Astronomy and Society in Britain during the period 4000-1500 B.C. 9780860541301, 9781407323619

Table of contents :
Cover Page
Copyright Page
Tables of Contents
Preface
List of Contributors
Introduction: Astronomical Practices in Prehistoric Britain
1. Megalithic lunar observatories: an assessment of 42 lunar alignments
2. Decoding the Callanish complex-some initial results
3. Wise men in antiquity?
4. A critical examination of the megalithic lunar observatories
5. A reassessment of the solstitial observaroties at Kintraw and Ballochroy
6. Some archaeological and astronomical objections to scientific astronomy in British prehistory
7. “By the light of the cinerary moon”: Chambered tombs and the atronomy of death
8. Ethnoastonomy: its patterns and archaeological implications
9. Some notes on work organisation and society in prehistoric Wessex
10. Later Neolothic society in Britain: a realignment

Citation preview

Astronomy and Society in Britain during the period . 4000-1500 B.C. Edited by

C. L. N. Ruggles & A. W. R. Whittle

BAR British Series 88 1981

B.A.R.

B.A.R., 122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 78P, England

GENERAL EDITORS A. R. Hands, B.Sc., �I.A., D .Phil. D. R. Walker, �1. A.

B.A.R. 88, 1981: "Astronomy and Society in Britain ." © The Individual Authors.

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher.

ISBN 9780860541301 paperback ISBN 9781407323619 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541301 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS

Page 5

P reface L ist o f C on tr ibutors I n troduct ion :

7

A strono m ica l p ract ices i n p reh istor ic Br ita in ( Cl ive Rugg les a nd A lasda ir Wh it t le )

1 .

Mega l ith ic l unar o bserva tor ies : a l ign men ts

2 .

a n a ssess men t o f4 2 l unar

( A . S . Tho m )

1 3

Decod ing t he C aHan ish c o mp lex—so me i n it ia l r esu lts ( Margaret a nd G era ld P on t ing )

6 3

3 .

Wise men i n a n t iqu ity?

4 .

A c r it ica l e xam ina t ion o f t he mega l ith ic l unar o bservator ies ( Cl ive Rugg les ;

5 .

( Euan W. MacK ie )

a ppend ix b y R . J . C . A tk inson )

( Jon Pa tr ick )

S o me a rchaeo log ica l a nd a strono m ica l o b ject ions t o

"By t he l igh t o f t he c inerary moon": a nd t he a strono my o f d ea th

8 .

E thnoastrono my : imp l ica t ions

9 .

( Gordon Mo ir )

2 21

Cha mbered t o mbs

( Aubrey B ur l )

2 43

i t s p a t terns a nd a rchaeo log ica l

( I . J . T horpe )

2 75

S o me n o tes o n work o rgan isa t ion a nd s ocie ty i n p reh istor ic Wessex

1 0 .

1 53

2 11

s c ien t if ic a strono my i n Br it ish p reh istory 7 .

1 11

A r eassess men t o f t he s o lst it ia l o bserva tor ies a t K in traw a nd Ba l lochroy

6 .

9

( B i l l S tart in a nd R ichard Brad ley )

La ter Neo l ith ic s oc iety i n Br ita in : ( Alasda ir Wh it t le )

2 89

ar ea l ign men t 2 97

3

PREFACE

Th is v o lu me was o r ig ina l ly c once ived a s t he p roceed ings o f ac on ference o rgan ised i n March 1 980 b y Dr G ordon Mo ir , u nder t he a usp ices o f t he D epar t men t o f A du l t E duca t ion , U n ivers ity o f N ewcast le-upon-Tyne , a nd e n t it led "Mega l i th ic a strono my a nd s oc iety" . T he a i ms o f t he c on ference w ere t wofo ld :

o n t he o ne h and t o r ev iew t he t heor ies o f P rofessor A lexander

T ho m o n "mega l i th ic s c ience" i n t he B r i t ish L a ter N eo l ith ic a nd E ar ly B ronze A ge , c oncen tra t ing o n mega l ith ic a strono my ( t he h ypothes is t ha t many megal i th ic s i tes were b u i lt p r i mar i ly t o s erve a s a strono m ica l i nd ica tors o r "o bserva tor ies" o f h igh p rec is ion ) ;

a nd o n t he o ther t o p resen t a n a rchaeo-

l og ica l e xa m ina t ion o f t he p er iod , s e t t ing o u t t he s oc ia l , p o l i t ica l a nd e cono m ic c on tex t wh ich m igh t h ave g overned a ny mega l ith ic s c ience . I n t he e ven t , t he v o lu me h as d eve loped i n to a c o l lect ion o f p apers , f or t he most p ar t e xpanded v ers ions o f p resen ta t ions a t N ewcast le , c oncen tra t ing r a ther o n t he f o l low ing t wo t he mes : f i rst t he n a ture a nd e x ten t o f a strono m ic a l p ract ice i n p reh istor ic B r i ta in , a s e v idenced b y o r ien ta t ion a nd r e la ted s tud ies ;

a nd s econd h ow c onc lus ions f ro m s uch s tud ies b ear u pon c urren t

t hough t a bou t s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion t hroughou t t he p er iod s pann ing t he f our th , t h ird a nd mid-second mi l lenn ia BC i n t er ms o f a bso lu te ( or c orrected r ad ioc arbon ) c hrono logy . Th is s h if t o f emphas is h as l ed t he e d i tors t o d iscourage t he i nc lus ion h ere o f t wo ma jor c on tr ibu t ions a t t he c on ference wh ich r e la ted e n t ire ly t o t he s epara te i ssues o f mega l ith ic mensura t ion ( t he p oss ib le e x istence a nd w ides pread u se o f ap rec ise ly-def ined "Mega l i th ic Yard " )a nd g eo metry ( t he i dea t ha t many mega l ith ic r ings were l a id o u t a ccord ing t o p rec ise g eo me tr ica l d es igns ).

I t was f e lt t ha t t hese a re h ypotheses e ssen t ia l ly i ndependen t o f

mega l ith ic a strono my , a nd wh ich d eserve s epara te a nd t horough d iscuss ion i n t he ir own r igh t .

We i nv ited o ne o f t he c on tr ibu tors c oncerned , D r P a tr ick ,

t o s ub m it a n a l terna t ive p aper f or t h is v o lu me .

A t t he s a me t ime w e d id n o t

t ry t o p reven t Dr MacK ie d iscuss ing t hese o ther t op ics i n t he c ourse o f h is a r t ic le , a s f or h im t hey r epresen t c ruc ia l s trands i n h is g enera l a rgu men t . We s incere ly r egre t t ha t a nother ma jor c on tr ibu tor t o t he c on ference , C o l in Burgess , d ec l ined ( ow ing t o t he p ressure o f o ther c o mm it men ts ) t o p rov ide a p aper h ere .

We h ave a t te mp ted t o r edress t he b a lance b y i nv i t ing

c on tr ibut ions f ro m N ick Thorpe a nd f ro m B i l l S tar t in a nd R ichard B rad ley . T horpe ' sp aper c overs a t op ic —ethnograph ic e v idence—wh ich was l arge ly u nrepresen ted a t t he c on ference .

Af ur ther c on tr ibu tor , A ubrey B ur l , h as

n o t i nc luded a p aper h ere r e la t ing t o as econd t a lk h e g ave a t N ewcast le , a s t h is f or med t he b as is o f ar ecen t a r t ic le i n An t iqu ity (a , 1 91-200 ) . Top ics t ha t a rose i n g enera l d iscuss ion a t N ewcast le h ave n o t b een c arr ied t hrough t o t h is v o lume a s s uch .

H owever a n u mber o f a u thors r efer t o c o m-

men ts a nd r ep ly t o c r it ic is ms wh ich were a ired a t t he c on ference . t hese p o in ts h ave a lso b een r a ised e lsewhere i n p r in t . 5

Many o f

S even o f t he c on tr ibu tors a re a rchaeo log ists b y t ra in ing , whereas f our ( Mo ir , P a tr ick , Rugg les a nd A . S . Tho m ) h ave b ackgrounds i n ma the ma t ics a nd/or t he n u mera te s c iences s uch a s a strono my o r e ng ineer ing . P on t ings a re ama teurs ;

T he

s choo l teachers who moved i n 1 974 t o t he C aHan ish

a rea , s ince when t hey h ave d evo ted a g ood d ea l o f s pare t ime t o t he s tudy o f t he mega l i th ic s i tes i n t he v ic in ity . S uch d ivers i ty i n t he b ackgrounds o f t he s peakers a t t he c on ference , a nd h ence o f t he c on tr ibu tors h ere , r ef lects t he r ange o f p eop le i nvo lved i n i nvest iga t ing a strono m ica l p ract ices i n p reh istor ic B r ita in—an impor tan t p ar t o f t he w ider i n terd isc ip l inary s tudy wh ich h as b eco me k nown a s a rchaeoas trono my .

I n c on trast , t he s tud ies o f s oc iety

p resen ted h ere a re mere ly a sma l l p art o f a much w ider d eba te o n t he n ature o f p reh istor ic s oc iety , wh ich i s n ow b e ing i nves t iga ted t hrough a v ery w ide r ange o f a rchaeo log ica l e v idence . As a mp le o f b o th a pproaches , t herefore , i s g iven t oge ther h ere i n t he b e l ief t ha t o n t he o ne h and a rchaeoastrono my must n o t b e c ons idered i n a s oc ia l v acuu m a nd t ha t o n t he o ther a ny r econstruct ion o f p reh istor ic s oc iety must a t te mp t t o i n tegra te a l l t he a va i lab le e v idence .

C . R . A . W .

6

L IST OF CONTRIBUTORS

P rof . R . J . C . A tk inson , D epart men t o f Archaeo logy , Un ivers ity Co l lege , P . 0 . Box 7 8 , Card if f CF1 1XL. R . J . Brad ley , D epar t men t o f Archaeo logy , Un ivers ity o f Read ing , Wh itekn igh ts , Read ing RG6 2AA . A . Bur l , 4 0 S t . J a mes Road , Edgbaston , B ir m ingha m B 15 U R . D r . E . W. MacK ie , H un ter ian Museu m , The Un ivers ity , G lasgow G 12 8 QQ D r . G . Mo ir , Depar t men t o f Adu lt Educa t ion , The Un ivers ity , N ewcast leu pon-Tyne

NEI 7 RU .

D r . J . Pa tr ick , P rahran Co l lege o f Advanced Educat ion , 1 42 H igh S treet , P rahran , V ictor ia , A ustra l ia 3 181. M . R . & G . H . P on t ing ,

O lco te ', New Park , Ca l lan ish , I s le o f L ew is

PA86 9DZ . D r . C . L . N . Rugg les , Depar t men t o f Archaeo logy , Un iversi ty Co l lege , P .O . Box 7 8 , Card if f CF1 1XL . W . H . S tar t in , Roo m 3 /41 , F or tress House , 2 3 S av i le Row , L ondon W1X 2HE. D r . A . S . Tho m , D epart men t o f A eronaut ics a nd F lu id Mechan ics , Un ivers ity o f G lasgow , G lasgow G 12 8QQ . I . J . Thorpe , Depar t men t o f Archaeo logy , Un ivers ity o f Read ing , Wh itekn igh ts , R ead ing RG6 2 AA. D r . A . W. R . Wh it t le , D epart men t o f Archaeo logy , Un ivers ity Co l lege , P .O . Box 7 8 , Card if f CF1 1XL .

7

I NTRODUCT ION :

A STRONO M ICAL PRACT ICES I N

PREH ISTOR IC BR ITA IN C l ive Rugg les a nd A lasda ir Wh i tt le

T ho m a nd a f ter I th as o f ten b een s uggested t ha t t here was a n a strono m ica l mot iva t ion b eh ind t he c onstruc t ion o f ar ange o f c ere mon ia l , b ur ia l a nd o ther s i tes i n B r ita in , a n a sser t ion made o n t he b asis o f s tud ies o f o r ien ta t ions , a l ignmen ts a nd p uta t ive h or izon i nd ica t ions a t s uch s i tes .

F o l low ing r ecen t f ash ion , we

c an c lass ify s uch s tud ies u nder t he l abe l o f "a rchaeoastrono my" . P rofessor A lexander Tho m , whose c on tr ibu t ion i n t h is f i e ld i s c ard ina l , c onc ludes t ha t t owards t he m idd le o f t he s econd m i l lenn iu m BC "Mega l ith ic Man"

( as h e

l abe ls t he i nhab itan ts o f B r i ta in a t t he t ime ) c arr ied o u t p rec ise a nd p a inst ak ing o bserva t ions o f t he s un a nd moon , whose mo t ions t hey r ecorded u s ing s tand ing s tones .

T he s or t o f p rec is ion c la i med s ee ms f ar b eyond a ny c on-

c e ivab le u t i l itar ian b enef i t .

The f i rst s ix c on tr ibu t ions t o t h is v o lu me a ddress

t he mse lves , who l ly o r i n p ar t , t o t he d eba te o n p reh istor ic a strono my a t t h is l eve l . Paper 1 , wr i t ten b y A lexander T ho m ' ss on Dr A . S . T ho m , p rov ides a most u sefu l s u m mary o f t he Tho ms ' v iews , methods a nd c onc lus ions o ver t he y ears , a nd p resen ts t he ir most r ecen t e v idence s uppor t ing t he h ypothes is o f a ccura te l unar o bserva tor ies .

D r T ho m a lso t akes t he o ppor tun ity t o r ep ly

t o an u mber o f r ecen t c r i t ic is ms .

The P on t ings , i n p aper 2 , p resen t t he

r esu lts o f t he ir s tud ies t o d a te a t C a l lan ish a nd s uggest a n u mber o f ways i n w h ich a ccura te s o lar a nd l unar o bserva t ions c ou ld h ave b een made a t t he s i tes .

Paper 3 i s more f ar-rang ing :

MacK ie d iscusses a rchaeo log ica l v er i-

f i ca t ions b o th o f T ho m ' sh ypothes is o f h igh-prec is ion s o lst i t ia l i nd ica t ions a nd o f t he i ndependen t i dea o f p rec ise g eo metr ic d es igns f or s i tes b ased u pon a n a ccura te ly-def ined "Mega l ith ic Yard ";

h e t hen c o mb ines t hese w ith i n-

d ependen t e v idence i n o rder t o r e i tera te a nd d eve lop h is h ypothes is t ha t t here e x isted i n p reh istor ic B r ita in a s pec ia l ist e l ite o f t ra ined a strono mer-pr iests . The s ub ject h as n ot l acked c on troversy .

I ti s b oth s c ien t if ica l ly u nhea l thy

a nd d etr i men ta l t o r easoned d eba te t ha t s o f ew f i rst-hand c r i t iques o f T ho m ' s w ork o f a ny s ubstance h ave b een f or thco m i z ig u n t i l r ecen t ly .

T h is h as p re-

v en ted wor thwh i le e va lua t ion a nd i n tegra t ion o f r esu l ts a ccep tab le t o aw ide c onsensus o f o p in ion .

P apers 4 -6 a t te mp t s uch a c r it ica l e va lua t ion a nd g o

o n t o s uggest t he d irect ion f or f u ture work i n t h is f i e ld .

Wha tever t he o u t-

c o me o f t he d eba te p resen ted h ere , Tho m ' s work w i l l r e ma in t he c a ta lyst f or a rchaeoastrono m ica l s tud ies i n B r ita in . F or t h is we owe h i m ac ons idera b le d eb t o f g ra t itude , wh ich w i l l o f c ourse s t i l l b e d ue e ven i fg enera l o p in ion d oes c o me t o f au l t an u mber o f h is s pec if ic c onc lus ions .

9

T he a pproach o f p aper 4 r ef lects t he a u thor ' sv iew t ha t t he v a lue o f c ont inued d eba te o n av ery f ew "c lassic" s i tes i s s evere ly l im ited , a nd t ha t p rogress i s o n ly t o b e made b y c ons ider ing l arge s a mp les o f s ites , t aken t oge ther .

T he p aper t hus r econs iders t he e ar l ier e v idence o f t he T horns i n

f avour o f p rec ise l unar o bserva tor ies t aken a s awho le , a nd c onc ludes t ha t t he c ase i n t he ir f avour i s b o th u nproven a nd e x tre me ly u n l ike ly o n t he b asis o f a strono m ica l c ons idera t ions .

P aper 5 , i n c on trast , a ddresses i t se lf t o a

r eassess men t o f t wo o f t he most c lass ic T ho m s i tes , t he p roposed s o lst it ia l o bserva tor ies a t K in traw a nd Ba l lochroy .

I n p aper 6 Mo ir d eta i ls a r ange o f

c r i t ic is ms o f Tho m ' se v idence f or a strono m ica l o bserva t ions o f h igh p rec is ion , g iv ing s pec ia l a t ten t ion t o s upposed s o lar c a lendr ica l i nd ica tors . P apers 4 -6 a l l p o in t o u t t he d ist inct ion b e tween r ough a strono m ica l o r ien tat i ons a nd much more p rec ise o bserva t ions a nd i nd ica t ions . Rougher o r ien tat i ons a re a t he me c en tra l t o A ubrey B ur l ' sp aper ( no . 7 ) i n wh ich e v idence f or d e l ibera te a strono m ica l o r ien ta t ion i n c er ta in c lasses o f monumen t i s t raced b ack t o a round 4 000 BC .

C onc lus ions a re d rawn o n t he b as is o f s tud ies

o f g roups o f s im i lar s i tes r a ther t han a f ew i nd iv idua l o nes ;

i ndeed , t he

d angers o f t he l a t ter a pproach a re we l l i l lustra ted b y af ew p o ignan t e xa mp les . T aken a s as et , p apers 4 -7 s uggest t ha t t he h ypo thes is o f ar ougher , s econdary , s y mbo l ic o r "r i tua l" r a ther t han "s c ien t if ic" a strono m ica l mot iva t ion b eh ind t he c onstruct ion o f c er ta in s i tes may b e o ne wh ich w i l l e ven tua l ly f or m t he c ore o f s ta t ist ica l ly p rovab le t ru th a va i lab le f ro m a rchaeoastrono m ica l a na lyses . F u ture work o f v a lue i n a rchaeoastrono my l i es , i n t he o p in ion o f s evera l o f t he a u thors , i n s yste ma t ic s urveys o f s a mp les o f s imi lar o r r e la ted s i tes i n c er ta in a reas , r a ther t han o f an u mber o f a rchaeo log ica l ly r a ther d iverse s i tes a s h as b een t he c ase u p t o t he p resen t .

I n t h is manner a rchaeoastrono my may

y ie ld r esu lts o f l ast ing v a lue i n t he s tudy o f p reh istor ic s oc iety . T he w ider c on tex t T he s tudy o f a strono m ica l p ract ices i n p reh istor ic c o m mun it ies i n Br ita in r a ises q uest ions n o t o n ly o f t he l eve l o f t echno log ica l a nd i n te l lectua l s k il ls r equ ired b u t a lso o f t he s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion o f t he c o m mun i t ies i nvo lved , a nd f i ve o f t he p apers i n t h is v o lu me ( 3 a nd 7 -10 ) a re who l ly o r p ar t ia l ly d irected t o t h is q uest ion .

S o me p erspect ive o n t he w ider a pproach b y p reh istor ians t o

s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion i n t h is p er iod i n B r i ta in—and i ndeed e lsewhere i n E urope— i s c lear ly n eeded . L ink ing t he many l ines o f r esearch u nder way i s ac o m mon i n teres t i n t he g radua l t ransfor ma t ion o f s oc ie ty d ur ing t h is p er iod f ro m a l ess c o mp lex i n to a more r anked o r s tra t if ied s truc ture .

S o me wou ld s ee a s i mp le e vo lu t ion

f ro m e ga l itar ian , a s amongst e ar ly f ar mers , t o a more r anked s oc ie ty , o f ten l abe l led c h iefdo m , f ro m t he L a ter N eo l i th ic p er iod ( or t he t h ird m i l lenn iu m BC ) o nwards .

O thers m igh t p refer a more c o mp l ica ted d eve lop men t t hrough

t ime o f d egrees o f r ank ing a nd i n terna l d if feren t ia t ion . T here i s p robab ly g enera l a gree men t a s t o t he c o mp lex n a ture o f t h is s oc ia l d eve lop men t i n t er ms o f t he i n terre lat ionsh ip o f t he many f actors p o ten t ia l ly i nvo lved .

I ti s c r it ica l t herefore i n r econs truct ions o f s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion

t ha t a s w ide a n a pproach a s p oss ib le b e a dop ted , b o th t heoret ica l ly a nd w ith

1 0

r egard t o t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord .

T here i s p robab ly a lso g enera l a gree-

men t t ha t b y t he s econd m i l lenn iu m BC —cer ta in ly b y t he l a t ter p ar t o f i t— s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion i n many r eg ions o f B r i ta in was i ndeed r anked w ith a n u ne qua l d istr ibu t ion o f p ower , s tatus a nd r esources i n many c o m mun it ies , a nd t ha t t h is p rocess h ad b een u nder way s ince a t l east t he t h ird m i l lenn iu m BC . Wha t t hen o f t he c on tr ibu t ion o f t he s tudy o f a strono m ica l p ract ices t o t he p rob le ms o f s uch r econstruct ion?

U sefu l t hough i t may b e , i t must b e s tressed

t ha t i ti s o n ly o ne l i ne o f e v idence , t o b e s e t a longs ide t hose o f , f or e xa mp le , p rest ige i nd ica tors i n b ur ia ls a nd e lsewhere , s et t le men t h ierarchy , c raf t s pec ia l isa t ion , e xchange a nd t rade , l and d iv is ion , c on tro l o f r esources , a nd s o o n .

I t s c on tr ibu t ion d epends o f c ourse o n t he c onc lus ions r eached a s t o

t he n ature o f a strono m ica l p ract ices . E ven t he l eve l o f s k i l l s uggested b y P ro fessor Tho m a nd o thers i s n o t au n ique i nd ica tor o f f i rm ly r anked s oc ie ty , s ince t ha t i s e v iden t b y t he e nd o f t he p er iod u nder d iscuss ion w ithou t s uch a h ypo thes is .

S c ien t if ic s k i l l o f t h is n a ture m igh t h owever b e more c o mpa t ib le

w i th more i n tense r ank ing t han wou ld o therw ise b e s uppor ted b y t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord , e ven t hough n ot n ecessar i ly s uppor t ing a ny s pec if ic mode l o f s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion ( such a s t ha t i n p aper 3 ) .

I n f act , p apers 4 -7 a l l d irect ly

c ha l lenge t he n o t ion o f s c ien t if ic a strono my i n B r ita in , a nd i t may s ee m t o many t ha t t he h ypo thes is o f s y mbo l ic o r "r itua l" a s trono my p roposed i n i t s p lace o f fers much g rea ter c o mpa t ib i l ity w ith t he r est o f t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence . P apers 9 a nd 1 0 e xp lore s o me a spects o f t h is e v idence .

P aper 9 d iscusses

t he work o rgan isa t ion b eh ind s evera l c lasses o f monu men t , a nd makes t he i mpor tan t s uggest ion t ha t t he ir l abour r equ ire men ts h ave b een s ubstan t ia l ly o verest i ma ted , w i th t he f ur ther imp l ica t ion t ha t t he ir c onstruct ion n eed n o t a u to ma t ica l ly b e s een a s t he p roduc t o f ah igh ly r anked s oc ie ty .

P aper 1 0

c oncen tra tes o n t he L a ter N eo l i th ic p er iod a nd b r ings i n v ar ious a spects s uch a s monu men ts , b ur ia ls a nd p rest ige a r tefacts wh ich h ave b een i nd iv idua l ly d iscussed b u t n o t w ith s u f f ic ien t r eference t o t he w ider d eba te .

T h is n ecess i-

t a tes a t o ne s tage d e ta i led e xa m ina t ion o f t he B eaker p heno menon . P aper 8 r ev iews s o me o f t he e thnograph ic e v idence f or a n u mber o f a stron om ica l p ract ices wh ich a re n o t o f ap rec ise "s c ien t if ic" n a ture a nd a re n o t p ar t o f h igh ly r eg i men ted s oc ie t ies . T he r ange o f c onc lus ions t ha t emerge f ro m p apers 4 -10 s hou ld n ot l ead t o t he e nd o f o ur i n teres t i n a strono my f ro m t he s oc ia l p o in t o f v iew .

I n e vo lu-

t i onary t er ms , f or e xa mp le , i t may b e s ugges ted t ha t t here was i n s o me s ense as oc ia l n eed i n t he L a ter N eo l ith ic p er iod f or more s oph ist ica ted—and p erhaps a rcane —dev ices t o f ocus a t ten t ion o n ac o m mun ity ' si den t ity i n a wor ld i n wh ich t here was a n i ncreasing c o mpet i t ion f or r esources , a s s e t o u t i n p aper 1 0 . Paper 7 may h e lp t o d ocu men t t he e ar l ier p ar t o f s uch a d eve lop men t . T here i s a lso a p o ten t ia l c on tr ibu t ion t o b e made t o t he s tudy o f s yste ms o f b e l iefs , a s p aper 7 h in ts . Af ina l me thodo log ica l p o in t d eserves t o b e made , a nd i s r e levan t t o t he s tudy o f b oth a strono my a nd s oc ie ty .

I ti s t ha t , a par t f ro m t he o bv ious c are

n eeded i n t he ir i n it ia l f or mu la t ion , h ypo theses n eed t o b e s ub jected t o t he mos t r igorous t est ing p oss ib le , a nd o f a s many d if feren t k inds a s p oss ib le . T h is i s h ard ly p rofound ly o r ig ina l , b u t i ti s wor th r epea t ing . 1 1

1 . MEGALITHIC LUNAR OBSERVATORIES: AN ASSESSMENT OF 4 2 LUNAR ALIGNMENTS A . S . Thom

A p resentat ion o f r ecent d eve lopments i n a rchaeoastronomy w i th t he r esu lts o f s urvey work a nd a na lys is d one by A lexander Thom, who h as r ead a nd a pproved o f t he manuscr ipt.

" They b ide t he ir t ime o ff s erpent ine Green l anes, i n f i e lds, w i th r a i l ings Round t hem a nd b lack c ows; t a l l, p ocked And p i tted s tones, g rey, o chre-patched W ith moss, l odg ings f or l ost s pir i ts. S omet imes y ou h ave t o a sk t he ir Whereabouts. A b ent f igure, i n ah am let O f t hree h ouses a nd a b arn, w i l l p o int Towards t he moor. You f ind t hem t here, A loof l ean markers, e rect i n mud. Do ler ite, p orphyry, g abbro f i red A t t he e arth 's y oung h eart: h ow t hose men Hand led t hem. S et o n b ack-break ing Geometry, t he s ymmetr ies o f s o lst ice, What t hey awa i ted we, t oo, s t i l l awa i t." f rom "Anc ient Monuments" by J ohn Ormond. ( Publ ished i n h is b ook Def in i t ion o f a Waterfa l l a nd r eproduced by p erm iss ion o f Oxford Un ivers ity P ress.)

ß c

L IST OF SYMBOLS =

=c urva ture c orrect ion n ear c rest o f l unar d ec l ina t ion c urve

cs = s um o f c urva ture c orrect ions =d ec l inat ion o f Moon o r p o int i n s pace ( af ter f ig . 1 .6 So i s u sed i n p lace o f c S) Se = n om ina l o r e xpected d ec l ina t ion ( = ±( c ± i± A ±s ) ) 6o = d ec l ina tion o f n otch o r f ores ight a f ter o bserv ing i t s a l t itude a bove h or izonta l a nd i t s a z imuth a nd c orrect ing f or p ara l lax, r efract ion, e tc. ( Before f ig. 1 .6, 6 i s u sed f or 50 ) A =p erturba t ion o f t he o rb it o f t he Moon, a bout ± 9 ' =o bl iqu i ty o f t he e c l ipt ic h

=o bserved a l t itude o f h or izon 1 3

F ig. 1 .1

Ce lest ia l s phere

i = mean i nc l ina t ion o f Moon 's o rbi t t o t he e c l ipt ic = 5 °08 '.7 p = p ara l lax o f t he Moon Q = e xpected v a lue o f ß ; Q = 6 - ( ±i ±s) f or e ach s i te. Q i s t he a ng le by wh ich 6e i s a bove h et op o f t he c ha in-dotted c urve i n f ig. 1 .2 R =

ß -Q = Res idua l

s= s em i-d iameter o f t he Moon r = r . m.s. o f Res idua ls R . 1 .1

I ntroduct ion

W i th passage o f t ime, e ach g enerat ion h as s hown i nterest i n t he myster io us s ing le menh irs, r ows, g roups a nd r ings o f s tand ing s tones t o b e f ound i n N . W. Europe. Why were t hey e rected, s omet imes a t g reat e xpense? Our t hes iS ' i s t hat a t o ne s tage i n p reh istory many o f t hem w ere u sed i n c on junct ion w ith t he h or izon t o o bserve t he r is ing a nd s etting o f t he S un a nd Moon. No wr itten e v idence e x ists; t he e v idence i s o n ly t hat o bta inab le f rom t he p os it ion ing o f t he s tones t hemse lves. E rected w ith in t he l ast 1 0 ,000 y ears, many o f t he s tones s eem t o a ct a s f oca l p o ints i n t he l ands cape i nvo lv ing t he h or izon, t he s ky a nd t he l and. E ach l i chen-covered s tone o r ;g roup o f s tones s eems t ime less, w i th c haracter f ormed by t he w ea ther ing e ffects o f w ind, r a in, f rost a nd s un. We a ttempt t o s how i t i s h igh ly p robab le t hat a bout 2 000 BC e rectors made a nd u sed a S o lar c a lendar a nd l ater w ere o bserv ing a nd r ecord ing t he Moon 's movements s o c arefu l ly t hat t hey c ou ld h ave p red icted e c l ipses. A s ens i t ive method o f o bserv ing t he Moon o n t he h or izon a t s tandst i l l was d eve loped a nd we n ow know t hat i t s howed up t he e ffect o f t he s ma l l wobb le A o f t he l unar o rb i t due t o t he p erturb ing e ffect o f t he Sun. 1 .2

Astronom ica l c oncepts

Mega l ith ic Man c ou ld o n ly make a nd r ecord a ccurate o bservat ions o f t he a z imuth ( c lockw ise b ear ing f rom t rue n orth) o f t he Sun a nd Moon o n t he h or izon a t t urn ing p o ints, n ame ly t he s o lst ices a nd l unar s tandsti l ls. Exp lanat ions a re o f n ecess i ty c omp l ica ted a nd modern man 's know ledge o f a s tronomy h as t o b e i nvoked. The f o l low ing i s ab r ief a ttempt t o e xp la in t he r e lat ive movements o f t he E arth, Moon a nd S un. A stronom ica l d ec l inat ion 6 o f ah eaven ly b ody i s t he a ngu lar d istance o f t he body f rom t he p lane o f t he e quator, t aken a t t he c entre o f t he e arth. As t he d ec l inat ion o f ab ody v ar ies, i ts a zimuth o n r is ing o r s ett ing w i l l a lso v ary. Thus a n o bservat ion o f s unset ( for e xamp le) i s a t t hat t ime a n o bservat ion o f t he Sun 's a z imuth f rom wh ich i ts d ec l inat ion c an b e a scerta ined. Because t he o b l iqu i ty o f t he e c l iptic E t he d ec l inat ion o f t he S un v ar ies f rom + c t o c a nd b ack t o + c dur ing a y ear ( f ig. 1 .1). The Moon 's o rbi t i s i nc l ined a t a n a ng le it o t he p lane o f t he e c l iptic a nd t he p laces where i t c rosses t hat p lane a re r eferred t o a s t he n odes. The Moon 's d ec l inat ion a t ap er iod o f ma jor l unar s tandst i l l v ar ies f rom ( e+ i) t o (E F i) a nd b ack i n o ne l unat ion ( f ig. 1 .2). Because o f t he r otat ion o f t he n odes o f t he l unar o rbi t, 9 .3 y ears l a ter t he l im its o f t he Moon 's d ec l inat ion i n o ne l unat ion a re + (si) a nd (Ei), a nd t h is i s r eferred t o a s ap er iod o f m inor l unar s tandsti l l. Af ter 1 8.6 y ears ( the p er iod o f r o tat ion o f t he l ine o f n odes) t he d ec l inat ion l im its a re a ga in + (e+ i) a nd (c + i). Super imposed o n t he c ombined mot ion d escr ibed, t he v ary ing d irection o f t he S un 's a ttract ion a dds t o t he Moon 's d ec l inat ion a c yc l ica l p erturbat ion o r wobb le h av ing amp l i tude A o f a bout 9 a rc m inutes a nd 1 5

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S TA A I D S T lL L .

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p er iod 1 73.3 d ays ( f ig. 1 .3). A i s a pp l icab le t o i ; t he l arge d ots i n f ig. 1 .2 s how t he a ctua l p eaks a t t he month ly d ec l inat ion max ima a nd t he c urve j o in ing t hese d ots c omes t o a maximum e very 1 73.3 d ays. A t t he ma jor a nd m inor s tandst i l ls, when t he r ate o f c hange o f ( c± i) i s z ero, t he p ert urbat ion i s most a pparent. Th is c hange i n t he Moon 's d ec l inat ion i s v is ib le upon s uccess ive h or izon o bserva t ions t aken o ne l unat ion a part a t r is ing o r s ett ing. As s o lar a nd l unar e c l ipses a t ma jor s tandst i l ls c an o ccur o n ly a t t he n ew o r f u l l Moon n earest t he d ate when t he p erturbat ion i s n ear i t s max imum ( twice a y ear o f 3 46.6 d ays, t he p er iod i n wh ich t he Sun r evo lves r e la t ive t o an ode), a t ra ined o bserver wou ld b e a b le t o p red ict e c l ipse o ccurrences. F ig . 1 .3 i s u sed t o s how d ec l inat ion max ima ( north a nd s outh) a t t he 1 969 ma jor s tandsti l l, w i th t he e c l ipses a t t hat t ime o ccurr ing w i th in t he e c l iptic l im its, a nd t hese h appen a t t he c rests o f t he p erturbat ion wave. A s imi lar t ype o f f igure c an b e d rawn t o s how c ond it ions a t t he 1 978 m inor s tands ti l l when t he e c l ipt ic l im its o ccur a t t he t roughs o f t he p er turbat ion wave. W i th t he a pproach o f t he ma jor s tandsti l l, t he o bservers wou ld b e watchi ng t he g radua l i ncrease o f t he d ec l inat ion p eaks ( the b lack d ots o n f ig. 1 .2) a nd s o i t wou ld b e n atura l f or t hem t o r ecord t he maximum i n t he v ic in ity o f M . S imi lar ly f or t he n egat ive d ec l inat ion t hey wou ld t end t o u se t he m in imum a t M i. A t t he m inor s tandst i l l o n t he o ther h and t hey wou ld have b een watch ing t he g radua l d ecrease i n t he d ec l inat ion h o l lows, a nd s o we a ssume t hat t hey t ended t o mark t he l owest a t N . F or t he n egat ive d ec l inat ion h ere we a ssume t hey t ended t o u se N 1 . Marking, a s t hey d o, t he m in imum d ec l inat ion r ange a t f i rst o r t h ird l unar quarters a t t he e qu inoxes a t m inor s tandst i l ls, t he t roughs/crests a t N /N i a re n ot un ique, l i ke t he c rests/troughs a t M /Mi , a t t he ma jor s tandsti l ls. The Moon must p ass t hrough t hese f ormer p os it ive/negat ive d ec l inat ions N /Ni o n e very c yc le f or t he n ext 1 8.6 y ears. 1 .3

Method o f o bserv ing

M ega l ith ic Man c onstructed h is o bservat ions emp ir ica l ly, p robably w ith l i tt le awareness o f a ny o f t he a bove c oncepts e xcept t hat o f a z imuth. Und oubted ly h e c ou ld c ount. He h ad no i nstruments w ith a ccurate ly g radua ted c irc les, but made u se o f t he g reat c irc le o f t he h or izon. I nstead o f g raduations h e u sed f ores ights, f ar e nough away o n t he h or izon t o p erm it o f g reat a ccuracy. As t he f ores ight c ou ld n ot b e moved a bout, h e moved h is o bserv ing p os i tion, t he b ack s ight. The o bserver s tands, f or e xamp le, i n s uch a p os it ion t hat t he Sun o r t he Moon w i l l, a s i t g oes d own, g raze a d istant f ores ight, i n f ig. 1 .4 a ssumed t o b e ah i l l t op. He marks t he f ina l p os i t ion by a r od. Repeat ing t h is p rocedure f or s evera l n ights a bout t he t ime o f max imum a zimuth, i f t he h i l l t op i s i n t he n orth-west h e e nds up w ith w ith s evera l r ods o n al ine AA l y ing a cross t he l i ne o f s ight. I f we a ssume t hat h e s teps b ack a s hort c onstant d istance e ach n ight h e s ets o ut a c urve o n t he g round wh ich i s , t o s ome s ca le, a g raph o f t he a z imuth, a nd s o o f t he d ec l inat ion, p lotted o n at ime b ase. The max imum p o int o n t h is c urve was t hen h is f ina l b acks ight. Accord ing t o Ros lund ( 1979) t h is p rocedure was r ecorded f or s o lst i t ia l s unr ise a t A le i n Sweden, where t he d ay-to-day o bserv ing p os it ions a re l a id o ut i n p arabo l ic f orm w ith a s tone f or s evera l s unr ises b efore a nd a f ter t he s o lstice. F or t he Moon t he t urn ing p o int wou ld not a lways o ccur a t t he o n ly t ime a va i lab le f or o bserv ing, n ame ly moonset ( or moonr ise), a nd a method o f i nterpo lating b etween t wo e vening ( or morning) r ecord ings h ad t o b e d eve loped ( see l a ter). Two s eparate s o lar s o lst it ia l s i tes h ave b een d iscovered where t he S un h ad a ctua l ly s et b ehind a mounta in b efore r e-appear ing momentar i ly i n t he n otch b et ween t hat mounta in a nd t he n ext. S evera l s i tes were c arefu l ly c hosen i n 1 7

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F or ty-two measured f ores ights

Hav ing e stab l ished t hat t he a bove 2 0 l ines were r ea l l unar f ores ights, w e n ow f ee l t hat w e a re e nt i t led t o r e lax t he s tr ict t erms o f r eference ( a) a nd ( b) ment ioned a bove a nd t o u se o ur measured d ec l inat ions i n o rder t o f ind o ut j ust h ow Mega l i th ic Man worked. As a r esu lt we a re a b le t o p lot t he h istogram f or 4 2 l ines s hown i n f ig . 1 .8 . F or c ompar is on w ith t he e ar l ier way o f p resentat ion we a lso p lot f ig. 1 .15 s how ing t he 4 2 l i nes. S o f ar, i n MSB a nd MLO, we h ad pub l ished o ur measurements o n a bout 8 0 Br itish l unar l ines. By 1 971, 2 8 o f t hese 8 0 h ad b een d iscarded. I n a dd it ion t o t he 8 0 we n ow i nc lude a f urther 1 5 l i nes, n ame ly t hose a t Wormada le H i l l, Brogar, S tenness, Ba l l inaby, S k ipness a nd Dunske ig . 1 .13

Twenty-f ive s i tes n ot u sed

F or t he r ecord, we g ive i n a ppend ix 1 .1 a l i st o f t he r ema in ing 2 5 l i nes unused i n t he p resent a na lys is o f 4 2 l i nes. I n f ig. 1 .14 we s how t hese d iscarded d a ta i n t he s ame way a s i n f igs. 1 .6 & 1 .15 . I n e ach c ase we s tate t he r eason f or r e ject ion: s ee t ab les 1 .3 & 1 .4 i n a ppend ix 1 .1. The s ub ject i s c ont inua l ly g row ing. Our know ledge d eve lops w i th p assage o f t ime a s more d ata b ecome a va i lab le, a nd s o i t i s n ecessary t o c oncentra te o n t he l a test a na lys is. The i nformat ion u sed t o p lot t he h istogram i nvo lv ing 4 2 l i nes i s l i sted i n t ab le 1 .1, w ith, f or e ach l ine, a c o lumn f or ( So t he o bserved d ec l ina t ion; t he n omina l d ec l ina t ion; Q ( for cs = 0 ); E ; ßa nd R . Tab le 1 .1 a lso h as ac o lumn w ith Q ( for cs = 0 ' .6 o r 0 ' .3) a nd t he r e levant R ( see s ect ion 1 .15 b e low). Q i s d iscussed i n s ect ion 1 .18. 1 .14

Re-ca lcu la t ion o f o bserved d ec l inat ions

The " observed" d ec l ination 60 i n t he a bove a na lys is f or e ach o f t he 4 2 l ines was a ga in c a lcu lated s tart ing w ith t he a z imuths a nd a l t itudes a s p revious ly pub l ished, t ak ing t he a ppropr iate t imes o f d ay when f ind ing r efraction a nd u s ing mean p ara l lax v a lues. Deta i ls o f a n e xamp le c a lcu lat ion a re g iven by Thom & Thom ( 1978b). Mean p ara l lax v a lues a pp l ied w ere 5 6 '.4 a t e qu inoct ia l a nd 5 7 '.4 a t s o lst i t ia l s easons ( see s ect ion 1 .24). A v a lue i s n eeded f or E , t he o b l iqu ity o f t he e c l ipt ic, but t h is var ies s low ly w ith t ime a nd s o s ince a rchaeo log ists c annot g ive u s e xact d a tes f or t he s i tes we h ave t o d etermine E f rom t he o bservat ions t hemse lves. F rom e ach l i ne a v a lue o f Ec an b e c a lcu la ted. Any d ifferences i n 60 f rom p rev ious ly pub l ished va lues a re due t o t hese r e-ca lcu lat ions; e . g . f or Ba l l inaby ( tab le 1 .1) we n ow h ave 2 9°16 '.8, whereas p rev ious ly ( MRBB: 1 70) we h ad 2 9°17 '.7. 1 .15

Curva ture c orrect ion cs

I n t ab les 1 .1 & 1 .2 we r efer t o cs , a c urvature c orrect ion i nvo lv ing t he s um o f t wo c orrections ci = 0 ' .3 a nd c2 = 0 ' .3 a s d escr ibed i n a ppend ix 1 .2 : c o lumn f our i n t ab le 1 .1 g ives t he Q v a lues t o b e e xpected f rom Mega l ith ic Man 's h av ing t aken a number o f o bservat ions o f t he max imum o ver t hree o r f our 1 8.6 y ear c yc les a nd h av ing made o n ly o ne r ecord ing, s o we have put cs =c1 + c2 = 0 . Th is i s o n t he a ssumpt ion t hat h e h ad e nough i nformation t o r ecord t he c rest o f t he p erturbat ion wave n ear t he c rest o f t he ( E +i ) wave. ( For a f u l l e xp lana t ion o f t he c c orrect ion s ee Thom & Thom ( 1980b).)

2 9

F or t he maximum p os it ive d ec l inat ion a t t he ma jor s tandsti l l , f or e xamp le, we must s ubtract cs f rom t he Q v a lues a lready mentioned, b efore we c an c ompare t he r esu lts w ith t he o bserved 1 3 va lues. Th is i s b ecause i f t he o bservers e rected e ach b acks ight a s ar esu lt o f a n o bservat ion made a t as ing le s tandst i l l we c ou ld e xpect t he r esu lt ing d ec l ination t o b e, o n t he a verage, l ow by cs .However i f t he d eterm ina tions o f t he p os it ions o f t he b acks ights were s pread o ver a number o f s tandst i l ls, t hen c orrect ion cs i s n ot a ppropr iate b ecause a t M ( for e xamp le) t he e rectors wou ld p roba b ly h ave u sed t he max imum o f t he va lues o bta ined f rom t he v ar ious s tandst i l ls. One o f t he o b jects o f t he p resent p aper i s t o f ind o ut i f t h is method o f o bserv ing was u sed, a nd s o at r ia l i s made w ith a nd w ithout t he a bove c c orrect ion. Co lumn e ight i n t ab le 1 .1 g ives t he Q v a lues t o b e e xpected f or o ne o f t wo cs v a lues: e i ther es = 0 ' .6 f or e qu inoct ia l a nd s o lst it ia l o ccurrences, o r cs = ci+c , =0 ' .3 f or t he mean o f t hese t wo o ccurrences ( top a nd b o ttom o f wobb le). I n f ig. 1 .8 t he b road-shaf ted a rrows ( of w idth 0 ' .6) a nd t he b arrow-shaf ted a rrows ( of w idth 0 ' .3) purpor t t o s how t he cs b and-w idth i nvo lved. Co lumn f ive i n t ab le 1 .1 s hows t he v a lue o f cc a lcu lab le f or e ach l ine ( see s ect ion 1 .16 b e low). The mean o f t he 4 2 v a lues o f c i s 2 3 °5 3 '.1 a nd t h is mean v a lue i s u sed e ach t ime t o c a lcu late t he va lues o f

wh ich a re g iven i n t ab le 1 .1 c o lumn s ix; t here a re a lso c o lumns f or t he r es idua l R ( =I ß- Q I ) , t he d ifference b etween a ctua l a nd e xpected va lues i rrespect ive o f s ign. 1 .16

Ob l iqu ity c .obta inab le f rom e ach s i te

Equat ion ( 1.1) g ives E = 60 ± i -

,

a nd f or i dea l c ond it ions ß =9;

t hus

So±i Q. Mean ir ema ins c onstant o ver t he c entur ies, a nd s o e ach l ine y ields a v a lue f or E . The mean o b l iqu ity f ound f rom t he o bserva t ions t hemse lves ( co lumn f ive i n t ab le 1 .1) c an t hen b e u sed i n a n a ttempt t o d ate t he e rect ion. A s pec imen c a lcu lat ion i s g iven by Thom & Thom ( 1978b: t able 2 ). 1 .17

Graze

Graze i s t he e xtra b end e xper ienced by a r ay o f l ight wh ich p asses o ver a r idge, e spec ia l ly i n t he e ar ly h ours o f d arkness when t he g round s ometimes c oo ls more qu ick ly t han t he a ir. We a ssume t hat t he g raze e ff ect o ccurs f rom o ne h our b efore s unset t o o ne h our a f ter s unr ise, but t h is may n ot b e e xact. I n t ab le 1 .1 we s how c a lcu la t ions i nvo lv ing g raze o f 0 '.6. Graze i s a pp l ied i n a dd it ion t o r efract ion. I t w i l l b e s een f rom t ab le 1 .1 t ha t we c an e xtract means EN a nd Es f or o b l iqu ity o bta ined f rom N ( +) a nd S ( -) d ec l ina t ions. Ha lf o ft he d iff erence b etween EN a nd s w i l l g ive t he c orrect ion t o t he g raze, i f a ny i s r equ ired ( Thom & Thom 1 980b). F or t he r esu lts o f t he s et o f c a lcu lat ions g iven i n t ab le 1 .1 t he

3 0

K ey f or t ab le 1 .1 Va lues o f E a nd ß d educed f rom c S o t he o bserved d ec l inat ions f or mean o f Day a nd Dark ±

i )

Q =( Se (c± i ) where ( Se = n om ina l o r e xpected d ec l ina t ion R =r es idua l =1 3 -Q i rrespect ive o f s ign r =r . m.s. o f R E

f or e xamp le f or ma jor s tandst i l l a nd p os it ive d ec l inat ion i s =( So - i-Q . Mean i = 5 °08 '.7.

F rom t he a bove 4 2 v a lues o f ß , r=1 ' .34 f or a ssumpt ion 1 a nd 1 ' .53 f or a ssumpt ion 2 . I n a ssumpt ion 1 t he o bservers h ad d eterm ined t he ir p os it i on over a s pan o f a bout 1 79 y ears; f or t h is cs wou ld b e z ero ( f irst 7 c o lumns). I n a ssumpt ion 2 t he o bservers h ad d etermined t he p os it ion o f t he s tone f rom o ne s tandst i l l. F or t h is cs may b e 0 ' .3 o r 0 ' .6 ( co lumns 8 , 9 , s ee a lso t ext). The b road-shaf ted ( 0 '.6) a nd n arrow-shaf ted ( 0 '.3) a rrows i n f ig. 1 .8 purport t o s how t o s ca le t he c orrect ions i nvo lved. Key t o r eference numbers g iven i n f ina l c o lumn 2 4 7 1 5 1 7 1 8

Thom Thom Thom Thom Thom Thom

& Thom 1 978a ( "MRBB") 1 971 ( "MLO") & Thom 1 978b & Merr i tt 1 978 1 974a & Thom 1 979a

3 1

•

L A -

N

N

• % •

N 1

I

0

7

4 ( 1 . )

el

el

ö c d 7 5

0 0 cz e

c)

5 9 .02 Rods

1 47.55 M Y

E

5 9 .04 Rods

E

5 8 .70 Rods

C ) cz L S D • C D

5 7.69 Rods

L C D t t * E

e r i meter i n M Rods

" p . 2

1 47 .60 MY

Equ i la tera l

CD C l L t D C l t • • . 0 C l

1 44 .23 MY

2

L -

0 0 ei CD . t r i

e r i meter i n MY

t hagorean i

E

e ccen tr ic ity

P oss ib le p lanned d i mens ions o f t he Cu ltoon e l l ipse

L I D

1 24

e ven o f h a lf t he s hor t a x is i s a n a ston ish ing t r ibu te t o t he a ccuracy w i th wh ich t he p lan o ft he s i te w as s e t o ut o n t he g round a nd a c lear p roof , i fa ny was n eeded, t ha t t he b ui lders p lanned t he s tone r ing a round a p rec ise ly d rawn e l l ipse .

Moreover t he e ccen tr ic i ty o f t he c a lcu la ted e l l ipse i s a l most e xac t ly

0 .5—fur ther c onf irma t ion t ha t t he g eome try u nder ly ing t he s i te i s r ea l .

Thus

w e s ee h ow , f ar f rom t he e xcava t ion o f t h is s tone c irc le s how ing t ha t i t s o r ig ina l p lan i s al ess g ood f i t t o as oph ist ica ted g eome tr ica l f i gure , e xac t ly t he r everse h as h appened . F or i n teres t , i n t ab le 3 .2 t he c ompu ted b es t-f i t t ing e l lipse may b e c omp ared w i th t hree p oss ib le "mega li th ic" e l lipses .

I n e ach c ase t he ' t r iang le '

g iven i s ar igh t-ang led o ne , h a lf o f t he i sosce les t r iang le o f t he e l lipse i t se lf , w h ich i s made b y o ne e nd o f t he s hor t a x is a nd t he t wo f oc i ( f ig . 3 .5 ) . Al oop o f r ope f orming t h is t r iang le , a nd h ooked r ound t wo p egs a t t he f oc i , c an b e s wung t igh t ly r ound t o d raw t he e l l ipse o n t he g round . The d i mens ions o f t he t r iang les a re g iven a s a2 + b2 = c2 where a i s h a lf t he d istance b e tween t he f oc i , bi s h a lf t he s hor t a x is

c , t he h ypo tenuse , i s e qua l t o h a lf t he l ong

a x is . S ince n e i ther o ft he t wo P y thagorean t r iang les h ave i n tegra l s ides t hey a re p erhaps l ess l i ke ly i n terpre ta t ions—even t hough o ne may d oubt t ha t t he c irc le b ui lders k new t he d if ference ( espec ia l ly f or t he s econd ) s ince we a ss ume t ha t t hey worked emp ir ica l ly a nd d id n o t a c tua l ly k now Py thagoras ' t heore m .

The e l lipse b ased o n t he e qui la tera l t r iang le w i th s ides o f 2 5 MY

h as t he a dvan tage o f h av ing a n e ccen tr ic i ty o f 0 . 5—a n ea t p ropor t ion s trong ly s uggested b y t he c omputed d imens ions o f C u ltoon—and o f r equ ir ing t o b e s et o u t o n ly i n av ery s imp le way , w i th a l oop o f r ope 7 5 MY l ong .

I ti s i mposs ib le

t o a ccept t ha t t he C u l toon r ing s hou ld f i t b y c hance s o c lose ly t o a n a ccura te ly d rawn e l lipse a nd e x tre me ly d if f icu lt t o b e lieve t ha t t h is e l l ipse s hou ld a lso b y c hance b e s o c lose i n s ize t o o ne w i th a l ong a x is o f 5 0 MY a nd a n e ccentr ic i ty o f ah a lf . I ti s a lso n o tewor thy t ha t e ach a x is o f t he c o mpu ted e l lipse i s a l most t he s ame p ropor t ion o f t he e qu iva len t o ne i n t he ' i dea l ' f i gure h av ing a l ong a x is o f 5 0 MY , t he s hor t o ne b eing 9 8 .37% a nd t he l ong 9 8 .23% . Th is , a nd t he f ac t t ha t t he e ccen tr ic i ty o ft he c omputed f i gure i s a l most e xac t ly a h a lf , s ugg es ts t ha t e i ther t he s tone p os i t ions were s ystema t ica l ly d ug s l igh t ly i ns ide t he marked o ut e l l ip t ica l p er ime ter o r— more l i ke ly Is uggest—the a cu ta l u n i t o fl ength emp loyed a t C u ltoon was s l igh t ly s hor ter t han t he ' s tandard ' megal i th ic y ard o f 0 .829 m . I fo ne d iv ides t he a xes o f t he c omputed e l lipse b y t he ir ' i dea l ' l engths i n MY ( 50 a nd 4 3 .30 ) o ne g e ts f i gures f or t he u n i t u sed o f 0 .814 m a nd 0 .816 m r espec t ive ly ; t he a verage o f 0 .815 m may we l l b e c lose t o t he l eng th o ft he a c tua l r od emp loyed a t t h is s i te . I ti s h ard t o s ee o therw ise , a t as i te where t he c ircu ms tances a re a l most i dea l f or d e term ini ng t he e xac t p o in ts p lo t ted b y t he p reh istor ic s urveyors , why t he e ccen tr ic i ty o ft he e l lipse s hou ld b e s o c lose t o 0 .5 . T h is i nference o f c ourse s uppor ts t he i dea t ha t t he mega li th ic y ards t icks v ar ied a l i t t le f rom r eg ion t o r egion a nd were n o t r ig id ly s tandardised t hroughou t B r i ta in . H owever t he a ccuracy i nvo lved s ure ly means t ha t p ac ing o ut t he d i mens ions i s ac omp le te ly i nadeq ua te e xp lana t ion .

1 25

0

^0 CV

m 0

V iew t o t he SW f rom t he c entre o f Cu ltoon.

CULT O ON

SOUTH- WEST V 0 0

0 0

. . .

0

0

1 26

00 g

0

0 0

0 0

00

P l.

3 .3

P l. 3 .4

Cu ltoon : S tone XV w ith h a lf i t s unused s ocket s how ing ( the d ark, p eat-f i l led h a lf c irc le n ext t o t he p o le).

Bra inpor t Bay: V iew f rom b eh ind t he ' observat ion b ou lders ' n orthe ast t owards o utcrop w ith n otch a nd p aved a reas. S tones 1 a nd 2 s et i n s ockets.

The c omputer , when i td iscovers t he e l l ipse w h ich b es t f i ts t he p osi t ions measured, a lso d e ter m ines t he d irec t ion o f t he f i gure ' sa xes i n r e la t ion t o t he s i te g r id .

The n a ture o f t he c o mputa t ion means t ha t t h is d irec t ion i s o n ly

a ccura te w i th in a d egree o r t wo , a nd i ndeed i tv ar ies s l igh t ly w i th e ach c a lcul a t ion ;

h owever a l l t he r esu l ts a gree t ha t t he l ong a x is p o in ts a l mos t e xac t ly

NE-SW . I n t he s ou th-wes t , o n e xcep t iona l ly c lear d ays ( rare n ow i n I s lay ! ) , t he c oas t o f I re land c an b e s een a nd o n t h is t wo o r t hree p ro m inent p eaks a re v is ib le , a t l eas t 5 0 mi les away . C ondi t ions f or o bserv ing t hese p eaks a nd f or c a lcu la t ing t he ir a z i muths w i th t he a id o f t he S un h ave n o t b een i dea l o n a ny o ft he o ccas ions Ih ave b een t here , a nd t he a z imuths a re i n f act d e term ined f ro f ro m t he 8 -f igure g r id r eferences o f t hree n e ighbour ing Ordnance S urvey t r ia ng u la t ion s ta t ions a nd f ro m t ha t f or t he D ubh A rdtach l i gh thouse , s ome mi les t o t he n or th .

F ig . 3 .6 r epresen ts t he h or izon p ro f i le i n t he s outh-wes t a s

s een f rom C u ltoon a nd s hows h ow t he S un s e t t ing b eh ind t he main p eak wou ld h ave h ad a d ec l ina t ion o f 24 .8 ° ,a nd o ne o f 24 ° when s e t t ing b eh ind t he sma l ler , more d istant p eak t o t he r igh t .

I fv is ib i l i ty was r egular ly g ood t he

l a t ter p eak s hou ld h ave b een a b le t o p inpo in t t he d ay o f midw inter s unset a t s o me p er iod t owards t he e nd o ft he 3 rd mi l lenn iu m BC . C u l toon h as t hus p roved t o b e ar e markab le a nd i mpor tan t s i te i n s evera l ways , a nd i ti s ap i ty t ha t n o e xac t d a tes f or i t s a bor t ive c onstruc t ion a re a va i lab le .

The p o int i s t ha t i t s e xce l len t f i t t o ag eo me tr ica l c ons truc t ion —

a nd t he c loseness o f t he b es t f i t t ing e l lipse t o a n e xcept iona l ly n ea t a nd s i mp le o ne i n t erms o f mega li th ic y ards —e merged f rom a n o b jec t ive c a lcu la t ion b y a mach ine a nd c an b y n o s tre tch o ft he i mag ina t ion b e s a id t o h ave b een imp osed o n t o t he s i te a p r ior i .

I ndeed , a s we h ave s een , b efore e xcava t ion t he

s i te s ee med t o b e r a ther u npro m is ing i n t h is r espec t .

Moreover t he s hape

c omputed b y t he mach ine i ndica ted , a ga in q ui te i ndependen t ly o f a ny p reconc e ived i deas , t ha t t he l ong a x is o f t he e l l ipse p o in ted a l mos t e xac t ly t owards t he o n ly p lace o n t he h or izon where r ea l ly d is tan t p eaks a re t o b e s een;

o ne

o f t hese p eaks c ou ld h ave s erved a s ap rec ise midw in ter s o lst ice i ndica tor i n l a te N eo l i th ic t imes . T hus t h is s tone c irc le c ou ld h ave b een a c arefu l ly d es igned o bserv ing s ta t ion p lanned , among o ther t h ings o f c ourse , t o mark m idw in ter 's d ay .

H ere f or

o nce g eome tr ica l d es ign a nd a s trono m ica l f unc t ion a re n ea t ly l inked .

One

l as t p o in t i s t ha t t he c on tour p lan o f t he s i te ( f ig . 3 .3 ) s hows t ha t t he r ing was n o t b u i l t s ym me tr ica l ly a round t he s umm i t o f t he l ow r ise , a s o ne m igh t h ave e xpec ted i fi t s p os i t ion h ad n o t b een d e term ined b y s o me more a bs truse f act ors .

I ti s o f fse t t owards t he wes t-sou th-wes t f or s o me r eason .

3 .2 . 3 Bra inpor t B ay , L och F yne , Argy l l L och F yne i s o ne o f s evera l l ong s ea l ochs i n S co t land wh ich a re a l igned n or th-eas t t o s outh-wes t a nd a bout h a lf way d own i t s wes tern s hore , n ear t he v i l lage o f Minard , i s as hor t p ro mon tory wh ich f o r ms t he s he l tered Bra inp or t B ay o n i t s n or th-eas tern s ide .

N ear t he o u ter e nd o ft h is b ay , a nd o n ly

af ew me tres b ack f ro m t he s hore , i s ar ocky o u tcrop wh ich i n t he p as t h as b een modif ied a nd a dded t o w i th p av ing a nd r eve t ted p la t forms ( p l . 3 .4 ; 3 .7) .

f ig .

T he s i te h as b een e xp lored s ince 1 976 b y C o l . P . F ane G ladw in a nd

1 28

P l. 3 . 7 Bra inport Bay:

S tone 1 a s i t was f ound.

P l. 3 .8

Bra inport Bay: V iew n orth-east a long t he a l ignment f rom t he b ack p latform, s een i n t he f oreground.

members o f t he mid A rgy l l Archaeo logica l S oc ie ty ( Fane G ladw in 1 978) , a nd Iam g ra tefu l t o t he e xcava tor f or r eady p erm iss ion t o d escr ine t he s i te h ere i n a dvance o ff u l l p ub l ica t ion . The n ew p lan ( f ig . 3 .7) was made b y myse lf i n J une 1 980 a nd i s c omp le te e xcep t f or t he b ack p la tform ( descr ibed b e low ) . T here a re t hree ma in p ar ts t o t he s i te , n ame ly t he ma in o utcrop w ith i t s V -shaped c lef t a nd p aved a reas , ap a ir o f i so la ted b ou lders a bout 9 m t o t he s outh-wes t a nd , 2 5 m f ur ther i n t he s a me d irec t ion , wha t s eems t o b e al arge , c ircu lar a r t if ic ia l p la t form o n r is ing g round . There i s ac up- marked r ock a nd a n u nexcava ted c a irn n earby a nd a t l eas t t wo g roups o f f a l len s tanding s tones h ave b een l oca ted w i th in a q uar ter o f a mi le o f t he ma in s i te . U nt i l 1 977 t he ma in s i te ( t he f ront o u tcrop a nd i t s a ssoc ia ted p la tforms ) was t hough t t o b e a n a nc ien t s e t t lemen t o f s ome k ind , t hough n o c lear t races o f dwe l lings o r midden d epos i ts were f ound . Ar tefac ts r ecovered i nc luded p reh istor ic f l in ts —scrapers , c ores a nd was te f l akes—as we l l a s l a ter ma ter ia l s uch a s i ron i mp lemen ts a nd s ome s lag . One r adiocarbon d a te o f a d 9 74 ± 7 4 ( GU-1000 ) h as b een o b ta ined f or c harcoa l f ro m a h ear th a rea i n ad epress ion wh ich s ee ms t o h ave b een b roken t hrough t he p av ing i n s quare T 43 .

S ince t ha t

t ime t he p oss ib i l i ty o ft he s i te b eing c oncerned i n s ome way w i th t he mids ummer s unr ise h as b een c ons idered a nd t h is h ypo thes is h as e xp la ined we l l many f eatures wh ich a ppeared i ncomprehens ib le b efore . On t op o ft he ma in o utcrop i s a n a rea o fp av ing wh ich n arrows a s i tl eads b ack t o an o tch o r c lef t b e tween t wo p ro jec t ing r ocks a t t he s outh-wes t e nd o f t he r a ised a rea ;

t h is c lef t a ppears t o b e n a tura l t hough t he d iscover ies made

a t t he r ear b ou lders ( b e low ) make o ne wonder i fi t may b e p ar t ly a r t if ic ia l . T owards t he f ron t ( nor th-eas tern ) e nd o f t he p aved t op o ft he o utcrop a s ocke t was f ound a nd , l y ing 4 m away o n t he s outh-eas tern e dge o f t he o u tcrop , al ong , n arrow s tone 1 .3 m i n l eng th wh ich f i ts we l l i n to i t( p l . 3 .6 ) . B eyond , o r s outh-wes t o f , t he V -shaped c lef t i s a sma l l s em i-c ircu lar p aved p la tform w i th a much l arger , s l igh t ly l ower o ne b eyond i t( p l . 3 .4 ) .

Two more l ong

s tones , measur ing 1 .1 a nd 1 .35 m i n l eng th , were f ound b ur ied o n t he s urface o ft he l arger p la tform a nd a s ocke t f or o ne o ft hem i s i m med ia te ly b eh ind t he c lef t . When v iewed f rom t he t wo r ear b ou lders t he r ock o utcrop p resen ts a s tr iki ng s i lhoue t te a ga ins t t he n or th-eas tern s ky ( f ig . 3 .8; p l . 3 .4 ) . T he c lef t a ppears V -shaped f rom t h is a ng le a nd t he f ron s tone , i nser ted i n t he s ocke t , c an b e s een t hrough i tl ook ing l i ke t he f ores igh t o f ar i f le b eyond t he c lef t . On midsu mmer morn ing i n 1 977 Iwas a t t he s i te b efore d awn a nd, s ta t ioned b e tween t he t wo r ear b ou lders , s aw t he S un a ppear d rama t ica l ly t hrough t h ick h aze e xac t ly o ver t he c lef t a nd t he f ores igh t s tone , t hen marked b y as take ( p l . 3 .5 ) . T he o bserv ing p os i t ion c hosen was t he o bv ious o ne a nd a f i rm p ebb led a rea b etween t he b ou lders a ppeared t o b e a n a r t if ic ia l f l oor . s tone i s 1 .60 m ( 5f t 3i ns ) h igh a nd c onven ien t t o l ook o ver .

The f ron t

F ur ther o bserva t ion a nd measure men t , s ome o fw h ich was c arr ied o ut b y D r . A . S . T hom , s howed t ha t t he n o tch v is ib le a ga ins t t he r is ing s o lar d isc i s t hat b etween B e inn D ubhchra ig a nd B e inn O ss , t wo p eaks n ear ly 3 0 m i les a way f ro m T yndru m ; t h is i s t heon ly f ragmen t o f t he h or izon v is ib le f ro m t he

1 31

P l. 3 .5

Bra inpor t Bay :

The s ame v iew a t d awn, J une 2 1st 1 977 w ith

wooden p ost i n f ront s ocket a nd r ang ing p o le b etween ' observa t ion b ou lders '.

P l. 3 .6

Bra inpor t Bay : The ' observa t ion b ou lders ' f rom t he n or th-west, s how ing t he p aved a rea b etween t hem a nd t he a ngu lar s trat if icat ion o f t he f ront b ou lder .

1 33

M idsummer s unr ises s een f rom Bra inport Bay.

s i te wh ich i s more t han a bou t s even m i les away ( f ig . 3 .8 ) . T he h or izon p rof i le s hows t he p resen t r is ing p os it ion o f t he S un a nd i t s c a lcu la ted o ne o f a bou t 4 ,000 y ears a go . I tw i l l b e n o ted t ha t t h is d istan t f ores igh t—so c lear ly i nd ica ted b y man- made f ea tures— is n o t o f t he s ame k ind a s t ha t v is ib le f ro m o ther s tand ing s tones c la imed a s s o ls t i t ia l o bserva tor ies . I td oes n o t , f rom t h is p os it ion , s how a l ef t h and s lope r is ing a t a bout t he s ame a ng le a s t he S un 's a scen t a nd a ga inst wh ich t he v ery g radua l ly c hang ing d ec l ina t ions a round t he s o ls t ices c ou ld h ave b een e xac t ly o bserved ( Thom 1 967;

MacK ie 1 974 ) .

H owever t he

n o tch b e tween t he t wo p eaks ( c lear ly v is ib le o n t he p ho tograph ) c ou ld h ave b een u sed t o mark t he s unr ise 1 5 d ays b efore a nd a f ter midsu mmer ( a t at ime when t he E ar th 's a x is was t i lted 2 3° 5 4 ' f rom t he v er t ica l , i ns tead o f 2 3° 2 7 ' a s a t p resen t—a t a bou t 1 800 BC o n u n iform i tar ian a ssump t ions ) a nd i n t h is way t he d ay o f m idsu mmer c ou ld h ave b een e xac t ly d iscovered a nd p redic ted . T he who le d es ign a nd a rrange men t o ft he B ra inpor t B ay s i te s uggests a s much a c ere mon ia l c oncern w i th t he midsu m mer s o ls t ice a s a n a strono m ica l o r c a lendr ica l o ne . Th is i sp ar t icu lar ly t rue o ft he b ack p la tfor m ( n ot s hown o n t he p lan ) , wh ich i s a pprox ima te ly c ircu lar a nd a pparen t ly a t l eas t p ar t ly a r t if ic ia l; a f a ir ly l arge n u mber o fp eop le c ou ld h ave s tood o n i ta nd h ad a magn if icen t v iew o f t he d awn ( p l . 3 .5 ) . A t i t s f ron t e dge , a nd f ac ing d irec t ly n or th-eas t d own t he a l ign men t , i s a n a r t if ic ia l p ro jec t ion—a modif ied r ock o utcrop ( p l . 3 .8 ) —and i ti s d if f icu lt n o t t o s tand o n i tw i thout i mag in ing o nese lf aH igh P r iest o ft he S un , o r s ome s im i lar d ign i tary , l eading a d rama t ic d awn c eremony i n a nc ien t t imes .

Th is i s f anc ifu l o f c ourse b u t t he s i te d oes s ug-

g es t t hese t hough ts a nd n o-one who h as n o t a c tua l ly s een t he S un f l ash i n to v iew o ver t he marks i n t he g rey s t i l lness o f ac lear midsu mmer morn ing t here c an h ave t he f a in tes t i dea o f h ow awesome t he s pec tac le i s . A t t he s a me t ime t he s i te h as mos t o f t he i mpor tan t f ea tures o f a n a ccura te s tand ing s tone s o lar o bserva tory o f t he k ind f i rs t i dent if ied b y P rofessor A . T hom—na me ly a n a r t if ic ia l s truc ture , i nc luding w ha t s ee m s tand ing s tones , p o int ing c lear ly t o t he s o ls t i t ia l s unr ise

t o h ave b een

wh ich o ccurred b e-

h ind a r ea l ly d is tan t moun ta in p eak o r n o tch , t hus a l low ing t he a ppara tus t o f unc t ion a s a n a ccura te c a lendr ica l i ns tru men t i fr equired .

There a re a lso

s trong i ndica t ions o f o ther u sefu l a s tronom ica l a l ign men ts r adia t ing f ro m t he s i te b ut more i nves t iga t ion o ft hese i s n eeded .

A t B ra inpor t B ay t he a r t if ic ia l

n a ture o ft he s i te i s s o c lear t ha t i ti s j ust n o t r easonab le t o r a ise d oubts a bou t t he d e libera te a rrangemen t o f t he v ar ious f eatures a s a n a l ignment t owards t he t he n or th-eas t . S ome o ft he p av ing migh t p erhaps b e l a ter b u t t he i mpor tan t f ea tures—the sma l l o nce s tanding s tones , t he t wo s ocke ts wh ich s eem d es igned f or t he m , t he V -shaped r ock c lef t a nd t he r ear ' o bserva t ion b ou lders ' —a l l s ee m c lear ly a rranged t o p o in t t o t he midsum mer s un a t d awn . O fg rea t i mpor tance i s t he p a ir o f r ear b ou lders , w i th a f l a t r ubb le s urf ace b e tween t he m , wh ich s erve s o c onven ien t ly a s a n o bserva t ion p o in t ; f rom b e tween t he m t he ' r if le b arre l ' s igh t ing e f fec t t o t he n or th-eas t i s s een mos t d ramat ica l ly ( p l . 3 .5 ) . l a id f l oor ;

The r ubb le b e tween t hem l ooks l i ke a d e libera te ly

i t was n o t f ound , e xcep t f or a s cat ter o f q uar tz a nd o ther p ebb les

i mmedia te ly i n f ron t o ft he l arger b ou lder , o n t he p hy l li te b edrock r ound a bout . H owever t here a re c lear i ndica t ions , f i rs t o bserved b y Mr . S . R ank ine , t ha t t he e n t ire f ron t b ou lder h as b een moved a nd t i pped t hrough 9 0° o r more i n a

1 34

46

44

42 .

40

38

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ARGYLL

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F ig . 3 .7

P lan o f t he ma in p la tform a nd ' observat ion b ou lder ' a t Bra inpor t Bay, Argy l l.

1 0m

v er t ica l p lane t o r each i t s p resen t p os i t ion .

I ta ppears t o h ave b een a t tached

a t o ne t ime t o a n o utcrop c lose b y a nd t he v er t ica l s ide o f t h is s hows t he s tra ta o ft he metamorphosed r ock t urn ing s harp ly t hrough a n a ng le o f a bout 9 0° , t he r esu lt o f s ome a nc ien t h ea t ing a nd t w ist ing o f t he s ed imen ts . T he a ng le o f t hese l ayers f orms a n a rrow p o in t ing u pwards a nd t o t he r igh t . T he s ame b en t s tra ta c an b e s een , more c lear ly , o n b o th s ides o f t he f ront ' o bserva t ion b ou lder '; b u t h ere t he a ng led s tra ta f orm a n a rrow p o in t ing d own a nd t o t he r igh t , t he w ho le r ock h av ing e v iden t ly b een t i pped o ver f rom i t s o r ig ina l p os i t ion ( p l . 3 .6 ) .

Moreover t h is must h ave h appened a f ter t he p as-

s age o ver t he s i te o f t he i ce s hee t wh ich l ef t s cra tch marks o n t he r ocks d own b y t he s hore . The o n ly l i ke ly r eason f or t urn ing o ver t he r ock i n t h is way w as s ure ly t o l ever i ti n to i t s p resen t p os i t ion , where i ts erves a s a marker f rom wh ich t o wa tch t he midsu m mer s unr ise . T hus t he s i te a t B ra inpor t B ay p rov ides , i n my v iew , t he most d rama t ic a nd d ec is ive e v idence y et r ecovered t ha t p reh istor ic man was c oncerned w i th p rec ise s o lar o bserva t ion a nd t ha t t h is was most p robab ly i n t he s erv ice o f s ome p owerfu l r e lig ion c onnec ted w i th t he c e lest ia l b odies a nd f or wh ich a n e xac t c a lendar was i mpor tan t . F ur ther r adiocarbon d a tes f or t he s i te a re awa i ted w i th i n teres t . 3 .2 .4

G ian t h enges a nd c ere mon ia l c en tres

A n impor tan t p ar t o f my h ypo thes is a bou t t he p resence i n L a te N eo li th ic B r i ta in o f as tra t if ied , p oss ib ly t heocra t ic s oc ie ty was t he i den t if ica t ion o f s u i tab le t ra in ing a nd r es iden t ia l c entres f or t he r e l ig ious a nd l earned o rders a ssu med t o h ave e x is ted t hen . Th is was a ch ieved b y r e-in terpre t ing t he f unct i on o f t he g iant h enge monu men ts o f s ou thern E ng land a nd t he t wo c on te mp orary s tone v i l lages k nown f rom Orkney—Skara B rae a nd R inyo .

The

d iscovery o f wha t may b e an ew e xamp le o f ag ian t h enge , Me ldon B r idge i n P eeb les-sh ire , i s d iscussed l a ter ( sec t ion 3 .4 ) ; h ere Iw ish o n ly t o make s ome f ur ther r e marks a bout o ne a spec t o f t he e v idence wh ich Ip ut f orward t o s uppor t t he i dea t ha t s i tes l i ke D urr ington Wa l ls i n Wi ltsh ire were p ermanen t ly i nhab i ted b y as pec ia l c lass o fp eop le , p robab ly members o f r e l ig ious o rders , w ho were s uppor ted b y t he r es t o ft he a gr icu ltura l p opu la t ion ( MacK ie 1 977a : c hs . 7 -10 ) . T he d ie t o f t he i nhab i tan ts o f D urr ing ton Wa l ls was c ompared w i th t ha t o f t he p eop le l i v ing i n , o r c amp ing s easona l ly a t , t he o lder c ausewayed c a mp a t Wind m i l l H i l l f ur ther n or th i n Wi ltsh ire a nd f ound t o b e s ign if ican t ly d if feren t f rom i t ( MacK ie 1 977a : f i g . 3 5 ) . The t wo s i tes were i nhab i ted s imu ltaneous ly — in t he l a t ter p ar t o ft he 3 rd mi l lenn iu m BC—and o f c ourse t hey s tand i n t he s ame c ha lk d own land e nv iron men t a nd o n ly a f ew mi les a par t . Y et t he mea t e a ten a t t he g rea t h enge y vas v ery d if feren t f rom t ha t c onsu med b y t he p res umab ly p easan t v is i tors t o t he c ausewayed c amp a nd , wh i le t h is c anno t b y i t se lf t e l l u s t ha t t he f ormer were a n u pper c lass , t h is d if ference i n d iet ma tches v ery we l l w i th o ther s harp d if ferences b e tween t he ma ter ia l c u ltures f ound o n t he t wo s i tes , a nd o f c ourse b e tween t he s i tes t he mse lves . I tn ow s ee ms t ha t i ti s p oss ib le t o i nfer f rom a n ima l b ones t ha t p reh is tor ic c om mun i t ies were a t d i f feren t l eve ls i n t he s oc ia l s ca le . I n t he ir n ew b ook , B aker a nd B ro thwe l l ( 1 980 ) d e monstra te h ow t races o fd iseases c an b e f ound 1 37

i n a n ima l b ones a nd s ugges t t ha t d if ferences i n t he s ta te o f h ea lth o f t he f l ocks a nd h erds o fp as t c om mun i t ies c ou ld b e e xp la ined b y d if ferences i n t he w ea lth , a nd t herefore p resu mab ly t he s oc ia l s ta tus , o f t he ir owners . U nfor tuna te ly t he l arge q uan t i t ies o fa n ima l b ones r ecovered f rom t he e x tensive e xcava t ions a t D urr ing ton Wa l ls a nd r e la ted L a te N eo li th ic s i tes i n t he l a te 1 960s ( Wa inwr igh t &L ongwor th 1 971) were n o t a va i lab le f or i nc lus ion i n t h is s tudy b u t , when t hey a re , t hey s hou ld s ure ly b e e xam ined i n t he s amey way . I t wou ld s ee m t ha t we h ave h ere a n a l mos t p erfec t e xper imen ta l t es t f or t he h ypo thes is a dvanced i n my b ook S c ience a nd S oc ie ty i n P reh istor ic B r i ta in ( MacK ie 1 977a ) . I ft he g ian t h enges o f t he s ou th , a nd t he r e la ted s i tes l i ke Me ldon B r idge i n P eeb les-sh ire a nd S kara B rae i n Orkney , r ea l ly were t he r es iden t ia l c entres o f e l i te g roups o f s ome k ind , t hen t he a n ima l b ones f rom t hese s i tes may we l l b e f rom h ea lth ier a n ima ls t han t hose whose r ema ins h ave b een f ound o n t he ( a dm i t ted ly r arer ) more o rdinary d omes t ic s i tes l i ke W indmi l l H i l l . 3 .3

REACTIONS AND REV IE WS

3 .3 .1

R ev iews o f " Sc ience a nd s oc ie ty i n p reh is tor ic Br i ta in"

H ow h as a l l t h is work , a nd t he c on trovers ia l i deas s e t o ut i n S c ience a nd S oc ie ty ( MacK ie 1 977a ) b een r ece ived ? A f a ir n umber o f r ev iews b y p rof ess iona l a rchaeo log is ts h ave a ppeared a nd t hey f a l l i n to t wo g roups :

t here

a re t hose wh ich we lcomed t he n ew h ypo theses , w i thout n ecessar i ly a gree ing w i th t he m c omp le te ly , a nd o f fered c ons truc t ive c r i t ic is m; a nd t hose who d ismissed t he m a s f an tas t ic n onsense , e i ther o ver t ly o r b y i nnuendo . F or tun a te ly t he l a t ter were a minor i ty b u t t hey i nc lude s ome o f o ur b est k nown a rchaeo log is ts whose v iews a re t o b e v a lued , s o t he ir v iews mus t b e e xam ined c arefu l ly . P rofessor S tuar t P iggo t t i s p robab ly t he mos t em inen t o f t hose i n t he l at ter g roup w i th a n u nusua l ly w ide k now ledge o f E uropean p reh is tory ( P iggo t t 1 965 ) a nd i t was t herefore s ad t ha t h e f ound l i t t le g ood t o s ay o f t he b ook i n h is r ev iew i n A n t iqui ty ( 1 978a ) a l though h e was s urpr is ing ly s hor t o f s pec if ic c r i t ic is ms . One o f h is ma jor o b jec t ions was t ha t Im isused a rchaeo log ica l e v idence ;

p hrases o ccurred l i ke ' here i s s ome v ery o dd u se o f e v idence ...

a nd ' Desp i te h is p ro tes ta t ions Dr . MacK ie h as n o t p layed f a ir w i th h is n ont echn ica l r eaders b u t p resen ted t he m w i th s ome th ing o f a n i n te l lec tua l c onf i dence t r ick , b u i lding , w i th a w i ld d isregard f or t he p roper h andl ing o ft he e v idence a g ro tesque s truc ture o ft heory u pon T hom 's t hes is . An e legan t l i terary j i be a t t he e nd o ft he r ev iew was t hough t as u i tab le way t o c omp le te t he j ob o fd e mo li t ion . I t was s adder s t i l l t o h ave t o c ome t o t he c onc lus ion t ha t t he c onf idence t r ick was o n t he p ar t o f t he r ev iewer , who s ubs t i tu ted f or s pec if ic a rgumen ts c ondemna t ion b y t he a u thor i ty o f h is r epu ta t ion a nd b y t he t r ick o f i mp ly ing g u i lt b y a ssoc ia t ion .

As a lready e xp la ined , t he n a ture o f a rchaeo log ica l e v i-

d ence was f u l ly d iscussed i n t he b ook a nd i t was made c lear t ha t a n a t tempt was b e ing made t o a pp ly t he me thods o f n atura l s c ience t o ad if f icu l t p rob lem . T hese me thods a re we l l d escr ibed b y B ever idge ( 1 961) a nd c ons ist i n e ssence o f a na lysing ag iven b ody o f e v idence , o fd eve lop ing a n h ypo thes is t o e xp la in

1 38

i t , o f d ef in ing p red ic t ions made b y t he h ypo thes is a nd t es t ing t hese p redic t ions b y e xper i men ts s o t ha t t hey a re v er if ied o r r efuted . Two c rucia l s uch e xp er iments b y e xcava t ion ( a t K in traw a nd C u ltoon ) were d escr ibed i n t he b ook , b o th o f wh ich were t es ts o f f unda men ta l a spec ts o f Tho m 's t heory , a nd t hey w ere t he f i rs t s uch t o b e c arr ied o ut b y a n a rchaeo log is t .

H owever n o t a

s i ng le a rchaeo log is t r ev iewer men t ioned e i ther p iece o f work e xcept F ischer ( 1 978) —though t he a s trono mer H egg ie d id ( 1978) , a s a lso d id Wood ( 1978 : 8 5 ) a nd Hadingha m ( 1975 : 1 09 ) i n t he ir b ooks .

Th is i s t he more e xtraordinary

s i nce Bever idge 's b ook was f avourab ly r ev iewed b y S tuar t P iggo t ( 1962 ) a nd r eco m mended t o t he p rofess ion a s e ssen t ia l r eading : s trong ly i n my l a ter w ork .

i n f ac t i ti nf luenced me

P ar t icu lar ly c r i t ica l r ev iewers a nd c om men ta tors

l i ke P iggo t t ( 1978a ) , D an ie l ( 1980 ) a nd J acquet ta Hawkes ( 1977 ) s ure ly h ad a d u ty a t l east t o men t ion wha t s uppor t a rchaeo log ica l e xcava t ion h as g iven t o t he n ew h ypo theses ; b u t n one d id . 3 .3 .2 K in traw The r esu lts o f t he K in traw e xcava t ions h ave i n f ac t c aused s ome i n teres t ing c on tor t ions i n a rchaeo log ica l c o m men tary wh ich migh t b e c onstrued a s u n int en t iona l c o mp li ments t o t he i mp lica t ions o f t he work .

F or e xa mp le i n h is

c omprehens ive a nd a uthor i ta t ive s urvey o n s tone c irc les , B ur l b r ief ly d isc ussed t he s i te ( 1976 : 1 99 ) .

H e s ta tes :

" The o ther p o in t i s t ha t d esp i te t h is o vera l l c onf irma t ion o f Thom 's a s trono m ica l a na lyses" [ seen i n t he o r ienta t ions b ui lt i n to a v ar iety o f s tone c irc les ] " he may b e wrong a bou t K in traw wh ich h e h as c la imed a s o ne o f t he mos t i mpor tan t s o ls t i t ia l s i tes k nown t o h im ...

H e

a lso p os tu la ted a n a r t if ic ia l s igh t ing-p la tform c u t i n ap rec ip i tous h i l ls ide t o t he NE o f t he c a irn b ut a s t h is c on t inues a nd w idens f or s evera l h undred f ee t a l l a round t ha t s ide o f t he h i l l i ti s much more l i ke ly t o b e n a tura l ( bu t s ee MacK ie 1 974 : 1 81) . I n f ac t , a s a t Monz ie a nd F ow l is Wes ter , t he o ut l ier p robab ly b e longs t o t he sma l l k erb-ca irn B , a nd p rov ides a g ood a l ignmen t t o t he midsu m mer s unr ise ." T here a re s evera l n o tab le f ea tures a bou t t hese r e marks .

Tho m d id i mp ly

t ha t t he p la tfor m , o r t errace , h ad b een c ut i nto t he h i l ls ide a nd h e s urm ised t ha t t he b ou lder o n t h is t errace marked t he p r i mary o bserva t ion p o int f or s e t t ing u p t he o bserva tory .

H owever Ip o in ted o ut t ha t t he t errace was p ro-

b ab ly a n a tura l f ea ture ( MacK ie 1 974 : 1 81) a nd t he s ubsequen t e xcava t ions o n i t , n ext t o t he b ou lder , were d esigned t o s ee i ft h is p ar t o f i th ad b een modif ied t o f or m a v iew ing p la tform a nd t hey s howed t ha t i ta l most c er ta in ly h ad . T h is r e markab le d iscovery wh ich s hows —exac t ly c on trary t o wha t B ur l s ays — tha t Tho m i s a l mos t c er ta in ly r igh t a bout K in traw , i s c oncea led i n a' ( but s ee ) ' a nd a b are r eference : i sj ust n o t c redib le :

Moreover t he s ugges ted midsu m mer s unr ise l i ne

t he s tanding s tone i s o n ly a f ew f ee t f ro m t he sma l l ' kerb-

c a irn ' B , t he s ugges ted o bserva t ion p o in t , f ar t oo c lose t o g ive a ny th ing b ut t he c rudes t i ndica t ion o f d irec t ion .

Worse , t he h or izon t o t he NE i s l ess t han

am i le away , w i th a g rea t n u mber o fi rregu lar b u mps a nd n o tches o n i t .

As

h as o f ten b een e xp la ined , s o lst i t ia l a l ign men ts , t o b e c redib le a nd o f a ny u se a ta l l a s p rac t ica l o bserv ing i nstru men ts , s hou ld i nc lude h or izon markers many mi les d istan t wh ich s hou ld b e c lear ly i ndica ted b y o ne o r more s tanding s tones . 1 39

We s ee m t o h ave h ere a d es ire t o emphasise s i mp le , a pproxima te o r ient a t ions t owards a strono m ica l p os i t ions i n a ncien t s i tes —wh ich e veryone c an a ccep t w i thou t men ta l s tra in b ecause t hey imp ly n o more t han a g enera l i nt eres t i n c e lest ia l p heno mena a nd a s easona l c a lendar ( Renfrew 1 973 : 2 37f f ; F le m ing i n MacK ie 1 976) , o r t he e x is tence o f ar i tua l n eed l i ke t he o ne wh ich p roduces t he E o r ien ta t ion o f C hr is t ian c hurches , a nd t o p lay d own t he e x ist ence o f i m mense ly l ong a lign men ts o f wh ich K in traw a nd B a l lochroy a re c lass ic e xa mp les ( MacK ie 1 974 : 1 76) .

C lear-cut , d istan t n a tura l f ores ights ,

1 8 mi les away a t B a l lochroy i n K in tyre a nd 2 9 a t K in traw , c ou ld h ave s erved a s a ccura te o bserv ing i nstru men ts a nd t hey p o in t , i fg enuine , t o ad es ire f or p rec ise measure men t a nd a d egree o f s k i l l i n a s trono m ica l o bserva t ion wh ich must s ure ly i ndica te t he p resence o f at ra ined c lass o f o bservers .

T hese

wou ld h ave b een c omm i t ted t o s earch ing f or y ears o ver t he h igh land t erra in f or s ui tab le v iew ing p o in ts a nd t o mak ing y ears o f o bserva t ions a f ter t hese h ad b een e s tab l ished .

Th is i s wha t t he d iscover ies a t K in traw imp ly a nd t h is

i s why t he s i te i s s o i mpor tan t ;

t he k indes t t h ing o ne c an s ay a bou t t he a l mos t

u n iversa l f a i lure t o d iscuss t he e v idence p roper ly , o r e ven t o men t ion i t , i s t ha t i ti s o dd . A more r ecen t e xa mp le o f mis lead ing c o m men t a bout K in traw c omes f rom Dr . G . Mo ir , i n t he c ourse o f aj o int a r t ic le d iscuss ing s ome mis takes i n P rofessor Tho m 's a rchaeo log ica l i den t if ica t ions a nd s o me ambiguous s urveys ( Mo ir 1 980 ;

R ugg les & N orr is 1 980 ) .

" The s i te a t K in traw ( NGR :

Mo ir s ays : NM 8 30050 ) i s o ne o fp o ten t ia l e x tre me

a ccuracy f or t he o bserva t ion o f mid-w in ter s unse t , a nd h as b een much d iscussed f o l low ing MacK ie 's e xcava t ions o ft he a ssoc iated o bserv ing p la t for m '

( MacK ie 1 974 ;

1 977a ) ."

H e g ives d e ta i ls o fd iscrepanc ies b e tween t he p lan o f t he t wo c a irns n ex t t o t he s tanding s tone p repared b y Tho m a nd t ha t made b y t he a rchaeo log ist who e xcava ted t he m , Dr . D . D . A . S i mpson ;

b o th d i mensions a nd a zimu ths d if fer .

A f ter s evera l f ur ther r e la ted c om men ts h e s ays : " In v iew o f t he i mpor tance o f K in traw i n d iscuss ions o f Mega l ith ic A strono my i ts ee ms s omewha t s urpr is ing t ha t n o-one h as r emarked .. o n t he d if ferences i n t he t wo p ub lished s i te p lans ." T h is i s e x tre me ly mis leading a s t he l as t s entence i mp l ies q u i te c lear ly t ha t t he v a lue o f t he s i te a s a n a ccura te p reh istor ic a s trono m ica l o bserva tory i s d im in ished b y t hese d iscrepanc ies ( Ih ave h ad e xper ience o fp eop le s ay ing t h is.

O f c ourse i ti s n o th ing o f t he k ind .

The c a irns , t he ir s izes a nd o r ien-

t a t ions a re q u i te u nconnec ted w i th t he l ong s o ls t i t ia l a l ign men t wh ich r uns f ro m t he s tanding s tone—or , more p robab ly , f rom t he e xcava ted h i l l p la tform —sou th-west t o t he P aps o fJ ura 2 8 mi les away .

A ga in Dr . Mo ir g losses

o ver t he ma in p o int a bout t he K in traw p la tfor m . T he mos t i nco mprehensib le o f t hese e p isodes i s s t i l l as ta te men t b y Dr . J on P a tr ick , i n al ec ture r ead f or h im a t t he 1 977 G lasgow c onference ' Ceremon ia l , s c ience a nd s oc ie ty i n p reh is tor ic Br i ta in ' ( MacK ie 1 976) , t ha t h e was u nab le e ven w i th a t heodo l i te t o s ee t he moun ta in f ores igh t f rom t he h i l l p la tform a t K intraw ( see p aper 5 o f t h is v o lu me—eds . ) .

1 40

T h is i s an onsense

wh ich Dr . P a tr ick h as n ever e xp la ined; p ho tographs a re a va i lab le , t aken f ro m t he p la tform , wh ich s how t he V -shaped n o tch o n J ura f u l ly i n v iew . E van Hadingham ( 1 975 ) h as a lso wr i t ten ag enera l s urvey o f s tone c irc les , a nd h is t rea t men t o f t he s i te makes a c on trast t o t hose j ust o u t l ined .

The s i te

a nd t he p la tform e xcava t ions a re f u l ly d iscussed a nd t he s ign if icance o f t he l ong a ccura te a l ignmen t —or o bserv ing i nstru men t—is c lear ly g rasped .

I n-

d eed Hadingha m was o ne o f t he f irs t t o a cknow ledge i n p r in t t he p laus ib i l i ty o ft he i dea ( MacK ie 1 974 : 1 88) t ha t t he k ind o f s i te r epresen ted b y Ba l lochroy a nd K intraw means " t ha t t he d e mand f or a n a ccura te c a lendar w4s s e t u p b y s ome s pec ia l is t g roup i n a nc ien t B r i ta in , p erhaps b y ar u l ing a r istocracy o r p r ies thood" ( Had ingham 1 975 : 1 09-115 ) . 3 .3 .3

Profess iona l p r iests a nd w ise men

P iggot t a nd s evera l o thers , i n t he ir r ev iews o f S c ience a nd S oc ie ty , a cc ep ted t ha t i t was i n teres t ing a nd u sefu l t o l ook a t t he Maya C lassic c iv i l isa t ion o ft he f irs t mi l lenn iu m AD i n C entra l Amer ica a s ap oss ib le mode l w i th wh ich t o e xp la in Br i t ish N eo li th ic s oc ie ty ( MacK ie 1 977a : c h . 1 0 ) . H ere i s as tr ik ing e xamp le o f an on-urban , s tone-us ing s oc ie ty , d om ina ted b y c h iefs a nd b y a p ro fess iona l p r ies thood, wh ich h ad d eve loped a dvanced i n te l lectua l s k i l ls i n a s trono my , ma the ma t ics a nd c a lendar- mak ing .

These u pper c lasses l i ved

i n s pec ia l c ere mon ia l c en tres mos t o f wh ich were i so la ted g roups o f s tone b u i ldings among t he s ca t tered dwe l lings o f t he r ura l p opu la t ion , r e la t ive ly sma l l a nd c o mposed s o le ly o f t e mp les , p r ies t ly r es idences a nd ' pa laces ' . Av ery f ew , l i ke T ika l i n G ua te ma la , a t ta ined g igan t ic s ize a nd c an b e r eg arded a s c i t ies .

H owever t he Maya a lso d eve loped a f orm o f wr i t ing , wh ich

o ur N eo li th ic s oc ie ty d id n o t , s o o ne migh t l eg i t i ma te ly d oub t t he v a lidi ty o f ac lose c ompar ison w i th t h is c u lture . Wha t i s s trange h owever i s t ha t a l l t he h os t i le r ev iewers f a i led t o men t ion a much more c onv inc ing p iece o f e v idence much n earer h o me—the Druids o f I ron Age B r i ta in a nd G au l .

H ere was e xac t ly t he k ind o fu pper c lass o fp r ies ts ,

w ise men , j ur is ts , p oe ts a nd s o o n —separa ted o ut f ro m t he C e lt ic t r iba l s oc ie t ies o f t he t ime a nd w i th i m mense p res t ige—tha t wou ld f i t t he N eo l i th ic e v idence .

Moreover t hey l i ved i n e xac t ly t he s a me a reas a s , a nd l ess t han

t wo mi l lenn ia l a ter t han , t he s tone c irc le b ui lders . The Dru ids were h igh ly s k i l led i n a stronomy a nd c os mo logy a s P iggo t t d escr ibes i n d e ta i l ( 1968 : 1 22 ) a nd t hey a lso h ad a s trong t abu a ga ins t wr i t ing d own a ny o f t he ir s pec ia l ised k now ledge , s pending many y ears i ns tead l earn ing b y h ear t t he h uge q uan t i t ies o f v erse wh ich d oubt less c on ta ined t he ir a ccu mu la ted w isdo m . E ven more e xc i t ing , i n t he l i gh t o f T ho m 's work , n ow a ppears t he i nforma t ion , d er ived f rom J u lius C aesar , t ha t " the ir d oc tr ine i s b e l ieved t o h ave b een f ound e x is t ing i n Br i ta in —disc ip lina i n Br i tann ia r eper ta—and t hence t o h ave b een i mpor ted i n to Gau l a nd n owadays most p eop le who w ish t o a cquire at horough k now ledge o f i t , g o t here t o s tudy" ( P iggo t t 1 978b : 5 2; B urn 1 969 : 4 ) .

Th is i dea o f t he Druidica l o rders o r ig ina t ing i n Br i ta in made n o s ense

i n t he o ld d if fus ion is t d ays when t he ir k now ledge was s upposed t o h ave b een o b ta ined f ro m t he G reeks t hrough t he ir c o lony e stab lished a t Mass i lia ( Mars e i l les ) a t a round 6 00 BC , b ut i s e as i ly e xp licab le i ft he s tanding s tone s i tes ( c onf ined t o Br ita in a nd Br it tany ) were t he work o f s im i lar , a nd a ncestra l , o rders o fp r iests a nd w ise men i n N eo li th ic t imes . 1 41

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Owen G inger ich ( 1 977) s aw t ha t t he e x is tence o ft he Druids p rov ides v ery s trong s uppor t f or my h ypo thes is o f at heocra t ic , s tra t if ied s oc ie ty i n N eo li th ic B r i ta in s ince t he I ron A ge l earned o rders c ou ld e as i ly h ave b een d irec t ly d esc ended f rom e ar l ier o nes . T h is o f c ourse was d iscussed b o th i n t he b ook ( MacK ie 1 977a : 2 26-228) a nd b efore t ha t ( MacK ie 1 974 : 1 89 ) . I n t h is c ontex t P rofessor D . W . H arding ( 1 977) men t ioned t he e x treme ly i mpor tan t I r ish L a te Bronze a nd I ron A ge s i tes o f Tara , D un A i l inne a nd Ema in Macha wh ich e xcava t ion i s s how ing t o h ave o r ig ina ted a round 6 00 BC o r e ar lier a nd t o h ave b een a n i n teres t ing c omb ina t ion o f r oya l a nd r e lig ious c en tres , q u i te p robab ly a na logous t o D urr ing ton Wa l ls a nd t he o ther g ian t h enge s i tes i n SE ng land 2 ,000 y ears e ar l ier .

Wha t i s more i ti s s tead i ly b eco m ing c lear , a s Hard ing

a lso men t ioned , t ha t v ar ious a spects o f B r it ish I ron A ge s oc iety , i nc lud ing i t s r i tua l monu men ts , a re p robab ly d er ived f ro m a much e ar l ier l oca l t rad it ion ; c on t inu ity o ver t he 't hree a ges '

( Neo l ith ic , B ronze a nd I ron ) i s g radua l ly b e-

c om ing c learer f ro m t rad it iona l a rchaeo log ica l e v idence . T here i s i n f ac t s ome e v idence wh ich g ives u nequ ivoca l s uppor t t o t he h ypot hes is t ha t t he l earned o rders o f t he I ron A ge i nher i ted t he s pec ia l ised k nowl edge a nd t radi t ions o ft he N eo l i th ic p er iod a nd i th as a lready b een d iscussed t w ice ( MacK ie 1 975 : 8 5 ; 1 977a : 6 1) . T he b rochs a re c ircu lar I ron A ge d rys tone f or ts p robab ly d a t ing t o t he p er iod f rom t he f i rs t c en tury BC t o t he s econd AD a nd wh ich a re f ound o n ly i n t he h igh land a nd i s land r eg ions o f t he f ar n or th a nd wes t o f S co t land . t he ir d es ign .

They a re s k i lfu l ly b u i lt a nd s tr ik ing ly s tandard ised i n

A s ac heck o n t he me thodo logy Thom u sed t o d iscover t he e x is-

t ence o ft he ' mega l i th ic y ard ' i n t he s tone c irc les , It ook i n 1 971

a ccura te

measure men ts o ft he s hape a nd d imens ions o ft he c en tra l c our ts o f 3 7 b rochs ( t ab le 3 .3) . T he r esu lts were a na lysed b y Dr . G . I . C rawford t o d iscover ( 1 ) whe ther t he b roch b ui lders h ad s e t o u t t he t owers a ccura te ly r ound c ompassd rawn c irc les a nd ( 2 ) i ft hey h ad , whe ther a s tandard u n i t o f l eng th h ad b een u sed t o measure o u t t he c irc les .

There was n o p r ior e xpec ta t ion t ha t s uch a

u n i t wou ld b e d iscovered , o r wha t i t migh t b e , a l though Ic er ta in ly e xpec ted t ha t t he b rochs wou ld p rove t o b e e xac t ly c ircu lar , wh ich t hey d id . T he r esu lts f or t he u n i t o f measuremen t i nves t iga t ion were u nexpected a nd s urpr is ing . I ta ppeared t ha t a' broch y ards t ick ' h ad b een u sed a nd t ha t i t s mean l eng th was 0 .839 m, o n ly 1 cm l onger t han t he Mega li th ic y ard .

The

d egree o f c onf idence i n t he r esu lt was 2 % , t ha t i s t here were o n ly t wo c hances i n ah undred t ha t t h is u n i t h ad emerged f or tui tous ly f rom t he a na lyses . Moreo ver s evera l b rochs f i t ted w i th e x traordinary a ccuracy ( t o w i th in a f ew ems a t most p o ints ) r ound o ther g eome tr ica l s hapes ; t wo were e l l ip t ica l a nd t wo f o l lowed a n u nusua l s hape wh ich c ons isted o f h a lf a n e l l ipse w ith a n e gg-shape o r ah a lf c irc le r est ing o n i t .

U n less o ne a ssu mes t ha t t hese t radi t ions o f

measur ing a nd g eo metry emerged a ga in i n t he I ron A ge a nd b y c hance d up lica ted t hose o ft he s tone c irc le b ui lders t wo mi l lenn ia e ar l ier , t here i s n o a l terna t ive t i oa ccep t ing t ha t t here was c on t inu i ty b e tween t he s pec ia lised k now ledge o f t he t wo e ras . Aga in n o r ev iewer men t ioned t h is c ruc ia l ly impor tan t e v idence , e xcep t F ischer ( 1 978 ) . S tuar t P iggot t h i mse lf wen t i n to e xac t ly t h is p rob lem o f c ont inu i ty b e tween t he I ron A ge a nd e ar lier t imes i n c ons iderab le d e ta i l i n al ecture i n R o me i n 1 975 a nd , among many o ther t h ings , d iscussed t he p robab le d er iva t ion o f t he 1 44

I r ish I ron A ge c eremon ia l s i tes ment ioned e ar l ier f ro m t he E ng l ish N eo l i th ic h enge monu ments ( P iggo t t 1 978b : 4 9f f . ) .

H e a lso men t ioned f avourab ly t here

t he i mpor tance o f t he Dru ids i n t h is c on tex t a nd my own i deas o f t he l i nks t hese may h ave h ad w i th N eo l i th ic s oc ie ty : "Wha t was t rans m i t ted f ro m Br i ta in t o G au l i n Druidic t each ing d id n o t i nc lude t he I r ish t ype o f c ere mon ia l c en tre , b u t a s MacK ie [ 1974 ] h as r ecen t ly s ugges ted , ac on tr ibutary c o mponen t o f i nsu lar C e lt ic r e lig ion , a ga in f rom t he s a me s ubs tra te , migh t we l l h ave b een s o met h ing o f t he c a lendr ica l e xper t ise a nd n u meracy wh ich , e ven i f we r educed t he c la i ms o f t he a rchaeo-as trono mers t o t he mos t s cep t ica l min i mu m , must h ave b een a n i mpor tan t f ac tor i n t he c ons truc t ion a nd p urpose o f t he e ar lier c ircu lar monu ments ." T he c on tras t b e tween t hese s en t i men ts a nd t he e x tre me h ost i l i ty o f t he b ook r ev iew ( P iggo t t 1 978a ) i s b aff l ing .

C ou ld i tb e t ha t , when t he i nev i tab le c on-

c lus ion t o b e d rawn f ro m a l l t hese i ndica t ions —tha t t here were l earned o rders o fp rofess iona l p r ies ts a nd w ise men i n N eo li th ic B r i ta in a nd i ti s p oss ib le t o i den t ify t he ir r es iden t ia l a nd t ra in ing c en tres a nd t he ir t emp le-observa tor ies — is s ta ted o pen ly , t ha t i s when t he f ore ign g ir l i s p araded t hrough t he v i l lage s quare w i th h er c harms p la in ly v is ib le i ns tead o f b e ing t a lked a bout i n wh ispers , t hen i ns t inc t t akes o ver a nd t he l oca l V enus f i nds many c hamp ions? 3 .3 .4

The work o f P rofessor T hom

An u mber o f r ev iewers f e lt t ha t t he f i rs t h a lf o f S c ience a nd S oc ie ty— . wh ich d escr ibed a nd a na lysed Tho m 's mos t i mpor tan t d iscover ies a nd s ome o f h is me thods —was t oo f avourab ly d isposed t owards t he m; t ha t i s i n P iggo t t 's words "Wh i le t he a uthor i s a t d espera te p a ins t o g ive t he a ppearance o f p lay ing a bso lu te ly f a ir w i th t he r eaders , h is t rea tment o f T hom 's h ypo theses i s t ha t o f t he p ass iona te c onv ic t ion o fd isc ip le r a ther t han t ha t o f ad is in terested c r i t ic o f an u mber o fp ropos i t ions wh ich h ave n o t y e t r ece ived b y a ny means u n iversa l a ccep tance f rom e i ther a s tronomers a nd ma the ma t ic ians , o r f ro m a rchaeo log is ts ." Iw ou ld q uest ion o n ly t he ' pass iona te ' h ere;

my p resen t c onv ict ion a rose f ro m

t he r esu lts o f t he f i e ldwork t es ts d escr ibed b u t i t was c er ta in ly n o t u ncr i t ica l , a s H egg ie ( 1978) n o ted .

T he s ec t ions o n t he ' de lus ions o f a ccuracy ' wh ich c an

c ome t hrough ma thema t ica l a na lyses , o n t he d egree o f s tandard isa t ion o f t he mega li th ic y ard , o n t he s i tes c la imed a s l unar o bserva tor ies a s we l l a s o n t he a stronom ica l h ypo theses a bout S tonehenge s hou ld make t h is r easonab ly c lear .

The s ta ted p urpose o f t he b ook was t o c arry o u t af ur ther ma jor t es t

i n t he l i gh t o f t he r esu lts o f t he f i e ldwork e xper i men ts —tha t i s t o f i nd o ut w he ther t he ' t radi t iona l ' a rchaeo log ica l e v idence c ou ld b e r e in terpre ted c onv inc ing ly t o p rov ide t he k ind o f N eo li th ic s oc ie ty t he Tho m ian h ypo theses r eq u ired .

Wha t i s h ard t o u nders tand i s t he p ers is ten t f a i lure o f s o me

a rchaeo log is t c r i t ics t o a ssess t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence r e levan t t o t he T ho m a nd MacK ie h ypo theses , e v idence wh ich t heir t ra in ing d oes e quip t he m t o e va lua te p roper ly .

I nstead t here i s at endency t o r e ly o n g enera l ised

c onde mna t ions a nd o n t he s i mp le a cceptance o f t he c r i t ic is ms o f s pec ia lis ts i n a l ien f i e lds s uch a s t ha t o f s ta t is t ics .

1 45

3 .3 .5

T he f orm o fp ub lica t ions

A no ther c r i t ic is m v o iced b y P rofessor P iggo t t ( 1 978a ) a nd a lso b y S haron G ibbs ( 1 979 ) i s t ha t t he n ew h ypo thes is a bout t he s truc ture o f N eo l i th ic s oc ie ty i n B r i ta in wou ld h ave b een b e t ter s e t o u t f irs t i n al earned j ourna l r a ther t han i n ab ook .

P resu mab ly t he r eason ing h ere i s t ha t t he e xper ts o ugh t t o b e

a l lowed t o a ssess t he n ew v iew f i rs t a nd t hen p resen t au n i ted f ron t t o t he p ub lic , who c anno t j udge s uch t h ings f or t he mse lves .

I ndeed P iggo t t e xp lic i t ly

s ays t h is ; ..the g enera l p ub l ic i s i n n o p os i t ion t o d o t h is" p roper ly ].

[ assess t he b ook

"R eaders may t oo o f ten b e long t o S ir P eter Medawar ' s

l arge p opu la t ion o f p eop le , o f ten w i th we l l d eve loped l i terary a nd s cho lar ly t astes , w ho h ave b een e duca ted f ar b eyond t he ir c apac ity t o u nder take a na lyt ica l t hough t" ; . .." worse t here w i l l b e e ncouragemen t ( i n ab ook ) f or t he weak- m inded , t he c redu lous s eekers f or mag ic a nd a nc ien t myster ies ." One wou ld l i ke t o k now whe ther t h is l as t p o int means t ha t h e t h inks a rchaeoa s tronom ica l r esearch , a nd h ypo thes is ing b ased o n t he r esu lts , s hou ld b e b anned b ecause i ta t trac ts f r inge c u lts ;

i fs o o ne c ou ld e qua l ly a rgue t ha t

a rchaeo logy i t se lf s hou ld b e a vo ided b ecause o f t he works o f , f or e xa mp le , v on D an iken , wh ich i t s d iscover ies h ave s t i mu la ted .

The p o in t a bou t l aymen

n eeding g u idance i s c er ta in ly t rue o f c ourse a l though , wh i le i n te l ligen t n ona rchaeo log ists c lear ly d o n o t p ossess t he d e ta i led k now ledge o f t he e v idence t ha t p rofess iona ls d o , t here i s n o n eed t o u nderes t i ma te t he ir c apac i ty f or d ist i ngu ish ing l og ica l f ro m i l log ica l a rgu men t , o r i ndeed f a ir f ro m p re judiced r ev iews .

I ndeed a nyone who ma in ta ins t ha t ' t he e xper t k nows b est ' t o t h is

e x ten t o bv ious ly h as a n e xcep t iona l ly c lear d uty t o a ppra ise n ew work f or t he p ub lic a s o pen- m inded ly a nd t horough ly a s p oss ib le . H owever i td oes s ee m f a ir t o main ta in t ha t as cho lar s hou ld g ive h is p rof ess iona l c o l leagues t he f i rs t c hance t o j udge a n ew h ypo thes is , i fo n ly o ut o f c our tesy .

Ih ave a lready men t ioned t ha t s ome o ft he c ruc ia l e v idence wh ich

If ound b y e xcava t ion t o f avour Tho m 's h ypo thesis was p ub lished i n 1 974 i n t he P h i losoph ica l Transac t ions o f t he R oya l S oc ie ty a nd t ha t t h is i nc luded a d isq u is i t ion o n t he p oss ib le s ign if icance o f t he Druids f or o ur u nderstanding o f t he b ui lders o f t he h enge monu men ts a nd s tone c irc les .

A l l t h is was f i rs t

p resen ted i n al ec ture t o ac onference c a l led ' As trono my i n t he Anc ien t Wor ld ' , o rgan ised i n 1 972 j o in t ly b y t he R oya l S oc ie ty a nd t he Br i t ish Academy , a nd Ia lso s poke t o t he P reh istor ic S oc ie ty o n t he s a me t he me i n 1 973 .

T he p ub-

l i shed p aper was g ra t ify ing ly we l l r ece ived b y P rofessor P iggo t t ( 1 978a ) a s e xp la ined .

I n 1 976 Ip lanned a c onference c a l led ' Cere mon ia l , S c ience a nd

S oc ie ty i n P reh istor ic Br i ta in ' i n G lasgow ( organ ised b y t he Depar tment o f E x tra- Mura l E duca t ion ) i n wh ich v ar ious a spec ts o f N eo li th ic Br ita in were d iscussed .

T here Io ut lined f or t he f i rs t t ime i n p ub lic t he t he me o f t he s econd

h a lf o f t he b ook— tha t many i mpor tant N eo li th ic s i tes c ou ld b e d ras t ica l ly r ei n terpre ted a s t he r es iden t ia l a nd t ra in ing c en tres o f at heocrat ic ' e l i te a nd c ou ld t hus p rov ide P rofessor Tho m w i th t he s oc ie ty t ha t h is d iscover ies r eq u ired .

A l though t h is c onference was w ide ly a dver t ised o n ly a bout t wenty

p rofess iona l a rchaeo log is ts c a me a nd t hese i nc luded n one o ft he em inent o nes

1 46

w ho l a ter d isapproved s o s trong ly o f my h ypo theses when t hey a ppeared i n b ook f orm .

A s um mary o f wha t was s a id a t t he c onference , a nd o f my l ec ture ,

a ppeared i n A nt iqui ty ( MacK ie 1 976 ) s o i tc ou ld b e s a id t ha t af a ir amoun t o f w arning was g iven o f wha t was c om ing . I n t h is c on tex t i ti s wor th e xp la in ing b r ief ly h ow S c ience a nd S oc ie ty i n P reh istor ic B r i ta in w as c once ived a nd h ow i td eve loped .

Iwas o r ig ina l ly

a pproached b y P au l E lek i n D ece mber 1 971 w i th t he s ugges t ion t ha t Is hou ld wr i te a more p opu lar b ook o n t he Thom ian i deas t han h ad a ppeared u p t o t ha t t ime a nd t he f i rs t d raf t o ut l ines wh ich Is ub m i t ted were c oncerned s o le ly w i th e xp la in ing T ho m 's w ork a nd w i th c ons ider ing h ow p laus ib le i t was when s e t a ga inst t he t radi t iona l p icture o fp reh is tor ic B r i ta in .

I t was r ea l ly o n ly when

much o f t he f i rs t p ar t , d ea ling w i th t he a s tronom ica l a nd g eo me tr ica l e v idence , h ad b een d raf ted t ha t i tb eca me c lear t ha t t he a rchaeo log ica l i mp lica t ions were much more p rofound t ha t Ih ad r ea l ised .

T he d ras t ic r e in terpre ta t ions o f

s evera l B r i t ish N eo l i th ic s i tes wh ich a ppear i n t he s econd h a lf a c tua l ly e vo lved a s t he work was b e ing wr i t ten s o i t s ee med o n ly f a ir t ha t t hey s hou ld f i rs t a ppear w i th t he b ook . 3 .4

FRESH EV IDENCE :

MELDON BR IDGE , PEEBLES-SH IRE

F resh e v idence i s s t i l l emerg ing t o g ive s uppor t t o t he n ew i n terpre ta t ion . A . H . A . H ogg ( 1977 ) p o in ted o ut t ha t a l though t he ' cere mon ia l c en tres ' f or t he N eo li th ic t heocracy i den t if ied i n Wessex a re q ui te c onv inc ing , " e lsewhere t he e v idence d oes n o t c o mpe l b e lief i n a ny th ing more t han af ew i t ineran t p r ies t-arch i tec ts .

An a t iona l t heocracy o ugh t s ure ly

t o h ave ma in ta ined s o me c ere mon ia l c en tres i n t he n ow b lank a reas b e tween Avebury a nd S kara B rae N o t t he l east mer i t o f Dr . MacK ie 's s t i mu la t ing b ook i s t ha t i tw i l l l ead t o an ew s earch i n t hese emp ty r eg ions f or t he missing g rea t h enges , wh ich i fd iscovered w i l l g o f ar t o c onf ir m h is t heor ies ." S uch a c en tre a nd o ne o f s upreme i mpor tance , s ee ms t o h ave b een i den t if ied i n P eeb les-sh ire i n S E S co t land , al i t t le f ur ther t han h a lfway b e tween Wessex a nd Orkney . I n 1 974 a nd 1 975 C o lin B urgess e xp lored a s i te a t Me ldon Br idge , d isc overed b y a ir p ho tography a nd t hrea tened b y ar oad w iden ing s cheme ( Burgess 1 976) .

The c ircu lar d ark p a tches s een f ro m t he a ir were a t f irs t t hough t t o

b e a n a lign men t o fp i ts a nd t hey l ay i n at r iangu lar a rea o f f l a t g round o n r iver g rave ls a t t he f oo t o f as lope , b e tween t he Me ldon B urn a nd t he L yne Wa ter . T h is s i te i s o n ly a f ew h undred me tres a bove t he j unc t ion o f t he l a t ter r iver w i th t he Tweed a nd 7 km W o f P eeb les . The e xcava t ions s howed t ha t t he ' p i t a l ign men t ' was i n f ac t t he e n trance a venue i n a mass ive t imber b arr ier wh ich c ut o f f t he t r iangu lar p ro mon tory f ormed b y t he t wo wa ter c ourses r eferred t o , a nd wh ich e nc losed a n a rea o f a bout 5 0 h ec tares ( 20 a cres ) .

T he s i te i s i n an arrow b ut s tra teg ica l ly i m-

p or tant p ar t o f t he Tweed V a l ley wh ich l eads b y way o f t he B iggar g ap t o t he u pper v a l ley o f t he C lyde a nd s o t o t he w es t ; t wo R oman f or ts n earby a nd t wo marching c a mps ( one o f wh ich p ar t ly o ver l ies t he N eo l i th ic s i te ) we l l i l lustra te

1 47

t h is .

T he p a l isade was a bou t 4 30 m l ong a nd c o mposed o f mass ive p os ts , s o me

2 5-30 cm i n d ia me ter b ut o thers u p t o 6 0 cm :

t hey s tood a bou t 3 -4 m a part

a nd i n p laces t here were t races o fp a irs o f i n termed ia te l i gh ter u pr igh ts wh ich s ugges ted t o B urgess t ha t t he who le h ad b een a h uge f ence w i th h or izon ta l p lank ing .

I ts ee ms t o me u n like ly t ha t t he s i te w as a p ure ly d efens ive o ne

s ince t he wa ter b arr iers o n t wo s ides a re n o t t oo d i f f icu lt t o c ross a nd n o c lear s igns o f ag a te i n t he e n trance a venue h ave b een s po t ted ( t hough t h is h as n o t y e t b een e xcava ted ) .

I n t he i n ter ior were many p i ts , s o me f or r ubbish

a nd s o me f or u ncer ta in , p oss ib ly r i tua l p urposes , a nd much d ecora ted midd le N eo li th ic p o t tery was r ecovered .

There was n o G rooved ware .

A s er ies o f

r adiocarbon d a tes s howed t ha t t he e nc losure h ad b een b u i lt a nd u sed n ear t he b eginn ing o f t he t h ird mi l lenn iu m b c a nd was t hus s omewha t o lder t han t he e ar lies t p hase o f S tonehenge . Me ldon B r idge i s r emarkab ly s im i lar i n i t s l ayou t t o t he g rea t N eo l ith ic h enge a t Marden i n Wi l tsh ire where t he e ar thwork f or med t wo s ides o f t he e nc losure a nd t he R iver Avon t he t h ird .

T he e ar ly C hr ist ian monast ic s i te a t

O ld Me lrose , f ur ther d own t he Tweed , s hows t he s ame i dea a nd i t s eems l i ke ly t ha t t he e nc losure n ear L yne i s a no ther N eo li th ic ' cere monia l c entre ' —show ing t ha t c omb ina t ion o f r i tua l a nd d omes t ic f ea tures wh ich s uggest t ha t i t was i nhab i ted b y ap r iest ly c lass .

A mass ive t imber b arr ier , as econdary

c ons truc t ion , was f ound a t t he g ian t h enge a t Moun t P leasant i n Dorse t . Me ldon Br idge i s o lder t han t he Grooved ware s i tes wh ich were d iscussed i n my b ook a nd s ee ms t o s how t ha t t he l earned o rders o f N eo l i th ic t imes h ad a v ar ie ty o f c u ltura l t rad i t ions , o r a t l eas t t ha t t hey l i ved among a v ar ie ty o f d if feren t c om mun i t ies . I f my i n terpreta t ion o f i t s s oc ia l f unc t ion i s c orrec t ( and i ti s n o t n ecess ar i ly s uppor ted b y t he e xcava tor ) , Me ldon Br idge i s a lso e x tre me ly i mpor tan t i n t ha t i t s d a te t akes t he e x is tence o f t he p reh is tor ic p r ies t ly c lasses f ur ther b ack i n to N eo li th ic t imes a nd makes more l i ke ly t he ir u lt ima te o r ig in among t he b u i lders o f t he mega li th ic a nd o ther c o l lec t ive t o mbs o f t he 5 th a nd 4 th mi l lenn ia BC . Th is i s t he t he me o f t he o ther h a lf o f t h is r eappra isa l o f t he Br i t ish a nd A t lan t ic E uropean N eo li th ic p er iod a nd was s e t o ut i n The Mega li th B u i lders ( MacK ie 1 977b ); h ere a ga in t he j ourna l A n t iqu i ty p rov ided t he v eh ic le f or a c oun ter-a t tack ( F le m ing 1 978) a nd i t s e di tor a lso t ook p ar t ( Dan ie l 1 980 ) . H owever t he q ues t ion o f t he n a ture o f t he p eop le b ur ied i n t he c o l lec t ive t o mbs a nd t he ir o r ig in i s av as t o ne a nd f ur ther d iscuss ion o f i t mus t b e h e ld o ver f or a no ther o ccas ion . Me ldon Br idge h as a lso p rov ided a d ec is ive p iece o f e v idence wh ich s trong ly s uppor ts t he i dea t ha t i tr ea l ly was a c lass o f a strono mer-pr iests who l i ved i n t hese ' cere mon ia l c en tres ' .

The s tra igh t a venue o fp os ts l eading u p t o t he

e nc losure i s 2 7 m l ong a nd was s tudied b y Dr . G . H u l me o f t he Un iversi ty o f L ancaster , who f ound t ha t i n b o th d irec t ions i tp o in ted t o p laces o n t he h or izon o f a s tronom ica l s ign if icance . T o t he S E a cross t he Tweed t he a venue i s d irec ted e xac t ly a t t he p ro m inent s u mm i t o f C ademu ir H i l l ; t h is p eak marks t he s un r is ing w i th a d ec lina t ion ( as trono m ica l l a t itude ) o f 16°26', a p os it ion c orresponding e xac t ly t o o ne o ft he 1 6 s ubdiv is ions o f t he s o lar y ear i n ferred b y T ho m t o b e marked a t many s tand ing s tone s i tes .

I tf a l ls h a lfway b e tween

t he a utu mna l e quinox a nd t he w in ter s o ls t ice a nd a ga in h a lfway b etween t he 1 48

l a t ter a nd t he s pr ing e quinox ( abou t 8N ove mber a nd 5 F ebruary ) .

I n t he

o ppos ite d irec t ion , t o t he NW , t he a venue p oin ts t o as po t o n t he n earby h i l ly h or izon where t he s un s e ts a t midsu mmer .

E xac t ly t he s ame p a ir o f a l ign men ts

a re marked b y t he C as t ler igg s tone c irc le i n C u mbr ia ( Tho m 1 967 : 1 50 ) a nd i tw ou ld b e h ard t o t h ink o f ac learer d e monstra t ion o f t he n a ture o f t he p eop le who l i ved i n t hese h uge e nc losures . Me ldon B r idge s eems l i ke ly t o p rov ide f orm idab le s uppor t f or t he n ew h ypo theses . 3 .5 CONCLUS IONS C onsider ing f irs t t he i mp lica t ions o f t he t es ts b y a rchaeo log ica l f i e ldwork o f P rofessor Tho m 's t wo ma jor h ypo theses o u t lined e ar l ier , t he r esu lts h ave c onv inced a t l east o ne a rchaeo log is t o f t he b as ic c orrec tness o f h is a s trono m ic a l a nd g eome tr ica l i n terpre ta t ions o f t he s tanding s tone s i tes , a lthough o bv ious ly o ne c an a nd must a rgue a bout many o f t he d e ta i ls .

F or e xa mp le t he

e x is tence o f p rec ise a nd p o ten t ia l ly a ccura te s o lst ice-observ ing i ns tru men ts s ee ms p roved b eyond d oub t , b u t i ti s n o t c lear t o me y e t h ow much f ur ther t he t echnique was d eve loped —how f ar f or e xa mp le t he t rack ing o f t he Moon 's more c o mp l ica ted mot ions was t aken ( McCreery 1 979;

1 980a ;

E l legärd 1 981)

—s ince n o i ndependent t es ts h ave b een c arr ied o u t o n a ny o f t hese s i tes . L ikew ise t he e x istence o f a ccura te ly s e t o u t g eo me tr ica l f igures , a nd t he u se o f a we l l d eve loped , s tandardised measur ing s ys te m b ased o n at radi t iona l u n i t o f l eng th wh ich may we l l h ave b een i mpor ted r a ther t han h ave b een l oca l ly d er ived f rom a p ace ( MacK ie 1 977 : c h . 3 ) , s ee ms t o b e c lear i n t he s tone r ings b u t Iam n o t p ersona l ly c onv inced t ha t t he s ta t ist ica l e v idence c o mpe ls t he b e l ie f t ha t t hese measur ing r ods were e xac t ly t he s ame l eng th t hroughout t he c oun try ( MacK ie 1 977 : 3 6-43;

E l le Ard 1 981) .

T hus i t s ee ms q u i te r easonab le t o t h ink i n t erms o ft he e x is tence i n L a te N eo l i th ic B r i ta in o f f u l l t ime c as tes o r o rders o fp r ies ts a nd w ise men , n o d oub t p rac t is ing s ome c e les t ia l r e l ig ion f or wh ich f a ir ly a dvanced s k i l ls i n s urvey ing , p rac t ica l g eo me try a nd o bserva t iona l a s trono my were r equired . Wh i le i ti s n o t imposs ib le t ha t s o me members o f t hese o rders wen t o n t o i nv es t iga te a s trono m ica l p heno mena f or t he ir own s ake , t h is s ee ms d if f icu lt t o p rove wh i le t he c ase r ests e n t ire ly o n s ta t is t ics —par t icu lar ly i n t he a bsence o f a ny e v idence f or wr i t ten r ecords ( a l low ing t ha t t he c up-and-r ing r ock c arv ings may p rove o ne d ay t o b e s o me th ing o ft he s or t ) .

' Sc ience ' i n t he modern

s ense i s p robab ly n o t t he word t o a pp ly t o t he a c t iv i t ies o f o ur N eo l i th ic a nc es tors , a ny more t han i tc ou ld b e a pp lied t o t hose o f t he ir I ron Age s uccessors , t he D ruids , a nd Iwou ld n ow b e i nc l ined t o om i t t he word f ro m t he t i t le o f my b ook ( 1977a ) i f Iwere wr it ing i ta ga in .

Wha t r e ma ins s t i l l s ee ms q u i te r evo lu-

t ionary e nough i n t erms o f t he p icture o f a nc ien t Br i t ish s oc ie ty wh ich was a ccep ted w i thout q ues t ion b y a l mos t e veryone o n ly f our teen y ears a go . When r ef lec t ing o n t he s econd p heno menon—the r eac t ion o f p rofess iona l c o l leagues t o t he f i e ldwork a nd h ypo thes is ing b r ief ly r ev iewed h ere —enough h as p robab ly b een s a id t o s ugges t t ha t o b jec t ive a ssess men t o f t he n ew e v idence h as n o t a lways b een man ifes t , b ut o f c ourse t h is c an c hange .

P erhaps i ti s

s uf f ic ien t t o q uo te , i n c onc lus ion , t he words o f o ne eminen t B r i t ish a rchaeol og is t who h as mas tered b o th s ides o ft he e v idence , b o th t ha t p rov ided b y Tho m a nd b y more t radi t iona l me thods ; t hose who o ppose b o th Tho m 's d iscover ies 1 49

a nd t he h ypo theses t ha t f l ow f ro m t he m c ou ld w e l l r ef lec t c arefu l ly o n t he m . " I t i s h ard ly s urpr is ing , t herefore , t ha t many p reh istor ians e ither i gnore t he i mp lica t ions o f Tho m 's work b ecause t hey d o n o t u nders tand t he m o r r es is t t he m b ecause i ti s more c o mfor tab le t o d o s o .

Ih ave

myse lf g one t hrough t he l a t ter p rocess ; b u t Ih ave c o me t o t he c onc lus ion t ha t t o r e jec t Tho m 's t hes is b ecause i td oes n o t c onfor m t o t he mode l o fp reh is tory o n wh ich Iwas b rough t u p i nvo lves a lso t he a ccep tance o f i mprobab i l i t ies o f a n e ven h igher o rder .

Iam prepared ,

i n o ther words , t o b e lieve t ha t my mode l o f E uropean p reh istory i s wrong , r a ther t han t ha t t he r esu lts p resen ted b y Tho m a re d ue t o n o th ing b u t c hance" ( A tkinson 1 975 : 5 1 ) . I ts ee ms t ha t we a re a t a ma jor t urning p o in t i n N eo l ith ic s tudies a nd Ih ave t r ied i n S c ience a nd S oc ie ty i n P reh istor ic Br i ta in a nd The Mega l i th B ui lders t o s ke tch o ut a n a l terna t ive v iew o f p reh istor ic s oc ie ty i n NW E urope wh ich w i l l a cco m moda te a l l t he a va i lab le e v idence , b o th o ld a nd n ew .

T h is n ew mode l

o f Br i t ish N eo li th ic s oc ie ty may o r may n o t t urn o ut t o b e t he b es t o ne i n t he l ong r un ;

b u t , Is ub m i t , i te xp la ins more o f t he t o ta l e v idence a va i lab le a t

p resent t han a ny o ther c urren t ly b e ing c ons idered .

I td eserves more c arefu l

a nd o b jec t ive c ons idera t ion t han s o me c o l leagues h ave g iven i tu p t o n ow .

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v ers i ty P ress . B urn , A . R ., 1 969 .

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C ow ie , T ., 1 980 .

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p ress . Dan ie l, G . E ., 1 980 .

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7 8-90 . E l legRrd, A ., 1 981 .

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p ress . F ane G ladw in , P ., 1 978 . a n i nter im r epor t .

D iscover ies a t Bra inpor t Bay , Minar c l , Argy l l :

The K ist , n o . 1 6 , 1 -15 .

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R ev iew .

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R ev iew o f " The mega l i th b u i lders" .

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R ev iew .

a strono my ) ,

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2 , n o . 2 , 2 1-22 .

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R ev iew .

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H arding , D . W ., 1 977 . H awkes , J ., 1 977 .

R ev iew .

R ev iew .

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The Amer ican S cho lar , 4 6,

5 30-532 .

L ondon .

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R ev iew , J . H ist . As t ., 9 , 6 1-63 .

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Preh ist . S oc ., 3 0 , 9 9-110 . H ogg , A . H . A ., 1 977 . McCreery , T ., 1 979 .

Rev iew .

T i mes L it . S upp l ., N ov . 4 th .

Mega li th ic l unar o bserva tor ies -a c r i t ique , P ar t I .

Kronos , 5 (1) , 4 7-63 . McCreery , T ., 1 980a .

Mega li th ic l unar o bserva tor ies -a c r i t ique , P ar t I .

Kronos , 5 (2 ) , 6 -26 . McCreery , T ., 1 980b .

The K intraw s tone p la tform .

MacK ie , E . W., 1 974 .

Archaeo logica l t es ts o n s upposed a s trono m ica l s i tes

i n S co t land .

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P h i l . Trans . R . S oc . L ond ., A 276 , 1 69-194 .

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The b rochs o f S co t land .

work i n r ura l a rchaeo logy . MacK ie , E . W ., 1 976 .

I n P . F ow ler ( ed .) , R ecen t

S tra tford-upon-Avon . p p . 7 2-92 .

The G lasgow c onference o n c ere mon ia l , a nd s cience

i n p reh is tor ic B r i ta in . MacK ie , E . W ., 1 977a .

An t iqui ty , 5 0 , 1 36-138 .

S c ience a nd s oc ie ty i n p reh is tor ic Br i ta in .

L ondon :

Pau l E lek . MacK ie , E . W., 1 977b . MacK ie , E . W ., 1 981 . Mo ir , G ., 1 980 .

The mega li th b ui lders . Anc ient S co t land .

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P ha idon .

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Mega li th ic s c ience a nd s o me S co t t ish s i te p lans :

Ant iqui ty , 5 4 , 3 7-40 .

1 51

P ar t I .

P iggo t t , S ., 1 954 .

N eo li th ic c u ltures o f t he Br i t ish I s les .

P iggo t t , S ., 1 962 .

R ev iew o f The a r t o f s c ien t if ic i nvest iga t ion , b y W . I . B .

Bever idge ( 1961) .

Ant iqui ty , 3 6, 6 9-70 .

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Anc ient E urope .

P iggo t t , S ., 1 968 .

The Dru ids .

P iggo t t , S ., 1 978a .

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P iggo t t , S ., 1 978b . C e lts .

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N e me ton , Te menos , Bo thros :

s anc tuar ies o f t he a ncien t

I n IC e lt i al a l oro c u ltura n e lloepoca p re -Ro mana e R omana n e l la

Br i tannia .

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R enfrew , C ., 1 968 .

Accade mia N az iona le d e i L ince i .

Wessex w i thout Mycenae .

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A thens , 6 3, 2 77-285 . R enfrew , C ., 1 970 .

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l og ica l e va lua t ion . R enfrew , C ., 1 973 .

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B efore c iv i lisa t ion .

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R ugg les , C . L . N . & N orr is , R . P ., 1 980 . S co t t ish s i te p lans : Tho m , A ., 1 967 .

a n a rchae-

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An t iqu i ty , 5 4 , 4 0-43 .

Mega li th ic s i tes i n Br i ta in .

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Press . Tho m , A ., 1 971 .

Mega li th ic l unar o bserva tor ies .

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s i ty P ress . Tho m , A . & Tho m , A . S ., 1 978 . Oxford :

Mega lith ic r e ma ins i n Br ita in a nd Br it tany .

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Wor lds i n c o l lis ion .

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Wa inwr igh t , G . J . & L ongwor th , I . H . ( eds .) , 1 971 . E xcava t ions 1 966-1968 . Wa inwr igh t , G . J ., 1 977 .

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Warren , S . H . e t . a L, 1 936 . t he E ssex c oas t . Wood , J . E ., 1 978 .

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Proc . Preh ist . S oc ., 2 , 1 78-210 . S un , moon a nd s tanding s tones .

v ers i ty P ress .

1 52

Oxford :

Oxford Uni-

4 .

A CR ITICAL EXA MINAT ION

OF THE MEGAL ITH IC LUNAR OBSERVATOR IES C live R ugg les ( w i th a n a ppend ix b y R . J . C . A tk inson )

I t_

o ur c r it ica l e xa m ina t ion o f o ur t heor ies l eads u s t o a t te mp ts

t o t es t a nd t o o ver throw t he m ;

a nd t hese l ead u s f ur ther t o e xper i-

men ts a nd o bserva t ions o f ak ind wh ich n obody wou ld e ver h ave d rea mt o fw i thout t he s t i mu lus a nd g u idance b o th o f o ur t heor ies a nd o f o ur c r i t ic is m o f t he m ." K ar l R . P opper , ( i n C on jec tures a nd R efuta t ions

p

L ondon , 1 963 ) .

4 .1

I NTRODUCTION P rofessor A lexander Tho m h as h ypo thes ised t ha t many mega li th ic s i tes

w ere c ons truc ted p r imar i ly t o s erve a s p rec ise a strono m ica l i ndica tors , a nd i n s o me c ases a s mul t ipurpose " observa tor ies", b y mark ing s ign if ican t r is ing o r s et t ing p o in ts o ft he s un , moon o r s tars .

A t e ach s tage o f h is work , t he

s trongest s uppor t ing e v idence f or h is t heor ies c o mes f ro m t he a na lys is o f d a ta f ro m many s i tes t aken t oge ther .

T hus i ti s t o t hese a na lyses i n t he ir

e n t irety , r a ther t han t o t he i n terpreta t ions o f af ew p ar t icu lar s i tes , t ha t o ur c r i t ic is m must b e d irec ted i n o rder t o b e mos t c ons truc t ive . Tho m 's a stronom ica l work i n r ecen t y ears ( see Tho m & T hom 1 978a , h ere inaf ter "MRBB" : c hs . 9 -11) h as f ocused l arge ly u pon t he i n terpre ta t ion o ff our s i tes —two n ear C arnac , t he R ing o f Brogar i n Orkney , a nd S tonehenge —as p oss ib le l unar o bserva tor ies .

H owever i ti s t hree e ar lier , more b road-

b ased a na lyses t ha t p rov ide t he f ounda t ions a nd mo t iva t ion f or t h is work , e ach o ne s ee m ing t o e stab l ish t he e x is tence o f l unar i ndica t ions o f ag rea ter p rec ision t han d id t hose p reced ing i t .

T hus t he i dea o f mega l i th ic l unar o bser-

v a tor ies e ssen t ia l ly r ests u pon a c u mu la t ive s truc ture o f e v idence , wh ich c an b e d iv ided i n to t hree l eve ls a s f o l lows : L eve l 1 : T he a na lys is o f 2 62 p o ten t ia l i ndica t ions a t 1 45 s i tes s uggests t he e x is tence o f d e libera te l unar ( amongs t o ther a s tronom ica l) i ndica t ions o f ar ough n a ture , s e t u p t o ap rec is ion o f a bou t h a lf a d egree t o r ec ord t he e x tre mes o f t he moon 's move ments i n i t s 1 9-year c yc le ( Tho m 1 967a , h ereinaf ter "MSB" :

t ab le 8 .1 & f i g . 8 .1) .

L eve l 2 : T he f ur ther a na lys is o f t hose p o ten t ia l i ndica t ions f ro m t he a bove s a mp le wh ich migh t b e c ons trued a s l unar , a bout 4 0 o f t he m , s uggests t ha t t he u pper a nd l ower l imbs o f t he moon were p referen t ia l ly o b-

1 53

s erved; t h is i ncreases t he i nferred p rec is ion t o a bout 1 0 m inutes o f a rc ( MSB :

t ab le 1 0 .1 & f i g . 1 0 . 1 ) .

L eve l 3 : T he a na lys is o f 4 0 d is tan t h or izon f ea tures a t 2 3 s i tes s ugges ts t he u se o f d is tan t n a tura l f ores igh ts t o o bserve t o g rea t p rec is ion ( 3 a rc minutes o r b e t ter ) a nd r ecord t he t iny a ddi t iona l p er turba t ion i n t he moon 's mo t ion ( Thom 1 971, h ere inaf ter "MLO" :

t ab le 7 .1 & f i g . 7 .1) .

R eference w i l l l a ter b e made ( sec t ion 4 .5 .1) t o af ur ther l eve l o f a na lysis wh ich h as a ppeared i n t he mos t r ecen t work b y t he Tho r ns . A t e ach o f t hese l eve ls t he c r i t ic mus t a sk : d oes t he d a ta s e t , t aken a s a who le , f orce u s t o a ccep t t he h ypo thes is o f d e l ibera te l unar i ndica t ions a nd f ores igh ts , o r c an s uch p uta t ive l unar a l ign men ts a s h ave b een p resen ted q u i te a dequa te ly b e e xp la ined away b y o ther means? ( i )

T he k ey q ues t ions a re t hese :

I s e ach i t em o f d a ta a rchaeo log ica l ly a nd i n tr insica l ly ( i . e . i n t he b road t erms o f t he h ypo thes is ) s ui tab le f or i nc lus ion i n t he a na lys is?

( i i ) ( i i i )

I s e ach i t em o f d a ta c orrec t? I s t he o vera l l s e lec t ion o fd a ta f or i nc lus ion f ree o f s ub ject ive b ias?

H av ing r e-exa m ined , a nd p erhaps r ev ised, t he d a ta s e t , we must t hen a sk ( i v ) Does t he d a ta s e t f orce u s , s ta t ist ica l ly s peak ing , t o a ccept t he l unar h ypo thes is? Wha t f o l lows i s d irec ted t owards a nswer ing t hese q ues t ions . S ec t ion 4 .2 d escr ibes t he methods u sed b y t he a u thor f or c o l lec t ing i nd ependen t s i te d a ta .

A f ter a s hor t d iscuss ion o ft he p rob lems i nvo lved i n a

r e-exa m ina t ion a t L eve l 1 , s ec t ion 4 .3 p resen ts a f u l l r eassess men t o f t he e v idence a t L eve l 2 .

S ec t ion 4 .4 d oes t he s a me f or L eve l 3 .

S ec t ion 4 .5

d ea ls w i th s o me f ur ther r e levant t op ics , a nd a g enera l s u m mary o ft he c onc lus ions i s p resen ted i n s ec t ion 4 .6 .

Appendix 4 .1 c on ta ins a r eference l i s t

o ft hose s i tes wh ich a re c ons idered a t o ne s tage o r a no ther i n t he p aper . Appendix 4 .2 , b y R ichard A tk inson , c ons is ts o f a rchaeo log ica l c o mment o n s evera l o f t he s i tes . I ti s a ssu med t ha t t he r eader i s f a mi l iar w i th t he mean ings o f " az imuth" ( c lockw ise b ear ing f ro m t rue n or th ) a nd " dec l ina t ion" ( see , e .g ., MSB : 1 4 ) . I th as n o t b een f ound n ecessary t o i nc lude a ny a s trono m ica l t er ms a par t f rom t hese , o r t o g e t i nvo lved i n a ny d iscuss ion o f t he l unar mo t ions , e xcep t t o a sma l l e x ten t i n s ec t ion 4 .5 .

T he c oncep t o f al unar " ex treme" d ec l ina t ion i s

u sed w i thou t e labora t ion u p u n t i l t hen :

i ti s e n t ire ly e quiva lent , b u t emp loyed

i n p reference , t o Tho r n 's t erm " s tands t i l l" ( MLO : 1 8) . The words " accuracy" a nd " prec is ion" h ave d ef in i te a nd d ist inc t c onnot a t ions i n s o me d isc ip l ines .

T hroughou t t he p resen t p aper " accuracy" i s

u sed i n r e la t ion t o wha t we c an a c tua l ly measure , a nd " prec is ion" t o w ha t we a re t ry ing t o i nfer .

( Th is i s e labora ted i n s ec t ion 4 .3 .5 . ) T h is n uance , i t

i s h oped , w i l l a id f orma l i ty w i thou t i mpeding t he p rogress o ft he c asua l r eader .

1 54

4 .2

METHODS FOR C OLLECT ING I NDEPENDENT DATA F if ty-f ive s i tes , l i s ted i n a ppend ix 4 .1 , a re r e levan t t o t he d iscuss ions i n

t h is p aper .

A l l b u t o ne o f t he m h ave b een v is ited b y t he a uthor , most ly d ur ing

t he s u m mer o f 1 979 . r e-surveyed ;

S o mewha t o ver h a lf h ave b een p ar t ia l ly o r c o mp lete ly

i n o ther c ases h or izon s urveys were d ee med u nnecessary , o r

were r endered imposs ib le b y p ers isten t b ad w ea ther , c rops , o r a f foresta t ion a round t he s i te . T he i ns tru men t u sed f or s urveys d ur ing 1 979 was a K ern DKM-1 microp t ic t heodo li te r eading t o 1 0" .

F our mon ths o f c on t inua l u se e nab led t heodo li te

a d jus t men t e rrors t o b e r egu lar ly mon i tored .

Af ew s i tes were s urveyed i n

p rev ious y ears , u sing d i f ferent i ns tru ments , a s p ar t o f ap ro jec t ( men t ioned i n s ec t ion 3 .1) f o l low ing o n f rom t he work o f C ooke e t a l .

( 1977 ) .

A t f our

s i tes i nadequa te p rev ious s urveys were a ug men ted i n 1 979 , a nd t he h or izon p rof i les a t o ne s i te ( Un iva l) were c o mp le te ly r esurveyed i n 1 979 i n o rder t o c heck c ons is tency . P la te b ear ing z ero ( PBZ ) i s t he t rue a z i mu th o ft he z ero g radua t ion o n t he h or izonta l c irc le o ft he t heodo li te .

When wea ther p er m i t ted , t h is was d e ter-

mined f ro m o bserva t ions o f t he s un , t imed u s ing a c a libra ted q uar tz c rys ta l wr is twa tch .

A s er ies o f 1 2 o bserva t ions t yp ica l ly g ave PBZ t o ± 10" .

I n

o ther c ases PBZ was d eter m ined f ro m s igh t ings o f t hree o r more Ordnance S urvey t r iangu la t ion s ta t ions .

A t t wo s i tes ( Brogar a nd U n iva l ) b o th me thods

were a va i lab le a nd p rov ided a c ons is tency c heck . Where i t was n o t p oss ib le o r c onven ient t o p lace t he t heodo li te e xac t ly o n t he a ssu med s igh t line , ap ara l lax c orrec t ion was a pp lied t o t ransform t he measured p rof i le i n to t ha t s een f ro m t he a ssu med o bserv ing p os i t ion .

C o m-

p le te p rof i les were c onstruc ted b y f i t t ing measured h or izon p o in ts ( re loca ted a t l east o nce ) o n t o p ho tographs t aken w i th a 2 00 m m l ens f ro m t he a ssu med o bserv ing p os i t ion . S urveys o f t he s i tes t he mse lves , u sing t heodo li te a nd s tee l measur ing t ape , were u sua l ly o n ly s tr ic t ly n ecessary i n o rder t o d e term ine t he c en tres o f c irc les o r r ings , b u t t hey were of ten u nder taken a nyway f or t he s ake o f c o mp le teness . Many o f t he h or izon s urveys a re n o t d irec t ly r e levant t o t he c onc lusions o f t h is p aper , b u t w i l l b e i nc luded i n o ther work . d iv ided i nto t wo c lasses .

Those t ha t a re h ave b een

A t t hose s i tes where t he s urvey i s c ons idered r e l iab le

( marked " S" i n t ab les 4 .1, 4 .3 & 4 .4 ) t he q uo ted a z imuths , a l t i tudes a nd d ec l ina t ions h ave a p robab le e rror o f a round ± 1 ' .

I n t he o ther c ases ( marked

" E" ) e i ther ( i ) t he p robab le e rrors a re g rea ter , ow ing t o a n e xcess ive ly l arge p ara l lax c orrec t ion ;

o r ( i i ) t here i s ap oss ib i l ity o f ag ross s ys te ma t ic e rror

i n t he a zi muths , s ince PBZ was d educed f ro m o n ly 1 o r 2s un o bserva t ions , o r f ro m u nre l iab ly i den t if ied t r iangu la t ion s ta t ions . 4 .3

A CR ITIQUE OF THE ROUGHER LUNAR I ND ICATIONS

4 .3 .1

L eve l 1 , L eve l 2a nd t he o vera l l s e lec t ion o f s i tes

T ho m ( MSB : a t 1 45 s i tes .

t ab le 8 .1) p resen ts a s e lec t ion o f 2 62 p o ten t ia l i ndica t ions

Ad ec l ina t ion i s q uo ted i n e ach c ase a ccura te t o 00 . 1 .

1 55

Th is i s

e i ther t he mean d ec lina t ion i ndica ted b y as truc ture o n t he g round o r , where t here i s c ons idered t o b e a n i ndica ted f ores igh t s uch a s ad is tan t n o tch o r moun ta in t op , t he d ec lina t ion o f t he s upposed f ores igh t . T he r esu l ts a re d isp layed g raph ica l ly ( MSB : f i g . 8 .1) b y r epresen t ing e ach i ndicat ion a s ag auss ian p robab i l i ty h u mp o ff i xed h e igh t a nd w idth c en tred u pon t he q uo ted d ec l ina t ion ; aw ider s pread o fp robab i l i ty i s u sed i n af ew c ases where t he i ndica ted d ec l ina t ion was d e term ined l ess a ccura te ly .

T he h u mps a re p lo t ted c u mu la t ive ly

s o a s t o p roduce a s or t o f h is togram s how ing t he p referred d ec lina t ions . We s ha l l h encefor th r efer t o s uch a g raph a s a" curv igram" , t o MSB : f i g . 8 .1 a s t he "mas ter c urv igra m" a nd t o MSB : t ab le 8 .1 a s t he "master s ource l i s t" . N o t icab le p eaks o ccur i n t he mas ter c urv igra m a td ec l ina t ions c orresponding t o t he r ising a nd s e t t ing p o in ts o f t he s un b o th a t t he s o lst ices a nd a t r egu lar i n terva ls o f 1 /16th y ear b e tween t he m ( t he s o-ca l led " ca lendar d ec l ina t ions" ) ; a t t he f our l unar e x treme d ec lina t ions ; a nd a t c er ta in o ther d ec lina t ions i nt erpre ted b y T hom a s s te l lar . I n f i g . 4 .1a we h ave f ocused u pon t he l unar l i nes b y t ak ing f our d ec lina t ion i n terva ls c en tred u pon t he mean l unar e x treme d ec l ina t ions ( 29° . 9 5 , 19 ° .5 8 , + 17° . 9 4 &+ 28 ° .1 7) a nd s uper i mposing g auss ian h umps r epresent ing a l l i ndic a t ions l i s ted i n t he master s ource l i st wh ich c on tr ibute t o t he g raph i n t hese i n terva ls .

They a re l i sted i n t ab le 4 .1.

A s tandard d ev ia t ion o f 0 ° .1 h as

g enera l ly b een a ssu med , c orresponding t o ap robab le e rror o f ± 0° . 0 7 ; h as b een u sed f or t hose l ess a ccura te l i nes marked " ±" .

0 ° . 2

T hese v a lues may

b e s l igh t ly d if feren t f rom t hose emp loyed b y Thom , wh ich a re n o t e xp l ic it ly s ta ted; b ut t hey d o a ppear t o ma tch t he s pec imen h u mps s hown i n t he master c urv igram . I ti s t he c lear b ui ld-up o f l i nes w i th in a bout 0 ° . 5o f o ne o r o ther mean l unar e x tre me d ec lina t ion ( i .e . b e tween a bou t 0 ° .5 a nd + 0 ° .5o n t he g raph ) , o ver a nd a bove t he b ackground " no ise" , w h ich p rov ides t he e v idence f or d e l ibera te l unar i nd ica t ions p rec ise t o a bou t

h a lf a d egree ( Leve l 1 ) .

F ig . 4 .1a a lso s hows a s harp p eak t o t he l ef t o f t he ma in b u i ld-up o f h u mps . S evera l ( bu t n o t a l l) o ft he l i nes c on tr ibut ing t o i tc ome f rom t he s ame o ne o f t he f our s uper i mposed d ec lina t ion r anges a nd h ave a n e xp lana t ion i nt erms o f t he a l leged s o lar c a lendar . I n r eassess ing L eve l 1 , i ti s k ey q ues t ion ( ii ) —whe ther t he s e lec t ion o f d a ta f or i nc lus ion i n t he mas ter s ource l i st was f ree o f s ub jec t ive b ias—wh ich p resents t he mos t p rob lems . T he r eason i s t ha t i n o rder t o a nswer i t we mus t l ook b eyond t he s a mp le o f s i tes p resen ted b y T hom .

I n MSB h e d oes n o t

s ta te h is c r iter ia f or t he i nc lus ion o f s i tes i n t he s i te l i sts . I ndeed , t he s eq uence o f s i te r eference n u mbers ( A1/2 , e tc . )i n ag enera l l i st ( MSB : t able 1 2 .1) i ndica tes t he om iss ion o f many s i tes wh ich w ere p resen t i n a n o r igina l c a ta logue . I n a n e ar l ier p aper ( Tho m 1 955 : 2 84 ) as hor ter r eference l i st c onta ined " a l l t he a va i lab le d a ta", b u t MSB : t ab le 1 2 .1 c ompr ises ( o n ly ) t hose s i tes wh ich were s urveyed a nd " con tr ibute t o t he ma ter ia l o f t h is b ook" ( MSB : 1 35 ); we must a sk why o ther s i tes wh ich were v is i ted were f ound u nsu i tab le f or s urvey ing a nd i nc lusion .

" Leg i t ima te" r easons , t ha t i s r easons w h ich

would n o t i n troduce a ny o vera l l b ias , a re u nre la ted t o t he p ossib le a s tronomica l f unc t ion o ft he s i te ; i t s b e ing i n t oo b ad a s t a te o f r epa ir , f or e xa mp le , o r wea ther c ondi t ions b e ing t oo b ad f or a s urvey w hen t he s i te was v i s i ted . I fo n t he o ther h and ( say ) p oss ib le i ndica t ions a t e ach s i te were f irs t e xa mined

1 56

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1 57

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r ough ly w i th a magne t ic c o mpass , a nd i ft hose s i tes w i th i ndicat ions i n a stron om ica l ly " in teres t ing" d irec t ions were p referen t ia l ly s urveyed s ubsequent ly , l arge-sca le b ias wou ld h ave b een i n troduced .

T he o n ly way t o c heck f or p os-

s ib le b ias i st o b ui ld u p ab ody o f d ata i ndependen t o f T ho m 's b y s ys te mat ica l ly s urvey ing c o mp le te s a mp les o fk nown s i tes i n c er tain a reas —no t o n ly t hose l i sted b y Tho m , b u t o ther a rchaeo log ica l ly s im i lar o nes a s we l l . Af ur ther p rob le m a t taches t o t he s e lec t ion o fp o ten t ia l i ndicat ions a t e ach s i te :

a l though r igorous c r i ter ia a re p resen ted i n T ho m 's e ar lier p aper ( Thom

1 955 ) , when i tc omes t o t he master s ource l i s t s ub jec t ive j udge men ts a re i nv o lved ( MSB : 9 6 ) a nd u nperce ived b ias may h ave e n tered .

T he f ac t t ha t s evera l

p o ten t ia l a s tronom ica l i ndica tors , s uch a s s tone a l ign men ts , a ppear i n t he g enera l s i te l i st b ut a re n o t c arr ied t hrough t o t he mas ter s ource l i s t r einf orces t h is d oub t .

I tc an b e e l im inated o n ly b y t he u se o f ar igorous s e lect ion

me thodo logy , t he d eve lop men t o f wh ich was t he t heme o f ar ecent p aper ( Cooke e t a l .

1 977) .

T he i ndependen t e xa m ina t ion o f s ome 2 00 s i tes i n wes tern S co t land h as b een u nder taken i n a n a t te mp t t o r eso lve t hese q ues t ions a nd p rov ide a n a deq uate r eassess men t o f t he c la i ms a t L eve l 1 .

T h is work i s b e ing p repared

f or s epara te p ub l ica t ion ( Rugg les , Morgan , F ew , C ooke & B urch , i np reparat ion The c onc lus ions o f L eve l 2 , i n c on trast , d epend u pon t he p rec ise v a lues o f t hose f ew i ndica ted d ec lina t ions f a l l ing n ear t o o ne o f t he f our mean l unar e x tre mes , r a ther t han t o t he a c tua l n u mber o f s uch l i nes i n t he o vera l l s a mp le . I fa s trono m ica l i ndica t ions were d e libera te b ut a p rec is ion o f a bout h a lf a d eg ree was t he b es t t hat was a ch ieved , we wou ld e xpec t ac oncen tra t ion o f h u mps b ui lding u p t o a n o vera l l p eak a t a bout t he o r ig in .

I ns tead , f i g . , 4 .1a s hows

t wo d ef in i te p eaks , o ne a t a bou t 0 ° .4 a nd t he o ther a t a bout + 0 ° .2 5 .

A s t he

midd le o f t he g raph r epresen ts t he c en tre o f t he moon 's d isc a t i ts e x tre mes , a nd t he moon 's s em idia me ter i s a bout 0° .2 5 , t he t wo p eaks a re s ugges t ive t ha t t he u pper a nd l ower l imbs o f t he moon were p re feren t ia l ly i ndica ted, i nc reas ing t he i nferred p rec is ion t o a bout 1 0 minutes o f a rc .

These c onc lusions

c an n o t b e p re judiced b y s ub jec t iv i ty i n t he s e lec t ion o fp o ten t ia l d ata p r ior t o a n a ccurate s urvey , s ince r ough c ompass measuremen ts c ou ld n ot a dequate ly d e term ine t he e xac t v a lues o f a ny d ec l ina t ion w ith in o ne o f t he f our g enera l " targe t" a reas .

Wi lfu l s e lec t ion , a f ter t he c aref u l r educ t ion o f s urvey mea-

s ure men ts , c ou ld a dm i t ted ly h ave b iased t he d a ta ; t o t he u nexpec tedness o f t he d oub le p eak ( MSB : 1 65; s uch s e lec t ion h as c lear ly n o t o ccurred .

b ut a s Tho m t w ice r efers Tho m 1 967b : 9 5-96)

Thus w e may a dequate ly r eassess

L eve l 2o n t he b as is o f t he s a mp le o f l i nes p rov ided b y Thom .

Th is i sd one

i n t he r e ma inder o f s ec t ion 4 .3 , a ddress ing i n t urn e ach o f t he k ey q ues t ions o f s ec t ion 4 .1 .

We s ha l l b r ief ly r eturn t o L eve l 1i n s ec t ion 4 .3 . 6i n o rder

t o make a g enera l c o m men t . 4 .3 .2 T he d a ta s e t a t L eve l 2 We b eg in b y i den t ify ing t he e xac t d a ta s e t wh ich p rov ides t he e v idence a t L eve l 2 . We n eed t o i so la te t hose l i nes w i th c once ivab le l unar s ign if icance f ro m o thers more o bv ious ly e xp licab le i n t erms o f a l terna t ive a strono m ica l h ypo1 58

t heses s uch a s t he s o lar c a lendar .

Thus we n eed t o i nc lude t he c en tra l h eap

a nd d oub le p eak i n f i g . 4 .1a b ut t o e xc lude t he l ef t-hand p eak . d emarca t ion i s + 00. 8 .

A c onven ient

T h ir ty-e igh t d ec l ina t ions q uo ted i n 'the mas ter s ource

l i s t f a l l w ith in 0° .8 o f o ne o f t he mean l unar e x tre mes .

T hese a re t he c en tra l

g roup o f a l leged i nd ica t ions l i sted i n t ab le 4 .1—those w ith a s i te r eference n umber g iven i n c o lumn 1 .

T ho m m issed o u t o ne l i ne ( s ite 1 1 ) f ro m h is e qu i-

v a len t s hor t l i st ( MSB : t ab le 1 0 .1 ) , a pparen t ly b y m istake .

H e a lso g ives d if-

f eren t d ec l ina t ions i n h is t wo l i sts f or a l l t hree l i nes a t s i te 4 9 ( one o f wh ich w as i n terpre ted a s s te llar , n o t l unar , i n t he master s ource l i s t ) , a nd f or t he o ne a t s i te 1 0 , where t he re i s ag ross 0° . 9 d iscrepancy .

I n e ach o f t hese

c ases we h ave a dop ted t he v a lue q uo ted i n t he s hor t l i st .

We a lso n o te t ha t

o n ly t wo l i nes ( s ites 4 7 &5 0 ) a re marked i n t he s hor t l i st a s l ess a ccura te , w hereas a f ur ther f our ( s ites 6 , 1 2 , 1 6 &5 1 ) h ave "± " marked b y a z i mu th , a l t i tude o r d ec l ina t ion i n t he master s ource l i st . t o b e l ess a ccura te .

We h ave t aken a l l 6l ines

The 3 8 s e lec ted l i nes a re p lo t ted i n f ig . 4 .1b , wh ich r ese mb les T ho m 's e quiva lent f i gure ( MSB :

f i g . 1 0 .1) .

The s l igh t d ispar i t ies a re a ccoun ted f or

b y t he a dd i t ion o f ah u mp c en tred a t 0 ° .3 7, f our h u mps b e ing r e legated t o l ess a ccura te s ta tus , a nd a p oss ib le sma l l d if ference i n t he a ssu med s tandard d ev ia t ions .

I n a ddi t ion , o ur h u mps were p lo t ted i n ad if feren t o rder .

I ti s wor th r e-emphas iz ing t ha t o n ly t he d oub le-peaked s hape o f t he b u i ldu p o f h u mps , r ather t han t he a c tua l n u mber amassed , i s r e levan t t o t he c onc l us ions o f L eve l 2 .

We w ish t o k now whe ther t h is c harac ter ist ic s hape w i l l

r ema in when t he d a ta h ave b een r eassessed . 4 .3 . 3 Archaeo log ica l s tatus o f t he s i tes I n t h is s ec t ion we a t te mp t t o c lass ify t he 3 8 a l leged i ndica t ions i n t erms o fa rchaeo log ica l s ta tus .

An u mber o f t he m , d es igna ted c lass C , i nvo lve

s i tes wh ich a re e i ther o fd oub tfu l a uthen t ic i ty o r e lse a re p ar t icu lar ly d ub ious c on tenders f or r easonab ly p rec ise a s trono m ica l i ndica tors .

F ur ther l i nes ,

d es igna ted c lass B , a re a lso c ons idered t o b e o fd oub tfu l s tatus b u t n o t a s s er ious ly s o .

A f ter a l l t hese h ave b een s ing led o ut , t he t ypo log ica l a nd s pa t ia l

c oherence o f t he r e ma in ing ( c lass A ) s i tes i s b r ief ly e xa m ined .

( I t s hou ld b e

n o ted t ha t t h is c lass i f ica t ion i s e n t ire ly d is t inc t f ro m Tho m 's own [ MSB : 9 6 ] . ) There a re 3 s i tes whose a uthen t ic i ty i s i n s er ious d oubt : S ite 2 3 :

K e l l B urn .

Th is s i te , d escr ibed b y T ho m ( MID : 7 0 ) a s " an

a lign men t o f sma l l s tones" , was v is i ted b y t he a uthor e ar ly i n 1 976, when t he s tone marked a s s tanding o n Thom 's p lan ( Tho m 1 966 : f i g . 1 0 ) was i den t if ied a s at i ny p o in ted s tone a bout 0 .2 m h igh a top a l ow mound, a nd t he o ther s tones a s mere ly sma l l b ou lders , d ownh i l l f ro m t he p o in ted s tone i n b oth d irec t ions a nd n o t i n terv is ib le w i th i t . T hese b ou lders may h ave b een t he r emains o f a n o va l e nc losure wa l l n o ted b y RCAHMS ( 1 924 : n o . 2 24 ) a nd more r ecen t ly b y t he Ordnance S urvey ( Archaeo log ica l R ec ords , S outhamp ton & E dinburgh—here inaf ter " OSAR" : NT 6 6 NW n o . 2 ) . By 1 979 , improve men ts a ssoc ia ted w i th t he c ons truc t ion o f an earby r es ervo ir a nd a n ew f arm a ccess r oad s ee med t o h ave d es troyed a l l b ut t he p o in ted s tone .

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I n o rder t o a ssess h ow o b jec t ive ly e ach p uta t ive f ores igh t h as b een c hosen b y Tho m , we mus t a sk t he f o l low ing f or e ach o f t he 1 3 l i nes .

Do t he h or izon

f ea tures i dent if ied i n t he L eve l 3s ource l i s t r epresen t t he o n ly o nes , o r a t l east t he b est o nes i n s ome s ense , t ha t c ou ld h ave b een mean t t o b e i n dica ted b y t he a l leged s truc ture o n t he g round ? F or i fe qua l ly t enab le o nes a lso f a l l w i th in t he r ange o f h or izon wh ich , a s f ar a s we c an t e ll , was p oss ib ly i ndica ted , i ti s e ssen t ia l t ha t t hey a lso b e i nc luded i n t he a na lys is s o a s t o e l im ina te s ubj ec t ive b ias . A ctua l ly p erforming s uch a n a ssess men t p resen ts a s tr ing o f p rob le ms . H ow , f or e xamp le , d o we d ef ine t he " bes t" f ea ture i n as tre tch o f h or izon? S hou ld " bes t" mean "most p rom inen t"? I fs o , h ow d o we q uant ify p rom inence? T hen a ga in , d o we t ake i n to a ccoun t j ust n o tches , o r many o ther f ea tures s uch a s d ips , h i l l t ops , k nobs , h i l l s lopes o f a n a ppropr ia te i nc l ina t ion , g l i tches , b ou lders o n t he s ky l ine a nd s o f or th?

A l l we c an s ay f or c er ta in i s t ha t i n

o rder a c tua l ly t o p rove a ny th ing , a s o pposed mere ly t o f i nding a p ar t icu lar t heory t o f i t e ach s i te , t he i nves t iga tor h as t o s e t t le u pon ap ar t icu lar s chema a nd s t ick t o i t . H as Thom d one t h is? There a re s evera l i ndica t ions amongst t he 1 3 l i nes t ha t t h is h as n o t b een t he c ase . Types o f f ores igh t v ary : w e h ave n o tches a t U n iva l , F ow l is Wes ter a nd T e mp le Wood; s ides o f h i l l s lopes a t D uncraca ig a nd K nockrome ; t he s hou lder o f ah i l l a t S t i l la ig ; k nobs a t P arc-y-Me irw a nd E scar t .

A t E scar t

t he i ndica t ion ( t ak ing t he a l ign men t o r ien ta t ion q uo ted b y T hom ) i s al i t t le t o t he r igh t o f t he p roposed f oresigh t ; a t S t i l la ig t o t he l ef t . A t E scar t t he c hosen k nob g ives a d ec lina t ion d if ference o f + 23 ' , c ontr ibut ing t o t he p eak i n f i g . 4 .2 b a t 2 5 '; t he a d jacen t d ip , h owever , g ives + 20 ' a nd wou ld h ave f a l len b e tween t wo p eaks .

A t P arc-y- Me irw t he c hosen k nob g ives 25 ' , r igh t

o n ap eak ; t wo n earby n o tches wo ad h ave g iven 29 ' a nd + 7 ' . The r i gh t-hand n o tch A2 a t U n iva l ( MID : 7 0 ) i s o uts ide t he i ndica ted h or izon ( f ig . 4 .3a ) . T he Temp le Wood n o tch A1 ,a lbe i t a rguab ly t he mos t p rom inent f ea ture w i th in a bout 2 0° , i s o n ly a c tua l ly i ndica ted b y t he c irc le a s s een f ro m g roup Q ( see T ho m 's s i te p lan , MLO : 4 6) . O ther p oss ib le i nd ica t ions g ive a z imuths s ca tt ered o ver more t han 1 0° o f h or izon ( f ig . 4 .3c ) , a nd t he n ew ly-discovered s econd c irc le ( appendix 4 .2 ) a dds t o t he p oss ib i l i t ies . On ly t hree f ea tures ( a l l n o tches ) c an f a ir ly b e s a id t o b e u n ique ly i ndica ted; t hey a re A1 a t U n iva l , Aa t F ow l is Wes ter , a nd A 1 a t Te mp le Wood a s s een f ro m g roup Q .

I ti s i ron ic t ha t t he f i rs t t wo i nd ica t ions were b o th n o ted i n

t he p rev ious s ec t ion a s b e ing o f s omewha t d ub ious a rchaeo log ica l s t a tus . T he t h ird , i nvo lv ing s igh t ing t owards r a ther t han away f rom t he c en tre o f as tone c irc le , i s o f at ype r are ly c onsidered e lsewhere b y Tho m . A s che ma h as b een c onstruc ted i n t ab le 4 .4 , b y way o f e xa mp le f or d irec t c o mpar ison w i th Thom 's i n terpreta t ion o f t he 1 3 l i nes . On ly n o tches a nd d ips h ave b een c ons idered a s p oss ib le f ores igh ts . D ec l ina t ions h ave b een c a lcul a ted u s ing o r ig ina l s urveys a nd r esurveys where a va i lab le , a nd b y e s t i ma t ing v a lues f rom T hom 's p rof i le d iagrams i n o ther c ases .

E ach f ea ture f a l ling

w i th in t he r ange o f h or izon p oss ib ly i ndica ted h as b een i nc luded, p rov ided i t y ie lds a d ec lina t ion w i th in 3 5 ' o f a mean l unar e x treme ; a nd h as b een c lass if i ed f rom 1 t o 3a ccording t o t he s pec if ic i ty o ft he i ndica t ion . F or a l l t he d e ta i ls s ee t ab le 4 .4 . We h ave a lso i nc luded t hree f ea tures u sed b y T ho m b ut 1 86

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