Archaeology of the Land of the Bible, Volume I: 10,000-586 B.C.E. (The Anchor Yale Bible Reference Library) [Reprint ed.] 030014007X, 9780300140071

Citation preview

ARCHAEOLOGY

OF THE LAND OF THE BIBLE· 1QOOO-586 B.C.E.

WINNER OF THE 1991 BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY SOCIETY AWARD FOR BEST SCHOLARLY BOOK ON ARCHAEOLOGY!

Step

by step, era by era,

author Amihai Mazar shows just what each major archaeological discovery has to say about the mysterious stories of the Bible. It's all here, from the mundane clay jars of the ancient households of Palestine to the beautiful sculpture and jewelry that passed through these lands on the primitive trade routes. From the first permanent settlements in the land of the Bible (10,000 B.C.E.) to the tumultuous period of the divided monarchy of Israel and Judah and the destruction of the First Temple by Nebuchadnezzar (586 B.C.E.), Mazar's overview of biblical life and the archaeological evidence to support it is without parallel. Archaeology of the Land of the Bible has quickly established itself as the standard text in biblical archaeology.

AMIHAI MAZAR is a sen ior lecturer at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in Israel. He has studied under the giants in the field of archaeology, including Trude Dothan and Yigael Yadin.

COVE RPHOTOGRAPH CULT STAND FROM BETH SHEAN WITH WINDING SERPENTS; 1 I TH CENTURY BCE •COLLECTION OF I D.AM. JERUSALEM) BY ERICH LESSING/ ART RESOURCE . NY COVER DESIGN BY KATHY KIKKERT

1092 ISBN 978- 0- 300 -1 4007 - 1

I 111

111

9 780300 140071

THE ANCHOR YALE BIBLE REFERENCE LIBRARY

is designed to be a third major component

of the Anchor Yale Bible group, which includes the Anchor Yale Bible commentaries on the books of the Old Testament, the New Testament, and the Apocrypha, and the Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary. While the Anchor Yale Bible commentaries and the Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary are structurally defined by their subject matter, the Anchor Yale Bible Reference Library serves as a supplement on the cutting edge of the most recent scholarship. The series is open-ended; the scope and reach are nothing less than the biblical world in its totality, and its methods and techniques the most up-to-date available or devisable. Separate volumes will deal with one or more of the following topics relating to the Bible: anthropology, archaeology, ecology, economy, geography, history, languages and literatures, philosophy, religion(s), theology. As with the Anchor Yale Bible commentaries and the Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary, the philosophy underlying the Anchor Yale Bible Reference Library finds expression in the following: the approach is scholarly, the perspective is balanced and fair-minded, the methods are scientific, and the goal is to inform and enlighten. Contributors are chosen on the basis of their scholarly skills and achievements, and they come from a variety of religious backgrounds and communities. The books in the Anchor Yale Bible Reference Library are intended for the broadest possible readership, ranging from world-class scholars, whose qualifications match those of the authors, to general readers, who may not have special training or skill in studying the Bible but are as enthusiastic as any dedicated professional in expanding their knowledge of the Bible and its world.

David Noel Freedman GENERAL EDITOR

THE ANCHOR YALE BIBLE REFERENCE LIBRARY

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE

LAND OF THE BIBLE 10,000-586 B.C.E.

by Amihai Mazar

CENITR FOR IUDAIC-CHRISTIAN STIJDIES

YALE

~ AYBRL

Yale University Press New Haven and London

First published in 1990 by Doubleday, a division of Random House, Inc. First paperback edition published October 1992. First Yale University Press impression 2009. Copyright © 1990 by Amihai Mazar. New preface copyright © 1992 by Amihai Mazar. Scripture quotations are taken from the Holy Bible New International Version, copyright 1973, 1978, 1985, International Bible Society. All rights reserved. This book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, including illustrations, in any form (beyond that copying permitted by Sections 107 and 108 of the U.S. Copyright Law and except by reviewers for the public press), without written permission from the publishers. Printed in the United States of America. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Mazar, Amihai, 1942Archaeology of the land of the Bible, 10,000-586 B.C.E. / by Amihai Mazar. -1st pbk. ed. p. cm. -(The Anchor Bible reference library) Includes bibliographical references and indexes. 1. Bible-Antiquities. 2. Palestine-Antiquities. I. Title. II. Series. BS621.M39 1992 92-8432 220.9'3-dc20 CIP ISBN 978-0-300-14007-1 (pbk.) A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

CONTENTS Preface to the 1992 Edition Preface

xiii xv

Acknowledgments and Credits Bibliographic Note

xvii

List of Abbreviations List of Tables List of Maps and Illustrations Glossary of Geographic Terms

xxi

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

xix xxiv xxiv XXX

1

The Geographic Setting The Tell and the Ruin History of the Research Stratigraphy Excavation Methods Coping with the Finds Regional Studies Chronology Terminology and Periodization Publications Ideology and Interpretation

30 31

Notes

33

1 9 10

21 21 26 28 28 29

CHAPTER TWO THE FIRST AGRICULTURAL COMMUNITIES: The Neolithic Period (ca. 8500-4300 B.C.E.}

35

Before Agriculture The Natufian Culture

36

The Neolithic Age (8500-4300 B.C.E.) Introduction Pre-Pottery Neolithic A IPPNAJ

38 38 40

35

V

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE LAND OF THE BIBLE

Pre-Pottery Neolithic B IPPNBJ The Pottery Neolithic Period (PN) Desert Regions in the Neolithic Period

44 49 54

Notes

56

CHAPTER THREE INNOVATIVE COMMUNITIES OF THE FOURTH MILLENNIUM: The Chalcolithic Period (ca. 4300-3300 e.c.E.) Introduction Settlement Pattern Settlement Planning and Architecture

59 59 60 64

The Temple at En Gedi

Pottery Stone Implements

69 72

The Flint Industry; Stone Vessels and Shell Objects

The Copper Industry and the "Cave of the Treasure" Ritual Art Burial Customs Subsistence Economy The Origins of the Ghassulian Culture and Its Chronology The Collapse of the Ghassulian Culture

86 88

Notes

89

72 75 82 85

CHAPTER FOUR THE EMERGENCE OF CITIES: The Early Bronze Age (ca. 3300-2300 e.c.E.)

91

Introduction

91

The Early Bronze I Period (ca. 3300-3050 B.C.E.) Terminology Settlement Pattern Site Plan and Architecture Burial Customs Pottery Other Finds The Origins of the Early Bronze I Culture Relations with Egypt and Chronology

92 92 94 96 98 100 103 104 105

The Early Bronze 11-111 Urban Culture (ca. 3050-2300 B.C.E.)

108

vi

Contents

Inner Phasing and Chronology The Background to Urbanization Settlement Pattern and Population

108 110 111

The Urban Environment; The Golan-Galilee Enclosures; The Negev and Southern Sinai Pastoralists

Agriculture Architecture

118 118

Fortifications; City Planning and Dwellings; Temples; The Granary at Beth-Yera'h; The 'Ai Water Reservoir

Pottery Metallurgy International Connections

130 134 135

Connections with Egypt; Art Objects Indicating Relations with Syria, Anatolia, Mesopotamia, and the Aegean

Burial Customs Society, Politics, and Economy The Collapse of the Early Bronze Age Urban Culture The Early Bronze Age and the Bible

139 139

Notes

144

CHAPTER FIVE AN INTERLUDE: The EB IV/MB I Period (ca. 2300-2000 e.c.E.) Introduction Terminology Settlement Pattern and Architecture Burial Customs Pottery

141 143

151 151 152 152 159 162

The Three Main Assemblages; Syrian Imported Pottery

Metallurgy

165

Weapons and Pins; The 'Ain Samiya Goblet

Chronology Interpretation

168 169

Notes

172

CHAPTER SIX MIGHTY CANAANITE CITY-STATES: The Middle Bronze II Period (ca. 2000-1550 B.C.E.)

174

General Outline

174

The Middle Bronze IIA Period (ca. 2000-1800/1750 B.C.E.) Introduction

175

vii

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE LAND OF THE BIBLE

Settlement Pattern Fortifications Urban Architecture Pottery Metallurgy Relations with Egypt The Origin of the Middle Bronze IIA Culture Chronology

The Middle Bronze IIB-C (ca. 1800-1550 Introduction Subphasing and Chronology Settlement Pattern Fortifications

B.C.E.)

176 179 181 182 184 185 188 189 191 191 193 197 198

Ramparts and Glacis; City Gates

Urban Architecture

208

City Plan and Dwellings; Palaces; Temples

Agricultural Installations Burial Customs Pottery and Foreign Relations Weapons Art

213 213 214 218 219

Metal Figurines; fewelry; Glyptic Art; Monumental Art

Writing The Patriarchal Narratives and the Middle Bronze Age The End of the Middle Bronze Age

224

Notes

227

CHAPTER SEVEN IN THE SHADOW OF EGYPTIAN DOMINATION: The Late Bronze Age (ca. 1550-1200 B.C.E.) Historical Background Inner Division and Terminology Settlement Pattern The Occupation History of Late Bronze Sites Aspects of Canaanite Town Planning and Architecture

224 226

232 232 238 239 241 243

Fortifications; Town Planning; Palaces; Domestic Architecture; Temples

Pottery and International Trade Local Pottery; The Bichrome Group; Cypriot Imported Pottery; Mycenaean Imports

viii

257

Contents

Metallurgy Art

264 266

Sculpture in Stone; Glyptic; Ivories; Metal Art Ob;ects; Clay Figurines

Writing Burial Customs The Egyptian Presence in Canaan

274 277 2 79

Egyptian Forts and Residencies; Anthropoid Coffins; Egyptian Mines

The End of the Late Bronze Age Notes

287 291

CHAPTER EIGHT THE DAYS OF THE JUDGES: Iron Age I (ca. 1200-1000 e.c.E.)

295

Terminology and Inner Division

295

Iron Age IA: The Last Phase of Egyptian Control in Canaan

296

The Settlement of the Philistines and Other Sea Peoples Historical Sources The Initial Settlement of the Sea Peoples Settlement Pattern and Stratigraphy Philistine Bichrome Pottery Architecture

300 302 307 308 313 317

Fortifications, Town Planning and Dwellings; The Tell Qasile Temples

Cult Objects Glyptic Art and Writing Burial Customs The End of the Philistine Culture The Material Culture of the Israelite Tribes in the Period of the Judges Introduction The Israelite Conquest of Canaan in the Light of Archaeological Evidence The Israelite Settlement Settlement Planning and Architecture Pottery Religious Practice The Problem of Ethnic Identity and Origins of the Israelite Culture

323 326 326 327 328 328 329 334 338 345 348 353 ix

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE LAND OF THE BIBLE

The Canaanites and the Emergence of the Phoenician Culture

355

Transjordan in Iron Age I

35 7

Metallurgy, Art, and Writing in Iron Age I Metallurgy Art Writing

359 359 361 361

~~

CHAPTER NINE THE UNITED MONARCHY: Iron Age HA (ca. 1000-925 e.c.E.) Introduction Historical Outline Archaeology of the Time of Saul and David The Time of Solomon

3~

368 368 369 3 71 375

Solomonic Buildings in ferusalem; Solomon's Buildings Outside ferusalem

Settlement and Architecture

387

Fortifications; Town Planning; Other Settlement Features Related to the United Monarchy

Settlements in the Negev

390

The Central Negev Highlands; The Northern Negev; Ezion-Geber

The Outcome of Shishak's Campaign

397

Notes

398

CHAPTER TEN THE DIVIDED MONARCHY: Iron Age 11B-C (925-586 B.C.E.)

403

Historical Outline

403

The Northern Kingdom of Israel Samaria

406 406

The Samaria Ostraca

Major Cities in the Kingdom of Israel Other Towns and Forts in the Northern Kingdom

The Southern Kingdom of fudah Settlement Pattern Jerusalem The Palace at Ramat Rahel X

411 415

416 416 41 7

Contents

Lachish

427

Lachish Before 701 e.c.E.; The Conquest of Lachish by Sennacherib; Lachish in the Seventh Century e.c.E.

Judean Country Towns

435

Occupation History of /udean Towns

The Northern Negev

438

Arad; Other Sites in the Northern Negev

The Central and Southern Negev

444

Kadesh-Barnea; Kuntillet 'Airud; Tell el-Kheleifeh

The Judean Desert Other Forts and Towers in Judah The Lamelech and Rosette Seal Impressions Judah's Downfall Notes

451 453 455 458 460

CHAPTER ELEVEN GENERAL ASPECTS OF THE ISRAELITE MATERIAL CULTURE

463

Aspects of Israelite Town Planning and Architecture

463

Classification of Cities; Town Planning; Fortifications; Streets; Royal Architecture and Ashlar Masonry; Stables and Store Buildings; Water Supply Projects; Dwellings; Industrial Installations

Israelite Cult: Temples, Altars, and Artifacts

492

Dan; Beer-sheba; Arad; Hurvat Qitmit; Other Cult Installations; Clay FigUiines; Cult Stands

Art in Israel and Judah

502

The Samaria Ivories; Seal Engravings

Israelite Pottery Metallurgy Trade and Foreign Connections

507 509 510

Internal Trade; International Trade

Literacy and Inscriptions

514

Israelite Seals and Seal Impressions

Burial Customs

520

Notes

526

CHAPTER TWELVE ISRAEL'S NEIGHBORS AND THE ASSYRIAN AND BABYLONIAN DOMINATIONS

531

Philis ti a

53 I

Phoenicia

536 xi

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE LAND OF THE BIBLE

Transjordan

541

The Assyrian Conquests and Domination

544

The Babylonian Period

548 549

Notes Appendix: Recent Discoveries and Studies

551

General Index

556

Scriptures Index

575

xii

PREFACE TO THE 1992 EDITION

This paperback edition is almost identical to the hardcover edition published in 1990, except for improvements in the graphic presentation of the maps and corrections of minor typographical mistakes. During the three years since the first edition was updated, continued archaeological research in Israel and Jordan has brought to light some interesting discoveries. Additional studies have appeared in print. Some of the main discoveries, results of other studies, and references to recent publications are presented in the updated Appendix to this edition jpp. 551-55). AMIHAI MAZAR

April 1992

PREFACE

Palestine-the land of the Bible-has been a prime target for archaeological research for the last hundred years. The desire to understand the Bible was a motivating force behind the evolvement of biblical archaeology. Interpretation of the finds was essentially intended to illuminate the realia of the biblical narrative. Over the years, however, the scope of archaeology in Palestine has been greatly extended. Biblical archaeology adapted itself to universal developments in archaeological research. Currently the field covers a wide spectrum of subjects related to the cultural changes in the country studied against the broader background of the ancient Near East. The wide-scale archaeological activity in Israel and Jordan has revealed a tremendous quantity of data, its opulence and variety out of all proportion to the small size of the country. Hundreds of archaeological projects of different character and scope are carried out each year. The digestion of the data uncovered is overwhelming even for professional archaeologists, not to mention scholars of related subjects. It is the purpose of this volume to present a comprehensive, updated, and as objective as possible picture of the archaeological research of Palestine relating to the Old Testament period. I choose to begin the survey with the earliest permanent settlements, dating to ca. 10,000 s.c.E., and to terminate the discussion with the destruction of the first temple by the Babylonians in 586 s.c.E and the period of Babylonian domination. The Persian period, though part of the historical scope of the Old Testament, is excluded, as I view it as the beginning of the era of the second temple. The raw material for this book was gleaned from hundreds of preliminary and final reports, short notices, and papers scattered in dozens of periodicals, monographs, and jubilee and memorial volumes. Dynamic changes and new discoveries prompt new interpretations of and approaches to essential xv

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE LAND OF THE BIBLE

subjects, and sometimes one is even embarrassed by the totally opposing explanations of the same phenomena. These varying opinions are presented here in the text or in the notes. Over recent decades, considerable discussion has taken place concerning the essence of the archaeology of the Holy Land. Should this field be regarded as an individual discipline, or is it just another branch of Near Eastern archaeology? Moreover, what impact does it have on current biblical, historical, and literary studies, and what are the pitfalls to be avoided by archaeologists in correlating their findings to these fields? Although this book is written as a straightforward introduction to the archaeology of Palestine, wherever possible I discuss the implications of the discoveries for biblical history. Hopefully this work will serve to narrow the ever growing fissure between archaeologists and other scholars of disciplines relating to biblical studies. This book would not have been written without the encouragement of R. Blizzard, Jr., and D. A. Pryor, president of the Center for Judaic Christian Studies. I am grateful to Professor D. N. Freedman for his editorial comments on the entire text, as well as to the following scholars for imponant comments on particular chapters: W. G. Dever IChapters One through Six); 0. Bar-Yosef !Chapter Two); T. E. Levy !Chapter Three); P. de Miroschedji !Chapter Four); T. Dothan IChapters Seven and Eight). The initial texts of Chapters Two, Three, Eight, and Nine were translated from the Hebrew by R. Grafman; the entire text was edited and prepared for publication by Janet Amitai. Rahel Solar prepared the maps and many of the line drawings. The editorial staff of Doubleday, and particularly Ms. Theresa D'Orsogna, made special efforts to bring this book to press. Finally, the discoveries described in this book would not be available without the endless efforts of my colleagues, the "dirt archaeologists" who are dedicated to the exploration of the ancient cultures of the Land of the Bible. To all, I am truly grateful. A.MAZAR ferusalem, October 1987* • Some updatings of the text and notes were made at the beginning of 1989.

xvi

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND CREDITS The photographs and line drawings in this book are published with the kind permission of the following scholars and institutions: Collection of the Israel Department of Antiquities and Museums, photograph supplied by the Israel Museum: 2.1; 2.5; 2.9; 3.11; 3.12; 3.14; 3.16; 3.20; 4.21; 4.22; 5.9; 5.11; 6.18; 6.20; 6.21; 6.22; 7.8; 7.10; 7.14; 7.15; 7.16; 7.17; 7.18; 7.19; 7.20; 7.22; 7.23; 8.7; 8.8; 8.15; 8.16; 8.28; 8.33; 9.7; 10.13; 10.141 10.34A; 11.24; 11.25; 11.26; 11.27; 11.28; 11.33; 11.35; 12.4; 12.5; 12.6. Israel Department of Antiquities: 3.8 1 3.9; 3.17; 3.18; 4.18; 4.23; 4.24; 4.25; 5.8 1 5.9; 5.10; 5.12; 6.5; 6.19 (partly); 7.13 (partly); 7.16; 7.25; 7.31; 8.30; 8.31; 10.35; 11.6; 12.3. Israel Museum: 2.5; 2.6; 7.29; 10.5; 10.18; 10.27; 11.22; 11.29; 11.30; 11.32; 12.7. R. Amiran, Israel Museum: 4.5; 4.11; 4.12; 4.20; 4.24. N. Avigad, Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem: 10.8; 10.9; 10.10; 11.40. G. Barkai, Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University: 11.36 left; l 1.•37; 11.38; 11.39. Beer-sheba Expedition, Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University: 11.2; 11.13; 11.31. Beer-sheba Museum: 11.21. I. Beit-Arieh, Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University: 4.8; 4.9; 4.10; 10.24; 11.23. A. Biran, Nelson Glueck School of Biblical Archaeology, Jerusalem: 6.7; 6.13; 8.26; 10.4; 10.25; 11.4; 11.7; 11.19; 11.20. E. Braun, Israel Department of Antiquities and Museums: 4.2. British School of Archaeology, Jerusalem (Jericho Expedition): 1.5; 2.4; 2.7; 5.6; 6.17 (partly); 6.19 (partly). City of David Expedition, Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel Exploration Society: 9.3; 11.15; 11.36 right. R. Cohen, Israel Department of Antiquities and Museums: 5.3; 5.4; 9.13; 9.14; 9.15; 9.16; 10.26. F. M. Cross, Harvard University: 8.34. W. G. Dever, Tucson University, and R. Cohen, Israel Department of Antiquities: 5.2. W. G. Dever and Nelson Glueck School of Biblical Archaeology, Jerusalem: 5,5; 6.10; 9.11; 9.12. M. Dothan, Haifa University: 6.3. T. Dothan, Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem: 7.27; 7.28; 7.30; 7.268. Ecole Biblique et Archeologique Fra01;aise de Jerusalem and Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations, Paris: 4.15; 9.6; 11.l; 11.11. A. Eitan, Israel Department of Antiquities: 10.30. C. Epstein, Israel Department of Antiquities: 3.4; 3.17; 5.7. S. Gitin, W. F. Albright, Institute of Archaeology, Jerusalem, and T. Dothan, Hebrew University (Tel Miqne Expedition): 8.6.

xvii

ARCHAEOLOGY Of THE. LAND OF THE. BIBLE.

Ecole Biblique et Archeologique Fram,aise de Jerusalem !Tell el-Far'ah Expedition!: 4.4 (panly); 4.15. A. N. Goring-Morris, Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University: 2.10. I. Finkelstein, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan: 6.IJ; 8.19; 8.21; 8.25. Hazor Expedition, The Hebrew University, Israel Exploration Society: 1.4; 1.6; 6.6; 6.14; 7.5; 7.6; 7.7; 7.21; 9.8; 10.6; 11.10; 11.16; 11.17. R. Hecht Museum, Haifa University; Photo: Israel Museum: 11.34. Z. Herzog, Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University: 6.12; 9.10; 10.12; 10.22; 11.2; 11.3; 11.12. Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University: 1.3; 4.4 (partly!; some pottery drawings in 4; 6.10, 10.2; 11.8. Israel Exploration Society, illustrations reproduced from the book The Architecture of Ancient Israel (editors: H. Katzenstein, E. Netzer, A. Kempinski, R. Reich! 1987: 4.19; 7.2; 9.9; 10.7; 11.14; 12.8. Illustration reproduced from Y. Aharoni, Arad Inscriptions: 10.23. lllustration reproduced from R. Amiran, Early Arad: 4.20. Illustration reproduced from EAEHL: 7.11. G. L. Kelm, Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary, and A. Mazar, The Hebrew University (Tel Batash Expedition!: 6.8; 7.4; 10.33; 10.34B; 11.18; 12.l; 12.2. A. Kempinski, Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University: 4.14; 8.22; 8.23; 8.24. M. Kochavi, Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University: 1.8; 6.2, 6.4 (partly); 6.15; 6.17; 7.3; 7.32. T. E. Levy, Nelson Glueck School of Biblical Archaeology, Jerusalem: 3.6; 3.19. A. Mazar, Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem: 8.9; 8.10; 8.11, 8.12; 8.13; 8.14; 8.17; 8.18; 8.20; 8.27; 8.32; 10.31; 10.32. E. Mazar, Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem: 10.11. z. Meshel, Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University: 2.11; 10.28; 10.29. P. de Miroschedji, French Archaeological Mission, Jerusalem: 4.6; 4.7; 4.13; 4.17. T. Noy, Israel Museum: 2.3. E. D. Oren, Ben-Gurion University, Beer-sheba: 7.26A; 8.2. The Oriental Institute, University of Chicago: 4.16; 6.17 (panlyl; 7.13 jpanlyl; 8.3; 8.4.

J. Perrot, French Archaeological Mission, Jerusalem: 2.8; 2.10; 3.2; 3.5; 3.8; 3.10; 3.15; 3.21. M. W. Ptausnitz, Israel Department of Antiquities: 4.25. B. Rothenberg, Tel Aviv: 7.31. Samaria Expedition: 10.2; 10.3. D. Ussishkin, TelAvivUniversitylnstituteofArchaeology: 1.7; 10.15; 10.16; 10.17; 10.19; 10.20; 11.5. Wellcome-Marston Expedition to Lachish: 7.24. A. Zenal, Haifa University: 8.28; 8.29. Drawings prepared for this book by Rahel Solar, based on various original publications: 3.7; 6.9; 6.15; 6.16; 7.3; 7.6; 7.9; 7.12; 7.26; 8.1; 9.2; 9.4; 9.5; 10.1; 11.19. Maps prepared by Rahel Solar: 1.1; 1.2; 2.2; 3.1; 4.1; 4.3; 5.1; 6.1; 8.5; 9.1. Scripture quotations are taken from the Holy Bible, New International Version, Copyright Cl 1973, 1978, 1984, International Bible Society. Translations of the Siloam inscription and Lachish letter no. 4 are taken from ANET with permission of Princeton University Press.

xviii

BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTE The notes in this volume refer mainly to the most recent publications. The latter usually cite earlier discussions which the interested reader may wish to review. General reference books (such as EAEHL, Kenyon 119791, and Aharoni (1982)), except in exceptional cases, are not included in the notes, as they are pertinent to all the subject matter. Due to space considerations, I was forced to omit the full title of papers as well as references to most of the final excavation reports. References to the latter can be found at the end of each relevant entry in the EAEHL and in the comprehensive bibliographies (updated until 1980) prepared by Eleanor K. Vogel; see E. K. Vogel, Bibliography of Holy Land Sites. I. Hebrew Union College Annual 42 (1971), pp. 1-96; ibid. II, 52 (1981), pp. 1-92 (offprints of the latter have been issued). Other general books which are not mentioned in the notes are the following: W. F. Albright, The Archaeology of Palestine, revised ed., Harrnondsworth 1960. W. F. Albright, Archaeology and the Religion of Israel, fifth ed., New York 1969. D. W. Thomas (editorl, Archaeology and Old Testament Study, Oxford 1967. K. M. Kenyon, The Bible and Recent Archaeology (revised by P. R. S. Moorey), London 1987. P. R. S. Moorey, Excavations in Palestine, Cambridge 1981. H. D. Lance, The Old Testament and the Archaeologist, London 1983. H. Weippert, Paliistina in Vorhellenistischer Zeit, Handbuch der Archiiologie, Vorderasien II, Band I, Munchen 1988 (an updated comprehensive synthesis I. The following are some of the excavation reports pertaining to major multistrata tells in Palestine. These reports are listed according to the site and in the chronological order of their publication: Beth-Shean: 1. A. RoWE, The Topography and History of Beth Shan, Philadelphia 1930.

2. - - , The Four Canaanite Temples of Beth Shan, Philadelphia 1940. 3. F. JAMES, The Iron Age at Beth Shan: A Study of Levels VI-IV, Philadelphia 1966. 4. E. D. OREN, The Northern Cemetery of Beth Shan, Leiden 1973.

xix

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE LAND OF THE BIBLE Gezer:

I. R. A. S. MACALISTER, The Excavations of Gezer, vols. 1-3, London 1912. 2. W. G. DEVER, H. D. LANCE, and G. E. WRIGHT, Gezer I: Preliminary Report of the 1964-66 Seasons, Jerusalem 1970. 3. W. G. DEVER led.), Gezer, vol. 2, Jerusalem 1974. 4. - - , Gezer, vol. 4, Jerusalem 1986. 5. J. D. SEGER and H. D. LANCE, Gezer, vol. 5, The Field I Caves, Jerusalem

1988.

Hazor: I. Y. YADIN et al., Hazor, vol. 1, Jerusalem 1958. 2. - - , Hazor, vol. 2, Jerusalem 1960. 3. - - , Hazor, vols. 3-4 plates, Jerusalem 1961, 1989.

faicbo: I. K. M. KENYON, Excavations at /ericho, vol. 1, London 1960. 2. - - , bccavations at /ericho, vol. 2, London 1965. 3. K. M. KENYON and T. A. HOLLAND, Excavations at /ericho, vols. 3-5, London 1981-1983.

Lodusb: 1. 0. TUFNELL et al., Lachish II: The Fosse Temple, London 1940. 2. 0. TuFNELL, Lachish Ill: The Iron Age, London 1953. 3. - - , Lachish IV: The Bronze Age, London 1958. 4. Y. AHARONI, Investigations at Lachish: The Sanctuary and the Residency ILachish V), Tel Aviv 1975.

Megiddo: 1. P. L. 0. Guv, Megiddo Tombs, Chicago 1938. 2. R. S. LAMON and G. M. SHIPTON, Megiddo, vol. l, Chicago 1939. 3. G. Louo, Megiddo, vol. 2, Chicago 1948. Tell Beit Minim: I. W. F. ALBRIGHT, The Excavation of Tell Beit Mirsim in Palestine. 1. The Pottery of the First Three Campaigns. AASOR 1211932). 2. - - , The Excavation of Tell Beit Mirsim. lA. The Bronze Age Pottery of the Fourth Campaign. AASOR 13 11933). 3. - - , The Excavation of Tell Beit Mirsim. 2. The Bronze Age. AASOR 1711938). 4. - - , The Excavation of Tell Beit Mirsim. 3. The Iron Age. AASOR 21-2211943).

xx

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AASOR ADA/ Aharoni (1979) Aharoni (1982)

AJA Amiran (1969) Anati (1963)

ANET ANEP Architecture 'Atiqot BA BAR BASOR BAT Bright (1981)

CAH

Callaway Festschrift COWA2

Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research Annual of the Department of Antiquities of fordan Y. AHARONI, The Land of the Bible: Historical Geography (rev. ed.), Philadelphia 1979 Y. AHARONI, The Archaeology of the Land of Israel, Philadelphia 1982 American fournal of Archaeology R. AMIRAN, Ancient Pottery of the Holy Land, Jerusalem 1969 E. ANAn, Palestine Before the Hebrews, New York 1963 J.B. PRITCHARD (ed.), Ancient Texts Relating to the Old Testament (3rd ed.), Princeton 1969 J. B. PRITCHARD (ed.), The Ancient Near East in Pictures, Princeton 1954 H. K.ATZENSTEIN et al. jeds.), The Architecture of Ancient Israel, Jerusalem 1987 (Hebrew; English ed. forthcoming) 'Atiqot: fournal of the Israel Department of Antiquities and Museums The Biblical Archaeologist Biblical Archaeology Review Bulletin of the American Schools of Archaeological Research Biblical Archaeology Today: Proceedings of the International Congress on Biblical Archaeology, Jerusalem 1985 J. BRIGHT, A History of Israel (3rd ed.), Philadelphia 1981 I. E. S. EDWARDS, C. J. GADD, and N. G. HAMMOND (eds.), The Cambridge Ancient History (3rd ed.), vols. 1-2, Cambridge 1970-75 J. F. DRINKARD, G. L. MATTINGLY, J.M. MILLER (eds.), Benchmarks in Time and Culture. Essays in Honor of Joseph A. Callaway, Atlanta 1988. R. W. EHRICH (ed.), Chronologies in Old World Archaeology, Chicago 1965

xxi

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE LAND OF THE BIBLE

COWA3

R. W. EHRICH (ed.), Chronologies in Old World

Archaeology (rev. ed. in press) DE VAUX, Early History of Israel, Philadelphia 1978 Dothan (1982) T. DOTHAN, The Philistines and Their Material Culture, New Haven 1982 M. AVI-YoNAH and E. STERN (eds.), Encyclopedia EAEHL of Aichaeological Excavations in the Holy Land, Jerusalem 1975-78 El Bretz-Israel: Archaeological, Historical and Geographical Studies Emmaus Colloquium P. DE MIROSCHEDJI (ed.), L'Urbanization de la Palestine a ]'Age du Bronze Ancien, Actes du Colloque d'Emmaus (20-24 Octobre 1986), Paris (in press) Gibson (1971) C. L. GIBSON, Textbook of Syrian Semitic Inscriptions. I. Hebrew and Moabite Inscriptions, Oxford 1973 Glueck Festschrife J. A. SANDERS (ed.), Near Eastern Aichaeology in the Twentieth Century: Essays in Honor of Nelson Glueck, New York 1970 Hadidi (1982) A. HADIDI (ed.), Studies in the History and Aichaeology of Jordan, Amman 1982 HEI J. SHAVIT (ed.), The History of Eretz Israel, Jerusalem 1984 (Hebrew) Hennessy (1967) J. B. HENNESSY, The Foreign Relations of Palestine During the Early Bronze Age, London 1967 IE! Israel Exploration foumal foumal of Biblical literature /BL fNES foumal of Near Eastern Studies Kenyon (1979) K. M. KENYON, Aichaeology in the Holy Land (rev. ed.), London 1979 Kenyon Festschrift P. R. s. MOOREY and P. PARR (eds.), Archaeology in the Levant: Essays for Kathleen Kenyon, London 1978 Mazar (1986) B. MAzA.R, The Early Biblical Period: Historical Essays, Jerusalem 1986 Mellaart (1966) J. MELLAART, The Chalcolithic and Early Bronze in the Near East and Anatolia, Beirut 1966 PEQ Palestine Exploration Quarterly Qedem Qedem: Monographs of the Institute of Aichaeology, The Hebrew University of ferusalem Rose Festschrift L. G. PERDUE, L. E. TooMBs, and G. L. JOHNSON (eds.), Aichaeology and Biblical Interpretation: Essays in Memory of D. Glen Rose, Atlanta 1987 Symposia F. M. CRoss (ed.), Symposia Celebrating the 75th Anniversary of the American Schools of

de Vaux (1978)

xxii

R.

List of Abbreviations Oriental Research (1900-1975), Cambridge, Mass., 1979

TA Tufnell Festschrift WHfP

Wright (19611

Wright (1965) Wright (19851

Wright Festschrift

Yadin (1963)

Yadin (19721 ZAW ZDPV

Tel Aviv: fournal of the Tel Aviv University Institute of Archaeology J. TuBs (ed.), Palestine in the Bronze and Iron Ages: Papers in Honour of Olga Tufnell, London 1985 MAZAR (ed.), The World History of the fewish People, vol. 1, Jerusalem 1963; vol. 2, Jerusalem 1970; vol. 3, Jerusalem 1971; vols. 4-5, Jerusalem 1979 G. E. WRIGHT "The Archaeology of Palestine," pp. 73-112 in: G. E. WRIGHT (ed.l, The Bible and

B.

the Ancient Near East: Essays in Honor of William Foxwell Albright, New York 1961 G. E. WRIGHT, Shechem: The Biography of a Biblical City, New York and London 1965 G. R. H. WRIGHT, Ancient Buildings in South Syria and Palestine, vols. 1-2, Leiden 1985 F. M. CRoss et al. (eds.), Magnolia Dei: The Mighty Acts of God. Essays on the Bible and Archaeology in Memory of G. E. Wright, New York 1976 Y. YADIN, The Art of Warfare in Biblical Lands, Ramat-Gan 1963 Y. YADlN, Hazor, London 1972

Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft Zeitschrift des Deutschen Paliistina-Vereins

xxiil

LIST OF TABLES PAGE

Table 1. Main Archaeological Excavations Carried Out in Israel Since 1948 Table 2. The Archaeological Periods of Palestine Table 3. Comparative Stratigraphy of Early Bronze Age Sites Table 4. Comparative Stratigraphy of Middle Bronze Age Sites Table 5. Comparative Stratigraphy of Late Bronze Age Sites Table 6. Comparative Stratigraphy of Iron Age I Sites Table 7. Comparative Stratigraphy of Iron Age II Sites Table 8. The Development of the Hebrew Alphabet during the Iron Age

16 30 109 196 242 301 372 520

LIST OF MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS MAPS

1.1

1.2 2.2 3.1 4.1 4.8 5.1 6.1 8.5 9.1 9.13

PAGE

Map of the Ancient Near East Map of Geographic Regions in Palestine Map of Major Excavated Neolithic Sites Map of Excavated Chalcolithic Sites Map of Excavated Early Bronze Age Sites Map of Sinai and the Negev Showing Distribution of Early Bronze Age Sites Map of EB IV/MB I Sites Map of Middle Bronze II and Late Bronze Age Excavated Sites Map of Iron Age I Sites Map of Iron Age II Sites Map of Tenth-Century "Fortresses" in Central Negev Highlands

ILLUSTRATIONS

1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 2.1

xxiv

Tel Beth-Shean Members of the Hazor Expedition, 1958 Season Hazor, Area A 11958) Jericho, Area A Lachish, Area S 11982-85) Aphek: view of the acropolis and the Turkish citadel A Natufian necklace

2 5 39 61 95 115 153 177 309 370 391

PAGE

10 15 22 23

24 26 37

PAGE

2.3 2.4

2.5 2.6

2.7 2.8

2.9 2.10 2.11

3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6

3.7

3.8 3.9

3.10 3.11 3.12

3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16

3.17

3.18 3.19

3.20 3.21 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.9

4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21

Nahal Oren: Pre-Pottery Neolithic A dwellings Jericho: plan and section of the outer wall and tower Reconstructed Neolithic agricultural tools Plastered skull from Jericho A ritual stone mask Excavations at the Pottery Neolithic site of Hurvat Minhah A clay figurine from Munhata Remains of round dwelling from the Harman culture Plan of a "desert kite" Bir Safadi and Bir Matar Plan of Chalcolithic settlement at Ain el-Hariri Chalcolithic house at Rasm Harbush Bir Safadi underground dwelling Chalcolithic dwelling at Shiqmim Plan of the temple at En Gedi Selected Chalcolithic pottery from Azor and Beer-sheba Storage jar from the Golan Heights Pottery chum from Beer-sheba Nahal Mishmar hoard Nahal Mishmar hoard Fresco from Teleilat Ghassul Ivory Statuettes from the Beer-sheba culture "Venus from Beer-sheba" Gilat: red painted pottery statuette Basalt idol from the Golan Heights Stone "fiddle figurine" from Gilat Foundations of a round burial structure near Shiqmim Pottery ossuaries from Azor Three ossuaries from Azor Early Bronze I oval houses at Yiftahel Bad edh-Dhra