Assault on the soul : women in the former Yugoslavia [Online-ausg ed.] 9780789007711, 0789007711, 9781315880662, 1315880660, 0789007703

Table of contents :
Content: ContentsPreface Introduction Feminist Psychology and Global Issues: An Action Agenda Interview with Gabrielle Kirk McDonald, President of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia Interview with Elizabeth Odio Benito, Justice of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia Interview with Patricia Viseur-Sellers, Legal Officer on Gender Issues The Foca Indictment by the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia Beyond War Hierarchies: Belgrade Feminists' Experience Working with Female Survivors of War Confusing Realities and Lessons Learned in Wartime: Supporting Women's Projects in the Former Yugoslavia Traumatized Women Working with Traumatized Women: Reflections upon Life and Work in a War Zone War, Life Crisis, and Trauma: Assessing the Impact of a Woman-Centered Training Program in Bosnia The Burden Left My Heart: Psycho-Social Services Among Refugee Women in Zenica and Tuzla, Bosnia-Herzegovina During the War Sympathy for the Devil: Thinking About Victims and Perpetrators After Working in Serbia Some Pitfalls for Effective Caregiving in a War Region Index Reference Notes Included

Citation preview

Sara Sharratt Ellyn Kaschak e d i t o r s

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia has been co-published simultaneously as Women & Therapy, Volume 22, Number 1 1999.

T his edition is published 2013 by R outledge 711 T hird Avenue, New York, NY 10017 2 Park Square, M ilton Park, A bingdon, O xon, 0 X 1 4 4RN

Routledge is an imprint o f the Taylor & Francis Group, an in forma business

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia has been co­ published simultaneously as Women & Therapy ™ , Volume 22, Number 1 1999. © 1999 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved. N o part o f this work may be reproduced or utilized in any form o r by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilm and recording, o r by any inform ation storage and retrieval system, without perm ission in writing from the publisher. Cover design by T hom as J. M ay shock Jr.

Library of C ongress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A ssault on the soul : w om en in the form er Y u g o sla v ia /S a ra Sharratt, Ellyn K aschak. editors, p. cm. . . co-published sim ultaneously as W omen & therapy, volum e 22, num ber 1, 1999.” Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-7890-0770-3 (alk. paper). - ISB N 0-7890-0771-1 (alk. paper) 1. Fem inist therapy. 2. W om en-Crim es against-Y ugoslavia. 3. Political refugees-M ental health. I. Sharratt, Sara. II. K aschak. Ellyn. 1943-. R C489.F45A 85 1999 362.87’082,0 9 4 9 7 -d c2 1

99-28578 C IP

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

Sara Sharratt, PhD E llyn K aschak, PhD E ditors

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia has been co-published simultaneously as Women & Therapy, Volume 22, Number 1 1999.

R

Routledge Taylor & Francis Group

NEW YORK AND LONDON

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia CONTENTS

Preface E llyn K aschak Introduction Sara Sharratt Fem inist Psychology and Global Issues: An A ction A genda A n n e A nderson Interview with G abrielle Kirk M cD onald, President o f the International Crim inal Tribunal for the Form er Yugoslavia Sara Sharratt Interview w ith Elizabeth O dio Benito, Justice o f the International Crim inal Tribunal for the Form er Yugoslavia Sara Sharratt Interview w ith Patricia V iseur-Sellers, Legal O fficer on G ender Issues Sara Sharratt The Foca Indictm ent by the International C rim inal Tribunal for the Form er Yugoslavia Sara Sharratt B eyond War H ierarchies: B elgrade F em inists’ Experience W orking w ith Fem ale Survivors o f War Lepa M ladjenovic C onfusing Realities and Lessons Learned in W artime: Supporting W om en’s Projects in the Form er Yugoslavia Ingrid Foeken

Traum atized W omen W orking w ith T raum atized W omen: R eflections upon Life and W ork in a W ar Zone G abriele K ram er War, Life C risis and Traum a: A ssessing the Im pact o f a W om en-Centered T raining Program in B osnia Sabine ScheJ'fler A gnes M iichele

107

121

The Burden Left My Heart: Psycho-Social Services A m ong Refugee W omen in Zenica and Tuzla, Bosnia-H erzegovina D uring the W ar B eril Schei Solveig D ahl

139

Sym pathy for the Devil: T hinking A bout Victims and Perpetrators A fter W orking in Serbia A nja M ealenbelt

153

Some Pitfalls for Effective C aregiving in a W ar Region E dita O stodic

161

Index

167

A BO U T T H E E D ITO R S

Sara S h a rra tt, PhD, is Professor Emerita of Marriage and Family Counseling at Sonoma State University in California and has been ac­ tively involved in the development and application of feminist therapy since its inception. Born and raised in Costa Rica, she has also been ac­ tive in multi-cultural psychology with a particular emphasis on Spanish­ speaking clients in the US and in Costa Rica. For the last four years, she has focused on international human rights with an emphasis on the rights of women and currently resides in the Hague. Ellyn K aschak, PhD, is Professor of Psychology at San Jose State Uni­ versity in San Jose, California. She is the author of Engendered Lives: A N ew Psychology o f Women’s Experience, as well as numerous articles and chapters on feminist psychology and psychotherapy. She has had thirty years of experience practicing psychotherapy, is past Chair of the Feminist Therapy Institute and of the APA Committee on Women and is a Fellow of Division 35, the Psychology of Women, Division 12, Clini­ cal Psychology, and Division 45, Ethnic Minority Issues of the Ameri­ can Psychological Association.

Preface

I am proud to present in the first volum e o f my new editorship this collec­ tion o f w riting on applications and intersections o f fem inist therapy, activism and jurisprudence with w om en and children in the form er Yugoslavia. Focus­ ing on the form er Yugoslavia offers a look at applied fem inist practice in a cultural context outside the A m erican or N orthern European. N or is it the m ore usual m ilieu o f w orking in the undeclared w ar zones. As many o f the w om en w riting in this volum e have crossed m an-m ade boundaries to honor the fem inist connection o f w om en, so I hope that this book can contribute to the project o f m aking visible the still too often invisible connections betw een and am ong w om en in various cultural contexts. Som etim es even w e do not know all the places in w hich fem inists are practicing. To reach back and borrow a phrase from the sixties in the U nited States, “ We are everyw here.” The w riters in this collection are Germ an and Dutch, N orw egian and Costa Rican, N orth A m erican. They are therapists, law yers and justices o f the International C rim inal Tribunal for the form er Yugoslavia. All o f them are struggling with the profound im m orality o f the circum stance, w ith keeping their vision and its applications culturally sensitive, contextually based and psychologically or legally useful. All have been profoundly changed by doing this work. A Serbian and a Croatian w om an offer their perspectives on the situation, on the arrival o f many o f these w om en, foreign by official standards, to offer aid, to offer w hat skills they have, often inadequate in the face o f the horrors with w hich they are confronted, to offer them selves in a struggle from w hich they could easily have turned away. This m aterial will never appear in official records, in the records o f the U nited N ations or o f the International Crim inal Tribunal. It is w o m en ’s psychology, w om en’s history, w o m en ’s geography, w o m en ’s jurisprudence. It alw ays has been and still is our work as fem inists to m ake visible what patriarchy conspires to erase or confine to the m argins. A nd so I hope that these w ritings will serve as part o f the record o f w hat w om en have done in

XV

xvi

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

this war: this cadre o f w om en, som e crossing the borders, others w orking in the international courts o f the Hague, still others from the w ar-torn territories, w ho offer their skills, their visions and their hearts w ithout hesitation. T his collection, then, is also intended as an historical docum ent, an assur­ ance that both the plight o f w om en and the role o f w om en in bringing it to visibility, to the attention o f the international com m unity and the justice system , will not be erased. The official version will likely include “ the facts” -w h o got tried and convicted, how many individuals w ere put in cam ps, tortured or killed, how many rapes w ere counted by the voice o f authority. In these articles, the authors tell us w hat really happened to the m ost ordinary w om en and children. And to them selves. T hey recount a heroics o f the ordinary. This collection o f articles includes three interview s w ith representatives o f the justice system . They arc not included to imply that w om en receive greater justice in the courts than in other social institutions, but that they receive greater justice when w om en are part o f the decision-m aking pro cess-n o t just any w om en, but those who are able to see w ith w o m en ’s eyes, to notice the injustices that w ould simply have gone unnoticed except to som eone who also lives life in a w om an’s body. Secondly, the intersection o f justice and healing is a crucial one. H ealing from such severe injuries inevitably requires an arena in w hich the truth is finally spoken and heard. The courts are only one possible arena for this to occur and it may be long overdue for fem inists to devise others as part o f the treatm ent o f the effects o f such atrocities. Here w e visit som e o f the places w here justice and healing com e together. W hat can happen when one fem ale justice o f the court decides to stay up all night looking for indictable instances o f rape that she w as told w ere not there? W hen a Serbian w om an refuses nationalism for the connection o f international fem inism? W hen w om en already brutalized are w illing to put them selves in further peril to testify against their torturers? W hen others living in relative com fort and safety are w illing to place them selves in peril, to cross m en’s borders to offer their skills and com passion to other w om en trapped in the form er Yugoslavia? And what happens w hen they return home too traum atized them selves to continue their previous lives? W omen go to w ar after w ar after w ar m inistering to the w ounded and the weary w ith the latest in psychological techniques. M any still use diagnosis and the DSM , for w hat tools and signposts do they have other than the w oefully inadequate Post-Traum atic Stress D isorder (PTSD )? W ould that in this w orld o f postm odernism , declared postfem inism and various other posts, w e m ight actually arrive at a tim e o f post-traum a for w om en and children. Would that we really had m ore cases o f post-traum a rather than chronic or repeated acute traum a. For as I have long argued (K aschak, 1992), there is nothing p o st about traum a for w om en who continue to reside in the form er

Preface

xvii

Y ugoslavia and n o th in g p o s t in d eed fo r any w o m en w h o resid e in v io len t and d am a g in g p atriarch al so c ie tie s e v e n if they h av e not o fficially d ecla red w ar on w o m en . A n d w h at o f the id ea th at su ch trau m a c a u se s stress, a co n c e p t m u ch too sm all to co ntain the m u ltip le rev e rb eratio n s o f o rd in ary life as a w o m an , m u ch less the terro r and g rief, th e sh am e and lo ss o f b ein g treated n ot o nly as the enem y, the sp o ils o f m e n ’s w ars, but n ot ev e n as th e en em y , in stead as the b attlefield itself. W o m e n ’s b o d ies are p art o f the g ro u n d u p o n w h ic h w ar is w ag ed ; w o m e n ’s p sy c h e s an d so u ls are d a m ag e d an d co m p ro m ised until fem in ist th erap y m u st b eg in w ith re m in d in g these w o m e n o f th eir b asic hum anity. T h ese w o m e n h av e co m m itted p e rh a p s the m o st an cie n t crim e o f all in p atriarch al society , th at o f b e in g w o m en . It is an artifact o f the n arro w er lens o f n o n -fe m in ist p sy ch o th e ra p y that co m m itm en t is sp o k e n o f a lm o st e x clu siv ely in th e c o n tex t o f d y a d ic p artn er relatio n sh ip s and w ith a p a rtic u la r co n c e rn fo r its ab sen ce. F or fem in ist p ractitio n ers, fo r th o se w ith a w id e r lens, th e k in d o f c o m m itm e n t that these w o m en d em o n strate to the v ic tim s o f this w ar, to the lived p rac tic e o f fe m i­ n ism an d to h u m an ity is o b v io u sly one o f th e m ost p ro fo u n d k in d s o f c o m ­ m itm en t there is. S till, how d isa p p o in tin g that, a lm o st thirty y ears a fter the in tro d u ctio n o f fem in ist theory and p ractice, th ere is still su ch need fo r us to c o n tin u e to d ev elo p and apply fem in ist in terv en tio n s fo r to rtu red and trau m atized w om en. H ow d isa p p o in tin g that th ese im m o ral a cts c o n tin u e, that w e have to g o to w a r yet an o th e r tim e, th at I have to rep eat the v ery w o rd s that m any o f us sp o k e fo r the first tim e as w e w ere d e v e lo p in g the earlie st fem in ist in ter­ v en tio n s alm o st thirty y ears ago. M ay all o u r p ractic e s in the n am e o f d am ag e to w o m e n ’s b o d ies, p sy c h e s and so u ls ^ e re n d ere d o b so lete. E llyn K a sc h a k

NOTE The editors wish to express their thanks to Gregory Kipling, who served as editorial assistant, and the Costa Rican agency Instituto Latinoamericano para Pre­ vención, Educación y Salud (ILPES) for their cooperation. Assistance was also provided by the following University of San Francisco graduate students: Yolanda Briscoe, Roxanne Fowler, Margot Brown, Terry McClanahan and Shana Daronn.

REFERENCE Kaschak, E. (1992). Engendered lives: A new psychology o f women's experience. Basic Books: New York.

Introduction Sara Sharratt

O ur purpose in this special volum e is to shed light upon w o m en ’s w artime experiences, and to m ake sense o f their coping strategies in the face of the innum erable atrocities com m itted against them. The w ar in question is that w hich accom panied the break-up o f the Form er Yugoslavia, and it is one with w hich I am all too fam iliar, having spent the past four years in Holland researching w om en’s treatm ent at the hands o f the International Crim inal Tribunal in the Hague. N eedless to say, exposure to the effects o f w ar has provided both m e and the contributing authors with a new perspective on the relationship betw een justice and recovery, and the im pact o f enorm ous and repeated traum a on helpers and victim s. M oreover, one might argue that analysis o f this conflict m akes m anifest issues that are o f vital significance to fem inist psychotherapists in particular, and to those w orking in the healing professions m ore generally.

Wars M ake Visible the Declared and Undeclared Wars A gainst Women Violence against w om en is m agnified during arm ed conflicts, in the pro­ cess exposing the artificiality o f the boundary betw een “ w artim e” and “ peacetim e” violence. Indeed, one might even go so far as to say that attacks upon w om en in conflict zones are simply one m ore m anifestation o f the “ undeclared” w ar upon w om en everyw here.

Challenging the Erasure o f W om en’s Victimization in Wartime To a large extent, w ar crim es com m itted against w om en have been m ar­ ginalized, trivialized or ignored by the International T ribunals charged with Address correspondence to: Sara Sharratt, PhD, P.O. Box 2292-1000, San Jose, Costa Rica.

1

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia investigating them . In this way, challenging the erasure o f w om en’s experi­ ences is central to the political struggle against m ale violence, w hether in the detention cam ps o f Bosnia-H erzegovina, or in the suburbs o f Los A ngeles. At a personal level, I have found few things m ore shocking than the juxtaposi­ tion o f clear evidence o f atrocities com m itted against w om en on the one hand, and their absence from most accounts o f the w ar in the Form er Yugo­ slavia on the other. It is generally accepted that the majority o f casualties in arm ed conflicts are w om en and children. W hile not w ishing to suggest that contem porary jurisprudence has suddenly broken with its m isogynist past and prioritized the interests o f these groups, attention is increasingly being focused upon the rights o f victim s (see O dio), w ith impunity seen as an im pedim ent both to justice and to peace. This is an im portant point, and one w hich fem inist therapists w ould do w ell to bear in mind: atrocities, including rape, need to be publicly acknow ledged as w ar crim es and their perpetrators punished rather than the victim s, as is usually the case in instances o f sexual violence (see M cD onald; Viseur-Sellers). T hus, it m akes sense for us to w ork with institu­ tions that punish crim es against w om en, and push them tow ards strong forms o f redress and unequivocal condem nation o f rape and other m anifestations o f male violence.

Wars M ake Explicit the L inks Between Treatment and Advocacy Although fem inist therapy and ethics have alw ays placed great em phasis upon the integration o f theory and practice, this becom es especially im portant in the context o f arm ed conflicts such as that o f the Form er Yugoslavia. How so? In short, an activist stance in the fight against im punity may very well have a direct im pact upon collective and individual healing, to the extent that fem inists are able to persuade International T ribunals to recognize rape as the w ar crime and torture that it is. If w e are successful in doing so, this could, as Nancy Kelley states, “ . . . change things for w om en all over the w o rld ” (C'hcsler, 1996, p. 56), as well as helping us overcom e pow erful feelings o f helplessness and despair (see Scheffler and M uchele).

War Crime Tribunals Force the Perpetrator to Take Center-Stage By focusing attention upon those responsible for w ar atrocities, Interna­ tional Tribunals provide a basis for the public repudiation o f perpetrators and the acts they have com m itted. In this way, justice becom es a way o f expedit­ ing individual and collective recovery.

Introduction

3

Wars Necessitate the Adoption o f Broad-Based Models o f Healing in Which the Search fo r Truth Plays an Integral Role In the recent past, we have seen num erous exam ples o f “ truth com m is­ sion s,” such as those organized in South A frica or G uatem ala, in w hich im munity from prosecution is traded for public adm ission o f guilt. W hatever the strengths or w eaknesses o f such an approach, it does offer victim s and fam ilies a chance to confront the perpetrator, and listen to him describe his crime and ask for forgiveness. M oreover, in Latin A m erica in particular, there is also a tradition o f victim s com ing forw ard to speak publicly about the violence com m itted against them , in the process breaking the silence and gaining the solidarity and support o f other w itnesses. Taken together, these approaches provide useful m arkers in helping us to find more comm unal w ays o f helping victim s o f violence, for exam ple, by instituting “ abuse tribunals” in w hich victim s learn how to overcom e self-blam e and face those w ho victim ized them in the first place (see M cD onald; Viseur-Sellers; and O dio [interviews]).

War Alters N otions o f Trauma As one might im agine, not only does w ar traum a highlight the inadequa­ cies o f current psychotherapeutic theory and practice, but it also show s how our em phasis on the individual ignores the degree o f traum atization within com m unities m ore generally. M oreover, given the m agnitude o f the suffer­ ing, it is difficult for som e o f us not to think politically, and see healing and recovering as possibilities only if existing social structures are radically trans­ formed: there is no recovery from injustice that has not ceased; there is no healing w hen traum atization reoccurs on a daily basis. W hile such a perspec­ tive leads us, on the one hand, to make explicit the links betw een “ w artim e” and “ peacetim e” victim ization o f w om en, on the other it forces us to re-eval­ uate the interrelationship betw een the justice system in general, and psycho­ therapy in particular. We must ask ourselves w hether the justice available to w ar victim s in the International Tribunals is therapeutic. If w e answ er affirm atively, docs it not behoove us, as therapists, to expand our understanding o f therapy when w orking with “ peacetim e” victim s of violence? Indeed, one m ight even go so far as to argue that the judicial system , in cham pioning reconciliation and the rehabilitation o f victim s, is introducing psychological and therapeutic elem ents into its m andate. In sim ilar fashion, therapists w ould gain by learn­ ing and draw ing inspiration from recent trends in jurisprudence, since both justice and healing are crucial if the victim ization o f w om en is to be effec­ tively challenged.

4

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

Such a perspective, adopted by many o f the contributors to this volum e, dem ands that psychologists w ork w ith a far w ider range o f actors than has traditionally been the case (see A nderson). In this way, attention is shifted from individual w om en to the w ider structures in which they are em bedded, w hether these serve to oppress and dom inate, or to foster justice and peace to the world. N eedless to say, at an individual level, this understanding calls for healing m ethods that are contextual and global, and focused on causes as much as effects (see Scheffler and M üchele).

Wars H ighlight the Secondary Traumatization o f Healers and O ur Unwillingness to See Ourselves as Part o f the Collective Damage A s I have suggested above, therapists w orking in w ar zones must reorient them selves from the intra-psychic to the social. W ithin that context, not only does our vicarious traum atization as healers becom e evident, but w e are confronted with the im possibility o f rem aining neutral or detached from the sociopolitical forces that led to our clients’ victim ization in the first place (see Scheffler and M üchele). Obviously, there are certain dangers inherent w ithin this state o f affairs, including the likelihood that one will becom e caught up in the collective psyche o f those w ith w hom one is w orking (see Krämer; Scheffler and M üchele; and Foeken), and the risk that a colonial relationship will develop betw een survivors and healers on the one hand, and foreign and local professionals on the other (see O stodic). A s such, one o f the recurring them es o f this book is the danger o f relying too heavily upon intra-psychic mcdical m odels in a w ar context. N eedless to say, such approaches are naive at best, and unethical at worst. Indeed, I w ould go so far as to ask practitio­ ners w orking in the “ undeclared” w ar zones o f Europe, N orth A m erica and elsew here also to reflect upon the ethics o f de-contextualized interventions that do not take into account the institutionalized and system atic nature o f violence against w om en. Wars also serve to raise a num ber o f other questions for fem inist psycho­ therapists, including most notably those related to the existence o f evil in our midst. How does it becom e so prevalent w ithin a given social context? W hat happens to individuals w ho are w itnesses or subject to evil acts? As one might imagine, these issues can only be addressed if we seek out the sources o f the evil and learn how to face them in all their enorm ity and power. For the legal system in particular, this involves offering justice to the victim s and punishm ent to the perpetrators, in the process rendering future conflicts and acts o f vengeance less likely. Therapists w ould do well to learn from such an approach, and adopt a perspective that is sensitive not only to the suffering o f individuals as a result o f abuse, but also to the collective traum a that com es from living in a w orld filled with violence and despair. In short, W estern psychotherapists tend to devote too much effort to the task o f fostering

Introduction

5

intra-psychic recovery, and too little to that o f restoring individuals at a com m unity level, for exam ple through victim testim onies, rape museum s, public declarations o f contrition by perpetrators or funds and m onum ents for survivors. W hile this is not to suggest that psychotherapy is superfluous or unnecessary, it must be accom panied by broader-based interventions as well. There can be little doubt that the w ar has changed the perspectives o f all those w ho have contributed to this volum e, m aking us realize that, if we are to m ove forw ard in the treatm ent o f rape victim s, we must de-stigm atize the survivors w hile stigm atizing the perpetrators, both by accusing them publicly o f their crim es, and by sending them to prison. M oreover, w e have also learned that traum atization o f those w orking w ith w ar victim s is inevitable, not only from the perspective o f countertransference, but also in term s o f the w a r’s im pact upon the very essence o f our being, causing us to question our existence, our choices, and w hat altruism and morality mean for ourselves and our com m unities. T hus, for the three interview ees in particular (M cD on­ ald; O dio; and V iseur-Sellers), they all m ake reference to a sim ilar range o f issues w ith w hich they have had to contend w hile w orking at the Internation­ al Crim inal Tribunal for the Form er Y ugoslavia (ICTY): evil, racism , sexism, and the traum a that com es from being exposed to w ar crim es testim ony on a daily basis. In another instance, I asked one o f the contributors w hy she had not gone for therapy in the tw o years since she had left the Balkans, despite suffering severe traum atization. In reply, she said, “ I have been too incapaci­ tated to do so .” I then asked her how she w ould have reacted had one o f her clients told her that. She laughed, and I joined her. In all too many cases, healers forget to take care o f them selves w hile in the m idst o f looking after others. In this collection, w e gather together the voices and perspectives o f a num ber o f w om en w hose w ork has brought them face to face with the hatred and violence o f the Yugoslav conflict. They include a gender specialist and tw o judges involved in the ICTY in the Hague; a Serbian fem inist and founder o f the W om en’s A utonom ous C enter in Belgrade; the North A m eri­ can coordinator o f Psychologists for Social Responsibility; a Bosnian psychol­ ogist engaged in research into the com plexities o f w o m en ’s netw orking at an international scale; tw o N orw egians involved in the im plem entation and assessm ent o f program s designed to help traum atized fem ale survivors in B osnia-H erzegovina; a team o f Germ an psychotherapists engaged in training activities for B osnian para-professionals; a Dutch psychotherapist also in­ volved in the training and supervision o f local health w orkers; the Germ an founder o f one o f the first treatm ent centers for w om en to be opened in B osnia-H erzegovina; a Dutch social scientist offering advice and a new v i­ sion on treatm ent interventions; and finally the special editor herself, who

6

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

conductcd the interviews, gathered the voices and bore witness to the w om en’s testimony. All o f these individuals are intrinsically connected to one another. As a scholar researching the activities and mandate of the International Tribunal, I developed a relationship with the three women interviewed for this volume. I met Anne Anderson in the Hague when she took part in one o f the consulta­ tion sessions organized for the Tribunal by Psychologists for Social Respon­ sibility. As for Edita Ostodic and Gabriele Krämer, I got to know them through my friendship and close collaboration with one o f the founders of Medica Mundiale. This latter individual also introduced me to Sabine Scheff­ ler and Agnes Müchele who had previously provided training to Medica personnel. She also served as a point of contact for Berit Schei and Solveig Dahl, whose team was also based in Zenica and often collaborated with Medica. Turning to Ingrid Foeken, I had been friends with her in Holland many years ago, and we reestablished our friendship when I returned to the country. As an individual closely associated with the activities o f Admira in the Former Yugoslavia, she is an especially well-qualified contributor to this publication; she is also the one w ho recommended her friend Anja Meulenbelt. Finally, the circle closes with Lepa Mladjenovic, who agreed to partici­ pate in this project after approaching Ingrid for help and support, who subse­ quently put her into contact with me. While I do not pretend to suggest that the views o f these authors are necessarily representative of all those who have ever worked with war survivors in the Former Yugoslavia, they are nonetheless women who care deeply about other women, and who found themselves in a foreign land or with foreign visitors at a time of profound horror and devastation.

REFERENCE Chesler, P. (Winter 1996). On the issues: The progressive woman's quarterly, p. 56.

Fem inist Psychology and G lobal Issues: An A ction A genda A n n e A n d e r so n

S U M M A R Y . Highlighted in this article is a call for fem inists to expand their level o f intervention to include global awareness. Several projects are described as exam ples o f fem inists working as positive facilitators o f change for victim s and survivors o f war. ¡Article copies available fo r a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-342-9678. E-mail address: [email protected]]

K E Y W O R D S . Peace psychology, fem inist psychology, global aware­ ness, Psychologists for Social Responsibility (PsySR )

Anne A nderson, MSW, is C oordinator o f Psychologists for Social Responsibility and in practice with the W ashington Therapy Guild in W ashington, DC. The author thanks Susan McKay, Martha M ednick, Bianca Cody Murphy, and Mike W essells for their valuable com m ents and suggestions. Consultants included: Anne A nderson, MSW, Coordinator, Psychologists for S o­ cial Responsibility; Leila D ane, PhD, Director, Institute for Victims o f Trauma, M cLean, VA, w ho was particularly instrumental in developing the first draft; C. J. Frederick, PhD, UCLA/VA M edical Center, Los A ngeles, CA; Mary Harvey, PhD, Director, Victims o f Violence Program, Cambridge Hospital, MA; Kathleen Nader, DSW, D irector o f Evaluation, UCLA Trauma, Violence and Sudden Bereavem ent Program, CA; Shana Swiss, M D, Director, W om en’s Program, Physicians for H u­ man Rights, Boston, MA; Janet Yassen, MSW, Boston, MA. A ddress correspondence to: Anne A nderson, Psychologists for Social R esponsi­ bility, 2607 C onnecticut Avenue N.W., W ashington, DC 20008, U.S.A. Electronic mail may be sent to: psysrusa@ interserv.com ; Website: http//w ww .rm c.edu/psysr.

7

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

8

Fem inists have long been active in the peace m ovem ent. Early W estern fem inists often m ade a connection betw een m ilitarism and sexism and were active opponents o f w ar (B rock-U tne, 1985). Today many fem inist peace psychologists and other m ental health professionals (Van Soest, 1997) are w orking on global issues to respond to violence and to build peaceful com ­ m unities. Traditional peace psychology, inform ed by fem inist perspectives (M urphy, 1995), addresses not only issues o f war, international and inter-eth­ nic conflict, but also has expanded to include “ the elim ination o f coercive system s o f interaction as a basis o f interaction betw een individuals and groups” (M cKay, 1996, p. 94). The multiplicity o f m anifestations o f structur­ al violence, violent conflict and oppression that afflict our w orld calls for m ulti-level, m ultifaceted interventions. Fem inist psychotherapists, by definition, are fam iliar w ith this type o f analysis and are w orking with their clients “ tow ards strategies and solutions advancing fem inist resistance, transform ation and social change in daily per­ sonal lives and relationships w ith the social, em otional and political environ­ m ent” (Brow n, 1994, p. 22). But the press o f individual situations and cases can often cause us to lose sight o f the larger picture. We overlook our capaci­ ties to participate at several levels o f intervention well beyond the confines o f our office w alls. With this report I hope to stim ulate the creativity, passion and hope o f fem inist therapists to expand our horizons and find w ays to support, extend and multiply the w ork o f our colleagues around the world. We find fem inist psychologists in a variety o f settings-from w orking with individuals in the treatm ent room , to perform ing com m unity-based interven­ tions, teaching psychology, pursuing action research, providing policy analy­ sis, and initiating political action. This article discusses several projects as concrete exam ples o f the m ulti-leveled interventions being undertaken to support w om en and foster peaceful, sustainable societies around the world. These projects w ere chosen because they adhere to the follow ing fem inist principles: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

They contextualize individuals in their societies; They are aw are o f and alert for gender differences in experience; They analyze pow er relationships relevant to situations; They use a range o f em pow erm ent m odels o f therapy; They use collaborative processes to accom plish goals; They listen and learn from others, across cultural and language barriers; They are based on an ethical, non-neutral stance regarding social ju s­ tice, equality and m isuse o f power.

Many o f the program s described in this article w ere developed by m em ­ bers o f Psychologists for Social R esponsibility (PsySR) or have been sup­ ported by PsySR m em bers. PsySR is a U nited States-based international

Anne Anderson

9

netw ork o f psychologists and other m ental health professionals w ho draw upon the research, know ledge, and practice o f psychology to prom ote dura­ ble peace at the comm unity, national, and international levels. M em bers work to: (a) apply the grow ing body o f know ledge about conflict resolution and violence prevention, (b) facilitate positive change for victim s and survivors o f personal, com m unity and civil violence, (c) advocate for basic hum an needs-including actions w hich decrease poverty, ensure ethnic and gender equity, increase w ork opportunity, prom ote healthy and sustainable environ­ m ents, and achieve w iser balance betw een human needs and military bud­ gets, (d) ensure that relevant inform ation from psychology is used in local, national and international public policy. The first project w e look at facilitates positive change for victim s and survivors o f war.

WAR TRAU M A A N D R E C O V E R Y B R O C H U RE In 1992, w hen the stories o f m ass sexual assault and rape began to break from the territories o f the form er Yugoslavia, PsySR realized that wom en w ould be needing psychological services but that many w ould not have access to them. Few services w ere available and there w as little social sup­ port for seeking mental health therapeutic help. With Irena Sarovic, M.A., originally from Croatia, as our principal author and translator, we consulted w ith a num ber o f mental health professionals with particular expertise in dealing with the afterm ath o f sexual violence and traum a and developed a self-help psychoeducational brochure for use throughout the region. Several principles guided our process: the inform ation w as to be draw n from the best that fem inist psychology had to offer at the tim e; the product needed to be short and inexpensive-easy to reproduce, transport and distribute in a war zone; the brochure needed to be “ user-friendly,” offering its help in a cultur­ ally acceptable way. For instance, since rape carried such social stigm a, the subject needed to be approached in the larger context o f the traum a o f war. The resulting brochure recognizes the social context o f traum a experienced by individuals and their com m unities. It gives inform ation on normal human reactions to experiencing traum a, includes paragraphs on rape and torture, and provides som e concrete suggestions for self-care and support. R ecogniz­ ing that many people w ould be experiencing chronic stress because o f the continuation o f the war, self-care suggestions focused on m aintaining as m uch control over o n e ’s life as possible, deciding carefully, for instance, about w ho to talk to about w hat and w hen to do it. There arc versions printed in both the Latin and C yrillic alphabets, so that all sides o f the conflict are able to use it. Well over 15,000 have already been directly distributed by grassroots w om en’s groups w orking in all parts o f the form er Yugoslavia, by U.S.

10

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

mental health professionals providing w orkshops and other support there, and in asylum countries for use with refugees. Since people arc encouraged to copy the brochure, and the brochure has been reprinted in som e handbooks, it is im possible to say how w idely this resource has been distributed. Anecdotal inform ation as to its usefulness has been forthcom ing from a num ber o f sources. For instance, m ental health professionals have found it m ost useful as a conversation starter for groups o f refugees and som e have used it as training m aterials for paraprofessional volunteers. W om en’s knit­ ting circles, developed by displaced w om en as a w ay o f m aking w arm clothes and providing a support system for them selves, have used the brochures as a w ay o f helping m em bers o f the circle to deal with their experiences. Women for Women, a U .S.-based non-profit organization that hand delivers funds and sponsors m icroenterprises for w om en in Bosnia, distributed the brochure and reported that children as young as ten w ere able to read it out loud w ithout difficulty. The brochure is now also available in a m ore generic form in English and continues to be distributed m ore widely.

TRAU M A, T E ST IM O N Y A N D SO CIAL M E M O R Y Inger Agger, a psychologist from Denmark, has been instrumental in cre­ atively addressing issues of appropriate treatment for w om en and girls who have experienced gender-specific human rights violations. She w as responsible for the Psycho-Social Projects o f the European Comm unity Task Force during the w ar in the Former Yugoslavia and subsequently w as Psycho-Social A dvi­ sor at the O SCE Democratization Branch in Sarajevo. She has been a strong advocate for taking “ an ethical non-neutral stand” (1995, p. 35) w hen working in therapy with women who have survived sexual assault, torture and other human rights abuses. “ ‘M ixing therapy with politics’ is in fact unavoidable in psycho-social assistance to victim s o f political contlicts. If aid workers do not take an ethical stand against injustice they are still acting politically, because they are joining the conspiracy o f secrecy and silence w hich maintains the traumatizing and oppressive pow er o f sham e” (1997, p. 123). In her research project interview ing w om en from 10 different countries in the M iddle East and Latin A m erica (Agger, 1994), A gger used her office as w hat she calls “ a ritual sp ace” in which w om en could tell their stories “ so that people in asylum countries w ould know m ore about the hum an rights violations w hich take place against w om en” (1995, p. 37), to contribute to social memory. She used a tape recorder to record their testim ony so that the w om an knew “ that her voice and her name could be heard ” (p. 37). A gger describes this extension o f the traditional therapeutic hour this way: . . . I attem pted to unite my experience from the use o f testim ony in the consciousness-raising groups o f the w o m en ’s m ovem ent with experi­

Anne Anderson

II

ences from my therapeutic training and my w ork with testim ony as a trans-cultural therapeutic method. T his m ethod im plies that the re­ search proccss and therapeutic process are not separable. For victim s o f hum an rights violations, testim ony has a special significance, because it becom es a docum ented accusation and a piece o f evidence against the perpetrators. ‘T estim ony’ as a concept has a special, double connota­ tion: it contains objective, judicial, public and political aspects, and subjective, spiritual, cathartic and private aspects. (1995, p. 37)

A gger is very concerned about “ the m ajor contradiction betw een the psychological processes involved in reconciliation and those involved in social memory. Reconciliation involved recreating trust betw een people w ho are divided by hatred and fear o f each other; social rem em brance and testi­ m ony require keeping all that happened-both the good and the e v il-in the collective mem ory o f these sam e p eople” (p. 38). The term reconciliation has many m eanings. A t one end o f the spectrum wc see that w hen a conflict has term inated there is social pressure on people to com e to som e accom m oda­ tion w ith the form er foe, to “ live and let liv e,” or “ forgive and forget,” so that som e order and stability may return to the com m unity. G altung probably expresses the most am bitious end o f the spectrum best when he describes reconciliation as using “ creative, positive conflict transform ation . . . not only to avoid violence . . . but to increase the entropy [of peace] by em erging from that phase of conflict with m ore mature selves and m ore m ature social form a­ tions . . . ” (1996, p. 272). At the sam e time there is a need for recognition o f and restitution for the suffering experienced by both sides, and for social m em ory to act as a pre­ ventive to “ never ag ain ” let such atrocities happen. O f particular concern for fem inist therapists is the fact that w o m en ’s experiences are often lost in the social memory, that the underlying structural issues w hich fostered the con­ flict are not addressed in the afterm ath, and traum atized individuals are caught in the m iddle. If they go along w ith the reconciliation then they contribute to the sense o f com m unity, feeling connected again, but are in danger o f denying their ow n reality. On the other hand, if they m aintain their insistence on publicly rem em bering their experiences they are in danger o f rem aining outside the com m unity and stigm atized w hen their socicty w ants to forgive and forget. Issues involved in both effective reconciliation leading to durable peace (Lund, 1996) and accurate and inclusive social m em ory need to be addressed in the “ search for new m ethods and aims in trauma therapy” (A gger, 1995, p. 39). This is an area that requires much attention and creative innovation, w ith fem inist therapists uniquely positioned to bring their considerable insights and experience to bear on this problem.

12

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

C O N SU LTATIO N W ITH TH E IN T E R N A T IO N A L C R IM IN A L TR IB U N A LS In 1994, in my role as PsySR Coordinator, I w as contacted by an interna­ tional w om en’s rights N on-G overnm ental O rganization (N G O ), The C oor­ dination o f W om en’s A dvocacy (CWA), for help w ith their process o f con­ sultation with the International Crim inal Tribunals for the Form er Yugoslavia and Rwanda (ICTY /R ), w hich is based in The N etherlands, at The Hague. CWA began its w ork as a group o f w om en from 10 asylum countries in 1993 and has since organized a num ber o f consultations w ith institutions o f the United N ations system . These have focused primarily on the question o f gender-specific w ar crim es against w om en during the w ar in the form er Yugoslavia, and more recently, also in Rwanda. CWA has consistently called for prosecution o f rape as a w ar crime, has advised the Tribunal on w ays to reduce retraum atization o f w om en survivors w ho agree to provide evidence, how to best support w itnesses in the process o f testifying, and has called attention to the problem s o f w itness protection. For instance, when the Tribunal w as deciding on w hether or not to require public disclosure o f w itnesses’ identity in open court, the prosecution staff asked for expert opinion on the issue. The Tribunal needed to balance the defendant’s right to know the identity o f his accuser against the right o f the w itness to protection from physical and psychological harm and intim idation. The PsySR netw ork w as able to provide the Tribunal prosecution staff w ith background psychological inform ation on the probable chilling effect o f allow ing public identification o f w itnesses testifying in cases o f sexual as­ sault, especially given the very serious stigm a attached to rape in their soci­ ety. This contributed to the C o u rt’s decision to allow anonym ity o f w itnesses. My fellow CWA consultants have been w orking w ith refugees, potential witnesses, and survivors o f w ar crim es, both in therapeutic situations and in other advocacy and service roles. Their dedication and concern for m aintain­ ing the dignity o f their clients, em pow ering their recovery and providing the best they can offer to the ICTY/R in its quest for som e m easure o f justice is palpable w henever they gather in consultation. They m aintain a clear-eyed view o f both the lim itations o f international institutions to m ake real differ­ ences in individuals’ lives, and also the pow er o f reaching international consensus on such issues as declaring and prosecuting rape as a w ar crime. Form er C hief Prosecutor Justice Richard G oldstone, said, The role o f gender-based w ar crim es in the form er Yugoslavia . . . is o f much greater im portance than w e originally expected. . . . The question o f rape in Rw anda and the frequency o f crim es o f sexual assault point to the need for m ore focus th e r e .. . . You may not realize how im portant your inputs have been all these years. The Tribunal has carefully lis-

Anne Anderson

13

tened to your rccom m cndations and it has responded to the quest for solutions in many o f the areas w hich you brought up with us. (CWA, 1996, p. 12) The consultations have also contributed to successful political action. We developed a draft resolution which was adopted by the European Parliam ent, w hich increased the budget for the protection and support o f people testifying before the Tribunal. CWA provided a w hole list o f suggested psychosocially inform ed support system s and im provem ents in the treatm ent o f fem ale w it­ nesses interview ed by Tribunal personnel (CW A, 1996). For instance, w e have recom m ended that all w itnesses be allow ed to bring a support person with them , with their travel also funded by the Tribunal, that interview s be held in the m other tongue o f the w itness, that translators, w hen used, be trained to handle testim ony about traum atic events sensitively, and that asy­ lum countries (w here many potential w itnesses currently reside) be called upon to offer increased w itness protection. With the increased funding, the Tribunal should be able to im plem ent at least som e o f the im provem ents in their support o f w itnesses. The most recent Consultation considered how w itnesses are faring back in their com m unities. A questionnaire is being developed for use with the now hundreds o f people w ho have been inter­ view ed by the IC TY /R, to give them a voice and an opportunity to affect the future w orkings o f international tribunals through the telling o f their experi­ ences as people w ho testified for the ICTY/R. These practices, established at the international level, can also be used, eventually, as m odels for wom en activists striving to im prove treatm ent o f wom en in their ow n countries.

W OM EN A S P E A C E B U ILD ER S W omen in roles as peace builders are often invisible. “ W omen have a long history o f negotiating conflicts and creating com prom ises in the private sphere and at the com m unity level. Yet rarely is this ever called upon in situations o f arm ed conflict and w a r” (Bunch, 1997, p. 7). To shed som e light on this critical aspect o f w o m en ’s lives, a m ulticultural research project has been developed by another PsySR mem ber, Susan M cK ay o f the U niversity o f W yom ing, and Cheryl de la Rey of the University o f Cape Town, South Africa. M cK ay notes: . . . w e think that w om en w ork in w ays that are distinct from m en ’s but these have not been docum ented. It is interesting that several peace building projects are presently occurring . . . and I am not free to give any details because o f concerns for w o m en ’s safety. [W omen] tend to w ork quietly and at com m unity levels, building coalitions and netw ork­

14

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia ing for proactivity. . . . Wc think wc can start to learn more by asking women themselves, women who do this work. (McKay, personal com ­ munication, 3/12/98) The project, based in South Africa, consists of two parts: 1. A workshop which will bring together women leaders to discuss peace building processes within the context o f their own organizations and culture and to describe w om en’s approaches (Phase I). The workshop will be held during a two-day period and will be dialogic, a model traditional to South African culture. Participants will be 15 to 20 women in South Africa who represent diverse ethnic, racial and geo­ graphic perspectives and who are leaders within governmental, non­ governmental and grassroots social movements. 2. An implementation phase (Phase II) which will utilize w orkshop pro­ ceedings as a foundation for developing a program model and re­ searching peace building training for emerging women leaders. McKay again comments on this work in progress: One of the problems we think occurs, and I have discussed this with very experienced people, is that there seems to be a trendiness in doing peace building training and it is a quick affair without extensive and ongoing capacity building (capacity building is key in peace building work) which we see as critical. So a central question is how to develop woman-centered programs to build w om en’s capacitics in peace build­ ing. (McKay, personal communication, 3/12/98)

In another example o f ways in which small projects relate to wider levels of intervention, McKay also notes the direct connections between this project and one of the goals specified in the United Nations Beijing W omen’s Con­ ference Platform for Action (United Nations, 1996), that o f increasing w om en’s capacities for peace building. Included as part of this goal is the development of policy recommendations for governmental and nongovern­ mental organizations about best practices and training models which can help facilitate sociopolitical and psychosocial reconstruction processes (McKay, personal communication, 2/6/98).

Community-Based lntervention-A ngola Psychologists and other mental health professionals are increasingly called upon to treat the survivors o f the chaos that is unattended to in our cities, our rural communities, and in war-torn countries. And yet, often those programs are designed and implemented without tapping the local knowledge

Anne Anderson

15

and resources, often held by w om en for their com m unities. The project described below is an attempt to correct those problem s. Carlinda M onteiro, an A ngolan psychologist in Luanda, has been leading an all-A ngolan team o f mostly w om en, under the auspices o f C hristian C hil­ dren ’s Fund, on a seven-province project to assist w ar-affected children. Since over half the population o f A ngola is under 15, and includes many child soldiers, the problem is im m ense and cannot be addressed through traditional W estern-based individualized treatm ent for PTSD and other re­ lated diagnoses. For one thing, there are very few trained psychologists available and W estern interventions must rcccive appropriate cultural tailor­ ing in order to be effective. But m ore critical to the situation is the fact that “ the psychological w ounds are com m unal and cannot be addressed effective­ ly at the individual and fam ily levels” (W essells, in press). One o f PsySR ’s past presidents, M ichael Wessells, has been w orking with Monteiro and her team in an effort to bring an effective blend o f Western psychological expertise and traditional methods to bear on the problem. Using a “ train the trainers” approach, the team has been conducting sem inars with groups o f people from around the country who have been nominated by their comm unities as trustworthy and effective in caring for children. The team ’s process has been effective in eliciting traditional view s o f what children need to grow up health}', as well as comm unity assessm ents o f the problems chil­ dren are facing today. For instance, in 1995 the team conducted a study o f a nonrandom sample o f 200 unaccom panied chil­ dren who had com e to the capital city, Luanda. . . . Although it was a worst case analysis, the results w ere shocking: 27% had lost their par­ ents, 94% had been exposed to attacks, 66% had witnessed mine explo­ sions and 55 had been victim s thereof, 36% had lived with troops, 33% had suffered injuries by shooting or shelling, 65% had escaped death, and 7% had fired guns. These experiences had a powerful psychological impact on the children w ho exhibited traum a sym ptom s such as fright and insecurity (67% ), disturbed sleep (61% ), intrusive images (59%), frequent thoughts about w ar (89% ), and sensory-m otor disturbance (24%). Moreover, 91% o f children in the sam ple exhibited three or more sym ptom s o f trauma. (Wessells and Monteiro, in press) The team has also been able to teach basic W estern-based psychological perspectives on child developm ent, and has developed culturally appropriate techniques for helping children w ork through the traum a they have experi­ enced and for helping restore spiritual harmony. For instance, in Angola, . . . traditional B antu societies place a strong em phasis on extended fam ily and com m unity, w hich includes both the living and the spirits of

16

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia the a n cesto rs.. . . The spirits o f the ancestors protect the living com m u­ nity, w hich is an extension o f the ancestral comm unity. If the ancestors are not honored through the teaching o f traditions and the practice o f appropriate rituals, their spirits cause problem s m anifested in poor health, m isfortune, social disruption, and even war. (W essells and M on­ teiro, in press)

Given that the children experiencing the traum a described above are also part o f the Bantu culture, these spiritual, com m unal issues must be part o f the process o f healing. Participants in the project have been using art, dance and m usic as vehicles for the children to address their distress. They have also w orked w ith tradi­ tional healers to handle the difficult problem s o f people not having been able to bury their dead properly, and in arranging for the proper cultural rituals that w ill allow child soldiers w ho have killed to reenter the com m unity and be reunited with their fam ilies w herever possible. These last tw o factors could not have been addressed w ithout a w illingness to listen respectfully to all the voices w ith an openness to understanding the m eaning and significance o f the issues being brought forth. It also required respect for local cosm ologies. W hile there are many traditional A frican cultural practices that are harm ful, especially to w om en, the team is com m itted to gender equity and believes that the process o f listening w ith an eye for healing and prevention o f future problem s can only help with the change process in the long run. This particular project, w hile still in progress and therefore not fully as­ sessed, has had good interim results in reducing problem s o f children’s flash­ backs, sleep disturbances, aggression and social isolation, w hile im proving child-child and adult-child interaction and helping to m obilize com m unities around children’s needs. W orking with local helpers, the team is docum ent­ ing ethnographically traditional healing cerem onies and their impact. The project activities have also been helpful for prim ary caregivers, m ost o f w hom are w om en, w ho them selves have been strongly affected by 35 years o f w ar (W essells, personal com m unication, 2/2/1998).

U NITED N A TIO N S F O U R TH WORLD C O N FE R E N C E O N W O M E N -B E IJIN G , 1995 PsySR and the APA Division o f Peace Psychology, under the auspices o f Women for Meaningful Summits NGO status, sent a delegation o f psycholo­ gists to the NGO Forum that accom panied the official UN W om en’s Confer­ ence in Beijing. A major concern for the delegation was to strengthen the focus of the Conference on peace issues and how they affect w om en’s lives. The delegation led open dialogues on conflict resolution processes in different

Anne Anderson

17

cultures, w om en’s experiences o f human rights violations and the role of forgiveness in conflict resolution. Upon their return, psychologists gave over 100 presentations to comm unity and student groups w ho were interested in the Conference. They reported on the forum and educated people on the signifi­ cance o f the world-wide consensus reached on a number o f issues critical to women w hich appeared as the Platform for Action (United Nations, 1996). The P resident’s Interagency Council for W omen w as charged with the official U.S. follow -up o f the Platform for A ction and invited continuing consultation with N GOs. PsySR participated in the nationw ide conference televised through satellite dow n-links and provided analysis and suggestions both at the roundtables and through w ritten responses. A s peace psycholo­ gists, PsySR especially em phasized the lack o f attention to issues o f peace and w ar in the follow -up agenda. Recently, the Council published its report, “ A m erica’s C om m itm ent: Federal Program s B enefiting W omen and New Initiatives as Follow -up to the UN Fourth World C onference on W om en” (1997). A second report, “ B uilding on Beijing: U nited States N G O s Shape a W om en’s N ational A ction A g en d a” (Stanley Foundation, 1997), is a com ­ pilation o f the suggestions from many N GO s, including PsySR, who contrib­ uted to the dialogue. Even a cursory look at the sections o f the Platform highlights how far the U nited States has to go in m eeting these international goals w ithin our bor­ ders. Fem inist m ental health professionals understand that public policy deci­ sions affect the health, mental health and w ell-being o f the people with w hom w e w ork. For instance, social policy in the U nited States is inextricably tied to the policy priorities that place continued high military spending as a given and also require a balanced budget. Those sam e policies support continued sales o f conventional arm s to alm ost any country w ho pays for them, exacer­ bating the tensions in that area and turning sim m ering conflict into lethal violence. That lethal violence is then used as a rationale for continued high military budgets. Then, to com plete the vicious circle, high military budgets mean decreased resources available for health care, jo b training, child care, environm ental clean-up, etc. It is in our best interests, as fem inist psychotherapists, to use our expertise to advocate for governm ental policies that will alleviate and prevent the devastation we see every day in our o ffices-to help meet the real human needs o f the w om en, men and children o f our world. A nd, w e need to advo­ cate not only for the physical human needs o f people, but also for those psychological needs with w hich w e are most directly fam ilia r-“ the equitable satisfaction o f hum an needs for security, identity, w ell-being and self-deter­ m ination” (Christie, 1997, p. 329). The im plem entation o f the Platform for A ction is a unique opportunity to focus attention on the full range o f human needs with a fem inist lens.

18

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

AD D ITIO NAL RESOURCES The projects reviewed in no way encompass the breadth and depth of the work being pursued by feminist psychologists around the world. Although this article cannot even attempt to be fully inclusive, there are several good resources that can add significant analysis and suggestions for action. The United Nations Report on “ The Impact of Armed Conflict on Chil­ dren” (1996), led by Graca Machel, former Minister o f Education and First Lady of Mozambique, must be mentioned here. It highlights the need for psychosocial interventions at the community level which include supporting and caring for the women who often end up being the sole caretakers o f our w orld’s future generations. Machel brings the point home that prevention of violent conflict must become a priority for the international community and provides a number of specific suggestions for changes in policy. Feminist mental health professionals will find much in this report to support arguments for reductions in conventional arms sales, support for psychosocial services, and shifting resources to meet human needs. A recent book, M yths About the Powerless: Contesting Social Inequalities (Lykes, Banuazizi, Liem, & Morris, 1996), provides a powerful analysis of ways that Western psychology has been misused in the assessment and treat­ ment o f “ other” populations. As feminist psychotherapists participate in the facilitation and development o f more cross-cultural connections, cross-fertil­ ization, partnerships, support systems, research projects, and practice alterna­ tives that match the cultural milieu in which they are to be carried out, we need to tread with care. Banuazizi points out that, . . . the potential role of a culturally sensitive psychology within an interdisciplinary approach to problems o f development in the Third World can be quite significant . . . collaborative efforts between West­ ern psychologists and their Third World counterparts in recent years cannot help but broaden the horizons of both groups. (1996, p. 192)

A N A C T IO N A G E N D A The global fem inist coalition for w om en’s rights as human rights has proven extremely effective in advancing our cause on a global level. Those activists have chosen an issue and pursued it from the grassroots level up to the largest global arena they could find. We, as feminist mental health profes­ sionals, need to do the same thing. I’d like to propose a framework within which we can work together, bringing our many strengths, talents and inter­ ests together to focus on a specific vision-building sustainable, peaceful

Anne Anderson

19

com m unities. This vision encom passes a vast array o f issues from the most local and individual to the global and international. For instance, the projects m entioned above all contribute to the developm ent o f such com m unities. Fem inist psychotherapists can provide psychological perspectives to existing program s and projects or develop their own. I suggest the follow ing strate­ gies as a sam pling for your consideration, in the hopes that they support and encourage your ow n thinking and action. 1. F oster prevention. My ow n personal view is that w c need to place prevention o f all kinds o f violence and oppression at the core o f our work. A lbee and G ullotta note that “ no m ass disorder afflicting hum ankind has ever been elim inated or brought under control by attem pts at treating the affected individual” (p. 19-20). A nd yet, most therapists spend most o f their time w orking w ith individuals or sm all groups. G ather together and think with your colleagues w hat policies and program s you w ant to develop and support in order to prevent the kinds o f devastation you see everyday in your offices. A s A gger did, w e can consider the w ork we do with individuals and, moving w ith appropriate care for the dangers o f innovation, continue to develop creative responses that em pow er w om en and men to m ake societies more just and equitable. 2. Focus on one aspect o f the system. Since the issues are com plex, m ulti­ faceted and structural, no one intervention will cure a problem . By the same token, any intervention can affect the system . So choose one you know about, you feel passionate about, and can do som ething about. 3. R aise questions. Q uestions are pow erful, easy to ask, and give law m ak­ ers im portant inform ation about the concerns o f their constituents. For instance, one does not have to be an expert on a particular issue to ask o n e’s C ongressm an or Senators the sim ple question: “ W hat effect will this p ro­ posed law have on the lives o f w om en in the U.S. and around the w orld?” Treat law m akers and their staff like regular people; use your listening skills w hen you are talking about an issue with them. 4. J o in together as m ental health professionals. Becom e part o f netw orks that address global issues and add your perspective and expertise. For instance, PsySR is developing such a com m unication system called “ Interna­ tional Practitioners’ Netw ork: B uilding Cultures o f P eace.” The m ission o f the N etw ork is to prom ote holistic, equitable, culturally appropriate applica­ tions o f psychology for building peace at all levels. As the m em bership in the N etw ork grow s, practitioners w ith sim ilar interests from different cultures will be able to collaborate and support each other in w ork w hich can often be very isolating and overw helm ing. This form o f collaborative partnership can serve as a model for the peaceful societies w e arc attem pting to build for w om en, m en and children around the world.

20

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia REFERENCES

Agger, I. (1994). The blue room. Trauma and testimony among refugee women: A psycho-social exploration. London: Zed Books. Agger, 1. (1995). Trauma, testimony and social memory, in I. Agger, S. Vuk & J. Miinica (Eds.), Theory and practice o f psycho-social projects under war condi­ tions in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia. European Community Humanitarian Office. Agger, I. (1997). The clean and the unclean, in E. Richter-Lyonette (Ed.), In the aftermath o f rape: Women's rights, war crimes and genocide, pp. 119-123. Givrins, Switzerland: Coordination of W omen’s Advocacy. Albee, G.W., & Gullotte, T.P. (Eds.) (1997). Primary prevention works. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Banuazizi, A. (1996). Psychology, the distant other, and the dialectics o f change in non-Western societies, in M. B. Lykes, A. Banuazizi, R. Liem, & M. Morris (Eds.), M yths about the powerless: Contesting social inequalities. Philadelphia, PA: Temple. Brock-Utne, B. (1985). Education fo r peace: A fem inist perspective. New York: Pergamon. Brown, L.S. (1994). Subversive dialogues: Theory in fem inist therapy. New York: Basic Books. Bunch, C. (1997). W omen’s rights as human rights in war and conflict, in E. RichterLyonette (Ed.), lit the aftermath o f rape: Women's rights, war crimes and geno­ cide, pp. 3-8. Givrins, Switzerland: Coordination of W omen’s Advocacy. Christie, D.J. (1997). Reducing direct and structural violence: The human needs theory. Peace and Conflict: Journal o f Peace Psychology, 3(4), 315-332. Coordination of Women's Advocacy. (1996). Witness Protection: Third consultative working group on gender-specific war crimes between the International Criminal Tribunal & the Coordination of W omen’s Advocacy. Givrins, Switzerland: Au­ thor. Lund, M.S. (1996). Preventing violent conflicts: A strategy fo r preventive diplomacy. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press. McKay, S. (1996). Gendering peace psychology. Peace and Conflict: Journal o f Peace Psychology, 2(2) 93-107. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Machel, G. (1996). Impact of armed conflict on children: Report of the expert of the Secretary-General, Ms. Graca Machel, submitted pursuant to General Assembly resolution 48/157. United Nations (A/51/306, 26 August, 1996). Murphy, B.C. (1995, June). Ecological feminism and peace psychology: A natural connection. Paper presented at the 4th International Conference on the Contribu­ tions of Psychology to Peace, Capetown, South Africa. Psychologists fo r Social Responsibility. (1997). Psychologists for Social Responsibil­ ity: Using psychological knowledge to build a peaceful world. Washington, DC. President’s Interagency Council on Women. (1997). America’s commitment: Federal programs benefiting women and new initiatives as follow-up to the UN Fourth World Conference on Women. U.S. Department of State, Washington, DC.

A nne A nderson

21

Richter-Lyonette, E. (Ed.) (1997). In the afterm ath o f rape: W om en's rights, war crim es and genocide. G ivrins, Switzerland: The Coordination o f W om en’s A dvo­ cacy. The Stanley Foundation. (1997). B uilding on Beijing: U nited States N G O s shape a w om en’s national action agenda. M uscatine, IA: Author. United N ations (1996). Platform for Action and the Beijing Declaration. New York: UN D epartm ent o f Public Information. Van Soest, D. (1997). The global crisis o f violence: C omm on problems, universal causes, shared solutions. W ashington, DC: NASW Press. W essells, M.G., & M onteiro, C. (in press). Culture, healing, and post-conflict recon­ struction in Angola: A com m unity-based approach to assisting war-affected chil­ dren, in U. G ielen, J. Fish, & J. D raguns (Eds.), Culture, Therapy and H ealing.

Interview with Gabrielle Kirk McDonald, President of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia Sara Sharratt

S U M M A R Y . T his frank interview w ith the President o f the Tribunal explores the issues o f social p ow er and the historical dehum anization o f w om en during tim es o f w ar and civil unrest. G ender bias as it relates to sexual assault in the co n tex t o f a w ar is considered along w ith recent legal attem pts to broaden the scope o f w ar crim es to include rape. Judge M cD onald discusses her personal and professional experiences as a civ ­ il rights law yer, a ju d g e and an A frican-A m erican w om an. The intersec­ tion o f ju stice and healing is considered. /Article copies available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-342-9678. E-mail address: [email protected]]

K E Y W O R D S . Race, gender, rape, w ar crim es

SS.

We talk o f en ding im punity so that the v ictim s can heal. A s a th era­ pist, I hear the im plicit connection o f ju stice and healing. T here is no

Gabrielle Kirk McDonald, LLB, is currently the President of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia. Address correspondence to: The Honorable Gabrielle Kirk McDonald, Interna­ tional Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Churchillplein 1, 2517 JW, The Hague, The Netherlands.

23

24

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia peace w ithout justice. Can justice be a form o f psychotherapy? W hat can we do to heal such enorm ous w ounds?

G KM . Well, I guess there are tw o schools o f thought, though there may be several. Some say talking helps to heal and som e people believe that if you talk about things, you risk opening up additional w ounds and perhaps have further need for a psychologist. I am not a psycholo­ gist, but this is my opinion. But having sat through the Tadic trial, I do not really know w hether it is one or the other. I d o n ’t know how to judge w hether it helped or exacerbated the situation for the w itnesses because w e did not do any follow -up. I think just generally, though, based on my ow n life experiences, that it is better to talk about som ething because w hen you keep som ething inside you do not have a discussion w ith anyone except yourself, and you get only w hat you give back. So generally I believe in talking things through. SS.

H ave you ever been in therapy yourself?

GKM . My ex-husband and 1 w ent to therapy when w e w ere going through our divorce. We so frightened this w hite A nglo-Saxon m ale thera­ pist. He w as so shocked [laughs] that w c had been yelling and scream ing in front o f him that he w rote us a letter saying som ething like “ I can see you have very difficult issues to resolve and you must resolve them for the sake o f your children.” He w as not used to black folks. We w ere m arried 18 years and they w ere long tough years. I also w ent to therapy with my son when he w as having som e problem s, and later I w ent for help m yself. SS.

Did you find it helpful?

GKM . No, I did n ’t. W hen 1 look back upon it, I think som e o f the problem s I had should have been identified and acknow ledged. She may have know n w hat they w ere and simply not acknow ledged them. But I do not know enough about psychology, and I think som e psychologists believe that they should not tell you things, but instead let you find out yourself. So maybe that w as her approach. The therapist and I becam e friends afterw ards because she w as an A frican-A m erican w om an w ho belonged to the sam e club for m iddle-class A fricanA m erican urban professionals. SS.

But she did not give you m uch more than silence?

Sara Sbarrati

25

GKM . Right. For a long tim e she just sat there while the fam ily w as in need of help and I w as having problem s coping with all the pain. But that is my personal situation and I tell you that only because it gives you a certain perspective on w hat I perceive as a judge. SS.

How did that experience influence your w ork as a judge?

GKM . I think it m akes you m ore sensitive because I recognize vulnerability in m yself that I had never seen before. I had alw ays been, as I found out, a human w ho w as “ d o in g ” rather than “ b ein g .” I thought I could conquer the w orld and 1 have alw ays been very cause-oriented. I w as a civil rights law yer and w hen you give me a cause I’ll take it on and 1 go with it until the end. I believed that I just could take on anything and nothing w ould stop me and I think that, for the first tim e, I w as going through som ething that I could not control and could not change. That m ade me m ore sym pathetic and em pathic to vulnerability and to people caught in a situation that they cannot get out of. Also, I think it has m ade me m ore aware o f my ow n feelings, allow ing m e to respond m ore naturally to situations. I w as much more guarded before and made sure that my em otions w ere alw ays under control. So in som e respects it m ade it m ore difficult for me because as I w ould be sitting there, listening to the testimony, and I w ould w ant to cry. I have, in a sense, lost som e o f the control that I used to have over m yself, and so it w as m ore difficult for me, as a judge, to cxcrcisc self-control. I w as a jud g e in the United States for ten years. The pressures w ere enorm ous. People expect you to have a greater degree o f con­ trol and w isdom and that you are alw ays right. A s a judge, you do not have the luxury to admit that you do not have all the answ ers. So w hat can happen is that you end up transferring this belief into your personal life. I w as also isolated as a judge, particularly as a Federal judge in the States. W hen I becam e one in 1979 through 1988, I could not keep the relationships 1 had in the com m unity because I w as now part o f a w hite institution that I had alw ays challenged as a civil rights lawyer. That forced me to divorcc m yself from my w hole way o f life. I w as under constant strain. So w hat I learned through therapy is that I do not have to have all the answ ers and that it is all right not to be responsible for everything. SS.

As psychologists, w e learn to protect ourselves. As a judge you have been listening to horrific testim onies o f cruelty. How did you protect yourself?

26

Assault on the Soul; Women in the Former Yugoslavia

G KM . I did n ’t. I d o n ’t . . . SS.

D uring the Tadic case. Some o f the cases . . .

GKM . No. I w as fortunate to have two judges with w hom I w as very close. I mean w c did not have any conflicts with each other. There w as a sensitivity that we had for one another. It is am azing because I was the presiding judge, the youngest, A frican-A m erican and a woman. But I believe I w as respected by both judges. One is ten years older than me, the other 20. Yet they respected me and told me how quick I w as and how much control I had over the trial proceedings. I asked one o f them w hen w e w ere assigned another case, “ W hy d o n ’t you take the position o f presiding ju d g e ? ” “ N o ,” he answ ered, “ you are doing a good job, just keep doing it.” Also, I think it w as a good experience for one o f the judges because he has five daughters. A lthough w e never talked about it, I knew his daughters w ere very activc with fem inist and hum an rights groups in his country. I believe he is a rather conservative person in many respects, and so I think it w as an eye-opener for him to see a w om an in a position o f pow er, w ho, if I may pat m yself on the back [chuckles], did well in a w ay that d id n ’t make him feel uncom fort­ able. He w as at case and did not feel bom barded by my style. I w ouldn’t give m yself an A, but I think I did w ell under the circum ­ stances. My other colleague had trem endous respect for me. His wife is a law yer so he sees me from a different perspective. Also, w hen the judges w ere w orking on the rules, som e w ere not vocal when we w ere addressing the issue o f sexual assault. There w ere others w ho were. But the experience o f w orking with a w om an they respected enabled them to at least cam ouflage their perspective. H owever, it’s the little experiences w hich change people for the better. I rem em ber one incident in the Tadic case. A w itness testified about reportedly being raped. It w as so horrendous, one rape after another. My colleagues w ere visibly m oved and very disgusted by it. I bet if w c had considered the rules on sexual assault after hearing this testimony, som e o f the judges w ould have had a different atti­ tude. There w ere a couple o f days w hen I w as really upset. SS.

By the testim ony?

GKM . Yes. M ostly by w hen I think o f there w as som e loss. W hen you

the m agnitude o f it and som etim es I still choke up it. It w as not just the graphic nature o f it, although vivid testim ony. M ostly w hat affected me w as the hear people like this w om an, le t’s call her N atasha

Sara Sbarrati

27

K, w ho testifies that she has lost 35 people in her fam ily, and then the prosecutor asks her to look at photo after photo, and she says this w as her husband, this w as her uncle, and this w as her father-inlaw . . . You listen to that kind o f loss and it’s ju st unbearable. I read an articlc by one w riter w ho said that w hile listening to the testimony, he saw me visibly grim ace on one occasion. My face is very expressive, so 1 probably did. For exam ple, a w itness testified that he w as at O m arska [detention center and site o f num erous war crim es]. One son had already been killed on the way there. He and his other son w ent to O m arska together. One day he was asked to go and get his son. So he called him and he cam e out and said, “ Father, take care o f my fam ily.” And he testified that he never saw his son again. I can see this man. 1 can still see these people. SS.

So w hat did you do?

GKM . I read mystery books by the ton. B ecause you can just lose yourself. I also talked a lot w ith my own son. He and I are very close. There is a group o f A frican-A m erican w om en here and w e get together every now and then. A fter the Tadic verdict, I w as telling them how upset I was. I stayed up the night before w riting, trying to figure out w hat I w ould say to this m an, and I w rote w hat I then read the next day. I read it and when 1 got to the point o f reading about the conflict with the M uslim s and w hy did he do it, I said: “ W hy? W hy?” Elizabeth [Judge O dio Benito, the only other fem ale judge] thought I was going to cry. I w as nervous, but I w as also upset. I w as not trying to be dram atic because I am not a dram atic person. I asked “ w h y ” but 1 did not expect an answer. But it w as the question that stuck with me throughout the proceedings. A nd then I said, “ It cam e to p ass” and I had w ritten that. And w hen I said it, it w as like, “ Oh G o d ” ; it came to pass because before then there w ere thousands o f M uslim s in the area and afterw ards there w ere only about 300. So again I w as touched by the loss, by the m agnitude o f it. It is not just one individual doing horrible things to another. It is absolute inhum anity to man, as we say. SS.

Do you think that evil is inevitable? H ave your perceptions about people or the w orld changed?

G KM . No, no! Because w hat is happening here is, in a sense, w hat I have seen as a civil rights lawyer, only that it is happening on a much larger level. Racial intolerance and hatred has not, in my lifetime, risen to this level o f destruction. Slavery happened a long time be­

28

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia fore I w as born. But it has changed me in large and sm all w ays. For exam ple, although I w as never much interested in “ action” movies, I now cannot bear to w atch violent film s at all. They just m ake me grimace.

SS.

You say it has not changed

your perceptions about people.

GKM . I do not think so. SS.

You w ere the first A frican-A m erican ju d g e to sit in the federal bench. . . . and the third A frican-A m erican w om an in the United States . . . A re there parallels betw een w hat happened to African A m ericans in the USA and ethnic cleansing in the Form er Yugosla­ via?

G KM . Well, it is all based on intolerance and a lack o f respect for differ­ ence, and also a failure to resolve w hat has happened in the past. M any people in the U nited States say, “ W h at’s the problem ? We have the Civil Rights A ct and you are equal. There is no problem .” But you just do not beat som eone for ten years and then stop and say, “ Well, I stopped. W hat is the problem ?” I w ant you to know that you have beaten me for ten years. I want you to acknow ledge the horrific cxpcricncc o f slavery, the com plete destruction o f a culture. President Clinton said last year that there should be a dialogue and an acknow ledgm ent o f w hat happened. A m ore direct acknow ledg­ ment. SS.

You are talking about a m ore direct acknow ledgm ent. W hat kind do you have in mind?

G KM . I do not know. I do not know that you can have it on a mass level. I look m ore to individual hum an relationships. SS.

But the French apologized to the Jew s and I thought Clinton at one point w as suggesting an apology.

G KM . I do not know w hat form it w ould take. I suppose it helps [pensive]. I guess it w ould affect individual relationships. Som etim es you do not want to even bring up race. I have many w hite friends, but 1 do not even w ant to bring up the topic o f race w ith them. SS.

W hy not?

Sara Sharratt

29

GKM . B ecause, w e ll. . . It depends. If they are not close friends, if they are business acquaintances, I know they believe it is all over and hap­ pened a long time ago, so le t’s not talk about it. So you do not want to destroy that kind o f relationship. You w ant to be accepted. W hat is good about me being here [i.e., Europe] is that I do not have to face this race problem that has pursued me my w hole life. That is w hy I went to Law School. My m other w as half Sw edish and half A frican-A m erican, but she looked w hite so there w ere many instances w here we had problems. She w as lighter than I am, very light. A s a single exam ple, once in N ew York I made an appointm ent over the phone at the sam e beauty parlor w here my m other has her hair w ashed and cut. H owever, w hen I arrived, I w as told right to my face that they did not do “ that kind o f hair,” even though my hair is not that different from my m other’s. It is a relief to be in Europe. It is less personally agonizing. W hen I sit on the bench, I am used to, not to the horrible atrocities, nobody can get used to that, but I am used to the concept o f people being intolerant to each other. A t the Tadic trial, I asked a principal, “ How can you explain these atrocities w hen M uslim s, C roats and Serbs had gone to school together, lived together, interm arried with each oth­ er?” Now, I asked him this question because I w anted to know about the conflict, but also because I w anted to know for myself. How can you explain this im portant battle for desegregation in the 1950s and it’s now thought that everybody is going to go to school together and supposedly everything is okay, yet it is not. There is re-segregation and there is intolerance on a different level. I w as once having dinner with an A frican-A m erican w om an at a Thai restaurant in The H ague. I told her, “ You know, if I w ere in the United States right now with this slow service I w ould put on my N A A C P button and think it w as racism . But it’s ju st slow serv ice.” People like A m ericans here. So it feels like a burden has been lifted from my shoulders not having to expect a daily affront. SS.

Are you saying they like A frican-A m ericans?

GKM . A m ericans. Period. I think the Dutch love A m ericans. I think they look upon me as an A m erican and not as an A frican-A m erican. For the first tim e in my life, I do not have to face it. So it might have been easier for me, but it also hurt more because I saw it happening again. So w hen I asked “ W h y ?” I w as trying to get an answ er about this conflict, but I w as also trying to get an answ er for myself. W hy do people do this to each other?

30 SS.

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia H ave you com e up w ith an answer?

GKM . No [em phatic]. The principal answ ered my question by saying that he did not know, that a madness had just taken over. So in effect you had these latent feelings, sim ilar to those existing in the U nited States, these old w ounds dating back from World War II or maybe even from 1389 w hen the O ttom an Turks defeated the Serbs. They held onto these feelings and passed them dow n from generation to generation. Then, you have a group o f pow er-hungry politicians on both sides w ho are feeding and fueling these old w ounds and old grievances that have never been resolved. O f course, I do not expect the sam e thing to happen in the U nited States, but there are sim ilari­ ties. SS.

I w ant to go back to som ething. You said that m aybe there should be an apology to A frican-A m ericans, that m ore needs to be done. I w as thinking in terms o f race and in term s o f w om en here. Should there be a m onum ent for rape victim s? Should w e have international de­ clarations o f repudiation o f rapists? Should w e do m ore or do things differently?

GKM . I w as talking to Elizabeth [Judge O dio B enito w as also interviewed in this volum e] ju st this m orning about the num ber o f rape Indict­ ments. Yes, there should be a m onum ent, but before you get one, you have to be seen to deserve it. The way that you do that is to get the story o f rape out. We know it happens in w ar all the time but w hat we hear is, “ Oh, I guess boys will be b o y s.” I recently confirm ed an Indictm ent and rape had not been chargcd. There w ere one, two, three Indictm ents, m ajor Indictm ents and w hile rape had been chargcd in one Indictm ent, but it w as not charged in the m ajor one. A s soon as I looked at the Indictm ent, I called the prosecutor assigned to the case and asked him about it and he said, “ Wc do not have any statem ents. T here is no support for it.” So I said, “ You know me. I am going to go through every single page, every single page o f this m aterial, and if I find som ething, I am going to tell y o u .” I w orked through it all and I found num erous statem ents referring to rape. One o f the physicians w ho had treated rape victim s had not even been contacted to find out w hether there w ere any w ho w ould w ant to talk about it. In the statem ents, the w om en said that they w ould be w illing to testify. It w as not like they w ere saying, “ This happened to me and I d o n ’t w ant to talk about it.” That is usually the excuse given, that they do not w ant to talk about it. If they do not w ant to, that is another story.

Sara Sliarratt

31

I called a legal assistant and I said, “ We have som e problem s here and I need you to help m e.” Wc prepared a w hole list o f references to rape in the m aterial. So w hen 1 confirm ed the Indictm ent I said, “ N ow I w ant to get into som ething else. Rape has not been chargcd. Let me go through w hat I have found. ” I w ent through it affidavit by affidavit. I turned each page and ju st kept on going, affidavit by affidavit. T hen, in one Indictm ent, rape w as charged on the basis o f an affidavit that had been redacted; they had deleted all the names and everything about the w om an that w ould identify her. In another Indictm ent, the w hole affidavit w as in there but w as not redacted. Right there in the m aterial. The prosecutor w as not even charging rape. They w ere shocked by that. So I say that before you get a m onum ent, you have to earn it, m eaning that rape has to be charged; it has to be brought out; it has to be a part o f the trial. So far, this has not happened. The num bers are certainly there: 20,000 or more w om en have been raped in this war. You do not get a m onum ent unless there is an acknow ledgm ent that you are a hero or a heroine. SS.

So you are saying that there are not enough indictm ents?

G KM . Yes. I saw the prosccutor a couple o f days later at a party and he cam c over and said, “ Gaby, I am sorry.” He acknow ledged it, and w as personally com m itted to charging rape as a w ar crime, yet sincc he left us there has been no m ovem ent on this front. This case has gone on and there is no w ord o f rape. They charged rape in the biggest of the cases and I bet they do not have m ore evidence than w as available here. There is a danger, in my estim ation, o f running aw ay from the issue. It can be very difficult to identify with w o m en ’s issues, for men becausc o f their position o f power, and for w om en because som e may be reluctant to be identified as w om en. They w ant to pretend that they are equal and that they m ade it on their own. W hen w e talk about sex crim es, sex and gender are im portant. Many w om en do not w ant to acknow ledge gender or race. Yet in this way the form er C hief Prosecutor w as an exception, he w as com m itted to the cause. SS.

You said race . . . And that is true, too.

G KM . All through my life it has alw ays been race first and gender second, and w hen I becam e a judge there w ere som e w o m en ’s groups who said, “ Look, you h av en ’t been active in w o m en ’s g ro u p s.” I said, “ I have filed law suits against every m ajor corporation in this area and

32

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia all the petro-chem ical com panies.” You can only take on one cause at a time and I have taken on the w o m en ’s cause. I m ean on the rape issue, I participated in the First N ational W om en’s Political Caucus, spoke on the sam e panel w ith Sarah W eddington o f Roe vs. Wade. But in my experience it has alw ays been race first.

SS.

Has it shifted?

G KM . Yes, it has shifted. It has shifted particularly in the Tribunal because rape has been used as a w eapon o f w ar and therefore gender issues have becom e very im portant. It is m ore obvious to me now. SS.

I am w ondering, do you think that your election as President o f the Tribunal represents a turning point?

G KM . Yes, I suppose so. I have already given one interview to Hum an Rights Watch who w ere doing a study on rape. I told them , “ Rape has been used as a w eapon o f w ar in this instance in the Form er Yugoslavia, and for the first time it is specifically listed as a crime. We should treat it like any other new w eapon. If there w as a new rocket that w as devastating in its destructive capacities, w o uldn’t we w ant to focus on it and m ake sure that we stopped it before people started using it all the tim e?” Rape does not only destroy w om en, it destroys the family. SS.

In the States, many w om en d o n ’t w ant to testify because they feel they are being violated again by the system . Is, for exam ple, crossexam ination unfair?

G KM . Yes, that is true. O ur rules establish the principle that consent is not a valid defense and also that prior sexual conduct is inadm issible. So our rules are very far-reaching in this respect. SS.

But it docs depend on w ho is the presiding judge. I have seen judges here in the Tribunal w ho do not exercise sufficient control, resulting in the abuse o f the victim.

G KM . I w ouldn’t have allowed that to happen to any w itness but obviously I have m ore sensitivity because o f w ho I am. A s a w om an, I can feel the act o f rape. I can em pathize with it. M en look at it differently, if they are sensitive. It is alm ost as though they see them selves in the shoes o f the perpetrator, and they see m ore the dam age that can be w rought because they could be a perpetrator them selves. I feel, as a

Sara Sharratt

33

potential recipient, that I can feel the pain more. 1 d o n 't w ant to be too graphic, but I can feel it in my body m ore than they can. SS.

B ecause cross-exam ination is so much a part o f the com m on law system , many w om en in Europe are shocked that rape victim s are subjected to this proccss. They see it as extrem ely violent. A re we, for historical reasons, placing too m uch em phasis on the rights o f the accused, and not enough on the rights o f the victim ?

GKM . C ertainly the rights have to be balanced, particularly at the ICTY, because our statutes direct the judges to provide rules for the protec­ tion o f victim s, and especially victim s o f sexual assault. N o other system has a sim ilar provision. In the U nited States it is horrible because w om en are put on the stand. I mean they are put on trial. For exam ple, the w hole business w ith M ike Tyson, the discussions that I have had with my son w ho is not at all sexist. The frequent argum ents that my daughter and I had w ith him about why she w ent to M ike T yson’s room. She w ent to his room , but that d oesn ’t m ean she w as going to consent to sex, and even if she w ent there thinking about it, she still had the right to say “ N o ” at any particular time. I can go up there to have drinks or w hatever, but I d o n ’t have to have sex. I can change my mind and say, “ I d o n ’t w ant a drink anym ore.” SS.

I w onder if, as a North A m erican, your sense o f justice has changed since being here?

GKM . I suppose so. The trials w e ’ve held are not ju st about individual accountability, although that is our prim ary goal. There has to be individual accountability so that there w o n ’t be group stigm atization. Wc also have to record w hat has happened so that it w o n ’t happen again. N ever again. So, I look upon justice now in a som ew hat broader fashion. SS.

W hat do you m ean by group?

G KM . We d o n ’t w ant to stigm atize a w hole group o f people, but it is a m ajor problem . It is not ju st one man killing som eone, or one man killing several people. It is the question o f why did he do that? W hat w as the cause o f this? W hat w as the role o f the m edia? W hat w as the role o f the politicians? W hat w ere the group dynam ics? Not that you blam e all Serbs, C roats or M uslim s in the group. D uring the Tadic trial there w as evidence w hich suggested that these politicians had

34

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia com pletely taken over the media, and look w hat happened. A lthough w c talk about individual accountability, there is m ore to it than that because it is a com m unity problem. It is a com m unity problem because o f the attitudes that people, as a group, have for one another. However, that d o esn ’t mean that w hen a Serb is tried the w hole Serb nation is on trial. But in a sense it does go beyond the individual, because you need to look at w hat caused the individual to act in the way he did, so that you can hopefully avoid repetitions in the future.

SS.

W hen you looked at Tadic w hat did you feel?

GKM . I used to look at him a lot and I kept him w ith me a lot. M aybe I becam e a little obsessive. I kept testim onies in my head becausc I had to concentrate so m uch. I ’d look at him som etim es and just try to figure out w hat w as going through his head and w hat kind o f a person he was. And the key thing for me w as w hen he said, “ N o­ body else seem ed bothered about w hat w as going on. I d o n ’t think anyone is guilty.” That kind o f thinking is probably w hat allows him, and other people, to keep their sanity. They feel that w hat they w ere doing w as all right because everyone w as doing it. I ’d look at him and I ’d catch him looking at m e and it w as really a strange kind o f a relationship that developed. SS.

A relationship?

GKM . Yes. I ’d often look directly at him and h e ’d look at me. I think that he knew that I carried clout and if he could convince me, I w ould be sym pathetic. He picked up on things w hen I asked questions, and he pointed out loopholes. He had already seen them . He w ould then look at me and volunteer the answ er to a loophole that I had m en­ tioned during the trial. I d o n ’t know. It w as a strange relationship. SS.

Were there tim es w hen you liked him ? Liked him in the broadest sense o f the word?

GKM . No, though I know w hat you mean. It w as not liking so much as he becam e part o f this court fam ily alm ost. You sit in that room , that little tiny room , w eek after w eek, m onth after month. We w ent through 73 trial days and he w as a m ajor part o f the process. I was very conscious o f the fact that he w as there, very conscious o f him. He becam e a part o f my life, really, for a long time. SS.

Do you still think about him?

Sara Sharratt

35

G K M . N o, I have m oved on to other things now. W e’ve go t other issues. A nd I am very busy as president and see the issues from a broader perspective. You are talking about the trem endous personal im pact that these experiences have and how there is no w ay o f g o in g through them w ithout having them affect your life. 1 rem em ber w hen I w ent back to the States one year, and I w as angry that m ost people knew alm ost nothing about Y ugoslavia. I really get angry about that. I speak to A m ericans and I tell them , “ A m ericans are not interested because Y ugoslavia is thousands o f m iles aw ay and the people have these funny nam es you c a n ’t pronounce. W hy should you carc? B ecause it is im portant in a m oral sense. H ow can anyone not care about the destruction o f h u m an k in d ?” SS.

If you are g o in g through a rough tim e, they often say it m eans that you are not strong. N o, it m eans that strength encom passes v u lnera­ bility.

G K M . Yes, that’s true, and being able to acknow ledge pain. In the past there w as a com m only heard phrase, “ blacks and w om en,” and A lice W alker asked, “ W hat about black w o m en ?” T here w ere black people, m ainly m en, and there w ere w om en, m ostly w hite. B lack w om en w ere totally out o f the picture. For m any A fri­ can-A m erican w om en, there has been a struggle to identify with fem i­ nism. W hat I gathered from w hat you w ere saying before is that for you it had to be a split. I w as in the South and the sam e w om en w h o w ere fem inists w ere either m arried to w h ite m en w ho w ere racist or racists them selves. You see, racism w as so dom inant in the South that I had a difficult tim e connectin g w ith them , especially because I w as suing their husbands, or m en w ho looked like them , w ho w ere heads o f co rp o ra­ tions. We are talking about the early 1970s. I w ent to H ouston in 1969. I once saw an article in the N ew York Tim es that said that m ost o f society has alw ays looked at black m en to speak about black issues, and at w hite w om en to speak about w o m en ’s issues. W here is the black w om an? S he is not in the equation. If w c look at my daughter, she is ju st as ardent as a fem inist as I w as in m y w ork in civil rights. She ju st rem inds m e so m uch o f m y self and she is very active in w o m e n ’s g roups, A ID S and oth er issues. S he is an ardent fem inist because tim es have changed. We d o n ’t have the sam e types o f race issues, though I still believe that w hite w om en have benefited m ore from the civil rights m ovem ent than black people have. You see m ore w hite w om en in m anagerial p ositions in the U nited States

36

Assailli on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia than you see blacks in those positions. In Europe I d o n ’t see that, so it is so nice that one d o esn ’t have to be concerned w ith racc issues on a personal level. I am now at a point in my life w here I am m ore conscious o f the fact that I am a w om an w ho is faced with different issues than the men here. M ore than being a black person, I feel that I am a wom an, and this aw areness has allowed me to focus on my gender and what it m eans in my relationships.

SS.

D oes it surprise you that the men in the Foca Indictm ent have not been arrested?

GKM . W hen I met with the M inister o f Justice in France, w ho is a w om an, I made specific reference to that Indictm ent even though I have as President said that I w as not going to talk about K aradzic and M ladic by name. But I bent the rules a little bit and talked about it and sent her the Indictm ent. I also spoke w ith the French Foreign M inister and told him about the case. I told him, “ Let me show you on the map w here Foca is.” He said, “ Let me see that m ap .” He gave it to an assistant and told him to make a copy. I said that I w ould send him the Indictm ent in French. It will certainly be on their minds. SS.

You are saying that because Foca is in the French sector. The Indict­ ment is all about crim es com m itted against w om en. Do you think that has got anything to do with it?

GKM . I have no idea, but there is an attitudinal crisis that m akes it seem like it’s okay. “ These m en are under strain and, after all, they have only raped.” I still think th ey ’ve got the mentality that “ Boys will be boys.” I rem em ber reading about an Allied m ilitary com m ander in the Second World War w ho w as questioned about this issue and he said, “ In tim es o f w ar this will happen and you can expect it o f our troops.” You hear rum ors about UN troops them selves. That they w ere im plicated in raping also. In rapes, in forced prostitution. So, it brings up a w hole range of issues that I d o n ’t think they want to facc. We are not talking about women like you or me. We are just talking about w om en in general. In the one case that I confirm ed, this w om an w as held for w eeks on end and w as raped repeatedly by g roup after group. It w ould just turn your stomach. However, they will not find it as justifiable w hen you talk about it in terms o f enslavem ent. It presents an entirely different dim ension of w hat is acceptable in tim es o f war. If men w ere held and becam e

Sara Sliarratt

37

victim s o f sexual assault, o f course they w ould w ant to punish the perpetrators. In Tadic, the testim ony about biting a tcsticlc w as sen­ sational. T h a t’s all they talked about. So if they can talk about that, w hy can ’t they talk about rape? I guess I am contradicting m yself w hen I said people d o n ’t w ant to talk about sexual occurrences. SS.

T hus, w hat is clearly seen as torture w hen it happens to men is not as easily seen as such w hen it happens to w om en. M ost o f the wom en w ho are w riting for this volum e w ent to the form er Yugoslavia. My sense through my contacts with them is that they are traumatized.

GKM . Well, m aybe I am traum atized and I d o n ’t know it. It will take a long w hile for me to feel the full effects o f this cxpericnce. It w as horrible. I couldn’t sleep during the Tadic trial. I think it is still inside me and som etim es w hen I start to talk about Tadic, I feel tears w elling up, I think perhaps because I did not have the luxury o f doing so during the trial. Judges d o n ’t cry, so you just have to sit up there. W hen I cam e back after w e finally sentenced this m an, I felt like I could just let it all out, and I really did cry. I really did, but it’s still inside me, so w hen people ask me “ W hy?” I find I get really upset, and then I start asking about how can people do that to each other? But I have to let go o f the question “ W hy?” It happened and I d o n 't have to solve it. SS.

You’re a judge and I am an expert in hum an behavior, and I have no idea. I d o n ’t know. I d o n ’t understand. I d o n ’t know why. I know that soldiers w ho do that aren ’t human.

G KM . One woman judge I know, who was strongly affected by some o f the testimony, said that maybe she w as not cut out to be a judge. I replied that “ M aybe it is the opposite. Maybe it’s because you get emotional and you feel it, that you should be a ju d g e.” If you d on't express your emotions, you go crazy. The problem, as I’ve said before, is that I’ve learned as a judge to control it. But I’ve suffered on account o f this. I mean you control it all and then, when you finally release it, you som etimes do so in what is not necessarily the healthiest fashion. SS.

I just talked to a H olocaust survivor in Costa Rica, and I asked her about w hat kind o f support she received from her husband w hen she talked about her experiences in the camps. She said that she never discusses it with him. I know, it d o esn 't surprise me.

G KM . How could you not? You know that in the United States in 1957, Central H igh School

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia in Little Rock w as desegregated and, in order to do it, President Eisenhow er had to send in troops. In Brussels, there is a sister o f one o f the “ Little Rock N in e” and another black w om an w ho w as actu­ ally one o f the “ N ine” now lives in H olland. These are all black w om en. They had a 40th anniversary recently and they got together. All these people are my age and so their children are in their 20s. For the first time, the children heard about these things because their parents had never talked about them before. I have read about what w ent on in that high school and I can understand why. You read it and you see the hum iliation that you w ere put through, you w ere kicked and spit upon, and books slam m ed and all kinds o f death threats. You w ant to fight back. Yes. Thank you for giving me a chance to talk with you. It w as very m oving for me.

Interview with Elizabeth Odio Benito, Justice of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia Sara Sharratt

S U M M A R Y . T his interview is w ith a previous Justice o f the Interna­ tional C rim inal T ribunal fo r the F o rm er Y ugoslavia and current VicePresident and M inister o f the E nvironm ent o f C osta Rica, E lizabeth O dio. Such issues as w o m e n ’s rights as hum an rights, the relationship o f justice and recovery and the n ature o f evil are considered, am ong others. [Article copies available fo r a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-342-9678. E-mail address: getinfoQvhaworthpressinc.com]

K E Y W O R D S . H um an rights, w o m en ’s rights, rape, torture, genocide, C osta R ica

SS.

W hat is im portant for us to know about you?

E O B . Perhaps the m ost im portant thing to know w ith respect to my job here is my past experience w ork in g in hum an rights. I cam e to the Elizabeth Odio Benito, Lie. in Law, was a Justice of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and has returned to Costa Rica to fill the elected position of Vice President. Address correspondence to: The Honorable Elizabeth Odio Benito, Office of the Vice-President of Costa Rica, Apartado 2292-1000, San Jose, Costa Rica.

39

40

Assailli oil the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia Tribunal from this field and not from any background as a judge or crim inal attorney. H um an Rights started to becom e prom inent after the Second World War, follow ing the horrendous w ays in w hich hum an rights w ere violated during that conflict. I am not suggesting that hum an rights w ere invented after the w ar but rather that the International Declaration o f Human Rights o f 1948 projected onto the international com m unity what had traditionally been handled by different States at the national or regional level. Thus, it w as only in national legal system s that protection of hum an rights w as encoded. A fter the H olocaust and genocide o f World War II, there w as trem endous pressure to internationalize the protection o f hum an rights. N evertheless, it is obvious that since that conflict there has not been a true synthesis betw een this preoccupa­ tion and the protection and punishm ent o f individuals, which remain the responsibility o f the nation state. We did not create supra-national organizations which could truly protect human rights and punish its violations.

SS.

How did you becom e involved with H um an Rights?

EOB. I w as interested sincc my early life as an acadcm ic and practicing attorney. I becam e aw are then o f the trem endous discrim ination and inequality faced by w om en in the judicial system , and started, to­ gether with other w om en, to try to change som e o f the law s that w orked against us. That w as a tim e in my life w hen I believed that changing the law s w ould change the w orld. A fterw ard, I realized that nothing w as ever that sim ple and that it is much easier to change the laws than to change hum an attitudes and behaviors. In 1978, w hen I becam e M inister o f Justice o f Costa Rica, I focused my attention on the problem s o f political refugees from A rgentina, U ru­ guay and Chile seeking asylum in large num bers in Costa Rica. Shortly thereafter, I becam e a m em ber o f a U nited N ations C om m it­ tee w hich handles funds to rehabilitate victim s o f torture during arm ed conflict. Since then I have been w orking with projects to help rehabilitate people w ho have suffered torture and/or inhum ane and degrading treatm ent during national or international conflicts. SS.

You have been talking about discrim ination against w om en and hu­ man rights. W hen did these interests converge?

EOB. In a way they w ere alw ays connccted but there has certainly been lots o f developm ent in my thinking. W hen I started participating in hum an rights w ork, I did so in a genderless fashion. I developed a

Sara Sharratt

41

gender perspective som e time later, I would say in 1986, when it becam e obvious to me that violations against w om en w ere more serious because they w ere being com m itted against w om en simply on account o f the fact that they w ere wom en. My gender perspective w as clearly a lens through which I have looked at the w orld sincc then. It becam e clear to me also that international hum anitarian law and international public law did not have the m echanism s to dem and individual accountability o f those w ho violate hum an rights laws. It is im portant to rem em ber that violations o f w o m en ’s human rights occur outside what m ight technically be called the context o f armed conflict. Violence against wom en is clearly a m anifestation o f the sam e phenom enon, with dom estic violence, street violence, sexual harassm ent at w ork, and violence during w ar conflict all being m an­ ifestations o f pow er differentials and inequality. W hat becam e more evident and painful w as the realization that there w as in the interna­ tional com m unity neither the m echanism s nor the political will to hold responsible those w ho violate w o m en ’s basic hum an rights. Since I started my w ork in the Tribunal for the form er Yugoslavia, it w as im m ediately clear that there had been heinous, m assive viola­ tions o f hum an rights and w om en’s rights in particular. The situation for w om en has been especially painful because one sees a new com ponent: the use o f rape being as part o f ethnic cleansing. In this war, w e have begun talking about ethnic cleansing just as w e did after World War II. O ur challenge from the beginning, and in this I was accom panied by both Judge M cD onald, Patricia Sellers from the P rosecutor’s office and w ith the support o f C hief Prosecutor Judge Goldstone, w as to m ake sure that the serious nature o f the crimes against w om en w as acknow ledged, investigated and prosccutcd. SS.

You w ere the judge w ho confirm ed the petition for a deferral in the case o f Dusko Tadic and you publicly appealed to Judge G oldstone when you said, “ Do not forget the w om en.” This w as broadcast by CNN and other m edia w orldw ide. That w as an unusual step for a judge. W hat w as the reaction? Did you receive support or not?

EOB. From the perspective o f a traditional judge, I guess it w as unusual. But rem em ber that I told you that I did not com e to the Tribunal as a judge or academ ic. I w as not a professional jud g e and I think it is true that they have a different attitude. I cam e as an activist w ho expresses concern for the violation o f hum an rights and does not think it may have a negative impact. I guess it w as the gesture o f a novice.

42 SS.

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia Do you regret it?

EOB. No, not at all. On the contrary. If I had to do it over again, I w ould do it even m ore forcefully than the first time. SS.

A re you saying that you w ere criticized or did not receive support?

EOB. I w as not criticized directly but I w as told in the Tribunal o f the “ concern” expressed by som e judges. H owever, I never received any criticism from my two colleagues. They did not say anything. I found out later from an old friend o f mine that there has been a great deal o f discussion about the proper behavior o f a judge w ith the clear im plication that I had fallen outside o f those param eters. It w as felt that I w as pronouncing judgm ent ahead o f time. I thought I was doing that in term s o f the application o f norm s. I w as expressing my ow n w orries about the T ribunal’s political future and legal work. If w e had started w orking on cases from an arm ed conflict in the form er Yugoslavia w here the U nited N ations legal docum ents docu­ m ented massive rape o f w om en and there w as not a single mention o f rape in this indictm ent, I thought I had a very valid reason for expressing my concern. I w as w orried that oncc again w e w ere going to invisibilize w hat had happened to w om en with the pretext that we did not have any evidence or that no one w as talking about rape. However, I also received support: I found out that it w as extrem ely im portant for many w om en to hear my intervention, and that it continues to be im portant for them to know that there is a supporting presence w ithin the Tribunal. SS.

You were in Vienna in 1992 for the International C onference on Human Rights. W omen from all over the w orld organized a mock Tribunal, o f which you w ere one o f the judges, to hear testim ony from w om en about violations o f hum an rights. A fter hearing w renching testimony, you said with tears in your eyes that maybe you w ere not made to be a judge. Now, you have been a judge. Do you still feel the sam e way?

EOB. [Laughs] We had a very different situation in Vienna. In the first place, I did not really have much idea about w hat that Tribunal w ould be like. In Vienna, w e had acts o f profound solidarity w here w e created w hat we called the “ Tribunal o f C onsciencc” in order to hear the testim ony o f w om en w ho had suffered, in a num ber o f contexts, heinous violations o f their basic hum an rights. A s I said before, we w ere trying to link the different kinds o f violence under

Sara Sharratt

43

the sam e um brella. We w ere struggling to ensure that everyday and “ exceptional” violence against w om en would be recognized as hu­ m an rights violations and help extract them from the private sphere where they had been kept hidden for ccnturies. In the Tribunal, w e heard testim ony from w om en who had been battered at hom e, su r­ vived incest, had been tortured by police w hile under arrest or raped during an arm ed conflict. It w as very m oving, especially to hear w om en from the form er Yugoslavia, M uslim s, Croats and Serbs, talking about what they had gone through, and w hat they expected to go through in the future. A t that tim e it w as still in the middle o f the war. All o f this took place in one session. I w as not prepared to hear about that much indiscrim inate, unjust and painful violence. I felt totally overw helm ed and publicly said so. I did not feel I could be impartial in the contcxt o f so much violence com m itted against wom en. SS.

How docs one prepare for such an event and do you think it is possible not to have a m ultitude o f feelings?

EOB. It is very difficult. I have felt sim ilarly in this Tribunal. I feel this solidarity, w hich instinctively links me with those w ho have suffered atrocities and, if anything, I feel even stronger about it than before. Seeing at close range the trem endous pain and agony o f w om en and m en caused by w ar has only strengthened my com m itm ent to fight against the violation o f anybody’s hum an rights. I have seen the violence suffered by civilians w ho have nothing to do with the politi­ cal gam es o f these w ars. I have seen them and I shudder. SS.

A s I listen to you, it rem inds me o f my w ork as a therapist w here I learned to protect m yself in order to m aintain som e professional distance, even though I knew it w as im possible to avoid having feelings.

EOB. Exactly. That is the way it is. It is not possible to separate feelings and thoughts. I do not believe in that. In my ow n case, my feelings are right there and are part of w hat I listen to when I am paying attention to the testimony. I have also learned that the accused is protected by the presum ption o f innocence and is also a human being. One has to be very careful. A s judges w c evaluate the ev i­ dence with freedom o f conscicncc. SS.

Would you then say that you are cut out to be a judge?

EOB. I w ould say that my w ords in Vienna w ere said in a different context and my experience here proves that I can be a judge.

44 SS.

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia Do you think that it w ould make you a better judge?

EOB. Yes. One can be a better judge if one has direct experience w ith the victim s, as happened to me in Vienna. SS.

It has been over four years since you made your rem arks in the Tadic deferral hearing. Did your fears prove to be justified?

EOB. I w ould say yes. In spite o f my rem arks and Judge G oldstone’s efforts, the indictm ents that follow ed did not reflect the crim es com ­ mitted against the w om en. I w as responsible for confirm ing the first form al indictm ent after that, namely the N ikolic case. In that indict­ ment, there w as no m ention w hatsoever o f crim es or sexual abuse com m itted against fem ale detention cam p prisoners. SS.

Could he have been im plicated?

EOB. Yes, because in the U nited N ation’s report by the Special R appor­ teur, that w as one o f the regions w here m assive rapes w ere reported to have occurred. I w as told, because I asked, that it had not been possible to gather evidence. A fter that, both Judge M cD onald and m yself had to really struggle to ensure that w hat happened to the w om en w ould be reflected in the indictm ents. T herefore, my con­ cern w as quite valid. SS.

In another historical case, the equivalent to a trial in absentia of K aradsic and M ladic, it w as obvious that you w ere spearheading w ith our colleagues the struggle for rape to be considered one o f the w eapons o f ethnic cleansing. That becam e part o f the official record w hen the conclusions w ere read. That w as a historical first. You are currently one o f the judges in a trial w here rape has been charged as torture and two fem ale w itnesses have testified in court about their ow n rapes with the alleged rapist in the courtroom . That is again unprecedented in the history o f International Tribunals. In spite o f all the obstacles, it is obvious that w om en can have a trem endous im­ pact. Did you believe that before?

EOB. W hen the Tribunal w as created, all the official U nited N ations docu­ m ents m entioned crim es com m itted against w om en, especially the m assive rapes o f w om en o f all ages. N evertheless, the first unpleas­ ant surprise cam e w hen only two w om en got elected to the Tribunal out o f a total o f 11 judges. To me that w as a bad sign because I had hoped that if m ore w om en w ere part o f the Tribunal, their presence

Sara Sharratt

45

would serve to m ake these crim es m ore im portant in the proceed­ ings. The two o f us have had a long difficult struggle, although we w ere supported by som e o f our colleagues. 1 im agine Judge M cD on­ ald w ould feel the sam e way. But the need for more w om en has been painfully evident during these years. D uring the next four years, there are only tw o w om en again. A lw ays two. SS.

Was it lonely?

EOB. Yes. It w as true in the beginning and I think it continues to be true today that w o m en ’s organizations and N on-G overnm ental O rganiza­ tions (N G O s) have not kept as close w atch over the proceedings as they should have, especially in the very early stages. I think the lack of vigilance w as a m istake on our part, and w e should have actively supported the Tribunal rather than rem aining silent. A lso, w e should have given more publicity to the Foca indictm ent. There w as alm ost no reaction w hen it came out; virulent criticism w ould have been preferable. W hen som ething im portant happens, w e should make it know n w orldw ide. T here must be an echo o f w o m en ’s voiccs so that each time these voiccs get louder and m ore difficult to ignore. If they are transform ed into isolated scream s, if there is not a universal cry, we will have a hard tim e getting to w here we w ant to go. SS.

You are currently involved in a case against three M uslim s and one Croat. W hat do you feel when you look at them?

EOB. I have been really sorry and angry at the irony o f life that has made m e one o f the judges in the only case w here the accused are M us­ lims. They suffered the highest num ber o f casualties in w hat had been recognized as num erous crim es against hum anity; w om en w ere m assively and system atically raped as part o f an ethnic cleansing strategy; their m onum ents w ere bom bed w ith the sole intent o f de­ stroying their culture. So it is ironic that three out o f the four accused are M uslim . It is very painful to realize and I have often asked m yself how people w ho know suffering can becom e victim izers of others. W hat happens to solidarity and em pathy? The four men arc hum an beings. W hen I w orked with inm ates in Costa Rican jails, I learned very quickly that w hat separates the perpetrator inside from the one outside has a lot to do with chance and politics. W hat m akes an individual com m it an offense is quite com plcx. I have often m et in jail individuals w ho I w ould say are very good people, w ho w ere helping other people in jail adjust and change. O ften the older folks w ould be w orried about the younger

46

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia ones and advising them on how to stay out o f trouble. Lots o f them wanted to better them selves and lots o f them did. For these reasons, the four in front o f m e are not any different. How people got caught up in M ilosovitch’s perverse and crim inal discourse is som ething for all o f us to think about. But one thing is for sure: the consequenccs will be hard to erase.

SS.

You w ere not reelected in the last elections. W hen I talked to w om en’s groups in the U nited States, I w as told that they w ere not inform ed that the election w ould be taking place that day. W ere you disappointed?

EOB. I w as very disappointed and disillusioned, especially with my own governm ent w hich did nothing to prom ote my candidacy. They did not care essentially because I am a m em ber o f the opposition party. It also show ed a total lack o f interest in w hat is happening at the Tribunal. But I w as also very disillusioned because I felt alone. I felt that my friends in struggle from Vienna had disappeared. It is true that the election w as not publicized, but it w as public. It w as know n that national governm ents w ere m aking their m oves w ithin the U nited Nations and those w ho w ork or lobby there knew very well w hat was happening. It w as know n that my candidacy w as going to be sub­ mitted and I did not get one w ord o f support from any o f the w om en ’s groups, including those in Costa Rica. A s a candidate from a sm all country, I w ould have needed a great deal o f support from the w om en ’s comm unity. Yes, it hurt me and I hope it never happens again. SS.

Do you think it has som ething to do with the w ay w e are politically organized? Is that why wc often do not follow through or give support at crucial times?

EOB. I am sure w e are not very well organized at all. We m ust organize globally in order to change the w orld. Like the old M arxist saying, “ proletarians o f the w orld unite,” I w ould say “ w om en o f the world unite!” My vision o f Yugoslavia strengthens my conviction that we w om en have to change the w orld, because men are not really inter­ ested, as m uch as they say they are or as much as they call them ­ selves fem inists. We alw ays leave each other alone, alm ost as if we felt that once w e win a battle, everything is accom plished and the w om en w ho scored a victory should be able to make it on their own. If we arc left alone, our chances o f success quickly dim inish.

Sara Sharratt SS.

47

You have been a strong supporter and defender o f the Tribunal. You have repeatedly said that there cannot be peace w ithout justice and that w c must put an end to impunity. Do you think getting justice helps with recovery?

EOB. Justice is not the only m eans to achieve pcace. But let’s understand justice in its broadest sense: as som ething that transcends tribunals and as encom passing the need to som ehow redress w hat happened to the victim s. L et’s give victim s o f the conflict an opportunity to be heard, to be supported, to be valued and respected in their grief and loss. Only then will w e be finding paths tow ards justice. W ithout justice, vengeance is given center stage, and vengeance is violence and violence begets m ore violence. In order to put an end to this dow nw ard spiral, victim s have to be heard, respected, valued and seen. I also believe that is im portant to punish individually all or at least som e o f the direct instigators and perpetrators o f these crimes. I believe in individual responsibility for o n e’s actions and that is why I believe in tribunals; they are the only m echanism available to punish the perpetrators w hile giving them a fair chancc to prove their innocence. In this regard I ’m w ary o f the notion o f collective guilt because it includes not only the perpetrators, but also the innocent ones and those w ho actively tried to put an end to the atrocities. Collective guilt can also lead to revenge, w hereas individual guilt confronts the perpetrator with his actions. This is also why I support the creation o f a perm anent international crim inal court. History has taught us that we must fight with all our might against impunity. SS.

You have also been a great spokesperson for the rights o f the victim s. You com e from a juridical system w here there is no cross-exam ina­ tion. W hat is your experience with it, especially with regard to vic­ tim s o f sexual assault?

EOB. In general, I think it is an inadequate m echanism . I say inadequate because during cross-exam ination the intent is to im peach the w it­ ness and not to seek the truth. T his is personally very distasteful to me because it often ends in the hum iliation o f the w itness, and the public exposure o f their w eaknesses sim ply because they have come to testify. I find it offensive, especially w hen it happens to victim s and w itnesses o f rape and sexual assault. It is very cruel and painful to w atch, since w hat the defense is looking for is im peachm ent and, if this is the case, there is an absence o f empathy, respect and hum an com passion.

48 SS.

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia W hat w ould be the alternative?

EOB. W hat exists in continental law. The w itness is not cross-exam ined but re-questioned w hich is different as the intent here is to seek contradictions within the w itness’s testimony. Her personal life, hab­ its and w eaknesses are not used to im peach her. A nd, in the case of rape victim s, previous sexual behavior is often used as a way o f discrediting her. I w as a practicing attorney for many years and I can think o f many instances w here it em erged that the w itness w as lying using their ow n testimony. I did not need cross-cxam ination nor did my col­ leagues in C osta Rica. Really, I find North A m ericans go to frighten­ ing lengths to defend their “ right” to cross-exam ine. SS.

A nglo-Saxon law also has the principle o f the right o f the accused to face in court his accuser. Do you think that it is an absolute right?

EOB. No, no. I do not believe in that either. A nglo-Saxon law is based on som e old and w orthy principles w hich grew out o f the need to protect the rights o f the defendant against institutional abuses. The obvious exam ple is the Inquisition, w here the accused had no right to know w ho the accuser w as or w hat the charges were. That w as a horrible travesty. H owever, the right to a fair trial does not autom ati­ cally imply cross-exam ination or the right to face the accuser in court. In my opinion and that o f others, the defendant should even have the right not to appear during the trial, so long as they are represented by an attorney. I also believe, again contrary to the tradition o f A nglo-Saxon law, in trials in absentia. H ence, I do not feel there is a need for the defendant and the victim to face each other in court, especially in cases o f sexual abuse. SS.

Are you suggesting that the rights o f victim s m ay have been vio­ lated?

EOB. I w ould say that prim ary im portance has not been attached to them. H owever, it’s a very delicate situation as a careful balance m ust be established betw een the rights o f all parties. H owever, in many instances the rights o f the defendant have com e first, often at the expense o f those o f the victim. SS.

Justice can be puzzling. I have heard that there is a higher probability o f going to jail for stealing items from a store than for com m itting genocide. Do you agree?

Sara Sbarrati

49

EOB. I am absolutely in full agreem ent with that. N orth A m ericans’ obses­ sion for serial killers is absurd if we com pare it w ith the absolute indifference they have show n tow ards those w ho are responsible for the genocide in Rwanda or tow ard w hat is happening to w om en in A lgeria and A fghanistan. That is another real genocide. But very few citizens o f the w orld w orry about that. SS.

Do you think Costa Ricans w orry m ore about these genocides?

EOB. I w ould say that because the U nited States is the most pow erful country in the w orld, theoretically it should be the most informed. I have learned that this is not the ease. In Costa Rica, w e are also more preoccupied with individual crim es and with w hat happens in our cities than with international atrocities. In that way, we are very sim ilar to Am ericans. SS.

One parallel is that in w ar m ost o f the atrocities com m itted are against civilians and most o f these are w om en and children. In civil society, crim es against w om en are often ignored, dism issed or tri­ vialized.

EOB. I agree. It is mostly w hite men w ho run the w orld and m ake the political decisions. M ost victim s are w om en and children and since we lack representation in the halls o f power, there is little concern for developing m echanism s to eradicate system atic violence against us. SS.

Even though crim es com m itted against w om en w ere instrum ental in the U nited N ations creating the Tribunal in the first place, it has often been my experience, especially in the early years, that wc as w om en did not exist.

EOB. Yes, it w as profoundly m ystifying and agonizing. C rim es against w om en are hidden. They disappear w hen one reads accounts, num ­ ber o f indictm ents, legal decisions, press reports. I w ould go back to w hat I said before: we needed m ore gender-sensitive wom en. Given that the ratio o f m en to w om en w as so uneven, crim es against men w ere w hat predom inated in all the discourses and concrete actions. SS.

W hat has been the price o f being involved in the Tribunal for the past four years?

EOB. One pays many prices. O ne suffers a l o t . . .

50 SS.

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia W hy does one suffer a lot?

EOB. Because o n e’s identification with hum an suffering becom es sharper and more intense. 1 also now have a total incapacity to tolerate violence. 1 shudder at the slightest hint o f it on television or at the movies. I deliberately avoid violent show s. They hurt me at a level w hich is alm ost unbearable. That is a price. On the other hand, I also think I have developed a deeper maturity which com es not only from aging. SS.

W hat do you m ean by m aturity?

EOB. L et’s say a greater capacity for em pathy, for understanding, for soli­ darity w ith others. A profound feeling that I am part o f a w ounded humanity. SS.

Can you say m ore about that?

EOB. In my previous w ork w ith victim s o f torture, I had identified with their suffering and had seen the devastating consequences in their lives. I had learned that torture w as the m ost perverse punishm ent inflicted upon a human being. It is m ore perverse than m urder be­ cause if one is m urdered at least at som e level the suffering ends. Torture tries to destroy the person, physically, em otionally and psychologically. It also tries to destroy the victim ’s fam ily and all that w as associated w ith that person. Interestingly, though, during all those years nobody talked to me about rape as part o f torture: neither the men nor the w om en. It was only in this Tribunal that I becam e aware that rape is the most heinous form o f torture. I started looking at the four articles o f the Tribunal [i.e., crim es against humanity, genocide, w ar crim es, and violations o f the law s and custom s o f w ar], and I knew w e had to include rape in one o f them , and not only if it w as m assive and system atic as it is the case in crim es against humanity. This is the only place w here the w ord “ rape” appears in our Statute. T his is a legal point but a very important one. I rem em ber feeling it very poignantly: rape is torture and must be m ade a crim e if only a single w om an is raped during an arm ed conflict. Its intent is to destroy the person, and is an evil act. SS.

W hen you spoke o f your previous experiences in South A m erica, rape, w hich we m ust infer happened, w as never spoken about and now it is alm ost as if your work in the Tribunal has brought you closer to the cruelty and pervasiveness o f violence against wom en.

Sara Sharratt

51

EOB. That is true. I have a much keener sense o f the enorm ity o f violence against w om en. By com parison, my previous experience had been focused on individual torture victim s. I had w orked with them as people, trying to help them overcom e som e o f the post-traum atic stress they all suffered from. But the w ar victim s arc so num erous that the w hole experience has m agnified the context into a universal one o f perversity and evil aim ed explicitly at w om en, and this I find very heartbreaking. SS.

W hat do you do w ith this?

EOB. I have been very fortunate to have a close intim ate support netw ork which has allow ed me to survive and to process, as you therapists say, these experiences. Had 1 not had this support, I think 1 would have given up earlier and the personal price w ould have been much higher. T his confirm s my profound conviction that w c need em o­ tional support and kindness to live. W ithout this type o f support, it is very difficult if not im possible to live through these kinds o f experi­ ences. SS.

Has your im pression o f people changcd?

EOB. The daily contact with evil and w ickedness w as very intense. I am a natural optim ist. 1 believe in hum an kindness and that there are m illions o f people w ho are kind and good. Som etim es w hen I get depressed I w onder if w e are not few er in num ber and less powerful than the evil ones. Yet, those m om ents o f despair have also made me w ant to renew my efforts to get the good people o f the planet to join forces. This is why I ask women o f the w orld to unite. I believe a great m any o f us are on the side o f humanity, peace and solidarity. It is not that w e do not have problem s. The choice before us is w hether w e arc going to use w ickedness to resolve them , or w hether w e are going to use kindness and solidarity. SS.

I am hearing you say that, in having closer contact with evil, it has also put you in closer contact with purity and human kindness.

EOB. Yes. O therw ise, I w ould w ant to shoot myself. SS.

Thank goodness you had em otional support. W hat did you do to have fun?

EOB. [Laughs] G o to museum s. Art is the m ost sublim e m anifestation o f hum an kindness. M any artists dedicated their lives to the creation o f beauty and I have a great deal o f adm iration for that.

52 Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia SS.

After you lost the election to the Tribunal, you have been elected Vice-Prcsident o f Costa Rica and appointed M inister o f the Environ­ ment. What do you see in your future?

EOB. A new opportunity to set new goals and engage in new projects. This is very gratifying for me because it was a team effort and intended to make my country a more just and equal society. I am a great believer in teamwork. Now I have been given the additional opportunity to work in a different context which involves seeing the environment as an integral part o f the human development equation. The challenge is not only how to work for nature’s preservation but how to become a harmonious part o f that nature. This is one of life’s curious ironies that I end up working in an area that has been called the third generation of human rights: the right to breathe fresh air; the right to a safe habitat; the right to clean water. Wc are talking about the right to live in societies which co-exist harmoniously with and within nature; the right to use natural resources without destroying them; the need to replace them responsibly. This is what we are talking about when wc discuss the rights of people to sustainable and har­ monious development. I am very enthused about this new direction. SS.

I think it is most fitting that you get a great opportunity to focus on life, human kindness and solidarity. It is about time.

Interview with Patricia Viseur-Sellers, Legal Officer on Gender Issues Sara Sharratt

SUMMARY. In this interview such issues as m orality and integrity, the m eaning o f rape in various social contexts and the dem and for justice from the international com m unity are discussed. In addition to her role in the legal system , V iseur-Sellers discusses her experiences as an A fricanA m erican w om an in the social system s o f Europe, the U nited States and Latin A m erica. T he personal effects o f this w ork on her are also e x ­ plored. [Article copies available for a fee from The Haworth Document Deliv­ ery Service: 1-800-342-9678. E-mail address: [email protected]]

KEYW ORDS. G en d er issues, sexual violence, traum a, w ar crim cs

SS.

C ould you share w ith us som e o f your personal and professional background?

PV S.

1 am a US citizen and Philadelphia, but have been w orkin g in T he Form er Y ugoslavia for

an A frican-A m erican. O riginally, I am from lived in E urope for about 13 years and have H ague at the W ar C rim es T ribunal for the close to five years. I w as a Public D efender in

Patricia Viseur-Sellers is Legal Officer on Gentler Issues, Office o f the Prosecutor o f the International Criminal Tribunal for the Form er Yugoslavia. She also functions as a prosecutor for certain cases dealing with sexual violence. Address correspondence to: Patricia Viseur-Sellers, Office o f the Prosecutor, International Crim inal Tribunal for the Form er Yugoslavia, C hurchillplein 1, 2517 JW, The Hague, The Netherlands.

53

54

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia Philadelphia. Then I w orked in the field o f hum an rights in Latin A m erica at the Ford Foundation, after w hich I w orked in foreign affairs at the European Union before com ing to the Tribunal, w here I ’ve been w orking alm ost sincc its inception.

SS.

You cam e as a gender legal specialist?

PVS. Yes, as a legal advisor on gender issues, for both R w anda and Yugo­ slavia. SS.

W hy a gender specialist?

PVS. The sexual violence and rapes that occurred during the Yugoslavian conflict w ere not only too egregious to ignore, but w ere the focus o f the hum an rights com m unity, and the w o m en ’s com m unity in partic­ ular. It certainly w as know n that countless rapes and other form s o f sexual violence took place. The Secretary G eneral incorporated rape into statutes related to crim cs against humanity, and stated in his report that sexual violence w as considered a serious violation of international hum anitarian law. Therefore, Judge G oldstone and G raham Blew itt [C hief Prosecutor until 1996 and still current D epu­ ty Prosecutor, respectively], asked m e, soon after I arrived, to be the legal advisor on gender-related crim es since they w ere to be an im portant area w ithin our investigations, our evidence and eventual­ ly the prosecutions. SS.

My sense w as that Judge G oldstone’s previous w ork in South Africa was im portant.

PVS.

Com ing out o f South A frica, I think Judge G oldstone had an ease with w hich to understand different types o f pre judice and oppression and how law could either support that oppression or assist in redres­ sing it. He applied this aw areness directly to issues related to sexual violence during w ar time, m aking it som ething that he w anted his office to actively pursue.

SS.

Was he supportive o f you?

PVS.

Yes, he was.

SS.

How?

PVS.

He w as supportive by creating and then asking me to occupy this position. The fact that he placcd me and the issue o f gender at the

Sara Sharratt

55

cabinet level o f the Office of the Prosecutor made it possible for me to intercede in investigations and speak with investigators and law ­ yers horizontally. This was a tremendous help, and I ’m sure if his support was not there from the beginning our ability to address gender issues would have been compromised. SS.

Where else did you find support?

PVS. Within the Tribunal we sometimes underestimate the staff that have professional backgrounds pertaining to sexual violence. There are several attorneys who have worked with sexual violence, including child abuse, within their careers. There was also quite a bit o f sup­ port from lawyers who studied international law and understood the importance of this issue. I think also many women in the office made an attempt to integrate gender policy internally in order to support and accelerate our gender policies in the investigations and prosecu­ tion o f sexual violence. They were very supportive, and caught the connection between their everyday life as women and the possibility of sexual violence during armed contlict. We moved into the second stage under Judge Arbour. Now our policy and operations concentrate on normalizing the inclusion o f sexual violence under our mandates [Judge Arbour is the current Chief Prosecutor. She is from Quebec, Canada], The subject has become more like the air we breathe; it’s no longer disquieting, shocking, intrusive or invasive. Wc have developed a legal frame­ work, an investigative methodology. Moreover, we understand how great an impact the gender o f the interpreter can have on our sexual assault investigations. SS.

That was not taken into account in the beginning?

PVS. Perhaps not consciously. Most o f our interpreters are female. When we developed internal expertise, we started examining and under­ standing more deeply the role o f the interpreter; the gender o f the interpreter; the age o f the interpreter and the nationality o f the inter­ preter. As we analyzed our internal teams, we looked for the best strategy to investigate evidence o f sexual violence. How should an investigation team be configured? How should we amass the evi­ dence? Should we separate sexual violence out from other crimes? Or integrate sexual violence into other crimes? There has been much internal evaluation and, after pointed debate, we decided to have mixed gender teams. SS.

What are the differences that you have found?

56

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

PVS.

A m ajor difference is that, in the context o f a war, the crim e o f rape is no longer “ ju s t” rape. It’s a crim e against hum anity m anifested through sexual violence. It’s a w ar crim e in w hich one side is a non-com batant, and the other is party to the conflict. Just having those distinguishing legal elem ents rem oves rape from the realm o f “ non-consensual sexual penetration,” a definition m ore appropriate to the prosecution o f rape within a neighborhood in Brooklyn. Also, one has to rem em ber that rape is generally not the only crime in­ flicted against that person on that day. Often in w artim e you might have a victim or w itness w ho has been shot, has seen fam ily m em ­ bers killed before their eyes, been detained, starved or tortured, in addition to the sexual violence inflicted on them. So rape during war is not an ordinary crime. War crim es by them selves are serious violations o f international hum anitarian law and as such cannot be considered ordinary crimes.

SS.

In addition to the m ultiplicity o f crim es, w hat is the difference for the rape victim in Brooklyn as opposed to the form er Yugoslavia?

PVS. Rape in w ar is connected to a m uch larger political content. O f course, this is not to say that rape in B rooklyn is not connected to the policies and the politics o f patriarchy or the policies and politics of urban poverty. But the sexual violence that occurs during an arm ed conflict is distinctly related to the political and the societal upheaval that has led to w ar in the first place. Societies d o n ’t usually have tem porary detention centers w here segm ents o f their population are interred and guarded by soldiers on a random basis. There is a parallel, but also a pronounccd difference betw een detention during w ar and “ peacetim e” incarceration. SS.

Or detention centers w here w om en are raped constantly.

PVS. T h at’s right, it’s not as form alized. A lthough you might have sexual violence in US prisons, it’s not the sam e political context w here you have a reckless society “ breaking d o w n ” in the midst o f an internal or international war. SS.

Do you think the traum a w ould be any different?

PVS.

I think that is a very difficult question. M ost o f the psychologists I have talked to acknow ledge that during war, traum a is m ulti-faceted. Some traum a is related directly to the sexual violence. One alw ays has to ask w hen precisely the sexual violence occurred in the midst

Sara Sharratt

57

o f the traum atization o f a given person. Was it the first traum atic act or did it occur after a series o f ten acts? I think w e have to start looking at the context o f war-related trauma, and broadening it so that it encom passes traum a from sexual violence either as a victim or w itness, or as som eone w ho has had to incorporate the fact that their daughters, sons or w ives w ere raped. Thus, I think w e have to look at post-traum atic stress in war-like situations, w hereby sexual violence is certainly a part but not neces­ sarily the entire trauma. SS.

I have heard expressions like “ collective dam age” to the com m uni­ ty, or to the soul or to the country.

PVS.

Both w ould work. W hile the traum a does rem ain very individual it also becom es part o f the com m unity trauma. This strikes, as 1 sug­ gested earlier, at the very heart o f the political context in which w ar-related sexual violence occurs. In m unicipal or dom estic situa­ tions, you do have a com m unity that is perhaps affected on a certain level, with all w om en being aware that one sho u ld n ’t w alk through dark parking lots at night because w e know there is danger. I d o n ’t think it’s to the level o f traum atization, but we have a sense o f w hat is dangerous. M oreover, there is a com m unity reaction in term s o f the dom estic rape situation. So it is not contradictory or surprising to think that there is going to be a com m unal reaction to war-time sexual violence in addition to the reaction o f an individual person w ho has cxpcricnccd sexual violence or post-traum atic stress reac­ tion.

SS.

W e’ve also talked about atrocities. How has that im pacted you per­ sonally?

PVS.

I can ’t even bear the thought o f going to see a violent m ovie. W hen I see a m ovie advertised with Sylvester Stallone or Bruce W illis with a gun, I block the poster right out. I cou ld n ’t even tell you w hat the nam e o f the movie w ould be. I know from m yself personally that when I started doing this w ork I d id n ’t go back to my gynecologist for two years. I ’m sure that w as part o f my reaction to the sexual violence. A nother reaction is that I find m yself crying over things that are not really that im portant. O ver a soapy television com m ercial, for exam ple, or w hen I go to my so n ’s basketball cerem ony and th ey ’re handing out m edals to these eight- and nine-year-old kids. They all think th ey ’re going to be the next slam dunk cham pions and I get all

58

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia weepy. I know that it w o n ’t last for very long but for ten seconds it can be realized. It’s so nice to be able to look at a kid and enjoy them in that way. I know it’s related to these horrendous things and hear­ ing how fam ilies arc destroyed. I w asn ’t crying over those basketball medals. Instead, I w as realizing that, “ O .K., I can exhale for a second.”

SS.

In n o c e n c e . . .

PVS. All o f a sudden the innocence came back. At least I think I am being very honest w ith m yself: T his is w hen it com es out and I ’m happy it can com e out. O n the other hand my reaction to the sexual violence from w ork, as with most people, could appear in the form o f vicari­ ous traum a that might not show up for years. Ten years from now while w alking dow n the street som ething m ight click a mem ory that I h ad n ’t even been aw are that I had suppressed. SS.

Were you prepared for it at all? Did anything in your background prepare you for this?

PVS.

Not really, but perhaps. I think m aybe the tim e I spent living in Latin A m erica helped, since Brazil was just com ing out o f a dictatorship at the time. T here w ere certain narratives about torture in Latin A m eri­ ca and there w ere ccrtain situations w here you saw people w ho had gone through politically traum atizing situations, som etim es related to sexual violence. But nothing could have prepared you for this. Unless you w ere an investigator from , say, G uatem ala, I w ould chal­ lenge anyone in this building to say that they w ere prepared. Thank goodness you d o n ’t have to walk around being prepared for these kinds o f stories in your life.

SS.

W hat did it do to you?

PVS. In many w ays it m ade me understand better the m ultiple w ays in which people try to destroy each other. O ften, w hether from a right or left perspective, we allow violence to be seen as heroic. I mean the violence that w as used to overcom e: oppression, nationalism or colo­ nialism. One takes up arm s and y o u ’ve got this very nice, idealized “ everym an” w ho is pictured defending the hom eland, or whatever. However, w hen that sam e violence strikes an individual, it is a ghast­ ly dehum anizing thing. There arc very few w ays to shoot som eone nicely, and there is absolutely no w ay to rape som eone and be a hero. The Q uakers say that if violence is part o f the m anner in which you

Sara Sharratt

59

gained or you have acquired your society, violence is already inte­ gral to that society. W hen part o f that violence incorporates sexual violence, one really has to question the validity o f any violence w hatsoever, no m atter how rom antic. And I admit to not being com ­ pletely clear and sure on this issue. SS.

W hat issue?

PVS.

On the issue that all violence is bad. Yet, I still have ccrtain rom antic notions o f violence, as we all do. The A m istad m ovie has just com e out. 1 haven’t seen it yet. It might be too violent for me to see. I ’m not too sure that I w ant to see it. H ow ever, I ’m sure that it is about people fighting off chains o f repression, a slave w om an fighting off a man w ho m ight be trying to rape and kill her. That is all violence that one “ should be in agreem ent w ith .” W hat I’m saying is that violence is horrid. It’s horrible.

SS.

Arc there connections betw een the form er Yugoslavia, slavery in the US, Rw anda and other ongoing struggles?

PVS.

Well yes, but I d o n ’t think one can com pare these struggles in a straightforw ard fashion. If you look at slavery in the A m ericas, that w as institutionalized torture for a period o f two hundred years. One recognizes that this institution provided econom ic benefits, and dcculturized large regions o f the A m ericas. Not even to talk about the genocide com m itted against Indigenous A m ericans, w e had institu­ tionalized sexual violence that is reflected in the lcgacy facing A fri­ can-A m erican w om en and B razilian w om en today. In the m ake-up o f the A frican-A m erican com m unity, part o f our lcgacy, our differ­ entiations o f color, are associated w ith past rapes that occurred d ur­ ing slavery and the blood has descended dow n through the genera­ tions. Now, is that com parable to the psychic dam age o f sexual violence that occurred in Yugoslavia? There m ight be som e parallels. H ow ev­ er, I have never lived in a w ar situation; I am talking about six generations after slavery and how does that feel, com pared to som e­ one else w ho is talking about three or four years after an arm ed conflict, and their legacy o f rape. In R wanda, the sexual violence that occurred during the genocide, is that related to an A fricanA m erican sense o f slavery? I d o n ’t know. I h av en ’t thought about it that much, but w hat I will say is that there will be a psychic legacy in R w andan society due to the sexual violence. W hy should individual psychic scars and societal scars be anything new ? I think it’s normal.

60

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia It derives from patriarchy and it is part o f the legacy o f sexual violence.

SS.

Is it easier to live in Europe than in the USA?

PVS. No, I don’t think so. I think that anyone who is really dealing with their life is dealing with it no matter where they live. I ’m not living in Europe bccause I think it is less racist. I am in Europe because this is where my husband lives and we decided to live here. I think that Europe has a lot of its own problems and legacies. They have plenty o f stereotypes o f black women. W here 1 used to live in Belgium, men would stop me because they thought I was a prostitute on the street. I had to tell them, “ No I ’m not a prostitute but if you are looking for one, come with me, maybe I can help you.” Then I would say in a loud, public voice, “ This man needs a prostitute. Does anyone know where he might find one?” They see a tall black woman and from their colonial legacy of Zaire the only black woman that they imagine is a sexual partner. And thus they act surprised and devastated when I tell them I am not a prostitute. I am American, an educated American, and they don’t have anywhere to fit that in psychologically becausc it’s not a part of their worldview in Europe. I think Europeans need to truly deal with their own colonial legacies and sexual myths associated with this legacy. SS.

To go back to something that you were talking about before, about support for people who arc involved in your line of work, have you ever felt like talking to a psychologist and have you?

PVS. I think many o f us have talked about this and I think we should have an in-house psychologist who will assist the staff, whether the people who input the evidence into the computers to interpreters, attorneys, investigators, guards and supervisors. We must not under­ estimate how traumatic each person’s job could be at any step of the way. The bailiff who is calling out the case, listens to that testimony everyday. What is their reaction? What about the guards who are sitting next to the accused? I w ouldn’t underestimate anyone’s need to speak with a psychologist to express their feelings. However, it would have to be user-friendly enough that people would feel com ­ fortable. But the need comes and goes. That is one excellent thing about working in the Tribunal: You d o n ’t feci victimized because you have identified a problem and you’re actually doing something about it. If it doesn’t always give you the illusion that you are

Sara Sharratt

61

contributing to the com m on good, it does allow you to control the traum a in a different way. SS.

They may need to go to som ebody som etim es but not all the time, that is w hat you are saying.

PVS.

Yes. I d o n ’t think people necessarily go around denying that. 1 mean no one is keeping a stiff upper lip. At tim es a little stress is going to have to com e out, and it is probably good that it does.

SS.

W hat shocked you the m ost so far?

PVS. Som etim es the extent o f barbarity w ithin the w itness statem ents affects me. I also have been pleasantly shocked, for exam ple when reading the G olden N otebook by D oris Lessing. She describes the beauty o f a little blade o f grass com ing up amongst the cracked pots. Som etim es y o u ’re shocked by that little blade o f grass and you walk over to protect it. Som etim es you are amazed and shocked by the tiny heroism that, had som eone not been interview ed on a side issue, you may never have seen this. My G od, when hum anity grow s it can bloom w onderfully, to the extent o f shocking you. That stands in sharp contrast to the barbarity, the banality o f it all. I think those o f us w ho w ork here all the time put up certain defense m echanism s. We all get into this nice, w ater cooler type o f gossip, right next to the horrendous things that a w itness is saying. Or you declare that I ’ve just had it, I ’m not taking it anym ore. I'm not taking w hat? You shock yourself at your own pettiness [Laughs], At the sam e time you have to understand these are normal non­ w ar folks w ho have com e to w ork at the War C rim es Tribunal. So, there is a w hole part o f “ norm al” society that continues to exist alongside o f these traum atic w ar scenarios. SS.

There must be an impact. There is no way o f going through it without changing som ething about your view s o f the world and people in it.

PVS.

I w ould say yes, but som etim es I ask m yself w hether those view s w ould not have been changed anyway. The w ork probably acceler­ ated the change. I am m uch less inclined to underestim ate people. I think that people are capable o f everything.

SS.

You d o n ’t underestim ate anyone?

PVS.

I d o n ’t underestim ate anyone, to the extent o f how barbaric or how heroic they could be. I think also that it is very im portant to have m orals and to know yourself.

62 SS.

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia I am very interested in m orals. Tell m e more about morality.

PVS. I really had to question m yself here. W hat do you value in life? W hat is your self-integrity? W hat are your values in terms o f hum an be­ ings? W ho can be used? W ho is the throw -aw ay population? Can you ever pre-judge w ho that throw -aw ay population might be? I m ean the m ore you start looking at people . . . SS.

You are assum ing that there is a throw -aw ay population.

PVS. Well, 1 think w e have to assum e that no one can be throw n away. D oes that m ean the perpetrators are good or that there is som e re­ deem ing quality in them ? 1 d o n ’t think you can throw them away either becausc people can change. How one is treated is how one will treat som eone else. I think o f that when I look at that blade o f grass or hear about the men who go in and instead o f raping say, “ Hey, d o n ’t say anything le t’s just sit here for 10 m inutes, but d o n ’t say anything when w e go out either.” I m ean that person is som eone w ho had som e moral integrity. SS.

W here

did you go w ith that?

PVS.

W here you go with that is the recognition that it is im portant to have som e values, and that there are som e things you arc not going to do. Would you do them if som eone had a gun to your head? I d o n ’t know, everyone likes to think that they are heroic, but you do need to have som e values. W hen you have no values you can com m it any act, any crime. I think people reflect the integrity they have about them selves and others. People with less m orals alw ays assum e that no one else has any m orals either. W hy w ould you kill children? W hy w ould you kill children if th ey ’re not arm ed?

SS.

You qualified your w ords by saying, “ if they w ere not arm ed,” because you know w hat is happening in the world.

PVS.

Right. A lthough I really think it is im portant for people to have values and m orals, at the same tim e I have a lack o f understanding and disdain for what my value judgm ent refers to as stupid national­ istic morals. I believe that people can go through a nationalistic phase and then move onto an international level. 1 think particularly after you em erge from a colonial situation, you go through a nation­ alistic phase. It’s a w ay o f saying, “ I’m okay, I ’m good, my culture’s fine.” But just d o n ’t get stuck in nationalism . W hen that happens,

Sara Sharratt

63

you think your country is the best, your way o f doing things is the best, and eventually your w ay o f seeing things is the best. Eventually no one else’s way is valid and they have to be elim inated because all you are doing is preserving the “ true view ,” w hether som e type o f absurd Aryan racc ideology, or an equally absurd middle kingdom notion com ing out o f China. W hen you think that there is only one w ay o f ever doing som e­ thing, and you d o n ’t allow any com peting values, it lets me know that you are not quite secure in your ow n way. So I think you have to go through nationalism in order to get to internationalism . I think that if w e have so many absolutely dem onic-like perpetrators it has a lot to do w ith their value structure, not just as individuals, but also as societies. No country has a m onopoly on justice and freedom , and th at’s m ade it very hard for me to live in the USA. O f course, this is also som ething that A m erican law yers w orking here have had to learn, along w ith the fact that there isn ’t a single law system in the world. There is also a civil law system w hich has been around for two thousand years. 1 think that the difference w ith the United States is that wc have much m ore legalistic values in our culture. W hy do we put on all these court-room show s on TV w hich are a com bination o f entertainm ent and civil value lessons, w hether it be N ight C ourt or anything from the com ic to the very serious? They do influence us. Thus, A m ericans seem to have m ore o f a sense that they have legal rights in their everyday life. In civil law countries, they do not have such exaggerated notions o f individuals’ legal rights. Legal notions are things you get around or avoid, and you certainly w ould never go to court to sue, to vindicate your rights, because you d o n ’t have this particular legal concept em bedded w ithin your w orldview. A m eri­ cans often run to court too quickly, but it is ultim ately because you have a notion o f an individual life backed by law. There should be a middle w ay betw een the civil and com m on law poles. However, I d o n ’t necessarily think that com m on law soldiers perpetrate less violence during w ar-tim e than civil law soldiers. SS.

W hat w ould be the evidence?

PVS.

I d o n ’t see any evidence for that. So w hat is the value o f all o f those legal system s during an arm ed conflict? M aybe w e need to incorpo­ rate values as to how one should act in w ar-time, but I ’m inclined to agree w ith the Q uakers w ho say that w ar should sim ply be elim i­ nated. W hy d o n ’t w e just start incorporating values w here raping som eone is not seen as a solution to anything?

64

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

SS.

Are you a Q uaker?

PVS.

No, I am not. I eom e from Philadelphia and 1 have been influenced by Q uaker values. I participated in Q uaker m issions and sat on their hoards. They first cam e to the United States with a vision, I guess as outcasts, as many European im m igrants did, but they have been very vociferously non-violent, against war, for three hundred years. They have influenced and affected me.

SS.

Have they becom e m ore relevant now ?

PVS.

I w as m ore involved with them before in Philadelphia. I readily relate to their religious values and vocabulary. They have said a couple o f things that have really influenced me: A s 1 have m entioned a couple o f times now, the values that you put in your society at the beginning will flourish, w hether violence, patriarchy, racism, or ho­ mophobia.

SS.

M aybe that is w hy there is so m uch need for the Tribunal. T here has to be som e justice, otherw ise we will be recreating the pain in Yugo­ slavia in tw enty years.

PVS. I think so, too, though I d o n ’t know if w e can necessarily talk about justice. M aybe w e can talk about som e deterrent and sm all instances o f individual injustice. But until the international com m unity is com ­ mitted to dem anding justice and establishing institutions to do so, passing out justice by calling upon som e w itness, victim or survivor, to testify will not be sufficient. We m ust get to the point w here we see Yugoslavia as part o f an international comm unity, and that every­ one is equally outraged at w hat has occurred. SS.

It is pretty arbitrary as to w ho gets brought in.

PVS.

It’s arbitrary in a sense. But those w ho are indicted are the only ones w ho risk being arrested. The Office o f the Prosecutor represents the international comm unity. The Tribunal w as set up by Security C oun­ cil on behalf o f the international comm unity. I w ould really like to see people in every part o f the w orld, from A rgentina to the most farflung island in Norway banging their shoe on the table, dem anding that the perpetrators be brought to justice. In other w ords, w e need m ore outrage in the international com ­ munity, and once w e start to feel the sam e way about the horrific acts that have been com m itted in A ngola and G uatem ala, then w e may

Sara Sharratt

65

get to a different level. W hen the international com m unity says there is absolutely no room for sexual violence, then ju stice will be served. You can still have legitim ate killings during w ar, you can still have legitim ate b o m bardm ents o f our civilian population, but there is no reason w hy there sh o u ld be any sexual violence in w ar w hatsoever. W hile this is a w o m e n ’s issue, it’s also an issue that affects everyone: w om en, children and m en. SS.

Yes. I w ould also like to talk about som e o f the rape victim s that 1 have heard testify and I am w o n dering how you feel about cro ss-ex ­ am ination? Is it fair?

PV S.

Really, I think it is to o early to ju d g e that. W hen you look at the cross-exam ination o f the sexual assault evidence related to the Tadic case, I d o n ’t think it w as unfair for the w om en w ho testified about their ow n rapes as part o f the evidence in su pport o f w ide and system atic violations. In truth, there w as very little cro ss-ex am in a­ tion in that case. H ow ever, I do think that the cross-exam ination in the C ellebici case w as the w orst. I certainly hope it w ill be the exception. Your cross-exam ination has to be bound by the fact that you are dealing w ith a crim e against hum anity, and q uestions about prior sexual co nduct are not perm issible. Indeed, for anyone w ho is sexually violated in w artim e, p rior sexual co nduct has to be ab so ­ lutely unrelated, even if sexual co nduct occurred the night before in a detention center.

SS.

You know that they brought u p such issues as one o f the w om en having contracep tiv e pills in her possession. W hy should w e keep cro ss-exam ination?

PV S.

Well, I think w e have to keep cross-exam ination in term s o f a fair trial procedure. U nder civil law you have a form o f questioning and, under com m on law you have ano th er form w hich is m ore abrupt b ecause the tw o parties arc to eventually bring out the truth w ith their astute questioning. W ith civil law, the ju d g es play a m ore active role. In these cases, you have three parties that are b ringing out the truth. T he system in the Tribunal is evolving. It is not quite civil law nor com m on law. C ross-exam ination is ex pected to clarify and bring out som e truth yet ju d g e s ’ questions w ill also serve to bring out the truth. I ’ve seen the cross-exam ination at the R w anda T ribunal as w ell as at the Y ugoslav T ribunal, and som etim es you do have w hat m ight be term ed “ p o in te d ” cross-exam ination.

SS.

It still depends on the ju d g es.

66

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

PVS. Yes. It is m uch m ore tri-party here. It is not just the two sides as in com m on law or the judges playing the central role as in civil law jurisdictions. That type o f cross-exam ination w ould not develop here. SS.

It still does amaze me how much it takes to recognize rape as a w ar crime.

PVS.

I think in most p eople’s minds killing rem ains the w orst crime. M ale-oriented investigation and prosecution has highlighted that, not to say that there h asn ’t been evidence o f sexual violence as well. A lso, people feel that once w e have identified w ho killed w ho, w e w ere just about finished. Only then can w e address such questions as w ho raped w ho, w ho burned what, and then finally w ho stole the cows. This has been the norm until w om en declared, “ Hey, I ’m part o f the international com m unity, w hat about the other 53 percent of the w orld’s population?”

SS.

Not as many w om en in the international com m unity before . . .

PVS.

Yes, completely. I think that when people begin to partake in civil society they need to have much m ore o f a voice to say “ as a m em ber o f society, this is unacceptable.” So this is part o f the process that is going on right now. In addition, w e are still rather parochial. We think that things like w ar w o n ’t happen again. H owever, w hen war returned once again to civilized Europe, Europe w as in a state o f shock. I can alm ost hear people say “ I can deal with rapes w hen they happened in the past, or when th ey ’re happening in B angladesh, but I can ’t believe that it’s right now in my ow n backyard.” Well, hello! You, too, are being called upon to join the w orld and make it move forward.

SS.

You have a very global outlook, w hich I appreciate. I rem em ber a saying: “ Think globally, act locally.” Should it also be the reverse?

PVS.

Both at the sam e time, yes.

SS.

W hen I w as planning this special volum e, I w as asked if it w as going to be relevant to A m erican psychologists. W hat w ould you have said to som eone w ho asked you that question?

PVS.

I w ould have said, “ Take off your sunglasses, honey, you look a little ridiculous. The sun shines on you too. T here is no place to run; there

Sara Sharratt

67

is no place to hide and you w o uldn’t w ant to run and hide, not from this stuff.” SS.

It’s happening everyw here.

PVS. T h at’s right. Take for exam ple the dom estic violence issue, which is som ething w e talk about a lot in the States. How you see w om en in your civil society and how you arc going to treat them w hen y o u ’re at w ar and the structures suddenly break down are closely related. If w e perm it dom estic violence, incest and all this stuff, why should we be shocked when rape is com m itted in war-tim e? SS.

We will publish a sum m ary o f the Foca indictm ent. It is a historical indictm ent and you w ere instrum ental in m aking it happen. Before you got it confirm ed, w hat w as it like? W hat did you have to do?

PVS. Well, before w c could have the indictm ent confirm ed it had to follow the path o f all indictm ents: an investigation, follow ed by a legal analysis of the statem ents, and then w e had to draft the indictm ent and finally go through a very interesting process here. The team that conducted the investigation, together w ith their legal advisor, drafted the indictm ent. A fter that, all o f the attorneys in the Office o f the Prosecutor are invited to participate in an indictm ent review. Every attorney can critique or support that indictm ent in a w ay that they feel is justified. Foca, an indictm ent w hich w as based alm ost entirely if not solely on sexual violence, w ent through a rather lengthy indictm ent process. We must have had three or four indictm ent reviews. SS.

Is that unusual?

PVS.

I w ouldn’t call it highly unusual. It went through that process not just because o f the com plexity o f som e o f the legal argum ents w e were putting forw ard, but also because it w as the first time that w e were charging torture and discussing how to group various rapes together on such a large scale. We decided to place m any together under one count and not one count per rape, as that w ould have been too unwieldy. It just took time. People gave us their time and I think the investigative team and the law yers w ere quite patient. W hen you go into an indictm ent review, you have som eone w ho know s nothing about your case. That person will ask the hard questions that the judge m ight ask or that the defense attorney m ight ask. The team is already convinced because they have been living w ith the investiga­

68

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia tion for a year and a half. They have seen the faces. The person who has been w orking on a com pletely different indictm ent com es into your indictm ent review and has to be convinced that there is evi­ dence o f a prim a facie legal case.

SS.

W hat w as the most agonizing question?

PVS.

Let me give you an exam ple, not o f a question that w as asked, but o f a decision that had to be made. How does one charge all these rapes? W hen you look at indictm ents from the Rwanda Tribunal you might have 8,000 killings in one indictm ent. We can charge that as one count o f exterm ination under crim cs against humanity. For exam ple, in one Rwanda case, w e had several rapes, fifteen or m ore, and they w ere charged as one count o f rape under crim cs against humanity. The Foca indictm ent has num erous rapes. Therefore, w e had to ask ourselves w hether w e should count the rapes and give each rape one count, or should they be pleaded as one count o f crim e against humanity. O ur solution, w hen w e presented the indictm ent, w as to plead separate counts o f rape for each defendant. That w as a very difficult charging decision, and is one o f the reasons why, w hen you read through the indictm ent, it is im possible to know how many rapes occurred just by adding up the counts.

SS.

You m ake it sound so easy.

PVS.

[Laughs] Is that so easy?

SS.

It never happened in the other International Tribunals.

PVS.

In Foca, the indictm ent deals with events that happened during the takeover o f the town. The charges in the indictm ent involved sexual violence during interrogation, sexual violence during detention, sexual violence during military and param ilitary m aneuvers. The evidence is unfortunately abundant. I think that perhaps in N urem ­ berg and Tokyo the intent w as m issing and while they had evidence o f sexual violence, they did not pursue it in a diligent fashion. I think that the intent to follow through is precisely w hat distinguishes the Second World War trials from the current ad hoc Tribunals.

SS.

You obviously had the intent.

PVS.

Yes. The re-drafting and re-writings are part o f my job, and very im portant to the w orkings o f the Tribunal. The team w orked very

Sara Sliarratt

69

hard on the investigation and the indictm ent. W hile I think most team s feel very attached to their ow n investigations, people under­ stood there w as som ething even m ore special about the Foca inves­ tigation. We understood that Foca w as going to be a ground-breaking prosecution. We w anted to be cautious. We w anted to be prudent, so that people w ould not be able to criticize this indictm ent for being less rigorous or not providing sufficient evidence. SS.

It alw ays pains me how much harder w e w om en have to w ork. Two w eeks ago [M arch 98], one o f the defendants unexpectedly surren­ dered. There w as going to be a Foca trial. How did you react?

PVS.

I think everyone w as elated. The fact that he surrendered w as also unexpected. But that w as alm ost im m ediately overridden by the fact that he pleaded guilty. Guilty pleas, cases to prosecute, sentencing, all this has to start becom ing norm al. We should be able to look up at a court docket and say to ourselves, “ Okay, w hat do w e have today? Looks like a couple o f m urders, som e sexual violence, nudity and other standard w ar crim es.” We w ant to be at that stage.

SS.

W hich I think, as you and I have discussed before, is a very strange and bew ildering honor.

PVS.

Yes it is, but w hen w e get to that stage then w e can really start com paring the early indictm ents with the later ones. Then w e can start fine-tuning the process and seeing w hat w e ’ve been doing right and w hat areas still need more work. I had never been in a court w here an accused pleaded guilty to rape even though he has now pleaded not guilty. He w as obviously pleading guilty to som ething. It felt like a relief for me to be looking at a rapist and not an alleged rapist. W hat w as very surprising w as that there w as no indication, at least not to the Judges or prosecution, that this plea w ould be entered. His attorney probably knew that he w as going to plead guilty. I have never seen this scenario at an initial appearance.

SS.

Here you w ere one o f the attorneys also.

PVS.

I rem em ber H ildegard [She is the Germ an co-council for the pro­ secution] and I just looked at each other. I said, “ W hat do w e do no w ?” It w as really quite funny. We had no prior contact with the accused nor his attorney, except to shake hands. We had just as­ sum ed that there w ould be a “ not g u ilty ” plea and we w ould proceed to the next status conference.

70 SS.

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia One often hears that w om en w ho have been raped need special protection. How do you feel about that?

PVS.

In the T ribunal’s experience, it depends very m uch on the individual cases. U sually in situations of physical perpetration betw een the defendant and the w itness, anonym ity is alm ost im possible because you are dealing with an identification issue. The defendant will need to know the person w ho is accusing him. However, m ost w itnesses request confidentiality, w hich m eans that the public does not know their identity. The defendant might know, particularly if he is the physical perpetrator anyway, but the public has no interest in know ­ ing the identity o f the w itness. M eanw hile, som e w om en w ant to be identified and seen, not only by the defendant but also by the public. “ W hat do I have to be asham ed o f and w hy should I h id e?” they might ask. O thers have a very different sense o f privacy and d o n ’t w ant to be identified. So the prosecution, in alm ost all o f our cases, files m otions for w itness protection during the pre-trial preparation phase o f a case. Then, as w e move into the trial phase we talk to the w itnesses in order to establish w hat the reasonable risk or fear for the safety o f them selves and their fam ilies is. For sexual assault w it­ nesses, it suffices that they are survivors. T hose confidentiality m o­ tions have been very favorably received by the court.

SS.

W hen I hear that rape victim s will not testify I w onder w ho is it that doesn’t w ant them to testify, because I think that a lot o f them w ant to testify.

PVS.

I am very curious also about w ho does not w ant them to testify, because that h asn ’t been the T ribunal’s experience so far.

SS.

T h at’s right, but it’s said consistently all over the world that w om en do not w ant to com e and testify.

PVS. Yes. SS.

I am just as mystified because when I talk to w om en they are all w illing to com e. M aybe they do not w ant their nam es to be show n or maybe they do not w ant their faces to be seen, but they are w illing to come and testify. In the one particular case that w e talked about before, tw o w om en w ho w ere raped cam e and accused one o f the defendants directly.

PVS.

Yes. They did n ’t even request any confidentiality.

Sara Sharratt SS.

71

They did n ’t ask for anything.

PVS. The sam e scenario happened during another trial. A w om an came w ho w as raped five times. She testified very openly, over tw o days. It is all part o f the public record. There is a fear am ong som e NGOs with regard to som e w itnesses testifying. But the real question com es down to the individual w om en w hen it is time to testify. Do they w ant to com e forw ard or not? I d o n ’t think that you can necessarily generalize how they are going to feel at the m om ent o f decision, either from your ow n feelings or from a g ro u p ’s stand on testifying. W hat I am trying to say is that w c tend to ignore that there are w om en w ho are w illing to come forward. SS.

Yes. I think a lot o f the claim s the w om en do not com e forward is fear or projection.

PVS. There has been a lot o f criticism o f the m edia for trying to find rape victim s for the evening news: “ Just tell me w ho raped you, how many times, w here, w ho was w atching?” And then after the inter­ view, after th ey ’ve used her, they leave her. Rape and testim ony in general raises the issue o f the protection, physically and psychologi­ cally, of w itnesses, and as you know I have been very critical o f the protection offered by the Tribunal w hich has show n alm ost no w ill­ ingness to be proactive in addressing the issues o f victim and w it­ nesses. SS.

That is a question all the International Tribunals in the future are going to have to really address. W hat does w itness protection mean in different stages o f an investigation? W hat is the responsibility of the T ribunal? W hat is the responsibility o f the nation state? W hat are the responsibilities o f the transiting-state?

PVS.

I think the Tribunal is set up in very practical terms. I d o n ’t think that it is just because the w itness unit has ten people or few er that this determ ines the type o f services offered.

SS.

It is severely under-staffed though.

PVS.

I d o n ’t think that any international body like this T ribunal can go into Tuzla or Sarajevo and give private police protection to a w itness. At this point w c have to tell the witness: “ W hat is your reasonable risk or fear for your safety? If you com e to the Tribunal protective confi­ dentiality m easures can be taken that will ensure that your neighbors

72

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia do not know that you have com e to the T ribunal to testify. T ransit to T he H ague can be kept confidential. W hen you return to your tow n you say n o th in g .” T hat m ight be the best m ethod o f protection at this point in tim e. On the other hand, you have to understand that w it­ nesses are go in g back to areas that are not com pletely secure, areas o f high crim inality, o f increasing crim e.

SS.

W hat kind o f services are offered then?

PV S.

W hen investigators in the field interview som eone o r contact a p o ­ tential w itness w ho is in a bad p sychological state, they w ill usually attem pt to put them in contact w ith local social services.

SS.

B ut you c a n ’t predict it.

PVS. No, you c a n ’t. A t this stage som e people w ill say that they d o n ’t need social services, including m ental health care. SS.

A nd then they w i l l . . .

PV S.

W hen you return and you speak to w itn esses w h o are closer to the trial stage, you m ight find that those w ho w ere stable at an earlier stage now require social or psychological services. So you try to locate the resources w ithin the com m unity, near the person, because local care is w here they can build up a relationship w ith the provider and w here there is a language com patibility. T hen, w hen they com e to T he H ague to testify, they have access to m edical and p sychologi­ cal services here. W hen they return hom e there has to be follow -up. T he person still needs services and they need to have access to that local N G O . T hat is the real p roductive p artnership betw een w it­ nesses and civil society.

SS.

It has not been done.

PVS.

It has been done.

SS.

It has not been done in lots o f other instances.

PV S.

In a lot o f oth er instances people have said they d o n ’t w ant to, they d o n ’t need to. Som e people have su pport from their fam ilies and som e people have fallen through the cracks. N ow, that is also related to people not identifying them selves as a w itness w hen they go back. Som e interview ers could be handling p eople w ho w ere w itnesses but

Sara Sharratt

73

w ho chose not to say anything. We have told w itnesses that they do not have to identify them selves, because it could be a security risk. SS.

At the sam e time w e know that the m ore we ask them to keep secrets the longer it is going to take them to heal and w e also know that it is im portant that they talk about it.

PVS.

1 think this is true but then you get caught in a bind: security and the secrets. Some people feel much m ore com fortable telling certain m em bers o f their family, letting part o f the secret out. That can facilitate som e o f their recovery. At the sam e time, they can go for psychological assistance, not necessarily identifying them selves as a witness. The idea I had about a protection unit goes beyond getting w it­ nesses to The H ague, getting them into a hotel and then transporting them back. We w ere fighting over the availability o f funds for rape victim s to bring in a therapist or not being able to secure a bus trip for w itnesses stuck alone in The H ague giving testimony. I also felt that som etim es you have an obligation to the w itnesses to follow through and help them with the next step. We m ust talk about re­ building civil society, as that is the only way that w itnesses will ever have long-term psychological protection.

SS.

We have to de-stigm atize rape in civil society. We have to take that stigm a aw ay because otherw ise she will get victim ized again. The rapists are not on trial and she continues to be. I think that is part o f the problem . M aybe you can ’t ju st solve it by having them come here, if they will have to go back to a disaster back home.

PVS.

1 agree com pletely. I agree that the Tribunal is only a small part. The im pact will be m agnified and scrutinized but the real work will go on in civil society.

SS.

T h at’s right, and also w e really have to put rapists on trial. In som e w ays these are related. For exam ple, the Vatican just cam e out with another attem pt at an apology to the Jew s. Clinton has talked about an apology to the A frican-A m ericans.

PVS. There w as an apology and com pensation to Japanese Am ericans. SS.

Com pensation, yes, but I d o n ’t think they apologized. Do you think there should be an apology to A frican-A m ericans in the United States even though it is not only the U nited States that is responsible for this institutionalized torture as you called it?

74

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

PVS. Yes, hut you should get all the countries that w ere involved in slav­ ery and the slave trade to apologize. A frican-A m erican literature speaks o f redem ption. The perpetrator must seek redem ption through an apology to the victim /survivor. It helps w hen say you are sorry. But only w hen the apology is sincere. You have to acknow l­ edge guilt in relation to the problem that you caused. Som e people w ant to m easure that sincerity in terms o f incom e or com pensation. So yes, I think that apologies, like guilty pleas, do help but they have to be sincere and follow ed by concrete action. In the V atican’s case, I heard it w as an apology but it took a step back from saying that they had any im pact on racist attitudes tow ards Jew s. I m ean the Vatican can ’t have it both ways. Then I ’m w ondering if w e should also do som ething more in civil society for our rape victim s? SS.

W hy not have a m onum ent?

PVS. A friend said they w ould probably desecrate the monum ent! SS.

That w ould really show that society w a sn ’t ready to show honor.

PVS.

But there is som ething we need to do to really de-stigm atize rape. It is very interesting. I gave a speech in W ashington in the fall, and I m entioned our indictm ents, saying that in the future w e will know all the names: Foca, the Bungalow, O m arska [an infam ous detention center]. A m em ber o f the audience approached me afterw ards, and said, “ You recite the nam es of those places as if you w ere referring to G ettysburg, as if they w ere m onum ental.” And I replied, “ Yes, I am, because this is exactly w hat they a re .” I am certainly not suggesting, for exam ple, that w e will have, a year from now, a Foca fund for any person, particularly w om en, who have been sexually violated during an arm ed conflict. Or w ill we? W ho know s, w e are not doing any o f this now.

SS.

You w ork for both Tribunals. W hat are the differences for you? There have been allegations o f racism by the international com m uni­ ty when looking at the Rwanda Tribunal.

PVS.

Well, I think that one can look at the facilities, the physical buildings.

SS.

The am ount o f money.

PVS. No, it’s not the money. It is a very strange situation to a certain extent. The Rwanda Tribunal is funded at a com parable level to

Sara Sharratt

75

Yugoslavia and their trust fund has even m ore m oney in it than Yugoslavia. T hus, one might ask oneself w hether it is a question o f adm inistration. One m ight ask about the location: Was the building housing the Rwanda Tribunal readily convertible from its form er use to its present one? One might ask oneself about the im pact of the local skills and local goods that one had to use. H owever, setting up an organization like the Rw andan Tribunal in A rusha sends a politi­ cal signal. T his is the center o f the East A frican com m unity and there was a good political reason why the Tribunal needed to be there, just as there w ere good reasons for the Yugoslav Tribunal to be here in The Hague. If, however, both Tribunals w ere situated in New York, with the Rw andan Tribunal on the third floor and the Yugoslav one on the fifth, my guess is that they w ould look identical. SS.

So you hav en ’t felt any differences?

PVS.

Som etim es people w ould like to say that since it looks poorer and it’s in A frica, there m ust be racism. I think that w hen people say things like that, the real question is w hether R wanda is a kind o f second cousin to the Yugoslav Tribunal. M uch o f this has to do with our im pression o f the im portance o f the R wanda genocide as opposed or com pared to the im portance o f the Yugoslav contlict. H owever, you’ve got to ask yourself w ho is it im portant for. To the Western w orld? To A frica?

SS.

Do you think the W estern world, w here there w as hardly any interest in Yugoslavia, can get interested in Rwanda?

PVS.

If you read W estern new spapers on any given day, you will see more interest in Yugoslavia and w estern countries in general. Although th ere’s been w ar in A ngola for the past tw enty years, it d o esn 't make the papers on a daily basis like N orthern Ireland. Som ew here in the back o f many W estern m inds, there is the idea that w ars and geno­ cide alw ays happen in A frica and that this is not news. W hen you look at Yugoslavia, people w ere shocked that the w ar took place on E uropean soil, w here it w asn ’t supposed to occur. A s for w om en and issues o f sexual violence, w e can turn to the R w anda Tribunal for im portant advances in the prosecution o f sexual violence cases. Rw anda has been the first to prosecute genocidal sexual violence. Rwanda is the first Tribunal that had a group o f six w om en come forw ard and testify about their ow n sexual violence in the A kayesu trials, and in other cases, men described sexual violence com m itted against w om en that they witnessed.

76

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

SS.

Wore they raped?

PVS.

Yes, the w om en were. I think R w anda is a place w here w e have already offered in evidence various form s o f sexual violence, not just rape, but also sexual mutilation, im paling o f the vagina or slicing o f genitals as a method o f killing. It is very im portant to view both T ribunals jointly in term s o f sexual violence.

SS.

Has all o f this made you less sexual?

PVS. That is an interesting question. I d o n ’t know w hether it is the sexual violence or it’s just that I ’m getting older, period [laughs], SS.

There are too many variables!

PVS. There are so m any variables, but, I d o n ’t think so. I think I now appreciate sexual integrity much more. I m ean it is a w onderful part o f a hum an being. SS.

Yes,

sure. But w e are talking about perversions . . .

PVS. You know, it becom es clearer and clearer that violence has very little to do w ith sex. Yes, it does have a lot to do with sexuality. But these acts arc connected to aggression, to w ar and not to how one feels about oneself in term s o f being sexual. It does not make you respon­ sible for any o f the acts that could ever have happened. You could have dressed like a nun and you could have been the most absolutely neutered person, but if you were to be sexually assaulted in these w artim e situations, it w as going to happen. None o f the w itnesses that I know spoke o f being “ sexually attractive,” or inviting in any way. W hile som e o f the perpetrators supposedly chose beautiful w om en, m ost, however, w ere people w ho w ere running, w ere scared. They w ere frightened. They w ere nasty. They w ere dirty. They w ere starved. I ’m sure that they all had bad breath. I m ean this has nothing to do with sexuality. SS.

PVS.

I notice that w hen I read a lot o f rape testimony, I get very edgy. In fact I w as w alking dow n the beach yesterday and I noticed three heterosexual couples. All three men were playfully pushing the w om en into the water. It just hit me. W hen I look at som e o f this in terms o f non-w ar situation sexuality, I think o f the nam es w c use to describe w hy men rape: power, entitle­

Sara Sharratt

77

m ent, violence. You can see how these m ight he part o f everyday sexuality. H ow ever, w hen you have a war, if m en really deep down believe they are entitled, pow erful and so on, they will act out. Not all m en are rapists in w ar w hich is very im portant to bear in mind. It’s a question o f m orals. But we have to understand how sexuality in a non-confl ict situation could reveal characteristics related to w ar­ time acts. SS.

I d o n ’t think that I have any m ore questions. I w o n d er-w e have talked a lo t-d o you have any reflections?

PVS.

One thing that I w as thinking yet have never articulated w as the passage o f A frican-A m erican w om en through institutionalized sexu­ al violence and raping, and the question o f how this is related to Yugoslav w om en or Rw andan w om en today. In m any w ays, and for very good reasons, w e tend to focus a lot w ithin the w o m en ’s m ove­ m ent on the question o f rape. But I think sexual violence is so much broader. V iolence in general often occurs prior to the act o f rape. With slavery, it goes m uch further than that. Breeding w as sanc­ tioned; forced birthing w as sanctioned; selling o f children w as sanc­ tioned. W hat about forcing som eone to be a w et nurse? W hat about the m aster or the state ow ning your breasts and you d o n ’t ow n the liquid in them ? That is sexual violence, yet it is not rape.

SS.

Yes, w hich is w hat these Tribunals can truly accom plish.

PVS.

If the Tribunals can accom plish just that, it w ould be agreat

SS.

W hat does it feel like to be part o f history?

PVS.

step.

I feel like I ’m part o f the path o f history. Youfeel aw onderful obligation and a very intense privilege.

SS.

Do you feel very proud?

PVS.

Yeah, I feel very, very proud.

SS.

You did it.

PVS. Thank you. It is extrem ely rew arding, and when people say, “ My G od, how could you get up so early in the m orning and do all this?” I think to m yself that I ’m descended from w om en w ho had to get up at the sam e time, if not earlier, to go pick cotton. T his is not hard. It’s a real historical challenge.

78

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

SS.

You are saying som ething that I strongly believe in, nam ely that the presence o f w om en can make a difference in the w orld. I am amazed by that and also am azed by the w ay that som e o f their male col­ leagues take the ball and run with them.

PVS.

Like you cannot imagine.

The Foca Indictment by the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia Sara Sharratt

SUMMARY. The following is a brief sum mary o f the main implications o f the Foca indictment o f the International Criminal Tribunal for the For­ mer Yugoslavia. This case is mentioned in the interviews with M cDonald and Viseur-Sellers. It is o f central relevance to the concept o f justice in relation to w om en’s issues. /Article copies available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-342-9678. E-mail address: [email protected]] KEYWORDS. Foca, International C rim inal Tribunal for the Form er Yugoslavia, rape, w ar crim es, G rave Breaches

On June 26, 1996, the International Crim inal Tribunal for the Form er Yugoslavia m ade history with the “ F oca” indictm ent against eight Bosnian Serbs for the rapes, gang rapes, sexual assaults and sexual enslavem ent of w om en and girls living in this tow n in the southeast o f B osnia-H crzegovina. M uslim w om en and girls w ere detained in a num ber o f sites, including houses, sports halls, detention centers, apartm ents and the Foca High School. They w ere raped, gang raped, tortured, enslaved, forced to perform dom estic chores and sexual services on b ehalf o f allies and friends o f the perpetrators. In several instances, they w ere sold for profit by their masters. These crim es Address correspondence to: Sara Sharratt, PhD, P.O. Box 2292-1000, San Jose, Costa Rica.

79

80

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

w ere carried out with either the active or passive know ledge o f a num ber o f individuals in positions o f power, including param ilitary leaders and D ragan G avovic, F oca’s C hief o f Police. In the indictm ent, they are charged with crim es com m itted against at least 14 victim s, som e o f w hom arc young adolescents. M eanw hile, the eight perpetrators rem ain at large. This is the first indictm ent in the history o f International H um anitarian Law in which an International Crim inal Tribunal has indicted male perpetra­ tors for w ar crim es com m itted exclusively against w om en and girls in w hich all of the charges are related to sexual offenses. In turn, this m eans that there has been no “ m ainstream ing” o f the w ar crim es com m itted against w om en. O f course, this is not to say that the present Tribunal has never before charged a perpetrator for rape. But this is the first time that rape has not been bundled with several other charges or used as a m eans to achieve other ends. In short, the gendered nature o f these crimes has been made entirely explicit: these are acts com m itted by men, in w artim e, against w om en and girls be­ cause o f their sex. M oreover, these crim es m ust be understood to be genderspecific because they arc com m itted disproportionately against w om en, be­ cause they are w om en. Yes, men do get raped, but it is mostly by other m en and it happens less frequently than is the case for w om en. Yes, men are also enslaved, but usually it does not entail lim ited or unlim ited sexual access to their bodies or forced im pregnation. A lso to be stressed in this regard is the fact that such acts have neither the sam e attribution nor m eaning for w om en and m en, and thus the gender specific aspects o f the sam e “ a c t” must be carefully analyzed and under­ stood. Quite simply, the narrow view that crim es com m itted against both w om en and men cannot, by definition, be considered gender specific over­ looks the fact that w om en are routinely persecuted because they are wom en, w hereas men are not persecuted simply because they are men. M oreover, when w om en are raped, the institutional and structural consequences are radically different than they are for men: the latter are not cast away by their w ives; they are not seen as having dishonored their partners or fam ilies; they are not deem ed to be u n m a n ag e a b le; questions are not raised as to w hether or not they w ere consenting, and so forth. A s w ell, the im plications o f forced/ unw anted im pregnation must be considered: death, botched abortions, sterili­ ty, horrific traum atization, unw anted children, abandoned children, stigm a­ tized children, etc. For w om en in general and those living in the Form er Yugoslavia in particular, we must look very closely at the intersections o f class, religion/ethnicity and gender: w om en and girls were persecuted as M uslim s, Croats or Serbs and as fem ales. Men w ere persecuted as M uslims, Croats or Serbs. The crim es w ere directed principally against M uslim s. H ow ­

Sara Sharratt

81

ever, in the case o f rape, the problem is that w om en often suffer subsequent persecution at the hands o f their ow n fam ilies and societies. A lso im portant in this indictm ent is that rape is typified as torture, both under Crim es A gainst H um anity and under G rave Breaches. H owever, there is continuing disagreem ent am ong legal experts as to w hether the incidence o f rape and enslavem ent must be massive and/or system atic to be considered C rim es A gainst Hum anity, or w hether it is sufficient that the rape itself be m assive in its violence. There is no such debate in relation to Grave B reaches: one crim e o f rape, com m itted by one individual against one w om an or girl once is deem ed to be a serious w ar crime. The dualistic thinking that rape is bad w hen massive and/or system atic in scale but not as bad w hen sporadic m ust be overcom e. D escribing it as torture also labels rape for w hat it is: torture and as such a serious w ar crime. This is the first tim e that an International C rim inal Tribunal has charged perpetrators w ith the sexual enslavem ent o f fem ales. This highlights once again the gender specificity o f slavery, with w om en and girls forced to per­ form household duties, w hile their bodies becom e sexually accessible to their m asters and their m asters’ associates. It is hoped that this short sum m ary o f the main im plications o f the Foca indictm ent will prom pt the fem inist com m unity to pay m ore attention to the significance o f w hat has been happening at the Tribunal, particularly in relation to w o m en ’s issues. We must insist that all indicted crim inals be brought to trial and, if the political will continues to be lacking, then w e must also ask that these eight perpetrators be subjected to the T ribunal’s Rule 61, allow ing the prosecutor to present further evidence against them and issue international w arrants for their arrest. This will ensure that, if they are found guilty, they will becom c the international pariahs that they are. It will also ensure that w e, as w om en, will get a chance to speak. Let us work tow ards this goal.

Beyond War Hierarchies: Belgrade Feminists’ Experience Working with Female Survivors of War Lepa M ladjenovic

SUMMARY. The experience o f a B elgrade fem inist now defined as Serbian by a governm ent that she rejects is explored in this article. The organization, W omen in Black A gainst War, o f w hich she is a founding m em ber, w orks to help w om en regain a sense o f dignity as they move from victim to survivor. O ther goals include strengthening w om en’s rights and training paraprofessionals to participate in the healing pro­ cess by w itnessing the w o m en ’s retelling o f their experiences. The soli­ darity and connections that have developed am ong w om en in the For­ m er Yugoslavia and with other w om en around the w orld is an im portant aspect of this process and one w hich underm ines nationalism . [Article copies available fo r a fe e from The Haworth Document Delivery Service: I -800-342-9678. E-mail address: getinfo@ haworthpressinc.com]

KEYWORDS. War crimcs, trauma, Belgrade, Women in Black Against War For the Form er Yugoslavia, 1992-93 w as m arked above all by the ascen­ dancy o f fascist pow er and the m obilization o f patriarchal violence in pursuit o f a dem onized Other. The presum ed ethnicity o f an individual’s nam e or her street address determ ined her destiny, w hether it w as life, death, rape or Lepa Mladjenovic is a Belgrade feminist and founding member of the organiza­ tion Women in Black Against War. Address correspondence lo: Lepa Mladjenovic, W omen’s Center, Tirsova 5A, 11000 Beograd, Serbia.

83

84

Assault oil the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

displacem ent. W hat w as done to protect that individual’s rights and liberties? For many, nothing. Thus, Serb security forces w ere able to run concentration cam ps in Bosnia according to a particularly tw isted logic: m en, as potential soldiers, were killed; wom en, as potential sexual objects, w ere raped. The regim e currently in pow er in the state in w hich I live w as responsible for these w ar crimes. W hat does it m ean politically and professionally to us, as fem inists living and w orking in Belgrade? At the very beginning o f the conflict, in O ctober 1991, a group o f us founded a pacifist organization called W omen in Black A gainst War, under w hose banner w e held weekly vigils in Belgrade. We felt that it w as im pera­ tive that w e go out into the street in order to com m unicate our m essage to the public at large that w e opposed the Serbian regim e, its involvem ent in w ars in Croatia and Bosnia, and that w e opposed m ilitarism and violence against w om en. Each W ednesday I w ould get up and think o f the clothes 1 w ould wear. By choosing black in a time o f war, w e hoped that part o f our sense o f helplessness w ould be transform ed into strength and action. So it continued, standing on the street in black and in silence, season after season, for all the years o f the war. N eedless to say, the latest new s from K osovo hints at m ore ethnic cleans­ ing on the part o f the Serbian regim e. In the face o f this threat, W omen in Black are currently in the process o f planning the form s w hich our opposition to the fascist regim e will take. By 1993, our com m itm ent to fem inism had led som e o f us to travel betw een Zagreb, Belgrade and Zenica in order to gather and focus support for w om en raped in war. These efforts culm inated in the creation o f the A utono­ mous W om en’s C enter A gainst Sexual V iolence in B elgrade, w hich offers psychological and social support to w om en traum atized in this way. Thus, w hile volunteers visited hospitals to talk to physicians about the issues at stake and the C en ter’s w ork, w e devised and put into practice a counseling program . T hroughout this process, w e received the support o f many wom en, w ho offered books, funding and their ow n time and energy. We w ere often struck by the incredible lengths to w hich w om en w ould go to help us and, in truth, it w as these interventions that sustained us on a day-to-day basis. H aving been part o f both these groups during the war, in the pages that follow I will seek to sum m arize what I believe to be the essence o f our experience.

W H AT DID WE L E A R N ? Women A re the F irst Enem y o f M en T he SO S Hotline for W omen and Children V ictim s o f V iolence w as founded in Belgrade in 1990 as a service provided by w om en for w om en. As

I.epa Mladjenovic

85

the w ar in Bosnia and C roatia progressed, w e began to hear from w om en who had never contacted the H otline before. Particularly significant in this regard w ere calls m ade at the very beginning o f the war, at the sam e time that the regim e w as televising daily propaganda broadcasts in w hich scenes o f m uti­ lated corpses w ere accom panied by an em otive voice-over. Clearly, the re­ g im e’s purpose w as to rouse the population into a frenzy o f nationalism and lust for revenge. H owever, the broadcasts also had another, unintended effect. Men w ho w atched the program s w ould becom e agitated and angry, and start hitting their w ives or children as a proxy for the “ en em y ” that w as far away and not as easy to reach. For many o f the w om en it w as the first time they had been struck by their husbands, and they w ould call SO S asking, “ W hat happened to him ?” We nam ed the condition “ post-TV new s violence syn­ drom e.” N eedless to say, these incidents only serve to confirm the view that the enem y o f first resort is W oman; ethnicity com es in a distant second.

M isuse o f Women Raped in War by State Institutions Seeking to m ake contact with fem ale w ar survivors, the A utonom ous W om en’s C enter A gainst Sexual Violence approached num erous m edical facilities in the Form er Yugoslavia. H owever, as w e undertook this task, what im m ediately becam e apparent to us w as the fact that the regim e w as exploit­ ing w om en ’s suffering for its ow n ends, identifying those w ith Serbian names in order to provide evidence o f w ar-tim e atrocities com m itted against Serbs. To cite but one exam ple, in 1994 a psychiatrist w orking in a B elgrade area mental health center provided a foreign journalist (know n to us) w ith the medical histories o f w om en w ho had been sexually abused during the war. Thus, not only w as this hospital breaking the first principle o f medical ethics in the nam e o f nationalist politics, but the w om en them selves w ere being treated as any other m ental health patient, w hile being forbidden from m eet­ ing with the representatives o f fem inist NGOs. It should be noted as well that there w as a general reluctance on the part o f medical facilities to collaborate w ith the Center, a reluctance that w as in all likelihood due to our strong disavowal o f Serbian nationalism . In this way, state-run health care institutions proved them selves to be more interested in serving the nationalist cause than serving the needs o f the w om en under their care.

Rape in War Is Part o f a Continuum o f M ale Violence A gainst Women Although the C enter has evidence to show that w om en from all ethnic groups-S erbian, C roat and M uslim -w ere raped during the war, m ost o f our work w as with w om en possessing Serbian nam es, sim ply because they w ere

86

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

the ones w ho felt safest in Belgrade. At the sam e tim e that the C enter de­ nounces the Serb regim e and its genocidal policies, w ar rapes must be under­ stood in the larger context o f male violence. In short, w e believe that atroci­ ties com m itted against w om en in w artim e are driven by the sam e dynam ics that have resulted in so many w om en calling the SO S Hotline after having been raped, battered or hum iliated by their husbands or boyfriends.

W H AT DO WE DO? W HAT A R E OUR P O LITIC S? E nhancing the Dignity o f War Victims H um iliation is intrinsic to every w ar crime. Thus, in our w ork, w e have sought to create the conditions necessary for w om en to regain their sense of dignity, a journey w hich takes them from victim to survivor, and possibly to transform ation o f the social conditions that led them to be victim ized in the first place. Central to this process is the developm ent o f spaces o f dignity, through the establishm ent o f non-hierarchical relationships and respect for w om en’s bodies and otherness.

Strengthening Civil Rights Wars, by their very nature, circumscribe the rights and lives of those who are forced to live through them. O ur experience has been no different, and to survive under these suffocating conditions w e have engaged in a number of strategies. These include w orking with women from the conflict zones, pub­ lishing statem ents denouncing w ar crimes and their perpetrators, holding weekly peace vigils, and promoting nonviolent means o f conflict resolution. We also sought to undermine the nationalist agenda by exchanging letters with friends across the front lines, and ensuring that w om en’s NGOs w ere places where wom en of all ethnic names could gather in dignity and solidarity.

Witnessing Pain If one is to w ork w ith fem ale survivors o f war, one m ust learn to listen, to act as a w itness for the pain they have suffered. In this capacity, w e have sought to provide w om en with support that does not categorize, question or judge their experiences. O f course, there are many other fem inist groups in the region that played a sim ilar role, each o f us bearing w itness at both the political and personal level.

Undermining Nationalism Through Personal Narratives O ver the years, the regim e in Belgrade has been unsw erving in its efforts to arouse hatred o f the other nations in the w ar, w hile hiding from the popula­

Lepa Mladjenovic

87

tion the fact that these “ o th ers” have also faced great suffering and depriva­ tion. G iven this lack o f know ledge, we have learned that a single p erson’s story can have an enorm ous im pact upon p eo p le’s perceptions, and break the cycle o f ethnic chauvinism and hatred. T hus, w e have devoted considerable energy to the task o f bringing the O ther into our com m unities, through the publication o f life histories, the production o f film docum entaries and the organization o f face-to-face encounters. To recount one particularly telling exam ple, the political view s o f m any B elgrade w om en changed abruptly in 1995 after the C enter screened docum entary footage from the m assacres in K ozarac and concentration cam ps in O m arska.

B EYO N D TH E H IE R A R C H Y O F D ISC R IM IN A TIO N If one accepts that the production and reproduction o f hierarchies plays a key role in sustaining patriarchal power, one will not be surprised to learn that we were faced with many such hierarchies in our w ork with fem ale w ar survivors.

Hierarchy o f Pain Each region in the w ar w as left with its ow n legacy o f traum a and pain, and individuals laden with so much suffering o f their ow n that they had little capacity left to feel em pathy for others. It is im portant for those w orking with w om en w ar survivors to recognize and understand the im plications o f this process, w hich typically involves the creation o f a circuit o f blam e and guilt whereby w om en from one region ask those from another, “ W here w ere you during the shelling?” N eedless to say, the effects o f such questioning are highly pernicious: w om en w ho live outside o f the w ar region feel guilty; w om en w ho have had only one fam ily m em ber killed feel guilty; fem ale refugees w ho return hom e are m ade to feel guilty, as are those w ho do not go home. The cycle is never-ending, with patriarchy being the only real benefi­ ciary o f this process. If w e are to avoid falling into the circuit of blam e, we must all try to com e to terms with our ow n guilt feelings.

Hierarchy o f Rapes in War A lthough som e fem inists distinguish betw een “ ordin ary ” and “ genocid al” form s o f w artim e rape, there are others, m yself included, w ho w ould argue that any such distinction is dangerous, since it posits a rape hierarchy that places the violation o f nations ahead o f that o f w om en. W hether one sees such rapes as instrum ents o f w ar or o f genocide, they are all acts o f torture, w ar atrocities, and crim es against humanity.

88

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

Hierarchy o f Rape in War and Rape in Peace We know that men have been raping and abusing w om en continuously over the past three thousand years. We know that the traum a suffered by w ar survivors is very sim ilar to that experienced by w om en w ho have been battered or sexually abused by their partners. Finally, w e know that an invis­ ible w ar has been w aged by m en against w om en from the origins o f civiliza­ tion until the present. Given that w e know all these things, why is male violence against w om en not considered a w ar crim e? Clearly, there is ample scope for fem inist jurisprudence to intervene in this area and lay the ground­ w ork for a new understanding o f w ar atrocities.

Hierarchy o f Rights in Wartime In times o f war, there is usually room for only one human rights issue, namely that o f who is to live and who is to die. W hile it is by no means surprising that this is the case, one o f its consequences is that other forms of rights, along the lines o f gender, ability, sexual orientation or race/ethnicity, are all too quickly forgotten or subsumed under the individual’s will to survive. A lthough it w as not uncom m on for hum an rights organizations, along w ith the peace m ovem ent in general, to fall into this trap, it w as im portant for those involved in W omen in Black A gainst War to avoid reproducing this hierarchy o f rights. As such, we devoted considerable energy to the task o f ensuring that the rights o f all w om en, w hether older or younger, lesbian or heterosexual, Roma or Serb, w ere respected and cherished.

Solidarity with Women Across the Front Lines Throughout the w ar years, fem inist groups in B elgrade w ere in constant com m unication with their counterparts in C roatia and Bosnia. We sent news, food and books, as well as m aking the journey ourselves across the front lines in order to meet with our sisters face-to-face. Building solidarity with wom en across the lines w as both a personal and political objective, and rem ains a priority today in face o f grow ing tensions in Kosovo.

International Solidarity with Women A round the World In S eptem ber 1992, w e w elcom ed three w om en w ho had com e to B el­ grade from the sm all Italian tow n o f M estre in order to visit the SO S H otline for W omen and C hildren V ictim s o f V iolence. They knew no one here, had never been to B elgrade before, yet, because o f their w ork against the w ar in Iraq, had decided that they should show their solidarity w ith w om en who

Lepa Mladjenovic

89

w ere facing a sim ilar p rospect in the Form er Y ugoslavia. At the tim e, w c did not really understand w hy they had traveled 14 hours by train in order to bring us chocolate and soap, visit w ith us, and then get on the train again to go back to Italy. O f course, at the tim e w e also did not know w hat the w ar w ould entail nor the true m eaning o f w o m en ’s solidarity in w artim e. Only later did w e com e to understand these three incredible w om en. They w ere the first angels o f support w ho w ould be follow ed by m any others in the difficult years that follow ed, all o f w hom m ade personal sacrifices for our sake. A fter five years o f w ar there are many o f us here w ho can say that w om en’s solidarity in w ar has profoundly influenced our w ork and lives as fem inists. We have w elcom ed countless w om en into our m idst w ho have com e to the Form er Yugoslavia on their ow n initiative, using their own savings, to offer us support at both a material and em otional level. At the very beginning o f the war, w om en from The N etherlands and G erm any provided us with training in crisis intervention. W omen from A ustria gave lessons in self-defense, w hile w om en from Lausanne show ed us how to take and devel­ op photographs. A group o f w om en drove trucks laden with foodstuffs all the w ay from G reat Britain; these w e distributed am ong w om en living in the refugee camps. W omen from Seville and M adrid traveled to Belgrade in order to ask how w c were and to mount an im prom ptu Flam enco show. W omen from Freiburg sent us our first computer. W omen in the U nited States sent us care packages w hich w e gave to fem ale refugees w ho were in need. W omen from A ustralia sent us glittering paper stars that w ould reflect the sun if hung from the window. A few o f the w om en w ho came decided to stay on in Belgrade, and are with us even now. H owever, o f all those w ho provided assistance and support over the years, few had a greater im pact than the sixteen w om en from Sw itzerland w ho visited in D ecem ber 1992 and told us, “ Set up an organization for w om en raped in w ar and w e ’ll provide you with the necessary financing.” This is how the A utonom ous W om en’s C enter A gainst Sexual V iolence cam e into being, and is w hat gave many o f us a chance to becom e political activists in the full sense o f the word. In this way, the solidarity that w as part o f our everyday lives during the w ar becam e inscribed in our m inds and souls, and as such will rem ain with us for the rest o f our lives.

Confusing Realities and Lessons Learned in Wartime: Supporting Women’s Projects in the Former Yugoslavia Ingrid Foeken

SUMMARY. The personal experiences o f the author working with w om en’s organizations in regions destabilized by w ar is the focus of this article. The author sum marizes the results o f a report comm issioned by the Dutch governm ent to analyze the state o f para-professional work, d e­ scribes her ow n work in the Form er Yugoslavia and makes recom m enda­ tions for the training o f Western fem inists to work in war regions. She also examines the effects o f the trauma o f doing this work on her own life. [Article copies available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-342-9678. E-mail address: [email protected]] KEYWORDS. Trauma, refugees, fem inist counseling, nationalism , ADMIRA

IN TRO D U C TIO N Professional and Personal Motivation W hen the w ar started in the sum m er o f 1991, I had been w orking for ten years in the treatm ent o f sexually traum atized w om en, including many with Ingrid Foeken, MS, is a Dutch psychotherapist and social psychologist, specializ­ ing in lesbian feminist and international issues in private practice and with a Region­ al Institute for Mental Health in Amsterdam. Address correspondence to: Ingrid Foeken, Okeghemstraal 16/ii, 1075 PM, Am­ sterdam, The Netherlands.

91

92

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

histories o f rape or incest w ho w ere suffering from dissociative problem s or identity disorders. I had also engaged in research on the im pact o f confronta­ tion betw een incest survivors, perpetrators and other fam ily m em bers. Thus, I felt that my experience, both as a psychotherapist and as an educator (in w hich capacity 1 have trained shelter and crisis hotline volunteers), could prove useful in the w ar-ravaged region o f the Form er Yugoslavia. In addition to the sym ptom s o f post-traum atic stress disorder per se, I w as well aw are o f the long-term dangers inherent in denying or repressing traum a experiences, and o f the im portance o f real contact, of being there to listen to survivors talk about the atrocities com m itted against them. There have been many times that I have w itnessed “ w ars” w ithin fam ilies, so that I knew not to be surprised at the sadistic, im pulsive and unpredictable behavior o f w hich men, and som etim es w om en as well, are capable. I knew that dissociation, denial, hostility and scapegoating should not be seen as pathological reactions on the part o f victim s, but rather as norm al responses in the face o f unbearable life circum stances. Societies have been all too w illing to ignore the im portance o f g rief and collectively acknow ledging w ar injustice, and the B alkans are no exception, as is attested to by the perpetuation o f revenge sentim ents from one genera­ tion to the next. T hus, in deciding to w ork in the region, 1 not only hoped to gain som e insight into the w ar situation itself, but I also w anted to help its victim s, most o f w hom are w om en and children. A good friend and psychologist from B elgrade phoned me one day just after the w ar started in 1991. She said, “ I am no longer seen as a Yugoslavian fem inist, but as a Serb, a citizen o f the crim inal nation that started the w ar and all these atrocities. A s you know, I never chose this political system and I hate the politicians it’s produced. I still think o f m yself as a Yugoslavian w om an and an international fem inist. Please be my w itness. I need friends here who believe in the w ork w e ’re doing, like that o f the ‘W omen in B lack’ who protest every W ednesday in the center of Belgrade, as well as the SOS hotline w e ’re running for raped and sexually abused w om en and girls. I need the warm th o f friends from abroad to help energize me and keep me focused on the anti-w ar cause.” For my friend, the w ar engendered feelings o f helpless­ ness and uncertainty. W hen she called, I w as suddenly brought face-to-face with these feelings myself, and I w as left w ith the sense that the only way forward w as to try to transform my sense o f pow erlessness into concrete action.

Dutch Policy in the Wake o f Publicity A bout M ass Rape Prior to disbursing funding in support o f w o m en ’s projects in the Form er Yugoslavia, the Dutch governm ent com m issioned a report analyzing the state o f para-professional and volunteer organizations w orking with traum atized

Ingrid Foeken

93

or w ar-raped refugee w om en (Foeken and K leiverda, 1993). G unilla Kleiverda, a gynecologist, and I spent three w eeks in the region in Septem ber o f 1993 gathering data for this report, w hich w c subsequently presented to our governm ent. A sum m ary o f our findings follow s.

IN T E R V E N T IO N S Most refugees w ere sheltered by their relatives, with only five percent in Serbia and thirty perccnt in C roatia housed in refugee cam ps. The principal problem s they faced included lack o f contact w ith fam ily m em bers w ho had rem ained in B osnia-H erzegovina, tensions with host fam ilies, little opportu­ nity for m eaningful activities, uncertain prospects for the future, and poor m ental health, itself the product o f such traum as as the loss o f hom e, fam ily m em bers and personal belongings. In the cam ps, m others’ w ide-ranging responsibility for the care and education o f their children w ould exacerbate feelings o f apathy and depression, m aking them less likely to set limits upon the aggressive behavior o f their offspring, angering cam p leaders in the process. Children w ould latch onto teachers and other adults, m aking burnout that much m ore likely am ong these latter groups. As for more complex psychiatric problem s, outside professionals visited the refugee cam ps w hen­ ever possible. For exam ple, a Bosnian psychiatrist based in Zagreb organized regular group sessions for adolescents, ex-concentration cam p prisoners, and w om en from different ethnic com m unities. H owever, she adm itted to us how difficult it w as for her group o f professionals to integrate questions about rape, even if participants had no problem in discussing other violence-related issues. There w as simply too m uch sham e, and raped w om en w ere at risk o f being driven out o f their com m unity if they w ere found out. Despite these difficulties, the group w as very interested in receiving training in this field. At a m ore general level, state mental health agencies w ere overw helm ed by the dem ands placed upon them , particularly in an environm ent in which lack o f funding delayed or stopped altogether the paym ent o f salaries. Indeed, many fem ale professionals decided to leave their posts in order to w ork, on a volunteer basis, for fem inist N G O s providing health services in the region.

The Implications o f Nationalism For many refugees w ho w ere forced to relocate for econom ic reasons or because o f their ethnicity, retraum atization w as a daily occurrence. AntiM uslim sentim ent ran so high on the Croatian coast, w here refugees were housed in empty hotels, that som e police agents w ould sim ply tear up the docum ents o f M uslim individuals w hom they encountered. The politically

94

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

neutral stance o f United N ations agencies and foreign N G O s w as interpreted by many as evidence o f anti-Croatian sentim ent. We had occasion to experi­ ence this hatred directly, w hen stones w ere thrown at our vehicle w hen we were traveling in a U nited N ations car. In short, it w as w idely believed that the United N ations coddled the Serbian and M uslim refugees, providing them with two meals a day w hile m any local people were forced to go hungry. It w as also reported to us that there w ere cases o f refugees being raped and beaten up by m em bers o f their “ h o st” fam ilies. N eedless to say, the level o f general aggression in these societies had increased enorm ously over the w ar years. It w as also in this region that w e encountered, for the first time, strong nationalist feelings, even am ong wom en. In one particularly telling incident, a leader o f the W om en’s A ssociation o f Bosnia-H erzegovina grew angry with me when she heard o f our plans to m eet w ith fem inists in Belgrade. In her view, Serbian fem inists had no value, since they had betrayed their sisters elsew here in the Form er Yugoslavia, had done nothing to prevent the war, and had been shielded from the sexual attacks suffered by C roatian and Bosnian w om en. W hen I asked her w hat possible influence she thought Serbian fem inists had over their governm ent, she had no response. As it w as alm ost im possible to visit or send m oney to projects in Bosnia, and Serbian fem inist organizations received little sym pathy in any case, Croatian projects benefited disproportionately from international funding initiatives, with the C enter for W omen War Victims in Zagreb being an especially notable case. Individuals w orking at the C enter w ere receiving salaries that w ere considered extravagant by local standards. N ot only did this serve to engender w idespread jealousy am ong area residents, but it led many non-fem inist w om en to becom e involved in the project only because o f the wages. M eanw hile, in our hotel in Split (Croatia), pornographic pictures were shoved under our door and we received obscene calls during the night. We assum ed that the hotel’s ow ner w as responsible. However, despite the crude­ ness o f his acts, he w as not alone in show ing hostility to us. In several cases, professionals accused us o f only w anting to w ork w ith B osnian w om en, and o f underestim ating the suffering o f Croatians. Obviously, it w as all too easy to go astray in this nationalist minefield, and w e w ere left w ith the sense that A DM IRA ’s philosophy o f prom oting transnationalism (see discussion below ) by its insistence that support be given to w o m en ’s groups regardless o f ethnicity was more a case o f w ishful thinking than a reflection o f actual conditions. Politics served as a constant interference in the handling o f the m ass rapes. Politicians from all sides w anted gory accounts o f rape and sexual abuse that they might present to the international com m unity as evidence o f the barbar­

Ingrid Foeken

95

ity o f their foes. O f course, in doing so, they show ed them selves to be all too w illing to sacrifice w o m en ’s em otional recovery on the altar o f political expediency. W hile these incidents served to underscore the extent to which nationalism and health care w ere w orking at cross-purposes to one another, they also highlighted serious problem s am ong health w orkers them selves, including fem inists, many o f w hom were com peting to be first to exploit the stories the victim s told. O f course, foreign journalists were not blam eless in this regard, fueling this exploitation by offering m oney to raped w om en w ho were Englishspeaking. W estern governm ents’ policy o f m aking raped w om en a priority in aid program s w as in many cases counterproductive, since it served to dow n­ play the seriousness o f other w ar crim es com m itted against w om en. In the end, I w as left feeling very confused, since I had expected the issue o f rape to be treated in a careful, respectful m anner, only to discover a reality in which callousness and insensitivity w ere the norm.

Consequences o f Rape Although the num ber o f w om en seeking abortions has doubled since the beginning o f the war, hospital staff never ask why the abortion is being sought. W hile this is in part due to the fact that the procedure is generally far less controversial in Eastern European countries than it is in the West, it is also the case that many physicians did not want to know the answer. W hat w ould they do with the inform ation? A lso, w e know o f at least one incident w here a colleague w as raped by her husband w ho had com e hom e drunk from the w ar zone. A s one might im agine, such an attack w as even more sham eful for the victim than one inflicted upon her by the enemy. In our w orkshops for mental health professionals and volunteers, the issue o f sexual violence w as ever-present. Participants often asked us if w e thought it w ise to ask clients directly w hether or not they had been raped. In one scenario described to us, a 16-year-old girl w as placed in care in a psychiatric hospital for refusing to speak and severe anorexia. She w as the daughter o f a Serbian father and C roatian m other and, over the course o f several w eeks, w as subjected to m ultiple rapes by her father and his friends. She hated herself for being Serbian, and her revenge w as to attem pt to starve herself to death. Faced with these circum stances, w e argued that it w ould be im possible to talk about the rapes at this point; o f far greater im portance w as to make contact with her in a m anner with w hich she could identify. The psycholo­ gists attending the w orkshop w ere relieved, as they had the idea that W estern psychotherapists alw ays address the issue o f rape explicitly, w ithout taking into account the particulars o f a given case. O ther participants asked us to com m ent on the accuracy o f their guesses regarding signs o f sexual violence am ong concentration cam p survivors. As

96

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

an example, they referred to instances where mothers would adamantly de­ clare that only they had been raped and their daughters had been spared, whereas the girls themselves showed signs o f depression, recoiled at every touch, suffered from vaginal infections and spent long periods of time under the shower. We suggested that the daughters could also be protecting their mothers. Women would often claim that they were forced to undress, but that they had been too skinny to be raped, or that they were spared because o f their period. Everyone understood what it meant when a Bosnian woman arrived in the camp dressed in Croatian clothes, or when a woman hated and neglected her newborn child. Everyone knew, yet no one challenged the stories told. Thus, we agreed that all of the signs touched upon above could be indicative o f a rape experience, and we supported them in integrating questions about rape into their discussions with this individual. We also sought to emphasize the importance of seeing denial and repres­ sion as necessary survival mechanisms rather than pathologizing them. Inter­ estingly, most workshop participants appeared not to be familiar with this perspective. Thus, we suggested that rape was one o f many traumas where women should be encouraged to verbalize their feelings in order to overcome the sense of shame within them.

Issues Raised by S ta ff During the Consultation Guilt feelings for not doing enough and individuals’ sense o f powerless­ ness in the face o f so many multi-traumatized people were other areas touched upon during the workshops. We shared with those present the help­ lessness which wc so often felt during the course of our own working lives, and noted that things must be far more difficult in a war situation. We stressed the importance o f boundary issues and the need for self-protection. Although participants recognized immediately the risk volunteers ran o f becoming entrapped in the “ rescue triangle,” we realized that further training about this issue would be needed. During consultation, participants would often be left feeling drained and overwhelmed, so we would also ask them to share with us their successes as well as their problems. On one occasion, we suggested that we should try to find at least one funny thing in the midst of the misery. Several group mem­ bers came forward to share humorous anecdotes, with one refugee describ­ ing, all the while laughing out loud, how she had seen a woman in Sarajevo rushing out of her house the moment a mortar exploded nearby to lock all of her doors and windows. The smoke blowing around her body while she was doing this gave her the appearance o f a ghost. Having heard the story, all the participants burst out laughing. In conducting workshops and consultations throughout the region, wc

Ingrid Foeken

97

w ere generally very im pressed with the educational background o f profes­ sionals w orking in the field, w hether psychologists, psychiatrists or social w orkers. Som e had been trained in the diagnosis o f post-traum atic stress disorder. Thus, in m any cases w e w ere sim ply providing participants with inform ation on recent theoretical advances in the field or giving them con­ crete suggestions that m ight prove helpful in their counseling work. At the sam e tim e they w ere very interested in learning about other countries’ experi­ ences in refugee counseling, indicating that there had been no local research done in this area, and that they believed that the extent o f sexual violence during the w ar w as unprecedented in their socicty. One w om an w ent so far as to suggest that the latter m ay be due to the intrusion o f W estern capitalist values into the region. Incest w as another area w here inform ation and train­ ing w ere lacking. H owever, volunteers w ere beginning to be faced with it more and m ore often, perhaps because w om en felt at greater ease talking about sexual violence than they had prior to the beginning o f the war. Although w e found w o m en ’s volunteer projects to be in a pioneering phase, with enthusiasm and w illingness to learn new techniques and ap­ proaches, most w ere also in severe need o f organizational support. The m a­ jority w ere being sustained through the charism a o f their m anagers and the strong com m itm ent o f the volunteers.

F ounding o f A D M IR A Presented w ith our recom m endations, the Dutch governm ent initiated funding o f A D M IR A for three years, which it subsequently extended until 1999. M em bers of this new foundation included w o m en ’s organizations w orking in the field o f sexual violence, along with the Mental Health Institute for R efugees (Pharos) and a research center studying the sociological and psychological im pact o f the Second World War.

The A im and Policy o f A D M IR A The purpose o f A D M IR A w as to provide inform ation, advice, support and training for N G O s in the Form er Yugoslavia w orking with m ulti-traum atized w om en from different ethnic and religious com m unities. However, follow ing im plem entation o f the D ayton peace accord, the em phasis has shifted som e­ w hat tow ard the provision o f support to key organizations, which w ould then be in a position to train other w o m en ’s groups, netw orks o f care providers and professional m ental health agencies w orking w ith sexually traum atized refugees, w om en and children. In order to carry out this m andate, eight trainers with a background in refugee counseling and sexual violence w ere dispatched to the region. The

98

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

group was divided into four teams, each consisting o f a specialist in one o f the two areas. I was selected as one of the teacher/trainers. To participate, organizations had to have a policy o f anti-nationalism and be willing to work with women and children of all ethnic and religious backgrounds.

My Experiences as a Trainer Workshops were developed that focused upon the recovery process and staff empowerment. However, once the w orkshops were underway, we found that issues related to leadership, task management and delegation o f responsi­ bilities were just as important in many w om en’s organizations as trauma counseling.

Developing Knowledge from Experience The concept o f experience-based knowledge is central to w om en’s thera­ py. In short, insight into a particular problem is gained by analyzing one’s own feelings, cognitions and conclusions, together with the reactions and responses of others. In the example below, I seek to illustrate what I mean by discussing a guided fantasy I used with w orkshop participants. First, I asked group members to focus on their childhood and think o f a secret that they had not shared with their mother or caregiver. Then they were to write down the reasons why they had not been able to tell their secret and what would have been necessary for them to do so. In sharing and analyzing the range of responses that this exercise engendered, the group learned that it is “ norm al” not to reveal a secret, how secrets isolate individuals, and how shame or fear of punishment prevents people from opening up. The exercise was also useful in establishing a connection between participants’ childhood experiences and those o f girls or women who have been sexually assaulted, in the process blurring the boundaries between “ u s” (the care providers) and “ them ” (the clients). Along similar lines, emphasis was also placed upon the contradictions inherent in the mother-daughter relationship. For example, although m en’s violence is a given, it is seldom presented as an inevitable part of marriage. However, when daughters verbalized different, more romantic expectations of the men in their lives, mothers blamed them for being naive or stupid. A nother issue that was frequently discussed in the w orkshops was the prob­ lems associated with m en’s inability to perform sexually, causing them to be rejected by their mates. As a number of women laughingly put it, “ no fun, no m arriage.” I suggested that the increase in alcohol consumption by male war survivors may partially explain this problem, as would w ar traumatization itself.

Ingrid Foeken

99

D ifferences in political ideology w ere also a source o f difficulty for many w orkshop participants, particularly am ong those w ho w ere Serbian. That is to say, parents w ould often accuse their daughters o f disloyalty w hen they voiced their hatred for the w ar or indicated their preference to be identified as fem inist rather than Serbian. A fter sharing these view s, volunteers w ho w orked on crisis hotlines (such as the SO S Telephone H otline for Sexually Violated W omen and C hildren in B elgrade) found it easier to understand their irritated reactions w hen listening to w om en w ho expressed nationalist senti­ m ents, many o f w hom were m em bers o f the sam e generation as their m oth­ ers.

Learning Techniques fo r Counseling Clients A lthough som e techniques w ere readily adaptable to conditions in the Form er Yugoslavia, others had to be m odified som ewhat. On the one hand, participants w elcom ed inform ation on strategies to avoid feeling over­ whelm ed, such as self-protection m easures w hich involved thinking about happy m em ories before sitting dow n with an individual suffering from severe trauma. On the other hand, techniques focused upon the developm ent o f a “ safe place” in o n e’s mind w ere generally less w ell-received. For exam ple, our suggestion o f im agining a forest caused one w om an from Sarajevo to experience unpleasant flashbacks to the time she had to flee through the woods to escape the fighting. T he suggestion o f a beach w as painful for many Serbian w om en because they w ere barred from traveling to the D almatian coast at that time. Faced with this situation, w e asked those present to take a mom ent to com fort each other. A t this point som e group m em bers criticizcd us for placing so much em phasis upon fantasy w hen the real w orld w as so hard and cruel. We agreed w hole-heartedly with this assessm ent, and argued that it w as for precisely this reason that fantasy might play a useful role in helping them to cope. A nother w om an cam e forw ard to tell us that she had been living a fantasy life in Sarajevo the last few years, and w as fed up with the need to do this. We indicated that w e respected her position. We added that w e had com e to the Form er Yugoslavia from a country that w as at peace, and asked w hat wc could do that w ould be preferable from their perspective. N eedless to say, this experience taught us that we must be careful not to assum e that strategies that w ork well in one context are necessarily the most appropriate in another. In other cases, the w om en w ere so tense that conflicts w ithin the group m anifested them selves, m aking it im possible for us to relinquish a measure of control. Indeed, it w as precisely in this context that we brought up the ques­ tion o f safety, stressing the im portance o f alw ays m aintaining self-control in dangerous situations, either by m eans o f a pause for self-reflection or by focusing on o n e ’s breathing and physical feelings. Interestingly, once group

100

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

m em bers began to use these techniques them selves, their capacity to address other difficult issues w as enhanced.

Techniques to Encourage Cooperation A m ong Participants Personal conflict within organizations w as identified as a problem that w as becom ing increasingly serious. A s one might im agine, lack o f com m unica­ tion w as one o f its root causes. T hus, considerable energy in the w orkshops w as devoted to com m unication training, stressing the developm ent o f listen­ ing skills, distinguishing betw een feelings, opinions and intuition, giving positive feedback, being honest with o n e’s em otions, and curbing destructive behavior such as projection. G enerally speaking, participants found it ex­ trem ely difficult to express their anger in a self-reflective m anner and avoid scapegoating others. To m ake sense o f this anger, w e w ould first interview all of the individuals involved in a given organization, then analyze and catego­ rize the different responses. In most cases, problem s w ere due to one or more o f the follow ing reasons: the structure o f the organization itself; the nature o f its w ork; poor com m unication am ong staff m em bers; lack o f clearly defined roles; and issues related to leadership style or personality. Once w e had undertaken the analysis, w e w ould share the findings w ith all m em bers o f the group, and then help them w ork through the problem areas, thereby lessening the level o f m istrust and facilitating com m unication. W hile these exercises did not differ significantly from those we had pre­ viously undertaken with volunteer groups in The N etherlands, our efforts to help w om en’s organizations in the Former Yugoslavia m ove tow ard greater professionalism and transparency were met with a m arkedly different reac­ tion. O ur attem pts to encourage group m em bers to invest in the developm ent o f their agency’s organizational structure engendered considerable opposi­ tion, albeit at an unconscious level. At first we did not understand why participants w ere responding in this way, but it soon becam e obvious that the problem w as in large part due to the fact that many w ere faced w ith such uncertainty in their ow n lives that long-term planning m eant little to them. As several w om en asked us, why should they think o f the future o f the organiza­ tion w hen it w as w hat they w ere doing right now that w as im portant? There w as also significant resistance to the m odels o f coordination and leadership we presented. Probing participants’ feelings in this regard, w e w ere told o f the deep distrust, tear and anger that w elled up inside them w henever they thought o f the politicians w ho had brought so m uch g rief to their country, both before and after the fall o f com m unism . They tended to associate leaders with m anipulation, deceitful pow er gam es, and only being interested in help­ ing their cronies at the expense o f all others. This in turn m eant that wom en w ho attem pted to assum e a m anagem ent position w ere also looked upon with suspicion or contem pt by other mem bers o f the organization. H owever, after

Ingrid Foeken

101

we discussed these issues in the workshop, the groups generally became more open to new models o f coordination and task delegation. In our view, the disappearance of communism had left something of a vacuum where new forms of democratic governance needed to be developed.

Boundary Issues As trainers, boundary issues often proved problematic for us. In one case, a para-professional asked me if I would be willing to meet with her for a private consultation in connection with a couples counseling issue. I agreed, and also accepted her choice of translator. In the meeting, she indicated to me that she was fearful she was taking sides in her work with a particular couple, and I helped find a solution to the problem with which she seemed happy. However, as I walked out of the room at the end of the session, the translator turned to me and said that the couple in question was her and her partner. I felt manipulated and asked them why they had not told me earlier; they replied that they thought I had known all along. Boundary issues were also complicated by the war situation. Volunteers resented the fact that they were not being paid, and all the more so because o f the long hours they worked, and the apparent lack o f appreciation for their efforts on the part of the refugees. Meanwhile, the professional staff would become defensive and blame them for not setting limits or establishing clear boundaries. As one might imagine, communication group work was extreme­ ly helpful in addressing such conflicts.

Interdisciplinary Work In our training workshops, we also encountered significant problems in the area of interdisciplinary cooperation. Although we offered facilitation to help work through these issues, there was great resistance to our interventions, particularly within those organizations dominated by physicians. In these instances, psychologists would generally serve as the survivor’s advocate, defending her right to remain silent in the face of physicians’ demands that she immediately reveal the details of her assault to the police or other state official. However, as the groups became sensitized to their colleagues’ per­ spective, they were more likely to engage in cooperative behavior and sup­ port each other’s interventions. Among the other issues raised by workshop participants in this regard, many wanted to hear about the working relationship between gynecologists and psychologists in the West and what I, as a psychotherapist based in The Netherlands, thought gynecologists in the Former Yugoslavia should know. Interestingly, it was precisely in this context that cultural differences between

102

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

the trainers and the participants arose. My partner, herself a gynecologist, suggested that physicians may wish to give a small mirror to patients during the course of a gynecological exam with the aim o f familiarizing women with their bodies and giving them a greater sense o f control. When she said this, all those present started to laugh and suggested that the patients were more likely to use the mirror to look at their hair. However, the next day one o f the physicians did offer a mirror to a patient, who was curious enough to use it in the proposed manner. As long as one is in a position to make one’s own choice, the chance to act in a novel or unconventional way can be refreshing.

Hate and Guilt Divided Feminists As one might imagine, we were particularly interested in working in Serbia, as this would give us the opportunity to hear the perspective o f the w ar’s “ perpetrators.” At the beginning o f the conflict, the guilt feelings of the Serbian volunteer staff were overwhelming, causing them to feel torn between their sense of shame and their belief that Serbia was being unfairly demonized by its neighbors and the international community. However, the wish to help former friends and refugees from all ethnic communities was great. In the words of one Serbian woman, “ The w ar is the most awful and shameful experience o f my life, but 1 also want to do what I can for the refugees and other traumatized w om en.” Many volunteers kept in regular touch with their old friends in Sarajevo, sending them letters and care pack­ ages, as well as crawling through a tunnel under the city’s occupied airport in order to visit them in person. The multi-ethnic professionals working for Medica Zenica emphasized to us the importance of personal friendships in preventing the perpetuation o f hatred. For example, when Bosnian Croats rampaged through villages in the northeastern region of Bosnia-Hcrzcgovina, burning houses and killing people, one of the organization’s Croatian staff members felt ashamed be­ cause she knew that her colleague’s parents lived in one o f the affected towns. She did not dare speak to her friend, fearful that she had lost all respect in her eyes. However, the Bosnian staff member sought her out and said, “ I need your friendship now more than ever before; otherwise I ’ll start hating all Croatians and I don’t want that.” In this way, not only did the friendship survive, but it helped each of them avoid generalizing their hatred to an entire nation. At a broader level, it is clear that feminists, both locally and internationally, have invested a great deal o f effort into bridge-building between communities split by war and hatred.

The Psychological Power Balance and Internalized Oppression In order to gain a deeper understanding o f difference and the unconscious mechanisms which serve to discipline and control marginalized groups, we

Ingr id Focken

103

asked the participants o f a large w orkshop to w rite dow n on a piece o f paper the various “ m ajority” and “ m inority” groups to w hich they belonged. We all have mixed identities, and group m em bers m entioned many o f them: ethnicity, class, religion, (dis)ability, age, sexual orientation, gender, marital status, am ong others. We collected all o f the responses, divided them into “ m ajority” and “ m inority” categories, and proceeded to discuss w ays in which pow er differentials am ong wom en might be reduced or overcom e. One suggestion involved alw ays endeavoring to be honest and listen carefully to the w ords o f others w ithout interruption. To illustrate the im portance o f this type o f healing w ork, a disabled wom an suffering from m uscular dystrophy w as asked to describe som e o f the challenges she faccd in her everyday life. She touched upon a range o f issues, including the tendency o f som e to question her in a highly offensive way. M ost o f the w om en present had never realized how o n e ’s unconscious actions help to reproduce oppression and injustice. In another exercise, we asked tw o w om en, one lesbian, the other heterosexual, to engage in a role play. T heir interactions gave the group considerable pause for thought, with one lesbian wom an describing the in­ tense loneliness she had felt her w hole life, along with the form s o f discrim i­ nation she has faced. The support the w om en gave each other and me in this session w as very useful in prom oting healing and countering internalized oppression.

A D M lR A 's D utch Trainer Group As trainers, w e held regular m eetings in order to share experiences and discuss logistical or adm inistrative issues. H owever, in spite o f our best intentions, differences o f opinion often arose during the course o f these m eetings. For exam ple, several organizations asked for training that did not com ply with A D M IRA ’s criteria for inclusion in the program . W hile a strict interpretation o f our policy dem anded that they be excluded, extenuating circum stances often m ade us reluctant to take this step. In one particularly telling case, a Croatian w o m en ’s project that w as characterized as nationalist by international fem inists, had applied to participate in the training. We were forced to w eigh their nationalist designation against the fact that they reached m any Bosnian and Croatian rape survivors and ex-prisoners from concentra­ tion cam ps. A lthough there w as a heated debate am ong the trainer group, in the end A D M IR A agreed to the N G O ’s request. In another instance, the B elgrade M ental H ealth Institute subm itted an application to us. None o f the trainers w as w illing to becom e involved with this organization because it was both Serbian and non-fem inist. H owever, because o f its background in pro­ viding support to m any survivors o f sexual violence, we added tw o new educators to the group so that w e might offer the Institute the training it had

104

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

requested. In this way, we sought to m ake use o f pragm atic m eans o f dealing w ith the challenges at hand. Related to these problem s w as the fact that trainers found it difficult to stay aloof from the ethnic conflicts that surrounded them. In several cases, educa­ tors becam e partisans o f the com m unity from w hich “ th eir” project had em erged, resulting in considerable rivalry am ong the trainers. H owever, we w ere for the most part successful in keeping this rivalry in check during our m eetings.

CO N CLU SIO NS The realities o f w orking w ith w o m en ’s organizations in a region destabi­ lized by w ar make it im possible to plan exhaustively or place cast iron limits upon the scope o f o n e ’s activities. In the context o f A DM IRA’s w ork in the Form er Yugoslavia, w e w ere often forced to change our agenda in the face o f cuts in staff or exhausted personnel. M oreover, com petition am ong interna­ tional organizations, national agencies and w o m en ’s N G O s proved to be a significant obstacle to cooperation and coordination. Finally, all o f our inter­ ventions took place against a backdrop o f grow ing nationalism and ethnic cleansing, w hich in som e regions continues to this day. As W estern educators are still asked to share their know ledge with local groups, it behooves the latter to sensitize them selves to local contexts and to recognize that not all nationalism s are alike. That is to say, one should not attem pt to equate any and all verbal expressions o f hatred with the N ational Socialism o f A dolf H itler (Pusic, 1994). B ecause fem inist organizations tend to identify less w ith particular ethnic com m unities and m ore with a transnational sisterhood o f w om en, many fem ale refugees avoid seeking help from agencies characterized as fem inist. Thus, by distinguishing betw een the different form s o f nationalism as Pusic (1994) suggests, one is placed in a position w here one can engage in m ean­ ingful collaboration with the w ide range o f organizations that w ork with severely traum atized w om en, yet do not have a clear fem inist perspective.

R EC O M M E N D A TIO N S FO R T R A IN E R S M any o f the W estern trainers w ho take it upon them selves to w ork in areas affected by w ar are m otivated by their ow n personal histories and traum as, such as rape, incest, sexual assault or victim ization in a previous conflict. A lthough they are able to deal w ith the effects o f these traum atic experiences in their home countries, being exposed to the legacy o f w ar can be exceeding­ ly disturbing in its ow n right, and thus it is im portant that individuals prepare them selves for this eventuality.

Ingrid Focken

105

In a som ew hat different vein, although burnout prevention is an issue that receives considerable attention in training sessions for field staff, I would argue that secondary traum atization is inevitable for all those involved in such w ork, including the trainers. In short, not only is there a tendency to make the unconscious distinction betw een “ u s” and “ th em ,” recreating con­ fusing or dysfunctional patterns o f interaction in the process, but individuals’ exposure to a m ultiplicity o f extrem e traum as necessarily affects their ability to function. To counter these problem s, training must include the develop­ ment o f a system w hereby care providers can express their innerm ost feelings and em otions. In parallel fashion, a sim ilar system must be put into place in the trainers’ hom e country if the latter arc to avoid burnout or the adoption o f unhealthy coping m echanism s. Steps m ust be taken to address the “ m irror­ in g ” phenom enon, w hich causes outsiders to lose their detachm ent and b e­ com e party to the conflicts o f their host country. This w as seen w ithin the team o f D utch trainers, w ho w ere at times indistinguishable from the w arring com m unities o f the Form er Yugoslavia. Thus, rather than merely focusing upon w hat the trainers can do for those they will be w orking w ith, adequate attention must be paid to the “ m irroring” issue and the best m eans o f avoid­ ing it. Sham e is another problem w ith w hich trainers m ust contend. Labeled “ experts,” wc arrive in the region only to discover that w c know far less than w e thought. This in turn leads to feelings o f pow erlessness and lack o f confidence in our ow n abilities, reactions that are them selves part o f the secondary traum atization process. In this way, trainers becom e indirect vic­ tims o f the war. One m ust also be sensitive to the fact that not all theoretical insights that are useful in the West are readily transferable to other cultural and socio­ political contexts. Post-traum atic stress disorder is a case in point. G iven that individuals’ traum a in the Form er Yugoslavia is rooted in the political struc­ tures and conflicts o f the region, post-traum atic stress is a m isnom er, since the violence and hatred are ongoing. Thus, trainers’ focus m ust be changed so as to incorporate peace work into their interventions. Similarly, even as one acknow ledges the usefulness o f physical exercises, guided fantasies and oth­ er creative techniques in the training w orkshops, one m ust also be w ary o f using sym bols or im ages that may trigger unexpected flashbacks related to the war. Finally, it is im portant to recognize the key significance o f fem inists’ efforts to build ties and friendships that transcend the bounds o f nationalism , helping to break them dow n in the process. In my view, one of the most valuable aspects o f our work in the region has been the contacts and connec­ tions it has helped to engender betw een w om en o f diverse cultures and backgrounds.

106

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

Still, there can be little doubt that the time I spent in the Form er Yugosla­ via, along with the fifteen years I had spent as a psychotherapist before that, has taken its toll on me. 1 returned to Holland experiencing many o f the sam e sym ptom s described in this article: exhaustion, sham e, confusion, anger and a profound sense o f pow erlessness. Faced with these problem s, I decided it w as in my best interest to take a year o f m edical leave. I started taking art courses, visiting m useum s and focusing on the beauty o f life. It has been a long journey, but I have slowly recovered my sense o f jo y and optim ism .

R EFER EN C ES Foeken, I. and Kleiverda, G. (1993), M issie naar voormalie Joegoslavie: inventarisatie van mogelykheden tot ondersteuning van hulp aan verkrachte en getraumatiseerde vrouwen, Utrecht: ADMIRA. Pusic, V. (1994), Uses o f nationalism and the politics o f recognition, Erasmus, Zagreb: Gilda, pp. 3-21.

Traumatized Women Working with Traumatized Women: Reflections upon Life and Work in a War Zone G abriele Krämer

SUMMARY. In this article, the author shares both her personal and pro­ fessional experiences in w orking with wom en and children w ho have been subjected to soul-destroying violence in the Form er Yugoslavia in recent years. [Article copies available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-342-9678. E-mail address: getinfo@haworthpressinc. com] KEYWORDS. B osnia, Tuzla, traum a, w o m en ’s projects, refugees Although one m ight argue that there is nothing unique or novel in the kind of soul-destroying violence that has killed so many in the Form er Yugoslavia in recent years, what is rem arkable is the fact that it took place in the heart o f Europe, less than one hour by airplane from Germany. A lso extraordinary is the solidarity show n by w om en from all over the w orld w ith their counter­ parts living in the w ar zone. In this article, I w ould like to share with you my ow n experiences in this regard.

Gabriele Krämer, PhD, is a clinical psychologist in private practice specializing in working with women and children. Address correspondence to: Gabriele Krämer, Prinz-Friedrich-Karl-Strasse 34, D-44135 Dortmund, Germany.

107

108

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

TH E C O N TE X T “ Just start at the beginning,” w as the answ er I received w hen I said that I did not know how to begin or w hat to w rite. But w hen did it all begin? I becam e aw are o f the escalating violence in the Form er Yugoslavia in 1991, at the sam e time that G erm any w as reeling from a w ave o f neo-fascist m ilitan­ cy, characterized by num erous attacks upon im m igrants and asylum seekers. Taken together, these events conjured up for me im ages o f the Second World War, the stories my parents had told me, the flight o f my m other and sister, and my sham e and guilt for being German. It w as in this frame o f m ind that one day I visited som e old friends from K urdistan, and well rem em ber my sense o f anger and helplessness w hen I saw the fear in their eyes and the knives they kept on hand should skinheads attempt to burn dow n their home. It w as precisely the sam e feeling that swept over me when I first read of the mass rapes being com m itted in Bosnia. Will we never learn anything from history? Is hum ankind fated to repeat the same m istakes over and over again until finally there is no one left to kill? With these thoughts in the back o f my m ind, I did not hesitate for a m om ent when a friend asked me to becom e involved in a w o m an ’s aid project she w as in the process o f developing. It w as no longer enough merely to attend dem onstrations or engage in intellectual debate; the time had come to do som ething, and three o f us, three wom en, sat dow n in order to plan w hat this w ould be. However, it soon becam e obvious to us that w e w ould not be able to determ ine w hat w as needed by Bosnian w om en and children so long as w e rem ained in a living room in Germany. Instead, w c w ould have to travel to the region and ask the w om en them selves w hat they needed and what they w anted us to do. Thus, in June 1993 w e set out for Tuzla (Bosnia). We had decided on this destination for tw o reasons, first because o f the political situation-the town w as under the control o f a coalition (non-nationalist) g overnm ent-and sec­ ondly, because w e had a num ber o f local contacts. H owever, our journey w as not an easy one. In the first instance, we had to struggle to obtain a perm it from the U NCHR headquarters in Zagreb to enter Bosnia. Tliey asked us for evidence o f support from an international aid organization, and sm iled w hen we told them o f our plans to im plem ent a w o m en ’s project in the w ar zone. In the end w e did obtain the necessary perm its, though only thanks to the timely intervention o f DHH, a G erm an hum anitarian organization engaged in work throughout the region. The next stage o f our trip w as equally harrowing. Landing in Sarajevo in the m idst of shelling, we were transported by arm ored car to a United Nations base in Kiseljak, and from there by jeep to Zenica. This is w here the w aiting began, since Tuzla w as being blockaded at the tim e and the main road was im passable due to fighting in the area. Eventually, w e w ere able to secure a

Gabriele Krämer

109

ride with a supply convoy organized by a group o f ex-soldiers from Britain. Traveling along small m ountain tracks with the sound o f shelling and m a­ chine gun fire in the distance, w e w ere very glad w hen w e arrived safely at our destination. We w ere im m ediately struck by the apparent lack o f life: no cars, no noise and no electricity. H owever, the tow n w as not lifeless. Children w ere playing in front o f their hom es, and it seem ed that every open area-even balconies and terraces-w as being used for grow ing fruits and vegetables. M eanw hile, w alking into the hotel lobby w as like entering a m an ’s world o f Bosnian soldiers, UN personnel and French Legionnaires with rifles slung casually over their shoulders, talking with one another or sipping drinks at the bar. Everyone appeared to be astonished by our presence, and by the fact that w e had com e all the way from G erm any to find a project or agency to which we could lend our support. A lthough the level o f need in Tuzla w as obviously im mense, m ost o f the organizations that w ere active in the town w ere either strongly nationalist in character or only interested in providing support to maim ed or injured com ­ batants. We spent two m onths in the region evaluating the needs and w ishes o f local w om en, in the process m eeting a w ide range o f individuals, from refugees and displaced persons, to politicians and psychiatrists. W hile area residents w ere d e a rly trying to lead as norm al a life as possible under the circum stances, there w as no doubt in our m inds that the w ar w as taking a dreadful toll upon their m inds and bodies. The local hospital, for exam ple, w as chronically short o f basic m edical supplies, w ith doctors and nurses forced to work long hours under the most prim itive conditions im aginable. If this w ere not shocking enough, refugee cam ps in the vicinity o f Tuzla w ere characterized by even greater deprivation. H undreds o f w om en, chil­ dren and elders crow ded into a large hall, w ithout any privacy and everything they ow ned sitting in a cardboard box under their bed. “ W hat do you w an t?,” they shouted at us during our visit to one o f the camps. “ Did you just com e to stare? Either go back hom e, or tell the w orld about u s!” Their anger w as palpable, as w as their pain in the face o f the terrible losses and atrocities inflicted upon them. In the end, having consulted widely, and profoundly m oved by the suffer­ ing around us, w e decided to focus our energies upon the developm ent o f a center that w ould provide psychotherapeutic counseling to traum atized w om en and children. A lthough w e envisioned ourselves playing a key role in its genesis and early grow th, it w as to be a project that w ould be run by B osnian w om en for B osnian w om en. We returned to G erm any in A ugust 1993, and I spent the follow ing m onths w riting proposals and searching for funding bodies w illing to support our initiative. We m ade our next trip to Bosnia in D ecem ber o f the sam e year, after having secured our first funding com m itm ent from a w o m en ’s organization

110

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

associated with the German Evangelical Church. However, their support was conditional upon one o f us overseeing the implementation of the project in the field. Needless to say, we were all aware o f the living conditions in Tuzla at the time, and we were all afraid. I, for one, spent long hours deliberating whether or not I should accept the assignment, and finally decided to do so during the course o f our visit to a w om en’s project that was already in place in Zenica. We spent five days here before traveling on to Tuzla, where the situation had clearly deteriorated since our last visit. It was winter, mortally cold, and we heard numerous reports o f people dying of hunger or killing themselves. Still, we had much with which to busy ourselves: renting a building; preparing contracts and meeting with the local women who would work on the project with us. I made one final trip to Germany before relocating to Tuzla on a more permanent basis. It was at this time that I quit my job as a hospital psycholo­ gist, as well as engaging in fund-raising and other tasks necessary for project implementation. When I was finally ready to set out in March 1994, I was fortunate enough to be able to take advantage o f a new air service operating between Sarajevo and the American Air Force base outside o f Frankfurt. As one might imagine, this cut down considerably on my travel time, allowing me to arrive in Tuzla while still in relatively good spirits. In possession o f one lap-top computer and limited financing, the two Bosnian women and I began work immediately on the new Center. Looking back on these early days with the hindsight I now enjoy, I would say that I was strongly motivated, but very, very naive.

THE PROJECT As previously stated, the aim of the initiative was to provide counseling to women and children traumatized by the war, regardless of their ethnic or religious backgrounds. In embarking upon this task our first priority was to establish a center that would function as both a hospital and w om en’s shelter. Given the degree to which women were being re-traumatized on a daily basis, it was critical that a safe environment be created; only then would recovery become possible. When the center opened in June 1994, it became home for 18 women and 40 children, with the average length of stay being approxi­ mately eight months. Once this phase of the project was operational, we turned our attention to two further areas of intervention. The first o f these was centered upon the creation of a mobile unit o f psychologists who would provide individual and group therapy, as well as support the development of self-help groups in the refugees camps surrounding Tuzla. The unit visited its first camp in August 1994, with an average o f 90 women receiving counseling on each occasion.

Gabriele Krämer

111

In 1995 the unit w as provided w ith an am bulancc, so that medical care could be offered alongside its counseling services. O ur third priority w as to furnish the w om en w ho cam e to the C enter with the m eans to becom e self-sufficient afterw ards, so that they w ould not have to return to the refugee cam ps. To this end, w e acquired three houses (w ith a total capacity o f 40 w om en and 90 children), each offering its ow n distinct range o f services. H ouse objectives are sum m arized below: 1. W omen living in the first house w ere interested in enhancing their edu­ cational credentials w hile organizing their own lives. A coordinator w as hired in O ctober 1994 to oversee project im plem entation, with psychologists and social w orkers available on call. 2. O pened in M arch 1995, this house w as geared tow ards w om en who w ished to live independently yet have ready access to support services should the need arise. 3. C entered around an agricultural initiative, w om en living here w ere giv­ en the chance to becom e involved in an incom e-generating activity. This house opened its doors in the sum m er o f 1995. All o f the w om en involved in the project w ere integrated into a therapeutic m odel com prised o f the follow ing elem ents: M edical care (som atic interventions and psychotherapy) T herapies (psychotherapy, body therapy, art therapy, am ong others) Social w ork (counseling by a social w orker; help in searching for m iss­ ing fam ily m em bers; assistance in planning life goals) Education (day care services; training in literacy, sewing, computers and languages) As m uch as possible, w e attem pted to involve everyone in the day-to-day operation o f the houses and the Center. For exam ple, residents w ere expected to help prepare m eals and w ork in the garden, as well as being responsible for the upkeep o f their ow n room. In the later stages o f the project, once w e had acquired sew ing m achines and loom s, the w om en w ere also given the oppor­ tunity to make clothes or carpets during their spare time. Finally, staff and residents w ould assem ble every w eek for a general m eeting, in which dis­ putes w ould be resolved, proposals tabled and schedules draw n up. By the end o f 1994, the project em ployed a total o f 30 staff m em bers, drawn from all ethnic com m unities and encom passing a w ide range o f com ­ petencies. M oreover, personnel w ere divided into four separate team s: Tech­ nical/adm inistrative support, T herapies, M edical care, and Education. G ener­ al staff m eetings w ere held once a month, w hile therapists met on a weekly basis. I served as project coordinator, m eeting with team m anagers on a regular basis in order to address key issues and engage in strategic planning.

112

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

O f course, in assessing the project’s structure and objectives, it bears em phasis that our original plan, w hen we first set out for Bosnia in June 1993, w as m ore narrow in scope than that upon w hich w e subsequently agreed. How so? In short, while w e had intended to focus our efforts solely upon those w om en w ho had been raped or sexually assaulted, it quickly becam e obvious to us that w om en in Bosnia were being victim ized in any num ber o f w ays, sexually, physically and psychologically. A lthough it w as this aw are­ ness that prom pted us to refer to our project as a psychotherapeutic center for traum atized w om en and children, w e w ere also aw are o f the dangers inherent in such a name, most notably that o f obscuring w o m en ’s suffering on account o f rape and other form s o f sexual violence. In the face o f this risk, we have made it a priority to bring the issue out into the open w henever possible, both with the w om en w ho w ere taking part in the project and the public more generally. W hen we first began w ork in the Tuzla area, we did not have a clear sense o f how many o f the w om en w ho came to the C enter or w hom w e visited in the cam ps had been raped. We did not ask, though in som e cases they w ould broach the topic them selves; in others w e w ould simply guess. However, as w e becam e more and more fam iliar with local conditions, w e w ere left in no doubt o f the full extent o f w o m en ’s victim ization. Quite simply, not only had alm ost all o f the w om en living in the cam ps been forced to flee their homes, but most had also w itnessed the torture and killing o f fam ily m em bers. Indeed, we know o f several cases w here individuals had lost 30 or m ore male relatives, including husbands, fathers, brother and sons. If this w ere not traum atic enough in itself, m any w om en w ere subsequently raped and tor­ tured by militia forces, as w ell as being subjected to psychological hum ilia­ tion by governm ent officials and others. Given this context, it is not surprising that the w om en bore terrible scars, at both the physical and psychological level. A m ong those w ho cam e to the Center, their sym ptom s w ere usually quite similar, encom passing loss o f self-esteem , depression, m ood sw ings, som atic illnesses and flashbacks, to name but a few. W hile in som e instances w e also encountered individuals with a distorted perception o f reality or suffering from dissociative identity disorder, in all cases the scope for destructive behavior w as considerable; many w ere addicted to one or m ore pharm aceutical drugs, w hile outbursts o f extrem e anger tow ard their children or other residents w ere not uncom m on. A lthough w e had hoped at the outset to focus much o f our attention upon the recovery o f w om en and children traum atized by war, w e soon discovered that the need for crisis intervention w as such that at least som e o f our energies w ould have to be reoriented in this direction. Not only w ere there relatively few relief agencies operating in the area, but the refugee population was

Gabriele Krämer

113

im m ense, consisting o f roughly 300,000 individuals (predom inantly wom en, children and elders) living both in cam ps and in the tow n itself.

TH E R E A L IT Y I spent my first three m onths in Tuzla engaged in a frenzy o f activity: obtaining perm its, hiring staff, arranging for telephone and electrical hook­ ups, buying furniture and countless other tasks. It w as also at this time that I becam e aw are o f the size o f the challenge that lay before me. Not only were bribes routinely dem anded o f us by public officials anxious to enrich them ­ selves at our expense, but we were initially faced with considerable hostility on the part o f refugee cam p adm inistrators, w ho w ere either unw illing to let us into the cam ps in the first place or insisted that any w om an w ho returned with us to the C enter w ould im m ediately lose all o f her rights as a refugee. N eedless to say, this placed us in a difficult position, w hich w e only managed to resolve with the assistance o f T uzla’s mayor. In the end, the C enter w elcom ed its first residents on June 15th, 1994. 1'he initial com plem ent consisted o f 18 w om en and 40 children; all were from the region surrounding Srebenica and m ost had lost the m ajority o f their male relatives. From the very first day o f the C e n te r’s operation, the w ork w as at once difficult and em pow ering. M ost o f the staff had other jobs, and thus w ould spend part o f the day w orking elsew here, and part o f the day at the Center. However, for all those w hom we hired, the hard currency they earned played a crucial role in helping them m eet their fam ilies’ basic needs. In light o f the w orking conditions, not to m ention the anxiety w hich many staff m em bers experienced w hen thinking about their children at hom e or fam ily m em bers in other parts o f the country, it should com e as no surprise that we w ere forced to contend with interpersonal conflicts w ithin the orga­ nization, either betw een m yself and em ployees, or betw een em ployees and residents. A s one might im agine, language differences w ere especially prob­ lem atic in this regard; only three staff-m em bers could com m unicate in Eng­ lish or G erm an, and my ow n language training w as proceeding at a frustratingly slow pace. T hus, not only w as it im possible at first to engage in casual conversation w ith em ployees (since a translator w as necessary for interaction to occur), but the risk o f m isunderstanding w as om nipresent. H owever, the situation im proved substantially once w e began to offer personnel foreign language training, and once I becam e more confident about my ow n language abilities. As I have already suggested above, the relationship betw een residents and staff m em bers also proved to be problem atic. In large part, this w as due to the fact that m ost o f our em ployees were from cities or tow ns, w hereas the overw helm ing m ajority o f refugees, including those taking part in the project,

114

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

had lived in rural areas before being displaced by the war. On the one hand, this m eant that there were significant cultural differences betw een the two groups, with city-based w om en generally having far m ore scope to travel, obtain an education or pursue a career than their rural-based counterparts. On the other, the B osnian countryside suffered disproportionately from the w ar­ time violence, causing many o f the refugees to resent city dw ellers for escap­ ing relatively unharm ed, with their hom es intact and their fam ily m em bers alive. Psychotherapy is a relatively new field in Bosnia. Individuals w ho w ish to specialize in this discipline must travel either to Zagreb or Belgrade for the necessary training. As such, I had absolutely no luck in finding psychothera­ pists living in the Tuzla area w ho w ould be w illing to becom e involved in the C enter’s work. In order to overcom e this difficulty, I located a num ber o f psychologists, social w orkers and educators and told them that I w ould help train them providing that they w ere w illing to learn, and w ould be supportive o f the life contexts o f those w ith w hom they w ould be w orking. The first therapy session took place shortly after the C enter opened. N eed­ less to say, everyone involved w as anxious and insecure, ensuring that we had plenty to discuss during our initial staff m eeting. H owever, despite the fact that I w as taking part in these m eetings every w eek, it took som e time before I realized that many key issues related to the w ork and the patients w ere sim ply not being addressed in an adequate fashion. It took even longer before it daw ned upon me that I w as part o f the problem . Quite simply, the therapists w ere struggling with a num ber o f challenges, the risk o f secondary traum atization not least am ong them , and they needed a safe place w here they could w ork things through w ithout constantly feeling the need to prove them selves (as they did w hen I w as present). H owever, even as I acknow ledged the im portance o f providing the thera­ pists with adequate support and positive reinforcem ent, I lost touch with my ow n needs and boundaries. That is to say, I w as so absorbed in fulfilling my responsibilities to the pro ject-as coordinator, fund-raiser, psychotherapist, referee and resident strong w om an-that I ignored the w arning signals my body w as sending me. In the end, it took a series o f setbacks, including a m edical operation in G erm any and an attack by six soldiers in my home in Tuzla, before I started asking w hy I w as not taking better care o f myself. A lthough this aw areness did not lead me to m ake an im m ediate change in my lifestyle or activities, I began to devote m ore and m ore tim e to w riting in my journal, as well as m aking a num ber o f w eekend trips to the coast in order to visit with a friend from G erm any w ho w as w orking w ith another organiza­ tion. A lso helpful in this regard w as the decision to restructure the work team s, with the art and physiotherapists transferred from T herapies to the Education and M edical Care team s respectively. In so doing, the therapists

Gabriele Krämer

115

w ere placed in a position w here they could m eet as a small group every week in a closed session, and discuss w ork-related problem s, as well as other pertinent issues. Finally, it w as also roughly at this time that I organized a “ self-experience” retreat for all staff m em bers in a Tuzla area hotel. It proved to be a good experience for all o f us. Not only did the change in venue make it easier for people to open up and be frank w ith one another and me, but the exercise helped to engender a new atm osphere o f m utual respect and under­ standing. N eedless to say, it w as largely this atm osphere that provided the basis for the project’s success and grow th over the first two years o f its existence. Not only did the purchase o f an am bulance substantially increase our capacity to serve the needs o f refugee cam p residents, but w e started increasingly to plan and im plem ent new initiatives, such as com puter and language training for the w om en living at the C enter and in the houses. However, at the very m om ent w c w ere registering these successes, the political situation in the region w as becom ing increasingly unstable, with the kidnapping o f United N ations peace keepers, NATO air strikes against Bosnian Serb military tar­ gets, and, in July 1995, the capture o f UN safe havens in Srebenica and Zcpa by the Bosnian Serb militia. In all, 40,000 people w ere forced to lice, o f w hich a significant proportion ended up in the Tuzla area. As the new refugees arrived, we began to m ake arrangem ents to accom ­ m odate additional residents at the Center. H owever, w e w ere im mediately struck by the fact that these w om en had substantially different psychological profiles than those w ho had fled to Tuzla previously. A lthough many had em erged from their ordeals severely traum atized, having been subjected to rape and other form s o f physical and psychological torture, the m em ories w ere so fresh in their m inds that they had not had time to repress them. Given this finding, w e launched into counseling as quickly as possible, and found that, for a significant num ber o f w om en, a series o f regular m eetings for debriefing proved quite helpful, obviating the need for long-term therapy. However, as horrible as the attacks upon Zepa and Srebenica undoubtedly were, the real turning point in the conflict w as not until D ecem ber 1995, w hen the D ayton peace agreem ent w as ratified by the w arring parties. A l­ though the refugees and residents o f Tuzla w ere happy that peace w as at hand, the vast m ajority w ere exceedingly disappointed by the term s o f the D ayton accord, m ost notably its w illingness to recognize Serb sovereignty over the Srebenica region. In effect, this m eant that the bulk o f T uzla’s refugee population w ould never be able to return home again. W hile the C en ter’s social w orker continued to devote much o f her energies to the task o f locating m issing fam ily m em bers on behalf o f residents, o thers’ husbands began slowly to trickle into the Tuzla area, many having not seen their w ives for well over tw o years. Not surprisingly, this w as often the

116

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

source o f considerable tension, since both w ives and husbands had under­ gone significant traum atic experiences, and many w om en w ere loathe to give up the relative autonom y and independence they had enjoyed during the war years. In this way, spousal abuse rapidly becam e a serious problem w ithin refugee fam ilies, as men sought to com pensate for their low self-esteem by assaulting, raping and som etim es even killing their marital partners. In the midst o f these developm ents, we continued to carry out the m andate of the C enter to the best o f our abilities. M oreover, w e w ere particularly gratified to learn that a G erm an organization had agreed to provide special­ ized training to our therapists during the first h alf o f 1996, as well as offering body therapy to C enter residents. Finally, it w as also at this time that w e started to prepare for my own departure from Tuzla in February 1996. H aving originally planned to stay for one year, w hich w as subsequently extended to two, the time had com e to step out o f the way so that project staff could take charge them selves. H owever, w e agreed that I w ould continue to serve in an advisory capacity from Germany, and w ould endeavor to ensure continued funding for the project until such time that it becam e w holly self-sufficient.

TH E R A PY W hen I first arrived in Tuzla, I w as simply too busy with project logistics to spend much tim e thinking about the im plications of undertaking therapy in an unstable environm ent in w hich traum atization w as ongoing. M oreover, even w hen I did becom e sensitive to this issue, there seem ed to be little that could be done. I w as im m ersed in a cultural context w ith w hich I had little fam iliarity; my colleagues w ere for the m ost part inexperienced and not confident; and there w as essentially no scope for bringing in outside experts so long as the town w as under a state o f siege. Thus, w e had no choice but to attempt to find our ow n way o f w orking with clients and overcom ing the challenges inherent in the environm ent in w hich w e found ourselves. As one m ight im agine, these difficulties w ere them selves exacerbated by problem s in adapting therapeutic approaches to the life contexts o f clients. That is to say, w hereas the therapies had been designed for w ork with individ­ uals who w ere w ell-educated and lived in a W estern industrialized country, the w om en involved in the project had little form al education and em erged from a cultural background that w as at once highly traditional and patriarchal in its orientation. Sensitive to these differences, the challenge w e faced was one o f m aking contact with the w om en while at the sam e time resisting the urge to force our theories, structures and techniques upon them. G iven my own background as a G erm an w om an w ho had no previous work experience in the Form er Yugoslavia, I found this to be particularly difficult. In short, not only w as I forced to modify many o f my expectations

Gabriele Krämer

117

and assum ptions, but it also becam e clear to me that I w ould have to have the courage to leave the “ n orm al” structure o f therapy if I w as to reach the w om en w ith w hom 1 w as w orking. This latter point w as brought home to me in particularly stark terms in A ugust 1994, w hen the husband o f one o f the residents returned to Tuzla, having m anaged to escape from a Serb-run con­ centration camp. His description o f the atrocities com m itted there left all of the other w om en in a deep state o f depression (as many had relatives who w ere being held in the sam e cam p), and there seem ed to be no way o f making contact with them. A t w it’s end, I decided spontaneously that 1 w ould orga­ nize a special evening o f m usic and dancing, having noticed previously how much the w om en appeared to enjoy singing and listening to the old tradition­ al songs. The evening proved to be a rem arkable success, with ev ery o n eeven those w ho had until that point been entirely non-com m unicative and apathetic-taking part in the festivities. For me, the night also brought under­ standing, highlighting as it did the extent to w hich som ething as seem ingly m undane as m usic could bring the w om en back to their roots, and give them the sense o f being on com m on ground. A fter this evening I began to notice m yself interacting with the residents in a different way, as I placed m ore and m ore em phasis upon uncovering their feelings, relationships, and w ays o f understanding the w orld around them. For exam ple, in the sessions I held with w om en living in one o f the C en ter’s houses, I suggested that we rearrange the m eeting room , replacing the tables and chairs with pillow s on the floor in traditional Bosnian fashion. Having done so, everyone felt m ore at ease, and increasingly w illing to talk about their lives prior to the war, w hether their childhood, their family, or their first contact with men. Like the m usic and dancing, storytelling offered the w om en a m eans o f regaining a lost sense o f identity and stability. Still, this is not to suggest that the latter w as the only therapeutic technique used in the sessions. On the one hand, w e engaged in a num ber o f exercises involving im agination and dream s, though I w as alw ays careful to avoid references to im ages (such as forests) that might bring back unpleasant m em ­ ories o f the war. To the extent that I w as successful in doing so, participants found the exercises to be quite helpful, particularly those involving the sea­ side and inner helpers (e.g., w ise w om en). On the other hand, I also made ample use o f draw ing and painting as a way o f helping the w om en to com e to term s w ith their pain and sham e, feelings that had led many o f them to abuse or m istreat their children. N eedless to say, this latter behavior w as especially disturbing in light o f the fact that the children w ere often severely traum a­ tized them selves, forcing us to devote considerable energy to the task o f w orking through this issue w ith both parties. However, regardless o f the therapy used, it quickly becam e apparent to us that the degree o f traum atization, am ong both w om en and children, w as

118

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

im mense by any standard. Indeed, many could only m ake sense o f their suffering by placing it w ithin the context o f a plot designed specifically to punish them, at a personal level, for m isdeeds w hich they had com m itted in the past. In other w ords, they w ere incapable o f grounding their trauma in the w ider political and social structures o f w hich they w ere part. Thus, our aim in w orking with the w om en w as to help them overcom e their sense o f helpless­ ness and guilt. However, as strenuously as we tried to em pow er and reener­ gize them , w e w ere often unsuccessful. In these cases, w e simply attem pted to provide the w om en with a set o f structures around w hich they could organize their lives, and support them step-by-step in their journey tow ards independence and autonomy. O f course, an im portant elem ent in this regard w as the fact that we w ere there to bear w itness for them , and to affirm them in nam ing those w ho w ere responsible for their suffering. T his w as neither the tim e nor the place for neutrality; the crim cs w ere too horrible, and the w om en w ere sim ply too much in need o f som eone w ho w ould be there for them and believe in the stories they told. However, this is not to suggest that the therapists w ere unaware o f the dangers o f transference and counter-transference, leading them to pay particular attention to boundary issues in the sessions they held w ith the wom en. W hile it w as vital that staff m em bers protect them selves from the effects o f secondary traum atization and burnout, it w as also im por­ tant that they assist the clients in recovering a sense o f control over their everyday lives, for exam ple, by show ing them how to m anage traum atic m em ories in a constructive fashion. Reference has already been m ade to the problem s inherent in attem pting to provide therapy in a context w here o n e ’s clients are being re-traum atized on a daily basis. A lm ost all o f the w om en taking part in the project had been forced to flee their hom es, taking only what they could carry w ith them , and most had m issing fam ily m em bers as well. N eedless to say, this m ade it very difficult for them to acquire a sense o f closure, and all the m ore so because their lives continued to be circum scribed by the violence around them. O b­ viously, this presented us with a serious challenge, m ade that much w orse by the fact that many o f the w om en w ere not w illing to accept closure in any case, since this w ould entail adm itting to them selves that there w as no hope o f returning to their old hom es or old w ays o f life. Indeed, from this perspective it must be acknow ledged that much o f our w ork in Tuzla w as focused upon crisis intervention and supporting w om en as they struggled to regain their will to live. A s such, w e encountered many individuals w ho w ere suffering from sym ptom s akin to dissociation or psy­ chosis, as well as many others w ho had adopted highly destructive coping m echanism s. For exam ple, it w as not uncom m on for survivors to engage in a form o f projective identification with the perpetrators, seeing them as essen­

Gabriele Krämer

119

tially good people w ho w ere m erely punishing them for evil acts they them ­ selves had com m itted. To cite one particularly disturbing case, a w om an w ho w as suffering from profound guilt and sham e from a previous rape experi­ ence w as attacked once again by the sam e group o f men. H owever, on this occasion she had her period, and they told her that she w as so dirty and w orthless that they w ould not even bother to rape her. A fterw ards, she w as so traum atized that it alm ost cam e as a relief w hen she started to articulate her hate and rage by m eans o f self-injury. A lthough her anger w as directed tow ards the inner enem y rather than the outer and real one, it provided an opening through w hich she could vent her pain and, in so doing, avoid going insane.

C O N CLU SIO N As I have endeavored to m ake clear in the discussion above, the over­ w helm ing m ajority o f fem ale refugees w hom we met during the course of our w ork in the Tuzla area had been subjected to extrem e victim ization at the hands o f m ilitia forces and others. M oreover, as a therapist m yself, I could see how their suffering, along with the stress o f living in a w ar zone more generally, w as having an effect upon my ow n w ell-being. A lthough I tended not to experience any ill-effects while 1 w as in Bosnia, as soon as I returned to G erm any for a holiday I w ould im mediately becom e physically ill, all the while suffering from nightm ares, insomnia and a deep malaise. N eedless to say, these sym ptom s w ere w arning signs from my body, inform ing me o f the dangers o f w orking in an environm ent w here relaxation w as at a prem ium and constant vigilance a necessity. In the event, I left Tuzla in February 1996. Upon my return to Germany, I devoted several m onths to the task o f finding new sources o f financial sup­ port for the project, since the organization w ith which w e w ere originally involved w as in the process o f w inding dow n its com m itm ent to the Center. A lthough it w as clear by July that sufficient funding w ould be available to ensure that the project could continue to operate for at least another year, I rem ained actively involved in the C en ter’s w ork until early 1997. At this tim e, I decided that it w ould be in everyone’s best interest if I stepped back and let others take my place. H owever, this is not to say that I have becom e disengaged from the vision that drove me to Bosnia in the first place. I continue to w ork with refugees, m any o f w hom are from the Form er Yugoslavia, and many o f w hom bear scars rem arkably sim ilar to those which I encountered so often in Tuzla. I also continue to get angry, angry at the individuals w ho inflicted such suffer­ ing upon my clients, angry at the ritual o f hum iliation w hich asylum seekers m ust endure before they are allow ed to stay in this country, angry at the War

120

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

Crim es Tribunal in The Hague for failing to provide adequate protection to w itnesses and their families. It w as precisely this sam e anger that drove me, along w ith tw o other w om en, to take action in 1993 in the face o f the unim aginable atrocities being com m itted in the name o f ethnic nationalism in the Form er Yugoslavia. That had not changed.

War, Life Crisis and Trauma: Assessing the Impact of a Woman-Centered Training Program in Bosnia Sabine Scheffler A gnes M iichele

SU M M A RY . This article presents a woman-centered approach to heal­ ing that is necessitated by trauma inflicted by armed conflict. The au­ thors present a historical context within which they depict many of the daily consequences that citizens experienced. A training program was developed during a trip to Bosnia in which sixteen women, among whom were social workers, psychologists, physicians, tcachers and one Islamic theologian, participated. This program was comprised o f five training modules: introduction to basic concepts and issues, the social psychology of war, the counseling process and techniques, social work in a wartime environment, and termination. [Article copies available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-342-9678. E-mail address: getinfo@haworthpressinc. com]

Sabine Scheffler. PhD, is Professor of Social Psychology, College for Applied Sciences and Co-Director of the Zentrum für Angewandte Psychologie und Frauen­ forschung (Center of Applied Psychology and Women’s Research) in Cologne, Ger­ many. Agnes Müchele, PhD, is Co-Director of the Zentrums für Angewandte Psychol­ ogie und Frauenforschung (Center of Applied Psychology and Women's Research) in Cologne. Germany. Address correspondence to: Dr. Sabine Scheffler, Zentrum für Angewandte Psychologie und Frauenforschung (Center of Applied Psychology and Women's Re­ search), Fridolinstrase 27, D-50823 Köln, Germany (e-mail: [email protected]).

121

122

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia K E Y W O R D S . W om an-centered training, traum a counseling, training program , fem inist training, psychoeducation

TH E H IST O R Y O F TH E P R O JE C T W hen the w ar in Bosnia began, w e were living in Vienna, A ustria. Thus, it w as very much a conflict in our neighborhood and, as such, aw oke many o f the old feelings o f fear and anxiety that w e had experienced as children, either as a three-year-old forced to flee with her parents through large parts of rural Germany, or as a young girl im m ersed in the tension o f the im mediate post-w ar era, w hen many thought another conflict w as im minent. D ulled by time, these fears w ere roused once again in 1956, w hen the H ungarian Crisis burst upon our consciousness. From the beginning, events in Bosnia filled us with rage. The pow er politics o f the governm ents involved, their actions designed to sabotage any hope o f a negotiated settlem ent, together w ith the em pty rhetoric o f the European “ com m unity” m ore generally left us feeling helpless, yet deter­ mined to contribute in som e sm all way to the cause o f peace. It w as at this time that fem inist groups from various countries began to m ake contact with local w om en’s organizations, providing support and assistance that w ent mostly unnoticed by a m ainstream m edia narrowly focused upon govern­ m ent-sponsored aid program s. M oreover, it w as also in this context that we em barked upon our first intervention in the region, offering training courses in Zagreb and Split (C roatia) in an environm ent that m ight be characterized as one o f collective shock and emotional desensitization (Scheffler and Miichele, 1996). W ithout w ishing to dow nplay the difficulties and challenges we faced, this w as preferable to the sense o f pow erlessness we had previously felt in Austria. Planning for the project w as undertaken in 1994/95, and the w ork itself w as carried out over a three-year period, from 1995 to 1997. O ur objective w as to provide w om an-centered training in therapy and socio-therapeutic counseling, w ith a total o f 16 w om en taking part, am ong them social w orkers, psychologists, physicians, teachers and one Islam ic theologian from Bosnia. All w ere involved in the activities o f N G O s w orking in the region. A s one might im agine, our w ork in Bosnia and C roatia w as m otivated and underpinned by our ow n political com m itm ents and consciousness. In short, it is our position that the attacks carried out against w om en during the conflict were part o f a deliberate strategy that is reflective o f the gendered nature o f the societies in w hich w e live. Through our intervention, w e sought to con­ tribute to the healing o f those w ho had suffered violence, w hile helping to build capacity am ong w om en o f the w arring region.

Sabine Scheffler and Agnes Miichele

123

O R G A N IZA TIO N A N D F IN A N C IN G Project financing w as derived from the follow ing sources: Germ an P eople’s A id (coordinated by Karin Schuler); N orw egian People’s A id (coor­ dinated by Liv Bremer); Caritas Leverkusen (coordinated by Friedel Herw eg); personal donations by w om en psychotherapists at the Fritz Peris Insti­ tute, D üsseldorf, G erm any; and W om en’s A ssociation o f Split (responsible for project logistics in Split). Translation services w ere provided by Lejla Derzic. O ur co-trainer in two courses w as A ngela Reinhardt. Planning, m an­ agem ent and im plem entation w ere conducted by Dr. Sabine Scheffler and Dr. A gnes Miichele.

P R O JE C T D E SIG N If our initiative w as to be successful, we deem ed it vital that we make a prelim inary trip to the region; not only w ould this allow us to gain som e insight into the day-to-day challenges faced by the w om en them selves, but w e w ould also be in a better position to tailor our training program to the needs and requirem ents o f participants. Setting out in A ugust 1995 (during the time o f the K rajina offensive), w e visited several w o m en ’s projects being im plem ented in Tuzla and Zenica (Bosnia). On the one hand, our trip was useful in forcing us to question our assum ptions and becom e m ore realistic in our goals and objectives. On the other, it served to strengthen our resolve to carry out the training program in Croatia, and not in Bosnia as som e partici­ pants had originally w anted. In our opinion, a relaxed environm ent is critical for m eaningful learning to take place, and the atm osphere in Bosnia w as anything but relaxed at that time. Finally, on a more m undane level, our journey to the region gave us an opportunity to discuss the aim s o f the project with our local partners and to assess local w orking conditions. It should be noted that this aspect o f the trip w as of particular sym bolic im portance to our partners, w ho took it to be indicative o f the non-hierarchical nature o f the project.

A ssum ptions Throughout the planning and im plem entation stages o f the project, we w ere guided by the prem ise that, for healing to occur, w o m en ’s suffering must be understood w ithin the broader politico-historical contexts o f nation­ alism and patriarchy. That is to say, w om en w ho are victim s o f w ar cannot be expected to regain their dignity and self-esteem unless the processes and events that led to their victim ization have been acknow ledged and exposed

124

Assault oil the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

for w hat they are (L aub and W eine, 1994; G raessner, G urris, and Pross, 1996). Injustice A gainst Women D uring the Injustice o f War At a personal, social and historical level, w ar m eans som ething different for w om en and men. Thus, w hile dom inant discourses (including those o f the m ainstream media and the state) are focused narrow ly upon the “ organiza­ tion o f w a r” and issues o f concern to men (e.g., battles lost and w on; num ber o f personnel injured, m issing or dead), the violence experienced by w om en is targeted and total, and is used as a way o f sapping the m orale and w eakening the resolve o f men. O bjectified and subjected to torture, hum iliation and violence, the destruction o f w o m en ’s dignity underm ines and destroys the social bonds and values o f the culture in which they live. However, in spite o f these attacks, w om en struggle continuously for their dignity and freedom , both in the face o f w artim e atrocities and the daily hum iliation and violence o f life under a patriarchal social order. Indeed, in this regard one m ight argue that the public response to violence is equally as im portant as the psychologi­ cal resources available to an individual w ho is setting out on the path to recovery. Recognition o f the truth must precede the v ictim ’s recovery, as Judith Herm an (1994) has so aptly noted. O f course, the w artim e victim ization o f Bosnian w om en is an atrocity that has been largely ignored by the international com m unity and m ainstream m edia, w hich is reflective o f the taboo nature o f the topic itself. For exam ple, it w as only in the early 1990s that G erm an fem inists w ere able to initiate a public discussion of the atrocities com m itted against w om en during the S ec­ ond World War (Sander and Johr, 1992). In a sim ilar fashion, A ustrian w om en had a very difficult tim e indeed convincing the M inister for W om en’s Affairs in that country to accept rape in w ar as a basis for political asylum. W hile by no m eans w ishing to suggest that either A ustria or G erm any has gone far enough in addressing the issue o f violence against w om en in war, they are sadly two o f the m ore “ progressive” cases. In many other countries, there is absolutely no interest in the issue, w hich serves as a sham eful testi­ mony to the w illingness o f societies to accept m ale violence and its perni­ cious effects upon w om en ’s lives. Aware o f this situation before w e had even em barked upon the project, we arrived in Bosnia expecting to be confronted with w om en w hose socializa­ tion into a patriarchal, conservative culture w ould leave them feeling asham ed o f their victim ization, as w ell as causing them to suppress its effects. H owever, as w e began the training courses, w e w ere rem inded o f the fact that talking leads to recovery, and that joint responsibility in com bination with the w om en’s ow n coping strategies w ould provide the basis for them to over­ com e their suffering. Significantly, these findings are confirm ed by scholars

Sabine Scheffler and Agites Miicliele

125

exam ining healing processes in the context o f w o m en ’s shelters (Bruckner, 1997; Walker, 1979). A W oman-Centered Approach to H ealing That violence tow ard w om en is grounded in patriarchal relations o f pow er is w ell-established, and is equally the case for Bosnia as it is for A ustria or the United States. H ow ever, it w as our hope in intervening in the m anner that we did to contribute to a process o f change w hereby Bosnian w om en w ere able to m ake gains sim ilar to those achieved by w om en in other countries. O f course, there is a long tradition o f solidarity am ong w om en in the face of dom ination and violence, and w e have show n our pow er to overcom e the latter in order to begin life anew. D raw ing upon the legacy o f w o m en ’s projects the world over, one might identify the follow ing prem ises upon which to ground our anti-violence work. In particular, there is a need to: acknow ledge injustice and injuries; find a language to describe the act; be­ com e responsible and bear w itness; reestablish individual and collective self­ esteem ; prom ote self-confidence; and achieve balance betw een dependence and independence. N eedless to say, these aim s require facilitators to establish active contact am ong all m em bers o f the group. O ur strategy in this regard involved taking the skills and com petencies o f participants seriously, and using them as the starting point for a tw o-w ay learning process. On the one hand, this de­ m anded that we focus continuously upon the group and group events. On the other, w e had to resist the tem ptation to take chargc, since it w as critical that m em bers find their ow n solutions to the issues they w ere facing. O ur role w as to offer support, stim ulation and know ledge in a m anner that w ould be help­ ful in developing self-confidence and confidence in others.

The Concept A im s Focused on the developm ent o f professional skills in social-therapeutic work with female w ar victims and refugees, the training course was designed especially for the women w ho would take part, am ong whom numbered physi­ cians, psychiatric nurses, teachers, social workers and psychologists. M ore­ over, we identified three areas in need o f priority intervention: Enhancement o f theoretical knowledge; Counseling methodologies; The work context. At a theoretical level, the course dealt with such issues as the psychodynam ­ ics o f trauma, diagnosis o f post-traumatic stress disorder, sociodynam ics of war, m odels o f crisis intervention and trauma counseling. We also dealt with a

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

126

number o f general concepts, including: Contact and relationships; Defense and resistance mechanisms; Transference and counter-transference; Group settings; Counseling techniques and media (creative media and dreams, role-playing, body techniques and exercise-centered work). O f course, in dealing with all of these issues we also emphasized the importance of focusing, identifying one’s strengths and weaknesses, taking care of oneself, and strategies to avoid burn­ out. Structure The meetings we held with prospective participants during our prelim i­ nary field visit were useful in familiarizing us with one another, as well as helping all concerned finalize their decision as to whether or not they would become involved. From our perspective, it was important that the group be heterogeneous, since we wanted to bring together a wide range o f experi­ ences, while at the same time fostering networking opportunities. The course itself lasted two years, and was divided into six modules, con­ sisting of 40 units (each unit was 45 minutes in length) spread over the course of five week-days. The modules may be summarized as follows: Introduction to basic concepts and issues related to work with war and trauma victims; Establishing group strengths and weaknesses; Social psychology o f war and violence; Deconstructing gender roles and relations; Counseling techniques and the counseling process; Social work during and after a war; Completion of counseling processes; Discussion of the case studies; Conclusion. At the end o f the two-year period, all participants were expected to docu­ ment a counseling experience, as well as describing their application of methodologies we had discussed in the training. Finally, it should be noted that we are currently in the process o f planning a seventh module, scheduled for September 1998, when wc will have returned to the region in order to take part in the day-to-day counseling work o f project participants.

Principles o f Evaluation Seeking to engage with our own assumptions in planning and carrying out the project, we distilled a number o f key questions from the training material, our progress reports and evaluation exercises. These may be summarized as follows: 1. Is there any evidence of change in the language used in our reports to describe the women, interpersonal dynamics and course contents? 2. In what ways does our attitude and working method change according to the degree o f acceptance by participants of the course’s goals and objectives?

Sabine Scheffler and Agnes Müchele

127

3. What unconscious processes and dynamics become visible as issues around violence and traumatization are raised and discussed? 4. With respect to the last point in particular, we engaged in a deliberate attempt to interrogate and question our intervention strategies, so that they might be rendered appropriate to the contexts in which we found ourselves (The Adjectives); 5. Moreover, we also sought to relate these questions to our course ob­ jectives, which are summarized below (The Concept); 6. Enhance and systematize participants’ understanding of the long-term effects o f traumatization and individuals’ coping strategies; 7. Identify and discuss means o f strengthening the working relationship with women who have been traumatized or are in crisis; 8. Identify and discuss alternative intervention strategics (i.e., use of m e­ dia or creative material); 9. Contribute to participants’ understanding of the dangers inherent in burnout and secondary traumatization, identify and discuss profes­ sional coping strategies; 10. Facilitate the developm ent o f woman-centered approaches and m eth­ ods, paying particular attention to such issues as violence against women in wartime, the socio-political context underlying w om en’s exploitation and humiliation, and the effects o f wartime experiences upon women and m en’s post-conflict relationships. However, while these objectives informed our interventions in the training courses, it should be noted that we placed particular emphasis upon group work (e.g., dream work, role-playing and sculpture work), as we were con­ cerned that we might exhaust ourselves if too much time was spent in individ­ ual sessions, and all the more so because participants were dealing with the legacy o f their own war-time experiences. Challenge # 1: The Way from D ependence to Independence Before the training courses began, we assumed that those taking part w ould be cooperative, appreciative and motivated to learn as much as pos­ sible within the existing time constraints. However, once the project was underway, wc were forced to revise our expectations somewhat. Although the participants were prepared to accept our leadership, even in the face of difficult or provocative topic areas, it became clear to us that they were anxious, and would become silent and introverted whenever we pushed them too far. This response, together with the chatting, loud laughter and somewhat frantic attitude during leisure-time activities suggested to us that we should reduce the intensity o f the sessions and provide more release mechanisms.

128

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

Challenge # 2: A cknowledging the Needs o f Those Traumatized by War When we made our first trip to Bosnia in 1995, we were immediately struck by the looks o f exhaustion on the faces of our colleagues, and by their w illingness to accept whatever we offered with the words, “ It would prob­ ably be useful.” We interpreted their wariness as indicative of the traumatic experiences they had undergone, experiences that made them fearful that the training course would lead to nothing but the repetition o f their wartime humiliation. Faced with the exhaustion of the individuals with whom we had come to meet, along with that o f the country itself, we felt an enormous pressure to give something of ourselves, to present a token o f our solidarity. However, we soon realized that solidarity, professional support or money was not what was required here. Instead, what our partners needed above all was recogni­ tion o f the humiliation and injustice they have suffered, and so to bring an end to their sense of shame and isolation. Needless to say, this presented us with a significant challenge, since on the one hand, we hoped to validate and acknowledge their grief and, on the other, we w anted to ensure that they learn to act by themselves and overcome their sense o f humiliation. Thus, we sought to provide constant support and positive reinforcement, so that the women began once again to appreciate themselves and to develop the selfconfidence necessary to make use of their skills and talents. However, by no means do we wish to downplay the difficulty wc experienced in negotiating this knife edge between over-identification and the need for distance; all too often we were left feeling overwhelmed and tempted to give up. Challenge # 3: The Am bivalence Inherent in a Solidaristic Relationship From the moment that we first set foot in the Former Yugoslavia, we were faced with a discernible gap, between us-foreigners, prosperous, our lives in no direct danger-and those with whom we were working, women grounded in a mixed socialist-Islamic culture heavily oriented toward family. Needless to say, we often asked ourselves “ What are we doing here?” as we nursed our self-doubts. "A re we good enough? Do we have something useful to offer? Are we imposing our Western feminist values upon participants (which we were communicating unconsciously to them in any case)?” As for our part­ ners, they confronted us with their attitudes towards children and men, testing the limits of our tolerance, although soon warming up enough to share with us their cordiality, directness and charm. It should also be noted in this regard that the gap appears to have reproduced itself among the participants them­ selves, as they went about their work with female refugees who had come down from mountain villages in the Bosnian hinterland. We strongly believe that our relationship with the participants was a spe­

Sabine Scheffler and Agnes Müchele

129

cial one, characterized by a deeply hidden intensity of emotions on both sides. From our perspective, we interacted with the women in a way that was reflective of our own sense of sympathy and solidarity, our fury at the horror and injustice o f the war, and the ambivalence of participants who were forced to make do in a highly precarious, dangerous environment. This ambivalence was evident in the conflicting messages they sent us; at one moment they would be serious, highly productive and creative, and the next this would be replaced by avoidance, regression and a tensed silliness. Thus, as facilitators, we could only give o f ourselves, our sympathy, soli­ darity and knowledge, while acknowledging that these were merely a symbol of our belief in the injustice o f the war. In other words, we were forced to accept the fact that participants’ behavior in the course was only tangentially related to our own motives, desires and expectations. O f course, relinquish­ ing control in this way w as difficult and often painful, and at times we would seek to regain our sense o f pow er by pushing through difficult topics. The issues touched upon above encapsulate our experiences during the course o f the training project, and, paradoxically enough, they help to explain its success as well. That is to say, not only was the latter due to the particular manner in which we approached the participants and the issues addressed, but it also depended crucially upon the women themselves, who engaged in their own interpretations o f the material, which provided the basis in turn for its incorporation into their personal and professional lives.

Evaluation Strategies External Standards This would include the trip made by the project coordinator to assess its impact. She carried out interviews with participants conccrning changes in their work lives. Also relevant in this regard is a w om en’s shelter being planned for the Tuzla region by some of the women involved in the training course. Internal Standards Falling in this category w ould be the participants’ assessment of the proj­ ect; the case studies, which were presented and discussed at the end of the course; and, finally, our own evaluation reports. It is our position that the evaluation reports provide an especially powerful lens through which to assess the relative success or failure of the project. In short, they reflect the complexities inherent in communicating, in a theater of war, topics related to trauma and crisis, but they also lay bare our own engagement with the women

130

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

and the topics covered, sum m arized as follow s in the form o f two key ques­ tions: How does the language of the reports m irror and reflect our attitudes and prejudices tow ards the participants? How do w e describe and reflect upon our experiences? The reports also include references to our fantasies, our prejudices, our likes and dislikes. In the pages that follow, w e analyze this m aterial, in its entirety, in order to shed som e light upon that w hich is usually unconscious, in the background, the gestalt. In so doing, we hope to show that our facilita­ tion o f the training courses w as informed throughout by our positioning within a com plex w eb o f social relations and structures (Benjam in, 1990; N adig, 1992).

The Evaluation Questions As the preceding discussion suggests, our evaluation strategy is part op­ erational, part discursive. In this regard, we w ould argue that the context o f the project, i.e., the fact that it w as undertaken in a post-w ar environm ent, the w ar-tim e experiences o f the w om en them selves, along with the professional dem ands placed upon them in terms o f the lack o f preparation for the type o f psycho-social problem s generated by the war, together served to create what one might call a spécial learning situation. How so? C onsider the follow ing points: The energy and tension engendered by the crisis w ere given concrete m anifestation in the training sem inars through the actions and reactions o f participants. The relationship betw een participants and facilitators w as char­ acterized, on both sides, by am bivalence and resistance. On the one hand, w e w ere the conveyors o f skills and know ledge, and they the receivers. On the other, w e w ere w om en outside o f our ow n cultural m ilieu, interacting with individuals w ho w ere on their hom e turf, albeit one shattered by the effects of war. In this way, the evaluation reports offered a m eans o f w orking through the im plications o f being im m ersed in a special learning environm ent by giving us the opportunity to reflect upon the events, the participants, and the w ays in w hich we dealt with the process.

E VA LU ATIO N PROCEDU RE Group-Centered Interventions We scrutinized the evaluation reports in search o f exam ples o f interven­ tions that w ere related, at an operational level, to the project objectives.

Sabine Scheffler and Agnes Müchele

131

H aving identified relevant cases, we then assessed participants’ responses to our interventions, and registered their effects. We discuss our findings in detail in the paragraphs that follow.

The Adjectives We extracted all the adjectives contained within the reports and divided them into categories. In doing so, it was our contention that an activity as complex as “ working with traumatized w om en” engenders reactions at the psychological, som atic and social levels, thereby influencing behavior, per­ ception, sensation, cognition and affect. It was also our belief that these coping mechanisms would be changed, emphasized, corrected and extended as we pursued the training objectives over the course o f the project.

Adjective Categories In total, we identified 968 adjectives in the six reports, not including those used in the assessment circle undertaken in the final training module. A l­ though we discuss each o f the adjective categories below, the reader should bear in mind the fact that equivalent words do not always exist in English and German. However, we have endeavored to ensure that our translation is as faithful to the original as possible. Category 1: M odifiers Adjectives which intensify, increase, underline or make more extreme. Examples: very professional, very slow, tiny deviations, only German women, little courage, lots of fear, very silly Category 2: Value Statements Words that judge, value or rate. Examples: good answer, wrong, bad, morally, nice, professional, lazy, good attitude Category 3: Body Sensations A djectives which describe an individual’s condition at a sensuous body level. Examples: wrinkled-up nose, ill, wounded, shitty, strong Category 4: Activity D escriptors of initiative, vitality, vigor (or their opposites). Examples: exhausted, explosive, powerful, quick, slow, tough, vivid, politi­ cally active, sexual

132

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

Category 5: Relational Statements Words that imply or dcscribc a relationship. Examples: keen, empathic, polite, social, open, erotic, present, reserved, com­ petitive, lonely, affected, appreciative, together Category 6: Emotions Examples: anxious, guilty, happy, furious, pissed off, desperate, sad, funny, proud Category 7: Cognitive or Technical Terms Adjectives related to cognition (i.e., perception or thought). Examples: pensive, resigned, perplexed, disappointed, vague, impressed, clever, traumatic, depressed, hysterical Category 8: State o f Being Any word that implies an assessment of one’s state and that cannot be catego­ rized under Emotions, Cognitive or Technical Terms or Body Sensations. Examples: apprehensive, pleasant, satisfied, finished, comfortable, strange, diffuse, cheerful, quiet

Principles o f Evaluation and Group-Centered Work As we have already made clear, our interventions in the training coursc were group-centered. That is to say, we placed particular emphasis upon group development, seeing it as a way of building self-confidence among participants. The following example illustrates the precise means by which we accomplished this. During the second morning o f the first module, we asked participants to describe their moods and dreams. Having spent the first day in small groups, punctuated by a number o f mini-lectures, this was our first real opportunity to perceive and appreciate the women and their feelings. After the session, one of the group members approached us and asked if she could introduce a rule, namely that participants should avoid speaking, discussing or interpreting when another woman is making a statement. We took this as a reaction to the experience of having to deal with such a diverse group, as well as an attempt to provoke us into setting group norms and rules o f behavior. In our evaluation report, we described the group’s mood as “ immediately tensed” after the participant voiced her request. We responded to her by noting that there are as many opinions and perspectives on a given problem as there are women in the group, and thus that it behooves each member to decide for herself what feedback is helpful and what is not. Following this

Sabine Scheffler and Agnes Müchele

133

intervention, a conversation ensued regarding the distinction betw een what might possibly be m anipulative and w hat it m eans to be a mutual influence. The discussion becam e increasingly confused until there w as no longer any scope for understanding. It w as at this point that we decided to end the session: it w as time. In the sem inars, participants continually expressed their disappointm ent w ith the fact that w e w ere not m ore forthcom ing with advice and opinions, and that all of our attention w as directed tow ards their know ledge, their view s and their possibilities. Even w hen we w ere engaged in dream w ork, the focus w as alw ays on the gro u p 's feelings, fantasies and associations. Thus, we were pleased w hen, during the course o f the final m odule, several participants cam e forw ard to express their surprise at how far they had com e in perceiving and appreciating their fellow group m em bers, and how much they had learned from them. These com m ents were especially gratifying in light o f the self-doubt, counter-transference and mood changes w e had recorded in the evaluation reports, all o f w hich w e took to be indicative o f our fear that w e w ould be unable to m eet the needs o f participants. O f course, to a large extent w e w ere merely reflecting the em otions o f the group, w ho w ere constantly expressing their desire to “ consum e” our authority. This m eant, in effect, that w e were often faced with participants who perceived our know ledge as m ore im portant or significant than that o f the other group m em bers, a problem that w as especially m arked during the supervisory elem ents o f the course. M oreover, this in turn w as exacerbated by the fact that we w ere not alw ays successful in stim ulating the w om en in their activities and reflections. We often rem inded ourselves in the evaluation reports not to use the group like a stage (in the m anner o f gestalt therapy), but rather to focus upon developing a group-centered position. In the end we w ere som ew hat successful in this regard, as attested to by the fact that the w om en w ere becom ing increasingly active in their statem ents, in their per­ sonal presence, and in setting them selves apart from one another. We will relate another exam ple in order to illustrate the dynam ics o f this process. Relatively early on in the course, when we w ere at an em otional low point, both from trying to com e to term s with a culture other than our ow n and worried that the project w ould fail to m eet its objectives, w e em barked upon a guided fantasy exercise to enhance personal pow er (Pendzik, 1996, p. 104). A fter spending a period o f tim e in small groups painting and visualizing, the participants reassem bled, each identifying with the role o f an im agined wise w om an, so that the group becam c an assem bly o f w ise w om en. At that mom ent, a shy, anxious g roup m em ber cam e forward to take over the leading role, and initiated a feedback and sharing exercise. The group follow ed her in this, rendering our instructions and guidance superfluous. We had not ex­ pected this w om an, generally tradition-m inded and reserved, to take charge

134

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

in the m anner that she did. A s w e stated in our evaluation report, playing the role o f the wise w om an, she becam e iridescent and seem ed to grow, adopting a tall, straight posture and occupying m ore physical space.

Evaluation Principles and the Use o f Language From D ependence to Independence Participants’ developm ent in this regard can be traced through reference to the adjective categories “ activities” and “ em otions,” with attributive de­ scriptions changing as individuals’ capacity to act and becom e more differen­ tiated grew. In other w ords, our descriptions becam e less polarized (e.g., irritated, harassed behavior) in a m anner that w as reflective o f grow ing selfconfidence, com petence and control on the part o f group m em bers. A s is made clear in Table 1, this change w as especially evident in the final m odule, w hen the score for activity statem ents (21.53 percent) w as far higher than that registered in any o f the earlier sessions. W hat m akes this all the m ore rem ark­ able is the fact that w e had described the final w eekend o f the course as “ rather sluggish,” w ith the topic “ suicide and prostitution” proving too much for the w om en, although they had been in favor o f including it in the syllabus. As for adjectives related to “ state o f being” and “ body sensations,” we understand these to be indicative o f the w om en’s socialization and identity formation, with the body in particular becom ing a container for tensions and conflicts. Thus, while the first m odule was rife with negative attributions (e.g., broken, exhausted, muted, scared), a discernible change w as already evident by the time o f the second (e.g., safe, well, contemplative, comfortable, re­ laxed), with the sense o f release becom ing even more palpable later on (at­ tested to by the use o f such adjectives as witty, humorous and silly). From N eeds to Resources A long som ew hat different lines, w e also registered significant grow th in the use o f cognitive adjectives over the course o f the training (from 7.1 percent in M odule 1 to 15.38 percent in M odule 6). A s one might im agine, not only w as this due to the developm ent o f a shared reference system , but also to the project’s role in stabilizing participants’ capacity to classify and regulate events, so that they no longer felt overw helm ed by them. Significantly, change w as also apparent in the use o f adjectives denoting emotion, particularly at our final m eeting and in those m odules that dealt with self-experience. We would argue that this w as suggestive o f participants’ grow ing ability to perceive and accept their ow n em otional state o f being.

Sabine Scheffler and Agnes Miichele

135

TABLE 1. Adjectives Used: An Overview Categories

Modules I

II

III

IV

V

VI

61 24.11

43 29.45

36 26.0

35 18.81

38 20.0

11 16.91

Value statements quantity %

22 8.69

14 9.58

15 10.87

29 15.60

10 5.26

3 4.62

Body sensations

quantity %

30 11.85

13 8.90

19 13.76

18 9.67

27 14.21

2 3.07

Activity

quantity %

26 10.27

17 11.64

20 14.49

27 14.51

19 10.0

14 21.53

Relational statements

quantity %

38 15.01

11 7.53

14 10.14

21 11.29

24 12.64

10 15.38

Emotions

quantity %

21 8.30

17 11.64

9 6.52

11 5.91

21 11.05

12 18.46

Cognitive or

quantity % quantity %

18 7.11 10 4.9

16 10.95

6 4.34

19 10.21 11 5.91

26 13.68 13 6.84

10 15.38

quantity

27 10.67

16 10.96

19 13.77

15 8.07

12 6.31

2 3.08

253

146

138

186

190

65

57 23.45

29 19.86

38 27.53

33 17.74

39 20.52

4 6.15

Modifiers

technical terms State of being

quantity %

TOTAL Body sensations and state of being quantity

M eanw hile, attributions denoting anger, aggression or annoyance were re­ flective o f the w om en ’s am bivalence and frustration as they entered into the training course, feelings w hich w ere them selves derived from fears o f help­ lessness and pow erlessness, and guilt that their ow n lives w ere better than those o f the refugee w om en w ith w hom they worked. N eedless to say, w c had prepared ourselves for the outw ard surge o f em otions (rem em bering the phases o f the m ourning process) by m aintaining a m easure o f distance betw een ourselves and the group. To our mind, the m anifestation o f greater em otional openness served as confirm ation that our resource-oriented w ork had im proved the participants’ capacity for control, thereby reducing the anxiety they felt in being honest about their emotional state.

136

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

The A m bivalence Inherent in a Solidaristic R elationship In this section, w e address the use o f adjectives falling under the categories o f “ relational statem ents,” “ value statem ents” and “ m odifiers.” A s Table 1 show s, the frequency o f relational adjectives in particular w as subject to considerable fluctuation over the course o f the sem inars. Not surprisingly, they w ere especially com m on during the first m odule, w hen w e w ere strug­ gling to m ake contact with participants, and the atm osphere w as one of affection and dependence on the one hand, and criticism and claim s-m aking on the other. In one case, a participant w ho w as a physician w as asked for her professional opinion on an issue that had just been raised. She refused, saying that she w as there to learn. The group w as surprised and taken aback by the m anner in w hich we sought to guide them, give instructions, and introduce order into the chaos. O f course, our purpose in acting this way w as to serve as m odels and to set boundaries, w ith the latter being particularly im portant in crisis managem ent. In subsequent m odules, our description o f the relationships becam e increas­ ingly varied, itself a function o f the grow ing salience o f the supportive ele­ ment in our interactions. Still, it should be em phasized that our leadership position w as never called into question, except for challenges related to our seem ing failure (in the eyes o f participants) to set limits or cut off discussion. A s w e already suggested, the pressure upon us to set lim its w as closely related to group m em bers’ desire that the “ other o n e ” regulate and im pose conditions on their behavior. M eanw hile, our use o f m odifiers and value statem ents in the reports serves to underscore very w ell the pressure and drive w e w ere feeling from the group. Often during the breaks we w ould argue am ong ourselves concerning the “ right” procedure or intervention, as the group listened w ith perked-up ears. U nderlying these argum ents, o f course, w as our sense o f horror and fury at the injustice o f the war, com bined with feelings o f self-doubt and unw or­ thiness. Thus, it is not surprising that we tended to rate the w orking condi­ tions as poor and the w om en as naive and non-fem inist. H owever, even as we becam e increasingly m orose in the face o f our exhaustion and hopelessness, w e sought to overcom e our self-doubt by endeavoring to find value in the situation. The evaluation reports w ere o f significant assistance in this regard, both as a way o f protecting ourselves and helping us to avoid feeling over­ whelm ed. Still, despite this sense o f unw orthiness, the m odifiers used in the reports m ade clear “ how very m uch,” “ how com pletely” and “ how d eeply ” we identified with the project and its objectives, even if this identification w as severely tested by the participants, the “ o th ers” w ho w ere judging us and our work. They w ere individuals w ith lifestyles very different from our own: heavily fam ily-oriented, subject to a highly patriarchal gender order, and

Sabine Scheffler and Agnes Miicheìe

137

leading lives circum scribed by the needs o f their children, husbands and relatives. It w as only because o f the war that they had becom c conscious o f patriarchy’s deleterious effects, forcing them to com e to term s with disillu­ sionm ent and disappointm ent. N eedless to say, it took considerable energy and flexibility on our part to move away from our understanding o f em an­ cipation to the possibilities w hich they w ere w illing to consider. We sought to highlight and discuss our differences, but at the sam e time w e tried to encour­ age them to rem ain assertive and to retain the sense o f pow er they had gained during the war. M oreover, it w as precisely in this context that a space began to open for participants to give voice to their alternative biographies. For exam ple, when one w om an told the group that she lived alone, unm arried and w ithout children, she w as not criticized by other participants, but rather appreciated for w ho she w as. M eanw hile, another w om an cam e forw ard to say that, although her father had died during the war, she w as not sorry and would never forgive what he had done to her fam ily while he w as alive. Finally, a widow w as able to talk to group m em bers about her secret lover w ithout risking their judgm ent. The time for secrecy w as past; the creativity inherent in alternative life arrangem ents w as exposed for all to see.

C O N C LU SIO N In this paper, w e have used self-evaluation as a lens through w hich to assess the im pact o f a fem inist training project w e carried out in C roatia in 1995-97. We w anted to share with the reader the difficulties inherent in undertaking such a project in a country still reeling from the effects o f w ar and deprivation. O f course, part o f our purpose in going to the region at the time that we did w as to bear w itness to all that had happened during the war, though this w as not our only reason; w e also w anted to assist in the skill enhancem ent o f local professional w om en. In either case, the building o f trust w as crucial to the success o f the project, and we believe that a fem inist psychotherapeutic approach provided an appropriate basis upon w hich to initiate change and recovery. This view w as confirm ed by the case studies subm itted at the end o f the training course, in w hich participants docum ented their use o f the course material in their ow n w ork lives. In a particularly telling case, one o f the w om en reported that “ I felt changes in m yself and my attitude tow ards other w om en. To show w eakness is hum an and helps to build rapport.” She w ent on to describe the process w hich led her to this insight: Everything that cam e out o f the group w as im portant. Each w om an w as part o f the process. The group had its ow n strength and energy; it w as w eak at the beginning, but grew increasingly capable o f self-reflection. M eanw hile, another participant com m ented, am azed, that topics w ere d e­

138

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

veloped through body w ork and relaxation. “ A fter the war, relaxation is a novelty.” N eedless to say, these statem ents by the w om en in their case stud­ ies have provided us w ith im portant feedback, all the w hile underscoring the fact that we w ere able to succeed in our aims, despite being “ strange, foreign, fem inist w om en.” W hile many o f the topics that had been raised in the sem inars cam e up in the case studies as w ell, am ong them guilt, loss, helplessness and fear of violation, a num ber o f the w om en went on to illustrate how the traum a induced by sexualized violence can be m ade tolerable through storytelling. This w as also an im portant clem ent in the training course as w ell, w here it served either to prom ote or reinforce positive developm ents. Indeed, in this regard w e cannot overstate how m uch w e enjoyed the resounding vitality and friendliness o f the w om en, and the w arm th they show ed us. Finally, the project also confirm ed in our m inds the im portance o f differ­ ence to fem inist theory and practice. That is to say, fem inism can only gain by recognizing and celebrating the w idely variable cultural contexts from which w om en emerge. We believe the training course gained by doing so, and we hope that our Bosnian partners share this belief as well.

R EFER EN C ES Benjamin, J. (1990). Die fesseln der liebe—The bonds of love. Psychoanalysis, Femi­ nism and the Problem o f Domination, Frankfurt, Stroemfeld/Roter Stern. Briickner, M. (1997). Wege aus der Gewalt an Frauen und Mädchen, Frankfurt: Fachhochschulverlag. Graessner, S., Gurris, N., and Pross, C. (1996). Folter. An der Seite der Überleben­ den. Unterstützung und Therapie. München: A. Beck. Herman, J.L. (1994). Die Narben der Gewalt, Frankfurt/Main: Kindler. Laub, D. and Weine, S.M. (1994). Psychotherapeutische arbeit mit bosnischen flüchtlingen, ln Psyche, Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, Vol. 48, No. 12, p. 1101-1122. Nadig, M. (1992). Der e th n o lo g isc h e w e g der erk en ntn is das w e ib lic h e Subjekt in der fem in istisc h e n W issenschaft. In Knapp, G. and Wetterer, A. (Eds.) Traditionen Brüche. Entwicklung feministischer Theorie, Freiburg: Kore, p. 151-201. Pendzik, S. (1996). Gruppenarbeit mit mißhandelten Frauen. A manual. München: A.G. Spak. Sander, H. and Johr, B. (Eds.) (1992). Befreier und Befreite. München: Krieg, Verge­ waltigungen, A. Kinder. Scheffler, S. and Müchele, A. (1996). Nichts wird wieder so sein, wie es vorher war . . . Ein M ultiplikatorinnen-Training für die Arbeit mit Kriegsopfern (vergewal­ tigten und Flüchtlings-Frauen) in Kroatien. In Lueger-Schuster, B. (Ed.) Leben

im Transit. Über die psychosoziale, Situation von Flüchtlingen und Vertriebe­ nen. Wien: W iener Universitaetsverlag, pp. 145-154. Walker, L.E. (1979). The Battered Woman, New York: Harper & Row.

The Burden Left My Heart: Psycho-Social Services Among Refugee Women in Zenica and Tuzla, Bosnia-Herzegovina During the War Berit S ch ei S o lv e ig D ahl

S U M M A R Y . T h is paper presents psychosocial services for displaced w om en living in the w ar zones. T w o study gro u p s w ere form ed from tw o cities in C roatia, Z enica and Tuzla. T he serv ices w ere designed to am eliorate distress and im prove psychosocial functioning. A q u estio n ­ naire-based evaluation indicated that highly distressed w om en derived greater benefit from g ro u p psychotherapy (T uzla) than did the group Berit Schei, MD, PhD, currently holds the Atkinson C hair in W om en's Health Research at The Centre for Research in W om en’s Health, Toronto, Canada. Solveig Dahl, MD, PhD, is at the Psychosocial Center for Refugees, Departm ent o f Psychia­ try, Faculty o f M edicine, The University of Oslo, O slo, Norway. The authors wish to acknow ledge the following: 1. The wom en who shared with us their experiences under these difficult cir­ cum stances, both by com pleting the questionnaire and talking to us in person. May their stories and courage live in our hearts as constant inspiration for our endeavors to create a better future. 2. The local staff for their initiatives, inspiring com m ents and practical support. 3. The Norwegian coordinators and the NPA staff in Norway, and particularly Liv Bremer, who chaired the program “ Women: The Hidden Victims of War.” 4. The Council o f Mental Health in Norway. Address correspondence to: Berit Schei, 790 Bay Street, Room 749, Toronto, Canada (e-mail: berit.schei@ utoronto.ca).

139

140

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia w ho participated in occupational activities (Zenica). [Article copies avail­ able for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-342-9678. E-mail address: getinfo@ha worthpressinc. com]

K E Y W O R D S . PTSD, psychosocial, traum a, w ar traum a

The w ar in B osnia-H erzegovina started in April 1992 and brought great suffering and hardship to the non-com batant population. N ot only w ere delib­ erate military attacks upon civilians and civilian areas com m on, but so were arbitrary arrests, arson, murder, torture, detention, executions, rape and sexu­ al assaults, forcible rem oval, displacem ent and deportation. A ccording to the U nited N ations High Com m ission for R efugees (1994), roughly half the country’s inhabitants w ere driven from their homes. A l­ though many sought refuge outside o f B osnia-H erzegovina, the majority w ere displaced w ithin the form er republic.

W OM EN: TH E H ID D EN V IC TIM S O F WAR Reports o f rape being used as a w eapon o f w ar began to circulate in the W estern media tow ards the end o f 1992. This inform ation w as confirm ed by several international m issions to the region, including A m nesty International, Helsinki Watch, the World Council o f Churches, the European C om m unities, as well as UNHCR. In Norway, as in many other countries, new s o f such victim ization aroused an im m ediate response on the part o f w om en, with the shelter m ovem ent in particular putting the issue at the top o f its agenda. M eanw hile, N orwegian People’s Aid (NPA), a large non-governm ental organization that had been am ong the first to respond to the tragedy in B osnia-H erzegovina by setting up refugee cam ps, launched a fund-raising drive called “ Women: The Hidden Victims o f W ar.” H aving already raised tw o million dollars by the Spring o f 1993, the urgent question becam e one o f how best to direct the funds so as to m axim ize their im pact upon refugee w om en trapped inside the w ar zone.

PREPARATIO N: D IALO G U E A N D C O O PERATIO N In order to address this question, NPA retained the services o f one o f the authors (SD ), w ho is a psychiatrist with long experience in setting up services for rape victim s in Norway. H er first task w as to assess the situation and advise NPA on w hat it could do in this field.

Berit Schei and Solveig Dahl

141

D uring an initial visit to the Form er Yugoslavia in 1993, it w as im possible to enter B osnia-H erzegovina due to the fighting. T hus, she used her trip to study the type o f projects being set up in Croatia. Com m unity-based w om en’s organizations had set up a variety o f services for w om en, with mental health professionals going into the cam ps to w ork w ith w om en on a volunteer basis. A m ong those w orking in the health field, gynecologists were the m ost likely to encounter raped w om en; psychiatrists would only meet those w ho cam e to them with severe trauma. Discussion with various groups indicated repeatedly that care for raped w om en should be m ade an integral part o f all health interventions.

Zenica In June, SD visited Zenica, a city in Central Bosnia that w as under the control o f the Bosnian governm ent. With a pre-w ar population o f 120,000, the city had also becom e hom e to an additional 40,000 refugees, o f w hom the m ajority w ere w om en and children. M ost w ere accom m odated by their rela­ tives and friends, w hile the rem ainder lived in a num ber o f sites, including schools, sports centers, cinem as and public buildings. Living conditions were extrem ely poor. Refugees had to contend w ith shortages o f food and water, along w ith frequent pow er outages. M oreover, their m ovem ent w as restricted both by the w ar and the breakdow n in infrastructure. M any o f the refugee w om en w ere overw helm ed by feelings o f helpless­ ness, and had lost interest in life and their children. Since the schools w ere not in operation, the children were left either to roam the streets with little supervision or to fall into a passive, depressed state. A lthough various types o f services had previously been established for the w om en and their children, dialogue with stakeholders made it quite clear that there w as a continuing need for a range o f psychological services. NPA’s psychosocial center for displaced w om en and their fam ilies in Z eni­ ca w as officially opened in Septem ber 1993. Personnel included a N orwegian coordinator, a local coordinator and a professional staff o f one psychologist, three social w orkers, tw o pre-school teachers, two teachcrs and one interpret­ er. In addition, six individuals w ere hired to provide support services, includ­ ing cooking and cleaning. H alf o f the latter contingent w ere displaced people them selves. The aim o f the service w as to im prove the psychosocial function­ ing o f displaced w om en by giving them an opportunity to overcom e prob­ lem s o f passivity and helplessness, and to identify victim s o f severe traum ati­ zation who w ere in need o f additional psychological intervention, either as individuals or fam ilies. The program ’s agenda w as set by staff m em bers and open to change based on feedback from participants. The w om en engaged in group-based occupational activities, structured group conversations, educa­

142

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

tional and recreational activities, as well as being given the chance to receive individual or fam ily counseling. All w om en and children living in the refugee centers w ere invited to participate. The response w as overw helm ing and, in order to provide services to as many individuals as possible, tw o shifts w ere created, w ith participants only allow ed to com e in every second day. By D ecem ber 1993, there were approxim ately 400 w om en and 250 children in regular attendance at C enter activities. H andicrafts w ere chosen as one o f the activities because m any participants w anted this, and it w as a pastim e that traditionally brought w om en together. Women w ere invited to take part in knitting, sew ing, spinning and em broi­ dery. Products w ere either sold in a shop created for this purpose (in the process providing individuals with a source o f incom e), or m ade for use by family m em bers. Em phasis w as also placed upon cultural and educational activities, with courses offered in the English language, m usic, dancing and singing. Generally, w om en w ould also bring their children, w ho w ere divided into pre-school and school-age groups. W ith the educational system in disar­ ray, many children had not attended classes since the beginning o f the war. The various groups w ere seen as w ays for the w om en to engage in m ean­ ingful activities and reaw aken their interest in life. The developm ent o f a social netw ork w as also facilitated by the presence o f a social worker, who participated in structured group conversations. W hile there w ere no formal psychotherapeutic group activities, the psychologist or social w orker routine­ ly met w ith the w om en so that they could talk about issues o f concern. The focus w as on expressing feelings and coping with the present situation. Indi­ vidual counseling w as offered by both the social w orkers and the psycholo­ gist, w ho also acted in a supervisory capacity. Training in counseling was also provided to those w ho w ould be w orking with the women. By inviting all fem ale refugees to attend, the aim w as to offer a large group o f wom en psychosocial support, and to provide individual and family coun­ seling to those who w ere in greatest need. The service w as also grounded in the assum ption that social support is essential for those coping with many types o f traum atic experience. Lack o f support is often a contributing factor to mental health problem s am ong victim s o f sexual violence. Many w om en might choose not to disclose their experience, and a broad-based approach affords w om en with different traum atic experiences a chance to benefit from the service while giving individuals who have been raped the opportunity to disclose and receive targeted psychological treatm ent. The program w as expanded in 1994. W hen it w as observed that there were groups o f w om en who w anted to becom e involved, yet w ere unable to visit the C enter itself, a mobile unit w as established, consisting o f a num ber of local professionals w ho visited refugee centers, w here they offered counsel­

Berit Schei and Solveig Dahl

143

ing and other services. A lso, w henever possible, they arranged for the w om en to m eet together in groups, thereby m aking it m ore likely that individuals w ould receive referrals if they w ere in need o f medical treatm ent.

Tuzjla Tuzla is an industrial city in northern Bosnia with a population, including outlying areas, of approxim ately 600,000. D uring the war, hundreds o f thou­ sands o f people sought refuge here. A s in Zenica, these individuals were accom m odated in private hom es and in various public buildings. A lso like Zenica, NPA had a long-standing presence in the city, w here it w as involved in building housing for the refugees. In A utum n 1993 the w ar w as in its full intensity. Poverty and blockade m eant that the basic preconditions for surviv­ al w ere not being met. H unger w as ram pant. The situation in Tuzla differed from that in Zenica in that the Danish Refugee Council (D R C ) had already em barked upon a psychosocial program focusing on the educational and recreational needs o f displaced women. H owever, as U N IC EF staff had pointed out, there w as an ongoing need for psychological services. NPA decided to respond to this challenge by initiat­ ing a project that w ould com plem ent the interventions o f DRC. The aim o f NPA’s project in Tuzla w as to deliver a range o f psychological services to support and treat w om en w ho had been exposed to w ar traum a and w ere at risk o f developing serious m ental health problem s as a result. Furthermore, NPA also sought to build local capacity by offering training to local profes­ sionals in the mental health field. H eaded by psychiatrist Dr. Irfanka Pasagic, a group o f local professionals had initiated an outreach program in the Fall o f 1993 m eant to serve the needs o f wom en living in som e o f the local refugee centers. T heir w ork w as under­ taken in extrem ely difficult conditions, w ithout any outside funding. NPA’s arrival m eant that they could benefit from professional support w hile at the sam e tim e being assured o f sustained financing. D raw ing upon the expertise o f these individuals, NPA’s Psychological C enter came to em ploy two coordi­ nators (one B osnian, the other N orw egian), one project assistant, four parttime professionals and 21 therapists em ployed on an hourly basis, responsi­ ble for one to four group sessions each. Together with UNICEF, NPA developed training and education program s for those w ho w ould be em ployed at the Center, which were to be delivered by outside professionals. The C enter opened in June 1994 and w as located in an existing home for w om en and children. Given that a num ber o f other projects w ere being delivered in the sam e building, including a D RC-run activity center and an education program operated by G em ainshaft fur Frieden and Hilfe (G FH), it w as hoped that inter-organizational cooperation w ould be facilitated, as w ould be refugee w o m en ’s access to a range o f services.

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

144

Women were either referred to the Center by a health professional or ap­ proached project staff themselves. Personnel visited refugee centers in order to describe the project and identify potential participants. An interview guide was developed to assist in the assessment of the women. Individuals w ho might benefit from the program w ere interviewed by a staff m em ber and the most distressed were advised to join a psychotherapeutic group. The latter were generally made up o f eight to ten women, with their activities guided by a strategy that w as at once self-reflective and sensitive to the local environment. It was for this reason that w om en from sim ilar educational and class back­ grounds w ere placed in the sam e group, as w ere sexually traumatized young women. In all other cases, the groups w ere heterogeneous in composition. C onditions under w hich the psychotherapeutic work evolved w ere ex­ trem ely difficult. M ost o f the refugee w om en w ere from rural areas with little formal schooling, and many w ere w idow s or single m others. M ost suffered from m ultiple form s o f traum atization, such as daily artillery shelling. The first sessions were used to introduce participants to one another and lay the groundwork for subsequent interventions. Once mutual trust was estab­ lished, the therapist could then move forward to the next stage, where wom en were invited to describe their histories. In order to w ork through the partici­ pants’ traumatic experiences, a psychoeducational model w as applied. In this model, wom en w ere shown how to recognize their psychological reactions and understand them, along with the relationship between their experiences and their present emotional state. Anxiety reduction strategies w ere also addressed. As the trauma became more integrated into the w om en’s life histories, the therapist m oved to the last stage, when wom en were encouraged to face the realities before them and make choices based on this awareness. The groups m et once a w eek, over a period that ranged from three to four months. The short duration w as prim arily due to a lack o f resources. As more funding becam e available, the sessions w ere extended to six m onths, with staff taking steps to ensure that there w as continuing social support for the w om en after the com pletion o f the psychotherapeutic process. M oreover, therapists also encouraged participants to create self-help groups, with which they w ould subsequently m eet on a m onthly basis in order to discuss ongoing problem s and concerns.

E V A L U A T IN G N P A ’S S E R V IC E S I N Z E N IC A A N D TU Z L A B a ckg ro u n d The developm ent o f NPA’s projects in B osnia-H erzegovina w as shaped by local conditions and circum stances; the needs o f the refugee w om en trapped

Berit Schei and Solveig Dahl

145

in the w ar zone; and the heroic efforts o f local professionals, many o f whom w ere them selves displaced w ithin the form er republic. A s the services evolved, w e (i.e., both the local and N orw egian professional staff) felt the need to docum ent our activities in a system atic fashion, and determ ine w heth­ er or not w e had succeeded in m eeting project objectives. T hus, the authors o f this paper, along w ith A tifa M utpcic, a psychologist, carried out an evaluation o f NPA’s w ork in Zenica and Tuzla, draw ing upon funding provided by N orw ay’s Council o f M ental Health.

TH E E V A LU A TIO N ST U D Y IN ZEN IC A A fter the C enter had opened its doors in Zenica, there w as a discernible change in the attitudes and outlook o f refugee w om en and children. That is to say, they began increasingly to share in the enthusiastic, caring atm osphere generated by the project and the organized activities. A s one w om an put it, “ It m akes me feel like I ’m w orth som ething.” H owever, despite these im ­ pressions, we w anted to address a num ber o f specific questions concerning w om en’s use o f the C enter and the degree to w hich they benefited from it. In particular, w e asked ourselves: Were traum atized w om en able to attend the Center? Were post-traum atic stress sym ptom s com m on am ong the wom en? Was there any relationship betw een the severity o f the traum a and the likelihood that w om en w ould suffer from post-traum atic stress? Was there a discernible difference in w o m en ’s evaluation depending upon w hether or not they suffered from post-traum atic stress sym p­ toms? H aving developed a questionnaire w ith the assistance o f the C en ter’s interpreter, a sm all pilot test w as conducted w ith four w om en. It included questions on socio-dem ographic characteristics, types o f traum atic experi­ ences and post-traum atic sym ptom s. A dditionally, w om en w ere asked to describe the kinds o f activities in w hich they w ere involved and how these had affected their psychological w ell-being. D raw ing upon a typology o f traum atic events, participants’ responses w ere then grouped according to the severity o f traum a. In other studies o f human rights violations during w ar­ time, it w as generally found that w om en w ho had been detained w ere most likely to have been sexually abused. Hence, G roup 1 consisted o f wom en w ho reported being incarcerated in a concentration cam p, detained with other w om en, and/or been w itnesses or victim s o f rape. G roup 2 w as com prised o f w om en w ho had either w itnessed or been victim s o f interpersonal violence. G roup 3 included individuals who

146

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

had been placed in situations w here they felt their lives w ere in danger. G roup 4 w as m ade up o f w om en w ho indicated that fam ily m em bers had been killed or w ere missing. Finally, G roup 5 consisted o f w om en w ho had been sepa­ rated from their fam ilies and/or their hom es had been destroyed. The Post-Traum atic Sym ptom s Scale (PTSS-10) w as used to assess the degree to w hich w om en suffered from such sym ptom s during the seven days prior to the study. This is not so much a diagnostic tool, but rather a simple screening test. H owever, Weisseth (1989) argues that a positive response for six or m ore sym ptom s might be taken as indicative o f a clinical diagnosis o f PTSD. Accordingly, w e chose six sym ptom s as our cut-off point in identify­ ing post-traum atic sym ptom s cases (PTS-C). All w om en present at the C enter during the m orning shifts o f June 13, 14 and 15, 1994 w ere asked to fill out a questionnaire. Due to a shortage o f paper products, only 239 form s w ere available. These w ere num bered and given to the women as they arrived. The w om en w ere asked to com plete the form and leave it in a box. Those w ho did not w ish to participate w ere asked to leave the questionnaire blank, though they w ere still encouraged to provide back­ ground information. M oreover, w e endeavored to ensure that the w om en w ere given a m easure o f privacy by asking half o f the w om en to go into one room and half into another. S taff mem bers w ere on hand to assist participants if asked to do so. O f the 239 questionnaires distributed, 209 w ere com pleted. Results w ere analyzed with SPSS. We conducted an initial assessm ent o f the data, w hich w as then presented to the C en ter’s staff as a basis for discussion and interpretation (N ovem ber 17-26th, 1994). Personal interviews w ere also conducted with three w om en w ho visited the Center, as well as three staff* m em bers. Finally, w e invited w om en served by the mobile unit to fill out the questionnaire, with 69 agreeing to do so.

R E SU L T S O F TH E E V A LU A TIO N ST U D Y IN ZEN IC A The w om en w ho participated in the study ranged in age from 15 to 70 years (m ean 35), and had been displaced anyw here from two to 32 months. O f the 119 m arried w om en, 31% w ere separated from their husbands due to the war. Roughly 23% o f the participants had children w ho w ere less than 13 years o f age. W hile a high proportion o f the w om en had suffered severe traum a (see Table 1), none reported being raped. In total, 111 participants (53% ) could be classified as a PTS-C. Incidence o f distress w as highest (71% ) am ong those in G roup 1 (see Table 2). M oreover, it w as also found that m ulti-traum atized w om en w ere more likely to suffer from post-traum atic sym ptom s, as w ere those with children and/or an absent husband. W hen asked to evaluate the C en ter’s activities, w om en w ithout severe PTS sym ptom s (91% ) w ere significantly more likely (91% ) than those w ho w ere

Berit Schei and Solveig Dahl

147

TABLE 1. War Traumas Among Bosnian Refugee Women Involved in the Norwegian People's Aid Centre in Zenica and Attending or Having Attended Group Psychotherapy in Tuzla ZENICA Type of traumatic event:

TUZLA

# of women

%

# of women

23 54 0 4 29 46 45 176 60 50 138 155

11 26 0 2 14 22 22 84 29 24 66 74

8 26 0 1 6 20 16 66 34 17 49 58

Concentration camp Detained Raped Witnessed rape Experienced violence Witnessed killing Witnessed violence Threats to life Family member(s) killed Family member(s) missing Separated from fam. mem. House/flat destroyed

%

# of women

%

11 24 10 3 23 27 31 134 95 69 130 143

7 15 6 2 15 17 20 85 60 44 82 90

12 38 0 1 9 29 23 96 49 25 71 84

TABLE 2. Posttraumatic Stress ZENICA

TUZLA Centre Population Attending Groups

Traumatic Dcai;Kyruuiiu.

N

Detained Violence exposed Life otherwise endangered Severe loss Loss

55 44

Total

PTS %

N

PTS %

N

PTS %

71 50

26 12

69 75

36 28

81 82

82 11 17

51 27 29

29 0 2

65 0 50

75 14 4

62 71 50

209

53

69

68

157

71

P T S -C (82% ) to rate “ being w ith other w o m e n ” as very helpful. M oreover, differences w ere also identified in w o m e n ’s evaluation o f their em otional problem s. A m ong those w ith few sym ptom s, 93% stated that they felt “ som ew hat or m uch b e tte r” after having taken part in C en ter activities, as com pared to 88% am ong w om en w ho suffered from six or m ore sym ptom s. H ow ever, it should be noted that the incidence o f P T S -C w as significantly higher am ong w om en w ho n ev er visited the C enter (68% as com pared to

148

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

53% for w om en w ho took part in C enter activities on a regular basis). W hile acknow ledging that one must be careful in m aking com parisons betw een the tw o groups, there w as nothing in the w o m en ’s profiles that could explain this discrepancy, leading us to conclude that it w as likely due to the role o f C enter activities in dim inishing PTS sym ptom s. M any traum atized w om en came to the C enter and post-traum atic stress sym ptom s w ere com m on. A lthough the w ar took its toll on everyone, indi­ viduals w ho had undergone severely traum atic experiences w ere am ong the most likely to suffer from PSTD. M oreover, this group o f wom en appeared to derive less benefit from C enter activities than others w ho w ere less dis­ tressed.

TH E EVA LU A TIO N ST U D Y IN TUZLA As w as made clear above, the approach taken in Tuzla w as som ew hat different from Zenica, in that the project w as designed specifically to identify w om en w ho w ere highly distressed, and hence in greatest need o f therapy. Moreover, by the time evaluation had begun in Tuzla, several groups had already com pleted the program and others w ere starting. The specific ques­ tions were: H ow might one characterize the traum atic background o f w om en who are attending or have attended group therapy? How did participants evaluate the group treatm ent? M ight one identify any differences in sym ptom level betw een those who had com pleted the program and those w ho w ere just starting? The Zenica questionnaire w as used as a guide for developing the one in Tuzla, with the only m ajor alteration being the replacem ent o f the w ord “ rape” with “ sexual abuse.” T his change w as made at the behest o f local staff. M oreover, an instrum ent w as added for evaluating therapeutic success that w as based upon Yalom’s model: 1995. Twelve statem ents (see Table 3) w ere listed, with w om en asked to identify the one that they agreed with most (ranging from “ did not help me at all” to “ helped me very m u ch ” ).

Collecting Information During two w eeks in May 1995, w om en attending the psychotherapeutic groups w ere asked to participate in the study by com pleting a questionnaire. The procedure w as sim ilar to that used in Zenica, w ith personnel available for assistance should the need arise. W omen w ho had already com pleted the

Berit Schei and Solveig Dahl

149

TABLE 3. Evaluation of Group Therapy in Tuzla. Number and % Reporting “helped me a lot”/“helped me very much”

Belonging to a group of people who understood and accepted me Learning 1am not the only one with my type of problem*** Feeling more trustful of group and of other people** Therapists and group provided me with something to do Getting things off my chest Learning how to express my feelings Trying to be like someone in the group who was better adjusted than me The group was something like my family*** Seeing and knowing others had solved problems similar to mine Recognizing that life is at times unfair and unjust Learning that 1must take responsibility for the way 1live my life no matter how much guidance and support 1get from others** Helping other group members has made me more satisfied**

PTS-Cases n = 111 (%)

PTS-Cases n = 57 (%)

94 (85)

36 (77)

105 (95)

33 (70)

101 (91)

34 (72)

101 (91) 81 (73) 85 (77)

30 (81) 29 (62) 31 (66)

88 (79) 106 (96)

35 (75) 35 (75)

96 (87) 80 (72)

37 (79) 29 (61)

97 (87)

32 (68)

103 (93)

35 (75)

** p < 0.01, ***p< 0.001

program w ere recruited by m eans o f the self-help groups in w hich they were involved.

R E SU L T S O F TH E EV A LU A TIO N ST U D Y IN TUZLA O f the 172 questionnaires that w ere returned, 14 w ere incom plete. The w om en had been displaced for periods o f time ranging from three m onths to more than three years. The m ajority (75% ) had children under 13 years of age, and m ost w ere separated from their husbands (67% ). Not only w ere many o f the participants characterized by severely traum atic backgrounds (23% w ere in G roup 1), but most w ere PTS-C (70% or 111 w om en). W hen com paring the incidence o f PTS sym ptom s am ong those w ho had com pleted group therapy (N = 82) and those who had not (N = 76), no significant difference w as observed. H owever, the groups did differ in other characteris­ tics related to the risk o f becom ing PTS-C. In particular, am ong those with children, the level o f PTS-C w as considerably low er for those w ho had

150

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

com pleted the therapy program (69% ) than those w ho had not (81% w ere PTS-C). A gain, w hile acknow ledging the difficulties inherent in assessing w hether or not this is a valid com parison, one m ight nonetheless suggest that the therapy had helped to reduce the level o f distress w ithin this particular subpopulation. Further credence is lent to this conclusion by the fact that the w om en’s subjective evaluation o f the therapy points in the sam e direction. Here, participants with children w ho were identified as PTS-C w ere am ong the most likely to state that the group therapy had helped them a lot or very much (see Table 3). A lthough the proportion o f participants w ho indicated that they had been severely traum atized w as sim ilar in both Zenica and Tuzla, the level o f PTS-C w as higher am ong the latter group. O f course, this is only to be expected given the criteria for taking part in the Tuzla program . Despite the fact that alm ost all o f the w om en stated that the group therapy w as helpful, a higher proportion o f participants w ho w ere PTS-C reported that specific aspects o f the program helped them “ a lo t” or “ very m uch.” A s w ell, w om en with children w ho had com pleted the program w ere generally found to have few er sym ptom s than those w ho w ere still in therapy, thereby underscoring the latter’s effectiveness. In the w ords o f one o f the w om en, “ I feel more relaxed and I can sleep now .”

C O N CLU SIO N D isplaced w om en living in a w ar zone constitute a high-risk group for traum atization and m ental health problems. M oreover, in the context o f the Form er Yugoslavia in particular, there w as w ide recognition o f the need to em pow er and support w om en w ho w ere victim s o f the conflict. As one might imagine, this w as largely the product o f sustained m edia attention on the issue o f rape as a w eapon o f war, w hich served in turn to aw aken the interna­ tional com m unity to the fact that the traum atization o f w om en is closely associated with the destruction o f fam ilies, social netw orks and societies. In this paper, the authors have described two psychosocial projects fo ­ cused upon the needs o f displaced w om en living in w ar zones, as well as discussing the results o f a questionnaire-based evaluation o f the sam e. O f course, given the degree o f difference betw een the target populations o f the two projects (the Tuzla project w as aim ed specifically at w om en in need o f therapy, w hereas the Zenica C enter w as not), one must be extrem ely cautious in com paring results. Still, the findings do suggest that highly distressed w om en derived greater benefit from group psychotherapy (as w as offered to them in Tuzla) than they did from the occupational activities organized by the Zenica Center. Those planning future interventions in w ar conditions may very well wish to take these findings into account.

B erit Schei and Solveig l)a h l

151

REFERENCES Dahl, B. and Schei, B. (Eds). (1996). The burden left my heart. Experiences from a group psychotherapy project am ong displaced women in a w ar zone. Oslo, N or­ wegian P eople’s Aid, 1996. UNHCR. Information notes on the form er Yugoslavia. No 1(1995). Zagreb: UNHCR office o f the special envoy for the former Yugoslavia, external relation unit. Weisasth, L. (1989). The stressor and the post-traum atic stress syndrom e after an industrial disaster. A cta Psychiatry Scand (Suppl 355) pp. 25-37. Yalom, I. D. (1995). Theory a n d practice o f group psychotherapy, 4th edition, pp. 74-78. Basic Books. New York.

Sympathy for the Devil: Thinking About Victims and Perpetrators After Working in Serbia A n ja M eu len b e lt

SUM M ARY. T h is article describ es the personal and pro fessio n al e x p eri­ ences o f the au th o r w hile w o rk in g as a m ental health train er in Serbia. In addition, various ap p ro ach es to victim s and perp etrato rs are reco n sid ­ ered, along w ith the ethical im plications o f this w ork. T h e relationship betw een w ork in g w ith v iolence in a w a r zone and in a peaceful society is also explored. [Article copies available fo r a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-342-9678. E-mail address: getinfo@haworthpressinc. com]

Anja M eulenbelt has written m any articles and several books on gender, sexuality, and other related subjects, com bining psychology and sociology, and is also known for her novels. Her first book, The Shame Is Over, has becom e a fem inist classic in Europe and w as translated into 11 languages. Her latest book, Chodorow and Beyond, is about the dynam ics in relationships betw een wom en and men, and betw een wom en. She is also the editor o f a series o f books called Gender, Psychology and Mental Health Care and is a w riter and trainer for the Dutch organization, Adm ira. The author is grateful to Sandra V isser for allow ing her to use this title. It is from an old R olling Stones song, but she has used it to refer to w orking with offenders. T he author thanks A dm ira, the organization in U trecht, that sent her and G erda A arnik to Serbia. She thanks them fo r their support and for this opportunity. G erda A arnik, the other trainer, is a friend and colleague and has been the a u th o r’s main m entor in this w ork on violence. A ddress correspondence to: A nja M eulenbelt, T ichelstraat 26hs, 1015 KT, A m ­ sterdam , The N etherlands.

153

154

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

KEYWORDS. Serbia, traum a, system ic approaches, fem inist therapy, oppression, violence

Dusica d oesn’t w ant to eat rice anym ore, ever again. D uring the w orst year o f the war, it w as the only food she could get. Rice and flour. A friend from The N etherlands brought her a package o f yeast so she could bake bread. A little em barrassed, she accepted it. Now in 1997, w e are here and there is enough food again, but not much m oney with w hich to buy it. Dusica, w ho is a psychiatrist, earns about a hundred dollars a month. She does not complain. There has been no fighting in Serbia itself. No houses have been destroyed. T here is w ater and electricity. But am ong the problem s is a seem ingly endless stream o f ethnic Serbian refugees from Vukovar, Sarajevo, Mostar, and Krajina. They are farm ers w ho have lost everything, old people w ho have been uprooted once before in the Second World War, “ incom plete” fam ilies, usu­ ally m issing a father, and som e people w ho have professional training, but w ho do not get jobs. M any live in crow ded apartm ents w ith relatives. Those w ithout relatives live in camps. 1 have visited a camp, one close to Sm ederevo, called Male Krsna. It is not the w orst. There is simple food for everyone every day. The heaters work. Som etim es they get new shoes or sw eaters. They have been living here for five years, five to six people in every room , in bunk beds, their few belongings kept in cartons. They have hung pictures o f w here they com e from on the wall, pictures o f the fam ous bridge o f M ostar that d o esn ’t exist anym ore. They are ethnic Serbs w ho are not accepted by the Serbian popula­ tion because they speak with funny accents and w ant to share in the scarce food, jobs and housing. But they ca n ’t go back. They have no idea w hat the future will bring or how long they will have to stay in the camp. At the Institute for Mental Health in Belgrade, many o f the patients are heavily traum atized. They are w om en w ho still w ait for a husband w ho is probably dead. They are girls w ho have been raped in the war. They are children w ho have w itnessed their m other being raped or their father heing clubbed to death. They are young men, teenagers, who have been soldiers. Many fam ilies have been torn apart because the ethnic dividing line ran right through mixed m arriages and children with a m ixed heritage. There is a story about a Serbian girl w ho tied and asked for shelter at the house o f an uncle. He d id n ’t open the door because he w as a Croat. N obody know s w hat hap­ pened to the girl afterwards. For us, the trainers from A dm ira, who are invited to give a course on sexual and dom estic violence for the therapists from the Institute o f Mental H ealth, it is not a surprise that violence w ithin the fam ily in any form, including sexual abuse o f children and battering and abuse o f w om en, has increased in the afterm ath o f the war. We have also w orked in South Africa,

Anja Meulenbelt

155

A lbania and Palestine. We know that, in tim es o f political turmoil, and espe­ cially after the w orst seem s to be over, violence in the fam ily and betw een partners tends to increase. We d o n ’t expect this first training in Belgrade to be an easy job. On the first evening, at an informal gathering, w e see all the signs o f vicarious traum atization, therapists and psychiatrists w ho arc tired, overw orked and burned out, w ho feel isolated, defeated and even cynical. It is a universal story that it is difficult to keep faith in hum anity after being faced with so much senseless violence, so much cruelty. This first evening w e long for South A frica, w here life is also hard, but w here w e felt a sense o f solidarity, togetherness that seem s to be absent here. W hen we start w orking w e meet different layers o f resistance. The first is the professional attitude o f psychiatrists w ho are not used to sharing prob­ lem s openly and show ing their vulnerability to colleagues. The second is that w e are w om en, fem inists no less, w ho are not even trained psychiatrists. W ho are w c to tell them w hat to do? The third is that this is Serbia, an ex-com m u­ nist country that has engendered a psychology o f mutual distrust and fear of betrayal. We are representatives o f the West, w ho has accused Serbia o f being the m ain aggressor in the w ar in Yugoslavia and guilty o f the w orst w ar crim es, including the system atic rape of Bosnian and C roat wom en. They are furious about the international sanctions against Serbia w hich m ake it seem that they are the only perpetrators in this war. In War and Sanctions, edited by the Institute o f M ental Health (K alicanin, P., Lecic-Toscvski, D., Bukelic, J. and Ispanovic-R adojkovic, V., Eds., 1994), a com parison is m ade betw een their cam ps and A uschw itz. The Serbs w ere victim s in the Second World War. They feel that they are being victim ized again by this international condem nation. To m e, their attitude bears a great sim ilarity to that o f the rapist w ho is not able to sec him self as an offender, but feels that the w hole w orld is one big conspiracy against him. So we are tested. Do w e really w ant to w ork with them ? Will w e listen to them w ithout judgm ent? Can w e be trusted? It is much the sam e w ay that a client tests a therapist. It lasts for a day before the first real problem s are presented. In the first getting acquainted session, even asking som eone’s age seem s too private, but the urge to talk about the difficulties they face in their work is stronger than their reluctance. “ W hat do you d o ” asks one psychia­ trist w ho has had classical psychoanalytical training, “ when a man com es in who has lost his house, h alf his family, has no w ork and no money, w ho is desperate? Do I treat him for neuroses?” “ W hat do you d o ” asks another, “ when you see a young w om an who w ants a referral to a plastic surgeon to get rid o f the scars on her face? She w as m auled by a soldier with a knife, while she w as forccd to w atch her m other being raped. H er father is missing. She w ants to go abroad, but w ants to get rid o f the scars first bccause every

156

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

time she looks in the m irror she is rem inded o f w hat happened. I asked her, ‘D on’t you w ant to talk about the scars that are inside y o u ?’ She said ‘N o ’, and left. W hat did I do w rong?” “ My most difficult patient w as a woman w ho traveled many m iles to see me oncc a w eek. She w as m ixed Serb and Croat. Her husband w as a Serb. She w as raped by a group o f M uslim soldiers, w ho forced her to fellate them. The first person she told, a mental health care worker, said she m ust have done it willingly. She had not told her husband because she feared that he w ould think the sam e thing and cast her out. She cou ld n ’t go back to her Croatian fam ily because she had been m arried to a Serb. She came to my office several times, but after the first time she d id n ’t say anything. She just sat there. 1 waited. A fter a few times, she d id n ’t com e back anym ore. I d o n ’t know w hy.” “ M aybe because you are a m an ,” som eone said. “ M aybe because you are a Serb,” som eone else said. “ M aybe because you should have show n more com m itm ent and not w aited passively, like w e have learned, for her to start talking.” N othing in their training has prepared them for these kinds o f problems. M ilan is a m an w ho treats many w om en w ho w ere sexually abused. W hen we ask about his m otives, he says that he thinks about his w ife and daughters. It could have happened to them . Then he tells us the story o f his most difficult patient-not a w om an, but a man. He has sleeping disturbances, flashbacks, difficulties in concentrating, the classical sym ptom s o f P ost-Traum atic Stress Disorder. W hat happened? The patient’s daughter turned sixteen. A t that mom ent, he realized w ith shock that the girl he had participated in gangraping as a soldier had also been sixteen. He had kept her passport. “ 1 listened to h im ,” says M ilan, “ but I w as paralyzed. I co u ld n ’t say anything. I d id n ’t know w hat to do. A fter that first time, he d id n ’t com e back. W as there anything I could have done? W hat do you think I should have d o n e?” he asks us, w om en, fem inists from another country. Victims and perpetrators. It w ould be so easy if w e could divide the human race neatly into bad guys and good guys, into innocent victim s and evil offenders. Black is o.k.; w hite is w rong. W omen are victim s; m en are oppres­ sors. A man in Sow eto is the victim o f apartheid, but w hat do we do w hen he sexually abuses children? Jew s have been an extrem ely persecuted people, so we support Israel. But what do w e do with the Israeli occupation o f Palestin­ ian land? Do w e deny it or do w e judge even m ore severely because they, especially they, should know better than to oppress others? “ The Jew s have learned nothing from the w ar,” I overhear som ebody saying. Were the death cam ps meant for education? The victim can becom e an offender; it happens. The mother, w ho, abused herself, m istreats her children; it can happen. The kid from the ghetto w ho beats up gay men; the shopkeeper w ho, w hile trying

Anja Meulenbelt

157

to survive in a poor neighborhood, becom es racist; the Palestinian man w ho has been tortured in an Israeli prison w ho stabs his pregnant w ife with a knife because he has been told she has been unfaithful: true stories. Has the rapist chosen to becom e a rapist? No. D oes that make him less responsible for his acts? No again. W hen I return from Serbia, I am faced w ith two different attitudes. The first is, “ All those Yugoslavians are equally bad. T h at’s how people are. It will never change. There will alw ays be w ar som ew here.” The other is even m ore cynical. “ W hy do you bother? Let them kill each other.” The language o f pow erlessness and resignation, dissociation and indifference. W hy should w e care? N othing w c do will change anything anyway. Born o f the same sense o f pow erlessness, the sim ple accusing o f one party, the creation of black and w hite im ages o f w ho is the real enemy. Milan is a m an. He is asham ed o f his own gender, o f w hat men are capable o f doing to w om en. It is very im portant to him to show that he is a different sort o f m an, to dissociate him self from perpetrators. He asks for a lot o f our attention. He w ants us, foreign w om en, to acknow ledge that he is a good man. Like there w ere good G erm ans during the war. It is one o f his m otiva­ tions to w ork with w om en, with victim s o f sexual violence. If he d o esn ’t w atch out he will turn into one o f those knights in shining armor, a m an who needs to rescue poor girls to be able to feel b etter about him self. A new er and softer sort o f abuse o f w om en, although it is w ell m eant. “ W hat w ould you have done w ith that m an if he h a d n ’t been your p atie n t?” I ask M ilan. “ I w ould have hanged him by the balls in the middle o f the city so everybody could have seen w hat he had d one,” M ilan says heatedly. “ But he w as my patient, so I said nothing.” “ You d o n ’t think that he could see by your face w hat you w ere thinking?” “ M aybe, I d o n ’t know. Well, probably. Yes, but what w ould you have done if you had been in my place?” W hat I w ould have done? W hat can I do now ? My ow n reaction to this question surprises me. A few years ago I w ould not even have been able to think these w ords. A s a survivor o f violence m yself, as a fem inist and as one o f the w om en w ho w as part o f the W om en’s M ental Health Care M ovem ent from the beginning, I saw m yself on the side o f fem ale victim s, and that did not leave me much space or even w illingness to think about men, to think about offenders. It w as us against them. W hat I w ould have done, had that man been my patient, w as to praise him for the courage he had to adm it that he had com m itted a serious crime. Is that not the biggest problem in w orking w ith offenders, their unw illingness to see them selves as responsible for their deeds? This m an, in his despair, had already m ade that first step. It m eans that part o f him , the part that w ants to be a caring father o f a sixteen-year-old daughter, has not yet been destroyed. Just praising him for his courage would not have been enough. I w ould have also let him know that what he did was

158

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

absolutely unacceptable. Did he have guilt feelings? He had reasons for them that I w ould not w ant to take away. M aybe, if I had been able to adopt this dual attitude o f acceptance and nonacceptance, and if he had stayed and worked through this painful m aterial, there might have com e a tim e w hen he could have been able to ask for forgiveness sincerely. M aybe then he could have done som ething to m ake am ends-not to the girl that he raped; that would have been using her again, but at least to the com m unity that she came from. He m ight have been an exam ple to other m en. M aybe he should have to stand trial. Punishm ent is not our jo b as therapists and we should leave it to the judges and the police. Yet w e also know that punishm ent alone seldom changes an offender for the better. W orking with offenders asks som ething different from us than does w ork­ ing w ith victim s and survivors. I am not saying that w orking with victim s and survivors o f dom estic violence and sexual abuse is easy, but at least w e know where w e stand: on their side. In w orking with offenders, there is an inherent complexity. If w e offer only understanding and acceptance, they will have no reason to change. If we offer only rejection and judgm ent, they w ill have no reason to change. In The N etherlands for a long time, we could afford the “ luxury” o f w orking only with victim s and survivors. O r so w e thought. We w ere blind to the fact that caring for the victim s did not change the offenders, and so, did not change the extent o f violence against w om en. We could only help individual w om en after the battering or abuse had already occurred. W orking in countries w here people have not had the opportunity to build a separate w om en’s mental health system or w here w om en, for various reasons (no job, no money, no w elfare system , losing their children, being separated from their whole netw ork o f kinship), could not leave their violent husbands made me m ore aw are o f different therapeutic options than trying to separate victim s from offenders. I becam e m ore interested in couples treatm ent when possible, system ic thinking com bined with fem inism , and with building a w orking relationship with m en w ho w ork w ith perpetrators. I also becam e aware o f my own fear o f w orking w ith offenders, a fear that I seem ed to share w ith many w om en, that trying to understand what m akes a man into an offender w ould m ean forgiving, forgetting and acceptance, ju st as many battered and abused w om en have tolerated their own abuse because they understood the hurt little boy, the vulnerable man hidden inside their persecu­ tor. It w as a fear that too much understanding w ould take aw ay our strength and w eaken our com m itm ent. Virginia G oldner (1997) gave w ords to this confusion by stating that violence is never acceptable, but can be understandable, and that forgiving is up to the victim . R ather than an either/or approach, it is an and/and one. Sharon Lam b (1996) cleared up another m isunderstanding for me. My feel­ ing once w as that understanding offenders w ould put the blam e back on

Anja Meulenbelt

159

victim s. Lam b says that this is not a zero sum gam e. It should be feasible for us to look at the way a victim has colluded in m aking her own victim ization possible, for instance, by giving priority to keeping a m arriage intact to her ow n safety, w ithout taking any responsibility from the offender. It should also be possible to understand the dynam ics in relationships, for instance, that many m en resort to violence, not w hen they feel pow erful, but when they feel pow erless vis-à-vis their w ives, w ithout blam ing the w om an for his anger and w ithout forgetting that he is still the one w ho has raised his fist against her. O nce I thought system ic thinking and fem inist therapy w ere mutually exclusive. I saw too m any exam ples o f hidden victim blam ing in a tooorthodox concept that w ithin relationships or fam ilies everyone is equally responsible for w hatever problem s there may be. Yet I also saw the shortcom ­ ings o f a too-orthodox fem inist view point that could see w om en only as passive victim s, men as offenders w ithout any explanation o f how they b e­ cam e that way. It is w om en like Virginia Goldner, am ong others, w ho have inspired me to a synthesis: fem inist system ic thinking, including contradic­ tions and creative tensions, a fierce com bination o f com m itm ent to com bat oppression, inside and outside o f personal relationships (w hen w e really think system ically the w orld is bigger than just the fam ily), and a deep com passion not only for victim s, but also for victim s-turned-oppressor. W orking in Serbia has been a rich and challenging experience. It has made me aw are o f a com plexity around the issue o f violence that I had not realized as long as I stayed in a relatively peaceful and prosperous country. It gave me m ore insight into the m echanism s that com bine w ar and oppression, violence in intim ate relationships, traum a and gender. It is no coincidence, I think now, that no m atter how big the cultural differences in countries like Gaza, Serbia, A lbania and South A frica, there are sim ilarities in the rise o f violence just at the m om ent that people expect life to becom e less difficult. It has a lot to do with the afterm ath o f severe traum atization. It alw ays has to do with gender. It is the men w ho have lost m any o f their traditional w ays o f proving them ­ selves to be m asculine, when they can no longer be providers, and have not been able to protect their fam ilies from poverty and the consequences o f war, occupation, racial oppression and decline o f state system s, w ho run the risk o f becom ing m ore violent in their relationships, w hile the w om en, w ho have som ehow survived extrem ely difficult tim es w ithout doubting their w orth as m others and w ives, endure. W hen dealing with violence w ithin fam ilies and relations w e are not only talking about m ethods o f treatm ent and intervention, but also about ethics, about finding a w ay to stop the cycle o f violence, about a balance betw een help and justice, about seeing an offender w ho has once been a victim him ­ self, perhaps at the hard hands o f his father, of the fear o f show ing w eakness or not w anting to join in gam es and jokes that w ere denigrating to w om en, o f

160

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

the pressure o f his internalized myths about masculinity. In the case o f the Serbian man who raped a sixteen-year-old Muslim girl, the fear of what his fellow soldiers would do to him if he refused to join them. Something happened to this man that m ade it possible for him to see the body of a sixteen-year-old girl as enemy territory that needed to be destroyed. We have to be able to see the human part in som ebody w ho behaves in an inhuman way, to fight the illness, not the patient, as a Chinese proverb says. I am sure that years ago, if I were faced with M ilan’s patient, I could not have kept the contem pt and revulsion from show ing in my face just as it show ed in his. I probably would have found it easier to kill than to under­ stand. I probably would have choscn to have nothing to do with the ease, to avoid my own contradictory feelings. When we said goodbye, after that first training in Serbia (there were many to follow), we were tired and happy. So were the participants. Dusica had tears in her eyes when she embraced us and so did I. We promised to come back. At that moment, I realized that our discussion about victims and perpe­ trators had been a metaphor for the war we had only talked about indirectly. What we said about offenders, we said, between the lines, about Serbia. Working as therapists and trainers in countries with such a complicated political situation does not allow us to divide problems into neat categories of work with battered women, with abused children, with family therapy, but forces us to see the connections between political systems and personal suffering, challenges our way of thinking about women and men, about victims and offenders. It challenges not only our thinking about methods, but also about ethics. That, in itself, is our reward.

REFERENCES Goldner, V. (1997). De genderdialoog. (The Gender Dialogue) Anja Meulenbelt (lid.). Uitgeverij Van Gennep. Kalicanm, P., Lecic-Tosevski, D., Bukelic, J. and Ispanovic-Radojkovic, V. (Eds) (1994). The stresses o f war and sanctions. Belgrade: Institute for Mental Health. Lamb, S. (1996). The trouble with blame: Victims, perpetrators and responsibility. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Some Pitfalls for Effective Caregiving in a War Region Edita O stodic

SU M M A R Y . T his article presents an overview o f issues and concerns w hich can negatively im pact the effectiveness o f caregiving in a w ar zone by traum atization o f caregivers, conflicting agendas and prejudice o f foreign m ental health organizers and trainers. /Article copies available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-342-9678. E-mail address: [email protected]]

K E Y W O R D S . Caregivers, w ar zone, w ar victim s, traum a

From the perspective o f a m ental health professional, I w ould like to share my experiences o f organizing psychosocial program s and traum a recovery training in a w ar region. I w ould also like to stress som e o f the pitfalls o f effective caregiving arising from the psychological state o f both local and foreign caregivers/professionals w orking in such an environm ent. The central assum ption o f this paper is that the professionals w orking in a w ar region are m ore or less traum atized by the war. B eing part o f a traum a­ tized com m unity as w ell as m ental health professionals, local caregivers suffer both prim ary and secondary trauma. Playing the role o f mental health caregiver, frequently approached by friends, relatives and team m em bers w ho w ould like to discuss their ow n mental health problem s, they feel reEdila Ostodic is affiliated with Medica in Zenica, Bosnia-Herzegovina. Address correspondence to: Edita Ostodic, W TC Medica, Mokosnice 10, 72000 Zenica, Bosnia-Herzegovina.

161

162

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

sponsible and som ehow obliged to dem onstrate their psychological fitness to help. In trying to overcom e their own problem s with a range o f coping styles, they often suppress or deny signs o f their ow n traum atization. A sense o f their professional dignity often persuades them not to show, or even accept the idea of, their ow n traum atization. Even w hen local professionals do not obviously suffer from traum atic signs and sym ptom s, they may be character­ ized by invisible form s o f traum atization that are capable o f influencing relationships and com m unication with foreign caregivers, underm ining the effectiveness o f caregiving in mental health projects. I w ould like to touch upon several signs that are not easily visible or recognizable, particularly in com parison with the sym ptom s o f heavily traum atized people in a w ar re­ gion. These include the following: Feelings of sham e and helplessness. They suffer from a lack o f hygiene, clothes and food and are unable to change their m aterial status. M istrust: expressed in relation to the real m otives o f foreign caregivers in offering help, the goodw ill o f colleagues, or the stories o f clients. Increased vulnerability directly related to decreased self-esteem and confidence. Foreign caregivers are also involved in organizing mental health projects and training in w ar regions. In all too many cases, they bring with them attitudes and m otivations w hich prove detrim ental to the cause of effective caregiving. These might include (inter alia): different m otivations for com ing to the w ar region; they expect acknow ledgm ent and appreciation for helping people in need, w hile seeking to acquire experience (or w ages) w ithout adequate com m itm ent to the hum an beings w ho are suffering; prejudice concerning the country and the people who live there; superficial statem ents and generalizations about the beliefs, lifestyle and culture o f the people with w hom they work; a m ore or less colonial outlook, given concrete form in such statem ents as: “ They are basically different from u s” ; “ They d o n ’t have the needs w c have” ; “ They are not as skilled as w e are” ; “ I know better anyw ay” ; and so on. The follow ing model illustrates, in concise form , the relationship dynam ­ ics that might develop betw een foreign and local caregivers. O f course, my purpose here is not so much to develop a universal m odel, but rather to provide a m eans o f sharing experiences for consideration. 1. Feelings o f sham e and helplessness w hich, from a fo reig n er’s perspec­ tive, offer evidence that appears to validate their colonial way o f think­ ing about local professionals. 2. In turn, this colonial w ay o f thinking exacerbates local professionals’ feelings o f sham e and helplessness. In order to cope with these feel­

Edita Ostodic

163

ings, they try to present a better picture of themselves and conceal what they feel they lack, whether material possessions or professional com ­ petency. Alternatively, they overcom pensate with pride or even by putting down the foreigners, saying, for example, that “ They could never cope with such a situation, we are better, we are special . . . ” 3. Different types of motivation among foreign professionals foster mis­ trust on the part of local caregivers, who are often left wondering, “ What hidden interest do they have in doing that?” or “ Do they use us and our situation for their own ends?” 4. Increased mistrust by locals, again from a foreigner’s perspective, sup­ plies evidence to justify prejudices already held about local people: “ They are different. We cannot understand each o ther” ; or “ It is in their culture to be suspicious.” 5. Prejudices and colonial ways o f thinking serve to heighten local pro­ fessionals’ sense o f vulnerability, manifested in statements like “ They don’t see us as human beings” ; and “ They have no confidence in our professional abilities.” In this way, communication between local and foreign caregivers who work together on projects becomes saturated with mutual hurt, sapping the energy and morale of both groups in the process. I worked in a project that was developed and supported by feminist groups from Germany and around the world. Endeavoring to put into practice prin­ ciples derived from feminist theory, we always sought to ensure that there was an open door for discussing power issues and problems that might arise within the organization. However, power issues themselves determined who appeared in that open doorway. An analogy could be made here to the kind o f interactions that manifest themselves within trauma work between therapist and client as a result of an unbalanced power dynamic. A traumatized local professional, engaging in transference, might expect some kind o f omnipotent rescuer and idealize the foreign caregiver/professional. However, this is inevitably followed by disap­ pointment and fury when the reality fails to live up to such unrealistic expec­ tations. The foreign caregiver (engaging in countertransference), faced with so much pain and need, might feel obliged to deal with more problems than is really feasible, thereby building unrealistic expectations among beneficiaries, and ultimately provoking negative reactions. In turn, this leads to feelings of disappointment and resentment towards those with whom s/he is working. O f course, the negative impact o f unconscious attitudes and untreated traumatic signs is multi-faceted. In the first instance, this may be seen in foreign caregivers’ sense that they arc being neglected or have only gained superfi­ cial acceptance, leading to resentment and disappointment. In this way, they lose an opportunity to use the crisis situation for learning, development and

164

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

growth. Meanwhile, local professionals may find themselves caught between identification with their community on the one hand, and their role as mental health professionals on the other. Not allowing themselves to express their real emotions and vulnerability so as to remain professional, they may very well develop problems of dissociation, and have to invest more and more energy into trying to compensate for this gap between their two roles. How ­ ever, having done so, they run the risk of burning out that much faster. As for the project’s client population, they receive precisely what they do not need or want: false care, overprotection, neglect, misuse, creation o f unrealistic expectations and a tendency to become stuck in the role o f vic­ tims. Needless to say, this process serves to undermine the effectiveness o f local professionals, who lose their capacity to meet the real emotional needs o f beneficiaries. They may also offer clients inappropriate coping techniques for their trauma symptoms, or discourage them from expressing their authen­ tic emotions. Along somewhat different lines, foreign caregivers, because of their preju­ dices and colonial attitudes, may offer false support or not meet the real needs of beneficiaries. Their unacknowledged personal motivations might lead them to build unrealistic expectations among beneficiaries, offering over­ protection instead of support and strength. Meanwhile, the temptation of professional self-promotion may cause them to misuse the traumatic stories of beneficiaries. What can be done to avoid these pitfalls in similar future w ar situations? There is a need for individuals to assess carefully the roles and goals o f all parties, and to sensitize themselves to power issues inherent in the relation­ ship between local and foreign care-providers. Thus, counseling of foreign caregivers/professionals should be provided, and include issues related to their own motivations, expectations, prejudices and colonial attitudes. It is also important that all parties develop a basic knowledge of transference and countertransference issues involved in working with traumatized people, as well as a thorough understanding o f trauma issues more generally, including symptoms, relationship dynamics and forms o f communication that might be indicative of traumatization in local people and team members. Training for local mental health professionals should offer them a chance to get in touch with signs o f their own trauma. It should provide a space and an opportunity for vocalizing their owns fears and concerns. While such an approach would not necessarily entail therapy, it would provide professionals with an awareness o f and sensitivity towards their own emotional problems. At the same time, it would create an opening within which local professionals could receive acknowledgment and acceptance from foreign colleagues and others. It would be possible to combine this approach with theoretical issues

Edita Ostodic

165

associated with trauma, legitimating caregivers’ traumatization without dam ­ aging their professional dignity, and encourage them to accept themselves and their vulnerability. Needless to say, it could also serve as an important means o f preventing burnout among local mental health professionals. If these requirements are to be met, the training should be regular, orga­ nized as early as possible, and involve stable groups. It should be a combina­ tion of self-experience and educational interventions. Exercises and w ork­ shops used during the training would also provide professionals with a tool they could subsequently use in their own work with clients.

Index A bortions 80,95 ADM IRA 6,94,97-98,103-104,154 Afghanistan 49 African A m ericans, treatm ent of in Europe 29-30,60 in U.S. 25,27-29,30,59,73-74,77 Agger, Inger 10-11 Akayesu trials 75 Alcohol abuse 98 Algeria 49 Amlstad (film) 59 Amnesty International 140 A nglo-Saxon law 48 Angola 14-16,64-65,75 APA Division o f Peace Psychology 16 Apologies for atrocities 3,5,28,30,73-74 Arbour, Judge 55 Art therapy 117,142 A sylum ; asylum countries 10,12,13, 40,119,124 A ustria 124,125 A utonom ous W om en’s C enter A gainst Sexual Violence 83-89

Belgrade 83-89,92,94,155 Belgrade Institute for Mental Health 103-104,154,155 Blewitt, Graham 54 B osnia-Herzegovina 79,84.107-120, 122,123,140 Bremer, Liv 123 Bribes 113 Bungalow indictment 74

Care providers in w ar regions. See also Training issues; related subjects

boundary issues 96,101,118, 161-162 coping mechanism s 96-97,104-106, 114-115,118 organizational support needs 97,98 pitfalls to effectiveness o f 3-5, 161-165 relationship dynam ics between local and foreign 113-115, 128-128,162-164 transference issues 5,118,163-164 traum a effects primary trauma o f local caregivers 105,128, 161-162,164 secondary traum atization 4,5, 105,114,118,161-162 C aritas Leverkusen 123 Cellebici case 65 C enter for W omen War Victims (Zagreb) 94 Child soldiers 15,16 Children abused by traumatized parents 85, 112,117,154-155 conceived by rape 80,95,96 as w ar crim e/rape victim s 95-96 w ar ev en ts’ and trauma effects on 18,93.117,141,142 in Angola, and responses to 15-16 psychotherapeutic support program for Bosnian women and 109-120 C hristian C hildren’s Fund 15 Civil law 63,65,66 Civil rights. See also Human rights; W om en's rights U.S. movem ent 28,35-36 167

168

A ssault on the Soul: Women in the Form er Yugoslavia

war zone interventions toward strengthening 86 C linton, Bill 28,73 Common law 63,65,66 Com m unity-level trauma and interventions 3,4-5,14-16, 18,57 Continental law 48 The Coordination o f W om en's A dvocacy (CWA) 12-13 Costa Rica 40,45,46,49,52 Crim es against humanity 45,50, 54,56,68,81 Croatia; Croats 80,85,93,121-138 Cultural issues. See also Western perspectives in alternative therapeutic activities 117 in com m unity-based interventions 14-16 in medical exam s 101-102 o f patriarchal social order 116-117, 128-129,136-137 in peace-building programs 13-14 in training programs 130,136-137, 138 Culture, w ar’s destruction o f 45. See also G enocide

Danish Refugee Council (DRC) 143 Dayton peace agreem ent 97,115 de la Rey, Cheryl 13 Derzic, Lejla 123 Detention centers; concentration cam ps 27,44,56,74,84,87, 95-96,145-146 DHH 108 Domestic violence; peacetime violence. See Families; Violence against women D rug abuse 112

Eisenhower, Dwight 38

Enslavem ent o f w omen in wartime 36-37,79,80,81 Ethical issues in w ar-context therapies 4,10 and with other violence perpetrators 156-160 Ethnic cleansing. S ee Genocide European Parliam ent 13 Evil, nature and prevalence o f 4,5, 27-28,50-51

Families counseling services for 141,142 cultural em phasis on patriarchial order and 116,128,136-137 ethnic/ideological divisions in 95, 99-100,154,156 m other-daughter relationships 95-96,98 o f rape/torture victim s 32,50 traum a-related violence in 85,92, 95,115-116,154-155,159-160 Fantasy exercises; dream work 99,105, 117,127,133 Fem inist therapy; counseling interventions. See also Psychotherapy anti-violence w ork, prem ises o f 125 Belgrade fem inists’ experiences with female w ar survivors 83-89 fem inist principles and 8 global aw areness in fem inist views and 1-5,8,9-19,64-65, 66-67,102 human rights action agenda for 17,18-19 peace psychology intervention project 8-19 system ic approaches integrated 158-160 theory and activism integrated 2 toward reconciliation and social memory 10-11

Index Feminist training program for Croatian psychotherapy professionals 121-138. See also Training issues organization and financing 123 project design assum ptions 123-125 challenges 127-129 concept 125-126 evaluation principles and strategies 126-130 and coping mechanism s assessm ent 131-132 and group-centered work 127,130-131, 132-134 and language use 134-137 project developm ent history 122 First National W om en’s Political Caucus 32 Foca indictm ent 37,45,67-69,74,79-81 Ford Foundation 54 Forgiveness granting of, by victim s 11, 158-159 sought by perpetrators 3,5,28,30, 73-74 Fritz Peris Institute 123

G avovic, Dragan 80 G em einschaft für Frieden und Hilfe (G FH) 143 G ender relationship o f violence, traum atization, and 159 w om en’s acknow ledgm ent of race and 31-32,35-36 G ender issues. See also W om en’s rights o f human rights 10,40-41 in perceptions o f w ar crim es and victim s 12-13,30-31,32, 36-37 Genocide; ethnic cleansing 40,45,50,84 prosecution probability for 48-49

169 sexual violence as strategy o f 41,44,45,59-60,75-76,87 U.S. A frican American treatm ent com pared with 28 U.S. response to events o f 35,48-49 German Evangelical Church 110 German People’s Aid 123 G lobal aw areness in fem inist views and interventions 1-5,8,9-19, 64-65,66-67,102 G olden N otebook (Lessing) 61 Goldner, Virginia 158.159 G oldstone, Richard (form er ICTY C hief Prosecutor) 12-13, 31,41,44,54-55 Grave Breaches 81 Group work in caregiver training programs 115,127,130-131,132-134 PTSD treatment 146-150 refugees/traum a victim interventions 110,141-142 G uatem ala 3,58,64-65 Guilt collective guilt 47 o f local care professionals 96,102 perpetrators’ acknow ledgm ent/ apologies 3,28,30,73-74 o f w ar survivors 118,119 hierarchy o f pain and 87

Handicraft activities 10,142. See also Art therapy; Occupational activities Hatred internalized by victim s 118-119 perpetuated by nationalism 86-87 and prevention o f 102,105 H ealing and recovery from trauma com m unity-level 3-4,5,15-16 cultural issues 15-16 and justice, connection o f 3-5, 23-24,47 by bearing w itness to victim testim onials 3,10-11,86-87,

170

A ssault on the Soul: Women in the Form er Yugoslavia

92,96,118,123-125,128. See also Testimony, legal by confrontation o f perpetrators 3,5,12 Helsinki Watch 140 Herweg, Friedel 123 Herman, Judith 124 Hitler, A dolf 104 H olocaust 37,40,73,74 Human rights. See also Civil rights environmental preservation as 52 fem inist professionals’ action agenda for 18-19 hierarchy of, in wartime 88 internationalization o f 40,41,42-43 w om en’s rights as 10,40-41 Human Rights Watch 32 H umiliation o f women in wartime 86,112,124,128 Humor, use o f 96 Hungarian Crisis (1956) 122

“ The Impact of Armed Conflict on C hildren” (UN report) 18 Impunity 2,3,47 Incest 67,92,95,97 Interdisciplinary interventions cultural issues 101-102 political interferences in 85. See also Nationalism International Conference on Human Rights (1992 Vienna) 42-43,44 International Crim inal Tribunal for the Form er Yugoslavia (ICTY). See also specific war crimes and cases creation and purpose 49,64 gender policy developm ent 55 investigative policies 55,67 and witness protection issues 12-13,65,119-120 mem bers and staff. See also specific persons

experiences o f stress and coping 5,26-28,37,49-52,57-59, 60-61 interviews with 23-38,39-52, 53-78 m en-to-women ratio 44-45 sexual violence prosecution experience am ong 55 proceedings o f 71 com parisons with Rwanda tribunal 12-13,74-76 vigilence o f w om en’s organizations toward 45,81 statutes o f 33,50,54,81 Crim es A gainst Humanity 50, 54,56,68,61 International Crim inal Tribunal for Rwanda 12-13,65,68,74-75 International crim inal tribunals 1,2,3 World War II trials 68 International Declaration o f Human Rights 40 International H umanitarian Law 80 Internationalism : colonialism progression to 62-63

Japanese A m erican 73 Jew s 28,73,74 Justice. S ee also International Crim inal Tribunal subjects; specific crimes; related subjects individual accountability toward 2, 33,47 international com m unity dem ands for 10,64-65,66 therapeutic role of. See under H ealing and recovery from trauma

Karadzic 36,44. S ee also Foca indictment Kelley, Nancy 2 K leiverda, G unilla 93

171

Index Kosovo 84,88 Kozarac 87 Krajina 123,154

Lamb, Sharon 158-159 Latin A merica 54,58. See also specific countries Lessing, Doris 61 Little Rock, A rkansas, school desegregation (1957) 29,37-38

M achel, Grace 18 Male Krsna refugee cam p 154 Male violence. See Violence against women M cDonald, G abrielle Kirk 41,44,45 interview with 23-38 McKay, Susan 13-14 M edia entertainm ent U.S. courtroom -them e show s 63 violent content in 28,57,59 attention to w ar events and atrocities 41,87,124,140 and exploitation o f victim s by 84,94-95 and post-TV news violence syndrom e 85 and to w om en’s support efforts

122 M edica Mundiale 6 M edica Zenica 102 M ental Health Institute for Refugees (Pharos) 97 Mental health providers. S ee Care providers M ilosovitch (M ilosevic, Slobodan| 46 M ladic 36,44. See also Foca indictment M onteiro, Carlinda 15 M onum ents to violence survivors 5, 30,31,74 Morality, social and legal, discussed

62-63 M ostar 154 Miichele, A gnes 123 M uslim s 27,45,79,80-81,85,93-94 M utpcic, Atifa 145 M yths A bout the Powerless: C ontesting Social Inequalities (Lykes et al.) 18

Nationalism hatred-arousing propaganda o f 85 and fem inist transnationalism responses 86-87,94,97-98, 102,103-104,105 ideology conflicts in fam ilies 99-100 with health care 85,94-95 im plications o f 93-95 and “ m irroring” phenom enon of outsiders 105 morals o f 62-63 w om en’s suffering under patriarchal system and 123-124 Native (Indigenous) A m ericans 59 N etherlands: program sponsorship by 92-93,97-98,103-104 Nikolic case 44 N on-governm ental organizations (N GO s) 12,14,16-17,45,86, 93,97. See also specific organizations and program s Northern Ireland 75 Norway Council o f Mental Health 145 Norwegian P eople’s Aid (NPA) 123 refugee project 139-150 N urem berg trials 68

O ccupational activities support program (Zenica) 141-143,144-148,150 O dio Benito, Elizabeth 27 interview with 39-52 O m arska 27,74,87

172

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

Oppression, internalized, and mechanisms of 102-103 OSCE Democratization Branch (Sarajevo) 10

Pasagic, Dr. Irfanka 143 Patriarchy; patriarchal systems 87,116 w om en’s victimization compounded within 59-60, 123,124,125 Peace, means toward achieving 2,47 Peace building, wom en’s roles in 2,51 and project for 13-16 Peace psychology 8 and feminist intervention projects 9-19 Perpetrators o f violence/atrocities chance and politics o f actions of 45-46 collective guilt of innocents and 47 individual accountability sought toward 2,33,47 legal rights of 70 redemption through apology by 3,5,28,30,73-74 victim confrontation of 3,5,12 Physicians; medical personnel 85,101-102, 125 Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), war-related 57,92 in children 15 evaluation and interventions for 145-150 as misnomer in former Yugoslavia 105 of torture victims 51 of war crime perpetrators 156 President’s Interagency Council for Women 17 Psychologists; psychiatrists. See Care providers Psychologists for Social Responsibility (PsySR) 5,6, 8-9,12,13,16-17

Psycho-Social Projects of the European Community Task Force 10 Psychosocial reconstruction, and wom en’s peace-building role 13-14 Psychosocial services; supports feminist interventions in Belgrade 83-89 refugee programs in Zenica and Tuzla 139-151 Psychotherapy 114. See also Feminist therapy; related subjects client self-discovery approach 24-25 relationship of justice and 1-5, 23-24,47. See also under Healing and recovery from trauma Punishment 2,158. See also International Criminal Tribunal subjects', Justice and impunity 2,3,47 and stigmatization of perpetrators 4,5 and o f victims instead o f 2, 47-48,65-66,73 violence victim s’ internalized self-blame and 3,117-118,119

Quakers 58-59,63-64

Race, w om en’s attention to issues of gender and 31-32,35-36 Racism allegations toward Rwanda tribunal 74-75 toward African Americans, in U.S. 27-29,30,37-38 in Europe 29-30,36,60 Rape. See also Violence against women power dynamics o f aggression and 76-77

Index war-related sexual violence and as continuum o f male violence 1,3,4,41,43,50-51,56,67,84-86, 88,115-116,122,124 military sanctions o f 30,36-37 as political asylum basis 124 as strategy o f genocide 41,44, 45,87 as torture 44,50,81,87 as war crime 32,44,66,68,87 defined 56 indictm ent/prosecution o f 12, 30-31,32,41,44,50, 54,56,68,79-81 as w eapon o f w ar 32,87,124, 140,156,160 Rape victims. See also Trauma, war-related; Violence against women adolescents and children as 95-96 disclosure issues in counseling approaches 9-10, 93,95-96,112,142 legal testim ony and witness protection 12,30-31,32,48, 65,70-73 social and fam ily persecution from 9-10,73,80-81,93 incidence of, in Yugoslavian w ar 31 men as 80 monum ent to 5,30,31,74 political exploitation o f 85,94-95,

101 rape im pregnation 80,95,96 Recreational activities 117,142,143 Refugees avoidance o f fem inist agencies 104 displacem ent locations 140,141 asylum countries 10,12,40,119 cam ps/centers, and conditions in 93,109,113,141,143,154,155 interventions and program s for 10, 12,93,97,110-111,139-150 population incidence 112-113, 115,140,141 Reinhardt, A ngela 123

173 Roe vs. Wade 32 Rwanda 12-13,49,54,65,68,74-75,76

Sarajevo 10,154 Sarovic, Irena 9 Scheffler, Sabine 123 Schüler, Karin 123 Self-help groups 110 Self-help psychoeducational brochure 9-10 Sellers, Patricia. S ee Viseur-Sellers, Patricia Serbia 30,93,154,155,159,160 Serbian feminist organizations 94 Serbian regime 83-89. See also Nationalism Serbs 79,80,85 Sexual dysfunction o f men 98 Sexual violence. S ee Rape; Rape victim s; Violence against women Slavery. See African Americans; Enslavem ent Smederevo 154 Social memory 10-11 Social values, inception and flourishing o f 64 SOS Hotline for Women and Children Victims of Violence (B elgrade) 84-85,88,92,99 South Africa 3,14-16,54,154,155,159. See also specific countries Split (Croatia) 94,122,123 Srebenica 113,115

Tadic, Dusko [Dusan], and trial o f 24, 26,27,29,33-35,37,41-42,65 Testimonials o f trauma victim s, and bearing w itness to 10-11, 86-87,92,96,118,123-125,128 Testimony, legal, o f w ar crime victim s/witnesses 30-31,42-43

174

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

witness support and protection issues 3,12-13,47-48,65-66, 119-120 Tokyo trials 68 Torture, and victims o f 9,37,40,44, 50,79,81,112 Training issues for war-region caregivers. See also Care providers; Feminist training; related subjects boundary issues 96,101,118, 161-162 communication training 100-101 coping strategies 99-100,105-106 cultural considerations 101-102, 130,136-137,138 evaluation for program development 96-98 experience-based knowledge development 98-99 interdisciplinary cooperation 101-102 organizational and management skills 100-101,125 for refugee counseling 141,143 social power differential recognition 102-103 for war-affected children’s care 15-16 Transference and countertransference issues 5,118,163-164 Trauma, war-related, and victims of. See also Families; Healing and recovery; Post-traumatic stress disorder; Rape victims; Refugees; Training issues; Violence against women community-level, and interventions 3,4-5,14-16,18,57 counseling approaches crisis intervention focus 118 cultural considerations 15-16, 113-114, 116-117 safe environments 110-111,114 social context approach 9-10 therapeutic model for 111

professionals, effects on local caregivers’primary trauma 99,105,128,161-162,164 secondary trauma of foreign caregivers and 4,5, 105,114,118, 161-162 on war crime tribunal personnel 5,26-28,37,49-52,57-59, 60-61 psychological and physical effects 3,56-57,96,112 and coping mechanisms 92, 118-119 pathological reactions 92 repression and denial 92,96, 115,162 Tuzla 107-120,129,143-144,148-150 Tyson, Mike 33

UNICEF 143 United Nations 12,18,40,46,93-94 United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women (1995 Beijing), Platform for Action 14,16-17 United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) 108,140 United States 17,125. See also Western perspectives apologies for atrocities 73-74 attention to events of wars and genocides 35,48-49 legalistic values in 63 witness cross-examination practices 32,33,47,48 military vs. social priorities 17 racial issues 27-29,30,37-38,59

Vatican, the 73,74 Vengeance; revenge sentiments of Balkans 30,92 diffusing through justice 4 violence fueled by 47

Index Violence dynam ics o f aggression and victim ization 156-157, 158-159 ethics o f social and war-related 58-59 military spending rationale and 17 vengeance as 47 Violence against women; sexual violence. S ee also Rape; Rape victims social legacies from 59-60,77 war-related as continuum o f peacetime male aggression 1,3,4,41,43, 50-51,56,67,84-86,88, 115-116,122,124 and o f everyday sexuality 76-77 and fem inist systemic approach to cycle of 158-160 marginalized by w ar crime tribunals 1-2,30-31,49,68 sociopolitical context o f 79-81, 86,124 therapy m odels' reorientation toward 4-5 Viseur-Sellers, Patricia 41 interview with 53-78 V u k o v a r154

Walker, Alice 35 War crime tribunals. See International Crim inal Tribunal subjects War crimes. See International Criminal Tribunal subjects; Rape; Violence against women War and Sanctions 155 War victim s/survivors. See also Trauma, war-related; related subjects aggressors/w ar crime perpetrators as 155-160

175 dynam ics o f victim ization 156-157, 158-159 hierarchies o f violations and effects of 87-88 W eddington, Sarah 32 W essells, Michael 15 Western perspectives; values 102, 104-105,116 cultural and political sensitivity issues 15-16,18,95,101-102, 104-105,116 intra-psychic recovery focus o f 4-5 relationship dynam ics with local care providers 128-129, 162-163,164 resistance/resentm ent toward 95, 97,155 W oman-centered programs for peace building 14 W oman-centered training. See Feminist training W omen in Black A gainst War 83-89,92 W omen for M eaningful Sum m its 16 W omen for W omen 10 W om en’s A ssociation of Bosnia-Herzegovina 94 W om en’s Association o f Split (Croatia) 123 W om en’s A utonom ous Center (Belgrade) 5 W om en’s rights; W om en’s issues. See also G ender issues Foca indictm ent relevance toward justice and 79-81 human rights focus on 10,40-41 pow er structure representations for 46,49 W om en’s solidarity toward peace building 2,51 in wartime 84,88-89,128-129. See also specific program s World Council o f Churches 140 World War II 30,36,40,41,68,97, 108,122,124,154,155. See also Holocaust

176

Assault on the Soul: Women in the Former Yugoslavia

Yugoslavia, former, conflict in 54, 59-60,64,75,83-84,140. See also specific regions; cities

Zagreb 84,93,94,122

Zenica 84,102,110 psychosocial services project 141-143,145-148,150 Zepa 115