rival fa c tio n h a d a tte m p te d to fo rc e its w ay in to th e p ro c e ss.99 A n o th e r o f th e se re p o rts s ta te d th a t “b y u n a n im o u s v o tes th e fo llo w in g p e rso n s h av e b e e n elected . . . .”100 In th e ev e n t th a t d iss e n tin g v o tes w ere re c o rd e d , th e re ­ c ip ie n t w as a n o th e r m e m b e r o f P ro -P a tria , a n d h e se ld o m receiv ed m o re th a n a h a n d fu l o f v o tes. F o r ex a m p le , in S a n M a r tín (S a n S a lv a d o r D e ­ p a r tm e n t) in th e e le c tio n o f 19 3 7 , p rec isely 3 5 1 v o tes w ere cast. T w o o f th e c a n d id a te s receiv ed 3 5 1 v otes, a n d th e o th e r fo u r c a n d id a te s g a rn e re d o n ly 3 5 0 v otes. T h e fo u r d iss e n tin g v o tes w ere cast in fav o r o f th e p re si­ d e n t o f th e e le c tio n b o a r d .101 O n o ccasio n , a lo cal bo ss m u s te re d u p th e co u ra g e to c h a lle n g e th e slate a p p ro v e d b y P ro -P a tria . F o r ex a m p le , in 1 9 3 7 in th e v illage o f Ju c u ará n (U s u lu tá n D e p a rtm e n t) , L u p a rio R iv e ra trie d to m u sc le h is w a y in to m u n ic ip a l office. S u c h a c tiv ity d id n o t escape th e n o tic e o f P ro -P a tria ’s hierarch y , a n d as so o n as R iv e ra b e g a n to assem b le h is clien ts, lo cal P ro ­ P a tria affiliates fire d o ff a te le g ra m to th e s u p re m e c o u n c il d e ta ilin g R iv era’s activities. R iv era w as su b d u e d , a n d fo r h is a tte m p t to o p e ra te o u ts id e P ro ­ P a tria h e w as d e n o u n c e d as a n “im m o ra l p e rso n in every sen se,” th e a rc h e ­ ty p a l d e n u n c ia tio n o f fa c titio u s b o sse s.102 W h e n ch a lle n g ers su c h as R iv era em erg ed , th e g o v e rn m e n t re s p o n d e d decisively. “You are in fo rm e d ,” reads o n e ex am p le, “th a t th e M in s te r o f W a r h as in s tru c te d th e L o cal C o m a n ­ d a n te , M a jo r A n to n io C a lv o , to estab lish w h a te v e r o b sta c le is n ec essary to p re v e n t th e su b v ersiv e e le m e n ts fro m c h a lle n g in g th e c a n d id a c y o f C a rlo s S alazar B a rrie n to s, a p e rso n o f g o o d a n d id e al ch a ra c te r.” 103 I f P ro -P a tria h a d th e p o w e r to c h a n g e lo cal bosses, it se ld o m d id so. T h is fact w as d e te rm in e d b y c o m p a rin g th e n a m e s o f p e rso n s elec ted as alcald e over a su c ce ssio n o f th re e elec tio n s: 19 3 7 , 1939, a n d 1941 (after 1935, elec tio n s to o k p la ce every o th e r y e a r).104 W e h av e c o m p le te lists o f all th e m u n ic ip a l officials e le c te d in 1 9 3 7 a n d 1939 a n d a list o f o n ly th e alcaldes ele c te d in 19 4 1 . I c o m p a re d th re e d e p a rtm e n ts , S o n so n a te , A h u a c h a p á n , a n d S an M ig u e l. I ch o se S o n s o n a te b ec au se th e c o rre s p o n d ­ in g d o c u m e n ta tio n fro m Sección Sonsonate o f th e A G N allow s m e to i n ­ c lu d e so m e a d d itio n a l in fo rm a tio n . I ch o se A h u a c h a p á n fo r th e sake o f m a in ta in in g c o n tin u ity w ith th e ta b les in th e p r io r c h a p te r. F o r th is sam e reaso n , I in te n d e d to ch o o se S an V ic e n te as w ell, b u t it w as m issin g fro m

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th e d a ta o f 1 9 4 l , so I s u b s titu te d a n o th e r e a ste rn d e p a rtm e n t, S an M ig u e l, in its place. In a d d itio n to c o m p a rin g th e n a m e s o f th e alcaldes, I also c o m p a re d th e n a m e s o f th e re m a in in g m u n ic ip a l officials to d e te rm in e if th e re w ere a d d itio n a l lin k a g es b e tw e e n th e successive a d m in is tra tio n s , su c h as p erso n s w h o w ere e le c te d in m u ltip le years o r w h o b o re th e sa m e s u rn a m e a n d w ere elec ted m u ltip le tim es. As I m e n tio n e d in th e p re c e d in g ch a p te rs, a sh a re d s u rn a m e d o es n o t m e a n th a t tw o p e o p le n ecessarily w ere rela ted , o r th a t th e y w ere p o litic a l allies, b u t it is q u ite likely. T h e p o in t o f lo o k in g fo r th e se a d d itio n a l lin k a g es w as to fill a n y gaps th a t m ig h t o p e n w h e n c o m p a rin g o n ly th e office o f alcald e. T h e d a ta ca n b e fo u n d in ta b le A 5 in th e a p p e n d ix , w ith th e a d d itio n a l lin k a g es id e n tifie d in a p a ra g ra p h b e lo w th e lists o f alcaldes. T h e results o f th e c o m p a riso n s reveal th a t in th irty -se v e n o f th e th re e d e p a rtm e n ts ’ fo rty -e ig h t m u n ic ip a litie s, P ro -P a tria se lec ted th e sa m e p e r ­ so n to serve as alcald e in a t least tw o o f th e th re e elec tio n s. O f th e re m a in ­ in g eleven m u n ic ip a litie s, w h e re th e alcald e w as d iffe re n t in ea ch o f th e th re e electio n s, th e d a ta reveal th a t in all b u t o n e o f th e m , th e re w as at least o n e a d d itio n a l lin k a g e. T h is in fo rm a tio n suggests th a t P ro -P a tria re ­ lie d u p o n th e sa m e c o te rie o f lo cal p o litic a l p lay ers to r u n m u n ic ip a l af­ fairs. T h e p a r ty h a d n o n e e d to a lie n a te p o w e rfu l lo cal bosses, so lo n g as th e y g o t o u t th e v o te fo r P ro -P a tria a n d ra n lo cal affairs in a n a c ce p ta b le m a n n e r. T h is re la tio n sh ip w o rk e d in reverse as w ell; as lo n g as th e a rm y d id n o t th re a te n th e c o n c e rn s o f th e lo cal bosses, su c h as p riv a te p r o p e rty o r th e sy stem o f c lie n te lism , th e y h a d n o re a so n to resist a g o v e rn m e n t c o n tro lle d b y th e m ilitary . T h e r e is also so m e in d ic a tio n th a t th e p o litic a l n e tw o rk s th a t P ro ­ P a tria re lie d u p o n h a d b e e n th e re c o n tin u o u s ly sin c e th e 1920s. F o r i n ­ stan ce, in th e m u n ic ip a lity o f N a h u iz a lc o (S o n so n a te D e p a rtm e n t) , w e saw in c h a p te r 3 th a t th e la d in o s le d b y R o d o lfo B rito a n d h is c o u s in A n ­ to n io C o n tre ra s m a n a g e d to o u st th e In d ia n s in 19 2 6 . W e see th a t in 1 9 3 7 a n d 1939, B rito a n d h is c ro n ie s are still in p o w er in N a h u iz a lc o . A n d th is sense o f c o n tin u ity u n d e r th e m ilita ry is p a rtic u la rly e v id e n t in th e case o f n e ig h b o rin g Ju a y ú a , a n im p o r ta n t c o ffe e -p ro d u c in g village. D a ta fro m Ju a y ú a reveal c o n siste n c y in m u n ic ip a l a u th o rity th r o u g h ­ o u t th e 1920s a n d 1930s. In ta b le 7 .1 w e see th a t th e sa m e bosses w h o d ire c te d th e m u n ic ip a lity p r io r to th e m ilita ry reg im e c o n tin u e d to serve

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u n d e r P ro -P a tria . T o fu lly a p p re c ia te th e in f o rm a tio n c o n ta in e d in ta b le 7 .1 , w e s h o u ld u n d e rs ta n d , first a n d fo re m o st, th a t all o f th e in d iv id u a ls lis te d w ere m e m b e rs o f th e sa m e p a tro n a g e n e tw o rk . T h is p a rtic u la r n e t ­ w o rk w as r u n b y a p o w e rfu l allian ce o f coffee g ro w ers le d b y th e M a ta a n d S alaverría fam ilies, in c o n ju n c tio n w ith M á x im o Jerez a n d E m ilio R edaelli. M a ta a n d S ala v erría w ere w e ll-e sta b lish e d , in te rm a rrie d fam ilies th a t h a d b e e n liv in g in Ju a y ú a sin c e a t le ast th e 1860s. T h e y w ere th e p io ­ n eers o f coffee p r o d u c tio n in th e to w n a n d b y th e 1 9 20s o w n e d n u m e ro u s a g ric u ltu ra l p ro p e rtie s. M á x im o Jerez w as a d o c to r fro m H o n d u r a s w h o e m ig ra te d to Ju a y ú a in th e 1910s a n d m a rrie d in to th e S alav erría fam ily. H e received fro m S alav erría a larg e coffee fin c a a n d b e c a m e a close p o ­ litica l ally o f th e S a la v e rría -M a ta n e tw o rk . E m ilio R e d aelli w as a n Ita lia n im m ig r a n t w h o o w n e d a sm a lle r coffee fin c a a n d w o rk e d as a coffee m e r ­ c h a n t fo r th e local coffee p ro c e ssin g p la n t o w n e d b y B . D a g lio , a n o th e r Italian . R ed aelli w as a close asso ciate o f Jerez a n d w o u ld b e k ille d b y rebels d u r in g th e in s u rre c tio n o f 1 9 3 2 .105 A s ca n b e seen in ta b le 7 .1 , th e M a ta-S a la v erría-Jerez -R ed a elli n e t­ w o rk d o m in a te d p o litic s in Ju a y ú a th r o u g h o u t th e 1 9 20s a n d 1930s. M á x im o Jerez se rv e d in m u n ic ip a l g o v e rn m e n t o n fo u r o cc asio n s (1 9 2 3 , 1931, 1937, a n d 1 9 3 9 ), R e d aelli se rv e d tw ic e b e fo re h e w as assassin ate d (1 9 2 3 a n d 1 9 2 9 ), a n d m e m b e rs o f th e M a ta fa m ily a p p e a r re p e a te d ly (1 9 2 3 , 1933, 19 3 7 , a n d 19 3 9 ). A lo n g sid e th e se bosses w ere s u b o rd in a te s, m e n w h o w ere n o t p r o p e r ty o w n ers b u t w h o m a d e a career o u t o f h o ld in g m u n ic ip a l office o n b e h a lf o f th e d o m in a n t bosses. V ic e n te R iv era w as o n e o f th e se su b o rd in a te s; h e serv ed in office fo u r tim e s (1 9 2 5 , 19 3 1 , 1937, a n d 1939). S im ilarly, E p ig m e ñ io H id a lg o (1 9 3 1 , 1937, a n d 1939) a n d E zeq u iel Q u in ta n illa (1 9 2 1 , 1923, a n d 1 9 29) ea ch serv ed in office th re e tim es. T h e s e la st th re e m e n w ere essen tially clien ts, b u t o f a d iffe re n t so rt, w ith m o re re sp o n sib ilitie s a n d b e tte r rew ard s th a n th e field la b o re rs b r o u g h t in o n c e a y ear to cast v o tes.

N a tio n a l P o litics, 1 9 3 5—1939

J u s t as in m u n ic ip a l p o litic s , M a r tín e z a d o p te d th e sa m e p o lic ie s fo r n a tio n a l-le v e l p o litic s b e tw e e n 1 9 3 5 a n d 1 9 3 9 as h e h a d e m p lo y e d

Table 7.1

Municipal Officials Elected in Juayúa, 1921—1939 (partial results)

D ecem ber 1921 A) M iguel M endoza (C) R) Francisco Villacorta R) V icente Rivas (C) R) José M artín Josa (C) R) Ezequiel Q uintan illa R) C oncepción M olina R) Rafael M urillo S) José C ruz Peñate (C)

D ecem ber 1923 A) Em ilio Redaelli (C) R) H u m b erto M ata (C,c) R) Ezequiel Q u in tan illa R) Carlos M artínez Cea R) R oberto D ow nie R) Joaquín Olivares R) Rafael M olina S) M áxim o Jerez (C,c)

D ecem ber 1925 R) José M artín Josa (C) R) José C ruz Peñate (C) R) Pedro B eltrán (C) S) V icente Rivera

D ecem ber 1929 A) Em ilio Redaelli (C) R) Francicso Rivas Cortes R) Rafael M olina R) Ezequiel Q u in tan illa R) Rafael M urillo R) C oncepción M olina R) José Angel Valladeres S) M áxim o R auda Salaverría (C)

D ecem ber 1931 A) M áxim o Jerez (C,c) R) V icente Rivera R) Alvaro Díaz (C,c) R) Justo Z am ora R) Rafael Borja R) Moisés M enéndez R) Aurelio Mejía S) Epigm eñio H idalgo

D ecem ber 1933 A) G abino M ata, Jr. (C,c)

D ecem ber 1937 A) José Agilberto M ata (C) R) M áxim o Jerez (C,c) R) V icente Rivera R) Moisés M enéndez R) Juan Felipe Q uin tan illa R) Juan A ntonio M agaña (C) R) A ntonio Linares S) Epigm eñio H idalgo

D ecem ber 1939 A) José Agilberto M ata (C) R) M áxim o Jerez (C,c) R) V icente Rivera R) Moisés M enéndez R) Juan Felipe Q u in tan illa R) Juan A ntonio M agaña (C) R) Alvaro Díaz (C,c) S) Epigm eñio H idalgo

Source:

Listas de propietarios, 1912, 1917, 1926, D ep artam en to Sonsonate, A G N , M G , unclassi­

fied boxes; Listas de adm inistraciones m unicipalies, Juayúa, 1921, 1923, 1925, 1929, 1931, 1934, 1937, 1939, A G N , M G , unclassified boxes; a n d th e Libro de Actas de Juayúa, A rchivo M unicipal de Juayúa (A M J). N o te :

Elections were h eld every tw o years betw een 1921 a n d 1929; the election o f 1925 replaced

only a fraction o f the 1923 slate. Between 1929 a n d 1935, elections were held annually. A fter 1935, elections retu rn ed to every o th er year. K ey.-

C: coffee grower (at least 10 m anzanas planted)

A: Alcalde

c: cattle rancher

R: Regidor

S: Síndico

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b e tw e e n 1931 a n d 1935. H e s o u g h t to p rese rv e h is p o s itio n o n to p o f th e p o litic a l p y ra m id b y m o n ito rin g p o te n tia l rivals a n d e lim in a tin g k n o w n rivals, especially th e e v e r-im p a tie n t ju n io r officers. A ll th e w h ile h e w as p o s itio n in g h im s e lf to g e t elec ted to y e t a n o th e r te rm in 1939. T h e in te llig e n c e n e tw o rk re m a in e d th e b a c k b o n e o f M a rtin e z ’s re ­ gim e. H e rig h tly u n d e r s to o d th a t h is im p re ssiv e sh o w in g in th e 1935 elec­ tio n w as th e re su lt o f h is u n fe tte re d u se o f th e re g im e ’s coerciv e p o w ers. H e lo o k e d to h is in te llig e n c e a p p a ra tu s to p rese rv e th a t c o n tro l. S h o rtly afte r th e e le c tio n o f 19 3 5 , M a rtín e z issu ed a d ec ree s ta tin g th a t th e g o v e rn ­ m e n t w o u ld to le ra te n o in te r n a l d issen sio n . T h e d ecree c a m e in re sp o n se to u n iv e rsity s tu d e n ts ’ c ritic ism o f th e g o v e rn m e n t’s d e c isio n to exile a d iss id e n t jo u rn a lis t. T h e d ecree c la im e d th a t in te rn a l en e m ie s, in c lu d in g c o m m u n is ts , w ere c o n s p irin g a g a in st th e g o v e rn m e n t: “T h e p u b lic al­ re a d y k n o w s o f th e s tro n g a n d th o u g h tle ss c a m p a ig n w h ic h ele m e n ts d e v o te d to v io le n c e a n d d iso rd e r are u n d e r ta k in g a g a in st th e S u p re m e G o v e rn m e n t. . . . T h a t c a m p a ig n h as re a c h e d d a n g e ro u s e x tre m e s.” T h e g o v e rn m e n t th e n in v o k e d th e m e m o ry o f 1 9 3 2 to ju stify a n u n m itig a te d resp o n se: “As w ill b e re m e m b e re d , th e tr e m e n d o u s ev e n ts o f 1 9 3 2 b e g a n in th e sa m e way. T h e press . . . w ith th e o n ly d esire o f g a in in g ille g itim a te p o p u la rity is fa n n in g th e b o n fire o f d isc o rd . B u t th in g s c a n n o t fo llo w th e p a th th a t th e y are try in g to p u rsu e . . . . T h e p u b lic a u th o ritie s are reso lv ed to m a in ta in in g p ea ce a n d so cial tra n q u ility , im p o s in g su ita b le c o rrec tiv e m e a su re o n th e tran sg re sso rs o f th e law a n d e n e m ie s o f th e in te rn a l o rd e r o f th e n a tio n .” 106 T h e d ec ree w as, in essence, a ju stific a tio n fo r e x p a n d in g th e sco p e a n d scale o f th e in te llig e n c e a p p a ra tu s. V irtu a lly every id e n tifi­ able o rg a n iz a tio n o r so cial g ro u p fell u n d e r so m e fo rm o f su rv eillan c e. O c c a sio n a lly th e arc h iv al re c o rd s offer a h i n t o f th e b r u ta l sid e o f th is i n ­ tellig en ce m a c h in e , su c h as th e r e p o rt fro m a c o m a n d a n te o f th e G u a rd ia w h o in fo rm e d o n e o f th e d e p a rtm e n ta l g o v e rn o rs th a t fiftee n subversives h a d b e e n “arre ste d a n d in te rro g a te d .”107 A p rin c ip a l ta rg e t o f th e g o v e rn m e n t’s su rv e illa n c e w as th e s tu d e n ts a t th e N a tio n a l U niversity. T h e ir p ro c liv ity fo r p ro g ressiv e p o litic s e a rn e d th e m a re p u ta tio n as d issid e n ts, a s o m e w h a t d eserv ed a c c u sa tio n . M ig u e l M á rm o l re p o rte d in h is m e m o ir th a t th e s tu d e n ts w ere a t th e fo re fro n t o f efforts to re b u ild th e C o m m u n is t P a rty in th e la tte r 1 9 3 0 s.108 In F e b ru a ry

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1932, M a rtín e z h a d s u s p e n d e d th e u n iv e rsity ’s a u to n o m y in o rd e r to “p re ­ v e n t b y all legal m e a n s p o ssib le th e U n iv e rsity I n s titu tio n fro m b e in g c o n v e rte d in to a c e n te r o f p o litic a l a n d a n tiso c ia l p r o p a g a n d a .”109 T h e fo llo w in g y ear five s tu d e n ts w ere s u s p e n d e d fo r p e rio d s ra n g in g fro m o n e m o n th to th re e years fo r th e ir p a rtic ip a tio n in a s u p p o se d ly ra d ic a l s tu d e n t o rg a n iz a tio n , th e A so c ia c ió n G e n e ra l d e E s tu d ia n te s S alv a d o re ñ o s (A G E U S , G e n e ra l A sso c ia tio n o f U n iv e rsity S tu d e n ts ).110 B y 1935 th e o p ­ p o s itio n b e tw e e n th e s tu d e n ts a n d th e m ilita ry h a d g ro w n m o re in te n se . In J u n e 1935, th e s tu d e n t n e w sp a p er, O pinión Estudiantil, c ritic iz e d th e g o v e rn m e n t fo r its te n d e n c y to d e n o u n c e a n y id e a th a t c h a lle n g e d its o w n view s as b e in g “c o m m u n is t.” M a rtín e z s h u t d o w n th e n e w sp a p e r a n d exiled th e e d ito r.111 It w as th e exile o f th a t e d ito r th a t h a d sp a rk e d th e c o n tro v e rsy le a d in g to th e m ilita ry ’s decree. M a rtín e z th e n in tr o d u c e d a sp y n e tw o r k in to th e u n iv ersity . T h e spies m o n ito re d s tu d e n t m e e tin g s a n d tra n s c rib e d s tu d e n t c o n v e rsa tio n s. E ven a m e e tin g h e ld fo r th e se e m ­ in g ly in n o c u o u s p u rp o s e o f c h o o s in g th e co lo r o f th e u n iv e rsity ’s O ly m p ic b a n n e r a ttra c te d u n d e rc o v e r su rv eillan c e. T h e n o te s fro m th a t su rv eillan c e list b o th th e s tu d e n t p a rtic ip a n ts a n d th e c o n te n t o f th e ir c o m m e n ts .112 M a rtín e z ’s d is tru s t o f th e s tu d e n ts e m a n a te d fro m h is a p p re h e n s io n over in te lle c tu a ls in g en e ral. M ilita ry lead ers c o n s id e re d in te lle c tu a ls a cause fo r c o n c e rn b ec au se th e y w ere, b y s tric t d e fin itio n , n o t la n d o w n e rs a n d th u s “p ro le ta ria n s.” B u t w h erea s th e c o u n try s id e p ro le ta ria n s (c a m p e ­ sinos) w ere d a n g e ro u s o n a c c o u n t o f th e ir ig n o ra n c e , th e in te lle c tu a l p r o ­ le taria n s, as “p ro fe ssio n a ls o f w ritte n th o u g h t,” w ere c a p a b le o f “m o ld in g n a tio n a l o p in io n ,” as w as c la im e d b y a b o o k p u t o u t b y th e m ilita ry s u r­ v ey in g El S a lv a d o r’s in te lle c tu a l c o m m u n ity . T h e b o o k also reveals th a t m ilita ry lead ers b eliev e d th a t El S a lv a d o r’s in te lle c tu a ls w ere, o n th e w h o le, “m a rk e d [by] so cialist te n d e n c ie s.” T h u s in te lle c tu a ls w ere closely w a tc h e d , a n d a d e ta ile d re c o rd w as k e p t o f th e ir activ ities. M o re th a n o n e o f th e m e n d e d u p o n M a rtin e z ’s list o f p o litic a l en e m ie s. H u g o L in d o , fo r in sta n c e , w as o n th e list. A t th e tim e h e w as a y o u n g , a p o litic a l p o e t w h o se p u b lic activities a m o u n te d to p u b lis h in g a b o o k o f p o e m s a n d w o rk in g fo r th e n e w sp a p e r D iario de H oy .113 T h e m ilita ry k e p t tra c k o f m a n y d iffe re n t g ro u p s. In a d d itio n to d o c u ­ m e n tin g in te lle c tu a ls, M a rtín e z a ssem b led ex ten siv e lists o f m e rc h a n ts , p ro fessio n als, a n d w e a lth y p e o p le .114 T h e list o f w e a lth y p e o p le offers an

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im p ressiv e d e m o n s tra tio n o f th e m ilita ry ’s a b ility to g a th e r in fo rm a tio n . T h e list is b ro k e n d o w n b y m u n ic ip a lity a n d c o n ta in s n o t o n ly th e n a m e s o f w e ll-to -d o in d iv id u a ls, b u t also, in so m e cases, a n e s tim a tio n o f th e ir ca p ita l w o rth . M a rtín e z w as n o th in g i f n o t in fo rm e d . J u n io r m ilita ry officers re m a in e d th e m o s t im m e d ia te th re a t to M a rtín e z ’s p o litic a l survival, a n d th e y c o n tin u e d to la u n c h c o u p s a g a in st h im . T h e first c o u p afte r th e e le c tio n to o k p la c e in O c to b e r 19 3 5 . T h e c o n ­ sp irato rs, a g ro u p o f n o n c o m m is s io n e d officers, trie d to seize c o n tro l o f th e a rtille ry b a rra c k s in c e n tra l S a n S alvador, b u t tro o p s loyal to M a rtín e z s u b d u e d th e re v o lt a n d p la c e d th e c o n s p ira to rs in jail. T h e m o tiv e b e h in d th e rev o lt is u n k n o w n , a lth o u g h th e g o v e rn m e n t d e n o u n c e d it as “c o m ­ m u n is t” s e d itio n . M o s t o f th e p riso n e rs re m a in e d in jail u n til A u g u st o f th e fo llo w in g year, w h e n a w a r c o u n c il (Consejo de Guerra ) ab so lv ed th e m a n d s e n t th e m in to exile. A lso im p lic a te d in th e c o u p w as G e n e ra l S alva­ d o r C a s ta n e d a C a stro , p ro v id in g M a rtín e z w ith th e p re te x t to exile h im to P a n a m a .115 A se c o n d c o u p b ro k e o u t in O c to b e r 19 3 6 . It w as c e n te re d in th e F ifth I n fa n tr y R e g im e n t in S a n ta A n a a n d w as le d b y L ie u te n a n t R o d o lfo B h a ñ o s. E v id e n tly spies h a d in filtra te d th e c o n sp ira c y d u r in g p la n n in g , a n d th u s th e g o v e rn m e n t w as re a d y fo r th e m . Im p lic a te d a lo n g w ith B h añ o s w ere h is b ro th e r, h is fath er, a n d a n o th e r civilian. As w as c u sto m a ry , th e g o v e rn m e n t d e n o u n c e d th e c o u p as a “c o m m u n is t” con sp iracy . A c ­ c o rd in g to th e U .S. ch arg é, th e c o u p h a d m o re c o m p le x o rig in s. T ru s t­ w o rth y in fo rm a n ts to ld h im th a t th e c o u p w as fin a n c e d b y w e a lth y citizen s fro m S a n ta A n a w h o h a d h e a rd r u m o rs th a t M a rtín e z in te n d e d to a m e n d th e c o n s titu tio n to allo w h im s e lf to b e re e le c te d in 19 3 9 . H o p in g fo r a m o re su b se rv ie n t p re sid e n t, th e y s o u g h t to o u st M a rtín e z b e fo re it w as to o late. M a rtín e z h a d B h a ñ o s e x e cu ted b y a m ilita ry firin g s q u a d tw o w eeks afte r h is arrest. B h a ñ o s’s b r o th e r rec eiv e d a six tee n -y e ar p ris o n se n te n c e , a n d th e re m a in in g p riso n e rs re p o rte d ly w ere re le a se d .116 T h is decisive re ­ sp o n se suggests th a t M a rtín e z in d e e d saw th e c o u p as a se rio u s affair. In a d d itio n to s u p p re ss in g c o u p s, M a rtín e z c o n tin u e d to e lim in a te his m ilita ry rivals b y th e tim e -p ro v e n m e th o d o f b a n is h in g th e m to overseas p o sts. O n e o f th e p rin c ip a l rivals, C o lo n e l Jo sé A rtu ro C a ste lla n o s, su f­ fered th is fa te in 19 3 7 . C a ste lla n o s w as b eliev e d to b e a le a d e r o f th e ju n io r officers. W h ile o n a w e a p o n s -b u y in g m issio n in E u ro p e , h e w as o rd e re d to

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r e p o r t to L iv erp o o l, E n g la n d , a n d a ssu m e th e p o s itio n o f c o n su l to G re a t B rita in . A c c o rd in g to th e B ritish m in is te r in S an S alvador, “th e a p p o in t­ m e n t is u n d o u b te d ly d u e to th e d esire to k ee p o u t o f S alv a d o r a to o a m b i­ tio u s officer.”117 In J a n u a ry 1939, a th ir d c o u p a tte m p t w as u n c o v e re d ju s t h o u rs b e ­ fo re it b eg a n . T h e c o u p w o u ld h av e b e e n c e n te re d in th e m ilita ry b a r ­ racks o p p o s ite th e P re sid e n tia l H o u s e . A p p a re n tly o n e o f th e c o n s p ira to rs p h o n e d a w a rn in g to a n a c q u a in ta n c e in th e b arrac k s, w h o th e n in fo rm e d h is su p e rio rs. T h e p riso n e rs in c lu d e d so m e h ig h - ra n k in g officers: C o lo n e l Ju lio C a ld e ró n , fo rm e r c o m a n d a n te o f L a L ib e rta d ; G e n e ra l L eitzelar, re ­ tire d c h ie f o f po lic e; a n d C o lo n e l Jo sé A sce n cio M e n é n d e z , fo rm e r u n d e r ­ se creta ry o f w ar. M e n é n d e z , th e id e n tifie d le a d e r o f th e c o u p , w as su s­ p e c te d o f try in g to fulfill h is “p re sid e n tia l a s p ira tio n s .” It w as iro n ic th a t M a rtín e z d id n o t d e n o u n c e th e c o u p as a c o m m u n is t con sp iracy , b ec au se it w as th e first c o u p to h av e a c tu a lly so lic ite d th e s u p p o r t o f th e n a s c e n t C o m m u n is t P arty .118 M e n é n d e z w as exiled to F ra n ce , a n d th e re m a in in g c o n s p ira to rs w ere s e n t to M e x ic o .119 T h u s , as in h is first te rm , M a rtín e z ’s ro a d to th e n e x t e le c tio n w as lin e d w ith th e d a s h e d h o p e s o f h is ju n io r officers. T h e p re sid e n tia l e le c tio n o f 1939 p re s e n te d M a rtín e z w ith a d e c id ­ ed ly m o re p re c a rio u s legal s itu a tio n th a n h a d th e e le c tio n o f 1935. In 1935, M a rtín e z h a d c irc u m v e n te d th e c o n s titu tio n a l re s tric tio n ag a in st co n sec u tiv e te rm s in office b y c la im in g th a t h is first te rm w as ac tu a lly A ra u jo ’s. In 1939 th e re w as n o su c h lo o p h o le , a n d th u s th e c o n s titu tio n w o u ld h av e to b e a m e n d e d i f M a rtín e z h o p e d to re m a in in office. T h e d ra ft o f th e n e w c o n s titu tio n o f 1939 p re se rv e d m o s t o f th e c o n te n t o f its 1886 pred ecesso r, w ith th e n o ta b le d iffe ren ce to b e f o u n d in a rtic le 9 2 , w h ic h ad d re ssed p re sid e n tia l electio n s:

As d em an d ed b y n atio n al interest, th e citizen th a t w ill be elected Presi­ d e n t in M arc h o f th e c u rre n t year . . . according to this C o n s titu tio n w ill be elected by th e D ep u ties o f th e N a tio n a l Assembly, w h o are absolved this one tim e fro m applying th e incap acity o f A rticle 9 4 [forbidding reelectio n ].120

F o r g o o d m e asu re , th e u p d a te d a rticle 9 2 also e x te n d e d th e p re sid e n tia l te rm fro m fo u r to six years.

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R a tific a tio n o f a n e w c o n s titu tio n w as a tw o -sta g e p ro ce ss th a t b e g a n in th e m u n ic ip a litie s a n d e n d e d in a c o n s titu tio n a l c o n v e n tio n . T h e n e w c o n s titu tio n first h a d to b e a p p ro v e d b y th e cabildo abiertos, th e to w n -h a ll m e e tin g s a t w h ic h th e g e n e ra l p o p u la c e th e o re tic a lly v o te d o n th e p r o ­ p o se d ch an g es. I f th e ch a n g es p assed th e ca b ild o s, th e y w o u ld a p p e a r b e ­ fo re a c o n s titu tio n a l c o n v e n tio n c o m p rise d o f fo rty -tw o p o p u la rly elec ted delegates, th re e fro m ea ch d e p a rtm e n t. T h e c a b ild o s w ere sc h e d u le d to ta k e p la ce in Ju ly 1938, a n d M a rtín e z tu r n e d to P ro -P a tria to e n su re th a t th e p ro cess ra n s m o o th ly .121 It seem s as th o u g h P ro -P a tria d id n o t even b o th e r h a v in g th e p o p u la c e v o te d u r in g th e ca b ild o s, fo r th e re is n o re c o rd o f v o tin g o r a n y m e n tio n m a d e o f th e v o tin g p ro cess. In ste a d , P ro -P a tria d eleg a tio n s o rg a n iz e d p u b lic co n fe re n ces a n d rallies, a c c o m p a n ie d b y p le n ty o f fo o d a n d fan fare, a n d th e n r e p o rte d th e ir re g io n ’s u n a n im o u s s u p p o r t fo r th e n e w c o n s titu tio n . M a n y o f th e se re p o rts fro m th e m u ­ n ic ip a l d eleg a tio n s h a v e su rv iv ed . A n a rc h e ty p a l ex a m p le is p ro v id e d b y th e d e le g a tio n o f U s u lu tá n C ity : “ P ro -P a tria D e le g a tio n w as o p e n e d last n ig h t a m id st fev ered regalia. L ast n ig h t co n fe re n ces w ere h e ld in th e c e n ­ tra l p la za a n d a re c e p tio n w as g iv e n in th e C e n tra l H o te l. T o d a y th e c o n ­ ferences c o n tin u e w ith th e g o al o f h o ld in g th e p u b lic sessio n o f th e cabildo

abierto. In u n is o n th e citizen s agree w ith o u r p a trio tic id eals.”122 In th is m a n n e r w as M a rtín e z ’s n e w c o n s titu tio n a p p ro v e d , c le a rin g h is p a th fo r ree lec tio n . M a rtín e z d e c id e d to h a v e h im s e lf e le c te d in 1939 b y th e N a tio n a l A s­ se m b ly ra th e r th a n b y p o p u la r v o te , w h ic h su g g ests th a t h e w as aw are o f g ro w in g o p p o s itio n to h is p o litic a l m o n o p o ly . W h e re a s in 1935 M a rtín e z h a d p la c e d g re a t em p h a sis o n th e ele c tio n as a g ra n d e x h ib itio n a n d h a d u se d it to d isp la y h is p o w e r a n d h is s u p p o s e d p o p u la r s u p p o rt, in 1939 h e lim ite d th a t e x h ib itio n to th e d e p u tie s o f th e N a tio n a l A ssem bly. P er­ h a p s M a rtín e z felt th a t th e cabildos abiertos o ffered a su ffic ie n t e x h ib itio n . M o reo v er, f u rth e r d e m o n s tra tio n s o f “p o p u la r ” s u p p o r t w ere d e sc rib e d b y v ario u s P ro -P a tria d e le g a tio n s, w h ic h c o n tin u e d to o rg a n iz e p a ra d e s a n d rallies rig h t u p to th e eve o f th e e le c tio n in th e assem b ly .123 E v id e n ce suggests, how ever, th a t th e M a rtín e z g o v e rn m e n t w as b e c o m in g w a ry o f its o p p o n e n ts . M a rtín e z k n e w th a t h is self-serv in g m o tiv e s w ere n o t as u n iv ersally w ell receiv ed as th e P ro -P a tria d e le g a tio n s lik e d to re p o rt. In S a n ta A n a, fo r in sta n c e , th e g o v e rn m e n t fac ed su b v ersiv e p r o p a g a n d a

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c a m p a ig n s th r o u g h o u t th e m o n th o f O c to b e r 1938, in th e fo rm o f b r o a d ­ sides p la ste re d n ig h tly o n to p u b lic w alls, c a llin g fo r M a rtín e z ’s re sig n a tio n . O n e o f th e se b ro a d sid e s, sig n e d b y a g ro u p c a llin g its e lf th e C iv ilia n M ilita ry A sso c iatio n , p ro c la im e d , “ It is tim e th a t th e h e a d o f th is [c o n sti­ tu tio n a l] p a c t b e c o n v in c e d th a t th e d e v o tio n to d e m o c ra c y in E l S alv a d o r is a ta n g ib le fact. G e n e ra l M a rtín e z s h o u ld n o t s ta in o u r f a th e rla n d w ith fresh b lo o d . H e s h o u ld re sp e c t th e p re v a ilin g C o n s titu tio n . H e sh o u ld av o id c a u sin g th e p e o p le o f El S alv a d o r to re m a in d o w n tr o d d e n fo rev er.”124 P e rh a p s th e fo rc e b e h in d th e p ro p a g a n d a c a m p a ig n w as th e sa m e g ro u p o f in d iv id u a ls r u m o re d to h av e b a c k e d L ie u te n a n t B h a ñ o s’s c o u p in S a n ta A n a in 1936. E ith e r way, th e p ro p a g a n d is ts w ere n e v e r c a p tu re d . In a d d itio n to th e p r o p a g a n d a c a m p a ig n , M a rtín e z w as c o n fro n te d w ith b la ­ ta n t d isse n t in h is o w n g o v e rn m e n t. In O c to b e r fo u r o f h is su b se cretaries re sig n e d en m asse in p ro te s t o f h is c o m in g th ir d te rm . T h e y in c lu d e d M a n ­ u el L ó p ez H a rris o n , H e rm o g e n e s A lv ara d o , D a v id R o sales, a n d C o lo n e l José A scen cio M e n é n d e z , th e su b se cretaries o f p u b lic w o rk s, g o v e rn m e n t, p u b lic in s tru c tio n , a n d w ar, resp ectiv ely .125 O f th e fo u r, o n ly R osales m a n ­ aged to sta y o ff M a rtín e z ’s list o f p o litic a l en e m ie s. A n d C o lo n e l M e n é n d e z , as w as m e n tio n e d above, c o n s p ire d to o v e rth ro w M a rtín e z th re e m o n th s later. T h e g o v e rn m e n t’s c o n c e rn over th e flu rry o f o p p o s itio n w as m o re e v id e n t in D ec em b e r, w h e n th e N a tio n a l A sse m b ly v o te d to m a in ta in th e sta te o f siege, c itin g th a t “in reg ard s to th e re e le c tio n , in a d d itio n to its s u p p o rte rs, th e re are also th o se w h o o p p o se it.” 126 W h e th e r th is resistan c e d ro v e M a rtín e z to lim it h is re e le c tio n v o te to th e N a tio n a l A sse m b ly re ­ m a in s u n c e rta in . A t th e least, it ex p lain s w hy, in O c to b e r 1938, M a rtín e z to o k th e u n p re c e d e n te d a c tio n o f fin in g th e alcaldes o f T e ju te p e q u e a n d J u tia p a fifty co lo n es ea ch fo r fa ilin g to fo llo w o rd ers re g a rd in g th e f o r th ­ c o m in g assem b ly e le c tio n s.127 M a rtín e z c o u ld a ffo rd n o fu rtiv e o p p o s itio n in th e n e w assem bly. T h e p re sid e n tia l e le c tio n its e lf w as a h ig h ly secretive affair. M a rtín e z re fra in e d fro m p u b lic p r o n o u n c e m e n ts , a n d th e g o v e rn ­ m e n t d id n o t even a n n o u n c e th e resu lts o f th e v o tin g .

M a rtín e z ’s D isc o u rse o f D e m o c ra c y

S h o rtly after se c u rin g h is b id fo r a n o th e r te rm as p re sid e n t, M a rtín e z w as c o n fro n te d b y a n u n e x p e c te d ch a lle n g e, th e o n s e t o f W o rld W a r II. L ike

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m o s t o f th e re st o f L a tin A m e ric a , El S alv a d o r h a d little c h o ic e b u t to sid e w ith th e U n ite d S tates a n d jo in th e A llie d cause, regardless o f its le a d e r’s in te rests. T h e p ro b le m fo r M a rtín e z w as h o w to g e n e ra te p o p u la r s u p p o r t fo r a p ro d e m o c ra tic , a n tito ta lita ria n fo re ig n p o lic y w ith o u t a n im a tin g d e ­ m a n d s fo r g e n u in e d e m o c ra c y a t h o m e . T h is sa m e c h a lle n g e h a d b eset p o litic a l a c to rs in El S alv a d o r fo r d ecad es, n a m e ly h o w to to u t d e m o c ra c y in a n o n d e m o c r a tic sy stem w ith o u t c a u sin g it to fall a p a rt u n d e r th e w e ig h t o f its o w n p a ra d o x . M a rtín e z a tte m p te d to resolve th is p ro b le m w ith a p u b lic re la tio n s c a m p a ig n d e sig n e d to clarify h is re g im e ’s p o s itio n o n d e m o c ra c y a n d th e w ar. T h e c o rn e rs to n e o f th is c a m p a ig n w as a series o f w eek ly ra d io ad d resses th a t M a rtín e z d eliv ered to th e n a tio n b e tw e e n 1940 a n d 1943. In th e m , M a rtín e z c e le b ra te d th e c o n c e p t o f d e m o c ra c y b u t w o rk e d d ilig e n tly to d e fin e it as a p e rso n a l issue, ra th e r th a n a p u b lic o r civic g o o d . D em o c racy , h e in siste d , ex iste d p h ilo s o p h ic a lly in o n e ’s o w n m in d , n o t in th e p u b lic a re n a o f g o v e rn m e n t. T h e ra d io w as an effective w a y o f re a c h in g larg e se g m e n ts o f th e S al­ v a d o ra n p o p u la tio n . N o sta tistics exist as to h o w m a n y S alv a d o ra n s h a d ra d io s a n d th e re fo re w h a t p e rc e n ta g e o f th e p o p u la tio n c o u ld h av e tu n e d in to M a rtín e z ’s b ro a d c a sts. B u t ra d io w as b e c o m in g o n e o f th e p rin c ip a l fo rm s o f m ass c o m m u n ic a tio n , especially in n a tio n s w ith h ig h illiteracy rates, a n d it is safe to a ssu m e th a t a t le ast so m e p o r tio n o f th e S a lv a d o ra n p o p u la tio n h a d access to a ra d io . T h o s e w h o m th e ra d io c o u ld n o t rea ch h e a rd th e m essag e v ia P ro -P a tria . M a rtín e z h a d ea ch o f h is addresses tr a n ­ scrib ed , co p ie d , a n d se n t o u t to P ro -P a tria officials th r o u g h o u t th e c o u n ­ try, w h o w ere th e n ex p e c te d to m a k e th e c o n te n ts k n o w n to th e ir p o p u la ­ tio n s. T h e g oal w as to sp re a d M a rtín e z ’s m essag e as w id ely as p o ssib le. M a rtín e z o p e n e d h is p u b lic re la tio n s c a m p a ig n in O c to b e r 1940, even b efo re th e U n ite d S tates h a d officially e n te re d th e w ar. H e d eliv ered h is first sp e ec h b e fo re a g ro u p o f p a rty fu n c tio n a rie s a n d fo llo w ed th a t u p w ith a ra d io ad d ress to th e n a tio n th re e days later. A s u m m a ry o f th e a d ­ dress w as s e n t to th e A sso c iate d Press in N e w York. T h e m a in m essag e o f b o th sp eech es w as a n ex p licit d efe n se o f d em o cracy . In th e first address, M a rtín e z d e s c rib e d th e d efe n se o f d e m o c ra c y as a sa cred act:

I f th e Salvadoran p o p u la tio n is disposed to sacrifice itself to d efen d its dem ocracy w ith all o f its m en tal, spiritual an d religious faculties, i f it were disposed to do th a t, it w o u ld com ply w ith th e m o st sacred d u ty for th e

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fatherland, for its h o m e a n d for h um anity, an d i f it w ere disposed to do th at, it w o u ld find in m e a cap tain w illing to p ro te c t these ideas m en tally an d spiritually for th e people o f El Salvador a n d fo r th e en tire w orld. . . . I w an t the w hole w o rld to u n d e rsta n d th a t in m y w ords an d in m y m in d I k n o w the m ean in g o f th e w o rd politics}2

In th e se c o n d add ress, M a rtín e z d e fin e d El S alv a d o r as a d e m o c ra tic c o u n ­ try a n d in siste d th a t its p o p u la tio n u n ite in th e d efe n se o f dem o cracy .

W e have to beco m e politically involved because it is th ro u g h political in ­ volvem ent th a t we address o u r econom ic, social, health, ed u catio n al an d infrastru ctu ra l p roblem s . . . a n d n o w m o re th a n ever those w ith con­ sciousness am o n g us m u st beco m e politically involved because th e natio n s o f L atin A m erica, El Salvador in clu d ed , have lived d em ocratically an d th a t dem ocracy is in grave danger. . . . W e have a cause th a t is m o re pow ­ erful and m o re b rillia n t th a n th e to ta litarian n atio n s, an d th a t cause is dem ocracy, an d we m u st d efend it.129

A fter th is in itia l ap p e a l to d em o cracy , M a rtín e z b e g a n th e lo n g a n d a r d u ­ ou s ta sk o f try in g to lim it th e p u b lic ’s c o n c e p tu a liz a tio n o f d e m o c ra c y to a n id e a r a th e r th a n a p o litic a l s tru c tu re . H is a rg u m e n t c o n siste d o f th re e p a rts, o r as h e called th e m “lo g ics” ( lógicas): p e o p le are m e n ta l b ein g s; d e ­ m o c ra c y is a m e n ta l c o n s tru c t; a n d a d e m o c ra tic so c ie ty is a c o n g lo m e ra ­ tio n o f in d iv id u a ls s h a rin g th o se m e n ta l c o n s tru c ts. M a rtín e z d id n o t p re s e n t th e se th re e logics to g e th e r in a n y o n e sp e e c h o r as a c o h e re n t a n d fo rm a l p ro g ra m . R a th e r th e y w ere th e m e s th a t re c u rre d in h is addresses, w ith o u t a sp ecific o rder. M a rtín e z ad v a n c e d h is id e a th a t h u m a n b e in g s w ere p rim a rily m e n ta l ra th e r th a n p h y sic al b e in g s in v a rio u s fo rm s. S o m e tim e s h e m a d e th e case explicitly, su c h as in h is s ta te m e n t th a t “m a n is a m e n ta l b e in g .” O th e r tim es h e w as less ex p licit, su c h as w h e n h e d e fin e d h u m a n ity b y its “s p iri­ tu a l s e n tim e n ts ,” o r w h e n h e re fe rre d to p e o p le ’s in te rn a l g u id e : “T h is s im p le w o rd th a t w e call co n scio u sn e ss is o n e th a t s p iritu a l m e n h av e a c ce p te d , m a in ta in e d , re sp e c te d a n d lo v ed . T h is co n scio u sn e ss is m a n ’s g u id e .”130 E x te n d in g h is d e fin itio n o f p e o p le as m e n ta l b ein g s, M a rtín e z c o n s id ­ ered in d iv id u a l m e rit a n d p e rso n a l success o r failu re to b e d e te rm in e d b y

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m e n ta l sta te ra th e r th a n a c c o m p lish m e n ts. E g o ism w as th e w o rs t m e n ta l sta te po ssib le, a n d M a rtín e z b eliev e d th a t m o s t o f th e w o rld ’s p ro b le m s o rig in a te d w ith e g o tistic a l p e o p le . M a rtín e z d e n o u n c e d eg o ism in a lm o st every o n e o f h is addresses. In o n e ex a m p le , h e said, “T h e c u rre n t w o rld is fu ll o f a n eg o ist p h ilo so p h y , w h ic h h as o rig in a te d w ith p e o p le , b u t w h ic h h as n o b e n e fit to h u m a n ity , b ec au se th e eg o ist m a n w o rk s first a n d fo re ­ m o s t o n h is o w n b eh alf, fo r h im self, a n d fo r h is im m e d ia te fam ily, a n d w h e n h e a d d s h is fello w n a tio n a ls to th a t list, th e n h is n a tio n c o n fro n ts o th e r n a tio n s , a n d th e m o s t p o w e rfu l n a tio n b e c o m e s th a t o n e w h ic h is c o m p rise d o f m e n h u n g r y to ta k e over o th e r p e o p le .” 131 T h e o p p o s ite o f eg o ism w as a ltru ism . “ It is n ec essary to d ev e lo p an a ltru is t p h ilo s o p h y ,” sa id M a rtín e z in o n e ad d ress, “a p h ilo s o p h y b ased o n t r u th th a t clarifies m a n ’s p u rp o s e o n e a rth a n d th a t allow s h im to p u rs u e th a t m issio n in a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e d iv in e p la n , w ith a p u re m in d a n d p u re e m o tio n s .” 132 A ltru is tic m e n are “h ap p y , lo v in g m e n ,” h e in sisted , th ey are c u ltu re d lead ers d e d ic a te d to service. “I f m a n w o u ld b eliev e in service in s te a d o f b e in g served, th e n h u m a n ity w o u ld ch a n g e . T h e b a d sp irits w o u ld b e d ire c te d to w a rd s n e w p a th s .”133 M a rtín e z s itu a te d h is d e fin itio n o f d e m o c ra c y w ith in th e se n o tio n s o f egoism , a ltru ism , a n d p e rso n a l m e rit. D e m o c ra c y w as a n in te rn a l p h e ­ n o m e n o n , a p e rso n a l p h ilo s o p h y b a se d in th e “g o o d s e n tim e n ts ” o f th e p o p u la tio n :

A n d if it is said th a t dem ocracy is deeply p hilosophical, th e reason is very sim ple. W h a t is p u rsu ed b y dem ocracy? D em o cracy seeks o u t a b etter w orld, an d for this it is necessary to fill oneself w ith deep th o u g h ts, an d th e lib erty th a t com es w ith aw akening consciousness can on ly be achieved by peo p le w h o live in a p u re dem ocracy th a t allows different m en an d w o m en o f th a t c o u n try to develop them selves am id st deeply m o ral p rin cip les.134

In m y und ersta n d in g , w h en there are g o o d sen tim en ts in th e people o f a country, th e n this c o u n try w ants to live in h a rm o n y w ith itself. T h is h ar­ m o n y pro m o tes th e estab lish m en t o f dem ocracy.135

M a rtín e z d e fin e d d e m o c ra tic lib e rty sim ilarly. It to o w as in te rn a l, ex­ is tin g in in d iv id u a ls ’ th o u g h ts . I f a p e rso n b eliev e d in lib erty , th e n th a t

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p e rso n w as d e m o c ra tic , a n d b y ex te n sio n , a d e m o c ra tic so c iety w as o n e in w h ic h its citizen s d id th e sam e.

D em o cratic countries have freedom o f th o u g h t, an d this freedom is the only th in g th a t can aw aken th e w o rld fro m its n ig h tm a re .136

T h e highest aspiration is self-d eterm in atio n , as defined b y people having liberty, b u t those p eople also w an t a g o v ernm ent, a n d as a result they will have freedom o f th o u g h t. T h a t freedom o f th o u g h t is dem ocracy.137

N o w then, w hy are we dem ocratic? W h y do we see ourselves as such? W h y does dem ocracy co n stitu te p a rt o f o u r sp iritu al base an d w hy does dem ocracy becom e im p la n te d in o u r personalities? T h e m a n th a t to d ay is full o f vice m u st im prove h im se lf tom orrow . D em o cracy ’s g uide is co n ­ sciousness, an d dem ocracy p erm its m e n ta l liberty; it com es to m o rro w to kill the killer th a t is o u r perso n ality today, w hich is w hy dem ocrats m u st preserve this as a gift, b u t w ith a sense o f lib erty th a t is h ealthy.138

I f we consider closely w h at we m ean by dem ocracy; a pop u lace th a t as­ pires to the hig h est g o o d is d em o cratic.139

Im p lic it in th e se c o n s ta n t referen ces to d e m o c ra c y as a m e n ta l sta te is th e id e a th a t d e m o c ra c y d o es n o t exist in th e p u b lic se c to r o r in p o litic a l stru c tu re s. M a rtín e z rarely sp o k e a b o u t sp ecific g o v e rn m e n t p ro g ra m s. B u t w h e n h e d id , h is referen ces to th e m w ere v ague, la y ered w ith ap p eals to c o n c e p ts lik e “o r d e r” a n d “tra n q u ility .” F o r ex am p le, in o n e ad d ress M a rtín e z said, “T h is c o u n try th a t is tru ly d e m o c ra tic , w h o se c itiz e n s’ lives d ev elo p h a rm o n io u s ly w ith in , w h a t d o es it h av e to offer? O rd e r, peace, tra n q u ility , w o rk a n d a b e tte r w ay o f life.”140 In a n o th e r ex am p le, M a rtín e z w as carefu l to lim it e x p e c ta tio n s o n w h a t a d e m o c ra tic g o v e rn m e n t ca n a c co m p lish : “A w e ll-c o n c e iv e d d e m o c ra c y d o es n o t c re ate n e w w o rld s, it seeks th e w e ll-b e in g o f th o se w h o live in it. A d e m o c ra tic g o v e rn m e n t d o es n o t say to th e in d u s tria lis t, ‘I a m g o in g to lo w er y o u r la b o r costs, I a m g o in g to im p ro v e y o u r c o n d itio n ’; to th e ru ra l la n d o w n e r, ‘I a m g o in g to p r o te c t y o u r p r o p e rty ’; to th e w o rk e r, ‘I a m g o in g to give y o u la n d .’ T h is ty p e o f d e m o c ra tic g o v e rn m e n t offers n o th in g b u t d em a g o g u e ry .” 141

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O n o n e o cc asio n M a rtín e z d e s c rib e d a d e m o c ra tic g o v e rn m e n t in m o re effective te rm s, b u t su c h a g o v e rn m e n t h a d to lim it p e o p le ’s m e n ta l lib e rty in o rd e r to p re v e n t so cial ch ao s, b ec au se ch a o s aro se fro m a n excess o f liberty. H e said, “W e h av e to c o n s tra in m a n ’s liberty, b ec au se to o m u c h m e n ta l lib e rty c a n re su lt in e x tra o rd in a ry excesses, m u c h m o re g rave th a n th e c rim in a l acts th a t o u r law s c u rre n tly p r o h ib it. W h y ? B ecause p e o p le d o n o t hav e a w e ll-d e v e lo p e d sense o f d is c e rn m e n t a n d o fte n tim e s w e sin k d o w n to p erv e rse levels th a t r u n c o u n te r to o u r re la tio n a l lives.”142 M a rtín e z ’s d is tin c t relig io u s view s in s p ire d so m e o f h is view s o n d e ­ m ocracy. Specifically, M a rtín e z su b sc rib e d to th e o so p h y , a p h ilo s o p h ic a l/ relig io u s fra m e w o rk b a se d in B u d d h is t a n d B ra h m a n ic tra d itio n s th a t a d ­ h e re d to p a n th e is m a n d a b e lie f in re in c a rn a tio n . M a rtín e z ra re ly m a d e specific referen c e to h is relig io u s view s. R a th e r, h e re m a in e d m o re b ro a d ly p h ilo s o p h ic a l. H is addresses w ere h ig h ly th e o re tic a l in to n e , a n d w h e n h e sp o k e a b o u t p o litic a l m a tte rs, su c h as El S a lv a d o r’s p o s itio n in W o rld W a r II, h e n o rm a lly p re s e n te d th e m in th e c o n te x t o f reflec tio n s a b o u t h u m a n n a tu re o r th e m e a n in g o f life. M a rtín e z d e sig n e d h is addresses m o re as e d u c a tio n a l exercises th a n as p o litic a l sta te m e n ts . H e se e m e d to fa n c y h im s e lf a p h ilo s o p h ic a l le a d e r o f th e n a tio n . In o n e ad d ress, fo r ex­ am p le, h e p re s e n te d h is te n ru les fo r a c h ie v in g h a p p in e ss a n d sa tisfac tio n . T h e y in c lu d e d , a m o n g o th e rs, “K n o w y o u rself; Love th o se a r o u n d y o u as y o u love yourself: B e ca refu l o f w h a t y o u say; M o n ito r y o u r in stin c ts; G u a rd y o u r th o u g h ts ; U se y o u r ta le n ts .”143 M a rtín e z m a d e d ire c t referen c e to h is relig io u s view s o n o n ly o n e o c ­ casio n . H e d e d ic a te d th e g re a te r p a r t o f a n ad d re ss in F e b ru a ry 1941 to a d isc u ssio n o f th e te a c h in g s o f J id d u K ris h n a m u rti (1 8 9 5 —1 9 8 6 ), a th e o so p h is t s p iritu a l fig u re o f I n d ia n d e s c e n t w h o re sid e d in th e U n ite d S tates. M a rtín e z c re d ite d K ris h n a m u rti w ith h is id e as a b o u t eg o ism , a ltru ism , a n d dem ocracy , e x p la in in g th a t “K ris h n a m u rti w a n ts p e o p le to live fo r­ ever b y p e rfe c tin g th e ir th o u g h ts a n d feelin g s so th a t o n e day, n o t lo n g fro m now , th is in fin ite life w ill b e ach iev ed ; w e w ill ach iev e it w h e n w e all u n d e r s ta n d th a t w e are b ro th e rs w h o in te rn a lly d esire to give o urselves to o n e an o th e r, a n d th is h ig h e st a c c o m p lis h m e n t w ill b e, g e n tle m e n , th e c o n c e p t o f d em o crac y .”144 T h u s , M a rtin e z ’s relig io u s view s a n d h is desire to in te r p re t th e w o rld p h ilo s o p h ic a lly p ro v id e o n e c o n te x t fo r u n d e r s ta n d ­ in g h is d e fin itio n o f d e m o c ra c y as a m e n ta l state. B u t M a rtín e z ’s relig io n

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m a y sim p ly hav e e n d o w e d h is d isc o u rse w ith a p a rtic u la r flair, b ec au se his d isc u ssio n o f d e m o c ra c y ca n also b e u n d e r s to o d in th e tra d itio n a l c o n te x t o f p a tro n a g e a n d c lie n te lism . T h e su p re m e p a tro n , th e p re sid e n t, w as d e ­ fin in g h is p a tro n a g e n e tw o rk , th e n a tio n , as d e m o c ra tic . S u c h a n ac t w as a w ell-e sta b lish e d p a tte r n o f th e in fo rm a l ru les o f p o litic s— h a il dem o cracy , b u t s tr u c tu re th e sy stem so th a t m ass e x p re ssio n o f o p in io n is c u rta ile d . I n th is reg ard , th e tra n sc rip ts o f M a rtin e z ’s ra d io add resses fro m th e early 1940s m ig h t b e seen as n o th in g special. B u t in fact, th o se tra n sc rip ts are a rare a n d p re c io u s so u rce, b ec au se th e y reveal th e in c re d ib ly e la b o ra te w ays in w h ic h o n e p a rtic u la r s u p re m e p a tro n trie d to c o n tro l th e m e a n in g o f d e m o c ra c y in th e p u b lic ’s m in d . *

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In h is in te rv ie w fro m exile in 1934, P ío R o m e ro B o sq u e ex p ressed his th o u g h ts o n M a rtin e z ’s in te n tio n to r u n in th e e le c tio n o f 1935: “ I e s ta b ­ lish e d a n in n o v a tio n , w h e th e r th e p e o p le w ill allo w a r e tu r n to th e o ld m e th o d s re m a in s to b e se e n .”145 R o m e ro B o sq u e ’s c o m m e n t c a p tu re s th e essence o f th e M a rtin e z re g im e as a re je c tio n o f th e R o m e ro re fo rm s a n d a r e tu r n to th e p r io r p o litic a l sy stem . W h e n M a rtin e z ca m e in to p o w er in D e c e m b e r 19 3 1 , h e f o u n d th e sy stem o f p a tro n a g e a n d c lie n te lism still largely in ta c t, d e s p ite R o m e ro B o s q u e ’s effo rts to e lim in a te it. M a r ­ tin e z d e fe n d e d th e sy stem a n d o p e ra te d it in th e classic sen se o f a p o litic a l p y ra m id . M a rtin e z p la c e d h im s e lf a n d h is im m e d ia te associates a to p th e p y ra m id , a n d th r o u g h h is p o litic a l m a c h in e , th e P a rtid o P ro -P a tria , h e p re sid e d over a vast n e tw o rk o f p a tro n a g e th a t c o n tro lle d m u n ic ip a l o f­ fices, th e seats in th e N a tio n a l A ssem bly, a n d u ltim a te ly th e presid en cy . T h is c h a p te r h as illu s tra te d th e c o n tin u itie s b e tw e e n P ro -P a tria a n d its p red ecesso rs, p a rtic u la rly th e P N D u n d e r P re sid e n ts M e lé n d e z a n d Q u iñ ó n e z , a n d th e re b y su g g ests th a t th e m ilita ry a u th o rita ria n is m p re s e n t afte r 1931 w as alre ad y in p la c e w h e n M a rtin e z ca m e to pow er.

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In th e la te n in e te e n th a n d early tw e n tie th c e n tu rie s, El S a lv a d o r’s e c o n ­ o m y g rew ra p id ly u n d e r th e in flu e n c e o f coffee. T h is e x p a n sio n c re a te d m o re o p p o r tu n itie s fo r so m e S alv a d o ra n s, b u t m o s t o f th e rew ard s fro m coffee w e n t to a sm a ll p o r tio n o f th e p o p u la tio n . F o r m o s t S alv a d o ra n s, coffee sig n ifie d th e d ec ay o f so c ie ty a n d c o m m u n ity ra th e r th a n e c o n o m ic o p p o rtu n ity . In c o n ju n c tio n w ith th is e c o n o m ic ex p a n sio n , th e p o p u la ­ tio n g rew b u t th e a m o u n t o f availab le la n d d im in is h e d . T h e sh o rts ig h te d n a tu re o f th e p riv a tiz a tio n decrees o f th e 1880s a n d 1890s w as b e c o m in g a p p a re n t b y th e 1 9 20s as m o re p e a sa n ts fac ed p ro le ta ria n iz a tio n . T h e n e e d w as g rea t fo r a p o litic a l sy stem th a t c o u ld r e s p o n d to th e ir p ro b le m s a n d give so c iety as a w h o le a n a re n a in w h ic h to resolve issues in a p ro d u c tiv e a n d p ea ce fu l m a n n e r. B u t th e p o litic a l sy stem re m a in e d exclusive. T h e g ro w th o f th e s ta te a n d th e c e n tra liz a tio n o f p o w e r c o n s o lid a te d ra th e r th a n d is b a n d e d th e sy stem o f p a tro n a g e a n d c lie n te lism . It w as a re c ip e fo r disaster. In th e 1920s, a few fo rw a rd -lo o k in g p e o p le re c o g n iz e d th e d e v e lo p in g crisis a n d b e c a m e c o n v in c e d th a t re fo rm s h a d to b e e n a c te d . It seem s th a t P ío R o m e ro B o sq u e w as o n e o f th e se in d iv id u a ls. H e in s titu te d a p ro g ra m o f d e m o c ra tic re fo rm th a t s o u g h t to give p o litic a l v o ice to a g re a te r p o r ­ tio n o f th e n a tio n ’s p o p u la tio n . T h e fa ilu re o f h is p ro g ra m , in c o n ju n c tio n w ith th e o n s e t o f th e G re a t D e p re ss io n , lit th e fu se o f a b o m b . In J a n u a ry

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1932 th e ex p lo sio n c a m e in th e fo rm o f a m assiv e p e a sa n t re b e llio n in th e w e ste rn d e p a rtm e n ts . T h e re v o lt o c c u rre d ju s t six w eeks after th e m ilita ry c o u p th a t b r o u g h t G e n e ra l M a x im ilia n o M a rtín e z to po w er. T h e m ilita ry re a c te d to th e re b e llio n w ith v io le n c e o n a colossal scale. T ro o p s d e s c e n d e d u p o n th e w e ste rn re g io n a n d k ille d th o u s a n d s o f p e o p le in a few days. As th e last c h a p te r d e m o n s tra te d , in c o n ju n c tio n w ith th is re p re ssio n , th e M a rtín e z re g im e a d o p te d a re a c tio n a ry p o litic a l a g e n d a , o v e rtu rn in g th e refo rm s o f th e R o m e ro y ears a n d r e tu r n in g to th e sy stem th a t h a d p re ­ v ailed previously. N o tw ith s ta n d in g th e ir v io le n t re sp o n se to th e re b e llio n a n d th e ir re­ a c tio n a ry p o litic s , m a n y m ilita ry lead ers to o k th e re b e llio n as a w a rn in g sig n , an in d ic a tio n th a t th e lo n g -te rm h e a lth o f so c ie ty r e q u ire d so m e ch a n g e. T o th a t e n d , th e y e m b a rk e d u p o n a re fo rm p ro g ra m th a t so u g h t to u p lift ru ra l w o rk e rs b y s h ie ld in g th e m fro m th e im p e rs o n a l forces o f th e m a rk e t a n d d e fe n d in g th e m fro m th e ab u ses o f c e rta in la n d o w n e rs. T h e p ro g ra m w as lim ite d in its o b je ctiv es a n d u ltim a te ly h a d o n ly m in im a l im p a c t o n th e ru ra l p o o r. B u t th e re fo rm s le ft a n im p o r ta n t legacy. As o n e c o m p o n e n t o f M a rtín e z ’s g o v e rn in g strategy, th e re fo rm ist a g e n d a se t a p re c e d e n t u p o n w h ic h h is successors w o u ld e x p a n d in c o m in g years. T h e refo rm s also h a d a sig n ific a n t im p a c t o n c e rta in g ro u p s, su c h as In d ia n s in th e w e ste rn d e p a rtm e n ts . O n e rev e latio n o f th is c h a p te r is th a t El S a lv a d o r’s p o o r, su b a lte rn ac­ to rs in s e rte d th e ir n e e d s a n d d e m a n d s in to th e p u b lic aren a. T h e u p risin g failed to deliver a c o h e re n t m essag e o r a sp ecific series o f d e m a n d s, a n d it is im p o s sib le to k n o w w h e th e r m ilita ry lead ers w o u ld h av e e m b ra c e d th e id e a o f re fo rm ism in th e ab sen c e o f a p e a sa n t u p risin g . B u t it is e v id e n t th a t m ilita ry lead ers lin k e d th e ir re fo rm ism to th e 1932 u p risin g . T h e y h a d k illed ru ra l p o o r p e o p le b y th e th o u s a n d s , a n d th e y c o n tin u e d to re ­ sist a u to n o m o u s ru ra l m o b iliz a tio n , b u t th e y in te r p re te d th e u p ris in g as a sign th a t th e p e a sa n ts w ere d is g ru n tle d a n d th a t i f n o th in g w as d o n e to alleviate th e ir su ffe rin g , th e n f u tu re u p risin g s re m a in e d a po ssib ility . T h is c h a p te r also d e m o n s tra te s th e F a u stia n b a rg a in th a t elites m a d e w ith th e m ilita ry in th e w ak e o f th e 1932 u p risin g . T h e y g o t s o m e th in g th e y w a n te d fro m M a rtín e z : se c u rity a n d a n av id s u p p o r te r o f e x p o rt-le d p ro d u c tio n b ased in p riv a te ly o w n e d estates. B u t in tra d e th e y g o t m ili­ ta ry ru lers w h o w ere n o t n ecessarily b e h o ld e n to th e m , w h o h a d th e ir

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o w n p a rtic u la r p e rc e p tio n s a n d id eo lo g ie s. T h e M a rtín e z g o v e rn m e n t’s re fo rm p ro g ra m m a y n o t h av e b e e n v ery s to u t, b u t it w as th e first sh o t in a lo n g b a ttle b e tw e e n elites a n d th e m ilita ry , p a r t o f th e ir te n se m a r ­ riag e o f co n v e n ie n c e . A s ju s t o n e e x a m p le o f th a t te n sio n , th is c h a p te r show s h o w h a r d elites h a d to fig h t a g a in st th e g o v e rn m e n t’s p la n to a b o l­ ish p la n ta tio n -o w n e d c o n v e n ie n c e sto res a n d th e p r o h ib itio n a g a in st p a y ­ in g la b o re rs in c o u p o n s (fichas ) ra th e r th a n legal currency.

T h e U p ris in g o f 1932

F o r all th e ir la stin g legacy, th e ev en ts o f 1 9 3 2 la ste d o n ly a s h o rt tim e . T h e a c tu a l re b e llio n to o k p la ce over th re e days, w ith rebels c o n tro llin g m o s t o f th e o c c u p ie d to w n s fo r less th a n fo rty -e ig h t h o u rs. T h e e x c e p tio n w as th e re m o te m u n ic ip a lity o f T a c u b a in A h u a c h a p á n D e p a rtm e n t, w h ic h w as u n d e r reb el c o n tro l fo r th re e days. A fte r re c o v e rin g fro m th e in itia l s u r ­ prise, soldiers fro m S o n so n a te C ity a n d A h u a c h a p á n C ity re g a in e d c o n ­ tro l o f th e o c c u p ie d to w n s even b e fo re th e m a in re in fo rc e m e n t c o lu m n arriv ed fro m S an S alv a d o r o n J a n u a ry 2 5 . T h o s e re in fo rc e m e n ts th e n sw ep t th r o u g h th e c o u n try sid e , m u r d e r in g p e o p le by th e th o u sa n d s, so m e tim e s in h ig h ly o rc h e stra te d m ass e x e cu tio n s. T h e sla u g h te r la ste d ro u g h ly tw o w eeks. A n d th e n , ju s t as q u ic k ly as it h a d c o m e, th e a rm y w ith d re w fro m th e w e ste rn re g io n , le av in g b e h in d th e sa m e n u m b e r o f tro o p s in each to w n th a t h a d b e e n th e re b e fo re. T h e rep re ssio n w as h o r ­ rify in g a n d b ru ta l, b u t sh o rt-liv e d . El S alv a d o r h as d e a lt w ith th e legacy o f th o se events ever sin ce. A s th e fa m e d p o e t R o q u e D a lto n o n c e w ro te , all S alv ad o ran s “w ere b o r n h a lf-d e a d in 1 9 3 2 .”1 T h e events o f 1932 h av e b e e n a m p ly n a rra te d elsew here, so I n e e d n o t re p e a t th a t exercise h ere . In ste a d , a few b r ie f referen ces w ill b e a d e q u a te to p ro v id e a sense o f th e scale o f ev en ts. In itia l re p o rts o f c e rta in “d is tu r ­ b a n c e s” o c c u rrin g in th e w e ste rn d e p a rtm e n ts b e g a n filte rin g in to th e n a ­ tio n a l ca p ita l in th e la te h o u rs o f J a n u a ry 2 0 .2 O v e r th e n e x t th re e days m o re teleg ram s a n d re p o rts a rriv ed , d e p ic tin g a s itu a tio n th a t w as ra p id ly s p in n in g o u t o f c o n tro l: o n e in w h ic h lo cal m ilita ry p o sts w ere o v er­ w h e lm e d a n d m u n ic ip a litie s w ere fa llin g to p e a sa n t in su rg e n ts. T h e re ­ p o rts reveal th a t la te in th e n ig h t o f J a n u a ry 2 2 a n d early in th e m o r n in g

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o n J a n u a ry 2 3 , rebels la u n c h e d a series o f c o o rd in a te d a tta c k s th r o u g h o u t S o n so n a te , A h u a c h a p á n , a n d L a L ib e rta d D e p a rtm e n ts . S o n so n a te D e ­ p a r tm e n t saw th e m o s t fig h tin g . T h e m ilita ry b a rra c k s in S o n so n a te C ity w ere assau lted , a n d rebels seized c o n tro l o f ro u g h ly h a lf a d o z e n m u n ic i­ p alitie s in th e area, in c lu d in g th e im p o r ta n t a n d p o p u lo u s to w n s o f Izalco, N a h u iz a lc o , a n d Ju a y ú a . A la te r te le g ra m d e sc rib e d th e events: “ C o m ­ m u n is t h o rd e s h av e c a u se d g re a t d a m a g e in th e m u n ic ip a litie s o f Izalco, Ju a y ú a, S a lc o a titá n , N a h u iz a lc o a n d S o n zac ate. T h e M u n ic ip a l B u ild in g s o f N a h u iz a lc o , S a lc o a titá n a n d S o n z a c a te w ere all b u rn e d , d e s tro y in g th e archives. T h e c o n te n ts o f th e v au lts w ere sto le n . In Ju a y ú a a n d Izalco, th e rebels cau sed c o n sid e ra b le d a m a g e , th e y b u r n e d re c o rd s a n d p a rts o f th e archives.”3 G iv e n th e e x te n t o f th e re p o rts, it is su rp ris in g h o w few p e o p le th e in su rg e n ts k illed — few er th a n o n e h u n d r e d b y th e tim e th e e n tire re b e llio n h a d b e e n b r o u g h t to a close. T h e m ilita ry ’s re in fo rc e m e n t c o lu m n le ft S an S alv a d o r b y tra in o n th e a fte rn o o n o f J a n u a ry 2 4 , b u t it w as d elay e d b y sa b o ta g e o n th e rail lines. It arriv ed in S o n so n a te th e n e x t m o rn in g . B y th a t tim e tro o p s fro m th e b a r ­ racks in S o n s o n a te a n d A h u a c h a p á n h a d re g a in e d c o n tro l o v er th e o c c u ­ p ie d to w n s a n d e n d e d th e re b e llio n . O p p o s itio n fro m th e p o o rly a rm e d rebels h a d e v a p o ra te d b e fo re th e m ilita ry ’s firepow er. A t th a t p o in t th e r e trib u tio n s b eg a n . T h e w e ll-fo rtifie d a n d fa st-m o v in g m ilita ry u n its sw ep t th r o u g h th e in s u rg e n t reg io n s o n e v illage a t a tim e , k illin g p e a sa n ts b o th in d is c rim in a te ly a n d in h ig h ly o rc h e s tra te d m ass e x e cu tio n s. O n ly a few eyew itness re p o rts o f th e m a ssac re su rv iv e. O n e o f th e m o re p o ig n a n t a c c o u n ts co m es fro m a N o r t h A m e ric a n m is sio n a ry w h o w as liv in g in th e m u n ic ip a lity o f J u a y ú a a t th e tim e . H e su rv iv e d th e re b e llio n b e h in d th e lo c k e d d o o r o f a h o u s e in th e c e n te r o f to w n a n d th e n w itn e sse d th e s u m ­ m a ry ex ecu tio n s. “A ll d a y lo n g , a n d th is la ste d fo r several d ays,” h e w ro te , “w e c o u ld h e a r th e sh o ts in th e p la z a as th e w o rk o f e x e c u tio n w e n t o n .”4 A C a n a d ia n n av a l o fficer w h o tra v e le d to S an S alv a d o r fro m S o n s o n a te o n th e tw e n ty -fifth re p o rte d :

D u rin g this trip m a n y d ead bodies o f In d ian s w ere observed along the railw ay lines specially [sic] aro u n d S onsonate. It was also n o tic ed th a t nearly everyone w alking a b o u t carried a sm all w h ite flag w h ich they w aved co n tinually to show they w ere n o t red; m a n y residences also h a d large

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w hite flags displayed in a conspicuous place. It is d o u b tfu l w h eth e r these w hite flags in flu en ced th e troops p atro llin g th e country, as one b o d y was observed lying dead w ith th e w h ite flag still in his h a t.5

A n o th e r eyew itn ess a c c o u n t co m es fro m El S a lv a d o r’s C o m m u n is t P a rty (P C S ). A lth o u g h p e rse c u te d a n d s ta n d in g o n th e b r in k o f collapse, th e c e n tra l c o m m itte e s e n t o n e o f its m e m b e rs, “C o m ra d e M ,” to th e w e ste rn z o n e o n a rec o n n a iss a n c e m issio n . “M ” m a d e th e fo llo w in g re p o rt:

M ass arrests to o k place. In th e evening th e jails w ere vacated, th e prisoners w ere taken to th e su rro u n d s o f th e city o f S onsonate, m ass shootings to o k place. T h e bodies w ere left exposed o n th e streets. . . . E n tire villages ab a n d o n ed by o u r com rades w ere red u ced to ashes b y th e g o v ern m en t troops. . . . O u r com rades w ere h an g ed b y th e tens an d th eir bodies re­ m a in ed han g in g fo r a few days. Suspicious elem ents w ere arrested. E m er­ gency decrees w ere p u t in to effect by th e g o v ernm ent. . . . N o village was left [u ntou ch ed ], n o finca, n o p la n tatio n . E xecutions to o k place o f all suspicious elem ents, n o t sparing w o m en an d ch ild ren .”6

F ro m th e se a n d o th e r a c c o u n ts o f th e re p re ssio n , it is e v id e n t th a t th e m ili­ ta ry re s p o n d e d to th e re b e llio n quickly, h arshly, a n d relentlessly. A s q u ic k ly as th e m ilita ry p u t d o w n th e re b e llio n , it s to p p e d th e m a s ­ sacre a n d v ac a te d th e w e ste rn re g io n . A sim ila r sc e n a rio p la y e d o u t in each o f th e o n c e -o c c u p ie d m u n ic ip a litie s: a m ilita ry u n it arriv ed , re g a in e d c o n ­ tro l o f th e to w n sh ip , re tu r n e d th e lo cal a u th o ritie s to po w er, a n d d e p a rte d s h o rtly th ereafte r, le av in g b e h in d th e sa m e n u m b e r o f tro o p s th a t h a d b e e n s ta tio n e d in th e to w n p r io r to th e re b e llio n . T h e m ix e d resp o n se s fro m lo cal officials in th e w a k e o f th e re b e llio n m a k e e v id e n t th e m ilita ry ’s ra p id d e p a rtu re . T h e officials in itia lly th a n k e d th e m ilita ry fo r sa v in g th e m fro m th e rebels. O ffic ials in Iza lco w ro te , “In th e n a m e o f th e Iz a lq u e ñ o p e o p le , w e se n d o u r m o s t express g ra titu d e to th e C o n s titu tio n a l P re sid e n t o f th e R e p u b lic , G e n e ra l M a x im ilia n o H e rn á n d e z M a rtín e z , fo r th e o p p o r tu n e d is p a tc h o f tro o p s to th is city, w h e n it w as u n d e r th e c o n tro l o f th e c o m m u n is t b a n d its .”7 B u t g ra titu d e q u ic k ly gave w ay to tre p id a tio n as th e m ilita ry u n its d e p a rte d . In T ac u b a, fo r ex am p le, th e m ilita ry re m a in e d o n ly tw o days, b e tw e e n J a n u a ry 25

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a n d 2 7 . T h e alcald e o f T a c u b a re s p o n d e d to th e s u d d e n w ith d ra w a l b y p ro te s tin g to th e d e p a rtm e n ta l g o v ern o r, “W e h av e b e e n lib e ra te d b y w ay o f th e [m ilita ry ’s] e n e rg e tic p e rse c u tio n , b u t w ith o u t h a v in g b e e n le ft w ith a m ilita ry d e ta c h m e n t su ffic ie n t to m a in ta in th e re g a in e d te rrito ry , n o r to c o n tin u e th e p e rse c u tio n . . . . T h e c o m m u n is ts are n u m e ro u s a n d are w a itin g in a m b u sh , a n d a t a n y m o m e n t w ill la u n c h a su rp rise assau lt.”8 M o s t o f th e m u n ic ip a litie s w ere n o t v a c a te d as q u ic k ly as T ac u b a, b u t in th e c o m in g days all u n d e rw e n t a sim ila r ex p erien ce. L ocal officials in so m e m u n ic ip a litie s a tte m p te d to c o n v in c e th e m ili­ ta ry to sta y longer, o r a t le ast to leave b e h in d m o re so ld iers. O n ly a few m u n ic ip a litie s su c c e e d e d in d o in g so, a n d th e y h a d to a ssu m e all fin a n c ia l re sp o n sib ility fo r th e so ld iers, in c lu d in g th e ir salaries a n d d a ily n ecessities. Ju a y ú a w as g ra n te d a n a d d itio n a l m ilita ry d e ta c h m e n t, b u t in r e tu r n th e g o v e rn m e n t d e c id e d to re lo c a te Ju a y ú a ’s p o s t o f th e G u a rd ia N a c io n a l. U p o n b e in g in fo rm e d o f th e p la n , th e alcald e o f Ju a y ú a p le a d e d fo r th e g u a rd p o s t to rem a in : “ T h e G u a rd ia is essen tial to th e p ea ce a n d tr a n q u il­ ity o n th e fincas a n d in th e c o u n try s id e o f th is re g io n . . . . W i th o u t th e G u a rd ia th e a g ric u ltu ra l w o rk w ill b e s u b je c te d to th e crim es o f b a d ele­ m e n ts still in th e m o u n ta in s . Ju a y ú a c o n trib u te s m o re th a n 2 0 0 m illio n co lo n es to th e n a tio n a n d h as d e m o n s tra te d h ig h p a trio tis m a t ev ery o p ­ p o rtu n ity . W e h e lp th e G o v e rn m e n t a n d are c u rre n tly p a y in g a d e ta c h ­ m e n t o f so ld iers th a t is also p a r t o f th e n a tio n a l d efen se, a n d w e c o n sid e r it ju s t th a t y o u d o n o t a b a n d o n o u r in te re sts .”9 T h e m ilita ry ’s re sp o n se to th e p le a is n o t k n o w n , b u t th e ap p e a l d e m o n s tra te s th e e x te n t o f th e m ili­ ta ry ’s w ith d ra w a l fro m th e w est. In s te a d o f le av in g its o w n forces b e h in d , th e m ilita ry c re a te d a p a ra ­ m ilita ry fo rce called th e C iv ic G u a rd (G u a rd ia C ív ic a ).10 C iv ic G u a rd u n its w ere estab lish e d in ea ch m u n ic ip a lity a n d lo cal “p a trio tic ” citizen s w ere e n liste d to serve in th e ir ra n k s. P a rtic ip a tio n in th e C iv ic G u a rd w as v o lu n ta ry , a n d all costs, in c lu d in g u n ifo rm s, w e a p o n s, a n d ra tio n s, w ere in c u rre d b y th e lo cal c o m m u n ity ; m e m b e rs o f th e C iv ic G u a rd receiv ed n o pay. T o fin a n c e th e se costs ea ch m u n ic ip a lity f o rm e d a C o m ité d e D e ­ fen sa S ocial (social d efe n se c o m m itte e ), w h ic h so lic ite d d o n a tio n s fro m local citizens. T h e in itia l ta sk o f th e C iv ic G u a rd w as to d isp o se o f th e th o u s a n d s o f b o d ie s le ft in th e w a k e o f th e m a ssa c re .11 U ltim a te ly , th e m a in d u ty o f th e C iv ic G u a rd w as to serve as th e eyes a n d ears o f th e m ili-

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tary, p a tro llin g th e villages, esp ecially a t n ig h t, a n d re p o r tin g ev id en c e o f f u rth e r reb el a c tiv ity .12 T h e m ilita ry ’s ra p id w ith d ra w a l fro m th e w e st sig n ifie d th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t’s in te n t to p u t a q u ic k a n d fo rm a l e n d to th e m assacre. T h e m ilita ry ’s d e c isio n to av o id th e u se o f p r o lo n g e d a n d o v e rt rep re ssio n is e v id e n t in th e case o f H u iz ú c a r, a p r e d o m in a n tly I n d ia n village lo c a te d ro u g h ly te n k ilo m e te rs to th e s o u th o f S an S alv a d o r.13 O n th e n ig h t o f J a n u a ry 2 9 , a rm e d reb els fro m th e area s to rm e d th e m u n ic ip a l p la za a n d a tte m p te d to seize c o n tro l o f th e m u n ic ip a l h all, b u t w ere th w a rte d b y th e tim e ly arrival o f m ilita ry u n its .14 As elsew here, th e m ilita ry d e p a rte d th e village s h o rtly afte r re s to rin g o rder. T w o w eeks la te r th e rebels a g a in a t­ te m p te d to d estab ilize th e lo cal g o v e rn m e n t, th is tim e b y s e n d in g a w rit­ te n d e n u n c ia tio n to th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t a c cu sin g th e la d in o m ay o r, V ic e n te P late ro , a n d th e e n tire m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il o f o p p o s in g th e m ilita ry reg im e. U p o n re c e iv in g a c o p y o f th e d e n u n c ia tio n , P la te ro s e n t h is o w n le tte r to th e ca p ita l, in w h ic h h e id e n tifie d th e so licito rs as “th e sa m e in d i­ v id u a ls w h o h a d p a rtic ip a te d in th e se d itio u s u p ris in g .” T h e d e p a rtm e n ta l g o v e rn o r la u n c h e d h is o w n in v e stig a tio n a n d c o n c u rre d w ith P late ro , re c ­ o g n iz in g th e stra n g e tu r n o f ev e n ts th a t n o w h a d th e rebels p re s e n tin g th em selv es as allies o f th e m ilita ry in o rd e r to d e n o u n c e th e local g o v e rn ­ m e n t. “T h o s e w h o d e n o u n c e th e A lc a ld e o f H u iz ú c a r,” n o te d th e g o v er­ n o r, “are c o n tra ry to o u r g o v e rn m e n t a n d its in s titu tio n s , h a v in g alre ad y m a n ife s te d th e ir s e n tim e n ts d u r in g th e c o m m u n is t se d itio n . . . . T h e y are fu ll o f b a d in te n tio n s a n d th re a te n to in tr o d u c e d iso rd e r a n d an a rch y .”15 B u t th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t re s p o n d e d to th e affair in H u iz ú c a r b y in ­ s tru c tin g P late ro to “n o t ta k e in to a c c o u n t th e ir d e n u n c ia tio n ”; in o th e r w o rd s, sim p ly ig n o re th e m .16 N o f u rth e r m ilita ry c a m p a ig n s w ere la u n c h e d a r o u n d H u iz ú c a r, o r in a n y o th e r m u n ic ip a lity fo r th a t m a tte r. T h e m ilita ry ’s n o n re a c tio n in H u iz ú c a r a n d its ra p id d e m o b iliz a tio n in th e e n tire w estern re g io n are e m b le m a tic o f its overall a p p ro a c h to th e c o u n try s id e afte r o f th e m assacre. M ilita ry lead ers b eliev e d th a t th e lo n g ­ te rm sta b ility o f th e c o u n try s id e d e p e n d e d o n re fo rm r a th e r th a n re p re s­ sio n . T h e y b ase d th is b e lie f u p o n a sp ecific in te r p re ta tio n o f th e re b e llio n a n d its causes. A c c o rd in g to th is in te r p re ta tio n , th e re b e llio n was ca u se d n o t b y c o m m u n is m , b u t b y th e in c e ssa n t p o v e rty a n d o p p re ssio n th a t p e a sa n ts e n d u re d in th e ir d a ily lives in th e c o u n try sid e . G ra n te d , th e rebels

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w ere c o n s ta n tly re fe rre d to as “c o m m u n is ts ” b y n e w sp a p e r re p o rte rs, local officials, m ilita ry sp o k e sp e rso n s, a n d s u b s e q u e n t w rite rs alike. B u t m ili­ ta ry lead ers b eliev e d th a t th e c o m m u n is ts w ere few in n u m b e r a n d th a t th e ir ro le in th e re b e llio n h a d b e e n lim ite d to o rg a n iz in g . F o r in sta n c e , th e m ilita ry k e p t a n o n g o in g list o f p e rso n s su sp e c te d o f b e lo n g in g to th e P C S . As o f O c to b e r 1931 th e list c o n ta in e d o n ly 3 4 0 n a m e s, a n d m o re th a n 7 0 p e rc e n t o f th o se n a m e d ca m e fro m S an S alvador. N o ta b ly , S o n so n a te D e p a r tm e n t h a d few er th a n tw en ty -fiv e m e m b e rs.17 C o m m u n is t P arty d o c u m e n ts in th e C o m in te rn A rc h iv e in M o sco w , R u ssia, c o rro b o ­ ra te th e m ilita ry ’s figures a lm o st exactly. A m e m b e r o f th e p a r ty ’s c e n tra l c o m m itte e w h o te stifie d b e fo re th e C o m in te r n ’s N e w Y ork office, th e C a ­ r ib b e a n B u rea u , in la te 1932, re p o r te d th a t b y th e e n d o f 1931 th e p a rty h a d fo u r h u n d r e d m e m b e rs, a lm o st th re e h u n d r e d o f w h o m re sid e d in S an Salvador, a n d o n ly e ig h te e n o f w h o m w ere b a se d in S o n so n a te D e ­ p a r tm e n t.18 In h is first p u b lic ad d ress afte r th e re b e llio n , M a rtín e z p r o ­ v id e d th e fo llo w in g in te r p re ta tio n o f th e ro le o f th e c o m m u n ists: “W h e n th is c o u n try w as su ffe rin g fro m th e effects o f a d ep re ssed e c o n o m ic s itu ­ a tio n , th e C o m m u n is ts , e n e m ie s o f p ea ce a n d th e F a th e rla n d , e n d e a v o re d to th ro w th e R e p u b lic in to th e m o s t tr e m e n d o u s d iso rg a n iz a tio n . W ith id e alistic a s p ira tio n s fo r im p ro v e m e n ts in fav o r o f th e c h a m p io n s a n d w o rk e rs in g en eral, th e C o m m u n is ts to o k a d v a n ta g e o f th o se p e o p le s’ s im p le -m in d e d n e ss . . . a n d c o n v in c e d th e m to rise u p a g a in st th e c o n ­ s titu te d a u th o ritie s a n d th e le a d in g classes o f society; th e C o m m u n is ts p ro m is e d th e m a ra d ic a l c h a n g e in th e in s titu tio n s u n d e r w h ic h th ey live.”19 M a rtín e z a n d o th e r m ilita ry lead ers m ig h t b e su sp e c te d o f falsely m in im iz in g th e e x te n t o f c o m m u n is t in flu e n c e sim p ly to d ism iss p e a sa n t re v o lu tio n a ry s e n tim e n t a n d to affirm n a tio n a l u n ity . B u t C o m m u n is t P arty d o c u m e n ts in th e C o m in te r n A rc h iv e reveal, in th e w o rd s o f p a rty lead ers th em selv es, th a t th e p a rty w as w ra c k e d by c o n fu s io n a n d d iso rg a ­ n iz a tio n in th e m o n th s le a d in g u p to th e re b e llio n .20 In th e ir re p o rts to N e w Y ork a n d M o scow , p a rty lead ers d e s c rib e d a s itu a tio n in w h ic h th e p a rty w as d e a lin g w ith a v arie ty o f in te rn a l co n flicts, especially th e lin g e r­ in g s e n tim e n t o f w h a t so m e p a r ty le ad e rs re fe rre d to as “b o u rg e o is” values a m o n g s t th e cadres. F o r m o re th a n o n e y ea r afte r it w as fo u n d e d in M a rc h 1930, th e p a rty in v e ste d m u c h o f its tim e a n d en erg y in se a rc h in g fo r “b o u rg e o is re fo rm ists” in its ra n k s a n d e d u c a tin g its m e m b e rs in M a rx ist

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ideology. W h e n th e p a r ty fin ally tu r n e d to o rg a n iz in g in th e w est in th e m id d le o f 1931, it c o n fro n te d a h o s t o f p ro b le m s th a t lim ite d its c a p a c ity to b u ild c o n ta c ts w ith th e w e ste rn m asses, esp ecially th e issue o f eth n icity . T h e P C S c o n siste d a lm o st exclusively o f u rb a n la d in o s, w h erea s th e ru ra l reg io n s o f th e w e st w ere p r e d o m in a n tly I n d ia n .21 M ilita ry lead ers w ere p ro b a b ly n o t aw are o f th e p a r ty ’s in te r n a l p ro b le m s, b u t th e y se em to h av e b eliev ed th a t th e o rg a n iz e d le ft w as n o t th e p rim a ry cause o f th e in su rre c ­ tio n . R ath er, th e y in te rp re te d th e c o m m u n is ts ’ a b ility to o rg an iz e as a c o n ­ se q u e n c e o f social c o n d itio n s , a n d th u s th e w a y to a v o id f u tu re re b e llio n s w as to ad d ress th o se c o n d itio n s , n o t sim p ly a tta c k th e o rg a n iz e d left.

In te r p r e tin g 1 9 3 2

C o n te m p o r a r y m ilita ry le ad e rs’ c o m p le x in te rp re ta tio n s o f th e u p risin g s ta n d in c o n tra s t to lo n g -h e ld a s su m p tio n s in h isto rio g ra p h y . S in ce th e o n se t o f th e m o d e rn h is to rio g ra p h y o f 19 3 2 , w h ic h m o re o r less b eg in s w ith th e 1971 p u b lic a tio n o f M atanza, th e se m in a l s tu d y b y th e N o r t h A m e ric a n h is to ria n T h o m a s A n d e rs o n , receiv ed w is d o m h as h e ld th a t c o m m u n is m w as th e m a in cause o f th e 1 9 3 2 u p ris in g .22 T h e b a sic p re m ise o f th is a rg u m e n t, w h ic h h as b e e n la b e le d “c o m m u n is t causality,” is th a t th e o rig in s o f th e re b e llio n are to b e f o u n d in th e o rg a n iz e d left, in c lu d in g th e C o m m u n is t Party, its affiliated la b o r u n io n , th e F e d e ra c ió n R e g io n a l d e T ra b ajad o res S alv a d o re ñ o s (F R T S , R e g io n a l F e d e ra tio n o f S a lv a d o ra n W o rk e rs), a n d its sister o rg a n iz a tio n , th e S o c o rro R o jo In te rn a c io n a l (SR I, In te r n a tio n a l R e d A id ). A ll o f th e se o rg a n iz a tio n s h a d th e ir o rig in s in u rb a n areas, m a in ly S an S alvador, a m o n g th e n a s c e n t u r b a n w o rk in g class th a t h a d b e g u n to e m erg e as a d e m o g ra p h ic a n d social fo rc e in th e 1910s a n d 1920s. A c c o rd in g to c o m m u n is t causality, th e u rb a n -b a s e d rad icals ta rg e te d th e w e ste rn c o u n try s id e a n d its ru ra l p o p u la tio n fo r o rg a n iz a ­ tio n a l m o b iliz a tio n s ta rtin g in th e la te 1920s, o n c e th e y h a d g o tte n th e ir o w n affairs in o rder. T o th a t e n d , th e y s e n t o rg an iz ers o u t to th e w e ste rn reg io n , in c lu d in g th e fa m e d S a lv a d o ra n ac tiv ist F a ra b u n d o M a rtí, w h o h e a d e d u p th e S R I b u t w as o n close w o rk in g te rm s w ith th e C o m m u n is t Party. O n a c c o u n t o f th e skills a n d d ilig e n c e o f o rg an iz ers lik e M a rtí, a n d th e re c e p tiv ity o f th e w e ste rn m asses d u e to th e ir m ise ra b le liv in g

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c o n d itio n s , th e p ro s p e c t o f a rm e d re b e llio n em e rg e d . T h e d ec isio n to m o v e fo rw a rd w ith th e re b e llio n a n d its s u b s e q u e n t o rg a n iz a tio n re ste d w ith th e lead ers o f th e ra d ic a l left. S u p p o sed ly , th e y p la n n e d th e re b e llio n , d e c id e d u p o n its stra te g y a n d tim in g , a n d d eliv ered th e ir d irec tiv e s to th e w e ste rn m asses. O n e o f th e s u p p o s e d rea so n s fo r th e failu re o f th e re b e l­ lio n is th a t th e o rg a n iz a tio n a l c e n te r o f th e ra d ic a l le ft fell a p a rt in th e critical days le a d in g u p to th e p ro p o s e d sta rt. A m a in cau se o f th is co llap se w as th e arrest o f F a ra b u n d o M a r tí in S an S alv a d o r a n d th e s u b se q u e n t seizu re o f a cach e o f h o m e m a d e b o m b s a n d d e ta ile d p la n s. H is arrest th re w th e o rg a n iz a tio n a l in fra s tru c tu re in to disarray, a n d w h e n th e d ay o f th e u p ris in g arriv ed , th e m asses w ere m o re o r less le ft to th e ir o w n devices.23 A n d e rs o n ’s M a ta n za is a fo u n d a tio n o f th e c o m m u n is t-c a u s a lity n a r ­ rativ e, b u t a n o th e r decisive c o n trib u to r w as th e te s tim o n ia l o f M ig u e l M á rm o l. T h e y o u n g sh o e m a k e r fro m th e e n v iro n s o f S an S alv a d o r g o t in v o lv e d w ith th e F R T S in th e 1 9 20s a n d w e n t o n to b e o n e o f th e c o ­ fo u n d e rs o f th e S a lv a d o ra n C o m m u n is t P a rty in 1930. H e w as in El S alva­ d o r d u r in g th e ev en ts o f 19 3 2 , su rv iv e d th e m assacre (barely), a n d w e n t o n to ta k e a le a d e rsh ip ro le in th e C o m m u n is t Party. In 1 9 6 7 h e m e t u p w ith th e fa m e d S a lv a d o ra n p o e t a n d c o m m u n is t ac tiv ist R o q u e D a lto n in P rag u e. M á rm o l w as r e tu r n in g fro m a trip to th e U S S R , a n d D a lto n w as in exile fo r p o litic a l a c tiv ity in E l S alvador. T h e ir c h a n c e e n c o u n te r le d to M á rm o l te llin g D a lto n h is life story, w h ic h D a lto n re c o rd e d in a series o f h a n d w r itte n n o te s a n d th e n tu r n e d in to a fiv e -h u n d re d -p a g e te stim o n ia l th a t w as first p u b lis h e d in C o s ta R ica in 19 7 2 . E v en th o u g h it w as n o t p u b lis h e d in E l S alv a d o r u n til m a n y years later, M á rm o l’s te s tim o n ia l h a d a tre m e n d o u s im p a c t o n p o p u la r u n d e rs ta n d in g s o f 19 3 2 . It w as a h a rro w ­ in g p a g e -tu rn e r th a t p la c e d th e ev e n ts o f 1932 at th e c e n te r o f M a rm o l’s life. T h e b o o k c o n trib u te d to th e so lid ific a tio n o f c o m m u n is t ca u sa lity b y m a k in g th e C o m m u n is t P a rty a n d its affiliated activists, su c h as F arab u n d o M a rtí, p rim a ry ac to rs in th e u p risin g . A fte r all, M á rm o l w as a C o m m u n is t P a rty m e m b e r, a n d h e to ld h is s to ry fro m h is o w n p e rsp e c ­ tive, w h ic h rev o lv ed a ro u n d th e ac tiv ities o f th e p a r ty a n d p a r ty le a d e rs’ d ecisio n s le a d in g in to th e u p ris in g .24 T h e c o m m u n is t-c a u s a lity a p p ro a c h f o u n d a re c e p tiv e a u d ie n c e in El S alv ad o r in th e 1 9 70s b ec au se o f th e c o u n try ’s g ro w in g p o litic a l p o ­

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la riz a tio n . T h e m ilita n t le ft a n d its s u p p o rte rs w ere p r im e d to e m b ra c e c o m m u n is t ca u sa lity b ec au se th e y w ere o rg a n iz in g fo r re v o lu tio n in El Salvador. A c o m m u n is t-c a u s a lity re a d in g o f 1 9 3 2 p ro v id e d p re c e d e n t fo r c o n te m p o ra ry e n d e a v o rs, in w h ic h u rb a n rad ic als w ere try in g to m o b iliz e th e p o p u la tio n , in c lu d in g ru ra l w o rk e rs. R o q u e D a lto n h im s e lf e m b ra c e d m ilita n t re v o lu tio n ; n o t c o in c id e n ta lly , h e w as w o rk in g o n th e fin al d ra ft o f M iguel M árm ol as h e w as p re p a rin g to r e tu r n to El S alv a d o r a n d jo in o n e o f th e n a s c e n t g u e rrilla o rg a n iz a tio n s. S im ilarly, th e r ig h t w as eq u a lly re a d y to e m b ra c e c o m m u n is t ca u sa lity b ec au se it to o fo u n d p re c e d e n t in it fo r c o n te m p o ra ry activ ities. T h e s to ry o f c o m m u n is ts o rg a n iz in g a n i n ­ s u rre c tio n in 1 9 3 2 b u t b e in g tr o u n c e d b y th e S a lv a d o ra n m ilita ry , a lo n g w ith a rm e d civ ilian p a ra m ilita rie s, w as a n id e al p ro lo g u e fo r th e r ig h t’s c o u n te rin s u rg e n c y activ ities. A n o th e r re a so n th a t c o m m u n is t ca u sa lity h a d su c h a rg u m e n ta tiv e p o w e r is th a t th e ra n g e o f so u rces av ailab le to sc h o lars at th e tim e w as ex­ ce ed in g ly th in , a n d th o se so u rces th a t d id exist re fe rre d u b iq u ito u s ly to th e rebels as c o m m u n ists. W h ile , in h in d s ig h t, th o se so u rce s ca n b e re a d a g a in st th em selv es in o p p o s itio n to c o m m u n is t causality, th e s im p le fact th a t th e w o rd com m unism a p p e a re d in th e m so fre q u e n tly se e m e d to c o n ­ firm in te rp re ta tio n s f o u n d in M a ta n za a n d M ig u el M árm ol. H e n c e , even a n e w s tu d y in th e 1 9 90s d e s c rib e d th e u p ris in g as c o m m u n is t a n d th e rad ic al o rg a n iz a tio n s as b e c o m in g “h e g e m o n ic ” in th e w e st.25 O n e o f th e first alte rn a tiv e s to th e c o m m u n is t-c a u s a lity a p p ro a c h w as p ro v id e d b y C o s ta R ic a n h is to ria n H é c to r P érez B rig n o li. In th e early 1990s h e re in te rp re te d th e e x ta n t d o c u m e n ta ry re c o rd as sh o w in g th a t th e u p ris in g w as m o re lik e a n in d ig e n o u s village r io t fro m th e c o lo n ia l era th a n a m o d e rn in s u rre c tio n le d b y a m ilita n t left. H is e ffo rt la c k e d th e s u b s ta n tia tio n o f n e w arc h iv al ev id en ce, b u t it re p re se n te d a sig n ific a n t ste p in o p e n in g u p th e in te rp re tiv e e n v iro n m e n t.26 T h e a p p e a ra n c e o f n e w ev id en c e in th e 1 9 90s a n d 2 0 0 0 s p u s h e d th e in te rp re tiv e d e b a te a b o u t 1 9 3 2 fu rth e r. T h e m a in e le m e n ts o f th is n e w ev id en c e c o n sist o f fo u r b o d ie s o f m a te ria l: arc h iv al d o c u m e n ts fro m El S alv ad o r th a t b e c o m e availab le fo r th e first tim e in th e la te 1980s; th e c o rre sp o n d e n c e b e tw e e n th e P C S a n d th e M o sc o w -b a se d C o m in te rn , w h ic h w as h o u s e d in a M o sc o w arc h iv e a n d b e c a m e availab le fo r th e first tim e afte r th e co llap se o f th e S o v iet U n io n ; a series o f n e a rly tw o h u n d r e d

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in te rv iew s w ith ag ed re sid e n ts a n d th e ir fa m ily m e m b e rs in w e ste rn El Salvador, c o n d u c te d b y a te a m o f rese arch e rs u n d e r th e c o -d ire c tio n o f N o r t h A m e ric a n h is to ria n Je ff G o u ld in th e la te 1 9 90s a n d early 2 0 0 0 s; a n d th e p e rso n a l p a p e rs o f R o q u e D a lto n , in c lu d in g h is o rig in a l h a n d w r it­ te n n o te s fro m th e in te rv ie w w ith M ig u e l M á rm o l, w h ic h th e D a lto n fa ­ m ily h a d in C u b a a n d b e g a n to m a k e available to se lec ted rese arch e rs in th e m id -2 0 0 0 s . A ll o f th e se n e w m a te ria ls h av e e n h a n c e d sig n ific a n tly th e b re a d th a n d d e p th o f o u r k n o w le d g e a b o u t th e ev e n ts o f 19 3 2 . U n fo rtu n a te ly , w h e n it co m es to in te r p re tin g th e causes o f th e u p risin g , th e m o tiv e s o f th e in su rg e n ts, a n d th e sp ecific m a n n e r in w h ic h it w as o rg a n iz e d , th e la ­ c u n a in so u rce m a te ria ls p ersists. E ven th e in te rv ie w s d o n e u n d e r G o u ld ’s g u id a n c e , w h ic h fo rm a su b sta n tiv e basis o f To Rise in Darkness, th e s tu d y o f 1932 h e c o a u th o re d w ith A ld o L au ria -S a n tia g o , are lim ite d in th is re ­ g ard . As G o u ld a n d L a u ria -S a n tia g o p o in t o u t, o f th e n e a rly tw o h u n d r e d in terv iew ees, o n ly tw o a d m itte d to p a rtic ip a tin g in th e u p risin g . D o c u ­ m e n ts fro m S alv a d o ra n archives are sim ila rly m o d e s t in th e ir c o n trib u tio n to th e issue o f causality, a lth o u g h th e y are n o t irre le v a n t. A n d th e m a te ria ls in D a lto n ’s arch iv e are rev e alin g in a d is tin c t way. T h e y ch a lle n g e us to re a d th e M á rm o l te stim o n ia l w ith a m o re c ritica l eye a n d th e re b y q u e s tio n its c o m m u n is t-c a u s a lity a p p ro a c h . A c c o rd in g to th e re a d in g o f D a lto n ’s m a teria ls b y h is to ria n H é c to r L in d o -F u e n te s , m yself, a n d lite ra ry sc h o lar R afael L a ra -M a rtín e z , D a lto n in je c te d a lo t o f h is e m e rg e n t-g u e rrilla self in to th e p u b lis h e d v e rsio n o f M á rm o l’s te stim o n ia l. T h e o rig in a l n o te s fro m th e 1 9 6 7 in te rv ie w in P ra g u e se em to offer less s u p p o r t fo r c o m m u ­ n is t ca u sa lity th a n th e fin al p u b lis h e d v e rsio n . O u r in te r p re ta tio n is th a t D a lto n ’s esca latin g m ilita n c y a t th e tim e e n c o u ra g e d h im to in te r p re t th e ev en ts o f 1932 m o re fro m a c o m m u n is t-c a u s a lity p ersp e ctiv e, a n d so w h e n h e c o m p ile d th e n o te s fro m h is in te rv ie w w ith M á rm o l in to a n a rra tiv e , h e su b tly e m p h a siz e d (p re su m a b ly u n c o n sc io u sly ) th o se asp ects o f th e sto ry th a t e n h a n c e d th e ag e n cy o f th e m ilita n t o rg a n iz a tio n s.27 T h e m a te ria ls fro m th e C o m in te r n A rc h iv e offer th e m o s t d ire c t lo o k in to th e m ilita n t o rg a n iz a tio n s a n d th e ir ac tiv ities le a d in g u p to th e in s u r ­ re c tio n . T h u s , re a d in g s o f th e m s ta n d a t th e c e n te r o f h isto rio g ra p h ic a l d eb a te s over th e re b e llio n . I w as th e first to g a in access to th o se m a te ria ls in th e early 1990s a n d o ffered m y in te r p re ta tio n o f th e 1 9 3 2 u p risin g b ased o n th e m s ta rtin g w ith a p a ir o f articles in 1 9 9 8 .28 M y b a sic cla im is

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th a t th e m a te ria ls reveal th a t th e o rg a n iz e d left, in c lu d in g th e C o m m u n is t Party, th e F R T S , a n d th e S R I, w as e n s c o n c e d in h ig h ly p a rtis a n in te rn a l d eb a te s over id e o lo g y a n d strategy. Its m e m b e rs th u s re m a in e d fo cu se d o n th e ir o w n affairs, c e n te re d m o s tly in th e u r b a n areas, a n d d id n o t g et a r o u n d to o rg a n iz in g th e m asses o f th e w e ste rn c o u n try s id e u n til w ell in to 1931. W h e n th e y d id b e g in to fo cu s th e ir a tte n tio n o n th e w est, th e ir m e m b e rs re m a in e d d iv id e d over ob jectiv es, m a in ly w h e th e r o r n o t a rm e d in s u rre c tio n w as v iab le. T h e official lin e o f th e C o m m u n is t Party, w h ic h c o in c id e d w ith in te rp re ta tio n s by th e C a rib b e a n B u re a u in N e w Y ork a n d th e C o m in te r n in M o sco w , w as th a t E l S alv a d o r w as n o t read y fo r a rm e d in s u rre c tio n , a n d th u s any a tte m p t to o rg a n iz e a re v o lt a t th a t tim e w o u ld b e c o u n te rp ro d u c tiv e to th e lo n g -te rm p ro sp e c ts o f so cialist re v o lu tio n . A d h e re n ts o f th e p a rty lin e ac cu sed th e ir m ilita n t c o u n te rp a rts o f b e in g b a d M a rx is t-L e n in ists, c a llin g th e m “p u tc h k is ts ” a n d sa y in g th a t th e y h e ld “p e tit b o u rg e o is” d elu sio n s. M y re a d in g o f th e e v id en c e c o n te n d s th a t even th o s e rad ic als w h o a d v o c a te d fo r in s u rre c tio n h a d in su ffic ie n t tim e , staffing, o r k n o w le d g e o f th e w e ste rn c o u n try s id e to h av e m a d e th e in ro a d s n ecessary to o rg a n iz e an u p ris in g o n th e scale o f 1 9 3 2 .29 In p a rtic u la r, a lm o st every m e m b e r o f th e m ilita n t o rg a n iz a tio n s w as a n u rb a n la d in o , w h erea s th e o v e rw h e lm in g m a jo rity o f re sid e n ts in th e w e ste rn c o u n try sid e , especially in th o se re ­ g io n s a t th e c e n te r o f th e in s u rre c tio n , w ere In d ia n . T h e d o c u m e n ts in th e C o m ite rn A rc h iv e are n o ta b ly d e v o id o f referen ces to th e e th n ic d im e n ­ sio n s o f th e w e ste rn c o u n try sid e . T h e C o m in te rn m a te ria ls la ck e v id en c e re la tin g d irec tly to th e d etails o f o rg a n iz in g in th e w est, so th e y re m a in lim ite d in w h a t th e y c a n tell us— a n d th a t a b sen c e is rev e alin g in a n d o f itself. W h a te v e r m a y h a v e b e e n g o in g o n in th e w e ste rn c o u n try sid e , it w as n o t p re o c c u p y in g th e lead ers o f th e rad ic al o rg a n iz a tio n s, n o r w as it d o m in a tin g th e ir c o rre sp o n d e n c e w ith N e w Y ork a n d M o sco w . F u rth e rm o re , in th e fin al w eeks a n d days le a d in g u p to th e in s u rre c tio n , th e lead ers o f th e v a rio u s o rg a n iz a tio n s, in c lu d in g F a ra b u n d o M a rtí, w ere in S an S alvador, try in g d esp erate ly to c o b b le to g e th e r a n o rg a n iz a tio n a l strategy, a n d n o n e o f th e m d e m o n ­ s tra te d d eep o r in tim a te aw aren ess o f c o n d itio n s in th e w est. T h u s , I h av e a rg u e d th a t th e causal agency fo r th e 1 9 3 2 u p risin g s h o u ld b e p u s h e d aw ay fro m th e m ilita n t le ft a n d its official o rg a n iz a tio n s a n d to w ard s th e w e ste rn m asses a n d th e ir d is tin c t social o rg a n iz a tio n s,

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p e rh a p s th e re m a in in g in d ig e n o u s c o m m u n ity stru c tu re s, su c h as th e c o ­ fradías. E v id e n ce o f th o se su b je c ts re m a in s th in , so w e still face serio u s lim ita tio n s . B u t m y re a d in g o f th e C o m in te r n m a te ria ls suggests th e n e e d fo r it. S u b seq u e n tly , I b eliev e w e s h o u ld p la ce sp ecial em p h a sis o n avail­ able ev id en c e th a t sh o w s th e lo n g -s ta n d in g o rg a n iz a tio n a l a u to n o m y o f th e w e ste rn m asses, especially in th o se m u n ic ip a litie s w h e re th e u p risin g actu a lly o cc u rre d . I refer h e re to th e h is to ry o f e th n ic a lly b a se d elec to ra l b a ttle s b e tw e e n In d ia n s a n d la d in o s in N a h u iz a lc o fro m th e m id -1 8 8 0 s to 1932 (see c h a p te r 3), as w ell as to th e ra p id ly sh iftin g p a tro n a g e alli­ ances o f th e I n d ia n le a d e r José F e lic ia n o A m a a n d h is s u p p o rte rs in Izalco. A s d escrib ed in c h a p te r 5, A m a m a d e a n allian ce w ith th e P N D u n d e r M e lé n d e z -Q u iñ ó n e z in th e early 1920s, a p p a re n tly se rv in g as a local le ad e r o f th e L iga R oja. In th e 1931 p re sid e n tia l e le c tio n , A m a a n d his s u p p o rte rs th re w th e ir w e ig h t b e h in d th e c a n d id a c y o f A lb e rto G ó m e z Z á ra te , even th o u g h th e lo cal p o p u lis t la n d o w n e r A rtu ro A ra u jo w o u ld seem to hav e offered th e m a m o re id e o lo g ic a lly fav o rab le alte rn a tiv e . O n ly afte r G ó m e z Z á ra te ’s d e fe a t d id A m a a n d h is s u p p o rte rs fo rm a n allian ce w ith th e C o m m u n is t P a rty (see c h a p te r 6 ). I b eliev e th a t e v id en c e suggests th a t th e u p ris in g h a d ro o ts in d is tin c t fo rm s o f lo cal o rg a n iz in g . In p a r ­ ticu lar, w h a te v e r th e reaso n s fo r w h ic h A m a a n d h is s u p p o rte rs fo rm e d a lin k w ith th e P C S , it w o u ld b e m y o p ic to a rg u e th a t it w as b a se d o n a su b sta n tiv e u n d e r s ta n d in g o r a p p re c ia tio n o f w h a t th e m e m b e rs o f th e C o m m u n is t P a rty s to o d fo r a n d u ltim a te ly h o p e d to achieve. In ste a d , th e ir allian ce w o u ld h av e g ro w n o u t o f th e ir o w n in te rp re ta tio n s o f th e ir im m e d ia te s u rro u n d in g s a n d th e ir b e lie f th a t th e C o m m u n is t P a rty w as th e ir n e x t b est h o p e fo r a n ex te rn a l ally to re p la c e th e ir m o s t re c e n t a n d failed c o n ta c t, G ó m e z Z á ra te . It is also e v id e n t fro m th e m a te ria ls in th e C o m in te rn A rch iv e th a t th e lead ers o f th e ra d ic a l le ft w h o a d v o c a te d fo r in s u rre c tio n c o n s id e re d th em selv es to b e th e c o o rd in a to rs o f th e in s u rre c ­ tio n , a n d so w h e n th e y d e sc rib e d affairs to th e C a rib b e a n B u re a u in N e w York, th e y a p p e a re d to b e in ch arg e, regardless o f th e ir a c tu a l c o m m a n d o f th e events as th e y u n fo ld e d in th e w e ste rn c o u n try sid e . M y view s s ta n d in c o n tra st, to so m e d egree, to th e in te rp re ta tio n s o f­ fered b y G o u ld a n d L a u ria -S a n tia g o in To Rise in Darkness, th e m o s t s u b ­ sta n tiv e re n d e rin g o f 1 9 3 2 .30 In a d d itio n to h a v in g access to th e m a te ria ls in th e S alv a d o ra n archives a n d th e ir in te rv ie w s w ith w e ste rn resid e n ts,

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G o u ld a n d L a u ria -S a n tia g o also a c q u ire d th e C o m in te r n m a te ria ls, al­ th o u g h th e y d id n o t h av e access to D a lto n ’s p a p e rs o r o u r re re a d in g o f th e m a t th e tim e th e y w ro te th e ir b o o k . To Rise in Darkness ad v a n ce s a m o d e ra te ly c o u n te r-re v isio n ist a rg u m e n t, to th e e x te n t th a t it sh ifts so m e a tte n tio n b a c k to w a rd s th e fo rm a l o rg a n iz a tio n s o f th e m ilita n t left. N o ­ tably, G o u ld a n d L a u ria -S a n tia g o tw e a k o n e o f th e lo n g -s ta n d in g c e n te r­ pieces o f c o m m u n is t ca u sa lity b y a c c e p tin g th e C o m m u n is t P a rty ’s lim ite d role. B u t in its ste a d th e y elevate th e S R I, a n d to a lesser e x te n t th e F R T S , b y e n d o w in g th e m w ith g re a te r o rg a n iz a tio n a l c a p a c ity a n d success in th e w e ste rn c o u n try sid e . G o u ld a n d L a u ria -S a n tia g o are n u a n c e d in th e ir i n ­ te rp re ta tio n s , sp ecifically o p p o s in g th e “g en e ral te n d e n c y to d e n y s u b a l­ te rn ag en cy in th e m o v e m e n t.” C e rta in ly , o n e o f th e ir m o s t p r o m in e n t c o n trib u tio n s is th e ir c la im th a t lo cal re sid e n ts in th e w e st m a d e th e ra d ic a l o rg a n iz a tio n s, especially th e S R I, th e ir o w n a n d p u s h e d th e ir le ad e rs to ­ w ard s rad ic al m ilita n c y faste r a n d in w ays th a t th e y w o u ld n o t n ecessarily hav e ch o sen o n th e ir o w n . A s th e y p u t it, “T h e c a m p e sin o s o f c e n tra l a n d w e ste rn El S alv a d o r to o k a d v a n ta g e o f th e u n fix ed , n o n s e c ta ria n p o s itio n o f th e S R I to re c re a te it in th e ir o w n im a g e .” T h e y a d d th a t “th e larg ely p e a sa n t a n d ru ra l w o rk e r m o v e m e n t tra n s fo rm e d th e S R I fro m a n o rg a n i­ z a tio n d e sig n e d to d e fe n d th e le ft a n d th e la b o r m o v e m e n t a g a in st p o ­ litica l p e rs e c u tio n in to a ra d ic a l so cial m o v e m e n t.”31 T h e s u b tle ty o f th a t a rg u m e n t re p re se n ts a sig n ific a n t a d v a n c e in th e h isto rio g ra p h ic a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e u p risin g . N e v e rth e le ss, G o u ld a n d L au ria -S an tiag o o fte n p u s h th e fo cu s b a c k to w a rd s th e le a d e rsh ip o f th e rad ic al o rg a n iz a tio n s a n d c re d it th e m w ith m a k in g o rg a n iz a tio n a l in ro a d s a m o n g th e ru ra l p e o p le in th e w est. T h o s e le ad e rs s u p p o se d ly b rid g e d th e ru ra l-u rb a n a n d la d in o -in d ig e n o u s d iv id es. I n s u p p o r t o f th o se a r­ g u m e n ts th e y cite u n c ritic a lly s ta te m e n ts m a d e b y lead ers o f th e ra d ic a l o rg a n iz a tio n s th a t p o r tra y th e ir o rg a n iz a tio n a l a u to n o m y over th e w e st­ e rn m asses, lik e M á rm o l in h is te s tim o n ia l a n d o th e rs in th e C o m in te rn reco rd s, su c h as th e le a d e r w h o c la im e d th a t “th e m asses o n ly fo llo w th e P C S .”32 I t is in th e ir re a d in g o f so m e o f th e ev id en c e, especially th e m a te ria ls in th e C o m in te rn A rch iv e, th a t I d iv erg e w ith G o u ld a n d L a u ria -S a n tia g o . T h e C o m in te r n A rc h iv e p ro v id e s th e o n ly referen ces to th e n u m b e rs o f p o ssib le s u p p o rte rs a n d m e m b e rs o f th e ra d ic a l o rg a n iz a tio n s. T h o s e

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n u m b e rs d iverge w ild ly a n d n e e d to b e v ie w e d w ith sk e p tic ism . O n th e o n e h a n d , v ario u s m e m b e rs o f th e rad ic al o rg a n iz a tio n s b e m o a n th e ir la c k o f s u p p o r t a n d th e ir lim ite d a b ility to o rg a n iz e d u e to p e rse c u tio n , a lack o f resources, a n d so fo rth . T h e C e n tra l C o m m itte e o f th e C o m m u n is t P a rty in fact rev e ale d th a t a t its h e ig h t th e p a r ty h a d o n ly five h u n d r e d m e m b e rs, th e m a jo rity o f w h o m liv ed a n d w o rk e d in S an S alvador. O n th e o th e r h a n d , v a rio u s in fo rm a n ts fro m th e ra d ic a l o rg a n iz a tio n s claim in th e ir c o rre sp o n d e n c e w ith N e w Y ork o r M o sc o w th a t th e y h a d m a n y th o u s a n d s o f a d h e re n ts, e ith e r a c tu a l m e m b e rs o r allied su p p o rte rs , esp e­ cially th r o u g h o u t th e w e ste rn c o u n try sid e . I t strik e s m e th a t th e se claim s are o fte n m a d e b y p e o p le try in g to p re s e n t a n im a g e o f o rg a n iz a tio n a l s tre n g th to th e ir su p e rio rs in N e w Y ork a n d M o sco w . O n e o f th e m a in in c en tiv es fo r d o in g so e m e rg e d in la te 1931, w h e n th e lead ers o f th e rad ic al o rg a n iz a tio n s rea lize d th a t a n a rm e d in s u rre c tio n w as b re w in g in th e w est a n d th a t th e y w ere u n a b le to s to p it. T h e y b e g a n m a k in g d e s p e r­ ate pleas to th e C a rib b e a n B u re a u to se n d m o n e y , w e a p o n s, a n d fig h te rs to assist th e m , a su re in c e n tiv e to m a k e fa n ta s tic claim s a b o u t th e n u m b e r o f th e ir s u p p o rte rs a n d th e ir o rg a n iz a tio n a l c o n tro l over th e m in h o p e s o f rec eiv in g a p o sitiv e re sp o n se fro m N e w York. S im ilarly, even b e fo re th e rea lity o f a re b e llio n w as clear to th e m , th e le ad e rs o f th e ra d ic a l o rg a n i­ z a tio n s h a d in c e n tiv e to m a k e claim s a b o u t th e ir o rg a n iz a tio n a l success a m o n g th e m asses in o rd e r to a p p e a r c a p ab le b e fo re th e ir su p e rio rs in N e w Y ork a n d M oscow . W h e n e v e r n u m e ric a l claim s are cited , lik e th e S R I’s claim o f re c ru itin g 5 0 0 n e w m e m b e rs in th e Z a ra g o s a re g io n in N o v e m b e r 1931, o r th e claim b y th e F R T S th a t it h a d 1 ,7 0 0 u n io n m e m b e rs in N a h u iz a lc o in S e p te m b e r 1930, I re m a in su sp icio u s. I b eliev e th a t a closely c o n te x tu a liz e d re a d in g o f th e d o c u m e n ta tio n is necessary.33 G o u ld a n d L a u ria -S a n tia g o te n d to d isc re d it th o se in d iv id u a ls w h o p la y d o w n th e o rg a n iz a tio n a l c a p a c ity o f th e ra d ic a l o rg a n iz a tio n s a n d b o o s t th e le g itim a c y o f th o se w h o claim th e o p p o site . A n e x a m p le o f th e fo rm e r is Jo rg e F e rn á n d e z A n ay a , th e M e x ic a n c o m m u n is t w h o w as se n t b y th e C o m in te r n to E l S alv a d o r in 1929 to assist th e rad ic als in th e la b o r m o v e m e n t in th e ir o rg a n iz a tio n a l efforts. H e w as a s tro n g a d h e re n t o f th e so -called p a r ty lin e th a t h e ld th a t E l S alv a d o r w as n o t re a d y fo r a n in s u r ­ re c tio n , a n d th u s m o s t o f h is c o rre sp o n d e n c e p ro v id e s s u p p o r t fo r th a t claim . G o u ld a n d L a u ria -S a n tia g o su g g e st th a t h e su ffe re d fro m feelin g s o f

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in a d e q u a c y a b o u t h is id e o lo g ic a l view s vis-a-vis h is su p e rio rs in N e w Y ork a n d M oscow , a n d th u s h is in te rp re ta tio n s n e e d to b e q u e s tio n e d .34 O n th e o th e r sid e o f th e a rg u m e n t, G o u ld a n d L a u ria -S a n tia g o cite a 1936 d o c u ­ m e n t fro m th e se lf-id e n tifie d S a n ta A n a c o m ra d e s, w h o p ro v id e d th e ir su p e rio rs in N e w Y ork w ith a h isto ric a l s u m m a ry o f th e in s u rre c tio n . Ironically, th e c o m ra d e s b la m e d th e u p ris in g ’s fa ilu re o n A n a y a a n d his s u p p o rte rs in th e p arty , even th o u g h th e y w ere a n ti-in su rre c tio n a ry . B y c o n tra st, th e c o m ra d e s b o lste re d th e im a g e o f th e ir fello w c o u n try m e n , F a ra b u n d o M a rtí a n d h is s u p p o rte rs in th e S R I, a n d a ttr ib u te d to th e m w h a te v e r po sitiv es c o u ld b e g le a n e d fro m th e ev en ts. G o u ld a n d L au ria S a n tia g o rea d th is d o c u m e n t as e v id en c e o f “th e e m e rg e n c e o f th e S R I as th e le a d in g o rg a n iz a tio n o f th e left, d isp la c in g th e F R T S .”35 I th in k th e d o c u m e n t n ee d s to b e re a d in a n a lte rn a tiv e lig h t, as a n a tte m p t b y th e S a n ta A n a co m ra d e s, p ro b a b ly fo rm e r m e m b e rs o f th e S R I a n d s u p p o rte rs o f M a rtí, to revise th e n a rra tiv e o f p a s t ev e n ts to serve th e ir c o n te m p o ra ry p o litic a l n eed s. T h e y s ta te d e x p licitly th a t th e y w ere c o m p e tin g w ith rival fa c tio n s in S an S alv a d o r fo r le a d e rsh ip o f th e le ft a n d re c o g n itio n fro m th e C o m in te rn . T h e y u se d th e s to ry o f th e u p ris in g to p r o m o te th em selv es, w h ic h th e y b eliev e n e c e ssita te d d isp a ra g in g A n a y a a n d h is s u p p o rte rs, a n d th u s w h a te v e r th e y say a b o u t th e u p risin g n ee d s to b e re a d th r o u g h th a t self-serv in g le n s.36 T h e s e d eb a te s over th e u p ris in g o f 1 9 3 2 are sim ila r to h is to rio g ra p h i­ cal d eb a te s over th e n a tu re a n d o rig in s o f th e re v o lu tio n a ry u p su rg e in th e 1970s a n d 1980s. D id th e o rg a n iz a tio n a l im p e tu s fo r th a t u p su rg e rest w ith th e rad ic a l o rg a n iz a tio n s a n d th e ir lead ers, w h o o rig in a te d in in te l­ le ctu a l circles in S an S alvador, o r w ith p e a sa n ts w h o d ev e lo p e d th e ir c o n ­ scio u sn ess a n d m ilita n c y a u to n o m o u s ly a n d th e n a p p ro a c h e d th e ra d ic a l o rg a n iz a tio n s in se arch o f allies? O r w as it so m e su b tle , d ia le c tic c o m b in a ­ tio n o f th e tw o? J u s t as in th e case o f 1932, answ ers to th o se q u e s tio n s hav e evolved a lo n g a c o n tin u u m , w ith m a n y fo c u sin g o n th e ra d ic a l o rg a ­ n iz a tio n s a n d th e ir lead ers, a n d c o u n te rv a ilin g ch allen g es try in g to sh ift th e fo cu s to th e c o u n try s id e a n d its in h a b ita n ts . M o re rese a rc h is f o r th ­ co m in g , a n d in v a ria b ly th e d e b a te w ill b e e n ric h e d b y th e se a d d e d c o n trib u tio n s .37 T h e s e h isto rio g ra p h ic a l d e b a te s are im p o r ta n t to u n ra v e lin g th e sto ry o f E l S alv a d o r’s p ast, b u t u ltim a te ly th e y are d e ta ile d a n d h ig h ly specific,

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a n d th e y n e e d n o t m a s k a c o m m o n a p p re c ia tio n b y all sc h o lars o f 1932: th e u p ris in g re p re s e n te d a m assiv e s ta te m e n t b y E l S a lv a d o r’s su b a lte rn a n d p o p u la r secto rs, u r b a n a n d ru ra l alike, th a t th e sta tu s q u o w as u n s a t­ isfacto ry .38 S o m e o f th e rebels m a y h av e b eliev e d th e u p risin g h a d a g e n u ­ in e ch a n c e to su c ce ed , w h a te v e r success m e a n t to th e m . O th e rs , especially lead ers in th e rad ic a l o rg a n iz a tio n s, m a d e clear in th e ir w ritin g s th a t th e y b eliev ed th e u p ris in g w as d o o m e d to fail a n d th a t w h o e v e r p a rtic ip a te d in it w as lik ely to die, b u t th e y jo in e d u p anyw ay. B rave o r fo o lh ard y , clear o r co n fu se d , th e rebels fo rc e d o n to th e b a rg a in in g ta b le th e n e e d s o f El S alva­ d o r ’s p o o r. T h e n e x t q u e s tio n s w ere, h o w w as th e ev e n t in te r p re te d a t th e tim e , a n d w h a t d id p o lic y m a k e rs d o in response?

T h e A fte rm a th o f 1932: T h e M ilita ry S h ap es a P o licy to w a rd th e C o u n try s id e

T h e m ilita ry ’s o v e rw h e lm in g re sp o n se to th e u p risin g h a d m a n y trag ic co n seq u e n ces, b u t o n e sta n d s o u t fo r o u r p re s e n t p u rp o se s. N o t o n ly d id th e m assacre re su lt in m ass m u rd e r, b u t by so th o ro u g h ly d e v a sta tin g th e o rg a n iz a tio n a l basis f o r th e u p risin g , it also h in d e re d th e reb e ls’ ab ility to sh a p e th e p o s t-u p ris in g n a rra tiv e . M o s t o f th e reb els w ere k ille d o r o th e r ­ w ise silen c ed in th e a fte rm a th su c h th a t th e ir firs t-p e rso n a c c o u n ts w ere lo st forever. W e k n o w v e ry little a b o u t w h a t m o tiv a te d th e m , h o w th e y o rg a n iz e d th e reb e llio n , a n d w h a t th e y h o p e d to ach iev e by it. E v en w ith in th e C o m m u n is t P arty, th e d e b ilita tin g c ra c k d o w n c a u se d c o m p e tin g a n d c o n tra d ic to ry n a rra tiv e th re a d s to ta k e h o ld a m o n g its su rv iv in g m e m b e rs. O n e o f th o se th re a d s d isa v o w ed a n y p a r ty in v o lv e m e n t w ith th e u p risin g ; a n o th e r c re d ite d p a rty lead ers w ith o rg a n iz in g th e re b e llio n , b u t o n ly fo r th e sake o f d eliv e rin g a ste rn lesso n to th e m a b o u t th e erro rs o f a c tin g rashly. S u b seq u en tly , th e p ro cess o f im b u in g th e 1932 u p ris in g w ith m e a n ­ in g w as left to th o se w h o h a d th e f re e d o m a n d p o w e r to sp eak , g o v e rn in g m ilita ry officials p a r a m o u n t a m o n g th e m . T h e v e rsio n o f ev e n ts th a t th e y p r o m o te d th u s p la y e d a d isp ro p o rtio n a te ly larg e ro le in e sta b lish in g e n ­ d u r in g disco u rses a b o u t th e ev e n ts o f 19 3 2 . H e n c e , fo r th o se w h o w ere in c lin e d to d is tru s t th e m ilita ry officials’ n a rra tiv e , th e p u b lic a tio n o f M ig u e l M á rm o l’s te s tim o n ia l v e rsio n o f th e ev e n ts in 1972 w as a m a jo r event.

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M ilita ry lead ers u se d th e te rm com m unist to refer to th e rebels, b u t th e y d id n o t h a r b o r illu sio n s th a t E l S alv a d o r w as in fe ste d w ith c o m m u ­ n ists b y th e th o u s a n d s , o r th a t a n in te r n a tio n a l c o m m u n is t c o n s p ira c y w as re sp o n sib le fo r th e re b e llio n . In ste a d , th e y lo o k e d fo r e x p la n a tio n s in th e in te rn a l c o n d itio n s o f th e ir o w n co u n try , re c o g n iz in g th a t th e o v e rw h e lm ­ in g m a jo rity o f p a rtic ip a n ts in th e u p risin g w ere d e sp e ra te ly p o o r, ru ra l in h a b ita n ts w h o w ere s tru g g lin g u n d e r th e b u rd e n s o f th e G re a t D e p re s ­ sio n . M ilita ry le ad e rs re a so n e d th a t i f th e p o v e rty o f th e ca m p e sin o s c o u ld b e alleviated, th e c o m m u n is ts ’ m essag e w o u ld fall u p o n d e a f ears a n d f u ­ tu re ep iso d es o f in s u rre c tio n w o u ld b e p re v e n te d . T o th a t e n d , s h o rtly afte r th e m assacre, sp o k e sp e rso n s b e g a n to p u b lic iz e in fo rm a lly th e g o v ­ e r n m e n t’s in te n tio n to in itia te a re fo rm p ro g ra m in th e c o u n try sid e . M a r ­ tín e z w as th e p ro g ra m ’s p u b lic face, a n d w h ile h is e x h o rta tio n s c a n n o t b e ta k e n to sp e a k fo r th e m ilita ry as a w h o le — a larg e a n d sp ra w lin g in s titu tio n — th e y d o re p re se n t th e p u b lic p o s tu re o f th e g o v e rn m e n t a n d sh e d lig h t o n th e th o u g h ts a n d id eas o f th e m a in d e c isio n m a k ers. In his F e b ru a ry sp eec h b e fo re th e N a tio n a l A ssem bly, M a rtín e z p ro c la im e d th a t th e causes o f th e re b e llio n w o u ld b e e ra d ic a te d i f th e lives o f w o rk in g p e o p le w ere im p ro v e d :

It was pain fu l fo r m y G o v ern m e n t to have h a d to use such severe m easures o f m ilitary repression . . . b u t th ey w ere indispensable to p ro te c t society, p ro p erty a n d family. . . . T h is exacting w o rk does n o t have to reoccur. It is up to the G o v ern m e n t a n d the leading classes o f society to u n ite before this u rg en t necessity an d assure th e c o u n try a tran q u il an d prosperous fu tu re for everyone. W e m u st stu d y a n d resolve w ith o u t delay th e p ro b ­ lem s th a t exist betw een capital an d labor. . . . [T he goal of] official activity is to im prove th e co n d itio n o f th e w o rk in g classes; to establish ju st rela­ tions betw een capital a n d labor; to create secure em p lo y m en t; an d to im ­ prove the standards o f living a n d subsistence. . . . In E l S alvador there is only one justice, equal for everyone, p o o r a n d rich, know ledgeable an d ig n o ran t.39

Five m o n th s later, in a Ju ly 1 9 3 2 in te rv ie w w ith o n e o f S an S a lv a d o r’s d aily n ew sp a p ers, M a rtín e z s ta te d th a t “h is g re a te st p r e o c c u p a tio n d u r in g th e se days is a n im p ro v e m e n t in th e c o n d itio n o f th e p ro le ta ria t.”40 In a n o th e r

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in terv iew , h e lin k e d th e “p r o te c tio n o f th e c a m p e sin o ” to th e “lib e ra tio n o f th e n a tio n fro m B o lsh ev ism ”41 M ilita ry lead ers re ste d th e ir a p p ro a c h o n th e b e lie f th a t E l S alv a d o r w as c o m p rise d o f th re e m a in social g ro u p s: th e ru ra l w o rk in g class (b ro a d ly lu m p e d to g e th e r u n d e r th e te rm campesinos, o r p e a sa n ts), th e la n d o w n e rs, a n d th e m ilita ry . E a c h g ro u p w as a n in te g ra l, a lb e it u n e q u a l, p a r tn e r in S alv a d o ra n society. C a m p e sin o s p ro v id e d la b o r; la n d o w n e rs o ffered k n o w l­ ed g e a n d skills; a n d th e m ilita ry re p re se n te d h o n o r a n d o rd er. T h is id e ­ o lo g y o p e ra te d o n a ste p -b y -ste p logic: p ro g re ss w as th e goal, b u t p ro g ress re q u ire d o rd er; o rd e r d e riv e d fro m so cial h a rm o n y , a n d h a r m o n y ca m e a b o u t o n ly w h e n la n d o w n e rs a n d la b o re rs g o t alo n g . T h u s m ilita ry lead ers d e fin e d as th e ir fu n d a m e n ta l g o al th e h a rm o n iz a tio n o f re la tio n s b e tw e e n ca p ita l a n d labor. T h e M a rtín e z re g im e p re s e n te d a c o m p re h e n siv e s u m m a ry o f its id e o lo g ic al a p p ro a c h in a le n g th y a rticle p u b lis h e d in th e e d ito ria l se c tio n o f th e official n ew sp a p er. T h e a rticle w as p u b lis h e d in F e b ru a ry 19 3 3 , b y w h ic h tim e , as w ill b e p re s e n te d below , m a n y p o licies alre ad y h a d b e e n e n a c te d . B u t, in th e first y ea r afte r th e re b e llio n , th e u rg e n t n e e d fo r a c tio n so m e tim e s m e a n t th a t th e fo rm u la tio n o f ideology, its p u b lic p re s e n ta tio n , a n d p o lic y m a k in g h a p p e n e d a t u n e v e n rates. T h e a rtic le first called fo r th e im p ro v e m e n t in th e lives o f th e w o rk in g class:

O u r p o p u la tio n m u st recognize th a t th e rights o f th e p ro letarian sector are an u n deniable n atio n al im perative. . . . I f we desire to c o n tin u e to live in a h arm o n io u s society w ith guarantees . . . we m u st resolve th e conflict betw een capital a n d labor. . . . O u r social stability d epends u p o n g ran tin g rights to the p roletariat.

N e x t, th e a rticle d re w u p o n th e ex a m p le o f E u ro p e ’s c o rp o ra tis t states:

T h is sam e pro b lem , b u t in larger, graver p ro p o rtio n s, presen ted itself in A ustria, Italy, R o m an ia an d o th e r Balkan countries. . . . T h e governm ents o f these countries, before th e m u ltitu d in o u s clam or o f th e low er class, instigated an im m ed iate revision o f th e ad m in istrativ e systems o f w ork. T h e y regulated salaries to be in accord w ith living costs; th ey d istrib u ted lan d th a t was ow ned b y th e state; th ey b u ilt extensive n eig h b o rh o o d s o f

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low -cost housing; ultim ately, th ey b ro u g h t to th e p ro letariat con d itio n s o f w ell-being an d o p p o rtu n ities for subsistence. . . . B u t here, am ongst us, the p ro letarian w orkers, b y v irtu e of force an d nev er-en d in g w ork, are fu n d am en tally d en ied th e riches p ro d u ce d fo r others.

Finally, th e artic le a n n o u n c e d th a t th e n a tio n a l sta te w o u ld a ssu m e an u n p re c e d e n te d a n d ac tiv e ro le in th e d is s o lu tio n o f so cial co n flict:

I t is precisely th e m o m e n t to co n fro n t o u r p ro b lem w ith a com pletely new initiative. T h e tim es have changed, alm o st radically, an d th ey have forced us to exam ine th e fu tu re fu n ctio n in g o f o u r in stitu tio n s. . . . T oday there is p ro fo u n d satisfaction in th e in itia tio n . . . o f a great p ro jec t o f restora­ tio n an d aid for th e sam e [cam pesino] class th a t suffers fro m th e absence o f all necessities.42

T h e article w as a call to a c tio n , b u t w h a t ty p e o f actio n ? W h o d id m ilita ry lead ers id e n tify as th e e x p lo ite r o f labor? W h o w ere th e “o th e rs,” a c c o rd in g to th e article, w h o d e n ie d th e w o rk e rs th e ir rig h tfu l riches? M ilita ry lead ers c o u ld n o t av o id th e e v id e n t causal re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n th e p o v e rty o f th e c a m p e sin o s a n d th e w e a lth o f th e la n d o w n e rs. T h e m in is te r o f w a r d e s c rib e d th e re b e llio n as a p r o d u c t o f “th a t o ld p r o b ­ le m . . . th e stru g g le b e tw e e n th e classes.”43 B u t m ilita ry lead ers d id n o t co n s id e r th e u p p e r class as a w h o le to b e re sp o n sib le fo r th e p lig h t o f th e p e a sa n try ; to h av e th o u g h t so w o u ld h a v e b e e n a n id e o lo g ic a l c o n tra d ic ­ tio n , b ec au se th e y re je c te d class stru g g le , b elie v in g th a t class d iffe re n ti­ a tio n w as a n a tu ra l a n d p ro p e r c o n d itio n fo r society. T h e y c o n sid e re d p riv a te p r o p e rty to b e a b asic fe a tu re o f society, a n d M a rtín e z re p e a te d ly em p h a siz e d h is c o m m itm e n t to it, as in o n e sp e ec h in w h ic h h e p r o ­ cla im e d th a t “th e p riv a te e c o n o m y is th e base . . . u p o n w h ic h rests th e p ro s p e rity o f o u r n a tio n .”44 R a th e r th a n th e u p p e r class as a w h o le b e a rin g re sp o n sib ility fo r th e p o v e rty o f th e p ea sa n try , m ilita ry le ad e rs b la m e d in d iv id u a ls. T h e y b e ­ lieved th a t c e rta in irre sp o n sib le a n d , as G e n e ra l C a s ta n e d a C a s tro , th e m in is te r o f w ar, p u t it, “u n s c ru p u lo u s ” elites ca u se d d ish a rm o n y .45 T h e y w ere th e o n es w h o re fu se d to re sp e c t th e h u m a n ity o f th e ir w o rk e rs b y o v e rw o rk in g th e m , p a y in g th e m in fichas ra th e r th a n in legal cu rrency,

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a n d e x p ro p ria tin g th e ir su b siste n c e cro p s. T h e g o v e rn o r o f L a L ib e rta d expressed th is b e lie f s h o rtly after th e re b e llio n in a c o m m e n t th a t a p p e a re d in o n e o f th e m a in n ew sp a p ers: “T h e la n d o w n e rs h av e in flic te d u p o n th e ca m p e sin o s a series o f ab u ses . . . b u t i f w e lo o k closely w e w ill rec o g n ize th e se as iso late d p h e n o m e n a . . . . N o w is n o t th e h o u r to p la ce b la m e o n th is o r th a t social o r p o litic a l se cto r.”46 In o th e r w o rd s, th e p ro b le m w as w ith in d iv id u a ls, n o t a n e n tire social class. In th e ir in te r n a l c o rre sp o n d e n c e s, m ilita ry le ad e rs d isp a ra g e d “u n ­ s c ru p u lo u s ” elites. In A p ril 19 3 2 , M . A . B o lañ o s, th e c o m m a n d e r o f A h u a c h a p á n D e p a r tm e n t, sin g le d o u t A n to n io S ala v erría as o n e o f th e m o s t ab u siv e la n d o w n e rs in th e re g io n . T h e p a rtic u la r act th a t c a u g h t B o lañ o s’s eye w as S alav errías d ec isio n to close a ro a d th a t p e a sa n ts h a d b e e n u sin g fo r m a n y years as a p ath w a y . B o la ñ o s d e n o u n c e d S ala v erría as b e in g ty p ic al “o f th e ric h [ricos] w h o are th e p rin c ip a l so u rc e o f d is c o n te n t a m o n g s t th e cam p e sin o s, a n d I su g g e st th a t o rd e rs b e g iv en to cease su c h a b o m in a b le ab u ses.”47 Years later, in re sp o n se to sim ila r ev e n ts in h is o w n d e p a rtm e n t, C o lo n e l Ju lio C é s a r C a ld e ró n , th e g o v e rn o r o f S o n so n a te , e c h o e d B o lañ o s’s se n tim e n ts . A fte r n e g o tia tin g a la n d d is p u te b e tw e e n a g ro u p o f p e a sa n ts a n d a n e a rb y la n d o w n e r, in w h ic h h e sid e d w ith th e p ea sa n ts, C a ld e ró n d e sc rib e d h is a c tio n s as p a r t o f a n e w era o f g o v e rn ­ m e n t: “T h e p ro b le m is th a t in p a s t tim e s th e se [lan d o w n e rs] h av e b e e n p a r t a n e fa rio u s g ro u p h e re in S o n so n a te th a t h as allie d w ith G o v e rn o rs a n d C o m a n d a n te s a n d h as c a u se d m u c h d am ag e . . . . B u t now , m y se lf a n d th e c u rre n t C o m a n d a n te are a p a rt fro m th a t g ro u p , o r b e tte r said, w e h av e p u s h e d th e se in d iv id u a ls o ff to th e m a rg in s.”48 A n o n g o in g p ro b le m o f la n d o w n e rs c h a rg in g e x o rb ita n t re n ts a n d e x p ro p ria tin g th e c ro p s o f th e ir re n te rs p r o m p te d C a ld e ró n to w rite th a t “larg e la n d o w n e rs [terratenientes] w ith o u t sc ru p le s a n d w ith o u t co n sc ie n c e are [in flictin g ] in ju stic e s o n th e ir im p o v e rish e d re n te rs .”49 T h e m a n n e r in w h ic h lo cal elites a p p e a le d to th e m ilita ry le ad e rs in g o v e rn m e n t reveals th e e x te n t to w h ic h th e re fo rm ist r h e to r ic h a d ta k e n effect. W h e n lo cal bosses w a n te d s o m e th in g fro m th e g o v e rn m e n t, th e y u se d a d is tin c tly p h ila n th r o p ic la n g u a g e m e a n t to a p p e a l to m ilita ry le a d ­ ers’ re fo rm ist side. A 1933 e x a m p le fro m Ju a y ú a is re p re se n ta tiv e . T h e i n ­ c u m b e n t alcald e w a n te d to en su re th a t th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t a c c e p te d th e c a n d id a c y o f M á x im o Jerez, a lo n g -s ta n d in g p o litic a l p la y er in th e

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m u n ic ip a lity , fo r alcald e in th e f o rth c o m in g ele c tio n . T h e in c u m b e n t s u b ­ m itte d h is re q u e st in th e fo rm o f a r e p o r t d e s c rib in g Je re z’s b e n e fic e n t p o licies to w ard s th e p ea sa n try .

I have already in fo rm ed y o u th a t since A pril th e n u m b e r o f m e n w ith o u t w o rk is betw een 1,000 an d 1,500. . . . People w ith o u t w o rk becom e va­ grants in search o f so m e th in g a n d w ill easily take th e p a th o f crim e. T h e coffee growers c a n n o t provide w o rk fo r all o f th e m , because there is n o m oney, actually coffee is alm ost w orthless in these days. . . . T h e only cof­ fee growers th a t have mozos w o rk in g fo r th e m are: A gustín A lfaro, M áxim o R au d a Salaverría a n d D r. M áx im o Jerez. . . . T h e h u m a n ism o f th e p a­ trons decidedly influences th e general w ell-being o f th e proletariat, a n d a p ru d e n t life extends fro m w o rk o n th e fincas. Problem s arise w h en p a­ trons sq u a n d er th eir m o n e y w h en they receive it w ith o u t a tten d in g to th eir labors. . . . D r. Jerez m ain ta in s an office th a t distributes cereal grains to his colonos. H e gives th e m o n cred it an arroba o f co rn p er w eek. . . . T h is fo rm o f pro v id in g sustenance to th e colono a n d his fam ily lessens th e w eight o f h atre d an d desperation a n d causes th e colono to see th a t th e p a­ tro n is o n his side.50

A n o th e r p e titio n fro m a g ro u p o f w e a lth y su g a r g ro w ers n e a r S an S alv ad o r is eq u a lly revealin g . T h e g ro w ers w a n te d th e g o v e rn m e n t to b u ild a d istill­ ery fo r th e m . I n h o p e s o f g e ttin g a p o sitiv e re sp o n se to th e ir re q u e st, th e y ap p e a le d d ire c tly to m ilita ry le ad e rs’ in te r p re ta tio n o f th e 1932 re b e llio n a n d th e n in siste d th a t th e ir p ro p o sa l w as g o o d fo r w o rk in g p e o p le b ec au se it w o u ld g e n e ra te jo b s. T h e p e titio n reads:

T h e State th a t w ith great difficulty in Jan u ary o f last year co n fro n ted the c o m m u n ist convulsion, w h ich was based u p o n h u n g e r a n d poverty, an d th reaten ed to destroy th e social organism ; T h e State th a t is m o tiv ated by the desire fo r social im p ro v e m en t a n d distributes parcels o f state-ow ned lan d an d b uilds cheap h o u sin g to elevate th e sta n d ard o f living o f th e p roletariat, sh o u ld resolve this dilem m a. It sh o u ld decide w h eth e r it w ants to o p t fo r deindustrializing th e n a tio n a n d th ro w in g th e masses to the m o st cruel an d absolute h u n g e r a n d misery, or o n th e contrary, i f it is sincere in aspiring to create n ew centers o f w o rk to au g m en t th e riches o f the pu b lic an d lessen th e poverty o f th e in d iv id u al.51

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T h e R e fo rm Id e a in P ra ctice

W i th its specific id e o lo g ic a l a p p ro a c h as a g u id e , th e M a rtín e z g o v e rn ­ m e n t in s titu te d a re fo rm p ro g ra m . It h a d clear b o u n d a rie s. It w o u ld n o t e x te n d to p o litics, a n d at its h e a rt lay a c o m m itm e n t to p riv a te p ro p e rty a n d a b e lie f th a t th e reso u rce s n ec essary to a d v a n c e th e cau se o f re fo rm w o u ld b e g iv en v o lu n ta rily b y la n d o w n e rs. A n y r e d is trib u tio n o f g o o d s fro m la n d o w n e rs to p e a sa n ts w o u ld o c c u r b y “m u tu a l c o m p e n s a tio n ,” m e a n in g th a t th e g o v e rn m e n t w o u ld p u rc h a se th e reso u rces fro m th e la n d o w n e rs a t m a rk e t p ric e .52 A n y su g g e stio n s to th e c o n tra ry w ere s u p ­ p ressed im m ed ia te ly . N a p o le ó n V ie ra A lta m ira n o d isc o v ered th is in 1932 d u r in g h is te n u re as d ire c to r g e n e ra l o f c o n trib u tio n s , a p o s itio n th a t p la c e d h im a t th e fo re fro n t o f th e fin a n c ia l sid e o f th e re fo rm p ro g ra m . H e b eliev ed th a t in o rd e r fo r th e re fo rm s to h av e a la stin g im p a c t, th e y h a d to b e s u b sta n tia l a n d h a d to o c c u r im m e d ia te ly . V ie ra A lta m ira n o c o n te n d e d th a t th e sta te n e e d e d to e x p ro p ria te la n d in o rd e r to re d is trib u te it to cam p e sin o s. C o llea g u es in h is d e p a r tm e n t d e n o u n c e d h im , a n d h e w as fo rc e d to resig n s h o rtly th e re afte r. H e w as la te r ex p e lle d fro m th e c o u n try fo r rem a rk s m a d e a g a in st M a rtín e z .53 T h e M a rtín e z re g im e also re ste d th e success o f its c a m p a ig n o n its a b ility to m o n o p o liz e th e v o ice o f ru ra l lab o r. It d id n o t seek to in c o rp o ­ ra te ru ra l w o rk e rs in to th e sta te as an eq u a l p a r tn e r in th e p o litic a l sy stem . R ath er, it s o u g h t to iso late th e m b y d e s tro y in g a n y tra c e o f in d e p e n d e n t o rg a n iz a tio n — a p ro ce ss g re a tly fa c ilita te d b y th e re sp o n se to th e 1932 u p risin g . T h e o n ly g ro u p s th a t c o u ld h a v e c h a lle n g e d th e m ilita ry ’s h o ld over ru ra l w o rk ers, th e F R T S a n d th e P C S , h a d b e e n d e c im a te d . F o r ex­ am p le, th e rec o rd s o f th e P C S in th e C o m in te r n A rc h iv e m o re o r less e n d a t 1932, su g g e stin g th a t o rg a n iz a tio n w as w e a k a n d su rv iv in g c o m m u n is ts h a d d ifficu lty m a in ta in in g c o n ta c t w ith th e C o m in te rn o r th e C a rib b e a n B u reau . M ig u e l M á rm o l c o n firm s th is p o in t. In h is te stim o n y , h e d e ­ sc rib e d th e p a r ty as b e in g in a sta te o f r u in th r o u g h o u t m o s t o f th e 1930s. T h e few su rv iv in g m e m b e rs w h o m a n a g e d to fo rm sm all p a r ty cells su f­ fered fro m b itte r in te rn a l d isa g re e m e n ts a n d o n g o in g h a ra s s m e n t b y th e s e c u rity fo rc es.54 A c c o rd in g to M á rm o l, o rg a n iz a tio n a m o n g th e c a m p e si­ n o s w as n o n e x is te n t.55 E v en th e n o n ra d ic a l la b o r o rg a n iz a tio n s (th e m u ­

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tu a l aid societies a n d w o rk e rs’ co -o p s) h a d b e e n s h u t d o w n d u r in g th e m a ta n z a . T o re o p e n , ea ch h a d to o b ta in a lic en se fro m th e g o v e rn m e n t. O n ly th o se g ro u p s th a t w ere s tric tly u r b a n in th e ir o rie n ta tio n a n d able to p ro v id e clear a n tic o m m u n is t cre d e n tia ls w ere allo w ed to re o p e n , su c h as th e S o c ie d a d d e O b re ro s in Q u e tz a lte p e q u e a n d th e S o c ie d a d U n ió n M u tu a lis ta d e O b re ro s in S o n s o n a te .56 T h e B a rb e rs’ U n io n (S o c ie d a d M u tu a lista “U n io n d e B a rb e ro s”) in S an S alvador, how ever, h a d d ifficu lty fig h tin g o ff ac c u sa tio n s o f c o m m u n is t in flu e n c e s .57 It a p p e a rs th a t g o v e rn ­ m e n t w as q u ite successful in its b id to q u e ll in d e p e n d e n t la b o r o rg an iz in g . E v id e n ce reveals th e o c c u rre n c e o f o n ly th re e w o rk sto p p a g e s b e tw e e n 1932 a n d 1939, a n d n o n e o f th e m in v o lv e d ru ra l w o rk ers; tw o o f th e strik es w ere b y m e a t c u tte rs, th e o th e r w as b y coffee w ash e rs a t a coffee p ro ce ssin g p la n t (beneficio).58 T h e m ilita ry th u s p re se rv e d its p o s itio n as th e p rim a ry sp o k e sp e rso n fo r ru ra l la b o r th r o u g h sh e er force. T h e M a rtín e z g o v e rn m e n t d e v e lo p e d a m u ltifa c e te d re fo rm p ro g ra m th a t, a t its m o s t a m b itio u s level, s o u g h t to m a k e la n d a n d h o u s in g avail­ able to p ea sa n ts a n d u rb a n w o rk e rs a t affo rd a b le p rices. A t a m o re im m e ­ d ia te level, th e p ro g ra m w as d esig n e d to p u t m o re b re a d o n th e p e a sa n ts’ tab les b y e n c o u ra g in g la n d o w n e rs to lo w er o r even ab o lish re n ts a n d p a y th e ir w o rk e rs in a tim e ly fa sh io n w ith legal cu rren cy . T h e h ig h e s t-ra n k in g m e m b e rs o f g o v e rn m e n t, in c lu d in g th e p re s id e n t a n d th e m in is te r o f g o v ­ e rn m e n t, d ire c te d th e p ro cess. G o v e rn o rs w ere th e p o in t m e n ; local p o lic e a n d c o m a n d a n te s w ere o n th e f ro n t lin e , r e p o rtin g abuses a n d id e n tify in g areas o f n ee d . T h e s e fu n c tio n a rie s a c te d u n d e r th e a u th o rity o f a n e w a d ­ m in is tra tiv e d e p a rtm e n t, a p p ro p ria te ly n a m e d M e jo ra m ie n to S o cial (S o ­ cial B e tte rm e n t).59 T h e m ilita ry ’s first a c tio n w as to e n fo rc e th e a b o litio n o f fichas , th e c o u p o n s th a t m a n y la n d o w n e rs u se d to p a y th e ir w o rk e rs in p la c e o f legal currency. F ich as h a d v alu e o n ly in th e sto res lo c a te d o n th e p la n ta tio n , a n d sin ce th e sto res w ere o w n e d b y th e la n d o w n e rs th em selv es, th e ir g o o d s w ere o fte n o v erp rice d . F ichas h a d b e e n o u tla w e d in 1920, b u t th e la w h a d n o t b e e n e n fo rc e d . T h e g o v e rn m e n t ac tu a lly b e g a n its c a m p a ig n a g a in st fichas b efo re th e 1 9 3 2 re b e llio n , in d ic a tin g th a t it h a d a n tic ip a te d th e n e e d fo r re fo rm . O n J a n u a ry 19, 19 3 2 , G e n e ra l M a rtín e z o rd e re d th e d e ­ p a r tm e n ta l g o v e rn o rs to “m a k e it clear to th e la n d o w n e rs in y o u r d e p a r t­ m e n t, p rin c ip a lly th e coffee grow ers, th a t in c o n fo rm ity w ith . . . th e law

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o f 1920 th e y are p ro h ib ite d fro m p a y in g w o rk e rs in fichas, w h ic h allow s th e la n d o w n e rs to estab lish m o n o p o lie s over th e sale o f p r im a ry g o o d s a n d ch a rg e excessively h ig h p ric e s.”60 T h e c a m p a ig n w as p u t o n h o ld d u rin g th e reb e llio n , b u t a fte rw a rd s th e g o v e rn m e n t re n e w e d its efforts. M a rtín e z o rd e re d h is g o v ern o rs to “p ro c e e d w ith in v e stig a tio n s to d e te rm in e w h ic h h a c ie n d a s o r fincas c o n tin u e to p a y th e ir w o rk e rs in fichas a n d r e p o rt th e m to m e .”61 N u m e r o u s re tic e n t p la n ta tio n s w ere sin g le d o u t, a n d th e g o v e rn m e n t o rd e re d th e c u lp a b le o w n ers to cease th e ir p rac tice s. 62 F o r ex­ am p le, in resp o n se to re p o rts th a t th e fin c a “El S u n z a ” n e a r Izalco c o n tin ­ u e d to p a y its w o rk e rs in fichas, M a rtín e z o rd e re d th e alcald e o f Izalco to en su re “th a t th e d e fra u d in g o f th e w o rk e rs is e n d e d a t o n c e .”63 A t th is tim e , how ever, th e m ilita ry ’s a c tio n s se ld o m w e n t b e y o n d v erb a l o r w ritte n th re a ts, a n d fichas c o n tin u e d to b e u se d th r o u g h o u t th e 1930s. T h e g o v e rn m e n t also d ire c te d a n assau lt o n th e in s titu tio n o f terraje, th e r e n t p a id b y te n a n t fa rm e rs to th e ir la n d lo rd s. T h e m ilita ry e s tim a te d th a t in a s ta n d a rd te rra je re la tio n s h ip a c a m p e sin o tra d e d o n e o r tw o w eeks o f la b o r p e r m o n th in e x c h an g e fo r th e access to a p arc el o f la n d to p la n t su b siste n c e cro p s. T h e c a m p e sin o satisfied h is d e b t to th e la n d o w n e r in cash o r m o re ty p ic ally in c ro p s. M ilita ry lead ers c o n s id e re d th e s ta n d a rd te rraje a rra n g e m e n t to b e d e m a n d in g e n o u g h , i f n o t overly so, a n d in th e h a n d s o f a n ab u siv e la n d o w n e r it b e c a m e a p o w e rfu l to o l o f e x p lo ita tio n .64 T h e la n d o w n e r c o u ld a rb itra rily a lte r th e te rra je a g re e m e n t b y ra isin g th e r e n t o r in c re a sin g th e a m o u n t o f la b o r o w ed to th e p la n ta tio n . O n c e a c a m p e sin o h a d h is c ro p s in th e g ro u n d , h e w as in a v u ln e ra b le p o sitio n . In o n e exam p le, a g ro u p o f w o rk e rs fro m th e h a c ie n d a “ C o p a p a y o ” n e a r A rm e n ia d e n o u n c e d b o th th e a d m in is tra to r a n d th e o w n e r fo r a rb itra rily ra isin g th e re n t. As th e la b o re rs p u t it, “L ast A p ril w e m e t w ith th e a d m in ­ is tra to r in o rd e r to receive o u r la n d s . . . th e n , afte r w e h a d alre ad y p r e ­ p a re d a n d p la n te d th e soil, h e ca m e a r o u n d p u n is h in g us u n ju s tly b y c h a n g in g th e a g re e m e n t in fav o r o f th e h a c ie n d a .” T h e g o v e rn o r o rd e re d th a t th e a g re e m e n t b e c h a n g e d b a c k a n d a n n o u n c e d th a t h e w o u ld b e “ta k in g a p p ro p ria te a c tio n s a g a in st th e h a c ie n d a ’s a d m in is tra to r.”65 A s a s h o r t- te r m s o lu tio n to te rraje, th e g o v e rn m e n t p ro p o s e d th a t la n d o w n e rs ab o lish it a n d m a k e la n d available to c a m p e sin o s fo r free. D e ­ p a r tm e n ta l g o v ern o rs receiv ed o rd ers to su rv e y th e larg e p la n ta tio n s a n d c o m p ile a list o f th o se w ith u n d e ru tiliz e d la n d .66 T h e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t

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th e n c o n ta c te d th e o w n ers o f th o se p ro p e rtie s a n d ask ed th e m to p a r tic i­ p ate. M ilita ry le ad e rs a p p e a le d to th e m o n g ro u n d s o f “in c re a sin g th e p r o ­ d u c tio n o f p rim a ry p ro d u c ts , su c h as c o rn a n d b ea n s, in o rd e r to av o id a crisis in a g ric u ltu ra l [p ro d u c tio n ].”67 P ro p e rty o w n ers w ere u n d e r n o o b li­ g a tio n to p a rtic ip a te b e y o n d th e ir o w n s p irit o f b e n e fice n ce . P resu m ab ly , th e o n ly m o tiv e to agree to th e p ro g ra m w o u ld h av e b e e n to g a in favor w ith th e m ilita ry . N o t su rp risin g ly , o n ly a sm a ll fra c tio n o f la n d o w n e rs p a rtic ip a te d , regardless o f th e fa c t th a t th e g o v e rn m e n t p u b lic ly c e le b ra te d as m o d e l citizen s th o se w h o d id .68 O n e o f th e g o v e rn m e n t’s m a in re fo rm in itia tiv e s w as to b u y p riv a te estates a t m a rk e t v alu e a n d d iv id e th e la n d in to sm a ll p lo ts to b e so ld at lo w in te re s t rate s to p o o r fam ilies. In a 1933 in te rv iew , G e n e ra l M a rtín e z o u tlin e d th e id eals o f th e p ro g ra m : “T h e so n o f th e c a m p e sin o w ill b e b o r n u n d e r h is o w n ro o f; h is so n w ill n o t b e th e te n a n t o f th e la n d o w n e r, b u t w ill b e th e o w n e r o f h is o w n g a rd e n w h ic h th e fa th e r p a id fo r w ith th e sa m e m o n e y th a t w o u ld h av e b e e n g iv en to cover th e r e n t fo r th a t sa m e p ie ce o f b elo v e d la n d . T h e d iv isio n o f th e la n d h as b e e n c a rrie d o u t in F ran ce, th e m o s t o rg a n iz e d c o u n try in th e w o rld . T h e o w n e rsh ip o f th e soil h as m a d e C o s ta R ica an ex e m p la ry n a tio n , a m o d e l o f civility.”69 L a n d fo r th e p ro g ra m w o u ld c o m e fro m o n e o f tw o so u rces, e ith e r p ro p e rtie s alre ad y o w n e d b y th e g o v e rn m e n t o r p riv a te la n d th a t M e jo ra m ie n to S o ­ cial w o u ld b u y a t m a rk e t p rice . T h e la n d w o u ld b e d iv id e d a n d so ld to n e e d y ca m p e sin o s o n lo n g -te rm , lo w -in te re st m o rtg a g e s. A sim ila r p la n w as a p p lie d to a h o u s in g p ro g ra m in w h ic h w o rk in g -c lass h o m e s w o u ld b e c o n s tru c te d a n d so ld to p o o r fam ilies at lo w m o rtg a g e s.70 T o b u ild h o m e s o r b u y la n d , M e jo ra m ie n to S ocial n e e d e d m o n ey . S in ce th e g o v e rn m e n t w as in a fin a n c ia l crisis, so to o w as th e p ro g ra m . D u r in g its first year, M e jo ra m ie n to S o cial d id little m o re th a n a c c u m u la te fu n d s. T h e p rin c ip a l so u rc e o f re v e n u e w as a sm all tax in c re ase o n cig a­ rettes a n d a lc o h o l.71 O th e r m o n e y c a m e d ire c tly fro m th e g o v e rn m e n t, as in la te 1933 w h e n th e m in is try o f p la n n in g d iv e rte d 2 5 ,0 0 0 c o lo n es to th e p ro g ra m . ( T h e g o v e rn m e n t’s to ta l b u d g e t fo r 1 9 3 3 —1934 w as ju s t u n d e r 18 m illio n co lo n e s.)72 A s a n o th e r so u rc e o f fu n d s, th e g o v e rn m e n t c re a te d th e C é d u la P a trió tic a (P a trio tic C a rd ). M a rtín e z d e s c rib e d its g o al as “c re ­ a tin g a n effective h a r m o n y b e tw e e n th e d iffe re n t so cial classes. It is n e c e s­ sa ry to elevate th e liv in g c o n d itio n s o f h u m b le p e o p le [and] av o id m isery,

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th e ra w m a te ria l o f a g ita to rs.”73 T h e g o v e rn m e n t so ld C é d u la s to th e g en e ral p u b lic fo r 4 0 co lo n es each , w ith th e p ro fits g o in g d ire c tly to M e ­ jo r a m ie n to Social. T h e C é d u la b r o u g h t w ith it c e rta in privileges, su c h as fo re g o in g th e n e e d to a c q u ire o th e r fo rm s o f id e n tific a tio n . T h e g o v e rn ­ m e n t also g ra n te d C é d u la h o ld e rs th e exclusive rig h t to b e a r firearm s. H ow ever, th is p e rq u is ite w as a b a n d o n e d in 1936 w h e n to o m a n y p e o p le w ere fo u n d to b e c a rry in g w e a p o n s in p u b lic .74 B y Ju ly 19 3 4 , th e C é d u la p ro g ra m h a d g a rn e re d M e jo ra m ie n to S o cial a m e a g e r 2 3 ,0 0 0 co lo n e s.75 W h ile M e jo ra m ie n to S o cial w as b u ild in g u p its fu n d s, o th e r g o v e rn ­ m e n t fu n c tio n a rie s b u sie d th e m se lv es a c c u m u la tin g c o m p la in ts ag a in st th e c o r r u p t a n d illegal a c tio n s o f la n d o w n e rs. T h e fre q u e n c y w ith w h ic h th e d e n u n c ia tio n s arriv ed su g g ests b o th th e d e s p e ra tio n o f th e ca m p e sin o s a n d th e ir w illin g n e ss to tu r n to th e m ilita ry -le d g o v e rn m e n t fo r resp ite. S o m e o f th e cases rev e ale d clear ex am p les o f illegal activity, su c h as th a t o f C o p a p a y o , m e n tio n e d above. H o w ev er, m a n y o f th e c o m p la in ts d id n o t arise fro m specifically illegal acts, b u t ra th e r fro m th e s ta n d a rd re la tio n s o f e x p lo ita tio n . A case fro m C h a la te n a n g o D e p a r tm e n t is re p re se n ta tiv e . In Ju ly 1932, th e c a m p e sin o w o rk e rs o n th e h a c ie n d a “ P e ñ a ñ a la p a ” d e ­ n o u n c e d th e ir la n d o w n e r, U llo a M o ra z á n , fo r c h a rg in g ov erly h ig h re n t. A s ev id en c e th e y p re s e n te d w ritte n re c e ip ts sig n e d b y th e a d m in is tra to r o f th e h a c ie n d a . W h e n q u e s tio n e d b y th e g o v ern o r, U llo a c o n firm e d th a t h e ch a rg e d a h ig h r e n t b u t a rg u e d th a t it w as ju stifie d “b y th e e x c e p tio n a lly g o o d fe rtility o f h is so il.” T h e g o v e rn o r f o u n d h im s e lf in a d iffic u lt p o si­ tio n . U n a b le to d isp ro v e U llo a s claim , h e a c c o m p lish e d n o th in g m o re th a n rec eiv in g “a p ro m is e o f su sp e n sio n o f h o stilitie s o n b e h a lf o f all p a r ­ ties in v o lv e d .”76 T h e case o f P e ñ a ñ a la p a h ig h lig h ts th e d ile m m a o f th e re fo rm in itiativ e. T o im p ro v e th e lives o f th o se w o rk e rs w h o w ere n o t s u b ­ je c te d to illegal d eed s, m ilita ry lead ers h a d e ith e r to in fu se th e ir re fo rm p ro g ra m w ith e n o rm o u s su m s o f m o n e y a n d c re ate a lte rn a tiv e s fo r th e ru ra l w o rk e rs o r re s o rt to ex traleg al m e asu res. N e ith e r a lte rn a tiv e ca m e to pass. In m id -1 9 3 3 , M e jo ra m ie n to S ocial h a d a c c u m u la te d over 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 co lones, e n o u g h to b e g in ta k in g a c tio n . O n e o f its first acts w as to p u r ­ chase th e fin ca “L a B e m e ja” in S an S alv a d o r as a site fo r th e c o n s tru c tio n o f o n e th o u s a n d w o rk in g -c la ss h o u se s. T h e g o v e rn m e n t also b o u g h t a n d b e g a n to b u ild h o m e s o n a p ie c e o f p r o p e r ty in L a L ib e rta d C ity .77 A t th e

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sa m e tim e , M e jo ra m ie n to S ocial b e g a n p a rc e lin g o u t ru ra l p ro p e rtie s. It s ta rte d w ith th re e g o v e rn m e n t-o w n e d h a c ie n d a s: “Z a p o titá n ,” “S a n ta R o sa,” a n d “C h iq u irín .” Z a p o titá n w as o n e h u n d r e d m a n z a n a s in size, sixty o f w h ic h w ere d iv id e d in to tw e n ty p lo ts a n d se t asid e fo r larg e fa m i­ lies, w h ile th e re st o f th e h a c ie n d a w as d iv id e d in to p lo ts o f o n e -q u a rte r m a n z a n a each, to b e so ld to fam ilies w ith few o r n o c h ild re n . S a n ta R osa w as s o m e w h a t larger. It w as d iv id e d in to 519 p arcels, a lth o u g h th e size o f each p lo t w as n o t a n n o u n c e d . T h e overall size o f C h iq u irín w as n o t a n ­ n o u n c e d . A fte r d is trib u tin g th e se first th re e p ro p e rtie s, M e jo ra m ie n to S o ­ cial tu r n e d to p riv a te la n d . It p u rc h a s e d five h ac ie n d as: “M e ta lío ,” n e a r A c a ju tla in S o n s o n a te D e p a rtm e n t; a n u n n a m e d h a c ie n d a n e a r C h iltiu p á n in L a L ib e rta d D e p a rtm e n t; “El E n c a n ta d o ” in L a U n ió n D e p a r t­ m e n t; a n u n n a m e d h a c ie n d a in S an M ig u e l D e p a rtm e n t; a n d a n o th e r u n n a m e d h a c ie n d a in A h u a c h a p á n D e p a rtm e n t. E x c lu d in g th e p ie c e in A h u a c h a p á n , th e p ro p e rtie s to ta le d less th a n fo u r h u n d r e d m a n z a n a s a n d ra n g e d in co st fro m 1 ,5 0 0 to 1 9 ,0 0 0 co lo n es. T h e p r o p e rty in A h u a c h a p á n w as larger; it so ld fo r 9 0 ,0 0 0 co lo n es. T h e size o f th e parcels fo r th e se p ro p e rtie s w as n o t a n n o u n c e d .78 In m id -1 9 3 5 , M e jo ra m ie n to S ocial p u r ­ ch ased its last p ro p e rty , “S an C a rlo s,” in M e jic a n o s, fo r a re p o r te d 2 4 0 ,0 0 0 co lones, as th e site fo r a w o rk in g -c lass n e ig h b o rh o o d . A fter its p u rc h a se o f S an C a rlo s, M e jo ra m ie n to S ocial r a n o u t o f m o n e y a n d p la c e d a m o r a to riu m o n f u rth e r p u rc h a se s. A c c o rd in g to th e m in is te r o f g o v e rn m e n t, th e p ro g ra m h a d s p e n t a to ta l o f 2 m illio n c o lo ­ n es o n its p ro je c ts.79 T h e g o v e rn m e n t to y e d w ith th e id e a o f ra isin g taxes o n alco h o l even f u rth e r to a u g m e n t th e p ro g ra m , b u t it u ltim a te ly re je c te d th e id e a fo r rea so n s n o t m a d e clear by th e availab le so u rces. M e jo ra m ie n to Social w as effectively d e a d .80 O v e ra ll, th e p ro g ra m ov ersaw th e c o n s tru c ­ tio n o f so m e tw o h u n d r e d h o m e s a n d p a rc e le d o u t n o t less th a n n in e m o d e s tly sized h a c ie n d a s.81 In to ta l, so m e o n e th o u s a n d fam ilies b e n e ­ fited . M ilita ry le ad e rs p u b lic ly p ra ise d th e p ro g ra m . M a rtín e z m a d e it a tra d itio n d u r in g h is a n n u a l sp e ec h b e fo re th e N a tio n a l A ssem b ly to h ail M e jo ra m ie n to S o cia l’s ac h ie v e m e n ts. B u t m ilita ry lead ers k n e w th a t th e p ro g ra m h a d fallen s h o rt o f its goals. In 1934, P ío R o m e ro B o sq u e o ffered a sa lie n t c ritiq u e o f it d u r in g a n in te rv ie w w ith th e U .S. m ilita ry a tta c h é in C o s ta R ica, sa y in g th a t “a lth o u g h b e y o n d a d o u b t M a rtín e z ’s in te n tio n s w ere o f th e b est, h is sc h em e s w ere little m o re th a n d rea m s, b ec au se in

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o rd e r to give all th e p o o r p e o p le a p ie c e o f la n d , a b o u t h a lf th e c o u n try w o u ld h av e to b e d iv id e d u p . In re g a rd to th e th o u s a n d casas baratas [cheap houses] . . . a th o u s a n d h o u se s is n o t a d ro p in th e b u c k e t. . . . T h e s e p ro b le m s are o n es w h ic h c a n n o t b e so lv ed in a y ear o r tw o , b u t w ill re q u ire m u c h tim e a n d s tu d y to w o rk o u t.”82 N e v e rth e le ss, th e re fo rm p ro g ra m c a p tu re d th e a tte n tio n o f th e la n d o w n e rs, w h o a c c o rd in g to U .S. C h a rg é M c C afferty , “w o u ld u n d o u b te d ly lik e to see th e r e tu r n o f civ ilian g o v e rn m e n t b ecau se th e y c o u ld c o n tro l it m o re effectively in th e ir o w n in te re sts as th e M a rtín e z reg im e, in th e ir o p in io n , h as b e e n to o so lic ito u s fo r th e w elfare o f th e lo w er classes.”83 R egardless o f th e d im in u tio n o f M e jo ra m ie n to S o cial, th e g o v e rn ­ m e n t p ressed fo rw a rd w ith o th e r e le m e n ts o f its re fo rm p ro g ra m . In th e p ro cess it in c ite d a c o n f r o n ta tio n w ith coffee g ro w ers in 19 3 5 . T h e c o n ­ flict e ru p te d w h e n th e g ro w ers p ro p o s e d th a t th e v alu e o f th e c o ló n b e al­ lo w ed to d efla te to its m a rk e t v alue. W h e n M a rtín e z to o k p o w e r in 1932, h e allo w ed th e v alu e o f th e c o ló n to flo a t b ec au se, u n til th e n , it h a d b e e n b u o y e d artificially b y th e g o v e rn m e n t. In ju s t a few m o n th s it lo st 5 0 p e r­ c e n t o f its value, d e c lin in g fro m 2:1 a g a in st th e U .S. d o lla r to 3 :1 . A fter th e g o v e rn m e n t o p e n e d a n a tio n a l b a n k in 1934, th e c o ló n sta b iliz e d at 2.5 :1 a n d M a rtín e z fro ze it at th a t value. T h e coffee grow ers, le d b y th e C o ffee G ro w e rs’ A sso c ia tio n (A so ciació n C a fe ta le ra ), p ro p o s e d th a t th e c o ló n deflate, w h ic h b y th a t tim e w o u ld h av e p u t its v alu e a t a p p ro x i­ m a te ly 4 :1 .84 T h e g o v e rn m e n t o p p o se d th e d e fla tio n fo r reaso n s b o th e c o ­ n o m ic a n d social. C u rre n c y d e v a lu a tio n w o u ld h av e h e lp e d coffee g row ers b y m a k in g S alv a d o ra n ex p o rts c h e a p e r in in te r n a tio n a l m a rk e ts. H o w ev er, th e coffee g ro w ers’ g ain s w o u ld c o m e a t th e ex p e n se o f b o th th e g o v e rn ­ m e n t a n d th e w o rk in g class. A d e v a lu e d c o ló n w o u ld w e a k e n m ass p u r ­ ch a sin g pow er, a n d th u s im p o r ts w o u ld lik e ly d ro p , w h ic h w o u ld re d u c e im p o r t d u tie s, still th e g o v e rn m e n t’s m a in re v e n u e .85 T h e c o n flic t o v er d e fla tio n la ste d n e a rly fo u r m o n th s . T h e g o v e rn ­ m e n t ev e n tu a lly re je c te d th e p ro p o sa l a n d m a in ta in e d th e e x c h an g e ra te at 2 .5 :1 .86 U n fo rtu n a te ly , th e so u rce s d o n o t p ro v id e in f o rm a tio n o n h o w th e d ec isio n w as re a c h e d in g o v e rn m e n t circles; w e la c k su c h th in g s as n o te s o f c o m m itte e m e e tin g s a n d tra n sc rip ts o f n e g o tia tio n s b e tw e e n th e g o v e rn m e n t a n d re p re se n ta tiv e s o f th e coffee gro w ers. H o w ev er, a s p irite d p u b lic d e b a te aire d in th e e d ito ria l pages in d aily n ew sp a p e rs, especially

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D iario Latino. D o z e n s o f ed ito ria ls a n d articles a p p e a re d , th e vast m a jo rity o f w h ic h o p p o se d th e la n d o w n e rs’ p o s itio n in n o u n c e rta in te rm s. C o n ­ sid e rin g th a t th e g o v e rn m e n t p ra c tic e d press c e n so rsh ip a t th e tim e , th e p re d o m in a n c e o f fa v o rab le articles reflects m ilita ry le ad e rs’ a tte m p t to g e n e ra te p o p u la r s u p p o r t th r o u g h c o n tro l o v er th e m ass m e d ia .87 T h e n o ta b le fe a tu re o f th e ed ito ria ls is th e ex p licit a n ti-e lite la n g u ag e u se d to d e n o u n c e th e coffee grow ers. T h a t th e g o v e rn m e n t w o u ld allo w p u b lic use o f su c h s tro n g la n g u a g e reveals th e r h e to ric th a t m ilita ry lead ers w a n te d to a tta c h to th e ir re fo rm p ro g ra m . O n e e d ito ria l asked, “W h y s h o u ld w e sacrifice o u r e n tire p o p u la tio n in o rd e r to p r o te c t a m in o r ity th a t d o es n o t a c c o u n t fo r m o re th a n five p e rc e n t o f o u r p o p u la tio n ? A w ay w ith lu x u ry ite m s: aw ay w ith silks, aw ay w ith cars . . . aw ay w ith th in g s fro m a b ro a d , b ec au se su p e rflu o u s th in g s s h o u ld b e d o n e aw ay w ith in th is tim e o f a n g u ish . O u r g o v e rn m e n t k n o w s o u r su ffe rin g a n d it w ill lessen th e p ain s o f th e p e o p le . . . . W e h av e fa ith in it.”88 A n o th e r a rtic le cla im e d th a t “th e irra tio n a l re d u c tio n o f th e p u rc h a s in g p o w e r o f th e m asses is a m e a su re th a t in v e ry s h o r t tim e w o u ld m a n ife s t its e lf as a d isa stro u s m e a su re.”89 A th ir d e d ito ria l sta te d th a t “w e h av e to e stab lish n o rm s o f c o o p ­ e ra tio n a m o n g all p ro d u c tiv e secto rs in th is society; w ith o u t c a p ric io u s privileges; w h e re o n e can feel th e p r o te c tio n o f th e s ta te is eq u a l fo r ev ery ­ o n e .”90 A f o u rth e d ito ria l w as p e rh a p s th e m o s t in fla m m a to ry . It w as o s­ te n sib ly w ritte n b y a n obrero (lab o rer), w h o re p ro a c h e d th e coffee grow ers: “W h e re are th e coffee g ro w ers c o m in g fro m ? W h a t is th e so -ca lle d coffee in d u stry ? I f w e a p p ly th e te rm ‘in d u s try ’ to coffee, s h o u ld w e n o t also a p p ly it to co rn , rice a n d b ea n s, a n d , th e re fo re , h av e a ‘g ra in in d u s try ’ in th is c o u n try as well? . . . W h y is coffee in e c o n o m ic crisis? B ecau se th e re is n o d e m a n d fo r it.”91 A n o th e r e d ito ria l p ro p o s e d th a t th e coffee g ro w ers re d u c e th e te rra je in ex ch an g e fo r a d e fla te d c o ló n . T h e e d ito ria l w as fro m a s m a llh o ld e r in U s u lu tá n D e p a rtm e n t: “In th e pages o f D iario Latino w e are se ein g m u c h d isc u ssio n o n th e a tte m p t to re b u ff th e p ro p o s e d in c re ase in th e co st o f g o o d s o f p r im a ry necessity. . . . W e all k n o w th a t th e p ro d u c e r o f th e se cereal g o o d s is n o t th e la n d o w n e r b u t th e re n te rs, w h o alw ays h av e to p a y to th e la n d o w n e r th e v alu e o f th e la n d w h e th e r th e c ro p co m es in o r n o t. . . . T h e p ro te c tiv e m e a su re s h o u ld b e to re d u c e th e p ric e o f th e t erraje, th e re b y le n d in g a id to th e sm all fa rm e rs w h o c o u ld th e n ta k e

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ad v a n ta g e o f th e ir c ro p s.”92 In essence, th e e d ito ria l in fo rm e d th e coffee grow ers th a t th e y s h o u ld n o t h av e it b o th w ays; th e y c o u ld n o t d efla te th e w ages o f th e ca m p e sin o s a n d re ta in th e sa m e rates o f terraje. In th e w ak e o f its v ic to ry over th e coffee g row ers, th e g o v e rn m e n t p ressed its ag e n d a . G o v e rn m e n t officials b e g a n re fe rrin g to th e ir effo rts as th e era o f “N a tio n a l R e c o n s tru c tio n .” As G e n e ra l José T ra b a n in o , th e g o v e rn o r o f L a L ib e rta d D e p a r tm e n t, p u t it, “th e c o n c e rte d e ffo rt o f N a ­ tio n a l R e c o n s tru c tio n is to p ro te c t, in a ta n g ib le m a n n e r, th e S a lv a d o ra n c a m p e sin o w h o se id e o lo g y su sta in s th e g o v e rn m e n t.”93 S o m e g o v e rn m e n t officials even refe rre d to th e ir re fo rm s as re v o lu tio n a ry : “ In c re a tin g a feel­ in g o f s o lid a rity a n d a b e tte r ex iste n ce,” o n e said, “th e g o v e rn m e n t o f El S alv ad o r is s u s ta in in g a re v o lu tio n a ry c rite ria .”94 A M e x ic a n jo u rn a list, p re s u m a b ly in flu e n c e d b y th e M e x ic a n R e v o lu tio n , w ro te a n a rticle th a t a p p e a re d in D iario Latino a n d e m p lo y e d a sim ila rly re v o lu tio n a ry d is­ c o u rse to d escrib e th e M a rtín e z reg im e: “In E l S alv a d o r . . . th e c e n tu rie s o f social m ise ry h av e b e e n a p r o d u c t, it is th e u n d e n ia b le tr u th , o f th e glacial in d iffe re n c e o f th e ric h . . . to w a rd th e p a in o f th e p o o r. . . . T h e g o v e rn m e n t o f M a x im ilia n o H e r n á n d e z M a rtín e z is a rare th in g in C e n ­ tra l A m eric a— a tr u e so cial re v o lu tio n fro m ab o v e fo r th o se below .”95 A fter 1935, m ilita ry lead ers b e c a m e even m o re aggressive in th e ir d e ­ fen se o f w o rk in g p e o p le . W h e n a r u m o r b e g a n c irc u la tin g th a t coffee a n d su g a rc an e grow ers in te n d e d to c u t w ages, G e n e ra l Jo sé T o m á s C a ld e ró n , th e m in is te r o f g o v e rn m e n t, s e n t a c irc u la r to all th e alcaldes in th e n a tio n , o rd e rin g th e m to tell th e g ro w ers in th e ir ju ris d ic tio n to “n o t lo w e r th e w ages o f th e ir w o rk e rs.”96 A t th e sa m e tim e , c e rta in h ig h -ra n k in g officials in th e g o v e rn m e n t, su c h as th e g o v ern o rs o f L a L ib e rta d a n d C h a la te n a n g o , G e n e ra l T ra b a n in o a n d C o lo n e l F ra n c isc o Jo sé Rivas, e m e rg e d as p a rtic u la rly v isib le p ro p o n e n ts o f so cial re fo rm . T ra b a n in o , fo r in sta n c e , in v o lv e d h im s e lf in a v a rie ty o f activ ities. H e a d v o c a te d th e fo rm a tio n o f w o rk e r co o p erativ e s, h e w o rk e d to w a rd th e c re a tio n o f a m in im u m w age, a n d , in o n e o f his m o re a m b itio u s in itia tiv e s, h e p ro p o s e d th e c re a tio n o f a n a tio n a l h e a lth -c a re sy stem fo r w o rk in g p e o p le .97 C o lo n e l R ivas u se d p e rso n a l c o n n e c tio n s w ith th e la n d o w n e rs in h is d e p a r tm e n t to e n c o u ra g e th e m to h e lp th e ir w o rk e rs. H e o fte n s p e n t w e e k e n d s tra v e lin g a ro u n d C h a la te n a n g o D e p a r tm e n t a n d m e e tin g w ith la n d o w n e rs “to e n c o u ra g e ,” as h e p u t it, “th e larg e la n d o w n e rs [terratenientes] to p a rtic ip a te . . . in th e n o b le efforts to ad v a n ce th e w e ll-b e in g a n d fo rw a rd p ro g re ss o f th e p ro le ­

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ta ria n class.” R ivas p re ssu re d th e la n d o w n e rs b y d is trib u tin g b ro a d sid e s th a t ch a lle n g e d th e m to v o lu n te e r th e ir s u p p o r t to th e re fo rm c a m p a ig n . O n e b ro a d s id e rea d , “T h e S u p re m e G o v e rn m e n t calls u p o n y o u g e n tle ­ m e n ; it asks o f y o u th a t w h e n th e w o rk e rs c o m e ea ch y ea r to c u ltiv a te th e la n d s th a t y o u offer th e m every c o o p e ra tio n in th e ir necessities . . . y o u a g ric u ltu rists k n o w th a t su c h d e m o n s tra tio n s w ill p ro d u c e a h e a lth ie r w o rk e r . . . a n d w ill raise th e m o ra l a n d c u ltu ra l level o f th e F a th e rla n d . . . . P eo p le o f C h a la te n a n g o , h e lp th e p o o r p e o p le !”98 L ik e R ivas a n d T ra b a n in o , o th e r d e p a rtm e n ta l g o v ern o rs c a rrie d o n in d efen se o f w o rk in g p e o p le , ty p ic a lly b y in v e stig a tin g alleg ed ab u ses b y la n d o w n e rs. I n a re p re se n ta tiv e case fro m O c to b e r 1 9 3 9 , a g ro u p o f c a m ­ p esin o s fro m T a c u b a d e n o u n c e d th e la n d o w n e r R o g e lio M a g a ñ a fo r re ­ d u c in g a n d w ith h o ld in g th e ir w ages. T h e d e p a rtm e n ta l g o v e rn o r la u n c h e d a n in v e stig a tio n a n d in te rv ie w e d th e p la in tiffs. T h e g o v e rn o r c o n c lu d e d th a t th e re q u e st o f th e c a m p e sin o s w as ju st, a n o p in io n sh a re d b y th e m in ­ ister o f labor, w h o h a d re a d th e g o v e rn o r’s re p o rt. T h e m in is te r o rd e re d th e g o v e rn o r to “u se w h a t m e a n s are n ec essary to e n su re th a t th e d e b ts o w ed to th e ca m p e sin o s are can celed . . . . T h is g o v e rn m e n t is en e rg e tic a lly in te re s te d in b rin g in g a sense o f w e ll-b e in g a n d c a lm to th e h o m e s o f th e ru ra l p o o r, a n d fo r th is th e re m u s t b e h a r m o n y b e tw e e n w o rk e r a n d o w n er.”99 T h e m ilita ry w as q u ic k , h o w ev er, to su p p re ss a n y a c tiv ity th a t w e n t b e y o n d th e stric t lim its o f its p ro g ra m . In A p ril 1939 a r u m o r c irc u la te d a m o n g so m e ru ra l la b o re rs in L a L ib e rta d D e p a r tm e n t th a t th e g o v e rn ­ m e n t in te n d e d to g u a ra n te e a p a y raise as w ell as a m in im u m w ag e fo r all ru ra l w o rk e rs. F e a rin g a p o p u la r u p ris in g w h e n th e tr u th b e c a m e k n o w n , th e g o v e rn m e n t s te p p e d in : “T h e h a p p in e ss o f th e ca m p e sin o s c o u ld p re ju d ic e social o rd e r,” d e c la re d th e c o m m a n d e r o f L a L ib e rta d , “fo r th a t rea so n I hav e o rd e re d th e c a p tu re o f th o se p e rso n s re sp o n sib le fo r a d v a n c ­ in g su c h s p e c u la tio n s.”100

T h e M ilita ry a n d In d ia n s: T h e R e fo rm P ro g ra m in th e W e st

T h e re fo rm p ro g ra m w as n a tio n a l in sco p e, b u t it to o k o n sp ecial salien ce in th e w e ste rn d e p a rtm e n ts . T h e w est, o f co u rse , h a d b e e n th e site o f th e 1932 re b e llio n a n d th e s u b s e q u e n t m ass k illin g s b y th e m ilita ry . M o reo v e r,

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th e e th n ic m a k e u p o f th e w est p re s e n te d a u n iq u e d y n a m ic . T h e w e ste rn p e a s a n try w as p r e d o m in a n tly In d ia n , a n d re la tio n s b e tw e e n ca p ita l a n d la b o r th e re to o k o n a d is tin c tly e th n ic to n e . A s tu d y o f th e m ilita ry ’s a p ­ p ro a c h to th e w e ste rn re g io n p ro v id e s a n e n lig h te n in g w in d o w o n its b ro a d e r a p p ro a c h to re fo rm . T h e m ilita ry ’s sp ecific n e g o tia tio n o f th e e th ­ n ic d y n a m ic in th e w e st also reveals m u c h a b o u t th e w ay it d e a lt w ith its m o s t h u m b le citizen s. T h is lo o k a t th e w e st sh o w s th e s u b a lte rn p o p u la ­ tio n o f in d ig e n o u s p ea sa n ts c o n tin u in g to in s e rt its d e m a n d s in to th e p u b lic arena, fo r c o n s id e ra tio n b y th e in s titu tio n th a t h a d ju s t c o m m it­ te d w id e s p re a d k illin g s in th e re g io n . Iro n ically , th e In d ia n s o f th e w est fo u n d in th e m ilita ry a n ally th a t th e y h o p e d to e n list in th e ir o n g o in g co n flicts w ith local elites. In d ig e n o u s in d iv id u a ls a n d c o m m u n itie s h a d reg u la rly s u b m itte d p e titio n s to th e g o v e rn m e n t over th e p a s t d ecad es. T h e arch iv al re c o rd c o n ta in s m a n y d o c u m e n ta ry ex am p les o f in d ig e n o u s p e o p le th r o u g h o u t th e n a tio n u sin g th e c u s to m a ry c h a n n e ls o f c o m m u n i­ c a tio n to m a k e re q u e sts o f th e g o v e rn m e n t a n d en list its s u p p o r t in o n e cause o r an o th e r. T h u s , th is sp ecific fo cu s o n th e re la tio n s b e tw e e n th e g o v e rn m e n t a n d w e ste rn In d ia n s in th e p e rio d fro m 1931 to 1 9 4 0 is n o t m e a n t to im p ly th a t th e re w as s o m e th in g u n p r e c e d e n te d in th e se ex­ am p les. R ath er, it is a p a rtic u la rly re v e a lin g m ic ro c o s m b ec au se it reveals th e co m p le x d y n a m ic s o f m ilita ry ru le in th e w a k e o f th e 1 9 3 2 u p risin g a n d m assacre. N o tin g th e b ru ta lity o f th e m ass k illin g s b y th e g o v e rn m e n t, sch o lars a n d la y p erso n s alik e h av e c o n te n d e d th a t th e y ea r 1 9 3 2 m a rk e d th e e n d o f in d ig e n o u s c u ltu re in E l S alvador. T h e m ilita ry s u p p o se d ly ta rg e te d I n d i­ ans d u r in g th e rep re ssio n a n d th e re a fte r effectively o u tla w e d I n d ia n c u l­ tu re , w h ic h fo rc e d In d ia n s to a b a n d o n th e ir e th n ic id e n tity a n d b e c o m e p a r t o f th e h o m o g e n o u s “m e stiz o ” p ea sa n try . “A ll th o se o f s tro n g ly I n d ia n cast o f fea tu re s . . . w ere c o n s id e re d g u ilty ,” n o te d h is to ria n T h o m a s A n ­ d e rso n in h is classic s tu d y o f 1 9 3 2 .101 A n o th e r sch o lar, M ic h a e l M c C lin to c k , la te r c o n c lu d e d th a t “th e m a ssac re m a rk [e d ] a n d e n d to I n d ia n c u ltu re in E l S alv a d o r.”102 O th e r research ch allen g es th e a s s u m p tio n th a t I n d ia n id e n tity d isa p ­ p e a re d after 1932 a n d th a t th e M a rtín e z re g im e s o u g h t sp ecifically to e ra d ica te in d ig e n o u s id e n tity . T h e a u th o rs o f th is rese arch p o in t o u t th a t th e d e c lin e in in d ig e n o u s c u ltu re p re c e d e d th e M a rtín e z era a n d th a t th e

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M a rtín e z g o v e rn m e n t a d o p te d a m o re c o m p lic a te d a p p ro a c h to e th ­ n ic ity .103 As o n e ex a m p le , h is to ria n s Je ff G o u ld a n d A ld o L a u ria -S a n tia g o c o n c lu d e d th a t th e ac tiv ities o f th e M a rtín e z g o v e rn m e n t “su g g e st th a t o n ly a few m o n th s afte r th e m assacres th e re g im e d id n o t h av e th e e th n o cidal in te n tio n s o fte n im p u te d to it b y m ilita n ts .” 104 P o litic al sc ie n tist V ir ­ g in ia T illey ’s rese a rc h in b ir th rec o rd s reveals th a t I n d ia n p o p u la tio n s d id n o t d ec lin e afte r 19 3 2 . S h e sh o w s th a t it w as c u s to m a ry b e tw e e n th e 1860s a n d th e 1950s fo r m u n ic ip a l officials to d e n o te th e e th n ic ity o f n e w b o rn s in th e b ir th reg istry — even th o u g h it is a n a d m itte d ly v ag u e a n d im p e rfe c t m e th o d . T illey sa m p le d b irth s every five years b e tw e e n 1900 a n d 1 9 5 0 fo r all m u n ic ip a litie s in th e d e p a rtm e n ts o f S o n so n a te a n d A h u a c h a p á n , th e h e a rt o f th e m a ssac re zo n e. T ille y also sa m p le d b irth s fro m a v a rie ty o f m u n ic ip a litie s in th e d e p a rtm e n ts o f S an S alvador, M o ra z á n , L a Paz, a n d C u s c a tlá n . A ssu m in g th a t th e c rite ria th a t lo cal officials e m p lo y e d to d is­ tin g u is h b e tw e e n In d ia n s a n d la d in o s re m a in e d s o m e w h a t c o n s ta n t over tim e , h o w ev er v ag u e a n d im p re c ise th e y w ere, th e resu lts in d ic a te n o t o n ly th a t th e p e rc e n ta g e o f I n d ia n p o p u la tio n s re m a in e d ste a d y afte r th e 1932 m a ta n z a , b u t also th a t th e y in c re a se d in so m e m u n ic ip a litie s, m o s t s trik ­ in g ly in Izalco, a m a jo r c e n te r o f I n d ia n p o p u la tio n a n d a p rim a ry ta rg e t o f th e m ilita ry rep ressio n . A n o ta b le fe a tu re o f T ille y ’s rese arch is th a t “In d ia n -n e s s ” c o n tin u e d to b e re c o g n iz e d b y p u b lic officials afte r th e re ­ b ellio n , a n d In d ia n s th e m se lv es c o n tin u e d to e m b ra c e th e ir id e n tity p u b ­ licly a n d even to m a k e ap p e als to th e g o v e rn m e n t b ased u p o n th a t id e n tity .105 T h e e th n ic ity o f th e rebels in 1 9 3 2 a n d th e p o te n tia lly ra c ist m o tiv e s b e h in d th e m assacres re m a in d iffic u lt to d e te rm in e , o w in g to la c k o f d e ­ fin itiv e e v id e n c e .106 In d ia n s a lm o st c e rta in ly c o n s titu te d a m a jo rity o f th e rebels, a lth o u g h la d in o s p a rtic ip a te d in th e re v o lt as w ell. L a d in o s d efi­ n ite ly p a rtic ip a te d in th e c ra c k d o w n a n d u se d e th n ic ity to id e n tify th e ir en em ies. F or ex a m p le , a few days afte r th e rev o lt, th e la d in o -le d m u n ic ip a l g o v e rn m e n t o f Izalco id e n tifie d th e in d ig e n o u s co frad ía s as places w h e re “In d ia n s en g ag e n o t o n ly in c e le b ra tio n , b u t also c o n triv e illegal acts th a t are p re ju d ic ia l to th e h o n o ra b le citiz en s o f th e city.” 107 A la te r r e p o r t fro m th e g o v e rn o r o f S o n so n a te D e p a r tm e n t id e n tifie s In d ia n s as h a v in g b e e n th e “c o m m u n is ts ” (i.e., rebels) in 1932: “T h e P ro te sta n ts [m issionaries] hav e c o o p e ra te d in th e e x tin c tio n o f th e c o m m u n is t id e as ab o v e all in

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th o se p o p u la tio n s p r e d o m in a te d b y th e in d ig e n o u s e le m e n t.” 108 A ssu m in g th a t In d ia n s c o n s titu te d th e m a jo rity o f th e rebels, a n d th a t th e m ilita ry d ire c te d th e b r u n t o f its a tta c k a g a in st reb e llio u s c o m m u n itie s , th e m ili­ ta ry lik ely ta rg e te d I n d ia n c o m m u n itie s d u r in g th e re p re ssio n . I f so, th e m ilita ry ’s p o licie s to w a rd th e In d ia n s afte r th e re b e llio n a p p e a r all th e m o re p arad o x ical. M ilita ry lead ers b eliev e d th e n e e d fo r re fo rm to o k o n p a rtic u la r u r ­ g en c y in th e w ak e o f th e re b e llio n . In c e n se d la d in o s w ere g o in g o u t o f th e ir w ay to crack d o w n o n In d ia n s, e x a c e rb a tin g an alre ad y te n se s itu ­ a tio n . T h e v e h e m e n c e o f th e la d in o s is e v id e n t in th e ra b id ity o f th e ir d isco u rse. F o r la d in o s, th e u p ris in g c o n firm e d in s ta rk te rm s th e ste re o ­ ty p ic al q u alitie s o f In d ia n s: la te n t v io le n c e a n d a b r u tis h d isreg a rd fo r civ ilizatio n . O n e la d in o coffee p la n te r fro m Ju a y ú a c la im e d in a n in te r ­ v iew w ith th e B ritish ch a rg é d ’affaires th a t h e h a d liv ed a m o n g h is I n d ia n em p lo y ees fo r tw en ty -fiv e years a n d h a d p a id a n d tre a te d th e m w ell. H e p u r p o r te d to h av e g iv en th e m p arcels o f la n d fo r free so th e y c o u ld g ro w su b sisten c e crops, a n d y e t “it w as th e sa m e In d ia n s th a t ca m e th a t S u n d a y n ig h t m e a n in g to c h o p . . . [me] u p w ith th e ir m a c h e te s. . . . th e ir rage is s o m e th in g w h ic h lies alw ays la te n t in th e ir b lo o d a n d flam es o u t o n v ery little p ro v o c a tio n .”109 A n e d ito ria l in D iario L a Prensa called fo r th e d e a th o f In d ia n s. T h e e d ito ria l p ro p o s e d th a t th e p ro b le m s o f in s u rre c ­ tio n w o u ld b e so lv ed i f all th e m a c h e te s in th e w e st w ere co n fisc ated : “T h e m a c h e te is th e w e a p o n o f th o se In d ia n s affiliated w ith re d c o m m u ­ n ism . . . . It is sh a m e fu l th a t in a c o u n try su c h as o u rs w ith p re te n sio n s o f c u ltu re a n d civ iliz atio n , th e a u th o ritie s h av e d o n e n o th in g to p re v e n t th e b a rb a ric c u s to m o f a llo w in g th e free p o r tin g o f m a c h e te s.” T h e e d ito ria l rec o g n ize d th a t su c h a p o lic y w o u ld re q u ire d ra stic ac tio n : “ ‘F elled m a ­ ch ete, d e a d I n d ia n ,’ says th e saying. A n d it is tru e . T h e I n d ia n . . . o n ly retires h is m a c h e te w h e n h e d ies.”110 E v en so m e la d in o s w h o w ere m o re m o d e ra te in th e ir view s c o n s id e re d In d ia n s to b e savages d e sp e ra te ly in n e e d o f assistance. A d o lfo H e rre ra V ega, a la d in o fro m Izalco, p re s e n te d th a t p o in t o f v ie w in a b r ie f b o o k e n title d (in tra n s la tio n ) The Western Indian o f E l Salvador a n d H is Social

Incorporation into the School. H e rre ra p ro p o s e d th a t In d ia n s c o u ld b e saved fro m th e ir “b a rb a ris m ” b y b e in g in c o rp o ra te d in to th e p u b lic schools:

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“T h e I n d ia n h as a b o d y a n d a h e a rt, a n d , th e re fo re , s h o u ld n o t b e a b a n ­ d o n e d , b u t sav ed th r o u g h e d u c a tio n .” B u t H e rre ra ’s d e s c rip tio n s o f th e I n d ia n re ta in e d th e s ta n d a rd ste re o ty p e s: “T h e ir lic e n tio u sn e ss is w ith o u t e n d . . . . F an a tic ism , a lc o h o lism a n d p r o s titu tio n exist in o s te n ta tio u s a b u n d a n c e . . . . M o th e rs sell th e ir d a u g h te rs, b ro th e rs th e ir sisters.” W h e n th e I n d ia n c h ild re n are b r o u g h t to sc h o o l, H e rre ra cla im e d , “th e y arriv e filled w ith th e im p r in t o f th e e n v iro n m e n t in w h ic h th e y w ere raised ; th e y sp e ak little; to ea ch q u e s tio n th e y r e s p o n d w ith m o n o sy lla b le s, i f a t all. . . . In tellig en t? T h e y are n o t.” H e rre ra w e n t o n to a rg u e th a t th e p o v e rty o f th e In d ia n s w as o f th e ir o w n m a k in g : “W e fin d o u r I n d ia n [nuestro indio] afflicted w ith m o ra l a n d e c o n o m ic po v erty . T h e se c o n d is th e c o n s e q u e n c e o f th e first.”111 W h e n th e la d in o a u th o ritie s re g a in e d c o n tro l o f th e ir m u n ic ip a litie s afte r th e rep ressio n , th e y b e g a n a w id e s p re a d c a m p a ig n o f te rro r ag a in st In d ia n s. T h e la d in o s b eliev e d th a t th e rebels h a d in te n d e d to e lim in a te th e m , larg ely b ec au se th e m a in ta rg e ts o f th e rebels h a d b e e n re c o g n iz e d sy m b o ls o f la d in o po w er, su c h as th e m u n ic ip a l h a ll a n d th e p ro p e rtie s a n d b o d ie s o f lo c ally p r o m in e n t p e o p le .112 T h e la d in o s re s p o n d e d b y a t­ ta c k in g th e m a te ria l a n d sy m b o lic life o f I n d ia n society. T h e la d in o s o f Izalco le d th e ch arg e. T h e y a tte m p te d to e lim in a te th e tw o I n d ia n c o m m u n itie s ’ rig h ts to irrig a tio n a n d d r in k in g w ate r. W a te r h a d b e e n a re p e a te d so u rc e o f d isc o rd b e tw e e n la d in o s a n d In d ia n s in Izalco, trig g e rin g at least th re e m a jo r co n flicts in th e p r io r tw o d e c a d e s.113 A re s o lu tio n p assed b y th e m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il ju s t a few days afte r th e re ­ b e llio n reads:

A griculture has m e t w ith m a n y difficulties, ow ing to th e m o n o p o ly o f ir­ rigation w ater b y th e In d ia n elem ent; th ey have always p u t every obstacle before the lad in o elem en t, w h ich is dedicated to p la n tin g cereal crops d u r­ ing the d ry season b y use o f irrig atio n w ater. O w in g to th e recen t events th a t have occurred in this city, in w h ich th e In d ian elem ents w ere m ixing w ith C o m m u n ism , th e M u n icip ality m akes th e follow ing accords. . . . F rom this date forw ard th e M u n icip ality w ill be in charge o f all irrigation waters; it reserves th e rig h t to d eterm in e w h ich lands w ill be allow ed to receive irrig atio n w ater; any rights o f th e In d ian s to receive irrigation w ater are hereby revoked.114

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N e x t, th e Iz a lq u e ñ o s a tte m p te d to u n d e r m in e in d ig e n o u s relig io u s p ra c ­ tices. T h e m u n ic ip a l g o v e rn m e n t re q u e ste d th a t th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t rem o v e all th e relig io u s relics (imágenes) fro m th e co frad ía s a n d refu se th e In d ia n s access to th e m .115 T h e Iz a lq u e ñ o la d in o s also w ere re p o r te d to b e r a n d o m ly b e a tin g In d ia n s, th ro w in g th e m in jail, a n d m a k in g th e m p a y a fin e to b e released . M e m b e rs o f Izalco ’s C iv ic G u a rd w ere id e n tifie d as p a rtic ip a tin g in th e se a c tiv itie s.116 T h e g o v e rn m e n t s o u g h t to a b a te th e ab u ses in Izalco. H a v in g receiv ed re p o rts o f v ario u s la d in o tra n sg re ssio n s a g a in st In d ia n s, P re sid e n t M a r ­ tín e z s e n t Izalco’s m u n ic ip a l g o v e rn m e n t a n u n m is ta k a b ly clear m essage: “I a m in fo rm e d th a t th e m u n ic ip a l a u th o ritie s o f Izalco are u n d e rta k in g in ju stic e s a g a in st th e In d ig e n o u s class. I h e re b y serve o rd ers to y o u to p u t a n e n d to su c h ac tiv itie s.”117 A few days later, th e In d ia n s s e n t a d e n u n c i­ a tio n ac cu sin g th e m u n ic ip a l se c re ta ry o f a v a rie ty o f abuses, p r o m p tin g G e n e ra l C a s ta n e d a C a stro , th e m in is te r o f g o v e rn m e n t, to call p u b lic ly fo r th e se creta ry ’s re sig n a tio n a n d p riv a te ly to o rd e r th e m u n ic ip a l c o u n c il to d ep o se h im .118 T h e a u th o ritie s o f Izalco resisted th e o rd er, in s is tin g th a t th e se creta ry w as “h o n o ra b le a n d c o m p e te n t.”119 B u t th e m in is te r p e rsiste d a n d th e se creta ry resig n e d . S im ila r te n sio n s p la y e d o u t in N a h u iz a lc o . In F e b ru a ry 1932, n o t m o re th a n tw o w eek s after th e m ilita ry w ith d re w fro m th e to w n , c o rre ­ sp o n d e n c e re a c h e d S an S alv a d o r re p o r tin g m a n ife st ab u ses b y lo cal offi­ cials. T h e m ilita ry s e n t L ie u te n a n t E n riq u e U rib e to N a h u iz a lc o to assess th e s itu a tio n . U rib e p re s e n te d h im s e lf to th e m u n ic ip a l officials as th e v il­ lage’s n e w s u b c o m m a n d e r, b u t h is a c tu a l m issio n w as to c o n d u c t a “secret in v e stig a tio n ” in to th e a c tio n s o f N a h u iz a lc o ’s la d in o s .120 In d e e d , s h o rtly afte r h e arriv ed , U rib e d isc o v ered th a t la d in o officials w ere te rro riz in g th e re g io n w ith “a rb itra ry a n d v io le n t a c tio n s .” A fte r th e m ilita ry w ith d ra w a l in early F ebruary , p a ra m ilita ry b a n d s r o a m e d th e s u r ro u n d in g e n v iro n s in search o f “c o m m u n is ts .” T h e g re a te r p o r tio n o f th e b a n d s w as c o m p rise d o f m e m b e rs o f th e C iv ic G u a rd , w h o w ere jo in e d b y o th e r lo cal la d in o s as w ell as so m e sold iers. M e m b e rs o f th e g an g s re fe rre d to th e ir activ itie s as “p a trio tic service.” U rib e le a rn e d th a t th e b a n d s in itia lly c o n d u c te d th e m ­ selves “as th e y s h o u ld ,” m e a n in g th a t th e y p a tro lle d th e village in a c c o r­ d a n c e w ith th e ir o rd ers, b u t th e ir b e h a v io r q u ic k ly d e g ra d e d : “T h e [local] a u th o ritie s p r io r to m y arriv al . . . a p p lie d ju stic e in a m a n n e r so p o o rly

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in te rp re te d th a t th e m e d ic in e b e c a m e w o rse th a n th e sick n ess afflic tin g th e p a tie n ts .” U rib e c o n tin u e d , “N o o n e h as esca p ed th e ir criteria; far fro m e s ta b lish in g h a r m o n y a n d tr a n q u ility in th e re g io n , th e y h a v e so w ed th e seeds o f te rro r a n d d rea d , in n o t o n ly th e In d ia n s b u t a m o n g s t so m e la d in o s as w ell. In re g a rd to th e ir tr e a tm e n t o f th e In d ia n s th e se local offi­ cials hav e d isc re d ite d th e n a m e o f th e S u p re m e G o v e r n m e n t as w ell as th e h o n o ra b le citiz en s o f th is c o m m u n ity .” T h u s , a m ilita ry o fficer o n a special m issio n fo r th e m ilita ry lin k e d th e p lig h t o f th e In d ia n s to th e r e p u ta tio n a n d g o o d n a m e o f th e m ilita ry g o v e rn m e n t. It is n o t clear w h e th e r U rib e h a d th e a u th o rity to exceed h is sta tu s as a n o b serv er a n d in te rv e n e in th e se affairs, b u t h e d id so n o n e th e le ss: “I a m u n d e r ta k in g th e p o s itio n o f r e tu r n in g h a rm o n y , tr a n q u ility a n d w e ll-b e in g to th is locality. U n d e r m y a u th o rity I h av e o rd e re d a sto p to all pillage, a n d hav e p la c e d th e G u a r d ia C ív ic a a n d o th e r lo cal a u th o ritie s u n d e r a s tric t re g im e n o f d isc ip lin e. . . . I h av e also o rd e re d th a t a n y in d iv id u a l su sp e c te d o f c o m m u n is m is to b e r e p o rte d to . . . th e h e a d o f th e G u a rd ia C ív ic a w h o w ill th e n r e p o rt d ire c tly to th is c o m a n d a n c ia .” N o t s u rp ris ­ ingly, U rib e ’s a c tio n s a n ta g o n iz e d la d in o officials, w h o trie d to g e t r id o f h im b y d e n o u n c in g h im b e fo re th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t, a c c u sin g h im o f a c c e p tin g b rib e s fro m p riso n e rs in e x c h an g e fo r fre e d o m . T h e y d e m a n d e d th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t re m o v e h im fro m th e village. T h e g o v e rn m e n t re s p o n d e d b y se n d in g to N a h u iz a lc o a n in v e stig a tiv e te a m th a t d e te r­ m in e d th e accu sa tio n s to b e false. It is n o t clear w h a t im p a c t U rib e ’s ac­ tio n s e v e n tu a lly h a d o n lo cal affairs in N a h u iz a lc o , b u t a few m o n th s la ter th e m ilita ry g o v e rn m e n t o u ste d th e to w n ’s m u n ic ip a l se c re ta ry d u e to his d is c rim in a to ry p o licies a g a in st In d ia n s .121 T h e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t also in te rv e n e d o n b e h a lf o f p riv a te I n d ia n in d iv id u a ls. In A u g u st 19 3 2 , E le n a M o jic a , a n I n d ia n fro m S o n zac ate, a p ­ p e a le d d ire c tly to P re sid e n t M a rtín e z fo r p ro te c tio n a g a in st th e lo cal a u ­ th o ritie s, w h o m sh e ac cu sed o f excessive rep ressio n . S h e d id n o t h id e h e r fa m ily ’s ties to p o litic a l a c tiv ism a n d a p p e a le d d ire c tly to th e su ffe rin g sh e a n d h e r fa m ily h a d e n d u re d :

M r. President . . . D u rin g th e C o m m u n ist uprising, three o f m y sons, a nephew , a n d m y h u sb a n d p aid w ith th e ir lives for th e grave erro r o f w a n t­ ing to im p la n t an unnecessary system am o n g st us. W ith o u t en terin g in to a discussion o f th e ir inn o cen ce or guilt, th e civil au th o rities o f this locality

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gave a m o st ru d e blow to m y life, filling it w ith m artyrs. For reasons o f w ickedness or ignorance . . . [these officials] d id n o t k n o w h o w to tran s­ late th e orders o f th e su p erio r g o v ern m en t . . . an d th ereb y co m m itte d every class o f abuse a n d exaction o n defenseless people. T h e then-A lcalde ordered in clear S panish th a t m y h o m e be sacked, causing m y possessions to be decom m issioned. I am asking for th e re tu rn o f m y possessions.122

M a rtín e z o rd e re d th e g o v e rn o r o f S o n so n a te D e p a r tm e n t to a rra n g e th e r e tu r n o f h e r b e lo n g in g s. A lth o u g h th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t d id n o t select In d ia n s fo r p o litic a l office in la d in o -c o n tro lle d m u n ic ip a litie s, it d id re je c t c e rta in la d in o c a n ­ d id a tes o n a c c o u n t o f th e ir ab u siv e sta n c e to w a rd In d ia n s. In N o v e m b e r 1933, w h e n th e m ilita ry w as c o m p ilin g a list o f c a n d id a te s fo r th e f o r th ­ c o m in g m u n ic ip a l elec tio n s, a p o litic a l n e tw o rk in N a h u iz a lc o p u t f o rth th e n a m e o f Ism ael D o m ín g u e z fo r alcalde. T h e g o v ern o r, C o lo n e l José C a ld e ró n , d escrib e d D o m ín g u e z as “a g o o d c o lla b o ra to r w h o is h e lp in g o u r P arty,” b u t re je c te d h is c a n d id a c y b ec au se “sa id in d iv id u a l e x p ro p ri­ a te d th e p r o p e rty o f a p o o r I n d ia n w h ic h w as re c o v ered th a n k s to m y in te r v e n tio n . . . b u t I fear th a t as A lcald e h e w o u ld c o m m it o th e r u n g ra te ­ fu l acts.”123 T h e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t n o t o n ly re a c te d to la d in o abuses, b u t also o n so m e occasio n s m a d e g estu re s to w a rd activ ely assistin g In d ia n s. In S e p ­ te m b e r 1932 th e g o v e rn m e n t o p e n e d th e R afael C a m p o s I n d ia n S c h o o l o n a p ie ce o f g o v e rn m e n t-o w n e d p r o p e r ty lo c a te d b e tw e e n Izalco a n d S o n so n a te . T h e g o v e rn m e n t fin a n c e d th e b u ild in g o f th e sc h o o l in p a rt w ith ‘v o lu n ta ry ” d o n a tio n s th a t it so lic ite d fro m th e s u r ro u n d in g m u ­ n ic ip a l g o v e rn m e n ts .124 T h e s c h o o l’s sta tu te s d escrib e its lo n g -te rm g o al as “im p ro v in g th e social, m o ra l, in te lle c tu a l, a n d e c o n o m ic life o f th e I n d ig e ­ n o u s class o f S o n so n a te D e p a r tm e n t.” T h e sc h o o l, how ever, h a d a m o re p ressin g o bjective: “to offer im m e d ia te a id to th e c h ild re n w h o h av e b e e n left o rp h a n e d as a re su lt o f th e re v o lt w h ic h o c c u rre d in J a n u a ry o f th is year.”125 P robably , th e in h e re n t p u rp o s e o f th e sc h o o l re fle c te d th e w id e ly h e ld b e lie f th a t, th r o u g h e d u c a tio n , th e In d ia n s c o u ld b e re d e e m e d fro m th e ig n o ra n c e th a t le ft th e m v u ln e ra b le to ra d ic a l a lte rn a tiv e s .126 W h a te v e r th e s c h o o l’s a c tu a l goal, In d ia n s f o u n d a n ally in its d irec to r, L ie u te n a n t A lfo n so R. M u ñ o z . O n o n e o cc asio n , M u ñ o z d ire c tly a p p e a le d o n I n d i­ a n s’ b e h a lf to th e m ilita ry c o m m a n d e r in S o n so n a te :

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F rom N ahuizalco th ere have com e som e In d ian w o m en [inditas], w idow s o f executed C o m m u n ists, w h o in fo rm m e th a t th e A lcalde o f N ahuizalco is forcefully d em an d in g th a t they p ay th e ir electricity bills in fu ll. . . . G iven th a t these p eo p le are ab a n d o n ed , it seems to m e th a t they sh o u ld n o t b e req u ired to m ake this p a y m e n t in full, b u t little b y little as they are capable. M oreover, these p eo p le have a terrible fear o f th e authorities, w hich lends credence to reports o f th e b a d co n d u c t o f th e Alcalde.

M u ñ o z th e n su g g e ste d th a t th e m ilita ry c o m e to th e d efen se o f th e I n d i­ ans: “W e, th a t is y o u a n d I, s h o u ld see o urselves as th e f ro n t lin e in th e e lim in a tio n o f th e fea r o f th e se p e o p le . . . . W e s h o u ld also en su re th a t th e d e m a n d s fo r p a y m e n t o f th e e le c tric ity b ill are n o t d e m a n d e d fro m th e In d ia n s in a n y w ay d iffe re n t th a n fro m th e la d in o s.” 127 M u ñ o z ’s b eh a v io r, a n d o th e r ex am p les o f m ilita ry le ad e rs’ s u p p o r t fo r In d ia n s, c re ate d a n im a g e o f th e g o v e rn m e n t as a p o te n tia l b u lw a rk a g a in st la d in o abuse. In d ia n s re p e a te d ly so lic ite d d e p a rtm e n ta l- a n d n a tio n a llevel officials to c o m e to th e ir assistance. “C o n s iste n tly ,” re p o r te d th e g o v ­ e rn o r o f S o n so n a te , “they, in g re a te r p a r t In d ia n s, c o m e to m e to p re se n t th e ir c o m p la in ts .”128 E ven in th e e a ste rn reach es o f th e c o u n try , in M o ra z á n D e p a rtm e n t, I n d ia n c o m m u n itie s c o n s id e re d g o v e rn in g officials fav o rab le e n o u g h to I n d ia n issues to p re s e n t th e m w ith d e n u n c ia tio n s o f ab u siv e la d in o s. O n e M o ra z á n c o m m u n ity p ro te s te d a g a in st th e excessive ro a d ­ w o rk im p o s e d u p o n th e m b y m u n ic ip a l a u th o ritie s . T h e In d ia n s cla im e d th a t “b ecau se w e are In d ia n s, th e y fo rg e t th a t w e are h u m a n b e in g s a n d th a t w e b e lo n g to th e sa m e h u m a n ity [hum anidad ] th a t th e y d o a n d th a t w e to o s h o u ld e n jo y all th e legal rig h ts o f free re p u b lic a n p e o p le .”129 T h e e th n ic ity -b a se d co n flicts b e tw e e n In d ia n s a n d la d in o s a t th e local level n o rm a lly rev o lv ed a r o u n d th e sa m e issues th a t h a d m o tiv a te d a n ta g o ­ n is m p r io r to th e re b e llio n . In Izalco, fo r ex a m p le , co n flicts over rig h ts to w a te r w ere in te rm in a b le . In F e b ru a ry 19 3 3 , th e C o m m u n ity o f In d ia n s o f A s u n c ió n Izalco ask ed P re sid e n t M a rtín e z to fo rc e th e la d in o s to re sto re th e ir w a te r rig h ts: “W e ask G e n e ra l M a rtín e z to g r a n t us rig h ts to w a te r w h ic h hav e alw ays b e e n m a n a g e d b y th e C o m m u n ity o f In d ia n s o f A s u n ­ ció n Izalco; w e h a v e b e e n fo rc e d to ce d e o u r rig h ts. . . . W e ask th a t w e b e allo w ed to f u n c tio n w ith sa id w a te rs b y th e p r io r c u s to m s th a t d a te b a c k to o u r a n c e sto rs.”130 T h e la d in o s re s p o n d e d to th e In d ia n s ’ d e m a n d b y d e s c rib in g th e m as ab u siv e a n d d e n o u n c in g th e m as c o m m u n is ts a n d

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“en em ies o f p u b lic o rd er.” T h e y c la im e d th a t th e In d ia n s “h av e b e e n g iv en every class o f assistan ce in re g a rd to th e irrig a tio n o f th e ir la n d s, y e t th e y c o n tin u e to c o m m it ab u ses a n d p la c e o b sta cles in th e w ay o f th e large la n d o w n e rs [terratenientes] a n d p u b lic service. V ario u s In d ia n s . . . h av e u n d e r ta k e n a c a m p a ig n o f d iso b e d ie n c e to lo cal a u th o rity . . . a n d are s a b o ta g in g irrig a tio n fac ilities.”131 It is n o t k n o w n w h e th e r th e g o v e rn ­ m e n t a id e d th e In d ia n s in th e ir c la im to w ater, b u t it re c o g n iz e d th a t th e la d in o s ’ a tte m p t to p o r tra y th e In d ia n s as c o m m u n is ts w as d iv ersio n ary . W h e n th e la d in o s la te r c la im e d th a t th e In d ia n s w ere a b o u t to in stig a te a “c o m m u n is t u p ris in g ,” th e g o v e rn o r o f S o n s o n a te d ism isse d th e ac cu sa­ tio n a n d d es c rib e d th e a c tu a l issu e as “ I n d ia n d is c o n te n t ca u se d b y civ ilian la d in o s w h o b e a t a n d th re a te n th e m .” H e e n c o u ra g e d th e m in is te r o f w ar to “ta k e activ e m e a su re s to p re v e n t su c h ab u ses.”132 I n d ia n req u e sts b e fo re th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t w ere n o t alw ays m o ­ tiv a te d b y la d in o im p ro p rie tie s. S o m e tim e s In d ia n s sim p ly re q u e ste d th e p rese n ce o f a n e u tra l th ir d p arty . F o r ex a m p le , in 19 3 5 , a g ro u p o f Izalq u e ñ o In d ia n s b e lo n g in g to th e C o fra d ía d el N iñ o D io s, ask ed th e g o v ­ e r n m e n t to a rb itra te a n in te rn a l d isp u te . T h e m e m b e rs p ro c la im e d th a t a n o th e r in d iv id u a l, th e w id o w o f a fo rm e r m e m b e r, a p p ro p ria te d th e

imagenes o f th e c o fra d ía a n d re fu se d to r e tu r n th e m , le av in g th e c o fra d ía u n a b le to c o n d u c t its a n n u a l c e le b ra tio n . T h e g o v e rn m e n t ag reed to th e re q u e st, a n d th e g o v e rn o r o f S o n s o n a te o v ersaw th e n e g o tia tio n s, a lth o u g h h is r u lin g o n th e m a tte r is u n k n o w n .133 D e s p ite th e m ilita ry g o v e rn m e n t’s s y m p a th y to w a rd th e In d ia n s, it p la c e d stric t lim ita tio n s o n th e m e th o d s b y w h ic h In d ia n s c o u ld p re se n t th e ir d e m a n d s. P e titio n s a n d w ritte n o r v erb a l d e n u n c ia tio n s w ere a c c e p t­ able; co llective a c tio n w as n o t. W h e n a g ro u p o f Iz a lq u e ñ o In d ia n s w as su sp e c te d o f o rg a n iz in g su b v ersiv e ac tiv ities in 19 3 6 , fifte e n o f th e m w ere arre ste d b y th e G u a rd ia N a c io n a l a n d s u b je c te d to w h a t th e d o c u m e n ta ­ tio n eerily d efines as “in te rro g a tio n .” 134 L ater, in 1938, a n o th e r g ro u p o f Iz a lq u e ñ o In d ia n s la n d e d in jail w h e n th e y to o k a g riev a n ce to o far. T h e co n flict b e g a n w h e n fifty In d ia n s fro m Izalco m a rc h e d to th e g o v e rn o r’s office in S o n so n a te C ity . S ta n d in g b e lo w th e g o v e rn o r’s w in d o w , th e y d e m a n d e d th a t h e ch astise a lo cal la d in o , B rau lio S an d o v al, fo r c lo sin g a w a lk in g p a th th a t c o m m u n ity m e m b e rs tra d itio n a lly u sed . T h e g o v e rn o r a rra n g e d a c o n fe re n c e b e tw e e n S a n d o v a l a n d th e In d ia n s d e sp ite h is m is ­

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givings a b o u t th e In d ia n s ’ aggressiveness, w h ic h h e re fe rre d to as a “v io le n t ac t.” In th e m e e tin g , how ever, th e In d ia n s su p p o se d ly failed to d e m o n ­ stra te “p ru d e n c e ,” a n d in s te a d o f “e m p lo y in g in d ire c t p e rsu a sio n , th e y re ­ s o rte d to th re a ts .” A c c o rd in g to th e g o v ern o r, “ [th e In d ia n s ’] u n la w fu l c o n d u c t b rin g s b a c k m e m o rie s o f th e re p re h e n sib le c o m m u n is t ev en ts w h ic h leave m e still w ith a b a d a fte rta ste .” A fte r th e m e e tin g th e In d ia n s re tu r n e d to th e g o v e rn o r’s office, p r o m p tin g th e g o v e rn o r to ad d re ss th e m as a g ro u p . W h e n o n e o f th e In d ia n s “re s p o n d e d in an iro n ic m a n n e r,” th e g o v e rn o r called in th e p o lic e a n d h a d th e m ja ile d .135 S im ilarly, in S a n to D o m in g o d e G u z m á n , th e g o v e rn o r called in th e G u a rd ia w h e n , fo llo w in g th e local elec tio n o f 1939, th e In d ia n s a tte m p te d to p re v e n t la d in o s fro m as su m in g c o n tro l o f th e m u n ic ip a l g o v e rn m e n t.136 T h u s , th e g o v e rn m e n t d e fe n d e d In d ia n s o n its o w n te rm s. W h e n In d ia n s ex c ee d ed th e a c c e p t­ able lim its o f ap p e al, th e y w ere q u ic k ly su p p ressed . D e s p ite th e lim its it p la c e d o n co llectiv e a c tio n a n d th e in firm ity o f its overall re fo rm p ro g ra m , th e m ilita ry g o v e rn m e n t c re a te d a sp ace in w h ic h In d ia n s f o u n d refu g e fro m la d in o ab u se. In p a rtic u la r, it ig n o re d la d in o o b je c tio n s a n d p e r m itte d th e co frad ía s to c e le b ra te th e ir a n n u a l relig io u s festivals.137 T h e co frad ía s su rv iv e d a n d c o n tin u e d to f u n c tio n p u b lic ly a n d elect th e ir o w n p o litic a l lead ers. F o r ex a m p le , at th e e n d o f 1932, a n d ag ain a t th e e n d o f 19 3 3 , th e “A lca ld e o f th e M u n ic ip a lity o f In d ia n s o f A s u n c ió n Izalco ” re q u e ste d re c o g n itio n b y th e d e p a rtm e n ta l g o v e rn o r o f th e tra d itio n a l “a p p o in tm e n t o f th e e le c te d c a n d id a te s to th e ir resp e ctiv e offices o f th is m u n ic ip a lity .”138 T h is is th e sa m e la n g u a g e a n d m a n n e r in w h ic h I n d ia n c o m m u n itie s h a d b e e n e le c tin g officials fo r d ecades, i f n o t lo n g e r.139 N o ta b ly , it is n o t th e b e h a v io r o f a c o m m u n ity try in g h a s tily to a b a n d o n o r h id e its collectiv e e th n ic p resen ce. T h e m ilita ry ’s p o lic ie s to w a rd s th e In d ia n s o f w e ste rn El S alv a d o r are e m b le m a tic o f th e m ilita ry ’s overall re fo rm p ro g ra m . T h e m ilita ry d id n o t allo w In d ia n s to c o m p e te fo r c o n tro l over th e fo rm a l m u n ic ip a l g o v e rn ­ m e n t, w h ic h c o n tin u e d to b e rese rv e d fo r la d in o s. N e ith e r d id th e m ilita ry e x p a n d th e m a te ria l reso u rce s availab le to I n d ia n c o m m u n itie s th ro u g h su c h p o licies as la n d re fo rm . F o r th e m o s t p a rt, th e m ilita ry d e fe n d e d th e In d ia n s o n th e sa m e g ro u n d s th a t it s u p p o r te d p e a sa n ts th r o u g h o u t th e e n tire co u n try , as w o rk e rs w h o se p re se n c e w as essen tial to th e p ro g re ss o f th e n a tio n . It d id n o t seek to d e m o c ra tiz e p o w e r o r even to p r o m o te social

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equality. N ev e rth e le ss, its re fo rm s sh o w e d ta n g ib le resu lts in th e w est. I n ­ d ia n s su rv iv ed afte r 1932 in p a r t d u e to th e ir o w n w ill a n d d e te rm in a tio n to live, b u t also b ec au se th e y h a d so m e h e lp fro m th e m ilita ry a n d local m ilita ry officials, w h o se re p o rts ty p ic ally m a d e clear th a t th e y c o n sid e re d it to b e th e ir re sp o n sib ility to assist In d ia n s. “ I h av e a tte n d e d to th e c o m ­ p la in ts o f th e p o o r naturales [In d ia n s],” w ro te th e g o v e rn o r o f S o n so n a te in 1938, “p ro c u r in g th e re e s ta b lis h m e n t o f th e ir rig h ts a n d p e rs u a d in g th e m th a t th e a u th o ritie s , far fro m b e in g h o stile , w a n t to e x te n d to th e m g u a ra n te e s as h o n o ra b le a n d p e a c e fu l citiz en s fo r w h o m ju stic e w ill b e exte n d e d .”140 In p a rtic u la r, th e m ilita ry re p rim a n d e d abu siv e officials a n d c re ate d an a tm o s p h e re in w h ic h b e in g “I n d ia n ” re m a in e d p o ssib le. P e r­ h a p s th e m o s t rev e alin g e v id en c e is th e re a c tio n o f th e In d ia n s th em selv es. R egardless o f w h a t th e y th o u g h t a b o u t th e m ilita ry , th e y re c o g n iz e d th e ro le it in te n d e d to p la y a n d u se d it as a lin e o f d efe n se a g a in st la d in o assaults.

T h e L im its o f R e fo rm : T h e B a ttle over th e F in c a -O w n e d S tores

F o r th e d u r a tio n o f its re fo rm c a m p a ig n th e M a rtín e z g o v e rn m e n t p la y ed a n a g g in g z e ro -su m g am e. T h e a d v a n c e o f th e w o rk e r se e m in g ly re q u ire d th e ex p en se o f th e la n d o w n e r, a n d th e d efe n se o f th e la n d o w n e r e n su re d th e c o n tin u e d s u b ju g a tio n o f th e w o rk e r. F o r sev en years th e g o v e rn m e n t e n d e a v o re d to b a la n c e th e in te re sts o f ca p ita l a n d lab o r. A fte r its v ic to ry in 1935 in th e d e fla tio n d e b a te , it b e c a m e ste a d ily m o re c o n fid e n t a n d r h e ­ to ric ally b o iste ro u s in its ac tio n s. In 1939 th e g o v e rn m e n t la u n c h e d its m o s t a m b itio u s p ro p o s a l to d a te a n d in th e p ro cess su rp a sse d th e lim its o f a c ce p ta b le refo rm . In A u g u st 19 3 9 , th e g o v e rn m e n t re n e w e d its b a ttle a g a in st fichas. Its first c a m p a ig n in 1 9 3 2 h a d failed b ec au se it d id n o t s a n c tio n re sista n t la n d o w n e rs. In 1939, m ilita ry lead ers a p p ro a c h e d th e p ro b le m w ith an aggressive sta n ce a n d a m o re c o m p re h e n siv e in te r p re ta tio n o f th e p r o b ­ lem . T h e y d e te rm in e d th a t th e p ro b le m re sid e d n o t o n ly w ith fichas, b u t also w ith th e in s titu tio n o f th e fin c a -o w n e d sto re, b ec au se even o n th o se fincas w h e re w o rk e rs receiv ed th e ir w ages in legal cu rren cy , th e la n d o w n ­ ers still c o n tro lle d th e la b o re rs’ p u rc h a s in g p o w e r v ia th e stores. M ilita ry

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lead ers le a rn e d th a t la n d o w n e rs m a in ta in e d a c o m m e rc ia l m o n o p o ly fo r th e ir sto res b y re fu sin g to allo w o u ts id e m e rc h a n ts o n to th e fincas a n d also b y p re v e n tin g th e ir w o rk e rs fro m le av in g th e fincas o n payday. T h u s , m ili­ ta ry lead ers c o n c lu d e d th a t th e in s titu tio n o f th e fin c a -o w n e d s to re h a d to b e ab o lish ed . In S e p te m b e r 19 3 9 , th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t n o tifie d every m u n ic i­ p a lity th a t fin c a -o w n e d sto res w ere to b e c lo se d .141 O n e n o tic e read s, “I a m in f o rm in g y o u to d o w h a t is n ec essary to e n su re th a t S e ñ o r C a n e ssa sto p s im m e d ia te ly th e c o m m issa ry th a t is fu n c tio n in g in h is h a c ie n d a S an A m ­ b ro sio , p r o p e rty o f h is sister L y d ia C a n essa; see to it th a t all th e tiquestes [fic h as] are co lle c te d a n d liq u id a te d in to cash fo r th e p e o p le w h o are ca r­ ry in g th e m .”142 M ilita ry lead ers a p p e a le d to a rtic le 55 o f th e c o n s titu tio n , w h ic h p r o h ib ite d m o n o p o lie s o v er c o m m e rc e , a n d ju stifie d th e ir a c tio n s o n th e g ro u n d s o f p ro te c tin g c a p ita lism a n d free e n te rp rise . T h e y ac tu a lly c h a racterize d th e sto res as b e in g id e n tic a l to “th e sy stem o f co m m issa ries also u se d in S o v iet R u ssia; a sy stem th a t w e s h o u ld n o t allo w to b e im ­ p la n te d in o u r soil o w in g to its u n ju s t a n d u n s u ita b le q u a litie s.”143 In o th e r w o rd s, in a n iro n ic tw ist, th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t w as a c c u sin g p la n ta ­ tio n o w n ers o f p ra c tic in g c o m m u n is m . T h e G u a r d ia N a c io n a l p a tro lle d th e d e p a rtm e n ts to e n su re th a t la n d o w n e rs c o m p lie d w ith th e o rd ers. In d e p e n d e n t m e rc h a n ts s to o d to g a in th e m o s t fro m th e g o v e rn m e n t’s d ecisio n . T h e ir o rg a n iz a tio n , th e C á m a ra d e C o m e rc ia n te s en P e q u e ñ o ( C h a m b e r o f S m all C o m m e rc e ), th a n k e d th e g o v e rn m e n t in a le tte r th a t artic u la te s th e situ a tio n :

T h ere w o u ld have b een n o th in g m o re logical a n d beneficial fo r th e cam pesinos in general th a n fo r th e patronos to have allow ed th e establish­ m e n t o f sm all in d e p e n d e n t sh o p s, b u t disgracefully they d id n o t. T h e w orker o f th e fincas a n d haciendas was forced to w atch th e fruits o f his labor be ungratefully absorbed by th e store o f th e patron w h ich charges prices th a t are so exaggerated th a t fo r th e sam e a m o u n t o f m o n e y the w orker could b u y th e sam e p ro d u c t m a n y tim es over som ew here else, b u t the jefes will n o t allow th e m to do so. T h erefo re, this C h a m b e r furiously applauds th e disp o sitio n o f th e G o v ern m e n t for its effort to stim u late the goodw ill o f th e masses in th e co u n try sid e.”144

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T h e sw ift a c tio n o f th e g o v e rn m e n t c a u g h t la n d o w n e rs o ff-g u ard . W h e n th e o rd e r w as first h a n d e d d o w n , m a n y la n d o w n e rs s e n t le tte rs o f ap p e al a sk in g th a t th e y b e allo w ed to k ee p th e ir sto res o p e n a few m o re w eek s in o rd e r to liq u id a te th e ir m e rc h a n d is e . M o s t o f th e se re q u e sts w ere g ra n te d . B u t b y th e m id d le o f O c to b e r 19 3 9 , th e m ilita ry d e te rm in e d th a t th e s h u td o w n o f th e sto res w as c o m p le te ; success se e m e d assured. T h e in itia l c o m p lia n c e o f th e la n d o w n e rs q u ic k ly gave w a y to d e te r­ m in e d o p p o s itio n . T h e la n d o w n e rs o rg a n iz e d a n d in itia te d an in te n se lo b b y in g c a m p a ig n to fo rc e th e g o v e rn m e n t to reverse its policy. T h e C o f ­ fee G ro w e rs’ A sso c ia tio n le d th e ch arg e. In a d d itio n , so m e o f El S a lv a d o r’s m o s t p r o m in e n t la n d o w n e rs, in c lu d in g G u iro la fro m S a n ta T ecla, A l­ v ara d o fro m S an S alvador, a n d R e g alad o fro m S an Ju liá n , activ ely lo b b ie d th e g o v e rn m e n t. T h e y a rg u e d th a t th e fin c a -o w n e d sto res b e n e fite d w o rk ­ ers b y p ro v id in g d e sp e ra te ly n e e d e d p rim a ry g o o d s th a t la b o re rs c o u ld n o t a c q u ire elsew here. A le tte r fro m th e C o ffee G ro w e rs’ A sso c ia tio n s u m ­ m arizes th e a rg u m e n t a n d re p re se n ts th e h u n d re d s o f sim ila r le tte rs s e n t to th e g o v e rn m e n t d u r in g th e m o n th s o f N o v e m b e r a n d D e c e m b e r 1939:

T h e suppression o f th e stores does n o t co n stitu te a m easure o f p ro tec tio n in favor o f th e w orkers; in tru th , th e stores, far fro m preju d icin g w orkers, are an elem en t o f co o p eratio n b y supplying necessities. . . . N o w th e w o rk ­ ers o f fincas w ill have to travel very far to u rb an centers in o rder to acquire the item s they need. As m a n y fincas are located far away, th e w o rk er w ill have to devote a day, o r p a rt o f it, ju st to this one task. . . . T h e re are som e stores th a t exploit w orkers, b u t these are exceptions a n d can be m o n ito re d by the p u b lic pow ers. . . . It is u n ju st to p reju d ice all th e stores, as w ell as the finqueros an d th e cam pesinos, for th e actions o f a few.145

In a d d itio n to th e ir o w n le tte rs, la n d o w n e rs s e n t le tte rs s u p p o se d ly w rit­ te n b y th e ir la b o re rs d e ta ilin g th e h a rd sh ip s th a t th e p o lic y h a d in flic te d o n th e m . T h e la n d o w n e rs s u p p le m e n te d th e ir le tte rs w ith te le p h o n e calls a n d p e rso n a l m e e tin g s. In th e ir w ritte n c o rre sp o n d e n c e , g o v e rn m e n t offi­ cials m e n tio n e d th o se calls a n d m e e tin g s b u t u n f o rtu n a te ly d id n o t d e ­ scrib e th e ir c o n te n ts in d etail. T h e lo b b y in g w e n t o n fo r m o n th s . U n fo rtu n a te ly , th e so u rce s d o n o t p ro v id e in s ig h t in to th e re a c tio n s o f m ilita ry lead ers. W h a t is k n o w n ,

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how ever, is th a t in A p ril 1940, th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t s u d d e n ly rev ersed its p o lic y a n d allo w ed th e sto res to re o p e n . T h e reversal w as n o t a n ­ n o u n c e d ; o n e d a y th e sto res sim p ly re a p p e are d . W h e n th e C h a m b e r o f S m all C o m m e rc e d isc o v ered w h a t w as o c c u rrin g , it s e n t th e g o v e rn m e n t th e fo llo w in g n o te :

T h e evil o n th e fincas is renew ed. . . . T h e stores w ere o n ly closed for a sh o rt w hile, b u t as o f to d ay th ey have reo p en ed . . . causing a n atu ra l dis­ g u st am on g st th e cam pesinos w h o once again have to w atch th e fruits o f th eir m o d e st w o rk re tu rn to th e landow ners’ coffers. . . . T h e re is n o m o re obvious test o f th e presence o f justice fo r th e co u n try sid e w o rk er th a n w h en he is n o t forced to b u y in th e store o f his boss . . . b u t has th e lib erty to choose w h a t h e w ants . . . w ith o u t fear o f censorship, co n tro l o r loss o f his jo b .146

D e s p ite th e a b sen c e o f sp ecific so u rces, th e n a tu re o f th e c o n flic t over th e fin c a -o w n e d sto res is clear. T h e g o v e rn m e n t c h a lle n g e d th e coffee grow ers; th e coffee g ro w ers resisted ; a n d th e g o v e rn m e n t c a p itu la te d . In m o re w ays th a n o n e, th is c h a in o f ev en ts is e m b le m a tic . O n th e o n e h a n d , th e ev en ts d e m o n s tra te th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t’s c o m m itm e n t to re fo rm a n d th e g ro w in g resolve w ith w h ic h m ilita ry lead ers c a rrie d o u t re fo rm ist p olicies. T h e o rd e r to close th e fin c a -o w n e d sto res re p re se n te d th e first tim e th a t th e M a rtín e z g o v e rn m e n t w e n t b e y o n d th e “v o lu n ta ry w ill” o f th e la n d o w n e rs a n d p ro a c tiv e ly s tru c k a t th e ir e c o n o m ic reso u rces. O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t’s d e fe a t illu stra te s th e lim its o f re ­ fo rm . U n til 19 3 9 , th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t h a d e n a c te d m ild p o licies w ith a b o iste ro u s rh e to ric . It is n o t clear to w h a t e x te n t th e m ild n e ss o f th e p o licies w as a p r o d u c t o f th e m ilita ry ’s o w n id e o lo g ic a l a p p ro a c h o r c o n ­ ce rn over th e p o te n tia l re a c tio n o f la n d o w n e rs. B u t b y 1939 th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t e ith e r h a d c h a n g e d its b eliefs o r b e c o m e m o re c o n fid e n t in its s tre n g th . T h e n e w a n d m o re aggressive po licies, h o w ever, cro ssed th e lin e o f accep tab ility . T h e coffee g ro w ers q u a s h e d th e m , d e m o n s tra tin g th a t a n y p o lic y th a t w o u ld w o rk to th e lo n g -te rm d e trim e n t o f th e la n d o w n e rs, regardless o f its b ro a d e r social im p o rta n c e , w as d isallo w ed . *

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334

Authoritarian El Salvador

It is a g rea t irony, a lth o u g h o n e n o t u n su rp a ss e d in th e h is to ry o f re fo rm m o v e m e n ts in L a tin A m e ric a , th a t th e S a lv a d o ra n m ilita ry , so fa m o u s fo r its abuses, e n a c te d a so cial re fo rm p ro g ra m afte r c o m m ittin g m ass k illin g s. T h e s k e p tic m ig h t a rg u e th a t th e m ilita ry ’s id e o lo g y w as n o th in g m o re th a n r h e to r ic a n d is p o licies w ere in c o n s e q u e n tia l. In d e e d , th e m ilita ry ’s s u p p o r t o f th e p e a s a n try d id n o t go b e y o n d th e basics. M e jo ra m ie n to S o ­ cial la ck e d m o n e y a n d w as u n a b le to p u rc h a se m o re th a n a few iso la te d p ro p e rtie s. T h e v o lu n ta ry w ill o f th e la n d o w n e rs w as n o t fo rth c o m in g , a n d th e m ilita ry la c k e d th e ability, i f n o t th e d esire, to g a in access to th o se reso u rces b y in itia tin g m o re coercive m e asu res, su c h as ta x a tio n o r e x p ro ­ p ria tio n . M o reo v er, it re m a in s p u r e s p e c u la tio n as to w h e th e r th e m ilita ry re g im e ’s refo rm s w o u ld h a v e re su lte d in any m e a n in g fu l c h a n g e even if th ey h a d b e e n fully fu n d e d a n d im p le m e n te d . T h e re is n o in d ic a tio n th a t th e m ilita ry in te n d e d to d eal w ith su c h cru c ia l issues as p o litic a l pow er, d e m o c ra tic re fo rm , o r th e lo n g -te rm e c o n o m ic w e ll-b e in g o f th e p e a s­ antry. B u t it w o u ld b e in a c c u ra te to d ism iss th e ro le o f th e m ilita ry o u t o f h a n d , fo r su c h a d ism issal w o u ld c o n tra d ic t th e ev id en c e. T h e m ilita ry ’s p o licies w ere b ase d o n a c o n c ise a n d c o h e re n t ideology, w h e th e r s o u n d or flaw ed in its a p p ro a c h . A n d th e m ilita ry ’s a c tio n s w ere b o th e v id e n t a n d c o n c rete . A s ju s t o n e ex a m p le , th e m ilita ry m a in ta in e d th e e x c h an g e ra te in 1935 in clear o p p o s itio n to e x p o rt-o rie n te d la n d o w n e rs. In m a n y o th e r in d iv id u a l cases, th e m ilita ry ca m e to th e d efe n se o f p e a sa n ts in th e ir b a ttle s a g a in st th e illegal o r u n s c ru p u lo u s acts o f la n d lo rd s. T h e m ilita ry ’s s u p p o r t fo r In d ia n s is o n e o f th e m o re ta n g ib le v a ria tio n s o f its d efe n se o f th e p easan try . A c o n firm a tio n th a t M a rtin e z ’s re fo rm p ro g ra m w as h a v in g so m e im p a c t co m es fro m a su rv iv in g m e m b e r o f th e C o m m u n is t P a rty afte r th e rep ressio n o f 19 3 2 . In th e c o u rse o f a n in v e stig a tio n b y th e C a ­ r ib b e a n B u rea u in N e w Y ork in la te 19 3 2 , th e re fo rm ist p o s tu re o f th e M a rtin e z re g im e w as d e s c rib e d as a th re a t: “It d id n o t c o m e o u t a n d tell th e m asses th a t it, th e M a rtin e z g o v e rn m e n t, sta n d s w ith th e ric h a g a in st th e p o o r. O n th e c o n tra ry , it trie d to p o se as c h a m p io n o f th e m asses, trie d to p o se as a n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t, a g o v e rn m e n t o f all classes. . . . S in ce h e k e p t p ro m is in g th e m th in g s a n d m a k in g g estu res, th e te n d e n c y w as fo r th e m asses to b eliev e in h im .”147 R egardless o f its success o r failu re, M a r-

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tín e z ’s re fo rm p ro g ra m se t so m e im p o r ta n t p re c e d e n ts th a t su c c e e d in g m ilita ry reg im es w o u ld fo llo w : so cial re fo rm s are necessary, th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t m u s t ta k e th e le a d in im p le m e n tin g th e m b ec au se elites h av e little in c e n tiv e to d o so, a n d , fu rth e rm o re , th e m ilita ry w as b e st s u ite d to le ad th e cause o f re fo rm b ec au se o f its n e u tra l p o s itio n b e tw e e n c a p ita l a n d lab o r.

c o n c l u s i o n

El S a lv a d o r’s m o d e rn p o litic a l h is to ry ca n b e d iv id e d in to tw o eras, th o se b efo re a n d after th e

1931 c o u p th a t b r o u g h t G e n e ra l M a x im ilia n o

H e rn á n d e z M a rtín e z to po w er. B efore M a rtín e z , El S a lv a d o r’s p o litic a l sy stem w as m a rk e d b y a series o f d ic ta to rsh ip s, le d b y b o th civilians a n d m ilita ry officers, th a t w as d e fin e d b y relen tless c o m p e titio n b e tw e e n rival p a tro n - c lie n t n e tw o rk s. In tim e , a n d especially afte r th e o n se t o f th e co f­ fee e c o n o m y in th e la te n in e te e n th ce n tu ry , th e rivalries gave w ay to a m o re ce n tralize d , a lb e it n o less d ic ta to ria l, sy stem . T h e o n ly p o litic a l re ­ sp ite cam e d u r in g a b r ie f p e rio d o f re fo rm ism b e tw e e n 1 9 2 7 a n d 1931 u n d e r th e a d m in is tra tio n s o f P ío R o m e ro B o sq u e a n d A rtu ro A ra u jo . A fter th e 1931 co u p , th e m o d e rn m ilita ry reg im es to o k a h o ld th a t la ste d fo r th e n e x t five d ecad es. In fact, th e real p o w e r o f th e m ilita ry la ste d even lo n g er, u n til th e e n d o f th e civil w a r in 1992. O n e o f th e c e n tra l a rg u m e n ts o f th is s tu d y is th a t El S a lv a d o r’s p o ­ litica l sy stem e x h ib ite d a m a rk e d d eg re e o f c o n tin u ity b e tw e e n th o se tw o eras. M a rtín e z b a se d h is sy stem o n p a s t stru c tu re s, se rv in g as a b rid g e b e ­ tw ee n th e p a tro n - c lie n t d ic ta to rs h ip s o f th e n in e te e n th a n d early tw e n ti­ e th c e n tu rie s a n d th e m o d e rn m ilita ry reg im es o f th e la tte r p a r t o f th e tw e n tie th ce n tu ry . In re sp o n se to th e d e m o c ra tiz a tio n a n d re fo rm ism o f h is tw o p red ecesso rs, M a rtín e z a d h e re d to tra d itio n a n d ro lle d th e p o ­ litica l sy stem b a c k to its p re re fo rm ist m o d e . H e e n s u re d th a t elites w ere safely in c o n tro l o f p o litic a l office in th e m u n ic ip a litie s, a n d h e p r o m o te d a n e x p o rt-b a s e d e c o n o m y b u ilt a ro u n d p ro d u c tio n o n p riv a te ly o w n e d estates. H e also c h a n n e le d all th in g s p o litic a l th r o u g h th e in c re a sin g ly p o w e rfu l c e n tra l sta te , ju s t as h is p red e cesso rs in th e M e lé n d e z -Q u iñ ó n e z d y n a s ty h a d s o u g h t to d o b e tw e e n 1913 a n d 1926. 336

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T h e p re e x istin g sy stem o n w h ic h M a rtín e z b u ilt h is p o litic a l ed ifice w as ch a ra c te riz e d b y p a tro n a g e a n d c lie n te lism . It w as a n in fo rm a l sy stem g u id e d b y a b o d y o f u n w ritte n ru les h a n d e d d o w n over tim e th ro u g h le a rn e d b e h a v io r a n d o ral tra d itio n . A lth o u g h in fo rm a l, th o se ru les e x h ib ­ ite d a trac ea b le a n d c o h e re n t p a tte r n , as rev e ale d in th e e x ta n t arch iv al re ­ co rd . T h e p re s e n t s tu d y h as s h o w n h o w th a t sy stem fu n c tio n e d . It p ic k e d u p th e d o c u m e n ta ry tra il in th e 1840s a n d 1850s, as E l S alv a d o r e m b a rk e d o n its p a th o f in d e p e n d e n t n a tio n h o o d , a n d e n d e d in 19 4 0 , w h e n th e M a rtín e z re g im e h a d c o n s o lid a te d p o w e r a n d th e arch iv al re c o rd trails off. In th e a fte rm a th o f d e c o lo n iz a tio n fro m S p a in a n d th e d e m ise o f th e U n ite d P ro v in c es o f C e n tr a l A m e ric a , lo cal elites, w h o w ere p a r t la n d ­ ow ner, p a r t m ilita ry s tro n g m a n , a n d p a r t g o v e rn in g official, c o m m a n d e d th e ir resp ectiv e m u n ic ip a litie s. I a p p lie d th e te rm p o litica l bosses to th e m . T h e base o f a b o ss’s p o w e r w as h is b o d y o f s u p p o rte rs — frie n d s, fam ily, lab o rers, d e p e n d e n t clien ts, e th n ic k in sm e n , a n d so o n — w h ic h h e u se d as leverage in fo rm in g alliances w ith o th e r bosses, th e re b y c re a tin g a p a tr o n ­ age n e tw o rk . T h e s e n e tw o rk s p ro p e lle d th e ir lead ers in to po w er, in c o m ­ p e titio n w ith rivals w h o w ere lo o k in g to d o th e sam e. O n c e in c o m m a n d o f th e ir localities, lo cal bosses c o u ld e n te r in to p a tro n a g e re la tio n sh ip s w ith su p e rio rs a t th e d e p a rtm e n ta l a n d n a tio n a l levels w h o w ere b u ild in g th e ir resp ectiv e p o litic a l n e tw o rk s in h o p e s o f c o m p e tin g fo r h ig h e r-le v el offices. T h e lo cal bosses, w h o w ere so m e tim e s re fe rre d to as s u b a lte rn s ( subalternos ), w ere ex p e c te d to p ro d u c e th e p o litic a l ca p ita l (votes) o r th e ra w m a teria ls (m a n p o w e r, fo o d , m o n e y , o r g u n s) to p r o m o te th e ir s u p e ri­ o rs’ ad v an ce u p th e p o litic a l la d d er. In r e tu rn , locals e ith e r ro d e th e ir p a ­ tro n s ’ co a tta ils u p th e la d d e r o r sta y ed a t h o m e a n d u se d th e ir alliances to h e lp th e m in lo cal p o litic a l b a ttle s. In th e p re-co ffe e era, th is sy stem f u n c tio n e d in a d e c e n tra liz e d m a n ­ ner. P olitics c o n siste d o f fa c tio n a l co n flicts b e tw e e n re g io n a l n e tw o rk s b ased p rim a rily in th e d e p a rtm e n ta l ca p itals. P o litic al fo rtu n e s ro se a n d fell in ac c o rd a n c e w ith th e fo rm a tio n a n d b re a k in g o f p a tro n a g e alliances. T h e c o n fla g ra tio n s b e tw e e n n e tw o rk s o fte n tu r n e d v io le n t, ta k in g th e fo rm o f co u p s a n d civil w ars. T h e co n flicts w ere essen tially in te r d e p a r t­ m e n ta l d isp u te s, b u t o cc asio n ally th e y sp ille d o v er in to n e ig h b o rin g c o u n ­ tries in n e tw o rk s ’ u n e n d in g se arch fo r allies a n d s u p p o rt, w h ic h gave th e clashes a n in te rs ta te d im e n sio n .

338

Authoritarian El Salvador

A fter th e arriv al o f th e coffee e c o n o m y in th e la tte r th ir d o f th e n in e ­ te e n th ce n tu ry , th e p o litic a l sy stem f u n c tio n e d in th e sa m e way, b u t in a m o re c e n tra liz e d fo rm . R e v en u e s fro m th e sale o f coffee allo w ed w h o e v e r w as in c o n tro l o f g o v e rn m e n t to c o n s o lid a te a u th o rity a n d in v e st in b u ild ­ in g u p th e p o w e r o f th e sta te , u ltim a te ly se c u rin g its b ase o f c o n tro l. O n e o f th e m o re im p o r ta n t asp ects o f th e p ro ce ss o f s ta te -fo rm a tio n w as th e p ro fe ssio n a liz a tio n o f th e m ilita ry , w h e re b y th e a rm y b e c a m e a m o re o b e ­ d ie n t a rm o f th e c e n tra l g o v e rn m e n t. O n e o f th e a rm y ’s m a in c o n tr ib u ­ tio n s to p o litic s afte r 1880 w as in d isc ip lin in g re c a lc itra n t lo cal bosses w h o resisted in c o rp o r a tio n in to th e c e n tra liz e d sy stem fo r fe a r o f lo sin g th e ir ch e rish e d local a u th o rity . As w as d e m o n s tra te d b y th e case o f G e n e ra l R ivas in T ac u b a, c e n tra liz a tio n h a d lim its, even in to th e 1920s. O v e r tim e th is p ro ce ss o f ce n tra liz a tio n re su lte d in th e e lim in a tio n o f reg io n a l fa c tio n a lism . A n im p o r ta n t d a te in th is p ro ce ss w as 1898, th e year o f th e last successful o v e rth ro w o f a s ittin g p re s id e n t u n til th e m ilita ry c o u p o f 1931. A fte r 1898, p o litic a l fa c tio n s n o lo n g e r c a m e to p o w e r m ili­ tarily, fro m o u ts id e th e n e tw o rk , b u t ra th e r fro m w ith in it, b y n e g o tia tin g a n d jo c k e y in g fo r p o s itio n . Far fro m u n d e r m in in g th e sy stem o f p a tro n a g e a n d c lien telism , c e n tra liz a tio n re in fo rc e d it. T h e e lim in a tio n o f fa c tio n a l­ ism re su lte d in th e fo rm a tio n o f o n e p r im a ry p a tro n a g e n e tw o rk th a t f u n c tio n e d in th e sa m e w ay as its m a n y p red ecesso rs. T h is n e tw o rk to o k its m o s t v isible fo rm d u r in g th e era o f th e P a rtid o N a c io n a l D e m o c rá tic o ( P N D ) u n d e r th e d ire c tio n o f Jo rg e M e lé n d e z (1 9 1 9 —19 2 3 ) a n d A lfo n so Q u iñ ó n e z (1 9 2 3 —1 9 2 7 ). As w ith a n y c e n tra liz e d , n o n d e m o c r a tic sy stem , in c u m b e n ts risk e d a lie n a tin g h ig h -ra n k in g a sp ira n ts b y c h o o s in g so m e o n e else as th e ir successor. T h e M e lé n d e z -Q u iñ ó n e z d y n a s ty fa c e d tw o su c h challenges, first b y T o m á s P a lo m o in 1919 a n d th e n b y M ig u e l M o lin a in 1923. P alo m o a n d M o lin a ea ch trie d to ta k e th e ir b id s fo r th e p re sid e n c y o u ts id e th e sy stem b y m o b iliz in g a base o f in d e p e n d e n t e lec to ra l s u p p o rt. It is n o t a p p a re n t th a t e ith e r c a n d id a te w a n te d g e n u in e p o litic a l refo rm s; rath e r, th e y se e m e d to b e lo o k in g o n ly fo r a w a y a r o u n d th e n e p o tis tic s tra n g le h o ld o f th e M e lé n d e z -Q u iñ ó n e z fam ily. A m o re g e n u in e a tta c k o n th e sy stem ca m e d u r in g th e a d m in is tra tio n s o f P ío R o m e ro B o sq u e (1 9 2 7 —1931) a n d h is successor, A rtu ro A ra u jo (M a rc h 1931 to D e c e m b e r 1 931). N ev e rth ele ss, th e s tru c tu re s o f th e P N D su rv iv ed , a n d w h e n G e n ­ eral M a rtín e z to o k p o w e r in 1931, h e re je c te d R o m e ro B o sq u e ’s d e m o ­

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cra tic refo rm s a n d re in fo rc e d th e o ld w ay o f d o in g th in g s. H e n a m e d th e n a tio n a l n e tw o rk “P a rtid o N a c io n a l P ro -P a tria ,” b u t fo r all in te n ts a n d p u rp o se s it w as th e sa m e e n tity th a t h a d ex iste d as th e P N D . A lth o u g h p o litic a l life in El S alv a d o r w as d e fin e d b y h ie ra rc h y a n d exclusivity, th e w o rk in g p o o r p a rtic ip a te d in it a n d th e re b y s h a p e d th e n a tio n ’s p o litic a l trajecto ry . E lites m a y h av e b e e n p o w e rfu l, b u t th e y d id n o t fo rce th e p o o r to d o th e ir b id d in g u n c o n te s te d . T h e p o o r b a rg a in e d , n e g o tia te d , a n d in s e rte d th e ir in te re sts in to th e sy stem . A m o n g o th e r ex­ am p les o f th is, I n d ia n c o m m u n itie s c o m p e te d fo r m u n ic ip a l office in w e ste rn El S alv a d o r b e tw e e n th e 1 8 80s a n d th e 1930s. In 1 9 3 2 th e y rose u p in a d e fin itiv e e x p re ssio n o f m ass d is c o n te n t. A fte r 1 9 3 2 th e y stru g g le d to m a in ta in th e ir collectiv e in te g rity vis-a-vis lo cal la d in o s, a n d th e y o fte n e n liste d th e s u p p o r t o f th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t in th e process. O th e r referen ces to sm aller, b u t still im p o r ta n t, ep iso d es o f n e g o ti­ a tio n su rv iv ed in to th e h isto ric a l re c o rd as w ell. A m o n g th e m is th e case o f th e in d ig e n o u s reb e llio n s o f th e early 1830s, h ig h lig h te d b y th e in s u rre c ­ tio n in th e S an V ic e n te re g io n le d b y A n a sta sio A q u in o b e tw e e n 1832 a n d 1833. U n fo rtu n a te ly , ev id en c e fro m th o se ev en ts is to o sp a rse to s u p p o r t th e k in d o f m e th o d o lo g ic a l in q u ir y th a t sc h o lars o f o th e r L a tin A m e ric a n c o u n trie s hav e p e rfo rm e d fo r s im ila r-s o u n d in g ev en ts d u r in g ro u g h ly th e sa m e tim e p e rio d .1 N o tw ith s ta n d in g th e lim ita tio n s o f th e h isto ric a l re c o rd , it a p p e ars th a t E l S alv ad o r d id n o t ex p e rie n c e a p a rtic u la r m o m e n t o f m a ss-b ase d civic re p u b lic a n ism . In o th e r w o rd s, E l S alv a d o r sta n d s o u t fro m th e C a u c a re g io n in C o lo m b ia in th e 1840s a n d 1850s, o r th e H u a n ta re g io n in P e ru in th e 1820s, o r th e u rb a n e n v iro n s o f S a n tia g o , C h ile , in th e 1840s a n d 1850s. T h e sc h o lars w h o h av e c o n d u c te d rese a rc h o n th o se places a n d tim e s h av e d e m o n s tra te d th a t th e y w ere sites o f m a ss-b a se d ac­ tiv ity w h e n p o o r p e o p le , b o th u r b a n a n d ru ra l, b ro a d e n e d th e in c lu siv e ­ ness o f citiz e n sh ip a n d in je c te d it in to th e b ro a d e r n a tio n a l d isc o u rse .2 In p a rtic u la r, th is rese a rc h reveals th a t elites in th o se c o u n trie s re s p o n d e d to m ass p o litic a l a c tio n in d iv erse a n d u n p re d ic ta b le w ays. F o r ex am p le, Jam es S an d ers sh o w s th a t th e o p e n in g in th e C a u c a re g io n in C o lo m b ia in th e 1840s a n d 1850s ca m e a b o u t as a c o n s e q u e n c e o f in tra -e lite rivalries. O n e g ro u p o f elites e n c o u ra g e d th e m asses to ta k e u p th e cause o f civic re p u b lic a n is m a n d g ra n te d th e m n e w rig h ts in r e tu r n fo r th e ir s u p p o r t in

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th e elites’ in te rn e c in e b a ttle s. B u t w h e n th e m asses p ro v e d to o a d e p t a n d in d e p e n d e n t in th e ir p o litic a l en d e av o rs, a n d th e ir d e fin itio n o f civic re ­ p u b lic a n is m g o t o u t o f h a n d , th e elites clo sed ra n k s a n d re tra c te d th e rig h ts a n d g u ara n te e s. C e c ilia M é n d e z sh o w s th a t in P eru , in th e a fte r­ m a th o f th e H u a n ta re b e llio n in th e 1820s, early re p u b lic a n lib e ra l lead ers re s p o n d e d d iffe re n tly to p e a sa n t a u to n o m y a n d m ilita n cy . In s te a d o f re ­ tra c tin g rig h ts fro m th e p le b e ia n s a n d p o o r, as C o lo m b ia n elites d id , a fa c tio n o f P e ru v ia n elites e m p lo y e d th e c o n c e p t o f citiz e n sh ip in h o p e s o f a ttra c tin g th e fo rm e r rebels a n d o th e r p e a sa n ts to th e m as c o n s titu e n ts . T h e elites w ere able to c o n s id e r th is stra te g y b ec au se th e reb els h a d b e e n so effective a t d e fin in g c itiz e n sh ip a n d a d v a n c in g th e ir in te r p re ta tio n o f it in to th e b ro a d e r b o d y p o litic . T h is c irc u m sta n c e e n d o w e d P e ru v ia n p o ­ litica l co n flicts w ith p a rtic u la r q u a litie s— th e p re d o m in a n c e o f m u ltic la ss a n d m u ltie th n ic n e tw o rk s in c o m p e titio n , ra th e r th a n in te rcla ss o r in te r ­ e th n ic rivalries. A s M é n d e z p u ts it, “th e fiercest p o litic a l a n ta g o n is m s o f th e early c a u d illo p e rio d o c c u rre d n o t b e tw e e n th e n a tio n a l ru lin g elites a n d th e p ea sa n ts, b u t ra th e r b e tw e e n th e v a rio u s p o litic a l fa c tio n s c o m p e t­ in g fo r c o n tro l o f th e s ta te .”3 In th e ab sen c e o f a c o m p a ra b le m o m e n t o f m a ss-b a se d civic r e p u b li­ can ism , S a lv a d o ra n elites se em to h av e b e e n less c o n c e rn e d a b o u t m ass u p risin g s th a n m ig h t o th e rw ise b e ex p e cted . As M é n d e z sh o w e d in th e case o f P eru, elite S alv a d o ra n s se em to h av e b e e n m o re in te re s te d in m o b i­ liz in g th e m asses, a lb e it safely, as p a r t a n d p arc el o f th e ir in c e ssa n t b a ttle s fo r c o n tro l over g o v e rn m e n t. W h ile I c a n n o t say so w ith ce rtain ty , th is c o u ld ex p lain w h y w e see in E l S alv a d o r a ste a d y a n d c o n s is te n t a d v a n c e o f legal a n d v o tin g rig h ts fo r all citiz en s a lo n g w ith a n u n r e le n tin g r h e to r ic in s u p p o r t o f d e m o c ra c y a n d m ass suffrage. F ro m th e first n a tio n a l c h a rte r in 1841, all a d u lt m e n w ere g iv en eq u a l rig h ts b e fo re th e law, regardless o f e th n ic ity o r a n y o th e r so cial category. A d m itte d ly , v ario u s b a rrie rs to o f­ fic e h o ld in g existed , su c h as m in im u m w e a lth re q u ire m e n ts, a n d elec tio n s re m a in e d in d ire c t fo r th e first th re e d ec ad e s o f E l S a lv a d o r’s h isto ry . B u t b y th e 1870s, El S a lv a d o r’s p o litic a l sy stem w as w id e o p e n . R a re ly d id elites feel th e n e e d to p ro c la im p u b lic ly th e ir o p p o s itio n to m ass d e m o c ­ racy, a n d rarely i f ever d id th e y d o so in th e ir in te rn a l c o rre sp o n d e n c e . W h e n p o litic a l bosses d isp a ra g e d d em o cracy , th e y u su a lly d id so as a w ay o f critic iz in g as p irin g bosses w h o w a n te d to o u st th e in c u m b e n ts . P a r­

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tic u la r events, su c h as th e 1 9 3 2 u p risin g , d id re su lt in so m e elites callin g p u b lic ly fo r m ass m u rd e r. Less e x tre m e, b u t still h ie ra rc h ic a l, ex p ressio n s w ere m a d e a t o th e r tim e s, su c h as in th e 1913 n e w sp a p e r e d ito ria l b y Reyes G u e rra th a t d isp a ra g e d th e se cret v o te a n d even m ass suffrage, a n d in F ran cisco G a lin d o ’s 1874 ca te c h ism , w h ic h d is tin g u is h e d b e tw e e n “el

p ueblo” a n d “el populacho” S u c h ex p ressio n s are to b e ex p e c te d in a n a g ri­ c u ltu ra l n a tio n d e fin e d b y d isp a ritie s in w e a lth . B u t th e y se em to h av e b e e n in fre q u e n t, o r a t least n o t th e c e n tra l issu e in p o litic a l d isco u rse. R ath er, E l S alv a d o r in th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry seem s to m im ic M é n dez’s c h a ra c te riz a tio n o f early re p u b lic a n P eru , w h e re in ste a d o f relen tless class co n flict, p o litic s seem s to h a v e rev o lv ed a ro u n d rival p o litic a l fac tio n s c o m p e tin g fo r c o n tro l over th e sta te a n d an x io u s to h a v e th e m asses i n ­ volved. In th e m id s t o f th a t fa c tio n a lism , E l S a lv a d o r’s m asses p a rtic ip a te d in v ario u s w ays. S o m e tim e s th e y d id so as lackeys, u n d e r th e th u m b o f d o m in e e rin g elites, b u t a t o th e r tim e s th e y d id so in m o re a u to n o m o u s a n d c o m p lic a te d w ays, as w h e n th e in d ig e n o u s c o m m u n itie s o f N a h u izalco a n d C u is n a h u a t c o m p e te d fo r c o n tro l over m u n ic ip a l g o v e rn m e n t b e g in n in g in th e 1880s. T h e y p ro v e d to b e ju s t as a d e p t as th e ir la d in o c o u n te rp a rts a t m o n o p o liz in g p o llin g sta tio n s, in a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e i n ­ fo rm a l ru les o f p o litics. B y fo rce o f r e p e titio n over tim e , th e in fo rm a l ru les o f p o litic s in El S alv ad o r assu m e d th e ir o w n in s titu tio n a liz e d ch aracter. O n e o f th o se ru les w as th a t n o o n e h e ld office w ith o u t b e in g elected . So n o m a tte r h o w m a ­ n ip u la te d o r p r e d e te rm in e d e lec tio n s m a y h av e b e e n , th e y o c c u rre d re g u ­ larly a n d m o s tly o n sc h ed u le . A n d d u r in g elec tio n s, p e o p le v o te d , o fte n in droves. A se c o n d in fo rm a l ru le w as th a t p o litic s, esp ecially th e elec to ra l process, w as a c c o m p a n ie d b y a d e m o c ra tic d isc o u rse. T h a t d isc o u rse cele­ b ra te d free su ffrag e a n d p o p u la r w ill. T h e e x c e p tio n s to th is ru le ca m e w h e n ch allen g ers a c cu sed in c u m b e n ts o f b e in g n o n d e m o c ra tic . T h e c h a l­ lengers d id n o t w a n t to c h a n g e th e w ay th e sy stem o p e ra te d ; th e y sim p ly w a n te d a tu r n in office. W h e n in c u m b e n ts w ere c o n fro n te d b y th a t a c c u ­ sa tio n , th e y so m e tim e s re s p o n d e d b y c ritic iz in g d e m o c ra c y a n d asso cia t­ in g it w ith m o b ru le . B u t m o stly , a n d w ith im p re ssiv e co n sisten cy , p o litic a l bosses across th e s p e c tru m o f tim e a n d sp ace a d h e re d to a s tric t rh e to ric a l d efen se o f dem o cracy . In fact, o n e o f th e ch allen g es in s tu d y in g p o litic s in El Salvador, even th o u g h it is a sm a ll co u n try , is to a p p re c ia te th e scale at

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w h ic h th o se in fo rm a l ru les o p e ra te d . M a n y th o u s a n d s o f e lec tio n s o c ­ c u rre d d u r in g El S a lv a d o r’s first c e n tu ry o f in d e p e n d e n c e , a n d te n s o f th o u s a n d s o f d iffe re n t p e o p le r a n fo r office o r a d m in is te re d th o se elec­ tio n s, a n d m a n y h u n d re d s o f th o u s a n d s o f p e o p le v o te d . T h r o u g h o u t it all, every p o litic a l p la y er d e m o n s tra te d th a t h e u n d e r s to o d th e in fo rm a l ru les o f th e g am e a n d a d h e re d to th e m w ith ste ad fast d e te rm in a tio n . O n ly o n th e rarest o cc asio n d id a n y th in g a p p ro a c h in g a g e n u in e ly c o m p e titiv e ele c tio n ta k e p la c e in El S alvador. A n d a lm o st never, in all o f th e ir c o rre ­ sp o n d e n c e re la tin g to p o litic s a n d elec tio n s, d id p o litic a l p lay ers reveal th a t th e y sh a re d a m u tu a l u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e d is c o n n e c t b e tw e e n w h a t th e y w ere say in g a n d w h a t th e y w ere d o in g . I f n o th in g else, th e lo n g ­ s ta n d in g o p e ra tio n o f th o se in fo rm a l ru les im p la n te d a s tu b b o r n tra d itio n o f a u th o rita ria n is m in th e collectiv e co n scio u sn e ss o f S alv a d o ra n s a n d in th e ir p o litic a l stru c tu re s. C h a n g in g th o se ru les, as P ío R o m e ro B o sq u e d isco v ered in th e la te 1920s, w as n o t a n easy task, b ec au se it in v o lv e d re ­ sh a p in g th e n a tio n ’s p o litic a l id e n tity a n d th e u n d e r s ta n d in g th a t its p e o p le h a d o f h o w th in g s w ere s u p p o s e d to h a p p e n . T h e p o litic a l re fo rm c a m p a ig n th a t to o k p la c e in El S alv a d o r in th e la te 1920s, a n d th e re sp o n se o f th e m ilita ry a n d th e elites to it, in v ite s an e d ify in g c o m p a riso n w ith n e ig h b o rin g N ic a ra g u a d u r in g th e sa m e tim e p e rio d . R esearch b y h is to ria n M ic h e l G o b a t reveals th a t a co re se c to r o f N ic a ra g u a ’s la n d e d elites, th e so -ca lle d C o n se rv a tiv e s, re s p o n d e d to th e U .S. d e m o c ra tiz a tio n c a m p a ig n o f th e la te 1 9 20s w ith a n a ty p ica l e m b ra c e o f a u th o rita r ia n c o rp o ra tis m a n d a call “fo r g re a te r sta te in te r v e n tio n in th e e c o n o m ic a n d so cial sp h eres, [w hich] re p re se n te d a n im p o r ta n t b re a k w ith th e ir p rev io u s d efe n se o f a laissez-faire s ta te .”4 T h e U n ite d S tates to o k th e c a m p a ig n seriously, a n d it c re a te d th e G u a rd ia N a c io n a l to b a c k it. In c o n ju n c tio n w ith th e U .S. M a rin e s, th e G u a rd ia effectively w e a k e n e d th e tra d itio n a l ru ra l p o w e rb a se o f m a n y elite C o n s e rv a tiv e s tro n g m e n . In th e process, th e y to o k aw ay o n e o f th e m a in p o litic a l strateg ie s o f th e ru ra l p o o r— p la y in g rival p a tro n - c lie n t n e tw o rk s o ff o n e a n o th e r to g ain a d ­ v an tag e. T h e G u a rd ia N a c io n a l s o o n b e c a m e th e lo n e c h a n n e l th ro u g h w h ic h p e a sa n ts c o u ld p u rs u e th e ir desires. As fo r th e C o n s e rv a tiv e elites, even th o u g h th e y h a d b e e n s ta u n c h s u p p o rte rs o f th e U n ite d S tates a n d h a d to u te d th e m e rits o f its p o litic a l a n d e c o n o m ic sy stem s, th e y re ­ s p o n d e d to th e d e m o c ra tiz a tio n c a m p a ig n w ith a u th o rita ria n -s ty le c o rp o ­

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ra tism . T h e y b eliev e d c o rp o ra tis m w o u ld allo w th e m to a ttra c t s u p p o r t fro m alte rn a tiv e c o n s titu e n c ie s, su c h as u r b a n w o rk e rs, w h o w ere m o re a m e n a b le to c o rp o ra tist-sty le o rg a n iz in g . W h a t th e y e n d e d u p w ith , m u c h to th e ir su rp rise a n d c h a g rin , w as A n a sta sio S o m o za , h e a d o f th e G u a rd ia N a c io n a l, w h o u se d th o se sa m e c o rp o ra tis t o rg a n iz a tio n a l strateg ie s to b u ild u p a p e rso n a listic d ic ta to rs h ip th a t w o rk e d to th e d e trim e n t o f C o n ­ serv ativ e elites. N o t su rp risin g ly , th o se elites, in c lu d in g th e C h o m o rr o fam ily, th e n b e c a m e s ta u n c h ad v ersaries o f th e S o m o z a re g im e a n d even sid e d w ith th e re v o lu tio n a ry S a n d in sta s in th e c a m p a ig n a g a in st S o m o z a in th e 1 9 7 0 s.5 B y c o m p a riso n , th e S a lv a d o ra n elites n e v e r e m b ra c e d a c o rp o ra te a u ­ th o rita ria n is m a n d in ste a d re m a in e d ste a d fa stly c o m m itte d to e c o n o m ic lib e rta ria n ism . It w o u ld se em th a t a m a in d iffe ren ce b e tw e e n th e tw o c o u n trie s w as th a t th e p o w e r o f re g io n a l s tro n g m e n in E l S alv a d o r h a d alre ad y b e e n b ro k e n w h e n th e d e m o c ra tiz a tio n c a m p a ig n w as u n d e rta k e n in th e la te 1920s. In th e tw o o r so d ecad es p r io r to R o m e ro B o s q u e ’s p o ­ litica l refo rm s, th e c e n tra l sta te — c o in c id e n ta lly u n d e r th e d ire c tio n o f fello w la n d e d elites, th e M e lé n d e z -Q u iñ ó n e z fam ily — h a d w a g e d a c a m ­ p a ig n a g a in st m u n ic ip a l a u to n o m y a n d h a d e n liste d th e m ilita ry a n d th e s e c u rity forces, su c h as th e G u a rd ia N a c io n a l, in th e p ro cess. S o w h e n P ío R o m e ro B o sq u e u n d e r to o k h is re fo rm s, elites d id n o t h av e to re s p o n d w ith n e w sta tist p o litic a l strateg ie s to g a in th e s u p p o r t o f u n a ffilia te d u rb a n c o n s titu e n ts . T h e y h a d alre ad y c o m e to te rm s w ith th e n e w o rd er, a n d th e y b eliev e d th a t th e n ec essary stra te g y w as sim p ly to m a k e su re th a t th e id e o lo g ic a l o rie n ta tio n o f th e c e n tra l g o v e rn m e n t re m a in e d tru e to p ro p e rly lib e rta ria n id eo lo g ies. F u rth e rm o re , th e R o m e ro re fo rm s d id n o t last lo n g e n o u g h to th re a te n e lite in te re sts. A ra u jo w as o u ste d in less th a n o n e year, a n d e v id en c e fro m th e m u n ic ip a l level reveals th a t th e d e m o ­ cra tic refo rm s h a d m a d e few in ro a d s a g a in st th e e lite sta lw arts w h o h a d h e ld p o w er sin c e th e days o f th e P N D u n d e r M e lé n d e z -Q u iñ ó n e z . W h e n th e m ilita ry to o k p o w e r a n d b e g a n to to u t th e n e e d fo r social refo rm s, elites w ere re a d y to rea ct, o n c e ag ain , b y to u tin g th e n ec essity o f e c o n o m ic lib e rta ria n ism . W i th ea ch p a ssin g year, th e y sim p ly b e c a m e m o re a n d m o re c o m m itte d to th a t p o s itio n , especially as th e rh e to ric a n d re a lity o f re fo rm ism b ec a m e m o re p ro n o u n c e d u n d e r a su c ce ssio n o f m ilita ry -le d g o v e rn m e n ts.

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E ven th o u g h b o th N ic a ra g u a a n d E l S alv a d o r e n d e d u p w ith a n a u ­ th o r ita ria n m ilita ris m , a c o m p a ris o n o f th e tw o cases reveals th e n e e d to a p p re c ia te th e ro le o f c o n tin g e n c y in e x p la in in g ea ch n a tio n ’s p o litic a l story. M a y b e El S alv a d o r w as s tru c tu ra lly c o n d itio n e d fo r a u th o rita r ia n ­ ism , a n d m a y b e it d e v e lo p e d a d is tin c t p o litic a l c u ltu re o f a u th o rita r ia n ­ ism . B u t a t v ario u s m o m e n ts in th e n a tio n ’s h isto ry , d iv e rg e n t o u tc o m e s w ere p o ssib le. W h a t i f th e U n ite d S tates h a d p la y e d a n activ e ro le in th e d e m o c ra tiz a tio n c a m p a ig n in El S alv a d o r in th e 1920s, as it d id in n e ig h ­ b o r in g N ica rag u a ? W h a t i f th e 1 9 3 2 u p ris in g h a d n o t h a p p e n e d , o r th e m ilita ry h a d re s p o n d e d to it in a m o re m e a su re d w ay? W h a t i f th e pro cess o f sta te c e n tra liz a tio n h a d b e e n less su ccessfu l in th e 1910s a n d 1920s, su c h th a t th e d e m o c ra tiz a tio n c a m p a ig n o f th e la te 1 9 20s w as th e m e c h a ­ n is m to b re a k th e p o w e r o f re g io n a l stro n g m e n ? E a c h o f th e se q u e s tio n s rep rese n ts a c o u n te rfa c tu a l th a t c a n n o t b e an sw ered ; h o w ev er, sim ila r v a ri­ ables w ere in p la y in N ic a ra g u a a n d p ro d u c e d a d iv e rg e n t o u tc o m e th e re , su g g e stin g th a t s o m e th in g d iffe re n t c o u ld h av e h a p p e n e d in El S alvador. As o n e ex am p le, it is p o ssib le th a t u n d e r d iv e rg e n t c o n d itio n s , S a lv a d o ra n elites, o r so m e fa c tio n o f th e m , c o u ld h av e s u p p o r te d a sta tis t c o rp o ra tism , a n d i f so, it is p o ssib le th a t th e n a tio n ’s lo n g -te rm p o litic a l o u tc o m e s w o u ld h av e d ev e lo p e d differen tly . P erh ap s elites w o u ld h av e b e e n less u n ite d a n d th u s less able to resist re fo rm ism o r re v o lu tio n . H a d th a t h a p ­ p e n e d , El S alv ad o r m ig h t h av e av o id e d its civil w a r— o r th e w a r m ig h t hav e c o m e even earlier, a n d El S a lv a d o r’s reb els w o u ld h av e b e e n th e p re ­ c u rso r to N ic a ra g u a ’s S a n d in ista s, in s te a d o f th e o th e r w a y a ro u n d . In a d d itio n to th e w o rk b y G o b a t, rese arch b y o th e r sch o lars, su c h as P eter G u a rd in o , J u s tin W o lfe, a n d C o n s u e lo C ru z , a m o n g o th e rs, e m p h a ­ sizes th e n e e d to see th e c o n tin g e n t n a tu re o f p o litic a l h isto ry . T h e ir w o rk show s us, fo r exa m p le , th a t social classes d o n o t b e h a v e in p re d ic ta b le or p r e d e te rm in e d w ays, th a t n a tio n s are n o t d e s tin e d to p ro d u c e p a rtic u la r p o litic a l o u tc o m e s , a n d th a t p e o p le m a k e stra n g e d ec isio n s b ec au se th e y c a n n o t p re d ic t th e f u tu re a n d th e y in te r p re t th e p a s t fro m th e ir u n iq u e persp ectiv es. T h u s , to u n d e r s ta n d w h y a n a tio n a n d its p e o p le d o w h a t th e y d o , w e hav e to s tu d y th e m a n d th e ir a c tio n s in close d e ta il a n d p lace c o n tin g e n c y a t th e fo re fro n t o f o u r analysis. I h a v e trie d to d o th a t in th e p re s e n t study.

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A lth o u g h a m a in a rg u m e n t o f th is s tu d y is th a t El S alv a d o r e x h ib ite d a s tro n g p o litic a l c o n tin u ity , a se c o n d m a jo r leg acy o f th e M a rtín e z era w as th e in je c tio n o f re fo rm , o r a t le ast th e id e a o f re fo rm . H e b u ilt u p o n th e ex am p le o f h is tw o p red e cesso rs b e tw e e n 1 9 2 7 a n d 1931 a n d b e g a n to c o n s o lid a te th e n o tio n th a t g o v e rn m e n t w as s u p p o s e d to b e th e re fo r th e c o m m o n p e rso n , p a rtic u la rly to p r o te c t th e m fro m p re d a to ry , la n d o w n in g elites. M a rtín e z ’s re fo rm p ro g ra m w as called M e jo ra m ie n to S ocial, a n d its s ta te d g oal w as th e ea sin g o f p re ssu re o n th e n a tio n ’s p o o r. It esp o u sed , a m o n g o th e r th in g s, b u y in g u p la n d a n d re d is trib u tin g it to p o o r fam ilies o n fav o rab le te rm s, b u ild in g a ffo rd a b le h o u sin g , a n d fo rc in g elites to p a y th e ir w o rk e rs in legal c u rre n c y ra th e r th a n local scrip . In th e p ro cess, M a r ­ tín e z set a g o v e rn in g p re c e d e n t to w h ic h ea ch o f h is m ilita ry successors w o u ld a d h e re fo r th e n e x t fifty years. Iro n ic ally — o r p e rh a p s n o t— M a rtín e z la u n c h e d th is re fo rm p ro g ra m in th e w ak e o f a m assiv e g o v e rn m e n t c ra c k d o w n o n reb e llio u s p e a sa n ts in th e w e ste rn c o u n try sid e . T h e m ilita ry k ille d th o u s a n d s , p e rh a p s te n s o f th o u s a n d s o f p e o p le in a ro u g h ly tw o -w e e k sp a n , a n d th e re a fte r it to le r­ a te d n o fo rm o f a u to n o m o u s ru ra l o rg a n iz in g . A ll th e w h ile , M a rtín e z ’s g o v e rn m e n t w o o e d th e m asses, esp ecially re sid e n ts in th e w e ste rn reg io n , w ith p ro m ise s o f re fo rm a n d p ro te c tio n fro m v e n g e fu l lo c al elites. A d ­ d itio n ally , a n d c o n s iste n t w ith h is p red ecesso rs, M a rtín e z c e le b ra te d th e v irtu e s o f d e m o c ra c y a n d d e fin e d El S alv a d o r as a m o d e rn , d e m o c ra tic re p u b lic . In so d o in g , M a rtín e z e sta b lish e d as a c o rn e rs to n e o f h is g o v e rn ­ in g stra te g y a c o m p le x m ix tu re o f re fo rm a n d rep ressio n . A n a p p a re n t cau sal re la tio n s h ip exists b e tw e e n th e p e a sa n t u p risin g o f 1932 a n d M a rtín e z ’s p r o m o tio n o f re fo rm . M a rtín e z w as ex p licit o n m a n y occasio n s a b o u t h is b e lie f th a t d e a d a n d re b e llio u s p e a sa n ts d id n o t p r o m o te e c o n o m ic p ro d u c tiv ity a n d n a tio n a l stability. F u rth e rm o re , h e clearly said th a t th e b e st w a y to p re v e n t p e a sa n ts fro m reb e llin g , w h ic h h e a n d o th e r g o v e rn m e n t officials c o m m o n ly d e fin e d as b e c o m in g a “c o m ­ m u n is t,” w as to e n a c t so cial a n d e c o n o m ic refo rm s. I f n o th in g else, th e n , it seem s a p p a re n t th a t th e a c tio n s o f th e reb els in 1932 h a d a n im p a c t o n th e p o litic a l a re n a in El Salvador. E lites d id n o t fin d M a rtín e z ’s re fo rm s to o th re a te n in g , a lth o u g h th e y o p p o se d so m e , su c h as M a rtín e z ’s a tte m p t to m a k e th e m s to p p a y in g th e ir w o rk e rs in c o u p o n s (fichas) ra th e r th a n legal cu rren cy , h is e ffo rt to e n d

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th e co m m e rc ia l m o n o p o ly o f th e fin c a -o w n e d sto res, a n d h is refu sal to allo w th e v alu e o f th e n a tio n a l c u rre n c y to flo a t freely o n th e o p e n m a rk e t to th e b e n e fit o f ex p o rte rs. A t th e v ery least, elites d id n o t lik e th e p re c e ­ d e n t M a rtín e z w as se ttin g , a n d in d e e d , in tim e th e y f o u n d th em selv es c o n fro n te d b y m ilita ry officers w h o w ere m o re v ig o ro u sly s u p p o rtiv e o f refo rm . A n o th e r c o n s e q u e n c e o f th is stu d y , th e n , is th e n e e d to see m ilita r y elite re la tio n s as c o m p le x a n d s u b je c t to c o n flic tin g n arrativ es. A t th e c e n te r o f th e c o n te s t b e tw e e n elites a n d th e m ilita ry w as th e v a lid ity o f social a n d e c o n o m ic re fo rm ism . M o s t elites in siste d th a t El S a lv a d o r’s d e ­ v e lo p m e n t h in g e d o n th e d eg re e to w h ic h g o v e rn m e n t re m a in e d loyal to e c o n o m ic lib e rta ria n ism . B y c o n tra st, m a n y r u lin g officers b eliev e d th a t a p p ro a c h w as a re c ip e fo r d isa ste r (a n d th e rev o lts in C u b a in 1959 a n d N ic a ra g u a in 1979 w o u ld p ro v e th a t to b e a le g itim a te c o n c e rn ). M a n y officers a d v o c a te d re fo rm ism as th e w ay to a v o id re b e llio n . H o w e v e r m o d ­ est th e ir p la n s m ig h t h av e b e e n , a n d h o w e v e r e x p e d ie n t th e ir e m b ra c e o f re fo rm ism , th e y n e v e rth e le ss m a d e it a c o rn e rs to n e o f g o v e rn m e n t. In th e p ro cess th e y irk e d th e lib e rta ria n se n sib ilitie s o f th e ir elite c o u n te rp a rts fro m th e M a rtín e z e ra o n w a rd . M a rtín e z left a c o m p lic a te d leg acy fo r h is re fo rm ist successors. A fter all, h is re g im e m u rd e re d th o u s a n d s o f h is c o u n try m e n . S u b s e q u e n t g o v ­ e rn in g officials f o u n d th a t fac t h a rd to re c o n c ile w ith th e ir d esire to p r o ­ m o te th em selv es as m o d e rn iz in g re fo rm e rs c o m m itte d to so cial a n d e c o ­ n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t. N o o n e c e le b ra te d th e m assacres o f 1 9 3 2 d u r in g th e M a rtín e z era, n o r d id a n y o n e b u ild m o n u m e n ts to M a rtín e z afte r h is d o w n fa ll in 1944. O n ly o n ra re o cc asio n d id a n o b s tin a te v o ic e a p p e a r o n a n e d ito ria l p age, callin g o n M a rtín e z to in itia te th e m ass m u r d e r o f p e a sa n ts o r In d ia n s in th e n a m e o f n a tio n a l d e v e lo p m e n t. F o r th e m o s t p a rt, ev ery o n e se e m e d to w a n t to fo rg e t w h a t h a p p e n e d in 19 3 2 . O n c e M a rtín e z h a d b e e n o u ste d , it w o u ld b e a lo n g w h ile b e fo re a n y o n e o v ertly referre d to h im o r h is re g im e as a m o d e l. In fact, m o s t o f M a rtín e z ’s su c ­ cessors p u rp o s e ly d ista n c e d th e m se lv es fro m h is c o m p lic a te d legacy. T h e so -called re v o lu tio n a ry officers o f 1948 re je c te d h im as a b a c k w a rd -lo o k in g d ic ta to r a n d in ste a d d re w in s p ira tio n fro m th e officers M a rtín e z ex e cu ted in A p ril 1944 after th e ir failed c o u p a tte m p t. T h e “re v o lu tio n a rie s” p o r ­ tra y e d th o se officers as m a rty rs o f m id d le -c la ss re fo rm ism w h o e m b o d ie d El S a lv a d o r’s h o p e fo r m o d e rn iz in g p ro g ress.

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E ven th o u g h n o n e o f th e m ilita ry g o v e rn m e n ts afte r 1 9 4 4 e m b ra c e d M a rtín e z openly, all o f th e m fo llo w ed h is p a tte r n o f ru le . In p a rtic u la r, each o f th e m e m b ra c e d th e re fo rm /re p re ssio n d ic h o to m y th a t th e M a r ­ tín e z reg im e h a d ex em p lifie d . In th e face o f a n y p e rc e iv e d th re a t fro m p e a sa n ts o r u r b a n w o rk e rs, th e y q u ic k ly tu r n e d to v io le n c e a n d rep ressed w ith o u t q u arte r. B u t all th e w h ile th e y p re s e n te d th em selv es as m o d e rn iz ­ in g refo rm ers, h a ile d th e v irtu e s o f d em o cracy , a n d even p u s h e d th ro u g h so m e re fo rm ist p ro g ra m s. F o r ex a m p le , th e “re v o lu tio n a ry ” officers w ro te a n e w c o n s titu tio n in 1 9 5 0 th a t n o t o n ly gave w o m e n th e r ig h t to v o te a n d estab lish e d th e se cret b a llo t, b u t also e m p o w e re d th e g o v e rn m e n t to e x p ro p ria te p riv a te p r o p e rty in th e n a m e o f so cial ju stice . T h o s e officers h a d n e ith e r th e w illin g n e ss n o r th e a b ility to a c t o n th e ir n e w legal rig h t, b u t th e y to o k th e r h e to ric o f re fo rm to u n p re c e d e n te d levels. E v en th e self-d eclared co n serv ativ e, a n tic o m m u n is t lead ers w h o c a m e to p o w e r in th e c o u p o f Ja n u a ry 1961 p u s h e d th e cau se o f m o d e rn iz in g re fo rm . T h e y o p e n e d u p th e p o litic a l sy stem , p assed la b o r law s fo r u r b a n w o rk e rs, a n d ev e n tu a lly a tte m p te d a la n d re fo rm p ro g ra m . In b o th w o rd a n d d ee d , th e y far exceeded a n y th in g th a t th e ir “re v o lu tio n a ry ” p red e cesso rs d id . B u t th e y also oversaw th e c re a tio n o f O R D E N , a m assive ru ra l p a ra m ilita ry o rg a n i­ z a tio n th a t te rro riz e d a n y o n e w h o q u e s tio n e d th e sy stem o r trie d to m o b i­ lize a g a in st it. M a rtín e z ’s successors also fo llo w e d h is p o litic s. R e sea rch in to th e d ay to -d a y fu n c tio n in g o f p o litic s afte r 1 9 4 4 re m a in s h in d e re d b y a la c k o f ev idence, b u t all in d ic a tio n s p o in t to p ra c tice s th a t b e a r a s tro n g re se m ­ b la n c e to M a rtín e z ’s. E a c h m ilita ry re g im e a p p ro v e d th e slate o f c a n d i­ dates fo r m u n ic ip a l office a n d fo r th e N a tio n a l A ssem bly, a n d th e y oversaw n o n c o m p e titiv e e lec tio n s th a t n a tu ra lly p ro d u c e d u n a n im o u s resu lts. A b r ie f w in d o w o f re sp ite o p e n e d u p in th e m id -1 9 6 0 s in re sp o n se to th e p o litic a l refo rm s p u t th r o u g h b y P re sid e n ts Ju lio A d a lb e rto R iv era (1 9 6 2 — 1967) a n d F id el S á n c h e z H e r n á n d e z (1 9 6 7 —1 9 7 2 ). A m a in b e n e fic ia ry o f th o se refo rm s w as th e c e n tris t C h ris tia n D e m o c ra tic Party, w h ic h m a d e s tro n g sh o w in g s in b o th m u n ic ip a l e lec tio n s a n d d e p u ty e lec tio n s fo r th e N a tio n a l A ssem bly. B u t w h e n e v e r th e re g im e w as th re a te n e d w ith o u ste r b y p o p u la r v o te , as o c c u rre d in th e p re sid e n tia l e lec tio n s o f 1 9 7 2 a n d 1977, it q u ic k ly c la m p e d d o w n o n th e re fo rm s, sto le e lec tio n s, a n d i n ­ creased rep ressio n a g a in st s u sp e c te d adversaries. A n d so, regardless o f

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w h e th e r it w as th e P a rtid o P ro -P a tria (1 9 3 1 —1 9 4 4 ), th e P a rtid o R e v o lu c io ­ n a rio d e U n ific a c ió n D e m o c rá tic a (1 9 4 8 —1 9 6 0 ), o r th e P a rtid o d e C o n ­ c ilia ció n N a c io n a l (1 9 6 1 —1 9 7 9 ), ea ch m ilita ry g o v e rn m e n t h a d a p o litic a l m a c h in e th a t it u se d to d o m in a te p o litic s a n d c o n tro l e lec tio n s, in th e tra d itio n o f its civ ilia n p red e cesso rs.6 T h e in te g ra tio n o f m ilita ry p o litic s in to n a tio n a l p o litic s w as a n o th e r p re c e d e n t set d u r in g th e M a rtín e z era. M a rtín e z c a m e to p o w e r as p a r t o f a y o u th m o v e m e n t, w h e n a g ro u p o f d is g ru n tle d y o u n g officers o rg a n iz e d th em selv es a n d o v e rth re w th e g o v e rn m e n t in 1931. O n c e M a rtín e z e n ­ tre n c h e d h im s e lf in po w er, h e b e c a m e th e ta rg e t o f re n e w e d y o u th ac tiv ities in sid e th e m ilita ry . T h e s e m o v e m e n ts e m e rg e d b ec au se y o u n g officers w a n te d a s h o t at h o ld in g office, n o t n ec essarily b ec au se th e y o p p o s e d th e ir se n io r officers’ d ic ta to ria l w ays a n d w a n te d to d o p o litic s m o re d e m o ­ cratically. B y m o n o p o liz in g g o v e rn m e n t, M a rtín e z a n d h is cro n ie s b lo c k e d th e asce n t o f m a n y y o u n g a n d a s p irin g officers. C o n s ta n tly th r o u g h o u t his reig n , M a rtín e z h a d to stifle co n sp ira cies fro m w ith in th e officer co rp s. A cyclical p a tte r n h a d b e g u n . Y ounger officers w h o w a n te d a tu r n in office p o rtra y e d th e o ld e r officers in p o w e r as o u t- o f- to u c h a u th o rita ria n s w h ile to u tin g th em selv es as m o d e rn iz in g re fo rm e rs. A ll o f th e m a d h e re d to th e in fo rm a l ru les o f p o litic s b y c e le b ra tin g d e m o c ra c y a n d d e fin in g p o p u la r w ill as th e a rb ite r o f g o v e rn m e n t a c tio n . O n c e in office, how ever, th e n e w lead ers b e c a m e e n tre n c h e d a n d th e re b y in s p ire d th e ir u n d e rlin g s to accuse th e m o f b e tra y in g th e s p irit o f m o d e rn iz a tio n . A n d so th e p a tte r n w e n t o n , u n til th e civil w a r o f 1980 to 1 9 9 2 .7 T h is co m p le x a m a lg a m a tio n o f re fo rm /re p re ssio n , m ilita ry - e lite re la ­ tio n s, a n d in te r n a l m ilita ry p o litic s ca m e to a h e a d in O c to b e r 19 7 9 , w h e n a m ilita ry c o u p o v e rth re w El S a lv a d o r’s s ittin g p re sid e n t, G e n e ra l C a rlo s R o m e ro . In h is p lace, a g o v e rn in g ju n ta ca m e to po w er, c o n s istin g o f tw o officers a n d th re e civilians. It w as h a rd ly a n o v e l ev e n t in El S a lv a d o r’s m o d e rn p o litic a l h isto ry , as c o u p s a n d a tte m p te d c o u p s h a d b e e n c o m ­ m o n p la c e . A d m itte d ly , th o u g h , n e a rly e ig h te e n years h a d p a sse d sin c e th e last successful c o u p in J a n u a ry 1961, a n d , ironically, G e n e ra l R o m e ro w as th e p o litic a l h e ir o f th a t p a rtic u la r c o u p . T h e officers w h o c a m e to p o w e r in 1961 h a d c re a te d a n e w p a r ty as th e ir p o litic a l m a c h in e , th e P a rtid o d e C o n c ilia c ió n N a c io n a l ( P C N , th e N a tio n a l C o n c ilia tio n P arty ). A series o f fo u r officers se rv e d as p re s id e n t u n d e r its au sp ices b e tw e e n 1 9 6 2 a n d 1979, w ith G e n e ra l R o m e ro , w h o s te p p e d u p in 1977, b e in g th e last.

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H ow ever, th e c o u p o f 1979 o c c u rre d w h e n El S alv a d o r w as g o in g th r o u g h a p a rtic u la rly in te n s e a n d u n s ta b le m o m e n t in its h isto ry . Ju st fo u r m o n th s p rio r, in Ju ly 1979, th e S o m o z a re g im e in n e ig h b o rin g N ic a ­ ra g u a h a d fallen to th e re v o lu tio n a ry S a n d in ista s, b r in g in g in te rn a tio n a l a tte n tio n a n d a n e w w av e o f g e o p o litic a l in te n s ity to th e isth m u s. El S al­ v a d o r’s rad ic al le ft v ie w e d th e ev e n ts in N ic a ra g u a w ith h o p e ; th e c o n s e r­ v ative rig h t v ie w e d th e m w ith fear; a n d ev e ry o n e in b e tw e e n h o p e d to av o id th e ty p e o f p o la riz e d im p lo s io n th a t N ic a ra g u a h a d ju s t suffered. B u t O c to b e r 1979 w as a lm o st to o la te to s to p El S alv a d o r fro m d e ­ s c e n d in g in to w ar. G u e rrilla o rg a n iz a tio n s w ere w ell esta b lish e d a n d e n ­ g ag in g th e g o v e rn m e n t’s se c u rity forces in v io le n t clashes a lm o st daily. As m a n y as a th o u s a n d p e o p le d ie d ea ch m o n th , m o s t o f th e m in n o c e n t civil­ ian s w h o p e rish e d in b r u ta l a n d m y ste rio u s w ays a t th e h a n d s o f g o v e rn ­ m e n t s e c u rity forces a n d p a ra m ilita ry b a n d s — th e so -ca lle d d e a th sq u a d s. R u m o rs c irc u la te d c o n s ta n tly o f a n im p e n d in g c o u p b y h a rd lin e rig h tists w h o believ ed th a t th e s o lu tio n to El S a lv a d o r’s p ro b le m s w as even m o re k illin g , a n d th e y lo o k e d to th e e x a m p le set b y G e n e ra l M a rtín e z in 1932. T h e arc h ite c ts o f th e 1979 c o u p c a m e to p o w e r p ro m is in g to im p le ­ m e n t w id e s p re a d social a n d e c o n o m ic re fo rm s th a t w o u ld stave o ff ex­ tre m ists o n th e rig h t a n d th e left. T h e c o u p w as av id ly s u p p o r te d b y th e U .S. g o v e rn m e n t— so m e even c o n te n d th a t it w as o rg a n iz e d b y th e U .S. em bassy— w h ic h d e sp e ra te ly w a n te d a sta b le p o litic a l c e n te r in pow er. T h e re fo rm ist s p irit o f th e first ju n ta su ffe re d a series o f blo w s, in c lu d in g th e re sig n a tio n o f its th re e civ ilian m e m b e rs in early 1 9 8 0 a n d v ario u s m a c h in a tio n s b y co n serv ativ es, b o th civil a n d m ilita ry , w h o s o u g h t to lim it th e e x te n t o f re fo rm . N e v e rth e le ss, th e officials w h o g o v e rn e d E l S al­ v a d o r b e tw e e n 1979 a n d 1982 in a series o f th re e ju n ta s d eliv ered o n th e p ro m is e o f re fo rm . T h e re fo rm s m a y h a v e b e e n w a te re d d o w n rela tiv e to progressives’ in itia l h o p e s, b u t th e fa c t re m a in s th a t th e y w ere th e m o s t fa r-re a c h in g in S a lv a d o ra n h isto ry . T h re e o f th e m o re s u b sta n tia l re fo rm s w ere th e n a tio n a liz a tio n o f b a n k s, th e n a tio n a liz a tio n o f th e e x p o rt tra d e (in c lu d in g coffee), a n d a m assive la n d re fo rm . T h e la tte r w as to o c c u r in th re e stages over ju s t a few years, w ith th e u ltim a te g o al b e in g th e e x p ro ­ p r ia tio n (alb eit w ith c o m p e n s a tio n ) o f m o s t o f th e n a tio n ’s la rg e st p r o p e r ­ ties a n d its d is trib u tio n to p o o r fam ilies in th e fo rm o f c o o p e ra tiv e s a n d p riv a te ly h e ld p lo ts .8

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T h e to n e a n d s p irit o f th e c o u p w as c a p tu re d w ell b y o n e o f th e o rig in a l ju n ta m e m b e rs, C o lo n e l J a im e A b d u l G u tié rre z , in a sp e ec h in th e N a tio n a l S ta d iu m in O c to b e r 1981, o n th e se c o n d a n n iv e rsa ry o f th e c o u p . G u tié rre z w as th e n se rv in g as vice p re s id e n t o f th e ju n ta a n d c o m ­ m a n d e r in c h ie f o f th e a rm e d fo rc es. I n h is ro u g h ly th ir ty - m in u te sp e ec h b efo re a large cro w d , h e s o u n d e d ev ery b it th e re fo rm ist fire b ra n d . N a t u ­ rally, h e in c lu d e d th e re q u isite d o se o f a n tic o m m u n is m a n d ac cu sed th e g u errillas o f b e in g te rro rists a n d e n e m ie s o f th e sta te . B u t h e also a tta c k e d in tra n s ig e n t rig h tists in b o th civ ilian a n d m ilita ry fo rm s. H e a c cu sed th e m o f b e in g th e m a in p ro b le m in E l S alv a d o r a n d o f c re a tin g th e c o n d itio n s th a t allo w ed c o m m u n is ts to g a in a n o rg a n iz a tio n a l f o o th o ld . H e ac cu sed th e m o f h o a rd in g w e a lth , p a y in g th e ir w o rk e rs p o orly, a n d u sin g u n r e ­ stra in e d v io le n ce to k ee p la b o r in its p lace. G u tié rre z d e c la re d th a t “w e lead ers o f th e lib e ra tio n m o v e m e n t o f O c to b e r 15 d e c id e d th is tim e to set f o rth w ith d e te r m in a tio n th e n e e d fo r s tru c tu ra l c h a n g e as m e a su re s le a d ­ in g to a n eq u a l d is trib u tio n o f th e n a tio n a l w e a lth .” H e c ite d as p re c e d e n t th e m ilita ry re fo rm e rs w h o h a d c o m e to p o w e r in th e c o u p s o f 1931, 1948, a n d 1961. T h e o n ly p ro b le m w ith th o se p red ecesso rs, G u tié rre z in sisted , w as th a t th e y d id n o t ta k e re fo rm ism far e n o u g h . B u t a t le ast th e y b e g a n th e p ro cess th a t e n d e d th e era o f “g o v e rn m e n t b y th e g re a t fam ilies . . . w h e n a n y d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n p u b lic a n d p riv a te in te re s t w as im p o s ­ sib le a n d g o v e rn m e n t in s titu tio n s w ere c o n c e iv ed a n d m a n a g e d as p riv a te preserves.” I n th e p ro cess, h e even trie d to re h a b ilita te th e n a m e o f G e n ­ eral M a rtín e z , n o t fo r h is w illin g n e ss to m a ssac re th o u s a n d s o f p e o p le in th e b a ttle a g a in st c o m m u n is m , b u t b ec au se h e w e a k e n e d elite h e g e m o n y b y im p le m e n tin g “f u n d a m e n ta l ch a n g e s” th a t “c o rre c t[e d ] th e excesses w h ic h h a d given rise to a n ex tre m e ly lib e ral c o n c e p t o f th e S ta te .”9 N atu ra lly , th e g u errilla s d ism isse d th e c o u p a n d its re fo rm p ro g ra m as a v ac u o u s, d e sp e ra te a tte m p t to p re v e n t real re v o lu tio n a ry c h a n g e. T h e y accu sed ju n ta m e m b e rs o f b e in g lackeys o f th e U n ite d S tates, a n d th e y in siste d th a t th e re fo rm s w ere p o o rly d e sig n e d a n d in a d e q u a te to c o m p e n ­ sate fo r th e o n g o in g s la u g h te r b y th e s ta te ’s se c u rity forces. As G e rsó n M a rtín e z , a h ig h -ra n k in g g u e rrilla c o m m a n d e r, p u t it in a n in te rv ie w n e a rly th ir ty years later, “ T h e 1979 c o u p , w ith its p u re ly c o u n te rin s u rg e n t te n d e n c ie s, h a d a w e ll-d e fin e d goal: ta k e aw ay th e g u errilla s’ m o m e n tu m , d ra in th e w a te r aw ay fro m th e fish, ta k e aw ay th e w a te r fro m th e g u errilla ,

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d im in is h social s u p p o r t fo r th e g u e rrilla .”10 In d e e d , d e s p ite th e refo rm s, m ass k illin g s c o n tin u e d u n a b a te d ; n e a rly o n e th o u s a n d p e o p le d ie d every m o n th in p o litic a lly re la te d v io le n c e fo r n e a rly fo u r years after th e co u p . H ig h -p ro file assassin atio n s, su c h as th o se o f A rc h b is h o p Ó sc a r R o m e ro in M a rc h 1980, E n riq u e A lvarez in N o v e m b e r 1980, a n d th e tw o U .S. ad v is­ ers to th e la n d re fo rm , M ic h a e l H a m m e r a n d M a rk P e a rlm a n , in J a n u a ry 1981, sy m b o liz e d th e b ro a d e r c a m p a ig n o f te rro r.11 T h e left h a d g o o d re a so n to o p p o se th e re fo rm s, a n d esp ecially th e a p p e a ra n c e o f th e likes o f C o lo n e l G u tié rre z as sp o k e sp e o p le fo r social ju stice . L eftists a c c u ra te ly re c o g n iz e d th e ste a d y m a rc h to th e rig h t o f each o f th e th re e successive ju n ta s , sy m b o liz e d b y th e re s ig n a tio n o f th e first ju n ta ’s pro g ressiv e civilians. T h e y also a c cu sed th e ju n ta s o f b e in g u n a b le o r u n w illin g to sto p th e sla u g h te r. C o lo n e l G u tié rre z was, afte r all, a co n serv ativ e s ta lw a rt in g o v e rn m e n t, re sp o n sib le fo r m u c h o f th e s to n e ­ w a llin g a g a in st fa r-re a c h in g re fo rm . G u tié rre z a n d o th e r h ig h -ra n k in g o f­ ficers b e m o a n e d th e o n g o in g k illin g s b y b o th p a ra m ilita ry d e a th sq u a d s a n d a rm y tro o p s, c la im in g th e y w ere d o in g th e ir b e s t to sto p th e m . B u t it seem s lik ely th a t th e se lead ers w ere re sp o n sib le fo r o r a t least in d iffe re n t to th e ir p e rp e tra tio n . F ro m th e le ft’s p ersp ectiv e, th e 1979 c o u p w as ju s t a n e w w in e in th e o ld b o ttle o f a c o n serv ativ e m ilita ry -o lig a rc h ic d ic ta to rsh ip . T h e left m a y h a v e d ism isse d th e p o s t-1 9 7 9 re fo rm s as rig h t-w in g ploys, b u t co n serv ativ e elites d id n o t lik e th e m eith er. In fact, th e y h a te d th e m , seein g th e m as a lm o st w orse th a n a S a n d in is ta -ty p e re v o lu tio n . In th e ir m in d s , th e re fo rm s w ere n o th in g s h o r t o f th e ft, a n d th e re fo rm s’ a r­ ch itec ts w ere th iev es h id in g u n d e r th e cover o f g o v e rn m e n t. T h e elites b eliev ed th e y h a d a rig h t to th e ir w e a lth a n d th a t th e re fo rm ists w ere tr a m ­ p lin g th e free m a rk e t, E l S a lv a d o r’s o n ly h o p e o f esc a p in g th e g ro w in g crisis. M e m o irs b y e c o n o m ic elites a n d rig h t-w in g p o litic a l activ ists m a k e ex p licit th e co n serv ativ e a n im o s ity fo r th e 1979 c o u p a n d all th e acto rs c o m p lic it in it. F ro m th e elites’ p ersp e ctiv e, th e c o u p b r o u g h t to g e th e r a m u r d e r e r ’s ro w o f p o litic a l o p p o rtu n is ts , in c lu d in g re fo rm ist m ilita ry o f­ ficers, th e c e n tris t p o litic ia n s o f th e C h ris tia n D e m o c ra tic Party, th e U.S. g o v e rn m e n t u n d e r P re sid e n t J im m y C a rte r a n d h is h u m a n rig h ts—b ased fo re ig n policy, th e Je su it p riests a t th e C e n tra l A m e ric a n U n iv e rsity (U C A ) in S an Salvador, a n d m a n y o th e r re fo rm -m in d e d o rg a n iz a tio n s th r o u g h o u t El Salvador. T h e s e m e m o irists u n le a sh v itrio l in th e ir d e s c rip tio n s o f th o se

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acto rs a n d th e re fo rm s. F o r ex a m p le , L u is E sc a la n te A rce, a b a n k e r a n d m e m b e r o f o n e o f El S a lv a d o r’s w e a lth ie st fam ilies, d escrib es th e 1979 c o u p in h is 1986 m e m o ir as h a v in g “in te n sifie d in El S alv a d o r a lo n g p e ­ rio d o f d e c a d e n c e a n d c o r r u p tio n .” H e says th e s u b s e q u e n t re fo rm s w ere in s p ire d b y “th e v ig o ro u s id e o lo g ic a l in flu e n c e o f C u b a n so v ie tism ” a n d th a t th e tw o a rm y officers w h o sa t o n th e ju n ta , in c lu d in g th e c o n serv ativ e C o lo n e l G u tié rre z , w ere “r e v o lu tio n a ry sta tists w h o lis te n e d o b e d ie n tly to th e v o ice o f a fo re ig n a m b a ssa d o r a n d o f c e rta in Je su it p riests w h o w a n te d to le ad h im d o w n th e p a th to M a rx is m .”12 L ik e E sc a la n te A rce, D a v id P a n a m á S an d o v a l a n d R ic a rd o V ald iv ieso O ria n i w ere w e a lth y co n se rv a ­ tives. T h e y o w n e d la n d a n d h e lp e d c o -fo u n d th e n e w c o n serv ativ e p o litic a l party, th e A lia n za R e p u b lic a n a N a c io n a lis ta (A R E N A , th e N a tio n a lis t R e­ p u b lic a n A llian ce ), in 1 9 8 0 a lo n g sid e th e n o to rio u s p o litic ia n a n d p a ra ­ m ilita ry a rc h ite c t R o b e rto D ’A u b u isso n . In h is 2 0 0 5 m e m o ir, P a n a m á S an d o v al calls U .S. fo re ig n p o lic y m a k e rs u n d e r C a rte r a b u n c h o f “ineptos,

ilusos o idiotas .”13 F o r h is p a rt, V ald iv ieso O ria n i b o rro w s fro m 1 9 5 0 s-sty le M c C a rth y is m to say in h is 2 0 0 8 m e m o ir th a t th e U .S. S ta te D e p a rtm e n t w as in fe ste d w ith c o m m u n is ts a n d th a t in th e la te 1 9 70s a n d early 1980s, W a s h in g to n , D C , “w as th e b e a c h h e a d o f th e S o v iet U n io n ’s M a rx istL e n in ist im p e ria lism th r o u g h o u t th e e n tire W e ste rn H e m is p h e re .” H e goes o n to say th a t it is “c u rio u s th a t d u r in g th is tim e o f th e c o ld w ar, th e N o r t h A m e ric a n s n e v e r rea lize d th a t its e n e m y w as in sid e th e h alls o f th e ir o w n g o v e rn m e n t.”14 A m a tria rc h o f a w e a lth y fam ily, w h o g ra n te d a n i n ­ te rv ie w to a N o r t h A m e ric a n a c a d e m ic in th e 1990s u n d e r th e p s e u d o n y m M o n ic a N u ñ e z , b la m e s th e U .S. g o v e rn m e n t fo r th e w ar, sa y in g th a t “th e A m e ric a n s w ere th e o n e s w h o really stirre d th in g s u p h e re .” P re sid e n t C a rte r, sh e insists, fig u re d th a t la n d re fo rm “w as th e w a y to h e a d o ff a re v o lu tio n h ere. B u t in th e e n d th e la n d re fo rm law s h e a n d h is advisers p u s h e d o n us le d to o u r civil w ar. W e p a id fo r C a rte r ’s e x p e rim e n ts. W e w ere h is g u in e a p ig s.”15 E lite s e n tim e n ts a b o u t th e p o s t-1 9 7 9 re fo rm s are so s tro n g th a t th e y hav e p ro d u c e d a rift in c o n serv ativ e circles b e tw e e n th o se w h o claim they resisted th e m a n d th e ir c o u n te rp a rts w h o su p p o se d ly c o lla b o ra te d w ith th e m . O rla n d o d e S o la w as a la n d o w n e r w h o lo st tw o p ro p e rtie s in th e la n d re fo rm a n d also w as o n e o f A R E N A ’s early s u p p o rte rs. H e claim s th a t h e resisted th e re fo rm s a t g re a t p e rso n a l cost, a n d h e accuses n o n e o th e r

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th a n th e first A R E N A p re sid e n t, A lfre d o C ris tia n i ( 1 9 8 9 -1 9 9 4 ) , o f c o l­ la b o ra tin g w ith th e re fo rm e rs. D e S o la refers to h im s e lf as an agrarista, or coffee grow er, w h erea s C ris tia n i w as a beneficiador-exportador, o r p ro ce sso r a n d ex p o rter. E v en th o u g h h e k n e w C ris tia n i fro m c h ild h o o d a n d th e ir fam ilies w ere close, h e o p p o se d C r is tia n i’s a sc e n t th r o u g h th e ra n k s o f A R E N A b ecau se o f th e ch o ices h e m a d e afte r 19 7 9 . D e S o la accuses C ris ­ tia n i o f “sellin g o u t coffee g ro w e rs” a n d “sa crificin g p ro d u c e rs ” to m a k e m o n ey , b ec au se w h ile la n d o w n e rs lik e h im w ere lo sin g th e ir la n d s to th e a g ra ria n re fo rm , C ristia n i, in h is ro le as p re s id e n t o f th e A so c ia c ió n de B en eficiad o res y E x p o rta d o re s d e C a fé (A becafé), so ld to th e g o v e rn m e n t’s n e w e x p o rt c o n tro l b o a rd “in s te a d o f re sistin g it.” D e S o la even criticizes D ’A u b u isso n fo r b e in g to o so ft o n th e re fo rm s, sa y in g th a t “a d ifferen ce th a t I h a d w ith D ’A u b u isso n w as th e ag ra ria n re fo rm , w h ic h I w a n te d to classify as n eg a tiv e , b u t h e re fu se d to d o so.” D e S o la claim s th a t h e h a d a fa llin g -o u t w ith D ’A u b u isso n a n d A R E N A over th e se issues, especially afte r D ’A u b u isso n p ic k e d C ris tia n i to b e th e p re sid e n tia l c a n d id a te in 1989 afte r h is o w n failed b id fo r th e p re sid e n c y in 19 8 4 . D e S o la claim s th a t th e rise o f p e o p le lik e C ris tia n i so ld A R E N A o u t to th e “ neoliberales, ” as o p p o s e d to th e “liberales clásicos” lik e h im .16 E lite m e m o irists lik e E sc a la n te A rce, D e S ola, P a n a m á S an d o v al, V aldivieso O ria n i, a n d o th e rs c o n s id e r th e 1979 re fo rm s to b e th e c u lm i­ n a tin g m o m e n t in a lo n g h is to ry o f c o n flic t b e tw e e n elites a n d m ilita ry refo rm ers. A s ev id en c e th e y c ite a lita n y o f p r io r re fo rm s o r a tte m p te d re ­ fo rm s th a t th e m ilita ry g o v e rn m e n ts im p o s e d o n th e m . T h o s e refo rm s in c lu d e , a m o n g o th e rs, th e a tte m p te d la n d re fo rm in 1976; th e la n d re fo rm congress in th e N a tio n a l A sse m b ly in 1970; asp ects o f th e 1968 e d u c a tio n re fo rm ; th e p o litic a l re fo rm s in th e m id -1 9 6 0 s th a t allo w ed fo r p r o p o rtio n a l re p re s e n ta tio n in th e N a tio n a l A ssem b ly ; th e e m b ra c e o f th e A llia n ce fo r P ro g ress in th e 1960s a n d its m o d e rn iz a tio n -th e o ry m a n tr a ac cu sin g larg e la n d o w n e rs o f b e in g a b a rrie r to d e v e lo p m e n t; a n d th e 1950 c o n s titu tio n th a t e m p o w e re d th e sta te to e x p ro p ria te p riv a te p ro p e rty fo r th e c o m m o n g o o d . A n d w h e n it co m es to d isc u ssin g th e civil w ar, elite m e m o irists barely m e n tio n th e arm y, as i f tw elv e years o f a lm o st daily c o m b a t a g a in st le ftist g u errilla s w ere m e re ly a sid e ite m to th e m o re c e n tra l m issio n o f p re se rv in g th e free m a rk e t a n d p riv a te p ro p e rty . A t th e very

354

Authoritarian El Salvador

least, elite m e m o irists d o n o t p o r tra y th e m ilita ry as th e ir h is to ric b e n e fa c ­ to r a n d ally. R a th e r, th e y see th e m ilita ry in a m o re su sp ic io u s lig h t, d e ­ sc rib in g officers as w illin g to sacrifice elites a n d fre e -m a rk e t c a p ita lism fo r p e rso n a l a g g ra n d iz e m e n t o r in s titu tio n a l survival. N o t su rprisin g ly , w h e n m ilita ry officers p e n n e d th e ir m e m o irs, th e y h a d few p o sitiv e th in g s to say a b o u t th e elites. I n p a rtic u la r, th e y believe elites so ld th e m o u t a t th e n e g o tia tin g ta b le in 1992 b y ally in g w ith th e ir fo rm e r enem y, th e g u errillas, in a s o rt o f civ ilian ca b al p lo ttin g to d e stro y th e m ilitary . As ju s t o n e ex a m p le , G e n e ra l O rla n d o Z e p e d a , fo rm e r vice m in is te r o f d efen se, claim s in h is 2 0 0 8 m e m o ir th a t o f th e sta k e h o ld e rs in th e p ea ce n e g o tia tio n s , “th e m ilita ry se c to r w as th e m o s t affec ted .” H e characterizes th e fo rc e d re tire m e n ts a n d d e c o m m is s io n in g o f n e a rly tw o h u n d r e d officers in th e w a k e o f th e C h a p u lte p e c P eace A cc o rd s as “an u n ju s t a n d h u m ilia tin g p ro ce ss.” H e c ritiq u e s elites a n d th e “m o n o p o lie s a n d p rivileges o f th e b ig e n te rp rise s” a n d says E l S a lv a d o r’s “tr u e p ro b le m rests in its u n ju s t d is trib u tio n o f w e a lth a n d b en e fits th a t em erg es fro m th e c u ltiv a tio n o f la n d th a t re m a in s in th e h a n d s o f a few larg e la n d o w n ­ ers.” H e th e n says th a t elites, th r o u g h A R E N A , b a n d e d to g e th e r w ith th e F M L N a t th e e n d o f th e w a r to “d e m ilita riz e society.”17 A rea d er m ig h t lo o k u p o n th e se rh e to ric a l jo u sts b e tw e e n elites a n d officers w ith sk ep tic ism . A fte r all, elites fa re d w ell u n d e r m ilita ry ru le , a n d th e y ca m e o u t o f th e civil w a r w ith m o s t o f w h a t th e y w a n te d — lib e rta ria n c a p ita lism a n d s a n c tity fo r p riv a te p ro p e rty . T h e m ilita ry d id n o t suffer to o b a d ly e ith e r u n til th e e n d o f th e civil w ar. It c o m m a n d e d larg e p o r ­ tio n s o f th e s ta te ’s b u d g e t fo r d ecad es, especially d u r in g th e c o n flict, a n d m a n y in d iv id u a l officers m a d e o u t h a n d s o m e ly b efo re, d u rin g , a n d after it. A n d a lm o st ev ery o n e o f th e officers w h o w as d e c o m m issio n e d , frankly, d eserv ed it, h a v in g c o m m itte d a ra n g e o f h u m a n -r ig h ts ab u ses o r acts o f g raft, o r b o th . A h e a lth y d o se o f d o u b t is th u s w a rra n te d . B u t to o m u c h sk e p tic ism w o u ld b e c o n tra ry to th e ev id en ce. H o w ­ ever m u c h elites a n d officers m ig h t p ro p a g a n d iz e th e ir resp e ctiv e view s, th e fact re m a in s th a t th e ir rh e to ric a l p o sitio n s express th e w a y th e y see th em selv es a n d w a n t to b e seen b y o th e rs. T h e elites b eliev e th em selv es to b e an aggrieved m in o r ity th a t h as su ffe re d th re a ts a n d ab u ses n o t o n ly fro m so -called te rro rists o n th e left, b u t also fro m c e n tris t refo rm ists, civil­ ian s a n d officers alike. T h e y b eliev e th o se re fo rm ists h av e b la m e d th e m fo r

C onclusion

355

so c iety ’s ills a n d h av e ta rg e te d th e ir w e a lth as th e s o lu tio n . E lites see th e m ­ selves as re sp o n sib le fo r w h a te v e r level o f d e v e lo p m e n t El S alv a d o r h as achieved, g o in g all th e w ay b a c k to th e p riv a tiz a tio n decrees o f th e 1880s, a n d th a t b y ta rg e tin g th e m a n d th e ir w e a lth , re v o lu tio n a rie s a n d re fo rm e rs are d o o m in g El S alv a d o r to p e rp e tu a l b a c k w a rd n e ss a n d u n d e rd e v e lo p ­ m e n t. T h e elites c o n te n d th a t th e y w o rk e d h a rd fo r th e ir w e a lth , a n d in th e process o f a c q u irin g it th e y se rv e d th e ir n a tio n , so th e y h av e a rig h t to k eep i t . 18 T h e m ilita ry — d e sp ite its assaults o n a u to n o m o u s la b o r o rg an iz in g , w h ic h allo w ed elites access to la b o r o n b en e ficia l te rm s— d id n o t see itse lf as sim p ly th e elites’ P ra e to ria n G u a rd . As o n e o f th e m o re p u b lic ly o u t­ sp o k e n officers, G e n e ra l M a u ric io V argas, p u t it in a 2 0 1 0 in te rv iew , th e m ilita ry w as n o t th e “g u a rd ia n o f th e p la n ta tio n s . . . . W e h a d o u r o w n in s titu tio n a l a n d c o n s titu tio n a l m is sio n .” 19 In ste a d , m ilita ry lead ers, esp e­ cially th o s e w h o sa t in g o v e rn m e n t p o sitio n s, c o n s id e re d th em selv es m o d ­ e rn iz in g re fo rm e rs w h o b eliev e d th a t o n e o f th e n ec essary d efen ses ag a in st c o m m u n is m w as th e m o d e rn iz a tio n o f society. T h e y in te r p re te d m o d e r n i­ z a tio n in v ario u s w ays, b u t in c lu d e d a m o n g th e m w as th e u se o f sta te p o w e r to diversify th e e c o n o m y a n d b ro a d e n access to th e n a tio n ’s w e a lth . T h e y re a so n e d th a t th e sta te h a d to p la y a n activ e ro le in th e se en d e av o rs b ecau se elites h a d little in c e n tiv e to a lte r th e sta tu s q u o a n d v e n tu re in to risk y alte rn a tiv e in v e stm e n ts. T o c o n c lu d e , I b eliev e th e e v id en c e su g g ests th a t El S alv a d o r h a d a d is tin c t p o litic a l c u ltu re in w h ic h a d isc o u rse o f d e m o c ra c y a n d re fo rm ism resid e d a m id st a u th o rita ria n p rac tice s. B o rro w in g fro m C o n s u e lo C r u z ’s c o m p a ra tiv e analysis o f N ic a ra g u a a n d C o s ta R ica, it is e n tire ly p o ssib le th a t th is c u ltu re in El S alvador, i f it in d e e d ex isted , fu n c tio n e d as a b u l­ w a rk a g a in st g e n u in e d e m o c ra tiz a tio n over th e lo n g r u n . T h a t c u ltu re m a y ow e its o rig in s to El S a lv a d o r’s s tru c tu ra l c o n d itio n s ; in o th e r w o rd s, El S alv ad o r m a y h a v e b e e n m a te ria lly p re d e te rm in e d to h av e a n a u th o ri­ ta ria n p o litic a l sy stem th a t w o u ld n a tu ra lly p ro d u c e a n a u th o rita r ia n c u l­ tu re . B u t i f C r u z ’s sc h o la rsh ip p ro v id e s g u id a n c e , th e n it is also p o ssib le th a t El S alv ad o r h as stru g g le d so m u c h to achiev e d em o cracy , to say n o t h ­ in g o f a m o re w e ll-b a la n c e d d is trib u tio n o f w e a lth (á la C o s ta R ica ), b e ­ cause its p o litic a l c u ltu re fu n c tio n e d as a n a u to n o m o u s v a ria b le a n d d e te r­ m in e d th e w ay S alv a d o ra n s v ie w e d th e m se lv es a n d th e p o lic y ch o ices th e y

356

Authoritarian El Salvador

m a d e . W h e n it ca m e tim e , fo r ex a m p le , to p riv a tiz e la n d in th e early 1880s, th e lo n g -te rm o u tc o m e w as n o t m o re eg a lita ria n ism , as c o u ld h av e b e e n th e case h a d p e o p le c h o se n to e n a c t th e p o licies differen tly , b u t ra th e r a h ig h ly u n e v e n d is trib u tio n o f w e a lth w ith a n e v e r-e x p a n d in g p o o l o f d esp e ra te ru ra l in h a b ita n ts . S u b se q u e n tly , th e y h a d few a lte rn a tiv e s w h e n th e ir s itu a tio n d e c lin e d even fu rth e r, as it d id d u r in g th e G re a t D e p re s ­ sio n , a n d so so m e o f th e m ch o se to rise u p in v io le n t re b e llio n . T h a t re b e l­ lio n , in tu r n , w as m e t n o t w ith re sp o n sib le ju stic e , b u t ra th e r w ith a b ru ta l m ilita ry slau g h ter. R a th e r th a n a c k n o w le d g e th a t th e e x ta n t s tru c tu re s o f so c iety m ig h t b ea r so m e re sp o n sib ility fo r p o o r p e o p le ’s d e s p e ra tio n , elites re s p o n d e d w ith a n ever m o re d e te rm in e d id e o lo g y o f e c o n o m ic lib e rta ri­ a n ism a n d re a c tio n a ry p o litics. I fo llo w ed a d iffe re n t m e th o d o lo g y th a n C r u z in th a t I d id n o t d issect p o litic a l r h e to ric th r o u g h o u t El S a lv a d o r’s h is to ry g o in g all th e w ay b a c k to th e S p a n ish C o n q u e s t. H o w ev er, I d id e x a m in e th e w a y p o litic s w as p ra c tic e d over a few d ec ad e s in th e la te n in e te e n th a n d early tw e n tie th ce n tu ries, a n d I e v a lu a te d th e d isc o u rse th a t a c c o m p a n ie d th e p ra c tic e o f p o litics. T h u s , I c a n r e s p o n d to C r u z ’s “b lu n t q u e stio n s. . . . A re th e ir [p o ­ litica l a c to rs’] a c tio n s c o n s iste n t w ith th e ir w ords? In th e c ru d e s t te rm s, d o th e y ad h ere, d o th e y d eliver?”20 T o ea ch o f th o s e q u e stio n s, th e ev id en c e re sp o n d s w ith a re s o u n d in g n o . R egardless o f w h e th e r El S alv a d o r h a d a p o litic a l c u ltu re o f a u th o ri­ ta ria n ism , a n d regardless o f w h e th e r th a t c u ltu re fu n c tio n e d as a n a u to n o ­ m o u s variab le, th e e v id en c e sh o w s clearly th a t p o litic s in El S alv a d o r fu n c ­ tio n e d in a n a u th o rita ria n m a n n e r. T h a t sy stem e v e n tu a lly to o k th e fo rm o f a re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n la n d e d elites a n d g o v e rn in g m ilita ry officers. In th is reg ard , th e ev id en c e su g g ests th a t th e p re v a ilin g c o m p a ra tiv e sc h o la r­ sh ip is co rrect: a d e fin in g fe a tu re o f El S a lv a d o r’s m o d e rn h is to ry is th e u n ity o f its elite se c to r a n d th e d u ra b ility o f th e e lite -m ilita ry alliance, h o w ev e r c o m p le x a n d d iv erse it m a y h a v e b e e n .21

a

p

p

e

n

d

i

x

Table A1. The Presidents o f El Salvador, 1840—1944 G eneral Francisco M orazán

June 8, 1839, to February 16, 1840

José M aría Silva

February 16, 1840, to M ay 20, 1840

A ntonio José Cañas

M ay 20, 1840, to Septem ber 20, 1840

N orberto Ramírez

Septem ber 20, 1840, to January 7, 1841

Juan Lindo*

January 7, 1841, to February 1, 1842

G eneral José Escolastico M arín

February 1, 1842, to A pril 13, 1842

Juan J. G uzm án

April 13, 1842, to June 30, 1842

D ioniso V illacorta

June 30, 1842, to July 19, 1842

G eneral José Escolastico M arín

July 19, 1842, to Septem ber 26, 1842

Juan J. G uzm án

Septem ber 26, 1842, to January 26, 1843

Pedro Arce

January 26, 1843, to M arch 8, 1843

Juan J. G uzm án

M arch 8, 1843, to January 31, 1844

Ferm ín Palacios

January 31, 1844, to February 1, 1844

G eneral Francisco M alespín

February 1, 1844, to M ay 9, 1844

Joaquín Eufrasio G uzm án

M ay 9, 1844, to June 16, 1844

G eneral Francisco M alespín

June 16, 1844, to O ctober 25, 1844

Joaquín Eufrasio G uzm án

O ctober 25, 1844, to February 16, 1845

Ferm ín Palacios

February 16, 1845, to April 22, 1845

Joaquín Eufrasio G uzm án

April 22, 1845, to February 1, 1846

Ferm ín Palacios

February 1, 1846, to February 21, 1846

Eugenio Aguilar

February 21, 1846, to July 12, 1846

Ferm ín Palacios

July 12, 1846, to July 21, 1846

Eugenio Aguilar*

July 21, 1846, to January 31, 1848

Tomás M edina

February 1, 1848, to February 3, 1848

Félix Q uirós

February 3, 1848, to February 7, 1848

D oroteo Vasconcelos*

February 7, 1848, to January 26, 1850

R am ón Rodríguez

January 26, 1850, to February 1, 1850

357

358

A p p e n d ix

Table A1. (continued) M iguel Santín del Castillo

February 1, 1850, to February 4, 1850

D oroteo Vasconcelos

February 4, 1850, to January 12, 1851

Francisco D ueñas

January 12, 1851, to M arch 1, 1851

Félix Q uirós

M arch 1, 1851, to M ay 13, 1851

Francisco Dueñas*

M ay 13, 1851, to February 1, 1854

V icente Góm ez

February 1, 1854, to February 13, 1854

José M aría San M artín

February 15, 1854, to Septem ber 26, 1854

M ariano H ernández

Septem ber 26, 1854, to N ovem ber 13, 1854

José M aría San M artín*

N ovem ber 13, 1854, to February 1, 1856

Francisco D ueñas

February 1, 1856, to February 12, 1856

Rafael C am po

February 12, 1856, to M ay 16, 1856

Francisco D ueñas

M ay 16, 1856, to July 16, 1856

Rafael Cam po*

July 16, 1856, to January 31, 1858

Lorenzo Z epeda

January 31, 1858, to February 7, 1858

M iguel Santín del Castillo

February 7, 1858, to June 24, 1858

G eneral G erardo Barrios

June 24, 1858, to Septem ber 20, 1858

M iguel Santín del Castillo

Septem ber 29, 1858, to January 9, 1859

Joaquín Eufrasio G uzm án

January 9, 1859, to February 15, 1859

José M aría Peralta

February 15, 1859, to M arch 9, 1859

G eneral G erardo Barrios

M arch 9, 1859, to D ecem ber 15, 1860

José M aría Peralta

D ecem ber 15, 1860, to February 9, 1861

G eneral G erardo Barrios*

February 9, 1861, to O ctober 26, 1863

Francisco Dueñas*

O ctober 26, 1863, to April 1, 1871

G eneral Santiago González*

April 1, 1871, to M ay 1, 1872

M anuel M éndez

M ay 1, 1872, to July 9, 1872

G eneral Santiago González*

July 9, 1872, to February 1, 1876

Andrés Valle

February 1, 1876, to A pril 30, 1876

Rafael Zaldívar*

April 30, 1876, to April 6, 1884

Angel G uirola

April 6, 1884, to August 21, 1884

Rafael Zaldívar

August 21, 1884, to M ay 15, 1885

G eneral Fernando Figueroa

M ay 15, 1885, to June 18, 1885

José Rosales

June 18, 1885, to June 22, 1885

G eneral Francisco Menéndez*

June 22, 1885, to June 22, 1890

G eneral Carlos Ezeta*

June 22, 1890, to June 9, 1894

G eneral Rafael Gutiérrez*

June 9, 1894, to N ovem ber 13, 1898

G eneral Tomás Regalado*

N ovem ber 13, 1898, to February 28, 1903

Pedro José Escalón*

M arch 1, 1903, to February 28, 1907

G eneral Fernando Figueroa*

M arch 1, 1907, to February 28, 1911

A p p e n d ix

M anuel E nrique Araujo*

359

February 28, 1911, to February 8, 1913

Carlos Meléndez*

February 9, 1913, to August 28, 1914

Alfonso Q uiñónez M olina

August 28, 1914, to February 28, 1915

Carlos Meléndez*

February 28, 1915, to D ecem ber 21, 1918

Alfonso Q uiñónez M olina

D ecem ber 21, 1918, to February 28, 1919

Jorge Meléndez*

February 28, 1919, to February 28, 1923

Alfonso Q uiñónez Molina*

February 28, 1923, to February 28, 1927

Pío Rom ero Bosque*

February 28, 1927, to February 28, 1931

A rturo Araujo

February 28, 1911, to D ecem ber 2, 1931

G eneral M axim iliano H . M artínez* D ecem ber 2, 1931, to August 28, 1934 G eneral Andrés M enéndez

August 28, 1934, to February 28, 1935

G eneral M axim iliano H . M artínez* February 28, 1935, to M ay 8, 1944 Sources:

H ern án d ez,

B io g r a fía s d e v ic e n tin o s ,

173—177; a n d Taplin,

M id d le A m e r ic a n

G overnors,

9 6 -1 0 3 . N o t e : A n asterisk (*) denotes a p resident w ho rem ained in office for m ore th an twelve m onths consecutively.

360

A p p e n d ix

Table A2. Political Continuity under the PND, 1920—1927, San Vicente and Ahuachapán Departments San Vicente D epartment

Did any officials serve in more than one administration for the elections of 1920, 1921, 1923, or 1925? If so,who were they, and in which years were they elected?

Did any different persons bearing the same surname appear more than once? If so, what was the name, and in which years did it appear?

Municipality Apastepeque Guadalupe

No Vega 1920, 1921 Platero 1920 (2x) Miguel Menjívar 1920, 1923 José Obulio Hernández 1921, 1925 Marroquín 1920, 1923 Rodríguez 1920, 1923 Guadalupe Montoya 1921, 1925 Henríquez 1921, 1923 1925 (2x) Cerritos 1921, 1923

San Cayetano

José Coreas 1920, 1923 Vicente Flores, 1920, 1923

Fernández 1920, 1921

San Estebán

Rubén Acevedo 1920, 1925 José Vicente 1921, 1925

Durán 1921 (2x), 1925 Acevedo 1920 (2x), 1925 Aguilar 1923 (2x)

San Idelfonso

Francisco Panameño 1920, 1923

Marín 1920, 1921, 1923 Artiga 1920, 1923 Amaya 1920, 1923 Panameño (1920, 1923), 1921

San Lorenzo

Mateo Merino 1920, 1923

Acevedo 1923, 1925

San Sebastián

Fidel Burgos 1920, 1923 Alberto Rodríguez 1920, 1923

Barahona 1920 (2x), 1921 (2x) Alfaro 1921, 1923, 1925 Burgos (1920, 1923), 1921

San Vicente

José María Arévalo 1920, 1923 Cárlos Vidal 1920, 1923 Guadalupe Cañas 1920, 1923 Constantino Ticas 1920, 1923 Miguel Lara Iraheta 1920, 1925 José Luís Ticas 1921, 1925

Ticas (1920, 1923), 1921, 1925 Castillo 1920, 1921

A p p e n d ix

Santa Clara

361

Florentino Flores 1920, 1923

Cerritos 1920, 1921, 1923 Merino 1923, 1925

Santo Domingo No

Meléndez 1920, 1921, 1923, 1925

Tecoluca

Coronado Choto 1920, 1923

Corpeño 1920, 1921 Cañas 1920, 1921 Choto (1920, 1923), 1921 Flores 1920, 1923 Rodríguez 1923 (2x)

Verapáz

Manuel Durán 1920, 1923

Durán (1920, 1923), 1921

Sources:

List o f m unicipal officials elected in San V icente D e p a rtm e n t in D ecem ber 1920, com ­

piled by G overnor o f San V icente D e p artm en t, D ecem ber 14, 1920, A G N , M G , SSV, 1923, Box 3; List o f m unicipal officials elected in D ecem ber 1921, fo u n d in A G N , M G , 1915, Box 1; List of m unicipal officials elected in D ecem ber 1923, A G N , M G , 1923, Box 4; an d List o f m unicipal officials elected in D ecem ber 1925, A G N , M G , unclassified box. K ey:

T h e sym bol (2x) m eans th a t the surnam e appeared twice in the same year. W h e n tw o years

are listed to g eth er in brackets (1 9 2 0 , 1923), it m eans th a t in those years th e surnam e is represented by th e sam e person. T h e m aternal surnam es rarely were listed in the docum ents.

Ahuachapán D epartment

Did any officials serve in more than one administration for the elections of 1920, 1921, 1923, or 1925? If so, who were they, and in which years were they elected?

Did any different persons bearing the same surname appear more than once? If so, what was the name, and in which years did it appear?

Ahuachapán City

No

Padilla 1920, 1921 Calderón 1920, 1921 Arriaza 1920, 1923 Avelar 1920, 1925 Contreras 1925 (2x) Rodríguez 1921, 1923

Apaneca

No

Morán 1920, 1921 Mata 1920, 1925

Ataco

Porfirio García 1920, 1923 Antonio Hernández 1920, 1925

Cardona 1920 (2x) Aguirre 1920, 1923 Arévalo 1921 (2x), 1925

Municipality

362

A p p e n d ix

Table A2. ( continued ) Atiquizaya Simeón Vega 1920, 1923 Isidro Góchez 1921, 1925 Guaymango

Valeriano Valencia 1920, 1923 José Alvarenga 1921, 1925

Ortíz 1920, 1921 Góchez 1920, 1921, 1925 (2x) Castañeda 1920 (2x), 1921, 1923 Monroy 1920, 1921

Jujutla

Luís Rivera 1920, 1921 Eligio de Mata 1920, 1925 Daniel Girón 1920, 1925

Martínez 1920, 1925 Ibañez 1921, 1923

El Refugio

Miguel Rodríguez 1920, 1923 Eugenio Castro 1921, 1925

Rodríguez 1920, 1923 (2x) Vega 1920, 1923

San Francisco

Domingo Tobar 1920, 1923 Felícito Fajardo 1920, 1923

Arévalo 1920, 1923 (2x) Alvárez 1921, 1925 Castillo 1921, 1925

San Lorenzo

No

Rodríguez 1920, 1921, 1925 Sermeño 1920, 1923

San Pedro Pustla

Estebán Montenegro 1920, 1923 Celso Castañeda 1921, 1925

Quezada 1920, 1925 Padilla 1921, 1923

Turín

Santiago Chicas 1920, 1925

Canizález 1920, 1923 Chicas (1920, 1925), 1921

Sources:

List o f m unicipal officials elected in A h uachapán D e p a rtm e n t in D ecem ber 1920, com ­

piled by G overnor o f A h uachapán D ep artm en t, January 12, 1921, A G N , M G , unclassified box; List o f m unicipal officials elected in D ecem ber 1921, fo u n d in A G N , M G , 1915, Box 1; List of m unicipal officials elected in D ecem ber 1923, A G N , M G , 1923, Box 4; an d List o f m unicipal officials elected in D ecem ber 1925, A G N , M G , unclassified box. K ey:

T h e sym bol (2x) m eans th a t the surnam e appeared twice in the same year. W h e n tw o years

are listed to g eth er in brackets (1920, 1923), it m eans th a t in those years th e surnam e is represented by th e same person. T h e m aternal surnam es rarely were listed on th e docum ents. T acuba was ex­ clu d ed for reasons discussed a t th e e n d o f ch ap ter 5. E x p la n a to r y S u m m a r y :

T h e m aterial co n tain ed in Table A 2 is ad m ittedly spraw ling an d difficult to

co m p reh en d at first glance. T h e evidence represents surveys o f the officials elected to m unicipal office in A h uachapán an d San V icente d ep artm en ts betw een 1920 an d 1927, d uring the era o f the M elén d ez-Q u iñ ó n ez dynasty an d th eir political party, the P N D . T h e sim ple appearance o f the various nam es a n d th e dates b eh in d th e m on these lists shows th e c o n tin u ity th a t occurred in local officeholding u n d er the P N D . Basically, once a local political netw ork, represented by the in d i­ viduals on this list, got into local pow er u n d er the P N D , it stayed there a n d held office for m any consecutive elections. I in terp ret this in fo rm atio n as evidence o f the centralizing consolidation of the patronage system u n d er th e P N D .

A p p e n d ix

363

Table A3. The Transition to Pío Romero Bosque in the Elections of December 1927, San Vicente and Ahuachapán Departments San Vicente D epartment

Did any officials elected in 1927 serve in an administration from 1920, 1921, 1923, or 1925? If so, who were they, and in which years had they also served?

Did any persons bearing the same surname as one of the officials from 1927 serve in prior administrations? If so, what was the name, and in which year(s) did they serve?

Apastepeque

Jesús Vega 1921 Jesús Cubías 1921

No

Guadalupe

Miguel Menjívar 1920, 1923 Magdeleno Chávez 1921, 1927

Henríquez 1921, 1923, 1925 (2x)

San Cayetano

Vicente Flores 1920, 1923

No

San Estebán

Joaquín Rivera 1920

Acevedo 1920 (2x), 1925

San Idelfonso

No

Artiga 1920 Marín 1920

San Lorenzo

Domingo Ponce 1923

Cubías 1921, 1923

San Sebastián

Pedro Juan Alfaro 1921

Alfaro 1923, 1925 Guzmán 1921 Barahona 1920 (2x) , 1921 (2x)

San Vicente

No

No

Santa Clara

Gregorio Ramos 1920

No

Municipality

Santo Domingo No

Quintanilla 1921 Platero 1921

Tecoluca

Bonifacio Choto 1921

Ortíz 1921 Choto 1920, 1923

Verapáz

Moisés Alfaro 1921

Lozano 1920 García 1925

Source:

List o f m unicipal officials elected in San V icente D ep artm en t, D ecem ber 1927, A G N ,

M G , SSV, 1927, Box 1, com pared to d ata in Table A2.

364

A p p e n d ix

Table A3. (continued ) Ahuachapán Departm ent

Municipality

Alcalde

Had the alcalde served in any of the administrations that came to power in 1920, 1921, 1923, or 1925? If so, when?

Ahuachapán

Rigoberto Pinel

No

No

Apaneca

Israel Rodriquez

No

No

Ataco

Angel Arévalo

No

Teodoro Arévalo 1921 José Antonio Arévalo 1921 Vicente Ortiz Arévalo 1925

Atiquizaya

Antonio Luna

No

No

Guaymango

Rosalio Castañeda

No

Antonio Suriano Castañeda 1921 Miguel Valiente Castañeda 1921

Did any person bearing the alcalde’s surname serve in those prior administrations? If so, who, and when?

Rómulo Castañeda 1923 Máximo Castañeda 1923 Jujutla

Mariano Aguirre

No

Emilio Aguirre 1923

El Refugio

Benjamín Cárcamo

No

José Cárcamo 1923

San Francisco

Carlos Doral

No

No

San Lorenzo

Baudilio Luna

No

Emigdio Luna 1925

San Pedro Pustla Adolfo Padilla

Yes, 1921

No

Turin

No

No

Source:

Germán Molina

List o f alcaldes elected n atio n w id e in D ecem b er 1927,

D i a r io d e l S a lv a d o r ,

D ecem ber 14, 1927, 5, com pared

to data in Table A2. N o te :

T he m u n icip ality o f T acuba was excluded for the reasons discussed a t the en d o f chapter 5.

E x p la n a to r y S u m m a r y :

T h e m aterial c o n tain ed here in Table A 3, like th a t in A 2 above, is spraw ling an d difficult to

c o m p reh en d at first glance. T h e evidence represents surveys o f the officials elected to m unicipal office in A huachapán an d San V icente d ep artm en ts in D ecem b er 1927, in th e first elections held u n d er the new a d m in istratio n o f Pío R om ero Bosque. T h e goal o f th e survey was to determ ine w h eth er there was any significant changeover in local of­ ficeholding in th e tra n sitio n fro m M elén d ez-Q u iñ ó n ez a n d th e P N D to R om ero Bosque. U sing co m m o n surnam es as a rough in d icato r o f k in sh ip relations, th e appearance o f th e nam es o n these lists suggests a c o n tin u ity in office­ holding. Basically, R om ero B osque h a d only lim ite d success in b rin g in g a b o u t changeover in local office, suggesting th a t th e patronage netw orks th a t d o m in ated m un icip al office u n d e r th e P N D c o n tin u e d to do so.

Table A4. The Transition to Pío Romero Bosque in the Elections of December 1929, Ahuachapán Department

Municipality

Did any officials serve in more than one administration for the elections of 1920, 1921, 1923, or 1925? If so, who were they, and in which years were they elected?

Did any different persons bearing the same surname appear more than once? If so, what was the name, and in which years did it appear?

Ahuachapán

Rafael Rivas 1923

Calderón 1920, 1921, Equizabel 1920

Apaneca

Luís Melgar 1923 Nicolás Herrera 1923

No

Ataco

Toribio Chávez 1923 Tomas Hernández 1921, 1925 Gregorio Alvarado 1920

No

Atiquizaya

Simeón Vega 1920, 1923

Noyola 1920

Guaymango

Valerianco Valencia 1920, 1923

García 1921

Jujutla

Venancio Urutia 1923

No

El Refugio

No

Avévalo 1920

San Francisco

Abrahám Ruíz 1921

No

San Lorenzo

No

Cárcamo 1923

San Pedro Pustla Carlos Tadeo Jiménez 1920 Celso Castañeda 1921, 1925

No

Turín

Betancourt 1920 Flores 1920 Canizales 1920, 1923

Source:

No

List o f m unicipal officials elected in A h uachapán D ep artm en t, D ecem ber 1927, A G N ,

M G , unclassified box. N o te :

T h e m unicipality o f T acuba was excluded for th e reasons discussed in chapter 5.

E x p la n a to r y S u m m a r y :

T h e m aterial co n tain ed here in Table A 4, like th a t in A3 above, is spraw ling

an d difficult to co m p reh en d a t first glance. T h e evidence represents surveys o f th e officials elected to m unicipal office in A h uachapán D e p a rtm e n t in D ecem ber 1929, u n d er the ad m inistration of Pío R om ero Bosque. T h e goal o f the survey was to determ ine if any m ore changeover in local of­ ficeholding occurred d u rin g the transition fro m M elén d ez-Q uiñónez a n d the P N D to R om ero in 1929 th an h ad occurred in 1927. U sing co m m o n surnam es as a rough indicator o f kinship rela­ tions, the appearance o f th e nam es on these lists suggests th a t a degree o f c o n tin u ity in officehold­ ing sim ilar to th a t o f 1927 typified the elections o f 1929 as well. Basically, R om ero c o n tin u ed to have lim ited success in bringing ab o u t changeover in local office, suggesting th a t the patronage netw orks th a t d o m in ated m unicipal office u n d er the P N D c o n tin u ed to do so.

366

A p p e n d ix

Table A5. Alcaldes Elected in 1937, 1939, and 1941, Departments o f Sonsonate, Ahuachapán, and San Miguel Sonsonate D epartment

Alcalde Elected by Year Municipality

1937

1939

1941

Sonsonate Sonzacate Nahuilingo Nahuizalco Santo Domingo San Antonio Acajutla Juayúa Salcoatitán Masahuat Izalco Cuisnahuat Caluco Ishuatán San Julián Armenia

Abraham Castillo Francisco Portillo Eduardo Valenzuela Rodolfo Brito Pedro Ramos Jacinto Gudiel Juan Escobar José Mata Antonio Salaverría Juan Cardona Carlos Salazar Lino Ruiz Estebán Leonor Pablo de Leon Alberto Englehard Alfredo Morán

Héctor Salaverría Hipólito Rosa Pablo Rodríguez Juan Mendoza Manuel Candel Jerónimo Menéndez Juan Escobar José Mata Manuel Canales Abelardo Larín Paulino Herrera Santos Hernández Manuel Guillén Félix Rivera Salvador Díaz Manuel Recinos

Héctor Salaverría Francisco Portillo Rodrigo González Fernando Martínez Manuel Candel Jacinto Gudiel Juan Escobar José Mata Fernando Alarcón Abelardo Larín Carlos Salazar Pablo Martínez Estebán Leonor Ramón Peña Carlos García Manuel Recinos

A dditional Linkages, by m unicipality (includes persons bearing th e sam e surnam e, or the sam e person serving in m ore th an one ad m in istratio n , w ho are n o t co n tain ed in above list):

S o n s o n a te :

none;

S o n z a c a te :

Portillo (elected alcalde in 1937 an d 1941) was also elected to m unicipal council in 1939; nam e G onzález appears in 1939 an d 1941;

N a h u iz a lc o :

Francisco

N a h u ilin g o :

sur-

surnam es Brito a n d M a rtínez appear in 1937 and

1939, Juan C ontreras (elected to m unicipal council in 1939) is cousin a n d political ally o f R odolfo Brito (elected alcalde in 1937) as m en tio n ed in ch ap ter 3; necessary; J u a y ú a , n o t necessary; appears in 1939 an d 1941;

S a lc o a titá n :

M a sa h u a t.

S a n to D o m in g o :

none;

surnam e Santos appears in 1937 an d 1939;

an d Alvarez appear in 1937 an d 1939;

C u is n a h u a t.

none;

A c a ju tla :

not

Iza lc o :

surnam es M artínez

Pablo M artín ez (elected alcalde in 1941) elected to m u ­

nicipal council in 1937, surnam e H ern án d ez appears in 1937 an d 1939; calde in 1939) elected to m unicipal council in 1937; J u liá n :

S a n A n to n io :

surnam e Canales appears in 1937 a n d 1939, surnam e Alarcón

Ish u a tá n :

C a lu c o :

M anuel G uillén (elected al­

surnam e Rivera appears in 1937 an d 1939;

San

Carlos G arcía (elected alcalde in 1941) elected to m unicipal council in 1937, surnam es B arrientos,

Rivera, an d D íaz appear in 1937 an d 1939; A r m e n i a : none.

A p p e n d ix

367

Ahuachapán D epartment

Alcalde Elected by Year Municipality

1937

1939

1941

Ahuachapán Atiquizaya Tacuba Ataco Apaneca Turín San Francisco San Pedro Puxtla Guaymango San Lorenzo Jujutla El Refugio

José Morán José Cárceres Alberto Linares Victor Pineda José Román Antonio Flores Humberto Doratt Narciso Pérez José Torrente Marcial Cárcamo Rafael Morán José Zepeda

Alfonso Borja Juan ? Rogelio Doratt Victor Pineda Israel Rodríguez José Matute Mariano Ruiz Narcisco Pérez Atilio Castro Rafael Perdomo Francisco Carranza José Zepeda

Alfonso Borja Angel Castro Rogelio Doratt Victor Pineda Jorge Luna José Matute Carlos Doratt Erasmo Castro Andrés Ruiz Rafael Perdomo Francisco Carranza José Zepeda

A dditional Linkages, by m unicipality:

A huachapán:

elected in 1937 a n d 1939;

surnam es C árcam o an d Ibarra appear in 1937 a n d 1939;

A tiq u iz a y a :

M iguel C hacón elected in 1937 and 1939, Juan H errera Tacuba:

sur­

nam e M agaña appears in 1937 an d 1939; A t a c o : n o t necessary; A p a n e c a : Jorge L una (elected alcalde in 1941) elected to m unicipal council in 1939, an d a n o th er person bearing surnam e L una elected in 1937; nam e Flores appears in 1937 an d 1939; P u x tla :

S a n F r a n c is c o :

surnam e C astro appears in 1937 an d 1941;

to m unicipal council in 1939;

S a n L o ren zo :

A tiliano C órtez elected in 1937 a n d 1939;

G uaym ango:

T u r ín :

sur­

S a n P edro

José Torrente (elected alcalde in 1937) elected

surnam e Serm eño appears in 1937 an d 1939; J u j u t l a : Francisco

C arranza (elected alcalde in 1939 an d 1941) elected to m unicipal council in 1937;

E l R e f u g io :

n o t necessary.

San M iguel D epartment

Alcalde Elected by Year Municipality

1937

1939

1941

San Miguel Chinameca Sesori Ciudad Barrios Nuevo Eden Uluazapa Moncagua Chirilagua Carolina

José Luís Silva Rosendo Vásquez Daniel Bernal Claudio Portillo Manuel Jerez Manuel Gómez Rodrigo Palacios Rubén Rivera Isidoro Guzmán

José Luís Silva José Recinos Atilio Villafuerte Mónico Quintero Cornado Márquez Fidel Benavides Valentínn Alegría Alberto Grimaldi Francisco Protillo

Alfonso Gustave José Recinos Atilio Villafuerte Carlos Guerra Cornado Márquez Fidel Benavides Atilo Loza Alberto Grimaldi Francisco Portillo

368

Table A5. (continued ) Comacarón Chapeltique San Luis Reina San Gerardo San Antonio Quelapa El Transito San Rafael Oriente Nueva Guadalupe Lolotique San Jorge

Marcos Martínez Joaquín Carballo Clemente Salmerón Luís Araujo Tomás Aguilar Isabel Privado Gonzalo Alvarado Lino Serpas Rodrigo Benavides José Cruz Eleazar Quintanilla

A d ditional Linkages, by m unicipality: 1939;

S e s o ri:

Nicolás Bustillo Marcelo Ortíz Julio Aguirre Enrique Rosa José Guevara Abel Ramírez Alberto García José Amaya José Ulloa José Cruz Eleazar Quintanilla

S a n M ig u e l:

none;

C h in a m e c a :

N u evo E den:

Nicolá Bustillo Marcelo Ortíz Julio Aguirre Enrique Rosa José Guevara Abel Ramírez Rafael Gómez José Amaya Ovidio Zelaya Raúl Molina Celestino Campos

Fernando Pacheco elected in 1937 and

surnam es G uzm án, Bernal, an d A rgueta appear in 1937 a n d 1939;

la O . appears in 1937 an d 1939; M ancogua:

A p p e n d ix

C i u d a d B a r r io s :

D olores Alfonso served in 1937 an d 1939;

surnam e de

U lu z a p a :

none;

surnam e Loza appears in 1937 a n d 1939; R u b én Rivera (elected alcalde in 1937) also elected to

m unicipal council in 1939, José C a m p o s an d A lonso Avilez elected in both 1937 an d 1939; G u zm án appears in 1937 an d 1939; 1937 a n d 1939; 1937 an d 1939;

S a n L u is :

C o m a ca ró n :

none;

C h a p e ltiq u e :

surnam e R am os appears in 1937 an d 1939;

S a n A n to n io :

San G erardo:

surnam e G uevara appears in 1937 a n d 1939;

G onzález appear in 1937 a n d 1939;

E l T r a n s ito :

none;

S a n R a fa e l:

C a r o lin a :

surnam e

surnam es Alvarez a n d Portillo appear in

none;

surnam e Padilla appears in

Q u e la p a :

surnam es Privado and

N u e v a G u a d a lu p e :

Indalecio Lovo

elected in 1937 an d 1939, surnam e Z elaya appears in 1937, 1939, an d 1941, surnam e Funes appears in 1937 an d 1939;

L o lo tiq u e :

none;

S a n Jorge:

Celesino C am pos (elected alcalde in 1941) also elected to m unicipal

council in 1937. Sources:

List o f m unicipal officials fro m election o f D ecem ber 1937, A G N , M G , 1938 unclassified paquete;

List o f m unicipal officials selected in D ecem ber 1939, A G N , M G , 1939, unclassified paquete; List o f m u ­ nicipal officials selected in D ecem ber 1941, A G N , M G , 1942, unclassified paquete, Folder #181.3. N o te :

Elections after 1935 occurred every tw o years, an d after 1939 the m unicipal officials were a ppointed

directly by the governm ent w ith o u t a corresponding election. E x p la n a to r y S u m m a r y :

As in tables A 2, A 3, an d A 4 above, the evidence co ntained in this table surveys m u ­

nicipal officeholders over successive elections to determ ine w h ether changeover in office was occurring. T h e focus in th e table itself is solely on the position o f alcalde (with additional officers described in th e paragraphs below th em ), a n d the “elections” are betw een 1937 an d 1941, u n d er the regime o f G eneral M artínez, in three dep artm en ts— San V icente, A h uachapán, a n d San M iguel. By this tim e, m unicipal elections h a d been aban­ d o n ed in favor o f direct a p p o in tm e n t by the central governm ent. H ere again, the goal is to determ ine w hether there was any significant changeover in office, or if the same people ten d ed to hold office year to year. T h e repeated appearance o f th e same individuals (or people bearing th e same surnam e) suggests th a t there was very little tu rn o v er in office. In sh o rt, once a local political netw ork earned th e favor o f the central adm inistration u n d er M artínez, they h eld local office w ith o u t in terru p tio n .

n o t e s

Introduction

1. G eneral M artinez’s full surnam e was H ernández M artínez, b u t he w ent by his m aternal nam e only. 2. Stanley, Protection R acket State . See also Baloyra, E l Salvador in Transition ; Byrne, E l Salvador’s C iv il W ar ; Cabarrus, Génesis de una revolución ; Castro M orán, F unción p o lítica ; Dunkerley, The L ong W ar ; G ordon, Crisis p o lítica ; Grenier, E m er­ gence o f Insurgency ; C. M cC lintock, R evolutionary M ovem ents ; Pearce, P rom ised L a n d ; Serpas, L a lucha p o r un sueño ; and W illiam s and Walter, M ilita riza tio n a n d D e m ilita riza tio n . All o f these works are rife w ith nuance and sophistication, al­

though they ten d to advance the oligarchy-m ilitary alliance as a prevailing feature o f tw entieth-century El Salvador. T h at argum ent is exemplified by com parativist scholars w ho explain El Salvador’s uniqueness vis-a-vis its neighbors, including N icaragua an d Costa Rica, according to the u n ity o f its elites and their close alli­ ance w ith the military. See, for example, Brockett, P olitical M ovem ents ; D unkerley, Power in the Isthm us ; G oodw in, N o O th e r Way O u t ; M ason, C aught in the Crossfire; Paige, Coffee a n d Power ; an d W ickham -Crowley, Guerrillas a n d Revolu­ tio n .

3. D alton, E l Salvador, and E l Salvador: monografía . Some other examples of the em ergent counternarrative include Arias, F arabundo M a r tí ; Browning, E l Sal­ vador ; Carpio, Secuestro y capucha ; D alton, M ig u e l M a rm o l ; D om inguez Sosa, E n ­ sayo histórico ; and Menjivar, A cum ulación originaria . See also G ould and

Lauria-Santiago, To Rise in D arkness ; Lauria-Santiago, A grarian Republic ; and Lindo-Fuentes, C hing, an d Lara-M artinez, R em em bering a Massacre ; as well as C hing, “In Search o f the Party,” in w hich I place the organizational im petus o f the 1932 uprising in peasant autonomy. 4. See, for example, G uardino, Tim e o f Liberty ; C. M éndez, Plebian Re­ p u b lic ; Salvatore, W andering Paysanos ; Sanders, Contentious Republicans; and

J. W ood, Society o f E q u a lity .

369

370

N o tes to Pages 8 —1 6

5. G uardino, Tim e o f Liberty, 168. 6. H olden, A rm ies w ith o u t N ations, 20. 7. Tilly, Democracy. See also Geddes, P olitician’s D ilem m a. 8. H istorian Aldo Lauria-Santiago describes the archival system in El Salva­ dor in “Historical Research.” 9. D escriptions o f the C o m in tern archive can be found in C hing and Pakkasvirta, “L atin Am erican M aterials”; an d C hing, “C entral A m ericanist.” 10. M y use o f the term p u b lic sphere is naturally draw n from H aberm as, S tructural Transform ation . B ut I use the term broadly, to include a m ore extensive

swath o f society th a n H aberm as’s co m m unity o f bourgeois citizens participating in their rational-critical debate. For discussions o f the lim its o f H aberm as, see C alhoun, “Introduction: H aberm as and the Public Sphere”; for a distinctly Latin A m erican setting, see J. W ood, Society o f Equality, 7—8. 11. W unthrow , C om m unities o f Discourse. 12. Salvatore, W andering Paysanos; and J. W ood, Society o f E quality. See also Scott, D o m in a tio n a n d the Arts. 13. Bushnell and Macaulay, Emergence o f L a tin A m erica; D ym , Sovereign Vil­ lages; Lindo-Fuentes, Weak Foundations; G u d m u n d so n and Lindo-Fuentes, Cen­ tra l A m erica; and Lauria-Santiago, A grarian Republic.

14. Bulm er-Thom as, P olitical Economy; Lindo-Fuentes, W eak Foundations; and Lauria-Santiago, A grarian R epublic . 15. For evidence o f the stark inequities in landholding, especially o f crucial coffee-growing lands, see Asociación Cafetalera de El Salvador, P rim er censo nacional .

16. Lindo-Fuentes, C hing, and Lara-M artínez, R em em bering a Massacre; G ould and Lauria-Santiago, To Rise in Darkness ; Alvarenga, C ultura y ética ; Al­ m eida, Waves o f Protest. 17. Bethell and Roxborough, L a tin America; and Rock, L a tin A m erica in the 1940s.

18. Parkm an, N o n v io le n t Insurrection . 19. L indo-Fuentes and C hing, M o d e rn izin g M in d s ; H olden, A rm ies w ith o u t N a tio n s ; Turcios, A utoritarism o y m odernización; W illiam s and Walter, M ilita ri­ za tio n a n d D e m ilita riza tio n ; Stanley, Protection R acket State ; and Guevara, “M ili­

tary Justice.” 20. L indo-Fuentes and C hing, M o d e rn izin g M in d s ; and Almeida, Waves o f Protest.

21. Byrne, E l Salvador’s C ivil War; Brockett, P olitical M ovem ents. 22. G udm undson, Costa Rica before Coffee; and Yarrington, Coffee Frontier. 23. Colindres, F undam entos económicos. 24. Tilley, Seeing Indians. See also G o u ld ’s To D ie in this Way for seminal

N o tes to Pages 1 6 —2 5

371

treatm ent o f a nation w riting its indigenous population out o f its history. See G ould and Lauria-Santiago, To Rise in Darkness, for a specifically Salvadoran look at the process. See also Euraque, G ould, and H ale, M em orias d e l m estizaje . 25. T he slanted geographic position o f El Salvador can be confusing to people unfam iliar w ith local custom s relating to directions. O n e m ight expect that locals in a nation o n the Pacific O cean w ould refer to the ocean as the west, b u t in fact Salvadorans say it is to their south, th at G uatem ala is to their west, H onduras to the north, and the G u lf o f Fonseca to the east. 26. D rake, Between Tyranny a n d Anarchy, 4. 27. Ibid. T his reliance on D rake’s functionalist definition o f dem ocracy is not m eant to ignore m ore qualitative definitions, such as th at provided by G e­ rardo M unck. H e insists th at definitions o f dem ocracy go beyond process an d take into account the relationship between elected officials and their electorate, and w hether or not voters actually have a say in the m aking o f the policies by w hich they are expected to abide. See M unck, Regimes a n d Democracy, especially 30. 28. A cemoglu and Robinson, Econom ic O rigins . See also Friedm an, M o ra l Consequences.

29. See, for example, W illiam s, States a n d Social E volution ; and M ahoney, Legacies of Liberalism .

30. T he term w eak foundations is borrow ed from Lindo-Fuentes, W eak F oundations .

31. T his discussion o f the debates over developm ent is based o n LindoFuentes and C hing, M o d e rn izin g M in d s, as well as conversations w ith Salvadoran historian K nut Walter. 32. Tilly, Democracy . 33. Even the heralded dem ocracy o f C osta Rica exhibited m uch electoral chicanery well into the tw entieth century. See Lehoucq and M olina, Stuffing the B allot B ox .

34. Form ent, Democracy in L a tin A m erica. 35. For this debate over socioeconom ic structures and the role o f coffee in the rise o f authoritarianism in C entral America, see W illiams, States a n d Social E volution .

36. See G obat, C onfronting the A m erican D ream , especially chapter 8. 37. Yashar, D em a n d in g Democracy . 38. A cemoglu and R obinson, Econom ic Origins, xii. 39. Similar discussions o f this divide between form al and inform al rules can be found in D rake, Between Tyranny a n d A narchy ; H elm ke and Levitsky, In fo rm a l In stitutions ; and W hitehead, “M iners as Voters.”

40. M allon, P easant a n d N a tio n , 15.

372

N o tes to Pages 2 5 —3 1

41. See, for example, Form ent, Democracy in L a tin A m erica ; G uardino, Tim e o f Liberty ; M unck, Regimes a n d D emocracy ; Myers, “Languages o f Politics”;

Posada-Carbó, Elections before Democracy ; Sábato, “O n Political C itizenship”; Sanders, Contentious Republicans ; W arren, Vagrants a n d C itizens ; Wolfe, Everyday N a tio n -S ta te ; and J. W ood, Society o f E quality . Posada-Carbó points out th at elec­

tions in L atin Am erica did n o t grow organically from w ithin, b u t were thrust u p o n the region in 1809, an d thus the referent points were external, m ostly from the U nited K ingdom , France, and the U nited States. Nevertheless, Latin A m eri­ cans actively and rapidly em braced the language o f democracy, an d sometim es even the practices (Elections before Democracy, 4). Form ent observes a surprisingly wide franchise in some areas o f L atin Am erica as early as the 1810s. H e further claims that m any Latin A m erican nations h ad a w ider franchise th a n the U nited States or W estern Europe at th at tim e: “T h e dem ocratic trad itio n in L atin America is far m ore robust th a n m ost scholars have claim ed” (Democracy in L a tin A m erica, xi). Form ent thus contends th at the authoritarian separation com m only ascribed to L atin Am erica vis-a-vis the U nited States or U nited K ingdom was m ore a phe­ nom enon o f the tw entieth century th a n the nineteenth. 42. Myers, “Languages o f Politics,” 37. 43. Ibid., 10, 11, and 20. 44. Sábato, “O n Political Citizenship,” 1299. 45. Ibid., 1303. See also Eiss, In the N a m e o f E l Pueblo, and G randin, “Lib­ eral Traditions.” 46. D rake, Between Tyranny a n d Anarchy, 32—35. 47. See, for example, Schm idt, “Discursive Institutionalism ,” and H all and Taylor, “Political Science.” For an applied example in the C entral A m erican con­ text, see Lehoucq an d M olina, Stuffing the B allot B ox . 48. R. Scott, In stitutions a n d Organizations, 57. Such a claim resembles the com m only used concept o f “habitus,” m ade fam ous by the French theorist Pierre B ourdieu in The Logic o f Practice . See also H olden, A rm ies w ith o u t N ations, 28, note 10, for use o f the concept in a C entral A m erican context. 49. H olden, A rm ies w ith o u t N ations, 19. 50. H elm ke and Levitsky, In fo rm a l Institutions, 7, 21, and 25. 51. G uardino, Tim e o f Liberty, 73. 52. Cruz, P olitical Culture, 9. 53. G uardino, Tim e o f Liberty, 73. 54. Cruz, P olitical Culture, 7. 55. Myers, “Languages o f Politics,” 35. 56. Ibid., 37. 57. T he quote is draw n from H endrick H ertzberg’s review o f A m anda For­ m an’s A W orld on Fire . See H ertzberg, “O ver T here,” 62. For a similar reference to the U.S. South in a com parative context, see Sanders, Contentious Republicans, 188.

N o tes to Pages 3 1 —4 4

58.

373

As just a small sample o f said scholarship, see Bender, Toward an Urban

Vision ; Earle, Jacksonian A ntislavery ; an d McCoy, Elusive Republic .

C hapter 1.

The Rules

1. Asamblea N acional, “Elección de 1895,” A G N , M G , unclassified box. 2. Rivera ow ned coffee fincas in Juayúa and Salcoatitán an d a cattle ranch near Sonsonate City. H e served in various electoral posts in Sonsonate City, in­ cluding regidor in 1888, alcalde in 1891, regidor in 1897, and síndico in 1909 and 1911. H e also was a Sonsonate D ep artm en t deputy to the N ational Assembly in 1912. See “Catalogo de M unicipalidad” and “Libro de actas de elecciones por autoridades de altos poderes, 1908—,” AM S, unclassified boxes. See also “Lista de Propietarios,” D epartam ento Sonsonate, 1917, A G N , M G , SS, unclassified box. 3. A brahán Rivera, Sonsonate, to Prudencio Alfaro, San Salvador, Janu­ ary 16, 1895, A G N , M G , 1895, Box 1. 4. Asamblea Nacional, “Elección de 1895,” A G N , M G , unclassified box. Including Izalco and A rm enia, Alfaro w on the departm ent by a total o f 3,824 votes to 1,003. Carlos M eléndez took A rm enia, an d a th ird candidate, Estanislau Pérez, w on Izalco. 5. “Rectificaciones,” D iario Oficial, January 25, 1895, 137. 6. “Las elecciones a Altos Poderes,” D iario Oficial, January 30, 1895, 161-62. 7. Ibid. 8. If we estim ate El Salvador’s p o pulation at the tim e as 1 m illion people, w ith roughly h a lf being male, and h a lf o f those m en being o f voting age, th e n the m axim um num ber o f eligible voters was around 250,000; thus 60,000 voters rep­ resents around 40 percent o f eligible voters, and probably more. O n e reason to assume that there h ad n o t been widespread stuffing o f the ballot boxes is th at the total num ber o f voters in this election was relatively consistent w ith other national elections that occurred in the decade or so before and after this election. It w ould have been difficult for ballot-box stuffers to have been so careful in their results as to m ake it appear th at the only change in the num ber o f voters was natural dem o­ graphic growth. 9. Lovell and Lutz, D em ography a n d E m pire . 10. For exam inations o f the evolution o f creole nationalism and the form a­ tio n o f an A m erican political identity vis-a-vis Spain, see A delm an, Sovereignty a n d R evolution ; Brading, F irst A m erica ; G randin, “Liberal Traditions”; and Burk­

holder, Spaniards in the C olonial E m pire . 11. T he available literature on Bolívar, including studies o n h im and com ­ pilations o f his writings, is vast. A series o f articles in the H ispanic A m erican

374

N o tes to Pages 4 4 —4 6

H istorical R eview 63, no. 1 (1983) offers a good overview, especially the piece by

Simon Collier, “Nationality, Nationalism, and Supranationalism.” 12. Lecuna and Bierck, Selected W ritings o f B olívar 1:184. 13. Ibid., 191. 14. Throughout Latin America, in the aftermath of independence from Spain and the corresponding rejection of monarchism, a liberal ideology tempo­ rarily prevailed, and leaders like Bolívar looked to the United States, France, and the United Kingdom as the countries that had spawned liberalism and were most active in putting it into practice. I am not trying to suggest here that the political leaders in these countries were necessarily any more adept at merging the letter and the spirit of liberalism. As Bernard M anin points out in T h e Principles o f Representative Democracy, the original representative governments in Europe and America were designed specifically to reject democracy. However, as various schol­ ars have pointed out, in the United States the breakdown of the colonial order fostered an ideology of revolution and liberty that eventually became institution­ alized and served as the foundation upon which modern democracy was built, even if this ideology did not elicit much of a tangible outcome in the immediate aftermath of independence. O n the United States, see G. Wood, Radicalism o f the A m erican R evolution . For good comparative analyses of the United States and Latin America, see Langley, Am ericas in the Age o f R evolution; Fukuyama, Falling B eh in d ; and Grandin, “Liberal Traditions.” 15. For a similar discussion of Bolívar as symbolic of this distinct political trend in the former Spanish America, see Grandin, “Liberal Traditions,” 72—73. 16. See Dym, Sovereign Villages. See also Karnes, Failure o f Union; Rodrí­ guez, C ádiz E xperim ent; Torres-Rivas, H istoria general de Centroamérica 3; Wood­ ward, “Liberal-Conservative Debate,” in Peloso and Tenenbaum, Liberals, Politics, a n d Power ; and Wortman, G overnm ent a n d Society . 17. See Dym, Sovereign Villages, 205. 18. A copy of the 1824 Constitution is found in Gallardo, Cuatro constitu­ ciones.

19. For a comparable debate in Colombia (New Granada), see Sanders, Contentious R epublicans.

20. Guardino, Tim e o f Liberty, 169. 21. Rodríguez, C ádiz Experim ent; and Dym, Sovereign Villages. Both provide good analyses of the similarities and differences between the two constitutions. The voting lists of elections in Sonsonate City in the 1820s and 1830s are located in AMS, unclassified boxes marked “elecciones,” 1820—29 and 1830—39. For a discussion of the European models and the 1812 Cádiz Constitution, see Fitz­ gerald, C onstitutions o f L a tin A m erica, x. 22. Stephens, Incidents o f Travel 2:127.

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375

23. Vega, C am po, an d G óm ez were actively involved in Sonsonate politics during the federation. Each o f th e m served as electores from the departm ent and at various tim es served in the Federal Assembly. After the fall o f the federation, C am po served in the N ational Assembly as a senator in 1841 an d a deputy in 1842; he ran for president on num erous occasions during the 1840s. G óm ez served several term s in the N ational Assembly. H e was also vice president and president o f the republic. Vega rem ained in Sonsonate and participated actively in departm ental politics. See the voting lists and elections results from Sonsonate in AM S, in unclassified boxes m arked “elecciones,” dated by decade. G erardo Barrios served in the Federal Assembly for two years starting in 1834. H e w ent o n to hold num erous offices in El Salvador before eventually becom ing president. Barrios was one o f the m ost influential political figures in nineteenth-century El Salvador. See López Vallecillos, Gerardo Barrios . 24. M anuel G óm ez to C ám ara de D iputados, February 5, 1849, A G N , PB. 25. See Gallardo, Cuatro constituciones, for a copy o f the 1841 constitution. T he quote is draw n from title 4, article 13. T h e references to “hacendados y pro p i­ etarios” are found in num erous instances thro u g h o u t the records relating to Son-

sonate C ity and San V icente City. For specific examples, see C ircular to alcaldes of San V icente D epartm ent from governor o f San V icente, D ecem ber 29, 1849, A G N , M G , SSV, 1849, unclassified box; an d voting list from Sonsonate City dated M arch 31, 1841, AM S, box titled “elecciones, 1840—49.” 26. See Sanders, C ontentious Republicans, especially 172—89; and Appelbaum , M u d d ie d Waters. For a look at the case o f elite retraction o f initial electoral advances in Mexico, see G uardino, Tim e o f Liberty, and W arren, Vagrants a n d C itizens .

27. Wolfe, Everyday N ation-State, 188. 28. O n El Salvador, see G u n d m u n d so n and Lindo-Fuentes, C entral A m erica ; and H errera, “¿Liberales contra conservadores?”. O n G uatem alan conservatism, see McCreery, R u ra l G uatem ala ; Sullivan-González, Piety, Power, a n d Politics ; and W oodw ard, R afael Carrera . Even in those countries where the liberal-conservative divide was m ore pronounced, research shows rival elites to have held com m on views on key issues like econom ic production. See G obat, C onfronting the A m e ri­ can D rea m ; G uardino, Tim e o f Liberty ; and Wolfe, Everyday N a tio n -S ta te .

29. For this com parison, see Sanders, C ontentious Republicans, especially 172—89. See also C. M éndez, P lebian Republic, for another case study. 30. D ym , Sovereign Villages, 205. 31. Ibid., 146. 32. For Mexico, for example, see G uardino, Tim e o f Liberty, 164. 33. G alindo, C artilla d e l ciudadano . A similar use o f the term populacho in Mexico is revealed by Stevens, O rigins o f Instability, 36.

376

N o tes to Pages 5 0 —5 6

34. G ary N ash noted the im portance o f the oral vote in restricting franchise in colonial America. See N ash, “T ransform ation o f U rban Politics.” 35. Letter from Frederick W illiam Taylor, San Salvador, to family, Los A n­ geles, CA, January 11, 1927, FW TP, Box 3, Folder 1. Taylor was an Am erican hired by the Salvadoran governm ent to serve as director general o f agriculture between 1923 and 1927. H e h ad an office in the Palacio N acional and had close contact w ith m ost high-ranking m em bers o f governm ent. 36. T his is a description o f a typical direct election. Indirect elections func­ tioned in the same m anner, except th at they occurred in tw o rounds. In the first round in the cantón, the election resembled a direct election, as the mass voters gathered to vote for electores. T h e second round o f voting occurred in the cabildo, but it was a very small affair, w ith only the handful o f electores participating. 37. T he descriptions o f m unicipal officials are found in the Ramos M unici­ pales, the m unicipal legal codes. See Ley de Ram o M unicipal, A G N , M G , 1908, Box 1; and Proyecto de Ley M unicipal, A G N , M G , 1925, Box 5. See also Lardé y Larín, Recopilación de leyes. 38. T he nullification cases have been placed in a separate collection, Colec­ ción de N ulos (C N ), in the A G N . 39. For elites m aking this claim about politics being dirty business, see, for example, Valencia and M artinez, “Plática con O rlan d o de Sola.” See also Rosen­ berg, C hildren o f Cain, chapter 4, “T h e Laboratory.” See also analyses o f the 1931 presidential election, in w hich none o f the candidates or parties seemed to repre­ sent specifically elite interests, such as th at by G ould and Lauria-Santiago, To Rise in Darkness .

40. Roniger, “Caciquism o an d Cornelism o.” In addition to studying patro n ­ age in Mexico and Brazil, Roniger provides a good overview o f the historiography o f patronage. 41. T he term “leader o n horseback” is from W olf and H ansen, “Caudillo Politics,” 169. For further discussion o f the historiography o f caudillismo and pa­ tronage, see Q uintana, M a x im in o A vila C am acho . 42. See Roniger, “Caciquism o and Cornelism o”; G raham , Patronage a n d Politics ; N unes Leal, Coronelismo ; Eisenstadt and Lem archand, P olitical Clientelism ; H am ill, Caudillos ; Lynch, Caudillos in Spanish A m erica ; M artz, Politics o f Clientelism ; H olden, A rm ies w ith o u t N ations, 18—21; Bieber, Power, Patronage, a n d P olitical V iolence ; and Q u in tan a, M a x im in o A vila C am acho .

43. C halchuapa, N ulo, 1919, A G N , C N , Box 4. 44. Wolfe, Everyday N ation-State, 199. 45. As just a few examples, see G uardino, Tim e o f Liberty ; Sanders, C on­ tentious Republicans ; Wolfe, Everyday N a tio n -S ta te ; W ood, Society o f E q u a lity ;

C. M éndez, P lebian Republic ; Salvatore, W andering Paysanos; W arren, Vagrants a n d C itizens ; Sábato, The M a n y a n d the F ew ; and McCreery, R u ra l G uatem ala .

N o tes to Pages 5 7 —6 2

377

46. A fter their successful coup in 1890, Generals Carlos Ezeta and A ntonio Ezeta doled out dozens o f m ilitary prom otions explicitly for services rendered during the coup. T his will be exam ined in greater detail in chapter 3. T h e docu­ m ents relating to the prom otions are scattered thro u g h o u t A G N , M G , 1891, Box 10. 47. Idelfonso Espinoza, Tejutepeque, to governor, Sensuntepeque, Cabañas D epartm ent, February 17, 1933, A G N , FA, Box 6, folder “persecusión crim inal, 1933.” 48. As just one example, see the editorial in the liberal newspaper L a Unionistsa, M ay 14, 1895, 1. For a m ore extensive discussion, see H errera, “¿Liberales

contra conservadores?”. 49. See, for example, Sanders, Contentious R epublicans ; M unck, Regimes a n d Democracy ; J. W ood, Society o f E qu a lity ; W arren, Vagrants a n d C itizens ; Myers,

“Languages o f Politics” ; Form ent, Democracy in L a tin A m erica ; Sábato, “O n Po­ litical Citizenship”; W hitehead, “M iners as Voters” ; W arren, “Elections and Popular Participation”; Peloso, “Electoral Reform ,” in Peloso and T enenbaum , Liberals, Politics, a n d Power ; and Posada-Carbó, Elections before Democracy. Luis

R oniger points out th at this debate had been going on am ong Brazilian historians, w ith the traditional approach being offered by V ictor N unes Leal and the revi­ sionist line being taken by P. Carm ack and M . I. Pereira. See Roniger, “C aciqu­ ismo and C ornelism o,” 79. 50. For works th at co ntend th at there was widespread franchise, see Nash, “T ransform ation o f U rban Politics” ; Foster, Their Solitary Way, especially appen­ dix A, “T he M assachusetts Franchise in the Seventeenth C entury” ; and Brown, “T he Controversy over the Franchise.” Brown offers a good overview o f the histo­ riographical debate. For a w ork th at challenges the idea o f a broad franchise, see the rebuttal to Brown by Wall, “T h e Franchise in S eventeenth-C entury Massa­ chusetts.” 51. Rouquié, The M ilita ry a n d the State, 35. 52. From Sala M unicipal, Sonsonate City, to surrounding m unicipalities, D ecem ber 9, 188?, A G N , M G , Box “Política 1882, 84, 86, 87, 88.” 53. For reference to the landholdings and prom inence o f the Barrientos and Castillo families, see “Personas notables del departam ento de Sonsonate,” 1897, A G N , M G , SS, unclassified box; “N o m in a de las señoras y señoritas honorables de esta ciudad,” Izalco, O ctober 28, 1904, A G N , M G , SS, Box 3; “Listas de los agricultores principales agricultores de la ciudad y jurisdición de Izalco,” M arch 8, 1912, A G N , M G , SS, Box 3; Directorio comercial, 508—9. 54. Junta Electoral, Santa Ana, O ctober 1841, A G N , PB; Ju n ta Electoral, Sonsonate, D ecem ber 12, 1841, AM S, Box “Eleccions, 1840—9 ”; Ju n ta Electoral, Sonsonate, D ecem ber 11, 1842, AM S, Box “Eleccions, 1840—9.”

378

N o tes to Pages 6 5 —7 4

55. For a description o f C am po’s political activities, see Bancroft, H istory o f C entral A m erica 3:397; Gallardo, Papeles históricos 1:87; and López Vallecillos, Gerardo Barrios 1:260—82, 382, 394. For C am po’s electoral activities, see lists of

electoral participants and voting results in Sonsonate C ity in AM S, Boxes “Elec­ ciones” 1840—9, 1850—9, 1860—9, 1870—9. See also “Catalogo de m unicipalidad, C iudad de Sonsonate,” AMS. 56. Article 64 o f the 1841 C onstitution. T h e law was dropped in the 1864 charter. See Gallardo, Cuatro constituciones . 57. Elections took place in May, August, and D ecem ber o f 1841. See elec­ tions records in AM S, Box “Elecciones, 1840—9.” 58. Junta de Elección, Atiquizaya, August 14, 1841, A G N , PB; Ju n ta de Elección, San A ntonio, D ecem ber 3, 1843, AM S, Box “Elecciones, 1840—9 ”; Junta de Elección, Sonzacate, D ecem ber 3, 1843, AM S, Box “Elecciones, 1840— 9”; Junta de Elección, Santa C atarina M asahuat, D ecem ber 4, 1853, AM S, “Box Elecciones 1850—9.” 59. T he results are fo und grouped together in a packet m arked “Elección de Altos Poderes, 1891,” A G N , M G , unclassified box. 60. T he Office o f the G overnm ent, San Salvador, to the governor o f San V icente D epartm ent, February 14, 1852, A G N , SSV, 1852, unn u m b ered box. 61. Junta Electoral, Sonsonate, D ecem ber 11, 1864, A G N , M G , unclassi­ fied box. 62. As m entioned previously, see G u d m u n d so n and Lindo-Fuentes, Central A m erica, for a discussion o f the lim ited relevance o f these ideological distinctions

in the case o f El Salvador. 63. T he term hombres conservadores is fo u n d in L a Gaceta, N ovem ber 30, 1849. T he term instituciones liberales is from L a Gaceta, D ecem ber 14, 1849. 64. L a Gaceta, Septem ber 15, 1848. 65. L a Gaceta, August 31, 1849. 66. L a Gaceta, D ecem ber 14, 1849. 67. L a Gaceta, D ecem ber 7, 1849. 68. L a Gaceta, M arch 4, 1853. 69. L a Gaceta, M arch 18, 1853. 70. L a Gaceta , April 8, 1953. 71. H errera, “¿Liberales contra conservadores?,” 179—80. 72. T he successive quotations are located in San V icente City, N ulo, 1866, A G N , C N , Box 1; Atiquizaya, N ulo, 1874, A G N , C N , Box 1; Juan Chico and others, Polorós, to Supreme G obierno, A G N , M G , 1892, Box 4; and San Cris­ tobal, N ulo, 1925, A G N , C N , Box 4. 73. R am ón Bautista, Alegría, to departm ental governor, N ovem ber 3, 1927, A G N , M G , unclassified box.

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379

74. M aterials relating to the political battles between Bautista and Iglesias, and lists o f m unicipal officials in Alegría for the period 1890—1938, are found in R am ón Bautista to m inister o f governm ent, D ecem ber 31, 1893, A G N , M G , 1893, Box 5; José Parker, U sulután City, to m inister o f governm ent, D ecem ­ ber 30, 1893, A G N , M G , 1893, Box 10; U sulután D epartm ent, N ulo, 1893, A G N , C N , Box 1; List o f Elected Officials, U sulután D epartm ent, D ecem ber 28, 1896, A G N , M G , unclassified box; Letter from departm ental governor, U sulután City, to m inister o f governm ent, D ecem ber 14, 1907, A G N , M G , unclassified box; List o f Elected Officials, U sulután D epartm ent, D ecem ber 1921, A G N , M G , 1915, Box 1; List o f Elected Officials, D ecem ber 1923, A G N , M G , 1923, Box 4; List o f M unicipal Officials 1927, D iario d e l Salvador , D ecem ber 14, 1927; R am ón Bautista, Alegría, to departm ental governor, N ovem ber 3, 1927, and N o ­ vem ber 5, 1927, A G N , M G , unclassified box; Alegría, N ulo, 1929, A G N , C N , Box 6; Alegría, N ulo, 1931, A G N , C N , Box 9; List o f Elected Officials, D ecem ­ ber 1937, A G N , M G , unclassified paquete, 1938. References to the landholdings o f Bautista and Iglesias are fo u n d in R. M ontoya, “Personas N otables de U sulu­ tán,” to m inister o f governm ent, January 22, 1897, A G N , M G , unclassified box; List o f coffee growers, U sulután D epartm ent, 1926, A G N , M G , 1926, Box 5; and Directorio comercial , 580.

75. E nrique M olina and others, to Prudencio Alfaro, m inister o f govern­ m ent, D ecem ber 14, 1895, A G N , M G , 1895, unclassified box. 76. G overnor o f San Vicente, “Libro en que se copia las partidas notas que ponen a las autoridades del departam ento,” entry for M ay 7, 1845, A G N , M G , SSV, 1845, unclassified box. 77. Villavicencio, San M iguel, to m inister o f governm ent, January 15, 1895, A G N , M G , unclassified box.

C hapter 2.

N ational-L evel N etw orks in Conflict in the N in eteen th C entury

1. G raham , Patronage a n d Politics, 42. See also Bieber, Power, Patronage, a n d P olitical Violence.

2. A discussion o f the influence o f the H aitian Revolution o n the con­ sciousness o f elites thro u g h o u t L atin Am erica can be fo und in Langley, Americas in the Age, especially part 2. See also A delm an, Sovereignty a n d Revolution.

3. G raham , Patronage a n d Politics, 79. 4. For a com parison between Colom bia, M exico, and Brazil, see Sanders, Contentious Republicans, 188.

5. Lindo-Fuentes, W eak Foundations, 50. 6. Ibid., 201; W illiams, States a n d Social E volution, 203.

380

N o tes to Pages 7 9 —9 0

7. Evidence o f the alliance is fo u n d in a letter detailing the transfer of weapons from San M iguel to San Vicente. See Casa de G obierno, San Salvador, to governor o f San V icente, June 2, 1845, A G N , M G , SSV, 1845, unclassified box. 8. “Libro en que se copia las partidas notas que p onen a las autoridades del D epartam ento,” M arch 27, 1845, A G N , M G , SSV, 1845, unclassified box. 9. Ibid. 10. For descriptions o f M arín, M iranda, and their political alliances, see H ernández, Biografias de vicentinos, 43—44, 59—66, 71—75, 81—82. 11. “Libro en que se copia las partidas notas que p onen a las autoridades del D epartam ento,” 1845, April 12 entry, A G N , M G , SSV, 1845, unclassified box. 12. Ibid., M arch 27 entry. 13. Ibid., A pril 8 entry. 14. Ibid., M ay 7 entry. 15. Vasconcelos’s letters are grouped together in a packet in A G N , PB. 16. Cortes, Biografía d e l C apitán General Gerardo Barrios, 53. 17. “Libro en que co n tan las com unicaciones que se dirigen al M inistro, D epartam ento de San V icente,” 1852, O ctober 14 entry, A G N , M G , SSV, 1852, unclassified box. 18. Ibid., August 16 entry. D ueñas’s suspicions about the loom ing revolt are described in the August 6 entry. 19. Ibid., O ctober 9 entry. 20. Ibid., O ctober 25 entry. 21. López Vallecillos, Gerardo Barrios 1:278. T his w ork is particularly valu­ able for historians. W hile trying to construct a narrative history, López Vallecillos ended up reprinting m any o f his docum ents in their entirety. Some o f these m ate­ rials are no longer available in original form. 22. H ernández, Biografías de vicentinos, 45—49; López Vallecillos, Gerardo Barrios 1:315; 2:21.

23. López Vallecillos, Gerardo Barrios 1:302 and 310. 24. Gallardo, Papeles históricos 3:68 25. López Vallecillos, Gerardo Barrios 2:11. 26. Printed in Gaceta d el Salvador, April 4, 1863, and reprinted in López Vallecillos, Gerardo Barrios 2:358. For a reprint o f the order to confiscate the properties, see Gallardo, Papeles históricos 3:49. 27. See sections “E m présito” and “G obernadores” in G allardo, Papeles históricos 3, part 2.

28. T he letter is from April 7, 1863, an d is reprinted in ibid., 163. 29. López Vallecillos, Gerardo Barrios 2:382—90. 30. Gallardo, Papeles históricos 3:95—96; Cardenal, E l po d er eclesiástico, 100-101.

N o tes to Pages 9 0 —9 6

381

31. D iario Oficial, M ay 7, 1890. 32. Castañeda, General M enéndez, 128; G allardo, Papeles históricos 3:96; Ezeta’s reference to the ju n ta is reprinted in E l 2 2 de ju n io , 27. 33. Joaquín Bran, Sonsonate, to m inistro general, June 12, 1894, A G N , M G , 1894, Box 5. 34. San V icente to m inistro general, June 12, and June 13, 1894, A G N , M G , 1894, Box 5. 35. Laragoza to inspector general, June 8, 1894, A G N , M G , 1894, Box 5. 36. A ngulo, U sulután, to m inistro de hacienda, June 8, 1894, A G N , M G , 1894, Box 5. 37. G óm ez, Sonsonate, to m inistro general, June 13, 1894, A G N , M G , 1894, Box 5. 38. San M iguel to m inistro general, June 10, 1894, A G N , M G , 1894, Box 5. 39. For claims on Ezeta’s loans in 1890, see M anuel Sol and other citizens to m inistro de hacienda, August 30, 1894, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 40. Ibid. 41. Zacatecoluca to m inistro general, June 10, 1894, A G N , M G , 1894, Box 5. 42. H urtad o to m inister o f war, D ecem ber 26, 1894, A G N , M G , unclassi­ fied box. 43. Each declaration o f p ro m o tio n contained the same w ording quoted above. T he docum ents relating to the prom otions are stored together in A G N , M G , 1891, Box 10. 44. O n G eneral Rivas, see also Lauria-Santiago, A grarian Republic, 115—19 and 124—26; Lauria-Santiago, “Los indígenas de C ojutepeque”; and Alvarenga V enutolo, C ultura y ética, 50—61. B oth Lauria-Santiago and Alvarenga Venutolo base their analyses o n some o f the same sources em ployed here, b u t w ith vari­ ations in argum ent. Lauria-Santiago emphasizes the autonom y and power o f the peasantry from Cuzcatlán as the driving force b ehind Rivas, and Alvaregna Venutolo stresses the political conflagrations o f the m id-1880s. 45. Castañeda, General M enéndez, 103. 46. José M aría Rivas to m inister o f war, February 7, 1875, A G N , PB. Rivas’s opposition to Barrios also is described in a letter from Lozano, governor o f La Paz, to Irungaray, Septem ber 2, 1863, reprinted in Gallardo, Papeles históricos 3:96. 47. Rivas’s support for M enéndez is described in a letter from M enéndez in the cuartel o f Santa A na in 1885. T h e letter is reprinted in Castañeda, General M enéndez, 49. See also Cardenal, E l p oder eclesiástico, 127—28.

48. Castañeda, General M enéndez, 106. 49. Ibid., 116. 50. Rivas’s revolt o f 1890 is described in a solicitation from the m other o f a son w ho was killed o n January 1, 1890, while defending Sensuntepeque against

382

N o tes to Pages 9 6 —9 9

Rivas’ soldiers: ? to minister of war, January ?, 1890, AGN, M G, 1890, Box 6. The revolt is also made clear in a letter from the municipal authorities of San Juan Tepezontes, who were denouncing a group of citizens from that village who joined up with Rivas during the revolt. See González, San Juan Tepezontes, to minister of government, January 17, 1890, AGN, M G, 1890, Box 1. The post-revolt up­ heavals in Cuscatlán are made evident in the numerous election nullifications ar­ riving from the department. See Cuscatlán D epartment, Nulo, 1890, AGN, CN, Box 1. The revolt is also mentioned in Castañeda, General M enéndez, 121. An order to extend the state of siege in the departments of Cuscatlán and Cabañas owing to the post-revolt anarchy is found in Romero to minister of government, April 18, 1890, AGN, M G, 1890, Box 1. 51. Villavicencio’s alliance with Ezeta is described in a telegram from Ezeta to Colonel Ceballos of San Martín. It reads, “General Horacio Villavicencio is in accord with us. You can now fraternize with him without fear of exposing us.” Ezeta to Ceballos, June 23, 1890, AGN, M G , 1890, Box 5. 52. Rivas’s attack on San Salvador is described in a denunciation from a group of citizens in the municipality of Juyaque. The denunciation is against a another group of persons from the village who went to join up with Rivas, but had only gotten as far as Nueva San Salvador before Antonio Ezeta recaptured the capital. Ines Herrera and others to Supremo Poder Ejecutivo, October ?, 1890, A GN, M G , unclassified box. The events are also described in E l 2 2 de ju n io , 21-32. 53. E l 2 2 de ju n io , 21. 54. Taylor to family, August 5, 1924, and September 12, 1924, FWTP, Folder 1. 55. “Libro en que se copia las partidas notas que ponen a las autoridades del Departamento,” 1845, April 1 entry, AGN, M G, SSV, 1845, unclassified box. 56. “Libro en que contan las comunicaciones que se dirigen al Ministro, Departamento de San Vicente,” 1852, September 11 entry, AGN, M G, SSV, 1852, unclassified box. 57. A decree published in L a Gaceta d el Salvador on August 11, 1854, an­ nounced the formation of the town of Nueva San Salvador on the “llanos de Santa Tecla” (the plain or flatland of Santa Tecla). The municipality was officially re­ named “Santa Tecla” in 2003, but that name seems to have been in use alongside “Nueva San Salvador” for more than a century. 58. López Vallecillos, Gerardo Barrios 1:293-95. 59. Gallardo, Papeles históricos 3:79-82. 60. The decree that divided San Miguel was published in E l Constitucional, June 22, 1865, reprinted in López Vallecillos, Gerardo Barrios 2:471.

N o tes to Pages 1 0 2 —1 0 6

C hapter 3.

383

B u ild in g N etw orks a t the Local Level

1. Baltazar E stupinian, Chinam eca, San M iguel D epartm ent, to José Larreynaga, D ecem ber 22, 1873, in Gallardo, Papeles históricos 3:452. 2. C om andancia

D epartam ental,

San V icente,

to

m inister

o f war,

M arch 29, 1915, A G N , M G , 1915, Box 1. 3. T hom pson, R ain b o w Countries, 245. 4. For a com parative exam ination o f coffee economies, see Roseberry, G udm undson, and Samper Kutschbach, Coffee, Society, a n d Power . Costa Rica is the exemplary case o f a nation in w hich smallholders responded to the o p p o rtu n i­ ties offered by coffee. See also G u d m undson, Costa Rica before Coffee ; and Samper, Generations o f Settlers . See Yarrington, Coffee Frontier, o n Venezuela.

5. See W illiam s, States a n d Social Evolution, chapter 6; and Lindo-Fuentes, Weak Foundations, 116—19, 159—67.

6. See Lauria-Santiago, “Agrarian Republic,” chapters 5 and 6, especially pages 261—88. 7. Lauria-Santiago, “A grarian Republic,” 289. See also 242 for examples o f peasants selling off their plots to speculators. 8. For land figures, see Lauria-Santiago, A grarian Republic ; and LindoFuentes, W eak F oundations . 9. O n indigo p roduction in El Salvador, see Fernández, P intando el m u n d o ; Lauria-Santiago, A grarian Republic ; Lindo-Fuentes, Weak F oundations ; and Rubio Sánchez, H istoria del a ñ il . 10. Lindo-Fuentes, W eak Foundations, 83—87. 11. Lauria-Santiago, “A grarian Republic,” 87—88. 12. D ionisio C oto, Tepetitán, to governor o f San V icente, August 26, 1852, A G N , M G , SSV, 1852, unclassified box. 13. Fernández, P intando el m u n d o . 14. From “Libro en que se copian las notas que se dirigen al G obierno Su­ prem o en el presente año, 1855,” governor o f San V icente, A G N , M G , SSV, 1855, unclassified box. 15. As Jo h n T utino points out, the existence o f debt also reflects the likeli­ hood that laborers h ad a degree o f secure subsistence and th at the landowners needed to resort to coercive measures to force laborers out o f their subsistence. See T utino, Insurrection to R evolution, 296. 16. From a Libro de sentencias, 1878, AM S, 1870—79, unclassified box. 17. T he dozens o f cases are fo u n d in “Libros de sentencias,” w hich are scat­ tered througho u t unclassified boxes in AM S, dated 1860—69, 1870—79, and 1880-89.

384

N o tes to Pages 1 0 6 —1 1 3

18. Transito G aetán, Santiago de M aría, to m inister o f governm ent, N ovem ­ ber 28, 1927, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 19. San A ntonio M asahuat, N ulo, 1903, A G N , C N , Box 3. 20. G iddens, Profiles a n d Critiques, 199. See also James Scott’s Weapons o f the Weak and D o m in a tio n a n d the Arts.

21. Alvarenga V enutolo, “Reshaping the Ethics,” 103—16; and Alvarenga V enutolo, C ultura y ética, 117—24. 22. For studies o f m ass/peasant m ovem ents in the nineteenth century, see Lauria-Santiago, A grarian Republic, “A grarian Republic,” and “Land, C om m unity, and Revolt”; and Kincaid, “Peasants into Rebels.” 23. Transito G aetán, Santiago de M aría, N ovem ber 28, 1927, A G N , M G , unclassified box. T h e role o f liquor is also referred to in a case from Santa C atarina M asahuat, Sonsonate D epartm ent. See, Rafael ?, to departm ental governor, D e­ cem ber ?, 189?, A G N , M G , SS, Box 3. 24. Luis Cotera, Santa Lucia, to departm ental governor, San Vicente, Feb­ ruary 5, 1852, A G N , M G , SSV, 1852, unclassified box. 25. T he career o f G eneral Rivas is discussed in Lauria-Santiago, “Agrarian Republic,” chapter 8; Lauria-Santiago, A grarian Republic, 115—19, 124—26; and Alvarenga V enutolo, C ultura y ética, 4 6 —61. Alvarenga V enutolo refers to Rivas’s relations w ith his In d ian supporters as “a consensual system o f dom ination.” 26. Lauria-Santiago, “Land, C om m unity, and Revolt,” 520. 27. See G uardino, T im e o f L iberty ; and Sanders, Contentious Republicans . 28. See Lauria-Santiago, A grarian Republic ; “A grarian Republic,” especially chapter 8; and “Land, C om m unity, and Revolt.” 29. Salvatore, W andering Paysanos, 10. 30. See C hing, “In Search o f the Party”; and Lindo-Fuentes, C hing, and Lara-M artínez, R em em bering a Massacre. 31. See Lauria-Santiago, A grarian Republic . 32. Libro en que contan las com unicaciones que se dirigen al M inistro, D e­ partam ento de San Vicente, 1852, entries from April 7, June 22, August 6, and Septem ber 11, A G N , M G , SSV, 1852, unclassified box. 33. Idelfonso Espinoza, Tejutepeque, February 17, 1933, to departm ental governor, Sensuntepeque, February 17, 1933, A G N , FA, Box 6. 34. J. T. O sorio, Sensuntepeque, to departm ental governor, Sensuntepeque, February 16, 1933, A G N , FA, Box 6. 35. Atiquizaya, N ulo, 1874, A G N , C N , Box 1; and Directorio comercial, 2 9 -3 1 . 36. C om andante D epartam ental, U sulután City, to R ubén Rivera, San Sal­ vador, D ecem ber 18, 1899, A G N , M G , unclassified box.

N o tes to Pages 1 1 3 —1 1 8

385

37. T he family relations o f the elite o f Juayúa are draw n from a variety o f sources. For relations between the Cea and Salaverría families, see Juayúa, N ulo, 1891, A G N , C N , Box 1. For the arrival o f Jerez an d his marriage into the Salaver­ ría family, see the inaugural copy o f the revista “Lem pa,” July 1934, 15, in A G N , M G , 1934, Box 4. For land w ealth o f all the families and the finca belonging to Jerez’s wife, see report o f coffee production from Alcaldía M unicipal de Juayúa to departm ental governor, June 18, 1926, A G N , M G , 1926, Box 5. For a lengthy description o f social elite o f Juayúa and its interm arriage, see D iario L a Prensa, January 18, 1936, 5. 38. A huachapán City, N ulo, 1888, A G N , C N , Box 1. 39. Juayúa, N ulo, 1891, A G N , C N , Box 1. 40. Pedro Aparicio, Chinam eca, to m inister o f governm ent, M ay 26, 1911, A G N , M G , 1911, Box 3, “N otas varias, mayo.” 41. D ario Rivera and others, Izalco, to departm ental governor, June 27, 1921, A G N , M G , 1921, Box 3. 42. For a case o f an uncle o f the alcalde being elected to a council, see O locuilta, N ulo, 1892, A G N , C N , Box 1. For a father-son team in politics, see San Cayetano Istepeque, N ulo, 1911, A G N , C N , Box 4. For another father-son team , see Santiago de M aría, N ulo, 1934, A G N , C N , Box 10. 43. N om in a de los capitalistas de este D epartam ento expresando aproxim a­ dam ente el capital de cada uno, 1893, governor o f La Libertad, A G N , M G , u n ­ classified box. 44. See lists o f coffee growers, Sonsonate D epartm ent, 1926, A G N , M G , 1926, Box 5. 45. Santiago Texacuangos, N ulo, 1909, A G N , C N , Box 3. 46. For just one example, see police report o n investigation o f a political m eeting in Santa A na in Pedro Aviles to m inister o f governm ent, D ecem ber 4, 1919, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 47. Lislique, N ulo, 1891, A G N , C N , Box 1. 48. Santa Clara, N ulo, 1888, A G N , C N , Box 1. For list o f land, see D irecto­ rio comercial, 422—23.

49. Uluazapa, N ulo, 1897, A G N , C N , Box 2. 50. See H olden, A rm ies w ith o u t N ations, 21 and 27. 51. See Casa de G obierno, San Salvador, to Cojutepeque, February 5, 1849, A G N , PB. For another case, see Casa de G obierno to governor o f San Vicente, January 4, 1863, A G N , PB. 52. La U nion, N ulo, 1899, A G N , C N , Box 2. 53. Alcalde, A popa, to m inister o f governm ent, April 21, 1895, A G N , M G , 1895, Box 10. For land w ealth o f M erino and D uque, see Directorio comercial, 6 9 4 -9 7 .

386

N o tes to Pages 1 1 8 —12 1

54. Santa Elena, N ulo, 1914, A G N , C N , Box 4. For land w ealth o f Lozanos, see Directorio comercial, 547. 55. Juntas de Elecciones, 1886 and 1891, A G N , M G , SS, Box “Política 1890—99, 1900—1908”; Juayúa, N ulo, 1891, A G N , C N , Box 1, see rem aining elections for dom inance o f Cea, M ata, and Salaverría families. For the land wealth o f M ata, Cea, Salaverría, and M endoza, an d the conspicuous absence o f Colonel Pérez, see list o f coffee growers Sonsonate D epartm ent, 1926, A G N , M G , 1926, Box 5; “D irectorio comercial, Agricola y Industrial de la C iudad de Juayúa,” 1917, A G N , M G , SS, Box 6; and Directorio comercial, 528—29. 56. For m en tio n o f Rivas’s alliances w ith local coffee growers, see D irector G eneral de la G uardia N acional to m inister o f governm ent, O ctober 22, 1921, A G N , M G , 1922, unclassified paquete; List o f M unicipal Officials, A huachapán D epartm ent, January 12, 1921, A G N , M G , unclassified box; List o f M unicipal Officials, D ecem ber 1921, A G N , M G , 1915, Box 1; List o f M unicipal Officials, D ecem ber 1923, A G N , M G , 1923, Box 4; List o f M unicipal Officials, D ecem ber 1925, A G N , M G , unclassified box; List o f M unicipal Officials, D ecem ber 1927; D iario d e l Salvador, D ecem ber 14, 1927, 5; List o f M unicipal Officials, D ecem ber

1929, A G N , M G , unclassified box. For lists o f landowners in Tacuba in order to show landholdings o f Rivas’s allies, see Directorio comercial, 17; an d M inisterio de A gricultura, D epartam ento de A huachapán, 192?, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 57. T he quotes are draw n from Jucuapa, N ulo, 1897, A G N , C N , Box 2; and Rafael H idalgo, Jucuapa, to m inister o f governm ent, M arch 2, 1898, A G N , M G , 1898, Box 14. For the im position o f a m em ber o f the Castro clan, see Rufino Castro, alcalde, Jucuapa, to m inister o f governm ent, D ecem ber 16, 1893, A G N , M G , 1893, Box 8. For the land w ealth and social status o f the families involved, see Lista de N otables, D epartam ento U sulután, January 22, 1897, A G N , M G , unclassified box; List o f coffee growers, Jucuapa, 1926, A G N , M G , 1926, Box 5; List o f M unicipal Officials, U sulután D epartm ent, governor o f U sulután to m in ­ ister o f governm ent, D ecem ber 14, 1907, A G N , M G , unclassified box, Directorio comercial, 568—69.

58. For a discussion o f Indian dem ographics, see Tilley, Seeing In d ia n s ; and C hing and Tilley, “Indians, the M ilitary”; Lauria-Santiago, “A grarian Republic,” 205—13; and C hapin, L a población indígena . 59. D onghi, “E conom y an d Society,” 322—26. 60. O n Izalco, see Lauria-Santiago, “Land, C om m unity, and Revolt.” 61. For good discussions o f ethnicity an d ethnic identity in El Salvador, see Lauria-Santiago, A grarian Republic, especially 57—63; Tilley, Seeing In d ia n s ; G ould and Lauria-Santiago, To Rise in Darkness ; and Euraque, G ould, and H ale, M em o­ rias d e l mestizaje, part 4.

N o tes to Pages 1 2 2 —1 2 5

387

62. Cardenal, E l po d er eclesiástico, 147—59. For a good exam ination o f a con­ tem porary Indian com m unity in M orazán, see Amaya, H istoria de Cacoapera . For the classic exam ination o f C entral A m erican Indians, see Adams, C ultural Surveys . 63. C o m ú n de Indígenas, Juayúa, to m inister o f governm ent, July 22, 1867, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 64. A brahán M onsón, Izalco, D ecem ber 9, 1888, and D ecem ber 23, 1888, A G N , M G , SS, Box “Política, 1890-1899, 1900-1908.” 65. See G uardino, Tim e o f Liberty, 233. 66. Wolfe, Everyday N ation-State, 165. 67. For the p o pulation o f Indians in N ahuizalco, as well as in the rest of Sonsonate D epartm ent and in other w estern departm ents, see C hing and Tilley, “Indians, the M ilitary.” For even m ore com plete data, see Tilley, Seeing In d ia n s . 68. T he following description o f politics in Nahuizalco appeared in slightly altered form in C hing, “In Search o f the Party.” See also G ould and LauriaSantiago, To Rise in Darkness, 4 7 -4 8 ; and Alvarenga V enutolo, C ultura y ética, 3 0 6 -2 2 . 69. For the inform ation from 1858, see López, Estadística general, 160-62. For population figures from 1900, see Inform e, governor o f Sonsonate D epart­ m ent, January 12, 1903, A G N , M G , unclassified box. For the privatization o f the com m unal land and the predom inance o f sm allholding in general, see LauriaSantiago, A grarian Republic, especially 148 on Nahuizalco. For the lists o f fincas and their ladino owners, see Directorio comercial, 4 9 4 -9 6 . T h e 1913 survey is from Cerridos, Sonsonate City, to m inister o f governm ent, Septem ber 20, 1913, A G N , M G , SS, Box 5. A 1934 survey shows substantial sm allholding in corn and bean production and lists the agriculturists by name; m ost o f th e m bear typically Indian surnames. See the survey dated July 13, 1934, in A G N , M G , SS, Box 3. 70. T he description is taken from Aldo Lauria-Santiago, “Agrarian Re­ public,” 514-19 , w hich is based o n the records o f the official investigation o f the rebellion. A description o f the rebellion is also contained in the 1913 survey from Cerridos, Sonsonate City, to m inister o f governm ent, Septem ber 20, 1913, A G N , M G , SS, Box 5. 71. Cardenal, E l p oder eclesiástico, 127. 72. T he issue o f rebels in m ilitia uniform s is draw n from Lauria-Santiago, “A grarian Republic,” 514-19, and also from discussions w ith Lauria-Santiago himself, w ho described the evidence in greater detail. I w ould like to th an k Aldo for sharing this inform ation w ith me. 73. Junta de Elección, N ahuizalco, 1887, A G N , M G , SS, Box Política 1890-1899, 1900-1908; N ulo, 1894, A G N , C N , Box 1. 74. G ould and Lauria-Santiago, To Rise in Darkness, chapter 3.

388

N o tes to Pages 1 2 7 —1 3 0

75. T he landholdings o f the Brito and Valdéz families are found in Lista de Agricultores Principales, N ahuizalco, M arch 8, 1912, A G N , M G , SS, Box 3; and in Directorio comercial, 4 9 4 —96. 76. Juan Aviles, N ahuizalco, to m inister o f governm ent, D ecem ber 23, 1896, A G N , M G , 1896, Box 5. 77. Ju n ta de Elección, N ahuizalco, D ecem ber 1901, A G N , M G , SS, Box “Política 1890-1899, 1900-1908.” 78. Ju n ta de Elección, N ahuizalco, D ecem ber 14, 1903, A G N , M G , SS, Box “Política, 1890-1899, 1900-1908.” 79. From m inister o f governm ent to governor o f Sonsonate D epartm ent, April 26, 1926, A G N , M G , 1926, Box 2. 80. From Juan Aviles to m inister o f governm ent, D ecem ber 23, 1896, A G N , M G , 1896, Box 5; see also N ulo, Nahuizalco, D ecem ber 14, 1923, A G N , C N , Box 5; and the Lista de electos, Sonsonate D epartm ent, from departm ental gover­ nor o f Sonsonate to m inister o f governm ent, D ecem ber 13, 1923, A G N , M G , 1923, Box 4. See also the report by Pedro Lúe, N ahuizalco, to Ismael Fuentes, Secretario G eneral del C om ité Q uiñonista, San Salvador, February 24, 1919, IFP. T his latter docum ent, w hich describes a local conflagration between supporters of Alfonso Q uiñónez M olina and Tomás Palomo in the run -u p to the 1920 presi­ dential election, suggests th at Indians were linked to and participated in broader national-level patronage-based networks. 81. T he reference to Rodríguez is fo und in a note from the governor o f Sonsonate D epartm ent to the m inister o f governm ent, Septem ber 9, 1926, A G N , M G , 1926, Box 6. T h e letter from the three ladinos (Leonidas D urán, M anuel González, and Alfredo Alvarado) is transcribed in m inister o f governm ent to gov­ ernor o f Sonsonate D epartm ent, April 26, 1926, A G N , M G , 1926, Box 2. T he letter stated that A ntonio Contreras h ad been m ade alcalde and Rodolfo Brito had been appointed as judge, an d reads, “as Judge he engages in every class o f abuse and venality; he is a heavy b u rd en u p o n the poor and In d ian peoples.” T h e letter also claim ed that Contreras an d Brito ensured th at only their friends and family m em bers were appointed to the police force. 82. N ulo, D ecem ber 1927, N ahuizalco, A G N , C N , Box 5. Also cited in Alvarenga Venutolo, C ultura y ética, 310-11. 83. For example, between D ecem ber 1929 and January 1932, five nullifica­ tio n requests originated from Nahuizalco. T h e respective dates are D ecem ber 1929, August 1930, Septem ber 1930, D ecem ber 1930, and January 1932. See A G N , C N , Boxes 7 an d 9. 84. Request for nullification o f Pedro M endoza as regidor, Septem ber 9, 1930, N ahuizalco, A G N , C N , Box 7.

N o tes to Pages 1 3 0 —1 4 1

389

85. N ullifcation request for D ecem ber 1929 m unicipal elections, Nahuizalco, A G N , C N , Box 7. 86. N ullification request for January 1932 m unicipal elections, Nahuizalco, A G N , C N , Box 9. 87. T he inform ation and quotes from 1858 are found in López, Estadística general, 188—89. T h e population figure from 1900 is found in an Inform e, gover­

nor o f Sonsonate departm ent, January 12, 1903, A G N , M G , unclassified box. T he 1913 survey is found in Cerridos, Sonsonate City, to m inister o f governm ent, Septem ber 20, 1913, A G N , M G , SS, Box 5. For the lack o f haciendas, see also Directorio comercial, 524—25.

88. C uisnahuat, N ulo, 1900, A G N , C N , Box 2. 89. Ibid. 90. T he case o f Tonalá is found in Juan M athé to Supremo Poder Ejecutivo, April 1890, A G N , M G , SS, unclassified box. For the 1858 report, see López, Es­ tadística general, 188—89.

91. Specific figures o n the land distribution in C uisnahuat are not available. For a broad description o f landholding b o th before an d after the privatization process, see Lauria-Santiago, A grarian R epublic . For a specific example, see the list o f land titles in Izalco, August 26, 1896, A G N , M G , SS, unclassified box. T h e list identifies 248 people, almost all o f th e m In d ian comuneros, w ho received plots during the privatization process. T h e vast m ajority o f the plots are less th a n five m anzanas in size. However tw enty-nine o f the recipients received m ore th a n ten manzanas, and tw o people received twenty-five manzanas. 92. For internal politics w ith in indigenous com m unities, particularly in the m idst o f privatization, see D ore, M y th s o f M o d e rn ity ; G uardino, Tim e o f Liberty ; Lauria-Santiago, A grarian Republic ; McCreery, R u ra l Guatem ala; an d Wolfe, E v­ eryday N a tio n -S ta te .

93. Junta de Elección, C uisnahuat, D ecem ber 10, 1900, A G N , M G , SS, Box “Política 1890-99, 19 0 0 -0 8 .”

C hapter 4.

1.

M u n ic ip a l Elections a n d M u n ic ip a l A utonom y, ca. 1 8 8 0 —1 9 3 0

It is impossible to provide a com prehensive list o f these scattered records.

However, substantial groups o f th e m are stored together. For a large collection from Sonsonate D epartm ent for the period 1885 to 1910, see A G N , M G , SS, Box “Política 1890-1899, 1900-1908.” For earlier results from Sonsonate, see boxes in AMS m arked “elecciones,” dated by decade. Results from San V icente D epart­ m ent can be found in the annual logbooks o f the departm ental governor, who recorded election results there at least during the period 1845 to 1870; A G N , SSV.

390

N o tes to Pages 1 4 1 —1 4 8

Lists o f results from A huachapán D ep artm en t can be found A G N , M G , Box “ 1882, 84, 86, 87, 88.” 2. Junta Electoral, N ahuilingo, M ay 31, 1840, AM S, Box “Elecciones, 1840-9.” 3. Junta Electoral, Villa Santa Clara, to G obierno Suprem o, January 3, 1843, A G N , M G , SSV, 1852, unclassified box. 4. Junta de Elección, Sonsonate City, D ecem ber 18, 1864, AM S, Box “Elecciones, 1860-9 .” 5. Junta de Elecciones, Nahuizalco, D ecem ber 14, 1908, A G N , M G , SS, Box “Política 1890-1899, 1900-1908.” 6. San M iguel City, N ulo, 1854, A G N , C N , Box 1. 7. Junta Electoral, Ishuatán, D ecem ber 16, 1889, A G N , M G , SS, Box “Política 1890-1899, 1900-1908.” 8. Junta Electoral, Acajutla, D ecem ber 16, 188?, A G N , M G , unclassi­ fied box. 9. Junta Electoral, Sonsonate City, 1849, AM S, Box “Elecciones, 18 4 0 -9 .” 10. G raham , Patronage a n d Politics, 74. For a discussion o f this same issue in the context o f Mexico, see T utino, Insurrection to R evolution, especially 18. 11. T he rules are set forth in the constitutions and the Ramos Municipales. For the constitutions, see Gallardo, Cuatro constituciones . For copies o f the Ramo M unicipal, see Ley de Ram o M unicipal, A G N , M G , 1908, Box 1; Proyecto de Ley M unicipal, A G N , M G , 1925, Box 5; and Lardé y Larín, Recopilación de leyes. 12. Reference to the two-year wait is m ade in Leonicio Rodríguez, Zacatecoluca, to governor, San V icente D epartm ent, D ecem ber 23, 1849, A G N , M G , SSV, 1849, unclassified box. 13. R oberto Ramírez an d others, Jayaque, to G obierno Suprem o, O cto ­ ber 25, 1890, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 14. Yaloaiquen, N ulo, 1889, A G N , C N , Box 1. 15. Jocoro, N ulo, 1885, A G N , C N , Box 1. 16. Santa A na City, N ulo, 1911, A G N , C N , Box 4. For references to the land w ealth o f the leaders, see Directorio comercial, 4 2 8 -3 1 . 17. Atiquizaya, N ulo, 1873, A G N , C N , Box 1. 18. San Francisco Chinam eca, N ulo, 1903, A G N , C N , Box 3. 19. Jayaque, N ulo, 1891, A G N , C N , Box 1. 20. Just a few examples o f this widely used practice are fo und in Santiago N onualco, N ulo, 1898, A G N , C N , Box 2; Santa Elena, N ulo, 1899, A G N , C N , Box 2; and Santa Elena, N ulo, 1907, A G N , C N , Box 3. 21. Chapeltique, N ulo, 1891, A G N , C N , Box 1. T h e same situation oc­ curred in Arm enia, N ulo, 1897, A G N , C N , Box 2.

N o tes to Pages 1 4 8 —1 5 3

391

22. M ercedes, N ulo, 1908, A G N , C N , Box 3; Tonatapeque, N ulo, 1899,

A G N , C N , Box 3. 23. Examples o f these practices are found in U sulután City, N ulo, 1891, A G N , C N , Box 1; and Santa Clara, N ulo, 1898, A G N , C N , Box 2. For a case of the directorio accepting votes in the m iddle o f the night, see San Pedro Perulapa, N ulo, 1899, A G N , C N , Box 2. For a case o f the directorio counting the votes in private and nullifying votes for the opposition, see Soyopango, N ulo, 1907, A G N , C N , Box 3. 24. San M iguel City, N ulo, 1899, A G N , C N , Box 2. 25. Francisco Pim entel, director de policía, Santiago de M aría, to m inister o f governm ent, D ecem ber 12, 1927, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 26. T he nullification cases have been placed in a separate collection, Colec­ ción de N ulos (C N ), in the A G N . 27. See records relating to Izalco in the 1890 an d 1900 collection o f election records from Sonsonate D epartm ent, found in A G N , M G , SS, Box “Política 1890-1899, 1900-1908.” 28. T he respective quotes are taken from San M iguel City, N ulo, 1897, A G N , C N , Box 2; and Jocoro, N ulo, 1898, A G N , C N , Box 2. 29. Q uote is taken from Santa Rosa, N ulo, 1919, A G N , C N , Box 4. For similar cases, see Ishuatán, N ulo, 1892, A G N , C N , Box 1; and Perulapia, N ulo, 1920, A G N , C N , Box 4. 30. References to “gam bler” are found in Santa Rosa, N ulo, 1919, A G N , C N , Box 4; and Perulapia, N ulo, 1920, Ibid. References to “vago” are found in Chilanga, N ulo, 1897, A G N , C N , Box 2; an d in Santa Clara, N ulo, 1898, A G N , C N , Box 2. T h e reference to “loco” is from San M iguel City, N ulo, 1854, A G N , C N , Box 1. T h e reference to “dishonorable” is fo und in La U nion City, N ulo, 1919, A G N , C N , Box 4. 31. T he quote is taken from Santa Rosa, N ulo, 1919, A G N , C N , Box 4. Reference to “h o n o r” is found in El Rosario, N ulo, 1900, A G N , C N , Box 3. 32. Ishuatán, N ulo, 1898, A G N , C N , Box 2. 33. For analyses o f violence in El Salvador, see Alvarenga V enutolo, C ultura y ética; and H olden, A rm ies w ith o u t N ations.

34. Suprem o G obierno to departm ental governor o f San M iguel, Septem ­ ber 21, 1846, A G N , PB. 35. A huachapán City, N ulo, 1848, A G N , C N , Box 1. 36. San A ntonio M asahuat, N ulo, 1903, A G N , C N , Box 3. 37. M ercedes, 1907, N ulo, A G N , C N , Box 3. 38. Juayúa, N ulo, 1911, A G N , C N , Box 4. 39. Rosario de M ora, N ulo, 1911, A G N , C N , Box 4; Directorio comercial, 708.

392

N o tes to Pages 1 5 3 —1 5 8

40. D irector general de la G uardia N acional to m inister o f governm ent, O c­ tober 22, 1921, A G N , M G , 1922, unclassified paquete. 41. For the electoral history o f San Sebastián during the period 1891 to 1897, see Carlos Caballos, governor o f San Vicente, to m inister o f governm ent, February 27, 1890, A G N , M G , 1890 Box 1; G eronim o Abarca, San Sebastián, to m inister o f war, D ecem ber 16, 1894, A G N , M G , 1894, Box 3; Inform e del G obernador de San V icente en relato a las sucesos en San Sebastián, June 4, 1897, A G N , FA, Box 3. 42. W illiam s, States a n d Social E volution, 2 6 6 —68. 43. Lindo-Fuentes, Weak Foundations, 111—12. T h e figures from 1890s in­ clude only 1890—96. 44. Walter, “Trade an d D evelopm ent,” cited in W illiam s, States a n d Social Evolution, 222.

45. Lindo-Fuentes, W eak F oundations . 46. From a sixty-six-page report from the m inister o f the interior to the N a­ tional Assembly. T h e report is not dated, b u t internal references suggest th at it was presented to the newly ordained assembly in February 1902, A G N , M G , 1901, Box 4. 47. Lardé y Larín, Origines de la Fuerza. 48. Alvarenga V enutolo, C ultura y ética, 145—46. 49. Ibid., 156 -6 8 . 50. See, for example, Alvarenga Venutolo, C ultura y ética, 143 -4 4 ; H olden, A rm ies w ith o u t N ations, 5 8 -6 7 ; W illiam s, States a n d Social E volution ; G uidos

Véjar, E l ascenso; M . M cC lintock, A m erican Connection ; Dunkerley, Power in the Isthm us ; Burns, “M odernization”; and Anderson, M a ta n z a .

51. G obat, C onfronting the A m erican D ream , especially chapter 8. 52. Castañeda, G eneralM enéndez, 5 8 -5 9 . For a descriptions o f the deputies w ho m ade up the assembly o f 1886, see García, A sam blea N acional . 53. For an insider’s look at the process o f presidential succession between 1898 and 1913, see the m em oirs o f E nrique Córdova, M iradas retrospectivas . See also the dispatches o f the U.S. legation in San Salvador for the period 1910 to 1914, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/118 to 816.00/190. For secondary accounts o f the transfers, see M inisterio de Educación, H istoria de E l Salvador ; W hite, E l Salva­ dor ; and Cárdenal, E l p o d e r eclesiástico.

54. T hom as Dabney, chargé d ’affaires ad interim , San Salvador, to U.S. sec­ retary o f state, O ctober 29, 1910, USN A , RG 59, 816.00/119. 55. Villavicencio’s political m achinations generated a copious am ount o f ap­ peals to the governm ent on the part o f Regalado affiliates. See, for instance, N ulo, San V icente, 1898, A G N , C N , Box 1; N ulo, Tonatepeque, 1899, A G N , C N , Box 2; Abel M agaña, San Francisco de G otera, to m inister o f the interior, Septem-

N o tes to Pages 1 5 8 —1 6 6

393

ber 20, 1989, A G N , M G , 1898, Box 14; Teófilo M uñoz, Jocoro, to governor of M orazán D epartm ent, Septem ber 20, 1898, A G N , M G , 1898, Box 14; Braulio M agaña, A huachapán to Tomás Regalado, February 22, 1988, A G N , M G , u n ­ classified box; and C o m an d an te D epartam ental, U sulután, to R ubén Rivera, San Salvador, D ecem ber 18, 1899, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 56. For the defeat o f Villavicencio, see Córdova, M iradas retrospectivas, 2 0 -2 1 . 57. T he opposition to Figueroa, and especially the conflicts between h im and Barahona, are described at length in Córdova, M iradas retrospectivas, 3 6 -5 5 . 58. C órdova bore witness to the revolt in 1907 and his arrival to Sonsonate. See M iradas retrospectivas, 50. Alfaro’s activities also are described by U.S. legation officers. See U.S. chargé to U.S. secretary o f state, O ctober 26, 1910, 816.00/118; H eim ke to U.S. secretary o f state, July 3, 1911, 816.00/132; and H eim ke to U.S. secretary o f state, Septem ber 27, 1911, 816.00/134; all are in USNA, RG 59. 59. Alfaro, Protest o f Dr. Prudencio A lfaro . 60. Illegible signature o f U.S. embassy officer, San Salvador, to U.S. secretary o f state, O ctober 5, 1910, U SN A , RG 59, 816.00/116. 61. Ibid. 62. For studies o f the political situations in turn-of-the-century A rgentina, Uruguay, and M exico, see, for example, Rock, Politics in A rg e n tin a ; Knarr, U ru­ guay a n d the U n ited States ; an d K night, M exican R evolution .

63. Alfonso Reyes, “Sufragio universal”; the quotations are draw n from 285. 64. R. A ngulo, U sulután to m inster o f governm ent, D ecem ber 11, 1892, A G N , M G , 1897, Box 3. 65. San Juan N onualco to m inister o f governm ent, D ecem ber 1, 1896, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 66. Jesús U ngo, Chalatenango, to m inister o f governm ent, January 24, 1895, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 67. G overnor o f Sonsonate to Flores, alcalde o f N ahuizalco, D ecem ber 22, 1899; governor o f Sonsonate to m inister o f governm ent, D ecem ber 26, 1899; and Alcalde o f Nahuizalco to governor o f Sonsonate, D ecem ber ?, 1899; stored to ­ gether in A G N , M G , unclassified box. 68. T he dispute between Tecapa an d the m ilitary is found in the transcript o f the Libro de Actas o f Tecapa, D ecem ber 2, 1889 (which contains a reprint o f the letter o f N ovem ber 30, 1889, to Tecapa from G eneral Castañeda), A G N , M G , unclassified box; and R am ón Bautista to m inister o f war, D ecem ber 3, 1889, A G N , M G , 1889, Box 2. 69. Telegram from governor o f U sulután to president o f the republic, D e­ cem ber 31, 1889, A G N , M G , 1889, Box 2.

394

N o tes to Pages 1 6 7 —1 6 9

70. From ?, the owner of hacienda “La Mizata,” to Baltazar Estupián, minis­ ter of government, August 12, 1921, AGN, M G, unclassified box. 71. Vicente Sol to the minister of government, November 5, 1921, AGN, M G, unclassified box. Patricia Alvarenga Venutolo cites similar cases from the Sección Juridica in the AGN. See Alvarenga Venutolo, “Reshaping the Ethics,” 158. 72. Peloso and Tenenbaum, Liberals, Politics, a n d Power, 2. 73. Gallardo, Cuatro constituciones. 74. Castañeda, G eneral M enéndez, 72. 75. Annual report from minister of the interior, read before the national as­ sembly in February 1902, AGN, M G , 1901, Box 4. 76. In Peloso and Tenenbaum, Liberals, Politics, a n d Power, 286. 77. From the municipal council and “Asamblea vecinos del Pueblo de San Juan Nonualco,” to minister of government, November ?, 1896, AGN, M G , un­ classified box. 78. The related documents are bound together with the police report dated July 24, 1900, AGN, M G, unclassified box. 79. Telegram from governor of Ahuachapán to minister of government, 1891, AGN, M G , 1891, Box 7. 80. Alvarenga Venutolo, “Reshaping the Ethics,” 166—67. All the accounts are from D iario d e l Salvador : see August 9, 1906, 1; August 10, 1906, 1; March 19, 1910, 4; February 10, 1912, 4; March 25, 1912, 4; April 14, 1910, 1; and September 10, 1912, 1. 81. Sabas Cantor, Oratorio, to governor of Cuscatlán Department, Janu­ ary 14, 1917, AGN, M G, 1917, Box 1. 82. Francisco ?, Cojutepeque, to minister of government, January 15, 1917, AGN, M G , 1917, Box 1. 83. Office of the departmental governor of San Miguel to minister of gov­ ernment, January 5, 1920, AGN, M G, 1920, Box 5; and minister of government to director of the Guardia Nacional, November 9, 1920, AGN, M G , 1920, Box 2. The clash in Santa Ana also was reported by the U.S. chargé in his report to Wash­ ington. He stated that the clash resulted in the death of two policemen and two guardias, in addition to a number of wounded: Arnold to secretary of state, N o­ vember 18, 1920, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/297; Acta oficial de la Municipalidad de Berlín, May 20, 1921, AGN, M G, unclassified box; minister of war to minister of government, May 11, 1921, AGN, M G , 1921, N otas Varias, unclassified paquete; director general of the Guardia Nacional to governor of Sonsonate Department, November 13, 1918, AGN, M G, SS, Box 3; and director general of the Guardia Nacional to the minister of government, October 22, 1921, AGN, M G, N otas de la G uardia Nacional, octubre 1921, unclassified paquete.

N o tes to Pages 1 6 9 —1 7 7

395

84. Justo Preza and others, San M artín, to m inister o f governm ent, N ovem ­ ber 16, 1919, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 85. M unicipal act o f the m unicipal council o f Jiquilisco, February 14, 1920, A G N , M G , 1920, Box 1. 86. C om an d an te o f San V icente D ep artm en t to m inister o f war, M arch 29, 1915, A G N , M G , 1915, Box 1. 87. D irector general o f the G uardia N acional to m inister o f governm ent, O ctober 22, 1921, A G N , M G , 1922, unclassified paquete. 88. Ibid.

C hapter 5.

The N e tw o rk o f the State

1. W illiam s, States a n d Social Evolution, 220. 2. G raham , Patronage a n d Politics, 7 and 272. A dditional scholarship has suggested the salience o f a similar line o f inquiry for C entral America. In his ex­ ploratory article on state form ation in C entral America, Robert H o ld en suggests that state centralization reinforced traditional patronage relations, resulting in the creation o f “clientelist states.” See H olden, “C onstructing the Limits,” 442. 3. Carlos M eléndez served as a regidor in San Salvador in 1890 and 1901. Q uiñónez served as a regidor in 1899 and in 1904. See “N om ina de los alcaldes y m unicipalidades de la ciudad de San Salvador desde el año de 1889 hasta 1972,” A G N , M G , unclassified box. A biography o f Q uiñónez, showing his various ad­ m inistrative positions, was com piled by the British Legation. See H arrington, G uatem ala, to Foreign Office, April 24, 1928, PR O , F O 37 1 /1 2 7 4 9 , A 3 2 1 4 / 3214/8. 4. T he census from 1929 is found in A G N , M G , 1929, Box 1. 5. Directorio comercial, 625—708. 6. C ontained in a report from U.S. C onsul in San Salvador to U.S. secre­ tary o f state, M arch 31, 1920, USNA, RG 84, Section 865.81 Sugar. 7. Ruhl, C entral Am ericans, 197. For a m eeting w ith Q uiñónez, see M itchell-Hedges, L a n d o f W onder a n d Fear, 153. 8. Frederick W illiam Taylor to M arion, Septem ber 9, 1923, FW TP, Box 3, Folder 1. 9. ? D urán, Sensuntepeque, to Cecilio Bustam ante, San Salvador, O cto ­ ber 12, 1914, A G N , M G , 1914, Box 2. 10. Alcalde o f El Refugio to m inister o f governm ent, D ecem ber 12, 1914, A G N , M G , 1914, Box 2. 11. Gabriel ?, Apastepeque, to governor o f San V icente D epartm ent, D e­ cem ber 14, 1913, A G N , SSV, 1913, Box 3.

396

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12. Lang to U.S. secretary o f state, January 2, 1915, U SN A , RG 59, 816.00/198. 13. As examples o f these other cases: In 1914 the governor o f San V icente reported that one o f his m unicipalities pointed out th at one o f the candidates se­ lected by the national com m ittee o f the C lub M elendista for the deputy position was from a neighboring departm ent and therefore could not legally represent the departm ent. T he governor recom m ended th at the national governm ent select an­ other candidate. See G onzalo Ayala to president o f the republic, D ecem ber 30, 1914, A G N , SSV, 1915, Box 2. See also the telegram from the alcalde o f Idelfonso to governor o f San V icente D epartm ent, January 10, 1916, A G N , SSV, 1916, Box 1. T his letter refers to the candidates th at the national com m ittee selected for the forthcom ing m unicipal election. 14. D iario Oficial, August 29, 1914, contained in H enry F. ?, U.S. Chargé, San Salvador, to U.S. secretary o f state, Septem ber 7, 1914, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/24. 15. T he pam phlet ostensibly was a letter from Jorge to one Dr. Bolaños, w ritten on Septem ber 14, 1917. But m ore th a n likely, given th at the pam phlet is just under one hun d red pages long, it was intended as a piece o f governm ent pro­ paganda. See Orientaciones económicas d e l Sr. Presidente M eléndez — the copy I found is in the Fundación Gallardo, Santa Tecla. 16. Córdova, M iradas retrospectivas, 109—33. 17. Ibid., 135-36. 18. A rnold to U.S. secretary o f state, July 13, 1918, U SN A , RG 59, 816.00/211. 19. Córdova, M iradas retrospectivas, 161. 20. Ibid., 144. 21. A rnold, to U.S. secretary o f state, D ecem ber 10, 1918, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/230. 22. Córdova, M iradas retrospectivas, 145; A rnold to U.S. secretary o f state, D ecem ber 10, 1918, U SN A , RG 59, 816.00/213. For m unicipal conflicts be­ tw een Q uiñonistas an d Palomistas, see N ulo, G uadalupe, 1918, A G N , C N , Box 4; and N ulo, Tecoluca, 1918, A G N , C N , Box 4. 23. A relative o f Fuentes has p u t together a webpage th a t includes a brief biography and reproductions o f some o f his writings, along w ith the obituary from a local newspaper in 1934. See http://w w w .oocities.org/es/hugolindosv /Ism ael.htm . 24. Pedro Lúe, Nahuizalco, to Ismael Fuentes, San Salvador, February 24, 1919, IFC. 25. Córdova, M iradas retrospectivas, 150. It also is likely th at Palomo recog­ nized the futility o f continuing, given Q uiñónez’s dom inance in the m unicipal elections.

N o tes to Pages 1 8 4 —1 8 8

397

26. M artinez’s candidacy is reported in Córdova, M iradas retrospectivas, 156; and in A rnold to U.S. secretary o f state, D ecem ber 26, 1918, USN A , RG 59, 816.00/220. 27. G uidos Véjar, E l ascenso, 108—9. 28. Calixto Rodriguez, San Sebastián, to governor o f San V icente D epart­ m ent, January 14, 1919, A G N , M G , SSV, 1919, Box 5. 29. M anuel Burgos, Verapáz, to governor o f San V icente D epartm ent, January ?, 1919, A G N , M G , SSV, 1919, Box 5. 30. A rnold to U.S. secretary o f state, January 16, 1919, U SN A , RG 59, 816.00/235. 31. Ibid. 32. A rnold to U.S. secretary o f state, April 2, 1919, U SN A , RG 59, 816.00/236. 33. A raujo’s conflict o f M arch 1920 is reported in A rnold to secretary of state, M arch 10, 1920, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/248; Córdova, M iradas retrospec­ tivas, 169; and in Alfonso Q uiñónez, San Salvador, to Ismael Fuentes, M adrid,

M arch 24, 1920, IFC . 34. Jorge M eléndez describes the invasion o f M ay 1920 for Ismael Fuentes in M eléndez, San Salvador, to Fuentes, M adrid, June 1, 1920, IFC . T h e invasion is also reported in A rnold to U.S. secretary o f state, M ay 13, 1920, 816.00/262, and M ay 14, 1920, 816.00/263, b o th in USNA, RG 59; and in M edhurst to Curzon, Foreign Office, M ay 7, 1920, A 37 3 0 /9 8 /8 , and M ay 14, 1920, A 4 2 9 4 /9 8 /8 , both in PR O , F O 371/4443. Araujo’s return to El Salvador is reported in Schuyler to secretary o f state, January 7, 1924, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/527. 35. See Bernal, San Francisco, to Fuentes, San Salvador, M arch 28, 1919, IFC . 36. See, for example, ibid.; and Galdámez, San Salvador, to Fuentes, San Salvador, M arch 29, 1919, IFC . 37. Ferm ín Velasco, Sensuntepeque, Cabañas D epartm ent, to A rturo Ar­ guello, San Salvador, A pril 30, 1921, A G N , M G , 1921, unclassified paquete, “notas varias.” 38. M anuel Funes, C hinam eca, to H oracio Villavicencio, governor o f San M iguel D epartm ent, April 20, 1920, A G N , FA, Box “C no. 2.” 39. Gustavo ?, Ataco, A huachapán D epartm ent, to “correligionarios y am i­ gos,” June 22, 1921, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 40. Ibid. 41. G overnor o f A huachapán to the m inister o f governm ent, July 1, 1921, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 42. M eléndez, San Salvador, to Fuentes, M adrid, N ovem ber 5, 1919, IFC. See also Alfonso Q uiñónez describing the recent m unicipal elections, in Q uiñónez, San Salvador, to Fuentes, M adrid, D ecem ber 27, 1919, IFC ; the letter from

398

N o tes to Pages 1 8 8 —1 9 0

an illegible signature in Usulután City on letterhead from the Dirección General de Sanidad de San Salvador to Fuentes, Madrid, October 18, 1921, IFC; and Miguel ?, San Salvador, to Fuentes, Madrid, August 11, 1920, IFC. 43. Ayala, governor of Chalatenango Department, to minister of govern­ ment, December 27, 1921, AGN, M G, 1921, Box 3. 44. José Posada, Santa Tecla, to Baltazar Estupinian, August 27, 1920, AGN, M G, 1920, Box 2. 45. Contained in a solicitud for nullification of municipal election of De­ cember 1920 in the municipality of Nueva Esparta, La Unión Department. The date of the request is May 29, 1921, and the solicitor is Bernardo Escobar, alcalde. See Nulo, Nueva Esparta, 1921, AGN, CN, Box 4. For other examples, see Joaquín Chávez, Santiago de Maria, April 20, 1924, AGN, M G, unclassified box; and the request from Rafael Enriquez of Ilobasco, which is reprinted in Jorge Meléndez to minister of government, January 13, 1920, AGN, M G, 1920, Box 5. 46. Jorge Meléndez to minister of war, December 15, 1920, AGN, M G, unclassified box. 47. Minister of war to minister of government, December 4, 1920, AGN, M G, unclassified box. 48. Director General de Policia to minister of government, April 13, 1922, AGN, M G , unclassified box. 49. Córdova left the government after Meléndez’s election, and thus this comment comes from his position as an outside observer, rather than as a govern­ ment insider. Córdova, M iradas retrospectivas, 200. 50. Palomo’s departure from politics and his eventual death are reported in Jay, San Salvador, to Fletcher, undersecretary of state, May 17, 1921, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/358. 51. Arnold to U.S. secretary of state, March 10, 1920, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/248. 52. Schuyler to U.S. secretary of state, May 15, 1922, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/392. 53. Peña Trejo’s memoir was published in twenty-two installments between the months of April and June 1964 in D iario L a tin o under the title “Narración histórica de la insurrección militar del 2 de diciembre de 1931.” I found the mem­ oir in an unclassified book of press clippings for the year 1931 in AGN, MG, unclassified box. Peña Trejo’s discussion of the year 1918 as a watershed is found in installment 4, “Ascensos militares hasta 1912”; and his discussion of payment and the policies of Meléndez and Quiñónez is found in installment 7, “Reseña economia,” and installment 8, “Reseña economia 1923—1931.” 54. “Mensaje dirigido a la Asamblea Nacional por el Señor Presidente de la República, don Jorge Meléndez, en la aperatura de las sesiones ordinarias de 1920.” San Salvador: Imprenta Nacional, 1920.

N o tes to Pages 1 9 1 —1 9 4

399

55. Alfonso Q uiñónez describes the conflict in the m ilitary school and the resignation o f G eneral Llanos in Q uiñónez, San Salvador, to Fuentes, M adrid, M arch 24, 1920, IFC . 56. A rnold to U.S. secretary o f state, M arch 2, 1920, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/246. 57. M edhurst to Curzon, Foreign Office, M ay 14, 1920, PR O , FO 371/4442, A 4 2 9 4 /9 8 /8 . 58. T h e revolts are described in Scott to C urzon, Foreign Office, February 18, 1920, A 1750/1239/8, an d M ay 26, 1922, A 3911/1239/8, bo th in PR O , FO 371/7199; Schuyler to U.S. secretary o f state, M ay 22, 1922, USN A , RG 59, 816.00/394; and G yw nn, G uatem ala, M arch 26, 1926, G -2 M ilitary Reports, Box 764, Folder 3020, “Revolutionary M ovem ents.” A transcript o f President M eléndez’s speech before the N ational Assembly in w hich he addresses the issue of the revolt in the m ilitary school is fo und in Hewes, to U.S. secretary o f state, Feb­ ruary 22, 1923, USN A , RG 84, Volume 71. 59. For examples o f the revisionist argum ent, see Alvarenga V enutolo, C ul­ tura y ética ; an d G ould and Lauria-Santiago, To Rise in Darkness.

60. For examples o f elite splits creating bargaining space for subaltern ac­ tors, see Sanders, Contentious Republicans ; G obat, Confronting the A m erican D rea m ; an d Yashar, D em anding Democracy .

61. Traditional argum ents portray O R D E N as a creature o f the m ilitary re­ gimes and the U.S. counterinsurgency doctrine. Even though its roughly one h u n ­ dred th ousand m em bers were poor peasants, the traditional view describes it as a w ing o f the national security state, dedicated to terrorizing opponents a n d com ­ m itting brutal acts o f violence in the nam e o f anticom m unism and nationalism . A revisionist view claims th at the story is m ore com plex a n d says th at poor peasants joined O R D E N for diverse reasons, such as econom ic survival, an d th at some of them h a d little in com m on w ith the m ilitary regime or the U n ited States. For sum m aries o f the debate, see Mazzei, D eath Squads ; and for a particular example o f the revisionist view, see Todd, B eyond Displacem ent, especially 40. 62. Conflicts between the Liga Roja and elem ents o f the m ilitary in N ahuizalco a n d C halatenango are described in D iario d e l Salvador, Septem ber 16, 1918, 20; in Jujutla an d T urin in D iario d e l Salvador, D ecem ber 10, 1918, 2; and in Juayúa in D iario d e l Salvador, August 3, 1918, 2. I drew all o f these citations from Alvarenga V enutolo, “Reshaping the Ethics,” 280—86. 63. N ulo, Yayantique, 1921, A G N , C N , Box 4. 64. Francisco Gutiérrez, San Salvador, to Jorge M eléndez, January 13, 1920, A G N , M G , 1920, Box 5. 65. M inister o f w ar to m inister o f governm ent, D ecem ber 29, 1921, A G N , M G , unclassified box.

400

N o tes to Pages 1 9 4 —1 9 6

66. H oja suelta o f the Liga Roja o f Santa Ana, signed by Rodolfo Lara, Sec­ retary, A pril 2, 1921, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 67. D iario del Salvador, D ecem ber 11, 1920, cited in Alvarenga V enutolo, “Reshaping the Ethics,” 275. T h e translation is by Alvarenga Venutolo. Alvarenga V enutolo also cites other m anifestations th at were described in the D iario d e l Sal­ vador . See N ovem ber 29, 1922, 5; and D ecem ber 6, 1922, 5. T h e processions also

were noted by the U.S. chargé: see Hewes, to U.S. secretary o f state, D ecem ber 15, 1922, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/458. T h e Liga also was a very visible elem ent in a 1920 rally to show support for the governm ent during the Araujo invasion. See A rnold, to U.S. secretary o f state, M ay 13, 1920, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/262. 68. T he increasing interest o n the part o f the U.S. can be attrib u ted to recent changes in U.S. policy regarding recognition o f governm ents in C entral America. T he changes were in large part the by-product o f the Panam a C anal and the desire o f the U.S. governm ent for stability in the surrounding region. British interest intensified due to their increasing financial investm ents in the nation, particularly the British-ow ned Salvador Railway Co. For good discussions o f international involvem ent in C entral Am erica in the early tw entieth century, see Salisbury, A n ti-Im p e ria lism ; and LaFeber, Inevitable R evolutions .

69. Hewes to U.S. secretary o f state, D ecem ber 27, 1922, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/466. 70. Scott to C urzon, Foreign Office, January 5, 1922, PR O , F O 371/8434, A 689/158/8. 71. Hewes to U.S. secretary o f state, O ctober 20, 1922, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/437. For another reference to the m em bers o f the Liga as Indians, see Hewes to U.S. secretary o f state, January 19, 1923, USN A , RG 59, 816.00/479. 72. Hewes to U.S. secretary o f state, O ctober 29, 1922, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/467. 73. Salvador Sol’s property holdings are reported in the Directorio comercial, 477—78 an d 636. For the position o f the Sol family in the broader coffee econ­ omy, see W illiam s, States a n d Social Evolution, 279. 74. D iario del Salvador, Septem ber 16, 1918, 2, cited in Alvarenga V enutolo, “Reshaping the Ethics,” 280. 75. Alvarenga V enutolo inaccurately describes Brito as an In d ian as part of her argum ent that the Liga Roja was a populist institution. Alvarenga V enutolo, “Reshaping the Ethics,” 280. 76. T he docum ents relating to N ueva C oncepción are transcribed in A. G óm ez Z arate, m inister o f war, to m inister o f governm ent, Septem ber 20, 1923, A G N , M G , 1923, unclassified paquete. For the agricultural production o f the region in com parison to other regions, and for reference to the landholdings o f the Parrillas, see Directorio comercial, 135.

N o tes to Pages 1 9 6 —2 0 2

401

77. N ulo, Yayantique, 1921, A G N , C N , Box 4; and Directorio comercial, 287. 78. E l Espectador, Septem ber ?, 1930, in Pío Rom ero Bosque to m inister of governm ent, D ecem ber 21, 1930, A G N , M G , unclassified box. See also Pinto, governor o f Santa A na D epartm ent, to m inister o f governm ent, D ecem ber 27, 1930, A G N , M G , unclassified box; and Directorio comercial, 4 5 6 —57. See also the lists o f coffee growers for C halchuapa from the year 1926 in “N o m in a de los cul­ tivadores de café en la jurisdicción de C halchuapa,” A G N , M G , 1926, Box 5. A ccording to a 1943 list o f local landowners, Portillo held the status o f “agricultor en grande .” See the unclassified lists o f property owners from April 1943 in A G N ,

M G , 1943, unclassified paquette. 79. See the collection o f materials contained in the pre-electoral denunci­ ation from C olón, N ovem ber 1929, A G N , C N , Box 6. 80. See the collection o f materials contained in the pre-electoral denunci­ ation from Tenancingo, O ctober, 1929, A G N , C N , Box 6. For the landholdings o f Barriere, see Directorio comercial, 82. 81. H istorian Carlos Gregorio López Bernal found th at reference. See López Bernal, Tradiciones inventadas, 190. 82. See C hing, “In Search o f the Party.” 83. Schuyler to U.S. secretary o f state, July 12, 1923, U SN A , RG 59, 816.00/505. 84. Schuyler to U.S. secretary o f state, April 8, 1925, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/558. 85. Alvarenga V enutolo, “Reshaping the Ethics,” 285—86. 86. Schuyler to U.S. secretary o f state, July 12, 1923, U SN A , RG 59, 816.00/505. 87. These events are described in the docum ents relating to the occurrences, w hich are transcribed in A. G óm ez Zarate to m inister o f governm ent, Septem ­ ber 20, 1923, A G N , M G 1923, unclassified paquete. 88. Schaefer to U.S. secretary o f state, January 6, 1922, U SN A , RG 59, 816.00/369. 89. H ill to Foreign Office, February 13, 1936, PR O , F O 371/19771, A 1261/1261/8. 90. T he broadside/periodical was entitled L a T rib u n a and is found in Hewes to U.S. secretary o f state, D ecem ber 12, 1922, USN A , RG 59, 816.00/457. 91. From the broadside/periodical o f the M olina cam paign, E l Constitucio­ nal, D ecem ber 5, 1922, in Hewes to U.S. secretary o f state, ibid.

92. According to the U.S. chargé w ho was m onitoring the elections, Q uiñónez had m ade some lim ited appeals to workers during the 1918 campaign. A nd, o f course, there was the cam paign o f the infam ous prolabor landow ner A rturo

402

N o tes to Pages 2 0 2 —2 0 8

Araujo in 1918. For reference to the cam paign and its appeals to workers, see Hewes to U.S. secretary o f state, N ovem ber 3, 1922, USN A , RG 59, 816.00/442. 93. These com plaints are described in Hewes to U.S. secretary o f state, D e­ cem ber 20, 1922, 816.00/461; D ecem ber 22, 1922, 816.00/463; and D ecem ber 22, 1922, 816.00/464, all in USNA, RG 59. 94. Nicolás D urán, Alcalde, Verapáz, to governor o f San V icente D epart­ m ent, D ecem ber 1, 1922, A G N , M G , SSV, 1922, Box 4. 95. O ne o f the broadsides denouncing the activities o f the Liga Roja is in Hewes to U.S. secretary o f state, D ecem ber 12, 1922, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/457. 96. Scott to C urzon, D ecem ber 30, 1922, PR O , F O 371 8434, A 396/158/8. 97. Hewes, to U.S. secretary o f state, January 5, 1923, 816.00/475. 98. Transcripts o f the trial an d descriptions o f those accused o f killing Es­ calante appeared approxim ately every tw o days in D iario La Prensa between A u­ gust 29, 1927, and N ovem ber 25, 1927. In D iario Latino, see August 29, 1927, 1, for an extended description o f the events; and also August 31, 1927, 1; Septem ­ ber 2, 1927, 1; and Septem ber 3, 1927, 1. T h e same newspaper picked u p the story again in articles on April 30, 1928; Septem ber 4, 1928; O ctober 11, 1929; and N ovem ber 12, 1929. See also D iario d e l Salvador, Septem ber 9, 1927, and August 18, 1928, 8. 99. Hewes to U.S. secretary o f state, January 5, 1923, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/471. 100. Schuyler to U.S. secretary o f state, D ecem ber 29, 1923, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/526. 101. Hewes to U.S. secretary o f state, January 12, 1923, USN A , RG 59, 816.00/478. 102. Hewes to U.S. secretary o f state, January 19, 1923, USN A , RG 59, 816.00/479. 103. Unos vecinos de Q uetzaltepeque, Chalatenango D epartm ent, to m inis­ ter o f governm ent, Septem ber 25, 1923, A G N , M G , 1923, Box 3. 104. G abino Jovel, El C árm en, La U nión D epartm ent, to m inister o f gov­ ernm ent, O ctober 9, 1923, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 105. Q uiñónez to m inister o f governm ent, D ecem ber 19, 1925, A G N , M G , unclassified box.

Chapter 6.

1. 3, Folder 1.

Facing the Leviathan

Frederick W illiam Taylor to M arion, N ovem ber 20, 1926, FW TP, Box

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2. Caffery to U.S. secretary o f state, April 26, 1927, U SN A , RG 59, 816.00/629. 3. A notew orthy exception to this absence is G ould and Lauria-Santiago, To Rise in D arkness . T h e section o f th at book dealing w ith the late 1920s is based

on archival w ork in the A G N , w hich was conducted in the late 1980s m ainly by Lauria-Santiago, outside the realm o f his dissertation topic, and eventually be­ came A n A grarian Republic . T h e m ain objective o f To Rise in Darkness w ith regard to the Rom ero reforms is to set the stage for the 1932 insurrection. Nevertheless, m any o f its findings support the claims m ade here. See also Alvarenga Venutolo, C ultura y ética ; an d W ilson, “Crisis o f N ational Integration.”

4. A m ild attem p t at reform h ad been m ade by President M anuel E nrique Araujo (1911—1913), bu t his reforms did n o t venture into the political realm. See Chasteen, “M anuel E nrique Araujo.” 5. From a general biographical description o f Pío Rom ero Bosque in D iario d e l Salvador, January 1, 1929, 1; and from A. W Bloor, U.S. M ilitary Attaché,

July 5, 1927, W N R C G -2 M ilitary Reports, Box 764, Folder 3110. 6. From the list o f notables in La Paz D epartm ent, José G utiérrez, Zacatecoluca to Dr. R. Reyes, San Salvador, January 20, 1897, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 7. For references to Rom ero Bosque’s landholdings, see Pío Rom ero Bosque to Dr. A rturo Argüello, subsecretary o f governm ent, February 17, 1920, A G N , FA, Box “C, no. 2 ”; and Directorio comercial, 674. 8. Rom ero Bosque’s family ties are discussed in Caffery to U.S. secretary of state, M arch 3, 1927, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/615; and M ay 28, 1927, 816.00/642. Julio M ejia w ould be given the position as chief o f protocol in Rom ero Bosque’s adm inistration. 9. Pío Rom ero Bosque, m inister o f war, to m inister o f governm ent, D e­ cem ber 23, 1921, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 10. E ngert to U.S. secretary o f state, July 6, 1925, U SN A , RG 59, 816.00/561. 11. Caffery to U.S. secretary o f state, August 14, 1926, U SN A , RG 19, 816.00/585; and August 19, 1926, 816.00/588. 12. Caffery to U.S. secretary o f state, D ecem ber 10, 1926, USN A , RG 59, 816.00/601. 13. Caffery to U.S. secretary o f state, M arch 3, 1927, U SN A , RG 59, 816.00/615. 14. For one brief discussion o f reform ism and its origins, see H u n tin g to n , T h ird Wave, 127. For a m ore specific discussion o f the “public dem and for re­

form ,” as well as reference to some o f the various theories on the origins o f reform, see Geddes, P olitician’s D ilem m a, especially 93—98 and 184—86. T h e reformist

404

N o tes to Pages 2 1 2 —2 1 5

program in Peru in the 1960s under General Velasco Alvarado is a notable ex­ am ple. For discussion o f it, see Rouquié, M ilita ry a n d the State, especially chapter 10; and Philip, “T h e Soldier as Radical.” 15. T he speech before the assembly o f February 1930 can be found in Schott to U.S. secretary o f state, February 21, 1930, USNA, RG 84, Section 803. 16. See G ould an d Lauria-Santiago, To Rise in Darkness, 41—44; Alvarenga V enutolo, C ultura y ética, chapter 6; and M inisterio de Educación, H istoria de E l Salvador 2:110—25.

17. For discussions o f and debates over the growth o f the labor m ovem ent in El Salvador in the 1920s, see C hing, “In Search o f the Party”; G ould and LauriaSantiago, To Rise in Darkness, chapter 2; Alvarenga V enutolo, C ultura y ética, chapters 6 and 7; Almeida, Waves o f Protest, chapter 2; and Larín, H istoria d el m o v im ien to .

18. G ould and Lauria-Santiago, To Rise in Darkness, 40. As just one example o f the distinction between u rb an and rural actors in a political system, see G uardino, Tim e o f Liberty, in w hich he com pares the u rb an poor in Oaxaca City w ith the indigenous com m unities in the surrounding highlands. 19. From Trinidad Rom ero to Consejo Directivo de la FRTS, January 1929, A G N , M G , 1929, Box 16. T here was one editorial published in the D iario d el Salvador in 1927 in w hich the anonym ous au th o r argued th at “Bolshevism” was

threatening C entral Am erica and th at the governm ent should “castigate it se­ verely.” See D iario d e l Salvador, Septem ber 23, 1927, 3. But this was an isolated example. W h en labor issues were addressed in editorials, w hich was not often, it was m uch m ore com m on to find the editorialist hailing the conspicuous lack of radicalism am ong El Salvador’s w orking class. See, for example, D iario d e l Salva­ dor, June 29, 1925, 3; an d February 10, 1928, 3.

20. A ndino, Padre de la democracia . 21. Córdova, M iradas retrospectivas, 252. 22. G obat, Confronting the A m erican D ream , chapter 8. For an argum ent similar to G obat’s on this m atter, see Schroeder, “C ultural G eographies.” 23. Caffery to U.S. secretary o f state, D ecem ber 10, 1926, USN A , RG 59, 816.00/601. 24. See Caffery to U.S. secretary o f state, April 25, 1927, U SN A , RG 59, 816.002/43; and June 7, 1927, 816.00/52. 25. T he verbal disputes between Q uiñónez and Rom ero are described in H arrington to Foreign Office, O ctober 15, 1927, PR O , F O 371/11971, A 7516/37/8; Caffery to U.S. secretary o f state, April 5, 1927, USN A , RG 59, 816.002/42, and April 5, 1927, 816.00/625; and D iario Latino, June 7, 1927, 1. 26. Caffery to U.S. secretary o f state, June 7, 1927, USN A , RG 59, 816.002/52.

N o tes to Pages 2 1 5 —2 2 0

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27. A table showing th a t the M eléndez and Q uiñónez adm inistrations oper­ ated under a state o f siege for alm ost their entire duration can be fo und in Suter, Prosperitat u n d Krise, 678.

28. D iario Latino, June 11, 1927, 1; also described in A. W. Bloor, U.S. M ili­ tary A ttaché, July 26, 1927, W N R C , G -2 M ilitary R eport #94, Box 764, Folder 3110. 29. T he transcripts o f the debate are found in D iario d e l Salvador, June 9, 1927, 1. T he debate also was played out in the editorial pages o f D iario L a tin o : see June 11, 1927, 1; an d June 14, 1927, 8. 30. A. W. Bloor, U.S. M ilitary Attaché, July 26, 1927, W N R C , G -2 M ilitary Report #94, Box 764, Folder 3110. Q uiñónez’s resignation also was reported in Caffery to U.S. secretary o f state, July 16, 1927, U SN A , RG 59, 816.00/646. 31. To repeat the citation from the last chapter: Transcripts o f the trial and descriptions o f those accused o f killing Escalante appeared approxim ately every two days in D iario La Prensa between August 29, 1927, and N ovem ber 25, 1927. In D iario L atino, see August 29, 1927, 1 for an extended description o f the events; and also August 31, 1927, 1; Septem ber 2, 1927, 1; and Septem ber 3, 1927, 1. T he same newspaper th e n returns to the story in articles on April 30, 1928; Sep­ tem ber 4, 1928; O ctober 11, 1929; and N ovem ber 12, 1929. See also D iario d el Salvador, Septem ber 9, 1927; and August 18, 1928, 8.

32. Evidence o f the coup o f D ecem ber 1927 is found in Córdova, M iradas retrospectivas, 246—47; C ohen, C osta Rica, D ecem ber 8, 1927, W N R C , G -2

M ilitary R eport #189, and D ecem ber 8, 1927, Report #190; D iario Latino, D e­ cem ber 12, 1927, 1, D ecem ber 17, 1927, 1, D ecem ber 19, 1927, 1, D ecem ber 20, 1927, 1, and D ecem ber 27, 1927, 1; D ickson to U.S. secretary o f state, D ecem ­ ber 6, 1927, D ecem ber 8, 1927, D ecem ber 13, 1927, D ecem ber 14, 1927, and D ecem ber 19, 1927, all from U SN A , RG 84, Section 800; an d the succession of reports from the U.S. legation dated between D ecem ber 6, 1927, and January 13, 1927, USN A , RG 59, 816.00/675 to 816.00/692. 33. M eléndez’s presence and business ventures in C osta Rica are described in D iario d e l Salvador, N ovem ber 8, 1928, 8; and O ctober 21, 1928, 1.

34. T he conversation between M use, the form er chargé, and Q uiñónez is contained in a report from H errick, Paris, to U.S. secretary o f state, February 28, 1928, USN A , RG 84, Section 800; see also RG 59, 816.00/710. 35. As reported in Caffery to U.S. secretary o f state, A pril 25, 1928, USNA, RG 84, Section 820. 36. T he text o f Rom ero Bosque’s speech is found in D iario Latino, June 25, 1927, 1. 37. D iario d el Salvador, August 13, 1927, 3. 38. D iario d e l Salvador, O ctober 22, 1927, 3.

406

N o tes to Pages 2 2 0 —2 2 1

39. As reported in Caffery to U.S. secretary o f state, Septem ber 5, 1927, USN A , RG 84, Section 800. 40. D iario d e l Salvador, Septem ber 6, 1927, 2. 41. D iario Latino, N ovem ber 25, 1927, 1. 42. R am ón Bautista, Alegría, to governor o f U sulután D epartm ent, N ovem ­ ber 3, 1927, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 43. J. V. M aza and others, San Julián, to governor o f Sonsonate D epart­ m ent, N ovem ber 18, 1927, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 44. D iario d e l Salvador, D ecem ber 2, 1927, 7. A n alm ost identical com m ent from San Sebastián was prin ted in D iario d el Salvador o n N ovem ber 15, 1927, 8. For a sim ilar com m ent from Q uezaltepeque, see D iario d e l Salvador, N ovem ­ ber 25, 1927, 7; and from Izalco, see D iario d e l Salvador, D ecem ber 7, 1927, 3. 45. D iario Latino, O cto b er 28, 1929, 8. 46. Isaac O livo Raym undo, A rm enia, to Pío Rom ero Bosque, N ovem ­ ber 26, 1927, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 47. H andbill o f C lub Patriótica Pío Rom ero Bosque, Atiquizaya, N ovem ­ ber 27, 1927, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 48. M anuel González, San A gustín, to m inister o f governm ent, N ovem ­ ber 19, 1927, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 49. A brahán Peña, Ishuatán, to m inister o f governm ent, O ctober 22, 1927. 50. For other examples, see R óm ulo Castañeda, Guaym ango, to Pío Rom ero Bosque, N ovem ber 24, 1927, A G N , M G , unclassified box; Pío Rom ero Bosque to m inister o f governm ent, D ecem ber 5, 1927 (regarding a case from A huachapán City), A G N , M G , unclassified box; A dán Soto, San Buenaventura, to m inister o f governm ent, D ecem ber 2, 1927, A G N , M G , unclassified box; Transito G aetán, Santiago de M aría, to m inister o f governm ent, N ovem ber 28, 1927, A G N , M G , unclassified box; Joaquín Rivera, Jucuapa, to Trinidad Rom ero, San Salvador, N o ­ vem ber 27, 1927, A G N , M G , unclassified box; Bonifacio Baires, Berlín, to Pío Rom ero Bosque, N ovem ber 7, 1927, A G N , M G , unclassified box; L. ?, U sulután, to M anuel V icente, San Salvador, N ovem ber 25, 1927, A G N , M G , unclassified, box; Gonzalo H ernández, San V icente City, to m inister o f governm ent, D ecem ­ ber 5, 1927, A G N , M G , unclassified box; J. A ntonio Cienfuegos, Sonsonate, to Pío Rom ero Bosque, N ovem ber 17, 1927 (regarding a case from Santa C atarina M asahuat), A G N , M G , unclassified box; Lisandro Larín, Sonsonate, to m inister o f governm ent, O ctober 31, 1927, A G N , M G , unclassified box; and J. Angel de León, San Julián, to m inister o f governm ent, N ovem ber 18, 1927, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 51. Moisés Jim énez, San Pedro Pustla, to m inister o f governm ent, O cto ­ ber 29, 1927, A G N , M G , unclassified box.

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40 7

52. H oracio Villavicencio, San Vicente, to Pío Rom ero Bosque, N ovem ­ ber 7, 1927, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 53. Interview w ith M inister o f G overnm ent M anuel M endoza, D iario L a ­ tino, N ovem ber 25, 1927, 1.

54. D ickson to U.S. secretary o f state, N ovem ber 28, 1927, USN A , RG 59, 816.00/673. 55. Interview w ith M inister o f G overnm ent M anuel M endoza, D iario L a ­ tino, N ovem ber 25, 1927, 1.

56. Telegram from Raul F. M unguia, U sulután, to m inister o f governm ent, D ecem ber 7, 1927, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 57. D iario d e l Salvador, D ecem ber 2, 1927, 2. For other examples from D ia ­ rio d e l Salvador, see N ovem ber 24, 1927, 8; N ovem ber 25, 1927, 7; N ovem ber 29,

1927, 7; D ecem ber 6, 1927, 6 an d 7; D ecem ber 10, 1927, 1. See also D iario L a ­ tino, N ovem ber 23, 1927, 1; N ovem ber 26, 1927, 1; D ecem ber 1, 1927, 3; and

D ecem ber 10, 1927, 1. 58. T h e circumstances u n d er w hich the interview was conducted are vague. It appears to have been inspired by C laram o u n t Lucero himself, w ho in the later stages o f his life h ad the desire to record his story for posterity. A copy o f the tape o f this interview is in the hands o f K n u t Walter, a Salvadoran historian. I w ould like to thank Dr. W alter for sharing the inform ation o n the tape w ith me. 59. H oracio Villavicencio, San Vicente, to m inister o f governm ent, D ecem ­ ber 3, 1927, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 60. Benjam ín M em breño, D irector o f Police o f Atiquizaya, to m inister of governm ent, D ecem ber ?, 1927, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 61. Francisco Pim entel, D irector o f Police, Santiago de M aría, to m inister of governm ent, D ecem ber 12, 1927, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 62. D iario d el Salvador, June 14, 1929, 1. 63. Ibid. 64. Buell, Raym ond Leslie, “Progress in C entral America,” N ew s B ulletin 9, no. 39 (August 1, 1930): 1—2. A copy o f this is located in the W N R C , G -2 M ili­ tary Reports, Box 764, Folder 3110. 65. D iario d e l Salvador, M ay 2, 1927, 3; D iario Oficial, M arch 28, 1927; and Caffery to U.S. secretary o f state, M arch 30, 1927, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/624, and April 22, 1927, 816.00/627, an d April 26, 1927, 816.00/629. 66. D iario Latino, N ovem ber 25, 1927, 1. 67. Ibid. 68. N ulo, Jiquilisco, 1927, A G N , C N , Box 5. 69. N ulo, N ahuizalco, 1927, A G N , C N , Box 5. 70. N ulo, Ataco, 1929, A G N , C N , Box 7. 71. N ulo, Santa M aria, 1929, A G N , C N , Box 6.

408

N o tes to Pages 2 3 0 —2 3 5

72. N ulo, Tecoluca, 1929, A G N , C N , Box 6. 73. N ulo, Juiquilisco, 1929, A G N , C N , Box 7. 74. B. Bertrand, governor o f C halatenango, to m inister o f governm ent, January 9, 1930, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 75. Schuyler to U.S. secretary o f state, April 8, 1925, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/557. 76. Caffery to U.S. secretary o f state, August 14, 1926, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/585. 77. Caffery to U.S. secretary o f state, M arch 3, 1927, U SN A , RG 59, 816.00/615. 78. From Peña Trejo’s mem oir, “N arración histórica.” Peña Trejo’s lauditory discussions o f Rom ero Bosque are fo u n d in installm ent 3, “Renovación de los cuadros de oficiales del ejército,” an d installm ent 8, “Reseña econom ica 1923 a 1931.” 79. A translation o f the am nesty can be found in D iario del Salvador, A u­ gust 8, 1928, 8. 80. D iario Latino, Septem ber 4, 1928, 1. 81. Ibid. 82. D iario Latino, Septem ber 13, 1928. 83. M enéndez’s career biography can be fo und in Schott to U.S. secretary of state, M ay 20, 1930, USNA, RG 59, 816.002/121; an d M ay 22, 1930, 816.002/123. 84. Schott to U.S. secretary o f state, July 23, 1930, U SN A , RG 59, 816.00— Presidential Cam paigns 1931/9. 85. Interview between Pío Rom ero Bosque and Mr. C ohen, a clerk in the m ilitary attaché’s office in C osta Rica, during the tim e th at Rom ero Bosque was in exile in Costa Rica. See G -2 M ilitary Report #2,318, February 23, 1934, in USN A , RG 59, 816.00/941. 86. Stadler, o f the British legation, also indicated th at Rom ero Bosque was changing governors w ho were suspected o f or found to be engaging in partisan politics. See Stadler to Foreign Office, D ecem ber 23, 1930, PR O , F O 371/15072, A 346/201/8. 87. D iario d e l Salvador, Septem ber 17, 1929, 4. 88. D iario Latino, N ovem ber 26, 1930, 1; see also Robbins to U.S. secretary o f state, D ecem ber 3, 1930, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/777. 89. D iario Latino, N ovem ber 27, 1930, 1. 90. D ickson to U.S. secretary o f state, January 11, 1928, USN A , RG 59, 816.00/700. 91. E l D ia, January 17, 1929, translation carried in Lam bert to U.S. secre­ tary o f state, January 19, 1929, USN A , RG 59, 816.00/740.

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92. T his process o f identifying the various candidates and th en gathering th em together is described in detail in a series o f exchanges between Lisandro Larín, the governor o f Sonsonate, an d officials in San Salvador, and between Larín and the m unicipalities in his departm ent. See Larín to m inister o f governm ent, N ovem ber 20, 1929; Larín to m inister o f governm ent, N ovem ber 21, 1929; Larín to m inister o f governm ent, N ovem ber 30, 1929; Larín to m inister o f governm ent, D ecem ber 5, 1929; and C ircular from Larín to Alcaldes M unicipales de todo el D epartam ento, D ecem ber 5, 1929; all o f these are b o u n d together in A G N , M G , SS, unclassified box. T h e m ixed directorios are also discussed in the D iario O fi­ cial, D ecem ber 8, 1929; and in Schott to U.S. secretary o f state, D ecem ber 14,

1929, USN A , RG 59, 816.00/764. A list sent to San Salvador from the governor o f San Vicente, for instance, contains the nam es o f the m em bers o f the directorio in each m unicipality and their political affiliations. See “N om ina de las personas que integran los D irectorios de Elecciones en el departam ento,” 1930, A G N , M G , SSV, 1930, Box 6. 93. Lisandro Larín to m inister o f governm ent, D ecem ber 6, 1929, A G N , M G , SS, unclassified box. 94. Separate polling places were actually established in a presidential decree printed in the D iario Oficial, D ecem ber 31, 1930. M e n tio n o f the various parties being allowed to have observers at the voting tables o f opposing directorios is m ade in Larín, governor o f Sonsonate D epartm ent, to alcalde o f Sonsonate, January 9, 1931, A G N , M G , SS Box 4. 95. T he m ap o f San Salvador showing the various sites for the directorios was found in A G N , M G , unclassified box. T h e process o f selecting locations for the separate directorios in the m unicipality o f El Refugio (A huachapán D epart­ m ent) is described in the m em o from Francisco Acosta, governor o f A huachapán, January 8, 1931, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 96. Schott to U.S. secretary o f state, D ecem ber 6, 1929, USNA, RG 59, 816.00 G eneral C onditions/6. 97. From Peña Trejo’s mem oir, “N arración histórica.” Peña Trejo’s discussion o f the electoral procedures under Rom ero Bosque are fo und in installm ent 10, “Elecciones de los suprem os poderes en 1931.” 98. See oficio from the governor o f La Libertad, January 2, 1931, A G N , M G unclassified box; and a sim ilar oficio from governor o f Cuscatlán, January 11, 1931, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 99. R eprinted in D iario d e l Salvador, July 28, 1929, 1. T his was in reference to the deputy elections o f January 1930. For a similar example regarding m u ­ nicipal elections o f D ecem ber 1929, see D iario d e l Salvador, N ovem ber 19, 1929, 1.

410

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100. T his was in a personal letter from Pío Rom ero Bosque to Luís Busta­ m ante that Rom ero Bosque released to the press; see D iario d e l Salvador, July 11, 1929, 1. For another example, see Rom ero Bosque’s interview in D iario d e l Salva­ dor, June 14, 1929, 1.

101. A n example o f one o f these declarations from Sonsonate D epartm ent can be found in Larin, governor o f Sonsonate, to alcaldes o f Sonsonate D epart­ m ent, D ecem ber 5, 1929, A G N , M G , SS, unclassified box. 102. Oficio o f President Rom ero Bosque, A pril 22, 1930, A G N , M G , u n ­ classified box. 103. Jesús M iranda to Pío Rom ero Bosque, M arch 4, 1930, A G N , M G , SSV, 1930, Box 5. 104. V alentin Flores, Panchim alco, to m inister o f governm ent, Septem ­ ber 19, 1929, A G N , M G , 1929, Box 19. 105. M anuel M endoza to V alentin Flores, Panchimalco, Septem ber 20, 1929, A G N , M G , 1929, Box 19. For a large num ber o f similar exchanges see A G N , FA, Box 3. 106. Oficio o f President Rom ero Bosque, A pril 22, 1930, A G N , M G , u n ­ classified box. 107. See, for example, the extensive debate over the election in A rm enia in w hich E nrique Córdova, a presidential candidate in 1931, played a significant role in the process. Some o f the case is fo und in Larín to m inister o f governm ent, April 25, 1930, A G N , M G , SS, Box 2; other portions o f the case can be found under a m em o from the M inistry o f G overnm ent dated April 8, 1930, in A G N , M G , SS, Box 1. T h e issue is discussed extensively in relation to the m unicipal elections o f 1930 in Velado, C halchuapa, to m inister o f governm ent, M arch 7, 1931, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 108. T here was in fact a seventh candidate o f sorts, Prudencia Ayala, who was not allowed to stand as a candidate, by order o f the Supreme C o u rt, on the grounds that she was a w om an. Little is know n about Ayala. I found the first two copies o f a periodical, Redención F em enina, th at she founded in June 1930 as the m outhpiece for her campaign. A review o f their contents suggests th at she consid­ ered herself to be a sincere fem inist and a m ild socialist. T h e copies o f Redención can be found in A G N , M G , 1930, Box 7. Prior to 1930, Ayala w orked as a for­ tune teller in San Salvador, and I have com e across some advertisem ents p ro m o t­ ing her services in the pages o f D iario L a tin o . See, for example, A pril 23, 1928, 3; and M ay 22, 1928, 2. For a brief description o f Ayala’s experience w ith the Su­ prem e C ourt, see M inisterio de Educación, H istoria de E l Salvador 2:156—57. 109. A ntonio Vilanova, a m em ber o f one o f El Salvador’s leading coffee­ growing families, m ade some noise about cam paigning as the candidate o f the coffee planters b u t never p u t his ideas into action. C om m ents o n his cam paign

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and the lack o f differences between the candidates can be found in Schott to U.S. secretary o f state February 3, 1930, U SN A , RG 59, 816.00/767; see also Febru­ ary 25, 1930, 816.00/768; January 3, 1930, 816.00 General C onditions/8; and February 25, 1930, 816.00 G eneral C onditions/12. T h e platform s o f the candi­ dates are discussed in A ndino, Padre de la democracia . See also Córdova, M iradas retrospectivas, 247—56.

110. T he broadside is dated July 1930 and is found in A G N , M G , unclassi­ fied box. 111. T he report o n this speech and transcriptions o f it are found in Ben­ jam ín A rrieta Rossi, governor o f San Salvador D epartm ent, to m inister o f govern­ m ent, June 27, 1930, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 112. In a letter to the m inister o f governm ent, the president o f Araujo’s Par­ tido Laborista cam paign in San Salvador denied th at party organizers were m ak­ ing such claims and referred to land redistribution as “Bolshevik and som ething that amazes us for its fatal an d im practical qualities.” See José ?, Presidente C om ité C apitalino “Pro A raujo,” to m inister o f governm ent, July 4, 1930, A G N , M G , unclassified box. T h e British chargé m ade m en tio n o f Araujo’s denials an d also reported that “Araujo’s canvassers dispensed m uch propaganda am ongst the In ­ dian plantation laborers and poorer classes in general.” See Rogers to H enderson, January 25, 1931, PR O , F O 371/15072, A 8 5 0/201/8. 113. E l Espectador, M ay 6, 1930, 1; this copy was found in A G N , M G , u n ­ classified box. 114. RGASPI, 495:119:4, 21; and 495:119:10, 117. 115. From Peña Trejo’s m em oir, “N arración histórica.” Peña Trejo’s discus­ sion o f Araujo’s cam paign is fo und in installm ent 9, “C am paña electoral de 1930.” 116. See the speech from Guazapa in Benjam ín A rrieta Rossi, governor of San Salvador D epartm ent, to m inister o f governm ent, June 27, 1930, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 117. M ost o f the denunciations and M endoza’s responses are bundled to­ gether in A G N , M G , 1931, Boxes 3 and 6. 118. M anuel M endoza to alcalde o f Izalco, January 9, 1931, A G N , M G , 1931. 119. Robbins to U.S. secretary o f state, January 16, 1931, USN A , RG 59, 816.00/791. 120. M anifesto o f A rturo Araujo, D iaro Oficial, M arch 25, 1931, found in Robbins to U.S. secretary o f state, M arch 27, 1931, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/801 (Translation by Robbins). 121. Some o f these have been cited above, b u t as a sum m ary o f some o f the m ain ones, see D iario Latino, D ecem ber 3, 1929; August 12, 1930; and January 21, 1931. See also D iario d e l Salvador, M arch 22, 1927; M ay 16, 1927; August 13,

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1927; October 22, 1927; November 12, 1927; November 25, 1927; and Decem­ ber 2, 1927. 122. Putnam, M a k in g Democracy Work, 167, 177; see pages 167—81 for Put­ nam’s discussion of this issue.

C hapter 7.

Politics under the M ilita ry Regime, 1 9 3 1 —1 9 4 0

1. Brannon, Breves consideraciones, 18. (A quintal is 46 kilograms.) 2. Bulmer-Thomas, P olitical Economy, 50 and 328. 3. Schott to U.S. secretary of state, August 24, 1930, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/773. The British legation especially commented on financial issues. See, for example, Watson, Guatemala, to Henderson, Foreign Office, February 25, 1930, PRO, FO 371/14210, A 2140/2106/8; Rodgers to Henderson, May 19, 1930, PRO, FO 371/14212, A 4169/4169/8; Murray-Simpson to Henderson, August 18, 1930, PRO, FO 371/14212, A 5852/4169/8; Stadler to Henderson, October 30, 1930, PRO, FO 371/14212, A 7601/4169/8. 4. See Murray-Simpson to Henderson, August 18, 1930, PRO, FO 371/14212, A 5852/4169/8. 5. Stadler to Henderson, October 18, 1930, PRO, FO 371/14212, A 7284/4169/8. 6. These petitioners are described in Rodgers to Henderson, January 27, 1931, FO 371/ 15072, A 1156/201/8; and in D iario La Prensa, July 16, 1931, in unclassified folder of press clippings for the year 1931, in AGN, M G , unclassified box. 7. Rodgers to Henderson, April 15, 1931, PRO, FO 371/15702, A 3124/20/8. 8. Enrique Córdova describes the Consejo Económico in M iradas retro­ spectivas, 261—64.

9. The demonstration and the crackdown are described by Córdova in M iradas retrospectivas, 268—77. Córdova was then serving as rector of the National

University. See also D iario Latino, July 11, 1931; E l D ia, July 11, 1931; and D ia ­ rio Patria, July 11, 1931, all in unclassified book of press clippings for the year 1931, in AGN, M G , unclassified box; Rodgers to Henderson, July 13, 1931, PRO, FO 371/15072, A 4781/201/8; Finley to U.S. secretary of state, July 15, 1931, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/808; and Peña Trejo, “Narración histórica,” install­ ment 11, “Incidentes en el gobierno del ingeniero Araujo.” 10.

A description of this plan was found in D iario Latino, April 27, 1931, 1.

Up to that point, Masferrer had had a rather raucous tenure in the assembly, at

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one point standing up during a session and accusing some o f his fellow deputies o f being hostile to the w orking class. See D iario Latino, April 17, 1931, 1. 11. T his was reported in Finley to U.S. secretary o f state, August 8, 1931, USN A , RG 59, 816.00/811. T h e proposal h ad n o t yet been m ade public. Finley drew his inform ation from interviews w ith m em bers o f the governm ent w h o m he does not name. 12. D escriptions o f the coup based on prim ary evidence include Anderson, M a ta n za , 79—88; Elam, “Appeal to Arm s,” 27—33; W illiam s and Walter, M ilita ri­ za tio n a n d D em ilitarization, chapter 2; and Grieb, “T h e U nited States and the

Rise.” For descriptions from U.S. and British legations, see U SN A , RG 59, 816.00/820 to 816.00/825 and 816.00 R evolutions/7 to 816.00 Revolutions/98; and PR O , FO 371/15812 A 9/9 /8 , A 11/9/8, and A 196/9/8. 13. M ichael M cC lintock posits the conspiracy perspective. See M . McC lintock, A m erican Connection, 106—9. Peña Trejo argues in “N arración histórica” that there was no conspiracy. Elam argues likewise, based on his 1964 interview w ith Joaquín Castro, one o f the eleven m em bers o f the directorate: Elam, “Appeal to Arm s,” 31. K enneth Grieb, in “T h e U nited States and the Rise,” also rejects the conspiracy theory. 14. W illiam s and Walter, M ilita riza tio n a n d D em ilitarization, chapter 2. 15. K rehm , Democracies a n d Tyrannies, 25. K rehm describes his general ex­ perience in El Salvador during the tim e o f M artínez in pages 2—27. A nother de­ scription o f M artinez’s religious outlook, based on interviews w ith people close to him , is found in Astilla, “M artínez Era,” 43. 16. Shepherd, San Salvador, to Foreign Office, D ecem ber 4, 1933, PR O , FO 371/16560, A 87 5 0 /7 0 6 /8 . 17. Grieb, “T h e U nited States and the Rise,” 159. As Grieb indicates, Caffery h ad form erly headed the legation in El Salvador in 1928. H e arrived in El Salvador as the special envoy on D ecem ber 19, 1931. 18. As reported in D iario Latino, July 11, 1931, in unclassified book o f press clippings, in A G N , M G , unclassified box. 19. R eport from A. R. H arris, M ilitary A ttaché, D ecem ber 12, 1931, USNA, RG 59, 816.00 Revolutions/50. 20. For discussions o f Fonseca and M olina, see M cCafferty to U.S. secretary o f state, April 2, 1932, USNA, RG 59, 816.00 G eneral C onditions/29. 21. From the text o f M artinez reprinted in C urtis, San Salvador, to U.S. secretary o f state, D ecem ber 5, 1931, U SN A , RG 59, 816.002/136. 22. M em o from U.S. Chargé, San Salvador, to U.S. secretary o f state, D e­ cem ber 11, 1931, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/821. 23. M inister o f w ar to m inister o f governm ent, January 27, 1932, A G N , M G , unclassified box.

414

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24. T he m em o is contained in a circular from the governor o f Sonsonate to the alcaldes o f Sonsonate D epartm ent, D ecem ber 8, 1931, A G N , M G , SS, Box 4. 25. M artinez’s declaration o n the laboristas is found in D iario Latino, D e­ cem ber 18, 1931; his declaration o n the com m unists is fo und in D iario Patria, D ecem ber 12, 1931; b o th are located collection o f press clippings in A G N , SI, C apitulo 1, Caja 17. 26. Salvador C astaneda Castro, to departm ental governors, February 1, 1932, A G N , SI, C apitulo 1, Caja 7, “C ensura de Prensa, 1932—1937.” 27. O n G óm ez’s political activities, see McCafferty, San Salvador, to U.S. secretary o f state, January 19, 1932, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/827. In the opinion o f the U.S. chargé, G óm ez was p u ttin g h im self in position to be appointed presi­ dent in the event th at M artínez was forced to resign. 28. Córdova, M iradas retrospectivas, 281, 285, and 301. 29. For C laram ount Lucero’s political activities, see D iario Latino, January 3, 1932, in a collection o f press clippings in A G N , SI, C apitulo 1, Caja 17. See also McCafferty, San Salvador, to U.S. secretary o f state, January 12, 1932, U SN A , RG 59, 816.00/824. 30. Joaquín Valdés claim ed this in a m em o to the U.S. chargé, contained in the report by U.S. Chargé to U.S. secretary o f state, D ecem ber 11, 1931, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/821. 31. As announced in D iario Latino, D ecem ber 12, 1931, in a collection of press clippings in A G N , SI, C apitulo 1, Caja 17. 32. T he initial postponem ent is described in M cCafferty to U.S. secretary of state, January 16, 1932, USN A , RG 59, 816.00 G eneral conditions/27. T h e ad­ ditional postponem ents are reported in D iario del Salvador, January 19, 1932, in a collection o f press clippings, A G N , SI, C apitulo 1, Caja 17. 33. Uceda, San Julián, to governor o f Sonsonate D epartm ent, January 7, 1932, A G N , M G , SS Box 2. For another example, see A quilino Pineda, Guaym ango, to governor o f A huachapán D epartm ent, D ecem ber 31, 1931, A G N , M G , SS, Box “G obernación Sonsonate y A huachapán.” A denunciation o f Araujistas in Chalatenango D epartm ent after the election was reported in General Francisco C hoto, governor o f C halatenango, to m inister o f governm ent, M ay 30, 1932, A G N , M G , unclassified box. Requests th at em ployed the specter o f com ­ m unism , rather th a n laborism , can be found in Elias ?, M asahuat, to governor of Sonsonate D epartm ent, January 9, 1932, A G N , M G , SS, Box 2; and “unos veci­ nos,” N ahuilingo, to governor o f Sonsonate D epartm ent, A G N , M G , SS, Box 2. Some other denunciations, w hich did n o t identify Araujistas specifically, are re­ ported in D iario Latino, January 7, 1932; January 9, 1932; January 11, 1932; and January 19, 1932; and D iario Patria, January 13, 1932; all are located in a collec­ tio n o f press clippings in A G N , SI, C apitulo 1, Caja 17.

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34. The strong showing of the communist candidate in San Salvador was reported in D iario Latino, January 5, 1932. The newspaper D iario Patria hailed the communists for their ordered behavior during voting, in contrast to the other parties: D iario Patria, January 4, 1932. D iario Patria also reported some police repression of communist candidates: December 12, 1931. All of these reports are found in a collection of press clippings in AGN, SI, Capitulo 1, Caja 17. The par­ ticipation of the communists in the elections also is presented in detail in the re­ ports from the Communist Party: see Ching, “In Search of the Party.” Some schol­ ars have contended that Martínez allowed the PCS to participate in the election in order to surreptitiously draw them out of hiding and then crush them. See Alvarenga Venutolo, C ultura y ética; and M. McClintock, A m erican Connection. As of October 1931, the army had a detailed list of the persons it believed to be affili­ ated with the Communist Party. W hen this list is compared to records from the PCS itself, it turns out to be quite accurate. See Ching, “In Search of the Party.” 35. For Claramount Lucero’s political activities, see D iario Latino, January 3, 1932, in a collection of press clippings in AGN, SI, Capitulo 1, Caja 17. See also McCafferty, San Salvador, to U.S. secretary of state, January 12, 1932, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/824. 36. As reported in Curtis to U.S. secretary of state, December 28, 1931, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/822. 37. Telegram from Alberto Engelhard, alcalde of San Julián, to governor of Sonsonate Department, January 9, 1932, AGN, M G, SS, Box 1. 38. McCafferty, San Salvador, to U.S. secretary of state, January 19, 1932, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/826. 39. D iario Patria, January 11, 1932, in a collection of press clippings in AGN, SI, Capitulo 1, Caja 17. 40. From the diary of Henry Stimson, January 25, 1932, entry. Yale Univer­ sity Manuscripts Collections, cited in Astilla, “Martínez Era.” 41. A good discussion of financial issues under Martínez can be found in Astilla, “Martínez Era,” 49. Astilla also points out that El Salvador was not the first country to default on its foreign loans during the Great Depression. Bolivia, Peru, and Chile had all defaulted in 1931 (100). Martínez resumed payment on the loan in August 1932, after negotiating a deal with the bondholders whereby the government would pay only 15 percent towards it in 1932 and 20 percent in 1933, rather than the prior arrangement of 70 percent. See Watson, Guatemala, to Foreign Office, January 2, 1933, PRO, FO 371/16559, A 513/513/8. 42. Martinez’s payment of the military is described in Peña Trejo, “Nar­ ración histórica,” installment 22, “Situación de la tesoreria general de la república.” See also Shepherd to Simon, December 4, 1933, PRO, FO 371/16560, A

416

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8 7 5 0 /706/8; and W atson, G uatem ala, to Foreign Office, ibid.; and Shepherd to Foreign Office, D ecem ber 4, 1933, PR O , F O 371/16560, A 87 5 0 /7 0 6 /8 . 43. McCafferty, San Salvador, to secretary o f state, April 16, 1932, USNA, RG 59, 816.20/31. 44. T h e reports on Aguirre are provided by Rodgers, San Salvador, to For­ eign Office, M ay 10, 1932, PR O , F O 371/15814, A 3133/9/8; Rodgers, San Sal­ vador, to Foreign Office, July 15, 1932, PR O , F O 371/15814, A 42 7 6 /9 /8 ; and A nnual Report 1933, in Birch, G uatem ala, to Foreign Office, January 20, 1934, PR O , F O 371/17499, A 1215/1215/8. M iguel M árm ol also com m ented on Aguirre’s conspiracy: see D alton, M ig u e l M a rm o l, 431. 45. Ibid. (T h e inform ation o n Valdés is contained in the same reports as that o f Aguirre.) 46. T he N ovem ber revolt is discussed in M cCafferty to U.S. secretary of state, N ovem ber 39, 1932, USN A , RG 59, 816.00 Revolutions/173. 47. See, for example, the case o f the political conflicts in the m unicipality of Soyapango in July 1932, as described in D iario d e l Salvador, July 6, 1932, and July 12, 1932. A nother example o f local political violence occurred in U sulután C ity in O ctober 1932. T h e perpetrators were local affiliates o f E nrique Cordova’s party w ho stoned the hom e o f a local rival, resulting in a b rief m ilitary interven­ tion. See Pedro Novoa, U sulután City, to Teninete Joaquín M eléndez (a brother o f one o f the perpetrators), San Salvador, O ctober 3, 1932, A G N , SI, C apitulo 1, Caja 7. 48. From a collection o f election returns from the 1933 deputy elections, A G N , M G , 1933, Box 1, Folder “Form ación D irectorios.” T h e four m unicipali­ ties w ith opposition candidates were C halchuapa, San M arcos, Cojutepeque, and San M iguel, o f A huachapán, San Salvador, Cuscatlán, and San M iguel D epart­ m ents respectively. 49. T he case o f the teacher/spy is contained in José C ruz Peñate to General Felipe Ibarra, August 18, 1932, A G N , M G , SS, Box 2. T h e term oreja is found in Colonel Julio César Calderón, governor o f Sonsonate D epartm ent, to General José Tomás Calderón, July 22, 1935, A G N , M G , SS, Box “Política, 1930—9.” 50. D alton, M ig u e l M a rm o l, 329—54. H is arrest is described in pages 351—53. 51. T he case against Abullarde is contained in a police report from the direc­ tor o f police in Santa Ana, June 27, 1933, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 52. T he m inister’s com m ents are contained in A nnual R eport 1933, Birch, G uatem ala, to Foreign Office, January 20, 1934, PR O , F O 371/17499, A 1215/1215/8. 53. C alderón m entions his agents on repeated occasions. See Colonel Calde­ rón to President M artínez, O ctober 14, 1936, M G , SS, Box 2; Colonel C alderón to General José Tomás Calderón, July 22, 1935, A G N , M G , SS, Box “Política,

N o tes to Pages 2 6 0 —2 6 1

417

1930—9”; and Colonel Calderón to minister of government, September 19, 1938, AGN, M G, 1938, Folder “Comunismo, Bolcheviquismo y terrorismo.” 54. See Annual Report 1934, Birch, Guatemala, to Foreign Office, Febru­ ary 1, 1935, PRO, FO 371/18660, A 1752/825/8; and Shepherd, San Salvador, to Foreign Office, December 4, 1933, PRO, FO 371/16560, A 8750/706/8. 55. Molina’s response to the election is described by Córdova, M iradas retro­ spectivas, 311—12. Córdova writes that Molina did not publicly announce that he

was resigning because of Martinez’s decision to run. Rather, he told this to Córdova later. 56. Manuel Mendoza to General José Tomás Calderón, April 23, 1934, AGN, M G, 1934, Box 7. Mendoza’s police troubles also were commented on by the U.S. chargé: see McCafferty, San Salvador, to secretary of state, January 4, 1934, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/934. 57. The political activity and the exile of Romero Bosque and Claramount Lucero are discussed in Harris, Costa Rica, August 30, 1933, W N RC, G-2 Mili­ tary Report, #2166, Box 763, Folder #1000-3800; McCafferty, San Salvador, to secretary of state, January 4, 1934, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/934, Box 5506, Folder #3; Annual Report 1933, Birch, Guatemala, to Foreign Office, January 20, 1934, PRO, FO 371/17499, A 1215/1215/8; and Annual Report 1934, Birch, Guate­ mala, to Foreign Office, February 1, 1935, PRO, FO 371/18660, A 1752/825/8. The interview with Pio Romero Bosque is found in Harris, Military Attaché, Costa Rica, G-2 Military Report, # 2318, February 23, 1934, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/941. 58. From Harris, Military Attaché, Costa Rica, G-2 Report, #2318, Febru­ ary 23, 1934, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/941. 59. McCafferty, San Salvador, to secretary of state, January 4, 1934, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/934. 60. McCafferty, January, 4, 1934, ibid. 61. Dalton, M ig u e l M a rm o l, 373. 62. Annual Report for Central America, 1933, Birch, Guatemala, to Foreign Office, January 20, 1934, FO 371/17499, A 1215/1215/8. 63. The coup is described in Goldie to Foreign Office, January 31, 1934, PRO, FO 371/17488, A 1435/575/8; and in Lane to secretary of state, January 25, 1934, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/933. The government’s denunciation is found in D iario L a Prensa, February 16, 1934, 1.

64. From A. R. Harris, Military Attaché, December 12, 1931, USNA, RG 59, 816.00 Revolutions/50. 65. Goldie, San Salvador, to Foreign Office, January 31, 1934, PRO, FO 371/17488, A 1435/575/8.

418

N o tes to Pages 2 6 1 —2 6 4

66. T he list o f political enemies is found in G -2 M ilitary Reports, W N R C , Box 764, Folder 3000-4000. 67. H ill to Foreign Office, “R eport on Leading Personalities in the Republic o f El Salvador,” February 13, 1936, PR O , F O 371/19771, A 1261/1261/8. 68. G oldie, San Salvador, to Foreign Office, January 31, 1934, PR O , FO 371/17488, A 1435/575/8. 69. From an interview w ith Pío Rom ero Bosque contained in H arris, M ili­ tary A ttaché, Costa Rica, G -2 M ilitary Report, # 2318, February 23, 1934, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/941. 70. A nnual R eport 1934, Birch, G uatem ala, to Foreign Office, February 1, 1935, PR O , F O 371/18660, A 1752/825/8. 71. T he guidelines for Pro-Patria’s organization are contained in Enecón Paredes to departm ental governors, August 16, 1933, A G N , M G , SS, Box “Política, 1930—9.” T his box contained m ost o f the Pro-Patria materials. A nother collection o f Pro-Patria materials was found in an unclassified box in the M iniste­ rio de G obernación collection in A G N . 72. From a survey o f all the societies, organizations, and clubs in the nation, conducted between June and August 1940, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 73. T he list o f m oneyed citizens is from a com prehensive list o f the financial holdings o f every w ell-to-do citizen in El Salvador. T h e list was com piled by the governm ent in 1943. T h e lists are stored together in a folder in A G N , M G , 1943, unclassified paquete. For a list o f the landowners in Nahuizalco from 1924, see Directorio comercial, 4 9 4 —96. See also “principal ganaderos,” D ep artm en t Son-

sonate, M unicipality N ahuizalco, June 7, 1935, A G N , M G , SS, Box 3; and for a list o f coffee growers in Nahuizalco from 1926, “nom ina de las personas cultivado­ ras de café en la villa de Nahuizalco,” A G N , M G , 1926, Box 5. 74. Larín was elected alcalde in 1916 and again in 1935. From “Catalogo de m unicipalidad,” AMS. 75. H errera’s properties are listed in Directorio comercial, 477—80. H is role as auditor is found in D iario d e l Salvador, July 22, 1932, and July 28, 1932. In the latter report, it is evident th at H errera was supported by M artínez. H errera’s role as auditor also is discussed in McCafferty, San Salvador, to secretary o f state, July 22, 1932, USN A , RG 59, 816.00 Revolutions/171. 76. A list o f coffee growers for Juayúa for 1926 is fo u n d in Redaelli to gover­ nor o f Sonsonate D epartm ent, June 18, 1926, A G N , M G , 1926, Box 5; see also Directorio comercial, 528—29.

77. Extensive lists can be fo und in A G N , M G , 1934, Box 2. T h e reports and com m unications sent between the various levels o f the party can be fo und in A G N , M G , various unclassified packets dated 1937 to 1943; in A G N , M G , SS, Box “Política, 1 9 3 0 -3 9 ”; and in A G N , M G , SS, “Caja 2.2, 1895-1937.”

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419

78. From a copy of Pro-Patria’s organizational mandate, from Enecón Pare­ des, San Salvador, to departmental governor of Sonsonate, August 16, 1933, AGN, GS, Box “Política, 1930—9.” Along with this document are various com­ munications between the national and departmental levels demonstrating the functioning of the various levels of the party. 79. The organization of Pro-Patria in Sonsonate is found in Paredes to gov­ ernor of Sonsonate Department, December 15, 1933, AGN, M G, unclassified box; memo from departmental delegation, Sonsonate, to president of Pro-Patria, San Salvador, October 6, 1934, AGN, M G, unclassified box; and Guzmán, Son­ sonate, to president of Pro-Patria, San Salvador, December 31, 1934, AGN, MG, unclassified box. Reference to the women’s committees is found in Samayo, San Salvador, to president of Sonsonate’s departmental delegation, September 13, 1934, AGN, M G, unclassified box. 80. Contained in Enecón Paredes (member of the Consejo Supremo), San Salvador, to governor of Sonsonate, November 4, 1933, AGN, M G, SS, Box “Política 1930—9.” 81. Guillermo Barrientos, San Julián, to José Santos Zepeda, November 6, 1933, AGN, M G, unclassified box. Zepeda’s position on the directiva of the de­ partmental delegation is found in “nomina de las personas que forma la Directiva del Comite, “Pro Patria,” Sonsonate, July 22, 1934, AGN, M G, unclassified box. 82. This list is contained in José Santos Zepeda to president of the Partido Nacional, San Salvador, November 7, 1933, AGN, M G, unclassified box. 83. D iario L a Prensa, January 14, 1932, and D iario Latino, January 14, 1932. Both are found in a collection of press clippings in AGN, SI, Capitulo 1, Caja 17. 84. Telegram Circular #1, from General José Tomás Calderón, January 3, 1935, AGN, M G, SS, Box “Política, 1930-9.” 85. The proposals by the Sonsonate delegation are found in Joaquín Guzmán, Sonsonate, to president of Pro-Patria, November 13, 1934, AGN, M G, unclassified box; and Lisandro Larín, Sonsonate, to president of Pro-Patria, De­ cember 30, 1934, AGN, M G , unclassified box. 86. Telegram Circular #2, from General José Tomás Calderón, January 3, 1935, AGN, Ministerio de Gobernación, Gobernación Sonsonate, Box “Política, 1930-9.” 87. Telegram Circular #7, from General José Tomás Calderón, January 3, 1935, AGN, Ministerio de Gobernación, Gobernación Sonsonate, Box “Política, 1930-9.” 88. From Pedro Ramos, alcalde of Santo Domingo de Guzmán, January 11, 1935, AGN, M G, SS, Box 1. A great number of these reports can be found in AGN, M G , SS, Box 1.

420

N o tes to Pages 2 6 8 —2 7 1

89. C ontained in m em o from Alex C ohen, U.S. M ilitary A ttaché Office, Costa Rica, M arch 14, 1935, W N R C , G -2 M ilitary R eport #2,784, Box 763, Folder 1000-3800. 90. From Juan Vidal, departm ental com andante o f Cabañas, to governor of Sonsonate, January 14, 1935, A G N , M G , SS, Box 1. 91. Telegram from Juayúa to Sonsonate, January 14, 1935, A G N , M G , SS, Box 1. 92. C ontained in A nnual R eport 1935, Birch, G uatem ala, to Foreign O f­ fice, January 23, 1936, PR O , F O 371/19771, A 1281/1281/8. 93. G abino M ata Jr. to Julio C. Calderón, governor o f Sonsonate, N ovem ­ ber 11, 1937, A G N , M G , SS, Box 2.2. 94. G abino M ata Jr. to Julio C. Calderón, governor o f Sonsonate, N ovem ­ ber 22, 1937, A G N , M G , SS, Box 2.2. 95. H um berto Portillo and others, Cacaopera, M orazán D epartm ent, to m inister o f governm ent, N ovem ber 14, 1937, A G N , M G , 1937, unclassified pa­ quete. 96. From the list o f Pro-Patria affiliates in Izalco, D ecem ber 27, 1938, A G N , M G , 1938, unclassified paquete; and the list o f m unicipal officials selected for Izalco in D ecem ber 1939, A G N , M G , 1939, unclassified paquete. 97. H erm ogenes Alvarado Jr. to governor o f A huachapán D epartm ent, D e­ cem ber 2, 1937, A G N , M G , 1937, unclassified paquete. 98. Jesús Rivas, Guazapa, to m inister o f governm ent, D ecem ber 12, 1937, A G N , M G , 1937, unclassified paquete. 99. See the m unicipal election o f D ecem ber 1937, A G N , M G , 1938, u n ­ classified paquete. 100. M olina, president o f local com m ittee o f Juayúa, to governor o f Sonsonate D epartm ent, N ovem ber 8, 1937, A G N , GS, “Caja 2.2, 1895—1937.” 101. Salvador Abrego, president o f directorio, San M artín, to m inister of governm ent, D ecem ber 12, 1937, A G N , M G , 1937, unclassified paquete. 102. O rellana, Alcalde, and Arévlo, C om andante, Jucuarán, U sulután D e­ partm ent, to m inister o f governm ent, D ecem ber 6, 1937, A G N , M G , 1937, u n ­ classified paquete. 103. Message to local authorities o f Izalco?, contained in decoded telegram from governor o f Sonsonate to m inister o f governm ent, D ecem ber 4, 1937, A G N , M G , SS, “Caja 2.2., 1895-1937.” 104. In the new political co nstitution o f 1939, the governm ent officially abolished m unicipal elections and instead appointed all m unicipal officials. O f course, this did not change the actual practice o f local politics, for by th at tim e all m unicipal officials were com ing into office as preapproved candidates o f Pro­ Patria, and local elections were nothing m ore th a n farcical validations o f ProPatria’s decisions.

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105. T he properties o f the M ata and Salaverría families and o f Jerez and Redaelli are found in the following: Personas notables del D epartam ento de Sonsonate, 1897, A G N , M G , SS, unclassified box; Directorio comercial, 528—29; “ag­ ricola e industrial de la ciudad de Juayúa,” D ecem ber 13, 1917, A G N , M G , SS, Box 6; list o f coffee growers in Redaelli to governor o f Sonsonate D epartm ent, June 18, 1926, A G N , M G , 1926, Box 5. T h e interm arriages between the M ata and Salaverría families are found in a journalist’s lengthy description o f the m u ­ nicipality and its leading families during an annual rodeo fair in 1936: see D iario Latino, January 18, 1936, 5. Inform ation o n Em ilio Redaelli was fo und in Lista de

electos, D epartam ento Sonsonate, 1924—1927, governor o f Sonsonate D epart­ m ent to m inister o f governm ent, D ecem ber 13, 1923, A G N , M G , 1923, Box 4; and in J. M éndez, Sucesos comunistas, 73—75. Redaelli’s obituary is found in the Libro de Actas, M arch 16, 1932, M unicipal Archive o f Juayúa (AMJ). Inform a­ tio n on Jerez is fo und in the journal Lem pa 1:1 (July 1934), A G N , M G , 1934, Box 4. 106. T he decree was published in D iario Latino, June 17, 1935, an d can be found in Gassaway, San Salvador, to secretary o f state, June 22, 1935, USNA, RG 59, 816.00B /74. 107. José A ntonio M orán, com andante o f the T h ird C om pany o f the G uar­ dia N acional, to the governor o f Sonsonate D epartm ent, O ctober 18, 1936, A G N , M G , SS, Box 2. 108. D alton, M ig u e l M a rm o l, 387 and 396. 109. Q u o ted from the decree th at abolished the university’s autonom y, Feb­ ruary 2, 1932, contained in McCafferty, San Salvador, to secretary o f state, Febru­ ary 5, 1932, U SN A , RG 59, 816.00/845. 110. McCafferty, San Salvador, to secretary o f state, February 5, 1932, USN A , RG 59, 816.00/845. 111. Gassaway, San Salvador, to secretary o f state, June 22, 1935, USNA, RG 59, 816.00B /74. 112. See, for example, Francisco M arroquín, inspector general o f police, to director o f police, M arch 9, 1935, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 113. T he com m ents on the intellectuals are draw n from “Bosquejo biográf­ ico del intelectualidad salvadorerña,” A G N , SI, C apitulo 1, Caja 7, “C ensura de Prensa, 1932—1937.” 114. Examples o f each list can be fo u n d in A G N , M inisterio de G ober­ nación, 1943. For the lists o f m erchants, see Folder #070, “Com ercio.” For the lists o f professionals, see Folder #010, “Asuntos Gremiales.” T h e lists o f wealthy people are held together in an unclassified folder. 115. Inform ation on the coup is fo u n d in Corrigan, San Salvador, to secre­ tary o f state, O ctober 8, 1935, U SN A , RG 59, 816.00B /75; and Birch, G uate­ mala, to Foreign Office, January 23, 1936, PR O , F O 371/19771, A 1281/1281/8.

422

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T he Consejo de G uerra is described in D iario Latino, August 19, 1936, 1, and August 20, 1936, 1. 116. Inform ation o n the coup is fo u n d in Hill, San Salvador, to Foreign O f­ fice, N ovem ber 2, 1936, PR O , F O 371,19772, A 9292/2 0 0 5 /8 ; Gassaway, San Salvador, to secretary o f state, N ovem ber 3, 1936, U SN A , RG 59, 816.00B /76, Box 5508, Folder #1; and D iario Latino, N ovem ber 2, 1936, 1. 117. C ontained in A nnual Report 1937, Birch, G uatem ala, February 3, 1938, PR O , FO 371/21431, A 1500/1500/8. 118. M iguel M árm ol describes b o th the coup leaders’ appeal to the C om ­ m unist Party and the destinations o f the exile: see D alton, M ig u e l M arm ol, 3 9 3 -9 4 . 119. T he coup is described in H ill, San Salvador, to Foreign Office, January 13, 1939, PR O , F O 3 7 1 /22727, A 1115/53/8. 120. T he drafts o f the con stitu tio n can be found in A G N , M G , 1939, Folder “Asamblea C onstituyente.” T h e final con stitu tio n did not deviate from the draft: see Gallardo, C uatro constituciones, 6 0 3 -4 . 121. T he guidelines for constitutional reforms are described in tw o mem os from Caffrey, San Salvador, to secretary o f state, M arch 30, 1927, and M ay 3, 1927, USN A , RG 59, 816.00/624, and 816.00/630. 122. Telegram from A ntonio Galdámez, departm ental governor o f Usulután, to m inistry o f governm ent, July 17, 1938, A G N , M G , 1938, Folder “Asuntos Políticos— G eneral.” Reports from all the other m unicipalities are contained in the same folder. 123. A copious num ber o f reports regarding public rallies an d parades is found in the folder “Asuntos Políticos— General,” A G N , M G , 1938. 124. C ontained in Colonel Calderón, governor o f Sonsonate D epartm ent, to m inister o f governm ent, Septem ber 19, 1938, A G N , M G , 1938, Folder “C o m u ­ nism o, Bolcheviquismo y terrorism o.” 125. Luna, “Analisis de una dictadura,” 50. 126. From the text o f the assembly’s ruling on the State o f Siege, D ecem ­ ber 9, 1938, A G N , M G , 1938, Folder #302. 127. See the tw o m em os from Juan Cóbar, governor o f Cabañas D epart­ m ent, O ctober 24, 1938, and N ovem ber 3, 1938, A G N , M G , 1938, Folder #210. 128. “Asuntos Políticos: Pláticas del Señor Presidente de la Republica,” O cto ­ ber 12, 1940, A G N , M G , 1941, unclassified paquete. 129. Ibid., O ctober 15, 1940. 130. Ibid., July 2, 1941. 131. Ibid., D ecem ber 11, 1940. 132. Ibid., April 29, 1941. 133. Ibid., February 11, 1941.

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134. Ibid., July 29, 1941. 135. Ibid., M ay 13, 1941. 136. Ibid., July 2, 1941. 137. Ibid., April 1, 1941. 138. Ibid., July 15, 1941. 139. Ibid., M ay 13, 1941. 140. Ibid. 141. Ibid. 142. Ibid., April 29, 1941. 143. Ibid., August 26, 1941. 144. Ibid., February 25, 1941. 145. H arris, M ilitary A ttaché, Costa Rica, G -2 M ilitary Report, #2318, Feb­ ruary 23, 1934, USN A , RG 59, 816.00/941.

C hapter 8.

P opulist A uthoritarianism , 1 9 3 1 —1 9 4 0

1. From D alton’s poem , “All,” in D alton, Poems, 42. T h e original Spanish reads “Todos nacimos m itad m uertos en 1932,” in D alton, H istorias prohibidas . 2. T he first reports o f disturbances appeared in the pages o f D iario L atino on January 21, 1932. Details o f the m ain rebellion were described in subsequent issues o f D iario Latino, as well as in D iario L a Prensa . T h e original volum es o f these newspapers are m issing from the N ational Library in San Salvador; however, a collection o f press clippings exists in A G N , SI, C apitulo 1, Caja 17. 3. From the governor o f Sonsonate D epartm ent to the national accoun­ ta n t’s office, February 4, 1932, contained in N otas d e l M inisterio de Gobernación, February, 1932, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 4. M acN aught, “H orrors o f C om m unism ,” 25. 5. Zam osc, “L anding th at Never Was,” 143. T h e article by Zam osc is a reprint o f the reports o f tw o C anadian com m anders on-site in El Salvador in 1932. T he reports were forw arded to the Foreign Office in L on d o n and stored in the Public Record Office. See Hose, C h ief o f Naval Staff, O ttaw a, to C om m ander in Chief, Am erica and W est Indies Station, Berm uda, April 20, 1932, PR O , FO 371/15814, A 4077/9/8. 6. RGASPI, 495: 114: 4, 61. O th er firsthand accounts o f the rebellion and its afterm ath include D alton, M ig u e l M á rm o l, an d J. M éndez, Sucesos com unistas . T he reports o f the British m inister also contain a brief description o f the after­ m ath in Izalco; see Rodgers, San Salvador, to Foreign Office, February 12, 1932, PR O , F O 371/15813, A 1243/9/9, 6.

424

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7. Libro de Actas, February 6, 1932, A M I. Similar statem ents can be found in the Libro de Actas in the m unicipal archives in Tacuba, Juayúa, Nahuizalco, and Salcoatitán. 8. Alcalde o f Tacuba to com andante o f A huachapán D epartm ent, Janu­ ary 27, 1932, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 9. Telegram from M áxim o Jerez, alcalde o f Juayúa, to governor o f Sonsonate D epartm ent, June 18, 1932, A G N , M G , SS, Box 1. 10. T he form ation o f the G uardia Cívica is discussed in D iario d e l Salvador, January 25, 1932, A G N , SI, C apitulo 1, Caja 17. Lengthy reports discussing the form ation o f the G uardia Cívica are contained in the quarterly informes o f the departm ental governors for the first four m o n th s o f 1932. T hey are dated April 1932 an d are bo u n d as a group in A G N , M G , in an unclassified box. 11. O n the issue o f the guardias burn in g an d burying cadavers, see the letter from the alcalde o f A rm enia to the governor o f Sonsonate D epartm ent, Febru­ ary 3, 1932, A G N , M G , SS, Box 4. 12. T he form ation o f the C om ités de Defensa Social is addressed in two m em os from the governor o f Sonsonate D epartm ent. T h e first was sent to the president o f the C om ité de D efensa Social, San Salvador, February 3, 1932, and the second was sent as a circular to the acaldes o f Sonsonate D epartm ent, Febru­ ary 5, 1932. Both m em os are located in a collection o f telegrams found in A G N , M G , SS, Box 3. T h e issue o f voluntary contributions and the role o f the comités in soliciting th em is discussed in a telegram from the G overnor o f Sonsonate to the President o f the C om ité de Defensa Social, San Salvador, February 20, 1932, A G N , M G , SS, Box 3 (from the collection o f telegram dispatches); the issue also was reported in D iario d e l Salvador, August 1, 1932. For an alternative view o f the G uardia Cívica and its relationship to the military, see Alvarenga V enutolo, “Re­ shaping the Ethics,” 365—78. 13. T he docum entation for the H uizúcar case is gathered into a single packet located in A G N , FA, Box 2. For quotations I will cite the individual docum ents. 14. From V icente Platero, alcalde o f Huizúcar, to the governor o f La Liber­ tad D epartm ent, M arch 9, 1932, A G N , FA, Box 2. 15. From the governor o f La L ibertad to the m inister o f governm ent, M arch 17, 1932, A G N , FA, Box 2. 16. Ibid. 17. “List o f C om m unists,” from director general o f the police to the m inis­ ter o f governm ent, O ctober 27, 1931, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 18. RGASPI, 495:119:4, 55. For a second m en tio n o f this same figure, see RGASPI, 495:119:4, 5. 19. “M ensaje del Señor Presidente de la República, leido ante la Asamblea N acional, en el acto de la apertura de su periodo de sesiones ordinarias, el día 4 de

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febrero de 1932,” published as a booklet by the Im prenta N acional, found in A G N , in a collection o f b o u n d an d unclassified presidential addresses. 20. For a discussion o f the inform ation contained in the PCS records as they relate to the rebellion o f 1932, see C hing, “Archivos de M oscú,” and “In Search of the Party.” 21. A com parative example in w hich an urban-oriented party failed to build ties to Indian populations in the countryside is the APRA party in Peru, although it was m ore reformist and less radical in its orientation th a n was the PCS. See Davies, “Indigenism o .” See also Klaiber, “Popular Universities,” 703. 22. A nderson, M a ta n z a . A nother contem porary co n trib u tio n to this foun­ dational historiography is Arias, Farabundo M a r tí . 23. For discussion o f the com m unist-causality argum ent, see Lindo-Fuentes, C hing, an d Lara-M artínez, R em em bering a M assacre . 24. D alton, M ig u e l M á rm o l . 25. Alvarenga V enutolo, C ultura y ética, 276. 26. Pérez Brignoli, “Indians, C om m unists.” 27. Lindo-Fuentes, C hing, and Lara-M artínez, R em em bering a M assacre . 28. For initial descriptions o f the C o m in tern archives, see C hing, “C entral A m ericanist”; and C hing and Pakkasvirta, “L atin A m erican M aterials.” For the 1998 articles, see C hing, “In Search o f the Party”; and C hing and Tilley, “Indians, the M ilitary.” 29. In addition to the tw o articles from 1998, see also Lindo-Fuentes, C hing, and Lara-M artínez, R em em bering a Massacre ; and C hing, Tilley, and López Bernal, Las masas, la m a ta n za . 30. Some o f m y initial assessments o f their w ork can be fo und in C hing, Review o f To Rise in D arkness . 31. G ould and Lauria-Santiago, To Rise in Darkness, 198, 91, 88. 32. Ibid., 141. 33. Ibid. G ould and Lauria-Santiago cite num erical statistics in various places, b u t see 134 for the Zaragosa reference, an d 83, 84, and 87 for their use of the docum ent citing 1,700 u n io n m em bers in Nahuizalco. I find their tw o maps on 84 and 86, showing the location, spread, and influence o f radical organizations throughout the w estern countryside, lacking in substantiation. 34. Ibid., 7 9 -8 3 . 35. Ibid., 89. 36. For an elaboration o f this p o in t, see Lindo-Fuentes, C hing, and LaraM artínez, R em em bering a Massacre, 197-200. For a transcription o f an English translation o f a m ajor p o rtio n o f the docum ent, see 3 1 4 -2 0 . 37. For a brief discussion o f this rather sprawling debate, see W illiam Stan­ ley’s 2000 review o f G renier’s Emergence o f Insurgency . For a few additional

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examples, see Binford, “Peasants, Catechists”; Chávez, “Pedagogy o f Revolution”; and Pearce, P rom ised L a n d . For some interesting claims about the autonom y of peasant organizing in the region o f Suchitoto in the early 1970s, see the testim o­ nial by Fidel Recinos (nom de guerre Raúl Hercules) in Rico M ira, E n silencio, chapter 2, especially 256. H éctor L indo-Fuentes and I also interviewed Recinos regarding peasant m obilization for M o d e rn izin g M in d s, 221—22. 38. As one example o f the im plications o f the debate, see Paul Alm eida’s use o f the case o f 1932 in support o f his broader thesis in Waves o f Protest. As I sug­ gested in a review o f the book, if he employs a m ore com m unist-causality ap­ proach in his argum ent about 1932, and th e n uses th at argum ent as part o f an edifice o f a broader thesis, and if com m unist causality is open to debate, th en p o ­ tentially the broader thesis is at risk. See C hing, Review o f Waves o f Protest . T h at said, Almeida’s w ork is impressive, and it influenced H éctor L indo-Fuentes and m e greatly for M o d e rn izin g M in d s . A n interesting example o f a juxtaposition of argum ents about 1932 appears in Revista 1857, no. 12, enero—abril, 2012, p u t out by the Partido Socialista C entoam ericana. I w ould like to th an k Carlos Gregorio López Bernal for bringing the copy o f Revista 1 8 5 7 to m y attention. 39. “M ensaje del Señor Presidente de la República,” February 4, 1932. 40. D iario d e l Salvador, July 26, 1932. 41. From an interview granted to D iario d e l Salvador, February 11, 1933. 42. L a República, February 9, 1933, reprinted in D iario d e l Salvador, Febru­ ary 10, 1933, 1. 43. In an interview in D iario d el Salvador, January 21, 1933, 1. 44. As quoted from M artinez’s speech read before the N ational Assembly, reprinted in D iario L a Prensa, February 15, 1937, 1. 45. T he term “unscrupulous” was used by the m inister o f governm ent, G en­ eral Castaneda Castro, in a circular to the fourteen departm ental governors, Sep­ tem ber 22, 1932, A G N , M G , 1932, Box 8. 46. From an inform e from the governor o f La Libertad D epartm ent to Presi­ dent M artinez, February 8, 1932, reprinted in D iario Latino, February 10, 1932. 47. C ontained in a m em o from Joaquin Valdés, office o f the m inistry o f war, to the m inister o f governm ent, April 21, 1932, A G N , M G , unclassified box. 48. Julio César Calderón, governor o f Sonsonate, to José Tomás Calderón, m inister o f governm ent, July 17, 1935, A G N , M G , SS, Box 3. 49. Julio César Calderón, governor o f Sonsonate D epartm ent, to the m inis­ ter o f governm ent, N ovem ber 10, 1938, A G N , M G , 1938, Folder 210. 50. José M aria Rivas, Juayúa, to governor o f the Sonsonate D epartm ent, August 23, 1933, A G N , M G , SS, Box 3. 51. J. A ntonio Vilanova, José Peralta, and R. Aguilar, o n behalf o f the C om isión de Defensa de la Industria Azucarera, to m inister o f fom ento, July 13, 1933, A G N , M G , 1933, Box 2.

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52. T he reference to m utual com pensation is found in the February 1933 La República editorial, reprinted in D iario d e l Salvador, February 10, 1933, 1.

53. T he case against Viera A ltam irano is fo und in A G N , SI, volum e 16. T he expulsion o f V iera A ltam irano is fo u n d in a note from the Com isionado de M inas to the m inister o f governm ent, February 1, 1939, A G N , M G , 1939, unclassified paquete, Folder “conducta de individuos.” T his case o f V iera A ltam irano is inter­ esting and complex. H e w ent on to be the founder and editor o f the steadfastly conservative newspaper D iario de H oy in 1936. Furtherm ore, he was a notorious free-m arket libertarian, so it is difficult to imagine th at he w ould have pushed the governm ent to expropriate private property. It is possible th at the conflict as it appears in the docum entation being consulted masks some other conflict between h im and the governm ent. 54. See Lindo-Fuentes, C hing, and Lara-M artínez, R em em bering a Massacre ; and G ould and Lauria-Santiago, To Rise in Darkness . 55. D alton, M ig u e l M a rm o l . T h e state o f the post-1932 C om m unist Party is described in 329—400. T h e com m ent o n the absence o f organization am ongst the peasantry is on 397. 56. For the Sonsonate group, see governor o f Sonsonate D epartm ent to Colonel C oronado M ontalvo, director o f police, June 23, 1932, A G N , M inisterio de G obernación, G obernación Sonsonate, Box 2; for the Q uetzaltepeque group, see letter to the governor o f La Libertad, O ctober 14, 1932, A G N , Unclassified M inisterio de G obernación. 57. For the request from the Barbers’ U nion, see director o f police to m inis­ ter o f governm ent, D ecem ber 13, 1932, A G N , Unclassified M inisterio de G ober­ nación. For its problem s, see D iario d e l Salvador, January 17, 1933, an d Febru­ ary 4, 1933. 58. For the m eat cutters’ strikes, see D iario d e l Salvador, July 7, 1932; and the case enclosed in D irector general o f police to m inister o f governm ent, July 26, 1939, A G N , M G , 1939, unclassified paquete, Folder “Huelgas.” For the beneficio strike, see D iario La Prensa, January 12, 1934. 59. For further analyses o f M ejoram iento Social and the m ilitary’s reform program , see W illiam s an d Walter, M ilita riza tio n a n d D e m ilitarization, especially chapter 2. See also Parkm an, N onviolent Insurrection . 60. T he quote is taken from Salvador Castaneda Castro, m inister o f govern­ m ent, to governor o f Sonsonate D epartm ent, July 19, 1932, A G N , M G , SS, Box 2. T he anti-ficha cam paign was reported in D iario Latino, January 26, 1932. 61. President M artínez to governor o f Sonsonate D epartm ent, Septem ­ ber 30, 1932, A G N , FA, Box 3. 62. For a list o f some o f the plantations, see President M artínez to governor o f Sonsonate D epartm ent, O ctober 20, 1932, A G N , FA, Box 3.

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63. From the governor o f Sonsonate to the alcalde o f Izalco, Septem ber 30, 1932, A G N , M G , SS, Box 2. 64. T he m ilitary’s perspective on terraje is expressed in an editorial in D iario L atino for w hich General Castaneda Castro, m inister o f governm ent, provided

the statistics. D iario Latino, February 5, 1932. 65. T he com plaint is contained in a m em o from President M artínez to the governor o f Sonsonate D epartm ent, Septem ber 8, 1932, from “Correspondencia del M inisterio de G obernación, 1930—1935” ; the resolution is fo und in a m em o from the governor o f Sonsonate to President M artínez, Septem ber 30, 1932; both are located in A G N , M G , SS, Box 2. 66. For two examples o f the list o f landowners w ith available land, see m em o from M áxim o Jerez, alcalde o f Juayúa, to governor o f Sonsonate D epartm ent, M ay 2, 1932, A G N , M G , SS, Box 2; and m em o to the governor o f Sonsonate D epartm ent, M arch 9, 1932, A G N , M G , 1932, Box 7. Examples o f the govern­ m en t’s requests for surveys and petitions to the landowners appear repeatedly throughout the 1932 records. For just a few examples, see telegram circular from the m inister o f governm ent to the departm ental governors, M arch 11, 1932, A G N , M G , SS, Box 1; an d the collection o f informes from the departm ental gov­ ernors for the first quarter o f 1932, b o u n d as a group, all dated from late April, in A G N , M G , unclassified box. 67. As stated in the m em o from the governor o f Sonsonate D ep artm en t to the m inister o f agriculture, M arch 31, 1932, A G N , M G , SS, Box 2. 68. R oberto C andel o f Sonsonate C ity was one o f the few landowners who participated in the program . H e received the following letter o f thanks from the departm ental governor: “I understand th at you have spontaneously dedicated 20 to 25 m anzanas o f land . . . for the cultivation o f prim ary products, foregoing pay­ m ent or rem uneration o f any kind. T his altruism o f yours has been brought to my attention, and it gives m e great happiness to see such praisew orthy generosity; and I hope that the other landowners will im itate your action.” D epartm ental gover­ nor o f Sonsonate to Roberto E. Candel, Sonsonate City, M arch 9, 1932, A G N , M G , 1932, Box 7. 69. D iario d el Salvador, February, 11, 1933, 1. 70. T he term s o f M ejoram iento Social and the debate in the N ational As­ sembly over its creation were reprinted in D iario d e l Salvador, July 9, 1932, and August 18, 1932. 71. D iario d e l Salvador, Septem ber 15, 1932, 3; D iario La Prensa, M ay 8, 1934. 72. From two examples o f a Record o f Transfer o f Funds from the M inistry o f H acienda to M ejoram iento Social, Septem ber 20, 1933, and D ecem ber 6, 1933, A G N , M G , unclassified box. T h e governm ent’s budget figure came from

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Goldie, San Salvador, to Simon, L ondon, July 11, 1934, PR O , F O 371/17495 A 61591/109/8. 73. C ited in Alvarenga V enutolo, C ultura y ética, 330. T h e regulations of the C édula program are fo und in A G N , M G , 1933, Box 10. It is also reported in E l Comercio, O ctober 21, 1934, 2a, fo u n d in A G N , M G , 1934, Box 9.

74. T he privilege o f bearing firearms u n d er the C édula program was never officially discussed. But it is clear th at the governm ent allowed C édula holders to do so. In the 1935 presidential election, the m inister o f governm ent ordered that no weapons w ould be allowed in the voting areas, “even for those people w ho hold a C édula Patriótica.” See telegram circular from G eneral Calderón, January 3, 1935, A G N , M G , SS, Box “Política, 1930—9.” In another case, a C édula holder lent his w eapon to a friend w ho was later arrested for drunkenness. T h e director o f police chastised the C édula holder for lending out his w eapon, telling h im that the privilege is only for the C édula holder himself, n o t his friends. See director general o f police to m inister o f governm ent, O ctober 31, 1933, A G N , M G , 1933, Box 10. T he abolition o f the right to bear weapons u n d er the C édula program is found in D iario Oficial, O ctober 31, 1936. In 1940 the governm ent still found C édula holders claim ing the right to bear arms w ith their Cédula card; see m inis­ ter o f hacienda to m inister o f governm ent, April, 22, 1940, A G N , M G , folder, “C édula Patriótica.” 75. L a República, July 12, 1934, found as a clipping in A G N , M G , 1934, Box 7. 76. T he case o f Peñañalapa is addressed in a m em o from President M artínez to m inister o f governm ent, July 12, 1932, A G N , M G , unclassified box. O th er examples, from La Libertad D epartm ent, are fo u n d in the m em o from the m inis­ ter o f war to the m inister o f labor, July 20, 1932, in “notas del M insiterio de G uerra,” July to December, 1932, A G N , M G , unclassified box. For the case of A rm enia, see the m em o from President M artínez to the governor o f Sonsonate D epartm ent, Septem ber 8, 1932, from “C orrespondencia del M inisterio de G obernación, 1930—1935,” A G N , M G , SS, Box 2. For later examples from La Libertad D epartm ent, see D iario L a Prensa, August 22, 1934, 1. 77. D iario L a Prensa, M ay 16, 1934, 1, and July 26, 1934, 1. 78. T he inform ation o n the activities o f M ejoram iento Social was accum u­ lated from a variety o f sources. For a sum m ary from President M artínez, see his 1934 speech before the assembly, reprinted in D iario L a Prensa, February 13, 1934, 1. O n the housing project, see D iario L a Prensa, M ay 16, 1934, 1, and July 25, 1934, 1; and McCafferty, San Salvador, to secretary o f state, O ctober 31, 1932, USN A , RG 59, 816.00 General C onditions/37, Box 5508, Folder #2. O n land redistribution, see D iario L a Prensa, M ay 8, 1934, 1, August 15, 1934, 1, August 28, 1934, 5; D iario Latino, M ay 14, 1935, 8, August 14, 1935, 1, and

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January 20, 1936, 7. Also, o n the issue o f land, see the following three reports from McCafferty, San Salvador, to secretary o f state, all located in U SN A , RG 59: N ovem ber 30, 1932, 816.00 G eneral C onditions/38, Box 5508, Folder #2; D e­ cem ber 31, 1932, 816.00 G eneral C onditions/39, Box 5508, Folder #2; and Sep­ tem ber 4, 1932, 816.00 General C onditions/59, Box 5508, Folder #4. 79. D iario Latino, April 16, 1936, 1. 80. O n the end o f M ejoram iento Social and the discussion over its lack of funds, see D iario Latino, August 15, 1935, 7. M ejoram iento Social continued to distribute the lands w hich it h ad already purchased; see D iario Latino, July 10, 1937, 11, and July 26, 1937, 1. 81. T h e references to the nine haciendas an d the approxim ately tw o h u n ­ dred houses are sum m arized from all the references I was able to find. A t least one other w ork has m ade a substantially higher prediction: 22 haciendas totaling over 50,000 m anzanas by 1950, and 332 houses constructed (M inisterio de Educación, H istoria de E l Salvador 2:155). But the source o f th at is no t clear.

82. Interview w ith Pío Rom ero Bosque in San José, C osta Rica, following his exile by M artínez, February 23, 1934, U SN A , RG 59, 816.00/941, Box 5506, Folder #3. 83. McCafferty, San Salvador, to secretary o f state, January 4, 1934, USNA, RG 59, 816.00/934, Box 5506, Folder #3. 84. T he coffee growers’ position and the actions o f the Coffee Growers’ Association are described in D iario Latino, June 28, 1935, 6. 85. T he econom ic policies o f the M artínez regime are discussed in the journal L em pa 1 (July 1934), found in A G N , M G , 1934, Box 4. See also BulmerT hom as, P olitical Economy, 72. T h e issue o f the deflation is presented repeatedly in the pages o f D iario L atino during the m o n th s o f June, July, and August 1935. Also, the British m inister m ade some w ell-inform ed reports on the issue; in par­ ticular see Shepherd, San Salvador to Foreign Office, Septem ber 9, 1933, PRO , FO 371 16559, A 68 7 1 /3 8 6 /8 . O n the deflation o f the colón prior to 1934, see Shepherd, San Salvador to Foreign Office, August 28, 1933, PR O , F O 371 16559, A 6669/386/8. 86. T he governm ent’s opposition to the deflation was presented in D iario Latino, July 12, 1935, 8, and July 13, 1935, 1.

87. Evidence o f the m ilitary’s extensive censorship cam paign can be found in folder “censura de prensa, 1932—7,” A G N , SI, C apitulo 1, Tom o 7, and in the folders o f “censura de prensa,” for the years 1937—1944 in A G N , M G . 88. D iario Latino, June 28, 1935, 3. 89. D iario Latino, July 4, 1935, 9. 90. D iario Latino, July 16, 1935, 3. 91. D iario Latino, June 28, 1935, 3.

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92. D iario Latino, August 21, 1935, 3. 93. From Vásquez, governor of La Unión, to minister of government, Oc­ tober 4, 1935, A GN, M G, 1936, Box 3. See also the annual inform e from General Calderón, governor of Sonsonate, December 31, 1938, 1, in a collection of in ­ form es, AGN, M G, SS, Box 5. 94. D iario L a Prensa, November 19, 1937, 1. 95. D iario Latino, August 25, 1936, 3. 96. The circular was reprinted in D iario La Prensa, November 11, 1937, 1. For mention of the slump in prices and the rumor of wage cuts, see Hill, San Salvador to Foreign Office, March, 24, 1938, PRO, FO 371/21431, A 2894 /586/8, 8. 97. See D iario Latino, August 16, 1935, 4; August 17, 1935, 10; Febru­ ary 5, 1936, 1; and March 6, 1936, 6. 98. See the two memos from Francisco José Rivas, governor of Chalatenango, both dated May 16, 1939. The first is to the minister of government and is located in AGN, M G, 1939, unclassified paquete; the second is from minister of agriculture to ?, AGN, M G, 1939, folder, “circular colecciones annual, 1939.” 99. The case is stored together under Vásquez to minister of government, October 12, 1939, AGN, M G, Box “Gobernación Sonsonate y Ahuachapán.” For a case from La Unión in which the government sided with campesinos to stave off an expansion-oriented landowner, see governor of La Unión to the minister of government, October 4, 1935, AGN, M G, 1936, Box 3. In December 1937, the government launched an investigation into the practice of the Laggeneger and Sandoval Company in Sonsonate for forcing their workers to rent dilapidated, unsanitary shacks. See the lengthy memo from the minister of government to the governor of Sonsonate, December 20, 1937, AGN, M G, SS, Box 3; and the initial complaint in AGN, SS, Box 4. For the government’s rebuke of an abusive land­ owner in San Miguel Department, see memo from Ignacio Vásquez to minister of government, March 10, 1936, AGN, M G, unclassified box. For another example of rebuking landowners, see memo from Julio César Calderón, governor of Son­ sonate Department, to minister of government, November 10, 1938, AGN, MG, 1938, folder 210. For the report on the successful reduction in the terraje on a hacienda near the town of Jiquilisco, see D iario L atino, July 10, 1935, 1. For a case from Sonsonate Department (hacienda “Santa Emilia”), in which the owner was delinquent in paying his workers and the governor came to the workers’ aid, see memo from José Tomás Calderón, minister of government, to director general of policía, August 14, 1939, AGN, M G, 1939, folder “Protección de intereses— general.” 100. From minister of war to minister of government, April 20, 1939, AGN, M G, Folder 300.

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101. A nderson, M a ta n za , 170. See also Alvarenga V enutolo, C ultura y ética . 326. 102. M . M cC lintock, A m erican Connection, 112. 103. See, for example, C hing an d Tilley, “Indians, the Military.” 104. G ould and Lauria-Santiago, To Rise in Darkness, 253. See also Peterson, “Remains O u t o f Place.” 105. Tilley, Seeing In d ia n s . A concise sum m ary o f Tilley’s birth-record data can be found in C hing and Tilley, “Indians, the Military.” B randt Peterson posed some challenging and good questions to m e about the legitim acy o f using those b irth records in th at m anner. I appreciated his insights during the N ew York International Forum , “El Salvador 1932: Historical M emory, Justice, Identity, and Indigenous Peoples’ Rights,” N ew York, NY, O ctober 11-14, 2004. 106. T he lim itations o f the sources th at were available as o f 1993 are de­ scribed very well in Pérez Brignoli, “Indians, C om m unists.” O n questions o f the ethnicity o f the rebels and the nature o f ethnicity in the m otivations for the rebel­ lion, see G ould and Lauria-Santiago, To Rise in Darkness ; and Tilley, Seeing In d ia n s .

107. Libro de Actas, February 4, 1932, AM I. 108. Inform e from the governor o f Sonsonate D ep artm en t to the m inister o f governm ent, August 31, 1938, A G N , M G , SS, Box 5. 109. From Rodgers, San Salvador, to Foreign Office, February 12, 1932, PR O , F O 371/15813. A 1243/9/8. 110. D iario L a Prensa, January 29, 1932, in collection o f press clippings, A G N , SI, C apitulo 1, Caja 17. 111. H errera Vega, In d io occidental, excerpts taken from 69, 70, 74, and 75. 112. For accounts o f the targets o f the rebellion, see M acN aught, “H orrors o f C om m unism ”; and M éndez, Sucesos com unistas . 113. T he three episodes are fo u n d in the following: C o m m u n ity o f Indians o f Izalco to the president o f the republic, O ctober 24, 1907, A G N , M G , 1907, Box 1; Representatives o f the C o m ú n de Indígenas to the president o f the re­ public, July 18, 1925, A G N , M G , 1925, Box 10; Representative Indians to the governor o f Sonsonate D epartm ent, M arch 7, 1929, A G N , M G , SS, unclassi­ fied box. 114. Libro de Actas, February 3, 1932, AM I. 115. Ibid. 116. T he various abuses were reported in D iario d e l Salvador, Septem ber 13, 1932. 117. M artinez’s message was contained in a m em o sent from the governor of Sonsonate D epartm en t to the alcalde o f Izalco, Septem ber 7, 1932, Unclassified G obernación Sonsonate, 1932, in AGS, unclassified box.

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118. D iario d e l Salvador, September 14, 1932. 119. Libro de Actas, September 15, 1932, AMI. 120. From Enrique Uribe, sub-comandante local, Nahuizalco, to coman­ dante of Sonsonate Department, March 4,1932, AGN, M G , SS, Box 3. 121. D iario d e l Salvador, September 13, 1932. 122. Maximiliano Hernández Martínez, San Salvador, to the governor of Sonsonate Department, August 8, 1932, AGN, M G, unclassified box. 123. Calderón, governor of Sonsonate, to General Martínez, San Salvador, November 16, 1933, AGN, M G, SS, Box “Política, 1930—9.” 124. A collection of telegrams related specifically to solicitation of funds for the school, and documents relating to the inaugural celebration of the school in August 1932, are found in Gobernación Sonsonate, AGS, unclassified box, 1932. See also Libro de Actas, August 29, 1932, AMI. 125. From the statutes of the Rafael Campos Indian School, contained in a memo from Arévalo, subsecretary for the ministry of government, September 2, 1932, AGN, M G, unclassified box. 126. The previously mentioned book by Herrera Vega stands as an example of this belief; see Herrera Vega, In d io occidental. In 1933 the government solicited opinions from dozens of local officials as part of an initiative to decrease crimi­ nality and delinquency. A common theme in the responses was a need for edu­ cation as a means to instill the population with values and civility. O ne local re­ spondent effectively summarized the general arguments when he opined that “various vices exist in this incipient society, and all of them are a consequence of a lack of instruction and culture. . . . This lack of culture induces individuals to look for other entertainment, such as the cantina, gambling.” The entire investigation is found in AGN, FA, Box 6; the quote is from Rafael ?, alcalde of ?, Cabañas Department, to governor, Sensuntepeque Department, February ?, 1933. 127. From Lieutenant Alfonso R. Muñoz, Director, Rafael Campos Indian School, to General Felipe Ibarra, Sonsonate, October 14, 1932, AGS, unclassified box. For a similar description of the Rafael Campo School and its director, see Gould and Lauria-Santiago, To Rise in Darkness, 253. 128. From the Informe Cuatrimestral de la Gobernación Política, Departa­ mento Sonsonate, meses enero a abril, May 20, 1936, AGN, M G, SS, unclassified box. 129. Denunciation presented to the Supreme Court of Justice by Candelario Martínez and others from the municipality of Guatajuayaque, Morazán Depart­ ment, December 1, 1934, AGN, M G , 1934, Box 1. 130. Com munity of Indians of Asunción Izalco to General Maximiliano Hernández Martínez, February 26, 1933, AGN, M G , SS, Box 2.

434

N o tes to Pages 3 2 8 —3 3 4

131. C opy o f the entry o f the Libro de Actas, February 5, 1934, A G N , M G , 1934, Box 8. 132. Telegram from José Tomás Calderón, governor o f Sonsonate D epart­ m ent, to m inister o f governm ent, July 4, 1935, A G N , M G , unclassified box. See also m inister o f w ar to m inister o f governm ent, July 8, 1935, A G N , M G , 1935, Box 8. 133. “Diligencias sobre exigir a la indígena, 1935,” A G N , M G , SS, Box 2. 134. C aptain M orán, com andante o f the T h ird Com pany, Sonsonate, to governor o f Sonsonate D epartm ent, O ctober 18, 1936, A G N , M G , SS, Box 2. 135. Julio César Calderón, governor o f Sonsonate D epartm ent, to m inister o f governm ent, N ovem ber 23, 1938, A G N , M G , 1938, Folder 210. 136. Julio César Calderón, governor o f Sonsonate D epartm ent, to m inister o f governm ent, D ecem ber 20, 1939, A G N , M G , 1939, folder “Seguridad pública— general.” 137. M axim iliano H ernández M artínez to the governor o f Sonsonate D e­ partm ent, N ovem ber 19, 1932, AGS, unclassified box. 138. M anual Pasín, Izalco, to governor o f Sonsonate D epartm ent, January 2, 1933, A G N , SS, Box 3; and Jesús ?, Izalco, to governor o f Sonsonate D epartm ent, D ecem ber 27, 1933, A G N , SS, Box 3. 139. For num erous examples o f In d ian solicitudes, including some reprinted in their entirety, see Lauria-Santiago, “A grarian Republic.” 140. Inform e from the governor o f Sonsonate D ep artm en t to the m inister o f governm ent, August 31, 1938, A G N , M G , SS, Box 5. 141. T he docum ents relating to the 1939—1940 cam paign against the fincaowned stores are gathered together in A G N , M G , 1940, unclassified paquete, Folder “Tiendas en Fincas.” 142. M inister o f governm ent to departm ental governor, U sulután, Septem­ ber 19, 1940, A G N , M G , 1940, folder “Tiendas en Fincas.” 143. M inister o f governm ent to A m adeo Canessa, O ctober 4, 1939, A G N , M G , 1940, Folder “Tiendas en Fincas.” 144. A rturo Sánchez, secretary o f the C ám ara de Com erciantes en Pequeño, to m inister o f governm ent, D ecem ber 5, 1939, A G N , M G , 1940, Folder “T ien­ das en Fincas.” 145. Alvarez, secretary o f the Coffee Growers’ Association, D ecem ber 1, 1939, A G N , M G , 1940, Folder “Tiendas en Fincas.” 146. A rturo Sánchez, secretary o f the C ám ara de Com erciantes en Pequeño, to m inister o f governm ent, D ecem ber 24, 1940, A G N , M G , 1940, Folder “T ien­ das en Fincas.” 147. RGASPI, 495:119:1, 15.

N o tes to Pages 3 3 9 —3 5 4

43 5

Conclusion

1. See, for example, Guardino, Tim e o f Liberty ; C. Méndez, P lebian Re­ public; Salvatore, W andering Paysanos; Sanders, Contentious Republicans; and

Wolfe, Everyday N a tio n -S ta te . 2. See Sanders, Contentious Republicans; C. Méndez, P lebian Republic; and J. Wood, Society o f Equality. 3. C. Méndez, P lebian R epublic, 242. 4. Gobat, C onfronting the A m erican D ream , 226. 5. See also Walter, Regime o f Anastasio Somoza. 6. O n the structure of politics under the military, the reformism of the 1960s, and the eventual rejection of those reforms, see Almeida, Waves o f Protest; Castro Morán, F unción política; García Guevara, “Military Justice and Social Control”; Lindo-Fuentes and Ching, M o d e rn izin g M inds; Stanley, Protection R acket State; Turcios, A utoritarism o y m odernización; Webre, José N apoleón Duarte; and Williams and Walter, M ilita riza tio n a n d D e m ilita riza tio n . 7. For an impressive analysis of the internal workings of military politics, see Bosch, Salvadoran Officer Corps. 8. For insider analyses of the 1979 coup, see Majano, U na oportunidad p erd id a ; and Menjívar, Tiempos de locura . 9. Gutiérrez, Message fr o m the V ice President, 1 and 6. 10. “Entrevista con Gerson Martínez,” E l Faro, n.d., http://archivo.elfaro .net/dlgalp/contrainsurgencia/gm.asp (archived at http://webcache.googleuser content.com/search?q=cache:http://archivo.elfaro.net/dlgalp/contrainsurgencia/ gm.asp). For another postwar rejection of the 1979 coup by another guerrilla commander, Ana Guadalupe Martínez, see del Olmo, “El Salvador: Ana Guada­ lupe Martinez, ‘Commander Mary.’” For contemporary guerrilla analyses of the 1979 coup and the subsequent reforms, see Dixon and Jonas, Revolution a n d In ­ tervention . 11. For an insightful look into the life and death of Alvarez, see Lamperti, E nrique Alvarez.

12. Escalante Arce, Sacrificios hum anos, 212—15. 13. Panamá Sandoval, Guerreros, 76. 14. Valdivieso Oriani, C ruzando, 72. 15. Gorkin, Pineda, and Leal, From Grandmothers, 62. 16. Valencia and Martinez, “Plática con Orlando de Sola,” E l Faro, July 10, 2009, 1:204; see Pyes, Salvadoran Rightists, 40, for reference to de Sola’s loss of land. 17. Zepeda Herrera, Perfiles de la guerra, 28, 248, 263, 278, and 314.

436

N o tes to Pages 3 5 5 —3 5 6

18. For some insights into elite narratives and their historicized sense of self, see Lindo-Fuentes, Ching, and Lara-Martínez, R em em bering a Massacre, chap­ ter 5; and Lindo-Fuentes and Ching, M o d e rn izin g M in d s, chapter 1. 19. Vaquerano et al., “Sánchez Cerén no hubiera pasado de soldado.” 20. Cruz, P olitical Culture, 7. 21. As a sampling of this comparative scholarship, see Wickham-Crowley, Guerrillas a n d Revolution; and Goodwin, N o O ther Way O ut. For a longer-term comparative view, see Williams, States a n d Social E volution; and Mahoney, Leg­ acies o f Liberalism.

b i b l i o g r a p h y

Archives E l Salvador:

San Salvador Archivo G eneral de la N ación M inisterio de G obernación Seccíon San V icente Sección Sonsonate Collección de N ulos Fondo Alcaldía Sección Indiferente Sonsonate Archivo M unicipal de Sonsonate Archivo de G obernación Sonsonate Izalco Archivo M unicipal de Izalco Juayúa Archivo M unicipal de Juayúa Moscow, Russia

Russian State Archive o f Social an d Political H istory (the C o m in tern Archive) Fond 495: O pus 119: C om m unist Party o f El Salvador Fond 500: C aribbean Bureau o f the Executive C om m ittee o f the C om intern Fond 534: International Red Trade U nion Fond 539: International Red Aid U n ited States

N ational Archives, W ashington, D C Records G roup 59, 1911-1939 Records G roup 84, 1926-1932 W ashington N ational Records Center, Suitland, M aryland G -2 M ilitary Reports, El Salvador 437

438

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U C L A D epartm ent o f Special Collections T he Papers o f Frederick W illiam Taylor N ew York, N Y Ismael Fuentes Collection, in the personal possession o f Dr. H éctor LindoFuentes London, U n ited K ingdom

Public Record Office Foreign Office 371, El Salvador, G eneral C orrespondence, 1920—1938

San Salvador Newspapers and Periodicals E l A teneo de E l Salvador E l D ía D iario d el Salvador D iario Latino D iario La Prensa D iario O ficial D iario Patria E l Espectador L a Gaceta d e l Salvador L a República

Websites and Online Newspapers E l Faro, http://w w w .elfaro.net Inicia tiva Socialista, w w w .inisoc.org/anagua.htm Ism ael G. Fuentes, http://w w w .oocities.org/es/hugolindosv/Ism ael.htm

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