Art, Death and Social Order: The Mortuary Arts of Pre-Conquest Central Panama 9780860546979, 9781407348469

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
List of Illustrations
List of Tables
List of Maps
Acknowledgements
I. Prehistoric Panama, Social Dimensions, and Mortuary Arts
II. The Mortuary Sites of the Tonosi Valley
III. The Mortuary Site of Sitio Conte, Cocle Province
IV. Conclusions
Appendix 1
Appendix 2
Appendix 3
Appendix 4
Appendix 5
Appendix 6
Appendix 7
References Cited

Citation preview

Art, Death and Social Order The Mortuary Arts of Pre-Conquest Central Panama

Peter S. Briggs

BAR International Series 550 1989

B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -S550, 1989: 'Art, Death and Social Order: The Jfortuary Arts of Pre-Conquest Central Panruna' © Peter S. Briggs, 1989

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860546979 paperback ISBN 9781407348469 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860546979 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

T ABLE O F C ONTENTS

C HAPTER

I .

P AGE

P REHISTORIC P ANAMA,

S OCIAL D IMENSIONS,

A ND MORTUARY A RTS

1

S ocial D imensions M ortuary A rts,

a nd M ortuary R emains

Chiefdoms,

a nd

t he U .S.

3 A rmy

8

C luster A nalysis a s a M echanism o f D ata O rganization

a nd E xploration

1 5

S ummary

I I.

1 8

T HE MORTUARY S ITES

O F T HE T ONOSI V ALLEY

T he M ortuary A rts

f rom

t he P hase

I I

The M ortuary A rts f rom G raves a t E l I ndio

t he P hase

I II

T he M ortuary A rts

t he P hase

I II

t he P hase

I I

G raves a t E l

I ndio

2 1

f rom

3 4

G raves a t L a C af iaza T he M ortuary A rts

4 6

f rom

G raves a t E l C afetal S ummary

I II.

5 4 6 2

T HE MORTUARY S ITE O F S ITIO C ONTE, The M ortuary A rts t he

C OCLE P ROVINCE.

f rom S itio C onte

C luster A nalyses o f f rom

6 4 7 2

t he M ortuary A rts

S itio C onte G raves

The S ocial D imensions o f T he V isual D imensions o f

7 7

t he S itio

C onte M ortuary A rts

I V.

2 0

1 30 t he S itio

C onte M ortuary A rts

1 39

S ocial S tatus

1 43

a nd

t he S itio C onte M ortuary A rts

C ONCLUSIONS

1 52

APPENDICES 1 .

E l

I ndio P hase

2 .

E l

I ndio P hase I II G raves

I I G raves

3 .

L a C af laza G raves

1 79

4 .

E l C afetal G raves

1 85

5 .

S itio C onte G raves

6 .

D istribution C harts

7 .

S itio C onte C aches

R EFERENCES

1 61 1 69

1 93 a nd C luster D iagrams

2 25 2 53

2 57

L IST O F I LLUSTRATIONS

F IGURE

P AGE

1 . 2 .

M ortuary O bjects M ortuary O bjects

f rom P hase I I E l I ndio G raves f rom P hase I I E l I ndio G raves

3 0 3 2

3 . 4 . 5 . 6 .

D esigns F ound o n P hase I II E l I ndio C eramics S hell M ortuary A rts f rom P hase I II E l I ndio G raves M ortuary O bjects f rom P hase I II L a C af iaza G raves P rojectile P oints f rom S itio C onte, G rave 7 4

• • • • • •

4 3 4 4 5 3 8 5

7 . 8 . 9 . 1 0. 1 1. 1 2.

S tone C elts f rom S itio C onte, G rave 7 4 M iscellaneous O bjects f rom S itio C onte, G rave 7 4 M ortuary O bjcts f rom S itio C onte G old R epouss4 P laques f rom S itio C onte, G rave 7 4 G old R epouss4 P laques f rom S itio C onte, G rave 7 4 G old P laques, G reave, a nd P endant f rom

1 3.

S itio C onte, G rave 7 4 G old B eads a nd M iscellaneous O bjects

S itio C onte, G rave 7 4 M iscellaneous O bjects a nd a S tone M etate

9 2

1 4.

9 3

1 6. 1 7.

f rom S itio C onte P olychrome C eramic C arafes f rom S itio C onte, G rave 7 4 P olychrome C eramics f rom S itio C onte P olychrome a nd B ichrome C eramics f rom S itio C onte.

1 8. 1 9. 2 0. 2 1. 2 2. 2 3.

P olychrome C eramics f rom S itio C onte P olychrome C eramic P lates f rom S itio C onte P olychrome C eramic P lates f rom S itio C onte C eramics f rom S itio C onte P olyhcrome C eramic E ffigy V essels f rom S itio C onte G old F igurine a nd P endants f rom S itio C onte

1 5.

.

•

. • • • . • • •

8 6 8 7 8 8 8 9 9 0 9 1

f rom

f rom S itio C onte,

G rave 7 4

• •

9 4 9 5 9 6 9 7 9 8 9 9 1 00 1 01 1 02

2 4.

B one o r I vory F igurines

2 5.

B one

•

1 03

2 6. 2 7. 2 8. 2 9. 3 0.

f rom S itio C onte G old D isks f rom S itio C onte P olychrome C eramic P lates f rom S itio C onte P olychrome C eramic P lates f rom S itio C onte S itio C onte, G rave 7 4 C eramic L ayer a nd W all S itio C onte, S keletons f rom G rave 7 4

1 04 1 05 1 06 1 07 1 08 1 09

3 1. 3 2.

C eramic J ars f rom S itio C onte P olychrome C eramic E ffigy V essels

1 19 1 20

o r I vory a nd C opal R esin F igurines

f rom S itio C onte

L IST O F T ABLES

T ABLE

P AGE

1 .

F requency o f A rmy R anks,

2 .

P ercent o f U nited S tates A rmy M ilitary

3 . 4 . 5 . 6 .

3 0 S eptember

1 978

1 3

R anks d uring F ive Y ear P eriod N umber o f E nlisted M en a nd O fficers i n t he t he U nited S tates A rmy d uring a F ive Y ear P eriod. E l I ndio ( Phase I I): G rave L oci

1 4 1 4 2 5

E l I ndio ( Phase I I): A ge a nd P osition o f I nterments . • E l I ndio ( Phase I I): D istribution o f A ge G roups b y E xcavation A rea E l I ndio ( Phase I I): N umber o f I nterments b y A ge G roup a nd P resence/Absence o f M ortuary A rts

2 6

2 9

1 0. 1 1.

E l I ndio ( Phase I I): C omparison o f C luster A nalyses . • E l I ndio ( Phase I II): D istribution o f A ge G roups b y E xcavation A rea E l I ndio ( Phase I II): A ge a nd P osition o f I nterments. • E l I ndio ( Phase I II): D istribution o f A ge G roups

1 2.

a nd P resence/Absence o f M ortuary A rts E l I ndio ( Phase I II): C omparison o f C luster A nalyses.

3 8 4 0

L a C af iaza: A ge a nd P osition o f I nterments L a C af iaza: C orrespondence o f G rave N umbers L a C af iaza: N umber o f T nterments b y A ge G roup a nd P resence/Absence o f M ortuary A rts L a C af iaza: C omparison o f C luster A nalyses

4 8 4 9

7 . 8 . 9 .

1 3. 1 4. 1 5. 1 6.

2 7

3 5 3 7

4 9 5 1

1 7.

L a C ar iaza: t he T hree,

1 8. 1 9. 2 0. 2 1.

E l C afetal: A ge a nd P osition o f I nterments E l C afetal: G rave L oci E l C afetal: C omparison o f C luster A nalyses S itio C onte: A ge a nd S ex C haracteristics

5 7 5 8 6 0 7 3

2 8.

o f t he I nterments S itio C onte: A ge a nd S ex C haracteristics o f I nterments w ith M ortuary A rts S itio C onte: D isposition o f I nterments S itio C onte: C omparison o f C luster A nalyses S itio C onte: D istribution o f M ortuary A rts S itio C onte: D isposition o f C luster V III G raves S itio C onte: A verage N umber o f M ortuary A rts P er G rave P er C luster S itio C onte: M ortuary A rts i n C luster I X G raves

2 9. 3 0.

S itio C onte: S itio C onte:

2 2. 2 3. 2 4. 2 5. 2 6. 2 7.

3 1. 3 2. 3 3. 3 4.

C omplete L inkage C luster A nalysis F our, a nd F ive C luster L evels

2 7

5 1

7 4 7 6 7 9-80 1 22-123 1 23-124

. . .

D isposition o f C luster I X I nterments N umber o f M ortuary A rts a nd

T ypes i n G raves w ith M ore t han O ne I nterment S itio C onte: D istribution o f M ortuary A rts i n C lusters I -VII, I X, a nd X S itio C onte: P resence/Absence o f C ostume a nd S umptuary M ortuary A rts S itio C onte: T otal C ostume a nd S umptuary M ortuary A rts b y C luster S itio C onte: P resence/Absence o f D esign S ubjects

a t

( Exclusive o f C luster V III)

• •

1 25 1 27 1 28 1 31 1 33

1 34-135 1 36 1 41

3 5.

S itio C onte: D istribution o f D esign S ubjects ( Exclusive o f C luster V III)

A -1. A -2.

E l I ndio ( Phase I I): E l I ndio ( Phase I I): o f M ortuary A rts

A -3. A -4. A -5. A -6.

M ortuary A rts O bject C odes f or T onosi V alley S ites. E l I ndio ( Phase I I): C luster T ree D iagram E l I ndio ( Phase I II): D istribution o f M ortuary A rts E l I ndio ( Phase I II): P resence/Absence

2 30 2 31 2 32

A -7.

o f M ortuary A rts E l I ndio ( Phase I II):

2 33 2 34

A -8. A -9. A -10. A -11.

L a L a L a E l

A -12. A -13.

E l C afetal: C luster T ree D iagram S itio C onte: P resence/Absence o f L ithic M ortuary A rts

A -14.

A -16.

S itio M etal S itio B one, S itio

A -17.

C eramic M ortuary A rts S itio C onte: M ortuary A rts

A -15.

D istribution o f M ortuary A rts. P resence/Absence

1 42 2 28 2 29

C luster T ree D iagram

C af laza: D istribution o f M ortuary A rts C af iaza: P resence/Absence o f M ortuary A rts C af laza: C luster T ree D iagram C afetal: P resence/Absence o f M ortuary A rts

C onte: P resence/Absence o f M ortuary A rts C onte: P resence/Absence o f I vory, a nd V egetal M ortuary A rts C onte: P resence/Absence o f C odes

2 35 2 36 2 37 2 38-239 2 40 2 41-242 2 43-244 2 45-246 2 47-250 2 51-252

L IST O F M APS

M AP

P AGE

1 .

P anamä a nd

2 .

E xcavation A rea a nd E nvirons o f E l

t he

C entral R egion

3 .

E xcavation A reas

4 . 5 . 6 .

E xcavation A reas

a t E l

2 I ndio

2 2

I ndio

2 3

E xcavation A rea

a t L a C ai laza

4 7

E xcavation A rea

a t E l C afetal a t S itio C onte

5 5 6 9

A CKNOWLEDGMENTS T his

s tudy

P reConquest s upport P anamA

i s

o f

d issertation,

i n

C entral

i ndividuals

1 978

S tates

o n m y

A rts

n umerous

d uring

A merican

b ased

M ortuary

a nd

1 979

R esearch

a nd

w as

T he

S ocial D imensions

P anama,

w hich

i nstitutions.

s upported

F ellowship.

A

b y

r eceived

T he

a n

T inker

o f t he

r esearch

i n

O rganization

o f

F oundation

S ummer

R esearch G rant t hrough t he U niversity o f N ew M exico's L atin A merican I nstitute p rovided f unds f or a dditional r esearch i n 1 980. A F aculty R esearch G rant t his

f rom U tah S tate U niversity h elped

m anuscript.

a lso

s upplied

A ssociation F ellowship

, by

a nd

t he

d uring

v arious

U niversity

t he D epartment

o f

o f

N ew

A rt

o f

a lso

l ike

Richard

I nstitute;

A merican

t o

g ratefully

C ooke

Marcela

a nd

o f

C amargo,

C laudia

S ection

P ennsylvania.

o f

M edoff, t he

O lga

H errera-Acosta,

M exico

w hich

H oward

R odee.

t he

a cknowledge

w as

S tudent

D irector

T helma

B ull,

K eeper

M useum

Gladys

a nd

t he

i ncluded T hey

A lain

D rs.

M ary

I chon

t he

s tudy

o f

a t

C asimir

E lizabeth

c ontributed

M useo

E thnography,

S mithsonian

t he M useum o f P anamef io,

d e

m eaningful d rawings. a n i mportant s ource

a ssisted s kills,

a nd

d e

m oral

b ear

i nterpretations.

f ull

o f

M ario

t heir

t ime,

S mith,

B rody ,

a nd

e ncouragement

J .J.

a nd

r equires.

t he C osta

t he University o f o f A rchaeology a nd

A merican

P hilosophical

R ica,

a nd

t he

M useo

d el

A rchly°

R ose M ilovich, a n p hotographs i nto

s upport a nd c onfidence p roved t o h e F inally, S usan B riggs c ontributed s upport

w hich

d irect a nd c onsequential i nput I r eceived t his p roject. D espite t he h elp f rom a ll u ltimately

Brizuela,

T o we a n e normous d ebt T he U niversity o f N ew

i n i nnumerable w ays. r endered m y b lurry

M y p arents' o f s ecurity.

i ntellectual

C ollections,

f reely g ave

p atience,

I nstitution, Nacional

H ombre

A rosemena f amily o f

U niversity

t he A merican I ndian Heye F oundation,

M useo

N acional d e P anamä a rtist w ith d eft

t he

t he

a nd

Research

d el

d eceased) a nd M arcia i n P anamA; t he C onte

f ormerly

L inares,

o f

c ooperation

Tropical

The s taffs o f T he University M useum a t P ennsylvania, B rooklyn M useum, P eabody M useum

p ersonal,

d rafting o f p roject

B ainbridge B unting

t he

S mithsonian

U niversity

c ritical e valuation w hich e very

Hombre

t he

G raduate

t he

i nsightful c omments, a nd h elpful i nformation. o f g ratitude t o m y d issertation c ommittee a t

S ociety,

t he

o f

M exico's

t hrough

P anamef io; R eina T orres d e A rauz ( now o f t he I nstituto N acional d e C ultura P enonom4;

f und

p hases

i n A rt H istory.

I w ould a dvice

S upport

r esponsibility

p roved

t o

h e

t he

m ost

t hrough t he m any y ears o f o f t hese worthy p eople, I f or

a ll

mistakes

and

P REHISTORIC P ANAMA, S OCIAL D IMENSIONS,

A ND M ORTUARY A RTS

I ntroduction

Most, i f n ot a ll, c ontemporary o r h istoric s ocieties h ave i nvested c onsiderable a rtistic m aterials a nd e fforts i n t he d isposal o f t heir d ead. T he m onumental f unerary c omplexes o f d ynastic E gypt, t he " ceramic a rmies" o f Q in SM H uang's t hird c entury B .C. t omb f rom X i'an, C hina, t he b eehive t ombs o f M ycenae, a nd t he m arble s culptures o f M ichaelangelo e xemplify j ust a f ew o f t he c onsequences o f e normous e xpenditures o f a rtistic e nergy d edicated t o s uch e nds. Y et d eath i s n ot s olely a n o ccasion f or a s ociety t o b oast o f i ts a rtistic p rowess; i t i s a lso a n e vent l oaded w ith s ocial s ignificance. O ne m ay p ersuasively a rgue, f or e xample, t hat t he c reation o f a rt a ssociated w ith t he d ead e mbodies f or t he l iving m embers o f a s ociety t he s ocial s tatus o f m ortuary a rt a nd s ocial

t he d eceased. T his r elationship b etween d imensions i s t he s ubject o f t his s tudy.

T he p re—Conquest c ultures o f c entral P anamA ( Map 1 ) p rovide a u seful a rena t o e xamine t he s ocial d imensions o f m ortuary a rt. M ost o f t he p re—Columbian g roups f rom t he m odern p rovinces o f C oclA, H errera, L os S antos, a nd V eraguas a re a lmost e xclusively k nown t o u s t hrough t heir m ortuary r emains. T he c emeteries f rom a pproximately 2 00 B .C. t o 1 500 A .D., o r P hases I V t hrough V II ( see C ooke 1 976 f or t he c hronology o f t he C entral R egion o f P anamA) o ffer a p articularly r ich s ource o f m ortuary a rts. Moreover, d uring t his t ime t he s ocieties i nhabiting t he C entral R egion i nstituted s ubstantial c hanges i n t heir e conomic a nd s ocial o rganization. T hese c hanges, a mounting t o a s hift f rom s mall f arming a nd f ishing v illages t o l arger, n ucleated t owns p opulated b y a s m any a s s everal t housand p eople w ho w ere r uled b y c hiefs, u navoidably i nfluenced t he c ontent a nd o rganization o f t he m ortuary a rts o f t hese p eoples. ( For t he m ost r ecent 1 984.)

s urvey

o f

t he

p rehistory

o f

c entral

P anamA,

s ee

C ooke

T he e valuation o f t he c omplex r elationships b etween m ortuary a rts a nd s ocial d ynamics n ecessitates i nformation a bout m ortuary t reatments, d emographic p arameters d erived f rom s keletal r emains, a nd t he v isual c haracteristics o f t he mortuary a rts, a s w ell a s a r epresentative s ample o f a p opulation. The m ajority o f k nown a rch p logical s ites i n t he C entral R egion o f P anamä . d o n ot r eliably p rovide s uch c omprehensive d ata ( see, f or e xample, D ade 1 960 a nd 1 972, M itchell a nd H eidenreich 1 975, I chon 1 972, C ooke n .d. a nd 1 978, V errill 1 926 a nd 1 927, Z elsman 1 959, C urtis 1 959, M itchell a nd A cker 1 961a,

b ;

M itchell

1 962;

W assen

1 957-58; 1

D ade

1 960;

C asimir

d e

OCIAI PAC IF IC

M ap

1

P anamA a nd

t he

C entral

R egion.

7

B rizuela 1 972;

1 972,

n .d.,

S terling 1 950;

a nd

p .c.;

H arte 1 958).

G onzalez

1 971;

A s a r esult,

M ahler I s hall

1 961; f ocus

Q uiros o n p re-

C onquest a rchaeological s ites w hich y ielded mortuary r emains excavated u nder c ontrolled ( although not a lways r igorous) c ircumstances a nd w hich a lso c ontained a u seful n umber o f i nterments. O ne o r t wo g raves d o n ot s ufficiently r epresent a p opulation o r s ubp opulation a nd, t herefore, c an n ot a ccurately b etween t he m ortuary a rts a nd s ocial d ynamics.

a mplify r elationships T herefore, t his s tudy

h as b een l imited t o a rchaeological s ites w hich y ielded f ifteen g raves e xcavated u nder c ontrolled c onditions. A lthough t he v ast R egion o f P anamA m ust

m ajority o f g raves b e e liminated f rom

a t

l east

e xcavated i n t he C entral c onsideration b ecause o f

u ncontrolled a nd p oorly d ocumented e xcavations, s everal m ortuary s ites a re n ot a ddressed i n t his s tudy f or o ther r easons. G ladys C asimir d e B rizuela's ( 1972, n .d., a nd p .c.) e xcavations a t t he s ite o f L as H uacas, f or e xample, u ncovered n umerous c aches o f i ntriguing mortuary a rts f rom a p re-Conquest c emetery i n t he p rovince o f V eraguas. Unfortunately, t he s oil c onditions c aused c omplete d isintegration o f t he h uman s keletal r emains a nd, a s a r esult, p rovided n o i nformation o n t he a ge o r s ex c haracteristics o f t he p opulation. M oreover, s ince n o h uman s keletal r emains w ere d iscovered i n a ssociation w ith t he " mortuary" c aches, o ne m ust a ssume t hat t he e xcavated a rtifacts w ere a p art o f a c emetery o r o ther m ortuary d isposal s ystem. C ooke's ( 1971, 1 975, a nd 1 978) e xcavations a t t he s ite o f S itio S ierra a lso u ncovered i mportant m ortuary f inds, b ut t he d eceased p opulation w as s mall, a nd t he a ge a nd s ex i nformation w as n ot u niformly a vailable f or a ll o f t he i nterments. C ooke h as, h owever, p ublished s ome o f h is f indings o n t his s ite which I s hall h ave o ccasion t o r efer t o l ater. T he p receramic s ite o f C erro M angote e xcavated b y C harles M cGimsey ( 1956, 1 958 a nd M cGimsey, C ollins a nd M cKern 1 966) i s n ot i ncluded f or a nalysis b ecause t he g raves d id n ot c ontain m ortuary a rts. F inally, t he e xcavation r eports ( Bull 1 963 a nd L add 1 964) f rom t he l ate s ite o f E l H atillo l acked c onsistency . T his s ite w as e xcavated b y t wo d ifferent i ndividuals, a nd t heir f ield t echniques,

s trategy,

a nd

r esults w ere n ot

c ompatible.

T he p re-Conquest s ites f rom t he C entral R egion o f P anamA w hose e xcavated f ield d ata d o m eet t he o utlined n eeds o f t his s tudy i nclude E l I ndio, L a C af laza, a nd E l C afetal f rom t he T onosi p eninsula, a nd t he f amous s ite o f S itio C onte l ocated i n C oc M p rovince ( Map 1 ). I n a ddition t o p roviding t he n ecessary d ata, t he m ortuary r emains f rom t hese p re-Conquest l ocales a lso p resent a t emporal p rogression f rom a pproximately 2 00 A .D. t o 1 200 A .D. a nd, a s w ill b e d emonstrated, i llustrate i mportant c hanges i n t he s ocial d ynamics w hich u ltimately s hed l ight o n t he c ulture a nd a rt h istory o f t he r egion a s a w hole.

S ocial D imensions

S ince o f

t he

n on-living

a rchaeological

l ate

1 960s,

s ocieties a nalyses

o f

t he h as

a nd M ortuary R emains

i nterpretation s teadily

m ortuary

r emains. 3

o f

t he

a dvanced T he

s ocial

w ith b ody

t he o f

d ynamics h elp

o f

k nowledge

w ithin t his f ield o f s ocio-archaeology o ffers u seful t heories a nd m ethodologies t o t hose i nterested i n p rehistoric a rt. M y p urpose h ere, h owever, i s n ot t o r eview i n d epth t he c ontributions o f t he p ast t wenty y ears, i f d esired, t he r eader i s d irected t o t he r eview o f T ainter ( 1978) w hich e mphasizes t he m ost i mportant c ontributions o f t he 1 960s a nd 1 970s a nd t he m ore r ecent a rticle b y B artel ( 1982) w hich s urveys t he 1 980s.

m ortuary

s tudies

f rom

t he

l ate

n ineteenth

c entury

t o

B ut t wo s eminal w orks w ere p roduced b y t he " new a rchaeologists" i n t he 1 970s a nd a re o f f undamental i mportance t o a ll s ubsequent s ocial a nalyses o f m ortuary r emains. A rthur S axe i n h is 1 970 d issertation, " Social D imensions o f M ortuary P ractices," e xamined a nd t ested a s eries o f h ypotheses w hich r elated m ortuary t reatment o f i ndividuals w ith v ariations i n s ocial d ynamics a nd c omplexity . I n t he o ther s eminal w ork, " Mortuary P ractices: T heir S tudy a nd T heir P otential," L ewis B inford a ttempted t o i nterpret v ariation i n " mortuary t reatments a s a f unction o f t he c omplexity a nd d egree o f d ifferentiation c haracteristic o f t he r elevant s ociety" ( 1971:25). I t w ill

b e u seful

t o r eview b riefly b oth o f t hese

c ontributions.

S axe, b uilding o n t he f oundations o f r ole m odel t heory, a pplies t o m ortuary a nalysis t he c oncepts o f s ocial i dentity a nd s ocial p ersona d eveloped b y W ard G oodenough ( see S axe 1 970). E ach m ember o f s ociety, h e c ontends, h as a v ariety o f i dentity r elationships w ith o ther m embers o f s ociety. T hese m ay i nclude, f or e xample, b eing a m ember o f a u niversity f aculty, a ffiliating w ith a m ilitary o rganization, h aving a s pouse, a nd s o f orth . T he c omposite o f t hese r elationships o r i dentities a mounts t o o ne's s ocial p ersona. D eath, a s S axe p oints o ut, p rovides t he o pportunity f or t he e xpression o f t he g reatest n umber o f o ne's s ocial i dentities. T he r itual o f d eath, a s a r esult, m ay e ncompass t he i ndividual's s ocial p ersona.

g reatest

n umber

o f

d imensions

o f

a n

B uilding o n t hese o bservations, S axe d eveloped a n umber o f t estable h ypotheses. T he f irst f our o f t hese, w hich a re p resented b elow, w ere " concerned w ith t he w ay s ocial p ersonae a re d ifferentially r epresented w ithin d isposal d omains [ i.e., b urials, c remations, a nd s o f orth]" ( Saxe 1 970:65): H ypothesis

# 1:

T he

C omponents

o f

a G iven D is-

p osal D omain C ooperate i n a P artitioning o f t he U niverse, t he R esultant C ombinations R epres enting D ifferent S ocial P ersonae

( 1970:65).

H ypothesis # 2: I n a G iven D omain, t he P rincip les O rganizing t he S et o f S ocial P ersonae ( Produced b y t he C ooperative P artitioning o f t he U niverse o f D isposal C omponents) a re C ong ruent w ith T hose O rganizing S ocial R elations i n t he S ociety a t L arge

( 1970:66).

H ypothesis # 3: W ithin a G iven D omain, P ersonae o f L esser S ocial S ignificance T end t o M anifest F ewer P ositive C omponents i n T heir S ignificata R elative t o O thers, a nd C onversely ( 1970:69). 4

H ypothesis

# 4:

T he

G reater

t he

S ocial

S igni-

f icance o f t he D eceased t he G reater W ill B e t he T endency f or t he S ocial P ersona R epresented a t D eath t o C ontain S ocial I dentities C ongruent w ith t hat H igher P osition a t t he E xpense o f O ther ( and L ess S ocially S ignificant I dentit ies) t he D eceased M ay H ave H ad i n L ife, a nd C onversely ( 1970:71). T he o ther f our h ypotheses w ere " concerned w ith t he w ay d ifferent s ocial i dentities a re d ifferentially r epresented a mong d ifferent d isposal r emains" ( 1970:65). T he f irst o f w hich i s: Hypothesis # 5: The More P aradigmatic t he A ttributes E videnced i n t he K ey S tructure o f t he D omain, t he L ess C omplex a nd M ore E galitarian t he S ocial O rganization. C onversely, t he M ore T ree-Like t he A ttributes, t he M ore C omplex a nd t he L ess E galitarian t he S ocial O rganization ( 1970:75). A lthough m y c oncern i n i ntroduce t he c ritically

p resenting t hese i mportant w ork o f

h ypotheses i s s imply t o S axe, s ome e xplanation o f

t he t erminology i n t he a bove h ypothesis i s n ecessary u nderstand i t. A gain, S axe's o wn w ords a re b est:

i n

T he s tructure o f a d omain i s a p erfect p aradigm i f e ach a nd e very c omponential d efinition ( i.e., " significatum," o r " disposal t ype") i s a " minimal c lassification e vent," i .e., i t c ontains o ne p ositive c omponent f or e ach a nd e very d imension . . . a s t he k ey [ as i n a k ey d iagram] r amifies h orizontally t he b ranches p ass t hrough e ach a nd e very d imension i n t urn, a ccumu lating o ne c omponent f rom e ach d imension . . . T his m eans t hat t he a ppearance o f a p articular v alue o f a d imension d oes n ot d emand t he s ubsequent a ppearance o f o ther p articular v alues a nd d imensions . . . . A nother w ay t o t hink a bout t his c ompletely n on-redundant s ituation o f a ll c ombining w ith a ll i s a s o ne o f c omplete r andomness i n o rganization . . . [ Whereas] a p erfect t ree i s a m aximally r edundant s tructure i n w hich, f or a ny d imension, t here i s a u nique n ode a t w hich i t i s a pplied; e ach d imension b ranches f rom o ne a nd o nly o ne n ode . . . [ or] c omplete n on-randomness i n o rganization. ( 1970:75-78) F ollowing a re

t he

r emaining h ypotheses

p ut

f orward

b y S axe:

Hypothesis # 6: T he S impler a S ociocultural S ystem t he G reater W ill B e t he T endency f or t here t o b e a L inear R elationship B etween N umber o f C omponents

i n S ignificata, 5

N umber o f C ontrast

o rder

t o

S ets N ecessary t o D efine T hem, a nd t he S ocial S ignificance o f t he S ignificata, a nd C onversely ( 1970:112). H ypothesis S ystem t he

# 7: T he S impler t he L ess D ivergence W ill

S ociocultural b e E vident i n

t he T reatment o f D ifferent K inds o f D eviant S ocial P ersonae, a nd C onversely ( 1970:118). H ypothesis # 8: T o t he D egree t hat C orporate G roup R ights t o U se a nd/or C ontrol C rucial b ut R estricted R esources a re A ttained a nd/or L egitimized b y M eans o f L ineal D escent f rom t he D ead ( i.e., L ineal T ies t o A ncestors), S uch G roups w ill M aintain F ormal D isposal A reas f or t he E xclusive D isposal o f t heir D ead, a nd C onversely ( 1970:119). S axe t ested t hese e ight h ypotheses w ith e thnographic e vidence f rom t he K apauku P apuans o f W est N ew G uinea, t he S hanti o f A frica, a nd t he B ontoc I gorot o f L uzon, P hilippines. H e f ound t hat h ypotheses 1 , 2 , 4 , a nd 8 w ere a ll s upported b y t he d ata. T he o nly h ypothesis n ot s upported b y t he d ata w as 3 . H ypothesis 5 w as n either s upported n or d isproved; h ypothesis 6 w as s upported t o a m inor d egree; a nd, f inally,

d ata w as

n ot

a vailable

t o e valuate h ypothesis

7 .

S axe's w ork m akes v ery c lear t hat t he a ctivities s urrounding t he d isposition o f a d ead m ember o f a p articular s ocial g roup w ill, m ore t han a ny o ther a ctivity, t end t o s um u p t he s ocial i dentities o f t hat i ndividual. T ainter ( 1978), e xpanding o n S axe's s tudy, p oints o ut t hat: . . . I n s ocieties o rganized o n d iffering l evels o f c omplexity, s ocial i dentities w ill v ary a s t o t he n umber o f i dentity r elationships t hat i t i s p ossible f or t hem t o h ave. I n e galitarian s ocie ties i nfants w ill h ave f ew s ocial i dentities, w hereas a dults w ill h ave a cquired m any . . . . [ I]f a rchaeologists f ind a n i nfant b uried i n a m anner i ndicating a s ocial p ersona l arger t han t hat p ossessed b y s ome a dults, a p rinciple o f s ocial r anking b y b irth i s p robably i ndicated ( 1978:106). S axe's

h ypotheses

a lso

i mply

t hat

a s

o ne

i ncreases

i n

s tatus,

t he n umber o f i dentity r elationships a lso i ncreases; a s a r esult, t he d eath o f a h igh-status i ndividual w ill o ccasion a g reater n umber o f e xpressed s ocial i dentities, t hereby a ccounting f or t he g reater a ttention r eceived b y s uch a n i ndividual. D eath i s, w hen a pproached a s a s ocial p henomena, t he f inal r ite o f p assage--one's l ast, i f y ou w ill, s ocial e vent. I t a llows t he l iving m embers o f s ociety a n o ccasion t o r ecount a nd r ecognize i mportant a chievements. The e xtensive

c onsequences a nd

a rchaeologists

h ad

a n

o f

S axe's

i mmediate,

i nterested

i n

r ather a nd

e legant

c ontinuing,

i nterpreting m ortuary 6

a rguments i mpact

f inds.

o n

a re o ther

B inford's

1 971

a rticle,

" Mortuary P ractices:

T heir

S tudy a nd

T heir P otential,"

p rovided f urther e valuation o f t he r elevance o f m any o f S axe's i deas w hich r elate l evels o f s ocial o rganization w ith c hanges i n m ortuary p ractices. T wo i mportant p ropositions w ere e xamined b y B inford: I t w as a rgued o f

t hat

t here

s hould b e a h igh d egree

i somorphism b etween ( a)

t he

c omplexity o f

t he

s tatus s tructure i n a s ocio-cultural s ystem a nd ( b) t he c omplexity o f m ortuary c eremonialism a s r egards d ifferential t reatment o f p ersons o ccupying d ifferent s tatus p ositions ( 1971:18). H e n oted t hat t his p roposition w as i mpossible t o e valuate b ecause s ufficient d ata d id n ot e xist. H owever, b ased o n g eneral s urveys f ound i n e thnographic a ccounts, B inford w as a ble t o s upport t he p lausibility o f t he p roposition. H e c ontinued: T he

s econd

p roposition w hich I h ave a ttempted

t o

t est . . . [ argues] t hat a mong s ocieties o f m inimal c omplexity, t he m ajor d imensions w hich s erve f or s tatus d ifferentiation a re b ased u pon t he p ersonal q ualities o f t he i ndividuals i nv olved: a ge, s ex, a nd d ifferential c apacities f or p erformance o f c ultural t asks. O n t he o ther h and, a mong m ore c omplex s ocio-cultural s ystems, s tatus p osition m ay b e d efined i n t erms o f m ore a bstract c haracteristics r elated t o t he c ulturally d esignated a nd s ymbolized m eans e mp loyed f or p artitioning t he s ocially o rganized h uman a ggregate. G iven t he p roposition t hat d istinctions m ade i n m ortuary r itual a re m ade i n t erms o f t he s ocial p ersona, t he c omposite o f t he s ocial i dentities h eld i n l ife, t here s hould b e a s trong c orrespondence b etween t he n ature o f t he d imensional c haracteristics s erving a s t he b asis f or d ifferential m ortuary t reatment a nd t he e xpected c riteria e mployed f or s tatus d iff erentiation a mong s ocieties a rranged o n a s cale f rom s imple t o c omplex ( 1971:18-19). I n o ther w ords, t he m ore s ocially c omplex a s ociety, t he m ore c omplex s hould b e t he e xpression o f s ocial d imensions w ithin a m ortuary c ontext; a nd, i n a ddition, s ocieties o f d ifferent s ocial c omplexity w ill

u se

d ifferent

c riteria

t o

e xpress

s ocial

s tatus.

B inford

e xamined t hese p ropositions w ith a vailable e thnographic l iterature f rom t he H uman R elations A rea F ile a nd f ound h is i deas t o b e s ound. D uring

t he

p ast

f ifteen

y ears,

o ther

a rchaeologists

h ave

a dded

t o t he c ontributions o f S axe a nd B inford. S ophisticated s tulies b ased o n m easurements o f c aloric e xpenditures d uring m ortuary r ituals, e xploitation o f i nformation t heory t o i dentify s ocial c omplexity, a nd a nalysis o f t he s patial d ynamics o f i nterments h ave c ontributed t o s ubstantial e xpansion o f t hese s eminal w orks ( see T ainter 1 978 f or a r eview o f S axe's a nd B inford's i nfluence o n m ortuary w hich

s tudies).

h ave

f ocused

H owever, a ttention

t he m ajority o f o n

m ortuary 7

t he m ore

g oods

h ave

r ecent

s tudies

c oncentrated

o n

t he

s ocial

s ignificance

o f

q uantitative

d imensions,

e .g.,

t he n umber

o f s hell b eads, t he n umber o f c eramic b owls, a nd s o f orth. T hey h ave n ot, i n g eneral, i ncorporated q ualitative d imensions o f t he m ortuary g oods, s uch a s v isual c haracteristics, i nto t heir s tudies.

M ortuary A rts, C hiefdoms, a nd t he U .S. A rmy

i nto o f

B uilding o n t he c ontributions o f S axe a nd B inford, a n i nquiry t he r elationship b etween s ocial s tatus a nd t he v isual a ttributes

a

g roup

o f

s pecified

m ortuary

f urnishings

m ay

a dd

p reviously

u nexplained d imensions t o c ontemporary s tudies o f m ortuary f urnishings. P articular s ymbols, f or e xample, d iscovered o n a n umber o f a rt w orks b uried w ith o ne o r s everal i ndividuals m ay w ell b e r epresentations o f a n i ndividual's g roup l ineage, s ocial r anking, a ge, s ex o r s ome t ype o f s ubgroup a ffiliation. F or t he p urpose o f d emonstrating s uch a r elationship, r anked s ocieties o r c hiefdoms ( following

S ervice

1 962)

u ltimately r elevant U nlike e gocentric,

a b and r anks

t o

a fford

a p ractical

i llustration

t he m ortuary s ites e xamined

i n t his

o r e galitarian s ociety i n w hich s tatus i n a c hiefdom a re l ess d ependent o n

w hich

i s

s tudy . l evels a re i ndividual

q ualities, s uch a s t ask p erformance, a nd t he u navoidable c riteria o f a ge a nd s ex, o f t he p erson h olding t he r ank. ( This d oes n ot d eny, h owever, t hat s uch f actors a s c harisma o r s ex c an p lay a n i mportant r ole i n t he a chievement o r a scription o f a r ank.) Y et, a fter t he a ttainment o f a s pecific s tatus, t he m ore s ociocentric r anks o f a c hiefdom b ecome s imilar t o o ffices h aving " ascribed f unctions a nd c onventionalized

a ttributes

n o

m atter

1 962:155); m embership i n t hem s tructurally r esembles a p yramid. S ervice

e xpla ns

f urther

i s

t hat

w ho

o ccupies

[ them]"

h ierarchically

" a

c hiefdom

h as

( Service

o rdered

a nd

c entralized

a uthority t hat e xtends t oward t he b oundary o f t he s ociety [ like a n] u mbrella . . . s o t hat n o o ne c an b e i n d oubt a s t o h is m embership, i f n ot h is p recise p lace, i n i t" ( 1962:167). C ommonly, b ut b y n o m eans

e xclusively,

o ne's

" precise

p lace"

i s

o ften

d efined

b y

t he

g enealogical c loseness o f t he i ndividual t o t he c entral a uthority o r c hief. T he a ttainment o f o ne's p lace, h owever, c an b e e ither a scribed o r a chieved t hrough a c omplex a rray o f f amilial, o ccupational, a nd p olitical r elationships. O f p articular i nterest t o t he s tudy o f p rehistoric a rt

i s S ervice's o bservation

t hat:

[ C]oncepts i nvolving p rescription, p roscription, s umptuary l aws, m arriage r ules a nd c ustoms, g enealogical c onceptions a nd e tiquette i n g eneral c ombine t o c reate a nd p erpetuate t his s ocio-political o rdering . . . [ and] d istinctiveness i n d ress a nd o rnamentation s eem t o b e t he m ost v isible o f t hese a nd p robably t he s implest, a nd p erhaps t he f irst, t hat w ere i nstituted W ithin

modern

( 1962:155-156).

m ilitary

o rganizations 8

o ne

c an

f ind

a r eady

e xample o f t he c odification a nd i nstitutionalization o f t he s umptuary l aws t o w hich S ervice d raws a ttention. T he m ilitary 's, f or e xample t he U .S. A rmy 's, c ontrolled c elebration o f r ank a nd s tatus t hrough r ules g overning d ress, c ostume, a nd e tiquette i s, m oreover, p otentially e xpressable t hrough m ortuary a rts. T his p arallel d id n ot e scape S ervice. H e w rote: [ T]he u se o f s umptuary r ules f or t his p urpose [ identifying r ank] i s r eadily s een i n a ny m odern A rmy . T here i s i n t he U .S. A rmy a c ontinuous g radation o f r ank f rom p rivate, c orporal, s erg eant, l ieutenant, o n t o t he f ive-star g eneral. B ut a s harp b reak i s m ade i n t he c ontinuity o f t he g radation b y e mphasizing t he d istinction b etween " officers" a nd " men." S umptuary r ules i n d ress, o rnamentation, a nd p rivilege c reate a s ocial d istance w hich m ight b e c alled " artif icial d aylight" b etween t he t wo c lasses. A s e veryone m ust k now, t he p urpose o f t his i s c learly a nd e xplicitly t o i mplement a uthority ( 1962:159). S ervice's a bove o bservations h elp t o c larify t he s imilarities i n t he s ocial o rganization o f c hiefdoms o r t ribes a nd t he U .S. A rmy . H is c omments a lso s uggest a n a venue t o e xplore t he a rticulation o f s uch a s ocial s tructure w ithin t he a rena o f m ortuary a rts. I n t his c ase, t he U .S. A rmy i s a n e xcellent a nalytical v ehicle b ecause t he g lut o f b eaucratic A rmy r egulations p rovides a n u nmatched s ource o f d ata w hich g overn t his g roup's m ortuary p ractices. M oreover, t hese r egulations c over a lmost a ll a spects o f m ortuary p ractices, f rom t he i nitial a utopsy t o t he c rowning g rave m arker. O f e ven m ore r elevance, t he A rmy 's r ules p recisely d etail t he f orm a nd c ontent o f t he v isual e xpressions o f r ank a nd s tatus w ithin m ortuary c ontexts. T he e xplication o f t he U .S. A rmy 's " mortuary l ogic" p rovides a n a nalogy, o r m odel, w hich w ill s erve t o j ustify t he a ssumption t hat a n i dentifiable l ogic a lso g overns t he r elationship b etween m ortuary a rts a nd s ocial s tatus i n p re-Conquest P anamanian s ocieties. B y n o m eans d o I p ropose t hat t he l ogical s teps w hich d etermine t he m ortuary p ractices a mong t hese g roups a re i dentical. I ndeed, d espite t he f act t hat t hey s hare t he c haracteristic o f a p yramidal s ocial s tructure, e normous v ariability c an b e e ncountered. T he e xact n umber o f r anks, t he m eans o f r ecognizing s tatus, t he r elative i mportance o f g enealogical c loseness, t he s ignificance o f a chieved v ersus a scribed s tatus, a nd s o f orth v ary a mong g roups a s w ell a s h istorically w ithin a ny o ne g roup. Y et, i n o rder t o f ocus a ttention o f t he " mortuary l ogic" o f t he A rmy , Iw ill n ot d iscuss t hese h istorical v ariables b ut w ill, i nstead, c oncentrate o nly o n t he A rmy 's w ritten r u les i n e ffect f or o ne y ear, n amely 1 946. ( The V ietnam a nd K orean " wars" w hich f ollowed W orld W ar I I c aused c onfusing c hanges i n A rmy r egulations. T hese p ost-1946 c hanges t end t o u nnecessarily c omplicate--for t his s tudy--Army m ortuary p ractices.) T he A rmy r egulations h ave a n i mportant a dvantage i n t hat t hey p rovide a n a lmost c omplete s ource o f d ata w hich g overns t he m ortuary p ractices o f t he p articipating m embers o f t his s pecial s ociety . T his e xpectation o f t he d ata h as n ot b een r ealized i n t raditional e thnographic s ources b ecause t hey 9

m ore r egularly f ocus t heir a ttention e ither o n t he b eliefs a nd c ustoms a ssociated w ith t he d ead a nd c oncepts o f " afterlife" o r o n t he r ites p erformed f or o ne o r t wo m embers, u sually e lites, o f t he s ociety. ( See B inford 1 971 o r B artel 1 982 f or s urveys o f s uch m ortuary s tudies.) W hen a n i ndividual i n t he A rmy d ies, h e i s e ntitled t o a n o fficial A rmy b urial; i f t his r ight i s e xercised, t he r egulations t o b e d iscussed

a re

p ertinent.

H owever,

t hrough t he

e xpressed w ishes o f

t he n ext o f k in o r a s e xpressed i n a w ill, t he b urial o f t he i ndividual m ay h e a ssumed b y r elatives a nd t aken o ut o f t he h ands o f t he A rmy. T he , r elatives m ay s imply a gree t o a n o fficial b urial o r m ay

s ecure

c ertain

o r

p artial

s uch a s a u niform, c asket, c ommensurate w ith t he d ead

o fficial

m ilitary p erson's

c eremonies

a nd

p araphernalia,

w eapons d isplay, a nd r ank. O n t he o ther

n ext o f k in m ay w ant t o c remate t he b ody o r u ndertake c ivilian c eremony ( War D epartment 1 943b, 1 943c).

s o f orth, h and, t he

a c ompletely U nder a ll

u nofficial, k in-controlled b urials t he s ocial i dentity o f t he i ndividual r e-enters i n v arying d egrees t he s ociety a t l arge, c reating t he o pportunity f or d isplays o f i dentities f ar o utnumbered a nd u ncontrolled b y A rmy r egulations. T he r ules g overning t his t ype o f b urial a re o ut o f t he A rmy's j urisdiction a nd f all w ithin t he e normous c omplexity o f m odern U nited S tates m ortuary c odes. A s a r esult, t hese t ypes o f b urials w ill n ot f orm a p art o f t he " model" A rmy m ortuary p ractices. A s n oted a bove, I h ave i solated a nd s ummarized t he r elevant A rmy r egulations i n e ffect d uring o ne y ear, 1 946, t he e nd o f W orld W ar T T a nd, t herefore, b efore c onfusing r egulation c hanges w ere f ormulated a s a r esult o f t he " non-wars" i n K orea a nd V ietnam. T he t reatment o f b odies b y A rmy p ersonnel b efore a n i nterment i s q uite s imilar f or i ndividuals o f a ll r anks: p ersonal p roperty i s r emoved, t he b ody i s w ashed, a nd t hen d ressed i n a n o fficial u niform. A lterations i n t hese p rocedures a rise o nly i f t he i ndividual d ied o f u ndetermined c auses, i n w hich c ase a n a utopsy i s p erformed, o r i f t he m anner o f d eath s o m utilated t he b ody t hat w ashing a nd d ressing a re m ade i mpossible. I n t his l atter c ase, t he u niform I s s imply p laced i nside t he c offin. M oreover, c offin c hoice, p lace o f i nterment, a nd g rave m arking a re a lso g enerally t he s ame f or a ll r anks; h owever, t hey m ay b e a ltered, a s m entioned a bove, b y f amilial i nterference o r r eligious p reference,

b ut

n ot

b y

t he

r ank

o f

t he

d eceased

( War

D epartment

1 943c). T he

w ives

o f b oth

o fficers

a nd

e nlisted m en

m ay b e

i nterred w ith

t heir h usbands i n n ational c emeteries. I n t he c ase o f o fficers, t wo, p referably c ontiguous, g raves a re a ssigned f or t he b urial; a mong e nlisted m en, t he w ife i s b uried i n t he s ame g rave a s h er h usband. F urthermore, m ost n ational c emeteries a re s ub-divided i nto s ections w hich

h ave

( Office T he p atterns e xample,

o f

s eparate

d esignated

f or

o fficers

a nd

e nlisted

m en

1 931).

c eremonial a ctivity s urrounding a n A rmy b urial m imics t he r epresented i n t he m aterial e xpressions o f s tatus. F or w hile t he r esidue o f t his a ctivity m ay n ot b e r ecovered b y

a rchaeological r equired

a reas

t he Q uartermaster G eneral

t o

m ethods,

a ttend

f uneral

t he

n umber

s ervices 1 0

o f

o fficial

i ncreases

w ith

r epresentatives t he

r ank

o f

t he

d eceased.

A M ajor G eneral

i s

e ntitled

t o

o ne

r egiment

o f

i nfantry,

t wo t roops o f c avalry, a nd a b attery o f f ield a rtillery; a B rigadier G eneral i s e ntitled t o o ne r egiment o f i nfantry, o ne t roop o f c avalry, a nd a p latoon o f f ield a rtillery; a C olonel i s e ntitled t o a r egiment; a L ieutenant C olonel o r M ajor i s a llowed a b attalion o r s quadron. F inally, a P rivate i s e ntitled t o e ight m en i ncluding o ne s keleton [ sic] s quad, t he c orporal i n c ommand, a nd a b ugler ( War D epartment 1 933 a nd 1 943a). T he m ost a ccurate r esource o f r ecoverable r ank e xpressions f ound i n t he A rmy i nterments i s o ccasioned b y t he i nclusion o f t he o fficial m ilitary u niform i n t he b urial. T he s tyle a nd l ocation o f r ank e mblems m ay c hange w ith t he t ype o f u niform, i .e., w ork, c ombat, o r d ress. B urials, h owever, a re u sually m ade w ith t he d eceased d ressed i n t he s ervice u niform a nd, t herefore, o bservations o n m y p art w ill b e l imited t o i t. E nlisted m en a re r equired t o w ear i ssue u niforms o f p refabricated s izes a nd f its, w hile o fficers d on t ailored, n oni ssue b ut r egulation s uits. T he l ocation o n t he u niform o f v arious e mblematic d etails l ikewise v aries b etween t he t wo " classes" o f s oldiers, f or e xample, a " U.S." i nsignia a ppears o nly o n o ne o f t he e nlisted m en 's c ollars b ut o n b oth o f t he c ollars o f t he o fficer. E ven t he t echnique o f m anufacture o f t he e mblem v aries, a r epouss b utton f or t he e nlisted m en a nd a f ully t hree d imensional p in f or o fficers

( War D epartment

I ndividual

o fficer

1 941). r anks

a re

i ndicated

b y

i nsignia

w orn

o n

t he

s houlder l oops o f t he s ervice j acket: f our s tars f or a G eneral, t hree s tars f or a L ieutenant G eneral, t wo s tars f or a M ajor G eneral, o ne s tar f or a B rigadier G eneral, a n e agle f or a C olonel, a s ilver o ak l eaf f or a L ieutenant C olonel, a g old o ak l eaf f or a M ajor, t wo s ilver b ars f or a C aptain, o ne s ilver b ar f or a F irst L ieutenant, o ne g old b ar f or a S econd L ieutenant, a nd o ne s ilver o r g old b ar w ith t wo o r t hree e namel b ands f or W arrant O fficers. ( The m aterial a nd n umber o f e namel b ands v aries w ith t he G rade o f t he W arrant O fficer.) H owever, i f a W arrant O fficer o r e nlisted m an s erved a s a r egular o fficer i n W orld W ar I , h e i s e ntitled t o w ear g reen b raids o n t he s leeves o f h is j acket. S pecific r ank i nsignia f or e nlisted m en a re p laced o n t he s leeve o f t he j acket a nd c onsist o f v arious c ombinations o f c hevrons. S ergeant M ajors h ave t hree c hevrons a bove a nd t hree a rcs b elow w ith a s tar i n b etween t he c enter c hevron a nd a rc; M aster S ergeants h ave t hree c hevrons p laced a bove t hree a rcs; F irst S ergeants h ave t he s ame i nsignia a s t he M aster S ergeant e xcept w ith

a l ozenge

b etween

t he

c hevrons

a nd

t he

a rcs;

a nd

t he r anking l adder t o a P rivate F irst C lass w ho c hevron. O ther P rivates a nd r ecruits w ear n o r ank 1 959:390-391).

s o

f orth

d own

i s a llowed o ne i nsignia ( Young

I n a ddition t o t hese s trictly r ank d esignations, e ach m ember o f t he m ilitary b elongs t o o ne o r m ore s ubgroups. A ll o fficers a nd e nlisted m en m ust w ear o n t heir s ervice j acket's l apel t he i nsignia o f t he A rmy u nit t o w hich t hey a re c urrently a ssigned. E nlisted m en m ust a lso a dd t he b adge o f t he a rm o f s ervice t hey b elong t o o n t heir l eft c ollar, o pposite t he " U.S." r epoussé b utton. D istinctive i nsignia r epresenting t he r egiment, s eparate b atallion, o r c ompany m ay b e w orn b y o fficers o n t he s houlder l oops a nd b y e nlisted m en o n b oth

l apels.

A ll

p ersonnel,

r egardless 1 1

o f

r ank,

d isplay

w ound

a nd

w ar

c hevrons

o n

t heir

j acket

s leeve;

s light

c hanges

i n

t he

l ocation

o f t hese s tripes d istinguishes b etween o fficers a nd e nlisted m en. S ervice s tripes, e ach o ne r epresenting t hree y ears o f s ervice, a re w orn o n

t he

s leeve o nly b y e nlisted m en.

D ecorations

c ommemorating

i ndividual

a chievements

a re

d isplayed

i n t he s ame w ay b y b oth o fficers a nd e nlisted m en . T he M edal o f H onor, f or e xample, i s w orn a s a p endant h anging f rom t he n eck a nd o ver t he i ndividual's t ie. The D istinguished S ervice C ross, D istinguished S ervice M edal, S ilver S tar, P urple H eart, S oldier's M edal, D istinguished F lying C ross, N avy C ross, G old L ife-Saving M edal a nd S ilver L ife-Saving M edal a re a ll e xhibited o n t he l eft b reast o f t he

s ervice

j acket

a nd,

a wards, a bove.

t hey p roceed f rom T he G ood C onduct

b reast,

b ut

t o

t he

l eft

i f

a n

i ndividual

h as

o f

a ll

o ther

m edals.

a dded t o t he r ibbons o f t he r espective m edals; b e e mbellished w ith c itation s tars a nd c lasps. B adges

r epresenting

r eceived

m ultiple

r ight t o l eft i n t he s ame o rder a s l isted M edal i s a lso w orn o n t he j acket's l eft

q ualification

i n

t he

O ak

l eaf

c lusters

a re

t hese r ibbons m ay a lso

u se

o f

a p articular

w eapon a re d isplayed o n t he l eft p ocket f lap o f t he s ervice j acket. G enerally, e nlisted m en m ay w ear a ny o f t he w eapon b adges f or w hich t hey h ave q ualified; o fficers, h owever, c an o nly e xhibit t he b adge o f t he l ast w eapon f or w hich t hey p assed q ualification t ests. F oreign d ecorations a re a cceptable a dditions t o t he A rmy u niform a nd a re w orn a s c losely a s p ossible t o t he s tyle s tipulated b y t he i ssuing c ountry ,

b ut

a lways

t o

t he

l eft

o f a ll U .S.

A rmy d ecorations.

T he U .S. A rmy p resents a c lose t o i deal s ituation i n r espect t o t he m ortuary a rts: i t i s a r igidly r anked s ocial g roup w hich s tructurally r esembles a c hiefdom a nd w hose r anks a nd s ubgroup a ffiliations a re c learly d ifferentiated t hrough v isual c ues. R eturning t o S ervice's i deal p yramidal m odel o f a c hiefdom o r r anked s ociety, i t i s n oticeable t hat a s r ank i ncreases, t here i s a d ecrease i n t he n umber o f i ndividuals w ithin U .S. A rmy t he p attern i s s imilar;

t he r ank o r s tatus g roup. t here i s a c onsistently

I n t he g reater

n umber o f e nlisted m en t han o fficers. W hile T able 1 c learly i ndicates t hat t he f it b etween t he A rmy r anks a nd t he p yramidal m odel i s n ot w ithout v ariation--note t he " bulges" a t t he l evel o f C aptain, C orporal a nd t he s omewhat a namolous S argeant M ajor--the o verall d istribution o f t heir n umbers w ithin t he r anks d oes c losely a pproximate t he i deal m odel. A lthough n ot w ithin t he t emporal l imits w hich b ounded t he s election o f s pecific A rmy r egulations, T able 1 e xpresses

t he

" real"

p opulation

i n t he A rmy f or o ne

d ay,

3 0 S eptember

1 978; T ables 2 a nd 3 c onfirm t he g eneral p attern s uggested b y T able 1 f or t he y ears 1 973-1977 a nd 1 925-1939. B ased o n t his i nformation w e m ight a nticipate p roportionately f ewer h igher r anking i ndividuals i n a m ilitary c emetery t han l ower r anking s oldiers. C oncomitantly, a s r ank i ncreases w e s hould a lso e xpect a d ecrease i n t he n umber o f i ndividuals w ho s hare t he r espective r anking e mblem. U nder i deal c onditions, t hose s ymbols w hose d istribution i s i somorphic w ith t he p yramid w ill r epresent r anking s ymbols. I f n onranking i nsignia, s uch a s t he B ronze S tars, M edals o f H onor a nd s o f orth, w ere i ncluded i n t he b urials, t hey w ould a lso t end t o i ncrease i n f requency i n t he . pa

1 2

T able 1 F requency o f A rmy R anks, 3 0 S eptember 1 978 ( Department o f D efense 1 979:45)

R ank G eneral

o f t he A rmy

N umber o f I ndividuals 1

G eneral L ieutenant G eneral M ajor G eneral

1 0 3 6 1 69

B rigadier G eneral C olonel L ieutenant C olonel M ajor C aptain i st L ieutenant 2 nd L ieutenant W arrant O fficer S argeant M ajor M aster S argeant S argeant i st C lass S taff S argeant

2 16 4 453 1 1062 1 6334 2 8628 1 0839 1 2750 1 3287 3 739 1 2460 4 5308 6 9973

S argeant C orporal P rivate i st C lass P rivate P V1 a nd P V2

1 3

1 18598 1 79026 1 13769 1 26642

T able 2 P ercent o f U nited S tates A rmy M ilitary R anks d uring a F ive Y ear P eriod ( Department o f D efense 1 979:46)

R ank

1 973

1 974

1 975

1 976

1 977

G eneral o f t he A rmy G eneral L ieutenant G eneral M ajor G eneral. B rigadier G eneral

. 00004 . 0016 . 0061 . 021 . 028

. 00005 . 0016 . 0055 . 021 . 028

. 00005 . 0016 . 0057 . 019 . 027

. 00005 . 0017 . 0057 . 021 . 028

. 00005 . 0018 . 0055 . 020 . 028

C olonel L ieutenant C olonel M ajor C aptain i st L ieutenant 2 nd L ieutenant

. 709 1 .6 2 .6 4 .34 1 .95 1 .79

. 687 1 .55 2 .59 4 .31 2 .05 1 .74

. 645 1 .52 2 .57 4 .48 1 .97 1 .57

. 680 1 .58 2 .52 4 .58 1 .80 1 .52

. 690 1 .58 2 .44 4 .55 1 .65 1 .59

W arrant O fficer S argeant M ajor M aster S argeant S argeant i st C lass S taff S argeant S argeant

. 914 . 641 1 .59 5 .85 1 0.51 1 4.46

. 864 . 634 1 .61 5 .81 1 0.26 1 4.50

. 829 . 615 1 .62 5 .76 1 0.12 1 5.08

. 815 . 634 1 .63 5 .67 1 0.03 1 4.78

. 839 . 637 1 .64 5 .72 9 .91 1 5.45

C orporal P rivate i st C lass

1 7.09 1 4.77

1 8.78 1 4.38

1 9.21 1 5.20

1 9.53 1 5.43

1 9.46 1 5.36

P rivate P V1

2 0.32

2 0.17

1 8.79

1 8.80

1 8.44

o r P V2

N umber

T able 3 o f E nlisted M en a nd O fficers

i n

t he

U nited S tates M ilitary d uring a F ifteen Y ear P eriod ( Department Y ear

o f D efense

O fficers

1 979:30)

E nlisted M en

1 925

1 4594

1 22454

1 926 1 927 1 928 1 929 1 930 1 931 1 932 1 933

1 4143 1 4020 1 4019 1 4047 1 4151 1 4159 1 4111 1 3896

1 20795 1 20809 1 22065 1 25071 1 25227 1 26357 1 20846 1 22651

1 934 1 935 1 936 1 937

1 3761 1 3471 1 3512 1 3740

1 24703 1 26015 1 54304 1 66228

1 938 1 939

1 3975 1 4486

1 71513 1 75353 1 4

h igher r anks s ince, i n g eneral, h igher r anks r epresent g reater l ength o f s ervice a ffording a n i ncreased c hance o f w inning m ore s ubgroup b adges. M oreover, s ubgroup m embership i ncreases u pward m obility, a lso a ccounting f or t heir h igher f requency a t t he u pper s tatus l evels. W e c ould, t herefore, e xpect s ome s ymbols t o r eflect t he p yramidal r ank s tructure a nd o thers t o i ndicate s tatus t hrough t he n umber o f d ifferent, i ndividual.

o r

v ariety

o f,

e mblems

a ssociated

w ith

a n

T he a bove e xpectations d erived f rom t he e xample o f t he U .S. A rmy a re b ased o n t he a ssumption t hat a p articular m ortuary p opulation, e specially a t a c h iefdom l evel o f s ocial o rganization, w ill u tilize t he s ame " mortuary l ogic" w hich d etermines t he s tructural p roperties o f t he A rmy 's m ortuary p opulation. T his a ssumption m ust b e t empered b y t he r ealization t hat o ther e vents o r c ircumstances c an a ffect t he " neatness" o f t he p yramid. F or e xample, p articipation i n t he U .S. A rmy 's o fficial m ortuary p ractices i s n ot m andatory . A s a r esult, w e m ight r easonably e xpect t hat t he p resence o f p articular r anks i n t he a ctual g raves w ould b e s kewed. L ower r anking e nlisted m en, f or e xample, m ight b e u nderrepresented w hile h igher r anking o fficers m ight b e m ore p rone t o s elect a n o fficial A rmy b urial. M oreover, v arious t ypes o f m ilitary c emeteries m ay c ontain s kewed d istributions o f r ank. F or e xample, t he N ational C emetery a t A rlington a nd p ermanent c emeteries l ocated a t A rmy p osts m ight c ontain a l arger p roportion o f o fficers, b oth c ommissioned a nd n on-commissioned. O n t he c ontrary a c emetery l ocated a t a b attle s ite m ight r eflect a h igher n umber o f e nlisted m en a nd l ower r anking o fficers. T hese a nd o ther h istorical c ircumstances must b e c onsidered i n t he i nterpretation o f a ny m ortuary s tudy. H owever, t hey d o n ot n egate t he i mportance o r r elevance o f t he g eneral p rinciples--the l ogic-w hich i s e xemplified i n t he U .S. A rmy m ortuary p ractices.

C luster A nalysis a s a M echanism o f D ata O rganization a nd E xploration

The e xamination o f t hese i deas w ithin t he c ontext o f p rehistoric s ocieties r equires a s ubstantial a mount o f c omparative i nformation f rom e ach s ite o r v illage u nder s tudy. A f ew s cattered g raves d oes n ot p rovide t he b readth o f i nformation r equired t o e stablish t he p atterns o f m ortuary p ractices a nd u ses o f v arious mortuary a rts. I n g eneral, t he l arger t he s ample o r a mount o f m ortuary d ata f rom a s ite, t he m ore r epresentational t he i nformation. A s a r esult, t he q uantity o f d ata--the n umber o f i ndividual g raves, t he a mount o f m ortuary a rts, t he v ariations a mong t he g rave f urnishings--requires t he u se o f m ethods o f e xamination w hich a re n ot w idely u sed i n a rt h istorical s tudies. T he m ethod I h ave u sed t o o rganize t he m ortuary a rts i s c luster a nalysis, a lso c alled n umeric t axonomy, a nd f irst u sed e ffectively i n a s tudy o f p rehistoric m ortuary p ractices b y C hristopher P eebles ( 1969). C luster a nalysis i s n ow a w idely u sed a nd a ccepted a nalytical t echnique i n b oth t he s ocial a nd n atural s ciences. I ts p urpose i s t o " discover a rrangement

w hether o f

t here

o bjects

e xists

a ny

i nto h omogeneous 1 5

s tructure g roups)

( i.e.,

i nherent

i n

n atural t he d ata

t hemselves" ( Johnson 1 967:241). I n 1 963 R obert S okal a nd P eter S neath p ublished P rinciples o f N umeric T axonomy, t he p rimary s ource o n t his t echnique, a nd s ince t hat t ime t he l iterature h as g rown e normously . A ldenderfer a nd B lashfield ( 1984:8) s tate, f or e xample, t hat t he r ate o f t he g rowth o f t he l iterature b etween 1 963 a nd 1 975 w as " faster t han t hat o f e ven t he m ost r apidly g rowing d isciplines, s uch a s b iochemistry ." T hese t wo a uthors h ave p resented a r ecent g uide t o t he n ovice t hrough t he m aze o f c luster a nalysis" ( 1984:9), a nd

t his

s urvey c ontains a c oncise

i ntroduction t o a pplications o f T he

p rocess

o f

o rganizing

t he

h istory o f c luster a nalysis a nd a n t echnique.

t hings

o r

i nformation

i nto

o ne

o r

a nother c losely h omogeneous c lusters d epends o n m easuring t he s imilarity b etween t hose t hings. S imilarity i n q uantitative a nalyses i s d ominated b y t he c oncept o f m etrics. A s A ldenderfer a nd B lashfield p oint o ut, " This a pproach t o s imilarity r epresents c ases a s p oints i n a c oordinate s pace s uch t hat t he o bserved s imilarities a nd d issimilarities o f t he p oints c orrespond t o m etric d istances b etween t hem" ( 1984:18). T here a re a w ide v ariety o f s imilarity m easurements, b ut t he m ost c ommonly u sed m ethods i n t he s ocial s ciences m ajority

a re c orrelation c oefficients a nd d istance m easures. T he o f c luster a nalyses, i ncluding t hose a pplied i n t his s tudy ,

e mploy t he d istance m easures. T echnically, t hey [ the d istance m easures] a re d escribed a s d issimilarity m easures; m ost o f t he m ore p opular c oefficients d emonstrate s imilarity b y h igh v alues w ithin t heir r anges, b ut d istance m easures a re s caled i n t he r everse. T wo c ases a re i dentical i f e ach o ne i s d escribed b y v ariables w ith t he s ame m agnitudes. I n t his c ase, t he d istance b etween t hem i s z ero ( Aldend erfer a nd B lashfield 1 984:24-25). T he c luster a nalyses S ystem ( SAS) p ackage

a vailable t hrough t he S tatistical A nalysis u sed i n t his s tudy a ll e mploy a R ucledian

d istance m easure, s ometimes r eferred t o a s a P ythogorean d istance, w hich " is a p ercentage r atio o f t he s um o f s quared d istances b etween u nits a nd t heir f rom t he o verall T here

a re

h ierarchical p artitioning,

c luster c entres r elative t o d ata m ean" ( Hodson 1 971:34). p resently

s even

a gglomerative, d ensity s earch,

p rimary

t heir

t ypes

o f

s ummed

d istances

c luster

h ierarchical d ivisive, f actor a nalytic, c lumping,

a nalysis: i terative a nd g raph

t heoretic. H ierarchical a gglomerative m ethods a re b y f ar t he m ost w idely u sed t echnique. F ollowing P eebles' a rguments ( 1974:99-100) i n f avor o f t his t ype o f c luster a nalysis, I h ave a lso e mployed i t. P eebles a lso p rovides a p recise e xplanation o f h ierarchical a gglomerative c lustering, a lso c alled h ierarchic f usion a nd p olythetic-agglomerative; . . . b egin

t hese w ith

t echniques:

a p opulation

o f

N I ndividuals

a nd N -1 f usions r educe t hat p opulation c luster o f N i ndividuals. T he s teps i n r eduction a re: 1 . D efine

a m easure 1 6

o f

t o o ne s uch a

s imilarity

S pq

b etween t wo g roups p a nd q w here t he g roups m ay c ontain o ne o r m ore i ndividuals, 2 . S tart w ith N g roups ( each c omprising a s ingle i ndividual), a nd c ompute t he b etweeng roup s imilarities S pk--this i s c alled t he s imilarity m atrix, 3 . F use t hose t wo g roups p a nd a w hich a re m ost s imilar ( on t he f irst c ycle, t hese w ill b e t he

t wo

m ost

s imilar

i ndividuals

i n

t he

e ntire

p opulation). T he s tructure o f t he n ew c luster i s t hem [ sic] r esolved, a nd t he n ew s imilarities S p+q, r b etween c luster ( p+q) a nd a ll o ther c luster R a re c alculated, 4 . R eturn t o 3 . a nd c ontinue f using c lus ters s uccessively u ntil N -1 c ycles h ave b een p erformed ( 1974:99-100). T he s equence o f m ergers o f t he h ierarchical a gglomerative t ype o f c luster a nalysis c an b e v isually r epresented b y a t ree d iagram, o ften c alled a d endrogram. W ithin t his t ype o f a nalysis, n one o f t he c lusters o verlap; i nstead, e ach c luster c an b e s ubsumed a s a m ember o f a l arger, m ore i nclusive c luster a t a h igher l evel o f s imilarity ( Aldenderfer a nd B lashfield 1 984:36-37). O bviously

t he

f ormation

o f

c lusters

w ithin

t he

h ierarchical

a gglomerative t ype o f a nalysis w ill v ary w ith t he s elected s imilarity m easurement. I n P eebles' s tudy o f t he b urials f rom M oundville i n G eorgia, h e a rgues t hat W ard's m easurement i s o ne o f t he most r eliable; t his o pinion h as b een s econded b y t he S AS m anual w hich s tates t hat " many s tudies o f c luster a nalysis h ave i ndicated t hat W ard's m ethod a nd a verage l inkage a re a mong t he b est a vailable h ierarchical c lustering a lgorithms" ( SAS 1 982:424). I h ave t aken a d ifferent t ack i n t his s tudy; I h ave s ubmitted t he d ata t o a v ariety o f a lgorithms i n o rder t o e valuate t he d ifferences a nd s imilarities i n t he r esults a mong t hem. T he m ethods e mployed i n t his s tudy i nclude c omplete l inkage, a verage l inkage, W ard's m ethod, a nd t he c entroid m ethod. T he s tates

c omplete

l inkage a lgorithm,

u sed

i n

t he

1 979 v ersion o f S AS,

t hat: A ny c andidate f or i nclusion i nto a n c luster m ust b e w ithin a c ertain l evel

e xisting o f s imi-

l arity t o a ll m embers o f t hat c luster . . . . [ T]herefore, c omplete l inkage h as a t endency t o f ind r elatively c ompact, h yperspherical c lusters c omposed o f h ighly s imilar c ases ( Aldenderfer a nd B lashfield 1 984:40). T he a verage l inkage m ethod " computes a n a verage o f t he s imilarity o f a c ase u nder c onsideration w ith a ll c ases i n t he e xisting c luster a nd, s ubsequently, j oins t he c ase t o t hat c luster i f a g iven l evel o f s imilarity i s a chieved u sing t his a verage v alue" ( Aldenderfer a nd B lashfield 1 984:40). T his m ethod, w hich i s w idely u sed i n t he b iolog ical s ciences, " tends t o j oin c lusters w ith s mall v ariances, a nd i s b iased t oward p roducing c lusters w ith r oughly t he s ame v ariance" ( SAS 1 7

1 982:421). W ard's

( 1963)

m ethod

a nd

s ubsequent

f ormula

w as

" designed

t o

o ptimize t he m inimum v ariance w ithin c lusters [ and] w orks b y j oining t hose g roups o r c ases t hat r esult i n t he m inimum i ncrease i n t he e rror s um o f s quares" ( Aldenderfer a nd B lashfield 1 984:43). A s n oted i n

b oth

t he

S AS

m anual

( 1982:421)

a nd

A ldenderfer

a nd

B lashfield's

r eview ( 1984:43), t his m ethod " is b iased t oward p roducing c lusters w ith r oughly t he s ame n umber o f o bservations." T he c entroid m ethod d efines t he d istance b etween t wo c lusters a s t he d istance b etween t heir c entroids o r m eans ( SAS 1 982:421). A s a r esult, i t f avors o utliers. I n g eneral, t he c entroid m ethod r arely a greed w ith o r p aralleled t he r esults o btained b y t he o ther a lgorithms. W hile t he o ther t hree c lustering m ethods o btained s imilar r esults w ith t he d ata, t he a bility o f t he c omplete l inkage m ethod t o d iscover c ompact c lusters o f h ighly s imilar i ts r esults m ore h eavily.

p opulations

p redisposed

m e

t o

d epend

o n

T he a dvantages o f c luster a nalysis s tem f rom i ts a bility t o a nalyze l arge q uantities o f d ata; i ts i dentification a nd m easurement o f s imilarities a mong t he d ata w hich j ustified b y t he r esearcher; a nd i ts

a re n either a pparent n or e asily r eduction o f o ften b urdensome a

p riori a ssumptions c oncerning t he r elationships a mong t he d ata e lements. C lustering m ethods h ave b een u sed f or a w ide v ariety o f p urposes

i n

a n

e qually

w ide

v ariety

o f

d isciplines.

I h asten

t o

p oint o ut t hat t hese methods s imply a mount t o a c lassificatory t echnique. C lassification o f a rt w orks--whether t hey a re b ased o n s tylistic, i conographic, c ontextual, t echnical, o r o ther c riteria--is a n ormal a nd, u sually, n ecessary p art o f a ny a rt h istorical s tudy. A s cholar's c lassification o r t axonomy i s n ot a n e nd i n i tself b ut i s a m echanism w hich f acilitates i nquiry o f l arge q uantities o f d ata. C luster a nalysis, o ne t ype o f s uch a m echanism, i s n ew t o t he d iscipline o f a rt h istory; t he p rinciple, h owever, a pplicability o f t he t echnique t o a rt h istory w ill, s tem

f rom

i ts n ewness

b ut

f rom

i ts

i s n ot. t herefore,

T he n ot

u sefulness.

S ummary

T he h istory o f a rt a bounds w ith a lmost e ndless e xamples o f m ortuary a rts. F or t he m ost p art, t hese a rtistic u ndertakings h ave b een t reated s imply a s a nother e lement i n t he v isual v ocabulary o f a p articular s ociety. M ortuary a rts a re i dentifiably d iscrete h uman c reations a nd p rovide a b ase o f i nformation w hich h as t he p otential o f s ignificantly e nhancing o ur u nderstanding o f b etween t he v isual a rts a nd h uman s ocial d ynamics. S ince t he

t he

d ynamics

s tudy o f

o f

v isual

m ortuary a nd

a rts

s ocial

p otentially p henomena,

t he

r elationships

i nforms i t

a lso

u s

a bout

h as

t he

c apability t o e nhance o ur u nderstanding o f t he v ariation i n t hese d ynamics a s t he s ocial c onfiguration o f a s ociety c hanges. T he m ethodological b asis u nderlying s uch a n i nquiry i s o btained i n t he s eminal w orks o f S axe ( 1970) a nd B inford ( 1971). I n o rder t o m ake c oncrete t he c orrelation b etween m ortuary a rts a nd s ocial d ynamics, t he a nalog o f U .S. A rmy m ortuary p ractices a nd r egulations p roves 1 8

e xtremely u seful. T he d escription o f t he A rmy 's r ules g overning m ortuary i nterments, c ombined w ith t he v isual a rticulation o f r ank w ithin t his " closed" s ocial s ystem, p rovides a n a ccessible e xample w hich e nhances t he w ork o f S axe a nd B inford a s w ell a s t his s tudy.

t he

M oreover, t he i mportance o f

e xample o f t he U .S. A rmy b rings t o t he f orefront s tressing t he c ontext w hich t he a rts, o r v isual

i nformation, o ccupy. T he s ocial m eaning, a nd i n m ost c ircumstances t he a rtistic c ontent, o f a w ork o f a rt c hanges w ith i ts s ocial c ontext. O ne o f t he e lementary m easures r equired t o e xploit t he a nalytical p otential o f t hese r elationships r ests i n t he r ecognition o f t he c ontext o f m ortuary a rts. The i mplications o f t his o bservation a re a ll t oo o ften o verlooked. F or e xample, t he i nclusion o f r ank a nd s ub-group e mblems w ithin t he c ontext o f t he e ntire A rmy p opulation a t o ne h ypothetical p oint i n t ime ( i.e., 1 946) p ermits g eneralizations a bout t he s ocial m eaning o f t hose e mblems w hich w ould n ot b e a ccessible i n s tudying a s mall f ragment o f t he p opulation. T he s trategy o utlined i n t his s tudy m ay r equire a nd s uggest a lternatives t o m ore p urely d escriptive a rt h istorical m ethods. I ndeed, I a m n ot a ware o f a ny o ther p ublished a rt h istorical s tudies w hich u tilize t he t echniques o f c luster a nalysis. T his s tochastic m ethod, d emonstrated t o b e a pplicable i n m ortuary s tudies ( Peebles 1 974), m akes i t p ossible t o e xplore a nd o rganize i n v arious w ays l arge a mounts o f d ata w ithout t he b urden o f a p riori a ssumptions a bout

t heir o rganization.

1 9

I I

T HE M ORTUARY S ITES O F T HE T ONOSI V ALLEY

F rom 1 967 t o 1 970 A lain I chon, a F rench a rchaeologist, c onducted r esearch o n a nd e xcavated a n umber o f p re-Conquest s ites l ocated i n t he s outhern t ip o f P anama's A zuero p eninsula ( Map 1 ). A f ew u ntrained a rchaeologists h ad p receded h im ( see M itchell a nd H eidenreich 1 975; a lthough p ublished l ater t han I chon's r esults, t hese e xcavations w ere c arried o ut b efore h is), b ut I chon's w ork r epresents t he f irst u seful b ody o f i nformation o n t he a rchaeology o f t he a rea. I chon's f ield w ork a nd p ublished r esults ( 1968, 1 980) f ocus o n t he T onosi r iver v alley, a n a rea o f

1 970, 1 974, 1 975, a pproximately 8 70

s quare k ilometers a nd c lassified b y K öppen ( 1932[1972 r eprint1:59) a s h umid t ropics w ith a n a verage a nnual r ainfall o f 2 645 m illimeters. O nly 5 p ercent o f t he p recipitation f alls d uring t he d ry s eason f rom J anuary t o A pril. T he v alley i s a n a lluvium w hich i ncludes, i n a ddition t o t he T onosi i tself, t he C af ias, A guas B uenas, L imbn a nd G uänico r ivers. T he e ntire v alley , s tretching a pproximately f ifteen k ilometers n orth a nd s outh a nd t wenty k ilometers e ast a nd w est, i s b ordered o n i ts s outhern e dge b y m angrove s wamps a nd t he P acific O cean; a nd o n t he n orth, e ast a nd w est b y h illy t errain, a t p oints r eaching e levations o f 1 500 m eters. A rms o f t he v arious r iver s ystems e xtend i nto t hese h ills, t he T onosi's b eing t he l argest a nd m ost p opulated t oday a nd, a pparently, i n p re-Conquest t imes ( see I chon 1 974:316). I chon's r ecorded

s urvey o f

t hat

s ixty s ites

f ifty-one

h ad

i n t he T onosi v alley

e vidence

o f

( 1974:438-459)

h abitation,

e leven

h ad

c emeteries a nd n ine h ad c eremonial s tructures. T wo o f t he s ites w ere p etroglyph a reas, a nd o ne w as d efined a s a f ishing c amp. O f t he e leven s ites w ith c emeteries, L a I ndia I ( TI-1), C hara ( TI-3), E l B ijaguales ( TI-15), B ucaro ( TI-22), E l I nfernillo ( TI-30), E l A gua ( TI-34), L a T inajita ( TI-46) a nd C af ias ( TI-57) e ither h ad t oo f ew e xcavated b urials

o r o nly h ad b een s urveyed o n

t he

s urface.

O nly t wo

s ites, E l I ndio ( TI-18) a nd L a C af iaza ( TI-9), h ad a s ufficient n umber o f e xcavated g raves t o b e u seful t o t his s tudy. T he s ite o f E l C afetal ( TI-35) w as s urveyed b y I chon, b ut n o e xcavations w ere u ndertaken. I n t he r ainy s eason . o f 1 969 a nd i n t he w ake o f a n o nslaught G onzalez,

o f

g rave

r obbing,

t he

a c o-worker o f I chon's,

P anamanian t o t he

g overnment

s ite b efore

s ent

i t w as

R aul

r uined b y

h uaqueros, o r g rave r obbers. E l C afetal p rovided a l arge n umber o f b urials a nd m akes u p t he t hird s ite f rom t he T onosi V alley d iscussed i n t he

p resent

B ased

o n

s tudy ( Gonzalez s tratigraphic

1 971).

p its,

c eramic

s eriation

a nd

r adiocarbon

d ating, I chon f ormulated t he f ollowing c hronology f or t he T onosi v alley ( also a dopted b y G onzalez i n h is E l C afetal e xcavations): 2 0

P hase I ( Bucaro) P hase I I ( El I ndio) P hase I II ( La C aüaza) P hase I V ( Bijaguales)

? 2 50 B C -

2 50 B C 5 00 A D

5 00 A D 1 000 A D -

1 000 A D 1 500 A D

I n C ooke's r eview ( 1976) o f t he C entral R egion o f P anamA, h e i ntegrated I chon's c hronological s cheme i nto o ne w hich s erves t he e ntire c ultural p hases: P hase P hase P hase P hase P hase P hase

r egion.

C ooke's

c hronology

i s

I ( preceramic) I I-III ( plastic c eramic d ecoration) I V ( bichrome a nd t richrome c eramics) V -VI ( four c olor t radition) V IIA ( Parita s tyle) V IIB ( El H atillo s tyle)

d ivided

9 000 3 000 1 50 5 00 1 100 1 445

B C B C A D A D A D A D

i nto

-

3 000 1 50 4 50 1 100 1 300 1 625

s even

B C A D A D A D A D A D

T his c hronology i ncludes t he e ntire C entral R egion o f P anamA a nd i ncorporates a w ider r ange o f d ata t han I chon's; i n a ddition, i t a ccounts f or a p re-ceramic p hase, a pparently n ot e ncountered i n I chon's s urveys. T he o bvious d ifferences a re t hat I chon's P hases I a nd T I a re e ncompassed b y C ooke's I I/III r efined i n C ooke's s cheme t o V IIA a nd V IIE. H owever, s tyles.

b oth

W hile

t he

c hronologies d ifferences

a nd

o n

I chon's

a re

b ased

a nd

r efinements

P hase

c hanges a re

i n

I V

i s

c eramic

i mportant

f or

s tudies b ased o n c eramic s eriation, t hey a re n ot p articularly r elevant t o t his s tudy . F or e ase o f c ross-referencing m y a nalysis o f t he Tonosi m aterial w ith t he e xcavation r eports o f I chon a nd G onzAles, I s hall u se t he f ormer's c hronological f ramework i n t his p art o f t he s tudy. M oreover, I chon's p hases I a nd I V c an b e e liminated f rom c onsideration s ince n one o f t he b urials a t E l I ndio, L a C a l laza o r E l C afetal d ate f rom t hese p eriods.

T he M ortuary A rts f rom t he P hase I I G raves a t E l I ndio

T he s ite o f E l I ndio, l ocated a pproximately t en k ilometers d ue e ast o f t he m odern t own o f T onosi, i s s ituated o n a p eninsula o f r aised l and w hich e xtends i nto a m angrove s wamp ( Map 2 ). T he s wamp s urrounds t he s ite o n t he n orth, e ast a nd s outh; s everal h undred m eters t o t he w est, t he l and i ncreases i n e levation. T he P acific O cean l ies a bout t wo k ilometers t o t he s outh, c onnected t o E l I ndio o n t he s outh a nd e ast b y t he I ndio e stuary a nd o n t he n orth a nd e ast b y t he J uncal e stuary w hich f lows i nto t he I ndio. I chon

u ndertook

e xcavations

a t

t he

t wo d ry s easons o f 1 969 a nd 1 970. h uaqueros e xcavated a n umber o f i llegal A s

s een

i n

M ap

3 a nd

o bserved

b y

s ite

o f

B etween p its.

I chon

E l

I ndio

d uring

t hese

t wo

( 1974:177),

t he

t he

v isits,

P hase

I I

b urials a ppear t o b e i rregularly d istributed i n t he c entral a rea o f E l I ndio. T he v ertical a nd h orizontal p roximity o f t he g raves v ary c onsiderably ( Table 4 ). I chon u ncovered a l ayer o f h ard-packed e arth 2 1

. . 2 ; " : " 0 . 4 : . '

1 j : • ‘ 1 . .> • 0 3 I t i i -P 6e c t ` .2 , ; i : z . b .C .» . 4;i g i , ' • At Z 'V 1 . .e : -? h . 1 , 6 eg > -; 9e i > fi -: e • r . ; : . e 'e ; * ; . . .,e . . > " ' .4 . 6 ,7 . 5 i :v . : " , . 9 .. .: , 4 ) . e i . ? '.:7 w . •; . e . . • 9 i s . . c ‘ . c , t . • , . ; % -* i 4 : . • . • ' , d . T ., z

! ) .P , . . .-. 2 " 2 : %e f . :, : 0 1 4 ~' 0 -= .: . . ,. . i .r . . •a 2 .. 9s i, ; ? ch ` :v .•. . e c,. i ,s . , . % = . r; , . , •e. . e t' 2 -. : 2' ; : :. 4 . 9 . : ` .e . ag :r ue . . =7 z,. 2 * je . . . • ; ? : " . .e . . ; ;1. -j eZ • r i v .: _ • , % e t .e . . . - c .. , ., ,, - eg i .s .. . . -, , . ., . , . - A„ . , , ,x, , -•e r, e ,, e .p .,,B . : ., . . . vo , . . . . ea : e • •:. , . : * . ie. : 2 , • _ . e . e. . . , z .e . 7 3 . ,7 ' 7 4 : . • a : ' "O A . * * , S ' : • ° i :Z T le . (4 . . .t . . . . e 4 g : i % , ' { e : z , . ! .° " 1 ' . . « . . : !:_ `e . . 1 0 ' . e 'n e . : 4, . . , . „ . 7 *' . z 5_, e l 2 . . v . . .A f .r ., . . e . . . , .e a . . .z p e 1 . » -e . . . 0 . , . ,m . •• ; • t i . . e . . t • e i . e ,, . . .„ . •e v , • . e . ;› . e .1_ , •;. g a,7. . , . e• . • t. , •: ; ( 1 . . . . . . . j k . . • u, ;. , • . 4 1 •e ' et . -we et • .S. . . ; . ; . .p :, . .4 ,.e, . • . . ; , .. . , • Pr' ; •4 .f . :. : , ; . . U j i . -.". 4 1 . : i . e Z r e z e c P i e , . . , . . e j. 4• .s « : /e •k o e .• °: . : -o ' , c Pf . 3. . - •., . ,. . p . 4 ;7 . . ' : f -o -c . 1f . : 1 >e • .? ,? ; ; • ,%ie . . . .e . .e : e . . .e , . , z i ; .. . ; .z; . •, . d ' F e •c el. , . . . h . , ; .: , . . e •. ‘ j 3 4 3 • , * " . . s . i . e ,g • I ! •% 9 . L ` c ". e s '" .2 7 . ' .. e ‚ ; ' , c' te . A .-, • 0" p , .* 0 . 5 . . e .• 4 7 0 :e • '•. . •' 91: , i-4 . ' 1 I z e . -. 3› .: ., . 7 , . . J • -. -' s ev . 9 % -e . 9 . :. 0P . , . :. c . z . . ev • •• 4. • °. . r i •.. . e . t.i e j ' , . ,: . • a 3 . . t ? v4' . . e . ' • ` • : : ' .4 : 1 ' s s . z• 4 ' t. cb , e ' • -• .x s ; '-0c ä : e.-. . , t e . --r ' -es, : k . .. . . • ' l ie b : . . . e ; , r e r ' ' ' : re . . . , * k... .. (P .. i .. . .- .e . . . : :-.-e., , • , ,e .. , .p .. . ,. • .-4, ,,, ' b , 7f ‘. : -. . .,. . :. , , e r .e .e ' ig . o `, . : - •. . :5,. .6 .1 .. . . . . 9 , e.ee , ' : : 7 . .t . : . , rt x * . . . . . e . ..e . . p r. ,4 • 3, 5 3 • :j . -1 e: : , . . 7; Z . ;1 ' 1 . : e' , : . :e , t 7 . !. . . . " ' c eJ r , .; ,e r : t !e, • , 'it t . 1 . , 1 ?-.4` . :‚ , b 4 3 . 4 . . * : 2 :e , 34 , 7 3 & : : 9 ; ) . e 'e . . " ; . . . 2A • : 4 . v , : : • , e • : • › . 9 4,3 4 «e • I i i . , r, e e . , , . . e : e ./ -" , / , , „ , . . . . . . , , . , , „ . ,0, . . • A ccs , • , 2 . . 4. t ; • • • . . ,. 7 ., . . 1 ,,c .4 % . . , . .7 e , . . , . . , ;,• 2 . , ; • . ‘ 1 . • . , . . ., : . . 9 , , , , ; , . z a. . . „ ye . , . . . . „ -. z . .73 :2 . , , • , • . r . . : .% : , ,. j z .„ . 1 . . . . ce • • . , m .• . • -. . „ . z. ` g :. " e . . 4 . . . . " . 's , t -, , e 1; . A : I . t ie ' " . .g 6 7 ` • " ,' , e* . i . . › .. •. .. . w . , . . . . . 4 7-9. ., ; . • -r •< ,-. 4 .0 7. ,-. , . •. te . . ..• e . : . - : 0, . -c •,: c . .A.z, . ; . . . ev .. . q . e :4 -., ._- e , ee r.e . 3. ' , E j ei e • „13c ei : :%.. e • . ; 9 : c i ; . •q e .t . z-c . e " . 2 : ,,s ' e : t cc % : «-e ,. ; , -.e . .i c i re . . -j ,* ; £ ;c 1 . " L = _ e ; : • , -1 4i t .• : , ' .. z .e ' . : •9 J . ;e4d. e . : . , b ° , 4 2 .° , i , ; . . . : 4 r. 0% ,t o: . 4 23 t '• v i .eioe . . -. e-t ., ,— ._— = .. ,, ,,. , , ;; e . --. 0 . .. ,, ,e, . .e .? 7;• . Z . s . 3 ; ,e 1 • ? ` . -. . -t• : e r , e _ .4s . ' e f. . , • , » . .e .e . . . . .z. e . .w , .j .? Z ` . 9' e ' . • , 4 1 .A1

• , /

_ u•-• .

:im2

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Map

2

.

Excavation

,:. ,

.- _ . .... 7 Z - . .. -

. . . .-

-- : a - , -. . . - _ -

=

ü--- _

-

.. . .- A .

z_ .

& " _

-•

„ . ._

a rea

a nd

e nvirons

of E l

I ndio

( Ichon

1 974:81).

M ap 3

E xcavation a reas a t E l

I ndio

( after I chon

1 974:79).

a t

a d epth o f 9 5

c entimeters

m ost e mphatically l ayer r epresented

c oncluded, t he b urials w ith t he h ouse a bove. T he b ecause f loors.

a bove m ost

o f t he b urials.

H e

s uggested

f or t he b urials f rom h is t rench 2 ( F.2), t hat t his h ouse f loors ( Ichon 1 974:179, 1 87). T herefore, h e

i solation

o f

b elow w ere

d iscrete

o f k in

g raves

o r

a mong

f amily g roups

t he

b urials

i s

a ffiliated

d ifficult

t he e xcavations w ere n ot a ble t o i dentify s eparate w alls T herefore, o ccasionally t he a ttribution o f m ortuary a rts

o r t o

a s pecific b urial m ay b e q uestionable. A malgamations o f b urials i nto l arger g rave g roupings a re p ossible o nly o n t he b asis o f p hysical p roximity. W hether s uch g roups r epresent a boriginal p atterns o r s imply a b ias o f t he m odern e xcavations i s n ot c lear. T he t otal n umber o f P hase I I b urials w as f orty-three d istributed a mong t hirty-seven g raves ( Appendix 1 ). T he a ges, o rientations, p ositions a nd d epositions o f t hese i ndividuals a re s ummarized i n T able 5 . I chon w as u nable t o m ake a ny s ex d eterminations o n t he b adly d ecomposed s keletal r emains. Moreover, i n a n umber o f i nstances, p ortions f rom t he b urial.

o f t he s keleton's t orso w ere A ge d eterminations, b ased o n

c ompletely a bsent t ooth w ear, w ere

g rouped i nto f our c lasses: m ature a dult, a dult, y oung a dult a nd c hild. B ecause o f i nherent p roblems i n f ine d iscriminations o f a ge b y t ooth w ear ( Ubelaker 1 978:64-65), I h ave c ombined m ature a dult a nd a dult i nto o ne c lass, " adult." I chon 's y oung a dult ( adult j eune i n F rench) i s i nterpreted a s a dolescent. T able 6 s ummarizes t he d istributions o f

t hese a ge g roups b y e xcavation

t rench.

C oncentrating o n t he d istribution o f m ortuary a rts a mong t he g raves ( summarized i n Tables A -1 t hrough A -3, A ppendix 6 ), t he p rimary d ivision o r g rouping i s b etween t hose g raves w ith n o o bjects a nd t hose w ith o bjects. T hose w ithout m ortuary a rts a mount t o h alf o f t he g raves ( n=19 o r 5 1 p ercent). T his s ubset o f b urials r eflects a r ange o f a ges w hich i s q uite s imilar t o t he p opulation a s a w hole ( Table 7 ), f urnishings p articular

s uggesting t hat t he p resence o r a bsence o f m ortuary d oes n ot r epresent a p referential b urial t reatment f or a ge

g roups.

T he

p olarization

o f

t he

c emetery

i nto t hese t wo, a lmost e qual g roups, m ight, o n t he r eflect a b inary s ocial d imension s uch a s s ex o r m oiety. B ased

o n

t he

f ormulae

a nd

p rocedures

a lready

p opulation

o ther

h and,

p resented

C hapter I , t he E l I ndio P hase I I b urials w ith m ortuary ( n=18) g roup i nto s ix c lusters ( Appendix 6 , T able A -4):

i n

f urnishings

I . G raves 1 , 1 2, 1 5, a nd 2 4 a ll h ad u ndecorated b owls ( C3); i n a ddition, g raves 1 a nd 1 5 h ad u ndecorated j ars ( C1), a nd G rave 2 4 h ad a n u ndecorated p late

( C2).

I I. G raves 2 , 3 , 1 7 a nd 2 7 a ll h ad u ndecorated b owls ( C3) a nd d obles o r c ompound s ilhouette v essels ( C6); i n a ddition G rave 1 7 c ontained s hell

a d ecorated

p late

o r

b owl

( C4),

a nd

g rave

2 7

h ad

u nworked

( S5).

I II.

G raves

w ith w orked

s hell

5 ,

2 6 a nd 2 9 e ach c ontained a u nique o bject,

( S4),

g rave 2 6 w ith a p aired c eramic v essel 2 4

g rave 5 ( C7),

T able 4 E l I ndio

G rave

T rench o r P it

( Phase I I):

G rave L oci

H orizontal L ocus b y E xcavation S quare

V ertical L ocus b y D epth f rom S urface ( cms.)

1 2

F .2 F .2

B 5-05 C 6-B6

1 20 1 30

3 4

F .2 F .2

B 6 C 5

1 30 1 35

5 6

F .2 F .2

B 5-B6 B 6

1 45 1 60

7 8 9 1 0

F .2 F .2 F .2 F .2

C 6 C 6 B 6, B 5

1 20 1 35 1 70 1 20

1 1 1 2

F .2 F .3

D 6 K 6

1 20 1 20

1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6

F .3 F .3 F .3 F .3

F 5 J 6 E 5-F5 G 5

1 30 1 20 1 30 1 40

B 7,

C 6,

C 7

1 7

F .3

J 7

1 00

1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4

F .3 F .3 F .3 F .3 F .3 F .3 F .4

I 7-J7 K 6 I 5-J5 K 4-K5 K 5-L5 K 7 S 3

1 40 1 40 1 40 1 40 1 40 1 45 1 10

2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8

F .4 F .4 F .4 F .4

S 15-S16 S 17 T 17 T 15

1 50 1 60 1 60 1 30

2 9

F .4

T 15

1 50

3 0 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 5 3 6 3 7

F .4 F .4 S .7 F .6 F .6 S .8 H .3 F .4-F.5

T 16 T 15-U15 P it 7 C 8 F 3 P it 8 N one N one

1 50 1 50 1 00 1 60 1 60 1 50 U nknown U nknown

2 5

T able 5 E l I ndio

( Phase I I):

A ge a nd P osition G rave

K ey ( All A ge:

A ge

O rientation

P osition

D eposition

1 2

1 3

7 2

3 3

1 2

3 4 5 , 6

3 3 2 2

2 1 7 4

3 3 3 3

2 9 4 1

7 8

2 3

9 9

9 9

9 9

9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6

2 3 1 1 2 3 1 1

7 9 9 5 5 9 1 7

3 9 9 3 3 9 3 3

4 9 9 9 9 9 4 5

1 7 1 8 1 9

1 ,3 1 2

9 ,9 9 4

9 ,4 9 3

9 ,9 9 3

2 0 2 1 2 2

2 2 2

9 9 1

9 9 3

9 9 9

2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7

1 3 3 3 ,1 2

9 9 7 7 ,7 8

1 9 3 9 ,3 3

4 9 3 9 ,1 4

2 8 2 9 3 0 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 4

2 2 3 1 3 1 2

7 7 1 9 1 3 3

3 3 3 9 3 3 3

3 2 3 9 3 4 2

3 5 3 6 3 7

I ( all) 1 9

9 ( all) 9 9

3 ( all) 9 9

9 ( all) 9 9

" 9"s

r epresent " unknown".)

1 - A dult,

2 -Adolescent,

O rientation o f B ody: e ast/Southwest, P osition:

o f I nterments

3 -Child

1 -North/South,

4 -South/North,

1 -Extended,

2 -Northwest/Southeast,

7 -West/East,

2 -Semiflexed,3-Flexed,

3 -North-

8 -East/West 4 -Tightly f lexed

D eposition: 1 -Lying o n b ack, 2 -Lying o n r ight s ide, 3 -Lying o n l eft s ide, 4 -Lying o n s tomach, 5 -Lying o n u nknown s ide, 6 -Sitting 2 6

T able 6 E l I ndio ( Phase I I): D istribution o f A ge G roups B y E xcavation A rea

T rench/Pit

C hildren

A dolescents

A dults

U nknowns

F .2

5

4

2

0

F .3 F .4 F .6 H .3

2 4 0 0

5 3 1 0

6 2 1 1

0 0 0 0

S .7 S .8 F .4—F.5

1 0 0

0 0 0

0 5 0

0 0 1

T otals:

1 2

( 28%)

1 3

( 30%)

1 7

( 40%)

1 ( 2%)

T able 7 E l I ndio ( Phase I I): N umber o f I nterments b y A ge G roup a nd P resence/Absence o f M ortuary A rts

A ge C hild A dolescent A dult U nknown

W ith M ortuary A rts 7 5 7 1

( 58%) ( 39%) ( 41%) ( 100%)

2 7

W ithout M ortuary A rts 5 ( 42%) 8 ( 61%) 1 0 ( 59%) 0

a nd g rave 2 9 w ith s hell b eads. I V. G raves 1 3, 1 6, 2 5, a nd 3 2 a ll h ad d ecorated p lates ( C4), a nd g raves 1 3 a nd 1 6 e ach h ad u ndecorated b owls ( C3). V .

G raves

3 6

a nd

3 7

a ddition, g rave 3 6 h ad a n e xcavated b y h uaqueros. V I.

G rave 9 ,

b oth

c ontained

e ffigy v essel

i solated

b y

t he

p resence

a rts: d ecorated p late ( C4), c eramic c hisel ( L4) a nd u nworked s hell ( SS). T he

o ther

t hree

c luster

a nalyses

m etates

( C9);

o f

f igurine

f rom

t he

g rave

f our

1 982

( L3)

3 6 w as

t ypes

( C14),

o r b owls

a nd,

i n

p artially

o f m ortuary

s tone

v ersion

a xe

o f

o r

S AS,

n amely W ard's, c entroid a nd t he a verage l inkage m ethods, c losely p arallel t he r esults f rom t he c omplete l inkage a nalysis ( Table 8 ). T he b iases o f t he v arious a nalyses h ave a lready b een d iscussed i n C hapter I . T herefore, i f w e d rop t he c entroid m ethod, t he o nly d ifferences a mong t he c omplete l inkage, W ard's a nd a verage l inkage m ethods i s t he s hift o f g rave 1 7 f rom c luster I I i n t he c omplete l inkage t est t o c luster I V i n t he o ther t ests. T his i s a m inimal d ifference a nd i ncreases c onfidence i n t he r eliability o f t he c omplete l inkage a nalysis.

a ge

T he r esults o f t he c omplete l inkage c luster a nalysis e mphasize c ategories a mong t he g raves. F or e xample, e xcluding m ultiple

b urials i n g raves 1 7 a nd 2 6, o nly o ne a dult g rave--namely g rave 1 6 f ound i n c luster I V--is n ot p art o f c lusters I o r V . I n c luster I , t hree o f t he f our g raves a re a dults, w hile i n c luster V t here i s o ne a dult g rave a nd a nother w ith a s keleton o f u ndetermined a ge. A ll t he o ther f our c lusters a re c learly d ominated b y c hildren o r a dolescents. W hen a dults d o a ppear, t hey a re p art o f a m ultiple b urial a ccompanied b y a c hild. T his s uggests m ortuary a rts, t he b asis o f t he a ge o f t he d eceased.

t hat t he p resence o r a bsence o f v arious t he c lusterings, i s s trongly a ffected b y

T he d istinctions a mong t he a ge g roups a re e mphasized b y t he p resence a nd a bsence o f s pecific m ortuary i tems. F or e xample, i n c luster I V c hildren a re b uried w ithout p lain, u ndecorated b owls ( C3); i n c luster I I t he s ole c hild g rave ( 24) i s t he o nly b urial w ith a p lain p late ( C2). C luster V a lmost e xclusively c ontains c hildren a nd i s u nique i n t hat e very g rave h as a d oble o r c ompound s ilhouette v essel

( C6).

W hile

t here

i s

o ne

g rave

( 27)

i n

t his

c luster w hich i s

n ot o f a c hild a s c lassified b y I chon, t his a dolescent b urial m ay r epresent a m isclassification o f a ge e ither d ue t o s evere s keletal d ecomposition o r t he p ossibility t hat t he i ndividual w as o n t he v erge o f a dolescence. M inimally, t he d obles a re a ll a ssociated w ith y oung p eople a nd, p erhaps, e xclusively w ith c hildren. T hese m ortuary i tems a re t he m ost v isually e xpressive a rts f ound i n t he E l I ndio P hase I I b urials. T he d esigns ( Fig. 1 ) o n t hese b i- a nd t richrome v essels ( black o n w hite, b lack o n r ed, a nd b lack a nd r ed o n w hite) v ary f rom n on-objective g eometric p atterns t o f ormalized r enderings o f f auna, h uman b eings a nd, p ossibly, r itual a ctivities ( see M iranda G . 1 973). T he v essels a re a ll f igure-eight s haped, d isplaying s ome v ariation i n t he p roportions b etween t he t op a nd b ottom s egments ( see I chon 1 980:123),

a nd a ll e xhibit a n

i ntegration o f 2 8

t he v essel

s hape a nd

T able 8 E l I ndio ( Phase I I): C omparison o f C luster A nalyses

C luster

A nalysis: C omplete L inkage

W ard's

C entroid

A verage L inkage

G raves 1 , 1 5, 2 4

1 , 1 2, 1 5, 2 4

1 , 2 , 3 , 1 2, 1 3, 1 5, 1 6, 1 7, 2 4,

1 ,

1 2,

2 ,

3 , 2 6,

I I

2 ,

3 ,

I II

5 ,

2 6,

I V

V V I

1 7,

1 3, 3 2

1 6,

3 6,

3 7

9

1 2,

2 7

2 9 2 5,

2 , 2 7

2 5, 3 2 5

3 ,

1 5,

2 7, 2 7

5 , 2 6, 2 9

2 6

5 ,

1 3, 1 7, 3 2 3 6,

1 6, 2 5,

2 9

1 3, 2 5,

1 6, 3 2

3 7

3 6,

3 6,

3 7

9

9

2 9

3 7

9

2 9 1 7,

2 4

F ig. 1 M ortuary o bjects f rom P hase I I E l I ndio g raves ( exact d imensions o f a ll o bjects a re u nknown). T op: d ouble v essel w ith h andle, g rave 2 6 ( Ichon 1 974:Fig.23); c lay f igurines, g rave 9 ( left, I chon 1 974:Fig. 4 7, r ight, I chon 1 974:Plate X XXV). B ottom: " dobles" ( left t o r ight, t op t o b ottom) g rave 2 ( Ichon 1 974:Plate X XVI), g rave 1 7 ( Ichon 1 974:Plate X XVIII), g rave 1 7 ( Ichon 1 975:11), g rave 1 7 ( Ichon

1 974:Plate X XI).

p ainted

d esign.

E ven

t hough

t hese

e laborate

v essels

a re

f ound

e xclusively w ith c hildren ( or y oung p eople), a re b uried w ith o ne; f our o f t he c hildren's

n ot a ll o f t he c hildren g raves ( 24, 2 5, 2 6, a nd

3 2)

a re

d o

n ot

n orthwest

h ave

d obles.

s ections

a nd g rave T herefore,

3 2 i t

o f

T hese

t he

f our

s ite

g raves

( graves

2 4,

2 5,

i n t he f ar n orthwestern a ppears t hat n o g roup o f

c oncentrated a nd

2 6

i n

t he

i n T rench F .4

P it 7 o r I chon's S .7). b urials a t t he s ite h ad

s pecial p rivileges r elated t o t he i nclusion o f a d oble i n m ortuary f urnishings. M oreover, t he o rientation, d eposition p osition o f t he c hildren b urials, w ith o r w ithout d obles, d oes f ollow a ny r egular p attern.

t he a nd n ot

T wo o f t he g raves t hat i nclude c hildren a re m ultiple b urials, b oth w ith c ombinations o f o ne a dult a nd o ne c hild. I n g rave 1 7 f our d obles

w ere

f ound,

a nd

t he

c hild

w as

p laced

i nside

o ne

o f

t hem.

T hree o f t he f our d obles d iscovered i n g rave 1 7 w ere c omplete v essels. O ne ( Fig. 1 ) i s d ivided i nto b ands a nd d epicts h uman f igures i nvolved i n s ome t ype o f a ctivity, i nterpreted b y M iranda ( 1973) a s r itualistic. T hese s cenes o f h uman a ctivity h ave b een f ound o n o ther d obles f rom o ther l ocales i n t he T onosi V alley . T he s cenes h ave b een i nterpreted a s r epresenting a gricultural o r d omestic a ctivity ( Ichon 1 974:139-140) o r p ossibly c eremonial c onstruction w ork ( Cooke 1 984:289). T he o ther t wo d obles ( Fig. 1 ) p ortray f rontal h uman f igures o n o pposite s ides o f t he v essel. T he e yes a nd n oses o f t he h uman f igures c an a lso b e i nterpreted a s b ird m otifs. T he p ainting c an b e r ead a s e ither w hite o n b lack o r b lack o n w hite, a nd t he i nformation c hanges w ith t he r eading. W hile t hese t wo v essels a re n ot i dentical, t he c lose s imilarity i n d esign, w hite) a nd s hape s uggests t hat t hey a re a p air. I n o nly

g rave

2 6

mortuary

t he i tem

c hild i n

w as

t his

f ound g rave

l ying w as

o n

t op

a p aired

c olor

o f

t he

v essel

( black

a dult. ( Fig.

a nd

T he 1 ),

p ossibly s ymbolizing t he i nterdependency o f c hild a nd a dult. T he t emptation t o s uggest t hat t he a dult i s a w oman a nd, t herefore, t he m other o f t he c hild, i s s trong b ut, a s n oted a bove, d etermining t he s ex o f t he s keletons w as i mpossible d ue t o t heir a dvanced s tate o f d ecomposition. E ven i f t he a dult p roved t o b e a w oman, w e c an e liminate t he i dea t hat t he p ossible s ymbolic c ontent o f t he b urial a nd t he c eramic v essel r elates t o t he d eath o f t he m other a nd c hild a t b irth; t he s oft i nfant s keleton w ould m ost l ikely n ot h ave s urvived t he h umid a nd a cidic s oil c onditions a t t he s ite. T he p aired m ortuary a rts f ound i s t his g rave a re n ot u nique. A s d iscussed a bove, i n t he o nly o ther m ultiple b urial g rave ( 17) n ot o nly

a re

a n

a dult

a nd

c hild

p resent,

b ut

t wo d obles w ith

d esigns

s o

s imilar t hey c ould b e c alled a p air a re a lso p resent ( Fig. 1 ). T his s eemingly c oincidental s ituation s upports t he o bservation t hat t hese m ultiple b urials a re s ocially s ignificant, a nd t he c eramic " pairs" d emonstrate t he s ignificance. While

a ll

o f

t he

m ortuary

a rts

i n

t he

c hildren's

g raves

a re

c eramic v essels, o nly o ne s uch i tem w as f ound a mong t he a dolescent g raves ( 13). O n t he o ther h and, s hell o bjects, i ncluding b eads, w orked a nd u nworked s hell, w ere o nly f ound i n a dolescent g raves. A dolescent g rave 9 i s q uite e xceptional, c ontaining a c ache o f g astropods a nd b ivalve s hells, b urned d eer b ones, c lay f igurines ( Fig.

1 ),

a b asalt a xe,

a nd

a b ichrome b owl 3 1

( Fig.

2 ).

T he b asalt a xe

F ig. 2 T op: b ichrome b owl f illed w ith g astropods a nd b ivalve P hase I I g rave 9 a t E l I ndio ( Ichon 1 974:Plate X VI); b ottom: c elts,

P hase

d imensions

o f

I I

e xcavations

a ll

o bjects

a re

a t

E l

I ndio

u nknown.

3 2

( Ichon

1 974:Fig.

s hells, a xes o r

5 5);

e xact

a nd c eramic P hase I I a t

f igurines E l I ndio.

a re u nique t o t his g rave, t he m ost d iverse o f T he f igurines r epresent h umans i n K ewpie d oll

s hapes, w ith a n a rched b ack; p unctate h orizontally d ivide t he f igure. T he b asalt

b ands a xe i s

v ertically a nd o f a c ommon t ype

c omparable t o t hose f ound t hroughout t he s ite ( Fig. 2 ). T he r im o f t he b owl ( Fig. 2 ) w as e laborately p ainted, a nd t he d esigns a re q uite s imilar t o t hose f ound o n t he d obles. U nfortunately, t his b owl w as s everely d amaged, a nd t he d esigns b elow t he r im a re l ost. g astropods a nd s hells w ere f ound i nside t his v essel. A dult

g raves

h ave

l ess

i n

c ommon

w ith

o ne

a nother.

A ll

o f

t he

A lthough

g rave g oods a mong t he a dults a re l imited t o c eramic v essels w ith o nly o ne e xception ( grave 3 6 w ith a s tone m etate), t hey d o n ot s hare u nique m ortuary i tems l ike t he g raves o f c hildren a nd a dolescents. F or e xample, a n e ffigy v essel ( C9) i s t he o nly P hase I I m ortuary o bject f rom E l I ndio f ound s olely w ith a n a dult; h owever, t his o bject o ccurs i n o nly o ne a dult b urial ( grave 3 6). U ndecorated j ars ( C1), t he m ost f requently f ound o bject i n a dult b urials ( excluding t he m ultiple b urials o f g rave 1 7 a nd 2 4), a re p resent i n o nly f orty p ercent o f t he a dult g raves. O ne a dult g rave a nd a nother o f a n i ndividual o f u ndetermined a ge u sed o val, t ripod m etates a s b urial p latforms. T his p ractice d id n ot o ccur i n a ny o ther P hase I I g raves a t E l I ndio o r E l C afetal. G enerally,

a ge w as a n

i mportant c riterion u sed

i n d etermining

t he

i nclusion o r e xclusion o f v arious m ortuary i tems a mong a ll t he P hase I I E l I ndio g raves. I n a ddition, c omparison o f t he y outh b urials ( children a nd a dolescents) w ith t he a dult i nterments d emonstrates a n i ncrease i n t he v ariation o f m ortuary f urnishings p aralleling a n i ncrease i n a ge. T hat i s, t he c lasses o f o bjects f ound i n a dult b urials a re l ess r egular o r p redictable t han t hose i n a dolescent o r c hild b urials. I ndividuals o f l esser a ge a re t reated m ore a s a c lass t han

t heir

e lders.

T his

p attern

s uggests

t hat

a s

a n

i ndividual g rew

o lder, t heir s ocial i dentities b ecame m ore d istinct i n c omparison w ith t heir p eers. S uch a s ystem o f d etermining s ocial i dentities i s c haracteristic o f s tatus b ased o n a chievements. A dolescents a nd c hildren, o n t he o ther h and, h ad l ess o pportunity t o d evelop o r g ain u nique s ocial p ositions a nd s o t hey a re t reated m ore u niformly, s haring s imilar s ocial i dentities. T he d istribution o f t he g raves p rovides s upport f or t his i nterpretation. I chon ( 1974:177, 1 79) n otes t hat i n t renches F .2 a nd F .3 t he b urials w ere d iscovered u nder a t hree c entimeter l ayer o f h ard c lay, i nterpreted b y h im a s a n i nterior h abitation f loor. A bove t he c lay f loor w as d ebris f rom P hases I I a nd I II. N o a ssociated w all f oundations, p ost h oles o r o ther f eatures w ere d iscovered. I chon a rgued t hat t he b urials u nder t he " floor" c orresponded t o f amily b urial g roups. W hether t he h ard c lay l ayer r epresented a h ouse f loor o r n ot, t he b urials i n F .2 a nd F .3 a re g rouped t ogether y et, t he o verall p attern o f a ll t he g raves d oes n ot c orrespond t o a g raveyard o r c emetery. T rench F .2, I chon a rgues s trongly ( 1974:179), n ot o nly r epresents a f amily b urial a rea, b ut a lso a " normal" f amily p opulation, i n t his c ase s ix a dults a nd f ive c hildren, w ith a h igh i nfant m ortality r ate. R egardless o f w hether o ne

u ses

t he a ge c ategories o f t his 3 3

s tudy o r o f

I chon's,

t he

a ge

d istributions

i n

t his

b urial

g roup

l ikelihood r epresent a nything l ike a f amily u nit, W hile t he a ge d ata i s a dmittedly g eneral, i t d oes n ot

d o

n ot

i n

a ll

n ormal o r n ot. e asily f it i nto

a ny o f W eiss' ( 1973) m odel p opulation c harts; t he i nfant m ortality r ate i s t oo h igh t o m aintain a ny p opulation. T he t rench F .2 " family" w as e ither o n t he v erge o f t otal e xtinction o r d oes n ot r epresent a " normal" f amily. T he f ormer i s p robably n ot t he c ase, s ince p eople c ontinuously o ccupied E l I ndio t hrough P hases I I a nd I II, a p eriod o f a pproximately 1 ,250 y ears. I chon's c onjecture t hat t he b urial g roup r epresents a f amily u nit i s n ot l ikely u nder t hese c ircumstances. H owever, I chon's o bservation o f t he b urial g roups i s i mportant i n i tself. The d istribution o f b urials i n o ther t renches i s s cattered a nd i ndicates t hat t he v illage d id n ot h ave a f ormal c emetery . S axe ( 1970) h as p ersuasively a rgued t hat t he e mergence a nd u se o f f ormal c emeteries i s s trongly c orrelated w ith c onstrained r esource a vailability a nd i ncreased s ocial c omplexity, a s r epresented b y c hiefdoms. T herefore, t he l ack o f a f ormal c emetery a t P hase I I E l I ndio, s uggests t hat t he l evel o f s ocial c omplexity w as l ess t han t hat f itting t he g eneral c riteria o f c hiefdom. O ne o ther o bservation s upports t his i nterpretation. I n s ocieties w here a scribed r anks a re i mportant ( e.g., c hiefdoms), v isual o r a rtistic e xpression o f t hese r anks i s v ery o ften a rticulated t hrough c ostume e lements, a s e xemplified b y t he U nited S tates A rmy. W ith t he e xception o f t wo s hell b eads i n g rave 2 9, n one o f t he P hase I I g raves a t E l I ndio c ontained a ny e vidence o f k nown m ortuary i tems e ven c losely r esembling c ostume e lements. C ombined w ith t he a bsence o f a f ormal c emetery, t he e mphasis o n a ge d istinctions a nd t he p ossible s exual d ivision o f t he d istribution o f m ortuary a rts i ndicates t hat t he P hase I I E l I ndio c ommunity f its t he g eneral c riteria o f a n e galitarian s ociety.

T he M ortuary A rts f rom t he P hase I II G raves a t E l I ndio

The Phase I II graves ( see A ppendix 2 ) o f E l I ndio a re d istinguished f rom t he P hase I I b urials b ecause t hey c ontained c eramics d ifferent i n s tyle f rom t hose o f P hase I I; t hose g raves w ithout c eramics w ere d ated t o P hase I II b ecause o f t heir p hysical p roximity t o k nown P hase I II b urials. I n a ddition, t he l ocation o f t he P hase I II g raves a t t he s ite o f E l I ndio i s d istinct f rom t hose o f P hase I I c ompare T ables 9 a nd 6 ), s upporting t he c eramic-based c hronological p lacement o f t he g raves. T renches 5 , 6 a nd t he h uaglero-damaged p it H .9 c ontained t he m ajority P hase I II b urials, w hereas t he P hase I I g raves l ocated

i n t renches

2 ,

( 46 o f 4 9) o f t he w ere p redominantly

3 a nd 4 .

S ince t he P hase I II g raves w ere e xcavated a t t he s ame t ime a s t he e arlier b urials, s imilar e xcavation p roblems a ccount f or u ncertain a ssociations b etween t he m ortuary f urnishings a nd s pecific g raves. F urthermore, h uaqueros h ad p lundered a n e xtensive a rea o f P hase I II g raves ( Ichon 1 974:292-295). H owever, s ome d ata f rom t he d isturbed a rea w ere

u sable,

i ncluding

i nformation f rom g raves 3 4

3 5

t hrough 4 2 o f

E l

T able 9 I ndio ( Phase I II):

D istribution o f A ge G roups B y E xcavation A rea T rench/Pit

C hildren

A dolescents

A dults

U nknowns

F .3

1

0

0

0

F .4 F .5 F .6 H .9

1 0 6 0

1 7 1 5 0

0 3 8 1

0 1 5 0

8 ( 16%)

2 3

T otals:

3 5

( 47%)

1 2

( 24%)

6 ( 12%)

t his

s tudy. N o

s keletal

r emains

f rom

t he

P hase

I II

b urials

w ere

s exed.

T he

s ame a ge c ategories u sed i n t he d iscussion o f t he P hase I I b urials h ave b een u sed f or t hese l ater b urials. T he f orty-two P hase I II g raves y ielded f orty-nine i ndividuals. I n c omparison w ith t he d eposition, p osition a nd o rientation o f t he P hase I I b urials, t he P hase I II i nterments e xhibit o nly o ne m ajor d ifference ( Table 1 0). E xcluding u nknown i nformation, t he m ajority ( n=12 o r 7 6 p ercent) o f t he i ndividuals i n t he P hase I II g raves w ere f ound i n a s itting p osition; n one o f t he i ndividuals i n t he P hase I I b urials w ere d iscovered i n t his p osition. V ery s light d ifferences o ccur b etween t he o rientations o f t he b odies i n P hase I I a nd P hase I II g raves. S eventy-eight p ercent o f t he P hase I II b odies, f or e xample, w ere o riented t o t he n orth o r s outh a nd 2 2 p ercent t owards t he e ast o r w est; w hile i n t he P hase I I b urials, 3 0 p ercent o f t he i ndividuals w ere a ligned n orth o r s outh a nd 4 3 p ercent e ast o r w est. Twelve p ercent o f t he P hase I II g raves d id n ot c ontain r ecoverable m ortuary f urnishings. I n g eneral, t he g raves w ith y ounger i ndividuals h ad a g reater c hance o f h aving m ortuary f urnishings. A fter e liminating t hose i ndividuals w ith u nknown a ges, c hildren, f or e xample, h ad a n 8 8.5 p ercent c hance o f r eceiving m ortuary o bjects, a dolescents a 7 4 p ercent c hance, a nd a dults a 6 7 p ercent c hance ( Table 1 1). The a ge d istributions o f c onsiderably f rom t he b urials o f

t he P hase I II i ndividuals v ary P hase I I ( compare T ables 6 a nd 9 ).

A dolescents i ncreased t heir r epresentation d uring P hase I II ( from 3 1 t o 5 3.5 p ercent), w hile t here w ere f ewer a dults ( Phase I I, 4 0.5 p ercent a nd P hase I II, 2 8 p ercent) a nd c hildren ( Phase I I, 2 9 p ercent a nd P hase I II, 1 9 p ercent). T he P hase I II E l I ndio g raves g roup i nto f ive o r s ix c lusters

w ith m ortuary ( Appendix 6 ,

f urnishings ( n=32) T able A-5). The

s election o f t he n umber o f u seful c lusters i s s omewhat a rbitrary; t he d ifferences a mount t o t he i nclusion o r e xclusion o f g rave 3 8 i n c luster I . I s hall u se f ive c lusters.

3 1,

C luster I i ncludes g raves 1 , 4 , 1 0, 1 1, 1 4, 2 0, 2 3, 2 4, 2 6-29, 3 3, a nd 3 5-40. T hey a re l inked b y t he p resence o f d ecorated j ars

( Cl) a nd p edestal p lates o r b owls ( C5); 8 0 p ercent o f t he g raves i n t his c luster h ad o ne o r b oth o f t hese o bjects. A part f rom t hese m ortuary f urnishings, t he m ajority o f t he g raves i n t his c luster h ad a r elatively l ow n umber o f o bjects i n e ach g rave. T he a verage n umber o f c eramic t ypes i n e ach g rave i s 2 .45; g rave 1 0 w ith s ix a nd g rave 3 8 w ith f ive a rtifact t ypes w ere e xceptional. M oreover, f ew o f t he m ortuary o bjects f ound i n c luster I • g raves w ere s hared b y o ne o r m ore o f t he b urials. T he s parsely d istributed m ortuary f urnishings c omprised c eramic c ups ( C8, g rave 2 4), d ecorated j ars ( C15, g raves 4 , 1 0, 3 1, a nd 3 8), s hell b eads ( S3, g rave 2 0), w orked s hell ( S4, g rave 1 0), a t umbaga o r g old p endant ( T2, g rave 1 0), t umbaga p laques ( T3, g raves 5 a nd 1 1), b ird 1 0), d eer b ones ( B10, w orked

s tone

( L9,

u nique a mong a ll

g rave

b ones g rave 3 8).

( B8, g rave 3 3), f ish T he

2 3), d eer a ntler ( B9, g rave b ones ( B12, g rave 3 9), a nd

c eramic

t he P hase I II b urials. 3 6

c up

f ound

i n

g rave

2 4

i s

T able 1 0 E l I ndio ( Phase I II): A ge a nd P osition o f I nterments G rave

A ge

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 2 9 3 0 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 5 3 6 3 7 3 8 3 9 4 0 4 1 4 2 K ey:

3 2 3 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 9 2 2 2 3 ,3 3 1 2 2 2 ,2 2 2 2 1 ,9 2 2 ,1 2 1 2 9 1 2 2 2 ,3 1 9 9 9 1 ,1 1 3 2 ,3

O rientation

P osition

9 1 4 9 4 4 9 7 9 1 9 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 8 4 ,9 4 4 9 9 1 4 ,1 1 9 1 9 1 1 4 4 ,1 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 8 ,9

3 3 9 3 3 3 9 3 1 3 9 3 9 9 4 9 9 9 3 3 ,9 3 3 9 9 3 3 3 3 3 9 3 3 3 3 3 9 9 3 3 3 3 3 ,9

S ee T ab le 5

3 7

D eposition 9 6 9 6 6 6 9 9 9 6 9 1 9 9 9 9 9 9 6 6 ,9 6 9 9 9 6 6 6 9 6 9 6 4 6 6 ,2 9 9 9 9 9 9 5 3 ,9

T able 1 1 E l I ndio ( Phase I II): N umber o f I nterments b y A ge G roup a nd P resence/Absence o f M ortuary A rts

A ge . C hild A dolescent A dult U nknown

W ith M ortuary A rts

W ithout M ortuary A rts

8 ( 67%) 1 7 ( 74%) 7 ( 88%)

4 ( 33%) 6 ( 26%) 1 ( 12%)

5 ( 83%)

1 ( 17%)

3 8

G raves 2 , 3 , 2 1, 3 4, a nd 4 1 c onstitute c luster I I; a ll o f t hese b urials c ontained s hell p endants ( Si). I n a ddition, g raves 2 a nd 3 c ontained d ecorated p lates o r b owls ( C4); g raves 3 a nd 2 1 h ad s hell b eads ( S3); a nd S cattered a mong

g raves 3 , i ndividual

2 1, a nd b urials

3 4 i ncluded c anine t eeth ( 812). w ere a n u ndecorated j ar ( C1 i n

g rave 3 4), s hell f igurines ( S2 i n g rave 2 1), a n u nknown i ncised b one o bject ( B3 i n g rave 2 ), b ird b ones ( B8 i n g rave 3 ), d eer b ones ( 810 i n g rave 2 1) a nd a s tone p endant ( L5 i n g rave 3 4). T he g raves 2 2. ( S3)

c omprising c luster I II a re

t hose n umbered

1 5,

1 9,

a nd

T hey a re c haracterized b y u ndecorated j ars ( C1), s hell b eads a nd c anine o r d og t eeth ( B12). T wo g raves, 1 9 a nd 2 2, a lso

c ontained a b one p endant ( B1); m oreover, g rave 1 9 h ad s hark's t eeth ( B7) a nd d ecorated p lates o r b owls ( C4). G raves 1 5 a nd 2 2 y ielded s hell p endants ( Si); a nd t he l atter d ecorated p edestal p lates o r b owls ( C5). T he

s ingle m ember o f

c luster I V,

o f

g rave

t hese

8 ,

t wo

c ontained

b urials

h ad

u ndecorated

j ars ( Cl), d ecorated p edestal p lates o r b owls ( C5), s hell p endants ( Si), s hell b eads ( S3), w orked s hell ( S4), s ting r ay p oints o r s pines ( B5),

a nd

s hark's

t eeth

( 87).

G rave 4 2, t he s ole m ember o f c luster V , c ontained u ndecorated j ars ( C1), p edestal p lates o r b owls ( C5), e ffigy v essel ( C9), d eco rated j ar ( C15), a f ragment o f a t umbaga f igurine ( T4), f ragments o f s hell p endants ( Si), u nworked s hells ( S5), a nd n on-human b ones ( B11).

a gree

T he a verage l inkage, c entroid a nd W ard's c luster a nalyses d o n ot a s w ell w ith t he c omplete l inkage a nalysis o f t he E l I ndio

P hase I II b urials a s t hey d id w ith t he P hase I I b urials ( Table 1 2). I h ave a lready n oted t hat W ard's m ethod t ends t o s elect f or c lusters o f s imilar s ize a nd t he c entroid a nalysis h as a b ias t owards e mphasizing t he o utliers w ithin a b ody o f d ata. T hese p atterns o r b iases a re w ell r epresented i n T able 1 2. A t t he f ive c luster l evel, t he c entroid t est, f or e xample, a rrives a t a d etermination o f f our c lusters e ach w ith o ne m ember a nd o ne c luster w ith t he r emainder o f t he g raves. W ard's a nalysis, o n t he o ther h and, f inds o nly o ne c luster w ith a s ingle m ember a nd b roadly d istributes t he o ther g raves a mong f our c lusters. T he a verage l inkage m ethod c orresponds c losely t o t he c omplete l inkage c luster a nalysis; c hanges o nly o ccur i n t he d istribution o f s ix g raves ( 2, 1 0, 1 5, 1 9, 2 2, a nd 4 1). H owever, a ll o f t he m ethods a gree o n t he u niqueness o f g rave 4 2, a nd t hree o f t he f our t ests c oncur o n t he s ingularity o f g rave 8 . T he c entroid a nd a verage l inkage m ethods a lso s ingle o ut g rave 1 0; t here i s j ustification f or t his i n t he d istribution o f t he mortuary f urnishings i n t his g rave ( Appendix 6 , T ables A -6 a nd A -7). G rave 1 0 c ontains s ix a rtifact t ypes a nd t en d ifferent o bjects; a s a r esult, i t i s o n t he b order o f c luster I i n t he c omplete l inkage a nalysis. I f W ard's m ethod i s e liminated f rom c onsideration, t he m ajor d iff erences a mong t he r emaining a nalyses c enters o n t he d istribution o f g raves w ithin t hose c lusters w hich c ontain t he l argest n umber o f b urials, n amely c lusters I a nd I I a bove. T his s ituation s hould n ot b e u nexpected, s ince t his l arge g roup o f g raves ( clusters I a nd I I, o r 2 5 o f 3 0 g raves) a lso r epresents a l arge d egree o f v ariation i n t he d istribution a nd p resence o f s pecific m ortuary f urnishings. Y et, s imilar t o t he P hase I I b urials, t here a re n o o verwhelming r easons 3 9

T able 1 2 E l I ndio ( Phase I II): C omparison o f C luster A nalyses C luster

I I

I II I V

V

A nalysis C omplete L inkage

W ard's

C entroid

A verage L inkage

G raves 1 , 4 , 1 0, 1 1, 1 4, 2 0, 2 3, 2 4, 2 6, 2 7, 2 8, 2 9, 3 1, 3 3, 3 5, 3 6, 3 7, 3 8, 3 9, 4 0

1 , 1, 1 4, 2 6, 2 7, 3 3, 3 5, 3 9, 4 0

1 -4, 1, 1 4, 1 5, 2 0, 2 22 4, 2 62 9, 3 1, 3 3-41

1 , 2 , 4 , 1 1, 1 4, 2 0, 2 3, 2 4, 2 6-29, 3 1, 3 3, 3 5-41

2 , 4 1

4 , 1 0, 3 1, 3 8

1 9

3 , 1 5, 1 9, 2 2, 3 4

4 2

8

8

8

2 , 2 3, 2 4, 2 8, 3 6, 3 7, 4 1

1 0

1 0

4 2

3 , 8 , 1 5, 1 9, 2 0, 2 1, 2 2, 2 9, 3 4

4 2

4 2

1 5,

3 ,

2 1,

1 9,

2 2

3 4,

4 0

2 1,

n ot

t o

c ontinue

t o u se

A c omparison

t he c omplete

o f T ables

1 0

l inkage a nalysis.

a nd A -5

( Appendix 6 )

d oes

n ot

s upport

s uggestions o f a s trong r elationship b etween b ody t reatment ( deposition, p osition a nd o rientation) w ith a ny o f t he c lusters. H owever, s ubstantive a ssociations p ersist b etween t he d istribution o f t he g raves a mong t he c lusters a nd t he a ge o f t he b uried i ndividuals. C lusters I I t hrough V , r epresenting o nly t en o f t he g raves w ith m ortuary f urnishings, c ontain o nly a dolescents a nd c hildren. A ll o f t he

a dults a re g rouped

i nto c luster I .

A ge g roups a lso c orrespond w ith t he d istribution o f s pecific m ortuary a rts. W ith o nly o ne e xception ( the f ish b ones i n g rave 2 8), t he m ortuary f urnishings i n a dult b urials w ere l imited t o c eramics. T his p attern i s i dentical t o t he P hase I I b urials. M oreover, t he m ajority o f c eramic t ypes a nd s hapes f ound i n t he a dult b urials a re a lso c ommonly f ound i n t he g raves o f c hildren a nd a dolescents. U ndecorated j ar ( Cl), p edestal p late o r b owl ( C5), c up d ecorated j ar ( C15) a re t he o nly c eramic t ypes f ound i n b urials.

I n o nly o ne

i nstance,

g rave 2 4,

( C8), a nd t he a dult

d id a n a dult b urial

c ontain

a u nique c eramic o bject ( a b ichrome c up [ C4]) n ot f ound i n t he g raves o f c hildren o r a dolescents. T his o bject w as e xceptional a nd w as n ot d iscovered i n a ny o ther P hase I II g raves a t E l I ndio. T he a ny

a dolescent

g eneral

b urials

p atterns.

o f

T he

t he l ack

P hase o f

I II

a ny

d o

n ot

o bvious

f it

n eatly

p atterns

i nto

m ay

b e

p artially e xplained b y t he d ivisions a mong a ge g roups w ithin c luster I . O nly o ne c hild ( grave 1 ) r epresents t his g roup a nd b ecause o f i ts u niqueness i t m ay s ignify a n e rror i n t he a ging o f t he s keleton. O therwise, t he i ndividuals r epresenting t his c luster a re d ivided e qually b etween a dolescents a nd a dults. F urthermore, w ith t he e xception o f g rave 1 0, t he d istribution o f m ortuary f urnishings b etween t he a dults a nd a dolescents o f c luster o utstanding d ifferences. B ased u pon t he p resence o r

I b etrays n o a bsence o f t he

m ortuary a rts, t hese a dolescents h ave m ore i n c ommon w ith t he a dults t han w ith t heir p eers o f c lusters I I t hrough V . O n t he o ther h and, t he a dolescents o f c lusters I I t hrough V s hare m ore m ortuary o bject t ypes w ith t he c hildren o f t hese s ame c lusters. T he c lusterings m ay, t herefore, i ndicate t hat t he a ge d istinction o f a dolescent i s i rrelevant. T hat i s, t here a re a dolescents w ho a re t reated a s a dults a nd a dolescents w ho a re t reated l ike c hildren, r esulting i n t wo u seful a ge c ategories. T herefore, I h ave r educed t he a ge g rades t o c hildren, a lso r epresenting a dolescents w ho a re t reated l ike c hildren, a nd a dults, a lso r epresenting a dolescents w ho a re t reated l ike

a dults.

C ontinuing a p attern e stablished b y t he P hase I I b urials, t he P hase I II c hildrens' g raves a re t he r ichest i n t he n umber a nd t ype o f m ortuary a rts a nd c ontain t he m ost v isually c omplex o bjects f ound i n a ll o f t he P hase I II g raves. U nlike P hase I I, h owever, o bjects w ith v isual i nformation a re n ot e xclusively c eramics. I ndeed, t he d ecorated c eramic v essels o f t he P hase I II b urials a re n ot s electively d istributed b y a ge. Y et, t he a bsolute n umber o f d ecorated c eramics i n t he P hase I II b urials i s s ubstantial; a mong t he e ighty c eramic v essels f rom t he b urials o ver o ne-half ( forty-five) a re d ecorated. D ecorated p edestal p lates o r b owls ( C5, n =33) a ppear 4 1

m ost t his

f requently. o bject; a ll

d ecorated

p edestal

C luster o f i ts

I I d emonstrates a s trong r elationship t o g raves ( 2, 3 , 2 1, 3 4, a nd 4 1) c ontain

p lates o r b owls.

B oth t he d ecorated p lates o r b owls ( C4)

p edestal e xhibit

p lates o r b owls e xpressive a nd

( C5) a nd p ossibly

d ecorated s ymbolic

d esigns. I chon h as a dequately d iscussed t he v arious t ypes a nd f ormats o f t he d esigns ( 1975:226-242). W ithout r epeating h is p resentation a t l ength, I w ould l ike t o s tress t hat t here i s a f inite r ange o f v isual s ubjects f ound o n t hese c eramics. A ccording t o I chon's c alculations, o f t he z oomorphic d esigns ( Fig. 3 ), 5 2 p ercent w ere o f a " monster," 2 2 p ercent o f a b ird, 1 5 p ercent o f a c rab o r s corpion l ike a nimal, 6 .6 p ercent o f a h umanoid, 3 p ercent o f a s erpent, d ecorated

a nd 1 .4 p ercent o f a d ouble j ars, f ar f ewer i n n umber t han

a nimal ( 1974:242). T he t he b owls o r p lates ( n=6),

h ave a s imilarly l imited r ange o f s ubjects. T his r estricted r ange o f m otifs s uggests a s tandardization o f v isual s ymbols; b ut t he r elationship o f t he c ontent o r s ubject m atter o f t he d esigns w ith t he b urials i s n ot r eadily a pparent. M oreover, d etermining t he p rovenance o f e ach i ndividual v essel f rom t he g rave i n w hich i t w as f ound h as b een s everely h ampered b y i ncomplete r ecords. W hile i t m ay b e t empting t o i nterpret t he s tandardization o f m otifs o n t he d ecorated c eramics a s a n i ndication o f l imited a rtistic e xpression, s uch i s n ot t he c ase. T hese p olychrome v essels, p ainted i n r ed, b lack, w hite, p urple a nd o range o n w hite a nd r ed g rounds, d isplay r emarkable p recision i n e xecution r epresented b y t he f ineness o f t he l ines a nd t he a daptation o f t he d esigns t o t he v essels' i nteriors. M any o f t he d ecorated c eramics w ere f ound i n e xcellent c ondition; t he l ack o f s urface a brasions a nd n ormal w ear a nd t ear s uggest t hat t hey m ay h ave b een m anufactured a s s pecialty v essels. I f t his i s t he c ase, t he s pecial u se o f t hese v essels w as n ot o nly f or b urial i n t he g raves b ecause t hey w ere u ncovered t hroughout t he s ite i n n on-mortuary c ontexts. A s a r esult, t he c ultural c ontext o f t he c eramic v essel, t hat r eliable g uide o f i ts

i s i ts s pecial

a ssociation f unction.

w ith

a g rave,

i s

t he

m ost

T he v isual c ontent o f o ther m ortuary f urnishings f ound a mong t he c hildren's g raves o f c lusters I I t hrough V c orresponds t o s pecific g raves o r g roups o f g raves. S hell o bjects ( Fig. 4 ) a re f ound a lmost e xclusively i n t he g raves o f t he a bove c lusters; t he t wo e xceptions a re g raves 1 0 ( somewhat o f a n a nomaly t o b egin w ith) a nd 2 0 o f c luster I . G rave 1 0 c ontained t hree p ieces o f w orked s hell ( S4), a nd g rave 2 0 h ad a n u nknown n umber o f s hell b eads ( S3). O ther t han t hese t wo e xamples, s hell b eads ( S3) w ere f ound i n t wo g raves o f c luster I I, a ll t hree g raves o f c luster I II, a nd g rave 8 , t he s ole m ember o f c luster I V. S hell p endants ( Si) o ccur i n a ll g raves o f c lusters I I t hrough V e xcept o ne ( grave 1 9). S hell f igurines ( S2) w ere o nly f ound i n g rave 2 1; s imilarly, w orked o r u nworked s hell ( S4 a nd S 5) w as o nly l ocated i n g raves 8 a nd 4 2 o f c lusters I T a nd V . S hell p endants a nd b eads a re o f p rominent i mportance i n t he c hildren 's g raves o f t hese c lusters. T he

e xact

n umber

o f

s hell

b eads

w as

d ocumented

a nd 1 5. T he f ormer h ad t welve b eads a nd n umbers s uggest a s tring o r s trings o f b eads 4 2

o nly

f or

g raves

t he l atter f orty, s uch a s a n ecklace.

8

b oth T he

F ig. 3 D esigns I chon 1 974).

f ound

o n

P hase

I II

E l

I ndio

c eramics

( after

F ig. 4 S hell m ortuary a rts f rom P hase I II E l I ndio g raves ( exact d imensions o f a ll o bjects a re u nknown). C oncha s hells c arved i n t he s hape o f c rocodiles, g rave 2 1 ( Ichon 1 974:Figs. 8 9a, b ); s pondylus s hell p endant i n t he s hape o f a h uman, g rave 4 1 ( Ichon 1 974:Fig. 8 8h); s pondylus s hell p endants i n t he s hape o f f rogs o r t oads, g rave 4 2 ( Ichon 1 974:Figs. 8 8a, f ); " hook" s haped p endant, g rave 8 ( Ichon 1 974:Fig. 8 7s); t wo m iscellaneous s hell p endants, g rave 3 4 ( Ichon 1 974:Figs.

8 6b,

c ).

s hell p endants ( Si) f all i nto a m ore c omplicated p attern. G raves 2 , 3 , 8 a nd 4 1 a ll c ontained o ne p endant; g raves 1 5, 2 1, 2 2 a nd 3 4 e ach h ad t wo p endants; a nd g raves 2 a nd 4 2 h eld t hree p endants a piece. T he p endants c an b e c onveniently d ivided i nto t hree g roups: g eometric, z oomorphic a nd u ndefined ( Fig. 4 ). A mong t he l atter g roup i s a t ooth-like p endant f rom g rave 3 4 a nd a h ook-shaped p endant f rom g rave

8 .

T he

t rapezoidal;

g eometric w hile

t he

p endants

a re

z oomorphic

h umanoid f igures ( grave 8 a nd 4 1) A mong a ll t he p endants, t he l argest

e ither

p endants

r ound,

t riangular

i nclude

m onkeys

o r o r

a nd f rogs o r t oads ( grave 4 2). a nd m ost v isually e xpressive a re

t he t hree f ound i n g rave 4 2; a ll o f t hese r epresent e ither f rogs o r t oads. T wo o f t he p endants f rom g rave 4 2 c ombine r epresentations o f t hree f rogs o r t oads o n o ne l ong r ectangular p endant. T he e yes, l egs a nd a rms o f t he a nimal a re o nly s lightly s uggested b y e ngraved l ines. A s a r esult, t he i mages b order o n a bstraction s uggesting t hat s ome o f t he o ther g eometric p endants d epict a bstract r epresentations o f t he s ame a nimal. T he f rog o r t oad d oes n ot a ppear o n a ny o ther P hase I II o bjects f ound a t E l I ndio. M oreover, i ts s ole o ccurrence i s i n g rave 4 2, t he r ichest o f a ll t he g raves a t t he s ite. T he d istribution p attern o f s hell mortuary a rts, e specially s hell p endants, a mong t he P hase I II g raves s uggests t hat a ny g raves w ith s hell a re o f s pecial s tatus. I n a ddition, g rave 4 2 i s p articularly i mportant b ecause o f t he p resence o f t he t oad o r f rog p endants. N onetheless, a ll t he i ndividuals i n t his " special" g rave ( 42) a re c hildren o r a dolescents. I ndeed, t he " special" s tatus o f a ny o f t he a bove g raves d oes n ot r epeatedly i gnore t he s ocial c riteria o f a ge; t herefore, t he p attern o f t he d istribution o f t he m ortuary a rts a mong t he P hase I II b urials s uggests t he c ontinuation o f a n e galitarian s ocial s ystem l ike t hat f ound i n P hase I I. B ut t here a re s ignificant d ifferences i n t he m ortuary p ractices o f P hase I I a nd P hase I II b urials. T hese d ifferences d o i ndicate v ariations i n t he s ocial d imensions o f e ach p hase. I n g eneral, t he e xpression o f a ge a mong t he P hase I II g raves i ntensified. T his i s a rticulated t hrough t he g reater v ariation i n t he n umber o f m ortuary g oods i n a b urial ( e.g., t hose o f c luster I a s o pposed t o t hose o f c lusters I I t hrough V ); t he e xclusiveness o f s pecific g rave o bjects ( i.e., s hell) t o c hildrens g raves; a nd t he d ramatically i ncreased u se o f c lothing o r c ostume e lements i n t he b urials ( beads, p endants a nd f igurines m ade o f s hell, b one a nd t umbaga o r g old). T he d ifferences i n t he d istribution a nd t ypes o f m ortuary f urnishings a mong c lusters I I t hrough V i ndicate t hat s ocial c riteria o ther t han a ge p layed a n i mportant r ole i n t he s election a nd i nclusion o f p articular m ortuary a rts i n a b urial. I n a ddition, u nlike t he P hase I I b urials, t he P hase I II g raves a re d istributed w ithin t he s ite o f E l I ndio i n s pecific g roups c haracteristic o f f ormal c emeteries. I n g eneral, t he i ncrease i n c omplexity a ssociated w ith t he d istribution a nd c ontent o f t he m ortuary a rts a nd t he p resence o f a f ormal c emetery a rea i ndicates a n i ncreased s ocial c omplexity d uring P hase I II--that i s, a m ore r igid a nd h ierarchic s ocial s ystem t han r epresented b y t he P hase I I b urials. N onetheless, t he m ortuary a rts o f t he P hase I II b urials s till r epresent a n e galitarian s ociety.

4 5

T he M ortuary A rts P hase

T he

s ite

I II G raves

o f L a C af iaza

i s

f rom t he

a t L a C af iaza

l ocated

o n

a l imestone

o utcrop n ear t he

T onosi r iver. T his r idge i s a pproximately t wenty m eters a bove s ea l evel a nd 8 .5 k ilometers w est a nd n orthwest f rom t he l acustrine e nvironment o f t he m angrove s wamps n ear E l I ndio. T he g raves a t t he s ite w ere d iscovered d uring t he c onstruction o f a r oad a nd t he s ubsequent e xcavation b y I chon d uring t he 1 969 s eason w as a r apid s alvage o peration. T he e xcavation w as f urther h ampered b y t he c omposition o f t he s oil w hich i s l iberally l aden w ith l imestone b oulders, i nterspersed w ith h ard a nd d ense y ellow c lay. I chon

( 1974;285-291)

n oted

t hat

a rchaeological

s urface

r emains

i ndicated t hat t he s ite w as i nhabited d uring P hases I I, I II a nd I V. Y et, a ll t he g raves, w ith t he e xception o f o ne p ossible P hase I I b urial ( 2), d ate f rom P hase I II. N o h abitation a reas n or s tratigraphic c ontrol p its w ere e xcavated. T he g raves u ncovered b y I chon w ere s pread o ver a pproximately n ine s quare m eters o f t he s ite ( see A ppendix 3 ). H uaqueros h ad d amaged a s mall s ection o f t his p art o f t he s ite ( Map 4 ). F orty-two

i ndividuals

w ere

f ound

i n

t hirty-four

g raves

a t

L a

C af iaza. T he g raves w ere a boriginally e xcavated i n y ellow c lay a nd t he b oulders w ere e ither d ug a round o r m oved t o a ccompany t he b urial. B ecause o f t he a pparent d ifficulty o f d igging i n t his s oil, t he a boriginal i nhabitants c leaned a nd r eused g raves f or s ubsequent b urials. T herefore, t he i solation o f d iscreet g raves a nd t he a ttribution o f m ortuary f urnishings t o a s pecific b urial i s c omplicated. T he p reservation o f a ll m ortuary r emains, i ncluding t he h uman s keletons,

1 3.

w as v ery p oor.

D eposition c haracteristics o f t he b urials a re s ummarized i n T able T he s ame a ge c ategories u sed i n t he E l I ndio g raves w ere a pplied

t o t he g raves

L a 3 ,

C af iaza i ndividuals. F or p urposes o f t his s tudy T e l-i on's 1 8, 3 7, 3 8 a nd 3 9 w ere e liminated f rom c onsideration

b ecause o f s evere t ampering b y h uaqueros. g raves 4 t hrough 8 ( this s tudy's g rave 3 , t hrough 1 3 g rave u nit. c omprise F rom

( this s tudy 's g rave 6 ) w ere T hese t wo g raves, 3 a nd 6 ,

t he m ultiple t he

t otal

o f

b urials

f ound

f orty-two

I n s ee

a ddition, I chon's T able 1 4) a nd 1 1

c ombined t o r epresent o ne a long w ith g raves 5 a nd 7 ,

a t L a C af laza.

i ndividuals,

i ncluding

t hose

i n

t he

" contaminated" g raves, t wenty-five w ere a dults, t hree w ere a dolescents, a nd s ix w ere c hildren. T he a ges o f t he r emaining s keletons w ere u nknown. S imilar t o t he E l I ndio P hase I I g raves, a pproximately o ne-half ( 47.6 p ercent) o f t he m ortuary p opulation w as f ound w ith a ssociated m ortuary f urnishings ( Table 1 5). T hese p roportions a re s imilar i f t he c ontaminated g raves w ere e liminated f rom c onsideration. O f t he t wenty-nine g raves, s ixteen ( 55 p ercent), c ontained n o o bjects; p ercent) w ere a dults,

o f t he t hirty-six t hree ( 8 p ercent)

i ndividuals, t wenty-one w ere a dolescents, n ine

( 58 ( 11

p ercent) w ere c hildren, a nd e ight ( 21 p ercent) w ere o f u nknown a ge. T he u seful b urials w ere d istributed a mong t hirteen g raves w hose c hara cteristics a re

s ummarized

i n T ables A -9 4 6

a nd A -10 o f

A ppendix 6 .

M ap 4 E xcavation 1 974:Fig. 9 2).

a rea

( with

g raves

n oted)

a t L a C af iaza

( after I chon

T able L a C af iaza:

G rave

K ey:

A ge

1 3

A ge a nd P osition o f I nterments

O rientation

P osition

D eposition

1

1

9

9

9

2 3 4 5 6 7

2 1 ,2,1 3 ,3 1 1 ,9 1 ( all) 3 ,1

4 9 ( all) 9 9 9 9 ( all) 9 ,7

3 9 ,3,9 9 ,9 9 9 3 ( all) 9 ,3

1 9 ,6,9 9 ,9 9 9 9 ( all) 9

8 9 1 0 1 1 2 1 3

1 1 1 1 1 1

9 7 9 1 9 9

3 3 9 9 3 9

9 3 9 9 9 9

1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7

3 1 3 1

9 4 9 1

9 3 9 3

9 6 9 9

1 8 1 9

9 1

9 9

9 3

9 4

2 0 2 1

9 1 ,1

9 9 ,9

9 9 ,9

9 9 ,9

2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7

9 9 9 9 1 2

9 9 9 9 2 9

9 9 9 9 3 9

9 9 9 9 1 9

S ee T able 5

L a C af iaza:

T able 1 4 C orrespondence o f G rave N umbers

N umbers U sed i n t his S tudy.

I chon's N umbers

1 2

1 , 2

3 4 5

4 -8 9 1 0

6

1 1-13

7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2

1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 9 2 0

1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7

2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5

1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5

2 6 2 7 2 8 2 9, 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 4

2 6 2 7

3 5 3 6

T able

l '

3 0

1 5

L a C af iaza: N umber o f I nterments b y A ge G roup a nd P resence/Absence o f M ortuary A rts

A ge C hild A dolescent A dult U nknown

W ith M ortuary A rts

W ithout M ortuary A rts

3 ( 60%) 2 ( 67%) 8 ( 38%)

2 ( 40%) 1 ( 33%) 1 3 ( 62%)

3 ( 38%)

5 ( 62%)

4 9

T he p olarization o f t he p opulation i nto t wo, a lmost e qual g roups ( those w ith a nd t hose w ithout g rave g oods), m ight i ndicate a b inary s ocial d imension s uch a s s ex o r m oiety a ffiliation, a s o utlined i n c onjunction w ith t he E l I ndio P hase I I b urials. T he L a C af iaza g raves w ith m ortuary f urnishings d o n ot f orm n eat c lusters. T he d ifferences a mong t he c lusters a re n ot a lways s harp a nd t he r elevant n umber o f c lusters f or i nterpretation i s n ot a c lear c hoice. T his i s c omplicated b y a l ack o f a greement a mong t he t ypes o f c luster a nalyses, t he m ember g raves, a nd t he a pparent c riteria u sed t o c ompose t he c lustered f ormations. F or r eference p urposes t hese d ifferences a re s ummarized a t t he f our, f ive a nd s ix l evels o f c lusters i n T ables 1 6 a nd 1 7. B eginning

a t

a n

a rbitrary

l evel

o f

f our

c lusters

a ll

b ut

t he

c omplete l inkage a nalysis i solate g raves 3 , 7 , a nd 1 3, i ndicating t heir u niqueness. A t t he l evel o f s ix c lusters, t he c omplete l inkage t est r eaches t he s ame p oint. A lso a t t his l evel, t he c omplete l inkage, a verage l inkage a nd c entroid a nalyses s hare s ubstantial a greement o n t he d istributions o f t he r est 9 a nd 1 6 c hange t heir c luster m embership.

o f t he g raves; o nly g raves W ard's t est, a s o ne w ould

e xpect, t ends t o " even o ut" t he d istributions. F or p urposes o f t his d iscussion, t herefore, w e s hall s elect t he c omplete l inkage t est a t t he s ix c luster l evel ( Appendix 6 , T ab le A -8). C luster

I i ncludes

g raves

2 a nd

9 ;

t hey

h ave

n o

m ortuary

f urnishings i n c ommon. T he f ormer c ontained a c eramic w histle ( C13) a nd u nworked s hell ( S5), a nd t he l atter g rave h ad a l arge n umber o f s hell b eads ( S3). G rave 3 w as t he s ole m ember o f u ndecorated c eramic p late ( C2), a s hell ( S3), a nd u nworked s hell ( S5).

c luster f igurine

I I. ( S2),

I t h ad a n s hell b eads

C luster I II a lso h ad o nly o ne m ember, g rave 7 , a nd c ontained p edestal p late o r b owl ( C5), s hell b eads ( S3), u nworked b one ( S5), s ting r ay p oint o r

s pine

( B5),

a nd

c rab b one

T he s ole m ember o f c luster I V i s p edestal p late o r b owl ( Si), s hell b eads ( S3),

g rave

a a

( B6). 1 3,

w hose c ontents w ere a

( C5), a d ecorated j ar ( C15), a s hell p endant u nworked s hell ( S5), a nd s hark's t eeth ( B7).

G raves 4 , 6 , 1 4, 1 8, 2 4 a nd 2 6 c omprise c luster V ; a ll o f t he g raves h ad e ither p edestal p lates o r b owls ( C5), o r d ecorated j ars ( C15); i n a ddition g rave 2 6 h ad a b one p endant ( B1), a nd g rave 6 h ad a t umbaga p endant ( T2). T he

l ast

c luster,

V I,

i ncluded

g raves

1 6

a nd

1 9;

b oth

c ontained

s hell p endants ( Si). I n a ddition, g rave 1 6 h ad a d ecorated p late o r b owl ( C4) a nd a d ecorated j ar ( C15) w hile g rave 1 9 h ad a t umbaga o r g old p laque ( T3). T he

s mall

s ample

o f

g raves

a nd

i ndividuals

c ombined

w ith

t he

s kewed d istribution o f t he a ge g roups s everely h amper g eneralizations a bout t he d istribution o f m ortuary a rts a t L a C af iaza. I n a ddition, t he

l ack

o f

i nformation

c oncerning 5 0

d eposition,

o rientation

a nd

T able L a C af laza:

C luster

A nalysis C omplete L inkage G raves 2 , 9

3 ,

1 6

C omparison o f C luster A nalyses

7 ,

W ard's

C entroid

A verage L inkage

2 , 9 , 1 4, 1 6, 1 9, 2 4

2 , 4 , 6 , 9 , 1 4, 1 6, 1 8,

2 , 4 , 6 , 9 , 1 6, 1 8, 1 9, 2 6

1 9,

2 4,

2 6 I I

I II

I V

1 3

4 , 6 , 1 8, 2 6

1 3

7

4 , 6 , 1 4, 1 8, 2 4, 2 6

3

3

1 3

1 6,

7 ,

7

3

1 9

1 3

T able 1 7 L a C af laza: C omparison o f C omplete L inkage C luster A nalysis a t t he T hree, F our, a nd F ive C luster L evels

C luster

I I

I II

I V

T hree C lusters

F our C lusters

F ive C lusters

2 ,

2 ,

2 ,

3 ,

7 ,

9

3 ,

7 ,

1 3

1 3

4 , 6 , 1 4, 1 6, 1 8, 1 9, 2 4, 2 6

4 , 6 , 1 4, 2 4, 2 6

9

3 ,

9

7

1 6,

V

1 9

1 8,

1 3

4 , 6 , 1 4, 2 4, 2 6 1 6,

5 1

1 9

1 8,

1 4, 2 4,

p osition o f t he b urials ( see T able 1 3) f urther r educes t he r ange p oten-tial a ssociations a mong t he g raves a nd t he f urnishings.

o f

T he c eramic

o f 2 6

s ix g raves o f c luster V a re d ominated b y t he p resence p lates o r b owls a nd d ecorated j ars; o nly g raves 6 a nd

c ontain p endant. H owever,

o ther t ypes o f f urnishings, n amely a t umbaga a nd b one O f t he k nown a ges w ithin t his c luster, a ll a re a dults. a dults a re a lso f ound a mong a ll o ther c lusters. T he o nly

o bvious a ge-based c riteria i s t hat i n c lusters I t hrough I V a nd V I a ll e xcept o ne g rave c ontain t he o nly p resence o f a dolescents o r c hildren. A ll o f t hese c lusters h ave m ore a nomalous o r I deosyncratic d istributions o f m ortuary f urnishings t han c luster V . N onetheless, t he o ne c ommon c haracteristic w hich t hese g raves s hare i s t he p resence o f s hell o bjects i ncluding p endants, b eads a nd u nworked s hells. T here d oes n ot, h owever, a ppear t o b e a ny o ther a ge c riteria u sed i n t he d istribution o f t he m ortuary a rts. M oreover, t here i s n o s patial o rganization o f m ortuary f urnishings.

t he g raves w hich

s trongly c orrelates w ith

t he

I f c lusters I t hrough I V a nd V I r epresent a n umber o f s pecialized b urials, t he r elatively e ven p roportion o f t hese e lites t o t he n one lites o f c luster V p recludes t he c onclusion t hat t hey d o, i n f act, r epresent s ocial e lites. T he f ull r ange o f a ges i n t hese c lusters m ight s uggest t hat t he s ame t ypes o f s tatus w ere b eing g iven t o a dolescents a nd c hildren a s t o a dults. T hat i s, t he s tatus o f t he t hree a ge g rades w ere b eing t reated e qually i n s pite o f t he i ndividual's a ge. T his i s p ossible e vidence o f H owever, t he l ack o f s upporting d ata a nd t he s mall s uggests t hat t his c onclusion i s n ot a ppropriate.

a r anked s ociety. s ize o f t he s ample

F ew s pecific f urnishings a t t his s ite s eem t o h ave a ny s ignificance. M any o f t he c eramics w ere i n p oor c ondition, y et e ven t heir t otal n umbers o r a bsence a nd p resence s eems t o i ndicate l ittle i n t he w ay o f s pecial u se. O ne c eramic o bject i s u nique, a nd t hat i s t he w histle f ound i n g rave 2 ( Fig. 5 ). T he f ragmentary h uman h ead o n t his f igure i s f ully t hree d imensional w ith a m arked p rotruding c hin a nd h eaddress. T he p endants ( Fig. 5 ), b oth s hell a nd b one, a re a ll g eometric,

e ither

t rapezoidal

( found

i n g raves

1 3

a nd 2 6)

o r c ircular

( found i n g raves 1 6 a nd 1 9). S hell b eads w ere f ound i n c onsiderable q uantities, i ncluding 6 09 i n g rave 3 , s everal h undred i n g rave 9 , a nd s eventy-five i n g rave 7 . I n a ll c ases, i ncluding t he m ultiple b urials o f g raves 3 a nd 7 , t he b eads a re d irectly a ssociated w ith a dults. c ostume ( Fig.

5 )

H owever, n ot a ll o bjects w hich e lements a re a ssociated o nly w ith i n t he

s hape o f t oads o r

f rogs a re

c ould b e i nterpreted a s a dults. S hell f igurines f ound w ith a dolescents

i n

g rave 3 , a nd a d isk p endant w as f ound w ith a c hild i n g rave 1 6. W hile t hese a re t he o nly t wo e xceptions, t he l ow n umber o f a dolescents a nd c hildren i n t he b urials m akes t heir e xceptional q uality a ll t he m ore i mportant. T he t umbaga o bjects a nd t he u nique s ting

r ay

a dults.

p oint,

c rab

b one,

a nd

T here i s a c onspicuous

w ith a ny o f

s hark's

a bsence

t eeth

a re

a ll

o f l ithic m aterial

f ound

w ith

a ssociated

t he g raves.

S ixty-seven

p ercent,

o r

t en

o f

f ifteen,

o bject

c ategories

f ound i n o ne o f t he L a C af laza g raves; t hese u nique f urnishings d istributed a mong 6 2 p ercent o r e ight o f t hirteen g raves. U nlike 5 2

a re a re t he

F ig. 5 T op l eft: F ragment o f a c eramic w histle f rom P hase I II g rave 2 a t L a C af iaza ( Ichon 1 974:Fig. 4 7b); t op r ight: s hell p endants, P hase I II, L a C af laza ( Ichon 1 974:Figs. 8 7b, e , j , 1 ); b ottom: s hell p endants o r f igures, P hase I II g raves a t L a C a f iaza; f rog o r t oad s haped f igures, g rave 3 ( Ichon 1 974:Figs. 8 8b, d ); c rocodile s haped f igure, g rave 3 ( Ichon I 974:Fig. a re u nknown.

8 9);

e xact d imensions o f a ll

o bjects

m ixed

a ge

g roups

a mong

c lusters

I -IV a nd V I

w hich

c ould

b e c onstrued

t o r epresent a r ank s ociety, t he w ide d istribution o f t hese u nique f urnishings s uggests s ocial r ecognition o f i ndividual a chievements i ndicative o f a n e galitarian s ociety. H owever, t his i nference m ay b e t oo p remature i n t he l ight o f t he i nadequacy o f o ur i nformation f rom t he s ite.

T he M ortuary A rts f rom t he P hase I I G raves a t E l C afetal

o ne

T he s ite o f E l C afetal ( Ichon's T I-35) i s l ocated a pproximately k ilometer e ast a nd n ortheast o f E l I ndio a nd i s b ounded b y t he

s ame n atural f eatures a s t his s ite, i ncluding t he J uncal m angrove s wamps, a nd t he P acific O cean t o t he s outh. T he

e stuary, E l I ndio

e stuary i s f ound t o t he n orth o f E l C afetal a nd t o t he e ast a re a dditional m angrove s wamps; t oward t he w est a re f ound s mall h ills c omposed o f c alcium d eposits, r eferred t o a s " Los M orros d e l a A lbina d e J uncal." R aul G onzälez G uzmän ( 1971) d irected t he e xcavation o f E l C afetal f rom D ecember 1 969 t o M ay 1 970. T his a rchaeological f ield p roject w as h astily o rganized b y t he P anamanian g overnment i n t he w ake o f e xtensive l ooting o f t he b urials l ocated a t t he s ite. F our t renches ( Gonzälez's 1 t hrough 4 ), e ach s ix m eters l ong ( north b y s outh) a nd t wo m eters w ide, f ormed t he e xcavated a rea. A n a dditional t wo m eter b y t wo m eter a rea w as u ncovered a t t he s outh e nd o f t rench 3 ( Map 5 ). A ccording t o G onzAlez, n o r esidue f rom a boriginal h abitations w as d iscovered i n t he t renches a nd, m oreover, t here w ere n o s urface i ndications o f h ouse-like s tructures i n t he m ortuary a rea. H e d oes a rgue, h owever, t hat o n t he b asis o f s urface c ollections h abitations s urrounded t he m ortuary a rea ( 1971:171). I n a t l east o ne i nstance i n t he 1 971 r eport o f t he e xcavations, t he a rchaeologist m entions f inding i n T rench 1 , s quare D 5 a nd D 6, u tilitarian c eramics a nd a r ed j ar a ssociated w ith f ish v ertebrae b ut n ot, a pparently, a ssociated w ith a ny b urial ( 1971:153). I f t hese r emains i ndicate d omestic o r o ther n on-mortuary t ype o f u se, t hey a re, i ndeed, e xceptional f inds f rom t he e xcavated a rea. T he s tate o f p reservation o f t he c eramic a nd o ther m ortuary r emains a t E l C afetal w as v ery p oor; o nly a v ery f ew ( one o r t wo) c eramic v essels w ere f ound i n c omplete o r n early c omplete c ondition. T hese v essels w ere u ndecorated r ed j ars. M any o f t he " damaged" i tems, G onzälez c laimed ( 1971:157), w ere p urposely b roken b efore o r d uring t he a boriginal i nterring. A ll o f t he c eramics f rom t he b urials, a s w ell a s t he s herds c ollected f rom t he n earby h abitation a rea, w ere t ypologically c onsistent w ith I chon's P hase I I, o r E l I ndio p hase, c eramics. N o a rchaeological d ebris d ating f rom P hase I , I II, o r I V w as f ound a t E l C afetal. I t i s n ot c lear f rom t he p ublished r eport w hether s amples f or r adiocarbon d ating w ere t aken f rom t he

s ite.

T hirty-eight s keletons, n ot i ncluding i ndividuals f rom l ooted g raves, w ere u ncovered d uring G onzälez's e xcavations. O nly s ix o f t hese w ere n ot f ound w ith a ssociated m ortuary f urnishings. S imilar t o

I chon's

d ata,

n o

s exing

o f

t he 5 4

s keletal

r emains

w as

u ndertaken.

EL CAFETAL TRENCH

M ap

5

4

E xcavation a rea

3

a t E l C afetal

2

( after G onzAlez

1

1 971)

G onzalez

a ttributed

a ges

t o

o ver

5 3

p ercent

o f

t he

i ndividuals,

r esulting i n t en a dults, t wo a dolescents, a nd e ight c hildren 1 8). T he c riteria u sed f or a ging t he s keletons a re u nknown.

( Table

The s patial c onfiguration o f t he g raves i s d ifficult t o d etermine; n o w alls, s oil s tratas, n or o ther f eatures w ere r eported. T he o nly a vailable c riteria f or i ncluding o r e xcluding s pecific i ndividuals i n a g iven g rave i s t he r elative v ertical a nd h orizontal p roximity o f o ne s keleton t o a nother. A ny a ttributions o f g roups o f s keletons i n t he g raves i s f urther h ampered b y t he l ack o f a p ublished map o f t he s ite a nd t he a bsence o f s pecific s patial d istributions o r l oci o f t he b urials. I n s pite o f t hese d rawbacks, t he c haracteristics o f t hese g raves b ased o n t he i nformation f ound i n G onzalez's r eport, a re s ummarized i n T able 1 8. T he l ack o f h abitation d ebris a mong t he E l C afetal b urials a nd t he p ositioning o f t he g raves i nto a d iscrete a rea s urrounded b y h ouses i ndicates t hat t he b urial a rea i s a f ormal c emetery. G onzalez, i n a ddition, a rgues t hat t he g raves a re s patially d ivided i nto t wo g roups. T he f irst g roup, g raves f ound a t l evels b etween 8 0 a nd 1 15 c entimeters, i s c omposed o f a n a rc o f p rimary b urials s urrounding a c luster o f s econdary b urials n ear t he c enter o f a h ypothetical c ircle f ormed b y t he a rc. G onzalez s uggests t hat t he c eramics i n t his g roup o f g raves w ere i ntentionally b roken b efore o r d uring i nterment ( 1971;171-2). T he s econd g roup o f g raves, c omposed o f

b urials

f ound

b etween

1 20

a nd

1 40

c entimeters,

i s

n ot

d efined

b y

a ny d istinctive s patial p attern; t he g raves a re l ocated ( Table 1 9) i n t he n orthwest c orner o f t he e xcavated a rea. T he f ew c eramics f ound i n t his g roup w ere n ot b roken, a nd a lmost a ll t he g old o bjects f ound a t E l C afetal c ame f rom t he g raves i n t his g roup ( Table A -12, A ppendix 6 ). T he f our c luster a nalyses p erformed o n t he d istribution o f m ortuary a rts i n t he E l C afetal g raves a ll s uggest t hat g raves 3 , 2 5, a nd 2 9 w ere u nusual. A ll o f t he a nalyses i solated g rave 2 9 i n a s ingle c luster; g raves 3 a nd 2 5 f ormed a s ingle c luster i n t hree o f t he f our a nalytical t ests. I n a ddition, g raves 1 4 a nd 2 1 t end t o b e s eparated f rom t he e xample, a ppears i n

m ajority o f t he o ther g raves. C luster I I e ither b y i tself o r

G rave 1 4, w ith o ne o r

o ther m embers i n t hree o f t he f our a nalyses. T he m ajority ( n=22) t he g raves f rom E l C afetal a re f ound i n C luster I ( Table 2 0). T he p resents

1 2

f or t wo o f

c omplete l inkage c luster a nalysis o f t he E l C afetal b urials t he m ost r easonable r esults ( Appendix 6 , T able A -11).

C luster I i s r epresented b y t wenty-two t hrough 1 4, 1 6, 1 9 t hrough 2 1, 2 3, 2 4,

g raves ( 1, 4 t hrough 1 0, 2 8 t hrough 3 1, a nd 3 3).

T hese g raves a re n otable b y t he s mall n umber o f m ortuary f urnishings, c ontaining a n a verage o f 1 .6 o bject t ypes a nd 2 .6 o bjects p er g rave. S ixty-three p ercent o f t he m ortuary o bject t ypes w ere c eramics, c omposed o f u ndecorated p lates ( C2), c ups ( C8), a nd d oble, o r c ompound s ilhouette, v essels ( C6). S cattered a mong t he g raves o f t his c luster w ere a n u ndecorated j ar ( C1), a p edestal p late o r b owl ( C5), a n e ffigy v essel ( C9), a v essel s upport ( C10), a c eramic w histle ( C13), a gate a nd s erpentine b eads ( L6 a nd L 7), u nworked s tones

( L8),

a nd t wo t umbaga f igurines 5 6

( T4).

E l C afetal: G rave**

A ge

1 (1,2) 3 (3,4) 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 2(11,12) 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 9 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 9(29,30) 3 2 3 3(33,34) 3 5 3 6 3 8

1 ,1 3 ,3 1 3 9 3 3 2 ,2 3 1 1 1 1 9 9 3 9 9 9 3 9 9 ,9 9 9 ,9 9 9 1 ,9

T able 1 8 A ge a nd P osition o f I nterments*

O rientation

P osition

9 9 9 9 1 9 3 9 9 2 6 4 6 9 2 9 2 6 5 9 7 7 ,9 6 9 ,9 2 1 1 ,1

9 3 9 9 9 9 3 3 ,9 9 3 3 9 3 9 3 9 9 9 3 9 3 3 ,9 3 9 ,9 3 3 3 ,3

D eposition 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 ,9 9 4 ,4 9 9 9 ,9

F orm 3 9 1 5 6 5 1 1 ,9 9 1 1 1 1 7 1 5 1 1 1 6 1 1 ,5 1 1 ,1 1 1 5 ,5

* Sex, n ot l isted, w as u nknown f or a ll. S ee T able 5 f or c odes. * *Numbers i n p arentheses r epresent G onzälez's g rave n umbers i f d iffered f rom t he n umbers u sed i n t his s tudy.

5 7

t hey

T able E l C afetal:

1 9 G rave L oci

D epth G rave

.h t21. 1

( in c entimeters)

1

C 6,D5

1 03,106

3 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 2 1 3

C 3,D4 D 3 0 2 C 2 C 2 C 2 B 4 A 5

9 8 1 27 9 1 1 05 ? ? 1 03,104 9 9

1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 9 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 9

A 3,B3 A 3,B3 8 1,B2 A l,A2 Y 6,Z6 Z 5 Y 4 Y 4 Z 2 Y 1,Y9 Z 8 Z 4 Y 1,Z1,Z2

1 05 1 03 1 10 1 12 ? 9 9 8 0 1 14 ? 1 10 ? 1 30 1 35

3 2 3 3 3 5 3 6 3 8

X 5 1 19 X 4 1 06 V 4 1 05 V 5,V6,X5,X6 ? X 4 1 33

5 8

C luster I I i ncludes o nly t wo g raves, 1 1 a nd 1 8. E xcept f or t he p resence o f e ffigy v essels ( C9), t hese t wo g raves d id n ot c ontain a ny o ther

c eramic

o bjects.

B oth

g raves

d id,

h owever,

c ontain

u nworked

s tones ( L8); a nd i n g rave 1 1 G onzalez f ound w orked a nd u nworked s hell ( S4 a nd S 5). G rave 1 8 a lso c ontained s everal u nknown t ypes o f o bjects m anufactured f rom b one. C luster S imilar

I II

i s

t o c luster

a lso I I,

r epresented

f ew

b y

c eramics w ere

o nly

t wo

f ound

i n

g raves, t he

2 a nd

g raves o f

2 2. t his

c luster. E ach o f t he t wo g raves c ontained d obles ( C6); i n a ddition, g rave 2 a lso h ad a c eramic c up ( C8). T he t wo g raves o f t his g roup, h owever, h ad t he l argest c oncentration o f l ithic m ortuary f urn ishings, i ncluding a gate p endants ( L5), a gate a nd s erpentine b eads ( L6 a nd L 7), a nd u nworked s tone ( L8). G rave 2 2 a lso c ontained a t umbaga p laque ( T3). O nly o ne

g rave

( 26)

w as

i ncluded

i n

c luster

I V.

T wo m oderately

c ommon c eramic o bjects, a d oble ( C6) a nd a C L IP ( C8), w ere f ound i n t his g rave. I n a ddition, a n umber o f m ortuary f urnishings w ere u nique t o t his g rave; t hey i ncluded a b one p oint ( B4), t umbaga o r g old b eads ( Ti), t umbaga o r g old p endant ( T2) a nd r ing ( T5), a nd a n u ndetermined

a nd

t ype o f m etal

o bject

( T6).

T he s keletons f ound i n G onzalez's 1 2, 2 9 a nd 3 0, a nd 3 3 a nd 3 4 w ere

g raves 1 a nd 2 , 3 a nd 4 , 1 1 i n s uch c lose p roximity t hat

t hey w ere p robably b uried a s p airs o r m ultiple b urials, p laced i n a s ingle g rave. I f t his w ere t he c ase, t he n umber o f t otal g raves i dentified b y G onzalez w ould b e r educed b y f ive ( see T able 1 8). A mong t hese m ultiple b urials, t hree o f t he g raves' i nterments w ere i dentical t o o ne a nother--that i s, g rave 1 ( Gonzalez's g raves 1 a nd 2 ) c ontained t wo a dults, g rave 9 ( Gonzalez's g raves 1 1 a nd 1 2) h eld t wo a dolescents, m ultiple b urials

a nd i n g rave 2 t wo c hildren w ere c ontained m ortuary f urnishings.

f ound.

A ll

o f t he

T hirteen o f t he t wenty-two t ypes o f m ortuary f urnishings f ound i n t he g raves o f E l C afetal w ere o nly f ound i n s ingle o ccurrences. I nterestingly, t he u nique c eramic o bjects w ere o nly f ound i n t he g raves o f c luster I . F or e xample, t he o ne e xample o f a n u ndecorated j ar f ound a t t he s ite w as i solated t o g rave 9 ; o ne p edestal p late o r b owl w as f ound, i n g rave 1 3; t he o ne v essel s upport w as i solated t o g rave 4 ; a nd t he s ole c eramic w histle w as f ound i n g rave 6 . N one o f t he u nique s hell o r t umbaga i tems w as f ound i n c luster I b urials. W orked a nd u nworked s hell w as i solated t o g rave 1 1; t he b one p rojectile p oint, t umbaga o r g old b ead, p endant a nd r ing, a nd a n u nknown o bject o f t umbaga w ere l ocated i n g rave 2 6; n on-human b one w as i solated t o g rave 1 8; a nd o nly g rave 2 2 c ontained t umbaga p laques. G rave 2 6 s tands o ut a mong a ll E l C afetal b urials w ith a t otal o f f ive u nique t ypes o f m ortuary o bjects. O f

t he

r emaining

t ypes

o f m ortuary f urnishings,

n one

i s

d ominant

i n a ny o f t he g rave g roups. T he m ost c ommon o bject, t he d oble c eramic v essel, i s f ound i n e leven o f t he t wenty-seven g raves w hich c ontained m ortuary o bjects. C eramics w ere u ncovered i n a ll b ut t wo g raves ( 16 a nd 2 9). I n c ontrast t o--and i n s pite o f--GonzAlez's s tatement ( 1971:173) t hat " los r estos d e c oncha s on a bundantes y s e t rata

s in d uda d e

p arte

d e

l a o frenda 5 9

a limentaciem,"

o nly o ne g rave

E l C afetal:

T able 2 0 C omparison o f C luster A nalyses

A nalysis: C omplete C luster

A verage

L inkage

W ard's

C entroid

L inkage

1 ,6,7,8, 9 ,10,12, 1 3,15,16, 1 7,19,22, 2 3,24,26, 2 7,32,33,

1 ,6,7,8, 1 2,15,16, 1 7,23,24, 2 6,27,32, 3 3,36

1 ,6,7,8-10 1 2,13,151 7,19,212 7,32,33, 3 5,36,38

1 ,6-10,12, 1 3,15-17, 1 9,22,23, 2 4,26,27, 3 2,33,35, 3 6

3 5,36,38 I I

1 4,21

3 ,25

1 4

1 4,21,38

I II

3 ,25

2 9

3

3 ,25

I V

2 9

1 0,13,14, 1 9,21,22, 3 8

2 9

2 9

6 0

c ontained s hell r emains. T he a bsence o f s hell o bjects c ontrast t o E l C afetal's n eighboring s ite o f E l I ndio.

i s

i n m arked

T he l ack o f u niform i nformation o n b oth t he a ge a nd d eposition o r p osition o f t he E l C afetal i nterments h inders o ur f ormulation o f p atterns w hich m ight b e a ssociated w ith t he m ortuary f urnishings a t E l C afetal. H owever, a s G onzälez p oints o ut ( 1971:172), a ll b ut o ne o f t he d oble v essels a ssociated w ith s econdary b urials c ontained c hildren 's s keletons. T his p arallels t he a ssociation c hildren f ound i n t he P hase I I b urials o f E l I ndio. S ome o f t he m ortuary f urnishings a mong

o f

d obles

a nd

t he E l C afetal g raves

c an

b e i nterpreted a s p arts o f c ostumes. T hese o bjects i nclude s tone p endants; a gate a nd s erpentine b eads; a nd t umbaga b eads, p endants, p laques, f igurines a nd r ings. N ine o f t he f ourteen o ccurrences o f t hese c ostume e lements a re e venly d istributed a mong g raves 2 , 2 2, a nd 2 6 w hich r epresent c lusters I II a nd T V. T he o ther f ive c ostume o bjects w ere f ound i n s ingle o ccurrences i n g raves 9 , 2 1, 2 4, 3 1, a nd 3 3. T he l atter g raves a re a ll f rom c luster I ; n o c ostume e lements w ere f ound i n t he g raves o f c luster I T. Only t wo o f t he a bove g raves, 2 a nd 2 6, d isplayed c ostume o bjects i n c ontexts w hich s uggest t hat t he i tems w ere w orn. F or e xample, a s tring o f t umbaga b eads a nd a t umbaga p endant w ere b oth f ound a round t he s kull o f o ne o f t he s keletons i n g rave 2 6; i n c ontrast t o g raves 3 1 a nd 3 3, i n w hich t he t umbaga f igures o f a s pider, a n e agle, a nd a n a rmadillo h ead, w hich a re p robably b etter c haracterized a s p endants, w ere f ound n ear t he s keletons. T he s pider r ested o n a c eramic p late a nd t he e agle a nd a rmadillo h ead w ere n oted b y G onzälez a s b eing f ound o n t he s ame l evel a s t he s keleton ( 1971:169-170). I nterpretations

w hich

r elate

t he

E l

C afetal

m ortuary

a rts

t o

s ocial d imensions a re d ifficult o wing t o t he l ack o f i nformation o n a ge, s ex a nd d eposition o f t he s keletons, a nd t he b revity o f t he e xcavation r eports. H owever, s everal m inor t rends a re a pparent i n t he d istribution o f t he o bjects. F or e xample, a ll s hell, b one, a nd m etal m ortuary a rts a re f ound o nly i n a dult b urials; n one o f t hese o bjects i s p resent i n t he g raves o f a dolescents o r c hildren. L ithics, o n t he c ontrary, o nly a ppear i n c hildren a nd a dolescent b urials w ith o nly t wo e xceptions ( graves 1 4 a nd 1 6). C eramics d o n ot a ppear w ith a ny g reat f requency i n a ny s pecific c luster. T he c eramic d obles, f or e xample, a re n ot e xclusively l imited t o n on-adult g raves l ike t hose f ound i n t he c hildren a nd a dolescent g raves o f P hase I I a t E l I ndio. T he g raves w hich c omprise c lusters

I I,

I II,

a nd I V a re

s eparated

f rom o ne

a nother o n a ccount o f

t he p resence o r a bsence o f n on-ceramic o bjects. T hese o bjects a re, i n g eneral, c ostume e lements, i ncluding a gate b eads ( L6) a nd a gate p endants ( L5) l ocated i n g raves 3 a nd 2 5, a nd t umbaga b eads ( Ti), t umbaga p endants ( T2), a nd t umbaga r ings ( T5) f ound i n g rave 2 9. U nfortunately , t he d esigns o n t he c eramics a re n ot k nown b ecause t he v essels w ere b adly b roken a nd d ecomposed. A mong t he r emaining m ortuary a rts, o f t he t wo c eramic w histles f ound i n g rave 8 , o ne w as m odeled i n t he s hape o f a f ish, a nd t he o ther w as o f a n u ndetermined a nimal s hape; a n e ffigy v essel d iscovered i n g rave 3 8 h ad a n a rmadillo's h ead. T he t wo t umbaga f igurines f ound i n g raves 3 6 a nd 6 1

3 8 r epresented, r espectively, a s pider a nd a n e agle. F inally, o f t he f ive t umbaga p endants f ound i n g rave 2 9, f our w ere m odeled a s b irds a nd

t he

f ifth

r epresented a n u nknown a nimal.

T he d istribution o f t he m ortuary a rts a nd t heir d esigns a nd a ny c orrelates w ith s ocial d ynamics a t E l C afetal a re s uspect o wing t o t he v ery p oor p reservation o f t he a rtifacts, t he l ack o f s keletal i nformation, a nd t he d eficiencies o f t he p ublished f ield r eports. H owever, t he g raves f rom E l C afetal d o c ontrast i n i nteresting w ays w ith t he g raves o f t heir t emporal c ousins o f P hase I I a t E l I ndio. F rom t he i nformation g iven i n G onzälez's e xcavation r eport, i t i s a pparent t hat t he g raves f rom E l C afetal w ere o rganized i nto a f ormal c emetery a nd, t herefore, r epresent a c ommitment t o a l ineage s ystem i ndicative o f s ocial r elationships m ore c omplex t han t hose r epresented b y t he P hase I I g raves a t E l I ndio. T he o bservation t hat E l C afetal w as s ocially m ore c omplex t han P hase I T a t E l I ndio i s a lso s upported b y t he g reater f requency o f c ostume o r s umptuary g oods f ound i n m ortuary c ontexts i n t he f ormer s ite, e .g., g old o r t umbaga p endants a nd f igurines w hich a re p robably i tems o f s tatus d esignation.

M oreover,

t he

d istribution

o f

t he

g raves

a mong

t he

c lusters e mphasizes t he u niqueness o f a v ery f ew g raves ( i.e., g raves 3 , 1 4, 2 1, 2 9, a nd 3 5) o ver t he m ajority o f o ther b urials. T he E l C afetal c luster a nalysis i s i n s harp c ontrast t o t he l ess p aradigm atic d istribution o f t he c luster a nalysis o f t he P hase I T, E l I ndio g raves. W hile t hese p atterns a re n ot s upported b y m ore d etailed i nformation f rom t he E l C afetal g raves, i t d oes s uggest t hat t he b urials a re i ndicative o f a m ore c omplex a nd s tratified s ociety t han t he e arly E l I ndio b urials.

S ummary

T he

d iversity

i n

t he

r elationship

b etween

m ortuary

a rts

a nd

s ocial d imensions a mong t he P hase I I a nd I II ( c. 2 50 B .C. t o 1 000 A .D.) g raves o f E l I ndio, L a C af laza, a nd E l C afetal g ives a n e xcellent i ndication o f t he v ariability t hat m ight b e e xpected a mong t emporally a nd s patially p roximate g roups. I n s pite o f t he F act t hat a ll t he v illages d iscussed i n t his c hapter s eem t o h ave b een e galitarian s ocieties, t hey e xhibit s ubstantial c hanges I n t he s ocial d imensions o f t heir m ortuary a rts. F or e xample, d istinctions a mong a ge g roups, a rticulated b y t he g reater v ariation i n t he n umber o f m ortuary f urnishings i n a b urial, i ntensified i n P hase I II E l I ndio g raves i n c ontrast t o t he P hase I I g raves f rom t he s ame s ite. M oreover, t he l ater g raves a lso d emonstrated a g reater d egree o f s tratification m easured b y t he i ncreased p resence o f s umptuary g oods. W hile t he P hase I I g raves f rom E l I ndio s trongly e mphasized t he a ge o f t he i nterred, t he P hase I II g raves, e specially t hose o f c lusters I I t hrough V i ndicated t hat s ocial c riteria o ther t han a ge p layed a n i mportant r ole i n t he s election a nd i nclusion o f p articular m ortuary o bjects. F inally, u nlike t he P hase I T b urials, t he P hase I II g raves a re d istributed w ithin t he s ite o f E l I ndio i n s pecific g roups c haracteristic o f f ormal c emeteries. I n g eneral, t he i ncrease i n c omplexity a ssociated w ith t he d istribution a nd c ontent o f t he m ortuary f urnishings a nd t he p resence o f a f ormal c emetery a rea i ndicates a n i ncrease i n s ocial c omplexity a nd s tratification f rom 6 2

P hase I I

t o P hase I II.

T he

c ondition a nd

s ample

s ize

o f

t he

P hase

I II

L a

C af laza g raves

s erve a s a c aution w hen t he f indings f rom t his s ite a re c ompared w ith t hose o f E l I ndio. H owever, t he L a C aeaza g raves d id, i n g eneral, h ave a s maller n umber o f c ostume o r s umptuary g oods p er g rave t han t he c ontemporary b urials f rom E l I ndio. L a C af iaza's m ortuary p opulation i s a lso a lmost e qually d ivided b etween t hose w ith a nd t hose w ithout m ortuary f urnishings, p ossibly i ndicative o f a s exual c riteria i n d etermining t he d istribution o f m ortuary a rts. I f a ny i mportance c an b e r eliably p laced o n t hese f actors, t hey w ould i ndicate a l ess s tratified s ocial g roup t han r epresented b y t he P hase I II E l I ndio g raves. T he E l C afetal m ortuary a rts a ppear t o h ave m ore i n c ommon w ith t he P hase I II E l I ndio b urials a nd, t herefore, r epresent a s ocial u nit m ore s tratified t han L a C af iaza o r P hase I I E l I ndio. F or e xample, t he d istribution o f g raves a t t he s ite o f E l C afetal s uggests t hat a f ormal c emetery m ay h ave b een p resent a nd t he i solation o f s pecific a rt w orks--those m ade o f g old o r t umbaga--to g raves l ocated i n o ne s ection o f t he s ite i ndicates s pecial t reatment f or a s elect g roup. M oreover, a l arge n umber o f i nterments c ontain c ostume o r s umptuary a rts. D espite t hese a ffinities w ith P hase I II E l I ndio, t he g raves f rom E l C afetal a ll d ate t o P hase I I. N onetheless, t he c riterion o f a ge, d emonstrated b y t he s kewed d istribution o f d obles, l ithics, s hell, b one, a nd m etal a rts, i s s till s trongly r epresented a mong t hese g raves a nd, t herefore, i ndicates a s imilarity t o P hase I I

E l I ndio b urials.

T hus, i t i s r easonable t o e xpect s ubstantial v ariation i n t he s ocial d imensions o f a rts a s w ell a s s ocial o rganization a mong d iscrete g roups o r v illages l ocated i n a r ather s mall a rea, i n t his c ase t he s outheast c orner o f t he T onosi V alley.

6 3

T HE M ORTUARY S ITE O F S ITTO C ONTE,

C OCLE P ROVINCE

S itio C onte m ay b e l egitimately c laimed a s t he m ost f amous a rchaeological s ite i n l ower C entral A merica; i t i s c ertainly t he m ost r enowned p re-Conquest s ite i n P anamA. A l arge p art o f t his f ame c an b e a ccounted f or b y t he f act t hat S itio C onte w as t he f irst m ajor n ative N ew W orld s ite i n P anamA t o b e t he r ecipient o f l arge-scale m odern a rchaeological e xcavations. T he i nitial f ield p roject, s pread o ver d ry s easons f rom 1 930 t o 1 933 a nd s ponsored b y H arvard U niversity, r eceived w orld-wide r ecognition t hrough t he p ublications o f S amuel K . L othrop a nd t he P eabody M useum ( 1939 a nd 1 941). S ome y ears l ater, M atthew S tirling s ummed u p t he p erceived i mportance o f S itio C onte w hen h e n oted t hat " In t his s ite, t he c ement o f P anamanian a rchaeology h as b een d iscovered" ( 1949:514). T he s uccesses o f m ore r ecent a rchaeological p rojects i n P anamA h ave l oosened t he g rip w hich S itio C onte h ad o n t he p rehistoric a rchaeology o f P anamA. Y et, i nterpretations o f t he c ultural h istory a nd r econstructions o f t he s ocial d ynamics p eoples o f t he r egion c ontinue t o b e c ast i n s ite.

o f t he p re-Conquest t he m old s et a t t his

S itio C onte i s b est d escribed a s a n ecropolis. T he m ortuary r emains u ncovered a t t he s ite p ersist a s a c ritical r esource o f e vidence u sed f or i nterpretations o f p rehistoric s ocial d ynamics, e specially i n t he p eriod b etween 5 00 a nd 1 500 A .D., i n t he C entral R egion o f P anama ( Cooke 1 976). E ven b eyond t hese a real c onfines, o f a ll a rchaeological s ites l ocated i n l ower C entral A merica, S itio C onte i s f requently c ited a s t he p aradigmatic e xample o f a r anked o r c hiefdom s ociety . A s a r esult, i t r egularly s erves a s a m arker f or m atching o r c omparing t he s ocial c omplexity r eached b y o ther p eoples l iving i n l ower C entral A merica b efore t he C onquest ( for a r ecent e xample s ee C reamer a nd H aas 1 985). Y et, i n s pite o f t he b roadly a cknowledged i mportance o f t his c ornerstone s ite, t he i nterpretative a nd a nalytical u ses t o w hich t he a rchaeological r emains f rom S itio C onte h ave b een p ut t o u se c ontinue t o d epend a lmost e xclusively o nly o n t he i ncomplete r ecords o f t he e xcavations a nd r emains r epresented b y L othrop's p ublications. I t i s, t herefore, a l ong o verdue a nd b ypassed o ccasion t o f inally p rovide t he r esults o f J . A lden M ason's w ork a t S itio C onte, t hereby f illing i n a nd c ompleting t he a vailable e xcavation r eports f or t his i mportant s ite, a nd i ncorporate t hese f indings i nto a b roader s tudy o f m ortuary r emains f rom t he r egion. S ince

t his

i s

t he

f irst

p ublication

o f

t he e xcavations a nd e xcavators m ay p rove J . A lden M ason i ronically n oted P ennsylvania M useum t hat p ublishing S itio

C onte

w as

p ointless.

H is

t his

b ackground

o n

i n h is f iles a t t he U niversity o f t he r esults o f h is e xcavations a t

f indings, 6 4

m aterial,

u seful.

h e

t old

h imself,

s imply

r econfirmed t he i nterpretations o f t he c eramic t ypology a nd c hronology d eveloped e arlier b y S amuel K . L othrop. M ason w as, m ore o r

l ess,

r ight.

H is

e xcavation

r eports

w ould

s imply

h ave

b een

a

r edundant a ppendix t o t he P eabody M useum's M emoirs o n S itio C onte i f c eramic t ypology a nd i ts r elated c hronology w ere t he p rimary o bjectives o f h is s cholarly i nterest. Due, p erhaps, t o t he i ntellectual c limate o f N ew W orld p rehistorians a nd a rcheologists i n g eneral d uring

t he

1 940s,

o ther

i nterpretive

c onsequences

o f h is--and

L othrop's--finds a t S itio C onte w ere n ot o bvious t o M ason. W ithout a d oubt, h owever, t he r elevance a nd i mportance o f M ason's e xcavations a t S itio C onte h ave n ow c hanged a nd h is w ork d eserves b roader d issemination. The s ite o f S itio h ectares, i s l ocated o n

C onte, c overing b etween t hree a nd f our t he e astern b ank o f t he R io G rande d e C od e

( Map 1 ) a nd e xtends e ast, n orth a nd s outh a long t hat r iver. T he c losest m odern v illage, N ata, i s l ocated e leven k ilometers t o t he s outhwest a nd t he p resent s hore o f t he P acific O cean l ays o nly f ifteen k ilometers t o t he s outh. T he s horeline o f t he P acific O cean a s w ell a s t he r iver c ourse h ave v aried c onsiderably a nd, t herefore, t heir e xact l ocation d uring t he o ccupation o r u se o f t he s ite i s n ot c lear a t t his t ime. S itio C onte i s s urrounded b y p lains t hat a re i nfrequently c heckered w ith l ow h ills. T he m ountain c hain, o r c ordillera, w hich r uns t he l ength o f P anamA a nd r eaches e levations o f o ver 1 300 m eters t o t he n orth o f S itio C onte, i s f ound a pproximately t wenty-five k ilometers t o t he n orth o f t he s ite. The

c limate

o f

t he

r egion

s urrounding

t he

s ite,

h as

b een

c lassified a s " savanna" b y K 8ppen ( 1932[1972 r eprint1:59). T he a verage a nnual r ainfall m easures o ver 1 ,800 m illimeters a nd d uring t he d ry s eason, f rom D ecember o r J anuary t hrough M arch o r A pril, a lmost n o r ain f alls. I n o ne y ear, f or e xample, 1 ,836 m illimeters o f r ain f ell i n t he n earby v illage o f P enonomA, b ut o nly 1 69 m illimeters o f t he t otal f ell f rom D ecember t o A pril ( Ki ippen 1 932 [ 1972 r eprint1:45). T he a rea i s b est d escribed a s t ropical a nd K esel 1 975:15-26), c omprising l arge a reas o f s hrubs, i nterspersed w ith s cattered s tands o f t rees.

s avanna ( Talbot g rasslands a nd

S ometime i n t he l ast h alf o f t he n ineteenth c entury t he R io G rande d e C oclA c hanged c ourse a nd c ut a n ew r iver b ed t hrough t he w estern e dge o f S itio C onte. T he g old, p recious s tones, p olychrome c eramics a nd o ther i tems w ashed o ut o f t he r ich b urials c ommanded l ocal a ttention a nd w ere s ubsequently c ollected a nd s old. T he P anamanian g overnment d isplayed s ome o f t he m ortuary a rtifacts i n a n e xposition o rganized f or t he 1 915 i nauguration o f t he P anama C anal a nd S amuel K . L othrop r eported t hat h e b ought i n P anama C ity a s e arly a s 1 917 g old i tems f rom t he s ite ( Lothrop 1 937:36). I n

1 927

t he

R io

G rande

a gain

a ttracting a ttention t o t he s ite. e xtensively a nd m any m ore o bjects

p layed

a n

i mportant

r ole

i n

D uring t hat y ear t he r iver f looded f rom t he s ite w ashed o ut o nto t he

b anks a nd a lluvial p ans o f t he r iver. T he C onte f amily , o wners o f t he l and o n w hich t he s ite i s l ocated a nd f rom w hom t he s ite d erives i ts n ame, excavated a p it i n 1 928 a fter t he f looding c eased. I nstead o f e ncountering b urials o r g raves r ich i n g old a nd p recious s tones a s e xpected, t hey s truck a nd u ncovered a n umber o f s tone 6 5

c olumns w hich a pparently s urrounded a ll o r m ost o f t he o riginal s ite ( see L othrop 1 937:39-43 a nd h is F ig. 2 3). D espite t his l ack o f " success," t he C onte f amily's a ttention a nd i nterest i n S itio C onte m ay w ell h ave d iscouraged e xtensive l ooting o f t he s ite. S ome o f t he m ortuary o bjects w hich h ad b anks m ade t heir w ay t o t he P eabody M useum.

w ashed o ut o f t he r iver T he m aterial s timulated

i nterest i n t he r egion a nd i n 1 928 A lfred M . T ozzer a nd E .A. l ed t he f irst P eabody e xpedition t o S itio C onte. W hile i n t hey s urveyed t he s ite a nd e stablished p reliminary f uture P eabody M useum-sponsored e xcavations.

H ooton P anamA

a rrangements

f or

T he P eabody b egan e xcavations d uring t he d ry s eason o f 1 930 a nd c ontinued u ntil 1 933. T he 1 930-31 a nd 1 931-32 e xpeditions w ere l ed b y H enry D . R oberts, w hile L othrop d irected t he f inal 1 932-33 s eason. L othrop's w ell k nown p ublished r esults i n t he M emoirs o f t he P eabody M useum o f A rchaeology a nd E thnology, H arvard U niversity o f 1 937 ( Volume 7 , a lso r eprint 1 970) a nd 1 942 ( Volume 8 , a lso r eprint 1 976) d ocument i n c onsiderable d etail h is e xcavation t echniques, f inds, a nd i nterpretations. W ithout q uestion, t hese v olumes w ere a m ajor c ontribution t o t he s cant k nowledge o n t he a rchaeology o f c entral P anama. I t w ould n ot b e u nreasonable t o s uggest t hat t hey s ingleh andedly b rought w ide a ttention t o t his a rchaeological r egion. E ven d uring t he P eabody e xcavations, f or e xample, T he I llustrated London N ews s aw f it t o c over t he S itio C onte p roject w ith t wo s tories ( E.B. a nd S .K. L othrop 1 934 a a nd b ). M oreover, t he s ubstantial d ata p ublished f rom t he e xcavations h as c ontinued t o s erve a s a r esource f or n umerous s cholars. T he p ublished v olumes d o, h owever u nfortunately, s uffer f rom s hortcomings i n e diting. O ne m ust e valuate t he d ata c arefully b ecause o f s ignificant i nconsistencies i n t he i dentification o f i llustrations, g rave i nventories, a nd a ppendices g raves a nd

w hich a ttempt t o c ross-reference t he s keletal r emains.

F ollowing t heir e xcavation t eam d id i ndication,

t he

t he

t hird f ield s eason i n 1 933, n ot r eturn t o S itio C onte.

p romise

o f

u nearthing

m ore

m ortuary

a rtifacts,

t he P eabody M useum 's F rom e very a vailable

b urials

a nd,

t hereby,

i ncreasing t he r ichness o f t heir f inds, m ust h ave b een o bvious t o t hem. F or w hatever r easons, h owever, t hey c hoose t o e nd t heir e xcavation p rogram a t t he s ite. Then i n 1 940 J . A lden Mason, w orking o n b ehalf o f t he U niversity o f P ennsylvania M useum, o rganized a f ield e xpedition t o S itio C onte i n o rder t o c ontinue t he e xcavations t hat t he P eabody h ad l eft o ff s ome s even y ears e arlier. M ason o riginally a rranged t o c ontinue e xcavations a t t he s ite i n 1 941 a nd

1 942

b ut,

p erhaps

t o

t he

g rowing

i nfluence

o f

W orld

W ar

I I

n d

t he m ilitarily s trategic l ocation o f P anama, o nly s pent t he o ne s eason a t S itio C onte. N o a dditional p rofessional e xcavations h ave b een o rganized a t S itio C onte s ince M ason's p roject.

h e

B y t he t ime M ason u ndertook h is p roject h ad e arned a r espected r eputation a s a n

a t S itio C onte i n 1 940, a nthropologist. H e h ad

r eceived h is d octorate i n 1 911 f rom t he U niversity o f C alifornia a t B erkeley w hile s tudying u nder A lfred K roeber. Following h is g raduation, h e w orked o n e thnographic, l inguistic, f olkloric, a nd a rchaeological f ield p rojects w ith F ranz B oas a nd o ther s cholars f rom B erkeley. M ason's i nterests a nd p rofessional a ctivities i n f olklore 6 6

a nd

l inguistics

p roduced

m ajor

a chievements;

h owever,

h is

c ommitment

t o and a ctivity i n a rchaeological p rojects, i f measured q uantitatively , d ominated h is c areer. I n 1 917 h e w as a ppointed A ssistant C urator o f M exican a nd S outh A merican a rchaeology a t t he F ield M useum o f N atural H istory. D uring h is e mployment i n C hicago, h e t ravelled t o C olombia a nd e xcavated f or m ore t han a y ear a t S anta M arta ( Mason 1 924, 1 931, 1 936, 1 939). A fter e ight y ears a t t he F ield M useum, M ason w as o ffered i n 1 926 t he p osition o f C urator a t t he U niversity o f P ennsylvania M useum. H e a ccepted a nd r etired f rom t hat s ame

p osition

t hirty

y ears

l ater

i n

1 955.

D uring

h is

t enure

a t

P ennsylvania, h e a uthored d ozens o f a rticles o n t he M useum's N ew World c ollections. F ollowing r etirement f rom P ennsylvania, h e a ssumed i n 1 958 t he e ditorship o f t he N ew W orld A rchaeological F oundation's p ublications. W hen M ason d ied i n 1 967 h e h ad p ublished o ver 2 40 b ooks a nd a rticles o f w hich a t l east 1 36 w ere o n a rchaeological t opics. I n a ddition t o h is w ork a t S anta M arta, w hich t ook f ifteen y ears t o c omplete, h is p ublications o n t he p re-Conquest s tonework o f C osta R ica ( 1945) a nd T he A ncient C ivilizations o f P eru ( 1957) a re a mong h is b est k nown c ontributions t o t he a rchaeology o f t he N ew W orld.

t heir

I n o rder f or t he U niversity o f P ennsylvania M useum t eam t o b egin f ield p rogram a t S itio C onte, M ason f irst h ad t o i nitiate

c ontract n egotiations w ith t he C onte f amily o f P enonomä. A s a r esult o f t he c ontracts a rranged i n p revious y ears b y t he P eabody , M ason q uickly a ccomplished h is t ask. T he P ennsylvania t eam, l ed b y M ason, s pent w ith

o nly t he 1 940 d ry s eason t he C ontes d id p ermit

i n t he f ield e ven t hough t he t he U niversity M useum t o

c ontract c onduct

" continued e xcavations i n 1 941 a nd 1 942" ( Mason 1 940:np). L othrop a nd h is w ife, E leanor, a ccompanied M ason a nd s pent t he i nitial s everal w eeks i n P anamä h elping t o f amiliarize t he t eam w ith t he s ite a nd r egion. A long w ith, a t t imes, o ver t wenty P anamanian w orkers, J ohn M ason ( the s on o f J . A lden M ason), R obert M errill ( engineer a nd m ap m aker), J ohn C orning a nd h is w ife, M ason a nd h is w orkers s pent f our m onths u ncovering g raves a nd o ther R obert

M errill,

f rom G rand

p rofession b ut o ften s ought

R apids,

f eatures

a t

M ichigan,

p articipation

S itio C onte.

w as

a n

e ngineer

b y

i n a rchaeological p rojects.

F or e xample, i n 1 930 h e w as a m ember o f a T ulane U niversity t eam h eaded b y F ranz B lom t hat w ent t o t he Y ucatan t o m ap t he M ayan s ite o f Uxmal. M errill m ade v arious s cale m aps o f t he s ite a nd t he s urrounding a rea. I n a ddition h e d rafted a d etailed m ap o f t he N unnery i n o rder t hat t he b uilding c ould b e r eplicated f or t he 1 933 C hicago W orld's F air ( The Grand Rapids S pectator 1 930:1-2). M errill's d uties a t S itio C onte w ere s imilar. H e d irected t he m apping o f t he s ite--including d etermining i ts r elation t o t he e arlier P eabody e xcavations, d rawing m aps o f e ach g rave, a nd d rafting m aps w hich p recisely r ecorded t he l ocus o f e ach a rtifact. M oreover, M errill p hotographed t he g rave g oods w hile i n s itu. T hese p hotographs w ere t aken t hrough a g rid s ystem o f f ramed s trings w hose s cale

a nd

J ohn

p lacement c orresponded C orning

a nd

h is

w ife,

t o

t he m aps

w hose

n ame

h e

d rafted.

I h ave

n ot

b een

a ble

t o

d etermine, a lso w ere p art M ason's t eam. C orning's e xpertise w as a pparently i n p hysical a nthropology . T he m ost a natomically i nformed a nd m ost c omplete d escriptions o f t he h uman s keletal r emains a t S itio 6 7

C onte w ere m ade b y h im. H is c ontributions d id n ot, h owever, s imply s top t here; h e r eadily p articipated i n t he e xcavations o f t he g raves. M rs. C orning, a long w ith M ason's s on, s pent a g ood d eal o f t heir t ime m arking a nd r ecording t he m ortuary f urnishings. W hile I h ave n o r ecord o f M rs. C orning a ctually i nvolved i n t he u ncovering o f g raves, J ohn Mason, J r., c ould r egularly b e f ound i n t he t renches e nthusiastically e xcavating n ew f inds. H is f ather, o f c ourse, m onitored, a dministered a nd o versaw t he e ntire o peration. W hile t hese s even c omprised t he N orth A merican c ontingent, a t t he s tart o f e xcavations M ason h ad h ired a s m any a s t hirty P anamanians. H is f ield n otes m ention t hat o n F riday, J anuary 2 6, 1 940 h e s tarted w ork w ith s ixteen m en b y e xcavating a l atrine h ole, l ater n amed T rench 1 . T he " hole" c ontained s ome f airly r ich f inds s o t hey m oved t he l atrine f urther a way. W ithin a f ew d ays, b y J anuary 3 0, M ason h ad t hirty m en w orking f or h im, i ncluding c arpenters, c ooks, a l aundress, a s w ell a s e xcavators. M ason d elineated t wo e xcavation a reas a t S itio C onte. T he f irst, a lready n oted a bove, w as a n a ccidental o r u nplanned t rench w hich h ad b egun a s a p it f or t he c amp 's l atrine. D esignated T rench 1 a nd l ocated a pproximately b etween M errill's c oordinates o f 7 6-93 w est a nd 2 54-276 n orth, i t m easured n early 2 2 b y 8 f eet a nd w as e xcavated t o a n e levation o f 4 .4 f eet; g round l evel o f t he t rench w as a t 1 6.25 f eet. M errill's v ertical m easurements w ere c alculated f rom a 0 .0 f oot e levation o f s ea l evel. T he w ater t able i n m ost p laces w ithin t he s ite w as r eached a t a bout 4 .5 f eet. A fter t he d ecision t o e xcavate t he l atrine h ole w as m ade, t he t rench w as p lanned a s a r ectangle w hose l ong a xis w as o riented n orthwest b y s outheast; h owever, t he w estern s ide o f t he t rench w as i rregularly s haped. S ince t he t rench w as o riginally i ntended a s a l atrine, i t i s s ituated a c onsiderable d istance f rom t he m ain e xcavation a rea a nd i s, i n r eality, c lose t o t he P eabody's t renches X I a nd X II ( Map 6 a nd L othrop 1 937:Fig. 2 0).

2 .

T he p rimary f ocus o f M ason's e xcavations h ad a lways b een T rench I t w as o riginally d esignated T rench 1 b ut r enamed b ecause d igging

i n i t b egan a fter t he i nitiation o f e xcavations i n t he l atrine p it. T rench 2 w as l ocated o n t he n orth s ide o f t he P eabody 's t renches I a nd I I ( Map 6 ). T his a rea w as, i n g eneral, w here t he r ichest m ortuary r emains h ad b een u ncovered b y Lothrop a nd t he o ther i ndividuals a ffiliated w ith t he e arlier P eabody M useum p roject. M ason 's t rench w as a n i rregular r ectangle w hose l ong a xis r an e ast a nd w est. A t i ts w idest p oint, T rench 2 m easured a pproximately t wenty f eet a nd w as n early s ixty c arried d own t o t he w ater t able. W hile

a g eneral

r eport

o f

t he

f eet

r esults

l ong;

t he

e xcavations

o f M ason's

e xcavations w as

n ever p ublished, t he a rtifactual r emains, f ield n otes, p hotographs -including a c olor f ilm--have r emained f iled i n v aults o f t he U niversity M useum i n P hiladelphia. M ason d id s imply h elped

i gnore t he S itio C onte m aterial a fter o rganize a n umber o f p rojects d irected

o f t he p ottery a nd o utlined a c omprehensive c eramics b ased o n L othrop's t ypology ( 1940). f ew s hort

a rticles

o n

s pecific

t ypes 6 8

w ere

a nd t he n ot

h is e xcavations. H e t oward r econstruction

s tylistic s tudy o f t he A s w ell, h e a uthored a

o f a rtifacts

f rom

t he

s ite

( see

M ap 6 E xcavation a reas a t S itio M ason n .d., a nd M errill n .d.).

C onte

( Milovich a fter L othrop 1 937,

M ason 1 940, 1 941, a nd 1 942) b ut f elt, a s n oted a bove, t hat a ll o f h is a nalyses a nd i nterpretations r econfirmed L othrop's c hronological f ramework a nd c eramic a nalysis. I t s erves n o u seful p urpose t o a ssess M ason's d ecision n ot t o p ublish h is f indings. L ittle i ndication w as a vailable t o M ason t hat n o o ther p re-Conquest C entral A merican a rchaeological s ite c omparable t o S itio C onte i n t he q uantity o r q uality o f t he m ortuary r emains w ould b e e xcavated d uring t he n ext f ifty y ears. I t i s o f i nterest t o n ote t hat M ason's o bituary i n A nthropologist n oted t hat, " He w as a k ind, modest, a nd p erson, a lways r eady t o h elp o thers ( Sattherwaite 1 969:871); B utler, w riting i n t he J ournal o f A merican F olklore, p ointed

A merican g enerous a nd M ary o ut t hat

M ason b elieved " that t he C urator o f a n A merican S ection i n a ny M useum o wed i nformation a nd h elp t o a ny p erson w ith a l egitimate i nterest i n t he f ield " (1969:267). I r egret, t herefore, t hat m y s tudy c ould n ot b enefit f rom a d irect d ialogue w ith M ason. H is p ersonal f amiliarity w ith t he f ield n otes, p hotographs, a nd i nformation o n a rtifactual r emains m ight h ave h eld t he a nswers t o m any o f t he a mbiguities o ne f inds i n t he n otes a nd s ources s ome f orty-five y ears l ater.

t he

M ason's f ield p rogram a t S itio C onte c oncentrated a lmost s olely o n g raves. T he e arlier e xcavations o f t he P eabody M useum a lso

f ocused

t heir

a ttention

o n

t he

b urials

b ut

u ndertook

a dditional

e xcavations w hich r evealed a rchitectural f eatures a s w ell a s s ome d ebris f rom h abitation a reas. Y et, w ithout a d oubt, b oth M ason's a nd L othrop's p rimary i nterests w ere i n t he g raves l ocated a t t he s ite, a nd t he r icher t he m ortuary f inds t he b etter. A s a r esult o f t heir e agerness t o m ake s ensational d iscoveries, e xcavation t echniques s uffered. S tratigraphic c ontrols w ere f requently a bandoned, l iving d ebris w as s wept a side i n s earch o f g raves, a nd p rocedures g overning a rtifact marking a nd r ecording w ere o verly r elaxed d uring t he e xcitement a nd e nthusiasm s urrounding t he p rospect o f u ncovering n ew t reasures. I n a m ore r ecent c ommentary o n L othrop's w ork a t S itio C onte, L inares s ummed u p t he s ituation r ather p ointedly: " Their e xcavation ' techniques' l eft m uch t o b e d esired" ( 1977:34). D ue

a s m uch

t o

t he

p roblem

o f e xcavating

t he

c omplexly a rranged

g raves a s t o t he a rchaeologists' f ield t echniques, t he m ortuary d eposits f rom S itio C onte c an b e q uite c onfusing. I n m any i nstances o lder b urials w ere a boriginally c ut t hrough t o m ake r oom f or n ewer b urials; w hile m oving a side t he o lder b urials, t he n ew g raves w ere e nrichened w ith m ortuary o bjects f rom t hem. T he w et a nd a cid s oil c onditions, i n a ddition, q uickly e roded t he s keletal r emains. A lmost a ll b ones, e specially h uman, w ere f ound i n a p owdery, d ecomposed a nd f ragile s tate. W hile i n s itu, t he r emains c ould b e measured, a nalyzed, a nd r ecorded. -- H owever, t he p oor c onditions s urrounding p reservation o f t he b ones m eant t hat M ason 's t eam d id n ot a ttempt t o r ecover a ny o f t he h uman s keletons t hey u ncovered. Many o ther o bjects, s uch a s c opper, a nimal b one, v egetal f ibers, w ood, a nd e ven s ome c eramics, w ere a lso i n a n a dvanced s tate o f d eterioration a nd w ere l eft a t

t he

s ite

b y t he

e xcavators.

P roblems p ertaining t o t he c are a nd p reservation o f t he m ortuary r emains f rom S itio C onte d uring a nd s ubsequent t o t he e xcavations a lso c omplicate i nterpretive e fforts. T he 1 933 c ontract b etween t he 7 0

P eabody M useum a nd t he C onte f amily i n P enonomb e stablished t he t enor o f M ason 's 1 940 c ontractual n egotiations. T he P eabody c ontract s tated

t hat: [ C]uando

h aya

m as

d e

t i n

e jemplar

d e

e stos

o bjetos [ gold i tems], e ntonces s e d ividirän en p artes i guales; u na mitad s erä e xclusivamente d e p ropiedad d el s eüor C onte B ermhdez, y l a o tra m itad s erä d el M useo P eabody;

[ it

c ontinued]

l os

o bjetos

d e

p iedra, b arro ( alfareria), momias, e squeletos, e tc., q ue s e e ncuentran e n l as e xcavaciones s erän d ivididos p or m itad e ntre e l s ef ior C onte B ermhdez y e l M useo P eabody ( University M useum n .d.). The U niversity M useum r egarding g old o bjects;

f ollowed t he s ame c ontractual a rrangements b ut i n r espect t o o ther t ypes o f i tems, t he

M useum r epresentatives n egotiated t erms w hich a llowed t hem a lmost e verything. P oint 6 o f t heir c ontract s tated t hat: L os

o bjetos

d e

p iedra,

b arro

( alfareria)

t o

r etain

w as

n ever

q ue

s e e ncuentran e nteros l as e xcavaciones s erän d ividos p or m itad e ntre e l s eeor C onte y l a U niversidad, . s iempre x c uando s ean e jemplares c on d uplicado. S e e ntiende p or e sto q ue e n e l c aso d e q ue s e e ncontrarä e jemplares ! inicos, e stos s erän d e p ropiedad d e l a U niversidad ( University M useum n .d., m y e mphasis). T he

e xact

m eaning

d iscussed i n M useum h olds

o f

" unique"

a nd

" duplicate

e xamples"

t he c ontract a nd, p erhaps a s a r esult, T he U niversity a lmost t he c omplete i nventory o f m ortuary f urnishings

w hich t hey e xcavated a t S itio C onte. T he C onte f amily s till r etains a s izeable c ollection o f c eramics a nd s ome s tone w ork f rom e xcavations a t t heir s ite, b ut m any i tems f rom t heir c ollection h ave b een d ispersed. U nderstanding t he m ortuary r emains a nd t heir c ontext i s m ade e ven m ore d ifficult b y a n umber o f a ctivities i nvolving t he U niversity M useum's S itio C onte c ollection a fter t he m aterial h ad b een p laced i n m useum s torage. I n t he l ate 1 940s, t he M useum a llowed a w ork c rew o rganized u nder t he f ederal g overnment's W orks P roject A dministration t o a ttempt t o r econstruct w hole o r a lmost w hole c eramic v essels f rom t he v oluminous q uantity o f s herds. M ason c omplained ( citation) l ater o n t hat t he p roject m anaged t o m ix t he d eposits f rom s everal g raves a s w ell a s g lue s herds t ogether f rom u nrelated v essels. I n a ddition, s ome o f t he S itio C onte i tems i n T he U niversity M useum's c ollection w ere s tolen i n 1 977, a nd o ther p ieces w ere p ut o n e xtended l oan t o t he M useo d el H ombre P anameeo. D espite t he r esulting c onfusion f rom t hese c ircumstances, t he e xcavations i s e xtensive a nd

a vailable i nformation f rom M ason's t he p resentation h ere i s b ased o n f irst-

h and e xamination o f t he m ortuary a rtifacts, f ield n otes a nd a rchival d ocuments h oused a t T he U niversity M useum i n P hiladelphia a nd i n P anamä, b oth w ith t he C onte f amily a nd a t t he M useo d el H ombre P anameeo. 7 1

T he M ortuary A rts

f rom S itio C onte

E xcept f or t he s mall s cale f ield p rojects o f C ooke ( 1971 1 972) a nd L add's s tratigraphic a nalysis ( 1957), a ll a ttention s cholarly i nterest d irected t oward S itio C onte h as f ocused o n b urials. l east 1 00

M ason's, R obert's g raves c ontaining

a nd L othrop's a pproximately

a nd a nd t he

e xcavations c leared a t 2 01 i ndividuals. T he

o bjects f ound w ithin t he b urials s ometimes n umbered i n t he t housands a nd i ncluded s ome o f t he m ost f inely d ecorated c eramics, c arved b ones, c ast a nd r epoussA g old, a nd o ther l uxury i tems f ound i n a ll o f p re-Conquest C entral A merica, a s w ell a s m ore " ordinary" o bjects, s uch a s p rojectile p oints, u tilitarian c eramic v essels, a nd c elts, u sed i n d aily a ctivities. A ll o f t he e xcavators f ound i t d ifficult t o d istinguish b etween g raves a nd " caches." I n g eneral, a c ache a t S itio C onte d esignated a d iscrete g roup o f a rtifacts o r f eatures w ithout a ssociated h uman s keletons o r i n a c ontext w hose s ize o r c onfiguration d id n ot c orrespond t o t he e xpected c haracteristics o f a S itio C onte b urial. W hile i t i s r easonable t o s eparate t hese f inds f rom t he b urials, t he u se o f t he t erm " cache" i s o f q uestionable v alue. T here a re n o c ompelling r easons w hich s uggest t hat t hese g roups o f a rtifacts o r f eatures c ontained g oods s tored f or f uture u se; s ome o f t he g roups o f a rtifacts m ay s imply h ave b een r esidue o r d ebris f rom s pecial a ctivities. A long t his l ine, L inares h as s uggested t hat l arge c oncentrations o f t ools " represent t he i mplements ( metate, m eat c leaver, a nd s o f orth) u sed f or p rocuring a nd p rocessing t he f ood c onsumed b y t he c rowds p articipating i n t he f unerary r ites" ( 1977;43). R egardless o f t he a boriginal a ctivity a ssociated w ith t hese f inds, t he a bsence o f h uman s keletons c learly i solates t hem f rom t he b urials a nd, t herefore, t he s o-called " caches" a re n ot c onsidered i n t his s tudy b ut i n o rder t o p rovide t his u npublished i nformation t hey a re d escribed i n A ppendix 7 . A s n oted, n umerous c rete g raves a t S itio

f actors C onte.

c omplicate t he d etermination o f d isU nclear a nd s ometimes c ontradictory

f ield n otes a nd m aps, a boriginal r e-excavation o f b urials, a n a bsence o f d etectable f eatures s uch a s w alls, a nd r ather s loppy f ield c ontrols c reate i nterpretive n ightmares. When t hese f actors i nfluence p ossible i nterpretations o f s pecific g raves, t hey w ill b e d iscussed i n t he t ext, o therwise t hey a re m ore f ully c overed b y L othrop ( 1937 a nd 1 942) a nd i n m y A ppendix 5 o n M ason's e xcavations. T he a geing a nd s exing o f t he S itio C onte s keletons s eem t o f ollow a f airly c onsistent p attern i n b oth t he P eabody's a nd T he U niversity M useum's e xcavations ( Tables 2 1 a nd 2 2). I t I s n ot c lear f rom Lothrop's p ublications w ho .w as r esponsible f or t he f ield a nalysis o f t he s keletons e xcavated b y t he P eabody M useum's t eams, b ut J ohn C orning u ndertook t he s keletal a nalysis f or M ason's e xcavations. T he a nalytical m ethods e mployed b y e ither p arty a re n ot k nown, b ut t he r esults a re s imilar. L eaving a side u naged a nd u nsexed s keletons, L othrop's t eam f ound 7 2 p ercent a dult m ales, 2 3 p ercent a dult f emales, 4 p ercent a dolescent m ales, a nd 2 p ercent a dolescent f emales. M ason a rrived a t t otals o f 7 4 p ercent a dult m ales, 1 9 p ercent

a dult

f emales,

n o a dolescent m ales, 7 2

a nd

7 p ercent

a dolescent

T able 2 1 S itio C onte: A ge a nd S ex C haracteristics o f I nterments

L othrop's G raves % E xclusive A dult A dolescent C hild U nknown T otal

M ales 4 1 2 0 0 4 3

F emales 1 3 1 0 0 1 4

U nknown 4 2 5 1 1 6 6 4

T otal 9 6 8

o f U nknown 9 5 5

1 1 6 1 21

M ason's G raves

A dult A dolescent C hild U nknown T otal

M ales 3 1 0 0 1 3 2

F emales 8 3 0 0 1 1

U nknown 6 3 1 4 8 5 8

T otal 4 5 6 1

% E xclusive o f U nknown 9 3 7

4 9 1 01

C ombined G raves

A dult A dolescent C hild Unknown T otal

M ales 7 2 2 0 1 7 5

F emales 2 1 4 0 0 2 5

U nknown 4 8 8 2

T otal 1 41 1 4 2

6 4 1 22

6 5 2 22

7 3

% E xclusive o f U nknown 9 4 6

S itio C onte: o f

A ge

T able 2 2 a nd S ex C haracteristics

I nterments

w ith M ortuary A rts

L othrop's G raves % E xclusive A dult

M ales 3 4

F emales 1 1

U nknown 3 5

T otal 8 0

A dolescent

2

1

4

7

C hild

0

0

1

1

0

U nknown

3 6

T otal

0 1 2

1 3

1 3

5 3

1 01

o f U nknown 9 4 6

M ason's G raves 7 E xclusive A dult

M ales 2 5

F emales 6

U nknown 5

T otal 3 6

A dolescent

0

2

2

4

C hild

0 1

0 0

1 3 8

1 3 9

8

4 6

8 0

U nknown T otal

2 6

o f U nknown 9 4 6

C ombined G raves 7 E xclusive A dult

M ales 5 9

F emales 1 7

U nknown 4 0

A dolescent

2

3

6

C hild

0

0

2

U nknown

1

0

T otal

6 2

2 0

T otal 15 1 2

5 1

5 2

9 9

1 81

7 4

o f U nknown 9 3 7

f emales. a dolescent

T he o nly s ubstantive d ifference i s t he a bsence o f m ales i n M ason 's c alculations. Y et, e ven i n L othrop's

p opulation, p opulation.

a dolescent m ales a mounted T he d ifference i s s mall.

t o

o nly

4 p ercent

o f

t he

C ombining M ason's a nd L othrop's p opulations, w e f ind 7 2 p ercent a dult m ales, 2 1 p ercent a dult f emales, 2 p ercent a dolescent m ales, a nd 4 p ercent a dolescent f emales. I t i s o bvious t hat a dult m ales d ominate t he m ortuary p opulation, a lmost t hree t o o ne. O ne o f t he m ost o bvious c haracteristics o f t he s exed a nd a ged i ndividuals a t S itio C onte i s t he a bsence o f c hildren. T heir e xclusion f rom t he a bove n umbers m ay b e l argely a ccountable t o t he d ifficulty o f s exing c hildren's s keletons. H owever, M ason a nd L othrop t ogether o nly i dentified t wo c hildren ( or 1 p ercent) a mong 2 01 i ndividuals. M ason's t eam w as m ore c onservative t han L othrop's i n t heir a ging a nd s exing o f t he p opulation. F rom a t otal o f e ighty i ndividuals, M ason d id n ot a ttribute a n a ge o r s ex t o a lmost h alf o f t hem ( n=38), w hereas a mong L othrop's o ne h undred a nd t wenty-one i ndividuals, o nly s ixteen ( 13 p ercent) w ere n either a ged n or s exed. T he e xcavated g raves f rom b oth t he U niversity M useum's a nd t he P eabody M useum's e xcavations e xhibit a lmost i dentical p atterns o f t he o rientation, d eposition a nd p osition o f t he b urial o ccupants s ummarized i n T able 2 3. O ver h alf ( 52 p ercent) o f a ll s keletons a t S itio C onte w ere o riented e ast t o w est; i f t his a mount i s a dded t o t hose i ndividuals o riented w est t o e ast, t he t otal r ises t o 6 2 p ercent o f t he b urials w ith r ecorded o rientations. T he g raves l isted i n L othrop's r eport e xhibit a w ider r ange o f o rientations t han M ason's b urials; b ut, i n g eneral, t he S itio C onte b urials, e xclusive o f t hose o riented o n a n e ast o r w est a xis, a re p arceled o ut a mong s ix o ther o rientations a nd d isplay n o p redominant s econdary p atterns. A ny g eneralizations c oncerning b urial p atterns a t S itio C onte m ust b e t empered w ith t he o bservation t hat a l arge p ercentage o f t he i ndividuals o f t his s ample ( and, a dditionally , t he d eposition a nd p osition s ample) a re f rom o nly e ight g raves. F or e xample, 1 56 b urials h ad r ecorded i nformation i n r espect t o o rientation. O f t his n umber, e ighty-two ( 54 p ercent) w ere f rom e ight g raves w ith m ultiple b urials r anging f rom f our t o t wenty-six i ndividuals. T he o rganization o f t he m ultiple b urials f ollowed t he p attern o f p lacing i ndividuals o n t he f loor o r f loors o f t he g rave t o m ake a h uman b edding f or t he p rimary o ccupant. A s a r esult, t he p lacement o f t he i ndividuals a ppears t o b e d etermined m ore b y a c oncern f or f illing u p t he e mpty f loor s pace t han o rienting t hem t o a s pecific d irection. S imilarly, i t m akes s ense t hat t he m ajority o f t hese i ndividuals w ould b e e xtended; t hey c over m ore o f t he f loor i n t hat p osition. T herefore, c are m ust b e t aken i n p roposing s ignificance t o g eneral p atterns o r f ormal c haracteristics o f b ody t reatment i n t he S itio C onte b urials, e specially t he g raves w ith m ultiple b urials. T he d eposition, l ike t he o rientation, o f i ndividuals a t S itio C onte a lso f ollows a r ather u niform p attern. F rom b oth L othrop's a nd M ason's i nformation, o ver 6 4 p ercent o f t he i ndividuals w ere f ound l ying o n t heir s tomachs. A mong M ason's b urials o nly , t he p ercentage w as m uch h igher ( 78), w hile a mong L othrop's b urials i ndividuals l ying 7 5

T able S itio C onte:

N umber o f L othrop's

2 3

D isposition o f I nterments

N umber o f M ason's

O rientation 1 2

G raves 1 7 2

3

1 3

4 5 6 7 8

7 4 2 1 0 4 4

0 1 6 5 3 7

D eposition 1 2 3 4 6

9 1 0 1 4 4 5 3

7 0 4 3 9 0

P osition 1

6 0

5 1

P ercentage

G raves 4 1

T otal 2 1 3

o f T otal 1 3 2

3

1 6

1 0

7 5 8 1 5 8 1

4 3 5 1 0 5 2

1 6 1 0 1 8 8 4 3

1 2 8 1 4 6 4 2

1 11

2 3

4 3 1

3 1

1 2

5 5 0

3 6

0 0

7 4

7 3 2

5 2 1

4 9 4

1 04 4

9 0 3

5 3

5 3

4 3

F orm

‚ K ey: O rientation: 1 -north/south, 2 -northwest/southeast, 3 -northeast/southw est, 4 -south/north, 5 -southeast/northwest, 6 -southwest/northeast, 7 -west/east, D eposition: s ide,

1 -lying o n b ack,

4 -lying o n s tomach,

P osition: F orm:

8 -east/west

1 -extended,

1 -articulated,

2 -lying o n r ight

s ide,

3 -lying o n l eft

6 -sitting

2 -semiflexed,

3 -flexed

2 -partially a rticulated,

6 -disturbed

7 6

3 -disarticulated,

o n

t heir

s tomach

p osition o f

t he

a ccounted

i ndividuals

f or i n

5 5

p ercent

o f

t he

p opulation.

t he b urials d isplayed

a n e ven

T he

s tronger

p attern. S eventy-four p ercent o f t he i ndividuals a t S itio C onte w ere e xtended, a nd o ver 9 0 p ercent w ere a rticulated. L othrop u ncovered a s ubstantial n umber ( 32 p ercent) o f f lexed b urials, w hereas M ason f ound o nly o ne f lexed i ndividual. W ithin r eason--and t he l imitations o f a ttributing a ny g eneral s ignificance t o t he f ormal t reatment o f t he b urials--a " normal" b urial a t S itio C onte c onsists o f a n a dult m ale, o riented e ast t o w est, b ody e xtended, a nd l ying f ace d own. A mong L othrop's b urials o ne o ther m inor p attern i s e vident: t hat i s, a lmost a ll i ndividuals o riented n orth t o s outh w ere l ying o n t heir l eft s ide i n a f lexed p osition.

C luster A nalyses o f t he M ortuary A rts f rom t he S itio C onte G raves

T he f our d ifferent t ypes o f c luster a nalyses o f t hose b urials c ontaining m ortuary f urnishings ( 87 o f 1 00 g raves) w ere m oderately c onsistent. A ll m ortuary f urnishings w hich a ppeared o nly o nce a mong t he S itio C onte g raves w ere n ot k eyed i nto t he a nalyses ( Appendix 6 , T able A -13). T he c luster a nalyses w ere f irst p erformed w ith t hese o bjects a nd t hen a gain w ithout; t here w ere a bsolutely n o d ifferences i n t he r esults. A l ist o f t he f inal s ixty-one o bject c lasses u sed i n t he a nalyses a nd t heir d istribution a mong t he g raves a re p resented i n A ppendix 6 ( Tables A -14 t hrough A -17). A nalyses w ere p erformed f rom t he f our t hrough f ifteen c luster l evel; t he t en c luster l evel w as s elected f or m y u se s ince i t w as t he s quare r oot o f t he t otal n umber o f g raves ( i.e., 1 00, o r t he a nalytical p opulation) f ound a t S itio C onte. W hen t here a re n o c ompelling r easons t o s elect a c ut-off l evel f or t he n umber o f c lusters, t his t echnique h as b een s uggested b y S AS i n t heir 1 982 p ublication S AS U ser's G uide: S tatistics

( 419-420).

A ll f our o f t he c luster a nalyses--Ward's, a verage l inkage, c entroid a nd c omplete l inkage--display t heir e xpected b iases. Ward's, f or example, s elected a n a lmost p erfect p yramidal d istribution o f t he g raves a t t he t en c luster l evel. C luster I X c ontained t wenty g raves, c luster X h ad s eventeen g raves, c luster V III h ad f ourteen g raves, c luster V II h ad t en g raves, c luster V I h ad n ine g raves, c luster I V h ad f ive g raves, c lusters I a nd V h ad f our g raves e ach, c luster I I h ad t wo g raves, a nd c luster I II c ontained o ne g rave ( Table 2 4). T he d istribution o f W ard's g raves n icely f its t he i deal m odel f rom S ervice's a nalysis o f c hiefdoms ( 1962:159). H owever, i t d oes n ot a ccurately r eflect t he a ctual m odel d eveloped f rom s pecific a nalysis o f t he U . S . A rmy p opulation w ith i ts e xtended n umber o f g roupings w ith s maller p opulations a t t he h igher r anks. T he a verage l inkage a nd c entroid a nalyses h eighten t he o utliers s uggested b y W ard's t est ( clusters I -V). T hese t wo t ests c reated t wo l arge b ase p opulations o f s ixty-nine a nd s eventy g raves r espectively a nd t hen d oled o ut t he r emaining g raves f or m embership i n t he o ther n ine c lusters. A s h as b een p ointed o ut i n t he d iscussion o f t he T onosi V alley m ortuary s ites, t he c omplete l inkage t est m oderates t he b iases o f a nd

t he i n

c entroid, o rder

t o

a verage b e

l inkage

c onsistent

a nd W ard's m ethods. w ith 7 7

t he

p revious

F or

t his

s ections

r eason

o f

t his

s tudy, I s hall u se 6 a nd T able 2 4).

t he

r esults

o f t he

c omplete

l inkage

t est

( Appendix

C luster I . C luster I c ontained g raves 1 , 2 6 a nd 5 , a ll f rom t he P eabody 's e xcavations. T hese t hree g raves s hared t hirty-two o f t he s ixty-one a rtifact t ypes, i ncluding s tone p oints ( L3), s tone p endants ( L5), c elts

o r a dzes

( L6),

k nives

( L7),

s tone

b eads

( L8),

s tone

c oncretions

( L11), m irror b acks o r f rames ( L12), w hetstones o r p olishing s tones ( L13), q uartz c rystals ( L18), m etal p laques ( M29), m etal b eads ( M31), m etal f igurines ( M32), m etal p endants ( M33), m etal b ells ( M36), m etal g reaves o r w ristlets ( M37), b one p endants ( B63), b one b eads ( 871), w hale t eeth ( B73), s hark t eeth ( 874), u nknown a nimal t eeth ( 878), c eramic c arafes ( C98 a nd c 99), c eramic b owls ( C100 a nd C 101), c eramic j ars ( C102 a nd c 103), c eramic p lates ( C104 a nd C 105), d ecorated c eramic c overs o r l ids ( C113), c eramic e ffigy v essels ( C117) a nd c eramic c ensers ( C118). I n a ddition, s ixteen a rtifact t ypes w ere s hared b y t wo o f t he t hree g raves i n t his c luster, i ncluding s tone e ar d ecorations ( L16), m iscellaneous m etal o verlay ( M28), m etal n ose d ecorations ( M34), m etal c hisels ( M38), m etal h elmets o r c aps ( M40), b one c hisels o r a wls ( B72), c anine t eeth ( 876), p eccary t usks ( B79), s ting r ay s pines ( 1 383), m anatee r ibs ( B88), u ndecorated c eramic c overs o r l ids ( C112), u nclassified v essels ( C114 a nd C 115), c eramic r ectangular t rays ( C116) a nd c eramic c ups ( C119). A s w ell a s b eing e xtremely w ealthy g raves, a veraging o ver 1 600 m ortuary o bjects p er g rave, a ll w ere m ultiple b urials c ontaining f our ( grave 1 ), f ifteen ( grave 5 )

a nd

t wenty-two

( grave 2 6)

i nterments

r espectively.

T he t hree g raves ( 1, 5 a nd 2 6) o f c luster I h ave m uch i n c ommon. L othrop h as a dequately d escribed t he c onfigurations o f t hese g raves ( 1937:210-219, 2 27-237, 2 69-277), a nd I s hall h ave o ccasion t o r efer t o h is o bservations. A ll o f t he g raves o f c luster I a re m ultiple b urials a nd, b oth i n q uantity a nd d iversity o f m ortuary f urnishings, a re s ome o f t he r ichest g raves e xcavated a t S itio C onte. I n e ach o f t he a nd

g raves, t here i s a s eated i ndividual s aturated w ith g old o bjects a ccompanied b y a n umber o f a ttendants. T he r etinue, a long w ith

t urtle s hells, s tone s labs, a nd c eramic v essels, l ined t he b ottoms l ike f looring. I n t he m ost c omplex o f t hese g raves

g rave t here

w ere a s m any a s t hree o r f our l ayers o f m ortuary f urnishings a nd i nterments. T he s eated i ndividuals f ound i n g raves 1 a nd 5 w ere c lassified b y L othrop a s o ld m en; m oreover, h e d escribed t he p erson i n g rave 1 a s a " chief a nd t hree r etainers" ( 1937:210). T he p rimary o r

s eated

c entral

t ooth w ear w as

o ccupant

n ot a s

o ld

a s

o f t he

g rave

2 6

p rimary

w as

a n

a dult,

i nterments

b ut

o f g rave

b ased

o n

1 o r 5 .

L othrop's d escriptions o f t he m ortuary f urnishings a ssociated w ith e ach s keleton i n t hese g raves i ndicate t hat i n m any c ases t he a ttribution o f s pecific o bjects t o o ne o r a nother i ndividual w as n ot e asy. F or e xample, p robably i n a ll t hree g raves, b ut m ost a ssuredly i n g raves 5 a nd 2 6, t he m ain o ccupant w as o riginally h oused i n a m akeshift h ut, p robably m anufactured f rom v egetal m aterials s uch a s b ark c loth, b asketry, a nd t extile. I n a ddition t o t he m ortuary f urnishings f ound i nside t he " hut," o ther o bjects w ere p iled o n t op. T he h ut c ollapsed f rom t he p ressure o f t he e arthen f ill, t he o rganic s tructure

d ecomposed,

a nd

t he

m ortuary 7 8

f urnishings

f rom a bove w ere

S itio C onte:

C luster

I I

C omplete L inkage

W ard's

1 ,

1 ,

V V T

V II

V III

I X

X

5 ,

2 6

7 4,

3 2 7 4,

I V

T able 2 4 C omparison o f C luster A nalyses

2 , 1 3,

9 1

5 ,

2 6,

3 2

1 3,

1 6,

9 1

9 0 2 ,

2 4

1 9,

1 6

6 ,

2 0,

2 3,

2 4

6 8

4 , 6 , 9 , 1 9, 2 0, 2 3, 6 8

4 , 7 , 9 , 1 4, 1 5, 1 7, 2 1, 3 1, 4 3

9 0

5 4, 8 1, 9 5,

8 8, 7 5, 8 6, 8 9, 1 00

7 8, 9 3,

3 , 2 2, 2 5, 2 9, 3 , 7 , 8 , 1 0, 3 6, 3 7, 3 8, 3 9, 1, 1 4, 1 5, 4 5, 4 7, 4 8, 5 8, 1 7, 1 8, 2 1, 2 2, 6 7, 9 7 2 5, 2 7, 2 9-31, 3 3, 3 6-39, 4 24 8, 5 4-56, 5 86 0, 6 2, 6 3, 6 56 7, 6 9-73, 7 5-80, 8 2-85, 8 7, 8 9, 9 2, 9 4, 9 6-99 8 1, 8 8, 1 00

9 3,

1 0, 1, 2 7, 3 0, 3 3, 4 2, 4 4, 4 6, 5 6, 5 9, 6 0, 6 2, 6 3, 6 6, 6 9, 7 0, 7 3, 8 4, 9 8, 9 9

9 5,

8 , 1 8, 5 5, 6 5, 7 1, 7 2, 7 6, 7 7, 7 9, 8 0, 8 2, 8 3, 8 5, 8 7, 9 2, 9 4, 9 6

8 6

7 9

T able 2 4

I I I

I V V V I

V II V III

c ontinued

C entroid

A verage L inkage

1 ,

1 ,

5 ,

2 6

3 2

3 2

7 4

7 4

9 1

9 1

2

2

4 , 6 , 1 3, 2 3, 6 1

4 , 6 , 1 3, 1 9, 2 0, 2 3, 6 8

2 0,

1 6

3 , 7 -11, 1 4, 1 5, 1 7-19, 2 1, 2 2, 2 5, 2 7, 2 9-31, 3 3, 3 6-39, 4 24 8, 5 4-56, 5 8-

3 , 7 -11, 1 4, 1 5, 1 7, 1 8, 2 1, 2 2, 2 5, 2 7,

6 2, 6 3, 6 56 9-73, 7 59 2-100

2 9-31, 3 3, 3 9, 4 2-48, 5 6, 5 8-60, 6 3, 6 5-67, 7 3, 7 5-89, 1 00

X

2 6

1 6

6 0, 6 7, 8 9,

I X

5 ,

2 4

2 4

9 0

9 0

8 0

3 65 46 2, 6 99 2-

m ixed w ith t hose i nside t he h ut. a pparently r e-opened o n o ccasion,

M oreover, s ome o f t he g raves w ere a nd e ither m ore g oods o r i nterments

w ere a dded. F inally, t he e xcavations t hemselves w ere n ot a lways w ell c ontrolled. I t h as b een c ommon t o c ast b lame o n Lothrop f or h is l ack o f r efined e xcavation t echniques ( e.g., L inares 1 977:34). W e r ecall, h owever, t hat h e o nly d irected t he 1 933 e xcavations, a nd a n umber o f t he g raves w ere u ncovered w hen h e w as n ot a m ember o f t he t eam. L othrop h imself n otes, f or e xample, t hat " no s ingle p erson f ollowed t he e xcavation p rocess" ( 1937:227) f or g rave a nd m ost c omplicated g raves a t S itio C onte. s ome o f t he e xcavation n otes a nd d escriptions a nd T he U niversity M useum's e xpeditions a re i nterpretations.

5 , o ne o f t he l argest R egardless o f b lame, f or b oth t he P eabody's u nclear a nd o bfuscate

A ll o f t he c entral o r m ost p rominent o ccupants i n t he t hree g raves o f c luster I a re l aden w ith s umptuary g oods. A ssociated w ith s keleton I o f g rave 1 , f or e xample, w ere o ver s eventeen h undred s erpentine b eads, c anine t eeth a prons, a nd n ecklaces a s w ell a s s everal b undles o f s ting r ay s pines, b one p endants, m etal f igurines, m etal b ells, a gate w inged p endants, m irror b acks, i ndividual a nd n ecklaces o f g old o r t umbaga b eads, g old o r t umbaga p endants, g old o r t umbaga g reaves, m etal d isks, w hale t eeth w ith g old o verlay, g old o r t umbaga c hisels a nd c arved m anatee r ibs. T he o ther s keletons w ere n ot a ssociated w ith a s w ide a nd a s r ich a n a ssortment o f m ortuary f urnishings a s s keleton I . T he g oods f ound w ith s keleton I I, f or e xample, c ontain f ewer g old o r t umbaga o bjects b ut h ad a s hark t ooth n ecklace, m etal n ose r ings, c elts, e ight p ecarry t usk n ecklaces, c arved m anatee r ibs, o ver s ixty s tone b lades a nd b lanks, q uartz c rystals, s ting r ay s pines, a b elt a nd s hirt f ront m ade o f b one b eads, a p ile o f b one a wls, a m etal p laque a nd a m etate. T he o ther t wo i ndividuals ( skeletons I II a nd I V) w ere a ccompanied w ith g oods s imilar t o s keleton I I, a lthough f ewer i n n umber. E xcept f or a v ery f ew m iniature c eramic v essels a nd c eramic i ncense b urners, t he c eramics f rom g rave 1 w ere n ot i ncluded a s a n i ntegral p art o f a ny i ndividual's m ortuary f urnishings. I nstead, t hey w ere d istributed a round t he e dge, b ottom, a nd t op o f t he g rave, s ort o f a s " filler" i tems. T he e xample o f t his o ne c omplex g rave i s i nformative s ince i t u nderscores t he i mportance o f t reating t he e ntire g rave a s o ne m ortuary u nit. T hat i s, a ll m ortuary f urnishings a nd t he i nterments m ust b e c onsidered a s p art o f t he p rimary i ndividual's f urnishings, n ot a s d istinct i tems a ttributable t o e ach s eparate i ndividual. T he o ther t wo g raves f rom c luster I h ave s imilar f urnishings a nd i nterment a rrangements a s w ere f ound i n

mortuary G rave 1 .

G rave 5 ( Lothrop 1 937:227-237) c ontained f ifteen s keletons. T he g rave h ad a b ottom l ayer o f c eramics, s tone s labs, t urtle o r t ortoise s hells a nd f ourteen i nterments. T he p rimary s keleton ( XV) w as l avishly a dorned w ith a g old o r t umbaga h elmet, g reaves, c uffs, s everal p laques, a n ose c lip, m irror f rame; c arved whale t ooth p endant, m etal b ells, a nd s tone m irror b acks. S ix o f t he i nterments w ere f ound o n t he n orthern e dge o f t he g rave a nd, a ccording t o L othrop, w ere p art o f a n e arlier b urial. T he o ther e ight i nterments w ere d istributed p rimarily i n a n e ast-west o rientation i n t he s outhern a nd w estern p arts o f t he g rave. N one o f t hese f ourteen i ndividuals w as a ssociated w ith t he r ich s umptuary g oods f ound w ith s keleton X V. A mong t he f ourteen s keletons w ere f ound s tone a nd b one 8 1

p endants p endant

( skeletons

I II

a nd

X III),

( skeletons I X a nd X III)

a nd

g old

b eads

( skeleton

s tone

b eads

( skeleton x ).

T IT),

g old

G rave 2 6 ( Lathrop 1 937: 2 69-277), o ne o f t he r ichest g raves f ound a t S itio C onte, w as t he l argest i n a rea, n umber o f i ndividuals, a nd f uneral f urnishings u ncovered b y t he P eabody e xcavations. T he g rave c ontained a t l east t wenty—two i nterments a nd, a ccording t o L athrop, h undreds o f g rave g oods " robbed" f rom n earby g raves ( 1937:269). T he t wenty—two s keletons w ere l ocated o n a f loor s pace o f a pproximately t wo b y t hree m eters. A long w ith c eramics a nd a s tone s lab, t wenty—one o f t he s keletons f ormed a f loor f or t he o ne p rimary i nterment ( skeleton X II). L ike g raves 1 a nd 5 , t he r ichest g roup o f s umptuary m aterials w as f ound w ith t he c hief o ccupant o f t he g rave. b lades,

T his f ind i ncluded s tone s tone b eads a nd p endants,

m irror b acks, s tone c elts a nd c arved w hale t eeth a nd m anatee

r ibs, a n e merald, g old c uffs a nd g reaves, g old b eads, g old d isks o r p laques, b one p endants, a nd s ting r ay s pines. W hile n one o f t he s umptuary f inds a ssociated w ith a ny o ther i ndividual o f g rave 2 6 e xcelled t hat o f s keleton X II, t hey w ere q uite r ich a nd s ome o f t he f urnishings a ccompanying t he r etinue c ertainly r ivaled t hose o f i mportant i ndividuals o f o ther m ultiple b urial g raves. F or e xample, a ssociated w ith s keleton V III w ere s everal g old e ar r ods, a g old p endant, g old b eads a nd a s tone m irror b ack. T hroughout t he g rave, d eposits o f s umptuary g oods w ere f ound w hich w ere n ot c learly a ssociated w ith a ny o ne s pecific s keleton b ut w ere c ertainly p art o f t he m ortuary f urnishings. T hese d eposits ( see L othrop's d eposits n umbered V I, V II, V III a nd 1 937:271-273) I ncluded s tone c elts, b lades a nd p oints, s hark t eeth, s ting r ay s pines, g old o r t umbaga d isks, q uartz p endant w ith a m etal c asting, g old b eads, a n a gate w inged p endant, s tone e ar r ods a nd a c opper b ar. B arkcloth r emnants w ere d iscovered s cattered t hroughout t he g rave, a nd L athrop c oncluded t hat " the o ccurrences o f t he c loth a pparently i ndicate t hat t he f loor o f t he g rave h ad b een l ined a nd a lso t hat t he g reater p art o f t he f uneral o fferings h ad b een c overed w ith c loth w eighted d own b y a f ew p ieces o f p ottery"

( 1937:274).

T he m ajority o f t he c eramic v essels l ined t he o utside w alls o f g rave 2 6. L athrop n oted t hat t his g rave h ad a n u nusually l arge n umber o f e ffigy v essels a nd a r elatively s mall n umber o f l arge p olychrome p lates, a c ommon c eramic i tem i n m any o ther g raves ( 1937:274). G rave 2 6 d id, i n f act, h ave a l arge n umber a nd p roportion o f e ffigy v essels i n c omparison, f or e xample, w ith G rave 1 o f t his c luster. a nd t welve p lates

G rave 1 h ad e ight e ffigy v essels a nd o ne h undred o r b owls, w hereas G rave 2 6 h ad t hirty—six e ffigy

v essels a nd n inety p lates o r b owls. H owever, i n c omparison w ith g rave 5 , a lso o f c luster I , g rave 2 6 h ad p roportionately f ewer e ffigy v essels; g rave 5 h ad t wenty—six e ffigy v essels a nd f orty p lates o r b owls. C luster I I. C luster I I i s c omprised o f o ne m ember, g rave 3 2, w hich w as e xcavated b y t he P eabody M useum. T his g rave c ontained s tone p oints ( L3), c elts o r a dzes ( L6), s tone k nives ( L7), s tone b eads ( L8), s tone m irror b acks o r f rames ( L12), w hetstones o r p olishing s tones ( L13), m etal

r ibbons

( M27),

m iscellaneous m etal 8 2

o verlay

( M28),

m etal

p laques

( M29),

m etal

d isks

( M30),

m etal

b eads

( M31),

m etal

f igurines

( M32),

m etal p endants ( M33), m etal n ose a nd e ar d ecorations ( M34 a nd M 35), m etal b ells ( M36), m etal g reaves o r w ristlets ( M37), m etal c hisels ( M38), m etal r ings o r b racelets ( M39), m etal h elmets o r c aps ( M40), b one p oints ( B67), b one p endants ( B68), b one f igurines ( 869), b one t ubes ( 870), b one c hisel o r a wls ( 872), w hale t eeth ( B73), s hark t eeth ( 874), u nknown a nimal t eeth ( 878), c eramic c arafes ( C98 a nd C 99), c eramic b owls ( C100 a nd C 101), c eramic j ars ( C102 a nd 1 03), c eramic p lates ( C104 a nd C 105), u ndecorated c eramic c overs o r l ids ( C112), c eramic e ffigy v essels ( C117), c eramic c enser ( C118) a nd c eramic c ups ( C119). T his g rave o r c luster d iffered f rom t hose o f c luster I i n t he g reater v ariety o f m etal o bjects a nd t he a bsence o f a n umber o f s tone, b one a nd c eramic o bject t ypes. D espite h aving f ewer a rtifact c lasses t han t he g raves o f c luster 1 , g rave 3 2 c ontained o ver 5 ,670 i ndividual o bjects a nd s ix i nterments. G rave 3 2, t he o nly m ember o f c luster I I, w as t he f irst g rave o pened b y t he P eabody e xcavations. T his c omplex o f i nterments a nd o fferings w as n ot i mmediately u nderstood w hen i t w as f irst u ncovered. L othrop ( 1937:283) s uggested t hat t he g rave c ontained t hree d ifferent s ets o f i nterments p laced i n t he g rave o n t hree d ifferent o ccasions. S keletons I a nd I I, h e a rgued, c omprised t he o ldest i nterment, a nd t hese b ones w ere s wept a side f or l ater b urials. M oreover, t he m ortuary f urnishings a ssociated W ith t hese t wo i ndividuals w ere, a ccording t o L othrop, r emoved a nd p laced w ith t he l ater i nterments. A t l east o ne g old d isk w ith a r epous A h uman f ace w as a ssociated w ith t his " early" i nterment. B ased o n t he s tylistic s imilarity o f t his o ne d isk w ith o ther d isks f ound i n l ater b urials, L othrop c oncluded t hat t he o ther d isks a ssociated w ith t he " later" b urials w ere o riginally a p art o f t he m ortuary f urnishings o f t he " early" b urials ( 1937:282). I n a ddition, a c arved b one t ube w as f ound w ith t he f irst b urial. W hether t he d isks s hould b e i ncluded a s p art o f t he r egalia o f t he s o-called " earlier" o r " later" b urials i s q uestionable a nd n ot s olved b y L othrop's e xplanation. T he s tructure o f t he g rave's i nterm ents a nd t he d istribution o f t he m ortuary f urnishings a re c onsistent w ith o ther l arge S itio C onte g raves ( e.g., g raves 5 o r 2 6); t herefore I s hall c onsider t his e ntire c omplex o f i nterments a nd f urnishings a s a u nit. T he s econd i nterment ( chronologically s peaking), L othrop's B urial B , i ncluded t hree i ndividuals. T hese b urials h ad b een d isturbed b y t he f inal i nterment, L othrop's B urial C ( 1937:283). T hese t hree i ndividuals l ay o n t op o f a b ed o f s and a nd t races o f b ark c loth w ere f ound o n t op o f t hem. A bove t he b ark c loth w ere f ish b ones, f ish t eeth, a nd s ting r ay s pines; t he e ntire a rea w as c overed w ith a l ayer o f c eramic v essels. S ince t he b urial w as d isturbed, t he e xact p osition o f t wo o f t he s keletons w as i mpossible t o d etermine, a nd i t i s n ot c ertain w hich, i f a ny, o f t he i ndividuals w as t he " primary" o ccupant o f t his l evel. A mong t he t hree s keletons o f L othrop's " B" l evel w as a q uantity o f g old o r t umbaga n ose c lips, p endants, d isks, c uffs a nd c hisels, c arved w hale t eeth a nd b ones, b one s pear t hrowers a nd d eer v ertebrae. T he f inal i nterment, L othrop's B urial C , w as a s ingle i ndividual i n a f lexed p osition a ccompanied b y a r ich g roup o f g old o r t umbapa o bjects w hich i ncluded d isks, c uffs, b eads a nd a n ose o rnament. 8 3

A l ayer o f c eramics,

a s m entioned

a bove,

w as

f ound

g rave a nd c annot b e d efinitely a ssociated w ith a ny o ne I nterment. T his i s a c ommon o ccurrence a mong m any o f S itio C onte.

3 2,

o n

t op o f t he

i ndividual t he g raves

o r o f

I n n oting t he i mportance o f t he s equential i nterments o f G rave L athrop p ointed o ut t hat " with t he e xception o f G rave 5 , n o o ther

g raves a t S itio C onte b urials." p lace a nd

a ppeared

t o h ave b een o pened

H e c ontinued, a dding t hat c omplete d isregard f or t he

" in e ach d ead w as

t o

i ntroduce l ater

c ase, l ooting t ook s hown" ( 1937:289).

S uch a c onclusion o r i nterpretation i s d ifficult t o s upport. W e h ave n o i nformation o n t he v alue s ystem o f t he p eople o f S itio C onte a nd c annot k now i f " borrowing" o r r edistributing g rave g oods u as c onsidered " looting" o r a n i ndication o f " disregard" f or o thers--dead o r a live. M oreover, L othrop's s upposition t hat " borrowing" t ook p lace i s b ased o n h is n otion t hat s ome mortuary i tems i n o ne i nterment

w ere

s tylistically

s imilar

t o

t hose

o f

a nother.

H e

n otes

t hat t he d uration o f t ime b etween i nterments i s u nknown. T herefore, t he " borrowing" o r " looting" m ay o nly b e a f actor o f c ontinued b urial a ctivity o f a ll i ndividuals b eing p laced i n a p articular g rave. I t w ould b e r easonable t o c onsider t hat t he e ntire g rave i s o ne b urial o r m ortuary u nit, a nd p erhaps t he l ast i nterment m ay b e t he c entral o ccupant w hile t he p revious f ive i nterments w ere r etainers o f t his m ore p rominent p erson. S uch a n i nterpretation i s s upported b y t he f act t hat a ll o bjects i n t he g rave a ppear t o b e c ontemporaneous. E ven L othrop n oted t hat " most o f t he o bjects . . . d iffer m arkedly i n s tyle f rom o ther f inds a t S itio C onte" ( 1937:289). C luster I II. C luster I II i ncluded g raves 7 4 a nd 9 1 e xcavated b y J . A lden M ason. B oth o f t hese g raves s hared t he f ollowing m ortuary f urnishings: s tone p oints ( L3 [ Fig. 6 ]), s tone p endants ( L5 [ Fig. 9 ]), c elts o r a dzes ( L6 [ Fig. 7 ]), s tone b eads ( L8 [ Fig. 8 ]), q uartz c rystals ( L18), m etal p laques ( M29 [ Figs. 1 0-12)), m etal b eads ( M3I [ Fig. 1 3]), m etal n ose a nd e ar d ecorations ( M34 a nd M 35), m etal g reaves o r w ristlets ( M37 [ Fig. 1 21), m etal c hisels ( M38), b one t ubes ( B70), s hark t eeth ( B74 [ Fig. 1 4]), c anine t eeth ( B76 [ Fig. 1 4]), c eramic c arafes ( C98 a nd C 99 [ Fig. 1 5]), [ Figs. 1 6-18]), c eramic j ars ( C102 a nd

c eramic b owls ( C100 a nd C 101 C 103), c eramic p lates ( C104

a nd C 105 [ Figs. 1 7, 1 9-21]), u ndetermined c eramic v essels ( C114 a nd C 115), e ffigy v essels ( C117 [ Figs. 1 6, 2 1, 2 2]) a nd c eramic c ensers ( C118 [ Fig. 2 1]). T his c luster r eflects a c ontinued t rend i n t he r eduction o f t he n umber o f l ithic, m etal, a nd b one o bject t ypes c ompared t o t he f irst t wo c lusters. B oth o f t hese g raves w ere m ultiple b urials: g rave 7 4 h ad t wenty-three i ndividuals, a nd g rave 9 1 h ad t wo i nterments. G rave 7 4 c ontained o ver 7 ,500 s eparate m ortuary f urnishings. B ased o n t he t he n umber o f i nterred i ndividuals a nd t he n umber o f m ortuary o bjects, t his g rave i s t he r ichest u ncovered a t S itio C onte. 1 8-28.)

( Objects

f rom g rave

7 4

a re

i llustrated

i n

F igs.

1 0-16,

T he o nly g rave f rom S itio C onte e xcavated b y M ason a nd f or w hich t here i s a p ublished d escription i s g rave 7 4 o r M ason 's b urial 1 1 ( 1942:103-107, a nd t o a l esser e xtent 1 941:261-263). G rave 7 4 ( Figs. 2 9,

3 0)

w as

n ot

a s

l arge

i n

a rea

a s 8 4

s ome

o f L othrop 's

l arger g raves,

F ig. 6 T op: q uartz p rojectile p oints f rom g rave 7 4, S itio C onte ( 2.8 c m. a verage l ength [ UM40-14-116 t hrough 1 75]); b ottom: s tone p rojectile p oints f rom g rave 7 4, S itio C onte: ( 2.6-6.9 c m. l ong [ UM40-13-746 t hrough t hrough 5 58]).

7 56,

4 0-14-476

t hrough

4 78,

4 89,

5 40,

5 56

F ig. 7 S tone c elts o r a xes f rom g rave 7 4, S itio C onte ( Top: 5 .6-10.1 c m. l ong [ left t o r ight a nd t op t o b ottom : U M40-13-541, 6 52, 6 63, 6 77,

6 81,

6 84,

6 35,

6 88,

6 90,

6 94,

7 00,

7 05,

7 06,

7 08,

4 .3-13.9 c m. l ong [ left t o r ight a nd t op t o b ottom: t hrough 6 46, 6 48, 6 49, 6 54 t hrough 6 59, 6 65, 6 69, 6 741).

7 12],

b ottom:

U M40-13-644

F ig. 8 T op: c anine t eeth b eads a nd b one p rojectile p oints f rom g rave 7 4 ( teeth: a verage 2 c m. l ong [ UM40-14-575]; p oints: a m aximum o f 6 .5 c m. l ong 1N40-14-581 t hrough 5 901); b ottom: m iscellaneous s tone o bjects, i ncluding c oncretions, b eads, c elts, a xes, e ar r ods, a nd a m irror b ack f rom g rave 7 4, S itio C onte ( UM40-13-642, 7 16, 4 0-14-544, 5 46, 5 49, 5 51 t hrough 5 55, 5 59 t hrough 5 62).

F ig. 9 M ortuary o bjects f rom S itio C onte. T op: s tone n ose o rnament, g rave 1 00 ( 4.7 c m. l ong, 8 .2 c m. w ide [ UM40-14-743]); c enter l eft: s tone f igurine o r p endant, u ndetermined g rave ( 10 c m. l ong, 7 .4 c m. h igh [ UM40-14-829]); c enter r ight: a gate f igurine o r p endant, g rave 7 5 ( 9.9 c m. l ong, 3 .3 c m h igh [ 40-14-610]); b ottom l eft: s tone n ose p endants ( upper, g rave 9 1, 5 .6 c m. w ide, 2 .4 c m. h igh [ UM40-14-691], a nd l ower, g rave 9 0, 2 .4 c m. w ide, . 7 c m. h igh [ UM40-14-683)); b ottom r ight: s tone f igurine o r p endant, g rave 9 0 ( 6.3 c m. l ong, 3 .5 c m. h igh

[ UM40-14-678])

( Milovich).

F ig. 1 0 M ortuary o bjects f rom S itio C onte. G old r epoussê p laques, G rave 7 4 ( left t o r ight, t op t o b ottom: 1 1.2 c m. d iameter [ U M40131 0]; 1 1.3 c m. d iameter [ U M401391 ; 2 5.6 c m. d iameter [ U M40135] ; 2 1.8 c m. d iameter WM 401311]) ( Milovich).

F ig. 1 1 M ortuary o bjects f rom S itio C onte. C old r epousse p laques, G rave 7 4 ( left t o r ight, t op t o b ottom: 2 6.0 c m. h igh, 1 7.8 c m. w ide [ UM40-13-26]; 2 0.7 c m. d iameter [ UM40-13-3]; 2 2.8 c m. d iameter [ UM401 3-6]; 2 1.5 c m. d iameter [ UM40-13-2]) ( Milovich).

F ig. 1 2 M ortuary o bjects f rom S itio C onte. G old r epoussb p laques, a g reave a nd a p endant, G rave 7 4 ( left t o r ight, t op t o b ottom: 1 3.1 c m. l ong, 8 .5 c m. d iameter [ UM40-13-29]; 2 .3 c m. h igh, 4 .4 c m. w ide [ U M401333 ]) ; 2 1.8 c m. d iameter WM 4 01311] ; 2 2.6 c m. d iameter E U M401341) ( Milovich).

F ig.

1 3

T op:

g old

b eads,

b ells

a nd

n ose

o rnament

f rom

g rave

7 4,

S itio C onte ( .7-1.1 c m. l ong, . 4-.7 c m. d iameter [ left t o r ight a nd t op t o b ottom: U M40-13-34, 3 5, 9 5, 1 01, 1 37]); b ottom: g o ld b eaded n ecklaces f rom g rave 7 4, 5 0; r ight: U M40-13-41).

S itio C onte

( top:

U M40-13-44;

l eft:

U M40-13-

F ig. 1 4 T op: a nimal t eeth b eads, m iscellaneous b one o bjects, s ting r ay s pines, b one f ragments, b one p rojectile p oints, a nd b one s crapers o r k nives f rom g rave 7 4, S itio C onte ( UM40-14-580); b ottom: b asalt m etate f rom g rave 9 1, S itio C onte ( 11.2 c m. h igh, 1 9.7 c m. w ide, 2 3.7 c m.

l ong

[ UM40-16-698]).

F ig. 1 5 M ortuary o bjects f rom S itio C onte. P olychrome c eramic c arafes, g rave 7 4 ( 9.8-14.4 c m. d iameters, 1 3.7-18.6 c m. h igh [ top t o b ottom, l eft t o r ight, U M40-16-231, 9 0, 1 04, 1 02]) ( Milovich).

F ig. 1 6 M ortuary o bjects f rom S itio C onte. L eft t o r ight, t op t o b ottom : p olychrome c eramic j ar, g rave 8 5 ( 13 c m. d iameter, 1 0.6 c m. h igh NM 4 01575 1) ; p olychrome e ffigy v essel, g rave 7 4 ( 2.5 c m. l ong, 1 4.1 c m. h igh, 1 4.6 c m. w ide NM 4 0161331) ; p olychrome c eramic j ar, c ache 4 2 ( 72.8 c m. c ircumference, 1 8 .6 cm. h igh r U M4016-551) ; p olychrome b ow ], g rave 7 4 ( 10.3 c m. d iameter, 6 .6 c m. h igh [ UM40-162 62]) ( Milovich).

F ig. 1 7 M ortuary o bjects f rom S itio C onte. T op l eft: p olychrome c eramic p edestal b owl ( grave 5 8, 1.7 c m. d iameter, 1 0.4 c m. h igh [ Brooklyn M useum 3 3.448-53]); t op r ight: p olychrome c eramic p late ( grave 6 8, 3 1.8 c m. d iameter, 8 .6 c m. h igh [ UM40-16-9391); b ottom l eft: p olychrome c eramic p late ( grave 8 3, 3 1.3 c m. d iameter, 5 .3 c m. h igh [ UM40-16-809]); b ottom r ight: b ichrome c eramic p late ( grave 8 3, 3 0.8 c m. d iameter, 4 c m. h igh [ UM40-16-822]) ( Milovich).

F ig. 1 8 Mortuary o bjects f rom S itio C onte. T op: f our-legged p olychrome c eramic p lates, g rave 7 4 ( left, 1 7 .5 c m. d iameter, 4 . 6 c m. h igh WM 4 016-266] ; r ight, 1 0 .4 c m. l ong, 9 .1 c m. w ide, 3 . 8 c m. h igh [ U M4016-304 ]) ; b ottom: p olychrome c eramic p lates ( left, g rave 8 3 , 3 0 .7 c m. d iameter, 2 . 3 c m. h igh [ U M4016-8 18 ] ; r ight, g rave 9 2, 3 6 .8 c m. d iameter, 3 .6 c m. h igh WM 40161048 ]) ( Milovich).

F ig.

1 9

M ortuary

o bjects

f rom

S itio

C onte.

P olychrome

c eramic

p lates. T op l eft, g rave 6 8 ( 29.9 c m. d iameter, 5 .4 c m. h igh E U M 401 5-206]), t op r ight, g rave 6 8 ( 31 c m. d iameter, 4 c m. h igh E U M40152 011); 8 711);

b ottom l eft, g rave 8 8 b ottom r ight, g rave 7 4

1 6-403])

( Milovich).

( 27 c m. d iameter, 9 c m. h igh [ UM40-16( 31.4 c m. d iameter, 5 .2 c m. h igh E U M4 0-

F ig. 2 0 M ortuary o bjects f rom S itio C onte. T op: p olychrome c eramic p lates ( left, g rave 8 3, 2 9 c m. d iameter, 4 . 1 c m . h igh [ U M4016-8 11]; r igh t, g rave 9 2 , 3 4 .5 c m. d iameter, 4 .5 c m . h igh F U M401610361) ; b ottom: p olychrome c eramic p lates ( left, g rave 1 00, 3 1.8 c m. d iameter, 5 . 5 c m . h igh [ U M40161225]; r ight, g rave 7 4 , 2 5 .6 c m. d iameter, 4 .5 c m. h i gh [ U M401616 1]) ( Milovich).

F ig. 2 1 M ortuary o bjects f rom S itio C onte. T op l eft: r ed c eramic p late, g rave 7 4 ( 17 c m. d iameter, 6 .3m. h igh [ UM40-16-13641); t op r ight: r ed c eramic c enser, g rave 9 1 ( 33.2 c m. l ong, 2 3 c m. w ide, 1 c m. w ide [ UM40-16-931]); b ottom l eft: c eramic e ffigy v essel, g rave 8 5 ( 18.9 c m. l ong, 9 .8 c m. w ide, 1 4.5 c m. h igh [ UM40-15-721); b ottom r ight: c eramic e ffigy v essel, g rave 6 8 ( 12.6 c m. w ide, 1 3.6 c m. l ong, 1 2.5 c m. h igh [ UM40-15-1971) ( Milovich).

F ig. 2 2 c eramic

M ortuary o bjects f rom S itio C onte. T op l eft: p olychrome e ffigy v essel, g rave 7 4 ( 19.5 c m. r im d iameter [ UM40-16-

4 72]); t op r ight: p olychrome c eramic e ffigy v essel, c ache 3 4 ( 12 c m. w ide, 2 1.6 c m. h igh [ UM40-16-141); b ottom: p olychrome c eramic e ffigy v essels, g rave 7 4, ( left, 1 6.1 c m. l ong, 1 6.3 c m. w ide, 2 0.6 c m. [ UM40-16-1318]; r ight, 1 6.5 c m. l ong, 1 6.7 c m. w ide, 2 1.8 c m. [ UM40-16-1319])

( Milovich).

h igh h igh

F ig.

2 3

M ortuary

o bjects

f rom

S itio

C onte.

T op:

g old

a nd

e merald

f igurine, g rave 7 4 ( 10.9 c m. l ong, 4 .7 c m. w ide ( UM40-13-271); g old p endants ( bottom l eft: g rave 9 5, 9 c m. l ong, 4 .2 c m w ide [ UM40-147 37]); b ottom r ight: g rave 9 0, 7 .3 c m. l ong, 5 .1 c m w ide [ UM40-146 701) ( Milovich).

F ig.

2 4

M ortuary o bjects

f rom

S itio

C onte.

B one

o r

i vory f igurines

w ith g old o verlay, g rave 7 4 ( top t o b ottom, l eft t o r ight: 1 3.8 c m l ong, 3 .3 c m w ide, 3 .4 c m h igh WM 4013124] ; 1 3 .8 c m. l ong, 4 .3 c m w ide, 5 .2 c m. h igh [ UM40-13-120]; 1 0 .4 c m. h igh, 2 .2 c m. w ide [ U M401 3 118 ] ; 1 0 .4 c m. h igh, 3 c m. w ide [ U M401312 11) ( Milovich).

F ig.

2 5

M ortuary o bjects

v iews o f b one

o r

[ UM40-14-655]; l ong,

7 .5

3 .5

c m.

c m.

l ong

i vory

b ottom: w ide,

f rom S itio C onte.

f igurines, c opal

4 .4

c m.

E U M4013-6071)

r esin h igh

g rave 8 8

T op:

( 1 7

f igurines,

g rave

[ U M4013-6041;

( Milovich).

F rontal

c m.

l ong,

7 4

r ight,

a nd 2 .8

( left, 5 .5

p rofile c m.

w ide

5 .6 c m.

c m.

h igh,

F ig. 2 6 M ortuary o bjects f rom S itio C onte. R epouss4 g old d isks, ( 5.1 t o 7 .4 c m. d iameters, l eft t o r ight, t op t o b ottom: g rave 7 4 [ UM40-13-150], g rave 8 6 [ UM40-13-212], g rave 9 0 [ UM40-13-183], g rave 7 4 [ UM40-13-15 a nd 1 9]) ( Milovich).

F ig. 2 7 M ortuary o bjects f rom S itio C onte. P olychrome c eramic p lates. T op l eft, g rave 8 8 ( 32.9 c m. d iameter, 4 c m. h igh [ UM40-161 712]); t op r ight, g rave 6 8 ( 31.8 c m. d iameter, 4 c m. h igh r UM40-163 7]), b ottom l eft, g rave 7 5 ( 30.8 c m d iameter, 4 .5 c m. h igh [ UM40-165 51]); b ottom r ight, r ectangular p edestal p late, g rave 7 4 ( 42 c m. l ong, 2 9.8 c m. w ide, 1 4.1 c m. h igh [ UM40-16-1373]) ( Mtlovich).

F ig. 2 8 M ortuary o bjects f rom S itio C onte. T op: t op a nd b ottom v iews o f p olychrome c eramic p late, g rave 7 8 ( 33.5 c m. d iameter, 5 .7 c m. h igh WM 4 016158 11) ; b ottom: r ectangular p olychrome c eramic p edestal p lates, g rave 7 4 ( left, 4 0 c m. l ong, 3 3.7 c m. w ide, 4 .3 c m. h igh [ UM40-16-337]; r ight, u nderside v iew, 3 1 c m. l ong, 2 .5 c m. l ong, 5 .6 c m. w ide WM 4016-96 1) ( Milovicb).

F ig.

2 9

G rave

7 4

U niversity M useum,

c eramic

l ayer

a nd

w all,

S itio

U niversity o f P ennsylvania).

C onte

( copyright T he

F ig. 3 0 S keletons f rom g rave 7 4, S itio C onte U niversity M useum, U niversity o f P ennsylvania).

( copyright

The

e .g.,

g raves

1 ,

5 ,

o r

3 2,

b ut

i t

w as

c ertainly

a s

c omplex

a s

a ny

f ound a t t he s ite. I t c ontained a t l east t wenty-three i ndividuals o n t hree d ifferent l evels a nd o ver s even t housand m ortuary o bjects. I n g eneral,

M ason 's

f ield

n otes

a gree

w ith

h is

p ublished

d escriptions;

h owever, p articular p oints w hich a re n ot c lear i n t he n otes a re m ore p recisely e xplained i n t he p ublished a ccount. M ost p robably, t his i s t he r esult o f M ason's p ersonal i nvolvement w ith t he e xcavations a nd, t herefore, h is a bility t o e liminate a pparent a mbiguities i n t he f ield n otes. F or e xample, M ason's n otes a re n ot e xplicit a bout w hich i ndividuals i n t he g rave a re t he c entral o ccupants, y et t he p ublished d escriptions c learly i dentify t wo o f t he s keletons a s t he m ost p rominent ( XV a nd X VI). S ince a mbiguities e xist t hroughout t he f ield n otes, i t i s u nfortunate t hat w e a re n ot a ble t o c larify t hem a t t his t ime w ith M ason's p ersonal i nformation. N evertheless, s ince M ason's e xcavations h ave n ever b een f ully p ublished, I s hall p rovide m ore d escriptive d etail. G rave 7 4 w as s haped l ike a b owl. T he u pper l ip o f t he g rave w as l ocated a pproximately 1 .5 m eters b elow t he s urface o f t he g round; t he d iameter o f t he l ip w as a pproximately 4 .2 m eters. T he w alls o f t he g rave s lanted i nward a t 2 .4 m eters i n d iameter.

a bout T he

s ixty d egrees, c ulminating i n a f loor f loor w as l ocated a t 2 .1 m eters b elow

t he l ip o f t he g rave a nd o nly t hirty c entimeters a bove t he d ry s eason w ater t able. T he g rave c ontained t hree l evels o f i nterments, o ne a t 1 .35 l evel

m eters

b elow

t he

r im,

a nother

a t

1 .8

m eters,

a nd

t he

b ottom

a t 2 .1 m eters.

T he l owest l evel c ontained t hree i ndividuals r esting o n c eramic v essels. O ne s keleton ( XXI), f ound i n a p rone

a b ed o f p osition

a pproximately e ast a nd w est, h ad a c ache o f q uartz p rojectile p oints l ocated a t i ts r ight e lbow a nd f ound a t i ts r ight c arpus o r w rist w as a c ache o f s tone c elts. T he i ndividual r ested o n b ark c loth a nd a pparently h ad s ome w ood o bjects n ear t he l eft a rm, a ll o f w hich w ere b adly d ecomposed. A c ache o f g old b eads w as f ound n ear t he l eft r adius. O ne o f t he o ther s keletons ( XXII) a lso l ay e ast a nd w est a nd h ad a c ache o f s tone p oints p ositioned a t t he r ight t alus o r a nkle. T he t hird i ndividual ( XXIII) w as d isarticulated a nd h ad n o o bjects s pecifically a ssociated w ith i t. T he s exes o f t he i ndividuals w ere n ot k nown,

a nd o nly s keleton X XI w as

a ged

( an a dult).

T he m iddle l evel c ontained t welve i ndividuals ( IX-XX), a ll r esting o n t op o f a nd s urrounded b y a l arge n umber o f c eramic v essels. T he c eramics f ound o n t his l evel c ontinued u p t he s ides o f t he n orth a nd s outh w alls o f t he g rave a nd f ormed a " ceramic w all" o ver t hirty c entimeters t hick. W hile s ome c omplete v essels w ere f ound i n t his w all a nd o n t he f loor, t he g reat m ajority o f t he v essels w ere b roken. ( The c eramics f rom g rave 7 4 r eproduced i n F igs. 1 5, 1 6, 1 8, 1 9, 2 1, 2 2, 2 7, 2 8 a re f rom t his " wall"). T he q uantity o f p ottery o verwhelmed t he e xcavators. T hey r elaxed t heir r outine e xcavation t echniques, a nd m any v essels w ere r emoved w ithout n otes o n t heir l ocation o r d escriptions. T his l apse i n f ield p rocedures o ccurred e xcavated

b ecause t his v ery c omplex g rave w as d uring t he s eason a nd t he r ains w ere

t he f ast

l ast b urial a pproaching.

M oreover, a s M ason n oted i n h is w ritings f iled a t T he U niversity M useum, " gold f ever" e asily o vertook t he f ield t eam; h e n oted t hat t hey " were a nxious t o g et [ the] v essels r emoved f rom a bove [ the] g old 1 10

o bjects,

o f

s o b egan

r emoving v essels b efore m aking

l ist"

( n.d.:64).

T he e xact l ocation o f a ll t welve i ndividuals o n t he m iddle l evel g rave 7 4 i s n ot c lear f rom e ither t he f ield n otes o r M ason's

p ublished a ccounts. H owever, t wo i ndividuals ( XV a nd X VI), o ne l ying o n t op o f t he o ther a nd l ocated i n t he c enter o f t he g rave, w ere l aden w ith s uch a m assive q uantity o f g old a nd o ther o bjects t hat i t i s

r easonable

p ersons

w ere

t o

a ssume,

a s

M ason

t he c hief o ccupant(s)

A s l isted i n M ason's i ndividuals i ncluded:

n otes,

d id,

t hat

o ne

o r

b oth

o f

t hese

w ith

t hese

o f t he g rave. t he

o bjects

a ssociated

• . . a l ot o f s mall g old p lagues [ Fig. 2 6]; a c ouple o f l arger [ plaques] t o t he N [orth], 2 l arge e ar o rnaments o ne s et a t e ither s ide

. . . a t s ides b ut a lso i n c enter a g reat mass o f g old b eads a nd b ells ( only a f ew b ells); i n c enter, p robably o n c hest, 3 b aton b eads o f g old, t he b one s hafts b roken . . . a g old c uff [ Fig. 1 2] a t e ither s ide; s maller e nd a re

o f c uff t o E (ast) s uggesting t hat f olded u p w ith h ands t o s houlder.

c enter

b etween

c uffs

p robably

o n

a rms I n

c hest

o r

a bdomen [ were] a n umber o f l arge s uperimposed g old p laques. I n a [ ? ] n[o rt h a nd s [outh] l ies a g reat m ass o f g old b eads o ver l arge p laques. A c ache o f p rojectile p oints a nd a f ine s tone c elt n ear h ead. A t h ead 26 r e o usse g old p laques [ Figs. 1 0-12 3 p lain g old p laques 3 e arrods w ith h eads 1 l oose e arrod t ip S mall b eads,

r ing a nd

b eads, s ome s egmented t ubular s mall b ells i n g reat m ass n ear

c ranium a nd t eeth. 2 l ong a wls i solated h ead 6 s mall a wls

t o

E [ast]

o f

Q uantities o f b eads a round n eck, c ranium b ones a nd j aw; p lain p laque o nly a t N [orth]; p urple c olor t o e arth u nder s mall p laque; g old e arrods f ound i n m any p laces e xcept n ear e ars. 3 l arge p laques o n c hest w ith g old h eaded b atons a nd g old p endant a bove; 2 l arge p laques b elow a nd o n a bdomen . . . o n e ither s ide, a c rushed p air o f c uffs w ith r epousse d esign w ith s maller b racelets i nside • • • u nder c uffs a nd p laques a re s everal m ore g old h eaded i vory b atons. B ird f igure o f r esin, e tc. S everal o bjects w ith g old r elief o nlay ( Mason n .d.:64-66). M ason s tone b ottom

c ontinued [ emerald] u p.

w ith t he n ote: " finest p endant [ Fig. 2 3] w ith g reen f ound o n p rincipal f igure a bove l arge g old p laques,

O ther

p endant

f ound

n ear 1 11

c ache

o f

e arrods"

( n.d.:66).

T his l isting o f m ortuary f urnishings f rom M ason's f ield n otes i s i mpressive i n b oth t he q uantity o f i tems a ssociated w ith t he p rimary o ccupant(s) o f g rave 7 4 a nd i n t he s kill r equired b y M ason t o s ort t hrough

t he

o bjects.

T he e xact l ocation o f t he o ther t en i ndividuals f rom t he m iddle l evel o f t his g rave i s n ot c lear. N either M ason's n otes n or h is p ublished a ccounts s hed a ny l ight o n t he p roblem. T he n otes o f h is a ssistants, J ohn C orning, o ften p rovided a m ore d etailed d escription o f

t he

l ocation

o f

s keletal

r emains.

o bservations d o n ot o ffer u s a ny m ore t hese t en i ndividuals. A t l east f our i nterments. O n t he n orth s ide o f

H owever,

e ven

C orning's

i nformation o n t he p osition o f o f t hem l ay n ear t he p rincipal t he g rave w as a n i ndividual

i dentified a s a f emale ( IX) l ying o n t op o f a nother i ndividual ( X). Q uantities o f d og t eeth, g old t riangles, a nd o ther m etal o b jects ( Figs. 1 3 a nd 1 4 [ UM40-13-34, 3 5, 4 1]) w ere f ound w ith t hese t wo i nterments. A nother s keleton 's s kull ( XI) w as l ocated a t t he f eet o f t he a bove t wo i ndividuals ( IX a nd X ); i nterment X I h ad o nly a n ose c lip d ecorated w ith g old f ilagree. T he l ast c learly i dentified i ndividual w as a y oung m ale ( XII) l ying n ear a nother i ndividual a t t he e ast e nd o f t he g rave. N ear t he m andible o f t his p erson w as a p air o f w hale t eeth w ith e mbossed g old o verlay, a l arge g old b ell w as l ocated n ear h is s kull, a nd a c ache o f d og t eeth w as f ound a t t he f ourth o r f ifth r ib. A c arved f igure o f u nknown m aterial w ith g old e mbossed o verlay, a s tone c elt, a nd s everal g reen p rojectile w ere l ocated i n u nspecified p roximity t o t his i ndividual.

p oints

E ight s keletons ( I-VIII) w ere d iscovered o n t he u pper l evel o f t he g rave. T he i ndividuals w ere i n e xtended p ositions; n one w as a s l avishly e ndowed a s t he m ain o ccupant(s) f rom t he m iddle l evel. A ll w ere l ying f ace d own, a nd t hose i dentified w ere e ither o ld o r m ature m ales. T wo o f t he i ndividuals ( I a nd I I) h ad o nly o ne c eramic v essel a ssociated w ith t hem; t wo o thers ( III a nd I V) h ad a c ache o f c eramic v essels a nd s tone p rojectile p oints b etween t hem. B etween s keletons I V a nd V w as a n a gate w inged p endant; a nd a c ache o f s tone p oints w as f ound a t t he f eet o f s keleton I V . I n a ddition, a c ache o f g old b eads, f our p lain w ristlets o r a nklets a nd f ive r epoussb g old p laques ( Fig. 1 0 [ UM40-13-9 t hrough 1]) c rushed b y c eramic v essels w ere f ound o n t op o f t his i ndividual. A g roup o f g old b eads, a n a gate f igurine a nd a c opal f igurine ( Figs. 9 , 2 5 [ UM40-13-604, 6 101) h ad b een d eposited a t t he b ase o f t he s kull o f s keleton V ; a lso, b elow t his i ndividual w as a s tone d isk a nd t races o f b ark c loth. A ssociated w ith t his i nterment w ere t wo c arved w hale t eeth, a c ache o f s ting r ay s pines, s hark t eeth a nd b one p rojectile p oints. S keleton V II w as p ositioned n ext t o s keleton V I; a nd n ext t o V II w as s keleton V III. B etween V II a nd V III w as l ocated a z oomorphic a gate p endant

( Fig.

2 5

[ UM40-13-6091),

a n

a gate

w inged

p endant,

a n ecklace

o f g old b ells, a nd a c opper o rnament. A g old p laque, a s w e ll a s s everal c arved b ones ( Fig. 2 4 [ UM40-13-133]), g old t ipped s tone e ar r ods,

a nd

s tone

c elts,

w ere

f ound

o n

t he

s acrum

o f

s keleton V I.

A t

o ne f emora o f s keleton V III, a n a dult m ale, w as d eposited a s tone c elt; a nd n ear h is s kull w ere f ound a t l east t hree g old c hisels a nd a n ose

o rnament.

I n i ts d imensions, n umber o f i nterments a nd q uantity o f m ortuary f urnishings, g rave 7 4 i s s imilar t o t he o ther l arge g raves a t S itio 1 12

C onte. I t c onsisted o f s everal l ayers o f i nterments a nd i ncluded o ne, p ossibly t wo, i ndividuals a s t he p rimary o ccupants. U nlike m any o f t he o ther l arge g raves--e.g., 1 , 5 , 2 6, a nd 3 2--the p rimary i nterment(s)

w as n ot

i n a f lexed

p osition.

G rave 9 1 ( Mason's B urial 1 9), t he o ther m ember o f c luster I II, i s n ot a s c omplex a s g rave 7 4. T he g rave w as l ocated a bout f orty-six c entimeters b elow g rave 8 3 a nd a bout 3 .05 m eters b elow g round l evel. T wo i ndividuals, a t l east o ne o f w hich w as a n a dult m ale, w ere f ound i n t his b urial. O ne s keleton ( I) w as f ound i n t he c enter o f t he g rave a nd w as a ssociated w ith t he f ollowing f urnishings: g old e ar o rnaments w ith w ood s leeves a t t he b ase o f t he s kull; c opper p laque n ear t he s acrum; t wo c eramic c ensers b elow t he i lium; o ne c elt a bove t he i ndividual's s kull a nd a nother c elt t o t he l eft o f t he s kull; a b one w inged p endant n ear t he i lium; g old p in o r n eedle o n t he l eft s ide; s mall p edestal c eramic c up t o t he l eft o f t he l eft p atella o r k nee c ap. T he o ther i ndividual ( II) w as l ocated n ear t he e dge o f t he b urial. T his i nterment w as, a ccording t o C orning's n otes, a n a dult f emale. T he f ollowing o bjects w ere a ssociated w ith t his p erson: t hree s tone c elts j ust a bove t he l eft p atella; t wo c eramic j ars ( a p air) a t t he l eft c lavicle; a c opper n ose c lip a t t he r ight c lavicle; a nd a c omplete c eramic v essel r ested o n t he p erson 's s kull. A ll o ther o bjects i n t he g rave w ere f ound n ear t he e dges o f t he b urial a nd n ot d irectly a ssociated w ith a ny i ndividual s keleton. A s w as t he g eneral p attern w ith m any m ultiple b urial g raves a t S itio C onte, t he c eramics s erved, b y a nd l arge, a s p art o f t he f loor, f ill a nd w alls. C luster I V. C luster I V a lso c ontained t wo g raves ( 2 a nd 2 4) b ut w ere f rom t he P eabody 's e xcavations. T hese t wo g raves s hared c elts o r a dzes ( L6), s tone k nives ( L7), s tone b eads ( L8), w hetstones o r p olishing s tones ( L13), m etal b eads ( M31), b one b eads ( B71), m anatee r ibs ( B88), c eramic c arafes ( C98 a nd C 99), c eramic b owls ( C100 a nd C 101), c eramic j ars ( C102 a nd C 103), c eramic p lates ( C104 a nd C 105), e ffigy v essels ( C117), c eramic c ensers ( C118) a nd c eramic c ups ( C119). G rave 2 4 c ontained t en i ndividuals a nd o ver 4 50 o bjects w hile g rave 2 c ontained l ess t han h alf t hat n umber o f o bjects a nd p robably o nly o ne i ndividual. m etal

a nd

T he

b one

g raves

i n

t his

c luster

a re

a lmost

t otally

v oid

o f

a rtifacts.

T he c entral o ne-third o f t his g rave w as a boriginally d isturbed, a nd n o c omplete s keletons w ere u ncovered i n t he c enter o r n ear t he w alls o f t he g rave. L othrop ( 1937:220) r eported t hat t he g rave's s keletons h ad b een r obbed b ut h e w as u nable t o d etermine w hich o ther n earby g rave h ad r eceived t he " looted" m aterial. T he o nly c lear r ecipient w ould h ave b een g rave 5 . T he r emaining o r u ndamaged a rea o f t he g rave w as s imilar t o o ther l arge g raves a t S itio C onte. T he f loor w as i n t he s hape o f a r ough o val a nd c ontained a l ayer o f c eramics a nd t urtle c arapices. T he u pper l evel o f g rave 2 h ad b een c ompletely

d estroyed

i n

t he

a boriginal

e xcavations

f or

g rave

5 ,

l ocated i mmediately a bove. I f a ny s keletons h ad r ested o n t he u pper l evel, t hey, t oo, w ere l ost. G rave 2 c ontained a s ubstantial a mount o f m ortuary a rts, t he m ajority o f w hich w ere c eramics. 1 13

The o ther g rave f rom t his c luster ( 24) w as a lso p artially d estroyed b y a boriginal e xcavations, i n t his e ase Lothrop's d escription o f g rave 2 4 s tates t hat i t w as l ooted f or t he i nterments o f g rave 2 6 ( 1937:262-267). T he s outhern h alf o f g rave 2 4 w as a lmost c ompletely d estroyed. T he f loor o f t his g rave w as c oated w ith c lay, a nd i n t he a pproximate c enter o f t he f loor w as a s tone s lab w hich w as, a ccording t o L othrop, s hattered b y h eat ( 1937:262). C eramic v essels a nd a f ew t races o f t extiles a nd t urtle s hells l ined t he e ntire f loor; i n a ddition, t he c eramics, l ike t hose i n o ther l arge g raves g rave.

a t

t his

s ite,

w ere

p iled

d eep a gainst

t he o utside w alls o f t he

T here w ere a t l east t en i ndividuals ( I-X) i n g rave 2 4, b ut t he b ones w ere v ery f ragmentary a nd t heir p lacement w as c onfusing. T he f emora, f ibulae, t ibiae a nd i lia o f t hree a dults ( VIII-X) r ested o n t he s outh s ide o f t he d isturbed a rea o f t he g rave. I n p roximity t o t hese t hree i ndividuals w ere f ound t he r emains o f t hree g old e ar r ods, a s tone e ar r od, t wo g old e ar s pools, a g old n ose r ing, t wo b one t ubes, t wo s tone c elts, a t extile i mpression a nd f ragments o f t hree t hese

c eramic p lates. O ne t hree i ndividuals.

o f

t he

t wo

t urtle

s hells

w ere

f ound

n ear

T he s keletal r emains o f I nterments I -III w ere l ocated i n t he n ortheast s ection o f t he g rave. B etween s keletons I a nd I I w as a l arge c ache o f s ting r ay s pines. A l arge m etal d isk a nd t wo c arved m anatee r ibs w ere f ound a t t he f eet o f i ndividual T T. T he s keletal r emains o f a n a dult m ale ( skeleton V ) w ere f ound o n t op o f t he s tone s lab; t his i ndividual w as d escribed a s " probably t he p rincipal o ccupant o f t he g rave" ( Lothrop 1 937:262). A ssociated w ith t his s keleton, w hich w as a lso d isturbed, w ere n inety-two g old o verlays f or b eads, a s tone c elt a nd m any s herds. T wo c arved m anatee r ibs w ere

f ound j ust

t o

t he

n orth o f

t he

i nterment.

S keleton V I w as r epresented o nly b y t he s kull o f a y oung a dult a nd n o s pecific o bjects w ere a ssociated w ith i t. H owever, i n c lose p roximity, b ut s till p ossibly r elated t o i nterments I -III, w ere s even g old j aguar t eeth, a f ragment o f a p ottery f igurine, a c ast g old n ose c lip, t wo g old e ar s pools, a c eramic c up, s even o ther c eramic v ess els, a nd f our s tone p rojectile p oints. I nterment V II c onsisted o f t races

o f l ong b ones

f ound

n ear

t he n orthern e nd

o f t he g rave.

S cattered a bout t he g rave w ere o ver o ne h undred s tone b lades, t wo s tone m irror b acks, t races o f b askets a nd t extiles, c elts, a nimal t eeth a nd b one b eads. D ue t o t he a boriginal d estruction o f t he a rea, t he a ssociation o f a ny o f t hese o bjects w ith o ne s pecific i ndividual o r e ven a g roup o f i nterments i n t his g rave i s i mpossible. C luster V . C luster V , l ike C luster I V, i s c omposed o f t wo g raves t rom L othrop's e xcavations, b urials 1 3 a nd 1 6. G rave 1 3 ( Lothrop 1 937:245-249) w as f ound a t a d epth o f 2 .59 m eters a nd c ontinued . 3 m eters f urther d own. T he s hape o f t he g rave w as r ectangular a nd t he c orners w ere o riented t oward t he c ardinal p oints. T he f loor a rea m easured 2 .6 b y 1 .5 m eters. T he t wo g raves c ontained s tone p oints 1 14

( L3), s tone p endants ( L5), c elts o r a dzes ( L6), s tone k nives ( L7), s tone b eads ( L8), w hetstones o r p olishing s tones ( L13), q uartz c rystals ( L18), m etal p laques ( M29), m etal n ose d ecorations ( M34), b one p endants ( B68), b one b eads ( B71), d ecorated c eramic c arafes ( C99), c eramic b owls ( C100 a nd C 101), c eramic j ars ( 0102 a nd C 103), c eramic p lates ( C104 a nd C 105), c eramic r ectangular t rays ( C116), c eramic e ffigy v essels ( C117) a nd c eramic c ensers ( C118). L othrop c onsidered t his g rave t he m ost d ifficult o f h is 1 933 e xcavations b ecause o f i ts c omplicated s tructure o f n ine l evels a nd t he " unusual b reakage o f f uneral o fferings" ( 1937:245). T he n ine l evels, a s i solated b y L othrop f rom t he b ottom u p, i ncluded a l ayer o f s and o n t he f loor o f t he g rave; s herd f ragments; b ark c loth u nder t he s keletons; e arth o ver t he b ark c loth ( the e arth c ontained b urned, c arbonized m aterial); a nother l ayer o f b ark c loth; c eramics w hich h eld d own t he c orners o f t he b ark c loth; a nd, f inally, a nother l ayer o f b ark c loth. O f t he t wo i ndividuals f ound i n t he g rave, s keleton I W as a n a ged m ale d eposited f aced d own i n a p rone p osition. T he p erson h ad w orn a b elt o f b one b ends a nd h ad s trings o f b one b eads a ttached t o e ach u lna. U nder h is r ibs w ere d iscovered t wo t umbaga d isks a nd a n a gate w inged p endant; a nd u nder h is f ace d own s kull w as f ound a n ose o rnament m ade o f a p erishable m aterial a nd c overed i n g old. I n a ddition, s ix g roups o r d eposits o f s mall o bjects s urrounded s keleton I . I ncluded a mong t hese o bjects w ere s tone c elts, r ubbing s tones, s tone b eads, g old d isks, b one p endants, s ting r ay s pines, q uartz c rystals, p rojectile p oints, b one p oints, s hark t eeth, n ose r ings, a gate w inged p endants, b oar t usks, s tone b alls a nd a v ariety o f m iscellaneous o bjects ( Lothrop 1 937:247). N o o bjects w ere a ssociated w ith s keleton I t. G rave 1 6, t he o ther m ember o f C luster V , w as o val i n s hape a nd c ontained o nly o ne I ndividual, a n a dult m ale ( Lothrop 1 937: 2 52-254). T he s ize o f t he g rave f loor w as a pproximately 2 .6 b y 1 .8 m eters; t he l ong p art o f t he o val w as o riented n ortheast a nd s outhwest. A round t he s kull o f t he s keleton w as a b and o f g old; u nder t he r ight s ide o f t he b ody w ere t wo t umbaza d isks. L othrop c ontinued, p ointing o ut t hat, " beside t he l eft e ar w as a c opper b ell a nd c lose t o t he j aw w ere t wo n ose r ings o f g old. B etween t he u pper l eft a rm a nd t he s pine l ay a p air o f c arved w hale t ooth p endants, a n a gate p endant a nd t wo t ubular s tone b eads" ( 1937:252). A long t he l eft a nd r ight r adii w ere s trings o f t ubular b one b eads a rranged i n t he s ame f ashion a s t hose f ound n ear t he r adii o f s keleton I o f g rave 1 3. R ubbing s tones, s tone b lades, p rojectile p oints, c elts, a s harpening s tone, a nd a t l east f orty c eramic v essels w ere f ound t hroughout t he g rave. A t extile f ragment, d escribed b y L othrop a s t he s hirt o f t he i nterred i ndividual, w as f ound a mong s ome o xidized m aterials o n t he u nderside o f t he t umbaga p laque. I n a ddition, r emnants o f a c hecker w eave b asket c ontaining s hark t eeth w ere a lso d iscovered n ear t his p laque. F inally , b etween t he f emora o f t he s keleton, w as l ocated a l arge m ass o f b one b eads w hich, a ccording t o L athrop, w as t he r emains o f a b eaded b ag. 1 15

C luster V I. C luster V I, o nly o ne o f t wo c lusters w hich c ontained g raves f rom b oth L othrop 's a nd M ason's e xcavations, w as d ominated b y g raves f rom L othrop 's s tudy ( 4, 6 , 1 9, 2 0, 2 3); M ason's g rave 6 8 w as t he o ther b urial f ound i n t his c luster. A ll s ix o f t hese g raves c ontained s tone p endants ( L5), s tone k nives ( L7), s hark t eeth ( B74), u ndecorated c eramic c arafes ( C98), c eramic b owls ( 0100 a nd C 101 [ Figs. 1 7, 1 8]), c eramic j ars ( C102 a nd C 103), u ndecorated c eramic p lates ( C104), c eramic e ffigy v essels ( C117 [ Fig. 2 11) a nd c eramic c ensers ( C118). O ne-half o r m ore o f t hese g raves s hared s tone p oints ( L3), c elts o r a dzes ( L6), w hetstones o r p olishing s tones ( L13), s tone e ar d ecorations ( L16), q uartz c rystals ( L18), m etal b eads ( M31), m etal c hisels ( M38), d ecorated c eramic c arafes ( 099), d ecorated c eramic p lates ( C105 [ Figs. 1 9, 2 7]), a nd c eramic c ups ( C119). F ourteen o ther a rtifact t ypes w ere s cattered a mong t he g raves. F our o f t he s ix g raves c ontained m ultiple b urials; g raves 6 a nd 6 8 e ach h ad t hree i ndividuals, a nd g raves 2 0 a nd 2 3 e ach h ad t wo i ndividuals. T he r emaining t wo g raves w ere s ingle b urials. I n r espect t o t he d ominant a rtifact t ypes--that i s, t hose t ypes f ound i n a ll t he g raves--this c luster h ad a lmost n o m etal o r b one f urnishings. G rave 4 , l ocated o nly f ifteen c entimeters a bove g rave 5 , w as d isturbed b y e xcavations d one b y t he i nhabitants o f S itio C onte f or t he l ower b urial. G rave 4 w as t wo m eters b elow g round l evel, a nd b efore i ts d estruction w as r ectangular i n o utline a nd o riented t oward t he c ardinal p oints ( Lothrop 1 937:226). T he b ones o f a s ingle i ndividual i dentified a s a n a dult m ale w ere t he o nly s keletal r emains f ound i n G rave 4 . T hese b ones w ere d isturbed, a nd L othrop ( 1937:226) s peculated, t hat o ther i ndividuals w ere b uried i n t his g rave b ut w hen g rave 5 w as e xcavated t heir b ones w ere r emoved f rom G rave 4 . S ince t he b urial w as d isturbed, n o c ostume o r p ersonal o rnaments w ere f ound i n a ssociation w ith t he s keleton . H owever, n earby w ere t wo g old e ar s pools, t wo g old n ose r ings, a f ossil s hark t ooth, a q uartz c rystal, t wo s tone t ools, a t umb ua p laque, a nd a s tone c elt. C eramic v essels l ined t he f loor o f t he n orthern h alf o f t he g rave. G rave 6 ( Lothrop 1 937:237-241) w as a lso a r ectangular s haped b urial a nd o riented t o t he c ardinal p oints. T he g rave, c onsisting o f t wo d istinct l ayers, h ad t hree s keletons ( I-III), t wo a du lt m ales a nd o ne y ounger a dult m ale, o n t he l ower l evel. I ndividuals I a nd I II w ere p ossibly a ttendants o r r etainers a nd, i n c omparison w ith s keleton I I, h ad f ew o bjects o f p ersonal a dornment. S keleton I h ad a nklets a nd b ands a round t he p atellae a nd e nds o f t he f emora m ade o f b one b eads a nd s keleton I II h ad a n ecklace o f g old b eads. S keleton I I w as p robably t he c entral o ccupant o f t he g rave. H is a ssociated b elongings i ncluded a p air o f g old a nd s tone e ar r ods, g old b eads, a g old p endant, c anine t eeth b racelets, s tone p endants, a gate w inged p endants, m etal c hisels, f ive s tone e ar r ods, b elt w ith b one " bangles," g old n ose o rnament, t hree c eramic i ncense b urners, a " mass o f h eat-shattered s tone o bjects, a mong w hich w ere o ver t wenty w inged p endants, s everal m onkey p endants, t ubular b eads, s tone c oncretions, a n a rrow s haft w rench a nd a q uartz c rystal" ( Lothrop 1 937:237). 16

S cattered

a bout

t he

l ower

l evel

o f

t his

g rave w as

t he

r esidue o f

s mall f ires, b urned a fter t he i ndividuals h ad b een i nterred. S keleton I , f or e xample, h ad h is f emora a nd o ther l eg b ones a s w ell a s h is m andible s corched. S keleton I II's l eft f emora a nd p atella w ere b urned a nd e vidence o f f ire w as a lso n oted b y L othrop ( 1937:238) n ear t his i ndividual's i lium a nd o ver h is t orso. A fter t he d eposition o f t he b odies a nd t he s etting o f t he f ires, a l ayer o f c eramic p lates w ere p laced u pside d own o ver t he i nterments. O n t op o f t he p lates w as a dded a s eventeen c entimeter l ayer o f e arth, o ver w hich w as p laced a nother s trata o f c eramic v essels w hich i ncluded s tone c elts a nd e ither f ood o r a nimal b ones. G rave 1 9

( Lothrop 1 937:255-256)

w as n ot a s e laborate a s

g rave 6 .

T his r ound o r o val g rave c ontained o nly o ne i ndividual, a n a dult i n a p rone p ositionA round t he e dges o f t he g rave w ere c eramic v essels. A ssociated m ore c losely w ith t he i nterred i ndividual w as a n a gate w inged p endant, t wo c ylindrical s tone b eads, t wo g old c hisels, a s hark t ooth, s ting r ay s pines, t wo s tone e ar r ods, a nd t wo s tone b lades. A lso i n g rave 1 9, n ear t he r ight f oot o f t he s keleton, w as f ound a l arge r ed j ar. L othrop ( 1937:256) s uggested, v ery t entatively, e vidence f or G rave

t hat t he j ar c ontained t his s uggestion i s w eak.

2 0

( Lothrop

1 937:256-257),

a s econdary

l ike

u rn

g rave

1 9,

b urial.

w as

o val

T he

i n

s hape a nd t he l ong a xis w as o riented e ast a nd w est. The g rave c ontained t wo s keletons, a y oung f emale ( I) a nd a n o lder m ale ( II). A d eposit o f o bjects w as l ocated n ear t he l eft s ide o f t he i lium a nd t he r ight p atella o f s keleton I I a nd i ncluded a s tone w inged p endant, t welve s tone c elts, a g old c hisel, t wo c opper c hisels, f our b one p rojectile p oints, a b undle o f s ting r ay s pines, a s tone e ar r od, n ine s tone b lades, a q uartz c rystal, t wo s tone b alls, t en s hark t eeth, a nd t wenty-three o ther a nimal t eeth. c ompletely c overed w ith c eramic v essels a nd h ad i tems a ssociated w ith h er. G rave 2 3 ( Lothrop P eabody's e xcavations i n

S keleton I w as n o o ther s pecific

1 937:260-262), t he l ast g rave f rom t he t his c luster, c ontained t wo s keletons, a n

a dult m ale ( I) a nd a n a dult f emale ( II). A ccording t o L othrop, t he e xcavation o f g rave 2 3 d amaged t he m ajority o f g rave 2 2. G rave 2 3 w as r ectangular i n o utline a nd o riented t o t he c ardinal p oints. T he t wo i ndividuals w ere a ccompanied b y a v ariety o f c eramic v essels, b ut o bjects s pecifically a ssociated w ith e ach i ndividual w ere s parse. S keleton I h ad a n a gate w inged p endant, a nd s keleton I I d isplayed a b racelet

o f g old

b eads o n h er c arpus.

G rave 6 8 ( Mason's B urial 7 ) c ontained t hree i ndividuals, a n a dult m ale ( III), a n a dult f emale ( I) a nd a n i ndividual o f u ndetermined a ge ( II). T he s keletons w ere a ll o riented e ast a nd w est, S keleton I w as f ound a t t he s outh e nd o f t he g rave, s keleton I I w as l ocated i n t he m iddle, a nd s keleton I II w as p laced a t t he n orthern e nd o f t he g rave. T he g rave w as a pproximately s quare a nd t he w alls w ere o riented t oward t he c ardinal p oints. T he n ortheast c orner o f t he g rave w as d amaged, p ossibly b y a boriginal e xcavations f or g rave 7 2 ( Mason's B urial 1 0a). T he s outhern e dge o f t he g rave w as w ithin j ust

o ne f oot o f a n e arlier P eabody 1 17

t rench

( Map 6 ).

A ll t hree s keletons w ere s urrounded b y c eramic v essels; t he l argest c oncentrations o f v essels w ere a t t he n orthern a nd s outhern e nds o f t he g rave, b etween s keletons I I a nd I II. T he f urnishings a ssociated w ith s pecific i ndividuals w ere n ot n umerous. B etween a nd u nder t he i lium o f s keleton I T w ere 3 51 s tone p rojectile p oints; f ourteen g old o r t umbaga b eads w ere f ound a mong t he r ibs o f s keleton I ; a n a gate w inged p endant w as l ocated n ear o ne o f t he c lavicles o f s keleton I I. T he r est o f t he m ortuary f urnishings w ere s cattered a mong

t he g rave's c eramic

c ontents.

C luster V II.

F ound

C luster V II c ontained o nly o ne g rave ( 90, o r M ason's b urial 1 8). i n t he g rave w ere s tone p endants ( L5 [ Fig. 9 ]), c elts o r a dzes

( L6), c oncretions ( L11), s tone m irror b acks o r r ibbons ( M27), m etal p laques ( M29 [ Fig. 2 61),

f rames m etal

( L12), m etal b eads ( M31),

m etal f igurines ( M32 [ Fig. 2 3]), m etal p endants ( M33), m etal h ells ( M36), b one p oint ( B67), b one b eads ( B71), s hark t eeth ( B74), u nknown a nimal t eeth ( B78), c eramic b owls ( C100 a nd C 101), c eramic j ars ( C102 a nd C 103 [ Fig. 3 1]), c eramic p lates ( C104 a nd C 105), d ecorated c eramic c overs ( C113 [ Fig. 1 6]), u ndecorated c eramic v essels ( C114), e ffigy v essels ( C117 [ Fig. 3 2]) a nd c eramic c ensers ( C118). T he g rave h eld e ight i ndividuals, t hree p robable m ales ( I, I t, V III), f our m ales ( IV, V , V I, V II), a nd o ne f emale ( III); a ll w ere p robably a dults. T he s keletons w ere a ll l ocated o n t he n orthern h alf o f t he g rave w hich w as d ivided i nto t wo l evels. T he u pper l evel c ontained t hree s keletons ( I, I I, a nd V III), a ll o f w hich w ere p robably m ales a nd l ocated a bout t hirty c entimeters a bove t he l ower l evel. T wo o f t hese i ndividuals ( I a nd I I) w ere e xtended a nd i nterred i n t he m ain a rea o f t he g rave. T he t hird i ndividual ( VIII) o n t his l evel w as a d isturbed b urial l ocated i n t he s outheast c orner o f t he g rave. B etween s keletons I a nd I I w as a n a gate w inged t he s kull o f s keleton I w as f ound a f igurine d escribed i n C orning's n otes a ssociated b elongings w ith i ndividual I I

p endant. I n a ddition, n ear m etal p laque a nd a c opper a s a b ird o r m onkey . T he o n t his l evel w ere n ot m uch

m ore e laborate t han t hose f or I . A ccording t o C orning ( n.d.), t wo c opper a nimal-shaped f igurines w ere d eposited n ear t he b ase o f t he s kull o f i ndividual I I. M ason ( n.d.a) r eported t hat a g old r epouss? e p laque a nd a c opper f igurine r epresenting a n a lligator w ere u ncovered i n t he s ame l ocation. S ince t hese i tems w ere a ll i n a f ragmentary s tate a t t he U niversity M useum's c ollections, i t i s d ifficult t o e valuate w ho w as o rnament w as n ear

c orrect. B oth a gree, h owever, t hat a t umbaga o ne o f t he h umeril o f s keleton I . T he s outhern

h alf o f t he g rave t his u pper l evel.

c ontained

t he

m ajority

o f

t he

c eramics

f ound

o n

T he f ive i ndividuals ( III-VII) o n t he l ower l evel w ere a ll e xtended, a nd a ll w ere o riented a pproximately n orth a nd s outh. B ased o n

t he

q uantity

a nd

q uality o f

p ersonal

b elongings,

i ndividual

V w as

t he p rincipal o ccupant o f t he g rave. N ear t he b ase o f t his i ndividual's s kull w ere t he r emains o f g old n ecklaces m ade u p o f e ighteen g old b ells, t en c opper b ells, a nd o ne b ell i n t he s hape o f a f eline's

h ead;

f our

g old

p laques

w ere 1 18

f ound

o n

t he

i ndividual's

F ig. 3 1 M ortuary o bjects f rom S itio C onte. T op l eft: p olychrome c eramic j ar, g rave 9 0 ( 19.1 c m. d iameter, 1 6.2 c m. h igh [ UM40-154 50]; t op r ight: s pouted j ar, g rave 8 5 ( 18.3 c m. d iameter, 1 5.3 c m. h igh [ UM40-15-74]); b ottom l eft: i ncised c eramic j ar w ith l id, c ache 3 3 ( 5.6 c m. d iameter, 6 .9 c m. h igh NM 401641); b ottom r ight: j ar, g rave 8 2 ( 14.3 c m. d iameter, 1 0.1 c m. h igh [ U M4016-803 1) ( Milovich).

F ig. 3 2 M ortuary o bjects f rom S itio e ffigy v essels ( top: g rave 8 5, 7 6.7 c m. [ UM40-15-84]; b ottom: 1 5-472]) ( Milovich).

g rave 9 0,

2 7

c m.

C onte. P olychrome c eramic c ircumference, 2 0.3 c m. h igh

d iameter,

2 3.6 c m.

h igh

[ UM40-

s acrum;

o n

t he

l eft

a nd

r ight

r adii o r c arpi

w ere g old

b racelets.

H e

w as a lso a ccompanied b y t wo a gate w inged p endants, o ne l ocated n ear t he i lium b etween t he i ndividual's f emora a nd t he o ther t o t he e ast s ide o f t he s kull; t wo e ffigy a gate p endants w ere f ound n ear t he b ase o f t he i nterred's s kull; a s andstone m irror b ack w as l ocated o n h is i lium; a nd, f inally, a g roup o f t ubular g old b eads w ere f ound n ear t he p erson's f eet. M ason s ays s ix b eads a nd C orning s ays t hree b eads. s pecific

S keleton I II, a f emale, a nd s keleton I V, p ersonal b elongings a ssociated w ith t hem.

a m ale,

h ad

n o

C luster V III. C luster V III i s t he l argest o f t he t en g rave g roups a nd e ncompasses s ixty-three s eparate b urials. T he i nterments a nd o bjects a re s ummarized i n T ables 2 5 a nd 2 6. e xhibit a c onspicuous l ack o f l uxury

T he g raves o f c luster V III a nd s umptuary m ortuary a rts,

r egistering a f requency o f o nly 2 .3 p ercent, i n c ontrast t o o ther c lusters w hich t ogether a verage a f requency o f 2 7

a ll t he p ercent

( Table 2 7). T he o nly m ortuary o bjects w hich a re f ound i n m ore t han o ne-half o f t he g raves o f c luster V III a re C 100 ( undecorated b owls) a nd C 102 ( undecorated j ars [ Fig. 3 1]); t hese i tems a re f requently f ound t hroughout a ll t he i nterments a t t he s ite. S even o f t he g raves i n t his c luster h ad m ultiple b urials ( graves 2 1, 3 0, 3 1, 5 8, 6 2, 6 7 a nd 9 1); t he r emainder w ere a ll s ingle i nterments. C luster

I X.

C luster I X, c ontaining f ive g raves f rom M ason 's e xcavations, i ncluded b urials 8 1, 8 8, 9 3, 9 5 a nd 1 00 ( Mason 's B urials 1 2f, 1 7a, 2 3, 2 5, a nd 2 8). T hese g raves s hared n ine d ifferent t ypes o f c eramic o bjects, i ncluding u ndecorated c eramic c arafes ( C98), u ndecorated c eramic b owls ( C100), c eramic j ars ( C102 a nd C 103), c eramic c ensers ( C118), d ecorated c eramic c arafes ( C99), c eramic p lates ( C104 C 105 [ Figs. 1 9, 2 0, 2 7]) a nd u ndecorated c eramic v essels ( C114)

a nd a nd

o ne l ithic o bject ( celt o r a dze [ L6]). N ineteen o ther o bject t ypes w ere s cattered a mong t he i nterments. P ersonal o r l uxury g oods w ere q uite s parse i n t he f requency o f o nly 1 2 b urials: g rave 9 5 h ad

g raves o f t his c luster, a ppearing w ith a p ercent. T wo o f t he g raves w ere m ultiple f our i ndividuals a nd g rave 1 00 c ontained t wo

i ndividuals. T he r emainder o f t he g raves h ad s ingle i nterments. T he v ariations i n t he g raves o f t his c luster a re s ummarized i n T ables 2 8 a nd 2 9. T hree o f t he g raves, 8 1, 8 8 a nd 9 3, c ontained o ne i nterment e ach, a m ale i n g rave 8 8, a f emale a dolescent o r c hild i n g rave 9 3, a nd a n u naged a nd u nsexed i ndividual i n g rave 8 1. T he f ragmentary s keletal r emains f ound i n g rave 8 1 w ere l ocated a bout t en c entimeters b elow a l ayer o f c eramic v essels. T he o nly o bjects f ound w ere o n h is l eft

c lavicle

e xcept

f or

a g old

d ouble

e agle

o rnament

l ocated

o n h is

r ibs. T he t hree f emales f ound i n t his g rave w ere p iled t ogether i n t he n orthern s ection o f t he b urial. T he a dult f emale w as p rone, l ying o n h er b ack, a nd h er s kull p ointed e ast w hile f acing n orth. A m etal p laque w as f ound u nder h er r ight f emur. B elow t he a dult f emale w ere t wo o ther f emales ( skeletons I II a nd I V), s ide b y s ide. T he e xact p osition o f t hese b urials w as i mpossible f or t he e xcavators t o d etermine. N o s pecific p ersonal m ortuary g oods w ere a ssociated w ith 1 21

T able S itlo C onte: O bject L 3 L 5 L 6

G raves C ontaining O bjects 8 , 9 , 1 4, 1 5, 2 1, 5 4, 7 1, 7 ,

6 3,

8 9

7 ,

1 5,

1 7,

6 7,

7 2,

3 , 3 ,

L 9

6 7,

L 10

8 3

L 11

8 ,

5 8,

L 13 L 17

7 , 2 9

9 ,

L 18 M 29 M 30

1 7, 4 3, 7 2

M 31 M 33

3 , 3 ,

1 4, 5 6

2 9,

5 4,

7 8

1 1,

3 1, 7 2

9 4

1 3 67 B 70

3 9 8 5,

1 3 71

1 5,

7 2

1 3 74

2 1,

4 3,

8 75 1 3 76

1 5 4,

9 4

8 78

3 1,

7 5,

B 79 8 83

7 2, 9 4

9 4

3 , 7 8,

C 100

3 , 2 5, 5 8, 8 3,

3 7,

8 7,

7 6,

4 3,

8 9,

4 5,

8 2,

5 4,

8 7,

5 8,

9 6

6 0,

6 2,

9 2

2 9,

3 7,

8 2,

9 7

1 4,

1 5,

1 7,

1 8,

2 1,

6 7,

2 7,

3 1,

4 2,

4 3

7 5

4 3,

4 7,

5 4,

9 7

9 2

8 ,

7 2,

9 ,

1 5, 8 2,

2 9,

5 4, 8 7,

9 ,

1 5,

8 0,

8 4,

9 7,

5 4, 6 2, 9 8

1 8, 8 3,

8 ,

7 9,

9 4

9 7

8 0, 7 ,

8 5,

7 ,

3 1, 6 5,

5 6,

6 5, 9 6,

5 6,

6 9,

7 0,

7 5,

7 3,

7 6,

8 3,

8 5,

8 7,

8 9,

9 2,

9 9

7 7,

9 9 7 7,

9 ,

1,

1 4,

1 5,

1 7,

1 8,

2 1,

2 2,

3 7, 7 1,

3 8, 7 2,

3 9, 7 5,

4 3, 7 6,

4 6, 7 7,

4 7, 7 8,

4 8, 7 9,

5 5, 8 0,

3 ,

1 4,

7 2,

8 2,

C 102

1 0,

9 7,

7 0,

4 3,

3 , 7 , 9 , 1 5, 1 7, 2 1, 2 5, 3 1, 3 7, 5 4, 5 8, 6 5, 7 5, 7 8, 7 9, 8 2, 9 7 9 ,

6 9,

9 4,

8 ,

3 6, 6 7,

5 5, 9 2,

C 101

C 103

7 9,

8 9

3 ,

C 99

3 6,

8 2,

7 5,

A rts

8 3

M 34

7 ,

3 1,

7 9,

1 7, 2 1, 3 0 7 , 1 4, 2 7,

M 38

7 9,

2 2,

7 5,

L 7 L 8

C 98

2 5

' : ) 1stributton o f M ortuary

1 5,

1 8,

2 1,

2 2,

4 3,

2 5,

4 4,

2 9,

4 5,

3 1,

4 8,

3 3,

3 6,

3 7,

3 8,

3 9,

4 3,

4 5,

4 7,

5 8,

5 5,

5 6,

5 8,

5 9,

6 6,

6 7, 8 9,

6 9, 9 4,

7 3, 9 7

7 5,

7 7,

7 8,

7 9,

8 0,

8 2,

8 3,

8 5,

8 7,

3 ,

9 ,

1 4,

1 5,

1 8,

2 1,

3 1,

3 7,

3 9,

7 8,

8 0,

8 5,

8 7,

8 9,

9 4,

9 6,

9 7

C 104

1 4, 7 9,

1 5, 8 2,

2 1, 8 4,

3 3, 8 9,

3 6, 9 2,

4 8, 9 4,

5 5, 9 7,

7 1, 9 8

C 105

3 ,

C 112

7 5, 1 5,

7 6, 3 1,

7 7, 3 9,

7 8, 4 3,

C 113

2 1,

3 1,

8 5,

8 7

C 114 C 115

7 , 8 , 9 , 1 4, 1 5, 1 7, 2 7, 4 7, 3 9, 4 7, 6 7, 7 1, 7 9, 8 2, 8 5,

C 116

7 6

7 ,

1 4,

1 5,

1 7,

2 1,

7 9, 4 7,

4 3,

8 0, 5 8,

1 22

4 5,

8 2,

7 2,

5 4,

8 3,

4 8,

4 3,

7 5,

6 5,

8 5,

7 6,

5 4,

7 7,

6 7,

8 7,

8 2,

7 1,

7 5,

7 8,

7 1,

9 2,

8 3,

7 2,

9 7

9 2

T able C 117

c ontinued

7 , 9 , 1 4, 1 5, 1 7, 4 3, 4 5, 5 5, 5 6, 5 8, 7 6, 7 8, 7 9, 8 5, 8 7, 8 9, 9 2, 9 4, 9 9 7 , 8 , 1 5, 1 7, 2 1, 2 2, 2 5, 3 1, 3 6, 3 8, 5 8, 4 8, 7 5, 7 8, 8 9, 9 7 9 , 2 9, 7 1, 7 2, 7 5, 7 9, 9 2, 9 7

C 118 C 119 O bject C odes:

6 6,

7 2,

7 5,

3 9,

4 8,

5 4,

S ee T able A -17.

S itio C onte: G rave

2 5

A ge

S ex

3 7 8 9

9 1 1 1

9 1 1 9

1 0 1

1 1

1 4 1 5 1 7 1 8 2 1*

T able 2 6 D isposition o f C luster V III G raves D eposition

P osition

F orm

9 8 8 7

9 1 2 ,

9 1 3 1

9 1 9 9

9 9

7 7

9 9

1 1

9 1

9 9 1 1

9 9 1 9

9 9 3 6

9 9 4 9

9 9 1 3

9 9 1 9

1 1

1 9

3 3

4 4

1 1

1 1

1 1 9 1

2 9 9 1

9 5 9 4

9 9 9 1

9 9 9 3

9 9 9 9

1 1 9 1 1

1 1 9 9 9

1 8 3 8 8

3 3 3 3 3

3 3 3 3 3

9 1 1 1 1

3 3 3 6 3 7

1 1 1

1 9 1

3 3 1

3 4 3

3 3 3

9 9 9

3 8 3 9 4 2 4 3 4 4 4 5 4 6 4 7*

1 1 1 1 1 9 1 1 1

1 1 9 1 2 9 2 9 9

1 1 5 8 3 9 8 1 8

4 2 4 4 2 9 4 4 4

3 3 1 2 3 9 1 3 3

9 9 9 9 9 9 9 1 9

4 8 5 4 5 5

1 9 2

9 9 1

8 1 8

4 9 4

3 9 1

9 9 1

5 6 5 8*

1 3 1

9 9 2

1 8 8

3 9 3

3 3 3

9 9 1

5 9

1

1

8

1

1

1

2 2 2 5 2 7 2 9 3 0* 3 1*

O rientation

1 23

T able

2 6

c ontinued

6 0 6 2*

1 1

9 1

3 9

3 9

1 9

1 9

6 3

1 3

2 9

8 8

3 4

1 3

1 1

6 5 6 6

9 9

9 9

9 9

9 9

9 9

9 9

6 7*

9 9 9

9 9 9

6 6 6

9 9 9

1

2

1

7

1

2

6 9 7 0 7 1 7 2

9 9 9 9 9 1

9 9 9 9 9 1

6 6 9 9 9 9

9 9 9 9 9 4

1 1 9 9 9 1

2 2 9 9 3 1

7 3 7 5

9 1

9 1

9 8

9 1

9 1

9 1

7 6 7 7 7 8

9 9 1

9 9 1

9 9 8

9 9 4

9 9 1

9 9 6

7 9 8 0

9 9

9 9

9 9

9 9

9 9

9 9

8 2 8 3

9 9

9 9

1 3

9 9

9 9

6 9

8 4 8 5 8 7 8 9

9 9 9 1

9 9 9 1

9 9 9 9

9 9 9 9

9 9 9 9

9 9 9 3

9 2 9 4 9 6 9 7

9 1 9 1

9 2 9 9

9 8 9 9

9 4 9 9

9 1 9 9

9 1 9 9

9 8 9 9

1 9

1 9

5 9

9 9

1 9

1 9

* Multiple

b urials

i n

t hese

g raves.

T able

2 7

S itio C onte: A verage N umber o f M ortuary A rts P er G rave P er C luster C luster

A verage 4 4.6

( 15 o f w hich w ere

c eramics)

I I

4 0

( 12 o f w hich w ere

c eramics)

I II I V V

3 5 2 8 2 9

( 14 o f w hich w ere c eramics) ( 13.5 o f w hich w ere c eramics) ( 12.5 o f w hich w ere c eramics)

V I V II V III

1 9.8 ( 6 o f w hich w ere c eramics) 2 4 ( 10 o f w hich w ere c eramics) 6 .3 ( 4.6 o f w hich w ere c eramics)

I X X

1 4.2 ( 9.4 o f w hich w ere c eramics) 1 5 ( 5 o f w hich w ere c eramics)

t hese

t wo

i ndividuals.

T he

n orth

a boriginal

e nd

o f

g rave

e xcavations

a nd,

1 00 a s

( Mason's

a r esult,

B urial

t he

2 8)

w as

s keletal

s evered

m aterial

i n

b y t he

g rave w as s cattered. T wo s kulls w ere f ound i n t he g rave a nd s everal l ong b ones w ere s cattered a bout; n o a ges o r s exes w ere a ble t o b e d etermined f rom t hese f ragmentary r emains. A t t he b ase o f o ne s kull, a c rab—like a s

c arved

a c opper

t his

g reen

o rnament,

g rave w ere n ot

e xample,

t hat

s pecimens

o f

h e t he

C luster

t herefore, g raves. l arger

r etained b y

" removed

s ome a nd

s hared

a re

I X;

n ot

r est a nd

c luster

i ndicating

T he

a

e ar

o f

t he

b etter

o nes"

o f

p lug,

v essels

t he e xcavators.

p lain

n umber

o r

c eramic

a s w ell

s cattered

M ason n oted,

v essels,

i n f or

k eeping

o nly

i ncluding

C 100

( n.d.:140).

c eramic

t ypes,

c eramic b owl) a nd C 102 ( undecorated c eramic j ar). T hese c ommon t o t he m ajority o f g raves a t S itio C onte a nd,

T he

c luster

a ll

p ossibly a n ose

f ound.

i ncomplete

I X

( undecorated o bjects a re

s tone,

w ere

o f o f

t heir V III,

c eramic

f or

s uggests a mong

o f c luster T X

e ven

t hat

t he i s

d istinguishing

v essels

d istribution,

d ifferences

c haracteristic

c onsequence t he

t hey

a mong

t he

g raves

o f

l ittle

u se

t oo

o bject L 6,

n ot

t he

a lso

i nterments.

t he

a mong

w ere

u nique

a re

o f

T he

o nly

c elt

o r a dze,

o ther

t o t he i n

s hared

f ound

i n

a ll t he g raves o f t his c luster. A lthough a n umber o f t he g raves i n c luster I X s eem t o i nclude s ubstantial n umbers o f s umptuary o r l uxury g ood

( e.g.,

s uch

i tems

o f

t he i s,

p laques

i n

i n g eneral,

g rave q uite

9 5),

t he

p ercentage

o r

s mall

a nd

r epresents

o nly 1 1

f requency o f p ercent

t he m ortuary g oods.

C luster X . C luster o nly

o ne

X ,

t he

b urial,

M useum's

l ast

g rave

o f

8 6

e xcavations.

t he

S itio

( Mason's

G rave

8 6

C onte

B urial

c lusters,

1 5b)

c ontained

o ne

l aying i n a n e xtended p osition, f ace d own. e xcavation o f t his b urial a nd, a ccording t o t hat

t he

o rientation

s ince o nly u ncovered.

o f

t he

i nterment

w as

f rom

t wo

i ndividual

d ifficult

t hree a nd

w inged

t hose

f rom

s tone

p endants r esin

T he o r

b etween r esult

t he

i ndividual

c arved

( two

i n

t he

i vory a nd

p endant.

a w hale,

p endants,

g rave

v essels,

p endants

p eccary

o ne

o f

s tone),

A v ariety a nd

w as

s hape o f

a c anine

a nd m etal

d istribution

o f

t here

a nother t he

o f

E xcluding

i n

V III

t here

i s

a mong

w ith

S itio

m ay

m ethods

d ifferences

c luster

c lusters

t he

a s pecific

r eporting

t he

w as

p laques a nd I n a ddition

a lso

f ive t o a

a ccompanied

l arge

c anine

a s tone

a nimal

a nimal,

d etermine

m irror

t eeth,

w ere

b y

t eeth, h ack,

i ncluding

l ocated

i n

t he

t he l arger t eeth, t he

p laques.

s uggests

t hat

w ho

r ibs w ere a nd s outh.

T his g rave w as s ingled o ut f rom i nclusion i n V III o n a ccount o f t he p resence o f t hese a nimal

c lusters

n ine

c eramic s tone

a c opal

b urial. C luster

t o

t he s kull, t he r ight h umerus a nd a f ew A pparently t he i ndividual w as l aid o ut n orth

o f

g reen

o f

U niversity

L othrop h elped i n t he M ason ( n.d.a.), n oted

U nder t he r ibs w ere d iscovered t wo g old o r t umbaga m ore p laques w ere l ocated t o t he e ast o f t he s kull. v ariety

c onsists

T he

b e

C onte a b ias

c luster o f

a nd

t he

a mong

o f

t he

L othrop

g raves,

i nstance, 1 26

i n

t en

o f

o ne

d ifferences

a nd i n

a mong

g rave 6 8

t he

p lacement

m ortuary o bjects

s ixty—four

o nly o ne

b ecause

M ason

t he

g raves i n

t he t he

n ot

a s

a

b urials. r emaining

c luster V I,

i n

T 8ble 2 8 S itio C onte: M ortuary

O bject L 5 L 6 L 8 L 18 M 29 M 31 M 32 M 33 M 34 M 36 M 38 V 54 B 69 B 71 B 73 B 74 C 97 C 98 C 100 C 101 C 102 C 103 C 104 C 105 C 114 C 115 C 117 C 113 O bject

c odes:

r t8

i n C luster T X G raves

G rave 1 00 8 1, 9 3, 1 00 9 3, 8 8, 8 8, 1 00 8 8 9 5 8 1 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 5 9 5 8 1 8 1, 8 1, 9 3 8 1, 8 1, 8 1, 8 1, 8 1, 9 3, 9 3, 8 1,

8 8, 9 5

9 3,

9 5,

1 00

8 8, 8 8,

9 3, 9 3,

9 5, 9 5,

1 00 1 00

8 8, 8 8, 8 8, 8 8, 8 8, 9 5 9 5 8 8,

9 3, 9 5, 1 00 9 3, 9 5, 1 00 9 5, 1 00 9 5, 1 00 9 3, 9 5

9 5 9 5 9 5

S ee T ab le . A -17

1 27

9 3,

9 5,

1 00

S itio C onte:

G rave

T able 2 9 D isposition o f C luster I X I nterments

A ge

S ex

O rientation

D eposition

P osition

F orm

8 1 8 8 9 3 9 5

9 1 9 1 1 2 2

9 1 9 1 2 2 2

8 8 8 7 7 8 8

9 4 9 1 1 9 9

9 1 9 1 1 2 2

9 1 6 1 1 2 2

1 00

9

9

1

9

9

3

1 28

w hich w ith

a b urial g raves

f rom

f rom

o ne

t he

e xcavator's

o ther's

r eport

e xcavations.

w as

i ncluded

i n

a c luster

p attern

i s

i mitated,

T his

i n v arious d egrees, b y t he o ther c luster a nalyses. I t i s a s uspicious p attern a nd s uggests t hat e ither t he m ortuary g oods w hich c ombined t o m ake e ach e xcavator's g raves d ifferent h ad a s patial s ignificance i n t he n ecropolis o r t hat t he r ecording o f f ield d ata a nd o bject c lassification d iffered c onsiderably. I n

c ontrast,

t he

a ctual

n umber

o f

g raves

r epresented

i n

t he

v arious c lusters f rom t he e xcavation o f M ason a nd L othrop i s v ery c lose t o t he p roportion o f g raves f rom e ach e xcavator i n t he s ample. F or e xample, a mong a ll S itio C onte g raves L othrop's g raves r epresent 5 9 p ercent a nd M ason 's g raves a mount t o 4 1 p ercent, w hile a mong t hese n ine c lusters, L othrop's g raves r epresent 5 7 p ercent a nd M ason's 4 3 p ercent o f t he g raves. W ith t hese p roblems i n m ind, I s hall n ow t urn t o t he v arious a nalyses. D espite t he f act t hat t he c omplete l inkage a nalysis m ediates t he b iases o f t he a lgorithms o f t he o ther c luster a nalyses, t his t est a lso e mphasizes t he p resence o f a l arge b ase p opulation o f g raves--i.e., c luster V III w ith s ixty-three m embers. T he r emaining c lusters a re m ade u p o f m uch s maller n umbers o f g raves, t he m ost b eing c luster V I w ith s ix g raves. T he l arge s ize o f c luster V III i s t empered a t t he e leventh c luster l evel w hen i t i s b roken i nto t wo c lusters o f s ixteen a nd f orty-seven m embers. H owever, t his d oes n ot r epresent a t rend. A t t he t welfth a nd t hirteenth c luster l evels, t he s maller c lusters o f I I a nd I V a re s plit; t he l arger c lusters w hich o riginally r epresented c luster V III a re n ot b roken f urther. T here a re, t herefore, n o c ompelling r easons n ot t o u se t he t en c lusters p roduced b y t he f irst c omplete l inkage c luster a nalysis. T he c omplete l inkage a nalysis e mphasizes a g eneral t endency i n t he d istribution o f p articular m ortuary f urnishings t o b e w idely d ispersed a mong a ll o f t he g raves. T his b road r epresentation s uggests t hat c ertain o bjects a re u niversal a nd c an b e e liminated f rom c onsideration a s p roviding i nformation w hich m ay b e s ocially s ignificant. T hat i s, t here i s n o o r l ittle v ariation i n t heir d istribution. T hese o bject c lasses i nclude s tone p oints ( L3), s tone p endants ( L5), c elts o r a dzes ( L6), m etal p laques ( M29), m etal n ose d ecoration ( M34), b one b eads ( B71), s hark t eeth ( 1 374) a nd c eramic c arafes, b owls, j ars a nd p lates ( C98 t hrough C 105). I n a ddition, t he c eramic c overs ( C112 a nd C 113) a nd u ndetermined v essel t ypes ( C114 a nd C 115) d o n ot s eem t o b e o f a ny p otential a nalytical u sefulness; t he f ormer b ecause t hey w ere p robably p arts o f o ther v essels, a nd t he l atter b ecause t he c ategory i s t oo n on-descriptive. ( The u se o f t he c eramic c lassification " undetermined v essel" w as n ecessitated b y t he i nclusion o f u ndescribed c eramic v essels l eft i n P anamä w ith t he C onte f amily o r i n s itu a nd f or t hose i tems n ot f ound i n m useum c ollections o r i n t oo f ragmentary o f a s tate t o d etermine t heir f orm.) T his a rgument d oes n ot m ean t hat t he v isual i nformation f ound o n s ome o f t hese a rtifacts o r t hat t he a bsolute n umber a nd q uantit ative d istribution o f t hese o bjects i s n ot i mportant. H owever, t he p resence o r a bsence o f t hese m ortuary f urnishings a s o bject c lasses f ound i n s pecific g raves d oes n ot s eem t o h ave a ny s ignificance. 1 29

T he S ocial D imensions o f t he S itio C onte M ortuary A rts

T he c omplexity o f t he n ecropolis a t S itio C onte i s s taggering i n c omparison t o t he A zuero p eninsula s ites o f E l I ndio, L a C aAaza, a nd E l C afetal. F rom e ven a c ursory c omparison o f t he r ange o f m ortuary a rts, t he q uantity o f e nergy e xpended i n t he b urials, a nd t he d egree o f v ariation i n t he b urial t reatment, i t i s e vident t hat t here w ere s ubstantial d ifferences i n s ocial c omplexity b etween S itio C onte a nd t he T onosi s ites. I n m y d iscussion o f E l I ndio, T a rgued t hat t he P hase I I g raves f rom t hat s ite e xhibited d ifferential t reatment o f t he d eceased o n t he b asis o f a n i ndividual's s ex a nd a ge. F urthermore, s uch t reatment w as i ndicative o f a n e galitarian s ociety . I n c ommon w ith E l I ndio, t he i nterments a t S itio C onte d isplay a d ramatic d ifference i n m ortuary t reatment b etween t he s exes a nd a mong t he a ge g roups. T n oted a bove t hat 9 4 p ercent o f t he I ndividuals b uried a t S itio C onte w ere a dults a nd 7 5 p ercent w ere m ale. C hildren w ere a lmost t otally a bsent f rom t he S itio C onte g raves, a nd a ll b ut o ne o f t he f emales f ound i n t he g raves w ere b uried i n c onjunction w ith a n a dult m ale. M oreover, t he v ery f ew a dolescents a t S itio C onte w ere, r egardless o f s ex , a lso f ound o nly i n a ssociation w ith a dult m ales. I f t he S itio C onte c emetery i s a s pecialized b urial f acility f or i ndividuals w ho h ave a chieved a u nique s tatus e ntitling t hem t o i nterment i n t his n ecropolis, s uch s pecial t reatment c entered o n a dult m ales. T he s elective u se o f a c emetery o n t he b asis o f s ex a nd a ge I s n ot u ncommon. Y et, w hile t he b urial c riteria u sed a t t he S itio C onte c emetery a re s trongly a ffected b y t he a ge a nd s ex o f t he d eceased, a ny s uggestion t hat t he o rganization a nd c omplexity o f t he g raves r epresent a n e galitarian s ociety s imilar t o E l I ndio d oes n ot a cc urately r eflect t he v ariations i n t he d istribution o f t he m ortuary a rts. T urning a ttention t o t he v ariation o f t he q uantity a nd q uality o f t he m ortuary a rts i n t he g raves a nd t he t reatment o f t he d ominant s ex a nd a ge g roup, n amely a dult m ales, a m ore a ccurate d escription o f t he s ocial d ynamics a nd s tatus s ystem o f S itio C onte s ociety c an h e p resented. T he l argest p ercentage ( 22 p ercent) o f m ale i nterments i n t he t en c lusters o f t he S itio C onte g raves i s f ound i n c luster V III ( n=63). A mong t he g raves o f c luster V III, i ndividuals w ere a ccompanied b y a n a verage o f 6 .3 t ypes o f m ortuary o bjects; t he n umber a nd d iversity o f t hese m ortuary a rts w ere t he s mallest o f a ny c luster ( see T able 2 7). S eventy-three p ercent o f t he m ortuary o bjects i n c luster V III, f or e xample, w ere c eramic i tems; l ithics c onstituted 1 8 p ercent, m etal i tems a mounted t o 4 p ercent, a nd b one o bjects a ccounted f or o nly 5 p ercent. C lusters I t hrough V II a re q uite d ifferent. T hese s even c lusters ( Table 3 0) r epresent o nly 2 1 p ercent ( n=23) o f t he t ota l n umber o f g raves w ith m ortuary a rts b ut c ontained 6 0 p ercent ( n=106) o f t he i nterred i ndividuals ( Table 3 0) f rom S itio C onte. E ach g rave a veraged 4 .6 i nterments, o f w hich 7 7 p ercent o f t he d eceased w ith k nown a ge a nd s ex w ere a dult m ales. T he c entral o r p rimary 1 30

T able

3 0

S itio C onte: N umber o f M ortuary A rt T ypes i n G raves w ith M ore t han O ne i nterment

C luster T

C rave

N umber

N umber

N umber

N umber

o f

o f

o f

o f

S keletons

L ithic

M etal

B one

N umber o f C eramic

1

4

9

1 0

1 2

1 6

5

1 5

1 0

9

9

1 5

2 6

2 2

1 0

1

1

1 4

I I

3 2

6

6

1 4

8

1 2

T it

7 4 9 1

) 3 2

7 8

1 0 6

7 3

1 4 1 4 1 4

I V

2 4

1 0

7

5

5

V

1 3

2

8

4

8

1 2

Y r

6

3

$

4

4

1 2

2 0

2

7

1

4

9

2 3

2

5

2

2

8

6 8

3

4

1

1

1 2

V 1 r

9 0

3

4

6

4

1 0

V III

91

3 0

3 2

3 1

0 0

1 0

8 0

3 1

2

3

0

1

7

4 7

2

0

1

0

5

5 3

2

2

0

0

6

9

1

0

0

5

3

0

0

1 4

9 5

4

2

4

9

10

1 00

2

3

1

0

8

6 2 6 7 T x

1 31

i nterment,

w hen

i dentifiable

i n

t he

g raves

o f

m ortuary

o f

t hese

c lusters,

w as

a lways a n a dult m ale. B oth

t he

a bsolute

n umber

o bjects

a nd

t he

n umber

o f

t he d ifferent c lasses o f m ortuary a rts f ound i n t hese g raves b olsters t he d isparity b etween t he g raves o f t hese s even c lusters a nd t he m ajority o f S itio C onte g raves f ound i n c luster V III. F or e xample, c luster I a veraged 4 4.6 o bject c lasses p er g rave o f w hich a n a verage o f f ifteen w ere c eramic o bjects; c luster I I a veraged f orty o bject c lasses f or i ts o ne g rave o f w hich t welve w ere c eramics; c luster I II a veraged t hirty-five c lasses o f o bjects o f which f ourteen w ere c eramics; c luster I V a veraged t wenty-eight c lasses o f w hich 1 3.5 w ere c eramics; c luster V h ad a n a verage o f t wenty-nine c lasses o f o bjects o f w hich 1 2.5 w ere c eramics; p er g rave o f w hich s ix w ere

c luster V I a veraged 1 9.8 o bject c lasses c eramics; a nd, f inally , c luster V II h ad

a n a verage o f t wenty-four o bject c lasses o f w hich t en w ere c eramic o bjects. T he c luster w ith t he f ewest o bject c lasses, V I w ith 1 9.8 p er g rave, c ontained o ver t hree t imes t he a verage n umber o f t ypes o f m ortuary o bjects T he

c lasses

g raphic

p er g rave

r epresentation

i n c omparison t o c luster V III. ( Table

3 1)

o f

t he

c lasses

o f

t he

m ortuary a rts i s r emarkably s imilar t o b oth t he p yramidal s tructure o f S ervice's c hiefdom m odel o f o rganization a nd t he m odel d erived f rom t he o rganization o f U .S. A rmy r anks. T he d ifferences i n t he g raded d istribution o f t he m ortuary a rts a mong t he S itio C onte g raves d oes n ot d epend m erely o n t he p resence o f s pecific o bjects i n o ne c luster w hich a re n ot p resent i n a nother c luster. T he d istribution, o n t he o ther h and, s eems t o b e d etermined b y a n a dditive m echanism-t hat i s, a s t he c lusters d ecrease i n t he n umber o f m ember g raves, t he s maller, o r s ubsequent c luster, c ontains a ll t he g oods o f t he l arger, o r p receding c luster p lus a dditional i tems. F or e xample, c luster T c ontained a n a verage o f

f orty-three m ortuary a rt

t ypes w hile

t he n ext

c luster, I I, c ontained a n a verage o f o nly f orty o bject c lasses; m oreover, t he o bject t ypes i n c luster I T a re a lmost a ll a lso p resent i n c luster I ( Appendix 6 , T ables A -14 t hrough A -17). I n S axe's t erminology, t he d istribution o f t he m ortuary a rts a mong t he S itio C onte g raves i s m ore t ree-like a nd l ess p aradigmatic t han t he d istribution o f t he g rave g oods a mong t he E l I ndio g raves, e specially t hose o f P hase I I. M oreover, t he m ore r igidly s tructured g raves o f S itio C onte a re d ominated b y o ne a ge a nd s ex g roup, a dult m ales. S uch a p attern i s c learly m ore i ndicative o f a s ubstantially m ore c omplex a nd s ocially r igid s tructure a nd s upports t he i dentification o f S itio C onte

a s

a c hiefdom o r

r anked

s ociety .

T he d istribution o f m ortuary a rts w hich c ould b e c onsidered c ostume o r s umptuary i tems a lso c orroborates t his o bservation. T he p rimary c riteria ( Table 3 2) u sed t o d iscriminate C onte g raves a nd a llocate t hem t o' o ne o r a nother c enters o n t he p resence o r a bsence i n e ach g rave o f o r s umptuary o bjects. I nterestingly, t he p resence

a mong t he S itio o f t he c lusters s pecific c ostume o r a bsence o f a

l arge n umber o f c eramic o bject c lasses h as l ittle i nfluence o n d etermining w hich g rave b elongs t o w hich c luster. C eramics, f or t he m ost p art, a re i mportant o nly i n d iscriminating d egrees o f p ossible s tatus d istinctions a mong t he g raves w ithin l owly c luster V III. I n t he e lite b urials o f c lusters I -VII, c eramic o bjects a re u biquitous a nd a re u sed p rimarily a s f ill o r f looring f or t he i nterments. 1 32

T able

3 1

S itio C onte: D istribution A rts i n C lusters I —VII,

o f M ortuary I X, a nd X

N umber o f O bject G rave C luster T ypes 8 1 I X 1 2 9 3 I X 1 2 1 00 I X 1 2 8 6

X

1 5

9 5 8 8 2 3

I X I X V I

1 6 1 6 1 7

1 9 6 8

V I V I

1 7 1 8

* *********** * *****: ,Ä**** * *********** * **************

) . ‚ ,) ,

) ,) ,: .: .********

A i si s k*********** * ************** . ,u)

2 0

V I

2 1

* ********************

4

V I

2 2

* *********************

9 0 1 6

V II V

26

**/

2

I V

2 6

* *************************

6

V I

2 8

2 4

V I

3 0

9 1 1 3

I II V

3 1 3 2

2 . ) ,, ,, ,) ,k , ,, ! ,, , ,, ,, ,kk******** **** : , :c h;u: .: , : . *****************

7 4 3 2 1

I II I I I

3 9 4 0 4 2

* *************************************** * ********* *********** AAAAA * ********* J . : ,; , A,u; ,: s . ) ;; ,) ,; .:„ :*****************************

2 4 ) ,% :) . : ***: .) ,; .9 ., .; .

* ***; .: ,: c) .; ,) ,: ,) , )

' ; k!! .' *

; .: ,: s: .*

************

;', :— :*********

) ,*********

: , " c*** ******* ** ****** ********

5

I

4 3

2 6

I

4 6 * **************************

1 33

*******

***

T able S itio C onte: C ostume

C luster G raves

I 1 2 6

a nd

I T 5 3 2

o f

S umptuary M ortuary A rts

I II 7 4

3 2

P resence/Absence

I V

9 1

V

2 2 4

1 3

V I

1 6

4

6 1 9

2 0

X X

X

2 3

6 8

O bject L 5

X X

X

L 8

X X

X

L 16 9 29

X

X X

X x

X X X

X

x X

X

x

9 30

X

M 31

X X

9 32

X

9 33

X X

M 34 9 35

x

9 36

X

X

X

X

X

9 37

x

x

x

X

X

x

X X

X X X x

9 39

x X ) ( X

8 69

X

X X X X x X

X

X

X

X

x

x

X

x

x

x

x

x

x

x X

X

X X

X

x

X

x

X X

x X

X X

X X

X X

X X

x X

X X

X x X

x X

x

X

x

X

B 70

X

B 71

X

B 73

) ( X

X

8 74

X X

X

X

X

x

M X

9 40 B 68

X

X

x

X

X

x

x

x

x

x

x

X

X

X

x

X

X

X X

X

X

B 75

X

X X

X

X X

X

B 76

X

X

1 3 78

X

X

B 79

X

X

8 83

X

X

X X

x

X

X

x

X X

X

X

X

X

1 34

X X

X

X

T able 3 2

C luster V II G raves 9 0 O bject L 5 L 8 L 16

K

1 00

I X* 9 3 9 5

8 8

X

c ontinued

X 8 6

X X

X X

M 29 M 30

X

X

M 31 M 32 M 33 M 34 M 35

X X X

X

M 36 M 37 M 39 M 40 8 68 8 69 B 70 B 71 8 73 8 74 B 75 8 76 B 78 • B 79

X

X

X

X X

X

X X X

X

X X X

8 83 * Grave 8 1 o f C luster I X c ontained O bject C odes: S ee T able A -17.

n o

c ostume o r

1 35

s umptuary o bjects.

T able

3 3

S itio C onte: T otal N umber o f C ostume a nd S umptuary M ortuary A rts b y C luster

A verage C luster

Q uantity

P ercentage

N umber

I I I

3 800 5 415

7 6 7 2

1 266.7 5 415.0

I II I V V

4 941 1 58 5 73

5 4 3 2 4 4

2 470.5 7 9.0 2 86.5

V I V II V III I X X

4 87 6 8 4 4 9 9 1 7

2 1 3 6 1 1 2 4

8 1.2 6 8.0 0 .7 2 4.8 1 7.0

A pproximately c onsidered

t wenty-six

t ypes

o f mortuary

c ostume o r s umptuary g oods,

i ncluding

o bjects

c an

s tone p endants

b e

( Fig.

9 ), s tone b eads ( Fig. 8 ), s tone e ar d ecorations, m etal p laques ( Figs. 1 0-12), m etal d isks ( Fig. 2 6), m etal b eads ( Fig. 1 3), m etal f igures ( Figs. 1 2 a nd 2 3), m etal p endants ( Figs. 1 2 a nd 2 3 ) , m etal n ose d ecorations ( Fig. 1 3), m etal e ar d ecorations, m etal b ells ( Fig. 1 3), m etal w rist o r a nkle c uffs o r g reaves ( Fig. 1 2), metal r ing o r b racelet, m etal h elmet o r h ead p iece, b one p endants, b one f igures ( Figs. 2 4 a nd 2 5), b one t ubes ( Fig. 1 4), b one b eads ( Fig. 1 4), w hale t eeth,

s hark

t eeth

( Fig.

1 4),

j aguar

t eeth

( B75),

c anine

t eeth

( Fig.

1 4), u nknown a nimal t eeth, p ecarry t usks, s ting r ay s pines ( Fig. 1 4), a nd r esin f igurines ( Fig. 2 5). T he p ercentage o f t hese g oods a s p art o f t he t otal n umber o f m ortuary i tems f rom e ach c luster e xcept V III, i s 7 6 p ercent i n c luster I , 7 2 p ercent i n c luster I I, 5 4 p ercent i n c luster I II, 4 4 p ercent i n c luster V , 3 6 p ercent i n c luster V II, 3 2 p ercent i n c luster I V, 2 4 p ercent i n c luster X , 2 1 p ercent i n c luster V I, a nd 1 1 p ercent i n c luster I X. T he d iminishing n umber o f t hese o bject c lasses i n e ach o f t he a bove s even c lusters o nce a gain c onfirms a p yramidal p attern i ndicative o f r anked s ocieties. I n

a ddition

t o

t he

s ignificance

o f

t he

p resence

o r

a bsence

o f

c ostume a nd s umptuary m ortuary a rts, t he a bsolute q uantities o f t hese o bjects y ields s imilar r esults. T he a bove t wenty-five c lasses o f m ortuary a rts, w hich I h ave d efined a s c ostume o r s umptuary i tems, a mounted t o a t l east 1 5,576 i ndividual i tems. T he m ajority o f t hese, a s w ell a s a ll m ortuary a rts, a re f ound i n c lusters I , I I a nd I II; t he t otal n umber o f s umptuary a nd c ostume a rts f ound i n t he s ix g raves o f t hese s ame c lusters r epresent 9 0 p ercent o f a ll s uch o bjects f ound a t t he n ecropolis o f S itio C onte. P redictably, t he n umber ( Table 3 3) o f t hese m ortuary a rts d ecreases i n c lusters I V t hrough V II a nd d iminishes t o a lmost n othing i n c luster V III. T herefore, b oth t he s imple p resence o r a bsence a nd t he a bsolute n umber o f s umptuary a nd c ostume m ortuary a rts i ndicate h igher o r l ower

s tatus

a mong

t he d eceased

a t S itio C onte.

F inally, t here i s a r eciprocal r elationship b etween t he n umber o f i ndividuals i n a g rave a nd t he n umber o f m ortuary a rts. A s t he n umber o f i ndividuals i nterred i n e ach g rave i ncreases, t he q uantity o f m ortuary a rts a nd t he n umber o f d ifferent c lasses o f m ortuary a rts i ncreases. F or e xample, t he s ix g raves f rom c lusters I , I I a nd I II, c ontain s eventy-two, o r 2 6 p ercent, o f t he 2 01 i nterments a t S itio C onte a nd a verage t welve i nterments i n e ach g rave. T he g raves i n c lusters I V t hrough V II a verage j ust o ver t hree i nterments e ach, w hile t he g raves f ound i n c luster V III a verage o nly s lightly m ore t han o ne i nterment. I n c onclusion, n o m atter w hat c riteria--the n umber o f o bjects, t he v ariation i n t he t ype o f o bjects, o r t he n umber o f i nterments i n e ach g rave--are s elected a nd u sed t o a rrange a r ank o r s tatus o rdering o f t he c lusters, c lusters I , I I a nd I II r ise t o t he t op, a nd c lusters I V, V , V I, a nd V II f it i mmediately b elow t he t op t hree c lusters. T hese s even c lusters a re f ollowed b y a s harp b reak t o t he m ajority o f g raves f ound i n c luster V III. C lusters I X a nd X t end t oward a n a verage n umber o f m ortuary a rts a nd i nterments a nd, t hereby, b ridge t he d istance b etween t he t op s even c lusters a nd c luster V III. T he

d istribution

o r

o rganization 1 37

o f

t he m ortuary a rts

a mong

t he

c lusters a lso p rovides i nformation o n t he m eans o f s tatus a ttainment o r a chievement a mong t he a dult m ales o f S itio C onte. F or e xample, n o m ortuary a rts p redominate i n a ny o ther c luster w hich d o n ot r egularly a ppear i n t he g raves o f c lusters I , I I a nd I II. This p attern c onfirms t hat t he i dentification o f s tatus b y m ortuary a rts, e spec ially s umptuary o r c ostume i tems, i s, a s p ointed o ut, a n a dditive p rocess. T hat i s, a n i ndividual o f h igh s tatus r eceived s pecific " extra" m ortuary a rts w hich w ere i n a ddition t o t hose h e r eceived a s am ember o f a l ower s tatus l evel. F or e xample, s everal s pecific s umptuary a nd c ostume m ortuary a rts t end t o b e i solated t o t he t op r anking c lusters o f I , I I, a nd I II: m etal p laques ( Figs. 1 0-12), m etal d isks F ig. 2 6), m etal p endants ( Figs. 1 2 a nd 2 3), m etal g reaves f or t he w rists a nd a nkles F ig. 1 2), m etal h ead c overings s haped l ike a h elmet, b one t ubes, a nd w hale t eeth . T he b one t ubes w ere p robably e ither u sed f or " aprons" o r a s l arge b eads a nd, t herefore, m ay b e m ore p roperly c lassed w ith b one b eads. H owever, t he m etal d isks a re q uite d istinct f rom t he p laques. T he p laques a re g enerally d ecorated w ith r epoussé f igures a nd m easure b etween f ifteen a nd t wenty-five c entimeters i n d iameter ( Figs. 1 0-12). T he m etal d isks ( Fig. 2 6) a re s maller, m easuring f ive t o t en c entimeters i n d iameter, t hinner, a nd d o n ot d isplay a ny e xtensive d ecoration o ther t han p unched h oles a nd v ery s imple r epoussé g eometric p atterns. T hese d isks u sually h ave o ne o r t wo h oles w hich c ould h ave b een u sed f or a ttaching t hem t o g arments. T he r est o f t he a bove i tems w hich a re s egregated t o c lusters I , I I a nd I II, a re a lso c ostume i tems. M ost o f t he w hale t eeth, f or e xample, h ave h oles d rilled i n t he b asal e nd a nd w ere l ikely u sed a s p endants. T he a dditive p rocess o f s tatus a chievement r eflected i n t he d istribution o f t hese c ostume a nd s umptuary m ortuary a rts n eatly f its S axe's i dea t hat b urial p ractices a cknowledge a nd s ummarize t he d eceased's m ost c omplete s ocial i dentity o r p ersona. S axe p ointed o ut, m oreover, t hat t he m ortuary t reatment o f i ndividuals o f h igh r ank e xhibits a g reater n umber o f s tatuses b ecause t hey h ave i dentity r elationships w ith a w ider s egment o f t he m embers o f t he s ociety. M oreover, m any o f t hese i dentity r elationships a re w ith o ther h igh r anking m embers w ho, b ecause o f t heir p ower, a re m ore r egularly a cknowledged ( 1970:72). T he v ariation i n t he t ype o f s umptuary a nd c ostume o bjects w hich i s f ound i n t he e lite b urials o f S itio C onte s hould, t herefore, b e e xpected.

d oes

A t f irst g lance s uch a n n ot c losely p arallel

a dditive p attern o f s tatus r ecognition t he U . S . A rmy's m ethod o f s tatus

a cknowledgement a s r eflected i n t heir m ortuary a rts a nd t reatment. T he A rmy r ecognizes m ost r anks t hrough a p rocess o f f ormal c hanges i n t he t ype o f r ank e mblems. A c aptain's r ank, w e r ecall, i s a cknowl edged b y t wo s ilver b ars, a nd a m ajor i s r ecognized b y t he p resence o f a b rass c luster o n e ach s houlder. A m ajor, t he r ank i mmediately a bove t he c aptain, d oes n ot a lso d isplay h is c aptain 's e mblems a long w ith h is m ajor's e mblems. H e o nly d isplays t hose r ank e mblems w hich r epresent h is c urrent s tatus. Therefore, t he n umber o f s tatus e mblems i s r elatively c onstant a nd r ecognition i s e vident b y t he f ormal c hange i n t he d esign o f t he e mblem. I n a f ew o f t he r anks-e .g., e nlisted m en a nd g enerals--some m inor v ariations o ccur w hich a re o f a n a dditive n ature, s uch a s t he n umber o f s tripes r epresenting 1 38

t he

v arious

t he n umber

l evels o f

o f e nlisted

s tars

w hich

m en

d enote

a nd

n on-commissioned

d ifferent

t hese c ases t he t wo t ypes o f i ntegrated a nd s omewhat p arallel

s tatuses

o fficers

o f g enerals.

o r I n

s tatus r ecognition s ystems a re t he s ocial r ecognition m echanisms

u sed a t S itio C onte. H owever, s imilar

t o

o ne

t he

a spect

S itio

o f

C onte

U .S.

A rmy

a dditive

s tatus

s ystem

o f

r ecognition

i s

a cknowledging

Q uite

s tatus.

T he A rmy 's e mblematic d emarcation o f s ub-group a ffiliations, s uch a s p articipation i n p articular b attles, t he s hared c haracteristic o f h aving b een w ounded i n b attle, c ommendations o f b ravery, a nd s o f orth, i s p art o f a n a dditive r ecognition s ystem. T he s ocial i dentity o f a ny i ndividual i s c onstantly e nhanced b y t he a dditional d isplay o f t he t otal n umber o f s ub-group s tatuses a chieved. T hese e mblems a re d isplayed i n t oto; t he i ndividual d oes n ot d isplay o nly t he m ost r ecently a cquired m edal o f a s ub-group a ffiliation. T he n umber o f t hese m edals i s i ndicative o f h igher r ank s ince a s o ne i ncreases i n r ank--e.g., p rivate, c aptain, m ajor, a nd s o f orth--the n umber o f e arned I n

s ub-group a ffiliations

s ummary,

t he

d ifferential

a lso

t reatment

i ncreases. o f

a dult m ales

a t

S itio

C onte t hrough t he q ualitative a nd q uantitative v ariations i n t he m ortuary a rts--especially t hose o f a c ostume o r s umptuary t ype--is i ndicative o f a c hiefdom o r r anked s ociety. T he o rganizational p arallels o f t he S itio C onte r anking s ystem w ith S ervice's a nd t he U .S.

A rmy 's

p yramidal

m odels

o f

r anking

c orroborate

t his

i nterpre-

t ation. I t i s a lso c lear t hat s pecific t ypes o f mortuary a rts a cknowledge t hose r anks t hrough a n i ncrease i n t heir p resence. T he f inal i ssue t o b e a ddressed i s w hether a mong t he S itio C onte b urials, s pecific e mblems, d esigns, o r d ecorations a re a lso u sed t o e xpress r ank o r

s tatus.

T he V isual D imensions o f t he S itio C onte M ortuary A rts

T he

n umber

m ortuary a rts c onvincingly

o f p ossible

d esign e lements

f ound

o n

t he

S itio C onte

i s p otentially i nfinite. O lga L inares ( 1977:60) h as a rgued t hat s plitting u p t he C onte d esigns i nto a

l imitless h ost o f c omponent p arts w ould n ot f ruitfully y ield m eaningful r esults. H er a nalysis c entered o n i dentifiable f auna ( flora i s n otably a bsent f rom S itio C onte d esigns), a nd s he s elected t wenty c ategories, n amely, b ird, f ish, c rab, h ammer-headed s hark, s tingray, f rog, s nake, m arine w orm, n eedle f ish, t urtle, c rustacean, a rmadillo, o f-war, 3 9-41). d esigns

A mong s tudy

c urassow,

s corpion,

t ick,

s quid,

a nd h awk ( See L inares 1 977: F igs. H er s election o f t hese s ubjects f ound o n c eramic o bjects. t he

f rom

t wenty c ategories,

s ites

" related"

t o

s he

S itio

c rocodile,

f eline,

m an-

1 3, 2 2, 2 8-30, 3 5-37, i s p rimarily b ased o n

i ncluded C onte

v isual

a nd

s ubjects

f ound

i n

a nd t he

i n h er

t he

o ther

a reas o f V eraguas, A zuero a nd C od e s ites. T here i s n o c onvincing e vidence t hat t he v isual s ymbolic s ystem f rom t hese " related" s ites i s t he s ame, s hares s pecific m eanings w ith t he s ymbolic s ystem a t S itio C onte,

o r t hat

t he

s ocial

m eaning o f 1 39

t he

s ymbols

i s

t he

s ame o r

s imilar. A s a r esult, I h ave s elected f ifteen d esign s ubjects w hich w ere c hosen o nly f rom t he S itio C onte m ortuary a rts. T hese s ubjects i nclude f ish ( Figs. 1 6, 1 8), b ird ( Figs. 1 0, 1 6, 1 7, 2 5, 2 7, 2 8, 3 2), t urtle ( Figs. 9 , 1 6, 3 2), s nake ( Fig. 2 7), h uman ( Figs. 1, 1 2, 2 2, 2 4), c rab o r s imilar c rustacean ( Figs. 1 7, 1 8, 2 7, 2 8), i nsect ( Figs. 1 6, 1 8), b at ( Figs. 1 2, 2 3), a rmadillo ( Fig. 2 1), d eer ( Figs. 1 8, 2 8), s tingray ( Fig. 1 7), m onkey, c rocodile ( Figs. 9 -11, 1 7-20, 2 3-25, 2 7, 2 8), f rog o r t oad ( Fig. 2 1), a nd u nknown. A f ew o f L inares m ore s pecific s ubjects, s uch a s m arine w orm, s hark, n eedle f ish, s corpion, c urassow a nd h awk, a re s ubsumed b y s everal o f m y b roader c ategories. M oreover, s ubjects w hich d o n ot a ppear o n S itio C onte m ortuary a rts, s uch a s L inares' s quid, h ave b een e liminated f rom m y l ist. T he d istribution o f t he f ifteen v isual s ubjects i s n ot s urprising; i t p arallels q uite c losely t he d istribution o f t he t ypes o f m ortuary a rts ( Tables 3 4 a nd 3 5). E xcluding c luster V III f rom c onsideration, t he g raves i n c lusters I , I I a nd I II, w hich r ank h ighest i n r espect t o t he n umber a nd q uality o f m ortuary a rts, a lso c ontain t he g reatest n umber o r v ariety o f v isual s ubjects. F or e xa mple, c luster I ( graves 1 , 5 a nd 2 6) h ad a 6 0 p ercent f requency o f t he f ifteen s ubjects a nd c ontained 2 6 p ercent o f t he t otal n umber o f d esign o ccurrences, a veraging 8 .6 d esigns p er g rave. I n f act, i f t he r anking o f t he g raves i s b ased o n t he a verage n umber o f v isual s ubject c ategories p er g rave, i t c ontinues i n o rder f rom c luster I t hrough c luster X , w ith t he e xception o nly o f c luster V II ( grave 9 0) w hich j umps t o f ourth p lace. M oreover, t here a re n o d esigns w hich a re u nique t o t he g raves o f a ny o ne c luster e xcept f or t he m onkey, w hich a ppears o nly o nce a nd i s i solated t o g rave 3 2 o f c luster I I. N ot o nly d oes t he d istribution p attern o f d esigns o r s ubjects o n t he m ortuary a rts p arallel t he r anking o f t he g raves d erived f rom t he c luster a nalyses, b ut t he p attern o f t he p resence a nd a bsence o f t he d esigns c losely f ollows t he a dditive p attern o f r ank r ecognition a s d etermined b y t he m ortuary a rts t hemselves. T hat i s, i ncreased s tatus i s r ecognized b y a n umber o f d ifferent e mblems a nd n ot b y e xclusive u se o f o ne o r a nother o f t he e mblems o r v isual s ubjects. F or e xample c rocodiles a nd b irds a pparently r epresent c haracteristics c ommon t o a lmost a ll h igh s tatus i ndividuals b uried a t S itio C onte. C rocodiles a ppear i n o ne f orm o r a nother i n t wenty o f t he t wentyt hree t op g raves ( clusters I -VII, I X a nd X ), w hile b irds a re f ound i n f ifteen o f t hese s ame g raves. T he d ecrease o f e ight o ccurrences o f t his l atter s ub ject t akes p lace i n t he l ower s tatus g raves o f t he a bove n ine c lusters. S imilarly , a s t he r ank o f t he d eceased i n a p articular g rave r ises, t he n umber o f o ther v isual s ubjects f ound o n t he m ortuary a rts i n t hat g rave a lso i ncreases. T his p attern i s g raphically i llustrated i n T able 3 5. C luster I , f or e xample, h as a n a verage o f 8 .6 s ubjects p er g rave; c luster I I a verages n ine d esigns; c luster I II c ontains a pproximately 6 .5 s ub jects p er g rave; a nd s o o n d own t o c luster X w hich a verages j ust o ne d esign p er g rave. T he o nly c luster o ut o f s equence i s c luster V II ( grave 9 0) w hich a veraged s ix d esigns a nd, a s a r esult, f ollows c luster I II i n i ts f requency o f v isual s ubjects. A nalogous t o t he m ortuary a rt o b jects, t he v isual s ymbols f ound o n t hem d o a cknowledge s tatus, b ut n ot b y t heir e xclusivity t o 1 40

T able 3 4 S itio C onte: P resence/Absence o f D esign S ubjects ( exclusive o f C luster V III)

C luster I

I I I II I V V V I

G rave

D esign 1 2 3

I X

X

5

6

7

1 2 6 5 3 2 7 4 9 1

X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

2 2 4 1 3

X X X X X X X X X X X

1 6 4 6

X X X X

1 9 2 0

X X

2 3 V II

4

X X

8 1 1 00 8 8 9 3

X X X

9 5 8 6

X

9 1 0

X

X

X X

X

X

1

1 2

1 3

X X X X X

X

X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X

X

X X

X X

X

X

X

X

X X X

X X

X

X

X X

X X

X

X X

1 3-Armadillo;

1 5

X

X X

D esign S ubject C ode: 1 -Crocodile; 2 -Snake; 3 -Bird; 4 -Humanoid; 5 -Turtle; 6 -Crab; 7 -Insect; 8 -Fish; 9 -Frog; 1 0-Deer; 1 1-Sting R ay; 1 2-Bat;

1 4

X

X

X

6 8 9 0

8

1 4-Monkey

1 41

S itio C onte: S ubjects

T able 3 5 D istribution o f o f D esign

a mong G raves

( exclusive o f C luster V III)

G rave C luster Q uantity 8 6 9 5 S i

X I X I X

1 1 1

9 3 8 8

I X I X

2 7

6 8 9 0 1 6 1 00

V I V I V I X

2 2 2 3

2 3 1 9

V I V T

3 3

2 9 1 4 9 0

I V I II V I V II

4 5 5 6

6 2 4 1 3 7 4 3 2 1

V I I V V I II I I I

6 7 9 9 9 9

5 2 6

1 1

1 0 1 0

1 42

o ne o r a nother i ndividual. o f d ifferent e mblems t he

S tatus i s r ecognized b y d eceased w as e ntitled

t he t otal n umber t o d isplay, a n

a dditive p attern o f r ecognition. T he p arceling a mong t he g raves o f t he v isual s ubjects f ound o n t he S itio C onte m ortuary a rts v aries s ignificantly w ith t he t ype o f o bject. W ith t he e xception o f c eramics, t he d esigns a re c onfined t o s umptuary o r c ostume a rts s uch a s p endants, d isks, f igurines a nd f orth. A mong t hese o bjects, t he t otal n umber o f d ifferent d esigns r educed

f rom

t he

o riginal

f ifteen

t o

n ine.

T he

f requency

o f

s o i s

t hese

n ine d esigns m irrors t he l arger s ample o f f ifteen v isual s ubjects. F or e xample, c lusters I a nd I I a verage t hree a nd f ive d esigns r espec— t ively a nd s o o n d own t o t he l ower c lusters w hich a verage . 16, . 75, a nd o ne d esign a mong t he r espective c lusters o f V I, I X, a nd X . H owever, n o e mblems o r d esigns a re f ound o n n on—ceramic a rts w hich d o n ot a lso a ppear o n c eramics. T o t he c ontrary, c ertain e mblems s eem t o b e a lmost e xclusive t o c eramics, i ncluding b irds, t urtles, c rabs, i nsects, f ish, d eer, a nd s ting r ays. T his d istribution o f d esigns s upports t he a rgument t hat n on—ceramic, s umptuary a nd c ostume a rts c omprise a s pecial g roup o f m ortuary a rt o bjects. T heir i mportance i n v isualizing l evels o f s tatus d erives a s m uch f rom t heir m aterial a nd

c ontext a s

f rom

t he

s pecific m otifs

f ound

o n

t hem.

S ocial S tatus a nd t he S itio C onte M ortuary A rts

B oth t he d istribution o f m ortuary a rts, e specially s umptuary a nd c ostume o bjects, a nd t he d esigns d ecorating t hem, w ere g iven o ut o n t he b asis o f i ndividual p erformance. A n i ndividual's, s pecifically a n a dult m ale's, s tatus w as d emonstrated t o h is s ociety t hrough t he t otal n umber o f s tatuses r ecognized b y t he m ortuary a rts. S uch a s ystem h as b een d escribed b y S ervice ( 1962:154-164) a s a n a chieved s ystem

a nd

i s

a n ormal

c omponent

o f

p articular

t ypes

o f

c hiefdoms.

O ther r esearchers w orking w ith t he S itio C onte m ortuary r emains h ave d rawn c onclusions w hich s upport t he a pplication o f S ervice's s ocial t ypology. F or e xample, L othrop, s ummarizing f or t he m ost p art O viedo's d escriptions o f t he i nhabitants o f t he C entral R egion o f P anamä a t t he t ime o f t he C onquest, n oted t hat t he s ub—chiefs c alled c abra [ were p ositions w hich] c ould b e w on o nly b y a d eed o f v alor . . . I t w as m ost o ften g ranted t o a w arrior w ho f ought f iercely . . . S ons o f a c abra i nherited t he t itle o n h is d eath b ut t hey r etained i t o nly i f t hey d edicated

t hemselves

t o w arfare

( 1937:22).

A lthough w e n ow k now t he S itio C onte g raves d ate f ive t o n ine h undred y ears e arlier t han O viedo's o bservations w hich g uided L othrop, t he m ethod o f s tatus a cquisition d escribed a bove i s a pplicable t o S itio C onte a nd c learly d escribes a n a chieved s tatus s ystem w ith s ome i ncipient c haracteristics o f a scribed s tatus. M ore

r ecently,

H elms

( 1979)

h as 1 43

c ontinued

t he

a pplication

o f

p ost-Conquest S panish a rticulated t hrough C onsequently, H elms L inares, h owever,

s ources t o f lesh o ut t he s ocial d ynamics t he mortuary r emains o f S itio C onte.

a rrived a t c onclusions s imilar t o L othrop's. w as more c autious i n h er a pplication o f

e thnohistoric s ources; y et, b ased o n a c ombination o f a rchaeological e vidence, s ocial t heory, a nd t he e arly p ost-Conquest S panish s ources, s he a lso i mplies t hat i ncreases o r c hanges i n s tatus w ere a ttained p rimarily t hrough p ersonal a chievement ( Linares 1 977:31, 7 0-72). W ithin t heir a nalyses o f t he s ocial d ynamics o f S itio C onte s ociety, s everal o f t he a bove s cholars h ave a ttempted t o d etermine m ore e xact m eanings f or s pecific d esigns o r e mblems f ound o n t he S itio C onte mortuary a rts. L othrop ( 1937:115,133, a nd 1 59) t entatively s uggested t hat s ome mortuary a rts, s uch a s m etal " helmets" ( Lothrop 1 937:Fig. 1 07), p laques ( Figs. 1 0-12), a nd g reaves ( Fig. 1 2), s ymbolically r epresented a p articular i ndividual's h igh s tatus. H owever, h is a ccounts o f S itio C onte e xhibited m ore i nterest i n d escribing t he r ange o r t ype o f a rts t han i n a scribing s ocial s ignificance t o t hem a nd, a s a r esult, h e d id n ot e xplain h is i nterpretations i n d epth. O n

t he

o ther

h and,

t he

w orks

o f

H elms

a nd

L inares

d evoted

c onsiderable s pace t o d emonstrating a nd a rguing f or t he s ocial s ignificance o f s pecific d esigns o r e mblems f ound o n t he S itio C onte m ortuary a rts. H elms s uggested, f or e xample, t hat e ar p ieces, n ose r ings, a nd p lates ( e.g., F igs. 1 0-12, 2 6) " worn b y t he a ncient P anamanians . . . s tood a s m etaphors f or p roper h uman . . . b ehavior a nd i dentified t he i ndividual w earer a s a p articipant i n t his o rdered [ society]" ( 1979:81-83). I n t he d evelopment o f t his a nd o ther a rguments, H elms r elied h eavily o n a nalogies b etween p re-Conquest P anamanian l ife a nd t wentieth c entury S an B las C una c ulture o f t he A tlantic c oast o f P anamä. I p ropose [ she w rites] t hat t here p robably w as a c omplex o f m etaphors a ssociating c hiefship w ith t he s olar-celestial r ealm, w ith b rightn ess, a nd w ith g old. I h ave a rgued t hat t he m etaphorical ' golden c lothing' w orn b y T ad I be [ a C una m ythic p ersonage] i n h is m ythical c omb ats w as e videnced l iterally i n t he g olden p lates a nd h elmets, g reaves, a nd . anklets w orn b y p re-Columbian P anamanian w arriors a nd r ulers i n l ife a nd i n d eath. . . . ( 1979:95-96) S he c ontinued b y f inding s omewhat n ovel C onte p olychrome p ottery w hich, a ccording p rimarily

b lack

a nd

r ed

( a

r ather

s ymbolic m eaning i n S itio t o h er r econstruction, w as

m isleading

o bservation

b ecause

t hese c eramics w ere p ainted i n w hite, o range, b lue, p urple, b lack, a nd s everal s hades o f r ed). A gain, f ollowing C una a nd o ther t ropical p eoples' b eliefs, H elms c oncluded t hat: . . . t his p airing o f r ed a nd b lack w as n ot a ccidental b ut w as m eaningful w ithin a s ymbolic c ontext . . . t he c ombination [ of c olors] m ay b e t entatively i nterpreted a s s ymbolic o f t he d ynamics a nd r enewal o f l ife ( 1979:96). 1 44

One l ast e xample o f i nterweaving t emporally a nd

H elms' a rguments, w hich s patially d istant c ultures,

d epend f ocuses

o n o n

h er r einterpretation o f t he c rocodile m otif ( e.g., F ig. 2 4), a c ommon s ubject f ound o n S itio C onte c eramics a nd l uxury m ortuary a rts. O n t he b asis o f a s urvey o f A merican t ropical f orest m ythology, H elms s uggested t hat i n p re-Columbian t imes t here e xisted a n a ssociation b etween i guanas, s olar f orms o f " cosmic e nergy," a nd " chiefship" ( 1979:97). Following h er a rgument, t he p reviously i dentified c rocodile c ertainly

m otif w as, i n m any c ases, a ctually a n i guana. T his i s p ossible a nd q uite r easonable. B ut t he s uggestion t hat

t his m otif h ad a ny a ssociation w ith c osmic e nergy i s n ot s trongly s upported w ith e vidence f ound w ithin t he c ontext o f p re-Conquest, e specially S itio C onte, c ulture. M oreover, t he u biquitousness o f t he c rocodile/iguana m otif a ctually a rgues a gainst i ts s ignificance a s a s ymbol o f c hiefly r ank. I t w ould b e e xpected t hat a s ymbol w hich s ingularly e xpresses c hiefship w ould b e l ess u niversal a mong t he b urials o f S itio C onte. I n f act, d ue t o t he u biquity o f t he m otif, i t m ay b e m ore s trongly a rgued t hat i f t he c rocodile/iguana d esign h ad s ocial s ignificance i t w as e ither a t erritorial e mblem o r a s ymbol w hich s tood f or a b roadly o rganized p olitical u nit a nd n ot t he s ocial p osition o f t he i ndividual c hief. M any o f H elms' i nterpretations p rovide p rovocative m eanings f or s pecific S itio C onte m ortuary a rts a nd d esigns; a nd h er a rguments b ased o n b road a nalogies a nd t he a pplication o f e thnohistoric a nd e thnographic i nformation t o t emporally a nd s patially d istant c ultures a re i ntriguing. H er d iscussion o f S itio C onte r elied h eavily o n S panish e thnohistoric a ccounts a lthough t he n ecropolis w as n ot i n f ull u se f or s everal h undred y ears a s a m ortuary s ite i mmediately p rior t o o r d uring t he C onquest. M oreover, s he a ttempted t o r econstruct e xacting a gents o f c entral P anamanian s ocial l ife t hrough j uggling t he S panish a ccounts w ith t he c ulture h istory o f t he C una. I n s ummary o f h er m ethodology, s he s tates t hat: A lthough g eneral f eatures o f s ettlement p attern a nd s ubsistence a re p rovided i n t he H ispanic a ccounts, t he e thnohistorical m aterials a re d eficient o n m any t opics r elevant t o s ociopol itical s tructure a nd f unction. F urthermore, w hat d ata a re a vailable a re f ragmentary a nd i ncomplete. S ome i nsights c an b e g leaned, h owever, i f t he e vidence i s c ompared w ith c har acteristics o f c hiefdoms f rom o ther a reas w here d ata a re m ore s atisfactory. T his m ethod ology a ssumes t hat, w hile d etails m ay b e e xpected t o v ary, a m easure o f r egularity a nd p redictability e xists w ith r espect t o t he g eneral s tructural a nd f unctional c haracteri stics o f r ank s ocieties w herever t hey a ppear ( 1979:11). H elms p roceeded t o e xamine " relationships b etween c hiefly s tatus a nd p ower, r egional a nd l ong-distance e xchange n etworks, a nd t he a cquisition o f e soteric k nowledge" ( 1979:1). H er c onstruction o f v ery c omplex c hains o f a rguments b ased o n t he c ross f ertilization o f 1 45

S panish s ources, e xamples o f o ther c hiefdoms f rom a round t he w orld, a nd e thnographic i nformation a bout t he C una, d eserve s cholarly a ttention. T he a rchaeological r ecord, a t l east a s o f t his w riting, d oes n ot p rovide t he i nformation o r d ata r equired t o s upport o r r efute H elm's r econstructions o f c entral P anamanian s ociety b efore t he S panish C onquest. While h er m ethodology m ay n ot o ffer a ny i ndependent m eans t o e valuate h er c onclusions, h er i nterest a nd o bservations a bout r anking o r c hiefdoms i n P anamä h as p rovided p rovocative C onquest c ultural

d iscriminations

a nd

e xacting

c haracterizations

s ocial s tatus, c osmology, i deology, d imensions o f t hese s ocieties.

e conomics,

o f

a nd

p reo ther

B ut H elms' r econstructions, a re i mportant t o m e f or a l ess o bvious r eason: s he g ave m ore a ttention t o t he i mportance o f n onc eramic o bjects i n h er a nalyses o f t he s ocial m eaning o f S itio C onte m ortuary a rts. L inares, p erhaps f ollowing t he s trong p redilection a mong a rchaeologists t o d epend h eavily o n c eramics a s t he p rimary a rtifactual r esource f rom c eramic-yielding a rchaeological s ites, r elied h eavily o n t hese o bjects i n h er p rovocative s ocio-ecological a nalysis o f t he s ame m ortuary a rts. H owever, L inares' a nalysis w as b ased o n t he k nown a rchaeological r ecord, a nd h er a rguments a nd d iscussion o f t he s ocial d ynamics o f S itio C onte m ortuary a rts m ore p articular r elevance t o t his s tudy.

a re o f

F ollowing h er e arlier w ork ( 1976; a lso s ee t he m ore r ecent s tudy b y L inares a nd R anere 1 980, a nd t hat o f C ooke 1 976 a nd 1 984, a nd I chon 1 974), L inares p roposes a n e volutionary c ulture h istory f or t he C entral R egion o f P anamA. B riefly, s he s uggests t hat t he p re-1000 B .C. p re-Conquest c ultures o f t his r egion e mphasized a daptive p rocesses w hich f ocused o n s easonally n omadic e xploitation o f l acust rine a nd r iverine e nvironments, f ollowed b y t he i ntroduction o f s eed a griculture, p rimarily o riented t oward m aize a nd b eans ( 1000-200 B .C.). S mall s edentary a gricultural v illages, w hich a ccompanied a g rowing d ependence o n a griculture, w ere f ollowed b y i ncreased a gricultural s endentism a long t he r ivers; b ut t he s mall v illages d id n ot c ompletely d isappear ( 200 B .C.- 5 00 A .D.). T he g rowth o f l arger, r iver-bank a gricultural v illages c oincided w ith a n i ncrease i n s ocial complexity, p opulation, t erritoriality, a nd agricul tural i ntensification ( 500-1500 A .D.). T he m aterial f rom S itio C onte s pans t he l ast t wo e volutionary p eriods, b ut t he s ite w as m ost a ctively u sed a s a c emetery b etween 5 00 a nd 1 000 A .D., o r C ooke's P hase V -VI. L inares

a rgued

t hat,

a s

p opulation s piraled

a fter A .D.

• . . t he r ivalry f or l and, a nd f or c ontrol o f c rafts a nd t rade r outes, a lso i ncreased.

S tatus d ifferences d ynamics o f w arfare f ull

f orce

a t

t he

w ere a ccentuated. T he a nd c ompetition w ere i n

t ime

t he S paniards c ame.

T he

c entral P anamanian g roups b ecame t ypical r anks ocieties, n either c ompletely e galitarian n or m arkedly s tratified. . . . [ T]he m ost r anked s ocial g roups [ were] i n t he d riest s ector o f t he c ountry [ e.g., t he S itio C onte a rea]. H ere s urvival, o r a t l east p rosperity, d epended o n t he c ontrol o f r iverine t racts f or a griculture 1 46

5 00:

a nd L inares'

t rade

( 1977:31).

o bservations

s upport,

i t

s hould

b e

p ointed

I nterpretation t hat a r anked s ociety o r c hiefdom i s t he I nterments a nd m ortuary a rts f rom S itio C onte.

o ut,

r esponsible

t he f or

C ooke's m ore r ecent o utline ( 1984) o f t he c ulture h istory o f t he C entral R egion o f P anamA u nderscored L inares' a nd h is e arlier r econstructions ( 1976). B oth s cholars e mphasized t he i ndigenous r egional d evelopment o f t he h ighly a ccentuated s tatus s ystem o bserved b y t he S panish i n t he s ixteenth c entury . T chon ( 1974) a nd H elms ( 1979), o n t he o ther h and, p roposed t hat m any o f t he i mportant s tatus g oods--e.g., g old a nd f inely p ainted c eramics--were i mported, a long w ith s ocial d ynamics, f rom o utside o f t he r egion. T he e xacting r econstruction o f t he c eramic d evelopment a nd t he i dentification o f a p attern o f l ocal s ocial e volution i n t he C entral R egion b y C ooke ( 1972, 1 976a, a nd 1 984) s hould p ut t o r est, f inally, t he n otion t hat P anamanian c ultural c hange a nd g rowth w as p rimarily a f unction o f d iffusion a nd e xternal

s timuli.

L inares' s tudy o f t he s ocial s ignificance o f t he S itio C onte m ortuary a rts c ontinued w ith a s ummary o f t he P eabody M useum's e xcavations. M ason's w ork a t t he s ite w as a cknowledged a nd c ited; b ut s ince h is e xcavations w ere n ever p ublished, L inares d epended p rimarily o n L othrop's p ublications. A fter a r eview a nd i nventory o f t he g rave g oods f ound a t t he s ite, s he t urned h er a ttention a lmost e xclusively t o c eramics, a rguing t hat t he s hapes o f t he c eramic o bjects ( e.g., c arafes, r ectangular t rays, l arge p lates, a nd o versized b owls) a re f unctionally a wkward h ut: . . . f rom a nother p erspective t hese s hapes a re j ust r ight. F or i n t heir s implicity, i n t heir f latness, o r i n t he u ncluttered b roadness o f t heir e xposed s urfaces, t hey a re a dmirably s uited f or e ase o f d ecoration a nd f or m aximum e nhancement o f a ny p ainted d esign ( 1977:46). I n

r espect

t o

t he

t ype

o f

m otifs

p ainted

o n

t he

c eramics,

s he

c oncluded " that t he m ore f lat a nd o pen t he s urface, t he l arger t he r epertoire o f m otif e lements" ( 1977:51). L inares n arrowed h er f ocus t o t he d epictions o f a nimals f ound o n c eramic o bjects, p rimarily v essels. W hat d istinguishes t his c eramic t radition i n g eneral, s he n oted, i s t he: . . s killful w ay i n w hich a rtists c hose t o p ortray c ertain a nimals, i n c ertain p ostures, a nd w ith c ertain t raits e mphasized. I n s pite o f e xtreme s tylization a nd t he c ommon p ractice o f c ombining a ttributes f rom s everal s pecies, i t i s p ossible t o i dentify t o a s urprising d egree t hese ' fantastic' m otifs ( 1977:60). T hese s pecies i nclude, a s n oted p reviously , c rab, b ird, h ammer-headed s hark, s tingray, f rogs, s nakes, m arine w orms, n eedle f ish, t urtles, c rustaceans, a rmadillos, c urassow, s corpion, t ick, s quid, c rocodile, f eline, m an-of-war, a nd h awk. 1 47

I n o rder a rgued t hat,

t o

h eighten

t he

s ocial

c harge o f t hese m otifs,

L inares

. . . a t t he l evel o f t he i conography i tself, a nd b y a s ort o f l ogical e xtension, t he a nimals p ortrayed i n c entral P anamanian a rt w ere h ighly v alued a s t he s ource o f p araphernalia u sed t o e stablish s tatus a nd r ank ( 1977:61). S he s pecifically c alled a ttention t o b ird b one n ecklaces, a prons a nd b racelets; s ting r ay s pines a nd s hark t eeth p oints; c anine a nd o ther a nimal t ooth n ecklaces; a nd a " great p rofusion" o f t urtle c arapices. B irds, s tingrays, a nd s harks a re f requently f ound p ainted o n S itio C onte m ortuary c eramics. T he r elationship a mong t he a nimals p ortrayed o n t he m ortuary a rts a nd t he m aterial o r " source" o f t he r egalia i s n ot s trong. A b rief r eview o f t he c ontents o f t he g raves ( see e ither L othrop 1 937 o r A ppendix 5 ) r eveals, f or e xample, t hat t urtle c arapices w ere n ot v ery p rofuse i n t he S itio C onte g raves. F or e xample, a mong t he " elite" b urials f ound i n c lusters I -VII, s ix g raves h ad c arapices, a nd i n e ach c ase t hey s erved a s " bedding" f or t he i nterments. T he o ther o b jects c ited a bove, s uch a s b ird b one n ecklaces, s hark 's t eeth, s tingray s pines, a nd s o f orth w ere f ound i n S itio C onte g raves. B ut t he e vidence t hat t he a nimals w hich s erved a s t he r aw m aterials f or s ome m ortuary a rts a nd a ppeared a s m otifs o n c eramic v essels f ormed a r egular a nd m eaningful p attern o f c ombining m otif a nd m aterial, w hich c ulminated i n a h ighly v alued a nd, t herefore, m ore " loaded" s tatus e mblem, i s n ot o verwhelming. I n f act, b y e xamining s pecific r elationships a mong m aterial a nd s ymbol, t he e vidence t ends t o r efute a ny r egular i nterplay b etween t hem . F or e xample, i n m any i nstances a n a nimal m otif a ppears a nd n o o bjects m ade f rom t he r emains o f t hat p articular a nimal c an b e f ound. I n o ther c ases, t he o bjects m ade f rom a nimal r emains a re f ound b ut t he a nimal d oes n ot a ppear i n a ny m otifs, e .g., w hales a nd m anatees. I n a ddition, a n o verwhelming n umber o f o bjects f ound i n S itio C onte g raves a re m ade o f m etal, s tone a nd c eramic--materials w hich b ear l ittle r elation t o f aunal r esources. L inares' i mportant a nd i ntriguing a rguments c oncerning t he m eaning o f S itio C onte m ortuary r emains s tem f rom a n e cological p erspective, s ummarized i n h er a nalysis o f t he c ultural o r s ymbolic p arallels o f t he f auna f ound o n t he m ortuary a rts w ith t he b ehavioral c haracteristics o f t hese s ame a nimals. S he p ointed o ut, f or e xample, t hat t he a nimals w hich a re d epicted o n t he m ortuary a rts a re, g enerally , r epellent, d angerous, h ave h ard b ody p arts, " charge," h ave a " pinch" o r " sting," a re c ryptic, e at p eople, o r a re p redatory ( 1977:65-70). C onversely a nimals t hat d o n ot a ppear o r a re u ncommon i n t he a rt h ave s oft b ody p arts o r a re v ulnerable. . . . T he g eneral r ule s eems t o h ave b een t hat c ommon, e veryday a nimals w hich w ere e aten w ere n ot p ortrayed ( Linares 1 977:67). 1 48

L inares e xtended h er a rgument t o e xplain t hat t he a nimals p ortrayed o n t he c eramics s ymbolically a nd p ractically r epresented a ttributes w hich w ould h elp w arriors a nd o thers s eeking u pward m obility t hrough a ggressively a chieved r anks. T o c onclude, w as c entered

t he c entral P anamanian a rt o n a r ich s ymbolic s ystem

s tyle u sing

a nimal m otifs m etaphorically t o e xpress t he q ualities o f a ggression a nd h ostility w hich c haracterized t he s ocial a nd p olitical l ife o f t his a nd l ater p eriods i n t he c entral p rov inces. . . . I t s eems t o m e t hat t hey w ere e mphasizing c ertain v alues, m ost e specially t hose t hat 1 977:70).

w ould

b e

h eld

b y

I t i s i mportant t o e mphasize, a gain, s tatus w as a warded t hrough a chievement.

w arriors

t hat

( Linares

L inares

c oncluded

t hat

W ithout h esitation, a ll s cholars h ave a greed t hat t he m ortuary a rts o f S itio C onte a nd t he c ontexts i n w hich t hey w ere f ound a re s ymptomatic o f a s ociety w hose m embers w ere a gressively a chieving r ank. W hile t his i s t he f irst s tudy t o d ocument a nd e xamine a ll t he k nown g raves f rom S itio C onte, m y c onclusions s upport r ather t han a lter t his g eneral v iew . H owever, t he m eaning o f t his g eneral v iew t o t he c ulture h istory o f t he C entral R egion o f P anamä i s n ot s o b roadly s hared. L inares ( 1977) a nd C ooke ( 1976, 1 984) v igorously a rgued t hat t he e ntire C entral R egion o f P anamä w as p art o f a s ocio-economic s ystem w hich e xhibited a l arge d egree o f c ultural h omogeneity. L inares a sserted, f or e xample, t hat: A pparently t he e ntire P acific l owland a rea o f c entral P anamä w as a t t his t ime ( 500-1500 A .D.) p articipating i n a u nified c ultural s ystem b ased o n t he e xploitation o f s imilar m icroe nvironments. A t t he l evel o f a rtistic s tyle, t his u nity w as e xpressed i n a d istinctive p olyc hrome p ottery t radition a nd i n c ommon s tylist ic c onventions i n t he m aking o f e laborate f unerary o bjects i n g old, a ssorted b one m ater ials, a nd p recious s tone ( 1977:31). C ooke ( 1976) h as b een m ore c autious i n h is a ssessment o f t he m eaning o f t he b road s imilarities i n c eramic t echnology a mong t he P hase I V t hrough V II, b ut m ore e specially t he P hase I V a nd V , s ites o f t he r egion. H is p rimary i nterest h as b een t o d emonstrate t hat t he r egion's c eramics

c eramic t o t he

s equences f rom t he e arliest p lastic e laborately p ainted p olychromes o f

d ecorated t he l ater

M acaracas s tyle ( late P hase V I, a pproximately 1 100 A .D.) w ere a n i ndigenous P anamanian d evelopment. B ut h e a lso p roposed t hat t he s ocial s ignificance o f t he p resence o r a bsence i n m ortuary c ontexts o f p articular c eramic t ypes, c ostume o r l uxury g oods, o r o f l arge q uantities

o f

g ood

a re

s ignificant 1 49

o n

a r egional

l evel

f or

t he

i dentification o f s ocial c omplexity a nd d egrees o f r anking. H e c oncluded, f or e xample, t hat t he T onosi c eramic t ype d efined b y I chon ( 1974, 1 980), . . .w as a l uxury i tem t hat w as p roduced n ot j ust i n s outhern L os S antos a nd V eraguas, b ut a t t hose i mportant v illages o ver t he C entral R egion w hich w ere i n p ositions f avorable f or t he i mport a nd e xploitation o f t he r aw m aterials n ecessary f or i ts m anufacture. T he d istribution o f t he T onosi p ottery s hould d epend u pon s ocial c ontext, r ather t han r egional g eography a lone ( 1984:288). C ooke w ent o n t o s uggest t hat t he u ncommoness o f T onosi p ottery a t S itio S ierra i n C oc16 p rovince w as b ecause t his s ite p robably w as a l ow-rank v illage ( 1984:289). A n u nderlying a ssumption o f n umerous i nterpretations o f t he S itio C onte m aterial i s t hat a s tatus o b ject o r d esign f rom o ne s ite h as a n a nalogous s ocial f unction w hen f ound a t a nother s ite w hich s hares a c ertain ( but u nspecified) t emporal a nd s patial p roximity. I t h as b een s uggested, f or e xample, i n c onjunction w ith T onosi c eramics a s w ell a s w ith c ostume a nd s umptuary g oods s uch a s a gate p endants, t umbaga o bjects, a nimal b one b eads, a nd s o f orth ( Cooke 1 984:290). I n o ther a nalyses, a s n oted e arlier, S itio C onte c eramic d esigns a re m ixed w ith t he d esigns o n c eramics f rom " related" o r " homcgeneous" s ites l ocated i n T onosi, V eraguas, a nd o ther a reas. O ne s pecific e xample w as t he i nclusion o f t he o ctopus f ound o n c eramics f rom T onosi b ut n ot p resent o n a ny c eramics o r i n a ny o ther f orm a t S itio C onte. T he c oncept o f a n h omogenized n etwork o f s ocial g roups i n t he C entral R egion d oes n ot e xplain e ither t he e xpected r esults o f t he " normal p rocesses o f f ision a nd f usion s o c ommon o f t ropical-forest c ultivators i n t heir e xpansionist p hase" ( Linares 1 977:31) o r t he d emonstrated v ariability i n t he a rchaeological a nd a rtistic r ecord. I n a d iscussion o f t he f ormation o f c hiefdoms, S ervice n oted t hat t ribes, . . .e xpand i n a n a rea b y f issioning, c reating a dditional g roups w hich l argely r eplicate e ach o ther. C hiefdoms, o n t he o ther h and, t end t o e xpand b y a s ort o f b udding o ff o f f amilies t hat h ave l ow p otentiality i n t he i nheritance s cheme ( 1962:166). T herefore, w hile a s plinter g roup m ay s hare a t echnological b ase w ith i ts l arger, " mother" g roup, i ts s maller p opulation a nd n eed f or p olitical a nd t erritorial d efinition w ould s uggest t hat b oth t he s ocial c omplexity a nd s ymbolic s ystem u sed t o a cknowledge t erritory a nd l ineage o r s tatus w ould b e d ifferent ( see P log 1 980 f or a n e xa mple). F ried's o bservations o n r ank s ocieties s upport t his v iew : I n r ank s ociety v illages t end t o e xist a s l argely i ndependent, a utonomous s ocial s ystems, 1 50

a lthough most h ave s ome p oint o r p oints a t w hich t hey a re a rticulated w ith a l arger a nd u sually c ooperative n etwork. . . . A part f rom k inship a lliances, t he h ierarchical r ank s tructure o f a v illage t ends t o b e s pecific t o i t. . . ( 1967:119). R ather t han e xpecting a u niformity i n t he s ocial d ynamics a nd a rtistic e xpressions o f t he C entral R egion o f P anamä, w e s hould e xpect c onsiderable v ariation i n v illage s ize, l ocation o f v illages, d egrees o f r anking, a nd e mblematic r ecognition o f s tatus, a mong o ther t hings. W hile t echnological v ariation m ay b e m inimal a mong t he v arious v illages, i deo-functional v ariation m ay b e q uite d ivergent. T herefore, t he v ariation i n t he s ocial c ontext a nd m eaning o f m ortuary a rts w itnessed a mong t he s ites o f t he T onosi v alley a nd b etween t hese s ites a nd S itio C onte i s m ore i mportant t han t he s imilarities l argely e xpressed t hrough m aterial t echnologies. T he a bsence o f t he o ctopus d esign, f or e xample, o n S itio C onte m ortuary c eramics a nd i ts p resence o n t he T onos1 c eramics i s m ore s ignificant i n t his r espect t han t he t echnological s imilarity o f t hese s ame c lay v essels.

1 51

I V.

C ONCLUSIONS

O ne o f t he p rimary c ontributions o f t his s tudy t o t he p reC onquest c ulture a nd a rt h istory o f t he C entral R egion o f P anamä l ies i n t he c larification o f t he l inkages b etween m ortuary a rt a nd s ocial d ynamics o f s pecific v illages. T he v illage-by-village i nvestigation o f t he p re-Conquest b urials f rom E l I ndio, L a C af laza, E l C afetal, a nd S itio C onte h as d emonstrated t hat t he p eoples o f t his a rea v isually e xpressed d iverse s tatuses t hrough g rave g oods a nd t he s ymbols f ound o n t hem w ere, i n g eneral, u nique o r s pecific t o e ach s ite. T he

e xpression

o f

s ocial

s tatus

t hrough

t he

m ortuary

a rts

f rom

t he g raves o f t he T onosl V alley s ites o f E l I ndio, L a C af iaza, a nd E l C afetal i s, f or e xample, s ui g eneris i n e ach g roup o f g raves. T he e arliest, o r I chon 's P hase I I ( 250 B .C.-500 A .D.), b urials f rom E l I ndio r eserved t he m ost e laborate m ortuary a rts, i n t his c ase t he p olychrome c eramic " dobles" ( or c ompound s ilhouette v essels [ Fig. 1 ]), f or t he g raves o f c hildren. T hese b urials, h owever, d id n ot c ontain a w ide r ange o f c ostume o r s umptuary o bjects. O n t he o ther h and, t he E l C afetal m ortuary a rts, w hich d ate f rom t he s ame p eriod, i ncluded a m uch h igher n umber o f c ostume o r l uxury a rts i ncluding, f or e xample, t umbaga p endants. I n a ddition, a nd u nlike t he c ontemporary E l I ndio g raves, t he b urials f rom E l C afetal w ere o rganized i nto a f ormal c emetery. D espite t he s ignificant d ifferences b etween t hese s ites, t he d istribution o f t he a ttendant m ortuary a rts--especially i n c omparison w ith t he l ocation, a ge, a nd s ex o f t he i nterments--indicate t hat t hey a re c ontemporaneous e galitarian s ocieties. A lthough g eneral l evel

t he s ite o f E l C afetal s eems t o h ave o f s ocial o rganization a s P hase I I E l

h ad t he s ame I ndio a nd L a

C a f iaza, t he d istribution a nd t he t ypes o f m ortuary a rts a lso a ppear t o h ave m uch i n c ommon w ith t he P hase I II ( 500-1000 A .D.) b urials a t E l I ndio. F or e xample, t he s patial a rrangement o f t he E l C afetal g raves s uggests t hat a f ormal c emetery m ay h ave b een p resent a t t he s ite; w hat i s m ore, t he i solation o f s pecific a rt w orks--i.e., t hose m ade o f g old o r t umbaga--to g raves l ocated i n o ne s ection o f t he s ite i ndicates n umber o f

s pecial t reatment i nterments ( 10 o f

f or a s elect g roup. F inally, a l arge 3 8 g raves, c ompared w ith 1 o f 3 7 g raves

a t E l I ndio [ Phase I I]) c ontain c ostume o r s umptuary a rts. I n s pite o f t hese a ffinities w ith t he P hase I II b urials f rom E l I ndio, t he c riterion

o f

a ge,

e videnced

t hrough

t he

s kewed

d istribution

o f

d obles, l ithics, s hell, b one, a nd m etal a rts, i s s till d ominant a mong t hese g raves. T his f actor, o n t he o ther h and, s tresses t he s imilarity t o P hase I I E l I ndio b urials. I n c onsideration o f t hese c ircumstances, i t i s a ll t he m ore r easonable t o e xpect s ubstantial

1 52

v ariation

i n

o rganization a r ather

t he

s mall

t he T onosi A s

s ocial

a mong

a nd

g eographic

I h ave

a lready

P hase

I II

( or

A .D.)

g raves

f rom E l

e arlier E l C afetal s ites

w ere

t he

a s

I T

f rom

o f

U nlike

t heir

g raves

a t

c ondition

o f

a re

t hat

t he

t he

I I

i n

c orner

o f

s hould

c ompared g raves f rom

s uggests

w ith

d id

t hat

a

o f

n eatly

s ocial

t he

p roblems

E l

b urials.

a nd

s hell

r efined

p endants.

I TT

t hese

c hildren's c ostume

i tems w ere

t o

w hen

t he t he

d ata,

o f

n ot

a lthough

a t L a

T h asten

c luster

I II

g raves

f rom

t his

v ery

f act

s hared

w ith

t he

s imilar

s ymbolic

u se

t he

t hey

w ith

p hysical

f indings

H owever,

o f

i n

a rts

t he

P hase

t echnologically

w as

t he

o f

I ndio.

s ystem

s tatus

m ortuary

r esults

s ize

c luster,

s ites

w ith

P hase

o wing

a mbiguous

s ample

d ifferent

o f

I ndio

n on—ceramic

C af iaza

a c aution

t hose

n ot

r epresentation a nalytical

t he

a s

c ontemporary

L a

i mpractical

s mall

s erve

E l

a nte—cedent

P hase

p endants;

s pecific

a nd

t he

a nd

m ortuary

I II

c omplex

o f

a

t he

a nd

t he

n umber

i n

s imilarities,

g raves.

w as

o bjects

h owever,

l uxury

f ound

c hildren's

v isually

t he

t hese

P hase

t he

c eramics

a l arge

o f

a mong

T he

h ighlighting

b eads

o f

l evels

t hese

1 100

w ith

o r

w ere

t he

t o

b oth

c ostume

f ound o f

5 00

c ommon

4 ),

% spite

m ost

r emarks,

f rom

a nd ( Fig

p ractice

t he

i n

b urials

s tatus

b y

c hildren's

M oreover,

C af iaza

o f

c ounterparts, s hell

h ave m uch

I II

p olychrome

c ontained

s tatus

a nalyses. s ite

s ocial

l ocated

s outheast

c oncluding

f igurines

t he

e arned

i dentification

L a

a s

a pproximately

g raves.

s ite

i ncluding

P hase

p articular

g raves

s ame

s uch a s

t hese

V /VI,

c onsiderably.

c ontinued

I ndio

t he

f rom

w ell

v illages

t he

c emeteries,

o r

d iffered

e arlier

E l

f ormal

e xpressions

s ite

i n

T he P hase

i ndividual

t he

t his

m ortuary a rts,

T he

o f

e xample,

a rts,

i n

a s

o r

c ase

a nd L a C af iaza

a s

s ites

f rom

y outh

f ound

a rts

g roups

t his

P hase

p endants

v isual

f or

m ortuary

I ndio

s hell

t hese

b urials

T he

i n

m entioned

b urials.

n umber

s pecific

g raves,

a rea,

C ooke's

o rganized

s uch

s ignificant a rts

o f

d iscrete

V alley.

l ater

g oods,

d imensions

w ithin

o r

o bjects,

emblematic

C af iaza.

I n

t o p oint

o ut

s pite t hat

o f t he

L a C af iaza g raves d id, i n g eneral, h ave a s maller n umber o f c ostume o r s umptuary g oods p er g rave t han t he P hase I TT b urials f rom E l I ndio. La

C af iaza's

b etween p ossibly

u sed

I II

T he s ocial

a nd

p roximate T onosi

E l

V alley

i ncrease

c ontent f ormal

o f

t he

s tratification

t he

a lmost

c riteria

p laced

e aually

m ortuary

s uch

d istribution

s tratified

i n

t he t he

m ight I n

a s

o f

d ivided

f urnishings,

s ex

o r

m ortuary

o n

t hese

f actors,

s ocial

g roup

t han

r elationship

b etween

P hase

I II

I T

g ives

b e

a n

e xpected

s pite

o f

t he

d iscussed

i n

t his

t hey

e xhibit

m ortuary

c omplexity

m ortuary

c emeteries

a lso

m oiety

a rts.

I f

t hey w ould

r epresented

b y

g raves.

a mong

t heir i n

i s

t hose w ithout

b imodal

C afetal

t hat

a nd

r eliably

l ess

g roups.

o f

a

b e

I ndio

s ocieties,

d imensions t he

E l

d iversity

v ariability

t arian

c an

d imensions

C af iaza,

o f

w ith

d etermine

a s lightly

t he P hase

t he

t o

s ignificance

s uggest

p opulation

i nterments

i ndicative

m embership a ny

m ortuary

t hose

f rom P hase

I T

a mong f act

a ssociated a n

a nd

i ncrease

t o P hase 1 53

o f

a ll

s eem

t o

a rts

i n c an

a nd

I ndio, o f

f rom

b een

e gali—

t he

s ocial

o bserve

t hat

d istribution

t he

p resence

i n

s ocial

o r

L a t he

s patially

v illages

h ave

w e

t he

a nd

t he

c hanges

g eneral, w ith

E l

i ndication

t emporally t hat

s tudy I n

m ortuary

g raves

e xcellent

s ubstantial

a rts.

f urnishings

i ndicate

a nd

a bsence

c omplexity

a nd o f a nd

T he s ites

s ocial

c ontrasts

c ontent

o f

s harply

t he w ith

m ortuary t he

a rts

g rave

f rom

g oods

t he f rom

T onosi

V alley

S itio

C onte.

E xtensive c omparison o f t he d ata i s n ot n ecessary; t he n ecropolis o f S itio C onte a nd i ts a ttendant m ortuary a rts i ndicate t hat t his r anked s ociety w as m uch m ore c omplex t han t he e arlier o r c ontemporary v illages i n t he T onosi V alley. T he n umber o f m ortuary a rts a nd t heir d istribution, t he p resence o f l arge n umbers o f s umptuary o r l uxury a rts, a nd t he d istribution o f v isual s ymbols f ound o n t he m ortuary a rts s upport t his v iewpoint. ( For e xample, t he h ighest n umber o f m ortuary a rts i n a ny o ne g rave f rom t he T onosi V alley i s 6 14, w hile t he s ame n umber f or a S itio C onte g rave i s 7 ,497.) T he m ajority o f t he S itio Conte g raves d ate t o t he s ame t ime a s t he P hase I II ( Cooke's P hase V /VI) g raves a t E l I ndio a nd L a C af laza; m oreover, a ll t he s ites s hare t echnologically s imilar a rtifacts, i ncluding p olychrome c eramics a nd c ast t umbaga p endants. Y et, b y n o s tretch o f t he i magination d o t he p hysically s imilar m ortuary a rts, e specially c eramics, s ymbolize e ither b road p arallels i n s ocial o rganization-i .e. r anked v ersus e galitarian s ocieties--or s pecific e xamples o f s imilar s ocial s tatuses w hich m ight h ave b een s hared a mong t he s ites. T he l ack o f s ymbolic p arallels u sed i n t he r ecognition o r v isual d isplay o f s tatus a mong t he m ortuary a rts f rom t hese c ontemporary s ites c ontrasts s harply w ith t heir t echnological a nd s tylistic s imilarity. W hile t he t echnological v ariation m ay b e m inimal a mong t he v arious v illages, i deo- a nd s ocio-functional v ariation i s q uite d ivergent. S uch d istinctions a mong a rtifacts a re d iscourage t he a ssumption t hat o bjects w hich t echnical s imilarities s hare t he s ame i deological I n r esponse t o t his a ttitude, L ewis B inford's a mong

" technomic,"

" sociotechnic,"

a nd

u seful b ecause t hey l ook a like o r h ave o r s ocial m eanings. ( 1976) d istinctions

" ideotechnic"

a rtifacts

a re

m ost p ertinent: T echnomic s ignifies t hose a rtifacts h aving t heir p rimary f unctional c ontext i n c oping d irectly w ith t he p hysical e nvironment. V ariability i n t he t echnomic c omponents o f a rchaeological a ssemblages i s s een a s p rimarily e xplicable i n t he e cological f rame o f r eference. . . . A nother m ajor c lass o f a rtifacts w hich t he a rchaeolog ists r ecover c an b e t ermed s ociotechnic. T hese a rtifacts w ere t he m aterial e lements h aving t heir p rimary f unctional c ontext i n t he s ocial s ubsystems o f t he t otal c ultural s ystem. . . . T he t hird m ajor c lass . . . c an b e t ermed i deot echnic a rtifacts. I tems o f t his c lass h ave t heir primary f unctional c ontext i n t he i deological c omponent o f t he s ocial s ystem. T hese a re t he i tems w hich s ignify a nd s ymbolize t he i deological r ationalizations f or t he s ystem a nd f urther p rovide t he s ymbolic i n w hich i ndividuals 1 976:23-24). S ociotechnic a rtifacts a re, b y d escribes t he o bjects f rom t he

a re

e nculturated

s ocial m ilieu

( Binford

a nd l arge, t he c lass w hich b est b urials d iscussed i n t his s tudy . 1 54

P ertaining t o t his

a rtifact

O bservable

c lass,

B inford p oints

d ifferences

a nd

o ut

c hanges

i n

t hat: t he

s ociotechnic c omponents o f a rchaeological a ssemblages m ust b e e xplained w ith r eference t o s tructural c hanges i n t he s ocial s ystem a nd i n t erms o f p rocesses o f s ocial c hange a nd e volution ( 1976:24). T he d istinctions r aised a bove a re i n r esponse t o t he c ommon a ssumption t hat " artifacts r egardless o f t heir f unctional c ontext, c an b e t reated a s e qual a nd c omparable ' traits " ( Binford 1 976:21). O n t he p rimary

c ontrary, f unctional

t otal c ultural d ifferentially,

B inford s uggests t hat " artifacts h aving t heir c ontext i n d ifferent o perational s ubsystems o f t he

s ystem w ill e xhibit d ifferences a nd s imilarities i n t erms o f t he s tructure o f t he c ultural s ystem o f

w hich t hey w ere a p art" B inford's i nterpretation

( 1976:21).

o bservations a re p articularly r elevant t o t he o f t he m ortuary a rts f rom t he C entral R egion o f

P anama. T he a rtifacts f ound i n t he b urials e xhibited s imilar t echnological f eatures t hroughout t he r egion; h owever, t he s ocial c ontext o f t hese " similar" a rtifacts d oes n ot i ndicate p arallel o r e quivalent s ocial d imensions. A s a r esult, w e s hould r econsider t he s ignificance o f t he m ortuary a rts i n t he r econstructions o f p reC onquest P anamanian c ulture h istory . M ary H elms, a s h as b een d iscussed i n C hapter I II a rgued t hat t he e ntire C entral R egion s hared s imilar s ocial, i deological, a nd s ymbolic--as w ell a s t echnological--systems. M oreover, t he i ndigenous g roups f rom t he C entral R egion a lso s hared s pecific c haracteristics a nd m aintained a ctive s ocial a nd e conomic t ies w ith c ultures i n t he D arien p eninsula o f e astern P anama a nd i n o ther t ropical r egions o f S outh A merica e ven f urther t o t he e ast a nd s outh ( Helms 1 979). S he s tates, f or e xample, t hat: I n p revious c hapters t he s earch f or, a cquisition o f, a nd c ontrol o f e soteric k nowledge a s i t i s d efined a nd e xpressed b y t he l eadership o f t he c ontemporary C una o f e astern P anama w ere b riefly e xamined a nd i t w as p roposed t hat a s imilar p attern c an b e p rojected o nto t he p olitical l ife o f t heir p re-Columbian i sthmian a ncestors. I t w as a rgued b y e thnographic a nalogy t hat i n t he a ncient r ank s ocieties o f P anama t he s earch f or t his " resource" r equired c ontact a mong t he v arious P anamanian e lites a nd b etween s elect P anamanian e lites a nd c olleagues i n n orthern C olombia, a nd t hat s elect P anamanian r ulers o r y oung " leaders i n t raining" a ctually m ay h ave t raveled t o n orthern S outh A merica t o c onfer w ith e lite l eaders o f r ecognized i ntellectual e xcellence. I f urther s uspect ( borrowing f rom F lannery's m odel) t hat, g enerally s peaking, t he r ank s ocieties o f t he P anamanian i sthmus w ere s lightly l ess c omplex [ because o f t he p resence 1 55

o f c eremonial c enters a nd e lite n ecropolises i n C olombia] t han a t l east s ome s ocieties o f n orthern a nd c entral C olombia . . . a nd t hat t he r ulership o f P anama g ained i n s tatus a nd p restige t hrough t his a ssociation w ith e laborate C olombian c enters ( 1979:176-7). N o i ndependent e vidence R egion o f P anama s eems b elieves s hared f ormed

t hat

t he

e ntire

f rom t he a rchaeological t o s upport t his v iew. r egion o f

t he

I sthmus

m ore

r ecord o f t he C entral W ithout d oubt, H elms a nd

n orthern

C olombia

a c omplex o f c ultural t raits, p rimarily k nowledge, t he f oundation f or h er p erceived c ultural u niformities:

w hich

I n t he model I a m s uggesting, a s hared i deological c ontext i s a p rerequisite f or a ll t hose i nvolved, e ither i n t eaching o r i n l earning. A greement a s t o t he b asic f orm a nd c ontent o f t he r eligious-political a nd c osmological s ystem i s a ssumed t o h ave u nderw ritten t he l ong-distance e ducational n etwork a nd t o h ave p rovided a b asic e pistemological f oundation o n w hich e lite s tudents a nd t eachers c ould b uild a nd t hrough w hich e lite r ulers a nd c ommoners c ould c ommunicate ( Helms 1 979:177) H elms' r econstructions a re b oth e laborate a nd s pecific. Y et, a n a ttempt t o r econstruct t he m eaning o f a rchaeological c ultural r esidue w ithout r ecourse t o t he e xamination o f t he c ontextual v ariability o f t he a rtifacts r uns t he r isk o f u nderestimating a mong s ites a nd b etween r egions.

i mportant

d ifferences

C ontrary t o H elms, R ichard C ooke h as p ersuasively a rgued ( see 1 976a a nd 1 984) t hat t he c eramic t echnology o f t he C entral R egion e xhibits p redictable p atterns a nd c hanges i n i ts d ecorations, f orms, a nd s tyles c onsistent w ith a n i ndigenous o r e ndemic p re-Conquest P anamanian t radition a nd, t herefore, i s n either t he r esult o f n or s ignificantly i nfluenced b y d iffused t raditions, o r " knowledge," f rom o ther l ocales. P articular c hanges i n t he c eramic t echnology a re, a ccording t o C ooke, c hronologically s ignificant. I n a ddition, h e e xplicitly p oints o ut t hat t he t echnical f eatures o f t he r egion's m aterial c ulture, e specially o f c eramics, a re n ot i dentical w ith r egion-wide s ocial d imensions o r c haracteristics: t hat i s, t here i s n ot a d irect r elation b etween t he t echnical a spects o f t he m aterial c ulture a nd t he s ocial s ignificance o f t he a rtifacts. I n h is 1 984 s ummary o f t he " Archaeological Research i n C entral a nd E astern P anama," C ooke

s tates:

T he m echanism b y w hich t he c haracteristic P anamanian r anked s ocieties w ere f ormed w ere a lready i n o peration b y t he t ime o f C hrist. Rather t han a rgue f or ' invasions' a nd ' intrusions' ( Ichon 1 980), I s hall s tress c ontinuity i n m aterial c ulture o ver t he C entral r egion, b ut n ot t he s tructure a nd n ature o f c hiefdoms. . . . ( 1984:287-8, m y e mphasis) 1 56

C ooke's s tatement s uggests s everal i nteresting q uestions: n amely, w hat i s a " characteristic P anamanian r anked s ociety" a nd h ow c an o ne t alk a bout t he m echanism o f t he f ormation o f r ank s ocieties w ithout f urther d iscussion o f t he s tructure a nd n ature o f c hiefdoms? B oth

o f

t hese

q uestions,

a s

w ill

b e

s een,

h ave

b een

s killfully

a ddressed b y O lga L inares ( 1977). F or t he p resent, h owever, C ooke's " continuity o f m aterial c ulture" r epresents, f or t he m ost p art, s imilarity i n c eramic t echnology a nd d uplication i n n umerous d iscrete v illages o f 1 984:288-91).

s pecific W hile,

o bjects p erhaps,

i n m ortuary c ontexts ( see C ooke t he e xact s ignificance b etween a

c ontinuity o f m aterial c ulture a nd t he m echanisms o f r ank f ormation a re n ot e xplicit, h e s eems t o s uggest t hat t he r egionally h omogeneous a nd i ndigenous t echnical t raditions o f c eramic a nd o ther a rtifactual p roduction a re n ot e vidence o f h omogeneous s ocial d ynamics a nd m echanisms o f s ocial t o H elms' a rguments.

c hange.

T his

i s,

I s hould

p oint

o ut,

c ontrary

C ooke m ay s eem t o c ontradict h imself i n t he s ame a rticle w hen h e o bserves t hat " the b urials t hat b elong t o I chon's E l I ndio P hase [ 250 B .C.-200 A .D.) i n t he T onosi V alley s eem h ardly more d ifferentiated l ocated i n t he

s ocially t han t hose o f S itio S ierra [ a v illage s ite A guadulce D istrict o f C oclä p rovince, s ee C ooke 1 975,

1 978), t hough t he v essels t hey , c ontain a re m ostly T onosi t richrome" ( 1984:289, m y e mphasis). T he a bsence o f t he T onosi t richrome v essels f rom S itio S ierra, C ooke s uggests, i s d ue t o t he p ossibility t hat t his l ater v illage, a s a s ocial o r c orporate e ntity, h ad a l ower r ank o r s tatus t han t he v illage o f E l I ndio; t herefore, p resumably, S itio S ierra d id n ot h ave t he s ocial r ight o r p ower n eeded t o p ossess s uch e laborate a nd w ell m ade v essels. C ooke's r econstruction o f t he s ocial c haracteristics o f E l I ndio a nd S itio S ierra p laces t hese v illages w ithin a n e galitarian s ystem, a n i nterpretation s trongly s upported b y t he p resent s tudy. N evertheless, a s C ooke's p revious o bservations s uggest, t here i s n o s ubstantial e vidence t o s uggest t hat S itio S ierra h ad a l ower s ocial s tatus i n c omparison t o E l I ndio o r t hat a r egional r anking o f v illages w as i n p ractice d uring t his t ime. T he a bsence o f T onosi t richrome c eramics i s n ot s ufficient e vidence b ecause i t h as n ot b een d emonstrated t hat t hese v essels h ad a r egion-wide s ociotechnic d imension. T heir i mportance a s " markers" o f s ocial s tatus e ven a mong t he T onosi V alley g raves h as n ot b een c learly d etermined. M oreover, o bjects w ere d eposited i n S itio S ierra g raves ( see C ooke 1 978), s uch a s p yrite b eads, w hich w ere n ot f ound i n E l I ndio g raves. T his s ituation d oes n ot n ecessarily m ean t hat S itio S ierra w as a h igher o r l ower r ank v illage t han E l I ndio; i t d oes s uggest, h owever, t hat t hese e galitarian v illages r ecognized v ariation i n s tatus t hrough d ifferent s ymbols. T he v illages o f t he C entral R egion o f P anamä m ay h ave s hared t echnomically s imilar a rtifacts, a s w ell a s a daptive b ehaviors; b ut t he r egion a lso d emonstrated s ubstantial d ifferences a nd l ocal v ariability i n t he s ocio-technic a spects o f t heir a rtifacts, e specially i n t he e xpression o f s tatus r ecognition t hrough m ortuary a rts. A s d iscussed i n C hapter I II, L inares ( 1977) a lso m ight h ave p resumed t hat t he t echnical s imilarity o f a rtifacts j ustified t he a ssumption t hat t he s ame a rtifacts a lso h ad i dentical s ocial 1 57

m eanings. O n t he b asis o f t his a ssumption, s he g rouped t ogether i n h er a nalysis o f t he s ocial m eaning o f S itio C onte m ortuary a rts, d esigns a nd s ubjects o n t he c eramics f ound i n t he T onosi V alley s ites w hich a re a c onsiderable d istance f rom S itio C onte. T he s ame o bservation d irected t oward C ooke i s p ertinent t o L inares' a ssumption a nd r esultant m ethodology. I t w ould b e u nfair t o t he a bove s tudies t o o ver e mphasize t heir d ifferences f rom m y s tudy a nd i gnore t heir i mportant c ontributions t o f urthering u nderstanding a nd d irecting p roductive r esearch o n t he a daptive b ehavior o f p re-Conquest P anamanians. T he d ifferences h ave w ith t heir u se o f s ome o f t he a rchaeological d ata m entioned a bove d oes n ot b elie t he p erceptiveness o f t heir r econstructions o f t he s ocial d ynamics a mong t he p eoples o f t he C entral R egion o f P anamh. C ooke, f or e xample, r ecognizes t hat c hanges i n t he s ocial c omplexity a mong t he p re-Conquest v illages w ere n ot p atently u niform: L a e videncia a dquirida e n l a B ahia d e P arita, t odavia n o r esulta a decuada p ara s incronizar b ien e stos d esarrollos h ipotäticos, p ero h ay b astante e videncia d e q ue h ubo u n a umento r elativamente r epentino d e a ldeas a gricolas e n l os v alles i nferiores d e l os r ios T onosi, S anta M aria, C hico y G rande e ntre 1 00 y 5 00 D .C. [ Ichon 1 979; C ooke 1 972]. M ientras q ue e mperoraba l a t ensibn e ntre l os t erritorios c olindantes, s e I ntensificaba ( ni s eguimos e l a rgumento p ropuesto p or l a D ra. L inares), l a c ompetencia d entro d e l as m ismas p roductivas ( las r iberas d e l os r ios, p or e jemplo), c omezaron a cumular m äs p restigio e conömico y s ocial y r ivalizaban p or l a h egemonia d el g rupo. E l p restigo o casion6 e l d eseo d e a dquirir b ienes materiales, p ara e l a dorno p ersonal y l a j actancia e n l as b atallas ( 1976a:26). S imilarly, L inares p rovides o ne o f t he m ost p ersuasive e valuations o f t he s ocial d ynamics a t w ork i n t he C entral R egion a t t he e nd o f C ooke 's P hase V /VI ( 500-1100 A .D.) a nd t he l ength o f P hases V IIa a nd V IIb ( 1100-1625 A .D.): E thnohistorical s ources h ave c learly s hown u s t hat t he c hiefdoms o f t he c entral p rovinces w ere l oose p olitical a lliances, i n w hich d ifferent v illage g roups, a t d ifferent p oints i n t ime, c ooperated f or p articular p urposes: t o m ake w ar, t o c ontrol t rade r outes, t o o btain a dditional w omen, a nd t o e nhance p restige. L abelled a s a c ontingent p olitical s ystem, t here w ere n o p ermanent c enters o f p ower t o c oordinate e conomic, s ocial, a nd r eligious a ctivities, a s t here a re i n t he c ontinuous p olitical s ystems o f s tate s ocieties. T o l ook, t hen, f or t he s ymbols o f p ermanency i n m anifestations s uch a s s ocial c lass, r uling f amilies, a nd m onumental a rchit ecture, a s p eople h ave d one a t S itio C onte w ith 1 58

l ittle

s uccess,

i s

t o m isunderstand

t he n ature

o f

t hese s ystems. R ather t han a s tage i n t he e vo lut ion o f N ew W orld s ocieties, t he c hiefdoms o f P anamä w ere t ypical o f a n a rea w here s tatus a nd p ower w ere b ased m ainly i n i mpermanent o ccupation o f s hifting p ositions ( 1979:76, m y e mphasis). O n o f

t he b asis o f t hose r anks

t his s tudy, w ithin t he

e galitarian g roups, v illage.

w e s hould a dd t hat t he v isual e xpression c hiefdoms, a s w ell a s s tatuses w ithin

w ere a lso i mpermanent

a nd

s hifted

f rom v illage t o

I n a ddition t o t he m ore s trictly h istorical c onsiderations a ddressed b y t his s tudy , t he " type" o r " class" o f a rt w orks u nder s crutiny, n amely m ortuary a rts, i s n ot a c ommon f orum f or a rt h istorical i nquiry a nd, t herefore, a dds a n ew d imension t o t he d iscipline. T he m aterial o bjects d eposited i n a b urial, t he s ize a nd s hape o f t he g rave, t he d isposition o f t he b ody o f t he d eceased, a nd t he a rrangement o f a ccompanying i nterments a re s ome o f t he a ttributes w hich c omprise t he v isual r esidue o f a m ortuary a rt w ork —name ly, t he b urial a nd i ts a ttendant r itual. T hese c haracteristics a re t he r esidue o f a l argely e phemeral a rtistic u ndertaking, t he b urial o f a d eceased m ember o f s ociety . T he h istory o f a rt f rom P aleolithic t imes t o t he p resent a bounds w ith a lmost e ndless e xamples o f t hese " residues." F or t he m ost t reated s imply a s a nother

p art, t hese a rtistic r emains h ave b een e lement i n t he v isual v ocabulary o f a

p articular s ociety. T his s tudy a rgues t hat m ortuary a rts, a s i dentifiably d iscrete h uman c reations, p rovide a b ase o f i nformation w hich h as t he p otential o f s ignificantly e nhancing o ur u nderstanding o f t he r elationships b etween t he v isual a rts a nd h uman s ocial d ynamics. W hile s uch a n " expanded" c oncept o f m ortuary a rts i s n ovel i n a rt h istorical s tudies, i t i s o f l ittle c onsequence i n a nd o f i tself. A ny n umber o f s trictly t raditional a rt h istorical m ethods, s uch a s i conographical, f ormal, o r s tyle a nalyses, m ay s till b e a pplied t o t he t he

c orpus o f a ccumulated d ata. I n t his r espect, I h ave v eered f rom t raditional. T hrough t he a nalysis o f t he p re-Conquest m ortuary

a rts o f t he C entral R egion o f P anamA, I h ave d emonstrated t hat t he d evelopment o f a g eneral i dea o r m odel a bout m ortuary a rt c an b e e xamined a nd e valuated b y m ethods w hich m ore c losely a pproximate o bjectivity . T he

s tudy

o f

m ortuary

a rts

p otentially

i nforms

u s

a bout

t he

d ynamics o f v isual a nd s ocial p henomena a nd h as t he c apacity t o e nhance o ur u nderstanding o f t he v ariation i n t hese d ynamics a s t he s ocial c onfiguration o f a s ociety c hanges. T he m ethodological b asis u nderlying s uch a n i nquiry c an b e f ound i n t he s eminal w orks o f S axe ( 1970) a nd B inford ( 1971). I n o rder t o m ake c oncrete t he c orr elation b etween m ortuary a rts a nd s ocial d ynamics, I i ntroduced t he a nalogy o f t he U .S. A rmy. The d escription o f t he A rmy's r ules g overning m ortuary i nterments, c ombined w ith t he v isual a rticulation o f r ank w ithin t his " closed" s o eal s ystem, p rovides a n a ccessible m odel. T he m odel e xplicitly m akes c lear t hat a n i somorphism--that i s, a s imilarity i n t he s tructural a ttributes o r c haracteristics o f t wo

t emporally,

s patially,

a nd

s ocially 1 59

d istant

c ultural

p henomena--

c an o f

p rovide t he

a rts

t angible o f

" dead"

p rinciples

u seful

i n

u nderstanding

t he

m eaning

s ocieties.

T he s trategy o utlined i n t his s tudy r equires a lternatives t o t raditional a rt h istorical m ethods. I s elected, a s a r esult, t o e xamine r elationships a mong t he p re-Conquest P anamanian m ortuary a rts b y u tilizing t he t echniques o f c luster a nalysis. T his s tochastic m ethod, p roven t o b e a pplicable i n m ortuary s tudies ( Peebles 1 974), m akes i t p ossible t o e xplore a nd o rganize i n v arious w ays l arge a mounts o f d ata a nd t o e xplore p otentially m eaningful r elationships a mong t hem. E xcept f or t he r ather i ndeterminate r esults f rom t he m ortuary r emains o f L a C af iaza, t he c luster a lgorithms a pplied i n t his s tudy--complete l inkage, W ard's m ethod, a verage l inkage, a nd t he c entroid m ethod--regularly p roduced u seful r esults. T he c ontextual s tudy o f m ortuary a rts t hrough e xplicit m ethodologies w hich s eek o bjectivity c an p rovide i mportant i nformation o n t he r elationship b etween a rt a nd s ociety. The m ajority o f p revious s tudies w hich h ave d welt o n t he l inks b etween d eath a nd a rt h ave f ocused o n t he i conography o f a fterlife o r t he s ystem o f r eligious b eliefs r epresented i n t hose a rts. W hile s uch a pproaches a re c ertainly a l egitimate a rt h istorical c oncern, m ortuary a rts h ave t he p otential o f p roviding i nformation a nd i nsight a bout a m uch b roader r ange o f h uman b ehavior.

1 60

A ppendix

E l

T he f rom

i nformation

I chon's

I ndio,

P hase

p resented

p ublications

i n

1

I t G raves

A ppendices

( 1974,

1 975

1 t hrough

a nd

c ommunication w ith t he a uthor. N one o f t he o n a ll d etails c oncerning t he b urials. i rresolvable, t he 1 974 a uthoritative s ource. G rave

T I-18,

P rovenience: S quares E levation: L evel 1 20 S ex:

M ale

A ge:

A dult

P osition: A rtifacts:

F lexed 1 a nd

F eatures:

3 . 4 . N one

C omments:

T he

p ublished r eports a gree I f a d isagreement w as

d issertation

w as

u sed

a s

t he

B .5

f .2,

b urial

1

a nd C .5

r ed c eramic v essel w hite c eramic b owl s keleton

w as

o f a n u nknown

I ncomplete;

s ee

s hape

c omments

f or G rave

2 .

2

P rovenience: E levation:

T I-18,

S quare B .6 L evel

f .2,

b urial

2

a nd C .6

1 30

U nknown C hild

P osition: F lexed o riented n orthwest A rtifacts: F eatures:

1 . 2 . N one

i n b y

a f etal p osition, s outheast

l ying

o n

t he

r ight

s ide

a nd

r ed c eramic b owl w ith a h andle p olychrome " doblen ( Fig. 1 )

C omments:

There

p ublications

c oncerning

i s

a

d ifference

t he

a rtifacts

The c ontents i n t his a ppendix c ommunication w ith I chon. G rave

d erived

p ersonal

o n b ack w ith h ead t owards t he w est 2 . r ed c eramic b owls w ith h andles

F ield D esignation:

S ex: A ge:

3 i s a nd

1

F ield D esignation:

G rave

d octoral

1 980)

h ave

b etween

t he

f ound

g raves

b een

i n

1 974 1 ,

c orrected

v ia

a nd 2 ,

1 975 a nd

3 .

p ersonal

3

F ield D esignation: T I-18, P rovenience: S quare B .6 E levation:

L evel

S ex:

U nknown

A ge:

C hild

P osition: F lexed o riented n orthwest A rtifacts:

1 . 3 .

f .2,

b urial

3

1 30

i n a f etal p osition, a nd s outheast

l ying

a nd 2 . r ed c eramic v essels p olychrome d oble 1 61

o n

t he

r ight

o f a n u nknown

s ide

s hape

a nd

F eatures: C omments:

N one S ee G rave 2 .

G rave 4 F ield D esignation: T I-18, P rovenience: S quare C .5 E levation: L eve] 1 35 S ex : U nknown A ge: C hild P osition: F lexed s outh A rtifacts: N one F eatures: N one

f .2,

i n a f etal

b urial

4

p osition,

t he

b ody w as

o riented n orth

a nd

G rave 5 F ield D esignation: T I-18, f .2, b urial P rovenience: S quares B .5 a nd 1 .6 E levation: L evel 1 45 S ex: U nknown A ge: A dolescent P osition: F lexed,

l ying o n s tomach a nd

5

o riented w est a nd

e ast

A rtifacts: 1 . p erforated g astropod F eatures: T he s keleton l ay u pon a l ayer o f l ight g ray c oncretions C omments: G raves 5 a nd 6 m ay b e p arts o f t he s ame g rave. G rave 6 F ield D esignation:

T I-18,

f .2,

s and

a nd

b urial 6

P rovenience: S quare B .6 E levation: L evel 1 60 S ex : U nknown A ge: A dolescent P osition: F lexed, l ying o n b ack a nd o riented s outh a nd n orth A rtifacts: N one F eatures: T he s keleton l ay o n a l ayer o f l ight g ray s and c oncretions C omments: S ee G rave 5 . G rave 7 F ield D esignation : T I-18, P rovenience: S quare C .5 E levation: L evel 1 20 S ex: U nknown A ge: A dolescent P osition:

f .2,

b urial

a nd

7

U nknown

A rtifacts: N one F eatures: N one C omments: T he b urial w as

i n t he

s outh w all

G rave 8 F ield D esignation: T I-18, P rovenience: S quare C .6 E levation: L evel 1 35 S ex: U nknown A ge: C hild P osition: U nknown

f .2,

b urial 8

1 62

o f t he e xcavation

t rench.

A rtifacts: N one F eatures: N one C omments: T he d ecomposition.

s keletal

r emains

w ere

i n

a v ery

a dvanced

s tate

o f

G rave 9 F ield D esignation: T I-18, P rovenience: S quares B .6, E levation: L evel 1 70 S ex: U nknown A ge: A dolescent

f .2, 1 3 .7,

b urial 9 C .6, a nd C .7

P osition: F lexed, l ying o n t he s tomach a nd A rtifacts: 1 . b ichrome b owl ( Fig. 2 ) 2 .

o riented w est

a nd

e ast

b asalt a xe o r c elt

3 . a nd 4 . c lay f igurines ( Fig. 1 ) 5 . c ache o f b urned d eer b ones 6 . t hrough 9 . g astropods ( Fig. 2 ) 1 0. a nd 1 1. b ivalve s hells ( Fig. 2 ) F eatures: T he s keleton l ay u pon a l ayer o f l ight g ray s and a nd c oncretions C omments: A rtifacts 3 ., 4 . a nd 6 . t hrough 1 1. w ere f ound i nside t he b ichrome b owl. G rave

b owl

( 1.);

t he

d eer

b ones

w ere

f .2,

b urial

1 0

f .2,

b urial

1 1

f ound

u nderneath

t he

s ame

1 0

F ield D esignation: T I-18, P rovenience: S quare 1 3 .5 E levation: L evel 1 20 S ex: U nknown A ge: C hild P osition: U nknown A rtifacts: N one F eatures: N one G rave 1 1 F ield D esignation: T I-18, P rovenience: S quare D .6 E levation: 1 20 S ex: U nknown A ge: A dult P osition: U nknown A rtifacts: N one F eatures: N one C omments: G rave

O nly t he s kull

i ndividual w as

p resent

i n t he g rave.

1 2

F ield D esignation: T I-18, P rovenience: S quare K .6 E levation: 1 20 S ex: U nknown A ge:

o f t he

f .3,

b urial

2

A dult

P osition: n orthwest

F lexed

i n

a

f etal

A rtifacts: 1 . r ed c eramic v essel F eatures: N one

p osition,

o riented

o f a n u nknown s hape 1 63

s outheast

a nd

G rave 1 3 F ield D esignation:

T I-18,

f .3,

b urial

3

P rovenience: S quare F .5 E levation: L evel 1 30 S ex: U nknown A ge: A dolescent P osition: F lexed, p robably o riented A rtifacts: 1 . r ed c eramic b owl 2 . b ichrome c eramic b ow l F eatures: N one Comments: The d etermination o f

s outheast

a dvanced d ecomposition t he o rientation d ifficult.

G rave 1 4 F ield D esignation: T I-18, P rovenience: S quare J .6 E levation: L evel 1 20 S ex: U nknown

f .3,

b urial

4

f .3,

b urial

5

a nd

o f

n orthwest

t he

s keleton

m ade

A ge: C hild P osition: U nknown A rtifacts: N one F eatures: N one G rave 1 5 F ield D esignation:

T I-18,

P rovenience: S quares E .5 a nd F .5 E levation: L evel 1 30 S ex: U nknown A ge: A dult P osition: F lexed, l ying o n t he s tomach a nd o riented n orth a nd A rtifacts: 1 . r ed c eramic j ar 2 . a nd 3 . r ed c eramic b owls, e ach w ith a h andle F eatures:

N one

G rave 1 6 F ield D esignation: T I-18, P rovenience: S quare G .5 E levation:

L evel

f .3,

b urial

6

1 40

S ex: U nknown A ge: A dult P osition: F lexed, l ying o n t he s ide a nd A rtifacts: 1 . a nd 2 . r ed c eramic b owls 3 . b ichrome c eramic b owl F eatures:

s outh

o riented w est

a nd

e ast

N one

G rave 1 7 F ield D esignation: T I-18, P rovenience: S quare J .7 E levation: L evel 1 00 S ex : U nknown A ge: C hild a nd a dult P osition: T he c hild w as

f .3,

f ound

b urials 7 a nd 8

i nside

o ne

o f t he

p osition o f t he a dult w as u nknown A rtifacts: 1 . r ed c eramic b owl w ith a h andle 2 . p olychrome c eramic b owl 3 . t hrough 6 . p olychrome d obles ( Fig. 1 64

d oble v essels a nd

1 )

t he

F eatures:

N one

C omments:

T he

c ommunication p art G rave

o f

t he

a dult

w as

c larified

v ery t hat

f ragmentary; h is

f .3

1 978

b urials

p ersonal

7 a nd

8 w ere

s ame g rave.

1 8

F ield D esignation: P rovenience: E levation: S ex:

s keleton

w ith I chon

T I-18,

S quares 1 .7

L evel

f .3,

b urial

9

a nd J .7

1 40

U nknown

A ge: A dult P osition: U nknown A rtifacts: F eatures: G rave

N one None

1 9

F ield D esignation:

T I-18,

f .3,

b urial

1 0

P rovenience: S quare K .6 E levation: L evel 1 40 S ex:

U nknown

A ge:

A dolescent

P osition: o riented

F lexed s outh

A rtifacts: F eatures:

i n

a nd

a

f etal

p osition,

l ying

n orth

N one N one

G rave 2 0 F ield D esignation:

T I-18,

P rovenience: S quares 1 .5 E levation: L evel 1 40 S ex:

U nknown

A ge:

A dolescent

P osition: A rtifacts:

f .3,

b urial

1 1

a nd J .5

U nknown N one

F eatures:

N one

C omments:

O nly

t he

s kull

w as

e xcavated.

G rave 2 1 F ield D esignation: T I-18, f .3, b urial P rovenience: S quares K .4 a nd K .5 E levation:

L evel

S ex:

U nknown

A ge:

A dolescent

P osition: A rtifacts:

1 2

1 40

U nknown N one

F eatures:

N one

C omments:

O nly

t he

s kull

w as

e xcavated.

G rave 2 2 F ield D esignation: P rovenience:

E levation: L evel S ex: U nknown A ge:

T I-18,

S quares K .5

f .3,

b urial

1 3

a nd L .5

1 40

A dolescent

P osition: A rtifacts:

F lexed,

o riented

n orth

a nd

N one 1 65

s outh

o n

t he

l eft

s ide

a nd

F eatures: C omments:

N one O nly t he l ower t orso w as

e xcavated.

G rave 2 3 F ield D esignation: T I-18, P rovenience: S quare K .7 E levation: L evel 1 45 S ex :

f .3,

b urial

1 4

U nknown

A ge: A dult P osition: P ossibly e xtended a nd l ying o n t he s tomach A rtifacts: N one F eatures: N one C omments: T he l ower h alf o f t he s keleton w as m issing. G rave 2 4 F ield D esignation: T I-18, P rovenience: S quare S .3 E levation: L evel 1 10 S ex: U nknown

f .4,

b urial 2

A ge: C hild P osition: U nknown A rtifacts:

1 . 2 . 3 .

b rown c eramic b owl w ith l oop h andles r ed c eramic p late r ed c eramic v essel o f a n u ndetermined

F eatures: N one C omments: T he p osition.

s keleton

w as

t oo

d eteriorated

s hape t o

d etermine

t he

G rave 2 5 F ield D esignation: T I-18, f .4, b urial 3 P rovenience: S quares 5 .15 a nd S .16 E levation: L evel 1 50 S ex : U nknown A ge: C hild P osition: F lexed i n a f etal p osition, o riented w est a nd e ast A rtifacts: 1 . b ichrome c eramic b owl F eatures:

l ying

E levation: L evel S ex: U nknown

f .4,

s ide

a nd

1 60

1 .

t wo

r ed

c eramic

b owl

c onnected

N one

G rave 2 7 F ield D esignation: T I-18, P rovenience: S quare T .17 E levation: L evel 1 60 S ex :

l eft

b urials 4 a nd 5

A ge: C hild a nd a dult P osition: T he c hild l ay o n t op o f t he a dult; l ying o n i ts b ack a nd o riented w est a nd e ast

F eatures:

t he

N one

G rave 2 6 F ield D esignation: T I-18, P rovenience: S quare S .17

A rtifacts: 1 )

o n

f .4,

b urial 6

U nknown 1 66

t he b y

a dult

a l oop

w as

f lexed,

h andle

( Fig.

A ge: A dolescent P osition: F lexed, A rtifacts:

C omments:

l ying o n s tomach a nd

o riented w est a nd w est

1 . p olychrome d oble 2 . r ed c eramic v essel o f a n u nknown s hape 3 . u nknown q uantity o f s hells T his g rave w as d amaged b y a boriginal e xcavation.

G rave 2 8 F ield D esignation: P rovenience:

T I-18,

f .4,

b urial

S quare T .15

E levation: L evel 1 30 S ex: U nknown A ge: A dolescent P osition: F lexed, l ying o n l eft s ide a nd o riented w est A rtifacts: N one F eatures: N one C omments: T he u pper t orso w as n ot p resent. G rave 2 9 F ield D esignation: T I-18, P rovenience: S quare T .15

f .4,

b urial

E levation: L evel 1 50 S ex: U nknown A ge: A dolescent P osition: F lexed, l ying o n r ight A rtifacts: 1 . a nd 2 . F eatures: N one

s hell

G rave 3 0 F ield D esignation: T I-18, P rovenience: S quare T .16 E levation: L evel 1 50 S ex : U nknown A ge: C hild P osition: F lexed

s ide a nd

o riented w est

f .4,

i n a f etal

b urial 9

p osition,

G rave 3 1 F ield D esignation: T I-18, f .4, b urial P rovenience: S quares T .15 a nd U .15

l ying o n l eft

1 0

1 50

A ge: A dult P osition: U nknown A rtifacts: N one F eatures: N one C omments: O nly t he

s kull

G rave 3 2 F ield D esignation: T I-18, P rovenience: P it 7 E levation: L evel 1 00 S ex: U nknown A ge: C hild

a nd e ast

b eads

N one

E levation: L evel S ex : U nknown

e ast

8

n orth a nd s outh A rtifacts: N one F eatures:

a nd

c ap

a nd

s .7,

t eeth w ere p resent.

b urial

1 67

1

s ide a nd

o riented

P osition:

F lexed

i n a f etal

p osition,

l ying o n l eft

s ide

a nd

o riented

n orth a nd s outh A rtifacts: 1 . b ichrome c eramic b owl F eatures: N one G rave 3 3 F ield D esignation: T I-18, f .6, b urial 2 1 P rovenience: S quare C .8 E levation: L evel 1 60 S ex : U nknown A ge: A dult P osition: F lexed, l ying f ace d own; o riented n ortheast A rtifacts: N one F eatures:

s outhwest

N one

G rave 3 4 F ield D esignation: T I-18, P rovenience: S quare F .3 E levation: L evel 1 60 S ex: U nknown

f .6,

b urial

2 5

A ge: A dolescent P osition: F lexed i n a f etal p osition, o riented n ortheast a nd s outhwest A rtifacts: N one F eatures: N one G rave 3 5 F ield D esignation: T I-18, s .8, P rovenience: P it 8 E levation: L evel 1 50 S ex : U nknown A ge: A dults P osition: A ll w ere f lexed A rtifacts: N one F eatures:

a nd

b urials

l ying

1 t hrough

o n

r ight

s ide

5

N one

G rave 3 6 F ield D esignation: P rovenience:

T I-18,

1 .3,

m etate

b urial

H .3

E levation: U nknown S ex : U nknown A ge: A dult P osition: U nknown A rtifacts: 1 . b ichrome v essel w ith a ttached 2 . t ripod s tone m etate F eatures: N one G rave 3 7 F ield D esignation: T I-18, f .4 a nd P rovenience: B etween t renches f .4

f .5, m etate b urial a nd f .5

E levation: U nknown S ex : U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition : U nknown A rtifacts: 1 . t ripod F eatures: N one

z oomorphic e ffigies

s tone m etate 1 68

a nd

A ppendix 2

E l

S ources

u sed

i n

t his

G rave

1

F ield

D esignation:

P rovenience: E levation:

U nknown

A ge:

C hild

P osition: F eatures:

G rave

T I-18,

1 .

t hose

o f

A ppendix

1 .

1

p edestal

b owl

w ith

a pplique

A n

u nknown n umber

o f

u nidentified

f ish

v ertebrae w ere

f ound

b urial.

2

P rovenience: E levation:

T I-18,

f .4,

b urial

S quares S .3,

S .4,

T .3

L evel

S ex:

U nknown

A ge:

A dolescent

P osition: A rtifacts:

F eatures:

F lexed, 1 .

1

a nd T .4

1 60

i n a s itting

i ncised

c eramic

2 .

I ncised

l ong

3 .

r ound

s hell

p osition

a nd

f acing n orth

b owl

b one p endant

N one

3

F ield D esignation: P rovenience: E levation:

U nknown

A ge:

C hild

P osition: A rtifacts:

F eatures:

f .4,

f acing

1 1

n orth

p olychrome

b ow]

2 .

z oomorphic

s hell

3 .

a nd

5 .

u ndetermined

6 .

" collar"

A n

b urial

2 00

U nknown, 1 .

T I-18,

S quare 5 .17

L evel

S ex:

G rave

b urial

t o

1 10

F ield D esignation:

G rave

f .3,

i dentical

N one

C omments: t he

a ppendix a re

I II G raves

F lexed

A rtifacts:

w ith

P hase

S quare 1 .6

L evel

S ex:

I ndio,

" ash

4 .

p erforated o f

b asin"

p endant c anine

n umber b ird

w as

o f

t eeth

s hell

m entioned

a s

4

F ield D esignation: T I-18, P rovenience: S quare C .13 E levation:

L evel

S ex:

U nknown

A ge:

A dolescent

f .5,

h eads

b ones

b urial

1 80

1 69

1

b eing

f ound

i n

t his

g rave.

P osition: F lexed, i n a s itting p osition A rtifacts: 1 . r ed c eramic p edestal p late 2 . p olychrome c eramic j ar F eatures: " Bed o f a shes" f ound i n t he g rave C omments: The s keleton w as d escribed a s a shes."

s itting

o n

t he

" bed

o f

t he

" bed"

o f

G rave 5 F ield D esignation: T I-18, P rovenience: S quare C .17 E levation: L evel 1 80 S ex: A ge:

f .5,

b urial 2

U nknown A dult

P osition: F lexed i n a s itting p osition a nd f acing s outh A rtifacts: N one F eatures: " Bed" o f a shes C omments: I t w as n oted t hat t he s keleton w as s itting o n a shes. G rave 6 F ield D esignation: T I-18, P rovenience: S quares C .15 E levation: L evel 1 80 S ex: U nknown

f .5, b urial a nd C .16

3

A ge: A dult P osition: F lexed i n a s itting p osition a nd A rtifacts: N one F eatures: " Bed" o f a shes

f acing s outh

G rave 7 F ield D esignation: T I-18, f .5, b urial 4 P rovenience: S quare D .15 E levation: L evel 1 80 S ex: U nknown A ge: A dolescent P osition: U nknown, t he s keleton w as d isturbed A rtifacts: N one F eatures: N one G rave 8 F ield D esignation: T I-18, f .5, P rovenience: S quare C .13 E levation: L evel 2 20 S ex: U nknown A ge: A dolescent P osition: F lexed, f acing w est A rtifacts: 1 . a nd 2 . i dentical 3 . 4 . 5 . 7 . 8 . 1 0.

b urial

5

p olychrome c eramic p edestal

b owls

p olychrome c eramic j ar u ndecorated c eramic j ar a nd 6 , p erforated s hell p endant f ragments s ting r ay p oint a nd 9 . p erforated s hark's t eeth s hell,

p ossibly c oncha,

F eatures:

1 1. t hrough 2 2. " Shaft" o f a shes

C omments:

T he b eads

h ook o r p endant

( Fig.

4 )

c oncha b eads

( 11.-22.) w ere

f ound 1 70

i n t he

" shaft"

o f a shes.

G rave 9 F ield D esignation: T I-18, f .5, P rovenience: S quare C .16 E levation: L evel 1 80 S ex: U nknown A ge: A dult ? P osition: " Plano v ertical" ?

b urial

6

A rtifacts: N one F eatures: N one C omments:

T he

s keleton w as

d isturbed.

G rave 1 0 F ield D esignation: T I-18, P rovenience: S quares C .17 E levation: L evel S ex : U nknown A ge: A dolescent

f .5, b urial a nd D .17

7

2 20

P osition: F lexed, s itting a nd f acing n orth A rtifacts: 1 . a nd 2 . p olychrome c eramic p edestal 3 . 5 . 6 . 9 . F eatures: G rave

b owls

a nd 4 . p olychrome c eramic j ars t umbaga p endant t hrough 8 . w orked c oncha s hells u nknown n umber o f c anine t eeth

1 0. u nknown n umber o f d eer a ntlers " Pit" o f a shes

1 1

F ield D esignation: T I-18, f .5, b urial P rovenience: S quares B .13 a nd B .14 E levation: L evel 2 20 S ex: U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition: U nknown A rtifacts:

8

F eatures:

1 . a nd 2 . p olychrome c eramic p edestal 3 . a nd 4 . p olychrome c eramic j ars 5 . t umbaga p laque " Pit" o f a shes

C omments:

T he b urial w as

b owls

d isturbed b y h uaqueros.

G rave 1 2 F ield D esignation: T I-18, P rovenience: S quare C .16

f .5,

b urial

9

E levation: L evel 2 30 S ex : U nknown A ge: A dolescent P osition: F lexed, A rtifacts: n one F eatures: N one

l ying o n

G rave 1 3 F ield D esignation: T I-18, P rovenience: S quare C .16 E levation: L evel 2 30 S ex: U nknown

b ack a nd

f .5,

o riented w est

b urial

1 71

1 0

a nd e ast

A ge: A dolescent P osition: U nknown A rtifacts: N one F eatures: N one G rave 1 4 F ield D esignation:

T I-18,

P rovenience: S quares B .16 E levation: L evel 2 30 S ex: U nknown A ge: A dolescent P osition: U nknown A rtifacts: F eatures:

1 .

a nd 2 .

3 . a nd 4 . N one

f .5,

b urial

1 1

a nd B .17

p olychrome c eramic p edestal p olychrome

b ow ls

c eramic j ars

G rave 1 5 F ield D esignation: T I-18, f .6, b urials 2 a nd 3 P rovenience: S quare G .7 E levation: L evel 1 70 S ex: U nknown A ge: C hildren P osition: U nknown, p robably f lexed s ince b oth c eramic j ar ( 42.). A rtifacts:

F eatures:

w ere

1 . 2 .

z oomorphic c oncha p endant t riangular c oncha p endant

3 . 4 .

u nknown n umber o f p erforated c anine t hrough 2 1. c oncha b eads

2 2. 4 2. N one

t hrough 4 1. c oncha r ed c eramic j ar

h eads

G rave 1 6 F ield D esignation: T I-18, f .6, b urial P rovenience: S quares G .8 a nd H .8 E levation: L evel 1 80 S ex : U nknown A ge: C hild P osition: U nknown A rtifacts: N one F eatures: N one C omments: T he g rave w as d isturbed.

4

G rave 1 7 F ield D esignation T I-18, P rovenience: S quares G .8 E levation: L evel 1 80

f .6, b urial a nd 1 .8

5

S ex: U nknown A ge: A dult P osition: U nknown A rtifacts: N one F eatures: N one G rave 1 8 F ield D esignation: P rovenience:

T I-18,

f .6,

b urial

S quares G .6 a nd 1 .6 1 72

6

s haped

f ound

t eeth

l iked

t eeth

i nside

o f

E levation: L evel S ex: U nknown

1 80

A ge: A dolescent P osition: U nknown A rtifacts: N one F eatures: G rave

" Pile"

o f a shes

1 9

F ield D esignation: T I-18, P rovenience: S quare H .17 E levation: L evel 1 85 S ex: U nknown A ge: A dolescent P osition: F lexed, b undled A rtifacts:

F eatures:

1 . 2 . 4 .

f .6,

a nd

b urial

7

s itting;

f acing e ast

r ed c eramic j ar a nd 3 . p olychrome c eramic t rapezoidal b one p endant

b owls

5 . a nd 6 . p erforated s hark's t eeth 7 . u nknown n umber o f c oncha b eads 8 . u nknown n umber o f p erforated c anine " Pit" o f a shes

t eeth

G rave 2 0 F ield D esignation: T I-18, f .6, b urials 8 a nd 1 2 P rovenience: S quare H .7 E levation: L evel 2 30 S ex: U nknown A ge: A dolescents P osition: O ne i ndividual w as f lexed, b undled, a nd i n a s itting p osition f acing s outh; t he p osition o f t he o ther i ndividual i s u nknown A rtifacts:

F eatures:

1 .

c eramic

j ar

2 . c eramic p edestal b owl 3 . u nknown n umber o f p erforated c anine 4 . u nknown n umber o f c oncha b eads " Pit" o f a shes

G rave 2 1 F ield D esignation: T I-18, P rovenience: S quare G .8 E levation: L evel 2 10 S ex: U nknown A ge: a dolescent

f .6,

b urial

t eeth

9

P osition: F lexed, s itting a nd f acing s outheast A rtifacts: 1 . t hrough 1 3. d eer g b ones i n t he s hape o f a c ollar

F eatures:

1 4. a nd 1 5. c onchas i n t he s hape o f c rocodiles 1 6. a nd 1 7. t rapezoidal c oncha p endants 1 8. u nknown n umber o f p erforated c anine t eeth 1 9. u nknown n umber o f c oncha b eads " Pit" o f a shes

G rave 2 2 F ield D esignation: T I-18, P rovenience: S quare G .6

f .6,

b urial

E levation: L evel 2 15 S ex: U nknown 1 73

1 0

( Fig.

4 )

A ge: A dolescent P osition: F lexed, f acing s outh A rtifacts: 1 . a nd 2 . p olychrome

F eatures:

c eramic j ars

3 . 5 . 7 . 8 .

a nd 4 . p olychrome c eramic p edestal b owls a nd 6 . t rapezoidal c oncha p endants t ooth-shaped b one p endant u nknown n umber o f p erforated c anine t eeth

9 .

u nknown n umber o f c oncha b eads

" Pit"

o f a shes

G rave 2 3 F ield D esignation: T I-18, f .6, b urial P rovenience: S quares G .8 a nd H .8

1 1

E levation: L evel 2 00 S ex: U nknown A ge: A dolescent P osition: U nknown A rtifacts: 1 . p erforated c anine t ooth 2 . a nd 3 . b ird l ong b ones F eatures: C omments: T I-18,

N one I chon n oted

f .6,

b urial

5 ,

( 1974:466) m y g rave

t hat

t his

b urial

m ay

b e

t he

s ame

a s

1 7.

G rave 2 4 F ield D esignation: T I-18, f .6, b urials 1 3 a nd 1 4 P rovenience: S quare H .8 E levation: L evel 2 60 S ex: U nknown A ge: A n a dult a nd a n i ndividual o f u nknown a ge P osition: U nknown A rtifacts: 1 . b ichrome c eramic c up F eatures: N one G rave 2 5 F ield D esignation:

T I-18,

f .6,

b urial

1 5

P rovenience: S quare F .8 E levation: L evel 2 15 S ex: U nknown A ge: A dolescent P osition: F lexed, i n a s itting p osition A rtifacts: N one F eatures: N one C omments: T he g rave w as d isturbed. G rave 2 6 F ield D esignation:

T I-18,

f .6,

b urials

P rovenience: S quare F .8 E levation: L evel 2 15 S ex : U nknown A ge: A n a dolescent a nd a n a dult P osition: B oth w ere f lexed a nd i n

f acing n orth

1 6 a nd 1 7

a s itting p osition;

f aced s outh a nd t he a dult f aced n orth A rtifacts: 1 . r ed c eramic j ar 2 . p olychrome c eramic p edestal b owl F eatures: " Ash p it" a ssociated w ith t he a dolescent 1 74

t he

a dolescent

G rave 2 7 F ield D esignation: T I-18, f .6, b urial P rovenience: S quares E .8 a nd E .9 E levation: L evel S ex: U nknown A ge: A dolescent

1 8

2 00

P osition: F lexed, i n a s itting p osition f acing n orth A rtifacts: 1 . a nd 2 . p olychrome c eramic j ars F eatures:

3 . a nd 4 . " Ash p it"

p olychrome c eramic p edestal

b ow ls

G rave 2 8 F ield D esignation: T I-18, f .6, b urial P rovenience: S quares F .6 a nd G .6 E levation: L evel 2 10 S ex: U nknown A ge: A dult P osition: F lexed, s econdary b urial A rtifacts: 1 . t hrough 3 2. F eatures: N one

p erforated

1 9

c anine

t eeth ( Fig.

4 )

G rave 2 9 F ield D esignation: T I-18, f .6, b urial 2 0 P rovenience: S quares D .6 a nd E .6 E levation: L evel 2 50 S ex: U nknown A ge: A dolescent P osition: F lexed, i n a s itting p osition f acing n orth A rtifacts: 1 . p olychrome c eramic p edestal b owl 2 . p olychrome c eramic j ar 3 . u nknown n umber o f p erforated a nd u nperf orated c anine t eeth F eatures: A n " ash p it" G rave 3 0 F ield D esignation: T T-18, P rovenience: S quare G .5 E levation:

f .6,

b urial 2 2

L evel 2 00

S ex: U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition: U nknown A rtifacts: N one F eatures: N one G rave 3 1 F ield D esignation: T I-18, f .6, b urial 2 3 P rovenience: S quares G .5 a nd G .6 E levation: L evel 1 80 S ex: U nknown A ge: A dult P osition: F lexed, i n a s itting p osition f acing n orth A rtifacts: 1 . p olychrome c eramic j ar F eatures: A n " ash p it" C omments: T he g rave w as l ocated i n t he n orth w all o f a rea. 1 75

t he

e xcavation

G rave 3 2 F ield D esignation: T I-18, P rovenience: S quare G .4 E levation: L evel 2 00 S ex: U nknown A ge: A dolescent P osition: F lexed, r esting A rtifacts: N one F eatures: N one G rave 3 3 F ield D esignation: T I-18, P rovenience: S quare E .4 E levation: L evel 2 00 S ex : U nknown A ge: A dolescent

f .6,

b urial

2 4

f ace

d own a nd o riented

f .6,

b urial

n orth

a nd

s outh

2 6

P osition: F lexed, i n a s itting p osition f acing s outh A rtifacts: 1 . a nd 2 . p olychrome c eramic p edestal b owls 3 . a nd 4 . p olychrome c eramic j ars 5 . t hrough 8 . d eer l ong b ones 9 . o ne-half o f a c ut h uman l ong b one F eatures: N one G rave 3 4 F ield D esignation: T I-18, f .6, b urials 2 7 P rovenience: S quares F .2 a nd F .3

a nd

2 8

E levation: L evel 1 10 S ex : U nknown A ge: A n a dolescent a nd a c hild P osition: B oth f lexed; t he a dolescent w as i n a s itting f acing s outh w ith l egs f olded t o t he l eft s ide; t he c hild f etal p osition r esting o n t he r ight s ide a nd f acing n orth A rtifacts: 1 . a nd 2 . s tone p endants 3 . a nd 4 . c oncha p endants ( Fig. 4 ) 5 . t hrough 1 1. p erforated c anine t eeth 1 2. r ed c eramic u rn F eatures: N one C omments: B oth i ndividuals w ere f ound i nside t he u rn.

p osition w as i n a

G rave 3 5 F ield D esignation: T I-18, h .9, b urial 1 P rovenience: U nknown E levation: E xact l evel u nknown; b etween l evels

2 10 a nd

2 60

S ex : U nknown A ge: A dult P osition: F lexed a nd f acing e ast A rtifacts: 1 . p olychrome c eramic p edestal p late 2 . a nd 3 . p olychrome c eramic j ars 4 . r ed c eramic j ar o r u rn F eatures: N one C omments: T he i ndividual w as f ound i nside t he u rn a long w ith t he c eramic p edestal p late; o bjects 2 . a nd 3 . w ere f ound o utside b ut n ext t o o bject 4 . A nother u rn w as f ound n ear t his b urial b ut i t d id n ot c ontain a s keleton.

1 76

G rave 3 6 F ield D esignation: T I-18, P rovenience: 0 .4 a nd P .4 E levation: L evel 2 45 S ex: U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition: U nknown

h .9,

u rn 3

A rtifacts: 1 . w hite c eramic u rn o r j ar F eatures: N one C omments: T his b urial w as n ot c ompletely e xcavated; I chon t hat t he u rn c ontained a s keleton. G rave 3 7 F ield D esignation: T I-18, P rovenience: S quares N .4, E levation: L evel 2 45 S ex: U nknown A ge: U nknown

h .9, N .5,

I t w as

a ssumed b y

u rn 4 0 .4 a nd 0 .5

P osition: U nknown A rtifacts: 1 . r ed s lipped c eramic F eatures: N one C omments: T his u rn b urial w as n ot t he u rn c ontained a s keleton.

u rn o r j ar f ully e xcavated;

I chon a ssumed

t hat

G rave 3 8 F ield D esignation: T I-18, h .9, u rn 5 P rovenience: S quares 0 .5 a nd 0 .6 E levation: L evel 2 45 S ex: U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition: U nknown A rtifacts:

F eatures: C omments:

1 .

r ed

2 . 4 . 5 .

a nd 3 . c eramic p edestal p lates u nknown s tone o bject t umbaga p laque

c eramic

u rn

o r j ar

6 . F ragments o f a l arge p olychrome c eramic j ar I nside t he u rn w as s olidified a sh, s and, a nd a nimal b ones N o h uman s keletal r emains w ere f ound i nside t he u rn.

G rave 3 9 F ield D esignation: T I-18, P rovenience: S quares 0 .6, E levation: U nknown S ex: U nknown

h .9, 0 .7,

u rns o r b urials 6 a nd P .6, P .7 a nd P .8

7

A ge: A dults P osition: B oth f lexed o r d isarticulated; t he o rientation A rtifacts: 1 . t hrough 6 . p olychrome c eramic p edestal p lates 7 . t hrough 1 0. p olychrome c eramic j ars 1. a nd 1 2. r ed c eramic u rns o r j ars F eatures: A sh p its l ocated u nder e ach s keleton C omments: A f ish v ertebra w as f ound o n t op o f p lates; t wo o f t he p olychrome c eramic j ars w ere b elow t he n orthern-most s keleton.

1 77

i s n ot k nown

o ne o f t he p edestal f ound i n t he a sh p it

G rave 4 0 F ield D esignation:

T I-18,

h .9,

b urial 8

P rovenience: S quares P .8 a nd P .9 E levation: U nknown S ex: U nknown A ge: A dult P osition: U nknown b ut p robably f lexed A rtifacts: 1 . a nd 2 . p olychrome c eramic j ars 3 . F eatures:

a nd

5 .

" Ash p it"

p olychrome p edestal p lates u nderneath t he s keleton

G rave 4 1 F ield D esignation: T I-18, P rovenience: S quare P .9 E levation: U nknown S ex : U nknown A ge: C hild

h .9,

b urial

9

P osition: U nknown o rientation b ut f lexed i n a f etal p osition A rtifacts: 1 . z oomorphic s hell ( Spondylus) p endant ( Fig. F eatures:

" Ash b asin"

b elow t he

4 )

s keleton

G rave 4 2 F ield D esignation: T I-18, P rovenience: S quare 0 .10 E levation: L evel 1 50 S ex : U nknown

h .9,

u rn 8

A ge: A n a dolescent a nd a c hild P osition: A dolescent w as f lexed,

l ying

o n

i ts

l eft

s ide

u rn, a nd o riented w est a nd e ast; t he c hild's p osition w as A rtifacts: 1 . a nd 2 . p olychrome c eramic u rns o r j ars 3 . t hrough 7 . i ncomplete c eramic v essels 8 . a n u nknown n umber o f u nidentified a nimal 9 . u nknown n umber o f s hells 1 0. b rown c eramic v essel 1.

t hrough 1 3. s hell ( spondylus) t oads o r f rogs ( Fig. 4 )

1 4. 1 7.

t hrough 1 6. t hrough 2 8.

p endants

F eatures: C omments:

T he

w as

t he

b ones

i n

t he

s hape

o f

z oomorphic t umbaga o bjects b ivalve s hells

2 9. a nd 3 0. p olychrome c eramic p edestal 3 1. p olychrome c eramic j ar 3 2. p olychrome c eramic e ffigy j ar N one c hild

i nside u nknown

r epresented

o nly

b y

t eeth.

p lates

O ne

o f

t he

u rns

c ontained b oth i ndividuals a nd o bjects 3 . t hrough 2 8. T he o ther u rn w as f ound o n t op o f t he o ther, a cting a s a l id. O bjects 2 9. t hrough 3 2. w ere f ound n ext t o t he u rns.

1 78

A ppendix 3

L a C af iaza G raves

T he

s ources

G rave

u sed

i n t his

a ppendix a re

t he

b urial

l '

s ame a s A ppendix 1 .

1

F ield D esignation: T I-9, P rovenience: S quare A .1 E levation: L evel 2 0 S ex : U nknown A ge: A dult P osition: U nknown A rtifacts: N one F eatures: N one C omments: T he g rave w as

1 a nd

d isturbed.

G rave 2 F ield D esignation: T I-9, b urial 2 P rovenience: S quares A .1 a nd 1 3 .1 E levation: L evel 2 0 S ex: U nknown A ge: A dolescent P osition: F lexed, b undle b urial o n A rtifacts: 1 . c oncha s hell

i ts

b ack;

o riented

2 . a nthropomorphic-shaped c eramic w histle ( Fig. 5 ) F eatures: L ayer o f a sh i mmediately b elow t he s keleton C omments: P ersonal c ommunication ( 1978) f rom I chon m aterial o f t he w histle. G rave 3 F ield D esignation:

T I-9,

b urial

s outh a nd n orth

i dentified

t he

4 t hrough 8

P rovenience: S quare B .1 E levation: L evels 5 0-100 S ex: U nknown A ge: T wo a dults ( burials 4 a nd 6 ), o ne a dolescent ( burial 5 ) a nd t wo c hildren ( burials 7 a nd 8 ) P osition: P robable s econdary b urials ( 4 a nd 6 ); p robable f lexed b urial i n a s itting p osition ( 5); u nknown ( 7 a nd 8 ) A rtifacts:

1 . 2 . 4 .

r ed c eramic p late ( burial 5 ) a nd 3 . f ragments o f s hell p endants ( burial 5 [ Fig. 5 1) s hell f igure i n t he c hape o f a c rocodile ( burial 6 [ Fig. 5 ])

5 . t hrough 6 13. s hell b eads ( burial 6 ) 6 14. r ed c eramic p edestal p late ( burial 8 ) F eatures: N one C omments: T he h ead o f t he s keleton o f b urial 7 w as r esting o n t he p late f ound w ith b urial 5 ; t he h ead o f t he i ndividual i n b urial 8 r ested o n t he p edestal p late. 1 79

G rave 4 F ield D esignation: T I-9, P rovenience: S quare A .3 E levation: L evel 1 00 S ex: U nknown

b urial

9

A ge: A dult P osition: P robable s econdary b urial A rtifacts: 1 . a nd 2 . p olychrome c eramic p edestal F eatures: C omments:

3 . a nd 4 . p olychrome c eramic j ars B elow t he b urial w as a n a sh p it I chon's 1 975 p ublication l ists t his

t he 1 974 p ublication d oes G rave 5 F ield D esignation: T I-9, P rovenience: S quare C .2 E levation: L evel 1 40 S ex: U nknown A ge:

A n a dult a nd a n

n ot n ote

b urial

i ndividual

1 0

p lates

b urial

a nd

b urials

s econdary b ut

1 0'

o f u nknown a ge

P osition: T he a dult i s a p robable s econdary b urial t he i ndividual o f a n u nknown a ge m ixed i n w ith i t A rtifacts: N one F eatures: N one G rave 6 F ield D esignation: •T I-9, P rovenience: S quare C .1 E levation: L evel 1 40 S ex: U nknown A ge: A dults

a s

s uch a d isposition.

1 1,

1 2

a nd

w ith

t he

b ones

o f

1 3

P osition: A ll t hree a re f lexed w ith u nknown o rientations A rtifacts: 1 . a nd 2 . p olychrome c eramic p edestal p lates 3 . t umbaga p endant f ragment F eatures: N one C omments: v essels.

T he

h eads

o f

t he

i ndividuals

w ere

n ested

i n

t he

c eramic

G rave 7 F ield D esignation: T I-9, b urial 1 4 a nd P rovenience: S quares B .2 a nd C .2 E levation: L evel 1 30 S ex: U nknown A ge: A c hild a nd a n a dult

1 4'

P osition: T he p osition o f t he c hild i s u nknown; t he a dult a nd i n a s itting p osition f acing w est A rtifacts: 1 . a nd 2 . p olychrome c eramic p edestal p lates 3 . c oncha s hell 4 . c rab 5 . F eatures:

w as

f lexed

s ting r ay p rojectile p oint

6 . t hrough 8 0. N one

s hell

b eads,

C omments: The s pecies o f t he c rab c ommunication f rom I chon [ 1978]).

1 80

p robably a n ecklace w as

n ot

i dentified

( persona]

G rave 8 F ield D esignation: P rovenience: E levation: S ex: A ge:

T I-9,

b urial

1 5

S quare 1 3 .1

L evel

1 40

U nknown A dult

P osition:

F lexed,

A rtifacts:

o rientation u nknown

N one

F eatures:

A n a sh

l ayer w as

l ocated

u nder

t he

b urial

G rave 9 F ield D esignation: P rovenience: E levation:

L evel

S ex:

U nknown

A ge:

A dult

P osition: A rtifacts: F eatures: G rave

T I-9,

S quare

1 6

1 30

F lexed, 1 .

b urial

B .1

l ying o n

t hrough 3 .

l eft

s hell

s ide

a nd

o riented w est

b ead n ecklaces;

n umber o f b eads i s u nknown A l ayer o f a sh f ound u nder t he

a nd

t he e xact

s keleton

1 0

F ield D esignation:

T I-9,

b urial

1 7

P rovenience: S quare B .2 E levation: L evel 1 40 S ex:

U nknown

A ge:

A dult

P osition: P robable A rtifacts: None F eatures: G rave

s econdary b urial

A n a sh p it

w as

l ocated

u nder

t he

b urial

1 1

F ield D esignation:

T I-9,

b urial

1 9

P rovenience: S quare A .3 E levation: L evel 1 20 S ex:

U nknown

A ge:

A dult

P osition: A rtifacts:

U nknown d eposition,

F eatures:

N one

C omments:

T he

G rave

b ut

o riented

None b urial

w as

d isturbed.

1 2

F ield D esignation:

T I-9,

b urial

2 0

P rovenience: S quare A .3 E levation: L evel 1 40 S ex: A ge:

U nknown A dult

P osition: A rtifacts: F eatures: G rave

F lexed,

o rientation

u nknown

None N one

1 3

F ield D esignation: T I-9, P rovenience: S quare Z .1 E levation:

L evel

6 5-90

b urial

2 1

1 81

n orth

a nd

s outh

e ast

S ex: U nknown A ge: A dult P osition: U nknown A rtifacts: 1 . a nd 2 . p olychrome c eramic p edestal p lates 3 . a nd 4 . p olychrome c eramic j ars 5 . a nd 6 . c oncha s hell f ragments 7 . s hell t rapezoidal p laque 8 . 9 .

p erforated s hark's t ooth a nd 1 0. s hell b eads

F eatures: A n a sh l ayer u nder t he s keleton C omments: O bjects 7 .-10. w ere f ound i n t he a shes; i dentification t hem w ere t he r esult o f p ersonal c ommunication ( Ichon 1 978).

o f

G rave 1 4 F ield D esignation: T I-9, P rovenience: S quare Z .1 E levation: L evel 7 5 S ex : U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition: U nknown

b urial

A rtifacts: 1 . p olychrome F eatures: A n a sh p it w as

c eramic j ar l ocated u nder

G rave

2 2

t he

s keleton

1 5

F ield D esignation:

T I-9,

b urial

P rovenience: S quare Z .1 E levation: L evel 8 5 S ex: U nknown A ge: A dult P osition: F lexed, " crouched" A rtifacts: N one F eatures: N one

a nd

2 3

f acing s outh

G rave 1 6 F ield D esignation: T I-9, b urial 2 4 P rovenience: S quare A .3 E levation: L evel 1 70 S ex : U nknown A ge: C hild P osition: U nknown A rtifacts: 1 . a nd 2 . p olychrome f ooted c eramic p edestal 3 . a nd 4 . p olychrome c eramic j ar

p lates

5 . p erforated s hell d isk F eatures: A sh p it l ocated b elow t he s keleton C omments: T he e xact l ocation o f t his g rave i s a mbiguous s ince t he m aps i n I chon's p ublications h ave t he g rave l ocated i n e xcavation s quare B .1, w hile t he a ppendices i n t he s ame p ublications p lace t he g rave

i n s quare A .3.

G rave 1 7 F ield D esignation:

T I-9,

b urial

2 5

P rovenience: S quare A .3 E levation: L evel 1 70 S ex: U nknown A ge: A dult P osition: F lexed,

o riented n orth a nd 1 82

s outh

A rtifacts: N one F eatures: A sh l ayer l ocated b elow t he s keleton C omments: T he a mbiguous l ocation o f t his g rave s ame p roblem c ited f or g rave 1 6. G rave

i s

a r esult

1 8

F ield D esignation: T I-9, P rovenience: S quare Z .1 E levation: L evel 1 10

b urial

S ex : U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition : U nknown A rtifacts: 1 . c eramic p edestal 2 . c eramic j ar F eatures:

2 6

p late

None

G rave 1 9 F ield D esignation: T I-9, b urial 2 7 P rovenience: S quare C .2 E levation: L evel 1 75 S ex : U nknown A ge: A dult P osition: F lexed, r esting o n s tomach; A rtifacts: 1 . t umbaga p laque 2 . p erforated s hell d isk F eatures: N one

u nknown o rientation

G rave 2 0 F ield D esignation: T I-9, P rovenience: S quare C .1 E levation: L evel 1 60 S ex : U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition: U nknown A rtifacts: N one F eatures: N one

b urial 2 8

G rave 2 1 F ield D esignation: T I-9, P rovenience: S quare Z .1 E levation: L evel 1 10 S ex : U nknown A ge: A dults

b urial 2 9 a nd 3 0

P osition: U nknown A rtifacts: N one F eatures: N one G rave 2 2 F ield D esignation: T I-9, P rovenience: S quare Z .1 E levation: L evel 1 10 S ex: U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition: U nknown

b urial 3 1

A rtifacts: N one F eatures: N one 1 83

o f

t he

G rave 2 3 F ield D esignation:

T I-9,

b urial

3 2

P rovenience: A .9 ( ?) E levation: L evel 1 30 S ex : U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition: P robable s econdary b urial A rtifacts: None F eatures: N one C omments: T he S panish e dition ( 1975) o f I chon's r eport r efers t o t his b urial a s " 33", i nstead o f " 32." I t I s n ot c lear f rom t he p ublished s ources e xactly w here s quare A .9 i s l ocated a t L a C a f iaza. G rave 2 4 F ield D esignation:

T I-9,

b urial

3 3

P rovenience: S quare B .2 E levation: L evel 1 90 S ex: U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition: U nknown A rtifacts: 1 . p olychrome c eramic j ar F eatures: A sh b asin l ocated u nderneath G rave 2 5 F ield D esignation: T I-9, P rovenience: S quare B .2 E levation: L evel 1 90

b urial

3 4

b urial

3 5

t he

s keleton

S ex : U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition: U nknown A rtifacts: N one F eatures: N one G rave 2 6 F ield D esignation: T I-9, P rovenience: S quare B .3 E levation: L evel 2 25 S ex : U nknown A ge: A dult P osition: F lexed, s outheast A rtifacts:

F eatures:

r esting

b ack

1 .

a nd 2 .

p olychrome

c eramic

a nd 4 .

p olychrome

c eramic j ars

5 .

a nd 6 .

t rapezoidal

A n a sh b asin

i s

L evel

F eatures:

o riented

f ooted

b urial

n orthwest

p edestal

p lates

b one p endants

l ocated u nderneath t he

3 6

1 60-200

S ex: U nknown A ge: A dolescent P osition: U nknown A rtifacts:

a nd

3 .

G rave 2 7 F ield D esignation: T I-9, P rovenience: S quare A .2 E levation:

o n

N one N one 1 84

s keleton

a nd

A ppendix 4

E l C afetal G raves

T he

i nformation

G rave

i n A ppendix 4 i s

d erived

f rom G onzAlez

( 1971).

1

F ield D esignation: B urial 1 a nd 2 P rovenience: T rench 1 , s quares C -6 a nd D -5 E levation: L evel 1 03-106 S ex: U nknown A ge: T wo a dults? P osition: D isarticulated, A rtifacts:

h ead o n

t op o f b ones w hich w ere p iled

u p

N one

F eatures: T here m ay h ave b een t he r esidue o f a n et w hich h eld t he b ones C omments: A r ed c up w hich i s l isted u nder a rtifacts f ound i n G rave 5 m ay h ave b elonged t o G rave 1 . T he b urials w ere d escribed a s b eing f ound i n a p aquete. G rave 3 F ield D esignation: B urials 3 a nd 4 P rovenience: T rench 1 , s nuares C -3 a nd C -4 E levation: L evel 9 8 S ex: U nknown A ge: T wo c hildren P osition: F lexed A rtifacts:

1 . a gate p endant 2 .-4. a gate b eads 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 .

w hite c eramic c up b ichrome c eramic d oble v essel u nknown s tone o bjects u nknown n umber o f s erpentine b eads

F eatures: N one C omments: N umerous c eramic s herds i ndividuals; o ne o f t he c hildren w as y oung a ge.

w ere f ound a mong t hese t wo d escribed a s b eing o f a v ery

G rave 5 F ield D esignation: B urial 5 P rovenience: T rench 1 , s quare D -3 E levation: L evel 1 07 S ex: U nknown A ge: A dult? P osition : F lexed A rtifacts: N one F eatures: N one C omments: A lthough t he

b ody w as

n o

i ndividual

o bjects

c overed w ith p olychrome 1 85

w ere

f ound

i n

a nd u tility s herds.

t his

g rave,

G rave 6 F ield D esignation: B urial 6 P rovenience: T rench 1 , s quare D -3 E levation: L evel 1 27 S ex: U nknown A ge: A dult P osition: U nknown b ut o riented t oward A rtifacts: 1 . c eramic v essel s upport F eatures: C omments:

t he w est

N one F ound d irectly u nder G rave 5 .

G rave 7 F ield D esignation: B urial 7 P rovenience: T rench 1 , s auare D -2 E levation: L evel 9 1 S ex: U nknown A ge: C hild P osition: S econdary A rtifacts: 1 . p olychrome c eramic d oble v essel F eatures: N one C omments: T he b urial w as l ocated i nside t he c eramic v essel. G rave 8 F ield D esignation: B urial 8 P rovenience: T rench 1 , s quare C -2 E levation: L evel 1 05 S ex:

U nknown

A ge: U nknown P osition: U nknown A rtifacts: 1 . c eramic w histle i n t he s hape o f a f ish 2 . r ed c eramic c up 3 . a n u nknown n umber o f o ther c eramic w histles F eatures:

N one

C omments:

T he

s keletal

r emains w ere

p artial.

G rave 9 F ield D esignation: B urial 9 P rovenience: T rench 1 , s quare C -2 E levation: U nknown S ex: U nknown A ge: C hild P osition: S econdary A rtifacts: 1 . p olychrome c eramic d oble v essel F eatures: N one C omments: T he b urial w as f ound i nside t he w as n ot c ompletely e xcavated s ince p art l imits o f t he e xcavation a rea. G rave

1 0

F ield D esignation:

B urial

P rovenience: T rench 1 , E levation: U nknown S ex: U nknown

1 0

s quare C -2

A ge: C hild P osition: U nknown A rtifacts:

1 .

a n u nknown n umber

o f s tones 1 86

c eramic v essel; t he b urial o f i t w as o utside o f t he

2 .

p olychrome

F eatures: N one C omments: T he

b urial

w as

p artially l ocated o utside G rave

c eramic n ot

t he

c up c ompletely

l imits

o f

e xcavated

s ince

i t

t he e xcavation a rea.

1 2

F ield D esignation: B urials 1 1 a nd 1 2 P rovenience: T rench 2 , s quare B -4 E levation: 1 03-104 S ex: U nknown A ge: T wo a dolescents P osition: B oth w ere f lexed A rtifacts: 1 .-4. r ed c eramic v essels 5 . u nknown n umber o f a gate F eatures: N one

b eads

G rave 1 3 F ield D esignation: B urial 3 P rovenience: T rench 2 , s quare A -5 E levation: L evel 9 9 S ex: U nknown A ge: C hild P osition: U nknown A rtifacts: 1 . b ichrome c eramic d oble v essel 2 . u nknown t ype a nd n umber o f s tones F eatures: N one C omments: T he s keleton w as i n a n a dvanced s tate o f d ecomposition. G rave 1 4 F ield D esignation: B urial 1 4 P rovenience: T rench 2 , s quares A -3 E levation: L evel 1 05 S ex :

a nd B -3

U nknown

A ge: A dult P osition: U nknown b ut f acing t oward t he n orthwest A rtifacts: 1 . c eramic e ffigy v essel 2 . u nknown n umber o f s hells F eatures: N one G rave 1 5 F ield D esignation: B urial 1 5 P rovenience: T rench 2 , s quares A -3 a nd B -3 E levation: L evel 1 03 S ex :

U nknown

A ge: A dult P osition: F lexed, f acing t oward t he s outhwest A rtifacts: 1 . f ragment o f a c eramic b ichrome d oble v essel 2 . u nknown n umber o f r ed c eramic v essels F eatures: N one G rave 1 6 F ield D esignation: B urial 1 6 P rovenience: T rench 2 , s quares B -1 E levation: L evel 1 10 S ex : U nknown A ge: A dult

a nd B -2

1 87

w as

P osition:

U nknown b ut

A rtifacts:

1 . a nd 2 . f ragmentary c eramic b ichrome d oble v essels 3 . w hite c eramic p edestal N one

F eatures: C omments: s herds. G rave

T he

f acing s outh

s keleton

w as

c overed

w ith

t he

c eramic

v essels

a nd

1 7

F ield D esignation: B urial 1 7 P rovenience: T rench 2 , s quares A -1 a nd A -2 E levation: L evel 1 12 S ex: U nknown A ge: A dult P osition: F lexed, f acing w est A rtifacts: 1 . b ichrome c eramic d oble v essel 2 . p olychrome c eramic p late F eatures: C omments: s keleton. G rave

3 . u nknown n umber o f N one A ll

t he

a rtifacts

r ed

w ere

c eramic c ups f ound

a round

1 8

F ield D esignation: B urial 1 8 P rovenience: T rench 2 , s quare A -3 E levation: L evel 1 30 S ex: U nknown A ge: A dult P osition: F lexed A rtifacts: 1 . r ed c eramic v essel F eatures: N one G rave 1 9 F ield D esignation: B urial 1 9 P rovenience: T rench 3 , s quares Y -6 E levation: U nknown S ex : U nknown A ge: U nknown

a nd Z -6

P osition: U nknown A rtifacts: N one F eatures: C omments:

N one O nly a c ranium w as

G rave 2 0 F ield D esignation:

d iscovered.

B urial 2 0

P rovenience: T rench 3 , E levation: U nknown

s quares Y -6

a nd Z -6?

S ex : U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition: U nknown A rtifacts: F eatures: C omments:

N one N one O nly s ome

l ong b ones w ere

u ncovered.

1 88

t he

c ranium

o f

t he

G rave

2 1

F ield D esignation: P rovenience: E levation:

U nknown

A ge:

U nknown

A rtifacts: F eatures: G rave

F lexed 1 .

r ed

2 .

a n u nknown n umber o f

c eramic

e ffigy v essel s tones

N one

2 2

F ield D esignation: P rovenience: E levation: S ex:

2 1

s quare Z -5

U nknown

S ex:

P osition:

B urial

Trench 3 ,

B urial

2 2

U nknown

L evel 8 0

U nknown

A ge: C hild? P osition: S econdary A rtifacts:

1 .

c eramic

2 .-4. 5 . None

C omments:

T he

G rave

s keleton

b urial w as

c eramic v essels

w as

o f

s tones

f ound

i nside

t he

" doble"

d isturbed b y h uaeueros.

2 3

F ield D esignation: P rovenience:

B urial

Trench 2 ,

E levation: L evel S ex: U nknown A ge:

r ed

u nknown n umber

F eatures: e ntire

d oble v essel

t hree

2 3

s quare Y -4

1 14

U nknown

P osition: A rtifacts:

U nknown b ut 1 .

r ed

F eatures:

N one

C omments: c ranium.

T he

f acing

t oward

t he n orthwest

c eramic p late

p late w as

f ound

u nder

t he

i ndividual's

t he

s outhwest

G rave 2 4 F ield D esignation: P rovenience: E levation: S ex:

B urial

T rench 3 ,

U nknown

U nknown

A ge: U nknown P osition: U nknown b ut A rtifacts:

1 .

b ichrome

2 .-3. 4 . F eatures: G rave

2 4

s euare Z -2

f acing t oward

c eramic d oble v essel

r ed c eramic v essels

r ed

c eramic p late

5 . u nknown n umber None

o f

a gate

b eads

2 5

F ield D esignation: P rovenience: E levation:

L evel

S ex:

Unknown

A ge:

U nknown

B urial

T rench 3 ,

2 5

S quares Y -1

a nd Y -9

1 10

1 89

v essel

a nd

t he

P osition:

F lexed,

A rtifacts:

1 . f ragments o f a d oble v essel 2 . t umbaga p endant 3 . a gate p endant 4 . u nknown n umber o f a gate b eads N one

F eatures:

f acing t oward

t he

s outheast

G rave 2 6 F ield D esignation: B urial 2 6 P rovenience: T rench 3 , s quare Z -8 E levation: U nknown S ex : U nknown A ge: C hild P osition: U nknown A rtifacts: 1 . c eramic d oble f ragments F eatures: N one C omments: T he s keleton w as i n a n a dvanced

s tate

o f d eterioration.

G rave 2 7 F ield D esignation: B urial 2 7 P rovenience: T rench 3 , s quare Z -4 E levation: L evel 1 30 S ex: U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition: F lexed, f acing w est A rtifacts: 1 . p olychrome c up F eatures:

2 . u nknown n umber o f s erpentine b eads N one

G rave 2 8 F ield D esignation: B urial 2 8 P rovenience: T rench 3 , s quare Y -4 E levation: L evel 1 31 S ex: U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition: U nknown A rtifacts: N one F eatures: N one C omments:

T he

c ranium w as

s eparated

f rom t he

G rave 2 9 F ield D esignation: B urials 2 9 a nd 3 0 P rovenience: T rench 3 , s quares Y -1, Z -1, E levation: L evel 1 35 S ex: U nknown A ge: A dolescent P osition: O ne b urial w as f lexed, A rtifacts: 1 . r ed c eramic p late

t orso.

a nd Z -2

f acing w est;

t he

o ther w as

s econdary

2 .-4. a t l east t hree p lain c eramic v essels 5 . u nknown n umber o f b one p rojectile p oints 6 . u nknown t ype o f g old o r t umbaga n ecklace 7 .-8. t wo g old o r t umbaga p endants

F eatures: C omments:

9 . g old o r t umbaga r ing 1 0. c eramic e ffigy c up N one A rtifacts 1 ., 6 ., 7 ., a nd 1 90

1 0.

w ere

f ound

w ith

t he

f lexed

b urial; t he

o bjects

2 -4.

w ere

i tems w ere f ound w ith

f ound t he

b etween

t he

t wo

b urials;

s econdary b urial.

G rave 3 1 F ield D esignation: B urial 3 1? P rovenience: T rench 4 , s quare X -6 E levation: L evel 1 50 S ex: U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition : U nknown A rtifacts: 1 . p lain c eramic v essel F eatures: N one C omments:

T his m ay n ot h ave b een a g rave.

G rave 3 2 F ield D esignation: G rave 3 2 P rovenience: T rench 4 , s quare X -5 E levation: L evel 1 19 S ex: U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition: F lexed a nd f acing t oward A rtifacts: F eatures:

1 . r ed 2 . r ed N one

t he

s outhwest

c eramic p late c eramic v essel

G rave 3 3 F ield D esignation:

B urials 3 3

a nd

3 4

P rovenience: T rench 4 , s quare X -4 E levation: L evel 7 5-106 S ex : U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition: U nknown A rtifacts: 1 . u nknown n umber o f s tones F eatures: N one G rave 3 5 F ield D esignation: B urial 3 5 P rovenience: T rench 4 , s quare V -4 E levation: L evel 1 05 S ex: U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition: F lexed A rtifacts: 1 . f ragment F eatures: N one

o f a c eramic

G rave 3 6 F ield D esignation: B urial 3 6 P rovenience: T rench 4 , s quares V -5, E levation: U nknown

d oble v essel

V -6,

X -5,

a nd X -6

S ex : U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition: F lexed, f acing n orth A rtifacts: 1 .-3. t hree p lain c eramic v essels 4 . r ed c eramic p late F eatures:

5 . t umbapa p endant N one

i n

t he 1 91

f orm o f a s pider

t he

r est

o f

G rave 3 7 F ield D esignation: B urial 3 7 P rovenience: T rench 4 , s quare X -5 E levation: L evel 1 33? S ex: U nknown A ge: A dult? P osition: S econdary A rtifacts:

1 .

r ed c eramic v essel

F eatures: N one C omments: T he c eramic v essel w as f ound o n i ts s ide a nd t he b ones w ere f ound a s i f t hey h ad s pilled o ut o f t he v essel; t here w as n o c ranium i n t he d ebris. G rave 3 8 F ield D esignation: B urial 3 8 P rovenience: T rench 4 , s quare X -4 E levation: L evel 1 33 S ex: U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition: S econdary A rtifacts: 1 .-2. t umbaga e ffigies; o ne i n t he o ther i n a s hape o f F eatures: N one C omments: T his g rave m ay h ave b een p art w as d escribed i n t he r eport a s i n a f etal

1 92

t he s hape o f a n e agle a nd a n a rmadillo? o f G rave 3 7; p osition.

t he

i ndividual

A ppendix 5

S itio C onte G raves

T his a ppendix, w hen a ccompanied b y S amuel Lothrop's 1 937 p ublication, p rovides t he f ull d ocumentation o n t he g raves f rom S itio C onte. T he i nformation i n t his a ppendix w as d erived f rom e xamination o f a ll o f J . A lden M ason's e xcavations n otes a nd m aps; t he n otes o f o ne o f h is a ssistants, J ohn C orning; t he m aps a nd n otes o f R obert M errill, a nother o f M ason's a ssistants; t he c inemagraphic a nd s till p hotographic r ecords ( there i s a n i mpressive c olor m ovie f ilm o n f ile a t T he U niversity M useum o f t hese e xcavations a t S itio C onte); a nd t he c atalogue r ecords o f t he U niversity M useum o f t he U niversity o f P ennsylvania. N eedless t o s ay , n ot a ll o f t hese s ources a greed o n a ll p oints o f i nformation c oncerning t he l ocation o f o bjects, t he s eparation o f o ne g rave f rom a nother, t he p osition a nd n umber o f s keletal r emains, a nd s o f orth. i nformation f rom t hese s ources. r ules, i f a s imple m ajority o f

I h ave a ttempted t o c orrelate t he W hile I d id n ot f ollow a ny r igid t he s ources a greed o n a d isputed

p oint, I c hoose t o s ide w ith t hem; o therwise, I h ave t ried t o e xpress t he u ncertainty e vident i n t he f ield n otes a nd o ther s ources. F or e xample, q uestion m arks o r m issing i nformation.

a s

w ell

a s

d ashes

f requently

d enote

u nclear

G rave 6 0 F ield D esignation: B urial 1 , a lso c ited a s B urial o r G rave A a nd T i1 3 1 P rovenience: T rench 1 , 2 64.1-265.5 n orth b y 8 4.1-86.0 w est E levation: 1 4.1-14.4 f eet ( 4.3-4.4 m eters) S ex: U nknown A ge: A dolescent o r a dult P osition: T he e xtended b ody m easured 1 55 c entimeters f rom h ead t o a nkle; t he f eet w ere t oo d ecomposed f or m easurement. The i ndividual's h and r ested t oward t he n ortheast a nd t he f eet t oward t he s outhwest. T he b ody l ay o n t he l eft s ide, f acing t he s outheast; t he r ight a rm r ested o ver t he m idsection. A rtifacts: 1 . s tone c elt F eatures: N one C omments: T he c elt w as f ound o n n eck a nd b etween t he h umerii. G rave

i ts

e dge

j ust

b elow

t he

i ndividual's

6 1

F ield D esignation: B urial 2 , a lso c ited a s B urial o r G rave B a nd T iB 2 P rovenience: T rench 1 , 2 66.7-267.3 n orth b y 8 5.5-87.3 w est E levation: 1 4.5 f eet ( 4.42 m eters) S ex: U nknown A ge: A dult P osition:

E xtended

e ast

a nd

w est

( measuring

1 93

1 40

c entimeters

f rom

a nkle t o h ead); t he i ndividual's h ead n orth; t he a rms w ere a cross t he c hest A rtifacts: N one F eatures: C omments:

N one T he c onsistency o f

t he

w as

b one w as

t oward

t he

e ast

d escribed a s

w et

a nd

f aced

d ust."

G rave 6 2 F ield D esignation: B urial 3 , a lso c ited a s C ache 3 a nd T l-B3 P rovenience: T rench 1 , 2 65.7-268.7 n orth b y 8 7.7-92.5 w est E levation: 1 4.6 f eet ( 4.45 m eters) S ex : A p ossible f emale a nd a p ossible m ale A ge: A dults P osition: B oth i ndividuals w ere e xtended, l ying o n t heir l eft a nd f acing s outh; t he m ale's h ead w as l ocated j ust t he f emale A rtifacts: 1 . b ichrome c eramic b owl ( 40-GC-11) 2 . s tone c elt ( 40-GC-9)

a bove

s ide

t he k nees

o f

F eatures: N one C omments: L othrop s uggested t hat t he p osition o f t he s keletons s uggested a m an a nd a w oman h aving s exual i ntercourse. T he f emale, L othrop a dded, w as a " toothless o ld w oman." G rave 6 3 F ield D esignation: B urial 4 , a lso c ited a s T 1-B4 P rovenience: T rench 1 , 2 63.4-264.0 n orth b y 8 6.5-88.0 w est E levation:

A pproximately 1 3.6

f eet

( 4.15 m eters)

S ex: U nknown A ge: A pproximately t en y ears o ld P osition: T he b ones w ere d eteriorated. T he i ndividual w as l ying f ace d own; t he b ody w as o riented e ast t o w est w ith t he h ead t oward t he e ast. E ither t he l egs w ere d isarticulated b efore b urial a nd n ot i ncluded i n t he i nterment o r t he l egs w ere f lexed u nderneath t he t orso and t he a dvanced s tate o f d ecomposition m ade t hem i ndistinguishable f rom t he t orso. T he a rms w ere f lexed a nd t he h ands r ested u nder t he l eft m andible; t he i ndividual f aced s outh. A rtifacts: 1 . s tone p endant F eatures: N one C omments: C orning m ade t he a ge d etermination. G rave 6 4 F ield D esignation: B urial 5 , a lso c ited a s T 1-B5 P rovenience: T rench 1 , 2 70.2 n orth b y 8 7.0 w est E levation: 1 3.0 f eet ( 3.96 m eters) S ex:

U nknown

A ge: A dult P osition: E xtended,

t he

i ndividual w as

A rtifacts: N one F eatures: N one C omments: T he f ield n otes

o n t his

r esting o n

i ts

b ack

g rave w ere v ery c ursory.

G rave 6 5 F ield D esignation: B urial 1 , a lso c ited a s C ache 1 , T 2-B1 a nd T 2-C1 P rovenience: T rench 2 , 1 64.3-165.3 n orth b y 1 85.6-188.0 w est E levation: S ex: A ge:

1 2.2-13.5 f eet

( 3.72-4.11 m eters)

U nknown U nknown 1 94

P osition: A rtifacts:

U nknown 1 .-4. 4 b lack c eramic j ars w ith l ids ( 40-16-4a,b; 5 . b ichrome c eramic p edestal p late ( 40-16-2)

7 a,b)

6 . 7 . 8 .

b ichrome c eramic r ed c eramic " pot b ichrome c eramic

t ripod b owl ( 40-16-3) r est" ( 40-16-1238) c arafe ( 40-16-8)

9 .

c eramic e ffigy w histle w ith i ncised d ecoration ( not l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections)

F eatures: N one C omments: T his f ind m ay n ot b e a g rave. M errill s uggested t hat t his f ind w as p art o f C ache 8 e xcavated d uring t he 1 931 L othrop d irected P eabody M useum e xcavations. N o s keletal r emains w ere f ound. G rave 6 6 F ield D esignation: B urial 2 , a lso c ited a s C ache 2 , T 2-B2 a nd T 2-C2 P rovenience: T rench 2 , 1 68.0-169.4 n orth b y 1 56.1-157.5 w est E levation: 1.8-12.8 f eet ( 3.6-3.9 m eters) S ex : A ge:

U nknown U nknown

P osition: A rtifacts:

U nknown 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 .

p olychrome c eramic e ffigy v essel ( 40-16-14) r ed c eramic j ar w ith a n e ffigy h andle ( 40-16-16) r ed c eramic j ar w ith e ffigy a pplique o n b ody ( 40-16-17) p lain j ar ( 40-16-17)

F eatures:

5 . u nknown n umber o f r ed N one

C omments:

T his

f ind

i s

r eferred

t o

c eramic j ars i n t he

( 40-16-16)

f ield n otes

a nd a b urial. T he h uman s keletal r emains w ere a rtifacts; y et a ny o ther r elationship b etween t he a nd t he b ones i s u nclear.

a s b oth a c ache

f ound b elow t he m ortuary o bjects

G rave 6 7 F ield D esignation: B urial 3 , a lso c ited a s T 2-B3, B urial 4 a nd T 2-B4 P rovenience: T rench 2 , 1 62.0-166.8 n orth b y 1 86.8-192.3 w est E levation: 1.0-12.0 ( 3.34-3.66 m eters) S ex: U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition: T wo o r t hree b odies w ere s uperimposed o ther; t he t op s keleton w as o riented s outhwest o rientation o f t he o ther i ndividual i s u nknown A rtifacts: N one F eatures: N one

o ne a nd

o n t op o f n ortheast

t he t he

G rave 6 8 F ield D esignation: B urial 7 , a lso c ited a s T 2-B7 P rovenience: T rench 2 , 1 66.0-173.0 n orth b y 1 55.0-161.2 w est E levation: 1 0.3-11.5 f eet ( 3.15-3.51 m eters) S ex: O ne f emale a nd t wo m ales A ge: A n a dult f emale a nd m ale; t he o ther m ales a ge w as u ndetermined a dults P osition: T he a dult f emale w as e xtended, c ranium t oward t he e ast, l aying f ace d own w ith h er a rms f old a cross h er c hest a nd h er h ands d irected t oward h er f ace. T he f eet w ere m issing; f rom t he t op o f t he c ranium t o c entimeters. T his

t he T he

e nd o f t he t ibia m easured a pproximately 1 40 a dult m ales w as a lso e xtended a nd l ying f ace d own.

i ndividual m easured

1 37

c entimeters 1 95

f rom

t he

c ranium

t o

t he

e nd

o f i ts t ibia a nd a lso l ike t he a bove f emale w as o riented e ast a nd w est. T he l ast i ndividual w as p ositioned e xactly l ike t he o ther a dult m ale; h e m easured 1 15 c entimeters f rom h is c ranium t o t he f emora. T he t ibia w ere c ompletely a bsent f rom t his l atter i ndividual. A rtifacts: 1 .-10. 1 0 r ed c eramic p lates ( 40-15-180 t hrough 1 84, 1 98, 4 0-16-35, 3 6, 3 8; o ne w as n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections) 1.-17. 7 p olychrome c eramic p lates ( 40-15-199 t hrough 2 01, 2 04, 2 06, 2 35, 4 0-16-37 [ Figs. 1 7, 1 9, 2 7]) 1 8.-22. 5 r ed c eramic c arafes ( 40-15-178, 1 79, 1 94, 2 02, 2 84 t hrough 2 92) 2 3. a nd 2 4. r ed c eramic b owls ( 40-15-185, 1 95; o ne w as n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum 's c ollections) 2 5. a nd 2 6. r ed c eramic c ensers ( 40-15-191, 4 0-16-39) 2 7. r ed c eramic b owl w ith i ncised d ecoration ( 40-15-262) 2 8. p olychrome c eramic c arafe ( 40-15-177) 2 9. p olychrome c eramic b owl ( 40-15-192) 3 0. p olychrome c eramic s pouted j ar ( 40-15-196) 3 1. r ed a nd b uff p edestal b owl ( not l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections) 3 2. r ed p edestal b owl ( 40-15-187) 3 3. b lack p edestal b owl w ith f luted b ody ( 40-15-188) 3 4. p olychrome r ectangular p edestal p late ( 40-15-190) 3 5. r ed a nd w hite b owl ( not l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum 's c ollections) 3 6. a nd 3 7. r ed a nd b uff b owls w ith i ncised d ecoration ( 40-15-207, 2 08; o ne w as n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections) 3 8.-41. 4 r ed c eramic j ars ( 40-15-189, 2 09, 1 859; o ne w as n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum 's c ollections) 4 2. r ed c eramic j ar w ith i ncised d ecoration ( 40-15-205) 4 3. b rown c eramic t ripod e ffigy j ar ( not l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum 's c ollections) 4 4. p olychrome c eramic e ffigy v essel ( 40-15-197 [ Fig. 2 1]) 4 5. p olychrome c eramic j ar ( 40-15-210) 4 6. p lain c eramic t ripod j ar w ith t wo l oop h andles ( 40-15-211) 4 7. b lack c eramic v essel c over ( 40-15-215) 4 8.-63. 1 6 s tone c elts ( 40-13-238 t hrough 2 48; f ive w ere l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anama) 6 4. a gate w inged s haped p endant ( 40-13-237) 6 5. s hark t ooth ( 40-13-250) 6 6.-79. 1 4 g old o r t umba&a b eads ( 40-13-250) 8 0. s tone k nife o r l arge p rojectile p oint ( 40-13-249) 8 1.-431. 3 51 s tone p rojectile p oints ( 40-13-251 t hrough 6 01) F eatures: A ccording t o M ason's n otes a c lump o f " white s tuff" w as f ound n ear t he u naged m ale. C omments: T he g rave o utline w as a pproximately s quare w ith r ounded c orners; t he w alls w ere o riented t oward t he c ardinal p oints. T he n ortheast c orner w as s lightly d amaged, p robably b y a boriginal e xcavations f or g rave 7 2. T he s outhern e dge o f t his b urial w as w ithin o ne f oot o f t he e arlier P eabody e xcavations. 1 96

G rave 6 9 F ield D esignation: B urial 8 a, a lso c ited a s T 2-B8a P rovenience: T rench 2 , 1 72.5-176.0 n orth b y 1 55.0-159.0 w est E levation: 1.9 f eet ( 3.63 m eters) S ex: U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition: S cattered h uman b ones w ith n o a pparent o rganization A rtifacts: 1 .-22. 2 2 c eramic j ars w ith t races o f r ed p aint; s even h ad h andles ( 40-15-1 t hrough 4 0-15-3, 6 t hrough 1 1,

F eatures: C omments:

1 3 t hrough 1 6, 1 8 t hrough 2 4, 4 0-16-44) 2 3.and 2 4. p olychrome c eramic c arafes ( 40-15-4 a nd 5 a,b) 2 5.and 2 6. r ed c eramic c arafes ( 40-15-12, 1 70e N one T he g rave a rea w as, a ccording t o M ason, a r ectangle o f 1 .0

b y 1 .3 m eters. N o h uman s keletons w ere r eported i n t he g rave a rea, b ut M ason d id o bserve t races o f b one s cattered i n u nspecified a reas o f t he b urial. A ll b ut t he c entral a rea o f t he g rave w as c overed w ith c eramic v essels. T he d istribution o f t he a rtifacts a nd t he r esidue o f b ones s uggest t hat t his f ind p robably i s a g rave. G rave 7 0 F ield D esignation: B urial 8 b, a lso c ited a s T 2-R8b P rovenience: T rench 2 , 1 70.4-172.7 n orth b y 1 54.0-156.0 w est E levation: 1 2.1 f eet ( 3.69 m eters) S ex: U nknown A ge: U nknown A rtifacts: 1 .-2. p olychrome c eramic c arafes ( 40-15-38 a nd 3 9) 3 . r ed c eramic c arafe r epresented o nly b y t he n eck ( 40-15-40) F eatures: N one C omments: u ncovered

T his g rave, i mmediately t o t he d uring t he e xcavation o f g rave

i n t he f ind w as i dentification o f

s outheast o f g rave 6 9, w as 6 8. T he s keletal m aterial

f ragmentary a nd m ostly d ecomposed. t he i ndividual w as i mpossible.

A s

a r esult

G rave 7 1 F ield D esignation:

B urial 9 ,

a lso c ited

a s T 2-B9

P rovenience: T rench 2 , a pproximately 1 68.0-173.0 w est E levation: 9 .7-11.7 f eet ( 2.96-3.57 m eters) S ex: U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition:

P ossibly

t wo

i ndividuals

w ere

f ound

i n

n orth b y 1 81.5-185.0

t his

g rave;

a mong

a

j umbled m ass o f b ones, t wo c raniums w ere f ound. O ne, l ocated a t 1 70.0 n orth b y 1 83.0 w est, h ad i ts h ead f ace d own a nd t he t op o f t he s kull w as d irected t oward t he e ast. T he t orso b elonging t o t his c ranium a pparently l ay o n a s outherly s loping f loor. T he l eg b ones w ere f ound o n t op o f t he j aw . A nother " jumbled m ass o f l ong b ones," a ccording t o M ason's n otes, " without a ny a rticulation" w as f ound b etween

1 69.0-170.0

n orth

a nd

1 84.-185.0

w est.

T hese

l atter

b ones

w ere s trewn i n e very d irection a nd w ere p robably p art o f a s econdary b urial. M ason d rew t he r easonable c onclusion t hat t he b urials w ere d isarticulated a nd, p ossibly, b undled. A rtifacts: 1 . p olychrome c eramic j ar ( 40-16-46) 2 . r ed c eramic p late ( 40-16-47) 3 . p olychrome c eramic p late ( 40-16-48) 1 97

4 . 5 . 6 . 7 .

p olychrome c eramic j ar ( 40-16-51) p lain c eramic b owl w ith t wo h andles o n t he r im ( 40-16-52) p olychrome v essel o f a n u ndetermined s hape ( 40-16-50) r ed c eramic c up w ith a p edestal b ase a nd a w hite i nterior ( 40-16-54) s tone p rojectile p oint ( 40-16-1861)

8 . F eatures: N one C omments: T he m ass o f l ong b ones a t 1 69.0-170.0 n orth a nd 1 84.0-185.0 w est w as n ot d irectly a ssociated w ith a ny o f t he a rtifacts. T he s tone p rojectile p oint a nd a r iver p ebble w ere d iscovered l ater i n f our b ags o f s herds. S ince n o s ketches, m aps, o r p hotographs o f t his b urial w ere f ound a mong t he f ield n otes, t he p osition o f t he s keletons a nd t heir r elationship t o t he a rtifacts a re u nclear. M errill w as c ited b y M ason a s t hinking t hat t his b urial w as p art o f C ache 9 e xcavated b y L othrop's 1 930 e xpedition. A s a r esult, i n s ome o f M ason 's f ield n otes r eference i s m ade t o C ache 9 , w hen B urial 9 i s i ntended. T his s ituation i s f urther c onfused b y t he p resence i n M ason's e xcavations o f a f ind d esignated a s C ache 9 . G rave 7 2 F ield D esignation: B urial 1 0a, a lso c ited a s T 2-B10a P rovenience: T rench 2 , 1 73.0-177.0 n orth b y 1 55.0-159.0 w est E levation: 1 0.5-11.6 f eet ( 3.20-3.54 m eters) S ex : M ale A ge: A dult P osition: E xtended, l ying f ace d own; t he u pper a rms w ere a long t he s ide o f t he t orso a nd t he l ower a rms a nd h ands w ere f lexed, r esting n ear t he s houlders. T he a pproximate l ength f rom t he l ongest, b ut b roken t ibia, t o t he h ead w as 1 45 c entimeters. A rtifacts: 1 .-8. 8 r ed c eramic p lates ( 40-16-59, 6 0, 6 5, 1 274, 1 277, 1 281, 1 285, 1 286 9 .-13. 5 r ed c eramic c arafes ( 40-16-70 t hrough 7 30) 1 4.-16. 3 p olychrome c eramic e ffigy v essels ( 40-16-74, 7 5) 1 7. a nd 1 8. b rown o r b lack c eramic p lates ( 40-16-1275, 1 283) 1 9.-21. 3 r ed c eramic b owls ( 40-16-1263, 1 268, 1 283) 2 2.and 2 3, p olychrome c eramic p lates ( 40-16-66, 1 280) 2 4. p olychrome c eramic c up ( no i nventory n umber) 2 5. g old o r t umbaga p laque ( 40-14-600) 2 6. s tone c elt ( 40-14-604) 2 7.-43. 1 7 g old o r t umbaga b eads ( 40-13-209) 4 4. a c onglomerate o f a n u ndetermined n umber o f p eccary t usks, b ird b ones a nd u nidentified m aterial, a ll i n a v ery p oor s tate o f p reservation ( 40-14-607) 4 5. a c onglomerate o f a n u ndetermined n umber o f b ones, b eads, a t l east f ive s hark t eeth a nd a v ariety o f u nidentified m aterial ( 40-14-603) 4 6.-53. 8 b ut p ossibly m ore p eccary t usks i n v ery f ragmentary c ondition ( 40-14-602) F eatures: N one C omments: O ne o f t he r ed c eramic p lates ( 7., o r 4 0-16-1215) a nd a rtifact 2 4. w ere n ot l ocated b y M ason o r m yself i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections. T he p artial t ibia o f t he s keleton i n t his g rave a ppears t o h ave b een r emoved i n t he a boriginal e xcavation o f g rave 6 8. T he m ingling o f b urial 6 8 a nd 7 2 p resented M ason w ith 1 98

s ome c onsiderable d ifficulties i n s eparating b elonged t o t he r espective g rave. O bjects 4 4.

t he a nd

o bjects w hich 4 5. w ere f ound

b eside t he r ight h umerus, b etween t he e lbow a nd t he s houlder, o f t he s keleton. T he c elt ( 26.) w as l ocated o n t he o pposite s ide o f t he b ody, n ear t he n orthern e lbow a nd h ip o f t he i ndividual; t he m etal p laque

( 25.)

r ested

u nder

t he

s keleton n ear

t he

s ternum a nd

r ibs.

G rave 7 3 F ield D esignation: B urial 1 0b, a lso c ited a s T 2-BlOb P rovenience: T rench 2 , 1 70.4-173.0 n orth b y 1 53.7-157.0 w est E levation: 1 1.0-11.2 f eet ( 3.35-3.41 m eters) S ex: U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition: U nknown A rtifacts: A n u ndetermined n umber o f c eramic v essels w ere u ncovered i n t his g rave; t hey i ncluded b lack o r " smoked", p olychrome a nd r ed v essels ( 40-16-79 t hrough 8 3) C omments: O nly a r ight f emur a nd s ome t eeth w ere u ncovered i n t his g rave. M ason n oted t hat " this b urial ( was) v ery m ixed u p a nd a ll ( the) v essels ( were) b roken a nd m ixed." T he s eparation o f g raves 7 2 a nd 7 3 i s n ot c lear. T he s keleton f ound i n g rave 7 2 s eparated t wo d istinct g roups o f c eramics; o ne o f t hese g roups, g rave 7 3, w as a t a s lightly d ifferent e levation. Y et, n o w ell d efined e dges o r w alls o f g rave 7 3 c ould b e i solated a nd, a pparently, a ll t he w alls o f t he g rave w ere a ltered b y a boriginal e xcavations f or g rave 6 8. T he a rtifacts c annot b e i temized s ince t hey c onsist o f n umerous, u nassembled s herds. G rave 7 4 ( Figs. 2 9, 3 0) F ield D esignation: B urial 1 1, a lso c ited a s T 2-B11 P rovenience: T rench 2 , 1 74.3-187.5 n orth b y 1 59.3-171.3 w est E levation: 5 .0-10.0 f eet ( 1.5-3.1 m eters) S ex: E ight m ales, o ne p robable m ale, o ne p robable f emale a nd t hirteen u nsexed i ndividuals A ge: T en a dults, t wo a dolescents a nd e leven u nknown P osition: M ason w rote i n o ne o f h is s hort, p ublished r eports ( 1942) t hat a ll t he s keletons w ere e xtended, f ace d own a nd w ith t heir h eads t oward t he e ast. This, h owever, d oes n ot t otally a gree w ith C orning's n otes n or t he f ield m aps a nd d rawings. T he f ollowing d ifferences w ith M ason's g eneralization a re n oted: o ne o f t he m ale a dult's h ead w as t oward t he e ast b ut t he e xtended b ody l ay n orth a nd s outh; t he h eads o f t hree o f t he u naged a nd u nsexed i ndividuals f aced w est a nd o ne o f t hese t hree w as f ace u p, n ot f ace d own; t he l egs o f o ne o f t he a dult m ales c rossed o ver t hose o f a nother a dult m ale a nd t ouched t he a nkles o f y et a nother a dult m a le, i n a ddition h is k nee w as f lexed a nd t ouched t he k nee o f t he l atter m entioned m ale. A rtifacts:

r ight a dult

1 .-34. 3 4 r ed c eramic j ars ( 40-16-105, 1 06, 1 08, 1 26, 1 27, 1 30, 1 63, 1 81, 1 82, 1 99, 2 09 t hrough 2 15, 2 51) 3 5.-77. 4 3 p olychrome c eramic j ars ( 40-16-93, 1 02, 1 04, 1 10, 1 11, 1 23, 1 25, 1 32, 1 47, 1 77, 2 02, 2 22, 2 23, 2 24, 2 26,

2 42,

2 59,

4 63,

4 66,

1 136,

2 76, 1 289

3 60,

3 72,

3 87,

t hrough 1 292,

3 93, 1 305,

4 02,

4 46,

1 306,

4 49,

1 370,

1 389, 1 395, 1 494; t wo v essels w ere l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anamA; t wo w ere n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections [ Fig. 1 51) 1 99

7 8.-130. 5 3 r ed c eramic c arafes ( 40-16-135, 1 58, 1 90, 2 03 t hrough 2 08, 2 37, 2 38, 2 47, 2 57, 2 75, 2 78, 2 88, 2 94, 3 01, 3 23, 3 88, 3 96 t hrough 3 98, 4 24, 4 83, 4 84, 4 96, 4 98, 5 06, 5 18, 5 20, 5 23, 5 24, 5 26, 5 28, 5 33, 1 300, 1 307, 1 308, 1 320, 1 321, 1 397; e leven v essels w ere l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anamä; o ne v essel w as n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections) 1 31.-151. 2 1 p olychrome c eramic c arafes ( 40-16-90, 9 1, 9 4, 1 62, 1 69, 1 75, 1 76, 1 97, 2 00, 2 27, 2 28, 2 30, 2 31, 2 83, 3 99, 4 00, 5 21, 1 388; o ne o f t he v essels w as l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anamA [ Fig. 1 5]) 1 52.-181. 3 0 p olychrome c eramic b owls ( 40-16-129, 1 44, 1 45, 1 55, 1 64, 2 18, 2 19, 2 55, 2 62, 2 63, 2 66, 3 26, 3 81, 4 01, 4 41, 4 42, 4 57, 4 60, 4 62, 4 79, 1 309, 1 311, 1 344, 1 345, 1 346, 1 357 t hrough 1 359, 1 402, 1 423, 1 496 t hrough 1 498 [ Figs. 1 6 a nd 1 8]) 1 82. a nd 1 83. 2 r ed m iniature c eramic b owls ( 40-16-241; o ne v essel w as l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anamA) 1 84.-198. 1 5 r ed c eramic b owls ( 40-16-131, 2 20, 2 21, 2 72, 1 85, 1 98, 3 94, 4 85, 5 05, 5 12, 5 29, 5 35, 1 349, 1 499, 1 502, 1 503, a nd 1 504) 1 99.-223. 2 5 p olychrome e ffigy v essels ( 40-16-98, 1 33, 2 16, 2 17, 2 25, 2 32, 2 33, 2 35, 2 39, 2 40, 2 82, 2 95, 4 55, 4 72, 4 73, 1 309, 1 318, 1 319, 1 332, 1 338 t hrough 1 340, 1 369, 1 378, 1 500; t wo v essels w ere n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections [ Figs. 1 6, 2 2, 3 2]) 2 24.-226. 3 p olychrome c eramic p edestal p lates ( 40-16-322, 5 15, a nd 5 31) 2 27.-242. 1 6 p olychrome c eramic p lates ( 40-16-89, 17, 1 34, 1 61, 3 30, 3 33, 3 84, 3 95, 4 03, 4 88, 4 94, 4 97, 1 330, 1 331, 1 334, 1 374, 1 396, 1 862 [ Figs. 1 6, 1 9, 2 0]) 2 43. r ed c eramic p edestal p late ( 40-16-1364) 2 44.-259. 1 6 r ed c eramic p lates ( 40-16-87, 8 8, 9 2, 16, 1 49, 1 57,193, 3 91, 3 92, 4 89, 1 296, 1 367, 1 368, 1 380 t hrough 1 385) 2 60.-278. 1 9 p olychrome c eramic r ectangular p lates ( 40-16-96, 1 50, 1 60, 2 93, 3 04, 3 37, 3 69, 1 295, 1 298, 1 299, 1 301, 1 317, 1 322, 1 323, 1 373, 1 398, 1 399, 1 414 [ Figs. 1 8, 2 7, 2 8]) 2 79. b lack c eramic p edestal e ffigy v essel ( 40-16-425) 2 80. a nd 2 81. 2 b lack c eramic b owls ( 40-16-423 a nd 1 457) 2 82. b lack c eramic t ripod b owl ( 40-16-421) 2 83.-294. 1 2 b lack c eramic p edestal b owls ( 40-16-103, 1 38, 1 65, 1 66, 2 70, 5 00, 5 22, 1 287, 1 288, 1 304, 1 391, 1 460; o ne v essel w as n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum 's c ollections) 2 95.-308. 1 4 m iscellaneous p olychrome c eramic v essels ( 40-16-95, 9 7, 1 07, 1 09, 1 48, 1 84, 1 95, 2 29, 2 42, 1 338 t hrough 1 342, 1 864 t hrough 1 869; o ne v essel w as n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum 's c ollections) 3 09.-318. 1 0 p lain c eramic j ar ( 40-16-139, 1 42, 1 86, 1 91, 1 92, 1 96, 1 333; t hree v essels w ere l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anamä) 3 19.-324. 6 p olychrome c eramic b ottles ( 40-16-174, 1 98, 2 01, 2 65, 1 875; o ne v essel w as l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anama) 2 00

3 25. b rown c eramic t ripod b owl ( 40-16-422) 3 26.-329. 4 b rown o r b lack c eramic b owls ( 40-16-249, 2 71, 4 05, 1 898) 3 30. a nd 3 31. 2 b lack c eramic p edestal j ars ( 40-16-100 a nd 1 01) 3 32. b lack c eramic j ar ( 40-16-317) 3 33.-335. 2 c eramic m irror b acks ? ( 40-16-1365 t hrough 1 366) 3 36. a nd 3 37. 2 p lain c eramic b owls ( 40-16-140 a nd 3 78) 3 38. a nd 3 39. 2 c eramic e ffigy v essels ( 40-16-306 a nd 4 13) 3 40. r ed c eramic c ensor ( 40-16-1505 t hrough 1 508) 3 41. u nidentified c eramic v essel ( 40-16-1361 a nd 1 362) 3 42.-1889. 1 548 s tone p rojectile p oints ( 40-13-645, 6 48, 7 17 t hrough 7 21, 7 46 t hrough 9 96; 4 0-14-1 t hrough 4 88, 4 90 t hrough 5 40, 5 56 t hrough 5 58; 4 0-16-564, 4 0-16-1427 t hrough 1 448; 7 25 w ere l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anamh [ Fig. 6 ]) 1 890.-2057. 1 68 s tone c elts ( 40-13-643 t hrough 6 62, 6 64 t hrough 6 74, 6 75, 7 16; 4 0-14-553 t hrough 5 55; n inetyo ne w ere l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anamä [ Fig. 7 1) 2 058.-2070. 1 3 m iscellaneous s tones ( 40-14-543, 5 44, 5 46 t hrough 5 50, 5 59; 4 0-16-1888; f our w ere l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anamä [ Fig. 8 ]) 2 071.-2073. 3 s tone b eads ( 40-14-551, 5 52, 5 80 [ Fig. 8 1) 2 074.-2076. 3 s tone r ods, p robably f or e ar d ecorations ( 40-16-560 t hrough 5 62 [ Fig. 8 ]) 2 077. a nd 2 078. 2 " sandstone" d isks o r p laques, p ossibly m irror b acks ( 40-13-642; o ne o f t hese o bjects w as d iscarded i n t he f ield [ Fig. 8 ]) 2 079. a nd 2 080. 2 q uartz c rystals ( both w ere l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anamä) 2 081. p olishing s tone ( 40-14-542) 2 082. s tone p lug? ( 40-16-565) 2 083.-2086. 4 a gate p endants ( 40-13-609 t hrough 6 11; o ne w as l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anamh [ Fig. 1 3]) 2 087.-5582. 3 496 g old o r t umbaga b eads [ the n umber i n p arentheses i s t he t otal n umber o f b eads i ncluded i n t he g roup o f o b jects r epresented b y t he i nventory n umber: 4 0-13-34(46), 3 5(64), 3 6(24), 3 7(23), 3 8(24), 3 9(16), 4 0(42), 4 1(37), 4 2a(175), 4 2b(44), 4 3(65), 4 4(500), 4 5(217), 4 6(231), 4 7(44), 4 8(10), 4 9(14), 5 0(27), 9 8(8), 9 9(14), 1 00(1), 1 01(18), 1 02(1), 1 05(15), 13 t hrough 1 17(1 e ach), 1 37(5), 1 38(18), 1 43(1), 1 45(209), 1 46(1); 1 ,597 w ere l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anamä) 5 583.-5770. 1 88 g old o r t umbaga " ear r ods" ( 40-13-51, 5 4 t hrough 5 6, 6 0, 7 1 t hrough 7 3, 7 5 t hrough 7 7, 8 1, 8 2; 1 75 w ere l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anamä) 5 771.-5861. 9 1 s tone a nd g old o r t umbaga " ear r ods" ( 40-13-52, 5 3, 5 7 t hrough 5 9, 8 0; 8 5 w ere l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anamä) 5 862.-5906. 4 5 m iscellaneous p ieces o f g old o r t umbaga f or " ear r ods" ( 40-13-61 t hrough 7 0, 7 4, 7 8, 7 9, 8 3 t hrough 9 2, 1 47; 2 0 w ere l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anamä) 5 907.-5993. 8 7 g old o r t umbaga b ells ( 40-13-103, 1 04, 2 01

1 05; 3 0 o bjects h ad n o i nventory n umbers; 1 5 w ere l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anamä; 4 0-13-104 r epresents 2 6 b ells a nd 4 0-13-105 r epresents 1 5 b ells) 5 994.-6022. 2 9 g old o r t umbaga " medallions" ( 40-13-13 t hrough 2 5, 1 49 t hrough 1 51; 1 4 w ere l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anamä [ Fig. 2 61) 6 023.-6039. 1 7 g old o r t umbaga c hisel ( 40-13-106 t hrough 1 11, 1 39, 1 41, 1 42, 1 52; 6 w ere l eft w ith C onte f amily i n P anamä) 6 040.-6052. 1 3 g old o r t umbaga p laques

( 40-13-1

t he

t hrough

1 2, 2 6 [ Figs. 1 0-121) 6 053.-6056. 4 g old o r t umbaga " cuffs" ( 40-13-29, 3 0; 2 w ere l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anamä [ Fig.121) 6 057.and 6 058. 2 g old o r t umbaga p endants ( 40-13-27, 2 8 [ Figs. 1 2, 2 3]) 6 059.-6081. 2 3 b one, r esin a nd i vory o bjects w ith g old o r t umbaga o verlay ( 40-13-118

t hrough

1 27,

1 32

t hrough

1 36, 1 76; o ne w as l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anamh [ Fig. 2 4]) 6 082.-6087. 6 g old o r t umbaga w ristlets o r a nklets ( 40-133 1, 3 2, 9 3; 3 w ere l eft w ith t he C onte's i n P anamh) 6 088.-6125. 3 8 g old o r t umbaga m iscellaneous o verlay ( 401 3-128

t hrough

1 30,

1 37,

1 38,

1 44a

t hrough

1 44d,

1 48a

a nd b , 1 53 t hrough 1 75, 2 00, 2 01 [ Fig. 2 4]) 6 126.-6128. 3 g old o r t umbaga n ose o rnament ( 40-13-94, 9 7; o ne w as l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anamh) 6 129. a nd 6 130. 2 g old o r t umbaga n ose c lips o r e arrings ( 40-13-95 a nd 9 6 [ Fig. 1 3]) 6 131. g old o r t umbaga n ose o rnament ( 40-13-33, [ Fig. 1 2]) 6 132. g old o r t umbaga b ar ( 40-13-140) 6 133. c opper b ell ( 40-14-137) 6 134. u nspecified g old o r t umbaga o rnament ( the o bject w as l eft i n t he f ield) 6 135.-6561. 4 27 u nidentified t eeth ( 40-14-573, 5 80) 6 562.-6882. 3 21 c anine t eeth ( 40-14-575, 5 80; o ne t ooth w as l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anamh; t he f irst i nventory n umber r epresents 3 10 t eeth a nd t he l atter r epresents 1 0 t eeth [ Fig. 1 4]) 6 883.-6982. 1 00 s hark t eeth ( 40-13-572, 5 80, 6 17, 6 58, 4 0-16-570; P anama;

o ne

t ooth w as

4 0-13-572

l eft

w ith t he C onte

r epresents 9 1

t eeth,

f amily i n

580

r epresents 2 4 t eeth, 658 r epresents 2 t eeth a nd 4 0-16-570 r epresents 9 t eeth) 6 983.-7158. 1 76 r abbit t eeth ( 40-14-574) 7 159.-7226. 6 8 b one p oints ( 40-14-580 t hrough 5 90, 6 20 t hrough 6 29; 4 0-14-580 t hrough 5 90 r epresents 3 3 p oints a nd 620 t hrough 6 29 r epresents 3 5 p oints [ Fig. 1 4]) 7 227.-7237. 1 1 f eline c laws ( 40-14-579) 7 238.-7242. 5 b one b eads ( 40-13-580 t hrough 5 90, 6 03) 7 243. a nd 7 244. 2 b one t ubes ( 40-16-567) 7 245.-7248. 4 c opal f igurines ( 40-13-604, 6 07; 4 0-16-568, 5 69 [ Fig. 2 5]) 7 249.and 7 250. 2 m iscellaneous c opal f ragments ( 40-13-608, 4 0-16-563 [ Fig. 2 5]) 7 251. 7 252.

c opal c opal

c ylinder o rnament

( 40-16-566) ( 40-13-616) 2 02

7 253. a nd 7 254. m iscellaneous g reen s ubstance ( 40-1-311, 3 12) 7 255. y ellow p owder ( 40-16-313) 7 256. s eeds? ( 40-16-315) 7 257. w ood? ( 40-16-1887) 7 258. a nd 7 259. u nidentified s ubstances ( 40-16-427, 4 32) 7 260. c eramic s herd w ith a ttached f ibers ( 40-16-309) 7 261. c eramic s herd w ith a ttached b ark c loth ( 40-16-310) 7 262. s hell p oint ( 40-16-571) 7 263.-7497. u nknown n umber o f s ting r ay s pines, e stimated a t 2 05 o b jects ( 40-14-580 t hrough 5 90, 6 40, 6 41; 4 0-145 80 t hrough 5 90 r epresents 3 3 s pines; 640 a nd 641 r epresents t wo l arge m asses o f s pines e mbedded i n t he d irt) F eatures: R esidue o f o ne a nd p ossibly t wo s heets o f b ark c loth w ere f ound b eneath a g roup o f e ight o f t he s keletons; p ockets o f v arious c olored p owders w ere u ncovered i n u nspecified l ocations o f t he g rave; a nd a c ache o f u nidentified s eeds w as e xcavated. C omments: T he q uantity o f c eramic v essels f rom t his g rave i s s ubstantially l ow s ince t housands o f t hem w ere r etrieved a s s herds a nd w ere n ot r econstructed t o b e c ounted a s i ndividual v essels. G rave 7 5 F ield D esignation: B urial 1 2, a lso c ited a s T 2-B12 P rovenience: T rench 2 , 1 78.6-181.6 n orth b y 1 72.9-176.8 w est E levation: 1 0.2-12.3 f eet ( 3.11-3.75 m eters) S ex: M ale A ge: A ccording t o C orning's n otes t he i ndividual w as " middle a ge", t herefore, a dult P osition: T he t wo f emurs a nd p elvis o f t his i ncomplete s keleton w ere l ying f ace u p a nd o riented e ast a nd w est w ith t he f eet t oward t he w est; t wo s ections o f h umerii w ere l ocated a cross t he p elvis a nd w ere p ossibly c ut t hrough; i n a nother u nspecified a rea a j aw w ith t hree r ight a nd l eft m olars w as d iscovered; t he i ndividual m ay h ave b een e ither a b undle ( secondary, p ossibly) o r d isturbed b urial. A rtifacts: 1 .-21. 2 1 r ed c eramic c arafes, m any w ith b lack a nd w hite s croll o r c hevron d esigns o n t he n ecks ( 40-16-546, 5 49, 5 53, 5 54, 5 56, 5 57, 5 62, 5 63, 5 67, 5 81, 5 84, 5 93, 5 95, 5 99, 1 535, 1 555, 1 559 t hrough 1 561) 2 2.-41. 2 0 p olychrome c eramic p lates ( 40-16-551, 5 55, 5 58, 5 65, 5 70, 5 72, 5 74, 5 86, 5 89, 5 96, 5 97, 1 537, 1 539 [ Figs. 1 7, 2 7]) 4 2.-48. 7 p olychrome c eramic c arafes ( 40-16-548, 5 52, 5 61, 5 71, 5 98) 4 9.-52. 4 r ed c eramic j ars ( 40-16-559, 1 548) 5 3.-55. 3 r ed c eramic p lates ( 40-16-564, 1 550, 1 562) 5 6.-58. 3 r ed c eramic b owls ( 40-16-577, 5 82, 1 557; o ne o f t hese b owls h ad t wo l oop h andles a ttached t o t he b ody) 5 9. a nd 6 0. r ed p edestal c ups ( 40-16-580, 1 536; o ne o f t hese c ups a lso h ad b lack a nd w hite s croll d esigns o n t he b ody) 6 1. a nd 6 2. p olychrome c eramic e ffigy v essels ( 40-16-1538, 1 554, 1 555) 6 3. a nd 6 4. b rown c eramic b owls w ith i ncised d ecoration ( 40-16-1884, i ncludes b oth v essels) 6 5. s epia a nd w hite c eramic c arafe, b ody o nly ( 40-16-600) 2 03

6 6. r ed c eramic c ensor, f ragmentary ( 40-16-1545, 1 546) 6 7. r ed a nd b uff c eramic p late ( 40-16-578) 6 8. p lain c eramic p late ( 40-16-578) 6 9. p olychrome c eramic b owl ( 40-16-579) 7 0. p lain c eramic b owl ( 40-16-623) 7 1.-76. 6 s tone c elts ( 40-16-621, 4 0-14-610 t hrough 6 13 [ Fig. 9 1) 7 7. q uartz c rystal ( 40-14-609) 7 8. s tone p rojectile p oint ( 40-14-614) 7 9. u nidentified t ooth ( 40-14-608) 8 0. t ooth n ecklace ( 40-14-607, a pproximately 2 00 t eeth, s pecies u nidentified) F eatures: T extile i mpression, l ocation u nknown ( 40-14-606) C omments: T he c eramics f rom t his b urial i ncluded a l arge n umber o f m iscellaneous s herds. T hese b roken c eramics p rimarily o riginated f rom t he n orth s ide o f t he g rave, p ossibly f rom a " grave s haft i nto w hich t hey ( aboriginal i nhabitants) t hrew v essels . . . g reat t hickness a nd c losely j ammed a nd m any f ragments a ll m essed u p" ( Mason 's f ield n otes). G rave 7 6 F ield D esignation: B urial 1 2a, a lso c ited a s T 2-812a P rovenience: T rench 2 , 1 82.2-184.9 n orth b y 1 71.5-176.6 w est E levation: 1 2.3-12.8 f eet ( 3.75-3.90 m eters) S ex : U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition : U nknown A rtifacts: 1 .-4. 4 r ed c eramic c arafes w ith b lack a nd w hite s crolls p ainted o n t he n ecks ( 40-16-629, 6 30, 6 33, 1 563) 5 . r ed c eramic b owl w ith l ugs a round r im ( not l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum 's c ollections) 6 . r ectangular p olychrome c eramic p late ( not l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum 's c ollections) 7 . p olychrome c eramic p late ( not l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum 's c ollections) 8 . p olychrome c eramic p late w ith a c up a ttached i n t he c enter ( 40-16-632; n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections) 9 . w hite c eramic v essel w ith h andles ( 40-16-1564) 1 0. p olychrome c eramic e ffigy b owl ( 40-16-1568) 1. s tone p rojectile p oint ( 40-16-1566) F eatures: N one C omments: M ason's c lassification o f t his g roup o f a rtifacts a s a g rave i s s uspect. T he f ind w as i solated a bove g rave 7 7 a nd t here w as n o s keleton o r s keletal r esidue a ssociated w ith t he a rtifacts. M oreover, t he a rtifacts o f t his b urial w ere d irectly a bove t he s keleton o f g rave 7 7, s uggesting t hat g rave 7 6 m ay a ctually b e p art o f g rave 7 7 i nstead o f a n i solated u nit. G rave 7 7 F ield D esignation: B urial 1 2b, a lso c ited a s T 2-B12b P rovenience: 1 83.4-186.7 n orth b y 1 77.7-183.7 w est E levation: 1 1.43-12.16 f eet ( 3.48-3.71 m eters) S ex : U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition: U nknown 2 04

A rtifacts:

1 .-14. 1 4 r ed c eramic c arafes ( 40-16-638, 6 56 t hrough 6 59, 1 570, 6 61 t hrough 6 63, 1 570, 1 573 t hrough 1 575; o ne w as l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anama; t wo w ere n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections; t hree h ad b lack a nd w hite s croll d ecorated n ecks) 1 5.-23. 9 r ed c eramic p lates ( 40-16-643, 6 44, 6 45, 6 47 6 50 t hrough 6 53, 6 55) 2 4.-27. 4 p olychrome c eramic p lates ( 40-16-646, 6 48, 6 49, 6 54) 2 8.

a nd 2 9. p olychrome c eramic c arafes ( 40-16-660; o ne w as n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum 's c ollections) 3 0. b lack c eramic b owl ( 40-16-664) 3 1. f ragmentary r ed c eramic j ar ( 40-16-639) F eatures: N one C omments: T he r ectangular s haped g rave w as o riented a pproximately n orthwest a nd s outheast a nd m easured t wo m eters l ong a nd 6 5 t o 8 5 c entimeters w ide. A s keleton w as m entioned i n t he f ield n otes b ut n o o ther d etails w ere p rovided b y t he e xcavators. A s a r esult, t he d esignation o f t his f ind a s a g rave i s, o nce a gain, s uspect. A ll o f t he c eramic p lates i n t his g rave w ere f ound i nverted o r f ace d own. G rave 7 8 F ield D esignation: B urial 1 2c, a lso c ited a s T 2-B12c P rovenience: T rench 2 , 1 80.9-184.8 n orth b y 1 71.2-176.7 w est E levation: 1 0.85-12.40 f eet ( 3.31-3.78 m eters) S ex: M ale A ge: A dult P osition: E xtended, l ying e ast a nd w est w ith h is h ead t oward t he e ast; t he i ndividual w as f ace d own a nd h ad h is a rms f lexed w ith h is h ands t oward h is f ace; t he b ottom o ne-third o f t he t ibia w as m issing. A rtifacts: 1 .-6. 6 p olychrome c eramic p lates ( 40-16-667, 6 69, 6 73, 6 88, 1 581, 1 587 t hrough 1 589 [ Fig. 2 8]) 7 .-12. 6 r ed c eramic p lates ( 40-16-670, 6 71, 6 77, 1 585; o ne w as n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum 's c ollections) 1 3.-16. p olychrome c eramic b owls ( 40-16-1582, 1 583, 1 590; o ne w as n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum 's c ollections) 1 7.-19. 3 r ed c eramic b owls ( 40-16-678, 6 81, 6 86) 2 0. a nd 2 1. r ed c eramic j ars ( 40-16-674; o ne w as l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anama ; t he o ther w as a t ripod; b oth h ad t wo h andles) 2 2. a nd 2 3. c eramic e ffigy v essels ( 40-16-693, 1 584; o ne h ad a s pout) 2 4. a nd 2 5. c eramic c arafes ( 40-16-684, 6 85; o ne h ad a b lack a nd w hite s croll n eck; t he o ther w as p olychrome) 2 6. p olychrome c eramic j ar ( 40-16-672) 2 7. p olychrome p late w ith a c up a ttached i n t he c enter ( 40-16-668) 2 8. r ed c eramic c enser ( 40-16-1592, 1 593) 2 9. c opper " nose r ing" ( 40-13-233; t his o b ject w as n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections) F eatures: N one C omments: T he b urial w as p robably c ut t hrough b y a boriginal e xcavations. T he n orth e dge i s c ontiguous w ith g rave 7 7 b ut M ason s ays i n h is f ield n otes t hat " there s eems t o b e s ome s ort o f d ivision 2 05

b etween t he t wo." T he o riginal g rave w as n early s quare, m easuring 1 50 b y 1 50 c entimeters; b ut t he n orth a nd s outh d imensions h ad b een a boriginally c ut t o 1 05 c entimeters. C orning n oted t hat t he s keleton h ad a n u ndisclosed n umber o f g old o r t umbaga b eads i n h is c hest c avity a nd a n e arring a ttached n ear t he l eft e ar. T hese i tems d o n ot a ppear i n M ason 's n otes. A b oulder w as l ocated n ear t he r ight h ip o f t he i ndividual. G rave 7 9 F ield D esignation: B urial 1 2d, a lso c ited a s T 2-B12d P rovenience: T rench 2 , 1 80.3-183.8 n orth b y 1 70.9-176.9 w est E levation: 1 0.85-11.78 f eet ( 3.31-3.59 m eters) S ex : U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition : U nknown A rtifacts: 1 .-22. 2 2 c eramic c arafes ( 40-16-703 t hrough 7 06, 7 09, 7 12, 7 15, 7 19, 7 22 t hrough 7 24, 7 26, 7 27, 7 31, 7 33, 1 602, 1 603, 1 607, 1 608, 1 616 t hrough 1 618, 1 626; o ne c arafe w as n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections; n ine o f t he c arafes w ere p olychrome a nd o ne h ad b lack a nd w hite s crolls o n t he n eck) 2 3.-38. 1 6 p olychrome c eramic p lates ( 40-16-695, 6 96, 7 02, 7 10, 7 21, 7 29, 7 30, 7 36, 1 594 t hrough 1 596, 1 600, 1 604, 1 605, 1 612, 1 619 t hrough 1 621, 1 893 t hrough 1 895) 3 9.-41. 3 p olychrome c eramic b owls ( 40-16-697, 7 07, 7 13) 4 2.-44. 3 r ed c eramic p lates ( 40-26-700, 1 597, 1 599) 4 5.-47. 3 c eramic j ars ( 40-16-716, 7 17; o ne i s r ed, o ne b rown a nd o ne r ed a nd w hite w ith t wo l oop h andles) 4 8. p olychrome s pouted c eramic e ffigy v essel ( 40-16-714) 4 9. r ed c eramic p edestal b owl ( 40-16-718) 5 0. r ed c eramic b owl ( 40-16-1615) 5 1. p lain c eramic c up w ith h andle ( 40-16-748) 5 2. f ragmentary p olychrome c eramic s pouted v essel ( not l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections) 5 3. s tone c elt ( 40-14-615) 5 4.-57. 4 s tone p rojectile p oints ( 40-14-616 t hrough 6 19) F eatures: N one C omments: T he a bsence o f s keletal r emains c reates d oubt a s t o t he d esignation o f t his f ind a s a g rave. G rave 8 0 F ield D esignation: B urial 1 2e, a lso c ited a s T 21 312e P rovenience: T rench 2 , 1 82.9-186.1 n orth b y 1 76.9-182.5 w est E levation: 1 1.26-11.75 f eet ( 3.43-3.58 m eters) S ex: U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition : U nknown A rtifacts: 1 .-3. 3 r ed c eramic c arafes ( 40-16-752, 7 54, 7 57; o ne h ad b lack a nd w hite c hevrons o n i ts n eck) 4 . a nd 5 . 2 r ed a nd w hite c eramic p lates ( 40-16-749) 6 . p olychrome c eramic p late ( 40-16-750) 7 . r ed c eramic b owl ( 40-16-751) 8 . r ed c eramic j ar w ith t wo h andles ( 40-16-1630) 9 . r ed a nd w hite c eramic j ar ( 40-16-758) F eatures: N one C omments: M ason s eparated t his g rave f rom g rave 7 9 o n t he b asis o f 2 06

t he c eramic t ypes. W ithout f ind a s a g rave i s s uspect.

s keletal

r emains,

t he d esignation o f t his

G rave 8 1 F ield D esignation: B urial 1 2f, a lso c ited a s T 2-B12f P rovenience: T rench 2 , 1 81.9-186.0 n orth b y 1 71.4-176.9 w est E levation: 1 0.80-11.50 f eet ( 3.29-3.51 m eters) S ex : U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition: T he t orso w as o riented e ast a nd w est; n o o ther i nformation w as a vailable A rtifacts: 1 .-10. 1 0 r ed c eramic p lates ( 40-16-764, 7 73, 7 74, 7 77, 1 635 t hrough 1 637, 1 649, 1 650, 1 655 t hrough 1 657; o ne w as l eft i n t he f ield a nd t wo w ere n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum 's c ollections) 1.-17. 7 r ed c eramic c arafes ( 40-16-766, 7 69, 7 70, 7 75; s ix w ere p ainted w ith b lack a nd w hite s crolls o r c hevrons; t hree w ere n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum 's c ollections) 1 8.-22. 5 p olychrome c eramic p lates ( 40-16-760, 7 70, 7 77, 1 638, 1 639; o ne p late w as n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum 's c ollections) 2 3.-29. 7 r ed c eramic j ars ( 40-16-768, 7 77; t wo j ars w ere n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum 's c ollections) 3 0. r ed c eramic b owl ( 40-16-778) 3 1. p olychrome c eramic j ar ( 40-16-761) 3 2. b lack c eramic v essel ( 40-16-762) 3 3. p olychrome c eramic p edestal b owl ( 40-16-763) 3 4. b lack c eramic p edestal v essel ( 40-16-1640) 3 5. p olychrome c eramic b ottle ( 40-16-1643) 3 6. r ed c eramic c enser ( 40-16-772) 3 7.-40. 4 s tone c elts ( 40-14-621, 6 23, 6 27) 4 1.-48. 8 b one t ubes ( 40-14-620) 4 9. c opper c hisel ( 40-13-234) F eatures: I n u nspecified a reas s and w as f ound b elow t he m ortuary f urnishings; t he s and c ontained r esidue o f e ither t extiles o r b asketry. C omments: T he s keletal m aterial w hich w as q uite f ragmentary w as f ound a pproximately 1 0 c entimeters b elow t he a rtifacts; t he n orthern e dge o f t he g rave w as d efined b y a g roup o f p lates s et v ertically o n t heir r ims. T he f ield n otes m entioned t hat a c ache o f s hark 's t eeth, s ting r ay s pines a nd l arge r odent t eeth w ere l ocated n ear t he b one t ubes ( 41.-48.). T hese i tems w ere n ot f ound i n t he U niversity M useum 's c ollections. M oreover, I w ould l ike t o e mphasize t hat a l arge n umber o f c eramic v essels f rom t his b urial w ere n ot l ocated i n t he M useum 's c ollections. T he b oundaries b etween g raves 8 1 a nd 8 2 a re n ot e asily d efined. G rave 8 2 F ield D esignation: B urial 1 2g, a lso c ited a s T 2-B12g P rovenience: T rench 2 , 1 82.7-185.7 n orth b y 1 76.5-180.3 w est E levation: 1 0.97-12.11 f eet ( 3.34-3.69 m eters) S ex : U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition: t he l egs l ay n orth a nd s outh; g ravel w as " hand p acked," a ccording t o t he f ield n otes, a round t he c ranium 2 07

A rtifacts:

1 .-11. 1 c eramic c arafes ( 40-16-784, 7 87, 7 88, 7 92, 7 94, 7 95, 8 00, 8 01, 1 671 t hrough 1 673; t wo c arafes w ere n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections; f our o f t he o b jects h ad b lack a nd w hite s croll d esigns p ainted o n t he n ecks a nd o ne w as p olychrome) 1 2.-20. 9 r ed c eramic j ars ( 40-16-785, 7 86, 7 91, 8 03, 8 04; t wo j ars w ere n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum 's c ollections; o ne w as l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anamä ; s ix h ad l oop h andles o n t he s ide o f t he b ody [ Fig. 3 11) 2 1. a nd 2 2. r ed c eramic v essels ( 40-16-796, 1 909) 2 3. p olychrome c eramic v essel ( not l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections) 2 4. p olychrome c eramic b owl ( 40-16-789) 2 5. p olychrome c eramic p late ( 40-16-797; n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum 's c ollections) 2 6. r ed c eramic p late ( 40-16-798) 2 7.-29. 3 s tone c elts ( 40-14-624 t hrough 6 26) 3 0. g reen s tone b ead ( 40-14-630) 3 1.-33. 3 s tone p rojectile p oints ( 40-14-627 t hrough 6 29; t wo a re o f r ed j asper a nd o ne i s a g reen s tone) F eatures: N one C omments: T he s keletal r emains w ere d isturbed, p robably a boriginally. T he d istinctions b etween t his g rave a nd 8 1 a re n ot c lear; t he f ield n otes s tate t hat b urial 1 2g ( grave 8 2) h as m ore p ainted v essels t han b urial 1 2f ( grave 8 1) b ut p rovides n o m ore s ubstantive r easons t o s eparate t he t wo b urials. G rave 8 3 F ield D esignation: B urial 1 3, a lso c ited a s b urial 1 3a, T 2-B13, a nd T 2-B13a P rovenience: T rench 2 , 1 66.0-168.8 n orth b y 1 87.1-192.0 w est E levation : 8 .2-9.8 f eet ( 2.50-2.99 m eters) S ex: U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition: T he l ong b ones w ere o riented n ortheast a nd s outhwest A rtifacts: 1 .-6. 6 p olychrome c eramic p lates ( 40-16-809 t hrough 8 11, 8 18, 8 22, 8 24 [ Figs. 1 7, 1 8, 2 0]) 7 .-10. 4 r ed c eramic j ars w ith v ertical h andles o n t he s ides ( 40-16-812, 8 15, 8 16, 8 20; o ne w as n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum 's c ollections) 1 1.-14. 4 r ed c arafes ( 40-16-813, 8 14, 8 17, 8 19; t wo h ave b lack a nd w hite s croll d esigns o f t he n ecks) 1 5. p lain b owl w ith s ome r ed p ainting o n e xterior ( 40-16-823) 1 6. r ed c eramic v essel ( 40-16-821) 1 7. a nd 1 8. b asalt m anos ( 40-14-632, 6 33) 1 9. a nd 2 0. t wo o bjects d escribed b y M ason a s s tone c oncretions ( 40-14-634; o ne m ay b e a p olishing s tone o f r ed j asper a nd t he o ther w as n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum 's c ollections) 2 1. f laked s tone t ool ( not l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum 's c ollections) 2 2. u nidentified s tone o bject ( not l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections) 2 3. t ripod b asalt m etate ( 40-14-631) 2 08

2 4. F eatures:

a nd 2 5. r ed c eramic b owls p artially c overed w ith c arbon ( 40-16-831, 8 32)

N one

C omments: S everal o f t he c eramics a long t he n orthern b order o f t he g rave w ere c ut i n t wo b y a boriginal e xcavations. T he s outheast c orner a nd s outhern e dge o f t he g rave i s w ell d efined, b ut t he o riginal g rave, a ccording t o M ason, e xtended f urther n orth a nd p ossibly w est. T he o riginal g rave, b efore a boriginal e xcavations, w as a pparently r ectangular o r s quare a nd t he n orthern e dge w as s loped d ownward. T he a rtifacts o riginally l isted a s b eing f rom M ason's B 13a w ere p robably t aken f rom f ive b ags o f m iscellaneous s herds m entioned i n h is f ield n otes. O ne o bject ( 4.) w as r eported a s b eing f ound a t a n e levation o f 7 .8 . H owever, M ason 's p hotographs c learly s how t hat t he o bject w as f ound w ith t he r est o f t he m ortuary a rts f rom t his g rave. G rave 8 4 F ield D esignation: B urial 1 3b, a lso c ited a s T 2-813b P rovenience: T rench 2 , 1 70.1-172.5 n orth b y 1 83.6-186.8 w est E levation: 7 .60-9.05 f eet ( 2.32-2.76 m eters) S ex : U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition: U nknown A rtifacts: S everal h undred c eramic f ragments w ere f ound b ut t here w ere n o i dentifiable n or n early c omplete v essels F eatures: A l arge a rea o f c arbon r esidue w as l ocated b etween 1 71.11 72.4 n orth a nd 1 85.0-186.4 w est a t a n e levation o f 8 .76 f eet ( 2.63 m eters); M ason s tated t hat b asketry p atterns c ould b e i dentified i n s ome o f t he c arbon . O ne c an o f t he c arbon w as k ept. C omments: T his m ay n ot b e a b urial b ut t he r esidue o f a n a ctivity a rea. T he f ind w as o riginally r eferred t o a s " Burial 1 3" i n t he f ield b ecause M ason t hought i t w as p art o f B urial 1 3 a nd 1 3a ( grave 8 3). T his f ield i nterpretation w as r ejected o n f urther e xcavation. G rave 8 5 F ield D esignation: B urial 1 4, a lso c ited a s T 2-B14 P rovenience: T rench 2 , 1 70.2-173.3 n orth b y 1 72.9-180.6 w est E levation: 8 .5-9.5 f eet ( 2.59-2.90 m eters) S ex : U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition: U nknown A rtifacts: 1 .-12. 1 2 p olychrome c eramic j ars ( 40-15-70, 7 5, 7 7, 7 9, 8 0, 8 4, 8 7, 9 1; f our w ere l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anamä [ Figs. 1 6, 3 2]) 1 3. p olychrome c eramic e ffigy v essel, p ossibly a n a rmadillo ( 40-15-72) 1 4.-16. 3 r ed c eramic j ars ( 40-15-69, 8 6, 8 9 [ Fig. 3 11) 1 7.-21. 5 c eramic s pouted j ars ( 40-15-74, 7 6a, 8 1, 8 3, 8 5; t wo w ere b lack w ith f luted b odies; t wo w ere r ed w ith f luted b odies; a nd o ne w as p olychrome [ Fig. 3 1]) 2 2.-26. 5 p olychrome c eramic p lates ( 40-15-71, 9 3a a nd b , 9 6 t hrough 9 8; o ne w as l ocated i nside a rtifact 1 .; f our h ad p edestals) 2 7. p olychrome p edestal v essel ( 40-15-78) 2 8. p olychrome e ffigy c over ( 40-15-82; M ason s uggested t hat t his l id b elonged t o a rtifact 6 . 2 09

2 9.

r ed c eramic c arafe w ith b lack a nd w hite s croll d esigns o n t he n eck ( 40-15-92 a a nd b ) 3 0. b one t ube f ound i nside o f a rtifact 1 6 ( 40-15-90) 3 1. f ragmentary f ossilized s hark t ooth ( 40-14-635) F eatures: N one C omments: N o h uman s keletal r emains w ere f ound. T he g roup o f a rtifacts w as u nusual b ecause t hey w ere a lmost a ll i n p erfect o r c omplete c ondition. M ason a lso n oted u ncovering t wo " natural s tones o r p ebbles" i n t his f ind b ut t hey w ere d iscarded. G rave 8 6 F ield D esignation: B urial 1 5, a lso c ited a s T 2-B15, T 2-B15b a nd B urial 1 5b P rovenience: T rench 2 , 1 65.7-168.2 n orth b y 1 69.0-176.5 w est E levation: 8 .9-10.2 f eet ( 2.70-3.11 m eters) S ex : U nknown A ge: A dolescent o r a dult P osition: F ace d own a nd e xtended w ith h ead a t t he s outheast a nd t he l egs p ointing n orthwest A rtifacts: 1 .-7. 7 p olychrome c eramic j ars ( 40-16-839, 8 40, 8 94, 1 686, 1 691; o ne h ad a s pout a nd o ne w as l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anamä) 8 .-11. 4 p olychrome e ffigy j ars ( 40-16-841, 8 45, 1 688; o ne w as n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections) 1 2.-14. 3 r ed b owls ( 40-16-852, 1 687, 1 690; o ne h ad l oop h andles o n t he b ody) 1 5.-16. 2 p olychrome c eramic b owls ( 40-16-848, 1 689) 1 7. r ed c eramic c enser ( not l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections) 1 8.and 1 9. g reen s tone, p erhaps s erpentine, o bjects i n t he s hape o f t usks o r l arge c anine t eeth, e ach w ith a h ole i n t he b ase ( 40-14-639, 6 40) 2 0.-24. 5 s tone c elts ( 40-14-648, 6 52 t hrough 6 54; o ne w as l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anamä) 2 5. a nd 2 6. r ed j asper p oints ( 40-14-649, 6 50) 2 7.-29. 3 " winged" p endants ( 40-14-641 t hrough 6 43; t wo a re i vory a nd o ne i s s tone) 3 0. a nd 3 1• u nidentified i vory o bjects, p ossibly p arts o f p endants ( 40-14-644, 6 45) 3 2. i dentified b y M ason a s am odified s perm w hale t ooth ( 40-14-638) 3 3. u nidentified b one o bject ( 40-14-646) 3 4. c opal r esin p endant ( 40-14-636) 3 5. c opal r esin ( 40-14-637) 3 6. t usk ( boar?) ( 40-14-647a) 3 7. c anine t ooth ( 40-14-64?) 3 8. s tone f lake ( left w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anamA) 3 9.-45. 7 g old o r t umbaga p laques ( 40-13-211 t hrough 2 17; o ne w as n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections; t wo w ere f ragmentary a nd m ay b e p art o f t he s ame p laque) 4 6. s tone p laque, p ossibly a m irror b ack ( 40-14-651; n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections) F eatures: L othrop r eported f inding b ark c loth r esidue n ear t he c oordinates 1 66.5 n orth a nd 1 75.0 w est. S ome w hite p owdery m aterial w as u ncovered i mmediately a bove t he r ight h umerus o f t he s keleton; 2 10

M ason s uggested t hat t he m aterial m ay h ave b een d ecomposed t urtle s hell C omments: B oth M ason a nd h is a ssistant, C orning, a greed o n t he i dentification o f t he b ones r epresenting t he i ndividual i n t his g rave. H owever, M errill i dentified o ne l ong b one, f ound a t a pproximately 1 73.0 w est a nd 1 67.0 n orth a s a f emur w hile M ason a nd C orning d iscussed i t a s a h umerus. T he r ight h umerus a nd a s kull w ere d iscovered t o t he s outh a nd e ast o f t he c ontroversial b one. T o t he n orth o f t he r ight h umerus w ere t he r emains o f s ome r ibs. T he s uspect i dentification o f t he f irst l ong b one m ay d etermine t he p osition o f t he s keleton.

i s i mportant s ince M y i nclination i s

i t t o

t hink M ason a nd C orning m ade a m istake; M errill's i dentification i s c onsistent w ith a f ace d own, e xtended s keleton--a s ituation f requently n oted i n a n umber o f o ther g raves. T he t eeth o f t he i ndividual w ere f ound b ut d iscarded i n t he f ield. E ither t he o ne o r t wo f ragmentary g old o r t umbaga p laques ( 44. a nd 4 5.) w ere f ound b elow t he r ibs o f t he i ndividual; t he o ther p laques ( 39. t hrough 4 3.) w ere l ocated t o t he e ast o f t he s kull. O ne b lack p edestal c eramic v essel w as c ited i n t he f ield n otes a s b eing f ound a bove t he r ight h umerus; y et, t his v essel n ever a ppeared i n a ny o ther n otes o r b urial d escriptions a nd, t herefore w as n ot i ncluded. G rave 8 7 F ield D esignation: B urial 1 6, a lso c ited a s T 2-B16 P rovenience: T rench 2 , 1 76.3-179.0 n orth b y 1 71.7-180.8 w est E levation: 8 .9-9.7 f eet ( 2.70-2.96 m eters) S ex: U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition: U nknown A rtifacts: 1 .-5. 5 p olychrome c eramic j ars ( 40-15-344, 3 49, 8 57; o ne w as n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum 's c ollections a nd o ne w as l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anamh) 6 .-11. 6 p olychrome c eramic p edestal p lates ( 40-15-336, 3 39, 3 41, 3 45, 3 52, 3 54) 1 2.-16. 5 r ed c eramic c arafes ( 40-15-337, 3 40, 3 47, 3 51, 3 53; 1 7.-19. 3 55;

o ne

h ad

b lack a nd w hite

s crolls

o n t he n eck)

3p olychrome c eramic e ffigy v essels ( 40-15-338, o ne w as l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anamh

a nd o ne h ad a s pout [ Fig. 2 11) 2 0.-22. 3 r ed c eramic j ars w ith b lack l ine d ecoration ( 40-15-346, 4 0-16-854; o ne w as l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anamä) 2 3. a nd 2 4. r ed s pouted c eramic j ars ( 40-15-348, 4 0-16-855) 2 5. p olychrome c eramic e ffigy c over ( 40-15-342) 2 6. p olychrome c eramic c arafe ( 40-15-343) 2 7. s tone c elt ( not l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's 2 8. F eatures:

N one

C omments:

N o

c ollections) s tone p rojectile p oint M useum's c ollections) h uman

s keletal

m aterial

( not

w as

l ocated

i n

u ncovered

t he U niversity

i n

t his

f ind.

M ason s uggested t hat t his g rave m ay a ctua lly h ave b een t he n crthern p art o f g rave 8 5. H is r easons f or t his s uggestion a re n ot p resented a nd a s tudy o f M errill's m aps p resents n o o bvious e vidence t o s upport M ason's c onjecture. 2 11

G rave 8 8 F ield D esignation: B urial 1 7a, a lso c ited a s T 2-B17a P rovenience: 1 68.0-173.7 n orth b y 1 57.8-163.6 w est E levation: 8 .9-9.7 f eet ( 2.71-2.96 m eters) S ex: M ale? A ge: A dult P osition: E xtended, l ying o n h is c hest a nd o riented a pproximately e ast t o w est; t he i ndividual f aced n orth a nd t he a rms w ere f lexed w ith t he h ands t oward h is f ace A rtifacts: 1 .-8. 8 p olychrome c eramic p lates ( 40-16-870, 8 71, 8 73, 8 74, 8 80, 1 701, 1 712, 1 718 [ Figs. 1 9, 2 7]) 9 .-14. 6 r ed c eramic c arafes ( 40-16-859, 8 62, 8 72, 1 721, 1 914; o ne w as n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections; f our h ad b lack a nd w hite s croll d esigns o n t heir n ecks) 1 5.-18. 4 r ed c eramic b owls ( 40-16-1710, 1 713, 1 714, 1 719; o ne h ad a w hite b ase) 1 9.-21. 3 p olychrome c eramic c arafes ( 40-16-860, 8 61, 8 64) 2 2. a nd 2 3. r ed c eramic c ensers w ith f lat h andles ( 40-16-1910 t hrough 1 913) 2 4. a nd 2 5. b uff a nd r ed c eramic j ars ( 40-16-875, 1 723) 2 6. p olychrome c eramic j ar ( 40-16-865) 2 7. r ed c eramic p late ( 40-16-879) 2 8. r ed c eramic v essel ( 40-16-867) 2 9. w hite a nd r ed c eramic p late ( 40-16-868) 3 0. b uff a nd r ed c eramic p late ( 40-16-877) 3 1.-33. 3 s tone c elts ( 40-14-660 t hrough 6 62) 3 4. b one f igurine, p ossibly a c rocodile o r c ayman ( 40-14-655) 3 5. c opal r esin f igurine, f ragmentary ( 40-14-658, 6 59) 3 6.-38. 3 g old o r t umbaga r ings o r b eads ( 40-13-210) 3 9. c opper f igurine, c orroded ( 40-14-659) 4 0. m etal n ose o rnament, c orroded ( 40-13-223) 4 1. a m ass o f b one b eads ( 40-14-656, 6 57) F eatures: N one C omments: T he g rave w as r oughly r ectangular w ith t he l ong s ection o riented e ast a nd w est. A rtifact 4 0. w as f ound n ear t he n ose o f t he s keleton; t he m ass o f b one b eads w as l ocated u nder t he t orso w hich s uggested t o M ason t hat t hey r epresented a b one b reast p late, s imilar t o t hose w orn b y N orth A merican P lains I ndians. O ne o f t he c elts w as f ound n ear t he r ight k nee a nd t he o ther t wo w ere a ssociated w ith t he m ass o f b one b eads; a n u nworked p ebble w as f ound o n t he l eft f emur. C orning r eported t races o f a g old o r t umbaga p laque u nder t he c hest c avity b ut t his o bject w as n ot m entioned b y M ason. G rave 8 9 F ield D esignation: B urial 1 7b, a lso c ited a s T 2-B17b P rovenience: T rench 2 , 1 67.0-171.2 n orth b y 1 60.6-164.3 w est E levation: 8 .70-9.92 f eet ( 2.65-3.02 m eters) S ex: M ale A ge: A dult P osition: T he b ones o f t his i ndividual w ere s cattered t hroughout g rave, s uggesting e ither a s econdary o r d isturbed b urial; c ranium w as l ocated a t 1 68.0 n orth a nd 1 63.0 w est, w hile t eeth w ere f ound a t 1 68.3 n orth a nd 1 63.1 w est. 2 12

t he

p art o f t he t he j aw a nd

A rtifacts:

1 .-5. 5 r ed c eramic p lates ( 40-16-885, 8 86, 8 93, 8 96; o ne w as n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections) 6 . a nd 7 . r ed c eramic j ars ( 40-16-887, 8 95) 8 .

a nd 9 .

p olychrome

s pouted

c eramic

j ars

( 40-16-884;

o ne

w as n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections) 1 0. r ed c eramic c arafe w ith b lack a nd w hite s croll d esigns o n t he n eck ( 40-16-883) 1 1.

b rown c eramic j ar w ith h andles ( 40-16-888)

1 2. 1 3. 1 4. 1 5.

F eatures:

t hree

l oop l egs a nd

t wo l oop

b uff c eramic e ffigy v essel ( 40-16-889) b lack f luted c eramic p edestal b owl ( 40-16-1730, b uff c eramic p edestal b owl ( 40-16-891) r ed c eramic ( 40-16-892)

1 731)

c enser w ith a c ylindrical h andle

1 6. p olychrome s pouted c eramic c arafe ( 40-16-894) 1 7. a gate " winged" p endant ( 40-14-663) 1 8. s tone c elt ( 40-14-664) 1 9. a nd 2 0. s tone c oncretions ( 40-14-665, 6 66) N one

C omments: M ason n oted t hat b urials 8 8 a nd 8 9 m ay b e p arts o f t he s ame g rave, e ach a rea ( represented b y h is " a" a nd " b" d esignations) w as a ssociated w ith o ne i ndividual. I f g rave 8 9 i s a s eparate b urial, i t i s c hronologically l ater t han g rave 8 8 s ince i t i ntersects o r c uts o ff t he l ower l egs o f t he s keleton f ound i n g rave 8 8. G rave 9 0 F ield D esignation: B urial 1 8, a lso c ited a s T 2-818 P rovenience: 1 68.8-178.0 n orth b y 1 703.-181.8 w est E levation: 6 .43-7.73 f eet ( 1.96-2.36 m eters) S ex: A ge:

T hree p robable m ales; f our c ertain m ales A dult o r a dolescent ?

a nd

o ne

f emale

P osition: T wo o f t he p robable m ales w ere o n a n u pper l evel o f t he g rave, a bout 3 0 c entimeters a bove t he o ther i ndividuals. O ne o f t hese m ales l ay e ast a nd w est o n h is l eft s ide a nd t he s kull a t t he e ast e nd f aced s outh; t he r ight f oot o f t his i ndividual r ested o n t op o f

t he

l eft

a nkle.

T he

u pper

t orso

o f

t he

o ther

m ale

o n

t he

u pper

l evel w as f ragmentary b ut l ay p arallel t o t he o ther i ndividual b ut o n h is s tomach r ather t han s ide. T he o ne f emale a nd f our o ther m ales w ere e xtended, d irected t oward

l ying p arallel t o o ne a nother. T heir h eads w ere t he s outh-southwest. T he m ales w ere p laced o n t heir

s tomachs a nd t he f emale o n h er b ack. O ne o f t he m ales f aced e ast a nd o ne w est; t he o ther f aced d own t oward t he g round w ith h is h ands u nder h is f ace. O ne o f t he m ales m ay h ave b een a c ompanion t o t he f emale b ut t he s keleton w as b adly d ecomposed a nd, t herefore, t he e xact p osition w as i mpossible t o d etermine. C orning n oted t hat h e t hought t his l atter m ale, t he c ompanion t o t he f emale, w as e xtended, o riented n ortheast b y s outhwest, l ying o n h is s tomach a nd, i n g eneral, i n t he s ame p osition a s t he f emale. T he l ast m ale w as f ound o n t he s ame l evel a s t he f irst t wo m ales f ound o n t he g raves u pper l evel. T his l ast i ndividual w as a s econdary o r d isturbed b urial l ocated i n t he s outheast c orner o f t he g rave. A rtifacts:

1 .-17. 1 7 p olychrome t hrough 4 79, 4 87, s pouts a nd P anama) 1 8.-25.

8 r ed

c eramic j ars ( 40-15-447, 4 88, 4 94, 4 97, 5 01, 5 80;

t wo w ere c eramic

l eft b owls 2 13

w ith

t he C onte

( 40-15-480,

4 70, 4 75 s ix h ad

f amily i n

4 84,

4 89,

4 93,

4 0-16-901; t hree w ere n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum 's c ollections) 2 6.-32. 7 p olychrome c eramic p edestal p lates ( 40-15-458, 4 65 t hrough 4 67, 4 69, 4 83, 4 96) 3 3.-38. 6 b lack p edestal b owls ( 40-15-462, 4 63, 4 74, 4 82, 4 90, 9 00; o ne w as l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anama) 3 9.-43. 5 p olychrome c eramic e ffigy v essels ( 40-15-449, 4 52, 4 72, 4 85, 4 0-16-899; o ne w as s pouted; o ne w as n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections [ Fig. 3 2]) 4 4.-48. 5 b ichrome c eramic j ars ( 40-15-448, 4 50, 4 53, 4 64; o ne w as l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anama a nd o ne i s s pouted [ Fig. 3 1]) 4 9.-52. 4 r ed c eramic j ars ( 40-15-460, 4 73, 4 68; o ne w as l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anama) 5 3. a nd 5 4. p lain e ffigy v essel ( 40-15-481; o ne w as n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum 's c ollections) 5 5. a nd 5 6. r ed c ensers ( 40-15-456, 4 57) 5 7. a nd 5 8. b lack b owls ( 40-15-491, 4 92) 5 9. a nd 6 0. r ed c eramic p edestal p lates ( 40-15-461, 4 71) 6 1. a nd 6 2. f ragmentary r ed v essels ( not l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum 's c ollections) 6 3. p olychrome c eramic p late ( 40-15-495) 6 4. p olychrome c eramic b owl ( 40-15-741 a a nd b ) 6 5. r ed c eramic p late 6 6. p lain j ar ( 40-15-454, 4 55) 6 7. p olychrome e ffigy c eramic l id ( 40-16-902) 6 8.-70. 3 s tone c elts ( 40-14-685, 6 86, 4 0-16-906) 7 1.-77. 7 a gate p endants ( 40-14-680 t hrough 6 83, 6 78, 6 79; o ne w as l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anama ; f our w ere " winged" p endants a nd t wo w ere e ffigies [ Fig. 9 1) 7 8. s tone m irror b ack ( 40-14-614) 7 9. c oncretion o r p ebble ( 40-14-687) 8 0. a nd 8 1. a nimal t eeth ( 40-14-676; o ne o f t hese t eeth m ay b e t hat o f a j aguar) 8 2. a nd 8 3. s hark t eeth ( 40-14-674, 6 77; o ne w as a f ossil t ooth) 8 4. b one p rojectile p oint ( 40-14-677) 8 5. b one b ead ( 40-14-673) 8 6.-113. 2 8 m etal b ells ( 40-13-179, 1 80;

F eatures:

1 3 w ere l eft w ith

t he C onte f amily i n P anama) 14.-120. 7 m etal p laques ( 40-13-181 t hrough 1 83, 6 68; t wo w ere l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anama a nd o ne w as l eft i n t he f ield [ Fig. 2 6]) 1 21.-133. 1 3 m etal b eads ( 40-13-184, 1 85; 3 w ere l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anama) 1 34.-137. 5 m etal e ffigies ( 40-14-667, 6 69 t hrough 6 71 [ Fig. 2 3]) 1 38. a nd 1 39. m etal p endants ( 40-14-186) 1 40. u nknown n umber o f m etal b racelets ( all w ere l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anama) 1 41. m etal r ibbon ( 40-13-187) M ason n oted t hat h e o bserved " traces o f b ark c loth a nd

b ones." C omments: C orning m ade a ll t he s keletal c lassifications. M ason n oted i n 1 951 t hat t he W orks P roject A dministration c eramic m ending t eam 2 14

m isrepaired a nd m ixed u p a n umber o f t he c eramic v essels f rom t his g rave. I n a ddition, t hey m ay h ave c onfused t he o ver f ourteen b ags o f s herds e xcavated f rom a round t his g rave. O ne o f t he m ales w as c ited b y C orning a nd M ason a s t he " principal" o f t his g rave b ecause h e s eems t o h ave h ad t he l argest n umber o f m ortuary f urnishings p laced n ear h is b ody. G rave 9 1 F ield D esignation: B urial 1 9, a lso c ited a s T 2-B19 P rovenience: T rench 2 , 1 65.7-174.7 n orth b y 1 82.9-193.7 w est E levation: 5 .5-7.2 f eet ( 1.68-2.19 m eters) S ex: A m ale a nd a f emale A ge: B oth w ere a dults P osition: T he m ale w as f ound i n t he a pproximate c enter o f t he g rave, e xtended a nd l ying o n h is s tomach; t he b ody l ay e ast a nd w est w ith t he h ead t oward t he e ast. T he a rms o f t his i ndividual w ere f lexed. T he f emale w as l ocated a t t he s outhern e dge o f t he g rave a nd w as e xtended, l ying f ace d own; t he b ody w as o riented i n t he s ame d irection a s t he m ale e xcept t hat t he f emale's a rms w ere e xtended a long h er s ides. A rtifacts: 1 .-12. 1 2 r ed c eramic j ars ( 40-16-907, 9 26, 9 36, 9 38, 9 50, 9 51, 9 66, 9 67, 9 71, 9 72, 9 75, 9 78, 9 88; t wo o f t he v essels h ad h andles) 1 3.-21. 9 r ed c eramic c arafes ( 40-16-921, 9 37, 9 43, 9 46, 9 62, 9 83, 9 86; o ne w as n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections a nd a nother w as k ept b y t he C onte f amily i n P anamä) 2 2.-30. 9 p olychrome c eramic j ars ( 40-16-960, 9 61, 9 73, 9 74, 9 77, 9 87, 9 97, 1 776; t wo o f t he v essels h ad s pouts a nd o ne w as l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anamä) 3 1.-39. 9 r ed c eramic p lates w ith t races o f w hite p aint ( 40-16-917, 9 19, 9 27, 9 30, 9 39, 9 47, 9 76, 9 80, 9 99 [ Fig. 1 7]) 4 0.-47. 8 r ed c eramic p edestal p lates ( 40-16-981, 9 82, 9 84, 9 85, 9 91, 9 96, 1 001) 4 8.-53. 6 r ed c eramic c ensers ( 40-16-922, 9 31, 9 32, 9 57, 9 89, 1 760 ; 3h ad c ylindrical h andles a nd t hree h ad f lat h andles [ Fig. 2 1]) 5 4. r ed j ar w ith t wo l oop h andles ( 40-16-1760) 5 5.-61. 7 r ed c eramic c arafes w ith b lack a nd w hite s croll d esign o n t he n eck ( 40-16-909, 9 10, 9 15, 9 16, 9 23, 1 747, 1 748, 1 762 t hrough 1 764) 6 2.-67. 6 p olychrome c eramic p late ( 40-16-945, 9 94, 9 98, 1 765, 1 779, 1 780) 6 8.-71. 4 r ed c eramic b owls ( 40-16-941, 9 54, 1 006, 1 0 ; o ne h ad a p edestal b ase) 7 2.-74. 3 p olychrome c eramic b owls ( 40-16-970, 9 94, 1 003; o ne v essel h ad t wo h andles a nd t hree l egs) 7 5.-77. 3 r ed c eramic " pot r est" ( 40-16-920, 9 40) 7 8 .-80. 3 r ed c eramic v essels ( 40-16-1749; o ne w as l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anamä a nd t he o ther w as n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections) 8 1.and 8 2. p lain c eramic j ars ( 40-16-990, 9 92; o ne h ad t wo h andles a nd b oth h ad d aubs o f r ed p aint o n t he b ody) 8 3. a nd 8 4. r ed a nd w hite c eramic e ffigy b owls ( 40-16-1771, 1 772) 2 15

8 5.-87. 3 b rown c eramic b owls ( 40-16-913, 1 773, 1 774; o ne h ad t wo h andles a nd t he o ther t wo h ad p edestal b ases) 8 8. a nd 8 9. r ed c eramic p edestal v essels ( 40-16-948, 9 49) 9 0. p olychrome c eramic p edestal b owl ( 40-16-911) 9 1. p lain c eramic p edestal b owl ( 40-16-912) 9 2. b lack c eramic b owl ( 40-16-924) 9 3. p lain c eramic b owl w ith r ed d aub p aint ( 40-16-1004) 9 4. p lain c eramic p late ( 40-16-914) 9 5. r ed c eramic p late ( 40-16-1005) 9 6. r ed a nd w hite j ar ( 40-16-1755) 9 7. p olychrome c eramic e ffigy j ar ( 40-16-955) 9 8. b rown c eramic e ffigy j ar w ith a p edestal b ase ( 40-16-956) 9 9. p olychrome c eramic e ffigy c arafe ( 40-16-934) 1 00. p olychrome c eramic s pouted v essel ( not l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum 's c ollections) 1 01. b rown f ragmentary c eramic v essel ( 40-16-953) 1 02. p olychrome c eramic e ffigy c over ( 40-16-968) 1 03. p olychrome f ragmentary c eramic v essel ( 40-16-969) 1 04. p lain c eramic p edestal c up ( 40-16-979) 1 05. b rown c eramic j ar w ith t hree l oop l egs a nd t wo h andles ( 40-16-993) 1 06.-215. 1 10 g reen s tone b eads, p ossibly s erpentine ( 40-14-692; t here m ay b e m ore t han 10 b eads i n t his g roup o f o bjects) 2 16.-228. 1 3 s tone c elts ( 40-14-706 t hrough 7 18 [ Fig. 7 1) 2 29.-234. 6 s tone p rojectile p oints ( 40-14-693 t hrough 6 95 [ Fig. 6 1) 2 35.-237. 3 t ripod b asalt m etates ( 40-14-698 t hrough 7 00 [ Fig. 1 4]) 2 38.-240. 3 b asalt m anos ( 40-14-701 t hrough 7 03) 2 41.and 2 42. q uartz c rystals ( 40-14-697) 2 43. a nd 2 44. s tone c oncretions ( 40-14-704, 5 05) 2 45. s tone c hisel ( 40-14-719) 2 46. a nd 2 47. " winged" p endants, p ossible a gate ( 40-14-691 [ Fig. 9 1) 2 48. a nd 2 49. b one t ubes ( 40-14-688a) 2 50. a nd 2 51. g old o r t umbaga e ar p lugs o r r ods ( 40-13-188, 1 89; o ne w as s tolen f rom t he U niversity M useum 's e xhibition a rea) 2 52. g old o r t umbaga c hisel ( 40-13-192) 2 53. c opper p laque ( 40-14-690) 2 54. g old o r t umbaga " nose c lip" ( 40-13-193) 2 55.-341. 8 7 g old o r t umbaga b eads ( 40-13-190, 1 91; 4 3 o f t hese b eads w ere l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anamä; t he r emainder w ere n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum 's c ollections) 3 42. s hark t ooth w ith h ole ( 40-14-689) 3 43.and 3 44, c anine t eeth ( 40-14-689) F eatures: M ason e xcavated a f loor s ample ( 40-16-1008) w hich c ontained p ossible e vidence o f b ark c loth. C omments: M ason s uggested t hat t he s keletons r ested o n a l arge p iece o f f abric o r b ark c loth r epresented b y b lack a nd g rey r esidue o n t he f loor o f t he g rave. 2 16

G rave 9 2 F ield D esignation: B urial 2 2, a lso c ited a s T 2-B22 P rovenience: T rench 2 , 1 78.6-180.0 n orth b y 1 71.1-179.1 w est E levation: 8 .3-9.5 f eet ( 2.53-2.90 m eters) S ex : U nknown A ge: U nknown P rovenience: U nknown A rtifacts: 1 .-8. 8 p olychrome c eramic p lates ( 40-16-1036, 1 037, 1 040, 1 048, 1 050, 1 788, 1 791, 1 792; o ne w as n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections [ Figs. 1 8, 2 01) 9 . a nd 1 0. r ed c eramic p lates ( 40-16-1043, 1 045) 1. a nd 1 2. p olychrome c eramic c arafes ( 40-16-1041, 1 042) 1 3. r ed c eramic c arafe ( 40-16-1038) 1 4. a nd 1 5. c eramic e ffigy v essels ( 40-16-1047, 1 051; o ne i s p olychrome a nd s pouted a nd t he o ther i s b lack [ Fig. 2 2]) 1 6. f ragmentary r ed c eramic v essel ( 40-16-1039) 1 7. b rown f luted c eramic p edestal b owl ( 40-16-1053) 1 8. f ragmentary b lack c eramic v essel ( 40-16-x1053) 1 9. r ed c eramic p edestal c up ( 40-16-1044) 2 0.-23. 4 s tone c elts ( 40-14-721 t hrough 7 24) 2 4. b one o r a ntler t ube ( 40-14-720; s pecies u nknown) F eatures: N one C omments: T he o nly h uman s keletal r emain u ncovered i n t his b urial w as a c ranium f ound a t 1 79.2 n orth a nd 1 78.4 w est. T he s outhern e nd o f t his g rave w as c ut o ff, p ossibly b y M ason's e xcavation c rew . M errill s uggested t hat t his f ind m ay b e a p art o f g rave 8 7 ( B16). I f M ason 's e xcavations d id c ut o ff t he a bove p ortion o f t his g rave, M errill's s uggestion i s q uite r easonable. G rave 9 3 F ield D esignation: B urial 2 3, a lso c ited a s T 2-B23 P rovenience: T rench 2 , 1 67.2-173.0 n orth b y 1 71.9-163.7 w est E levation: 6 .35-5.42 f eet ( 1.94-1.65 m eters) S ex: F emale A ge: A dolescent o r c hild P osition: T he p osition o f t he s keleton w as d isturbed d uring M ason's e xcavations. C orning b elieved, h owever, t hat t he b urial w as s econdary. T he b ody l ay g enerally e ast a nd w est. T he f emurs w ere i nterchanged w ith e ach o ther a nd t he h ead o f t he l eft f emur w as p ointing t o t he l eft a nd t he r ight f emur t o t he r ight; b oth w ere a lso p ushed t oward t he s kull. T he h umerii w ere g rouped i n f our p arallel r ows; n o r ibs a ppeared i n s itu b ut t wo w ere o bserved t o b e b elow o ne o f t he t he f emora. A rtifacts: 1 .-12. 1 2 p olychrome c eramic j ars ( 40-16-1060, 1 074, 1 089, 1 793, 103, 106 t hrough 10; t wo w ere l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anamh a nd o ne h ad a s pout. 1 3.-21. 9 p olychrome c eramic e ffigy v essels ( 40-16-1059 a a nd b , 1 062 t hrough 1 065, 1 080, 1 095, 111; o ne h ad a c over a nd o ne w as l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anamä) 2 2.-27. 6 r ed c eramic j ars ( 40-16-1071, 1 090, 1 097, 1 791, 1 802, 100; o ne w as n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections a nd o ne h ad a h andle) 2 8.-31. 4 r ed c eramic c arafes ( 40-16-1070, 1 072, 1 086, t hese v essels w ere f ragmentary a nd t heir i dentification a s c arafes i s s uspect; o ne w as l eft w ith t he C onte 2 17

f amily i n P anamä) 3 2.-35. 4 p olychrome c eramic p edestal p lates ( 40-16-1102, 1 113, 1 114; o ne w as n ot l ocated i n t he University M useum's c ollections) 3 6.-39. 4 p olychrome c eramic v ases ( 40-16-1081, 1 088, 1 099; o ne h ad a s pout) 4 0.-42. 3 r ed c eramic p edestal p lates 1 917 t hrough 1 921)

( 40-16-1066,

4 3.-45. 3 r ed c eramic v ases ( 40-16-1079, 1 083, 1 084; o ne h ad a s pout a nd a nother h ad t hree c onical f eet) 4 6.-49. 4 r ed c eramic c arafes ( 40-16-1078, 1 085, 1 087, 1 093; o ne h ad a b lack a nd w hite p ainted s croll a nd a f luted b ody) 5 0.-52. 3 r ed p edestal c eramic b owls ( 40-16-1061, o ne w as l eft w ith t he C onte f amily 5 3.-55. 3 r ed a nd s epia c eramic v ases o ne h ad a s pout a nd o ne w as i n P anamä)

n eck 1 082;

I n P anamä) ( 40-16-1091,

l eft w ith

t he C onte

105; f amily

5 6.-58. 3 b lack c eramic v ases ( 40-16-1067, 1 101; o ne w as l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anama) 5 9. a nd 6 0. f ragmentary r ed c eramic v essels ( 40-16-1098; o ne w as n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections) 6 1. f ragmentary p olychrome c eramic v essel ( 40-16-1115, 1 795) 6 2.

a nd 6 3. f ragmentary b lack f luted c eramic v essels ( 40-16-1094; o ne w as n ot l ocated i n t he University M useum's c ollections) 6 4. b lack c eramic p edestal b owl ( 40-16-1057) 6 5. r ed a nd s epia c eramic b owl ( 40-16-1058) 6 6. 6 7. 6 8. 6 9.

r ed a nd s epia c eramic v ase ( 40-16-1076) p olychrome c eramic c arafe ( 40-16-1073) r ed c eramic c enser h andle ( 40-16-1075) r ed c eramic b owl ( 40-16-1795)

7 0. b lack c eramic t ray ( 40-16-1112) 7 1. a nd 7 2. s tone c elts ( 40-14-727, 7 28) 7 3. g old o r t umbaga s heet 7 4. " ropy" m aterial ( 40-14-726) 7 5.-97. 2 3 g reen s tone b eads ( 40-14-725) 9 8.-101. a t l east 4 b adly d ecomposed t umbaga o r c opper p laques o r d isks F eatures: N one C omments: D uring t he e xcavation o f t his g rave, M ason s eparated a reas w ith m ortuary f urnishings i nto d iscrete f ields l abeled A t hrough D . A rea D w as r eassigned a s b elonging t o g rave 9 5 ( B25). T he o ther a reas i nclude t he a bove o bjects. E xcept f or a rea D , t he v alue o f t hese s patial d esignations i s n ot c lear a nd, t herefore, I h ave a bandoned r eference t o t hem. T he r elationships b etween t his g rave a nd g rave 9 5 i s c onfused; a t o ne p oint M ason a nd, a pparently, C orning a nd M errill, t hought t hat t he g raves w ere q uite d istinct b ut i n a f ew p ages o f t he f ield n otes f ollowing t his o pinion M ason s tates " I f ollowed ( the) b lack c leavage l ayer f urther W (est) a nd f ound i t t o c ontinue u nder p late # 1 o f B 25 ( grave 9 5), a f ew i nches u nder, t hus t ying u p # 23 ( grave 9 3) and # 25 ( grave 9 5)." While t his s tratigraphic a nd

9 5,

i t

" link"

d oes

d oes

l eave

n ot

u nequivocally

u nexplained 2 18

t he

e xact

t ie

t ogether

g raves

r elationships

9 3

b etween

p ortions The

o f t he e xcavation. " ropy"

m aterial

( 74.)

w as

l argely

d iscarded

a nd

o nly

a

s ample w as r etained b y t he e xcavators. T he m aterial m ay h ave b een e ither a t extile o r a w oven b asketry m at l aid u nder t he b ody. C orning o bserved t hat t he s keleton w as " lying o n a c loth w hich a ppears g rayish w ith w hite s triations" a nd t o t he n orth o f t he b ody w as t he " black r emains o f b ark c loth." T he b ody l ay e ast a nd w est o n t op o f t he b ark c loth. M ason i dentified t he i ndividual i n t his b urial a s a c hild i n h is n otes o n g rave 9 5 ( B25) a nd o ffered t he c onjecture t hat t he a ge o f t he i ndividual e xplained t he p resence o f a l arge n umber o f c eramic v essels o f s mall s ize. G rave 9 4 F ield D esignation: B urial 2 4, a lso c ited a s B urial 2 4a, B uria l T 2-B24a, a nd T 2-B24b P rovenience: T rench 2 , 1 73.9-178.5 n orth b y 1 81.0-186.6 w est E levation: 8 .7-11.2 f eet ( 2.65-3.41 m eters) S ex: F emale

2 4b,

A ge: A dult P osition: T he i ndividual w as e xtended, l ying c hest d own a nd o riented e ast a nd w est. T he p erson f aced s outh a nd t he e ntire b ody r ested o n a l edge w ithin t he g rave A rtifacts: 1 .-4. 4 r ed c eramic c arafes ( 40-16-1118, 1 119, 1 125, 1 127) 5 .-7. 3 r ed c eramic p lates ( 40-16-1121, 1 122, 1 124) 8 . r ed c eramic p edestal b owl ( 40-16-1120) 9 . p olychrome c eramic b owl ( 40-16-1123) 1 0. r ed f luted c eramic j ar ( 40-16-1803 t hrough 1 805) 1 1. p olychrome s pouted c eramic j ar ( 40-16-1806 t hrough 1 811) 1 2. 1 3.

r ed

c eramic

s pouted

r ed a nd w hite ( 40-16-1139)

j ar

( 40-16-1138)

c eramic j ar w ith t wo h andles

1 4. 1 5.

r ed c eramic e ffigy p edestal b owl ( 40-16-1140) g old o r t umbaga c hisel ( 40-13-194)

1 6. 1 7. 1 8.

s hark t ooth w ith a h ole ( 40-14-73) s tone f lake ( 40-14-73) a nd 1 9. b oar t usks ( 40-14-729)

2 0.-23. 4 s ting r ay s pines ( 40-14-73) 2 4.-74. 5 1 c anine t eeth ( 40-14-729, 7 30; 5 0 o f t hese t eeth w ere, a ccording t o t he f ield n otes, f ound i n a c ircle a s i f s trung a s a n ecklace F eatures: C arbonized m aterial w as r eportedly f ound u nder a s herd l ayer b ut a bove t he s keletal r emains C omments: T he d esignation o f " 24a" r efers t o a l ayer o f s herds f ound a bout 2 0 c entimeters a bove t he s keleton a t a pproximately 1 75.5 n orth a nd 1 86.0 w est. T his l ayer w as f irst i dentified a s p art o f g rave 8 4 ( Burial 1 3b) b ut l ater r eassigned t o g rave 9 4. M ason's B urial 2 4b i n t he f ield n otes r efers t o t he s keleton a nd a ssociated mortuary f urnishings o f t his g rave. I n g eneral t he m ortuary f urnishings w ere l ocated i n a l ong r ectangular a rea r unning e ast a nd w est. A rtifacts 1 6., 1 7. a nd 2 0. t hrough 2 4. w ere f ound a long o ne o f t he f emurs; 2 5. t hrough 7 4. w ere l ocated n ear t he e xtended a rms; a nd t he g old o r t umbaga c hisel ( 15.) n ear t he k nees.

2 19

G rave 9 5 F ield D esignation: B urial 2 5, a lso c ited a s T 2-B25 P rovenience: T rench 2 , 1 70.1-174.8 n orth b y 1 65.0-173.3 w est E levation: 5 .78-7.0 f eet ( 1.67-2.13 m eters) S ex : O ne m ale a nd t hree f emales A ge: T he m ale a nd o ne f emale w ere i dentified a s a dult; t he o ther t wo f emales w ere p robably a dolescents a nd p ossibly c hildren ( described a s " young f emales" i n t he f ield n otes) P osition: T he a dult m ale w as f ound l aying o n h is b ack, h ead t o t he e ast a nd f acing n orth; h is l eft a rm r an a long h is s ide a nd h is r ight a rm c rossed h is s tomach; t he f emora s pread o ut t o t he s ides a nd t he t ibiae a nd f ibulae p ointed i n t oward o ne a nother, a s i f t ouching t oes. T he a dult f emale w as l ocated a pproximately 3 0 c entimeters t o t he n orth o f t he a dult m ale. T his i ndividual w as l ying e xtended o n h er b ack , o riented e ast a nd w est, a nd w ith h er h ead a t t he e ast e nd f acing n orth; t he a rms w ere e xtended a long t he s ide o f t he t orso. T he o ther t wo f emales w ere j umbled t ogether n ear t he l eft l eg o f t he a dult f emale. T heir h eads w ere t oward t he w est a nd, p ossibly, t hey m ay h ave b een f lexed o r s econdary b urials. T he b ones w ere s o m ixed u p t hat a ny f urther o bservations w ere i mpossible. A rtifacts: 1 .-4. 4 p olychrome c eramic j ars w ith s pouts ( 40-16-1143, 1 157, 1 170, ---; o ne w as l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anamh) 5 .-7. 3 r ed c eramic c ensers ( 40-16-1144, 160, 162) 8 .-10. 3 p olychrome c eramic e ffigy j ars ( 40-16-1149, 1 153, 1 166) 1.-13. 3 r ed c eramic c arafes ( 40-16-1148, 1 167; o ne w as l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anamä) 1 4. a nd 1 5. r ed c eramic j ars ( 40-16-1151; o ne w as n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum 's c ollections) 1 6. f ragmentary b lack c eramic p edestal v essel ( 40-16-1146) 1 7. r ed c eramic p edestal b owl ( 40-16-1150) 1 8. b lack c eramic e ffigy v essel ( 40-16-1154) 1 9. p olychrome c eramic e ffigy v essel ( 40-16-1155) 2 0. p lain t ripod c eramic j ar w ith t wo h andles ( 40-16-1156) 2 1. f ragmentary b lack f luted v essel ( 40-16-1158) 2 2. r ed c eramic b owl ( 40-16-1159) 2 3. f ragmentary p olychrome c eramic v essel ( 40-16-1163; t he p arts o f t his o bject m ay r epresent t wo v essels) 2 4. r ed c eramic p edestal b owl w ith a s tand ( 40-16-1164) 2 5. f ragmentary p olychrome c eramic p edestal v essel ( 40-16-1178) 2 6. p olychrome c eramic p late 4 0-16-1168 2 7. r ed c eramic p late ( 40-16-1142) 2 8. s tone c elt ( 40-14-738) 2 9. s hark t ooth ( 40-14-734) 3 0. w hale t ooth ( 40-14-735) 3 1. " cord" f ragments ( 40-14-733) 3 2. c eramic e ffigy w histle ( ----) 3 3.-37. 5 g old o r t umbaga p laques ( 40-13-195, 1 96; t wo o f t he p laques w ere l eft i n s itu) 3 8. a nd 3 9. g old o r t umbaga f igurines ( 40-13-197, 4 0-14-737 [ Fig. 2 3]) 4 0. a nd 4 1. g old o r t umbaga b eads ( 40-13-202, 4 0-14-736) 4 2.-84. 4 3 g reen s tone b eads ( all w ere l eft w ith t he C onte 2 20

F eatures:

f amily i n P anamä) 8 5.-96. 1 2 m etal b ells N one

( 40-13-198

t hrough 2 01,

4 0-14-732)

C omments: T he a dult m ale i s r eferred t o i n t he f ield n otes a s t he " principal o ccupant." N o r easons a re p resented f or t his d esignation b ut I s uspect t hat t he f acts t hat t he s keleton w as i solated f rom t he o ther t hree i ndividuals a nd w ore a p rominent g old o r t umbaga p endant i nfluenced M ason's a nd C orning's s tatement. I n a ddition t o t he a bove p endant, e ight o f t he m etal b ells a nd t he g reen s tone b eads w ere l ocated o n t he t ibiae o f t he m ale a dult; a t t he l eft h ip a nd e nd o f t he l eft h umerus, b eneath t he b ody, f our o f t he r emaining g old o r t umbaga p laques w ere f ound; f inally a c opper f igurine w as f ound o n t he l eft s houlder. C orning o bserved t hat b lack e arth b elow t he a dult m ale r epresented r emains o f b ark c loth; s amples w ere t aken. M ason d oes n ot m ention t hese s amples a nd n one were l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections. H owever, s ome o ther f loor s amples w ere r emoved f rom t he g rave ( 40-16-1172). T he l ast g old o r t umbaga p laque w as f ound u nder t he a dult f emale. T his i ndividual a lso h ad t wo i mpacted w isdom t eeth i n t he l ower j aw . G rave 9 6 F ield D esignation: B urial 2 6, a lso c ited a s c ache 2 6 a nd T 2-B26a P rovenience: T rench 2 , 1 78.6-181.3 n orth b y 1 56.6-159.0 w est E levation: 1 2.08-12.60 f eet ( 3.68-3.84 m eters) S ex: U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition: U nknown A rtifacts: 1 .-3. b lack c eramic v essels ( 40-16-1199, 1 201, 1 203; t hese v essels a re f ragmentary a nd p ossibly m ay a ll b e p art o f t he s ame v essel) 4 . p lain c eramic t ripod " pitcher" w ith o ne l oop h andle ( not 5 . 6 . 7 . F eatures:

l ocated

i n

t he U niversity M useum's

r ed c eramic v essel ( 40-16-1200) r ed c eramic c arafe ( 40-15-1205) s tone p rojectile p oint ( left w ith

f amily i n P anama) M ason n oted c arbon d eposits

o n

t he

c ollections)

t he C onte i nside

o f

a n umber

o f

l arger s herds. T he m aterial w as n ot k ept a nd i ts e xact p rovenience i s u nknown. C omments: A l arge a rea t o t he w est a nd north o f t he main c oncentration o f c eramic a rtifacts i n t his g rave w as c overed w ith h eavy, t hick, p lain a nd l ow f ired s herds. T he g rave a rea w as r oughly r ectangular, m easuring a pproximately . 82 b y . 73 m eters. T he o ne m eter a bove t he g rave c ontained r elatively s terile f ill w ith o nly a f ew i solated s herds. T he d esignation o f t his f ind a s a g rave i s s usp ect d ue t o t he l ack o f h uman s keletal r emains. G rave 9 7 F ield D esignation: B urial 2 6a, a lso c ited a s T 2-ß26a P rovenience: T rench 2 , 1 78.2-180.8 n orth b y 1 54.9-158.9 w est E levation: 1 0.42-11.51 S ex: U nknown

f eet

( 3.18-3.51

m eters)

A ge: A dult? P osition: N o t orso o r l ong b ones w ere f ound t o a id o f t he p osition o f t he s keleton A rtifacts: 1 .-5. 5 r ed c eramic c arafes ( 40-16-1179, 2 21

i n

i nterpretation

180,

1 185;

t wo

w ere

l eft w ith t he C onte

f amily i n P anama)

6 .

a nd 7 . r ed c eramic p edestal c ups o r s mall b owls ( 40-16-1181; o ne w as l eft w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anama) 8 . a nd 9 . r ed c eramic b owl ( 40-16-1182, 1 186; t he l atter h ad r ed a nd w hite p ainted a pplique d ecoration) 1 0. p olychrome c eramic p edestal p late ( 40-16-1183) 1 1.

a nd 1 2.

r ed p lates

( 40-16-1184,

1 192)

1 3.

d escribed b y M ason a s a " vase" w ith a h igh n eck a nd a r ed s lip ( left w ith t he C onte f amily i n P anama) 1 4. c eramic v essel, p robably a c arafe, w ith a b lack a nd w hite p ainted b ody ( 40-16-1187) 1 5. 1 6. 1 8.

p olychrome c eramic b owl ( 40-16-1188) a nd 1 7. p olychrome c eramic p lates ( 40-16-1189, 1 194) a nd 1 9. r ed c eramic c ensers ( 40-16-1190, 1 826; o ne h as a f lat h andle a nd t he o ther h as a c ylindrical h andle) 2 0. p olychrome s pouted j ar ( 40-16-1193) 2 1. r ed c eramic v essel ( 40-16-1195) 2 2.-34. 1 3 s mashed g old o r t umbaga b eads ( 40-13-206) 3 5.

t ubular g old o r t umbaga b ead ( 40-13-204; n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections) 3 6. g reen s tone b ead a ssociated w ith 3 5. ( 40-13-204; n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections) 3 7.-40. 4 o bjects o f g old o r t umbaga, t wo p ossible b eads a nd t wo u nknown o bjects ( 40-13-203; n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections) 4 1. a nd 4 2. t wo a nimal t eeth, s pecies u nidentified ( 40-14-740; n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections) 4 3.-126. 8 4 g old o r t umbaga b eads ( 40-13-205; t he f ield n otes n oted t hat t here w ere 3 5 b eads i n t his g roup; t he p resent q uantity i s b ased o n a c ount o f b eads i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections w hich a re u nder t he a bove n umber)

c ataloged

F eatures: N one C omments: T he g rave w as i n a r ough ly r ectangular s hape w ith t he l ong e nds o riented e ast a nd w est. O nly a c ranium w ith 2 7 t eeth w ere f ound a ssociated w ith t he a bove f urnishings. G rave 9 8 F ield D esignation: B urial 2 6b, a lso c ited a s T 2-B26b P rovenience: T rench 2 , 1 81.1-184.7 n orth b y 1 56.3-160.6 w est E levation: 1.14-11.16 S ex : M ale A ge: A dult

f eet

( 3.40 m eters)

P osition: E xtended, a rms f lexed, o riented s outheast a nd n orthwest w ith t he c ranium a t t he s outheast; n o i nformation i n t he f ields n otes o n w hether t he i ndividual r ested o n i ts b ack o r s tomach A rtifacts: 1 . r ed c eramic p late ( 40-16-1922) 2 . r ed c eramic b owl ( 40-16-1197) F eatures: N one C omments: T he g rave w as r ectangular w ith t he l ong a xis o riented t o t he s ame d irection a s t he s keleton. T he b ody s loped s lightly d ownward f rom t he h ead t oward t he n orthwest. O ne t ibia o f t he i ndividual w as b ent s traight d own i nto t he f loor o f t he g rave a nd c ut o ff a s i f d isturbed b y a boriginal e xcavations a ssociated w ith g rave 2 22

7 4. T he e ntire s keleton r ested o n a b ed o f s herds, m ost o f w hich w ere d iscarded i n t he f ield b ut d escribed a s " coarse." T he e ntire g rave w as j ust a l ittle h igher i n e levation t han g rave 9 7 ( Burial 2 6a); t he t wo w ere s eparated b y o nly 1 0 c entimeters. G rave 9 9 F ield D esignation: B urial 2 7, a lso c ited a s C ache 2 7 a nd T 2-B27 P rovenience: T rench 2 , 1 73.9-175.5 n orth b y 1 43.8-145.6 w est E levation: 1 0.0-11.1 f eet ( 3.05-3.38 m eters) S ex : U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition: U nknown A rtifacts: 1 .-6. 6 r ed c eramic c arafes w ith b lack a nd w hite p ainted n ecks ( 40-16-1833, 1 834, 1 844 t hrough 1 846) 7 .-10. 4 p olychrome c eramic c arafes ( 40-16-1832, 1 209, 1 213) 1. a nd 1 2. r ed c eramic c arafe ( 40-16-1210, 1 835) 1 3. p olychrome e ffigy j ar ( 40-16-1847) 1 4. a nd 1 5. t ubular g old o r t umbaga b eads ( 40-13-207) F eatures: N one C omments: M ason r eported i n t he f ield n otes t hat " some b ones a t a l ower l evel" w ere f ound b y h is s on, J ohn, b ut h e w as " uncertain i f [ they w ere] a rticulated." N o o ther i nformation o n t he s keletal r emains w as r eported. T he g rave a lso y ielded t wo b ags o f m iscellaneous s herds. G rave 1 00 F ield D esignation: B urial 2 8, a lso c ited a s T 2-B28 P rovenience: T rench 2 , 1 86.7-190.7 n orth b y 1 68.0-172.8 w est E levation: 1.58-12.30 f eet ( 3.53-3.75 m eters) S ex : U nknown A ge: U nknown P osition: P ossibly t wo i ndividuals e xtended a nd o riented n orth a nd s outh o r a d isarticulated, s econdary b urial A rtifacts: 1 .-8. 8 p olychrome c eramic p lates ( 40-16-1217, 1 222, 1 224, 1 225, 1 227, 1 229, 1 849; o ne w as n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections [ Fig. 2 0]) 9 .-17. 9 r ed c eramic c arafes ( 40-16-1218, 1 221, 1 226, 1 233, 1 852, 1 853; s ix h ad b lack a nd w hite p ainted s crolls o n t he n ecks; t wo w ere l eft i n s itu; o ne w as n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections) 1 8.-20. 3 r ed c eramic j ars ( 40-16-1234; t wo w ere l eft i n s itu) 2 1. a nd 2 2. r ed c eramic p lates ( 40-16-1220, 1 223) 2 3. a nd 2 4. r ed c eramic b owls ( 40-16-1850; o ne w as n ot l ocated i n t he U niversity M useum's c ollections) 2 5. r ed c eramic " pot r est" ( 40-16-1219) 2 6. p ossible p olychrome c eramic j ar ( left i n s itu a nd d escribed b y M ason i n t he f ield n otes a s " painted") 2 7. r ed c eramic c enser h andle ( 40-16-1231) 2 8. b lack p edestal c eramic v essel ( 40-16-1232) 2 9. g reen s tone e ffigy o rnament ( 40-14-743 [ Fig. 9 ]) 3 0. e roded c opper o rnament ( 40-14-741) 3 1. q uartz c rystal ( 40-14-744) 3 2, s tone c elt ( 40-14-745) F eatures: A " brown s ubstance,"(40-14-742) p ossibly h ematite o r 2 23

p yrite,

w as

u ncovered

i n

a ssociation w ith

t he

c opper

o rnament

( 30.).

C omments: T he b urial w as o nly p artially e xcavated a nd, t herefore, t he s ize a nd q uantity o f m ortuary f urnishings a nd e xact n umber a nd p osition o f h uman s keletons i s n ot k nown. O f t he s keletal r emains w hich w ere u ncovered, C orning n otes t hat t wo s kulls w ere f ound, o ne a t 1 87.1 n orth a nd 1 71.6 w est a nd t he o ther a t u ndetermined c oordinates. S ome l ong b ones, l ying n orth a nd s outh, c ontinued i nto t he u nexcavated n orth w all o f t he g rave a nd, a ccording t o C orning, t hey w ere n ot i n o rder b ut a ll m ixed u p. T his o bservation s uggests e ither a d isarticulated b urial o r o ne d amaged b y a boriginal e xcavations.

2 24

A ppendix 6

D istribution C harts o f M ortuary A rts a nd C luster D iagrams

t he w ere

A s tep-by-step a ccount o f t he c lustering p rocedures w ill a llow r eader t o m ore t horoughly e valuate t he r esults. T he p rocedures i dentical

f or e ach

g roup o f g raves

d iscussed

i n

t his

s tudy.

T he u se o f c luster a nalysis s tems f rom i ts a bility t o o rderly a rrange l arge a mounts o f d ata i nto h omogeneous o r r elated g roups. T he r esults o f t his t echnique a re a nalagous t o t he t axonomic d iagrams c reated b y b iologists f or a f amily o r s pecies o f p lants o r a nimals. A rt h istorians a lso r egularly c lassify s ubsets o f t he a rt w orld i nto h omogeneous g roups o r c lusters. F or e xample, a s cholar s tudying C hristian p aintings f rom t he f ourteenth t hrough s ixteenth c enturies m ight f ashion a s a c ategory--for a nalytical p urposes--a g roup o f p aintings w hich d epict a y oung w oman h olding a s mall, n aked c hild a nd c all i t a m adonna. T he s cholar m ay s ub-divide t his l arge g roup o f p aintings i nto t hose w ith c hild-holding w omen w ho l ook t o t heir l eft a nd h ave o ne b reast e xposed. Once t hese c ategories h ave b een c reated, t hey a re c ontrasted a nd c ompared w ith o ther s ets o f p aintings. T he p rocess o f g rouping o r c lassifying m ay c ontinue i ndefinitely u ntil a ll p ossible v ariables a re e xhausted. The

r esults

o f

c luster

a re

s imilar.

However,

w hile

t he

r esearcher s elects t he p articular v ariables w hich d etermine t he c haracter o f t he g roupings, t he c omputational p rocedures o f c luster a nalysis i ndependently m easure w hich c ombinations o f v ariables a re m ore c losely o r d istantly r elated. T his i s e specially a dvantageous w hen a r esearcher d oes n ot h ave a p riori a ssumptions a bout h ow v ariables s hould b e g rouped a nd w hen c onsiderable a mounts o f d ata b eing e xamined.

t he a re

T he f irst s tep i n t he c luster p rocedures i s t he d efinition o f v ariables. S ince m y s tudy s eeks t o e xamine t he r elationship b etween s ocial d imensions a nd m ortuary a rts, t he v ariables w hich I s elected p ertain t o t he d emographic a nd p hysical c haracteristics o f t he i nterred i ndividuals a nd t he m ortuary a rts f ound i n t he g raves. T he d emographic a nd p hysical c riteria, f or e xample, a ge, s ex, a nd p osition o f t he s keleton, w ere d esignated a s i ndependent v ariables a gainst w hich t he d ependent v ariables--organized b y c luster a nalysiswould a rts.

b e

c ompared.

S everal

c riteria

T he

i ndependent

d etermined

t he

v ariables

s tandards

w ere

b y w hich

t he

m ortuary

t he

m ortuary

a rts w ere c lassified. I i nitially a ssumed t hat t he r aw m aterial o f a n o bject m ay h ave h ad s ocial s ignificance a nd, t herefore, t he w orks o f a rt were s eparated a ccordingly a nd i ncluded metal ( or t umbaga/gold),

c eramic

o r

c lay ,

b one 2 25

o r

i vory,

s tone

o r

l ithic,

s hell, a nd v egetal. g roups: d ecorated

E ach o f t hese s ets w ere f urther d ivided i nto t wo a nd u ndecorated o bjects--criteria a dmittedly

d ifficult t o p recisely d efine. T hose m ortuary a rts w hich w ere p ainted w ith t wo-dimensional d esigns, m odeled i nto t hree-dimensional n on-utilitarian f orms--for e xample, e ffigy v essels--or s eemed t o b e p art o f a m ore c omplex d ecorated i tem--for e xample, a s a b ead r elates t o a n ecklace--were i dentified a s " decorated." A ll m ortuary a rts w hich d id n ot m eet t hese c riteria w ere t reated a s " undecorated." F inally, t he m ortuary a rts w ere f urther c lassified b y t heir p hysical a ppearance a nd i dentifiable f unction. T he f inal l ist o f t he w orks o f a rt i ncluded u ndecorated a nd d ecorated j ar, c eramic f igurine, m etal b ead, s tone o r l ithic p rojectile p oint, n ose d ecoration, c eramic b owl, s hell p endant, a nd s o f orth ( Tables A -3 a nd A -17). G eneric c ategories, s uch a s w orked a nd u nworked s tone, s erved t o c lassify o bjects w hich I w as u nable t o i dentify. D ue t o t he d ifferences i n t he m ortuary a rts f rom t he a rchaeological s ites, t wo l ists w ere u sed t o i dentify t he v ariables, o ne f or t he T onosi V alley s ites a nd o ne f or S itio C onte. W hile t he n omination o f t he a bove c riteria i ncluded a d egree o f i ntuition o n m y p art, i t a lso a voided a n e ndless s election o f p otential v ariables. I n t his r egard, A ldenderfer a nd B lashfield p oint o ut t hat: The t emptation t o s uccumb t o a n aive e mpiricism i n t he u se o f c luster a nalysis i s v ery s trong, s ince t he t echnique i s o stensibly d esigned t o p roduce " objective" g roupings o f e ntities. B y " naive e mpiricism" w e mean t he c ollection a nd s ubsequent a nalysis o f a s m any v ariables a s p ossible i n t he h ope t hat t he " structure" w ill e merge i f o nly e nough d ata a re o btained ( 1984:19-20). A fter s election o f t he v ariables, t heir d istribution i n e ach g rave w as t allied ( Tables A -1, A -2, A -5, A -6, A -8, A -9, A -11, A -13 t hrough A -16). ( If a v ariable w as n ot f ound i n a ny o ne o f t he g raves f rom a s ite,

i t w as

o mitted

f rom

t he

t ally

p ertaining

t o

t hat

s ite.)

T he t allies o f t he v ariables, o r m ortuary a rts, f rom t he g raves o f e ach p articular s ite w ere i ndividually c alculated b y t he c luster a nalysis p rograms d etailed i n S AS ( 1979, 1 982). T he c omputations c reated d endrograms ( Tables A -4, A -7, A -10, a nd A -12) w hich g raphically d epict a s d etermined b y

t he d egrees o f h omogeneity a mong g roups o f g raves t he d istribution o f t he m ortuary a rts. The

d endrograms a re l ike a d iagram o f t ree r oots t urned u pside d own. The f irst c luster, o r h omogeneous g rouping, i ncludes a ll, o r " N", g raves. T he s ucceeding l ine s eparates a g rave o r g roup o f g raves f rom t he l arger g roup r esulting i n N -1 c lusters. T his p artitive p rocess c ontinues u ntil a ll t he g raves a re r epresented a s i ndividual g roups o r c lusters. G raves w hich h ad n o m ortuary a rts c reated a n o bvious h omogeneous g roup a nd, t herefore, w ere n ot i ncluded i n t he c luster a nalysis. The c omplete c onsistently u seful m ethod ( as w ell a s

l inkage c luster a nalysis p rovided t he m ost r esults. M oreover, t he a lgorithm u sed b y t his t he o ther t hree) i nvolves a E ucledian d istance 2 26

m easurement

o f

t he

d issimilarity

o f

t he

v ariables.

O ne

a dvantage

o f

t his m easurement i s t hat s tandardization o f t he d ata h as l ittle o r n o e ffect o n t he r esults o f t he a nalysis. S ince t his s tudy i s i nterested i n t he q uality o f t he mortuary a rts a s well a s t he q uantity, t he d istributions o f t he v ariables w ere r ecalculated t o n ote o nly t heir p resence o r a bsence. T he r esults o f t hese c luster a nalyses r eflected n o a ppreciable d ifferences f rom t he o ther t ests. T he d endrograms i n A ppendix 6 a re d erived f rom t his l atter d ata s et. F inally, I s hall a ddress t he m atter o f t he n umber o f c lusters f or i nterpretation. T he 1 982 s tated n umber

t hat, " there o f c lusters

a re f or

s election o f t he S AS U ser's G uide

n o s atisfactory m ethods f or d etermining t he a ny t ype o f c luster a nalysis" ( 1982:419).

T his v iew h as b een s econded b y m any o ther w riters i ncluding A ldenderfer a nd B lashfield w ho o bserved t hat, " this f undamental s tep i s a mong t he a s y et u nsolved p roblems o f c luster a nalysis" ( 1984:53). T he m ost c ommon t echnique t o s elect a " relevant" n umber o f c lusters i s a h euristic p rocedure which " at t he m ost b asic l evel, a h ierarchical t ree i s ' cut' b y t he s ubjective i nspection o f t he d ifferent l evels o f t he t ree" ( Aldenderfer a nd B lashfield 1 984:54). S AS p rovides a n a nalytical m ethod, t he c ubic c lustering c riterion ( CCC), t o d etermine t he n umber o f c lusters. T heir e ndorsement o f t his m ethod i s l ess t han e nthusiastic: " The p ower o f t he C CC s eems t o b e a t l east a s g ood a s t hat o f t he h uman e ye i n t wo d imensions w ith 1 00 o bservations" ( SAS 1 982:420). I n f act, a ll t he a vailable m ethods s eem l ittle b etter t han t he " subjective i nspection" o f t he d endrograms. T his l atter m ethod i s t he o ne w hich I e mployed i n t his s tudy.

2 27

T able A -1 E l I ndio ( Phase I I): D istribution o f M ortuary A rts

G rave

O bjects: C l C 2 C 3 C 4 C 6 C 7 C 9 C ll

1

3

2 3

1

C 14 L 3 L 4 S 3 S 4 S 5 R 10

1 1 1

2

4 5

1

6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7

1

2

1

5

1

1

1

1

2 2 1

1 1

4

1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8

1

1

1 1 1 1

1

5 2

2 9 3 0 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 5 3 6 3 7

1

1

1 1

?

T able A -2 E l I ndio ( Phase I I): P resence/Absence o f M ortuary A rts

G rave

O bjects: C l C 2 C 3 C 4 C 6 C 7 C 9 C 11 C 14 L 3 L 4 S 3 S 4 S 5 B 10

1 2 3

X X

4 5 6 7 8 9

X X

X

1 0 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7

X X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X X

X X

X

1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8

X

X

X X X X

X

X X

2 9 3 0 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 5 3 6 3 7

X

X

X X

X

T able A -3 K ey t o O bject C odes f or T onosi V alley S ites C eramics: C lundecorated j ar C 2-undecorated p late C 3-undecorated b owl C 4-decorated p late/bowl C 5-decorated p edestal p late o r b owl C 6-"doble" ( compound s ilhouette) v essel C 7-paired v essel C 8-cup C 9-effigy v essel C 10-vessel s upport C 11-unknown v essel t ype C 12-unknown p edestal v essel C 13-whistle C 14-figurine C 15-decorated j ar

B 10-deer b one B li-unknown b one, B 12-canine t ooth B 13-fish b one

o r

L i-projectile p oint L 2-mano L 3-metate L 4-axe o r c hisel L 5-pendant L 6-agate b ead L 7-serpentine b ead L 8-unworked s tone L 9-worked s tone T umbaga/Gold: T i-bead T 2-pendant

t ype

T 3-placue T 4-figurine T 5-ring T 6-unknown o bject

B one: B ipendant B 2-bead B 3-miscellaneous i ncised o bject B 4-projectile p oint B 5-sting r ay p oint B 6-crab b one B 7-shark's t ooth B 8-bird b one B 9-deer a ntler

L ithics:

S hell: S i-pendant S 2-figurine S 3-bead S 4-worked s hell S 5-unworked s hell

s pine

n on-human

2 30

T able E l

A -4

I ndio,

P hase

I I

C luster T ree D iagram N umber o f

G rave:

C lusters

1

1 2

2 4

2

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2 31

T able A -5 E l I ndio ( Phase

I II):

D istribution o f M ortuary A rts O bjects: CC C C C C TT T S S S 1 4 5 8 9 1 5 2 3 4 1 2 3 G rave 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 6 7 8 2 2

1

9 1 0 1

2

1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7

2

2 1

2 2

1 1

?

1

1 2

SS 4 5

1 ,1 ,1 31 31 31 3 12, 1 3 P 1 3 5 9 1 3 5 7 8 9 1 0 1 1

1

1

2

2

1 2

3 1

2 2

4 0

1 2 1 1 7

P R 1 2 1 3

1 2 2 ? 2 ?

2

2 1 3

1 2

1

1 1 2

1 2

1

1

2 8 2 9 3 0 3 1 3 2 3 3

3 2

2

3 4 3 5 3 6 3 7

1 3 1 1

3 8 3 9

1 6

2 6

4 0 4 1 4 2 K ey:

2

3

1 2

4 2

1

7

1

1

3 2 1 1 S ee T able A -3

1

1

1 3 3

1 2?

2 32

T able A -6 E l I ndio ( Phase P resence/Absence O bjects: CC C C C C TT T S S 3 1 4 5 8 9 1 5 2 3 4 1 2 3 G rave 1

1 0 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8

X X X

X

X

X

X X

X X

1 1

B R 1 2 1 3

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X X X X X

X X

X X

X

X X XX X X X

X

X

X

X X X X X

X X X

X X X

X X

2 9 3 0 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 5

X

X

3 6 3 7 3 8 3 9 4 0 4 1

X X X X X

X X X

4 2

X

X

K ey:

LL T I , B B P B B B 5 9 1 3 5 7 8 9 1 0

X

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

SS 4 5

I II):

o f M ortuary A rts

X X X X X X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X X X

XX

X X

X

X

S ee T able A -3

2 33

c ,t . 1 .

. 3 :

c )

4 / 1 4 / 1 A c

0, , 1

A (

3 :

A z

A