Archaeology and Italian Society: Prehistoric, Roman and Medieval Studies 9780860541202, 9781407324135

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
List of Illustrations
Addresses of Contributors
Dedication
Preface and Acknowledgements
1. Archaeology in Italy, 1980: New Directions and Mis-Directions
Level One: Artifact Analysis: Social and Economic Reconstruction
2. Style, Morphology and Fuction in the Typological Study of Stone Artifacts: Some Examples from Late Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Site in Italy
3. Patterns of North Italian Trade 5000-200 b.c.
4. A Consideration of Intersite Relationships in Southern Italy in the Third Millenium b.c.
5. Italy and the Eastern Mediterranean in The Hellenistic and Early Roman Periods: The Evidence of Coarse Pottery
6. The Determination of Amphora Contents
7. Faunal Studies and Urban Archaeology
8. Pottery Exported from Northwest Italy Between 1450 and 1830: Savona, Albisola, Genoa, Pisa, and Montelupo
9. The Archaeological Evidence for Commerce: A Ligurian Case Study
Level Two: Site and Settlement Interpretation
10. Economy and Society in Italy Between The Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age
11. Prehistoric Settlement Patterns in Southeast Italy
12. Rural Settlement at Metaponto
13. Luni: The Prosperity of the Town and its Territory
14. The Schola Praeconum and the Food Supply of Rome in the Fifth Century A.D.
15. Archaeology and History at Fregellae
16. The Environment of San Giovanni in the Roman Period
Level Three: Regional and Landscape Studies
17. Stability and Change in Prehistoric Central Italy
18. The Orco Project: Anthropological Archaeology in The Alps
19. Valley Changes: Some Observations from Recent Field and Archive Work in Italy
20. The Hinterland of Heraclea Minoa (Sicily) in Cklassical Antiquity
21. Luni: Settlement and Landscape in The Ager Lunensis
22. Settlement Reconstruction in The Ager Cosanus and The Albegna Valley: Wesleyan University Research, 1974-1979
23. The Lower Liri Valley: Problems, Trends, and Peculiarities
24. Rural Settlement in Roman Molise: Problems of Archaeological Survey
25. The Evolution of Hilltop Villages in The Biferno Valley, Molise
26. The Archaeology if the Medieval Castrum in Central Italy
27. Recent Developments in the Study of Neolithic Settlement in Calabria

Citation preview

Archaeology and Italian Society Prehistoric, Roman and Medieval Studies

edited by

Graeme Barker and Richard Hodges

Papers in ItaHan Archaeology II BAR International Series 102

1981

B.A.R.,

B.A.R.

122

Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GF NERAL EDITORS A. R. Hands, B.Sc., �I.A., D.Phil. D. R. Walker, �I.A.

B. A. R. -S 102, 1981:

'Archaeology and Italian Society'

© The Individual Authors

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860541202 paperback ISBN 9781407324135 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541202 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS Page L ist o f I l lus tra t ions Addresses o f C on tr ibu tors Preface a nd a cknowledge men ts 1 .

G rae me Barker a nd R ichard H odges :

Archaeology i n I ta ly ,

1 980 : n ew d irec t ions a nd mis-direct ions . LEVEL ONE

ARTIFACT ANALYS IS :

1

S OC IAL AND ECONO M IC

RECONSTRUCTION 2 .

Am i lcare B ie t t i :

S tyle , morpho logy a nd f unct ion i n t he

t ypolog ica l s tudy o f s tone a r ti facts :

s o me e xa mp les f ro m

l a te p a laeo l i thic a nd meso li th ic s i tes i n I ta ly. 3 .

L . H . Bar f ie ld :

Pa t terns o f n or th I ta l ian t rade , 5 000-2000 b .c .

4 .

S usan S now Lukesh :

J . A . R i ley:

t he e v idence o f c oarse

p ot tery.

6 9

Mon ica C . Ro thsch i ld-Boros :

The d e ter mina t ion o f amphora

c on ten ts .

7 9

7 .

J ud i th Car t ledge :

8 .

Hugo B lake:

Fauna l s tud ies a nd u rban a rchaeology.

S avona , A lbisola , G enoa , P isa , a nd

Mon telupo.

9 9

T iziano Mannon i :

The a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f or c o m merce :

aL igur ian c ase s tudy. LEVEL TWO 1 0.

1 25

S ITE AND S ETTLE MENT I NTERPRETATION

Anna Mar ia B iet t i S es t ier i:

E cono my a nd s ociety i n I ta ly

b etween t he l a te B ronze Age a nd e ar ly I ron Age. 1 1.

9 1

P o t tery e xpor ted f ro m n or thwes t I ta ly b e tween

1 450 a nd 1 830 :

9 .

5 3

I t a ly a nd t he e as tern Med i terranean i n t he

h e l len ist ic a nd e arly Ro man p er iods :

6 .

2 7

Ac ons idera tion o f i n tersite r e la t ionsh ips

i n s ou thern I t a ly i n t he t h ird mil lenn iu m b .c . 5 .

1 9

Ru th Wh i tehouse :

Preh is tor ic s et t le men t p a t terns i n

s ou theas t I ta ly. 1 2.

J oe C . Car ter :

1 3.

Bryan Ward-Perkins: i t s t err itory.

1 33

1 57

R ura l s et t le men t a t Me tapon to. Lun i :

1 67

t he p rosper i ty o f t he t own a nd 1 79

Page 1 4.

Dav id Wh i tehouse :

The S chola Praeconu m a nd t he f ood s upp ly

o f Ro me i n t he f i f th c en tury A . D.

1 91

1 5.

M ichae l Crawford:

Archaeology a nd h is tory a t F regel lae .

1 6.

A lasta ir M . Sma l l :

T he e nv ironmen t o f S an G iovann i i n t he

Ro man p er iod. LEVEL THREE 1 7.

2 03

RE G IONAL AND LANDSCAPE S TUD IES

G rae me Barker :

S tabi l i ty a nd c hange i n p reh is tor ic c en tra l

I ta ly. 1 8 .

2 15

Francesco G . Fedele :

T he Orco Pro ject :

a n thropo log ica l

a rchaeology i n t he A lps . 1 9 .

Ca ther ine Delano Smi th :

2 25

Va l ley c hanges :

s ome o bserva t ions

f ro m r ecen t f ie ld a nd a rch ive work i n I ta ly. 2 0.

R . J . A . Wilson :

2 39

The h in ter land o f H eraclea M inoa ( S ici ly )

i n c lassica l a n t iqu i ty. 2 1.

N ige l M i lls :

Lun i :

2 49

S et t le men t a nd l andscape i n t he Ager

Lunensis. 2 2.

2 61

S tephen L . Dyson :

S et t le men t r econstruct ion i n t he Ager

C osanus a nd t he A lbegna v a l ley:

Wes leyan Un ivers i ty

r esearch , 1 974-1979. 2 3 .

E d i th Mary Wigh t man :

2 69 The l ower L ir i v a l ley :

p roble ms ,

t rends a nd p ecu l iar i t ies. 2 4. . =J ohn L loyd a nd G rae me Barker : Mo l ise: 2 5.

2 75 Rura l s et t le men t i n Ro man

p rob le ms o f a rchaeo log ica l s urvey.

R ichard Hodges a nd C hr is Wickham :

Dav id Andrews:

3 05

The a rchaeology o f t he med ieva l c as trum i n

c en tra l I ta ly. 2 7.

2 89

The e volu t ion o f h i l l top

v i l lages i n t he B i ferno v a l ley , Mo l ise . 2 6.

1 97

A . J . Am mer man a nd S . B onard i :

3 13 Recen t d eve lop men ts i n

t he s tudy o f n eo l ith ic s et t le men t i n Ca labr ia .

3 35

L IST OF I LLUSTRATIONS Page Ami lcare B iet t i : F ig . 2 .1

R - mode d endrogra m f or c oasta l mesol i th ic s i tes i n I ta ly

F ig . 2 .2

2 2

R - mode d endrogram f or i n land meso l i th ic s i tes i n I ta ly

2 3

F ig . 3 .1

D is tr ibu t ion o f o bsid ian i n n or thern I ta ly

2 9

F ig . 3 .2

D istr ibu t ion o f i mpor ted p a in ted a nd p la in f igu l ina

L . H . Bar f ie ld :

i n n or thern I ta ly

3 1

F ig . 3 .3

P a in ted f igu l ina s herds i n n or thern I ta ly

3 3

F ig . 3 .4

P la in f igu lina s herds a nd ' A ichb i lhP s herds f ro m

F ig . 3 .5

D is tribu t ion o f S pondylus s he l l o rna men ts i n

n or thern I ta ly western Europe

3 4 3 6

F ig . 3 .6

D is tr ibu t ion o f j ade a xes i n Europe

3 8

F ig . 3 .7

J adei te a xes o f Ca mpbel l Sm i th 's t ype l b

4 0

F ig . 3 .8

D is tr ibu t ion o f p er fora ted s hel l o rna men ts i n western Europe

F ig . 3 .9

D i mensions o f marble a nd s tea t i te b eads f ro m

F ig . 3 .10

D is tr ibu t ion o f marble a nd s tea t ite b eads i n

I t a ly c ha lco l ithic c on tex ts i n n or thern I ta ly

4 2 4 3 4 5

S usan S now Lukesh : F ig . 4 .1 F ig . 4 .2 F ig . 4 .3

C luster a na lys is o f 4 0 c era mic a sse mblages f ro m I ta l ian p reh is tor ic s i tes

5 5

C luster 1 a sse mb lages i n s ou thern I ta ly , t oge ther w i th P eron i 's L a terza s i tes

5 7

C lus ter 3 a sse mblages i n s ou thern I ta ly , t oge ther w i th o ther G audo s i tes k nown

F ig . 4 .4

6 0

C luster 2 a sse mblages i n s ou thern I ta ly , t oge ther w i th o ther Protoapenn ine B s i tes k nown

6 1

Mon ica Rothschi ld-Boros : P la te 6 .I

M icaceous j ar

P la te 6 .I

G aza r i l led amphorae

8 0 8 0

P la te 6 .1 1 1

Amphora o f f abr ic 0/P

8 1

P la te 6 .I V

N or th A fr ican wh ite s l ipped amphorae

8 1

P la te 6 .V

TLC ( Th in Layer C hro ma tography ) p la te s tandards

8 2

P la te 6 .V I

TLC p la te o f micaceous j ars

8 2

P age P la te 6 .V I I

TLC p la te o f f abr ic 0/P

8 4

P la te 6 .V I I I

TLC p la te o f G aza r uled amphorae

8 4

P la te 6 .I X

HPLC ( H igh P er for mance L iqu id C hro mat ography ) o f o l ive o i l

P la te 6 .X P la te 6 .X I

HPLC o f s esame o i l TLC p la te o f n or th A fr ican wh i te s l ipped

8 5

amphorae

8 7

,P la te 6 .X I I

TLC p la te o f n or th A fr ican wh i te s l ipped amphorae

8 7

P la te 6 .X I I I

8 5

TLC p la te o f n or th A fr ican wh i te s l ipped amphorae

8 8

H ugo B lake : F ig . 8 .1

N or thwes t I t a ly , s how ing s i tes men t ioned i n t he t ex t

1 00

F ig . 8 .2

Mon telupo :

F ig . 8 .3

F lorence :

t he c o m mones t r ena issance f or ms P isa-type marbled ware

F ig . 8 .4

P arzano ( Orsen igo , C o mo ):

F ig . 8 .5

Pav ia :

F ig . 8 .6

L ondon :

1 02 1 02

marb led c os trel

marb led ware

1 06 1 06

marbled c os tre l

1 08

F ig . 8 .7

P isa :

l a te g ra f f i ta

1 08

F ig . 8 .8

P isa :

i nc ised a nd r eserved p o t tery

1 10

F ig . 8 .9

L igur ian ma io l ica :

s ix teen th c en tury o pen f or ms

F ig . 8 .10

L igur ian ma io l ica :

s o me s ix teen th c en tury

1 12

F ig . 8 .11

d ecora t ive mo ti fs G enoa : A lb iso la b lack b and p o t tery

1 13 1 17

F ig . 8 .12

G enoa :

A lbiso la b lack b and p o t tery

1 18

F ig . 8 .13

G enoa :

A lbiso la b lack b and p o t tery

1 19

F ig . 8 .14

G enoa :

A lbiso la b lack b and p o t tery

1 20

F ig . 8 .15

A lbiso la :

P la te 8 .1

b lack g laze o pen f orms

Pra to l ino ( F lorence ) , V i l la Dem idof f :

1 21 P isa-type

marbled ware

1 04

P la te 8 .I I

P av ia :

P la te 8 .1 1 1

Parzano ( Orsen igo , C o mo ) : marbled c os trel

1 07

P la te 8 .IV

Pav ia :

1 07

P la te 8 .V P la te 8 .V 1

Pav ia : marbled j ug Eng land : marb led c os tre l

P la te 8 .V I I

P isa :

marb led ware

1 04

marbled c os tre l

i nc ised a nd s craped p o t tery , y e l low-

b rown g laze P la te 8 .V I I I

P isa :

1 09 1 09 1 11

i ncised a nd s craped p o t tery , g reen

g laze

1 11

P la te 8 .I X

A lbiso la :

b lack g laze t ureen

1 15

P la te 8 .X

A lb iso la :

b lack g laze b aske t-hand led v ase

1 15

Anna Mar ia B ie t t i S es t ier i : F ig . 1 0.1

I ta ly , s how ing t he a reas a nd s i tes d iscussed i n t he t ex t

F ig . 1 0.2

O s ter ia d e l l 'Osa R o me : i nhuma t ion f ossa g raves

1 34 e ar ly i ron a ge 1 37

Page F ig . 1 0.3

O ster ia d el l 'Osa , Ro me :

g rave g oods f ro m

e ar ly i ron a ge i nhuma t ion g raves F ig . 1 0.4

O s ter ia d e l l 'Osa , Ro me :

e ar ly i ron a ge 1 40

c re ma t ion g rave 1 27 F ig . 1 0.5

O s ter ia d e l l 'Osa , Ro me:

min ia ture g rave

g oods f ro m e ar ly i ron a ge c re ma t ion g raves F ig . 1 0 .6

O s ter ia d e ll 'Osa , Ro me : F ra t tesina , Rov igo : Fra t tesina , R ov igo :

1 45 l a te b ronze a ge c ra f ts1 47

mansh ip F ig . 1 0.9

Pan ta lica , S yracuse :

s o me o f t he p r inc ipa l

p o ttery t ypes o f t he e ar l iest p hases F ig . 1 0.10

1 42

l a te b ronze a ge p ot tery

f ro m t he h u t f loor F ig . 1 0.8

1 41

min ia ture b ronzes

f ro m e ar ly i ron a ge c re ma t ion g raves F ig . 1 0 .7

1 39

P an ta l ica , S yracuse :

1 49

b ronze t ypes o f t he 1 51

e arl ies t p hases Ru th Wh itehouse : F ig . 1 1.1

Archaeo log ica l s urvey r eg ions i n s ou thern 1 58

I ta ly J oe C . Car ter : F ig . 1 2.1

P lan o f t he c hora o f Metapon to

1 68

F ig . 1 2.2

S a ldone n ecropo l is :

p lan o f c en tra l n ucleus

1 75

P la te 1 2.I

Pre-co lon ia l G reek p ot tery f ro m I ncorona ta

1 71

P la te 1 2.1 1

An tefix f ro m a n a rcha ic f ar mhouse i n C on trada

P la te 1 2.1 1 1

A eria l v iew o f P izzica

1 71 1 73

P la te 1 2.IV

P izzica :

1 73

Logo d el Lupo

P la te 1 2. V

f igur ine a nd v ot ive c ups

S an B iag io :

Daeda lic f igur ine c . 6 00 B .C. 1 74

o r e ar l ier P la te 1 2 .V I

S an B iag io:

ma le v o t ive f igure o f e ar ly s ix th

c en tury B . C.

1 76

P la te 1 2. V II

I ncorona ta :

f e ma le v otive f igur ine

P la te 1 2. V I I I

S a ldone n ecropol is :

g rave g oods f ro m To mb 1 2

1 76 1 76

Bryan Ward-Perk ins: F ig . 1 3.1

Lw i i:

t he c lass ica l e xcava t ions u p t o 1 971

1 80

F ig . 1 3 .2

C en tur ia t ion i n I ta ly a nd A fr ica

1 81

F ig . 1 3 .3

The c hang ing c oas t l ine i n t he Lun i r eg ion

1 86

A las ta ir M. Sma l l : F ig . 1 6.1

S ou thern I ta ly , s howing t he l oca tion o f S an

F ig . 1 6.2

S an G iovann i d i Ruot i : 1 977-1979 e xcava t ions

2 07

P la te 1 6.I

S an G iovann i :

t he t wo i n terconnect ing t anks

2 08

P la te 1 6.1 1

S an G iovann i :

t he i n terna l ly r ound r oo m

2 08

G iovann i d i Ruot i

2 04 s i te p lan f ro m t he

Francesco G . F edele: F ig . 1 8.1 The l oca t ion o f t he Orco Va l ley s tudy a rea

2 30

th : Ca ther ine De lano Smi 9.1 F ig . 1

Torre d i La ma v a l ley:

l ong i tud ina l s ect ion

2 42

9.2 F ig . 1

Torre d i La ma v a l ley:

c ross s ec t ion

2 43

: R . J . A . Wilson 0.1 F ig . 2

H in ter land o f H eraclea M inoa :

a rcha ic a nd 2 50

c lassica l p er iods F ig . 2 0 .2

H in ter land o f H eraclea M inoa :

H e l len is t ic 2 53

p er iod F ig . 2 0.3

H in ter land o f H erac lea M inoa :

Ro man imper ia l 2 55

p er iod F ig . 2 0.4

H in ter land o f H eraclea M inoa :

l a te R o man a nd

B yzan t ine p er iods

2 57

F ig . 2 1.1

Ager Lunensis s urvey , 1 978 a nd 1 979

2 62

F ig . 2 1.2

Ager Lunens is :

2 64

N igel M i l ls : Ro man s i tes

E di th Mary Wigh t man : F ig . 2 3.1

The l ower L ir i v a l ley:

t he s urvey a reas i ron a ge s i tes

2 76 2 79

F ig . 2 3.2

L ir i v a l ley s urvey , 1 978-9:

F ig . 2 3.3

Ro man r epubl ican s et t le men t i n t he L ir i v a lley

F ig . 2 3.4

Ear ly imper ia l s e t t le men t i n t he L ir i v a l ley

2 83

F ig . 2 3.5

La ter imper ia l s et t le men t I n t he L ir i v a lley

2 85

2 82

rae me Barker : J ohn L loyd a nd G F ig . 2 4.1

The B i ferno v a l ley c a tch men t a rea

F ig . 2 4.2

Ro man s i te d is tr ibu t ion a round Lar ino a nd

2 93 2 97

Gug l iones i F ig . 2 4.3

Smoothed r esu l ts o f g eophys ica l s urvey o f s i te B 102 , e as tern e nd

3 00

F ig . 2 4.4

S i te A249 :

3 02

P la te 2 4.I

S urv iv ing b u i ldings a t s i te B 102

P la te 2 4.1 1

L inear d ebr is s ca t ter i n v ineyard , wes tern

p lan o f s ur face r e ma ins

e nd o f s i te B 102

2 98 2 98

R ichard H odges a nd Chr is Wickham : F ig . 2 5.1

L oca t ion o f t he t hree med ieva l s i tes

3 06

F ig . 2 5.2

P lans o f t he t hree med ieva l s i tes

3 08

F ig . 2 6.1

Cas te l lo d i Mon tecchio Vespon i

3 17

F ig . 2 6.2

Cas te l lo d i S a lce

3 17

Dav id Andrews:

F ig . 2 6.3

Cas te llaccio d i Vu lci

3 23

F ig . 2 6.4

C o l le Casa le

3 25

F ig . 2 6.5

V itorch iano

3 25

F ig . 2 6.6

Ancarano

3 26

F ig . 2 6.7

P on te Canavese , t he S . Mar t ino c ast les

3 28

A . J . Am mer man a nd S . B anard i : F ig . 2 7.1

S ten t ine l lo s ites i n t he A ccon ia a rea o f Ca labr ia

3 36

F ig . 2 7 .2

D istr ibut ion map o f wat t le a nd d aub s tructures

3 38

F ig . 2 7 .3

T he r e la t ionsh ip b etween p reh is tor ic s ca t ters a nd g eo morpho log ica l e xposures

3 40

ADDRESSES OF CONTR IBUTORS A lber t J . Am mer man , D ep t . o f A n thropo logy , S ta te Un ivers ity o f N ew York a t B ingha mpton , B ingha mpton NY , U . S .A .

Dav id Andrews , 1C op t ic S tree t , L ondon W.0 . 1 L awrence Bar f ie ld , Dep t . o f Ancien t H is tory & Archaeo logy , Un iversi ty o f B irm ingha m , P .O . B ox 3 63 , B irm ingham B 15 2 TT G rae me Barker , Dep t . o f Preh istory a nd Archaeology, Un ivers i ty o f S hef f ie ld , S he f f ield S 10 2 TN Am i lcare B iet t i a nd Anna- Mar ia B iet t i S est ier i , V ia Mon terone 4 , R o me , I ta ly Hugo B lake , Dep t . o f C lassics & Archaeo logy , Un iversi ty o f Lancas ter , Ba i lr igg , Lancas ter LA1 4YN S andro Bonard i , I st itu to d i E co log ia , Un ivers itä . d i Par ma , I t a ly . J oe C . Car ter , 2V incen t Terrace , L ondon N .1 J udi th Car t ledge , D ept . o f Preh istory a nd Archaeo logy , U n iversi ty o f S he ff ie ld , S hef f ield S 10 2TN M ichae l Crawford , C hr is t 's Co l lege , C a mbr idge . Ca ther ine Delano Sm ith , Dep t . o f G eography , Un iversi ty o f No t t ingham , Un iversi ty Park , N ot t ingha m

S tephen D yson , Dep t . o f C lass ics , Wes leyan Un iversi ty , M idd letown , C onn . 0 6457, U .S.A. Francesco G . Fede le , V ia F oligno 7 8-10 , 1 0149 T or ino , I ta ly R ichard H A r igcs , Dept . o f P reh istory a nd Archaeology , Un iversi ty o f S hef f ie ld , S hef f ield S 10 2 TN J ohn L loyd , Dept . o f Ancien t H is tory & C lass ica l Archaeo logy , U n ivers i ty o f S heff ie ld , S hef f ie ld S 10 2 TN S usan S now Lukesh , C en ter f or C lass ica l Archaeo log y a nd Ar t , Brown Un iversi ty , P rov idence , Rhode I s land 0 2912 , U .S.A. T iz iano Mannon i , Ma ter ia le , C en tro L igure p er l a S tor ia d e l la C u ltura , F aco lta d i S c ienze , Un ivers itä d i G enova , G enova , I t a ly . N igel M i l ls , Dept . o f Preh istory a nd Archaeo logy , U n ivers i ty o f S heff ie ld , S hef f ield S 10 2TN J ohn R i ley , Dept . o f Archaeology , The Un ivers i ty, S ou tha mpton S O9 5NH

Mon ica C . Rothsch ild-Boros , U . C . L . A . , A rchaeo logy Progea m , 4 05 H ilgard Avenue , L os Ange les , C a l iforn ia 9 0024 , U . S .A .

A lasta ir M . Sma l l , D ep t . o f C lass ics , U n iversi ty o f A lber ta , E d mon ton , A lber ta , C anada T 6G 2 E6 Bryan Ward-Perk ins , Mer ton C ol lege , O x ford C hr is Wickha m , S chool o f H is tory , U n iversi ty o f B irm ingha m , P .O. Box 3 63 , B ir m ingha m B 15 2 TT Dav id Wh i tehouse , B r i t ish S chool a t Rome , V ia G ramsci 6 1, 0 0197 Ro me , I t a ly Ru th Wh i tehouse , D ept . o f C lass ics & Archaeology , Un ivers i ty o f Lancas ter , Ba i lr igg , L ancas ter LA1 4YN E d i th Mary Wigh tr nan , H istory Dept ., Mc Master Un ivers ity , 1 280 Ma in S tree t West , Hami lton , On tar io L85 4 9 , C anada R oger Wi lson , S chool o f C lassics , Tr in i ty Co l lege , U n ivers i ty o f Dub l in , Dubl in 2

F or J ohn Ward-Perk ins

PREFACE AND AC KNO WLE D GE ME NTS

T h is v olume c on ta ins t he p apers p resen ted t o t he s econd s e minar o n I t a l ian a rchaeolog y , h e ld i n F ebruary 1 980 a t S heffield Un iversi ty i n t he Depar t men t o f P reh is tory a nd Archaeo logy.

The s e minar was h eld e xact ly

t hree y ears a f ter t he f i rs t s em inar i n t he Depart men t o f C lassics a nd Archaeology a t Lancas ter U n iversi ty , p ublished by British Archaeolog ica l R epor ts a s P apers i n I t a l ian Archaeo logy I ( Blake e t a l.,

1 978).

The o rgan i-

s ers o f t he Lancas ter s em inar i nv i ted c on tr ibutions across t he t ota l s pectru m o f I t a lian a rchaeo log y.

T he t i t le o f t h is v olu me,

r eferr ing e xp lici t ly t o t he

c on tr ibu t ion o f a l terna t ive a pproaches w i th in modern archaeology t o t he r ec ons truc t ion o f a nc ien t I ta l ian s oc ie ty , f o l lows f ro m our decision t o f ocus o n t h is g enera l t he me a tt he S he f f ie ld s em inar .

According ly we h ave d iv ided

t he c on tr ibu t ions i n t h is v o lume a ccord ing t o t he approach t hey t ake r a ther t han t he p er iod w i th wh ich t hey d ea l , d ef in ing t hree s i mple l evels o f i nves t ig a t ion :

a r t i fact a na lys is i n s ocia l a nd e cono mic r econstruction ;

s e t t le men t i n terpre ta t ion ;

s i te a nd

a nd r eg iona l a nd l andscape s tudies.

I n o ur f irst p aper we d iscuss c urren t t rends i n I ta lian a rchaeology a nd a rgue t ha t t he k ind o f w ork r epresen ted i n t his volu me i llustra tes t he import an t a nd o f ten e xc i t ing i ns igh ts wh ich t he a rchaeolog ist can c on tr ibu te t o o ur u nders tand ing o f a nc ien t I t a l ian s oc ie ty.

I n t he f irst s ection a v ar ied s er ies

o f s tudies o f ac lass o f d a ta ( p o t tery , f l in t , b ones and s o on ) d e monstra tes t he e nor mous v a lue o f modern a r t ifac t s tudies i n behavioura l a rchaeo logy , u n fe t tered b y t rad i t iona l t ypo log ica l q ues t ions. g a t ion c ons is ts o f s i te e xcava t ion ;

The s econd l evel o f i nves t i-

a ga in , t he s tudies emphas ise t he p oten t ia l

o f i n terdisc ip l inary p ro jec ts f or r econs tructing t he ancient c o m mun i ty , w i th g oa ls f ar b eyond t he p r i mary q ues t ions o f s tratigraphy, building s equence a nd s o o n wh ich h ave d om ina ted s o many e xcava t ions i n I ta ly i n t he p as t .

The

t h ird p ar t o f t he v o lume f ocuses o n r eg iona l a nd l andscape s tudies , al eve l o f i nves t iga t ion wh ich embod ies s o me o f t he most pro mising a spec ts o f a rcha eo logy i n I ta ly t oday.

H owever , wha tever t he approach or t he p er iod , we

f e l t t ha t t he mos t i mpress ive a spec t o f t he S heffield s e minar was t he o vera l l u n i ty i n g oa ls a nd p rob le m-or ien ta t ion t ha t l inked t he par ticipan ts , wh ich mean t t ha t d iscuss ions were a ble t o b r idge s uccessfully t he t rad i tiona l b arr iers o f p reh istor ic a nd h is tor ica l a rchaeology, o f ar tifact s pec ia l isa t ions , a nd s o o n . A s we c onc lude i n o ur f irs t p aper , ' perhaps t he mos t h ear ten ing f ea ture o f t he p apers p resen ted t o t he s e minar was t he uni fied a ccep tance t ha t n ew methodolog ies a nd r esearch d es igns i n I talian archaeology... .s erve a bove a l l t o b r ing n earer t o u s t he a ncien t c o m mun i ty as people ,

r a ther t han a s t he

makers o f a r t i fac ts f or u s t o t ypolog ise , o f r ubbish f or us t o i den ti fy , a nd o f b u i ldings f or u s t o p hase , t o o ur own c on ten ted i f obscure e nds '. I ti s o ur g rea t p leasure t o a cknow ledge t he help we r eceived i n t he s em in ar a nd i n t he p roduc t ion o f t h is v o lume .

The s e minar owed much t o t hose

who c ha ired t he s ess ions a nd g u ided t he d iscussions:

Dona ld Bu l lough , S teve

D yson , Henry Hurst , Alan McPherron , P a tr icia P h i l l ips , a nd J ohn Wi lkes . T i m Pot ter k indly agreed t o b r ing t he s em inar t o ac lose a nd d id s o i n mas ter ly f ash ion , d rawing f ur ther a tten t ion t o t he p r incipa l t he mes e v iden t i n t he d isc uss ions a nd a na lysing t he a ch ieve men ts made i n t he d if feren t f ie lds o f r esearch s ince t he Lancaster s e minar .

I t was a lso e spec ia l ly p leas ing t o mee t I t a l ian

a nd t ransa tlan tic colleagues a ga in , s evera l o f w ho m were a b le t o a t tend a s a r esu l t o f ag enerous gran t f ro m t he B r i t ish A cade my t owards t heir t rave l e xpenses.

Responsibility f or t he v ery h igh s tandard o f w in ing a nd d in ing a t

t he s e minar f ell upon t he a ble a nd e nerge t ic s hou lders o f o ur r espect ive w ives ,

Miranda Barker a nd Debbie H odges , a ided b y ad ozen s tuden ts f ro m

t he d epart men t who ( to paraphrase T im P o t ter ) s laved wh i le we , l i ke p adron i , a t tended t he l ectures.

To t he m we owe a d eep a nd s pecia l d ebt o f g ra t i tude ,

f or t hey were t he cornerstone o f t he s em inar 's s uccess .

We s hou ld a lso l i ke

t o e xpress our t hanks t o Hugo B lake , , Bryan Ward-Perk ins a nd Dav id Wh i tehouse f or t heir s ound a dvice a t a n e ar ly s tage o f p lann ing ;

a nd t o M iranda Barker

who h as t oi led a t t he f ina l s tage t o p repare t hese p apers f or p ubl ica t ion , t rying t o impose o rder on editoria l c hoas .

R e ma in ing e rrors a nd c onfus ions , h ow-

e ver , a re t he r esponsibility o f t he e d i tors . F ina lly , i t i s with grea t p leasure t ha t we h ave d ed ica ted t h is v o lume t o J ohn Ward- Perkins , Director o f t he Br i t ish S choo l a t Ro me f ro m 1 945 t o 1 974.

H is r e markable r esearch r ecord , h app i ly , h as b een t he ma in r eason

why we h ave had t o r e ject a ll p oss ib le t i t les f or t h is v o lume p ro m is ing n ew a pproaches ,

n ew d irections , n ew p erspec t ives i n modern I ta l ian a rchaeology:

i nvar iably J ohn has been t here b e fore.

H is e ar ly s tud ies o f a r ti facts t rans-

c ended t raditional t ypolog ica l a rgumen ts. (Ward-Perk ins 1 939 , 1 940 ) , a nd h is more r ecen t work on Ro man marb le i s ac lass ic i l lus tra t ion o f wha t t he mu te s tones c an t ell us o f ancien t t echno logy a nd t rade when t he r igh t q ues t ions a re p osed a nd t he r ight t echn iques a pp l ied .

L ikewise h is d eta i led s tud ies o f c las-

s ica l .cit ies have embodied e legan t r e ,cons truc t ions o f a nc ien t t opography a nd u rban l i fe d rawing upon a ll t he a va i lable . s ources ( Ward-Perk ins 1 961 , 1 974 ). F ina l ly, o f c ourse, t he Br it ish S chool , .a t R o me s urvey wh ich h e d irec ted i n s ou th E trur ia i n t he 19 50s a nd 1 960s r e ma ins p robab ly t he most impressive s tudy o f l andscape h istory i n Med i terranean a rchaeo logy ( Ward-Perk ins 1 964 , 1 972 ;

Ward- Perkins e t a l., 1 968 ).

I t was b o th f i t t ing a nd g ra ti fying t ha t

J ohn Ward- Perkins a ttended t he s e minar , c on tr ibu t ing t o t he t he me o f t he s e minar w ith c lassica l s tyle a nd g us to b o th i n t he l ec ture s ess ions a nd i n h is a f ter-dinner a ddress. a ppear ing a t Sheffield

I f h e f e l t t ha t s o me p re t ty f am i l iar o ld w ine was i n t ransparen t n ew me thodo log ica l b ot t les , h e p o l i te ly

k ept h is c ounsel t o h i msel f.

I n t urn , i ti s o ur mos t p leasan t t ask n ow i n d ed i-

c a t ing t his v olu me t o h im t o a cknow ledge t he l eadersh ip h e h as p rov ided i n s o many a spects o f I ta lian a rchaeo logy f or o ver t h ir ty y ears ;

p ract ica l ly a l l

o f t he p apers presen ted i n t h is v o lume r es t o n t he s ure f ounda t ions o f h is s cholarship.

REFERENCES B lake , H . McK ., P o t ter , T . W., a nd Wh itehouse , D . B ., 1 978 ( eds.) Papers i n I ta l ian A rchaeology I .

Ox ford , Br i t ish Archaeological Reports ,

S upp le men tary S er ies 4 1. Ward-Perk ins , J . B ., 1 939.

The s cu lpture o f V is igoth ic France.

Archae-

o log ia 8 7: 7 9-128. Ward-Perk ins , J . B ., 1 940 .

The Medieva l Ca ta logue .

Ward-Perk ins , J . B ., 1 961.

Vei i .

c i ty.

London ,

H. M .S .O.

The h is tor ica l t opography o f t he ancien t

Papers o f t he Br i t ish S chool a t Ro me 2 9 : 1 -123.

Ward-Perk ins , J . B ., 1 964.

Landscape a nd H istory i n C en tral I taly.

Ox ford , S econd J . L . Myres Me mor ia l L ecture. Ward-Perk ins , J . B ., 1 972. men t .

C en tra l a u thor i ty a nd p a t terns o f rural settle-

I n P . J . U cko , R . Tr ingha m , a nd G . W. D i mb leby ( eds.),

S et t lemen t a nd U rban is m: 8 67-82 . Ward-Perk ins , J . B ., 1 974 . i n C lass ica l An t iqu ity.

C i t ies i n Ancien t Greece a nd I taly:

Planning

New York , Brazi l ler .

Ward-Perk ins , J . B ., Kahane , A ., a nd Murray Threip land , L ., The Ager Veien tanus n or th a nd e ast o f Ro me . a t R o me 3 6: 1 -218 .

M an ,

London , Duckwor th .

1968.

Papers o f t he Brit ish School

1 .

ARCHAEOLOGY I N I TALY ,

1 980:

NE W D IRECTIONS AND M IS-DIRE CTIONS G rae me B arker a nd R ichard Hodges

" A misd irec ted miss ionary z ea l t ha t s eeks t o br ing Br i t ish ' i deas a rchaeo logy ' ( wh ich f or o bv ious r easons i s n on-ar tefact-or ien ted ) t o b ear o n t he European c oun try t o which i t i s p erhaps l eas t a pprop r ia te." i x .

( Dav id a nd F rancesca R idgway, I ta ly Before t he Ro mans :

L ondon , A cade m ic P ress ) .

As t he o rgan isers o f t he 1 980 s em inar i n S heff ield , we d ecided t o d raw an arrower f ocus o f r esearch t han a t t he f irs t s e minar on I ta l ian a rchaeolog y h e ld a t Lancas ter i n 1 977, a nd r es tr ic t t he d iscussion t o t he q uest ions o f s oc ia l a nd e cono m ic r econs truct ion wh ich we f elt were c urren t ly t he mos t p rob le ma t ica l a nd p o ten t ia l ly t he mos t s t i mu la t ing i n modern I ta lian a rchaeo logy.

A t t he s ame t ime , h owever , we d el ibera tely s ought c on tr ibu t ions

f ro m t he t hree ma jor p er iods ( preh is tor ic , c lassica l ,

a nd med ieva l ) , a nd

f ro m t hree l evels o f i nves t iga t ion ( t he a r t i fact , t he s ite ,

a nd t he l andscape ) ,

b ecause we were c oncerned a bove a l l t o e xa m ine where t he f unda men ta l s im i lar i t ies a nd d i f ferences b e tween u s l ay r a ther t han s i mp ly t o u nder l ine a ccep ted d iv is ions o f p er iod a nd methodo log y.

The p urpose o f t his p aper

i s t o d iscuss s o me o f t he e xci t ing a nd n o t-so-exciting a spects o f modern a rchaeo log ica l r esearch i n I ta ly , t he a ssess men t o f wh ich prov ided t he r a t iona le f or t he S hef f ie ld s em inar a nd t hus f or t h is v o lu me . P reh is tor ic a nd p ro toh is tor ic a rchaeology A l though t he b eg inn ings o f p reh is tor ic a rchaeology i n I ta ly g o b ack t o t he R ena issance , t o t he s pecu la t ions o f men l i ke Michael Merca t i ( 1541-1593 ) , s ys te ma t ic f i eld i nves t iga t ions o f p reh is tor ic s i tes d id n ot r ea lly d eve lop u n t i l t he s econd h a l f o f t he n ineteen th c en tury .

The t heoret ica l f ra mework t ha t

s haped mos t p reh is tor ic r esearch u n t i l c o mpara tively r ecen t t i mes was e st abl ished b y t he t urn o f t he c en tury.

B y t he 1 870s a ll t he ma jor p er iods o f

p reh is tory d ef ined b y L ubbock i n 1 865 ( Preh istor ic T i mes) a nd Westropp i n 1 872 ( Preh is tor ic P hases ) were b e ing i nves t iga ted i n I ta ly:

p a laeol ith ic c aves

a t Ba lzi R oss i i n L igur ia , n eo l i th ic s e t t le men ts l ike R ipoli i n t he V ibra ta v a l ley i n c en tra l I ta ly , b ronze a ge t erramara mounds i n t he Po v a lley , a nd s o o n .

B y t he b eg inn ing o f t h is c en tury P ee t was a ble t o d escr ibe I ta lian

p reh is tory i n a mas ter ly s yn thes is , T he S tone a nd Bronze Ages i n I ta ly ( 1909 ). H e d escr ibed h is p urpose i n wr i t ing t he b ook a s t wofold:

' f irst ly , t o d es-

c r ibe t he p reh is tor ic c iv i l isa t ions o f I ta ly , a nd s econd ly , t o d eter m ine t he ir r e la t ions t o t hose wh ich f l our ished c on te mporaneously i n t he Aegean a nd t he Med i terranean g enera l ly , a nd i n c en tra l E urope ' ( Peet 1 909: 1 5 ).

Th is f rame-

w ork o f r esearch , s e t o u t e xp l ic i t ly b y P eet a nd u sed imp lici t ly b y most o f h is c on te mporar ies , s urv ived c o mpara t ive ly u nchanged un ti l t he 1 960s.

1

A lthough Peet d eclared t ha t t he s earch f or c on tac t b e tween p reh is tor ic I ta ly a nd t he o utside wor ld was h is ma in r esearch g oa l , i tc an a lso b e s een t ha t h e h ad l i t tle a lterna t ive . U n t i l r ad iocarbon d a t ing made i ndependen t c hronolog ies p ossible i n t he 1 960s , t he s earch f or c u l tura l p ara l le ls o u ts ide I ta ly was t he o n ly way t o b u i ld u p ac onv incing c hrono log y. T he d irec t r es u lt was t ha t s cholars l ike Mon te l ius a nd P ee t were a b le t o e s tabl ish q u i te impressive c hronolog ies f or I t a ly b y t ypo log ica l c o mpar isons w i th t e mpera te Europe a nd t he e astern Med i terranean , w i th e ach r eg iona l c hronology d epend en t o n t he o thers , a nd t hus a l l t igh t ly s ynchron ised .

H owever , t he i ndirect

r esu l t o f c ross-da ting h as b een t he c rea t ion o f ac l ima te o f t hough t amongst s tuden ts o f I ta lian p reh is tory o ver t he p as t h undred y ears o r s o , ak ind o f i n fer ior i ty c o mplex , i n wh ich I ta ly h as b een r egarded a s a n i so la ted p en insu la a t t he b otto m o f Europe , e ver t he r ecip ien t r a ther t han t he i ns t iga tor o f c hange.

I nevi tably , I ta l ian p reh is tory c ame t o b e r econs tructed a l mos t e n-

t irely a s as er ies o f i nvas ions b y l and ( f ro m t e mpera te Europe ) a nd b y s ea ( f ro m t he e astern Medi terranean ) :

p a laeo l i th ic h un ters f ro m t he n or th , n eo-

l i th ic f ar mers f ro m t he e as t , e neol i th ic ' warr ior-pas tora l is ts ' f ro m t he e as t , b ronze a ge s hepherds f ro m t he n or th , l a te b ronze a ge U rn f ie ld p eop le f ro m t he n or th , V illanovans f ro m t he n or th ( and E truscans f ro m h eaven k nows where:). As one o f u s has a rgued i n af or thco m ing s tudy o f p reh is tor ic s ocie ty i n c en tra l I ta ly ( Barker 1 981) , t he f undamen ta l i mpac t o f r ad iocarbon d a t ing , a par t f ro m t he d irect c hrono log ica l i mp l ica t ions , h as b een t o d es troy t he e s tablished t heoret ica l f ra mework o f c u l ture c hange .

The r ad iocarbon d a tes

a re p r i mar i ly f ro m n ew s e t t le men t e xcava t ions , t he a na lys is o f wh ich ( i n t er ms o f a r ti facts , s ubsis tence d a ta a nd s o o n ) h as f a i led t o s uppor t t he t rad i t iona l n ot ions o f d iscrete c u l tura l p hases a cross I t a ly , e ach d ef ined a s a n e volu tionary s tage i n t he d eve lop men t o f t echno log y , s ubs is tence , a nd s oc ia l o rgan isa tion .

The r esu l t i s t ha t s tuden ts work ing o n I ta l ian p reh is tory n ow

h ave t o d ea l a l most e n t irely w i th much more d i f f icu l t a nd e lus ive mode ls o f f unct iona l s tability a nd i n terna l e vo lu t ion r a ther t han i nvas ion s equences . The papers b y t he p reh is tor ians i n t h is v o lume a p t ly r e f lec t t hese n ew t rends i n r esearch.

The p apers i l lus tra te t he k ind o f p rob le ms a bou t p re-

h istor ic s ociet ies i n I ta ly t ha t t he ir a u thors t h ink b o th wor thwh i le a nd s usc ep t ible t o a na lysis a t e ach o f t he t hree l eve ls o f i nves t iga t ion d e f ined e ar lier . The p apers d ea l var ious ly w i th p roble ms o f t echno logy , s ubs is tence , e xchange , c u l tura l e volu t ion ,

l and u se a nd s o o n .

A l l s tem d irect ly f ro m t he u nease

many o f u s f eel a bou t t ack l ing t he t rad i t iona l q ues t ions o f ' peop le r ecogn i t ion ' ( neol i thic c olon ists , Beaker f o lk a nd t he l i ke ) w i th p reh is tor ic d a ta .

I t may

we ll b e f el t b y t rad it iona l is ts t ha t t he c oncern o f t hese a u thors w i th s oc ia l a nd e cono mic r econstruct ion i s s i mp ly d odg ing t he p roper emp loy men t o f p rehis tor ians , t he wri ting o f P reh is tory w i th a c ap i ta l P . I n r ep ly , h owever , we wou ld s ay t ha t t he t radi t iona l a pproach , i n t he a nx ie ty t o ' pu t f l esh a nd b lood o n t he s keleton o f t he p as t ' , h as t oo o f ten b een a l i cence t o wr i te a n a t tract ive bu t f unda men ta l ly b ogus p reh is tory:

p seudo-his tor ica l e ven ts i den-

t i f ied f ro m d a ta which a re n o t d es igned f or , a nd c anno t s uppor t , t he Whodunn i t c oncerns o f t he t raditiona l p seudo-h is tor ica l Preh is tory.

' The r econs truc t ion

o f ah istor ica l o r s ocia l p ic ture o f p reh is tor ic c u l tures , wr i t ten i n h is tor ica l n arra tive , i s av a lid bu t i nciden ta l a nd d angerous a spect o f a rchaeo log y . 2

A l th cu gh a es the t ica l ly s a t isfying i n t he f am i l iar i ty o f i t s f orm o f e xpress ion i ti s n ecessar i ly a s e phe mera l a nd a s r e l iab le a s t he f acia l e xpress ion r ec ons tructed o n t he b ones o f aN eander tha l s ku l l ' ( C larke , 1 967: 1 3 ). Dav id a nd F rancesca R idgway , i n t he ir p reface t o I ta ly B e fore t he Ro mans , ab ook o f s tud ies d ea l ing w i th t he ' pro toh is tor ic ' p er iod i n I ta ly ( t he I ron Age ) , a re p ar t icu lar ly s ca th ing a bou t t he k ind o f n ew a pproaches i n I t a l ian a rchaeo logy wh ich s hare i n t he t heore t ica l d eve lop men ts c harac ter ised s o me f i f teen y ears a go i n t he Un i ted S ta tes a s t he N ew A rchaeo logy , a nd e xe mp l i f ied t hen b y t he wr i t ings o f B in ford ( 1962 , 1 964 , 1 965 ) a nd C larke ( 1967 ). T he R idgways b rand t hese t heore t ica l a pproaches a s ' Br i t ish i deas a rchaeo log y ' ( 1979 : i x ) , d ist ingu ishing t h is a ct iv i ty ( apparen t ly more o r l ess i d le s pecu la t ion )fro m t he p roper r o le o f a rchaeo logy , t he s tudy o f o b jec ts .

H ence , t hey a rgue , t h is

b ranch o f s tudy i s e n t ire ly u nsu i tab le f or g ra f t ing o n to t he a rchaeo log ica l t rad i t ion o f I t a ly , wh ich i s a l l a bou t o b jec ts o r i ti s n o th ing . We f ind t h is j udge men t d eep ly d epress ing ; o f p rotoh is tor ic s tud ies i n g enera l i n I t a ly.

a nd i n mahy ways s y mp to ma t ic

A s t he S he f f ie ld s em inar made

r efresh ing ly c lear , t he n ew d irect ions o f p reh is tor ic s tudy i n I t a ly s tr ike many e choes i n c urren t a rchaeo log ica l work o n c lass ica l a nd med ieva l s et t lemen t .

I n a l l t hree a reas o f r esearch o ur a rchaeolog ica l d a ta a re we l l s u ited

t o t he a na lys is o f s oc ia l a nd e cono m ic p a t terns i n t he a ncien t wor ld.

O f

c ourse we h ave t o d ea l w i th d if feren t l eve ls o f c o mp lex i ty , e spec ia l ly b e tween p reh is tory a nd t he h is tor ica l p er iods , b u t t he s im i lar i t ies i n t he l anguage o f o ur t rade , i n t he p rob le ms a nd me thods o f a r t i fac t a na lys is , s e t t le men t p a t terns , r eg iona l s urveys a nd s o o n were much more i mpress ive a t S hef f ie ld t han t he d i f ferences , wh ich f or t he g rea ter p ar t s ee med f ar more a q ues t ion o f d egree r a ther t han k ind.

Pro toh is tor ic s tud ies s u f fer f ro m t he wors t o f

b oth wor lds : much ( i ndeed mos t ) o f t he ir d a ta i s n o more p recise t han p reh is tor ic d a ta , b u t h istor ica l q ues t ions a re s t i l l a t t he f orefron t o f t he d iscip l ine . A rchaeo log ica l e n t i t ies i l l d ef ined a c en tury a go h ave t aken o n a n h is tor ica l l i fe o f t he ir o wn .

T he i mpress ion f ro m I t a ly B efore t he R o mans i s t ha t , w i th

j us t al i t t le b i t more e f for t i n t he s tudy o f t he e normous c orpus o f a r t i facts f ro m t he I ron Age , we s ha l l s ee t he emergence o f aP ro toh is tory i n I ta ly t o p lace a longs ide H is tory .

Th is i s i l lusory:

p ro toh is tor ic c hrono log ies a nd

d a ta s e ts s t i l l b ear f ar more r ese mb lance t o t hose o f l a te p reh is tory t han t o t hose o f , s ay , r epubl ican R o me , d esp i te t he c on tact b e tween n a t ive I ta l ian s oc ie t ies a nd h is tor ica l p eop les l i ke t he G reeks , a nd t he r esearch p roble ms s hou ld b e r ede f ined a ccording ly.

D esp i te a l l t he a d mirab le work o f d escr ip t ion

a nd c lass i f ica t ion c urren t i n i ron a ge s tud ies , we s t i l l k now r e markably l i t t le a bou t i ron a ge p eop le c o mpared w i th e ar l ier p reh is tor ic p eop le . S ince wr i t ing t hese c o m men ts , we f ind t ha t Ru th Wh i tehouse h as e xact ly t he s ame r eac t ion t o I ta ly B efore t he R o mans , a nd h er r e marks o n t he method ology a nd r esearch g oa ls embod ied i n t ha t s tudy a re a ppos i te h ere ( 1980 : 1 59-160 ).

' Why t hen my d epress ion?

N ew a pproaches s o e v iden t i n ( I ta l ian )

a rchaeology e lsewhere a re n otable f or t he ir a bsence h ere ... . 1f ind i te x trao rd inary t ha t ab ook o n a rchaeo logy p ub l ished i n 1 979 s hou ld i nc lude l i t t le o r n o d iscuss ion o f s uch modern c oncerns a s s ubs is tence e cono my , s e t t le men t p a t terns , o r d e mography ;

t rade i s d iscussed o n ly i n t erms o f l ong d is tance

move men t o f l uxury g oods .... s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion a lso r ece ives o n ly p erf unctory t rea t men t . E qua l ly d is tress ing i s t he a bsence o f t he many s c ien t if ic 3

a nd t ec4n ica l a ids n ow a va i lable t o a rchaeo log is ts .

A l l ...are n ow emp loyed

i n p reh is tor ic , c lass ica l a nd med ieva l a rchaeo log y i n I ta ly.

D oes t he I ron

Age a lene h ave n o n eed o f t he m?" We b el ieve t ha t t he mos t a larm ing d icho to my i n I ta l ian a rchaeo logy t oday i s b e tween t he s oc io-econo m ic g oa ls o f c urren t p reh istor ic/c lass ica l/med ieva l s tud ies o n t he o ne h and , a nd t he p ro toh is tor ic g oa ls o f p ro toh is tory.

T he v ir-

t ua l a bsence f ro m t h is v o lume o f p apers d ea l ing w i th t h is p er iod o f I ta l ian a rchaeo logy r ef lects p rec ise ly t he d i f ference i n a i ms .

Y e t i n o ur v iew t h is

p er iod o f I ta ly 's p as t mus t b e ag o ld m ine f or a rchaeo log ica l r esearch o f t he k ind n ow c urren t i n t he r es t o f I ta l ian a rchaeo logy.

A s B ie t t i S es t ier i 's

p aper ( 10 ) d e mons tra tes s o empha t ica l ly , t he s e t t le men t a rchaeo log y o f t h is p er iod embod ies a c o mp lex r ange o f d a ta wh ich i s c apab le o f g enera t ing e leg an t mode ls o f c u l tura l s tab i l i ty a nd c hange , p o ten t ia l ly o f e nor mous i n teres t t o s tuden ts o f c h iefdo m a nd e ar ly s ta te f orma t ion ( Ren frew 1 975 ) . A t t he s ame t ime , o f c ourse , t he d iv is ion b etween ' unrea l ( i deas ) a rcha eo logy ' a nd ' rea l ( ob jec ts ) a rchaeo logy ' i s e n t ire ly f i ct i t ious , i n t h is p er iod a s i n a ny o ther .

A s t he p apers i n o ur f irs t s ect ion d e mons tra te , s o me o f t he

mos t i mag ina t ive a nd s t i mu la t ing work i s p oss ib le a t t h is l eve l o f i nves t iga t ion , t he o b jec t c lass .

I n t he p reh is tor ic p er iod , f or e xa mp le , i ti s a pparen t t ha t

t here mus t b e aw ide r ange o f p o ten t ia l i n forma t ion a bou t a nc ien t I ta l ian s ocie ty wa i t ing t o b e t apped f ro m imag ina t ive a nd s ys te ma t ic a r t ifac t a na lys is . E ven a t t he q ua l i ta t ive l evel , we a re c lear ly j us t b eg inn ing t o g rasp t he c o mp lex i ty o f p reh is tor ic e xchange s ys te ms i n n or thern I ta ly ( Bar f ie ld , p aper 3 ) . F or t he p a laeo l i th ic p er iod B ie t t i ( 2 ) i l lus tra tes h ow a n ew t heore t ica l a pproach t o s tone t oo ls a nd s o me b as ic q uan t i ta t ive p rocedures c an e nable u s t o b eg in t o a na lyse t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t echno logy a nd s ubs is tence , u nh indered b y t he s i mp l is t ic e qua t ions ( i ndus try-cu l ture-peop le ) t ha t h ave c haracter ised mos t p a laeo l i th ic s tud ies h ere i n t he p as t .

E ven t ha t mos t u nyie ld ing ma ter ia l ,

p reh is tor ic p o t tery , i s s hown b y L t*esh ( 4 ) t o b e s uscep t ib le t o s ys te ma t ic q uan t i ta t ive a na lys is ;

t he p re l im inary r esu l ts o f h er s tudy i nd ica te t ha t we

s ha l l b e a ble t o make s i mp le b u t a ccura te s ta te men ts a bou t p o t tery v ar iab i l i ty i n s pace a nd t ime , a nd a bou t t he s ign i f icance o f s uch v ar iabi l i ty i n t erms o f t he p reh is tor ic c o m mun i ty .

A lber t Am merman p resen ted t wo p ar t icu lar ly

s t imu la t ing p apers a t t he s em inar , o ne o n h is n eo l i th ic e xcava t ions i n C a labr ia , t he o ther o n h is s urvey o f p reh istor ic s i tes i n t he s a me r eg ion .

T he impor-

t an t imp l ica t ions o f h is s urvey f or t he s tudy o f o bs id ian e xchange i n t he I t a l ian p en insu la a re a lready k nown ( A m mer man , 1 979 ) ;

wh i lst h is e xcava t ions

o f n eo l ith ic s et t le men ts l oca ted b y t he s urvey i l lustra te h ow much s tructura l a nd s oc ia l i n for ma t ion c an b e e x tracted f ro m t he r igorous a nd imag ina t ive a na lys is o f u npro m is ing ' surface s cat ters ' o f a r t ifacts a nd s et t le men t d ebr is ( A m mer man e t a l ., 1 979 ) .

I n h is p aper f or t h is v o lu me ( paper 2 7 ) h e d es-

c r ibes o ne e xa mp le o f t he t ransfor med p icture wh ich c an n ow b e c onstructed f or n eo l ith ic s et t le men t i n C a labr ia , a nd d iscusses t he p rob le ms i n i n terp re ta t ion c aused b y l andscape c hanges s ince t he n eo l ith ic p er iod . P erhaps t he mos t n o tab le f ea ture l i nk ing t he I ta l ian c on tr ibu tors a t t he s em inar a nd t heir p apers i n t h is v o lume ( bo th p reh is tor ic a nd h is tor ic ) i s t heir e xp l ic i t i nvo lve men t w i th a rchaeo log ica l t heory , t he ' i deas a rchaeo logy ' c r i t ic ised b y t he R idgways a s ap ecu l iar ly B r i t ish h ab i t .

A l l o f t he m d eclare

t heir t heore t ica l c oncerns a t t he o u tse t , a ware t ha t o ur t heore t ica l f ramework 4

s hapes t he q ues t ions we a sk o f t he ma ter ia l , a nd t he n a ture o f t he q ues t ions i nev i tably a f fects t he d a ta t o wh ich t hey a re a ddressed .

F or t he p reh is tor ian

mos t o f a l l t here a re f ew i fa ny ' i ndependen t f ac ts ' . I ti s a pparen t t ha t t he I ta l ian p reh is tor ians whose s tud ies a re i l lus tra ted i n t h is v o lume , l i ke mos t o f t he ir f ore ign c ol leagues work ing i n I ta ly , v iew t he ir r esearch w i th in t he modern t heore t ica l f ramework o f a n thropo log ica l a rchaeo logy , wh ich i s i n terna t iona l i n i t s p erspect ive a nd methodo log y. H is tor ica l a rchaeology Archaeology t rad i t iona l ly d iv ides b e tween t he d o ma ins o f t he p reh is tor ian a nd t hose o f t he h is tor ian .

The p reh is tor ian t oday t ends t o b e t he f oca l p oin t

i n a n i n terd isc ip l inary s ub jec t , d raw ing u pon t he a ids o f fered b y t he n a tura l s ciences a nd t he s oc ia l s c iences i n t he r econs truct ion o f t he p as t . B y c ont ras t t he h is tor ica l a rchaeo log is t h as f or many d ecades h ad a r o le c lear ly a ss igned t o h im a s l oya l s ervan t t o t he h is tor ian .

T he r o le u sua l ly c on forms

t o o ne o r more o f t he c harac ter is t ics d e f ined r ecen t ly b y S ou th ( 1977: 3 21) : ( 1 ) a rchaeology i s u sed t o ' f i l l i n ' h is tor ica l d ocumen ta t ion ; i s u sed t o l oca te a rch i tec tura l f ea tures ;

( 2 ) a rchaeo logy

( 3 ) a rchaeo logy i s u sed t o r ecover

a r ti facts , wh ich a re t hen d escr ibed i n g rea t d e ta i l ; 'c orre la ted ' w i th h is tor ica l d ocumen ta t ion .

( 4 ) a rchaeo logy i s

D yson h as made t he s ame

c r i t ic is ms , b u t s peci f ica l ly o f t he Amer ican t rad i t ion o f c lass ica l a rchaeo logy d ivorced f ro m a n thropo log ica l a rchaeo logy:

' c lass ica l a rchaeo log y h as n o t

a cqu ired a ny s ure s ense o f wha t i ti s d o ing a s at heore t ica l a nd me thodolog ica l d iscip l ine....The d iscip l ine o f c lass ics h as a s tr ic t h ierarch ica l s tructure , i n wh ich t he l i terary t ex t s tands a t t he t op a nd t he h umble p o t a t t he b o t to m . The j ob o f t he a rchaeo log is t i s t o i l lus tra te t he wor ld a lready k nown f ro m wr i t ten s ources ' ( Dyson 1 979 : 3 -4 ). B o th S ou th a nd D yson r efu te t h is t rad i t iona l a nd p ar t icu lar is t a pproach , b u t t he irs i s t he p erspec t ive o f t he Amer ican h is tor ica l a rchaeolog is t t ra ined i n a n thropo logy.

S ou th ma in ta ins , f or e xamp le , t ha t ' as a rchaeo log is ts we

a re d ea l ing p r i mar i ly w i th p a t terned ma ter ia l r e ma ins o f p as t b ehav iour , w i th t he p rocesses r espons ible f or t ha t b ehav iour n o t n ecessar i ly r ecogn ised b y t he p eop le o r t he s oc iety i n t he s ys te m f ro m wh ich t he p a t tern emerged ' ( 1977: 3 26) —and t hus n o t n ecessar i ly r ecogn isable f ro m t he d ocumen tary r ecord. I n h is s hor t e ssay o n a rchaeo logy a nd h is tory , F in ley ( 1971) l eve l led h is mos t s er ious c r i t ic is ms a t t he o vera l l a ch ieve men ts o f h is tor ica l a rchaeo logy , i fi tc ou ld o n ly p roduce wha t h e t ermed ' coun ter fe i t h is tory ' ( 1971: 1 74 ). ' O f wha t u se i s a rchaeo logy , a nyway , a par t f ro m museum p ieces t ha t s o met imes c o me o u t o f t he d ebr is , i fi tl eads t o n o th ing more t han r epor ts ? ' ( 1971 : 1 81) .

Ad ecade l a ter t h is r e ma ins a t el l ing i nd ic t men t o f much h is tor ica l

a rchaeology. T oo many h is tor ica l a rchaeo log is ts h ave b een c on ten t t o o f fer r epor ts o n s o l i tary s i tes ( or r ando m p ar ts o f s i tes ) , o r t urg id r ev iews o f d a ta wh ich a re h is tor ica l ly mean ing less , a nd wh ich i nv i te t he p roper s corn o f t he h is tor ian .

T hus o n t he o ne h and a rchaeo log is ts l i ke D yson a nd S ou th

a re c r i t icis ing t he a ccep ted r o le o f h is tor ica l a rchaeo logy a s a n a d junct t o h is tory ;

a nd o n t he o ther t he h is tor ian i s d oubt ing t he s ign i f icance o f wha t

t rad i t iona l a rchaeo logy c an a ch ieve . One a im o f t he S hef f ie ld s e minar was t o b low s o me f resh a ir t hrough t he c orr idors o f o ur a ncien t h is tory/archaeology a nd med ieva l h is tory/archaeo logy d epar t men ts , t o r easser t t he t en ta t ive t hrus ts

5

made a t t he L ancas ter s em inar a bou t t he p roper r ole o f h is tor ica l a rchaeo logy i n t he f u ture ( see B lake 's p aper , f or e xamp le , i n B lake e t a l ., 1 978 ) , a nd t he mass ive c on tr ibu t ion i th as s t i l l t o make t o u nders tand ing t he a nc ien t wor ld . A t t he mos t d e ta i led l eve l o f a r t i fact a na lys is , o ur f i rs t l eve l o f i nves t ig a t ion i n t h is v o lume , t he S hef f ie ld s em inar i l lustra ted a r ange o f r esearch t echn iques i n h is tor ica l a rchaeo logy t ha t c on tr ibu tes s ign i f ican t ly t o t he s tudy o f t he a ncien t e cono my i n I ta ly.

T hree a u thors , f or e xamp le ( R i ley , p aper

5 ; B lake , p aper 8 ; Mannon i , p aper 9 ) , u se d if feren t t echn iques o f c era m ic a na lys is t o p lo t p roduc t ion a nd t rade s ys te ms w i th in I ta ly a nd w i th t he o u ts ide wor ld .

As R i ley c onc ludes i n h is s tudy , t he q uan t i ta t ive a na lys is o f t h is

k ind o f d a ta w i l l b e a n e ssen t ia l t oo l i n d ef in ing t rends i n p ot tery move men t , a nd e xp la in ing s uch p a t terns i n t erms o f u nder lying s oc ia l a nd e cono m ic p rocesses . R o thsch i ld-Boros ( paper 6 ) i s d eve lop ing a v ery d if feren t t echn ique o f a na lys is u s ing c hro ma tography t o i den t i fy t he l i qu id c on ten ts o f p o t tery v esse ls f ro m t he c he mica l r es idues i n t he ir f abr ic , at echn ique wh ich c ou ld r epresen t t he s ame k ind o f b reak through i n t he s c ien t i f ic r econs truct ion o f t rade s ys te ms i n t he c lass ica l a nd med ieva l p er iods a s o bs id ian c haract er isa t ion h as b een f or p reh is tory.

P eacock 's p etro log ica l r esearch o n R o man

mi l ls tones f ro m I ta ly ( 1980 ) w i l l b e a s i l lum ina t ing .

C ar t ledge 's p aper ( 7 )

o n med ieva l f auna l s amp les f ro m n or th I ta l ian c i t ies emphas ises t he c o mp lex i t ies we f ace when we a pp ly me thods o f s ubs is tence a na lys is p r i mar i ly d eve loped i n p reh is tor ic a rchaeology t o h is tor ica l c on tex ts .

A t t he s ame

t ime , h owever , s he a lso d e mons tra tes w i th t he I ta l ian ma ter ia l t ha t i f we c an l earn t o s tr ip a way t he l ayers o f b ias imposed o n a n u rban f auna l s amp le b y c u l tura l a nd n a tura l a genc ies , i n s o d o ing we c an g a in i mpor tan t i ns igh ts i n to med ieva l d ie t , s ocia l d i f feren t ia t ion a nd marke t o rgan isa t ion i n ac i ty t ha t a re f requen t ly u nava i lab le i n t he d ocumen tary r ecord o f t he s i te ( Car t ledge , 1 980 ) . A s s he n o tes , h owever , g ood u rban a rchaeozoo log y d epends p r imar i ly o n g ood u rban s amp l ing b y t he e xcava tor , ap oin t t o wh ich we r e turn b elow. The p o ten t ia l c on tr ibu t ion o f f auna l s tud ies t o h is tor ica l a rchaeo logy i n I ta ly was d escr ibed i n a n e ar l ier p aper b y o ne o f u s , i n wh ich t he r ev iew o f e igh t s amp les c oncluded :

' so me h ave c on f irmed wha t h is tor ians a lready k new ,

s o me h ave t hrown f resh l i gh t o n t radi t iona l i n terpre ta t ions , s o me h ave f la t ly c on trad icted t he h is tor ica l v iew ' ( Barker 1 978 : 4 6 ). T he p apers b y t he h is tor ica l a rchaeo log is ts work ing a t t he s econd l evel o f i nvest iga t ion i l lus tra te we l l t he o ppor tun i t ies we h ave a nd t he p rob le ms we f ace i n s oc ia l a nd e cono m ic r econs truc t ion f ro m t he s i te e xcava t ion . Three i n p ar t icu lar ( Ward-Perk ins , p aper 1 3 ;

Wh i tehouse , p aper 1 4 ;

Sma l l , p aper 1 6 ) a re a ble t o mode l t he e cono mic o rgan isa t ion o f t he s i te v ery s uccessfu l ly.

T he ir work d e mons tra tes h ow t he d e ta i led i n terpre ta t ion a nd

u nderstand ing o f t h is a spect o f a n a nc ien t s et t le men t c an o n ly b e a ch ieved b y t he s k i lfu l i n tegra t ion o f s pec ia l ist s c ien t if ic s tud ies o f a r t ifacts , a nd o f z oo log ica l a nd b otan ica l d a ta , a nd a bove a l l t hat t h is p rocess n or ma l ly d emands t he d irect i nvo lve men t o f t he s pec ia l ist c on tr ibu tors i n t he f i e ld r esearch , s o t ha t a rchaeo log ica l q uest ions p redo m ina te t hroughou t t he p rocess o f r esearch f ro m o n-s ite s a mp l ing t o l abora tory a na lys is a nd i n terp re ta t ion .

T hese imag ina t ive p ro jects a re f ar r e moved f ro m t he t rad it iona l

e xcava t ions o f h istor ica l s i tes , t he p ub l ica t ions o f wh ich were c r it ic ised s o j ust if iab ly b y F in ley :

e xhaust ive ly d eta i led d escr ip t ions o f a rch itectura l

6

-

minu t iae a nd a r t i fac t t ypo log ies , f o l lowed b y ac oup le o f p ages o f ' s i te i n terpre ta t ion ' , f o l lowed b y a n i mpos ing l i s t o f s pecia l is t a ppendices o f g rea t e rud i t ion b u t o f ten p a ten t ly o f g rea ter s ign i f icance t o t he s c ien t if ic i n teres ts o f t he s pec ia l is t t han t o t he h uman i n terpreta t ion o f t he e xcava ted s i te . Af ur ther l esson f ro m t hese p apers , h owever , i s t ha t t he d e ta i led a na lys is o f t he c o mp lex h is tor ica l s i te c an p ose a nd p ar t ia l ly i nves t iga te ma jor q uest i ons a bou t s oc ia l a nd e cono m ic o rgan isa t ion , b u t may we l l n o t b e a b le t o a nswer t hose q ues t ions o n i t s o wn . A t L un i , f or e xamp le ( paper 1 3 ) , t he i n terac t ion i n mode l b u i ld ing i s o bv ious b e tween t he e xcava t ion i n t he c i ty b y Ward-Perk ins , t he a rchaeo log ica l s urvey o f t he s urround ing a rea b y M i l ls ( paper 2 1) , a nd t he g eo morpho log ica l work o f D e lano Sm i th ( paper 1 9 ) o n t he a ncien t c oas t l ine .

T he d eve lop men t o f f i e ld s urvey a round t he l arge a nd c o m-

p lex s i te o f S et tefenestre e xcava ted b y P ro fessor C arand in i a nd h is c o l leagues i s a nother c ase i n p oin t .

Sma l l 's impress ively c o mp lete e xcava t ion o f t he

v i l la r us t ica a t S an G iovann i ( paper 1 6 ) h as a lso r a ised f asc ina t ing q ues t ions a bou t t he e cono my o f t he s i te wh ich h ave i n t urn p rov ided t he r esearch f ramework f or t he f i e ld s urvey t ha t h e i s n ow u nder tak ing a round t he s i te.

A t

Metapon to , C ar ter ( paper 1 2 ) s hows h ow t he s e t t le men t o rgan isa t ion o f t he l oca l i ty a nd t he e cono m ic r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t he c i ty a nd i t s h in ter land h ave t o b e p ieced t oge ther b y t he e xcava t ion o f t he c en tra l s i te , t he a na lys is f ro m t he a ir o f t he a nc ien t d iv is ion l i nes , t he s tudy o n t he g round o f t he s e t t le men t s i tes l oca ted b y s urvey , a nd t he i n tegra t ion o f a l l t h is ' secu lar a rchaeo logy ' w i th t he e v idence o f b ur ia l s i tes a nd r e l ig ious s anc tuar ies .

Frege l lae ( paper

1 5 ) i s a no ther e xamp le o f as i te o f c r i t ica l i n teres t t o t he a nc ien t h is tor ian , b u t where t he p re lim inary e xcava t ions s ugges t t ha t a n i n tegra ted l andscape s tudy , s uch a s a t Lun i , w i l l b e n ecessary t o u nders tand t he s e t t le men t a rcha eo logy o f t he s i te a nd p rov ide n ew d a ta o f v a lue t o t he h is tor ian a bou t t he s ocio-econo m ic r ole o f t he a nc ien t c o lony. The r eg iona l a na lyses o f r ura l s et t le men t wh ich a re b eing u nder taken a round s i tes l i ke Lun i , t he s ub jec t o f s evera l p apers i n t he t h ird p ar t o f t h is v olume , r epresen t o ne o f t he mos t impress ive a ch ieve men ts o f modern h ist or ica l a rchaeo logy i n I ta ly.

H owever , b efore we move o n t o t hese , we mus t

c o m men t f irs t o n o ne a rea o f a rchaeo log ica l i nves t iga t ion where s ign i f ican t a dvances h ave s t i l l t o b e made h ere . Wh i ls t we c an l aud t he s treng th o f c urren t i n tegra ted s et t le men t p ro jec ts a t t he l eve l o f t he r ura l s i te , o r t he sma l l u rban s i te , o r t he s pec ia l ised a rea w i th in a ma jor u rban s i te , i ti s n o t iceable t ha t we c anno t p o in t t o l arge s ca le p ro jects emp loying s ys te ma t ic s amp l ing w i th in ma jor I ta l ian u rban c en tres . U rban a rchaeo logy The l eve l o f i nves t iga t ion o f u rban is m b y a rchaeo log is ts i s s t i l l o f ten h aphazard o r h igh ly p ar t icu lar is t ic , w i th a f ew n o table e xcep t ions .

T owns

t ha t a re s t i l l i nhabi ted p resen t s pecia l p rob le ms wh ich a re d e term ined a l mos t e n t irely b y t he p a t tern o f modern d eve lop men t . Where t here a re f oss i l ised c i t ies emp ty o f s e t t le men t ( such a s s o me o f t he b es t k nown c lass ica l s i tes ) , wh ich o ugh t t o b e i dea l l abora tor ies f or modern u rban a rchaeo logy , mos t o f t he m h ave b een i nves t iga ted s o f ar p r i mar i ly f or t he ir a rch i tec tura l b e l les p ieces . O f c ourse e xcava t ions o f t h is k ind make a va i lab le wor thwh i le t opog raph ica l d e ta i ls a bou t t he a ncien t c i t ies , b u t t hese s e ldo m h ave a n i mpor tan t

7

b ear ing b eyond t he c ase s tudy i t se l f :

l i t t le l igh t i n t he e nd i s c as t o n t he

n a ture o f t he u rban c o m mun i ty , o r o n t he s oc ia l a nd e cono m ic t ra jector ies t hrough wh ich t ha t c o m mun i ty p assed . E d i th E nnen a dm i ts i n t he r ecen t e d i t ion o f h er c lass ic s tudy o f t he medi eva l t own t ha t t he a rchaeo log is t h as a ma jor r o le i n amp l i fying a nd t es t ing t he c on trovers ies s urrounding t he emergence o f p os t-Ro man t owns ( Ennen 1 979 : 1 7). H owever , u rban h is tor ians o bv ious ly w ish t o l earn much more a bou t u rban c o mp lexes t han t he u nre la ted a nd h aphazard d iscover ies o f s ca t tered t renches .

T o d eve lop t he f u l les t p o ten t ia l o f u rban a rchaeo logy f or

u rban h is tory , i tw i l l b e n ecessary f or u rban a rchaeo log is ts t o emp loy t he s a me r igour i n s amp l ing s tra tegy a s t ha t c urren t ly b e ing d eve loped i n t he I ta l ian c oun trys ide . p l ing .

T here i s ad espera te n eed f or s ys te ma t ic u rban s am-

C ra ig Morr is h as p oin ted o u t , i n ar are d iscuss ion o f t h is a spect o f

a rchaeo logy , t ha t ' t he l arge s ize o f u rban s i tes p u ts e x tre me ly s evere d emands o n l im i ted a rchaeo log ica l r esources , a nd t he i dea l o f ac o mp le te s tudy a nd e xcava t ion i s e ssen t ia l ly n ever a r ea l is t ic a l terna t ive t o s o me k ind o f s amp l ing ' ( 1 975 : 1 92 ).

J us t a s o bv ious a s i t s s ize i s t he c o mp l ica ted n a ture

o f t he t yp ica l u rban s i te , w i th i t s d eep ly s tra t i f ied p a l i mpses ts o f h uman a c t iv i ty .

T he e d i tors o f ar ecen t s y mpos iu m o f s a mp l ing i n B r i t ish a rchae-

o logy c onc luded t ha t ' deep s tra t igraphy ( i n t owns ) p rec ludes t he u se o f p rob ab i l ist ic me thods ,

b u t d e mands n on-rando m s amp l ing d es igns o f f ar g rea ter

c o mp lex i ty a nd s oph is t ica t ion t han t hose c urren t ly i n u se ' ( Cherry e t a l ., 1 978 : 1 55 ) .

' New me thods h ave t o b e d eve loped ...to d ea l w i th l arge a reas ,

mass ive d a ta a nd o ur o wn mor ta l i ty.

F or t he c oncerns wh ich a modern u rban

h is tor ian wou ld h ave f or l i fe o n a l l l eve ls o f s oc ie ty , t he u l t i ma te a nswers w i l l h ave t o c o me f ro m a n ew g enera t ion o f u rban a rchaeolog is ts who t ack le o ld s i tes w i th n ew a rchaeo log ica l c oncerns ' ( Dyson 1 979 : 1 3 ). Three r ecen t p ro jects i n u rban s a mp l ing s ee m t o u s e specia l ly a ppropr ia te a s e xe mp lars f or t he me thodo log ies wh ich mus t b e d eve loped b y u rban a rcha eolog is ts i n I ta ly. The f irs t e xa mp le c oncerns a d eser ted c i ty s im i lar i n many r espects t o t he wa l led c lass ica l c i t ies a nd l a ter med ieva l c as te l l i o f I ta ly.

A t t he l a ter

med ieva l t own o f Qsar e s-Segh ir i n n or thern Morocco , C har les Red man h as e xcava ted s o me 1 8% o f t he a rea i ns ide t he wa l ls .

Dur ing f our s easons a s e t

o f n ine teen e xcava t ion u n i ts h as b een t ack led , e ach b e ing s e lec ted a s p ar t o f as tra t i f ied , u na l igned , s ys te ma t ic , p robab i l i ty s amp l ing p rogram me .

T h is

me thod s e lec ts u n i ts f ro m e ach p ar t o f t he s i te o n t he b as is o f r ando m n umb ers , e nsuring a n e ven c overage o f t he e n t ire s i te a rea .

H ence t he s a mp le

e xcava t ions s erved a d ua l p urpose ; ' f irs t a s ab as is f or c erta in e s t i ma tes s uch a s o vera l l l and u se o r n umber o f d we l l ing u n i ts ; a nd s econd a s a n e xp lora tory t echn ique t o i den t i fy a reas t o b e e xpanded ' ( Red man e t a l ., 1 978 : 3 ) .

E qua l e f for t was e xpended o n a reas s e lected o n t he b as is o f j udge men t

s a mp l ing o f t he n orma l k ind ( Red man 1 974 : 1 49 ) .

These s amp les were c ho-

s en t o c lear o pen a reas i n o rder t o r evea l t he p lans o f b u i ld ings a nd t heir t opograph ica l c on tex t . Fur thermore , 8 0 sma l l s oundings were made t o d e termine t he o u t l ine o f t he f or t i f ica t ion s ys te m .

A s ar esu l t o f t h is ambi t ious

b u t r igorous p rogram me t he e xcava tors c onc luded t ha t ' t he e ven c overage o f t he s amp le a l lowed u s t o make r e l iable e s t i ma tes o f c er ta in p arame ters o f

8

t he c o mmun i ty , s uch a s p opu la t ion , n umber o f h ouses a nd o ther d e mograph ic a nd a rchaeo log ica l v ar iab les .

The d e ta i led q uan t i ta t ive a na lys is o f t he a r t i-

f acts h as f aci l i ta ted t he d e f in i t ion o f t he v ar ious ma ter ia l i nven tor ies a t Qsar e l-Segh ir .... ( and ) w i l l e nable u s t o p erce ive o rgan isa t iona l p a t terns a nd c hanges w i th in t he c o m mun i ty t ha t wou ld n o t h ave b een p oss ible o therwise ' ( Red man e t a l ., 1 978 : 1 5 ).

The i n ter im r epor t o n t he c eram ic a na lyses

( Red man , 1 979 ) i l lus tra tes t he wea l th o f i n for ma t ion i ti s p oss ib le t o o bta in f ro m a s ys te ma t ic s amp le o ft i ne n t ire u rban c o m mun i ty , a nd s e ts a n e n t ire ly n ew s tandard i n t he i n terpreta t ion o f p o t tery s amp les f ro m u rban s i tes . O bv ious ly i ti s e as ier t o u nder take t h is k ind o f mixed mode s amp ling s tra tegy i ft here a re n o l a ter l eve ls a nd s tructures t o c o mpl ica te t he p roc edure .

I tw i l l b e i n teres t ing t o s ee i f Red man 's a pproach w i l l b e a dop ted

b y med ieva l a rchaeo log is ts i n I ta ly i n teres ted i n t he q ues t ion o f i ncas te l lamen to. C lear ly t he h is tor ica l i ssues r a ised b y Andrews ' p aper ( 2 6 ) s ugges t t ha t i t s hou ld b e .

T he r esu l ts f ro m o ur s a mp l ing s tra tegy a t t he med ieva l s e t t le-

men t o f D 85 i n Mo l ise , n o t d iss im i lar t o R ed man 's t hough o n a much l ess ambi t ious s ca le , i nd ica te t he v ery p os i t ive g a ins t o b e made ( see H odges a nd Wickham , p aper 2 5 ;

a nd H odges e t a l ., 1 980 ).

H owever , u rban a rchaeo logy

i s u sua l ly u nder taken i n more c o mp l ica ted c on tex ts , s uch a s Andrews a nd P r ing le ( 1978 ) p resen ted t o t he f irs t s em inar when t hey d escr ibed t he ir e xcav a t ions i n G enoa . C oheren t s tra teg ies f or d eep ly s tra t i f ied s i tes h ave n ot b een p roduced b y t he c urren t t heor is ts ( see Brown , 1 975 , f or a n a t te mp t ). As a mp l ing s tra tegy f or c o mp lex i nves t iga t ions o f t h is k ind u sua l ly r equ ires ad e l ibera te a nd p erhaps r u th less i n ten t ion t o e xam ine o ne o r t wo p er iods i n g rea t d e ta i l a t t he e xpense o f t he o thers , o r a s d e l ibera te a p o l icy t o f ocus o n g enera l ised t opograph ica l i n forma t ion s uch a s t he c hang ing s ize o f t he t own t hrough t he d i f feren t p er iods . One e xamp le o f t he f or mer a pproach i s t he s tra tegy d eve loped b y Wade t o i nves t iga te t he e ar l ies t ( M idd le S axon ) p hase o f I psw ich i n S u f fo lk , f o l lowing h is a ssess men t t ha t t h is p er iod was t he mos t e n igma t ic i n t he r eg ion a nd t herefore d e manded t he f u l les t a rchaeo log ica l i nves t iga t ion a t h is s i te ( Wade , 1 978 ) .

H e d e f ined t hree e le men ts t o h is s a mp l ing s tra tegy .

The f irs t c on-

s is ted o f as ys te ma t ic s amp le o f sma l l e xcava t ions a cross t he p os tu la ted e x ten t o f t he s e t t le men t ; h is a im i n t hese e xcava t ions was t o o bta in c u l tura l ma ter ia l f ro m r ubb ish p i ts wh ich wou ld i ndica te t he d a te r ange o f t hese f eat ures a s we ll a s t he n a ture o f t he a c t iv i t ies i n e ach p ar t o f t he t own .

The

s econd i nvo lved t es t ing t he h ypotheses f ormu la ted a f ter t he f irs t s e t o f e xcav a t ions h ad b een e va lua ted . e xcava t ions .

Th is was u nder taken b y as er ies o f sma l l s ca le

T he t h ird e le men t c ons is ted o f l arge s ca le e xcava t ions o f i nd i-

v idua l s tructures t o i nd ica te t he l ayou t o f t he M idd le S axon t own , a nd a f terwards t he l i ke ly p opu la t ion . T he s tra tegy a dop ted a t I pswich was a s peci f ica l ly a rchaeo log ica l a pproach t o a n h is tor ica l p rob le m , a nd h as s uccessfu l ly c o mp rehended t he e ar ly p hase o f al iv ing c i ty f or wh ich t he d ocu men tary r ecord i s e n t ire ly i nadequa te . The t h ird e xa mp le i s t he ' c lass ic i n ter-re la ted a pproach ' ( Car ter 1 978 : 2 70 ) u sed t o s tudy med ieva l N orw ich .

F or t he p er iod a f ter 1 270 A .D . o ver

1 000 f ee t o f s he l f s pace o f d ocumen ts a nd 2 500 l i s ted b u i ld ings s urv ive .

The

N orwich S urvey r ecorded e very b u i lding w i th in t he c i ty wa l ls , many o f wh ich were masked b y e x ter iors o f much l a ter d a te. 9

The S urvey e xcava ted 1 0 l a ter

med ieN a l t own h ouses , e s t i ma ted t o b e a bou t 2% o f t he t o ta l k nown t o b e i n e x is tence i n a bou t 1 500 A .D.

I ti s wor th n o t ing t ha t t he s urv iv ing h ouses

a re mos t ly t hose o f t he v ery wea l thy, whereas t he e xcava ted h ouses t end t o b e long t o t he midd le l eve ls o f s ocie ty.

I ti s e v iden t t ha t t h is i n tegra ted

a pproach t o a med ieva l t own , d rawing t oge ther t he r esearch o f a rchaeo log is ts , h is tor ians a nd a rch i tec tura l h is tor ians , h as b een a n e f f ic ien t a nd s uccess fu l s tra tegy f or r econs truct ing l a ter med ieva l N orw ich .

On t he o ther h and Wade 's

whol ly a rchaeo log ica l s tra teg ies a ppear t o b e t he o n ly r ea l is t ic means o f s amp l ing a p oor ly d ocumen ted u rban e nv ironmen t o n as ys te ma t ic s ca le . T he emp loy men t o f g ood s amp l ing t echn iques ( i n t hese c ases , ac o mbin a t ion o f p robab i l ist ic a nd j udge men t s amp l ing ) a l lows t he u rban a rchaeo log is t t o max im ise h is r esources i n te l l igen t ly i n ab id t o c o mprehend t he c i ty a s a c i ty , r a ther t han r ando m p ieces o f i t .

Th is i s a n e n t ire ly d i f feren t v iew f ro m

t ha t o f F in ley ( 1971: 1 82 ) , who a rgued t ha t s amp l ing d e mands s o me a n t ic ipa t ion o f t he f u ture .

I td oes n o th ing o f t he k ind ;

i ns tead , i tc lari f ies a nd max im ises

o pera t ions i n t he p resen t , a nd c lear ly f ormu la tes t he k ind o f h ypotheses t ha t h ave b roader i n teres t .

I t wou ld b e i n teres t ing t o u se e i ther t he I pswich o r

t he N orwich s tra teg y t o t es t a t t he d e ta i led a rchaeo log ica l l eve l t he a rgumen t p u t f orward b y Ward-Perk ins

( paper 1 3 ) t ha t mos t I t a l ian t owns s urv ived a s

f unct iona l c en tra l p laces f ro m Ro man t o med ieva l t imes .

Pav ia , f or e xamp le ,

c ou ld b e i nves t iga ted w i th a n i n tegra ted s tra t if ied s tra tegy s uch a s Wade u sed a t I pswich . Dark Age Ro me wou ld e qua l ly b enef i t f ro m s uch a p roble mo r ien ted i nves t iga t ion t o e va lua te , f or e xa mp le , t he s ign i f icance o f Wh i tehouse 's i mpor tan t d iscover ies i n t he S cho la Praeconum ( paper 1 4 ). I ti s c lear t ha t u rban s amp l ing i s ac o mpara t ive ly n ew p heno menon i n European a rchaeo logy , y e t i t mus t i nev i tably b e t he k ey t o h is tor ica l a rchaeo logy i n t owns .

I td e-

mands g rea t p rec is ion i n g oa ls a nd a c ogen t r esearch d es ign t ha t i nev i tably mus t b e i n terd isc ipt inary .

I ta l ian u rban s i tes s ure ly o f fer a marve l lous

o ppor tun i ty f or u rban a rchaeo log is ts t o d e mons tra te o nce a nd f or a l l t he c r it i ca l r ole t hey s hou ld p lay i n h is tor ica l r esearch . Rura l a rchaeo logy T he mos t r e markable impact o f a rchaeo logy o n h is tor ica l mode ls o f I ta ly 's p as t h as b een i n t he c oun trys ide , e ver s ince J ohn Ward-Perk ins i n i t ia ted h is p ioneer ing r escue s urvey i n s ou th E trur ia i n t he e ar ly 1 950s . The Br i t ish S chool a t R o me 's s urvey t here , wh ich h e d irec ted f or s o me t wen ty y ears , p roduced awea l th o f d eta i l—so me 2 000 s i tes , more t han h a l f o f t he m Ro man , i n a n a rea o f s o me 1 000 s quare k i lo me tres —tha t t rans formed i deas o f l andscape h is tory i n I ta ly ( Pot ter 1 979 ; Ward-Perk ins e t a l ., 1 968 ) . I ti s t rue t o s ay t ha t a l l o f t he s urvey work d escr ibed i n t h is v o lume h as b een b u i l t o n t he i n te l lec tua l a nd methodo log ica l f ounda t ions l a id d ow -ib y WardP erk ins i n t he 2 5 y ears o f t he s ou th E trur ia s urvey. The r eg iona l s urveys d escr ibed a t t he S hef f ield s e minar , w i n ich f or m t he g rea ter p ar t o f o ur t h ird s ec t ion , i l lus tra ted v ery wel l t he me thodo log ica l p rob le ms a nd t he a ch ieve men ts o f t h is k ind o f f i eldwork t oday.

Fur thermore ,

t he d iscuss ions t hey p ro mp ted amongs t t he a rchaeo log is ts a nd h is tor ian 9a t t he s em inar h igh l igh ted v ery c lear ly t he p roble ms i n c om mun ica t ion b e .-\ \e en t he t wo d isc ip l ines c aused b y t he n a ture o f a rchaeo log ica l d a ta i n g enera i a r s urvey c i a ta i n p ar t icu lar , a nd h is tor ica l e xpec ta t ions .

1 0

The mos t s tr ik ing a ch ieve men t o f t he c lass ica l s urveys h as b een t he ir d e mons tra t ion o f e x traord inary c o mplex i ty i n r ura l s e t t le men t .

A l though

t he g enera l p icture i s b road ly s im i lar , w i th g rea t ly i ncreased s e t t le men t i n t he l a te R epub l ic a nd e ar ly Emp ire , r eg iona l v ar iabi l i ty r ather t han c onf or m i ty i s s tressed w i th e ach a dd i t iona l s urvey. d ivers i ty o f p a t terns ' ( Dyson 1 979 : 1 3-14 ) .

T here i s a' re markable

T he wea l th o f c lass ica l d a ta i n

t he B i ferno v a l ley i n Mo l ise , a nd t he c o mp lex i ty o f t he s i tes i n t erms o f i nd iv idua l s ize a nd wea l th c a tegor ies , o f r eg iona l v ar ia t ion w i th in t he v a l ley , a nd o f c hrono log ica l c hanges i n d is tr ibu t ion p a t terns ( Barker e t a l ., 1 978 ; a nd L loyd a nd Barker , p aper 2 4 ) —came a s ag rea t s urpr ise t o many a ncien t h is tor ians a ccus to med t o t he meagre r eferences b y c lass ica l a u thors t o t he n a ture o f r ura l s et t le men t i n t h is p ar t o f I t a ly.

A t Lun i , t oo , t he s urvey

d irec ted b y N ige l M i l ls ( paper 2 1) f ound a n u nexpec ted p a t tern o f r ura l s e t t le men t i n R o man t imes n o t o n t he p la in a s i n i t ia l ly p red icted b u t i n t he h i l l z one a nd o n t he h i l l marg ins ;

t he r esu l ts d e manded t he r eshap ing o f

t he mode ls d eve loped b y Ward-Perk ins f or t he s uccess o f t he R o man t own a nd i t s s ubsequen t d ecl ine ( paper 1 3 ) .

I n t he Ager C osanus , o n t he o ther

h and , t he c rea t ion o f t he R o man t own r esu l ted i n as pread o f a gr icu l tura l s e t t le men ts a long t he l ow land p la in a nd u p t he n earby v a l leys ( Dyson , p aper 2 2 ).

The L ir i v a l ley s urvey ( W igh t man , p aper 2 3 ) h as n o t d iscovered s e t t le-

men t e v idence i n s uppor t o f t he v iew o f t he a rea a s al and c orr idor f or E truscan e xpans ion ;

t here i s t hen a c ons iderab le e xpans ion o f s e t t le men t

i n t he r epubl ican p er iod , b u t ( un l ike s ou th E trur ia , f or e xa mp le ) t here i s a s l igh t d ecrease i n e ar ly i mper ia l s i tes , t hen a marked i ncrease i n s econd a nd t h ird c en tury s e t t lemen t .

A s E d i th Mary Wigh t man r e marks i n h er

p aper , ' as d a ta f ro m a n i ncreas ing n umber o f p laces h ave b een made a va i la ble , i th as b eco me c lear t ha t d i f feren t r eg ions h ad t heir o wn r hyth m f or d eve lop men t '. A s we l l a s d ivers i ty o f r esu lts , t he s urveys d iscussed a t S hef f ield a lso r evea l i mpor tan t d ivers i ty i n s ca le a nd a pproach .

The s ca le o f d es truct ion

i n t he c oun trys ide f ro m i ndus tr ia l d eve lop men t a nd modern a gr icu l tura l p rac t ice , a s w e l l a s t he c ons tra in ts o f r esearch r esources , d e mand f ar s hor ter t imesca les f or s urvey t han t he B r i t ish S choo l a t R o me p ro jec t . One a pproach i s t o t ake a sma l l t err i tory a nd a k nown s i te , a nd a t te mp t t o s urvey t he a rea c o mp le tely , a s Wi lson d escr ibes f or h is e cono m ica l a nd r igorous s urvey o f t wen ty s quare k i lo me tres a round H erac lea M inoa i n S ic i ly ( paper 2 0 ).

H owever , a s L loyd p o in ts o u t i n h is d iscuss ion o f t he Mo l ise

s urvey , wh ich h as i nves t iga ted s o me 5 00 s quare k i lo me tres i n a l l ( paper 2 4 ) , mos t c lass ica l s urveys h ave b een d es igned e xp l ic it ly t o e xp lore t he k nown o r p red ic ted t err i tory o f a n u rban c en tre , mos t o f wh ich a re a t af ar l arger s ca le .

Moreover , i tc ou ld we l l b e a rgued t ha t t he s urvey d es ign b u i l t r ound

ak nown s i te migh t b e i n d anger o f c rea t ing a r t i f ic ia l d iv is ions i n t he a rcha eo log ica l r ecord , o vere mphas ising t he i mpact o f t he c en tra l p lace o n t he s e t t le men t p a t tern s i mp ly b ecause t he s urvey maps c over t he e xpec ted z ones o f s e t t le men t i n a reas e qu id is tan t f ro m t he a ncien t c i ty.

T he Mo l ise s urvey

i s a typ ica l i n t h is r espect i n t ha t i tt ook a n a tura l ly d ef ined a rea , ar iver b as in , where a d min is tra t ive o rgan isa t ion c hanged f undamen ta l ly a t d i fferen t t imes i n t he c lass ica l p er iod a nd where we h ad f ew p reconcep t ions a bou t s e t t le men t p a t terns .

1 1

The h is tory o f r ecen t a nd -c urren t s urvey p ro jec ts i n I ta ly d e mons tra tes ah ear ten ing d eve lop men t i n t he s oph is t ica t ion o f s amp l ing s tra teg ies , a l though t here i s v ery l i t t le r oo m f or c o mp lacency .

The Mol ise s urvey was t yp ica l i n

t ha t i tb egan i n 1 974 w i th j udge men t s amp l ing o f t he t rad i t iona l k ind , a l though o n a n i n tens ive b as is a nd s eek ing t ota l c overage . H owever , i tb eca me c lear d ur ing t he p ro jec t t ha t more r igorous t echn iques were n eeded t o e nsure s ys te ma t ic s a mp l ing o f a l l t he d if feren t e le men ts o f t he B i ferno l andscape ( ' unpro mis ing ' a s we l l a s ' pro m is ing ' a reas i n t erms o f b oth a ccess ibi li ty a nd s uspec ted r esu l ts ) a nd i n t he l a t ter y ears we a dop ted k i lo me tre-w ide g r id t ransec ts a cross t he v a l ley.

We were g u ided a t t he t heore t ica l l eve l b y

t he r eg iona l s amp l ing d es igns d iscussed i n C herry e t a l . ( 1978 ) a nd i n Mue l ler ( 1975 ) , a nd o n t he g round b y J ohn C herry.

H is r esu l ts d e mons tra ted c on-

v inc ing ly t ha t t he s urvey d a ta g a thered i n t he l a t ter y ears o f t he p ro ject b y a c lear ly d e f ined a nd s ys te ma t ic method s amp l ing c an b e man ipu la ted w i th f ar g rea ter p recis ion t han t he d a ta g a thered b y j udge men t s amp l ing i n s e lec ted p ar ts o f t he v a l ley e ar lier . The L ir i v a l ley s urvey l i kew ise b egan w i th s elec ted c overage o n t he b as is o f j udge men t s a mp l ing , a nd i n t ime d eve loped more s ys te ma t ic c overage o f t he t o ta l s urvey r eg ion .

I n h is r epor t o n t he Ager

Lw aens is s urvey , M i l ls ( paper 2 1) a lso d escr ibes h is s amp l ing d esign , p lanned t o make s ure h is s urvey i nves t iga ted a l l t he v ar ious a spec ts o f t h is d if f icu l t r eg ion , n o ma t ter h ow f orb idd ing t he t erra in i n t erms o f t opography , v ege tat i on o r l and u se ; a reas .

a nd h is mos t c r i t ica l r esu l ts c a me f ro m t he l eas t a ccess ib le

Av ery d if feren t b u t a s impress ive a s amp l ing s tra tegy h as b een

d eve loped b y A lber t Am merman t o i nves t iga te s ur face p reh is tor ic s i tes i n C a labr ia ( paper 2 7 ) . The c lass ica l s urveys o f r ecen t y ears a lso i l lus tra te i mpor tan t p roble ms i n s i te c lass i f ica t ion , wh ich a re d escr ibed i n s o me d e ta i l b y L loyd i n t h is v o lume ( paper 2 4 ).

I n s ou th E trur ia P ot ter d e f ined t hree c a tegor ies o f Ro man

s i te u s ing c r i ter ia o f s ize a nd wea l th ( Po t ter 1 979 , 1 22 ) . I n t he Ager C osanus D yson p roposed f our c a tegor ies , i n p ar t af unct ion o f s ize b u t p r incipa l ly d e f ined b y r e la t ive wea l th . I n Mo l ise , L loyd a lso d iv ides t he ma ter ia l i n to f our c a tegor ies a ccording t o s ize a nd wea l th .

H owever , h e a lso p o in ts o u t

h ow t hese d i f feren t s ys te ms i n f act c anno t b e c orre la ted s i mp ly , f or t he r e la t ionsh ip b etween s ize a nd wea lth v ar ies f rom a rea t o a rea , s o t ha t s o me o f t he mos t i mpos ing s i tes i n Mol ise ( i n t erms o f s ize a nd a r t i fact d ensi ty a nd r ange ) , wh ich wou ld b e c lassi f ied a s ma jor ' v i l la-type ' e s tabl ish men ts h ere wou ld b e r egarded a s f ar h u mbler f arms i n o ther s urveys where c o mp ara t ively l arge s i tes a re much r icher .

The s ame i s t rue o f t he L ir i v a l ley

s urvey , where t he ma jor s i tes a re c o mpara t ive ly p oor . I n t he d iscuss ion o f s urvey me thdo logy i n t ha t p aper ( 24 ) , o ne o f u s a lso emphas ises t he p rob le m o f s i te r ecogn i t ion , e ven f ro m y ear t o y ear , a ccord ing t o t he s ta te o f p lough ing a nd c rop .

B y a nd l arge t he s ou th E trur ia s urvey

t ook p lace s oon a f ter t he i n troduct ion o f t he d eep p lough t o t he a rea , a nd t h is was a lso t he c ase i n t he B i ferno v a l ley , s o t here n orma l ly s ee ms t o b e a r easonable r e la t ionsh ip b e tween u nder lying a nd s ur face r e ma ins .

A t t he

s a me t ime , h owever , we n o t iced i n t he B i ferno v a l ley t ha t t here was a marked p rocess o f a r t i fact d es truct ion a nd d ispersa l a t s o me c lass ica l s i tes e ven i n t he f ew p lough ing s easons o f o ur s urvey. S o t oo i n t he L ir i v a l ley , where t he s urvey i s t ak ing p lace s o me y ears a f ter t he d eve lop men t o f d eep p lough ing ,

1 2

' s i tes a re o f ten marked b y much l arger a nd v aguer s ca t ters o f l ow d ens i ty ' ( paper 2 3 ) c o mpared w i th o ther a reas .

A s ar esu l t , t h is p ro ject i s h av ing

t o d eve lop d i f feren t c r i ter ia f or s i te c lass i f ica t ion ' based o n a mix ture o f o vera l l s ize , d ensi ty , a nd t he p resence o r a bsence o f f iner t ypes o f p o t tery '. I n h is c onc luding r e marks t o t he S he f f ie ld s em inar , T im P o t ter c o m men ted t ha t t he t ime migh t b e r ipe f or a n a greed c lass if ica t ion o f c lass ica l s i tes b y t he d i f feren t s urvey p ro jects i n I ta ly. H owever , wh i ls t we a re s y mpa the t ic t o • t h is r eact ion t o t he v ar ious r a ther a d h oc s ys te ms o f c lass i f ica t ion worked o u t b y t he v ar ious f i e ld t eams , we b el ieve t ha t s uch c lass i f ica t ion wou ld b e p re ma ture a nd i l l a dv ised .

T he mos t s tr ik ing c on tr ibu t ion o f t he f i e ld s ur-

v eys d escr ibed i n t h is v o lu me i s p recise ly t he d ivers i ty o f r ura l s e t t le men t d iscovered i n R o man I t a ly.

An a greed c lass i f ica t ion a t t h is s tage c ou ld wel l

mask f undamen ta l d i f ferences i n s e t t le men t f orms wh ich a re o n ly j us t b eg inn ing t o emerge , a nd we c au ld e as i ly e nd u p f orcing n ew d a ta i n to i ncreas ing ly u ns u i table c a tegor ies , u sua l ly f ormed o n t he b as is o f h is tor ica l e xpecta t ions a bou t r ura l s e t t le men t . r us t ica ' , a nd s o o n .)

( 'Th is mus t b e al a t ifundum , t h is mus t b e av i l la

Our own f ee l ing i s t ha t we n eed a gree men t n ot s o much

o n when t o c a l l t h is s ca t ter a r ich v i l la o r t ha t s ca t ter a f arms tead , b u t r a ther o n t he me thodolog ies we a pp ly i n s i te d iscovery , d escr ip t ion a nd c lass i f ica t ion . A s we d iscuss f or Mol ise , t he o n-s i te s amp l ing c ou ld h ave b een i mproved , a nd t h is i s p robably t rue o f c lass ica l s urvey i n g enera l i n I ta ly.

S a mp l ing

e xper i men ts b y I an H odder o n p reh is tor ic a r t i fact s ca t ters i n C a labr ia h ave d e mons tra ted marked v ar ia t ions i n t he d a ta r ecovered o n as ing le s i te b y d i f feren t f i eld workers , work ing i n d i f feren t l i gh t c ond i t ions , a nd w i th d i f feren t g r id a nd t ransect l ayou ts .

I t migh t b e a rgued t ha t s uch s oph is t ica t ion n ecessary

f or a ' f ea ture less ' p reh istor ic a r ti fac t s ca t ter i s u nsu i tab le o n av i l la s i te w i th u ps tand ing r e ma ins , b u t e ven s o i ti s s t i l l t rue t ha t much more s ys te ma t ic measure men ts o f a r t i fact d ens it ies s i tes l oca ted b y f u ture s urveys .

a nd c on f igura t ions a re n eeded a t c lass ica l

T he r ecord ing t echn iques d eve loped e xper i-

men ta l ly b y J ohn B in tc li f f a nd An thony S nodgrass f or t he B oeo t ia S urvey i n G reece a re a g ood e xamp le f or I ta l ian s urveys t o s tudy.

Our o vera l l r esearch

d es igns a re i ncreas ing ly q uan t i ta t ive , b u t s im i lar q uan t if ica t ion h as s t i l l t o e x tend t o o ur s i te d escr ip t ions .

We n eed t o b e a ble t o c o mpare o n-s i te s am-

p l ing t echn iques b efore we c an e va lua te s i te c lassi f ica t ion , j us t a s we n eed t o u nders tand t he r esearch d es igns a nd s amp l ing s tra teg ies o f t he s urvey p ro jec ts b efore we c an r ea l ly e vau la te t he s i te d ens i t ies a nd s e t t le men t t rends o f t heir p ubl ica t ions . We h ope t ha t t he s urvey p apers i n t h is v o lume w i l l s erve t o emphas ise f or h is tor ians n o t o n ly t he marve l louspoten t ia l o f a rchaeo log ica l f i e ldwork f or t he r econs truct ion o f t he a ncien t l andscape , b u t a lso t he p ecu l iar q ua l i t ies o f a rchaeolog ica l s urvey d a ta .

I n t he d iscuss ion o f t he Mo l ise s urvey , we i l l-

u s tra te s o me a lar m ing e xa mp les o f s i tes a ppear ing i n o ne g u ise o ne y ear a nd r eappear ing i n at o ta l ly d i f feren t g uise ( i f a t a l l ) i n a no ther y ear u nder d if feren t s urvey , v ege ta t ion a nd s oi l c ond i t ions . We emphas ise t here t ha t s uch f actors , c o mbined w i th t he n ecessary v ar ia t ions i n r esearch d es ign a nd e xecu t ion o f t he d i fferen t s urveys , i nev i tably mean t ha t h is tor ians c annot u se a rchaeo log ica l s urvey d a ta a s ' rea l ' maps o f t he a ncien t wor ld .

I ti s i l lusory t o l ook f or

s i mp le c orre la t ions b e tween a rchaeo log ica l d a ta a nd h is tor ica l models o f v i l la s e t t lemen ts , s lave e s ta tes , o r wha tever . On t he o ther h and , a s we c onc luded

1 3

i n Mo l ise , ' we b e l ieve t ha t i n tens ive a nd s ys te ma t ic a rchaeo log ica l s urveys s hou ld L e a b le t o p rov ide t he c ruc ia l i n forma t ion a bou t s e t t le men t d ens i t ies a nd p a t terns i n ma jor c hrono log ica l p hases ' ( paper 2 4 ) . Archaeo log is ts s hou ld n o t s eek t radi t iona l h is tor ica l g oa ls —a lmos t i nv ar iab ly , o ur d a ta a re i nadequa te f or t hese .

On t he o ther h and , o ur d a ta

a re we l l s u i ted f or u s t o s hare i nt he a n thropolog ica l , s oc ia l a nd e cono m ic g oa ls o f many c on te mporary h is tor ians . F or o ne t h ing , o ur a r ti facts t e l l u s mos t ly o f t he l i ves o f o rd inary p eop le : f or e xamp le , ' t he i ssues r a ised b y t he d e ta i led s tudy o f t he ma ter ia l c u lture a nd l i feways o f sma l l h ouseholds a nd c o m mun i t ies i n t he R o man wor ld h ave h ard ly b een t ouched .

S ince mos t

o f o ur l i terary t ex ts l ook a t s ocie ty f ro m t he t op d own , i ti s i mpor tan t t o l ook a t i tl i tera l ly a nd f igura t ive ly f ro m t he g round ' ( Dyson 1 979 : 1 2 ) . Th is d oes n o t mean t ha t h is tor ica l a rchaeo logy c an o f fer o n ly t r iv ia l s ta te men ts t ha t a nc ien t p eop le l i ved i n h ouses , a te mea t a nd made p o t tery :

a s t he r ura l

s urveys h ave s hown ( and a s we h ope u rban s tud ies w i l l a lso s how ) , a rcha eo logy c an c on tr ibu te mass ive ly t o o ur u nders tand ing o f s e t t le men t t rends a nd l andscape h is tory , a t b o th t he l eve l o f r eg iona l d e ta i l a nd t he w ider p rocessua l p erspec t ive . F ina l ly , p erhaps t he mos t h ear ten ing f ea ture o f t he p apers p resen ted t o t he s em inar was t he u n i f ied a ccep tance t ha t n ew me thodolog ies a nd r esearch d es igns i n I ta l ian a rchaeo logy ( w ide ly d i f feren t i n t ime a nd s pace b u t r e markab ly l i nked i n g oa ls ) s erve a bove a l l t o b r ing n earer t o u s t he a nc ien t c o m mun i ty a s p eop le , r a ther t han a s t he makers o f a r ti facts f or u s t o t ypo log ise , o f r ubbish f or u s t o i den t i fy , a nd o f b u i ld ings f or u s t o p hase , t o o ur own c ont en ted i fo bscure e nds .

Wh i ls t we h ope t ha t t he p apers i n t h is v o lume w i l l

b e o ver taken s wi f t ly i n t he 1 980s b y n ew work i n e ach o f t he t hree l eve ls o f i nves t iga t ion we h ave d ef ined , we c an a t l eas t s ay t ha t t hese p apers r epresen t a n a t te mp t t o d e f ine a nd t ack le i n ap os i t ive way t he k ind o f f unda men ta l q ues t ions a bou t a nc ien t I ta l ian s oc ie ty t ha t t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord s o e loq uen t ly d e mands . REFERENCES Am merman , A . J ., 1 979.

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I n J . W. Muel ler ( ed.) , S a mpling i n Archaeo logy:

Tucson , Un iversi ty o f Ar izona Press .

Muel ler , J . W. ( ed.) , 1 975.

S a mp ling i n Archaeology.

o f Ar i2ona P ress.

1 5

Tucson , Un iversi ty

P eacock , D . P. S ., 1 980. s kotch .

The R o man mi l ls tone t rade :

ap e trolog ica l

Wor ld Archaeo logy 1 2 ( 1 ) : 4 3-53 .

P ee t , T . E ., 1 909.

T he S tone a nd Bronze Ages o f I t a ly.

Ox ford , Un ivers i ty

P ress . P ot ter , T . W., 1 979.

The C hang ing Landscape o f S ou th E trur ia .

L ondon ,

Pau l E lek . R ed man , C ., 1 975 .

P roduct ive s amp l ing s tra teg ies f or a rchaeolog ica l s i tes .

I n J . W. Muel ler ( ed .) , S amp ling i n Archaeology: 1 47-154.

Tucson ,

Un iversi ty o f Arizona Press . Red man , C ., 1 979.

D escr ip t ion a nd i n ference w ith t he l a te med ieva l p ot tery

f ro m Qsar e s-Segh ir , Morocco .

Medieva l C eramics 3 : 6 3-79.

R ed man , C ., Anza lone , R . D .,and R uber tone , P a rchaeo logy a t Qsar e s-Segh ir , Morocco.

E ., 1 979.

Med ieva l

J ourna l o f F ield Archaeo logy

6( 1 ): 1 -16. Ren frew , C ., 1 975 .

Trade a s a c tion a t ad is tance. I n J . A . S ablof f a nd

C . C . Lamberg-Kar lovsky ( eds .) , Anc ien t C iv i l isa t ion a nd Trade : 1 -59 . A lbuquerque , U n ivers i ty o f N ew Mex ico P ress . R idgway , D . a nd R idgway , F ., 1 979 .

I ta ly Be fore t he Ro mans .

L ondon ,

Me thod a nd Theory i n H is tor ica l Archaeology.

L ondon ,

A cade m ic P ress . S ou th , S ., 1 977.

Acade m ic P ress. Wade , K ., 1 978 . S axon t own .

S amp l ing a t I psw ich :

t he o r ig ins a nd g row th o f t he Ang lo-

I n J . F . Cherry , C . G amble , a nd S . S hennan ( eds .) ,

Spnp l ing i n Gon te mporary Br i t ish Archaeo logy:

2 79-284.

Ox ford ,

Br i t ish Archaeo log ica l R epor ts , Br i t ish S er ies 5 0 . Ward-Perk ins , J . B ., Kahane , A ., a nd Murray-Thre ip land , L ., 1 968 . The Ager Ve ien tanus n or th a nd e as t o f l ic imeT Papers o f V i e Br i t ish S choo l a t R o me 3 6: 1 -218 . • Wh itehouse , R ., 1 980 . Rev iew o f R idgway . An t iqu ity 5 4 : 1 59-160 .

1 6

I ta ly B efore t he Ro mans .

LEVEL ONE

ARTIFACT ANALYS IS :

SOCIAL AND ECONO M IC RECONSTRUCTION

1 7

2 .

S TYLE , MORPHOLOGY AND FUNCTION I N THE

TYPOLOG ICAL S TUDY OF S TONE ARTIFACTS :

S O ME EXA MPLES

FRO M LATE PALAEOL ITH IC AND MESOL ITH IC S ITES I N I TALY Am i lcare B ie t t i

T he ma in a rea o f i nves t iga t ion i n E uropean p a laeol i th ic a rchaeo logy h as t rad i t iona l ly b een t he t ypo log ica l s tudy o f t he a r t i facts , p ar t icu lar ly t he s tone t oo ls . Ap r incipa l r eason f or t h is i n teres t , o f c ourse , h as b een t he f act t ha t s tone t ools a re a lways p reserved i n t he p reh is tor ic d epos i ts , t hus f avour ing t he p oss ib i l i ty o f q uan t i ta t ive a nd s ta t is t ica l a na lyses ( Sonnev i l le-Bordes , 1 974-75 : 1 3 ).

T he u se o f t ype l i s ts , a long w i th t he c are fu l s tra t igraph ic

a na lys is o f t he s i tes a nd t he c on t inued improve men ts i n e xcava t ion t echn iques , h as p rov ided u s i n r ecen t y ears w i th a s er ies o f i mpor tan t r esu l ts , ma in ly c oncern ing t he c hrono log ica l p os i t ion o f t he v ar ious i ndus tr ia l a sse mblages . T h- B ordeaux s choo l h as made a p ar t icu lar ly i mpor tan t c on tr ibu t ion t o t h is a spec t o f p a laeo l i th ic a rchaeolog y i n E urope :

t he t ype l i s ts f or t he L ower

a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic c o mp i led b y B ordes ( 1961) a nd f or t he U pper P a laeol i th ic b y S onnev i l le-Bordes a nd P erro t ( 1954-56) , w i th t he ir s ubsequen t mod if i ca t ions , i n tegra ted w i th c o mp le men tary s tudies o f s tra t igraph ies , s ed i men ts , f auna l a nd p a laeobo tan ica l s amp les , h ave n ow p rov ided u s w i th e xcel len t c hronos tra t igraph ic r esu l ts f or p a laeo l i th ic i ndus tr ies i n wes tern Europe i n g enera l a nd s ou thwes t France i n p ar t icu lar .

A mas ter ly e xamp le o f t h is k ind

o f s pace/ t i me a na lys is i s B ordes ' a ssess men t o f t he P er igord ian ( Bordes , 1 968 ) . H owever , Ib e l ieve t ha t i ti s n ow p oss ible t o g o b eyond t he s i mp le c hronos tra t igraph ic a ssess men ts o f t he d a ta :

we s hou ld t ry t o o b ta in a b e t ter u nder-

s tand ing o f p a laeo l i th ic i ndus tr ies i n Europe n o t s i mp ly a s s pace a nd t ime u n i ts b u t a lso f ro m ab ehav ioura l p oin t o f v iew. O ur g oa ls s hou ld i nclude b oth t he s ynchron ic r econs truct ion o f t he v ar ious a c t iv i t ies o f ac u l ture g roup a nd t he d iachron ic a na lys is o f c u l tura t p rocesses :

i n s hor t , we mus t a dop t ap a laeo-

e thno log ica l p erspec t ive . T ypo logy , a nd t he c oncep t o f t ype i t se l f , s hou ld t here fore b e c ons idered n o t o n ly a s at oo l f or s i mp le c hronos tra t igraph ic r econs truc t ions b u t a s al eg i t i ma te s c ien ti f ic t echn ique i n Kuhn 's s ense ( Kuhn 1 962 , 1 970 ) f or t he i nves t iga t ion o f p a laeo l i th ic s ocie ty w i th in t he p a laeoe thnol og ica l p arad igm .

Ap r incipa l t ask o f t he p a laeol i th ic a rchaeolog is t mus t b e

t o s tudy t he p a t tern ing o f t he d a ta i n t erms o f h uman b ehav ioura l s ys te ms , s ys te ms t ha t were e s tabl ished b y t he s hared t rad i t ions a nd r u les o f t he d i f feren t s oc ie t ies i n t heir i n terac t ion w i th t he n a tura l e nv ironmen t . The s econd ma jor t ask i s t he d iachron ic s tudy o f c u l tura l p rocesses — the v ar ia t ion a nd e vo lu t ion o f c u l tura l c o mp lexes a nd t he d yna m ics o f c u l tura l c hange —wi th a v iew t o d ef in ing a nd u nders tanding i n ter-reg iona l r egu lar i t ies a nd d i f ferences i n t he d eve lop men t o f p a laeo l i th ic s ocie t ies .

1 9

U n o r tuna te ly t hese b ehav ioura l g oa ls h ave s t i l l t o b e a dop ted b y many p a laeo l ith ic a rchaeo log is ts work ing i n E urope i n g enera l a nd i n I t a ly i n p art i cu lar .

T here i s n o ' shared e xe mp lar ' ( Kuhn , 1 970 ).

Thus many B r i t ish

a nd Amer ican a rchaeo log is ts i n Europe , h av ing a t heore t ica l b ackground wh ich i nc ludes t ra in ing i n c u l tura l e co log y , e thnoarchaeo logy a nd s o o n , a re work ing w i th in wha t i s more o r l ess a u n i f ied s oc io-cu l tura l p arad igm , whereas o ther p reh is tor ians s t i l l s ee m t o b e r es tr icted a l mos t e n t ire ly t o t he t rad i t iona l p roble ms o f s pace/ t i me c lassi f ica t ion . C er ta in ly i n I t a ly p a laeo l i th ic a rcha eo logy i s s t i l l d om ina ted b y t hese p roble ms , a l though t here a re a f ew e xcept i ons s uch a s t he c u l tura l a nd e co log ica l models c ons tructed b y Tasch in i f or t he Meso l i thic ( Tasch in i , 1 968 , 1 976 ).

T he d om inance o f t he c hronos tra t i-

g raph ic p erspec t ive amongs t I ta l ian p reh is tor ians work ing o n t he P a laeo l i th ic a nd Meso l i th ic i n r ecen t y ears c an mos t ly b e a scr ibed t o t he w idespread ( and , i n my o p in ion , r a ther u ncr i t ica l ) a ccep tance o f t he t ypo log ica l me thod o f L aplace ( 1964 , 1 966 ) , f or t h is a ssumed t ha t t ypo log ica l c hanges i n s tone t oo ls were e n t ire ly d ue t o ap rocess o f i n terna l s tyl is t ic e vo lu t ion t ha t was r egarded a s more o r l ess i ndependen t o f t he r es t o f t he c u l tura l s ys te m a nd t he a dap tat i ons o f t he l a t ter t o t he n a tura l e nv ironmen t . An e x tended c r i t ic is m o f L ap lace 's i deas a nd o f t he ir a pp l ica t ion t o t he U pper P a laeo l i th ic o f I t a ly h as b een p ub l ished e lsewhere ( B ie t t i , 1 978a ) . The s tr ic t c hronostrat igraph ic p erspec t ive o f L ap lace i s s t i l l s hared b y mos t I ta l ian r esearchers i n t h is f i e ld ( Bar tolo me i e t a l ., 1 979 ) , r esu l t ing i n a c losed l oop :

t ypology-chrono logytypo logy .

A s ar esu l t we h ave t o d ea l w i th

s evera l t ime/space c lass i f ica t ions s uch a s t he ' Grave t t ian ' o r t he ' Ep igrave tt ian ' t ha t c an o n ly b e u t i l ised , i n my o p in ion , i n as tr ic t c hrono log ica l s ense , f or t hey l ack a ny p roper ly d e f ined c orre la t ions w i th c u l tura l , s oc ia l o r e conomic b ehav iour b y t he s oc iet ies c oncerned . s i tua t ion i sf or tuna te ly d i f feren t :

I n o ther European c oun tr ies t he

French p reh is tor ians , f or e xamp le , who

t rad i t iona l ly h ave b een s uppor ters o f t he c hronos tra t igraph ic a pproach , a re n ow a t t he s ame t ime we l l a ware o f t he p a laeoe thno log ica l g oa ls o f modern r esearch a nd o f t he c u l tura l v a lue o f t ypo log ica l i nves t iga tions , e ven i ft hey s t i l l h ave s o me d oub ts a bou t t he p oss ibi l i t ies o f f u l ly r ecogn is ing p a laeo l i th ic s oc io-cu l tura l g roups ( Bordes e t a l ., 1 972 ). The d e f in i t ion o f t ype a s g iven b y t he B ordeaux s choo l i s ag ood s tar t ing p oin t f or p a laeoe thno log ica l r esearch :

t he t ype i s d ef ined a s t he r esu l t o f a

h u man ' pro jec t ' a lready d es igned a nd p ref igured i n t he maker 's mind ( Bordes , 1 967) .

The c u l tura l v a lue o f s uch a d ef in i t ion o f t ype i s e v iden t , a nd i ts ee ms

t o me t ha t s tar t ing w i th t h is t heore t ica l b as is , t he a ssumpt ion t ha t at ypo log y w i l l n ecessar i ly b e a morpho log ica l a nd s tyl is t ic o ne ( Bordes e t a l ., 1 972 ) i s n ega t ive a nd s o mewha t r educt ive .

T he a ssump t ion was p robab ly made t o

d is t ingu ish t he ' pro jec ted ' t oo ls f ro m t he s o c a l led a p os ter ior i t oo ls t ha t b ear t races o f o ccas iona l u t i l isa t ion wh i ls t t he p r imary a im o f t he t ool was p robably d i fferen t , s uch a s t he P er igor idan e nd-scrapers s how ing t races o f u t i l isa t ion o n t he h eel ( Bordes , 1 970 : 2 01).

T he l a t ter c lass o f t ools , i t was

a rgued , s hou ld t hen b e t he b as is o f af unct iona l t ypo log y , more s u i ted t o b ehav ioura l i n terpre ta t ions o f i ndus tr ia l c o mp lexes ( Bordes e t a l ., 1 972 : 2 4 ) . I n my o p in ion we s hou ld t ry t o a vo id s uch a s harp d is t inc t ion b e tween f unc t iona l a nd morpho log ica l/s tyl is t ic t ypo log y:

t he h ierarch ic c lass i f ica t ions i n t radi-

t i ona l p a laeol i th ic t ype l i s ts c lear ly s ee m t o b e ac o mb ina t ion o f f unc t iona l

2 0

c haracter is t ics ( such a s s crapers a nd b ur ins ) a nd morpho log ica l o nes ( such a s b aoked o r g eo me tr ic t oo ls ). Ac orrect p a laeoe thno log ica l u se o f t ypo logy s hou ld , i n t he e nd , s ucceed i n ar ea l d is t inc t ion b e tween t he f unc t ion o f at oo l a nd i t s morpho log ica l a nd s tyl is t ic c haracter is t ics .

T o t h is e nd Ir e fer t o t he c oncep t o f f unct ion i n i t s

c u l tura l s ign i f icance f o l low ing Ma linowsk i ( 1 931) , f or e xamp le , a nd n o t t o t he o ccas iona l ap os ter ior i u t i l isa t ion t races , wh ich a re n ever the less v ery i n tere s t ing i n t he b ehav ioura l p erspec t ive . An otable e xamp le o f ad is tinct ion b e tween f unc t ion ( i n t he f or mer c u l tura l s ense ) a nd s tyle a re , i n my o p in ion , t he t anged P a laeol i th ic .

c ran ) p o in ts o f t he U pper

T here i s l i t t le d oubt t ha t t he f unc t ion o f t hese t oo ls was e ssen-

t ia l ly t he s ame ( pro jec t i le p o in ts ) i n t he u pper S o lu trean o r t he u pper Magda len ian o f s ou thwes t France , where t hey a re c ons idered e ssen t ia l ly a s s pearheads ( Rozoy , 1 978 ) , a nd i n t he E p igravet t ian o f s ou theas t I ta ly , where t hey c an p robably b e r egarded a s a rrowheads d ue t o t he ir sma l l d i mens ions ( B ie t t i , 1 978b , 1 979 ) .

A t t he s ame t ime , h owever , t he a c ran p o in ts o f t he u pper

S o lu trean s how t yp ica l s tyl is t ic d is t inct ions ( such a s t he f la t i nvad ing r etouch ) o ver a nd a bove t he f unc t iona l s im i lar i t ies w i th t he I ta l ian s pec i mens . Th is may b e r a ther a n e xcep t iona l e xamp le , b u t Is t i l l t h ink t ha t ap oss ib le d ist inc t ion b e tween f unc t ion a nd s ty le o f t he t oo ls , a nd t here fore t he e s tab l ish men t o f at ypo log y a s al eg i t ima te s c ien ti f ic a pproach t o ac u l tura l u nders tand ing o f p a laeo l i th ic s oc iet ies , may b e o bta ined b y c orre la t ion a na lys is b e tween t oo l t ypes a nd o ther e n t i t ies s uch a s f auna l r e ma ins , s e t t le men t f or ms a nd s o o n . Ih ave s e lec ted o ne e xamp le f ro m my c urren t r esearch t o i l lus tra te t he k ind o f a pproach Iam a dvoca t ing f or p a laeo l i th ic s tudies i n I ta ly.

Th is c on-

s is ts o f t he r esu l ts o f a n R - mode c luster a na lys is o f I t a l ian meso l i th ic a sse mb lages ( B ie t t i , 1 978b ) , wh ich a re s um mar ised i n F igures 2 .1 a nd 2 .2. F igure 2 .1 s hows a d endrogra m , o bta ined b y means o f t he l i near c orre la t ion c oe f f icien t , o f as er ies o f s i tes o n t he I ta l ian c oas t . A t a l l o f t hese s i tes e xcep t o ne we k now f ro m f auna l a nd mol luscan d a ta t ha t a mixed e cono my was p ract ised , c o mbin ing t he h un t ing o f l arge a nd med ium s ized g ame w i th t he g a ther ing o f t erres tr ia l a nd mar ine s he l l f ish .

The e xcep t ion i s t he

R iparo B lanc r ock s he l ter o n Mon te C irceo ( on t he T yrrhen ian c oas t s ou th o f R o me ) where s ubs is tence s ee ms t o h ave b een d omina ted more o r l ess c o mp le te ly b y t he c o l lec t ion o f r ock mar ine mol luscs ( Tasch in i , 1 968 ) . A par t f ro m s o me n ega t ive c lus ters b e tween p oor ly r epresen ted i t e ms , s uch a s micro ma m ma ls , b irds a nd l andsna i ls ( 1 6 , 1 7 , 1 9 ) , o r d oub le b acked micro l i ths a nd e squ i l l6 t ools ( 1 1, 1 3 ) , a n

i n teres t ing f ea ture o f t he d endro-

g ra m i s t he c orre la t ion b e tween b orers , n o tched a nd d en t icu la ted t oo ls a nd t he r ock mar ine mo l luscs Trochus a nd P a te l la ( 2 , 8 , 2 1).

The l arge q uan t i ty

o f n o tched a nd d en t icu la ted t oo ls t ha t h ave b een f ound a t many I ta l ian c oas ta l s i tes f ro m t he e nd o f Dryas I I d own t o t he B orea l s ee ms t hus t o r ef lec t a f unc t ion , t he a c t iv i ty o f p r is ing t he mol luscs o f f t he r ocks . Th is i s p ar t icul ar ly e v iden t a t R iparo B lanc , where t he n o tched a nd d en t icu la ted t ools o n sma l l f lakes r epresen t a bou t 5 2% o f t he t o ta l a sse mblage , a nd a re a ssocia ted w i th a n e nor mous q uan t i ty o f Trochus a nd P a te l la :

t h is s hel ter may b e c on-

s idered a s as i te o f s pecia l ised g a ther ing a c t iv i ty ( B ie t t i , 1 978b ).

Qu i te

p robab ly , a lso , t he r a ther l arge p ercen tage o f b orers ( 1 6% ) , e ssen t ia l ly

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a typ ica l b orers o r b ees o n sma l l f lakes , h as t o b e c onnected w i th t he f unc t ion o f p er fo .‚a t ing t he s he l ls o f T rochus — mos t o f t hese a re p er fora ted o n t he t op. T h is i n terpre ta t ion o f t he s i te , i t mus t b e s a id , i s d ras t ica l ly d i fferen t f ro m t he c hrenos tra t igraph ic i n terpre ta t ions n orma l i n I t a l ian p a laeo l i thic s tud ies : a ccord ing t o B rog l io ( 1971: 2 15 ) , f or e xamp le , t he p resence o f ad oub le b acked p oin t a nd af ew o ther b acked a nd t runca ted t oo ls ( abou t 2 .2% o f t he t ota l a sse mblage ) i s e nough t o i den t i fy a ' weak S auve terro id c o mponen t ' h ere . C o mpared w i th t he c oas ta l s i tes , i ti s d i f f icu l t t o s ee a f unct iona l c orrel a t iön f or t he n o tched a nd d en t icu la ted t oo ls i n t he i n land s i tes . I n F igure 2 .2 we c an s ee t ha t t hese t oo ls a re c orre la ted o n ly w i th o ther i ndus tr ia l t ypes ( t runca ted t oo ls , b orers , b ur ins , r e touched b lades ) r a ther t han w i th s ubs ist ence b ehav iour .

O n t he o ther h and t here i s a n i n teres t ing c orre la t ion b e tween

e nd-scrapers a nd l arge mam ma ls ( 1 , 1 5 ) , a nd a lways n ega t ive c lus ters s uch a s t he o ne b e tween e squ i l lé t oo ls a nd l andsna i ls ( 1 3 , 1 9 ). T he c orre la t ion b e tween d oub le b acked micro l i ths a nd f reshwa ter mo l luscs ( 1 1 , 2 0 ) i s e ssent ia l ly d ue t o t he s i tes o f t he A d ige v a l ley i n t he n or th , s uch a s R o magnano I I ( Brog l io , 1 971).

F ro m a t echn ica l p o in t o f v iew , t he o bv ious c lus ter i n

F igure 2 .2 b e tween g eo me tr ic t oo ls a nd microbur ins ( 10 , 1 4 ) i n t he i n land s i tes c orresponds t o a more e x tended c lus ter w i th t he t runca ted t oo ls ( 5 ) a s we l l i n t he c oas ta l s i tes i n F igure 2 .1.

T h is r a ises a n i n teres t ing p roble m

a bou t l i th ic t echnology — the p oss ibi l i ty o f o bta in ing t runca ted b lade le ts b y t he microbur in t echn ique , mos t ly f or t he R o mane l l ian c o mp lexes i n s ou theas t I ta ly , where t he g eome tr ic t oo ls a re r a ther s carce c o mpared w i th t he microb ur in . These f ew e xamp les , e ssen t ia l ly q ua l i ta t ive o r s em i-quan t i ta t ive b ecause o f t he l im i ted n umber o f s i tes a nd t he s t i l l f ragmen tary d a ta a bou t t he ir s ubs is tence a nd p a laeoenv ironmen ts , a re p resen ted h ere t o i l lus tra te i n g enera l t he r ich p oss ibi l i t ies o f modern a r ti fact

s tud ies f or b ehav ioura l a rchaeo logy

i n I ta ly , a nd i n p ar t icu lar t he p oss ib le d irect ions o f t ypo log ica l i nvest iga t ion s ugges ted b y t he c orre la t ions d escr ibed h ere b e tween t ool t ypes a nd s ubs is tence b ehav iour .

T he s ame s or t o f c orre la t ions b e tween t echno logy a nd s ubs istence

h ave b een d iscussed b y Barker ( 1 975 ) i n t he c ase o f l a te p a laeo l i th ic a nd mesol i th ic s e t t le men t i n c en tra l I t a ly.

T he e xa mp les Ih ave g iven i n t h is p aper a re

t he r esu l t o f ac lus ter a na lys is p rogram me ( B ie t t i e t a l ., 1 978 ).

More s ophis-

t i ca ted t echn iques s uch a s p r incipa l c o mponen t a na lys is o r f actor a na lysis a re l i ke ly t o g ive u s a more p recise u nders tand ing o f s o c a l led ' d iagnos t ic ' t ools a nd ' t ype f oss i ls ' , t o p rov ide u s w i th b e t ter d iscr im ina t ion b e tween f unc tion a nd s tyle i n t he t oo ls .

Factor a na lys is h as a lready b een u sed f or Mous ter ian

c o mp lexes i n t he c orre la t ions o f t he t oo ls i n t he t ype l i s t ( Bin ford a nd B in ford , 1 966 ) , t o d etect s pecia l ised a c t iv i t ies , b u t w i thou t r eference t o e co log ica l a nd s ubs is tence p arame ters . F ina l ly , i t mus t b e s a id t ha t modern e xcava t ion t echn iques c ou ld e nable u s t o d eve lop more e f fec t ive me thods o f c orre la t ion a na lys is b e tween t he t oo ls a nd s ubs is tence b ehav iour , i f we c an r ecogn ise s pa t ia l c lus ter ing a nd t hus s pec ia l ised a reas o f a ct iv ity w ith in e ach s i te . I n t h is r espect , a par t f ro m t he q uan t i ta t ive methods o f a na lys is a dvoca ted r ecen t ly b y Wha l lon ( 1973 , 1 974 ) , p rac t ica l e xamp les o f t he k ind o f work we s hou ld a im t o d eve lop f or f u ture p a laeo l i th ic e xcava t ions i n I ta ly i nc lude t he s tudy o f Magda len ian d we l l ing

2 4

s tru c t ures a t P inceven t ( Leroi-Gourhan a nd Brezi l lon , 1 966) a nd a t E to i l les ( Tab ( r in e t a l ., 1 979 ) i n t he Par is r eg ion , a nd o f d if feren t a ct iv i ty a reas i n t he u pper P er igor idan s i te o f F lageo let Ii n t he Dordogne ( Rigaud , 1 976). RE FERENCES Barker ,

G . W. W., 1 975 .

I ta ly.

Preh is tor ic t err i tor ies a nd e cono mies i n c en tra l

I n E . S . H iggs ( ed .) , Pa laeoecono my: 1 11-175.

Ca mbr idge ,

Un ivers i ty Press. B. a r to lo mei , G ., Brog l io , A . ,a nd Pa l ma d i C esno la , A ., 1 979. s tra t igraph ie e t e colog ie d e l 'Epigrave t t ien e n I ta l ie . n a t iona l CNRS n .271:

Chrono-

Col loque I n ter-

La F in d es Te mps G lac ia ires e n Europe : 2 97-324.

Bordeaux , CNRS . B iet t i , A ., 1 978a .

A lcune c ons iderazion i s u l la t ipo log ia e s u l le l i s te t ipo lo-

g iche p ar i l Pa laeo l i t ico s uper iore i n I ta l ia . B iet t i , A ., 1 978b.

Qua ternar ia 2 0 : 1 -27.

The meso l i th ic c u l tures i n I ta ly:

n ew a ct iv i t ies i n

c onnect ion w i th u pper p a laeo li th ie c u l tura l t radi t ions .

Proceedings o f

t he I I n terna t iona l S y mpos iu m ' Mesol ith iku m i n Europa '.

Po tsda m ( i n

p ress ). B iet t i , A ., 1 979.

Le g ise men t p a leol i th ique s uper ieur d e Taur isano ( Lecce ,

I ta l ie ) e t s a p os it ion c hronolog ique e t c u l turel le d ans l 'Ep igravet tien i ta l ien .

C ol loque I n terna t iona l CNRS n .271:

e n Europe : 3 38-344.

La F in d es Te mps G lacia ires

Bordeaux , CNRS .

B iet t i , A ., Ra mba ld i , A . ya nd Zanel lo , L ., 1 978 .

DENDR - u n p rogra m ma

FORTRAN d i ' c lus ter a na lys is ' p er a ppl icazion i a rcheolog iche , p a letnol og iche e t p a leoecolog iche .

Qua ternar ia 2 0 : 4 9-85 .

B in ford , L . R . a nd B in ford , S . R ., 1 966.

A p rel im inary a na lys is o f f unc-

t iona l v ar iabil i ty i n t he Mous ter ian o f Leva l lois f acies .

Amer ican

An thropolog ist 6 8 , 2 : 2 38-295 . B ordes , F ., 1 961.

T ypolog ie d u Pa leol i th ique Ancien e t Moyen .

B ordeaux ,

De l mas. B ordes , F ., 1 967. Pa leoli th ique . B ordes , F ., 1 968 .

C onsidera t ions s ur l a t ypolog ie e t l es t echn iques d ans l e Quar tar 1 8: 2 5-55 . La q ues t ion P er igordienne .

e t Tendences : 5 9-70. B ordes , F ., 1 970.

La Preh is to ire ,

P roblt 2 mes

Par is , CNRS.

Ref lex ions s ur l ' ou t i l a u Pa f to l ith ique .

Bu l le t in c l e l a

S ociete Preh is tor ique Franca ise 6 7: 1 99-202. B ordes , F ., R igaud , J . Ph .,and S onnevi l le-Bordes , D . d e , 1 972. p robl Nnes e t l im ites d e l 'archeolog ie p reh is tor ique.

Des b u ts ,

Qua ternar ia 1 6:

1 5-34. Brog l io , A ., 1 971.

R isu l ta t i p re l i minar i d el le r icherche s u i c o mplessi

e pipa leol i tici d e l la v a l le d e l l ' Adige. Kuhn , T . S ., 1 962.

Preis tor ia A lp ina 7 : 1 35-241.

The S tructure o f S cien t i f ic Re -.-d u t ions.

Un ivers i ty Press.

2 5

C hicago ,

Kuhn ,

. . S ., 1 970.

e n l i . .rged ,

T he S tructure o f S cien ti f ic R evolu t ions.

S econd e di t ion ,

' I n terna t iona l Encycloped ia o f Un i f ied S ciences.'

C h icago .

U n ivers i ty P ress. Lap lace , G ., 1 964.

E ssa i d e T ypolog ie S yst ma t ique .

F errara , Anna l i

Un iversi tä , d i F errara , S ezione XV , s uppl . I X . Laplace , G ., 1 966. L ep tol i th iques .

Recherches s ur l 'Or ig ine e t l 'Evolu t ion d es C o mp lexes Par is , B occard .

L eröi-Gourhan , A . a nd B rf t i l lon , M ., 1 966.

L 'habi ta t ion magda lbn ienne

n .1 d e P inceven t , p res Mon tereau ( Seine e t Marne ) .

G a l l ia Pr ais to ire

6 : 2 64-385. Ma l inowsk i , B ., 1 931. 6 21-645.

C u lture .

Encyc loped ia o f t he S ocia l S ciences 4 :

N ew York , Mac mi l lan .

R igaud , J . P h ., 1 976.

L es s tructures d 'habi ta t d 'un n iveau d e 1 2g r igord ien

s up r ieur d u F lageole t I( Bf tenac , Dordogne ). I n terna t iona l C ongress U .I.S.P. P . R ozoy , J . G ., 1 978 .

Proceedings o f t he I X

N ice , U .I.S. P .P . ( i n p ress ) .

L e c hange men t d ans l a c on tinu i t.

l 'Ep ipaMo l i thique d ans l 'Europe d e l 'Oues t .

Proceed ings o f t he I

I n terna t iona l S y mposiu m ' Mesol i th ikum i n Europa '. S onnev i l le-Bordes , D . d e ,1974-75 . m6thode.

L es d ebu ts d e

L es l i s testypes .

P otsda m ( i n p ress ). O bserva t ions d e

Qua ternar ia 1 8 : 9 -43 .

S onnev i l le-Bordes , D . d e , a nd P erro t , J ., 1 954-56. d u P aMo li th ique s u iAr ieur .

L ex ique t ypolog ique

Bu l let in d e l a S ocig t6 P ra istor ique F ranca ise

5 1: 3 27-335 , 5 2 : 7 6-79 , 5 3: 4 08-412 , 5 47-559. Tabor in , Y ., O l ive , M .,and P igeo t , N ., 1 979.

L es h abita ts p a Mo li th iques

d es b ords d e l a S eine : E toi l les ( Essonne , F rance ). C ol loque I n terna t iona l CNRS n .271: La F in d es T e mps G lacia ires e n Europe : 7 73-782. B ordeaux , CNRS. Tasch in i , M., 1 968 .

La d a ta t ion a u C 14 d e l ' abr i B lanc ( Mon t C irc ).

Que lques o bserva t ions s ur l e W sol i th ique e n I ta l ie.

Qua ternar ia 1 0 :

1 37-165. Taschin i , M ., 1 976.

C onsidera t ions s ur l e W sol i th ique e n I ta l ie s ur l a

b ase d es d onnbes r ecen tes . U .I.S .P .P .

Proceed ings o f t he I X I n terna t iona l C ongress

N ice , U .I.S. P .P . ( i n p ress ).

Wha llon , R ., 1 973.

S pa t ia l a na lys is o f o ccupa t ion f l oors I :

o f d i mens iona l a na lys is o f v ar iance . Wha l lon , E ., 1 974 .

Amer ican An t iqu i ty 3 8 : 2 66-278 .

S pa t ia l a na lys is o f o ccupa t ion f l oors I :

o f n earest n e ighbour a na lysis .

t he a pp lica t ion

t he a pp l icat ion

Amer ican A n t iqu ity 3 9 : 1 6-34 .

2 6

3 .

PATTERNS OF NORTH I TAL IAN TRADE 5 000-2000 b .c . L . H . Bar f ie ld

I n troduction R ecen t r esearch i n to t he n eo li th ic a nd c ha lco li th ic p er iods i n n or thern I ta ly h as g rea t ly i ncreased o ur k nowledge o f t he c hrono log ica l a nd c u l tura l f ra mework o f t he r eg ion ( surveyed i n Bago l in i a nd B iag i , 1 977; 1 977 , 1 978 ).

Bar f ield ,

A t t he s a me t ime e v idence i s n ow a va i lable t o a t te mp t ar ev iew

o f t hose p a t terns o f t rade wh ich s urv ive a nd a re r ecogn isable i n t he a rchaeolog ica l r ecord .

Trade i s h ere u sed l oosely t o d escr ibe t he t ransference o f

g oods f ro m s ource t o a n u l t i ma te d es t ina t ion . t h is p rocess a re a t p resen t

The mechan is ms o pera ting i n

d i f f icu lt t o i den t ify i n n or thern I ta ly , g iven t he

s o mewha t s parse n a ture o f t he e v idence , a l though i ti s p oss ible t o s uggest t ha t ad ist inc t ion c an b e made b etween a ma in ly e cono m ic ' downthe-line ' t rade , s howing a f a l l o f f i n q uan t i ty f ro m s ource i n s uch ma ter ia ls a s o bsid ian , a nd a w ider r ang ing c ere mon ia l g i f t e xchange i n S pondylus a nd j ade , s howing l i t t le e v idence o f e xponen t ia l d ecre men t .

The d is tr ibu t ion o f f l in t i n n or th

I t a ly may h ave b een l argely b y d irect a ccess t o t he s ources. Wi th in t he ma ter ia l c u l tura l d eve lop men t we c an r ecogn ise t ha t i n t he e ar l ier p hases o f t he N eo l ith ic t here i s as trong p ersis tence o f l oca l n or th I ta l ian t radi t ion .

The e ar ly Neol i th ic ( Impressed Ware , F iorano , V hö

F agn igo la , Gaban c u ltura l g roups ) r evea ls a s urv iva l o f l oca l meso l ith ic t echno logy a nd e cono my .

T he s ucceed ing S quare Mouthed Po t tery Cu lture

( a bbrev ia ted i n I ta l ian a s VBQ ) , l i kewise , c an b e s een a s al arge ly i ndigenous p heno menon e volv ing t hrough t hree p r incipa l p hases , e ar ly ( Qu inzano-Fina le ) , midd le ( R ivol i-Ch iozza ) a nd l a te ( R ivo l i-Cas te lnovo ) , i n t he c en tra l a nd e astern P o v a l ley.

T he t rans i t ion t o Lagozza wou ld a ppear t o mark a b reak i n t he

c on t inu i ty, wh i le t he c ha lcol i th ic t rad i tions i ncorpora te many e x tra-reg iona l e le men ts i n t he ir make u p . Trade a nd e xchange p a t terns c an b e d iv ided r ough ly g eograph ica l ly i n to ( 1 ) Medi terranean a nd p en insu lar t rade ;

( 2 ) a lp ine t rade ;

d is tr ibu t ion o f r esources w i thin n or thern I ta ly.

( 3 ) e xp lo itat ion a nd

The a ssu mp t ion t ha t n or thern

I ta ly a s ag eograph ica l u n i t c orresponds w ith a n a tura l c u l tura l r eg ion c an b e c ha l lenged. I ndeed t he western P o p la in a nd a d jacen t a lp ine z one r e la te i n many ways more t o t he s ou theas t o f France t han t o n ortheas t I ta ly d ur ing t he Lagozza p hase a nd c ha lco li th ic p er iod .

Cu l tura l a dapta t ion t o t he a lp ine

r eg ion s ee ms a lso t o h ave t aken p lace a t a n e ar ly d a te s o t ha t t hese moun ta ins , e specia l ly i n t he wes t , s hou ld b e s een n o t a s an a tura l c u l tura l b arr ier b u t r a ther a s au n i fying e nv ironmen t w i th t heir o wn a dap ted c u ltura l t radi t ion ( Fedele , 1 978 ) . The p r incipa l s urv iv ing ma ter ia ls i nvolved i n t rade a re s tone f or a xes a nd r ings ( i nclud ing j ade ) , f l in t , o bs id ian , s ea s he l ls a nd f oss i l s he l ls , p o t tery a nd me ta l . 2 7

Meson 'h ic t rade T he e ar ly N eol i th ic e vo lves f ro m a mesol i th ic b ackground i n t he n or th a nd t here i s e v idence t ha t s o me n eol i th ic t rade n e tworks may h ave a lready b een a n t ic ipa ted i n t he l a te Meso l i th ic .

On t he L igur ian c oas t a n o bs id ian

s ide-scraper was f ound i n meso l i th ic l eve ls i n t he c ave o f t he A rma d e l lo S te fan in ( A lbenga )(Lea le An foss i , 1 972 ).

I t was r ecovered f ro m l ayer V ,

wh ich i s d a ted b y t wo C 14 d a tes t o 6 150 + 9 0 ( R-126 ) a nd 6 450 + 1 00 ( R-148 ) , a nd i s s epara ted f ro m o ver lying n eo l i th ic d epos i ts b y t he meso l i th ic l eve l I V . Th is may b e e v idence o f p re-neo l i th ic e xp loi ta t ion o f S ard in ian o bs id ian . Transa lp ine c on tac ts may b e a t tes ted b y t he o ccurrence o f Med i terranean C o lu mbe l la r ust ica s he l ls f ro m T ardeno is ian s i tes i n Sw itzer land a nd s ou thern G ermany ( Probs t fe ls , Fa lkens tein a nd t he B irsma t ten Bas isgro t te : B and i , 1 963 : 2 3 , f ig . 1 4 ( 1 3 ) ) .

I ti s a lways p oss ib le t ha t s uch t ra f f ic c ircumven ted t he A lps ,

H owever , t he p enetra t ion o f t he s ou thern A lps b y meso l i th ic c o m mun i t ies w i th s i tes u p t o ah e igh t o f a bou t 9 00-2200 metres ( f or e xamp le C o lbr icon ) , t he s e t t le men t o f t he a lp ine v a l leys i n S wi tzer land ( Wyss , 1 971) , a nd t he p res ence o f C o lumbe l la s he l ls i n t he Tren t ino i n t he S auve terro id l eve l a t R o magnano ( Brog l io , 1 971) s ugges t t he p oss ibi l i ty o f t ransa lp ine c on tac t b y t he a lp ine p asses .

( I t s hou ld b e n o ted t ha t l ong d is tance t rade i n s he l ls i s i n

f act a t tes ted a lready i n t he U pper P a laeo l i th ic: B os insk i , 1 979 ;

H ahn , 1 972 .

Th is l a t ter t ra f f ic wou ld p resumab ly n o t h ave c o me a cross t he A lps .) An a n t ler h arpoon f ound a t R o magnano I I , i n t he u pper mos t meso l i th ic l eve ls , wou ld s ee m t o b e more t yp ica l ly a n or thern S wiss , t han n or th I t a l ian , a r t i fact a nd f ur ther s uppor ts t he i dea o f d irec t t ransa lp ine e xchange a lready i n meso l i th ic t imes ( Brog l io , 1 971, 1 973 ;

Wyss , 1 966 ).

T he e ar l iest n eo l ith ic c o m mun i t ies i n t he c en tra l p re A lps , w i th t he ir o r ig ins i n t he p reced ing Meso l i th ic , s ee a c on t inua t ion o f t he u se o f C o lumbe l la , a s c an b e s een i n t he R iparo Va l tenes i , Manerba , where a Tardeno is ian ( Cas te lnov ian ) f l in t a sse mb lage i s a ssocia ted w i th e ar ly p ot tery ( B iag i , 1 979 ). N eo l i th ic Med i terranean t rade Dur ing t he N eo l i th ic t he mos t e as i ly r ecogn isable p roduc ts b e ing i mpor ted i n to n or thern I ta ly f ro m t he s ou th were o bs id ian a nd f ine p a in ted a nd u npa in ted f igu l ina p ot tery. i n r e turn .

J ade was o ne o f t he c o m mod i t ies e xchanged f ro m t he n or th

S pondylus s he l l o rnamen ts f ro m t he A dr ia t ic a nd T yrrhen ian s eas

were a lso i nvo lved i n al ong d is tance t rade n e twork a nd t hese w i l l b e d iscussed i n t he s ect ion o n a lp ine t rade . The p roble m o f t he s ources o f t he o bs id ian f ound o n n or th I ta l ian n eo l i th ic s i tes was f irs t s tud ied b y Ma lavo l t i ( 1 951-52 ) , C ornagg ia C as t ig l ion i e t a l . ( 1964 ) a nd Ca lm a nd Ren frew ( 1964 ).

More r ecen t ly a n i n tens ive p rogram me

o f s a mp l ing a nd a na lys is h as b een c arr ied o u t b y t he D epar t men t o f P hys ics a nd Archaeo logy a t t he U n ivers i ty o f B radford ( Ha l lam e t a l ., 1 976 ; T horpe e t a l ., f or thco m ing ) .

W i l l iams

S amples o f o bs idian h ave n ow b een a na lysed f ro m t wen ty o u t o f at o ta l o f 4 0 s i tes p roduc ing o bs id ian i n I ta ly n or th o f t he 4 3 .30 ' l i ne o f p ara l le l . O bsid ian was r each ing n or thern I ta ly a t l eas t f ro m t he s tar t o f t he N eo l i th ic t hrough t o t he e nd o f t he C ha lco l ith ic .

T he ma in p er iod o f t he t rade was ,

2 8

2 9

( Af ter W il l ia ms Thorpe e t a l .,

h owever , f ro m t he midd le p hase o f t he VBQ c u l ture t hrough i n to t he L agozza c u l ture ( abou t 3 500-2800 b .c .) . t hose o f L ipar i a nd S ard in ia .

T he o bs idian s ources i nvo lved were ma in ly

S o me P on t ine o bs id ian h as a lso b een r ecogn ised

a nd t he f irs t i den ti f ica t ion o f C arpa th ian o bs id ian h as n ow b een made i n t he G rot ta Tar taruga , n ear T r ieste , a l though t he p rec ise s tra t igraph ica l p os i t ion o f t h is p iece i s u nc lear ( F ig . 3 .1) . The c hrono log ica l p a t tern o f t he d is tr ibu t ion o f o bs id ian f ro m d i f feren t s ources u n for tuna te ly r e ma ins l arge ly u ncer ta in o w ing t o t he f act t ha t mos t o f t he f inds c o me f ro m mu l t i-per iod s e t t lemen ts wh ich u sua l ly h ave s tra t ig raph ica l p rob le ms .

I ti s p oss ible h owever t o r ecogn ise t he e ar ly p resence

o f b o th S ardin ian a nd L ipar i o bs id ian o n t he L igur ian c oas t wh i le i n t he P o v a l ley t here i s l i t t le o bs id ian o ccurr ing b e fore t he midd le VBQ p hase .

I n

t he f ew c ases i n wh ich o bs id ian i s d ef in i te ly a ssocia ted w i th m idd le VBQ ma ter ia l , a s a t C ampeg ine ( Regg io Emi l ia ) ( Cazze l la e t a l ., 1 976 ) , t he s ource i s L ipar i , wh i le a t s i tes l i ke P esca le , where t he a bundan t o bs idian i s p robab ly Lagozza i n d a te , t he s ource i s S ard in ian ( Ma lavo lt i , 1 951-52 ) .

T he l i nk ing

o f L ipar i o bs id ian w i th t he ' Adr ia t ic ' o r ien ted m idd le VBQ ( Bagol in i a nd B iag i , 1 976 ) , a nd S ard in ian o bs id ian w i th t he wes ter ly o r ien ted L agozza , m igh t t hen a ppear l og ica l b u t n o t y e t p roven .

The s ugges t ion t ha t t here migh t b e a

c hronolog ica l o r c u l tura l s epara t ion b e tween t he d is tr ibu t ion o f t he ma in o bs id ian t ypes i n n or thern I ta ly was made b y H a l lam e t a l . . ( 1 976) , a l though a t t he s ame t ime t he mode l o f c o mpe t ing marke ts i n p r imary ma ter ia ls was s ugges ted .

T he l a tes t a na lyses s how t ha t t he g eograph ica l s epara t ion b e tween

o bs id ian f ro m t he t wo ma in s ources i n n or thern I ta ly i s n ot a s c lear a s was t hough t i n 1 976 a nd t hus t he i dea o f c o mpe t ing marke t a reas wou ld a ppear l ess l i kely. I n i n terpre t ing t he t rade mechan is m , a' downthel ine ' mode l m igh t b e s een a s a ppropr ia te , a s h as b een s ugges ted ( Ha l lam e t a l ., 1 976 ).

H owever ,

b ecause o f t he u ncer ta in d a t ing o f much o f t he o bs id ian a nd t he p rob le m o f c o mpar ing t he r e la t ive f requency o f f inds f ro m d i f feren t s i tes , Ib e l ieve i t wou ld b e i nappropr ia te a t p resen t t o a pp ly a ny ma the ma t ica l mode l t o t he ma ter ia l . One p oin t a r is ing f ro m t he d is tr ibu t ion p a t tern i s t ha t o bs idian i s f ound mos t f requen t ly i n a reas where g ood q ua l i ty f l in t i s s carce a nd v ice v ersa . There a re t hus s ign i f ican t c oncen tra t ions o f o bs id ian i n Em i l ia a nd i n t he Tr ies te c aves , where o n ly i n fer ior f l in t c an b e f ound l oca l ly, wh i le r e la t ively l i t t le i s f ound i n t he f l in t r ich a reas o f t he p re A lps o f B resc ia a nd V erona . T he l arge c oncen tra t ion o f more t han 9 50 o bs id ian f ragmen ts a nd b lades a t P esca le , more t han 8 0% o f a l l t he o bs id ian k nown f ro m n or thern I t a ly , s ugges ts a s pec ia l s ign if icance f or t h is s i te , p erhaps a s ap o in t o f r ed is tr ibu t ion ( Ha l lam e t a l ., 1 976 )

f or o bs id ian c om ing f ro m t he w es t o ver t he A penn ines

v ia t he S ecch ia r iver .

T he d is tr ibu t ion o f o bs id ian t hroughou t t he A penn ines

h owever , s ugges ts t ha t v ar ious r ou tes were u sed i n t he t rans-Apenn ine t ra f f ic , wh i le o bs id ian c oncen tra t ions a round Tr ies te c lear ly p oin t t o s ea-borne t rade a long t he A dr ia t ic c oas t . Dur ing t he e ar ly f our th mi l lenn ium t here i s e v idence f or a w ide d is tr ibut i on o f t he f ine p a in ted f igu l ina p ot tery , c harac ter is t ic o f s ou thern ( Capr i a nd S erra d 'A l to ) a nd c en tra l I ta ly ( R ipo l i ) ( Fig . 3 .2 ). 3 0

( F igu l ina i s at erm t ha t

r e fers t o t he f ine b u f f f abr ic , _ o f b oth p a in ted a nd u npa in ted wares , d is t inct ive o f t he r l idd le N eo l i thic i n c en tra l a nd s ou thern I ta ly.)

T hese p a in ted s tyles

h ave b een u sed t o c harac ter ise c u l tura l g roup ings i n s ou thern a nd c en tra l I ta ly. H owever i ti s d i ff icu l t t o d ef ine c hrono log ica l l im i ts o f t hese wares w i th a ny c er ta in ty ( Wh i tehouse , 1 969 ) a nd t he f act t ha t t hey were t raded makes t he ir u se i n d e f in ing t he g eograph ica l b oundar ies o f t rad i t iona l ' cu l tura l ' g roup ings s uspec t . I n n or thern I ta ly , R ipo l i s tyle p a in ted p o t tery i s k nown f ro m C h iozza ( Bago l in i a nd Bar f ie ld , 1 970 ) ( Fig . 3 .3 : 3 -6 , 9 ) a ssoc ia ted w i th b o th F iorano a nd VBQ p o t tery a nd a t P esca le i n a n u ncer ta in c on tex t ( Ma lavo lt i , 1 940 , 1 951-52 ) ( Fig . 3 .3: 7 . 8 ) .

( The f ragmen ts f ro m t he F iorano c on tex t r ese mble

p o t tery f ro m R ipol i p hases I I I , wh i le t he l ug f ound w i th VBQ p o t tery h as c lose p ara l le ls w i th R ipo l i p hase I I . ) I n L igur ia R ipo l i p o t tery h as b een f ound i n t he C averna d el l 'Acqua ( or ' de l Mor to ' ) ( Bernabb Brea , 1 946) , ( F ig . 3 .3 : 2 ) , a nd A rene C and ide ( Tine , 1 978 ) a nd a C apr i-s tyle s herd was f ound i n l ayers 2 3-25 o f t he s ame s i te ( Bernabo B rea , 1 956: 9 2-93 ) ( F ig . 3 .3 : 1 ) . a lso a p a in ted s herd f ro m P o l lera .

There i s

R ecen t ly a S erra d 'A l to p a in ted s herd

was e xcava ted i n t he R iparo Va l T enes i , Manerba , Brescia , u n for tuna te ly i n a n u ns tra t if ied d epos i t ( Bar f ie ld , f or thco m ing ) ( Fig . 3 .3 : 1 0 ).

I n a dd i t ion

t o t he p a in ted s herds , p la in f igu l ina p o t tery , p robably i mpor ted f ro m t he s ou th a nd c en tre o f I t a ly , i s k nown f ro m a n umber o f s i tes i n t he P o v a l ley a nd L igur ia ( Bago l in i e t a l ., 1 979 : 5 9 ;

Ma lavo l t i , 1 940 ) .

I n Em i l ia a bou t a

h undred s herds o f f igu l ina a re r ecorded f ro m P esca le ( Ma lavol t i , 1 951-52 ) a nd a c ons iderab le q uan t i ty i s a lso k nown f ro m C a mpeg ine ( Regg io Em il ia ) ( Fig . 3 .4: 3 , 4 ) ( Bar f ie ld , 1 972 ; S assuo lo ( Ma lavo lt i , 1 940 ) .

Ma lavo l t i , 1 940 ) , A lb inea a nd Mezzav ia d i

N or th o f t he P o i n t he Vene to f igu l ina i s r epor ted

f ro m Mo l ino C asaro t to ( V icenza ) ( Bago l in i e t a l ., 1 973 ) a nd Qu inzano ( Verona ) where a n o rnamen ta l d oub le p er fora ted l ug i n f igu l ina , p robab ly o f R ipol i o r ig in , was r ecovered w i th o ther s herds ( B iag i , 1 972 ) ( Fig . 3 .4 : 1 , 2 ) . F igu l ina i s a lso r ecorded f ro m A lba ( P ied mon t ).

I n L igur ia f igu l ina h as b een

f ound i n l eve ls 2 2 t o 2 5 a t Arene Cand ide , i n t he P o l lera c ave a nd i n t he Arma d e l l 'Aqu i la ( Bernabö B rea , 1 947 ). T he w ide d is tr ibu t ion o f f ine p a in ted wares o f t h is t ype i s n o t s urpr ising g iven t he q ua l i ty a nd a es the t ic p er fec t ion o f much o f t he p roduc t ion .

S erra

d 'A l to ware h as n ow b een f ound a s f ar a f ie ld a s S ici ly , Ma l ta a nd a t O bre ( i n B osn ia , Yugos lav ia ) a nd R ipo l i p o t tery i s r ecorded f ro m S ardin ia ( Bar f ie ld , f or thco m ing ) .

T he p redo minan t v esse l s hapes r epresen ted among t he t rade

p ieces a re n arrow n ecked j ars , o f ten w i th r im l ugs t o f aci l i ta te s ea l ing .

Th is

migh t s ugges t t ha t s o me v a luable l i qu id was t raded i n t he m s uch a s w ine o r o i l .

H owever a s a lready s ugges ted t he v esse ls a re j us t a s l i ke ly t o h ave b een

p r ized a s e xchange o b jec ts i n t he ir o wn r igh t .

I n Em i l ia , where f igu l ina i s

more a bundan t , o ther v esse l f orms s uch a s o pen b owls a re r epresen ted a t C ampeg ine a nd P esca le ( F ig . 3 .4 : 3 ) . Th is c eram ic t rade t owards n or thern I ta ly migh t we l l b e e xpec ted t o b e l i nked w i th t he t rade i n o bs id ian .

H owever , t he d a te o f a l l t he a ssocia t ions

b e tween f igu l ina a nd l oca l n or th I ta lian a sse mb lages wou ld a ppear t o a n teda te t he ma in d eve lop men t o f o bs id ian t rade i n t he P o p la in , a l though n o t i n L igur ia , a t t he s tar t o f .t he midd le p hase o f t he VBQ c u l ture .

3 2

R ipo l i p a in ted a nd f igu l ina

2

1

4

3

5

6

8

7

9 F ig . 3 .3

1 0

D istr ibu t ion o f impor ted p la in a nd p a in ted f igu l ina i n n or thern I ta ly .

1 . Arene Cand ide ;

d el l ' Aqu i la ; A lb inea ; 1 0 .

2 . Caverna d e l l ' A cqua a nd Ar ma

3 . Gro t ta P o l lera ;

7 . Ch iozza ;

Gro t ta d e l la Ca mpana ;

Va ltenes i , Manerba .

4 . A lba ;

5 . Ca mpeg ine ;

8 . Mezzav ia d i S assuo lo ; 1 1. Gro t ta a l l ' Onda ;

1 , 3 -10 :

( Af ter B ernabä Brea , 1 956 ; Ma lavo lt i , 1 940 ) .

3 3

s ca le 2 /3 ;

6 .

9 . P esca le ; 1 2 . R iparo

2 : n o t t o s ca le .

Bago l in i a nd Barf ie ld , 1 970 ;

2 1

3 4

A AL

F ig . 3 .4

P la in f igu l ina s herds a nd 1 ,2 .

Qu inzano ;

3 ,4 :

s ca le 1 /3 .

3 ,4 .

1

A ichb i lhP s herd f ro m n or thern I t a ly .

Ca mpeg ine ;

3 4

5 . R ivo l i.

1 ,2 ,5 :

s ca le 2 /3 ;

a re i ssocia ted w i th t he F iorano c u lture a t C h iozza , C a mpeg ine , a nd A lbinea a nd w i th t he f irs t p hase o f t he VBQ a t C h iozza , Mol ino Casarot to , Qu inzano a nd dba .

A lso i n L igur ia t he f igu l ina a nd t he p a in ted s herds a l l c o me f ro m

t he l owest l eve ls o f t he VBQ d epos i t .

The S erra d 'A l to s herd f ro m Manerba

migh t wel l b e e xpec ted t o b e l a ter b u t h as n o a ssocia ted ma ter ia l .

S ou thern

i mpor ted s herds a re n o tab ly a bsen t f ro m t he midd le VBQ s i tes . J ade s ources , e spec ia l ly j ade i te , were c er ta in ly e xp loi ted s ys te ma t ica l ly i n n or thern I ta ly f ro m t he e ar ly N eo l i th ic t hrough t o t he e ar ly Bronze Age. The j ade ite was p robably o bta ined d irect ly f ro m s ources i n t he P ied mon tese A lps o r L igur ia ( Campbe l l Sm i th , 1 963 ;

I ssel , 1 901).

J ade i s r epresen ted among t he s tone r ings wh ich a re c haracter is t ic o f t he l a t ter p ar t o f t he e ar ly N eo l ith ic ( Fiorano a nd Vhö ) o f t he P o v a l ley a nd t he e ar ly VBQ ( Qu inzano-Fina le h or izon ).

T hese r ings , wh ich a lso i nclude

e xa mp les o f b asa l t , b reccio l ina , l imes tone , f tan i te , marble , o f io li te , a nkos ina , s chist , s erpen t ine , s tea t i te a nd v ar ious g reens tones , h ave b een r ecen t ly s tud ied b y Tanda ( 1977).

B oth t he j ade a nd t he s tea t i te r ings may h ave o r ig ina ted i n

t he P ied mon tese A lps.

O f p ar t icu lar i n teres t i s t he p resence o f s o me n ine

o f t hese r ing s , i n b oth j ade i te a nd n ephr ite , i n S ardin ia , where , a s Tanda s uggests , t hey may b e s een a s b eing p ar t o f r ec iproca l t rade w i th o bsid ian . Af ur ther p oin t o f i n teres t i s t ha t wh i le j ade a xes a re f ound a s f ar a way a s s ou thern I ta ly a nd S ici ly , j ade r ings a nd r ings o f o ther s tone a re c oncen tra ted i n t he c en tra l a nd n or thern p ar ts o f I ta ly.

This s ugges ts t ha t t here was a

c u ltura l c ons tra in t i n f luencing t heir d is tr ibu t ion ,

n a me ly t ha t o f t he F iorano-

S asso a nd e ar ly VBQ c u l tures. N eoli th ic t ransa lpine t rade The f irst u se o f t he a lp ine p asses f or r egu lar t rade was o f ten , u n t i l r ecen t ly , a t tr ibu ted t o t he B e l l B eaker c u lture ( Ch i 1de , 1 957).

Wyss i n a

r ecen t s tudy ( 1971) , wh i le r ecogn is ing s porad ic n eo l i thic c on tact , a lso a rgues t ha t t he ma in d evelop men t i n t his t rade s tar ts w i th t he Bronze Age .

As we

h ave a lready s ugges ted , h owever , e ar ly c on tac t may g o b ack t o t he Meso li th ic a nd wh i le we h ave l i tt le e v idence f or e ar ly n eo li th ic t rade , t he s i tua t ion c hanges marked ly d ur ing t he midd le a nd l a te p hases o f t he VBQ i n t he l a t ter h a lf o f t he f our th mi l lenn ium.

Dur ing t his p er iod , wh ich c orresponds w i th t he p ene tra t ion

o f t he n or thern a lpine r eg ion b y Rössen a nd l a ter g roups , e x tensive c on tact a nd t rade i s a t tes ted i n b o th d irec tions a cross t he A lps. The e v idence f or c u l tura l l i nks a cross t he c en tra l A lps d ur ing t he f our th mi l lenn ium h as r ecen t ly b een r ev iewed b y Bago lin i e t a l . ( 1979 ).

C o m mun i-

c a t ion i s r ecogn isable i n t he s tyl is t ic s i mi lar i t ies i n p o t tery a nd o ther a r t i facts b oth b etween t he midd le a nd l a te p hases o f VBQ i n I ta ly a nd t he Rössen , G rossgar tach a nd l a ter c u ltures n or th o f t he A lps , o n t he o ne h and , a nd b e tween VBQ a nd C hassey ( Cor ta i l lod ) i n t he wes tern A lps , o n t he o ther . A R össen c onnect ion w i th n or thern I ta ly h as i n f act b een p ostu la ted s ince 1 960 b y S angme ister .

S ign if ican t i n t he d iscuss ion h as b een t he s im ilar ity

b e tween t he s quare mou thed b ow l f orms o f t he midd le VBQ a nd t hose o f Rössen a nd G rossgar tach wh ich a re s een b y S angmeister ( 1967) a nd Bagol in i e t a l . ( 1 979 ) a s r epresen t ing i n f luence f ro m n or thern I ta ly , a l though G ol ler a nd Ma ier-Arend t ( 1972 ) s ugges ted a n i nd igenous o r ig in f or t hese Rössen b owls .

3 5

( T r , '

c ,

( Se

( 1,

•

06 0

g pv

D rav a

5 00 km

F ig . 3 .5

D istr ibu t ion o f S pondy lus s he l l o rna men ts i n western Europe . V e la d i Tren to .

( Af ter C lark , 1 952 , w ith a dd it ions .)

Vi s

Th€ h err ing b one a nd g eo me tr ic i nc ised d ecora t ion o f t he l a te VBQ c an i n t urn b e s een a s i n f luence f rom R össen ( Bago l in i e t a l ., 1 979 ).

A ctua l i mpor ts

a lso w ere p robab ly c om ing s ou th a cross t he c en tra l a lp ine p asses i n to I ta ly d ur ing t he midd le VBQ , s ince s hoelas t a dzes f ro m midd le VBQ g raves a t Ve la d i T ren to a nd o ther s i tes i n t he Tren t ino may h ave a n or thern o r ig in ( Bar f ie ld , 1 970 , 1 973 ). I n t he f o l low ing , l a te VBQ , p er iod c oarse ware A rkadenrand p o t tery , c lay weav ing e qu ip men t a nd a n t ler o rnamen ts , a l l o f wh ich h ave b een f ound a t R ivo l i i n l a te VBQ ( R ivo l i-Cas te lnovo p hase ) c on tex ts , c an b e ma tched a long t he n or thern e dge o f t he A lps ( Bar f ie ld a nd Bago l in i , 1 976) . O f p ar t ic u lar i n teres t , h owever , i s t he i mpor ted s herd , d ecora ted w i th S t ichband a nd i mpressed t r iang les , f ro m t he l a te VBQ ( R ivo l i-Cas te lnovo ) p hase o n t he R occa d i R ivo l i ( Bar f ie ld a nd Bago l in i , 1 976 ;

f ig . 2 9 ) ( Fig . 3 .4 : 5 ) .

Th is

s herd , wh i le h av ing a s ty le o f d ecora t ion i den t ica l w i th t ha t o f A ichb i lh l , i s i n af orm wh ich more r ese mbles t he e as ter ly Munchshöfen t rad i t ion ( Bago l in i e t a l ., 1 979 ; S chrö ter a nd S chrö ter , 1 974 ) . E v idence o f c on tac t a cross t he more wes tern r anges o f t he A lps f ro m t he m idd le VBQ a nd t hrough t he l a ter N eo l i th ic i s d e mons tra ted b y c onnec t ions b e tween t he u pper R höne v a l ley i n t he S w iss Va la is a nd wes tern L o mbardy. S quare mou thed p ot tery h as b een f ound a t S a in t L eonard , Va la is , i n aC hassey ( Cor ta i l lod ) c on tex t wh i le t he d is tr ibu t ion o f n eo l i th ic f inds o n e i ther s ide o f t he G rea t S t . B ernard p ass s ugges ts t ha t t h is c ross ing was i n r egu lar u se a t t h is t ime ( Fede le , 1 973 : 2 02 ;

S au ter , 1 970 ).

C lose c on tact c an a lso b e

d e mons tra ted b e tween t he s ame r eg ion a nd t he L o mbard L agozza s e t t le men ts a t as l igh t ly l a ter d a te ( Sau ter a nd G a l lay , 1 966). I ti s p oss ible t ha t t hese t ransa lp ine c onnec t ions i n t he f our th mf l lenn ium may h ave b een s t i mu la ted n o t o n ly b y t he i ncreas ing p ene tra t ion o f t he A lps b y n eo l i th ic s e t t le men t b u t a lso b y t he d eve lop men t o f a long d is tance e xchange n e twork i n p res t ige g oods , s uch a s S pondylus s he l l o rnamen ts a nd p oss ibly j ade a xes .

I th as b een s ugges ted ( Ren frew a nd S hack le ton , 1 970 ;

S herra t t ,

1 976 ) o n a n a na logy w i th r ecen t e xchange s ys te ms i ns ou theast A s ia , n otab ly t he Trobr iand I s lands Ku la r ing , t ha t c ere mon ia l g i f t e xchange n etworks may h ave o pera ted i n n eo l i th ic E urope i n much t he s ame way.

C ere mon ia l e x-

c hange o f p res t ige o b jec ts , o f ten s he l ls a nd a xes , c an b e s een t o a c t a s a ' f lywhee l ' mechan is m t o k eep p roduc ts o n t he move a nd s o a r t icu la te s evera l k inds o f s pecia l isa t ion w i th in t he c ha in ( Brook f ield a nd H art , 1 971; 1 976) .

S herra t t ,

The r ecen t d iscovery o f c yl indr ica l S pondylus b eads , o f t he t ype u sed i n t he R össen a nd G rossgar tach c u l tures n or th o f t he A lps , w i th a midd le VBQ b ur ia l a t Ve la d i Tren to ( Bago l in i a nd B iag i , 1 976 ) ( Fig . 3 .5 ) a nd a lso a t Arco ( Tren to ) , s ugges ts t ha t S pondylus was i n f ac t b e ing t raded a cross t he c en tra l A lps f ro m t he A dr ia t ic d ur ing t he f our th mi l lenn ium . l i shed a s y et , a nd Iam g ra tefu l t o Dr . Bago l in i

N e ither b ead i s p ub-

f or s howing t he m t o me .

S pondylus b race lets a re r ecorded f ro m e ar l ier c on tex ts i n n or thern I ta ly a t Arene C and ide i n l ayers 2 1, 2 2 a nd 2 3 ( c f . Tanda , 1 977 ) a nd e v idence o f S pondylus b race let p roduct ion h as b een f ound a t C a la T ramon tana i n t he Tre m i t i I s lands a ssoc ia ted w i th s ou thern n eo l i th ic p a in ted wares ( Pa l ma d i C esno la , 1 965 ).

R odden ( 1970 ) h as a lso i nd ica ted t he A dr ia t ic a s ap oten t ia l 3 7

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— 0

F ig . 3 .6

D istr ibu t ion o f j ade a xes i n Europe . s ources .

Gi s G erenzago .

C o les , 1 974 ;

S tars i nd ica te i den t if ied j ade ite

( Af ter Ca mpbel l Sm ith , 1 963 , 1 965 ;

w ith a dd it ions .)

a nd

s ource o f S pondylus where t he n u merous f inds f ro m Dan i lo s i tes u nder lines t h is p oin t .

B ernabb Brea ( 1 947) h as a lready s ugges ted t he L igur ian c oast a s

as ource f or t he e ar lier , Bandkeram ik , b racele ts . The S pondylus t rade h as o f ten b een r egarded a s at rade d irected e n t ire ly u p t he Danube s upp l ied f ro m t he A egean a nd t he B lack S ea ( C lark , 1 952: 2 41).

Wh i le t he B lack S ea s ource c an n ow b e e xcluded ( Ren frew a nd S hack le ton ,

1 970 ) , we c an n ow s ee t he A dr ia t ic a nd e ven t he Tyrrhen ian S ea a s a ma jor s upp ly s ource f or c on t inen ta l European c onsu mp t ion . J ade i s a nother ma ter ia l f or wh ich t here i s e v idence o f w idespread c ere mon ia l e xchange d ur ing t he f our th mi l lenn iu m .

T he a lp ine r eg ion a ppears

t o h ave b een t he ma in s ource f or a t rade n etwork i n j ade a xes , wh ich e x tended a s f ar n or th a s t he Br i t ish I s les ( Campbel l Sm i th , 1 963 , 1 965 ) ( Fig . 3 .6 ). A l though s ources o f j ade i n t he n or thern A lps may h ave p rov ided s o me o f t h is t rade t o t he n or th i ti s a lso p robable t ha t n or th I ta l ian j adei te was t ranspor ted n or th a s we l l .

Ev idence f or t h is i s p erhaps p rovided b y t he p resence i n I ta ly

o f j adei te a xes w i th i den t ica l morpho log ica l c haracter is t ics t o e xamp les f ound i n Br i ta in , n ame ly a xes w ith p oin ted a nd b eve l led b u t ts ( Campbe l l Smi th 's t ype I b ) , o f wh ich t here i s ag ood e xamp le f ro m G erenzago ( Pav ia ) ( Pa tron i 1 910 ) , wh i le s ix , a l l o f j adei te , a re k nown f ro m t he Br i t ish I s les ( Campbel l Sm i th , 1 963 ) ( Fig . 3 .7).

The f ew d a ted j ade a xes f ro m Br i ta in a l l p oin t t o af l oru i t

o f t he j ade a xe t rade d ur ing t he l a ter f our th a nd e ar ly t h ird mi l lenn ia ( Coles , 1 974 ) , ap er iod f or wh ich j ade a xes a re a lso a t tes ted i n I ta ly , f or e xa mp le o n t he Rocca d i R ivol i ( Bar f ield a nd Bagol in i , 1 976).

The s i te c a tch men t a na lysis

u nder taken a t R ivoli d e monstra ted t ha t t he l oca t ion o f t he n eol i th ic s et t le men t which , s ign i f ican tly , s tar ts w i th t he middle VBQ c u lture , c ou ld o n ly b e u nders tood i n t erms o f i t s s tra teg ic p os i t ion d o mina t ing t he r ou te t hrough t he C h iusa g orge wh ich c onnects t he P o p la in w i th t he c en tra l a lp ine p asses ( Jar man , 1 976). Aj ade a xe was a lso f ound i n t he midd le VBQ c e me tery a t La V ela wh ich p rod uced t he S pondylus b ead ( Barf ie ld , 1 970 ). The d is tr ibu t ion o f j ade a xes t o t he n or th o f o ur a rea , l i ke t ha t o f S pondylus , s hows l i t t le e v idence o f ar egu lar f a l l o f f w i th d is tance , a s wou ld a ppear t o b e t he c ase w i th o bs idian .

Th is f act may b e t aken a s e v idence t ha t

b oth i t e ms were a ssocia ted w ith a n etwork o f c ere mon ia l g i f t e xchange r a ther t han w ith p ure ly c o m mercia l t rade ( Ren frew a nd S hack leton , 1 970 ). F ro m t he d a t ing e v idence men t ioned a bove i tc an b e s ugges ted t ha t t he ma in t rade i n j ade , p ar t icu lar ly t o Br i ta in , i s t o b e d a ted s l igh t ly l a ter t han t he t ra f f ic i n S pondylus , wh ich wen t o u t o f c ircu la t ion w i th t he e nd o f Rössen a nd G rossgar tach . Neol i th ic t rade a nd t ra f f ic w i th in t he P o v a lley Mos t n eo l i th ic c o m mun i t ies i n t he P o v a l ley a nd a d jacen t moun ta in a reas made u se o f f l in t , b u t t h is i s n ot a c o m modi ty wh ich i s u n iform ly d is tr ibu ted t hroughou t t he r ' eg ion .

The f ines t q ua l i ty a nd most p ro l i f ic s ources o f f l in t

a re t o b e f ound i n t he J urassic a nd Cretaceous f orma t ions a long t he s ou thern f r inge o f t he A lps b e tween Lakes Magg iore a nd Trev iso .

F lin t , o f ap oorer

b u t s t i l l workable q ua l i ty , i s f ound i n t he n or thern Apenn ines i n T er t iary a nd l a ter d epos i ts ( Ma lay°h i , 1 944 : n ote 1 ) , wh i le s o me g ood f l in t i s a lso p resen t i n L igur ia a nd n or thern Tuscany.

3 9

S tud ies b y C re masch i ( using c olour ,

5

2

cm

F ig . 3 .7

J ade ite a xes o f Ca mpbe l l Sm ith ' st ype l b . 2 . Can terbury ( Ken t , Eng land .) Ca mpbe l l Sm ith , 1 963.)

4 0

1 . G erenzago ( Pav ia ) ;

( Af ter Pa tron i , 1 910 ;

a nd

m icrofoss i ls , s ize a nd o ther c r i ter ia ) o f t he f l in t u sed i n t he midd le VBQ s e t t le men t a t C a mpeg ine ( Regg io Em i l ia ) h ave s hown t ha t i tc ame ma in ly f ro m s ources t o t he n or th o f t he P o p la in , p robab ly t he Mon t i L ess in i ( Cazze l la e t a t ., 1 976 ) .

On many c on te mporary s i tes i n Em i l ia a nd a lso o n

t hose o f t he p reced ing e ar ly VBQ a nd F iorano c u l tures , i t wou ld a ppear t ha t s uch n or thern f l in t was p referred t o t he l oca l Apennine f l in t , a l though t h is a nd o ther l oca l r ocks were u sed o n many s i tes . A lso i n t he s e t t le men t o f C a mpeg ine worked f lakes o f r ock c rys ta l were r ecovered .

T h is ma ter ia l i s a t tes ted f ro m s evera l midd le VBQ s i tes b u t

w ou ld s ee m t o b e e spec ia l ly d is t inc t ive o f t he w es tern P o p la in a nd t he wes tern A lps , where g ood q ua l i ty f l in t i s h ard t o o bta in ( Fede le , 1 973 : 1 94 ).

H ow

many s ources o f r ock c rys ta l were e xp lo i ted a nd h ow e x tens ively t h is ma ter ia l was t raded i s d i f f icu l t t o s ay , a l though i tm igh t b e s ugges ted t ha t t he r ock c rys ta l f inds f ro m Em i l ia , a t C ampeg ine a nd P esca le r epresen t t he more e as ter ly e x tens ion o f ad is tr ibu t ion a rea c en tred o n t he wes tern A lps . F edele ( 1973 ) l i s ts r ock c rys ta l f inds f ro m S a in t L eonard a nd o ther C hassey ( Cor ta i l lod ) s i tes i n Va la is , t he c e me ter ies o f Quar tVo l lein a nd V i l leneuve , n ear A os ta , Mon fenera , F enera S . G iu l io a nd A r ma d e l G ra i , a l l i n t he P ied mon tese A lps , a s we l l a s f ro m I so l ino i n L o mbardy. Where d a tab le a l l t hose s i tes a re r ough ly c on te mporary a nd d a tab le t o t he l a ter f our th mi l lenn ium. I fo ne c ons iders t he n or th I t a l ian n eo l i th ic t rade a s a whole i ti s a pparen t t ha t d ur ing t he midd le VBQ p hase n o t o n ly were s i tes l i ke C ampeg ine i nvo lved i n a n e x tens ive n etwork o f p en insu lar a nd a lp ine t rade , s upp lying ma in ly g ood q ua l i ty l i th ic ma ter ia ls ( o bs id ian , f l in t a nd r ock c rys ta l ) wh ich were l ack ing l oca l ly , b u t a lso t he s ame c u l ture was t i ed i n to t he e ven l onger d is tance e xc hange n etworks s upp ly ing S pondylus a nd p erhaps a lready j ade a xes t o t he a reas n or th o f t he A lps .

Th is n or thern c o m merce may b e r e la ted t o t he

g rea ter p ene tra t ion o f t he a lp ine r eg ions b y n eo l i th ic s e t t lers b o th f ro m t he s ou th ( Fede le , 1 973 , 1 978 ) a nd f ro m t he n or th ( Sherra t t , 1 976: 5 74 ) .

The

t o ta l r ange o f t he p o ten t ia l s phere o f c on tact f or n or th I t a l ian c u l tures d ur ing t he s econd h a lf o f t he t h ird mi l lenn ium i n f act may b e i n t he o rder o f n ear ly 3 000 k i lo me tres ;

t ha t i s f ro m Ma l ta , t he s ou thernmos t l im i t o f L ipar i o bs id ian ,

t o n or thern S co t land , t he max imu m e x tens ion o f t he j ade t rade . C ha lco l i th ic t rade Dur ing t he t h ird mi l lenn iu m p a t terns i n t rade c hange , w i th t he i mpor tance o f l i th ic e qu ip men t b eing c ha l lenged b y me ta l .

O bs id ian t ra f f ic d isappears

a l mos t c o mp le te ly , wh i le t he e xc lus ive u se o f l oca l L angh iano f l in t f or t he c h ipped s tone e qu ip men t o n t he B eaker s i te o f S an t 'I lar io ( Regg io Em i l ia ) n o t f ar d is tan t f ro m C ampeg ine , may i nd ica te a d ec l ine i n t he i mpor tance o f t ranspadane f l in t i n Em i l ia ( Cre masch i , i n Bar f ield e t a t ., 1 975 ) . F l in t d aggers , h owever , wh ich c o me i n to w idespread u se i n t h is p er iod a nd t he f o l low ing e ar ly Bronze Age , d o a ppear t o h ave b een t raded s ou th a cross t he p la in f ro m t he p re A lps , t o j udge f ro m t he c haracter o f t he f l in t u sed f or many o f t he m. A t Mon te C ovo lo a s tudy o f t he f l in t t ypes f ro m t he f our ma in p hases o f s e t t le men t ( Lagozza , Wh i te Ware , B eaker a nd P o lada ) s howed p ers is ten t e xp lo i ta t ion o f t he p ro l i f ic l oca l f l in t s ources t hroughou t t he o ccupa t ion o f t he

4 1

c z.

1 2 n .

P ectuncu lus

MANERBA — MARBLE 1 0 -

MANERBA — STEAT ITE

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1 0 -

9-

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9-

8-

•• • • •• • •

8-

7-

• • •

7-

D ia meter

•• 6-

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6« a ;

54-

4-

3-

3-

2-

2-

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

••

5-

1

1 0

2

3

T ANA

BERTRAND — MARBLE

TANA

1 0 -

1 0 -

9-

9-

8-

5

6

7

8

9

1 0

BERTRAND

8

9

1 0

— STEAT ITE

8•

•••

7-

D ia meter

4

T h ickness

T h ickness

65-

•• ••• ••••• •• • • • •• •

765-

4-

4-

3-

3-

2-

2-

I 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

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9

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Th ickness

F ig . 3 .9

2

3

5 1 e r ,7 T h ickness

D i mens ions o f marb le a nd s tea t ite b eads f ro m R iparo Va l tenes i , L o mbardy a nd Tana B e trand , L igur ia .

4 3

S ca les i n c en t i metres .

s i te

( unpub l ished e v idence ) .

H owever , i n t he b eaker l eve ls t wo f ragmen ts

o f ad agger b lade were f ound o f as peck led r ed f l in t wh ich i s n o t l oca l .

T he

s ource o f t h is d agger h as n o t y e t b een d eter m ined b u t i ti s o f i n teres t s ince g iven t he a bundance o f g ood q ua l i ty l oca l f l in t s uch a n o b jec t c ou ld w e l l h ave b een p roduced l oca l ly.

Th is f ind c an t herefore b e r egarded a s e v idence o f

t rade o r g i f t e xchange f or p res t ige r a ther t han f or p ure ly e cono m ic r easons . ( The r esu l ts o f t h is s tudy a re n o t y e t p ubl ished , a l though t he d agger i s i l lust ra ted b y B iag i ( Bar f ie ld e t a l ., 1 979 : f ig . 5 0 , 2 3 ) .

Ad e ta i led s tudy o f t he

r e la t ionsh ip b e tween s i tes a nd f l in t s ources i n t he e as tern p ar t o f t he p rov ince o f Bresc ia i s a t p resen t i n p rogress u nder my s uperv is ion ). Dur ing t he t h ird mi l lenn ium , b es ides f l in t , t he mos t v is ible a spec ts o f t rade i nvo lve o rnamen ts a nd me ta l .

A t t h is t ime i n L igur ia a nd L o mbardy

c onnect ions w i th s ou thern F rance a re v ery much i n e v idence , a s t hey were i n t he L agozza p hase .

The c ol lect ive c ave b ur ia ls f ound i n b o th r eg ions

p roduce b eads , p er fora ted t ee th a nd s he l ls wh ich a re v ery s im i lar i n t ype t o t he r ange f ound a t t h is t ime i n s ou thern F rance ( Bar f ie ld , 1 978 ;

C ornagg ia

C as t ig l ion i , 1 971; Fusco a nd P ogg ian i K e l ler , 1 976) . Marble , S tea t ite a nd c opper b eads , p er fora ted t eeth o f c arn ivores a nd p ig , a nd v ar ious s ea s he l ls a re a l l r epresen ted . C o l lec t ive b ur ia ls o f t h is t ype i n L o mbardy a re r est r icted t o t he L o mbard A lps , i n t he s o c a l led C iva te c u l ture , a nd c on trast w i th t he R e mede l lo-type c e me ter ies i n t he c en tra l p la in w i th t he ir r icher me ta l a nd f l in t work a nd l esser i n teres t i n o rnamen ts ( Bar f ie ld , 1 978 ) .

S ea

s hel l o rnamen ts i mpor ted i n to t he P o v a l ley i nc lude C o lu mbel la , C onus a nd P ectuncu lus , b e ing f ound a t R e mede l lo , F on tane l la a nd Manerba . O n t he L igur ian c oas t D en ta l ium a nd C o lumbe l la a re mos t i n e v idence ( F ig . 3 .8 ) . A c o mpar ison o f t he marble b eads a nd s tea t ite b eads f ro m T ana B er trand i n L igur ia w i th t hose f ro m R iparo Va l tenes i , Manerba o n Lake G arda s hows ac lose s im i lar i ty i n s ize r ange ( Fig . 3 .9 ) .

Th is u n i form i ty o f b ead p roduc-

t i on , wh ich c an e i ther b e i n terpre ted i n t erms o f ac en tra l ised p roduct ion o r a t l eas t c u l tura l s tandard isa t ion , may h ave a s igm f icance r e la ted t o b eads a nd n eck laces u sed a s i t e ms i n e xchange n e tworks ( Fig . 3 .10 ). S i mi lar s tea t i te b eads o f n or th I ta lian o r ig in h ave b een f ound i n ac ha lco l i th ic g rave a t Turs i i n Bas i l ica ta ( Cre monesi , 1 976 ) .

( The s ize o f t he t wo t ypes o f b eads may

a lso b e r e la ted , h owever , t o t he min i mum s ize p o ten t ia l o f t he t wo t ypes o f r aw ma ter ia l .

T he marb le b eads a re a t p resen t b e ing s tud ied t o i den t i fy

t he ir g eo log ica l s ource .) S ources o f c opper o re a re k nown f ro m many a reas o f t he s ou thern A lps ( Brauns te in , 1 965 ;

P reuschen , 1 973 ;

P r i ma , 1 976 ;

( I sse l , 1 892) a nd Tuscany ( Barker , 1 971).

S tor t i , 1 960 ) L igur ia

I ti s g enera l ly a ssumed t ha t t he

c opper o b jects o f t he t h ird mi l lenn ium i n t he P o v a l ley were made ma in ly o f a lp ine c opper ( Bar f ie ld , 1 971;

S tor t i , 1 960 ) wh i le B arker ( 1971) h as s ugges ted

t ha t t he c opper o b jects f ro m t he n or th ( Re mede l lo ) are d is t ingu ishab le f ro m t hose o f Tuscany ( R ina ldone ) b y t he a bsence o f a n t imony a s a n i mpur i ty , s ugges t ing t he u se o f ad i f feren t , p resumably a lp ine , s ource f or Re mede l lo . S ou th a lp ine c opper i s , h owever , p redo m inan t ly f ound i n t he f orm o f s u lph ide , c ha lcopyr i tes o res , wh ich a re a ssumed b y s o me a u thor i t ies n ot t o h ave b een e x tens ively u sed b efore t he i mprove men ts i n t echno log y i n t he e ar ly B ronze Age ( P i t t ion i , 1 957 ;

S herra t t , 1 976 ) .

Tha t t hese o res were a lready u sed i n

t he s ou thern A lps b e fore t he s tar t o f t he e ar ly Bronze Age i s s uggested b y 4 4

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