Australian rainforest woods: characteristics, uses and identification 9781486301799, 9781486301805, 9781486301812, 1486301797, 1486301800, 1486301819

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140 of the most significant Australian rainforest trees and their wood. The introductory sections draw the reader into an understanding of the botanical, evolutionary, environmental, historical and international significance of this beautiful but finite Australian resource. The main section examines the species and their wood with photographs, botanical descriptions and a summary of the characteristics of the wood. A section on wood identification includes fundamental information on tree growth and wood structure, as well as images of the basic characteristics.

About the author

With more than 900 colour images, this is the most

Morris Lake worked for the Queensland Department of Primary Industries

comprehensive guide ever written on Australian rainforest woods, both for the amateur and the professional wood enthusiast. It is the first time that macrophotographs of the wood have been shown characteristics, which will aid identification.

1998, he has served in the International Wood Collectors Society (IWCS) as AustralAsian Regional Trustee

RAINFOREST WOODS Characteristics, Uses and Identification

(2002–04) and Publications Chairman (2004–07). He has written several books, including Australian Trees

and Shrubs, and previously edited the IWCS journals World of Wood and Down Under. He has produced, authored or co-authored over 450 publications.

MORRIS LAKE

in association with a physical description of wood

from 1961 to 1998. Since retiring in

AUSTRALIAN RAINFOREST WOODS

Australian Rainforest Woods describes around

AUSTRALIAN

Morris Lake Australian Rainforest Woods Final.indd 1

13/02/15 11:56 AM

AUSTRALIAN

RAINFOREST WOODS

Characteristics, uses and identification

Morris Lake

© Morris Lake 2015

All rights reserved. Except under the conditions described in the Australian ­Copyright Act 1968 and subsequent amendments, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, duplicating or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. Contact CSIRO Publishing for all ­permission requests. National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry Lake, Morris, author.

Australian rainforest woods: characteristics, uses and identification/Morris Lake. 9781486301799 (paperback) 9781486301805 (epdf) 9781486301812 (epub)

Includes bibliographical references and index. Rain forests – Australia. Trees – Tropics – Identification. Trees – Identification. Wood – Identification. Wood – Anatomy. Wood – Utilization – Australia. 634.970994

Published by CSIRO Publishing Locked Bag 10 Clayton South VIC 3169 Australia

Telephone: +61 3 9545 8400 Email: [email protected] Website: www.publish.csiro.au

Front cover: Wood grain photos by Morris Lake. Back cover: Eucalyptus regnans, Sherbrooke Forest, Victoria, Australia. CC BY 3.0, Melburnian. Set in 10/12 Cambria Cover design by James Kelly Typeset by Morris Lake Index by Morris Lake Printed in China by 1010 Printing International Ltd

CSIRO Publishing publishes and distributes scientific, technical and health science books, magazines and journals from Australia to a worldwide audience and conducts these activities autonomously from the research activities of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO). The views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily represent those of, and should not be attributed to, the publisher or CSIRO. The copyright owner shall not be liable for technical or other errors or omissions contained herein. The reader/ user accepts all risks and responsibility for losses, damages, costs and other consequences resulting directly or indirectly from using this information. Original print edition: The paper this book is printed on is in accordance with the rules of the Forest Stewardship Council®. The FSC® promotes environmentally responsible, socially beneficial and economically viable management of the world’s forests.

Foreword Australian rainforests contain unique assemblages of plant species with most having their origins and evolution on the continent. The timber from Australian rainforest species is similarly unique and has great variety in texture, colour and utility. Australian Rainforest Woods is a compendium of knowledge on the wood of Australian rainforest species – a magnum opus. It provides for the first time descriptions for each species and their woods, including photographs, and for some species Aboriginal and historical information. The book provides tools for identifying rainforest wood and covers wood structure and characteristics. Detailed macrophotographs of wood sections for 140 Australian rainforest species are provided in beautiful detail. This book contains a wealth of information on the fascinating woods of Australian rainforest trees. Dr Gordon Guymer, Director, Queensland Herbarium, Brisbane.

As Curator of the 52-ha Brisbane Botanic Gardens, Mt Coot-tha, established in 1976 as a recreational and educational site, this park now contains over 4000 tree and shrub species, exotic and indigenous, and I am delighted to be given the opportunity to review this very informative and much needed work. Despite being a relatively young botanical collection the Gardens reflect the huge biodiversity of the tropical and subtropical rainforests of our southern continent as well as displaying temperate species. The site includes the Queensland Herbarium, botanical/horticultural library, laboratory and seed bank, plus a 300-seat auditorium – a truly multifunctional facility. Morris’ book reflects and expounds on this biodiversity as few books have done before. In my second life as a member of the International Association of Wood Anatomists (IAWA), I commend Morris and the International Wood Collectors Society (IWCS) members (of which I am also a member) for their work in advancing the science of wood identification. This is displayed in this book by the improved macrophotography techniques developed by Jean-Claude Cerre. This work is essential given our current ability to identify less than 10% of the southern hemisphere’s estimated 12 000 wood species using The CSIRO Family Key for Hardwood Identification. The future will reveal if the addition of computer pattern recognition technology will ‘open the gates’ to better wood identification. This is a valuable contribution to this essential piece of science. Ross McKinnon, Curator, Brisbane Botanic Gardens, Mt Coot-tha.



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Dedication I dedicate this book to my children, Marguerite, Joanne, Paul and Veronica, and my grandsons, Zayne, James, Hugo, Harry and Darcy, and to those ‘treading the path’ of a better understanding of our rainforests and to a better knowledge of their magnificent wood, as we struggle for the sustainability of these precious natural resources. I thank my wife, Robin, who has accompanied me on this journey and has given me great encouragement and support in my passion for a better understanding of wood. Morris Lake

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Australian Rainforest Woods

Contents Foreword Preface Acknowledgements

Introduction The gymnosperms The angiosperms

Rainforest species used for their woods

1

1 5

Acacia celsa brown salwood Acacia melanoxylon blackwood Agathis atropurpurea black kauri Agathis microstachya bull kauri Agathis robusta kauri pine Alangium villosum subsp. polyosmoides canary muskheart Aleurites moluccana candlenut Allocasuarina torulosa rose sheoak Alphitonia excelsa red ash Alphitonia petriei pink almond ash Alstonia scholaris white cheesewood Anodopetalum biglandulosum horizontal Anthocarapa nitidula incense cedar wood Aphananthe philippinensis handle wood Araucaria bidwillii bunya pine Araucaria cunninghamii hoop pine Argyrodendron actinophyllum subsp. actinophyllum blush tulip oak Argyrodendron peralatum red tulip oak Argyrodendron trifoliolatum brown tulip oak Atherosperma moschatum blackheart sassafras Athrotaxis cupressoides pencil pine Athrotaxis selaginoides King Billy pine Athertonia diversifolia creamy silky oak Austrobuxus swainii pink cherry Backhousia bancroftii Johnstone River hardwood Backhousia citriodora lemon-scented myrtle Banksia integrifolia subsp. monticola mountain banksia Beilschmiedia bancroftii yellow walnut Beilschmiedia obtusifolia blush walnut Buckinghamia celsissima spotted silky oak Caldcluvia australiensis pencil cedar Caldcluvia paniculosa brown alder Callitris macleayana brush cypress Cardwellia sublimis northern silky oak Castanospermum australe black bean Ceratopetalum apetalum coachwood Ceratopetalum succirubrum satin sycamore Cerbera floribunda cassowary plum Cinnamomum laubatii pepperwood Citronella moorei silky beech Cryptocarya erythroxylon rose maple



iii vii viii

7

8 9 11 11 13

15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 26 28 29 30 31 32 33 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 49 50 52 53 54 55 56

Cryptocarya rigida rose maple Cupaniopsis anacardioides green-leaved tamarind Cupaniopsis parvifolia small-leaved tuckeroo Daphnandra micrantha socket sassafras Daphnandra repandula northern sassafras Darlingia darlingiana brown oak Darlingia ferruginea rose oak Dendrocnide photinophylla shining-leaved stinging tree Diploglottis australis native tamarind Doryphora aromatica northern sassafras Doryphora sassafras sassafras Dysoxylum fraserianum rosewood Dysoxylum mollissimum miva mahogany Dysoxylum setosum miva mahogany Dysoxylum oppositifolium pink mahogany Dysoxylum pettigrewianum spur mahogany Elaeocarpus grandis blue quandong Elaeocarpus kirtonii brown quandong Elaeocarpus ruminatus brown quandong Emmenosperma alphitonioides bonewood Endiandra cowleyana rose walnut Endiandra crassiflora Dorrigo walnut Endiandra palmerstonii Queensland walnut Endiandra sankeyana Sankey’s walnut Endiandra sieberi pink walnut Eucalyptus regnans mountain ash Eucryphia lucida leatherwood Erythrophleum chlorostachys Cooktown ironwood Euroschinus falcatus pink poplar Ficus racemosa cluster fig Ficus rubiginosa rusty fig Ficus superba cedar fig Flindersia acuminata silver silkwood Flindersia australis crow’s ash Flindersia bennettiana Bennett’s ash Flindersia bourjotiana Queensland silver ash Flindersia brayleyana Queensland maple Flindersia collina leopard wood ash Flindersia ifflaiana Cairns hickory Flindersia pimenteliana maple silkwood Flindersia schottiana silver ash Flindersia xanthoxyla yellow wood Geijera salicifolia green satinheart Glochidion ferdinandi cheese tree Gmelina fasciculiflora white beech Gmelina leichhardtii white beech Grevillea hilliana white silky oak Grevillea parallela silver oak Grevillea robusta southern silky oak Guioa semiglauca wild quince Halfordia scleroxyla saffronheart Harpullia pendula tulipwood Intsia bijuga Johnstone River teak

Australian Rainforest Woods

57 58 59 60 61 62 62 63 64 65 65 66 68 68 69 69 70 71 72 73 74 74 75 77 77 78 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 92 93 94 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 106 107 108 109

v

Jagera pseudorhus foambark 110 Karrabina benthamiana red carabeen 111 Karrabina biagiana northern brush mahogany 112 Lagarostrobos franklinii Huon pine 113 Lasjia whelanii Whelan’s silky oak 119 Litsea glutinosa brown bollywood 120 Litsea reticulata brown beech 120 Melia azedarach var. australasica white cedar 121 Melicope bonwickii yellow evodia 122 Melicope elleryana pink euodia 122 Myristica insipida native nutmeg 123 Nauclea orientalis cheesewood 124 Nothofagus cunninghamii myrtle beech 125 Nothofagus moorei Antarctic beech 127 Olea paniculata native olive 128 Orites excelsus mountain silky oak 129 Paraserianthes toona Mackay cedar 130 Pennantia cunninghamii brown beech 131 Phyllocladus aspleniifolius celery top pine 132 Pittosporum undulatum engraver wood 134 Planchonella australis black apple plum 135 Planchonella chartacea thin-leaved plum 136 Planchonella pohlmaniana yellow boxwood 137 Pleiogynium timorense Burdekin plum 138 Podocarpus elatus brown pine 139 Podocarpus grayae brown pine 139 Polyalthia nitidissima canary beech 140 Polyscias elegans silver basswood 141 Pseudoweinmannia lachnocarpa mararie 142 Quintinia sieberi possumwood 143 Rhodosphaera rhodanthema tulip satinwood 144 Schizomeria ovata crab apple 145 Sloanea australis blush alder 146

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Sloanea langii white carabeen Sloanea woollsii yellow carabeen Stenocarpus sinuatus wheel of fire Sundacarpus amara black pine Synoum glandulosum subsp. glandulosum Synoum glandulosum subsp. paniculosum scentless rosewood Syzygium australe bush cherry Syzygium claviflorum grey satinash Syzygium cormiflorum bumpy satinash Syzygium gustavioides grey satinash Syzygium kuranda Kuranda satinash Toona ciliata red cedar Vitex lignum-vitae satinwood Xanthostemon chrysanthus brown penda Xanthostemon whitei red penda

146 147 148 149 150

150 151 152 152 153 154 155 158 159 159

Wood identification

160

Macrophotographs

165

The future for identification A few notes on variability What’s in a name? Plant classification Tree growth and wood structure Start with the fundamentals

Macrophotographs of species listed by family Subdivision Gymnospermae Subdivision Angiospermae

160 160 161 161 161 162 166 168 171

Bibliography 203 Index 205

Australian Rainforest Woods

Preface I am proud to present this work of national and international significance which describes 141 of the most significant Australian rainforest trees and their wood. You may ask, ‘Why go to all this trouble when there are already so many books on A ­ ustralian trees already in bookshops?’ The answer could be that, ‘we can’t see the wood for the trees’, because most botanical publications do not say anything about a tree’s wood. However, many wood enthusiasts have, over the years, expressed interest in a book which ‘includes’ ­information about the tree’s wood – so here it is. The salient point is that wood features are not considered in botanical identification – the study of wood is a separate science. So you should not expect information about woods in a botanical publication. Also in this age of science you come to expect that the basic science of natural products will have been researched and documented, and that all the information is relatively available – particularly for a product that plays an important role in our everyday lives. Unfortunately using current technology we can identify only 7% of Australian woods. This volume brings together as many aspects of Australian rainforests woods as possible, plus my own experience and that of my associates. I have gone further than simply describing the wood by included information about their evolutionary and ecological significance. The reason is that our rainforests contain most of our ancient trees species – some which have grown continuously on the Australian continent for 240 million years – confirming their world significance. This inclusion highlights our ancient rainforest species in a way seldom previously attempted, and I am hoping that this will bring about a deeper respect for some of these species – and their wood. Of international significance, I have included information on wood identification – including ‘end grain’ macrophotographs – using new technology which is of international significance. Where possible I have presented the information in non-technical terms, which will be easily comprehended by readers, whatever the reader’s level of botanical knowledge – I know this will upset some individuals, however it makes it more useful for everyone. This is therefore a comprehensive guide for the amateur as well as the professional wood enthusiast.

About the author

Morris Lake (1941–). QDDM (1960), Grad Cert Man (1995, 2001).

Qualifications:

• QDDM (1957–1960), University of Queensland • Graduate Certificate in Management (1995), Writing Editing and Publishing, QUT • Graduate Certificate in Management (2001), Philanthropy and Fundraising, QUT

Experience: • Worked in the Queensland Department of Primary Industries (1961–98); in the last decade as Senior Technical Information ­Officer with State responsibility • In the last two decades produced more than 450 books, and other publications, selling around half a million copies – many ­authored or co-authored. • Since retirement in 1998, served in the International Wood Collectors Society (IWCS) as Austral Asian Regional Trustee (2002–04), and Publications Chairman (2004–07) • Author/producer, Australian Trees and Shrubs, First Edition 2003, Second Edition 2006 • Editor/producer, World of Wood (2007–13), IWCS journal with membership in more than 30 countries • Editor/producer, Down Under, the AustralAsian Regional journal for IWCS (2000–13)



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Acknowledgements I acknowledge many individuals who have ‘walked the walk’ with me over the past decade, particularly through my membership of the International Wood Collectors Society (IWCS). I would particularly like to thank Jean-Claude Cerre from Nevers, France, for the magnificent macrophotographs. His work has greatly simplified the process of wood macrophotography and has also placed this technology within the reach of the wood enthusiast using ‘off-the-shelf’ equipment. My thanks also to David Greve for his invaluable assistance in editing and structural advice, and to Keith Hall, Colin Martin, Terry Henderson, Ken Jackson, Reg Lockyer and many others for their assistance in putting together my wood collection and filling in many knowledge gaps. In particular I would like to thank Dr. Gordon Guymer, Director of the Queensland Herbarium, for his enthusiasm and assistance with the botanical and nomenclature descriptions. His contribution was greatly appreciated. Morris Lake

viii

Australian Rainforest Woods

Introduction Rarely do we acknowledge the ‘evolutionary significance’ of our trees. So I want to take you on an historic journey. We start our journey not far along the broadwalk beside Lake Barrine on the Atherton Tableland in north Queensland, and stand beside the twin bull kauri trees (Agathis microstachya) which are 800 years old, 45 metres in height, and more than 6 metres in girth. The evolutionary significance of these twin bull kauri trees – shown opposite and on the right – is that they represent 220 million years of evolutionary history for the Araucariaceae family – they are the one millionth plus generation of their species growing in this lush tropical rainforest. They have survived every catastrophe that nature and civilisation has thrown at them – so far. There is literally no other place on this planet where you can experience such a continuous record of their presence – or any other species of tree for that matter. Of equal significance are the 600 hardwood species growing beside them – species which made their first appearance around 135 million years ago. Then there are the 400 species growing in the rainforest margins, including eucalypts which evolved 35 million years ago, and acacias which evolved 25 million years ago. This scenario is unprecedented anywhere in the world. Australia’s tropical rainforests are a ‘cradle of biodiversity’. Their evolution rates are higher, and their extinction rates lower, than that of the temperate rainforests of the world – thus their survival is vital to our future. The Australian rainforests are the plant kingdom’s equivalent of the Rift Valley in Africa to the mammals of this world. As significant as the Araucariaceae family are, however, they are not the most ancient of the Australian rainforest conifers. That prize goes to the Podocarpaceae family – as you will come to appreciate further on in our historical journey – representatives of which have had a continuous presence in our rainforests for over 240 million years – about the same time it has taken the spiral arm of the Milky Way galaxy, on which earth and our solar system sits, to complete one revolution. There are a number of reasons why these species have survived. The first is because Australian rainforests have been free of glaciation for 300 million years. The second is down to a ‘quirk of nature’. The eastern rim of the Australian continent has benefited from the warmth and moisture delivered from the Pacific Ocean. This climatic benefit has been enhanced by the progressive elevation of the east coast as the Australian tectonic plate has jacked itself up on the Pacific plate. This has maintained the higher and better distributed rainfall on the east coast. While rainforests cover only 2% of the earth’s surface they contain 50% of the wood producing species on earth. Australian rainforests therefore extend our constructs of ‘greatness’ in the natural world because they also contain the most beautiful of the Australian woods. Rainforests are home to a staggering level of biodiversity by world standards. Australia has about 5300 native wood



Robin Lake beside the bull kauri twins at Lake Barrine on the Atherton Tableland.

producing tree species, of which approximately 1200 are found in the rainforests. By comparison, the United Kingdom has 47 indigenous tree species. Western Europe, north of the Pyrenees and the Alps, contain 67 indigenous tree species. Add to this the fact that the Australian rainforests contain representatives of 12 of the world’s 19 living primitive plants, plus 65% of our ferns and 30% of our orchids, and their greatness becomes real. Our rainforests are therefore of world significance – little wonder they now command World Heritage listing. However, very little attention is paid to them, and simply locking them up, throwing away the keys, and doing nothing to unravel our understanding of the complexity of their ecosystems is not going to ensure their future on this planet. Believe it or not, these rainforest species once covered 60% of Australia. Today, however, they are found in isolated locations, covering only 0.12% of the continent. They are found mostly in small, isolated pockets, with some larger, interspaced locations stretching from the temperate rainforests on the west coast of Tasmania, through to the subtropical rainforests of the east coast and into the tropical rainforests of north Queensland. Fossil remains of these ancient species date back well before the time of the dinosaurs. The fossil records for conifers in Tasmania are unmatched in the world and provide ample evidence that the current southern hemisphere species are indeed remnants of the world’s ancient plant flora, from a time when all the present continents were one.

The gymnosperms

Where did they evolve from and what were the environmental factors that led to their being present in our rainforests today?

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These are vital questions to ask at the beginning of any discussion on Australian rainforests, because if you fail to understand the amazing evolutionary significance of this – now rather small group of trees – then you really are going to fail to understand the ‘fabric’ of the Australian rainforests – how the whole system is ‘knit together’, you could say. Or in weaving terms, the gymnosperms are the continuous ‘warp’ threads which are laid down first, and across which the ‘weft’ is woven to complete the ‘fabric’. The weft being the angiosperms which evolved from the gymnosperms. In botanical terms they are members of the plant subdivision Gymnospermae, and most people would more commonly refer to them as conifers, which simply means that they produce cones to carry the seeds which will produce the next generation – however, some do not produce cones. They were essentially the first wood producing trees. The Australian gymnosperms are of world significance but unfortunately they have not been given the respect that they so rightly deserve. For example, the members in the family Podocarpaceae are the oldest conifers in the world – older by 50 million years compared to the remaining conifer families – and are the most ancient of the wood producing plants. Podocarps are also found in Africa, South America, New Zealand, and extend north into China and Japan. However, of the 20 conifer families that have existed, 12 are now extinct. Of the eight that remain, Australia has three conifer families with species growing in its rainforests. Two of these families, Podocarpaceae and Araucariaceae, are the oldest of the eight remaining conifer families in the world. This is highly significant and places them at the very top of the evolutionary scale for wood producing trees. The Podocarps first appeared 240 million years ago, followed by the Araucarias 220 million years ago. The next oldest family, the northern hemisphere conifer family Taxaceae, first appeared 175 million years ago. The third Australian conifer family, Cupressaceae, first appeared around 160 million years ago and is considered by many as a ‘link’ species between the gymnosperms and angiosperms. During this period Australia was part of the larger Gondwana continent and these species have had continuous presence for between one and two million generations – wow! How many grandparents can you trace back on your family tree? I don’t mean to be disrespectful, but this leaves the dinosaurs, the birds and the bees and all those other ancient things for dead. Where have our evolutionary biologists been all these years that they are still scratching their heads wondering what we should do with these ‘flamin’ trees. Can you imagine the spectacle that would be created were we to bring a dinosaur back to life – take your pick, any dinosaurs – through DNA recombination, or some such technology? But, the reality is that we do have magnificent, superb, interesting and devastatingly ancient trees growing in our Australian rainforests. The oldest living things on this planet – and we hardly give them a tinker’s curse! 2

Another amazing thing is that despite the world having gone through numerous ice ages since these species first appeared, many are still present and relatively unchanged in their characteristics. The Australian conifers have seen the dinosaurs come and go – and in my estimation are still of great significance to the continuation of life on this planet.

The species covered in this discussion

The trees and woods described include 13 gymnosperm species: Agathis robusta kauri pine Agathis microstachya bull kauri Agathis atropurpureae black kauri Araucaria cunninghamii hoop pine Araucaria bidwillii bunya pine Athrotaxis selaginoides King Billy pine Athrotaxis cupressoides pencil pine Callitris macleayana brush cypress Lagarostrobos franklinii Huon pine Phyllocladus aspleniifolius celery top pine Podocarpus elatus brown pine Podocarpus grayae northern brown pine Sundacarpus amara black pine.

There are other species which have not been described – mainly because they are not as significant as the above, and because the wood characteristics of these species have not been well studied. They include: Callitris intratropica Arnhem cypress pine Podocarpus dispermus double-seeded brown pine Podocarpus drouynianus emu plum Podocarpus laurencei mountain plum pine Podocarpus smithii Smith’s pine Podocarpus spinulosus dwarf plum pine Prumnopitys ladei brown pine Wollemia nobilis Wollemi pine.

The oldest of the rainforest species

The ancient conifers have survived in a continuous line, the oldest being from the Podocarpaceae family, which have grown continuously for more than 240 million years. Australia has six genera and 16 species of podocarps, the most significant include brown pine (Podocarpus elatus), black pine (Sundacarpus amara) and Huon pine (Largarostrobos franklinii). Those from the Araucariaceae family have survived in rainforests for 220 million years. Australia has three genera, the most significant include kauri pine (Agathis robusta), bull kauri (Agathis microstachya), hoop pine (Araucaria cunninghamii), bunya pine (Aruacaria bidwillii), and the recently discovered Wollemi pine (Wollemia nobilis). Still others are from the Cupressaceae family with four genera in Australia, the most significant include King Billy pine (Athrotaxis selaginoides), pencil pine (Athrotaxis cupressoides), and brush cypress (Callitris macleayana) have survived for 160 million years – the latter considered

Australian Rainforest Woods

a link species between Araucaria and Callitris in the Cupressaceae. When you enter a tropical rainforest you enter the ‘engine room’ of 240 million years of plant biodiversity in a complex ecological system. The rainforest still contains some of the original species in relatively unchanged form, plus around 1200 timber producing descendants. This evolution occurred not only in the rainforest, but in the margins, where the changing conditions spawned an additional 3000–4000 more descendants which now cover most of Australia. This evolution is continuing today.

The era of cone-bearing plants

The period of the Mesozoic, from 245–65 million years ago, is regarded as the age of the conifers, or cone-bearing plants. Three of the four southern conifer families, including the Podocarpaceae, Araucariaceae and Cupressacecae, have a long history, and continue to be a significant part of our rainforest today. They had their beginning around the start of the Mesozoic period, 240 million years. Two hundred and forty million years is a pretty difficult time shift to get your mind around. This era began in catastrophe when an estimated 96% of all marine life and 70% of life on land ‘bit the dust’. This is an important marker for our rainforests, because according to fossil records, it was shortly after this event that members of the Podocarpaceae – the conifers – first appeared. As you can imagine, many members of this family have not survived, but we still have species from that time in our rainforests. These include species as listed earlier. Then, according to Professor Robert Hill, around 220 million year ago the family Araucariaceae evolved. This family has the most extensive fossil record, occurring in both hemispheres – and Araucaria in particular has an ancient origin. In the southern hemisphere Araucaria and Agathis have substantial macrofossil records, especially in Australia. Then as their concentration in the wet forests diminished, this left them vulnerable to changes in climate – particularly around 100 million years ago in the Cretaceous period when fossils of King Billy pine (Athrotaxis selaginoides) first appeared. More losses have occurred in recent times following the separation of Australia from Antarctica. Around 160 million years ago species in the family Cupressaceae evolved. The most notable being brush cypress (Callitris macleayana), Oyster Bay pine (Callitris rhomboidea) and South Esk pine (Callitris oblonga), which are considered transition species. Detailed information such as this is only possible today because of the evidence of recent fossil data, as well as technological advances in analysis which have revealed an enormous range of physiological tolerances in the southern conifers, fossils of which are present virtually on every surface of the southern land masses currently occupied by woody vegetation. There is evidence that the conifers grew in the extremes of drought and during times of high and low temperatures. They extend from Antarctica to the Equator, from poor quartz soils to nutrient-rich volcanic earths.

Not only have they persisted to this day, but individual species, for example the bunya pine (Araucaria bidwillii), which now only grow in Queensland, have fossil evidence in both hemispheres, some of which show beautifully preserved pre-mineralised female cone fossils from 200– 155 million years ago in the Jurassic era, with cone structure similar to that found in the bunya pine today. According to a world authority on conifers, Aljos Farjon, DNA analyses indicates that the southern conifer families split from the northern conifers and have remained distinct.

Changing environmental factors

The role of oxygen Two and a half billion years ago the earth’s atmosphere contained only approximately 1.6% oxygen, and the earth without oxygen looked much like Mars. Oxygen is life, not just for us, but for animals and plants. So how does it all work? All organic bodies are built on strings of carbon – the chief source of carbon being from the carbon dioxide in the air. All life on earth originates from the ability of plants to capture sunlight, and in the presence of chlorophyll, photosynthesise the carbon dioxide from the air and water from the soil, and make it into simple chain sugars, which all living things use for food – oxygen is their waste product. This process started when Cyanobacteria appeared around 2.7–2.4 billion years ago. They were the first to release oxygen into the earth’s atmosphere as a product of photosynthesis. Some earlier life forms produced oxygen, but Cyanobacteria were the first major species to synthesise their own sugars for growth – the by-product being oxygen. They had chlorophyll in their cells, the same green pigment used by plants today. Plants pirated the machinery for photosynthesis from Cyanobacteria, forming chloroplasts around 1 billion years ago. Then around 800–700 million years ago algae and lichens lifted the oxygen levels from 1.6% (10% of today’s levels) and the greening of the planet took off – and with it the rapid evolution of new species. Oxygen also forms ozone in the upper atmosphere which shields both plants and animals from most of the sun’s destructive rays – an astronaut in space will die without elaborate protection. So, by around 600 million years ago, the air was primed for complex animal and plant life – and that’s when the first simple forms of plant fossils begin to appear. The role of climate There are many examples where dramatic changes in climate have acted as the precursor for the myriad of tree species that have evolved in the Australia rainforests and their margins. For example, around 55 million years ago the earth experienced a carbon spike when high levels of carbon dioxide were released into the earth’s atmosphere. This stimulated plant growth and mutation rates. Most of the carbon dioxide was quickly dissolved in the ocean and dispersed through deeper waters forming calciferous deposits on the ocean floor. After such spikes, an equilibrium was eventually reached

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where about 85% of the carbon dioxide was locked in the ocean and 15% in the atmosphere. Similarly when South America and Australia parted from Antarctica around 35 million years ago, climate cycles again changed dramatically. This happened because the heat generated in the Pacific basin began to circulate around the Southern Ocean, therefore distributing the heat more widely around the globe – including into the northern hemisphere via the Gulf Stream. Australia subsequently cooled and dried, but the northern hemisphere continued having regular ice ages. With the continents now in place, as we skip forward to review the last 2 million years, scientists have documented 19 cycles in our climate, with colder periods and lower sea levels lasting about 100 000 years, interspersed with warmer spells of about 10 000 years between. At the end of each warm period the earth has experienced a carbon dioxide spike in the atmosphere. How long has the current warm period been going? Strangely enough, approximately 10 000 years, because it was around 10 000 years ago, for example, that Seattle, on the west coast of the USA, was covered by 1000 metres of ice, and sea levels were 50 metres lower than today. At various times between 10 000 and 100 000 years ago sea levels have been 100 metres or more lower than it is today. During the last interglacial period around 130 000 years ago, temperatures were 1°C warmer than today and sea levels were 5 metres higher. So it’s interesting to remember that we are presently in one of the relatively warm, but brief, interglacial periods which experience relatively high sea levels. If you extend these natural cycles into the future, and acknowledge that we are coming close to the end of a 10 000 year warm cycle, it is probable that we are most likely heading into an ice age – and because of our adverse effect on the environmental cycles, we may simply be intensifying the severity of these natural cycles, not necessarily the direct cause of them. In reality the term ‘climate change’ is a tortology – climate is not a constant. It is and has been subjected to short- and long-term variability – quite frequently to extremes that have had dramatic effects on the biodiversity of this planet. We need to come to terms with this and learn to adapt and modify our influence by not returning buried carbon back into the atmosphere – carbon originally taken out of ‘harms way’ by plants and which will serve only to intensify this variability. The role of land bridges In recent times land bridges have formed between Australia, Papua New Guinea and Asia – on current sea levels, a drop of 10 metres will expose a 50 km land bridge between Australia and Papua New Guinea. A 50 metre drop opens a 500 km land bridge, including the exposure of the Gulf of Carpentaria – this has happened in the last 10 000 years. During the last 100 000 years, its almost certain that sea level has been 100 metres lower than it is today – which opens the potential for migration of plants, animals and humans between the Asian and Australian tectonic plates. The land bridge to Asia, however, has been less frequent because of the deep and more permanent sea channels off 4

the Asian coast. Aboriginals arrived during this period – around 50 000 years ago – however recent artifacts indicate their arrival may extend back 60 000–65 000 years. With the collision of the Australian and Asian plates about four million years ago – and this is fairly recent history – the central ranges of New Guinea were formed as we know them today. Migration of species, however, was probably not as great as it could have been because the periods of land bridge formation coincided with dry periods. Plant migration was also limited because the rainforests on Cape York Peninsula have clearly defined edges – the result of dry season burning in the surrounding areas – and stepping inside the forest, the temperature drops noticeably. Their small size also emphasises the fact that the rainforests in the north do not contain many of the species found only a short distance away in New Guinea. 
If anything, it would have been the migratory birds which spread species across the gaps. The fossil records show that many animals also crossed these land bridges as they followed their preferred environments. Once introduced, plant species either adapted or disappeared. There is however a common thread to their disappearance – those at greatest risk were those with the narrowest geographical range – and if you look at the Australian rainforests species, many have the narrowest range of almost any plant system currently in Australia. It’s therefore imperative that we give them every opportunity to survive. The role of fire As the continent dried, seasonal variation in rainfall meant that much of Australia could no longer support rainforests. The Northern Territory is a good example, where despite high rainfall, the dry spring period does not support rainforest which needs a consistent seasonal rainfall pattern. This gradual drying increases the risk of large volumes of dry biomass which encourages fire and so the eventual demise of the rainforest. In early times fires were ignited by lightning strikes. Large uncontrollable fires in Australia’s eucalypt forests are a frightening phenomenon – but they are important to some species. For example, natural stands of mountain ash (Eucalyptus regnans) comprise same age individuals which germinate only following catastrophic fire events. Natural stands therefore are dependant on catastrophic fire events for their very existence. However, fire was used by the Aboriginals as a tool, and today has a continuing ‘presence’ in the country’s landscape. It is not known which plant communities covered most of Australia before human arrival. It is an important factor, however, that as the rainforest retreats, the nutrients – which are predominantly in the plants themselves, both above and below the surface – are quickly removed through leaching and erosion. What is not readily appreciated is that rainforest which has been destroyed by severe disturbances, such as cyclones, can regenerate very quickly. However, where a fire occurs within a year or two of that recovery – destruction is almost complete. It’s feasible, therefore, that Aboriginals,

Australian Rainforest Woods

using fire as a tool, could also quite quickly have removed large areas of Australian’s rainforests during their 50 000 year habitation. It appears likely that most of Australia was regularly burnt by Aboriginal people as a strategy to ensure maximum food production. Around 40 years ago William Jackson proposed that fire frequency dictates the type of vegetation. Frequent fires create grassland, intermediate frequency fires support eucalypt forests, while infrequent fires produce a more dense dry rainforest. There are many reasons why eucalypts rely on fire. However, in the absence of regular fires – say one every 50–100 years – dry rainforest species fill the understorey and out-compete eucalypts for water. On the other hand, over-burning can be just as damaging as low frequency fire. A major factor is that different forest types in different climates respond differently to different fire regimes – it’s a complex issue. It is however becoming more evident that fire frequency has swung too far both ways, so that currently overburning, as well as under-burning, is responsible for the loss of more than 2.5 million ha of eucalypt forest each year in Australia – and that is of serious concern. The balance has to be restored, and more study and a better understanding of the role fires play in forest management are seriously needed. It is also necessary to separate the human emotional response to catastrophic fire events from the scientific evidence when making decisions on forest dwellings.

The angiosperms

Botanically angiosperms are members of the plant subdivision Angiospermae. They are flowering plants and are commonly referred to as hardwoods – but this does not mean that all hardwoods are hard. They produce our major high-quality timbers. In evolutionary terms they are direct genetic descendants of the gymnosperms and first appeared around 135 million years ago – quite some time before Australia split from Gondwana. Just as the gymnosperms received their boost during a warm wet interval, around the end on the Permian period and early Triassic, 245 to 205 million years ago, the dawn of the angiosperms occurred in the Cretaceous period, which covers the period between 145 to 65 million years ago. It is thought that the first angiosperms evolved around the Rift Valley in Africa – which was still part of Gondwana at the time. From where they spread north, south, east and west and because of the ‘unbroken Gondwana landmass’ they spread to all the southern continents, including India, parts of South East Asia, South America and Australia – thus many early family linkages exist across these continents. Variability as a natural phenomenon As the Gondwana landmass separated, distinct modern families evolved from common Gondwana ancestors. The variable climatic conditions of the Cretaceous period being vital in the evolution of the Australian vegetation.

With the progressive splitting of the Gondwana landmass, as the smaller segments moved to their present locations, the ancient conifer forests were placed under stress. There were fluctuating periods where the sea levels rose and flooded the forests, then as they retreated they left new land to be colonised by new adaptations, and therefore new species. These changing environmental pressures, mostly created by climate change, and sea-level shifts, were the essential ingredients for plant change. As new niches opened the flowering plants survived compared with cone pollinated conifers. However, in the rainforests they grew together in a continuous evolutionary relationship – which continues today. After Australia split from Antarctica, the Australian angiosperms evolved rapidly. Their presence in such large numbers – when compared with the northern hemisphere – is an indication that as environmental pressures modified the environment, the ability of individuals more suited to the new niche environments were able to flourish – Darwin’s process of natural selection in evolution. Around 35 million years ago, and shortly after the break with Antarctica, the first Eucalypt species evolved in the rainforest margins. This was followed by the first Acacia species around 25 million years ago. Bring that evolutionary process forward to today, and we now have over 900 Eucalyptus species and 1200 Acacia species. Eucalypts and Acacias are continuing to evolve, as are other angiosperm families. They are endemic to Australia. It is important to realise, however, that not all individuals will be modified, and this is an important aspect to appreciate. The trees growing in a relatively constant rainforest environment will be replaced by trees with similar characteristics – characteristics favourable to that environment. Therefore, successive generations in relatively constant environments will tend to remain unchanged. The nature of variability is not difficult to comprehend however, if you consider the enormous seed production of trees. In order to maintain the status quo, it only needs one seedling to replace an adult tree. However, each tree will produce millions of seeds in its lifetime, and with the natural variability that exists within the process of pollination and seed production, where pollen will be delivered by pollinating insects and birds, possibly from kilometres away, a percentage of those seeds will vary because of the natural variability in the population, therefore introducing new characteristics. In normal times, the seeds most suited to the environment will grow and replace the parent. However, if the climate dries, for example, or fire is introduced into the equation, then only the seeds, seedlings or mature trees that can survive fire will survive – and thrive if those conditions persist. This is how variability creates biodiversity and diversity creates sustainability. Given a glaciation-free environment for the past 300 million years, this is why Australia’s rainforests now have the world’s largest concentration of angiosperms.

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The unique Australian hardwoods Around the time that the angiosperms evolved Gondwana was still in one piece and with a more favourable environment than was being experienced in the northern hemisphere. Fossils from Antarctica show a rapid rise in angiosperm species from around 120 million years on, and in Australia the oldest angiosperm fossil evidence is in the 110 million year old Maryborough coal seams. The oceans began flooding Australia 141 million years ago, with a maximum coverage of around 60% around 117 million years ago. The sea had made a complete withdrawal, from what we regard as the Australian continent, by around 99 million years ago, and then again after Australia split from Antarctica. So it’s evident that the angiosperms took advantage of the newly exposed sediments each time the waters receded. The evolution of the Gondwana angiosperms is more dramatic than in the northern hemisphere, with Europe having fewer than 100 angiosperms, compared with 5000 plus Australian angiosperms. A second factor in Australia’s preponderance of species is that the continent has not experienced a major ice age for 300 million years. The exception being in small subalpine areas of Tasmania and Victoria. While still joined to Antarctica the heat from the Pacific Ocean was trapped and as a consequence 60% of Australia was covered by rainforest. These conditions lasted until 35–30 million years ago when Australia split from Antarctica. The spread of the angiosperms is more complex. What we see is an ever expanding web of species evolution over a long period, both within the rainforests, and at a later stage at their margins as the rainforests receded. What started out as a temperate conifer forest gradually evolved into a cool temperate or tropical rainforest, interspersed with surviving gymnosperms struggling for survival as changing environmental conditions pushed them to their limits. The newer and still evolving species were themselves being pushed to the margins of their tolerance where selection pressures gave preference to new adaptations which eventually formed more new species. As the continent dried and warmed, the evolution in the tropical rainforests was faster than in the temperate environment. We therefore find 600 angiosperms in the tropical rainforests of north Queensland, compared to around 50 species in the cool temperate rainforests of Tasmania.

Eucalypts and acacias – the new boys on the block Around 35 million years ago, as Australia began to drift north, species of the Eucalyptus genus evolved and began to fill the new niches created by a more seasonal and drying climate. Acacias evolved around 25 million years ago. According to Professor Robert Hill, as Australia drifted north the heat from the Pacific Ocean began to dissipate, rainfall became more seasonal, declined annually and eventually became unreliable for rainforest species across most of the continent. The summer/winter rainfall boundary also moved north faster than the rate at which the continental shift occurred. Temperatures changed and temperature extremes increased in both directions. As a result the incidence of fire increased and became the major disturbance factor to change vegetation type. In this rapidly changing environment, the rainforest margins acted as transition zones where plants adapted to dryer and lower nutrient conditions as well as to fire.

Eucalypts and acacias in the margins of a rainforest.

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Rainforest species used for their woods

This section provides the tools for identifying 140 rainforest species used for their woods, plus the properties and characteristics of their wood.

Members of the International Wood Collectors Society in south-east Queensland before spending time in this private remnant rainforest.



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Acacia celsa brown salwood

Brown salwood on the rainforest edge.

Curled seed pods on the ground showing diagonal ribbing.

Wood of Acacia celsa The heartwood is light brown to brown with darker markings. The sapwood is pale yellow to pale brown. The texture is coarse but even and the grain straight. It is hard but easy to work and finishes well. It has an air dried density at 12% of 690 kg/m3. It has a shrinkage of 1.5% radially and 4% tangentially, and bends and glues well. It has been used for framing, weatherboards, joinery and furniture, although it reacts with metal, so care should be taken if it is nailed green. Also used for veneer and turning, fishing rods, archery bows, tool handles and light boat building. 8

Synonym: Previously included in Acacia aulacocarpa. Derivation: Acacia from the Greek aka (a point) referring to the spiny stipules that characterised the first (African) species. Dioscorides used the word in the 1st century AD for the Egyptian thorn tree (Acacia arabica) which was prickly. Celsa from celsus (high or lofty). Family: Mimosaceae, which contains 40 to 60 genera with about 3000 species in Australia, America, Africa, Asia, Malaysia, the Pacific Islands and New Guinea. There are 17 genera with over 1100 species in Australia. Twelve genera and around 48 species are found in rainforests. Acacia is the largest genus, containing more than 1000 species. They generally form a lower layer of trees or shrubs and are found in rainforests as well as open forests. It is a modern family known to be around 25 million years old. Other names: Black wattle, hickory wattle and brush ironbark wattle. Distribution: Common in north-east Queensland extending from south of Cooktown to the Atherton Tableland and a small area north-west of Townsville. Acacia celsa is a member of the Acacia aulacocarpa ‘group’ as defined by B.R. Maslin, which includes A. aulacocarpa, A. disparrima as well as A. celsa. It is easily confused with these. However, Les Pedley of the Queensland Herbarium confirmed A. celsa as the only one of this group producing millable timber, and is found as a pioneer or canopy species in rainforest habitats. Acacia aulacocarpa is generally too small even though it does extend as far north as Cooktown and A. disparrima is found further south in the lower Fitzroy Basin and associated with dry, open woodland. The tree: Grows to 30 metres tall with a single straight stem in the rainforest environment, however sparingly branched as in the photo on the left. Trunk to 0.3 metres diameter with a dark brown, hard but thin bark with very shallow grooves. The branchlets are flattened and acutely angled where they form a light green colour at the branch extremities. Their presence is often a sign of earlier disturbance, either from a cyclone or logging. Other species will eventually replace it. The leaves, which are actually phyllodes or stem extensions, are long, have a leathery texture, smooth, dark green to grey-green with a slight sheen. The longitudinal nerves run very close together and the secondary nerves are very well pronounced. The leaf is pulvinus, in that the cells at the base of the phyllode can rapidly move water into or out of the leaf and so change its turgidity and therefore its angle to the light. Four to eight pale lemon-yellow flower spikes form in the axil of the phyllodes. The seed pods are very conspicuous on the ground. While on the tree they split along the back and curl to expel the seeds.

See macrophotographs of Acacia celsa on page 187.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Acacia melanoxylon blackwood

A large 200-year-old blackwood in Dismal Swamp, north-west Tasmania.

Typical trunk of a more exposed blackwood, showing early branching. Sarah Island, Macquarie Harbour, Tasmania.



Derivation: Acacia from the Greek aka (a point) referring to the spiny stipules that characterised the first (African) species. Dioscorides used the word in the 1st century AD for the Egyptian thorn tree (Acacia arabica) which was prickly. Melanoxylon from the Greek melanos (black) and xylon (wood), therefore blackwood. Family: Mimosaceae, the wattle family. Generally forming a lower layer of trees or shrubs and found in rainforests as well as open forests. It is a modern family known to be around 25 million years old. Other names: Black wattle, sally wattle, Paluma blackwood, hickory wattle and mudgerabah. Distribution: Has a wide distribution, growing from the Atherton Tableland in north Queensland to Tasmania, and west to south-eastern South Australia. It grows from sea level to 1500 metres. Blackwood is found in cool temperate rainforests and tall open forests of eastern Australia and in the cooler south on undulating coastal lowlands. It is common in open forests only as a smaller tree and as a small shrub in mountain heath. The tree: Often 10–20 metres tall and up to 0.5 metres in diameter, but varies from a small mountain shrub to one of the largest acacias in Australia, attaining heights of 50 metres and a diameter of up to a metre on lowland stands in north-west Tasmania, and in the Otways area in Victoria. In dense stands the larger plants have well-developed trunks; however, in open situations the medium and smaller blackwood trees are freely branched from near ground level. Bark is brownish to dark grey, hard and with longitudinal furrows with only slight transverse connections. Seedlings have the typical bipinnate leaf with 12–15 pairs of leaflets. Adult phyllodes (leaves) are relatively wide, almost straight with prominent longitudinal veins, developing a sickle shape when mature. Pale yellow ball-like flowers develop in heads of 3–5 balls, and develop into flat, rather thin seed pods which when ripe twist irregularly forming up to two complete tight coils. The wide adult phyllodes and the twisted and coiled fruit are good identification points for the blackwood. As a large tree it associates with mountain ash (Eucalyptus regnans), messmate (E. obliqua) and manna gum (E. viminalis). At higher altitudes there may be myrtle beech (Nothofagus cunninghamii) and Antarctic beech (N. moorei), and with one of the larger fern trees (Dicksonia antarctica) in cool wet areas. In the drier and warmer areas it associates with many eucalypts, and among shrub vegetation with several other acacias. Blackwood has been planted in many other countries.

Young phyllodes (leaves) are fairly straight and wide, compared to the sickle shape of the adult leaves.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Flowers.

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Wood of Acacia melanoxylon The heartwood varies in colour according to the region, although it is generally golden-brown with narrow bands of dark brown growth rings. Sometimes there are occasional black or reddish streaks. Heartwood colour is occasionally a very dark brown, and the end grain may look black when oxidised. Sapwood is a pale creamyyellow. The grain is usually straight and is sometimes wavy producing a fiddleback figure. The wood takes a high finish resulting in a brilliant sheen thus making it one of the most decorative of the Australian hardwoods, having a natural high lustre. It has a low shrinkage rate of about 1.5% radially and 4% tangentially. It is easy to dry with relatively little checking and negligible collapse and so remains fairly stable. It has an air dry density at 12% moisture of around 640 kg/m3. The wood is easy to work but planer angles will need to be reduced for figured material. Good for steam bending, and nails and glues well. Some of the polyester finishes are slow to cure. Sanding dust can irritate the skin and airways, and can sometimes be a

See macrophotographs of Acacia melanoxylon on page 187

strong allergen to susceptible people. For this reason it is preferable to wear a mask when finishing.

Historical significance

Blackwood is one of the world’s best furniture timbers. Figured wood is very striking with a three-dimensional quality and is prized for guitar backs and other musical instruments, fine furniture and veneer. It has been used extensively in many countries including New Zealand, South Africa and South America, for all types of furniture, decorative veneers, panelling, carving, turnery, flooring, boat building and gun stocks. In the early years it was used extensively in the construction of passenger rail cars, offices and interior joinery. Blackwood does not come in large dimensions, and because of its early exploitation the availability of sound, large logs today is limited. Such material is usually used for sliced veneer.

A turned pear, egg and apple in blackwood.

Highly figured blackwood.

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Side altar at St Andrew’s Anglican Church, South Brisbane, Australia in figured blackwood. The chamfered trefoil arches spring from round columns. The columns have stepped plinths with a carved and stepped capital and foliate carving in each arch head.

Agathis atropurpurea, black kauri Agathis microstachya, bull kauri

The twin bull kauris at Lake Barrine, 45 metres tall, 6 metres in girth.

Derivation: Agathis from the Greek agathis (a ball of thread), referring to the shape of the female cone. Microstachya from micro (small) and stachya (spike), referring to the small size or spike shape of the leaf compared to others of the genus. Atropurpurea from atro (blackish-green) and purpurea referring to the bark. Family: Araucariaceae, which contains three genera, Agathis, Araucaria and the recently discovered Wollemia, with only eight species in Australia. Araucariaceae has been around for 220 million years and fossil records show its presence in the Early Triassic period some 175 million years ago. Species of this genus had a widespread distribution in a period when Australia and Antartica were still joined and before the time of the angiosperms. Other names: Both of these species are also referred to as Queensland kauri, black kauri and North Queensland kauri because of their location. Agathis atropurpurea is also called mountain or blue kauri. The name kauri originated because of its association with the New Zealand species Agathis australis, also commonly called kauri. Distribution: Bull kauri is found only on the Atherton Tableland around the slopes of the Barron Gorge and on the north east of the plateau. The best examples are seen around Lake Barrine. Black kauri is restricted to an area from Mt Pieter Botte and southwards to Mt Bartle Frere. Their altitudinal range is 750–1500 metres. The tree: Both species reach 45 metres in height and 6 metres in girth. They are one of the tallest tree species in Queensland and dominated the ancient forests. The cylindrical trunk is not buttressed and is usually straight with little taper. The bark becomes hard and scaly owing to the delayed shedding and can be quite rugged and much darker than for Queensland kauri. It has a green-edged, carmine-centred blaze. Bark of Agathis atropurpurea is purplish-brown or purplish-black. The leaves are oblong to ovate, alternate, smooth and waxy, shiny above and dull beneath and are only 5 cm, half the size of Queensland kauri. They are fatter than Queensland kauri and when broken are slightly sweet in taste because of the sugars they contain. The male flowers, or strobili, are cylindrical in shape, borne on the same tree in the leaf axil on short leafy twigs. The female cones when mature are round green balls which contain winged seeds. They mature at about 50 years of age and in December produce both male and female cones. The seed and pollen are wind distributed as there were no insects or birds for distribution when they evolved. Cones are often found on the ground during late summer. They grow as an emergent species over a few rainforest types. The plant spends energy growing towards the sun with a minimum of leaves, and then forms a spreading crown to dominate stands in the wetter rainforest zones. The largest living examples are the twin bull kauris at Lake Barrine.

The leaves of bull and black kauri are similar, but the stem of black kauri is blackish-green in colour as seen on the left.



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Wood of Agathis atropurpurea and Agathis microstachya The wood is a uniform creamy-white to pale bluff in colour, lightened by a delicate sheen; sapwood is narrow and not very distinct. The texture is fine and even, straight grained and has the quality of toughness. As with Queensland kauri, it is usually slightly darker than hoop pine (Araucaria cunninghamii) and the presence of flecks in the rays as seen on the radial surface distinguishes it from both hoop and bunya pine (Araucaria bidwillii). The timber is the most attractive of the Australian coniferous woods and is a little denser than Queensland kauri, usually because of its slower growth rate. It is easy to cut, work and nail, but some compression wood may be present. It glues well and can be stained and polished. Air dry density of bull kauri at 12% moisture is 500 kg/m3. Agathis atropurpurea has an air dry density of 480 kg/m3. Shrinkage is around 2% radially and 3.5% tangentially. It shrinks both sideways and lengthways and therefore tends to keep its shape well. It dries quickly with little degrading but needs protection against bluestain. It is seldom seen on the market because of its rarity and because the species grows only in World Heritage rainforest where the removal of any wood is not possible. Black kauri was marketed with bull and Queensland kauri in the early days. However, smaller Agathis atropurpurea trees have a smooth to slightly flaky, dark-coloured bark variously described as blue, purple or black. Large trees however have a brown, rough and flaky bark and in the past were mistakenly identified as bull kauri. In the 1920s and 1930s a small industry developed gathering the resin of Agathis atropurpurea.

See macrophotographs of Agathis microstachya on page 168.

The last of the bull kauri giants

George Brotherton, founder of the Millaa Millaa Sawmilling Co. in 1920, which operated for 60 years, spent time dealing with log timber as well as milling. In 1939, during his search for mature maple logs, he discovered a giant kauri on land to which he had ‘timber rights’. He was so impressed by its size that he considered it should be preserved so he persuaded the owner to gift a two hectare lot containing the tree to the Crown as a Special Purposes Reserve. This was granted in 1947 and the tree was safe. However, sometime in the wet season of 2003 the tree must have fallen. Some time later Paul Mansfield noticed that the tree was absent and on investigation he found that this once proud tree was now a log on the ground. A few public spirited Millaa Millaa residents decided to salvage part of the log for display in the small town centre. It was however on Crown Land – unfortunately the purpose for the Special Reserve no longer existed, and after considerable negotiations in 2006 permission to remove the tree was granted. In 2006 the log was cut into four sections, and were moved into Millaa Millaa. In 2007, Dr Les Moore carbon dated the tree as being 870 years old. Some time in 2008 the logs were given a more permanent home. However, on a recent visit, large shrinkage fractures have opened up at the ends of each section and are advancing along the grain, presumably because the exposed ends were not sufficiently sealed. The result unfortunately is that the possibility of the log holding together for any period of time is sadly very unlikely unless restoration work is upgraded – this is only my opinion.

Section of the bull kauri log as it arrived in the township of Millaa Millaa in 2006. Its size can be readily appreciated when compared to the size of the author standing beside it.

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Agathis robusta kauri pine

Mature tree.

Synonym: Agathis palmerstoni. Derivation: Agathis from the Greek agathis (a ball of thread), alluding to the shape of the female cone. Robusta from the Latin robustus (stout, strong in growth). Family: Araucariaceae, which contains three genera, Agathis, Araucaria and the recently discovered Wollemia, with only eight species in Australia. For 220 million years the Araucariaceae family have grown on this planet, and is the second oldest conifer family still growing. Fossil evidence from the Jurassic period shows that for 175 million years Agathis ancestors have thrived in Australia. It had a widespread distribution in a period when Australia and Antarctica were still joined and before the time of the angiosperms. Other names: Dundathu, South or North Queensland kauri. Distribution: Found in two distinct locations: in southern Queensland, from Hervey Bay to Kin Kin including Fraser Island, and in northern Queensland from Mt Finnegan, near Cooktown, to Ravenshoe. It grows from near sea level to 1100 metres (Windsor Tableland). The mean annual rainfall is 1100–1800 mm, falling mostly during the summer months. There are a large number of associated rainforest tree species. In the north these include: hickory ash (Flindersia ifflaiana), silver ash (Flindersia schottiana), brown tulip oak (Argyrodendron polyandrum), mararie (Pseudoweinmannia lachnocarpa), flame tree (Brachychiton acerifolius), stony backhousia (Backhousia hughesii), cadaga (Corymbia torelliana), candlenut (Aleurites moluccana) and silver malletwood (Rhodamnia costata). In its southern range common associates are: silver ash, mararie, flame tree, iron wood (Backhousia myrtifolia), Bennett’s ash (Flindersia bennettiana) and brown malletwood (Rhodamnia rubescens). The tree: A tall tree reaching 50 metres in height and 1.8 metres in diameter. It is one of the tallest rainforest tree species in Queensland. The cylindrical trunk is not buttressed and is usually straight with little taper. The bark is smooth to slightly flaky and orange-brown, brown or grey-brown. The leaves are oblong to ovate, opposite to almost opposite or whorled, smooth and waxy, shiny above and dull beneath. The male flowers, or strobili, are slender, cylindrical in shape, and borne on short leafy twigs. The female cones when mature are round green balls containing 340–440 winged seeds. It grows as an emergent species over a few rainforest types. The plant spends energy growing towards the sun with a minimum of leaves, it then forms a spreading crown and forms a dominant part of the stand in dry marginal rainforest types on the edge of the rainforest zone.

Trunk. Leaves. Female cone with released scales and winged seeds.

Male strobili.



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Wood of Agathis robusta The wood is a uniform creamy-white to pale bluff in colour, lightened by a delicate sheen. Sapwood is narrow and not very distinct. The texture is fine with an even, straight grain and has the quality of toughness. It is usually slightly darker than hoop pine (Araucaria cunninghamii) and the presence of flecks in the rays as seen on the radial surface distinguishes it from hoop and bunya pine (Araucaria bidwillii). The timber is the most attractive of the Australian coniferous woods. It is easy to cut, work and nail, and some compression wood may be present. It glues well and can be stained and polished. Air dry density at 12% moisture is 480kg/m3. Shrinkage is around 2% radially and 3.5% tangentially. It dries quickly with little degrading but needs protection against bluestain. Although of high durability for interior use, kauri pine is not as durable for external use. During modifications to a lower floor area at St Andrew’s Anglican Church, South Brisbane, this wood demonstrated some of the resilient properties common to others of these ancient species. On removing the floor for modernisation, the kauri pine floor joists which had been laid directly on gravel with a light bitumen covering proved to be in perfect order after 130 years despite it being in a serious white ant area. All were reused, as was the kauri pine flooring which was turned over – some, however, needing to be replaced due to normal wear and tear. Kauri pine has been used for plywood, furniture, joinery, flooring,

See macrophotographs of Agathis robusta on page 168.

panelling, framing, shelving, boat planking, pattern making, vats, kitchen utensils, butter churns and boxes, cooperage, broom handles, buoys and floats, battery separators, turnery and violin bellies.

History

The original kauri pine used was mainly from the southern stands, which were largely depleted by the 1920s and natural stands are now rare in south-east Queensland. The northern stands have also almost been depleted, with the exception of those remaining in World Heritage areas and parks. The largest tree recorded in the southern stand was Bell’s Kauri at Kin Kin which, before it was blown over in the 1920s, measured 22 feet 8 inches (7 m) at the butt, with a clear bole for 78 feet (24 m). It had a centre girth of 19 feet 1 inch (5.9 m), so there was very little taper in the trunk. Of the trees that were harvested in the early part of the 20th century, barrel girths of 20–30 feet (6.2–9.2 m) were occasionally found and the average was around 12–14 feet (3.7–4.3 m) girth. Most of the big trees have been felled, but according to John Beasley in Plants of Tropical North Queensland, some impressive specimens still remain on Smiths Track near Cairns. The fact that they are such stately trees, with the magnificence of the barrel trunk and the distinctive crown, has meant that they are a popular tree to plant in park areas and in recent years have been used extensively for street planting in broad avenue situations in and around Brisbane. 130-year-old Queensland kauri flooring in St Andrew’s Anglican Church, South Brisbane.

A farmer’s model Cherry butter churn No. 61748 made of kauri. Made by Edward Cherry and Sons, Gisborne, Victoria. They started making farmer’s model churns in 1860 from NZ kauri and sold around 1000 per year. This churn was made around 1900.

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Australian Rainforest Woods

Alangium villosum subsp. polyosmoides canary muskheart Synonyms: Alangium vitiensis, Marlea vitiensis. I have included these synonyms even though the name Alangium vitiensis (Marlea vitiensis) was previously incorrectly used for Australian material of this species. Derivation: Alangium is from an Indian name for this plant. Villosum from the Latin villosus (hairy), which relates to the hairy leaves. The subspecies, polysma from a rainforest tree with similar leaves, and the Greek eidos (resembling). Family: Previously Alangiaceae, now Cornaceae, a small family, mostly tropical and subtropical. Alangium is the only Australian species represented by two subspecies (Alangium villosum subsp. polyosmoides and Alangium villosum subsp. tomentosum) with similar distributions. It also occurs in South-East Asia and New Guinea. Other names: Black or brown muskheart, muskwood, and muskheart. Distribution: Found from Newcastle in New South Wales to the McIlwraith Range in north Queensland. The tree: A tree growing to 20 metres in height and a stem diameter of 0.9 metres. Large trees sometimes have short buttresses. The bark is greyish-brown with a faint greenish tinge, wrinkled, marked with numerous lenticels, corky pustules and small scales. Underbark is brown. Blaze shows pale brown with paler vertical lines and broad brown stripes which fade to near pale yellow. Bitter taste and a distinctive unpleasant odour. The branches are slender, grey, and become green and hairy towards the end. Young shoots are downy. Leaves are hairy, alternate, somewhat oval but with a drawn-out blunt tip. Leaf sides are uneven, smooth and dark green on the top, and slightly downy and paler green on the underside. Flowers are pale yellow or faintly greenish-yellow, and faintly smell of honeysuckle. They grow in groups of three to five small individual flowers occurring towards the terminal leaf axils. The fruit are drupe-shaped, purplish-black with about 10 indistinct ribs which are eaten by fruit doves, and topknot and wompoo pigeons.

Mature trunk and bark.

Wood of Alangium villosum The heartwood is brownish-black with a musk fragrance. The sapwood is fairly thick and creamy-yellow surrounding the heartwood. Young trees may not show much of the heartwood. The wood is close grained and has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 700 kg/m3. The wood is good for turning, carving, cabinet work and inlays. Large trees are fairly rare and the dark fragrant timber is comparatively rare – a wood for the connoisseurs.

See macrophotographs of Alangium villosum on page 175.

Australian Rainforest Woods

15

Aleurites moluccana candlenut Synonym: Aleurites triloba. Derivation: Aleurites from aleuron (floury), referring to the new growth on some species which appear to be dusted in flour. Moluccana from the Moluccas. Family: Euphorbiaceae, a very diverse family with species in temperate, subtropical and tropical zones. Aleurites, however, is a small genus of only two species in Australia and a few others in the Pacific Islands, New Guinea, Malaysia and Asia, with A. moluccana extending its growth range into Australia. Other names: Candlenut siris, Indian walnut and candleberry. Distribution: From the Jardine River, Cape York, to the Whitsunday region in central Queensland. It grows fairly rapidly on deep alluvial or red basaltic soil with a life of 70–100 years. The tree: Reaches a height of 40 metres with a straight trunk and can have buttresses. It is often described as of beanstalk-like growth. It usually branches around four-fifth its height and has flamboyant, shiny, green foliage borne towards the ends of heavy spreading limbs. The 20 mm thick, sappy bark is dark grey, with pale chalk-brown blotches and has wavy bands of small corky beads along fissures. The blaze is orange-brown with a faint pumpkin odour. The large shiny leaves, in an open, untidy canopy, are oval and as a seedling can be mistaken for bleeding heart (Omalanthus populifolius). During the wet season, the tree turns almost white with new leaves and flowers, the seeds of which develop into 50 mm round nuts. These will burn because of their oil content and can be strung together to form a primitive candle. Although toxic, the Aboriginals cooked them to reduce their toxicity. Also, before leaving a camp area Aboriginals would ringbark the candlenut and on their return feast on the large white grubs that would be present in the dead and decayed trunk and stems. It is a close relative of Aleurites fordii, from which tung oil is produced. The candlenut nuts yield oil similar to tung oil, or a linseed oil equivalent. Leaf and nuts.

Mature tree.

Wood of Aleurites moluccana The sapwood is not clearly defined and the heartwood is creamy-white. The texture is close and straight grained. It is one of the lightest of the rainforest woods with an air dry density at 12% moisture of around 460 kg/m3. The timber is best cut in winter and seasoned. It is easy to dry, but there is a need to take precautions against bluestain. It is a very useful softwood, easy to work, glues well and is suitable for indoor shelves, dressers and draining boards. It is not really suitable for structural use, although it can be used for ceilings and linings, interior joinery and plywood. Overall it has a special advantage as a chalkywhite wood, but with comparative toughness. It lacks durability in the weather.

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See macrophotographs of Aleurites moluccana on page 179.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Allocasuarina torulosa rose sheoak

Mature tree.

Synonym: Casuarina torulosa. Derivation: Allocasuarina from the Greek allo (other) and casuarina from the Latin casuarinus (cassowary), in that the branchlets resemble the bird’s feathers. Torulosa from the Latin torlus (a little bulge or protruberance) and osus (abounding in), in reference to the warts on the backs of the bracteoles in the cone. Family: Casuarinaceae, which superficially resemble conifers with wire-like foliage and cones, from which they are descendants. The genus Casuarina has recently been split into Allocasuarina and Casuarina, to represent the other casuarinas. Other names: Baker’s oak, forest oak and mountain oak, or she oak additions to the above. The oak is a reminder by the early settlers of the rays of the true oaks. Distribution: Has a wide distribution in eastern Australia from Coen in northern Queensland to south of Nowra in New South Wales. It is found on the slopes of the Great Dividing Range in the higher rainfall eucalypt forests and the rainforest margins. It grows on a wide range of soils and accepts low fertility granites as well as better basaltic soils – a bit like the conifers. On favourable sites it is the dominant understorey species, but faces competition when challenged by rainforest species. The tree: Grows to 30 metres and up to 1.3 metres in trunk diameter, with the bole half its height and the main branches spreading or erect. The foliage is clumped at the ends of the branches and is usually pendant, giving an open crown. The light brown to black bark is persistent into the branches and is fissured with sharp ridges. The foliage consists of slender, drooping, needle-like dark green branchlets. Each is circular or angular in cross-section, with leaf teeth in whorls of four or five at the internodes. The base of the branchlets is often copper coloured. Male and female inflorescences on separate trees. The males are grouped in whorls of four, sometimes five, at the ends of the branchlets. The females are also in whorls of five or six which eventually form woody cones which have long slits running lengthwise.

Wood of Allocasuarina torulosa The sapwood is cream and up to 25 mm wide. The heartwood is dark red and emblazoned with very large, predominant compound medullary rays and are a darker red in the finished product, sometimes going into the red-browns. The grain is usually straight and the air dry density at 12% moisture is 960 kg/m3. The timber is strong, hard and very dense, and has a hardness when cutting across the grain, whereas working with the grain is relatively easy. You need to be careful in drying to avoid splitting, which is common to most woods of this family. Shrinkage is around 1.5% radially and 6% tangentially. It is excellent for decorative woodware and turning, makes excellent flooring, panelling, and occasionally it is used for roofing shakes. It takes a fine polish producing a rich, warm effect.

Trunk. Radial surface (above) and tangential surface (below). See macrophotographs of Allocasuarina torulosa on page 175.

Australian Rainforest Woods

17

Alphitonia excelsa red ash

Tree.

Derivation: Alphitonia from the Greek alphiton (baked barley meal), referring to the mealy red covering around the hard cells in the fruit. Excelsa from the Latin excelsus (high), because of its tall habit. Family: Rhamnaceae, which is widespread throughout the world with 16 genera in Australia, Alphitonia with only five species, all in rainforests, Emmenosperma with three species, also all in rainforests. Rhamnella vitiensis grows from Gladstone to Bamaga, Schistocarpaea johnsonii in the Wet Tropics and Ziziphus timoriensis in central Cape York. Other names: Has such a wide range of common names with so many different connotations. These include: coopers wood, humbug, leather jacket, red almond, red baraja, red dunanya, red tweedie, sarsaparilla, soap tree, white leaf, white myrtle and malomae. Distribution: Has a wide distribution which includes subtropical and dry rainforests as well as being found in vine thickets. It is a pioneer rainforest species and also grows in eucalypt forest. It can endure drought and heat and appears early in the recovery from fire in coastal areas, however, once competition becomes a factor it usually succumbs. The distribution extends from Mount Dromedary in New South Wales to Torres Strait off far north Queensland and into the Northern Territory and Kimberley, WA. It is also found in remnant rainforests in Central western Queensland, even on very poor sandstone ridges, and in New Guinea. The tree: Although widely distributed it never grows to big dimensions. It is a small to medium tree, occasionally reaching 35 metres with a stem diameter of 1.2 metres, and the logs are usually short and small. The trunk is cylindrical and on large trees may be spurred at the butt. The outer bark is steely-grey, smooth on small trees, but deeply fissured, very hard and rough on larger trees. The fissures have v-shaped walls and can be up to 13 mm deep. Underbark is firstly creamy, then brown with creamy dots. Live bark is deep purplish-red with lighter lines. Underbark is pinkish-red, becoming paler towards the sapwood and has no change in colour on exposure. The leaves are alternate, simple, with a sharp pointed end. The upper surface is glossy dark green and silvery-white beneath with minute densely woven hairs – a clear identification point. Bunches of creamy fragrant flowers grow from the leaf axil which turn into bunches of 2 mm diameter black fruit, which remain on the tree for some months and contain two glossy brown seeds covered with an orange-red skin. Trunk.

Wood of Alphitonia excelsa The sapwood is pale pink but the heartwood is a bright orange-red sometimes showing reds and occasionally yellows. It has a close texture and straight grain without vessel lines or ray grains. It is strong and fairly durable with an air dry density at 12% moisture of 740– 770 kg/m3. Shrinkage is around 2% radially and 6% tangentially. It needs careful drying to avoid surface cracking. The attractive colouring makes it suitable for ornamental panelling, cabinet work and flooring. It works well and sawn boards may reveal shadowy variations of baconlike effect. It’s good for handles and cases, is durable and not affected by borers. 18

Leaves and flowers. See macrophotographs of Alphitonia excelsa on page 196.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Alphitonia petriei pink almond ash Derivation: Alphitonia from the Greek alphiton (baked barley meal), referring to the mealy red covering around the hard cells in the fruit. Petriei after W. R. Petrie, who first drew attention to its distinctive characters in Queensland. Family: Rhamnaceae, which is widespread throughout the world, but with six genera in Australia – Alphitonia with two species, Emmenosperma with one and Pomaderris, which also has one rainforest species in Australia. Other names: Red almond, sarsaparilla, pink sarsparilla, white leaf and white ash. Distribution: Found from the Orara River in New South Wales to the McIlwraith Range, Cape York. Unlike the red ash, however, it is not as hardy, growing in the wet subtropical rainforests and the wet sclerophyll forests dominated by brush box (Lophostemon confertus) and tallowwood (Eucalyptus microcorys). The tree: A fast growing pioneer tree up to 20 metres in New South Wales, and up to 40 metres in Queensland, with a stem diameter around 0.5 metres. After disturbance the most dominant trees will spread their crown, over-topping the others, more than does Alphitonia excelsa, and resembling brown kurrajong (Commersonia bartramia). After about 40 or 50 years the pink almond ash will give way to other rainforest species. It has a cylindrical trunk which is not buttressed. The outer bark is smooth with vertical lines of grey-brown grooves. The underbark is fawn, very thin and smells like liniment. The outer live bark is creamy-green with vertical streaks. The inner bark is rose-pink with darker pink bands. The leaves are not as narrow or as pointed as red ash, but have the same colour and are silvery-white underleaf. The flowers dominate the uppermost part of the crown and are a good source of honey for beekeepers. The fruit are similar to red ash except that each fruit carries three seeds, are flattened and oval and almost tubular in shape. The seeds are glossy brown with a grey tip, and have a red-brown powdery covering. Seed propagation can be difficult; however, Reg Lockyer advises that if you collect rotted leaf litter from under a mature tree and incorporate this into planting then each handful will produce at least 10 seedlings. He considers it’s a fungi or perhaps a mycorrhiza association that sets germination in progress. Leaves.

Mature tree. Trunk.

Wood of Alphitonia petriei The sapwood is broad and creamy, while the heartwood is pinkish-red, close grained and has a similar working and suitability to that of Alphitonia excelsa. The wood is straight grained, and almost indistinguishable from maple silkwood (Flindersia pimenteliana). Pink almond ash could be described as a delicate wood, in that it is a shade lighter than red ash, and has an air dried density at 12% of 515 kg/m3. It keeps its colour and dresses to a high sheen. With older trees it sometimes has a saffron-coloured heart.

See macrophotographs of Alphitonia petriei on page 196.

Australian Rainforest Woods

19

Alstonia scholaris white cheesewood Derivation: Alstonia honours Dr Charles Alston, Professor of Medicine and Botany, University of Edinburgh. Scholaris refers to the fact that the wood was used for school boards in Burma. Family: The recircumscribed Apocynaceae (includes Asclepiaceae) has 470 genera and 4600 species throughout the world, mostly in the tropics. In Australia there are 45 genera with 185 species – many are vines. Bailey cites that the bark of this tree contains the drug ditain, which is used for the treatment of chronic diarrhoea and dysentery. Other names: Milkwood, milky bean and milky pine. Distribution: Found in north Queensland rainforests from Cape York south to St Lawrence. It is also found in Papua New Guinea, South-East Asia and India. It appears fairly soon after any canopy disturbance, and grows on less favourable soils as a subdominant species. The tree: In favourable conditions it grows to 40 metres and the trunk is slightly buttressed. The stem grows to 1 metre in diameter and is commonly longitudinally grooved or furrowed, giving the stem the appearance of being deeply channelled. This can give an angular or lobed form in the timber. The bark is greyish-green with a roughened surface. A blaze shows yellowish-brown with considerable milky exudate which can be used as an art gum eraser. Leaves are in clusters or whorls of 5–7 dark green leathery leaves, lanceolate, 10–15 cm long, with the broadest part above the middle. The leaves have a shiny upper surface with a paler and often whitish underside. The flowers are in the axils of the terminal leaves but are generally shorter than the leaves. Flowers are cream coloured and fragrant and lightly hairy, with a bell-shaped calyx divided almost to its base in five broad lobes. Each flower forms a fruit with two long follicles up to about 0.3 metres long; each follicle splits when it is mature to expose numerous seeds which are covered with long hairs. Slight buttressing at the base. The grooved and furrowed trunk of white cheesewood.

Wood of Alstonia scholaris The wood is creamy to pale yellow in colour and softer than hoop pine. The sapwood is wide and indistinct from the heartwood. It has a uniform colour, texture is medium to coarse and the grain is straight. Latex canals are common and can be seen in the specimen opposite. They are slits 6–50 mm long and up to 3 mm wide. It is porous and light and often has a strong odour and bitter taste. It has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 400 kg/m3. Shrinkage is 2.5% radially and 4% tangentially. It works and glues well, and dresses with a good finish. It dries quickly with little degrading, except it is susceptible to bluestain. It is an ideal wood for carving. It lacks durability and is subject to borer attack. Used for pattern-making, core stock, plywood, carving and mouldings. It should not be used in contact with food. 20

See macrophotographs of Alstonia scholaris on page 172.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Anodopetalum biglandulosum horizontal

The tangled mess of trunks and branches, some fallen, others still upright – not a pretty tree.

Derivation: Anodopetalum comes from the Greek a (not), adous (toothed), and petalum (petal), referring to the non-toothed nature of the petals. Biglandulosum from the Latin bi (two) and glandulosus (glandular), referring to the glands on the tips of the blunt leaf serrations. The common name horizontal aptly describes the fact that the trunk tends to bend over into a horizontal position and sends up branches which in turn bend over – making a horizontal platform several metres above ground and forming a dense and impenetrable scrub. Family: Cunoniaceae is represented by 11 genera in Australia, however only 20 species appear, with the largest genus Ceratopetalum having four. Anodopetalum has only one, that of horizontal. Distribution: Found only in Tasmania and is restricted to the highest rainfall forests on most of the west coast. It’s typically found in the Mersey area and near the lower reaches of the Kia Ora Creek and on the top of the plateau at the upper end of Lake Louise. It is largely confined to areas of very poor soils. The tree: In its typical form the trunk bends over to the horizontal, and then sends up branches which may or may not repeat the process. They are therefore an understorey species despite their size. Although sometimes forming the tangled mass so famed in exploration and bushwalking myth, it is more often an erect or slightly leaning tree. Its leaves are toothed and elliptic and have glands at the tips of the leaf serrations. The dense scrubs of horizontal were cursed by the ‘piners’ and avoided by even the most intrepid of the explorers. In fact many areas have only been penetrated in later years. Another feature of this species is that the major mode of propagation is to regenerate vegetatively rather than by seed. This is the case with many species on the west coast of Tasmania including southern sassafras (Atherosperma moschatum), Huon pine (Lagarstrobos franklinii), and even pencil pine (Athrotaxis cupressoides). Horizontal does not appear in early fossil records, but interglacial pollen records from the five periods of glaciation on the west coast of Tasmania in the past 2 million years show its first appearance around 120–100  000 years ago.

Serrated leaves standing upright from a horizontal branch with glands at the tips of each serration.

Wood of Anodopetalum biglandulosum The sapwood is not easily distinguishable from the heartwood which is pinkish-brown. Its texture is fine and even. In general appearance it resembles coachwood (Ceratopetalum apetalum) which belongs to the same family. The air dry density at 12% moisture is 700 kg/m3. Shrinkage is about 3.5% radially and 8% tangentially. It is firm but not difficult to work. It is a very good turning wood. When dried it holds its bark and is ideal for handles, and fancy woodware items.

See macrophotographs of Anodopetalum biglandulosum on page 176.

Australian Rainforest Woods

21

Anthocarapa nitidula incense cedar wood Synonyms: Amoora nitidula, Pseudocarpa nitidula. Derivation: Anthocarapa from the Greek anthos (flower) and carapa referring to its similarity to a closely related Malesian genus Carapa. Nitidula from the Latin nitidus (shining), referring to the glossy leaves. Family: Meliaceae, a pantropical family with 50 genera and about 650 species. Australia has 13 genera and 44 species. The largest genera are Dysoxylum with 15 species and Aglaia with 12 species. Owenia has five species, and Toona and Synoum each have one species. This is the only Anthocarapa species. Other names: Bog onion, incense wood, incense cedar, jimmy-jimmy and white rosewood. Distribution: Grows from the Richmond River area in New South Wales to Cape York in Queensland. It reaches its best development in the subtropical rainforests on red basalt soils. The tree: Grows to 30 metres with a stem diameter of 0.6 metres and no buttressing. The outer bark is grey to dark grey with a surface somewhat hard, scaly and with fissures, and a few longitudinal cracks. The underbark is yellowbrown. The outer surface of live bark is black or dark red. The blaze is cream to pink with vertically pinkish or red stripes towards the outer margin, but whiter near the sapwood. The bark is arranged in numerous thin layers with each layer defined by a paler and undulating line on the surface of the blaze. It does not change colour on exposure and has an onion-like taste and smell. It has moderately thick, grey branches, becoming green towards the ends, smooth and often marked by numerous black dots or lenticels. The leaf scars are prominent. Leaves are alternate and pinnate consisting of two or three pairs of leaflets with a terminal leaflet. They are oblong with a bluntly pointed tip and the leaf tapers gradually to where it joins the stalk. The upper surface is shiny and dark green with a paler underside. It is thick and fleshy with veins visible on both surfaces. The flowers are creamy in small loose panicles in the forks of the upper leaves and shorter than the leaves. The fruit is a capsule, brown and pear-shaped on thin short stalks, opening to three valves and about 2 cm long containing several bright red oval seeds about 15 mm long.

Mature trunk.

Wave-figured specimen.

Wood of Anthocarapa nitidula The wood is yellowish, drying to a paler colour. It is close grained with a smell similar to rosewood (Dysoxylum fraserianum) or red cedar (Toona ciliata). It is moderate to hard and tough with an air dry density at 12% moisture of 800 kg/m3. It’s not plentiful but it has versatility and the potential for use in flooring and inside joinery work. It is subject to bluestain as can be seen in the top left hand and bottom of the lower specimen, but has a friendly warmth about its appearance and is easy to work and finishes well. 22

See macrophotographs of Anthocarpa nitidula on page 185.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Aphananthe philippinensis handle wood

Trunk showing irregularity and branching.

Derivation: Aphananthe from the Greek aphanes (invisible) and anthos (a blossom), in reference to the insignificant flowers. Philippinensis referring to the species being first found in the Philippine Islands. Family: Cannabaceae, which now includes all the Australian members of the Ulmaceae which comprises four genera with only eight species in Australia. Other names: Asbestos tree, axe-handle wood, grey handle wood, native elm, rough-leaved elm, rough-leaved hickory and wild holly. Distribution: Fairly common scattered throughout the rainforests from Manning River in New South Wales to Iron Range in north Queensland. It is also found in New Guinea and the Philippine Islands. It is found as far west as the Bunya Mountains in south-east Queensland. It is a tree of the watercourses, favouring moist alluvial flats, but also occurring in drier rainforests. The tree: Grows to 35 metres with a trunk diameter of 0.8 metres, but mostly much smaller. Buttressed at the base, the trunk is usually irregularly shaped and deeply fluted. The outer bark is dark brown and scaly, shedding in irregular patches roughly rectangular in shape. The underbark is fawn and the outer surface of live bark is green and pinkish-brown. The blaze is pale pink becoming paler towards the sapwood changing near the sapwood to yellow-brown on exposure. The leaves are alternate, simple with sharply toothed margins, and with each lateral vein ending in a sharp thorn-like point. The tip of the leaf is sharp. The leaf is stiff and brittle and covered in stiff hairs which are like sandpaper to the touch. They are green on both surfaces, but slightly darker on the upper surface. Sucker leaves are like holly leaves. Male and female flowers are separate and grow from the leaf forks, or where leaves have fallen. Male and female flowers are alike except for the presence of the ovary. The fruit are 6 mm long, fleshy, black and egg-shaped with a hairy forked style on the point. They contain only one fawn-coloured seed which attract many birds.

Alternate leaves ending in a sharp thorn-like tip. See macrophotographs of Aphananthe philippinensis on page 174.

Wood of Aphananthe philippinensis The wood is creamy coloured, close grained and can be tinged with tones of grey or pale-brown. It has a mild sheen very much like American hickory (Carya sp.). It is tough and elastic. It has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 720 kg/m3. It has little durability in the ground so is mostly useful for handles, mallets and baseball bats. Woods from larger trees does have possibilities for linings and interior work.

Australian Rainforest Woods

23

Araucaria bidwillii bunya pine

A mature bunya pine with the typical dome crown.

A comparison of a mature trunk and a young trunk.

New leaves are spirally placed, but as they mature the stem twists and they flatten out.

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Derivation: Araucaria derived from the Araucani Indians of the Arauco district of southern Chile. Bidwillii honours J. C. Bidwill (1815–1853), acting Government Botanist and Director of the Botanic Gardens, Sydney. The common name bunya is of Aboriginal origin. Family: Araucariaceae, which has three genera (Araucaria, Agathis and Wollemia) in Australia. Araucaria has three species native to Australia: hoop pine, bunya pine, and Norfolk Island pine (Araucaria heterophylla). Klinki pine (Araucaria hunsteinii) is native to New Guinea. Aljos Farjon (2008) indicates that from cladistic studies, bunya pine is the oldest and is closely related to the South American species, the monkey-puzzle (A. araucana) and Parana pine (A. angustifolia), as well as klinki pine; whereas hoop pine is a later genetic mutation, as also is Norfolk Island pine. Other names: Bunya or bunya bunya, monkey puzzle tree (a South American relative) and Queensland pine. Distribution: Grows mainly in south-east Queensland between Gympie and the Bunya Mountains, however, there is a small stand on Mt Lewis and Cannabullen Falls in north Queensland. It grows from 150–1000 metres altitude in warm humid areas receiving and annual rainfall from 900–2000 mm, and where frequent mists occur. It grows mostly on soils derived from volcanic basalt. It’s an emergent species and is often associated with hoop pine (Araucaria cunninghamii). Despite its isolated occurrence it has been grown successfully as far south as Hobart where mature trees often feature in gardens. It’s best grown within 100 km of the east coast where it receives moisture-laden sea breezes. The tree: A tall tree growing to 45 metres in height with a trunk to 1.5 metres diameter. In its mature form it has a straight undivided trunk often free of branches for two-thirds of the tree height and showing little taper in the bole. It has a distinctive symmetrical dome-shaped crown, which is unique amongst Australian trees, changing from pointed to a flattened apex with age. The branches do not divide and leaves are clustered towards the ends of the branches, like lions’ tails. As the lower branches die off, dormant buds become active to form a secondary crown below the primary crown. The bark is rarely shed from the trunk and branches and has scales up to 7.5 cm long. The outer surfaces are brown to black and the blaze is red to orange. New leaves are spirally placed but as they mature the stem twists and they become flattened with leaves up either side of the branch. The leaves are stalkless, with very short petioles, hard, glossy green and sharply pointed. The distinctive feature of the tree is the production of large female cones up to 30 cm in diameter which are borne on short branches towards the top of the tree, and made up of numerous seeds and sharp pointed bracts. The male strobili are up to 20 cm long and borne on the same tree, usually on the lower branches and are produced at the ends of short lateral branches.

The male strobili are located towards the base of the tree whereas the large female seed-bearing cones are towards the crown.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Wood of Araucaria bidwillii The heartwood is pale brown and the sapwood is not clearly distinguishable. It is almost identical to hoop pine (Araucaria cunninghamii) but can be slightly pinker and has a lower density. The texture of the wood is very fine and even, and the grain is straight. Shrinkage is about 2% radially and 4% tangentially. Air dry density at 12% is around 460 kg/m3. The wood dries rapidly but precautions against bluestain are necessary. It is easy to work and glues well. It is not suitable for external work but takes preservatives well. Bunya pine is usually not differentiated from hoop pine in the timber trade; however, it is difficult to obtain because of its scarcity and is not being grown in plantations as is hoop pine. It has been used for plywood, joinery and furniture.

Aboriginal significance

Bunya pine seeds were a favourite food of the Aboriginals who ate the seeds either raw or roasted. Trees had notches cut into the trunk to assist climbing in order to obtain the fruit, and these can still be seen on old trees in the Bunya Mountains National Park. Individual trees were the responsibility of individual tribal members and the right to collect seed was passed from father to son. When the bunya trees were ready to be harvested, representatives of tribes from as far west as the Queensland– Northern Territory border would gather in the Bunya Mountains for their annual corroboree to celebrate and to settle tribal disputes. Representatives of each tribal group travelled huge distances to attend these festivals, so the significance of the festival to their governance can be appreciated. An Indigenous story taken from Queensland Ethnohistory Transcripts relates to the corroborees in the Banji (Bunya) Mountains – although perhaps not directly related to the Bunya trees. It is the story of the creation of the mountains which supports the rainforests. The Bunya Mountains generate upcurrents which are the source of devastating storms in

See macrophotographs of Araucaria bidwillii on page 168.

the area, and it was because of these storms that the Aboriginals decided to send someone from the tribe into the mountain ranges to find the cause of the persistent bad weather. In choosing the man who would represent the four ‘hordes’ (portion of a tribe) which comprised the Jinibara tribe, they met at Baruja (Mt Stanley) and decided that one man from each ‘horde’ should give a tribal cry, and the best performer was to be selected as the messenger to venture into the Bunya Mountains. The four ‘hordes’ were the Dungidau, Dalva, Nelbo and Garuma. The result was that the Dungidau cry was chosen for the whole Jinibara tribe – and it went as follows: ‘Jinibara gari garunbai, douwunu ngarinu’. The translation of the cry was, ‘I am giving a cry from my home’. The chosen Dungidau messenger had to deliver his tribal cry at each tribal boundary he came to before venturing into the Bunya Mountains area. The first boundary he crossed was of the Dungibara tribe, then the Bujibara tribal boundary, next the Waka Waka and finally the Dakundeir, and similar tribal calls were made at each boundary. The messenger carried a boomerang and a spear. If the boomerang was painted white it was a sign of peace, or if red he was on an unfriendly trip. The messenger also had a mandji (friend) accompany him by day, and a nowar by night. When he reached the Bunya Mountains, the mountain responded to his cry with a peal of thunder. So he walked around the mountain and on the eastern side where there were big caves, he smelt smoke and thought that surely someone was there. He came to a large cave where he saw fire, and lying beside the fire was an old man. The messenger waited and as the storm got worse, the old man got up and spoke to the weather in his own language. The messenger realised that the old man was sending the storm back towards where he had come from and so therefore was the cause of the problem. Before starting out the messenger had been told that if he found the person responsible for the bad weather, he was to spear a leaf on the ground, and if the spear bent before going through the leaf, he was to talk the matter over with the person. If the spear point went through the leaf then he was to spear the offender. On putting his spear to the test, it went cleanly through the leaf without bending so he promptly speared the old man in the arm. In pain, the old man rolled into the fire and was burned. In his agony he twisted out of the cave and fell down the side of the mountain into the creek. The messenger shouted down to the old man: ‘Woka naia njin ganeir, buju gwair njin jair’ which meant, ‘Don’t be a person like me, be a carpet snake’. The old man at once turned into a carpet snake, and the burns received from the fire give the present-day markings on the back of the carpet snake. The Bunya Mountains holds rich cultural heritage aspects for the Indigenous peoples of the central eastern coast of Australia as do the bunya pines.

Australian Rainforest Woods

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Araucaria cunninghamii hoop pine

A young hoop pine in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens.

Trunk of young tree.

26

Derivation: Araucaria derived from the Araucani Indians of the Arauco district of southern Chile. Cunninghamii honours Alan Cunningham, King’s botanist and collector of copious specimens for Kew Herbarium, and explorer of eastern Australia. Family: Araucariaceae, which has three genera (Araucaria, Agathis and Wollemia) in Australia. Araucaria has three species native to Australia: hoop pine, bunya pine, and Norfolk Island pine (Araucaria heterophylla). Klinki pine (Araucaria hunsteinii) is native to New Guinea. Other names: Colonial pine, Dorrigo pine, Richmond River pine and Queensland pine. Hoop pine refers for the tendency of the bark to remain in hoops on the forest floor after the timber has decayed. Distribution: Occurs in small pockets from the Macleay River in New South Wales to Cape York in Queensland and on some coastal islands. It grows in warm humid rainforest and subtropical forests receiving a rainfall of 1000–2000 mm. It grows on a wide range of well-drained and well-aerated soils. Close to the coast, it must have a water table close to the surface. They occur as emergent trees over broad-leaved species and are abundant in mature forests. In wetter areas they occur in the early stages of succession following disturbance. On poorer soil sites it is found in association with bottle trees (Brachychiton rupestris), brush kurrajong (Brachychiton discolor) and Flindersia species. On better soils in association with Flindersia, Dysoxylum, Lauraceae and Celastraceae species. On river alluvials in association with black bean (Castanospermum australe), brown pine (Podocarpus elatus), silky oak (Grevillea robusta), and in its southern range with coachwood (Ceratopetalum apetalum). The tree: An impressive tree to 60 metres and diameters of 0.6–1.9 metres. The bole is long and straight with little taper and is free of branches to two-thirds of the tree height. The crown is open with dark green foliage clumped towards the ends of the branches. The tree may have long internodes between whorls of branches. The bark is reddish-brown to coppery on young trees and peeling in horizontal strips. Older trees have dark brown hard and rough bark with horizontal cracks forming hoops or bands. Leaves are spirally arranged on slender curved branchlets which are shed progressively from nearest the trunk. Young trees bear only male flower. In middle age it produces male flowers on lower branches and female on the upper branches. As lower branches are shed the aged tree bears only female flowers. Males are borne at the end of twigs and female at the end of short shoots, forming oval cones up to 10 cm in diameter. The wedge-shaped and winged seeds are arranged spirally on the cones and have a stiff, curled point. Habitat: Based on fossil discoveries, Araucucarians existed 220 million years ago at the beginning of the development of seed-bearing plants and has dominated forests across Gondwana at various times. They are now confined to the Pacific Rim. They were growing in ancient environments that were warmer and wetter than today.

Leaves and cone.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Female cone, mature and immature, and the winged seeds.

Wood of Araucaria cunninghamii The sapwood is white and heartwood white to light brown. The sapwood is occasionally attacked by bluestain fungus. Hoop pine is uniform in texture with no figure. It has only the mildest of growth ring differentiations. The sapwood is subject to Lyctus borer and in tropical areas the wood is susceptible to hoop pine borers (Calymmoderus spp.). It is a firm, strong and fine-textured coniferous softwood and has a low shrinkage rate, being 2.5% radially and 3.5% tangentially. The air dry density at 12% is 530 kg/m3. It is also worth noting that the rate of growth in plantation hoop pine has no significant effect on the resulting wood density. It is easy to cut, saw, nail, dress, glue, stain and polish. It is non-aromatic and tasteless. Aboriginal people are thought to have used the sap as a cement to fix axe heads to handles. The early explorers used them as spars for sailing ships. The primary use is for indoor joinery and mouldings, flooring, panelling and plywood. Hoop pine, in particular, in comparison with all the other pines, was preferred for butter boxes, because it did not taint the butter. From the 1900s, hoop and bunya pine were lumped together and sold as Queensland pine. Bunya pine was much more isolated and occurred only in the south-east corner of Queensland and in the more fertile areas. These species covered around 200 000 ha in Queensland. From the 1930s harvesting was controlled, however, that lasted only into the 1960s. Today, hoop pine is available only from 45 000 ha of plantation hoop pine, established by the Department of Forestry in south-east Queensland and is being sustainably managed by Finlayson’s in Brisbane. This supply augments introduced Pinus plantations which supply most of the housing frame material.

See macrophotographs of Araucaria cunninghamii on page 168.

Historical significance According to Mary White in The Greening of Gondwana, fossil records show that at the start of the Tertiary (65 million years ago), a warm temperate coniferous forest was widespread over Gondwana so the conifers share a link with the other southern countries. Gondwana was a well-watered and forested land. Hoop pine is one of the ancient species that we have inherited from that era. During times of transition there is pressure on species to evolve, however in areas of higher rainfall, rainforests supporting many of the original species persisted. Transition times have been important times for plant evolution. As Australia dried, fire became an important environmental factor in the development of new plants. Diversity increased and the relatively modern flowering trees including the Eucalyptus and Acacia species came into being. Fortunately, however, our rainforests remain as refuge areas for some of these ancient species such as hoop pine which is essentially unchanged.

The walls and ceilings of most tropical and subtropical ‘workers’ homes in Australia, built between the 1930s and the 1970s, were of hoop pine. This photo shows some of the ‘tongue and groove’ pine interior in the author’s home, built around the 1930s.



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Argyrodendron actinophyllum subsp. actinophyllum blush tulip oak

Mature tree.

Wood of Argyrodendron actinophyllum The sapwood is not readily distinguishable from the heartwood which is pink to pale brown in colour. The medullary rays are a feature of this wood. It is straight grained and strong and the texture can be coarse but even. It has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 800 kg/m3. Shrinkage is 4.5% radially and 8.5% tangentially. It is suitable for steam bending. Careful drying is needed to minimise staining which can happen if eucalypt spacers are used in the drying racks. It is also subject to splitting and checking on the tangential surfaces. Large logs may contain a dark brown central core – often referred to as black heart, and is attractive. The wood has many uses. 28

Synonyms: Heritieria actinophylla, Tarrietia actinophylla. Derivation: Argyrodendron from the Greek argyros (silver) and dendron (a tree), referring to the silvery underside of the leaflets. Actinophyllum from the Greek aktis (ray) and phyllon (a leaf), referring to the radiating leaflets. Family: The Malvaceae has been modified following molecular studies to include the family Sterculiaceae. This also includes the Brachychiton, Commersonia and Sterculia genera. There are 10 species of Argyrodendron. A. actinophyllum subsp. diversifolium is also known from Big Tableland and Paluma in north Queensland. Fossil specimens indicate their presence 50 million years ago and some of the species extend into New Guinea and Malaysia. Other names: Booyong, black booyong, black Jack, boonjie tulip oak, tulip oak, crow’s foot elm and stave wood. Distribution: Found between Gloucester in New South Wales and Gympie in Queensland. Swain (1928) makes reference to Mackay tulip oak which is now designated as subsp. diversifolium and grows on the granite loams from Sarina to Proserpine and on the Eungella Range west of Mackay. Further north it is replaced by red tulip oak (A. peralatum). Subsp. actinophyllum grows on the red volcanic soils of the subtropics but is also scattered on the poorer sedimentary soils where patches of better fertility are evident. It prefers altitudes above 600 metres on the northern end of its range. The tree: Blush tulip oak grows larger than brown tulip oak, reaching a height of 50 metres and a trunk diameter of 1.7 metres. The trunk is usually prominently buttressed, and is tall and straight. The crown is dense green, spreading and attractive. The outer bark is grey or dark grey, and sometimes almost black. It is rough, scaly and fissured in large trees and sheds in small irregular pieces, and is arranged in layers. Underbark is brownish-black. The live bark is cream with vertical bands. The inner blaze is dark red becoming paler towards the sapwood. Ray markings show in short dark vertical lines. Leaves are alternate, pinnate, commonly with seven radiating from the top of the leaf stalk. They are a dull, dark green colour above and paler underneath, long and drawn out to a blunt pointed tip. They do not have scales as does A. trifoliolatum. Separate male and female flowers, bell-shaped and lemon-scented, creamy-green inside the calyx and cream outside. Carpels united in the male flower and up to five distinct carpels in the female flower. Seeds have a flat thin single wing and are clothed in coppery to brown scales.

Leaves with up to seven radiating from the top of the leaf stalk. See macrophotographs of Argyrodendron actinophyllum on page 184.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Argyrodendron peralatum red tulip oak Synonyms: A. trifoliolatum var. peralatum, Heritieria peralata, Tarrietia trifoliolatum var. peralata. Derivation: Argyrodendron from the Greek argyros (silver) and dendron (a tree), referring to the silvery underside of the leaflets. Peralatum from the Latin pers (very) and alatus (winged), referring to the well-developed wing on the fruits. The common name refers to the wood colour as compared to the brown and blush tulip oak, and oak referring to its medullary rays. Family: The Malvaceae has been modified following recent molecular studies which now includes the family Sterculiaceae, of which Argyrodendron was a member. There are 10 species in Argyrodendron. Other names: Johnstone River red beech, red crow’s foot, red crow’s foot elm and tulip oak. Distribution: Has a restricted distribution in the rainforests in northern Queensland between Tully and Cooktown. Soils vary but the tree reaches its best in deep well-drained loams of granite and basalt. It’s associated with a large number of species in the rainforests. The tree: A medium to large, well-formed tree growing to 55 metres in height and 1.5 metres in trunk diameter. The buttresses are usually straight and evenly tapered. The bark is flaky and somewhat fissured with the outer blaze pink to red. The trifoliate leaves are fleshy and spirally arranged. The undersides of the leaf are densely clothed in small silvery scales. The leaf midrib is depressed on the upper surface. The flower is paniculate, but not truly terminal as some branch out lower down the stem. The distinctive features are the straight stem with conspicuous buttresses and trifoliate leaves, with newer leaves white or golden on the underside. The seeds have a hairy basal section. Mature tree.

Wood of Argyrodendron peralatum The sapwood in not easily distinguished and very susceptible to borer attack. The grain is straight and open, and can be interlocked or wavy and irregular, producing some beautifully figured wood. Texture is coarse but even. There is often an attractive water-wave figure on the tangential plane and a ray fleck on the radial cut. It needs careful drying under cover to avoid staining and surface checking. Shrinkage is about 4.4% radially and 9% tangentially. It has an air dry density and 12% moisture of 800 kg/m3. It is not easy to work but dresses well and is more durable than brown or blush tulip oak and succeeds as weather-boards. Despite its low density it has good strength. It glues satisfactorily, nails well and does not rust the nails, but nailing may require pre-boring. It is elastic and flexible and steam bends

Heavy dark-green trifoliate leaves forming tight whorls close to the end of the branch. The younger leaves have golden-brown undersides.

excellently. It will readily accept paint, stain and polish. It should be used only in dry situations under cover, well ventilated, clear of the ground and fully protected from the weather. It’s difficult to impregnate with preservatives. It has a satin appearance when finished and is suitable for heavy cabinet work. It makes excellent flooring, linings and battens, and turns well. It is used for steam-bent boat ribs. It’s special advantages are its flexibility and elasticity. It’s also good for plywood and joinery.

See macrophotographs of Argyrodendron peralatum on page 184.

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Argyrodendron trifoliolatum brown tulip oak

Mature tree.

Synonyms: Heritieria trifoliolata, Tarrietia argyrodendron. Derivation: Argyrodendron from the Greek argyros (silver) and dendron (a tree), referring to the silvery underside of the leaflets. Trifoliolatum from the Latin tres (three) and foliolus (a leaflet), referring to the compound leaf of three leaflets. Family: Recent molecular studies have included the family Sterculiaceae in the Malvaceae. This also includes the Brachychiton, Commersonia and Sterculia genera. There are 10 species of Argyrodendron. Fossil specimens indicate their presence 50 million years ago and some of the species extend into New Guinea and Malaysia. Other names: White booyong (booyong being an Aboriginal name), brown crow’s foot elm, crow’s foot elm, brown oak, red booyong, brown booyong, ironwood hickory, high root, silver elm, stave wood, black ash and oak magenta. Distribution: Found from Nambucca River in New South Wales to Cairns in north Queensland, and into New Guinea. It is very common in lowland rainforests on basaltic or alluvial soils up to 600 metres altitude. The tree: A large tree up to 45 metres in height and a trunk diameter of 2 metres. The crown is dense and when viewed from beneath, the leaves often appear brownish or copper coloured. The base of the trunk is strongly buttressed but the main trunk is cylindrical. The outer bark is grey, fissured and sometimes scaly, and sheds in irregular flakes. The underbark is cream but the live bark is deep red. The blaze is pinkish with streaks of cream and a yellow layer next to the sapwood which changes to brown on exposure. Leaves are alternate, pinnate, with three leaflets tapering to a long tip. They are smooth and green on the upper surface and silvery-grey to copper coloured beneath. It has broad to bell-shaped flowers made of five calyx lobes, brown on the outside and cream inside – and no petals. Separate male and female flowers, the female having more distinct carpels. The flowers fall in great numbers and form a carpet. Each brown scaly seed has a thin, flat silvery-brown wing attached. After falling these winged seeds exude a sticky jelly that absorbs water and delays the drying of the seed.

Alternate leaves.

Wood of Argyrodendron trifoliolatum The heartwood is dark brown to red-brown and towards the heart of the log may contain a dark core – as with blush tulip oak. It is straight grained and has distinct medullary rays. Texture is coarse and even with an air dry density at 12% moisture of 850 kg/m3. Shrinkage is around 3% radially and 6.5% tangentially. Care needs to be taken in drying to avoid splitting and checking. It is not easy to work and pre-drilling is recommended when nailing near the ends of boards. It is suitable for steam bending and is suitable for plywood, flooring, panelling furniture and general construction. 30

A quarter cut specimen showing medullary rays. See macrophotographs of Argyrodendron trifoliolatum on page 184.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Atherosperma moschatum blackheart sassafras

Stem.

Wood of Atherosperma moschatum The sapwood is greyish and the heartwood has various shades of brown. The heartwood is often black, or with dark stripes, and is in demand for turning and other specialist uses. It has a fine and even texture and is straight grained. The air dry density at 12% moisture is around 630 kg/m3. It is easy to dry and shrinkage is around 2.5% radially and 6.5% tangentially. The timber works well, bends and polishes excellently and is easy to season. It has a low tannin content and has in the past been used for such items as wooden clothes pegs, brushes, toys, shoe heels, bungs for casks, carving and panelling.

Derivation: Athrosperma from the Greek athera (goat) and sperma (seed), referring to the bearded end on the seed. Moschatum from the Greek and Latin moschos (musk or musk-scented), which alludes to the odour of the bark and branches. It was first described by French botanist J. J. De La Billardiere, who in 1791 made botanical collections in Tasmania. Although his specimens were confiscated by the Dutch while he was in Java and sent to England, Sir Joseph Banks later returned them. Family: Atherospermaceae, which has four genera and 10 species in Australia. Although not mentioned in fossil records, this angiosperm is closely associated with many of the ancient species in the cool temperate rainforests. Other names: Southern sassafras, black sassafras and Tasmanian sassafras. Distribution: Widely distributed from southern Tasmania to north of Newcastle in New South Wales. In Tasmania it is common from sea level to about 800 metres, but on the mainland it is restricted to intermediate altitudes to 1350 metres. It prefers a cool humid environment. It grows mainly in the gullies and along creeks on the mainland and up the valley sides in East Gippsland in Victoria. In cool temperate rainforests it is a subsidiary species in myrtle beech (Nothofagus cunninghamii) dominated forests of the west coast and as an understorey species in association with celery top pine (Phyllocladus aspleniifolius) and leatherwood (Eucryphia lucida). Occasionally it is found in pure stands, but in New South Wales it is more scattered at high altitudes often in association with sassafras (Doryphora sassafras) and coachwood (Ceratopetalum apetalum). The tree: A small to medium tree growing to 10–15 metres in height but occasionally reaching 25 metres. The tree usually has a straight trunk up to 0.75 metres in diameter, with horizontal branches and a conifer-like crown. Older trees are more open. The bark is light grey to light brown with numerous lenticels which are similar to stomata on leaves. Branch scars are conspicuous and the surface is usually covered with green and various-coloured lichens. The outer bark is thin but the inner bark is 2 cm thick, mottled light brown and cream – and very aromatic. Leaves are opposite and have toothed edges, are dark green above and white beneath with scattered hairs on both surfaces. Separate male and female flowers which fall very quickly. The leathery fruit form with a goat-beard seed capsules. On the mainland it is easy to confuse it with sassafras (Doryphora sassafras) which is from the same family, but has a tighter crown, and the leaves are larger, are more coarsely toothed and have a shiny underside. Distinctive, opposite leaves.

See macrophotographs of Athersperma moschatum on page 172.

Australian Rainforest Woods

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Athrotaxis cupressoides pencil pine

A grove of differing aged trees.

Derivation: Athrotaxis from the Greek athros (crowded together) and taxis (arrangement), alluding to the crowded nature of the cone scales. Cupressoides from cupress (cypress-like) and oides (like), hence the tree form looks like a cypress. Family: Cupressaceae, with four genera in Australia: Actinostrobus, Athrotaxis, Callitris and Disselma. Athrotaxis originated about 160 million years ago and there are several members still surviving in Tasmania. Cheshunt pine (Diselma archeri), a small tree also found in high altitude rainforests, is one of the seven species used as rainforest indicators in Tasmania. Although an ancient species its history cannot be demonstrated with certainty because of the pollen similarity between Taxodiaceae and Cupressaceae which evolved around the same time. There are three members of Athrotaxis: pencil pine (A. cupressoides), King Billy pine (A. selaginoides) and A. laxifolia which is the result of hybridisation between pencil and King Billy pines. The fossil pollen record is of little assistance since the pollen classification recorded by palaeontologists is general to Cupressaceae and Taxodiaceae. However, the macrofossil records show species of Athrotaxis in sediments up to 65 million years old in Tasmania as well as in the northern hemisphere. Other name: Tasmanian pencil pine. Distribution: Found at high altitudes in the Central Highlands of Tasmania in montane and subalpine areas, ranging between 800 and 1350 metres above sea level. They grow in the same general areas as King Billy pine. The tree: A pyramidal tree growing up to 14 metres, however as can be seen in the photograph of a pencil pine stand on the north-east side of Dove Lake, the older trees tend to become less shapely as they lose lower branches and tend to round off in the top. It has spirally arranged leaves, scale-like and closely pressed to the twig compared to King Billy pine which tends to splay out from the twig. The cones are borne on the ends of the twigs and are round and open widely when mature.

Cones on the end of twigs.

Spirally arranged leaves.

Wood of Athrotaxis cupressoides The heartwood is pinkish-brown with distinctive growth rings. It is usually fairly knotty with a fine texture and the grain is straight. Growth is slow and typically uneven. Air dry density at 12% moisture is not officially quoted, however this specimen has been measured at 635 kg/m3. This is not a recognised commercial timber; however, I have included it because of its significance as a relic species which once, according to Aljos Farjon, also grew in New Zealand and South America – and there were a few more genera shown in the fossil records. It is unlikely that you will ever obtain this wood in usable quantity. 32

See macrophotographs of Athrotaxis cupressoides on page 169.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Athrotaxis selaginoides King Billy pine

King Billy pine in a sheltered grove on the northern side of Dove Lake, Cradle Mountain.

Derivation: Athrotaxis from the Greek athros (crowded together) and taxis (arrangement), alluding to the crowded nature of the cone scales. Selaginoides from selaginella (a club moss) and oides (like), hence the club moss-like leaves. Family: Cupressaceae, with four genera in Australia: Actinostrobus, Athrotaxis, Callitris and Disselma. Note that Taxodiaceae has recently been merged with Cupressaceae. Athrotaxis is thought to have originated around 100 million years ago, and has three species in Tasmania: A. cupressoides, A. laxifolia and A. selaginoides. Other names: The wood has also been called cedar, pencil cedar and red pine. Distribution: The common name King Billy comes from King William pine which perhaps refers to stands in the King William Range where it grew. It is found in the mountainous regions usually between 750 metres to 1200 metres above sea level. It has a life span of 1000 years and is found along the northwestern and south-eastern margins of the central plateau and from the Mt Fields Range to the mountains of west and south-west Tasmania. Over this area the climate is cold and wet with maximum temperatures of 17–20°C and a minimum around 0°C with heavy snowfalls. The rainfall ranges from 1200–2750 mm with a winter maximum. King Billy grows on sheltered mid-slopes or valley bottoms on fairly deep soils, and less commonly on steep rocky slopes and exposed ridges. In the windy and ice-blasted subalpine areas it occurs as a twisted dwarf. The soils on the highest parts are acid peat and alpine humus. There are some small stands in cool temperate rainforests in association with myrtle beech (Nothofagus cunninghamii), southern sassafras (Atherosperma moschatum) and celery top pine (Phyllocladus asperniifolius). On the higher slopes it is found with pencil pine (Athrotaxis cupressoides), and on stream or lake-side sites with eucalypts such as cider gum (Eucalyptus gunnii) or Tasmanian snow gum (Eucalyptus coccifera) in subalpine low open forests. In subalpine open woodland, such as at the top end of Dove Lake on Cradle Mountain, it is associated with a dense understorey of tangle foot (Nothofagus gunnii) and horizontal (Andopetalum biglandulosum). The tree: A medium-sized to tall tree growing to 30 metres in height and 1.8 metres in diameter and as old as 1500 years. Trees often have long clear trunks with relatively small tufted crowns. The bole is frequently forked, fluted, buttressed or curved in a butt sweep. Higher altitude trees are frequently reduced to stunted deformed shrubs, which may nevertheless be more than 500 years old. Trees of this species are frequently long-lived. Possibly the oldest living specimen is in the Cradle Mountain National Park and is roughly estimated to be 1500 years old with a base dimension of around 4 metres. Compared to the pencil pine, the leaves are rather loosely wrapped around the twig, rather awl-like with a curved shape, tapering to a sharp point, and are very stiff.

Two examples of King Billy pine trunks. On the left is a mid-aged tree while the stem on the right is from an aged, moss-covered trunk with heavily fissured bark.



Australian Rainforest Woods

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Wood of Athrotaxis selaginoides The heartwood is pink to reddish with distinctive closely spaced growth rings indicating its very slow growth. This standard size specimen has 100 annual growth rings in 75 mm. Sapwood is yellow in colour, very narrow and not readily distinguishable. Texture is fine with growth rings prominent and the grain is straight. Growth is slow and typically uneven. Compression wood is common. Air dry density at 12% moisture is 400 kg/m3, which makes it the lightest of Tasmanian timber species. Despite its lightness it is fairly strong and remarkably durable in the ground or in the open air, which made it very popular for doors, windows and roofing in the form of shingles in early buildings. Shrinkage is about 1.5% radially and 4% tangentially. When free of compression wood it works well. It planes easily, seasons quickly, with small shrinkage and responds well to steam bending. It can be nailed and screwed without splitting. Timber samples from exposed sites or from fire-killed trees may be harder. It glues satisfactorily. This wood is very durable and some has been dated at ages between 1200 and 1700 years. It has served well in the making of oars and in boat building. It was popular for patternmaking, battery separators, vats, external joinery, furniture, piano sounding boards and in violin making. It was also popular for drawing boards, carriage works, wooden pipes and slats for venetian blinds. During the Tasmanian west coast boom in the 1880s it was highly reputed as a construction timber. Because the timber splits easily and cleanly in all longitudinal planes it makes excellent shingles, and for this reason a large percentage of timber that has become available in recent times has been used for the repair of heritage

See macrophotographs of Athrotaxis selaginoides on page 169.

Crutch grain figure of King Billy pine obtained from the crutch where two major stems divide.

buildings. In the past it was popular locally for beehive boxes because of its lightness and durability. At present it is very scarce, and is restricted in its availability. Because of its durability however, logs cut during development that were in inaccessible locations, as well as stumps, are being recovered and used. They are particularly important for the manufacture of stringed musical instruments and during the 1980s a project led by Douglas Findlay, from the Tasmanian Conservatorium and the University of Tasmania, worked on the establishment of a violin manufacturing industry in Tasmania. Tests have shown that King Billy pine has very similar musical properties to that of European maple, which has long been regarded as the accepted wood for string instrument production. As with many other rainforest trees, fire has a devastating effect on King Billy pine. The closed canopy, relatively nonflammable foliage, sparse ground cover and constant humidity, aids in preventing the deep penetration of fires. However, dry times, the opening of roads and logging has increased the fire danger. Unfortunately regeneration is extremely poor. The exploitation of King Billy and Huon pine was the first industry on the west coast of Tasmania and large quantities were shipped through Macquarie Harbour until the 1930s and there has been little attention paid to the rehabilitation and regeneration of the species following logging. This is not surprising since it takes around 40 years for a seedling to grow to one metre tall in the wild.

A 10-mm deep King Billy pine inlay representing a Tasmanian salmon (Arripus trutta) crafted by the author. The body is from crutch grain figured King Billy pine, the fins and tail from normal grained King Billy, and the eye is from a redwood burl (Sequoia sempervirens). The table is Huon pine – all species therefore are ancient conifers.

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Australian Rainforest Woods

The romance of King Billy

A majestic 1500–2000-year-old King Billy pine in the Enchanted Forest, on Cradle Mountain, standing in a sheltered valley in association with myrtle beech (Nothofagus cunninghamii) and sassafras (Atherosperma moschatum). Its present height is around 30 metres although its crown has been blown out by a storm and its canopy is much diminished. Its circumference is 9.7 metres – a smidgen bigger than the big Huon.

For me personally, King Billy pine is the romantic tree of the Tasmanian species. The wood has an artistic and ethereal quality which gives it a majestic image. You pick up a piece of King Billy and your expectation of it’s density is shattered, because it seems to float – it’s lighter than you assumed. Even it’s location sets it above all others. As you venture into the alpine areas of the Mount Field National Park, you will find its gnarled and twisted form secreted along the banks of a river, or along the margins of any body of water – sometimes it presents itself as being grandiose, yet on other occasions it’s almost like a Japanese bonsai. Whatever its form however, it always commands a presence. In its grandest form, you will find specimens at the top end of Dove Lake, in the Cradle Mountain area, where it occupies a space close to a cliff face and almost commands you to sit at its feet and respect its almost royal presence. Unlike Huon pine – which mostly hides in a thicket in the most dishevelled areas, accessible only to those who take the giant effort to battle their way into the wilderness of the west coast of Tasmania – King Billy pine retreats from such mundane circumstances into the mountains of the north-western and southeastern margins of the Central Highlands. It resides above the Huon, at altitudes from 500 to 1200 metres, extending its range into the subalpine zones where heavy snowfalls occur each winter with frost instances between 20 and 100 times per year. It needs a high rainfall, which ranges from 1200 to 2750 mm where it grows. In suitable environments, King Billy is found on sheltered mid-slopes or in valley bottoms on fairly deep soils and extends to rocky slopes and exposed ridges where it grows in association with pencil pine (Athrotaxis cupressoides) on stream- or lake-side sites. The most magnificent specimens are to be found on King Billy Walk in the Enchanted Forest on Cradle Mountain. The oldest King Billy trees are estimated to be between 1500 and 2000 years old – you run out of superlatives to describe them. Its name is thought to come from King William Range, where it was originally found, however others believe it was named after the Tasmanian Aboriginal, William Lanney, who was referred to as ‘King Billy’.

A majestically crowned King Billy pine in a secluded corner of Dove Lake on Cradle Mountain.



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Athertonia diversifolia creamy silky oak Synonyms: Helicia diversifolia, Hicksbeachia diversifolia. Derivation: Athertonia is derived from the Atherton Tableland, the district in which the species is endemic. John Atherton (1837–1913) was an early pastoralist in the district. Diversifolia from the Latin diversi (different), referring to the different leaf shapes on the one plant, and folia (leaves). Family: Proteaceae. There are 46 genera and 1100 species in Australia with 80 rainforest species in 31 genera. This is the only species in the genus Athertonia; however, the family Proteaceae is very large with the major genera being Grevillea, Hakea, Banksia and around 30 others in Australia. Other names: Atherton oak and white oak. Distribution: Occurs on deep red volcanic soils of the high altitude rainforests from Cape Tribulation (Thornton Peak) to the Atherton Tableland in north Queensland growing from 400 to 1150 metres. The tree: A medium-sized tree to 20 metres with a trunk diameter of 0.3 metres. The base of the trunk is often slightly flared with a small buttress. Seedling leaves are generally oblong and toothed, but after several sets become predominantly lobed with from three to 12 lobes, each variably toothed. These very distinctive leaves may reach 0.6 metres long and are glossy on top and are very markedly veined underneath. Dense rusty hairs coat the bright new tips and branchlets. Mature leaves are dark green and shiny, ageing to an orange, then glossy black when falling. The cream or brown flowers are on 30 cm long pendulous racemes which are held inconspicuously inside the outer foliage. The small tube-like flowers are arranged in pairs of male and female flowers with the anther, or style, revealed prominently at the tip. They are densely crowded and are formed on the old wood or sometimes terminally on new growth. The flowers are followed by bright blue fruit that develop with a hard dimpled stone containing a sweet crisp kernel which is described as sweeter than a macadamia. They are eaten by the native white-tailed rat. Young tree.

Immature trunk. Large glossy leaves.

Wood of Athertonia diversifolia The heartwood is uniformly cream to creamy-yellow in colour. It is straight grained, coarse but even. As with other timbers of this family care needs to be taken in drying to avoid splitting and checking. It has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 675 kg/m3. It is not easy to work and tends to feather when finishing. It has a very unusual colour and when used it stands out because of its rays which become prominent when quarter cut, despite very little colour difference. It is scarce and not often available in large dimensions. 36

See macrophotographs of Athertonia diversifolia on page 193.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Austrobuxus swainii pink cherry

Mature tree.

Synonym: Longetia swainii. Derivation: Austrobuxus from the Latin austro (southern) and buxus (the box tree), referring to the similarity of the species type found in Malaysia to the northern hemisphere box (Buxus spp.). Swainii after E. H. F. Swain, forester and botanical collector in the Bellingen district and later Commissioner of Forests in Queensland. Family: Picrodendraceae has nine genera and 32 species in Australia but has 27 genera and 85 species in other parts of the world particularly in New Guinea and South-East Asia. Austrobuxus has two Australian species, A. magacarpus confined to north Queensland and A. swainii in south-east Queensland and northern New South Wales. Other names: Hairy bark and pink wood. Distribution: It grows from the Bellingen River area in northern New South Wales to the Tallebudgera Creek in Queensland. It grows on the poorer sedimentary soils and is often associated with coachwood (Ceratopetalatum apetalum). The tree: A large tree up to 37 metres with a long straight trunk up to 1 metre diameter and a crown which often has a few bright red leaves similar to blue quandong (Elaeocarpus grandis). The trunk is often flanged or irregular in shape with slight buttressing. The outer bark is light grey to brown, shedding in irregular patches and leaving shallow depressions. The underbark is light grey and the live bark is bright pink. A blaze reveals pink to red inner bark which becomes paler as you go towards the sapwood, but be careful as the sap will burn your skin. When the bark is cut numerous fine hair-like processes can be seen embedded in the bark. The blaze changes to a tan-brown colour after 10 minutes exposure. The bark and blaze is similar to bolly gum (Litsea reticulata). Leaves are opposite, simple and finely toothed, and taper gradually to a pointed tip. They are green, smooth and shiny on both sides. The flowers are greenish yellow in panicles of up to 25. It has separate male and female flowers on the same branch. The fruit are contained in a dark brown to black oval capsule, with two thick projections or styles at the tip, splitting into four parts exposing two glossy, brown oval seeds. The seeds are left attached to the capsule after the covering has fallen away.

Leaves and flowers. Trunk with light buttressing.

Wood of Austrobuxus swainii The heartwood is pink or pinkish-red in colour, moderately soft and close textured. Unfortunately, little is documented about this wood because it has never been adequately studied; however, the air dry density of wood in my collection is around 750– 800 kg/m3. It is not a common wood but is suitable for cabinet and indoor furniture.

See macrophotographs of Austrobuxus swainii on page 192.

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Backhousia bancroftii Johnstone River hardwood Derivation: Backhousia after James Backhouse, an early Quaker missionary amongst the convicts and a keen botanical collector. Bancroftii after T. L. Bancroft (1860–1933), a Queensland physician and experimenter in biology. Family: Myrtaceae, a large family with the inclusion of Eucalyptus, Corymbia and Melaleuca, and a total of 35 genera. Backhousia has seven species. Distribution: Endemic to a relatively small area in north-east Queensland from Cooktown to Innisfail. It grows in loamy alluvial soils in coastal areas on the eastern slopes in the lowland rainforests. In the foothills around the Johnstone River the species forms an almost single species stand. It is thought that severe large-scale disturbance events such as cyclones and fire result in the dominance of the species. The tree: A relatively small tree growing to 15 metres in height with a spreading canopy. In the rainforest situation however it is a very tall canopy tree. The young stems are four-sided which is very unusual. The young leaves are larger than the mature leaves which are elliptical, shiny and green, and have a prominently winged stem. The leaves have a pleasant fragrance when crushed. It has conspicuous clusters of fluffy, creamy-white flowers on the ends of the branches which are followed by small seed capsules with persistent calyx lobes. The seeds are small. The tree is ornamental and is a superb flowering plant for parks and large gardens but it does have a heavy water requirement.

Small tree.

Wood of Backhousia bancroftii The heartwood is in various shades of brown, usually dark and often striped. The sapwood is distinctively paler. The texture is fine and even. The grain is variable but the logs are usually relatively free of defects. The air dry density at 12% moisture is 990 kg/m3, which makes it rather difficult to work because of its hardness. It is difficult to glue but is a favourable flooring timber because of its extreme resistance to indentation as well as its richly coloured appearance which has warmth. It is a much sought after timber for general construction and is also used for parquetry for which it is ideally suited. 38

Flowers and leaves.

See macrophotographs of Backhousia bancroftii on page 189.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Backhousia citriodora lemon-scented myrtle Derivation: Backhousia after James Backhouse, an early Quaker missionary amongst the convicts and a keen botanical collector. Citriodora from the Latin citron (lemon) and odorus (scent as in smell) – usually by crushing the leaves. Family: Myrtaceae, a very large family including: Eucalypytus, Corymbia and Melaleuca, and a total of 35 genera. Backhousia are found only in Australia. Other names: Lemon ironwood, scented verbena, lemon-scented backhousia, lemon-scented verbena, sweet verbena myrtle and sweet verbena myrtle tree. Distribution: A comparatively rare tree in nature. It’s a shelter seeker in mixed rainforest areas of the coastal watershed of the Mackay area, south to the Gympie and Mary Valley districts in south-east Queensland and into the northern east coast of New South Wales. Its preferred habitat is creek banks or in well drained soils, with plenty of water. It has proved to be very adaptable to cold conditions in southern Australia. The tree: A small tree reaching 25 metres and a diameter of 0.25 metres. The trunk is slim, rounded and unbranched for two-thirds of its height; however, it is seen mostly as a bushy tree with foliage often sweeping to the ground. The bark is thin, heavily fissured and has a purplish-brown colour with a superficial grey covering. The crown of a mature tree is scanty. It has deep green, leathery lemon-scented leaves, paler and copper coloured underneath. The flowers are profuse, white in panicles at the end of the branches. The flowers die and the seeds are held in the spent flowers and germinate readily. Many selected and cultivated plants do not yield viable seed. It has been commercialised because of the citral oil content of the leaves, which provides the powerful lemon scent which when dried is becoming popular as a tea or as flavouring for cooking. Leaves.

Small tree.

Trunk.

Wood of Backhousia citriodora The wood is a pale Indian-red or pink colour. It has no discernable sapwood. The wood is dense, compact, fine and even textured, and with no discernable growth rings or vessels. The minute rays are also not discernible on the quarter-cut. It has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 960 kg/m3. It is tough to cut and the surface lacks lustre. It will become more common in craft work as more mature trees become available from commercial plantings and should prove suitable for hard turnings or tool handles and where its colour is desired.

See macrophotographs of Backhousia citriodora on page 189.

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Banksia integrifolia subsp. monticola mountain banksia Derivation: Banksia after Sir Joseph Banks who first collected specimens as botanist on Captain Cook’s expedition in 1770. Integrifolia from the Latin integer (undivided) and folium (a leaf), referring to the adult leaf margins not being toothed. Monticola from the Latin montis (mountain) and colus (inhabiting), in reference to the mountain habitat of this subspecies, compared to subsp. integrifolia which is coastal. Family: Proteaceae has 46 genera and about 1100 species in Australia, including 80 rainforest species in 31 genera. Banksia has a limited presence in rainforests and this subspecies is therefore unusual. Other names: White banksia and white honeysuckle. Distribution: Grows from the Blue Mountains west of Sydney, New South Wales, to the D’Aguilar Range, north of Brisbane in Queensland. It is restricted to the warm temperate rainforests in mountain habitats, quite unlike subsp. integrifolia and aquilonia. The tree: Grows to 30 metres in height and 0.2 metres in diameter. It is often leaning or crooked and with large swellings as branch scars. It is not buttressed. The outer bark is dark grey and lighter fissured to platy. Underbark is fawn and the outer surfaces of live bark are purplish-pink. The blaze is deep purplish-pink near the outer margins and becoming pink then creamy-yellow towards the sapwood, but no change in colour on exposure. The smaller branches and buds are densely covered in short dark brown hairs. The shiny dark simple leaves are in whorls of three to five, toothed on juveniles only, compared to subsp. integrifolia which has dull leaves. The adult leaves are narrow and have the edges rolled under and have matted hairs underneath. Flowers are pale yellow on dense cylindrical spikes, at the end of 2–3-year-old branches with a whorl of lateral branches below. They have a honey fragrance. The seed cones are densely hairy at the base. The follicles have dark red-brown smooth lips and a bright brown smooth interior – two seeds in each follicle with a dark brown wedgeshaped separator. Flower spike.

Mature tree.

Wood of Banksia integrifolia subsp. monticola See macrophotographs of Banksia integrifolia on page 193.

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Australian Rainforest Woods

The wood is pinkish but becoming dark brown on exposure. The sapwood is distinctly paler. It is soft and fairly easily worked, close grained with an attractive medullary ray which is exposed on the quarter-cut, very similar to southern silky oak (Grevillea robusta). It has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 560 kg/m3. Shrinkage is fairly high so care needs to be given during drying. The tree is rather gnarled so rarely provides a millable log so is used mostly for decorative items, although furnituresize material is possible. It is subject to surface lifting when finishing, but other than that it finishes well. It’s very attractive in turned items.

Beilschmiedia bancroftii yellow walnut

Mature tree.

Synonym: Cryptocarya bancroftii. Derivation: Beilschmiedia after K. T. Beilschmied, a botanist and chemist in Ohlau, Germany. Bancroftii after T. L. Bancroft (1860–1933), a Queensland physician and experimenter in biology. Family: Lauraceae, which has 43 genera and 3000 species in the world, of which eight genera and 136 species are in subtropical and tropical rainforests in Australia. The largest of the genera are Cryptocarya (47 species) and Endiandra (38 species). Beilschmiedia has 11 species, Cinnamomum has six, Litsea 11 and Neolitsea three. They are not confined to Australia and are spread along most of the east coast. They are not emergent species and are generally second storey rainforest species, with just a couple of first storey species. Other names: Canary ash, yellow nut, dogwood and ivory walnut. Distribution: Restricted to the north Queensland rainforests from Mt Lewis to South Mission Beach growing on the red basaltic soils from sea level to 1200 metres in association with silkwood (Flindersia pimenteliana), kauri pine (Agathis robusta), northern silky oak (Cardwellia sublimis) and Queensland walnut (Endiandra palmerstonii). The tree: A large well-shaped tree to 35 metres in height and branching at around half its height. It develops a compact crown, and there is small buttressing in mature trees. The bark is thick, nodulated and has a rubbery dark reddish-grey surface and is usually adorned with white lichen patches and often with a scalloped pattern. The blaze is saffron-brown and has the odour of sugar cane. It has smooth, lance-shaped, opposite or alternate leaves tapering towards a slender petiole. The green or cream flowers are borne on a panicle. It was named for its yellowish, brownish or greenish fruit, about the size of a table tennis ball with a swelling at one end and a point at the other. The seed is distinctive with two sharply pointed ends connected by a ridge and borne on a thick rough stalk.

Wood of Beilschmiedia bancroftii The wood is lemon-yellow in colour and the sapwood is not always easy to pick. The texture is coarse but even and the grain is straight. It has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 640 kg/m3. Shrinkage is about 2% radially and 4% tangentially. It is easy to dry with very little collapse. It has an abrasive effect on tools because of its silica content and for this reason was never regarded as a commercial species even though it is plentiful in some areas across the Atherton Tableland. It glues and nails well, but is not suitable for steam bending. It has been used for plywood where it produces a canary-coloured veneer with a satin figure tracery, however in the peeling process it really does have an effect on the knives, so is not popular but is useful in panelling as well as flooring. It is a sound wood for furniture making, is unusual, the timber keeps its shape very well and the colour does not fade. It brightens up beautifully when oiled.

Fruit. Leaves. See macrophotographs of Beilschmiedia bancroftii on page 181.

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Beilschmiedia obtusifolia blush walnut Derivation: Beilschmiedia after C. T. Beilschmied, a botanist and chemist in Ohlau, Germany. Obtusifolia from the Latin obtusus (blunt) and folium (a leaf), alluding to the blunt apex of the leaf. Family: Lauraceae, of which the largest genera are Cryptocarya (47 species) and Endiandra (38 species). Beilschmiedia has 11 species, Cinnamomum has six, Litsea 11 and Neolitsea three. They are not confined to Australia and are spread along most of the east coast. They are not emergent species and are generally second storey rainforest species, with just a couple of first storey species. Other names: Black walnut, hard bolly gum, nut wood and tormenta. Distribution: Scattered from the Manning River area in New South Wales to Cape York in north Queensland. It is also found in Papua New Guinea. It grows on rich alluvial soils often close to the sea, and red basaltic loams. The tree: A large tree to 30 metres in height with a trunk of 0.9 metres. It has a cylindrical trunk, occasionally flanged at the base and with a dense crown. The bark is brown, but on occasion cream, sometimes slightly scaly but mostly smooth with shallow vertical fissures, and sheds in rounded or irregular patches. The underbark is red-brown with lighter streaks. The blaze is red-brown reducing to yellow-brown deeper and darkens with exposure and has a peppery odour. The leaves are alternate, simple, with a pale green smooth surface, paler underneath. The midrib is red. The flowers are cream with an offensive odour and are in panicles at the ends of the branches or in the axils of the leaves. The fruit are oval, with a black skin and green, fleshy and oily aromatic pulp, which are eaten by several bird species.

Blush walnut‘s cylindrical trunk.

Wood of Beilschmiedia obtusifolia The wood is dull bluish-pink, somewhat abrasive to saws and fine grained. Both vessel lines and ray grain are barely discernible, but the concentric lines on the tangential cut can reveal a fine whitish tracery. The wood is of medium hardness with an air dry density at 12% moisture of 775 kg/m3. Shrinkage is around 3% radially and 6% tangentially. Care needs to be taken in drying to reduce checking. It is not a strong timber but it does not split when nailed and has a firm, tight surface which will take a high polish. It is suitable for flooring and parquetry and for interior fittings, but is considered a bit heavy for furniture. 42

See macrophotographs of Beilschmiedia obtusifolia on page 181.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Buckinghamia celsissima spotted silky oak Derivation: Buckinghamia after Richard Grenville, Duke of Buckingham (1823– 1889). Celsissima from celsus (high or lofty) and issimus (very). Family: Proteaceae has 46 genera and 1100 species, the largest being Grevillea, Banksia, Hakea, Dryandra, Adenanthos and Macadamia. Buckinghamia however has only two species endemic to Australia, both rainforest species, the second being Noah’s oak or spotted oak (B. ferruginiflora). Other names: Buckinghamia silky oak, ivory curl flower and ivory curl. Distribution: A rainforest and gallery forest species growing naturally from Mt Finnigan near Cooktown to the Paluma Range in north Queensland. However, it has become a very popular suburban tree growing from Melbourne north. Despite its rainforest ancestry it is an extremely hardy and prolific flowering tree – admittedly however in Melbourne it is represented only as a 5 metre high shrub. It grows from 20 to 1200 metres altitude. The tree: Grows to 30 metres in height and may be buttressed. Its bark is grey and is tightly attached to the trunk, its branchlets grey-brown and hairy. The best-looking and well-rounded trees grow in full sun in well-drained soil. It has a very dense canopy flushed with red during periods of growth. The leaves are simple with the upper side smooth and light green with the underside covered in fine short, rusty-coloured hairs which age to silvery translucent dots visible with a lens. The creamy flowers appear on terminal racemes and are profuse, long and fragrant. The fruit develop into green, brown or blackish oval pods which have a ‘possum-tail’ hanging down. They open to reveal three to six brown or brown with creamy marked seeds narrowly winged. These are eaten by crimson rosellas.

Young tree.

Wood of Buckinghamia celsissima The heartwood is pale reddish-brown with a wide and paler coloured sapwood. The texture is fine and fairly even and the grain is straight. It has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 940 kg/m3, so it is a fairly heavy wood. It has a very prominent medullary ray figure which is spectacular when quarter cut. It has an unusual figure in that each ray area, however it is cut, is surrounded by a darker margin which gives the wood its ‘spotted’ name. It looks almost as though someone has spilled droplets of fluid on the surface and these have darkened at the edges where it has dried fastest. It needs care in drying to prevent splitting and checking. It works well and is a very decorative and unusually featured wood. It is used in flooring and in other decorative works, and turns well.

Leaves.

Trunk.

See macrophotographs of Buckinghamia celsissima on page 193.

Australian Rainforest Woods

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Caldcluvia australiensis pencil cedar Synonyms: Ackama australinensis, Betchea australensis. Derivation: Caldcluvia named after Alexander Caldcleugh, an 18th century botanist. Australiensis from Australia. Family: Cunoniaceae, a family of 11 genera with only around 20 tree species producing wood; seven genera are found as single species in New South Wales. Partly due to its diversity, there are still possibilities for amalgamation with Davidsoniaceae and Eucryphiaceae. Other names: Atherton pencil cedar, rose alder, cedara and feather top. Distribution: Found in rainforests from McIlwraith Range to Paluma in north Queensland and grows from an altitude of 60 to 1500 metres. The tree: Grows to 30 metres and the trunk may be buttressed. The leaves are compound, opposite and grow on a rachis with from three to seven leaflets, either alternate or opposite. They are shiny green except for tufts of hair. The white or cream flowers are on panicles and bear fruit capsules, red or pink with either two or several small white or brown seeds.

Young tree.

Trunk.

Compound leaves are alternate or opposite.

Wood of Caldcluvia australiensis The wood is similar to that of brown alder and the heartwood is pink to dark pinkish-brown. The texture is fine and even and the grain is usually straight and has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 575 kg/m3. It is slow in drying and has some collapse. The amount of shrinkage is slightly less than brown alder at around 3% radially and 5% tangentially. It is not suitable for external use but the sapwood is resistant to attack by Lyctus borers. It is suitable for plywood, interior joinery and for turning, and has been a commercial species in north Queensland. 44

See macrophotographs of Caldcluvia australiensis on page 176.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Caldcluvia paniculosa brown alder Synonyms: Ackama paniculosa, Ackama muelleri. Derivation: Caldcluvia after Alexander Caldcleugh, an 18th century botanist. Paniculosa from the Latin panicula (branched), referring to the flower arrangement. Its common name, alder, comes from its resemblance to European alder (Alnus glutenosa). Family: Cunoniaceae, a family of 11 genera with only around 20 tree species producing wood; seven genera are found as single species in New South Wales. Partly due to its diversity, there are still possibilities for amalgamation with Davidsoniaceae and Eucryphiaceae. Other names: Corkwood, rose-leaf marara, sugarwood and Chinese or pencil cedar. Distribution: Grows from the Hawkesbury River in New South Wales to the Eungella Range, west of Mackay in north Queensland. It is confined to the wetter rainforest locations largely on basaltic soils on tablelands where it reaches its largest size. It is found in riverine, littoral and subtropical rainforests and is a common pioneer species. The tree: Grows to 40 metres with a 0.9 metre stem diameter and the trunk is usually buttressed. The outer bark is light grey or pale brownish-grey, wrinkled with short vertical fissures. The underbark is fawn with a blaze dark pinkish-red with a few paler stripes. The inner margin changes to yellow after about five minutes exposure. The leaves are green, slightly paler on the underside, opposite, pinnate with a terminal leaf, and usually five to seven on the spray. The margins are toothed drawn out to a blunt point. Flowers are creamy-white and showy on a panicle growing from the leaf forks towards the end of the branch. The fruit are red, globular and open from the top.

Mature tree.

Wood of Caldcluvia paniculosa The heartwood is pale to dark pinkishbrown, sometimes with a purple tint. The sapwood is about 25 mm wide and greyish-brown. It has very little figure. Fairly soft and easy to work, it is straight, close grained and has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 600 kg/m3. It is slow in drying and liable to twist and warp if not carefully stacked. Some collapse so reconditioning is worthwhile. Shrinkage is 3.5% radially and 6% tangentially. Glues well, but not suitable for steam bending. The wood is used for plywood, cabinet work, furniture and internal joinery because of its relative toughness due to its fairly long fibres and thick cell walls. It deserves better recognition.

Leaves opposite.

Trunk.

See macrophotographs of Caldcluvia paniculosa on page 176.

Australian Rainforest Woods

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Callitris macleayana brush cypress

Tree.

Derivation: Callitris from callos (most beautiful), referring to the shapely form, and treis (three,) which refers to the usually three-whorled leaves. Macleayana honours Sir William Macleay (1820–1891), a colonial naturalist and Trustee of the Australian Museum who collected its seed at Port Macquarie. The species was described from the seedlings. Family: Cupressaceae, a conifer family with 30 genera and 155 species with four genera and 23 species in Australia, the largest being Callitris with 17 species, Athrotaxis two and Disselma with only a single species. Fossil records show the first appearance of Cupressaceae 160 million years ago. Brush cypress is the only Callitris to have close association with rainforests. The remaining species survive throughout the inland reflecting their very early appearance before the evolution of the angiosperms or hardwoods. Other names: Brush cypress pine, Port Macquarie pine, stringybark cypress, range cypress, kerosene pine and jungle cypress. Distribution: Found in small stands from Williams River, north of Newcastle, on the north coast of New South Wales, extending to south-eastern Queensland. There is then a large gap to north Queensland where it is found on the Atherton and Windsor tablelands as far north as Trinity Bay. It is usually restricted to the poorer podsolic soils or to transition zones between the rainforest and sclerophyll forests. The tree: A medium-sized tree growing up to 25 metres in height and 0.6–0.8 metres in diameter with a long cylindrical trunk, spreading branches and light green, fine-textured crown often made up of two types of leaves; the short adult leaves and long juvenile leaves. The fibrous grey to brown bark is thick and stringy and vertically fissured. The blaze is white and a clear resin exudes from the surface soon after cutting changing to brown after a few minutes. The branchlets are fine, brown, rough and with small protuberances and sharply pointed scales angled between the rows of needles or scale-like leaves. The leaves in young trees are sharply pointed scales, in whorls of four or more, simple, entire and rigid. The distinctive large, pointed cones with equal-sized valves contain reddish-brown, oval and flattened seeds which have a single, long wing.

Shiny foliage. Distinctive pipe-like cone.

Wood of Callitris macleayana The heartwood is light yellow to pale brown but lacking the dark colour of most Callitris species. The sapwood is paler than the heartwood. The timber is softer than its density would indicate. It is close grained, easily worked, very durable and is not susceptible to Lyctus borer. It has an air dry density at 12% moisture is 580 kg/m3. Brush cypress is not as knotty as most of the inland cypress pines, but it still has the same resinous odour. The timber has been used for weatherboards and shingles as well as interior work such as joinery and cabinets. 46

See macrophotographs of Callitris macleayana on page 169.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Cardwellia sublimis northern silky oak Derivation: Cardwellia honours the Rt Hon. E. Cardwell, M. P., later Viscount Cardwell. Sublimis from the Latin sublimis (somewhat lofty), alluding to the large stature of the tree. The common name alludes to its occurrence in north Queensland and the wood rays which are similar to oak. Family: Proteaceae, a large family with 46 genera and 1100 species in Australia. The largest genera are: Grevillea, Banksia, Hakea, Dryandra, Adenanthus and Macadamia. Cardwellia however has only one representative, so it is unique. Other names: Northern oak, bull oak, oak, golden spangle wood, lacewood and the Aboriginal name oongaary. Distribution: Has limited distribution in northern Queensland from Mt Spec, north of Townsville, to Bloomfield, north of Cairns, and seldom extends more than 60 km from the coast. It grows from sea level to 1000 metres and occurs on many soil types varying from shallow skeletal soils to deep, well-drained soils on basalt, granite and metamorphic rocks. It grows in most northern Queensland rainforest types and is therefore associated with many tree species. The tree: A medium-sized to tall tree growing to 40 metres and 2 metres in diameter. The lower trunk is generally straight, but the upper is not always so and is sometimes too crooked to produce millable logs. The trunk is usually clean for two-thirds of its height. Reg Lockyer commented that one ‘old wag’ once suggested they must grow in the dark. Buttressing is minimal consisting mainly of warts and grooves at the base. Many trees are ‘round to the ground’ while others are said to resemble an elephant’s foot. The bark is flaky and the outer blaze is commonly biscuit-brown in colour. The adult leaves are largely opposite, ovate, with a medium length petiole. They are spirally arranged and the terminal leaf is absent. The underside of new leaves are iridescent brown and the lateral veins form loops inside the leaf margins. The twigs have numerous small lenticels which are minute pores with similar function to leaf stomata. The creamy-coloured flowers are typical Grevillea spike-like racemes and the seeds are oval, brown, flat and narrowly winged around the margins. The distinctive features of the tree are its biscuit-brown blaze, the oak grain in the inner blaze of the stem and branches, the pinnate leaves and large woody fruits.

Mature tree with typical crooked trunk.

Trunk with biscuit-brown blaze.



Partly decomposed and open woody fruit capsules lying on the forest floor.

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Wood of Cardwellia sublimis The sapwood is narrow and a lighter colour than the heartwood which is a pale pinkish-brown and marked with prominent rays on the quarter cut surface. The wood is regarded as a world-class furniture and veneer wood and has been in high demand for more than 100 years. It’s priced according to its quality. It has the longest life in log form of any species and can be cut and stockpiled during the wet season, awaiting suitable conditions for removal from the rainforest with no adverse effects. The texture is coarse but the grain is straight. It’s a strong, durable and attractive timber. The fact that the trunk tends to be irregular is somewhat of an advantage in this wood, because some incredible figured patterns become evident where there is slight directional change. This effect is random in intensity. This makes it an absolutely fascinating wood to work with and the final results will rarely disappoint. It is durable when exposed to the weather but not when in contact with the ground. It has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 560 kg/m3. Reg Lockyer comments that this wood is so easy on saws that frequently a mill will use the same saw for several days before sharpening is necessary. It dries well with no movement. It works, dresses and glues well. Back cut boards dry much faster than those quarter cut so sorting the material before drying is important. Shrinkage is around 1.5% radially and 4.5% tangentially. Contact with the sawdust can cause an itchy rash in some individuals. Some trees have tiny gum veins, however this can usually be picked where the bark has small eruptions on the surface. The wood is now in limited supply due to World Heritage listing; however, even without this listing the timber was extensively harvested and represented 10–15% of the total mill intake during its commercial usage. One of its former uses that I constantly fail to come to grips with, is that it was also used extensively in the production of tomato cases – taking farm produce to market – and boxes to secure four-gallon kerosene (paraffin) tins in transit. This was simply because silky oak was so plentiful, 48

See macrophotographs of Cardwellia sublimis on page 193.

Untreated quarter-cut specimens showing medullary rays, the beauty for which this wood is renowned.

Two northern silky oak spoons carved by Michael Koren, ‘The Spoon Man’, Atherton Tableland, and a mango and citron turned by Reg Lockyer, Ravenshoe.

easy to work and most importantly – did not split when nailed – and because its availability exceeded its high-end furniture use. In the manufacture of packing cases, the nails were driven into the extreme ends of the top, bottom and side boards and since it didn’t split and was readily available, away it went. These were single-use containers, most of which were destroyed – except the ones recovered from the dump by those less fortunate who used them as kitchen cupboards – disguised in many ways.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Castanospermum australe black bean Derivation: Castanospermum from the Spanish castana and the Greek castanon (chestnut), referring to the likeness to chestnut seeds. Australe is in reference to growing in Australia. Family: Fabaceae, subfamily Faboidaea, is worldwide with 478 genera and 13 800 species, of which 136 genera and 1500 species are in Australia. There is only one Castanospermum species and five Erythrina species in tropical Australia. Other names: Moreton Bay bean and Moreton Bay chestnut. Distribution: From the Orara River in New South Wales to Cape York in north Queensland, and in New Guinea and Vanuatu. It grows along the banks of streams in riverine rainforest and on level terraces on mountain sides. The tree: A large tree to 35 metres in height and a stem diameter of 1 metre. It is a common riverine tree with attractive glossy dark green foliage. The trunk is cylindrical and old trees are not buttressed or flanged. The bark is dark brown with lighter stripes and is either smooth or slightly wrinkled. The blaze is creamy-yellow and has the smell of freshly cut pumpkin. Leaves are alternate, pinnate with 11–15 broad, elliptical leaflets arranged on the stalk. The flowers are yellow and red with a pea flower form growing in bunches inside the tree on older stems and branches. They attract birds and possums. The seed pods are shiny brown and hold three to five seeds which have a brown shell and green flesh. They are poisonous if eaten raw. The seeds were a reliable food source for Aboriginals, but only after crushing and soaking in flowing water for several days to remove the toxin saponin.

Small tree.

Wood of Castanospermum australe The heartwood is dark brown to almost black, relieved by paler streaks of the soft tissue surrounding the pores. Sapwood is fairly wide and pale yellow in colour. The grain is usually straight but the texture is moderately coarse. It is greasy to the touch and has heart shapes common throughout the log. It has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 770 kg/m3. It needs slow drying in well-protected stacks to avoid checking and excessive collapse. It has a shrinkage rate of 2% radially and 6% tangentially. Care is needed in working because the sawdust is very irritating to the nose and skin, and it has been banned from many workshops for this reason. It has been used for furniture, decorative veneer, carving, panelling and fancy turning. Its highly figured wood has been cut from most rainforest areas, and is not very prevalent because the seeds were toxic to simple stomach animals, such as pigs, so it was cleared from most areas with farm animal associations.

Flowers.

Seed pods.

Alternate leaves.

See macrophotographs of Castanospermum australe on page 180.

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49

Ceratopetalum apetalum coachwood Derivation: Ceratopetalum from the Greek ceraton (a horn or antler) and petalon (a petal), alluding to the horn or antler-like petals. Apetalum (without) and petalon (a petal), referring to the absence of petals. Coachwood refers to its use in making coaches. Family: Cunoniaceae, comprising 16 genera and 32 species in Australia. Ceratopetalum has eight species in Australia. Other names: Scented satinwood, satinwood and tarwood. Distribution: Occurs in coastal rainforests from Benandra, near Batemans Bay in New South Wales to just north of the Queensland–New South Wales border. It occurs mainly in rainforest gullies on podsolic soils of low fertility derived from poorer metamorphic rocks and rhyolite, to some basalt in the north of its distribution. It occurs from scattered trees to almost pure stands in the cool temperate rainforests. It is associated with mountain silky oak (Orites excelsus), silver sycamore (Cryptocarya glaucescens), sassafras (Doryphora sassafras), crab apple (Schizomeria ovata) and at high altitudes with Antarctic beech (Nothofagus moorei). Small plantations have been established in northern New South Wales by the state-run Forestry Commission, with limited success due to slow growth and attack by stem-girdling insects. The tree: A medium-sized tree to 25 metres and a stem diameter of 0.9 metres. The stems are pale coloured, cylindrical with short small buttresses on larger trees. The tree crown is usually quite small. The bark is light grey and often mottled by lichen growth. The distinctly horizontal marks on the trunk are believed to be due to petal attachment during early growth which later enlarge and sometimes encircle the trunk. The underbark is pinkish-red and has an unmistakable caramel odour. If you ever work with the wood, you will never forget this very pleasant fragrance. Adult leaves are opposite, and the blade is attached to the petiole by a distinct joint. They are lanceolate to ellipticlanceolate with a blunt point at the end, and are shiny green above and paler under with serrated margins. The flower heads are on long stalks coming from the leaf axils. The distinctive features are the caramel odour of the wood, the pale smooth bark and the distinct joint at the base of each serrated leaf. This coachwood is growing in the Chaelundi area of the Guy Fawkes River National Park north-west of Dorrigo, New South Wales.

A craftwork display cabinet in coachwood made by the author. Cylindrical trunk.

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Australian Rainforest Woods

Wood of Ceratopetalum apetalum The sapwood is narrow, at around 25 mm wide, and not always easy to distinguish. The heartwood is pinkishbrown in colour. The timber is often highly figured on the back cut face. It has a fine and even texture, is straight grained, and is strong and easy to work. The air dry density at 12% moisture is 620 kg/m3. It’s relatively easy to dry but there is some risk of internal checking. Shrinkage is around 4% radially and 8% tangentially. The wood has a very pleasant caramel odour when being worked, a smell which fills the workshop. The wood is firm and turns well, but is inclined to bruise on the end grain. It glues well but is unsuitable for steam bending and tends to split when nailing. It takes spirit and water stains much better than oil stains. Coachwood has many uses. It makes good plywood and veneers, joinery and furniture. It’s also good for turning. The timber is often highly figured on the back cut face owing to bands of soft tissue which leave a very distinctive pattern. During WWII it was used exclusively for rifle butts and for the veneer used in the manufacture of the Mosquito fighter-bomber. It’s quite a good carving wood, but has a tough grain. It is however becoming scarce, but well worth the effort to obtain if you really want to make something different, as can be seen in the display cabinet opposite.

See macrophotographs of Ceratopetalum apetalum on page 176.

Some detail of figure as revealed from a back cut face on coachwood.

Turned figures in coachwood.



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51

Ceratopetalum succirubrum satin sycamore Derivation: Ceratopetalum from the Greek ceraton (a horn or antler) and pelaton, referring to the branched antler-like petals of C. gummiferum, the first described species. Succirubrum from succus (juicy or sappy) and rubrum (red), referring to the red sap. Family: Cunoniaceae, a small family of mainly subtropical and high-altitude tropical species consisting of 16 genera and 32 species in Australia, mostly trees with a few large shrubs. Ceratopetalum has eight species in Australia. Other names: Blood in the bark and North Queensland coachwood. Distribution: Restricted to north Queensland from Mt Finnigan near Cooktown to Milla Milla on the Atherton Tableland at an altitude of 400–1200 metres. It is also found in New Guinea. The tree: Grows to 30 metres in height with a trunk that may be buttressed and up to 0.5 metres in diameter. The underbark is sooty-brown and deeper towards the sapwood changing to red or reddish-brown and extruding a red sap. The leaves are compound, opposite with three leaflets, but occasionally two and narrowed towards the base, blunt or drawn out into a blunt point at the tip. The leaf margins are toothed. The leaflets are shiny green with short petioles and paler underneath. The flowers have no petals but four, or sometimes five, white or creamy sepals. They are in branched bunches in the forks of the uppermost leaves or are terminal. They very much resemble a miniature windmill. The fruit are pinkish, green or brown, about 2 cm in diameter and have four or five brown, winged seeds. Trunk.

Young tree. Leaves.

Wood of Ceratopetalum succirubrum The heartwood is pinkish-brown and the sapwood is barely distinguishable. It does display a very delicate medullary ray when quarter cut which is very pleasant to the eye. It has occasional dark brown areas which run along the grain. Texture is fine and even and the grain is straight. The air dry density at 12% moisture is 620 kg/m3. The wood needs careful stacking for drying to avoid twisting, but there is negligible collapse. Shrinkage is 3% radially and 4.5% tangentially. It is easy to work and glues well. It is used for furniture, joinery and decorative veneer, but is limited in supply to north Queensland where it grows. It is in the same genera as coachwood, which it closely resembles and which is a very popular and sought after wood in northern New South Wales and into southern Queensland. 52

See macrophotographs of Ceratopetalum succirubrum on page 177.

Quarter cut specimen (above) and tangential (below).

Australian Rainforest Woods

Cerbera floribunda cassowary plum Derivation: Cerbera is named after the mythological Greek dog Cerberus, referring to the fruit which is often called dog bane. Floribunda from floribundus (profusely flowering). Family: Apocynaceae, a large worldwide family with 55 genera in Australia of which 32 genera and 103 species are found in tropical rainforests. Cerebera has four species, three of which are in the tropical rainforests. Other names: Grey milkwood, milky pine and rubber tree. Distribution: Found in the rainforests from Daintree to Innisfail, Queensland, growing from sea level to 500 metres. It also grows in New Guinea. It is well suited to shady conditions with an abundance of water. The tree: A bushy tree growing to 30 metres, but mostly around 15 metres, which exudes a white sticky sap. The narrow, dark green leaves are simple with a shiny surface. The delightfully fragrant white or cream flowers have a pink or red centre and a green calyx and grow on a panicle either in the leaf axils or as a terminal spray. The fruit are ovoid, iridescent purplish-blue, 6–10 cm long and usually in pairs. They have either one or two seeds enclosed in a fibrous woody endocarp which reveal themselves on the forest floor, and is a common feature for all three of the Cerbera species. The fruit are eaten by cassowaries and palm cockatoos.

Tree.

Leaves.

Trunk.

Wood of Cerbera floribunda

Ovoid-shaped pairs of fruit.

See macrophotographs of Cerbera floribunda on page 172.

The wood is pale yellow with an air dry density at 12% moisture of 610 kg/m3. It is straight grained and as described by one of its common names, is very pine-like in appearance and in working characteristics.



Australian Rainforest Woods

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Cinnamomum laubatii pepperwood

Mature tree.

Misapplied name: Formerly known as Cinnamomum tamala which is not a synonym, but a misapplied name that was attributed by Bentham and Bailey to Australian species. Derivation: Cinnamomum from kinein (to roll) and amemon (aromatic), referring to the spice cinnamon which is harvested from the bark of C. aromaticum and stored in rolls before being ground. Laubatii after Marchioness de ChasseloupLaubat. Family: Lauraceae, a large worldwide family with 8 genera and 136 species in Australia, the largest of which are Cryptocarya (47 species), Endiandra (38 species) and Beilschmiedia (11 species). Cinnamomum has six species in Australia. Other names: Brown beech, camphorwood and pepperberry. Distribution: Found in rainforests from the McIvor River near Cooktown to Eungella west of Mackay, Queensland. It grows from sea level up to 1300 metres. It is widely distributed but very scattered and grows in small numbers where it does occur. The tree: A medium-sized tree that grows to 35 metres with a trunk diameter of 0.8 metres, occasionally to 1 metre. The bole is straight and somewhat buttressed with reddish-brown or light brown bark occasionally scaly on larger trees. It is usually buttressed. Broken twigs on the rainforest floor usually smell like black pepper when freshly broken. The leaves are simple, opposite or alternate and the midrib is flush with the upper surface which is shiny green. The underside of the leaf is also shiny but is clothed in white or pale brown hairs visible with a lens. Oil dots are also visible with a lens. Some leaves also have warty growths. The green, white or yellow fragrant flowers are borne on panicles from the leaf axils or are terminal. The green or brown fruit are oval with a cap where attached. Fruit cut in half reveal a cream or white seed. These are eaten by pigeons, fruit-doves, cassowaries, pied currawongs, musky rat-kangaroos and bush rats.

Wood of Cinnamomum laubatii The heartwood is light pale pink, golden-brown, or straw coloured, sometimes with darker bands. The sapwood may not be sharply differentiated. The texture is fine and even and the grain usually straight. It is fairly light with an air dry density at 12% moisture of 480 kg/m3. It is lightweight, dresses with a slight furry finish and has a greasy-waxy texture. It is easy to dry with negligible collapse. Shrinkage is 2% radially and 5% tangentially. It is soft and easy to work but does pose some problems with glueing. It is used for joinery and plywood, cupboard fittings and moulding, boat planking, light spars and oars, fishing reels, toys and cases.

54

See macrophotographs of Cinnamomum laubatii on page 182.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Citronella moorei silky beech Synonyms: Chariessa moorei, Villaresia moorei. Derivation: Citronella is derived from a Chilean vernacular for a species of the genus. Moorei after Charles Moore, New South Wales Government botanist, Director of the Sydney Botanic Gardens from 1848–1896 and joint author of the first Handbook of the Flora of New South Wales published in 1893. Family: Cardiopteridaceae, a small family with six genera in the South Pacific, Australia and South America. Citronella has 21 species, with two species in Australia. Other names: Churnwood, corduroy and soapy box. Distribution: Grows from the Clyde River in New South Wales to Cooktown in north Queensland, mostly in moist sheltered valleys and slopes in the subtropical and warm temperate rainforests. The tree: A large, irregularly shaped tree with a height to 50 metres and a stem diameter of 2 metres. The crown is dark green, large and dense. The trunk is irregularly fluted and rarely round, except in small trees and is often on a lean. The bark is grey to grey-brown, fissured and corky. The blaze is speckled orange, brown and white with fine white vertical lines and several transverse white bands. The blaze sometimes turns a greenish colour on exposure, but has no smell. Leaves are alternate, simple, with entire margins, elliptical and fatter towards the end but come to a blunt point. They are green on both surfaces, glossy above, paler beneath. The creamy-green flowers are on panicles arising from either the leaf forks or from the branchlet opposite and between the leaves. The flowers are in clusters of three to seven, stalkless flowers spaced along the main stem of the panicle. The fruit are oval, black and the outer part is quite succulent with a hard inner part enclosing one seed with a deep vertical furrow. The fruit are eaten by green catbirds, topknot pigeons and wampoo fruit-doves.

Wood of Citronella moorei

Mature tree.

The heartwood is pale yellow with a grey-green tinge and the sapwood is not clearly differentiated. The texture is fine, the grain is often interlocked and there are prominent rays which give a very attractive figure to the radial surface and give it the common name of silky beech. It has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 720 kg/m3. Care is needed in drying to avoid bluestain and distortion. It has a shrinkage of 3% radially and 7% tangentially. It is relatively easy to work but the sanding dust stings the nose and eyes. It glues well and if treated with casein the alkaline constituents of the casein will turn it blue-green, which could be very attractive, but can be neutralised by washing with dilute oxalic acid. The practice of treating furniture with casein was once quite popular as a preservative and to seal the timber. It is used for furniture, turning and decorative veneer. See macrophotographs of Citronella moorei on page 175.

Fluted trunk.



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Cryptocarya erythroxylon rose maple Derivation: Cryptocarya from the Greek kryptos (hidden or concealed) and karyon (a nut), referring to the fleshy fruit enclosing a hard seed. Erythroxylon also from the Greek erythros (red), and xylon (wood), referring to the pinkish colour of the wood. Family: Lauraceae, a large worldwide family with six genera in Australia, the largest of which is Beilschmiedia with four tree species, Cryptocarya with 23 tree species, Endiandra with 24 tree species and Cinnamomum with five species in Australia. They are never emergent species and are generally confined to the second storey, with only two in the Cryptocarya genus, C. erythroxylon and C. obovata, as first storey species. Other names: Bottleberry, pigeonberry ash, rose walnut, rose-wooded cryptocarya, southern maple, Dorrigo rosewood, coconut laurel, Dorrigo laurel, Glenugie laurel, mountain laurel and the Aboriginal name willi willi. Distribution: Grows from Barrington Tops in New South Wales to Conondale Range in Queensland. It is found in sheltered gullies in cool temperate rainforest on the fertile basaltic soils. The tree: A large cylindrical tree found in the higher altitudes and growing to 35 metres in height with a stem diameter of 1.2 metres. The trunk is often slightly buttressed but it rarely extends very far up the trunk. The white or grey trunk causes it to stand out conspicuously and is one reason for it now being pretty rare. The bark is thin and corky with a white, fragrant, inner bark which turns brown on exposure and the sapwood is pink. The twigs and dried branches still have a fragrant odour when broken – whereas C. rigida is odourless. Leaves are green, alternate, simple, entire, elliptical and gradually taper to a blunt tip. The new leaves are covered with brown or white hairs. The upper surfaces are smooth and the lower surfaces tend to be waxy. The cream flowers are on panicles in the forks of the upper leaves or at the end of the branches and are about the same length as the leaves. The black egg- or pear-shaped fruit are fleshy and contain a single smooth seed which is eaten by cicadabirds, topknot pigeons, wampoo fruit-doves, rose-crowned fruit-doves and green catbirds. Mature and well-formed tree.

Wood of Cryptocarya erythroxylon The wood is a light pinkish-brown when cut and weathers to an orange shade. It has a strong distinctive odour somewhat like crushed celery. The sapwood is usually distinctly paler. The texture is medium and even and the grain is sometimes interlocked. It has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 690 kg/m3. It needs care in drying to prevent surface checking and should be covered to prevent staining during drying. It has negligible collapse. Shrinkage is 3.5% radially and 7% tangentially. It is firm but easy to work and is satisfactory for steam bending. It is suitable for furniture, joinery, flooring and plywood. 56

See macrophotographs of Cryptocarya erythroxylon on page 182.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Cryptocarya rigida rose maple

Small tree.

Trunk.

Wood of Cryptocarya rigida The wood varies from a pinkish-red to red-brown and the sapwood is quite distinct and contrasts more with the heartwood. The transition can give streaks. The texture is medium and even, and the grain is slightly interlocked. The wood has similar characteristics to Cryptocarya erythroxylon but is heavier with an air dry density at 12% moisture of 720 kg/m3. The wood is not plentiful because of the small size of the tree, with the exception of that grown in north Queensland. It needs care in drying to prevent surface checking.

Synonym: Cryptocarya patentinervis. Derivation: Cryptocarya from the Greek kryptos (hidden or concealed) and karyon (a nut), referring to the fleshy fruit enclosing a hard seed. Rigida from the Latin rigidus (stiff), but the reference to what is stiff is obscure, but I would assume the leaves, which are quite rigid in texture. Family: Lauraceae, a large worldwide family with six genera in Australia, the largest of which is Beilschmiedia with four tree species, Cryptocarya with 23 tree species, Endiandra with 24 tree species and Cinnamomum with five species in Australia. They are never emergent species and are generally confined to the second storey, with only two in the Cryptocarya genus, C. erythroxylon and C. obovata, as first storey species. Other names: Brown beech, forest maple, pigeonberry ash, southern maple, and rose walnut. Distribution: Grows from Wyong in New South Wales to the McPherson Range in southern Queensland. It is also found on the Atherton Tableland in north Queensland. It grows on the poorer sedimentary soils, particularly on rainforest margins. The tree: In the south it is usually a small tree to a height of 10 metres and a trunk diameter of 0.2 metres, although it does grow larger in the north. It is not prominently buttressed but has flanged roots. Like C. erythroxylon, it has light grey corky bark, but the underbark is creamy-fawn with a pink colour, and with darker lines in the sapwood. When exposed only the sapwood surface changes to brown. It also has a fragrant odour. The leaves are alternate, simple, entire and more lance-shaped than for C. erythroxylon. The upper surface is dark green with scattered hairs along the midrib. The flowers are cream or pale green, are unscented and grow from the leaf forks. The fruit are smooth and shiny black when ripe with one pointed brownish-black seed, which are eaten by rosecrowned fruit-doves.

Alternate leaves.

Opened seed on the ground.

See macrophotographs of Cryptocarya rigida on page 182.

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Cupaniopsis anacardioides green-leaved tamarind Derivation: Cupaniopsis from Cupania, a tropical genus named after the 17th century Italian botanist Francesco Cupani, and Greek opsis (resemblance), referring to the close relationship of these Malesian, Australian and Pacific species to Cupania. Anacardioides from the genus Anacardium and Greek eidos (resembling), because of the similarity in foliage to that of a species of Anacardium. Family: Sapindaceae, a large family with about 30 genera and 190 species, 34 of which are rainforest species, in Australia. Most are only small trees, but a few reach 30 metres. The family is well represented in both hemispheres and Australia has 50-million-year-old fossil leaves. Other names: Tuckeroo, and less commonly as carrotwood, beach tamarind, beach green-leaved tamarind, cashew-leaf cupania and cupaniopsis. Distribution: Found from the Illawarra coast in New South Wales to north Queensland and New Guinea. It grown best in littoral rainforests but does well in sandy soils behind the dunes near the sea and in estuaries, as well as on windswept headlands. It is a very hardy and adaptable small tree and has been used extensively as a street tree in Brisbane. The tree: A small to medium spreading tree with an attractive dark green rounded dense crown and short trunk. An excellent shade and avenue tree. The outer bark is dark grey-brown, smooth or with raised horizontal lines. Underbark is dark brown and very thin. The blaze is deep pink with creamy vertical stripes, changing to red-brown and creamy-brown on exposure. Leaves are alternate, pinnate, with leaflets in groups of from six to 10, not toothed with a blunt tip, and sometimes notched. They are smooth on both sides, glossy darkgreen on the upper surface and duller beneath. The greenish-white flowers are on bunched panicles, and are followed by showy seed capsules, orange-yellow, round and tapered at the base, with three lobes. When mature they split revealing bunches of showy oval black seeds enclosed in an almost orange seed coat. The seeds are eaten by figbirds, olive-backed orioles and pied currawongs. Tree with competition for light. Without competition it will develop a crown.

Trunk.

Wood of Cupaniopsis anacardioides The wood is light pinkish, and is a delicate-looking wood which defies its toughness. It is close grained and tough with an air dry density at 12% moisture of 970 kg/m3. Despite the lack of commercial timber being available, small quantities will always present themselves because of their popularity as domestic and street scene trees. Excellent for tool handles and has been used for building in country areas. The specimen shows a small sap inclusion around a knot with some grain feature. 58

Seed capsule.

Leaves. See macrophotographs of Cupaniopsis anacardioides on page 200.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Cupaniopsis parvifolia small-leaved tuckeroo Synonym: Cupaniopsis anacardioides var. parvifolia. Derivation: Cupaniopsis from Cupania, a tropical genus named arter the 17th century Italian botanist Francesco Cupani, and the Greek opsis (resemblance), referring to the close relationship of these Malesian, Australian and Pacific species to Cupania. Parvifolia from the Latin parvus (small) and folium (a leaf), referring to the smaller leaves of this species compared to Cupaniopsis anacardioides. Family: Sapindaceae, a large family with about 30 genera and 190 species in Australia, 34 of which are rainforest species. Most are only small trees, but a few reach 30 metres. Other names: Green-leaved tamarind, cupaniopsis and beach green-leaved tamarind. Distribution: Grows from Gloucester in New South Wales to Bowen in north Queensland in the better developed dry rainforests further away from the sea than Cupaniopsis anacardioides. The tree: A small- to medium-sized tree attaining a height of 25 metres and a stem diameter of 1.2 metres. The trunk is often irregular in shape with transverse raised ridges on the bark. The bark is grey, thin, and has fine scales. The underbark is mottled dark red and tan, sometimes almost black. The outer surface of live bark is red-brown streaked with pale green. The inner blaze is deep tan, fibrous with grey layers, becoming paler near the sapwood. The leaves are alternate, pinnate in leaflets of six to eight, not toothed and elliptical to ovate, the tip rounded and usually with a notch. The leaves are generally much smaller on mature trees, dull green on both surfaces, paler beneath. The greenish-white flowers are on panicles in the upper axils. The seed capsules are three lobed opening along the back, rough outside and densely hairy inside with seeds dark brown to black. The fruit are smaller than in Cupaniopsis anacardioides. A reasonably upright specimen.

Alternate leaves.

Trunk.

Wood of Cupaniopsis parvifolia Wood is pinkish, but more red than other tamarind species and tough with an air dry density at 12% moisture of 835 kg/m3. Despite the lack of commercial timber being available, as is for Cupaniopsis anacardioides, small quantities will always present themselves because of their popularity as domestic and street scene trees. Excellent for tool handles and has been used for building in country areas.

See macrophotographs of Cupaniopsis parvifolia on page 200.

Australian Rainforest Woods

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Daphnandra micrantha socket sassafras

Mature tree.

Derivation: Daphnandra from the Greek daphne (the laurel or bay tree) and andros (a man), because the anthers, or the male part, also resemble those of the laurel tree. Micrantha from the Greek mikros (small) and anthos (a flower), referring to the inconspicuous flowers. Family: Atherospermataceae. At some stage Daphnandra was removed from the family Monimiaceae and placed in the Atherospermataceae, which is confined to the southern hemisphere. In Australia there are four genera with 10 species. Some of the species extend into New Guinea while a related genera, Laurelia, is found in New Zealand, Chile and Peru, giving the family a Gondwana origin. Of the Australian genera, Daphnandra is the largest hosting three species. Other names: Canary sassafras, yellow sassafras, light yellowwood, satinwood, Manning River socketwood and socketwood. It got the name socketwood for the tendancy for a socket to form and when small branches brake off it leaves a joint fracture like a ‘ball and socket’. Distribution: In the coastal Manning and Hastings rivers area from Port Macquarie to Taree and Wauchope in New South Wales. It has a fairly small distribution today and is often found in rocky areas near creeks in warm rainforest types and in tallowood-brush box sclerophyll forests on the margins of rainforests. The tree: A small to medium tree to 25 metres in height and to stem diameter 0.4 metres, but in earlier reports it was common to find trees to 35 metres. The outer bark is creamy-fawn and finely fissured. The bark contains alkaloids which are similar but with a milder reaction than that of strychnine. The stem is straight, cylindrical and with no buttressing. The blaze is pale yellow. The leaves are opposite, simple, with fine-toothed margins, shortly tipped and slightly rounded at the base. The leaves dry to a greyish- to blackish-olive. The small creamy-green flowers bear woody round fruit which split and release several hairy seeds. Trunk.

Wood of Daphnandra micrantha The wood is yellow-grey or brown but not very heavy at an air dry density of around 600 kg/m3. It is resistant to Lyctus attack. It has a fine and even grain and a silken sheen. In the early years it was grouped together with canary sassafras (Doryphora sassafras) although it is a little lighter and softer. It seasons well without warping, twisting or cracking. It is used for cabinet work, joinery, light tools, turnery, veneer and cases. As it ages it tends to take on a duller appearance.

60

See macrophotographs of Daphnandra micrantha on page 173.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Daphnandra repandula northern sassafras Synonym: Daphnandra dielsii. Derivation: Daphnandra from the Greek daphne (the laurel or bay tree) and andros (a man), because the anthers, or the male part, also resemble those of the laurel tree. Rapandula means slightly repand or wavy, referring to the slightly wavy leaf. Family: Atherospermataceae, which is confined to the southern hemisphere and in Australia there are four genera with 11 species. Some of the species extend into New Guinea while a related genera, Laurelia, is found in New Zealand, Chile and Peru, giving the family a Gondwana origin. Of the Australian genera, Daphandra is the largest hosting three species. Other names: Yellow sassafras, northern yellow sassafras, scentless sassafras, and grey sassafras. Distribution: Confined to north Queensland from Rockingham Bay to the Atherton Tableland. The tree: Grows to 20 metres in height with a 0.25 metre stem diameter, so it is not a large tree. There is no record of any scent from this tree compared to the related Daphnandra aromatica, the bark of which contains safrol, the principal constituent of laurel-leaf oil. The bark is grey with small pustules often arranged in rows. The blaze is bright yellow. Young branches are covered in fine grey hairs and the nodes are flattened. Leaves are opposite, longer than Daphandra micrantha and can be egg-shaped. The margins are said to be repand or slightly wavy and crenate, which means that the leaf margin has rounded projections rather than being toothed or serrate. The tip is drawn out to a fine point. The flowers are borne on panicles emanating from leaf axils or just above a leaf scar, and are larger than that of D. aromatica and D. micrantha. The seed capsules are club-shaped and nearly cylindrical splitting open to reveal four or more narrow, elliptical seeds.

Mature trunk.

Wood of Daphnandra rapandula The wood is light brown and has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 675 kg/m3. The wood is reputed to have a firm surface and a lambent sheen when planed, which comes close to that of many pines. It is also reputed to resemble English holly and American sycamore in type. In the early years it was used as a substitute for pine. The wood is easy on cutting tools, works readily, takes nails well and dresses very cleanly. If available it is good for cabinet making and joinery.

See macrophotographs of Daphnandra repandula on page 173.

Australian Rainforest Woods

61

Darlingia darlingiana, brown oak Darlingia ferruginea, rose oak

Small tree.

Heavily lobed leaves.

Wood of Darlingia darlingiana and Darlingia ferruginea Both woods are pinkish to red-brown and medullary rays are very prominent, which gives it the typical silky oak ray figure particularly when quarter cut. The sapwood is narrow and pale pinkish. It has a relatively fine texture and straight grain. Darlingia darlingiana has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 770 kg/m3. Shrinkage is about 2.5% radially and 8% tangentially. Darlingia ferruginea has an air dry density at 12% moisture of from 580–610 kg/m3. The heartwood is probably sufficiently durable for sheltered external use but not for ground contact. It can be used for furniture and plywood, but its supply is usually limited to the northern areas of Queensland, where it grows. 62

Synonyms: Darlingia spectatissima for Darlingia darlingiana; Darlingia spectatissima var. ferruginea for Darlingia ferruginea. Derivation: Darlingia after Sir Ralph Darling. Ferruginea from ferrugineus (rusty coloured), referring to iron bearing, or in this case to having rusty-coloured leaf and twig hairs. Family: Proteaceae, with 1100 species in 46 genera, including 80 rainforest species in 31 genera. There is some common origin with species in South America, and fossils going back 80 million years. Darlingia however has only two species resulting from the splitting of Darlingia spectatissima into Darlingia darlingiana and Darlingia ferruginea, both north Queensland species. Other names: Brown oak is also called brown silky oak, rose silky oak and darling tree. Rose oak is also called brown silky oak, or rose silky oak. Distribution: Brown oak is found only from Rockingham Bay, Mt Spec, Johnstone River, Yarrabah and on the Atherton Tableland. Rose oak is found only on the Atherton Tableland and around Evelyn. The tree: Both species grow to 25–30 metres in height, with stem diameters of 0.5 metres. Both can have small buttresses at the base of the trunk, and the trunk can be irregular and crooked. The bark is dark brown with scattered fine pustules and the underbark on both species is brown. The small branchlets and the axils of the leaves are covered in fine brown hairs in the case of brown oak, or rusty-brown in the case of rose oak. The leaves are heavily lobed and are covered underneath with rusty-coloured hairs. The very large leaves are placed alternately on the branches and are mostly single, but occasionally branched. The leaves are lobed, long and thin. The leaves of D. ferruginea are more heavily lobed and are more heavily covered underneath with dense brown hairs than D. darlingiana and is the visible differentiation point between the two species. There are more lobes than for Darlingia darlingiana. On both species the large creamy, delightfully perfumed flower spikes are 25–30 cm in length, arise from the axis of leaf spike and form a terminal panicle with numerous flowers along their length. The fruit contain two to four flattened seeds which have a narrow membranous wing. See macrophotographs of both Darlingia species on page 194.

Specimen of Darlingia darlingiana.

Specimen of Darlingia ferruginea.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Dendrocnide photinophylla shining-leaved stinging tree Synonym: Laportea photinophylla. Derivation: Dendrocnide, from the Greek dendros (a tree) and cnid (nettle). Photinophylla from the Greek photeinos (shining) and phyllon (a leaf), referring to the glossy leaves. Family: Urticaceae, which has two tree genera in Australia and four species. Dendrocnide has three rainforest species and Pipturus has only one species. Other names: Fibrewood, Gympie, Gympie-gympie, mulberry-leaved stinging tree, smooth-leaved stinging tree, small-leaved stinging tree, stinging tree and stinger. Distribution: In rainforests of all types from the Blue Mountains west of Sydney to Cooktown in far north Queensland. The tree: Grows to a height of 30 metres with a trunk diameter of 0.75 metres. The stems of smaller trees are generally not buttressed, but in large trees are flanged and buttressed. The outer bark is grey and the surface is often uneven with small ridges and pimples of various sizes. Very soft corky scales may also be present. The surface of live bark is mottled and a pinkish-green. The blaze is pink with vertical dark red stripes and takes a while to darken after being cut. The blaze also has a very stringent taste and a cane-like smell. The leaves are alternate, simple and the outer edges are toothed with a short blunt point. The leaves are shiny green and covered with short rigid stinging hairs. The under surface is also dark green and glossy but paler. The yellowish-green flowers are in panicles projecting from the leaf axils. There are separate male and female flowers, often on separate trees. The fruit is in the form of a whitish, flattened nut, borne on an enlarged fleshy stalk, and the whole bunch of swollen stalklets appear like a tangled white mass of grubs. These can be eaten after tossing in a bag to remove any stinging hairs. The ripe fruit are eaten by green catbirds and crows.

Tree.

Leaves.

Wood of Dendrocnide photinophylla The wood is brownish with a very open grain. It is heavy when freshly cut because of its water content, but dries out very quickly. It has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 240 kg/m3. It has no particular use except that Aboriginals used the fibre for rope and in making fishing nets and dilly bags. If you are tempted to cut wet timber then protection of the skin, face and eyes is recommended as the wet spray will itch badly. Because the wood is very light it can be used for floats as long as it can be sealed in some way. I have vivid memories of floating down fast-flowing flooded creeks following cyclonic rains using largish, dry branches for flotation – lots of fun, except when snakes decide to share the experience with you.

Flowers.

See macrophotographs of Dendrocnide photinophylla on page 202.

Australian Rainforest Woods

63

Diploglottis australis native tamarind Synonyms: Diploglottis cunninghamii, Stadmannia australia. Derivation: Diploglottis from the Greek diplos (double) and glotta (the tongue), referring to the two tongue-like glands at the base of each petal. Australis from the Latin australis (southern), being the most southern in this predominantly tropical species. Family: Sapindaceae, a large family of 150 genera occurring worldwide, represented in Asia and America. Australia has 30 genera and 190 species. Other name: Broad-leaved tamarind. Distribution: From Batemans Bay in New South Wales to Proserpine in Queensland, in rainforests of all types on basaltic soils. It achieves its best form around the border areas of Queensland and New South Wales. The tree: A handsome tree growing to 36 metres in height with a stem diameter of 0.75 metres. It has large leaves which are rusty coloured when young. The trunk is usually straight and often fluted at the base. The bark is dark grey or brownish-grey, smooth, but large trees sometimes have a rough pimpled surface. Underbark is dark brown. The outer surface of live bark is pinkish-brown. Blaze is pinkish-brown with some darker irregularities. The inner bark changes to yellowish-brown after a few minutes of exposure. The thick young branches are densely covered in velvet brown hairs. Leaves are alternate, pinnate, with eight to 12 alternating large elliptical leaflets. The tip is rounded and the base is unequally attached. They have velvety brown hairs on both surfaces, but usually denser on the underside. The creamy-brown flowers are in densely hairy panicles coming from the forks of upper leaves. Fruit capsules are also brown and hairy with two or three lobes, each containing a triangular pale brown seed, enclosed in an orange-yellow juicy pulp, which makes a refreshing drink. The fruit are eaten by brown cuckoo-doves, rosellas, fig birds, green catbirds, regent bowerbirds, rose-crowned fruit-doves, topknot pigeons and wampoo fruit-doves – almost everyone.

Tree.

Leaves.

Trunk.

See macrophotographs of Diploglottis australis on page 201.

Wood of Diploglottis australis The heartwood is dark in older trees, but is generally paler. It is hard, close grained and tough, with an air dry density at 12% moisture of 900 kg/m3. It is used for flooring and could be used for indoor fittings. The sapwood is susceptible to borers.

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Australian Rainforest Woods

Doryphora aromatica, northern sassafras Doryphora sassafras, sassafras

Tree.

Wood of Doryphora aromatica and Doryphora sassafras The wood is yellow with some darkening showing the growth rings. It further darkens to a light brown as it ages. Both are even textured with a fine surface and when planed give a shiny surface, lending it the common name for sassafras, golden deal. It is not durable in the ground. It has a strong odour of sassafras or sarsaparilla when cut. Northern sassafras has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 560 kg/m3, similar to sassafras with 595 kg/m3. Quite interestingly it is one of the few rainforest woods that is not susceptible to Lyctus borer attack and in the early years the wood from both species, including also socketwood (Daphnandra micrantha), was sold under the trade name of canary sassafras. It is also interesting in that it produces stable, usable wood from the heart to the bark. The wood is an important source of internal moulding, flooring, cabinet work, linings and turning. and quite often is used as a substitute to pine in cabinet making and joinery. In the early years around one million super feet (3000 m3) per year of these combined species were harvested.

Derivation: Doryphora from the Greek dory (a spear) and phoreus (carrier), referring to the bristle-like points of the anthers. Aramatica from aromaticus (aramatic), referring to the leaves and wood. Sassafras after the North American laurel (Sassafras albidum) with a similar fragrance. Family: Atherospermataceae, with four genera in Australia and 11 species. The family also extends into New Guinea, New Zealand and South America. Doryphora has only two species endemic to Australia. Other names: Northern sassafras is also called sassafras, northern grey sassafras and net sassafras. Sassafras is also called canary sassafras, grey sassafras, New South Wales sassafras, yellow sassafras, golden deal and golden deal sassafras. Distribution: Northern sassafras grows in the rainforest from Bloomfield River to Mt Spec, north-west of Townsville. It grows just below the upper canopy level. Sassafras grows from Wolumla Peak in New South Wales to north of Nambour in south-east Queensland. It grows on basaltic soils at high elevations but more typically on sedimentary soils at moderate elevation. It commonly forms one of the dominant species with coachwood (Ceratopetalum apentalum) and crab apple (Schizomeria ovata). The tree: Both species grow to 40–50 metres and the trunk may be buttressed and up to 1 metre in diameter, but northern sassafras very seldom has buttresses which, if present, consist of grooves and short swollen spurs. With northern sassafras, suckers are almost always present on the buttresses. The stem is almost square in section. The bark is grey to brownish with fairly large pustules and contains oil which is 95% safrol in the northern sassafras, the principal constituent of laurel-leaf oil. The blaze is light brown and turns biscuit-brown on exposure and has a strong sarsaparilla odour. For sassafras the blaze is speckled brown, likened to pepper and salt. Young shoots and stalks are covered in fine grey or brown hairs and can be angular in sassafras. The leaves are simple, opposite, slightly toothed and tapered to both ends. There are oil dots visible with a lens, and when crushed are aromatic. The white or cream flower clusters are borne on axillary racemes. The brown fruit are in green or brown clubshaped or tubular capsules with a plume of fine hair at the end. They split open lengthwise and release up to six egg-shaped seeds. See macrophotographs on page 173.

Specimen of Doryphora aromatica.

Specimen of Doryphora sassafras.

Australian Rainforest Woods

65

Dysoxylum fraserianum rosewood

A rosewood in the Chaelundi area of the Guy Fawkes River National Park.

Derivation: Dysoxylum from the Greek dys (ill-smelling) and xylon (wood). Fraserianum honours C. Fraser (1788–1831), the first botanist of New South Wales. The common name probably comes from the smell of roses which comes from the freshly cut bark – but obviously not from the wood. Family: Meliaceae, the true mahogany family. There are 15 species of Dysoxylum of which rosewood is the most popular and the most abundant – most have mahogany in their common names. Besides rosewood, the family includes: onionwood (Dysoxylum setosum), ivory mahogany (Dysoxylum gaudichaudianum syn. Turraea decandra), bluff mahogany (Dysoxylum klanderi), miva mahogany (Dysoxylum mollissimum syn. Dysoxylum muelleri), pink mahogany (Dysoxylum oppositifolium), cream or spicy mahogany (Dysoxylum papuanum syn. Dysoxylum micranthum), spur mahogany (Dysoxylum pettigrewianum), rusty mahogany (Dysoxylum rufum syn. Disymocheton rufum), and yellow mahogany (Dysoxylum parasiticum). As can be seen there has been considerable movement in classification within the family. Other names: Sold under the trade name of rose mahogany or simply mahogany. Distribution: Found in scattered subtropical rainforests along the east coast of central and northern New South Wales from Wyong north to and including the rainforests just over the Queensland border. Typical sites are on flat to moderate sloping areas on the sides of mountain ranges and prefers deep, fertile soils. Most of its area is associated with the red volcanic soils thrown up in the volcanic basin of Mt Warning. Large supplies came from the Killarney forests. Common associations include tulip oak (Argyrodendron trifoliolatum), rose maple (Cryptocarya erythoxylon), mountain silky oak (Orites excelsus), yellow carabeen (Sloanea woollsii), tamarind (Diploglottis cunninghamii) and red carabeen (Geissois benthamii). The tree: A tall to very tall tree attaining 40 metres in height and a stem diameter of 1.5 metres. The largest recorded tree was 56 metres tall and 3.5 metres in stem diameter. The stem is often flanged at the base but is not prominently buttressed. The bark is light brown and scaly with a reddish-brown underbark with irregular lighter-coloured lines. The crown is usually dense, rounded, dark green and shiny. The compound leaves can be opposite or nearly opposite, and there are from 6–12 oblong-lanceolate leaves on each petiole. The midrib and lateral nerves are prominent on both surfaces with conspicuous raised glands with small hairs. The immature leaves are finely hairy. The fragrant, creamy to light mauve small flowers are on panicles in the upper axils of branchlets. The fruit are slightly pear-shaped, 2–4 cm in diameter and split into three or four cells containing one or two lustrous red seeds. The distinctive features of the tree include: the rose-like odour of the underbark and sapwood, scaly bark, leaflets equal-sided at the base, large glands on the underside of the leaflets, and rosy-red pear-shaped fruit.

The scaly bark on the trunk. Compound opposite, or nearly opposite leaves.

66

Australian Rainforest Woods

Wood of Dysoxylum fraserianum The sapwood is much paler than the heartwood which is light to dark reddish-brown. The specimen on the lower right is lightly figured and also has a watermark like marking which is associated with the growth rings. The timber is fine with an interlocked texture. The soft tissue gives a slight figure to the tangential surface. It dresses easily and has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 720 kg/m3. It is slow to dry with some risk of surface checking. Shrinkage is around 2.5% radially and 4.5% tangentially. It’s easy to work, but can be rather brittle and break away, so pre-drilling the ends may be necessary. It is not suitable for steam bending. In some trees a sticky aromatic gum may bleed through the surface and interfere with the finish. Kiln drying can drive off some of the gum, or the application of methylated spirits before applying finishes can ease the problem. The sanding dust can be an irritation to mucous membranes. The timber was used for fine furniture, plywood, turnery, carving and external and internal joinery, but only small quantities are now available.

Historical significance

The timber is reputed to resemble the mahogany types of the world, particularly the Honduran mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) which is a comparative standard in describing other woods, thus its trade name of rose mahogany set by the Queensland Forestry Service. It was much sought after and was abundant in the 1920s in commercial quantities; however, it was exploited fairly heavily in the Killarney area on the Queensland–New South Wales border and around Dorrigo after the extraction of cedar left a gap in supply of top quality furniture timber. It soon became scarce. Not much is available today and most are protected in Heritage rainforest areas where some quite big examples can still be seen as on the opposite page. The Meliaceae family is the true mahogany family and includes red

See macrophotographs of Dysoxylum fraserianum on page 185.

The lower specimen is lightly figured and also has a ‘watermark’ figure.

cedar (Toona ciliata), white cedar (Melia azedarach), emu apple (Owenia spp.) and the bastard and scentless rosewoods (Synoum glandulosum and S. muelleri). In other areas of the tropics and subtropics the mahogany family has many important commercial species, many of which have been severely depleted through over exploitation. The original mahogany used in Hepplewhite and Chippendale furniture was Swietenia mahogani, a native of tropical America, a magnificent specimen of which can be found growing in the Brisbane City Botanic Gardens. This species produced more graceful and woodworm-proof furniture than any previously produced throughout Europe. It is also concluded by the Historical Houses Trust that the species in its homelands has suffered severe ‘genetic erosion’, due to the removal of the best and leaving the remaining inferior specimens for replacement seed. It is considered that most mahogany seen in Queensland plantations today is from seed trees selected from tropical America in the 1870s, cultivated in India and selected as Swietenia macrophylla having larger leaves than S. mahogoni. From as early as the 1820s rosewood was being used in furniture in the New South Wales Government House. Rosewood is also familiar today as a street tree in the eastern suburbs of Sydney, so although few in number they are still to be found.

Fruit turned from rosewood.

Australian Rainforest Woods

67

Dysoxylum mollissimum, miva mahogany Dysoxylum setosum, miva mahogany Synonyms: Dysoxylum muelleri, Dysoxylum crebriforme. Derivation: Dysoxylum from the Greek dysomos (ill-smelling) and xylon (wood). Mollisssima (most soft). Family: Meliaceae, the true mahogany family. See Dysoxylum fraserianum for the full family history. Other names: Miva, onionwood, pencil cedar, turnip wood, kedgy kedgy and red bean. Distribution: D. mollissimum grows in the scattered remnant rainforests from the Bellinger River, north-east New South Wales to Cooktown in north Queensland. D. setorum, also commonly known as miva mahogany, is found on the Atherton Tableland – although D. setosum also grows on the Eungella Range west of Mackay. Like rosewood it grows in sheltered locations in closed forests and in gully alluvial or deep red basalt and brown loams having good moisture capacity. The trees usually have only limited representation and are found as scattered individuals. The tree: They are not usually large trees; however, they can on occasion grow to 30 metres in favourable locations with trunk diameter of 3 metres, which can be heavily flanged at the base. The bark is brown with fine vertical fissures and is shed in small chips. When freshly cut the bark and sapwood have a strong onion odour. The leaves of D. mollissimum are compound, oblique, which refers to the two sides of the leaf base meeting the midrib at different points, making the two sides of different lengths, and one side is considerably ‘fatter’ than the other. The fruit are four valved and are enveloped in an orange-coloured shell. D. setosum is usually a smaller tree and the leaves are compound, ovallanceolate, 10–15 cm long, with 11–21 leaves on leaf sprays 30–60 cm long.

Mature tree.

Wood of Dysoxylum mollissimum and Dysoxylum setosum The heartwood is light to dark reddish-brown and resembles red cedar but is denser and harder, and the sapwood is lighter in colour. The timber is distinguished by the fine satin tracery of the soft tissue in the tangential surfaces, but overall the texture is medium to coarse, even, and the grain is sometimes interlocked. The air dry density at 12% moisture is 670 kg/m3. It is slow to dry and the shrinkage rate is 3% radially and 5% tangentially. It’s easy to work but as with rosewood, the dust from fine sanding can be irritating to mucous membranes. It glues well. It’s a superior cabinet wood midway between red cedar and rosewood and is suitable for furniture, veneer, panelling, joinery, carving and turnery. It has been used for the interiors of railway carriages and in shipbuilding, but is now scarce. 68

Compound leaf with the two sides of the leaf meeting the midrib at different points.

Heavily flanged trunk.

See macrophotographs of Dysoxylum mollissimum on page 185.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Dysoxylum oppositifolium, pink mahogany Dysoxylum pettigrewianum, spur mahogany

Tree.

Leaves.

Derivation: Dysoxylum from the Greek dysomos (ill-smelling) and xylon (wood), referring to the unpleasant smell of the wood of some species. Pettigrewianum after W. Pettigrew. Oppositifolium from oppositus (opposite) and folius (leaved). Family: Meliaceae, a large family of 50 genera worldwide with 650 species. In Australia there are 13 genera with about 44 species. Dysoxylum has 15 species in Australia with others across the Pacific, New Guinea, New Zealand, Malaysia and India. Fourteen of the Australian species are in tropical rainforests in Queensland, so it is widely spread. Other names: Spur mahogany is also called Cairns satinwood and spurwood. Pink mahogany has no other common name. Distribution: Spur mahobany grows from the McIvor River near Cooktown to the Poluma Range in north Queensland. It also grows in New Guinea and the southern areas of South-East Asia. Pink mahogany grows on the Atherton Tableland around Mt Spec, Johnstone River, foothills of Bellenden Kerr Range, and on Cape York Peninsula. The tree: Both grow to around 35 metres and 0.6 metres diameter. The trunk may be buttressed. The common name of spur mahogany originates from this buttressing which locally were called spurs. The bark is greyish-brown with numerous pustules with large, irregularly shaped, partly detached flakes. When the bark is cut it is pink underneath and more flesh coloured as it goes deeper. The leaves are compound alternate and on rachis with 7–15 leaflets with a terminal leaflet. The leaves are slightly winged between the base and first two leaflets. Leaf shape is flattened and narrows quickly at the tip, but then ends in a small elongated tip. The leaf is shiny with tufts of hair, in the case of pink mahogany where the main nerves join the midrib. The white or cream flowers of the spur mahogany, and cream or yellow flowers in pink mahogany, are borne on a raceme or spike, are fragrant and covered in hairs. In the case of spur mahogany the pear-shaped seed capsules are borne along its branches and are brown or orange inside, warty with one to four valves and the seeds are red, brownish-red or orange on one side and white on the other. For pink mahogany the fruit are orange or yellow, and the seeds are black. The fruit are eaten whole by cassowaries and the seeds by metallic starlings.

See macrophotographs on page 185 and 186.

Specimen of Dysoxylum oppositifolium.



Specimen of Dysoxylum pettigrewianum.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Wood of Dysoxylum oppositifolium and Dysoxylum pettigrewianum

The heartwood is red-brown while the sapwood is lighter in colour and has a pleasant odour when cut fresh. The texture is moderately fine and even. The grain is variable and the surface sometimes has a fine tracery of differing tones, and possibly an indication of some differences in density with faster or slower growing seasons. This can be seen in the specimen of D. oppositifolium. The air dry density at 12% moisture of both species is around 880 kg/m3. It is easy to work but may have some difficulty in glueing. Like the other woods of the same genus they can cause irritation to mucus membranes, so breathing apparatus should be used when sanding or planing. The wood is used in furniture, panelling and flooring, but has many more uses than that, however it is usually limited in availability.

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Elaeocarpus grandis blue quandong

Mature tree.

Derivation: Elaeocarpus from elaia (olive) and carpus (fruited), referring to the similarities of the fruit to that of the olive. Grandis from the Latin grandis (large), referring to its size. Family: Elaeocarpaceae, which has 10–12 genera with 350–400 species, mostly tropical, worldwide except Africa. Of these Australia has six genera with about 44 species. Elaeocarpus has 60 species with 31 in Australia and 24 species in tropical Queensland, so it is distributed more widely into the tropics. Other names: Blue fig, brush quandong, silver quandong, white quandong, blueberry ash, caloon and cooloon. It goes under the trade name of silver quandong. Distribution: Grows from the Nambucca River in northern New South Wales to north Queensland and into the Northern Territory. It is a fairly common riverine tree and is usually a dominant tree on most alluvial flats and gullies in lowland subtropical rainforest. The tree: A large tree to 35 metres with a stem diameter to 2 metres. The sparsely crowned tree is usually characterised by a few bright red leaves that hang on for some time before being shed, revealing themselves on the ground. It grows rapidly and is a popular plantation tree species. The trunk is cylindrical and strongly buttressed at the base. The outer bark is light grey, parchment-like, finely fissured with longitudinal indentations. The underbark is light brown. The outer surface of live bark is green with white lines and inner bark is cream with a watery layer next to the sapwood. The branches are thick, green and the branchlets are well marked with leaf scars. Leaves are alternate, simple, finely and regularly toothed, and elliptical to narrowly elliptical. They are glossy, dark green and paler underneath. The greenish-white flowers are in racemes arising from the branchlets at the scars of fallen leaves. The racemes often have a one-sided appearance. The fruit are olive-shaped and blue in colour, enclosing a hard, wrinkled ‘stone’, containing five cells. The fruit are evident at and around the base of the tree and are eaten by green catbirds, pied currawongs, rosecrowned fruit-doves, superb fruit-doves, topknot pigeons and wompoo fruitdoves. The deeply pitted stone is used for ornaments such as necklaces, and possesses special religious significance to some Indian sects.

Trunk.

Wood of Elaeocarpus grandis The heartwood is white to creamy with sapwood similar and up to 10 cm wide. Texture is moderate to fine and even, and the grain is straight. It has an air dry density at 12% moisture is 500 kg/m3. It is rather slow to dry and prone to bluestain, but does not degrade. Shrinkage is 1.5% radially and 4.5% tangentially. It is very easy to work, nails and glues well and is good for steam bending. This timber is much sought after because it yields very highly, but is now largely cut out, although plantation stands are starting to become available. It is used for all types of interior trims, flooring, lining, racing skiffs, oars, aircraft framing and also light-coloured furnishings. 70

Blue olive-shaped fruit.

See macrophotographs of Elaeocarpus grandis on page 178.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Elaeocarpus kirtonii brown quandong

Group of trees.

Synonyms: Elaeocarpus baeurlenii, Elaeocarpus longifolius. Derivation: Elaeocarpus from elaia (olive) and carpus (fruited), referring to the similarities of the fruit to that of the olive. Kirtonii after W. Kirton, who collected the type species for Ferdinand von Mueller at Bulli in 1885. Family: Elaeocarpaceae, which has 10–12 genera with 350–400 species, mostly tropical, worldwide except Africa. Of these Australia has six genera with about 44 species. Elaeocarpus has 60 a species with 31 in Australia and 24 species in tropical Queensland, so it is distributed more widely into the tropics. Other names: Brown-hearted quandong, silver quandong, white quandong, brownheart, mountain beech, white beech, Mowbullan whitewood, whitewood and pigeonberry ash. Distribution: Grows from the Milton in northern New South Wales to the Clarke Range in north Queensland. It grows on the higher plateau rainforests where it is an occasional, rather than a dominant species on the moister sites in the mountains. The tree: A large tree growing to 45 metres in height and with a stem of more than 2 metres. The old leaves also turn red as for E. grandis and E. reticulatis. It is a fast grower. The trunk is usually buttressed at the base. The bark is whitishgrey, smooth, thin and papery with slight vertical cracks at the base. The blaze is yellowish-brown with lighter yellow vertical streaks and a distinct yellow layer next to the creamy-coloured sapwood. There is no change in colour with exposure and it has a sugar-cane smell. The branches are thick and covered in light fawn down, later green and smooth. Leaves are alternate, simple, margins roughly toothed, lance-shaped or elliptical and drawn out to a point. The white flowers are scented and in slender racemes emerging from the forks of leaves of fallen leaf scars. The fruit are egg-shaped, pale blue, the outer surface smooth and fleshy, enclosing a hard wrinkled stone containing one or two seeds. The fruit are eaten by figbirds, green catbirds, regent bowerbirds, rose-crowned fruit doves, topknot pigeons and wompoo fruit-doves.

Trunk with small buttressing. Leaves.

Wood of Elaeocarpus kirtonii

See macrophotographs of Elaeocarpus kirtonii on page 178.

The wood is pale brown. The texture is coarser than E. grandis and this is reflected in the air dry density of 675 kg/m3, which is considerably heavier than blue quandong to which it has similar characteristics and uses. As well as being used in aircraft manufacture, it was a substitute for spruce in racing cars.



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Elaeocarpus ruminatus brown quandong

Mature trunk.

Wood of Elaeocarpus ruminatus In small trees the wood tends to be creamy-white throughout, but larger trees usually have a core of attractive brown heartwood, surrounded by a band of whiter sapwood. Texture is moderately fine and even, and the grain is often interlocked. It has a medium hardness and an air dry density at 12% moisture of 560 kg/m3. The wood is easy to work and glues well. It makes attractive turnings, inlays and the like. It is suitable for cabinet work, boat planking and racing sculls. It is not readily available in quantity. 72

Derivation: Elaeocarpus from elaia (olive) and carpus (fruited,) referring to the similarities of the fruit to that of the olive. Ruminatus from the Latin reticulatus (uneven and wrinkled), referring to the endocarp or seed. Family: Elaeocarpaceae, which has 10–12 genera with 350–400 species, mostly tropical, worldwide except Africa. Of these Australia has six genera with about 44 species. Elaeocarpus has 60 species with 31 in Australia and 24 species in tropical Queensland, so it is distributed more widely into the tropics. Other names: Caloon, and white or grey quandong. Distribution: Grows from the Windsor Tablelands of far north Queensland to the Eungella Range west of Mackay in north Queensland. It generally grows from 200–1150 metres altitude. The tree: An attractive small tree sometimes growing to 30 metres and a trunk diameter of 0.5 metres. There are generally a few red leaves in the canopy and both the downy white-fringed bell-like flowers and the blue fruit are quite ornamental. The trunk is usually straight and cylindrical, often buttressed. The bark is brown or grey, smooth, longitudinally wrinkled with vertical cracks and brown-coloured pustules. The underbark is cream to light brown. The blaze is yellowish-brown with a few crooked yellow stripes which darken on exposure, but the remainder tends to fade. Very young shoots and flower stems are clothed in silky hairs. Leaves are alternate, simple, not deeply toothed, elliptical, drawn down to a fine point and are often crowded towards the ends of branchlets; green on both surfaces, but paler beneath. It is strongly net-veined on both surfaces, and the margins are toothed. The white, or occasionally pink flowers are licorice scented, bell-shaped with long fringed stamens and are on slender racemes arising from the leaf stalks, and like the leaves tend to be crowded towards the ends of the branchlets. The fruit are sky blue, round and with an outer white flesh enclosing a single hard stone seed with a rough, pimpled and wrinkled surface. The fruit appear almost all year round and are eaten by crimson rosellas, figbirds, olive-backed orioles, regent bowerbirds, wonga pigeons and white-headed pigeons.

See macrophotographs of Elaeocarpus ruminatus on page 179.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Emmenosperma alphitonioides bonewood

Small tree.

Derivation: Emmenosperma from the Greek emmeno (I cleve to) and spermus (a seed), referring to the seeds remaining in position in the axis of the fruit after the valves have fallen away. Alphitonioides from Alphitonia, a related genus and the Greek eidos (resembling), because of the similarity in flowers and fruit. Family: Rhamnaceae, consisting of 58 genera and 900 species worldwide, but only three genera, Alphitonia with two species, Emmenosperma with one species and Pomaderris with one species, have trees in Australian rainforests. Other names: Grey ash, pink ooline, yellow almond, yellow almond ash, yellow ash and yellow rosewood. Distribution: Grows as occasional trees from the Clyde River in New South Wales to the Windsor Tableland in north Queensland. It is found in warm temperate rainforests from the coast to the mountains, and from 500–1100 metres in the northern tropical rainforests. The tree: A medium-sized tree growing to 35 metres in height with a stem diameter of 1.25 metres. It is a good fast-growing shade tree with a dense crown of glossy green leaves. The trunk is usually cylindrical but slightly spurred at the butt. The outer bark is silvery-grey, but marked with fine longitudinal fissures and covered with small hard pustules. Overall the bark has a smooth appearance, but the fissures tend to be more frequent at the base. The underbark is yellow-brown and the outer surfaces of live bark are striped yellow-brown with green underneath the surface fissures. The blaze is orange-yellow with cream wedges on the outer margins, down to yellow near the sapwood. The leaves are opposite, simple not toothed, egg-shaped or elliptical, and narrowing at the tip to a blunt point. The upper surface is dark glossy green with a paler under surface. The bell-shaped white flowers are on panicles at the ends of the branches. The orange-yellow fruit are round mostly two celled with one seed in each cell. The outer part of the fruit mostly falls away leaving the seeds attached to the top of the fruit stalk, as the genus name suggests. The seeds are round or oval, flattened, smooth and shiny bright red, or occasionally brown.

Leaves and orange-yellow fruit. Trunk.

Wood of Emmenosperma alphitonioides The heartwood is pale greyish-yellow to golden-brown. The texture is fine and even, and the grain is straight. The sapwood is distinctly paler in colour. It has a greasy nature and is hard with an air dry density at 12% of 860 kg/m3. It dries quickly but care is needed to avoid surface checking. Shrinkage is 4% radially and 7% tangentially. Because of its greasy nature, extra care is needed in glueing. It is used for joinery, flooring, turning and panelling, but it is seldom available.

See macrophotographs of Emmenosperma alphitonioides on page 196.

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Endiandra cowleyana, rose walnut Endiandra crassiflora, Dorrigo walnut

A mature specimen of Dorrigo walnut.

Derivation: Endiandra from the Greek endon (within) and andros (a man), alluding to the inner series of stamens being the fertile ones. Cowleyana after Ebenezer Cowley (1948–1989) collector of the type specimen. Crassiflora from the Latin crassa (thick) and flora (flower), referring to the thick fleshy nature of the flowers. Family: Lauraceae, which has 43 genera and 3000 species worldwide. There are 38 species of Endiandra in Australia, with 26 of those species in the tropics, eight species in the subtropics, and four species found in both the tropics and subtropics. Other names: Rose walnut is also known as northern rose walnut, while Dorrigo walnut is also called Dorrigo maple. Distribution: Rose walnut grows in the rainforest from the Jardine River to Mt Blackwood near Mackay from sea level to 1100 metres in elevation, while Dorrigo walnut grows from Wauchope in New South Wales to the McPherson Range in Queensland. Dorrigo walnut prefers the warm temperate rainforest on poorer soils at elevations of 450 to 750 metres. The trees: Rose walnut grows to 30 metres in height and the stem is usually buttressed. The leaves are simple, with a shiny upper side with minute hairs visible with a lens, while the underside is paler with minute brown hairs. Oil dots are also visible with a lens. The flowers are green, white or yellow and may be fragrant. The fruit are oval, or drupe-shaped, black or blue-black in colour with one brown seed which if cut has a creamy-pink flesh inside. These are eaten by cassowaries. Dorrigo walnut is a medium-sized tree growing to 35 metres in height with a stem diameter of 0.75 metres. The trunk has short buttresses and is not fluted. The outer bark is smooth and corky and often pitted with numerous depressions resulting from insect damage. The blaze is deep red with numerous paler vertical lines. The blaze soon darkens after exposure. The branchlets are green and hairy with young shoots covered in golden velvety hairs. The leaves are alternate, simple, not toothed, oblique to ovate, with slightly drawn out but blunt ends. The upper surface of the leaves is smooth and shiny, but crinkled between the veins; the lower surface is grey. The greenish-pink flowers are in racemes in the forks of the leaves. They have fleshy bell-shaped lobes purplish pink to green in colour. The blue-black fruit are oval and smooth. Trunk.

Wood of Endiandra cowleyana and Endiandra crassiflora The heartwood of both species is pinkish-brown or pale brown. It has a moderately fine texture and even straight grain with little figure but some rays. Rose walnut can have interlocking grain. Both species have an air dry density at 12% moisture of 770–790 kg/m3. They are slow to dry and inclined to check and split. They have a shrinkage of 4% radially and 8% tangentially. They are suitable for panelling, plywood and flooring, and should be suitable for turning, but they are scarce. 74

See macrophotographs of Endiandra cowleyana on page 182.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Endiandra palmerstonii Queensland walnut

An 800-year-old giant Queensland walnut at Charmillan Creek, south of Ravenshoe.

Derivation: Endiandra from the Greek endon (within) and andros (a man), alluding to the stamens being in the inner series of perianth parts. Palmerstonii honours Christofero Palmerston Caandini, known as Christie Palmerston (c.1850–1893), prospector, explorer, adventurer and scourge on Chinese miners. The common name alludes to the superficial resemblance of the timber to that of the northern hemisphere walnut (Juglans sp.). Family: Lauraceae, which has 43 genera and 3000 species worldwide with eight genera and 136 species in tropical and subtropical rainforests in Australia. There are 38 species of Endiandra in Australia, with 26 of those species in the tropics, eight species in the subtropics and four species found in both the tropics and subtropics. They are a significant wood group. Other names: Black walnut, walnut, walnut bean, Australian walnut, black nut and orient wood. Distribution: Has a restricted distribution in northern Queensland between Cairns and Cardwell and grows from sea level to 1200 metres. It grows on deep loams of granitic or basaltic origin with the best growth in the red basalt areas. It grows with a variety of rainforest types, which is unusual and therefore has a large number of associations. The tree: Given good conditions it is one of the largest trees in Queensland as can be seen in the photograph of an 800-year-old giant at Charmillan Creek south of Ravenshoe. They grow to 40 metres with a diameter of 2.2 metres. The stem is well shaped, straight and remains unbranched for two-thirds of the tree’s height. The stem is usually buttressed, but the buttresses do not extend far from the trunk. The bark is nondescript and somewhat flaky in texture. The outer blaze is pink or red and usually emits an aromatic odour. In mature trees there are bark eruption areas which are thought to be due to fungal attack. The crown consists of a dense array of ascending branches. The elliptical leaves are slightly fatter at the base and form a dense canopy of dark green. The underside of the leaf is covered with a bloom making it somewhat duller. Small creamy flowers are borne in terminal bunches developing into greenish-yellow nuts about 3–4 cm in diameter, with a hard shell. The nuts are edible without treatment. They were roasted by the Aboriginals who called them coo-oui and were a valuable food source. Its distinctive features are the pink or red blaze, small flowers and large fruit with a hard-shelled seed which are usually found scattered around the forest floor.

Trunk of the same tree.



Australian Rainforest Woods

Walnut seed cases on the forest floor.

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Wood of Endiandra palmerstonii The sapwood is pale yellow and up to 10 cm wide. The heartwood is a variable greyish-brown with streaks of chocolate-brown, black and pink. The figure is often wavy, which when combined with the range of colours gives a wide variety of effects. Texture is moderately fine and even. It has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 690 kg/m3. It is slow to dry with some risk of checking and end splits. Shrinkage is 2% radially and 4.5% tangentially. It is moderately good for steam bending and glues well. As a hardwood it is not suitable for external use. Queensland walnut is in the highest grade of craft woods and in most cases logs will be individually priced according to quality.

Problems with high silica content

It has a very high silica content compared with other wood species, and when dry forms crystals in the pores that are very abrasive and rapidly dull high speed cutting blades. Tests indicate siliceous material (acid insoluble) as comprising from 84– 94% of the total ash content. The next highest testing wood for silica content was Killarney beefwood (Stenocarpus salignus) at 10%. If you view the end grain of a dry specimen under sunlight with a 10x lens you can see the light reflected from the silica crystals present in the pores. It’s destructive for mills that cut the logs. After a lifetime experience with the wood, Reg Lockyer considers that declaring it ‘difficult to saw’ is an understatement. Reg relays that prior to the days of tungsten-tipped saws, one log that was put through the Ravenshoe sawmill, blunted six circular saw blades just to cut 4.8 metres along a single log. The mills always avoided the old logs, and he recalls that in the early days many large walnut logs were simply felled and left to burn in the fallen scrub. For this reason it is preferred in the softer green condition and is used for decorative veneer where it can be peeled or sliced more easily. The figuring when cut on the tangential plane is striking – the 76

See macrophotographs of Endiandra palmerstonii on page 183.

extremes in colour in the growth rings run across the board in wavy patterns presenting a flowered tapestry effect. This is more apparent in peeled veneer. I recall in the 1980s engaging a joinery to make profiled door frames and panels for our kitchen cupboards from 0.5 metre width slabs of Queensland walnut which I had in storage for some years awaiting a suitable project. The joinery owner was aware of what he was taking on; however, as he had recently installed a new German-made variable-speed profiler with special blades, he was sure he was ‘up to’ the job. When the work was delivered and assembled however, he indicated that he would never attempt such a job in Queensland walnut – ever again – that was his last. He had completed the job, only because he had promised that he would, but he had to re-sharpen his profiling blades after every door frame – and there were 15 frames in the job. This wood contains a high degree of A highly figured Queensland difficulty if it is from an old tree and has been walnut veneer. stored for some time – but what beauty it reveals. Despite these difficulties this wood finds its best expression in internal panelling and fittings. It has been used to good effect in the Commonwealth buildings in Canberra. As a veneer it has in the past been exported to the United States and has been used extensively for piano veneers and for other high-class veneer furniture. This is truly an amazing wood.

Queensland walnut spoon carved by Michael Koren, ‘The Spoon Man’, Atherton Tableland.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Endiandra sankeyana, Sankey’s walnut Endiandra sieberi, pink walnut

Sankey’s walnut.

Derivation: Endiandra from the Greek endon (within) and andros (a man), alluding to the inner series of stamens being the fertile ones. Sankeyana after J. R. Sankey. Sieberi after F. W. Sieber, a botanical collector of Prague Bohemia – now Czech Republic – who spent seven months collecting plants in New South Wales in 1823, including the type specimen. Family: Lauraceae, with 50–55 genera and 3000 species worldwide. Most of the genera in Australia are in the subtropics, however, 11 of the Endiandra species in Australia are rainforest species. Other names: Sankey’s walnut has no other common name. Pink walnut is also known as corkbark, corkwood, hard cheesewood, coach walnut and Tooram walnut. Distribution: Sankey’s walnut grows in rainforests from Cedar Bay National Park to Ingham in north Queensland. Pink walnut grows from Kioloa in New South Wales to Maryborough in Queensland. Its a common tree on poor sedimentary soil in rainforests. Pink walnut is also found in littoral rainforest on deep sand where it can survive periodic fires because of its thick corky bark. The tree: Both grow to 30 metres with a stem diameter of 0.9 metres. The trunk is normally straight and cylindrical and Sankey’s is buttressed. Pink walnut however has bark that is soft, grey and corky, finely fissured in young trees but the surface is rougher and more scaly in mature trees. The blaze is deep red becoming paler towards the sapwood, faintly fragrant, darkening within a few minutes of exposure. The branchlets are red, smooth and slender on pink walnut. The leaves are simple, alternate and the upperside can be hairy or have no hairs, however, the underside of the leaf is covered in fine white or pale brown hairs with oil dots visible. Leaves on pink walnut are drawn out to a blunt point at the tip. Pink walnut has pinkish-cream to yellowish flowers, whereas Sankey’s white, yellow or brownish flowers are found on panicles and can be fragrant or unpleasantly scented. The drupe-shaped fruit are blue-black or black, shiny, and purplish for pink walnut. When cut the flesh smells of cologne and contains one apricot or orange, or dirty yelloworange coloured seed. The fruit are eaten by cassowaries, musky rat-kangaroos, bush rats, topknot pigeons and white-headed pigeons.

Leaves of Sankey’s walnut. Trunk of pink walnut.

See macrophotographs of Endiandra sieberi on page 183

Wood of Endiandra sankeyana and Endiandra sieberi The wood is light coloured pinkybrown with variations in colour. It’s hard, and close grained. Wood of Sankey’s walnut has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 755 kg/m3, while pink walnut is lighter with an air dry density at 12% moisture of 720 kg/m3. Both species are suitable for handles, flooring, lining and cabinet making.



Specimen of Endiandra sieberi.

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Eucalyptus regnans mountain ash Derivation: From the Greek prefix eu (well) and calyptos (covered), referring to the eucalyptus flower which in the bud stage the seed capsule is ‘well covered’ by a cap, or operculum. Regnans is derived from the Latin regnare (to rule), and refers to its height and dominance. Family: Myrtaceae, the myrtle family, contains some of the largest and tallest flowering trees in the world and consists of 155 genera worldwide with over 3000 species. In Australia there are 70 genera with over 1500 species, the largest being Eucalyptus, with 900 odd species, Melaleuca, Corymbia and Syzygium. Other names: Australian oak, Tasmanian oak, white mountain ash, stringy gum and swamp gum. Distribution: It is not a widespread species and occurs in the Ottway Ranges in eastern Victoria and grows between 150 and 1100 metres above sea level, and on lower terrain in areas of Tasmania, where it is found from near sea-level to 600 metres. The tree: Under most conditions it grows from 55–75 metres in height, but measurements up to 100 metres have been recorded. While large dimensions do occur, typical mature trees are in the order of 2.5 metres diameter. The trunk is straight and clear for two-thirds of its height. The crown is open and surprisingly small. Bark forms a stocking and is persistent and fibrous to 15 metres, then smooth, white or greenish-grey, sometimes with a collar with shed bark in thin to long ribbons, often hanging from branches. Adult leaves are green, alternate, with a petiole and a curved lanceolate shape. Fruit in paired clusters, three valves per capsule and a wide disc, pyriformis in shape resembling a tapered wine glass.

The world’s tallest flowering plant

A 40 metre tall mountain ash which regenerated after the 1939 fires. Note the small crown.

This species contains specimens of the tallest growing hardwood, or flowering tree species, in the world and from the official records of all species is exceeded only in height by the redwoods (Sequoia sempervirens) of California. There are many claims for this species being the world’s tallest. In 1866 Ferdinand von Mueller claimed knowledge of a 480 foot mountain ash on Black’s Spur in Victoria. There were claims from a ‘woodman’ who explained that he had often felled trees over 400 feet high. ‘When they were down’, he said, ‘you could easily stump them off, and there could be no mistake about that.’ In 1872 the Inspector of State Forests of Victoria, William Ferguson, reported, ‘I measured with the tape line one huge specimen that lay prostrate across a tributary of the Watts and found it to be 435 feet from its roots to the top of its trunk.’ Ferguson considered that ‘before it fell it must have been more than 500 feet high because it had been much burnt by fire’. The Illustrated Australian News, 10 June 1878, featured a tree at Fernshaw said to be 380 feet to its first branches and 430 feet to the top. The butt log measuring 80 feet was taken for display at the Melbourne International Exhibition of 1880. J. A. Froude, a famous English writer, described a tree on Black’s Spur that ‘measured 460 feet’, and described ‘driving through aisles of trees with an average height of 350 to 400 feet.’ Al Carder in Forest Giants of the World, Past and Present also documents a number of mountain ash giants. We will never know now whether they were the world’s tallest as the systematic search for the big trees came twenty years too late. When the forests were first penetrated, tall mature trees, trees of giant girth, as well as decaying, or fallen, mature trees were common. Today, mature trees are rare.

Rough persistent basal bark and hanging strings.

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Australian Rainforest Woods

Wood of Eucalyptus regnans The sapwood is around 25 mm wide and the boundary is indistinct. The heartwood is pale pinkish-brown to pale straw, and contains resin or gum veins which until recently have been graded out, however modern trends favour the inclusion of the veins as an added feature to the wood. It has a straight, open grain with pronounced growth rings. It has an air dried density at 12% moisture of 680 kg/m3. It’s best to quarter cut the log as it has considerable collapse in drying. Shrinkage is 6.5% radially and 13% tangentially, and after reconditioning 4% radially and 7% tangentially. It works and finishes well but is easily split. It‘s not suitable for external use, but is used extensively throughout Australia for kitchen cabinets, furniture and other indoor applications. It’s used for engineering and building construction, marine craft interiors, flooring, furniture and plywood. Logs not classified as being suitable for sawing are used for the pulp and paper industry, accounting for around 70% of total production – most of which is exported to Japan. It is marketed in a mixture of eucalypt species as Victorian oak and Tasmanian oak, depending on its source and can contain up to 16 different eucalypt species with similar characteristics.

Historical significance

The forests of the Florentine Valley west of Hobart in Tasmania were home to extensive stands of mountain ash, perhaps as tall as the Victorian stands. In 1932 the Derwent Valley Paper Company was granted access to the area alongside the Mt Field National Park. In 1938 the company became the Australian Newsprint Mills (ANM), owned by Keith Murdoch (father of Rupert) and Warwick Fairfax. They began paper production from their mill at Boyer and thus began the mass destruction of the world’s tallest flowering plants – all turned into paper. Along with the Associated Pulp Paper Mills (APPM), at Bernie, which started in 1937, this was the beginning of industrial-strength forestry in

See macrophotographs of Eucalyptus regnans on page 189.

Tasmania. From over 100 000 ha of Eucalyptus regnans that existed when Europeans arrived in Tasmania, only 13 000 ha stand today. In Forests of Ash, Tom Griffith tells of the Black Thursday fires of 6 February 1851. This was barely two weeks after Victoria became an independent colony, and Edward Hargraves made public his discovery of gold. The devastation caused by this fire opened the forests, the rivers and the rocky outcrops to the eyes of prospectors who by the end of the decade had discovered large gold deposits in the area. The lust for gold pushed prospectors across the mountains into the Great Dividing Range. This would never have been opened for exploitation at this time but for gold. As it happened, two major fire events – the 1851 and 1939 fires – started and ended the mining boom. Forest settlements were founded on gold following the 1851 fire, and were annihilated by fire in 1939. But as the gold ran out, the timber industry was the eventual victor. Sawmilling peaked in the 1920s when it was boasted that ‘More timber passed through the Yarra Junction than any other place in the world except Seattle in the USA.’ The next great fire event occurred when the area suffered its most catastrophic fire ever, on 7 February 2009, with the loss of 173 lives when entire forest townships were destroyed.

Unique characteristics

You could almost say mountain ash is its own worst enemy. It differs from most other eucalypts in that it does not develop underground lignotubers, and therefore rarely coppices. Therefore, survival is dependent on seed supply. Natural stands of mountain ash will die out unless exceptionally fierce fires periodically sweep the forest. Botanist David Ashton described the relationship between mountain ash and fire as ‘a miracle of timing’. Its bark is thin and mature trees are easily killed by fire. However, in this process fire releases the seed from the tree’s hard capsules. If a second fire comes before the regrowth has developed its own viable seed, a whole forest can be permanently wiped out. The culmination of these characteristics is that mountain ash, with a life span of around 400 years, occurs in even-aged stands – all the trees in a naturally regenerated stand will be the same age. Mountain ash also has a heavy fall of flammable leaf litter which is two or three times that of other eucalypts – particularly in dry seasons. It also has hanging streamers of bark that take the flames up to the canopy and become firebrands hurled by the wind in advance of the flame. The open crowns and pendulous foliage encourages updrafts. Finally there are the eucalyptus oils which volatilise at these high temperatures and explode in and above the canopy. And how do these precious seeds survive the intense heat that they indubitably need? Ashton suggests that perhaps it is the very flammability of the crown that protects the seed in its capsule – just long enough for it to burst out when it is ripe and ensure the next generation. Australian Rainforest Woods

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Eucryphia lucida leatherwood Derivation: Eucryphia from the Greek eu (well) and kryphios (covered), referring to the cap formed by the sepals fusing at their tips. Lucida from the Latin lucida (shining), referring to the shiny leaves. Family: Cunoniaceae, which has 28 genera and 259 species worldwide. In Australia there are 16 genera and 32 species. Recent DNA studies have placed Davidsoniaceae and Eucryphiaceae in Cunoniaceae. Eucryphia has five species: E. lucida and E. milliganii in Tasmania, E. moorei in Victoria and New South Wales and E. wilkiei and E. jinksii in Queensland. Distribution: Grows in Tasmania in the lowland rainforests. It likes rich soils and tolerates a very high rainfall. It is one of the fastest growing trees forming dense thickets beside the roads, where seedlings quickly take over from other trees that have been removed. The tree: A fair-sized tree to 15 metres, or as a shrub in subalpine areas. The leaves are opposite, simple, elliptical-lanceolate, with the tip blunt and rounded. The leaf margins are entire and the upper surface is dark green and glossy; the lower surface is white. Young leaves and buds are covered with a sticky, gummy substance. In late spring and summer, masses of large, white conspicuous flowers, resembling small single roses, cover the trees attracting innumerable insects. The white flowers have a strong, sweet perfume, which is very noticeable on warm days. Honey producers have been quick to utilise the large quantities of nectar produced and in summer many forest roads are lined with beehives, all producing the well-known Leatherwood honey, which has a distinctive spicy flavour and strong perfume – there is no other honey quite like it. The fruit is a leathery capsule opening into boat-shaped sections. The winged seeds are numerous.

A thicket of leatherwood trees.

Leaves.

Wood of Eucryphia lucida

See macrophotographs of Eucryphia lucida on page 177.

The heartwood is pinkish-brown and the sapwood is not clearly defined. The texture is very fine and even with a straight grain. The growth rings are visible but not conspicuous. The air dry density at 12% moisture is 740 kg/m3. It is easy to dry and shrinkage is 5% radially and 9.5% tangentially, which is very high. It is moderately easy to work and turns and glues well. It is a good timber for steam bending. It is not a commercial timber, but is good for turning and small furniture. 80

Flowers.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Erythrophleum chlorostachys Cooktown ironwood Synonym: Erythrophleum laboucheri. Derivation: Erythrophleum from erythros (red) and phloios (bark). Chlorostachys from the Greek chloros (green) and stachys (relating to a spike), referring to the flower spike. The common name alludes to its very hard wood and its occurrence near Cooktown in north Queensland. Family: Caesalpiniaceae, which has about 150 genera and 2200 species worldwide. Australia has 22 genera with 127 species, 42 of which are rainforest species and include Bauhinia, Caesalpinia, Cassia, Lysiphyllum and Senna as the major genera. Other names: Northern ironwood, red ironwood, leguminous ironwood and camel poison Distribution: Found on the rainforest margins from the Torres Strait Islands to the Greenvale area west of Paluma in Queensland. It has a wide distribution across northern Australia from north Queensland to the Kimberley of Western Australia. It grows on a wide variety of soil types and reaches its best development on creek and river flats. The tree: This small to medium tree grows to 15 metres and the trunk is moderate and frequently twisted and of irregular shape. The bark is dark brown, rough and flaky, or tessellated. The freshly cut underbark is deep red. The leaves are compound, alternate with a central rachis with two or three opposite pinnae, each holding from five to eight alternate leaflets. Each shiny, dark green leaflet is oval with a blunt pointed tip. The young leaflets are covered in minute hairs. The greenish-yellow or brown flowers are on axillary spikes or panicles. The seed pods are typically leguminous, flat, brown or blackish, dry and woody, and contain from one to eight seeds. The seeds are brown or blackish with a reddish rim, and flat and round.

Twisted tree trunk.

Wood of Erythrophleum chlorostachys The heartwood is bright red with paler, brownish sapwood which may be up to 25 mm wide. The texture is medium and even with an interlocked grain. The air dry density at 12% moisture is 1220 kg/m3. The wood is inclined to check in drying and the shrinkage is about 2% radially and 3% tangentially, so it is pretty stable. Because of its density it is hard to work and the interlocked grain makes it more difficult as well, but a very smooth finish can be produced. This wood was used in the early days to replace worn-out bearings, so it has pretty good wearing characteristics. It is used for fencing, railway sleepers, decorative turning and has potential for musical instruments.

Oval leaves.

Flakey trunk.

See macrophotographs of Erythrophleum chlorostachys on page 174.

Australian Rainforest Woods

81

Euroschinus falcatus pink poplar Derivation: Euroschinus from the Greek euros (south-east wind) and schinus (the majestic tree), probably referring to it as a south-eastern Schinus. Falcatus from the Latin falcate (sickle-shaped), because of the curved leaves. Family: Anacardiaceae, with 70 genera and 600 species worldwide mostly in tropical countries with the mango (Magnifera indica) and the cashew (Anacardium occidentale) as two important edible fruit species. There are six Euroschinus species in the world: five species in New Guinea and Caledonia and one species in Australia. Other names: Blush cudgerie, chinaman’s cedar, maiden’s blush, Port Macquarie beech, ribbon wood and Jimmy Donnelly. Distribution: From Jervis Bay in New South Wales to Iron Range in north Queensland in all types of rainforest, but especially in littoral, ravine and dry rainforests. It is a common pioneer species. The tree: Grows to 45 metres in height and a stem diameter of 0.9 metres, and is often flanged or buttressed at the base of large trees. The bark is brown, usually wrinkled and finely scaled. The blaze is red with a finely flecked pattern due to it granular composition. It gets paler towards the sapwood. The branches are thick and dotted with lenticels, and shiny, except for the very young shoots and branches which are covered in a fawn down. Leaves are alternate, pinnate on a rachis with from four to 10 leaflets, alternate to sub-opposite. The leaflets are elliptical and curved with a long drawn-out point and asymmetrical at the base; green on both surfaces, paler beneath. The broken stalks exude a clear, thick resinous sap smelling like mangoes. Pink flowers on terminal panicles. The fruit are black, scented like a mango, and eaten by green catbirds, Lewin’s honeyeaters, paradise riflebirds, rose-crowned fruit-doves and topknot pigeons.

Mature tree.

Finely scaled trunk.

Wood of Euroschinus falcatus The heartwood is pinkish-grey with yellow streaks. The sapwood is white. Texture is fine and even and the grain is slightly interlocked. It has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 450 kg/m3. It dries quickly but is susceptible to bluestain. Shrinkage is 2% radially and 4% tangentially. It is difficult to dress smoothly because of its woolly nature, but glues well. It is not a structural timber but was used for brake blocks, and is suitable for interior furnishings. It is rare as a timber, as much has been cut out. 82

See macrophotographs of Euroschinus falcatus on page 171.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Ficus racemosa cluster fig Synonyms: Ficus glomerata, Ficus semicostata. Derivation: Ficus from the Latin ficus (a fig). Racemosa from racemose (flowers in racemes), referring to the inflorescence structure, i.e. the inflorescence that is bearing fruit. Family: Moraceae, which consists of 53 genera and 1400 species worldwide with seven genera and 48 species in Australia. Ficus has about 1000 species in the world with 41 species in Australia. The other genus in Australia is Streblus with two species. Other name: Figwood. Distribution: Found in most rainforest types from Imbil in south-east Queensland to the Pascoe River, and into the Northern Territory, the north-west of Western Australia, New Guinea, and South-East Asia. The tree: A spreading tree to 35 metres in height, which may have buttressed roots. It is deciduous and when cut exudes white sap. The leaves are simple, quite large, with both sides covered on minute hairy leaves which become shiny when mature. Oil dots may be visible with a lens. The flowers are contained inside the fruit and are fertilised by a wasp which gains entry at the base. The fleshy fruit are round or slightly pear-shaped, yellow, orange or red, and are eaten by most bird species plus the numerous flying-foxes as well as feral pigs.

Multi-stemmed tree.

Note at the bottom of this fleshy fruit, which has been cut in half, the entrance for the wasp to fertilise the flowers.

A vigerous root system.

See macrophotographs of Ficus racemosa on page 188.

Wood of Ficus racemosa The wood is brown, coarse grained, with a beautiful wavy figure and is fairly light. The air dry density at 12% moisture is 400 kg/m3. It has a very durable fibre which was used by Aboriginals to make scoop fishing nets. It is not a structural timber, but is suitable where not load-bearing and has a very distinctive appearance, particularly where the grain curves to any degree in buttresses, stem joints and the like.

Australian Rainforest Woods

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Ficus rubiginosa rusty fig Derivation: Ficus from the Latin ficus (a fig). Rubiginosa from the Latin rubeigenosus (rusty), referring to the rusty undersides of the leaves. Family: Moraceae, which consists of 53 genera and 1400 species worldwide with seven genera and 48 species in Australia. Ficus has about 1000 species in the world with 41 species in Australia. The other genus in Australia is Streblus with two species. Other names: Figwoods, Illawarra, Illawarra fig and Port Jackson fig. Distribution: From Eden in New South Wales to the Torres Strait Islands off north Queensland. It is usually found on dry hills in open forest country, but the best specimens are also found in dry rainforests, often on cliffs. The tree: A large tree growing to over 30 metres in height and a stem of 1.5 metres. The stem is usually short and buttressed. The bark is brown or yellowish-brown with many pustules and often has thin scales. The surface of live bark is green and mottled yellow. The blaze is yellowish-brown which is joined to the inner side by a mottled area, paler on the inside. There is a small weeping of white viscous sap. The leaves are alternate, simple with entire margins, slightly rounded but pointed at the tip. The upper surface is sometimes hairy and green, but the underside is usually densely downy and rusty-coloured. Occasionally the leaf is smooth, but the young shoots are velvety. The fruit envelope the flower, and are fleshy, yellow but turning red when ripe. They are dotted and wart covered, oval, often have an apical nipple, and grow mostly in pairs. They are a rich source of food in summer and autumn for koel, figbirds, green catbirds, pied currawongs, regent and satin bowerbirds, rose-crowned fruit-doves, topknot pigeons, wampoo fruit-doves and wonga pigeons.

Small tree.

Alternate leaves. Trunk.

Wood of Ficus rubiginosa

See macrophotographs of Ficus rubiginosa on page 188.

The wood is pale and very soft and tends to be brittle and coarse grained. It also lacks strength and durability and is somewhat woolly and hard to dress and finish. It has an air dry density at 12% of less than 400 kg/m3. It has the advantage of lightness and softness and quite often has an interesting figure, so it does have a place in making small containers and in toy making.

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Australian Rainforest Woods

Ficus superba cedar fig Synonym: Ficus henneana. Derivation: Ficus from the Latin ficus (a fig). Superba from the Latin superbus (outstanding). Family: Moraceae, which consists of 53 genera and 1400 species worldwide with seven genera and 48 species in Australia. Ficus has about 1000 species in the world with 41 species in Australia. The other genus in Australia is Streblus with two species. Other name: Deciduous fig. Distribution: From Milton in New South Wales to the Northern Territory and into South-East Asia. It is found in dry riverine and littoral rainforests. The tree: This is one of the taller of the figs, growing up to 35 metres and spreads to only 12 metres. It is more or less deciduous and the stem is usually buttressed. The outer bark is rough and red-brown with numerous fine cracks and wrinkles, and is often scaled. It has vertical rows of reddish-brown lenticels. The live bark is uneven and pimpled with pink and purplish stripes. The blaze is pinkish-brown and produces copious milky sap. The leaves are alternate, simple, bluntly pointed and rounded, or heart-shaped at the base; green on both surfaces, but paler beneath. The leaf stalk has a joint where it attaches to the leaf blade. The fruit envelopes the flower and is fleshy and translucent yellow, turning purple, and spotted with pale pink dots when ripe. They are often in pairs in the axil of the leaf stalks, and are ripe mostly in late summer and autumn, but may be present in most months of the year. The fruit are eaten by figbirds, green catbirds, Lewin’s honeyeaters, regent bowerbirds, rose-crowned fruit-doves, topknot pigeons, wompoo fruit-doves and barred cuckoo-shrikes.

Small tree.

Trunk.

Leaves.

Wood of Ficus superba

See macrophotographs of Ficus superba on page 188.

The wood is pale but with distinct brown striping in the heartwood as defined by early and late wood. It is medium soft and light but denser than the other figs with an air dry density at 12% moisture of 580 kg/m3. It is variable in quality and woolly to dress and finish. It is not recognised as a furniture or construction timber but is suitable for light cases, figurative panelling and toys, and could be useful in intarsia.

Australian Rainforest Woods

85

Flindersia acuminata silver silkwood Derivation: Flindersia honours Matthew Flinders (1774–1814), a famous Australian explorer, and from the Latin acuminata relating to the acute apex of the leaf tips. The sides are somewhat concave as they taper to a protracted tip. Family: Rutaceae, which has 23 genera in Australia, the largest of which is Flindersia with 16 species. The other genera are Acronychia, Euodia, Bosistoa and Geijera. These are major structural and cabinet timber rainforest species. Other names: Icewood, Paddy King’s beech, Putt’s pine, maple silkwood and white maple. Distribution: Found on the Atherton Tableland, particularly around the Johnstone River area. The tree: Grows to 25 metres in height with a stem diameter of 0.5 metres. The stem is not buttressed and is straight and cylindrical. The bark is brown or grey, smooth, but sometimes slightly wrinkled and slightly scaly. The blaze is brown. Leaves are alternate, compound, and on branchlets of 3–15 leaflets. The leaves are lance-shaped, broader towards the base, gradually tapering to the tip with a narrow, drawn-out point; the sides are unequal. The young shoots and inflorescence, and sometimes the branchlets and undersides of the leaves, are clothed with straw-coloured hairs, the fine hairs often star-shaped. The small white flowers are carried on branched panicles at the end of the branchlets. The flowers have a small calyx divided into five hairy, rounded lobes. The brown, hairy ovary at the flower’s centre grows to a capsule 10–12 cm long, armed with crowded prickles, splitting into five boat-shaped pieces. Each valve contains four flattened seeds, two on each side, with wings nearly as long as the seed valves.

Young tree.

Leaves and opened prickly seed pod.

Wood of Flindersia acuminata

See macrophotographs of Flindersia acuminata on page 197.

The wood is described as silver-white with a soft pinkish hue, as compared to the silver-whiteness of Flindersia schottiana. It has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 530 kg/m3. It is an ideal furniture timber, which is of limited supply because of its limited distribution, however it is useful and has been used for decking for sailing ships. It does not come in large dimensions.

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Australian Rainforest Woods

Flindersia australis crow’s ash

Mature tree.

Trunk with pinkishred blaze.

Wood of Flindersia australis The wood is yellow or golden-brown, greasy, and has a hard interlocked grain. It is very strong and durable. It has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 950 kg/m3. Shrinkage is 3% radially and 4% tangentially. Slow to dry but needs protection to stop it drying at too fast a rate. It has a high oil content and therefore requires a finish with a breathable surface, and swabbing with methylated spirits before glueing. Not easy to work and does not hold nails well because of the oil. It wears very well and is one of the most durable of the Australian timbers and is sought after for dance floors, and was used extensively in buidings in areas where it grew. It was also used for ship building, railway sleepers, decking, carriage and coach building, flooring, internal furniture and fencing.

Derivation: Flindersia honours Matthew Flinders (1774–1814), a famous Australian explorer. Australis from the Latin australis (southern), referring to its being the first species described from terra australis. Family: Rutaceae, which has 23 genera in Australia, the largest of which is Flindersia with 16 species. Other genera include Acronychia, Euodia, Bosistoa and Geijera. These are major structural and cabinet timber rainforest species. Other names: Australian teak, flindersia or flindosy, and nut wood. Distribution: From the Nymboida River in New South Wales to Proserpine in north Queensland. It’s found in dry rainforest as well as rainforest and prefers red basaltic soils where the tree reaches its best development. The tree: Grows to 40 metres in height with a stem diameter of 1.8 metres. It’s an excellent shade tree and was usually left by settlers during clearing – that’s if it wasn’t cut for timber for the farm homestead. The stem can be irregular and flanged, and large trees are usually moderately buttressed. The outer bark is scaly and is shed in irregular hard flakes, leaving indentations, which gives the trunk a spotted appearance. The blaze is pinkish-red, somewhat tough in texture and has a pumpkin-like smell. The leaves are compound, usually alternate, but sometimes opposite, pinnate and crowded towards the end of branchlets consisting of from three to 13 leaflets – but usually five. Leaflets are dark green, glossy, opposite in pairs, with a terminal leaflet, and elliptical to narrow ovate. Flowers are white, bunched towards the end of panicles, and are found on branchlets or leafless branches. The five-valved, boat-shaped seed capsules remain united at the base, each valve holding winged seeds. I must confess to being an ardent admirer, not only of this tree, but also of its regal wood, which was used extensively in the early years. It was particularly sought after for dance flooring, and I confess to having purchased the flooring from the Kalbar School of Arts when it was demolished. It was built in the 1890s. I had some of it converted into 20 mm thick parketry, which now covers the main floor area of our house. The remainder I have made into bookcase units. The timber is still sought after but is in very short supply and as a consequence is very expensive to buy. After laying this 100-plus-year-old recycled crow’s ash floor, sanding and spreading the filler into the cracks, old nail-holes and such, beads of natural oil were appearing on the floor surface the next morning – amazing. The finish therefore needs to contain a high percentage of tung oil to enable the timber to breathe naturally, or it will simply lift the finish.

A fully opened, five-valved, boat-shaped seed pod. See macrophotographs of Flindersia australis on page 197.

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Flindersia bennettiana Bennett’s ash Derivation: Flindersia honours Matthew Flinders (1774–1814), a famous Australian explorer. Bennettiana after Dr George Bennett, an early naturalist, author and supporter of the Sydney Botanic Gardens. Family: Rutaceae, which has 23 genera in Australia, the largest of which is Flindersia with 16 species, the other major wood genera are Acronychina (the aspens) and Euodia both with six species, Bosistoa and Meliocope with five and Geijera with four species. Other names: It has no other common name. Distribution: From the Clarence River in New South Wales to Maryborough in Queensland, and is found in riverine, littoral and subtropical rainforests on basaltic soils, but occasionally in warm temperate rainforest on poorer soils. The tree: Grows to 40 metres in height with a stem diameter of around 0.9 metres. The trunk is not prominently buttressed and is tall and cylindrical. The bark is grey and fairly smooth or can be wrinkled with small pustules and scales. The blaze is tough and stringy, pinkish-red with reddish-brown dots becoming lighter towards the sapwood. The leaves are opposite, pinnate with three to 10 pairs of leaflets, ovate or elliptical, and with a blunt point at the tip. The upper surfaces are glossy and dark green with a paler underside. The cream flowers have a strong dough-like smell and are on terminal panicles, or sometimes in the forks of the upper leaves. The fruit are in the form of green woody capsules, becoming brown as they dry, densely covered with short, blunt prickles and opening into five separate boat-shaped valves each containing two or three flat seeds on each side of a central placenta. The seeds have wings at each end.

Mature tree.

Opposite, pinnate leaves.

Wood of Flindersia bennettiana

See macrophotographs of Flindersia bennettiana on page 197.

The heartwood is a pale straw colour to a light grey with little definition in the sapwood. Texture is medium and even and has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 780–840 kg/m3. It needs care in drying to avoid surface checks but is relatively easy to work. The surface is inclined to be greasy so it can be difficult to glue. It is suitable for furniture, joinery, plywood, flooring, and should do well for oars. It is fairly scarce. 88

Woody seed capsules covered in ‘blunt’ prickles.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Flindersia bourjotiana Queensland silver ash

Small tree.

Wood of Flindersia bourjotiana The heartwood is white and has considerable sheen. It is sometimes greyish or silvery to slightly tawny and occasionally has figure. The grain is straight or slightly waved with somewhat pronounced vessels on the longtitudanal surfaces. It gets its name from its resemblance to the American and English ashwoods, which are however diffuse porous whereas Queensland silver ash is ring porous. It has an air dried density at 12% moisture of 640 kg/m3. The wood is tough and strong, straight and opengrained, works well and holds nails strongly. It takes glue well and bends excellently. It is rather slow to dry but with little degradation and it has a shrinkage of about 3.5% radially and 6% tangentially. It is not durable in the ground but lasts reasonably well when exposed to the weather. It is quite often marketed with Flindersia schottiana under the trade name of silver ash. It is used largely in buildings, particularly in flooring where it is very easy to wash, never shows stains and does not turn brown when polished. It is also used for furniture, panelling, decorative veneer, sporting equipment, handles, oars, cooperage and boat building.

Derivation: Flindersia honours Matthew Flinders (1774–1814), a famous Australian explorer. Bourjotiana after Dr. A. Bourjot. Family: Rutaceae, which has 23 genera in Australia, the largest of which is Flindersia with 16 species, the other major wood genera are Acronychia (the aspens) and Euodia both with six species, Bosistoa and Meliocope with five and Geijera with four species. Other names: Bumpy ash, northern ash, silver ash and cudgerie. Distribution: Restricted to northern Queensland between Mt Fox, south-west of Ingham, around the Johnstone River, Atherton Tableland, Herberton and Mossman River as far north as Cooktown. It grows from sea level to 1200 metres. The tree: Medium to tall growing tree to 35 metres in height with a 1 metre stem diameter. The stems are not buttressed and are usually well formed and circular in cross-section. The bark is grey with numerous small corky pustules. When the bark is cut there is a purplish layer in the outer bark becoming yellow towards the sapwood. The bark is around 2 cm thick. Young shoots and flowers are covered in fine hairs, the ones on the flowers being star-shaped. The leaves are opposite and each branchlet contains 3–9 ordinary simple leaves on short stalks. The leaves are narrowly elliptical or lance-shaped and paler and sometimes finely hairy on the underside, narrowed towards each end and drawn out to a point. There are 15–20 lateral nerves on each side of the midrib visible on both surfaces. The 1.5 cm, white or greenish-white, bell-shaped flowers are arranged in widely branched panicles, up to 23 cm long, at the end of the branchlets. The spiny seed capsules 7–15 cm long, containing five segments split into boat-shaped valves, each containing 4–6 seeds which have wings at both ends of the seed, half on each side and connected to a central rib. The capsules are not as spiny as crow’s ash (Flindersia australis). Opposite leaves. Figured specimen.

See macrophotographs of Flindersia bourjotiana on page 198.

Australian Rainforest Woods

89

Flindersia brayleyana Queensland maple

Small tree.

Derivation: Flindersia honours Matthew Flinders (1774–1814), a famous Australian explorer. Brayleyana honours Professor E. W. Braley, a member of the Royal Society, London. Family: Rutaceae, which has 23 genera in Australia as described previously. Other names: Flindersia brayleyana and Flindersia pimenteliana were originally included under the trade name of maple silkwood. Early bushmen called it red beech because it was as easily cut as white beech, but was reddish in colour. Distribution: Restricted to northern Queensland between Townsville and the Windsor Tableland, in rainforest areas with a rainfall of 1100–3800 mm. It needs at least 25 mm in the driest months, August and September. Reaches its best in deep granite or basaltic soil. It grows in the warm humid areas and is highly prized because of its great value as a cabinet timber. The tree: A medium to tall tree reaching 40 metres in height and 3.8 metres girth. The largest tree that Reg Lockyer has measured in north Queensland had a girth of 27 feet (8.3 m) 10 feet (3 m) above ground level, and was around 200 years old. The trunk is not buttressed and is usually well formed and circular in cross-section. It is described as a ‘noble’ tree. The bark is slightly fissured with orange lenticels, brownish and semi-fibrous, carrying characteristic ‘bulletholes’. The compound leaf sprays carry opposite leaflets, 8–10 cm long, oil-dotted and oblong, on slender petioles. Panicles of creamy-white flower form in the upper leaf axils in November–December. The fruit form as five-valved capsules 6–10 cm long, each boat-shaped valve separating completely from its neighbour, and the outer leather-like surface being almost smooth with etched segments on the surface. Habitat: By the 1920s, when red cedar had become rare, research into the properties and possible commercialisation of other Queensland timbers was taking place. Queensland maple was packaged with maple silkwood as a cabinet timber and was one of the 250 timbers recommended by the Queensland Forest Products Bureau, and became a replacement timber for red cedar. In the rainforest situation you are unlikely to have the opportunity to view a tree in its entirety – identification is therefore reliant on examining the trunk, the pattern of the leaves high in the canopy, and the leaf and fruit fall on the forest floor in the vicinity of the tree’s range.

Flowers.

Leaves. The leathery five-segment fruit prior to opening – a good identification feature. Moss-covered trunk with characteristic ‘bullet-holes’.

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Australian Rainforest Woods

Wood of Flindersia brayleyana The heartwood is pinkish in younger trees to tan-red, brown to mid-brown in mature trees. The thin greyish sapwood should always be removed. It exhibits a wide variety of figures, including ribbon grain, which results from layers of interlocking grain. This ribbon grain can have narrow or broad crossfire figure as shown in the bowl below. It can be fiddleback, wavy, bird’s-eye and ripple caused by sudden dips in the growth rings. In each event the result can be pleasing and surprising. It’s regarded as one of the finest cabinet woods of the world and the most valuable on the Australian market. The texture is medium and the shrinkage is 3% radially and 7% tangentially. It has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 580 kg/m3. It’s easy to work but with interlocked grain may require a reduction in planer angle. This feature can also give it a tendency to ‘lift’ in dressing. Nails hold well and do not rust. It glues well, bends well, and veneers and plies perfectly. It takes stain readily and is therefore well liked where standardised finishes are preferred. It seasons well and does not discolour, shows little or no inclination to warp or twist, and is a strong wood in proportion to its weight. Queensland maple has found an infinite variety of applications. It has been used in railway carriage interiors, in most classes of boat building, in early vehicle bodywork, and aeroplane construction – including propellers. Throughout Australia it has been one of the most popular cabinet woods for office fittings, doors, panels, plywood and furniture. Queensland maple finds its greatest use as a high-class furniture and cabinet work timber.

See macrophotographs of Flindersia brayleyana on page 198..

Despite such a limited distribution, Queensland maple has played an important role in the lives of Australians – in the last half of the 20th century, almost every house contained Queensland maple furniture in some form. This can be attributed to the early development of the Queensland Forest Department which, from the 1920s, began to measure and regulate production as well as actively encourage development. Unlike the fate of woods like red cedar which were squandered, Queensland maple has been fairly well utilised and respected for its immense beauty, examples of which can be found in many important public and commercial buildings throughout Australia.

Queensland maple with curly figure. A highly figured Queensland maple bowl with rope and wavy figure, turned by Reg Lockyer, Ravenshoe. I consider this to be the most beautiful figured work in my collection and must admit to having very little reluctance when informed it was available for sale.

Historical significance

The rainforests containing Queensland maple were declared World Heritage in 1988 which curtailed large-scale felling of this species. There are still supplies available from sustainably harvested areas outside the park area and it is a popular component of commercial mixed-species planting.

Queensland maple spoon carved by Michael Koren, ‘The Spoon Man’, Atherton Tableland.

Australian Rainforest Woods

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Flindersia collina leopard wood ash Synonym: Flindersia strzleckiana var. latifolia. Derivation: Flindersia honours Matthew Flinders (1774–1814), a famous Australian explorer. Collina from the Latin collinus (living on hills), referring to the tree often growing on hillsides. Family: Rutaceae, which has 23 genera in Australia, the largest of which is Flindersia with 16 species. The other genera are Acronychia, Euodia, Bosistoa and Geijera, which are major structural and cabinet timber rainforest species. Other names: Bastard crow’s ash, broad-leaved leopard tree, leatherwood, leopard wood, leopard wood oak and spotted tree. Distribution: From the upper Richmond River in New South Wales and into south-eastern Queensland. It is found mostly in dry rainforests. The tree: A small- to medium-sized tree growing to 25 metres and a stem diameter of 0.6 metres. It occurs as an occasional tree and has a dense, dark green crown. The trunk is cylindrical and not buttressed and the bark is attractively mottled grey, green and brown, and patterned with small pustules. The bark sheds in small patches leaving a pattern of irregular depressions, hence its common name spotted or leopard tree. The underbark is red with a white innermost area close to the sapwood. Young shoots are downy and leaf scars are distinct on the branchlets. Leaves are opposite, occasionally alternate in coppice or young shoots, and pinnate with three to seven leaflets to each leaf. The leaflets are elliptical to obovate, with a blunt rounder tip often notched so that the rachis is shorter than the leaflet. They are smooth and green on both sides, but paler beneath. The leaf rachis is winged. The white flowers are on panicles at the ends of the branchlets and the fruit form five boat-shaped valves in the capsule, with flat seeds, winged at both ends. Of interest is the fact that early investigations showed that the gum contains 83% arabin and is therefore a good substitute for gum arabic.

Small tree.

Rounded leaflets. Trunk.

Wood of Flindersia collina

See macrophotographs of Flindersia collina on page 198.

The wood is pinkish and tends towards a greyish-brown in the heartwood. It is hard, strong and durable with an air dry density at 12% moisture of 600 kg/m3. It has been used for flooring, scantlings and axe handles.

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Australian Rainforest Woods

Flindersia ifflaiana Cairns hickory Derivation: Flindersia honours Matthew Flinders (1774–1814), a famous Australian explorer. Iffliana after S. Iffla, a medical doctor. Family: Rutaceae, which has 23 genera in Australia, the largest of which is Flindersia with 16 species. The other genera are Acronychia, Euodia, Bosistoa and Geijera. These are major structural and cabinet timber rainforest species. Other name: Hickory ash. Distribution: Grows in a small area from Freshwater Creek onto the Atherton Tableland and Mt Molloy, in the mountains near Mossman, and Cape Grenville on Cape York Peninsula. The tree: Grows to 30 metres with a stem diameter of 1.3 metres. It has very short low buttresses. The bark is light brown, fibrous with well-defined fissures. The young shoots, branchlets and flowering spikes are clothed in minute hairs which are star-shaped. Leaves are opposite, pinnate, and each leaf contains from six to 10 leaflets which have a short blunt apical point and are two to three times longer than wide. The white flowers are on widely branched panicles at the ends of branchlets. The seed capsules are smaller than the other Flindersia species but have the same five boat-shaped valves which split and open releasing the flattened and winged seeds. The seeds are winged at the upper end only.

A smallish tree.

Wood of Flindersia ifflaiana The wood is yellowish-brown, sapwood paler. Texture is medium and even. It has a plain straight grain, but can be variable with fine darkercoloured vessel lines, and occasional wavy fibre. It has an air dry density at 12% moisture of approaching 1000 kg/m3 . It dries slowly and needs care to reduce checking. Shrinkage is 3% radially and 4.5% tangentially. It is not easy to work but bends well, and is described as the northern equivalent of crow’s ash, although it is slightly heavier, harder, stronger, and less oily than crow’s ash. It is very durable in the ground as well as above and has been used for general building purposes as well as for railway sleepers, bridge girders, fencing, decking and boat building. For a time it was described as the most important structural hardwood in the north.

Opposite, pinnate leaves.

Trunk.

See macrophotographs of Flindersia ifflaiana on page 198.

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Flindersia pimenteliana maple silkwood Derivation: Flindersia honours Matthew Flinders (1774–1814), a famous Australian explorer. Pimenteliana honours J. M. de O. Pimentel. Family: Rutaceae, which has 23 genera in Australia as described earlier. Other names: Flindersia brayleyana and Flindersia pimenteliana were originally included under the trade name of maple silkwood. The two now have been separated. It has also been referred to as rose silkwood and red beech. Distribution: Restricted to northern Queensland between Townsville and the Windsor Tableland, in rainforest areas with a rainfall of 1100–3800 mm with at least 25 mm in the driest months, August and September. Reaches its best in deep granite or basaltic soil and is less exacting than Queensland maple, often growing in the yellow granitic clays. It grows in warm humid areas with a mean maximum temperature of 29–32°C and a winter minimum of 10–17°C. The tree: A medium to tall tree reaching 40 metres in height and 2.2 metres girth; a lesser tree than Queensland maple. The trunk is not buttressed and is usually fairly straight. The butt is often defective, being prone to white pocket rot. The bark is brownish, sub-fibrous, rarely flaky, with rusty-red lenticels on healthy trees. It often has potato-brown pustules along the bark cracks. It resembles Queensland maple. The outer bark is red and fibrous in texture. Mature leaves are compound, elliptical to oblong in 9–14 pairs, opposite to not-quite opposite, oil-dots can be present or absent, on short petioles. Panicles of flowers in September–February, form in the tip or upper leaf axils, sepals are ovate with red petals, five stamens alternating with the petals and arched filaments. The fruit form as five-valved capsules 5–11 cm long, each boat-shaped valve separating completely from its neighbour, and the outer surface with a covering of sharp points. Habitat: By the 1920s, when red cedar had become rare, research into the properties of other Queensland timbers was taking place. Queensland maple was packaged with maple silkwood. More recently it has been sold separately. Maple silkwood found its value as a replacement for red cedar.

Young tree.

Trunk.

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An unopened seed capsule covered in sharp pimples.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Leaves.

Wood of Flindersia pimenteliana The heartwood is pinkish to midbrown and has a wide variety of figures, including fiddleback, curly, bird’s-eye and quilted, which is associated with elongated dips in the growth rings. There is also a gradation of colour from lighter to darker as you enter the more mature heartwood. This is regarded as one of the finest cabinet woods of the world and the most valuable on the Australian market. The texture is medium and the shrinkage is 3% radially and 7% tangentially, with an air dry density at 12% moisture of 640 kg/m3. It is easy to work but the presence of interlocking grain is greater than Queensland maple. It may require a reduction in planer angle. This feature can give it a tendency to ‘lift’ in dressing. Maple silkwood is frequently better figured than Queensland maple. Nails hold well and do not rust. It glues well and is good for steam bending. It takes stain readily and is therefore well liked where standardised finishes are preferred. It seasons well and does not discolour, shows little or no inclination to warp or twist, and is a strong wood in proportion to its weight. Like Queensland maple, maple silkwood, although not as plentiful, has found an infinite variety of applications. It has been used in railway carriage interiors, in most classes of boat building, in early vehicle bodywork and aeroplane construction – including propellers. Throughout Australia it has been one of the most popular cabinet woods for office

See macrophotographs of Flindersia pimenteliana on page 199.

fittings, doors, panels, plywood and furniture. It veneers and plies perfectly. It has been in high-class furniture and cabinet work that maple silkwood finds its greatest use. A large Georgian table in the Old Government House in Canberra is made of figured maple silkwood.

Fruit turned from maple silkwood.

This specimen of curly maple silkwood has exquisite fire even before the application of a finish.

Maple silkwood spoon carved by Michael Koren, ‘The Spoon Man’, Atherton Tableland. The two-tone effect of this maple silkwood bowl is typical. It was turned by Reg Lockyer, Ravenshoe.



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Flindersia schottiana silver ash Synonyms: Flindersia schottiana var. pubescens, Flindersia pubescens. Derivation: Flindersia honours Matthew Flinders (1774–1814), a famous Australian explorer. Schottiana after Heindrich Schott, a botanist at the Austrian Botanic Gardens who described many Australian plants. Family: Rutaceae, which has 23 genera in Australia, the largest of which is Flindersia with 16 species. Other genera include Acronychia, Euodia, Bosistoa and Geijera. These are major structural and cabinet timber rainforest species. Other names: Bumpy ash, northern ash, southern silver ash, mountain ash, cudgerie, stave wood, and flindosy birch. In the north its Aboriginal name is bunji bunji. Distribution: From Camden Haven River in New South Wales to Cape York in north Queensland. It is a riverine and rainforest tree. The tree: Grows up to a height of 45 metres and a stem diameter of 1 metre. It’s a relatively fast grower and has attractive grey-green foliage. The trunk is usually straight and cylindrical, but not buttressed, and often with burl-like bumps along the stem, hence the common name bumpy ash. The outer bark is grey and fairly smooth and often ringed with rows of small warts. The blaze is pinkish-brown. Leaves are compound, opposite, pinnate with 7–19 lance-shaped leaflets in pairs with unequal sides at the base and slightly curved. The undersides are greyish and are covered in a fine down with visible oil dots. The leaf petioles are swollen at the base and are usually yellow in colour. The white, honey-scented flowers are on large terminal panicles. The woody capsules develop with short, stout prickles and separates into five canoe-shaped valves, which tend to turn themselves inside-out as they dry. Each valve contains three flat seeds on each side of the valve, winged at each end.

Leaves. Mature tree.

Specimen with curly figure.

Wood of Flindersia schottiana The heartwood has a pale silver, tawny or brown colour with little evidence of sapwood. The upper specimen opposite shows a common figure of this timber where instead of being straight, the pronounced vessel lines form a wave on the longitudinal surface. It has a firm texture, is strong, open grained, and the wood works relatively cleanly. The wood is easy to work, glues well and bends excellently, with an air dry density at 12% moisture of 675 k/m3 in the north and 715 k/m3 in the south, which possibly reflects growth rates. It’s rather slow to dry but with few problems and negligable collapse. It has a shrinkage of 3.5% radially and 6% tangentially. It’s an excellent wood for furniture, panelling, decorative veneer, boat building and turning. 96

See macrophotographs of Flindersia schottiana on page 199.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Flindersia xanthoxyla yellow wood Synonym: Flindersia oxleyana. Derivation: Flindersia honours Matthew Flinders (1774–1814), a famous Australian explorer. Xanthoxylon from the Greek xanthos (yellow) and xylon (wood). Family: Rutaceae, which has 23 genera in Australia, the largest of which is Flindersia with 16 species. The other genera are Acronychia, Euodioa, Bosistoa and Geijera. These are major structural and cabinet timber rainforest species. Other names: Long jack and yellow wood ash. Distribution: From the Richmond River in New South Wales to Gympie in south-east Queensland. It grows chiefly in dry rainforest although it is found in both riverine and littoral rainforests. The tree: Grows to 45 metres in height with a trunk diameter of 0.9 metres and is often planted as an ornamental street tree, where it can branch out if not crowded. The trunk is cylindrical and is not prominently buttressed. The bark is grey to greyish-brown, often has vertical cracks, is scaly and sheds in oblong pieces. The blaze is yellowish-brown and sometimes has vertical stripes. Leaves are opposite, pinnate and leaflets numbering in pairs of from four to 11, are often crowded towards the ends of the branchlets. They are bluntly pointed at the tip, bright green above and lighter underneath. The yellow flowers are on loose panicles in the forks of leaves or at the ends of branchlets, shorter than the leaves. The brown woody capsules are covered with short blunt prickles and separate into five boat-shaped valves, each containing two flat seeds on each side of a woody partition. The seeds are winged at both ends.

Mature tree.

Opposite, pinnate leaves.

Trunk.

Wood of Flindersia xanthoxyla The wood is pale golden-yellow, close grained and does not have distinct sapwood. The texture is medium and even and the grain is sometimes interlocked and has a high surface sheen. The air dry density at 12% moisture is 750 kg/m3. It is easy to dry and collapses slightly with a shrinkage of 3% radially and 6% tangentially. It is relatively easy to work and turns and carves well. It is good for steam bending. It has been used for coach building, railway carriage frames and for buggy shafts. It is good for furniture, decorative veneer, boat building, carving, oars and skis.

See macrophotographs of Flindersia xanthoxyla on page 199.

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Geijera salicifolia green satinheart

Mature tree.

Trunk.

Wood of Geijera salicifolia The heartwood is yellowish-brown and the sapwood is white. The texture is medium but somewhat uneven. The grain is straight and it has prominent growth rings which gives it a pleasant figure when cut on the tangential surface. It is hard with an air dry density at 12% moisture of 1000 kg/m3. It dries readily but shrinks considerably, is easy to work but is rather brittle. It polishes well but tends to split, and peels and slices readily. It is suitable for decorative veneer and furniture, and for fishing rods. It is sometimes used for engraving. 98

Derivation: Geijera after J.D Guijer, a botanist and author. Salicifolia from the Latin salix (a willow) and folium (a leaf), alluding to the willow-like leaves. There are two varieties: Geijera latifolia (which is Latin for broader-leaves), and grows as far north as Cooktown, and Geijera salicifolia, with narrower leaves which does not grow north of Rockhampton. Family: Rutaceae, which has 23 genera in Australia, the largest of which is Flindersia with 16 species. The major genera include Acronychina, Euodia, Flindersia, Bosistoa and Geijera. These are major structural and cabinet timber rainforest species. Other names: Axegapper, narrow-leaved wilga, brush wilga, scrub wilga, flintwood, glasswood, grey satinheart and greenheart. Distribution: From the Hunter Valley in New South Wales to Cooktown in north Queensland. Variety latifolia grows in warm temperate, subtropical and dry rainforests from the coast to the mountains, and in dry sheltered valleys. Variety salicifolia however is found mostly in dry rainforest on steep stony slopes as far north as Rockhampton. The tree: Grows to 30 metres in height with a stem diameter of 0.75 metres. The trunk is cylindrical and not flanged. The bark is dark red-brown or grey on the surface, scaly and patterned with pustules. The underbark is pale brown which darkens to a dirty bottle green on exposure, eventually turning black. The leaves are alternate, simple with entire margins, abruptly narrowed at the base and the tip; variety salicifolia being narrower. When held to the light numerous clear oil glands are visible with a hand lens. The leaves are smooth and green on both sides, but slightly paler on the underside. The white flowers are on panicles at the ends of the branches which are generally shorter than the leaves. The seed capsules are usually one or two dry, brown globular or egg-shaped cocci, holding one black shiny seed in each. The fruit are eaten by Australian king-parrots, brown cuckoo-doves, Lewin’s honeyeaters and Australian brush-turkeys.

Leaves.

See macrophotographs of Geijera salicifolia on page 199.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Glochidion ferdinandi cheese tree Synonym: Phyllanthus ferdinandi. Derivation: Glochidion from the Latin glochidium (barb or arrow), referring to the toothed style of some species. Ferdinandi after Ferdinand von Mueller, one of the greatest Australian collectors and botanists, and Government Botanist of Victoria. Family: Phyllanthaceae, found in all tropical regions of the world and comprises 56 genera and about 1725 species, which indicates it has an early ancestry before the southern lands split and divided. It was recently split from Euphorbiaceae. There are 13 genera in Australia, including Actephila, Glochidion, Cleistanthus and Bridelia. Other names: Buttonwood, pencil cedar and water gum. Distribution: From Toross Head in New South Wales to Hinchinbrook Island in Queensland. It is common along sheltered streams and on rainforest margins. The tree: An ornamental tree with a dense bushy crown, but may be damaged by leaf miners or leaf-tying caterpillars, which grows to 35 metres in height with a trunk diameter of 0.7 metres. The trunk is often crooked and flanged. The outer bark is purple, fissured and sheds in long patches. The underbark is dark brown and the live bark is silvery-pink. The blaze is dark pink, paler towards the sapwood which is often brown and corrugated. Leaves are alternative, but are arranged in two rows so they often appear to be compound. They are smooth and green on both surfaces, often with unequal sides and tapering at the base and the tip, but are not big leaves. The leaf stems are triangular in cross-section. The greenish-yellow male flowers are often clustered into three whereas the female flowers are single and in the leaf axils. The fruit are hairless capsules and green turning red when mature. They are round and flattened, resembling a small pumpkin, with five to seven cells, each containing four to six flattened seeds covered with a bright red aril. The seeds are eaten by brown cuckoo-doves, figbirds, Lewin’s honeyeaters, olive-backed orioles, topknot pigeons and white-headed pigeons. Tree.

Leaves. Trunk.

Wood of Glochidion ferdinandi

See macrophotographs of Glochidion ferdinandi on page 192.

The wood is yellow to red with a close grain and is easy to work, but it needs to be secured firmly when drying because it warps badly. It is quite dense with an air dry density at 12% moisture of 700 kg/m3. Despite its hardness it is difficult to get good lengths, because of the small dimension and its tendency to be crooked. It is however suitable for flooring and small work.



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Gmelina fasciculiflora white beech

Tree.

Derivation: Gmelina honours Johann Georg Gmelina (1709–1755), a German botanist and traveller. Fasciculiflora from the Latin fasciculus (a little bundle) and flora (flower). Family: Lamiaceae, which was until recently classified under the family Verbenaceae, the same family as Indian teak, thus this species common name grey teak. Clerodendrum, Gmelina and Vitex have now been moved to Lamiaceae which in Australia contains four genera and eight species. Members extend across tropical Africa, Asia and into Australia, and is consistent with their evolution extending to around 80 million years ago, before the break-up of Gondwana. Other names: North Queensland white beech, northern white beech and grey teak. Distribution: Grows in conjunction with Gmelina leichhardtii from central Queensland and continues to Cooktown in north Queensland, which then merges into Gmelina dalrympleana (syn. macrophylla) on Cape York Peninsula. An interesting phenomenon is that it extends into New Guinea as Gmelina sessilis and then across to India as Gmelina arborea. The species has a wide range along the coastal lowlands, entering the closed rainforest as an occasional tree in the warmest locations. It usually appears as a solitary individual. The tree: A large tree reaching 30 metres and a 1.5 metre stem diameter. Moderately buttressed and sometimes deciduous. The bark is light or dark grey and often has white, powdery pustule-like markings, but large trees are more scaly. The scales are generally angular, but sometimes round. The green ovate leaves are simple and the underside is whitish with rusty hairs along the midrib and lateral veins. Domata may be present as tufts of hair. The flowers are white, blue or purplish with white bases and a yellow patch on the lower petal. The purple fruit when squashed smell of bleach and leave a brown stain on the fingers. They contain from one to four seeds with a woody endocarp. The fruit are eaten by fruitdoves and cassowaries.

Wood of Gmelina fasciculiflora The wood is a pale straw to light grey-brown, and like Gmelina leichhardtii, has no figure or sheen except for the glistening of the tyloses in the vessel lines. It’s a firm, compact, close grained wood with an oily nature. It has a high degree of durability in or out of the weather. It has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 545 kg/m3. It is soft, clean-cutting, easily and quickly worked, has a slightly greasy nature and lacks decorative values; however, because of its ease of carving and stability it is ideal for pattern making and carving. It has similar qualities to G. leichhardtii and therefore similar uses. Because of its natural acidity, non-corrosive fittings and fastenings should be used. 100

Leaves.

Trunk.

See macrophotographs of Gmelina fasciculiflora on page 180.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Gmelina leichhardtii white beech

Tree.

Wood of Gmelina leichhardtii The wood is pale brown and very similar to Indian teak, but has no figure or sheen except for the glistening of the tyloses in the vessel lines. Texture is medium and even, and often interlocked. It has an oily nature and a high degree of durability in or out of the weather. It has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 545 kg/m3. Shrinkage is about 1.5% radially and 3.5% tangentially. Logs left lying in the bush for 30 years have been found to be perfectly sound. It’s relatively soft, clean-cutting, easily and quickly worked, and has a slightly greasy surface. The sawdust resembles fine chalk and will rust steel nails. It’s white-ant resistant and difficult to burn. It seasons very slowly but does not warp keeping its shape fairly well. The wood lacks decorative value; however, because of its ease of cutting and stability it is ideal for pattern making and carving, and was used for butter churns and butter workers because it does not absorb moisture. It was also used for the hull planking and floats on seaplanes. It’s suitable for pulley blocks and electrical boards and for ship decking where it finishes well and bleaches with use rather than darkening as do most other timbers.

Derivation: Gmelina honours Johann Georg Gmelina (1709–1755), a German botanist and traveller. Leichhardtii after German explorer Ludwig Leichhardt (1813–1848), who collected many plants in eastern and northern Australia. Family: Lamiaceae, which was until recently classified under the family Verbenaceae, the same family as Indian teak, thus this species common name grey teak. Cleredendrum, Gmilina and Vitex have now been moved to Lamiaceae which in Australia contains four genera and eight species. Members extend across tropical Africa, Asia and into Australia, and is consistent with their evolution extending to around 80 million years ago, before the break-up of Gondwana. Other names: Beech, grey beech and grey teak. Distribution: Has an extensive range from the Illawarra coast of New South Wales to Proserpine in northern central Queensland. Grows along the coastal lowlands, entering the closed rainforest as an occasional tree in the warmest locations. It usually appears as a solitary individual. The tree: Grows to 40 metres with a 1.5 metre trunk diameter. It’s an excellent shade tree with attractive flowers and fruit. Moderately buttressed the stem is often flat sided and crooked, but clear of branches for more than half its height. It is found often in association with coachwood (Ceratopetalum apetalum). The bark is light or dark grey and on large trees is more scaly. The outer surface of live bark is pale green and the underbark is cream. The yellow-green leaves are oval, semi-transparent in sunlight and are strongly veined. White flowers with purple and yellow markings grow on large panicles at the end of branches. The fruit are succulent, blue, slightly broader than they are deep and around 20 mm in diameter. The fruit calyx is flattened and remains attached to the fruit which contain a single hard stone within the fleshy covering. The fruit are about 15 mm in diameter and contain four cells, each with oval seeds about 10 mm long. The fruit are eaten by topknot pigeons and wampoo fruit-doves.

Leaf.

Flower.

Trunk.

See macrophotographs of Gmelina leichhardtii on page 181.

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Grevillea hilliana white silky oak Derivation: Grevillea after C. F. Greville, a noted British algologist (one who studies algae) and one of the founders of the Royal Historical Society. Hilliana after Walter Hill, a director of the Botanic Gardens, Brisbane. Family: Proteaceae, a large family represented in Australia by 1100 species in 46 genera, including 80 rainforest species in 31 genera. They are mainly in the subfamily Grevilleoideae with others in South America, suggesting a partial common origin. Fossil pollen from Lomatia have been dated back 80 million years. This would indicate the origins of this family before the split of the southern continents. Most of the wood from the Proteaceae family have conspicuous medullary rays, giving great beauty to the wood. Other names: Grey oak, Hill’s silky oak, white yiel-yiel, yiel-yiel and yiel-yiel gill. Distribution: From Brunswick Heads in northern New South Wales to Cooktown in north Queensland, and is found in littoral and riverine rainforests. The tree: Grows to 30 metres in height with a stem diameter of 0.4 metres. The trunk is sometimes flanged or slightly buttressed in larger trees. The bark is grey, smooth and with numerous light brown pustules. On larger trees it can be slightly rough and scaly towards the base. The blaze has an outer reddish-brown colour, fading to light brown or pinkish-brown, with numerous dark short vertical ray markings. Leaves are alternate, simple or sometimes deeply lobed. They are quite long, tapering at the base and to a point at the tip. Immature leaves are deeply divided into two or more lobes and are much longer than the mature leaves, being up to 25 cm long. They are green on the upper surface and silvery and silky on the underside. The white flowers are on dense cylindrical racemes and the resulting seed follicles are woody, black and boat-shaped, each containing two flat grey-brown seeds which are surrounded by a papery wing.

Mature tree.

Leaves in silhouette.

Wood of Grevillea hilliana

See macrophotographs of Grevillea hilliana on page 194.

The wood is reddish-brown, beautifully grained and heavy, with an air dry density at 12% moisture of 975 kg/m3. In many ways it closely resembles beefwood (Grevillea striata) and Killarney beefwood (Stenocarpus salignus). It is suitable for cabinets and veneer, but does have a sticky gum which can make it difficult to work, so keep working speeds low so as not to generate too much heat.

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Trunk.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Grevillea parallela silver oak Derivation: Grevillea after C. F. Greville, a noted British algologist (one who studies algae) and one of the founders of the Royal Historical Society. Parallela from the Latin parallelus (parallel), referring to the venations in the leaves. Family: Proteaceae, a large family represented in Australia by 1100 species in 46 genera, including 80 rainforest species in 31 genera. They are mainly in the subfamily Grevilleoideae with others in South America, suggesting a partial common origin. Fossil pollen from Lomatia have been dated back 80 million years. This would indicate the origins of this family before the split of the southern continents. Most of the wood from the Proteaceae family have conspicuous medullary rays, giving great beauty to the wood. Other names: Narrow-leaf beefwood and white grevillea. Distribution: Grows mostly across the north of Australia and is found in a variety of soils, usually well drained. However in the cultivated form it will grow as far south as Coffs Harbour in New South Wales. The tree: A slender tree growing to 8 metres in height. The bark is grey and fissured. The leaves are simple, grey-green, long and tend to hang down. There are three parallel veins on the underside which is greyer than the upper surface. Occasionally divided leaves are found. The white or cream flowers are found in branching racemes and produce good nectar. The follicles are rather similar to castanets and release winged seeds.

Tree.

‘Castanet’ seed pods. Leaves.

Trunk.

Wood of Grevillea parallela

See macrophotographs of Grevillea parallela on page 194.

The sapwood is cream and the heartwood is red to light pink and has prominent medullary rays which make it an attractive wood. Although not plentiful and not found in large sizes it is a very pleasing wood and can be used for decorative inlays as well as small furnishings and turnings.



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Grevillea robusta southern silky oak

Mature tree.

Derivation: Grevillea after C. F. Greville, a noted British algologist (one who studies algae) and one of the founders of the Royal Historical Society. Robusta from the Latin robustus (robust), referring to the large size attained by this species. Family: Proteaceae, a large family represented in Australia by 1100 species in 46 genera, including 80 rainforest species in 31 genera. They are mainly in the subfamily Grevilleoideae with others in South America, suggesting a partial common origin. Fossil pollen from Lomatia have been dated back 80 million years. This would indicate the origins of this family before the split of the southern continents. Most of the wood from the Proteaceae family have conspicuous medullary rays, giving great beauty to the wood. Only a few Grevillea species grow in association with rainforests. Other names: Silky oak, he-oka, oka-kilika, ha’iki, ke’oke’o. The well-known common name of silky oak was given to this species by Moreton Bay pine cutters because the timber resembled English oak and was silky when newly split. The last four common names are used in Hawaii, where it is cultivated. Distribution: From Guy Fawkes River in New South Wales to Maryborough in Queensland. It is commonly found in riverine rainforest but is also in subtropical and dry rainforest on basaltic soils. The tree: This tree is possibly the best known member of the Proteaceae family and is grown in most countries of the world either as an indoor plant, a timber tree or a handsome ornamental. It’s a large tree growing to 35 metres with a stem diameter of 1 metre. It’s fast growing and is often used for avenue and parkland planting. The trunk is mostly straight and cylindrical but can be slightly flanged at the base. The bark is grey and usually vertically fissured. The blaze is pinkish-red becoming paler at the margin of the sapwood. The leaves are alternate, pinnate, divided into segments which are again divided into lobes that are again sometimes divided, giving the foliage a fern-like silvery look. The orange-yellow flowers are in toothbrush-like inflorescences on slender pedicels. The follicles are brown and boat-shaped and have a long slender beak. It is really not suitable for plantations because it produces phytotoxins in the roots which inhibit growth of any of its own kind within the range of its root system. This is known as allelopathy and you will frequently find stunted samespecies neighbouring trees when growing Grevillea robusta in close proximity.

Leaf. The typical toothbrush flower.

You could run into a southern silky oak anywhere. This Grevillea robusta in full bloom was in the grounds of the Royal Andulucian School of Equestrian Art at Jerez de la Frontera, Spain. Trunk.

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Australian Rainforest Woods

Wood of Grevillea robusta The heartwood is pinkish-brown with prominent rays of darker colour. The sapwood is paler but not always clearly distinguishable. The texture is medium and the grain straight. It is described as falling into the group of fine cabinet woods represented by Honduran mahogany and West Indian cedar, but its broad ray-grain development also brings it into a comparison with the coarse oak wood types. It finishes with a silken or silver finish in pink with red speckling due to the open vessel lines of the longitudinal surfaces. It simply must be quarter cut to do it justice. It seasons well and rapidly, and has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 640kg/m3. It has a shrinkage of 2% radially and 5% tangentially. The real value for this wood is in furniture, and in particular for interior panelling. It is popular for cabinet work, indoor fittings, coach building and cooperage. It was extensively used for doors and window frames because of its workability and freedom from splitting when nailed. Coopers used it for tallow casks, wine casks, ice-cream and butter kegs, and milk buckets. It was also used for shingles, palings, gates, packing cases and bullock yokes. It can be carved, bent, glued, stained – if you must – and polished with equal readiness. It is durable in or out of the weather, but not in the ground. It was extensively used for plywood and a high proportion of the domestic indoor furnishings sold pre- and post-WWII used silky oak veneer. It was used extensively by the Queensland and Victorian railways for passenger carriage interiors. I distinctly recall when I was a youngster in the 1950s that most tomato cases – which were highly sought after from the rubbish tip (well in my area anyway) – were mostly northern silky oak. The reason for their popularity was that you could drive nails right to the ends of the top battens on the case and the timber would not split. They were collected by those not so well off in the community and fixed end-to-end, to make a very neat set of kitchen cupboards. With neat frilly curtains on the front they did a great job.

See macrophotographs of Grevillea robusta on page 195.

Honestly, I could rave on for pages about how valuable this timber was and the huge number of uses to which it was put. But sadly, it’s rare now and difficult to obtain. This was the original silky oak on the Australian market and the wood came from two species. This species and Orites excelsus (described on page 129) both traded in the south as southern silky oak. Orites excelsus is a smaller tree and grows in a similar area to Grevillea robusta, but further up the mountain slopes. It occurs again from Thornton Park to Mt Bartle Frere in north Queensland, where it was marketed along with Cardwellia sublimis as northern silky oak, which is of a closer texture. The timber of all three species is very similar. However, the clear definition comes because of availability. If you find furniture or interiors of silky oak and it comes from before the 1920s, then it was probably Grevillea robusta, as was the interior panelling of St Andrew’s Anglican Church, South Brisbane, shown below. Swain (1928), in The Timber and Forest Products of Queensland, states that the silky oak of today is for the most part the product of the north A Grevillea robusta lidded box turned by the late Keith Moore. Queensland species, Cardwellia sublimis. Southern silky oak has been so widely used as to now be almost unavailable – except that I have a 28 metre giant in my backyard, with a 1.2 metre diameter trunk.

An 1890s dresser in Grevillea robusta in the author’s house – a family heirloom.

Australian Rainforest Woods

A section of Heritage Listed 1883 Grevillea robusta interior panelling in the St Andrew’s Anglican Church, South Brisbane, Queensland.

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Guioa semiglauca wild quince Synonyms: Arytera semiglauca, Nephelium semiglaucum, Cupania semiglauca. Derivation: Guioa after J. Guio, an 18th century Spanish botanist. Semiglauca from the Latin semi (half) and the Greek glaukos (bluish-grey), referring to the undersides of the leaflets. Family: Sapindaceae, a large family of 30 genera and 190 species in Australia, mostly only small trees, but a few growing to 30 metres. Other names: Guoia. Distribution: From Batemans Bay in New South Wales to the Eungella Range, west of Mackay in north Quensland. It grows in all types of rainforest except cold temperate, but is particularly common in regenerating rainforest. The tree: Grows to 18 metres in height with a stem diameter approaching 0.5 metres. The trunk is flanged, fluted or channelled at the base in large trees. The bark is smooth, grey or slate-coloured and is often spotted. The underbark is brown then pinkish-red towards the sapwood, becoming paler after a few minutes exposure. Leaves are alternate, pinnate, with from two to six alternate leaflets. They are ovate to oblong and usually blunt with just a short tip. The upper surface is green, sometimes shining, and the underside is pale or grey and hairy. The yellowish-green flowers are on panicles which are either terminal or sprouting from the base of leaves. The blue-green seed capsule has two or three compressed, wing-like lobes, looking almost like a butterfly or moth. Within each lobe is an oval glossy black or brown seed. The seeds are eaten by Australian king-parrots, eastern rosellas, figbirds, Lewin’s honeyeaters, olive-backed orieles, pied currawongs and varied trillers.

Mature tree.

Fluited or flanged trunk.

Wood of Guioa semiglauca

See macrophotographs of Guioa semiglauca on page 201.

The heartwood is pinkish in colour. close grained and tough. The bark contains saponin and was used by the Aboriginals as a fish poison, for catching fish in streams. It has not been officially tested but it has an air dry density of from 800–850 kg/m3.

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Halfordia scleroxyla saffronheart Derivation: Halfordia after Dr George Britton Halford (1824–1910), Professor of anatomy, physiology and pathology at the University of Melbourne. Scleroxyla from scleros (hard) and xylon (wood). Family: Rutaceae, which has 23 genera in Australia and has some very valuable wood producers, the most notable being Flindersia, Acronychina, Euodia, Bosistoa and Geijera. Halfordia has only two species. Other names: Ghittoe and jitta. Distribution: Grows specifically in north Queensland in rainforests from the McIlwraith Range to Paluma. The tree: Grows to 30 metres in height and 0.4 metres in diameter. The trunk is channelled and irregular with brownish-grey bark. The leaves are glossy, leathery with an elliptical shape and a rounded point. There is a small wing on the leaf stalk. The white or creamy flowers are either on axial stalks or are terminal. The fleshy fruit are drupe-shaped, red when ripe and contain from one to four seeds within a woody endocarp. When crushed the fruit is sticky and smells of pepper and citrus and is eaten by cassowaries, spotted catbirds, golden bowerbirds, topknot pigeons and fruit-doves.

Elliptical leaves. Small tree.

Wood of Halfordia scleroxyla The heartwood has a pale saffron colour and the sapwood is not readily distinguishable. The texture is fine and even, and the grain is variable. It is rather greasy to touch and is found as both straight- and cross-grained trees. The straight-grained wood is easy to dress and polish but the cross-grained is inclined to chip when worked, but has a fine fiddleback sheen. It has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 1100 kg/m3. It needs careful initial drying to avoid checking and splitting and is very slow to dry. Quarter sawing is advisable and there is no collapse. Shrinkage is 4% radially and 7% tangentially. It has been used for bearings, textile rollers, carving and fishing rods. During the 1927 visit of the Duke and Duchess of York, they were presented with saffronheart fishing rods. It is also good for floors, particularly dance floors. Straight-grained wood has great strength and elasticity, thought to be assisted by its oiliness which, by excluding air, retains this property almost indefinitely. While most timbers dry out and become brittle with age, saffronheart becomes harder, stiffer and is therefore ideal for golf clubs. Swain records some amazing properties, such as when the wood is soaked in oil it loses its elasticity and becomes plastic. Also it is claimed to be able to be case-hardened, as is steel. When it is heated under a flame it acquires ‘steeliness’.

See macrophotographs of Halfordia scleroxyla on page 200.

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Harpullia pendula tulipwood

Tree.

Wood of Harpullia pendula The sapwood is wide and bright creamy-white providing a huge contrast with the dark-brown heartwood. The dark centre is highly figured with dark bands and pale yellow areas. It’s fine-grained, tough and very durable. The fibres are short and narrow with moderately thin walls. The darkest heartwood develops in dry conditions. The air dry density at 12% moisture is 900 kg/m3. The timber is tough across the grain and is inclined to split, but cuts cleanly and turns with a smooth finish. It dresses well and takes a brilliant polish. It has special use for walking sticks, batons, billiard cues, and makes fancy inlays and panels. It’s used sparingly in furniture because of its size and limited supply. This wood can be regarded as rare and is obtained only in small logs; however, its decorative properties are its supreme virtue – and I have one in my backyard. 108

Derivation: Harpullia from the Indian (Bay of Bengal) name for the first named tree of the genus. Pendula from the Latin pendulus from pendere (hanging or drooping), in reference to the pendulous fruit bunches. Family: Sapindaceae, well distributed in both hemispheres and Australian leaf fossil records go back about 50 million years. The family is large with 150 genera and around 2000 species mostly in tropical and subtropical locations around the world. Most are only small trees. Harpullia is one of 30 genera and 190 species in Australia, with 15 genera and 34 species in rainforests. Only three of the species grow south of the subtropical area. Other names: Tulipwood, black tulip and tulip lancewood. Distribution: From the Bellinger River in New South Wales to Coen in north Queensland occurring in both wet and dry rainforests, on basalt or alluvial soils, and usually below the canopy. It is sometimes found in the drier harder soils or along rocky water channels. The tree: A small- to medium-sized tree growing to 24 metres and a stem diameter of 0.6 metres in good conditions. It’s a very compact and upright tree and has become popular as a street tree because of its spreading and shapely crown. The trunk is irregular in shape and can become fluted. The bark is grey and on live surfaces can be greenish-brown, and sheds long irregular flakes. Beneath the newly shed bark there is a pattern of numerous curly pustules. The underbark is a creamy colour and has a light, watery layer next to the sapwood which turns blackish on exposure and has a sugar-cane smell but is bitter to the taste. Leaves are compound, alternate, pinnate consisting of three to eight leaflets, 5–12 cm long, often unequal-sided and are light green, smooth and shining above, paler underneath, and terminating in a short blunt point at the tip, edges are not toothed. Flowers are greenish-yellow with red-brown sepals. They form panicles sometimes as long as the leaves. The distinguishing feature is the two-lobed, yellow or reddish capsules, 13–18 mm in diameter, which hang in bunches and contain two shiny dark brown or black oval seeds. They ripen from August to October, but with changing seasons will respond to good rains and seed any time during the summer months. The fresh seeds germinate readily in from two to eight weeks. Multiple trunk.

The distinctive twolobed, yellowish-red capsules enclosing black seeds. See macrophotographs of Harpullia pendula on page 201.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Intsia bijuga Johnstone River teak Synonyms: Afzelia australis, Afzelia bijuga. Derivation: Intsia is possibly from a Malagasy word intsy (there it is). Bijuga from bi (two) and jugus (paired), referring to the leaflets. Family: Caesalpiniaceae, a subfamily of Fabaceae, which is a large family containing trees which grow in the tropical rainforests. Other names: Kwila, ipil, merbau and Borneo teak. Distribution: In rainforests from Proserpine to Bamaga, Cape York Peninsula in Queensland, normally at low elevations close to the sea. It also grows in beach forests. Quite a large quantity is harvested on the eastern slopes of the Atherton Tableland around the Johnstone River area, hence its local common name. This timber also grows in New Guinea, Africa, India and South-East Asia. The tree: A medium-sized tree growing to 35 metres in height. Many mature trees have rounded buttresses which when fully developed can exceed four metres. The trunk is usually straight but can be crooked. The bark is often scalloped, the underbark resembles freshly cut beans or peas and minute ray patterns are visible in the inner blaze. The crown is usually spreading. The leaves are compound containing three or four tightly bunched leaflets. The outside veins of the leaflets form a series of loops just inside the leaf margin. The leaflet stalks look somewhat swollen and are sometimes wrinkled. The bunches of flowers are very like the cassia, and may have only one petal on each flower when fully developed, the others either absent or very much reduced. The stigmas are red. The fruit pods are flat and long with several flat, black, round seeds. I can remember in the 1950s when the hollowed out seed pods were used to hold wax matches. A cork was used as a stopper at the top of the seed to seal it. This was the only way to keep your matches waterproof in a tropical climate.

Small tree.

Wood of Intsia bijuga This is an important structural timber. The heartwood may be bright yellow when first cut but becomes pale or dark reddish-brown when dry. The sapwood is 8 cm wide and is pale yellow and usually easy to distinguish from the heartwood. The texture is moderately coarse but even and the grain may be interlocked, producing a ribbon figure. It has an oily odour when freshly cut and is rather greasy to the touch. The vessels contain a yellow substance that will stain when the timber becomes wet and will transfer onto concrete and other timber areas when used in buildings, if it is not adequately treated and sealed. In particular there will be heavy black stains where the timber is in contact with iron. The air dry density at 12% moisture is 850 kg/m3. It has great strength and dries slowly with little degrading. Shrinkage is about 1.5% radially and 2.5% tangentially. It cuts cleanly but saw blades tend to become clogged with a gummy material. Pre-drilling may be needed when

nailing. Sanding dust can be irritating to the skin and mucous membranes. It is used for outdoor furniture, flooring, structural work, window joinery, boat building, carving and turning. It may be imported.

Leaves.

Trunk.

See macrophotographs of Intsia bijuga on page 174.

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Jagera pseudorhus foambark

Mature tree.

Synonym: Cupania pseudorhus. Derivation: Jagera after Dr Herbert de Jager, who collected plants in Indonesia in the mid-19th century for the botanist Rumphius. Pseudorhus from the Greek pseudo (false or imitative) and rhus (the sumac tree in North America), in reference to the similarity of the foliage. Family: Sapindaceae, a large family of 150 genera and about 2000 species worldwide, but is best represented in tropical and subtropical Asia and America. Australia has 27 genera and 145 rainforest species, mostly small trees including: Alectryon, Arytera, Castanospora, Cupaniopsis and Diploglottis. There are 34 rainforest species in 15 genera. Other names: Foambark tree, fern tree, fern-leaved tamarind, fern-leaved pink tamarind, tamarind and pink tamarind. Distribution: From the Myall Lakes in New South Wales to Cape York in Queensland, mostly in subtropical and tropical rainforests on basaltic and alluvial soils. It also grows in dry rainforest and littoral rainforest and is prominent in regrowth. The tree: Grows to 30 metres in height and a stem diameter of 0.5 metres. It is a beautiful tree when grown in the open with a dense crown of fine, bright green leaves. The trunk is usually somewhat fluted on large trees and patterned with transverse raised ridges. The bark is dark grey, smooth and the underbark is red-brown. The blaze is reddish-brown with a paler layer near the sapwood and changes to a tan-brown on exposure. The Aborigines crushed the bark and used it as a fish poison to catch fish. It also serves as a soap if shaken with water, due to the bark and the wood containing a considerable amount of saponin. The leaves are alternate, pinnate with eight to 26 toothed leaflets. The leaves taper gradually to a sharp point at the tip with often unequal sides. The leaflets are green on both sides and the underside is covered in rusty hairs. The leaf stalks are swollen at the base. The red flowers are carried on a much-branched panicle, with the ovary covered in hairs. The egg-shaped fruit capsules are densely covered in pinkish-purple hairs, turning yellow-brown, three cells with one black or dark brown seed in each lobe. The seeds are eaten by Australian kingparrots and green catbirds.

Alternate, pinnate leaves. Fluted trunk.

Wood of Jagera pseudorhus

See macrophotographs of Jagera pseudorhus on page 201.

The heartwood is pale pinkish-brown with a medium and even texture and a straight grain. The wood, which along with the bark contain saponin, is easy to carve and work. It has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 785 kg/m3.  It is inclined to split in nailing so is best pre-drilled. It is used for joinery, turning and carving, but is seldom milled, so you will need to find a private supplier. 110

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Karrabina benthamiana red carabeen

Trunk with some buttressing.

Synonyms: Geissois benthamii, Weinmanannia benthami. Derivation: Named by H.C. Hopkins, A.C. Rozefelds and Y. Pillon in 2013 for the Australian species previously placed in Geissois. Benthamiana honours George Bentham, botanist and co-author of the first and only completed Australian flora. Family: Cunnoniaceae, a small family of mainly subtropical and high altitude tropical species consisting of 16 genera and 32 species in Australia, mostly trees, with a few shrubs. Karrabina is a new genus which has two species. Other names: Brush mahogany, brush mararie, leather jacket, pink marara, red bean, red carrobean and northern brush mahogany. Distribution: From the Manning River in New South Wales to Tamborine Mountain in south-east Queensland. It is common in both warm temperate and subtropical rainforests particularly in mountain gullies. The tree: A large tree to 35 metres in height with a stem diameter of 1.4 metres. The coppice shoots and young leaves are often bright red. The trunk is cylindrical and usually buttressed at the base. The bark is brown and wrinkled. The blaze is red with a paler layer next to the sapwood, turning yellow with exposure. Leaves are opposite, pinnate with three leaflets, toothed and elliptical in shape. They are smooth and green on both sides, but paler beneath. The yellow flowers are on slender racemes and covered with a fine down. The fruit are fawn, almost cylindrical and covered with a silky down. There are two cells in the seed capsule and several flat seeds in each cell. Brightly coloured coppice shoots.

Wood of Karrabina benthamiana The heartwood is pale to dark pinkishbrown and the sapwood is yellowishwhite. The texture is fine and even and the grain is variable but with little figure. The wood sometimes contains pockets of calcium oxalate, which severely blunt saws and can gap planer knives. The pockets can occur in long streaks, somewhat like gum veins presumably as a result of an earlier injury. It has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 650 kg/m3. It is relatively easy to dry but care is needed to avoid surface checking. It has only slight collapse. Shrinkage is about 3.5% radially and 7.5% tangentially. It is more difficult to work than its density would suggest. It is suitable for joinery, turnery, plywood and general internal use.

See macrophotographs of Karrabina benthamiana on page 177.

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Karrabina biagiana northern brush mahogany Synonyms: Geissois biagiana, Weinmanannia biagiana. Derivation: Named by H.C. Hopkins, A.C. Rozefelds and Y. Pillon in 2013 for the Australian species previously placed in Geissois. Biagiana honours George Bentham, botanist and co-author of the first and only completed Australian flora. Family: Cunoniaceae, a small family of mainly subtropical and high altitude tropical species consisting of 16 genera and 32 species in Australia, mostly trees, with a few shrubs. Karrabina is a new genus which has two species. Other names: Brush mahogany, brush mahogany marerie, brush mararie, red carabeen and red carrobean. Distribution: Found in north Queensland rainforests and prefers alluvial flats, or grows on the edge of streams or gullies. The tree: A tall tree to 30 metres in height and 2 metres in diameter but occasionally has a relatively short trunk. The trunk has tall buttresses at the base and is almost always bendy and in some cases the entire trunk is little more than large, long flanges rendering it useless as a sawn log. As with K. benthamiana, it is fast growing and produces a burst of red-coloured new growth which appears over the crown of this very appealing tree. The bark is smooth with tiny shallow patches of reddish-brown scallops about the size of a five or ten cent piece. The outer bark is brown and the underbark is cream. Leaves are opposite, pinnate trifoliate, and have a bold vein pattern, with smooth margins, unlike K. benthamiana. The new foliage is red. In summer hundreds of small creamcoloured flowers form in clusters like octapus tentacles and the seeds form in thin capsules which split when dry to release tiny brown seeds.

Mature tree.

Wood of Karrabina biagiana The heartwood of a mature tree is dark red or brown and seldom represents more than a quarter of the whole log, the remainer is lighter and more pinkish-brown in colour and grades gradually into the sapwood. Smaller trees may have little or no red heartwood. The wood gradually loses its colour to become light brown. The wood has a medium texture and straight grain. It has an air dry density of 560–640 kg/m3, depending on its rate of growth. It is used for joinery and has supply usually limited to the north, where it grows. 112

Leaves.

Buttressed trunk.

See macrophotographs of Karrabina biagiana on page 177.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Lagarostrobos franklinii Huon pine

A remnant Huon pine on the Teepookana Plateau, accessible only by helicopter.

Synonym: Dacrydium franklinii. Derivation: Lagarostrobos from the Greek lagam (lazy) and strobos (strobili), referring to the open nature of the female cone. Franklinii honours Sir John Franklin (1786–1847), naval captain, arctic explorer and early Governor of Tasmania. Family: Podocarpaceae, which contains six genera including Podocarpus, Promnopitys, Lagarstrobos and Phyllocladus. It is the oldest surviving conifer family and dates back 240 million years. Just how far back Lagarstrobos goes has not been established, however, palaeobotanists have found Huon pine-like pollen in sediment 135 million years old – that’s in Gondwana time – so that also makes Huon pine truly an ancient species. It was originally in the genus Dacrydium until its separation to a genus of its own. Common name: Huon, comes from the Huon River in Tasmania, on the banks of which it is now found, and named after Captain Huon de Kermadec, commander of the French ship Esperance. Distribution: Confined to western Tasmania, Huon pine is one of the southern hemisphere’s longest-lived species, in excess of 3000 years. However, only 10 500 ha of rainforest now contains Huon pine. Most Huon pine grows below 150 metres, but its range is from sea level to about 800 metres. The area experiences 100 frosts a year with an annual rainfall of 3 metres (3000 mm). The terrain is precipitous, with fast-flowing rivers cutting through a tortuous landscape. Huon pine grows in association with myrtle beech (Nothofagus cunninghamii), southern sassafras (Atherosperma moschatum), celery top pine (Phyllocladus aspeniifolius), and with blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon) on swampy sites. Often with an understorey of laurel (Anopterus glandulosus) and horizontal (Anodopetalum biglandulosum). The tree: A slow-growing medium to tall tree occasionally reaching 40 metres. It usually has a straight trunk, often forked, not buttressed, with light-green weeping foliage. The tree can be accurately aged from its annual growth rings. Male and female cones are borne on separate trees and ‘clonal thickets’ develop around the skeletons of old trees, or where the branches of the tree take root, having been weighed down by snow. No other species of Lagarostrobos occurs in Australia. This is a relic species and has chosen Tasmania for its last stand against the competition from other species and a drying climate.

Huon foliage.

An ancient Huon at Heritage Landing.



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Wood of Lagarostrobos franklinii The sapwood is pale and the heartwood light cream to yellowish with closely spaced annual rings and sometimes small black, ‘bird’s-eye’ markings, particularly in the stump. Huon pine sap contains around 7% methyl eugenol, which gives it its special odour and high resistance to fungal and insect attack. It has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 520 kg/m3. The wood is usually straight grained, with fine growth rings closely spaced – around 100 years growth for every 50 mm, and it varies markedly – you need a x10 lens to count the rings where growth has been slow. Despite its moderate density it has a fair degree of strength, and has an oily feel on freshly planed surfaces because of its methyl eugenol content, which may present a problem with glueing. It has good steam bending properties. Huon pine is reputed to be one of the most durable of the Australian woods – many logs that have lain on the ground for several hundred years are harvested and milled today as every piece is of value. In fact, fairly sound subfossil logs, carbon dated at up to 38 000 years old, have been dug out of river banks in Tasmania. Tasmanian wood crafters at Strahan recommend finishing Huon pine with a hardener-enhanced Danish oil, such as Rustins Danish Oil, but there are now a few alternatives available. The first coat is applied with a brush and the surplus removed with a clean cloth before it becomes tacky. After drying to the touch, the second coat is applied with a plastic or steel wool pad, and the surface worked vigorously to obtain a smooth surface that can breath. The surplus oil is again removed and the surface polished vigorously with a clean open cloth. Using this mixture and method, it is very easy to bring it to a really fine and durable finish. As the wood ages the denser latewood deepens in colour, and the timber takes on a delicate and readily identifiable patina. Figuring is particularly evident in bird’s-eye wood producing a vibrant silky sheen appearance, as can be seen at the top area of the photograph on the far right. 114

See macrophotographs of Lagarostrobos franklinii on page 170.

Because of its high durability, medium density, strength and low shrinkage rates, it has been highly regarded for boat building. Also because of its beauty, it has been widely used in furnishings and in speciality interiors. It is much sought after for turnery and carving. These qualities of great beauty, durability and rarity will ensure that items made from it will have pride of place into the future. Huon pine pollen has also been found in lake sediments in western Victoria, on the mainland of Australia, that date back about 150 000 years, so it appears that it could have been quite widespread across Australia some time in the past. More than 90% of the Huon pine has been logged, however remnants remain deep within inaccessible locations. Currently 86% are in reserves and excluded from logging. Huon pine is now ‘rare’ by whatever standard you choose to apply, and in recent years the total volume released from the stockpile salvaged from the Gordon River Dam has never reached Forestry Tasmania’s target and will run out early this century – then its curtains for 1000 years or so. The Tasmanian Huon pine forests are precious remnants of a now rare southern hemisphere conifer and are of comparable significance to any of the other conifer remnants in the world.

Huon pine carved fruit.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Huon pine ‘birds-eye’ markings formed from branchlets – often found in the lower bowl of the tree.

In search of Huon pine In 2002, I spent some time on the Central Highlands and the west coast of Tasmania around Strahan looking at trees. I was particularly interested in Huon pine (Lagarostrobos franklinii) and King Billy pine (Athrotaxis selaginoides) – and it was not an easy quest. My expectation was to take a stroll along the west coast of Tasmania and see beautiful 40 metre specimens of Huon – sadly, the remaining Huon pine is in remnant forests mostly out of reach. But if you really want to see them in the flesh there are a few to be seen, but you will have to make the effort.

Distribution For the past couple of decades most craftwood supplies have being salvaged from ‘downers’ in old logged areas – some having lain on the forest floor for 100 years. The remainder comes from logs released from the Lake Gordon stockpile which was cut in preparation for the building of the Gordon Dam. Most of the Huon is below an altitude of 150 metres, with its range from sea level to about 800 metres; however, above 700 metres its growth rate starts to decline. Its climatic preferences are extreme – the Mt Read area experiences 100 frosts a year with a rainfall of 3 metres (3000 mm). Overall the terrain where it grows is precipitous, and fast-flowing rivers cut through this tortuous landscape. Most of the millable Huon pine was obtained either from narrow strips along the banks of rivers and streams, in gorges, on swampy flats or near large shores – usually ‘with its feet in water’, but most is in small and scattered locations. The largest individual area of about 580 ha of Huon pine, is on the Denison River north-west of Lake Gordon. In 1990, Mike Peterson, Senior Forester, Special Species Timbers with Forestry Tasmania, undertook a survey to establish the extent of ‘virgin’ Huon pine left in Tasmania. Mike established that 10 500 ha of forest ‘contained’ Huon pine, but there is only 1567 ha of virgin Huon pine remaining, of which 1151 ha (74%) is in reserves, and 580 ha of this is in inaccessible regions in the Truchanas Huon Pine Reserve on the Denison River. So, around 86% of the Huon pine now exists in the reserve system. And quite frankly if you visit Tasmania with the express purpose of seeing a Huon pine, you have to go a long way to just catch a glimpse of anything likely to represent a mature tree. It is therefore ‘a very rare species’ by whatever standard you choose to apply. According to Mike the biggest and oldest living Huon pine is in an inaccessible area on the Gordon River. It’s trunk is 2.87 metres in diameter 2 metres above ground, with a height of around 40 metres. It has been cored and he believes it to be more than 3000 years old. During Mike’s 1990 survey he sighted, from a distance, a patch of conifers with drooping foliage on Mt Read, at an elevation of 1124 metres. But since this was outside the normal range where Huon grew, he left it. This sighting, however, motivated him to return later and he did confirm that it was Huon. This site has resulted in very valuable work on dendroclimatology, the results of which have been linked with other Huon sites in Tasmania, and detail from living trees and subfossil logs, has created a nearly-continuous chronology covering over 7000 years. The linking of date from living and subfossil information relies on cross-dated tree ring data.

The largest standing Huon pine at Heritage Landing, the furthest point for most tourists on boat cruises up the Gordon River.

Details of the Teamster’s Mate in Huon pine, from The Wall, a 100 metre long relief sculpture by Greg Duncan, Derwent Bridge, Tasmania.



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The ‘piners’ In Strahan, I was fortunate to meet Harry McDermott, and obtain a copy of his book, The Huon Pine Story, co-authored by Harry and his mate Garry Kerr. It’s a marvellous social history, compiled by piners (as the cutters were called) and they interviewed their mates – also piners. You really need to venture into some of these areas to comprehend the sheer gut-busting life of the piners – of men working in small teams for months at a time, in inhospitable locations, in indescribable conditions. It’s a fascinating story. The earliest piners started ‘cutting out’ the west coast forests in the 1830s, and the Huon and King Billy royalties formed the largest revenue component of the Tasmanian Forestry Department when it started in the early 1920s. So, there was a considerable amount of Huon pine extracted from the area stretching over almost a century before any overall control of the industry was possible. As you may well imagine, getting the timber out was not easy. The logs were cut and identified, and then winched, rolled or horse-drawn to the nearest stream where successive floods would wash them downstream. Eventually, when they reached open water on the lower Gordon River, they where contained and rafted to the mills or shipped directly to the

A ‘clonal thicket’ of stems rising from the skeleton of a Huon giant on Teepookana Plateau. New branches are shooting up from the moss-covered old-growth of the parent tree.

Australian mainland, or to overseas markets. In the early 1900s, teams of specially trained draught horses were used to pull logs to the river. This allowed them to extract timber further in from the streams. It just so happens, that most of these draught horses were bred and trained by Leonard Webb, my stepfather’s father, who owned property in the foothills of Cradle Mountain. In reality, it’s Huon pine’s inaccessibility that has been it’s saving grace – greater accessibility would almost certainly have resulted in its total demise today. But because of the harsh terrain, only the best and most accessible trees were harvested. Further up the slopes the Huon is stunted and the trunks tend to fork, so it was considered less millable and the piners did not bother with it. Huon pine remnants are deep within inaccessible locations, many unknown until Mike Peterson’s survey – some almost certainly still not discovered in this unforgiving environment. At Heritage Landing on the Gordon River is a Huon tree around 2000 years old – unfortunately it had fallen not long before our visit. But this tree is not dead. What you see now is a moss-covered, gnarled remnant in the early stages of forming clonal copies of itself. These ‘clonal thickets’ form around the skeletons of the old tree, where the buds and shoots are feeding off the carcase of the roots. The wood has ‘character’ in more senses than one, and only by appreciating its history can you fully enjoy its presence in your life. I take my daily sustenance from the 2.4 metre Huon pine dining table with inlays, and eight sessile oak (Quercus petraea) chairs, that I made some years ago (shown at left). The 1.1 metre wide table top is made from three 50 mm thick, bookmatched, Huon pine slabs. With the aid of a hand lens I counted 960 individual growth rings in the slab, indicating that the Huon pine tree was almost 1000 years old when harvested.

A Huon pine table with sessile oak chairs made by the author.

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The oldest clonal trees

A close-up photo of the oldest Huon pine – the V-shaped tree is reported to be 1300 years old. The smaller trees are possibly still of considerable age because growth is very slow.

The burnt-out section of the Mt Read Huon clonal stand. The complex array of rocks and shale was formed by an underwater volcano 500 million years ago and subsequent folding and faulting. The Huon stand is nestled between two ridges.



I can’t simply leave the story of Huon pine without conveying to you what I consider to be one of the most significant natural history stories that Australia should be extremely proud to tell. Because this is a story of one of the great natural wonders of the world – a clonal stand of Huon pine that can rightly be regarded as the oldest clonal tree in the world – present in the Lake Johnston Nature Reserve, south of Rosebery in central Tasmania. In October 2010, a small group from the International Wood Collectors Society, including myself, took the opportunity, following a meeting in Tasmania, to visit this natural Huon pine stand perched on a south-facing ridge very near the top of Mt Read. Few know about this reserve – because up until now, very few individuals outside the scientific community have been privileged to witness it – and I regard myself as privileged to have been able to make the trip. But firstly I need to compare this stand with others of world significance. The business of claiming what is, and what isn’t, the oldest of any category of nature can be quite tricky and subjective. So let me start by describing some details of the contestants with their respective claim as being the world’s oldest tree: • The bristlecone pine (Pinus longaeva) named Prometheus, in North America was claimed to be around 5000 years old when it was felled in 1964. However, the oldest part of the tree was long dead and the living part was only tens or hundreds of years old. • A Norway spruce (Picea abies) on Fulu Mountain, Dalama, Sweden, is claimed to be 9550 years old. However, sections of the root wood, which have the same genetic make-up and which are dead, are 375, 5660, 9000 and 9550 years old. The living stem of the surviving tree is about 600 years old. So what are the statistics of the Huon pine stand on Mt Read? The Mt Read stand covers 1 ha with all of the 300 trees in this stand being male and genetically identical, and they are growing at the highest elevation of any Huon pines in Tasmania. Studies of pollen in the sediment of nearby Lake Johnston have shown that these trees have been reproducing vegetatively on Mt Read for around 10 500 years. And as this part of Tasmania was also subject to glacial activity around that time, it may just be possible that this stand has been growing on Mt Read for longer, because the pollen went right to the bottom of the sediment core extracted in Lake Johnston. The oldest living individual Huon pine in the stand is around 1300 years old. These statistics have been described by scientists of international significance and have been extensively written about in academic publications, and I am sure that this places the Huon pine stand on Mt Read as having the oldest provenance and the oldest living material to earn the title of the oldest clonal tree in the world. All clonal trees reproduce by sprouting genetically identical individuals, either from the root system of the original plant, or as may have been the case for the Mt Read stand, from branches weighed down by snow and taking root. The average rainfall on the reserve is 3300 mm per year with average temperatures of 5°C in winter and 18°C in summer. This stand is growing in a subalpine climate of 1100 metres – well above its optimum growth level. These Huon pine trees have also been intensively studied by climatologists, who by examining their growth rings, have been able to establish, not only their age, but have also produced a continuous record of climate changes over the past 4136 years on Mt Read. It is fair to say that the Mt Read stand has established Huon pine as being a very reliable source in establishing the long-term temperature variability over Tasmania. The trees on Mt Read are so slow growing that Kathy Allen, dendroclimatologist with Monash University, quotes 200 rings per inch or 8 per millimetre for Huon pine on Mt Read. Normal growth below around 700 metres in elevation averages around 2 rings per millimetre, so growth is about a quarter the normal rate. Australian Rainforest Woods

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The Huon pine stand commences near the top left of the photo, with the patch of ‘stags’ killed by a 1961 fire. The rest of the stand can be seen stretching down the slope towards the southern end of the ‘saddle’. The Huon is a paler, sap-green colour.

An important feature of Mt Read is that it is not just the Huon pine which constitute the only interest. During initial investigations in the 1990s, Mike Peterson and his team established that eight of the nine Tasmanian conifers were growing on Mt Read. And of greater significance is that five of these species had living individuals over 1000 years old. So, here again, it can be claimed that this is the only known site in the world where so many millennia-aged individual conifers occur. The oldest being King Billy pine (Athrotaxis selaginoides) with individuals 2000 years old. In total, over 100 of Tasmania’s endemic plant species occur in the reserve – which also lies within the biggest single patch of deciduous beech (Nothofagus gunnii) in Tasmania. The reserve is also where the rare endemic Proteaceae, Milligan’s orites (Orites milliganii) can be found. The reserve also contains a significant population of the endemic conifer cheshunt pine (Diselma archeri).

Lake Johnston was formed by a glacier, and is directly below the clonal Huon pine stand on Mt Read.

All rainforest and alpine communities are extremely sensitive to fire and regrowth is very limited and slow. The last major fire occurred here in 1961 and the northern end of the stand was destroyed. You can see the twisted sculptures, or ‘stags’ of dead conifers above. This fire swept up the mountain from the north and once over the top spread a short distance down into the reserve in the saddle of the hill. The result is that within the alpine areas of the reserve there has been almost no regrowth of conifers and the ‘stags’ of King Billy pine (Athrotaxis selaginoides) are the dominant visual image on Mt Read. For over 100 years the area has been heavily mined for zinc, copper, silver and gold, but in 1999 the mining lease was surrendered to enable the creation of the reserve. However, mining has recently been reactivated with extensive development occurring in close proximity to the reserve. It’s to be hoped that this does not affect it – not after the reserve having been credited with one of the highest ranked levels of protection available in the world.

King Billy pine (Athrotaxis selaginoides) on Mt Read.

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The rare Milligan’s orites (Orites milliganii) on Mt Read.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Lasjia whelanii Whelan’s silky oak Synonyms: Macadamia whelanii, Helicia whelanii. Derivation: Lasjia from the initials of Dr L. A. S. Johnson, Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney (1972–1975). Whelanii after Police Sergeant E. J. Whelan, who accompanied the 1899 Bellenden Ker Expedition that discovered the species at Whelanian Pools, which was also named after him. Family: Proteaceae, a large family with 1100 species in 46 genera and includes 80 rainforest species in 31 genera. There is a common origin with other species in South America with fossils going back 80 million years. Macadamia has eight species in the world in New Caladonia, Malaysia and four species endemic to Australasia. There are three species in Lasjia, all endemic to rainforest in north eastern Australia, previously included in Macadamia. Other names: Silky oak and Whelan’s nut. Distribution: In tropical rainforests from Mossman north of Cairns to the Innisfail area in Queensland. It is found from sea level to 720 metres. The tree: Grows to 35 metres and mature trees may be buttressed. The leaves are simple in whorls of four or five and the midrib is flush on the upper side of the leaf. The cream or yellow flowers have no clear separation of the petals and sepals, and are fragrant. The fruit are brown and are encased in a leathery, pimply case, which splits and dislodges the nut when ripe. The nut is typical macadamia with creamy flesh. Very occasionally there may be two seeds in a case.

Small tree.

Trunk. Whorled leaves.

Wood of Lasjia whelanii The heartwood is dark reddish or black and its ray patterns when quarter cut give it distinction. It is tough and dense with interlocked grain. It has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 1000 kg/m3 which puts it in the catagory of being one of the heaviest of the rainforest woods. There is very little written description about this wood; however, when finished it is spectacular with a great figure and warmth. Its hardness and heaviness limits its application to some extent to special applications, but is good for hard turned items.

See macrophotographs of Lasjia whelanii on page 195.

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Litsea glutinosa, brown bollywood Litsea reticulata, brown beech

Litsea reticulata in Guy Fawkes River National Park, Dorrigo.

Wood of Litsea glutinosa and Litsea reticulata The heartwood is pale brown with tones of yellow, pink and grey. The sapwood is distinctly paler. The texture is moderately coarse but even, and the grain is sometimes interlocked. Litsea glutinosa has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 500 kg/m3, whereas Litsea reticulata has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 530 kg/m3. It is slow to dry but has little degrading and collapse is slight. If large dimensions are dried it can run the risk of pockets of different moisture content which can cause internal checking. Shrinkage is 2% radially and 5% tangentially. It is soft and easy to work, glues well and suitable for steam bending. It has been used for plywood, joinery, carving and boat building, however is scarse. 120

Synonyms: Litsia chinensis and Litsia brassii for Litsea glutinosa; Tetranthera reticulata for Litsea reticulata. Derivation: Litsea after Li-tse, the Chinese name for the genus. Glutinosa from glutinosus (viscid or sticky), referring to the fruit which are sticky when cut. Reticulata from the Latin reticulum (a small net), referring to the numerous veins in the leaves. Family: Lauraceae, a large family of 50–55 genera with 3000 species worldwide which are found in the subtropical, warm temperate and cool temperate rainforests. There are nine genera and 117 species in Australia including: Beilschmedia, Cryptocarya, Endiandra as the major genera. Other names: Litsea glutinosa is also called bolly beech, brown bolly, brown bollygum, soft bollygum and sycamore. Litsea reticulata is also called brown bollywood, bollywood, bollywood beech gum, brown she beech, soft bollygum and sycamore. Distribution: Brown bollywood grows from the Torres Strait Islands off the north Queensland coast to Murrumba in south-east Queensland. It is also found in New Guinea, Malaysia, South-East Asia, India and China. It grows in rainforest as an understorey tree, and in vine thickets and open forests. Brown beech grows from Yatte Yattah in New South Wales to the Eungella Range in central Queensland. It is found in most rainforest areas except the dry and littoral rainforests. The tree: Brown bollywood is an understorey tree growing to 12 metres, whereas brown beech is a large tree growing to 40 metres in height with a stem diameter of 1.5 metres. The stem is buttressed or flanged at the base in large trees, the outer bark is dark grey or brown, often scaly and marked with shallow reddish depressions. The underbark is paler in colour and the blaze is pale to pinkish-brown, and is paler towards the sapwood. The blaze darkens gradually over the whole surface. The leaves are alternate, simple not toothed and blunt at the tip. The leaf margins appear pale or semi-transparent when viewed against the sky. Brown bollywood has velvety hairs and oil ducts. It has male and female flowers on separate trees. They are white or yellow for bollywood and cream or green with pink glands, for beech scented and is single clusters or racemes of clusters. The fruit are drupe-shaped, purple to black in colour, smooth, fleshy and enclosed for about a third of their length in a cup-shaped receptacle. The seeds are single, oval-shaped and are eaten by green catbirds, topknot pigeons, wampoo fruit-doves and white-headed pigeons. Trunk.

See macrophotographs of Litsea reticulata on page 183.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Melia azedarach var. australasica white cedar

Tree with new leaves.

Synonym: Melia dubia. Derivation: Melia from the Greek name of manna ash, referring to the resemblance of the leaves to those of the ash. Azedarach from the Persian Azed-darakht, the name applied to the common Indian neem tree. Family: Meliaceae, a large family of 50 genera worldwide with 650 species. In Australia there are 13 genera with about 44 species including: Dysoxylum, Toona, Owenia, and a few others with only one or two species. Melia has only one species. Other names: Cape lilac, chinaberry, Persian lilac, Texas umbrella tree and tulip cedar. Distribution: From Milton in New South Wales to Cape York in north Queensland, and also in the Northern Territory and Western Australia. It is found in rainforest and regrowth areas in Cape York, and in riverine, dry and littoral rainforests on good soils through northern Australia. It is also found in New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Malesia and Asia. The tree: A large deciduous tree growing to 45 metres in height with a stem diameter of 1.2 metres. It is an attractive ornamental and shade tree, very hardy and drought resistant, but is often defoliated by the white cedar moth (Leptocneria reducta). The caterpillars are often seen climbing single file, head to tail, up the stems after pupating in the soil around the tree’s roots. The foliage turns yellow in autumn before falling. The stem is mostly cylindrical with a brown bark with greyish ridges, and is fissured. The blaze is pale brown or almost white and the thin outer layer changes to brown after several minutes of exposure. Leaves are alternate, bipinnate, leaflets opposite and prominently toothed, green on both surfaces, paler beneath. The lilac, chocolate-scented flowers appear on loose panicles in the axils of the leaves and develop into drupe-shaped oval fruit, green at first then turning yellow, each containing a hard ribbed five-celled, five-seeded woody endocarp. The fruit are poisonous to simple stomached animals, such as pigs, dogs and man, however are eaten by emerald doves, figbirds, green catbirds, Lewelin’s honeyeaters, pied currawongs, green and satin bowerbirds, wampoo pigeons, fruit-doves, wonga pigeons topknot pigeons and white-headed pigeons – and, believe it or not, spectacled flying-foxes. Figured grain.

Fruit.

Wood of Melia azedarach var. australasica The heartwood is pale brown and the sapwood is yellow. It can be highly figured. Its texture is very coarse and uneven due to the ring-porous nature of the wood. The grain is straight. It is light and easy to work and I have to admit is one of my favourite woods. It is exciting because it always seems to exceed your expectations. It has an air dry density of 460 kg/m3. It is easy to dry with a shrinkage of 2.5% radially and 4.5% tangentially. It is not a structural timber, but is excellent for cabinet work, panelling, veneers, interior joinery and decorative work. It is rarely cut because it is a very useful tree, so if you have the opportunity, get it while you can.

See macrophotographs of Melia azedarach on page 186.

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Melicope bonwickii, yellow evodia Melicope elleryana, pink euodia

Pink euodia tree.

Synonyms: Evodia bonwickii and Euodia bonwickii for Melicope bonwickii; Euodia accedens and Euodia elleryana for Melicope elleryana. Derivation: Melicope from meli (honey) and kope (division), referring to the notched flower glands. Bonwickii after Australian anthropologist James Bonwick (1855–1906). Elleryana after R. Ellery, a Victorian astronomer. Family: Rutaceae, a large worldwide family with over 150 genera and 1800 species. In Australia there are 40 genera and 320 species including many major cabinet woods in the Flindersia genera. Other names: Yellow evodia is also known as yellow corkwood. Pink euodia is also called pink-flowered doughwood. Distribution: M. bonwickii grows in the rainforests from Cooktown in north Queensland to the Sarina area in central Queensland. It is also found in New Guinea, Malaysia and Melanesia. It grows from sea level to 1100 metres. M. elleryana grows from Yamba on the Clarence River in north-eastern New South Wales to Cape York in north Queensland. It is found in riverine rainforest in the south and in rainforest in the north. The tree: M. bonwickii reaches 32 metres in height and the trunk is often buttressed. The leaves are compound, opposite, and with three leaflets. The upper surface of the leaf is shiny but the underneath is covered in minute hairs visible with a lens. It also has visible oil dots. The pink, but sometimes white flowers are on branched panicles originating from the stem, and rarely from the leaf axil. The fruit capsules are green or brown in clusters of from one to four. Each capsule contains from one to three brown or black warty seeds. These are eaten by sulphur crested cockatoos, metallic starlings, Lewin’s honeyeaters and silver-eyes. M. elleryana grows to 25 metres in height with a trunk diameter of 0.6 metres. The trunk is sometimes slightly buttressed or flanged in large trees. The bark is almost white to light brown with a soft corky layer of dead bark which is sometimes fissured. The underbark is creamy-white and the blaze is pale brown with numerous short vertical reddish-brown lines. The inner margins are pale yellow and it does not change colour with exposure. It has a somewhat doughlike odour leading to one of its common names. Leaves are opposite, with three leaflets which are covered with fine hairs, dark green and shiny above, paler beneath with visible oil dots. The dense panicles of pink flowers are a feature and originate from the old, fallen leaf axils. The seed pods are in groups of two to four which are grey to brown when dried, splitting open down one side to expose a single black, shiny, somewhat flattened seed. The seed has a thin succulent outer covering which is eaten by figbirds and olive-backed orioles. Pink euodia leaves.

Minor buttressing of yellow evodia.

Wood of Melicope bonwickii and Melicope elleryana

See macrophotographs of Melicope elleryana on page 200.

The wood is creamy-yellow to white, very light, soft and easy to work. It is not very stable and degrades fairly quickly and is subject to bluestain. Its texture is fine and the grain straight with an air dry density at 12% of 520 kg/m3. It should be suitable for inlays, models, toys and carving.

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Myristica insipida native nutmeg Synonym: Myristica cimicifera var. acutifolia. Derivation: Myristica from myristikos (suitable for anointing), referring to the mace oil or nutmeg butter which is extracted from the seeds and used as a liniment. Insipida is from insipidus (tasteless), referring to the inferior quality of the ground seed as a nutmeg substitute. Family: Myristicaceae, pantropical with 19 genera and 440 species worldwide mostly in the tropics. Australia has two genera and four species. Myristica has 80 species growing from Sri Lanka through South-East Asia, Samoa and Australia. Other name: Sometimes simply called nutmeg. Distribution: Found in rainforest, gallery and swamp forests from the Torres Strait Islands to Mission Beach in north Queensland where it grows from sea level to 300 metres. It also grows in the Northern Territory, New Guinea, Melanesia and Malaysia. The tree: Grows to 16 metres and has separate male and female trees. The leaves are simple and the base is usually rounded. The upper surface is glabrous (devoid of hairs or other projections) and the under surface is hairy. The leaf venation is very simple and it is difficult to see the tertiary venation. The leaf stems are covered in rusty hairs. The clusters of from one to three flowers stem from the axils and are cream to brownish in colour. The fruit capsules are brown and covered with rusty hairs and the nutmeg-shaped seeds are eaten by many birds.

Small tree.

Simple leaves.

Trunk of a mature tree.

Wood of Myristica insipida The wood is pale brown with orange or pink tinting. The sapwood is distinctly paler. The texture is medium and even, and the grain is usually straight. It has quite a distinct figure with variation in the early and later growth patterns which can be used to advantage. The air dry density at 12% is 560 kg/m3. The shrinkage is 4% radially and 8% tangentially. It is relatively easy to dry but needs care against bluestain and surface checking. It is easy to work and peels well. It is ideal for furniture, joinery, plywood and turning. The supply is small and usually limited to its area of distribution.

See macrophotographs of Myristica insipida on page 189.

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Nauclea orientalis cheesewood Synonyms: This species has had a very varied nomenclature having gone under the following: Nauclea undulata, Sarocephalus coadantus, S. papagols, S. undalatus and S. bartlingii. Derivation: Nauclea from navicula (small ship), possible referring to the boatshaped seeds. Orientalis is Latin for eastern, referring to its eastern distribution. Family: Rubiaceae, with 650 genera and 7000 species worldwide. Australia has 42 genera and 200 species, so the distribution is wide but thin with only small numbers in any genera. Nauclea has only this single species in Australia although there are nine more in the Pacific Islands, New Guinea, Malaysia, Asia and India. Other names: As with its scientific name, cheesewood has a number of rather confusing common names: Cape York Leichhardt (pine), soft Leichhardt (pine), Leichhardt tree, and various of these combinations, plus yellow cheesewood and burr tree. Distribution: Found in rainforest, as well as monsoon, swamp and gallery forest areas from Iron Range in far north Queensland to Bulburin near Gladstone in south-east Queensland. The tree: Grows to 30 metres and is usually buttressed, deciduous or semideciduous. The leaves are simple, oval, and the top surface is covered in fine hairs and the underside is velvety. The yellow flowers which have a white or creamy yellow calyx are unpleasantly scented and are in terminal heads on the end of branches. The rounded, brown fruit are actually an aggregation of many fruits. The cream to brown seeds are one per segment. The fruit are eaten whole by cassowaries and spectacled flying-foxes.

Small tree.

Simple, oval leaves.

Rounded brown fruit.

Trunk.

Wood of Nauclea orientalis The wood is bright yellow-orange going into brown with greenish tones mixed through it and can have some figure – a very unusual combination and one that gives it great attraction. It has a straight grain and can have good colour variation within the growth rings. It is medium hard with an air dry density at 12% of 560 kg/m3. It is very useful for ornamental work but tends to go brown when exposed to sunlight. It is useful for inlays, furniture, joinery and turning. 124

See macrophotographs of Nauclea orientalis on page 197.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Nothofagus cunninghamii myrtle beech

A mature myrtle beech at Dismal Swamp, Tasmania.



Mature trunk with severe myrtle orange gall infestation (Cyttaria gunnii).

Derivation: Nothofagus from the Greek nothos (false) and Latin fagus (a beech tree), indicating its difference from the northern hemisphere beech. Cunninghamii honours Allan Cunningham (1791–1829), an explorer and botanical collector. Family: Fagaceae, which is shared with the European beech. These are ancient species that dominated the southern and northern continents prior to the last major glaciation. The most obvious link is between these Nothofagus forests of southern South America and Australia. It is one of the most ancient angiosperm genera. Other names: Antarctic beech, southern beech, myrtle and Tasmanian myrtle. Distribution: Pollen records date back 85 million years from when South America, Australia and Antarctica were attached and the warmth remained in the Pacific region. Rainfall distribution was also spread evenly throughout the year and the three continents were heavily forested. With the eventual parting of South America, heat from the Pacific was diverted by the strong currents circling the Antarctic. Glaciation followed and extended to parts of Tasmania around 25–30 million years ago. Rainfall declined and became more seasonal. Pockets of Nothofagus have survived in South America, Tasmania and the higher altitudes in Victoria. Antarctic beech (Nothofagus moorei) occurs in the rainforests in northern New South Wales and southern Queensland. Tasmania’s rainforests fall into two categories: the Nothofagus cunninghamii dominant forests growing to about 1000 metres, and the Athrotaxis cupressoides, or pencil pine, dominant at higher altitudes. Myrtle beech grows from sea level to about 1500 metres with best development to around 700 metres on a wide range of topography, from moist sheltered gullies through moderate to steep slopes, to broad ridge tops and plateaux. At its optimum it is found in pure stands, or as a major component of cool temperate rainforest with an annual rainfall from 1100–2500 mm. Myrtle beech is usually associated with sassafras (Atherosperma moschatum), Huon pine (Lagarostrobos franklinii), leatherwood (Eucryphia lucida) and the conifers, King William (Athrotaxis selaginoides) and celery top pine (Phyllocladus aspleniifolius). At the lower rainfall levels it will form an understorey beneath tall eucalypts, while at higher altitudes it may be replaced by tanglefoot beech (Nothofagus gunnii), a prostrate shrub. The tree: A tall tree growing to 30–40 metres in height and 2.5 metres in diameter. It has dark brown scaly bark with distinctive adventitious shoots. The presence of the bright orange parasitic fungus ‘myrtle orange’ (Cyttaria gunnii) causes woody lumps to form on branches, as can be seen in the photo (lower left). Adult leaves are borne in flattened sprays, and are alternate, shortly petiolate, and ovate to almost triangular in shape. They have bluntly toothed margins. New growth is red to bronze-coloured, developing a dark green shiny upper surface.

New spring growth leaves in the foreground with mature leaves in the background.

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Wood of Nothofagus cunninghamii The sapwood is white with a pink to red-brown heartwood. The wood is subject to a fungus which produces a very distinctive and keenly sought after ‘tiger’ figure. Occasional curly and ‘bird’s-eye’ figures are found and are highly prized. It has a straight and slightly interlocked grain, fine uniform texture, moderate strength, is hard and tough, and moderately durable. The wood has visible growth rings and pores which are small, numerous and scattered. Air dry density at 12% moisture is 720 kg/m3. Shrinkage is about 3% radially and 6.5% tangentially. It dresses to a very smooth surface but needs very sharp cutters. It bruises on the end grain. Care is needed in nailing as it tends to split. It glues satisfactorily. There is often a zone of intermediate wood between the heartwood and the sapwood which is softer and easy to impregnate with preservatives. It has been shown that myrtle orange fungus (Cyttaria gunnii) having penetrated the bark causes myrtle orange gall. It’s interesting to contemplate the possibility that ‘burls’ may be caused by fungal aggravation of meristematic tissue resulting in cancerous growth and the typical burl figure – so highly prized. This burl characteristic can be seen in the specimen on the right showing curly figure and bird’s eye. Timber colour is reputed to be related to soil quality, poorer soils giving a lighter coloured wood. Darker coloured woods need extra care in working to minimise surface checking on the tangential surface and internal honeycombing. It is difficult to season but works quite well and has excellent bending qualities. A beautiful furniture and cabinet timber with a high lustre, also used for parquetry, panelling, veneers and turning.

Historic significance

The living flora of Tasmania, which includes many ancient tree species, is a product of past tectonic processes and therefore represents a unique natural laboratory in which plants like 126

See macrophotographs of Nothofagus cunninghamii on page 180.

A prepared specimen of myrtle combining curly figure and bird’s-eye – possibly the result of myrtle orange infestation.

Tiger figure also caused by fungal growth discolouring the early wood.

Turned (myrtle) bowl with tiger figure.

myrtle beech have been isolated for a long period of time. Tasmania is one of the few places where the effects of climate change on vegetation can be studied. Fossil records of rainforest species are particularly good and demonstrate a long and complex history. They link strongly with other high-latitude Gondwana land masses, particularly South America and Antarctica. It is clear that pre-adaptation, particularly in leaf form, has been an important feature in the evolution of myrtle beech and other species. There is far more evidence for these early Tasmanian species on this planet compared with the sparse records of other vegetation types, particularly in the northern hemisphere. Australian Rainforest Woods

Nothofagus moorei Antarctic beech

Mature Antarctic beech growing in the Queensland–New South Wales border area – their northern-most location.

Derivation: Nothofagus from the Greek nothos (false) and Latin fagus (a beech tree), indicating its difference from the northern hemisphere beech. Moorei honours C. Moore (1820–1905), a former director of the Botanic Gardens, Sydney. Family: Fagaceae, an ancient family which dominated the southern and northern continents with pollen records dating back 85 million years before Gondwana split up and rainfall was spread more evenly throughout the year. Fossil evidence shows that the continents were heavily forested and that Nothofagus was one of the major species present in cool-temperate rainforests. Other names: Southern beech and negrohead beech. Distribution: Has a very distinct distribution from Newcastle in New South Wales to just north of the Queensland–New South Wales border. It typically occurs along creeks and on the upper slopes of ridges and mountains. It sometimes grows in sheltered sites where it is protected, or in shallow drainage lines. In the northern areas of its distribution it is found on the crest of the ranges on the Queensland–New South Wales border. The tree: A tall tree growing to 40 metres in height and 1.5 metres in diameter, but can have an irregular form with crooked and leaning trunks and a dense dark green crown. The bark is thick, dark brown to reddish brown and scaly. The cut blaze is red leading to pink. The butts of old trees are often enlarged, with shoots at different stages of development often resulting in subsidiary stems around the original. There may be a ring of stems surrounding a gap where the original tree has rotted away. The leaves are ovate with fine-toothed margins and both surfaces are dark green. The leaf is rigid and brittle with a short stalk. The tree’s crown usually has red leaves scattered throughout. These can be old, senescent leaves, or new spring foliage which is also deep red. The twigs are usually covered in brown down. Separate male and female flowers are borne on new shoots on the same tree. The male flowers are on catkins in the forks of lower leaves and the female flowers are borne in forks of the upper leaves. The fruit are split into four prickly valves enclosing three nuts. The outer nuts have three wings and the central nut is flat; however, most are now infertile with regeration relying heavily of asexual reproduction. This suggests that the species does not have a good future.

Wood of Nothofagus moorei The heartwood is pink to reddishbrown and the sapwood paler. Texture is fine and even with a straight grain. It is of moderate strength, hard and tough, but only moderately durable. Air dry density at 12% moisture is 600 kg/m3. It is slow to dry with some collapse and shrinkage of about 3% radially and 7% tangentially. It’s rather hard to work, dresses to a very smooth surface but needs very sharp cutters. A delicate ray pattern can be seen when quarter cut. Care is needed in nailing as it tends to split. It can be difficult to glue, but bonding is successful with tannin-formaldehyde. Suitable for flooring, panelling, turning and plywood.

See macrophotographs of Nothofagus moorei on page 180.

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Olea paniculata native olive Derivation: Olea from the Greek elaia (the olive tree). Paniculata from the Latin panicula (a tuft), referring to the loose cluster of flowers. Family: Oleaceae, a small family of only 30 genera and 600 species distributed throughout the warmer countries in both hemispheres. In Australia there are six genera and 30 species. Olea has only one species. Other names: Australian olive, clove berry, maulwood and pigeonberry ash. Distribution: From the Hunter River in New South Wales to the McIllwraith Range in north Queensland and prefers riverine, dry and littoral rainforests. The tree: Grows to 30 metres in height with a trunk diameter of 0.9 metres. It is a quick growing, hardy tree with good form as an ornamental. The trunk is often flanged and irregular, and the flanges tend to become buttresses as it ages. The bark is grey to brown and is marked with numerous pustules, pale in colour and may be arranged in vertical rows. The underbark is chocolate-brown and the blaze is light brown with paler vertical stripes and dark brown specks. The blaze changes to a deep salmon pink after a few minutes exposure and then slowly changes to brown. The leaves are opposite and simple, not toothed and with a fine point at the end. They are green and glossy on the upper surface, paler beneath. The margins of the leaves can be wavy, as in the specimen shown. The pale green and white flowers are small and in panicles at the end of the branchlets or in the forks of the upper leaves. The fruit are drupe- or pointed egg-shaped, bluish black, not very succulent and contain one creamy-brown seed. The seeds are eaten by Australian king-parrots, brown cuckoo-doves, green catbirds, regent bowerbirds, rose-crowned fruit-doves, topknot pigeons, wampoo fruit-doves and white-headed pigeons. Tree.

Trunk showing pustules. Simple, opposite leaves.

Trunk showing irregular flanges.

Wood of Olea paniculata

See macrophotographs of Olea paniculata on page 191.

The heartwood is pale pinkish-brown with a hard texture and even grain. The air dry density at 12% moisture is 915 kg/m3. It needs care in drying to prevent deteriation as is shown in the specimen. The timber needs to be covered against the elements. It is easy to work and glues and finishes well. It is scarce and can be used for furniture, although it is quite heavy, joinery and flooring.

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Orites excelsus mountain silky oak

Trunk.

Synonyms: Orites fragrans, Orites excela. Derivation: Orites from the Greek orites (a mountaineer), referring to the first two species to be recognised occurring in mountains. Excelsus from the Latin excelsa (tall), being the tallest of the family in Australia. Family: Proteaceae, a large family with 1100 species in 46 genera including 80 rainforest species in 31 genera. There is a common origin with other species in South America where fossil records have been dated back 80 million years. Orites has nine species in Australia and South America, indicating their ancestry before the two countries split from Antarctica. Australia has seven species, two of which are found in the rainforests. Other names: Southern silky oak, silky oak, prickly ash and white beefwood. Distribution: From Jerusalem Creek in New South Wales to Mount Mistake in southern Queensland, and again from Thornton Peak to Mt Bartle Frere in north Queensland where it grows at an altitude of 1000 to 1600 metres. In its southern distribution it grows in most rainforests north of the Hunter River on poorer soils, or at higher elevations on volcanic soils. The tree: A medium-sized tree growing to 30 metres in height with a stem diameter of 0.75 metres. The trunk is usually fairly cylindrical and is not usually buttressed to any extent. The bark is brown or grey and often scaly and fairly smooth. The underbark is orange to fawn and the blaze is pinkish-brown becoming paler towards the sapwood and after about 10 minutes of exposure it turns dark brown. The leaves are alternate, simple and in juvenile form can have three to five toothed lobes. The adult leaf has a blunt pointed tip and base. The white flowers are on axillary spikes and the fruit is in the form of a long green or brown pod opening along one side to reveal bright orange, or brown seeds.

Wood of Orites excelsus The heartwood is pinkish-brown and the sapwood is lighter in colour. The texture is rather coarse but even and the grain is straight. The rays in this wood are fairly large, numerous and prominent, making it very attractive in the quarter cut. It has a air dry density at 12% moisture of 610 kg/m3. It needs care in drying to prevent checking of the tangential surface, however collapse is negligible. Shrinkage is 2% radially and 6.5% tangentially. It’s easy to work, good for steam bending, and nails and glues well. When planing the rays tend to pull out if too much is taken off in one pass and it may need extra grades of sanding to achieve the final finish. It is in limited supply, so don’t pass up any offer if you have the opportunity of supply. It’s suitable for most internal uses with the exception of handles because of the tendency to part on the ray surfaces. One of my finest wall units is made from this wood and is a prized possession.

Pods with bright orange seeds.

See macrophotographs of Orites excelsus on page 195.

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Paraserianthes toona Mackay cedar Synonym: Albizia toona. Derivation: Paraserianthes comes from the Greek para (like), and after the genus Serianthes. Toona after the genus Toona, referring to the similar colour and quality of its wood. So, instead of something original, it is like a Serianthes with wood like a Toona. Family: Mimosaceae, which has between 40 and 60 genera with about 3000 species mostly in the southern countries of the world. In Australia there are 17 genera with more than 1200 species. Of these, 12 genera with 48 species are in the rainforests. Some of the genera like Acacia are quite new to this planet and now regarded as endemic to Australia, however Paraserianthes has four species, one each in Melanesia and Malaysia, and two species in Australia, one of which is found in the tropical rainforest. Other names: Acacia cedar and red siris. Distribution: Grows in rainforest, vine thickets and monsoon forests from the Torres Strait Islands to Shoalwater Bay in south-east Queensland growing from sea level to 700 metres. The tree: Grows to 30 metres, may be buttressed and is deciduous. The leaves are compound, alternate, and although they resemble acacia leaves, the similarity is only to the juvenile acacia leaves, as the adult leaves are phyllodes. The leaflets are on a rachis with from five to 22 pairs. They are hairy with a slightly swollen gland near the base. The green, white or cream flowers are on axillary or terminal panicles, and the fruit are twisted, brown pods containing from one to nine black seeds. When mature the pods split and open in a twisted, tangled mass. Leaves in silhouette.

Tree.

Trunk.

Wood of Paraserianthes toona The heartwood is dark red with some yellow streaks and the sapwood is white and up to 50 mm wide. The texture is moderate to coarse but even, and the grain is often interlocked. The air dry density at 12% moisture is 720 kg/m3. It needs careful drying to prevent surface checking. Shrinkage is around 2% radially and 4.5% tangentially. It is easy to work and glues well. However, it is a terrible timber to work with and has been banned from commercial workshops because it irritates the eyes, nose and throat, as well as causing sneezing, nosebleeds and conjunctivitis. In other words, if you are going to use it you must wear breathing apparatus and protect your skin from contact, particularly with wet material. It has been used for furniture, flooring, panelling, decorative turnery and general joinery. It is a very attractive wood. 130

See macrophotographs of Paraserianthes toona on page 187.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Pennantia cunninghamii brown beech

Mature tree.

Flanged trunk.

Wood of Pennantia cunninghamii Brown beech is said to be like English beech (Fagus sylvatica), but more reddish in colour and softer. It is fine, even and straight grained. The vessel lines are not distinguishable on the longitudinal surface. It has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 575 kg/m3. It is soft, but is tough and can be cut in any direction and it dresses smoothly and cleanly, and glues well. When quarter sawn it shows a fine ray figure. It has many uses both for turning and in furniture making.

Derivation: Pennantia after the British scientist Thomas Pennant (1726–98). Cunninghamii after early Australian explorer and botanical collector Allan Cunningham (1791–1839). Family: This species was previously in Icacinaceae which has about 50 genera in the world and about 400 species. In Australia there are six genera and seven species, all of which are almost exclusively found in the tropical rainforests of north Queensland. However, it is now in Pennantiaceae, which has only one genus with four species in eastern Australia, Norfolk Island and New Zealand. Other names: Surprisingly, it has no other common name. Distribution: Found in rainforests from the Windsor Tableland, south to Ravenshoe on the Atherton Tableland at an altitude of 1200 metres. A second population is found in south-east Queensland and across the border into New South Wales. It favours cool spots in mountain valleys where it often overhangs the streams. The tree: A fairly tall tree which grows to 30 metres with a stem diameter of 0.9 metres. The base of the stem is usually flanged and is quite often crooked, leaning and with various changes in direction and protuberances of varying sizes. The outer bark is dark grey or brown, and often marked with numerous corky pustules and small scales. The underbark is mid-brown. New bark is orange-brown with short vertical darker lines. The blaze is pink or cream with orange-brown vertical flecks which quickly changes colour to a dirty orangebrown. The leaves are alternate, ovate or elliptical, and about 7–15 cm long, usually drawn out into a sharp point at the tip, so they are fairly large compared to other rainforest species. They are shiny green above and dull green underneath. If heated from below the waxy upper surface coating melts and a black margin appears around the heated area. The white flowers are found on short dense panicles either terminal or in the leaf forks, but shorter than the leaves. There are separate male, female and hermaphrodite flowers. The black, drupe- to egg-shaped berries contain a single seed which is eaten by brown cuckoo-doves, green catbirds, topknot pigeons, wampoo fruit-doves and whiteheaded pigeons.

See macrophotographs of Pennantia cunninghamii on page 192.

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Phyllocladus aspleniifolius celery top pine

Small celery top pine on Cradle Mountain.

Derivation: Phyllocladus from the Greek phyllon (leaf) and clados (a young shoot or branch), alluding to the fact that the ’leaves’ are flattened branches or cladodes. Aspleniifolius after Asplenium a genus of fern, and Latin folium (leaf), hence with fern-like leaves. Family: Phyllocladaceae, an ancient conifer family which made its first appearance 70 million years ago, but could well have been around before that. Phyllocladus aspleniifolius has no closely related species in Australia. New Zealand has three species which were collected on Captain Cook’s 1769 voyage. Common name: Celery top alludes to the similarity of the ‘leaves’ to those of edible celery, so in many regards it does not resemble a pine and is in fact more closely related to the yews. Distribution: Mainly found in west and south-west Tasmania, with small areas on Maria and Bruny islands, the Tasman Peninsula and Blue Tier. Its best development is between sea level and 800 metres with a few specimens at 1000 metres. The annual rainfall is predominantly winter and averages 1000–3000 mm. Much of the area is mountainous. Occurs on a wide range of soils including alpine humus and peat. It is a common component of Tasmania’s cool temperate rainforests in association with myrtle beech (Nothofagus cunninghamii), southern sassafras (Atherospermus moschatum), leatherwood (Eucryphia lucida) and blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon). It also occurs in mixed forests with tall eucalypts with an understorey of rainforest trees. These associations include: Smithton peppermint (Eucalyptus nitida), swamp gum (E. ovata), alpine ash (E. delegatensis), mountain ash (E. regnans) and messmate (E. obliqua). In low forests it is associated with woolly tea tree (Leptospermum lanigerum), pittosporum (Pittosporum bicolor) and horizontal (Anodopetalum biglandulosum). The tree: Grows to be a medium to tall tree reaching 30 metres in height and 1 metre in diameter, but most often less than 20 metres. It has a straight trunk without buttresses and occasionally has a leader. It is long-lived with a life span of 800 years. The bark is dark grey to reddish-brown with many lenticels and has a high tannin content. Older bark tends to split into rectangular scales. The tree has a rather dense dark green crown highlighted with paler new foliage in spring and autumn, as can be seen in the top left photo. The leaves are in fact very small scales on the branches. The adult ‘leaves’ are actually flattened wedge- or diamond-shaped ends of twigs. They have rounded lobes and small teeth along the edges. These assume a leaf-form not unlike the lobes of celery leaves from which it gets its common name. The surface is dark glossy green with numerous conspicuous veins running from the midrib to the margins. Oil cavities are numerous and the leaf yields 0.2% oil. Male and female flowers are produced on separate trees, but are inconspicuous. The male cones are cylindrical and up to 0.5 cm long, either single or a few together on lateral branches. The female strobili are usually clustered three or four together in a short spike or on the margins of the leaves. As the fruit mature they become fleshy and pink to red, drying off to become a hard greenish-black seed.

Celery top leaves are very small scales on the branches. The adult ‘leaves’ as seen here are actually flattened wedge- or diamondshaped ends of twigs with rounded lobes and small teeth along the edges. These assume a leaf-form, not unlike the lobes of celery leaves from which it gets its common name.

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Wood of Phyllocladus aspleniifolius The heartwood is light cream to pale brown, with easily discernible growth rings with a narrow sapwood not clearly distinguishable. Because it grows on a wide range of sites and is very sensitive to weather conditions, its patterns of ring width and wood density are being used to investigate climate change over time in Tasmania. The texture is fine and even, and the grain is usually straight. The growth rings are a feature and can be used to effect in furniture making. It has no taste or odour and has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 650 kg/m3. The other interesting property of celery top is its low rate of shrinkage during drying which results in very little deformation in the size of the wood with no apparent cell collapse. For these reasons it was popular for use as beams and exterior cladding. This also gives it good qualities for sliding drawers where the timber runners remain true. The shrinkage rate is around 1.5% radially and 3.5% tangentially. In some instances where there is a great deal of compression wood, it may be difficult to work, but otherwise it works well. It’s an excellent wood for steam bending. Many workers of celery top pine have mentioned that as the wood ages it changes colour, many describing it as ‘turning gold’. Celery top pine, like Huon pine, is very slow growing, taking around 300 years for a tree to reach maturity. So much of it is very dense and finegrained timber with natural oils and resins which tend to make it very durable when exposed to the elements. Its durability in the ground makes it competitive with most other species. In fact, some of the old telegraph poles around Hobart are celery top pine. However, the sapwood must be removed from the log in those areas in contact with the ground. In early years it was used for railway sleepers, strainer posts, flooring, fittings masts, boat decking and chemical vats, especially for acid storage. Other uses include garden furniture, joinery, kitchen utensils, turning and carving. So, it is a very

See macrophotographs of Phyllocladus aspleniifolius on page 169.

useful wood in many regards because of some of its unique characteristics – however it is scarce.

Historical significance

Being able to obtain a history of climate from preserved timber has become important, and celery top pine has been found to provide accurate records of past climate according to former CSIRO Forestry research officer, Trevor Bird. Trevor did extensive investigations of tree ring characteristics for Huon and celery top pines in Tasmania. A well-preserved log section of celery top pine has been found from digs at the Stanley River, a tributary of the Pieman River, which has been carbon-dated at 11 000 BC. Trevor established good correlation for narrow growth rings across Tasmania for the very dry growing seasons of 1814–15, 1887–88, 1908–9, 1910–11 and 1966–67 for example. And CSIRO Forestry has samples of celery top going back 13 000 years. According to Trevor, celery top pine is generally more sensitive to climatic change than Huon pine, which is indicated by its greater variability in year-toyear growth ring widths. From these specimens, however, it has been estimated that celery top pine can grow to an age of 800 years. Where specimens that overlap in age are found then it is possible to obtain reliable interpretations of general growth, and therefore climatic conditions that existed at the time.

Four turned figures and a cutting board in celery top pine. These figures are in the style of traditional English wooden toys.

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Pittosporum undulatum engraver wood Derivation: Pittosporum from the Greek pitta (pitch) and sporos (a seed), referring to the sticky mucilage surrounding the seeds. Undulatum from the Latin undulatus (wavy), referring to the leaf margins. Family: Pittosporaceae, which has nine genera. Australia has 72 of the world’s 200 species, and has representatives of all the genera. There are 12 rainforest species in three genera: Auranticarpa, Hymenosporum and Pittosporum. Other names: Mock orange, native daphne, native laurel, laurel pittosporum, sweet pittosporum, wave-leaved pittosporum and white holly. Distribution: Found over a large area from the Mitchell River Gorge in Victoria to Gladstone in southern Queensland. It is found across numerous vegetative types, from scrubby gullies, steep rocky mountain sides in open forest country, and in rainforest of various types, including semi-dry, warm temperate and subtropical rainforests on red basalt soils in the McPherson Range where the species gains its largest size. The tree: Grows to 25 metres in height and has a stem diameter of 0.75 metres. It is a fine ornamental species with dense attractive foliage and fragrant flowers. The trunk is often flanged at the base in large trees and frequently crooked. The bark is dark brownish-grey, rough and scaly or finely fissured, and dotted with vertical lines of paler lenticels. In younger trees the bark is smoother. The bark is used to produce a dye. The underbark is pale brown with cream horizontal lenticels and the blaze is yellowish-brown going into silvery-white. Between each layer are ducts that exude viscous white sap. The dark green shiny leaves, slightly paler underneath, are alternate and crowded towards the ends of the branchlets. They have wavy margins and the leaf tip is drawn out into a fairly fine point often with a minute distinct thorn-like point. The small white fragrant flowers are in terminal clusters shorter than the leaves and develop into small, round, yellow capsules containing two small, dark, angular seeds which are eaten by crimson rosellas, white-headed pigeons and silvereyes.

Tree.

Flower and alternate leaves.

Wood of Pittosporum undulatum

See macrophotographs of Pittosporum undulatum on page 192.

The heartwood is cream to pale yellow and the sapwood is similar and hard to define. The texture is fine and very even with a straight grain, and it is hard and tough. It is quite dense with an air dry density of 865 kg/m3. As its name implies it is a popular carving wood and is used for artificial limbs, kitchen utensils, turning and marquetry. It has also been used for golf and croquet mallet heads. 134

Trunk.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Planchonella australis black apple plum

Mature tree.

Wood of Planchonella australis The heartwood is beautifully marked with pale pinkish-yellow with darker streaks and the sapwood is not clearly distinguishable. Texture is very fine and even and the grain is sometimes interlocked. It is one of the best carving woods in Australia, and has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 900 kg/m3. It needs careful drying as there is some collapse. The shrinkage is 4% radially and 7.5% tangentially, but after reconditioning this drops to 3% radially and 5% tangentially. It has been used for artificial limbs, carving, marquetry, bearings and fishing rods. It is also said to be good for rulers and T-squares.

Synonyms: Pouteria australis, and before that Achras australia. Derivation: Planchonella after L. Planchon (1858–1915), a professor of pharmacy and botanical author. Australis from the Latin australis (southern), relating to it being the most southern species in the genus. Family: Sapotaceae, which contains between 37 and 75 not well-defined genera – according to botanist Alex Floyd, with approximately 1100 species. Planchonella and Palaquium have around 215 species mainly in South-East Asia. Chrysophyllum and Pouteria have a further 400 species. Australia has seven genera comprising 35 species of which the largest is Pouteria with 17 species and into which all the Planchonella have now been placed. Other names: Black apple, wild plum and yellow bulletwood. Distribution: Found from the Illawarra area of New South Wales to Bulburin National Park, south-west of Agnes Waters in south-central Queensland. It grows in rainforest of various types from thicket to the luxuriant rainforest of the McPherson Range, where it gains its largest size. The tree: Grows to 30 metres in height with a stem diameter of 1.2 metres. The trunk is usually flanged at the base and in large trees the trunk may be fluted with channels running for some distance up the trunk. The bark is brown, wrinkled with short vertical fissures. The outer surface is often thin and in the form of a soft corky layer. The underbark is fawn and the blaze is pinkish-brown with fine vertical lines, and paler towards the sapwood. A milky sap exudes from the inner bark which varies with the time of the year. The blaze darkens to a reddish-brown after a few minutes. The green leaves are alternate, simple, paler underneath, and fattened towards the tip before coming to a fine point at the tip, and gradually tapering to the base. The white bell-shaped flowers are in clusters of from two to six, or sometimes solitary. The black, plum-like berries have a scar extending the full length of their inner length – just like a plum, and contain three to five hard glossy brown seeds. These seeds were eaten by the Aboriginals in the Gosford area and the flesh is also edible, but astringent. If you can get them before the grubs do, they make a nice jam. The fruit are also eaten by green catbirds.

Trunk. See macrophotographs of Planchonella australis on page 202.

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Planchonella chartacea thin-leaved plum

Tree.

Synonyms: Pouteria chartacea, and before that Sideroxylon chartaceum. Derivation: Planchonella after L. Planchon (1858–1915), a professor of pharmacy and botanical author. Chartacea from the Latin chartaceus (papery), because of its thin leaves. Family: Sapotaceae, which contains between 37 and 75 not well-defined genera – according to botanist Alex Floyd, with approximately 1100 species. Planchonella and Palaquium have around 215 species mainly in South-East Asia. Chrysophyllum and Pouteria have a further 400 species. Australia has seven genera comprising 35 species of which the largest is Pouteria with 17 species and into which all the Planchonella have now been placed. Other names: Dugulla, planchonella and thin-leaved coondoo. Distribution: From the Richmond River in New South Wales to Bamaga in north Queensland. It is also found in New Guinea and Indonesia. It grows in riverine and littoral rainforests. The tree: A small tree growing to 12 metres high with a stem diameter of 0.25 metres. The trunk is cylindrical or sometimes slightly angular or flanged near the base in large trees. The bark is brown and dull white giving it a grey appearance from a distance; it may be rough but not scaly. The underbark is cream coloured. The blaze is orange-yellow, minutely spotted with paler vertical stripes and is white closer to the sapwood. A small quantity of milky sap may exude from the blaze. The leaves are alternate and the margins are not toothed. and are lanceshaped in reverse, i.e. the fatter end is to the tip with the slender blade tip leading to the base and merges into a flat stalk. It is moderately glossy and green on both surfaces, but paler beneath. As is indicated by its name, the leaves are thin and papery to the feel. The white flowers are in axillary clusters of from three to seven on slender stalks. The green fruit turn black and have a thin pulp on the outside of the eggshaped seed case which contains brown seeds that are compressed at each end and have a scar running along half their length. The Aboriginals ate the seeds. Alternate leaves.

Trunk.

See macrophotographs of Planchonella chartacea on page 202.

Wood of Planchonella chartacea The heartwood is yellowish-brown, close grained and hard, and the sapwood is not clearly distinguishable. Its texture is very fine and even and it has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 865 kg/m3 – not as heavy as black apple plum (Planchonella australis) but still fairly hard. Although it does not have the interlocking grain of black apple plum it could have similar uses. However, because it doesn’t have the size it is not as well known. 136

Australian Rainforest Woods

Planchonella pohlmaniana yellow boxwood

Trunk of a mature tree.

Synonyms: Pouteria pohlmaniana, Sideroxylon pohlmaniana, Achras pohlmaniana. Derivation: Planchonella after L. Planchon (1858–1915), a professor of pharmacy and botanical author. Pohlmaniana after R. W. Pohlman, a Melbourne judge who was respected by the botanist Ferdinand von Mueller. Family: Sapotaceae, which contains between 37 and 75 not well-defined genera – according to botanist Alex Floyd, with approximately 1100 species. Planchonella and Palaquium have around 215 species mainly in South-East Asia. Chrysophyllum and Pouteria have a further 400 species. Australia has seven genera comprising 35 species of which the largest is Pouteria with 17 species and into which all the Planchonella have now been placed. Other names: Black apple and engraver wood. Distribution: From the Richmond River in New South Wales to Weipa on the Gulf of Carpentaria in north Queensland. There are three varieties of this tree but only one variety, P. pohlmaniana var. pohlmaniana, extends into New South Wales. It is usually found in dry rainforests. The tree: Grows up to 20 metres in height with a trunk of 0.5 metres in diameter. The trunk is usually straight and flanged at the base when large. The bark is greyish-brown and generally scaly on older trees showing shallow depressions left by the fallen scales. The underbark is pitted, brown and with vertical lines of cream lenticels. The blaze is pale to medium brown, with vertical lines towards the outer margins and close to the sapwood it is almost white. A milky white sap exudes from the surface immediately after it is cut, the amount depending on the time of the year. The leaves are alternate, simple, the margins not toothed, and gradually taper from the base with its widest point about two-thirds down their length and rounding to the tip which is notched. They are green and glossy on the surface and slightly paler below. The leaves are crowded at the end of the branchlets. The creamy-white flowers are in clusters in leaf axils, quite often on old wood where the leaves have already fallen. The green or black, globular, fleshy fruit contain from three to five glossy brown seeds. The fruit were eaten by Aboriginals.

Wood of Planchonella pohlmaniana The heartwood is pale yellow-brown with a slightly paler sapwood. The texture is very fine and even and the grain sometimes slightly interlocked. It has no odour or taste. The air dry density at 12% moisture is 735 kg/m3, although Bootle reports 960 kg/m3. It is easy to dry and shrinkage is 3.5% radially and 5.5% tangentially. It is firm and relatively easy to work and glues well. It has been used for ‘boxwood’ rulers and T-squares. It is also used for chessmen and engraving blanks. The wood has also been used for artificial limbs, pivot laps for gyroscopes, fancy turnery and kitchen utensils.

See macrophotographs of Planchonella pohlmaniana on page 202.

Australian Rainforest Woods

137

Pleiogynium timorense Burdekin plum

Mature tree.

Synonyms: Pleiogynium cerasiferum var. glabratum, P. solandri. Derivation: Pleiogynium from pleion (more) and gyne (female), referring to the many carpels within the flower. Timorense from Timor, where the type specimen was collected. Family: Anacardiaceae, which contains about 70 genera worldwide with about 700 species. Australia has nine genera and 13 species and eight of these species are found in tropical Queensland. Other name: Tulip plum. Distribution: Found in rainforest and monsoonal forest from the McIlwraith Range in north Queensland to the Brisbane area in south Queensland from sea level to 1000 metres altitude. It also grows in New Guinea, Malaysia and the Pacific Islands. The tree: Grows to 20 metres and the trunk may be 0.5 metres in diameter and may be buttressed in mature trees. It has separate male and female trees and is partly deciduous. Leaves are compound, alternate and with a rachis containing from 5–11 opposite leaflets. The male flowers have 8–10 stamens, and female flowers are on separate trees growing on axillary panicles. The four or five egg-shaped petals may be green, white or yellow in colour. The fruit are large and fleshy, drupe-shaped, reddish to almost purple or black when ripe, and each contain 5–12 woody brown seeds which are eaten by cassowaries and great bowerbirds. The tree gets its common name from the shape of the fruit which resemble plums and are edible, but acid. The Aboriginals used to bury the fruit in the ground for a period before eating them. This reduces the bitterness. In the Proserpine district they also removed the inner bark which they pounded into a pulp and after placing it in a bag they used it as a fish poison.

Plum-like fruit.

Wood of Pleiogynium timorense The wood is a deep reddish-brown and is often banded in alternating pale and deep reddish-browns and are pronounced on the radial cut, producing loops on the tangential cut. The grain is usually straight and it has an air dry density of 930 kg/m3. The timber does not lend itself to steam bending but it has high strength and durability and takes a high polish. It needs care in glueing. It is too heavy for furniture building but makes excellent walking sticks, fishing rods and turns well. It is reported that the turned butt of the fishing rods presented to the Duke and Duchess of York in 1927 was Burdekin plum. The tapered tips and middle sections were of saffronheart (Halfordia scleroxyla). 138

Compound, alternate leaves. Trunk.

See macrophotographs of Pleiogynium timorese on page 171.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Podocarpus elatus, brown pine Podocarpus grayae, brown pine

Mature tree.

Dark green mature foliage and the fruit with a bluish-black swollen plum-like stem for P. elatus.

Wood of Podocarpus elatus and Podocarpus grayae Both woods are very similar, the heartwood being pale-brown to brown adding occasional silken mottling to an otherwise unfigured wood. It is fine-textured, plain, non-aromatic and has some lustre and occasional irregular or knotty areas. Its slow growth means its rings are inconspicuous. The air dried density at 12% moisture is 600 kg/m3 and is harder and heavier than most pines, including hoop and bunya. It cuts cleanly and does not leave a fibrous surface when cut across the grain. Two special qualities set it apart from other pines: it’s resistant to white ants and marine borers, and its durability is high. As a result it is used in boat building and in pier construction.

Synonym: Podocarpus neriifolius for Podocarpus grayae. Derivation: Podocarpus from the Greek podus or podos (a foot), and carpus (a fruit), referring to the fleshy foot-stalk of the fruit. Elatus from the Latin elatus (tall). Grayae after American botanist Netta Gray (1913–1970). Family: Podocarpaceae, which has 18 genera worldwide and 180 species. Australia has seven genera and 16 species including: Podocarpus, Promnopitys, Lagarstrobos, Phyllocladus and Sundacarpus. There are seven Podocarpus species in Australia of which four are not found anywhere else and include: Podocarpus dispermus, P. elatus, P. grayae and P. smithii, which occur on the Atherton Tableland; P. drouynianus, which occurs in Western Australia; P. lawrencei, or plum pine, a small alpine shrub in New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania; and P. spinulosus, also a small shrub in New South Wales. Although not a valuable timber species, I have mentioned the other podocarps because this is the oldest surviving conifer family – an ancient family, first appearing 240 million years ago and therefore very important on the evolutionary scale. Other names: Podocarpus elatus has a number of other common names, including; plum pine, she pine, yellow pine, Port Macquarie pine, native deal and kidney wallum. Aboriginal names include: dualgual, gooyum and dyrren-dyrren. Podocarpus grayae is also known as northern or weeping brown pine. Distribution: Podocarpus elatus is found in subtropical, littoral and riverine rainforests, and occurs from near Nowra in New South Wales to the Queensland border, with isolated stands around Gympie, Proserpine and near Coen in the far north of Queensland. It has the widest distribution of any Podocarpus and grows from sea level to 1000 metres preferring coastal lowlands beside rivers. Podocarpus grayae grows in north Queensland from the Heathlands National Park to Mt Elliott. The tree: Brown pine is a medium to tall tree growing 30–40 metres in height and over 0.9 metres in diameter. The trunk is often irregular with channels and spirally fluted at the base. The bark is brown to dark brown, usually fibrous, and on old trees may be finely fissured and scaly. The crown is dense and the foliage dark green. Soft, lime-yellow new foliage is conspicuous and later deepens to dark green. Leaves may be alternate or whorled for Podocarpus grayae. Male and female flowers are produced on separate trees. Male flowers appear following new foliage in spring. Female flowers grow on short branches with usually only one developing to maturity on each branch. The fleshy fruit is attached to a plum-like, swollen, waxy, bluish-black leaf stem for P. elatus and red for P. grayae. It contains a woody nut with internal seeds and is very distinctive. The brighter foliage and red fruit of P. grayae. See macrophotographs of Podocarpus elatus on page 170.

Australian Rainforest Woods

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Polyalthia nitidissima canary beech Derivation: Polyalthia from the Greek polys (many) and althos (healing), because the bark was said to cure many diseases in Java. Nitidissima from the Latin nitidissimus (most shiny), in reference to the leaves. Family: Annonaceae, a large pantropical family of 132 genera and 2300 species in tropical rainforests in Africa, Asia and Australia. It has 16 genera and 44 species in Australia in tropical and subtropical rainforests. Other names: China pina, Northern Territory polyalthia and shiny-leaf tree. Distribution: From the Clarence River in northern New South Wales to Cape York in north Queensland and across into the Northern Territory, New Guinea and New Caledonia. It is found in littoral forests. The tree: Grows to 18 metres in height and has a trunk diameter of 0.3 metres when mature. The trunk is cylindrical and fluted or flanged at the base. The bark is dark grey to blackish-brown with loose flakes and fine vertical fissures. The underbark is dark brown and the blaze is alternating brown and white vertical stripes becoming paler towards the inside. The colour fades after a few minutes of exposure. The leaves are alternate, simple and entire with a bluntly pointed tip. The surface is smooth and very glossy, and the underleaf is paler. The solitary yellowish or creamy flowers are in the leaf axils and the glossy red fruit are in bunches of from three to eight, and are eaten by pigeons. The oblong seeds are dull brown.

Small tree.

Alternate leaves.

Wood of Polyalthia nitidissima The wood is pale yellow, sometimes grey to white. It is close grained with a fine texture, straight grained and ‘tough’, and is fragrant. As can be seen in the specimen on the right, in quarter cut it has a delicate ray running through it which gives a translucent pattern. It has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 550 kg/m3. It is easy to dry but precautions are needed against bluestain. It is a relatively rare wood, but is easy to work and glues well although its ‘toughness’ requires the use of very sharp equipment in order to get the best finish. It is suitable for internal joinery. 140

See macrophotographs of Polyalthia nitidissima on page 171.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Polyscias elegans silver basswood

Small tree.

Wood of Polyscias elegans The sapwood and heartwood are white with mottled light brown coloration throughout. The texture is moderately fine, and the grain is close. It has a pleasing silver ray grain on the quarter cut face. The air dry density at 12% moisture is 480 kg/m3. Shrinkage is about 2% radially and 5% tangentially, so it is not subject to collapse during drying but needs protection against bluestain and surface checking. It is easy to work, glues well and is suitable for internal joinery and veneer, but can be subject to splitting. It dresses to a smooth finish and is suitable for light oars, beehive frames, model building, inlays and violin bridges.

Synonym: Panax elegans. Derivation: Polyscias from the Greek polys (many) and scias (umbel), referring to the flower. Elegans from the Latin elegans (neat), referring to the decorative compound leaves. Family: Araliaceae, which contains 80 genera worldwide with 1150 species – mostly in tropical rainforests except for four genera and 17 species in temperate rainforests of Tasmania, South America and New Zealand. In Australia there are 11 genera and about 150 species, with 14 Polyscias species. Other names: Celery wood and black pencil cedar. Distribution: From Jervis Bay in New South Wales to Thursday Island in north Queensland. It is a pioneer rainforest tree and is therefore common in rainforest regrowth as it is a fast grower and will become evident where there has been clearing or damage. Usually on volcanic soils where it reaches its best development, but also on poorer sedimentary soils. It is also found in New Guinea. The tree: A handsome tree growing to 30 metres and with an umbrella-shaped crown. The trunk grows to 0.5 metres in diameter, and is usually straight and cylindrical with no buttresses. The bark is grey-brown and usually smooth but becomes rough and scaly with vertical fissured on older trees. Live bark is mottled creamy-brown and orange-brown. The blaze is light brown with numerous white fibres which become an even brown after a few minutes exposure. The inner sapwood changes to greenish-yellow. The leaves are very large, alternate and can be pinnate or bipinnate with opposite or nearly opposite leaflets. The leaflets tend to be flatter in the middle and occasionally abruptly drawn into a distinct pointed tip. They have a shiny dark green upper surface and are slightly paler underneath. The main leaf stalk tends to become thinner following the junction of each pair of leaflets. The purple, scented flowers are in racemes on a much-branched panicle. The succulent, dull purple-brown to black, drupe-shaped but flattened fruit have two curved styles protruding from the top. They have two cells with one seed in each. The fruit are eaten by brown cuckoo-doves, figbirds, green catbirds, Lewin’s honeyeaters, olive-backed orioles, pied currawongs, paradise riflebirds, rose-crowned fruit-doves, silvereyes, superb fruit-doves, topknot pigeons and wampoo fruit-doves.

Alternate leaves.

See macrophotographs of Polyscias elegans on page 172.

Australian Rainforest Woods

141

Pseudoweinmannia lachnocarpa mararie Synonyms: Geissois lachnocarpa, Weinmannia lachnocarpa. Derivation: Pseudoweinmannia from the Greek pseudos (false) and weinmannia, a genus of Cunoniaceae named in honour of J. W. Weinmann, an 18th century German pharmacist, and referring to the resemblance to Weidmannia. Lachnocarpa from the Greek lachnos (wood) and karpos (fruit), alluding to the densely hairy fruit. Family: Cunoniaceae, a small family of 26 genera and 350 species. In Australia there are 16 genera and 35 species. Other names: Rose mararie, marara, red carabeen, and scrub rosewood. Distribution: From the Richmond River in New South Wales to Maryborough in south-east Queensland, and from Tully to Cape Tribulation in north Queensland. Found in littoral, riverine and subtropical rainforests on the better volcanic and alluvial soils. The tree: Grows to 40 metres in height and a stem diameter of 2.5 metres. The trunk is irregular and is usually well buttressed. The bark is grey or fawn-pink and the outer layer of dead bark is usually very thin and usually somewhat rough with small scales. The underbark is cream and the blaze is a deep pink and yellow near the sapwood. This yellow area turns orange-brown with exposure. The bark consists of alternate layers of flat fibres. The leaves are opposite and usually consist of three, or sometimes two, stalkless leaflets at the end of the leaf stalk. Both sides of the leaf are glossy but paler underneath and are very thin. The white flowers are on short racemes growing from the leaf axils towards the end of the branchlets. The fruit capsules are egg-shaped and covered in a dense, soft, golden-brown hairs, which have two valves with several egg-shaped seeds.

Mature tree.

Irregular trunk with buttressing.

Wood of Pseudoweinmannia lachnocarpa The heartwood is rose-pink to mauve-brown and the sapwood is distinctively paler. The texture is fine and even and the grain is straight. The air dry density at 12% moisture is 895 kg/m3. Care is needed in drying to avoid end splits and surface checks. Collapse is only slight and shrinkage is about 3.5% radially and 6% tangentially. The wood is easy to work. Because of its density the wood has been used for bearings, mallets, planes and chisel handles. It is also good for hard carving, turning and joinery. 142

Aust Rainforest 135-160.indd 142

See macrophotographs of Pseudoweinmannia lachnocarpa on page 178.

Australian Rainforest Woods

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Quintinia sieberi possumwood Derivation: Quintinia after Jean-Baptiste de La Quintinie, a French botanist. Sieberi after F. W. Sieber, a botanist-collector from Prague, Bohemia, now Czech Republic, who spent seven months collecting plants in New South Wales in 1823. Family: Quintinaceae, which has only a single genus with 25 species in Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia, New Guinea and the Philippines. The species mainly grow in temperate rainforests, which in the tropics are at high elevations. There are four species in Australia, two in north Queensland and two in south-east Queensland and northern New South Wales. Other names: Brown possumwood, pink corkwood, corkwood, pink wood, pink alder and rough possumwood. Distribution: From the Upper Clyde River in New South Wales to Springbrook in the McPherson Range in south-east Queensland. It is found in rainforest areas at altitudes above 900 metres and occasionally in coastal forests. The tree: A medium-sized tree growing to 25 metres in height with a stem diameter of 0.75 metres. The trunk is slightly buttressed at the base. The bark is reddish to red-black and is rough and wrinkled with short longitudinal fissures. The underbark is red-brown and the blaze is yellow-brown with paler short lines becoming paler towards the sapwood. It has a sappy smell. The leaves are alternate, simple, with entire margins, elliptical and drawn out to a sharp point at the tip. They are smooth and green on both surfaces and the under surface has minute red glands. The white flowers are in panicles at the ends of the branchlets, each flower has five petals and a funnel-shaped calyx. The seed capsules are grey-brown with three to five cells with several brown oblong seeds in each cell. The capsule has the five calyx teeth fixed at the tip, having grown outwards from the base as the capsule was formed.

Mature tree.

Rough, wrinkled bark on trunk.

Wood of Quintinia sieberi

See macrophotographs of Quintinia sieberi on page 196.

The heartwood is pale pinkish-brown and there is no distinction between the sapwood and the heartwood. It has a very fine texture and the grain is slightly interlocked. There is some figure in the ray if it is quarter cut. It has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 560 kg/m3. The wood is easy to work and is reported to be brittle, so it is not advisable to use it where there is any weight loading. It is suitable for small turning and carving.

Australian Rainforest Woods

143

Rhodosphaera rhodanthema tulip satinwood Derivation: Rhodosphaera from the Greek rhodon (rose) and sphaera (a ball), apparently referring to the fruit which were originally described as reddish. Rhosanthema also from the Greek rhodon (rose) and anthos (a flower), referring to the red-coloured flower. Family: Anacardiaceae, a large family of 70 genera and 600 species mostly from tropical countries of the world, but some temperate and with one genus in New Zealand. In Australia there are only seven genus and nine species, including one Euroschinus and one Rhodosphaera. Other names: Deep yellowwood, yellow cedar and Chinaman’s cedar. Distribution: From the Macleay River area in New South Wales to Maryborough in Queensland, and is found in subtropical rainforests and dry rainforests. The tree: A medium-sized tree growing to 27 metres in height with a stem diameter of 0.75 metres. The trunk is generally cylindrical and can be slightly buttressed. The bark is dark brown, scaly, and sheds in irregular patches with the patterns between the scales with brownish pustules. The underbark is midbrown and the blaze is light red and fibrous, and when it is cut it exudes a thick white gum which has a cane-like smell. The leaves are alternate, pinnate with 6–12 leaflets along the rachis, and mostly opposite. The leaflets are tapering to a blunt point, are glossy above, green on both surfaces and dull underneath. Coppice leaflets occasionally have wavy margins. The bright red flowers are on large panicles at the ends of the branchlets and male and female flowers are often on separate trees. The drupe-shaped brown and shiny fruit are in dense bunches and contain a single flattened seed, enclosed in a very hard woody capsule. The fruit are eaten by green catbirds.

Mature tree.

Wood of Rhodosphaera rhodanthema The wood is a pleasing yellowishbronze colour with a silky lustre and it usually darkens with exposure. The sapwood is broad, white and clearly defined. It is fine grained and is occasionally beautifully figured with dark bird’s-eye knots. The grain is straight and the ray grain produces a fine speckled silkiness. It has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 690 kg/m3. It is reasonably durable and is used for inlays and cabinet work, although it is inclined to split so some care is needed. It seasons well, and saws, planes and dresses well. It has quite a range of uses including turning, furniture and situations which could use its decorative features. It is suitable for musical instruments; a lute made from this wood produced perfect sound and was played in concerts in Europe. 144

Leaves.

Bunched fruit. See macrophotographs of Rhodosphaera rhodanthema on page 171.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Schizomeria ovata crab apple Derivation: Schizomeria from the Greek schizo (I cut) and meria (a part), referring to the petals, which usually appear as if pieces have been cut out of the tips. Ovata from the Latin ovatus (egg-shaped), referring to the shape of the leaves. Family: Cunoniaceae, a small family mainly from the subtropics and higher altitude tropics and consists of 28 genera and 259 species. In Australia there are 16 genera and 32 species, including Schizomeria with two species. Other names: Humbug, squawker, cherry birch, white birch, wild cherry, snow berry, leather jacket and whitewood. Distribution: From Mount Dromedary near Narooma in New South Wales to Koombooloomba near Ravenshoe in north Queensland. It is found in association with coachwood (Ceratopetalum apetalum) in its southern occurrence, on the poorer soils but also occurs in rainforests on rich volcanic soils. In north Queensland it usually grows from 280 to 1100 metres altitude. The tree: Grows to 35 metres in height with a stem diameter of 1.5 metres. The trunk is cylindrical and often buttressed. The bark is grey, fairly smooth, or wrinkled in small trees, but often deeply furrowed, and hard and tough on old trees. The underbark is fawn and the blaze is deep red with pink flecks towards the outside and paler towards the sapwood. It is somewhat woolly in texture. A thick red gum exudes from the surface of the blaze soon after cutting. The leaves are opposite, simple, toothed or entire, and the branchlets and leaves are soon shed, leaving a scar that encircles the stem. The leaves are drawn out to a blunt point at the tip, green on both sides, paler beneath. The white flowers are in bunches arranged in pairs, opposite towards the end of the branchlets. There are five petals and as indicated by their name, they have three or four teeth at the tip, very like having been cut. The creamy-white fruit are apple-shaped, the outer part is fleshy with a sharp acid flavour. The inner part is hard and contains two cell with a single oval, corrugated, creamy-brown seed in each cell. These fruit may be eaten raw or stewed or used in pies or jam making. They are eaten by green catbirds, rose-crowned fruit-doves, topknot pigeons and people. Mature tree.

Furrowed trunk.

Wood of Schizomeria ovata The heartwood is variable in colour from off-white to pale brown as is shown in the specimen opposite. The sapwood is distinct. The texture is fine and even, and the grain is variable. The air dry density at 12% moisture is 650 kg/m3. It is relatively easy to dry except for dark-hearted material which can degrade considerably. Collapse is slight. Precautions need to be taken against bluestain. Shrinkage is around 3% radially and 6.5% tangentially. It is easy to work and glues well, and is used for plywood, furniture, turning and internal joinery.

See macrophotographs of Schizomeria ovata on page 178.

Australian Rainforest Woods

145

Sloanea australis, blush alder Sloanea langii, white carabeen

Small tree.

Wood of Sloanea australis and Sloanea langii The heartwood ranges from pink to rosy or creamy-brown, darkening to a warm brown as it ages, and the sapwood is whitish. The texture is fine and even and the grain is straight but as often as not it can be either spiral, plaited or ropey and often interlocked which presents problems with seasoning. The air dry density at 12% moisture is 570 kg/m3 for S. australis compared with 690 kg/m3 for S. langii. Despite being easy to dry, the unstable features in grain during seasoning can present difficulties and can result in wastage. It is classed as a Grade 1 cabinet timber. It does have some collapse even though the shrinkage is about 2.5% radially and 5% tangentially, which after reconditioning is 2% radially and 4% tangentially. It is a decorative wood used for veneer, panelling and joinery and in early days was also used for flooring. It is easy to work and glues well so it is also used for internal joinery, plywood and turning. It is also suitable for cabinet work and boxes. 146

Synonym: Echinocarpus australis. Derivation: Sloanea after Sir Hans Sloane, principal founder of the British Museum. Australis from the Latin australis (southern), referring to the distribution of this species within a general tropical genus. Langii named after G. Lang. Family: Elaeocarpaceae, which consists of 12 genera with 605 species. In Australia there are six genera, the biggest being Elaeocarpus with 33 species. Sloanea has four species. Other names: Blush alder is also known as carrabeen, carrobeen, carrobean, cudgerie, maiden’s blush and blush carabeen. White carabeen has no other common name. Distribution: S. australis grows from Batemans Bay in New South Wales to Cape Tribulation in north Queensland and is found in riverine, littoral, subtropical as well as poorer temperate rainforests where the rainfall is high. Attains its best on the richer soil pockets along watercourses. It also occurs on the summit of the McPherson Range where it sometimes forms low dense thickets. S. langii is a northern species and grows in the rainforest from the McIlwraith Range on Cape York Peninsula south to Byfield near Rockhampton and grows from sea level to 1160 metres. The tree: The largest blush alder tree measured was at Long Creek in the Border Ranges National Park and was 55 metres tall with a stem diameter of 2 metres. However, blush alder mostly grows to 30 metres with a stem diameter of 1 metre with a spreading crown and large glossy leaves. The trunk is often flanged, irregular, crooked, and buttressed with numerous coppice shoots. The leaves are alternate, simple, with wavy toothed margins, broader towards the tip and with a short, very narrow section at the base. The upper surface is glossy green and the underside paler. The creamy, hairy, single or short racemes of flowers are terminal. The flower stalks are hairy as well. The yellow to brown woody capsules usually have four cells and are covered in short, soft, brown bristles. Each cell contains one egg-shaped glossy black seeds and are almost completely covered by a fleshy orange covering. They are eaten by Australian king-parrots, brown cuckoo-doves, figbirds, Lewin’s honeyeaters, olive-backed orioles, paradise riflebirds, regent bowerbirds and silvereyes. White carabeen grows to 25 metres in height with a stem diameter of 0.5 metres. The trunk may be buttressed and the edges of the buttresses are flanged outwards, but the trunk is still fairly straight and cylindrical. The outer bark is greyish and wrinkled longitudinally. The underbark is light brown. The leaves are alternate, and can be either toothed towards the base and swollen where they join the blades. The cream or white fragrant flowers have a fairly hairy calyx. The slightly cylindrical fruit capsules are green to yellow or orange and are clothed in fine bristles and splits from the bottom to reveal one or two black glossy seeds in each valve which are three-quarters enclosed in a red or orange fleshy aril. See macrophotographs of Sloanea australis on page 179.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Sloanea woollsii yellow carabeen Synonym: Sloanea austroqueenslandica. Derivation: Sloanea after Sir Hans Sloane, principal founder of the British Museum. Woollsii after Dr William Woolls (1814–1893), botanical author and botanist, Sydney, NSW. Family: Elaeocarpaceae, which consists of 12 genera with 605 species. In Australia there are six genera, the largest being Elaeocarpus with 33 species. Sloanea has four species. Other names: Grey carabeen, carrabeen, carribin. Distribution: From Bulahdelah in New South Wales to Bulburin in central Queensland. Found in subtropical rainforests on fertile soils of volcanic origin, particularly in mountain valleys above 600 metres, but also on lowland alluvium. The tree: A large tree growing to 55 metres with a stem diameter of 2.5 metres. The trunk is usually buttressed with prominent, rudder-shaped buttresses, sometimes extending 5 metres up the trunk. The bark is grey to greyish-brown, smooth with some vertical lines of warts which are more numerous on the buttresses. The underbark is brown and the blaze is reddish-brown with paler vertical lines and gradually paler towards the sapwood and is bright yellow where it meets the sapwood. The leaves are alternate, simple, toothed and elliptical and a bit longer than Sloanea australis or S. langii. They are drawn out to a point at the tip and taper uniformly to the base. There is a slight upward bend where the leaf joins the stalk. The white petal-less flowers are borne on short racemes and hang down like tiny bells. The prickly, oval fruit capsules are yellow-brown and split from the bottom into two halves, revealing shiny black seeds almost completely covered by an orange to red-brown aril. They are eaten by Australian kingparrots, brown cuckoo-doves, green catbirds, regent bowerbirds, rose-crowned fruit-doves, satin bowerbirds, topknot pigeons and wompoo fruit-doves.

Mature tree.

Wood of Sloanea woollsii The heartwood is pale yellow-brown and the inner heartwood can be a dark brown, commonly called blackheart which is very difficult to season without degrading. The sapwood can be very wide and is similar in colour to the heartwood but is often discoloured by bluestain. The texture is fine to medium and even, and the grain is straight. The air dry density at 12% moisture is 610 kg/m3. Care is needed when drying to avoid bluestain and surface checking. Some collapse occurs. Shrinkage is about 2.5% radially and 6% tangentially and after reconditioning is around 2% radially and 4% tangentially. It is firm and easy to work and glues well. It is suitable for furniture, flooring, lining, plywood, turning and internal joinery. It is said to be very strong for its weight.

Leaves.

Rudder-shaped buttressing on trunk.

See macrophotographs of Sloanea woollsii on page 179.

Australian Rainforest Woods

147

Stenocarpus sinuatus wheel of fire Derivation: Stenocarpus from the Greek stenos (narrow) and karpus (fruited), referring to the slender fruits of some of the species. Sinuatus from the Latin sinuatus (waved), referring to the wavy margins of the leaves. Family: Proteaceae, a large family with 46 genera and 1100 species in Australia including 80 rainforest species in 31 genera. The Australian genera have some common origin with species in South America. Stenocarpus has nine species in Australia. Other names: Fire-wheel tree, tulip flower, wheel of fire tree, white beefwood, white oak, white silky oak and yiel yiel. Distribution: From Nambucca Heads in New South Wales to the Daintree in north Queensland, and is found in subtropical, littoral, riverine and warm temperate rainforests. The species also occurs in New Guinea. The tree: Grows to 40 metres with a stem diameter of 0.75 metres. It is the most ornamental of the stenocarps and is widely planted for its bright red flowers arranged like the spokes of a wheel, thus its common name. The trunk is cylindrical and sometimes irregular and flanged towards the base in old trees. The bark is grey to greyish-brown, wrinkled with short vertical fissures and at times somewhat corky. The underbark is fawn and the blaze is orange-brown with dark, fine vertical lines becoming paler towards the sapwood. The colour slowly changes to be come darker with exposure. The leaves are alternate, and may vary from simple to pinnate with the lobes cut halfway, or sometimes deeper, towards the leaf vein. The margins of the leaves are wavy as the Latin name sinuatus would indicate. The leaves are bluntly pointed at their tip, and taper towards the leaf stalk. The texture of the leaf tends to be thick and rigid. The upper side of the leaf is dark green and glossy, and the underside paler. The bright red flowers are conspicuous in their clusters of wheel-like forms situated at the ends of the branchlets, in the forks of leaves or coming from the scars of fallen leaves. The fruit are dark grey-brown and somewhat boat-shaped and contain numerous thin triangular flattened seeds with wings of equal length. Wheel-like flower.

Tree.

Lobed leaves.

Wood of Stenocarpus sinuatus The sapwood is white, and the heartwood is lighter in colour than S. salignus and may sometimes be white; however, as is seen in the specimen, the heartwood from mature trees can be a quite deep reddishbrown. It has prominent rays on the quarter cut and has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 775 kg/m3. It is durable with a close grain and is fairly tough. It is suitable for cabinet work, veneer and indoor furniture, and has been used for break blocks on wagons, so it has a remarkable versatility. 148

See macrophotographs of Stenocarpus sinuatus on page 195.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Sundacarpus amara black pine

Mature tree.

Synonyms: Podocarpus amarus, Promnopitys amara. Derivation: Sundacarpus from Sunda, the island from where the type specimen was collected, and from carpus (fruited). Amara from the Latin amarus (bitter), which refers to the initial sweet taste of the leaves when chewed, which quickly turns bitter. Family: Podocarpaceae, which has 18 genera worldwide with about 180 species and has been around for 240 million years. Australia has seven genera and 16 species including: Podocarpus, Promnopitys, Lagarstrobos, Phyllocladus and Sundacarpus. Sundacarpus has only one species in the world. As with the brown pine these are members of the oldest conifer family in the world with living specimens – older by 50 million years than any other of the world’s conifers. Other name: Chupalla. Distribution: Found in isolated areas between Mt Finnegan, south of Cooktown, to Paluma, Townsville in north Queensland. It has a very limited distribution in Australia but is very common in New Guinea, the Moluccas, Lesser Sunda Islands and throughout Java, Celebes, Philippines, Borneo and Sumatra. It grows on the basaltic soils of the Atherton Tableland. The tree: The trees on the Tableland are usually small – up to 30 metres in height and a stem diameter of 0.5 metres. However, it does grow to 60 metres and 1.4 metres diameter. It is found in situations where there is not a lot of competition, so you will find it around areas of exposed rock, for example. That is not to say you won’t find it in other situations, but it is slow to establish. It has a darker bark than brown pine which is where it gets its common name black pine, which makes it stand out. The trunk may be buttressed which is unusual for the family, but is not distinctive like the brown pine. The tree is slow growing and usually occupies the lower stratum of the rainforest. The juvenile leaves are long, narrow, abruptly narrow at the base, and have a ‘drip tip’. Mature leaves are longer and narrower with a distinct groove down the midvein. Male cones are solitary and terminal or grouped to at least seven on an axial peduncle. The fruit are almost spherical, red to orange or crimson with a large seed. They are described as pigeon-egg size. In Aboriginal culture individual trees were inherited and passed from father to son, and although the fruit are edible after roasting, they can be eaten by none other than the rightful owner and will be left to rot on the ground if not eaten by the owner of the tree.

Long narrow leaves with a ‘drip tip’.

Wood of Sundacarpus amara The heartwood is a plain, pale goldenbrown and sometimes pink or apricot. It has some lustre, is fine textured, and has non-aromatic softwood with occasional irregular or knotty areas. It grows so slowly that growth rings are usually not evident, so the grain is compact and close. Air dried density at 12% moisture is 500 kg/m3. It is easy to work, and turns and glues well. It is rare to obtain supplies of black pine and it may very well be confused with Agathis microstachya, which is also occasionally called black pine.

See macrophotographs of Sundacarpus amara on page 170.

Australian Rainforest Woods

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Synoum glandulosum subsp. glandulosum Synoum glandulosum subsp. paniculosum, scentless rosewood

Small tree.

Wood of Synoum glandulosum The heartwood is reddish-brown, similar to rose mahogany, but with no scent, therefore is called scentless rosewood. The sapwood is paler but not always distinguishable. Texture is moderately fine and even, and the grain straight. The air dry density at 12% moisture is 675 kg/m3. It is easy to dry with only slight collapse. Shrinkage is 4% radially and 7% tangentially. It is easy to work but rather difficult to glue. It is a useful cabinet timber, and for turning and carving. It is not frequently used mainly because of it small size, crooked stem and sometimes hollow centre. 150

Synonyms: Synoum grandulosum for subsp. glandulosum; Synoum muelleri for subsp. paniculosum. Derivation: Synoum from the Greek syn (growing together) and oum (an egg), referring to the two seeds in each cell of the fruit. Glandulosum from the Latin glans (glands) and osus (well developed or abundant), because of the numerous very small surface glands on the underside of the leaflets. Paniculosum (abundantly panicled), referring to the inflorescence. Family: Meliaceae, with 50 genera and about 650 species in the world. Australia has 13 genera and about 44 species with all but a couple of which are found in tropical rainforests. Synoum had two species, which have now become subspecies of Synoum glandulosum and which are dealt with cojointly in this description. Other names: Bastard rosewood and red sycamore for subsp. glandulosum, and northern scentless rosewood for subsp. paniculosum. Distribution: Subsp. glandulosum grows from Merimbula in New South Wales to Innisfail in north Queensland, and subsp. paniculosum is restricted to north Queensland and grows from the Windsor Tableland to Eungella west of Mackay. The southern subspecies is common as an understorey tree in most rainforest types and also on poorer soils near the sea, whereas the northern subspecies are found in rainforests at an altitude between 700 and 1300 metres. The tree: A tree to 30 metres in the McPherson range with a stem diameter of 0.3 metres, and to 20 metres in the northern rainforests. Mature trees can be buttressed and the trunk is usually irregular in cross-section. The bark is dark brown with square scales shedding in irregular patches and looks quite scruffy. The underbark is brown and the blaze is pink and becomes paler towards the sapwood. There is no marked change in colour with exposure. The leaves are alternate, pinnate and with seven to nine leaflets arranged opposite on the rachis, with a terminal leaflet. They are elliptical and are slightly wider towards the tip, then tapering at the tip. Both surfaces are smooth, dark green above and paler beneath with numerous very small paler green surface glands. In subsp. glandulosum the leaf stalk below the leaflets has a fine downy covering and the base is swollen. In subsp. paniculosum there are prominent tufts of hair on the underside at the leaflet junction with the rachis. The white or pale pink, scented flowers are in small panicles in the forks of the leaves. The panicles are 2 cm long for subsp. glandulosum and 15 cm long for subsp. paniculosum, thus its name. The fruit capsules are red with some green tinges, with two or three cells (always two for paniculosum), and two brown, flattened seeds in each cell embedded in a fleshy red aril. Seeds are eaten by green catbirds. Alternate leaves. See macrophotographs of Synoum glandulosum on page 186.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Syzygium australe bush cherry

Tree.

Synonyms: Eugenia australis, Eugenia myrtifolia, Eugenia paniculata, Syzygium paniculatum. Derivation: Syzygium from the Greek syzygos (joined or yoked together), referring to the peranth segments cohering to form a cap. Australe from the Latin australis (southern), because it was the southern-most species in its genus at the time on naming. Family: Myrtaceae, consisting of 35 genera, the largest of which is Eucalyptus, Corymbia and Melaleuca. Syzygium has 76 species in Australia and has been subject to many changes in its history as botanical identification is further refined. Other names: Brush cherry, creek cherry, scrub cherry creek lillipilli, creek lilly pilly, creek satinash, magenta lilly pilly, water gum and watergum. Distribution: From Batemans Bay in New South Wales to the Bloomfield River in north Queensland, where it is either in or bordering on rainforests of all types, generally along freshwater streams and on all types of soils. The tree: Grows to 35 metres with a stem diameter of 0.6 metres and a dense crown usually forming a very good shade tree when growing in the open. The trunk is often short and irregular with short buttresses on large trees. The bark is brown and somewhat scaly. The underbark is in cream and brown layers and the blaze is pinkish-brown, gradually becoming paler towards the sapwood. There are numerous wavy lines running horizontally through the bark. The leaves are opposite, simple, lanceolate, and fairly fat as leaves go with a short fine point. They are a glossy dark green, paler underneath with visible oil dots scattered about. Young leaves are pink or red which is a very conspicuous identification point. The white flowers are in panicles of one to three on slender stalks about equal lengths to the leaves, and borne either at the ends of branchlets or in the leaf forks. The dark red, oval to pear-shaped berries are smooth and glossy and are crowned with the persistent calyx lobes. The single seed is surrounded by crisp, watery, slightly acidic pulp, which is pleasant to eat raw or can be made into jams or pies. The fruit are eaten by wompoo fruit-doves, satin bowerbirds and figbirds.

Fruit.

Opposite leaves.

Blossom.

Wood of Syzygium australe The heartwood is brown to reddishbrown and the sapwood is distinctly paler. The texture is moderately fine and even, and the grain is often interlocked. The air dry density at 12% moisture is 735 kg/m3. It dries slowly and care needs to be taken to prevent surface checking on the tangential surface. Shrinkage is about 2.5% radially and 6% tangentially. It is relatively easy to work and glues well. Pre-drilling may be needed when nailing near ends as it can split. It is suitable for building frameworks and structural work because it is moderately tough, but obtaining lengths may be difficult. Also suitable for joinery and flooring.

See macrophotographs of Syzygium australe on page 190.

Australian Rainforest Woods

151

Syzygium claviflorum, grey satinash Syzygium cormiflorum, bumpy satinash

Tree.

Leaves.

Bumpy satinash flowers.

Wood of Syzygium claviflorum and Syzygium cormiflorum These are light brown woods. S. claviflorum has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 880 kg/m3 compared to S. cormiflorum with 770 kg/m3. Both woods are very much like S. gustavoides and are not easy to work and not suitable for steam bending, but despite the presence of triterpenes or terpenes they glue satisfactorily. They are useful as general building timbers for framework and flooring, but not suitable where exposed to the elements. 152

Synonyms: Acmenospermum claviflorum for Syzygium claviflorum; Acmenospermum cormiflorum for Syzygium cormiflorum. Derivation: Syzygium from the Greek syzygos (joined or yoked together), referring to the peranth segments cohering to form a cap. Claiviflorum from clavi (club) and florus (flowered), referring to the club-shaped buds. Cormiflorum from cormus (trunk) and florus (flowered), referring to the flowers growing on the trunk of the tree. Family: Myrtaceae, consisting of 35 genera, the largest of which are Eucalyptus, Corymbia and Melaleuca. Syzygium has 76 species in Australia and has been subject to many changes in its history as botanical identification is further refined. Other names: Grey satinash is also called trumpet satinash, while bumpy satinash is often known as wild apple. Distribution: Grey satinash is found in the rainforests and gallery forests from the Torres Strait Islands in far north Queensland to Carmila near Sarina in central northern Queensland, and grows from sea level to 800 metres altitude in association with rainforest. Bumpy satinash grows from the Iron Range area to the Ingham area in north Queensland, and is found in the rainforest from sea level to 1200 metres. The tree: Grey satinash grows to 25 metres with a dense crown. The trunk has flaky bark and may be buttressed. The leaves are simple with undulating margins and have numerous oil dots of variable sizes which may be visible to the naked eye. The creamy-white flowers have a green calyx and are borne on long branches that may or may not be divided. The fruit are red bell-shaped berries which are eaten by cassowaries, bush rats, giant white-tailed rats and fawnfooted melomys. Bumpy satinash grows to 30 metres with a stem diameter of 0.5 metres and may be buttressed in large trees. The new twigs are also square. The bark is greybrown and has bumpy sections on the surface where tissue has been formed to support the fruit borne on the trunk. The trunk also has lighter patches and is scaly. The leaves are simple, glabrous, dark green and paler underneath and have oil ducts visible with a hand lens. The flowers are borne on short panicles from the trunk and larger branches, a feature called cauliflory. They have four green, white, cream or pale pink petals with similarly coloured calyx lobes and can appear at any time during the year. The fruit are white, cream and become pinkish as they mature, however sometimes that fall to the ground before coloration begins. Fallen fruit tend to cluster around the base of the tree and are eaten by cassowaries. The calyx lobes protrude from the base of the fruit and may expand and form a pinched end Grey satinash fruit. protruding from the bottom. The two purplish-brown seeds are creamy-yellow inside and are surrounded by speckled white flesh. See macrophotographs of Syzygium claviflorum on page 190.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Syzygium gustavioides grey satinash

Simple leaves with a slight curl at the tip.

Synonyms: Cleistocalyx gustavioides, Eugenia gustavioides. Derivation: Syzygium from the Greek syzygos (joined or yoked together), referring to the peranth segments cohering to form a cap. Gustavioides after the genus Gustavia and from oides (resembling), referring to the similar fruit. Family: Myrtaceae, which has 160 genera and over 5600 species. In Australia there are 80 genera and over 2500 species with 26 genera occurring in rainforest. The largest genera are Eucalyptus, Corymbia and Melaleuca. Syzygium has 76 species in Australia and has been subject to many changes in its history as botanical identification is further refined. Other names: Yellow satinash, watergum and water gum. Distribution: In rainforests from Mt Webb near Cooktown to Tully, south of Cairns, in north Queensland from sea level to an elevation of 1200 metres. The tree: Grows to 40 metres with a stem diameter of 1.3 metres. The trunk is buttressed and often has some flying buttresses. The bark is brown and somewhat flaky, and the underbark is ochre-coloured towards the sapwood. The dark green shiny leaves are simple, oval, and with a slight curl as they narrow to the tip. Oil glands are visible with a lens. The fragrant flower panicles are large and borne in the leaf axils or are terminal to the branchlets, with four to five white or cream petals and the calyx lobes are white with cream or pink. The fruit can be up to 8 cm in size, and are mottled green. When ripe they turn mottled purple with brown patches. The flesh is leathery and the individual calyx lobes form a small crater at the bottom. The fruit are very variable in size and contain one fleshy seed, and are eaten by musky rat-kangaroos, bush rats and giant white-tailed rats.

Wood of Syzygium gustavioides The wood is greyish-yellow and the sapwood is not clearly defined. The texture is relatively fine and even, and the grain is often interlocked. It contains extractives including appreciable amounts of triterpenes, which give a slightly greasy feel to the wood and can reduce the strength of bond achieved with adhesives. It has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 690 kg/m3. It is slow to dry but with little degradation. Shrinkage is about 2.5% radially and 5.5% tangentially. It is not easy to work and is not suitable for steam bending, but despite the triterpenes or terpenes it glues satisfactorily. It is useful as a general building timber for framework and flooring, but not suitable where exposed to the elements. It is probably the most commonly available of the genus.

Flaky bark on the trunk.

See macrophotographs of Syzygium gustavioides on page 190.

Australian Rainforest Woods

153

Syzygium kuranda Kuranda satinash Synonym: Eugenia kuranda. Derivation: Syzygium from the Greek syzygos (joined or yoked together), referring to the peranth segments cohering to form a cap. Kuranda from the Aboriginal name for the tree. Family: Myrtaceae, which has 160 genera and over 5600 species. In Australia there are 80 genera and over 2500 species with 26 genera occurring in rainforest. The largest of which is Eucalyptus, Corymbia and Melaleuca. Syzygium has 76 species in Australia and has been subject to many changes in its history as botanical identification is further refined. Other names: Cherry penda, cherry satinash, watergum and water gum. Distribution: From Cooktown to the Kirrama Range in Queensland from sea level to 1100 metres altitude. The tree: Grows to 35 metres in height and around 1 metre in diameter. The leaves are simple and dark green, paler on the underside, and shiny with sparse oil dots visible with a hand lens. They are lance-shaped or elliptical and drawn out into a blunt point at the tip and narrowed towards the base. The white, cream or pink fragrant flowers are borne on panicles on the trunk, a feature named cauliflory. They have four petals and a white, cream or pink calyx. The orange-brown or pinkish berries may be two lobed with one or two seeds. The protruding calyx form a small volcano at the base with a spike in the centre. When cut through the seeds take up the largest portion of the fruit and are darker in colour to the flesh surrounding them. The fruit are eaten by sulphurcrested cockatoos, figbirds, Australian king-parrots, cassowaries and musky rat-kangaroos.

Small tree.

Wood of Syzygium kuranda The heartwood is brown and sometimes with an almost purplish tint in the inner heartwood, as is evident with this specimen. There are white lines which indicate the presence of vessels. It has a distinct sheen. The sapwood is not clearly defined. The texture is relatively fine and even, and the grain is straight. It has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 835 kg/m3. It dries without significant degrading and has a shrinkage rate of 3.5% radially and 7% tangentially. It is suitable for building framework, flooring and with its unique coloration could be useful in panelling, intarsia, inlays, as well as turning. I think this is an interesting wood worthy of the effort needed to find a supply. 154

Alternate leaves. Trunk.

See macrophotographs of Syzygium kuranda on page 190.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Toona ciliata red cedar

A red cedar on the Bunya Mountains in south-east Queensland.

Synonym: Toona australis. Derivation: Toona from Toon (the Indian name for the tree). Ciliata from the Latin ciliatus (fringed with hairs), referring to the hairy tufts on the underside of some leaflets. Family: Meliaceae, represented in Australia by 44 species in 13 genera, the major being 10 mostly large trees species in the genus Dysoxylum and five smaller trees in the genus Owenia. They are the Australian mahogany family. Distribution: Found in coastal subtropical and tropical rainforests, riverine rainforest and also on alluvial soils, from Benandrah in New South Wales to Iron Range in north Queensland. It grows wherever the temperature in the coldest month does not fall below 10°C, and the rainfall of the driest month exceeds 40 mm, or is supplemented by high summer rainfall. The tree: A large deciduous tree generally with a wide-spreading and handsome crown attaining a height of 45 metres and a stem diameter of over 2 metres. Found as scattered trees within the rainforest. The trunk can be irregular where the tree has little competition and frequently has a fluted base and gnarled limbs. The bark is brown or grey, scaly, and sheds in oblong or irregular pieces leaving slight depressions. Underbark is chocolate-brown. Leaves are compound, alternate and pinnate, consisting of five to seven leaflets. The leaflets are opposite or irregularly alternate, often drawn out to a long point at the tip, unequal at the base. Successive waves of male and then female flowers are born in large branched inflorescences growing in the leaf axils during October– November. Flowers have white petals and the fruit capsules – up to 26 mm long – split into five chambers, each containing four to seven winged seeds. Red cedar is one of a few deciduous Australian trees which lose their foliage in winter and are readily recognised in spring when their brilliant new red foliage bursts through the rainforest canopy. Throughout its range, red cedar is pursued by its hereditary pest, the red cedar tip moth (Hypsiphyla robusta) laying its eggs in the growing shoots, and causing trees to branch. The heavier the tree density, the heavier the infestations, therefore only low density stands survive. For this reason it’s impossible to grow plantation red cedar. Mature trees in natural stands are usually several hundred metres apart.

Typical bark of red cedar.

Compound leaves.



Australian Rainforest Woods

A spray of new spring foliage.

155

Wood of Toona ciliata Red cedar ranges from pink to a very dark rich red colour which is obtained from the older, slower-growing trees. It is often credited as closely resembling mahogany (Swietenia mahogani). Australian red cedar has been regarded as distinct from that grown throughout Papua New Guinea, South-East Asia and India, which because of its faster growth produce a paler pinkish and lighter wood. Most commercial red cedar used in Australia today is imported. See macrophotographs of Toona ciliata on page 186. This is one of the most prized of the Australian cabinet woods. It is ring porous and has an open Most of the red cedar used today for window frames, and rather coarse grain with a somewhat woolly fibre furnishings, cabinetry, hand rails, shop fittings, etc. is which can be a problem when cutting ‘young’ trees across imported. It’s difficult to comprehend however, that some of the grain. It’s light with an air dry density at 12% moisture the streets of early Sydney were ‘cobbled’ with red cedar of 450 kg/ m3. It’s very easy to work, has a distinctive odour, blocks which lasted more that 60 years, and when removed cuts firmly, bends well, dresses cleanly and takes a high were found to be as sound as the day they were laid. finish. Shrinkage is 2% radially and 4% tangentially, so it’s a stable wood. Back cut wood, as shown in the platter opposite, produces excellent graining and is one of the reasons for its popularity. Back cutting is also easy and gives greater log yields. Add to this the fact that the wood frequently has water-wave and fiddleback effects. Roots, knots and forked branches provide beautiful figured woods and are keenly sought after. Because of its great durability, large quantities of stumps from trees previously harvested before the 1890s – which were cut very high because of fluting – were harvested in the 1930–40s and used to produce high quality veneer. Red cedar has such a wide range of uses, including railway carriage interiors, early aeroplane construction, boat building, and even house construction. Huge quantities were exported. From the late 1820s red cedar became the chosen joinery timber and was lavishly used to fit-out many Australian public buildings – until its depletion by the An ‘old growth’ red cedar platter turned by a 1920s. woodworking friend, the late Keith Moore.

Sections of 7 metre long red cedar units in the author’s home constructed by wood artisan Jada Bonaventura, and cut from a red cedar log harvested at Christmas Creek in south-east Queensland. The window casements in the house are also red cedar. The parquetry floor is crow’s ash (Flindersia australis).

156

Australian Rainforest Woods

The history of red cedar The history of red cedar is as old as European settlement in Australia. On arriving at Sydney Cove in 1788 one of the first requirements was to find material suitable for the erection of dwellings. Timber was everywhere to be seen however most was either too tough or misshapen. According to Alex Gaddes, in his book, Red Cedar, Our Heritage, by December 1788, the colonists had discovered red cedar only 10 km south of the Rose Hill settlement. The tough eucalypts had proved too difficult to work using the poor quality tools they had been able to bring with them, so the more easily cut and cured cedar was irresistible. Within two years of settlement plentiful supplies of red cedar were found on the Hawkesbury River north of the settlement and by 1791, pitsawn planks were being sent from the Hawkesbury to England, which resulted in an order from the Admiralty to fill the empty convict ships with red cedar for their return journey. The first export shipment of red cedar was sent to India in 1795 and by 1801 the ‘cedar cutters’ had reached the Hunter River. That same year saw the first controls over cedar cutting in the colony. In the Hunter area the rights to cut cedar was reserved to the Crown, and up to the early 1820s all cedar cutting was supposed to have remained under the control of the Government – and was carried out using convict labour. South of the settlement cedar cutting began in the Shoalhaven River in 1811, and later moved further south into the Illawarra district. It soon became the colony’s most sought after resource and the first supplies from around the Sydney area became the springboard for the rapid spread of the industry into the north coast of New South Wales. However, as can be imagined, despite Governor King, in 1802, issuing a general order banning cedar cutting without authority, cedar cutting continued unabated. It extending up the coast of New South Wales reaching the Tweed River by the 1860s. Then into Queensland, and finally reaching the Barron, Daintree and Johnstone rivers in north Queensland by the 1870s. Besides the fact that it was one of the best furniture timbers available in the world at that time, red cedar had one tremendous advantage over all other species – and that was that it grew in profusion along the banks of most of the coastal rivers. Since this was also before the days of overland transport, the logs were simply cut and hauled, or rolled into the water, formed into rafts and floated to the river mouth where they could be securely loaded onto coastal clippers and sent by sea to Sydney. Only where it was impossible to haul them to the river, were they pitsawn into planks, then carried on men’s shoulders to a suitable spot where they could be loaded onto a bullock dray and then to Sydney. This was a winner-take-all industry and most areas were cut out by the 1890s, with only the more difficult and remote areas ‘dribbling’ in supplies up to the 1960s. The cedar cutters however opened up settlement along the east coast of Australia, developing small towns in areas containing rich rainforest soils and farming followed close on its heels. By the time the emerging state-run forestry authorities started to control timber harvesting around the

1920s, Australian red cedar had become a rare commodity and other species had to be selected in order to establish a sustainable industry.

The cutters of Red Gold

Most of the cedar ‘cutters’ – as they became known – were not free men. They were allotted by the Government to their ‘owners’ as indentured labour. This appalling indictment of the human condition was the base on which the ‘landed gentry’ of the day heaped yet more overbearing treatment on the unfortunate convict arrivals. Is there any wonder they were described as ‘mostly desperate ruffians’, or as, ‘the most improvident set of men in the world’. There is no doubting however that they toiled under extreme condition of deprivation – deprivation upon which the wealth of the new colony was built. We can be critical, but that was how England sought to rid itself of those that were in the penal system. There were of course, as Geddes relates, two categories of cedar cutters. The first cut the handy trees, then moved on to the next river that offered the promise of plenty of cedar, as most of the east coast rivers of Australia did. The second group tended to remain as permanent settlers on each river, eventually clearing land and providing the essential farming elements for new coastal development. Some areas were reported as having up to 200 cutters and pit sawers in operation at any one time during this period. Perhaps because of the almost parallel history of red cedar with that of gold which thrust Australia into the world’s financial limelight, red cedar was soon referred to as ‘Red Gold’ – which together loosed the purse strings of the investors and produced the financial backing for much of Australia’s early development.

The largest red cedar trees

Swain, in The Timbers and Forest Products of Queensland (1928), reports of red cedars in Queensland measuring 150 feet (49 m) in height with trunk girths of up to 50 feet (15.4 m). Geddes, in Red Cedar, Our Heritage, reports that the largest tree ever cut came from Nulla Nulla Creek in the Upper Macleay, in New South Wales. It was felled in 1883 and contained 80 000 super feet (240 m3), excluding the timber in its high stump. Some of the larger branches were also used – conservative value today, $1.5 million plus. A 500-year-old red cedar, in a recently declared World Heritage Area on the Atherton Tableland, was felled during Cyclone Larry on 20 March 2006. With its head protruding through the rainforest canopy it became a victim of Larry’s cyclonic winds. In the 1990s Tom Johnston measured its girth at 32 feet (9.7 m). During a Dorrigo visit in 2007, I had confirmation of a red cedar in that area of New South Wales that was last measured in the 1960s at 37 feet (11.3 m) girth – and is believed to be still alive and well. So there are still some gentle giants living in the protection of national parks in Australia. The largest known tree standing today is in Middle Brother State Forest, near Kendall, and has an estimated log volume of 48 000 super feet (144 m3).

Australian Rainforest Woods

157

Vitex lignum-vitae satinwood Synonym: Premna lignum-vitae. Derivation: Vitex being the Latin name for the genus of the type species Vitex agnus-castus. Lignum-vitae from the early settler’s name for the timber of this tree, which resembles the true lignum-vitae of South America. Family: Laminaceae. Recent genetic studies have relocated some of the genera from Verbenaceae to Laminaceae. These include Clerodendron, Gmelina and Vitex. Other names: Lignum-vitae, yellow hollywood, golden box and cherry. Distribution: From the Richmond River in New South Wales to Mt Lewis in north Queensland. It is also found in New Guinea. It grows in dry and subtropical rainforests. The tree: Grows to 30 metres in height with a stem diameter of around 0.8 metres. The crown is dark green and spreading. The trunk is fissured, usually fluted and irregular in shape and slightly buttressed. The bark is grey and the underbark is creamy-brown and sheds in corky flakes. The blaze is pale yellow with orange vertical flecks and an orange outer margin. It is fibrous and consists of fine thin layers. On exposure the colour becomes uniform yellow with green near the sapwood. The leaves are opposite, simple, with entire margins, however coppice leaves may be lobed. They have a similar shape at both ends, tapering gradually from the centre to a pointed tip and base. They are smooth and green on both surfaces, but paler underneath. The leaves turn black when they dry out. The leaf stalk is slightly swollen where it attaches to the leaf. The white, cream, pink, light purple or red flowers turn dusky as they mature. The calyx can be green, pink, purple, red or brown. They grow on forked twigs in the leaf axils. The cup-shaped calyx forms the base of the pink or reddish-purple fruit which contain a round stone with four single seed compartments. The fruit are eaten by green catbirds and rose-crowned fruit-doves.

Tree.

Leaves and fruit.

Wood of Vitex lignum-vitae The wood is dark grey, with a slight warmth through it, and has a close and even grain which is sometimes interlocked. It is tough and durable and has an air dry density at 12% moisture of 925 kg/m3. It can be used for flooring, and will serve well where strength is needed. It makes great tool handles and is good for turning. Because of the irregularities in the stem it is difficult to get consistent lengths which does have a drawback, but is a very durable wood and has been used as bearings for boat propeller shafts. 158

Trunk.

See macrophotographs of Vitex lignum-vitae on page 181.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Xanthostemon chrysanthus, brown penda Xanthostemon whitei, red penda

Brown penda tree.

Flowers.

Wood of Xanthostemon chrysanthus and Xanthostemon whitei The heartwood of brown penda is dark brown with reddish patches throughout, whereas red penda is pinkish-brown and tends to be streaky, becoming darker as you get closer to the centre of the trunk. The wood is fine textured, tight grained, compact and dense with somewhat interlocked grain. It is seldom figured. Both have an air dry density at 12% moisture of around 1025–1050 kg/m3. Care is needed in drying to prevent twisting and checking. It has a shrinkage of 4% radially and 6% tangentially. It is hard to work and has a slippery surface when planed. It is hard to mortise and nail. It is an excellent timber for framework and flooring, and its colour makes it interesting for inlays and turning.

Synonyms: Meterosideros chrysantha, Nania chrysantha and Xanthostemon chrysanthum for Xanthostemon chrysanthus; X. pubescens for Xanthostemon whitei. Derivation: Xanthostemon from xantho (yellow) and stemon (stamen). Chrysanthus from chryson (golden) and anthus (flowered). Whitei after Australian botanist Cyril T. White (1890–1950). Family: Myrtaceae, consisting of 35 genera, the largest of which is Eucalyptus, Corymbia and Melaleuca. Other names: Brown penda is also known as black penda, Johnstone River penda and Johnstone River hardwood. Red penda is also called Atherton penda. Distribution: Brown penda grows from Pascoe River to the Seaview Range in north Queensland and is found mostly along the waterways in rainforest areas growing from sea level to 1000 metres. Red penda grows from Shipton’s flat near Cooktown to the Tully River south of Cairns in north Queensland and is found in rainforest from sea level to 1150 metres. The tree: They are large spreading trees growing to 25 metres in height and forming buttresses in maturity. Red penda has been recorded as growing to 37 metres and with a 1.5 metre stem diameter. It has rough brown or red, scaly bark. The underbark is brown or pinkish-brown. The leaves of brown penda are simple alternate or whorled, shiny, lance-shaped and taper to the tip and base, and covered in red oil dots visible with a lens. The leaf is swollen at the base. The leaves of red penda are lanceolate and curves to a blunt point at the tip and tapers evenly to its base. Oil dots are visible with a lens and new growth is densely hairy. Brown penda has green, yellow or greenish-yellow, showy flowers borne on axillary or terminal stalks. The flower calyx is spotted with red oil glands and the stamens are yellow. The fruit capsules are green to brown, woody, and the reddish oil glands are visible with a lens. The calyx encloses about half the fruit with the oval seed capsule sticking out the top, like an acorn. The capsule opens from the top, splitting down the valve joints, to release the small yellowish-brown, flat, angular seeds. Red penda has yellow, white or cream flowers with four or five petals, only about half the length of the leaves. The fruit capsules are brown and open along the valve joint to release several small angular brown seeds. The calyx does not form a cup as in brown penda, but is Leaves. more splayed. See macrophotographs of both species on page 191.

Specimen of Xanthostemon chrysanthus (above) and Xanthostemon whitei (below).

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159

Wood identification This section provides the basic tools for the identification of wood as well as macrophotographs of the end grain for all of the wood species listed in this book. With experience, most woodworkers will gradually familiarise themselves with the features of more and more species. However, by following a step-by-step process to make an identification, and by comparing with a known specimen collection, you can quickly improve your skills of identification. This is how the majority of woodcrafters – and most experts – arrive at an identification. Unfortunately our knowledge of Australian rainforest woods is really still in its infancy. Starting with the 1200 species in our rainforests, this book describes 140 of the major species. Of these 140 species, less than a third have been keyed through The CSIRO Macro Key for Hardwood Identification. There are however, fewer than 7% the Australian woods that can be identified using the official system of identification. To be fair the system does concentrate on the commercial species, which has been the main focus of all wood research. This is brought about because we have so many species and so few keys for identification. Information presented in this book is therefore the most currently available at this time, and it is therefore necessary to use these key characteristics in association with the macrophotographs in order to identify these woods, and this will always be a part of any future identification system.

The future for identification

What does the future hold? This is a difficult question. I believe the answer lies in making a new start, and in this regard I suggest that the future system of identification will be in computer pattern recognition, and it may be appropriate at this point to discuss this concept in view of the massive development that is taking place in relation to computer pattern recognition in other areas at this time. Currently there are a number of very large and very effective computer pattern recognition systems operating throughout the world in relation to human identification, photographic recognition and security type systems, so it is not stretching the imagination too far to place wood identification as a possible subject for the future of this technology. I see a universal system which would: • be based on our current understanding of basic characteristics for wood identification • have an ever expanding and comprehensive database of digital macrophotographs for as many wood species as possible on one site, or a network of sites • when presented with an adequately prepared unknown specimen, the computer program would extract the key features from the newly presented specimen to create a ‘signature’ which is then compared and matched to the closest resembling reference image.

160

A few notes on variability The key to identification is to identify patterns that relate to characteristics. Because of the nature of trees there will always be some, if not, considerable variation within individual woods. For this reason multiple specimens of one species will not be the same colour, because colour will vary with location. Variations will also occur as a result of differing growth rates, the age of the tree when the wood was obtained, the topography, fertility and soil type where it grew, or the part of the tree the specimen was obtained from, for example. Variability therefore is an integral part of any biological material. Genes may determine type, but environmental factors will provide variability within that type. Variability will also tell you things about the wood which are additional to their type characteristics. Colour is one example where differences are often the result of environmental factors. This can be the result of differences in soil fertility, altitude and aspect relating to light intensity, for example – these can in fact be used to determine plantation versus natural sources, or species growing throughout many countries. It is best to remember that variation is an intrinsic botanical characteristic and is the prime reason that we have so many species in Australia in the first place, and therefore should be celebrated and used to its advantage. Ultimately, the effectiveness of any visual search depends on the size of the reference library it is based on. When you first become interested in wood identification – compared to simply having a piece of wood, turning it, or making something out of it, without really having any interest in what it is or where it came from – you start with a very small reference library in your head. Then as you become more aware of the individuality of each piece of wood that you hold in your hand, your mental reference library begins to expand, and little by little, you link wood more and more to characteristics of families or species – and so your ability to recognise different species grows. For the very same reason, it is advisable to have multiple macrophotographs of individual species with linkages between these so that the signature will be broad enough to cope with natural variation. The third aspect of this system is that since wood has not been a part of botanical identification, it is almost certain that with the use of pattern recognition there will be questions posed as to whether individual specimens do indeed fit with current botanical definition. This could well result in reclassification within some families. With growing technical recognition of the Cerre System of Macrophotography of wood it is recommended that this system be used in association with pattern recognition as a method of wood identification. At the time of writing, however, only around 20–25% of the world’s wood species have been recorded using this system.

Australian Rainforest Woods

What’s in a name? There is a sense of satisfaction in being able to put the correct identification on a piece of wood that you either purchased or collected, particularly if you were not able to see and identify the tree that the wood came from. This is usually not a problem where botanical material is collected at the same time as the wood sample and you may have the opportunity to contact a herbarium for an identification. Also wood may be passed from one person to another and each time this happens we rely on the person supplying the wood to have the right name for it, but this may not always be the case. We all make mistakes occasionally and everyone knows how easy it is to mix up pieces of wood when making something and using more than one species at a time. In some cases wood may become available but the supplier doesn’t know the name of the tree it came from and has been unable to identify it from botanical material. One way to minimise these problems is to learn to recognise the structural features which make one wood different from another and to understand how these features can be used in identifying wood samples. It’s not difficult. Once you know what to look for it is just a matter of practice. This is an introduction to wood identification for those who have not had any previous experience with a systematic approach to identification. It starts with the way plants are classified, and therefore their genetic relationships with one another, and then progresses through to a very brief description of the features used for identification together with examples.

Plant classification

Botanists recognise two main subdivisions of woody plants: • Gymnosperms, which are plants where the seeds are not enclosed in a seed case. These include the conebearing plants represented by a number of pines, such as hoop, bunya, kauri, cypress, brown and radiata. • Angiosperms, which are plants where the seeds are enclosed in a case. The angiosperms are further divided into two classes: ȃȃ Monocotyledons, which produce only one primary leaf when the seeds germinate. This group includes palms and bamboos. ȃȃ Dicotyledons, which produce two primary leaves, or cotyledons, when the seeds germinate. In Australia this is by far the largest group and includes the majority of the woody plants in our eucalypt, acacia and rainforests. In addition to these subdivisions, an internationally accepted system of classification places all plants into a hierarchial order as follows: • orders • families • genera (genus is the singular) • species.

All members of one species are identical, varying only within specified limits. Using southern silky oak (Grevillea robusta) as an example, a full classification therefore becomes: Subdivision Angiospermae Class Dicotyledonae Order Proteales Family Proteaceae Genus Grevillea Species robusta This may seem complicated but you will soon become aware that only the genus and species are usually quoted and we rarely have the need to go above family. Many woods also have a standard trade name and/or a local or common name. These are often confusing because one species may have several different names depending on where it occurs and what it is used for. It is preferable therefore to use botanical names on wood samples whenever possible. This identification program deals mostly with the dicotyledons or hardwoods because they are the dominant group as all but 11 of the species described in this book fall into this group and are the major rainforest woods.

Tree growth and wood structure Sapwood and heartwood

The wood cells produced towards the centre of the tree have a variety of functions: • mechanical support and strength • conduction of water and food materials through the tree • food storage. Those cells giving mechanical support (called fibres in hardwoods and tracheids in pines) are relatively long needle-shaped cells which form the greatest part of the wood. These are actually about 1 mm long in hardwoods but the tracheids in pines can be up to 10 times this length. Cells conducting food and water in hardwoods are called vessels. These can usually be seen on the cross-section of a piece of wood with a 10x lens (and sometimes without a lens) as small oval or circular ‘pores’. The surrounding fibres cannot be seen individually with a 10x lens. Vessels vary in number, size and location in different tree species and so are important features in wood identification. Storage of food materials is undertaken by the cells in wood rays and by special thin-walled cells called parenchyma or soft tissue. These cells occur in a variety of different locations and to different extents in different species, and are also very useful in wood identification. The difference between heartwood and sapwood in some tree species is that the ‘living’ functions have ceased in heartwood – and a variety of chemical compounds have been deposited in the cells. These compounds are often dark in colour and so the heartwood also takes on a darker colour than the sapwood. The woody parts of both hardwoods and softwoods consist of a number of concentric zones namely – from the centre outwards: pith, heartwood, sapwood, cambium and bark (see figure on next page).

Australian Rainforest Woods

161

anatomist it is a long, long road. We don’t have to go down to the end of that road, but far enough to achieve some satisfaction and competence.

Natural variability

Every piece of wood is unique in itself, even from the same species or from different parts of the same tree. Its age within the tree and its growth rate are fixed, and different from other pieces. This is really natural variation on a small scale. This doesn’t necessarily make identification more difficult, but it is wise to keep it in mind.

Surface appearance

Growth rings The development of growth rings in some tree species is usually associated with seasonal growth. These will have various widths due to the variations in the rate of growth as a result of seasonal changes. For example, large cells with thin walls are produced during periods of fast growth while no cells or only small cells are produced in slow growth periods. Growth rings occur more commonly in softwoods (pines) but also occur in hardwoods (particularly deciduous species) which are subjected to climatic extremes. An interesting feature is that where there are very distinct seasons, such as in the northern hemisphere, growth rings can be used to age a tree. Where the seasons are not as distinct then this is not reliable. The best example is in regard to Eucalyptus species where growth rings are not a reliable tool to age a tree.

The cambium zone

This is probably the only zone which needs explanation. The cambium is a very narrow zone (only a few cells wide) which is not at all obvious when looking at a tree in cross-section. However, it is probably the most important part of the tree because this is where growth takes place. A tree grows in diameter because cells in the cambium layer divide to produce new cells, forming wood towards the centre of the tree and bark towards the outside.

The bark

While the outer bark layer is dead tissue and functions essentially as a protective coating for the tree, the cells in the soft inner bark layer are living and conduct the food materials that are produced in the leaves to other parts of the tree.

Start with the fundamentals

This section is for woodworkers who have little experience of wood identification, and want to ‘have a go’ – it is a start on the road to wood anatomy, though to be a real wood 162

Starting with the proposition that you have a piece of wood of unknown identity, one can observe some physical appearance properties, such as colour (with variations, if any), density (which usually goes with hardness), difference between sapwood and heartwood, difference between earlywood and latewood, whether or not growth rings are distinct, odour present or not, coarseness of grain and whether there is a greasy feel. There may be enough clues from these observations to arrive at an identification, or at least narrow its identity to a particular group of woods.

Close observation

Beyond those observations, examination of the piece with some sort of magnification is the way to go, and the simplest is by means of a small hand lens. The standard surfaces to examine are the transverse, the longitudinal/radial and the longitudinal/tangential. The transverse surface is the most useful and, of course, is perpendicular to the long axis. To observe these surfaces, it is essential that they be cut cleanly with a very sharp knife (a Stanley knife for instance), possibly with the exception of the longitudinal/radial surface where it may be best to split the wood on its exact radius, thereby allowing better examination of its rays in side view. A cut area of about the size on one’s little fingernail should be enough, but the area should cover at least one full annual ring in transverse section.

Using a lens

Most identifying features are obtained from the transverse surface. To conform with usual practice, it is best to imagine you are standing at the pith of the tree, looking outwards to the bark. Growth features will then be unfolding away from you. The minimum useful magnifying power of hand lens is 10X. 15X is better but more difficult to use because the wood surface has to be closer to the lens. In practical terms, to examine a surface, first remove spectacles (if any), hold the lens close to the eye (one’s best eye), even touching the eyelashes, and bring the wood’s surface up until it is in focus. It is vital to have a sharp focus. It is also vital to have good illumination, like full sun or a reading lamp. Now you should be able to see that the wood is composed of cells of different types, sizes and structures – like rays and growth

Australian Rainforest Woods

rings. If you can’t see individual vessels, it is probably because the cut is not clean enough. It is just possible that the vessels are just too small to be seen individually at 10X magnification. The next step is to learn what different cell types look like.

Different cell types

R. Bruce Hoadley’s book Identifying Wood is the best book I know of to help with cell identification, and a whole host of other technical detail. Hoadley deals with the identification of mostly North American softwoods and hardwoods, but the principles involved are much the same for all woods. Examining softwood usually involves the use of a microscope, and this is difficult and expensive if one has to buy a microscope.

Start with hardwoods

It is best to start on hardwoods where a simple hand lens and a sharp knife are adequate – and Hoadley’s book deserves close reading. This is because, by reference to his drawings and colour pictures of transverse sections of hardwoods, the reader should be able to identify the important basic structures: • pores – or vessels • soft tissue – which is parenchyma • fibres.

What do you see?

With a hand lens one can see individual vessels, but rarely individuals of other cell types. One can think of the vessels and parenchyma being imposed on and in a background of fibres – this is not standard wood anatomy, but it works for me. In most instances, one cannot see individual fibre cells, not because they are too small to see at 10X magnification, but because they usually have thickened walls, they appear



darker than the other cells and are usually aggregated together. Parenchyma cells which do not have thickened walls make up the rays (there can be ray tracheids too) and others may be aligned longitudinally, along with fibres and vessels in various ways. They can be identified, either individually or in various patterns, by their lighter colour; when many parenchyma cells surround a vessel or many vessels, they appear as a pale halo/s around the vessel/s. There is really only one way to learn wood identification and that is – like many things in life – you need to work at it. I suggest examining as many transverse sections as one can reasonably achieve – and then only of hardwoods for a start. The whole purpose of this work is to be able to distinguish between the different cell types – to be able to tell one from the other. If the pieces of wood are of known identity – good – because you will start to relate your observations to it. A piece of wood of unknown identity presents a problem – how do you relate your observations to what?

Identification aids

Wood anatomists – their peak body is the International Association of Wood Anatomists – have compiled a set of facts regarding many species, numbering perhaps 10 000 to 20 000 out of a worldwide total of at least 50 000. A lot of their findings are however not readily available. The facts can be assembled into a database, and with the aid of computer programs, a selection of positive features may lead one to identification. Remember though that if your piece of wood is not in that database, there is no hope of a correct identification. A better way to go, for the amateur, is to obtain texts and colour images depicting a magnified transverse section. These are available for a limited number of species. One example is the CSIRO Atlas of Hardwoods, by Jugo Ilic, an Australian wood anatomist. The book contains 1284 ‘macro’ colour pictures and a ‘micro atlas’ of 1605 species at microscopic level.

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Macrophotographs 

Magnification x 15.

The macrophotographs in this section, as demonstrated in the examples shown here, represent two magnifications for each species. The first is at a magnification x 15, and the second magnification is x 150. The second group of macrophotographs are at x 15 and x 90 magnifications. This is the magnification used for all of the specimens illustrated in this section of the book and has been found to be the most useful in showing the major features of the various wood species.

Magnification x 15



Magnification x 150.

The macrophotographs on the left-hand side of the following pages represent a magnification of x 15 which shows features which in many cases can be seen with the naked eye, but which when seen under x 10 or x 15 magnification shows enough detail for identification of most characteristics mentioned in this publication.

Magnification x 90

The second magnification shown on the right-hand side of the page represents the central section of the x 15 macrophotograph at magnification x 90, as shown by the boxed area below. This produces a better definition of the individual characteristics and the presence of pore content and pore structure can be seen. Broussenetia papyifera Magnification x 15 and x 90.

Brosimum utile



Magnification x 15 and x 90.

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165

Macrophotographs of species listed by family (with page number of description) Subdivision Gymnospermae Araucariaceae Agathis atropurpurea Agathis microstachya Agathis robusta Araucaria bidwilllii Araucaria cunninghamii

Cupressaceae

Athrotaxis cupressoides Athrotaxis selaginoides Callitris macleayana

Phyllocladaceae Phyllocladus aspleniifolius

Podocarpaceae Lagarostrobos franklinii Podocarpus elatus Podocarpus grayae Sundacarpus amara

black kauri bull kauri kauri pine bunya pine hoop pine

11 11 13 24 26

pencil pine King Billy pine brush cypress

32 33 46

celery top pine

132

Huon pine brown pine brown pine black pine

113 139 139 149

pink poplar Burdekin plum tulip satinwood

82 138 144

Subdivision Angiospermae Anacardiaceae Euroschinus falcatus Pleiogynium timorense Rhodosphaera rhodanthema

Annonaceae Polyalthia nitidissima

Apocynaceae Alstonia scholaris Cerbera floribunda

Araliaceae Polyscias elegans

Atherospermataceae

canary beech

140

white cheesewood cassowary plum

20 53

silver basswood

Atherosperma moschatum blackheart sassafras Daphnandra micrantha socket sassafras Daphnandra repandula northern sassafras Doryphora aromatica northern sassafras Doryphora sassafras sassafras

Caesalpiniaceae

Erythrophleum chlorostachys Intsia bijuga

Cannabaceae Aphananthe philippinensis

Cardiopteridaceae Citronella moorei

Casuarinaceae Allocasuarina torulosa

Cornaceae Alangium villosum

166

Cooktown ironwood Johnstone River teak handle wood

silky beech

rose sheoak

canary muskheart

141

31 60 61 65 65

81 109

23 55

17

15

Cunoniaceae Anodopetalum biglandulosum horizontal Caldcluvia australiensis pencil cedar Caldcluvia paniculosa brown alder Ceratopetalum apetalum coachwood Ceratopetalum succirubrum satin sycamore Eucryphia lucida leatherwood Karrabina benthamiana red carabeen Karrabina biagiana Nth brush mahogany Pseudoweinmannia lachnocarpa mararie Schizomeria ovata crab apple

Elaeocarpaceae

Elaeocarpus grandis Elaeocarpus kirtonii Elaeocarpus ruminatus Sloanea australis Sloanea langii Sloanea woollsii

Euphorbiaceae Aleurites moluccana

blue quandong brown quandong brown quandong blush alder white carabeen yellow carabeen

21 44 45 50 52 80 111 112 142 145

70 71 72 146 146 147

candlenut 16

Fabaceae (subfamily Faboideae) Castanospermum australe

Fagaceae Nothofagus cunninghamii Nothofagus moorei

Laminaceae

black bean

myrtle beech Antarctic beech

Gmelina fasiciculiflora white beech Gmelina leichhardtii white beech Vitex lignum-vitae satinwood

Lauraceae

Beilschmiedia bancroftii yellow walnut Beilschmiedia obtusifolia blush walnut Cinnamomum laubatii pepperwood Cryptocarya erythroxylon rose maple Cryptocarya rigida rose maple Endiandra cowleyana rose walnut Endiandra crassiflora Dorrigo walnut Endiandra palmerstonii Queensland walnut Endiandra sankeyana Sankey’s walnut Endiandra sieberi pink walnut Litsea glutinosa brown bollywood Litsea reticulata brown beech

Malvaceae

Argyrodendron actinophyllum subsp. actinophyllum Argyrodendron peralatum Argyrodendron trifoliolatum

Meliaceae

blush tulip oak red tulip oak brown tulip oak

Anthocarapa nitidula incense cedar wood Dysoxylum fraserianum rosewood Dysoxylum mollissimum miva mahogany Dysoxylum oppositifolium pink mahogany Dysoxylum pettigrewianum spur mahogany Dysoxylum setosum miva mahogany Melia azedarach white cedar

Australian Rainforest Woods

49

125 127

100 101 158 41 42 54 56 57 74 74 75 77 77 120 120

28 29 30

22 66 68 69 69 68 121

Synoum glandulosum Toona ciliata

Mimosaceae

Acacia celsa Acacia melanoxylon Paraserianthes toona

Moraceae Ficus racemosa Ficus rubiginosa Ficus superba

Myristicaceae Myristica insipida

Myrtaceae Backhousia bancroftii Backhousia citriodora Eucalyptus regnans Syzygium australe Syzygium claviflorum Syzygium cormiflorum Syzygium gustavioides Syzygium kuranda Xanthostemon chrysanthus Xanthostemon whitei

Oleaceae Olea paniculata

Pennantiaceae Pennantia cunninghamii

Phyllanthaceae Glochidion ferdinandi

Picrodendraceae Austrobuxus swainii

Pittosporaceae Pittosporum undulatum

Proteaceae Athertonia diversifolia Banksia integrifolia subsp. monticola Buckinghamia celsissima Cardwellia sublimis Darlingia darlingiana Darlingia ferruginea



scentless rosewood red cedar

brown salwood blackwood Mackay cedar cluster fig rusty fig cedar fig

native nutmeg

150 155

8 9 130

83 84 85

123

Johnstone River hardwood 38 lemon-scented myrtle 39 mountain ash 78 bush cherry 151 grey satinash 152 bumpy satinash 152 grey satinash 153 Kuranda satinash 154 brown penda 159 red penda 159 native olive

128

cheese tree

99

brown beech

pink cherry

engraver wood

creamy silky oak

mountain banksia spotted silky oak northern silky oak brown oak rose oak

131

37

134 36

40 43 47 62 62

Grevillea hilliana Grevillea parallela Grevillea robusta Lasjia whelanii Orites excelsus Stenocarpus sinuatus

Quintiniaceae Quintinia sieberi

Rhamnaceae Alphitonia excelsa Alphitonia petriei Emmenosperma alphitonioides

Rubiaceae

white silky oak silver oak southern silky oak Whelan’s silky oak mountain silky oak wheel of fire

102 103 104 119 129 148

possumwood 143

red ash pink almond ash bonewood

18 19 73

Nauclea orientalis cheesewood 124

Rutaceae

Flindersia acuminata silver silkwood Flindersia australis crow’s ash Flindersia bennettiana Bennett’s ash Flindersia bourjotiana Queensland silver ash Flindersia brayleyana Queensland maple Flindersia collina leopard wood ash Flindersia ifflaiana Cairns hickory Flindersia pimenteliana maple silkwood Flindersia schottiana silver ash Flindersia xanthoxyla yellow wood Geijera salicifolia green satinheart Halfordia scleroxyla saffronheart Melicope bonwickii yellow evodia Melicope elleryana pink euodia

Sapindaceae

Cupaniopsis anacardioides green-leaved tamarind Cupaniopsis parvifolia small-leaved tuckeroo Diploglottis australis native tamarind Guioa semiglauca wild quince Harpullia pendula tulipwood Jagera pseudorhus foambark

Sapotaceae Planchonella australis Planchonella chartacea Planchonella pohlmaniana

Urticaceae

Dendrocnide photinophylla

Australian Rainforest Woods

black apple plum thin-leaved plum yellow boxwood

shining-leaved stinging tree

86 87 88 89 90 92 93 94 96 97 98 107 122 122

58 59 64 106 108 110

135 136 137

63

167

Subdivision Gymnospermae Araucariaceae

Agathis microstachya

bull kauri

Description page 11.

Araucariaceae

Agathis robusta

kauri pine

Description page 13.

Araucariaceae

Araucaria cunninghamii

hoop pine

Description page 26.

Araucariaceae

Araucaria bidwillii

bunya pine

Description page 24.

Magnification x 15. 168

Magnification x 90. Australian Rainforest Woods

Subdivision Gymnospermae Cupressaceae

Athrotaxis selaginoides

King William pine

Description page 33.

Cupressaceae

Athrotaxis cupressoides

pencil pine

Description page 32.

Cupressaceae

Callitris macleayana

brush cypress

Description page 46.

Phyllocladaceae

Magnification x 15.

Phyllocladus aspleniifolius

celery top

Description page 132.

Magnification x 90. Australian Rainforest Woods

169

Subdivision Gymnospermae Podocarpaceae

Podocarpaceae

Podocarpaceae

Magnification x 15.

170

Lagarostrobos franklinii

Huon pine

Podocarpus elatus brown pine

Sundacarpus amara

black pine

Magnification x 90.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Description page 113.

Description page 139.

Description page 149.

Subdivision Angiospermae Anacardiaceae

Euroschinus falcatus

Anacardiaceae

Pleiogynium timorense

Burdekin plum

Description page 138.

Anacardiaceae

Rhodosphaera rhodanthema

tulip satinwood

Description page 144.

Annonaceae

Magnification x 15.

pink poplar

Polyalthia nitidissima canary beech

Description page 82.

Description page 140.

Magnification x 90. Australian Rainforest Woods

171

Subdivision Angiospermae Apocynaceae

Alstonia scholaris

Apocynaceae

Araliaceae

Atherospermataceae

Magnification x 15. 172

white cheesewood

Description page 20.

Cerbera floribunda

cassowary plum

Description page 53.

Polyscias elegans

silver basswood

Description page 141.

Atherosperma moschatum

blackheart sassafras

Magnification x 90. Australian Rainforest Woods

Description page 31.

Subdivision Angiospermae Atherospermataceae

Daphnandra micrantha

socket sassafras

Description page 60.

Atherospermataceae

Daphnandra repandula

northern sassafras

Description page 61.

Atherospermataceae

Doryphora aromatica

northern sassafras

Description page 65.

Atherospermataceae

Magnification x 15.

Doryphora sassafras sassafras

Description page 65.

Magnification x 90. Australian Rainforest Woods

173

Subdivision Angiospermae Caesalpiniaceae

Erythrophleum chlorostachys

Cooktown ironwood

Description page 81.

Caesalpiniaceae

Intsia bijuga

Johnstone River teak

Description page 109.

Cannabaceae

Magnification x 15.

174

Aphananthe philippinensis

handle wood

Magnification x 90.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Description page 23.

Subdivision Angiospermae Cardiopteridaceae

Casuarinaceae

Corneaceae

Magnification x 15.



Citronella moorei

Allocasuarina torulosa

Alangium villosum

silky beech

Description page 55.

rose sheoak

Description page 17.

canary muskheart

Description page 15.

Magnification x 90.

Australian Rainforest Woods

175

Subdivision Angiospermae Cunoniaceae

Anodopetalum biglandulosum horizontal

Description page 21.

Cunoniaceae

Caldcluvia australiensis

pencil cedar

Description page 44.

Cunoniaceae

Caldcluvia paniculosa

brown alder

Description page 45.

Cunoniaceae

Magnification x 15. 176

Ceratopetalum apetalum coachwood

Magnification x 90. Australian Rainforest Woods

Description page 50.

Subdivision Angiospermae Cunoniaceae

Cunoniaceae

Ceratopetalum succirubrum

satin sycamore

Description page 52.

Eucryphia lucida leatherwood

Description page 80.

Cunoniaceae

Karrabina benthamiana

Cunoniaceae

Karrabina biagiana

Magnification x 15.

red carabeen

Description page 111.

northern brush mahogany

Description page 112.

Magnification x 90. Australian Rainforest Woods

177

Subdivision Angiospermae Cunoniaceae

Pseudoweinmannia lachnocarpa mararia

Description page 142.

Cunoniaceae

Schizomeria ovata

Description page 145.

crab apple

Elaeocarpaceae

Elaeocarpus grandis

blue quandong

Description page 70.

Elaeocarpaceae

Elaeocarpus kirtonii

brown quandong

Description page 71.

Magnification x 15. 178

Magnification x 90. Australian Rainforest Woods

Subdivision Angiospermae Elaeocarpaceae

Elaeocarpus ruminatus

Elaeocarpaceae

Sloanea australis

Elaeocarpaceae

Sloanea woollsii

Euphorbiaceae

Magnification x 15.

brown quandong

Description page 72.

blush alder

Description page 146.

yellow carabeen

Description page 147.

Aleurites moluccana candlenut

Description page 16.

Magnification x 90. Australian Rainforest Woods

179

Subdivision Angiospermae Fabaceae

Castanospermum australe black bean

Fagaceae

Nothofagus cunninghamii

Fagaceae

Nothofagus moorei

Laminaceae

Magnification x 15. 180

Gmelina fasciculiflora

Description page 49.

myrtle beech

Description page 125.

Antarctic beech

Description page 127.

white beech

Description page 100.

Magnification x 90. Australian Rainforest Woods

Subdivision Angiospermae Laminaceae

Laminaceae

Gmelina leichhardtii

white beech

Vitex lignum-vitae satinwood

Description page 101.

Description page 158.

Lauraceae

Beilschmiedia bancroftii

yellow walnut

Description page 41.

Lauraceae

Beilschmiedia obtusifolia

blush walnut

Description page 42.

Magnification x 15.

Magnification x 90. Australian Rainforest Woods

181

Subdivision Angiospermae Lauraceae

Cinnamomum laubatii pepperwood

Description page 54.

Lauraceae

Cryptocarya erythroxylon

rose maple

Description page 56.

Lauraceae

Cryptocarya rigida

rose maple

Description page 57.

Lauraceae

Endiandra cowleyana

rose walnut

Description page 74.

Magnification x 15. 182

Magnification x 90. Australian Rainforest Woods

Subdivision Angiospermae Lauraceae

Endiandra palmerstonii

Lauraceae

Lauraceae

Magnification x 15.



Queensland walnut

Description page 75.

Endriandra sieberi

pink walnut

Description page 77.

Litsea reticulata

brown beech

Description page 120.

Magnification x 90.

Australian Rainforest Woods

183

Subdivision Angiospermae Malvaceae

Argyrodendron actinophyllum

Malvaceae

Argyrodendron peralatum

Malvaceae

Argyrodendron trifoliolatum

Magnification x 15.

184

blush tulip oak

Description page 28.

red tulip oak

Description page 29.

brown tulip oak

Description page 30.

Magnification x 90.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Subdivision Angiospermae Meliaceae

Anthocarapa nitidula

incense cedar wood

Description page 22.

Meliaceae

Dysoxylum fraserianum rosewood

Description page 66.

Meliaceae

Dysoxylum mollissimum

miva mahogany

Description page 68.

Meliaceae

Dysoxylum oppositifolium

pink mahogany

Description page 69.

Magnification x 15.

Magnification x 90. Australian Rainforest Woods

185

Subdivision Angiospermae Meliaceae

Dysoxylum pettigrewianum

Meliaceae

Melia azedarach

Meliaceae

Synoum glandulosum

Meliaceae

Toona ciliata

Magnification x 15. 186

spur mahogany

Description page 69.

white cedar

Description page 121.

scentless rosewood

Description page 150.

red cedar

Description page 155.

Magnification x 90. Australian Rainforest Woods

Subdivision Angiospermae Mimosaceae

Mimosaceae

Mimosaceae

Magnification x 15.



Acacia celsa

brown salwood

Acacia melanoxylon blackwood

Paraserianthes toona

Mackay cedar

Description page 8.

Description page 9.

Description page 130.

Magnification x 90.

Australian Rainforest Woods

187

Subdivision Angiospermae Moraceae

Ficus racemosa

Moraceae

Moraceae

Magnification x 15.

188

cluster fig

Description page 83.

Ficus rubigenosa

rusty fig

Description page 84.

Ficus supurba

cedar fig

Description page 85.

Magnification x 90.

Australian Rainforest Woods

Subdivision Angiospermae Myristicaceae

Myristica insipida native nutmeg

Description page 123.

Myrtaceae

Backhousia bancroftii

Johnstone River hardwood

Description page 38.

Myrtaceae

Backhousia citriodora

lemon-scented myrtle

Description page 39.

Myrtaceae

Eucalyptus regnans

mountain ash

Description page 78.

Magnification x 15.

Magnification x 90. Australian Rainforest Woods

189

Subdivision Angiospermae Myrtaceae

Syzygium australe

bush cherry

Description page 151.

Myrtaceae

Syzygium claviforum

grey satinash

Description page 152.

Myrtaceae

Syzygium gustavioides

grey satinash

Description page 153.

Myrtaceae

Syzygium kuranda

Kuranda satinash

Description page 154.

Magnification x 15. 190

Magnification x 90. Australian Rainforest Woods

Subdivision Angiospermae Myrtaceae

Xanthostemon chrysanthus

Myrtaceae

Xanthostemon whitei

Oleaceae

Magnification x 15.



Olea paniculata

brown penda

Description page 159.

red penda

Description page 159.

native olive

Description page 128.

Magnification x 90.

Australian Rainforest Woods

191

Subdivision Angiospermae Pennantiaceae

Pennantia cunninghamii

brown beech

Description page 131.

Phyllanthanceae

Glochidion ferdinandi

cheese tree

Description page 99.

Picrodendraceae

Austrobuxus swainii

pink cherry

Description page 37.

Pittosporaceae

Magnification x 15. 192

Pittosporum undulatum

engraver wood

Magnification x 90. Australian Rainforest Woods

Description page 134.

Subdivision Angiospermae Proteaceae

Athertonia diversifolia

Proteaceae

Banksia integrifolia subsp. monticola

Proteaceae

Buckinghamia celsissima

Proteaceae

Cardwellia sublimis

Magnification x 15.

creamy silky oak

Description page 36.

mountain banksia

Description page 40.

spotted silky oak

Description page 43.

northern silky oak

Description page 47.

Magnification x 90. Australian Rainforest Woods

193

Subdivision Angiospermae Proteaceae

Darlingia darlingiana

Proteaceae

Darlingia ferruginea

Proteaceae

Grevillea hilliana

Proteaceae

Grevillea parallela

Magnification x 15. 194

brown oak

Description page 62.

rose oak

Description page 62.

white silky oak

Description page 102.

silver oak

Description page 103.

Magnification x 90. Australian Rainforest Woods

Subdivision Angiospermae Proteaceae

Grevillea robusta

southern silky oak

Description page 104.

Proteaceae

Lasjia whelanii

Wheelan’s silky oak

Description page 119.

Proteaceae

Orites excelsus

mountain silky oak

Description page 129.

Proteaceae

Stenocarpus sinuatus

wheel of fire

Description page 148.

Magnification x 15.

Magnification x 90. Australian Rainforest Woods

195

Subdivision Angiospermae Quintiniaceae

Quintinia sieberi possumwood

Description page 143.

Rhamnaceae

Alphitonia excelsa

red ash

Description page 18.

Rhamnaceae

Alphitonia petriei

pink almond ash

Description page 19.

Rhamnaceae

Magnification x 15. 196

Emmenosperma alphitonioides bonewood

Magnification x 90. Australian Rainforest Woods

Description page 73.

Subdivision Angiospermae Rubiaceae

Nauclea orientalis cheesewood

Rutaceae

Flindersia acuminata

Rutaceae

Flindersia australis

Rutaceae

Flindersia bennettiana

Magnification x 15.

Description page 124.

silver silkwood

Description page 86.

crow’s ash

Description page 87.

Bennett’s ash

Description page 88.

Magnification x 90. Australian Rainforest Woods

197

Subdivision Angiospermae Rutaceae

Flindersia bourjotiana

Queensland silver ash

Description page 89.

Rutaceae

Flindersia brayleyana

Queensland maple

Description page 90.

Rutaceae

Flindersia collina

leopard wood ash

Description page 92.

Rutaceae

Magnification x 15. 198

Flindersia ifflaiana Cairns hickory

Magnification x 90. Australian Rainforest Woods

Description page 93.

Subdivision Angiospermae Rutaceae

Flindersia pimenteliana

maple silkwood

Description page 94.

Rutaceae

Flindersia schottiana

silver ash

Description page 96.

Rutaceae

Flindersia xanthoxyla

yellow wood

Description page 97.

Rutaceae

Geijera salicifolia var. latifolia

grey satinash

Description page 98

Magnification x 15.

Magnification x 90. Australian Rainforest Woods

199

Subdivision Angiospermae Rutaceae

Rutaceae

Halfordia scleroxyla saffronheart

Melicope elleryana

Sapindaceae

Cupaniopsis anacardioides

Sapindaceae

Cupaniopsis parvifolia

Magnification x 15. 200

pink euodia

Description page 107.

Description page 122.

green-leaved tamarind

Description page 58.

small-leaved tuckeroo

Description page 59.

Magnification x 90. Australian Rainforest Woods

Subdivision Angiospermae Sapindaceae

Diploglottis australis

Sapindaceae

Guioa semiglauca

wild quince

Description page 106.

Sapindaceae

Harpullia pendula tulipwood

Description page 108.

Sapindaceae

Jagera pseudorhus foambark

Description page 110.

Magnification x 15.

native tamarind

Description page 64.

Magnification x 90. Australian Rainforest Woods

201

Subdivision Angiospermae Sapotaceae

Planchonella australis

black apple plum

Description page 135.

Sapotaceae

Planchonella chartacea

thin-leaved plum

Description page 136.

Sapotaceae

Planchonella pohlmaniana

yellow boxwood

Description page 137.

Urticaceae

Dendrocnide photinophylla

shining-leaved stinging tree

Magnification x 15. 202

Magnification x 90. Australian Rainforest Woods

Description page 63.

Bibliography Attenborough, David (2009) David Attenborough Life Stories. HarperCollins, London. Bailey, F. Manson (1899–1902) The Queensland Flora. Parts I–VI. Queensland Government, Brisbane. Bailey, F. Manson (1909) Comprehensive Catalogue of Queensland Plants. 2nd edn. Government Printer, Brisbane. Balodis, V. (1960) Investigation of Physical Properties and the Quality of sawn material in Plantation Grown Hoop Pine (Araucaria cunninghamii). Research Note No. 11. Queensland Forest Service, Brisbane. Beasley, John (2006) Plants of Tropical North Queensland: The Compact Guide. Footloose Publications, Kuranda, Qld. Boland D. J. et al. (2006) Forest Trees of Australia. 5th edn. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne, Vic. Bootle, Keith R. (2005) Wood in Australia, Types, Properties and Uses. 2nd edn. McGraw-Hill, Sydney. Brock John (2007) Native Plants of Northern Australia. New Holland, Sydney. Buckley, B. M. et al. (1997) A changing temperature response with elevation for Lagarostrobos franklinii in Tasmania, Australia. Climate Change 36, 477–98. 1997. Buckman, Greg (2008) Tasmania’s Wilderness Battles: A History. Allen and Unwin, Sydney. Carder, Al (1995) Forest Giants of the World: Past and Present. Fitzhenry and Whiteside, Markham, Ontario, Canada. Caulder, Nigel (1997) The Manic Sun: Weather Theories Confounded. Pilkington Press, London. Cause, M. L., Rudder, E. J. and Kynaston W. T. (1989) ‘Queensland Timbers: Their Nomenclature, density, and Lyctid Susceptibility’. Technical Pamphlet No. 2. Department of Forestry, Indooroopilly, Qld. Cooper, Wendy and Cooper, William T. (1994) Fruits of the Rain Forest: A Guide to Fruits in Australian Tropical Rain Forests. RD Press, Surry Hill, NSW. Cooper, Wendy and Cooper, William T. (2004) Fruits of the Australian Tropical Rainforest. Nokomis Editions, Melbourne. Cooper, Wendy and Cooper, William T. (2013) Australian Rainforest Fruits: A Field Guide. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne. Costermans, Leon (2008) Trees of Victoria and Adjoining Areas. 6th edn. Costermans Publishing, Frankston, Vic. Costermans, Leon (2009) Native Trees and Shrubs of South-eastern Australia. Reed New Holland, Sydney. Enright, Neal J. and Hill, Robert S. (Eds) (1995) Ecology of the Southern Conifers. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC. Farjon, Aljos (2008) A Natural History of Conifers. Timber Press, Portland, OR, USA. Floyd, A. G. (2008) Rainforest Trees of Mainland South-eastern Australia. Rev. edn. Terania Rainforest Publishing, Lismore, NSW. Forestry Commission of Tasmania (1983–85) Tasmanian Wood. no.1 Jan/Feb 1983–no.17 Sep/Oct 1985. Francis, W. D. (1970) Australian Rain-Forest Trees. 3rd edn. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. Geddes, Alex S. (1990) Red Cedar, Our Heritage: A Personal Account of the Lives and Times of the Men and Women Who Worked in the Red Cedar Industry. Wyndham Observer, Nanango, Qld. Griffith, Tom (2001) Forests of Ash: An Environmental History. Cambridge University Press, Port Melbourne, Vic. Harden, Gwen, McDonald, Bill and Williams, John (2006) Rainforest Trees and Shrubs, A Field Guide to Their Identification in Victoria, New South Wales and Subtropical Queensland Using Vegetative Features. Gwen Harden Publishing, Nambucca Heads, NSW. Hather, Jon G (2000) The Identification of the Northern European Woods: A Guide for Archaeologists and Conservators. Archetype Publications, London. Heinsohn, Robert and Cermak, Michael (2008) Life in the Cape York Rainforest. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne. Hill, Robert (2008) Old Growth Forests – Ancient Pieces in a Modern Jigsaw. The University of Adelaide, SA. . Hill, Robert S. and Brodrill, Tim J. (1999) Southern conifers in time and space. Australian Journal of Botany 47, 639–696. Historic House Trust of New South Wales (2004) Red Cedar in Australia. Historic House Trust of New South Wales, Sydney. Hoadley, R. Bruce (1990) Identifying Wood. Taunton Press, Newtown, CT, USA. Hopkins, David (2004) The Huon Piners. D. Hopkins, Devonport, Tas. Ilic, J. (1987) The CSIRO Family Key for Hardwood Identification. CSIRO, Melbourne, Vic. Ilic, J. (1990) The CSIRO Macro Key for Hardwood Identification. CSIRO, Highett, Vic. Ilic, J. (1991) CSIRO Atlas of Hardwoods. Crawford House Press in association with CSIRO, Bathurst, NSW. Ilic, J. et al. (2000) ‘Woody Density Phase 1 – State of Knowledge’. National Carbon Accounting System Technical Report No. 18. Australian Greenhouse Office, Canberra. Jackes, Betsy R. (2001) Plants of the Tropics: Rainforest to Heath, An Identification Guide. James Cook University, Townsville, Qld. [Note: strictly botanic identification, no common names.] Johnson, David (2009) The Geology of Australia. 2nd edn. Cambridge University Press, Melbourne. Jones, David L. (1986) Ornamental Rainforest Plants in Australia. Reed, Frenchs Forest, NSW. Kerr, Garry and McDermott, Harry (1999) The Huon Pine Story: A History of Harvest and Use of a Unique Timber. Mainsail Books, Portland, Vic. Kirkpatrick, J. B. (2004) Native Trees of Tasmania. Pandani Press, Sandy Bay, Tas. Kitching Roger, Braithwaite, Richard and Cavanagh, Janet (Eds) (2010) Remnants of Gondwana: A Natural and Social History of the Gondwana Rainforests of Australia. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Baulkham Hills, NSW.

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Kynaston, W. I., Eccles, D. B. and Hopewell, G. P. (1994) Timber Species Notes. 2nd edn. Timber Research, D.P.I. Forest Service, Indooroopilly, Qld. Lake, M. J. (2006) Australian Trees and Shrubs: Common and Scientific Names and Toxic Properties. 2nd edn. International Wood Collectors Society, Highgate Hill, Qld. Langevad, G. (Ed.) (1983) Some original views around Kilcoy, book 1, the Aboriginal perspectives. Queensland Ethnohistorical Transcripts 1(1). Latz, Peter (2004) Bushfires and Bushtucker: Aboriginal Plant Use in Central Australia. IAD Press, Alice Springs, NT. Lockyer, Reg (2009) Discussion notes for International Wood Collectors Society, Ravenshoe Meeting, October 2009. [Reg was former Logging Manager for Rosenfeld Meixner and Co. Ravenshoe, north Queensland.] McConchie, Peter (2009) Old Growth: Australia’s Remaining Ancient Forests. Hardie Grant Books, Melbourne. Naughton, Peter (Ed.) (1995) Forest Trees of Tasmania: Field Guide. Forest Research, Long Reach, Tas. Nicholson, Nan and Nicholson, Hugh (1985–96) Australian Rainforest Plants. Parts I to VI. Terana Rainforest Publishing, The Channon, NSW. Perrin, Don (1988) Dictionary of Botanical Names: Australian Plant Names, Meaning, Derivation and Application. Don Perrin Bushland Stickers, Kippa-Ring, Qld. Podberscek, Mark (1991) Field Guide to Rainforest Trees, Shrubs and Climbers of Fraser Island. Department of Primary Industries, Brisbane. Porpopat, Peter (2009) Barks and Trunks, Rainforest Trees of South-eastern Australia. Dragonwick Publishing, Goonellabah, NSW. Reid, James B. et al. (2005) Vegetation of Tasmania. Flora of Australia Supplementary Series No. 8. Australian Biological Resources Study, Canberra. Swain, E. H. F. (1928) The Forest Conditions of Queensland. Queensland State Forest Service, Brisbane. Swain, E. H. F. (1928) The Timbers and Forest Products of Queensland. Queensland Forest Service, Brisbane. Tranter, Henry (2009) Millaa Millaa on My Mind. Eacham Historical Society, Malanda, Qld. White, Mary E (1988) The Greening of Gondwana. 3rd edn. Kangaroo Press, East Roseville, NSW. White, Mary E. (1997) Listen ... Our Land Is Crying: Australia’s Environment: Problems and Solutions. Kangaroo Press, Kenthurst, NSW. Working Group for Rainforest Conservation (1987) The Rainforest of Tasmania. Tasmanian Government, Hobart. Wrigley, John W. and Fagg, Murray (1991) Banksias, Waratahs and Grevilleas and All Other Plants in the Australian Proteaceae Family. 2nd edn. Collins Angus and Robertson, Sydney.

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Australian Rainforest Woods

Index Page numbers in bold refer to species descriptions; those in italics refer to the species’ macrophotographs. Acacia cedar  130 Acacia celsa  8, 187 Acacia melanoxylon  9–10, 187 Agathis atropurpurea  11–12 Agathis microstachya  11–12, 168 Agathis robusta  13–14, 168 Alangium villosum  15, 175 Aleurites moluccana  16, 179 Allocasuarina torulosa  17, 175 Alphitonia excelsa  18, 196 Alphitonia petriei  19, 196 Alstonia scholaris  20, 172 Antarctic beech  127, 180 Anodoptalum biglandulosum  21, 176 Anthocarapa nitidula  22, 185 Aphananthe philippinensis  23, 174 Araucaria bidwillii  24–25, 168 Araucaria cunninghamii  26–27, 168 Argyrodendron actinophyllum subsp. actinophyllum  28, 184 Argyrodendron peralatum  29, 184 Argyrodendron trifoliolatum  30, 184 asbestos tree  23 Atherosperma moschatum  31, 172 Atherton oak  36 Atherton penda  159 Atherton pencil cedar  44 Athertonia diversifolia  36, 193 Athrotaxis cupressoides  32, 169 Athrotaxis selaginoides  33, 169 Australian oak  78 Australian olive  128 Australian teak  87 Australian walnut  75 Austrobuxus swainii  37, 192 axegapper 98 axe-handle wood  23

Backhousia bancroftii  38, 189 Backhousia citriodora  39, 189 Baker’s oak  17 Banksia integrifolia sub sp. monticola  40, 193 bastard crow’s ash  92 bastard rosewood  150 beach green-leaved tamarind  58, 59 beach tamarind  58 beech 101 beech gum  120 Bennett’s ash  88 Beilschmiedia bancroftii  41, 181 Beilschmiedia obtusifolia  42, 181 black apple plum  135, 137 black ash  30 black bean  49 black booyong  28 blackheart sassafras  31 black jack  28 black kauri  11–12

black muskheart  15 black nut  75 black pencil cedar  41 black penda  159 black pine  149 black sassafras  31 black tulip  108 black walnut  42, 75 black wattle  8, 9 blackwood 9–10 blood in the bark  52 blueberry ash  70 blue fig  70 blue kauri  11 blue quandong  70 blush alder  146 blush carabeen  146 blush cudgerie  82 blush tulip oak  28 blush walnut  42 bog onion  22 bolly beech  120 bollywood 120 bonewood 73 boonjie tulip oak  28 booyong 28 Borneo teak  109 bottleberry 56 broad-leaved leopard tree  92 broad-leaved tamarind  64 brown alder  45 brown beech  54, 57, 120, 131 brown bolly (gum)  120 brown bollywood  120 brown booyong  30 brown crow’s foot elm  30 brownheart 71 brown-hearted quandong  71 brown oak  30, 62 brown penda  159 brown pine  139 brown possumwood  143 brown quandong  71, 72 brown salwood  8 brown she beech  120 brown silky oak  62 brown tulip oak  30 brush cherry  151 brush cypress  46 brush cypress pine  46 brush ironbark wattle  8 brush mahogany  111, 112 brush mahogany marerie  112 brush mararie  111, 112 brush quandong  70 brush wilga  98 Buckinghamia celsissima  43, 193 buckinghamia silky oak  43 bull kauri  11–12

bull oak  47 bumpy ash  89, 96 bumpy satinash  152 bunji bunji  96 bunya 24 bunya bunya  24 bunya pine  24–25 Burdekin plum  138 burr tree  124 bush cherry  151 buttonwood 99

Cairns hickory  93 Cairns satinwood  69 Caldcluvia australiensis  44, 176 Caldcluvia paniculosa  45, 176 Callitris macleayana  46, 169 caloon  70, 72 camel poison  81 camphorwood 54 canary ash  41 canary beech  140 canary muskheart  15 canary sassafras  60, 65 candleberry 16 candlenut 16 candlenut siris  16 Cape lilac  121 Cape York Leichhardt (pine)  124 carabean  146, 147 Cardwellia sublimis  47–48, 193 carrobeen 146 carrotwood 58 cashew-leaf cupania  58 cassowary plum  53 Castanospermum australe  49, 180 cedar 33 cedara 44 cedar fig  85 celery top pine  132–133 celery wood  141 Ceratopetalum apetalum  50–51, 176 Ceratopetalum succirubrum  52, 177 Cerbera floribunda  53, 172 cherry 158 cherry birch  145 cherry penda  154 cherry satinash  154 cheese tree  99 cheesewood 124 chinaberry 121 China pina  140 Chinaman’s cedar  82, 144 Chinese cedar  45 chupalla 149 churnwood 55 Cinnamomum laubatii  54, 182 Citronella moorei  55, 175 clove berry  128

Australian Rainforest Woods

205

cluster fig  83 coach walnut  77 coachwood 50–51 coconut laurel  56 colonial pine  26 Cooktown ironwood  81 cooloon 70 coopers wood  18 corduroy 55 corkbark 77 corkwood  45, 77, 143 crab apple  145 creamy silky oak  36 creek lillipilli (lilly pilly)  151 creek satinash  151 crow’s ash  87 crow’s foot elm  28, 30 Cryptocarya erythroxylon  56, 182 Cryptocarya rigida  57, 182 cudgerie  89, 96, 146 cupaniopsis  58, 59 Cupaniopsis anacardioides  58, 200 Cupaniopsis parvifolia  59, 200 Daphnandra micrantha  60, 173 Daphnandra repandula  61, 173 darling tree  62 Darlingia darlingiana  62, 194 Darlingia ferruginea  62, 194 deciduous fig  85 Dendrocnide photinophylla  63, 202 deep yellowwood  144 Diploglottis australis  64, 201 dogwood 41 Dorrigo laurel  56 Dorrigo maple  59, 74 Dorrigo pine  26 Dorrigo rosewood  56 Dorrigo walnut  74 Doryphora aromatica  65, 173 Doryphora sassafras  65, 173 dualgual 139 dugulla 136 dundathu 13 dyrren-dyrren 139 Dysloxylum fraserianum  66–67, 185 Dysoxylum mollissimum  68, 185 Dysoxylum setosum  68 Dysoxylum oppositifolium  69, 185 Dysoxylum pettigrewianum  69, 186 Elaeocarpus grandis  70, 178 Elaeocarpus kirtonii  71, 178 Elaeocarpus ruminatus  72, 179 Emmenosperma alphitonioides  73, 196 Endiandra cowleyana  74, 182 Endiandra crassiflora  74 Endiandra palmerstonii  75, 183 Endiandra sankeyana  77 206

Endiandra sieberi  77, 183 engraver wood  134, 137 Eucalyptus regnans  78–79, 189 Eucryphia lucida  80, 177 Erythrophleum chlorostachys  81, 174 Euroschinus falcatus  82, 171 feather top  44 fern-leaved (pink) tamarind  110 fern tree  110 fibrewood Gympie  63 Ficus racemosa  83, 188 Ficus rubiginosa  84, 188 Ficus superba  85, 188 figwood 83 figwoods 84 fire-wheel tree  148 flindersia 87 Flindersia acuminata  86, 197 Flindersia australis  87, 197 Flindersia bennettiana  88, 197 Flindersia bourjotiana  89, 198 Flindersia brayleyana  90–91, 198 Flindersia collina  92, 198 Flindersia ifflaiana  93, 198 Flindersia pimenteliana  94, 199 Flindersia schottiana  96, 199 Flindersia xanthoxyla  97, 199 flindosy 87 flindosy birch  96 flintwood 98 foambark 110 foambark tree  110 forest maple  57 forest oak  17 Geijera salicifolia  98, 199 ghittoe 107 glasswood 98 Glenugie laurel  56 Glochidion ferdinandi  99, 192 Gmelina fasciculiflora  100, 180 Gmelina leichhardtii  101, 181 golden box  158 golden deal (sassafras)  65 golden spangle wood  47 gooyum 139 green-leaved tamarind  58, 59 greenheart 98 green satinheart  98 Grevillea hilliana  102, 194 Grevillea parallela  103, 194 Grevillea robusta  104–105, 195 grey ash  73 grey beech  101 grey carabeen  147 grey handle wood  23 grey milkwood  53 grey oak  102 grey quandong  72

Australian Rainforest Woods

grey satinash  98, 152, 153 grey sassafras  61, 65 grey teak  100, 101 Guioa semiglauca  106, 201 guoia 106 Gympie-gympie 63

hairy bark  37 Halfordia scleroxyla  107, 200 handle wood  23 ha’iki 104 hard cheesewood  77 hard bolly gum  42 Harpullia pendula  108, 201 he-oka 104 hickory ash  93 hickory wattle  8, 9 high root  30 Hill’s silky oak  102 hoop pine  26–27 horizontal 21 humbug  18, 145 Huon pine  113–118 icewood 86 Illawarra fig  84 incense cedar  22 incense cedar wood  22 incense wood  22 Indian walnut  16 Intsia bijuga  109, 174 ipil 109 ironwood hickory  30 ivory curl (flower)  43 ivory walnut  41

Jagera pseudorhus  110, 201 Jimmy Donnaly  82 Jimmy-jimmy 22 jitta 107 Johnstone River hardwood  38, 159 Johnstone River penda  159 Johnstone River teak  109 Johnstone River red beech  29 jungle cypress  46 Karrabina benthamiana  111, 177 Karrabina biagiana  112, 177 kauri pine  13–14 kedgy kedgy  68 ke’oko’o 104 kerosene pine  46 kidney wallum  139 King Billy pine  33–35 Kuranda satinash  154 kwila 109

lacewood 47 Lagarostrobos franklinii  113–118, 170

Lasjia whelanii  119, 195 laurel pittosporum  134 leather jacket  18, 111, 145 leatherwood  80, 92 leguminous ironwood  81 Leichhardt tree  124 lemon-scented backhousie  39 lemon-scented myrtle  39 lemon-scented verbena  39 lemon ironwood  39 leopard wood (oak)  92 leopard wood ash  92 light yellowwood  60 lignum-vitae 158 Litsea glutinosa  120 Litsea reticulata  120, 183 long Jack  97

Mackay cedar  130 magenta lilly pilly  151 mahogany 66 malomae 18 Manning River socketwood  60 maiden’s blush  82, 146 maple silkwood  86, 90, 94–95 marara 142 mararie 142 maulwood 128 Melia azedarach  121, 186 Meliocope bonwickii  122 Meliocope elleryana  122, 200 merbau 109 milkwood 20 milky bean  20 milky pine  20, 53 miva 68 miva mahogany  68 mock orange  134 monkey puzzle tree  24 Moreton Bay bean  49 Moreton Bay chestnut  49 mountain ash  78–79, 96 mountain banksia  40 mountain beech  71 mountain kauri  11 mountain laurel  56 mountain oak  17 mountain silky oak  129 Mowbullan whitewood  71 Mudgerabah 9 mulberry-leaved stinging tree  63 muskheart 15 muskwood 15 Myristica insipida  123, 189 myrtle 125 myrtle beech  125 narrow-leaf beefwood  103 narrow-leaved wilga  98 native daphne  134

native deal  139 native elm  23 native laurel  134 native nutmeg  123 native olive  128 native tamarind  64 Nauclea orientalis  124, 197 negrohead beech  127 net sassafras  65 New South Wales sassafras  65 northern ash  89, 96 northern brown pine  139 northern brush mahogany  111, 112 northern ironwood  81 northern oak  47 northern grey sassafras  65 northern rose walnut  74 northern sassafras  61, 65 northern scentless rosewood  150 northern silky oak  47–48 Northern Territory polyalthia  140 northern white beech  100 northern yellow sassafras  61 North Queensland coachwood  52 North Queensland kauri  11, 13 North Queensland white beech  100 Nothofagus cunninghamii  125–126, 180 Nothofagus moorei  127, 180 nutmeg 123 nut wood  42, 87 oak 47 oak magenta  30 oka-kilika 104 Olea paniculata  128, 191 onionwood 68 oongaary 47 orient wood  75 Orites excelsus  129, 195

Paddy King’s beech  86 Paluma blackwood  9 Paraserianthes toona  130, 187 pencil cedar  33, 44, 45, 68, 99 pencil pine  32 Pennantia cunninghamii  131, 192 pepperberry 54 pepperwood 54 Persian lilac  121 Phyllocladus aspleniifolius  132–133, 169 pigeonberry ash  56, 57, 71, 128 pink alder  143 pink almond ash  19 pink cherry  37 pink corkwood  143 pink euodia  122 pink-flowered doughwood  122 pink mahogany  69 Australian Rainforest Woods

pink marara  111 pink ooline  73 pink poplar  82 pink sarsparilla  19 pink tamarind  110 pink walnut  77 pink wood  37, 143 Pittosporum undulatum  134, 192 Planchonella 136 Planchonella australis  135, 202 Planchonella chartacea  136, 202 Planchonella pohlmaniana  137, 202 Pleiogynium timorense  138, 171 plum pine  139 Podocarpus elatus  139, 170 Podocarpus grayae  139 Polyalthia nitidissima  140, 171 Polyscias elegans  141, 172 Port Jackson fig  84 Port Macquarie beech  82 Port Macquarie pine  46, 139 possumwood 143 prickly ash  129 Pseudoweinmannia lachnocarpa  142,178 Putt’s pine  86 Queensland kauri  11 Queensland maple  90–91 Queensland pine  24, 26 Queensland silver ash  89 Queensland walnut  75–76 Quintinia sieberi  143, 196

range cypress  46 red almond  18, 19 red ash  18 red baraja  18 red bean  68, 111 red beech  90, 94 red booyong  30 red carabeen  111, 112, 142 red carrobean  111, 112 red cedar  155–157 red crow’s foot  29 red crow’s foot elm  29 red dunanya  18 red ironwood  81 red penda  159 red pine  33 red siris  130 red sycamore  150 red tweedie  18 red tulip oak  29 Rhodosphaera rhodanthema  144, 171 ribbon wood  82 Richmond River pine  26 rose alder  44 rose-leaf marara  45

207

rose mahogany  66 rose maple  56, 57 rose mararie  142 rose oak  62 rose sheoak  17 rose silkwood  94 rose silky oak  62 rose walnut  56, 57, 74 rosewood 66 rose-wooded cryptocarya  56 rough-leaved elm  23 rough-leaved hickory  23 rough possomwood  143 rubber tree  53 rusty fig  84

saffronheart 107 sally wattle  9 Sankey’s walnut  77 sarsparilla  18, 19 sassafras 65 satin sycamore  52 satinwood  50, 60, 158 scented verbena  39 scented satinwood  50 scentless rosewood  150 scentless sassafras  61 Schizomeria ovata  145, 178 scrub cherry  151 scrub rosewood  142 scrub wilga  98 sheoak 17 she pine  139 shining-leaved stinging tree  63 shiny-leaf tree  140 silky beech  55 silky oak  104, 119 silver ash  89, 96 silver basswood  141 silver elm  30 silver oak  103 silver quandong  70, 71 silver silkwood  86 Sloanea australis  146, 179 Sloanea langii  146 Sloanea woollsii  147, 179 small-leaved stinging tree  63 small-leaved tuckeroo  59 smooth-leaved stinging tree  63 snow berry  145 soap tree  18 soapy box  55 socket sassafras  60 socketwood 60 soft bollygum  120 soft Leichhardt (pine)  124 southern beech  125, 127

208

southern maple  56, 57 southern sassafras  31 southern silky oak  104, 129 southern silver ash  96 south Queensland kauri  13 spotted silky oak  43 spotted tree  92 spur mahogany  69 spurwood 69 squawker 145 stave wood  28, 30, 96 Stenocarpus sinuatus  148, 195 stinging tree  63 stringybark cypress  46 stringy gum  78 Sundacarpus amara  149, 170 sugarwood 45 swamp gum  78 sweet pittosporum  134 sweet verbena myrtle (tree)  39 sycamore 120 Synoum glandulosum  150, 186 Syzygium australe  151, 190 Syzygium claviflorum  152, 190 Syzygium cormiflorum  152 Syzygium gustavioides  153, 190 Syzygium kuranda  154, 190 tamarind 110 tarwood 50 Tasmanian myrtle  125 Tasmanian oak  78 Tasmanian pencil pine  32 Tasmanian sassafras  31 Texas umbrella tree  121 thin-leaved coondoo  136 thin-leaved plum  136 Toona ciliata  155–156, 186 Tooram walnut  77 tormenta 42 trumpet satinash  152 tuckeroo 58 tulip cedar  121 tulip flower  148 tulip lacewood  108 tulip oak  28, 29 tulip plum  138 tulip satinwood  144 tulipwood 108 turnip wood  68 Vitex lignum-vitae  158, 181

walnut 75 walnut bean  75 water gum  99, 151, 153, 154 wave-leaved pittosporum  134

Australian Rainforest Woods

weeping brown pine  139 wheel of fire  148 wheel of fire tree  148 Whelan’s nut  119 Whelan’s silky oak  119 white ash  19 white banksia  40 white beech  71, 100, 101 white beefwood  129, 148 white birch  145 white booyong  30 white carabeen  146 white cedar  121 white cheesewood  20 white grevillea  103 white holly  134 white honeysuckle  40 white leaf  18, 19 white maple  86 white mountain ash  78 white myrtle  18 white oak  36, 148 white quandong  70, 71, 72 white rosewood  22 white silky oak  102, 148 whitewood  71, 145 white yiel-yiel  102 wild apple  152 wild cherry  145 wild holly  23 wild plum  135 wild quince  106 willi willi  56

Xanthostemon chrysanthus  159, 191 Xanthostemon whitei  159, 191 yiel yiel  148 yiel-yiel gill  102 yellow almond ash  73 yellow boxwood  137 yellow bulletwood  135 yellow carabeen  147 yellow cedar  144 yellow cheesewood  124 yellow corkwood  122 yellow evodia  122 yellow hollywood  158 yellow nut  41 yellow pine  139 yellow rosewood  73 yellow sassafras  60, 61, 65 yellow satinash  153 yellow walnut  41 yellow wood  97 yellow wood ash  97