Archetypes in Japanese film : the sociopolitical and religious significance of the principal heroes and heroines 9780941664936, 0941664937

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Archetypes in Japanese Film

Archetypes in Japanese Film The Sociopolitical and Religious Significance of the Principal Heroes and Heroines

Gregory Barrett

Selinsgrove: Susquehanna University Press London and Toronto: Associated University Presses

© 1989 by Associated University Presses, Inc.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Barrett, Gregory,1938Archetypes in Japanese films• Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1 . Motion pictures—Japan. 2. Characters and characteristics in motion pictures. 3. Archetype (Psychology) I. Title. PN1993.5J3B37 1989 302.2,343,0952 8743126‫־‬ ISBN 0 7 ‫־‬941664‫־‬93‫( ־‬alk. paper)

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

to my mother

Contents Acknowledgments Note on Film Titles and Personal Names Introduction 1 The Loyal Retainer and the Tormented Lord 2 The Chaste Warrior 3 Ydkuza Heroes 4 Wanderer 5 Vengeful Spirit 6 All-Suffering Female and Weak Passive Male 7 Prodigal Son, Forgiving Parent, Self-Sacrificing Sister 8 The Archetypal Family—Extended and Rejected 9 Modern Archetypal Antitheses Conclusion Notes Bibliography Index

9 10 13 22 43 64 77 97 118 141 160 179 211 222

238 243

Acknowledgments A ll stills are courtesy of Kawakita Memorial Film Institute, Tokyo, and I

selected them with the help of Ms. Kyoko Sato there. I wish to thank Tadao Sato, Donald Richie, and Keiko McDonald for all their advice and help.

9

Note on Film Titles and Personal Names At the first reference to a film in the text, the Japanese title is given in

parentheses after the title in English; all subsequent references have only the English title. The Index contains a listing of all films under both their Japanese and their English titles. Personal names follow the Western order with the surname last, except for legendary or mythical figures. For example, in the case of Momo Taro, while Taro is a common given name, Momo, meaning *,peach,‫ ״‬is not a family name.

10

Archetypes in Japanese Film

Introduction T his study is the first iconography of Japanese film: an analysis of the

symbolization of its principal heroes and heroines. As symbols rather than signs, they are open to many interpretations and their different meanings can be categorized as social, political, and religious. For example, take the character played by Toshiro Mifune in Seven Samurai (Shichinin no Samurai, 1954), one of the most famous Japanese films shown abroad. On one level he can represent the ambivalent attitude of the feudal farmer toward the samurai. While respecting the samurai as noble men, the peasant also mistrusts them as members of another social class and fears them as his rulers. Yet the Mifune character can also represent elemental man in need of initiation conducted by his mature mentors. This universal aspect of his character transcends any particular Japanese society, and the religious significance of initiation has been amply demonstrated by Mircea Eliade in his study of rites that symbolize the regeneration of the tribe and cosmos, or divine mysteries.1 Types of heroes and heroines have been taken up in previous Japanese film studies. Their authors, however, have been predominately directororiented ever since 1960, when Joseph L. Anderson and Donald Richie dedicated the first authoritative work on Japanese film in English to “that little band of men” who made it a directors’ cinema•2 In 1961 Richie deemphasized history and ignored industry to give Japanese directors the undivided attention they certainly deserved.3 Joan Mellen (1976) and Audie Bock (1978) followed in Richie’s footsteps: the former judging the “little band” according to progressive, feminist standards4 and the latter adding biographical material.5 Even Noel Burch (1979), hardly a Richie follower, concentrated on the “few authentic ‘masters， ” in his structural analysis of Japanese film in general, for they deconstructed western codes best•6 Keiko McDonald (1983) also treated the best directors in her struc■ tural analyses of individual film s.7 Such an orientation inevitably spawned director studies: Richie on Akira Kurosawa (1965)8 and Yasujiro Ozu (1974),9 and McDonald on Kenji Mizoguchi (1984).10 All this was based on the premise that the best directors made the best films, in the sense of artistic merit. Richie has noted in his preface to Bock’s book that the same situation applies for any major cinema, for usually only the films of directors like Ingmar Bergman, François Truffaut, and their counterparts are known 13

14

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outside their own country•11 Still, Anderson and Richie in their pioneer■ ing work gave numerous examples ◦f commercial films of no artistic merit whatsoever, which nonetheless reflected their times and were thus important indicators of historical change. They also devoted some space to popular genres that mirrored Japanese sentiments. Few, however, took up these approaches to Japanese film. Alain Silver (1977) isolated one popular genre, the so-called samurai film, and presented some of its typical heroes in his structural analysis of representative works.12 David Desser (1983) gave a more detailed analysis of that genre in terms of content, with comparisons to the American western•13 In Japan Tadao Sato had been concerned with commercial films reflecting popular sentiments ever since he began writing film criticism in the 1950s, and with the publication of the first, book-length English translation of some of his essays in 1982, non-Japanese film critics and students were introduced to his view of film as social history.14 This iconography joins this minor stream of Japanese film criticism—as opposed to the director-oriented mainstream—for most of the heroes and heroines treated here do not appear in a pure form in the best directors’ films, which usually feature characterization. Richie presents excellent evaluations of characterization throughout his book on Kurosawa, but this is not iconography• A finely delineated Kurosawa character is very individual and complex, and has depth. The subjects of a film iconography are archetypes (to be defined later), which, viewed negatively, are stereotypes: general and very simple, flat and one-dimensional. Characters are the constituents of realistic drama and literary art. Archetypes are the stuff fantastic entertainments and commercial films are made of. Yet, archetypes are probably the best way to study popular culture, since they are not only the focus of popular sentiments but also the simple embodiments of endearing values. Everyone who has written a book on Japanese film has probably felt that he or she was also saying something about Japanese culture. Film is as much an expression of culture as any other art medium like literature, painting, theater: they all express the thoughts and sentiments (anything mental or spiritual) held in common by a group of people. Previous Japanese film studies in English, though, have focused on the traditional “high culture” that was the preserve of the upper classes before modernization began in 1868. Richie set the tone in 1961 by listing the tea ceremony, the Noh drama, and haiku poetry as representative of traditional culture.15 The lower classes did not indulge in these pursuits before 1868• An example of traditional “low culture” is rakugo, a humorous storytelling art which began in the Tokugawa period (1603-1868) and is still popular on commercial TV, in contrast to Noh, which can only be seen on educational TV. But look in the indexes of books on Japanese film and see if rakugo is listed! Richie also continually asserts that an essential

Introduction

15

key to understanding traditional culture is mono no aware, a philosophical, aesthetic concept originating among the courtier aristocracy of the Heian period (794—1185), which he defines as a resigned sadness toward life.16 This "resigned sadness,‫ ״‬however, cannot be found in rakugo, or, for that matter, kodan, another popular, not particularly humorous storytelling form about the exploits of heroes. The traditional “high culture,” mono no aware included, is certainly important in the evaluation of Japanese film. Still, our understanding must be insufficient, if we ignore traditional ulow culture,‫ ״‬as well as modern popular culture (admittedly Americanized to some extent). In all fairness to Richie, it should be noted that he included the responsibilities of the eldest son, arranged marriage and the so-called family system (a Japanese form of patriarchy) among the values of the traditional culture.17 Since these social values were primary determinants in the behavior of all social classes, probably few contemporary Japanese would consider them “high culture,‫ ״‬even though they did originate in the upper classes to a large extent.18 Furthermore, Richie arranged Japanese directors in a conservative-toradical spectrum according to their attitude to their traditional culture,19 and found several in opposition and some who had different values entirely. Hence, he gave some presentation of cultural values other than the traditional ones, though without detailing them. Richard Tucker did almost the same thing in 1973, only differing from Richie on the placement of certain directors in the spectrum.20 Joan Mellen, however, was the only one who devoted considerable attention to the antitraditional elements in modern Japanese culture, though unfortunately weakening her thesis by her almost ethnocentric attack on the Japanese family. For the most part, the philosophical, aesthetic values of the traditional “high culture” have held sway in interpretations of Japanese film written in English. In an analysis of the transcendental style in the films of Ozu, Paul Schrader (1972) reinforced mono no aware with Zen, a meditational Buddhist sect that flourished under the patronage of the military aristocracy in the 14th century•21 Richie followed suit in his own book on Ozu• Noel Burch also delved into Zen, as well as Heian court poetry, in his study of the masters’ “systematization of those traits which are most specifically Japanese.22‫ ״‬Whereas Richie himself gave some socially critical films high ratings in the 1960s, the main trend in Japanese film criticism in English in the 1970s and 1980s was to determine the best films according to traditional aesthetic standards. Perhaps this was inevitable, for if western aesthetic standards had been used, there would have been no need to study Japanese film as such, but only a few Japanese directors who measured up. A notable exception to the trend is Desser’s study of Japan’s “most western director,‫ ״‬Kurosawa, for Desser emphasizes the adaptation of

16

A R C H E T Y P E S IN JA PA N ESE FIL M

western modes in Japanese film making.23 The singularity of this stance, however, only indicates the predominance of the trend. Because of the trend, interpretations of the contents of Japanese film by Westerners have become very similar: everyone seems compelled to bring up Zen ◦r mono no aware ◦r something else traditional. Such similarity easily approaches conformity, which is ironic because Westerners are always accusing the average Japanese ◦f being an unimaginative conformist. In the beginning of Japanese film research in English, an interest in traditional “high culture” was understandable• That which attracted the mind were things that were quite different from what one was used to, and it was only natural to share this new-found knowledge. Moreover, traditional “low culture” was little known and modern culture seemed to be only an imitation of the West. But why did succeeding researchers feel they had to repeat what had already been said quite well, particularly by Richie? One answer to that question is that Japanese film studies simply reflect Japanese studies in general, at least in the United States. A book about rakugo probably cannot be found in any Books‫־‬on‫־‬Japan section anywhere, let alone a study of manga, comic books read by almost all Jap‫־‬ anese, as evidenced by the fact that they can be classified according to the reader’s sex and age group. Japanologists have thoroughly examined the aesthetic, philosophical, and sociopolitical values of Japanese culture, but popular sentiments have hardly been given a glance. Popular culture is either ignored or given side-show status by historians, as something to amuse the reader in between serious discussions of important factors in Japanese history. The academic bais against popular culture is understandable, since expressions of it have to be made plain and simple to remain popular— that is, to be accepted by the majority—and this inevitably leads to a lowering of intellectual standards. Nevertheless, cultural studies which ignore the popular element are at best incomplete. Accordingly, this film iconography of heroes and heroines as the focus of popular sentiments supplements not only Japanese film research in English but also Japanese studies in general. Moreover, the area of research pursued has been outlined by Anderson and Richie in their chapter on the contents of Japanese film, though they were more concerned with popular genres than with popular iconography.24 Academicians could still question whether this supplement is necessary, whether popular sentiments are important, and the answer would depend on what actually constitutes the forms and expressions of Japanese popular culture. The “modern” part is largely modeled ◦n American popular culture, for example, the young pop singers who intentionally imitate the mannerisms ◦f their American antecedents• The “old” part

Introduction

17

often appears to be a corrupt ◦r watered‫־‬down version ◦f something that existed elegantly in the traditional culture. Take for example a gangster movie where the hero is ready to sacrifice his life out of loyalty to his dead boss. He seems to be aping the feudal hero in a Kabuki play, which is more plausible because it is easier to imagine that the samurai were noble men. How could a common gangster pretend to be so noble? (Actually Kabuki became high culture in modern Japan and is not the only example of such a transformation.) Juxtaposed to the above examples, however, there are contradictory samples. The ghosts in Japanese horror films are often women who rightfully bear some man a grudge and whose antecedent can be found in the vengeful spirit in traditional folklore, which is hardly high culture. In literary studies and histories of Japan, Michizane Sugawara (845-903) is frequently given as an example of a vengeful spirit. He was a courtier aristocrat who died in exile because of court intrigues, and who came back as a ghost to wreak havoc in the imperial capital. The vengeful spirit in Japanese film, however, can hardly be considered a watered-down version of him. Whereas he is only emblematic of the grudges fostered in court politics, the film heroine, a mistreated woman, can be interpreted as an expression of the resentment of the lower classes. Furthermore, modern heroes, apparently imitating American action heroes, genuinely express valid feelings of revolt in Japan's younger generation. Given such contradictions, this study challenges the widespread view in Japanese studies that the common people were always docile and submissive and that young Japanese are only going through an “imitating America‫ ״‬stage. As such, it could become corrective as well as supplementary• This iconography began with the classification of the heroes and heroines seen in over a thousand Japanese films. The ubiquitous ones were then isolated to determine principal types. Concurring with Anderson and Richie,25 it was found that the traditional types had mostly originated in Kabuki, the popular theater of the Tokugawa period (1603—1867), and kodan and nanivva-bushi, oral narratives performed by a story teller, which were most popular in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The principal types were then traced back for prototypes as far as Japan’s first lengthy mythology, Kojiki (The Record o f Ancient Events, first presented to the court in a . d . 712). The chronological development thereafter was pursued in literature, theater， and film• Since each type changed with the times, they became a series of metamorphoses with sociopolitical significance, while maintaining certain universal motifs of a religious nature. Modern heroes became either versions of them or their antitheses. The above methodology shows that the scope of this study is not limited by the ninety years of japanese film• Since reference is also made to

18

A R C H E T Y P E S IN JA PA N ESE FILM

sources in modern literature (“pure” and popular), comic books, and to the latest developments on TV, it is fairly comprehensive as an iconography• Ian Buruma has also written a fairly comprehensive iconography of popular culture in Japan.26 Though he did not start with movies and drew his examples from various other media, his main types resemble mine; however, there are some crucial differences between our approaches. As Buruma stresses continuity in Japanese culture, his types generally do not change in time. There is not much difference between a present-day stripper and a Shinto goddess depicted in Kojiki in A .D . 712. Modern heroes are only versions of old ones, and never antithetical. Modern ideas are inconsequential—loan words given in their Japanese spelling, for example demokurashi for democracy, to show that the Japanese recognize them but do not take them too seriously. One is led to assume that the present parliamentary system of government and consitution are merely froth on the waves lapping the ancient shores of Japan. As Buruma is fond of saying in one form or other throughout his book: surfaces change, sentiments do not. Buruma does recognize one major change in Japanese culture: the introduction of Buddhism and Confucianism. He considers them oppressive foreign influences which turned a fun-loving Shinto, permissive attitude toward sex into a Japanese form of Victorianism: respectable hypocrisy in the everyday work-world, and elegant pornography and prostitution in the pleasure quarters. Within this context, he makes a brilliant, psychological analysis of the effects of repression—particularly sexual—and a chronic mother complex, as they appear in the popular culture. However, by overemphasizing the exotic, like many before him, he has depicted Japanese culture as a perennial freak show and has made inadequate suppositions about the sentiments of contemporary Japanese. This study differs from Buruma’s by giving equal weight to cultural continuity and to historical change, and by considering religion a major factor in the formation and metamorphoses of heroes and heroines. These reflections of changes in Japanese sentiments are strongly influenced by the dominant religion of a particular period of Japanese history, whether it is Shinto, Buddhism, Confucianism, or Nationalism (which Arnold Toynbee regarded as an inferior religion). Buddhism and Confucianism should not be considered only oppressive tools of the state, for they also contributed to what Robert Bellah has referred to as ‫ ״‬the tradition of submerged transcendence27‫ ״‬in Japanese culture. The Buddhist tenet of the illusory nature of the phenomenal world could lead to a denigration of any society as mere artiface. Although the transcendental elements in Confucianism are not very persuasive—and Bellah himself has stated that “filial piety is subordinate to loyalty”28 toward a superior, in the Tokugawa value system—in chapter 7 it will be shown that the Confucian ideal of

Introduction

19

parental benevolence could foster opposition toward society and the government, at least in the sentiments of the common people. Because of these aspects of Buddhism and Confucianism, sometimes even traditional Japanese heroes and heroines transcended or opposed their society, and their expression of discontent in the popular culture was not simply a matter of letting off steam, as Buruma would have it. This study is not confined to a social history of Japan as seen through the development of popular heroes and heroines. In their religious significance they are universal as well as transcendental, and so I call them archetypes and make use of the theories of Carl C. Jung. Jung found that the term archetype appeared in early Christian writings in Latin, where it meant the God-image in man, or God as the archetypal light•29 Jung also compared archetypes with Lévy-Bruhl’s mythological “représentations collectives’’,30 which were often gods and goddesses,and related them to mythological motifs.31 He distinguished two kinds of archetypes, active personalities and typical situations.32 While motifs would correspond better with the latter, players are still needed to act out dramatic situations. Japanese film heroes and heroines are obviously active personalities and as symbols are cultural rather than natural. According to Jung, natural symbols are directly derived from the unconscious, whereas cultural ones have gone through many transformations as a result of more or less conscious development before being accepted as collective images by a society.33 In spite of the transformations, though, archetypes as the players in myths continually represent certain motifs. Jung noted that “myths of a religious nature can be interpreted as a sort of mental therapy for the sufferings and anxieties of mankind in general—hunger, war, disease, old age, death.34‫ ״‬Accordingly, Japanese heroes and heroines often appear in modern film myths as therapy for the sufferings that remain, despite progress. For this study archetypes are defined as changing, personified representations of constant motifs. The motifs considered basic to filmic expressions of Japanese culture are: the inevitable human conditions of suffering and death, parts of the life cycle like initiation, the moral problems of guilt and forgiveness, and the ideals of loyalty, sincerity, courage, justice, purity, and self-sacrifice. These motifs do not change, but sentimerits about them do, as expressed through their representations. While Japanese sentiments are different enough to warrant study, their archetypes are often simply their versions of universal myths. This definition of archetypes differs from common usage of the term in film criticism, where transformations are usually not considered and repetition is emphasized. Critics and researchers seem to be referring to typical heroes/heroines and situations that have continually appeared in the medium, presumably from its inception. Archetypes in this study refer

20

A R C H E T Y P E S IN JA PA N ESE FIL M

to the chief or principal types, which are not necessarily the original ones. After all, the original heroes in Kojiki are not the main ones in Japanese film. Both meanings are contained in the Greek root, arché ("beginning‫ ״‬, “rule”)， and since archos means “ruler”,35 one gets the impression ◦f an original reign with a line of succession. The psychological origin of archetypes is not crucial for this study, since the concern is with cultural ones that have undergone some conscious development. To avoid misunderstanding, though, it should be stated that, rather than Jung’s theory that archetypes are derived from a suprapersonal collective unconscious,36 Bellah’s view is followed• Bellah believes archetypes are constructed in a personal unconscious as a result of a child’s interaction with its sociophysical environment, for example, the relation with the mother produces a mother archetype. He surmises that archetypes resemble each other in different cultures because early socialization is similar everywhere, and does not attribute their universality to a collective unconscious.37 Japanese archetypes are part of the tradition each film maker learns. He can project his own personal archetypes on them, adjust them to the times and/or his own predilections, or reject them by creating antithetical heroes who could become at least as popular as the traditional ones. Japanese film archetypes can be classified, according to their relation to society, as conservative, problematic, and oppositional. These categories reflect the relation of religion to society. Bellah has concluded that every “religion seeks to proclaim a truth which transcends the world, but is enmeshed in the very world it desires to transcend,” and that every “religion seeks to remake the world in its own image, but is always to some extent remade in the image of the world.38‫ ״‬This paradox of religion indicates two aspects, sociopolitical and transcendental. Joseph Campbell has elucidated the sociopolitical aspect by referring to religion as an adjunct to police authority in that social duty is enforced by secular and divine authority,39 and by presenting Emile Durkheim’s interpretation ◦f mythology as an “allegorical instruction, to shape the individual to his group.40‫ ״‬Durkheim stated that the reality of religion is society, which is the individual’s refuge, shield, and support,41 and from this one gathers that the protecting gods and saviors in various religions simply symbolize their societies. The sociopolitical aspect can also be inferred from James Frazer's definition of religion as a propitiation of powers superior to man that are believed to control nature and human life,42 since submission to suprahuman forces symbolized in religion is easily equated with submission to society and a political state. The cost of submission is repression of individual desires, and the reward is a strong sense of social affiliation, inalienable as long as one believes. Campbell has given self-subordination a mystical meaning, when selfsacrifice becomes self-transformation in the sense of participation in the consubstantiality of all beings.43 Since this belief transcends any society

Introduction

21

or state, it expresses the transcendental aspect of religion without positing another world, as orthodox Christianity does. In Japanese culture, as already noted, the transcendental aspect is usually expressed in the Buddhist tenet of the illusory nature of the phenomenal world, even though Zen meditation could lead a few adepts to a mystical sense of “consubstantiality•” The sociopolitical aspect of religion is well exemplified in the conservative archetypes of Japanese film, since, as a rule, they are models of submission and/or group affiliation. They are dealt with in chapters 1, 2, and 3, where it is shown how the Confucian virtue of loyalty to a superior overrode conjugal and familial considerations, and how Buddhist altars and Zen meditation become tools in the interest of the state. These archetypes all came from the conservative, period film genre (jidai geki) whose stories are set in the feudal period before 1868, and its extension, the yakuza (“gangster”）film• However， the sociopolitical aspect of religion was more important in their formation than genre, since the period film did produce leftist, nihilistic, and socially critical films when the climate was right• The second category of archetypes, treated in chapters 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8, is called problematic because they not only exhibit the conservative function of inducing submission and containing dissatisfaction, but could exist in a state of tension in relation to the powers‫־‬that‫־‬be, since they also express the transcendental aspect of religion. For example, the triad of archetypes designated as Prodigal Son, Forgiving Parent, and Self-Sacrificing Sister can be analagous to subject-ruler relations in a paternalistic state that requires self-effacement in exchange for forgiveness. This triad, as expressed in Mizoguchi^ Sansho the B ailiff (Sansho Dayu, 1954), however, can also evoke a Medieval Buddhist concept of justice that applies to rulers too, an idealized parent who almost functions as a transcendental God， and a Christ-like Sister-Savior. The third category of oppositional archetypes is taken up in chapter 9. They are modern, antithetical heroes and heroines who are the focus of youthful, rebellious sentiments against the dominant culture of the older generation. These sentiments were fostered to a large extent by Western ideas of individual freedom and of unjust exploitation of lower classes— ideas that entered Japan during the modernization begun in 1868• In the concluding chapter there is a summary of the comparisions made between Japanese film archetypes and their Western counterparts. There is also an assessment of the present condition of all three categories on television, Japan’s most popular medium since the 1960s, to determine whether a synthesis of traditional and modern archetypes has been made, and to decide how significant the expression of rebellious sentiments can be in commercial media that are supported by majority society and the powers-that-be.

1

The Loyal Retainer and the Tormented Lord Introduction U ntil the 1960s almost half of the Japanese film heroes were feudal

characters, because close to half of the feature films came from the period film genre• Ever since the 1910s this genre was furnished with an extensive ensemble of traditional, familiar characters—in contrast to the other main genre of the contemporary film (gendai geki), whose dramas were set in the fairly recent modern era beginning in 1868.1 Since the feudalistic system of government before 1868 was based on the relationship between lord and vassal, it was inevitable that the loyal retainer would become a major hero. In period film he was the main hero because a Japanese lord was seldom presented as a dynamic character. Rather, by falling into some predicament he tested the loyalty of his retainer(s), and so I call him the Tormented Lord. This archetypal dyad, formed by the Loyal Retainer and the Tormented Lord, represents the ideals of loyalty and sincerity, and served as a metaphor for the required attitude of the governed in Japan until at least 1945. Ivan Morris gave examples, from each period of Japanese history, of sincere noblemen and samurai who suffer defeat at the hands of practical politicians and thus became tragic heroes.2 The fact that some of them were also paragons of loyalty is not at all strange, since sincerity and loyalty are closely related. For a retainer or vassal, sincerity could consist solely of loyalty toward a sovereign. Moreover, both of these virtues have to be put to the test to determine whether they are genuine or not. Suffering is their common motif. Death is the ultimate demonstration of fidelity. The theme of loyalty‫־‬to‫־‬the‫־‬death was expressed very early in Japanese culture, for example, in the following stanza written in 749 and included in the Man’yoshu, Japan’s first major anthology ◦f verse: If we go to the sea our corpses shall soak in the water. If we go to the hills our corpses shall rot in the grass. We will die by the side of our sovereign, We will never look back.3 22

The Loyal Retainer and the Tormented Lord

23

This stanza was turned into an extremely popular, martial air during World War II, when Emperor Hirohito assumed the role of the Tormented Lord. He was believed to be grieving over the fate of the nation, and only victories by his loyal retainers in the imperial army and navy could relieve his suffering heart. Accordingly, countless soldiers who had sung the modern version of the 749 stanza made the lyrics come true in a suicidal demonstration of the virtues of sincerity and loyalty in the modern era. To a Westerner, it seems like martyrdom, and Japan‫״‬s most famous martyrs for the sake of absolute loyalty were the forty-seven retainers from the feudal fief of Ako.4 In 1703 they avenged the death of their lord or daimyo by killing his enemy, and later commited seppuku or harakiri (ritual suicide by disembowelment). As they were poor ronin, samurai made masterless by the death of their lord, they appealed to the popular imagination, and their story, Chushingura, became a national epic, which was made into a film over eighty times from 1907 until 1962.5 Oishi, their leader, and Lord Asano, their daimyo, became the best embodiments of the archetypal dyad of the Loyal Retainer and the Tormented Lord and served as models for countless period film heroes. In fact, in order to understand the period film genre’s main heroes and its principal motifs of loyalty and sincerity, it is better to trace the development of Oishi and Lord Asano from Kabuki to film and TV than to give numerous examples of their replicas, which usually appear in films singly. Beforehand, though, some historical background is necessary to understand the sociopolitical significance and the importance of the ideal of loyalty in the Japanese cultural value system. The incident of the forty-seven Akõ ronin occurred during the Tokugawa period (1603-1868), a watershed in Japanese history. Previously, loyalty toward a superior had not been an absolute virtue. Tadao Sato claims that during the civil-warring period from 1482 to 1603 samurai warriors prized honor and courage above loyalty, for they often changed masters in their search for one who would appreciate them.6 Moreover, the warlords or daimyo then did not have absolute power in their own fief, since Buddhist temples with huge congregations resisted their authority.7 With the final victory of Ieyasu Tokugawa, a powerful daimyo who became shogun in 1603, peace came to Japan. The power of rebellious Buddhist temples had been crushed8 and Confucianism became the dominant religion.9 The Confucian virtue of loyalty toward a superior suited the purposes of the Tokugawa authorities, for they still demanded the loyalty of the fiefs outside their direct rule in their semicentralized government. The loyalty of a retainer toward his daimyo, however, could conceivably conflict with his duty toward the state. This problem was raised by the forty-seven Akõ ronin, and the way the Tokugawa government handled their incident was an important step toward the formation of the modern state of Japan.

24

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When the incident became a subject for Kabuki and puppet plays, the popularization of the samurai virtue of loyalty began. This was not engineered by the Tokugawa government, for, although they intermittently excercised censorship, they had no department of propaganda as such. Nor was it the result of obsequiousness on the part of playwrights, since samurai seldom deigned to attend their popular entertainments.10. Rather, it was mainly the effect of servility engendered by a society ruled by samurai, whose arbitrary power was exemplified in their right to cut down any commoner they thought had insulted them (kirisute gomen).11 For popular playwrights and their audiences, the loyalty of a fictionalized retainer for his lord was the sublimation of their own submissive attitude toward a government that had more control over their lives than any previous one. Modern versions of the story of the forty-seven Akõ ronin, or Chushingura, were not simply expressions of residual feudalistic sentiments. The changing representations of Oishi, their leader, and Asano, their lord, reflect the process in which feudal loyalty became modern patriotism. Hence, Chushingura can be called a myth with a modern political message.

Chushingura The myth of Chushingura begins with the Tokugawa government’s judg■ ments on the actions of Lord Naganori Asano and Kuranosuke Oishi, his chief retainer. Later interpretations of their motivation were what Ivan Morris called the projection of archetypes onto actual historical figures.12 In the spring of 1701, Lord Asano drew his sword and wounded Lord Yoshinaka Kira, his mentor, when the latter evidently did not give him instructions during an important ceremony. Since the incident occurred in the shogun's palace and could thus be considered an act of defiance against the government itself, Lord Asano was ordered to commit seppuku that same day. On 30 January 1703, Oishi and forty-five other retainers broke into Lord Kira’s residence and beheaded him. The beheading of Kira presented the authorities with a problem. All recorded vendettas since 1603 had been for the sake of filial piety, usually to avenge a dead father, and had not upset the social order since they were considered "private‫ ״‬affairs.13 Oishi and his men, however, had not only created a public disturbance but had also raised the insurrectional possibility of a conflict between loyalty toward a feudal lord and the central government. The problem was solved by letting all of them commit seppuku rather than executing them. Their loyalty was thereby honored, while their illegal action was properly sanctioned. The primacy of law, a prerequisite for a modern state, was firmly established. Thereafter until

Chushingura (1962), directed by Hiroshi Inagaki. Arrayed for battle, Oishi (Koshiro Matsumoto), the best representative of the Loyal Retainer, prepares to avenge his lord. His feudal loyalty became a sublimation of the submissiveness of modern Japanese toward their government.

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1868 ， there was only one other, rather insignificant case of a servant avenging a master.14 The archetypal dyad of the Loyal Retainer and the Tormented Lord first assumed definite shape in 1748 in Kanadehon Chushingura, the most famous of the seventy or so Kabuki and puppet plays on the subject written between 1706 and 1891.15 Kanadehon^ Oishi is an agonized witness to his lord’s painful death and afterwards takes possession of the seppuku sword. This “keepsake” becomes like a fetish controlling his wíiole being until he plunges it into his lord’s enemy. Symbolizing Oishi’s unswerving devotion, it anticipates the sword as the fundamental icon of the period film.16 Since it is also a reminder of an intense, personal relation, the loyalty of Kanadehon’s Oishi is significantly different from the institutionalized variety it would later become. K anadehon Chushingura changed the attitude of the authorities toward Oishi and his men. As historical personages they had been a threat to the government. In fact the first play about them had been prohibited after only three performances, and in 1706, Chikamatsu Monzaemon, Japan’s greatest playwright, could present a play about them only by more carefully concealing their identity in a previous historical period.17 The authors of Kanadehon Chushingura followed Chikamatsu, and Oishi and his men, disguised with pseudonyms, became heroes in a popular play who were perfect models of loyalty toward a superior, a social virtue still desirable in a legalistic state. Moreover, the seppuku of Lord Asano, Oishi and the others suggested that, while other samurai virtues like honor and courage are commendable, they could be costly and that loyalty in the form of submission was the best course. Thereafter, the authorities not only supported further dramatizations of Chushingura, but also had historical models of loyalty put into school books for commoners. Before the Kanadehon version in 1748, it seems commoners had not been taught much about loyalty but had only been admonished to fear the strong and to respect authority.18 Henceforth, that fear would be internalized and rationalized as loyalty. The character of Lord Asano underwent a major change when Chushingura became subject matter for nineteenth-century Kodan story•‫־‬ tellers. Kanadehon^ Asano is actually a minor player. Though he bravely commits suicide for his honor, his torment is short-lived. He is so quicktempered and imprudent that he slashes at Kira because he cannot bear even a slight insult. He provides a striking contrast to the patient Oishi, who endures many humiliations to avenge him. Kodan’s Ásano, on the other hand, is a sincere youth who is constantly picked on because he did not give his mentor a bribe. When Kira gives misleading instructions for ceremonies Asano is conducting, he reflects the pecking order of the apprentice system of Japan’s traditional craftsmen, the main audience for Kodan.19 Accordingly, Kodan’s Asano suffers various humiliations in ad­

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27

dition to a painful death and is truly transformed into the Tormented Lord. Oishi and the other retainers also change in the Kodan version, where the women involved become insignificant. In Kanadehon Chushingura Kira’s lust for Asano’s wife is the catalyst of the tragedy, and a few love affairs are depicted. Moreover, although Oishi and the others sacrifice their wife or sister for the cause, they are distressed over this necessity. In Kodan, though, they do not give it any thought at all, since the honor and courage of men are almost the sole concern. This difference doubtless reflects the different lifestyles of the audiences. In the Kabuki-viewing merchant family the wife had an active role in the family business, whereas Kodan-listening craftsmen like carpenters usually left their wives at home and went out in all-male work gangs.20 As a result of this sociological difference, loyalty toward Asano rides roughshod over any conjugal or familial consideration in Kodan, and behind the macho blustering of its retainers an even more submissive attitude can be discerned. Submissiveness was further emphasized in the beginning of the twen■ tieth century, when the Kodan version of Chushingura was adapted for rõkyoku or nanivva bushi (4*storytelling with samisen accompaniment‫) ״‬. Rõkyoku artists shed the romantic interludes of Kabuki origin, particularly the story of Kampei Hayano, whose amorous dallying leads him to neglect his duty toward his lord. Wholehearted loyalty was stressed even more than the manly honor and courage appreciated in Kodan, and rõkyoku artists thereby ingratiated themselves with military and political leaders during the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05) and its aftermath. The feudal loyalty praised in Chushingura was easily associated with the modern variety toward the emperor, and in fact the imperial family became patrons of this performing art, which had previously entertained only the lowest social classes.21 Film versions of Chushingura combined episodes from Kabuki and Kodan and eventually became spectacular productions with all-star casts. As they were generally box office hits, they disseminated the ideal of loyalty on a mass scale. In the oldest extant print from 1910 to 1912, director Shozo Makino deferred to women viewers by drawing out the parting scene between Oishi and his wife. Still, primary relations were between men. This was exemplified in the classic scene showing a close retainer kneeling in the courtyard below, while Asano walks down the veranda toward the area for his seppuku. As Japanese cinema technically advanced in cinematography and editing, their tender parting looks would be expressed through close-up exchanges reserved for lovers in European and American movies. Chie Nakane has likened Chushingura to a male love affair.22 The same can be said for action genres in other cinemas. For example, in American

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westerns, Desser has noted that the camaraderie of men is prized above the society of women.23 But Chushingura and other period films are extreme in this respect. One reason is that Japan lacks a tradition of chivalry toward women. In political terms, though, through the retainer’s “love” for his lord his servile position is glorified. This is more important than Joan Mellen’s interpretation of sexual politics,24 for the film retainer was a model for the attitude Japanese males should take toward their superiors, no matter what tyrannical airs they put on in front of their wife. Besides expressing loyalty in terms of love, Japanese cinema through the 1920s and 1930s made few changes in the Kabuki- and Kodan-inherited contents of Chushingura. Major innovations in the story came from popular literature and modern Kabuki. In the 1927 novel, The Ronin from Akõ (Akõ floshi), Jiro Osaragi turned the loyalty of Oishi and the retainers into indignation at the injustice of their lord’s death sentence, and interpreted the beheading of Kira as a protest against a corrupt government, rather than as a private grudge. As Osaragi was extremely interested in French history,25 he probably wanted to draw an analogy with the French Revolution. The liberal trend of the 1920s in Japan, the aftermath of the so-called Taisho democracy (1912 to 1926), permitted such an expression. Militaristic ideology, however, had by no means vanished then, since Oishi was a hero in primary school textbooks from 1920 to 1945, partly because of the popularity of the patriotic rõkyoku version of his tale.26 In the textbooks, as in Osaragi^ novel, Oishi’s times were described as degenerate because the frivolous shogun then favored dogs over human beings, and Oishi became the embodiment of a masculine, martial valor highly favored during a time of militaristic expansionism on the Asian mainland. Osaragi,s liberal theme of upright men in corrupt times appealed not only to conservatives but to rightists as well. On 26 February 1936, some officers from the radical faction of the imperial army attempted a coup d’état because they thought the government was run by capitalists who bribed corrupt politicians. These officers have been likened to the Akõ ronin by Tadao Sato,27 and the resemblance is a fitting one. Whether influenced by Osaragi,s novel or by their primary school textbooks, they failed and were executed. The conservative faction of the military, however, used the incident to increase their own power to fascist proportions. In 1934, a modern Kabuki play about the Akõ ronin, Genroku Chushingura was first performed. Genroku is the name of the era when the incident took place, and its inclusion in the title indicates playwright Seika Mayama’s emphasis on historical authenticity. The central theme of the play is Oishi’s fears that his loyalty toward his dead lord could be construed as disloyalty toward the imperial court, and his torments are resolved when he learns that the emperor pitied Asano for not being able to kill Kira.

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29

Since Mayama solves Oishi’s “To be or not to be” dilemma by equating loyalty toward a feudal lord with that toward the emperor, he could be accused of intellectualizing the rõkyoku version. However, in Oishi^ doubts can be gleaned the rationalization for the transfer of loyalties that led to the modern concept of patriotism. Throughout most of the Tokugawa period (1603—1868) samurai were theoretically loyal to their feudal lord and to the shogunate, the central government. Near the end of the Tokugawa period they were divided into factions either supporting the shogunate or advocating restoration of imperial rule. Eventually, in countless novels and films on the Meiji Restoration in 1868, both factions were deemed loyal because they had the best interests of the nation at heart. Since they had not been loyal to a feudal lord, however, in place of the old word for loyalty, chügi, a new term, chüseishin was coined for patriotism•28 Mayama’s Oishi was simply one step removed from Japan’s modern patriots. Mayama^ Genroku Chushingura was made into a two-part film in 1941 and 1942 by Mizoguchi. Mizoguchi had previously made films highly critical of feudalism, and he hoped to escape from the wartime demands for propaganda by concentrating on history.29 Ironically, though, his superb cinematic techniques exaggerated Mayama’s theme of absolute loyalty. The film begins with Kira insinuating that Asano is incompetent and Asano losing his temper and striking him with his sword. True to history like Mayama, Mizoguchi had scrapped the tormenting scenes, which were Kodan accretions. Consequently, however, Oishi,s loyalty becomes unconditional. It does not matter what kind of man Asano was, whether he suffered or not. Affection for the dead lord is erased. Oishi,s loyalty is not personal but institutionalized, for it is simply directed toward anyone in a superior position, and Mizoguchi illustrates this cinematically. Oishi is shown slowly bowing low toward the ancestral altar containing Lord Asano’s memorial tablet (ihai)• Since this drawn-out scene is shot from a high angle, Oishi appears to be a subject bowing in front of the overhead camera as if ifwere some kind of god. After the vendetta, Oishi is shown, from the same camera angle, bowing reverently before the written proclamation granting him the privilege to commit seppuku. His devotion to his lord has been transferred to the shogun and the emperor, or perhaps nothing has changed and the objects of his devotion were just different manifestations of his total submission to absolute authority. Mizoguchi，s Oishi illustrated the required attitude for the entire Japanese nation during World War II. This Oishi was unusual in Japanese film history, though, because his predecessors and successors exhibited a strong sense of personal loyalty. In fact, this sentimental interpretation of his character interfered with postwar attempts to democratize Chushingura.

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In the script for ToEi^ The Ronin /rom Akõ (Akõ Roshi, 1956), Kaneto Shindo intensified Osaragi’s theme of protest against an unjust govern• ment by downplaying loyalty to Lord Asano and presenting Oishi as a cool-headed organizer, who resembles modern union or guerrilla leaders. During the filming, however, Shindo was overruled by director Sadatsugu Matsuda and Utaemon Ichikawa, the superstar who played Oishi. In Ichikawa’s performance tears perpetually come to Oishi’s eyes whenever he is reminded of his dead lord, and he is often shown with a Buddhist rosary in his hands, as if he prayed for his lord’s soul every chance he got. Similarly, in The Fall of Akõ Castle (Akõjo Danzetsu, 1978), director Kinji Fukasaku had wanted to portray the loyal forty-seven ronin as Wild Bunch-like desperadoes. Superstar Kin’nosuke Yorozuya (formerly Nakamura) had other, orthodox ideas and got his way,30 but at least did not blubber as much as Ichikawa. These two film versions demonstrate that while very few postwar Japanese would subscribe to the feudal virtue of loyalty toward a superior, Oishi s devotion to his dead lord was still appealing. This devotion was best justified to modern audiences through Toho’s 1962 version of Chushingura, the most popular outside of Japan. Director Hiroshi Inagaki presents Lord Asano as the incarnation of sincerity, the cardinal virtue of youth. The tormenting scenes are length‫״‬ ened and clearly connected with Kira’s greed, thereby stressing Asano’s integrity and making his attack on Kira an inevitable result of his nobility and honor. It is the universal contrast between pure youth and corrupt adulthood. Kira is a materialization of all the vices attendant on aging and the loss of innocence. Previous directors had also emphasized Asano’s innocence. In the 1910-12 version Shozo Makino had had a liberal amount of face powder applied to his star Matsunosuke Onoe so that he appeared like a lamb surrounded by Kira and other dark-complexioned tormentors. In 1941 Mizoguchi showed Kira in the shade and Asano out in the sunlight. In 1962 Inagaki used color composition. Asano is usually dressed in blue robes, often of a light hue, while Kira wears brown and tarnished gold. Once Asano wears a sash with delicately painted, green bamboo leaves. Blue is perhaps universally associated with youth, but the Japanese enhance this symbolization by confusing blue and green, the same word, aoi. Hence, the sky blue of youth is combined with the young leaves and green shoots of spring. For the seppuku scene, Asano is dressed in white robes, which symbolize purity and death. When he reaches for the short, silver sword, the camera cuts to cherry blossoms silently falling, and the screen becomes a white blur. Cherry blossoms are a hackneyed symbol for the fleetingness of life, but when associated with Inagaki ,s Asano they come to represent a pristine purity that perhaps can be preserved only through death. Accord-

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31

Chushingura (1962), directed by Hiroshi Inagaki. Dressed in white robes for his seppuku, Lord Asano (Yuzo Kayama) represents a pristine purity that can be preserved only through death and that is also associated with the young kamikaze pilots during World War II. ingly, Oishi avenges him more in anger over the death of an innocent than out of loyalty. Yet, Inagaki's Asano is not simply a universal, pure youth. For many Japanese he probably represented the young kamikaze pilots in World War II. Their death too tends to be regarded as an inevitable consequence of the purity of their youth, rather than as a modern expression of the loyalty-tothe-death ideal, which served so many feudal governments in the past. Consequently, Inagaki, like previous Japanese film makers (and probably just as unintentionally), concealed the self-abnegation inherent in this ideal through the emotional treatment of a theme in which cinema excells. The sentimental attitude toward Chushingura also prevailed in the yearlong TV drama serials of it on NHK, the government network, and the 1964 and 1975 productions effectively undercut Osaragi^ theme of resistance against a corrupt government. Furthermore, in the 1982 production sentimentality was used to fashion a contemporary message of patriotism through the sympathetic treatment everyone receives. Lord Kira is not such a bad guy after all, since he sought bribes for the revival of his house.

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Shogun Tsunayoshi, often presented as somewhat effeminate in film versions, now firmly responds to Oishi’s test ◦f his samurai spirit by granting the correct judgment on the case: honorable suicide. In short, the old feudal loyalty was not such a bad ideal, as everyone’s superior was a wellmeaning, honorable man, after all. In 1982 NHK not only suggests that there were no bad superiors, but also that there were no disloyal retainers either. While the loyal forty-seven are awaiting their honorable suicide, they pass the time in pursuing traditional arts like calligraphy and in holding parties. When they get drunk they reminisce about the other retainers, who have such a bad reputation these days. Finally, Oishi himself magnanimously concludes that they were not really disloyal, for they must have had their own reasons for not participating in the vendetta. Watered-down dramas are a trademark of Japanese TV because, as in the United States, by trying to please everyone they become common denominators of all popular sentiments. Still, NHK‫״‬s Chushingura bears a remarkable resemblance to the Japanese family drama in which no one is to blame for arguments resulting from misunderstandings that are ironed out in the final reconciliation scene. In fact, NHK^ Chushingura is the family drama writ large. When Kira, Tsunayoshi, and the not‫־‬so‫־‬loyal retainers are “forgiven,” the prime-time viewing populace is told that there were no villains in Japanese history, and by extension none in the present government. Since the Japanese have always been members of one big, well-meaning family, feudal loyalty or modern patriotism were only an inevitable result of a tender affiliation and an unshakable sense of unity. The sentiments expressed in NHK’s Chushingura in 1982 are a far cry from the sentiments that must have prevailed during the civil-warring period from 1482 to 1603. Still, they may well have been an inevitable consequence of the process whereby a political incident in 1703 became the springboard for a myth that popularized a samurai virtue more conspicuous by its absence theretofore. As the archetypal dyad of the Loyal Retainer and the Tormented Lord changed dress, or were interpreted differently, to suit the times, it still remained amazingly constant to its motif. One cannot help but marvel at how the Japanese from 1703 until 1982 could get so many renditions from the single tune of loyalty.

Loyalty Loyalty is also a social virtue in the West, and in European history too it was transferred from feudal lords to a modern nation. In Japan, though, loyalty became absolute and submission total. The cultural reason can be

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33

shown by a comparison with the story of King Authur and Sir Lancelot. The most recent film version is John Boorman’s Excahbur, which was based on Malory’s Le Morte d’Arthur, written in the fifteenth century• Lancelot appears as a wandering knight in search of a worthy king and, after Arthur defeats him in a jousting match, he is all too happy to serve him. Although Japanese warriors sometimes searched for lords to serve during civil wars, they never fought with them. The almost egalitarian relation between Arthur and Lancelot can be attributed to the Magna Carta tradition, which gave barons rights vis-a-vis their king and thereby made feudal loyalty conditional in the West. Since Lancelot’s loyalty is conditional and voluntary， his adultery with his lord’s queen may be regrettable, but not inexcusable, as would be the case in feudal Japan. Lancelot chose to serve Arthur, but then fell in love with Guinevere. True to his own feelings for her he betrayed his king, but still seems sincere. Oishi would not recognize such choices. Without a Magna Carta tradition, his loyalty is regarded as absolute. Furthermore, since he inherited his role as a family retainer, his relation with his lord is involuntary. Lord Asano could be true to his feelings, but Oishi his retainer can only be true to him. There is a relation between Oishi and Lady Asano, his lord’s widow• In most film versions of Chushingura Oishi pays her a visit on the night of the attack, but cannot reveal his plans because of the presence of one of Kira’s spies. He even lies to her, saying he has found a new master. Disgusted with him, she refuses his parting request to light incense in front of the altar with Lord Asano’s memorial tablet. In contrast to the Lancelot-Guinevere-Arthur triangle in which they all loved each other, in the Chushingura triad the sole love object is the spirit of Lord Asano himself. Perhaps his widow felt she had triumphed over Oishi in that she had remained faithful and he had not. However, Oishi wins in the end by avenging the lord whose memory she could only be faithful to. This is graphically shown in the otherwise undistinguished 1958 DaiEi film version when Lady Asano gets down on her knees in the snow and reverently bows in Oishi,s direction as he and his men go marching off with Kira，s head. Even though Asano’s widow is Oishi’s Lady, in the triad she is subordinate to him in terms of loyalty toward their lord, which is absolute in either case. Oishi’s loyalty is so single-minded that it is akin to religious devotion, and thus Chushingura can also be compared to the story of Christ and his disciples. Lord Asano is like the Lamb of God, a martyr grieving over the troubled hearts of his loved ones. Oishi is even better than Peter in that he never forsook his lord even once. If Asano had left behind some doctrine, surely Oishi would have proselytized it. As it is, he has to be content with

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avenging him, which has religious significance in Japan. According to folk belief, if someone died experiencing deep resentment like Asano, his spirit is restless and continues to suffer after death until appeased.31 Chushingura, though, differs crucially from the Judaeo-Christian tradition. While Oishi, like Abraham, would sacrifice his family to show that his loyalty to his lord was ultimate, Asano is not transcendental like Yahweh. Oishi’s devotion to his memory, represented by the Asano family altar, is a symbolization of their relationship when Asano was alive. There is nothing beyond the altar except society at large. Oishi is affiliated with it through his position in the Asano family, and he submits to it by commiting seppulcu after avenging his lord• Oishi’s belief in Asano does not conflict with his social role. In fact, his religion is his social role. His loyalty is absolute not only because it is involuntary and unconditional, but also because he has no distracting, transcendental reference points. There is a Buddhist, transcendental aspect to Japanese culture, but this was suppressed during the Tokugawa era (when the myth of Chushingura originated〕， thereby strengthening the sociopolitical aspect of religion even more. The Tokugawa government forced its subjects to register with a Buddhist temple as a disavowal of Christianity, which was being persecuted. The main effect of this measure, however, was to turn religious faith into a family rather than an individual matter, for the focus of worhsip became the family graves at the temple and the ancestral tablets in the household Buddhist altar. Hence, Japanese Buddhism was changed into a religion of affiliation instead of one of belief.32 Oishi’s affiliation as a retainer of the Asano household was the source of his religious sense of loyalty toward his dead lord. As nothing transcended his affiliation, loyalty toward it became his religion.33 Since such an indivisiDle bond had formed between loyalty and affiliation, as late as 1982 NHK could still use Chushingura to foster patriotic sentiments by appealing to a sense of affiliation, even though feudal loyalty toward a superior had long been antiquated. NHK’s devillainization of Kira was not such a radical interpretation after

all. Fictional villains in the West could be representations of Satan, but in Japanese culture there is no single archdemon, just as there is no one transcendental God, but a pantheon of Shinto gods and goddesses resembling Mount Olympus in Greek mythology. Japanese villains are simply like Greek antagonists, who oppose protagonists. Like Kira, they pick on their victims, but do not really intend to bring about their downfall.

Variations Given the insignificance of Kira and the subordinate position of Lady Asano, the relationship between Oishi and Asano is the one that really

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35

counts in Chushingura. In period film there are other significant variations of the Loyal Retainer-Tormented Lord dyad. While they lack the religious ambience of Chushingura because their lord remains alive until the end， they are often more touching because of their depiction of a warm relationship between living human beings. In The Men Who Tread on the Tiger’s Tail (Tora no O o Fumu Otokotachi, 1945), Yoshitsune Minamoto, a famous twelfth-century general, becomes a weak, effeminate lord who is protected by Benkei, a supermasculine retainer. Directed by Kurosawa, this film was based on the Kabuki Kanjincho, which in turn was taken from Ataka, a Noh drama.34 The Paitry Ronin Forces His Way Through (Suronin Makaritoru，1947) is based on the story of Ten’ichibo, a pretender to the shogunate who is aided by his scheming retainer, Iganosuke. Director Daisuke Ito, however, differed from prewar film versions by changing Ten'ichibo into a sad, fatherless boy who was protected and guided by Iganosuke in his role as surrogate father. Iem itsu and H ikoza (Iemitsu to Hikoza, 1941) concerns the third Tokugawa shogun, Iemitsu (died 1651), an able but tyrannical administrator, and his chief minister, Hikozaemon Okubo. Director Masahiro Makino turns Okubo into a kind uncle who gives Iemitsu piggyback rides when he is a child, admonishes him during his youth, and rescues him from a plot against his life, calling upon all the strength left in his aging body. Nobunaga Oda (Oda Nobunaga, 1940) is about the young ◦d a (died 1582), who eventually became a cruel warlord, and his chief retainer Hirade. In Masahiro Makino^ film—as well as in the 1959 remake by Kazuo Mori一 Oda is presented as a misunderstood, motherless boy who is nurtured by Hirade, who eventually commits seppuku to end his own worries and admonish his charge to mend his eccentric ways. These variations share with Chushingura the tendency to portray a male love affair, and Buruma has already alluded to the sublimated homosexuality in the relationship between Yoshitsune and Benkei.35 More important in terms of inducing submissive attitudes, though, is the fact that a retainer, who was usually only affiliated with a family, becomes an active family member as a surrogate uncle or father, or even substitute mother. This familization of the lord-retainer relationship is extremely ironic, since, according to the ideal of loyalty, a retainer should be prepared to sacrifice the lives of his own family for his lord’s; and this was the subject of several Kabuki plays that popularized the social virtue of polity over family.36 These film directors were not really suggesting that “lower family members” should be sacrificed for “higher ones•， ，Rather, by portraying the lord-retainer relation in familial terms, they made it more emotionally acceptable to their audiences and themselves. Through such sentimen-

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talization, however, they covered up the actual relation between a powerful daimyo and an economically dependent retainer—and, by extension, an authoritarian state and weak subjects. They also adhered to an old theatrical convention in which cruel warlords and tyrants were transformed into boyishly appealing love objects for a docile populace.

Attempt at Antithesis: The Nihilistic Hero Most period films sentimentalized or sanctified the lord-retainer relation• Some, however, questioned loyalty through a nihilistic hero, a samurai without any loyalties, whose creation was influenced by western ideas. The prototype of the nihilistic hero was Ryunosuke Tsukue, the main character in Kaizan Nakazato,s voluminous, popular novel, The Great Bodhisattva Pass (Daibosatsu Togej. Nakazato began writing his epic in 1913, and it was still incomplete when he stopped working on it in 1941.37 In his youth he had been influenced by Russian literature38 and perhaps drawn to its nihilistic characters. Like Russia, Japan had a long history of authoritarianism, and, in the absence of a tradition of liberal democracy, in both countries revolt could take the form of nihilism. Siegfried Kracauer pointed out a similar situation in Germany during the 1920s when democracy was often equated with anarchy.39 The Great Bodhisattva Pass was not made into a film until 1935, since Nakazato was apprehensive of sensational treatments of his masterpiece,40 and perhaps because the film rights cost too much.41 Nihilistic heroes modeled on or influenced by Ryunosuke Tsukue began appearing in Japanese film as early as 1923,42 however, and a prime example in extant print is Orochi, directed by Buntaro Futagawa in 1925. Orochi concerns a young samurai who is expelled from an academy of Chinese learning (kangaku) because he got in scraps with fellow students for which he was wrongly blamed. Thereafter, he continually gets in trouble with the authorities as a result of misunderstandings until he is finally apprehended and taken to prison. The theme of the original script by Susukita Rokuhei is simply that dropouts like the hero are actually the good guys and that many of the powers-that-be are evil hypocrites. It was revolutionary at the time because previous heroes usually came from the establishment and most authorities were considered benevolent rulers. Since the hero in Orochi is often shown resisting arrest by fighting off hordes of constables or policemen, his desperate display of courage is certainly a form of protest. Nevertheless, it is meaningless and doomed to

failure because of the immense power of the feudal authorities he is up against. No one will aid him• He is all alone. In the climatic sequence a town

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c rie r is s h o w n c lim b in g u p th e b ell to w er to alert th e p o p u la c e to th e h e ro Js in e v ita b le c a p tu re . S h o ts of th e b e ll rin g in g are in te rc u t w ith th e hero fleein g u n til h e h a s h is b ack to a w all. From a h ig h p latfo rm th e cam era p re se n ts a b ird se y e v iew of h im s u rro u n d e d by th e co n sta b le s, w ith th e to w n s p e o p le fo rm in g a n o u te r circle of o n lo o k ers, m a n y of w h o m c h e e r on th e c o n sta b le s w h o p oke at h im w ith p o les a n d try to lasso h im w ith ro p es. W h e n h e cu ts h im se lf free, th e firem en jo in th e attack w ith h o o k s a n d p o le s. E ven th e to w n c rie r b eg in s th ro w in g roof tiles at h im from above. T h e m essag e is clear. R eb ellio n in a n a u th o rita ria n so ciety is a solitary, s u ic id a l en d eav o u r. E ven th e su b m issiv e to w n sp e o p le , w h o are too tim id to jo in in th e attack, w ill e ith e r b etray th e reb el or at least s h u n h im . E v e n tu a lly th e n ih ilis tic hero d ro p s h is sw o rd a n d tu rn s h im se lf in. A s h e is led to jail th e c h e e rin g to w n s p e o p le form a p ro c e ssio n b e h in d th e c o n sta b le s. In 1928, M aijiro A oe, an in te lle c tu a l p lay w rig h t, critic iz e d n ih ilis tic p e rio d film s lik e O ro ch i for th e ir portray al of in d iv id u a l sorrow an d lo o k ed fo rw ard to th o se sh o w in g a g roup struggle b ased o n a clear so cial c o n s c io u s n e s s .43 In th a t sam e year M asah iro M akino cam e o u t w ith The S tree t of Masterless Samurai (Rouin-gai) a n d sh o w ed ca m a ra d e rie overco m in g su b m issiv e n e ss w h e n a few frie n d s com e to th e aid of th e lo n e h ero . N e v erth eless, th e fact th a t p ro le ta ria n p e rio d film s sh o w in g a group stru g g le w ere o n ly p o p u la r from 1929 to 193144 in d ic a te s th e fu tility of p ro te st in m o d e rn p rew ar Japan. T h e b e st fo rm of p e rsu a s io n w as an ap p e a l, a n d in th is re sp e c t th e a g o n iz e d face of th e O ro ch i h ero (often sh o w n in clo se-u p s) w as m ore effective th a n h is m a rtia l prow ess. A b u sed a n d m isu n d e rsto o d , h e is sh o w n sittin g in th e te m p le g ro u n d s, h e a d slig h tly bow ed. W h en h e g lan ces up, h e resem b les Jam es D ean, w h o is still p o p u la r w ith Japanese a u d ie n c e s b e c a u se for th e m h e re p re se n ts m isu n d e rsto o d y o u th in stead of y o u th fu l protest. T su m a sa b u ro B ando, w h o p lay ed th e h ero in O rochi, w as in h is d ay as h a n d s o m e as D ean, a n d ju st as ap p e a lin g , p a rtic u la rly w h e n tu rn e d d o w n by h e ro in e s. H is h u rt looks in O ro ch i seem ed to suggest th a t h e w o u ld ca ll off th e re b e llio n if o n ly so m eo n e u p th e re u n d e rsto o d h im . H is a p p e a ls for sy m p a th y m ove n e ith e r th e to w n sp e o p le n o r th e auth o ritie s , how ever, a n d ju st before h is c a p tu re h e is sh o w n w ith b lo o d stre a m in g over h is eyes from tw o w o u n d s o n h is fo reh ead , as if th e d ire c to r w a n te d to suggest h is h ero w as as tragic as O e d ip u s Rex. A lth o u g h th e n ih ilis tic h ero in O roch i is a n tith e tic a l to th e Loyal Retain er, h e h a s a lot in c o m m o n w ith th e T o rm en ted Lord. In one scen e w h ile h e is w alk in g d o w n a street in to w n , so m e rice g ruel is a c c id e n tly s p ilt on h is h e a d from th e b a lc o n y of an in n . W h en h e c o m p la in s, th e in n k e e p e r trie s to b u y h im off w ith m oney. F u rio u s at th is affront to h is honor as a samurai, he proceeds to beat the innkeeper until the constables

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Orochi (1925), directed by Buntaro Futagawa. Since protest in an au thoritarian society is futile, this nihilistic swordsman (Tsumasaburo Bando) becomes a tragic figure like Oedipus Rex. su b d u e h im a n d take h im off to jail. Q u ick -tem p ered like L ord A san o , h e refuses to suffer affronts, a n d no less sin cere, h e also u n d e rg o e s tra g ic co n sequences. H e is not a lord, how ever, a n d th e re is no loyal re ta in e r to protect, rescue, or avenge him . Still, he is as re p re se n ta tiv e of T o rm e n te d Youth as L ord A sano was. T he n ih ilistic hero w ho a p p ears to be th e b e st a n tith e sis of th e Loyal R etainer is S azen Tange, th e deform ed m aster sw o rd sm a n w h o h a d lo st an arm a n d one eye in a vend etta. In th e o rig in al novel, first s e ria liz e d in a n e w sp a p e r in 1927, S azen Tange h a d b een a v illa in ; how ever, in th e 1928 film version, The Ju d g em en ts of M agistrate O oka一 N ew Edition (S h in ‫״‬ p a n —Ooka S eidanJ directo r D aisuke Ito tra n sfo rm e d h im in to a n origin a lly loyal re ta in e r w ho is b etrayed by th e lo rd h e risk s h is life for.45 A lthough o n ly fragm ents exist of Ito’s p rew ar film a n d its s u b s e q u e n t series, Ito’s sc rip t generally rem ain s in ta c t in th e p o stw ar rem ak e, S a z e n Tange (Tange S azen, 1953), d ire cted by M asah iro M akino. M akino first p resen ts S azen Tange as th e o n ly re ta in e r fa ith fu l e n o u g h to v o lu n teer for a d angerous m issio n on b eh alf of h is lo rd , a sw o rd c o lle c to r

The Loyal Retainer and the Tormented Lord

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w h o w a n ts h im to steal a p ric e le ss sw o rd set w ith a lo n g a n d sh o rt b lad e. S a z e n Tange m an ag es to o b ta in th e long sw o rd after d efeatin g its o w n er in a d u e l. T h e reafter h e c o n tin u a lly b a ttle s th e son, w h o still h as th e sh o rt sw o rd . T h e s w o rd se t h a s a m agical quality, a n d w h e n th e lo n g sw o rd is s e p a ra te d from its m ate it seem s to crave b lo o d . As a c o n se q u e n c e , S azen Tange b e c o m e s p o sse sse d by it a n d often goes o n a ram p ag e, k illin g in n o c e n t v ic tim s. S a z e n T ange’s case of sw o rd p o sse ssio n resem b les th e fe tis h lik e effect L ord A s a n o ’s s e p p u k u sw o rd h a d o n h is re ta in e r O ish i. H ow ever, w h ile O ish i h a d c o n se q u e n tly b e e n im b u e d w ith a d efin ite p u rp o s e , Tange's failu re to s u c c e ssfu lly co m p lete h is m issio n b y o b tain in g th e s h o rt sw o rd d riv e s h im in to fits of m a d n ess. In M a k in o ’s seq u el, S azen Tange II (Zoku-Tange S azen , 1953) Tange le a rn s th a t h is m a ste r b etray ed h im by d e n y in g th a t h e k n ew h im a n d th e re a fte r h e d eg en erates in to se lf-rid ic u le a n d self-ab an d o n m en t. N ot o n ly p o s se s se d b u t b etray ed , h e b eco m es a tragic figure b ecau se h e h as lost fa ith in h is so le object of w o rsh ip , h is lo rd . In a n essay o n D aisuke Ito, Tadao Sato states th a t th e tw o th em es of tru s t a n d b e tra y a l c o n s is te n tly a lte rn a te d th ro u g h o u t Ito’s long film career. Besid e s n ih ilis tic h ero es lik e Tange, Ito also p o rtray ed p arag o n s of loyalty, a n d th e fact th a t th ere w as n o m id d le g ro u n d b etw een th e se tw o extrem es is c h a ra c te ris tic a lly Ja p an ese.46 A ccordingly, th e in san e , one-eyed, a n d o n e -a rm e d Tange, b o th m e n ta lly a n d p h y s ic a lly d efo rm ed , beco m es a g ro tesq u e p a ro d y of a lo y alty -cen tered B u sh id o , a b etray ed retainer. In S a z e n Tange II th e role of th e in sa n e , b etray ed Tange is co u n terb a la n c e d w ith th a t of th e cool, sag acio u s M agistrate O oka, w h o re p re se n ts th e a u th o ritie s a n d is loyal to th e system . T he fact th a t th e sam e acto r D en jiro O k o ch i p lay s b o th roles (as h e d id in p rew ar versions) is n o t u n u s u a l, for in Jap an ese c in e m a su c h situ a tio n s w ere freq u en t. However, in re sp e c t to th e a rc h e ty p e of th e Loyal R etainer, O k o c h i’s d o u b le ro le is sig n ific a n t, for it suggests th a t Tange a n d O oka are b u t tw o asp ects of th e sam e p e rso n a lity . O ne recalls Dr. Jekyll a n d Mr. H yde, a n d Janus, th e R o m an god w h o is re p re s e n te d a rtistic a lly w ith tw o o p p o site faces. Jam es H illm a n , a Ju n g ia n p sy ch o lo g ist, h as p ro p o se d th e th e o ry th a t w h a t a p p e a r to be tw o o p p o sin g a rc h e ty p e s are a c tu a lly tw o asp ects of one a rc h e ty p e . H e gives as e x am p les S enex, th e o ld m a n w h o re p re se n ts tra d itio n a n d P u er A e te rn u s, th e e te rn a l y o u th w h o alw ays breaks th e ru le s•47 H ayao K aw ai a p p lie s H illm a n ’s th e o ry in h is o w n Ju n g ian a n aly sis of Jap an ese fo lk tales a n d v iew s S enex a n d P u er A e te rn u s as c o m p lem en ta ry ra th e r th a n o p p o sin g asp ects. In a ty p ic a lly Japanese tria d th e Senex e q u iv a le n t h e lp s th e y o u th o p p o se a p o ssessiv e m o th er.48 W h en M agistrate O oka a n d Tange are v iew ed as c o m p le m e n ta ry ra th e r th a n o p p o s in g forces, th e d e n o u e m e n t of S an z e n Tange II assu m es greater sig n ifican ce. E do (m o d e rn Tokyo) is in tu rm o il b ecau se of th e m a c h in a -

Sazen Tange (1953), directed by M asahiro Makino. Betrayed by his daimyo, this one-eyed, one-armed swordsman (Denjiro Okochi)—both m entally and physically deform ed~becom es a grotesque parody of a loyalty-centered Bushido.

The Loyal Retainer and the Tormented Lord

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tio n s of T ange’s lord• O ne n ig h t a d e ra n g e d Tange a p p e a rs staggering d o w n a street. T he c o n sta b le s try to sto p h im , b u t th e ir chief, M agistrate O oka, o rd e rs th e m to let h im p ass. Tange p ro c e e d s to th e E do re sid e n c e of h is lo rd a n d o u ts id e th e gate cries o u t to be let in. A fter h e en ters a g ran d m e le e fo llo w s in w h ic h h e e v e n tu a lly cu ts d o w n h is lord. T he film en d s w ith a c ra n e sh o t p ro v id in g a b ird sey e view of Tange sittin g on th e g ro u n d d e je c te d ly in fro n t of th e b o d y of h is sla in lo rd , a n d M agistrate O oka a n d h is m e n o u ts id e th e gate re sto rin g o rd e r to th e streets of Edo. R e b e llio n h a s b e e n c o n ta in e d . O m n ip o te n t a u th o r ity h a s n o t b e e n b re a c h e d . O oka u s e d th e b etray ed Tange to get h is lo rd , a daim y o w h o c o u ld do as h e p le a se s in h is o w n fief b u t w h o w o u ld n o t be p e rm itte d to d is tu rb th e p eace in th e s h o g u n s c a p ita l, w h ic h is p ro tected by O oka a n d h is m en . In term s of a rc h e ty p a l p a tte rn s S a n z e n Tange II is sim p ly a v a ria tio n of th e re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n Lord A san o , h is ch ief re ta in e r O ish i, a n d L ord K ira. O oka, th e loyal one, u s e d Tange, th e to rm e n te d one, to d e stro y th e v illa in , Tange s lord. For Tange, w h o w as m erely an in stru m e n t of O oka's p u rp o se , revenge w as n o t sw eet, how ever, for h e slew h is lo rd , n o t h is lo rd ’s enem y.

Conclusion T h e a tte m p t at a n tith e s is u ltim a te ly failed b ecau se th e n ih ilistic h e ro ’s re b e llio n w as c o n ta in e d a n d even u s e d to s u p p o rt an a u th o rita ria n governm e n t. H is p ro te st w as s u ic id a l, a n d s u ic id e w as th e sta rtin g p o in t for th e m y th of C h u s h in g u ra , for L ord A sano a n d O ish i p a id for d istu rb in g th e p e a c e w ith th e ir lives. S till, th e fo rm atio n of th e n ih ilis tic h ero w as sig n ific a n t b ec a u se it e x p re sse d on a p o p u la r level a rejectio n of th e s e n tim e n ta liz a tio n of th e Loyal R etainer-T o rm en ted L ord dyad. M any artis tic p e rio d film s, like th o se by M an sak u Itam i a n d S adao Y am anaka (prew ar), a n d M asaki K obayashi^ Rebellion (Joiuchi, 1967), have b een c ritic a l of fe u d a lism , b u t th e y m a in ly a p p e a le d to a n in te lle c tu a l aud ie n c e . N ih ilis tic rejectio n w as also e x p re sse d in m a n y co m m ercial p e rio d film s from th e 1960s on• A la in S ilver lab els th e ir m a in ch aracters “th e A lien H e r o ,‫ ״‬a n d th e y d o u b tle s s ta k e a fte r S a z e n T ange in th e ir a n titra d itio n a lis m a n d “ d ra m a tic d e -c o n stru c tio n in o n e w ay or a n o th e r of th e o ld er, u n reflectiv e a rc h e ty p e of th e sa m u ra i eth o s•”49 D aisuke Ito’s Tange d iffers from th e m , how ever, in th at, w h e n d is illu s io n e d ab o u t loyalty h e d id n o t b ec o m e c y n ic a l b u t w e n t in sa n e . T h is in d ic a te s th e stren g th of th e id e a l of sin c e rity in th e p e rio d film . Its a n tith e sis, c y n ic ism (for Japanesesty le s in c e rity is alw ay s naive), d id n o t b eco m e a p rin c ip a l m otif u n til th e 1960s w h e n th e genre h a d a c tu a lly lo st its p o p u la rity .50 As a ru le, p o p u la r

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p erio d film m akers co u ld n e ith e r attack th e m arriag e b e tw e e n s in c e rity an d loyalty, n o r o rch estrate re b e llio n in o th e r th a n fatalistic to n es. In Japan cy n icism is a very m o d e rn a ttitu d e , a n d as su c h , c a n b est be ex p ressed in th e postw ar, c o n te m p o ra ry film genre. T h is w ill be d e m o n strated in th e c h a p te r o n m o d e rn a n tith e tic a l h ero es, th ro u g h film s ab o u t co n tem p o rary Japanese sala ry m en , w h o are n o t s im p ly m o d e rn v e rsio n s of th e loyal retain ers in C h u sh in g u ra .

2

The Chaste Warrior Introduction Warriors, a n d th e ir m o d e rn c o u n te rp a rts s u c h as so ld iers, p o lic e m e n , a n d g an g ste rs are p ro b a b ly th e m o st p o p u la r h eroes in an y c o u n try ’s c in e m a . T hey b est re p re s e n t th e u n iv e rsa lly a d m ire d id e a l of co urage b e c a u se th e y p u t it to th e u ltim a te test in b attles w h e re th e y stake th e ir o w n lives. To w in th e y m u st overcom e th e fear of d eath . Even th e su p erm a n lik e h e ro e s for c h ild re n u s u a lly have som e A c h ille s heel, w h ic h a c tu a lly re p re se n ts th is u n iv e rsa l fear. W arrior h ero es are p e rh a p s n o m ore th a n th e e x p re ssio n of th e v ic a rio u s triu m p h over th e u ltim a te u n iv e rsa l fear n o liv in g h u m a n b e in g p ro b a b ly ever to ta lly su b d u e d . In fact, b ecau se th e y do so, th e y a re s u p e rh u m a n a n d even have th e rig h t to be in h u m a n at tim es. T h e w a rrio r h ero es in Jap an ese p e rio d film , u s u a lly sw o rd sm en , h a rd ly ever sh o w a n y fear of d eath . T h ro u g h th e ir c o m p o su re a n d b earin g th ey e x h ib it a tra n q u il state of m in d w h ic h h a s m o re to do w ith th e ir v icto ry th a n th e ir sk ill or stren g th . In c o n tra st, th e ir lo sin g o p p o n e n ts ’ A ch illes h e e l is often a d is tu rb e d or d istra u g h t m e n ta l state c a u sed b y excessive em o tio n . A ccord in g ly , th e Japanese w ay of o v erco m in g th e fear of d e a th is c o n n e c te d w ith q u e llin g w e a k e n in g em o tio n s. T he m o st im p o rta n t of th e se is p a ssio n a te love for a w o m an . M ere affectio n is n o t a great obstacle. T he Loyal R etain er a rc h e ty p e w illin g ly sacrificed h is w ife for h is lo rd . In th e case of a m id d le -a g e d h ero like O ish i p a ssio n do es n o t seem an im p o rta n t c o n s id e ra tio n . For you n g w arrio rs it is differen t, th o u g h . For th e m to w in in b attle, th e ru le in p e rio d film is th a t th e y m u st n ot sh o w s tro n g e m o tio n for a y o u n g w o m an , a n d in th is sen se I call th e m th e C haste W arrior. T he b e st e m b o d im e n t of th is a rc h e ty p e is M u sa sh i M iyam oto. Ju st as C h u s h in g u ra is Ja p a n ’s n a tio n a l ep ic, M u sa sh i is h e r n a tio n a l h ero. L ike O ish i, M u sa sh i is a h isto ric a l figure, w h o w as p ro b ab ly b o rn in 1584. H e c la im e d in G orin n o sh o (The Book of Five Rings), w h ic h h e fin is h e d w ritin g ju st before h e d ie d in 1645, th a t h e h a d fo u g h t in over 60 d u e ls a n d h a d nev er lost•1 H e th e re b y ach iev ed a re p u ta tio n as Jap an ’s g reatest s w o rd s m a n d u rin g a n age w h e n d u e lin g a n d k en d o flo u rish e d , a n d b e c a m e th e su b je c t of m a n y books a n d a b o u t th irty m ovies sin ce 1 9 0 9 .2 U n lik e w e ste rn h ero es w h o overcom e all ob stacles to w in th e 43

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h ero in e, M u sash i is u s u a lly p re se n te d as a celib ate w h o re g a rd e d w o m e n as w eak en in g influ en ces. Japan^ first w arrio r heroes in Kojiki w ere by no m e a n s celib ate. A s em p erors an d gods, th e y h a d to have m a n y o ffsp rin g from w h ic h th e n o b lem en of th e ru lin g Yamato cla n c o u ld claim d iv in e ancestry. C o n sequently, th e records of th e ir ex p lo its often read like th e B ook of N u m b e rs in th e Bible. T hereafter, how ever, a n te c e d e n ts for M u s a s h i,s a ttitu d e c a n be fo u n d in m edieval ch ro n icles of a literary a n d m ilita ry n atu re. Women are first presented as weakening influences in Heike monogatciri (The Tale of th e Heike), ab o u t th e tw e lfth -c e n tu ry w ar b e tw e e n th e tw o m ajor clans for p o litic a l control over Japan. In c o n tra st to th e e a ste rn or M inam oto w arriors, w h o regard b attle as m ore im p o rta n t th a n th e ir fam ilies, th e w estern or Taira w arrio rs find it ex trem ely d ifficu lt to p a rt from th e ir w ives. O ne c h a p te r in H eike m o n o g a ta ri even riv als in p o ig n a n c y H ecto r’s p artin g from h is w ife a n d in fa n t in H o m e r’s Jiiad •3 A lth o u g h very h u m an , like H ector, th e w estern w arrio rs lose in b attle, a n d th e p ro to ty p e for th e C haste W arrior is th e w ar-loving e astern w arrior. D is tin c tio n s b etw een east a n d w est fade a n d w ives all b u t d isa p p e a r in th e Taiheiki,4 ab o u t th e “g rand p a cificatio n ” cam p aig n in th e th irte e n th cen tu ry , w h ic h w as an o th er civil war. A ll id eal Japanese w arrio rs th e n b e cam e c h a ste in th e ir sin g le-m in d ed d evotion to battle. M usashi becam e th e in c a rn a tio n of th is s in g le -m in d e d d ev o tio n , a n d , as a p o p u la r hero, p erfo rm ed th e so c io p o litic a l fu n c tio n of p re p a rin g o rd in ary Japanese m e n for b attle o n b e h a lf of th e ir n a tio n . H e c o m p le m e n ts th e p eacetim e Loyal R etainer, for d u rin g w ar courage is re q u ire d in a d d itio n to su b m ission. M usashi's chaste w arrio r also c o m p le m e n ts C h u s h in g u ra in term s of p erio d film iconography. S ince, u n lik e O ish i, h e h a d n o m a ste r to serve, h is b ra n d of courage is d iv o rc ed from loyalty a n d even m o u n te d in a p e c u lia r egoism . A ccordingly, im p o rta n t m o tifs in th e p e rio d film gen re th at w ere not d eriv ed from C h u sh in g u ra can be d e m o n stra te d b y tra c in g th e m etam o rp h o ses M u sash i u n d e rw e n t as h e ch a n g e d from a fe u d a l h ero to one w ith m o d e rn im p lic a tio n s, w h ic h even in c lu d e p o stw a r p a c ifism in Japan. U nlike the Loyal R etainer, w h o h a d so m e th in g of a n a n tith e s is , th e C haste W arrior arc h e ty p e d id n o t p ro d u c e a c o u n te rp a rt to th e n ih ilis tic hero, for M usashi w as ac tu a lly h is ow n a n tith e sis. T h ere are v a ria tio n s of M u sa sh i^ chaste w arrior, th o u g h , a n d th ey are p re se n te d in th e d is c u s s io n of p e rio d film heroes a n d sex, w h ic h com es after th e m e ta m o rp h o s e s a n d a c ro s s -c u ltu ra l c o m p a ris o n b e tw e e n M u s a s h i a n d n o n -J a p a n e s e e q u iv alents.

Musashi The myth of Musashi begins with confusing “historical” accounts of his life th a t allow diverse in te rp re ta tio n s of th e co n tex t of h is co u rag e. H is

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m o st fam o u s d u e l to o k p la c e at th e Isle of G an ry u in 1612, b u t th e m o tiv a tio n b e h in d it is u n c le a r b e c a u se of th e d isc re p a n c ie s c o n c e rn in g th e age of h is o p p o n e n t, K ojiro S asaki. In JVitenJci (C hronicle of Two H eavens), c o m p ile d in 1755, th e a u th o rs state th a t Kojiro w as eig h teen b u t c o n tra d ic t th e m se lv e s by re la tin g th a t h e w as a d isc ip le of a fam ous s w o rd s m a n , w h ic h w o u ld have m ad e h im an o ld m a n in 1612•5 Eighte e n th -c e n tu ry K abuki p la y w rig h ts a n d sto ry te lle rs p referred Kojiro as an o ld m a n w h o m a y o u n g M u sa sh i defeats to avenge th e d e a th of h is father.6 T h e n , a filia lly m o tiv ated v e n d e tta w as a p o p u la r th e m e — as it w as in p re w a r p e rio d film s— a n d p ro v id e d a good p retex t for d isp la y s of courage. S to ry te lle rs w e n t on to in v e n t e p iso d e s of h a rsh tra in in g th at M u sa sh i first u n d e rg o e s u n d e r a ste rn fath er a n d th ereafter o n h is ow n. T his K odan v e rsio n c o n tin u e d to be p o p u la r in th e early p a rt of th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry lo n g after th e K abuki v e rsio n w as fo rg o tten .7 T he tra in in g d o u b tle ss refleeted th e to u g h a p p re n tic e s h ip Japanese craftsm en w en t th ro u g h in th e ir h ie ra rc h ic a l g u ild s, a n d th e K odan M u sa sh i th u s re p re se n te d an id e a l of co u rag e as th e e n d u ra n c e of h a rd sh ip s . T he K odan v ersio n w as a d a p te d in to a sh o rt novel b y T achikaw a B unm e id o P u b lish e rs, w h o s e c h e a p p a p e rb a c k s for boys w ere p o p u la r in th e 1910s a n d 1 9 2 0 s.8 A fter s u c h c h ild h o o d tra in in g as ju m p in g over h ed g es th a t in c re a se in h e ig h t e ach year, th e T achikaw a M u sash i goes on to slay m o u n ta in b a n d its a n d m o n ste rs. H e b ecam e th e m o d e l of p re se n t-d a y co m ic b o o k v ersio n s, w h ic h also serve th e so cial fu n c tio n of en co u rag in g y o u n g boys to tra in or stu d y h a rd to b eco m e su c c e ssfu l ad u lts. T he first M u sa sh i film s— a b o u t fo u rte e n b e tw e e n 1909 a n d 1936— w ere b a se d o n th e K odan a n d T achikaw a v ersio n s of h is life ,9 a n d th ere are n o e x ta n t p rin ts . H e seem s to have b e e n p re se n te d th e n e ith e r as a su p erm a n lik e h e ro for boys一 th e p rin c ip a l a u d ie n c e of Jap an ’s first p e rio d film s— or as a filially m o tiv ated avenger. T he latter im age can be g lean ed fro m M izo g u c h i's M u sa sh i Miyamoto (Miyamoto M u sash i, 1944), w h ere h e h e lp s a b ro th e r a n d siste r avenge th e ir fa th e r’s death• S u ch a K odans ty le d M u sa sh i, how ever, w as n o t n e a rly so p o p u la r in p rew ar p e rio d film s as M a ta e m o n A raki, a sw o rd sm a n w h o s p e c ia liz e d in aid in g su ch v en d etta s .10 M u sa sh i c h a n g e d from a n o t overly p o p u la r, feu d al film h ero to a n a tio n a l h ero b ecau se of th e p o p u la rity of E 1】1 Y oshikaw a’s h isto ric a l no v el a b o u t h im . S e ria liz e d from 1935 u n til 1939 in A sa h i S h im b u n , Jap an ’s larg est n e w s p a p e r,11 Y oshikaw a’s novel w as so su c c e ssfu l th a t n o w ad ay s th e average Jap an ese is h a rd ly aw are of a K odan M u sa sh i or an y other. A d e ta ile d J is c u s s io n of it is w a rra n te d h ere, sin c e it fo rm ed th e core of all p o p u la r M u sa sh i film s from th e 1940s on, a n d even of th e 1985 TV d ram a a b o u t h im . Y oshikaw a^ n ovel w as su c c e ssfu l for tw o m a in reaso n s. F irst, h e dev e lo p e d th e h a rs h tra in in g in K odan in to a Japanese v ersio n of th e univer■ sal in itia tio n m y th , w h ic h is an im p o rta n t th e m e in m o d e rn literatu re,

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according to Mircea Eliade •12 Second, he changed the context of M usashi’s courage from filial p ie ty a n d e n d u ra n c e of h a rd s h ip to th e c o n q u e s t of th e fear of death. T his led to th e fo rm atio n of a n ew p e rio d film h ero th a t h a d im p o rtan t, p o litic a l im p lic a tio n s, p a rtic u la rly in w a rtim e Japan. In m ost in itia tio n cerem o n ies y o u n g m e n are fo rc e d to sh o w co u rag e in th e face of d eath in o rd e r to be p sy c h o lo g ic a lly w e a n e d from th e ir m o th e r a n d to gain en tra n c e into th e a d u lt m ale w o rld .13 Y oshikaw a,s M u sa sh i, how ever, d isp lay s u n b rid le d courage from th e start. A s a s o ld ie r from a defeated army, h e kills p ro v in c ia l b o rd e r g u ard s o n h is w ay b a c k to h is village, w here h e h id e s o u t in a n e a rb y fo rest lik e a w ild a n im a l savagely k illin g those w ho stu m b le u p o n h is lair. In order to restore peace to th e village, T akuan, a Z en m o n k w h o acts as a tu telary figure, d ec id e s to c a p tu re M u sa sh i h im se lf by a p p e a lin g to h is h u m a n sen tim en ts. T akuan takes O ts u ， a girl w h o w as M u s a s h i’s c h ild h o o d friend, in to th e forest w ith h im , a n d o n e n ig h t w h ile h e is co o k in g potato stew over an o p e n fire, O tsu plays a p la in tiv e tu n e o n h e r flute. S he is an o rp h a n like M u sash i a n d th e tu n e re m in d s b o th of th e m of th e ir d e a d p arents, and, along w ith hunger, e n tic e s M u sa sh i from h is h id in g p lace. Takuan th e n a p p e a ls to M u sa s h i’s c o n c e rn for h is sis te r a n d b eats h im for all th e tro u b le h e h as caused. H ere, Y oshikaw a h a s T akuan re p la c e M us a sh i,s strict K odan father to tra in h im to be h u m a n ra th e r th a n s im p ly strong. M u sa sh i,s p u n is h m e n t is by n o m e a n s over, th o u g h , for T ak u an b in d s h im an d h as h im su sp e n d e d from an a n c ie n t c ry p to m e ria tree so m e th irty feet from th e gro und, d u rin g fair a n d fou l w eather. T h e g ian t tre e b o ld ly allu d e s to p rim itiv e p h a llic w o rsh ip , a n d M u sa sh i re p re se n ts w ild p h a llic energy now b o u n d by th e th ic k h e m p ro p es often se e n at th e e n tra n c e to a S h in to shrine. He n ow recalls S u san o O, th e S h in to god in K ojiki w h o w ro u g h t havoc on th e P la in of H eaven (T akam a n o H ara) b y b re a k in g d o w n th e ridges of rice p a d d ie s a n d covering u p d itc h e s. S u sa n o 0 so em b arrassed h is sister, A m aterasu th e S u n G o d d ess th a t sh e h id in a cave.14 Light re tu rn e d to th e w o rld w h e n sh e w as e n tic e d o u ts id e b y m u sic, ju st as o rd er re tu rn e d to M u sa s h i’s v illag e after O ts u ’s flu te b ro u g h t h im o u t of h id in g a n d h e w as re m in d e d of th e tro u b le h e w as c a u sin g h is sister. M usash i a n d S usano 0 d u rin g th e early stages of th e ir d e v e lo p m e n t are both sim p ly m an ife statio n s of th e U n tam ed M ale a rc h e ty p e •15 O tsu falls in love w ith M u sash i a n d sets h im free to se a rc h for h is sister, b u t Takuan gets a h o ld of h im again. T he o rd eal h as ta u g h t M u sa s h i th a t h is strength a n d courage h a d b e e n of th e in h u m a n so rt. H e is ta m e d , a n d now Takuan d ecid es to civ ilize him . He cajoles M u sa sh i in to e n te rin g th e daim yo s castle a n d m anages to lock h im u p in o n e of th e to w ers w ith o n ly v olum es of books for h is c o m p a n io n s. T hree years later h e em erg es from th e w om blike tow er, a n d T akuan gives h im th e n e w n a m e of M u sa s h i— — p rev io u sly he h a d b e e n called Takezo— to signify h is s e c o n d b irth . N o w

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re sp e c tfu lly seated b e lo w th e daim y o , M u sa sh i ex em p lifies th e cu ltiv ated sa m u ra i, w ell-g ro o m ed a n d n e a tly d ressed , a n d p ro ficien t in th e u se of c o u rte o u s s p e e c h . For th e sake of s p iritu a l tra in in g , h e tu rn s d o w n s th e p o s itio n offered, a n d later rejects O tsu o n a b rid g e, a m e e tin g p lace for lovers th a t also re p re s e n ts a n e w p h a se in c h a ra c te r d ev elo p m en t. W ith th e re je c tio n of O tsu , Y oshikaw a’s novel d iverges s h a rp ly from th e p a tte rn in in itia tio n m y th s. W hile p sy ch o lo g ica l w e a n in g from th e m o th e r is n ecessary , a lie n a tio n from th e fem ale g e n d e r w o u ld lead to th e ex tin ctio n , ra th e r th a n th e re g e n e ra tio n , of th e society. A fter th e brid g e scen e M u sa sh i c o n tin u a lly tu rn s h is back o n an im p lo rin g a n d p a th e tic O tsu befo re g oing off to so m e d u el. H e even seem s to d eriv e h is courage from th e re p re s sio n of th e h u m a n s e n tim e n ts O tsu re p re se n ts a n d T akuan h a d ta u g h t h im to value. A ccordingly, M u sa sh i differs from w estern m y th o lo g ical h ero es, w h o u s u a lly w in a w o m a n after a b attle, a n d even from S u sa n o 0 ， w h o w as tra n sfo rm e d from a n a u g h ty b ro th e r to a dragonsla y in g h e ro w h o m ated w ith m a n y m a id e n s a n d e n g e n d e re d c o u n tle ss o ffsp rin g .16 Y oshikaw a also d iffered from K odan a n d T achikaw a v ersio n s by creatin g O ts u . S in c e p re v io u s M u s a s h is h a d b e e n p a s s io n le s s c e lib a te s , Y o sh ikaw a’s M u sa sh i seem s m ore h u m a n b ecau se h e often w restles w ith h is d e sire for her. In fact, th e p assage w h ere h e cools off u n d e r a w aterfall, w ith h is h a n d s tig h tly fo ld e d to sh o w in te n se c o n c e n tra tio n , w o u ld be recrea te d ad in fin itu m in s u b se q u e n t film a n d co m ic b ook v ersio n s. In th is re sp e c t, M u sa sh i w as th e c ry sta liz a tio n of th e sex u al re p re ssio n Jap an ese y o u th s e x p e rie n c e d in th e 1930s, w h e n Y oshikaw a w rote h is no v el. T hey w ere aw are of w e ste rn id eas of ro m a n tic love a n d y earn ed for it; how ever, w ith th e rise of m ilita rism , C o n fu cian re stra in ts tig h te n e d a n d ev en se a tin g in th e a te rs w as se x u a lly segregated.17 In C o n fu cian m o ra lity sex is n o t a sin , b u t am o ro u s e sc a p a d e s are fro w n ed u p o n b ecau se th e y c o u ld lead o n e to n e g le c t h is duty. A n d d u ty b ecam e of su p re m e im porta n c e in a m ilita ris tic Japan w h e re in d iv id u a l d esires w ere castigated. Y o sh ikaw a’s M u sa sh i, thereby, b ec a m e a p erfect m o d e l for Jap an ese sold ie rs th e n . T hey re p re sse d th e ir d esires a n d w eak en in g em o tio n s a n d fig u rativ ely b ecam e ch a ste w arrio rs as th e y left th e ir w ife a n d fam ily b e h in d a n d m a rc h e d off to w ar in C h in a .18 Ironically, in C h in ese lite ra tu re th e re is n o c o u n te rp a rt to M u sa sh i, sin c e in C h in a C o n fu cian ism nev er c o m b in e d w ith m ilita ris m in s u c h a self-ab n eg atin g m an n er. T h e c e lib a c y of Y oshikaw a,s M u sash i, a n d th e self-ab n eg atio n it im p lie s, is re la te d to h is q u e st for s p iritu a l d e v e lo p m e n t, w h ic h w as q u ite d ifferen t from th e tra in in g in th e K odan v ersio n , a n d w h ic h h a d a m ore su b tle p o litic a l im p lic a tio n th a n th e s im p le s e p a ra tio n fro m lo v ed o n e s. Y oshikaw a o b ta in e d h is s p iritu a l in te rp re ta tio n of M u sash i from G orin n o s h o ,19 w h ic h h a d p re v io u sly o n ly b e e n read b y sch o la rs•20 In th is m a n u a l of p ra c tic a l ad v ic e o n w arfare M u sash i h a d ad v o cated a state of m in d free

Musashi Miyamoto (1954), directed by Hiroshi Inagaki. Musashi (Toshiro Mifune) the Chaste Warrior turns his back on Otsu (Kaoru Yachigusa), a pathetic beauty who represents tender emotions that would weaken him in battle.

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from w o rld ly c o n s id e ra tio n s a n d th e in h ib itin g of ra tio n a l th o u g h t as a p re c o n d itio n for th e s p o n ta n e o u s p h y sic a l re a c tio n s n e c e ssa ry for victory. T h is m e n ta l state is sim ila r to th e “ m in d le s s ” c o n sc io u sn e ss Z en Bud■ d h is ts try to a tta in th ro u g h m e d ita tio n .21 By c o n n e c tin g M u sa sh i w ith Z en , Y oshikaw a p la c e d h im above o th e r s w o rd s m e n in th e early se v e n te e n th c e n tu ry a n d created a d ifferen t hero. A lth o u g h Z e n h a d in flu e n c e d w a rrio rs sin c e at least th e fo u rte e n th century, Y oshikaw a’s M u sa sh i w as th e first re a lly p o p u la r s p iritu a l swords■ m an . In p re w a r p e rio d film , alo n g w ith loyal re ta in e rs, K odan h ero es w h o v a lu e d h o n o r above all else h a d d o m in a te d th e genre. Som e of th em , like M u sa s h i h im self, w ere m o d e le d o n ro n in w h o h a d fo u g h t o n th e lo sin g s id e d u r in g th e B a ttle of S e k ig a h a ra in 16 0 0 , w h ic h u s h e re d in th e T okugaw a sh o g u n ate . S in ce th e y no lo n g er h a d m asters, loyalty w as m eanin g le ss for th e m . A lth o u g h Y oshikaw a^ M u sa sh i h a d a stro n g sen se of h o n o r lik e h is h isto ric a l c o n te m p o ra rie s a n d K odan h ero es, as h e d ev elo p s s p iritu a lly u n d e r th e in flu e n c e of Z e n h e avoids su ic id a l b attles a n d d u e ls h e c o u ld e a sily w in , a n d even su b m its to som e rid ic u le n o o th er h o n o ra b id in g s a m u ra i w o u ld bear. In th e c lim a c tic e n d in g of Y oshikaw a^ novel, M u sash i u ses Z e n to d efeat h is u ltim a te o p p o n e n t, K ojiro S asaki, w h o is tra n sfo rm e d in to a y o u n g m an . T h is is g ra p h ic a lly sh o w n in H iro sh i In a g a k i’s 1940 film v ersio n . O th e r film v e rsio n s of Y oshikaw a^ M u sash i h a d b e e n m ad e sin ce 1936, b u t In a g a k i’s w as th e first to a tte m p t to in c lu d e th e w h o le sto ry a n d w as th e first big box office h it. T h e o n ly e x ta n t p rin t of th e trilogy, Part T hree, The S p irit of the Sw ord is O n e W ay fK enshin IchiroJ b eg in s w ith M u sa sh i te llin g O tsu h e loves th e w ay of th e S w o rd m ore a n d leav in g her. T h e n sh o ts of h im at a te m p le m e d ita tin g a n d fo llo w in g G udo, a fam ous Z en m o n k , are in te rc u t w ith h e r o n th e ro a d se a rc h in g for h im — o n ce a B u d d h is t im age is s u p e rim p o se d o n th e c o u n try s id e sc e n e for c o n tin u ity . It a p p e a rs h e h as fo rsak en h e r to a tta in e n lig h te n m e n t, b u t o n ce h is m in d is free of a tta c h m e n ts h e goes off to th e Isle of G anryu for h is m a tc h w ith K ojiro, a n d w e realize O tsu w as n o t so im p o rta n t after all. S he is la st s h o w n p ray in g for h is su ccess, in a b e a u tifu l th re e -q u a rte r profile sh o t w h ic h resem b les C h ristia n m e d a llio n s of th e V irgin M ary. B ut h e r prayers are u n n ecessary . Z en h as given M us a sh i th e s p iritu a l d e ta c h m e n t n e e d e d to defeat Kojiro, a te c h n ic a lly s u p e rio r o p p o n e n t. In th e m a tc h in g ◦ f a “s p ir itu a l” M u sa sh i w ith a “te c h n ic a l” Kojiro o n e c a n find a m e ta p h o r for th e p ro p a g a n d a lin e d u rin g W orld W ar II th a t th e s p iritu a l stre n g th of Japan fY am ato d a m a s h ij w o u ld u ltim a te ly defeat th e te c h n ic a l s u p e rio rity of th e U n ited S tates a n d G reat B ritain. Z en , of co u rse, is o n a m u c h d e e p e r s p iritu a l level th a n s u c h n a tio n a listic se n tim e n ts, b u t th e m in d free of a tta c h m e n ts, w h ic h M u sa sh i s u p p o se d ly a tta in e d , c o u ld also be u s e d in th e w ar effort.

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F reedom from a ttach m en ts is a selfless state, for w h e n a self is recogn ized . so are desires, th at is, atta c h m e n ts. T his selfless state is related to m u (nothingness) or kü (the void). W hile s u c h p h ilo s o p h ic a l c o n c e p ts u su a lly p resu p p o se a n o th in g n e ss from w h ic h ev ery th in g sp rin g s, th e y can also be u sed to resign young m en to w ar a n d d eath . It w as to s u c h usage Z en-like selflessness w as p u t in th e p o p u la r w artim e film d ire c te d by Kajiro Y am am oto, The W ar a t Sea :from H aivaii to M aiay a (H aw aiiM arei Oki K aisen, 1942). A young naval cadet returns to his home village on leave and tells a young w ar hero there th at he is tro u b le d over th e d e a th of a classm ate. T he íiero tells him th at he s h o u ld not th in k th at w ay sin c e th ey th e m se lv e s are n o th in g fm uj an d th e only th in g th at co u n ts is th e Jap an ese race. F lash backs follow show ing how he realized h is o w n selflessn ess w h ile lo st in m ed itatio n before a statu e ◦ f a fam ous naval h ero in th e R u sso -Jap an ese War. Y oshikaw as M u sash i also a tta in e d s u c h a Z en -lik e m e n ta l state, a n d by erasing the fear of death, it en a b le d h im to ach iev e victory. M u sa sh i b ecam e Ja p a n ’s m o st p o p u la r, fic tio n a l h e ro d u r in g W orld W ar II. Y oshikaw as novel w as serialized into a rad io d ra m a th a t a ire d o n NHK from 1939 into th e early 1940s.22 The first p o p u la r e d itio n of G orin no sho cam e out in 1942,23 an d th ere w as a M u sash i film e ach year before 1945 an d th e end of th e w ar.24 A fter W orld War II it seem ed m o st Japanese id e n tifie d w ith Kojiro, th e loser, and. judging from th e fact th a t one of tw o M u sa sh i film s in 1952 w as a com edy,25 th ey seem ed re lu c ta n t to take th e ir W orld W ar II hero seriously. Then, betw een 195426 a n d 1956 Inagaki cam e o u t w ith a n e w film trilogy b ased on Y oshikaw as novel, w h ic h w as s h o w n ab ro ad as S a m u ra i. It differed from th e original novel a n d In a g a k i,s ow n 1940 film v e rsio n in th at M usashi does not m ed itate before h is d u e l with Kojiro. D avid D esser has n o ted th a t th is M u sash i is not m u c h of a uZ en fig h ter,27‫ ״‬a n d th e lack of Z en elem ents in th is v ersio n is p ro b ab ly d u e to th e m ix ed feelin g s m a n y Japanese felt as a resu lt of Zen's w artim e u sa g e .28 In stead of Z en, M u sash i takes u p farm in g a n d p ra c tic a lly lives to g e th e r w ith O tsu as h u sb a n d an d w ife. Of course, th e ir **marriage‫ ״‬is n o t c o n su m ated, b u t since he has by no m eans c o m p letely overcom e h is p a s sio n for her, he appears to be sh y a n d strong, ra th e r th a n ch aste a n d savage. Before th e duel at th e Isle of G anryu, O tsu tells M u sa sh i th a t she w is h e s th e y co u ld sim p ly live together peacefully. Of co u rse, h e a d m o n ish e s h e r to act like a sam urai w ife w ho sees h e r h u s b a n d off to b attle w ith a sm ile o n h e r face. B ut th e im p re ssio n h e gives is ju st th e o p p o site , a n d w e feel h e is forced to play a role. A fter h e k ills Kojiro, th e tears in h is eyes su g g est th a t th e ir m atch w as a tragedy rath er th a n an u ltim ate test of s p iritu a l d ev elo p m ent. Inagaki’s postwar Musashi has the common touch• He is an ordinary

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h u m a n b e in g stu c k in th e a rc h e ty p a l m o ld of th e ch aste w arrio r w h o rejects love for b attle. H e h as b e e n c a lle d ‫ ״‬a m o d e rn m a n ‫ ״‬by D o n ald R ic h ie ,29 an o b serv atio n w h ic h suggests a sy m p a th e tic ch aracter in ste a d of a fa n a tic a l sa m u ra i. B ecause of th is ， p a rt 1 of In ag ak i’s trilo g y w o n th e 1955 A m e ric a n A c a d e m y A w ard as th e Best Foreign P ictu re, for it m a in ly c o n s is te d of th e in itia tio n , w h e n even Y oshikaw a's M u sa sh i w as at h is m o st h u m a n . T h e m e ta m o rp h o s is M u sa sh i u n d e rw e n t th ro u g h In ag ak i’s d ire c tio n c o u ld be a ttrib u te d to p o stw a r p acifism in Japan. Still, w h ile b ein g a m a ste r d ire c to r of p e rio d film s, Inagaki d id n o t n e c e ssa rily sh are th e ir fe u d a listic s e n tim e n ts even in th e early 1940s. In th e tw en ties an d th irtie s h e w as a clo se frie n d of S adao Y am anaka a n d M an sak u Itam i, lib eral d ire c to rs w h o c o n tin u a lly m ad e film s sa tiriz in g su p e rsa m u ra i a n d selfsacrifice. In fact, Itam i w rote th e sc rip t for I n a g a ii’s greatest film , The Life of M atsu the Untamed (M uho M atsu no Issho). T he v ersio n w h ic h w o n th e G ran d P rix at th e 1958 V enice F ilm Festival w as sim p ly a rem ake of h is 1943 film . Its w o rk in g m a n hero d iffered from K abuki- a n d K o d an -d eriv ed h ero es sim p ly by n o t b ein g a sa m u ra i, a n d h e c o u ld be m ore h u m a n th a n M u sa s h i b e c a u se he w as w ith o u t a c o n stric tin g feu d al m o ld . Looking b ack o n In a g a k i^ long, prolific career as a p e rio d film m aker, it a p p e a rs th a t h e too h a d often b e e n fo rced to p la y a role w h ic h d id n o t su it h is lib eral, h u m a n is tic s e n tim e n ts. B etw e en 1961 a n d 1965 T om u U c h id a d ire c te d a five-part film v ersio n of Y oshikaw a’s M u sa sh i th a t ex p resses p acifist s e n tim e n ts b y e m p h a siz in g M u s a s h i’s m o n stro u s sid e, w h ic h is an alo g o u s w ith war. U c h id a ’s u n se n tim e n ta l M u sa sh i n ever lives w ith O tsu a n d feels no p a ssio n for h e r w hatso ev er before h is d u e l w ith Kojiro. H ence, h e b eco m es ch aste again, ra th e r th a n shy. H is savagery is e m p h a s iz e d by th e sh e e r n u m b e r of b attles a n d d u e ls 一 U c h id a ’s te n -h o u r v ersio n is tw ice as long as In ag ak i’s— a n d th e d iffe re n c e in d ire c to ria l styles. In ag ak i— lik e his p rew ar c o n te m p o ra rie s, Y am anaka a n d Itam i— favored an in d ire c t p re se n ta tio n of a d u e l, c o n sistin g of a m o n tag e sh o w in g angry g lares, s p e c ta to rs, a n d in a n im a te objects, b u t often n o t in c lu d in g th e fatal s w o rd s tro k e . C o n s e q u e n tly , v io le n c e w as a r tis tic a lly c irc u m s c rib e d . U c h id a , o n th e o th e r h a n d , u s e d a d ire c t a p p ro a c h th a t u tiliz e d ad v a n c e d s o u n d e ffe c ts a n d b lo o d - s p u r tin g d e v ic e s , s u c h as th o s e f o u n d in K u ro saw a,s Y bjim bo (Y b jim b o ,1 9 6 1 ].T h ro u g h a lib eral u se of red liq u id s, p u n c tu a te d w ith th u d s , groans, a n d scream s, U c h id a seem ed to be try in g to re c a p tu re th e h o rro r of th e b attles h e h a d w itn e ss e d as a film m ak er on th e C h in a fro n t d u rin g W orld War II.30 C o n seq u en tly , th e b lo o d th irsty rages of h is M u sa sh i o v e rsh a d o w sig n s of sp iritu a l d ev elo p m en t. U c h id a ’s M u sa sh i is n o t o n ly savage b u t cruel. D u rin g th e B attle at Ich ijo ji h e first k ills th e th irte e n ‫־‬y e a r0 1 ‫־‬d h e ir a p p a re n t of th e Y oshioka fam ily, th e s ta n d a rd b e a re r of th e ir fen cin g sch o o l. If th is slaying w as

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sh o w n in prev io u s film versio n s, it w as a ttrib u te d to th e h e a t of b a ttle o r

Musashi，s chagrin at facing a b o u t seven ty sw o rd sm en • In Y o sh ik aw a’s novel it is stated th a t it m ay have b een in te n tio n a l, b u t U c h id a leaves n o d o u b t th at it is p rem ed ita te d . M u sash i is sh o w n o n a h ills id e d ra w in g a m ap of enem y p o sitio n s. A fter h e d raw s an X in d ic a tin g h is first in te n d e d victim, Uchida’s wide-lensed camera zooms in for a close-up of the innocen t-looking boy. H ence, M u sash i, w ho fo rm erly slew m o n ste rs in Tach ik aw a books for boys, becom es a m o n ste r him self. U ch id a d e ‫־‬em p h a siz e s Z en even m ore th a n Inagaki d id , by h a v in g T akuan an d oth er Z en m o n k s tric k M u sash i, ra th e r th a n e n lig h te n h im . In Y oshikaw a’s novel Z en w as at least on a p a r w ith th e Way of th e S w o rd . A s U ch id a d im in ish e s th e form er, th e latter b eco m es an o b se ssio n w ith w in n in g th e d u el in w hatever m a n n e r necessary• U c h id a ’s M u sa sh i gloats over h is fallen foes. H e becom es a m eg alo m an iac w h o n e e d s a k e e p e r in s te a d of a teacher.31 W ithout teach ers M u sash i is re d u c e d to a fo rm of self-w o rsh ip th a t is a d isto rtio n of th e Z en p rin c ip le of m e d ita tio n as jiriki, or self-pow er, for w ith in U ch id a^ M u sash i th ere is n e ith e r a B u d d h a -N a tu re n o r a K in g d o m of G od.32 M oreover, u n lik e th e W orld War II M u sa sh i w h o serv ed th e so cio p o litical fu n c tio n of en co u rag in g c itiz e n s to sacrifice p e rso n a l p leasures for th e good of th e state, U c h id a ’s “p e a c e tim e ” M u sa sh i sim p ly rep resen ts an a n tiso c ia l o b sessio n w ith in d iv id u a l su ccess at all co sts. He can n o t even be c o n sid e re d as a m o d e l for p o stw a r Jap an ese b u s in e s s m e n w h o cam e to be called “eco n o m ic a n im a ls ,” for th e y p ro b a b ly v ie w e d success in term s of th e ir fam ily a n d n a tio n .33 The n a rcissistic sid e of U c h id a ’s M u sash i can b e st be se e n in h is relatio n sh ip w ith h is w o rth y o p p o n e n t,34 Kojiro Sasaki. D esser h a s p o in te d o u t th e sim ilarity b etw een th e a c tio n hero a n d h is a n ta g o n ist.35 T h is w as n o t alw ays th e case w ith M u sash i a n d Kojiro, how ever, sin c e K ojiro also u n d e rw e n t a n u m b e r of m etam o rp h o ses. W hen Y oshikaw a ch an g ed th e D avid a n d G o liath se tu p in K o d an b y m ak ing Kojiro a young m an too, he w as left w ith tw o sim ila r sw o rd s m e n o u t to achieve fam e. B esides giving M u sa sh i a s p iritu a l d im e n s io n , for ch aracter co n trast Y oshikaw a p re se n te d K ojiro as an arro g an t s a d is t w h o d elig h ts in slicin g u p p eo p le. By th e tim e of th e ir d u el, how ever, K ojiro h as acq u ired som e d ig n ity as a fen cin g -sch o o l m aster. T h is is sh o w n in Inagaki’s 1940 film by the elegant garments he wears in contrast to Musash i s p la in garb. S ince th e m ilita ristic cen so rs th e n h a d a p e n c h a n t for im ages of p u re-h earted farm boys— th ey m a d e s u c h good s o ld ie rs — M usash i becam e th e ru stic sam u rai tak in g on th e c o rru p t, u rb a n one. W ith th e slac k en in g of C on fu cian sexu al in h ib itio n s in th e im m e d ia te p o stw ar p erio d , G enzo M urakam i w rote a b e st-se llin g novel a b o u t K ojiro in w h ic h h e becam e a lover boy a n d tragic h ero w h o d ies w ith o u t fu lfillin g h is am b itio n to be th e best sw o rd sm a n in Japan. Inagaki m a d e th is K ojiro

M usashi Miyamoto—D uel at the Isle o f Ganryu (1965), directed by Tomu Uchida. Uchida’s Musashi (Kin’nosuke Y orozuya【formerly Nakamura】) is a savage megalomaniac who distorts Zen into self-worship.

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th e hero of a film trilo g y in 1950, a n d , in h is 1 9 5 4 5 6 ‫ ־‬M u sa sh i trilogy, gave Kojiro th e au ra of a c o u rtie r a risto c ra t w h o c o m b in e s u rb a n ity ， a m o ro u s in c lin a tio n s, a n d aw are, a p o ig n a n t se n se of sa d n e ss. B esid e b ein g array ed in gorgeous robes, th e h a n d so m e Kojiro n o w w ears h is silk y b la c k h a ir long a n d uses w h ite facial pow der• W hile w a itin g for a c ru d e M u sa sh i w h o is carving a boat oar in to a c lu b ， Kojiro a d m ire s a b ra n c h of c h e rry b lo ssom s th at sy m bolizes th e ev an escen ce of a ll th in g s. (No w o n d e r M usash i cries after he slays him .) T his new, p o stw ar se tu p n o t o n ly re c a lle d th e tw elfth c e n tu ry in Japanese h isto ry w h e n c o u rtie r aristo c ra ts w ere o v erthrow n by p ro v in c ia i w arrio rs, b u t also rev ealed th e h o m o se x u a l asp ect of the w o rth y -o p p o n e n t re la tio n sh ip . U c h id a ,s Kojiro loses h is a c c ru e d elegan ce a n d b eco m es as a rro g a n t as he w as •in Y oshikaw a’s novel. He c o n tin u a lly c laim s th a t th e Way of th e Sw ord is sim p ly pow er a n d skill, a n d a M u sa sh i s trip p e d of s p iritu a lity agrees w ith h im , after h e kills h im w ith a carv ed oar. T h e ir fo rm er differences— u rb an e vs. ru stic, te c h n ic a l vs. s p iritu a l一 slip off like th in accretions, an d we are left w ith tw o sim ila r sw o rd sm e n w h o s im p ly w a n t to w in. M u sa sh i’s c h a stity a n d K ojiro’s am o ro u s e sc a p a d e s also seem b e s id e th e p o in t because in b o th cases w o m en do n o t in terfere w ith th e ir am bitio n s. Both m en are b asic ally egoists. H erein lies th e n a rc iss istic n a tu re of th e w o rth y -o p p o n en t relation: each one sees h im se li in th e other. R ath er th a n a Janus-faced coin, w e have one w ith th e sam e face on b o th sid es. From U c h id a ’s portrayal of M u sash i as a savage, n a rc iss istic m egalo m aniac, it is o bvious th e d ire cto r d id n o t like h is subject• M u s a s h i’s h u m a n side is o n ly sh o w n th ro u g h som e rem o rse h e felt for slay in g th e th irteen-year-old an d for b lin d in g a ra th e r p acifist sw o rd sm a n •36 W ith in ten h o u rs ◦ f film footage m a in ly devoted to carn ag e, how ever, M u s a s h i’s b elated qualm s fo rm ed a ra th e r sm all eddy. In U c h id a ’s n ex t film o n M usashi, B a t t l e o f L ife or D e a t h ( S h i n k e n S h o b u , 1970) U c h id a a tte m p te d to m ake a m ore forceful, an tiw a r statem en t. B a t t l e o f L ife or D e a t h is b ased on a sin g le e p iso d e from Y oshikaw a^ novel in w h ic h M u sash i takes o n B aiken, a w arrio r w h o u ses a sic k le a n d a sm all iron b a ll a n d c h a in to defeat sw o rd sm en . U c h id a d iverges from th e o rig inal w h e n h e has M u sash i ru th le s sly seize B a ik e n ’s in fa n t as a h o sta g e d u rin g th e ir duel. B aiken s till w an ts to avenge h is b ro th e r’s d e a th at M u sash i s h a n d s, tho u g h , a n d M u sash i is fo rced to d raw b o th of h is sw ords. Large titles a p p e a r on th e screen id e n tify in g th e se as th e L ife-G iving Sw ord an d th e Life-D estroying S w ord. Y oshikaw a h a d u se d s u c h term inology to give M u sa sh i’s tw o s w o r d m e th o d so m e sp iritu ality • U c h id a q u ick ly refutes th is, how ever, w ith th e fo llo w in g titles: T h e S w o rd is S im p ly Large Scale D estru ctio n . T h e n th e film e n d s w ith a w id e -sc re e n close-up of Baiken^s crying in fa n t ag ain st a b a c k g ro u n d of b u rn in g field s. U ch id a d ie d w h ile th e film w as being e d ite d , a n d it is n o t c e rta in if h e

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Musashi Miyamoto—Duel at the Isle of Ganryu (1965), directed by Tomu U chida. With a club carved from a boat oar, M usashi (Kin^nosuke Yorozuya) takes on Kojiro (Ken Takakura), a worthy opponent who is a reflection of himself. h a d w a n te d it to e n d th a t way. D aisuke Ito, w h o lik e U c h id a h a d b e e n m a k in g film s sin c e th e 1920s, w rote th e s c rip t for Battle of Life or Death. In Ito ^ o w n 1943 film v e rsio n of th e sam e e p iso d e , Duel at Hannya Hill (Ketto H a n n y a -h a n J th e c h ild d ie d a n d M u sa sh i h e ld it in h is arm s a n d c h a n te d a s u tra for it. A lth o u g h it is u n c e rta in w h a t e n d in g U c h id a in te n d e d , o n e can fin d a sa v in g alleg o ry in th is u n e v e n a n d m e lo d ra m a tic film . T he b u rn in g fields re p re s e n t th e large scale d e s tru c tio n d u rin g th e S ino -Jap an ese War, w h ic h U c h id a h im se lf h a d w itn e ss e d , B aiken is th e C h in ese forces w h o w ere w illin g to sacrifice th e c h ild re n th e Jap an ese forces (M usashi) w ere in effect h o ld in g h o stag e by in v itin g th e ir d eath . T he cry in g in fa n t recalls a fam o u s p a ra b le k n o w n to b o th C h in ese a n d Japanese. In o rd er to d em o n strate th a t th e h u m a n h e a rt w as good, M en ciu s, th e fo u rth -c e n tu ry b . c . C h in e se p h ilo s o p h e r w h o is in v a ria b ly lin k e d w ith C o n fu ciu s, h y p o th e siz e d a s itu a tio n in w h ic h a c h ild is a b o u t to fall in to a w ell a n d c o n c lu d e d th a t even th e w o rst a d u lt w o u ld try to save it.37 P e rh a p s U c h id a w as in fe rrin g th a t o n ly th ro u g h s u c h h u m a n e feelings

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as p aren tal love c o u ld m a n k in d be saved from th e to tal a n n ih ila tio n w ar alw ays invites. P erh ap s h is e n d in g w as in c o n c lu siv e b ecau se c h a ste w arriors, of course, have n o c h ild re n . T he next M u sa sh i film in 1973 c o n tin u e d U c h id a ^ p acifistic th e m e on a smaller scale by attempting to domesticate Musashi. After Takuan ties him to the tree he cries like a baby, and the scene where he returns in a boat after killing Kojiro is intercut with a mother singing a lullabye. Director Tai Kato thereby alluded to Musashi’s orphan background. NHK continued in a like vein in their serialization of Yoshikawa’s novel, which totaled about thirty hours of viewing time from April 1984 until March 1985. T he s p iritu a l d e v e lo p m e n t of N H K ，s M u sa sh i m a in ly c o n sists ◦ f suffering b ecause h e u n in te n tio n a JJy k ille d th a t th irteen -y ear-o ld • T h is d e e p e n s h is h u m ility tow ard te ach ers like T akuan a n d h is sy m p a th y for th e com m on folk, a n d h e beco m es a n ic e guy w ith an a m ia b le sm ile. N H K also d o m esticates Kojiro, for on th e n ig h t before th e big d u e l h e em b ra c e s h is w om an for com fort a n d su p p o rt, ra th e r th a n sim p ly for sex. W hile N H K ’s C h u sh in g u ra w as th e fam ily d ra m a w rit large, th e ir M usash i is w rit sm all, for it does n o t have th e p u re ly p o litic a l p u rp o s e of in stillin g p atrio tism . R ather, it re m in d s p re se n t-d a y Jap an ese m ales in n u c le a r fam ilies of th e ir social role, w h ic h c o n sists of p la c in g w o rk , n o t war, above conjugal c o n sid e ra tio n s. W hile M u sa sh i is te n d e rly c a rin g for th e b e d rid d e n , ever-failing O tsu, h e h ears of K ojiro’s ch allen g e. S oon h e m akes his p re p a ra tio n s, an d at every stage of h is jo u rn e y to w ard th e d esig n ated site, h e is seen off by old frie n d s. For a m an , d u ty co m es b efore p erso n al affections, a n d th is even goes for m e d io c re office clerk s. If th e Japanese m ale p lay s h is role co n sc ie n tio u sly , h e w ill alw ays be e n v e lo p e d by a w arm circle of frie n d s a n d k in , w ho u n d e rs ta n d .

Non-Japanese Equivalents? Although NHK’s Musashi， of all the metamorphoses, showed the most affection for Otsu, he remained true to the Chaste Warrior mold by repressing his feelings when he hears the call of duty, and in this respect continued to provide a model for service to society in general or a nation at war. As stated in the introduction, such swordsmen are the heroes in many period films, and so Musashi is not unusual in a Japanese context. When compared to hardboiled American heroes, however, he seems like a perversion. For example, while Clint Eastwood in the Dirty H a r r y series may appear to be emotionless, he often has sex with women and even falls in love sometimes, and this never seems to have a weakening influence on him. The same can be said for the heroes in American war movies. M ythological a n d a n th ro p o lo g ic a l e q u iv a le n ts to M u s a s h i’s C h aste War■ rior do exist. Joseph Campbell has noted that the son of the Hindu deity

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S h iv a is c a lle d K u m a ra ， th e “c h a ste y o u th ” b e c a u se h e is “w e d d e d a lo n e to h is a rm y ,38‫ ״‬a n d C am p b ell also tre a te d C u c h u la in n , a C eltic hero w h o d ro p s h is g u a rd w h e n e m b a rra sse d by n a k e d w o m e n .39 James F razer sta te d th a t m a n y p rim itiv e p e o p le re fra in e d from w o m e n in tim e of w ar o n th e p rin c ip le of s y m p a th e tic m agic— th a t is, th e b elief th a t clo se c o n ta c t w ith w o m e n w o u ld in fe ct th e m w ith fe m in in e w eak n ess a n d co w a rd ic e .40 In m o d e rn A m erica su c h a n o tio n re m a in s in th e s u p e rs titio n in bo x in g c irc le s th a t sex s h o u ld be a v o id e d d u rin g tra in in g , b u t tre a tm e n t of th is th e m e te n d s to be h u m o ro u s ra th e r th a n se rio u s, as in M a rtin S c o rse se ’s R ag in g B ull. M u sa sh i, o n th e o th e r h a n d , w as o n ly tre ated h u m o ro u sly in th e im m e d ia te p o stw a r p e rio d w h e n A m e ric a n iz a tio n w as q u ite strong. G en erally, h is c h a s tity is ta k e n se rio u sly a n d th is m akes h im c ru c ia lly d iffe re n t from W estern w a rrio r hero es. For a W esterner, th e te m p ta tio n s of S a in t A n th o n y are a c c e p ta b le b u t th o se of M u sa sh i are not. H is b attles c o u ld be re g a rd e d as d e m o n stra tio n s of courage, b u t n o t as stages in s p iritu a l d e v e lo p m e n t. F ra z e r p o in te d o u t th a t a n c ie n t kings w ere c o m m o n ly p rie sts a n d w ere often w a rrio rs.41 B ut in th e W est th e te m p o ra l a n d s p iritu a l asp e c ts of th e w a rrio r h e ro se p a ra te d . P e rh a p s th e y d id n o t do so in Japan b ecau se of th e lo n g tra d itio n of an e m p e ro r d e s c e n d e d from S h in to gods, w h ic h w as official id eo lo g y u n til 1945. T he re la tio n b etw een Z en a n d B u sh id o also h a s to be c o n s id e re d an im p o rta n t factor, th o u g h . S h in to gods a n d h ero es w ere n o t o n ly far from c h a ste b u t w ere often h e lp e d by w o m en , as w ere G reek h ero es. Take for ex a m p le , T akeru Yamato, Jap an ’s first e a rth -b o u n d h ero , w h o receiv ed a m agic sw o rd from h is a u n t.42 W h ile th e in flu en c es of Z e n B u d d h is m a n d C o n fu c ia n ism c o m b in e d to ev e n tu a lly sep arate Japa n e s e h e ro e s like M u sa sh i from w o m en , th e y d id n o t sep arate th e m from re lig io n . T h ey c o u ld n o lo n g er be lovers lik e th e ir S h in to p re d ecesso rs, b u t th e y c o u ld still be p rie stlik e . Women distracted both Christian and Buddhist monks from spirituality, but warriors were not monks in the West. Even in modern Japan, however, Musashi could become not only a national hero but a saintly swordsman. In Zen Buddhism, enlightenment can be attained not only by meditating monks, but also by devotees of the tea ceremony, and also through a dedication to the Sword that included chastity.

Period Film Heroes and Sex A lth o u g h M u sa sh i a n d Kojiro u n d e rw e n t m e ta m o rp h o se s, O tsu n ev er re a lly c h a n g e d from th e w ay Y oshikaw a first co n c e iv e d h e r in -the late 1930s. A fter s h e falls in love w ith M u sash i, sh e is to ta lly devoted a n d s u b s e rv ie n t to him • M en a d ju st to th e ir tim es, b u t w o m e n are o n ly su p p o s e d to b e loyal to th e ir m en . M u sa sh i a n d Kojiro d o n o t fight over O tsu.

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S he is sim p ly a tta c h e d to M u sash i, b u t can n ev er be h is w ife b e c a u se h e is chaste. As th e P athetic Beauty, a ty p e often fo u n d in Jap an ese film , sh e does not reach th e level of an a rc h e ty p e , for in th e p e rio d film g en re w h e re m ales are in th e sp o tlig h t, she c a n n o t c o m p ete w ith th e T o rm en ted L ord. However, in c o n te m p o ra ry film fe m in in e su fferin g triu m p h s over w eak m ales, as w ill be sh o w n in c h a p te r 6. D espite O tsu ,s w eak sh o w in g co m p a re d w ith W estern h e ro in e s, sh e w as still one of th e first fem ales to achieve h e ro in e sta tu s in p e rio d film , s in c e she w as at least an o b stacle to M u sa s h i’s tra in in g . M ost y o u n g p e rio d film heroes do n o t p ay m u c h a tte n tio n to w o m en at all, sin c e a c c o rd in g to C o n fucian eth ics th ey sh o u ld be so lely c o n c e rn e d w ith loyalty to w a rd a su p e rio r an d filial piety. Young n ih ilis tic h ero es lik e O ro ch i c o u ld be tem p ted an d w o rth y o p p o n e n ts like Kojiro c o u ld be flip p a n t, b u t th e y w ere b o th u n o rth o d o x . O rthodox m id d le-ag e d heroes like O ish i c o u ld have a w ife, b u t th e n ih ilistic ones like Tange h a d a m istress to sh o w th e y w ere n o t re s p e c t‫״‬ able. G ood w o m en a n d fallen w o m en w ere d ra w n to th e o rth o d o x h ero b ecause of h is “v irtu e ,” a n d like 〇 ts u often p u rs u e d or tra ile d him • A fter O rochi, young n ih ilistic hero es attra cted fallen w o m e n b ecau se th e y w ere h an d so m e. O n ly v illa in s p u rs u e d w o m en , how ever, often k id n a p p in g good ones a n d try in g to rap e th e m , o n ly to be fo ile d by hero es. V illain s w ere also free to in d u lg e th e ir lu st w ith fallen w o m e n , b u t s u c h sc e n e s w ere o n ly suggested. S u ch p u rita n ic a l a ttitu d e s to w ard sex p rev ailed in th e p e rio d film even in th e p ostw ar p erio d , sin ce very few n e w h ero es w ere created after M usashi. C onsequently, th e p e rio d film s of A k ira K urosaw a w ere tru ly innovative an d d em o n strated th e ir a rtistic level by b ein g tru e to h u m a n n ature. The b a n d it played b y T oshiro M ifu n e in R ash o m o n (1950) is b o th th e U ntam ed M ale a n d a b elievable character. H is sex u al d e sire for th e n o b le m a n ’s w ife is n a tu ra l ra th e r th a n p erv erted , a n d h e is a lik e a b le v illain since h is actio n s re su lt from s im p ly h u m a n failings. In Seven S a m u ra i th e ch aste y o u th ’s d esire for th e farm girl is n o t a sh a m e fu l u rg e to be exorcized a n d h is sh y em b a rra ssm e n t is h u m o ro u s. Innovations like th o se m ade by K urosaw a, th o u g h , w ere few a n d far betw een, an d m ost p e rio d film s, like A m erican w e ste rn p o tb o ile rs, w ere for little boys a n d th e ir heroes w ere a p p ro p ria te ly n eu ter. A good e x a m p le is th e Tengu K uraum a series. C reated by p o p u la r n o v elist ]iro O saragi, Tengu K uraum a is a leg en d ary hero w h o se c re tly aid s th e ro y alist fo rces th at finally resto red im p e ria l ru le in 1868. F rom 1927 th ro u g h th e early 1960s about fifty film s w ere m ad e ab o u t h im .43 D ressed in b la c k a n d rid in g a w h ite h o rse like Zorro, b esid e s h is sw o rd , h e c a rrie d o n e or tw o six-shooters, w h ic h w ere not in co n g ru o u s d u e to th e a p p ro a c h of m o d e m ‫״‬ ization. U nlike Zorro, th o u g h , he preferred to rescu e little boys in d istre ss rath er th a n dam sels.

‫׳‬Tengii Xuraimia series (1950s), With a six-shooter and a sword, this avuncular, neuter hero (Kanjuro Arashi) rescued little boys in distress rather than damsels.

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Kanjuro Arashi starred in forty of the Tengu films and is most associated w ith th e role.44 He w as a slim a c to r w ith a long face an d h is 1928 Tengu hardly looks different from his 1958 one• W hile a p p a re n tly a g e le ss， h e does not rem ain young, sin ce from th e sta rt h e a p p e a re d as th e u n c le every little boy w o u ld like to have. A lthough it is im p o ssib le to im ag in e A rash i in a love scen e, h is Tengu, like Musashi, also has a woman following him ， but rather than a pathetic beauty, she is a v ip e r w o m an (dokufu). B eing a p ic k p o c k e t, sh e is o n th e road a lot an d is often h ire d by th e v illa in to e ith e r spy o n T engu or k ill him. She is never a match for him, though, and generally in the end she is won over to his side and helps him out, even though it means betraying her boss. S uch a fe m m e /1a i d e w o u ld nev er a p p e a r to te m p t a c h ild re n ’s h ero in an A m erican film . She is no t in c o n g ru o u s in a Jap an ese film , s in c e th e re are p reced en ts for a w om an follow ing th e C haste W arrior. M oreover, if sh e is a bad one, he can d em o n strate his v irtu e by c o n v ertin g h e r to g o o d n ess. As m ost c h ild re n ’s heroes w e n t over to TV, w h ic h b ecam e th e m a in m e d iu m in th e 1960s, sex finally e n te re d c o m m e rc ia l p e rio d film s. T he best exam ple is K yoshiro N em u ri, a sev en teen th -cen tu ry , y o u n g m a ste r sw o rd sm an created by Tosaburo S hibata, w h o se p o p u la r n o v el w as m a d e in to a film series w ith tw elve en trie s from 1963 to 1969.45 P lay ed by th e h an d so m e Raizo Ichikaw a, K yoshiro greatly differs from Tengu in th a t h e u su a lly has sex w ith th e w o m en sp ies h e gets th e b est of. He even tak es o n resp ectable w o m en w h o give th em selv es to h im in ex ch an g e for h is services as a b o d y g u ard or assassin . H is favorite te c h n iq u e is to d isro b e w o m en by lig h ten in g fast sw o rd strokes w h ic h s la s h th ro u g h th e ir o u te r an d in n e r garm ents, a n d his o n ly d eferen ce to th e C haste W arrior tra d itio n is th at he never kisses them . A lthough K yoshiro is a relatively n ew h ero, an a n te c e d e n t for h is w ornan izin g can be fo u n d in Kojiro. M oreover, asp e c ts of h is p e rso n a lity suggest th e old heroes of p e rio d film .46 His n ih ilism is signified by h is su rn a m e , N em u ri, w h ic h lite ra lly m ean s “slee p y ” an d refers to his b lasé a ttitu d e . H e n ev er gets e m o tio n a lly in volved and som etim es seem s so b ored h e is ab o u t to fall asleep. T h is is in d irect con trast to th e o rth o d o x young hero w h o c o n s ta n tly sh o w s h is sin ce rity by his ea rn e st look a n d serio u s d em ean o r. The Tormented-Lord aspect of his character is suggested by his personal nam e, K yoshiro, literally m ean in g a **deranged fello w .‫ ״‬H is fath er w as a Portuguese C h ristian m issio n a ry w h o w as fo rced to a p o sta tiz e , a n d w h o got revenge on th e daim yo w ho to rtu re d h im b y ra p in g h is d au g h ter. K yoshiro w as th e issu e of th e ir illic it u n io n , a n d a lth o u g h h e n ev er exhibits abnorm al behavior, Japanese view ers n a tu ra lly a ssu m e th a t u n ‫־‬ d e rn e a th h e is to rm en ted . T he fact th a t K yoshiro is a c h ild of m ix e d p a re n ta g e also serves as a

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Kyoshiro Nemuri_ Flaming Sword (1965), directed by Kenji Misumi. With the appearance of the tattooed lady (Junko Kozakura), sex enters the commercial period film but does not deter the handsom e w arrior (Raizo Ichikawa) from battle. p re te x t for h is im m o ra lity a n d allo w s h im sex u al b e h a v io r d e n ie d to “p u r e ” Jap an ese hero es. H e a c tu a lly rein fo rces th e C haste W arrior as an id e a l by im p ly in g th a t le w d n e ss is d u e to foreign in flu en c es. Yet, K yoshiro also resem b les M u sa sh i in som e resp ects. In B e m tc h in g F em ale Sword (Joyo Ken, 1964), d ire cted b y K azuo Ikehiro, K yoshiro v isits a c a p tu re d p rie st. (C h ristia n ity w as p ro h ib ite d in se v e n te e n th -c e n tu ry Japan.) H e gives h im w ater, n o t o u t of pity, h e says, b u t b ecau se h e w an ts to le a rn a b o u t th e “p o w e r” ◦ f th e C h ristia n faith• H ere he is lik e th e M u sash i w h o u se d Z e n m e d ita tio n not to achiev e e n lig h te n m e n t b u t to b eco m e in v in c ib le in battle. In th e film ’s d e n o u e m e n t K yoshiro h as a s h o w d o w n w ith th e b e w itc h in g b e a u ty of th e title , w h o is b o th th e v illa in a n d h is w o rth y o p p o n e n t. By p o s in g as S ister T h eresa sh e d eceiv ed C h ristia n s in h id in g in o rd e r to fu rth e r h e r sm u g g lin g b u sin e ss. W hile h e is sla sh in g aw ay at h e r n u n ^ h a b it, sh e u se s p sy c h o lo g y o n him . S in ce sh e is th e d au g h ter of h is n u rs e m a id , sh e k n o w s h is p a st a n d in fo rm s h im th a t h e w as co n ceiv ed as

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th e resu lt of a pagan cerem o n y in w h ic h h is fath er u s e d h is n a k e d m o th e r as a sacrifice. For once th e b lasé K yoshiro is v isib ly ag itated , a n d S iste r T heresa is dow n to h e r s e m itra n sp a re n t u n d e rg a rm e n t. B ut h e reg ain s h is cool a n d cuts h e r dow n. Although Kyoshiro’s sang-froid is spiritually far removed from M u• sashi ，s Zen-like freedom from attachments, functionally speaking both m en tal states en ab le w arriors to defeat w o rth y o p p o n e n ts th ro u g h a c tio n u n in h ib ite d by th o u g h ts an d feelings. In th is re sp e c t, slay in g th e b e w itc h ing b eau ty is n o t very differen t from overco m in g p a s sio n for th e p a th e tic beauty.

Conclusion Even th o u g h sex en tered th e p e rio d film in th e six ties, Eros d id n o t shake its fo u n d atio n , for u ltim a te ly it is a genre th a t m a n ife sts T h a n a to s, or th e d eath w ish . K illing is a d o m in a n t m otif, w h e th e r m ak e-b eliev e a n d b lo o d less as in film s for c h ild re n , or b lo o d -sp la tte re d an d c h illin g as in realistic films for ad u lts. T he lack of battle scen es in p rew ar Ita m i a n d Y am anaka film s attests to th e ir a rtistic c a lib e r ra th e r th a n th e n a tu re of th e genre itself• D eath is an e sse n tia l e le m e n t even in M iz o g u c h i’s U getsu ÕJgetsu m o n o g atari, 1953) a n d S a n sh o th e (S an sh o d a y u , 1954), d e sp ite th e ir non co m b ativ e heroes. Inagaki trie d to h u m a n iz e M u sa sh i, a n d U ch id a u se d his m o n stro u s sid e as an a n tiw a r m essage. B u t still th e final resu lt of th e ir M u sash i film s in term s of footage is w h o le sa le slay in g s. A m erican w estern s have th e ir share of k illin g s, too, w h ic h su g g est th e n ear genocide of m an y A m erican In d ia n trib es a tte n d a n t on th e d ev elo p m e n t of th e West. This negative sid e is sh a re d b y all actio n g en res w ith w arrior heroes, no m atter w h a t p a rtic u la r c u ltu re th ey ex p ress. T h e p e rio d film differs o n ly in its m otif of se lf-a n n ih ila tio n , w h ic h com es from B u sh ido. The p erio d film genre w as from its in c e p tio n an e x p re ssio n a n d p o p u larizatio n of B u sh id o , th e feu d al Way of th e W arrior. Its id eals w ere s im p ly loyalty, honor, a n d courage. Loyalty to w ard a s u p e rio r re su lte d in selfa b n e g a tio n , w h ic h w as u ltim a te ly re a liz e d in th e g ro u p s u ic id e in C h u sh in g u ra. The m asterless M u sash i d e n ie d h im se lf th ro u g h th e rep ressio n of his sexual desire, w h ic h re su lte d in chastity. Tadao Sato h as in te rp re te d h o n o r as th e c o rn e rsto n e of B u s h id o .47 If h o n o r is su p ero rd in ate, th e n loyalty beco m es su b o rd in a te , a n d a s a m u ra i co u ld conceivably rebel against a m aster w h o in su lte d h im . T he co u rag e of su ch reb ellio u s heroes is a p p e a lin g to W esterners, too, as is th e th e m e of coping w ith adverse situ atio n s, w h ic h Sato stated is c e n tra l to p o stw a r p erio d film .48 T his is th e p o sitiv e sid e to th e genre, a n d to o th e r a c tio n

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film s as w ell. For ex am p le, in A m e ric a n w estern s h o n o r is often as im porta n t for th e cow boy h ero as it w as for k n ig h ts of old. Yet, th e e x a m p le s Sato gives from p e rio d film — The A be Clan (Abe Ic h iz o k u , 1938) a n d H a ra k iri (S e p p u k u , 1962)— e n d w ith self-an n ih ila tio n as th e p ric e for re b e llio n .49 D eath p rev ails in th e p e rio d film , no m a tte r h o w B u sh id o is in te rp re te d , for it celeb rates a d e a th cu lt w h o se god is T h a n a to s. G iven s u c h a genre tra d itio n , Seven S a m u ra i really s ta n d s out. T here, after th e d e a th of th e b a n d its, com es life sy m b o lized by th e farm in g cycle ◦ f p la n tin g a n d h arv estin g . T h is is th e Japanese v ersio n ◦ f “th e sacrificed d iv in ity from th e b u rie d frag m en ts of w h o se d ism e m b e re d b o d y th e food p la n ts s u s ta in in g h u m a n life a ro se .50‫ ״‬As in d ic a te d by th e final shot of th e graves of th e d ead sa m u ra i, th e “sacrificed d iv in ity ” is th e sev en sa m u ra i w h o h e lp e d th e farm ers d efeat th e b a n d its. Figuratively, th e y are ch aste w a rrio rs, lik e m a n y o th e r p e rio d film hero es. Even if th e y h a d sons, th e y w o u ld be d e d ic a te d to d e a th also, a n d th e ir d au g h ters w o u ld be subserv ie n t to sa m u ra i h u s b a n d s. T he o n ly escap e from th e B u sh id o co d e of d e a th is to b ec o m e a farm er, w h ic h th e yo u n g est of th e seven co u ld n o t do in th e e n d .51 R ich ie stated th a t Seven S a m u ra i w as p e rh a p s th e b e st Japanese film ever m a d e .52 B ut K u ro saw a’s Ikiru (Ikiru, 1952) cam e o u t before Seven S a m u ra i a n d w as p ro b a b ly its su b lim in a l in sp ira tio n . T here, too, in th e d y in g h e ro ’s fight ag ain st c o rru p tio n , from d eath cam e life, or ra th e r m e a n in g fu l life in p la c e of th e e n n u i of a p e tty official. B ut th e re w ere no s a m u ra i in Ik iru , a c o n te m p o ra ry film a n d th u s free from th e fatalism of B u sh id o , w h o se p o p u la riz a tio n in p e rio d film h e lp e d a ttu n e a p o p u la c e m o re to w ar th a n to th e n a tu ra l cycle, a n d fostered ch aste w arrio rs w h o p re fe rre d d e a th to life. By rejectin g h u m a n em o tio n s th ey overcam e th e fear of d eath . B ut th e p ric e w as an e m o tio n le ss life clo se to death .

3

Yakuza Heroes Introduction From 1963 to 1973, y a k u z a , or gangster, film s, u s u a lly set in th e 1920s a n d 1930 s, becam e Jap an ’s le a d in g a c tio n film g e n re ，1 w ith p e rio d film h e ro e s a n d stories m oving over to th e TV c irc u it. T he w o rd , y a k u z a co m es from gam bling jargon w h ere it signifies a losin g n u m b er, a n d th e g en eral p u b lic cam e to u se it for good-for-nothing p e o p le lik e g am b lers a n d o u tla w s•2 F ilm s about feu d al y a k u z a h a d b e e n a n im p o rta n t su b g en re of p e rio d film ,3 b u t after 1963 th ey w ere se ld o m m ajo r h ero es in e ith e r film s or TV d ram as.4 George De Vos h as n o ted th a t th e y a k u z a co d e w as a p a ro d y of th e sa m u ra i^ B u sh id o , a n d th a t th e ir h ero id e a l w as d ra w n o n sa m u ra i m o d e ls.5 Ian B u ru m a h as a p tly su m m a riz e d th e m o d e rn yakuza film g enre as an expressio n of th e d e a th c u lt a n d a c o n tin u a tio n of th e C h u s h in g u ra m entality•6 In term s of iconography, th e g e n re ’s h ero es s im p ly c o m b in e elem en ts of th e Loyal R etainer, th e T orm en ted L ord a n d th e C h aste Warrior, a n d do n o t u n d erg o sig n ifican t m e ta m o rp h o se s. In fact, b e c a u se of th e ten acio u s h o ld of p e rio d film a rc h e ty p e s, m o d e rn y a k u z a h e ro e s w ere m o d els of su b m issio n , a n d w ere q u ite u n lik e A m e ric a n film g an g sters, w h o in th e 1930s re p re se n te d th e risin g so cia l class of re c e n t im m ig ra n t fam ilies. Yet, m o d e rn y a k u z a h eroes also d iffered from th e ir sa m u ra i a n te c e d e n ts by being clo ser to th e co m m o n p e o p le , a n d from th e C h u s h in g u ra e th o s by m ak ing th e object of loyalty m ore th e group th a n a su p e rio r. T h is is probably th e m a in reaso n th ey re p la c e d p e rio d film h ero es in th e th e a te r circu it, sin ce th e m ale a u d ie n c e th e re c o u ld m o re easily relate to a g ro u p th a n a feu d al superior. For m o d e rn Japanese, th e sacrifice of in d iv id u a l d esire for th e sake of th e group— th e m essage in h e re n t in th e ritu a lis tic m elee m o d e rn y a k u z a film s clim ax w ith — is ex trem ely relev an t. T h is w ill be d isc u sse d after th e g e n re ,s ic o n o g ra p h y is p re se n te d .

The Tormented Father Figure T he le a d e r of a y a k u z a gang is c alled o y ab u n , w h ic h lite ra lly m e a n s

father figure， and his henchmen are called Jcobun, o r “so n figures•” This 64

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a llu d e s to a q u a si-fa m ilia l re la tio n suggestive of th e fe u d a l re la tio n betw e e n a fam ily re ta in e r a n d h is lo rd . In m o d e rn y a k u z a film s, th o u g h , th e d ra m a tu rg y of C h u s h in g u ra is tu rn e d u p s id e d o w n by m ak in g th e fath er figure th e T o rm en ted L ord in p la c e of a y o u n g A sano. T he Loyal R etain er c o u ld be y o u n g or m id d le -a g e d . T h e T o rm e n te d F ather F igure is u s u a lly a g am b lin g boss o r u n io n leader, w h o is g ettin g o ld a n d often lo o k in g fo rw ard to re tire m e n t. A big rival gang w a n ts to tak e over h is tu rf a n d h e suffers th e ir e n c ro a c h m e n ts e ith e r to av o id b lo o d s h e d or b ec a u se of a “p eace tre a ty ” he agreed to at th e u rg in g of b ig -tim e g an g lead ers. H e is c o n tin u a lly re stra in in g h is m e n w h o are ju stifiably in d ig n a n t at th e u n d e rh a n d e d m e th o d s em p lo y ed by th e boss of th e riv al gang. T h is c o n tra st b e tw e e n th e good boss a n d th e b ad boss n o t o n ly re c a lls Jap an ese folk tales w ith th e ir good a n d b ad o ld m e n fy asash ii/ ijivvaru jiis a n j b u t also th e n o b le A san o v ersu s th e base Kira. T h e fe u d a l a n te c e d e n t for s u c h a n o b le fath er figure is C h o h ei B a n z u iin , a c o n s tru c tio n u n io n le a d e r in th e se v e n te e n th c e n tu ry w h o also b ecam e a b ig -tim e g am b lin g b o ss.7 U n d e r h is le a d e rsh ip som e c o n s tru c tio n w orkers b e c a m e a gang w h o w o u ld get in to fights w ith th e y o u n g h a ta m o to sam u ra i w h o w ere re ta in e rs of th e sh o g u n . S in ce th e latter often gave vent to th e ir d issa tisfa c tio n over th e ir low, p e a c e tim e in c o m e b y h a ra ssin g th e to w n s p e o p le , th e m y th evolved th a t C h o h e i’s m e n w ere d e fe n d e rs of th e c o m m o n p e o p le ,8 a n d C h o h ei h im se lf b ecam e a hero of K abuki an d K odan a n d o n e film ， D aisu k e Ito ’s Five M en fro m E do (O-Edo G o n in O to k o ,1951)• M o d els for m o re p o p u la r feu d al y a k u z a film h ero es, th o u g h , w ere C huji K u n is a d a a n d Jirocho of S h im iz u , n in e te e n th -c e n tu ry , ru ra l gam b lin g b o sses w h o e x te n d e d th e ir territo rie s th ro u g h su c c e ssfu l b attles w ith rival g an g s.9 In th e fam ous trilogy, A D iary ofChuji's Travels (Chuji Tabi Nikki, 1927) d ire c to r D aisuke Ito tu rn e d C huji in to a y o u n g n ih ilis tic h ero w h o b a ttle s th e a u th o ritie s u n til h e d ie s trag ically .10 In th e p o stw ar p e rio d , how ever, m o st C huji a n d Jiro ch o film s have h a p p y e n d in g s, a n d like C h o h e i B a n z u iin , b o th of th e m are p o rtray ed as k in d ly fath er figures w h o b a ttle a n d d efeat a larger gang for th e sake of th e co m m o n p eo p le, or for h o n o r, or to avenge th e c ru e l d e a th of one of th e ir charges. T h e T o rm e n te d Father F igure in a m o d e rn y a k u z a film d iffered from h is fe u d a l a n te c e d e n ts by su fferin g m u c h m o re a n d by often b ein g k ille d by th e b ad boss early in th e story. H e th ereb y b ecam e an h o n o ra b le m arty r w h o m a y o u n g or m id d le -a g e d Loyal R etain er ev e n tu a lly avenged. U n lik e C h u s h in g u ra , th o u g h , th is Loyal R etain er w o u ld go u p ag ain st a big riv al gang e ith e r a lo n e or w ith o ne or tw o h e lp e rs. In th e b lo o d y m elee h e th u s a s su m e d s u p e rh u m a n p ro p o rtio n s like M u sash i.

The Young Hero At To Ei studios where the most popular modern yakuza movies were made, the young hero role was usually played by the muscular Ken

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An Account of the Chivalrous Commoners ofJapan (1964), directed by M asahiro Makino. True to the Chaste W arrior tradition, this m odern yakuza hero (Ken Takakura) keeps his back to the heroine (Junko Fuji). Takakura, w h o se p erfo rm an ce evoked M u sa sh i a n d o th er ch a ste w arrio rs. W hen he p a rte d from th e h e ro in e before th e m elee, he w as in v a ria b ly p h o to g ra p h ed w ith h is b ack to her, a n d h e r p le a d in g face a p p e a re d in th e fram e ju st above h is slo u c h e d sh o u ld er. H is in c lin e d h e a d sh o w e d th a t h e w as listen in g to h e r a n d th a t she h a d a n e m o tio n a l c la im o n h im , b u t n o th in g she said co u ld change h is resolve. E ven in th e few film s w h e re h e has a w ife or lover, scenes w h ere he a c tu a lly faced h e r w ere few a n d far b etw een, a n d he w o u ld em brace h e r o n ly if sh e w ere d ying. In m o st of h is y a k u z a film s he e ith e r c arried a to rc h for a w o m a n w h o h a d m a rrie d a c h ild h o o d frien d , or h e h a d a p la to n ic c ru sh o n h is b o ss’s d au g h ter, w h o th ereb y becam e a p a th e tic b eau ty like M u sa s h i’s O tsu. In som e resp ects, th o u g h , th e T akakura h ero d iffered fro m M u sa sh i. In V iolent D istrict (B oryoku‫־‬gai, 1963, d ire c te d b y T su n e o K obayashi) Tak ak u ra re tu rn s from p ris o n to find th a t h is ritu a l y o u n g er b ro th er, o r ototoki, has b e e n engaged in illegal a c tiv itie s b e sid e s g am b lin g . W h e n h e in fo rm s th e d ead b o ss’s daughter, she tells h im sh e h a d a c q u ie s c e d because of th e ir fin an cial difficulties. In th e e n su in g a rg u m e n t oto to k i ev en tells Takakura th a t he h as sle p t w ith th e d aughter, h is p la to n ic c ru sh .

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T ak ak u ra e v e n tu a lly recovers from h is d is illu s io n m e n t. O n e day h e is w a lk in g in a p a rk w ith th e d a u g h te r after th e ir v isit to h e r fa th e r’s grave a n d sh e b e g in s to cry• H e com fo rts her, b u t w h e n h e realizes th e ir em Èrace is g o ing too far, h e break s it a n d asks h e r to sin g th e b o ss’s favorite song, a c e rta in s a m u ra i air. S he c o n s e n ts a n d th e se q u e n c e e n d s w ith h im d o in g a m a s c u lin e d a n c e to it. B esid es th e p sy c h o lo g ic a l re la tio n b e tw e e n re p re sse d sex u al d esire an d e sc a p e v alves lik e w ar d a n c e s a n d v io le n t acts, here th e T akakura hero also e x e m p lifie s a c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n h is loyalty to th e m em o ry of his d e a d lo rd a n d h is feelin g s for th e d aughter. T he la tte r m u st re m a in p la to n ic to e n s u re th e p u rity of th e form er. In th is resp ect, h e diverges from M u sash i, for w h o m c h a s tity w as s im p ly a p re c o n d itio n for stren g th a n d bravery a n d h a d no re la tio n to loyalty. S till, b o th re p re sse d sex u al d esire for th e sake of m a s c u lin e activity. In V iolent D istrict in 1963 th e p u ll of a rc h e ty p a l co n fig u ratio n s w as n o t as yet o v e rw h e lm in g in th e n a s c e n t genre of th e m o d e rn yakuza film. The o to to ki w as n o t p a in te d as a v illa in b ecau se h e h a d h a d sex w ith th e b o ss’s d au g h ter, n o r w as h is loyalty th e re b y d illu te d . In fact, th e c h a stity of th e T ak akura h ero even see m e d h u m o ro u s th e n . A s th e genre d ev elo p ed , how ever, all th e b o ss’s d a u g h te rs becam e as v irg in al as 〇 ts u an d th e h u m o ro u s o n e w o u ld be th e ototoki w h o se sex u al esc a p a d e s em b arrassed th e loyal, c h a ste hero. T h e T akakura h ero fu rth e r differs from M u sa sh i in th a t h e ex h ib its no sw o rd te c h n iq u e w h atso ev er in h is m elees, for h e sim p ly lays in to h is e n e m ie s w ith h is lo n g sw o rd , h a c k in g or stab b in g th e m to death . He o v erco m es th ro u g h b ru te stren g th , d e te rm in a tio n , a n d a tre m e n d o u s cap a c ity to w ith s ta n d n e a r fatal w o u n d s. H e h as no te c h n iq u e sin ce h e d id n o t u n d e rg o a n y tra in in g . Jap an ese film s fe a tu rin g th e tra in in g of y o u n g co m b atan ts enjoyed som e p o p u la rity before m o d e rn y a k u z a m ovies in th e 1950s in th e form of ju d õ a c tio n film s (kõdõkan m o n o ].11 T h e ir fo reb ear w as K u ro saw a,s S a n sh iro S u g a ta (S u g ata S a n s h iro ，1943) in w h ic h a y o u n g j.udõ s tu d e n t’s m o st im p o rta n t tra in in g c o n siste d of o n e co ld n ig h t im m e rse d in a po o l as re p a ra tio n for h is arro g an t d isp la y of figh tin g sk ill th e day before. T he selfre a liz a tio n he e x p e rie n c e d h a s b e e n a p tly d e sc rib e d b y D o n ald R ich ie12 as a b a p tism a n d a Z en aw ak en in g . A n analo g y can easily b e d ra w n b etw een th e re la tio n of S a n sh iro to h is judõ m aster a n d th a t of M u sash i to Takuan. S u c h in itia tio n s , how ever, are nev er sh o w n in a K en T akakura film. In o n e ru n -o f-th e -m ill m o v ie he first a p p e a rs as a ro u g h a n d read y ric k sh a m an , u n s h a v e n a n d u n c o u th , th e w o rk in g m a n ’s U n tam ed M ale• He leaves h is n ativ e v illag e a n d re tu rn s fo u r years later as a n e a tly d re sse d y a k u z a w h o h a s le a rn e d se lf-re stra in t a n d th e ru le s of e tiq u e tte in th e y a k u z a code. H ow ever, th e v iew er is n o t sh o w n h o w th is ch a ra c te r d e v e lo p m e n t cam e a b o u t. H e is b e tte r in a m elee th a n before, b u t th is is p ro b ab ly th e re su lt of fo u r years of fighting. In sh o rt h e h as beco m e an e x p e rie n c e d street fighter.

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The lack of in itia tio n an d tra in in g in th e d e v e lo p m e n t of th e T akakura ch aracter m ay be a ttrib u te d to th e s e n tim e n t th at, a lth o u g h h e is a h ero , h e is a d isresp ectab le yakuza after all. The Takakura hero also lacks a w o rth y o p p o n e n t, sin c e even th e stro n g est h e n c h m e n of th e bad boss are not a p p e a lin g . In stead , h e is often a id e d by a noble frien d , th e a d m ira b le ally .13 T h is role w as p lay ed by Ryo Ikebe in A n A ccount of the Last Knights of the Showa Era (from 1925 on) (Showa Z an k yo-den, 1965-72), one of T akakura^ m o st p o p u la r s e rie s .14 In all n in e en tries the relatio n b etw een th e tw o m en is m ore im p o rta n t th a n th e ir loyalty to an y boss, an d th is m arks a sig n ific a n t d e p a rtu re from th e C h u sh in g u ra ethos, w h ic h k ep t th e m ale love affair in its p lace. Ikebe, a p o p u la r lead in g m an in th e 1950s, h a d m a in ta in e d h is good looks, like a w eath ered Robert M itch u m . In th e first e n try d ire c te d by K iyoshi Saeki in 1965 h e played a w orld-w eary, w a n d e rin g g am b ler w h o becom es a guest of T akakura’s gang. H e lives o n ly for h is siste r a n d after she dies h e jo in s th e hero in th e final m elee in o rd e r to en d h is m e a n -

Sh〇Wa EFQ- T h e Chinese Lion Peony L u ? 6 1 • ^ ‫ י‬M by í 1yr°«hl ? ? 6í 1‫ ״‬The y〇 un^yak^ a hero (Ken Takakura) has an older, admirable ally (Ryo Ikebe) who aids him in his final melee w ith a large

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in g le ss life. Im p re sse d w ith T akakura th e first tim e h e m eets h im , th e b o n d s b e tw e e n th e m are c e m e n te d w h e n h e ex tracts a b u lle t from Tak a k u ra ’s w o u n d , as th e y gaze d e e p ly in to ea c h o th e r’s eyes. A lth o u g h Ikebe alw ays p lay s a m id d le -a g e d y a k u z a in th e series, h e n ev er b eco m es th e y o u n g h e r o ’s o ld e r r itu a l b ro th e r• T h e ir r e la tio n s h ip is k e p t o n a n e g a lita ria n b a sis a n d th e y s im p ly re sp e c t each o th e r as in d iv id u a ls. T he o n ly big d ifferen ce b e tw e e n th e m is th e c y n ic ism of m id d le age a n d th e s in c e rity of y o u th . A fter th e first e n try in th e series Ikebe w as often in th e o p p o sin g gang; how ever, h e w o u ld b ec o m e in c e n s e d at th e ir u n d e rh a n d e d d ealin g s a n d w o u ld b eco m e T ak ak u ra’s ally. TYiangles often fo rm ed b ecau se Ik eb e’s siste r or even h is w ife se e m e d to love T akakura too, b u t th e se co m p licatio n s o n ly s e e m e d to d e e p e n th e ir regard for e ach other. No m atter w h a t, in th e g ra n d finale of ea c h e n try th e y go off to th e m elee to g eth er— a d e n o u e m e n t w h ic h Jap an ese film c ritic M asato sh i O h b a h as lik e n e d to th e m ic h i y u k i, th e jo u rn e y K abuki lovers tak e before th e y c o m m it s u ic id e .15 T h e jo u rn e y beg an o n a d e se rte d street at n ig h t. A n o v erh ead sh o t sh o w e d T akakura in th e rig h t b a c k g ro u n d of th e w id e screen a n d th e c a m e ra c ra n e d d o w n to reveal Ikebe w a itin g for h im in th e left foreg ro u n d . W h en th e y m et, T akakura w o u ld try to d iss u a d e h im b u t to n o avail. T h e n th e o v e rh e a d cam era fo llo w ed th e m in th e sp o tlig h t to g eth er as th e y w a lk e d d ia g o n a lly acro ss th e fram e. T hey w o u ld cross a b rid g e, w h ic h in a d d itio n to its ro m a n tic c o n n o ta tio n also sig n ified passag e in to a n o th e r realm . Ikebe sh o w e d h is d e a th resolve b y to ssin g aw ay h is scab b ard . He m ig h t ask T akakura to h e lp h im tie h is h a n d to h is sw o rd h a n d le w ith a larg e h a n d k e rc h ie f, th e re b y affo rd in g th e m a last c h a n c e to gaze in to each o th e r ’s eyes. T he m elee itself a lm o st seem ed a n tic lim a c tic . Ikebe u s u a lly d ie d in T a k ak u ra’s arm s, b e in g lifted off th e g ro u n d so m ew h at in a b lo o d y em b race. S u c h a m ic h i yuki iro n ic a lly seem s like a n a tu ra l d e n o u e m e n t in an allm a le w o rld w h e re ch a ste w arrio rs tu rn th e ir b ack o n p a th e tic b eau ties. Its su b lim a te d h o m o sex u a lity , how ever, is m o re sim ila r to th a t in A m erican w e ste rn s like T he WiJd Bunch w h e re th e d e sp e ra d o e s d ie together, th a n th a t in th e Loyal R etain er-T o rm en ted L ord dyad. C lose m ale re la tio n s in Jap an ese film have an O rie n ta l p re c e d e n t, th o u g h , in th e five C o n fu cian re la tio n s: ru le r-su b je c t, p a re n t-c h ild , h u sb a n d -w ife , o ld e r b ro th er-y o u n g er b ro th e r, a n d b e tw e e n m ale frie n d s .16 T he fifth re la tio n w as th e o n ly e g a lita ria n o n e a n d a lm o st seem s to have b e e n forgotten b ecau se hiera rc h ie re la tio n s w ere e m p h a s iz e d in Japan, p a rtic u la rly before 1945.

The Middle-Aged Hero H e tero sex u al re p re ssio n for th e sake of m ale ties w as also an im p o rta n t c o m p o n e n t in th e fo rm a tio n of th e m id d le -a g e d hero. Koji T su ru ta som e-

An Account of the Chivalrous Commoners of Japan_ Kanto Edition (1965), directed by M asahiro Makino. This middle-aged yakuza hero (Koji Tsuruta) represses heterosexual desire for the sake of male ties in his hierarchical gang.

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tim e s p la y e d T ak ak u ra^ a d m ira b le ally in A n A c c o u n t of the Chivalrous C o m m o n e rs 0/ J a p a n series (N ihon K yo k ak u -d en , 1 9 6 4 -7 1 ),17 a n d w as also th e m o st p o p u la r m id d le -a g e d h ero in ToEi y a k u z a film s. In th e early 1950s he h a d b e e n th e m o st p o p u la r le a d in g m a n in Jap an ese film ,18 a n d lik e Ikebe, h a d aged w ell. T h e T s u ru ta h ero w as by no m e a n s ch aste. H e w o u ld often have a c o m m o n -la w w ife, w h o c o u ld not follo w sa m u ra i stric tu re s a n d w o u ld b e c o m e h y s te ric a l w h e n h e m a rc h e d off to th e final m elee. If h e w ere n o t m a rrie d , h e w as o c c a sio n a lly sh o w n in a geisha's b o u d o ir h av in g a cigarette o r Jap an ese p ip e fu l of to b acco fkiseru ) afterw ard s. Yet, th e T s u ru ta h e ro w o u ld often re fra in from sex. In D isso lu tio n C e re m o n y (K aisan -sh ik i, 1967, d ire c te d by K inji F ukasaku) o n th e n ig h t h e gets o u t of p ris o n h e refu ses th e p lay m ate h is ritu a l b ro th e r offers h im . T he fo llo w in g m o rn in g h e goes off in se a rc h of h is w ife o n ly to find th a t s h e w o u ld n o lo n g er have a n y th in g to do w ith h im b ecau se sh e w an ts to le a d a re sp e c ta b le life. T hereafter, lik e a m o n k ta k in g a vow of celibacy, he h a s n o th in g to do w ith an y w o m an . Iro nically , th e s till h a n d s o m e T s u ru ta w o u ld so m etim es p lay th e role of a c u c k o ld . H e w o u ld com e o u t of p ris o n to find th a t h is w ife h a d b eco m e a p ro s titu te after h is b o ss— a b a d o ne— h a d ra p e d or se d u c e d her. U n d e r s u c h c irc u m sta n c e s h e a ssu m e d th e gu ise of a b etray ed retain er, w h o m ig h t h e lp th e you n g T akakura in th e final m elee. In Hishakaku (d irected b y T a d a sh i S a w ash im a in 1963) h e le a rn s th a t h is ritu a l y o u n g er b ro th e r h a s b e e n liv in g w ith h is w ife, b u t h e forgives h im w h e n he realizes h e d id n o t k n o w a b o u t th e ir p re v io u s re la tio n s h ip , a n d in th e e n d h e ev en avenges h is d eath . T h e m o st sig n ific a n t tria n g le th e T s u ru ta h ero gets in v o lv ed in o ccu rs in th e n in th e n try of The Gamblers series (B aku-uchiJ,19 The C ard of Life (In o ch i F u d a , 1971, d ire c te d by K osaku Y am ashita), w h ere h e b eco m es a sto ic k n ig h t in a tria d re se m b lin g th a t b e tw e e n O ish i, L ord A san o , a n d h is w idow . W h e n T s u ru ta gets o u t of p riso n , h e fin d s o u t th a t h is boss a n d b e s t f r ie n d 一 th e y h a d b e e n r itu a l b r o th e rs — h a s b e e n m u rd e re d . T h e w id o w in fo rm s h im th a t th e boss h a d fo u n d o u t th ey h a d b e e n lovers befo re sh e h a d m et th e boss. D uring th e fu n e ra l th e fatal c irc u m sta n tia l tria n g le is g ra p h ic a lly s h o w n by in te rc u ttin g sh o ts of T s u ru ta ,s stra in e d e x p re ssio n , th e w id o w ’s sa d face, a n d th e m e m o ria l p h o to g ra p h of th e s m ilin g boss. D u rin g a m e e tin g of b ig -tim e gang le a d e rs afterw ard s, th e w id o w is m a d e h e a d of th e gang, b u t sh e flees to h e r h o m e to w n , leav in g b e h in d a n o te fo r T s u ru ta . S he is n e x t sh o w n o n a b e a c h d u rin g a sn o w sto rm , e v id e n tly c o n te m p la tin g su ic id e . T s u ru ta a p p e a rs in tim e, th o u g h , a n d p u ts a b la n k e t a ro u n d her. S he begs h im to leave th e gang so th a t th e y can le a d a n o rd in a ry ex iste n c e as h u s b a n d a n d wife• H e tells h e r h e can n o t b e tra y th e tru s t of th e d e a d boss, a n d th a t if sh e can n o t re tu rn as th e b o ss’s

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w idow , she m ay as w ell die th ere. He tu rn s h is b ack to h er a n d faces th e sea, stan d in g reso lu tely against the strong w in d , w ith sn o w c lin g in g to on e sid e of his g arm en ts— th e ep ito m e of sto icism . S he relen ts a n d th e y re tu rn to p lay th e ir roles. T he film e n d s w ith an attack on th e ir h e a d q u a rte rs by a riv al gang— w h ich is treated surrealistically . T he w o u n d e d Loyal R etain er is h o ld in g up the dying w id o w an d both of th e m are staggering in to th e re c e p tio n room tow ard a n altar lin ed w ith w h ite p o rc e la in sak e jugs a n d p la in w o o d e n b u c k e ts. T h e se sig n ify th e r itu a l of e x c h a n g in g s a k e c u p s , w hereby ^vakuza b ecom e ritu a l b ro th e rs a n d vow etern al frie n d s h ip . O n both sides of th e long rug lead in g to th e altar, p o o ls of b lo o d form as T su ru ta slash es at th e bad h e n c h m e n in th e ir way. W hen he reach es th e altar, th e b ackground s u d d e n ly beco m es b lack a n d he sm ash es a sak e jug w ith his sw ord. T he last shot is of a red b la n k e t o n th e sn o w y b e a c h by th e sea. The stoic k night h a d b een able to break h is ritu a l re la tio n w ith h is boss, b u t he could not effect a b o n d w ith h is lad y in th is life. T h e ir progress tow ard the altar h a d b een bo th a w e d d in g p ro c e ssio n a n d a ra th e r grotesque m ichi y u k i in a genre w h ic h a c tu a lly fro w n s o n h e te ro se x u a l love. A ny other fu lfillm en t of th e ir love w o u ld have u n d e rm in e d th e b asic ties betw een m en th at find ultim ate e x p re ssio n in v io len ce in th e m o d e rn v ak u za film, a n d w o u ld have also a n n ih ila te d th e a rc h e ty p e s of th e Loyal R etainer an d the C haste W arrior.

Parody The m o d e m y a k u z a film diverged from th e p e rio d film b y e v e n tu a lly parodying its ow n versions of th e C haste W arrior a n d th e Loyal R etainer. Perhaps th is cam e about because y a k u z a heroes are close to th e c o m m o n p eo ple and w ere from th e ir in c e p tio n o n ly p a ro d ie s of sam u rai. In th e ToEi V iper B rothers series (M am u sh i no K yodai, 1 9 7 1 -7 5 )20 B unta Suga\vara plays a sm all-tim e gangster. As th e a n tith e sis to th e Takakura hero. Suga\vara is like an u n ta m e d M u sa sh i w ith a stro n g sex u al desire he m akes ab so lu tely no a tte m p t to co n ceal, often c u p p in g h is scrotum to show w h e n he is horny. A lot of film footage is d ev o ted to h is com ical bedroom an tics, w ith his ritu a l b ro th e r a n d h is m o ll jo in in g in for a foursom e. In one film they even try to rap e a fem ale p ris o n g u a rd in sp ite of th e cell bars b etw een them . The com ic version of th e m id d le-ag e d loyal re ta in e r w as p la y e d b y T om isaburo W akayam a, a h eav y set actor. U n lik e T s u ru ta ’s sto ic k n ig h t, W akayama s hero does not h o ld back, a n d h is p e rfo rm a n c e is filled w ith em otional excesses. He cries like a baby at th e b e d s id e of th e d y in g b o ss, dotes on ch ild re n an d p retty m a id e n s, a n d p ra c tic a lly h ugs ritu a l b ro th e rs.

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C h a r a c te r is tic a lly , h e c r u e lly p u n is h e s th o s e w h o b e tra y h im a n d is v ic io u s in b a ttle . W akayam a’s m o st p o p u la r ToEi series w as B rute (G okudo, 1 9 6 8 -7 6 ),21 in w h ic h h e p la y e d a lo n e g angster w h o se gang h a d b e e n d isso lv ed . H is p a rtin g from h is chubby, u n g la m o ro u s w ife before th e m elee w as a p a ro d y of o rth o d o x p ro c e d u re . H e w o u ld slap h e r w h e n sh e trie d to sto p h im , b u t th e n sh e w o u ld sla p h im b ack, repeatedly . E v e n tu a lly sh e w o u ld b u rst in to te a rs a n d b e g in h u g g in g h im a n d giving h im slo p p y kisses. F in a lly she w o u ld get th e jack et h e w ore w h e n h e w as in th e o ld gang, d ra p e it over h is s h o u ld e rs , a n d see h im off. Iro n ically , e m o tio n a l ty p e s like W akayam a a n d S ugaw ara b ecam e th e le a d in g ro le s w h e n y a k u z a film s w ith ch aste, sto ic h ero es w ere re p la c e d b y th e s e m id o c u m e n ta ry series on p o stw a r y a k u z a , Battles without H o n o r a n d Humanity [fingi Naki Tatakai, 1 9 7 3 -7 6 ).22 A s th e title suggests, in th is re a listic w o rld d isc o rd b e tw e e n b o sses a n d h e n c h m e n s u p p la n te d a f fin ity a n d c o n c o rd , a n d im p u ls iv e a c tio n w as p re fe rre d ov er p e rse v eran ce a n d a d h e re n c e to a n o u tm o d e d code. C y n icism o v erth rew par• o d y a n d d islo d g e d th e m o d e rn y a k u z a film from its o ld base in th e p e rio d film , w h e re s in c e rity c o u ld o n ly be re p la c e d w ith n ih ilism . T h e se n e w y a k u z a film s s h o u ld be c o n sid e re d p art of th e c o n te m p o ra ry film g enre in th a t th e y b reak c o m p le te ly w ith p e rio d film ic o n o g ra p h y a n d c o n v e n tio n s. T h e fact th a t th e y are set in th e p o stw a r p e rio d is significant. W h ile p re se n t-d a y Jap an ese c o u ld be n o stalg ic ab o u t th e 1920s a n d 1930s w h e n fab ricated y a k u z a h ero es w ere m a d e to roam , th e se ttin g of th e se b a ttle s w ith o u t h o n o r a n d h u m a n ity in th e an o m ic p e rio d im m e d ia te ly after th e d efeat in W orld W ar II p re v e n te d s u c h a sa n g u in e view.

Ritual A lth o u g h th e m o d e rn y a k u z a film c e ased to be p o p u la r after 1973, it c o n tin u e d to excite th e in te re st of Japan ese a n d W estern critics. In its s im p le fo rm u la m a n y fo u n d p a ra b le s for Jap an ese c u ltu re a n d society. T he c o n c lu d in g ritu a l of th e m elee also h as u n iv e rsa l c o n n o ta tio n s, th o u g h , s in c e it m a in ly c o n c e rn s th e m o tif of h u m a n sacrifice. B efore th e m elee th e h ero u s u a lly k n e e ls in fro n t of an a n c e stra l altar w ith a p h o to g ra p h of h is d ead , fath erlik e boss as its cen terp iece, a n d p la c e s a lit in c e n s e stic k before it as a n offering. S o m etim es th e hero tak es w ith h im th e sw o rd th e good boss b e q u e a th e d to h im , w h ic h is rem in isc e n t of L ord A sa n o ’s s e p p u k u sw o rd blade• T h e w o m a n th e hero p a rts from is n o t o n ly a m e lo d ra m a tic p lo y to sh o w h is m a sc u lin e resolve, b u t also a n a s s is ta n t in th e rite, after sh e sto p s try in g to d iss u a d e him . S he m ay h a n d h im th e s w o rd ， lo o se n in g th e strin g a tta c h e d to th e scab b ard a n d h a n d le first. H er m a in role, th o u g h , is to h e lp th e h ero dress p ro p e rly for

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th e cerem ony. If it is a u tu m n or w in ter, sh e lays o u t a d ark b lu e k im o n o , w h ic h she m ay have so w n for h im herself, th e re b y reflectin g th e a n c ie n t fe m in in e o c c u p a tio n of w eaving. T he in n e r g a rm e n t is u s u a lly w h ite . If it is sum m er, he w ears a light, w ra p -a ro u n d robe or yukota w ith a sim p le d esig n against a w h ite b ackground. W hite is an ap p ro p ria te color b ecau se it sy m b o lizes th e p u rify in g a s p e c t of revenge th a t p u rges th e d ead boss, th e hero, a n d th e w o m a n of th e b itte r re se n tm e n t th ey feel tow ard th e bad boss. It also sy m b o lizes d e a th a n d w as th e color w o rn for th e s e p p u k u cerem ony. W hite th e re b y in d ic a te s th a t th e hero as avenger is n o t o n ly th e m a in acto r b u t also th e c e re n io n ia l sacrifice. As if co n scio u s of th e h e ro ,s d u a l role, th e w o m a n d e c o ro u sly fo ld s an d lays out h is g arm ents as th o u g h th e y w ere p rie stly v estm en ts. Ian B urum a has co m p ared th e b lo o d y m elee itse lf to a S p a n ish b u llfig h t an d noted th a t th e d eath of th e hero fu n c tio n s as a p u rific a tio n ,23 w h ic h is a u n iv ersal p h e n o m e n o n even C h ristia n ity is b ased o n .24 T h is u n iv e rsa l p h e n o m e n o n has its roots in p rim itiv e so cie ties w h e re , as Jam es F razer p o in te d out, it effects “n ew b irth a n d th e re m issio n of sin s th ro u g h th e sh e d d in g of b lo o d .”25 The C h ristia n M ass is th u s a b lo o d le ss v e rsio n of th is old ritu al of sacrifice, p re v io u sly p erfo rm ed for iso la te d trib e s ra th e r th a n all m an k in d . S u ch analogies o n ly go so far, how ever, sin c e th e h ero d o es n o t u s u a lly die in th e m elee. The m o st p o p u la r m o d e rn y a k u z a film s w ere se rie s in w h ic h th e sam e in v in c ib le hero, p lay ed b y th e sam e actor, a p p e a re d th ro u g h o u t. Yet, B u ru m a ’s “m ista k e ”26 is m o re in fo rm ativ e th a n acc u ra te rep o rtin g w o u ld be, sin ce th e hero alw ays does d ie sy m b o lically . T he ad m irab le ally or so m eo n e else m ay d ie for h im to k eep th e series going (and th is k in d of s u b stitu tio n in th e ritu a l of sacrifice p ro b ab ly h a s preh isto ric origins)，27 b u t th is alw ays sy m b o lizes th e h e ro ’s d e a th for th e sake of th e gang. T he p retext for th e hero going to th e m elee alo n e w as g e n e ra lly th a t h is sm all gang w o u ld be a n n ih ila te d e ith e r b y th e en em y gang or by big-tim e gangs th ro u g h a series of re c rim in a tio n s. D u rin g th e m e le e th e h ero ’s sacrifice is d em o n stra te d b y th e w o u n d s a n d c u ts receiv ed all over h is ch est a n d back, w h ic h suggest o ld p a in tin g s of C h ristia n m a rty rs in stead of th e stoic e n d u ra n c e of O ishi in C h u sh in g u ra . Yet, for w h o se sin s does th e hero sy m b o lic a lly die? W hat is b e in g p u rified b esid e re se n tm e n t? He is alw ays p re se n te d as p u re fro m th e start, a n d his father figure a n d ritu a l b ro th e rs are n e ith e r s in fu l n o r im p u re . T he h e n ç h m e n in th e b ad gang are c e rta in ly d ish o n o ra b le , b u t th e h e ro ’s sacrifice w ill n o t sto p su c h gangs from c o n tin u in g to exist. In fact, th e y are th e w ave of th e fu tu re a n d th e h e ro ^ o w n gang is o n e of o n ly a few still a d h e rin g to old p rin c ip le s. T herefore, an alo g ies w ith p u rific a tio n a n d rem issio n of sin s fall sh o rt in an a n a ly sis of th e fin al ritu a l in a m o d e rn y a k u z a film. T he h ero sim p ly sacrifices h im se lf so th a t h is s till p u re , sm a ll gang m ay survive, a n d th is h as relevance for m o d e rn Jap an ese filin a u ‫־‬

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A n Account of the Last Knights of the Showa Era—Lone H W /(1966)， directed by Kiyoshi Saeki. The tattoo of the yakuza hero (Ken Takakura) is the gang totem and symbolizes their solidarity. d ie n c e s w h o p ro b a b ly do n o t a tta c h m u c h m e a n in g to e ith e r S h in to or C h ristia n sy m b o lism . T adao Sato h a s a ttrib u te d th e p o p u la rity of m o d e rn yakuza m ovies to th e fact th a t th e y “su c c e ssfu lly p ro je cted th e feelings of a sm all group s h u n te d a sid e b y so cia l c h a n g e .28‫ ״‬O ne ca n ex trap o late from th is to in c lu d e even Japanese in large o rg an izatio n s, for th e y p ro b ab ly m o st c lo se ly id e n tify w ith th e ir office se c tio n or sm all w o rk g an g .29 For th e m th e sacrifice of th e yakuza h ero p ro b ab ly re p re se n ts th e sacrifice of th e ir o w n in d iv id u a l d esires for th e sake of th e group (not ju st m ale ties), w h ic h th e h e ro ’s se x u a l a b s tin e n c e a n d re p re ssio n of co n ju g al love h a d b een re p re s e n tin g all along, a lb e it in an extrem e fash io n . For th e m , as for th e yakuza h ero , g roup so lid a rity h as b eco m e m ore im p o rta n t th a n loyalty to a su p e rio r. T he fact th a t th e good boss d ies early a n d b eco m es a n o stalg ic sy m b o l, a n ic o n on th e a n c e stra l altar, p ro b ab ly in d ic a te s th e d ev alu atio n of h ie ra rc h ic loyalty, at least in re p re s e n ta tio n a l form s lik e films• T h e good y a k u z a gang still resem b les th e forty-seven loyal retain ers, th o u g h , n o t o n ly in th e early d e a th of th e ir leader. In co n tfa st to th e b ad

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gang w h o are u s u a lly p re se n te d as a m o tley crew w h o d ress differen tly , th e good gang all dress alik e in tra d itio n a l garb lik e k im o n o , w ith th e crest of th e ir boss p ro m in e n tly d isp la y e d as a sig n of th e ir stro n g se n se of affiliatio n . T he crest of th e A sano fam ily w as also often s h o w n in th e c o s tu m in g for C h u sh in g u ra , a n d in b o th cases th e crest re p re se n ts a H o u se— th a t is, th e le a d e r’s family• T his d efin itely in d ic a te d h ie ra rc h ic lo y alty to th e fam ily head. In th e m elee, how ev er， after th e h e ro ’s w h ite g a rm e n t h as b een cu t to s h re d s ， a large tattoo of a d rag o n or C h in e se lio n is rev ealed o n h is back an d sh o u ld e rs. T his tattoo, p o sse sse d b y o th e r gang m e m b e rs to o ,30 has no p a rtic u la r re la tio n to th e boss's fam ily. H isto rically , s u c h a tattoo w as u se d to b ra n d c rim in a ls ,31 b u t in th e m o d e rn y a k u z a film it is th e gang totem a n d sy m b o lizes th e ir so lid a rity ra th e r th a n lo y alty to a superior. For th e sake of th is so lidarity, in d iv id u a l d e sire s are re p re sse d , as sy m b o lized in th e h e ro ’s sacrifice• H ence, th e d e n o u e m e n t of th e ritu a l in a m o d e rn y a k u z a film is very old: sim p ly a n e x p re ssio n of o n e of D urkh e im ’s e le m e n ta ry form s of relig io n th a t s tru c tu re th e in d iv id u a l to th e group. Still, it is also very relev an t to a m o d e rn Japanese, w h o is e d u c a te d to b ecom e a m em b er “of a m y th ic a l b o d y to w h ic h h e sacrifices h is life an d th o u g h t in o rd er to receive h is tru e self.32‫ ״‬We have h ere a s im p le p arad ig m for so cia liza tio n , for to b eco m e a m em b er of a n y so c ie ty in d iv id ual desires have to be c u rb ed to som e degree. T he degree e x p re sse d in m o d e rn y a k u z a m ovies, a n d observed in Jap an ese society, seem s ex trem e to W esterners. So m u c h a p p e a rs to be sacrificed th a t it is h a rd to b eliev e an y self rem ain s, let alo n e a tru e one. Tadao Sato, o n th e o th e r h a n d , stresses th e w arm sen se of b elo n g in g a n d frie n d s h ip o b ta in e d as a re su lt of th e sacrifice.33 In e ith e r case, th e m o d e rn y a k u z a h ero p erfo rm s a so cial fu n c tio n th a t is at th e core of an y society, p rim itiv e or m o d e rn : in d iv id u a l sacrifice for social p reserv atio n . As in in itia tio n rites, h e d ies s y m b o lic a lly for th e reg en era tio n of th e tribe.

4

Wanderer Three Aspects A s sta te d in th e In tro d u c tio n , a rc h e ty p e s are re p re se n ta tio n s of basic m o tifs in c u ltu re , reflectin g h o w h u m a n b ein g s th in k a b o u t th em selv es a n d e x iste n c e in general. B asic m otifs in c lu d e h u m a n id eals like loyalty a n d co u rag e, w h ic h th e Loyal R etain er a n d th e C haste W arrior sto o d for, a n d s e n tim e n ts a b o u t th e h u m a n c o n d itio n . S e n tim e n ts ab o u t th e in d iv id u a l a n d so c ie ty are sy m b o liz e d in th e m o tif of w a n d e rin g th a t is rep res e n te d in th e a rc h e ty p e of th e W anderer. Id e a ls a n d s e n tim e n ts a b o u t th e h u m a n c o n d itio n are n o t c learly distin g u ish a b le . W an d erin g w as p a rt of M u sa s h i^ tra in in g a n d O ish i m a d e a jo u rn e y to Edo, w h ic h sig n ified th e h a rd s h ip s h e h a d e n d u re d before h e c o u ld d e m o n stra te h is loyalty by avenging h is lo rd . In literatu re ta le s of co u rag e often in c lu d e w a n d e rin g — th e se a rc h for th e H o ly G rail— or at le a st tra v e lin g — th e O dyssey. In fact, one c o u ld say th a t tales of w a n d e rin g in c lu d e c o u ra g e o u s ex p lo its. T he b asic d ifferen ce b e tw e e n id e a ls a n d so m e se n tim e n ts , how ever, is th a t loyalty a n d cou rag e are so cial v irtu e s (so ciety e x p e c ts its m e m b e rs to be loyal a n d its w arrio rs courageous) a n d th a t w a n d e rin g is n o t n e c e ssa rily a v irtu e a n d c o u ld even be reg ard ed as a n ti-so c ia l. W h ile th e W anderer a rc h e ty p e c o u ld be co n serv ativ e, h e or sh e d o es n o t alw ays s u p p o rt su b m is sio n a n d affiliation, a n d is th u s p ro b lem atic. T h e m o tif of w a n d e rin g sy b m o lizes th e h u m a n c o n d itio n as an in d iv id u a l, a n d th e th re e v ie w p o in ts on th is p ro b le m are ex p re sse d in th e th re e a s p e c ts of th e W anderer as exile, vagab o n d , a n d p ilg rim . T he E xile exp re sse s th e v iew th at, sin c e m a n is a social a n im a l, life alo n e is a liv in g d e a th . L o n e lin e ss is th e w o rst sufferin g a n d to be cast off from frie n d s a n d k in is th e w o rst fate. In th e p ast, so c ie ty w as s im p ly o n e ^ village or trib e a n d a n in d iv id u a l h a d n o h u m a n re la tio n s o u tsid e its cozy confines. A n d ev en in th e m o d e rn age w h e n h u m a n is m is p re a c h e d a n d in te rn a tio n a l f rie n d s h ip is p ra ise d , m o st p e o p le still relate o n an in tim a te level o n ly w ith th e ir ow n. T he V agabond ex p resses th e v ie w th at, sin c e m a n is a free sp irit, th e in d iv id u a l is severely re stric te d by o th e r p e o p le , p a rtic u la rly h is ow n. 77

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F reedom c o n sists in h ittin g th e road w h ere re la tio n s w ith p e o p le y o u m e e t do n o t in c u r co n fin in g oblig atio n s, a n d ◦ n e can m a g n a n im o u sly h e lp a stran g er or a p p reciate n o ‫־‬strin g s‫־‬a tta c h e d h u m a n k in d n e ss. T he P ilgrim ex p resses th e v iew th at, sin c e m a n is a relig io u s b ein g , th e in d iv id u a l c a n n o t be u ltim a te ly satisfied by a n y so c ie ty in th is w o rld . T h e Pilgrim e ith e r p re p a re s for th e n ex t life by d o in g p e n a n c e for h is sin s a n d accu m u la tin g in d u lg e n c e s, or e n d u re s th e rigors of travel to o b ta in d iv in e favor in th is life ◦ r in th a n k sg iv in g for grace a lre a d y receiv ed . O n a h ig h e r level th e p ilg rim search es for relig io u s tru th ra th e r th a n so cia l m e a n in g . T hese th ree asp ects are prob ab ly u n iv e rsa l, b u t re p re se n ta tio n s of th e m vary in th e arts ◦ f all c u ltu re s, a n d Japanese film is no ex cep tio n • T he ico n o g rap h y ◦ f th e W anderer c o n sists ◦ f p u re ty p e s a n d c o m p o site fo rm s, w h o se m e tam o rp h o ses are sim p ly a chan g e of d ress as th e y a p p e a r in p erio d or c o n te m p o ra ry film , for th e y are n o t co n fin ed to a n y sin g le genre• C o n clu sio n s a b o u t Japanese c u ltu re a n d so cie ty are b est d ra w n w h e n co n sid e rin g th e P ilgrim , th e m o st p ro b le m a tic asp ect.

Exile The Exile is a p a rtic u la rly fo rlo rn figure in Jap an ese c u ltu re b e c a u se th ere is no strong c u ltu ra l e q u iv a le n t to W estern h u m a n ism , w h e re b y id e a lly one c o u ld feel close to an y h u m a n b ein g sim p ly b e c a u se th e y are a h u m a n being. H u m a n ism h as its roots in C h ristia n ity — all m e n are b ro th ers in C hrist— a n d in Islam w h e re faith crosses n a tio n a l b o rd ers. No o n e in Japan says th a t all m e n are b ro th e rs in B u d d h a , a n d B u d d h is m in Jap an b ecam e firm ly c o n n e c te d w ith a n c e sto r m e m o ria lism or w o rsh ip , w h ic h alw ays re m in d s th e believer of p a rtic u la ris tic ra th e r th a n u n iv e rs a l ties. D espite W estern in flu en c e o n m o d e rn Jap an ese, a ltru is m is e m o tio n a lly u n accep tab le, a n d w h e n Japanese u se *4h u m a n is m ‫ ״‬as a lo a n w o rd th e y u su a lly m ean th e w arm affection am o n g p e o p le in th e sam e so cia l or fam ilial circle. T his is one of th e cau ses of th e ug ro u p is m ‫ ״‬n o te d b y a n y foreign observer. W here n o n -Japanese c o n s id e r th e Jap an ese to be clan n is h , th e y th e m s e lv e s re g a rd th e ir b e h a v io r as p e rfe c tly n a tu r a l a n d hum an. B eing cast off from frie n d s a n d k in w as n o t alw ay s a te rrify in g id e a in Japan. S usano O b ecam e th e first Japanese exile w h e n h e w as e x p e lle d from th e P la in of H eaven for m isb eh av in g , b u t after p la y in g th e allco n q u erin g hero on e a rth h e m a rrie d a n d liv ed h a p p ily ever after .2 T he m o st fam ous h isto ric a l exam ple, how ever, M ic h iz a n e S u g aw ara (845—903), la m e n te d h is fate in p o em s th a t in flu e n c e d later g e n e ra tio n s to v en erate h im as th e god of p o etry .3 Like M ich iza n e, a risto c ra tic c h a ra c te rs in literatu re su c h as P rin ce G enji in Genji monogataii (The Tale ofGenji) a n d minor figures in Heike monogatari were expelled from the court ◦ n acc o u n t of p o litic a l in trig u e a n d suffered th e fate of th e exile. M u sa sh i w as

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in effect a n ex ile from h is v illage. E ven in th e stab le Tokugaw a era (1 6 0 3 1868), w ith its stric t trav el re stric tio n s, th e re w ere w a n d e rin g o u tlaw s a n d g am b lers, a n d th e y b ec a m e m o d e ls for ex ile h ero es in an im p o rta n t subg en re in th e p e rio d film (m a ta ta b i m o n o ).4 U n lik e C h u ji K u n isa d a a n d Jirocho of S h im iz u , th e w a n d e rin g g am b ler w as n o t a boss o r even affiliated w ith a gang. O ften h e w as fo rced to leave h is n a tiv e v illag e b ecau se of a q u a rre l w ith th e boss th ere, a n d th ereafter h e w o u ld w a n d e r from p la c e to p lace, g am b lin g a n d jo in in g in fights b e tw e e n riv al gangs, often m e re ly in ex ch an g e for b ed a n d b oard. H is y e a rn in g for h o m e w as even im p lie d in h is n am e, for he alw ays in tro d u c e d h im s e lf w ith th e n a m e of h is n ativ e p lace a n d h is p e rso n a l nam e. For e x a m p le , for Jirocho of S h im iz u th e latter is h is p la c e of b irth , sin ce, like o th e r c o m m o n e rs, y a k u z a w ere n o t allo w ed su rn a m e s. T h e w a n d e rin g g a m b le r’s love ◦ f h o m e is w ell ex p ressed in K an taro ◦ f in a (Ina n o K an taro , 1943, d ire c te d b y E isuke Takizawa). W h en K antaro re tu rn s h o m e , th e so n g of Ina, h is n ativ e village, co m es o n th e s o u n d tra c k a n d th e re is a m o n tag e of ru s h in g m o u n ta in stream s, b am b o o groves, a n d p in e forests. T he to p o g ra p h y is fa m ilia r a n d d e a r to th e h ero , an d h e can relax in th e se c u rity of b ein g a m id th o se h e can tru st. In h is ab sen ce, h is o ld s w e e th e a rt h a s m a rrie d so m e o n e else, b u t K antaro acc e p ts it m ag n an im o u sly a n d even h e lp s h e r h u s b a n d o u t of a jam . T he d ream of C am elot, how ever, is e v e n tu a lly r u in e d b y th e b a d lo cal b o ss, w h o , by p lay in g on th e h u s b a n d ’s jealousy, gets h im to lead K an taro ’s o ld boss a n d m en in to a fatal a m b u sh . T h e la st sc e n e w h ere K antaro refrain s from k illin g th e b etray er is very m o v in g . K antaro h as b e e n s ta n d in g o u tsid e th e b e tra y e r’s h u t, e n v io u sly lo o k in g in on th e w arm fam ily scen e a ro u n d th e o p e n h e a rth at su p p e rtim e. F rom th e o p e n w in d o w h e to sses in a m ask as a going-aw ay p re se n t. T h e sm a ll boy p ick s it u p a n d sh o w s it to h is p a re n ts, a n d th e y all ru s h o u tsid e . A s K antaro is ru n n in g d o w n th e d a rk e n in g c o u n try ro ad , he h ears th e ir v o ices c a llin g o u t h is n am e, a n d looks b a c k o n ly once. For K antaro, p a rtin g from th e h u m a n w a rm th of th o se h e k n o w s a n d from th e b e a u tifu l s u rro u n d in g s of h is n ativ e p la c e is b itte r in d e e d . Like th e ru s h in g stream in th e last shot, h e w ill be in p e rp e tu a l m o tio n , restless a n d h o m e le ss. T h e c re a to rs of K a n ta ro of In a w ere d o u b tle s s in flu e n c e d b y S h in H asegaw a (1 8 8 4 -1 9 6 3 〕 ， o n e ◦ f Jap an ’s m o st loved au th o rs, w h o se p o p u la r n o v els a n d p lay s a b o u t w a n d e rin g gam b lers created th e m a ta ta b i g en re.5 F ilm v e rsio n s of h is w orks are said to be as m a n y as 115 ;6 how ever, m o st of th e se w ere m a d e before 1945 a n d o n ly th re e co m p lete e x ta n t p rin ts of p re w a r v e rs io n s r e m a in .7 T h is lo ss is p a r tic u la r ly re g re tta b le , s in c e H asegaw a h e ro e s h a d th e ir h e y d a y in th e 1930s w h e n th e vast m ajo rity of h is fans c o u ld n o t afford to see th e ex p en siv e K abuki p ro d u c tio n s of h is w o rk s.8 U n lik e K antaro of Ina, H asegaw a h ero es are h a rd ly ever sh o w n leav in g

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or re tu rn in g to th e ir native p lace, w h ic h th e y h a d b e e n se p a ra te d from early in th e ir y o u th . O ften th e ir w a n d e rin g b eco m es a se a rc h for a lo st m o th er or sister, or an y o n e w ith w h o m th e y have h a d a clo se re la tio n s h ip . As su ch , th6y are exil6d from h u m a n b o n d s ra th e r th a n a p a rtic u la r p lac6. In M other on m y M ind fM abuta ‫ ס ת‬H a h a ， d ire c te d b y H iro sh i In ag ak i in 1931 a n d Tai Kato in 1962) th e h ero search es for h is lo st m o th e r.9 W h e n h e fin ally finds her, sh e p re te n d s sh e d oes n o t k n o w h im b ecaú se h e is a y a k u z a an d h is p resen ce w o u ld ru in h e r d a u g h te r’s c h a n c e for a re sp e c table w edding. A fter h e leaves h e r h e ru n s in to a gang of th u g s w h o b e a r h im a grudge. Full of d esp air, h e tells th e m th a t if th e y have n o p a re n ts, h e w ill show th e m no mercy. F ollow ing th e th e a tric a l c o n v e n tio n th a t y a k u z a are o rp h a n s,10 n o n e of th e m claim s a p aren t, a n d in a b lo o d th irs ty rage h e slays all of th em . T he m essage is sim p ly th a t life w ith o u t fa m ilia l ties is w o rth less an d th e m a n w ith o u t p a re n ts h as lic e n se to kill. T he filin v ersio n of H asegaw a’s Y atappe of Seki (Seki n o Y atap p e, 1963) begins w ith Y atappe rescu in g a little girl from d ro w n in g . He later fin d s o u t th a t h is ow n sister h a d d ie d in a h o u se of p ro stitu tio n , a n d h e a b a n d o n s h im se lf to th e life of a h ire d k ille r a n d gam bler. Years later h e ru n s in to th e girl h e h a d rescu ed , a n d she now re m in d s h im of h is d e a d sister. D irector K osaku Y am ashita often sh o o ts th e scen es b e tw e e n Y atappe a n d h is sister-su b stitu te am id flow ers. For ex am p le, b e h in d a flow ering b u s h h e w atches h e r in sid e h e r relatives' h o u se sin g in g a lu lla b y h e r m o th e r u se d to sing. F low ers sym b o lize h is gen tle sid e, w h ic h is a sso c ia te d o n ly w ith her. T hey form a b rig h t c o n tra st to h is a m b ie n c e of self a n n ih ila tio n , as sh o w n by shots of h im alo n e in a gloo m y bar, h is face d a rk e n e d w ith d e sp a ir a n d m arred w ith an ugly scar from a re c e n t fight. Before he leaves h e r h e says so m e th in g th a t m ak es h e r re a liz e h e is th e m an w h o saved h e r life, b u t w h e n sh e ru n s after h im h e h id e s u n d e r a b rid g e in a d ry river bed. A fter she is gone, h e goes off to th e final m elee. The film en d s w ith an ex trem ely long, w id e -sc re e n sh o t of h im fro m th e b ack w alking d o w n a c o u n try ro ad in b ro ad d a y lig h t u n til h e b e c o m e s a tin y figure fighting w ith o th er tin y figures. Far in th e h o riz o n to th e left a n d rig h t of th e rib b o n lik e ro ad are red, flow ering b u sh e s. Y atappe^ exit h ere calls to m in d th e flow er p assag e, or h a n a m ic h i, in Kabuki， an elevated runway from the back of the theater through the a u d ie n c e to th e front stage. K abuki actors u se it to m ak e c o lo rfu l a n d flam boyant e n tran ces a n d exits• Y atappe’s exit, how ever, is w ith o u t d ra m a because of th e alie n a tin g effect of th e lon g shot. For Y atappe th e re is n o glory to be g ain ed in th e o n co m in g b attle, n o w o rth y o p p o n e n t to cro ss sw ords w ith. Yatappe is ju st th e o p p o site of M u sash i, w h o p a rte d from O tsu so th a t h e c o u ld be strong in b attle a n d achieve glo rio u s v ic to ry over w a rrio rs lik e Kojiro. Y atappe p arts from his siste r-su b stitu te o n ly b ecau se h e is a s h a m e d of b ein g a y a k u z a , a n d h e goes off to b attle o n ly b ecau se h e h a s n o th in g to

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lo se n o w th a t h e h as severed all h u m a n ties. D irecto r Y am ashita h a d film e d h is p re v io u s b a ttle s in th e ra in at d u s k to sh o w c lu m sy th u g s s lip p in g in th e m u d a n d scream in g at each other, a n d so m etim es even p a n ic k in g a n d ru n n in g aw ay from u n w o rth y foes. Tadao Sato h a s c o m p a re d Y atappe a n d H asegaw a’s o th e r w a n d e rin g g a m b lers w ith m o d e rn so ld ie rs in th a t th e y b o th k ill p e o p le th e y b e a r no g ru d g e o u t of o b lig atio n to th e ir boss or th e ir n a tio n .11 In th is re sp e c t H aseg aw a’a sto rie s of y a k u z a are s im ila r to a n tiw a r statem en ts. T he sen seless n a tu re of th e ir b a ttle s is aggravated b y th e lack of glory, or d e m o n stratio n of sk ill after rig o ro u s tra in in g , a n d b y th e fact th a t th e ir courage is b a se d o n d e s p a ir ra th e r th a n o n o v ercom in g fear of d eath . T he so u rce of th e ir d e sp a ir, how ever, is th e loss of th o se p a rtic u la ris tic ties, for ex am p le, love of n a tiv e p la c e a n d country, w h ic h iro n ic a lly often lead m e n in to w ars w h e re th e y feel ju stified in k illin g strang ers. In Tokijiro Kutsukake — A Solitary Knight (Kutsukake Tokijiro— Y ukyo IppiJci, 1966) th e h ero k ills a fello w yakuza to fulfill a n o b lig atio n to a lo cal boss w h o p u t h im u p for a few days. T hey b o th re sp e c t each other, th o u g h , b e c a u se of th e ir m u tu a l a d h e re n c e to th e yakuza co d e, a n d th e d y in g m a n asks Tokijiro to take h is w ife a n d sm all b o y to h is re la tiv e ’s p la c e . D u rin g th e ir jo u rn e y th e y fall in love a n d live to g e th e r u n til she leaves h im o u t of g u ilty feelin g s to w ard h e r d ead h u sb a n d . T hey are re u n ite d th e re a fte r b u t sh e so o n d ies from illn ess. W h ile th e y h a d b e e n liv in g as m a n a n d w ife, Tokijiro d id h is u tm o st to go stra ig h t. In o n e sc e n e w h e re he to o k a b eatin g from so m e th u g s ra th e r th a n fight, h e revealed h o w a w a rrio r is w eak en ed b y h u m a n b o n d s. H ow ever, u n lik e M u sa sh i w h o c o n s e q u e n tly rejected affectio n , Tokijiro o n ly fights w h e n h e is d e p riv e d of affectio n , or in th e e n d to get m o n ey for h e r m e d ic in e , w h ic h is of n o av ail.12 D irecto r Tai K ato p o ig n a n tly sh o w ed th e lo n e lin e ss of th e m an ex iled from h u m a n b o n d s in th e scen e fo llo w in g h e r d e p a rtu re . S n o w is fallin g in th e n ig h t sky. T h e n T okijiro is s h o w n in th e low er rig h t c o rn e r of th e w id e sc re e n , h is face sp o tlig h te d in th e d ark n ess. “T h at w as over a year ago,” h e says gravely. L ight fills th e ro o m to sh o w h im te llin g h is sto ry to a b arm aid . For Tokijiro e x iste n c e is n o w a p e rp e tu a l w in te r n ig h t. E xiles like h im are like th e re stle ss d e a d sp irits w h o m th e Jap an ese call m u en b o to k e, u n re la te d sp irits. T hey are p e o p le w h o d ie d w ith o u t d e sc e n d a n ts or u n b ek n o w n to th e ir kin , a n d c o n s e q u e n tly have n o o n e to p erfo rm m em o rial se rv ic e s in fro n t of th e ir grave, if th e y have one, or before th e ir an cestral ta b le t in th e fam ily B u d d h is t altar. T he th o u g h t of th e m aro u ses n o t o n ly s y m p a th y b u t fear b ec a u se th e y c o u ld cau se th e liv in g tro u b le if n o t a p p e a s e d or p acified som ehow . O ne ex a m p le of th e p a c ific a tio n of m u e n b o to k e can be fo u n d o n th e Isle of M iyake, w h e re c rim in a ls w ere ex iled in fe u d a l tim es. T he in h a b ita n ts th e re have se t u p a n o n y m o u s grave m ark ers to th e sea m e n w h o d ie d in

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Tokijiro Kutsukake—A Solitary Knight (1966), directed by Tai Kato. The feudal exile hero, a wandering gambler (Kin’nosuke Yorozuya), is shown during a happy interlude with his common-law wife (Junko Ikeuchi) and her son before tlieir inevitable separation. sh ip w recks off th e ir coast. C lusters of th e se u p rig h t, n arro w w o o d e n tablets u n d e r p in e trees sw ep t b y tid e w in d s evoke m e la n c h o ly ev en in m o d ern to u rists. S ince Tai K ato’s Tokijiro K u tsukake— A S o lita ry K night in 1966 th e re has not b een a m ajor film b ased o n a H asegaw a sto ry .13 H ow ever, th e H asegaw a exile not o n ly in flu e n c e d th e m o d e rn y a k u z a film th ro u g h 1973, b u t also the Ken Takakura hero in c o n te m p o ra ry a c tio n d ram as in th e late 1970s an d th e early 1980s• In fact, S tatio n (Eki, 1981) w o n T ak ak u ra a Japanese A cadem y A w ard for h is portray al of a m o d e rn , liv in g m u e n botoke. He th ereb y d e m o n strated th e a p p e a l th e E xile has for even p re ‫־־‬ sen t-d ay au d ien ces, sin ce Ken T akakura is in d is p u ta b ly th e to p m a le film star in Japan. D irector Yasuo F u ruhata film ed S tatio n o n lo catio n in H o k k aid o , Japan's n o rth e rn m o st islan d , an d m ost of th e se q u en ces w ere sh o t d u rin g th e w inter, as if to pro v id e a su itab le b ack g ro u n d for th e m a in c h a ra c te r w h o , like Tokijiro, exists in a p e rp e tu a l w in te r nig h t. T akakura p lay s a lo n e ly

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p o lic e d e te c tiv e w h o is a m aster m ark sm an . T h ro u g h h is o c c u p a tio n h e is fated to m e e t law b reak ers, a n d b ecau se of h is sk ill h e often b rin g s so rro w to th e ir relativ e s an d frie n d s by k illin g th em . In th is resp ect, h e is like H asegaw a h ero es w h o kill y a k u z a like th e m se lv e s a n d form k arm ic ties w ith th e ir k in or w ife. F u ru h a ta a d d s p sy ch o lo g ica l d e p th to his hero's p re d ic a m e n t by h a v in g h im recall th ro u g h flashbacks c irc u m sta n c e s in h is o w n life th a t p a ra lle l th o se of h is v ictim s; a n d th e re su lta n t id en tific a tio n c a u se s h im to suffer, too. W h ile on a case, th e hero h as a love affair w ith a w o m an w h o ru n s a sm all b a r a n d re sta u ra n t, a n d he is on th e verge of fo rm in g conjugal ties. It tu rn s o u t, how ever, th a t h e r fo rm er lover is th e m an h e is after an d w h e n th ey m eet by a c c id e n t he is fo rced to sh o o t h im to d e a th before h er eyes. A s in th e case of Tokijiro a n d th e w ife of th e m a n h e k ille d , g u ilt sep arates th e p o lic e d etectiv e from th e w o m a n he loves, th o u g h in S ta tio n th e gu ilt is m ore h is th a n hers. T he film e n d s in a tra in sta tio n at nig h t, w h ere th e hero tears u p th e le tte r of re sig n a tio n he h a d w ritte n w h e n h e d ream ed of sta rtin g a n e w life.

Station (1981),directed by Yasuo Furuhata. This film begins and ends in a train station to show that the m odern exile, here a police detective (Ken Takakura )， m ust also part from loved ones.

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He d o e sn 't b o ard his tra in , how ever, b ecau se h e sees th e siste r of a n o th e r one of his v ictim s getting on it first. T he tra in leaves a n d an o v e rh e a d sh o t show s him alone at th e sta tio n in th e snow . Like a m u e n b o to k e h e is d o o m ed to an existen ce of lo n e lin e ss. T he h u m a n b o n d s h e form s are in ev itab ly severed b ecau se it is h is fate to k ill p e o p le in th e n a m e of th e law.

Vagabond A lthough th e H asegaw a exile is th e m a in w a n d e rin g g am b ler in p e rio d film, th e happy-go-lucky Yataro, created b y th e n o v e list K an S h im o zaw a, p ro v id ed som e ch eerfu l c o n tra st in th e su b g en re a n d sp a w n e d sev eral d e sc e n d a n ts •14 Yataro’s story w as first m ad e in to a film as early as 1932, b u t th ere does n o t seem to be a n y e x ta n t p rin t of it or o th e r p rew ar versions• T he m ost p o p u la r p o stw ar v ersio n is The Traveling H at of Y dtaro (Y atarogasa, 1952, w h ic h d ire cto r M asah iro M ak in o re m a d e in 1960)• In th e b eg in n in g of th e film a sm ilin g Yataro com es to a fork in th e ro a d a n d tosses h is u m b re lla -sh a p e d , reed-w oven h at in to th e air in a Jap an ese eq u iv alen t of “h e a d s I take th is road, ta ils th at•” Later, w h e n h e loses all h is o uter garm ents gam bling, h e k eep s a sm ile o n h is face a n d h its th e ro ad again in his u n derw ear. T he reason for Yataro,s ch eerfu l a ttitu d e p ro b ab ly is th a t h e is a d ro p o u t from th e sam u rai class w h o ch o se to w a n d e r b e c a u se h e p re fe rre d th e carefree life of a gam bler ,15 u n lik e a H asegaw a h ero w h o does so o u t of d e sp a ir over th e loss of h u m a n b o n d s. A ll is n o t sw e e tn e ss a n d lig h t in h is travels, though. D ue to th e c o n v en tio n s of th e yakuza film th e boss w h o b e frien d ed Yataro is m u rd e re d a n d m u st be avenged, a n d Y ataro,s love for th e d aughter m u st rem ain e tern ally p lato n ic. S till, w h ile Yataro is o n th e road, th e sky is b lu e an d th e su n alw ays seem s to be s h in in g . W h en h e h a s clo th es to w ear, th ey are in v aria b ly n e a t a n d clean , a n d h e often strik es a gallant pose. Even in a m elee h e does n o t w o rk u p a sw eat a n d n o m a tte r h o w far he travels h e never gets dirty. The ap p eal of th is m ake-believe ch a ra c te r d o u b tle ss lies in h is v ag ab o n d im age. Tadao Sato h as n o ted th a t travel is p o p u la r am o n g Jap an ese b e c a u se th e ir circu m scrib ed social circle does n o t p ro v id e th e m w ith th e o p p o rtu n ity to m eet a n d enjoy different p e o p le .16 A lth o u g h th e Jap an ese love th e ir ow n, fam iliarity breeds if n o t c o n te m p t at least b o red o m . M an y w is h th e y co u ld h it th e ro ad alo n e like Yataro, b u t realize th e y are d e p e n d e n t o n th e secu rity p ro v id e d by travel in groups. C on seq u en tly , v ag ab o n d s lik e Yataro give v icario u s p le a su re to m o d e rn office* w o rk ers a n d o th ers w h o o n ly travel w ith fellow w orkers or go to p la c e s w h e re th e y have so m e so cia l coim ections• T he m ost p o p u la r w a n d e rin g gam bler hero w as Z a to ich i, a b lin d m a s ‫־‬

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The Traveling Hat of Yataro (1960), directed by M asahiro M akino. Yataro (Kin’nosuke Yorozuya)， a w andering gambler, comes to a fork in the road, but either path w ill lead to adventure for this happy-go-lucky, feudal vagabond. s e u r ra th e r th a n a gam bler, b u t also a h ire d sw o rd like H asegaw a’s heroes• A lth o u g h K an S h im o zaw a m e n tio n e d Z a to ich i in h is essays o n feu d al o u tla w s, as a film h ero h e is m a in ly th e creatio n of sc rip tw rite r M in o ru In u z u k a , of S h in ta ro K atsu, th e a c to r w h o alw ays p lay ed h im , an d of th e D aiEi s tu d io d ire c to rs w h o w o rk ed o n th e series from 1962 to 1973 a n d tu rn e d o u t tw enty-five e n trie s .17 As a w an d erer, Z a to ich i is a cross betw e e n th e ex ile a n d th e v a g a b o n d .18 In th e first entry, T he S to ry of Zatoichi (Zatoichi M o n o g atari, 1962) d ire c to r K enji M isu m i p re se n ts th e h ero as a glo o m y figure w h o is fo rced to k ill a c o n s u m p tiv e m a ste r sw o rd sm a n , th e o n ly p e rso n w h o tre ated h im as a h u m a n being. M ost scen es take p lace at n ig h t a n d th e re is o ne m e m o ra b le low -angle c lo se -u p of Z a to ic h i’s b lin d face w ith th e m o o n s h in in g above him . For th e b lin d it is alw ays n ig h t, a n d th e h ero is o n a d a rk jo u rn e y th a t lead s to d eath . In th e s e c o n d entry, T he S to ry of Zatoichi一P ari 2 (Zoku-Zatoichi Mon o g a ta ri, 1962) th e gloom c o n tin u e s, for th e h ero h a s to kill h is o w n b ro th e r, a o n e -a rm e d m a ste r sw o rd sm a n o n th e o th e r sid e. H ow ever, d irecto r K azuo M ori a d d s sex w h e n Z a to ic h i s p e n d s th e n ig h t w ith a p ro stitu te w h o s e s c e n t re m in d s h im of h is d ead w ife, w h o h a d ru n off w ith h is b ro th er. T h e re is also h u m o r in th e b le n d . O ne n ig h t h e gives a gay daim yo a m assag e, a n d afterw ard s is h u n te d b y th e re ta in e rs w h o are afraid h e w ill let o u t th e ir se c re t sh am e. In th e th ird en try (and th e first o ne in color), The N ew S to ry qf Z a to ic h i (Shin Zatoichi Monogatari, 1963) d ire c to r T okuzo Tanaka a d d e d m o re h u m o r— often p re d ic a te d o n th e h ero tu rn in g th e tab les o n th o se w h o

The Story of Zatoichi (1962), directed by Kenji Misumi. Zatoichi (Shintaro Katsu), a blind m aster swordsman, was first presented as a gloomy figure on a dark journey; but as his film series developed, touches of earthy hum or were added to his image.

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rid ic u le h is h a n d ic a p — a n d p ro d u c e d th e first box office h it in th e series. T h ereafter, Z a to ic h i’s trav els w ere so h u m o ro u s th a t h e seem ed to tak e on th e g u ise of a vagab o n d . T he b lin d ex ile n ev er really v a n ish e d , how ever, th e re b y p ro d u c in g a h y b rid hero, w h o c o u ld p u t o n a d a z z lin g d isp la y of s w o rd s m a n sh ip . L ike th e im p u lsiv e m ales p lay ed by B u n ta S ugaw ara a n d T om isaburo W akayam a in m o d e rn y a k u z a m ovies, S h in ta ro K atsu ’s Z a to ich i projects e a rth y h u m o r. A lth o u g h h e n ev er lays a h a n d o n p a th e tic b eau ties, u s u a lly th e re are p le n ty of b a w d y w o m e n to e n te rta in h im . T h e p re c e d e n t for Z a to ic h i’s ro a d sid e sex a n d h u m o r can be fo u n d in th e n o v el, H iz a k u rig e (Shank's M areJ by Jip p e n s h a Ikku (1765-1831), w h ic h d e a ls w ith th e co m ic a d v e n tu re s of Yaji a n d K ita， tw o p u re vagab o n d s w ith n o tra g ic a irs w hatsoever. Yaji a n d K ita h ave b e e n h ero es in over fo rty film s•19 S in c e m o st of th e se w ere m a d e u n d e r p u rita n ic a l c e n so rsh ip b efo re 1945, how ever, th e ir rib a ld m ix -u p s w ith p ro stitu te s an d th e ir scato lo g ica l h u m o r w ere nev er given fu ll tre a tm e n t u n til Yasuki C h ib a ’s Travel C h ro n ic le s of Yaji and Kita (Yaji-Kita D o ch u k i, 1958). Ju d g in g from th e o ld Jap an ese proverb th a t sh a m e is cast a sid e w h e n o n e tra v els, it seem s sex h as b e e n a sso ciated w ith trav el sin c e fe u d a l tim es. T h e re a so n ca n be g lean ed from H izak u rig e, w h e re Ikku w rite s ab o u t b ein g tie d by c o n v e n tio n a n d c le a n in g o n e ’s life from care by travel•20 A ppar• e n tly n o s y n e ig h b o rs acted as a greater re stra in t on sex u al b eh av io r th a n C o n fu c ia n m orality, a n d th e re b y au g m en ted th e a p p e a l of th e vagabond. T h e m o st p o p u la r c o n te m p o ra ry vagabond h ero is Tora‫־‬san, th e m a in c h a ra c te r in th e It's Tough To Be a M an (Otoko wa T su ra i yoj series, in w h ic h Yoji Y am ada h a s d ire c te d over th irty h it film s sin c e 1969.21 Tora‫״‬ sa n is a tekiya, an itin e ra n t m e rc h a n t w h o falls in to th e yakuza category b e c a u se h e m ay u se c o n fid e n c e -m a n te c h n iq u e s to sell s h o d d y m e rc h a n ‫־‬ d ise•22 O ften d u rin g h is trav els h e gets th e urg e to go stra ig h t— so m etim es after lo o k in g in on a w arm fam ily scen e from o u tsid e th e w in d o w lik e a H asegaw a e x i l e a n d in every e n try h e re tu rn s to h is h o m e to w n o n ly to h it th e ro a d ag ain after su fferin g a b ro k en h e a rt from fallin g in love w ith so m e b e a u ty .23 In Y earning fo r H om e (B okyo ， h e n , 197◦) T ora-san p ro b ab ly m a d e h is m o st se rio u s a tte m p t to se ttle d o w n a n d lead a re sp e c ta b le life. O n e d ay h e lo o k s u p o n h is b ro th e r-in -la w ’s g rim y overalls a n d w ith s u d d e n in sp ira tio n d e c id e s to w o rk at h is sm all p rin tin g com pany. T he fo llo w in g m o rn • ing h e goes to w o rk w ith a c o m ic a lly serio u s ex p re ssio n o n h is face. T h ro u g h c o n v e rsa tio n s in th e n e x t scen e, how ever, w e find o u t th a t h e h a d g o tten in to sq u ab b le s w ith h is co w orkers a n d th e c lie n te le a n d h ad gone off in a huff. H is sister goes on h e r b icy cle to lo o k for h im . W h ile sh e is o n th e riv e r b a n k sc a n n in g th e d ista n c e , h e is ly in g in th e h u ll of a row b o at d o w n below , ta k in g a n a fte rn o o n n a p in h is sp o tless w o rk clo th es. U sin g a n o v e rh e a d sh o t, d ire c to r Y am ada tak es a slo w p a n from b o w to

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stern of th is b lissfu l, sle e p in g figure. A m o to r b o at goes by a n d th e w aves rock his boat free from its m o o rin g ro p e a n d set h im a d rift in th e river. A final long shot takes in h is boat alo n e in th e riv er u n til a ro w in g team glides en erg etically by• He w ill alw ays be a d rift， a p e re n n ia l exile froin th e w o rk aday w orld. A fter suffering from a b ro k en h e a rt, T ora‫־‬sa n p arts from h is sister, w h o seem s to re p re se n t Y atappe’s siste r-su b stitu te an d M u s a s h i’s O tsu• E ven th o u g h T ora-san’s p a rtin g is s a d d e r th e n th o se of a H asegaw a ex ile or th e C haste W arrior, u n lik e th em h is road a h e a d d o es n o t lead to th e d a rk n ig h t of battle. A ctually, Y earning for H o m e e n d s w ith h im ru n n in g in to h is ritu a l younger b ro th e r at a port, a n d th e last sh o t sh o w s th e m g leefu lly th ro w in g p ebbles in to th e w ater as s h ip s go o u t to sea. A broken h eart is no t th e o n ly reaso n for T ora‫־‬san leav in g h o m e after a sh o rt stay. In th e b eg in n in g of Yearning for H om e he d ream s th a t h is u n c le is d y ing and w h e n h e re tu rn s h e m istak es h is afte rn o o n n a p for a d e a th b e d scene. T his co m ed y of errors re su lts in a fam ily arg u m e n t, w h ic h eventu a lly leads T ora-san to h it th e road again, an d s u c h is often th e c au se in the series. He h a d re tu rn e d d u rin g th e B u d d h is t h o lid a y of O bon, w h e n m ost Japanese re tu rn to th e ir native area, sy m b o lic a lly to greet d e p a rte d fam ily sp irits, w h o are b eliev ed to re tu rn th e n also. H ow ever, th e fact th a t h e im m ed iately got in to a sq u ab b le m ad e th e title , Y earning for H o m e iro n ical and d em o n strated th a t a c tu a lly T ora-san is b e tte r off o n th e ro ad . In T ora/iro^ Poem s of Pure Love (Torajiro Junjo Shishu, 1976) d ire c to r Yam ada celebrates th e joys of c h an ce e n c o u n te rs d u rin g travel. T ora-san is p resen ted w alking d o w n a road alo n e on a s u n n y d ay am id h ig h c lu ste rs of su su k i, a co m m on variety of p a m p a s fo u n d th ro u g h o u t th e Jap an ese co u n try side. He com es in to a to w n w h ere th e re is a festival, w h ic h gives h im a ch an ce to p ly h is tra d e as a tekiya. In th e m id st of all th e e x c ite m e n t he ru n s in to a tro u p e of itin e ra n t e n te rta in e rs a n d th e y have a ro u sin g p a rty to g eth er th at night. T he follow ing m o rn in g h e gets stu c k w ith th e b ill a n d , sin ce h e can n o t pay it, he w in d s u p in jail. H ow ever, he m ak es frie n d s w ith all th e p o lic e m e n th ere an d th e y tre at h im royally u n til h is siste r com es to b ail h im out. The ease w ith w h ic h Tora-san m akes frie n d s w ith c o m p le te stra n g e rs m u st m ake h im an object of envy, an d th e re is p ro b ab ly no o n e lik e h im in g ro u p-oriented Japan. Judging from film an d TV d o c u m e n ta rie s, real-life tekiya a p p e a r to a sad lot w h o feel m o d e rn tim es have p a sse d th e m by. Tora-san is a complete fabrication， a pure vagabond who finds more joy on th e road th a n at hom e. In contemporary film a prototype for Tora-san can be found in the K ih achi ch aracter created by Yasujiro O zu, w h o w o rk ed at th e sam e S h o ch ik u stu d io s th a t Yoji Y am ada does. Like T ora-san, K ih a c h i is a co m ical ch aracter from th e low er classes w h o is q u ic k -te m p e re d a n d affectionate. These traits are considered characteristic of people from

It’ s Tough to Be a M a n —Yearning for H o m e (1970), directed by Yoji Yamada. Tora-san (Kiyoshi Atsumi), a traveling salesm an, is better off on the road. Whenever he tries to settle down, he gets into a family argum ent or suffers a broken heart from a one-sided love.

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shitamachi，th e w o rk in g m a n ’s area of o ld Tokyo• T hey are b eliev ed to be se n tin ie n tâ l in c o n tra st to th e reserv6d n 1id d l 6 class, w h o tak e sto ic sain urai b eh av io r as th e ir m o d el. S ince Tora-san is a sa le sm a n a n d K ih ach i is a laborer, th e y d iffer in o ccu p atio n , an d Tora‫־‬s a n ，s h u m o r is m ore verbal, th o u g h th is c o u ld also be a ttrib u te d to th e fact th a t K ih ach i w as m a in ly a s ile n t film ch aracter. T he m a in difference b etw e e n th e tw o, how ever, lies in th e v ary in g attitu d e s of th e ir creators tow ard travel. In O z u ^ The Story of F lo a tin g W eeds (U kigusa M o n o g ata ri, 1934, rem ad e as L/kigusa in 1959) th e K ih ach i c h a ra c te r is th e le a d in g a c to r a n d h ead of a traveling th e a tric a l tro u p e . In c o n tra st to Y am ada’s joking, itin e ra n t en tertain ers, th is tro u p e is a p a th e tic lo t w h o c o n s ta n tly engage in p etty argum ents. O z u ’s s ile n t film begin s an d e n d s in th e n ig h t a n d th e o n ly b rig h t resp ite is K ih a c h i’s b rief re u n io n w ith h is son. T he la st sh o ts are p a rtic u la rly p o ig n an t. T here is a fro n tal sh o t of K ih ach i a n d h is m istress h aving a bo x lu n c h to g eth er o n th e n ig h t tra in , a n d s u d d e n ly a look of grief a p p e a rs on h is face. T h e n a sh o t of a sm a ll boy sle e p in g a lo n e in a b o o th is follow ed by one of th e lo com o tiv e ru s h in g d o w n th e track. K ihachi h a d a p p a re n tly rem em b ered h is o w n boy w h o w as n o w fath erle ss, w h ic h m ean s th a t K ihachi h im se lf is c h ild le ss an d th e ro ad d o w n th e tracks is d ark in d e e d . For O zu, th e joy T ora-san e x p e rie n c e s o n th e road w ith strangers is foreign. O zu sees o n ly fleetin g h a p p in e s s am o n g frien d s a n d k in before th e in e v ita b le sa d n e ss of se p a ra tio n . K ihachi fu rth e r differs from T ora-san b ecau se h e is a p a re n t, a n d perh a p s a better figure for c o m p a riso n is C h ap lin 's Tram p, sin ce , lik e Torasan, he projects th e im age of th e etern al b ach elo r. T h e ir sty le of c o m e d y is also sim ilar• A n d e rso n a n d R ich ie have n o te d th a t C h a p lin w as p artic u la rly ad m ire d in Japan b e c u a se h is h u m o r allo w ed o n e to b o th la u g h a n d w eep .24 A lth o u g h th e joys of travel d o m in a te in th e T ora-san series, p ath o s is by no m e a n s ab sen t, for n o t o n ly d o es h e get jilted every tim e b u t also h e can never do a n y th in g to m ake h is sister p ro u d of h im . Yet, once again differences are m ore c ru cial. N oel C a r r o ll,a film th e• orist, h as p resen ted a s tru c tu ra l a n a ly sis of C h a p lin ’s d ire c to ria l s ty le .25 In The Gold R ush (1925) th e T ram p's lo n e lin e ss is in te rlo c k e d w ith a lie n a tio n . T h ro u g h fo re g ro u n d b a c k g ro u n d ju x ta p o s itio n in g , th e T ra m p ’s u n iq u e dress a n d w alk, an d th e castin g of taller, h e a v ie r acto rs, th e T ram p is c o n sta n tly b ein g set alo n e ag ain st gro u p s of p e o p le w h o seem u n a w a re of h is existence. T he overall effect of th is “im ag ery of a lie n a tio n ” is p a th o s. In co n trast to th e T ram p ’s alie n a tio n , T ora-san is often sh o t in sm a ll groups w h e th e r at fam ily g atherings or in a c h e a p ro o m at a ro a d sid e in n w ith n ew -found frien d s. A ll th e c h aracters are seated o n a ta ta m i-m a tte d floor a ro u n d a low table, eating or d rin k in g , a n d th e cam era u s u a lly focuses on w h o ev er is ta lk in g or re a c tin g m e a n in g fu lly at th e tim e. S in ce th e fam ous c o m e d ia n w h o p lay s T ora-san, K iy o sh i A tsu m i, is th e star, h e

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gets m o re c lo se -u p s, u s u a lly of h is b ro ad g rin or h is lu d ic ro u s an d in e p t a tte m p t to s m ile **though h is h e a rt is b re a k in g .‫ ״‬W h ile T ora-san is path e tic , h e c e rta in ly is n o t a lie n a te d , a n d C h a p lin ’s T ram p is m ore like H aseg aw a’s ex ile th a n h e is a vagabond. N õ el C arroll finds sig n ifican ce b ey o n d p a th o s in T he T ram p ’s etern al b a c h e lo rh o o d , for as m arriag e sy m b o lizes in te g ra tio n in to society, an u n re q u ite d s u it w o u ld suggest “irre c o n c ila b le o th e rn e s s ,” a n d th e sam e c o u ld be sa id for T ora-san. “O th e rn e ss ” in C h a p lin ’s c o m e d y resu lts in th e th e m e of c o n fro n ta tio n , c o n tin u a lly re p e a te d b e tw e e n th e ric h a n d th e poor, p o lic e m a n a n d tra m p , m a n a n d m a c h in e . Tadao Sato h as n o ted th a t c o m p ro m ise b e tw e e n b o th sid e s is im p o s s ib le .26 In a T ora-san com edy, o n th e o th e r h a n d , c o n fro n ta tio n does not last lo n g b ecau se th e in v aria b le a rg u m e n ts are alw ays fo llo w ed by re c o n c ilia tio n , a n d u su a lly k ep t in a fa m ilia l c o n te x t th a t a c c e n ts sa m e n e ss ra th e r th a n o th ern ess. M oreover, c o n fro n ta tio n is k e p t at a m in im u m b ecau se T ora-san easily a d a p ts anyw h e re , b u t n o w h e re com pletely. C o n fro n ta tio n in film suggests so cia l c ritic ism a n d som e critics read an im p e a c h m e n t of m o d e rn , b u re a u c ra tiz e d Japan in th e free sp irit of Toras a n .27 H e h im self, how ever, h a s a lo w o p in io n of h is c h a ra c te r b ecau se h e is a y a k u z a . In th is re sp e c t, h e co n fo rm s to o n e k in d of tra d itio n a l Jap‫״‬ a n e se h u m o r in w h ic h th e c o m e d ia n m a d e fu n of h im self, n o t society. T o ra-san m ak es a fool of h im se lf th ro u g h h is a c tio n s, b u t d raw s n o t o n ly la u g h te r b u t sym p ath y , p ro b a b ly b ecau se at h e a rt w e are all fools.

Pilgrim P ilg rim s have a p p e a re d briefly in Jap an ese film s, b u t have n ev er b e e n c e n tra l. A t th e e n d of K enji M iz o g u c h i^ m asterp iece, The Life of O h a ru (S a ik a k u Ic h id a i O n n a , 1952) th e h e ro in e b eco m es a m e n d ic a n t n u n w h o trav els th e c o u n try s id e begging like a p ilg rim in o rd e r to do p e n a n c e for h e r sin s. H ow ever, sin c e sh e h a d b e e n m o re s in n e d a g a in st, sh e also b e c o m e s an in c a rn a tio n of a forgiving B u d d h a .28 A t th e e n d of T ein o su k e K in u g a sa ’s C an n e s p riz e w in n e r, G ate of HeJJ (Jigoku M on, 1953), th e h ero goes on a p ilg rim ag e as a m e n d ic a n t m o n k in a to n e m e n t for in a d v e rte n tly k illin g th e w o m a n h e loved a n d for cau sin g h e r h u s b a n d to suffer. In Y o sh ita ro N o m u r a ’s m y s te ry th rille r , S a n d VesseJ ( S u n n a n o Utsuvva, 1974, re le a se d in th e U n ite d S tates as Castle of Sand) th ro u g h flashbacks th e h ero re m e m b e rs th e p ilg rim ag e h e w e n t o n w ith h is le p ro u s fath er to o b ta in d iv in e favor in th is life. T h e Jap an ese im age of th e p ilg rim is b est p ro je cted in film s ab o u t th e goze, w h o are b lin d w o m e n m in stre ls. A lth o u g h n o t ex actly p ilg rim s ， th e y go w a n d e rin g a ro u n d th e c o u n try sid e to eke o u t a m eag er ex isten ce enter-

Banished Orin (1977), directed by M asahiro Shinoda. The Japanese image of the pilgrim is best projected by this blind woman m instrel (Shima Iwashita), who wanders around the countryside entertaining people w ith her sham isen playing.

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ta in in g p e o p le w ith th e ir sh a m ise n -p la y in g . If th e ir g u ests d o n ’t p u t th e m u p , th e y h av e to s p e n d th e n ig h t in a te m p le or sh rin e . T h e b e st film a b o u t th e goze is M asah iro S h in o d a ^ Banished O rin (Hanare G oze O rin, 1977, also k n o w n in th e U n ite d S tates as Melody in Grey), w h ic h tak es p la c e d u rin g th e early p a rt of th e tw e n tie th century. T h e h e ro in e , O rin w as a b a n d o n e d by h e r p a re n ts at six, w h e n sh e w as fo u n d by a tra v elin g s a le sm a n w h o p u t h e r in th e care of a goze tro u p e . T h e h e a d m is tre s s of th e tro u p e o rd e re d th e girls in h e r charge to co n cen trate o n th e ir m u sic le sso n s a n d also a d m o n is h e d th e m to k eep in m in d A m id a (A m itabha), th e B u d d h a of Infin ite C o m p assio n . S he to ld th e m th e y w ere h is serv an ts a n d w o u ld n ev er see h ell. B esid es a p u n on th e ir b lin d n e s s , a n a llu s io n w as m a d e h ere to th e b elief th a t th o se w h o d ie c h a n tin g A m id a ’s h o ly n am e w o u ld be reb o rn in th e W estern P arad ise or P u re L and, no m atter h o w m a n y sin s th ey co m m itted . T he girls in h er tro u p e led a n u n lik e ex isten c e, for th e y w ere e x p ected to be chaste. C o n tra ry to s u c h relig io u s a sso c ia tio n s, goze girls h a d a s h a d y re p u ta tio n as e n te rta in e rs , w h o in tra d itio n a l Japan w ere e x p ected to regard th e ir g u e sts as d e m ig o d s w h o se re q u e sts w ere d ifficu lt to refuse. M en in th e v illag es th e y to u re d c o n s id e re d th e m easy m ark s w h o h a d no v illag e c o n n e c tio n s a n d w o u ld h a v e to leav e th e fo llo w in g day. S in c e th e ir s h a m is e n -p la y in g w as often a c c o m p a n ie d by d rin k in g , it w as easy to b la m e a n y th in g th a t h a p p e n e d on th e w in e . G iven su c h c irc u m sta n c e s, it is n o t s u rp ris in g th a t O rin soon lo st h e r virginity, a n d w h e n th e h ead m istre ss fo u n d out, sh e w as b a n is h e d from th e tro u p e a n d h a d to p ly h e r tra d e alo n e. T h e reafter sh e h o o k s u p w ith a n arm y d eserter w h o in sists o n k e e p in g th e ir re la tio n p la to n ic b ec a u se of sex u al in h ib itio n s re su ltin g from h is re la tio n w ith h is la sc iv io u s m other. O nce w h e n th e y w ere b a th in g to g eth er in a p o n d , h e says th a t sh e looks like a B u d d h a , w h ic h is a n a tu ra l a sso c ia tio n s in c e m o st B u d d h is t im ages have clo se d eyes in m e d ita tio n . S h e c la im s th e re is a b e tte r p o se a n d sq u a ts d o w n in th e w ater so th at o n ly h e r h e a d is sh o w in g a n d sm iles. H er sm ile, how ever, is riot tra n q u il lik e a B u d d h a ’s b u t m isc h ie v o u s like th a t of a b lin d girl w h o k n o w s th e ro p es. In th is sc e n e it see m e d th a t n o t o n ly O rin ’s sw e e th e a rt b u t also d ire c to r S h in o d a (and even B en M in ak a m i, th e a u th o r of th e o rig in a l story) h a d w a n te d to im ag in e h e r a n d o th er goze w o m en to be p u re, p a ssio n le ss B u d d h a s . H ow ever, lik e a n y o th er w o m an O rin h as n a tu ra l d esires a n d she p a rts from h e r sw e e th e a rt after h e k ills th e m a n w h o satisfied th em . Later O rin is b riefly re u n ite d w ith h im a n d th e y b o th enjoy sex u al fu lfillm e n t u n til he is c a p tu re d . T hereafter, h e r life tak es a tragic tu rn . W h en sh e re tu rn s to th e h o u s e of th e h e a d m istre ss, sh e fin d s it e m p ty b e c a u se sh e h a d d ie d a n d O rin is sh o w n p a th e tic a lly feelin g h e r w ay alo n g th e w alls of th e d e se rte d h o u se , c a llin g o u t for th e w o m a n w h o h a d b e e n lik e a m o th e r to her. S he w in d s u p on th e ro ad ag ain o n ly to d ie alo n e in a

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field. H uge b lack crow s eat h e r flesh a n d , fla p p in g th e ir w in g s, fill th e sky at du sk. A h u m a n sk u ll is sh o w n facing th e se ttin g s u n , in th e d ire c tio n of A m id a ’s W estern Paradise• A lthough O rin w as not ex actly a p ilg rim , h e r life w as a p ilg rim ag e in th e old sense of “th e co u rse of life o n e a rth •”29 T h is W ebster’s d e fin itio n of p ilg rim ag e im p lie s th e old C h ristia n belief th at h a p p in e s s c a n o n ly be a tta in e d in heaven, w h ic h c o n c u rs w ith th e first te n e t of B u d d h ism , th a t Life is Suffering. The S o lita ry Traveis of C h ik u z a n (C h ik u z a n H ito ri Tabi, 1977) is a b o u t a b lin d m ale m in strel, th e fam ous sh a m ise n -p la y e r C h ik u z a n T a k ah ash i [born 1910)• In d ire cto r K aneto S h in d o ’s p re se n ta tio n , C h ik u z a n d o es n o t suffer on th e road like O rin, b u t u s u a lly ru n s in to in te re stin g trav el co m p an io n s, a n d h is e x p e rie n c e s are re p le te w ith rib a ld h u m o r. H e is m ore a vagabond th a n a pilgrim . He does su ffer so m e w h a t w h e n h is first wife leaves him after being forced to accom m odate a paying guest. However, h is m o th er gets an o th e r w ife for h im a n d th ey b o th seek h im o u t a n d e n d h is sad so litary travels. The title of th e film w as iro n ic a l b ecau se C h ik u z a n w as se ld o m o n th e road alo n e an d , even w h e n h e w as, su c h scen es w ere c ro ssc u t w ith h is m o th er a n d seco n d w ife looking for h im . T h is n o t o n ly reflects th e overw h e lm in g Japanese p referen ce for g ro u p over so lita ry travel, b u t also in d icates w h y th e so litary p ilg rim in search of relig io u s m e a n in g is virtu a lly ab sen t from Japanese film , a n d no t too im p o rta n t in Jap an ese c u ltu re in general. T he first so lita ry p ilg rim in th e B u d d h is t tra d itio n w as th e h isto rical B u d d h a him elf, w h o forsook th e p le a su re s of b ein g a p rin c e to find th e tru e m e a n in g of life. In Japanese B u d d h is t term in o lo g y th is is called, shukke, lite ra lly ‫ ״‬leaving h o m e ,‫ ״‬a n d w h e n Jap an ese b eco m e B udd h ist m onks th ey re n o u n c e th e w o rld an d so cie ty b y s y m b o lic a lly severing fam ily ties. T his c o u ld be a c c o m p a n ie d by a so lita ry p ilg rim ag e, b u t p e rh a p s a m ore ty p ic a l case is th a t of Ip p e n , a fam o u s th irte e n th -c e n tu ry relig ious teacher w h o a d d e d a d a n c e to th e c h a n t of A m id a's h o ly n a m e .30 W hen Ip p en took h is B u d d h ist vow s, h e ‫ ״‬left h o m e ‫ ״‬w ith frie n d s a n d fem ale a tte n d a n ts a n d tu rn e d h is pilg rim ag e in to a field trip. F u rth e rm o re , in film s about th e lives of o th er th irte e n th -c e n tu ry B u d d h is t te a c h e rs lik e S h in ra n a n d N ich iren , th e y are p re se n te d as m en w h o e n d u re h a rd s h ip s w ith th e h e lp of th e ir m o th e r or o th er w o m en a n d of th e ir d isc ip le s , a n d n ot as solitary p ilg rim s in search of th e tru e m e a n in g of life. M od ern Japanese p ilg rim s can be d isc e rn e d in th e im age of d issa tisfie d y o u th s w ho leave th e ir so cie ty in search of so m e th in g else. O n e e x a m p le is th e sixteen-year-old h e ro in e of The W eight of TraveJ (Tabi n o O m o sa, 1972). However, alth o u g h th e cin e m a to g ra p h y is s u p e rb , d ire c to r K o ich i S a ito s m essage is h a rd ly p ro fo u n d : life is s im p ly a jo u rn e y w ith g ood a n d b ad ex p eriences. In Red L antern fA k ach o ch in , 1974) d ire c to r T oshiya Fujita e x p resses

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d iss a tisfa c tio n w ith so cie ty th ro u g h th e p lig h t of a y o u n g c o u p le w h o c a n n o t fin d a su ita b le a p a rtm e n t in p re se n t-d a y Tokyo. T hey are forced to leave th e ir first p la c e b e c a u se th e b u ild in g is to be to rn d o w n , an d thereafter th e y w a n d e r from o ld to n e w ab o d es as a re su lt of m is u n d e rs ta n d in g s w ith u n s y m p a th e tic la n d la d ie s. Just w h e n it seem s th e y have fo u n d an a p a rtm e n t w ith c o n g e n ia l s u rro u n d in g s, th ey find o u t th a t th e p rev io u s te n a n ts, a fam ily of four, h a d c o m m itte d s u ic id e there. T he y o ung w ife goes in s a n e a n d is c o m m itte d to a m e n ta l h o s p ita l a n d th e y o u n g h u sb a n d goes off in se a rc h of a n ew a p a rtm e n t w ith th e ir infant. T he s e a rc h ◦ f r u jita ’s u rb a n w a n d e re rs for a su ita b le a p a rtm e n t ca n be c o n s id e re d a fu tile a tte m p t to e scap e from a restrictiv e society. T he last sh o t of th e you n g w ife sh o w s th e sh a d o w s of g u lls flying across h e r m e n ta lly d e ra n g e d face. H er flight e n d s n o t in freed o m b u t in insanity. T he la st sh o t of th e young h u s b a n d sh o w s h im sittin g in th e fro n t seat of a m o v in g v a n s ta lle d in a c o n g e s te d , e x h a u s t-fu m e d c ity stre e t. H e is tra p p e d , for all av en u es of e scap e are sto p p e d up.

Red Lantern (1974), directed by Toshiya Fujita. Unable to find a suitable apartm ent on account of an unsym pathetic landlady (Kirin Kiki, formerly Chiho Yuki) or neighbors, this young couple (Kenji Takaoka and Kumiko Akiyoshi) become m odern pilgrim s seeking a fixed abode in this fleeting world.

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If th e young c o u p le is view ed as p ilg rim s, it seem s th e o n ly m e a n in g th e y find is th a t th e re is no fixed ab o d e in th is fleetin g w o rld . T h is B u d d h ist view h a rm o n iz e s w ith th e m o d e rn n ih ilis m of Fujita. Y outhful d issatisfactio n w ith so c ie ty is real, b u t th e re is no m e a n in g o u ts id e of society. F u jita,s view o d d ly agrees w ith th a t of th e re sp e c ta b le m e m b e rs of th e Japanese so cie ty he p ro b ab ly detests. T hey are satisfied w ith th e m e a n in g so ciety assigns to th e ir role in re la tio n s w ith p e o p le w h o b e co m e as fam iliar as kin. E xistence o u tsid e th e se so cial c ircles is n o t o n ly m e a n in g less b u t a little terrifying, for s u c h a p e rso n c o u ld b ec o m e lik e a H asegaw a exile, w h ic h is s till th e p re d o m in a n t a sp e c t of th e W an d erer arch ety p e in Japanese cu ltu re . T here are so m e n o ta b le e x c e p tio n s. J a p a n ,s greatest poet, B asho (1644-94) follow ed th e e x a m p le of Saigyo, a tw e lfth c e n tu ry B u d d h ist m o n k w h o re n o u n c e d so c ie ty a n d b ecam e a p ilg rim w h o fo u n d m e a n in g in life by w ritin g p o e try a b o u t n a tu re .31 B ut th e re are no Japanese film s ab o u t s u c h m en , o ne re a so n b ein g th a t m a n -in ‫־‬n a tu re is n o t su c h good film ic m aterial as m a n v ersu s n atu re. P erhaps th e b est A sian film a b o u t th e p ilg rim co m es from S o u th K orea, w h ic h is Jap an ’s c u ltu ra l sister. M an d aJa (1981) c o n c e rn s tw o K orean B u d d h ist m o n k s’ se a rc h for th e tru e m e a n in g of life. D irecto r L im K w an Tag often tak es a long sh o t of th e m o n th e ro ad to g e th e r d is c u s s in g th e agony of th e ir se a rc h a n d th e e m p tin e ss of satisfied d esires. E ach seem s c o n v in c e d h is p u rs u it w ill le a d n o w h e re , b u t still th e y w a n d e r on. A lth o u g h th e y are tw o tin y figures b le n d in g in to a n O rie n ta l la n d sc a p e , th e y m a in ta in th e ir in d iv id u a lity b ecau se e a c h se a rc h e s for tru th in h is o w n way. They are also a rc h e ty p a l in th a t se a rc h e s lik e th e irs have p ro b a b ly ex isted sin ce th e b e g in n in g of relig io n , w h ic h c o in c id e s w ith th e b eg in n in g of h u m a n k in d . O ne of th e m freezes to d eath , b u t th e o th er, after forgiving h is m o th e r for h a v in g a b a n d o n e d h im as a c h ild , c o n tin u e s d o w n th e road alo n e, sh o w n in a b leak b u t u n c o m p ro m is in g lo n g sh o t, again.

5

Vengeful Spirit Introduction In Ja p an ese folk relig io n a ven g efu l s p irit fonryoj is a h u m a n b ein g w h o d ie s b e a rin g a gru d g e a n d a p p e a rs as a g h o st to se ttle th e score. For e x a m p le , if L ord A san o h a d n o t h a d O ish i a n d o th er loyal retain ers to av en ge h im , in th e p o p u la r im a g in a tio n h e c o u ld have a p p e a re d as a gh o st to rm e n tin g L ord K ira. A vengeful sp irit is lik e m u en b o to k e, or th o se w h o d ie w ith o u t liv in g relativ es, in th a t b o th are restless. S till, w h ereas m u en bo to ke c o u ld be so m e w h a t pacified if so m eo n e at least rem em b ers th e m by e re c tin g a grave m a rk e r a n d /o r by m ak in g food offerings, vengeful sp irits c a n n o t be satisfied u n til th e y avenge th em selv es. A s fo lk re lig io n is an oral tra d itio n , w h ic h m ig h t n ev er b e re c o rd e d , it is d ifficu lt to tra c e th e h isto ric a l d e v e lo p m e n t of th e id e a of th e vengeful s p irit. O n th e b asis of a rch eo lo g ical re m a in s of b u ria l p ractices, S hoko W atanabe su rm ise s th a t even in p re -B u d d h ist tim e s (roughly before th e fifth c e n tu ry A.D.) th e Jap an ese believ ed d ead sp irits co u ld h a rm th e liv in g a n d th a t th o se w h o d ie d tra g ic a lly w o u ld tak e it o u t on n o t o n ly th o se re sp o n s ib le b u t also in n o c e n t b y s ta n d e rs .1 Tadao Sato states th at, a lth o u g h s u c h in d is c rim in a te tro u b le -m a k in g n ev er c o m p le te ly v an ish e d fro m th e p o p u la r im a g in a tio n , e v e n tu a lly th e id e a d ev elo p ed th a t su c h a s p irit w o u ld o n ly to rm e n t th e g u ilty a n d leave th e in n o c e n t a lo n e .2 T h e m o st fam o u s h isto ric a l e x a m p le of a v engeful s p irit is M ic h iz a n e S u gaw ara. A fter h is d e a th in exile, it w as b eliev ed th a t h is s p irit to o k revenge ag a in st th e fam ily of T okihira Fujiw ara (871-909), h is ch ief rival at th e im p e ria l c o u rt, as w ell as c a u sin g in d isc rim in a te d am ag e in th e im peria l c a p ita l th ro u g h e a rth q u a k e s a n d fires.3 T he m o st n u m e ro u s occurre n c e s of vengeful s p irits are th e gh o sts of d e a d so ld ie rs, w h ic h are re p o rte d in th e a fterm ath of a n y w ar in Jap an ese h isto ry .4 Like M ic h iz a n e S u g aw ara, th e y m ay h av e a sp ecific targ et or m ay sim p ly ex p ress g en eral re s e n tm e n t ag a in st war. In c o n tra st, m o st v engeful sp irits in Jap an ese film are w ro n g ed w o m en , w h o h av e tra d itio n a l p re c e d e n ts in lite ra tu re a n d theater. T he o ld e st e x a m p le is Izan am i, th e Kojiki g o d d ess w h o d ies after giving b irth to m a n y is la n d s a n d d e itie s. Like O rp h e u s, h e r h u s b a n d Izanagi goes to th e la n d of 97

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th e d ead to b rin g h e r back, b u t she is so a sh a m e d w h e n he sees h e r in a state of p o llu tio n th at along w ith other, ug ly fem ale sp irits, sh e p u rsu e s h im u n til he escap es to the lan d of th e liv in g .5 S ham e is also an im p o rta n t c h a ra c te ristic of th e fem ale g h o sts in m e d ie val N011 plays. In K urozuka one w earin g a terrify in g hannya m a sk su d d e n ly ap p ears n ear a m o u n d of co rp ses. S he is fu ll of re se n tm e n t, b u t B u d d h ist m onks e v e n tu a lly pacify her, a id e d by h e r o w n sh a m e at h a v in g b ecom e su ch a m onster. Ian B u ru m a p u ts s u c h e x a m p le s in h is ‘‘D e m o n W o m a n ” categ o ry , w h ic h he in te rp re ts as the reverse sid e of th e “m atern al g o d d e s s ,” a d ich o to m y resu ltin g from a tra d itio n a lly severe m o th e r c o m p le x .6 O n th e o th er h an d , A kiko Baba, p oetess a n d critic , states th a t su c h N o h g h o sts, an d th e ir proto ty p es in H eian literatu re (7 9 4 -1 1 8 5 ) re p re se n t th e ju st grievances of w om en of a n tiq u ity .7 Like B u ru m a, th o u g h , it seem s m e n of a n tiq u ity d id not n e c e ssa rily see it th a t way. In Genji m o n o g aiari (The Tale of Genji) P rin ce G enji d o es feel so rry w h e n his girl frie n d is k ille d by th e Jiving s p irit of h is jealo u s w ife. S till, fear of disgrace, th a t is, sham e, o u tw eig h s his g u ilty feelings a n d h e h as the in c id e n t covered up•8 In a n o th e r passag e a w ife ’s jealo u sy at b e in g re p la c e d by a y ounger girl is a ttrib u te d to s p irit p o s se s sio n .9 T hese cases suggest th at Japanese m ales of o ld w ere re lu c ta n t to recogn ize guilt feelings tow ard th e ir w ife or p aram o u r, a n d even w e n t to th e extrem e of a ttrib u tin g a w o m a n ’s jealo u sy to s u p e rn a tu ra l cau ses. As a co n seq u en ce, how ever, h er jealo u sy becam e all th e m ore te rrify in g in th e ir im ag ination, le a d in g th e m to h a llu c in a te fem ale v en g efu l sp irits a n d /o r create th em in literatu re a n d dram a. W ith th e creation, or h a llu c in a tio n , of a fem ale v en g efu l s p irit w ith a definite p u rp o se — nam ely, to take revenge ag ain st th e m a n w h o w ro n g e d h e r— a n a rc h e ty p e w as fo rm e d th a t r e p re s e n te d th e m o tif of ju s tic e th ro u g h revenge. The re se n tm e n t th e a rc h e ty p e of th e V engeful S p irit ex p ressed is th e tra d itio n a l Japanese e q u iv a le n t to re b e llio u s se n tim e n ts , for th e grudge b o rn e one m a n c o u ld be e x te n d e d to in c lu d e a m aled o m in ated society th at o p p resses w o m en . T he b est ex am p le of th is a rch ety p e is O iw a, th e h ero in e of Y otsuya k a id a n , Jap an ’s m o st fam o u s g h o st story. After tra cin g th e m e ta m o rp h o se s sh e u n d e rg o e s as th e K ab u ik i p lay is ad ap ted in to m o d e rn film s, th e m o ral im p lic a tio n s of ju stic e th ro u g h revenge can be d isc u sse d . The Vengeful S p irit arc h e ty p e is p ro b le m a tic, how ever, for sh e h as to be co n sid e red as one sid e of a co in w ith a p ro tectiv e s p irit, too. W atanabe h as also n oted th at th e Japanese believ ed in p ro tectiv e sp irits, even in p reB u d d h ist d ay s.10 This d ich o to m y c o rre sp o n d s to B u ru m a ,s d u a lis m of th e D em on W om an a n d th e E ternal M other. T he la tte r c o u ld forgive m ale offenses an d th u s by e x ten sio n cover u p so cial in ju stic e s. T h is p ro b le m atic asp ect w ill be tak en u p in an a n a ly sis of M iz o g u c h i’s U getsu th a t

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m ak es u se of C. G. J u n g ’s c o n c e p t of th e an im a. M o d ern v ersio n s of th e V engeful S p irit are also tre ated a n d an e x a m in a tio n is m ad e of th e c u rre n t ic o n o g ra p h y of th e Japanese s p irit w o rld in film a n d o n TV.

Yotsuya Ghost Story Tokaido Yotsuya Kaidan, a K abuki play by N an b o k u T su ru y a, was first p e rfo rm e d in 1 8 2 1 .11 N a n b o k u b ased his play on an a c tu a l co n te m p o ra ry in c id e n t of a low er-class sa m u ra i w ife w h o w en t in sa n e a n d d isa p p e a re d after d isc o v e rin g th a t h e r h u s b a n d h ad got a n o th e r w o m an p re g n a n t .12 In N a n b o k u ,s p lay th e h u s b a n d h as so m eo n e p o iso n h is w ife so th a t he c o u ld m a rry in to a ric h fam ily, a n d th e d e a d w ife beco m es a ghost w h o h a u n ts h im . T h e w ife, Oivva, w as even m ore terrify in g th a n h e r N oh p red ecesso rs, for sh e c o u ld no t be p acified. T he in flu e n c e of B u d d h ism h a d w eak en ed c o n s id e ra b ly d u rin g th e se c u la r Tokugaw a p e rio d , a n d N a n b o k u s tim es w ere so d e g e n e ra te h e w o u ld n o t even c o n s id e r h a v in g B u d d h is t m o n k s a p p e a r before h e r ru b b in g th e ir ro sary bead s, as w as th e case in N oh plays. M oreover, u n lik e N oh gh o sts w h o bore vague grudges, O iw a h as a specific p u rp o s e — nam ely, to get h e r h u s b a n d lem o n . In th e p lay h e r w ra th is n ot in d is c rim in a te , d e sp ite th e s u p e rs titio n th a t p erfo rm ers in it m u st v isit h e r s h rin e to av o id bein g c u r s e d .13 T he object of h e r w rath , lem o n , does n ot feel an y g u ilt for his a c tio n s, b u t still is p re se n te d as a d e sp ic a b le ch a ra c te r re sp o n s ib le for th e h e ro in e s plig h t. N a n b o k u ^ p lay w as first p e rfo rm e d as a K abuki d o u b le bill w ith Kan a d e h o n C h u s h in g u ra , a n d set in th e sam e p e rio d , its m ale ch aracters are e ith e r re ta in e rs of L ord A sano or K ira .14 S eein g sig n ifican ce in th is relatio n , R yosuke U rio, a m o d e rn th e a te r director, b ille d h is 1984 p re se n ta tio n of Tokaido Yotsuya Kaidan as th e o th e r sid e of th e C h u sh in g u ra coin. T he d e s ig n a tio n is an a p t one, for N an b o k u 's O iw a illu stra te s th e re se n tm e n t w h ic h form s w h e n a loyal w ife is betrayed . H er *4re b e llio n ‫ ״‬does n ot e n d in self a n n ih ila tio n , b ecau se sh e is alread y d ead , a n d revenge against h e r h u s b a n d a n d m a ste r do es n o t s u p p o rt th e system , as w as th e case w ith th e sto ry of S a z e n Tange. P erh ap s sh e c o u ld have b e e n created o n ly d u rin g Nanboku*s d e g en erate tim es w h e n th e social fabric b a se d o n loyalty tow ard s u p e rio rs w as co m in g a p a r t .15 W h en K abuki b ecam e re sp e c ta b le after th e M eiji R esto ratio n in 1868,16 its p re s e n ta tio n of Tokaido Yotsuya Kaidan no lo n g er d e v elo p ed th e social c ritic is m im p lie d in th e o rig in al play, a n d a c o n te m p o ra ry av ant-garde p ro d u c tio n is m u c h c lo se r to N a n b o k u ’s in ten tio n s• T he c le a n e d ‫־‬u p Ka■ b u k i p re s e n ta tio n w as p ro b ab ly th e b ase for p rew ar film v ersio n s, b u t th e re are n o e x ta n t p rin ts for verificatio n . T he first n o ta b le p o stw a r film v ersio n w as K eisu k e K in o s h ita ,s T he Yotsuya Ghost Story (Yotsuya Kaidan, 1949).

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K in o sh ita p re se n te d th e a p p e a ra n c e s of th e d e a d O iw a as s im p ly th e h a llu c in a tio n s of le m o n ’s g u ilt-w rack ed m in d . W h en h e c o m m its su ic i d e a diverg en ce from N a n b o k u ’s in c o n c lu siv e e n d in g w h e re h e rem a in e d alive— it is ob v io u s he d ie d from p an g s of c o n sc ie n c e ra th e r th a n s u p e rn a tu ra l causes. K in o sh ita ,s v e rsio n w as m ore a p y sch o lo g ica l d ra m a th a n a h o rro r story. In 1959 w ith The Ybtsuya G host S to ry on th e Tolcaido fT okaido Y otsuya K aidanJ N obuo N akagaw a (1905-83), Ja p a n ’s b est d ire c to r of h o rro r film s ， b ro u g h t back th e o ld th e m e of re se n tm e n t, w h ile k e e p in g th e m o d e rn in te rp re ta tio n of guilt• N akagaw a’s K abuk i-lik e p re se n ta tio n w as u n re a listic co m p ared w ith K in o sh ita ’s v e rsio n a n d w ith T o h o ’s 1965 p ro d u c tio n d ire cted by S hiro Toyoda. S till, N akagaw a a d d e d a relig io u s d im e n s io n th a t m ad e th e Vengeful S p irit a sacred figure. In N a k a g a w a ’s v e rs io n le m o n b e c o m e s a s o m e w h a t s y m p a th e tic character, sin ce he kills O iw a’s fath er in a fit of in d ig n a tio n at b e in g refu sed h e r h a n d in m arriage on a c c o u n t of h is lo w er-sam u rai-class origins. (This re se n tm e n t of th e low er classes w as also im p lic it in N a n b o k u ’s play.) F urtherm ore, N aosuke, a c o -c u lp rit in th e o rig in al, b e co m es le m o n ’s iago by p e rsu a d in g h im to po se as th e avenger of O iw a’s fa th e r in o rd e r to m arry her, a n d later by c o n v in c in g h im th a t p o iso n in g h e r is th e o n ly w ay h e can m arry a ric h m e rc h a n t’s daughter. le m o n ’s re lu c ta n c e rev eals affectio n for O iw a th a t tu rn s to gu ilt after he k ills her. M ore th a n le m o n ’s guilt, how ever, d ire c to r N akagaw a c o n c e n tra te s o n O iw a’s resen tm en t. H is p ortrayal of h e r b eco m es a su m m a tio n of p e rio d film hero in es, for h e sh o w s h e r p a th e tic b eau ty a n d loyal sa m u ra i-w ife asp ects before h e r tra n sfo rm a tio n in to th e V engeful S p irit w ith a te n a c ity of p u rp o se. Like M u sa sh i’s 〇 tsu , O iw a h a d b e e n frail a n d p ro n e to illn e ss. It w as easy for le m o n to ex p la in aw ay th e b itte r taste of th e p o iso n by sa y in g it w as n ew m e d ic in e . W hen it took effect, sh e lo o k ed in a m irro r a n d fo u n d one side of h e r once b eau tifu l face d isfig u red b y a n ug ly sw ellin g . T h e n she su d d e n ly a ssu m e d d e m o n ic stre n g th a n d lu n g e d at th e m a ss e u r w h o h a d b een atte n d in g h e r a n d w h o h a d in s in u a te d h e r h u s b a n d w o u ld leave h e r for another. D ish o n o red by h e r h u s b a n d ’s b etray al, w ith sa m u ra i resolve she se iz e d a razo r a n d p u t an e n d to h e r o w n life, a n d th a t of h e r infant. W ith O iw a’s facial disfigurem ent, N akagaw a’s p re se n ta tio n tak es o n religious co n n o tatio n s. O iw a n o w evokes th e g h a stly p re ta d e p ic te d in h o rizo n tal, scroll-like p a in tin g s fe m a k im o n o j d ra w n in th e tw e lfth c e n tu ry w h e n plague a n d fam in e w ere ra m p a n t in Japan. (K urosaw a's R a sh o m o n w as set in th a t p erio d .) T he p re ta w ere sp irits c o n d e m n e d to sta rv a tio n in th e afterlife b ecau se of th e ir sin s, a n d th e ir ug ly faces a n d d is te n d e d b ellies w ere m arks of th e ir p u n ish m e n t. D isfig u rem en t in th e m o n ste rs of W estern h o rro r film s c o u ld also be c o n sid e re d sy m b o lic of th e ir s in s in a

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The Yotsuya Ghost Story on the Tokaido (1959), directed by Nobuo Nakagawa. Disfigured by the poison her husband gave her, this sam urai wife (Katsuko Wakasugi) kills her infant and herself and becomes a Vengeful Spirit. C h ristia n co n tex t, as w ell as th e m a rk of th e ir in h u m a n or su p e rn a tu ra l n a tu re . B ut O iw a w as sin le ss, a n d th o u g h s u p e rn a tu ra l as V engeful S p irit, h e r d isfig u re m e n t is sim p ly an em b lem of le m o n ’s b etray al a n d th e grudge sh e b e a rs h im for it. O iw a ’s com b, o n th e o th e r h a n d , signifies h e r p rev io u s fid elity to w ard le m o n , for in Japan it w as c u sto m a ry in th e ev en t of se p a ra tio n for a w o m a n to b reak a com b a n d give h alf of it to th e m a n sh e loves. A fter le m o n ’s p o iso n to o k effect, O iw a h a d sta rte d to com b h e r long hair, sym bol of fe m in in e beauty, o n ly to fin d it clin g in g to th e com b, leav in g b e h in d red w elts on h e r sc a lp a n d m ak in g h e r even uglier. T he com b is later fo u n d by le m o n ’s a c c o m p lic e , N ao su k e, w h o sh o w s it to h is w ife, O sode. O so d e says it b e lo n g e d to O iw a, h e r d e a d sister, a n d s u d d e n ly O iw a a p p e a rs b efo re her. S h e is h e r o ld b e a u tifu l self, sin c e sh e b ears O so d e no grudge. To N ao su k e, how ever, sh e a p p e a rs as a w ra th fu l figure, w h o ev en tu ally gets a d e ra n g e d le m o n to k ill him . T he com b sy m b o lizes O iw a’s b eau ty a n d h e r loss of it. It also in d ic a te s th e d u a l a s p e c t of Jap an ese s p irits w h o a p p e a r to be vengeful o n ly to th o se w h o w ro n g e d th em .

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D u alistic sy m b o lism also o ccu rs in N ak ag aw a’s u se of sn ak es, in p la c e of th e rats in d ic a tin g d eg en eracy in N a n b o k u ’s play. In th e b e g in n in g of th e film w h e n lem o n k ille d a snake th a t frig h te n e d 〇 iw a, sh e to ld h im it w as a bad om en b ecau se sn ak es w ere m essen g ers of th e gods. T hereafter, th e ir ap p e a ra n c e w as in te n d e d not o n ly to give th e a u d ie n c e a q u e a sy feelin g , w h ic h m ay be a u n iv e rsa l effect, b u t also to sig n ify th e a p p ro a c h of O iw a ’s h eav en -o rd a in e d a n d ju st revenge. N akagaw a’s tre a tm e n t of th e revenge, w h ic h b eg in s in “T he T em p le of th e S n ak es,‫ ״‬a d e p tly conveys relig io u s sy m b o lism th ro u g h th e a tric a l a n d cin em atic te c h n iq u e s. lem o n h a d ta k e n refuge th e re a n d an o v e rh e a d sh o t show s h im p ray in g in th e c e n te r of a large, se rp e n tlik e B u d d h is t ro sary on th e floor aro u n d him . W hen th e liv in g avengers, O so d e a n d h e r o ld b etro th ed enter, lem o n flees to th e sa n c tu a ry w h ere th ere is an a lta r w ith a huge im age of th e B u d d h a. B ut s u d d e n ly it is ro lle d b ack in to th e d a rk n e ss w h ere balls of fire sw irl a n d dan ce. T h e n a d isfig u re d O iw a a p p e a rs in m id a ir w ith th e d e a d in fa n t in h e r arm s, to w erin g m e n a c in g ly over a cro u ch ed lem o n . T he c h ild cries a n d a te n t of m o sq u ito n e ttin g co m es floating d o w n from th e d ark n ess to e n tra p lem o n . T h is recalls th e s u m m e r n ig h t w h e n O iw a, in sid e su c h a te n t d u tifu lly d ra n k th e p o iso n h e h a d given her. He cries o u t for forgiveness, b u t h e is a p p e a lin g to th e w ro n g deity, for th e V engeful S p irit h as re p la c e d th e B u d d h a of In fin ite C o m p assion. T he scene sh ifts to a sw am p w h ere a fleeing le m o n is fin a lly c u t d o w n by O sode a n d h e r b etro th e d . S ince th e y are a id e d by n o t o n ly O iw a b u t also th e Vengeful S p irit of th e m asseur, w h o m le m o n h a d k ille d for b e in g an in c rim in a tin g w itn e ss, it a p p e a rs th a t le m o n ’s d e m ise is th e re su lt of a group endeavour. H ow ever, d ire c to r N akagaw a leaves n o d o u b t in th e v ie w e r’s m in d th a t O iw a is th e c e n tra l agent• A fter le m o n ’s final cry for forgiveness th e re is a sp lit-se c o n d m o n tag e of h is agonized face, a snake, a n d h e r disfig u red face. In th e sile n c e after h is d eath she is sh o w n sta n d in g c alm ly in fro n t of a g rav esto n e w ith th e in fa n t in h e r arm s. H er facial d isfig u re m e n t has v a n ish e d b ecau se h e r v e n g e a n c e has been sp en t. T he film en d s w ith a d isso lv e to sh o w h e r s ta n d in g s u sp e n d e d in th e m isty n ig h t sky, follow ed by a n o th e r d isso lv e of h e r as a sm all figure w ith th e c h ild in h e r arm s, a s c e n d e d even h ig h e r w ith th e m o o n on h e r right. M asatoshi O hba h as co m p ared th is final im age of O iw a w ith th e fam o u s p a in tin g of The S ad M other K an n o n (Hibo iC annon-zu), c o m p le te d b y Motonobu Kano (1476—1559〕 just before his death•17 Doubtless, Western readers will recall paintings of Mary’s Assumption into Heaven. It is not necessary, how ever, to re a d a W estern or C h ristia n in flu e n c e in to th e w o rk of e ith e r M o to n o b u or N ak ag aw a, s in c e r e p r e s e n ta tio n s of th e G reat M o th er G oddess a p p e a r in m a n y relig io n s, as n o te d b y C. G. J u n g ,18 a n d M ary a n d th e B u d d h is t K an n o n are b u t tw o ex am p les. A t a n y rate, o n ce

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O iw a th e V engeful S p irit a c h ie v e d h e r p u rp o se , sh e c o u ld , like M ary, a tta in e te rn a l rest, w h ic h is c a lle d jo b u tsu or n irv a n a in B u d d h ism .

Revenge and Justice W h en O iw a a sc e n d s in to h eav en , th e v iew er also feels rep o se, a sen se of relief. T he p sy c h o lo g ic a l p u rp o se of a n y d ram a is cath arsis: sp iritu a l re le a se from te n sio n or u n e a s in e ss . We are all d ism ay ed over th e co n trad ic tio n b e tw e e n th e id e a l of ju stic e a n d th e a c tu a l state of an y so cie ty w h e re th e w e a k like O iw a are u s e d a n d d isc a rd e d . In an y revenge sto ry th e re is a c a lm after th e storm . A n id e a l has b e e n affirm ed. B alance has b e e n re sto re d to a w o rld tilte d by in ju stice. Yet, in th e m id st of th e calm th ere is often a b ad aftertaste. We are glad th e h ero d id it a n d th e v illa in got p u n is h e d , b u t th e v io le n c e an d d eath s o m e h o w m ak e life seem fu tile. For th is reaso n p h ilo so p h e rs a n d relig io u s le a d e rs have often rejected revenge as a m ean s to ju stice. C h ris fs d o c trin e of th e o th e r c h eek h as its O rien tal eq u iv alen ts. T he h is to ric a l B u d d h a saw revenge as a v icio u s cycle w ith d e a th b eg ettin g m o re d e a th , a n d M en ciu s c o n c u rre d . F ilial p iety is th e c o rn e rsto n e of C o n fu c ia n ism a n d o ne of its in ju n c tio n s is th a t o n e c a n n o t live u n d e r th e sam e sky as th e m an w h o k ille d o n e ’s fath er or brother• M en ciu s in terp re te d th is as a stro n g d e te rre n t to an y k illin g b ecau se an y h u m a n b ein g h a s relativ e s or frie n d s ， w h o w o u ld be b o u n d to kill o n e ’s o w n kin•19 D esp ite th e w a rn in g s of great te ach ers th a t revenge c o u ld u ltim ately lead to th e a n n ih ila tio n of th e h u m a n race, ju st v en g ean ce still rem ain s a v iab le id e a l re a liz e d in c o u n tle ss sto ries, d ram as a n d film s. A lth o u g h th e Japa n e se k n o w M e n c iu s, in th e ir h isto ry a n d d ram as th e “sam e sk y ” id e a led to w h o le s a le slayings of all th e relatives of o n e ’s en em y ra th e r th a n a d e te rre n t to k illin g as su ch . Tadao Sato h a s s u rm ise d th a t th e re are m ore ven g efu l sp irits in Japan th a n in th e W est b ecau se th e c o n c e p t of th e Last Ju d g m en t h as n o t b e e n so p e rsu a siv e in Jap an ese th in k in g .20 Still, th e B u d d h is t d o c trin e of rein carn a tio n , th ro u g h w h ic h th e sin s of th is life are p a id for in th e n ex t, h as b e e n p o p u la r in Japan an d can be c o n s id e re d a c u ltu ra l eq u iv alen t. A ctu ally , b o th id eas are ra tio n a liz a tio n s th a t a tte m p t to solve th e in eq u a litie s a n d u n fa irn e ss in society, b u t th a t never, co m p le te ly su c c e e d in d is p e llin g th e re se n tm e n t p ile d u p after years of o p p re ssio n . H ence, th e p o p u la r ity of re v e n g e s to rie s in Ja p a n a n d th e W est, a n d p ro b a b ly else w h e re . E ven th e long su fferin g Japanese, w h o are sa id to be cap ab le of b e a rin g th e u n b e a ra b le , c o u ld n o t w ait for th e n ex t life, let alo n e a too d is ta n t L ast Ju d g m en t. T hey c h a n g e d th e p rim itiv e, tro u b leso m e s p irit in to a v en g efu l o n e w ith a ju st p u rp o se , w h ic h affo rd ed at least p sy ch o lo g ical relief.

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O n a less p h ilo so p h ic a l level, Japanese v iew ers m ig h t n o t e x p e rie n c e an y b ad aftertaste from a revenge d ram a, sin c e th e y seem to c o m p le te ly id e n tify w ith th e avenging sid e a n d do n o t tak e in to c o n s id e ra tio n th e p o sitio n of th e object of revenge. T his k in d of id e n tific a tio n also tak es p lace in th e W est, w h ere d ra m a tists an d film m ak ers aid a n d ab et it by p a in tin g th e c u lp rit as evil a n d cru el as p o ssib le , th e re b y fillin g th e ir au d ie n c e s w ith ab so lu te lo ath in g for h im . In Japan, how ever, th is is n o t necessary. In N akagaw a’s film v ersio n le m o n is m o re a v ic tim of c irc u m stan ces th a n a villain• B ut lem o n is in sig n ifican t. Japanese view ers p ro b ab ly fo cu s e x c lu siv e ly o n O iw a’s te n a c ity of p u rp o se. C alled s h u n e n , it is n o t o n ly a ch ief c h aracteristic of tíie V engeiul S p irit b u t also an a ttrib u te of w o m e n , as Japanese m en see them . Just as th ey w o u ld risk th e ir life to be fa ith fu l to th e m an th ey love, th ey w o u ld also not rest u n til th e y got even w ith th e m a n w ho betrayed th em . H ence, n o th in g can sto p V engeful S p irits like Oiw a. The e n d in g is in ev itab le, a n d th e a u d ie n c e is satisfied w h e n h e r p u rp o se is fulfilled. T hw arted p u rp o se is u n ju st.

Anima and Folk Belief S ince m ost vengeful sp irits in Japanese th e a te r a n d film are fem ale like O iw a, an d sin ce m ost of th e ir creators are m ale, it is u sefu l to in te rp re t th e m th ro u g h C. G. Ju n g ’s c o n c e p t of th e an im a. T he a n im a is th e p e rso n ification of all fe m in in e psy ch o lo g ical te n d e n c ie s in a m a n ’s p sy c h e , “th e w o m an w ith in ‫ ״‬w h o conveys vital m essages from th e u n c o n s c io u s. S he a p p ears in d ream s a n d is p rojected in m y th s a n d th e a tric a l c o n v e n tio n s, for exam ple, th e G reek S irens, th e G erm an L orelei a n d th e F re n c h /e m m e fatale. V iew ed negatively, th e a n im a lead s m e n to th e ir d o o m , b u t sh e c o u ld be a p o sitiv e sp iritu a l g uide, to o .21 A lth o u g h O iw a d estro y s le m o n , as a re p re se n ta tio n of m ale g uilt sh e co rrects th e im b a la n c e c a u se d by m ale excesses or in ju stices. T he p ositive a n d negative a sp ects of th e a n im a c o in c id e w ith th e ben ev o len t an d m alev o len t sid es of th e m o th e r arch ety p e• [Jung b e lie v e d th e a n im a w as a sep arate a rc h e ty p e ， “w h ic h in a m a n ’s p sy ch o lo g y in v a ria b ly ap p ears, at first, m in g led w ith th e m o th e r im a g e .22(‫ ״‬In H in d u m y th o lo g y , for exam ple, K ali is b o th th e loving a n d te rrib le m o th e r.23 A Jap an ese co u n te rp a rt to th e terrib le m o th er ca n be d isc e rn e d in leg en d s a b o u t y a m a u b a, old w o m e n d em o n s in th e m o u n ta in s w h o d ev o u r u n w ary , so lita ry trav elers.24 O n th is level, after O iw a **devours le m o n ‫ ״‬sh e b e c o m e s lik e K annon, th e G oddess of M ercy in th e h eav en s p ro te c tin g h e r o w n c h ild a n d all w ho revere her. The b e n ev o len t a n d m alev o len t asp e c ts of th e m o th e r a rc h e ty p e , a n d th e

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a n im a , c o rre s p o n d to th e d ic h o to m y of d e p a rte d s p irits in Japanese folk b elief. A n c e s tra l s p irits p ro tect d e s c e n d a n ts w h o re m e m b e r th e m w ith fo o d offerings, a n d m a le v o le n t s p irits cau se tro u b le. A good m a n ife sta tio n of th is d ic h o to m y can be fo u n d in M iz o g u c h i’s U getsu, a film v e rsio n of Jap an ese g h o st sto rie s th a t w o n in te rn a tio n a l acclaim . D u rin g a tim e of civ il w arfare a six te e n th c e n tu ry p o tte r b eco m es sep arated from h is w ife a n d little boy a n d d a llie s w ith a b eau tifu l, a risto cratic la d y w h o tu rn s o u t to be a gh o st w h o w an ts to tak e h im w ith h e r back to th e la n d of th e dead . He b a re ly e scap es a n d re tu rn s h o m e to find h is w ife w a itin g for h im . S he fixes h im a w arm m eal an d m e n d s h is g arm en ts, b u t w h e n h e aw akes th e n e x t d ay he fin d s o u t th a t sh e w as a ghost, too. T h e g h o st of th e a risto c ra tic la d y w as d e fin ite ly a m alev o len t sp irit, an d h e r m a id h a d to ld th e p o tte r w hy. H er s p irit is restless b ecau se sh e d ie d in o p p o rtu n e ly before sh e c o u ld b eco m e a b rid e a n d e x p e rie n c e fu lfillm en t as a w o m a n . S in ce sh e n ev er gave b irth , sh e is a m u e n b o to k e w h o h a s no d e s c e n d a n ts to p acify h e r w ith m e m o ria l serv ices. M oreover, sh e is also a v en g efu l s p irit w ho bears th e liv in g w o rld a gru d g e b ecau se sh e m issed o u t o n a m ajo r p h a se of th e life cycle. S he is a c tu a lly m o re terrify in g th a n O iw a b e c a u se h e r v en g ean ce h as n o specific target, a n d one im ag in es h e r e te rn a lly try in g to e n tra p a n u n s u s p e c tin g m ale. O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e p o tte r’s w ife h as b eco m e a n a n c e stra l sp irit. T he last s e q u e n c e of M iz o g u c h i^ film b eg in s w ith th e p o tte r k n e e lin g before h e r grave m o u n d a n d ask in g h e r w h y sh e d ied . O n th e s o u n d tra c k w e h e a r h e r an sw e r: I d id n o t die, for I am still b e sid e you, even th o u g h w e are in d iffe re n t w o rld s. T he se q u e n c e e n d s w ith th e ir little so n p la c in g a food o ffering o n h e r b u ria l m o u n d , w h ic h recalls p rev io u s scen es of th e th re e of th e m en jo y in g a w arm m e a l to g e th e r a ro u n d a n o p e n h e a rth w h ile she w as alive. T h is c in e m a tic c o u n te rb a la n c in g in d ic a te s th e c o n tin u ity b etw een th e liv in g a n d th e d e a d in o ne fa m ily as it is sy m b o liz e d in a n cesto r w o rs h ip th ro u g h food offerings. T h e p o tte r’s w ife h a s b eco m e a b e n e v o le n t s p irit w a tc h in g over h e r h u s b a n d , th e ir boy, a n d th e ir h o u se . A lth o u g h sh e h a d an u n tim e ly d eath , sh e still c o m p le te d th e m ajo r p h a se s of h e r life cycle: m arriag e an d c h ild b irth . T herefore, sh e is n o t re stle ss a n d is sim p ly p acified b ecau se th e y re m e m b e r her. A lth o u g h th e c o n tra st b e tw e e n th e sp irits of th e w ife a n d of th e aristo c ratic la d y is ex trem e, th e ir fre q u e n t ju x ta p o sitio n in se q u e n c e s w h ere o n e ’s d e p a rtu re is s m o o th ly fo llo w e d b y th e o th e r’s a p p e a ra n c e suggests th a t th e y are s im p ly tw o a lte rn a tin g asp e c ts of th e m a le ’s a n im a ， w h e th e r th a t of th e p o tte r or of M izo g u c h i h im se lf.25 T h e ir o rig in al n a tu re s d id n o t m ak e o n e b e n e v o le n t a n d th e o th e r m alev o len t. It w as th e re su lt of th e c irc u m sta n c e s of th e ir d e a th s, w ith th e life cy cle of o n e p re m a tu re ly in te rru p te d . T h ey e x e m p lify th e tw o a sp e c ts of O iw a: m ale v o le n t w h e n

Ugetsu (1953), directed by Kenji Mizoguchi. The ghost of this aristocratic lady (Machiko Kyo) is malevolent because she died before she could become a bride, and therefore she eternally tries to entrap an unsuspecting male.

Ugetsu (1953), directed by Kenji Mizoguchi. After the potter^ wife (Kinuyo Ta* naka) dies, she becomes a benevolent spirit who watches over her husband and son in the land of the living.

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bearing a grudge, b en e v o le n t w h e n pacified . O iw a’s b e n e v o le n c e is lim ited, th o u g h , for, u n lik e Mary, she p rotects o n ly h e r o w n d e s c e n d a n ts , n o t all m a n k in d or all C h ristia n believers. , K eiko M cD onald has no ted th e forgiving n a tu re of M iz o g u c h i,s h e ro in e s like th e p o tte r’s w ife•26 T his can be p ro b le m a tic ，how ever, in term s of th e p rim ary fu n c tio n of th e an im a: to co rrect th e p sy c h o lo g ic a l im b a la n c e cau sed by m ale excesses. T he ease w ith w h ic h th e p o tter is fo rg iv en w ill h a rd ly in d u c e self-reflection, or a re c o g n itio n of h is o w n n eg lig en ce. T he p ro te c tiv e fo rg iv in g s id e of Ja p a n e se s p ir its c a n th w a rt th e V en g efu l S p irifs p u rp o se of ju stic e th ro u g h revenge. T h is w as p a rtic u la rly e v id e n t in th e 1959 Dai Ei film in w h ic h d ire c to r K enji M isu m i h as O iw a forgive lem o n in th e end. T he e n d in g of th e 1965 film v ersio n w as even w o rse, for a sw eet a n d gentle O iw a cam e for lem o n after h e h a d su ffered e n o u g h , p resu m ab ly to g u id e h im to A m id a ’s W estern P arad ise, w h e re th e y both c o u ld attain etern al rest. S u c h O iw as lost th e p o w er to terrify a n d s im p ly covered u p m ale sin s w ith u n w a rra n te d “m o th e rly ” ten d ern ess• Forgiveness is by no m ean s o u t of th e q u e stio n . T h e p o tter w as n o t s u c h a b ad fellow. In fact, he w as so n o n d e s c rip t th a t it see m e d as th o u g h tw o p ow erful fem ale d eities w ere b a ttlin g over h is ra th e r sm all so u l. B ut le m o n d id no t deserve to be forgiven by th e w o m an h e h a d k ille d w h e n sh e w as of n o fu rth e r use. S u ch forgiveness is o n ly an id e a liz a tio n of th e s e rv ility of th e w eak a n d o p p ressed .

Living Female Avengers T he m ain d raw b ack of b o th O iw a a n d H a n n y a g h o sts in N o h th e a te r is that th e ir su p e rn a tu ra l n a tu re m akes th e ir ju st g riev an ces a n d v e n g ean ce seem like aberratio n s. Live avengers, p a rtic u la ry fem ale o n es, w o u ld be better, sin ce m e n created th e so cie ties a n d are re sp o n s ib le for th e inju stices th erein . H ow ever, in tra d itio n a l Jap an ese th e a te r a n d p e rio d film , living fem ale avengers w ere not o n ly p o o r im ita tio n s of th e ir m a le co u n terp arts b u t also su p p o rte d so cie ty b y o n ly tak in g p a rt in s o c ia lly a p p ro v e d v e n d e tta s lik e th a t of a v e n g in g th e d e a th of a p a re n t. L iv in g fe m a le avengers w h o w ere socially terrify in g o n ly b eg an a p p e a rin g in Jap an ese film in th e late sixties, a n d th e re are o n ly a few ex am p les. Tales of the Shogun's H a r e m (Ooku M o n o g atari, 1967) c o n s is ts of th re e ep iso d es ab o u t th e lives of th e fem ale a tte n d a n ts w h o n ig h tly e n te rta in e d th e h ead of th e Tokugaw a g o vernm ent, w h ic h ru le d Japan from 1603 to 1868. A lth o u g h d ire c to r S adao N akajim a ex p lo ite d h is titilla tin g su b jec t m atter to th e fu llest, h is co m m ercial film still gave an accu rate, c o n c ise p ic tu re of th e statu s of w o m en in feu d al tim es. T he first e p iso d e c o n c e rn e d th e c o m p e titio n b etw e e n th e w o m en to co n ceiv e a c h ild for th e ir m aster, sin ce th e ir statu s w o u ld rise if th e y c o u ld p ro v id e a su ccesso r. E ven o ld e r

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w o m e n no lo n g e r in th e ru n n in g c o m p e te d by e sp o u sin g th e cau se of th e ir y o u n g e r w a rd s. T he p lig h t of all th e se w o m e n w as e x p ressed w h e n an o ld w o m a n d ro p p e d a b u c k e t d o w n a d e e p w ell, a n d a w id e -sc re e n c lo se -u p of its m o u th s y m b o liz e d th e w om b, th e so u rc e ◦ f w o m a n ’s p a in a n d statu s. In th e se c o n d e p iso d e a y o u n g a tte n d a n t c o m m itte d s u ic id e by ju m p in g in th e w ell b e c a u se h e r lover h a d fo rced h e r to ab o rt ra th e r th a n b rin g ab o u t fatal re c rim in a tio n s from th e a u th o ritie s for th e ir secret affair. T h e th ird e p iso d e is a b o u t a m e rc h a n t's d a u g h te r w h o is tak en in to se rv ic e as a m a id , b u t w h o se b eau ty attra c ts th e sh o g u n so m u c h th at he ra ise s h e r ra n k to th at of a 4*playm ate.‫ ״‬H er b e tro th e d suggests elo p in g after h e gets over h is in itia l d isg u st over h er loss of virginity, b u t h e is cru elly k ille d by th e s h o g u n s re ta in e rs. T he h e a d m istre ss of th e h arem tells th e d is tra u g h t girl th a t at least she w ill be forgiven if sh e 4*consents‫ ״‬again. In th e b o u d o ir sh e d raw s th e s h o g u n ’s o w n sw o rd , b u t o n ly su cceed s in c u ttin g d o w n th e h e a d m istre ss. T he film e n d s w ith a sh o t of th e castle in flam es b e h in d her. H er h a ir is d ish e v e le d a n d th e sw o rd is still in h er h a n d . S h e h a s b eco m e a liv in g V engeful S p irit re p re se n tin g th e grudge th e c o m m o n e rs b ear th e ir e x p lo iters. S in ce th e m e rc h a n t’s d a u g h te r failed to kill th e d eg en erate sh o g u n h im se lf a n d o n ly got a h ig h e r-sta tu s m em b er of h e r o w n sex, h er veng ean ce w as n o t c o n su m a te d b u t sim p ly su g g ested in th e flam es. A m ore terrify in g , live fem ale avenger w h o k ills evil, p o w erfu l m e n can be fo u n d in The Red P eo n y Gambler (Hibotan Bakuto, eig h t e n trie s from 1968 to 1972),27 a m o d e rn y a k u z a film series set in th e 1890s. T he h e ro in e , O -Ryu is a w a n d e rin g lad y g am b ler w h o is a d e p t n o t o n ly w ith th e d ice cu p b u t w ith th e p isto l a n d dagger as w ell. O -R yu h a d b e e n a p u re m a id e n w h o se w e d d in g en g ag em en t a n d ch an ce for a h a p p y o rd in a ry life w as ru in e d by th e v io le n t d e a th of h e r father, w h ic h e x p o se d h e r y a k u z a o rig in s. S he vow s to avenge h im a n d em b ark s o n h e r e n d le s s journey. H er fate is sy m b o liz e d by th e c lo se -u p s of p u re w h ite p e o n ie s tu rn in g in to b lo o d -re d o n es. S he resem b les th e V engeful S p irit of th e a risto c ra tic la d y in L/getsu w h o b ears a gru d g e b ecau se a n o rm a l p h a s e of h e r life cycle, m arriage, w as d e n ie d her. In early e n trie s stro n g m ales h e lp h e r a n d sh e ex p e rie n c e s tragic love affairs. T h ese ‫ ״‬c o n v e n tio n s ‫ ״‬from th e p a th e tic -b e a u ty sy n d ro m e m ake h e r se e m w eak in c o m p a riso n to h e r m ale c o u n te rp a rts, th e C haste W arrior a n d th e S to ic R etainer. T he terro r sh e w ill b eco m e, how ever, is fore‫״‬ sh a d o w e d in a scen e from th e first entry, d ire c te d by K osaku Y am ashita. W h en sh e p u lls a gu n on a g am b lin g boss, a c lo se -u p m akes it seem as if sh e is p o in tin g it at th e a u d ie n c e , w h ic h for y a k u z a film s is alm o st e x c lu siv e ly m ale. As T he Red P eony G am bJer series p ro g ressed (and J u n k ◦ Fuji w h o p la y e d O -R yu b ecam e th e m o st p o p u la r Japanese film actress), 0 ‫־‬ R yu b eg an k illin g th e evil boss herself, a n d in th e six th entry, E n ter O -Ryu (O-Ryu S an jo , 1970) h e r m ale h e lp e r b ecam e a n accesso ry lik e, a d m ira b le

Tales of the Shogun's Harem (1967), directed by Sadao Nakajima. The headmistress (Isuzu Yamada) of the harem prevents this distraught girl (Yoshiko Sakuma) from killing the shogun in order to avenge the cruel death of her betrothed.

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ally. T h e d ire c to r of E n ter O -R yu, Tai K ato, w as c o n tra c te d to To‫־‬Ei stu d io s to tu rn o u t c o m m e rc ia l a ssig n m e n ts ra p id ly d u rin g th e m o d e rn yakuza film fad; n o n e th e le s s , h e w as c a p a p b le of p re se n tin g c o m p e llin g im ages s u c h as th e fo llo w in g of O -Ryu at th e h eig h t of th e m elee. T aking o u t a long, n e e d le lik e h a irp in , sh e flings it in to th e g u n -w ie ld in g h a n d of o n e of th e h e n c h m e n . T h e n sh e d u c k s to avoid th e sw o rd of a n o th e r a n d stab s h im in th e belly. W hen sh e co m es u p for a full-face, w id e -sc re e n , clo se -u p , h e r d ish e v e le d h a ir o c c u p ie s h a lf th e screen a n d h e r c le n c h e d , b lo o d -s ta in e d dagger is p a ra lle l to h e r face g liste n in g w ith p e rs p ira tio n . W h en sh e stick s it in th e evil boss th e re is a gleam of p u re m a lic e in h e r eyes. O -R y u ^ d ish e v e le d h a ir a n d m a lic io u s g leam d u rin g s u c h a m elee is strik in g b e c a u se u su a lly sh e is p rim a n d proper. In h e r elab o rate h a ird o o n ly a s tra n d o r tw o m ay be o u t of place, an d like h e r m ale c o u n te rp a rts sh e is try in g to h id e h e r em o tio n s. A s tic k le r for fo rm alities, th is selfc o n tro lle d w o m a n h a s s u d d e n ly ru n am ok. In h e r tra n sfo rm a tio n she re c a lls O iw a, w h o lo st so m e of h e r hair, a n d th e d istra u g h t w o m an in a K ab u ki p la y (played by an o n n a g a ta or fem ale im p e rso n a to r) w h o rem oves h a irp in s from h e r elab o rate w ig u n til h e r h a ir reach es th e floor. In th e s e v e n th e n tr y of th e s e rie s , I W ant Y our Life (O-Inochi Itadakimasu, 1971), also d ire c te d b y Tai Kato, O -Ryu rea c h e d th e fu lle st e x te n t of d e m o n ic a l tra n sfo rm a tio n . In th e m id st of th e m elee, how ever, sh e s u d d e n ly h e a rd th e voices of a p p ro a c h in g c h ild re n , a n d crin g in g at th e ir in n o c e n c e a n d terrified at th e d e m o n sh e h ad b eco m e, sh e q u ic k ly left th e field of battle. T h is sc e n e is re m in is c e n t of a p assag e in KoshoJcu ic h id a i o n n a fThe Life of an A m o ro u s W om an] b y S aik ak u Ih ara, a s e v e n te e n th -c e n tu ry p ro se m aster. (M izoguchi b a se d h is Life of O h aru on th e novel.) T he o ld courte sa n h a s a n ig h tm a re in w h ic h sh e is h a u n te d by th e voices of all th e c h ild re n sh e n ev er h a d a n d th u s sy m b o lic a lly ab o rted . Like her, O-Ryu is o b se sse d by th e o rd in a ry life sh e m isse d o u t on. As if to p a c ify O -R yu, a n o th e r d irecto r, B u ich i Saito, tu rn e d h e r in to a g u a rd ia n ang el in H o n o r a n d H u m a n ity C o m e T h ro u g h (Jingi T o sh im asu , 1972), th e last e n try in th e series. N ow O -Ryu is c o n tin u a lly n u rsin g h e r w o u n d e d yakuza b ro th e rs, a n d sh e even sh o w s so m e w eak n ess h erself b y b e c o m in g sick a n d ly in g d o w n in b ed w ith a few stra n d s of h a ir d ro o p in g over h e r p e rsp irin g fo reh ead . In th e m elee sh e even regrets stab b in g a tu rn c o a t a n d gives h im a look of c o m p a ssio n th a t in sp ire s h im to p ro tect h e r b efore h e dies. A t th e e n d of H o n o r and Humanity C om e T h ro u g h O-Ryu d id not a s c e n d in to h e a v e n like O iw a; how ever, th e actress Jun k o Fuji retired from th e sc re e n , m a rrie d a K abuki actor, a n d b ecam e a n e x e m p la ry w ife a n d m o th er. T h is h a d b e e n fo re sh a d o w e d in th e final film . L ooking back o n th e w h o le se rie s, h e r im age seem s like th e tw o asp ects of th e a n im a of

The Red Peony Gambler~Flower Cards Match (Hibotan B akuto~H anafuda Shobu, 1969), directed by Tai Kato. Armed with a lethal hairpin and dagger, this lady gambler ()unko Fuji) kills evil gambling bosses who represent male-dominated society.

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d iff e r e n t d ire c to rs , a lte r n a tin g b e tw e e n b e n e v o le n t a n d m a le v o le n t p h a s e s, like th e good w ife a n d a risto c ra tic lad y in U getsu. A b e tte r re p re se n ta tiv e of ju st fem ale g riev an ces can b e fo u n d in th e S c o rp io n (S asori, six e n trie s, 1972-77),28 a c o n te m p o ra ry film series a b o u t fe m a le p ris o n cell m ates. A fter th e h e ro in e gets th e m an w h o d id h e r w ro n g , sh e tra n s c e n d s Frankie and Johnny by avenging th e v ictim s of ra p e a n d late-stage a b o rtio n s by c ru e l m ale d o cto rs. T he S co rp io n series n o t o n ly in c lu d e s v io le n t sc e n e s re m in is c e n t of O -Ryu at h e r finest b u t also e le m e n ts s im ila r to Tales of the S h o g u n ,s H arem th a t go b ey o n d th e le sb ia n a c tiv itie s ◦ f c o o p e d -u p w om en. T h e first entry, W om en P rison Cell M ates, N u m b e r 701 f/oshu 701-go, 1972), b eg in s w ith th e title song a b o u t g ru d g es an d re se n tm e n t (u ra m i b u s h ij a n d a c lo se -u p of th e h e ro in e 's ex p ressiv e eye. (She is often sh o w n w ith h e r h a ir or h e r h at b rim covering o n e eye). T h is is fo llo w ed by a sh o t of n a k e d fem ale p ris o n e rs w alk in g across a ram p le a d in g to th e b a th in g room . A m a le p ris o n g u ard is d o w n b elo w w atch in g th em , a n d a clo se -u p of h is lew d eye is fo llo w ed by a c u t b ack to th e h ero in e's eye of m alice. O n e eye sy m b o liz e s th e v ag in a,29 w h ic h often b leed s. Later th e h e ro in e ’s e s c a p e is h e ld u p b e c a u se h e r cell sister is m e n stru a tin g , a n d she recalls h e r o w n lo ss of virginity, c ru d e ly ex p ressed by b lo o d o n a w h ite sh eet. T h is is fo llo w e d by a sh o t of th e Japanese n a tio n a l flag w ith its red c ircle a g a in st a w h ite b ack g ro u n d . T he p ris o n is o n ly an organ of th e state g o v ern ed by m e n w h o e x p lo it w om en. B ut in th e e n d th e h e ro in e w ill get o n e of th e m , h e r ex -b o y frien d a n d p o lic e spy, a n d m ake h im b leed . D esp ite th e fact th a t d ire c to r S h u n y a Ito is u sin g th is co m m ercial film at le a st p a rtly to c ritic iz e e s ta b lis h e d society, b ecau se of h is “vaginal sym h o lis m ‫ ״‬h e c o u ld be o p e n to th e charge of m ale c h a u v in ism . W om en seem to be d e fin e d so lely a c c o rd in g to th e ir p h y sic a l c h a ra c te ristic s— th a t is, th e y are o p e n a n d v u ln e ra b le like th e vagina itself. T h e ir sex itself m ak es th e m w eak — n o t so cia l s u p p re s s io n — lik e th e d eceiv ed h e ro in e h e rse lf b efo re sh e h a rd e n e d a n d b ecam e a liv in g V engeful S p irit. In Tales of the S h o g u n ^ H a r e m th e fe u d a listic d e fin itio n of w o m en acco rd in g to th e ir w o m b w as c ritic iz e d ; b u t at le a st th e w om b h as a re p ro d u c tiv e fu n c tio n . T h e v ag in a as s u c h is o n ly a re c e p ta c le for th e p en is. Yet, th e m a le v illa in s also com e to be d efin ed by th e ir sex. In th e first e n try th e p ris o n w a rd e n is w o u n d e d in o n e eye a n d th ereafter resem b les a c y c lo p s. In th e th ird entry, fioom of B easts (K em ono n o H eya, 1973) th e p o lic e d e te c tiv e loses o n e arm w h ile ch asin g th e h ero in e. C o n seq u en tly , th e s e m e n seem like c a ric a tu re s of th e p e n is, one-ey ed or o n e-arm ed . S in c e th e film series w as b a se d o n a p o p u la r co m ic-b o o k series, su c h c a ric a tu riz a tio n does no t seem u n n a tu ra l. P erh ap s p re se n tin g w o m en , w h o are o n th e good sid e , as vaginas is n o t c h a u v in istic after all• It even seem s th a t p rim itiv e fe rtility sy m b o ls are b ein g u se d by a m o d e rn film

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Scorpion— Cell N um ber 4 1 (Sasori—Dai 41 Zakkyobo, 1972), directed by Shunya Ito. This female avenger (Meiko Kaji) starts a revolt in a prison, an organ of the state governed by men who exploit women. director to further the womens liberation movement, which was quite active at the time of filming. The fact that the heroine is also presented as a one-eyed figure, however, suggests another interpretation. Akiko Baba has noted the frequency of one-eyed demons in Japanese folk lore and surmised that their prototype was the alleged sacrificial victims in prehistorical times.30 During festivals of village gods supposedly one leg was broken and/or one eye pierced to prevent such victims’ escape. This one-eyed prototypal victim influenced Baba to re‫־‬interpret Japanese demons in folklore and myth as sublimations of the resentment of victimized non-Yamato minorities and outcastes•31 Such groups were even labeled ‘‘demons’’ （ oni) by majority society.32 As such, the male cyclopian villains in the Scorpion series could be regarded as the terrifying troublemakers demons are usually interpreted to be. On the other hand, the one-eyed heroine is a kindred spirit to Sazen Tange, the one-eyed, one-armed retainer who bore his lord a grudge, and the Noh Hannya prototype of the female Vengeful Spirit,

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w h ic h w as created by Z eam i a n d o th ers w h o m ay have h a d o u tc a ste o rig in s•33

Conclusion A s th e Jap an ese w o m e n ’s lib e ra tio n m o v em en t b ecam e less demon■ strativ e, liv in g fem ale avengers like th e S co rp io n h e ro in e ceased to a p p e a r in film s. O ld vengeful s p irits like Oivva d id not v an ish , how ever, an d even m a d e th e ir w ay to th e TV c irc u it. D u rin g th e eig h ties a p o p u la r TV sh o w c alled A n a ta no s h ira n a i sek ai (The W orld You Do N ot Know] h as been p re se n tin g d ra m a tiz a tio n s of a c tu a l s p iritu a lis tic e x p e rie n c e s. Iw ao N ik u ra, th e s h o w ’s ex p e rt w h o h a s p u b lis h e d elev en v o lu m es o n th e subject, h as d iv id e d c o n te m p o ra ry Japa n e se g h o sts in to tw o ty p es: tro u b le m a k in g d e m o n s a n d p u rp o se fu l sp irits w h o w is h to c o m m u n ic a te s o m e th in g to th e living. T he latter are often w ro n g e d w o m e n w ho a p p e a r to ex p ress th e ir re se n tm e n t. U n lik e O iw a, th o u g h , th e y ca n be p acified sh o rt of th e m ale c u lp r it’s d eath if he recogn iz e s h is o ld fault—w h ic h is th e n d e m o n stra te d by v isits to h e r grave or by m a k in g food offerings to h e r m e m o ria l tab let. T hese TV m o d ificatio n s of th e V engeful S p irit are d ifferen t from th e w atered -d o w n film v ersio n s of O iw a in th a t for th e m re p e n ta n c e is a p re c o n d itio n for forgiveness. le m o n h a d su ffered b u t h a d nev er really re p e n te d . W h en h e w as forgiven, h is o w n form of m ale ty ra n n y s im p ly w e n t u n reco g n ized . T h e TV m o d ific a tio n s are n o t n e a rly so terrify in g as N akagaw a^ O iw a, for th e ir re s e n tm e n t is d iss ip a te d ra th e r easily, w h ic h in d ic a te s it is ra th e r s im p le to c o n ta in re b e llio n in Japan. S till, th e ir p acificatio n p rice 一 th e re c o g n itio n of th e ir ju st g riev an ces— at least c u rb s m ale ty ra n n y to som e d eg ree, a n d even reflects th e re c o g n itio n of m in o rity g ro u p s in p resen t-d ay Japan, th o u g h th e p o w e rs‫־‬th a t‫״‬be h a rd ly feel g u ilty a b o u t th e ir u n e q u a l ex iste n c e •34 T h e o th e r k in d of c o n te m p o ra ry Japan ese g h o sts h as b e e n lab eled th e E x o rcist ty p e by N ik u ra, a n d h e c o n sid e rs th e m difficu lt to pacify. T h is lab el m ay s im p ly reflect th e p o p u la rity of A m e ric a n h o rro r film s in Japan sin c e th e p h e n o m e n a l su c c e ss of T he E xorcist in 1973. In fact, in th e e ig h tie s th e A m e ric a n v ariety seem s m ore p o p u la r th a n th e o ld Japanese k in d . T he label m ay in d e e d be su p erficial. P ro to ty p es for co n tem p o rary , tro u b le m a k in g gh o sts m ay w ell be th e native, one-eyed d em o n , as w ell as th e d e m o n s th a t e n te re d Japan via B u d d h is m w ith its c o n c e p t of h ell. T his c o n g lo m e ra tio n , w ith its In d ia n a n d C h in ese o rig in s, in c lu d e d m o n sters, a n im a llik e fairies (foxes w ere th e m o st p o p u la r) w h o d eceiv ed p e o p le by a s su m in g h u m a n sh a p e , a n d d e m o n s w h o p o sse sse d p e o p le or terrified th e m w ith a p p a ritio n s . M o n sters w ere d estro y ed by sw o rd -w ie ld in g h e ­

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roes, b u t th e oth ers w ere u s u a lly defeated b y h u m a n in g e n u ity o r k in d ness, w h ic h follow ed th e B u d d h is t tra d itio n w h e re b y d e m o n s w ere p a c i‫״‬ fied a n d tu rn e d in to allies. N ik u ra^ label m ay be a p p ro p ria te , after all. In d ia n , C h in ese, a n d n ativ e Japanese d em o n s c o u ld u su a lly be p acified . C h ristia n d e m o n s, o n th e o th er h a n d , h a d to be ex o rcised . A lth o u g h th e B u d d h is t ro sary c o u ld be an ex o rcisin g e q u iv a le n t to th e cross, it w as o n ly effective in m e d ie v a l N o h plays. From th e se v e n te e n th c e n tu ry on, Jap an ese s p irits g e n e ra lly h a d to be pacified e ith e r by offerings o r by revenge. S p irits w h o c o u ld n o t be th ereb y pacified h a d to com e from th e West. A good ex am p le of th e C h ristia n k in d of d e m o n ch an g in g Jap an ese ico n o g rap h y can be fo u n d in Hell of Maidens (Shojo Jigoku, 1977), a softcore porn o film w h ic h M asaru K onum a, a relativ e ly u n k n o w n d ire cto r, raises above th e m u n d a n e level of th e N ik k atsu “ro m a n ” subgenre• T h e sto ry co n cern s an in tro v erted h ig h sch o o l girl w h o is to rm e n te d by classm ates and teach ers alike, a n d w h o m h e r u n s y m p a th e tic , lo w er-class paren ts c o n sid e r ab n o rm al. S he is b e frie n d e d by a girl from a ric h fam ily a n d th ey have a le sb ia n relatio n sh ip . T he p o o r girl is later s e d u c e d by th e p rin c ip a l, w ho forces h e r to abort w h e n sh e b eco m es p reg n an t. S h e trie s to get even by se n d in g a letter to a n e w s p a p e r ex p o sin g h im , a n d th e n se ttin g th e school on fire a n d dyin g in th e flam es. S in ce n o o n e b eliev es th e letter, th e ric h girl c o n tin u e s to avenge h e r a n d to g e th e r w ith h e r g h o st to rm e n ts not o n ly th e p rin c ip a l b u t all h e r fo rm er p e rse c u to rs. The po o r girPs ghost is sim p ly a tra d itio n a l V engeful S p irit. T he ric h girl is a liv in g fem ale avenger, lik e th e S co rp io n h e ro in e , u n til sh e fin d s o u t th at th e p rin c ip a l is h e r real father. T h e n sh e c o n fro n ts h e r ste p fa th e r w ith th e tru th an d te m p ts him , saying th e b ad seed w ill be p e rp e tu a te d , th a t is, sh e is ju st like h e r m o th e r w ho m ad e a c u c k o ld o u t of him . W hile “bad b lo o d ” is a c o n v e n tio n a l ex cu se for la sc iv io u s n e ss in Japan ese porno film s, h e r w ick ed sm ile suggests sh e is a k in to a W estern -sty le fem m e fatale, a n d th at th e sa d istic p le a su re sh e gets from to rm e n tin g h e r v ictim s far outw eig h s th e satisfa ctio n of carry in g o u t a g ru d g e. In th e clim ax of th e film she tra n sc e n d s th e /e m m e fatale ro le a n d sh o w s h e rse lf to be an evil dem on. D ressed in b lack like a p rie st, th e p rin c ip a l is c lim b in g a v o lcan o , p e rh a p s in a to n e m e n t for h is sin s. S u d d e n ly th e ric h girl a p p e a rs b efo re h im w ith th e p o o r girl, w h o is also sm ilin g w ick ed ly . D ressed in w h ite robes like angels, th ey em b race lasciv io u sly . T h e n th e y set th e m se lv e s o n fire, a n d like w itc h e s at th e stake are b u rn t u p before h is eyes. H e goes m a d a n d starts beating h is h e a d ag ain st a rock, a n d th e film e n d s w ith a big w h ite b a llo o n a sc e n d in g th e sm oky sky. T he girls h a d fo n d le d th is b allo o n se n su a lly in th e b e g in n in g of th e film , a n d it seem s to suggest th e d esires th a t wâll alw ay s te m p t a n d to rm e n t h u m a n beings w h o se efforts to w ard g o o d n ess m ig h t sim p ly be h y p o c risy .

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T h is th e m e is n ew a n d v alid in c o n te m p o ra ry m id d le -c la ss Japanese society. T he in tru s io n of th e evil d e m o n from th e W est, how ever, w eak en s th e p o w e r of th e old V engeful S p irit to evoke a sen se of justice. Just g rie v an ces are re p la c e d by a vague s e n se of evil th at m akes ev ery th in g seem fu tile . It also s im p ly recalls th e in d isc rim in a te tro u b le m a k in g of th e p rim itiv e s p irits from w h ic h a p u rp o se fu l V engeful S p irit evolved. In th e c u ltu ra l h y b rid of a liv n g fem ale aveng er a n d a n evil d em o n , W estern in flu e n c e , w h ic h often h a s a progressiv e effect in Japan, iro n ic a lly lead s to re tro g re ssio n a n d p a ra d o x ic a lly in d u c e s a y e a rn in g for o ld V engeful Spirits lik e O iw a.

6

All-Suffering Female and Weak Passive Male Introduction A s stated in c h a p te r tw o, th e p a th e tic b e a u ty has a su b o rd in a te p o s itio n in p e rio d film, for th e C haste W arrior m u st reject h e r to be stro n g in b a ttle an d th e T orm ented Lord is th e ch ief sufferer in th e m a le -o rie n te d genre. In co n tem p o rary film, how ever, she can o ccu p y th e sp o tlig h t as a su ffe rin g fem ale, p a rtric u la rly in th e so -called **feminine film s‫( ״‬josei eiga) o n tragic m o th ers an d lovers,1 a n d th e m a n w h o loves h e r is u s u a lly w eak a n d can n o t p o ssib ly m atch h e r suffering. W eak m ale lovers are n o t p e c u lia rly Japanese. In p o p u la r C h in e se literature d u rin g th e M ing D ynasty from 1368 to 1644 ro m a n tic love is o ften treated as a sick n e ss th a t p a rtic u la rly afflicts m e n a n d m ak es th e m w eak a n d p a th e tic .2 T his view d o u b tle ss reflects th e C o n fu c ia n p rio rity for p a re n t-c h ild relatio n s, w h ic h c o u ld co n ceiv ab ly be th re a te n e d b y ro m a n tic love. W hile Japan shares a C o n fu cian tra d itio n w ith C h in a, m a le lovers in Japanese film th ro u g h th e fifties seem ed even w eak er th a n th e ir C h in e se c o u n terp arts, say in H ong Kong film s. T his c a n be a ttrib u te d to th e la c k of a C haste W arrior a rc h e ty p e in C h in ese cu ltu re . In fact, in C h in a d u rin g th e th e tw elfth c e n tu ry th e C o n fu cian sc h o la r re p la c e d th e w a rrio r as th e m ale id e a l.3 A lth o u g h w arrio r h eroes d id n o t d isa p p e a r, th e y n ev er b e c a m e ch aste like M u sash i, p ro b ab ly b ecau se Z en a n d th e C h in ese e q u iv a le n t of B u sh id o w ere n o t so p ersuasive. T hus, a m o d e rn k u n g fu h ero lik e B ru ce Lee w as not above a love scene. In Japanese c u ltu re , o n th e o th e r h a n d , th e w arrio r rem ain ed th e p o p u la r m ale id eal, a n d lover boys w ere m a d e even w eaker to s u p p o rt th e C haste W arrior c o n te n tio n th a t w o m e n a c tu a lly w ere a w eak en in g influence. Yet th e difference is one of degree. F u rth erm o re, w eak lovers c a n n o t be a ttrib u te d solely to C o n fu cian ism , for th e y can be fo u n d in th e W est, too. S te p h e n N eale o b served in his a n a ly sis of H o lly w o o d m e lo d ra m a s a n d m u sicals th e fe m in iz a tio n of th e m e n th e re in a n d q u o ted R o lan d B arth es to th e effect th a t a m a n is n o t fe m in iz e d b ecau se h e is h o m o se x u a l b u t b ecau se he is in love. N eale fu rth e r n o ted th a t th e ag o n ies of su ffe rin g a n d 118

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w a itin g are e x p e rie n c e d p re d o m in a n tly b u t n o t ex clu siv e ly by w o m en , a n d gives as an e x a m p le of m ale agony Rock H u d so n in The Magnificent O b s e ss io n .4 W aiting is ,a n ex p re ssio n of p a ssiv ity ; how ever, W estern m ale lovers, a lb e it w eak, are by no m e a n s so p assiv e as th e ir Japanese c o u n te rp a rts. T h is c a n be d e m o n stra te d by a b rie f c o m p a riso n of th e m ale lead s in H id eo O h b a ’s W hat Is Your N am e? (Kiini no Na vva， 1 9 5 3 5 4 ‫)־‬， an im m e n se ly p o p u la r Jap an ese film trilogy, a n d M ervyn LeRoy^ W aterloo B ridge (1940). T h e H o lly w o o d film serv ed as a m o d e l for th e Japanese o n e ,5 a n d b o th c o n c e rn y o u n g lovers w h o m eet by c h a n c e d u rin g a W orld War II a ir raid a n d are th e re a fte r k e p t a p a rt by tragic c irc u m sta n c e s. T h e Jap an ese m ale lead, p lay ed by Keiji S ada, is not o n ly p o w erless to m ak e h is love h a p p y b u t also ra th e r im m o b ile. D u rin g th re e h o u rs of film footage in a d ig est v ersio n he o n ly w e n t to see h e r th re e tim es o u t of h is o w n v o litio n , a n d tw ic e th e n sh e w as on th e b rin k of d e a th b ecau se of an a tte m p te d s u ic id e a n d n e a r fatal illn ess. T he d o m in a n t im age of h im w a itin g for h e r o n a b ridge, a m eetin g p la c e for Jap an ese lovers, testifies to h is p assiv ity . In th e H o lly w o o d film how ever, th e m ale lead, p lay ed by R obert Taylor, is o n ly sh o w n o n ce alo n e o n W aterloo B ridge, th e scen e of th e h e r o in e ’s s u ic id e a n d th e ir first m e e tin g ， a n d th e n h e w as n o t w aitin g b u t s im p ly re c a llin g th e ir life together. A ty p ical, tak e-ch arg e A m erican h ero , T aylor not o n ly p u rs u e d h is sw e e th e a rt b u t also se a rc h e d for her; th e ir s e p a ra tio n s w ere really th e re su lt of c irc u m sta n c e s ra th e r th a n lack of v o litio n o n th e p art of th e m ale. T h e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n th e A m e ric a n a n d Jap an ese love hero es can be a ttrib u te d to a tra d itio n of k n ig h tly c h iv alry in ste a d of th e C o n fu cian ism , as w ell as B u d d h ism , w h ic h e n co u rag es passivity. Japanese lovers w ere p ro b a b ly m ore p assiv e th a n C h in ese o n es b ecau se B u d d h ism h a d greater in flu e n c e in Jap an .6 H en ce a Japanese a rc h e ty p e fo rm ed , h e re in d esig ‫־‬ n a te d as th e W eak P assive M ale. G iven th e C haste W arrior a n d th e W eak Passive M ale as m ates, it is no w o n d e r th a t Jap an ese h e ro in e s suffered, p a rtic u la rly m o re th a n h er W este rn c o u n te rp a rts . T he W aterloo B ridge h e ro in e , p lay ed by V ivien Leigh, su ffered , of co u rse, b u t she c o u ld be v iv acio u s at tim es. In stark co n trast, in W hat Is Ybur N am e? th e h e ro in e , play ed by K eiko K ishi, sm iled o n ly o n ce, w h e n sh e first m et th e hero, a n d th e re a fte r in v aria b ly w ore th e sam e sad facial e x p re ssio n . H en ce sh e re p re se n ts th e Jap an ese a rc h e ty p e h e re in d e sig n a te d as th e A ll-S u fferin g Fem ale. K eiko K is h i^ w o o d e n p e rfo rm a n c e c a n n o t be a ttrib u te d to a lack of a c tin g ability, for sh e is a lm o st as a c c o m p lish e d as V ivien Leigh w as. D irecto rial tre a tm e n t, how ever, is d efin itely a facto r b ecau se H ideo O h b a^ m e lo d ra m a tic sty le m ak es M erv y n LeR oy^ film seem like d o c u m e n ta ry realism . B ut genre d e te rm in e d tre a tm e n t. Even to d ay Japanese often call love sto rie s, m e lo d ra m a s (borrow ing th e E n g lish w o rd a n d p ro n o u n c in g it,

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m e ro d o ra m a j,7 as if by th e ir c o n te n t a lo n e th e y are m e lo d ra m a tic . T h e n th e tre atm e n t itself beco m es m e lo d ra m a tic in th e E n g lish sen se of “extravagant th eatric ality •，，8 T he m ost fam ous Jap an ese film s a b o u t y o u n g lovers w ere su c h “love m e lo d ra m a s” as W hat Is Your N am e? T hey w ere n o t so n u m e ro u s as fam ily d ram as, th e o th e r p rin c ip a l g enre of c o n te m p o ra ry film , n o r d id th ey reach, or even a p p ro a c h , th e a rtis tic level of th e fa m ily d ram a m asterp ieces by O zu, M ikio N aruse, a n d o th ers. B ut th e y w ere th e biggest box office h its .9 C u lture d e te rm in e d genre. Japanese c o n sid e re d ro m a n tic love in m elo d ram atic term s, sin c e it w as so u n a tta in a b le in ev ery d ay life d u e to th e in flu en ces of B u sh id o a n d C o n fu cian ism . T he reverse sid e of a h ig h ly v alu ed p a re n t-c h ild re la tio n w as a stro n g y earn in g for ro m a n tic love. R ealistic fam ily d ram as co ex isted w ith fa n ta stic love m e lo d ra m a s. T h e la tte r’s a rch ety p es h a d a social fu n c tio n , for th e ir m otifs ◦ f su fferin g a n d p a ssiv ity stressed th e value of o b ed ien ce. W h en su fferin g is c o n s id e re d a v irtu e, p eo p le a ccep t th e ir social o rd e r as a n a tu ra l ra th e r th a n a n a rb itra ry p h e n o m e n o n , an d w h e n p a ssiv ity is th e p ro p e r m o d e of b eh av io r, p e o p le obey th e ir su p e rio rs a n d su b m it to th e state. S till, th e a rc h e ty p e s of th e A ll-S uffering Fem ale a n d th e W eak Passive M ale are p ro b le m a tic , for sto ries about tragic lovers can be c o n sid e re d a p ro te st ag ain st th e so c ie ty th a t w o u ld not p e rm it th e ir love. T hese arc h e ty p e s can be tra n sc e n d e n ta l as w ell as o p p o s itio n a l, fo r th e y can also re p re se n t a u n iv e rsa l d esire for an eth ereal p u rity th a t c a n n o t exist in th is m u n d a n e w o rld . In th e W est also tru e love is p ra c tic a lly u n a tta in a b le . O ne recalls a c h a ra c te r in In g m ar B erg m an ’s S m iJes of th e S u m m er N ight saying th a t in th e h isto ry of m a n k in d th e re w ere o n ly a few tru e lovers like R om eo an d Juliet, a n d on e also re m e m b e rs th a t th e y w ere k ep t ap art by th e ir fam ilies• A lth o u g h tragic lovers are u n iv e rsa l, th e Jap an ese a rc h e ty p e s of th e A llS uffering Fem ale an d th e W eak Passive M ale d iffer c o n s id e ra b ly from c o u n te rp a rts in th e W est a n d East o n a c c o u n t of th e ir d e v e lo p m e n t. T h is can be d isc e rn e d from th e fo llo w in g surv ey of Jap an ese love sto rie s from a n tiq u ity to m o d e rn tim es.

Metamorphoses The first Japanese love sto ry is also th e Kojiki cre a tio n m y th , a c u ltu ra l e q u iv alen t to th e sto ry of A dam a n d Eve. F rom th e H eav en ly F lo atin g B ridge, w h ic h is u se d for travel b etw e e n h eav en a n d e a rth , th e god Izan ag i an d th e g oddess Izan am i low er a jew eled sp e a r in to th e ch ao s. A n is la n d is created an d th ey d e sc e n d a n d erect a p illa r th ere. A fter w a lk in g a ro u n d it th ey have conjugal in te rc o u rse a n d e v e n tu a lly give b irth to m o re is la n d s an d d e itie s— one of w h o m , th e fire god, cau ses th e d e a th of Iz a n a m i.10 A s

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re la te d in c h a p te r five, Izanagi v isite d h e r in th e la n d of th e d ead , b u t w as d riv e n away. T h e first Jap an ese love sto ry is fra n k ly sex u al, for not o n ly th e p illa r b u t even th e jew eled sp e a r can be c o n s id e re d p h a llic . Like A áam an d E ve’s, th e sto ry of Izanagi a n d Izan am i e n d s in tragedy, b u t th ere is no loss of in n o c e n c e a sso c ia te d w ith th e k n o w led g e of good a n d evil. T he n a tu ra l tra g e d y of d e a th se p a ra te s Izanagi from h is w ife, a n d he grieves over th is ra th e r th a n a n y fall from p a ra d ise . T h e e a rlie st love p o em s a p p e a rin g in M an 'y o sh u , are also co m p le te ly n a tu ra l, for th e y e ith e r celeb rate th e joy of b ein g w ith th e loved o n e or b e m o a n th e sa d n e ss of se p a ra tio n . In th e se p o em s th e co n v e n tio n of c a llin g th e m a le ’s loved o n e y o u n g er sister(im o ) m ay stem from th e fact th a t Izanagi a n d Izan am i w ere b ro th e r a n d sister. Iz a n a m i, w h o d ie s giving b irth , is o b v io u sly th e p ro to ty p e for all th e su ffe rin g fem ales to com e, a n d not just for m o th ers. Izanagi is not passive, b u t c e rta in ly w eak in th e face of d e a th a n d p o llu tio n . W hen an a sh a m e d a n d en rag ed Iz a n a m i s e n d s th e w a rrio rs of th e la n d of th e d ead after h im , h e flees w av in g h is sw o rd b e h in d h im .11 Later h e is saved by p ea c h e s, w h ic h are c o n s id e re d vagina sy m b o ls in Japan— for ex am p le, a folk hero, M om o Taro or Peach-Boy, w as b o rn from o n e of th em . S in ce th e d ead , p o llu te d Izan am i is th e p ro to ty p e for th e fem ale V engeful S p irit, th e v a g in a -p e a c h e s c o u ld re p re se n t th e b en e v o le n t a sp e c t of fem ale sp irits. U n lik e P erseu s a n d o th e r W estern h ero es w h o slay fem ale d em o n s, Izanagi is re a lly n o m a tc h for th e m at all, a n d is by tu rn s th re a te n e d a n d saved by fem ale s p irits, like th e p o tte r in L/getsu. In th e age fo llo w in g th e c o m p le tio n of Kojiki a n d M a n ’y o sh u , th e H eian p e rio d from 794 to 1185, th e best p ro se a n d verse w ere w ritte n by aristoc ratic w o m e n , w h o w ere often lad ie s-in -w a itin g at th e im p e ria l c o u rt in K yoto, a n d th e su b jec t of th e ir w orks w as fre q u e n tly love. The Tale of Genji, w ritte n by L ady M u rasak i early in th e ele v e n th century, is co n sid ered th e w o r ld ’s first novel a n d c o n c e rn s th e n u m e ro u s love affairs of P rin c e H ik a ru G enji. L ady M u rasak i d e p ic ts a w o rld of eleg an t free sex, re p le te w ith c la n d e s tin e m eetin g s in th e w o m e n ’s c h am b ers ◦ f th e c o u rt a n d at m o u n ta in s id e te m p le s, follow ed by an ex ch an g e of p o em s th e day after s in c e th e p ro m is c u ity of th e c o u rtie r a risto cracy w as alw ays governed by good taste. T he joy of b ein g w ith th e loved one, how ever, w as su p erc e d e d by a m e la n c h o ly aw aren ess of th e fleetin g n ess of th e affair itself, for th e B u d d h is t c o n c e p t of th e im p e rm a n e n c e of all th in g s fm u jõ -k an j h ad e n te re d Jap an ese cu ltu re . T he H eav en ly F lo atin g B ridge in Kojiki b eco m es th e F lo atin g B ridge of D ream s (the title of th e last c h a p te r of The Tale of Genji)一 w h ic h is a m e ta p h o r for th e in su b s ta n tia l b eau ty of life. S u fferin g w as not c o n s id e re d e n n o b lin g d u rin g th e H eian p e rio d a n d it w as b e st to e scap e from it if you c o u ld .12 Still, w rite rs like L ady M u rasak i a n d th e ir h e ro in e s p in e d over th e ir n eg lect a n d d o u b tle ss w ere s a d d e n e d

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n o t o n ly by th e ev 3n e s c e n c 6 of lif6 (m ono ‫ ס ת‬ow orej b u t 81so th e in c o n stan cy of m ale affections. Lovers like P rin ce G enji w ere n ot p assiv e s in c e th ey u su a lly in itia te d th e affair, b u t th e y w ere far from m a s c u lin e by latter-day standards. Ivan Morris descril3es them as white-powder-faced tip p le rs an d p e rfu m e d w o m a n iz e rs, p o ets w h o a b h o rre d v io le n c e a n d left th e rough stuff to u n c o u th , p ro v in c ia l w arrio rs w h o m th ey d e s p is e d .13 T he literatu re of th e m ed iev al p e rio d from 1186 to 1600 c o n ta in s very few love stories• The principal genre in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries was tales of the recent wars,14 and the warrior became the new m a sc u lin e id eal a n d hero. W om en c o n tin u e d to suffer in th e N oh theater, w h ic h d e v e lo p e d from sh rin e an d te m p le s p o n so rsh ip to patro n ag e b y th e m ilita ry A sh ik ag a sh o g unate in th e fo u rte e n th c e n tu ry .15 In m a n y N o h p lay s an itin e ra n t m o n k com es across fem ale g hosts w h o re tu rn to e a rth to reliv e an old tragic love affair.16 S he m ay u n d e rg o th e to rm e n ts of h ell b e c a u se m e n d ied on a c c o u n t of her, an d th is is c o n sid e re d h e r sin, or sh e m ay be d e n ie d re b irth at a h ig h e r level of ex isten c e b ec a u se sh e c a n n o t re n o u n c e w orldly, ro m a n tic atta c h m e n ts. A t first g lan ce th is se t-u p seem s lik e a v ariatio n of th e B u d d h a h im se lf resistin g th e te m p ta tio n s of M aya, th e d em o n ess of illu sio n . T hat is to say, th e itin e ra n t m o n k does n o t su c c u m b to th e charm s of fem ale ghosts, a n d w o rld ly a tta c h m e n ts m u s t b e sev ered to o b tain e n lig h te n m e n t. H ow ever, s u c h fem ale g h o sts are s y m p a th e tic p recisely becau se of th e ir a tta c h m e n ts, a n d th e ir very h u m a n a p p e a l is o n e reaso n for th e ex cellen ce of m a n y N o h plays. In th e sev en teen th c e n tu ry S aik ak u Ih a ra w ro te a b o u t th e h o m o se x u a l affairs am ong sa m u ra i in The G reat M irror of Manly Love a n d ab o u t h etero sex u al affairs in th e m e rc h a n t class in T he Life of an A m o ro u s M a n a n d o th er w orks. S a ik a k u ’s contem porary, M o n z a e m o n C h ik am atsu , w ro te p lay s for th e p u p p e t theater, w h ic h w ere later a d o p te d by K ab u k i, a b o u t th e tragic love b etw een a g eish a an d som e c le rk th a t lead s to th e ir d o u b le s u ic id e . T h e c o n tra s t b e tw e e n S a ik a k u ’s c y n ic a l tr e a tm e n ts a n d C h ik a m a tsu ,s p ath o s reveals th e official, C o n fu cian m o ra lity th e n , w h ic h p e rm itte d flip p a n t sex b u t reg ard ed ro m a n tic love as a th re a t to th e so c ia l order. The ru lin g sa m u ra i th e n m a in ta in e d so cial o rd e r th ro u g h a rig id class sy stem in w h ic h b e h a v io r w as reg u lated by sta tu s a n d a p p ro p ria te ro le p lay ing co n sisted of o b e d ie n c e .17 W hen a y o u n g m a n in a C h ik a m a tsu p lay fell in love w ith a geisha, h e e ith e r forsook h is d u tie s as a m e rc h a n t, or disobeyed h is p a re n ts or m aster. W hile it seem s th e ru lin g class itself w as o n ly c o n c e rn e d w ith in ter-sta tu s m arriag es th a t w o u ld lo w er s a m u ra i prestige, C hikam atsu, a sam u rai him self, se e m e d to o v erg en era lize a n d c o n c lu d e th a t ro m a n tic love w o u ld in e v ita b ly le a d a m a n to a b a n d o n h is social role. In h is plays b o th love a n d freed o m from so c ie ty are p o ssib le , b u t o n ly at th e cost of death . S ocial o rd e r is affirm ed b e c a u se tru e lovers

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are d o o m e d . T h e a u d ie n c e gets v ic a rio u s p le a su re a n d is also a d m o n ish e d th a t s u c h b e h a v io r le a d s to d e a th .18 Yet, a lb e it briefly, C h ik a m a ts u ^ lovers do tra n sc e n d th e ir society. T h is is g ra p h ic a lly d e m o n stra te d in o n e of h is greatest p la y s ， The Love S u ic id e s at A m ijim a . W h en th e w o m a n , K oharu, d o u b ts th e d eath -reso lv e of h e r lover, Jih ei, h e c u ts of th e to p -k n o t of h is hair, w h ic h sig n ified h is fam ilial a n d so cia l tie s .19 R eassu red , sh e c u ts th e bow of h e r c o u rte sa n h aird o . Facing e a c h o th e r w ith th e ir h a ir h a n g in g d o w n , th ey are sh o rn of social sta tu s a n d have sim p ly b eco m e p u re m a n a n d p u re w o m an , like A dam a n d Eve•20 T h e ir tra n s c e n d e n ta l a s p e c t is also sig n ified by th e m ic h i y u k i, or jo u rn e y th e lovers tak e before th e ir d eath . In N oh m ic h i y u k i referred to th e jo u rn e y a n itin e ra n t m o n k w e n t o n before th e g h o sts from th e o th er w o rld a p p e a re d to h im .21 In K abuki m ic h i y u k i sim p ly m ean s leav in g th is w o rld . T h e tra n s c e n d e n ta l n a tu re of C h ik a m a ts u ’s lovers is fu rth e r testified by th e ir b e lie f th a t th ey w ill be reb o rn to g e th e r on th e sam e lo tu s in th e A m id a -B u d d h a ’s Pure L and. It m ay be d o u b te d w h e th e r C h ik am atsu h im self b e lie v e d in th is, sin c e se c u la riz a tio n is a d o m in a n t c h a ra c te ristic of h is tim e s in c o m p a riso n to th e p re c e d in g relig io u s, m ed iev al p e rio d .22 H ow ever, h is u s e of th is p o e tic a llu sio n e m p h a siz e s th e p u rity of h is lovers. S to ries of p u re lovers in th e W est seem to be an a tte m p t to re c a p tu re th e in n o c e n c e of A dam a n d Eve in p a ra d ise . But, as stated previously, th e re is no Fall in Jap an ese m ythology. C h ik am atsu a rriv ed at th e re p re se n ta tio n of th e u n iv e rsa l d e sire for e th e re a l p u rity from a d ifferen t d ire ctio n . U n lik e W estern, teen -ag e lovers like R om eo a n d Ju liet, C h ik a m a tsu ’s o ld e r lovers do n o t sta rt o u t p u re. K oharu is an im p u re p ro stitu te a n d Jihei is a m u n d a n e clerk . T hey b ec o m e p u re after th e y fall in love a n d are read y to d ie for it. T h e th e m e of C h ik a m a tsu ^ *4love s u ic id e ‫( ״‬shinjü) p lay s b eco m es p u re lovers v e rsu s an im p u re w o rld . W h ile su c h s u ic id e s to o k p lace in p rev io u s ages, as w ell as C h ik a m a ts u ,s ow n, he w as p ro b ab ly th e first w rite r to m ak e th e m an im p o rta n t su b je c t of literatu re. P erh ap s h e a rriv ed at th is p o in t of v iew as a re su lt of h is o w n so cial p o sitio n as a sa m u ra i w ritin g plays for m e rc h a n ts, th a t is, b ecau se of h is o w n am b ig u o u s statu s. S till, it w o u ld be a m ista k e to see an y c o n sid e ra b le so cial p ro test in C h ik a m a tsu ’s “love s u ic id e ” play s. Tadao Sato p o in ts o u t th a t u s u a lly C h ik a m a tsu ’s lovers are w eak p a th e tic c reatu res w h o are d riv e n to s u ic id e as a re su lt of trag ic c irc u m sta n c e s •23 In th e film A S io ry F rom C hiicam atsu (C hiicam atsu Mon o g a ta r i, 1954) M iz o g u c h i, w ith th e a id of h is s u p e rb s c r ip tw r ite r Y oshitaka Yoda, tu rn e d th e lovers, e sp e c ia lly th e h e ro in e , in to fo rcefu l c h a ra c te rs w h o refuse to c o m m it s u ic id e a n d go to th e ir ex e c u tio n for a d u lte ry w ith a sm ile on th e ir face. S till, sin c e tra n sc e n d e n ta lis m c o u ld

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Double Suicide (Shinju Ten no Amijima, 1969), directed by Masahiro Shinoda. In Monzaemon Chikamatsu,s best play, and in this modern film version of it, the lovers (Shima Iwashita and Kichiemon Nakamura) become pure after they are ready to die for love. Love suicides are the ultimate Japanese love story. em b ody reb ellio n , how ever laten t, M izo g u c h i sim p ly m ad e e x p lic it th e p ro test th at w as im p lie d in C h ik am atsu 's o rig in als. Love su ic id e s b ecam e th e u ltim ate Jap an ese love sto ry a n d ca n s till be fo u n d n o t only in co n te m p o ra ry film p re se n ta tio n s ◦ f C h ik a m a ts u ’s p lay s b u t also in film s a n d dram as w ith m o d e rn settin g s. B oth lovers su ffered on a c c o u n t of th e ir plig h t, b u t th e h e ro in e c o u ld be c o n s id e re d m o re n o b le th a n h e r forebears in th a t she c o m m itte d s u ic id e o u t of love. In c o n tra st to th e fem ale ghosts in N oh w ho suffered in th e afterlife b ecau se of a tta c h m e n t to a form er love, C h ik a m a tsu ^ h e ro in e su ffered for love in th is life an d su ic id e e n d e d h e r suffering w h e th e r or n o t sh e w as reb o rn on a lo tu s w ith h e r lover. T he h e ro in e ^ lover w as u su a lly w eak, fo o lish , a n d im p ru d e n t, b u t h a n d so m e . In K abuki h e w as play ed by th e n im a im e , th e a c to r g iven seco n d b illin g after th e tateyaku, th e m a in le a d w h o p la y e d stro n g sam u ra i w h o d id no t fall in love. In th is d ic h o to m y of le a d in g m e n o n e c a n see reflections of th e c o u rtie r a risto crat w h o , as a w o m an izer, a b h o rre d v io ­

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le n c e a n d th e w a rrio r a risto c ra t w h o d is d a in e d ro m an ce. T he seco n d b illin g of th e fo rm er attests to th e fact th a t he w as h isto ric a lly o v erth ro w n by th e latter. In K abuki th e p eaceab le lover w as fu rth e r w eak en ed by b ein g p la c e d in th e low er ru n g s of th e m e rc h a n t class. Lack of fu n d s often p re c ip ita te d h is tragedy, u n lik e P rin ce G enji w h o w as tro u b le d o n ly by th e fle e tin g n e ss of all th in g s. S till, a c c o rd in g to Tadao Sato, th e K aruki nim a im e often o u td id th e tatey ak u in p o p u la rity ,24 a n d his a p p e a l p ro b ab ly in d ic a te s re se n tm e n t ag ain st th e C o n fu cian re c titu d e th at governed th e tim es. T h e first **modern‫ ״‬Japanese love sto ries w ere w ritte n a ro u n d th e tu rn of th e c e n tu ry by n o v elists w h o w ere in flu e n c e d by W estern ideas of rom an ce. T h e ir m o st p o p u la r w orks w ere a d a p te d in to p lay s for th e n e w th eater, S h im p a , w h ic h began a ro u n d 1890 an d w as th e m o st p o p u la r d ra m a from 1900 to th e m id 1 9 2 0 ‫־‬s. T he first film love sto ries in th e early 1910s w ere sim p ly film ed p re se n ta tio n s of S h im p a p la y s.25 A lth o u g h th e c h a ra c te rs in th e se c o n te m p o ra ry plays w ere u su a lly d ressed in th e latest W estern fash io n s, th e y d id no t d iffer greatly from th e ir K abuki co u n terp a rts b ec a u se th e ir love still e n d e d tragically. Still, th e ir heroes, often co lleg e s tu d e n ts , w ere even w eaker th a n th e ir feu d al p red ecesso rs. Bec au se of th e ir p assivity, th ey se ld o m h a d en o u g h g u m p tio n to c o m m it s u ic id e w ith th e h ero in e. In c o n tra st to feu d al m e rc h a n ts in a stratified society, th e y h ad fu tu res to c o n s id e r in a m o d e rn iz in g Japan. T h e h ero of th e m o st fam ous S n im p a play, The G en ealo g y of W om en fO n n a k e iz u j is a ty p ic a l ex am p le. He loves a geisha, b u t says no th in g . H er g e ish a m en to r, like an o ld e r sister, sen ses th e feelings of th e young p a ir a n d a rran g es for th e m to live together. H is te a c h e r a n d b en efacto r finds o u t, how ever, a n d o rd ers h im to b reak w ith th e w o m an , not o n ly on a c c o u n t of h e r low sta tu s b u t b ecau se h e w an ts h im to m arry h is ow n d au g h ter. T he h ero d u tifu lly obeys a n d th e h e ro in e suffers a n d d u tifu lly d ies in th e e n d . In th e o rig in al novel th e S h im p a p lay is b ased on, th e author, Kyoka Izu m i, a tta c k e d th e d e n ia l of free love in th e tra d itio n a l Japanese cu sto m of m arriag es a rra n g e d by p a re n ts or s u p e rio rs .26 H ow ever, th is W estern id ea w as n o t a c c e p ta b le to th e S h im p a a d a p to rs, for they, like th e ir a u d ie n c e s a n d m o st Japanese at th e tim e, gave to p p rio rity to th e p a re n t/su p e rio rc h ild /in fe rio r re la tio n sh ip . R om ance w as c o n sid e re d a re b e llio n ag ain st p a re n ts or Active p a re n ts, like one's teacher. It co u ld be tasted , b ut h a d to e n d sadly. T he y o u n g m a n s h o u ld obey a n d p assiv ely let love slip th ro u g h h is fingers.T he above s itu a tio n is c a lle d a co n flict b etw een giri a n d n in jo (o b lig atio n a n d feelings) by th e Japanese. T he y o u n g m an loves th e girl b u t is o b lig ated to his teach er, a n d th a t is m ore im p o rta n t. It seem s very co ld to W esterners; how ever, th e fact th a t th e yo u n g m an also loves h is te a c h e r— h e h a s b e e n lik e a k in d fath er to h im — w arm s th in g s u p em o tio n ally for Jap an ese a u d ie n c e s. T he old te a c h e r m ay be o b stin ate b u t he is n ev er

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Genealogy of Women— The White Plums o f Yujima (Onna no Keizu— Yujima no 1955)， directed by Teinosuke Kinugasa• In this film adaptation of the most famous Shimpa play, the hero (Koji Tsuruta) parts from the heroine (Fujiko Yamamoto) on account of his benefactor. Suicide is out of the question because he has a future to consider in m odernizing Japan. S /iir a u m e ,

considered a villain since he has his student^ best interests at heart. In terms of dramaturgy, however, he is an obstructing third party that precipitates the tragedy which nevertheless affirms old values. In Taki no Shiraiio, another popular Shimpa adaptation from a novel by Kyoka Izumi， modern society precipitates the lovers’ tragedy. Taki no Shiraito is the stage name for a female entertainer who practically seduces her college student lover. Thereafter, she acts like his older sister and makes sacrifices so that she can send him the money necessary for his college education. Unfortunately, she later kills for money and ironically the judge at her trial is her lover himself. He has to pass the death sentence on her and out of remorse later commits suicide. The hero’s passivity was perhaps best captured in Mizoguchi，s 1933 film version of the story. In one scene he is dozing on a bridge, and suddenly she appears majestically before him. The Floating Bridge of Dreams in The

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Tale of Genji h e re b eco m es th e p assiv e m ale d re a m in g of ro m a n ce o n a b rid g e. T he h e ro Js statu s as a s tu d e n t, like th a t of m an y S h im p a heroes, is a n a lo g o u s to th e s itu a tio n in C h in e se M ing D y n asty sto ries w h ere y o u n g s tu d e n ts cam e to th e c a p ita l to stu d y for e x a m in a tio n s a n d h a d love affairs w ith •female e n te rta in e rs like Taki no S h iraito . T he stu d e n t-h e ro h as m ore m o d e rn rele v a n c e , how ever, sin c e th e M ciji p e rio d (1 8 6 8 -1 9 1 2 ) college s tu d e n ts w ere th e fu tu re le a d e rs w h o w o u ld g u id e Japan th ro u g h m o d ern iz a tio n after th e y a c q u ire d k n o w led g e of W estern arts a n d scien ces. Tadao Sato h as p o in te d o u t th at, as they rose in statu s, th ey in e v ita b ly forsook th e ir fam ilies a n d siste rlik e sw e e th e a rts .27 T h is tragic sid e to m o d e rn iz a tio n as g lim p se d in Taki n o S h ira ito n o t o n ly en n o b les th e su fferin g of th e h e ro in e b u t also q u e s tio n s a so cia l system w h ere m en a b a n d o n w o m en to b e c o m e su c c e ssfu l, a n d is sim ila r to th e social p ro test in th e 1958 B ritish film R oom A t T he Top. H ow ever, sin c e Taki no S h iraito d id n o t resen t th is situ a tio n , h e r sacrifice se e m e d n e c e ssa ry for m o d e rn iz a tio n . In T he G en ealo g y 0/ W om en th e hero e v id e n tly w en t o n to b eco m e a su c c e ss after th e su fferin g h e ro in e d ie d . In Taki no S h ira ito , how ever, h e c o m m itte d s u ic id e . W h ile so cia l p ro test m ay be im p lie d in su c h a d en o u em e n t, h is b e h a v io r is b e tte r e x p la in e d as an act of a to n e m e n t for th e sin h e h a d c o m m itte d a g a in st th e h e ro in e . T olstoyan rem o rse h a d alread y en tered Jap an ese c u ltu re , a n d Katusha, b ased on R esu rrectio n , w as in th e S h im p a re p e rto ire a n d h a d b e e n m a d e in to a Japan ese film as early as 1914.28 T h is in d iv id u a l se n se of rem o rse gave greater d e p th to th e su fferin g of th e W eak P assive M ale. Jap an ese film m ak ers strove to sh ak e off th e ir K abuki a n d S h im p a tra d itio n of tra g e d y by a d d in g a H o lly w o o d -lik e h a p p y e n d in g a n d m u sic to th e ir love sto rie s. In th e 1930s a n e w film genre evolved called '4m elod ra m a ,‫ ״‬w h ic h for th e Japanese th e n seem ed to lite ra lly m ean ^ m e lo d y ‫״‬ p lu s “ d ra m a .” P rev io u sly th e re h a d b e e n m o stly sile n t “b a lla d film s” fk o u ta eig aj in w h ic h a song w as p lay ed o n th e so u n d tra c k w h ile th e h e ro in e p o se d sad ly .29 Even som e S h im p a film s h a d a few m e lo d ie s.30 The n e w genre w as as m e lo d ra m a tic in tre a tm e n t as its p red ecesso rs, b u t in c lu d e d m o re songs b e sid e s th e title one, h a d m ore co m p lic a te d p lo ts, a n d e v e n tu a lly b ecam e a ll-so u n d . T he b est ex am p le is H irom asa N om ura's T he C o m p a ssio n a te B u d d h a Tree (A izen K atsura), w h ic h broke th e box office re c o rd in 1938.31 T h e h e ro in e w orks as a n u rse , a m o d e rn o c c u p a tio n th e n th a t gave re sp e c ta b le girls a c h a n c e to m eet elig ib le m ates. In th is re sp e c t sh e d iffered from sh e lte re d girls w h o co u ld o n ly have m arriages arran g ed for th e m a n d from g eish a a n d th e lik e w h o w ere in an in fe rio r statu s. However, th e m a n sh e falls in love w ith is above h e r statio n , sin c e he is a d o cto r a n d th e so n of th e o w n e r of th e h o sp ita l. He o p p o ses h is p aren ts a n d

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The Compassionate Buddha TYee (1938), directed by Hiromasa Nomura. Due to the influence of Hollywood movies, these Japanese lovers (Kinuyo Tanaka and Ken Uehara) are finally united in the biggest box office draw in prewar Japan. suggests they elope, though; but she is not able to meet him at the train station in time because of the illness of her child. (She is a widow.) Thereafter they are kept apart by quirks of fate and misunderstandings until they are united in the grand finale when she sings the title song in her debut as a popular singer. The heroine in The C o m p a s s i o n a t e Buddha Tree was not very different from her predecessors in the ballad films, for when alone she often posed sadly for the camera while a song played on the sound track, and when together with the hero she modestly bowed her head and averted her glance. Her suffering was not as ennobling as that of Taki no Shiraito because it had no purpose and it was just as fortuitous as her happiness in the end. The heroJs weakness and passivity was demonstrated by crosscutting shots showing him also pining away at a different place. Nevertheless, he had broken with tradition by opposing his parents, which a Shimpa hero would not do, and by suggesting elopement rather than a Kabuki-like double suicide. The initial forcefulness of the hero could be attributed to the Sino-

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Jap an ese War, w h ic h h a d b e g u n in 1937• Like th e Jap an ese so ld ie rs forging a h e a d o n th e C h in e se m a in la n d , even th e n im a im e s h o u ld n o t let anyth in g get in h is way. A m ore p e rtin e n t cau se, how ever, w as th a t th e b a rrie r b e tw e e n h im a n d h is love, th e ir d ifferen ce in so cia l statu s, w as n o t so stro n g as in th e past. M o d e rn m ilita ris m h a d an e q u a lita ria n sid e in th a t p o o r farm boys in d u c te d in to th e serv ice s u d d e n ly b ecam e so ld ie rs of th e e m p e ro r a n d p o te n tia l w a r heroes. D espite th e b ru ta l p eck in g o rd e r w ith in th e se rv ic e s th e m se lv e s, Japanese so c ie ty in gen eral b ecam e m ore dem oc ra tic , as is e v id e n t by th e a b o litio n in 1938 of c o m p u lso ry filing of so cia l s ta tu s — n o b le m a n or c o m m o n e r— o n a p p lic a tio n form s a n d in h o tel registe rs .32 T h u s, w h e n th e hero in T he C o m p a ssio n a te B u d d h a Tree d e c id e d to e lo p e w ith a w o m a n of lo w er sta tu s, h is a c tio n c o u ld be reg ard ed as in tu n e w ith th e tim es. S till, s in c e th e hero h a d o p p o se d h is p aren ts, h e h a d to suffer for it. M o st ◦ f th e v iew ers h a d m a rrie d in a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e ir p a re n ts ’ w ish e s a n d w o u ld n o t p e rm it s u c h a re b e llio n to go u n p u n is h e d . B ut th e film e n d s h a p p ily in co m p ro m ise. T hey are sta n d in g in fro n t of th e C om passio n a te B u d d h a tree w h e re p re v io u sly th e y h a d v ow ed th e ir love for each other. S he says sh e w ill w o rk h a rd to raise h e r statu s so as to p lease h is p a re n ts, a n d h e says it is n o t n e c e ssa ry b ecau se th e y have alread y app ro v ed of her. D esp ite th e tra d itio n a l m o tif of th e B u d d h a tree, it is a ty p ic a lly A m e ric a n h a p p y e n d in g th a t tries to satisfy everyone, lib era ls a n d co n serv ativ es. S h iro K ido, w h o w as th e h e a d of S h o c h ik u S tu d io s th a t h a d p ro d u c e d The C o m p a ssio n a te B uddha Tree a n d o th e r love m e lo d ra m a s, h as w ritte n th a t at th e tim e he m a d e w h o le so m e e n te rta in in g film s th a t gave th e p e o p le so m e re lie f from th e ir w artim e ca re s.33 A s su ch , The C o m p assio n a te B u d d h a Tree c o u ld be c o n s id e re d p u re esc a p ism co m p lete w ith th e a tm o sp h e re of a H o lly w o o d m u sic a l. H ow ever, Jap an ese love sto ries w ere o n ly allo w e d a h a p p y e n d in g on th e c o n d itio n th a t som e o th e r w o m an w o u ld c o n tin u e to su ffer in p lace of th e h e ro in e — th a t is, th e w o m an w h o lo ses th e m an . W hile th e hero ◦ f The C 〇m p a s s i 〇n a te B u d d h a Tree w as p in in g aw ay for th e h e ro in e , th e so m e w h a t aggressive sister of h is b est frie n d m a d e a p lay for h im . W h en sh e fo u n d o u t h e loved so m eo n e else, th o u g h , sh e n o t o n ly gave h im u p b u t agreed to h e lp h im get to g eth er w ith h e r rival. A fter sh e “s u c c e e d e d ” as an a d m ira b le ally, sh e left ◦ n an o cean lin e r for th e U n ite d S tates a n d w as g ra n te d a clo se -u p of h e r tear-stain ed face. S in c e th e h e ro in e w as no lo n g er suffering, so m eo n e h a d to carry on th e tra d itio n . F u rth erm o re, by sh o w in g th a t aggressive w o m en do n o t get th e m a n , p a ssiv e b e h a v io r is v a lid a te d even m ore. S te p p in g a s id e ◦ r y ie ld in g o n e ’s love to so m eo n e else is a c o n sp ic u o u s featu re of Ja p an ese love sto ries even today. W h ile th e d ra m a of tw o w o m en fig h tin g over o n e m a n also exists in Japan, it is c o n sid e re d m o re n o b le to y ie ld . A goo d e x a m p le is W arm C u rre n t (D an ry u , 1939). T he h e ro in e from

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a w ell-to-do fam ily tu rn s d o w n th e m arriag e p ro p o sa l of th e m a n sh e loves b ecau se she k n o w s th a t h e r old h ig h sch o o l classm ate loves h im , too. S h e m eets h im again after fin d in g o u t he is going to m a rry th e o th e r girl, a n d w h ile w alk in g alo n g th e seash o re to g e th e r sh e h id e s h e r tears by s p la s h in g w ater on h e r face. S he suffered n o b ly b ecau se sh e w as u n w illin g to b ase h e r h a p p in e s s on th e m isfo rtu n e of a frien d . H er frie n d w as of a m u c h lo w er status, a n d d ire c to r K ozaburo Y oshim ura w as c o n s id e re d very m o d e m at th e tim e, sin ce h e reversed th e o ld p a tte rn of th e p o o r m a k in g sacrifices for th e rich. S u c h self-sacrifice w as in c re a sin g ly d e m a n d e d as Jap an w e n t d o w n th e ro ad tow ard th e Pacific War. A fter W arm C u rren t in 1939 love m e lo d ra m a s g ra d u a lly ceased to be m ade, as Jap an ese c itiz e n s w ere re q u ire d u n selfish ly to give u p ro m a n tic love, as w ell as a n y o th e r p riv ate d e sire s, for th e sake of th e n atio n . A fter th e Japanese defeat in 1945 th e A m e ric a n O c c u p a tio n forces activ ely en co u rag ed ro m a n tic film s b a se d o n w o m e n s lib e ra tio n .34 A s a resu lt, in A B ail a t th e A njo H o u se [A njo-ke n o JButo-kai, 1947) th e m a id in a d eclin in g , u p p e r-c la ss fam ily p u rsu e s th e n e ’er-d o -w ell so n , a n d h is sister goes after th e ir fo rm er chauffeur. B oth w o m e n get th e ir m an . In th e final scen e d ire c to r Y oshim ura reversed th e d e n o u e m e n t of h is W arm C u rren t by h a v in g th e aristo c ra tic d a u g h te r ru n after h e r m a n d o w n th e b each , leaving h e r h ig h h e e ls a n d p earl n e c k la c e in th e sa n d b e h in d her. W hile th is d em o cratic e sp o u sa l of free love over sta tu s c o n s id e ra tio n lib erated h e ro in e s from suffering, it h a d little effect o n th e p a ssiv e m ale. In 1950 in E scap e a t D aw n (A k atsu k i n o D ass◦), a n a n tiw a r film d ire c te d b y S en k ich i T aniguchi, th e h e ro in e p u rs u e d h e r Jap an ese s o ld ie r b o y frie n d across th e G obi d e se rt d u rin g th e S in o -]ap an ese War. B oth T a n ig u c h i a n d Y oshim ura w ere pro b ab ly in flu e n c e d by Josef v o n S te rn b e rg ’s M orocco, w h ic h h ad b e e n p o p u la r in Japan ever sin c e it w as first re le a se d th e re in 1931.35 The v isio n of M arlen e D ietric h fo llo w in g G ary C o o p er acro ss th e Sahara desert w as p u re w ish -fu lfillm e n t for th e P assive M ale, w h o m n o t even th e O c c u p a tio n forces c o u ld e x c lu d e from Jap an ese love sto ries. A fter th e O ccu p atio n , Japanese d ire c to rs often rev erted to tra d itio n a l w ays. In 1953 th e A ll-S uffering Fem ale rejo in e d th e W eak P assive M ale in W hat Is Your N am e? to set a n ew box office re c o rd 36 in a love m e lo d ra m a w h ic h seem ed like a rem ake of The C o m p a ssio n a te B u d d h a Tree. O n ce ag ain young lovers are k ep t a p a rt by q u irk s of fate a n d o b s tru c tin g th ird p artie s, like th e h e ro in e ’s h u s b a n d w h o w ill n o t give h e r a d iv o rc e, a n d th e ir h a p p y e n d in g is largely e n g in e e re d b y a w o m a n w h o s te p p e d a s id e for her. T here are also p le n ty of m e lo d ie s— eig h t songs in all— b u t th e m u sic score is m arred by a lot of o rg an m u sic , in Jap an c o n s id e re d h ig h class. It is d ifficult to say w h ic h h e ro in e suffers m o re, sin c e th e ex actin g m o th er-in -law in What Is Your N a m e ? is b a la n c e d b y th e a ilin g c h ild th a t w o rrie d h e r p rew ar p redecessor. T here are v isu al differen ces b e tw e e n th e tw o film s. T he b u s t sh o ts of th e

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su ffe rin g p rew ar h e ro in e are fre q u e n tly re p la c e d w ith fu ll-face clo se -u p s in th e p o stw a r film . T he h e ro in e in W hat Is Y our N am e? is often sh o w n w e a rin g h o o d s or h e a d -c o v e rin g sh aw ls. It a p p e a rs th e d ire c to r w a n te d to create a m a d o n n a effect (Japanese u se th e w o rd 44m a d o n n a ‫ ״‬for h ero in es) by m a k in g h e r look like a s a in t w ith a h alo or h o o d in a m ed iev al Ita lian p a in tin g . (M aybe th e o rgan m u sic w as m e a n t to evoke a m o o d of C h ristia n su fferin g , too.) T h ese m in o r d ifferen ces c o u ld be a ttrib u te d to p o stw ar W estern in flu e n c e s on te c h n iq u e a n d c o n te n t, as can th e p retex t for th e lo v e rs’ first m e e tin g d u rin g a n a ir raid . In p rev io u s Jap an ese love sto ries th e b oy d id n o t m eet th e girl c o m p le te ly by c h an ce. In The C o m p a ssio n a te B u d d h a Tree th e y w o rk e d in th e sam e p lace, w h ic h w as c o n sid e re d a m o d e rn a d v a n c e over o ld m e e tin g p laces lik e geisha h o u se s. T he fact th a t th e lo vers in W hat Is Your N am e? ta lk to each o th e r o n a b rid g e after th e air ra id even a d d s a m o d e rn rip p le to th e o ld b rid g e m otif. H ere tw o so cially u n re la te d p e o p le m eet— th e y do n o t even k n o w each o th e r’s n am e— a n d leave b e h in d on th e o p p o site sh o res th e ir so cial a n d fam ilial affiliations. T h e ir c h a n c e e n c o u n te r h as a tra n s c e n d in g effect w h ic h m akes th em like A d am a n d Eve, p u re from th e start, a n d n o t lik e C h ik a m a s tsu ,s lovers w h o o n ly b e c a m e p u re after th ey d e c id e d to die. Yet th e m ajo r d ifferen ce b e tw e e n W hat Is Your N am e? a n d The C om pass io n a te B u d d h a Tree a n d o th e r p re d e c e sso rs is th a t th e h e ro in e actu ally e x p e c te d th e h ero to c h an g e th e ir c irc u m sta n c e s. S he w as often ph o to g ra p h e d lo o k in g u p at h im sa d ly w ith an u n s p o k e n a p p e a l in h er eyes. T h e h e ro in e in The C o m p a ssio n a te B uddha Tree n ev er th o u g h t th e h ero c o u ld c h a n g e th e sta tu s c o n s id e ra tio n s th a t k e p t th e m ap art, b u t h e r c o u n te rp a rt w as not so resig n ed , p ro b a b ly b ecau se of all th e ch an g es th a t h a d o c c u rre d in p o stw a r d e m o c ra tic Japan. H ow ever, tru e to th e arch ety p e, th e W eak, P assive M ale in W hat Is Y our N am e? ig n o red h e r a p p e a l b y lo o k in g aw ay or te llin g h e r to a c c e p t h e r role as a n o th e r m a n ’s w ife or to w ait p a tie n tly for th e d iv o rce no m atter h o w lo n g it took. T h e c h an g e in th e h e r o in e ’s a ttitu d e affected th e hero. He su ffered n o t o n ly b e c a u se th e y w ere ap a rt, lik e h is p rew ar p red ecesso r, b u t also from regret at n o t h a v in g h e lp e d her. T h u s th e ir h a p p y e n d in g is n ot fo rtu ito u s lik e th e o n e in T he C o m p a ssio n a te B uddha Tree, b u t a c a th a rsis for b o th of th e m . A p p ro p ria te ly , it tak es p la c e in a h o s p ita l a n d it is th e ir greatest love scen e. T h e h e ro in e h a s ju st reco v ered from a n e a r fatal illn e ss a n d th e h ero is s ta n d in g over h e r h o s p ita l b ed. H e gets o n h is k n ees a n d begs h e r to forgive h im for all th e su fferin g he c a u se d her. S h e gazes u p o n h im a n d sm ile s ben ev o len tly . T he joy in h is tear-filled eyes com es n o t o n ly as a re su lt of b ein g u n ite d w ith h e r at last, b u t also b ecau se sh e h as forgiven h im for h is lack of v o litio n , h is sin s of o m issio n , a n d h is s p iritu a l im p o tency. A n d w h e n th e A ll-S u fferin g Fem ale forgives th e W eak Passive M ale, sh e e n d s th e su fferin g for b o th of th em . A fter Part 3 of W hat Is Your N am e? in 1954, love m e lo d ra m a s g ra d u a lly

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What Is Your Name? (1953), directed by Hideo Ohba. Near the concrete bridge where they first met, this passive male (Keiji Sada) tells the heroine (Keiko Kishi) to accept her fate, and she continues to suffer in the most popular film of the early 1950s. d e c lin e d in p o p u la rity in Japanese film . O ne re a so n for th e d e c lin e w as th e rise of young, active stars like Y ujiro Ish ih a ra in the late fifties. T h ey rep laced th e Passive M ale as th e lead in c o n te m p o ra ry d ra m a s b e c a u se th ey w ere m ore a p p e a lin g to y o u n g m ales, w h o e v e n tu a lly b e cam e th e p rin c ip a l film -view ing a u d ie n c e in th e six tie s .37 R om ance w as e v e n tu a lly a d d e d to Y ujiro Ish ih a ra ’s a c tio n film s w h e n h e m a tu re d in th e m id d le six ties, a n d for ab o u t five years he w as like a H o lly w o o d sta r w h o w as eq u ally a d e p t in a fight a n d a love scene. H ow ever, after Ish ih a ra b e c a m e a TV p roducer, su c h ro m an ce left Japanese film u n til K en T ak ak u ra^ C haste W arrior began ta stin g conjugal b liss in s u c h film s as The YeJJow Handkerch ieves of Happiness (Ko/uku no K iiroi H a n k a c h i, 1977). A n o th er reaso n for th e d e c lin e of love m e lo d ra m a in film w as th a t th e genre sim p ly m oved over in to TV, w h e re th e p rin c ip a l v iew er is th e h o u sew ife, w h o h a d b e e n its m a in s u p p o rte r from th e very b e g in n in g .38 As a resu lt of th e shift, how ever, th e genre b ecam e m o re d o m e stic , lo sin g its co n v o lu ted plots, lo catio n s all over Japan, a n d H o lly w o o d M u sic a l

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a tm o sp h e re , s in c e a so ap o p e ra se ria l o n ly h as o n e th e m e song. C onseq u en tly , a lth o u g h th e A ll S u fferin g F em ale a n d W eak Passive M ale are aliv e a n d w e ll in p re se n t-d a y TV d ram as, th ey have lo st th e eth ereal q u a lity th e y h a d in W hat Is Y our N a m e ? Ja p an ese v iew ers w h o are s till in te re ste d in th a t e th e re a l q u a lity can find it in H o lly w o o d love sto ries, w h ic h are also sh o w n o n TV n o w ad ay s. T hey hav e alw ay s b e e n p o p u la r, b u t p a rtic u la rly so sin c e R om an H o lid a y w as a big h it in 1 9 5 4 .39 M any Jap an ese p ro b ab ly th in k that, w h ile tru e love is u n lik e ly for a d ilig e n t, h a rd -w o rk in g p e o p le like th em selv es, it is very p o ssib le for th e h ap p y -g o -lu ck y A m erican s, p ro v id e d th at th ey su ffer a little for it.

Conclusions D esp ite W estern in flu e n c e in th e form of T olstoy a n d H o lly w o o d film s, th e a rc h e ty p e s of th e A ll-S u fferin g Fem ale a n d th e W eak Passive M ale re m a in e d , to a large extent, tru e to th e form s th e y to o k in K abuki “love s u ic id e ‫ ״‬p lay s. F rom th e n on C o n fu cian p rio rity for p a re n t-c h ild relatio n s w e a k e n e d m a le lovers a n d m a d e th e ir loved o n es suffer. S uffering an d p a s siv ity s u p p o rte d so cia l sta b ility by stressin g o b ed ien ce; how ever, th e a rc h e ty p e s w ere n o t so c ia lly en g in e e re d by so m e m in istry of p ro p ag an d a. T hey a p p e a le d to p o p u la r se n tim e n ts , n o t n e c e ssa rily su b m issiv e, a n d n o t o n ly a ffo rd ed p sy c h o lo g ic a l release from so cial o p p re ssio n in th e form of th e a tric a l c a th a rs is ， b u t also p re se n te d m o d es of b e h a v io r for effective c o p in g in a n a u th o rita ria n society. T his is th e ir so cio p sy ch o lo g ical signific a n c e th a t w ill be e x a m in e d h ere before tak in g u p th e ir tra n sc e n d e n ta l sid e , w h ic h w as h e a v ily in flu e n c e d by B u d d h ism . S u fferin g in Japan b ecam e th e v irtu e of e n d u ra n c e , w h ic h is largely a so c ia lly in s tille d v alu e b ecau se it m a in ta in s th e statu s quo. T he p o o r p u t u p w ith th e ir lot ra th e r th a n try to chan g e th in g s. In th e C h ristia n tra d itio n th e p o o r re c e iv e d a h e a v e n ly rew ard for th e ir e a rth ly sufferings. In Japan, how ever, it is b eliev ed th a t you w ill get w h at you w a n t in th is life if you su ffer a n d w a it— th a t is, e n d u re — lo n g en o u g h . By su fferin g o n e n ot o n ly a p p e a ls for s y m p a th y b u t can also in d u c e guilt. A p erfect ex am p le is th e h e ro in e of W hat Is Your N a m e ? By ly in g on a h o s p ita l b ed p assiv ely su ffe rin g s h e in d u c e d g u ilt feelings in h e r h u s b a n d , w h o d id h e r w rong, a n d in h e r sw e e th e a rt, w h o d id n o t do h e r rig h t, a n d in th e e n d sh e got h e r d iv o rc e a n d th e m a n sh e w a n te d . T he W eak Passive M ale w as n o m atch for h e r s in c e h is su fferin g w as o n ly an a p p e a l for sym pathy, as w as th e case w ith th e n ih ilis tic hero in O rochi. T h e h e ro in e ’s b e h a v io r w as m o d e le d on th a t of th e Japanese m o th er w h o , as G eorge A• De Vos c o n c lu d e d , in d u c e s g u ilt feelin g s in h e r ch ild re n by h e r “q u ie t su ffe rin g ” a n d th ereb y gets th e m to do w h at sh e

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w a n ts.40 T his p sy ch o lo g y w as c in e m a tic a lly e x p re sse d in th e p e re n n ia l “mother film s” fhaha m onoj, w h ic h were at th e lieig h t of th e ir p o p u la rity in th e 1950s.41 Ian B urum a h as stated th a t “ in a sen se Jap an ese love sto rie s are all v ariatio n s of th e h a h a m o n o .42‫ ״‬W hile h is o b serv atio n is v alid , th e re is a b asic d ifference b etw een th e genres. T he m o th e r^ su fferin g w as b a se d on p overty a n d in th e film s of th e 1950s she ta u n te d h e r u n g ratefu l c h ild re n w ith her sh ab b y clo th es, w h ic h re m in d e d th e m th a t th ey h a d n o t m a d e h er life any better.43 In c o n tra st to th is m u n d a n e ploy, th e su fferin g of th e love m e lo d ra m a h e ro in e in a p u re w h ite h o sp ita l room w as e th e re a l a n d b ased on u n re q u ite d love. S till, b o th genres w ere s e n tim e n ta l e x p re ssio n s of Japanese facts of life. T he A ll-S ufferin g Fem ale, m o th e r or s w e e th e a rt, w as not sim p ly p u ttin g u p w ith h e r lot b u t p sy c h o lo g ic a lly w o rk in g on sons and lovers to b etter h e r c irc u m sta n c e s a n d m aybe c h an g e h e r fate. M oral m aso c h ism also exists in th e W est, b u t it is not so u b iq u ito u s as it is in Japan, w h e re p assiv ity is so h ig h ly reg ard ed th a t it is e x p e c te d even from m ales. S uffering a n d p a ssiv ity are like tw o sid e s of th e sam e a rc h e ty p al coin, revolving on e n d u ra n c e th a t d e m a n d s w aitin g . P assiv ity rep resen ts o b ed ien ce, b u t it also h as in d iv id u a l rew ard s. By w aitin g a n d b ein g o b e d ie n t a young m a n is u s u a lly p ro m o ted by h is su p e rio rs a n d a m arriag e is ev en tu ally arran g ed for h im w ith so m eo n e w h o m ay n o t be th e girl of h is dream s b u t is at least a su ita b le m ate. S till, in m o d e rn Japan, w h e re h ie ra rc h y is n o t as strong as in th e p a st a n d th e “m o d e rn ” id ea ◦ f fin d in g y our ow n m ate h as tak en h o ld , th e p e rsiste n c e of p a ssiv ity in m ale b e ‫־‬ h av io r can n o t be a ttrib u te d so lely to social re in fo rc e m e n t. S u c h in g ra in e d b eh av io r m u st start in c h ild h o o d . Ezra Vogel has observ ed th at a Japanese m o th e r re sp o n d s to th e d e sire s of h er c h ild re n a n d tries to satisfy th e m a lm o st before th e y are aw are of th em th e m se lv e s.44 C onsequently, after o u tg ro w in g c h ild is h ta n tru m s , Japanese seem to m atu re by le a rn in g p a tie n c e a n d w a itin g p a ssiv e ly u n til th e ir desires are satisfied by later m o th e r su b stitu te s. By W estern sta n d ard s, su c h c h ild re a rin g p ra c tic e s w o u ld le a d to th e fo rm a tio n of a w eak ego w ith o u t clearly co n ceiv ed d esires— o n e th a t c o u ld easily be satisfied w ith w hatever th e e n v iro n m e n t h as to offer. T he co n flict b e tw e e n d e sire s a n d th e e n v iro n m e n t is th e re b y to n e d d o w n in Japan, w h e re a p lia n t ego co u ld a d a p t m ore easily th a n in th e West. Japanese m o th ers, like th e ir c o u n te rp a rts ev ery w h ere, are sim p ly ra isin g th e ir c h ild re n to be good boys a n d girls, b u t in Jap an th a t le a d s to a n ego th a t read ily a d a p ts to a situ a tio n a n d th e n feels so m e d esire o r n e e d h a s b e e n satisfied. T his p e rso n a lity ty p e ca n be c a lle d B u d d h is t or tra d itio n a l, for it p o sits an u n c h a n g e a b le so cial e n v iro n m e n t a n d a n ego th a t c a n o n ly ach ieve satisfa ctio n by a d a p tin g to it. It is ju st th e o p p o site in th e W est w h ere th e e n v iro n m e n t is often c h a n g e d to satisfy so m e c le a rly c o n c e iv e d d esire.

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In B u d d h is m e n lig h te n m e n t c o n sists of “ d e s ire le s s n e s s ，” for d esires are a tta c h m e n ts th a t are th e c au se of suffering . T he Japanese B u d d h is t p erso n a lity ty p e is b y no m e a n s w ith o u t d esires; how ever, th e y are n o t so stro n g as th e y w o u ld be in th e W est. A Japanese m ay be w aitin g for so m e d esire to be satisfied , b u t he m ay n o t be c o m p le te ly su re ju st w h a t th a t d esire is. T h erefo re, a d a p ta b ility co ex ists w ith passivity. A good e x a m p le of th is m o d e of b e h a v io r is th e hero in W arm C u rren t. We are le d to believe h e re a lly loves th e ric h girl, b u t w h e n sh e tu rn s d o w n h is m a rria g e p r o p o s a l he a c c e p ts it p h ilo so p h ic a lly . W h en sh e th e n suggests he p ro p o se to h e r girl frie n d , he is n o n c o m m itta l. T he girl frien d seek s h im o u t, how ever, a n d he th e n d e c id e s to m arry h e r sin c e it seem s to be a foreg o n e c o n c lu s io n . To Japanese he a p p e a rs p ractical; to W esterners, a lm o st friv o lo u s— a m a n w h o loves w ise ly b u t not too w ell. B ut th e n his d e sire for e ith e r o ne of th e m w as p ro b ab ly n ot th a t stro n g to begin w ith , a n d by a d a p tin g to th e s itu a tio n he h a d at least so m e d esire satisfied. T h u s, w h ile p a s siv ity often c o n jo in s w ith suffering, w h e n it co m b in es w ith a d a p ta b ility it a c tu a lly prev en ts th e su fferin g th a t com es from stro n g d e sire s s u c h as th o se ex p re sse d in C h ik a m a tsu ’s plays ab o u t lovers’ suicid e. T he b e h a v io r of th e hero in W arm Curren.t w as c o n sid e re d n o rm a l as w ell as re sp e c ta b le by Japanese s ta n d a rd s. H ow ever, w h e n p assiv ity is lin k e d w ith sufferin g , it ca n lead to sex u al m a so c h ism , w h ic h sh o w s th a t a b n o rm a l or d e v ia n t b e h a v io r c a n fo llo w th e sam e m o d e as n o rm a l beh av io r. M a so c h ism is very e v id e n t in Jap an ese lite ra tu re a n d soft-core p o rn o film s. D a y d re a m fH ak u jitsu m u j, a sto ry by th e literary m aster Ju n ic h iro T anizaki, c o u ld ea sily be m ad e in to a se n sa tio n a l b u t in trig u in g film in 1964 b y d ire c to r Tetsuji T akechi. In th e film a y o ung boy a c c o m p a n ie s h is girl frien d to th e d e n tist, an d w h ile w a itin g for h e r h e d ay d ream s th a t th e d e n tist is se d u c in g her. T he m o st a rre stin g scen e h as h im sta n d in g o u tsid e th e w in d o w of a m o d e rn a p a rtm e n t a n d w a tc h in g h e lp le s s ly w h ile th e m id d le-ag e d m a n b in d s th e girl a n d to rtu re s h e r w ith stra p s a n d ele c tric shocks. G rad u ally sh e begins to en jo y it a n d even e x p e rie n c e s a n orgasm . Before th e d ay d ream en d s th e y o u n g m a n k ills th e girl b u t th e s a d ist e lu d e s h im . In W arm C u rren t, a n d g e n e ra lly in th e love m e lo d ra m a genre, th ere is an e q u iv a le n t to th e s a d ist in D a y d re a m . He e ith e r p ractices p re m e d ita te d s e d u c tio n or c o ld ly c a lc u la te s m arriag e w ith a w o m a n to fu rth e r h is career. C o m p ared w ith th e W eak Passive M ale, h e is at least m e n ta lly activ e. H e also h as a K abuki a n te c e d e n t in th e ric h b o o r or slob w h o e ith e r to rm e n ts th e lovers or o b stru c ts th e ir u n io n . N e ith e r th e K abuki slob n o r th e “active m a le ” in love m e lo d ra m a ever got th e h e ro in e ’s love or satisfied her, th o u g h . H ence, th e triu m p h of th e s a d ist over th e Passive M ale in D a y d re a m c a n be c o n sid e re d c o u n te rc u ltu re in d e n o u e m e n t, alb eit sim ila r in m o d e s a n d a rc h e ty p a l co n fig u ratio n . W hereas passiv e b e h av io r is

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often rew ard e d in re sp e c ta b le film s, in p o rn o it is p u n is h e d , w h ic h is th e so u rce of m a so c h istic p leasu re. T he m a so c h ist a n d th e s a d ist ca n be c o m b in e d in one figure, a n d a good illu stra tio n is The E m bryo H u n ts in S ecret (Taiji ga M iisu ry o S u ru Told, 1966), a ty p ic a l 4'p in k ‫ ״‬film — th e generic label for Jap an ese soft-core p o rn o film s (until N ik k atsu a tte m p te d to ^ u p g ra d e ‫ ״‬th e m w ith th e ir a ll-c o lo r “ro m a n ” p o rn o b e g in n in g in 1971)• S till, d ire c to r Koji W akam atsu re d e e m s th is one w ith c o m p e llin g im ages• A m id d le -a g e d d e p a rtm e n t-sto re m an ager takes a young, p re tty em p lo y ee u p to h is a p a rtm e n t, d ru g s her, a n d th e n to rtu res her. B ut in h is d ream s h e im ag in es sh e is to rm e n tin g h im ju st like all th e o th er w o m e n in h is life. In o n e d ream h e is s h o w n in a v acu u m lik e room n ak ed a n d c u rle d u p in th e fetal p o sitio n . H e cries o u t for h is m om m y a n d th e young girl a p p e a rs to c o n so le h im w ith a lullaby. H ere th e sa d ist a n d th e m a so c h ist are ro lle d u p in o n e Passive M ale w ith a m o th e r co m p lex w h o desires to re tu rn to th e w o m b w h ere h e w o u ld h ave no co n scio u s d esires to to rm e n t him . Ian B u ru m a h as n o ted ‫ ״‬th e re tu rn to th e w o m b ‫ ״‬m essag e of th is film (w hose title h e tra n sla te s as ‫ ״‬W h en th e F oetus G oes P o a c h in g 45(‫ ״‬a n d c o n c lu d e s it is in d ic a tiv e of uth e tra u m a at th e first d isco v ery of fem ale sex u ality .46‫ ״‬Tadao Sato, on th e o th er h a n d , h as lik e n e d th e film to a fairy tale,47 w h ic h suggests th a t in W akam atsu ^ o w n p erv erse w ay h e is try in g to re c a p tu re th e w o rld of c h ild h o o d in n o c e n c e . Loss of in n o c e n c e is a relig io u s m otif th a t can a p p e a r in sto rie s of tru e lovers w h o tra n sc e n d th e ir m u n d a n e w o rld . T he Jap an ese film th a t b est illu stra te s th is m otif ag ain st a b ack g ro u n d of C o n fu cian re p re s sio n a n d w ith in an a m b ien ce of B u d d h is t e v an escen ce is S h e Was Like a WiJd C h ry sa n th e m u m (N ogiku no G otoki K im i N arik i, 1955), a m a ste rp ie c e by K eisuke K in o sh ita th a t resem b les B ergm an ’s W ild S traw b erries. T he film beg in s in c o n te m p o ra ry tim es w ith an o ld m an in a riv e r boat. H e tells th e b o atm en th a t th is is th e first tim e in six ty years h e h as b e e n to h is n ative village. In an off-screen s o lilo q u y h e tells th e v iew er th a t h e h a s re tu rn e d b ecau se all h e has left before h e d ies is c h ild h o o d m e m o rie s. E verything h as ch an g ed — th e villag e k id s get a th rill p la y in g in h is o ld farm h o u se b ecau se th e y th in k it is h a u n te d — b u t, in s o lilo q u y ag ain , h e tells h is d ead , first, a n d o n ly love th a t sh e n ev er v a n ish e d from h is h e a rt. W hat follow s is a flashback to h is y o u th , w h ic h th e d ire c to r e n c a se s in an oval w h ite fram e to evoke th e m o o d of old p h o to g ra p h s. H is closest c h ild h o o d frie n d a n d first love w as a y o u n g girl w h o cam e to h is h o u se as a liv e-in m aid . T hey are often sh o w n to g eth er in th e field s p ick in g w ildflow ers a n d e d ib le p la n ts a n d h e rb s, a n d sim p ly e n jo y in g each other s com pany. T hey are like b ro th e r a n d sister, b u t e v e n tu a lly th e ir in tim a c y arou ses su sp ic io n . T he other, o ld er m a id a n d th e b o y ,s sister-in law tell h is w id o w e d m o th e r th a t th e y are n o lo n g er c h ild re n a n d w o u ld m ake an u n s u ita b le m atch b ecau se of statu s a n d age d ifferen ces. S h e is

The Embryo Hunts in Secret (1966), directed by Koji Wakamatsu. In Japanese porno films heroines suffer physically as well, often at the hands of sadistic m iddle-aged men, who are at heart m asochists resembling the Weak Passive Male in respectable love stories.

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seventeGn a n d he is fifteen. T he m o th e r re lu c ta n tly agrees w ith th e m a n d first h as th e girl te m p o ra rily se n t back to h e r h o m e, a n d th e n h a s th e boy sen t aw ay to. h ig h school. D irector K in o sh ita h a d p re v io u sly sh o w n in T he G a rd e n of W om en (O nna no Sono, 1954) a callo u s a d u lt so c ie ty k e e p in g young lovers ap art. He v isu a liz e d th is by p h o to g ra p h in g th e m as d o tlik e figures at th e foot of a to w ering feu d al castle, em b lem atic of o ld -fa sh io n e d a u th o rita ria n ism . In S he Was Like a Wild Chrysanthemum, how ever, a lm o st all th e a d u lts are p resen ted as sy m p a th e tic c h aracters 一 th e o ld e r m aid e v e n tu a lly re p e n ts — a n d it seem s th at villag e c u sto m is th e c u lp rit. T h e o n e e x c e p tio n is th e sister-in-law , w h o se sole m o tiv atio n is en v y of a b e a u tifu l affin ity sh e h a d never e x p e rie n c e d w ith h e r o w n h u sb a n d . O n th e m o rn in g th e boy is going aw ay to sch o o l, th e girl a n d th e o ld e r m aid see h im off in a light rain . T h ere is a long ta k e of a h ig h -a n g le sh o t of th e w o m en w ith p a p e r u m b re llas w atch in g h is b o at g ra d u a lly d is a p p e a r in th e m ist. He w ill never see h e r again. In h is a b se n c e sh e w ill be m a rrie d off a n d w ill die in c h ild b irth . T he flashback en d s. T h e old m a n is sh o w n w alking across a long w o o d e n b rid g e over a d ry riv erb ed . By ju x tap o sin g th e river of y o u th a n d th e o ld m a n ,s b rid g e of d ream s, d ire cto r K in o sh ita h as evoked th e im ages of th e e tern al y o u th a n d th e sen ex w h ic h are tw o sid e s of th e sam e a rc h e ty p a l co in . M id d le age h as b een left out. T he old m an h as not ch an g ed . H e re m in d s W estern ers of R ip Van W inkle, b u t h e is m ore a m a n ife sta tio n of U ra sh im a Taro, w h o alo n g w ith M om o Taro— th e c h ild -lik e p ro to ty p e of th e C haste W arrior— is th e m ost p o p u la r am ong Japanese folk heroes. A sea tu rtle took U rash im a Taro to th e D ragon K in g ’s u n d e rw a te r k in g d o m w h ere h e h a d a fab u lo u s tim e p lay in g w ith th e M a id e n of th e Sea. A fter h e re tu rn e d , h e o p e n e d u p a box lik e th a t of P an d o ra a n d b e c a m e an o ld m a n im m ediately•48 H e sk ip p e d m id d le age, too, a n d o n ly e x p e rie n c e d first love a n d old age• M oreover, sin c e h e w as m erely a re c ip ie n t of fate’s favors an d disfavors, h e is th e fairy ta le p ro to ty p e of th e W eak P assive M ale, w ho b ecom es m ore im p o rta n t th a n th e A ll-S u fferin g F em ale in S h e Was Like a WiJd C h ry sa n th e m u m . T he film e n d s in a graveyard w ith th e o ld m a n a p p e a rin g d w arflik e u n d e r a hu g e tree, full-leav ed b u t not b earin g fo rb id d e n fru it. H e b o w s in front of h er grave a n d th e title s of th e p o e m c o m p a rin g h e r to a w ild c h ry sa n th e m u m a p p e a r o n th e screen. T h e p o e m is w ritte n in th e tanka style, w h ic h recalls classical p o e try b e m o a n in g th e e v a n e sc e n c e of life. S h e Was Like a Wild C h ry s a n th e m u m is u n lik e W e ste rn film s of n o stalg ia in th a t it is not “th e w ay w e w e re .” D eath p re v e n te d th e y o u n g girl from ch an g in g a n d h is m em o ry of h e r k ep t h im p u re. It is th e Ja p an ese v ersio n of th e u n iv e rsa l tragic-young-lovers m otif, th o u g h . If sh e h a d n o t d ie d a n d th ey h a d b een allo w ed to m arry, th e y w o u ld have sim p ly b e c o m e a m u n d a n e m id d le-ag e d couple• V illage c u sto m a n d th e e n v io u s s is te r-in ­

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law w ere m e re ly p retex ts. T h ese Jap an ese lovers resem b le th e S w ed ish o n e s in A rn e M attsso n 's 1951 S u m m e r A n g u ish (H on D a n s a d e en so m ‫־‬ m a r) w h e re th e girl also d ie d , b u t th e Jap an ese n ev er kiss n o r em b race, let a lo n e tak e off th e ir drab ru ra l c lo th in g for a n u d e love scen e in a sp a rk lin g river• S h e W as Like a W ild C h ry n s a n th e m u m also resem b les R an d al K leiser^ 1980 B lue L agoon, w h e re th e A dam -and-E v e-lik e lovers try to re m a in p u re b y e a tin g so m e fru it th e y th in k is p o iso n e d b u t th a t s im p ly p u ts th e m a s le e p u n til th e y are **rescued^ b y c iv iliz a tio n . But th e Japanese film is B u d d h is t in m o o d . T here is no Fall or O n e G reat Loss of In n o cen ce. S in ce e v e ry th in g is ch a n g in g b e c a u se of m u tab ility , th ere is, how ever, a contin u a l lo ss th a t is m a d e p o ig n a n t by th e c o n sta n c y of m em ory, for, as th e o ld m a n sa id , “you n e v e r v a n ish e d from m y h e a rt•”

The dominant tone of She Was Like a Wild Chrysanthemum was the illusory nature of existence, against which Confucian-based family and social relations seemed less important than the constancy of the young-

She Was Like a Wild Chrysanthemum (1955), directed by Keisuke Kinoshita. Encased in the oval white fram e of old photographs, this couple (Shinji Tanaka and Noriko Arita) in drab ru ral clothing is the Japanese version of the universal tragic-young-lovers motif.

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o ld m a n ’s love. T his B u d d h is t form ◦ f tra n s c e n d e n ta lis m , e x istin g in a state of te n sio n w ith C o n fu cian n o rm s, re su lte d in th e c re a tio n of a tru ly Japanese e x p re ssio n of a u n iv e rsa l th e m e . H ow ever, w ith th e d e c lin e of B u d d h ist s e n tim e n ts a n d th e lo o se n in g of C o n fu c ia n re stra in ts in p re s e n t‫״‬ day Japan, Japanese love sto ries have co m e to resem b le th e ir W estern c o u n te rp a rts m ore a n d m ore. In re tro sp e c t, The C o m p a ssio n a te B u d d h a Tree an d W hat Is Ybur N am e? re p re se n te d a tra n sitio n a l stage, for, al• th o u g h C o n fu cian re p re ssio n w as m u c h in e v id e n c e in th e ir fo rm a tio n , th e ir o n ly B u d d h ist q u a lity w as passivity. M oreover, d e s p ite th e ir W eak Passive M ale, th e y w ere h eav ily in flu e n c e d by H o lly w o o d , a n d by c o n tra st m ake She Was Like a Wild Chrysanthemum seem lik e th e last g e n u in e ly Japanese love story.

7

Prodigal Son, Forgiving Parent, Self-Sacrificing Sister Introduction M izoguch^s in te r n a tio n a lly fa m o u s S a n s h o th e Bailiff w as p e rh a p s Ja p a n ’s m o st re lig io u s film . B ased on a m ed iev al B u d d íiist legend, tiie sto ry c o n c e rn s an e le v e n th -c e n tu ry a risto c ra tic fam ily in w h ic h th e fath er d ie s in ex ile a n d th e so n is re u n ite d w ith th e m o th e r th ro u g h th e selfsacrifice of h is sister. T he sto ry is w ell k n o w n to m an y Jap an ese as a n u rs e ry ta le th e y le a rn e d lite ra lly at th e ir m o th e r’s k n e e .1 M izo g u ch i tu rn e d it in to a m y th for a d u lts w ith th e a rc h e ty p e s of th e Prodigal Son, F o rg iv in g P a re n t, a n d S e lf-S a c rific in g S iste r illu s tr a tin g th e u n iv e rs a l m o ra l p ro b le m of guilt a n d forgiveness in th e co n tex t of suffering. S in c e Japan is often re g a rd e d as a “sh a m e c u ltu re ,”2 th e a rc h e ty p e s d e sig n a te d h e re m ay a p p e a r to be m ore C h ristia n th a n Japanese. G eorge De Vos, th o u g h , h a s c o n c lu d e d on th e b asis of p sy ch o lo g ica l tests th a t th e re is a re la tio n b e tw e e n g u ilt a n d p a re n ta l sufferin g a n d th a t g u ilt feelings can be a ro u se d in Jap an ese w h e n th e y fail to live u p to p a re n ta l e x p e c ta tio n s.3 In M iz o g u c h i,s S a n sh o th e B a ili//th e so n b ecam e p ro d ig a l b ecau se h e d id n o t live u p to th e id e a ls of h is n o b le father, a n d in th e e n d h e seem ed to be fo rg iven b y h is m o th e r ra th e r th a n by a B u d d h is t d eity — a d e n o u e m e n t th a t m a d e h e r a p p e a r sacred. S u c h a sa c re d p a re n t can be fo u n d in th e w ritin g s of Takeo Doi, a m o d e rn Jap an ese p sy ch o lo g ist. Doi is a C ath o lic b y faith, b u t very Japanese in h is in te rp re ta tio n of th e B ib lical p a ra b le of th e P rodigal S on, for h e reg ard s th e forgiver as a n a c tu a l p a re n t ra th e r th a n a sym bol for G od th e Father. For Doi, th e h e a rt of th is p aren t, or h is b en ev o len ce, is so d eep it is b e y o n d th e u n d e rs ta n d in g of o rd in a ry p e rso n s .4 E n d o w e d w ith an in c o m p re h e n sib le love th a t W estern C h ristia n s w o u ld a ttrib u te o n ly to G od, D o i’s “P a re n t” tak es o n a sacred a sp e c t th a t is n o t u n seem ly . G eorge De Vos h a s stated th a t in p lace of a c o n c e rn w ith a tra n s c e n d e n ta l (ieity, th e re is am o n g th e Jap an ese a re sp e c tfu l id e a liz a tio n of a fath er im age a n d a feelin g of loving d ev o tio n to a m o th e r w h o deserv es e te rn a l g ra titu ã e .5 C onversely, am o n g W estern C h ristia n s th e c o n c e p t of a 141

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tra n sc e n d e n ta l d e ity d e p riv e d th e ir p aren ts of th e sacred u ltim a c y of Doi s “P aren t” a n d the Forgiving M o th er in S a n sh o th e BaiJijJ• The S elf-Sacrificing S ister a rc h e ty p e m ay seem at first g lan ce to be sim p ly a m in ia tu re v ersio n of th e A ll-S ufferin g Fem ale. In c o n tra st to th e latter^ m u ltifario u s form s (as m other, w ife, sw e e th e a rt, a n d so forth), how ever, th e form er is confined w ith in a sin g le fam ily for w h o se sak e she suffers a n d sacrifices herself. In S a n sh o the Bailiff, th o u g h , M izo g u c h i raised h er above th is d o m e stic level by eq u a tin g h e r sacrifice w ith adh eren ce to h er father s n oble id eals of h u m a n ism , w h ic h tra n s c e n d e d a n d o p p o sed the n o rm s of a feu d al so cie ty b ased on p riv ile g e d c lasses a n d slavery. Still, h er suffering is m ore fam ilial th a n u n iv e rsa l or in d iv id u a l. Salvation is a fam ily m atter, an d th e sister does m ore p e n a n c e for h e r prodigal b ro th e r th a n he does him self. She exists m ore in re la tio n to h im a n d h er m o th er th a n as an in d iv id u a l. W hile th is c h a ra c te riz a tio n is lia b le to m o d ern charges of sexism , th e sam e can be sa id for th e o th e r m a in ch aracters in M izo g u c h i^ S a n sh o the Bailiff, for th ey too act m ore like m em bers of a H oly Fam ily th a n in d iv id u a ls. The arch ety p es of th is H oly Fam ily d efin itely have so c io p o litic a l im plications• Som e self-sacrifice is n ecessary for o rd e r in an y so c ie ty a n d is d e m a n d e d by a n a tio n at war. Japanese m o d els from p e rio d film a n d love m elo d ram as are sim p ly extrem e exam ples. T he P rodigal S o n ex em p lifies b o th o b ed ien ce an d su b m issio n w h e n he is sh o w n re p e n ta n t a n d forgiven by a b en ev o len t p a re n t or p a te rn a listic ruler. M izo g u ch i h im se lf w as d o u b tless aw are of th ese im p lic a tio n s b ecau se he h a d m ad e several film s cen tering on suffering, self-sacrificing w o m en e x p lo ite d by th e ir m en , a n d on th e ir fathers a n d brothers. Yet, as a d ev o u t B u d d h ist in h is later y e a rs,6 M izoguchi w as p ro b ab ly relig io u sly m oved by th e m y th of th e P rodigal Son he saw in th e m edieval legend of S a n sh o the Bailiff. T he a rc h e ty p e s th at cu lm in ated in his film h a d existed in som e form or o th e r sin c e a n tiq u itj' B3’ tracin g th e ir d e v e lo p m e n t in Jap an ese fam ily d ra m a s, an overview of Japanese religious h isto ry also com es in to focus, for in Japan relig ion w as u su a lly co n sid e re d in a fam ilial co n tex t. T h e ir p ro b le m a tic n atu re w ill also becom e e v id e n t as th e y su p p o rt, o p p o se, or tra n s c e n d th e ir social order.

Metamorphoses Jap an s first Prodigal Son w as S u san o O, an offspring of Iz a n a m i a n d Izanagi, th e p ro g en ito r d eities of th e w orld . S u sa n o 0 refu sed to ru le th e Sea, th e realm e n tru ste d to h im , becau se he w a n te d to go see h is m o th e r in th e L and of th e D ead, a n d his father ex p e lle d h im . T h e n he w e n t to v isit h is sister, A m aterasu, in th e P lain of H eaven, th e realm e n tru s te d to her. She was w ary of his in te n tio n s a n d , to alla}r h e r su sp ic io n s, h e su g g ested

P r o d ig a l Son, F o rg ivin g P a ren t, S e lf-S a c rific in g S is te r 143 th a t th e y sw e a r o ath s a n d b e a r c h ild re n together. A fterw ard s, how ever, h e b e c a m e a tro u b le m a k e r w h o m sh e p u t u p w ith u n til h e c a u sed th e d e a th of o n e of h e r h e a v e n ly m a id e n s. T h e re u p o n , o u t of fear sh e s h u t h erself u p in a c av e.7 A s m e n tio n e d p reviously, th e o th e r gods co ax ed h e r o u tsid e a n d e x ile d h e r b ro th er, w h o n e v e rth e le ss m an ag ed to lead a h a p p y life o n e a rth . S u sa n o O n e ith e r su ffered m u c h for h is m isd e e d s n o r w as ever fo rg iv en b y h is father. T h e re la tio n s b e tw e e n S u sa n o O a n d A m aterasu suggest H ayao K aw ai's v ie w of sib lin g ties as an in te rm e d ia te stage b e tw e e n th e m o th e r-c h ild a n d o p p o s ite -se x re la tio n s .8 A ccordingly» th e y o u n g er sister is like a preh e te ro se x u a l love object a n d th e o ld e r siste r lik e a little m other. A m aterasu first acts as S u sa n o O s lover by b earin g c h ild re n w ith h im (th o u g h d ev o u t S h in to is ts stress th a t th e y sto o d on o p p o site sh o res of a riv er d u rin g th e tra n sa c tio n ). T h e n sh e b eh av es lik e a d o tin g o ld e r sister or little m o th e r m a k in g e x cu ses for h is d e lin q u e n t behavior. H er am b iv alen ce co u ld be a ttrib u te d to th e fact th a t, a lth o u g h sh e w as b o rn before h im , th ere is no e m p h a s is o n b irth o rd e r in th e ir re la tio n sh ip . A m aterasu do es n ot really q u a lify as a S elf-S acrificing Sister, th o u g h , sin c e sh e is m erely to rm e n te d by a b ro th e r sh e do es n o t save from exile. Ja p a n ’s s e c o n d P rodigal S on w as th e m y th ic a l w arrior, Yamato Takeru, w h o w as also h e r first tra g ic h e ro .9 Like C ain, h e k ille d h is o ld er brother, e n d th e re a fte r h is father, E m p ero r K eiko, k e p t se n d in g h im o u t on dang ero u s e x p e d itio n s to s u b d u e e n e m y trib es. A id e d b y h is au n t, he con• fid ed in h e r h is grief over th e s u s p ic io n th a t h is fath er w an ted h im k ille d in b a ttle . D u rin g o ne e x p e d itio n a sto rm arose w h ile he w as o n a ship, a n d h is w ife d iv e d in to th e sea to calm th e tu rb u le n t w aters. H er d eath a d d e d to h is so rro w a n d e v e n tu a lly h e d ie d tragically, aw ay from h is h o m e la n d .10 U n lik e S u sa n o O, he h a d suffered greatly, p e rh a p s b ecau se h e w as h u m a n ra th e r th a n d iv in e . T h e w ife of Yamato T akeru can be c o n sid e re d th e first Self-Sacrificing F em ale. S he d iv e d in to th e sea in te n tio n a lly so th a t h e m ig h t co m p lete h is m iss io n , u n lik e Izan am i, w h o h a d n o t m e a n t to d ie giving b irth to fire. T he F orgiving P arent a rc h e ty p e , how ever, is n o t c learly form ed. H is a u n t w as lik e a p ro te ctiv e m other, b u t sh e c o u ld n o t forgive h im . T here is n o re c o rd of h is fa th e r’s re a c tio n to h is d e a th in th e K ojiki v ersio n of th e m y th ; h o w e v e r, in N ih o n s h o k i, J a p a n ’s o th e r a n c ie n t h is to r y c o m p le te d in a . d .7 2 0 , th e fa th e r grieved d e e p ly a n d o rd e re d th a t a n im p e ria l tu m u lu s be b u ilt w h e re h is so n d ie d so th a t h e c o u ld be en to m b e d th e re acco rd in g to c u sto m . T h e n th e c o rp se of Yamato Takeru w as tra n sfo rm e d in to a w h ite b ird th a t cam e o u t of th e to m b a n d flew to w ard th e L and of Y am ato.11 In th e N ih o n sh o k i v ersio n , th erefo re, w h ile th e fath er c o u ld n ot forgive th e P ro d ig al S on, h e at least la m e n te d h is d eath , a n d th e flight of th e w h ite b ird su g g ests th a t Yamato T akeru w as lib erated from h is sufferings, th o u g h h e d ie d u n fo rg iv en .

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B oth S usano 0 a n d Yamato Takeru w ere c h ild re n se p a ra te d from th e ir p aren ts. T he th em e of p a re n t-c h ild s e p a ra tio n b e cam e im p o rta n t in B udd h ist legends like S a n sh o the Bailiff in th e m ed iev al p e rio d from 1186 to 1600 a n d c o n tin u e s to be p o p u la r in p re se n t-d a y Japan• T h ese le g e n d s w ere the subjects of se rm o n s given n o t o n ly in te m p le s b u t also by ro ad sid es as B u d d h ist p rie sts b egan tak in g th e ir d o c trin e to th e m a s s e s .12 S ince m e n d ic a n t m o n k s d e p e n d e d o n th e ir se rm o n s for th e ir liv e lih o o d , th ey began to m ake th e m into e n te rta in in g sto rie s•13 G ra d u a lly th e se sto ries w ere to ld by w a n d e rin g o u tc a sts w h o a d d e d th e ir o w n e m b e llish m en ts, an d th is oral tra d itio n is still c a rrie d o n in c o n te m p o ra ry tim e s by b lin d w o m en m in stre ls c a lle d g o ze.14 Tadao Sato gives one v ersio n of S a n sh o the Bailiff as a se rm o n fsekkyo b u s h ij firs t re c ite d b y m e d ie v a l w a n d e rin g s to r y te lle r s .15 W h ile th e m o th e r a n d c h ild re n are jo u rn e y in g to v isit th e ex iled father, th e y are d eceived by slave tra d e rs a n d th e c h ild re n are se p a ra te d from th e ir m o th e r a n d sold to S an sh o , a bailiff w h o m an ag es a n o b le m a n ^ estate. W h en th e y try to escape, th e y are caught a n d b ra n d e d o n th e fo reh ead ; b u t w h e n th e y pray to th e Jizo B o d h isattv a im age th e ir fath er h a d given th e so n , th e ir b ra n d s are m ira c u lo u s ly tra n sfe rre d to th e im a g e ’s fo reh ead . E v en tu ally , th e sister A n ju m anages to set h e r b ro th e r Z u sh io free, b u t later sh e is cau g ht and to rtu re d to death. Z u sh io finds refuge in B u d d h is t te m p le s o n his w ay to th e im p e ria l cap ital, w h ere u n d e r m ira c u lo u s c irc u m sta n c e s h e is m ad e th e a d o p te d so n of a n o b le m a n . Later, after Z u s h io ’s o w n aristo c r a tic o rig in s are d is c o v e re d , h e is a p p o in te d g o v e rn o r of th e s a m e p ro v in ce he h a d b e e n a slave in. W hen he re tu rn s th e re a n d fin d s o u t a b o u t his siste r’s cru el death , he avenges h e r by h a v in g S an sh o b e h e a d e d w ith a bam boo-saw by h is o w n son. Later h e is re u n ite d w ith h is m o th e r a n d h e m ira c u lo u sly h eals h e r b lin d n e s s w ith h is B u d d h is t im age. T hereafter, he p laces th e im age in a te m p le b u ilt in m e m o ry of h is sister. T his tale of p a re n t-c h ild se p a ra tio n is to ld w ith in a B u d d h is t co n te x t like m an y tales of th e m ed iev al p e rio d — it tells of su fferin g a n d m ira c le s an d follow s th e d o c trin e of k arm a or th e law of cau se a n d effect. Evil d o ers like S ansho are p u n is h e d , a n d th e good are p ro te cted by B o d h isattv as a n d ev en tu ally rew ard ed . H ow ever, th ere is no fo rg iv en ess. T he siste r A n ju is self-sacrificing, b u t sin ce Z u sh io is n o t a p ro d ig a l, h e does n o t n e e d to be forgiven e ith e r b y h is suffering m o th e r or a B u d d h is t deity. The cruel asp ects of th is m ed iev al leg en d w ere o m itted w h e n it w as m ad e in to th e fam ous n u rse ry tale, A nju a n d Z u sh io . W h en O gai M o ri, one of Japan’s greatest m o d e rn w rite rs, u se d it as th e b asis for h is s h o rt sto ry p u b lish e d in 1915,16 he h a d A nju c o m m it s u ic id e ra th e r th a n be to rtu re d a n d h a d Z u sh io forgive S an sh o after he freed th e slaves. A cco rd ing to Takeo Iw asaki, a lite ra ry c ritic, O gai M ori th e re b y w h ite w a s h e d th e m ed ieval m e n ta lity ,17 w h ic h m a in ly c o n sists of th e fu sio n of B u d d h is t d o c trin e w ith th e re se n tm e n t of th e o u tc a st s to ry te lle rs .18

P r o d ig a l S on ， F o rg ivin g P a re n t ， S e lf-S a c rific in g S is te r 145 C o n ta c t b e tw e e n m e n d ic a n t m o n k s a n d w a n d e rin g o u tcasts re su lte d in th e in c o rp o ra tio n of th e la tte r’s e x p e rie n c e s of p re ju d ic e in th e serm o n s or le g e n d s•19 In one v e rsio n ◦ f S a n sh o th e BaiJifjT A n ju a n d Z u s h i◦ are seg regated as th o u g h th e y w ere u n to u c h a b le s a n d , after th e y try to escap e, are re fu s e d fo o d .20 P ro b ab ly m a n y o u tc a sts w ere reg ard ed as u n to u c h a b le s b ecau se th e y w ere d e s c e n d a n ts of th e slave caste of to m b g u ard s or o th ers w h o w o rk ed in s u c h p o llu tin g o c c u p a tio n s. C o n tact w ith d eath w as c o n sid e re d o n e of th e g reatest p o llu tio n s a n d th o se a sso ciated w ith it w ere to be a v o id ed (imi), s in c e p o llu tio n w as th o u g h t to be co n tag io u s (an d a p p a re n tly h ered ita ry b e c a u se d e s c e n d a n ts w ere also sh u n n e d ). A lth o u g h slav ery h a d b e e n n o m in a lly a b o lish e d d u rin g th e H eian p e rio d (794-1185), c h ild re n like A n ju a n d Z u sh io c o n tin u e d to be k id n a p p e d a n d b o u g h t a n d so ld as se rv a n ts th ro u g h th e m ed iev al p e rio d u n til th e se v e n te e n th c e n tu ry o r so, a n d th e d e s c e n d a n ts of slaves (hinin) often c o u ld e arn a liv e lih o o d o n ly th ro u g h begging a n d as itin e ra n t e n te rta in e rs .21 T he c o n c e rn w ith p o llu tio n in th e n ativ e relig io n of S h in to m erg ed w ith B u d d h is t c o n c e p ts in m e d ie v a l legends. T he cru el p u n is h m e n t m eted o u t to S a n sh o w as n o t o n ly th e k arm ic re su lt of h is evil d e e d s b u t also th e e x p re ssio n of th e re se n tm e n t o u tcasts felt for th e su fferin g th ey ex p erie n c e d . A lth o u g h fo rg iv in g B o d h is a ttv a s lik e K a n n o n , th e G o d d e ss of M ercy, w ere c h a ra c te ris tic of m ed iev al B u d d h is m in Japan, o u tc a st storyte lle rs w o u ld n o t let m ercy in terfere w ith th e ju st p u n is h m e n t th e ir opp re sso rs d eserv ed . As su c h , th e B u d d h is t leg en d of S a n sh o the Bailiff d o es n o t e n tire ly s u p p o rt th e p o litic a l o rd e r at th a t tim e. T he fact th a t Z u s h io ’s a risto c ra tic o rig in s are d isco v e red after h e lives as a beggar fo r a tim e in d ic a te s th e sam e k in d of w ish fu lfillm e n t p re se n t in The P rin ce a n d T he P a u p e r fairy tale, a n d in b o th cases lib e ra tio n in fictio n fo restalls an y a c tu a l revolt. H ow ever, s in c e Z u sh io e sc a p e d from h is m a ste r a n d k ille d a re p re s e n ta tiv e ◦f a u th o rity to avenge h is s is te r’s d eath , fam ilial love is p la c e d over s u b m is sio n to a u th o rity in th is B u d d h is t leg en d , w h ic h in m a n y re sp e c ts reflects th e liv in g c o n d itio n s of th e low est classes from a n c ie n t tim e s u n til th e m o d e rn e ra .22 T h e F orgiving P aren t-P ro d ig al S on dyad, w h ic h h a d b e e n ab se n t from th e m e d ie v a l le g e n d of S a n sh o the Bailiff, b ecam e s a lie n t in th e lite ra tu re of th e T okugaw a p e rio d (1603-1868), as C o n fu cian ism su p e rs e d e d B udd h ism as th e p rin c ip a l m o d e of th o u g h t.23 As a c o n seq u en ce, tales of p ie ty to w a rd B u d d h a s a n d B o d h isattv as w ere larg ely re p la c e d w ith th o se of filial piety. S aik ak u d o w n p la y e d p a re n t-c h ild re la tio n s in h is fam ous erotic tales, p ro b a b ly b ecau se g u ilt-in d u c in g p a re n ts w o u ld sp o il th e re a d e r’s enjoym e n t of am o ro u s a d v e n tu re s. H ow ever, h e also w rote Twenty B reach es of Filial Piety (Honcho Niju FukoJ, in w h ic h u n filia l c h ild re n are p u n is h e d b y H eaven, a n a b stra c t C o n fu cian e q u iv a le n t of G od th e F ather in th e West.

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In fact S aikaku a d d e d realism to th is genre, w h ic h h a d b een p ro lific s in c e th e b e g in n in g of th e Tokugaw a era, by o m ittin g th e m ira c le s th a t h a d a p p e a re d as a rew ard for filial b e h a v io r in o ld e r sto ries. In th is re sp e c t, however, he was also follow in g the trend of his tim es toward secularism • Saikaku also a d d e d iro n y a n d h u m o r in a tale lik e This B orrow ed G ood Life (Ima no M iyako mo Yb vva Karimono)• A n ex ceed in g ly unfilial son prays to the goá of long life for his father’s early death so that he can in h e rit his w ealth. W hen th e so n d e c id e s to tak e m atters in to h is o w n h a n d s, how ever, h e a c c id e n ta lly p o iso n s him self. T he fath er fin d s h im d ead a n d lam en ts th e p assin g of th e son h e d id n o t k n o w w as o u t to kill h im .24 For Saikaku's contem porary, C h ik am atsu , th e p a re n t-c h ild re la tio n w as seld o m h u m o ro u s a n d n ev er ironical• Even in th e p lay s a b o u t lo v ers’ s u ic id e for w h ic h C h ik am atsu is fam ous, p aren ts p lay an im p o rta n t role, an d in his fam ily d ram as he c o n tin u a lly p re se n ts b e n e v o le n t p a re n ts w h o forgive prodigal sons. In th e case of m o th ers th is is n o t so u n u s u a l, for th e id eal m o th er w as su p p o se d to be loving a n d p ro tectiv e (jibo). H ow ever, C h ik a m a tsu ,s fathers often o u td o th e ir w ives in b e n ev o len ce, a n d th is goes ag ain st th e m o d el father, b ased on sa m u ra i ideology, w h o s h o u ld be a strict d isc ip lin a ria n (genpuj.25 In Tokugaw a so cie ty th e father w as re sp o n sib le for his c h ild re n ’s behavior. A ny crim es c o m m itted by th e m in c u rre d p u n is h m e n t n o t o n ly for h is o w n fam ily b u t also for h is im m e d ia te n eig h b o rs. A c c o rd in g to th e gonin -gum i system of social c o n tro l,26 five fam ilies w ere m u tu a lly re sp o n sib le for th e actio n s of an y of th e ir m em bers• Id e a lly a fa th e r’s d u ty to w a rd so ciety or loyalty tow ard h is m aster s h o u ld hav e o v e rrid e n c o n c e rn for h is ow n ch ild re n . In Battles of C oxinga C h ik am atsu p re se n te d a sa m u ra i fath er w ho re lu c ta n tly k ills h is ow n son so th a t th e e n e m y w ill be deceived an d h is lo rd ’s son w ill escape. H ow ever, in p lay s a b o u t th e co n tem p o ra ry m e rc h a n t c la ss fsew a m o n o ], C h ik a m a ts u u n f a ilin g ly h a s b en ev o len t fathers forgiving prodigal so n s w h o m th e y p re v io u sly d iso w n ed , d esp ite adverse effects on h is ow n fam ily a n d n eig h b o rs. In The U prooted P in e th e son is p la c e d in th e father's c u s to d y after h av in g w o u n d e d a m an in a q uarrel. A t first th e fath er a p p e a rs stric t, b u t w h e n h e finds h is so n ^ p o sitio n is p re c a rio u s b ecau se th e w o u n d e d m a n w ill n o t accep t c o n so la tio n m oney, h e m ak es p la n s for h is escap e. O verw h e lm e d by th e father's love, th e so n refu ses for fear of th e re p e rc u s sio n s . However, th e fath er th re a te n s s u ic id e a n d after th e so n agrees to e scap e, h e says, (tl forgive you all yo u r d iso b e d ie n c e of th e p ast. I a c c e p t th is o n e act as th e eq u iv alen t of th irty years of d u tifu l serv ice as a s o n .27‫ ״‬In re sp e c t to th is Prodigal Son, th e su ffering fath er is n o t o n ly fo rg iv in g b u t also selfsacrificing. The d istin c tio n in C h ik am atsu s plays b e tw e e n sa m u ra i fath ers w h o

P r o d ig a l Son, F o rg ivin g P aren t, S e lf-S a c rific in g S is te r 147 sacrifice th e ir c h ild re n o u t of loyalty or so cial re sp o n s ib ility a n d m e rc h a n t fath ers w h o c a n n o t do so s u p p o rts th e c o n c lu s io n s of Takeyoshi Kaw a sh im a , a m o d e rn Japanese socio lo g ist. K aw ash im a c la im e d th at, w h ile o b e d ie n c e w as a b so lu te in sa m u ra i h o u s e h o ld s d u rin g th e Tokugaw a p e rio d , a m o n g c o m m o n e rs it w as p re d ic a te d u p o n th e b en ev o len ce of th e p a re n ts .28 W ritten in 1948, K aw ash im a^ stu d y c o u ld be c o n sid e re d a re fu ta tio n of R u th B e n e d ic t,s c o n c lu s io n th a t d u ty to a p a re n t fkoj w as u n c o n d itio n a l sin c e it w as an e x p re ssio n of g ra titu d e fon) n o t co n tin g e n t o n b e n e v o le n c e .29 H ow ever, th e p a rtic ip a n ts in B e n e d ic ts stu d y w ere u s u a lly Jap an ese w h o h a d b een e d u c a te d in a later, m ilita ristic age w h e n s a m u ra i v alu es w ere d iss e m in a te d th ro u g h o u t th e p o p u la c e . T herefore, th e v iew s of K aw ash im a a n d B en e d ic t do n o t c o n tra d ic t each other, a n d th e m e rc h a n t fathers in C hikam atsu’s plays suggest that “sam uraization”30 w as n o t c o m p le te d u rin g th e T okugaw a p e rio d . M oreover, th e Forgiving P aren t a rc h e ty p e d id not n e c e ssa rily s u p p o rt th e so c io p o litic a l o rd e r th e n , s in c e h e w as fre q u e n tly sh o w n h e lp in g p ro d ig al so n s to escap e from th e a u th o ritie s . T h e m e rc h a n t fath ers in C h ik a m a tsu ^ p lay s are so b en e v o le n t th a t at tim e s th e y seem sacred. S ons bow in w o rsh ip before a su fferin g father w h o is o ften h id d e n from th e ir v iew like an o m n ip re s e n t b u t in v isib le god. In T he U p ro o ted P in e th e son's w ife rev eren tly lifts in h e r h a n d s th e e a rth th e fath er w a lk e d u p o n a n d asks h e r h u s b a n d if h e h e a rd th e fa th e r’s w o rd s ◦ f m ercy. In T he Girl F rom H a k a ta , or Love A t S ea th e u n s e e n father po k es h is h a n d th ro u g h a p a p e r p a n e l (shoji) a n d gives h is so n th e id e n tific a tio n p a ss th a t th e sm ugglers w an t in exch an g e for h is freed o m . T he son tells h is s w e e th e a rt to bow in th a t d ire c tio n , a n d w h e n sh e sw o o n s a n d cries o u t for so m e th in g to d rin k , th e fa th e r’s h a n d a p p e a rs a g a in ， w ith a c u p of water• T h e so n says, “C oiild a p re c io u s w in e cup, a n elixir, a sacred p o tio n from th e gods be m o re p re c io u s th a n th is ? 31‫״‬ M o d e rn Jap an ese w o u ld p ro b ab ly in te rp re t th e above as exaggerated d isp la y s of re sp e c t for th e fath er ra th e r th a n reverence. H ow ever, w h e n C h ik a m a tsu w ro te h is p lay s, th e d o m in a n t p h ilo so p h y w as N eo-Confu c ia n ism , w h ic h h a d b e e n im p o rte d from C h in a, of co u rse, w ith th e m e ta p h y s ic a l e le m e n ts th a t h a d b e e n a d d e d to th e o ld co d e of so cial e th ic s. N eo -C o n fu cian th in k e rs ‫ ״‬c o n c e rn w ith a n im m a n e n t u ltim ate inste a d of a tra n s c e n d e n ta l d e ity can be fo u n d in th e se w o rd s of Toju N akae, a c o n te m p o ra ry of C h ik a m a ts u ’s• W h en w e seek to in vestigate o rig in s [we find that] o u r b o d y is re c e iv e d from o u r p a re n ts, o u r p a re n ts , b o d ies are receiv ed from h e a v e n a n d earth , h eav en a n d e a rth are receiv ed from th e u n iv e rse f t a i k y ◦ ), a n d th erefo re sin c e b a sic a lly ◦ u r b o d y is a b ra n c h a n d tran sfo rm a tio n of th e u n iv e rse a n d th e gods fsh im m eij, w e are clearly on e w ith th e u n iv e rse a n d th e g o d s.32

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R obert N. B ellah co m m en ts: “S in ce ◦ n e ，s re la tio n to th e u n iv e rse is m ed iated th ro u g h th e p a re n ts, o n e ’s p rim a ry relig io u s o b lig atio n is filial piety• It is th u s th at o ne expresses o n e ’s u n ity w ith th e u n iv e rse •”33 B e lla h also n o tes th a t for N e o -C o n fu c ia n is ts lik e N a k a e — a n d p ro b a b ly fo r C h ik am atsu to som e ex ten t— p aren ts have th e first c la im on rev eren ce, a n d th a t sin ce o th er objects of religious reveren ce like H eaven (Ten) are m e d iated to th e in d iv id u a l o n ly th ro u g h th e fam ily, th ey have b u t a reflected lig h t.34 T he th em e of filial p ie ty c o n tin u e d to be p o p u la r in th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry b u t lost C h ik a m a tsu ,s religious a m b ien ce. C o n seq u en tly , K o d an heroes w ho w ere Prodigal Sons w ere s im p ly u s e d in th e serv ice of a m o d e rn iz in g n atio n . K odan sto ry tellers h a d in h e rite d an d a d p a te d from m ed ieval o u tcasts th e ir n arrativ e form s, b u t n o t th e ir re se n tm e n t. S in ce th ey p a rtrio tic a lly s u p p o rte d n a tio n a lism , th e y u n c o n s c io u s ly m a d e forgiveness c o n tin g e n t on social serv ice ra th e r th a n p a te rn a l b en ev o len ce. Two of th e m o st p o p u la r K odan Prodigal S o n s, Y asudei N ak ay am a a n d G enzo A k ag ak i, w e n t o n to b e c o m e p e r io d film h e ro e s — p a r tic u la r ly Y asu dei, w h o s e Bloody Battle at T a k a d a n o b a b a fC h ik e m u ri Takad a n o b a b a j w as m ad e in to classical film a d a p ta tio n s by so m e of th e g e n re ’s best prew ar d irecto rs, D aisuke Ito in 1 92835 a n d H iro sh i In agaki a n d M asahiro M akino in 1937. Y asu d ei N a k a y a m a is an u n e m p lo y e d m a s te r s w o rd s m a n w h o g ets sp e n d in g m oney by p lay in g a co n c ilia to ry role in q u arrels. H e is u s u a lly broke, th o u g h , sin ce h e d rin k s u p w h atev er h e earn s. T he o n ly th in g h e d read s is an o ccasio n al v isit from h is sober u n c le , w h o in v a ria b ly a d m o n ish es h im to m e n d his p ro d ig al w ays. T he u n c le is k ille d in a d u e l at T akadanobaba, an d , a lth o u g h Y asudei arriv es too late to save h im , h e m anages to avenge h im by slaying all e ig h te e n of th e a ssa ila n ts. T he 1937 film v ersion of th is ta le e n d s w ith h im w e e p in g u n a b a s h e d ly over th e d e a d b o d y of his u n cle. In an o th e r tale c o n c e rn in g Y asudei, h e m arries in to th e H o rib e fam ily an d becom es th e ir a d o p te d son. N ow h e is a d m o n is h e d by h is fath er-in law to cu t d o w n o n th e d rin k in g . S ince th e H o rib e fam ily w as a tta c h e d to Lord A sano, Y asudei becom es u n e m p lo y e d ag ain w ith h is m a s te r,s d e a th , b u t achieves glory by tak in g p a rt in th e v e n d e tta of th e loyal fo rty -sev en ag ain st Lord Kira. W h en both tales are p u t together, it a p p e a rs th a t th e slay in g of eig h te e n w as n o t sufficient a to n e m e n t for th e d e a th of th e fath erly u n c le Y asudei cau sed so m u c h suffering. H e h a d to re d e e m h im se lf for n o t liv in g u p to h is u n c le s ex p ectatio n s th ro u g h fa ith fu l serv ice to so m e lo rd c u lm in a tin g in h is ow n se p p u k u . Genzo Akagaki is also a hard-drinking, ne’er-do-well samurai• H e is reproved by his o ld e r brother, w h o k eep s re m in d in g h im th a t th e ir d e a d

P r o d ig a l Son, F o rg ivin g P a ren t, S e lf-S a c rific in g S is te r 149 fa th e r h a d w a n te d h im to b eco m e a n o b le sa m u ra i. Like Y asudei, G enzo also re d e e m s h im se lf in th e v e n d e tta of th e loyal forty-seven. B oth Y asudei a n d G enzo h a d to d e m o n stra te th a t th e y w ere loyal reta in e rs in o rd e r to ex p iate g u ilt feelings over th e ir profligate w ays. T his h a d n o t b e e n th e case w ith C h ik a m a ts u ’s p ro d ig a l so n s, w h o w ere forgiven w h e n th e y sim p ly obeyed th e ir b en ev o len t father. T he d ev elo p m en t of s u c h K o d an h ero es sh o w s th a t by th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry th e v irtu e of filial p ie ty h a d b eco m e firm ly w e d d e d to th e v irtu e of loyalty to w ard a su p erio r. T h is w as a n im p o rta n t id eo lo g ical step in th e u n ific a tio n of Japan th ro u g h E m p e ro r M eiji as th e u ltim a te object of loyalty, for Y asudei a n d G enzo su g g ested th a t p ro d ig a l so n s c o u ld red eem th em selv es o n ly by b eco m in g loyal su b jects. Yet, sin c e Y asudei a n d G enzo so o n c o m m itte d se p p u k u after th e ir great d e e d , th ey h a d not b e e n of m u c h serv ice to th e state. A b etter role m o d el c a n be fo u n d in K in -san of Toyam a, a p o p u la r c h a ra c te r in film s a n d TV w h o w as m o d e le d o n o ld K odan heroes. In th e 1938 film The Travels of Yaji and Kita (Yaji-Kita Dochuki) K in -san w o rries h is sa m u ra i fath er c o n tin u a lly w ith h is d rin k in g a n d gam bling. O ne n ig h t h e com es h o m e d ru n k a n d w h e n h is fa th e r goes to p u ll th e b edcovers over h im , he d isco v e rs a tatto o on h is b ack w h ic h signifies u n d e rw o rld co n n e c tio n s. H is fa th e r b reaks in to tears a n d after he leaves, K in-san starts w eep in g too. K in -san is not a c tu a lly a P rodigal S on, how ever, sin c e h is tattoo a n d profligate w ays are o n ly a fro n t for his u n d e rc o v e r in v estig atio n s as a p o lic e m ag istrate. In th e 1938 film th e fath er dies b ro k en -h earted w ith o u t d isc o v e rin g h is son's tru e iden tity . K in-san c o n tin u e d to w o rk for law an d o rd er, in a p o p u la r film series in th e 19 5 0 s,36 a n d th ereafter in so m e TV d ra m a se rie s w ith h ig h ratings. M ost Japan ese n o w ad ay s o n ly k n o w of h im as a m a ste r s le u th a n d do n o t realize th a t h e b egan his career as a p se u d o P ro d ig al S o n w ho c o n tin u e d to serve th e state b ecau se h e w as n ev er fo rg iven by h is b e n e v o le n t father. In S h im p a it w as also d ifficu lt for p ro d ig al m ales to be forgiven. The m a in th e m e of th e e a rlie st S h im p a m o th er-trag ed ies w as th e a n c ie n t o n e of p a re n t-c h ild s e p a ra tio n ,37 b u t a th e n m o d e rn tw ist w as a d d e d by b lam in g it o n class d ifferen ces. For ex am p le, a g eish a or girl from th e low er classes w o u ld b e a r h e r ric h lover a c h ild , a n d th e n suffer from h av in g th e c h ild w re ste d from h e r to be ra ise d by h is re sp e c ta b le legal w ife.38 Stella Dallas, w h ic h w as first sh o w n in Japan in 1926,39 fo u n d a recep tiv e a u d ie n c e th e re long before th e B arbara S tan w y ck v ersio n in 1937. As “m o th e r film s” d e v e lo p e d from th e ir S h im p a o rig in s to b eco m e m o d e rn m e lo d ra m a s, class d ifferen ces b ecam e se c o n d a ry to th e th e m e of p o v erty p u re a n d sim p le . A s stated in c h a p te r six, su fferin g m o th ers u se d th e ir tears a n d rags to in d u c e guilt in u n filial sons a n d d aughters. Alth o u g h sh e alw ays sa id sh e forgave th e m ev ery th in g , th ey k n ew q u ite w ell

The Fighting Magistrate (Kenka Bugyo, 1955), directed by Yasuji Sasaki. By posing as a tattooed gambler called Kin-san of Toyama, this feudal police magistrate (Chiezo Kataoka) works undercover for law and order. Ironically, he is a pseudo-Prodigal Son because his father died thinking he really was an outlaw.

P r o d ig a l Son, F o rg ivin g P aren t, S e lf-S a c rific in g S is te r 151 th a t s h e d id n o t m e a n it. U nforgiven so n s c o u ld o n ly ease th e ir consc ie n c e s th ro u g h a c h ie v e m e n t th a t a id e d m o d e rn iz a tio n . A n d o n e of th e m ajo r goals of m o d e rn iz a tio n w as th e e lim in a tio n of th e p o v erty th at c a u se d so m a n y m o th e rs so m u c h suffering.

Culmination D u e to th e in flu e n c e s of K abuki a n d K odan o n p e rio d film a n d of S h im p a o n c o n te m p o ra ry film , th e a rc h e ty p e s of th e P rodigal Son, Forgivin g P aren t a n d S elf-S acrificing S ister h a d ex isted sin g ly or in d y ad s in Jap a n e se c in e m a s in c e its in c e p tio n . W ith S a n sh o the Bailiff in 1954 M iz o g u c h i jo in e d th e m in a p erfect triad . M izo g u ch i beg an h is film career in th e 1920s m ak in g S h im p a -lik e tra g ed ies, a n d fem ale su fferin g a n d selfsacrifice re m a in e d o n e of h is d o m in a n t, lifelo n g th e m e s.40 In th e 1950s, after five years dev o ted to c o n te m p o ra ry film , h e trie d h is h a n d ag ain at p e rio d film a n d ra ise d th e genre to a h ig h level of h isto ric a l v a lid ity a n d u n iv e rs a lity , th e re b y a c h ie v in g in te r n a tio n a l r e c o g n itio n at s u c c e s s iv e V enice film festivals. H e also re in tro d u c e d th e th e m e of forgiveness, w h ic h h a d lo st m u c h of its p o w er in th e id eo lo g ical serv ices of m o d e rn iz a tio n , a n d th e re b y b ro u g h t b ack th e tra n s c e n d e n ta l a sp e c t of a sacred p aren t. M iz o g u c h i’s S a n s h o th e w as first p la n n e d as a film a d a p ta tio n of O gai M o ri’s fam o u s s h o rt story, b u t M izo g u ch i w as d issatisfied w ith th e first d raft of a faith fu l sc rip t. H e h a d h is m a in s c rip t w riter, Y oshikata Yoda, re w rite it to in c lu d e re a listic d e s c rip tio n s of th e slav elik e c o n d itio n s o n so m e a risto c ra tic esta te s.41 As su c h , th e final s c rip t in c lu d e d th e re s e n tm e n t from th e alm o st forgotten m ed iev al leg en d , p rev io u sly treated , as w ell as p o stw a r d e m o c ra tic id eas— o p p o s itio n a l e le m e n ts th a t can exist in a state of te n sio n w ith tra d itio n a l social n o rm s. M oreover, th ro u g h th e tria d M izo g u c h i e x p re sse d h is lifelo n g th e m e s a n d created a n id e a liz e d Jap a n e se fa m ily th a t n e v e rth e le ss reflected h is o w n p o v e rty -rid d e n u p b rin g in g .42. T h e first se q u e n c e of M iz o g u c h i’s S a n sh o th e BaiJi^* c o n sists of beautifu l d isso lv e s b e tw e e n th e p re se n t jo u rn e y of th e m o th e r a n d c h ild re n th ro u g h a fo rest a n d flash b ack s of th e c irc u m sta n c e s th a t led to th e fa th e r’s ex ile. T h e m o th e r d o m in a te s m o st fram es th ro u g h h ig h -a n g le c lo se -u p s of h e r se re n e face in th re e -q u a rte r profile a n d rev eren t p a n s d o w n h e r long b la c k h a ir a n d flow ing a risto c ra tic robes. S h e is s h o w n c o n tin u a lly seein g to th e n e e d s of h e r c h ild re n a n d h u s b a n d , a n d d o u b tle ss M izo g u ch i w as p a y in g trib u te to h is o w n belo v ed m oth er, w h o h a d d ie d w h e n h e w as se v e n te e n .43 M oreover, th ro u g h e x q u isite sh o t c o m p o sitio n s, a n d giving th e m o th e r a greater ro le th a n sh e h a d h a d in th e m ed iev al leg en d or in

Ogai’s story, Mizoguchi was creating his own cinematic version of the L o ving M o th er.44

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T he T errible M o th er is also b riefly p resen ted • In O g ai’s sto ry th e fam ily is se p a ra te d a n d so ld in to slavery th ro u g h th e m a c h in a tio n s of a s e a m a n w ith a re a ssu rin g B u d d h is t rosary. In M iz o g u c h i’s v ersio n h e is re p la c e d by a n o ld w o m a n d isg u ise d as a S h in to p rie stess, w h o a p p e a rs o u t of th e n ig h t at th e ir bonfire, h e r ra p a c io u s eyes g leam ing. In M izo g u c h i s a n im a , re sp e c t for a n d fear of w o m e n created su c h an exaggerated c o n tra st in th e ir p o rtray al in h is film s. T he m o th e r in M iz o g u c h i’s v ersio n also su ffers m ore. S h e is n o t o n ly se p a ra te d from h e r c h ild re n b u t forced to w o rk as a lo w ly p ro stitu te . M oreover, w h e n sh e trie s to escap e, th e te n d o n s of h e r feet are c ru e lly c u t a n d in th e e n d h e r b lin d n e s s is no t m ira c u lo u s ly cu red . In th e m ed iev al leg en d a n d in ◦ g a i ’s v ersio n , th e re a so n for th e fa th e r’s exile is not given. M izo g u ch i h a s h im b a n ish e d as a re su lt of h is c o m p assio n for th e su b jec ts u n d e r h is ju ris d ic tio n . Before he leaves h e gives h is so n a sm all sta tu e of K an n o n , th e G o d d ess of M ercy, a n d te lls h im th a t a n y o n e w ith o u t sy m p a th y for h is fellow b ein g s is in h u m a n a n d th a t h e s h o u ld be w illin g to sacrifice h im se lf for o th ers. T h is im age of th e father as a h u m a n istic le a d e r is p ro b ab ly th e re su lt of p o stw a r d em o cratic id eas a n d a n aging M iz o g u c h i’s d ev o u t B u d d h ism . A fter th e father goes in to exile, th o u g h , h e b e co m es th e tra d itio n a l fath er figure w h o is d is ta n t a n d id e a liz e d .45 T he m o th e r w h o is c lo se to th e s o n a id s h im in th e id e a liz a tio n p rocess. S he h a s h im c o n tin u a lly recite h is fa th e r’s w o rd s of c o m p a ssio n a n d re m in d s h im th a t th e father w as a n o b le ， u p rig h t m a n w h e n e v e r th e so n h a s d o u b ts a b o u t th e c irc u m sta n c e s of h is exile• T h is w as p a rt of th e m o th e r’s tra d itio n a l role, w h ic h also e x te n d e d in to th e m o d e rn era w h e n so n s w ere u rg ed to be su c c e ssfu l to live u p to th e id e a ls of th e father. O p p o sin g th e n o b le fath er is th e cru el one, re p re se n te d b y th e bailiff, S an sh o , w h o w a n ts to m ak e h is s o n in to h is o w n b ru ta l im age b y h a v in g h im b ra n d slaves w h o try to escape• S a n s h o ’s so n refu ses, th o u g h , s in c e h e is of a g entle d isp o s itio n , a n d b e frie n d s th e en sla v e d b ro th e r a n d sister. A fter h e h ears th e w o rd s of th e ir n o b le father, h e d e c id e s to a b a n d o n h is b ase father a n d b eco m e a B u d d h is t m o n k . M iz o g u c h i’s o w n father w as n e ith e r n o b le n o r b ase, b u t a w o e fu lly in a d e q u a te provider• H is fam ily su ffered su c h p o v erty th a t M iz o g u c h i’s b elo v ed sister h a d to be given u p for a d o p tio n a n d w o u n d u p in a g eish a h o u s e .46 The b itte r re se n tm e n t M izo g u c h i felt to w ard h is o w n fath er d o u b tle ss c o n trib u te d to th e d e p ic tio n s of m e a n o r w eak m e n in m o st of h is film s. H ow ever, in S a n sh o th e Bailijif h e n e e d e d a n o b le fath er to m a tc h th e su ffering m o th e r o n a n a rc h e ty p a l level, as w ell as a cru el v illa in lik e S an sh o to inflict su ffering o n th e e n sla v ed b ro th e r a n d sister. T he sister d o m in a te s th e film 's m id d le se q u e n c e s d e p ic tin g th e life of th e g row n-up b ro th e r a n d sister u n d e r S an sh o . F rom a n ew ly a rriv e d slave

P r o d ig a l Son, F o rg ivin g P a ren t, S e lf-S a c rific in g S is te r 153

Sansho the Bailiff (1954), directed by Kenji Mizoguchi* The noble father (Masao Shimizu), an aristocrat who cares for his subjects, imbues his son with the ideal of B uddhist compassion, of w hich the loving m other (Kinuyo Tanaka) continually rem inds him during the father’s exile. th e sis te r le a rn s of a so n g in w h ic h th e ir n am es, A n ju a n d Z u sh io , are c a lle d o u t by a b lin d w o m a n on faraw ay S ado Islan d , a n d realizes th a t th is w o m a n m u s t be th e ir m other. In o rd e r to a d m o n ish h e r b ro th e r w h o has b e c o m e b ru ta liz e d from slavery, sh e tells h im of th e song a n d says th a t she is a s h a m e d of h im b ec a u se h e h as forgotten h is fa th e r’s w o rd s. Later w h e n th e y are g a th e rin g b ra n c h e s a n d reed s to b u ild a sh elter in a field, sh e asks h e r b ro th e r if h e rem em b ers th e tim e th ey w ere to g eth er w ith th e ir m o th e r in th e forest before th e y w ere k id n a p p e d . T h e n th e ir m o th e r’s song is h e a rd a n d h e r h a rd e n e d b ro th e r b reaks d o w n a n d cries, a n d suggests th ey escap e. T he sister, A n ju , w as o b v io u sly re p la c in g th e m o th er, p a rtic u la rly in th e ro le of re m in d in g h im of h is father. H er p o rtray al w as c e rta in ly in flu e n c e d by M iz o g u c h i,s p e rso n a l c irc u m sta n c e s, for after h is m o th er d ie d h is sister, by b e c o m in g th e m istress of a ric h p atro n , to o k care of h im by c o n tin u a lly h e lp in g h im find e m p lo y m e n t.47 T he n u rtu rin g a ttitu d e of

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M iz o g u c h i’s o ld e r sister (and of A nju w h o , th o u g h a y o u n g er sister, acts like an o ld e r one) h a d b een p re sc rib e d ro le b e h a v io r in Jap an ese so c ie ty even in th e m o d e rn era. T he n a tu re of A n ju ’s role is fu rth e r sig n ified by th e n ew n a m e S a n s h o ’s son h a d given her: S h in o b u , w h ic h m ean s ‫ ״‬to e n d u re h a r d s h ip s .‫ ״‬In co n tra st to boys, w h o m Japanese p a re n ts c o n s id e r w a g a m a m a (selfish or w illful), girls are ex p ected to be g a m a n z u y o i, w h ic h m ean s “p a tie n t a n d fo reb earin g .48‫ ״‬A sister w o u ld be e x p ected to fo rb ear for th e sak e of h er b ro th er or in extrem e c irc u m sta n c e s to sacrifice h e rse lf for h im , w h ic h is exactly w h at A nju does w h e n Z u sh io suggests th ey escap e. S h e tells h im to go on w ith o u t her, sin c e h e w o u ld have a b e tte r c h a n c e a n d m o re tim e if sh e goes back, a n d she gives h im th e sm all sta tu e of K an n o n h e h a d p rev io u sly d isc a rd e d . A fter he is gone sh e d ro w n s h e rse lf to p re v e n t revealing h is w h e re a b o u ts u n d e r to rtu re. M iz o g u c h i’s tre a tm e n t of A n ju ’s s u ic id e is p ro b ab ly a su b lim a tio n of h is rem orse over th e self-sacrifice of his o w n sister a n d resu lts in o n e of th e

Sansho the Bailiff [1954), directed by Kenji Mizoguchi. After being separated from the m other and enslaved, the sister (Kyoko Kagawa) replaces h er by rem inding the Prodigal Son (Yoshialci Hanayagi) of his father’s ideals•

P r o d ig a l S on 9 F o rg ivin g P a ren t, S e lf-S a c rific in g S is te r 155 m o st m e m o ra b le im ages in cin em a. A n ju w alks th ro u g h b am boo trees to th e edge of th e p o n d . T h e s ta tio n a ry cam era creates a n illu s io n of d e p th a n d fu n n e lin g effect as it sh o w s h e r g ra d u a lly su b m erg in g w h ile fram ed above w ith d e lic a te b am b o o leaves. A n ju is n o t a m ere sacrificial lam b, sin c e sh e k n o w s ex actly w h at sh e is d o in g ; a n d sh e has d e te rm in a tio n , b e c a u se sh e p la n n e d th e w h o le th in g . F u rth e rm o re , th e re is a g ra n d p u rp o s e to h e r sacrifice: to re tu rn h e r b ro th e r to th e p a th of th e ir fa th e r’s h u m a n is m (w h ic h e v e n tu a lly lead s h im to free th e slaves) a n d to re u n ite h im w ith th e ir su fferin g m o th er, w h o h ad b een c a llin g her. T h e v irtu e of self-sacrifice th a t A n ju re p re se n ts can be in te rp re te d as a m a so c h is tic fo rm of s u b m is sio n on th e p o litic a l level. F red a Freiberg, a f e m in is t film re s e a rc h e r, c a lls A n ju “ th e s e lf-s a c rific in g w o m a n w h o serves th e p a tria rc h a l o rd e r.49‫ ״‬To be su re, th e e m p h a sis o n female selfs a c rific e id e o lo g ic a lly h e lp s m a in ta in th e in e q u a lity of th e se x e s in p re se n t-d a y Japanese society, even th o u g h it is ra tio n a liz e d th ro u g h fam ily ro les. H ow ever, on th e relig io u s level self-sacrifice re p re se n ts th e sacred a sp e c t of o v erco m in g selfish n e ss, th e so u rc e of all sin s. In Japanese cu ltu re A n ju ’s s u ic id e can be p a rtic u la rly m oving, sin c e th e re is n o eq u iv a le n t to C h rist, w h o sacrificed h im se lf for everyone th ro u g h o u t history. T his relig io u s sid e to A n ju ’s self-im m e rsio n is a m p lifie d b y M iz o g u c h i’s d ire ctio n . B efore A n ju en ters th e p o n d sh e fo ld s h e r h a n d s in p ray er a n d b o w s in th e d ire c tio n of th e song sh e h ears, th e song from h e r b en ev o len t m o th e r c a llin g o n h e r to save h e r b ro th e r from h is errin g w ays. A n o ld w o m a n w h o h a d b e e n w ith h e r b eco m es a w itn e ss a n d bow s in th e d ire c tio n of A n ju , w h o h a s b ec o m e a sa in t. In th e co n tex t of th e sto ry h e r sacrifice is for h e r fam ily, b u t th ro u g h s u c h c in e m a tic tre a tm e n t M izo g u ch i creates th e im p re ss io n th a t it is for all sufferin g h u m a n k in d . U n lik e C h rist, w h o b eg an h is m is s io n b y e n terin g a p o n d to be b a p tiz e d a n d to h e a r H is H eav en ly F a th e r’s w o rd s of re c o g n itio n , A n ju e n d s h ers by d ro w n in g h erself in a p o n d . For M izo g u c h i, th e D iv in e D yad b e co m es G od th e M o th er a n d G od th e D au g h ter.50 T he so n /b ro th e r is m erely th e re c ip ie n t of salvation. A fter th e S elf-S acrificing S ister dies, th e Prodigal S on d o m in ates th e film . Z u s h io h a d b eco m e a s in n e r after S an sh o h a d ta k e n a lik in g to h im a n d h a d h a d h im b ra n d d iso b e d ie n t slaves in th e p lace of th e so n w h o h a d d e se rte d h im . U n d e r th e in flu e n c e of S an sh o , a cru el father, Z u sh io h a d co m e clo se to h ell, b u t h is siste r h a d s h o w n h im th e w ay b ack to th e p ath of h is n o b le father. Z u s h io is d e fin ite ly a self-p o rtrait of M izo g u ch i, for M izo g u ch i p ro b ab ly re g a rd e d h im se lf as a s in n e r in h is re la tio n s w ith w o m en . A lth o u g h h e h a te d h is fa th e r for th e su fferin g h is m o th e r a n d sister h a d h a d to en d u re , after h e h im se lf grew u p h e also m a d e w o m e n suffer, a b a n d o n in g o n e to p ro s titu tio n a n d c o n trib u tin g to th e in sa n ity of h is w ife .51 Yet, like Z u sh io

Sansho the Bailiff (1954), directed by Kenji Mizoguchi. Bearing water as women have done for centuries all over the world, the sister (Kyoko Kagawa) represents female self-sacrifice for the sake of the family• U nder M izoguchi’s direction, however, she becomes Christ-like because of her devotion to her father’s hum anism.

P r o d ig a l Son, F o rg ivin g P a ren t, S e lf-S a c rific in g S is te r 157 h e w as to ta lly d e p e n d e n t o n first h is m o th e r a n d th e n h is sister, a n d he c le a rly ex em p lifies th e p re v io u sly m e n tio n e d , p assiv e m o d e of m ale beh a v io r th a t c a n alte rn a te b e tw e e n sa d ism a n d m aso c h ism . Z u s h io is th e p assiv e ty p e of h ero a n d , b ecau se of h is stro n g sen se of d e p e n d e n c y , he n e e d s a lot of h e lp to ach iev e h is objectives. A fter his siste r sets h im free, S a n sh o ^ so n gives h im refuge in th e tem p le th e so n serv es as a m o n k , a n d th e n h e lp s h im reach th e re sid e n c e of th e P rin ce R eg ent (k an p ak u ). T here, h is b e se e c h in g a p p e a l com es to n o u g h t, how ever, a n d h e is th ro w n in jail. F ortunately, w h e n he is q u e s tio n e d afterw a rd s, h is sm all sta tu e of th e K an n o n is d isco v ered , w h ic h lead s to re c o g n itio n of h is a risto c ra tic orig in s. T h e re u p o n , h e is a p p o in te d govern o r of th e p ro v in c e h e h a d b e e n a slave in, b u t h is joy is m ix ed w ith s a d n e ss b e c a u se h e le a rn s h is fath er d ie d in exile. He is given th e n ew n a m e of M a sa m i， w h ic h m e a n s “ju s tic e ,” a n d , b a c k e d by th e a u th o rity of th e g o v e rn m e n t, he h a s S a n sh o arrested a n d ex iled a n d all th e slaves freed. Z u s h io -M a s a m i’s su c c e ss or failure, lik e U ra sh im a Taro’s h a p p in e ss, d e p e n d s on th e w in d s of fo rtu n e th a t toss h im b e tw e e n d e sp a ir a n d h o p e. As a h ero , he ex em p lifies th e P u re-L and B u d d h is t p rin c ip le of ia rik i or “o th e r p o w e r” sin c e h e n e e d e d a lot of a ssistan c e. He p ro v id e s a sta rtlin g c o n tra st to th e so lita ry M u sa sh i w h o m a n ife ste d th e Z en p rin c ip le of jirik i or “self-pow er•”52 Yet, b o th th e ir tales c o n c e rn in itia tio n sin c e b o th u n d erg o tria ls to ach iev e th e ir objectives. M u sa sh i overcam e self-doubts to d efeat all h is o p p o n e n ts. Z u sh io -M asam i trie d to ex p iate h is guilt by fre e in g th e slaves, a n act of so cia l sig n ifican ce in c o m p a riso n w ith M us a s h i’s egoism . Yet, M a sa m i’s v ic to ry b eco m es h o llo w w h e n h e learn s th a t h is sister k ille d h e rse lf for h im , sin c e freein g h e r h a d b e e n h is m a in objective. U n lik e th e h ero in th e m ed iev al leg en d h e c a n n o t o b ta in satisfactio n th ro u g h v e n g ean ce ag ain st S an sh o , for n o w Z u sh io is a P rodigal S o n w h o h a d s in n e d ag a in st h is fa th e r’s id eals. M asam i ap o lo g izes to a m a n h e h a d o n ce b ra n d e d on th e fo reh ead , b u t th is is n o t en o u g h to ex p iate h is guilt. D isco n so late, h e h e a rs th a t th e fo rm er slaves are rio tin g in th e ir n ew -fo u n d fre e d o m , a n d he d e c id e s to resig n from h is g o v ern m en t p o st a n d em b ark fo r S ad o Isla n d to seek h is m other. By h a v in g M asam i resign, M izo g u c h i n o t o n ly d ev iated from O gai M o ri,s sto ry b u t also rejected th e p rew ar id e a l of su ccess n o m atter w h a t th e sacrifice, w h ic h O gai h im se lf re p re se n te d . M izo g u ch i also ex p ressed diss a tisfa c tio n w ith th e p o stw a r id e a l of freed o m . A lth o u g h th e rio tin g exslaves are n o t c o n d e m n e d , th e ir c o n d u c t sh o w s th a t freed o m do es n o t so lv e all p ro b le m s a n d is n o t an u ltim a te goal. R elief from su fferin g is— at le a st for M iz o g u c h i in h is B u d d h is tic tw ilig h t years— a n d it c o u ld o n ly be o b ta in e d th ro u g h forgiv en ess, n o t th ro u g h ach iev em en t, as w as th e prev io u s case d u rin g m o d e rn iz a tio n . W hen M izo g u ch i se n d s Z u sh io to S ado

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Islan d to save h is m o th e r from fu rth e r su fferin g , h e w in d s u p recrea tin g th e m ost m oving Forgiving P arent a rc h e ty p e sin c e C h ik am atsu . A fter Z u sh io gives h is m o th e r th e K an n o n sta tu e , sh e reco g n izes h im a n d asks ab o u t h is sister, a n d th e n his father. H is sile n c e tells h e r th e y are b o th dead. He asks h e r to forgive him . S he says, “T here is n o th in g to forgive. By com in g h ere to find m e a n d k e e p in g th e sta tu e y o u r fa th e r gave you I k now th a t you have follow ed h is w o rd s .‫ ״‬T hey em b race a n d th e cam era p an s aw ay from th e em o tio n al scen e to th e seash o re, a n d th e film ends. R eunion b etw een p a re n t a n d c h ild after lo n g se p a ra tio n h as alw ay s b e e n an e m o tio n ally ch arg ed scen e in Japanese d ra m a a n d film , a n d M iz o g u c h i ex ercised p ro p e r a rtistic re stra in t w ith m e d iu m long sh o ts a n d s ile n t p au ses in th e so u n d track. K eiko M cD onald has c o n s id e re d M iz o g u c h i^ tre atm e n t of th is scen e to be im b u e d w ith mujo kanf53 a v iew of th e fleetingness of all th in g s th at suggests d e ta c h m e n t. Tadao Sato, o n th e o th er h a n d , c o n sid e rin g th e h ig h cam era an g le a n d th e tra d itio n a l m u sic a l b ack ground, h as lik e n e d it to a B u n ra k u p e rfo rm a n c e ,54 as a u d ie n c e s

P r o d ig a l Son, F o rg ivin g P a re n t9 S e lf-S a c rific in g S is te r 159 c o u ld w a tc h th e e m o tio n a l d isp la y s of p u p p e ts w ith o u t feelin g em bar-‫־‬ ra sse d . S till, th e v iew er loses d e ta c h m e n t w h e n sh o w n a clo se -u p of th e b lin d m o th e r to u c h in g th e K a n n o n statu e, for clo se d eyes are a characte ris tic of B u d d h is t im ages. T he m o th e r h e rse lf b eco m es K an n o n , th e G o d d ess of M ercy, su fferin g a n d forgiving. W h en th e m o th e r says th a t th e re is n o th in g to forgive, th e so n m ay w o n d e r if h e h a s b e e n forgiven after all, a n d th e critic a l v iew er m ay th in k th is is m e re ly a n a rtistic v e rsio n ◦ f “m o th e r film s，” w h ere th e m o th er m a d e fo rg iv en ess d o u b tfu l by 4*forgiving‫ ״‬good a n d b ad c h ild re n in d iscrim in ately . As Ian B u ru m a p o in te d out, th e y w ere **all eq u a lly sw e e t.55‫״‬ T he m o th e r in S a n s h o th e BaiJi/f, ho w ev er， ack n o w leg ed th a t by k eep in g th e s ta tu e Z u sh io at least striv e d to w ard th e good, even th o u g h like all h u m a n b ein g s h e w as too w eak to effect it totally. For K an n o n , forgiveness is s im p ly a re c o g n itio n of suffering, p a rtic u la rly of th o se w h o try to be good.

Conclusion S elf-S acrifice for th e id e a ls of a n o b le fath er is m oving, b u t so ciety u s u a lly s u p p lie s a n o b le re a so n w h e n s u c h b e h a v io r is d e m a n d e d from its m e m b e rs. F orgiveness of u n re p e n ta n t m ales o n ly su p p o rts th e ir ty ra n n y over w o m e n , a n d m a n ip u la te d g u ilt o n ly d e m o n stra te s th e p o w er of th e m o th er, w h o s e se n tim e n ta l p o rtray al in d ra m a a n d film sim p ly m asks th e p o w er th e state has over a n y o n e w h o feels g u ilty ab o u t an y th in g . N everth e le ss , w h e n g u ilt is firm ly w e d d e d to a ltru is tic forg iv en ess, as w as th e case in S a n sh o th e Bailiff, th e y b eco m e p ro b le m a tic. T he so n feels guilt for n o t liv in g u p to id e a ls th a t tra n s c e n d h is p a rtic u la r so ciety 一 a n d are n ev er fu lly re a liz e d in a n y so c ie ty — a n d th e re b y can o n ly be forgiven b y a tra n s c e n d in g ag en t like th e sa c re d p a re n t, w h o of c o u rse h as n o u lte rio r m o tiv es for h e rse lf or society. M iz o g u c h i a rriv ed at th is ju n c tu re b ecau se h e w as b o th d ev o u tly B udd h is t a n d firm ly a g a in st th e fe u d a listic su rv iv als in h is cu ltu re . Very few c o n te m p o ra ry Jap an ese w o u ld be ca p a b le of th is, sin c e Japanese B udd h is m is m a in ly con serv ativ e, as is in stitu tio n a l relig io n in g en eral, a n d a n tif e u d a lis m u s u a lly in c lu d e s th e v ie w of re lig io n as s u p e rs titio n . M iz o g u c h i w as also in flu e n c e d b y a N eo -C o n fu cian tra d itio n p o p u la riz e d in th e plays of C h ik a m a tsu — w h ic h , th o u g h g e n erally u s e d in s u p p o rt of th e state, c o u ld still p la c e p a re n ta l love above its d ictates.

8

The Archetypal Family—Extended and Rejected Introduction Mencius stated th a t b en ev o len ce c o n siste d of lo v in g o n e ’s p a re n ts a n d th a t th is fam ilial v irtu e s h o u ld be e x te n d e d to th e g o v ern m en t of th e re a lm .1 A good ru le r h a d to be a filial so n w h o b ecam e a se rv a n t of th e p e o p le . In m o st cases in C h in a a n d Japan, how ever, ru le rs p referred to th in k of th em selv es as b e n e v o le n t p a re n ts to th e ir p e o p le ra th e r th a n as th e ir serv ant, for ob v io u s reasons. Japanese ru le rs w ere c o m p a re d to b e n e v o le n t p a re n ts by M o to o ri N o r‫־‬ inaga, a n im p o rta n t th in k e r in th e e ig h te e n th cen tu ry . H e a d d e d a Jap an ese tw ist to M e n c iu s, id ea of e x te n sio n by statin g th a t th e gods in th e S h in to p a n th e o n w ere th e p a re n ts of th e Jap an ese p e o p le a n d th a t u tm o st tru s t in A m aterasu, th e m a in g o d d ess, w as th e sam e as a b so lu te lo y alty to th e E m p eror as h e r S o n .2 F ilial p ie ty (ko) b ecam e th e sam e as lo y alty (chuj, a n d an y revolt ag ain st th e state w as sim p ly c o n sid e re d d e lin q u e n t behavior. N o rinagaJs id e a w as rejected to a large ex ten t o n a c c o u n t of th e d efeat in W orld War II. T hereafter, loyalty to w ard le a d e rs w as reg ard ed w ith so m e scep tic ism , p a rtic u la rly am o n g in te lle c tu a ls .3 F u rth erm o re, w h e n Em p ero r H iro h ito re n o u n c e d h is divinity, for m o st Jap an ese (M izo g u ch i a n d Doi ex clu d ed , of course) p a re n ts lo st w h atev er sa c re d a sp e c t th e y m ay have had. In th e p o stw ar era several film s d e p ic te d v illa in o u s le a d e rs a n d fathers. M ost of th e m w ere m ad e by leftist d ire c to rs w h o re g a rd e d th e p atern alism of a b en e v o le n t le a d e r to be a cam ouflage for p o litic a l re a litie s th a t in c lu d e d ex p lo ita tio n of th e ru le d . T he a n tith e s e s th ey created w ere p u re ly o p p o sitio n a l form s w ith o u t a tra ce of tra n s c e n d e n ta lis m . O th e r d irectors, m ore lib era l th a n leftist, engaged in ro le reversal by p re se n tin g c h ild re n w h o w ere m u c h m ore in te llig e n t a n d m a tu re th a n th e ir p a re n ts. Finally, so m ew h at n ih ilis tic d ire cto rs in th e 1970s sh o w ed th e d e so la te a lie n a tio n th e P rodigal S on e x p e rie n c e s b ecau se of th e loss of th e Forgiving Parent arch ety p e. 160

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Politics T h e tria d of th e Japanese “H oly F am ily ” h a d p o litic a l im p lic a tio n s even before N o rin ag a. In th e m o d e rn era th e m o st c o n s p ic u o u s p o litic a l repres e n ta tio n of th e F orgiving P arent a rc h e ty p e to o k th e form of th e su fferin g m ilita ry le a d e r w h o grieved over th e fate of th e n atio n . T he first ex am p le is G en eral M aresu k e Nogi (1849-1912), th e h ero of th e R usso-Japanese War, w h o also b e c a m e th e first star of Japanese c in e m a th ro u g h th e n ew sreels of 1904 a n d 1905.4 S ince G en eral Nogi c o m m itte d se p p u k u o n th e d ay of E m p e ro r M e ijrs fu n e ra l,5 h e h a d b e e n g en erally c o n sid e re d a p arag o n of th e Loyal R etainer. S oon after th e M a n c h u ria n In c id e n t in 1931, he w as also p re se n te d as a b e n e v o le n t le a d e r w ith c o m p a ssio n for th e co m m o n p e o p le in a series of film s la stin g u n til 1937.6 In o n e e n try h e e n c o u n te rs an o ld c o u p le w h o lost th e ir so n in th e R u sso -Jap an ese War. U naw are of h is id en tity , th e y c o m p la in th a t G eneral N ogi is to b la m e for th e ir s o n s d eath. A fter h is id e n tity is rev ealed h e re m in d s th e m th a t he h im se lf lost tw o so n s in th e w ar a n d th e n gives th e m m o n e y to h e lp th e m o u t of th e ir ec o n o m ic d ifficu lties. In a n o th e r en try h e h e lp s a v e te ra n w ho b eco m es a p o o r te n a n t farm er to escap e th e clu tc h e s of a w ic k e d la n d o w n e r. From th e se tw o e n trie s it is o b v io u s th a t as a film h ero G en eral N ogi p ro v id e d a n e x c e lle n t p ro p a g a n d a figure for rig h tist m ilita ris ts w h o c la im e d th e y w ere try in g to save th e n a tio n from evil c a p ita lists a n d greed y la n d o w n e rs. F ilm s e u lo g iz in g G en eral N ogi w ere also m ad e in th e p o stw ar era. T he m o st re c e n t o ne, Hill N u m b e r 203 (N ih y ak u -san k o c h i,1980] co n cern s th e R u s s o -J a p a n e s e W ar its e lf a n d sh o w s th a t h is p re w a r im ag e h a s n o t ch an ged• A n officer o n h o rse b a c k gives a m a rc h in g so ld ie r a cigarette• The s o ld ie r c o m p la in s to h im of th e le a d e rsh ip in th e p re se n t cam p aig n , b u t sto p s s h o rt w h e n he realizes th e officer is G eneral Nogi him self. He begins to ap o lo g iz e profusely, b u t G eneral Nogi s im p ly sm iles sa d ly a n d rid e s away. T he film e n d s w ith G eneral N ogi re a d in g th e v icto ry re p o rt to E m p ero r M eiji him self, a n d e v e n tu a lly c o n v u lsin g in to sobs w h e n h e co m es to th e h o rre n d o u s c a su a lty list of H ill N u m b er 2 03— th e y w ere all h is sons! S to ic a lly h o ld in g b ack h is o w n tears, E m p ero r M eiji com es d o w n off h is th ro n e to pat G eneral Nogi o n th e s h o u ld e r a n d co n so le h im . G en erals lik e Nogi w ere n o t th e m a in b en e v o le n t father figures in Japa n e se w ar m ovies m ad e from 1937 (the start of th e S ino-Japanese War) to 1945. T hey w ere re p la c e d by w a rm -h e a rte d p la to o n a n d c o m p a n y com m a n d e rs w h o w ere p h y s ic a lly clo ser to th e ir m en th a n d ista n t generals. A n e x c e lle n t ex a m p le is T om otaka T asaka’s Five S co u ts (G onin no Sekk o h e i, 1938), w h ic h tak es p la c e o n th e C h in a front. O ne of th e sco u ts gets s e p a ra te d from h is p la to o n in ac tio n , a n d w h e n h e re tu rn s from no m a n ’s la n d , h is b u d d ie s greet h im w arm ly, b eam in g sm iles th ro u g h th e ir tears

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Hill Number 203 (1980), directed by Toshio M asuda. Like a benevolent father, General Nogi (Tatsuya N akadai) sobs convulsively while reading the casualty list for the Battle of Hill Number 203 during the Russo-Japanese War. Em peror Meiji (Toshiro Mifune) comes down from his throne to console him.

and tenderly helping him take off his pack and canteen belt. He reports to his squad leader, who is like their mother, and then to the fatherly platoon leader who tells him he is happy he has returned. Tears of joy come to the returnee’s eyes, for he is like the Prodigal Son who has come back to the warmth of the family and has eased the heart of the platoon leader, who had worried about his absence. The suffering of the platoon leader is shown whenever he has to report a casualty or death in the daily record, since he feels fatherly responsibility for all of them. Given such benevolent leaders, it is not so surprising that revolutionaries appear to be Prodigal Sons. In Song of the Advancing Army (Shingun no Uta, 1937) a leftist union leader is released from jail because he has been conscripted, and, touched by the warm sendoff the police give him, he fights bravely for the fatherland on the China front. In commenting on this film Tadao Sato contrasts Nazi Germany, where socialists were gotten rid of, with paternalistic Japan, where they were forgiven if they recanted.7 In some films like The War at Sea from Hawaii to Malaya (1942), the

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squad leaders were more like stern older brothers than kind father figures. However, as they showed their concern for their subordinates by alternating kindness with discipline, they were more like some samurai father types—hard on the outside and soft on the inside—and therefore not too far removed from Chikamatsu’s benevolent merchant fathers. B efore 1945 Jap an ese e m p e ro rs c o u ld n o t b eco m e b e n e v o le n t lead ers in film d u e to s tric t c e n s o rs h ip c o n c e rn in g a n y m atters relatin g to th e royal fam ily, p a s t a n d p re s e n t.8 E ven in W orld W ar II film s m ad e in th e 1980s, w h e n a n a p p e a ra n c e by th e p re se n t e m p e ro r is called for, h e is u s u a lly p h o to g ra p h e d from th e b ack or at a re sp e c ta b le d ista n c e . C o n seq u en tly , o n ly E m p e ro r M eiji c o u ld b ec o m e a su ita b le film h ero , b e g in n in g w ith th e b iggest box office h it in 1957, The E m p ero r M eiji a n d th e Great R ussoJ a p a n e se W ar (M eiji le n n o to N ichi-R o D aisen so ).9 D u rin g th e w ar th e e m p e ro r c o n tin u a lly w ears a m ilita ry u n ifo rm a n d in sists o n eating th e sam e k in d of food h is so ld ie rs at th e fro n t have. He grieves to see w ives a n d c h ild re n seein g th e ir m en off to w ar a n d h e read s th e casu alty list every day, lik e th e b e n e v o le n t p la to o n le a d e rs in th e film s of th e 1930s a n d

Five Scoute (1938)， directed by Tomotaka Tasaka• This scout returning to his platoon during the Sino-Japanese War is like the Prodigal Son who has come back to the w arm th of his family.

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The Emperor Meiji and the Great Russo•Japanese War (1957), directed by Kunio Watanabe. Usually shown in uniform, Emperor Meiji (Kanjuro Arashi) tries to upstage General Nogi in compassionate concern for the troops at the front. 1940s. W hile G eneral N ogi h a d p lay ed th e sam e role for d e c a d e s, it w as p ro b ab ly p a rtic u la rly m oving to see an e m p e ro r do so. B eside E m p ero r M eiji, th e m o st p o p u la r Jap an ese m ilita ry le a d e r in film s after 1950 is A dm iral Isoroku Y am am oto, th e m a n w h o p la n n e d th e attack on Pearl H arbor.10 T oshiro M ifune p lay ed h im in th e A m e ric a n p ro d u c tio n of M idw ay in 1976, a n d he w as th e su b je c t of a tw e lv e -h o u r Japanese TV d ram a sh o w n on 2 January 1983. Y am am oto strik es a re sp o n sive ch o rd am o n g Japanese c o n c e rn in g th e w ar th a t cau se d th e m so m u c h suffering, a n d th a t he h a d o p p o se d from th e b e g in n in g . A c c o rd in g to th e TV d ram a, h is o p p o s itio n w as b a se d on h is p ro -A m erican s e n tim e n ts a n d th e cool a p p r a is a l◦ f A m e ric a ’s p ro d u c tio n c a p a c ity h e h a d m a d e w h ile an ex change s tu d e n t there. M oreover, sin c e h e w as k ille d in a c tio n in 1943, h is im age never suffered as a re su lt of th e w ar tria ls d u rin g th e A m e ric a n O c c u p a tio n era (1945-50). T he first film a b o u t Y am am oto, E agle of the Pacific (T aiheiyo n o W ashi, 1953), begins w ith fascist groups o u t to a ssa ssin a te h im b e c a u se h e opp o ses an a llia n c e w ith G erm any a n d Italy. Before th e o u tb re a k of th e

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Pacific War he tells the prime minister he can only be a match for America for about a year and that he should continue to try to effect an early peace treaty. He refuses to rejoice over Pearl Harbor, and he cries in private over the defeat at Midway. It seems he feels he has let the emperor down, but later it becomes plain that he is grieving over the fate of the Japanese people, since, according to postwar ideology, the emperor is only their symbol. A fter M id w ay he is often sh o w n seein g off y o u n g p ilo ts o n d an g ero u s m iss io n s, d re sse d in h is w h ite u n ifo rm a n d w ith h is h a n d ra ise d to h is fo re h e a d in a se e m in g ly e n d le ss salu te. A lth o u g h Y am am oto d ie d before th e fu ll-sc a le k am ik aze attack s began, m issio n s in 1943 w ere alre a d y b e c o m in g s u ic id a l b ec a u se of A m e ric a ’s o v erw h elm in g a ir s u p e rio rity a n d J a p a n ’s w o e fu l lack of fuel. C o n seq u en tly , very few of th e se young p ilo ts re tu rn e d . D u rin g th e ir c h ild h o o d a n d y o u th th e y h a d b e e n th e re c ip ie n ts of th e self-sacrifices of th e ir m o th ers a n d sisters, a n d n o w it w as th e ir tu rn . A lth o u g h th e s itu a tio n w as a lre a d y h o p e le ss, Y am am oto w o u ld be sh o w n s ittin g o n a tro p ic a l p o rc h w a itin g p a tie n tly late in to th e n ig h t for th e ir re tu rn . H e w as sim p ly p la y in g h is role: th e b e n ev o len t fath er w ith no P ro d ig al S o n s to forgive, w a itin g for th e re tu rn of anybody. A d em o cratic to u c h w as a d d e d to th e im age w h e n h e sh o o k h a n d s w ith y o u n g p ilo ts in a lo n g row ju st before h e w e n t on h is o w n last flight. T h is d em o cratic, S u fferin g F ather im age w o u ld be c o n tin u a lly rep eated in Japanese film s a b o u t th e Pacific War, w ith o th er n av al officers tak in g over Y am am oto’s role a n d se e in g off s q u a d ro n s of k a m ik a z e pilo ts. N ot all W orld War II m ilita ry lead ers q u alified as b en ev o len t co m m an d e rs in Jap an ese film . P rem ier Tojo is so m etim es given sy m p a th e tic treatm e n t, p a rtic u la rly in im p e ria l Japan (Dai N ip p o n TeikoJcu, 1982), by T oshio M a su d a , w ho also d ire c te d Hill N u m b e r 203; how ever, Tojo is still d ifficu lt to w arm u p to. M a su d a p re se n ts h im as a fine father to h is o w n c h ild re n a n d a d evout B u d d h is t w h o u s u a lly h as a ro sary in h is h a n d s w h ile h e is w a itin g in Sugam o p ris o n for h is trial. Yet, in o n e scen e w h ere a c iv ilia n official ex p resses a p p re h e n s io n over th e B-29 b o m b in g s th a t w ill e v e n tu a lly tu rn Tokyo in to a b u rn t-o u t field, Tojo m erely re p lie s th a t if all th e p e o p le are as loyal as he, Japan w ill w in th e war. As Loyal R etainer, Tojo suffers b e c a u se h e h as grieved th e em peror, n o t b ecau se so m a n y p e o p le have d ie d , for th e y are sim p ly like g rain s of sa n d in a n irv a n a lik e d esert. W ith th e p ro d u c tio n of a n tiw a r Japanese film s after 1945, it w as in ev itab le th a t th e o th e r sid e of th e a rc h e ty p a l co in of th e b en ev o len t com m a n d e r w o u ld be p re se n te d in th e figure of cru el, u n fe e lin g officers a n d n o n c o m s. Two d ire c to rs w h o e x c e lle d in th is, H id eo Sekigaw a a n d S atsu o Y am am oto, h a d b een y o u n g leftists d u rin g th e th irtie s 11 a n d seem ed to be g ettin g even for h a v in g b e e n fo rced to p lay th e P rodigal S on th en . In L isten to th e R o ar of th e O cean [Kike! W ad atsu m i n o Koe ， 1950)

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Eagle of the Pacific (1953), directed by Ishiro Honda. Shown here w ith an ace pilot (Toshiro Mifune) aboard an aircraft carrier during the Battle of Midway, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto (Denjiro Okochi) is usually presented as a benev‫־‬ olent commander who dem ocratically shook hands w ith his pilots before a mission.

Sekigawa begins with scenes where fat officers, who hoard food, are being massaged by starving, emaciated enlisted men. One of these enlisted men is literally treated like a dog when he is forced to crawl as a retriever for an officer hunting pheasant, who later shoots another in the back for sport. At the end of the film the spirits of the soldiers who died of starvation rise from their bodies and slowly march toward the viewer in silent protest. Since they had never revolted against their superiors, they had been like Self-Sacrificing Sisters, and now in death Sekigawa forces them to play the role of the All-Suffering Female who tries to induce guilt feelings through moral masochism• Hence, in spite of Sekigawa’s leftist views, he is unable to free himself from the traditional archetypal patterns. Although Listen to th e Roar o f t h e Ocean was actually based on the diaries of soldiers,12 Sekigawa's portrayal seldom rose above caricature. In contrast, Satsuo Yamamoto in Vacuum Zone (Shinku Chitai, 1952) gave a realistic treatment of recruit harassment and showed that the “love slaps”

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(ai n o b u c h ij a d m in iste re d b y n o n c o m s w ere s im p ly th e re su lt of th e ir s a d is tic in c lin a tio n s ra th e r th a n a n y d esire to im p ro v e th e ir charg es spiritu ally. In o n e scen e Y am am oto c o n ju re d u p a c ru e l p a ro d y of th e P rodigal S o n m o tif b y h a v in g o ne re c ru it craw l lik e a dog to beg forgiveness for a triv ia l oversight. S in ce th e b e n e v o le n t c o m m a n d e r h a d s im p ly b e e n an e x te n sio n of th e F o rg iving P aren t a rc h e ty p e , th e d e b u n k in g of th e fo rm er c o u ld easily lead to th e re je c tio n of th e latter. T his w as p a rtic u la rly so in th e case of th e Ja p an ese father, for he n o t o n ly re p re se n te d th e so cial o rd e r for his ch ild re n , as is th e case in a n y c u ltu re , b u t h e also h a d b e e n elevated to th e sta tu s of “e m p e ro r” of h is o w n fam ily in m ilita ris tic Japan•13 T h u s, w h e n M iyoji Ieki p re se n te d in S te p b ro th e rs (Ibo K yodai, 1957) a ty ra n n ic a l fa th e r w h o w as also a m ilita ry officer, h e w as in effect k illin g tw o b ird s w ith o n e stone• S till, sin c e Ie k i’s film w as set in th e w artim e era, it lack ed c o n te m p o ra ry relevance. T he c h a lle n g e of p re se n tin g a cru el, u n fe e lin g fa th e r w h o re p re se n ts a n ex p lo itin g , c o n te m p o ra ry so cie ty w as b etter m et b y S a ts u o Y am am o to , a g a in , p a r tic u la r ly in A Public Benefactor (K iz u d a ra k e n o S a n g a ,1964)• T he fa th e r in A P u b lic Benefactor is a n e n tre p re n e u r w h o u ses u n d e rh a n d e d b u s in e s s ta c tic s a n d b rib e s g o v ern m en t officials to achieve objectives h e ra tio n a liz e s as b ein g in th e p u b lic in terest. H e e x p lo its n o t o n ly w o rk ers b u t h is o w n d au g h ters, w h o m h e m a rrie s off for fin a n cial ad vantage. H e h a s a few m istre sse s, of co u rse, a n d h is n eg lected w ife h as b e c o m e b e d rid d e n . H is se c o n d so n has h a d a h isto ry of m e n ta l breakd o w n s a n d relap ses. Y am am oto’s film clim ax es w h e n th e se c o n d so n rebels a n d sets fire to th e n e w sc h o o l h is h y p o c ritic a l fath er h a d b u ilt. W h en th e fath er v isits h im in jail, h e tells h im h e is th e in sa n e one. T he m o th e r c ritic iz e s th e fa th e r for h is lack of p a te rn a l c o n c e rn , b u t w h e n sh e goes to v isit th e so n n o w in a m e n ta l h o s p ita l, he refu ses to see her. Y am am oto’s m essage is th a t s u c h an e n tre p re n e u r is n o t o n ly ex p lo itin g th e Jap an ese p e o p le b u t also to rm e n tin g h is o w n fam ily, a n d th a t it is th e n a tu re of a c a p ita listic so cie ty to p ro d u c e su c h m en. Y am am oto also rev ersed th e a rc h e ty p a l s e tu p by h av in g a good so n su ffer o n a c c o u n t of a p ro d ig a l father. S u c h u n fe e lin g fath ers are m o re th e m a tic a lly c o n n e c te d to th e Japanese g o v e rn m e n t itse lf b y N agisa O sh im a in Boy (S h o n en , 1969). H ere th e father, w h o is often a sso c ia te d v isu a lly w ith th e n a tio n a l flag, h as h is so n r u n clo se to m o v in g cars a n d fake a fall in o rd e r to ex to rt m o n ey from m o to rists. T he fact th a t h is so n c o n tin u a lly su sta in s in ju rie s from th is does n o t faze h im in th e least. As a W orld War II v eteran w h o claim s old w o u n d s p re v e n t h im from w ork in g , h e re p re se n ts th e co ld , c a lc u la tin g p o litic a l le a d e rs w h o sacrificed th e p e o p le th e n a n d w h o c o n tin u e to o p p re ss m o v em en ts to w ard in d iv id u a l freedom .

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A Public Benefactor (1964), directed by Satsuo Yamamoto. The sham of compassionate leaders is exposed in this portrayal of a ru th less en trep ren eu r (So Yamamura). Shown here chewing out a subordinate, he exploits the Japanese people and torments his own family. The Buddhist statue in his office seems ironic, but he probably purchased it as a good investm ent in a “priceless” art object. T he governm ent a n d big b u sin e ss w ere p ra c tic a lly lin k e d as o n e in A kira K urosaw a^ exposé of graft a n d c o rru p tio n in Japan Inc. in T he B ad Sleep WeJJ (W arui Yatsu H o d o Yoku N em u ru , 1960), a n d th e fath er b e cam e th e cru x of th e m atter. A ru th le s s b u s in e s s ex ecu tiv e h a s th o se w h o c o u ld cause sc a n d a ls m u rd e re d or d riv e n to su ic id e . H is so n k n o w s a b o u t h is secrets, b u t w h e n he w atch es h is father te n d e rly a tte n d in g h is lam e siste r at a patio b arb ecu e, he tells h is b ro th e r-in -law th a t at tim e s h e c a n n o t believe his father is an evil m an. It tu rn s o u t th a t th e b ro th e r-in -la w is o u t to expose th e father to avenge th e d e a th of h is o w n father. W h en th e b u sin e ss executive learn s of th is, he trick s h is d a u g h te r in to rev ealin g h e r h u sb a n d 's h id e -o u t a n d th e n h as h im m u rd e re d . T he d a u g h te r goes in s a n e a n d h e r b rother takes h e r aw ay after b la m in g th e father, w h o h a d trie d to d issu a d e h im b u t h a d b een in te rru p te d by a p h o n e call from h is su p e rio r, w h ic h h a d priority.

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T h e th e m e of a fath er sacrificin g h is c h ild re n for h is s u p e rio r is n ot new in Japan. C h ik a m a tsu , in h is plays ab o u t sa m u ra i, w o u ld p lace th e hero in s u c h a p re d ic a m e n t a n d th e n have h im ex p ress h is in te rn a l a n g u ish w ith p o ig n a n t p h ra se s a n d m o v in g facial e x p ressio n s. K urosaw a p e rh a p s trie d to a llu d e to s u c h a p e rfo rm a n c e in th e scen e w h ere th e fath er is loo k in g at h im s e lf g u iltily in a m irro r after h e drug g ed h is d a u g h te r to p revent h e r from a c c o m p a n y in g h im to h e r h u s b a n d ’s h id e -o u t. S u d d e n ly h er reflectio n a p p e a rs b e h in d h im , ju st before he goes off to m u rd e r h e r beloved h u s b a n d . H ow ever, in th e last scen e, w h ere he is talk in g to h is s u p e rio r on th e p h o n e after th e great sacrifice, h e is as cool as ice. K u ro saw a’s evil fath er h ere differs from C h ik a m a tsu ’s tragic sam u rai fath ers in th a t h is actio n ste m m e d i m m h is o w n v o litio n , b u t th e irs from fate. W hereas, th ey are tru ly like p u p p e ts, h e is a m an w ho by ch o ice b e c a m e a robot, m e c h a n ic a lly bow in g as he h ears on th e p h o n e h is m a ste rs’ vo ices e x te n d in g u p th e h ie ra rc h y of th e b u sin e ss a n d governm e n t c irc le s of Japan Inc. For K urosaw a, su c h a fath er c o u ld n o t be forgiven.

Reversal of Roles T h e p re se n ta tio n of fath ers w h o w ere th e o p p o site of b en ev o len t coinc id e d w ith role reversal in so m e film s w h e re c h ild re n forgive th e ir paren ts. T he n e c e ssa ry p re re q u isite for th is, th e d e th ro n e m e n t of p aren ts, how ever, h a d b eg u n long before th e defeat in W orld W ar II a n d w as th e re su lt of th e influ x of m o d e rn or W estern id eas an d of in creasin g ly b etter e d u c a te d g e n e ra tio n s.14 In p re w a r lite ra tu re w rite rs u n d e r th e in flu en c e of lib eral id eas to o k u p th e th e m e of y o u th fu l revolt ag ain st a u th o rita ria n fa th e rs.15 However, S h im p a , th e m o st p o p u la r d ra m a form in th e early 1920s, w as m ore co n serv ativ e. In its p lay s (for ex am p le, th e p re v io u sly tre ated The GeneaJogy 0/ W om en) s u c h fath er figures w ere still p re se n te d as sy m p ath etic, a lb e it b e h in d th e tim e s, a n d w ere affectio n ately la b e le d g an k o oyaji or “th e stu b b o rn o ld m a n .” W hereas in p e rio d film fath er figures w ere m ode le d o n C h ik a m a ts u ,s b e n e v o le n t m e rc h a n t ty p es or h is stern -o n -th e-o u tsid e s a m u ra i ones, in c o n te m p o ra ry film g an k o oyaji d o m in a te d u n til th e a p p e a ra n c e of “d e m o c ra tic ” fathers. A m e ric a n film s ex erted a stro n g in flu e n c e on y o u n g Japanese film m ak ers a n d o n e n o tab le ex a m p le is Yasujiro O z u ,16 w h o w en t on to b e c o m e o n e of Ja p a n ’s greatest d irecto rs. O zu in 1931 w ith Tokyo C h o ru s (Tokyo n o G assh o j p re se n te d a you n g office w o rk er w h o as a fath er w as no d iffe re n t at all from h is A m e ric a n film c o u n te rp a rts, for h e n ev er d isp la y e d th e slig h te st sig n of ste rn n e ss or lofty b en ev o len ce a n d sim p ly p lay ed gam es w ith h is kids. In 1932 w ith th e m a ste rp ie c e I Was B orn B ut . . .

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Tokyo Chorus (1931), directed by Yasujiro Ozu. A young office worker (Tokihiko Okada) and his wife (Emiko Yagumo) play games with their children (Hideko Takamine and Hideo Sugawara), and a new “democratic” model for Japanese fathers is formed.

fU m arete w a Mita K eredoj O zu sets th e fath er u p as an a u th o rita ria n figure o n ly to have h im ex p o sed as an office sy c o p h a n t w h o h a s to w in b a c k h is k id s’ favor by com ing d o w n to th e ir level a n d m ak in g frie n d s w ith th e m . O z u ’s “d e m o c ra tic ” fathers d id iiot a c tu a lly re p la c e or s u p e rs e d e th e tra d itio n a l ty p es in co n te m p o ra ry film . O zu h im se lf recrea te d a b en ev o len t C hikam atsu ty p e w ith sa m u ra i q u a litie s in T here Was a F ath er (C hichi A riki, 1942). H ow ever, w ith th e e x c e p tio n of th e S e c o n d W orld War years, th e A m erican -sty le fath er O zu created ex isted s id e b y sid e w ith th e ganko oyaji ty p e in film s th ro u g h th e 1950s. O z u ’s d em o cratic fathers w ere at least o n th e sam e level as th e ir ch ildren. Som e Japanese p a re n ts w ere not, d u e to th e h ig h e r e d u c a tio n th e ir offspring receiv ed in m o d e rn sch o o ls, a n d th is n e w re la tio n s h ip b ec a m e th e sub ject of film s as early as th e 1930s. In M in o ru S hibuya's M o th er a n d ChiJd (H aha to K o ,1938) an in te llig e n t, stea d fast d a u g h te r tak es care of h e r su p e rstitio u s, fo o lh a rd y m o th e r u n til th e m o th e r d ie s n e g le c te d b y h e r so n a n d h u sb a n d . M ikio N aru se recreated th e sam e s e tu p in h is m a s te rp ie c e ，

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L ig h tn in g (In a z u m a , 1952), w h ic h e n d s w ith th e p ru d e n t d au g h ter sacrificing h e r life savin g s to h e lp h e r n e ’er-do-w ell m o th e r o u t of fin an cial d ifficu lties. F ro m th e se k in d h e a rte d d a u g h te rs ta k in g care of th e ir fo o lish m o th ers to c h ild re n fo rg iv in g p a re n ts for th e ir m isd e e d s an d sin s of o m issio n o n ly re q u ire d o n e m ore step. K urosaw a w as am o n g th e first to take it in S c a n d a l (S k y a n d a ru , 1950), a n u n e v e n film w ith a sav in g p o rtray al of a Prodigal Father. T h e fa th e r in S c a n d a l is a law y er re p re se n tin g a y o u n g c o u p le in th e ir s u it a g a in st a m ag azin e th a t p rin te d a false, sc a n d a lo u s a rtic le ab o u t th em . In o rd e r to b u y n ice th in g s for h is b e d rid d e n d au g h ter, th o u g h , h e tak es a b rib e from th e m ag azin e to th ro w th e case. T hat n ig h t h e re tu rn s h o m e d r u n k a n d p la c e s th e p re se n ts at h e r b e d sid e , b eg in s crying, co n fesses th a t h e is a b a d m a n , a n d m akes ex cu ses for him self. T he d aughter, as th o u g h sh e h a s b e e n th ro u g h th is scen e m a n y tim es before, p ats h is bow ed h ead lik e a c o n s o lin g m other. A fter sh e d ies of tu b e rc u lo sis, h e ato n es for h is sin s by rev ealin g th e brib e in th e co u rtro o m .

Lightning (1952), directed by M ikio N aruse. This bright, p ru d en t daughter

(Hideko Takamine) has to help her ne’er-do-well mother (Kumeko Urabe) ou! of financial difficulties and hence reverses the traditional roles of parent and child•

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In a scene w h ic h is a p re c u rso r to th e o n e in T he Bad Sleep Well w h e re th e father g u iltily sees h is d a u g h te r’s reflectio n in th e m irror, th e fath er in Scandal looks in on a C h ristm as p a rty h is d a u g h te r is en jo y in g w ith h is clien ts an d h e r face is s u p e rim p o se d u p o n h is in th e w indow . H e ru n s o u t of th e h o u se to get d ru n k , b u t th e guilt felt th e n w ill lead h im to take th e o p p o site co u rse to th a t of th e father in The B ad S leep Weii♦ D o n a ld R ich ie h as a p p ro p ria te ly c o m m e n te d on th e m a u d lin tre a tm e n t of th is s c e n e .17 However, it is still m oving, for, by p lacin g a tin cro w n on th e h e a d of th e in v alid daughter, K urosaw a evoked th e im age of C h rist th e C h ild -K in g ， a sym bol of in n o c e n c e a n d suffering, as w ell as a so u rc e of fo rg iv en ess. In H er Brother (Otoio, 1960) d ire c to r Kon Ichikaw a cle a rly a ttrib u te s a y o u th s d e lin q u e n t a c tiv itie s to neglect by h is p a re n ts ra th e r th a n to h is ow n perversity, w h ic h w o u ld be a tra d itio n a l in te rp re ta tio n (hinekureta koj. O n his d e a th b e d h e play s th e role of th e Prodigal Son a n d asks th e m to forgive him ; how ever, by n o b ly no t h o ld in g a n y th in g ag ain st th e m , h e in d u c e s guilt. For th e first tim e th e y sh o w h im th e love h e n e e d e d b u t got o n ly from h is devoted sister. In effect h e h as rev ersed th e ir ro les by

Scandal (1950), directed by A kira Kurosawa. Here the innocent, invalid daughter (Yoko Katsuragi) forgives her Prodigal Father (Takashi Shimura), a shyster lawyer who eventually atones for his sins•

The Archetypal Family—Extended and Rejected

173

fo rg iv in g th e m a n d o n ly th e role of th e S elf-S acrificing S ister h as re m a in e d c o n sta n t.

Loss of Forgiving Parent Archetype A s p a re n ts w ere b e in g d e th ro n e d th ro u g h m o d e rn iz a tio n , th e y w ere also lo sin g th e ir sa c re d asp e c t. M iz o g u c h i^ S a n sh o th e Bailiff w as p ro b ab ly th e la st re lig io u s e x p re ssio n of th e F orgiving P arent a rc h e ty p e in film . Four y ears later in th e film v e rsio n of C h ik a m a tsu ^ The W om an Killer and the Hell of Oil (O n n a g o ro sh i A b u ra /igoku , 1958) th e p a re n ts, u n d e r th e d ire c tio n of H iro m ic h i H orikaw a, a p p e a re d d o tin g ra th e r th a n b en ev o len t. (T hey d rew c h u c k le s from th e Japanese a u d ie n c e I v iew ed th e film w ith in 1983, a n d th e sam e w as p ro b ab ly th e case in 1958.) T h e d e m y th o lo g iz a tio n of p a re n ts h a d d ifferen t c o n se q u e n c e s for th e ir p o rtra y a l in th e c in e m a th a n o n TV, w h ic h b ecam e th e p rin c ip a l m e d iu m of fam ily d ra m a from th e 1960s on. T he TV fath er w as u s u a lly a re p lic a of th e u p p e r-m id d le -c la ss fath ers in O z u ’s p o stw a r film s: u n d e rs ta n d in g r a th e r th a n b e n e v o le n t, m o re a c c e p tin g th a n fo rg iv in g .18 In fa c t, h e se e m e d to be a cross b e tw e e n O z u ’s d em o cratic ty p es a n d C h ik a m a tsu ’s fe u d a l b e n e v o le n t on es. T he TV m o th e r u s u a lly su ffered o n ly in d ram as set in p re v io u s h isto ric a l p e rio d s from th e O c c u p a tio n Days o n back. In m o d e rn d ra m a s she b e cam e in c re a sin g ly c h e e rfu l a n d sp o rte d ex p en siv e w a rd ro b e s e m b le m a tic ◦ f Jap an ’s ec o n o m ic recovery•19 O n th e o th e r h a n d , in th e c in e m a of th e 1960s, d o m in a te d by young, N ew Wave d ire c to rs ,20 p o o r p a re n ts often seem ed ig n o ra n t a n d ric h pare n ts fre q u e n tly a p p e a re d to be p h ilis tin e s . In e ith e r case, th ey w ere so easy to re b e l a g a in st th a t th e y w ere a d ista n t se c o n d to th e m a in targ et of y o u th fu l fru stra tio n , th e e s ta b lis h m e n t or a d u lt so ciety in general. In th e e a rly 1970s, how ever, p a rtic u la rly in th e film s of T oshiya Fujita, th e m o st p o p u la r d ire c to r th e n , s e n tim e n ts to w ard p a re n ts tu rn e d from re b e llio u s to bitter, from s y m p a th e tic to cy n ical. P aren ts do n o t p lay a m ajo r role in Fujita^ film s. H is y o u th fu l ch aracters seem to be o rp h a n s w h o se a lie n a tio n from so ciety m ak es th e m even m ore d e p e n d e n t on a few clo se frien d s. W hen p a re n ts do a p p e a r in h is film s, how ever, th e y nev er m ak e a favorable im p ressio n • In Virgin B lues (B aajin B u ru u s u , 1974) tw o teen ag e girls are w a n te d for sh o p liftin g . W hen o ne re tu rn s h o m e , sh e finds a store d etectiv e th e re a n d tries to escape. H er o w n m o th e r jo in s in th e c h a se a n d , w h e n th ey ca tc h u p w ith her, she sp its in h e r m o th e r^ face. T he o th e r girl k n e w b e tte r a n d se n t h e r m id d le-ag e d b o y frie n d to h e r h o m e to in q u ire first• W h en h e com es b ack a n d tells h e r th e p o lic e have alread y c o n ta c te d h e r m o th er, sh e realizes she h as no h o m e to go b a c k to. In D id th e fled B ird E scap e? (A kai Tori N igeta?, 1973) a ric h girl gets in v o lv e d w ith tw o y o ung h 〇〇d lu m s a n d th ey d e c id e to ex to rt m o n ey from

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h e r father by p re te n d in g to k id n a p her. W h en th e c o n fro n ta tio n tak es p lace, how ever, th e fath er o u t of c o n s id e ra tio n for h is re p u ta tio n refu ses to recognize h e r as h is d a u g h te r， an d sh e d ies w ith h e r boy frie n d s in a su ic id a l sh o o t-o u t w ith th e police. In th ese film s Fujita p re se n ts th e a n tith e se s of C h ik a m a ts u ’s b e n e v o le n t p aren ts, w ho w o u ld n ev er b egrudge ra n so m m o n e y for th e ir b elo v ed c h ild re n , n o r tu rn th e m in to u n s y m p a th e tic a u th o ritie s. F u jitaJs y o u th s are p rodigal so n s a n d d au g h ters w ith no p a re n ts to forgive th e m . T h e ir lo n e lin e ss can be p a rtia lly a ttrib u te d to e s tra n g e m e n t from th e ir p a re n ts, w h ic h is th e m o d e rn form of th e old th e m e of p a re n t-c h ild s e p a ra tio n a n d one cause of th e ir su ic id a l n ih ilism . Fujita d oes n o t c o n s id e r th e relig io u s sig n ifican ce of th e loss of th e Forgiving P arent or th e p ro b le m of autonom y, w h ic h b eco m es p a rtic u la rly sig n ificant in th e film s of th e later 1970s. T he b est tre a tm e n t of th e se p ro b lem s c a n be fo u n d in th e a n a ly sis of p o stw a r Jap an ese lite ra tu re by Jun Eto, a literary c ritic w h o gives sp e c ia l a tte n tio n to S h o taro Y asuoka’s 1959 novel, Scene by the Sea (L/mibe no KokeiJ.21

The hero of the novel has a very possessive mother and finally rebels against her. Once her existence is attacked, it disintegrates and he is freed from her and becomes an individual for the first time. However, since his mother was his second self, a deep part of him is gone, too, leaving him with a sense of emptiness. T he h e ro ’s struggle for a u to n o m y ag ain st h is m o th e r seem s p e rfe c tly n a tu ra l an d c o m m o n p la c e for W esterners. H ow ever, for Jap an ese liv in g in a cu ltu re th a t h a d stressed d e p e n d e n c y 22 a n d a p lia n t ego w h o se m o d e of b eh av io r w as passive, h is a c tio n is re v o lu tio n a ry in th e se n se of a tu m u ltu o u s u p h eav al. It to o k th e defeat in W orld W ar II to m ak e s u c h an a c tio n acceptable, for afterw ard s Jap an ese in te lle c tu a ls d e c id e d th a t o n e of th e reasons for th e rise of m ilita rism h a d b e e n th e w eak n ess of Jap an ese in assertin g th em selv es as in d iv id u a ls an d th e ir te n d e n c y to go alo n g w ith th e cro w d .23 In o th er w o rd s, th e old p assiv e a n d su b m issiv e p e rs o n a lity w as to blam e a n d n o w strong, self-assertive egos w ere ad v o cated .

The hero in Scene by the Sea had simply responded to the call of his times, but the loss he felt demonstrated that it is not so easy to switch from passive to active modes overnight. Later he seeks the lost mother in his wife, but is disillusioned when she has an affair with another man, which reveals she is an ordinary woman after all. When the hero’s expectations of his wife are thus amplified, Scene by the Sea goes from a psychological level to a religious one: “He wanted the m o th e r in sid e h is w ife to forgive th e great sin h e seem ed to h av e com m itte d even before th e ex isten ce of h is p a re n ts a n d w as p u n is h e d for even before h is c o n sc io u sn e ss cam e in to being. B ut w h e n h e b ec a m e free h e lost h o p e a n d h a d to face th e guilt w ith in h im self. For h im fre e d o m b o ile d d o w n to fear, a n d so it w as not really freed o m . . . . *WeVe b ec o m e free, b u t w e ’re all stran g ers•’ ’’24

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For so m e Jap an ese in te lle c tu a ls lik e Eto a n d Y asuoka, loss of th e Forgivin g P a re n t a rc h e ty p e b eco m es c u ltu ra lly e q u iv a le n t to th e D eath of G od in th e W est, a n d e x iste n tia lis m b eco m es o n e of th e few relig io u s reco u rses. S h u ji T erayam a, an av an t-g ard e p o e t tu rn e d p la y w rig h t a n d film m aker, trie d to reso lv e h is m o th e r c o m p le x in ex iste n tia l term s a n d sta rte d a v ogue for film s fe a tu rin g m a tric id e a n d p a tric id e . In P asto ral H ide a n d S eek (D en’en n i S h isu , 1974) T erayam a’s hero p o n d e rs th e p ro b lem of w h e th e r h e w o u ld e x ist if h is p a re n ts h a d d ie d before h e w as co n ceiv ed . H e th e n tak es a tim e -m a c h in e -lik e jo u rn e y b ack in to h is o w n p a st w ith th e in te n tio n of k illin g h is m other. W hen h e en ters h is h o u se a n d sh e asks h im if h e is h ungry, how ever, he realizes h e c a n n o t kill h e r a n d th e film en d s w ith h e r se rv in g h im s o u p a n d rice. Terayam a n o t o n ly c o n c lu d e d th a t m a tric id e is o u t of th e q u e s tio n b u t also su g g ested th a t tru e au to n o m y c a n n o t be o b ta in e d . In K a z u h ik o H a s e g a w a ^ Y oung M u rd e re r (S e is h u n n o S a ts u jin s h a , 1976) th e y o u n g hero u n in te n tio n a lly k ills h is father in a n a rg u m e n t ab o u t h is girl frie n d . H is m o th e r trie s to cover u p th e crim e a n d even em b races h im suggestively, b u t h e rejects her. Later w h e n sh e trie s to kill h im , h e goes b e rse rk a n d w in d s u p stab b in g h e r to d eath . D esp ite th e g ru eso m e k illin g s a n d o e d ip a l a sso c ia tio n s, th e y o u n g m an seem s m ore p a th e tic th a n terrify in g . O n a b e a c h he has a p o ig n a n t m em o ry of c h ild h o o d a n d sees h is fath er p u s h in g a n ic e -c a n d y cart a n d carry in g h im o n his sh o u ld ers, w ith h is m o th e r tra ilin g b e h in d in th e sh a d e of h e r su n u m b rella. It seem s he h a s lo st h is p a re n ts ra th e r th a n k ille d th em , a n d th e film e n d s w ith h im a lo n e a n d h o m e le ss in th e b ack of a tru c k . He h a d co n fessed h is c rim e to so m e p o lic e m e n , b u t th ey h a d o n ly la u g h e d at h is p re p o stero u s story. In a n a n o n y m o u s, m o d e rn so cie ty th e Prodigal S on c a n n o t even find re c o g n itio n , let a lo n e forgiveness, a n d au to n o m y is sim p ly eq u ated w ith lo n e lin e ss . In R evenge i s / o r Us (F u k u sh u S u ru wa W are n i A ri, 1979, released in th e U n ite d S tates as V engeance is M ine) S h o h e i Im a m u ra p ro b ed d e e p e r in to th e p ro b le m of p a tric id e w h ic h H asegaw a, h is fo rm er p ro tég é,25 h a d ra ise d b u t n o t reso lv ed . A fter th e so n in Im a m u ra ,s film re tu rn s h o m e from p ris o n h e s u s p e c ts th a t h is fath er h a s h a d sex u al in te rc o u rse w ith h is w ife a n d an a rg u m e n t e n su e s. O u t in th e ir y ard th e fath er p ick s u p a sled g eh am m er, h a n d s it to h is son, a n d tells h im to k ill h im if h e does n o t b eliev e h im . In th e C h ik a m a tsu tra d itio n of th e B en ev o len t P aren t h e w as try in g to in still g u ilt by a d o p tin g a self-sacrificing stance• B ut it d id n o t w ork a n d th e so n w o u ld h ave b a sh e d h is b ra in s o u t if th e d au g h ter-in -law h a d not in terv e n e d . T he so n leaves h o m e a n d th e re a fte r co m m its a series of m u rd e rs in w h ic h th e v ic tim is u s u a lly an o ld or m id d le -a g e d m an , th a t is, a fath er s u b stitu te . T he la st c o n fro n ta tio n b e tw e e n fath er a n d so n o ccu rs d u rin g a p riso n v isit. T he so n tells th e fath er th a t it w o u ld have b e e n b e tte r if h e h ad k ille d h im in ste a d . T he fath er sp its in h is face a n d asks if h e really c o u ld have

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Young Murderer (1976), directed by Kazuhiko Hasegawa. After killing the father, the son (Yutaka Mizutani) gazes at his own reflection, w hile his m other (Etsuko Ichihara) looks on in horror. Even though he will kill her too, he seems more like a lost boy beyond forgiveness than a m urderer. k ille d his o w n father. T he so n ’s fierce look leaves n o d o u b t. He te lls h is father he does n o t ex p ect to be forgiven, n o r w ill he ever forgive h im . S in ce c h ild h o o d h e h a d alw ays b o rn e his fath er a gru d g e for h a v in g re c a n te d h is C atholic faith in front of som e b u lly in g m ilita ry officers d u rin g W orld W ar II. The “revenge” of th e film ’s title w as a c tu a lly d ire c te d ag ain st th e father, a n d au to n o m y h a d n o th in g to do w ith it. Revenge is for Us en d s w ith th e fath er going u p a lig h th o u se a n d try in g to toss the so n ’s crem ated rem ain s in to th e sea• By a freeze a c tio n sh o t of th e son's bon es, Im a m u ra in d ic a te s th at, ju st as re c o n c ilia tio n w as u n o b ta in a b le ， p acificatio n of th e s o n ’s vengeful s p irit c o u ld n ot be effected. In th e 1983 C annes p riz e w in n e r, The Ballad of Narayama (N a ra y a m a b u shi-koj Im a m u ra h a d th e son co m m it m a tric id e b y a b a n d o n in g h is m o th e r on a m o u n ta in in co n fo rm an ce w ith th e c u sto m of h is m a rg in a l• ex istence village, w h ere th e aged are left to d ie so th a t th ere w ill be e n o u g h food for th e young. S ince his self-sacrificing m o th e r h a d o rd e re d h im to do so, how ever, he c o u ld be c o n sid e re d filial ra th e r th a n p ro d ig al. S till, w h e n

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h e r e tu rn e d h o m e after leav in g h e r in th e sn o w am id h u g e b lack crow s a n d b le a c h e d b o n e s a n d sk u lls, h e m u st have felt so m e guilt. H is w ife, th o u g h , greeted h im w ith an a m iab le sm ile a n d gave h im som e h o t gruel. Im am u ra ’s cam era fo llo w e d h is gaze from th e fam ily crest o n h is w ife ’s w aists a sh (obi) to h is b ro th e r,s p re g n a n t w ife in o rd e r to sh o w th at th e w o m en a c tu a lly ru le th e fam ily as th ey are clo se r to th e life cycle. T hey w arm ly e n v e lo p h im lik e th e cycle th e y re p re se n t. He c a n n o t escap e from it, for it is as n e c e s sa ry as th e food h is w ife is serv in g h im . For Im am u ra, au to n o m y in c lu d e s a n a c c e p ta n c e of d e p e n d e n c y , a n d m a tu rity c o n ta in s a b elief in u n s p o k e n forgiveness.

Conclusion Im a m u ra ^ 1983 T he Ballad of Narayama w as largely a rem ak e of an e x c e lle n t 1958 film w ith th e sam e title by K eisuke K in o sh ita. As su ch ,

Revenge Is for Us (1979), directed by Shohei Im am ura. The gangster son (Ken Ogata) here tries to kill his father (Rentaro Mikuni), but his wife (Mitsuko Baisho) restrains him. Later he will m urder a num ber of older men resembling father substitutes, w hich suggests an irreconcilable breach between parent and child in contem porary Japanese society.

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Im a m u ra seem ed to be e x p ressin g th e s e n tim e n ts of a b y gone age, a n d th e su fferin g m o th er in h is film h a d a lot in co m m o n w ith th e sa c re d o n e in M iz o g u c h iJs S a n sh o th e Bailiff. A lth o u g h h e to u c h e d u p o n th e th e m e of m a tric id e a n d p a tric id e , sin c e it w as su g g ested th a t th e so n m ay have k ille d h is father, h is film d id not ex p ress th e d isg u st a n d re se n tm e n t so n s felt for p aren ts w h o b ecam e v u lg ar o n ce d e th ro n e d a n d d e m y th o lo g iz e d . T hese feelings w ere p ro b ab ly th e u n d e rly in g m o tiv e for film s fe a tu rin g m a tric id e a n d p a tric id e in th e late 1970s. U n lik e N ie tz s c h e ’s G od, Japan ese p a re n ts still h a d a se c u la r sid e th a t re m a in e d a n d a p p a re n tly h a d to be k ille d sy m b o lic a lly in film s. T his effect of th e loss of th e F o rg iv in g P arent a rc h e ty p e d id not c o n tin u e in th e film s a n d TV d ra m a s of th e 1980s, th o u g h , p ro b ab ly b ecau se th e p re se n t, y o u n g g e n e ra tio n seem u n aw are th at Japanese p a re n ts o n ce h a d a sacred asp e c t, a n d c o n s e q u e n tly feel no great lo ss.26 P rodig ality is no longer a v iab le th e m e in th e 1980s, b u t d e lin q u e n c y still is. It is b la m e d e ith e r on a d e m a n d in g e d u c a tio n a l sy stem a n d /o r o n p a re n ta l n egligence or doting. S u c h p a re n ts in d ram as often co m e to th e ir sen ses an d e x h ib it re sp o n sib le c o n c e rn or a stern a ttitu d e . T h ey n e ith e r forgive, nor are forgiven, b u t so m eh o w com e to an u n d e rs ta n d in g w ith c h ild re n w h o reform . T his in d ic a te s th a t at least so m e so cial p ro b le m s ca n be solved w ith in th e co n tex t of a d e p o litic iz e d , s e c u la r Jap an ese fam ily. T he m otif of self-sacrifice h as d e c lin e d in p ro p o rtio n to c o n te m p o ra ry Jap an ’s prosperity. It is n o lo n g er ex p ected from m o d e rn sisters a n d d a u g h ters, w h o co u ld also be sp o ile d a n d w h o a c tu a lly have less p re ss u re from p a re n ta l ex p ectatio n s th a n do th e ir b ro th e rs. T h u s, p ro s p e rity a n d co n tin u in g se c u la riz a tio n in Japan have created a c u ltu re in w h ic h selfsacrifice, guilt, a n d forgiveness, as relig io u s se n tim e n ts , are fo rg o tten ra th e r th a n lost.

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Modern Archetypal Antitheses Introduction A n im p o rta n t facto r in th e m e ta m o rp h o se s of Japanese a rc h e ty p e s h as b e e n th e m o v e m e n t to w ard s e c u la rism in Japanese society. A s stated p rev io u sly , in th e T okugaw a era m ed iev al B u d d h ism w as re p la c e d as th e d o m in a n t re lig io n b y C o n fu c ia n ism , w h ic h is th is-w o rld ly an d so cia lly o rien ted • W h ile in N e o -C o n fu cian ism a “sacred p a re n t” is a po ssib ility , in th e m o d e rn age th is a sp e c t w as lost, d e sp ite M izo g u ch i's n o tab le excep tio n . W estern id eas, su c h as th e ex p lo ita tio n of th e ru le d , h e lp e d secu la riz e J a p a n e v e n m o re . Yet, a lth o u g h s u c h id e a s u n d e r m in e d tr a n s c e n d e n ta lis m in tr a d itio n a l v a lu e s , th e y a lso o p p o s e d auth o rita ria n is m a n d s u b m is sio n w ith th e id e a l of freed o m a n d in d iv id u a l au to n o m y . S u c h id e a ls w ere ad v o cated by Japan ese film m ak ers at th e u rg in g of O c c u p a tio n c en so rs d u rin g th e late 1940s, b u t th e y w ere h a rd ly cred ib le th e n d u e to th e a b ru p t volte face Japan ese c in e m a h a d b e e n forced to u n d e r ta k e .1 H ow ever, m a in ly young film m ak ers from th e late 1950s on b eg an cre a tin g b eliev ab le a n tith e se s for n o t o n ly th e Forgiving P arent b u t also th e Loyal R etain er a n d th e W eak Passive M ale, as w ell as for th e A llS u fferin g F em ale a n d th e S elf-S acrificing Sister. T h e ir m o d e rn arc h e ty p e s w ere so le ly o p p o s itio n a l in th e b eg in n in g .

The Irresponsible Salaryman T h e m o st p o p u la r film sa la ry m a n a p p e a re d in The Age of irre sp o n sibiJity in Ja p a n (N ip p o n JViusekinin J i d a i , 1962)• P layed by th e c o m e d ia n H ito sh i U eki, th e h ero w as a s h re w d o p p o rtu n is t w h o a p p e a re d to be th e a n tith e s is of th e id e a l of c o m p a n y loyalty. R evivals of th is film series sh o w th a t h e still strik es re sp o n siv e c h o rd s as a n exaggerated self-reflection of a c tu a l sa la ry m e n a n d as a w ish -fu lfillm e n t im age. B u ru m a h a s n o ted th a t th is c h a ra c te r is ty p ic a l, b u t seem s u n aw are of h is a n tith e tic a l n a tu re .2 P erh ap s, like m o st W esterners, B u ru m a th in k s of Jap an ese w h ite -c o lla r w o rk ers as m o d e rn e q u iv a le n ts of feu d al sam u rai, 179

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w h o are as loyal to th e ir c o m p a n y as th e forty-seven w ere to th e ir d e a d Lord A sano. In fact, a m ovie c a lle d S a la ry m a n C h u s h in g u ra (S a ra riim a n Chushingura) w as m ad e in 1960. T his c o m e d y set in m o d e rn tim es w as not a parody, for th e loyalty th e em ployees felt to w ard the m em o ry of th e ir d ead co m p an y p re sid e n t w as tak en se rio u sly a n d th e revenge th ey effected against his b u sin e ss en em y w as a subject for rejoicing. S till, m o st real-life Japanese sala ry m en cringe at th e w ord for loyalty to w ard a s u p e rio r (ch u g i or chuseishinl sin ce after th e defeat in 1945 th at p a rtic u la r v alu e lo st th e m ost c re d e n c e .3 T h e ir ow n self-im age is d ifferen t from th e v iew s W este m e rs have of them , a n d it was affected by th e ir film im age, w h ic h ch an g ed th ro u g h history. Film s about Japanese sala ry m en a p p e a re d as early as th e 1930s, w h e n th e ir n u m b ers in creased d u rin g ra p id u rb a n iz a tio n ,4 an d th e b est o n es w ere m ad e by O zu. In Tokyo C horus in 1931 O zu p re se n te d an u p rig h t young m an w ho loses his job after d e fe n d in g a fello w w o rk er a n d th e re b y p laces his ow n fam ily in jeopardy. O ld er a n d w ise r in I Was B orn B ut •• • in 1932, Ozu,s sala ry m an b ecom es a sy c o p h a n t w h o loses th e re sp e c t of his c h ild re n a n d c o m p la in s to his w ife th at, if he d id not p la y u p to th e boss, they w o u ld not be able to live a b e tte r life. O z u ,s v iew of sa la ry m e n w as sim p ly th at eco n o m ic c o n d itio n s m ak e th e m serv ile, a n d it d id n o t change after W orld W ar II. In 1956 in Early S p rin g (S o sh u n J O z u ?s y o u n g office w orker w as n e ith e r co u rageous n o r o b se q u io u s, b u t sim p ly re sig n e d to th e fact th at h e w as d e p e n d e n t on h is reg u lar in co m e. O z u Js sala ry m en w ere d o cile ra th e r th a n loyal, a n d n o t p a rtic u la rly in d u strio u s. T hey o n ly w orked h a rd w h e n th e ir s u p e rv is o r w as lo o k in g . O th erw ise th ey y aw n ed at th e ir desks a n d le th a rg ic a lly p e rfo rm e d th e ir tasks. O z u s view w as sh ared by his co n tem p o rary , M ikio N aru se, w h o also p o rtrayed lazy, sp in e le ss sala ry m en in Repast (M eshi, 1951) a n d Husband and Wife (Fufu, 1953). O zu a n d N aru se h a d b o th liv ed th ro u g h th e G reat D ep ression in th e 1930s, a n d p e rh a p s th is e x p e rie n c e co lo red th e ir p o stw ar p re se n ta tio n of serv ile sa la ry m e n d u rin g h a rd tim es. H ow ever, th e view of th e younger K on Ichikaw a is h a rd ly d ifferen t. In Mr. Pu (P uu-san, 1953) Ichikaw a sa tiric a lly p re se n te d a te a c h e r w h o loses h is p o sitio n after p a rtic ip a tin g in a p o litic a l d e m o n stra tio n . A s h e becom es m ore a n d m ore d e stitu te h e begs to be h ire d as an office clerk an y w h ere, an d finally, d e sp ite his p acifistic v iew s, c o n se n ts to w o rk for a c o m p a n y w h ic h c la n d e s tin e ly m a n u fa c tu re s a m m u n itio n to be u s e d in th e K orean War (1950—53〕. Ich ik aw a’s p o rtray al of th e sa la ry m a n is even m ore dism al th a n th at of O zu a n d N aru se, a n d d o u b tle ss w as c o n d itio n e d by th e acute u n e m p lo y m e n t in Japan from 1945 to 1950. O u t of d e sp e ra tio n m an y Japanese m ales w ere re a d y to a c c e p t a n y th in g , even a n o th e r war, as long as th ey c o u ld get a job a n d reg ain th e ir self-esteem — a n d th e y w o u ld be loyal to an y c o m p a n y th a t s u p p o rte d th em .

Ichikawa’s glum view was only acceptable as satire. In contrast， a cheer­

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ful im age of Jap an ese sa la ry m e n , w h ic h reflected p o stw a r d em o cratic refo rm s, ca n be fo u n d in T h ird -C lass E xecu tiv e (S an to Juyaku, 1952). T h ird -c la ss e x ecu tiv e refers to m in o r a d m in istra to rs w h o to o k over th e p o s itio n s of p re s id e n ts w h o h a d b e e n fo rced to vacate th e m by th e O c‫־‬ c u p a tio n a u th o ritie s . A s a ru le , th e y w ere m ore d em o cratic th a n th e ir form er, so m e tim e s ty ra n n ic a l s u p e rio rs, a n d th u s m ore a ccep tab le objects of loyalty. T he c o m ic a l b oss in th is film is like a k in d -h e a rte d father w h o a rra n g e s m arriag es for em p lo y ees, w h o feel th ey are m em b ers of o n e big h a p p y fam ily. T h e ir loyalty is no t u n c o n d itio n a l, like th a t of O ish i in C h u s h in g u ra , in th a t it is p re d ic a te d on th e p ro p o sitio n th a t th e ir boss w ill ta k e good care of th em . S e q u e ls to T h ird -C lass Executive led to th e p ro d u c tio n of th e ex trem ely p o p u la r T he Boss a n d th e S lu sh F u n d (H esokuri S h ach o , 1956), w h ic h in tu rn la u n c h e d th e fam o u s C o m p a n y P re sid e n t series fS h ach o sh irizu j, w h o s e p o p u la rity th ro u g h th e 1960s re su lte d in som e th irty film s. T he in c o m p e te n t boss in th is series, p lay ed b y th e e x cellen t com ic acto r H isaya M o rish ig e, w as m ore like a big b ab y th a n a b en e v o le n t father. S till, b y lo y ally ta k in g care of h im th ro u g h p ru d e n t d e c isio n -m a k in g from th e b o tto m up , sa la ry m e n w ere given in itia tiv e a n d th e h a p p y fam ily re m a in e d in ta c t. A ctually, fig u reh ead ex ecu tiv es a n d m id d le -m a n a g e m e n t d ecisio n m a k in g is c h a ra c te ris tic of m a n y Japanese c o m p a n ie s even today.5 W h e th e r filled w ith affectio n for a lovable boss or serv ile o n a c c o u n t of e c o n o m ic c o n d itio n s, p o stw a r film sa la ry m e n w ere u ltim a te ly loyal to th e ir com pany. T hey sacrificed p rivate tim e for it, d ated o n ly fello w em p lo y e e s, a n d felt a sen se of re sp o n s ib ility to w ard th e ir allo tted p o s itio n no m a tte r h o w low it w as. T h e n alo n g cam e The Age of Irresponsibility in Japan in 1962 w ith its sta r H ito sh i U eki sin g in g th e title song m ak in g fu n of o b s e q u io u s sa la ry m e n , a n d its h ero w h o felt no re sp o n sib ility to w ard h is p o s itio n w hatsoever. U n lik e o b se q u io u s sa la ry m e n w h o sim p ly m ain ta in e d th e ir p o sitio n , h e clev erly p lay ed u p to su p e rio rs after b u sin e ss h o u rs to get o n e p ro m o tio n after another. T he c re a tio n of th is n e w sa la ry m a n hero m ay have b e e n in flu e n c e d by th e B roadw ay m u sic a l H ow to S u cceed in B u sin ess without Really Trying. H ow ever, u n lik e th e y o u n g A m e ric a n b u s in e s s m a n w h o sim p ly u se d flattery to get a h e a d , th e Japanese h ero also h a d c la n d e s tin e m eetin g s w ith th e h e a d s of rival c o m p a n ie s. W h en th is is rev ealed h e is su sp e c te d of b e in g a tra ito r by h is fello w w o rk ers a n d fo rm er se c tio n chief. H e tak es th e ir ill feelin g s in strid e , how ever, for h e v alu es in d iv id u a l su ccess over loyalty. W h en h e q u its to get a b e tte r p o sitio n w ith an o th e r com pany, h e b e c o m e s a n object of th e ir envy, sin c e h e d e m o n stra te s a se n se of freed o m th e y h a d lo n g ago ex ch a n g e d for job security. W hile th e ir sen se of com p a n y loyalty m ay sim p ly be a form of d e p en d en cy , h is d islo y alty m ay a c tu a lly be a n in d e p e n d e n c y rare in Japan. The A ge of Irresponsibility in J a p a n e n d s w ith th e h ero co m in g b ack to h is fo rm er c o m p a n y as a re su lt of

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a merger a n d g ettin g h is old fellow w o rk ers a n d se c tio n c h ie f b e tte r p o sitio n s, a n d th e n q u ittin g again. W hile h e h a d felt no p a rtic u la r lo y alty to a n y su p erio r, he h a d still k ep t a n affectio n for h is p eers a n d o ld b o ss, w h o h a d not b e e n h ig h u p th e h ie ra rc h ia l order. H en ce h e d e m o n stra te d a loyalty-am ong-equals id e a l th a t is m ore a p p e a lin g in p o stw a r Jap an th a n th e o ld feu d al sen se of loyalty (chugi or ch u se ish in ). He c e rta in ly d iffers from O ishi in C h u sh in g u ra in th is resp ect; how ever, th ey are s im ila r in th a t th ey both su c c e e d e d over all o b stac le s in a c h ie v in g th e ir o b jectiv e, a n d as a co n se q u e n c e th e Irre sp o n sib le S a la ry m a n w as n ot yet c o m p le te ly a n tith e tic a l to th e Loyal R etainer. A m ore a n tith e tic a l e x am p le can be fo u n d in a seq u el, D rop D ead / Long Live Irresponsibility— C razy M an eu v ers (K utabaref M u se k in in — K u reijii S ak u sen , 1963), w h ere th e h ero a n d h is office gang ad v o cate a rev o lt ag ain st th e ir su p e rio rs a n d th e Japanese b u s in e s s w o rld . T he Irre sp o n sib le S alary m an a n d h is c o h o rts are se tu p in a s u b sid ia ry c o m p a n y to d is trib u te a n ew soft d rin k th a t is n o t d o in g w ell on th e m ark et. By fo rcin g th e ir b a n k ru p tc y th ro u g h in su ffic ie n t fu n d in g , th e ir p a re n t c o m p a n y p la n s to w rite off a b ad p ro d u c t as a tax loss a n d to get rid of som e in e ffic ie n t w orkers. T his se tu p reflects a c tu a l c o n d itio n s in c o n te m p o ra ry Jap an ’s e c o n o m ic system , w h ic h is sa id to be d o u b le -stru c tu re d .6 W hereas re g u la r em ployees in large e n te rp rise s are w ell ta k e n care of, th e ir c o u n te rp a rts in sm all a n d m e d iu m e n te rp rise s, often su b sid ia rie s , receiv e no frin g e b e n e fits a n d lead a p e rilo u s ex isten ce b ecau se th e ir c o m p a n ie s m ig h t go b a n k ru p t to protect th e p a re n t com pany. In sh o rt, em p lo y ees in th e lo w er h a lf of th e d o u b le stru c tu re are e x p lo ite d a n d ex p e n d a b le . T he Irresp o n sib le S a la ry m a n ’s s u b sid ia ry u n e x p e c te d ly su c c e e d s, how • ever, by m ak in g th e rig h t c o n n e c tio n s. H e a n d h is co h o rts are given rew ard certificates at a cerem o n y c o n d u c te d at th e p a re n t com pany. A w are th a t th e y h a d been betrayed, how ever, th e y tear u p th e certificates a n d q u it in a d ec la ra tio n of in d e p e n d e n c e . T he film e n d s w ith th e m m a rc h in g d o w n th e streets of th e M a ru n o u c h i b u sin e ss d istric t, Tokyo’s e q u iv a le n t of N ew York’s Wall Street. T hey are sin g in g a m a rtia l a ir u rg in g th e ir fello w sala ry m en not to be d u p e d b y a p p e a ls for loyalty, sin c e th e big c o m p a n ie s are o n ly u sin g th e m a n d w o u ld sacrifice th e m if it w as to th e ir a d v an tag e. The Age Of Irresponsibility series w as la u n c h e d by Toho s tu d io s to c a p ita liz e on th e p o p u la rity of H ito sh i U eki. th e lead vocal in th e C razy Cats jazz b an d , w h ic h s p e c ia liz e d in co m ic ro u tin e s. B ut n o w th e jokes w ere getting out of h a n d , for Toho itself w as a large e n te rp ris e a n d d id n o t re lish hav in g its in te re sts rid ic u le d , let alo n e th re a te n e d . T he se rie s contin u e d , b u t th e p ro d u c e r m ad e su re d ire cto rs K engo F u ru saw a a n d T akashi T su b o sh in ia carefu lly d e le te d th e re v o lu tio n a ry a sp e c ts of th e ir h e ro 7 a n d sim p ly p re se n te d h im as a h u m o ro u s figure w h o c o u ld p o k e fu n at th e sy stem w h ile still co n fo rm in g to it. H en ce h e b ecam e lik e a c tu a l sal•

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a ry m e n w h o c a n c o m p la in a b o u t th e ir c o m p a n ie s w h e n th e y are o u t d rin k in g , b u t w h o s till fa ith fu lly go b ack to w o rk th e n ex t day. T he n ew m essag e of th e series becam e: w h ile o u r e co n o m ic sy stem is not p erfect, s till it is s u c c e ssfu l sin c e a lm o st everyone is w o rk in g a n d w e are g ettin g an in c re a sin g sh are of th e w o rld m a rk e t.8 A s if to e m p h a s iz e th e th e m e of su c c e ss above all else, U eki th e Irres p o n s ib le S a la ry m a n w as cast as H id ey o sh i Toyotom i (1536-98), Japan^ N a p o le o n , in T o h o ^ m u s ic a l- c o m e d y e x tra v a g a n z a , T h e C h ro n ic le of Taiko the B raggart (H ora F uki T aikoki, 1964). Taiko is o n e of th e n am es H id e y o sh i a s su m e d w h e n he rose to pow er, a n d h is career is Japan*s g reatest su c c e ss story. B orn a n d ra ise d as a p o o r farm er, h e jo in e d w a rlo rd N o b u n a g a O d a ’s arm y as a foot s o ld ie r a n d w o rk ed h is w ay u p in th e ran k s to b e c o m e O d a ’s m o st fa ith fu l re ta in e r a n d h is b e st general. A fter O d a ’s d e a th H id e y o sh i c o m p le te d th e u n ific a tio n of Japan a n d becam e th e natio n Js real ru le r in c o n tra st to th e em pero r, w h o w as a s p iritu a l figurehead. U eki p lay ed H id ey o sh i w ith all th e p lu c k h e c o u ld m u ste r a n d p o in te d o u t th e tru e sig n ifican ce of H id e y o sh i,s career: it tak es m o re th a n loyalty to b e c o m e a su ccess; a m b itio n a n d driv e are n e c e ssa ry too. As su ch , U ek i’s H id e y o sh i p ro v id e s a co m ic key to Jap an ’s re so u n d in g eco n o m ic su ccess from th e 1960s on. O z u ^ serv ile sy c o p h a n ts a n d th e loyal, c o n te n te d e m p lo y e e s in The C o m p a n y P re sid e n t series p ro v id e d m o d e ls for statu sq u o sa la ry m e n , b u t c o u ld no t a c c o u n t for th e aggressive d e te rm in a tio n n e c e s sa ry to c a p tu re a large sh are of th e w o rld m arket. Young ex ecu tiv es w h o p o s se s se d th a t w ere c a lle d m o re tsu sa la ry m e n in th e 1960s. M oretsu m e a n s “a r d e n t” or “ in te n s e ” a n d is a p p lie d to sa la ry m e n like H id ey o sh i w h o are n o t o n ly loyal, b u t w h o se a m b itio n w ill re su lt in a cco m p lish m e n ts th a t in c re a se profits for th e ir com pany. In c o m p e n sa tio n th e y w ill b e p ro m o te d over m e d io c re em p lo y ees w h o sim p ly have job security. T h e savage d esire for su ccess at all co sts w as n o t p e c u lia r to th e m o re tsu s a la ry m e n of th e 1960s. M u sa sh i h a d it a n d so d id th o u s a n d s of o th ers in th e m o d e rn era. A fter th e M eiji R esto ratio n in 1868 c h an g ed a feu d al, stra tifie d so c ie ty — w h ic h h a d p rev en ted fu rth e r H id ey o sh i-lik e su ccess s to rie s — in to a m o d e rn m o b ile one, a m b itio u s m e n w ere n e e d e d for Japan to c a tc h u p w ith th e a d v a n c e d W estern n atio n s. H ow ever, too m u c h am bitio n b ro u g h t a b o u t th e e x p a n s io n is t p o lic y in C h in a in th e 1930s, w h ic h le d to Ja p a n ’s first defeat as a n atio n . C o n seq u en tly , Jap an ese b u sin e ss h e a d s te m p e r e d d riv e a n d d e te r m in a tio n w ith p r u d e n t p la n n in g , esp e c ia lly from th e 1970s on, as Jap an ’s su ccess got in creasin g ly ad v erse re a c tio n s from W estern E u ro p e a n d A m erica. C o n te m p o ra ry Jap an ese sa la ry m e n also b ecam e p r u d e n t， a n d U eki th e Irre sp o n s ib le S a la ry m a n on ce ag ain p ro v id e d a g u id e for p ro p e r c o n d u c t. In T he Greatest Flatterer in Ja p a n (N ih o n Ichi n o G o m a-su ri Otoko, 1965), U eki p lay s a y o u n g m a n w h o gets h is first job. W hen h e re tu rn s h o m e to tell th e good n ew s, h is fath er ad v ise s h im th a t p lay in g u p to su p e rio rs is

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The Greatest Flatterer in Japan (1965), directed by Kengo Furusawa. After buttering up the company president (Eijiro Tono), the Irresponsible Salarym an (Hitoshi Ueki) makes a point, m uch to the consternation of his supervisor (Eitaro Shindo). Hence, he adroitly uses flattery to get a prom otion and is not merely obsequious like past salarym en in films. th e road to success. T he id e a listic young m an d isag rees, an d c o u n te rs th at, in th is age of th e m o re tsu sala ry m an , ab ility is w h a t co u n ts. O n h is first d ay of w ork, how ever, he finds o u t th a t h e h a d failed th e c o m p a n y entra n ce ex am in atio n a n d th a t he h a d o n ly got th e job b ecau se h is fath er w as a classm ate of th e v ic e -p re sid e n t. T hereafter, he so o n learn s th a t p e rso n a l c o n n e c tio n s th ro u g h flattery lead to p ro m o tio n s, a n d h e d e c id e s to o u td o all h is fellow w orkers in th a t resp ect. R ath er th a n clin g to im p ra c tic a l id eals, he is p ru d e n t en o u g h to u se th e m e th o d th a t w ill w o rk in a g iven situ atio n . P erh ap s in a n o th e r c o m p a n y a b ility re a lly is w h a t c o u n ts. T he above can also be sa id for th e sa la ry m e n in th e C o m p a n y P re sid e n t series of th e 1960s, w h e n m a n e u v e rin g for p ro m o tio n s ru ffled th e h ap p y fam ily im age som ew hat. T hey w ere m otiv ated n e ith e r by b elief in m e rit based on ab ility n o r by loyalty ex p ressed by p la y in g u p to su p e rio rs. R ather, th ey w ere sh re w d e n o u g h to k n o w w h a t th e s itu a tio n c a lle d for a n d th e n u se e ith e r m e th o d accordingly. As su c h , th e y also e x e m p lifie d th e a d a p ta b ility of th e p assiv e m o d e of b e h a v io r p re v io u sly e x p la in e d .

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While the Irresponsible Salaryman expressed rebellious sentiments, eventually they were contained and prevented from disrupting the social order. Still, the oppositional nature of this modern archetype, created under the influence of antithetical Western ideas, definitely presented a challenge to traditional values resulting in a compromise that was certainly not wholly conservative, particularly in its cynical attitude toward feudalistic loyalty. The Angry Young Man A n g ry y o u n g m e n w ere p o p u la r hero es in B ritish a n d A m erican film s in th e 1950s, a n d w h e n y o u n g Japanese film m akers sta rte d creatin g th e ir ow n v e rsio n th e y refu ted th e tra d itio n a l a rc h e ty p e s of y o u th s m a in ta in e d by o ld e r g e n e ra tio n s. T h e ir y o u n g h ero es activ ely p u rs u e d girls ra th e r th a n p la y in g a w a itin g gam e like th e W eak Passive M ale, an d , u n lik e th e C haste W arrior, th e y d id no t th in k th a t sex a n d ro m a n ce w o u ld w eak en th em in a fight. N o v elist S h in ta ro Ish ih a ra sta rte d th e fad for an g ry y o u th s w ith h is early w o rk s a b o u t “th e su n trib e ” （taiyozoku), ric h teen ag ers w h o ram p ag ed on th e b e a c h e s on th e o u tsk irts of Tokyo d u rin g th e ir su m m e r vacation. The first film v e rsio n of th e “s u n trib e ” w as S easo n of th e Sim (Taiyo n o K isetsu, 1956), b a se d o n Ish ih ara's A k u tag aw a-P rize-w in n in g novel of th e sam e n am e. A lth o u g h d ire c to r T akum i F urukaw a failed to c a p tu re th e flair of th e o rig in a l, h e still s u c c e e d e d in ch an g in g th e o ld love m e lo d ra m a fo rm u la . A fter th e u n w e d h e ro in e b eco m es p reg n an t, sh e is d isa p p o in te d in h e r lover's n o n c h a la n t a ttitu d e a n d d e c id e s to have an a b o rtio n perfo rm ed . S he th e n d ies on th e o p e ra tin g tab le in a g u ilt-in d u c in g d en o u em e n t m e a n t for th e W eak Passive M ale. H er lover, how ever, feels anger in ste a d of g u ilt, a n d at h e r fu n e ra l h e th ro w s a glassed c a n d le at h e r m e m o ria l p h o to g ra p h , calls h e r a fool, tells th e a d u lts th e re th a t th e y do n o t u n d e r s ta n d a n y th in g , a n d w alks aw ay in a huff. T he b e st film re n d itio n of th e “s u n trib e ” w as C razed F ru it (ICurutta Kajitsu, 1956), for d ire c to r Ko N a k a h ira ,s to n g u e -in -c h e e k tre atm e n t set th e v ie w e r u p for a d ev astatin g clim ax. T he o ld e r b ro th e r steals aw ay h is y o u n g e r b r o th e r ’s sex y g irlfrie n d a n d ra tio n a liz e s th a t it is fo r th e y o u n g er's o w n good. H ow ever, h is irrita tio n at th e y o u n g e r^ naiv eté in d icates g u ilty feelings, w h ic h are overcom e b ecau se of h is p a ssio n for her. C lim b in g u p to h e r s e c o n d -sto ry b ed ro o m , h e takes ra th e r th a n w aits. Later w h e n th e y o u n g e r b ro th e r fin d s out, he d riv es h is m o to rb o at in to th e ir s m a ll la u n c h k illin g b o th of th em . In C razed F ru it g uilt c o u ld n o t in h ib it d e sire a n d a n g er w as th e stro n g est em o tio n . T h e b est a n tith e s is of th e W eak Passive M ale can be fo u n d in K on Ich ik aw a's P u n is h m e n t R oom (S hokei no H eya, 1956), w h ic h is also b ased o n a S h in ta ro Ish ih a ra novel. For th e college s tu d e n t hero of th is film ,

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d esires are th e m o st im p o rta n t th in g in life. N e ith e r vague a b o u t th e m n o r w a itin g for th e m to b e satisfied, h e p u rsu e s th e ir m a in object, th e o p p o s ite sex, a n d lets n o th in g s ta n d in h is way. For ex am p le, ev en th o u g h h e k n o w s a u n iv e rsity clu b b ro th e r likes a c e rta in co ed , he tak es h e r for h im se lf by p u ttin g sle e p in g tab lets in h e r d rin k . T h e hero in P u n ish m e n t Room also d e b u n k s th e C haste W arrior a rch etype. W hile he is p ra c tic in g rugby, he n o tices h is girl sta n d in g o n a s lo p e w a tc h in g him . A b ru p tly a b a n d o n in g h is team m ates, h e w alks u p to her; sh e sm iles a n d th e y go off together. A lth o u g h s u c h a scen e w o u ld no t be u n u s u a l in an A m e ric a n or Europ e a n film , in a Japanese film w ith sp o rts it is ic o n o c la stic . T h e C h aste W arrior often to o k th e form of a c o n te m p o ra ry a th le te w h o se ro m a n tic y earn in g s w ere a d v e rse ly affecting his p e rfo rm a n c e on th e field. Ever sin c e Japanese film s of th e late 1920s, h e w o u ld be p re ssu re d b y th e team to give th e girl u p a n d in th e e n d th e y w o u ld w in w h atev er gam e th e y w ere p la y in g .9 For th e hero in P u n is h m e n t Room , how ever, sp o rts a n d ro m a n c e are n o t at all in c o m p a tib le . W hile s u c h a hero is a n o b v io u s w ish -fu lfillm e n t im age, h e is also a n object of envy, so m u c h so th a t h e is b o u n d to in c u r re se n tm e n t from th e u n satisfied , w h o m ake u p th e m ajo rity of an y film v iew in g a u d ie n c e . H en ce th e title, P u n ish m e n t R oom , a n d th e final scen e, w h e re h e is b ru ta lly b eaten b y a rival gang. He e n d u re s th e p a in sto ic a lly lik e th e C haste W arrior in m o d e rn yakuza film s, b u t for d ifferen t reaso n s. T h e yakuza hero b eco m es a m a so c h ist for th e sak e of a co h o rt or to p re v e n t an altercatio n th a t w o u ld be d isa stro u s for th e gang. T h is angry y o u n g m a n tak es a beating o u t of self-esteem b ec a u se h e refu ses to a p o lo g iz e for satisfying h is desires. N ovelist Ish ih a ra a n d th e d ire cto rs of h is “s u n trib e ”-b ased film s w ere n ot th e o n ly Japanese in th e late 1950s w h o ad v o cated h ero es w ith stro n g d esires as o p p o se d to th e tra d itio n a l id eal of a n a lm o st d e sire le ss y o u th . Yasuzo M asu m u ra also p re se n te d a n an g ry y o u n g h ero in h is d e b u t film , K isses (K uchizuke, 1957), a n d c la im e d to hav e le a rn e d to a p p re c ia te a stro n g ego w h ile liv in g in R om e w h e re h e s tu d ie d c in e m a at th e C entro S p e rim e n ta le .10 T he y o u th in K isses d id in d e e d act lik e a W estern h ero a n d fu rth e r broke w ith tra d itio n by v a lu in g th e o bject of h is d e sire s, h is girl frien d , m ore th a n h e d id h is o w n p a re n ts. A lth o u g h h e d id n o t c ritic iz e his p a re n ts like Jam es D ean in Rebel W ith o u t a C ause, h e gave h is girl th e m o n ey h e h a d saved to b ail h is fath er o u t of jail, a n d d id n o t co n form to th e P rodigal S o n a rc h e ty p e sin c e h e felt n o g u ilt for h a v in g d o n e so. N agisa O shim a, th e le a d e r ◦ f Jap an ’s N ew Wave d ire c to rs in th e 1960s, h a d b e e n in flu e n c e d by M a su m u ra a n d th e “s u n trib e ” film s.11 H ow ever, h e d ev elo p ed th e ir th e m e s m u c h fu rth e r in C ruel S to ry of Youth (S e ish u n Z a n k o k u M onogatari, 1960) by tu rn in g th e o bject of d esire in to a love

Punishment Room (1956), directed by Kon Ichikawa. Here fapan9s Angry Young M an (Hiroshi Kawaguchi) takes time out from rugby practice to confront an attractive coed (Ayako Wakao). He thus refutes the traditional view that romance would interfere w ith athletic perform ance.

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object an d by giving an g er greater so cia l sig n ifican ce. A y o u n g co llege student rescues a coed from the unwanted attentions of a middle-aged m an , b u t later forcib ly takes h e r h im se lf a n d th e re a fte r u ses h e r as sex b a it to extort money from older men. When she becomes pregnant, he intimidates h e r into h av in g an ab o rtio n . H is c ru e lty to w ard h e r seem s to have no b o u n d s, u n til he begins to feel so m e sy m p a th y for h e r w h ile sh e is recuperating on the operating table. This sympathy goes beyond the affectio n th e hero in K isses felt for h is girl an d g ra d u a lly d e e p e n s in to love. H e d ec id e s not to use h e r to sh ak e d o w n m id d le -a g e d m e n again, n o t b e c a u se it is im m o ral b u t b ecau se sh e hates d o in g it an d h e h as b eg u n to reco g n ize h e r feelings. . A s th e p lo t dev elops, th o u g h , th e y o u th realizes th at, in o rd e r to su rv iv e in a p ro fit-oriented society, you have to p ro stitu te y o u rself in o n e w ay o r another. A lth o u g h h is anger has n o w fo u n d an a p p ro p ria te target, h e is still not strong en o u g h to s u p p o rt h e r w ith o u t sacrificin g th e ir self-esteem . T h e ir trag ed y is inev itab le. A fter he refu ses to tu rn h e r over to a gang of h o o d lu m s, sho ts of th e m beatin g h im to d e a th are in te rc u t w ith th o se of h e r in th e sp e e d in g car of a n o ld e r m an , from w h ic h sh e ju m p s. S h e is sh o w n craw lin g o n th e p av em en t a n d after d y in g , stre tc h e d fu ll-le n g th in th e b lack fram e w ith a n o p e n sp ace to h e r right. S u d d e n ly h e r lo v e r’s b lo o d y face a p p e a rs th e re in a d o u b le ex p o su re an d th e y are ju x ta p o se d in one last close-up. D irector O sh im a ’s tre a tm e n t recalls C h ik a m a ts u ’s love su icid es; how ever, h is y o u th s d ie d m ore for th e ir self-esteem th a n for love. In term s of Japanese iconography, O sh im a ^ an g ry y o u n g h ero is certa in ly revolutionary. N e ith e r th e W eak Passive M ale n o r th e P ro d ig al S on h a d m u ch self-esteem . To be sure, th e T o rm en ted Lord a n d th e Loyal R etain er h a d fierce p rid e , b u t it w as b a se d on m e m b e rsh ip in th e aristo cratic sam u rai class. Y akuza hero es m o d e le d o n th e m w ere o ften self• d ep recating, sin ce as o u tlaw s th e y y earn ed for resp ectab ility . P rid e am o n g th e com m o n p e o p le w as in v ested in th e ir fam ily h o n o r or th e ir affiliatio n w ith som e group or area. O sh im a ’s ow n sen se of self-esteem m ay w e ll h av e b een b ased o n th e fact th a t in th e 1950s he h a d b e e n a s tu d e n t a c tiv ist w h o led p o litic a l d e m o n stra tio n s o n h is c a m p u s•12 As su c h , O s h im a ’s p rid e m ay be e litist in n atu re. H ow ever, by in s tillin g it in ch a ra c te rs w h o w ere p o o r an d /o r d e lin q u e n t, su c h as th e hero in C ruel S to ry of Y outh, O sh im a raised self-esteem to th e level of p rid e as a n in d iv id u a l h u m a n bein g . W hile not u n u s u a l in th e W est, th is k in d of h u m a n is m h a d b e e n a lm o st n o n ex isten t in tra d itio n a l Japan.

After Cruei Story of Ybuth Oshima did not create such forceful young heroes. Rather, while continuing to praise those who maintained their self-esteem, he went on to angrily impeach those who had sold out to the powerful establishment. Consequently, Oshima— along with Shohei Imamura, who developed the theme of strong desires proposed by Ishihara, and Masumura— created the most significant Japanese films in the 1960s.

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A n gry y o u n g h ero es c o n tin u e d to a p p e a r th ro u g h th e 1960s in th e m o d e rn a c tio n d ra m a s th a t w ere th e s p e c ia lity of N ik k atsu stu d io s, w h ic h h a d s ta rte d th e fad w ith th e ir p ro d u c tio n of S easo n of the S un. T hese N ik k a tsu h e ro e s often trie d to d ev elo p a stro n g ego à la O sh im a, b u t in th e co n te x t of th e ir a sse m b ly lin e , co m m e rc ia l film s, th e e sse n tia l e le m e n t in th e p ro c e ss— c h a ra c te riz a tio n — w as all b u t im p o ssib le. F u rth erm o re, th e ir d ire c to rs u s u a lly eq u a te d autonom y, w h ic h is alm o st sy n o n y m o u s w ith ego d e v e lo p m e n t, w ith s o litu d e a n d lo n e lin e ss. S till, th e N ik k atsu h eroes so m e tim e s m a d e u p for th e ir defects w ith a d isp la y of activ ity th a t p u t th e o ld p assiv e m a le to sh am e , a n d by c u ttin g a d a sh in g figure ag ain st th e ir e n v iro n m e n t, th e y p ro v id e d an im age of au tonom y, if n o t a realizatio n of it th ro u g h c h a ra c te riz a tio n . N ik k atsu 's first hero w as Y ujiro Ish ih ara. D u rin g h is y o u th h is best* film , after C razed F ru it, w h e re he p lay ed th e o ld e r brother, w as I A m W aiting (O re wa M atteru z e , 1957). Its d irector, K oreyoshi K u rah ara, m an ag ed to tra n s p la n t a n A m e ric a n -sty le hero a n d love story, w ith o u t a p p e a rin g inc o n g ru o u s, by h a v in g Y ujiro r u n a W estern-style re sta u ra n t in th e cosm o p o lita n p o rt city of Y okoham a. T he p lo t is sim p le a n d co n sists of boy m eets girl a n d boy avenging th e d e a th of h is brother, w h ic h h a d ru in e d h is d re a m of e m ig ra tin g to B razil. T he tre a tm e n t is in tere stin g , how ever, for, w h e n th e h ero sto p s w a itin g for a letter from h is b ro th e r a n d is set in m o tio n , it a p p e a rs th a t d ire c to r K u rah ara is p u rp o se ly d ism a n tlin g th e a rc h e ty p e of th e W eak P assive M ale, w h o w as, of co u rse, im m o b ile. D o n a ld R ich ie has n o te d th a t p a rt of Y u jiro ,s a p p e a l rests in th e fact th a t h e h as u n u s u a lly long legs for a Ja p a n e se ,13 a n d even in p resen t-d ay TV d ra m a s h is w a lk is h is tra d e m a rk . In I A m W aiting d ire cto r K u rah ara to o k a d v a n ta g e of Y ujiro,s d istin g u is h in g featu re by b e g in n in g seq u en ces w ith a sh o t of h im from th e w a ist d o w n a n d w alk in g at a b risk pace. Y ujiro alw ays w alks stra ig h t a h e a d to sh o w h is d e te rm in a tio n , an d , th ro u g h fast c u ttin g a n d w ip e s , K u ra h a ra e m p h a s iz e d th is a n d h e ig h te n e d su sp e n se in th e se q u e n c e w h e re h e is tra c k in g d o w n h is b ro th e rJs m u rd erer. T h e p h y s iq u e of a sw im m e r a n d a b o y ish g rin w ere also am ong th e y o u n g Y u jiro ’s assets• He often d isp la y e d h is lith e n e ss by le a p in g over fen ces a n d ju m p in g over s ta ir b a n n iste rs. In I A m W aiting h is agility as an ex -b o x er is e x h ib ite d in th e final slugfest w h e re h e d isp a tc h e s a gang of h o o d lu m s w ith ease. In sh o rt, Y ujiro p ro v id e s a sta rtlin g c o n tra st to th e m elan ch o ly , im m ob ile K eiji S ad a of W hat Is Your N am e? fam e, a n d it is h a rd to believe th a t th e y w ere th e to p m ale stars in 1958 a n d 1954 resp ectiv ely .14 W hat Is Your N am e? a n d I A m W aiting also m ake a n in te re stin g c o m p a riso n as love sto rie s. B oth film s b eg in w ith c h a n c e m eetin g s n e a r b ridges a n d cin em a tic a lly th e re are a lte rn a tin g c lo se -u p s a n d b u st sh o ts to sh o w th at th e boy and girl were meant for each other. However, while What Is Ybur N a m e ? is a b o u t lovers th w a rte d by c irc u m sta n c e s a n d o b stru c tin g th ird

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p artie s, I A m W aiting is a sto ry of tw o lo n e ly p e o p le w h o fall in love a n d later v o lu n ta rily sep arate b ecau se of p e rso n a l p ro b le m s. T h e la tte r is clearly an A m erican -sty le love sto ry w h e re th e hero is n o t g iven th e h e ro in e b u t w in s h e r back after d efeatin g th e b a d d ie s. S in ce actio n d id n o t ex ist in tra d itio n a l Jap an ese love sto ries lik e What Is Ybur N am e?, a c o m p a riso n b etw een Keiji S ad a a n d Y ujiro falls sh o rt a n d sh o u ld be su p p le m e n te d w ith Y ujiro verses th e sw o rd iig h tin g h e ro e s of th e actio n -p a c k e d p e rio d film. T he stars of th is genre, s u c h as C h iezo K ataoka an d U taem o n Ichikaw a, h ad b een lith e a n d fast on th e ir feet in th e ir y o u th d u rin g th e 1920s; how ever, even w h e n th e y b e c a m e o ld er, m id d le-ag e d m en in th e 1950s, th ey c o n tin u e d to d o m in a te th e co m m ercial film s in the genre, in sp ite of th e a p p e a ra n c e of n ew stars like T oshiro M ifu ne an d K in n o su k e N akam ura. W ith age, th e y b ecam e bow -legged a n d b arrel-ch ested . In c o n tra st to th e long-legged \ u j 1ro, w h o w as often p h o to g ra p h ed from th e w aist d o w n , th e y w ere u s u a lly sh o t from th e w a ist u p , h o ld in g th e ir sw o rd in front of th e m a n d g larin g at th e ir foes, a n d th e ir m o v em ents w ere k ep t to a m in im u m . Even th e y o u n g Ken T akakura in th e y a k u z a film s of th e 1960s w as best d isp la y e d in a b u st sh o t of h is m u scular, tatto o ed chest. C onsequently, th e se sw o rd fig h tin g h ero es se e m e d like rocks of e n d u ra n c e w h o w ere not so active as Y ujiro, w h o m o v ed a ro u n d w ith th e ease of a fleet-footed boxer. T he young \ u ) 1ro in I A m W aiting w as an A m e ric a n -sty le h ero w h o d id n o t b e lo n g a n y w h e re in Ja p a n , e x c e p t fo r c o s m o p o lita n p la c e s lik e Yokoham a. A n d even Y okoham a, w ith its h isto ry of W estern in flu e n c e a n d th e h e ro ’s W estern-style re sta u ra n t w ith no c h o p stic k s, are o n ly stag in g areas for h is d e p a rtu re to h is tru e h o m e so m ew h ere in th e W est. W h en h is dream is destroyed, how ever, Y ujiro b eco m es a trag ic figure, a n d d ire c to r K u rahara suggests th a t freedom c a n n o t ex ist in so c ia lly re stric te d Japan a n d th a t a Japanese is n o t really able to esc a p e to th e lib era l W est. It w as difficult for Y ujiro to look sad, th o u g h , for h e h a d n o a c tin g tra in in g to sp eak of, h a d b een ra ise d in a w ell-to -d o fam ily, a n d w as alread y a su ccess at tw enty-tw o. C onseq u en tly , K u rah ara e x p re sse d Y ujiro ’s a lie n a tio n w ith a lo n g ，fu ll-le n g th sh o t ◦ f h im sittin g a lo n e ◦ n a p ie r w ith th e grey sea a n d h is e stran g ed girl frie n d in th e b a c k g ro u n d . T he search for a u to n o m y becam e lo st in lo n e lin e ss. T he w estern look of I A m W aiting w as c h a ra c te ristic of N ik k a ts u 5s m o d e rn actio n film , as w ell as of its c o u n te rp a rt at th e riv al Toho stu d io s . The heroes w ere alw ays d re sse d in th e latest A m e ric a n fa sh io n , g u z z le d

expensive Scotch, and preferred Japan’s version ◦f Western food to traditio n al rice d ish es; th e y cavorted in n ig h t clu b s a n d g am b lin g c a sin o s w h ere w ell-h eeled foreign re sid e n ts serv ed as p ro p s, a n d a sin g e r w ith a tu x e d o e d b a n d cran k ed o u t a stilte d re n d itio n of th e latest A m e ric a n p o p u la r m usic. T his A m e ric a -in ‫־‬Japan w o rld p e rh a p s h a d a c o n n o ta tio n of fre e d o m in

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I A m Waiting (1957), directed by Koreyoshi K urahara. This alienated young hero (Yujiro Ishihara) is estranged from his girlfriend (Mie Kitahara). Since he cannot escape across the sea to the liberal West, his search for autonomy becomes lost in loneliness. th e m in d s of m a n y Japanese. N ev erth eless, it w as still Japan, for su c h p la c e s a n d th in g s a c tu a lly do ex ist in Tokyo, w h ic h h as a m o re m o d e rn lo o k th a n P aris a n d h a s b e e n A m e ric a n iz e d to a large ex ten t d e sp ite c ro w d e d liv in g c o n d itio n s. T herefore, in se a rc h of ‫ ״‬real freed o m ‫ ״‬som e y o u n g N ik k a tsu film m ak ers created a p e c u lia r su b g en re called th e No N a tio n a lity film (M ukokuseki eiga). By settin g th e ir sto ry in a b arren , v o lc a n ic area, or th e n o rth e rn isla n d of H o k k aid o w ith its A m e ric a n ‫־‬sty le farm s, th e y evoked th e a tm o sp h e re of a p lace th a t w as n e ith e r q u ite A m e ric a n n o r Jap an ese a n d w as a c tu a lly no p a rtic u la r p lace at all. F urtherm o re, to go w ith th e ir N o N a tio n L an d th ey fab ricated an ab stract hero p la y e d b y A k ira K obayashi, N ik k a tsu ,s se c o n d big star. D ressed in b u c k s k in s w ith a g u ita r slu n g over th e sh o u ld e r, A kira c u t a strik in g figure ag ain st h is b a rre n s u rro u n d in g s w h e n e v e r h e w o u ld go rid in g d o w n a m o u n ta in s id e o n h is horse. H e re sc u e d d am se ls in d istress as w ell as h a ra sse d p io n e e rs, a n d sang a sad song w h en ev er he h a d a ch a n c e . H e w as n o t ex actly a Japanese Roy Rogers, for h e to ted a m o d e rn

Bird of Passage in the Red Sunset {Akai Yuhi no Wataridori, 1960), directed by Buichi Saito. This abstract hero (Akira Kobavashi) in the No N ationality film carried a revolver and a guitar and usually rescued this damsel in distress (Ruriko Asaoka). His formation was a naive attempt to free ]apanese heroes from their restrictive social environment.

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revolver and his archfoe in fast-draw contests was usually impeccably dressed in a black zoot suit. While the No Nationality film may seem preposterous, it was taken somewhat seriously by young filmmakers trying to create new heroes who stood out against their environment rather than blended in. Donald Richie has stated that in a good Japanese film the characters regard their environment as an extension of themselves and this creates its unique atmosphere.15 On the other hand, Yasuzo Masumura, who created his own version of Japan’s Angry Young Man, hated atmosphere and felt that a particular locale restricted the freedom or ego of film characters.16 In other words, they would merely become extensions of the environment. Although the idea of harmony with nature is appealing, it could have freedom-denying implications when the social order is viewed as inseparable from the natural order.17 By using Confucian ideology, the feudal powers had equated their own authoritarian rule with that of Heaven over earth, that is, the virtuous few on top should control everything.18 In feudal towns and villages the diet and clothing of each social class were strictly regulated by the government19 and, through group accountability, individuals were kept in line by neighbors who feared dire consequences. Accordingly, in each gestaltlike class everyone more or less dressed and thought alike, and blended in with their social as well as with their natural environment. The revolt against Confucian social harmony by a modern Japanese like Yasuzo Masumura was probably inevitable, and he freed his subjects from their environment by making films that consisted almost solely of big close-ups of them. The young Nikkatsu directors were not on Masumura,s intellectual level, but, by fabricating a No Nation Land, they could take a long shot of an abstract hero who clearly stood out in the midst of his barren environs. He became a rather naive image of autonomy. T h e m o st p o p u la r series in th e No N atio n a lity film w as th e B ird of P assag e (W ataridorij. A ll b u t th e last e n try of n in e from 1959 to 1962 w ere d ire c te d by B u ich i S a ito .20 In th e first one, L eaving th e S o u th e rn C o u n try of Tosa B e h in d ( N a n k o k u Tosa o A to n i Shite, 1959], A kira K obayashi p la y e d a y o u n g ex -co n v ict w h o re tu rn e d to h is h o m eto w n . He w as like o ne of S h in H aseg aw a’s exiles w h o is w e a k e n e d by h u m a n ties a n d becom es stro n g o u t of d e s p e ra tio n o n ly u p o n severing th em . From th e se co n d e n try o n, how ever, d ire c to r S aito tu rn e d his h ero in to a vagab o n d a n d freed h im fro m th e re stric tio n s of tim e a n d p a rtic u la r p laces like Tosa. E n terin g th e n e w N o N a tio n L an d like a p h a n to m from o u t of n o w h e re a n d in th e e n d v a n ish in g , h e b ecam e a n in v in c ib le , a b stract figure, sin ce h e h a d n e ith e r p a s t m e m o rie s to w eak en h im n o r fu tu re co n cern s to re stric t h is co n d u ct. H e w as n o w th e a n tith e sis of th e Exile, a n d th e B ird o f Passage series p ro v id e s a s ta r tlin g c o n tr a s t to th e p o s tw a r film re m a k e s of S h in

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Hasegawa’s dark, c ru e l w o rld of h ire d k illers, for th e slay in g s by A k ira are u n real an d even co m ical, a n d sim p ly allo w h im to lo o k cool. In th e last few e n trie s of Bird of Passage th e p ast sta rte d to cre e p b a c k in, a n d th e fo rm erly jo c u la r hero becam e sad a n d see m e d to be re p e a tin g H asegaw a，s JViuenbotoke m essage th a t th e re w as no h u m a n e x iste n c e o u tsid e of old p a rtic u la ris tic relatio n s. N ow as a p h o to g ra p h e d su b je c t lik e Y ujiro, A kira alo n e in his b arren e n v iro n m e n t su g g ested th a t a u to n o m y w as sim p ly so litu d e . Y ujiro Ish ih a ra a n d A kira K obayashi w ere th e o n ly sig n ifican t N ik k a tsu m o d ern actio n heroes. In th e ir w ake cam e a lo n e ly Jam es D ean ty p e , K eiichiro A kagi, w h o also d ie d yo u n g in a sp o rts c ar a c c id e n t, a n d h a rd b o iled typ es like )0 S h id o . A kagi w as s im p ly a re in c a rn a tio n of th e y o u n g n ih ilistic sw o rd sm a n in O ro c h i， p la y in g o n th e v ie w e r’s s y m p a th ie s w ith h is sad face. S h id o m erely re p e a te d th e h a rd -b o ile d m essage of b o th th e C haste W arrior a n d th e Exile th at, to w in in b attle or get a lic e n se to k ill, you m u st be c u t off from w eak e n in g h u m a n b o n d s. S ad n ess tin g ed th e early jo c u la rity of Y ujiro a n d A k ira a n d a d d e d th e am b ien ce of th e T orm ented Lord to th e ir im age. T h e ir y o u th fu l an g er w as overcom e by a lo n e lin e ss th a t eq u ated revolt w ith iso la tio n a n d d e n ie d th e p o ssib ility of freed o m b ased o n a u to n o m y ra th e r th a n n ih ilis m . A n g er ag ain st an o p p ressiv e so cie ty w as still ex p re sse d in th e a rtistic film s of th e 1960s. In th e 1970s a n d 1980s, how ever, th e th e m e of y o u th fu l an g er w eak en ed in th e face of a p ro sp e rin g society, w h ic h even se e m e d to allo w sexual freedom . C onsequently, th e vague fru stra tio n s of c o n te m p o ra ry y o u n g Japanese h eroes w ere often relie v ed if n o t d is p e lle d by w illin g , cu rv aceo u s g irlfrie n d s. In sp ite of th e d e c lin e of th e A ngry Y oung M an a rc h e ty p e , h is rise p re se n te d a n altern ate role m o d e l to th e W eak P assive M ale, th e C h aste W arrior, a n d th e Prodigal Son. A lth o u g h in c a p a b le of e x p re ssin g a u to n om y in a c u ltu re e m p h a siz in g d e p e n d e n c y a n d a so cie ty th a t still d o w n p lays in d iv id u a l rig h ts, by c u ttin g a c le a r figure ag ain st h is e n v iro n m e n t h e m ad e tra d itio n a l m ale v irtu e s like p assiv ity , re stra in t, a n d h u m ility m u c h less ap p ealin g .

The Girl Next Door The All-Suffering Female archetype and her miniature, the pathetic beauty, had been maintained since the beginning of Japanese film by older generations of directors who had either felt guilty about the sufferings of th e ir m o th ers a n d sisters or w h o d a y d re a m e d of re sc u in g a b e a u ty in d istress. T hese h e ro in e s, how ever, w ere n o t n e c e ssa rily a p p e a lin g to th e p o stw ar g en eratio n , a n d Yasuzo M a su m u ra is a case in p o in t. W ith K isses in 1957 M asu m u ra no t o n ly created a Japan ese v e rsio n of th e A n g ry Y oung

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M an b u t also p re se n te d a se e m in g ly n e w h e ro in e w h o d id n o t w an t p ity a n d w h o d id n o t w in th e boy th ro u g h suffering. In M a su m u ra ^ n ex t film , A C h ee rfu l G irl (A ozora M u su m e, 1957〕 ， to g e th e r w ith h is y o u n g s c rip t w rite r, Y oshio S h ira sa k a , h e c h a n g e d th e p ersev erin g h e ro in e in th e origin a l n o v el in to a n o u tsp o k e n , o p tim istic girl w h o re b u k e d ev ery th in g th e S elf-S acrificin g S ister a rc h e ty p e sto o d for. U n lik e th e A n g ry Young M an, M a s u m u ra ’s n e w h e ro in e s d id n o t seem like a foreign im p la n t at all. T hey w ere s im p ly th e G irl N ext Door. T he actress w h o b est e m b o d ie d th is im age w as S ay u ri Y oshinaga, th e m o st p o p u la r y o u n g fem ale star d u rin g th e 1960s. S a y u ri,s b e st film w as A Street of Cupolas (K yupora n o A ru Machiy 1962) in w h ic h sh e p lay s an in te llig e n t, co u rag eo u s teenager. The heroi n e ’s fa m ily is p la c e d in e c o n o m ic je o p a rd y after h e r h a rd -d rin k in g fath er is la id off, a n d sh e h a s to w o rk p a rt-tim e so as n o t to give u p h e r e d u c a tio n a n d a c h a n c e for a b e tte r life. S ay u ri n o t o n ly gave h e r b e st p erfo rm an ce, b u t d ire c to r K iriro U rayam a in th is h is first film p re se n te d a rare, realistic g lim p se of th e Jap an ese w o rk in g class w ith o u t M arx ist p o lem ics. A s if to refu te th e p a s siv ity of tra d itio n a l h e ro in e s, U rayam a c o n tin u a lly sh o w s S a y u ri as an active figure. E arly in th e film sh e is p la y in g baseb all, a n d after sh e gets a h it sh e ru n s a ro u n d th e bases, c h eered o n by h er k id b ro th e r a n d h is c h u m . T he film even e n d s w ith h e r giving h e r b ro th e r a race after th e y have seen th e ir frie n d off on h is tra in journey. T h e A ll-S u ffe rin g F em ale n ev er ra n an y w h e re , b u t sim p ly a p p e a re d o u t of th e fog w a lk in g slo w ly to w ard h e r p assiv e m ale in film s like W hat Is Y our N am e?. W h en th e p a th e tic b e a u ty ran , sh e a p p e a re d to be even m ore p a th e tic , a n d it w as b est for h e r to m eek ly fo llo w in th e track s of h er hero in film s a b o u t M u sa sh i a n d o th e r C haste W arriors. S a y u ri’s activ e im age w as su ita b le for a girl from a p o o r fam ily w h o h as to go o u t a n d w o rk at a n early age, a n d in o th e r film s she is often sh o w n d re sse d in jean s a n d m a k in g som e d eliv ery o n b icy cle. O n th e o th er h a n d , th e in a c tiv e e x iste n c e of su fferin g b e a u tie s in film s is often p re d ic a te d on th e fact th a t th e y are w re n c h e d from a sh e lte re d life w ith th e ir p a re n ts a n d c a n n o t live in th e c ru e l w o rld w ith o u t th e p ro te c tio n or at least su p p o rt of a m an . S ay u ri in A S tree t of Cupolas, how ever, q u ic k ly le a rn e d to cope w ith u n p le a s a n t re a litie s, for on h e r first job sh e cam e in c o n ta c t w ith a teen ag e gang. A fter she re siste d th e te m p ta tio n to feel so rry for h e rse lf a n d b e c o m e d e lin q u e n t, sh e g ain ed self-co n fid en ce a n d even th e p lu c k to c ritic iz e h e r self-cen tered fath er a n d w eak -w illed m other. In U ray am a^ n e x t film , Bad Girl (Hiko Shojo, 1963], th e y o u n g h ero in e a c tu a lly d o e s b eco m e d e lin q u e n t as a re su lt of th e b ad in flu en c e of h e r im m o ra l p a re n ts. By re so lv in g to beco m e in d e p e n d e n t of th e m , how ever, sh e refo rm s w ith th e h e lp of h e r b o y frien d . O n th e o th er h a n d , S ayuri in A S tre e t 0/ C upoJas has a m in d of h e r ow n from th e start a n d even p o n d e rs so c ia l c o n tra d ic tio n s a n d th e p lig h t of th e poor. R ath er th a n w ait for som e

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A Street of Cupolas (1962), directed by Kiriro Urayama. Shown w ith her beau (Mitsuo Hamada) on a hillside, this intelligent Girl Next Door (Sayuri Yoshinaga) does not sacrifice herself for her working-class family. m ale to rescu e her, she joins a lab o r u n io n th a t p ro v id e s its m e m b e rs w ith a n ig h t school. S he does no t p la y ◦ n a n y o n e ’s sy m p a th ie s, w h ic h w as th e o n ly w ay sufferin g b eau ties ever got w h a t th e y w a n te d . T he actress S ayuri Y oshinaga play ed m a n y d ifferen t roles, lik e every o n e else at N ikkatsu, w h e re sh e w orked. S till, b ecau se of h e r activ e G irl N ext D oor im age, she c h an g ed th e A ll-S u fferin g Fem ale ro le in th e love m elo d ram a, Looking A t Love a n d Death (Ai to Shi 0 M itsu m ete, 1964). B ased o n a tru e story, th e film co n cern s th e love b etw een a y o u n g girl su fferin g from an in c u ra b le d isea se (Sayuri] a n d h e r b o y frien d . H is h o s p ita l v isits recall th e g rand finale of W hat is ^our N am e? H ow ever, w h ile sh e su ffers even m ore th a n th a t h ero in e, she is often sh o w n sew in g a n d w a sh in g c lo th e s a n d even h e lp in g o th er p a tie n ts. S he k eep s activ e a n d h a n g s in th e re b a ttlin g ag ain st h e r disease, ra th e r th a n p a ssiv e ly w a itin g a n d w iltin g aw ay in h e r h o sp ita l bed. U n lik e th e A ngry Y oung M an, th ere w as a p rew ar p re c e d e n t for th e G irl N ext Door. K inuyo T a n a k a ~ b e s t k n o w n as th e sacred , su fferin g fem ale in M izoguchi film s like U getsu— w as th e m o st p o p u la r film a ctress in th e 1930s. She not o n ly sta rre d in th e h it love m e lo d ra m a The C o m p a s sio n a te

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B u d d h a Tlree b u t also p lay ed th e h a rd -w o rk in g girl w h o ra n th e n eig h b o rh o o d ric e c ra c k e r， ◦ r sen b ei, s h o p in ICinuyo’s F irst Love [K im iy◦ n o H a tsu k o i, 194 0 〕， also d ire c te d by H iro m asa N om ura• In H e in o su k e G o sh o ’s FJow er Basket Song (H an ak ag o n o l/ta , 1937) sh e is th e c h e e rfu l d a u g h ter of a m a n w h o ru n s a to n k a tsu , or p o rk c u tle t, re sta u ra n t, a n d sh e first a p p e a rs d re sse d in co v eralls a n d m a k in g a delivery, ju st as S ayuri w o u ld in th e 1960s. K in u y o ,s d u a l im age w as b est c a p tu re d in G o sh o ?s Dancing Girl From Izu [Izu n o O d o r ik ◦ ， 1933 〕， th e first a n d b est film a d a p ta tio n ◦ f N obelP riz e -w in n e r Y asunari K aw abata’s fam o u s sh o rt story• C ast as th e y o u n g est m e m b e r of a poor, itin e ra n t e n te rta in in g tro u p e , sh e w as p u t in th e path e tic b e a u ty role, for h e r o c c u p a tio n w as a n object of sco rn in p rew ar Japan. Yet, th ro u g h a d e p t e d itin g G osho m an ag ed to p re se n t h e r ch e e rfu l s id e in o n e c h a rm in g seq u e n c e . T h e tro u p e h a d m et a college s tu d e n t o n th e ro ad a n d o n e m o rn in g sh e is sittin g n ex t to h im u n d e r a brid g e. H e assu res h e r th a t sh e can c o u n t o n h im if s h e is ever in tro u b le. B lu sh in g a n d b e sid e h e rse lf w ith joy, sh e goes tra ip s in g acro ss th e large b o u ld e rs to w ard th e m id d le of th e stream , p ra c tic a lly h o p p in g b e c a u se of h e r co n fin in g kim o n o . H e fo llo w s h e r a n d sh e sta rts s p la s h in g h e r feet in th e water. T he su n h as com e o u t a n d th ey s im p ly sit together, en jo y in g th e stream c a sc a d in g over th e b o u ld ers. S in c e Dancing Girl F ro m Izu w as a s ile n t film , K inuyo Tanaka h a d to e x p ress th e a g ita tio n of th e y o ung d a n c in g girl th ro u g h sp rite ly m ovem e n ts a n d facial ex p ressio n s. T he w ay joy k ep t flash in g across h e r face tru ly co n v ey ed th e m e a n in g of th e w o rd v ivacious. T h is sc e n e d id n o t a p p e a r in K aw abata’s story, b u t it m ay have b een in s p ire d by th e p assag e w h e re th e s tu d e n t sp o tte d th e d a n c e r co m in g o u t of an o u td o o r b ath at so m e d ista n c e . M oreover, K aw abata's d an cer w as n e ith e r p a rtic u la rly p a th e tic n o r viv acio u s. S h e w as lik e th e dream girls in th e n o v els of F ra n z K afka, e n c h a n tin g p h a n to m s w h o w h is p e r in tim a tio n s ◦ f a n o th e r w o rld , a n d h e n c e m o re an im age in th e s tu d e n t’s h e a d th a n a liv e ly girl b e s id e him . G o sh o ^ joyful in te rlu d e o n th e b o u ld e rs seem ed to b e c o m p le m e n te d by th e p o ig n a n t p a rtin g sc e n e at th e e n d of th e film , w h e n K inuyo's p ath eticb e a u ty s id e to o k over. N ow sh e ru n s to th e e n d of a co n crete b reak w ater to get o n e last lo o k at h is d e p a rtin g ship. S hots of h e r tear-stain ed face are a lte rn a te d w ith th o se of th e w aves b reak in g ag ain st th e rocks o n shore. K inuyo T anaka c o u ld also p la y e d u c a te d w o m en , a n d h e r role in M other a n d Child in 1938 w as th e first in te llig e n t, self-assertiv e h e ro in e in Japa n e se film , a c c o rd in g to Tadao S ato.21 In th is film sh e n o t o n ly criticize s h e r n eg lig e n t father, as S ayuri w o u ld in A S treet of C upoJas, b u t also rejects h e r fiancé after sh e finds o u t h e h a d b e e n u sin g h e r to aid h is b u s in e s s career. P re v io u sly in Jap an ese film , stro n g -w ille d w o m en h a d a p p e a re d o n ly as

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Dancing Girl from Izu (1933), directed by Heinosuke Gosho. Sitting u n d er a bridge with her college student boyfriend (Den Ohinata), this vivacious dancing girl (Kinuyo Tanaka) projects the prew ar image of the Girl Next Door. teach ers of th e tra d itio n a l p e rfo rm in g arts w h o are p a rtic u la rly h a rd on th e ir m a so c h istic m ale d isc ip le s. B ut th e se w o m en h a d s im p ly tu rn e d th e tables. T he first real c ritic ism of th e m a le -o rie n te d so cie ty a p p e a re d in 1936 th ro u g h th e young h e ro in e s of M iz o g u c h i^ O sak a Elegy (Naniwa Ereji) an d Sisters of the Gion (Gion n o S h im ai). H ow ever, th e ir p ro te st c o u ld be a ttrib u te d to d elin q u en cy , sin c e as th e b o ss’s m istress a n d a lowclass geisha, th ey fell in th e falle n -w o m a n category. By c o n tra st, th e h ero in e in M other a n d Child w as ra ise d as a re sp e c ta b le M iss, w elled u cated a n d cu ltiv ated in th e tra d itio n a l a n d m o d e rn arts; a n d th u s h e r d isc e rn in g in d ic tm e n t of m ale so cie ty c a rrie d m ore w eight. S ince th e h e ro in e ’s fath er in M other a n d C h ild w as th e re sp e c te d h e a d of a large e n te rp rise , c ritic ism of h is lack of p a te rn a l re sp o n s ib ility c o u ld be ex ten d ed to so cie ty at large. D irector M in o ru S h ib u y a, how ever, h a d to exercise re stra in t, for m ovie c e n s o rs h ip w as tig h te n in g m o re a n d m ore as Jap an ’s m ilita ry a n d b u sin e ss lead ers w ere engag ed in a w ar of e x p a n s io n in C hina in 1938.22 P ostw ar d ire cto rs like U rayam a c o u ld be m o re d ire c t in th e ir social c riticism . N ev erth eless, sin c e th e h e ro in e S ay u ri p lay s in A S treet of Cupolas is o n ly in h e r early teen s, it a p p e a rs th a t U ray am a w as

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p u ttin g w o rd s of w isd o m in to th e m o u th s of babes. A b e tte r ex am p le of a G irl N ext D oor w h o n o t o n ly c ritic iz e s so cie ty b u t also raises th e issu e of a u to n o m y for w o m e n ca n be fo u n d in S u n s h in e in th e Old N eig h b o rh o o d (S h ita m a c h i n o Taiyo, 1963), w h e re th e h e ro in e is o ld e n o u g h to be en g aged. S u n s h in e in th e Old N e ig h b o rh o o d w as th e se c o n d film d ire c te d by Yoji Y am ada, w h o is c u rre n tly th e m o st p o p u la r Jap an ese director. A lth o u g h Y am ada is a m e m b e r of th e Jap an ese C o m m u n ist Party, it is a lm o st im p o ssib le to find a n y th in g M arx ist in h is T ora-san series, w h ic h ex p resses n o sta lg ia for day s p a s t w h e n Jap an ese w ere s u p p o se d ly m ore n eig h b o rly a n d k in d . W h ile th e c h a ra c te r of T ora-san im p lie s so m e rejectio n of m o d e rn society, h e is sim p ly a n o ld v ag abon d ra th e r th a n a fu tu re m o d el, as sta te d in c h a p te r four. Yet, in an early film like S u n sh in e in th e Old N e ig h b o rh o o d Y am ada e x h ib its som e co n fo rm an ce to M arx ist ideology. Jap an ese C o m m u n ists a n d p rogressives profess d isd a in for tra d itio n a l h e ro in e s w h o m e re ly su ffer m eekly, a n d th ey ex p ress th e ir p referen ce for c h e e rfu l, n ev er‫־‬say‫־‬die w o rk in g girls w h o , by h a v in g an ego, are critica l of th e so c ie ty th a t e x p lo its b o th th e m a n d th e c o m m o n p e o p le in g en eral.23 Y am ada in S u n s h in e in the Old N e ig h b o rh o o d p re se n ts a h e ro in e w ho n o t o n ly uh as a n ego‫ ״‬b u t also seem s to be aw are of h e rse lf as a sep arate e n tity n o t n e c e s sa rily d e p e n d e n t on m en. S u n s h in e in th e Old N eig h b o rh o o d w as e n v isio n e d b y th e p ro d u c e r at S h o c h ik u s tu d io s as a v e h ic le for th e p o p u la r sin g er C hieko B aish o .24 B ut th e fact th a t th e young, id e a list Y am ada su b v erted th is in te n tio n d em o n stra te s th a t re b e llio u s s e n tim e n ts c o u ld be e x p ressed w ith in a co m m ercial film g enre th a t e x p lo its th e fan tasies of poor, y o u n g w o m en . Y am ada first p re se n ts C hieko w o rk in g in a factory, for, u n lik e S ayuri in A Street of Cupolas, sh e h as a lre a d y g rad u ated from h ig h school. She h as th e sam e c h e e rfu l, active a m b ien ce, th o u g h , w h ic h is e x h ib ite d w h e n she p la y s v o lly b all d u rin g th e lu n c h break. C h ieko is d a tin g a co w o rk er w h o is try in g to b eco m e a w h ite -c o lla r w o rk e r so th a t h e can live th e good life in th e su b u rb s far aw ay from th e ir a ir-p o llu te d , facto ry area. S he is se rio u sly c o n sid e rin g m arry in g h im , s in c e everyone in h e r n e ig h b o rh o o d says th a t b ein g a salary m an 's w ife is th e b e s t m o st w o m e n c o u ld h o p e for. B ut sh e b eg in s to have d o u b ts w h e n sh e v isits a n o ld classm ate w h o a c h iev ed th a t c h e rish e d statu s. H er frie n d te lls h e r th a t, w h ile it is n ice to w ear e x p en siv e clo th es, all sh e seem s to do is w a it for h e r h u s b a n d to co m e h o m e from w ork, a n d th at, a lth o u g h sh e is d is a p p o in te d w ith h e r d o ll-lik e existen ce, sh e is resig n ed to it. N ow C hieko is irrita te d by th e crass m a te ria lism of so m e of h e r frie n d s a n d sk e p tic a l of th e c o m m o n say in g th a t a w o m a n ’s h a p p in e s s d e p e n d s on a m an• M oreover, she is d istu rb e d by h e r b o y frie n d ’s attitude• W h en she trie s to c o n so le h im over a lo st job o p p o rtu n ity , h e reacts angrily, saying th a t sh e c a n n o t u n d e rs ta n d h o w he feels b ecau se sh e is a w o m an w h o

Sunshine in the Old Neighborhood (1963), directed by Yoji Yamada. By refusing to become the doll-like wife of a young businessman, this heroine (Chieko Baisho) maintains her integrity by marrying a factory hand (Homare Suguro) in her old neighborhood. She thereby provides a model for Japanese women who make their own decisions.

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d o es n o t have to w o rry a b o u t a w o rk in g career. Later w h e n h e fin ally b e c o m e s a sa la ry m a n , sh e is cre stfa lle n u p o n fin d in g o u t th a t he got th e job by c o n c e a lin g a traffic a c c id e n t a ric h boy w as in v o lv ed in. S he d e c id e s to re m a in in th e old n e ig h b o rh o o d a n d e v e n tu a lly m arry a factory h a n d sh e h a d p re v io u sly d ated o n ce or tw ice. T he sta r of S u n s h in e in th e O l d N eig h b o rh o o d , C hieko B aisho, now ad ay s p lay s T o ra-san ’s sister, S a k u ra ， th e in te llig e n t w ife ◦ f a sm all factory w o rk e r. S h e c a n n o t a lw a y s w a it fo r h im to c o m e h o m e b e c a u s e h e r b ro th e r^ m isa d v e n tu re s have h e r c o n tin u a lly ru n n in g o u t of h er o w n h o u s e , a n d h e r h u s b a n d is far from d o m in e e rin g sin c e all fam ily m atters are d e c id e d by th e m jointly. T h e y o u n g Y am ada’s a tte m p t to g ra p p le w ith th e p ro b lem ◦ f a u to n o m y for w o m e n in S u n s h in e in th e O l d N eig h b o rh o o d m ay not com e u p to th e ex a c tin g e x p e c ta tio n s of fe m in ists in th e West. Still, h is po rtray al of a m a tu re G irl N ext D oor w h o m akes h e r o w n d e c isio n s as sh e finds o u t a b o u t o th e rs a n d h e rse lf is s p le n d id a n d rare in Jap an ese cin em a. C o n sid e rin g th e fact th a t Y am ada’s h e ro in e is m ore au to n o m o u s th a n m o st y o u n g m ales in film , sh e m ay in d e e d be h is alter eg◦• U ltim a te ly th e Girl N ext Door, w h e n aw ak en ed in film s like S u n sh in e in th e O l d N e ig h b o rh o o d , w as m ore re b e llio u s th a n th e A ngry Young M an, for sh e a c tu a lly q u e s tio n e d tra d itio n a l v alu es ra th e r th a n sim p ly stru c k a b e llig e re n t po se. T rad itio n ally , Japanese h e ro in e s sim p ly obeyed m en a n d w ere k e p t at h o m e a n d aw ay from society; how ever, if b etray ed or d isap p o in te d , th e y c o u ld b eco m e vengeful sp irits or w o m e n w h o c ritic iz e so c ie ty m ore o b jectiv ely th a n th e m e n w h o w ere so b o u n d u p in it d u e to th e p e rsis te n c e of th e fe u d a l c o n c e p t of loyalty. Yet, like th e Irresp o n sib le S a la ry m a n , w h o e v e n tu a lly lim ite d h is p ro te st to h u m o ro u s a n d d ru n k e n g ru m b lin g s, th e G irl N ext D oor also b ecam e c o n ta in e d in th e system w h e n m a rrie d . N e v erth eless, sh e pav ed th e w ay for th e in te llig e n t p o rtray al of c a reer w o m e n as altern ate role m o d e ls in so m e p re se n t-d a y Japanese TV d ra m a s. R elevant d ra m a s ab o u t th e w o rk in g class v a n ish e d on a c c o u n t of afflu ence; b u t th e d e s c e n d e n ts of S ayuri, K inuyo, a n d C hieko still flourish. T h is p h e n o m e n o n is m ore a ttrib u ta b le to th e effect o n Japan of th e W estern w o m e n ’s lib e ra tio n m o v e m e n t th a n to Jap an ese M arxist theory• W hile Ju lia s till enjoys revivals in Tokyo film th eaters, m o st p e o p le have forgotten S u n s h in e in t h e O l d N e ig h b o rh o o d .

The Earthy Woman T he biggest d ifferen ce b etw een th e G irl N ext D oor in Japan a n d in th e W est is th e v irg in al a m b ie n c e ◦ f th e Japanese girl• A n A m e ric a n co n tem p o ra ry of S ay u ri w as N atalie W ood, w h o first p lay ed love scen es w ith Jam es D ean in R e b e l W ithout a C ause in 1955. S u ch scen es b ecam e m u c h

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h o tte r w ith W arren B eatty in S p le n d o r in the Grass in 1 9 6 1 , a film in w h ic h d ire cto r E lia K azan c ritic iz e d th e V icto rian a ttitu d e of p a re n ts toward young lovers with healthy d esires. In short, Am erica’s Girl Next D oor th ro u g h th e 1960s c o u ld c o n ceiv ab ly go to b ed w ith th e boy sh e loved w ith o u t b ein g d eg rad ed . T h is w as n o t th e case w ith S ay u ri. If th e re w as a kiss scen e w ith h e r beau, it w as alw ays p e rfo rm e d a w k w a rd ly for co m ical effect, as h e r fans p ro b ab ly c o u ld n o t even im ag in e h e r h a v in g a n y sex u al d esire w hatsoever. In th is re sp e c t Jap an ’s G irl N ext D oor is n ot at all d ifferen t from th e tra d itio n a l h ero in es. W h eth er p a th e tic or all-su fferin g , th ey w ere u s u a lly v irg in al girls, a n d , if th ey m a rrie d , th ey see m e d to to le ra te sex o n ly b ecause it w ent w ith th e ir role, as w as th e case w ith th e h ig h e st-c la ss g eish a an d th e low est p ro stitu te. W om en w h o se e m e d to en jo y sex w ere d eg rad ed alm o st to th e level of an an im al. T his m ay com e as a su rp rise to som e W estern re a d e rs w ho th in k of Japan as a sexual p a ra d ise free of th e in h ib itio n s fo stered by th e p u rita n ic a l tra d itio n . Fans of S h o h ei Im a m u ra ’s film s m ay be p a rtic u la rly p e r p le x e d ， sin ce h is h e ro in e s are u s u a lly d o w n rig h t earthy. B ut th ey are a p o stw a r p h e n o m e n o n in Japanese c in e m a th a t can o n ly be p ro p e rly u n d e rs to o d after a brief h isto ric a l survey of ch an g in g Jap an ese a ttitu d e s to w a rd sex. T he o ld est a ttitu d e , fo u n d in Kojiki, is refresh in g ly frank, a n d th is is s till e v id e n t in som e ru ra l festivals w h e re p e n is a n d vag in a sy m b o ls are o p e n ly celebrated. The H eian c o u rtie r a risto crats h a d m an y eleg an t love affairs a n d reg ard ed v irg in ity as a sign of u n p o p u la rity , or even th e re su lt of p o ssessio n by som e tro u b leso m e sp irit•25 In th e tw e lfth cen tu ry , how ever, th e w arrio r aristo crats cam e to pow er,26 a n d th e ir sa m u ra i d e s c e n d a n ts ru le d into th e m o d e rn era. T hey v a lu e d m a rtia l v alo r a n d C o n fu c ia n re c titu d e , a n d v irg in ity becam e a v irtu e th a t u p p e d th e b rid e p ric e in m arriages arran g ed for th e m u tu a l p o litic a l a n d eco n o m ic b en efit of th e fam ilies involved. In C o n fu c ia n ism sex is re g a rd e d as a b so lu te ly n e c e ssa ry for th e c o n tin u a n c e of th e a ll-im p o rta n t fam ily lin e , b u t p re m a rita l affairs an d e lo p e m e n ts c o u ld be ta k e n as re b e llio n ag ain st p a re n ts.27 The te n sio n b etw een co n flictin g a ttitu d e s to w ard sex— n ativ e fra n k n e ss, eleg ant p rom iscuity, a n d C o n fu cian re c titu d e — can be fo u n d th ro u g h o u t th e Tokugaw a p e rio d (1603—1868), p a rtic u la rly in th e d e v e lo p m e n t of K abuki. In th e se v e n te e n th c e n tu ry th e a u th o ritie s p ro h ib ite d th e app earan ce of w o m en p erfo rm ers in K abuki sin c e th e y h a d also serv ed as p ro stitu tes, an d th ereafter m ales c a lle d o n n a g a ta or o y am a p e rfo rm e d all fem ale ro le s.28 K abuki d id not th e re b y c o m p le te ly c le a n u p its act, th o u g h . A c ritic in 1816 n o ted th a t sex u al in te rc o u rse w as p la in ly s h o w n o n stage, in co n trast to th e p a st w h e n am o ro u s p lay w as su g g ested b y e x c h an g e of glan ces a n d th e o n n a g a ta covering h is face w ith h is sleeve to h id e em barrassm en t•29 In th e m o d e rn era from 1868 u n til 1945 C o n fu c ia n re c titu d e g o v ern ed

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sex attitudes. Japan’s n e w leaders cam e from the old samurai class and th ey indoctrinated the p eop le w ith their repressive values through a m odern, com pu lsory-edu cation system .30 Film cen sorship was so strict that not o n ly were k issin g scen es prohibited, but any relations betw een unmarried m en and w o m en had to be han dled ind irectly to avoid the charge of pornography.31 A fter 1945 th e A m e ric a n O c c u p a tio n a u th o ritie s e n c o u ra g e d k issin g s c e n e s ,32 b u t v irg in a l a n d ch a ste h e ro in e s, n o w in m o d e rn dress, contin u e d to d o m in a te Jap an ese film . N ev erth eless, som e p o p u la r fictio n w rite rs a n d film m ak ers fo rm e d th e ir a n tith e sis: th e E a rth y W om an. She w as c o n s id e re d a p ro d u c t of A m e ric a n iz a tio n , a n d so sh e w as to som e e x te n t, b u t sh e w as also a re tu rn to th e n ativ e fra n k n e ss to w ard sex fo u n d in K ojiki. In 1948 Taijiro T am u ra’s b e st-se llin g novel ab o u t p o stw ar p ro stitu tio n , G ate of F Jesh [NiJcutai no M on), w as m a d e in to a m ovie b y M asahiro M a k in o .33 D u rin g th e sam e year M izo g u c h i cam e o u t w ith h is W om en of the Night (Ybru n o O n n a ta c h i), also a b o u t streetw alk ers. M izo g u c h i^ film is c o n s id e re d a m a ste rp ie c e a n d M a k in o ’s film is so forgotten th e re do n o t seem to be a n y e x ta n t p rin ts . H ow ever, th e latter still h as som e m erit, sin ce it p re se n ts a n e w h e ro in e in c o n tra st to M iz o g u c h i,s e x p lo ite d p ro stitu tes, re m in is c e n t to h is low -class g eish a in S isters of the G ion b ack in 1936. T h e stre e tw a lk e rs in G ate of Flesh have th e ir o w n code, a n d th e ir first c o m m a n d m e n t is th a t no o n e in th e ir gang s h o u ld ever do it for n o th in g . O n e w o m a n w h o does is c ru e lly to rtu re d for h e r sin. In sp ite of b earin g w itn e ss to h e r p u n is h m e n t, how ever, th e h e ro in e still follow s h e r ex am p le a n d n o t o n ly e x p e rie n c e s sex u al p le a su re b u t also falls in love. W hen h e r tu rn co m es, in S eiju n S u z u k i^ 1964 rem ak e, sh e even sm iles c o n d escen d in g ly u p o n h e r sisters w h o to rm e n t h e r for h e r e n v io u s discovery. T h e h e ro in e in G ate of Flesh broke th e o ld ru le in Japanese film th a t a w o m a n s h o u ld n o t en jo y sex. M iz o g u c h i^ p ro stitu te s n ev er d id ; how ever, in 1950 w ith A P ic tu re of M a d a m e Yuki (Yuki F ujin Ezu, 1950) h e p o rtra y e d a w o m a n of a risto c ra tic o rig in s w h o , w h ile e m b arrassed b y h e r c ru d e , b o u rg e o is h u s b a n d , c a n n o t h e lp b u t e x p erien ce se n su a l p le a su re w ith h im . K eiko M cD onald h as n o te d M iz o g u c h i’s in d ire c t a n d d elicate h a n d lin g of th e b e d s c e n e s.34 Yet, th e h e ro in e ’s self-lo ath in g suggests th a t o n e re a so n for th e a rtistic tre a tm e n t lies in M iz o g u c h i,s o ld -fash io n ed id e a s a b o u t sex. W h en sh e b e m o a n s h e r “sin -filled n a tu re ,” sh e reveals th e o ld B u d d h is t p re ju d ic e ag ain st w om en : th e y w ere c o n sid e re d so spiritu a lly in fe rio r th a t th e y h a d to be re b o rn as m e n to m ake e n lig h te n m e n t p o ssib le •35 A lm o st every tim e th e h e ro in e su ccu m b s, M izo g u ch i takes a clo se -u p of h e r sa sh o rn a m e n t, w h ic h is a m in ia tu re re p lic a of a N oh m ask. C o n seq u en tly , sh e evokes th e ghosts of th e aristo cratic w o m e n in N oh p la y s w h o re tu rn to e a rth b ecau se th e y c a n n o t re n o u n c e w o rld ly p assio n s. O n ly th ro u g h s u ic id e b y d ro w n in g can M ad am e Y uki free h erself from

A Picture of Madame Yuki (1950), directed by Kenji Mizoguchi. This ethereal beauty (Michiyo Kogure), who drowns herself because of her “c a rn a l” desires, evokes the ghosts of passion-bound aristocratic women and also reveals the director’s virgin-whore complex.

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carnality, and the last im age of her w alking on a m isty h ill overlooking a lake ind icates that M izo g u ch i’s earthy w om an becam e an ethereal beauty• A lth o u g h M iz o g u c h i w en t on to create c o m p e llin g im ages of sacred fem ales in su ch film s as Ugetsu, he was partly so m otivated by a virgin/ w hore com p lex typ ical of m any Japanese men. O n e m a n ife sta tio n of th e E arth y W om an at a form ative stage w as film s a b o u t sex y h ig h -s c h o o l g irls , lik e T e e n -A g e r，s Sex JVianuaJ (Ju d a i n o S eiten , 1953). W hile n o lo n g e r titilla tin g , it is still in stru c tiv e reg ard in g se x u a l in h ib itio n s a m o n g th e Japanese. W h en o n e girl fin d s o u t th a t h e r ro o m m ate is going stea d y w ith a boy, sh e tak es a kn ife a n d slash es a p h o to g ra p h of th e tw o girls to g e th e r d u rin g c h u m m ie r days. D irector Koji S h im a th e re b y reveals th e su b lim a te d le sb ia n ism th a t c o u ld o b tain from sex seg reg atio n d u e to C o n fu c ia n m ores. A lth o u g h c o e d u c a tio n b ecam e c o m m o n in p o stw a r Japan, s tu d e n ts at even college level are still som ew h a t segregated by c lu b s th a t resem b le th e fratern ities a n d so ro rities in th e U n ite d S tates, b u t w ith o u t m u c h in terd a tin g . T h e h e ro in e in Teen-A ger's Sex M an u a], like M ad am e Y uki, co m m its s u ic id e in th e en d . In ste a d of a B u d d h ist-lik e o rn a m e n t, th o u g h , h e r to rm e n ts of th e flesh are sy m b o liz e d b y th e n eck lace w ith th e C h ristian cro ss in h e r d éco lletag e. R ath er th a n su c c u m b to h e r d esires, sh e dies still a v irg in in th e sn o w at a ski resort. A s a film Teen-A ger's Sex M an u a] w as sim p ly lu rid se n sa tio n a lism , d e m o n stra tin g th a t release from C o n fu c ia n -e n g e n d e re d sex u al fru stra tio n c a n n o t be fo u n d in th e sy m b o lism of C h ristian ity , w h ic h resem b les B udd h is m in its a ttitu d e to w a rd sex. In p re-C h ristia n , M e d ite rra n e a n m ythology, how ever, a h e a lth y ero tic ism can b e fo u n d , an d an attem p t to in s till it in a Jap an ese s e ttin g can be fo u n d in S en k ich i T a n ig u c h i’s S o u n d of W aves (S h io sai, 1954), b a se d on Y ukio M ish im a ^ fam ous novel. M ish im a h a d a d a p te d th e sto ry of D a p h is15 a n d C hloe in h is novel, a n d T a n ig u c h i b est c a p tu re d th e ly ric ism of th e G reek o rig in al in th e scen e w h e re th e tw o y o u n g lovers go for a sw im together. T hey h a d p re v io u sly ta k e n s h e lte r from a s u d d e n sh o w er in an a b a n d o n e d navel fo rtress w h ere th e g irl h a d re siste d th e boy. N ow th e s u n is o u t a n d after w ra p p in g h e r s lip a ro u n d h e r b reasts sh e ru n s d o w n th e h ill to th e sea sh o re, w ith h im b e h in d h e r a n d d re sse d o n ly in a lo in c lo th . T h e ir fine y o ung b o d ies are p h o to g ra p h e d u n d e rw a te r a n d th e y seem like cav o rtin g d o lp h in s. W h ile d e lig h tfu l, th is sc e n e seem s so m eh o w u n-Japanese. H ealth y erotic ism can also be fo u n d in th e n ativ e m ythology, a n d S h o h ei Im a m u ra e v e n tu a lly w e n t se a rc h in g th e re for h is u n in h ib ite d E arthy W om an. The A n g ry Y oung M an tra d itio n at N ik k atsu stu d io s w h ere h e w o rk ed a id e d h im . N ik k a tsu p rid e d itself on its film s c o n c e rn e d w ith satisfy in g m ale d e sire s a n d often h a d th e Japanese w o rd for d esire, yokubo, in se rte d in th e title of its film s.36 Im a m u ra w en t one step fu rth e r w h e n he started m ak in g film s w h ic h fra n k ly a n d h u m o ro u s ly d e p ic te d fem ale d esires, too.

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Im a m u ra^ first E arth y W om an a p p e a re d in T h e I n s e c t W o m a n (N ip p o n K onchuki, 1963), th e tale of an u n w e d m o th e r w h o b eco m es a p ro stitu te . T he h e ro in e in In te n tio n s o f M u rd e r (A kai S a tsu i, 1964) is m o re significan t, how ever, for, d re sse d in a d u m p y sw eater a n d sk irt, sh e a p p e a rs to be an o rd in a ry h o u se w ife at first• Later, w ith h e r clo th e s off, th o u g h , a m o u n ta in of flesh is revealed, a n d sh e beco m es a w h ite b east w ith p ale, p lu m p th ig h s an d aro u se d desires. T h ro u g h flash b ack s, it is su g g ested th a t h e r s e n su a lity com es from h e r g ra n d m o th e r w h o h a d b een th e m istre ss of h e r h u s b a n d ’s father. T h is s e n su a lity lead s h e r to fall in love w ith a ra p is t w h o satisfied h e r sex u al desire. In in te n tio n s o f M u r d e r th e h e ro in e ^ re la tio n w ith h er h u s b a n d seem s in c e stu o u s, a n d in c e st does p lay an im p o rta n t p art in th e fo rm a tio n of Im a m u ra s e a rth y w om en. It w as im p lie d in th e re la tio n b e tw e e n th e h e ro in e a n d h e r fath er in The in se c t W om an. In T he P o rn o g ra p h e rs : I n tr o d u c tio n to A n th ro p o J o g y (J in ru ig a k u N y u m on, 1966) th e w id o w so m e tim e s lets h e r so n slee p w ith her, a n d h e r lover w in d s u p sle e p in g w ith h e r daughter. S in ce th e w id o w goes in sa n e , Im a m u ra seem s to c o n c lu d e th a t h is E a rth y W om an c a n n o t su rv iv e in Jap an ’s m o d e rn cities• In h is next, fea tu re -le n g th d ram a, T he P ro fo u n d D esire o f th e G ods— K u r a g e jim a : T a le s f r o m a S o u th e rn I s l a n d ( K a m i g a m i no Fulcalci Yokubo, 1968) Im a m u ra jo u rn e y s to so m e p rim itiv e is la n d s to create earth y w o m en w h o ex ist in a nativ e so cie ty w ith o u t C o n fu c ia n m o ra lity a n d in h ib itio n s. Two sisters, b o rn of in c e s tu o u s u n io n s, are c e n tra l figures th e re , s in c e th ey are m iko, fem ale m e d iu m s w h o serv ed in a S h in to s h rin e d u rin g ch ild h o o d . T he e ld e r is a local s h a m a n w h o is h a v in g a love affair w ith h e r brother. T he y o u n g er is d e m e n te d a n d recalls th e w id o w in T he Porn o g ra p h e rs; how ever, h e r in s a n ity is o n th e b lissfu l sid e. B oth sisters e a rth ily enjoy sex, so m etim es in n a tu ra l su rro u n d in g s, or at le a st w ith cro ss-cu ttin g from sex to n a tu re scenes. Im a m u ra^ h u m o ro u s tre a tm e n t of th e se sex scen es d isp e ls th e g loom asso ciated w ith in c e st a n d h a rk e n s b ack to S h in to m y th s in K o jik i w h e re sister a n d b ro th e r d e itie s give b irth to th e isla n d s of Japan. Im a m u ra ^ co m ical v iew of sex is d efin itely p a rt of th e n ativ e tra d itio n a n d ca n be fo u n d in o ld folk tales, su c h as The D em o n ’s L augh (O ni n o w a ra i〕 •37 A girl w h o h as b een k id n a p p e d by a d e m o n is re sc u e d by h e r m o th e r w ith th e h e lp of a h e rm it w o m an . A s th e y are e sc a p in g in a b o at, th o u g h , th e d e m o n beg in s to d rin k u p th e w ater in th e lake. T he h e rm it w o m a n suggests th a t th e y all expose th e ir privates, a n d w h e n th e y do, th e d e m o n laughs, co u g h in g u p th e w ater a n d le ttin g th e m esc a p e . T h is o ld fo lk ta le , m oreover, recalls th e m y th re c o rd e d in K o jik i a b o u t th e le w d d a n c e of th e G oddess A m e n o u z u m e , w h ic h in d u c e d la u g h te r am o n g th e G ods a n d b ro u g h t th e S u n G oddess o u t of th e cave sh e h a d b e e n h id in g in . In a d d itio n to a h u m o ro u s asp e c t, Im a m u ra ^ E a rth y W om an h a s a

Intentions of Murder (1964), directed by Shohei Im am ura. When sexually aroused, this o rd in a ry housew ife (M asumi Harukawa) embodies the Earthy Woman who refutes hypocritical inhibitions.

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The Profound Desire of the Gods / Kuragejima: Tales from a Southern Island (1968), directed by Shohei Imamura. This Earthy Woman (Hideko Okiyama) escapes from civilization (represented by the locomotive) to enjoy sex in a native society free from Confiician morality. m atern al sid e, as in d ic a te d by Ian B u ru m a .38 For ex am p le, in The in se c t W om an the u n w e d m o th er-d au g h ter also gives m ilk from h e r la c ta tin g b re a s t to h e r s e n ile fath er. T h is m o th e rly a ttitu d e to w a rd sex d iffe rs sh a rp ly from W estern ideas, a n d its so u rce ca n also be tra c e d to th e n ativ e tra d itio n . In Hayao K aw ai’s a n a ly sis of Japanese folk tales a n d p sy ch o lo g y , h e p resen ts an a n c ie n t versio n of th e sto ry of U ra sh im a Taro in w h ic h th e sea tu rtle w ho tra n sp o rte d Taro w as tra n sfo rm e d in to a se n su a l w o m a n w h o gave herself to him . Kawai in te rp re ts th e to rto ise w o m a n to be b o th m o th e r a n d m ate an d notes th e d ifference from W estern m ythology, w h e re th e hero h as to often “k ill th e m o th e r” （in th e form of a d ra g o n or o th e r m o n ster) to w in h is m ate.39 T he tra n sfo rm a tio n w as lo st in s u c c e e d in g v ersio n s of th e U ra sh im a Taro story. B ecause of B u d d h is t a n d C o n fu cian in flu e n c e s, th e s e n su a l to rto ise w om an becam e O to h im e, th e b ea u tifu l p rin c e ss w h o se p h y s ic a l n atu re is neg ated a n d w h o e n d s as a n ete rn a l v irg in after Taro leav es h e r

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underw ater kingdom . The sea turtle, incidently, also appears in ancient C hin ese m ythology;40 and, as a probable representation of the evolution from sea to land life, she can even be said to antedate M other Earth. A lth o u g h th e s e n su a l a sp e c t of th e sea tu rtle v a n ish e d from th e sto ry of U ra sh im a Taro, she c o n tin u e d to co ex ist w ith e th e re a l h e ro in e s in Japa n e se c u ltu re in th e form of ru ra l sta tu e s of fertility g o d d esses a n d a rtistic, p o rn o g ra p h ic p rin ts fukiyo-ej d u rin g th e Edo p e rio d from 1603 to 1868. W h en Im a m u ra u n e a rth e d h e r in th e 1960s, h e w as sim p ly b rin g in g to th e s c re e n th e o ld n ativ e fra n k n e ss a b o u t sex th a t h a d alw ays ex isted in te n s io n w ith in h ib itin g C o n fu c ia n m orality. The Earthy Woman can still be found som etim es in the soft-core porno film s that N ikkatsu began m ass producing in 1971. With Sayuri Ichijo— M oist D esire (Ichi/o Sayuri— Nureta Yokujo, 1972) Tatsumi Kumashiro seem ed to be follo w in g in Imamura’s footsteps, for in h is story of two strippers， the M iko-sisters on Kuragejima can be envisaged and Imamura’s dual attitude toward sex w ell expressed. One of the strippers, the profession al Sayuri Ichijo of the title, is chubby and so maternal that she sym p ath izes w ith a custom er masturbating during her performance. The other stripper, played by a slen der young actress (Hiroko Isayama), has the c o m ed ien n e role, and her m isadventures provide m ost of the laughs. A n o th e r N ik k atsu d irecto r, S h in y a Y am am oto, sy n th e siz e d th e m atern al a n d h u m o ro u s sid e s of sex in h is The W idow ’s B o ard in g H o u se (M ibojin G esh u k u ) se rie s from 1974 o n .41 It is a b o u t a la n d la d y w h o p ro v id es so la c e a n d p le a s u re for se x u a lly fru stra te d college s tu d e n ts aw ay from hom e. A lth o u g h Y am am oto’s h u m o r is b ased on th e self-serving stereo ty p e of th e p a s sio n a te w idow , h is a ttitu d e to w ard sex is m u c h m ore p o sitiv e th a n th a t fo u n d in m o st Japanese p o rn o film s, w h e re w o m e n b eco m e p n e u m a tic toys a n d su b jec ts of h u m ilia tio n . In th is resp ect, Japanese p o rn o is n o t d iffe re n t from its W estern c o u n te rp a rts an d , therefore, is not a fit v e h ic le for th e e x p re ssio n of th e old n ativ e fra n k n e ss ab o u t sex. The re p re s e n ta tio n of th is fra n k n e ss in th e a rc h e ty p e of th e E arth y W om an in th e film s of th e 1960s a n d 1970s w as a re fu ta tio n of th e C o n fu cian rep ressio n of se x u a l desire. In The Ballad of Narayama in 1983, how ever, Im a m u ra ,s e a rth y w o m e n cam e to re p re se n t fam ily so lid a rity th ro u g h sex, w h ic h m ak es m e n d e p e n d e n t o n th e m a n d m ore lik ely to perform th e ir e c o n o m ic , s u p p o rtiv e role. U ltim ately, o n th e issu e of fam ily h arm ony, th e re is n o d isa g re e m e n t b e tw e e n S h in to ists a n d C o n fu cian ists, o th er th a n th e greater d e m a n d s th e la tte r w o u ld m ak e o n w o m en , a n d even ea rth y sex c a n be th e re b y c o n ta in e d .

Conclusion A lth o u g h th e m o d e rn a rc h e ty p a l a n tith e se s started o u t as w h o lly op• p o s itio n a l, g ra d u a lly d u rin g th e ir m e ta m o rp h o se s th e y co alesced w ith

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tra d itio n a l a rc h e ty p e s. T he Irre sp o n sib le S a la ry m a n d e m o n stra te d th a t p ru d e n c e a n d a c e rta in c y n ic ism is th e m id d le w ay b e tw e e n lo y alty a n d o p p o rtu n ism . T he A ngry Young M an to o k o n th e airs of th e T o rm e n te d L ord, w h ile re m a in in g active. W hile p ro to ty p e s for th e c h e e rfu l G irl N ext D oor h a d p ro b ab ly ex isted ever sin c e fe u d a l tim es, cin em a, by a p p e a lin g to a m ass a u d ie n c e , p laced h e r u p sta g e in Jap an ese ic o n o g ra p h y as an altern ativ e to th e tra d itio n a l su fferin g h e ro in e s. T he E arth y W om an h a d d o u b tle ss ex isted sin c e an tiq u ity , b u t h a d b e e n s u p p re s s e d d u rin g m o d e rn iz a tio n , w h ic h in c lu d e d m ass in d o c trin a tio n in sto ic, sa m u ra i v irtu e s. P ostw ar w rite rs a n d film m akers u n e a rth e d h e r as a p ro test ag a in st se x u a l rep ressio n . T his p rotest e v e n tu a lly re su lte d in a ch an g ed im age for th e Japanese h e ro in e in TV dram as. Joseph L. A n d e rso n h as n o ted th a t in 1982 th e y still suffered, b u t o n ly after sa tisfa c tio n ,42 a n d th e c o n tin u in g proliferatio n of bed scen es o n TV in th e late 1980s b ears h im o u t. T h is p h e n o m e n o n suggests th a t n o w ad ay s h e ro in e s c a n e x p e rie n c e sex w ith o u t b ein g d o w n g ra d e d , b u t th a t it is b est to k eep it in th e h o m e. In sh o rt, w h ile th e m o d e rn a rc h e ty p a l a n tith e se s d id not o v e rtu rn or rep la c e tra d itio n a l a rc h e ty p e s, th e ir c h a lle n g e re su lte d in new, v iab le role m o d e ls for co n tem p o ra ry Japanese, w h o are b y n o m e a n s re p lic a s of th e ir an cesto rs.

Conclusion Japanese film began w ith conservative archetypes like the Loyal Retainer, Torm ented Lord, Chaste Warrior, and Exile that encouraged subm ission and a strong sen se of affiliation w ith Japanese society, and problematic archetypes like the Vagabond, Vengeful Spirit, tragic lovers, and parentch ild typ es that not on ly supported traditional values but som etim es transcen ded or opp osed them . Due to Western influence, m odern archetypal an tith eses d eveloped that started out as opp ositional but later becam e con tain ed w ith in the total iconography. N evertheless, they changed the iconography and contem porary attitudes by presenting alternate role m o d els w h ich still rem ain alongside, or as com posite form ations w ith, traditional archetypes. M o d e rn Jap an ese h ero es a n d h e ro in e s are n o t very d ifferen t from th e ir W estern c o u n te rp a rts . T he flip p a n t, cy n ic a l a ttitu d e of th e Irresp o n sib le S a la ry m a n c a n be d isc e rn e d in A m e ric a n film s critica l of big b u sin ess, a n d th e A n g ry Young M an p ro b ab ly o rig in ated in th e West. Every c u ltu re h a s its G irl N ext D oor ty p e. T he E arth y W om an can be fo u n d in E rsk in e C aldw elP s Tobacco Road, w h ic h John Ford m ad e in to a film in 1941, an d sh e w as w ell e m b o d ie d in p e rsp irin g Ita lia n b ea u tie s like S o p h ia Loren, befo re H o lly w o o d c o sm e tic iz e d th em . T rad itio n al Japanese arc h e ty p e s are sig n ific a n tly differen t, th o u g h , a n d it w o u ld be u se fu l to re c o n sid e r w h y befo re a tte m p tin g a final a sse ssm e n t of all th e a rc h e ty p e s th a t c o n tin u e to ex ist o n TV, th e p rin c ip a l m e d iu m of p o p u la r ico n o g rap h y now adays. N ot o n ly th e T o rm en ted L ord a n d th e A ll-S u fferin g Fem ale b u t all th e tra d itio n a l Jap an ese a rc h e ty p e s suffer, a n d th is is th e ir d o m in a n t m otif. M o d e rn a n tith e s e s like th e Irre sp o n sib le S alary m a n a n d th e ch eerfu l G irl N ext D oor w ere in fact a re je c tio n of sufferin g , b u t th is, as ev id e n c e d b y th e lo n e ly y o u th s in th e film s of th e 1970s, w as n o t e n tire ly su ccessfu l. S u fferin g is also th e d o m in a n t m otif in W estern d ram a, for Shakes p e a re d tra g e d ie s are m u c h m ore fam o u s th a n h is co m ed ies. Even in H o lly w o o d a c tio n d ra m a s R obert M itc h u m u se d to b e b eaten b lo o d y befo re h e got th e b a d d ie s , an d C lin t E astw o o d often c o n tin u e s th a t tra d itio n . S till, Jap an ese yakuza h ero es are n o t o n ly m o re m a so c h istic b u t seem ev en to b e c o m e m arty rs in th e en d . Like S h in H asegaw a,s Exile, A lan L a d d ’s S h a n e e m b o d ie s lo n e lin e ss, b u t S h a n e ’s stem s from n o t b eing able to se ttle d o w n ra th e r th a n from b ein g c u t off from h u m a n b o n d s. In H o lly w o o d re lig io u s sp e c ta c u la rs, C h ristia n m arty rs suffer lik e Z u sh io th e 211

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P rodigal Son, b u t th e y go to th e ir h e a v e n ly rew ard w ith a b eatific sm ile o n th e ir face. Poor Z u sh io c a n n o t rejoice over b ein g forgiven, sin c e in Jap an forgiveness is u s u a lly o n ly a re c o g n itio n of th e su fferin g th a t c o n tin u e s . In sh o rt, Japanese a rc h e ty p e s ◦ u ts u ffe r th e ir H o lly w o o d c o u n te rp a rts . Even th e an ta g o n ists ◦ f th e Japanese a rc h e ty p e s suffer• In The Y btsuya G host S tory lem o n is to rm e n te d b y th e V engeful S p irit of h is d e a d w ife, O iw a. As th e p lo t d ev elo p s in W hat Is Your N am e?, o b s tru c tin g th ird p artie s are seen in a d ifferen t light: th e W eak, Passive M ale b eg in s to sy m p a th iz e w ith th e h u s b a n d b ecau se h e loves h e r too, a n d th e h e ro in e co n soles h e r fo rm erly cru el m o th er-in -la w w h o h a s b eco m e b e d rid d e n . T he o n ly real d ifference is th at th e a rc h e ty p e s su ffer even m ore. “Life is S u fferin g ” is th e first tru th ◦ f B u d d h ism , a n d its e x p re ssio n in Japanese c u ltu re d im s even th e ir p e rc e p tio n ◦ f evil• O n e ◦ f Ja p a n ’s g reatest film d irecto rs, Yasujiro O zu, c o u ld n o t really p o rtra y th e b ad . W h en ev er he trie d to, th e re su lts w ere e ith e r m elo d ra m a tic , in a fam ily d ra m a lik e Tokyo Tw ilight (Tokyo B oshoku, 1957), or u n in te n tio n a lly co m ical, in a c rim e sto ry like D ragnet Giri (H ijosen no 〇 m ! a , 1933〕• O zu c o u ld p re se n t th e e sse n tia lly tragic h u m a n c o n d itio n in th e form of e stra n g e m e n t b e tw e e n k in a n d frie n d s in m a ste rp ie c e s su c h as Tokyo S to ry (Tokyo M o n o g ata ri, 1953); b u t th e evil sid e of h u m a n n a tu re w as for h im s im p ly acts of d e lin q u e n c y ag ain st p a re n ts or p a re n ta l figures. O zu w as not alo n e am ong h is c o u n try m e n , for th e ir d im p e rc e p tio n of evil even show s u p in th e p e rio d film , an a c tio n g enre w h e re c o n fro n ta tio n b etw e e n th e good guys a n d th e b a d guys is a b so lu te ly necessary . M o st of th e v illa in s th e re in , how ever, are u s u a lly ca ric a tu re s of L ord K ira, w h o w as base a n d n a s ty ra th e r th a n evil. In th o se film s w h ere a n “evil d a im y o ” is called for, th e re is a scen e ◦ f “p a g a n ” revels w h ere, after h e is b o re d w ith h is in c o n g ru o u s d a n c in g girls, he beg in s sh o o tin g p o o r p e a s a n ts w ith h is bow a n d arrow. He is like N ero or C aligula, a n d h is Jap an ese creato rs w ere o b v io u sly in flu e n c e d b y H o lly w o o d sp e c ta c u la rs. W ith th e e x c e p tio n of th e g ra tu ito u sly evil ch a ra c te r p o rtra y e d b y Tatsu y a N akadai in Yojimbo (Yojimbo, 1961), th e o n ly really evil v illa in in a p e rio d film is N o b u n ag a O da in A B an d of A ssa ssin s, H (Zolcu S h in o b i n o M ono, 1963). H ere th e fe u d a l d ic ta to r c ru e lly to rtu re s p ris o n e rs a n d b u m s B u d d h ist tem p les to th e g ro u n d w ith all th e ir fo llo w ers in sid e . It is sig n ificant th a t its director, S atsuo Y am am oto, is ta k e n u p w ith M arx ist ideology, w h ic h p o sits a n id eal fu tu re w o rld in c o n tra st to a p re se n t o n e of e x p lo itatio n , a n d is a d e v e lo p m e n t from C h ristian ity , w ith e c h o e s of th e M anichean b elief that Satan, w h o rules this w orld, is battling w ith God in Heaven for the souls of all m ankind. As an adherent of M arxism , therefore, Yamamoto could portray Oda as a diabolical m onster exp loitin g the peasants. Even though Oda*s cruelty had been docum en ted in postw ar history books, other Japanese film directors w hitew ashed his rise to power. Without a transcendental reference point, such as an ideal w orld, they co u ld

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a s su m e o n ly th a t th e ir le a d e rs w ere u s u a lly good a n d th a t a few b ad ◦ n e s d id n o t sp o il th e b arrel. B u t ju st as su fferin g do es ex ist in C h ristian ity , evil is faced in B udd h ism . In B u d d h is m , th o u g h , it is m ore im p o rta n t to reco g n ize su fferin g th a n to in s is t o n an a ll-o u t b a ttle b e tw e e n th e forces of good a n d evil, a n d o ften in B u d d h is t m y th o lo g y d e m o n s are p acified ra th e r th a n co n q u ered . A good e x p re ssio n of th is a ttitu d e can be fo u n d in th e ev o lu tio n of th e p o p u la r h ero , S azen Tange. As sta te d in c h a p te r 1 , o rig in ally Tange w as s im p ly a v illa in w h o se d e fo rm itie s signified a d ia b o lic a l n atu re, b u t film d ire c to r D aisu k e Ito tra n sfo rm e d h im in to a suffering, b etray ed retainer. T h e n in S a z e n Tange a n d t h e P o t W o rth a M i l l i o n Ryo (Tange S azen — H y a k u m a n -ry o no T subo, 1935)S adao Y am anaka ch an g ed h im into a lazy, h ire d sw o rd w h o sq u ab b le s w ith h is p lu c k y fem ale k e e p e r w h ile d o tin g o n o rp h a n s. In S azen Tange (Tange S azen , 1952), a rem ak e of Y am anaka^ c la ssic , d ire c to r S a d a tsu g u M a tsu d a w en t even fu rth er. N ow Tange d rin k s a n d jokes w ith th e c o m m o n p e o p le a n d p ro tects th e m from th e b ad d ies. H e is a n e ig h b o rh o o d h ero a n d in o ne scen e th ey give h im a rid e on th e ir s h o u ld e rs , as th e y w o u ld for a S h in to god in a cart (m ikoshi) d u rin g a festiv al. H is fem ale k e e p e r is n o w a d d re sse d as h is w ife a n d th e o rp h a n h a s b e c o m e h is son. T he d e m o n h as b e e n d o m e stic a te d as w ell as pacified. A m o n g Ja p a n ’s p o p u la r h ero es, th e b e st ex am p le ◦ f th e B u d d h ist conc e rn w ith su fferin g over evil is R y u n o su k e T su k u e, th e p ro b le m a tic m a in c h a ra c te r of K aizan N ak azato ^ p o p u la r n ovel The G reat B o d h isattv a Pass. A s sta te d in c h a p te r 1 , T su k u e w as th e p ro to ty p e of th e n ih ilis tic sw ordsm a n w h o d o m in a te d Japanese film in th e 1920s. N akazato, how ever, cons id e re d h is no v el to be an e x p o sitio n of relig io u s th o u g h t,1 a n d d id n ot y ie ld film rig h ts u n til 1935, w h e n H iro sh i Inagaki d ire cted a film v ersio n th a t w as n e ith e r n ih ilis tic n o r relig io u s. T h e first film v ersio n to take u p th e relig io u s th e m e in N ak azato ’s w o rk w as th a t b y T om u U ch id a, The G reat B o d h i s a t t v a P a ss ( D a ib o s a ts u Toge, in 3 p a rts from 1957 to 1959)• Q u o tin g from U c h id a ’s autobiography, Tadao Sato p o in ts o u t th a t U c h id a w as in trig u e d by th e B u d d h is t e lem en ts in th e o rig in a l a n d lik e n e d its d o m in a n t to n e to a B u d d h is t h y m n (w asan).2 It seem s th e m o tiv a tio n b e h in d th e film lies largely in U c h id a ’s e x p erien ces in a M a n c h u ria n in te rn m e n t cam p after W orld W ar II,3 w h ic h b ro u g h t h o m e th e tru th ◦ f th e d ic tu m , “Life is S u fferin g .” U ch id a ，s film begins at the M ountain Pass ◦ f the Bodhisattva, w here R yunosuke T sukue slays an in n ocen t ◦Id pilgrim m erely to try out a n ew sw ord stroke. That nigíit h is fencing op p o n en t’s w ife v isits him and begs him to spare her husband in their match. He rapes her, kills her husband the next day, and runs off w ith her; but after a year or so of conjugal life he k ills her during an argum ent and abandons their child . Thereafter, he b eco m es a hired sw ord and keeps on the m ove since he is pursued by the brother of the fencing op p on en t he killed.

A Band of Assassins II (1963), directed by Satsuo Yamamoto. In this film, sixteenth-century Japanese w arlords are demythologized: M itsuhide Akechi (So Yamamura, upper left), Nobunaga Oda (Tomisaburo Wakayama, upper right), Ieyasu Tokugawa (Tomo Nagai, lower left), and Hideyoshi Toyotomi (Eijiro Tono, lower right). Unlike most Japanese film directors who benignly w hitew ashed Nobunaga O da9s rise to power, Satsuo Yamamoto portrays him as a diabolical monster exploiting the peasants.

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In Part 1 of Uchida’s version Tsukue is tormented by the ghosts of his v ic tim s a n d o c c a sio n a lly m isses h is n ativ e area a n d h is a b a n d o n e d son, w h o is fo rtu n a te ly b e in g ra ise d by his fam ily servant. In Part 2, after h e is b lin d e d in a b a ttle , h e is re d u c e d to th e role of a m e n d ic a n t w h o plays a shakuhachi (flute) to eke o u t a living. Thereby, h e w in s th e sy m p a th y of a n u m b e r of w o m e n w h o su c c e ssiv e ly a tte n d to h is n eed s. He accep ts th e d e a th of o n e of th e m p h ilo so p h ic a lly , say in g th at h e r sufferings are over now . H e even rescu es a y o u n g b rid e g ro o m from m e rc e n a ry officials. However, ju st w h e n he is o n th e verge of b eco m in g a sy m p a th e tic c h aracter h e sta rts sla y in g in n o c e n t p e o p le again. C in em atically , th is is a ttrib u te d to fits of m a d n e s s b y h av in g h is sw o rd -w ie ld in g figure sh o t ag ain st a b ack g ro u n d of flam es o r an a b stra c t red back d ro p . In P art 3, p u rs u e d by ghosts of h is v ictim s a n d lo n g in g for his son, T s u k u e re tu rn s to h is n ativ e place. In th e e n d he goes o u tsid e d u rin g a ty p h o o n b e c a u se he im ag in es his so n is c a llin g h im , a n d h e is sw ep t d o w n a riv e r on a b rid g e d islo d g e d d u rin g th e flood. A s a b a c k d ro p for th e o p e n in g title s of p arts 1 , 2 , a n d 3, U ch id a h a d u s e d scro lls of th e B u d d h is t u n iv e rse a n d h a d p a n n e d d o w n from th e h e a v e n lik e P ure L and th ro u g h E a rth to H ell. A t th e en d of Part 3 h e sim p ly rev ersed th e p ro cess a n d p a n n e d u p to th e P ure L and. T his u se of B udd h is t scro lls m ay have in flu e n c e d th is in te rp re ta tio n of U c h id a ’s film m ad e b y Tadao Sato: R y u n o su k e T su k u e is a n in c a rn a tio n of suffering, n ot e v i l . . . . He h as ta k e n o n th e sufferings of m a n k in d . H e is w a n d e rin g alo n e in th e m id s t of th e flam es of re trib u tio n in an e a rth ly hell. T he p eo p le h e k ills alo n g th e w ay are se n t to th e P ure L an d .4 Yet, to a W esterner w ith a Ju d e o -C h ristia n b ack g ro u n d , T su k u e is evil, s in c e h is o w n su fferin g s d o n o t ju stify th e m u rd e r of in n o c e n t p eo p le. M a c b e th is a m u c h m ore a p p e a lin g ch aracter, for h e has a gu ilty cons c ie n c e a n d h is sufferings are ju st p u n is h m e n t for his sin s. C o n scien ce m ay be re p re s e n te d b y th e ghosts in The G reat B o d h isattv a Pass, b u t T s u k u e h im se lf never ex p resses a n y g u ilt a n d sim p ly m isses his son. W ith T s u k u e ,s lo n g in g for his son, th o u g h , C o n fu cian p h ilo so p h y en ters th e p ic tu re a n d m akes Jap an ese B u d d h ism m ore palatable• M en ciu s’ p arab le a b o u t sav in g th e c h ild a b o u t to fall in th e w ell, p re v io u sly u sed in th e in te rp re ta tio n of U c h id a ’s B attle of Life o r D eath , also a p p lie s h ere becau se it c o n n e c ts c o m p a s sio n for h u m a n su fferin g w ith love of c h ild re n in g e n e ra l, w h ic h is in tu rn rooted in p a re n ta l love in p artic u la r. W h e n T s u k u e ，s n e m e sis, U tsugi, sees T s u k u e ’s so n b e in g cared for by th e fa m ily serv an t, he b egins to p ity T su k u e a n d h as q u alm s ab o u t carryin g o u t h is v e n d e tta a g a in s t h im . T h e fact th a t U chida^s The Great Bodhisattva Pass en d s w ith a to rm e n te d T su k u e c a llin g o u t for h is so n su g g ests th a t, b y e x p e rie n c in g th e sufferin g s of a p a re n t, T su k u e c a n tak e

The Great Bodhisattva Pass II (1958), directed by Tomu Uchida. This blind sw ordsm an (Chiezo Kataoka), w ho kills m any d u rin g his w anderings, exemplifies the first precept of Buddhism, “Life is Suffering•’’ Strong belief in this precept even dim m ed the Japanese perception of evil.

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on the sufferings of mankind• B uddhist com p assion is thereby channeled through C onfucian ph ilosophy. A lthough the source of this kind of com p a ssio n is different from that of Western hum anism , w h ich originated in the idea that w e are all child ren of God, the outcom e is similar. T h e re lig io u s sig n ifican ce of T he G reat Bodhisattva Pass in film versio n s after th a t of U c h id a v a n ish e d a lm o st entirely. In a 1960 v e rsio n by K enji M isu m i sta rrin g R aizo Ich ik aw a, Dai E i’s m o st h a n d so m e le a d in g m an , th e d ire c to r c o n tin u a lly to o k h ig h -a n g le c lo se -u p s of T s u k u e ,s clo sed eyes. T h is n o t o n ly p ro v id e d a sta rtlin g c o n tra st to Ich ik aw a’s exp ressiv e eyes befo re T s u k u e goes b lin d b u t also evoked B u d d h is t im ages. B ecause of th e ir c lo se d eyes, T anizaki tells us in A P o rtrait of S h u n k in , th e Japanese c a n fin d a b lin d face a e s th e tic a lly p leasin g •5 Still, by b eau tify in g T s u k u e ’s su fferin g , M isu m i d ilu te s its relig io u s m ean in g . The 1966 version by K ihachi Okamoto— the m ost popular outside of Japan— sim p ly reflects the n ih ilism of its director. There are so m any spurts of blood , agonized scream s, and dism em bered arms that the slaughter in T sukue^ m elees becom es ludicrous, and rem iniscent of wartime horrors, w h ic h Okamoto experienced as grotesque. Okam oto’s Tsukue becom es a crystalization of soldiers m ade insane by war and driven to m onstrous acts of cruelty in w h ich they perversely delight. Such a m aniac is beyond suffering. T h ese p o st-U c h id a v e rsio n s seem to reflect a g en eral ten d en cy , for it is d ifficu lt to d isc e rn a stro n g B u d d h is t sen se of su fferin g in Japanese film fro m th e 1960s on. O ne re a so n for th is is th e acceleratin g rate of secula rism in Jap an ese c u ltu re . For U ch id a, b o rn in 1898,6 th e e x p erien ce of W orld W ar II stirre d u p relig io u s s e n tim e n ts h e h a d p ro b ab ly c o n sid e re d fe u d a lis tic in h is y o u n g er days. O n th e o th e r h a n d , for O kam oto, b o rn in 1 9 2 4 / th is e x p e rie n c e sim p ly m ad e h im n ih ilistic . A n o th e r re a so n is afflu en ce in p o stw a r Japan. A lth o u g h th e h isto ric a l B u d d h a reg ard ed su ffe rin g as a s p iritu a l d ise a se (since h e ro o ted it in desires), m o st Japa n e se p a s t a n d p re se n t have n o t m a d e su c h a s h a rp d is tin c tio n b etw een th e s p iritu a l a n d th e p h y sic a l, a n d for th e m — a n d for m an y T h ird W orld p e o p le at p re se n t— su fferin g w as u s u a lly m ateria l in d e e d . S u fferin g is s till d e p ic te d in TV d ram as th a t tra ce th e v ic issitu d e s of a ty p ic a l fa m ily from th e 1920s to th e p re se n t day. B ut th e se len g th y serials seem to reflect n o sta lg ia for p a st sufferin g s a n d in d u lg e n c e in self-pity, ra th e r th a n a n y B u d d h is t p e rc e p tio n of th e h u m a n co n d itio n . W h ile B u d d h is t s e n tim e n ts ab o u t su fferin g d e c lin e d in Japanese film e x p re ssio n , th e B u d d h is t c o n c e p t of p a cificatio n c o n tin u e d to w ork o n Ja p a n ’s m o d e rn a rc h e ty p a l a n tith e se s. In th e p ro cess reb ellio u s se n tim e n ts w ere c o n ta in e d , b u t n o t before th e y re m o ld e d tra d itio n a l arc h e ty p e s to so m e ex ten t, as can be se e n in th e fo llo w in g a sse ssm e n t of p o p u la r icon o g ra p h y o n Jap an ese TV in th e 1980s. T he Loyal R etain er-T o rm en ted L ord d y ad is still in tact, as e v id e n c e d by

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NHK，s Chushingura in 1982, as well as by their dramatic serialization of the story of Y oshitsune and Benkei in 1986. Still, the m ost co n sp icu o u s hero in period dramas on com m ercial TV is the feudal magistrate, m odeled on Kin-san of Toyama or Lord Ooka. W hile on cases, he m ay d isg u ise h im self as a com m oner or as a ya ku za gambler, and thus exhibit a fam iliarity w ith the com m on p eople no other samurai hero can boast. His unfailing popularity can be attributed to the contem porary Japanese penchant for m ysteries, as w ell as to their nostalgia for the days before in ten se m odernization, w h en life was sim pler and p eop le were easy to understand.8 A lthough he is not an advocate of loyalty toward a superior as such, he still recalls benevolent leaders like General Nogi and his feudal antecedents,9 w ho protected the com m on people from the m alevolent pow ers‫־‬that‫־‬be (a reflection of the dichotom y in the Japanese spirit world). The protector-hero in TV period dramas cou ld also be a w andering samurai, w ho resem bles the E xile m uch more than the Vagabond, or a n ih ilistic sw ordsm an. The latter fools around w ith loose w om en , the former, like Kin-san of Toyama, can on ly joke w ith them , and, true to the Chaste Warrior tradition, neither w ou ld conceivab ly lay a hand on a pathetic beauty. The protector-hero in these fairy-tale, period dramas probably does not indicate that present-day Japanese are p olitica lly gullible. On the contrary, their political apathy suggests a rather cyn ical v iew of contem porary governm ent leaders, w h ich resem bles the attitude of the Irresponsible Salaryman toward his superiors. The protector-hero is more lik ely a w ish fulfillm ent im age for the intense d ep en d en cy n eed s that have been fostered since ch ild training and lead even adult Japanese to assum e they can alw ays get h elp in tim e of need, provided they rem ain w ell-behaved m em bers of their society. Even the Angry Young M an has becom e a protector-hero on TV in contem porary p o lice serials, the m ost popular of w h ich are produced by Yujiro Ishihara. T hese young cops are as active as Yujiro in h is prime; however, the object of their anger is not their parents or adult society, but cruel crim inals w ho torm ent the ordinary citizen , w h o se sufferings bring bitter grim aces to their han dsom e m ugs. A lthough it appears that the Angry Young Man sold out to the establishm ent, his con tin u in g presence affected the behavior of the lead in g m an in TV love stories. The Weak Passive M ale still persists, perhaps as an object for the maternal affection of older hou sew ives; however, som e young m ale lovers, albeit shy, are more active than their im m obile predecessors, and m any m id dle-aged lovers are more understanding than weak• In either case, the heroine often com es to the hero, or circum stances bring them together. A Japanese m ale w ho actively pursues w om en still seem s to be considered frivolous or regarded w ith su sp icio n . N evertheless, the hero in contem porary TV love stories does satisfy the heroine; and, even if that

Conclusion

219

sa tisfa c tio n is o n ly tem p o rary , it is m ore th a t th e h e ro in e in W hat is Your N am e? ever got. A s in d ic a te d in th e latter p a rt of th is study, in p o p u la r Japanese icon o g ra p h y re b e llio u s s e n tim e n ts are u s u a lly ex p ressed th ro u g h h e ro in e s ra th e r th a n h e ro e s, a n d a fe u d a l p re c e d e n t ex isted in th e re se n tm e n t of th e V engeful S p irit. F eu d al fem ale avengers c o n tin u e to a p p e a r on TV. In a 1987 d ra m a , T he Five-PetaJJed C am eJia (G ohen n o T subakij, a young girl sets a b o u t k illin g th e m e n w h o c u c k o ld e d h e r b e d rid d e n father. H er re s e n tm e n t, how ever, w as m ore a n e x p re ssio n of filial p ie ty th a n a protest a g a in st a m a le -d o m in a te d society. M ore sig n ifican t is th e fre q u e n t a p p e a ra n c e of career w o m en in TV d ra m a s a b o u t c o n te m p o ra ry life, a n d a good ex am p le is th e series W omen F rie n d s (O n n a T om odachi), w h ic h h a d h ig h ratin g s in 1986. W hile not ex actly a p ro te st, it in d ic a te s th a t tim es have ch an g ed for Japanese w o m en b y p re s e n tin g th e a d v e n tu re s of th re e frie n d s sin c e h ig h sch o o l days. O ne of th e m , th e c h e e rfu l G irl N ext D oor ty p e, e v e n tu a lly o p ts for th e tra d itio n a l ro le of a h o u sew ife. A n o th e r w in d s u p as a career w o m an after lo sin g in love a n d is a m e la n c h o ly v ersio n of th e A ll-S u fferin g Fem ale. T he th ird o n e h as a n affair w ith a m a rrie d m an a n d w in s h im , b u t she d e c id e s to let h im go b ecau se h e r career is m ore im p o rta n t for her. W hile th e first tw o w o m e n sh o w th a t tra d itio n a l n o rm s are still strong, th e th ird d e m o n stra te s th a t n o w ad ay s th e re are altern ativ es, for n o th in g in th e tre a tm e n t of h e r ch a ra c te r suggests th a t sh e is a b ad w o m an for eith er s le e p in g w ith a m a rrie d m a n or for d e c id in g a career is m ore im p o rta n t th a n m arriag e. A lth o u g h co n serv ativ e Japanese m ales m ay still sp eak of career w o m e n w ith d e risio n , th e ir fre q u e n t a p p e a ra n c e o n p rim e-tim e TV in d ic a te s th a t a c o n sid e ra b le n u m b e r of su c h w o m en are am o n g th e view ers, a n d th a t th e ir im age re p re se n ts a v iab le role m o d e l th a t d ev elo p ed from W estern in flu e n c e a n d from th e m e ta m o rp h o se s u n d e rg o n e by th e G irl N ext D oor a n d th e E a rth y W om an. W h ile th e c o n te m p o ra ry d ra m a o n TV h a s e x p re s s e d so m e so c ia l c h a n g e , th e p e rio d d ra m a seem s to have re m a in e d conservative. Still, th e th e m e of loyalty to a su p e rio r— th e co rn e rsto n e of th e o ld co m m ercial p e rio d film — h a s b e e n c o n sid e ra b ly d e ‫־‬e m p h a siz e d in favor of h o m ilies a b o u t fa m ilia l a n d n e ig h b o rly ties. T his in d ic a te s th at, in th e v alu e system of c o n te m p o ra ry Japanese, th e fam ily h as b eco m e m o re im p o rta n t th a n th e polity. C u rre n t TV d ra m a s a b o u t sa la ry m e n c o n c u r b y d ep ic tin g h u sb a n d s a n d fath ers w h o are fo rced to p ay m ore a tte n tio n to fam ilies th ey h a d b e e n n e g le c tin g for th e sake of c o m p a n y loyalty. F u rth erm o re, th e freq u en t tre a tm e n t of o ld age p ro b le m s in TV fam ily d ram as suggests th a t Japanese th in k th is is th e ir m o st c ru c ia l so cial p ro b lem . T h ro u g h th e suffering of th e aged in th e se d ra m a s— re m in is c e n t of th a t of th e m o th e r in S a n sh o the Bailiff, b u t n o t so e n n o b lin g — th e ir so n s a n d d au g h ters are im p e a c h e d an d th e o ld C o n fu c ia n v irtu e of filial p ie ty is reaffirm ed.

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Japanese a rc h e ty p e s on p re se n t-d a y TV are th e foci of tra d itio n a l a n d m o d e rn se n tim e n ts , a n d th ey have b een m o d ified th ro u g h d ia le c tic ten sion a n d pacificatio n . Jo sep h L• A n d e rso n h as stated th a t th e p e rio d d ra m a is a m egagenre e x p re sse d in film s, plays, a n d b ooks, a n d h e h a s lik e n e d it to a cosm os w h o se n arrativ es ch an g e w ith tim e .10 T h e sam e c a n be sa id for p o p u la r Japanese ic o n o g ra p h y in toto. It is c o m p o se d of c o n s te lla tio n s of o ld a n d young stars n o w e x istin g in a state of h a rm o n y ra th e r th a n of ten sio n . T he Loyal R etain er a n d th e A ngry Young M an b o th have th e ir p lace in th is u n iv erse, a n d n e ith e r has p rio rity over th e other, s in c e b o th have been m o d ified a c c o rd in g to th e ir tim es. T he d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n tra d itio n a l a n d m o d e rn m ay be sig n ific a n t o n ly for th e Ja p a n o p h ile . If a Japanese w ere to ld th a t th e y o u n g Y ujiro hero w as W estern in o rig in , he w o u ld just sh ak e h is h e a d a n d say Y ujiro Ish ih a ra is Jap an ese. Y ujiro b elongs ju st as m u c h as O ish i or M usash i. W ith se c u la riz a tio n a n d th e loss of an e m p e ro r-c e n te re d n a tio n a lism , Japanese c u ltu ra l id e n tity b ecam e m a in ly b a se d o n a stro n g se n se of affiliation, ra th e r th a n on a b elief in stro n g p rin c ip le s . A ll th e p o stw a r books w ritte n a b o u t th is c u ltu ra l id en tity , th e so -called N ih o n jin -ro n , w ere sim p ly ra tio n a liz a tio n s of affiliation , p ro d u c e d to fill th e gap s resu lting from th e d e c lin e of m a n y tra d itio n a l v alu es. T h is stro n g se n se of affiliation is b ased u p o n th e in te n se d e p e n d e n c y n e e d s of a g ro u p -o rie n te d p eo p le w h o equate au to n o m y w ith lo n e lin e ss a n d ca n d e p e n d o n ly o n th e ir ow n. It is th e key to th e m o d e rn Jap an ese c u ltu ra l id e n tity , as w ell as th e g u id in g p rin c ip le in th e ir c o n te m p o ra ry p o p u la r ico n o g rap h y . P o p u lar Japanese iconography, w h ic h a tta in e d fu ll b lo o m in th e ir com m ercial cin e m a a n d c o n tin u e s to be v iab le o n TV, reflects th e fact th a t Japanese c u ltu re h as c h a n g e d co n sid erab ly , e sp e c ia lly w ith in th e last h u n d re d years. A fter a n titra d itio n a l s e n tim e n ts w ere ex p re sse d , th e y w ere m o d ified a n d th e re b y c o n ta in e d . T his c o n ta in m e n t, alo n g w ith th e persisten ce of som e tra d itio n a l s e n tim e n ts, in d ic a te s th e co n serv ativ e sid e of a m e d iu m like co m m ercial cin e m a a n d of m o d e rn Jap an ese c u ltu re in g eneral. S u b m issio n is still en co u rag ed , b u t n o t n e c e ssa rily in a h ierarch ical context. T he sacrifice of th e m o d e rn yakuza hero w as m a d e m o re for h is group th a n for h is boss. T he A ngry Young M an w as p u n is h e d for satisfying d esires th a t m o st view ers can o n ly su b lim ate. E nvy w as ju st as im p o rta n t a m o tiv atio n for h is c o n ta in m e n t as th e driv e to c o n tro l o th ers. In sh o rt, th e ty ra n n y of m a n y over one h as to be c o n sid e re d , alo n g w ith th e lackey m e n ta lity of s u b m issio n to th e p o w ers-th at-b e, in a n y e v a lu a tio n of th e conservative fu n c tio n of c o m m ercial c in e m a in Japan a n d e lse w h e re . O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e fact th a t n e w h ero es a n d h e ro in e s are a n in te g ra l p a rt of th e p o p u la r ic o n o g ra p h y a n d p ro v id e altern ate role m o d e ls d em o n • s，rates th e progressive sid e of Jap an ’s c o m m ercial cinem a• T he so cia l sig n ificance of all th is can be sh o w n th ro u g h a b rief referen ce to A m e ric a n film h isto ry . M o v ies p r a is in g ro m a n tic a n d c o n ju g a l lo v e, a n d th o s e

Conclusion

221

g lo rify in g y o u th , e v e n tu a lly h a d a p a rt in ch an g in g th e v alu e sy stem of th e c h ild re n of im m ig ra n ts (w h o se a n c e sto rs u s u a lly p riz e d fam ilial ties above all else) a n d of ru ra l y o u th s w ith a p u rita n ic a l b ack g ro u n d . W h en M arlo n B ran d o a n d Jam es D ean b egan p la y in g th e A ngry Y oung M an in th e 1950s, th e y d o u b tle s s p ro v id e d ro le m o d e ls fo r m a n y y o u th s w h o re b e lle d a g a in st th e ir p a re n ts a n d co n serv ativ e so c ie ty in g en eral. S u ch y o u th fu l p ro te st, even if d e lin q u e n t, h a d its p a rt in th e C ivil R ights m o v em en t an d th e a n tiw a r d e m o n stra tio n s, as w ell as in th e sex rev o lu tio n th ro u g h o u t th e 1970s. By th e sam e to k e n ，Jap an ’s A ngry Young M an also served as a m o d e l of p ro te st for th e Jap an ese s tu d e n t m o v em en t th ro u g h th e 1960s, a n d p e rh a p s th e m o re lib e ra l a ttitu d e to w ard sex in p re se n t-d a y Japan is a c o n c e s sio n to th a t protest. T h e d e v e lo p m e n t of Jap an ese c in e m a d e m o n stra te s th a t reb ellio u s sen tim e n ts c o u ld b e ex p re sse d as long as th e resu lts w ere co m m ercial. W hen le ftist m o v ies m a d e m o n e y in th e early 1930s a n d in th e 1 9 6 0 s,11 Japanese film s tu d io s d id not h e sita te to m ake th e m . Id eo lo g ical co n tro l u su a lly to o k th e form of c e n s o rs h ip in ste a d of p re sc rip tio n . If ex p re ssio n w en t too far, it w as c u rb e d a n d th e a n tith e tic a l a rc h e ty p e s w ere c o n ta in e d to m ain ta in e q u ilib riu m in th e m a in stre a m cu ltu re . T h e ir c o n tin u in g ex isten ce in th e p o p u la r ico n o g rap h y , how ever, sh o w ed th a t th e b o u n d a rie s of p erm itted b e h a v io r h a d b e e n e x te n d e d . O n e still h a d to co n fo rm to th e ty ra n n y of m a n y over o n e a n d of th e p o w e rs‫־‬th a t‫־‬be, b u t o n ly after ch o o sin g from a w id e r ran g e of ro le m o d e ls. C o n sequen tly , c o n te m p o ra ry Jap an ese have m o re freed o m th a n d id th e ir an c e sto rs. T h e ir p o p u la r ic o n o g rap h y n o t o n ly reflects th is, b u t also, th ro u g h its m e ta m o rp h o se s, h a d a p a rt in th e ir p ro g ressiv e d e v e lo p m e n t.

Notes Introduction 1 • Mircea Eliade， flites and Symbols of Initiation: The Mysteries pf Birth and Rebirth, trans. Willard R. Trask (New York: Harper and Row, 1975). 2. Joseph L. Anderson and Donald Richie, The Japanese Film: Art and Indus‫־‬ try (New York: Grove Press, 1960). 3. Donald Richie, Japanese Cinema: Film Style and National Character (New York: Doubleday Anchor, 1971).I write “1961” in the text because this volume is based on Japanese Movies (Tokyo: Japan TYavel Bureau, 1961) and the generaliza‫־‬ tions I make apply to both publications. 4. Joan Mellen, The Waves at Genji's Door: Japan through Its Cinema (New York: Pantheon Books, 1976). 5. Audie Bock, Japanese Film Directors (Tokyo: Kodansha International, 1978). 6. Noel Burch, To the Distant Observer: Form and Meaning in the Japanese Cinema (London: Scolar Press, 1979). 7. Keiko I. McDonald, Cinema East: A Critical Study of Major Japanese Films (Rutherford, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1983). 8. Donald Richie, The Films of Akira Kurosawa (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1965). (There is a 1984 revised edition, same press.) 9. Donald Richie, Ozu: His Life and Films (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1974). 10. Keiko I. McDonald, Mizoguchi (Boston: Twayne, 1984). 11. Bock, Japanese Film Directors, p. 9. 12. Alain Silver, The Samurai FiJm, rev• ed. (Woodstock, N.Y•: Overlook Press, 1983)• 13. David Desser, The Samurai Films of Akira Kurosawa (Ann Arbor, Mich.: UMI Research Press, 1983). 14. Tadao Sato, Currents in Japanese Cinema, trans. Gregory Barrett (Tokyo: Kodansha International,1982)• 15. Richie, Japanese Cinema, pp. 61-62. 16. Ibid., p. 69. 17. Ibid., pp. 61—62. 18. Harumi Befu, Japan: An Anthropological Introduction (San Francisco: Chandler, 1971),p. 52. 19. Richie, Japanese Cinema, p. xxvi. 20. Richard N. TVicker, Japan: Film Image (London: Studio Vista, 1973). 21. Paul Schrader, Transcendental Style in FiJm; Ozu, Bresson, Dreyer (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1972). 22. Burch, To the Distant Observer, p .16. 23. Desser, Samurai Films of Kurosawa, pp. 5-8. 24. Anderson and Richie, Japanese Film, pp. 315-31. 25• Ibid., pp. 315—16. 222

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26. Ian Buruma, A Japanese Mirror; Heroes and Villains of Japanese Culture (London: Jonathan Cape, 1984). Published in the U.S. as Behind the Mask: On Sexual Demons, Sacred Mothers, Transvestites, Gangsters, Drifters, and Other Japanese Cultural Heroes (New York: Pantheon Books, 1984). 27. Robert N. Bellah, Beyond Belief: Essays on Religion in a Post-Traditional World (New York: Harper and Row,1976), p p .118-24. 28. Èobert N• Bellah， ToJcugcuva fleiigion: The Values pf Pre-Industriai Japan (Glencoe, 111.: The Free Press, 1957), p . 18. 29. C. G. Jung, Collected Works, v o l.9, part 1 , The Archetypes and the CoJJective Unconscious, trans. R. F. C. Hull, 2nd ed. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968), p. 4. 30. Ibid., p. 5. 3 1 . Ibid., p . 153. 32. Ibid., p. 38. 33. Man and His Symbols, ed. with introduction Carl G. Jung (New York: Dell Laurel, 1968). p. 83. 34. Ibid., p. 68. 35. Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary (Springfield, Mass., 1975), p. 58. 36. Jung, The Archetypes aiid the Collective Unconscious, pp. 3-4. 37. Bellah, in a lecture at the University of California at Berkeley, 1976. 38. Bellah, Tokugavva Religion, p .197. 39. Joseph Campbell, The Mythic Image (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974), p. 356. 40. Joseph Campbell, The Hero with a Thousand Faces, 2nd ed. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968), p. 382. 41. Emile Durkheim, On Morality and Society, ed. with introduction R. N. Bellah (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1973), p .191. 42. James Frazer, The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion, abridged ed. (London: Macmillan Press, 1922), pp. 65-66. 43. Campbell, The Mythic Image, pp. 430-31.

Chapter 1 . The Loyal Retainer and the Tormented Lord 1. Joseph L. Anderson and Donald Richie pointed out the division into two main genres in The Japanese Film: Art and Industry (New York: Grove Press, 1960), p. 48. I cannot say that half of the heroes were feudal because period film production was greatly reduced in the 1940s. See Tadao Sato, Currents in Japanese Cinema, trans. Gregory Barrett (Tokyo: Kodansha International, 1982), p. 38. 2• Ivan Morris， The Nobility 0/* Failure: Tragic Heroes in the History qf Japan (Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, 1982). 3. George Sansom, A History of Japan to 1334 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1958), p. 94. 4. Donald Keene notes in the introduction to his translation of Kanadehon Chushingura that there were only forty-six retainers involved but that an “honorary‫ ״‬forty-seventh was included in most accounts. See Chushingura (The Treasury of Loyal Retainers), (Tokyo: Charles E. T\1ttle, 1981), pp. 1-6. 5. Tadao Sato, Chushingura: Iji no keifu (Chushingura; Genealogy of Honor) (Tokyo: Asahi S en sh o,1976), p. 96. 6. Ibid., p. 30. 7. George Sansom, A History of Japan, 1334-1615 (Stanford: Stanford University Press， 1961)， p •152—53• 8• Ibid.， p. 343•

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9. John W. Hall and Richard K. Beardsley, Twelve Doors to Japan (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965), p . 148. 10. Tadao Sato, Currents in Japanese Cinema, p p .1 6 -1 7. 11. Alain Silver, The Samurai Film, rev. ed. (Woodstock, N.Y.: Overlook Press, 1983), p •17. 12. Ivan Morris, The Nobility of Failure, p. 371n. 13. Tadao Sato, Chushingura: Iji no kei/u, p .11. 14. Ibid. 15. Ibid., p. 33. 16. Silver, The Samurai Film, p. 35. 17. Keene, Chushingura, pp. 3 4 ‫ ־‬. 18. Tadao Sato, Chushingura: "i ‫ סת‬keifu ， p p .13-15• 19. Ibid., pp. 57-60. Sato mentions not only craftsmen but all levels of Japanese society. 20. Ibid., pp. 88-90. 2 1 . Ibid., pp. 99-104. 22. Chie Nakane, Japanese Society (London: Penguin, 1973), p. 74n. 23. David Desser, The Samurai Films of Akira Kurosawa (Ann Arbor, Mich.: UMI Research Press, 1983), p. 24. 24. Joan Mellen, The Waves at Genjifs Door: Japan through Its Cinema (New York: Pantheon, 1976), pp. 31—32. 25. Tadao Sato in program notes for Shozo Makino film festival,FC (Tokyo National Museum of Modern Art Film Center), no. 49,1978, p. 42. 26. Tadao Sato, Chushingura; Iji no keifu, p p .1 0 1 ,106. 27. Ibid., p . 163. 28. Tadao Sato, in conversation. 29. Anderson and Richie, The Japanese Film, p . 138. 30. Rikiya Tayama, Waga taiken teki: Nihon goraku eiga-shi—Senzen-hen (My Experiential View of the History of Japanese Popular Movies—prewar vol.) [Tokyo: Gendai Kyoyo Bunko, 1980), p . 106. 3 1 . Tadao Sato, Chushingura: Iji no kei/u, pp. 117-120, 223. 32. Robert J. Smith, Ancestor Worship in Contemporary Japan (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1974) pp. 21-23. 33. Film directors often showed Oishi,s strong sense of affiliation by close-ups of the Asano family crest on his clothing. Even in the 1982 NHK TV version a close-up of this crest was employed during Oishi^ seppuku scene. 34. Donald Richie, The FiJms qf Akira Kurosawa (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1965), p. 31. 35. Ian Buruma, A Japanese Mirror: Heroes and Villains of Japanese Culture (London: Jonathan Cape, 1984), pp. 132-35. 36. Tadao Sato, Currents in Japanese Cinema, p . 16. 37. Masatoshi Ohba in program notes for ToEi film festival, FC, no. 6 9 ,1 9 8 1 ,p. 24. 38. Showa-shi jiten (Dictionary of Showa Period History, 1925 —) (Tokyo: Mainichi Shinbunsha, 1980), p. 263. 39. Siegfried Kracauer, From CaJigari to HitJer: A PsychoJogicaJ History 0/ the German Film (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974), p. 53. 40. Tadao Sato, Kimi wa jidai geki eiga 0 mita ka [Have you seen a Period Drama Movier) (Tokyo: Jyacometei Shuppan, 1977), p . 186. 4 1 . Ohba, FC, no. 6 9 ,1 9 8 1 ,p. 24. 4 2 • 1adao Sato, Currents in Japanese Cinema, pp. 3 8 3 9 ‫ ־‬. 43. Quoted by Tadao Sato and Chieo Yoshida in Chambara eiga-shi (History of Japanese Swordfighting Movies) (Tokyo: Hoga Shoten, 1972), pp. 178-80.

Notes

225

44. Tadao Sato, Currents in Japanese Cinema, p. 253. 45• Tadao Sato, “Ito Daisuke-ron” （Essay on Daisuke Ito), FC, no• 40,1977, p. 6• 46. Ibid., pp. 6-7. 47. Quoted by Hayao Kawai in Mukashi banashi to nihonjin no kokoro (Folk Tales and the Japanese Psyche) (Tokyo: Iwanami S h o ten ,1982). pp. 243-44. 48. Hayao Kawai, Mukashi banashi to nihonjin no kokoro, pp. 240-49. 49. Silver, The Sam urai Film, p. 94. 50. Tadao Sato, Currents in Japanese Cinema, p. 259.

Chapter 2. The Chaste Warrior 1• Musashi Miyamoto, The Book qf Five flings ÍGorin no sho), trans, and commentary Nihon Services Corporation (New York: Bantam, 1982), p. xvi, pp. 5 6. 2. N H K Dorama Gaido— Miyamoto Musashi (NHK Drama Guide: Musashi Miyamoto) (Tokyo: Nippon Hoso Shuppan Kyokai, 1984), pp. 130-33. 3• The Tale of The Heike (Heike monogatarij, trans, kiroshi Kitagawa and Bruce Tsuchida, v o l.2, (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1977), pp. 433-35. 4. The Taiheiki: A Chronicle of Medieval Japan, trans, with introduction and notes Helen Craig McCullough (Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, 1979). 5. N H K Rekishi e no shotai (NHK*s Invitation to History), v o l . 4, (Tokyo: Nippon Hoso Shuppan Kyokai, 1980), p. 57. 6. Koji Kata, 1*Yoshikawa Eiji ízen no Musashi-zo‫( ״‬The Image of Musashi Before Eiji Yoshikawa), Rekishi yomihon (May 1984): 120-27. 7. Ibid., p . 124. 8. Ibid., p . 125. 9. N H K Drama Guide, pp. 130-32. 10• Kata, “Image of Musashi Before Yoshikawa，” p . 121• 11. Eiji Yoshikawa, Musashi, trans. Charles Terry with foreword by Edwin Reischauer (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1981),p. ix. 12. Mircea Eliade, Rites and Symbols of Initiation: The Mysteries of Birth and Rebirth, trans. Willard Trask (New York: Harper and Row, 1975), pp. 134-35. 13. Ibid., pp. 7-10. 14. Kojikittrans, with introduction and notes Donald Philippi (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1977), pp. 79-86. 15. Eliade in Rites and Symbols 0/ initiation (pp. 81-84) gives examples of warriors who are strong because they act like wild animals; but in Musashi's case he must be tamed to become a better warrior. 16. Kojiki, trans. Philippi, pp. 88-92. 17. Dokyumento Showa seso-shi一senzen-hen (A Social History of the Showa era from 1925 to 1937), ed. Kenzo Nakashima (Tokyo: Heibonsha, 1975), p. 9. 18. Tadao Sato, ^Musashi to Kojiro‫ ״‬in N H K Rekishi e no shotai, v o l.4, pp. 9697• 19• Genzo Murakami and Tadachika Kuwata, “Ketto Ganryujima” （Duel at the Isle of Ganryu) in N H K Rekishi e no shotai, v o l.4, p. 67. 20 • Kata, “Image of Musashi Before Yoshikawa，” p . 122• 2 1 . Musashi Miyamoto, The Book 0/ Five flings, pp. 34 ，43. “Mindless consciousness‫ ״‬is my translation of munen muso. 22 • Kata, “Image of Musashi Before Yoshikawa,” p •122• 23. Ibid. 24. NHK Drama Guide, pp. 132-33. 25. Ibid.

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26. Alain Silver in The Samurai Film (Woodstock, N.Y.: Overlook Press, 1983) claims (p. 96 ) there is another 1954 Musashi film version, but I could not find any Japanese record of it, nor the name of its supposed director, Yasuo Kohata. There is a Yasuo Furuhata listed in Kinema Juinpo’s Nihon eiga kantolcu zenshu (Dictionary of Japanese Film Directors), but he did not begin directing films until 1966. I suspect Silver is referring to some TV drama on Musashi that was shown in the movie theater circuit in the U.S. 27. David Desser, The Samurai Films 0/ Akira Kurosawa (Ann Arbor, Mich.: UMI Research Press,1983), p. 40. 28. Ironically, in the U.S. in the 1950s the works of D. T. Suzuki were popularizing Zen among beatniks and intellectuals. 29 . Donald Richie, Japcinese Cinema: Film Style cind NationaJ Character (New York: Doubleday Anchor, 1971),p. 45. 30. Nihon eiga kantoku zenshu (Dictionary of Japanese Film Directors) (Tokyo: Kinema Jumposha, 1976), pp. 67-68. 31. As there is hardly any Zen in Uchida’s Musashi, it is curious that it was released in the U.S. as Zen and Sword. 32. Enlightenment consists of realizing one’s own Buddha nature, which is similar to the belief of some Christian mystics that the Kingdom of God is within every individual. 33. It is strange that some U.S. businessmen regard Musashi as a model for Japan’s economic success. Uchida’s Musashi, for example, is closer to exemplifying America’s old rugged individualism. 34• The term “worthy opponent” seems to be my own; however， Alain Silver has noted in The Samurai Film (p. 8 1 ) that a climactic duel with an extremely skillful opponent is characteristic of the Samurai Film genre. 35. Desser, The Samurai Films of Kurosawa, p.111. 36. In regard to the slaying of the thirteen-year-old, Desser in The Samurai Films of Kurosawa claims that the moral rightness of Musashi,s actions is never questioned (p. 41). On the contrary, in most film versions Musashi is refused sanctuary at a Buddhist temple because of his action. Still,I agree with Desser that, in general, mythical warriors are beyond morality. 37. Mencius, trans, with introduction D. C. Lau (London: Penguin Books, 1970), pp. 82-83. 38• Joseph Campbell, The Mythic Image (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974), p. 8. 39. Joseph Campbell, The Hero ivith a Thousand Faces, 2nd ed. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968), p. 332. 40. James Frazer, The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion, abridged ed. (London: Macmillan Press, 1922), pp. 65-66. 4 1 . Ibid., p .13. 42. Kojikittrans. Philippi, pp. 238-39. 43• Nilion e】ga saJcuhin zenshu (Dictionary of Japanese Films) (Tokyo: Kinema Jumposha, 1973), p. 90. 44. Ibid. 45. Ibid., p. 202. 46. Alain Silver in The Samurai Film also treats this interesting character (pp. 86—94) and labels him an alien hero, rather than a composite type as I do. 47. Tadao Sato, Currents in Japanese Cinema, trans. Gregory Barrett (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1982), p. 47. J 48. Ibid., p. 46. 49. Ibid., pp. 46-49. 50. Campbell, Mythic Image, p. 42.

Notes

227

5 1 . Somewhat similar conclusions about Seven Samurai are drawn by Silver in The Sam urai Film (pp. 48—49) and by Desser in The Samurai Films of Kurosawa (pp. 91 一92). 52. Donald Richie, The Films qf Akira Kurosawa (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1965), p .108.

Chapter 3. Yakuza Heroes 1 . Tadao Sato, Currents in Japanese Cinema, trans. Gregory Barrett (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1982), p. 51. 2• George A. Òe Vos, Socialization for Achievement: Essays on the Cuiturai Psychology of the Japanese (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1975), pp. 282-83n. 3. Tadao Sato, Currents in Japanese Cinema, p. 259. 4. A notable exception is Zatoichi, who will be treated in chapter 4. 5. De Vos, Socialization for Achievement, pp. 285-86. 6. Ian Buruma, A Japanese Mirror: Heroes and Villains of Japanese Culture (London: Jonathan Cape, 1984), p . 167. 7. Koji Kata, Nihon no yakuza (Japanese Gangsters) (Tokyo: Taiwa Shobo, 1964), p. 20. 8. De Vos, SociaJization/or Achievement, pp. 286-87. 9. Ibid., pp. 288-93. 10. Sato, Currents in Japanese Cinema, p. 39. 11• Nihon eiga sakumn zenshu (Dictionary of Japanese Films) (Tokyo: Kinema Jumposha, 1973), p . 104. 12. Donald Richie, The Films of Akira Kurosawa (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1965), pp. 16-17. 13. The term “admirable ally” seems to be my own. 14. Nihon eiga sakuhin zenshu, pp. 132-33. 15. M asatoshi Ohba in program notes for ToEi film festival,FC (Tokyo National M useum of M odern Art Film Center), no. 71,1982, p. 26. 16. Masao Maruyama, Studies in the JnteiJectuai History qf Tokugawa Japan, trans. Mikiso Hane (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1974), p . 195. 17. Nihon eiga sakuhin zenshu, pp. 193-94. 18. Nihon eiga haiyu zenshu—Danyu-hen (Dictionary of Japanese Film Actors) (Tokyo: Kinema Jumposha, 1979), p. 375. 19. Ohba, FC, no. 71,1982, p. 36. 20. Nihon eiga haiyu zenshu—Danyu-hen, p. 291. 2 1 . Ibid., pp. 648-49. 22. Shoshi Okajima in program notes for ToEi film festival, FC. no. 71,1982, p. 39. 23. Buruma, A Japanese Mirror, p .171. 24. Ibid., p . 175. 25. James Frazer, The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion, abridged ed. (London: Macmillan Press, 1922), p. 469. 26. David Desser, in The Samurai Films of Akira Kurosawa (Ann Arbor, Mich.: UMI Research Press, 1983) makes the same “mistake” （ p •136)• 27. Frazer in The Golden Bough gives numerous examples of substitution in sacrifices. 28. Sato, Currents in Japanese Cinema, p. 52. 29. Ezra F. Vogel in /apan,s N e w Middle Class, 2nd ed. (Berkeley and Los

228

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Angeles: University of California Press, 1971) gives a good description of a salaryman’s company gang (pp. 103-9)• 30. In some yakuza films, core members of a gang have parts of a dragon tattoo on their back, which they join together, shoulder to shoulder, for the final melee. 3 1 . De Vos, Socialization for Achievement, p. 277. 32. Kurt Singer, quoted by Buruma in A Japanese Mirror, p .189. 33. Sato, Currents in Japanese Cinema, pp. 52-53.

Chapter 4. Wanderer 1 . Shoko Watanabe has stated in Japanese Buddhism (Tokyo: Japan Cultural Society, 1968) that “the important factor which relates most Japanese to a Buddhist temple is that the graves of his ancestors are there (p .119).‫״‬ 2. Kojiki, trans, with introduction and notes Donald L. Philippi (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1977), pp. 85-92. 3 • Ivan Morris, The Nobility qf Failure: Tragic Heroes in the History oHapan (Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, 1982), pp. 41-66. 4. Tadao Sato and Chieo Yoshida in Chambara eiga-shi (History of Japanese Swordfighting Movies) (Tokyo: Hoga Shoten, 1972), p. 69• 5. Tadao Sato, Hasegawa Shin-ron (Essays on Shin Hasegawa) (Tokyo; Chuokoronsha, 1975), p. 35. 6. Ibid., p. 39. 7. Ibid.， pp. 287—88. 8. Ibid., p. 287. 9• Ian Buruma treats this film under the title “Mother Behind My Eyes” in A Japanese Mirror: Heroes and Villains of Japanese Culture (London: Jonathan Cape, 1984), pp. 26-28. 10. Modern yakuza heroes are also usually orphans whose boss is a father substitute, and they often pine for a dead mother who has a greater hold on them than any pathetic beauty. 1 1 . Sato, Hasegawa Shin-ron, p. 20. 12. Although there is an extant print of the 1929 version directed by Kichiro Tsuji, the 1966 version is treated here because the loneliness of the Hasegawa exile is deepened on account of the romantic interest that only a postwar period film director could develop fully. 13. While some of the film treatments in the 1960s of Hasegawa stories were technically superb, their heroes could not compete in popularity with the modern yakuza hero. There were considered old-fashioned, but their motif was still viable, particularly in modern dress. 14. Tadao Sato in program notes for Shozo Makino film festival,FC (Tokyo National Museum of Modern Art Film Center), no. 49,1978, p. 54. 15. Sato, Hasegawa Shin-ron, p. 299. 16. Tadao Sato, Chushingura: Iji no keifu (Chushingura: Genealogy of Honor) (Tokyo: Asahi Sensho, 1976)， pp. 128—29. 17. Eigashi-jo besuio 200 shiriizu—Nihon eiga (The Great Films of the World— Japan) (Tokyo: Kinema Jumposha, 1982), p. 298. 18. Alain Silver in The Samurai Film, rev. ed. (Woodstock, N.Y.: Overlook Press, 1983) treats Zatoichi as an ‫״‬alien hero,‫ ״‬but seems unaware that he is a yakuza (pp. 76—83). 19. Nihon eiga sakuhin zenshu (Dictionary of Japanese Films) (Tokyo: Kinema Jumposha， 1973), p. 254.

Notes

229

20. Jippensha Ikku, Shonk,s More (The Tokaido volumes of Hizokurige) trans. Thomas Satchell (Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, 1960), p. 237. 2 1 . The thirty-seventh entry came out in January 1987. 22. George A. De Vos, Sociolizotion for Achievement: Essoys on the Culturol Psychology 0/ the /oponese (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1975), pp. 282-84. 23. Buruma in A Jopanese Mirror gives a detailed treatment of Tora-san (pp. 209-18). I cannot agree with his conclusion that he is popular because he appeals to the modern Japanese sense of self-satisfaction. One Japanese told me that Torasan behaved humanely as modern Japanese should, and thus is an ideal rather than an object of pity. 24. Joseph L. Anderson and Donald Richie, The /aponese Film: Art ond Industry (New York: Grove Press, 1960), p. 99. 25• Noel Carroll, “The Gold Rush,” Wide Angle 3, no. 2 [1979):42-49. 26• Tadao Sato, “The Comedy of Ozu and Chaplin—A Study in Contrast,” Wide Angle 3, no. 2 (1979):51. 27. For example, Tadao Sato in Currents in /oponese Cinemo, trans. Gregory Barrett (Tokyo: Kodansaha Inti., 1982), p. 243. 28. Keiko I. McDonald in Mizoguchi (Boston: Twayne, 1984) also observes that Oharu became like a forgiving Buddha (p .115). 29. Webster's New Collegiote Dictionary (Springfield, Mass., 1975), p. 870. 30. Ichiro Hori, Nihon no shaomonizumu (Japanese Shamanism) (Tokyo: Kodansha Gendai Shinsho, 1971), pp. 197-98. 3 1 . Joseph K. Yamagiwa, **Literature and Japanese Culture,‫ ״‬in John W. Hall and Richard K. Beardsley, Twelve Doors to /opan (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965), p. 252.

Chapter 5. Vengeful Spirit 1 . Shoko Watanabe, /oponese Buddhism (Tokyo: Japan Cultural Society, 1968), p. 83. 2. Tadao Sato, Chushinguro: Iji no kei/u (Chushingura: Genealogy of Honor) (Tokyo: Asahi Sensho, 1976), p . 119. 3• Ivan Morris, The Nobility qf Foilure: Trogic Heroes in the History pf Japon (Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, 1982), pp. 5 9 6 1 ‫ ־‬. 4. Iwao Nikura, an expert on Japanese spiritualism, made this observation in 1982 on a popular TV show called “Anata no Shiranai Sekai” [The World You Do Not Know). 5. Kojiki, trans, with introduction and notes Donald L. Philippi (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1977), pp. 64-67. 6. Ian Buruma, A /oponese Mirror: Heroes ond Villoins of /oponese Culture (London: Jonathan Cape, 1984), p. 47. 7. Akiko Baba, Oni no kenkyu (Research on Demons) (Tokyo: San-ichi Shobo, 1971), pp. 7-8, 160-63. 8. Murasaki Shikibu, Genji monogotori (The Tale of Genji) trans. Edward G. Seidensticker, v o l.1 (Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, 1978), pp. 71-73. 9. Ibid., pp. 497-98. 10 • Watanable， Jopanese Buddhism, p. 84• 1 1 . Masatoshi Ohba in program notes for Horror film festival,FC (Tokyo National Museum of Modern Art Film Center), no. 41,1977, p. 30. 12. Seicho Matsumoto and Kiyoyuki Higuchi, Tokyo no tobi (Tokyo Trips) (Tokyo: Kobunsha, 1966), pp. 80-81.

230

A R C H E T Y P E S IN JA PA N ESE FILM

13. Ibid., p. 75. 14. Donald Keene, World Within WoJJs: Joponese Literoiure of the Pre-Modem Ero 1600—1867 (New York: Holt, Rinehart and W inston,1976), pp. 468-69. 15. Ibid” p. 457. 16. Buruma, A Jopanese Mirror, pp. 88-89. 17. Ohba, FC, no. 4 1 ,p. 30. 18. C. G. Jung, Collected Works, v o l.9, part 1 , The Archetypes ond the CoJJective Unconscious, trans. R. F. C. Hull, 2nd ed. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968). p. 75. 19. Mencius, trans, with introduction D. C. Lau (London: Penguin, 1970), p. 195. 20. Tadao Sato, Hasegowo Shin-ron (Essays on Shin Hasegawa) (Tokyo: Chuokoronsha, 1975), pp. 191-94. 21. The explanation of the anima in the text is adapted from that found in Mon and His Symbols, ed. C. G. Jung (New York: Dell Laurel, 1968), pp. 186-98. 22. Jung， The Archetypes ond ihe Coiieciive Unconscious, p. 82. 23. Erich Neumann presented copious examples in The Greoi Mother: An AnoJysis of the Archetype, trans. Ralph Manheim (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972), pp. 120-208. 24. Hayao Kawai, Mukoshi banoshi io nihon/in no kokoro (Folk Tales and the Japanese Psyche) (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1982), pp. 49—51. 25. Keiko I. McDonald in Cinemo Eost: A Criticol Study 0/ Mojor Japonese Films (Rutherford, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1983) has observed that through dissolves and fades Mizoguchi lets the natural and supernatural in JJgetsu interact smoothly (pp. 108-9). Her interpretation is certainly valid, but in the end the viewer realizes that not only the aristocratic lady but also the potter’s wife was supernatural. 26. Keiko I. McDonald, Mizoguchi (Boston: Twayne, 1984), p .124. 27. Nihon eigo sokuhin zenshu (Dictionary of Japanese Films) (Tokyo: Kinema Jumposha, 1973), p. 224. 28. Shoshi Okajima in program notes for ToEi film festival,FC, no. 71,1982, p. 38. 29. While analyzing ancient mythology, C. G. Jung surmised that the eye could stand for female genitals, in Collected Works, v o l.5, Symbols 0/ Trons/ormotion, trans. R. F. C. Hull, 2nd ed. (Princeton: Princeton University Press,1967), p. 268. 30. Akiko Baba, Oni no kenkyu, pp. 4 5 4 6 ‫׳־‬. 3 1 . Ibid., p. 248. 32. Ibid., pp. 119—223. 33. George A. De Vos, SocioJizotion /or Achievement: Essoys on the CuJiuroJ Psychology of the Joponese (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1975), p. 269. 34. Even though many Japanese claim they are a homogeneous society, the plight of resident Koreans and other minorities attracts more and more attention in the mass media nowadays.

Chapter 6. All-Suffering Female and Weak Passive Male 1 . Shiro Kido, Nihon eigo den: Eigo seisokusho no kiroku (The Story of the Japanese Film: A Movie Producer’s Record) (Tokyo•• Bungei Shim jushinsha ，1956), pp. 52-54. 2. There are examples of weak Chinese male lovers in Stories /rom a Ming

Notes

231

Collection—The Art qf the Chinese Story• Teller, trans. Cyril Birch (New York: Grove P re ss ,1958)• 3. John K. Fairbank, Edwin O. Reischauer and Albert M. Craig, East Asia: TYadition and TYans/ormation (Tokyo: Charles E. T\1ttle, 1976), p . 140. On the other hand, according to John W. Hall and Richard K. Beardsley in Twelve Doors to Japan (New York: M cG raw -H ill,1965), in Japan in the twelfth century the warrior aristocrat replaced the courtier aristocrat as the male ideal (pp. 141-42). 4. Stephen Neale, Genre (London: BFI, 1980), pp. 59-60. 5. Joseph L. Anderson and Donald Richie, The Japanese Film; Art and Industry (New York: Grove Press, 1960), p. 261. 6. Edward H. Schafer in Ancient China (New York: Time-Life Books, 1967) notes the waning of Buddhist power due to persecution because of its “exotic anti• Chinese‫ ״‬qualities (p. 66). In Japan, though, Buddhism was no more foreign than Confucianism. 7. Shukan Yomiuri (The Yomiuri Weekly) featured a spread on Japanese film love stories entitled ，“merodorama” on 19 July 1975• 8• Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary (Springfield, Mass” 1975)，p. 716. 9. Tadao Sato, Currents in Japanese Cinema, trans by Gregory Barrett (Tokyo: K o d ansha,1982), p. 24. 10. Ko/iki, trans, with introduction and notes Donald L. Philippi (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1977), pp. 49-58. 1 1 . Ibid., pp. 64—65. 12. Ivan Morris, The World of the Shining Prince: Court Life in Ancient Japan (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1964), p . 109. 13. Ibid•, pp. 144-47. 14. Examples are Heike m onogatari and Taiheiki, which were treated in chapter 2. 15. Yoshinobu Inoura， A History qf Japanese Theater L/p to Noh and Kyogen, (Tokyo: Japan Cultural Society, 1971 )，pp. 51,72, 94-95. 16. Examples can be found in Twenty Plays of the Nõ Theatre, ed. Donald Keene (New York: Columbia University Press, 1970). 17. Hall and Beardsley, Twelve Doors to Japan, p .148. 18. Ian Buruma in A Japanese Mirror: Heroes and Villains of Japanese Culture (London: Jonathan Cape, 1984) draws similar conclusions (pp. 85-86). 19. Keiko I. McDonald, Cinema East: A Critical Study of Major Japanese Films (Rutherford, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1983), p. 6 1 . McDonald notes further that the cutting of hair was ‫״‬part of initiation into nunhood or priesthood, marking their abandonm ent of the lay world (p. 67n.).‫״‬ 20. This “pure man and wom an” impression was heightened by an exchange of close-ups in Masahiro Shinoda,s excellent film adaptation, Double Suicide (Shinju Ten no Amijima, 1969). 2 1 . Inoura, A History of Japanese Theater 1 , pp. 58-59. 22. Toshio Kawatake, A History of Japanese Theater 2: Bunraku and Kabuki (Tokyo: Japan Cultural Society, 1971)，pp. 6-10. 23• Tadao Sato, Mizoguchi fCenji no sekai (The World of Kenji Mizoguchi) (Tokyo: Chikuma Shobo, 1982), pp. 219-21. 24. Sato, Currents, pp. 17-18. 25• Ibid., p. 20. 26. Masatoshi Ohba in program notes for Kazuo Hasegawa film festival,FC (Tokyo National M useum of Modern Art Film Center), no. 53,1979, p. 39. 27. Sato, Currents, pp. 78-79. 28• Ibid., p• 250.

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A R C H E T Y P E S IN JA PA N ESE FILM

29. “Ballad films” were popular in the 1920s and early 1930s, but few have survived. One interesting extant print is Osayo in Love (Osayo Koi Sugaia, 1934), directed by Yasujiro Shimazu. 30. According to Motohiko Fujita in Gendai eiga no kiten (The Starting Point of Modern Film) (Tokyo: Kinokuniya Shoten, 1965), before soundtracks were introduced Japanese silent films were accompanied by an orchestra in the theater, as in the West; title songs would be sung by benshi (film narrators) or professional singers [p. 25)• 3 1 . Sato, Currents, p. 23. 32. Kazuko Tsurumi, Social Change and the Individual (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970), pp. 89—9011• 33. Kido, Nihon eiga den, p . 171. 34. Anderson and Richie, The Japanese Film, p . 177. 35. Ibid., p. 76. 36. Sato, Currents, p. 24. 37. Ibid., p. 236. 38. Ibid., p. 37. 39. Koji Kata et al., Meiji Taisho Showa Sesoshi (Japanese History 1868-1974) (Tokyo: Shakai Shisosha, 1977), p. 302. 40. George A. De Vos, Socialization for Achievement: Essays on the Cultural Psychology of the Japanese (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1975), p . 149. 4 1 . Sato, Currents, p. 241. 42. Buruma, A Japanese Mirror, p. 32. 43. Sato, Currents, pp. 241-42. 44. Ezra F. Vogel, Japan's N e w Middle Class, 2nd ed. (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1971), pp. 245-46. 45. Buruma, A Japanese Mirror, p. 59. 46. Ibid” p• 63. 47. Sato, Currents, p. 232. 48. Hayao Kawai, A^ukashi banashi to nihonj.in ‫ סת‬Jcokoro (Folk Tales and the Japanese Psyche) (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1982), p . 138.

Chapter 7. Prodigal Son, Forgiving Parent, Self-Sacrificing Sister 1. At a Kenji Mizoguchi film festival at the Pacific Film Archives in Berkeley, California in 1076, Yoshikata Yoda, M izoguchi’s chief script writer, told the audience he still remembered his mother singing a lullaby based on the legend of Sansho the Bailiff. 2. Ruth Benedict, The C h rysanthem u m an d the Sw ord Patterns of Japanese Culture (Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, 1954), p. 222. 3. George A• De Vos, Socialization jbr Achievement: Essays on the CuituraJ Psychology of the Japanese (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1975), pp. 150-53, 161-62. 4. Takeo Doi， “Oyalco kankei no shinri” [Psychology of Parent-Child Rela• tionships) in Oya to ko (Parent and Child) (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1973), pp. 55-57. 5• De Vos, Socialization for Achievement, p . 106 • 6. Audie Bock, Japanese Film Directors (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1978), p. 52. 7. Kojiki, trans, w ith introduction and notes Donald L. Philippi (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1977), pp. 71-81. 一

Notes

233

8. Hayao Kawai, Mukashi banashi to nihonjin no kokoro (Folk Tales and the Japanese Psyche) (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1982), p . 118. 9. Ivan Morris, The Nobility of Failure; Tragic Heroes in the History of Japan (Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, 1982), p . 1. 10. Kojiki, trans. Philippi, pp. 232-49. 11. Nihongi: Chronicles o/ Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D• 697, trans. W. G. Aston (Tokyo: Charles E. T u ttle ,1972), pp. 210-11. 12. Takeo Iwasaki, Sanseo dayu‫־‬ko; Chusei no sekkyo katari (The Thought in Sansho the Baili#: Tales from Medieval Sermons) (Tokyo: Heibonsha， I 9 73 )， 卯 . 89, 23. 13. Ibid., p. 26. 14. Tadao Sato, Mizoguchi Kenji no sekai (The World of Kenji Mizoguchi) (Tokyo: Chikuma Shobo, 1982), p. 204. 15. Ibid., pp. 204-6. 16. Ibid., p. 204. 17. Iwasaki, Sanseo dayu‫־‬ko, pp. 31-32. 18• Ibid., pp. 27-28. 19. Ibid• ，p. 58• 20. Ibid., 56-59, 63-64. 21. John Price, UA History of the Outcaste: Untouchability in Japan,‫ ״‬in George De Vos and Hiroshi Wagatsuma, Japan's Invisible Race: Caste in Culture and Personality, rev. ed. (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1972), pp. 16-22. 22. Iwasaki, Sanseo dayu‫־‬ko, p. 70. 23. John W. Hall and Richard K. Beardsley, Twelve Doors to Japan (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965), p . 148. 24. Honcho niju /uko (Twenty Breaches of Filial Piety) (Tokyo: Iwanami Bunko, 25. Hiroshi Wagatsuma, uSome Aspects of Contemporary Japanese Family— Once Confucian， Now Fatherless?，” a paper prepared for the conference on “th e Family" sponsored by Daedalus, 6-8 May 1976, pp. 3-4. 26. Masao Maruyama, Studies in the Intellectual History of Tokugawa Japan, trans. Mikiso Hane (Tokyo: University of Tokyo P ress,1974), p. 333. 27. Major Plays of Chikamatsu, trans. Donald Keene (New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1961),p. 340. 28. Michio Nagai and John Bennett, UA Summary and Analysis of the Familial Structure of Japanese Society by Takeyoshi Kawashima,‫ ״‬in Japanese Culture and Character, ed. Bernard Silberman (Tuscon, Ariz.: University of Arizona Press, 1962), pp. 105-8. 29. Benedict, The Chrysanthemum and the Sword, pp. 115-17. 30. Harumi Befu used the term usamuraization‫ ״‬in Japan; An Anthropological Introduction (San Francisco: Chandler, 1971) to describe the adoption of samurai values by lower classes (p. 52). 3 1 . Major Plays 0/ Chikamatsu, trans. Keene, pp. 377-78. 32. Robert N. Bellah, Beyond Belief: Essays on Religion in a Post-Traditional World (New York: Harper and Row, 1976), p. 88. 33. Ibid. 34. Ibid., p. 87. 35. There seem to be only fragmentary extant prints of the 1928 film version. 36 • Sadao Yamane, “Kanzen choaku pataan no katsugeki no tenkai” (The Development of the Promotion of Good and Chastisement of Evil Pattern in Action Films), an essay for the ToEi film festival,FC (Tokyo National Museum of Modern Art Film Center), no. 69,1981, pp. 3—4.

234

A R C H E T Y P E S IN JA PA N ESE FIL M

37. Nihon eiga-shi (History of Japanese Film), Sekai no eiga sakka (Film Makers of the World series), no. 3 1 (Tokyo: Kinema Jumposha, 1976), p p . 12—13. 38. Tadao Sato, Currents in Japanese Cinema, trans. Gregory Barrett (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1982). pp. 241-42. 39. Shoshi Okajima in program notes for American Film Masters festival,FC, no. 86,1986. pp. 47-48. 40. Sato, Mizoguchi Kenji no sekai, pp. 37-38. 41• Ibid” p. 209. 42. Bock, Japanese Film Directors, p. 36. 43. Ibid. 44. C. G. Jung, Collected Works, v o l.9, part 1 , The Archetypes and the CoJJec‫־‬ tive Unconscious, trans. R. E C. Hull, 2nd ed. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968), p. 82. 45. DeVos, Socialization for Achievement, p. 88. 46. Bock, Japanese Film Directors, p. 36. 47. Ibid., pp. 36—37. 48. Ezra F. Vogel, Japan's N e w Middle Class, 2d ed. (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1971),p. 240. 49. Freda Freiberg, Women in Mizoguchi^s Films (Melbourne: Papers of the Japanese Studies Centre, 1981),p. 26. 50. Erich Neumann calls this dyad the dual Great Goddess as mother and daughter and gives Demeter and Kore as an example in The Great Mother: An Analysis of the Archetype, trans. Ralph Manheim (Princeton: Princeton University Presss, 1972), pp. 308-9, 325. 5 1 . Bock, Japanese Film Directors, p. 40. 52. Hall and Beardsley, Twelve Doors to Japan, p. 325. 53. Keiko I. McDonald, Mizoguchi (Boston: Twayne, 1984), p . 136. 54. Sato, Mizoguchi Kenji no sekai, pp. 214-15• 55. Ian Buruma, A Japanese Mirror: Heroes and Villains of Japanese Culture (London: Jonathan Cape, 1984), p. 25.

Chapter 8• The Archetypal Family—Extended and Rejected 1. Mencius, trans, w ith introduction D. C. Lau (London: Penguin Books, 1970), p . 184. 2. Shigeru Matsumoto, Motoori Norinaga (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press ，1970), pp. 114—17. 3. Tadao Sato, Currents in Japanese Cinema, trans. Gregory Barrett (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1982), pp. 246-47. 4. Nihon eiga-shi (History of Japanese Film), Sekai no eiga sakka (Film Makers of the World series), no. 3 1 (Tokyo: Kinema Jumposha, 1976), pp. 7-8. 5. Ivan Morris, The Noèiiiíy qf Failure: Tragic Heroes in the History qf Japan (Tokyo: Charles E. Tlittle, 1982), p. 40311. 6. There do not seem to be extant prints of prewar General Nogi films. My plot descriptions are adapted from those in Kinema Jumposha,s Nihon eiga-shi (History of Japanese Film), pp. 81-82. 7. Tadao Sato in program notes for festival on Prewar History As Seen In Films, FC (Tokyo National M useum of Modern Art Film Center), no. 42,1977, p. 19. 8. Sato, Currents in Japanese Cinema, p. 252. 9. Joseph L. Anderson and Donald Richie, The Japanese Film: Art and Industry (New York: Grove, 1960), p. 251. 10. Morris, The Nobility of Failure, p. 44111.

Notes

235

1 1 . Nihon eiga kantoku zenshu (Dictionary of Japanese Film Directors) Tokyo: Kinema Jumposha, 1976), pp. 228, 436. 12• Ibid., p. 228. 13. Sato, Currents in Japanese Cinema, p .135. 14. Ibid., pp. 135-36. 15. Hiroshi Wagatsuma, ‫ ״‬Some Aspects of Contemporary Japanese Family— Once Confucian, Now Fatherless?,‫ ״‬a paper prepared for the conference on *The Family‫ ״‬sponsored by Daedalus, 6-8 May 1976, pp. 34-35n. 16. Sato, Currents in Japanese Cinema, p. 33. 17. Donald Richie, The Films qf Akira Kurosawa (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1965), pp. 67-68. 18. Sato, Currents in Japanese Cinema, p .142. 19. Ibid., p. 242. 20. Audie Bock, Japanese Film Directors (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1978), pp. 265-66. 21. Jun Eto, Sei/uku to soshitsu—Haha no hokai (Maturity and Loss: Disintegration of the Mother) (Tokyo: Kawade Shobo, 1967), pp. 11-87. 22. Takeo Doi in Amae no kozo (Structure of Dependency) (Tokyo: Kobundo, 1971) has expounded at length on the emphasis on dependency in Japanese culture. Doi‫״‬s book has been translated by John Bester as The Anatomy 0/ Dependence (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1973). 23. Sato, Currents in Japanese Cinema, p. 121. 24. Jun Eto, Sei/uku to soshitsu, pp. 82, 87. 25. Nihon eiga kantoku zenshu, p. 314. 26. C. G. Jung, Collected Works, v o l.9, part 1 , The Archetypes and the CoJIective Unconscious, trans. R. F. C. Hull, 2nd ed. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968), claimed that if an archetype was lost it would lead to frightful discontent (p. 69); and the fad for patricide and matricide films in Japan in the late seventies would bear him out. Still, since the fad was so short-lived, one can only marvel at the resiliency of the Japanese.

Chapter 9. Modern Archetypal Antitheses 1. Tadao Sato, Currents in Japanese Cinema, trans. Gregory Barrett (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1982), pp. 104-5. 2. Ian Buruma, A Japanese Mirror: Heroes and Villains of Japanese Culture (London: Jonathan Cape, 1984), p. 203. 3. Sato, Currents in Japanese Cinema, pp. 246-47. 4. Ezra F. Vogel, /ap an ,s New Middle Class, 2d ed. (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1971),p. 5. 5. Chie Nakane, Japanese Society (London: Penguin, 1973), p. 72. 6. Sato, Currents in Japanese Cinema, pp. 167-69. 7. Rikiya Tayama, Waga taiken teki: Nihon goraku eiga‫״‬shi—Sengo-hen (My Experiential View of the History of Japanese Popular Movies—Postwar vol.) Tokyo: Gendai Kyoyo Bunko, 1979)，p. 207• 8. The Japanese economy became so successful that eventually Irresponsible Salaryman films and socially critical ones like Kurosawa's The Bad Sleep Well ceased to be made. 9. An excellent example in extant print is Hiroshi Shim izu,s The Young Master in College (Daigaku no W akadanna, 1933). 10. Sato, Currents in Japanese Cinema, p. 212. 11. Ibid., 213. 12. Audie Bock, Japanese Film Directors (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1978), p. 314.

236

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13. Donald Richie, /oponese Cinemo: Film Style ond Notional Chorocter (New York: Doubleday Anchor, 1971),p . 109. 14• Nihon eigo hoiyu zenshu—Danyu-hen [Dictionary of Japanese Film Actors) (Tokyo: Kinema Jumposha, 1979), pp. 43, 242. 15. Richie, Jopanese Cinemo, p. xx. 16. Sato, Currents in /oponese Cinemo, p. 212. 17. Robert N. Bellah, Beyond Belief: Essoys on Religion in o Post-Troditionol World (New York: Harper and Row, 1976), pp. 101-2. 18 • Masao Maruyama, Studies in the JrUeiiectuoi History of ToJcugavvo Jopon, trans. Mikiso Hane (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1974), pp. 195-205. 19. Charles D. Sheldon, “Feudal Japan: Politics and Society from the Eighth Century to 1868,” in Holf The WorJd: The History 0/ Chino ond jbpon, ed. Arnold Toynbee (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1973), p. 224. 20• Nihon eiga solcuhin zenshu [Dictionary of Japanese Films) (Tokyo: Kinema Jumposha, 1973), pp. 277-78. 21. Tadao Sato in program notes for festival on Prewar History As Seen In Film s ， FC (Tokyo National Museum of Modern Art Film Center), no. 42,1977, p. 25. 22. Sato, Currents in Jopanese Cinenio, p . 100• 23. Shin’ichi Mashita and Jun Fukuda， Eigo no noJca no /osei‫־‬zo (Cinematic Images of Women) (Tokyo: Kawade Shinsho, 1956). 24. Nihon eigo kontoku zenshu (Dictionary of Japanese Film Directors) [Tokyo: Kinema Jumposha, 1976), p. 424. 25. Ivan Aorris, The WorJd of the Shining Prince: Court Life in Ancient Jopon (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1964), p. 213. 26. John W. Hall and Richard Beardsley, Twelve Doors to Jopon (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965), p . 141. 27. George A. De Vos, SocioJizotion for Achievement: Essoys on the Culturol Psychology of the /oponese (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1975), p. 19. 28. Toshio Kawatake, A History of Japonese Theoter 2: BunroJcu ond KobuJd (Tokyo: Japan Cultural Society, 1971),p. 89. 29. Donald Keene, World Within Walis: /oponese Literoture of the Pre-Modern Bro 1600-1867 (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1976), p. 457. 30. Sato, Currents in /opanese Cinemo, p . 135. 3 1 . Ibid., p. 74. 32. Ibid., 35. 33. Nihon eigo sokuhin zenshu (Dictionary of Japanese Films) (Tokyo: Kinema Jumposha, 1973), p . 189. 34. Keiko I. McDonald, Mizoguchi (Boston: Twayne, 1984), pp. 91-93. 35. Ian Buruma, A /oponese Mirror: Heroes ond ViJJoins of /oponese Culture (London: Jonathan Cape, 1984), p. 8. 36. Related by Shoichi Ozawa, a comic actor, at a Nikkatsu film revival in 1984. 37. Hayao Kawai， MuJcoshi bonoshi to nihonjin ‫ סת‬JcoJcoro (Folk Tales and the Japanese Psyche) (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1982), p. 75. 38. Buruma, A /opanese Mirror, p. 35. 39. Kawai, Mukoshi bonoshi to nihonjin no kokoro, pp. 154-55. 40. Edward H. Schafer, Ancient Chino (New York: Time-Life B o o k s,19671 p. 102.

^

41. Nihon eigo kontoku zenshu (Dictionary of Japanese Film Directors) (Tokyo: Kinema Jumposha, 1976 〕，p. 440. 42. Joseph L. Andprson and Donald Richie, The /oponese Film: Art ond Industry, expanded ed. (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1982), p. 453.

Notes

237

Conclusion 1. Tadao Sato, Kimi wa jidai geki eiga 0 m ita ka (Have you seen a Period Drama Movie?) (Tokyo: Jyacometei Shuppan, 1977), p . 186. 2. Ibid., p p .192-93. 3• Ibid., p . 198. 4. Ibid., pp. 196-97. 5. Junichiro Tanizaki, Seven Japanese Tales, trans. Howard Hibbett (New York: Berkley M ed allio n ,1965), p . 14. 6. Nihon eiga kantoku zenshu (Dictionary of Japanese Film Directors) (Tokyo: Kinema Jumposha, 1976), p. 66. 7. Ibid. ，p. 92. 8. Tadao Sato states in Kimi wa jidai geki eiga 0 mita ka that this nostalgia for a sim pler life is a reason for the continuing popularity of the period drama (p .100). 9. One feudal antecedent who continued to be a popular hero in TV period drama in the 1980s is Komon Mito, a daimyo closely affiliated with the Tokugawa Shogunate. Legend has it that after he retired he traveled around the countryside protecting the common people from mercenary officials and feudal gangleaders. 10. Joseph L. Anderson and Donald Richie, The Japanese FiJm: Art and Industry, expanded ed. (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1982), pp. 444-48. 11. Tadao Sato, Currents in Japanese Cinema, trans. Gregory Barrett (Tokyo: K o d ansha,1982), pp. 215-17, 253.

Bibliography Anderson, Joseph, and Donald Richie. The Japanese Film: Art and Industry. New York: Grove, 1960. Expanded edition. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982. Aston, W.G., trans• Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from ihe Earliest Times to A.D. 697. Tokyo: Charles E. Tbttle ，1972• Baba, Akiko. Oni no kenkyu (Research on demons.) Tokyo: San-ichi Shobo, 1971. Befu, Harumi. Japan: An Anthropological Introduction, San Francisco: Chandler, 1971. Bellah, Robert N• Beyond Belief: Essays on fleiigion in a Post-Thiditional WorJd• New York: Harper and Row, 1976. -------- . Tokugawa Religion; The Values of Pre-Industrial Japan. Glencoe, 111.: The Free Press, 1957. Benedict, Ruth. The Chrysanthem um and the Sword—Patterns of Japanese Culture. Tokyo: Charles E. ,Ibttle, 1954. Birch, Cyril, trans. Stories from a Ming CoJJection: The Art qf the Chinese StoryTeller. New York: Grove Press, 1958. Bock, Audie, Japanese Film Directors. Tokyo: Kodansha, 1978. Burch, Noel. To the Distant Observer; Form and Meaning in the Japanese Cinema. London: Scolar Press, 1979. Buruma, Ian. A Japanese Mirror: Heroes and Villains of Japanese Culture. London: Jonathan Cape, 1984. Published in the U.S. as Behind the Mask: On Sexual Demons, Sacred Mothers, Transvestites, Gangsters, Drifters and Other Japanese Cultural Heroes. New York: Pantheon, 1984. Campbell, Joseph. The Hero with a Thousand Faces. 2nd ed. Princeton: Princeton University PÍress, 1968. -------- . The Mythic Image. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974. Carroll, Noel. *The Gold Rush.‫ ״‬Wide Angle 3, no. 2 (1979): 42-49. De Vos, George A. Socialization for Achievement: Essays on the Cultural Psychol°§y °f Japanese. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1975. Desser, David. The Samurai Films of Akira Kurosawa. Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1983. Doi, Takeo. The Anatomy of Dependence (Amae no kozoj. Translated by John Bester. Tokyo: Kodansha, 1973. -------- . “Oyako kankei no shinri” （Psychology of Parent-Child Relationships). In Oya to ko (Parent and Child )，pp. 52-57. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1973. Durkheim, Emile. On Morality and Society. Edited by Robert N. Bellah. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1973. Eliade, Mircea• Rites and Symbols pf Initiation: The Mysteries 0/ Birth cmd Rebirth. Translated by Willard R. Trask. New York: Harper and Row, 1975. 238

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Eto, Jun. Seijuku to soshitsu—Haha no hokai (Maturity and Loss: Disintegration of the Mother). Tokyo: Kawade Shobo, 1967. Fairbank, John K., Edwin O. Reischauer, and Albert M. Craig. East Asia: Tradition and Transformation. Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, 1976. FC (Film Center Programs). Tokyo: Tokyo National M useum of Modern Art Film Center, 1971-. Frazer ，James• The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion. Abridged ed. London: Macmillan, 1922. Freiberg, Freda. Women in M izoguchis Films. Melbourne: Papers of the Japanese Studies Centre, 1981. Fujita, Motohiko. Gendai eiga no kiten (The Starting Point of Modern Film). Tokyo: Kinokuniya Shoten, 1965. Hall, John W. and Richard K. Beardsley. Twelve Doors to Japan. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965. Hori, Ichiro. Nihon no shaam anizum u (Japanese Shamanism). Tokyo: Kodansha Gendai Shinsho, 1971. Ihara, Saikaku. Honcho niju fuko (Twenty Breaches of Filial Piety). Tokyo: Iwanami Bunko, 1963. Ikku, Jippensha, S hank‫׳‬s Mare (Hizakurigej. Translated by Thomas Satchell. Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, 1960. Inoura, Yoshinobu, A History of Japanese Theater 1 : Up to Noh and Kyogen. Tokyo: Japan Cultural Society, 1971. Iwasaki, Takeo. Sanseo dayu-ko: Chusei no sekkyo katari (The Thought in Sansho the Bailiff: Tales from Medieval Sermons). Tokyo: Heibonsha, 1973. Jung, C. G., Collected Works. V o l.9, part 1 , The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious. Translated by R. F. C. Hull. 2nd ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968. ---------. Collected Works. V o l.5, Symbols of Transformation. Translated by R.F.C. Hull. 2nd ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967. ---------, ed. Man and His Symbols. New York: Dell Laurel, 1968. Kata, Koji. ‫ ״‬Yoshikawa Eiji izen no M usashi‫־‬zo‫( ״‬The Image of Musashi Before E1]1 Yoshikawa). Rekishi yomihon (May 1984): 120-27, ---------. N ihon no yakuza (Japanese Gangsters). Tokyo: Taiwa Shobo, 1964. ---------, et a l . Meiji Taisho Showa Sesoshi (Japanese History, 1868-1974). Tokyo: Shakai Shisosha, 1977. Kawai, Hayao. Mukashi banashi to nihonjin no kokoro (Folk Tales and the Japanese Psyche). Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1982. Kawatake, Toshio. A History of Japanese Theater 2; Bunraku and Kabuki. Tokyo: Japan Cultural Society, 1971. Keene, Donald. World Within Walls: Japanese Literature of the Pre-Modern Era 1600-1867. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1976. ---------, trans. Chushingura (The Treasury qf Loyai Retainers). Tokyo: Charles E. Tattle, 1981. ---------, trans. Major Plays of Chikamatsu. New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1961. ---------, ed. Twenty Plays of the Nõ Theatre. New York: Columbia University Press, 1970. Kido, Shiro• Nihon eiga den: Eiga seisakusha no kiroku (The Story of the Japanese Film: A Movie Producer,s Record). Tokyo: Bungei Shunjushinsha, 1956.

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Bibliography

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N ihon eiga haiyu zenshu —/ayu-hen (Dictionary of Japanese Film Actresses). Tokyo: Kinema Jumposha, 1980. Nihon eiga kantoku zenshu (Dictionary of Japanese Film Directors). Tokyo: Kinema Jumposha, 1976. Nihon eiga sakuhin zenshu (Dictionary of Japanese Films). Tokyo: Kinema Jumposha, 1973. Nihon eiga 200—Eigashi/a besuta 200 shiriizu (The Great Films of the World— Japan). Tokyo: Kinema Jumposha, 1982. Philippi, Donald L., trans. Kajiki. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1977. Price, John. ‫״‬A History of the Outcaste: Untouchability in Japan.‫ ״‬In Japan‫״‬s Invisible Race: Caste in Culture and Personality, edited by George De Vos and Hiroshi Wagatsuma. Rev. ed. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1972• Richie, Donald. The Films a/ Akira Kurasaiva. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1965. Rev. ed. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1984• ---------. Japanese Cinema: Film Style and NatianaJ Character. New York: Doubleday A nchor ，1971• ---------. Ozu: His Life and Films. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1974. Sansom, George. A Histary a, Japan ta 1334. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1958. ---------. A Histary 0/ Japan, 1334-1615. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1961. Sato, Tadao. Chushingura: Iji na keifu (Chushingura: Genealogy of Honor). Tokyo: Asahi Sensho, 1976• ---------• “The Comedy of Ozu and Chaplin—A Study in Contrast.” Translated by Gregory Barrett. Wide Angle 3, no. 2 (1979): 50-53. ---------. Currents in Japanese Cinema. Translated by Gregory Barrett. Tokyo: Kodansha, 1982. ---------. Hasegawa Shin-ran (Essays on Shin Hasegawa). Tokyo: Chuokoronsha, 1975. ---------• iCimi vva jidai geki eiga o m ita Jca (Have you seen a Period Drama Movie?). Tokyo: Jyacometei Shuppan, 1977. ---------. M izaguchi Ken/i na sekai (The World of Kenji Mizoguchi). Tokyo: Chikuma Shobo, 1982. Sato, Tadao and Chieo Yoshida. Chambara eiga-shi (History of Japanese Sword‫״‬ fighting Movies). Tokyo: Hoga Shoten, 1972. Schafer, Edward H. Ancient China. New York: Time-Life Books, 1967. Schrader, Paul. Transcendental Style in Film: Ozu, Bressan, Dreyer. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1972. Sheldon， Charles D• “Feudal Japan: Politics and Society from the Eighth Century to 1868.” In Ha(f The Warid: The Histary qf Cliina and Japan, edited by Arnold Toynbee, pp. 213-24• New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1973• Showa-shi jiten (Dictionary of Showa Period H isto ry ,1925—). Tokyo: Mainichi Shinbunsha, 1980. Silver, Alain. The Samurai Film. Rev. ed. Woodstock, New York: Overlook Press, 1983.

242

A R C H E T Y P E S IN JA PA N ESE F IL M

Smith, Robert J. Ancestor Worship in Contemporary Japan. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1974. Tanizaki, Junichiro. Seven Japanese Tales. Translated by Howard Hibbett. New York: Berkley Medallion, 1965. Tayama, Rikiya. Waga iaiken teki: Nihon goraku eiga-shi—Sengo-hen (My Experiential View of the History of Japanese Popular Movies 一 Postwar vol.) Tokyo: Gendai Kyoyo Bunko, 1979. -------- . Waga iaiken teki: Nihon goraku eiga-shi—Senzen-hen (My Experiential View of the History of Japanese Popular Movies一 Prewar vol.) Tokyo: Gendai Kyoyo Bunko. 1980. Tsurumi, Kazuko. Social Change and the Individual. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970. Tucker, Richard N. Japan: Film Image. London: Studio Vista, 1973. Vogel, Ezra F. /a p a n fs N e w Middle Class. 2d ed. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1971. Wagatsuma, Hiroshi. uSome Aspects of Contemporary Japanese Family—Once Confucian, Now Fatherless?” Paper prepared for the conference on “The Family” sponsored by Daedalus, 6-8 May 1976. Watanabe, Shoko. Japanese Buddhism. Tokyo: Japan Cultural Society, 1968. Watanabe, Takenobu. Nikkaisu akushon no karei na sekai (The Magnificent World of Nikkatsu Action Movies), 1954-1971.3 vols. Tokyo: Miraisha, 1981-82. Yamagiwa, Joseph K. "Literature and Japanese Culture.‫ ״‬In John W. Hall and Richard K. Beardsley, Twelve Doors to Japan, pp. 224-62. New York: McGrawHill, 1965• Yoshikawa, Eiji. Musashi. Translated by Charles S. Terry. Tokyo: Kodansha, 1981.

Index Baajin Buruusu. See Virgin Blues

Page num bers in italics refer to illustrations. Abe Clan, The (Abe IchizokuJ, 63 A ccount of the Chivalrous Commoners of Japan, An (Nihon Kyokaku-denJ series, 66, 70, 71 A ccount of the Last Knights of the Showa Era, An fShowa Zankyo-den) series, 68-69, 68, 75 Admirable ally, 68-69, 71,129 Age of Irresponsibility in Japan (Nippon M usekinin /idaij, The, 179, 18182 Ai to Shi 0 Mitsumete. See Looking at Love and Death Aizen Katsura. See Com passionate Buddha Tree, The Akachochin. See Red Lantern Akai Satsui. See Intentions 0/ Murder Akagaki, Genzo, 148-49 Akagi, K eiich iro ,194 Akai Tori Nigeta? See Did the fled Bird Escape? Akatsuki no Dasso. See Escape at Dawn Akiyoshi, Kumiko, 95 AJco floshi. See flonin from Ako, The Amaterasu the Sun Goddess, 4 6 ,1 4 2 4 3 ,1 6 0 American w estern s,14, 27-28, 62-63 Anderson, Joseph L .,1 3 ,1 4 ,1 6 ,1 7 , 90, 210, 220, 22311.1 A nim a ，99,104—8,152 Anjo-ke no Buto-kai. See Ball at the Anjo House, A Aoe, Maijiro, 37 Aozora Musume. See Cheerful Girl, A Araki, Mataemon, 45 Arashi, Kanjuro, 59, 60,164 Archetypes defined, 19-21,77 Arita, N o rik o ,139 Asaoka, R u rik o ,192 Atsumi, Kiyoshi, 89, 90-91

Baba, Akiko, 98,114 Bad Girl (Hiko ShojoJ,195 Bad Sleep Well, The (Warui Yatsu Hodo Yuko NemuruJ, 168-69,172 Baisho, Chieko, 199-201 ,200 Baisho, M itsu k o ,177 Baku-uchi series. See Gamblers, The “Ballad films ，，，127, 128, 23211.29

243

Ballad of Narayama, The (Narayama bushiko): Im am ura’s film, 176-78, 209; Kinoshita’s film ,177

Ball at the Anjo House, A (Anjo-ke no B u to k a iJ,130 Bando, Tsumasaburo, 37, 38 Band of Assassins II, A fZoku-Shinobi no MonoJ, 212-13, 214 Banished Orin fHanare Goze OrinJ, 92, 93—94 Banzuiin, Chohei, 65 Barthes, R o lan d ,118 Battle of Life or Death fShinken ShobuJ, 54-56, 215

Battles without Honor and Humanity f/ingi Naki Tatakai) series, 73

Beatty, Warren, 202 Befu, Harumi, 23311.30 Bellah, R obert,18, 20,148 Benedict, R u th ,147 Benkei, 35, 218 Bergman, Ingm ar,13,120,136 Bird of Passage (Wataridori) series, 192—94,192

Bloody Battle at Takadanobaba (Chikemuri Takadanobaba),148

Blue L agoon,139 Book of Five Rings, The. See Gorin no sho Boorman, John, 33 Boryoku-gai. See Violent District Boss and the Slush Fund, The (Hesokuri S hachoJ,181 Boy (S honen),167

244

A R C H E T Y P E S IN JA PA N ESE FIL M

Brando, Marlon, 221 Bridge motif, 47, 69,121, 126^-27, 131, 138,189 Brute (Gokudo) series, 73 B uddhism ,18, 21,23, 34, 57, 78, 91-96, 9 9 ,1 0 3 , 115-16, 119, 121, 134-35, 139-40, 144—45, 157, 159, 179, 203, 212-17 Burch, N o e l,13 Buruma, I a n ,18, 64, 74, 98,134, 136, 159, 179-80, 208, 22811.9, 22911.23, 231n.l8 Bushido, 39, 62-63, 64 Caldwell, Erskine, 211 Campbell, Joseph, 20, 56-57 Carroll, Noel, 90-91 Castle of Sand. See Sand Vessel Chaplin, Charlie, 90-91 Characterization,14 Cheerful G irl, A (Aozora M usum eJ,195 Chiba, Yasuki, 87 Chichi Ariki. See There Was a Father Chikamatsu, Monzaemon, 26,1 2 2 -2 4 , 146-48, 158, 159, 163, 169, 170, 173, 174,175 Chikam atsu M onogatari. See Story

from Chikamatsu, A

Chikemuri Takadanobaba. See Bloody

Battle at Takadanobaba Chikuzan Hitori Tabi. See Solitary Travels of Chfkuzan, The Chronicle of Taiko the Braggart, The fHora Fuki Taikoki),183 Chuji Tabi Nikki. See Dairy of Chuji's Travels, A

Cruel Story of Youth (Seishun Zankoku Monogatarij, 186,188 Culture: “high” and “low,” 14—19; iden■ tity, 220; vs. g e n re ,120

Daibosatsu Toge. See Great Bodhisattva Pass, The Daigaku no W akadanna. See Young M aster in College, The Dai Nippon Teikoku. See Imperial Japan

Dancing Girl from Izu (Izu no Odoriko),

197,198 Danryu. See Warm Current Daydream (Hakujitsumu), 135-36 Dean, James, 37,186, 194, 201,221 Den'en ni Shisu. See Pastoral Hide and

Seek

Desser, D a v id ,1 4 ,1 5 , 27-28, 50, 52, 22611.36, 227nn. 51 and 26 De Vos, George, 6 4 ,1 3 3 -3 4 ,1 4 1

Diary of Chuji's Travels, A (Chuji Tabi NikJciJ, 65 Did the Red Bird Escape? (Akai Tori Nigeta?)f 173-74 Dietrich, M arlen e,130 Dirty Harry series, 56

Dissolution Ceremony (Kaisan-shiki), 71 Doi, Takeo, 141, 142, 160, 23511.22 Double Suicide fShinju Ten no AmijimaJ, 123, 124, 23111.20 Dragnet Girl (Hijosen no Onnaj, 212 Drop Dead! Long Live Irresponsibility — Crazy Maneuvers (Kutabare! Musekinin—Kureijii Salcusen), 182 Duel at Hannya Hill (Ketto H annyahanj, 55 Durkheim, Emile, 20

Chushingura, 23-35, 43, 44, 64, 65, 7576 , 99,148 ‫ ־‬4 9 , 180 , 181,182 Comic b ooks,16,18,113 Company President (Shacho) series, 181, 183,184 Compassionate Buddha Tree, The fAi- Eagle of the Pacific (Taiheiyo no Washi)t zen KatsuraJ, 1 2 7 1 3 1 ,130 1,128 6 4 -6,29‫־‬ 5 ,1 6, 6 140, 196-97 Early Spring fSoshunJ,180 C onfucianism ,18, 2 1 ,2 3 , 47, 58, 69, Eastwood, Clint, 56, 211 103, 118, 119, 120, 133, 139-40, 147- Eki. See Station 48,179, 193, 202, 205, 209, 215, 217, Eliade, M irc e a ,13, 46, 225n.15 219 Embryo Hunts in Secret, The (Taiji ga Contemporary film genre (gendai gekij, JVfitsuryo Suru Toki), 136,137 22,120, 151, 169, 219 EmperorM eiji and the Great Russo-JapCooper, G ary,130 anese War (Mei/i Terrno to Nichi-Ro Crazed Fruit (Kurutta Kajitsu), 185,189 Daisenso), 163-64,164

Index Escape at Daivn (Akatsuki no DassoJ, 130 Eto, Jun, 174-75 Excalibur, 33 Exorcist, The, 115-16

of Ako Castle, The Danzetsu), 30

FaJJ

(Akojo

245

Gosho, H einosuke,197 Great Bodhisattva Pass, The fDaibosatsu TogeJ, 36, 213-17 Greatest Flatterer in Japan, The (Nihon Ichi no Goma-suri Otoko), 183-84, 184

H aha to fCo. See Mother and ChiJd Hakujitsumu. See Daydream Bugyo),151 Hamada, M itsu o ,196 Five Men from Edo (O-Edo Gonin Hanakago no L/ta. See Flower Basket OtokoJ, 65 Song Five Scouts fGonin no SekkoheiJ, 161- Hanare Goze Orin. See Banished Orin 6 2 ,1 6 3 Hanayagi, Yoshiaki, 154,158 Flower Basket Sons (Hanakago no Uta)f Haraiciri fSeppukuJ, 63 197 Harukawa, Masumi, 207 Folk Religion. See Religion Hasegawa, K azuhiko,175 Ford, John, 211 Hasegawa, Shin, 79-85, 193-94, 211 Frazer, James, 20, 57, 74, 22711.27 Hawaii Marei Oki Kaisen. See War at Freiberg, F re d a ,155 Sea from Hawaii to Malaya, The Fu/u. See Husband and Wife Heike monogatari (The Tale of the Fuji, Junko, 66,109, 1 1 1 ,112 Heike), 44, 78 Fujita, Motohiko, 232 n.30 Hell of Maidens (Shojo Jigoku), 116-17 Fujita, Toshiya, 94-96. 173-74 Her Brother (Ototo), 172-73 Fukasaku, Kinji, 30, 71 Hesokuri Shacho. See Boss and the SJush Fund, The Fukushu Suru wa Ware ni Ari. See flevenge Is for Us Hibotan Bakuto series. See Red Peony Furuhata, Yasuo, 82, 83 Gambler Furukawa, T akum i,185 Hijosen no Onna. See Dragnet Girl Furusawa, Kengo, 182,184 Hiko Shojo. See Bad GirJ Futagawa ，Buntaro, 36, 38 Hillman, James, 39 Hill Number 203 (Nihyaku-san Kochi)t GambJers, The (Baku-uchiJ series: The 161, 162,165 Hirohito, Emperor, 23,160,163 Card of Life (Inochi FudaJ, 71-72 Garden of Women, The (Onna no SonoJ, Hishakaku, 71 Homer, 44 138 Honda, Ish iro ,166 Gate of Flesh (Nikutai no Mon], 203 Hora Fuki Taikoki. See Chronicle of Gate of Hell Qigoku Mon), 91 Taiko the Braggart, The Genealogy of Women, The (Onna Horikawa, H iro m ich i,173 KeizuJ, 125-26,126 General Nogi films, 161, 162, 164, 218 Horror film s,1 7 ,1 0 0 ,115 Genji m onogatari (The Tale of Genji), Hoiv to Succeed in Business without Really T rying,181 7 8 ,9 8 ,1 2 1 ,1 2 6 ‫ ־‬27 Hudson, R ock,119 G e n re ,1 4 ,1 6 ,1 1 9 ,1 2 0 Genroku C hushingura: play, 28-29; Husband and Wife (Fufu),180 film, 29 Gion no Shimai. See Sisters of the Gion I A m Waiting (Ore wa Matteru zej, 18990,191 Gokudo series. See Brute Ibo Kyodai. See Stepbrothers Gold Rush, The, 90 Ichihara, E tsu k o ,176 Gonin no Sekkohei. See Five Scouts Gorin no sho (The Book of Five Rings), Ichijo Sayuri 一 Nureta Yokujo. See Sayuri Ichijo—Moist Desire 43, 47, 50 Fighting

M agistrate,

The

fKenka

246

A R C H E T Y P E S IN JA PA N ESE FIL M

Ichikawa, Kon, 172-73, 180, 185-86, /inruigaku N yum on. See Pornographers: introduction to Anthropology, 187 Ichikawa, Raizo, 60, 61， 217 Ichikawa, Utaemon, 30,190 Ieki, M iyoji,167 Iemitsu and Hikoza (Iemitsu to Hikozaj, 35 Ihara, Saikaku. See Saikaku Ikebe, Ryo, 68-69, 68 Ikehiro, Kazuo, 61 Ikeuchi, Junko, 82 ikiru (ikiruj, 63 Ikku, Jippensha, 87 Iliad, 44 Imamura, Shohei, 175-78, 188, 202, 205-9 Imperial Japan (Dai Nippon Teikokuj, 165 Inagaki, Hiroshi, 25, 30, 31,48, 49, 50, 51,52, 54, 62, 80,148, 213 ina no Kantaro. See Kantaro of Ina inazuma. See Lighting In itiation,13, 45, 46, 47, 67,157 insect Woman, The (Nippon KonchukiJ, 206, 208 intentions of Murder (Akai Satsuij, 206,

The Jirocho of Shimizu, 65, 79 Joiuchi. See Rebellion )udai no Seiten. See Teen-Ager’s Sex M anual Judgements of Magistrate Ooka— N e w Edition (Shinpan—Ooka Seidanj, 38 Julia, 201 Jung, Carl C • , 19, 20, 9 9 ,1 0 2 , 104, 230nn. 21 and 29, 235n .26

K a b u k i,17, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 35, 45, 80, 9 9 ,111, 122-25, 135, 151,202 Kafka, F ra n z ,197 Kagawa, K yoko,154,156 K aisan-shiki. See Dissolution Cere-

mony

Kaji, M e ik o ,114 Kamigami no Fukaki Yokubo. See Profound Desire of the Gods, The— Kuragejima: Tales from a Southern island Kamikaze pilots, 31,165 Kanadehon Chushingura, 26, 27, 99 Kano, M o to n o b u ,102 207 Inuzuka, Minoru, 85 Kantaro oflna (Ina no Kantaroj, 79 Ishihara, Shintaro, 185,186,188 Kataoka, Òhiezo, 150, 190, 216 Ishihara, Yujiro, 132, 189-90, 191, 194, Kato, Tai, 56, 80, 81-82, 111 218, 220 Katsu, Shintaro, 85-87, 86 Itami, Mansaku, 41,51 Katsuragi, Y oko,172 Ito, Daisuke, 35, 38, 39, 40, 41 ,5 5 , 65, K atu sh a,127 148, 213 Kawabata, Y asunari,197 Ito, Shunya, 113-15 Kawaguchi, H iroshi ,187 It's Tough To Be a Man (Otoko wa Kawai, Hayao, 39,143, 208 Tsurai yo) series, 87-91, 199, 201; Kawashima, Takeyoshi， 147 Torajiro^ Poems of Pure Love (Tora- Kayama, Yuzo, 31 jiro /unjo Shisuj, 88; Yearning for Kenka Bugyo. See Fighting Magistrate, H o m e (Bokyo-henj, 87-88 The Iwasaki, Takeo,144 Ketto H annya-han. See Duel at Hannya I Was Bom But • . . (Umarete was Mita Hill KeredoJ, 169-70,180 Kido, S h iro ,129 Iwashita, Shima, 91,124 Kike/ W adatsumi no Koe. See Listen to Izanagi and Izanami, 97-98, 120- 21 , the Roar of the Ocean 142‫ ־‬43 Kiki, Kirin (formerly Chiho Yuki), 95 Izumi, Kyoka, 125,126 Kimi no Na vva. See What Is Your izu no Odoriko. See Dancing Girl from Name? Izu Kinoshita, Keisuke, 99-100, 136, 138, 139,177 Jigoku Mon. See Gate of Hell Kin-san of Toyama, 149, 218 Jingi Naki Tatakai. See Battles without Kinugasa, Teinosuke, 91,126 Honor and H um anity Kinuyo’s First Love (Kinuyo no Hat-

Index

247

su k o ij,197 Kishi, Keiko, 119 ,132 Kisses (Kuchizukel 186, 194-95 Kitahara, M ie ,191 K izudarake no Sanga. See Public Bene-

Lighting fínazumaj, 170-71,171 Lim Kwan Tag, 96 Listen to the Roar of the Ocean (Kike! Wadatsumi no KoeJ, 165-66

Kleiser, R a n d a l,131 Kobayashi, Akira, 191-94,192 Kobayashi, Masaki, 41 Kobayashi, Tsuneo, 66 K o d a n ,1 5 ,1 7 , 26, 27, 28, 29, 45, 46, 47-49, 148-49,151

‫ ״‬Love m elodrama‫ ״‬films, 119-20, 1273 3 ,1 3 5 ,1 9 6 “Love suicide” plays, 122-24, 133,135, 188

factor, A

Kofuko no Kiiroi Hankachi. See Yellow Handkerchieves o/H appiness, The Kogure, Michiyo, 204 Kojiki,17,18, 20, 44, 46, 97,120, 121,

Looking at Love and Death fAi to Shi o MitsumeteJ,196 Loren, Sophia, 211

Mahuta no Haha. See Mother on my Mind McDonald, Keiko ， 13 ， 108, 158, 203, 22911.28, 23011.25, 23111.19 143, 202, 203, 206 Magnificent Obsession, The,119 Konuma, M asaru ,116 Makino, Masahiro, 35, 37, 38, 39, 40, Kozakura, Junko, 61 66, 70, 84, 85,148, 203 Kracauer, Siegfried, 36 Makino, Shozo, 27, 30 Kuchizuke. See Kisses Malory, Sir Thomas, 33 Kumashiro, Tatsumi, 209 M amushi no Kyodai series. See Viper Kunisada, Chuji, 65, 79 Brothers Kurahara, Koreyoshi, 189-91 Mandala (a South Korean film), 96 Kurauma Tengu series. See Tangu Ku- Manga. See Comic books raum a Man’yoshu, 22,121 Kurosawa, A k ira ,1 3 ,1 4 ,1 5 , 35, 51 ，58, Masuda, Toshio, 162,165 63, 67,168-69, 171—72 Masumura, Yasuzo, 186,188, 193,194Kurutta Kajitsu. See Crazed Fruit 95 K utabareí M usekinin—Kureijii Saku- Matsuda, Sadatsugu, 30, 213 sen. See Drop Dead! Long Live Irre- Matsumoto, Koshiro, 25 sponsibility—Crazy Maneuvers Mattsson, A rn e ,139 Kutsukake Tokijiro—Yukyo ippiki. See Mayama Seika, 28, 29 Tokijiro Kutsukake— A Solitary Meiji, Emperor, 161, 162, 163-64 Meiji Termo to JVichi-Ro Daisenso. See Knight Emperor Meij’i and the Great flussoKyo, M ach ik o ,106 Japanese War Kyoshiro Nemuri fNemuri KyoshiroJ series, 60-62; Bewitching Female Mellen, Jo an ,13,15, 28 Sword (Joyo Ken), 61-62; Flam ing Melody in Grey. See Banished Orin Mencius, 55,103, 160, 215 Sword (Enjo KenJ, 61 Kyupora no Aru Machi. See Street of Men Who Tread on the Tiger’s Tail, The fTora no O o Fumu Otokotachi), 35 Cupolas, A Meshi. See Repast Mibojin Geshuku series. See Widow,s Ladd, Alan, 211 Boarding House, The Lee, B ru c e ,118 Michi yuki, 69, 72,123 Leigh, V ivien,119 M idw ay,164 Le Morte D’Arthur, 33 Mifune, T o sh iro ,13, 48, 58,162, 164, Le Roy, M erv y n ,119 166,190 Levy-B ruhl,19 Life of Matsu the Untamed, The fMuho Mikuni, R en taro ,177 Minakami, Ben, 93 Matsu no isshoj, 51 Life of O haru, The (Saikaku Ichidai Minamoto, Yoshitsune, 35, 218 Mishima, Yukio, 205 Onna), 91

248

A R C H E T Y P E S IN JA PA N ESE FIL M

Nemuri Kyoshiro series. See Kyoshiro Nemuri Neo-Confucianism, 147-48, 159,179 Mitchum, Robert, 68, 211 Neumann, Erich, 23011.23, 23411.50 Mito, Komon, 23711.9 Miyamoto, Musashi, 43-58, 62, 78—79; New Story of Zotoichi, The (Shin Zatoichi MonogatariJ, 85, 87 Inagaki’s film trilogies, 48, 49, 50-51 ， 52; M izoguchi’s film, 45; U chida’s N ihilistic heroes, 36-42, 58 film trilogy, 51-54, 55; Yoshikawa’s M hon Ichi no Goma-suri OtoJco. See Greatest Flatter in Japan, The novel, 45-50 Mizoguchi, K enji,13, 21 ，29, 30, 45, 62, Nihonjin-ron, 220 9 1 ,9 8 -9 9 , 105-8, 123-24, 126, 141, N ihon Kyokaku-den. See A ccount of the Chivalrous Commoners of Japan, 142, 151—59,160, 173, 178, 179, 196, An 198, 203-5 Nihon s h o k i,143 Mizutani, Y u tak a,176 Nihyaku-san Kochi. See Hill Number Modern action films, 189-94 203 Momo Taro, 121,138 Nikura, Iwao, 115-16, 22911.4 Mono no aware,15,16, 54,122 N ikutai no Mon. See Gate of Flesh Mori, Kazuo, 35, 85 N ippon Konchuki. See Insect Woman, Mori, Ogai, 144, 151, 152,157 The Morishige, H isaya,181 Nippon M usekinin Jidai. See Age of IrM orocco,130 responsibility in Japan Morris, Ivan, 22, 24,122 Mother cmd ChiJd (Haha to ÍC0J, 170, Nobunaga Oda fOda NobunagaJ, 35 Nogi, M aresu k e,161 197-98 “Mother films” （haha monoJ ， 134, 149, Nogiku no Gotoki Kimi Nariki. See She Was Like a Wild Chrysanthemum 151,159 Noh d r a m a ,14, 35, 98, 9 9 ,1 0 8 , 114, Mother on my Mind fMabuta no Hahaj, 122, 123, 203 80 Nomura, Hiromasa, 127, 128,197 Muho Matsu no issho. See Life of Matsu Nomura, Yoshitaro, 91 the Untamed, The No Nationality film genre fMukokuseki Murakami, Genzo, 52 eigaj, 191-94 Murasaki, S h ik ib u ,121 Norinaga, Motoori, 160,161 Musashi. See Miyamoto, Musashi Misumi, Kenji, 61,85,108, 217

Mr. Pu fPuu-sanJ,180

Nagai, Tomo, 214 Nakadai, Tatsuya, 162, 212 Nakae, Toju, 147-48 Nakagawa, N o b u o ,100—102 Nakahira, K o ,185 Nakajima, Sadao, 108-9 Nakamura, K ichiem on,124 Nakamura, Kin’nosuke. See Yorozuya, Kin’nosuke Nakane, Chie, 27 Nakayama, Yasudei, 148-49 Nakazato, Kaizan, 36, 213 Naniwa-bushi. See Rokyoku Naniiva Ereji. See Osaka Elegy Narayama bushiko. See Ballad of

Narayama, The

Naruse, Mikio, 120, 170-71,180 Neale, Stephen, 118-19

Oda, Nobunaga, 35,183, 212-13 Odyssey, 77 O-Edo Gonin Otoko. See Five Men /rom Edo Ogata, K e n ,177 Ohba, Hideo, 119,132 Ohba, M asatoshi, 69,102 Ohinata, Den ,198 Okada, Tokihiko ,170 Okamoto, Kihachi, 217 Okiyama, Hideko, 208 Okochi, Denjiro, 39, 40,166 Onnagoroshi Abura /igoku. See Woman

Killer and the Hell of Oil, The

O nna no Keizu. See Genealogy of Women, The Onna no Sono. See Garden 0 / Women Onoe, M atsunosuke, 30

Index Ooku Monogatari. See Tales of the Shogun’s Harem Ore vva Matteru ze. See I Am Waiting Orochi, 36—38, 38, 5 8 ,1 3 3 ,1 9 4 Osaka Elegy (Naniwa Ere/iJ, 198 Osaragi, Jiro, 28, 30, 3 1 ,5 8 Osayo in Love (Osayo fCoi Sugata), 23211.29

Oshima, Nagisa, 167, 186,188 Otoko wa Tsurai yo series. See It's Tough To Be a Man Ototo. See Her Brother Ozawa, Shoichi, 23611.36 Ozu, Y asujiro,13, 88, 90,120, 169-70, 173, 180, 183, 212 Paltry Ronin Forces His Way Through, The (Suronin Makaritoruj, 35

Pastoral Hide and Seek (Denen ni S h isuJ,175 Pathetic beauty type, 46, 47, 48, 49, 575 8 ,1 0 0 ,118, 194, 195,197 Period film genre (jidai geki), 21,22, 28, 41^12, 44, 57-63, 151, 169, 190, 212, 219, 220; proletarian films, 37, 221; w andering outlaw subgenre (matatabimono}, 79-87 Picture of M adame Yuki, A (Yuki Fujin Ezuj, 203-5, 204 Pornographers: introduction to AnthropoJogy, The f/inruigaku Nyumonj, 206 Pornography: Nikkatsu “rom an” films, 116, 136, 209; “pink” films, 135-36 Profound Desire of the Gods, The— Kuragejima: Tales from a Southern Island (Kamigami no Fukaki Yokuboj, 206, 208 Public Benefactor, A fKuzudarake no Sangaj, 167,168 Puer Aeternus (eternal youth), 39,138 P unishm ent Room fShokei no Heyaj, 1 8 5-86,187 Puu-san. See Mr. Pu Raging Bull,57 R akugo,14,16 Rashomon, 58

Rebellion (foiuchi), 41 Rebel Without a Cause, 186, 201 Red Lantern fAlcachocíiinJ, 9 4 -9 6 , 95

Red Peony Gambler, The (Hibotan

249 BakutoJ series, 109, 111-13; Enter ORyu fO‫־‬Ryu SanjoJ, 109-11; Flower Cards Match (Hanqfuda Shoí)uJ, l l 2; Honor and H um anity Come Through (fingi Toshimasuj, 111, 113; I Want Your Life fO-inochi Itadakim asuj, 111

Religion: folk, 34, 81-82, 97, 98,104-8; vis-à‫־‬vis society, 18-21 Repast (M eshiJ,180 flevenge Is for Us (Fukushu Suru wa Ware ni AriJ, 175-76,177 Richie, D o n a ld ,1 3 ,1 4 ,1 5 ,1 6 ,1 7 , 51 ， 63, 67, 90,172, 189, 193, 223n.l Rokyoku or naniwa bushi (“oral narratives29 ,28 ,27 ,17, ( ‫״‬ Roman Holiday,133 Ronin from Ako, The fAko Roshij: film, 30; n o v e l,28 Ronin-gai. See Street 0/ Masterless Samurai Room At The T op,127 Sada, Keiji, 119, 132, 189,190 Saeki, Kiyoshi, 68, 75 Saikaku, 111, 122, 144-45 Saikaku Ichidai Onna. See Life of Oharu, The Saito, Buichi, 111, 192-94 Saito, Koichi, 94 Sakuma, Y oshiko,110 Salarym an C hushingura fSarariim an C hushinguraJ,180 Sam urai (film title). See Miyamoto, Musashi: Inagaki’s film trilogies Samurai film (genre),14 Sand Vessel (Sunna no Utsuwaj, 90 Sanshiro Sugata fSugata SanshiroJ, 67 Sansho the Bailiff (Sansho Dayu): legend, 144-45; M izoguchi’s film, 21 ， 141, 142, 151-59, 153, 154, 157, 158, 173, 178, 219 Santo Juyaku. See Third-Class Executive Sasaki, Y asuji,150 Sasori series. See Scorpion Sato, T a d ao ,14, 23, 28, 39, 62-63, 75, 76, 81,84, 9 1 ,97,103, 123, 125, 127, 136, 144, 158, 162, 197, 213, 215, 224n.l9, 23711.8 Sawashima, Tadashi, 71 Sayuri Ichijo—Moist Desire (Ichijo

250

A R C H E T Y P E S IN JA PA N ESE FIL M

Sayuri—Nureta Yokujo), 209 Sazen Tange (Tange Sazenj: Makino‫״‬s films (I and II)，3 8-41,40; M atsuda’s film, 213 Sazen Tange and the Pot Worth a Million Ryo (Tange Sazen—Hyakumanryo no Tsubo), 213 Scandal (Skyandaru), 171-72,172 Scene by the Sea (Umibe no Kokei) (novel),174 Schafer, Edward H., 231 n.6 Scorpion fSasorij series, 113-15; Cell Number 4 1 (Dia 41 Zakkyobo), 114;

Shinju Ten no Am ijim a. See Double Suicide Shinken Shobu. See Battle of Life or

Death

Shinku Chitai. See Vacuum Zone Shinoda, Masahiro, 93,124 S h in p an —Ooka Seidan. See Judge-

merits of Magistrate Ooka

S h in to ,18, 46, 57,145, 160, 206, 209 Shiosai. See Sound of Waves Shirasaka, Y oshio,195 Shitam achi no Taiyo. See Sunshine in

the Old Neighborhood Room of Beasts (Kemono no Heya), Shojo Jigoku. See Hell of Maidens 113-14; Women Prison Cell Mates Shokei no Heye. See Punishment Room

Number 701 f/oshu 701-goj,113 Scorsese, Martin, 57 Season qf the Sun (Taiyo no Kiseisu), 185,189 Seishun no Satsujinsha. See Young Murderer Seki no Ylatappe. See Yiatappe qf Seki Sekigawa, Hideo, 165-66 Senex (the old man), 39,138 Seppuku. See Harakiri Seven Samurai (Shichinin no Samu ra i),13, 58, 63 Sex: attitudes toward, 201-3, 221; mas• ochism, 1 3 5 3 6 ‫ ; ־‬in period film, 5762; repression o f , 18, 47; in yakuza film, 67, 69-72 Shacho series. See Company President series Shane, 211 She Was Like a Wild Chrysanthemum (Nogiku no Gotoki Kimi Narikij, 136, 138-40,139 Shibata, Tosaburo, 60 Shibuya, Minoru, 170,198 Shichinin no Samurai. See Seven Sam• urai Shido, J o ,194 Shima, Koji, 205 Shimazu, Yasujiro, 23211.29 Shimizu, Hiroshi, 23511.9 Shimizu, M asao,153 Shimozawa, Kan, 84, 85 Shimpa, 125-27, 149, 151,169 Shimura, T akashi,172 Shindo, E itaro , 184 Shindo, Kaneto, 30, 94 Shingun no Ufa. See Song of the Advancing Army

Shonen. See Boy Showa Z an k y o àen . See Account q fih e Last Knights of the Showa Era, An Silver, A la in ,14, 4 1 ,2 2 6 nn. 26, 34, and 46, 22711.51,22811.18 Sisters of the Gion (Gion no ShimaiJ, 198, 203 Skyandaru. See Scandal Smiles of the Summer Night,120 Solitary Travels of Chikuzan, The (Chikuzan Hitori Tabi), 94 Song of the Advancing Army fShingun no Uta)f 162 Soshun. See Early Spring Sound of Waves (Shiosai), 205 Spirit of the Sword is One Way, The (Kenshin Ichiro). See Miyamoto, Musashi: Inagaki‫׳‬s film trilogies Splendor in the Grass, 202 Stanwyck, B arbara,149 Station (Eki), 82—84, 83 Stella D a lla s ,149 Stepbrothers (Ibo Kyodai)f 167

Stereotypes,14 Story from Chikamatsu, A (Chikamatsu Monogatari), 123-24 Story of Floating Weeds (Ukigusa Monogatarij, 90

Street of Cupolas, A (Kyupora no Aru Machij, 195-96, 196, 197, 198,199

Street of Masterless Sam urai (Roningai), 37

Sugata Sanshiro. See Sanshiro Sugata Sugawara, Bunta, 72, 73, 87 Sugawara, H id e o ,170 Sugawara, M ich izan e,17, 78, 97 Suguro, Homare, 200 Sum m er A nguish (Hon Dansade en

Index so m m arj,139 S unshine in the Old Neighborhood (Shitam achi no TaiyoJ, 199-201,200 Suronin M akaritoru. See Paltry Ronin Forces His Way Through, The Susano O, 46, 47, 78,142-43 Susukita, Rokuhei, 36 Suzuki, Seijun, 203 Tabi no Omosa. See Weight pf Travel， The Taiheiki, 44 Taiheiyo no Washi. See Eagle of the Pa-

cific 701)1 ga Mitsuryo Suru Toki. See Em-

bryo Hunts in Secret, The Taiyo no JCisetsu. See Season pf the Sun Takakura, Ken, 55 ， 65-69 ， 66, 68, 71 ， 75, 82, 83,132, 190, 210 Takamine, H id e k o ,1 7 0 ,171 Takaoka, Kenji ，95 Takechi, T e tsu ji,135 Taki no Shiraito, 126-27 Takizawa, Eisuke, 79 Tale of Genji, The. See Genj.i mono•

gatari Tale of the Heike, The. See Heike monogatari

Tales of the Shogun^ Harem (Ooku Monogatari J，108—9 , 1 1 0 ,113 Tamura ，Taijiro, 203 Tanaka, K inuyo ， 107 ， 128, 153 ， 158, 19&-98, 198, 201 Tanaka, S h in ji,139 Tanaka, Tokuzo, 85, 87 Tange Sazen films. See Sazen Tange and Judgem ents of Magistrate Ooka —New Edition Taniguchi, Senkichi, 130, 205 Tanizaki, Junichiro, 135, 217 Tasaka, Tomotaka, 161—62,163 Taylor, R obert,119 Teen-Áger’s Sex M anual (Judai no SeitenJ, 205 Television,14,18, 21,23, 31,32, 34, 56, 6 0 ,115, 132-33, 149, 164, 173, 201 ， 217—20 Tengu Kurauma (Kurauma Tenguj series, 58-60, 59 Terayama, S h u ji,175 There Was a Father (Chichi A rikiJ,170 Third-Class Executive (Santo fuyaku), 181

251

Tobacco Road, 211 Tojo, H id e k i,165 Tokaido Yotsuya Kaidan. See Yotsuya Ghost Story on the Tokaido, The Tokijiro Kutsukake—A Solitary Knight (Kutsukake Tokijiro— Yukyo IppikiJ, 81-82 Tokugawa period (1603-1868) ， 14 ， 17, 18, 23, 24, 29, 34, 7 9 ,1 2 2 -2 3 ,14547,179, 202 Tokyo Chorus (Tokyo Gassho )，169,170, 180 Tokyo Story (Tokyo Monogatari)，212 Tokyo Twilight (Tokyo Boshoku), 211 Tono, Eijiro, 184, 214 Tora no O o Fumu Otokotachi. See Men Who Tread on the Tiger’s Tail, The Tora-san, 87-91, 199, 201 Toyama no Kin-san. See Kin-san of Toyama Toynbee, A rn o ld ,18 Toyoda ，S h iro ,100 Toyotomi，Hideyoshi ，183 Travei Chronicles 〇f Yhji and Kita, The (Yaji-Kita DochukiJ, 87 Traveling Hat of Yataro (Yatarogasa), 84, 85

Travels of Yaji and Kita, The (Yaji-Kita Dochuki),149

Truffaut, F ran ço is,13 Tsuboshima, T akashi,182 Tsukue, Ryunosuke, 36, 213-17 Tsuruta, Koji，69-72, 70,126 Tsuruya, Nanboku, 99 Tucker, R ich ard ,15 Uchida, Tomu, 51—56, 62, 213—17 Uehara, K e n ,128 Ueki, Hitoshi, 179, 181, 182, 183,184 Ugetsu (Ugetsu MonogatariJ, 62, 98-99, 105—8, 106, 107, 109, 113, 121, 196, 205 Ukigusa M onogatari. See Story of

Floating Weeds

Umarete wa Mita Keredo. See I Was Born But. . . Untamed male, 46, 58, 67, 72 Urabe, K um eko,171 Urashima, Taro, 138,157, 208—9 Urayama, Kiriro, 195-96, 198-99 Urio, Ryosuke ，99 Vacuum Zone (Shinku ChitaiJ, 166-67

252

A R C H E T Y P E S IN JA PA N ESE FILM

Vengeance is Mine. See Revenge Is for Us Violent District (Boryoku‫״‬gaij, 66-67 Viper Brothers fMamushi no Kyodai)f

72 Virgin Blues (Baa/in B uruusuJ,173 Vogel, Ezra, 134, 227—2811.29 Von Sternberg, Josef,130 Wakamatsu, Koji, 136,137 Wakao, A yako,187 Wakasugi, Katsuko ,101 Wakayama, Tomisaburo, 72-73, 87, 214 Wandering Outlaw genre (m atatabimonoj. See Period film genre War at Sea from Hawaii to Malaya, The (Hawaii Marei Oki Kaisenj, 5 0 ,16263 Warm Current (Danryu), 129-30,135 Warui Yatsu Hodo Yoku Nemuru. See Bad Sleep Well, The Watanabe, K u n io ,164 Watanabe, Shoko, 97, 98, 22811.1 Wataridori series. See Bird of Passage Waterloo B ridge,119 Weight o/ Travei, The (Tabi no OmosaJ, 94 What Is Your Name (JCimi no Na mij, 119-20 , 130-31 , 132 , 133 , 140 , 189‫־‬ 90,195, 196, 212, 219 When the Foetus Goes Poaching. See Embryo Hunts in Secret, The Widow’s Boarding House, The fJVíibo/in GeshukuJ series, 209 Wild BuncJÍ, The, 30, 69 Wild S tra w b e rrie s, 136 Woman Killer an d the Hell of Oil, The (Onnagoroshi Abura Jigokuj,173 Women of the N ight (Yoru no Onnatachi), 203 Wood, Natalie, 201-2 Worthy opponent, 52, 54, 55 Yachigusa, Kaoru, 48 Yagumo, E m iko,170 Yaji-Kita Dochuki. See Travel Chronicles of Yaji and Kita, The, and Travels of Yaji and Kita, The

Yakuza (gangster) films, 64-76, 186, 188 Yamada, isuzu ,110 Yamada, Yoji, 87-88, 199-201 Yamamoto, Fujiko ,126

Yamamoto, Isoroku, 164-65 Yamamoto, Kajiro, 50 Yamamoto, Satsuo, 165, 166—6 7 ,1 6 8 , 212-13, 214 Yamamoto, Shinya, 209 Yamamura, So, 168, 214 Yamanaka, Sadao, 4 1 ,5 1 ,6 2 , 213 Yamashita, Kosaku, 7 1 ,8 0 -8 1 ,1 0 9 Yamato, Takeru, 5 7,143,144 Yasuoka, Shotaro, 174-75 Yatappe of Seki (Seki no Yatappe), 80 Yatarogasa. See Traveling Hat of Yataro Yellow Handkerchieves of Happiness, The (Kofuku no Kiiroi H a n k a c h i), 132 Yoda, Yoshikata, 123, 151, 2 3 2 n .l Yo/imbo (Yo/imboj, 51,212 Yorozuya (formerly Nakamura), K in^osuke, 30, 53, 55, 82, 85,190 Ybru no Onnatachi• See Women pf the Night Yoshikawa, Eiji, 45-47, 49, 50, 5 1 ,5 2 , 54, 56 Yoshimura, K ozaburo,130 Yoshinaga, Sayuri, 195-96, 196, 197, 198, 199, 201,202 Ybtsuya Ghost Story, The (Ybtsuya Kaidan): K inoshita’s film, 99-100; Toyoda’s film ,1 0 0 ,108 Ybtsuya Ghost Story on the Tokaido, The (Tokaido Yotsuya KaidanJ: Kabuki play, 99; Nakagawa’s f ilm ,1001 0 4 , 101, 212 Young M aster in College, The (Daigaku no WakadannaJ, 235n .9 Young M urderer (Seishun no Satsujinshaj, 175,176 Yuki Fu/in Ezu. See Picture of Madame Yuki, A Zatoichi series, 84-87: The N e w Story of Z a to ic h i (Shin Z a to ic h i Monog-

atariJ ， 85 ， 87; The Story pf Zatoichi (Z atoich i MonogatariJ, 85, 86; The Story of Z a to ic h i, Part II (ZokuZatoich i MonogatariJ, 85 Z e n ,1 5 ,1 6 , 2 1 ,4 9 , 50, 52, 57, 61-62, 157 Zoku-Shinobi no Mono. See Band of A ssassins II, A Zoku-Tange Sazen. See Sazen Tange: M akino’s films Zoku-Zatoichi Monogatari. See Zatoichi series