Ashkenazic Jews and the Biblical Israelites: The Early Demographic Development of East European Ashkenazis 9783110701388, 9783110701289

Table of contents :
Acknowledgements
Contents
List of Figures and Tables
Glossary
Introduction
I Israelites, Judeans, Jews, and Ashkenazis
II History and Demography of East European Jews According to the Baron-Weinryb Hypothesis
III Controversial Conclusions from Genetics
IV Historical and Genetic Foundations for a Southern Route
V Why do East European Ashkenazis Speak Yiddish?
VI Are Turkish Jews Sephardic Jews?
Summary
Epilogue
Bibliography
Index

Citation preview

Jits van Straten Ashkenazic Jews and the Biblical Israelites

Jits van Straten

Ashkenazic Jews and the Biblical Israelites The Early Demographic Development of East European Ashkenazis

This book was generously sponsored by The Eduard van Straten Funds The Irène Bollag-Herzheimer Stiftung Marijke Borchardt en Jan Baart Ineke Pey

ISBN 978-3-11-070128-9 e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-070138-8 e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-070149-4 Library of Congress Control Number: 2020947875 Bibliographic Information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de. © 2021 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston Cover illustration: The Meneptah stele, an Egyptian inscription which mentions a people named Israel. Wellcome Library, London, CC BY 4 Printing and binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck www.degruyter.com

For Sven, a gifted archaeologist who had to put up with much unwarranted criticism

Acknowledgements This book would not have come about without the help of others. I would like to offer special thanks to Martin Richards (University of Huddersfield) for his helpful discussions and critical reading of the chapter on DNA. The employees of the sector special collections of the library of the University of Amsterdam were exceptionally helpful, thank you very much. Thanks are due to Sophie Kohler (Ben-Gurion University of the Negev), who not only reviewed the manuscript, but also provided useful material that improved the book. I also want to extend my thanks to my editor, Julia Brauch, for the pleasant cooperation. John Ryan and Lydia Burns did the copy editing. Thanks very much for all the work. Last, but not least, I want to thank my friend Dini Venema for all the time she spent on reviewing the manuscript and providing useful comments.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110701388-001

Contents List of Figures and Tables Glossary Introduction

XI

XII 1

I

Israelites, Judeans, Jews, and Ashkenazis Israelites 10 17 Judeans and Jews Ashkenazis 21 Conclusions 21

II

History and Demography of East European Jews According to the Baron-Weinryb Hypothesis 23 23 Introduction Germany 23 Czech Lands and the Former German Eastern Territories 28 29 Rome Khazaria 30 Discussion of Elhaik’s Assumptions 31 Conclusions 32

III

34 Controversial Conclusions from Genetics Introduction 34 Studies with Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) 35 Number of Founding Mothers and their Origin 36 Studies with Y-chromosomal DNA 38 Ashkenazic Y-chromosomal Lineages (Y Lineages) 39 Jewish Priests (Hebrew: ‫ – כהנים‬kohanim) 40 Levites 43 Demographic Data and Uniparental Markers 51 Studies with Autosomal DNA 53 Development of a Population-genetic Test based on Demographic Data 53 Four Jewish Grandparents as Proof of a Middle Eastern Origin 54

10

X

Contents

The Use of a Model to Determine the Size of a Genetic 56 Bottleneck Calculation of Admixture 57 Ashkenazic Subpopulations 58 Relevant German-Jewish Literature 59 61 Conclusions IV

Historical and Genetic Foundations for a Southern Route Introduction 62 History 62 62 The Greek Colonies and Mainland Greece Italy 64 Judeans and Jews around the Black Sea 65 66 Jews in Khazaria Genetics 68 Conclusions 70

V

Why do East European Ashkenazis Speak Yiddish? Introduction 71 Jews Spoke the Vernacular 73 75 The Language-cum-ethnic Shift Conclusions 76

VI

Are Turkish Jews Sephardic Jews? 77 Introduction 77 Statements by the Interviewees 77 Turkish Jews only Settled in the Country after 1492 78 Numerical Information about the Different Jewish Groups Genetics 80 Domination of Sephardic Jewry 81 Judeo-Spanish and Iberian Surnames 82 Conclusions 82

Summary

84

Epilogue

87

Bibliography Index

104

94

62

71

78

List of Figures and Tables Figures Fig. 1: Fig. 2: Fig. 3:

Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig.

The northern kingdom before and during the Omride dynasty Map of Israel and Judah in the eighth century BCE Jewish population growth in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth 1500 – 1650, according to Baron and Weinryb, and 1500 – 1800 according to DellaPergola; population growth of the Netherlands, Poland, European Russia, France, and the British Isles, 1500 – 1800 4: The principal coordinates plot derived from the genetic similarity values 5: Title page of yesh nohalin with the remark about the will 6: The ethical will of rabbi Shabtai halevi Horowitz 7: Greek colonies around the Mediterranean, ca. 788–ca. 500 BCE 8: Kingdom of the Cimmerian Bosporus between 389 BCE and 69 CE 9: Various regions and towns in Greece 10: Major Judean/Jewish migrations leading to East European Jewry

Tables Tab. 1: The total and Jewish population in Russia and Poland: 1 – 1800 Tab. 2: Percentages of European and other maternal lineages among Ashkenazis Tab. 3: Jewish population sizes in different years with corresponding annual growth rates according to Slatkin (2004) Tab. 4: Frequencies (%) of E-M34 and E-M81, sub-lineages of E-M215 among Sephardic and non-Jewish Turks, Continental Greeks, Sephardic Bulgarians and Italians

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110701388-002

Glossary Ancient DNA (aDNA)

DNA isolated from ancient biological materials

Approximate Bayesian Computation (ABC)

Approximate Bayesian Computation constitutes a class of computational methods rooted in Bayesian statistics

Autosomal DNA

DNA not involved in sex determination, located on the autosomal chromosomes

Founder effect

A reduction in genetic variation that results when a small part of a population starts a new population

Genetic admixture

The presence of DNA in an individual from a distantly-related population as a result of interbreeding

Genetic bottleneck

Sharp reduction in the size of a population due to a disaster or migration, resulting in a sharp reduction in the genetic diversity (comparable to founder effect)

Haplogroup

A group of similar haplotypes that share a common ancestor

Haplotype

A haplotype is a set of DNA variations within a haplo-group that tend to be inherited together

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)

Mitochondrial DNA is the small circular chromosome found inside mitochondria. The mitochondria are organelles found in cells that are the sites of energy production. Mitochondria, and thus mitochondrial DNA, are inherited from mother to offspring

Multidimensional scaling (MDS)

A means of visualizing the level of similarity of individual cases of a dataset. It is the same as principal coordinates analysis

Mutation

A mutation is a permanent heritable change in a DNA sequence

Phenotype

Physical and/or biochemical characteristics of a person

Principal component analysis (PCA)

PCA is a mathematical procedure that transforms a number of (possibly) correlated variables into a (smaller) number of uncorrelated variables called principal components

Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)

A DNA sequence variation that involves a change in a single nucleotide

Glossary

Y Chromosomes

XIII

The Y chromosome is one of two sex chromosomes. Humans and other mammals have two sex chromosomes, the X and the Y. Females have two X chromosomes in their cells, while males have X and Y chromosomes in their cells. Egg cells contain an X chromosome, while sperm cells contain an X or a Y chromosome. This arrangement means that during fertilization, it is the male that determines the sex of the offspring

Introduction The study of the beginnings and origin of specifically East European Ashkenazic Jewry becomes an unrewarding activity when one finds out that the nowadays accepted hypotheses about this origin are not tenable and should be revised. These hypotheses pertain to 1. the beginnings of German Jewry during the ninth to the tenth century; 2. the mass migrations from Germany to Eastern Europe during the Middle Ages; and 3. the resulting explosive population increases of East European Jewry between 1500 and 1800 (explosive, according to European criteria for that period). With regard to the beginnings of Ashkenazic Jewry, the decree by Emperor Constantine in 321 that the Jews also had to be represented in the city council (curia) appears to be generally accepted by Jewish and non-Jewish history scholars. For example, “There is not a shred of doubt that at the beginning of the fourth century, the city of Cologne had a Jewish community, not only that, this community must have been important” (Baltrusch 2002, 4). Following a negative remark about an early Jewish presence in Brittany, Toch (2001, 12) writes (translated from German): Likewise, the situation is not much better in the Germanic provinces. At the beginning of the fourth century, as emphasized by a written source, there was an organized and mighty Jewish community in Cologne […] a second […] general law by Emperor Constantine in 330 certainly cannot have anything to do with Cologne.

According to the currently accepted hypothesis, a continuous Jewish presence started during the second half of the ninth century (for example, Toch 1994; Toch 1998, 5; Ostrer 2012, 21; Xue et al. 2017). It denies a continuous Jewish presence in Cologne between 321– 330 and the ninth century. What are the arguments? There is no information about a Jewish presence between 321 and the ninth century. I want to emphasize that Jewish history scholars appear to agree on the presence of a well-developed Jewish community in 321, despite the fact that there is no information about this community available from the period before 321. Was the Jewish community flown in maybe by Alitalia on the day of the decree? According to Weinreich (1980, 320 – 330) the reason for the lack of information between 330 and the ninth century is the violent arrival of the Franks (Germanic tribes) who caused the Jews to flee to Gaul. However, Weinreich’s view is subject to scrutiny. First of all, the take-over was not that violent, as can be seen by the lack of burned material in the old city wall. Second, Cologne had a mixed Roman-Germanic population long before the fourth century. Third, why would the Franks who were not yet Christians https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110701388-003

2

Introduction

have more problems with the Jews than with the rest of the population? Fourth, nothing is known about groups who left, so why, all of a sudden, the Jews? All this makes it very unlikely that an important Jewish community disappeared just like that without a clear-cut reason. Not every historian is convinced of the currently accepted hypothesis. Caro (1908, vol. 1, 159) assumes that the Jews may have continued to live in Cologne, similarly to the situation in Gaul, but the confirmed history of German Jewry only started in the tenth century. A similar careful view is expressed by Breuer and Graetz (1996, 19) who are of the opinion that continuity cannot be excluded. A much more logical explanation for the lack of information may well be that in 881 the Vikings invaded Cologne, and destroyed the city archives (Gechter and Schütte 2000, 118). For Toch (1998, 80) the issue of continuation is clear (translated from German): “Modern research has settled the romantic idea of continuous Jewish settlement from the classical antiquity until the Middle Ages […] the regularly advanced presence of Jews in late Roman Cologne and perhaps also in other places, is irrelevant for the further development.” However, German Jewry started much earlier or, put differently, it continued, as was shown by the oldest archaeological information about Cologne reported by Kraus and published by Kober (1945) in the Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research, in which he discusses the archaeological work by Otto Kraus in 1922. According to Kober, Kraus was well acquainted with the field of Roman antiquities. The work was in the form of a manuscript and had not been published. I will follow Kober’s discussion of the article rather extensively, as it is relevant for the discussion of an early Jewish presence in Cologne. The site of excavation was the Judenbüchel, the “height of the Jews”. The Judenbüchel in Cologne consisted of an elevation rising a few feet above the land surrounding it. It is identical with the old Jewish cemetery. In 1922 the mount was used to enlarge the freight yard at the Bonn Gate. During the necessary groundwork, human bones in Roman graves and old stone walls were found. The Jewish community requested to have the bones removed. According to Kraus, the oldest Jewish cemetery in Cologne had been uncovered: “The cemetery tract apparently embraced 29,200 square meters; 6,800 were dug up by the contractors of the railroad; 11,400 were uncovered by the archeological excavations […] the cemetery had been in use since Roman times”. Thus, Kraus did not excavate the whole area. This is noteworthy, as we will see further on. This ancient Jewish cemetery is identical with the medieval Jewish cemetery as far as the location is concerned. It was not a pagan cemetery, nor a Roman-Christian cemetery, and also not a medieval Christian graveyard:

Introduction

[…] the the the

3

the orientation of the skeletons in an east-west direction, the position of the hands at sides and the occurrence of Hebrew tombstones, when considered in connection with documentary evidence from the twelfth century, left no doubt that this was actually most ancient Jewish cemetery in Cologne.

Kraus concluded that the graves are from after 270 CE. However, not everybody agreed with Kraus’s conclusion, such as Fremersdorf, who became director of the Roman and Germanic Division of the Wallraf-Richartz Museum in 1923. Further on, I will refer to Fremersdorf again with regard to the dating of body graves excavated in 1937. However, after Kraus had checked his material once more, he stuck to his conclusion that the graves belonged to the Roman and subsequent periods up to and including the Middle Ages. When viewed critically, there is no conclusive reason for rejecting Kraus’ interpretation. Without going into the whole discussion, Kober concludes that: it is possible to assume that the vaulted and stone-covered graves come from the late Roman period or, in view of the fact that the Roman occupation ended about 400, from the fifth or sixth century at the latest […] Although we cannot determine the exact period from which the stone-covered graves of the Jewish cemetery come, we may at least assume with Otto Kraus that, in general, the Jewish cemetery outside the Bonn Gate dates back to late Roman times.

The discovery by Kraus is also mentioned by Schuler (2004, 469) and Harck (2014, 522– 523). There is more information about the early presence of Jews in Cologne that, to the best of my knowledge, has not been referred to earlier in connection with our subject. Fremersdorf (1938/39) reported the excavation of two body graves from the first to third centuries CE at the corner of the Bonner and Raderberger Strasse in Cologne. The location is part of the Roman graveyard adjacent to the late antique Jewish cemetery. His assertion agrees with his conclusion about the 1922 excavation mentioned above. The question is, how reliable is this conclusion? In the State Archive, file BA R 58/9002, Bl. 336 (see Simon 2006, http://homepages.uni-tuebingen.de/gerd.simon/VorgeschDossiers.pdf) is an evaluation of Fremersdorf by the SD in 1937. The SD was the intelligence agency of the SS and the Nazi party. The evaluation says (translated from German): “Fremersdorf […] although he is an archaeologist, he is very concerned about emphasising the German elements in the Roman culture in the Rhineland. However, he is ambitious.” In view of his positive evaluation by the SD, it becomes questionable how reliable Fremersdorf is when it comes to describing Jewish graves in Cologne. Interestingly, the Fundbücher (documentary files sorted according to the year of excavation) in which the precise data of the excavation

4

Introduction

are described, present in the Römisch-Germanisches Museum in Cologne, are difficult to be consulted. Schütte (personal communication) writes: The archaeologists who were carrying out the work were unaware of the border between the two cemeteries because they had not carried out topographical research beforehand, and the border was not marked. At one point, they dug up two body graves. Unknowingly, they had already entered the old Jewish cemetery. They were graves of persons who had not been cremated, and whose grave had a tent-like tile roof, which is typical for graves of the fourth century (late antique) and especially the Jewish graves excavated by Kraus in the direct vicinity. So, they neutrally described the graves as body graves of the fourth century. In the non-Jewish cemetery, the majority of the graves were cremations or had a different grave architecture. It is, therefore, most likely that they had found Jewish graves. These graves still had bones because Kraus’ excavation did not cover this part of the Judenbüchel cemetery. We are lucky that the archaeologists did not know that they were Jewish graves because it is inconceivable that they would have reported about a Jewish grave during the Nazi period. So, here we have a clearly documented find of a late antique Jewish grave in Cologne, described in a “neutral” way.

The consequence is that if a Jewish cemetery existed in late Antiquity, what Otto Kraus and Kober already suggested as early as 1922, then the presence of a larger community is obvious. If there would have been a discontinuity in Cologne, the medieval and post-medieval Jewish cemetery could likely not have been in the identical place of the Roman Jewish burial-place. Even more important, a continuity until the late middle ages must then be mandatory (in addition to the evidence resulting from the Carolingian synagogue, as we will see further on). However, modern research presents a contradictory image, namely of discontinuous development. The late Roman period did not conclude with the end of the occupation in 400 (Dopsch, 1923, vol. 1, 159). It is known that Roman customs were cherished for a long time after 400. The information by Kraus via Kober means that a continuous Jewish presence in Cologne is a serious possibility. As mentioned before, the lack of information about a Jewish presence after 330 does not prove anything, especially when the city archives were destroyed. The finding of the Jewish graves and the lack of a good reason for the departure of only the Jews from Cologne make Toch’s denial of a continuous Jewish presence questionable. It also puts Toch’s negative remarks about the Constantine decree of 330 in another light, because if it was a general decree it may have applied to Cologne as well. After all, there is no reason to assume that the Jewish community all of a sudden had disappeared in 330. Until the end of the nineties of the last century, the oldest synagogue of Cologne was thought to have been built at the beginning of the eleventh century. Kober (1934, 71) writes (translated from German): “According to a late tradition,

Introduction

5

which has little value, the synagogue […] was built in 1012 or 1040”. Kober made a good assessment of the tradition: at the end of the nineties, Schütte (1998, 188 – 189) published a sensational archaeological discovery: the synagogue was actually a Carolingian synagogue, built on top of an older building, possibly an antique synagogue (Gechter and Schütte 2000, 113). The construction of the synagogue was started close to the end of the eighth century and ended around 881. The city of Cologne must have had a reasonably developed Jewish community at the beginning of the ninth century, otherwise it could not have started to build a synagogue. At a congress in Frankfurt a/M in 2003, Toch attacked Schütte’s archaeological find of a Carolingian synagogue with political arguments. He was obviously unable to refute Schütte’s conclusions with archaeological arguments. In addition to the lack of a solid reason for the supposed disappearance of the Jewish community of Cologne during the late Roman period, and the discovery of the late Roman graves by Kraus, the finding of a Carolingian synagogue is another indication of a continuous Jewish presence up to the Carolingian period. It is not clear why Toch is so vehemently against a continuous Jewish presence between the fourth and the ninth century. With regard to the second hypothesis – East European Ashkenazis originated in Germany – I proposed an alternative origin via southern Ukraine as it is called today. What made me reject the hypothesis that East European Jewry originated in Germany? Briefly, the accepted hypothesis states that during the pogroms of the Middle Ages, between 1096 and roughly 1500, German Jewry migrated to Eastern Europe (Poland and Lithuania). This view is based specifically on the publications by two East European Jewish history scholars, Baron (1957– 1976) and Weinryb (1972/1973). I will therefore call it the Baron-Weinryb hypothesis. It is based on assumptions about mass migrations, culminating in the remark by Ankori (1979, 36) that at the end of the Middle Ages “Western Europe was judenrein (cleared of Jews)”. In order to show how unrealistic Ankori’s statement is, I would like to refer to the Stammbuch der Frankfurter Juden by Dietz (1907, 343 – 344), who studied the age of the Jewish and non-Jewish families in Frankfurt a/M, and refers to the situation in his time (translated from German): Back to the time of Lüther, only about 20 [Christian] families could be traced back […] Against this finding, the age of the Jewish community here that I now demonstrated, should be designated as very surprising […] The following chronological order of Jewish family names shows the solid evidence that among them, not only relatively, but also absolutely, more old families were present than among the remaining population of our city.

6

Introduction

He then shows that of the present Jewish families, 33 could trace their roots back to the period between 1316 and 1400, and another 33 to the period between 1400 and 1500. Despite the fact that there is no evidence for the mass migrations, the BaronWeinryb hypothesis arrives at the conclusion that East European Jewry originates from Germany. On the other hand, German Jewish history scholars, specifically the authors of the reference work Germania Judaica, came to different conclusions about this period. The latter produced a typical German piece of work in the sense that it is gründlich (thorough). The number of references to archival sources to back up the content is impressive. However, the work shows no substantial migrations of Jews from Germany (or Bohemia) to Eastern Europe. The conclusion can therefore only be that German Ashkenazis and East European Ashkenazis have a different origin, and thus should not be considered as one population. Despite the lack of evidence for the mass migrations, the BaronWeinryb hypothesis has become the accepted hypothesis about the origin of East European Ashkenazis. For example, Botticini et al. (2016) do not even mention Germania Judaica in their discussion about the origin of East European Ashkenazis. As a consequence of the abovementioned migrations, the number of Jews in Eastern Europe at the end of the Middle Ages, in 1500, was supposedly rather low because there were not that many Jews in Germany during that period. The arch-fathers of the Jewish population sizes in Eastern Europe in 1500 and 1650 are also Baron and Weinryb. Between 1500 and 1650, the Jewish population increased from 30,000 to 450,000 (Baron 1957, v. 16, 4 and 207) or from 10,000 to 200,000 (Weinryb 1972, 32 and 197). Hundert (1997) sticks to the total of 50,000 Jews in Poland in 1500. It is important to note that there is no factual basis for these population sizes. When we realize that in 1800 there were just over two million Jews in Eastern Europe, the Jewish annual growth rate between 1500 and 1800 must have been explosive, more than one percent (third hypothesis). Relative recently it became clear that according to modern demographers, such population increases were not possible in Europe during that period, which put an end to the third hypothesis as well. A more recent hypothesis states that East European Jewry originated mostly in the Czech lands, Silesia and the former eastern German provinces (Stampfer 2012, 136 – 137). I will come back to this hypothesis in chapter 2. The origin of the Yiddish language is also controversial. The three major hypotheses concerning the origin of Yiddish are the Rhineland hypothesis (Weinreich 1980, 329 – 330), the Danube hypothesis (Faber and King 1984; Katz 1985), and the Sorb hypothesis (Wexler 1991). In 2011, I suggested that a fourth

Introduction

7

hypothesis, the Bavarian-Czech hypothesis (Eggers 1998), is more appropriate to explain the origin of Yiddish in Eastern Europe (van Straten 2011a, 115 – 122). The consequence of the opposing conclusions of the two approaches to Ashkenazic history, Baron-Weinryb versus Germania Judaica, is that I had to decide which historiography to follow. Because the historiography in Germania Judaica is superior – it does not include implausible population increases either – I did not have much of a choice. Interestingly, one does not find a thorough discussion in the literature on the differences between the two approaches in historiography. Thus, my rejection of the nowadays accepted Baron-Weinryb hypothesis has nothing to do with a new hypothesis; it is only the result of my decision to consider Germania Judaica a more reliable source. As the Baron-Weinryb hypothesis and the hypothesis by Stampfer about the origin of East European Ashkenazis are still the generally accepted explanations of their origin, most geneticists who study the origin of Ashkenazic Jewry base their research on the abovementioned historians (for example, Behar et al. 2004a; Slatkin 2004; Palamara et al. 2012; Gladstein and Hammer 2019), and thus do not differentiate between German and East European Ashkenazis. This becomes particularly clear when statistic models are used including implausible population increases. Therefore, my choice for Germania Judaica also has implications for the evaluation of genetic research pertaining to Ashkenazis: genetic research has to agree now with an origin of East European Ashkenazis that does not imply Germany as the place of origin. In other words, genetic results become questionable if they are based on the “out of Germany” hypothesis with its high population increases. In view of the discussion so far, I figured that the study of the origin of Ashkenazic Jewry requires a multidisciplinary approach that includes the fields of history, demography, linguistics, archaeology, and genetics. Investigating the combination of these disciplines is not only necessary because all four have something to do with the origin and spread of Ashkenazic Jewry, but also because, as we saw before, studies of each discipline separately led often to controversial results. I had to try and find another way to explain the origin of East European Ashkenazis. In 2011, I published a partial solution (van Straten 2011a) that showed that, within Europe, East European Jewry migrated from what we call today roughly the region of southern Ukraine into the more northern and western parts of Eastern Europe. A Jewish presence in Eastern Europe around the Black Sea, already before the beginning of the Common Era, is mentioned in the literature. The possibility that these Jews are part of the ancestors of today’s East European Ashkenazis is systematically ignored or even denied by almost all historians who deal with this subject. The next questions to be answered were

8

Introduction

where did these Jews come from, when did they get there, and could they have been ancestors of today’s East European Ashkenazis? I tried to provide an answer in an article entitled “The origin of East European Ashkenazim via a southern route” (van Straten 2017). The main conclusion of the article is that the ancestors of East European Jews first came from Anatolia and Greece, and later on from Italy. However, more questions remained. For example, how do today’s Ashkenazis relate to the biblical Israelites genetically? What do the different lineages of today’s lay-Jews, Jewish priests, and Levites mean? In order to get answers to these and other questions, I included in this study also archaeological data from the biblical period between about 1200 BCE and the beginning of the Common Era. I decided to follow mainly the archaeological work of Israel Finkelstein, an Israeli top archaeologist, because his realistic conclusions made sense to me. The field of genetics will receive extra attention. This book will be based to some extent on the abovementioned article. Which authors do I refer to? I do not pretend to have read every article and every book that relates to the subjects that are discussed. To the best of my knowledge, the most important literature is being referred to. Sadly enough, it is not always immediately clear whether or not the information a historian dishes up is true. Wrong information may be the result of an unfounded idea, a misquote, or falsification. This is especially a problem when the information is taken from earlier works. In such a case, one has to check the earlier source. In addition to having come across this phenomenon doing a peer review, I also encountered such a situation when I wrote this book. It was a very frustrating experience, because the information seemed very important. At the end of 2019, I started to read the book ha-ashkenazim ha-rishonim (‫האשכנזים הראשונים‬ –the first Ashkenazis) by Asher Frishman. In the introduction, he writes (translated from Hebrew): “However, people from the east of all people, and especially the heads of the Talmud schools (Hebrew geonim, singular gaon), already define “ashkenaz” as Germany and they mention “Ashkenazis” as Jews who lived in communities in Western Europe.” So far, nothing wrong. But then comes the surprise: the information comes from a source written in the ninth century, seder amram gaon (the prayer book of Amram Gaon) by Amram ben Sheshna (died ca. 875). This is exciting news, because it shows that in the ninth century there were Jewish communities in Germany (he speaks of Ashkenazis). It seemed too good to be true. I went to the Rosenthaliana, the Judaica library of the University of Amsterdam, and read the book. No ashkenaz, no Germany, and no Ashkenazis. I felt, as the saying in German goes, himmelhoch jauchzend, zu Tode betrübt. These days, this kind of information would be called fake news. The author was unable to tell me why the book was referred to. I only refer to this book

Introduction

9

as an example of wrong information, and would not have bothered otherwise. I tried to discuss authors that are representative of the different opinions on each subject. The number of authors discussed varies with the subject. For example, few authors who still follow the Baron-Weinryb hypothesis will be referred to, because enough has been written about this hypothesis. I will quote authors who do not agree with me and also not with the Baron-Weinryb hypothesis. In chapter I, I will use archaeological data to give a short historical overview of the ethnic composition in Palestine before the beginning of the Common Era, which is a new, necessary topic with respect to the origin of Ashkenazic Jewry. It will be followed by the switch from Judeans (or Israelites) to Jews, and the change in the definition of Ashkenazis from Ashkenazis by descent to Ashkenazis by rites. In chapter II, historical and demographic problems with an origin from Germany, the Czech lands, and the eastern German lands will be discussed. Only the “problematic” topics of the disciplines that were used earlier will be referred to. As to historiography, the controversial results are mainly related to the interpretation of migrations of Ashkenazic Jewry during the Middle Ages. The discussion of demographic aspects will be limited to the outdated data of East European Jewish population increases. Because the field of genetics has become a particularly important field today, chapter III will be dedicated to a discussion of the genetic results that are linked to the Baron-Weinryb hypothesis in one way or another. The chapter will show that it is necessary to combine genetics with reliable historiography and demography. The importance of the German-Jewish literature will conclude the chapter. Chapter IV will deal with historical and genetic evidence for a Jewish presence around the Black Sea before and after the beginning of the Common Era. The question of why East European Jews speak Yiddish will be answered in chapter V. The answer to this question will be narrowed to the phenomenon that a Slavic-speaking Jewish population switched to Yiddish. To show that historical and genetic problems do not occur in Ashkenazis only, the proposition that Turkish Jews are Sephardic Jews (Hebrew: sefaradim) will be discussed in chapter VI. The chapter will be followed by a general summary of the forgoing chapters. Finally, in the epilogue I will give my personal view on what is happening to the discussion about the origin of Ashkenazic Jewry and related subjects.

I Israelites, Judeans, Jews, and Ashkenazis Israelites What information do we have about the history and ethnic composition of the early Israelites, or “Emergent Israel” as Leuchter (2017, 36) calls them? Thanks to extensive archaeological research, reliable information about the inhabitants of what was called “Canaan” has become available. Information about this period is necessary in order to understand the genetic relationship between Ashkenazis and these inhabitants, their supposed ancestors. The first time the name “Israel” appears in an extra-biblical source is on the Merneptah stele from 1207 BCE (see cover). The stele commemorates the victory of pharaoh Merneptah over three cities in Canaan: Ashkelon, Gezer, Yeno‘am, and Israel. The first two are in the coastal region. According to Na‘aman (1977), Yeno‘am was most likely located in Transjordan. He provides three data to make his point plausible. One of them is the Amarna letter EA 197. In this letter, Yeno‘am is located in the Bashan region which is in Transjordan. The name “Israel” does not appear as a name of a town or a region. On the stele, it says: “Israel is laid waste, his seed is naught”. Leuchter (2017, 37) concludes from the wording that “it is Israel’s “seed” (i. e., families) [that] has been annihilated”. This oldest source does not give any information about the ethnic composition of “Israel”. Furthermore, it is also not clear what the geographic connection is between “Israel” and the region of the Israelite monarchy that came about at the end of the eleventh century BCE (Finkelstein 1996). Finkelstein and Silberman (2002, 110 – 118) showed that the early Israelites started out as nomads, appeared around 1200 BCE as herders in the hills of Canaan, and with time became farmers. Their culture was a simple one of subsistence and was clearly different from that of the lowland Canaanites. Their villages were not fortified, which shows that they had friendly relations with their non-Israelite neighbors. The initial population must have consisted of some 45,000 people, divided over 250 villages. The authors conclude: the emergence of early Israel was an outcome of the collapse of the Canaanite culture, not its cause. And most of the Israelites did not come from outside Canaan–they emerged from within it. There was no mass Exodus from Egypt. There was no violent conquest of Canaan. Most of the people who formed early Israel were local people–the same people whom we see in the highlands throughout the Bronze and Iron Ages. The early Israelites were–irony of ironies–themselves originally Canaanites.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110701388-004

Israelites

11

But, highland Canaanites also have to originate from somewhere, and probably from somewhere different to the lowland Canaanites, because, as mentioned before, their material culture was different. The origin of the early Israelites is not known. There are no local written sources from that period. There is written information about Canaan in the Amarna letters from the fourteenth century BCE. In these letters, the diplomatic correspondence between the Egyptian and Canaanite authorities, two unruly groups are mentioned, Shosu and Apiru. The Shosu were pastoral nomads, whom the Egyptians called plunderers. During the late fourteenth century BCE, they formed a large portion of the population that lived in the central part of the territory that later would be designated as the kingdom of Judah, especially in the steppe and the highlands. It is not clear what the relationship is between the Shosu and the Israelites. In the Egyptian sources, the Apiru are described as a bunch of outlaws or as mercenaries. Therefore, the name does not refer to an ethnic group. They were the ones who made most of the problems. Finkelstein and Silberman (2006, 42) describe them as uprooted peasants and herders who sometimes turned bandits, sometimes sold themselves as mercenaries […] and were in both cases a disruptive element […] by either local rulers or the Egyptian administration to maintain the stability of their rule.

The authors wonder whether David, before he became king, could be considered an Apiru chieftain with his gang. This idea is based on the fact that an Apiru chieftain had previously become a political leader and on the resemblance between the biblical stories and the description of the Apiru in the Amarna letters. In their conclusion, they stop short of calling David and his men Apiru. Instead, they write: “The most plausible historical scenario […] is that an Apiru-like leader known as David emerged as a local strongman at a time of political chaos.” It is clear though, that the early Israelites lived in Canaan for about 200 years before King Saul (1025 – 1005; Finkelstein and Silberman 2002, 131) appeared on the scene. From a historical point, the only information about the origin of the Israelites comes from the Hebrew Bible: Israelites are descendants of arch-father Abraham. Is the arch-father theory tenable? As an answer to the question at this point, I would like to quote part of the last paragraph of the chapter on the Patriarchs (ibid., 47) in which the authors refer to the Jerusalem version of the torah: The great genius of the seventh-century creators of the national epic was the way in which they wove the earliest stories together without stripping them of their humanity or individual distinctiveness. Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob remain at the same time vivid spiritual portraits and the metaphorical ancestors of the people of Israel. And the twelve sons of Jacob were brought into the tradition as junior members of more complete genealogy.

12

I Israelites, Judeans, Jews, and Ashkenazis

Thus, the arch-father idea is not right, but what is the status of the twelve tribes? Are they a metaphor for the ethnic heterogeneity of the different tribes? If the latter is the case, it may show up in genetic research. We will jump almost one hundred years to an important point in Israelite history, the splitting up of King Solomon’s kingdom. In the year 931 BCE, Jeroboam I, son of Nebat, became king of the northern part of the country, while Rehoboam, followed up his father as king of Judah. During this period, the religious practices in the kingdom of Judah were similar to those in the northern kingdom. In Judah religious ideas were diverse and dispersed […] there was the royal cult in the Jerusalem Temple, there were the countless fertility and ancestor cults in the countryside, and there was the widespread mixing of the worship of YHWH with that of other gods (ibid., 246– 247).

Due to all kinds of environmental and economic factors the northern state became much more powerful and numerous than the southern state. Between 884 and 842 BCE, the kingdom of northern Israel was ruled by kings of the Omride dynasty: Omri, Ahab, Ahaziah, and Joram. Their territory consisted of Samaria, the mountainous Galilee, Hazor in the upper Jordan Valley, large parts of Transjordan between the Arnon and Yarmuk rivers, and the coastal plain of the Sharon (Finkelstein 2013, 79; see Figure 1): The highlands of Samaria–the core territory of the state and the seat of the capital– were inhabited by village communities that would have identified themselves culturally and religiously as Israelites. In the northern lowlands–the Jezreel and the Jordan valleys–the rural population was comprised mainly of settled peasant villages that had been for centuries closely linked to the Canaanite city-states. Farther north were villages more closely aligned to the Aramean culture of Syria and to the Phoenicians of the coast. (Finkelstein and Silberman 2002, 191– 92).

Around the middle of the ninth century BCE, King Hazael of Aram-Damascus occupied part of the northern kingdom that the king “claimed were originally Aramean”. The authors add that “the population in this part of the Israelite kingdom was partly, if not mostly Aramean”. The occupation did not last much longer than a few decennia. After that, Hazael was attacked by the Assyrian king Adad-nirari, who became king in 811 BCE. As a result, Hazael had to give up the occupation of the northern kingdom, which became a vassal state of Assyria though. The kingdom became prosperous around 800 BCE. During the reign of King Jeroboam II (788 – 747), the size of the total population of the kingdom

Israelites

13

Figure 1: The northern kingdom before and during the Omride dynasty (from Finkelstein 2013, 79).

14

I Israelites, Judeans, Jews, and Ashkenazis

was about 350,000, while the size of the population of Judah was hardly bigger than 100,000. In 745 Tiglat-pileser III became king of Assyria. He began to annex the countries between Assyria and the Mediterranean Sea, including the northern kingdom. Because King Pekah (735 – 732 BCE) of the northern kingdom had ended his vassaldom to Assyria, the Assyrian king decided to occupy the northern kingdom as well (ibid., 214–216). Tiglat-pileser III deported part of the population to Assyria and replaced them with new populations from Assyria. “[…] the systematic resettling of new populations in […] recently conquered territory was intended to expand the overall agricultural output of the empire.” According to the king’s annals, 13,500 inhabitants of the northern kingdom were deported to Assyria. In the annals of King Sargon II (722– 705 BCE) of Assyria about the deportees from Samaria it says the following (Finkelstein and Silberman 2002, 220): I counted as spoil 27,280 people, together with their chariots […] I formed a unit with 200 of their chariots for my royal force. I settled the rest in the midst of Assyria. I repopulated Samaria more than before. I brought into it people from countries conquered by my hands.

The authors (ibid., 220 – 221) suggest from historical and archeological data that the new settlers from rebellious areas in southern Mesopotamia, were settled not only in Samaria but also in the particularly strategic area around Bethel […] on the northern border of the still-independent kingdom of Judah […] In addition, a few seventh century cuneiform texts bearing Babylonian names that have been found in Gezer […] provide tangible evidence of the presence of these deportees in the southwestern territory of vanquished Israel.

In the northern part of the kingdom, the Assyrians left the rural population intact so that they could continue to produce olive oil. This rural population consisted mainly of Canaanites, Phoenicians, and Arameans. But Israelites kept on living in the region of Samaria and Bethel as well. Despite the fact that the rural population was left intact, the deportation is often said to have taken place of the whole population, leading to the “ten lost tribes”. Finkelstein and Silberman (2006, 128) write: In the eighth century BCE, the population of the northern kingdom living west of the Jordan can be estimated at about 225,000. Even if we were to take Sargon’s figure of 27,290 Israelite exiles at face value and add to it the 13,500 Israelites claimed by Tiglath-pileser III to have been deported from the Galilee, the overwhelming majority of the rural Israelite population was not deported.

Israelites

15

The story of the ten lost tribes is thus strongly exaggerated. As a result of the fall of the northern kingdom in 720 BCE, large groups of its inhabitants fled to the kingdom of Judah, and its population “at least doubled, if not tripled”. It is not possible to know who these refugees were. Sergi (2017, 381– 382) says: “[…] the kingdom of Israel encompassed vast territories […] These regions inhabited divergent groups […] “Israelites” were, therefore, only one component of the inhabitants living in the kingdom of Israel […].” Probably, also prophets and priests from the north took refuge with the kingdom of Judah. Different deities were not only worshipped in the northern kingdom. In Judah, high places were used to worship various gods: […] priests in the countryside also regularly burned incense on the high places to the sun, the moon, and the stars […] The condemnations of various Judahite prophets make it abundantly clear that YHWH was worshipped in Jerusalem together with other deities, such as Baal, Asherah, the hosts of heaven, and even the national deities of the neighboring lands (Finkelstein and Silberman 2002, 242).

Meanwhile, in the kingdom of Judah, King Hezekiah (727– 698 BCE) decided to do away with all the idolatry in the high places, and make the worship of YHWH the only legitimate form, and only in the Temple of Jerusalem (ibid., 250). After the death of the king, the religious situation in the countryside returned to the way it was before Hezekiah’s reforms, and also there, Baal, Asherah, and the host of heaven could be worshipped again. In addition to the non-Israelite people and refugees from the northern kingdom mentioned above, the demographic situation in Judah became more complex when, during the reign of King Josiah (639 – 609), the Assyrians resettled non-Israelite peoples from towns along the Euphrates in the area of Bethel. One of the problems the king faced was that “of intermarriage with foreign women, which must have been a common practice among the Israelites who survived in the territories of the northern kingdom, among whom the Assyrians had settled foreign deportees” (ibid., 95 – 96). Intermarriage with non-Israelite women had been a problem all along. In Deuteronomy 7: 1 and 4, seven tribes are mentioned with whom Israelites are not allowed to marry: Hittites, Girgashites, Amorites, Canaanites, Perizzites, Hivites, Jebusites. Most of these tribes probably lived in the area of the once two kingdoms as well. In Joshua 23: 13, the Israelites are warned against marrying the foreign tribes among whom they are living. The warning is repeated in Judges 2: 3. The real reason for the warnings may become clear in 1 Kings 11: 1 and 4, where King Solomon (970 – 931 BCE) is reported to have all kinds of foreign women (mostly from autochthonous tribes), and to have started to worship other gods because of these women. A similar combination of foreign women and idolatry is found in Malachi 2:

16

I Israelites, Judeans, Jews, and Ashkenazis

10 – 12 (end of fifth century BCE?). I would not be surprised if Liverani (2005, 352) provides the actual reason the priests and prophets forbade marrying women of autochthonous tribes: “Well aware of the dominant influence of mothers in the upbringing of children, the priests feared that the spread of mixed marriages would inevitably compromise the stability of the Yahwistic faith and cult.” A somewhat related event as far as intermarriage is concerned, although much later, is the forced conversion of the Edomites by Johanan the Maccabean in 125 BCE. The extent of force used is disputed. In 587 BCE, the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar destroyed Jerusalem, which marked the end of the kingdom of Judah. Finkelstein and Silberman (2006, 294) estimate that between 5 and 20 percent of the population was exiled to Babylon, mainly the aristocracy. Again, the rural population was left intact. During the reign of Cyrus II (559 – 530), the Babylonians were replaced by the Persians, and what was left of the kingdom of Judah became the Persian province of Yehud. The king permitted the exiles from the Babylonian period to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the temple. This information is based on two edicts in Ezra, 1: 2– 4 and 6: 3 – 5. According to Liverani (2005, 252– 253) this information is fake: These edicts were written and used, in much later times, in order to give prestige and imperial privileges to the temple already built in Jerusalem, and as an answer to the claims of the rival temple in Samaria. […] The return, in fact, did not take place at the time of Cyrus […] By 520, […] an important return took place under the leadership of Zerubbabel […].

It is not clear how many returned. An interesting number mentioned in the book Ezra (around the fifth century BCE), is the more than 100 foreign wives and their children who came along with their returning husbands. They had to be sent back to their own country! I wonder if this inhuman decree by the prophet was really carried out. The region north of Yehud became the province of Samaria. “Its mixed population of former Israelites who did not go into exile and of foreign groups resettled in the area by the Assyrians were now known as Samaritans” (Ibid., 226). The inhabitants of Yehud are called yehudim in Hebrew, which in English is Jews. However, I will not call the inhabitants “Jews” because, as we will see further on, they are defined differently from the people we call “Jews” today. The short historical review above shows that the area of both kingdoms was inhabited by a heterogeneous population. Furthermore, the worship of various gods, also by Israelites, should have made intermarriages with the local non-Israelites quite easy. A number of these cases pertaining to non-Israelite women appear in the Hebrew Bible, but they normally refer to women of known male

Judeans and Jews

17

personalities. For example, Zippora, wife of Moses, daughter of the Midianite priest Jethro, Ruth, the Moabite woman who was the grandmother of King David, and King Ahab of the northern kingdom (873 – 852) who married a Phoenician princess (1 Kings 16:31). With the presence of the different non-Israelite tribes in the country, intermarriage with common people must have occurred as well, but that information is lost. It is also not clear if there was such information at all, because marriage was a private matter. This means that there was not a situation like today, where one has to go to an official institution like a rabbi in order to get married. Neither was there a marriage certificate as we know it since the rabbis instituted such a document. The man paid some form of wealth to the family of the bride, and that was it. Whether or not a prophet liked the choice of the woman was not relevant, if a prophet would know about the marriage at all. The repeated warnings in the Hebrew Bible against intermarriage indicate that this was not something out of the ordinary. It should be clear that it is very difficult to define the predecessors of the Judeans who lived around the beginning of the Common Era. If they were themselves Canaanites as Finkelstein and Silberman call them, we should make a distinction between them – hill Canaanites – and the lowland Canaanites who were different culturally. First of all, the hill Canaanites may be descendants of Apiru and/or Shosu who were not ethnic entities themselves. Then we have the different non-Israelite tribes that may have added to the composition of the Israelite/ Judean population via intermarriages, such as the abovementioned Midianites and Moabites, or the seven tribes the Hebrew Bible mentions with whom Israelites were not allowed to marry, but obviously did. Furthermore, two Assyrian kings resettled people from Assyria in the area of the northern kingdom and the kingdom of Judah (eighth and seventh centuries BCE). These settlers and the Edomites should also be added to the list of possible marriage partners. The only conclusion that can be drawn with certainty is that the inhabitants of the two kingdoms with the Jewish religion were not descendants of arch-father Abraham or any arch-father during the last 3,000 years. Any other conclusion is a question of crystal-gazing.

Judeans and Jews It is common practice to use the word “Jew” for today’s Jews and also for those who lived in the area of both kingdoms before the beginning of the Common Era. When referring to the inhabitants of both kingdoms before 587 BCE, I will use the term “Israelites”. Between 587 and the beginning of the Common Era, I will use the term “Judeans”, supposedly the ancestors of today’s Jews. However, the word

18

I Israelites, Judeans, Jews, and Ashkenazis

“Judean” should not be interpreted as an inhabitant of the territory of the kingdom of Judah only, but also for an inhabitant of the territory of the northern kingdom before and after its destruction in 720 BCE (Fig. 2). The difference between Judeans and Jews is not well discussed in articles and in most books dealing with Jewish history or Jewish genetics. I will therefore first discuss what the terms “Judeans” and “Jews” imply because of their social and genetic implications. Judeans formed a patrilineal society, and someone with a Judean father was a Judean (Cohen 1999, 266). The ethnic background of the woman was not important, she became a member of the man’s clan. Marriage was the non-sacramental, private acquisition of a woman by a man, and the state had little legal standing in the matter. The foreign woman who married an Israelite husband was supposed to leave her gods in her father’s house, but even if she did not, it never occurred to anyone to argue that her children were not Israelites. (ibid., 265).

Being a Judean can be compared to someone having a certain nationality determined by his or her father. As mentioned above, in the Hebrew Bible, a number of foreign women are mentioned. I will come back to the phenomenon of intermarriage in the third chapter. Around the second century CE, the rabbis decided to switch to “Jews” (ibid., 263). A Jew is someone whose mother is of the Jewish faith, leading to a matrilineal society. However, this is not the complete definition. A person who converted to Judaism was and still is considered a Jew as well. In most cases, the reason for conversion was probably intermarriage (genetic admixture – henceforth referred to as admixture), and not the religion as such. Thus, the rabbis introduced a cultural-religious community whose members did not necessarily have to originate from Canaan. They abandoned a system based on men and region and replaced it by a system based on women plus a non-measurable inflow of converts. It is not known why the rabbis switched to “Jews”. Cohen (ibid., 285 – 307) discusses the various reasons that have been proposed quite extensively, but he cannot provide a definite reason either. As mentioned on p. 16, the reason may have to do with the upbringing of the young children by the woman. The rabbinical ruling is applied in today’s Israel as well. An interesting implication of the rabbinical ruling is that for the rabbis, religion is actually the only decisive factor. A Judean (or Israelite) origin plays no role anymore. It is not clear to what extent the rabbinical ruling prevented Jews who had remained in their homeland from marrying “non-Jewish” women. However, what happened when Judeans or Jews went to live abroad? There are no numerical data about people who converted to Judaism. The more than 100 foreign

Judeans and Jews

Figure 2: Map of Israel and Judah in the eighth century BCE (from Finkelstein 2013, 2)

19

20

I Israelites, Judeans, Jews, and Ashkenazis

women (and children) mentioned above are no proof of conversion either. They are only proof of admixture. Why should these women have converted to the religion of their husbands if this was not an issue in those days? Only after the rabbinical ruling, the conversion becomes a prerequisite for marriage with a nonJew(ess). Because Judeans started to migrate to other countries well before the rabbinical ruling, there may not have been any official conversion at all. In addition, the conversion took place mainly in the case of marriage after the rabbinical ruling had been implemented, and in such cases, there was no need to register such marriages, because they were simply part of the ruling. It is thus virtually impossible to obtain numerical information about the extent of conversion. We can get a much clearer idea about conversion/admixture by looking at the physical appearances (phenotypes) of today’s Jews in different regions. For example, Indian, Chinese, Ethiopian, and European Jews resemble non-Jewish Indians, Chinese, Ethiopians, and Europeans, respectively. The only conclusion that can be drawn is that admixture (conversion) must have been quite extensive. Interestingly, I did not find Jewish history scholars who point toward the obvious connection between admixture and phenotype. When humans migrated to other places their progeny does not adopt the physical features of the autochthonous population without massive admixture. Despite the phenotypic resemblances, Jewish geneticists do not consider European Jews as Europeans. On the other hand, colored Indian and Ethiopian Jews are considered descendants of converts (Behar et al. 2008)! Thus, in order to differentiate between the differently defined Judeans and Jews, I use the term “Judeans” for the period between 587 BCE and the beginning of the Common Era. The term also agrees with the word the Greeks used, for example, συναγωγὴ τῶν Ἰουδαιῶν (the community of the Judeans). The same holds true for the Roman literature, for example, Iudaeorum seditio (the uprising of the Judeans). The use of “Judeans” or “Jews” in this book has nothing to do with the cultural aspects involved. It only pertains to the composition of the group. The Romans considered Judeans and Jews as a cultural group because of their religion but used the geographical name for both of them. A similar use of words is found in the Netherlands where Dutch-born children of Moroccan immigrants are still called Moroccans by many people. The precise date of the switch from Judeans to Jews is not important. If the rabbinical ruling would have been accepted later, for example in some remote areas, it would only have been easier for Judean/Jewish men in these areas to marry foreign women, as had been the custom for centuries. They would still be seen as belonging to a cultural group. The reason for the two terms is only the genetic aspects of the rabbinical switch, leading from a geographically defined group to an ill-defined group.

Conclusions

21

Ashkenazis German Jews had specific rites (Hebrew: nusah ashkenaz). These rites became the “official” rites of European Jewry, excluding of course the Iberian (Sephardic) Jews. As a result, Jews outside Germany who followed Ashkenazic rites are called Ashkenazis as well. Thus, there are two kinds of Ashkenazis: Ashkenazis by descent, those whose ancestors originated from Germany, and Ashkenazis by rites, those whose ancestors came from somewhere else, for example from Anatolia or Italy, bypassing Germany (van Straten 2017). Jewish geneticists follow East European Jewish history scholars and treat Ashkenazis as a homogenous genetic population. This is not so strange, because most Ashkenazis live in the United States and Israel, and are for the most part of East European origin. This has led to remarks about Ashkenazic genetic diseases, which are essentially East European Jewish diseases, for example Tay-Sachs disease (Risch 2001). As I mentioned in an earlier publication (van Straten 2011a, 174– 177), the TSD carrier frequency among Dutch Jews and probably also German Jews is not higher than that among non-Jewish Dutch or Germans. A relatively recent example of a publication that pooled Ashkenazic Jewry is the article by Guha et al. (2012) about health and diseases among Ashkenazis. (see p. 55). In chapter 6, I will show that rabbis and possibly teachers of religion were responsible for taking the Ashkenazic rites to Eastern Europe. It is not likely that the few common Jews who migrated from Western Europe eastward were able to make East European Jewry follow Ashkenazic rites. They were no authority, and they also lacked the knowledge to pass on all the laws pertaining to religious life.

Conclusions 1.

2. 3. 4.

Early Israelites appeared around 1200 BCE as nomads in the hills of Canaan, and are possibly descendants of Shosu and Apiru, two ethnically undefined groups. The population of Canaan between 1200 BCE and the beginning of the Common Era was ethnically heterogeneous. The northern kingdom of Israel consisted of Israelites and non-Israelite tribes that were indigenous to Canaan. The northern kingdom was much bigger, more populous, and much more powerful than the kingdom of Judah, especially during the dynasty of the Omrides.

22

5.

I Israelites, Judeans, Jews, and Ashkenazis

The story of the ten lost tribes is grossly exaggerated; between roughly 70 to 90 percent of the population remained. 6. Because of the widespread idolatry, intermarriage with non-Israelite tribes occurred. 7. In addition to members of the seven tribes Israelites were not allowed to marry, but probably did, intermarriage could also have taken place with Phoenicians, Medianites, Moabites, and Edomites. 8. The rabbinical ruling that replaced Judeans (based on the “nationality” of the father) by Jews (based on the religion of the mother plus converts), became an additional reason for the inflow of “foreign” people, especially in the diaspora, shown clearly by the geographically determined appearances of Jews in different parts of the world. 9. The rabbinical ruling, in combination with the heterogeneity of the people of Judea, is a disaster for a geneticist who tries to link modern Jews to a fixed group, Judean or other, before the beginning of the Common Era. 10. There are two groups of Ashkenazis: descendants of German Jewry and descendants of Jews who follow Ashkenazic rites.

II History and Demography of East European Jews According to the Baron-Weinryb Hypothesis Introduction As mentioned before, the nowadays accepted hypothesis regarding the origin of East European Jewry is the Baron-Weinryb hypothesis. Followers of this hypothesis, with small deviations, are historians like Ben-Sasson, Toch, Hundert, Stampfer, and Bartal, who determine the state of affairs regarding the origin of Ashkenazic history. I will discuss the historical and demographic problems that are attached to this hypothesis. The second view, an origin from Khazaria, will be discussed briefly. For more information, see van Straten 2011a, 5 – 21.

Germany The second dubious point I mentioned in the introduction of the book was the substantial Jewish migration from Germany to Eastern Europe (for more information see King 1992; van Straten 2004). The third one was the unlikely high growth rate, 1 percent or more, of the Jewish population in Eastern Europe between 1500 and 1800. At the time Baron and Weinryb wrote their books on Jewish history they could not know that their assumptions as to the fast increases of the East European Jewish population after 1500 would not agree with the opinion of modern experts in demography. Their population increases between 1500 and 1650 lead to exponential growth rates of 1.7 to 2.0 percent. The small population sizes and their growth rates have become a dogma in East European Jewish history. These population sizes are defended by Jewish history scholars and geneticists despite the fact that according to experts in the field of demography there were no population increases of 1 percent or more in Europe for extended periods before 1800. DellaPergola’s East European Jewish population sizes lead to exponential growth rates of more than 1 percent as well between 1500 and 1800 (DellaPergola 2001, 22). As these growth rates have become a hot issue, they warrant a more extensive discussion. A first question that might arise is if the Jewish growth rates are not plausible, how come almost no historian criticized them? There are three answers: a. Baron and Weinryb showed the Jewish population increase only. If they had shown the growth rate of the total population between 1500 and 1650, 0.22 https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110701388-005

24

II History and Demography of East European Jews

percent, the reader probably would have become suspicious because the Jewish population lived under the same environmental conditions as the non-Jewish population. Figure 3 shows how unlikely Jewish increases are. It is noteworthy that it does not make a difference where in Europe one is; the slow growth rates are virtually the same everywhere. b. These growth rates were not published in any of the authoritative demographic journals. c. As said before, these population sizes and growth rates have become more or less a dogma.

Figure 3: Jewish population growth in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, 1500 – 1650, according to Baron (1957 – 1976b) and Weinryb (1972, 32), and 1500 – 1800, according to DellaPergola (2001, 22); population growth of the Netherlands, Poland, European Russia, France, and the British Isles, 1500 – 1800 (1500=100 percent; van Straten 2017).

The situation becomes even more incomprehensible when one realizes that there are no reliable numerical data about the size of the Jewish population in Eastern Europe before the census of 1897. Russian non-Jewish history scholars like Binstock and Novoselsky (1915) and Kabuzan (1992) who dealt with Jewish population increases do not have numerical evidence for their high Jewish growth rates either. As they do not add anything to the discussion, they will not be discussed here. Most arguments used to defend the high growth rates between 1500 and 1800 were refuted in an earlier publication (van Straten 2007). One of the argu-

Germany

25

ments, the use of model life tables, should be explained more extensively. DellaPergola (2001, 22) defends the exceptionally high growth rates by referring to the West model life tables of Coale and Demeny (1966) because “they better fit populations with relatively low child mortality.” The West models “were based on mortality experience recorded in populations known to have relatively good vital statistics […] the tables underlying the ‘West model’ are a residual collection after the ‘East’, ‘South’, and ‘North’ tables have been removed” (Coale and Demeny 1966, 14). Half the number of life tables underlying the West model are from the twentieth century (52 percent). The remaining ones are taken from the period between 1870 at the earliest and 1960 at the latest. The environmental conditions, in the broadest sense of the word, before 1800 were so much worse than those in the twentieth and late nineteenth centuries that one cannot use the model for the determination of growth rates between 1500 and 1800. In addition, the registration of vital data in Russia was so unreliable that there are no underlying life tables from Russia in the East model. Finally, there are no reliable vital statistics of the Jewish community in Eastern Europe, including child mortality before 1800. Thus, a model is chosen according to some preconceived idea that lacks the necessary vital statistics, and that results in implausible growth rates of one per cent or more. Amazingly, growth rates that are two to four times as high as those of the total population are accepted by Jewish history scholars without question. Still today, most Jewish linguists and geneticists accept the ideas of Baron, Weinryb, and DellaPergola without verifying or discussing the validity of these increases with experts in demography. Most of the linguists dealing with Yiddish do not bother at all with Jewish population increases – R.D. King (1992) of the University of Texas at Austin is a favorable exception – and the geneticists simply accept them. There is one more argument used to make the high growth rates plausible that should be mentioned. Stampfer (2012, 136) defends a Jewish annual growth rate of 1.7 percent in Eastern Europe between 1500 and 1700 via a comparison with the high growth rates of the ancestors of the French Canadians: “These numbers [on which the growth rates are based] do not prove that the Jewish population grew at a similar rate. They show only that such growth is possible”. Obviously, such growth is possible, but not under completely different, worse environmental conditions (the same holds for the Afrikaners he mentions). Anthony Wrigley of Cambridge University, in response to a question about a growth rate of more than 1 percent before 1800 (personal communication), says:

26

II History and Demography of East European Jews

It was very rare to reach such a rate in pre-industrial times. There are a few exceptions. Rates of growth in colonial North America were such as to double the population in about 30 years, a combination of high fertility brought about by early marriage and low mortality with the bulk of the population widely scattered at low densities, and with unlimited new land to be taken up. But back in Europe rates of increase of 1 % p.a. were rare and not long sustained. If the Jewish population which you have in mind was largely urban such a rate is even less plausible. Most towns and cities were dependent on substantial in-migration flows even to maintain their numbers.

The Jewish population in Eastern Europe was indeed mainly urban. The problem with historians who allow for these kinds of high growth rates is that they do not seem to realize that there is a strong relationship between environmental conditions and growth rate. A second phenomenon that must be mentioned with regards to Jewish population increases is the so-called Jewish demographic miracle of the nineteenth century. This miracle refers to the fact that in both Eastern and Western Europe, the Jewish population increased twice as fast as the non-Jewish population (BenSasson 1976, 790). The miracle and the data of the earlier Ashkenazic population increases have one significant point in common: in neither case is the growth rate of the non-Jewish population shown in the literature. But the miracle has the advantage that it can be checked (van Straten and Snel 2006). There was no such miracle. In regions with reliable Jewish population sizes, the Jewish population increased somewhat faster than the non-Jewish population, but not twice as fast (see also Silbergleit 1930 and Toury 1977, 9 – 27). For a more realistic quantitative development of East European Jewry, see Table 1. In this table, the development of East European Jewry is proposed in relation to the development of the total population. The population size of each population in 1800 was the starting point for the calculations leading to the table because the population size in this year was the earliest Jewish population size that could be calculated using relatively reliable Jewish population sizes during the nineteenth century. For the population increases of the Jewish population, two growth rates were used: one according to that of the total population, and one faster, based on the somewhat faster growth of the Jewish population during the nineteenth century. All Jewish population sizes were obtained by calculating back, as shown by two examples (c and d).

Germany

27

Table 1: The total and Jewish population in Russia and Poland: 1 – 1800.a Total population Jewish population Year Number % growth Numberb Number (fast growth) % (of the total population)  ,,

,,

.

,,

,c

.

,

,

.

,

,

.

,

,d

.

,

,

.

.  ,, .  ,, .  ,, . 

,, .



,,

a. Total population according to Maddison (2002, 232), Jewish population according to my own calculation (van Straten 2017). b. Same percentage growth as the total population. c. Growth of Jewish population1700–1800 /1.0062100 (growth of total pop.1700–1800) = 1.013100 (growth of Jewish pop.1800–1900)/1.013100 (growth of total pop.1800–1900) = 2.2. Between 1700 and 1800, the Jewish population increased 2.2 times. d. Growth of Jewish pop.1000–1500/1.0023500 (growth of total pop.1000–1500) = 1.013500 (growth of Jewish pop.)/1.011500 (growth of total pop.) = 8.3. Between 1000 and 1500, the Jewish population increased 8.3 times.

The population sizes of the Jewish population in different years differ slightly from those in an earlier table (van Straten 2011a, 98) because in the earlier table I deviated from Maddison’s data (which I shouldn’t have). It is interesting to note that in 1930, Arthur Rupin (1876 – 1943), a German-Jewish scientist, calculated the number of Ashkenazis in different periods, and he found an annual growth rate of 0.4 percent between 1500 and 1800. This is actually the same as I calculated for the same period, with the same growth as that of the total population in Russia and Poland. A plausible population increase, certainly for that period. The consequence of calculating back is that at any time a number is calculated, it may include people of different origins. For example, for the year 1000 the calculation includes not only the number of Jews whose ancestors lived in the region around the Black Sea at the beginning of the Common Era, but also Jews whose ancestors arrived from other places such as Byzantium. It should therefore be clear that the number of Jews calculated for the beginning of the Common Era is too high if it pertains to the region around the Black Sea. Unfortunately, it is not possible to know how many Jews came from Anatolia

28

II History and Demography of East European Jews

or Byzantium because numbers are not mentioned anywhere. For the numerical development of East European Jewry, it is not really important.

Czech Lands and the Former German Eastern Territories In the introduction of the book, we saw that according to Stampfer, East European Jewry mainly originated in the Czech lands, Silesia, and the former German eastern territories, during the period after 1550: […] about three thousand Jews lived in the Czech lands in the mid-sixteenth century […] these numbers mark the upper limit as to how many migrants could have come from this particular country. The Jewish population of Prague and in the Czech lands grew in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Therefore, only a small minority of the population could have migrated to the east […] this would have been enough.

Does this hypothesis make migration from western or central Europe more acceptable? According to Livi-Bacci (1999, 191), estimates of population sizes in 1500 may be off by 20 percent. Assuming that this also holds for 1550, the number of East European Jews would be 574,360 ± 114,870. This would leave us with 459,500 or 689,300 East European Jews in 1550, assuming fast growth. All the 459,500 ancestors and their descendants are needed to end up with the 2 million Jews in Eastern Europe in 1800. As to Silesia and the German eastern territories, Silesia is part of these territories. There are two options for the location of these territories: they are part of Eastern Europe, or they are not part of Eastern Europe. In the former case, we are dealing with a migration within Eastern Europe. In the second case, one has to know the size of the migration to Eastern Europe. In either case, Stampfer’s reference for the migration from these territories, the doctoral thesis of Bürstenbinder (2010, 233 – 250), is of no help because he does not provide information about the number of Jews in these territories, where they came from, or where they went to. Let us assume, for the sake of argument, that all of these 459,500 ancestors would have moved to Eastern Europe in 1550. It does not make a difference as to the exponential growth rate whether they all go at once, or via a continuous slow migration, as long as all the descendants contribute to the 2 million. In 1550, the size of the Jewish population in Germany was somewhere between 51,200 and 86,000 with fast and slow growth, respectively (van Straten 2007). To the best of my knowledge, there are no reliable data about the size of the Jewish population in the former German territories or about their migrations. The maximum

Rome

29

number of German Jews that could have migrated is 86,000 – 51,200 = 34,800. This would leave enough Jews in Germany to maintain a realistic growth rate of the German Jews. In addition, 3,000 Jews came from the Czech lands, and 421,700 or 651,500 must have come from the former German territories only if they are considered as not being part of Eastern Europe. These numbers cannot be taken seriously, and they become even larger when fewer Jews migrated from Germany. If only a small number of all these Jews would have migrated as Stampfer proposes, we would again end up with implausible exponential growth rates. His proposal does not make a migration from western or central Europe more acceptable. Finally, Stampfer mentions that the basis for a Silesian origin are German surnames indicating a city, “that are rare enough to be noteworthy”. However, such a name does not necessarily mean that the bearer of the surname originated from that city. The name may be used because the bearer of the name had commercial or other ties with that city (Dietz 1907, 8; Bahlow 1953, 78). Under the Habsburg Emperor Joseph II (1740 – 1790), “Jews were ordered to adopt personal and family names (July 23, 1787) (for the most part German ones […]” (Silber 2017, 791– 792). To be certain that the Silesian Jews indeed came from Silesia, one should carry out genealogical research about the name bearer. To the best of my knowledge, this was not done.

Rome According to Zoossmann-Diskin (2010), East European Ashkenazis started their European migrations in Rome, because of the genetic relationship with today’s Italians, and because conversions to Judaism were common in ancient Rome. Recently, it was shown that according to mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) both West and East European Ashkenazis started in Southern Europe, and that there was a genetic difference between West and East European Ashkenazis (Costa et al. 2013). I will come back to Southern Europe as a possible origin in chapter 5. Given the small number of Ashkenazis in other parts of Western (or Central) Europe during the Middle Ages, East European Ashkenazis cannot have originated there either. This assessment reinforces the existence of Ashkenazis by descent and Ashkenazis by rites. Other possible regions from where some East European Ashkenazis may have originated in Europe are Byzantium and the region around the Black Sea. The former is referred to by some historians, for example, Starr (1939) and Altbauer and Taube (1992). A Jewish presence in the region around the Black Sea dates back to before the beginning of the Common Era. The possibility that East European Jews are to some extent descendants of

30

II History and Demography of East European Jews

these Jews is not mentioned in the modern literature. I will come back to this in chapter 4.

Khazaria The view that East European Jews are partly or mainly descendants of Khazars was proposed by several of authors (for example, Kutschera 1910; Polak 1941; Koestler 1976; Sand 2009). Recently, geneticist Elhaik (2012) also favored a Khazar ancestry. The subject is controversial, and most Jewish history scholars (Landau 1944; Ankori 1979, 19 – 22; Toch (1998, 80); Stampfer (2013) reject the idea because they argue that an origin not from Judea will have political implications. For example, Stampfer (ibid.) writes: “This carries political implications with regard to the ties between contemporary Jews and the Land of Israel.” I will come back to this issue in the epilogue. I will discuss only the article by Elhaik, because he is the first geneticist to compare the Khazar hypothesis with the Rhineland hypothesis, based on DNA research, and the article received a lot of media attention. I must remark though, that the Khazar issue has received more attention than it deserves, as we will see next. Elhaik’s conclusions are as follows: Our findings support the Khazarian Hypothesis depicting a large Caucasus ancestry along with Southern European, Middle Eastern, and Eastern European ancestries, in agreement with recent studies and oral and written traditions. We conclude that the genome of European Jews is a tapestry of ancient populations including Judaized Khazars, Greco-Romans Jews, Mesopotamian Jews, and Judeans and that their population structure was formed in the Caucasus and the banks of the Volga with roots stretching to Canaan and the banks of the Jordan.

The article rejects a mainly Middle Eastern Jewish origin and thereby deviates from the conclusions by most geneticists. Before discussing the historical/demographic assumptions on which Elhaik based his conclusions, I would like to mention three methodological problems with the article. 1. A major problem is the very low number of Jewish subjects, for example, one French, three Dutch, and three Austrian Jews. 2. The classification of the Dutch Jews is equivocal. First, they are included with Central European Jews, while in the admixture analysis they are grouped with East European Jews. 3. The three Austrian Jews are themselves a demographic problem.

Khazaria

31

It is known that before Galicia was annexed by Austria in 1772, the Jewish population in Austria proper amounted to about 8,000 people only (Karniel 1986, 104). The Jewish population of Bohemia, Moravia, and Hungary, which then also belonged to Austria, together amounted to 150,000. In 1772 another 200,000 to 250,000 Jews entered the area of Hungary, Bohemia, Moravia, and Austria. Russian Jews ended up in Austria via Hungary, Bohemia, and Moravia as well (ibid., 105). Of whom are the three Austrian Jews descendants? Without genealogical research, it is not known if we are dealing with Austrian Jews or with originally East European Jews. Statistically, the latter is more likely.

Discussion of Elhaik’s Assumptions “The Khazar Empire existed already in the late Iron Age in the central-northern Caucasus”. The first time the Khazars appear in the literature, is in ca. 670 CE when they moved south into the region of the Samara river, about 1,000 km north of the Caucasus. The aforementioned date is far past the late Iron Age (ca. 650 BCE), which means that it is unlikely that the Khazars had an empire in the Caucasus in the late Iron Age. “The Khazars converted to Judaism in the 8th century”. King Bulan of the Khazars converted to Judaism in the ninth century, in 861 (Zuckerman 1995). It is unknown how many Khazars joined in the conversion. Therefore, even apart from the wrong period, there is no evidence for Elhaik’s assumption that the Khazars converted in any century. “Caucasus Georgians and Armenians are considered as proto-Khazars”. Considering Georgians and Armenians as proto-Khazars is not based on genetic research, is not so formulated by the authors referred to by Elhaik, and is not in agreement with reliable information about the Khazars. Genome-wide data from non-Jews living in the regions where the Khazars presumably lived showed no evidence for a Khazar ancestry of East European Jews. Kopelman et al. (2009) keep their options open because they detected some similarities in the Adygei. However, it is unknown if the ancestors of today’s Adygei had any contact with Khazars. In addition, according to Behar et al. (2013), genome-wide data showed no evidence of a Khazar origin for Ashkenazis. Costa et al. (2013) showed that the major K lineages found among Ashkenazic Jewry do not occur in the Caucasus (including Adygea, located in the Caucasus), and the same holds for the minor Ashkenazic lineages. They concluded that “There is no evidence in the mtDNA pool to support the contention that lineages might have been recruited on a large scale from the North Caucasus […] as would be predicted by the Khazar hypothesis”.

32

II History and Demography of East European Jews

“Prior to their exodus, the Judeo-Khazar population was estimated to be half a million in size”. An estimate of half a million Jewish Khazars, or any estimate for that matter, has no factual basis. “Because, according to both [the Khazar and Rhineland hypotheses], Eastern European Jews arrived in Eastern Europe roughly at the same time (13th and 15th centuries)”. The thirteenth-century appears to refer to the collapse of the Khazar Empire. Elhaik seems to be unaware of the Jewish presence in the region of the Black Sea already from before the beginning of the Common Era. There are no sources that show that these Jews disappeared during the first millennium CE. The fifteenth century refers to the expulsions of Jews from the bigger cities in Germany, which according to Elhaik amounted to 50,000 Jews. As mentioned earlier, the expulsions did not lead to migrations to Eastern Europe. Moreover, the number of 50,000 has no factual basis and would have left virtually no Jews in Germany, while the expulsions continued during the sixteenth century. “Following the collapse of their Empire […] the Judeo-Khazars fled eastwards […], settling in the rising Polish Kingdom and Hungary […] and eventually spreading to Central and Western Europe”. Going east one arrives in Kazakhstan and Mongolia. Except for a few Jewish refugees from Khazaria in Toledo around the eleventh century, nothing is known about Jews migrating from Khazaria to Western Europe. Moreover, Jews from Khazaria do not necessarily have to be converted Khazars. The historical and demographic inaccuracies by Elhaik, together with the conclusions by Behar et al. and Costa et al. refute an important genetic link between (East) European Jews and Khazars. In the next chapter, I will show that the historical and demographic problems mentioned above caused problematic conclusions in genetic research pertaining to Ashkenazic Jewry as well. This is why the controversial conclusions from genetics will be discussed in the next chapter.

Conclusions 1.

2.

There is no historical evidence for mass or gradual migrations from Germany and/or Bohemia before 1500, migrations that could not have been large enough to cause plausible population increases anyway. It is not possible to use the West model life tables of Coale and Demeny to justify population increases of more than 1 percent of East European Jewry before 1800.

Conclusions

3.

4.

33

Demographic data of the ancestors of French Canadians cannot be used to justify the high population increases of East European Jewry before 1800 because the environmental conditions differed too much. A Khazar origin cannot be proven and is also unlikely because Jews lived in the region around Crimea more than 600 years before the Khazars appeared, and more than 800 years before King Bulan converted to Judaism.

III Controversial Conclusions from Genetics Introduction The historical and demographic problems mentioned in the previous chapter have their repercussions on genetic research pertaining to Ashkenazic Jewry. This is to a large extent due to the fact that Jewish researchers, who are mostly East European by origin, follow the flawed historical assumption that East European Jewry originates from Germany and Bohemia, a scenario that involves implausible population increases. It is also possible that they are not familiar with modern demography. Furthermore, an important reason for controversial results pertaining to all Jewish groups may well be the lack of historical knowledge of the period before the beginning of the Common Era. A cause for controversial conclusions of a completely different order is the involvement of politics. The avenue that is followed nowadays in genetics is well worded by geneticist Ostrer (2012, 220): The stakes in genetic analysis are high. It is more than an issue of who belongs in the family and can partake in Jewish life and Israeli citizenship. It touches on the heart of Zionist claims for a Jewish homeland in Israel. One can imagine future disputes about exactly how large the shared Middle Eastern ancestry of Jewish groups has to be to justify Zionist claims.

Such a statement is obviously against scientific ethics because it asks for manipulation. Science cannot be mixed with politics. I will come back to this subject in the epilogue. As long as genetic research has been carried out pertaining to the origin of today’s Jews, the results have been controversial and disputed. This holds true for research with mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) (Thomas et al. 2002; Behar et al. 2006; Costa et al. 2013), Y-chromosomal DNA (Skorecki et al. 1997; Zoossmann-Diskin 1997; Hammer et al. 2000; Zoossmann-Diskin 2000, Behar et al. 2017), and autosomal DNA (Zoossmann-Diskin et al. 2002; Kopelman et al. 2009; Need et al. 2009; Atzmon et al. 2010; Behar et al. 2010; Xue et al. 2017; Gladstein and Hammer 2019). Genetics of Ashkenazis is inextricably bound up with their history (migrations) and demography. Contradictions may, therefore, have their origin not only in the interpretation of genetic data but also in the interpretation of historical and demographic data. The latter become important when genetic research is combined with these two disciplines, which is normally the case. Via a number of articles pertaining to mitochondrial, Y-chromosomal, and autosomal DNA, I will show that the controversial status of Jewish genetics is https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110701388-006

Studies with Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)

35

due to several different factors: the importance of the biblical history as the basis for Jewish history before the beginning of the Common Era, the acceptance of converts as part of the religious definition of Jews, and the combination of genetics with disputable historical and demographic assumptions. I would like to end this chapter with a phenomenon that is connected with genetics, but is not being investigated: the blond European Jews. Historical and archaeological data pertaining to the period BCE showed that the biblical story about the arch-fathers is not tenable and that the priests are not descendants of one forefather. In this chapter, we will find out if genetic research follows archeology or the biblical story. Because Jews are defined via the mother, I will start with three articles pertaining to mtDNA.

Studies with Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) Mitochondria are the small organelles that provide us with energy. Originally, mitochondria were bacteria that entered the eukaryotic world. They are effectively haploid and may have more than one DNA copy (haplós is single in Greek; the bacterial genome consists of a single molecule). Mitochondrial DNA is normally inherited from the mother. This means that we can follow the maternal line. The mtDNA that I inherited from my mother ends with me. My children, boys, have the mtDNA of their mother but are also unable to pass it on. Because mtDNA undergoes mutations, and mtDNA with the latest mutation also carries the earlier mutations, geneticists have been able to make a family tree of mtDNA. The tree goes back to the theoretical Eve, and does not consist of names but combinations of letters and numbers, and is divided into groups (lineages or haplogroups) depending on the mutations. To make the information not too technical, I will use mainly “lineages”. Each group starts with a letter. For our discussion, the K lineage is the most important. When different mutations take place in women carrying the K lineage, the mtDNAs of the descendants having these different mutations are named lineages K1, K2, K3, etc. When mutations appear among their descendants once more, their mtDNA’s are named K1a, K1b, or K2a, K2b, etc. With more mutations in further generations, the naming system continues in such a way that alternately numbers and lowercase letters are alternately used, for example, K1a1b1, which is a major lineage of K1a.

36

III Controversial Conclusions from Genetics

Number of Founding Mothers and their Origin Thomas et al. (2002) reported that only a few women were involved as founding mothers of 9 geographically separated Jewish groups. However, there is no indication that these founding mothers showed notable genetic similarity. Behar et al. (2006) suggested that the four major mtDNA founder lineages of today’s Ashkenazis, K1a1b1a, K1a9, K2a2a, and N1b, can be traced back to four founding mothers who probably originated in the Middle East. These lineages hardly occurred among non-Jewish populations. A fundamentally different result was obtained by Costa et al. (2013) who showed that K1a1b1a, K1a9, K2a2a, and N1b are actually European lineages and that this conclusion also holds for most of the minor lineages. The data in Table 2 show that just over 80 percent of the maternal lineages of Ashkenazic women have a European origin (41 + 40.7 percent). Table 2: Percentages of European and other maternal lineages among Ashkenazis. Major and minor lineages are only provided for the European lineages (based on Costa et al. 2013, Figure 10).

European Major K Nb

Total

% . .



Minor H J HV T U W I M

Lineages Middle Eastern % % . . . . . . . . .

.

Asian %

Unassigned %

.

.

Only 8.3 percent is of Middle Eastern origin, while 1.1 percent is of Asian origin, and 10 percent is not assigned to any region. As to lineage H, Yacobi and Bedford (2016) showed that 3 lineages within the European lineage H7 are found among Ashkenazic Jews. Due to intermarriage with the heterogeneous population in the territory of the two kingdoms, it is not possible to conclude to what group the Middle Eastern mtDNAs belonged. What is the reason for the difference between the results of Thomas and Behar, compared to those of Costa? Thomas et al. and Behar et al. looked only at the mutations mentioned, while Costa et al. employed a genealogical ap-

Studies with Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)

37

proach by looking at the “parent” lineages as well. The finding by Costa et al., that the ancestral K1a1b1 is a European lineage, has been confirmed several times for different regions of Europe. Haak et al. (2015) showed that K1a1b1 was found in ancient DNA of a Middle Neolithic individual (3900 – 3600 BCE) in Spain (Supplementary Information section 2, Table S2.1). Knipper et al. (2017) reported the remains of a Bronze Age human skeleton at Wehringen-Hochfeld, Germany with K1a1b1 g (SI Appendix Fig. S3). Olalde et al. (2019) also found human remains with K1a1b1 in Iberia (Supplementary Materials, Table S1), for example, in Alcoi, Alicante (3960 – 3710 BCE), in Granada, Andalucía (2200 – 2000 BCE), and in Valladolid, Castilla y León (1368 – 1211 BCE). Interesting in this respect is the lack of K1a1b1 in non-European Jews and Samaritans (inhabitants of the northern kingdom). This could mean that the Samaritans are maybe descendants of the Israelites. Up to the time of going to press, no article has been published that was able to refute the conclusions by Costa et al. There has only been unspecific criticism. K1a1b1a spread through Europe with the migration of Jews to other European countries. The four founder lineages may be considered “Jewish” lineages, but they are not related to a Judean origin. The higher frequency of K1a1b1a among Ashkenazis may well be due to an early admixture between Judean men and European women leading to enrichment of this lineage among the relatively small Judean-European population. It is therefore logical that the frequency of K1a1b1a is much higher among Ashkenazis than among non-Jews (see also pp. 69 – 70). This relationship probably misled many population geneticists who considered the four founder lineages typical “Jewish-Middle-Eastern” based on the differences in frequency (assuming a straight relationship between Jews and Judeans). For example, Feder et al. (2007) write: […] the differences between Jews and non-Jews was consistent both in the RU and Polish populations. These findings […] support the interpretation of little or no gene flow of the local non-Jewish communities in Poland and Russia to the Jewish communities in these countries […] consistent with the view that the ancestry of the Ashkenazic Jewish population is a result of at least four different founder events.

The differences between Thomas et al. and Behar et al. on the one side and Costa et al. on the other are also mentioned by Toch (2018, 32) who thereby refers to the New York Times: “no consensus exists yet on the ‘gentile’ or ‘Jewish’ character of female ancestry […] the question remains moot as to whether ‘many Jewish communities outside Israel were founded by single men who married and converted local women.” Another point Toch and other Jewish history scholars do not seem to realize is that we do not need a large population to convert in order to end up with a

38

III Controversial Conclusions from Genetics

major non-Jewish lineage. In the case of a few Jewish men who came to Europe, and married women carrying a certain non-Jewish lineage, the female descendants will all have this non-Jewish lineage. If the second and maybe a few more generations continue this practice, after some time, this lineage might become a major “Jewish” lineage in the region where this took place. This is exactly what happened with K1a1b1a, for example. The work by Costa et al. (2013) has another interesting finding: the major and most of the minor mtDNA lineages are unevenly divided between West and East European Ashkenazis. This means that there are genetic differences between West and East European Ashkenazis. In 2004, there were two publications in which a difference between West and East European Ashkenazis was also found. In the first study, pertaining to Y chromosomes, Behar et al. (2004a) showed in a multidimensional scaling (MDS) plot that German Jews were situated separately from East European Ashkenazis. In the second study, with mtDNA (Behar et al. 2004b), a genetic difference between West and East European Ashkenazis was found: only West European Ashkenazis had a genetic bottleneck. In both cases, the authors had no explanation for the difference. A genetic bottleneck is a strong reduction in genetic diversity. This happens for example when a large population is decimated as a result of war or disease, or when a small group of individuals leaves a population, moves to a different region, and “takes along” only a small part of the genetic diversity of the total population. The result of a bottleneck may be compared to that of a founder effect, as we will see on p. 53. The conclusions by Costa et al. concerning the European origin of the three K lineages were criticized by Fernández et al. (2014). They maintain that the reason the three K lineages are not found in the Near East may be due to the loss of these lineages since Neolithic times. However, the authors have too few data to be able to come to such a conclusion, and they have no evidence that the Ashkenazic lineages are Near Eastern. The controversial results regarding the number of founding mothers and their origin reflect the high level of admixture in Europe and the different mtDNA frequencies of West and East European Ashkenazis.

Studies with Y-chromosomal DNA Y chromosomes are the sex chromosomes of men and are haploid. Men have an X (female sex chromosome) and a Y chromosome. Women have two X chromosomes. The Y chromosome determines the sex of the offspring in sexual reproduction. It yields an XY offspring, a male, or an XX offspring, a female. The

Studies with Y-chromosomal DNA

39

sex chromosome of males and females cannot recombine normally. Because only men have a Y chromosome, it is possible to follow the male line. The most common method used is via the determination of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP). An SNP is a variation in one of the building blocks of DNA.

Ashkenazic Y-chromosomal Lineages (Y Lineages) For the following discussion, it is important to keep in mind how complex the ethnic composition was of the Judeans who lived in the area of both kingdoms after the fall of the kingdom of Judah in 587 BCE and the beginning of the Common Era. For genetic research that tries to link modern Jews – Ashkenazic or other – to Judeans, this means that one should expect to find different lineages. According to Behar et al. (2004a), the following lineages account for about 80 percent of Ashkenazis: E3b, G, J1, J2, Q, R1a, and R1b1. The authors concluded that E3b and J2 were founding lineages “because they are widespread both in AJ [Ashkenazic Jewish] populations and in Near Eastern populations, and occur at much lower frequencies in European non-Jewish populations”. They consider the G and Q lineages, with similar distributions but lower frequencies, as minor Ashkenazic founding lineages. As to R1a and R1b, the authors mention that “[…] haplogroups such as R1b and R1a that predominate in European populations today […] may also have been present in the Near East as part of the ancestral AJ gene pool.” Ostrer and Skorecki (2013) refer to the work by Behar et al. (2004a) and consider E3b, G, J1, J2, and Q part of the ancestral gene pool, but R1a1 and R1b1 as European lineages. Behar et al. (2017) mention that only R1b is a European lineage. Nowadays the Ashkenazic R1a lineage is considered Middle Eastern. Let us first look at the ancestral lineages in general. The different lineages make a common biblical arch-father virtually impossible, because the arch-father of the carriers of these lineages (most recent common ancestor – MRCA) would have lived tens of thousands of years ago. Different lineages listed as belonging to the ancestral gene pool seem to make sense. The only problem is, who were these ancestors? Do the aforementioned geneticists realize that the carriers of the lineages E3b, G, J1, J2, Q, and/or maybe R1a1 may represent Apiru, Shosu, Kenites, Midianites, Moabites, some of the seven tribes mentioned in Deuteronomy 7, Assyrians, and Edomites (all non-Israelite Judeans), and E3b also Portuguese? These five ancestral lineages may well have been the minimal number of different lineages among the different Judean populations. If they belonged to “converted” members of one of the non-Israelite Judeans there may not be any close genetic relationship to the Israelite Judeans. It is a bit naïve to suppose

40

III Controversial Conclusions from Genetics

that a Middle Eastern origin automatically means an Israelite Judean background. The fact that two lineages were the most widespread among the Ashkenazic population in Europe may well be the result of the number of Judeans/Jews with these lineages who came to Europe. If the number of Judeans/Jews was relatively large, they may have become the most widespread in Europe, without being so in their homeland. A similar argument may be used against the conclusion that some are minor lineages. If these lineages were the most widespread among the Judeans in Palestine and, as it so happened, only few men with these lineages came to Europe, their lower frequencies in Europe may not be a reflection of the situation in the homeland either. The different lineages in the ancestral gene pool have different origins as well. The expansion of the E lineage probably started in eastern Africa about 58,000 years ago (Trombetta et al. 2015). The G lineage originated most likely in the Caucasus (Rootsi et al. 2012). The authors report the highest frequency, more than 70 percent, in North Ossetians. J1 and J2 are two major sublineages of the J-M304 lineage. It is not clear where J1-M267 arose. J1-M267*(xP58), which is J1-M267 without the J-P58 lineages, has its highest frequency in the Caucasus (Balanovsky et al. 2011) while the P58 lineages have their highest frequency in the Arabian Peninsula (Chiaroni et al. 2010). J2-M172 probably arose in Anatolia (Cinnioglu et al. 2004). Q originated in Central Asia, in the Altai Mountains (Zegura et al. 2004). These different lineages are not exactly encouraging for the idea that the Israelite Judeans were a somewhat homogeneous population. The possibility that early Israelites were maybe descendants of Apiru and Shosu, and that later on their descendants intermarried with the different tribes mentioned on p. 15, would not be contradictory to these different regions of origin. The different lineages of the ancestral gene pool also agree with the 12 tribes being a metaphor for the ethnic heterogeneity of the Israelite population as suggested in chapter 1 (p. 12). In addition to the study of Jewish men in general, studies were made of two special groups of Jews, priests and Levites.

Jewish Priests (Hebrew: ‫ – כהנים‬kohanim) Skorecki et al. (1997) showed that Jewish priests had a specific lineage, the Cohen modal haplotype (CMH). The article was big news and was mentioned in one of the most widely-read national Dutch newspapers. Still, some comments are in place. One may assume that during the diaspora, many “foreign” Y chromosomes entered the Jewish communities (especially because Jewishness is determined by the mother) that did not enter the

Studies with Y-chromosomal DNA

41

priestly families, because a non-Jew cannot become a priest. This may also explain the difference in the composition of the Y chromosome populations of priests and lay-Jews (not mentioned by the authors). Skorecki et al. maintain that the Ashkenazic and Sephardic communities are genetically different, based on the findings by Motulsky (1995). But a statistical analysis of their data shows that there is no significant difference (Χ2 = 4.05; 0.502,000 yrs ago and was thought to be comprised mostly of local proselytes, which is reflected in the distinctive clustering of the population away from other Jewish groups and the mostly Middle Eastern ancestry present in this group.” According to archaeological evidence, Jews lived in Yemen from

Epilogue

91

the third century CE (Morag 2001, 22). The view that modern Yemenite Jews would be descendants of Himyarites is not correct, as I mentioned earlier (p. 52). It is likely that Campbell et al. are not familiar with the abovementioned features of Yemenite Jewry. Therefore, the idea that Yemenite Jews may be descendants of the Judeans, exactly because of these differences, may not have occurred to them. The possibility that Yemenite Jews are straight descendants of Judeans or Israelites may be summarized by the combination of the following five points: a. they have the most authentic pronunciation of Hebrew, b. they are genetically different from the other groups of Jews (Zoossmann-Diskin 1997; Richards 2003), c. they lived relatively isolated from the non-Jewish Yemenites, d. their synagogal music is different from that of other groups of Jews (see van Straten 2011b, x–xii), and e. among the Yemenite Jews, as among Greek, Indian, Armenian, and Samaritan communities that date back to antiquity, the same motifs in the chanting way of reciting are found (Morag 2001, 20 – 25). During the fifties of the twentieth century, Yemenite Jews were discriminated against in Israel. This culminated in the kidnapping of newly born babies and putting them in Ashkenazic homes. The mother of the baby was told that the baby was very ill and that she should go home in the meantime. She was later informed that the baby had died. This practice came to light because Yemenite Jews don’t look like Ashkenazis. Should this practice be mentioned in a scientific discussion? I think it should because it touches the essence of the origin of Ashkenazic Jewry, and it also shows to what kind of excessive behavior ideas about origin may lead. If a group of Jews with the above-mentioned qualities, who are not as white as Ashkenazis, and who are not genetically close to European Jews, would qualify best as being descendants of Judeans, what does this mean for the origin of Ashkenazic Jewry? By putting Yemenite babies in Ashkenazic homes, it would look as if Ashkenazis could also have these slightly colored babies. In schools, Yemenite children were discouraged to pronounce Hebrew the Yemenite way and use a pronunciation that is a mixture of the Oriental and Ashkenazic pronunciation. Ashkenazic rulers were clearly intent on removing the authentic way of pronouncing Hebrew to diminish their uneasy feelings about the Yemenite Jews. A contemporary case of discrimination is that of Ethiopian Jews; again, Jews who are not white. In this case, it is a mix of religious and non-religious discrimination. On December 9, 2019, a lecture was delivered in the Orthodox Union Jerusalem World Center with the title: Falashas – Are They Jews? Falashas is a de-

92

Epilogue

rogatory name for Ethiopian Jews. The answer of 9 rabbis was presented, 8 originally from Eastern Europe (Poland 2, Lithuania 3, Belarus 1, Russia 1, and Eastern Europe 1), and 1 Oriental, originally from Baghdad. The answer of the Ashkenazic rabbis was negative. Only the Oriental rabbi considered Ethiopian Jews as Jews. The chances that ultra-orthodox Jews would marry Ethiopian Jews are virtually non-existent, but the treatment of Ethiopian Jews by these kinds of rabbis leads to unnecessary harassment, as shown by a movie in which an Ashkenazic rabbi, checks whether or not an Ethiopian lady who works in a kosher catering company is Jewish. On the spot, the lady had to show papers that proved that she was Jewish. The lady did not carry her papers with her, got all upset, and started to cry. I wonder what would have happened if the lady had been white and English-speaking. Would she have been treated the same way? It is shameful that again Ashkenazis are involved in this kind of discriminatory behavior. I am not aware of the fact that ultra-orthodox rabbis have a monopoly on deciding who should be considered a Jew. Despite the fact that Israel’s chief rabbinate recognized the Ethiopian Jewish community, this kind of harassment still takes place. Another disturbing development, also occurring at present, is that today’s rabbis want to use mtDNA, for example, K1a1b1a, to determine if someone who claims to be an Ashkenazic Jew is really a Jew. What we see here is that these rabbis are only interested in Jews belonging to their own DNA lineage, because then they qualify as being (Ashkenazic) Jewish. This development is clearly in disagreement with the original ruling that a convert is Jewish as well. The following is a good example. Around 1750, the Swedish family Granbom moved to Amsterdam and converted to Judaism. In 1797, one of their sons became rabbi of the orthodox-Jewish community Adath Yeshurun. According to his mtDNA (or his Y-chromosomal DNA), he would never have qualified as a Jew. This would hold for all Ashkenazis who are descendants of people who converted at some time in the past. This shows the absurdity of the new ruling. It also shows that converts who are (Ashkenazic) Jewish ‫( כדת וכדין‬ke-dath u-ke-din – according to religion and Jewish law) all of a sudden are not Jewish anymore. Will they become second rate citizens? The rabbis who are in favor of this ruling do not seem to realize that religion does not depend on a lineage. Not only that, lineages like K1a1b1a are European lineages. The DNA test is specifically meant for Russian immigrants. Let us assume the following: a Russian immigrant has a “non-kosher” mtDNA lineage because his/ her maternal great-grandmother converted to Judaism. The immigrant would not pass the test, while the person is Ashkenazic Jewish according to rabbinical law. One may even compare the immigrant’s situation with that of these same East European rabbis who deny the emigrant his Jewishness, with the only difference

Epilogue

93

that the maternal foremother of the latter may have converted to Judaism much longer ago. This whole DNA test procedure is a terribly discriminating and also wrong procedure for testing Jewishness. Rabbis who decide who is Jewish should carefully read the article, mainly based on the Bible and Talmud, by Moshe Samet (1993, 316 – 343), who shows how easy it was to adopt the Jewish religion, shortly after the beginning of the Common Era. No test was necessary, it was enough that someone denied the idols (see also van Straten 2011, 142). It is clear that research pertaining to the origin of today’s Jews should become an objective activity again. This might not only have a positive influence on genetic research but on genealogical research as well. The development of commercial firms that determine one’s genealogical background via one’s haplotype(s) sounds like a nice development. However, when one looks at some of the results, it is not clear whether some of these firms are not fraudulent. A good example is the family tree of a Levite composed by company X that goes back to famous rabbis (this the Levite probably found out himself), from there to King David, and ultimately to arch-father Abraham. Are the makers of such a family tree ignorant of Jewish history before the beginning of the Common Era, or do they just try to please people and make money this way? Maybe all Jews who are interested in their genetic history should first read The Bible Unearthed by Finkelstein and Silberman. This should give them enough insight to put firms that will take you to arch-father Abraham out of business. In summary: sadly enough, the origin of East European Ashkenazis has become a political issue. The decision of someone being (Ashkenazic) Jewish has been made dependent on a genetic test, which is a violation of the original rabbinical ruling that one can become a Jew via conversion, and thus carry a completely different lineage from that (of the majority) of Ashkenazis. I hope that the book has been of help to give the reader a better understanding of the early development of Ashkenazic Jewry. Moreover, I hope that, in addition, the epilogue has given some insights into the somewhat less scientific problems related to the origin of modern Jews in general and Ashkenazis specifically.

Bibliography Adams, S.M., E. Bosch, P.L. Balaresque, et al. “The Genetic Legacy of Religious Diversity and Intolerance: Paternal Lineages of Christians, Jews, and Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula,” American Journal of Human Genetics 83 (2008): 725 – 736. Altbauer, M., and M. Taube. The Five Biblical Scrolls in a Sixteenth-century Jewish Translation into Belorussian (Vilnius Codex 262). Jerusalem: Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 1992. Ankori, Z. “Origins and History of Ashkenazi Jewry (8th to 18th Century).” In Genetic Diseases among Ashkenazi Jews, edited by R. M. Goodman and A. G. Motulsky, 49 – 46. New York: Raven Press, 1979. Aptroot, M. “Yiddish Language and Ashkenazic Jews: a Perspective from Culture, Language, and Literature.” Genome Biology and Evolution 8 (2016): 1948 – 1949. Aslanov, C. “Hitgabshut shel ha-yidish ha-mizrahit” [The crystallization of Eastern Yiddish; text in Hebrew]. In Toldot yehudey Rusia [The History of the Russian Jews], edited by I. Bartal, 309 – 321. Jerusalem: Merkaz Zalman Shazar le-toldot Yísrael, 2010. Atzmon, G., L. Hao, I. Pe’er, et al. “Abraham’s Children in the Genome Era: Major Jewish Diaspora Populations Comprise Distinct Genetic Clusters with Shared Middle Eastern Ancestry.” American Journal of Human Genetics 86 (2010): 850 – 859. Avraham, A. 2010, http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Sephardim. Bahlow, H. Schlesisches Namenbuch, Kitzingen/Main: Holzner Verlag, 1953. Balanovsky, O., Kh. Dibirova, A. Dybo, et al. “Parallel Evolution of Genes and Languages in the Caucasus Region.” Molecular Biology and Evolution 28 (2011): 2905 – 2920. Baltrusch, E. “Die konstantinische lex generalis von 321 an die Stadt Köln und die Juden.” In Ein gefüllter Willkomm: Festschrift für Knut Schultz zum 65. Geburtstag, edited by F. J. Felten, S. Irrgang, and K. Wesoly, 1 – 15. Aachen: Shaker, 2002. Baron, S.W. A Social and Religious History of the Jews. New York: Columbia University Press, 1957 – 1976. Bartal, I. “The Establishment of East European Jewry,” In The Cambridge History of Judaism. Vol. 7: The Early Modern World, 1500 – 1815, edited by J. Karp and A. Sutcliffe, 226 – 256. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017. Behar, D.M., D. Garrigan, M. E. Kaplan, et al. “Contrasting Patterns of Y Chromosome Variation in Ashkenazi Jewish and Host non-Jewish European Populations.” Human Genetics 114 (2004a): 354 – 365. Behar, D.M., M.F. Hammer, D. Garrigan et al. “MtDNA Evidence for a Genetic Bottleneck in the Early History of the Ashkenazi Jewish Population.” European Journal of Human Genetics 12 (2004b):3 55 – 364. Behar, D.M., E. Metspalu, T. Kivisild, et al. “The Matrilineal Ancestry of Ashkenazi Jewry: Portrait of a Recent Founder Event.” American Journal of Human Genetics 78 (2006): 487 – 497. Behar, D.M., E. Metspalu, T. Kivisild, et al. “Counting the Founders: The Matrilineal Genetic Ancestry of the Jewish Diaspora.” PloS One 3 (2008): e2062. Behar, D.M., M. Metspalu, Y. Baran, et al. “No Evidence from Genome-Wide Data of a Khazar Origin for the Ashkenazi Jews.” Human Biology Open Access Pre-Prints. Paper 41. 2013. Behar, D.M., L. Saag, M. Karmin, et al. “The Genetic Variation in the R1a Clade Among the Ashkenazi Levites’ Y Chromosome.” Scientific Reports 7 (2017): 14969. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110701388-012

Bibliography

95

Behar, D.M., M.G. Thomas, K. Skorecki, et al. “Multiple Origins of Ashkenazi Levites: Y Chromosome Evidence for Both Near Eastern and European Ancestries.” American Journal of Human Genetics 73 (2003): 768 – 779. Behar, D.M., B. Yunusbayev, M. Metspalu, et al. “The Genome-wide Structure of the Jewish People.” Nature 466 (2010): 238 – 242. Ben-Sasson, H.H. A History of the Jewish People. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1976. Binstock, B., and S.A. Novoselsky. Materialy o Estestvennom Dvizhenii Evreiskogo Naseleniya Evropeiskoi Rossii, [Materials on the natural movement of the Jewish Population of European Russia; text in Russian]. Petrograd, 1915. Botticini, M., Z. Eckstein and A. Vaturi. “The Chosen Many: Population Growth and Jewish Childcare in Central-Eastern Europe, 1500 – 1930.” Discussion Paper No.4 – 16, The Pinhas Sapir Center for Development, Tel Aviv University, 2016. Boulnois, L. The silk road. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1966. Bowman, S.B. The Jews of Byzantium, 1204 – 1453, University, AB: University of Alabama Press, 1985. Bradman, N., M. Thomas and D. Goldstein. “The Genetic Origins of Old Testament Priests.” In America Past, America Present: Genes and Languages in the Americas and Beyond, edited by C. Renfrew, 31 – 44. Cambridge, UK: The McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, 2000. Breuer, M., and M. Graetz. Deutsch-jüdische Geschichte in der Neuzeit. Vol. 1: Tradition und Aufklärung 1600 – 1780. Munich: Beck, 1996. Bürstenbinder, J. Judenschutz und Eigennutz; Auseinandersetzungen um die Juden an der Ostgrenze des Römisch-Deutschen Reiches im 13. und 14. Jahrhundert. Berlin: Südwestdeutscher Verlag für Hochschulschriften, 2010. Campbell, C.L. “North African Jewish and Non-Jewish Populations Form Distinctive, Orthogonal Clusters.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109 (2012): 13865 – 13870. Carmi, S., K.Y. Hui, E. Kochav, et al. “Sequencing an Ashkenazi Reference Panel Supports Population-targeted Personal Genomics and Illuminates Jewish and European Origins.” Nature Commununications 5 (2014): 4835. Caro, G. Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte der Juden im Mittelalter und der Neuzeit. Vol. 1: Das frühere und das hohe Mittelalter. Leipzig: Fock, 1920. Cavalli-Sforza, L.L., and D. Carmelli. “The Ashkenazi Gene Pool: Interpretations.” In Genetic diseases in Ashkenazi Jews, edited by R. M. Goodman and A. G. Motulsky, 93 – 104. New York: Raven Press, 1979. Chiaroni, J., R.J. King, N.M. Myres, et al. “The Emergence of Y-chromosome Haplotype J1e Among Arabic-speaking Populations.” European Journal of Human Genetics 18 (2010): 348 – 353. Cinnioglu, C., R. King, T. Kivisild, et al. “Excavating Y-chromosome Haplotype Strata in Anatolia.” Human Genetics 114 (2004): 127 – 148. Coale, A.J., and P. Demeny. Regional Model Life Tables and Stable Population. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966. Cohen, S.J.D. The Beginnings of Jewishness: Boundaries, Varieties, Uncertainties. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999.

96

Bibliography

Costa M.D., J.P. Pereira, M. Pala, et al. “A Substantial Prehistoric European Ancestry amongst Ashkenazi Maternal Lineages.” Nature Communications 4 (2013): 2543. doi: 10.1038/ ncomms3543. Dan’shin, D.I. “The Jewish Community of Phanagoria,” Ancient Civilizations 3 (1966): 133 – 150. Das, R., P. Wexler, M. Piroozna, and E. Elhaik. “Localizing Ashkenazic Jews in Primeval Villages in the Ancient Iranian Lands of Ashkenaz.” Genome Biology and Evolution 8 (2016): 1132 – 1149. DellaPergola, S. “Alcuni aspetti quantitative della distribuzione del cognomen fra gli ebrei in Italia.” Annunario di Studi Ebraici 10 (1984): 65 – 86. DellaPergola, S. “Some Fundamentals of Jewish Demographic History.” iIn Papers in Jewish Demography 1997, edited by S. DellaPergola and J. Even, 11–33. Jerusalem: Avraham Harman Institute of Contemporary Jewry, 2001. Department of Justice, Immigration and Naturalization Service. (2007). http:// www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0201398.html. Immigrants to U.S. by country of origin. Dietz, A. Stammbuch der Frankfurter Juden: geschichtliche Mitteilungen über die Frankfurter jüdischen Familien von 1349 – 1849 nebst eine Plane der Judengasse. Frankfurt am Main, 1907. Dittmann, R. “West Slavic Canaanite Glosses in Medieval Hebrew Manuscripts.” Judaica. Beiträge zum Verstehen des Judentums 73, no. 2 – 3 (2017): 234 – 283. Dopsch, A. Wirtschafliche und soziale Grundlagen der europäischen Kulturentwicklung aus der Zeit von Cäsar bis auf Karl den Grossen. Vol. 1. Vienna: Seidel, 1923. Eggers, E. Sprachwandel und Sprachmischung im Jiddischen. Frankfurt am Main: Lang, 1988. Ehret, Chr. “Language Change and the Material Correlates of Language and Ethnic Shift.” Antiquity 62 (1988): 564 – 573. Elhaik, E. “The Missing Link of Jewish European Ancestry: Contrasting the Rhineland and the Khazarian Hypothesis.” Genome Biology and Evolution 5 (2012): 61 – 74. Encyclopaedia Judaica. Vol. 6, Ephesos. Berlin: Verlag Eschkol, 1930. Encyclopedia Judaica. Vol. 5. Detroit: Thomson Gale, 2007. Encyclopedia of Jews in the Islamic World. Vol. 3. Ottoman Empire. Leiden/Boston, 2010. Engelman, U. Z. “Sources of Jewish Statistics.” In The Jews: their History , Culture, and Religion. Vol. 2, 3rd ed., edited by L. Finkelstein, 1510 – 1535. New York, 1960. Epstein, M.A. The Ottoman Jewish Communities and their Role in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries, Freiburg: Schwarz, 1980. Faber, A., and R.D. King. “Yiddish and the Settlement History of Ashkenazic Jews.” The Mankind Quarterly 24 (1984): 393 – 425. Falk, R. Zionism and the Biology of the Jews, e-book. 2017. Farley R., and J. Haaga. 1607 – 1820: The American people: census 2000. New York, 2005. Feder, J., O. Ovadia, B. Glaser, and D. Mishmar. “Ashkenazi Jewish mtDNA Haplogroup Distribution Varies Among Distinct Subpopulations: Lessons of Population Substructure in a Closed Group.” European Journal of Human Genetics 15 (2007): 498 – 500. Feist, S. “Sind die Juden eine Rasse?” Zeitschrift für Demographie und Statistik der Juden, new series 4 (1927): 6 – 11. Fernández, E., A. Pérez-Pérez, C. Gamba, et al. “Ancient DNA Analysis of 8000 B.C. Near Eastern Farmers Supports an Early Neolithic Pioneer Maritime Colonization of Mainland

Bibliography

97

Europe through Cyprus and the Aegean Islands.” PloS Genetics 10, no. 6 (2014): e1004401. Finkelstein, I. “Ethnicity and Origin of the Iron I Settlers in the Highlands of Canaan: Can the Real Israel Stand Up?” Biblical Archaeologist 59, no. 4 (1996): 198 – 212. Finkelstein, I. The Forgotten Kingdom; the Archaeology and History of Northern Israel. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2013. Finkelstein, I. and N.A. Silberman. The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology’s New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of its Sacred Texts. New York: Touchstone, 2002. Finkelstein, I. and N.A. Silberman. David and Solomon. New York: Free Press, 2006. Finocchio, A. “A Finely Resolved Phylogeny of Y Chromosome HgJ Illuminates the Processes of Phoenician and Greek Colonizations in the Mediterranean.” Scientific Reports 8 (2018): 7465. Fishberg, M. “Zur Frage der Herkunft des blonden Elements im Judentum.” Zeitschrift für Demographie und Statistik der Juden 3 (1907): 25 – 30. Fishberg, M. The Jews: a Study of Race and Environment. London: Walter Scott, 1911. Flegontov, P., A. Kassian, M.G. Thomas, et al. “Pitfalls of the Geographic Population Structure (GPS) Approach Applied to Human Genetic History: a Case Study of Ashkenazi Jews.” Genome Biology and Evolution 8 (2016): 2259 – 2265. Fremersdorf, F. “Jahresbericht des staatlichen Vertrauensmannes für kulturgeschichtliche Bodenaltertümer im Stadtkreis Köln vom 1. April 1937 bis 31. März 1938.” Bonner Jahrbuch 143/144 (1938/39): 453 – 455. Frishman, A. Ha-ashkenazim ha-r’ishonim [the first Ashkenazis; text in Hebrew]. Tel Aviv: hakibuts ha-me-uhad, 2008. Gechter, M., and S. Schütte. “Ursprung und Voraussetzungen des mittelalterlichen Rathauses und seiner Umgebung.” In Köln: Das gotische Rathaus und seine historische Umgebung, edited by W. Geis and U. Krings, 69 – 195. Cologne: J.P. Bachem Verlag, 2000. Gladstein, A.L., and M.F. Hammer. “Substructured Population Growth in the Ashkenazi Jews Inferred with Approximate Bayesian Computation.” Molecular Biology and Evolution 36 (2019): 1162 – 1171. Goeje, M.J. de. Kitâb al-masâlik wa’l-mamâlik (Liber viarum et regnorum). Leiden: Brill, 1889. Guha, S., J.A. Rosenfeld, A.K. Malhotra, et al. “Implications for Health and Disease in the Genetic Signature of the Ashkenazi Jewish Population.” Genome Biology 13 (2012): r2. Haak, W., I. Lazaridis, N. Patterson, et al. “Massive Migration from the Steppe Was a Source for Indo-European Languages in Europe.” Nature 522 (2015): 207 – 211. Haber, M., C. Doumet-Serhal, Ch. Scheib, et al. “Continuity and Admixture in the last Five Millennia of Levatine History from Ancient Canaanite and Present-day Lebanese Genome Sequences.” American Journal of Human Genetics 101 (2017): 1 – 9. Halpern, I. “The Jews in Eastern Europe.” In The Jews: their History, Culture and Religion. Vol. 1, 3rd ed., edited by L. Finkelstein, 287 – 320. New York: Harper, 1960. Hammer, M.F., A.J. Redd, E.T. Wood, et al. “Jewish and Middle Eastern Non-Jewish Populations Share a Common Pool of Y-Chromosome Biallelic Haplotypes.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 97 (2000): 6769 – 6774. Hammer, M.F., D.M. Behar, T.M. Karafet, et al. “Extended Y Chromosome Haplotypes Resolve Multiple and Unique Lineages of the Jewish Priesthood.” Human Genetics 126 (2009): 707 – 717.

98

Bibliography

Harck, O. Archäologische Studien zum Judentum in der europäischen Antike und dem zentraleuropäischen Mittelalter. Petersberg: Michael Imhof Verlag, 2014. Harkavy, A.E. Ha-yehudim u-sfat ha-slavim [The Jews and the language of the Slavs; text in Hebrew]. Vilnius: Romm, 1867. Heyd, U. “The Jewish Communities of Istanbul in the Seventeenth Century.” Oriens 6 (1953): 299 – 314. Hopkirk, P. Foreign Devils on the Silk Road. London: John Murray, 1980. Horowitz, A. Sefer yesh nohalin [there are heirs; text in Hebrew]. Amsterdam: Athias, 1701. Horowitz, H. “Die Familie Horowitz in Prag im 16. Jahthundert.” Zeitschrift für die Geschichte der Juden in der Tschechoslowakei 2 (1931): 89 – 105. Hundert, G.D. “Poland: Paradisus Judaeorum.” Journal of Jewish Social Studies 48 (1997): 335 – 348. Inalcik, H. “The Ottoman Economic Mind and Aspects of the Ottoman Economy.” In Studies in the Economic History of the Middle East, edited by M.A. Cook, 207–218. London: Oxford University Press, 1970. Jeffery, L.H. Archaic Greece the City-States c. 700 – 500 B.C. London: Ernest Benn, 1976. JewishEncyclopedia.com. Ravenna. Jewishhistory.org.il. 846. Jewish Surnames of Turkey. http://www.angelfire.com/wy/yaw/jewish.htm. Kabuzan, V.M. Narody Rossii v pervoi polovine XIX v.: Chislennost I etnicheskij sostav, [Peoples of Russia in the first half of the XIX century: population and ethnic composition; text in Russian]. Moscow, 1992. Karniel, J. Die Toleranzpolitik Kaiser Josephs II. Gerlingen: Bleicher, 1986. Katz, D. “Hebrew, Aramaic and the Rise of Yiddish.” In Readings in the Sociology of the Jewish Languages, edited by J.A. Fishman, 85 – 103. Leiden: Brill, 1985. King, R.D. “Migration and Linguistics as Illustrated by Yiddish.” In Reconstructing Languages and Cultures, edited by E. C. Polomé and W. Winter, 419 – 439. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992. Knipper, C., A. Mittnik, K. Massy, et al. “Female Exogamy and Gene Pool Diversification at the Transition from the Final Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age in Central Europe.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 144 (2017): 10083 – 10088. Kober, A. “Cöln.” In Germania Judaica [I]; Von den ältesten Zeiten bis 1238, edited by I. Elbogen, A. Freimann and H. Tykocinski, 69–85. Breslau: Verlag M & H Marcus, 1934. Kober, A. “Otto Kraus: Feststellungen bei den Ausgrabungsarbeiten auf dem Gelände des alten israelitischen Friedhofe am Bahnhof vor den Bonner Tor, Cologne, 1922 (manuscript).” American Academy for Jewish Research, Proceedings 15 (1945): 3 – 14, 81 – 83. Kochelenko, G., and V. Kouznetsov. “La Colonization Grecque du Bosphore Cimmérien.” In Le Pont-Euxin vu par les Grecs: sources écrites et archeology, symposium de Vani (Colchide), septembre-octobre, edited by T. Khartchilava and E. Geny, 8 – 82. Besaçon: Université de Franche-Comté, 1987. Koestler, A. The Thirteenth Tribe. New York: Random House, 1976. Kopelman, N.M., L. Stone, Ch. Wang, et al. “Genomic Microsatellites Identify Shared Jewish Ancestry Intermediate Between Middle Eastern and European Populations.” BMC Genetics 10 (2009): 80.

Bibliography

99

Kosmin, B. A. and S. Waterman. “The Use and Misuse of Distinctive Jewish names.” In Papers in Jewish Demography 1985, edited by U. O. Schmelz and S. DellaPergola, 1 – 10. Jerusalem: Association for Jewish Demography and Statistics, 1989. Kraabel, A.T. “The Diaspora Synagogue: Archaeological Epigraphic Evidence since Sukenik.” In Ancient synagogues; historical analysis and archaeological discovery, edited by D. Urman and P.V.M. Flesher, 95 – 126. Second impression. Leiden: Brill, 1995. Kutschera, H. Freiherr von. Die Chasaren. Vienna: Holzhausen, 1910. Landau, M. Review of Khazaria: toldot mamlakhah yehudit be-eyropah [Khazaria: History of a Jewish Kingdom in Europe; text in Hebrew], by N. Polak. Kiriat sefer 21 (1944): 19 – 24. Lestschinsky, J. “Jewish Migrations, 1840 – 1956.” In The Jews: their History, Culture, and Religion. Vol. 2, 3rd ed., edited by L. Finkelstein, 1536 – 1596. New York, 1960. Leuchter, M. The Levites and the Boundaries of Israelite Identity. New York: Oxford University Press, 2017. Levinskaya, I.A. The Book of Acts in its Diaspora Setting. Grand Rapids: William B Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1996. Levinskaya, I.A. and S.R. Tokhtas’yev, “Jews and Jewish Names in the Bosporan Kingdom.” In Studies on the Jewish Diaspora in the Hellenistic and Roman Periods, edited by B. Isaac and A. Oppenheimer, 55 – 73. Tel Aviv: Ramot Publishing, 1996. Levy, A. The Jews of the Ottoman Empire. Princeton, N. J.: Darwin Press, 1994 Lewis, B. The Jews of Islam. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1987 Lewis, D.M. Selected Papers in Greek and Near Eastern History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Liverani, M. Israel’s History and the History of Israel. London: Equinox Publishing Ltd, 2005. Livi-Bacci, M. The Population of Europe: A History. Translated by Cynthia de Nardi Ipsen and Carl Ipsen. Oxford: Blackwell, 1999. Maddison, A. The World Economy a Millennial Perspective. Paris: Development Centre of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2001. Marmorstein, A. 2016, “Does the Horowitz Family from Bohemia Really Descend from the Benvenisti Halevy Family from Spain? [AB-067].” https://avotaynuonline.com/2016/03/ does-the-horowitz-family-from-bohemia-really-descend-from-the-benvenisti-halevy-familyfrom-spain/. McEvedy, C., and R. Jones. Atlas of World Population History. London: Allen Lane, 1978. Menache, S. “Tartars, Jews, Saracens and the Jewish-Mongol ‘Plot’ of 1241.” History. A Quarterly Magazine and Review for the Teacher, the Student, and the Expert 81 (1996): 319 – 342. Mieses, M. Die Jiddische Sprache. Berlin/Vienna: Verlag Benjamin Harz, 1924. Morag, Sh. Masoroth ha-lashon ha-‘ivrith ve-ha-lashon ha-’aramith she-be-pi yehudei theman [Traditions of the Hebrew language and the Aramaic language according to the Jews of Yemen], edited by Y. Tobi. Tel Aviv: Afikim, 2001. Motulsky, A.G. “Jewish Diseases and Origins.” Nature Genetics 9 (1995): 99 – 101. Müller, G., and Th. Frings. Germania Romana II: Dreissig Jahre Forschung romanische Wörter. Halle (Saale): Niemeyer, 1968. Na‘aman, N. “Yeno‘am.” Tel Aviv 4 (1977): 168 – 177. Nebel, A., D. Filon, M. Faerman, et al. “Y Chromosome Evidence for a Founder Effect in Ashkenazi Jews.” European Journal of Human Genetics 13 (2005): 388 – 391.

100

Bibliography

Need, A.C., D. Kasperavičiū tė , E.T. Cirulli, and D.B. Goldstein. “A Genome-wide Genetic Signature of Jewish Ancestry Perfectly Separates Individuals with and without Full Jewish Ancestry in a Large Random Sample of European Americans.” Genome Biology 10 (2009): R7. Nogueiro, I., J. Teixeira, A. Amorim, et al. “Echoes from Sepharad: Signatures on the Maternal Gene Pool of Crypto-Jewish Descendants.” European Journal of Human Genetics (2014): 1 – 7. Olalde, I., S. Mallick, N. Patterson, et al. “The Genomic History of the Iberian Peninsula over the Past 8000 Years.” Science 363 (2019): 1230 – 1234. Ostrer, H. Legacy: a Genetic History of the Jewish People. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. Ostrer, H., and K. Skorecki. “The Population Genetics of the Jewish People.” Human Genetics 132 (2013): 119 – 127. Palamara, P.F., T. Lencz, A. Darvasi, and I. Pe’er. “Length Distributions of Identity by Descent Reveal Fine-Scale Demographic History.” American Journal of Human Genetics 91 (2012): 809 – 822. Passarino, G., O. Semino, Ch. Magri, et al. “The 49a,f Haplotype 11 is a New Marker of the Eu19 Lineage that Traces Migrations from Northern Regions of the Black Sea.” Human Immunology 62 (2001): 922 – 932. Philo J.A. Legatio ad Caium. Paris: Éditions du Cerf, 1972. Polak, A.N. “Hitgayrut ha-kuzarim” [The conversion of the Khazars; text in Hebrew]. Tsion 6 (1941): 106 – 112. Rhodes, P.J. A History of the Classical Greek World: 478 – 323 BC. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. Reinach, S. “Inscription grecque de Smyrne.” Revue des Études Juives 7 (1883): 161 – 166. Richards, M.B., Ch. Rengo, F. Cruciani, et al. “Extensive Female-Mediated Gene Flow from Sub-Saharan Africa into Near Eastern and Arab Populations.” American Journal of Human Genetics 72 (2003):1058–1064. Risch, N. “Molecular Epidemiology of Tay-Sachs Disease.” Advances in Genetics 44 (2001): 233 – 252. Rodrigues Pereira, H., and H. Snel. “Joodse huwelijken in Amsterdam.” Misjpoge 32 (2019): 2 – 13. Rootsi, S., D.M. Behar, M. Järve, et al. “Phylogenetic Applications of Whole Y-chromosome Sequences and the Near Eastern Origin of Ashkenazi Levites.” Nature Communications 4 (2013): 2928. Rootsi, S., N.M. Myres, A.A. Lin, et al. “Distinguishing the Co-ancestries of Haplogroup G Ychromosomes in the Populations of Europe and the Caucasus.” European Journal of Human Genetics 20 (2012): 1275 – 1282. Rotner, D.N. “He‘arot le-shoshelet mishpahat Horwits – ha-leviim [The Dynasty of the Horowits family – the Levites; text in Hebrew].” Kovets “Bet Aharon ve-Yisrael 113 (2004): 155 – 161. Rozanes, S.A. Divre yeme Yisrael be-Togarma: ‘al pi meqorim yesharim [The History of the Jews in Turkey; text in Hebrew]. Vol. 1. Husiyatin: F. Qawaleg, 1908. Rupin, A. Sociologie der Juden, Vol. 1: Die sociale Struktur der Juden. Berlin: Jüdischer Verlag, 1930.

Bibliography

101

Rutgers, L.V. “Reflections on the Demography of the Jewish Community of Ancient Rome.” In Les cités de l’Italie tardo-antique (IVe-VIe siècle), edited by M. Ghilardi and Chr. J. Goddard, 1 – 14. Rome: École Française de Rome, 2006. Samet, M. “Ha-giur be-me’ot ha-r’ishonot la-sfirah” [Conversions to Judaism during the first centuries C.E.; text in Hebrew]. In Yehudim ve-yahadut bi-mey bayit sheni, ha-mishnah ve-ha-talmud. Jerusalem, 1993. Sand, Sh. The Invention of the Jewish People. London/New York: Verso, 2009. Santachiara Benerecetti, A.S., O. Semino, G. Passarino, et al. “The Common, Near-Eastern Origin of Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews Supported by Y-chromosome Similarity.” Annals of Human Genetics 57 (1993): 55 – 64. Sassoon, D.S. A history of the Jews in Baghdad. Letchworth: S.D. Sassoon, 1949. Schuler, A. Der römische Friedhof an der Sechtemer Strasse im Kölner Süden. Kölner Jahrbuch 35, 2002 (ersch. 2004): 437 – 570. Schütte, S. “Der Almemor der Kölner Synagoge um 1270/80: Gotische Klein-architektur aus der Kölner Dombauhütte.” In Colonia Romanica Jahrbuch des Fördervereins Romanische Kirchen Köln e. V., vol. 13, 188 – 215. Cologne: Greven Verlag, 1998. Schütte, S., and M. Gechter. Von der Ausgrabung zum Museum – Kölner Archäologie zwischen Rathaus und Praetorium; Ergebnisse und Materialien 2006 – 2012. Vienna: Stadt Köln, 2012. Sergi, O. “Rethinking Israel and the Kingdom of Saul.” In Rethinking Israel: Studies in the History and Archaeology of Ancient Israel in Honor of Israel Finkelstein, edited by O. Lipschits, Y. Gadot, and M.J. Adams, 371 – 388. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2017. Silber, M.K. “The Making of Habsburg Jewry in the Long Eighteenth Century.” In The Early Modern World, 1500 – 1815, edited by J. Karp and A. Sutcliffe, 763 – 797. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017. Silbergleit, H. Die Bevölkerungs- und Berufsverhältnisse der Juden im deutsche Reich auf Grund von amtlichen Materialien. I: Freistaat Preussen. Berlin, 1930. Simon, G. 2006. https://homepages.uni-tuebingen.de/gerd.simon/VorgeschDossiers.pdf. Simonsohn, Sh. The Jews in Sicily, vol 1, 383 – 1300, Leiden: Brill, 1997. Simonsohn, Sh. The Jews of Italy: antiquity. Leiden: Brill, 2014. Skorecki, K., S. Selig, Sh. Blazer, et al. “Y Chromosomes of Jewish priests.” Nature 385 (1997): 32. Slatkin, M. “A population-genetic Test of Founder Effects and Implications for Ashkenazi Jewish Diseases.” American Journal of Human Genetics 75 (2004): 282 – 293. Stampfer, Sh. “Violence and Migration of Ashkenazi Jews to Eastern Europe.” In Jews in East European Borderlands: Essays in honor of John D. Klier, edited by E.M. Avrutin and H. Murav, 127 – 146. Boston: Academic Studies Press, 2012. Stampfer, Sh. “Did the Khazars Convert to Judaism?” Jewish Social Studies 19, no. 3 (2013): 1 – 72. Starr, J. The Byzantine Empire 641 – 1204. Athens: Verlag der Byzantinisch-Neugriechischen Jahrbücher, 1939. Stern, M. Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism. Jerusalem: Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 1980. Straten, J. van “Jewish Migrations from Germany to Poland: the Rhineland Hypothesis Revisited.” The Mankind Quarterly 44 (2004): 367 – 383.

102

Bibliography

Straten, J. van “Early Modern Polish Jewry: The Rhineland Hypothesis Revisited.” Historical Methods 40 (2007): 39 – 50. Straten, J. van De herkomst van de Asjkenazische joden: de controverse opgelost. Bennekom: self-published, 2009. Straten, J. van The Origin of Ashkenazi Jewry: The Controversy Unraveled. Berlin/New York: de Gruyter, 2011a. Straten, J. van “The Yemenite Jews: an Exceptional Group?” In Mittuv Yosef: Yosef Tobi Jubilee Volume, vol. 2: The Jews of Yemen: History and Culture, edited by A. Oettinger and D. Bar-Maoz, ix–xvii. Haifa: University of Haifa, 2011b. Straten, J. van “The Origin of East European Ashkenazim via a Southern Route.” Aschkenas 27 (2017): 239 – 270. Straten, J. van, and H. Snel. “The Jewish ‘Demographic Miracle’ in Nineteenth-Century Europe: Fact or Fiction?” Historical Methods 39 (2006): 123 – 131. Tacitus, P.C. Annalivm ab excessv divi Avgvsti libri; recognovit brevique adnotatione critica instrvxit. Oxford: E typographeo Clarendoniano, 1906. Talmon, S. “What’s a Calendar? Calendar Conformity. Calendar Controversy, and Calendar Reform in Ancient and Medieval Judaism.” In Seeking out the wisdom of the ancients; essays offered to honor Michael V. Fox on the occasion of his sixty-fifth birthday, edited by R. L. Troxel, K.G. Friebel, and D.R. Magary, 451 – 460. Winona Lake: Eisenbraun, 2005. Ta-Shma, I.M. “Asher b. Yehiel.” In Medieval Jewish Civilization: An Encyclopedia, edited by N. Roth. New York & London: Routledge, 2003. Theophanes Abbas Agri et Confessor. Theophanis Chronographia [historical account of Thiophanes; text in Greek and Latin]. Bonn: Ed. Weber, 1839. Thomas, M.G., K. Skorecki, H. Ben-Ami, et al. “Origins of Old Testament Priests.” Nature 394 (1998):138 – 140. Thomas, M.G., M. E. Weale, A.L. Jones, et al. “Founding Mothers of Jewish Communities: Geographically Separated Jewish Groups Were Independently Founded by Very Few Female Ancestors.” American Journal of Human Genetics 70 (2002): 1411 – 1420. Tian, J.-Y., H.-W. Wang, Y.-Ch Li, et al. “A Genetic Contribution from the Far East into Ashkenazi Jews via the Ancient Silk Road.” Scientific Reports 5 (2015): 8377. Toch, M. “Jewish Migrations to, within and from Medieval Germany.” In Le migrazioni in Europa, secc. Xiii–xviii: Atti della ‘Venticinquesima Settimana di studi’ 3 – 8 maggio 1993, edited by S. Cavaciocchi, 639 – 652. Florence: Le Monnier, 1994. Toch, M. Die Juden im mittelalterlichen Reich. Munich: Oldenbourg, 1998. Toch, M. Dunkle Jahrhunderte; Gab es ein jüdisches Frühmittelalter? 3. “Arye MaimonVortrag” an der Universität Trier, November 15, 2000. 2001. Toch, M. The Economic History of European Jews. Late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages. Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2013. Toch, M. “The Emergence of the Medieval Jewish Diaspora(s) of Europe from the Ninth to the Twelfth Centuries, with Some Thoughts on Historical DNA Studies.” In Regional Identities and Cultures of Medieval Jews, edited by J. Castano, T. Fishman, and E. Kanarfogel, 21 – 35. London, 2018. Toury, J. Soziale und politische Geschichte der Juden in Deutschland 1847 – 1871. Zwischen Revolution, Reaktion und Emanzipation. Düsseldorf: Droste, 1977. Trombetta, B., E. D’Atanasio, A. Massaia, et al. “Phylogeographic Refinement and Large Scale Genotyping of Human Y Chromosome Haplogroup E Provide New Insights into the

Bibliography

103

Dispersal of Early Pastoralists in the African Continent.” Genome Byology and Evolution 7 (2015): 1940 – 1950. Weinreich, M. History of the Yiddish Language. Chicago/London: University of Chicago Press, 1980. Weinryb, B.D. The Jews of Poland: A Social Economic History of the Jewish Community in Poland from 1100 – 1800. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1972/3. Wexler, P. “Yiddish—The Fifteenth Slavic Language: A Study of Partial Language Shift from Jewish-Sorbian to German.” International Journal of the Sociology of Language 91 (1991): 9 – 150. Xue, J., T. Lencz, A. Darvasi, et al. “The Time and Place of European Admixture in Ashkenazi Jewish History.” PloS Genetics 13, no. 4 (2017): e1006644. Yacobi, D., and F.L. Bedford. “Evidence of Early Gene Flow Between Ashkenazi Jews and nonJewish Europeans in mitochondrial DNA haplogroup H7.” Journal of Genetic Genealogy 8 (2016): 21 – 34. Zalloua, P.A., D.E. Platt, M. El Sibai, et al. “Identifying Genetic Traces of Historical Expansions: Phoenician Footprints in the Mediterranean.” American Journal of Human Genetics 83 (2008): 633 – 642. Zegura, S.L. “High Resolution SNPs and Microsatellite Haplotypes Point to a Single, Recent Entry of Native American Y Chromosomes into the Americas.” Molecular Biology and Evolution 21 (2004): 164 – 175. Zinberg, I. A History of Jewish Literature, Vol. 6: The German-Polish Cultural Center. Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press, 1975. Zoossmann-Diskin, A. Tracing the Roots and Unfolding the Ethno-Historical Relationships of Jewish Communities by Means of DNA and Protein Electrophoretic Markers. PhD diss., Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, 1997. Zoossmann-Diskin, A. “Are today’s Jewish Priests Descended from the Old Ones?” HOMO 51 (2000): 156 – 162. Zoossmann-Diskin, A. “The origin of Eastern European Jews Revealed by Autosomal, Sex Chromosomal and mtDNA Polymorphisms.” Biology Direct 5 (2010): 57. Zoossmann-Diskin, A. A. Joel, M. Liron, et al. “Protein Electrophoretic Markers in Israel: Compilation of Data and Genetic Affinities.” Annals of Human Biology 29 (2002): 142 – 175. Zuckerman, C. “On the Date of the Khazar’s Conversion to Judaism and the Chronology of the Kings of the Rus’ Oleg and Igor: a Study of the Anonymous Khazar Letter from the Genizah of Cairo.” Revue des Études Byzantines 53 (1995): 237 – 270. Zunz, L. Die Ritus des synagogalen Gottesdienstes, geschichtlich entwickelt. Berlin: J. Springer, 1859.

Index Abraham 11, 17, 93 Adad-nirari, king of Assyria 12 admixture 18, 20, 30, 37 f., 44, 54, 56 – 58, 60 f., 66, 70, 80 Adygei 31 Amarna letter 10 f. Amorites 15, 60, 85 Amsterdam 8, 46 f., 49, 55, 79, 82, 92 Anatolia 8, 21, 27, 40, 62, 64, 66 – 70, 76 – 78, 81, 85 ancestral lineages 39 Antwerp 46 Apiru 11, 17, 21, 39 f., 61 Aragon 78 Aram-Damascus 12 Aramean culture 12 Arameans 14, 42 Argos 64 Armenians 31 Ashkelon 10 ashkenaz 8, 72 Ashkenazic 1, 7, 9, 21 – 23, 26, 31 f., 34, 36 – 47, 53 f., 56 – 61, 69, 73, 78 – 80, 82 f., 85, 89 – 93 Ashkenazis 6 – 10, 21 f., 27, 29, 31, 34, 36 f., 39, 44 – 47, 53 – 58, 60 f., 68 – 70, 74, 77 – 82, 84 – 86, 90 – 93 Asia Minor 62, 64, 78 Assyria 12, 14, 17 – Assyrian(s) 12 – 17, 39 Attica 64 Austria 30 f., 55, 60 Baghdad 67, 92 Balkans 67, 78 Bari 67 Baron-Weinryb hypothesis 5 – 7, 9, 23, 59, 84, 90 Bavarian 7, 71 f. Bavarian-Czech hypothesis 7, 71 f. Bayesian statistics 58, 85 Belarusian(s) 43 f., 74 Belgium 46 f. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110701388-013

Belmonte 77, 80 Bethel 14 f., 41 Bithynia 64 Black Sea 7, 9, 27, 29, 32, 58, 62, 64 – 68, 70, 73, 75 blond Jews 59 f. Boeotia 64 Bohemia 6, 31 f., 34, 47, 50, 62, 72 f. British Isles 24 Bronze Age 37, 42 Bulan, king of Khazaria 31, 33, 66, 84 Bulgaria 78 Bursa 78 Byzantium 27, 29, 67 f., 70 Calabria 78 Cana 78 Canaan 10 f., 18, 21, 30 Canaanites 10 f., 14 f., 17, 42 Cappadocia 64 Carolingian synagogue 4 f., 87 Catalonia 46, 78 Caucasus 30 f., 40, 60 census 24, 56, 59 Chersonesus 66 child mortality 25 Chinese 20, 74, 90 Chorasmia 67 Cimmerian Bosporus 62 f., 65 f., 68 city-states 12 Cohen modal haplotype 40, 88 Cologne 1 – 5, 71 f., 87 Constantinople 78 f. conversion 16, 18, 20, 31, 66, 89, 93 converts 18, 20, 22, 35, 51 f., 55, 66, 84, 89, 92 Cordova 78 Corinth 64 Crete 64 Crimea 33, 66, 70, 76, 85 Cyprus 64 Cyrus II, king of Persia 16 Czech lands 6, 9, 28 f., 84

105

Index

Danube hypothesis 6, 71 f. DNA – autosomal 34, 53, 85 – mitochondrial 29, 34 f., 61 – mitochondrial lineages 69 – H7 36 – HV0 77, 80 – K1a1b1a 36 – 38, 69 f., 73, 92 – K1a9 36, 69 f., 73 – K2a2 36, 69 f. – L1–L3a 90 – N1b 36, 69 f. – Y-chromosomal Lineages 39, 51, 85 – E-M34 80 f. – E-M81 80 f. – E-M215* (E-M215) 81 – E3b 39 – J1 39 f., 42 – J1-M267 40 – J1e*-P58* 41 – J2 39 f., 42 – J2-M12 40 – J2-M172 40 – J2-M318 41 – J2a-M410* 41 – R-M17 39, 44 – 46 – R-M269 41 – R1a 39, 43 – 45 – R1a-M582 45 f. – R-P25 39 – R1b 39, 44 East European Ashkenazis 5 – 8, 29, 38, 52 f., 55, 57 – 59, 61, 69 – 71, 73 f., 76, 82, 84 f., 93 East European Jewry 1, 5 – 7, 21, 23, 26, 28, 32 – 34, 66, 68, 71, 75, 85, 89 Eastern Europe 1, 5 – 7, 21, 23 – 26, 28 – 30, 32, 43, 47, 55, 57, 59, 66, 70 f., 73 – 75, 84, 89, 92 Edirne 78 Edomites 16 f., 22, 39 Egypt 10 f., 60, 64 England 47, 70, 77 environmental conditions 24 – 26, 33 Ephesus 62, 64 Ethiopian Jews 20, 90 – 92

ethnic-cum-language shift 82 Euboea 64 Europe 6 f., 23 f., 26, 28 f., 32, 37 f., 40, 42 f., 45 f. 54 f., 57 – 60, 69 f., 78, 85, 89 European Jews 8, 20, 30, 32, 35, 37, 61, 79, 89, 91 European lineages 36, 39, 44, 92 European Russia 24 Exodus 10, 32 exponential growth rate 23, 28, 58 former German eastern territories 28, 84 founder event 37, 56 founding lineages 39 founding mothers 36, 38, 61 four Jewish grandparents 54 f., 85 France 24, 43, 47, 72 f., 77 French Canadians 25, 33 Galicia 31, 75 Galilee 12, 14 genetic bottleneck 38, 56 f., 69 Georgians 31 Germania Judaica 6 f., 59, 87 Germany 1, 5 – 9, 21, 23, 28 f., 32, 34, 37, 43 f., 46 f., 52 f., 57, 59 – 62, 70, 72 f., 75, 77 f., 82, 84, 87 f. Gezer 10, 14 Girgashites 15 Girona 46 f., 50 Gorgippia 65 Granada 37, 78 Greece 8, 62, 64 – 68, 70, 78, 85 Greek colonies 62 – 64, 69 f., 76, 85 Hamburg 46, 82 haplogroup 44 Hazael, king of Aram-Damascus Hazor 12 Himyarite kingdom 52 Himyarites 91 Hittites 15 Hivites 15 Horowitz family 46 f., 50, 85 Hungary 31 f.

12

106

Index

Iberia 37, 47, 77 f., 80, 82 Iberian Jews 41, 46, 79, 82 Iberian surname(s) 47, 77, 80, 82 Indian(s) 20, 89 – 91 Ionia 62, 64 Iraq 52 Iron Age 10, 31 Isaac 11, 73 Israel 8, 10 – 12, 14 f., 18 f., 21, 34, 37, 66, 70, 87 – 89, 91 f. Israelites 8 – 12, 14 – 18, 21 f., 37, 40, 60 f., 84 – 86, 89 – 91 Istanbul 78 f., 81 f. Italy 8, 21, 46, 58, 64, 67 f., 70, 77, 79, 81 Jebusites 15 Jeroboam I, king of Israel 12, 41 f., 85 Jethro 17 Jewish demographic miracle 26 Jewish priests 8, 40 – 43, 85 Jewishness 40, 55, 92 f. Jezreel 12 Jordan 12, 14, 30 Jordan valley 12 Joseph II, Emperor of the 29 Josiah, king of Judah 15 Judeans 9 f., 17 f., 20, 22, 30, 37, 39 – 41, 45, 62, 64 – 66, 68, 70, 73, 76, 80, 84 f., 89 – 91 Judeo-Spanish 76 f., 82, 86 Karaite(s) 78 f., 81 Kazakhstan 32 Kerch 62, 65 Khazar hypothesis 30 f., 70 Khazaria 23, 30, 32, 66 f., 70 Khazars 30 – 33, 66, 72, 84 Khorasan 67 Land of Israel 30, 43, 46, 66, 68, 89 Levite(s) 8, 40, 43, 44 – 46, 51, 85, 93 linguistic replacement 75, 82 Lithuania 5, 53, 74 f., 92 Lithuanian Yiddish 74 Macedonia matrilineal

64, 78, 80 18, 84

Mehmed II, Ottoman sultan 78 f. Merneptah stele 10 Mesopotamia 14, 30 Messina 78 Middle East 30, 34, 36, 41 – 43, 45 f., 54, 69 f., 88 – 90 Middle Eastern origin 36, 40, 42, 51 f., 54 f., 69, 85 Miletus 62 model life tables 25 Mongol(s) 75 Mongolia 32 Moravia 31, 47, 72 f. Moroccan(s) 20, 80, 90 Morocco 79 Moslem(s) 67 Nebuchadnezzar, king of Neo-Babylonian Empire 16 Netherlands 20, 24, 43, 46 f., 77 North Africa 41, 77 Norwegian 44 nusah ashkenaz 21, 75 Olbia 65 Old Czech 72 Omride dynasty Oria 67 Oropos 64 Otranto 67

12 f.

Palestine 9, 40 patrilineal 18, 84 Pekah, king of Israel 14 Pergamum 62 Perizzites 15 Phanagoria 66 phenotype(s) 20, 56, 84, 89 Phocaea 62 Phoenician(s) 12, 14, 17, 22, 42 Poland 5 f., 24, 27, 37, 75, 92 Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth 24, 52 Portugal 78, 80 Portuguese Jewish community 79 priors 58 f., 61, 85 proseuche 66 pure Jews 54

Index

Radhanites 74 Rhine 71 Rhineland 3, 6, 30, 32, 69, 71 Rhineland hypothesis 6, 30, 71 Romaniots 78 f., 81 f., 86 Romanos I, Byzantine emperor 58, 67 Romans 20, 30, 63, 71 Rome 29, 64 f., 69, 74 Rufina 64 Russia 25, 27, 37, 69, 73, 92 Ruth 17 Samaria 12, 14, 16 Sardinia 64 Sargon II, king of Assyria 14 Saul, king of Israel 11 sefaradim 9 Sephardic Jews 9, 45 – 47, 76 – 82, 86, 90 Shosu 11, 17, 21, 39 f., 61 Silesia 6, 28 f., 84 Smyrna 64 Solomon, king of Israel 12, 15 Sorb hypothesis 6, 71 f. Sorbs 72 Southern Europe 29 f., 55, 58, 62, 70 Southern Italy 58, 67 f., 70 Spain 37, 43, 46 f., 50, 77 f., 85 Syria 12

107

Tarsus 64 ten lost tribes 14 f., 22 The Hague 46 Thessaly 64 Tiglat-pileser III, king of Assyria 14 Toledo 32 Tralles 62 Turkey 76 – 78, 80, 82 Turkish Jews 9, 41, 76 – 78, 80, 82 f., 86, 90 Ukraine 5, 7, 45, 68, 71 Uniparental markers 51 f., 61 United States 21, 70, 77, 88 f. unrounding 72 f. vernacular

72 – 74, 76, 83

West model life table 25, 32, 84 West Slavic Canaanite 72 Western Europe 5, 8, 21, 26, 32, 55, 69 f., 74 Y chromosome 38 f., 40, 46, 51 f., 61 Yehud 16 Yemenite Jews 51 f., 90 f. Yeno‘am 10 YHWH 12, 15 Yiddish 6, 25, 47, 70 – 76, 82, 86 Zippora

17