Archaeological Survey in the Mediterranean Area 9780860541974, 9781407330181

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
Contributors, Panelists, and Discussion Participants
List of Figures
Acknowledgements
Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Archaeological Survey: Definitions
Chapter 3: Archaeological Review: Theory and Methodology
Chapter 4: Methods and Problems
Chapter 5: Earth Sciences and Technological Aids in Archaeological Surveying
Chapter 6: Interpretation
Chapter 7: Concluding Discussion
Chapter 8: Survey Project Abstracts
Chapter 9: Frogs Round the Pond: Perspectives on Current Archaeological Survey Projects in the Mediterranean Region

Citation preview

Archaeological Survey in the Mediterranean Area

Edited by Donald R. Keller and David W. Rupp

BAR International Series ISS 1983

B.A.R.

122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B. Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D • R � Walk er, M.A .

B.A.R.-S155,198J: 'Archaeolog ical Survey in the Mediterranean Area' © The Individual Authors,1983

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860541974 paperback ISBN 9781407330181 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541974 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS

PAGE

THE CONTRIBUTORS

vii

LIST OF FIGURES

xiii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

xvii

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION by David W. Rupp and Donald R. Keller

1

CHAPTER 2 - ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY:

DEFINITIONS

17

CHAPTER 3 - ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY:

THEORY AND METHODOLOGY

31

Essays:

The Limitation of Surface Surveys by Richard Hope Simpson.

Observations on Surveying Procedures in Early Prehistory by Nicholas Rolland. Some Problems of Island Survey by Nikas Efstratiou.

CHAPTER 4 - ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY:

METHOD AND PROBLEMS

Essays:

Methods of Controlled Surface Collection in Archaeological Survey by Robert Whallon.

CHAPTER 5 - EARTH SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGICAL AIDS IN ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEYING

45 49

55

59 73 85

Essays:

Uses and Misuses of Balloon Aerial Photography for Site Recording and Survey Exploration by J. Wilson Myers. Soils and Archaeological Surveys: Case of the Canadian Palaipaphos Survey Project by Roger H. King.

97 101

Resource Survey Abstracts:

Eustatic Research on the Ancient Shorelines of the Adriatic and Ionian Seas by Augustus Sardinas.

Geology of the Koilada-Fournoi-Kranidhi Region Peleponnesos, Greece by Charles J. Vitaliano.

109 111

Survey for Chert Sources in the Nichoria Locale (Messenia) 113 by Harriet J. Blitzer.

Vegetation Change and Geomorphological Process: An Aspect of the Urban Survey Project at Sardia, Turkey by Donald 115 G. Sullivan and Daniel F. Belknap. 117

CHAPTER 6 - INTERPRETATION Essays:

The 1893 Atlas Archeologique de la Tunisie and Recent Archaeological Reconnaissance Near Carthage by Joseph A Greene. i

133

C HAPTER 6 ( continued)

P AGE

S ome T houghts o n t he Analysis o f C eramic D ata G enerated b y S ite S urveys by J eremy B .

R utter.

1 37

L ithic A rtifacts f rom S urface S ites i n t he M editerrane m A rea b y C urtis R unnels.

1 43

S tratified L ocational A nalysis a t t he I ntrasite L evel b y K enneth W . S chaar.

1 49

C HAPTER 7 - C ONCLUDING D ISCUSSION

1 51

C HAPTER 8 - S URVEY PROJECT A BSTRACTS

1 59

S pain a nd F rance: 1 .

P rehistoric A rchaeological S urveys i n N orth-Central S pain a nd S outh W est F rance b y L . G . S traus.

1 61

S urvey i n P rovence a nd L anguedoc b y N igel T .W. M ills.

1 65

3 .

T he A ger L unensis S urvey b y N igel T .W. M ills.

1 69

4 .

C ivitella C esi S urvey b y P amela H emphill.

5 .

W esleyan U niversity A rchaeological S urvey C osa b y

2 . I taly:

S tephen L . 6 .

1 73

D yson.

1 77

A n A rchaeological S urvey o f t he A gro P ontino ( Prov. o f L atina) b y A lbertus V oorrips, S usan H . L oving a nd H ans K ammermans.

7 .

1 79

M cMaster University L iri V alley P roject,

C entral

I taly b y E dith Wightman. 8 .

R echerce T opographique A utour d e S an G iovanni d i R uoti

( Province d e P otenza)

C laude M . 9 .

1 83

F ield

I talie d u S ud b y

R oberto e t A lastair M .

S urvey o f

S mall.

t he C hora o f M etaponto b y C esare 1 91

D 'Annibale. 1 0.

1 87

C alabria S urvey b y A lbert J .

Ammerman.

1 95

G reene.

1 97

T unisia: -1 1.

C arthage S urvey b y J oseph A .

Y ugoslavia: 1 2.

K ras

( Carst)

S urvey b y B ozidar S lap ak

1 3.

T he L ower M orava V alley P roject b y H . B ankoff a nd F rederick A .

2 01 A rthur

W inter.

2 03

G reece: 1 4.

S urveying with L imited R esources:

T he S eres B asin 2 07

P roject b y M ichalis F otiadis. 1 5.

T he S trymon D elta P roject b y A .

W .

D unn.

1 6.

T raditional G ristmills o n t he I sland o f C orfu b y A ugustus S ordinas.

1 7.

H alos,

2 11

2 13

A H ellenistic T own i n T hessaly b y R einder

R einders.

2 17

C HAPTER 8 ( continued) 1 8.

P AGE

T he C oastal S ites o f W estern Akarnania:

A T opo-

g raphical H istorical S urvey b y William M . 1 9.

W .

2 23

G allant.

T opographical S urvey o f P rehistoric a nd E astern B oiotia b y A damantios

2 1.

S ites i n E uboea 2 27

S ampson.

S outhern E uboea E xploration P roject b y D onald R . 2 31

K eller. 2 2.

T he T opography o f A ncient B oiotia: S urvey by J ohn M .

2 3.

T he E xtensive 2 33

F ossey.

T he T opography o f A ncient B oiotia: a nd E xcavation b y J ohn M .

2 4.

I ntensive S urvey

F ossey a nd G inette G auvin.

2 41

T he O hio B oiotia E xpedition:

E xploration o f

t he 2 45

T hisbe B asin b y T imothy G regory. 2 6.

H uman U se o f C aves a nd R ock S helter i n A ttica f rom P rehistoric T hrough B yzantine T imes b y J ere W ickens.

2 7.

2 51

T he T opography o f

t he P erakhora P eninsula by J ohn M . 2 55

F ossey a nd G inette G auvin. 2 9.

C orinthian F ortifications o f

t he C lassical a nd 2 57

H ellenistic P eriods b y G inette G auvin. 3 0.

T he S tanford University A rchaeological a nd Environmental S urvey o f t he S outhern A rgolid,

G reece: 2 61

1 979-1981. 3 1.

T he T hyreatis,

3 2.

Megalopolis F ield

3 3.

L avdha

A S urvey b y Y vonne C . S urvey b y J .

( Peloponnesos)

G oester.

T he K eos P roject: J ack L .

S urvey b y G .J.M.J.

t e R iele.

A P roposal b y J ohn F .

T he Melos A rchaeological S urvey b y J ohn F .

3 7.

T opographical S urvey o f P rehistoric D odecanese b y A dmantios S ampson.

3 8.

S urvey o f K arpathos,

K asos a nd

C herry.

S ites i n t he

S aria,

D odecanese b y

Melas.

A rchaeological S urvey o f

t he A yiofarango,

S outhern

C rete b y Keith B ranigan. 4 0.

A n A rchaeological

S urvey o f

C rete f rom t he N eolithic b y L .

2 73

2 75

3 6.

3 9.

2 71

C herry a nd

D avis.

E mmanuel M .

2 65 2 67

R oy.

3 4. Minnesota Messenia E xpedition b y W illiam A . M cDonald. 3 5.

2 49

P rospection A rcheologique S ur L a F rontiere A tticoMegarienne b y S ymphorien V an d e Maele.

2 8.

2 37

P reliminary R econnaissance o n t he P rehistory o f C entral G reece b y N icolas R olland.

2 5.

2 19

T he I onian I slands P aleo-economy R esearch P roject b y T .

2 0.

Murray.

V ance W atrous.

11 1

2 79

2 83

2 87

2 91

t he L asithi P lain i n t o t he L ate R oman P eriod

2 95

C HAPTER 8 ( continued) 4 1.

PAGE

A rchaeological S urvey o f C rete)

4 2.

t he K ommos A rea

( South 2 97

1 970-1980 b y R ichard H ope S impson.

K hania A rchaeological

S ite S urvey b y J ennifer M oody.

3 01

T urkey: 4 3.

S urface S urvey f or P rehistoric a nd E arly H istoric S ites i n N orthwestern T urkey b y M ehmet ö zdogan.

4 4.

3 03

R esearch S trategies i n t he L ower Maeander V alley i n S outhwestern T urkey:

R egional S ettlement P atterns

f rom t he E arly B ronze A ge t o t he M iddle B yzantine P eriod b y R onald T . Marchese. 5 2.

A rchaeological S urvey i n t he K eban R eservoir A rea, T urkey b y R obert W hallon.

5 3.

3 07

3 11

L ower E uphrates A rea S alvage P roject b y M ehmet O zdogan.

3 15

4 5.

G azetter o f E arly P rehistoric N icholas P . S tanley P rice.

3 21

4 6.

C anadian P alaipaphos S urvey

4 7.

B ronze A ge S ettlement P atterns i n S outhwest C yprus b y S tuart S winy.

4 8.

S ystematic S urvey i n t he Vasilikos V alley,

C yprus:

L arissa S . 4 9.

S ites i n C yprus b y

P roject

H ordynsky a nd J erald J .

S urface S urvey o f

b y D avid W .

R upp.

C yprus b y

J ohnson.

3 23

3 29

3 31

t he E arly Middle C ypriote S ettle-

ment n ear A lambra V illage,

C yprus b y K enneth W .

S chaar. 5 0.

L emba A rchaeological P roject b y E .

5 1.

K ataliontas-Kourvellos,

C yprus:

J . P eltenburg.

S urvey o f S ite a nd

I ts E nvirons b y T revor W atkins.

3 35 3 37

3 39

J ordan: W adi Z iglab S urvey b y E dward B .

5 5.

B aq'ah V alley P roject b y P atrick M cGovern.

3 45

5 6.

Wadi A l-Hasa S urvey

3 49

( 1979-82)

B anning.

3 41

5 4.

b y B urton MacDonald.

I srael: 5 7.

S urvey o f R oman a nd B yzantine S ites i n t he G olan H eights b y C laudine D auphin.

5 8.

N ahal A lexander R egional

5 9.

T he P rehistory o f

S urvey b y P aul S teinfield.

t he L ower J ordan V alley b y O fe r

B ar-Yosef. 6 0.

P rehistorical S urvey o f N ahal

( Wadi)

S hiqma b y

M ordechai L amdan. 6 1.

3 53 3 57

3 61

3 63

T he N egev E mergency S urvey b y R udolph C ohen.

3 67

L ate P leistocene-Early H olocene i n t he G ebel M ahara,

3 69

E gypt: 6 2.

i v

C HAPTER 8 ( continued

PAGE

N orthern S inai by U fer B ar-Yosef. 6 3.

A rchaeological S urvey i n t he N aukratis R egion o f Western Nile D elta b y William D .E. A lbert Leonard,

t he

C oulson a nd 3 71

J r.

C HAPTER 9 - FROGS AROUND THE P OND:

P ERSPECTIVES O N C URRENT

ARCHAEOLOGICAL S URVEY PROJECTS R EGION by J ohn F .

C herry

v

I N THE M EDITERRANEAN 3 75

C ONTRIBUTORS,

K EY:

* = C ontributor,

* +Prof.

Albert J .

D epartment

* Prof.

H .

B rooklyn,

Ammerman,

N ew Y ork,

E dward B .

B anning,

H ebrew University o f J erusalem,

I srael.

Daniel F .

T ampa,

B elknap,

o f G eology,

F lorida,

University o f

S outh F lorida,

U .S.A.

K eith B ranigan,

D epartment o f C lassics, B ristol,

University o f B ristol,

E ngland.

J ohn F .

C herry,

Museum o f C lassical A rchaeology, C ambridge D B3 * Dr.

University o f T oronto,

C anada.

O fe r B ar-Yosef,

D epartment

* Dr.

B rooklyn C ollege,

o f N ear E astern S tudies,

O ntario,

J erusalem,

*+Dr.

a t B inghamton,

U .S.A.

I nstitute o f A rchaeology,

* Dr.

S .U.N.Y.

U .S.A.

o f Anthropology, N ew Y ork,

D epartment T oronto,

x = Discussion Participant

A rthur B ankoff,

D epartment

* Prof.

+ = P anelist,

o f Anthropology,

B inghamton,

* Dr.

P ANELISTS AND D ISCUSSION P ARTICIPANTS

9 DA,

C ambridge University,

E ngland.

R udolph C ohen,

I srael A rchaeological S urvey, J erusalem, P rof.

P .O.

B ox 5 86,

I srael.

William D .E.

C oulson,

D epartment o f C lassics,

University o f Minnesota-Twin C ities,

Minneapolis, Minnesota,

U .S.A.

*+Prof.

L uc D aels,

S eminarie v oor R egionale Aardrijskunde, G ent, *Mr.

C esare D 'Annibale,

D epartment S t. * Dr.

R ijksuniversiteit,

B elgium.

o f C lassics,

C atharines,

B rock University,

O ntario,

C anada.

C laudine D auphin,

S omerville C ollege, O xford O X2 * Prof.

6 HD,

J ack L .

D epartment C hicago,

O xford University,

E ngland.

D avis,

o f C lassics,

I llinois,

University o f

U .S.A.

vii

I llinois-Chicago C ircle,

* Mr.

A rchie W .

D unn,

C entre f or B yzantine S tudies, B irmingham B I5 2 TT, E ngland. * Prof.

S tephen L .

D yson,

A rchaeology L aboratory, W esleyan, * Mr.

C onnecticut

W esleyan U niversity,

,U .S.A.

N ikolaos E fstratiou,

I nstitute o f A rchaeology, L ondon, * +Prof.

University o f L ondon,

E ngland.

J ohn M .

F ossey,

D epartment o f C lassics, M ontreal, * Mr.

University o f B irmingham,

Q uebec,

M cGill University,

C anada.

Michalis F otiades,

P rogram i n C lassical A rchaeology, B loomington, * Dr.

T om W .

I ndiana,

G allant,

M useum o f C lassical A rchaeology, C ambridge C B3 * Ms.

9 DA,

C ambridge University,

E ngland.

G inette G auvin,

D epartment o f C lassics, M ontreal, * Dr.

I ndiana University,

U .S.A.

Q uebec,

Y vonne C .

M cGill University,

C anada.

G oester,

A rchaeologisch I nstituut, U trecht, * Mr.

N etherlands.

J oseph A .

G reene,

T he O riental I nstitute, C hicago, * +Prof.

I llinois,

T imothy G regory,

D epartment o f H istory, C olumbus, * Prof.

O hio,

O hio S tate University,

U .S.A.

P amela H emphill,

D epartment o f A rt, W est C hester, * Prof.

W est C hester

P ennsylvania,

R ichard H ope

K ingston,

O ntario,

Q ueen's University,

C anada.

L arissa H ordynsky,

D epartment Waltham, xMs.

S tate C ollege,

U .S.A .

S impson,

D epartment o f C lassics,

* Ms.

University o f C hicago,

U .S.A.

o f C lassical a nd O riental S tudies,

Massachusetts,

B randeis University,

U .S.A.

G loria I kosia,

C lassical A rchaeology P rogram, B loomington,

I ndiana,

I ndiana University,

U .S.A.

v iii

* Prof.

J erald J ohnson,

D epartment o f Anthropology, S acramento, *+Mr.

C alifornia,

C alifornia S tate U niversity,

U .S.\.

H ans K ammermans,

Albert E gges van G iffen I nstituut v oor P rae-en P rotohistorie, Universiteit van Amsterdam, Amsterdam, +Ms.

N etherlands.

I na K ehrberg,

D epartment o f A rchaeology, S ydney, *+Mr.

University o f

D onald R . K eller,

C lassical A rchaeology P rogram, B loomington, * Prof.

I ndiana,

R oger H .

L ondon,

M .

K ing,

Ontario,

Mordechai Lamdan, I srael.

S usan H .

L oving,

Museum o f Anthropology, Ann A rbor, * Prof.

Michigan,

o f

S ociology a nd Anthropology,

F rancis X avier University,

Antigonish, * Prof.

N ova S cotia,

R onald T .

Duluth, * Prof.

Minnesota,

William A .

S tudies, University o f Minnesota-Twin C ities,

Minnesota,

U .S.A.

P atrick M cGovern,

MASCA,

University Museum,

Philadelphia, *Mr.

University o f M innesota-Duluth,

U .S.A.

M cDonald,

C enter f or Ancient Minneapolis,

C anada.

Marchese,

D epartment o f H istory,

* Dr.

University o f Michigan,

U .S.A.

B urton MacDonald,

D epartment S t.

University o f W estern O ntario,

C anada.

S tekelis Museum o f P rehistory,

Haifa, *Ms.

I ndiana University,

U .S.A.

D epartment o f G eography,

* Dr.

S ydney,

A ustralia.

Manoli M .

U .S.A.

Melas,

B edford C ollege, L ondon,

University o f P ennsylvania,

P ennsylvania,

University o f L ondon,

E ngland.

* Dr. N igel T .W. Mills, Department o f P rehistory a nd A rchaeology, S heffield,

University o f

S heffield,

E ngland.

*+Ms. J ennifer M oody, C enter f or Ancient S tudies, Minneapolis,

M innesota,

University o f Minnesota-Twin C ities,

U .S.A.

i x

x Prof.

J ohn M organ,

D epartment o f P hysics,

P rinceton University,

P rinceton, N ew J ersey, U .S.A. x Prof.

J ames Muhly,

D epartment o f A ncient H istory, University o f P ennsylvania, P hiladelphia, P ennsylvania, U .S.A. +Ms.

P riscilla M urray,

C lassical A rchaeology P rogram, B loomington, I ndiana, U .S.A. * Prof.

I ndiana U niversity,

W illiam M urray,

D epartment o f H istory, University o f T ampa, * +Prof.

F lorida, J .

S outh F lorida,

U .S.A.

W ilson Myers,

D epartment o f H umanities, M ichigan S tate University, E ast L ansing, M ichigan, U .S.A. x Dr.

A llessandra N ibbi,

1 3 L ovelace R oad, O xford, x Mr.

E ngland.

R obin O sborne,

B ritish S chool o f A rchaeology a t A thens, A thens, * Dr.

G reece.

Mehmet O zdogan,

D epartment o f P rehistory, I stanbul, * Prof.

E .J.

I stanbul University,

T urkey. P eltenberg,

D epartment o f A rchaeology, University o f E dinburgh, E dinburgh, +Mr.

S cotland.

Daniel J .

P ullen,

C lassical A rchaeology P rogram, B loomington, * +Dr.

I ndiana U niversity,

I ndiana, U .S.A.

R einder R einders,

L angezand 7 8a, 8 223 W .G. * Ms.

L elystad,

N etherlands.

C laude R oberto,

D epartment o f C lassics, University o f A lberta, E dmonton, * Prof.

A lberta,

C anada.

N icolas R olland,

D epartment o f Anthropology, University o f V ictoria, V ictoria,

B ritish C olumbia,

C anada.

* Dr. J . R oy, D epartment o f Ancient H istory a nd C lassical A rchaeology, University o f S heffield, S heffield,

E ngland.

*+Dr.

C urtis R unnels,

Department o f C lassics, Palo A lto, * +Prof.

C alifornia,

David W .

D epartment S t.

R upp,

o f C lassics,

C atharines,

* Prof.

S tanford University, U .S.A.

B rock University,

O ntario,

J eremy B .

C anada.

R utter,

Department o f C lassics,

D artmouth C ollege,

H anover,

U .S.A.

* Mr.

N ew H ampshire,

A dmantios S ampson,

A rchaeological Museum o f T hebes, Thebes, * +Prof.

Kenneth W .

D epartment R uston, * +Dr.

G reek A rchaeological S ervice,

G reece. S chaar,

o f A rchitecture,

L ouisiana,

B o ndar

L ouisiana T ech University,

U .S.A.

S la dak,

D epartment o f A rchaeology, University o f L jubljana, L jubljana, * Prof.

A lastair S mall,

Department E dmonton, x Prof.

Yugoslavia.

o f C lassics, A lberta,

C arolyn S nively,

D epartment o f C lassics, S yracuse, * Prof.

University o f A lberta,

C anada.

N ew Y ork,

S yracuse University,

U .S.A.

Augustus S ordinas,

D epartment o f Anthropology, Memphis Memphis, *+Dr.

T ennessee,

N icolas P .

S tate University,

U .S.A.

S tanley P rice,

I nternational C entre f or C onservation - R ome, R ome, + Dr.

I taly.

P aul S teinfeld,

D epartment o f A nthropology, N ew Y ork,

N ew Y ork,

* Prof. L awrence G uy S traus, D epartment o f Anthropology, A lbuquerque, * +Dr.

D onald G .

D epartment B erkeley, * Dr.

University o f N ew M exico,

N ew M exico, U .S.A. S ullivan,

o f G eography, C alifornia,

S tuart

C olumbia University,

U .S.A.

University o f C alifornia,

U .S.A.

S winy,

C yprus American A rchaeological R esearch I nstitute, N icosia,

C yprus.

x i

* Dr.

G eriche J .M.J.

t e R iele,

Universiteit van Amsterdam, U trecht, * Prof.

N etherlands.

S ymphorien V an d e Mad e,

D epartment o f C lassics, O ttawa, * +Dr.

O ntario,

O ttawa University,

C anada.

Albertus V oorrips,

A lbert E gges van G iften I nstituut v oor P rae-en P rotohistorie, Universiteit van Amsterdam, A sterdam, * Prof.

N etherlands.

T revor Watkins,

D epartment o f A rchaeology, E dinburgh E H8 x Dr.

9 JZ,

University o f E dinburgh,

S cotland.

B erit W ells,

D epartment o f C lassical A rchaeology, L und, * Prof.

R obert Whallon,

Museum o f Anthropology, Ann A rbor, * +Mr.

L und U niversity,

S weden,

Michigan,

University o f M ichigan,

U .S.A.

J ere W ickens,

C lassical A rchaeology P rogram, B loomington, * Prof.

I ndiana,

E dith Wightman,

D epartment o f H istory, H amilton, * Prof.

I ndiana U niversity,

U .S.A.

M cMaster University,

O ntario,

C anada.

F rederick A .

W inter,

D epartment o f Anthropology, B rooklyn,

N ew Y ork,

B rooklyn C ollege,

U .S.A.

x ii

L IST O F F IGURES C HAPTER 1 F ig.

F ig.

I

2

P AGE

Map o f t he western a nd c entral M editerranean a rea w ith t he l ocation o f s urvey p rojects i ndicated. Map o f

t he A egean S ea a rea with t he l ocation o f

t he

s urvey p rojects i ndicated. F ig.

3 A

F ig.

3 B

4

1 1

Map o f C rete a nd t he D odecanese I slands w ith t he l ocation o f

F ig.

9

t he s urvey p rojects i ndicated.

Map o f C yprus with t he l ocation o f i ndicated.

1 3

t he s urvey p rojects 1 3

Map o f e astern Mediterranean a rea with t he l ocation o f t he s urvey p rojects i ndicated.

1 5

C HAPTER 3 F ig.

1

Map o f n orthern S porades I slands,

G reece.

5 8

C HAPTER 4 F ig.

1

C ollapsible,

w ooden,

c ollection f rames b eing u sed t o

make a t ransect o r g ridded s trip,

s urface c ollection u p

t he s lope o f a h igh m ount i n t he K eban R eservoir s urvey. F ig.

2

C ollapsible, w ooden,

7 9

c ollection f rames b eing u sed i n a

c ontrolled s urface c ollection o f a l ow m ount i n t he 7 9

K eban R eservoir s urvey. F ig.

3

A r andom s ampling d esign b ased o n p olar c oordinates, u sed f or t he s urface c ollection o f o ne o f t he s mall 8 0

m ounds i n t he K eban R eservoir s urvey. F ig.

4

E stablishing b y p olar c oordinates t he l ocation o f o ne o f t he c ollection s quares o n t he s ite i n F ig.

F ig.

5

8 0

3 .

U sing a s ighting s tick t o m ark t he p osition a nd o rient ation o f t he f irst s ide o f t he c ollections s quare l ocated i n F ig.

F ig.

6

81

4 .

P inning d own t he f irst c orner o f a s tring s quare a s a c ollection f rame f or t he s quare p ositioned i n F ig.

F ig.

7

F ig.

8

F ig.

9

P ulling o ut t he f irst s ide o f

t he s tring s quare,

5 .

u sing

t he s ighting s tick a s a g uide.

8 2

U sing a measured d iagonal s tring t o e stablish a p recise r ight a ngle b etween t wo s ides o f t he s tring s quare.

8 2

C ompleting t he s tring s quare b y p inning o ut t he l ast c orner.

F ig.

1 0

8 1

8 3

A t horough s urface c ollection b eing c arried o ut within t he c onfines o f t he e xact s quare c reated b y t he t echn ique i llustrated i n F igs.

A -9.

8 3

C HAPTER 6 T able 1

S ite X :

S ample r ecording f orm f or a ll s herds r ecovered. 1 41

T able 2

S ite X :

S ample r ecording f orm f or i dentifiable s herds.

1 42

C HAPTER 8

P AGE

I taly: F ig.

1

M ap s howing l ocation o f

t he A gro P ontino,

P rov.

o f

L atina, I taly a nd a d etailed p hysiographic m ap o f t he r egion.

1 81 1 85

F ig.

1

Map o f

F ig.

1

M ap o f t he F iumara d i A vigliano i n t he P latano/Sele r iver v alley i n t he P rovince o f P otenza i n s outhern I taly.

1 88

I nset o f F igure 1 s howing t he t opography o f t he s tudy z one a round S an G iovanni d i R uoti.

1 89

F ig.

F ig.

2

3

Map o f

t he L iri V alley,

t he s tudy z one a round S an G iovanni d i R uoti

i ndicating l ocation o f F ig.

I

Map o f

I taly s howing a reas s urveyed.

s ites d iscovered.

1 90

t he c hora o f M etaponto i n s outhern I taly

s howing t he s tudy z one.

O pen c ircles = e xcavated s ites;

s olid c ircles = s ites f ound by s urvey.

1 93

T unisia: F ig.

1

C arthage S urvey r egion b y t he s urvey.

( Tunisia),

s howing s ites l ocated

M odern t owns l abeled f or r eference.

1 99

Y ugoslavia: F ig.

1

Map o f J asenica R iver d rainage i n t he l ower M orava V alley,

Y ugoslavia.

2 06

G reece: F ig.

1

Map o f L ower S trymon r iver valley i n e astern Macedonia, G reece s howing l ocation o f t he s tudy z one.

F ig.

I

Map s howing a rea a round a ncient c ity o f H alos,

T hessaly,

G reece. F ig.

I

M ap o f

t he W estern c oast o f Akarnania,

G reece s howing

s ites s urveyed. F ig.

1

M ap o f t he a reas s urveyed a t t he p olis o f P ronnoi o n K ephallenia,

F ig.

2

Map o f

I onian I slands,

t he a reas s urveyed a t t he p olis o f L eukas

( modern L efkas), F ig.

1

G reece.

I onian I slands,

M ap o f E uboia a nd E astern A ttica,

1

Map o f B oiotia,

G reece s howing

I

G reece s howing l ocation o f G reek

1

D etailed map o f K hostia a rea i n B oiotia s howing a reas

M ap o f

t he K ephissog a nd K opaic B asins,

B oiotia,

G reece

s howing a reas s urveyed a nd p rehistoric s ites l ocated. F ig.

1

M ap o f t he T hisbe B asin o f B oiotia,

G reece s howing t he

a reas s urveyed i n 1 979 a nd 1 981. F ig.

1

F ronti re a ttico-mggarienne: O ros.

x iv

2 25

2 36

s urveyed a nd s ites. F ig.

2 22

2 29

p oleis a nd o ther s ites. F ig.

2 18

2 26

G reece.

l ocation o f p rehistoric s ites. F ig.

2 10

l es e nvirons d u F aterqs,

2 39

2 43

2 47

2 53

P AGE F ig.

2

F ronti re a ttico-megarienne:

l es e nvirons d u

T rikeraton. F ig.

I

Map o f

2 54

t he P erakhora p eninsula,

C orinthia,

G reece

s howing l ocations o f a rchaeological s ites. F ig.

1

Map o f

t he C orinthia,

G reece s howing l ocations o f

C lassical a nd H ellenistic F ig.

I

2 55

f ortifications.

Map o f t he s outhern A rgolid,

2 59

G reece s howing t he a reas

s ampled within s tudy z one. F ig.

F ig.

F ig.

I

I

I

2 64

Map o f t he s tudy z one i n t he T hyreatis

i n t he P lain o f

A stros, G reece s howing l ocation o f a ncient s ites d iscovered.

2 66

Map o f t he a rea S outh o f t he a ncient c ity o f M egalopo lis, A rcadia, G reece.

2 69

Map o f a s ection o f P eloponnesos o f L ävdha.

t he N omos o f E lis i n t he W estern

( Greece)

s howing l ocation o f t he s ite 2 71

F ig.

2

Map o f

t he a rea a round t he s ite o f L ävdha,

F ig.

I

Map o f

t he i sland o f K eos,

C yclades,

G reece.

G reece,

s howing

C lassical p eriod c ity-state c entres. F ig.

F ig.

I

I

Map o f t he i sland o f Melos,

( Greece)

s howing 2 81

Map o f t he D odecanese I slands, o f a rchaeological s ites.

2 85

I

Map o f K asos,

F ig.

I

Map o f

I

2 77

s ampling t ransects a nd l ocation o f n ew s ites.

F ig.

F ig.

C yclades

2 72

G reece s howing l ocation

K arpathos a nd S aria,

G reece.

2 89

t he A yiofarango d rainage i n s outhern C rete,

G reece s howing g eology.

2 94

Map o f s outhwestern C rete, G reece s howing t he s tudy z one a round t he s ite o f K ommos.

2 99

T urkey: F ig.

I

Map o f E astern T hrace a nd t he M armara R egion

( Turkey)

s howing t he l ocation o f a rchaeological s ites i dentified i n t he s urvey. F ig.

F ig.

F ig.

F ig.

I

2

I

I

Map o f W estern A natolia,

3 05

T urkey s howing l ocation o f

t he L ower Maeander d rainage a nd t he a rea o f s tudy.

3 09

Map o f t he L ower Maeander R iver d rainage b asin s howing l ocation o f s ites.

3 10

( Turkey)

Map o f t he a rea o f t he K eban r eservoir i n e astern T urkey s howing t he a reas s urveyed.

3 13

Map o f t he s tudy a rea o f t he L ower E uphrates A rea S tudy P roject s howing l ocation o f t he t wo r eservoir

3 17

a reas. F ig.

2

T he r eservoir a rea o f

t he K arakaya D am i ndicating t ype

o f s urvey c overage. F ig.

3

Map o f t ype o f

3 18

t he r eservoir a rea o f s urvey c overage. XV

t he K arababa D am i ndicating

3 19

P AGE C yprus: F ig.

I

Map o f C PSP s tudy z one i n P aphos D istrict,

C yprus,

with t he s urvey d esign i ndicated. F ig.

F ig.

2

S ites f ound b y C PSP d uring 1 979, s easons.

1

T opographical m ap o f

3 26 1 980 a nd 1 982

t he E piskopi

f ield 3 27

( Limassol D istrict),

C yprus a rea s howing t he l ocation o f a rchaeological s ites d iscovered i n t he s urvey. F ig.

I

Map o f t he V asilikos v alley

( Larnaca D istrict),

C yprus

s howing s urvey t ransects a nd l ocation o f s ites. F ig.

1

Map o f

3 30

3 33

t he s urvey z one a round t he B ronze A ge s ettlement

s ite a t A lambra

( Nicosia D istrict,

C yprus)

s howing t he

l ocation o f t he e xcavations a nd t he s ampling q uadrats.

3 36

J ordan: F ig.

1

Map o f J ordan s howing t he g eneral l ocation o f t he s urvey a rea i n t he W adi Z iglab. 3 43

F ig.

2

D etailed map o f t he W adi Z iglab s howing s tudy z one a nd l ocation o f t he s ampling u nits.

F ig.

1

3 44

A .

Map o f J ordan s howing t he l ocation o f I nsert B .

B .

D etail o f t he g eneral a rea a round B aq'ah v alley

a nd t he l ocation o f t he Umm a d-Dananir R egion C , F ig.

2

F ig.

D etailed map o f

3 48 t he Umm a d-Dananir R egion s tudy z one

i n t he B aq'ah V alley, s ites. F ig.

I

( Insert

2 ).

J ordan i ndicating l ocation o f 3 48

Map o f s tudy a rea i n t he W adi a l-Hasa,

J ordan.

3 52

I srael: F ig.

1

Map o f

t he G olan H eights,

I srael w ith s ites s urveyed 3 55

b y t he e xpedition. F ig.

1

Map o f I sraeli c oastal p lain w ith t he a rea o f t he N ahal A lexander R egional S urvey o utlined. 3 59

F ig.

2

Map o f

t he s tudy a rea o f t he N ahal A lexander R egional

S urvey s howing t ransects walked i n 1 977 a nd 1 978. F ig.

1

Map o f t he s outhern c oastal p lain o f I srael s howing

3 60

t he l ocation o f N ahal S hiqma s urvey a rea.

3 65

3 73

E gypt: F ig.

I

Map o f E gypt s howing l ocation o f s urvey a rea.

F ig.

2

Map s howing l ocation o f s ites d iscovered d uring t he s urvey i n t he s tudy a rea.

3 74

C HAPTER 9 F ig.

1

S ite p roductivity i n r elation t o s urvey a rea f or r ecent a nd e arlier G reek s urvey p rojects.

x vi

4 10

A CKNOWLEDGMENTS

T he C olloquium o wes i ts e xistence t o t he f inancial s upport a nd g ood a dvice o f P rof.

H enry I mmerwahr

,R etired D irector o f

American S chool o f C lassical S tudies a t A thens a nd t o P rof. W illiams,

D irector o f

S usan Y oung,

t he H ector

t he C anadian A rchaeological I nstitute a t A thens.

A ssistant D irector o f

t he C .A.I.A.,

c ontributed v aluable

l ogistical a nd m oral s upport. T he t rouble-free e xecution o f

t he C olloquium w as t he r esult o f

t he e nthusiastic w ork o f Andrea D eagon, M cLauchlin.

S haron D eHoff a nd B arbara

T he s taff o f t he H ellenic American Union i n A thens a re

a lso t o b e t hanked.

P rof.

a nd M rs.

C olin E dmonsen o f

t he American

S chool o f C lassical S tudies g raciously e ntertained t he p articipants o f

t he C olloquium f or w hich w e w ere a ll g rateful. T he e ditors s hared p reparation o f

w ith many i ndividuals. S ervices u nder M rs. t ranscribed t he c ontributions;

t his manuscript f or p ublication

W e t hank t he t ypists i n t he O ffice o f C lerical

J enny G urski's d irection a t B rock U niversity w ho

t apes o f t he d iscussions a nd t hen t yped t he various H elen D unlop, Margaret K alogeropoulos,

C esare D 'Annibale

a nd A dele R omak p erformed n umerous t hankless t asks t o e nsure a s uitable f inal p roduct.

W ithout E lizabeth R upp's e fforts a t p roof r eading a nd

e diting t he manuscript w ould n ot h ave b een f inished. T he f oresight o f P rof. o f C lassics a nd P rof.

A lan D .

B ooth,

M aurice Y acowar,

C hairman o f

t he D epartment

D ean o f H umanities a t B rock

University t o s upport t he p reparation o f t his v olume i s g ratefully a cknowledged. T heir p atience was a ppreciated. W e a lso w ish t o t hank a n a nonymous r eviewer o f

t he manuscript

who s uggested a n umber o f c hanges t o i mprove t he o rganization a nd c ontent o f

t he v olume.

T he maps f or C hapter I w ere d rawn b y B ernice C ardy a nd L oris G asparotto a nd C esare D 'Annibale a dded t he i nformation.

x vii

C HAPTER 1

I NTRODUCTION

D avid W .

R upp a nd D onald R .

K eller

D uring t he p ast t wo d ecades t here h as b een a g rowing n umber o f a rchaeological r econnaissance a nd s ite s urvey p rojects i n t he c ountries b ordering t he M editerranean S ea ( Ammerman, 1 981; D yson, 1 982). T he i mpetus f or t he d ifferent r esearch e fforts v aries. S ome s urveys l imit t heir e nergies t o a p articular c hronological o r c ultural p hase, w hile o thers f ocus o n t he l ocation o f c ertain t ypes o f m ation.

W ith i ncreasing f requency,

w ith l arger r esearch g oals.

h owever,

s ite o r i nfor-

s urveys g o i nto t he f ield

M ore c ommon n ow a re t he r egional s urveys

t hat a re e cologically o riented a nd s trive t o c ollect d ata c oncerning t he d iachronic m an-environment r elationship

( Ammerman,

1 981).

S urveys a re a n e conomical n on-destructive m eans o f c ollecting p rimary d ata f rom a l arge a rea. e xcavation,

o n t he o ther h and,

I nformation g athered t hrough i s m ore d etailed,

b ut i s s ite s pecific

a nd l imited b y n ecessity t o a r elatively f ew l ocations i n a ny g iven r egion.

I deally e xcavation a nd s urvey r esults s hould b e c omplementary.

S urveys p rovide d ata r elating t o t he p olitical,

e conomic a nd s ocial

o rganizations o f c ultures a s a w hole b y a ddressing t he t opics o f p olitical d ivisions i n a nd e conomic e xploitation o f t he l andscape. A ncient b oundaries,

r oads a nd t he d istribution o f a rtifacts o n t he

s urface p rovide e vidence o n t hese t opics a s w ell a s t he p roblems o f t rade a nd c ommunications,

s pheres o f c ultural i nfluence a nd s ettle-

m ent p atterns. K nowledge o f d emographic t rends, a nd t he p ast e xploita tion o f n atural r esources ( agricultural l and, f ishing a reas, q uarries a nd mines e tc.)

a re b est a pproached t hrough s urvey r esearch.

I ndependent o f

t he a wareness o f t he a rchaeological v alue o f

s urvey

r esearch t here r emains a p ragmatic r eason f or t he u rgency o f r edoubling s urvey e fforts i n t he M editerranean r egion.

T he e ver i ncreasing r apid

a lteration o f t he a ncient l andscape w orking i n t his a rea a nd t he d estruction o f c ultural r emains i s a r eal c oncern a mong a rchaeologists. I t i s n ot o nly t he h abitation s ites w hich a re t hreatened b ut a lso t he a ncient t erracing, i rrigation s ystems a nd r oads. A ll o f t hese e lements a re i mportant i n r econstructing p ast h uman a nd e nvironmental c onditions a nd t heir i nteraction. T he e xpansion o f m echanized a gricultural p ractices,

c onstruction o f r oads,

i rrigation p rojects,

i ndustrial

z ones a nd m ore e specially t he d evelopment o f c oastal a reas f or t ourism a nd l ocal s ummer h ome c omplexes a re d estroying u ntold n umbers o f k nown a nd u nknown s ites a nd a ltering t he p hysical a ppearance o f t he l and. A s C . R unnels ( 1981) h as d emonstrated, t he r ising c ommercial v alue o f c oastal l and i s i n i tself e nough t o l ead t o t he d estruction o f s ites. A nother p ractical c onsideration w hich e ncourages s urvey e fforts i s t he r ising e xpense o f c onducting e ven s mall s cale e xcavations. B ased o n o ur o wn i ndividual e xperiences a s w ell a s t hose o f m any o ther a rchaeologists e ngaged i n s urvey w ork i n t he M editerranean a rea, w e d iscovered t hat m ost o f t hese r esearchers h ad l ittle i dea o f w hat o thers w ere d oing

( or h ad d one)

e lsewhere i n t he r egion.

1

R elatively

f ew s urveys h ave b een a dequately p ublished a nd a s urprising n umber a re k nown o nly i n t he f orm o f a b rief p assing r eference i n t he s cholarly l iterature.

T his l ack o f c ommunication i s d ue i n p art t o

t he undramatic a nd p rosaic a ura o f s urvey w ork i n a r egion w here a rchaeology h as t raditionally m eant t he e xcavation o f c ities, s anct uaries o f c emeteries a nd i n p art t o t he i nevitable t ime l ag b etween t he f ield w ork a nd t he c omprehensive p ublication o f t he r esults. s pite o f

t his,

I n

t here i s a n i ncreasing a wareness a nd i nterest i n s urvey-

i ng a mong a rchaeologists a nd a s a r esult t here a re a l arge n umber o f s urveys n ow i n p rogress o r t he p lanning s tage. I n o rder t o a ssist i n t he e stablishment o f

l ines o f c ommunication

a nd p romote e xchange o f i nformation a nd i deas a C olloquium o n A rchaeol ogical S urveying i n t he M editerranean A rea w as o rganized b y t he a uthors a nd h eld i n A thens, G reece, o n t he 2 3 - 2 5 J une 1 981 a t t he H ellenic American Union.

T he c olloquium w as j ointly s ponsored b y t he

A merican S chool o f C lassical S tudies a t A thens a nd t he C anadian A rchaeological I nstitute a t A thens. T he f ormat w as f ive i nformal p anel d iscussions f ollowed b y q uestions a nd c omments f rom t he a udience. T he p anels'

t opics w ere d efinition a nd t erminology,

m ethodology, f ield t echniques, p retation o f d ata.

t heory a nd

e nvironmental i nformation a nd i nter-

T he s pecific a genda o f e ach p anel w as d etermined b y r esponses t o a n e arlier c anvassing o f

s urvey a rchaeologists b y t he a uthors f or

o pinions c oncerning t he n eeds a nd g oals o f t he p roposed c olloquium. I t m ust b e e mphasized t hat n o f ormal p apers w ere r ead d uring t he m eetings.

I t w as t he a uthors'

i ntent t o h ave t he p articipants t alk

t o e ach o ther n ot a t e ach o ther. o f p ast,

I n a ddition,

p resent a nd p lanned s urveys,

a c ollection o f a bstracts

a n umber o f

s upplementary

d iscussion p apers, v arious s ample s urvey r ecording f orms w ere s olicited f rom t hose a ttending a nd o thers who c ould n ot a ttend. T hese i tems a nd a b asic b ibliography w ere d istributed t o t he c olloquium p articipants a s b ackground i nformation f or t he p anel d iscussions. S ixty-five i ndividuals f rom e leven n ations r epresented o ver f ifty s urvey p rojects t hroughout t he M editerranean c ountries a t t he C olloquium. E ach d iscussion p anel w as c omposed o f

s ix t o e ight

s cholars.

T heir

d ifferent e xperiences a nd p oints o f v iew i nsured l ively e xchanges a nd s timulated

s pirited c omments f rom t he a udience.

T he d iverse c ultural,

c hronological a nd g eographical i nterests o f t he p articipants s erved t o f ocus t he d irection o f

t he d iscussions o n t he s pecific a nd g eneral

i ssues o f M editerranean s urvey r esearch a s s uch a nd t hus l essened d igressions i nto r egional o r l imited i ssues. T his w as n ot

t he f irst

s uch m eeting o f a rchaeologists i nterested

i n s urvey r esearch i n t he M editerranean a rea.

A S ymposium e ntitled

' Regional Analysis i n A rchaeology' was h eld a t t he a nnual m eeting o f t he A rchaeological I nstitute o f America i n 1 978

i n V ancouver,

B ritish

C olumbia, C anada. I n a s eminar e ntitled ' Archaeology a nd I talian S ociety' h eld i n 1 980 a t t he S heffield U niversity, t here w as d iscussion o f

s urvey w ork i n I taly

( Barker a nd H odges,

' Field S urvey T echniques: t ook p lace a t

1 981).

A w orkshop e ntitled

R esearch D esign a nd S ampling P rocedures'

t he 1 981 a nnual m eeting o f

O riental R esearch i n S an F rancisco, a ' table r onde'

e ntitled

l 'occupation d u

s ol' m et i n P aris,

t he American S chool o f

C alifornia,

U .S.A.

A nd f inally

' Prospection e t h istorie d u p aysage e t d e F rance i n 1 982 b y t he D irection

2

R egionale d es A ntiquities H istoriques d u C entre i n O rleans. T he m ain g oals o f t he C olloquium ( and o f t his p ublication) a re t o d escribe t he s tate o f t he a rt a s i t e xists i n 1 981/82, t o i dentify v arious p roblems f acing a rchaeological s urveys t oday a nd t o s uggest p ossible s olutions t o t hem, a nd t o c ommunicate t he r esults o f d iscussions t o o thers i nterested i n s urvey r esearch.

t hese

T hat t hese p roblems a nd d iscussions a re s ignificant w ill b e o bvious. T he t opics a nd p roblems d iscussed w ill r emain i n f ocus f or t he n ext d ecade b ecause o f t he t ime i t t akes t o i ntegrate n ew i deas a nd a pproaches i nto r esearch d esigns, t o c ollect t he d ata r elated t o t hem i n t he f ield, t o o btain t he r esults f rom t he a nalysis o f t he d ata a nd f inally t o c ommunicate t his i nformation t o t he a rchaeological c ommunity. P resenting t he s uccesses a nd f ailures o f t he e arlier a nd c ontemporary s urvey p rojects w ill p otentially e nable o ther a rchaeol ogists t o a void r epeating t he t rials a nd e rrors o f p revious r esearch. W e b elieve t hat t he p roblems, i deas, i nsights, m ethodological a pproaches u sed a re u niversal o nes a pplicable w ith m odification t o a ll s urvey p rojects i n t he M editerranean a rea. T he c ontents o f t his v olume c ontain f or t he m ost p art w hat t he p articipants h eard a nd r ead. F urther d iscussion p apers, a bstracts a nd t he c oncluding e ssay b y J ohn C herry h ave b een a dded. T he s urveying b ibliography a nd s ample o f r ecording f orms h ave b een d eleted. T he r eferences c ontained i n t he v arious c ontributions c reate a n a mple b ibliography. I t s hould b e n oted t hat o ur d efinition o f ' Mediterranean a rea' i s v ery b road, a nd i t i ncludes p arts o f a ny c ountry t hat b orders o n t he M editerranean S ea a s w ell a s J ordan. T he s ummaries o f t he d iscussion w hich f ollow r epresent w hat w e c onsider i s t he e ssence o f e ach t hree a nd a h alf h our p anel d iscussion w hich w e t aped. T he p articipants' c omments a re p araphrased w ith o ccasional d irect q uotations. F or t he s ake o f b revity i nconsequential a nd/or r epetitious d ialogues w ere o mitted. T here a re a lso c omments a nd q uestions f rom m embers o f t he a udience w hose n ames a ppear a t t he b eginning o f e ach d iscussion s ummary. S ome o f t he m ajor p oints o n w hich g eneral a greement w as r eached i n t he d iscussions a re: 1 . T he i mportant r ole s urvey w ork p lays i n t he c onservation o f t he c ultural h eritage o f t he r egion. T his p reservation i s c onsidered a r esponsibility o f a ll a rchaeologists, r egardless o f t heir n ationality o r t he c ountry i n w hich t hey w ork. 2 . T he n eed t o e valuate c ritically s urvey r esearch s trategies d eveloped o utside t he c ultural a nd e nvironmental m ilieu o f t he M editerranean b efore a ttempting t o a dopt a t heory o f m ethodology • w hich

' worked e lsewhere'.

3 . V arious r esearch s trategies m ay b e e qually v alid. T he s trategies e mployed w ill b e d etermined b y t he i ndividual r esearch g oals, p roject r esources, n ature o f t he l andscape t o b e s urveyed a nd m any o ther v ariables.

A nd t his d emands t hat m ore e xact a nd e xplicit e xplanation

a nd d escription o f r esearch g oals, m ethodology a nd f ield p rocedures a nd t erminology u sed b e p rovided i n t he s urvey p ublication. T he 3

d ifficulties i n c omparing t he r esults f rom d ifferent s urveys a nd i n m aking a nalogical u se o f r aw d ata f rom v arious s urveys a re n ot d ue n ecessarily t o t he d ifferent s trategies u sed, r esearch g oals, a nd g eographical a reas o f t he s urveys b ut r ather t o t he l ack o f a dequate p ublication o f t hese i ssues i n t he f inal r eport o f e ach s urvey. 4 . T he g eomorphological a nd e nvironmental d ata a s w ell a s o ther ' nons ite' i nformation a re i mportant e lements i n t he u nderstanding a nd i nterpretation o f t he c ultural d ata. 5 . T he p resent s urface c onfiguration o f a s ite i s n ot s tatic a nd t hus c an b e c onsidered o nly a s a n i ndication o f t he s ubsurface r emains. M any v ariables s uch a s d egree o f m odern d isturbance, s oil d epth c ome i nto c onsideration. A h igher d egree o f c onfidence c an b e p laced o n t he a ccuracy o f t he s urface i ndications t hrough r esurveying o f t he s ite, o ptimally a t d ifferent s easons o ver s everal y ears. 6 . T he m ore i ntense t he s urface c overage b y t he s urvey, t he h igher t he p robability t hat t he r esults o f t he s urvey r eflect t he d ata u niverse. 7 . I t i s a r eciprocal r esponsibility o f e xcavations t o d evote m ore a ttention t o t he s tudy a nd p ublication o f a ll a rtifact c lasses f rom s tratified c ontexts. F ragments o f m ill s tones, r oof t iles, k itchen w are a nd c oarse w are a nd p ithoi w hich a re s corned o n m any e xcavations c onstitute t he b ulk o f m aterial f ound o n t he s urface b y s urveys. T his m aterial i s p otentially c rucial f or d etermining t he d ate a nd f unction o f s ites.

1 )

T he d iscussions p roduced l ess a greement o n s everal t opics: a w orkable a nd u niversal d efinition o f a s ite, 2 ) c ollection v ersus

n on-collection o f s urface a rtifacts, 3 ) t he m erits o f v arious s ampling s trategies, 4 ) t he i mportance o f a nd m eans f or r ecording ' non-sites' a nd 5 ) t he d esirability o r f easibility o f a u niform r ecording s ystem w ithin a p articular c ountry. T he c ontributions w hich f ollow a n umber o f t he p anel s ummaries c ontain d iscussions o f s pecific t opics r elating t o t he a genda o f t he p anel. S ometimes t hese t opics w ere r aised i n t he e xchanges a nd s omet imes t hey a re n ew i ssues. O ne o f t he g oals o f t his p ublication i s t hat a n a ctive d ialogue w ill b e s timulated b y t he d iscussion s ummaries a nd e ssays o n t he g oals, m ethods a nd d irection f or s urveying i n t he M editerranean r egion i n t he f uture. T he i mportance o f t his d ialogue f or ' coordinating o ngoing e fforts a nd e ncouraging n ew w ork' h as a lready b een r ecognized

( Dyson,

1 982).

T he a bstracts c ontain r eports o f c urrent s urvey p rojects a s w ell a s t hose c onducted i n t he p ast a nd t hose p lanned f or t he n ear f uture. T his c ollection i s a dmittedly n either s ystematic n or e xhaustive.

W e

e ndeavored, h owever, t o m ake i t a s e xtensive a nd r epresentative a s p ossible r elying o n o ur c olleagues t o v oluntarily s ubmit a bstracts. I nevitably, t he m ajority o f t he a bstracts c ome f rom G reece a nd C yprus w here t he a uthors a re c onducting t heir r esearch. T he a ccompanying m aps ( Figures 1 -4) s how t he l ocation o f t he s urveys d escribed i n t his v olume a nd t hose o thers w hich w ere k nown t o u s.

A s t he m aps i ndicate

s urveys h ave b een e xecuted i n a lmost e very a rea o f t he M editerranean r egion. 4

I n s ome r espects t he a reas o f d ensest

s urvey c overage a lso

r epresent a reas where m ore s ophisticated a nd c ompl?x t ypes o f a nalys; o f

t he a rchaeological d ata a re i n p rogress r elating t o t he p olitica ,

s ocial a nd e conomic o rganization o f

t he c ultures t hat o nce n ccupied

t hose a reas. A f ew o bservations c an b e m ade c oncerning t he s urveys d escribed i n t he a bstracts which i llustrate,

w e t hink,

s urvey w ork i n t he M editerranean.

S mall p rojects,

i duals,

c onstitute a l ittle l ess t han 5 0% o f

s ize p rojects,

4 -15, m ake u p 5 0%.

t he p resent c haracter o f t hat

i s 1 -3

i ndiv-

t he t otal while m edium-

L arge p rojects w ith c rews o f

more i ndividuals c onstitute o nly a f ew p ercentage p oints.

1 6 o r

I t a ppear c ,

t hat t he o ne p erson t raditional t opographical s urveys a re g iving w ay t o l arger p rojects w ith b roader r esearch g oals r equiring a n umber o f i ndividuals w ith e xpertise i n a d iverse r ange o f t echnological f ields.

s cientific a nd

T his c an b e i llustrated f urther i n t wo ways.

Two-thirds o f t he p rojects h ave e xpressed g oals r elating t o t he r ecovering o f d ata o n t he p hysical e nvironment o f t he s tudy z one. majority o f t hese p rojects h ave v arious k inds o f e arth a nd e nvironmental s cientists e ither o n t he s taff o r a s c onsultants.

H alf

o f

t hL

p rojects c ollect d ata o n a ll p eriods o f h uman o ccupation w ithin t he s tudy a rea, while a pproximately 4 0 p ercent a re i nterested i n a m ore l imited c hronological s pan s uch a s B ronze A ge o r I ron A ge.

S lightly

m ore t han 1 0 p ercent h ave a n arrow f ocus o n a s ingle c hronological p eriod a nd/or o n a s ingle s ite a nd i ts i mmediate e nvirons.

T he

g rowing e mphasis i s o n i nterdisciplinary r esearch p rojects w hich a ddress t he b roader i ssues o f p atterns o f s ettlement a nd r esource e xploitation, d emography, e conomics a nd p olitical o rganization, t rade s ystems a nd t he r elationship o f man t o h is e nvironment o n a r egional s cale. T he f inal c hapter i s a n e ssay w ritten b y J ohn C herry w hich w eaves t ogether a n umber o f e ssays a nd a bstracts.

t he l oose t hreads f rom t he d iscussions,

T his o verview o f a rchaeological s urveying i n

t he M editerranean r egion w ith i ts s uccesses a nd p roblems i s a n a pt c onclusion t o t he volume b ecause i t

i ndicates t he d irections which

t his t ype o f r esearch c ould a nd s hould t ake i n t he n ext d ecade. R eferences: Ammerman,

A .J.,

1 981.

S urveys a nd A rchaeological R esearch.

AnnRevAnthro 1 0:63-88. B arker, G . a nd H odges, R ., 1 981. A rchaeology a nd I talian S ociety. P rehistoric, R oman a nd M edieval S tudies. B AR S -102. O x Urd. D yson,

S .L.,

1 982.

A rchaeological S urvey i n

A R eview o f R ecent R esearch. M atther,

J .,

1 981.

C atchment. 7 9. R unnels,

T he R iver Q oueiq,

N orthern S yria,

a nd i ts

S tudies A rising f rom t he T ell R ifa a t S urvey

BAR S -98(i):2-7, C .,

t he Mediterranean

AmerAntiq 4 7(1):87-98.

1 981.

F ig.

1 .

1 977-

O xford.

O n t he D estruction o f A rchaeological S ites.

J FA 8 :91-93. Whitehouse,

R .,

1 981.

P rehistoric

S ettlement P atterns i n S outheast

5

I taly.

I n B arker,

I talian S ociety.

G .

a nd H odges,

P rehistoric,

R .,

e ds.

A rchaeology a nd

R oman a nd M edieval S tudies.

B AR S -102:157-165.

6

K ey t o t he s urvey p rojects l isted o n F igure 1 S urveys i n t his v olume

[ =squares,

b old f ace n umbers]:

1 .

N orth C entral a nd S outhwest

2 .

S urvey i n P rovence a nd L anguedoc:

3 .

A ger L unensis:

4 .

C ivitella C esi:

5 .

C osa:

6 .

A gro P ontino:

7 .

L iri V alley:

8 .

S an G iovanni d i R uoti:

S .

S pain:

L .G.

S traus

N .T.W . Mills

N . Mills P .

H emphill

Dyson

9 . Metaponto:

A . E .

C .

V oorrips,

S .

L oving a nd H .

K ammermans

Wightman C .

R oberto a nd A .

S mall

D 'Annibale

1 0.

C alabria:

A .

1 1.

C arthage:

J .

1 2.

K ras

S urvey:

B .

S lap ak

1 3.

L ower M orava V alley:

H .

B ankoff a nd F . W inter

( Carst)

O ther s urveys

Ammerman G reene

[ =diamonds, R .

J ones

i talic n umbers]:

1 .

Ampurias:

2 .

A ger C osanus a nd A lbegna V alley: ( Table R onde,

3 . 4 .

( Dyson,

1 982) A .

C eluzza a nd L .

F entress

1 982)

S outhern E truria: T . P otter ( Dyson, 1 982) C entral a nd N orthern A ger F aliscus: M . F rederiksen a nd J . P erkins

4 .

C apena:

5 .

Veil:

( Dyson, R . S .

J ones

Dyson

( Dyson,

( Dyson,

1 982)

1 982)

5 .

A ger Veientanus:

J .

B .

5 .

A ger V eientanus:

A .

K ahane e t a l.

5 .

V ia G abina:

5 .

L a S torta:

A .

5 .

C assa-Clodia:

5 .

S utrium:

A . G .

Ward-Perkins

( Dyson,

( Dyson,

P .

H emphill

( Dyson,

( Dyson,

( Dyson,

1 982)

1 982)

K ahane a nd J .B. W ard-Perkins K ahane e t a l.

D uncan

( Dyson,

1 982)

1 982)

B iferno V alley/Molise:

G .

B arker a nd J .

7 .

T avoliere a nd G argano:

M .

J arman a nd D . W ebley

8 . 9 .

T avoliere P lain: S . T ine ( Whitehouse, 1 981) B uccino: R . H olloway ( Whitehouse, 1 981)

1 0. 1 1.

G ravina: S . V inson ( Whitehouse, 1 981) B radano T rench: A . Ammerman a nd D . A ldridge

1 2.

L ucania:

1 3.

B rindisi:

1 4.

H imera:

B uck

Q . N .

1 5. M organtina:

P unzi H .

H eraclea Minoa:

1 7.

B elice V alley:

( Dyson,

A llen R . A .

( Dyson,

L eonard J r.

1 8.

S ciacca:

S erramanna a nd O zieri:

2 0.

H var I sland,

8 5.

K raku L u Y ordan, [ 1977]

T irnetta P haros,

( Dyson, R .

( Dyson 1 982) ( Whitehouse,

( Whitehouse,

1 981)

1 981)

1 982) L eonard J r.

( AJA 8 0[1976]

( Dyson,

1 982)

1 94)

1 982)

R oland

Y ugoslavia:

Y ugoslavia:

1 981)

1 982)

Wilson a nd A .

1 9.

L loyd

1 982)

( Whitehouse,

B onacasa

1 6.

P .

( Dyson,

1 982)

1 982)

6 .

R .

W ard-

1 982)

B .

2 40)

8

( AJA 8 6 B .

[ 1982]

S lapsak

2 80)

( personal c ommunication)

B artel a nd M .

W erner

( AJA 8 1

9

K ey t o t he s urvey p rojects l isted o n F igure 2 S urveys i n t his v olume M .

[ =squares,

1 4.

S erres B asin:

1 5.

S trymon D elta:

1 6.

C orfu:

A .

S ordinas

1 7.

H alos:

R .

R einders

1 8.

W estern Akarnania:

1 9.

I onian I slands:

2 0.

E uboea a nd E astern B oiotia:

2 1.

S outhern E uboea:

F otiadis

A .W.

2 2.

B oiotia:

2 3.

K hostia,

J .M.

2 4.

C entral G reece:

W .M. Murray

J .M. N .

T hisbe B asin:

2 7.

A ttica-Megara:

2 8.

P erakhora P eninsula:

2 9.

C orinthia:

T .

G .

S outhern A rgolid:

3 2. Megalopolis:

V an d e M aele J .M.

F ossey a nd G .

G auvin

G auvin

T he T hyreatis:

C .

R unnels

Y .C. J .

G oester

R oy

( Peloponnese):

G .J.M.J.

t eRiele

W .A. M cDonald

J .F. C herry a nd J .L. J .F. C herry

4 3.

N orthwestern T urkey:

4 4.

L ower Maeander Valley,

O ther s urveys

M .

D avis

Ö zdogan

S W T urkey:

[ =diamonds,

S perchios Valley: [ 1959]

G auvin

G regory

S .

3 1.

2 1.

F ossey a nd G .

W ickens

3 0.

3 5. K eos: 3 6. Melos:

S ampson

R olland

A ttica:

3 4. Messenia:

A .

K eller

F ossey

2 6.

L avdha

G allant

D .R.

2 5.

3 3.

D unn

T .W.

B oiotia:

J .

b old f ace n umbers]

R .T. M archese

i talic n umbers]:

R .

H ope S impson a nd J .

L azenby

( Antiquity 3 3

1 02-105)

2 2.

E uboea:

2 3.

C ambridge/Bradford B oiotia S urvey:

L .

S ackett e t a l.

( Nestor 5 n o.

9 [ 1978]

( Dyson,

M ountain T op A ltars i n A ttica:

2 5.

[ 1976]) A ttica-Megara B order:

J .

2 6.

C orinthia:

( Dyson,

2 7. 2 8.

S W A rgolid: J . B intliff N E C oast o f P eloponnese:

2 9. Mantineia:

S .

A rcadia:

W iseman

a nd H .

R .J.

A .

S nodgrass a nd J .

B intliff

1 290-1291)

2 4.

J .

1 982)

M .

O ber

L angdon

( AJA 8 6

[ 1982]

S uppl.

2 80)

H odkinson

( AJA 8 4

( BSA 7 6

( BSA 6 5[1970]

[ i§8 1]

[ 1980]

2 14)

2 39-296)

3 0.

E .

3 1.

L aconia:

3 2.

C yclades:

3 3.

P aros:

D .

S chilardi

3 4.

C hios:

R .

G arnett a nd J .

3 5. 8 4. 8 5.

S ardis: E . S terud ( 1981 A SOR A nnual M eeting) S tymphalos: H . W illiams a nd T . B oyd ( personal c ommunication) P higalia ( Arkadia): C ooper a nd Myers ( AJA 8 4 [ 1980] 2 01-202)

8 7.

E astern Messenia:

8 8.

Milesian T erritory:

8 9.

C arian C oast:

G .E.

9 2.

P hokis-Doris:

P .

9 3.

Mitylene A rea,

L esbos:

R .

H ope S impson a nd H .

C .

R enfrew

( Dyson, ( AJA 7 8

R .

J .M.

[ 1974]

1 982)

C ook

1 77) ( BSA 5 6

S impson

( BSA 6 1

( BSA 5 6

( AJA 8 4

H .

( Dyson,

1 982)

B ean a nd J .M.

W allace

7 9-127)

W aterhouse

B oardman

H ope

1 6

1 982)

( Dyson, 1 982) S . I akovidis

H owell

( Hesperia,

C ook

[ 1966]

[ 1961] 1 4,

1 02-113)

1 13-131)

9 0-101)

( BSA 5 2

[ 1980]

W illiams

[ 1961]

[ 1957]

f n.

5 8-146)

1 )

( personal c ommunication) [ proposed ]

9 4. Megara: A . Muller ( BCH 1 06 [ 1982] 3 79-407) 9 5. P lain o f D rama: D . D avidson ( Revue d e G eomorphologue D ynamique 2 0 [ 1971] 9 8.

2 2-26)

N emea V alley

[ proposed]:

J .

W right

( personal c ommunication)

1 1

Key to the survey projects listed on Figure 3A Surveys in this volume [=squares, bold face numbers] 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42.

Dodecanese: A. Sampson Karpathos, Kasos, and Saria Dodecanese: E.M. Melas Ayiofarango, Southern Crete: K. Branigan Lasithi Plain: L.V. Watrous Kommos: R. Hope Simpson Khania: J. Moody

Other surveys [=diamonds, italic numbers] 36. Dodecanese: R. Hope Simpson and J. Lazenby (BSA 57 [1962] 15475; 56 [1970] 47-79; 68 [1973] 127-79) 37. E. Crete: J. Leatham and S. Hood (BSA 53/54 [1958-59] 263-80) 38. Kavousi: G. Gesell, L. Preston Day and W. Coulson (AJA 86 [1982] 265) 39. Central, E. Crete: S. Road, P. Warren and G. Cadogan (BSA 59 [1964] 50-99) 40. Arkhanes: Y. and E. Sakellerakis (personal communication) 41. Knossos Area: S. Road and D. Smyth (BSA Suppl. no. 14 [1981]) 42. Mesara Plain: I. Sanders (BSA 71 [1976] 131-137) 43. Western Mesara (proposed): L. Watrous (personal communication) 44. Ayios Vasilios: S. Hood and P. Warren (BSA 61 [1966] 163-191) 45. West Crete: S. Hood (BSA 60 [1965] 99-113; 62 [1967] 47-56) Key to the survey projects listed on Figure 3B Surveys in this volume [=squares, bold face numbers] 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51.

Cyprus: N. Stanley Price Palaipaphos: D.W. Rupp Southwest Cyprus: S. Swiny Vasilikos Valley: L.S. Hordynsky and J.J. Johnson Alambra: K.W. Schaar Lemba: E.J. Peltenburg Kataliontas-Kourvellos: T. Watkins

Other surveys [=diamonds, italic numbers] 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53 54. 55. 56. 57. 58.

Cyprus Survey: Stanley Price (1979) Le Brun: Stanley Price (1979) Symeonoglou: Stanley Price (1979) S�rensen (personal communication) Akhera: P. Wallace (AJA 85 [1981] 221-222) Idalion: Walker and Marvin (AJA 78 [1974] 177) S. Swiny (personal communication) Palaipaphos: Maier (personal communication) S. Hadjisavvas (personal communication) S. Hadjisavvas (Stanley Price, 1979) Adavasio et al. (Stanley Price, 1979) Quilici (Stanley Price, 1979) Last and Markou (Stanley Price, 1979)

3IQ

3 7

043 7

o

3 7

0

3 8

AE G E A N SE A

0 0

F ig.

3 A

Map o f C rete a nd

t he D odecanese

5 0

I slands w ith t he

1 00

KM

l ocation o f

t he

s urvey p rojects i ndicated.

M E DI T E R R A N E A N SE A

5 8

0

F ig.

3 B

Map

o f C yprus w ith t he l ocation o f 12

t he

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

KM

s urvey p rojects i ndicated.

K ey t o t he s urvey p rojects l isted o n F igure 4 S urveys i n t his v olume 5 2. 5 3. 5 4.

[ =squares,

b old f ace n umbers]

K eban R eservoir A rea:

R . W hallon • L ower E uphrates A rea: M . O zdogan W adi-Ziqlab: E .B. B anning

5 5.

B aq ya h V alley:

5 6. 5 7.

W adi A l-Hasa: G olan H eights:

P .

M cGovern

B . MacDonald C . D auphin

5 8.

N ahal A lexander:

5 9. 6 0.

L ower J ordan V alley: N ahal ( Wadi) S hiqma:

6 1. 6 2.

N egev: R . C ohen G ebel M ahara, N orthern S inai:

6 3.

N aukratis,

O ther s urveys

P .

S teinfield 0 . M .

B ar-Yosef L amdan D .

Western N ile D elta: [ =diamonds,

S . C .

C oast Mersin t o Miletus: A natolia: I . T odd

6 1. 6 2. 6 3.

C ilicia: S eton-Williams C ilicia: T asyurek C ilician P lain: G arstang

6 4.

S akje G ozu,

6 5.

G azientep,

6 6.

Amanus R ange,

T urkey:

J .

L eonard J r.

M ellaart

( LAAA 1 24)

d u P lat T aylor A rchi,

K ara S u:

6 7.

Amuq P lain,

6 8.

R iver Q oueiq,

6 9.

A leppo-Membij-Meskene:

7 0. 7 1.

C entral S yria: T ell Munbatah:

A lkim

S yria:

( Matther,

P eccarella,

R iver A frim: N .

C oulson a nd A .

i talic numbers]

5 9. 6 0.

T urkey:

B ar-Yosef

W .

1 981)

a nd S alvini

( Matther,

( Matther,

B raidwood

( Matther,

1 981)

J . M atther

( Matther,

1 981)

S eton-Williams

B uccellati D e Maigret

( Matther, ( Matther,

M outerde a nd P oidebard

1 981)

1 981)

( Matther,

1 981)

1 981) 1 981)

7 2.

C halcis:

7 3. 7 4.

T ell Mardikh: N orth O rontes:

( Matther,

7 5.

A l Matah:

7 6. 7 7.

N E o f H ama: L assus ( Matther, 1 981) O rontes R . b etween H ama a nd L ake B eloua:

7 8.

N ear H ama:

1 981)

L iverani ( Matther, 1 981) J . L undquist ( 1981 A SOR A nnual M eeting)

D e Maigret

R iis

( Matther,

( Matther,

C ourtois

( Matther,

1 981)

1 981)

7 9.

Q atna:

8 0.

B iqa,

8 1. 8 2.

L ower W adi Z erqa: B . G ordon ( personal c ommunication f rom E .Bannlng) S outhern P ortion o f M oabite P lateau: M . Miller ( personal c ommun-

8 3.

i cation f rom E . B anning) C entral N egev H ighlands:

9 0.

S outheastern D ead S ea V alley: 4 3

Mesnil d u B uisson

1 981)

a bove B aalbek:

[ 1980]

( Matther,

K uschke

W .

1 981)

( Matther,

D ever

1 981)

( AIA 8 2

W .E.

[ 1978])

R ast a nd R .T.

S chaub

( BiblArch

6 0-61)

9 1.

W adi T umilat:

9 7.

4 9-58) A zraq B asin:

J .

H olladay a nd E .

A G arrod

B anning

( BiblArch 4 3

( personal c ommunication

1 4

f rom E .

[ 1980] B anning)

BL A C K

SE A

6 0

6 3 6 2• 6 1 ,1,

M I57

M E DI T E R R A N E A N 9 6 5

154 5 9 L

8 /

155 8 2 9 0

0 1

F ig.

4

15 6

I

1 00 I

M ap o f e astern M editerranean a rea w ith t he l ocation o f p rojects i ndicated. 1 5

I

2 00 KM 1

t he s urvey

C HAPTER 2

A RCHAEOLOGICAL S URVEY:

D EFINITIONS

P anel: D avid W .

J ennifer M oody

R upp, m oderator

T imothy G regory

D onald S ullivan

K enneth W .

C urtis R unnels

S chaar

J ere W ickers

J ohn P ossey Audience P articipation N icholas S tanley P rice

I na K ehrberg

G loria I kosi

A lbert Ammerman

S tuart S winy

N icholas , Melas

J ames Muhly

B ozidar S lapsak

D an P ullen

J ohn M organ

A lbertus V oorrips D iscussion Agenda -

T ypes o f

-

C riteria u sed t o d etermine t he p hysical b oundaries o f a s urvey

S urveys a nd t heir b asic c haracteristics

-

B asic d efinitions: f ind s pot,

R upp:

s ite,

d eflated s ite,

s catter,

c oncentration,

What i s a s urvey a nd what k inds o f

R unnels:

d oesn't t hink t here i s " a"

t ypes o f

o ccurrence,

e tc. s urveys a re

s urvey,

t here?

b ut r ather t here a re

s urveys.

B oth R unnels a nd R upp:

b egan t he d efinition o f

' survey'

r ange o f t echniques u sed t o r ecover d ata a nd t o

- a s a b road

s tudy t he

c ultural r esources p reserved o r v isible o n t he s urface.

T herefore

s urface r econnaissance a s o pposed t o e xcavation. S chaar:

a dds t hat i t i s a s ystematic e xamination o f a n a rea s o

o ne c an m ake r eferences f rom t he d ata a bout R upp:

a sks i f

t hat

t he b roader p icture.

s urveys must b e s ystematic a s o pposed t o u nsystematic,

a rbitrary? G regory:

I n t he p ast m ost w ere u nsystematic.

A re w e t o e xclude s uch

s urveys f rom o ur d iscussions. R upp:

N o.

B ut l ets k eep t he d istinction.

M oody and R unnels:

c omment s-that s urveys d o n ot l imit

t he c ollection o f

t hemselves t o

s urface a rtifacts a nd t o t he i dentification o f

a rchaeological s ites ( as i n t he p ast). B ut t hey a lso l ook f or n atural a nd m ineral r esources s uch a s c lay o r s tone w hich m ay

1 7

h ave b een u sed b y t he p articular c ulture. T hey l ook f or a b roader r ange o f c ultural a nd p hysical r esources; a s t he e nvironment a round t he s ite m ust a lso b e k nown i n o rder t o u nderstand t he s ite. R upp:

I n t he p ast p eople m ade s urveys t o f ind i nscriptions, b uildings, s lag h eaps, o r t o s tudy t opographical p roblems. I s t his t he o lder t ype o f s urvey?

F ossey:

O ne s hould m ake a d istinction b etween t wo t ypes o f s urveys:

e xtensive v s. i ntensive. T he o lder s urveys w ere e xtensive i n t hat t hey c overed l arge a reas t o g et a s c omplete a p icture a s p ossible. M ore r ecently i ntensive s urveys h ave b een d one w here t hey a ttempt t o g ather a s m uch d ata a s p ossible i n a l imited ( smaller) S chaar:

a rea.

a dds t hat b oth t ypes a re s ystematic.

I n a s ystematic s urvey

o ne e xamines a s elected a rea c ompletely o r a p ortion o f i t a nd n otes w hat i s f ound o r t he a bsence o f f inds. S chaar a nd R upp : q uestion - W hat m akes a s urvey u nsystematic? F ollowing a h unch a nd c onfirming o r d enying i ts v alidity? T he a rbitrariness o f l ooking f or a s pecific s ite t ype i n a v ery s pecific a rea a nd f inding i t o r n ot? R unnels:

S chaar a nd R upp b oth r ight.

M aybe w e s hould s peak o f

j udgemental v s. s ystematic. B oth c ould b e e ither e xtensive o r i ntensive. J udgemental s urveys a re w here p revious i nformation i s t aken i nto a ccount t o d etermine t he p recise t ype o f i nformation s ought i n t he f ield. O ne g oes w here y ou t hink t here i s t he g reatest p robability o f f inding w hat o ne i s l ooking f or,

s ay h illforts.

F ossey: I sn't t here a l ogical p rogression f rom o ne t o t he o ther? Y ou m ust h ave t he e xtensive b efore t he i ntensive o therwise y ou've n ot d efined s ome o f t he p roblems t hat o ne's i ntensive s urvey h as g ot t o a nswer i n t he b roader c ontext. R unnels:

a grees.

W e a re b eginning t o s ee w hat R edman

( 1973) w ould

c all " multistage" s urvey p rojects. G regory: I n l ooking a t e arlier u nsystematic s urveys w here t he t echniques a re n ot e xplicitly s tated w e m ust d etermine t he a pproach u sed i n o rder t o m ake u se o f t heir d ata. R upp:

J udgemental s urveys a re c ommon p lace b oth t oday a nd i n t he p ast, d ue t o t he a vailability o f h istorical d ocuments a nd p revious a rchaeological w ork.

R upp:

D oes m anpower v s.

( size) m atter i n t hese d iscussions o f j udgemental

s ystematic s urveys?

S chaar a nd R unnels:

T he n umber o f p eople i s i rrelevent.

c an s ystematically c over a n a rea.

O ne p erson

B ut g enerally i t i s m ore

e fficient w ith a l arger n umber ( 2 o r 3p eople) t o m aintain t he b oundaries, i dentify t he a rtifacts, t abulate t hem a nd r ecord t he t opography

1 8

R unnels: a dds t hat s mall o r l arge p rojects c an h ave t he s ame g oals a nd t echniques. M oody: I t i s r eally a q uestion o f m anpower a nd t he a mount o f t ime a vailable. I f t ime i s a f actor a nd o ne h as t he m oney a t eam i s m ore e fficient. F ossey a nd R unnels: a gree. A t eam m oreover p rovides s pecialists t o e valuate a rchaeological g eological o r e nvironmental d ata. T oday t he v ariety o f d isciplines n eeded a re m ore t han o ne p erson c an p ossibly b e a n e xpert i n. T his i s p articularly i mportant i n a n i ntensive s urvey . R upp:

s ums u p - t he i nterest i n e nvironmental d ata m akes c urrent s urveys m ore c omplex . T he n umber o f p eople i nvolved i n a p roject d etermines t he s peed a nd e fficiency o f t he r esearch.

S ullivan a nd M oody : a dd - t he t ype o f s urvey u sed d epends u pon w hat t ype o f i nformation i s s ought. T he u se o f a r esearch t eam g oes h and i n h and w ith t he i dea t hat t he i nformation s ought m ay b e e xtremely d iverse. M any o f t he m ore r ecent s urveys u ndertaken r equire i nterdisciplinary w ork a nd s pecialists. T he g oals o f a m odern s urvey, s uch a s t o d etermine t he u rban b oundaries o f a s ite, m ay w ell r equire s ub-surface s ampling. S o w e s hould n ot r estrict o urselves t o a rtifacts o n t he s urface o r a rtifacts a t a ll. W e m ay w ell b e l ooking f or g eological o r v egetal e vidence. I n f act a n i ndividual a rchaeologist n eeds a b ackground i n g eology, b otany, e tc., a s w ell a s c lassical a rchaeology i n o rder t o b e a ware o f w hat t o l ook f or i n t he f ield. F ossey a nd R unnels: M ust f irst d efine t he i ntent o f t he s urvey a nd t hen d etermine w hat r esource c apabilities a re n eeded o n t he p roject, b efore e mbarking o n t he s urvey. T hen w e c an d eal e ffectively w ith t he b ulk o f w hat w e e xpect t o f ind i n t he f ield. G regory: R eferring t o e arlier c omments - t he r esearch g oals a re i mportant i n d etermining t he t ype o f s urvey t hat o ne w ill w ant t o d o. R unnels: c onstraints o n o ne's r esearch g oals: s urvey, o r p ermits t o s ub-surface s ample. R upp:

a grees.

m oney,

p ermits t o

T he n eed t o a pply f or a p ermit i s i mplicit i n a ll

a rchaeological w ork i n t he m editerranean. R unnels:

a dds - M ilitary b ases a re o ften l ocated i n a s urvey a rea

a nd a re o ff l imits t o o bservation. A p erfect s ampling s trategy m ay w ell d ictate a t ransect t here w hich c an't b e d one. T here g oes t he p robability s ample. R upp:

A ren't w e d iscussing w hat R edman

( 1973)

h as s uggested i s b ut

o ne s tage i n a m ultistage b roadly b ased r esearch p roject? T hat i s e xtensive s urvey o r r econnaissance f ollowed b y i ntensive s urvey,

t hen b y i ntensive s ite c ollection a nd f inally e xcavation

o f s elected s ites.

1 9

F ossey: Y ou h ave j ust i ntroduced t he t hird l evel o f t he m odel I m entioned e arlier. E xtensive t o i ntensive a nd n ow t o e xcavation. E xcavation i s o ften t he a im o f s urveys i n o rder t o a nswer o ther q uestions. R upp:

S hould w e d efine t he p hrase " intensive s ite s urvey" a s t he i ntensive c ollection o f s urface m aterials o f a p articular s ite i n o rder t o d etermine i ts b oundaries a nd l ocation o f c oncentrations o f a rtifacts? I n s ome c ases o ne d oesn't r eally h ave t o e xcavate t o l earn a bout a s ite.

F ossey:

r estricts t he m eaning o f i ntensive t o a s ite o r i ts t erritory.

R unnels: S urface d ata a lways d ifferent f rom t hat c ollected b y e xcavation; t hough t hey a re c omplementary o ne c ould n ot r eplace t he o ther. R upp:

I deally, y es. B ut t ypically w e h ave n o c hoice b ut t o w ork o nly w ith t he s urface m aterial.

W ickens: adds- O ne c an d o a s ystematic s urvey a nd s till l ook f or o nly o ne t ype o f s ite. I t c ould e ven b e i ntensive i n t he s ense t hat o ne l ooked f or a p articular s ite t ype w ithin a r estricted g eographical a rea.

N ot a ll s urveys n eed t o r ecord a ll t ypes o f

s ites. R unnels:

a grees i n c ertain c ircumstances.

B ut o ne s hould s ample t he

e ntire r ange t o g et s ome b roader i dea o f w hat i s t here. W ickens: B ut t hen o ne's s ample i s b iased. A s o ne i s p re d etermined w hat o ne's s ample i s a nd h ow o ne i s s ampling. F ossey: a grees w ith W ickens i n t hat i t i s p erfectly l egitimate t o e stablish a s pecific a im . B ut s hould n ot i gnore o ther t ypes o f s ites t hat o ne m ay f ind. R upp:

B ar-Josef a nd G oren ( 1981) r aised t he q uestion o f t he l egitimacy o f t his t ype o f s urvey. T hey a rgue t hat i f o ne k nows w here s ites s hould a nd s houldn't b e i t i s v ery i nefficient t o s imply p roceed o n a s ystematic b asis t o r econfirm n egative e vidence.

R unnels: I n America t his i s c alled t he " Teotihuacan P roblem", s ince a s imulation o f d ifferent r andom s ampling s trategies t hat c ould b e u sed i n t he T eotihuacan V alley o f M exico a s c ompared t o d ata c ollected b y a 1 00% c overage o f t he v alley h as s hown t hat t he l argest s ite i n t he v alley, T eotihuacan, w ould h ave b een m issed. ( Flannery, 1 976). T his i s a p roblem o f a s ystematic i ntensive s urvey t hat u ses p robability s ampling - h ow t o a ssign p robabilities t o t he p ercent o f e rror o ne m ight b e m aking. T here i s a lso a s tatistical p roblem o f h ow t o f actor i n o r o ut p revious k nowledge. T here a re s tatistical m ethods w hich c an t ake i nto a ccount t he p roper k nowledge. O nly a f ool w ould f ail t o n ote w hat h e a lready k new . R upp:

M oving o nto a nother t opic:

w hat c riteria c an b e u sed t o

d efine t he s urvey a rea o r s urvey u niverse?

2 0

F ossey:

S ome a re o bvious s uch a s a ncient p olitical b oundaries o r

r egions o r n atural g eographic b oundaries. b oundaries o f

W hen d efining t he

i ntensive s urveys i t i s e ssential t o c ombine

a ncient p olitical a nd g eographical b oundaries. S ullivan: A gain t he d etermines w hat

t ype o f s urvey o ne i s d oing, t o s ome e xtent, t he b oundaries a re. I f o ne i s d ealing w ith n atural

r esources y our b ondaries m ay e xtend b eyond t he o bvious g eographical b oundaries.

D ata o n T rade r outes o r s tone q uarries c an l ie a t

s ome g reat d istance. R upp:

I f

s ettlement p atterns w as o ne's m ain a im h ow w ould o ne d efine

o ne's b oundaries? M oody:

T ravel t ime o ut f rom a s ite w ould h ave b een m ore s ignificant

i n a ntiquity t han s imple g eographical b oundaries. d efine a n e conomic a rea a round a p articular s ite,

T ry t o d etermine/ a c atchment

a rea.

T he s ize o f

t he a rea w ould d epend u pon t he s ize o f t he

s ite.

T his i s what o ne w ould d o a fter p revious r esearch.

t heoretically t here a re e conomic b oundaries, R upp:

O ne c ould a lso u se n atural g eographical b oundaries i .e. r anges,

e tc.

O ne c an m ake a n a rbitrary d efinition o f t he s urvey

u niverse e ither o n p urpose o r c ontrol o f t he

t he r esult o f f orces b eyond t he

s urvey.

A n e xample o f

t his w ould b e i n t ravel t ime s tudies,

f rom t he s ite a nd s top r egardless o f b eing t aken o f R upp:

m ountain

B ut d o c ultural b oundaries c orrespond i n a ny r espect

t o n atural o nes?

M oody:

T herefore

a s w ell.

t he t opography.

t o g o 1 0 k m N o a ccount

t he t ime n eeded t o r each t hat p oint.

I n N orth America a nd B ritain o ne h as h ighway o r p ipeline r ight-of-way s urveys, b oundaries,

a 5 0m x 5 00km s trip.

r estricted a reas,

P resent p olitical

o r m ilitary b ases c an a lso a rbitrarily

l imit o ne's s urvey. G regory: M odern e specially u rban l and u se o ften c ause p roblems o f a ccessibility a nd s ite d efinition. O ften a m odern s ettlement i s s ituated d irectly o ver a n a ncient R unnels:

O ne c an a lso a rbitrarily c hoose a n a rea t o

r andom s election, S chaar:

s ite. s urvey b y

d ue t o t ime a nd m oney l imitations.

T he s election o f a b oundary i s p art o f y our r andom s ampling

s urvey d esign. Y ou c hoose a p articular b oundary a nd t hen s tay e xplicitly w ithin t hose l imits. I f s omething e xists b eyond t hose l imits t hen t he n ext

t ime o ne e xpands o ne's b oundaries t o

i nclude i t. F ossey:

What i nterpretations c an o ne m ake f rom t he d ata?

w ished t o d o a " nearest n eighbour" a nalysis, e ffect

I f o ne

t here w ill b e a n

f rom t hose s ites l ying o utside o nes b oundaries.

T his c an

e ffect o ne's s tatistics a s l ong a s o ne i s a pplying a rtificial o r r andom b oundaries t hat a re i nflexible. T his w ill c omplicate o ne's i nterpretation o f

t he r esults.

2 1

S chaar:

T his i s c alled

c an d o,

t he " edge e ffect".

S ince i t l imits w hat y ou

i t i s a c alculated d ecision w here y ou p ut y our b oundaries.

T his m ust b e s tudied b eforehand. R unnels:

I n a s ense t hen a ll d ecisions i n a s urvey a re a rbitrary.

O ne makes a c hoice t o d o F ossey:

t his o r t o d o t hat.

d isagrees - T here's a n a rbitrary f actor t hat o ne i ntroduces

b y o neself a nd

t here a re a rbitrary f acts/conditions i n a ntiquity.

T he l atter a re m ore v alid. R unnels: F ossey:

I t d epends u pon t he q uestion. Y es,

b ut a t l east i t r elies u pon a n a ncient c onditon a s

o pposed t o

s omething i ntroduced b y o neself.

R unnels: d isagrees - T he a rbitrary b oundaries i ntroduced m ay b e o f m ore v alue t han t he a ncient o nes; f or e xample - i f w e w ish t o l ook a t i nteraction b etween t wo d ifferent p olitical t erritories, w e w ould n eed a s ample u niverse t hat w ould c ut t hrough p arts o f b oth. F ossey: T hese a re n ot p urely a rbitrary b ecause t hey h ave b een d efined o n t he b asis o f a n a ncient c ondition. R unnels:

N othing c an b e p urely a rbitrary b ecause t here i s a lways p rior

k nowledge o f what w e t hink t hese c onditions w ere. R upp:

P olitical B oundaries a re o ften d ynamic.

T o d emarcate a n

a ncient b oundary i s o ften a n a rbitrary d ecision. t hat

I t i s p ossible

s ome s urveys w ould s eek t o d etermine t he l ocation o f a ncient

b oundaries. T hus, o ne w ould n eed t o h ave a s urvey a rea w hich c ontinues f rom o ne p olitical u nit t o a nother i n o rder t o i dentify t hat b oundary. Another q uestion t o c onsider:

W hat i s s ite

c atchment a nalysis? M oody: T he c oncept w as d eveloped b y E . H iggs a nd C . V ita F inzi ( 1972). What o ne l ooks a t i s a p articular s ite a nd t he r esources t hat e xist w ithin a c ertain d istance f rom t he s ite a nd t he l ikelihood t hat t hey w ere e xploited.

A n h our's w alk f rom t he s ite i n a ll d irections

d efines o ne a spect o f t he c atchment a nd t wo h our's w alk a nother. T heoretically t he r esources l ying f urther f rom t he s ite w ould h ave b een l ess e xploited t han t hose l ying c loser. S ince i t t akes m ore l abour t o u tilize t he r esources t hat a re a t a d istance, a re l ess a ttractive. s ite.

I f o ne l ooks a t

t hey

O ne d oesn't h ave t o t hink j ust o f a s imple t he c atchment a round a p aleolithic c ave

s ite o ne w ill p robably l ocate o pen s ites t hat w ere n ecessary t o t he e conomic S tanley P rice:

s ubsistence o f

T here a re t wo o ther

T he " Literature S urvey", t he f ield.

t he s ociety.

H ere o ne g oes

t ypes o f s urveys n ot y et m entioned.

w hich d oes n ot e ven t ake p eople i nto t hrough t he p ublished a nd u npublished

l iterature, r ecording a ll t he k nown s ites a nd t hen m aking d eductions f rom t hem . T his m ethod i s a l ittle u nreliable w ithout f ield c hecking.

A nother t ype i s t he " Inventory S urvey".

o ne s imply r ecords n ational m onuments,

2 2

b uilding o r

H ere

s ite a nd c reates

a c ultural r esource i nventory/list. T his c an b e b y c hance o r p lanned. T his i s u sually d one b y t he l ocal a uthorities i n t he h ost c ountries o ver a n umber o f y ears. T here i s s ome c onfusion b etween i ntensive a nd s ystematic t hey a re n ot s ynonymous. A s urvey o f a r egion c ould b e d one s ystematically w ithout b eing i ntensive w ithin t hat r egion. A n i ntensive s urvey w ould s imply m ean 1 00% c overage o f a n e ntire r egion. S chaar:

a grees:

a dds - i ntensive m eans t hat o ne d ocuments e verything

t hat i s f ound a nd t hat y ou a re n ot s elective i n w hat o ne r ecords. I f o ne i s s elective i t c ould b e s ystematic b ut n ot i ntensive. W ickens:

E ven i f o ne l ooks a t e very s ite o f a p articular t ype w ithin

a g iven a rea i t s till w ouldn't b e i ntensive a lthough - i t w ould b e s ystematic. F ossey:

T he t wo w ords m ay g o t ogether u nder b oth c ircumstances:

a n i ntensive s ystematic s urvey a nd a s ystematic i ntensive s urvey o r s imply e ach a lone. R upp:

M any p eople r efer t o i ntensive a s t he d egree o r e xtent o f c overage i n y our s ampling u nits. i .e. T he n umber o f p eople o r p erson h ours p er s quare k ilometer. T his t hen r evolves a round c rew s pacing. M any p eople e quate e xtensive w ith w ide c overage o f l andscape, n ot l ooking a t i t c losely; a nd i ntensive w ith l ooking a t t he l andscape m ore c losely a nd s lowly.

R unnels:

a grees t o a p oint - b ut a dds t hat i n a s ystematic s urvey o ne

s elects t he s ample u nits b y s ome m echanism o f p robability s ampling. T he c overage o f t hese u nits i n g eneral i s t hought t o b e i ntensive i .e. d one i ntensely. T his d istinction i s m ade i n N orth A merican a rchaeological l iterature. R upp:

D esign a nd e xecution a re t wo d ifferent t hings.

P erfect d esign

d oesn't m ean p erfect e xecution i n t he f ield. F ossey: w e a re u sing t he w ord s ystematic i n t oo n arrow a s ense. I t i s a n a djective a nd d escribes a nthing t hat i s p art o f a s ystem . G regory : d isagrees w ith R unnels. - s hould n ot l ink s ystematic t o p robability s ampling; e specially w hen o ne i s l ooking f or a p articular s ite t ype a nd h as a n i dea w here t o f ind t hem - o ne c an g o a bout i t i n a s ystematic f ashion. M oody: I sn't t hat r eally a t ype o f s tratified s ampling, w here o ne i nvestigates a p articular t opography i n a n i ntensive a nd s ystematic f ashion? I kosi:

( Question f or M oody)

H ow w ould y ou h andle t he r ecording o f

a s ite f ound b eyond t he a rbitrary b oundaries y ou e stablished b y w alking t ime?

2 3

M oody:

I f I f ound a s ite w hose s ize a nd f unction s uggested i t w as

d ependent u pon t he c entre I w as s tudying I w ould i nclude i t. o n t he o ther h and, i t i s o f t he s ame h ierarchial l evel a s m y

I f

c entral s ite t hen p erhaps m y b oundary i s t oo f ar a nd s hould b e f ore s hortened o n t hat s ide, i f Iw as o nly i nterested i n t he p henomena r elated t o o ne s ite. Iw ould e xtend t he a rbitrary b oundaries d epending o n my p roblem o rientation. E ven i f Id id n ot e xtend t he b oundaries I w ould s till r ecord a nd k eep t he i nformation. I kosi: ( Question t o F ossey) i nformation?

W ould y ou t hrow a way t his u nused

F ossey: N o. I o bject t o e stablishing t oo s trict a n a rbitrary b oundary t o a s urvey. I kosi: T he b oundary w ould b e f lexible a ccording t o t he t ype o f d ata y ou a re g etting? M oody:

I t d epends o n o ne's p roblem o rientation.

I kosi:

B ut w hat a bout y our

s tatistics,

y our p robability,

y our

s amplings? W ould y ou g o i n e very d irection e xpanding t he a rea t hat o ne i s i nvestigating? M oody: N o. O ne w ould m aintain o ne's 1 0km r adius l imit s o t hat o ne c ould d o t he s tatistical a nalysis. T he o ther s ites w ould b e t aken i nto a ccount i f o ne d ecided o ne n eeded t o e stablish a n ew e conomic b oundary . S winy: I n a n umber o f i nstances e xcavations h ave p receded s urveys, t hereby e nabling o ne t o k now w hat t o l ook f or i n t erms o f p ottery a nd l ithic a rtifacts. I f o ne s urveys f irst a nd p ublishes t he f indings b efore o ne e xcavates, o ne w ill u sually b e w rong. T he s pecific q uestions t hat r esearchers w ant t o a nswer d etermines w here t hey w ill l ook, I d oubt t hat t here a re m any a rbitrarily c hosen a reas. I t hink o ne p eriod o r s pecific s ite t ypes a re v alid s urveys. B ut a s c ircumstances i n t he f ield c hange o ne h as t o c hange w hat h e i s d oing i n o rder t o d eal w ith t hem I ntellectual f lexibility. R unnels: V ery r arely d oes o ne s urvey a n a rea w here n othing i s k nown a bout i t a rchaeologically. O ne h as t o t ake i nto a ccount p rior k nowledge i n d eterming h is b oundaries. M uhly: W hy a nd w hen d oes o ne c onduct a s urvey? I s s urveying a lways n ecessary o r d esirable o r c an o ne d o w ithout s urveying u nder c ertain c onditions? E xample: C yler Y oung's ( University o f T oronto) s urvey i n I ran, h is p urpose: t o f ind w hat t hey t hought w as a lready t here.

T hey i ntensely s tudied s everal s ites a nd

c hose o ne o f t hem f or e xcavation. A fter s everal m ajor e xcavation s easons t hey c onducted a s urvey f or p erhistoric s ites a nd f ound t wice a s m any s ites a s t hey d id t he f irst t ime. t he f irst i nstance t hey w orked i n a l argely u nknown a rea;

I n i n t he

s econd t hey w ished t o e stablish t he r elationship b etween t he e xcavated s ite a nd t he o ther p rehistoric s ites i n t he a rea. I t t ook t wo s urveys t o d o t his.

2 4

P ullen: T his i s a f actor o f p rior k nowledge. R upp:

f ield c onditons a nd

T his i s a p roblem o f a rtifact a nd

t he a ccuracy o f y our

s ite v isibility w hich c hanges

o ver t ime. S ullivan:

T o r einterate t he t ype o f

o ne i s l ooking f or.

s urvey o ne d oes d epends o n what

T he p ractice o f e xcavating f irst a nd t hen

s urveying r eflects t he l ong t radition o f e xcavation i n t he Mediterranean a rea. E xcavation c an r aise q uestions o r d efine p roblems t hat s urveys m ight a nswer o r s olve. R unnels: S ullivan:

S urveys a re n ot a lways n ecessary. A n e xcavation o f a s pecific

s ite c an e stablish t he

b oundaries o f a s urvey a rbitrarily. V oorrips:

A s ystematic p robability s ampling a pproach i s u seful i n

m ost s urvey s ituations. S chaar:

I n s ampling t heory s ystematic i s a ctually a d esign i n which

o nly t he s tarting p oint i s c hosen r andomly a nd t hat a ll s ubsequent p oints a re d etermined b y f ixed i ntervals. o f u sing s ystematic,

s hould u se methodical.

o pposition t o j udgemental o r g rab s urveys.

I nstead

T his i s i n W hat d o w e r eally

m ean b y i nventory s urveys? V oorrips:

T hese h ave h istorical g oals.

s urveys, K ehrberg:

T here a re a lso i nferential

w here o ne i nfers i deas a bout p ast s ocieties.

T here a re a lso u nplanned s urveys b y p rofessionals a nd

a mateurs a like. R upp:

S ome p eople c all t hese " casual s urveys".

G regory:

I 'm s till n ot c ompletely c lear o n what w e m ean b y i nventory

s urvey o r b y s ystematic. V oorrips:

I u se t he t erm i nventory t o d escribe t he k ind o f

m ost c ommonly d one i n t he M editerranean a rea.

s urveying

I t hink s ystematic

s hould r efer t o s ampling d esigns r elating t o s ampling t heory. F ossey: I o bject s trongly t o i n t he E nglish l anguage.

t he r estricted u se o f a w ord c ommon S ystematic i s a n a djective, i f o ne

c an't u se i t t o d escribe a s urvey o ne w ill h ave t o u se a s ynonym . M aybe o rganized o r o rganizational w ould d o b ut what i s w rong w ith s ystematic? V oorrips:

B ecause i n t he a rchaeological a nd

a lready h as a r estricted m eaning. F ossey:

o ver-restricted.

2 5

s tatistical l iterature i t

R unnels a nd S tanley P rice - a gree w ith V oorrips - o bserve t he r estriction w hen d iscussing s ampling p roblems, a nd s urveys. F ossey: B ut n ot a ll s urveys u se a s ampling d esign. d escribe t hese a s b eing s ystematic? S tanley P rice:

M aybe " intensive"

t heory,

m ethods

C an w e s till

i s a s uitable a lternative?

I n t he

f ield p eople u se d ifferent c lassifications o f t heir m ethods. t erm u sed i s " proposive" where o ne d eliberately s earches f or s ites,

i n t he m ost p romising l ocations,

a nswer o ne's q uestions.

O ne

t hat o ne t hinks w ill

A nother t erm u sed i s " haphazard"

w hich

s imply m eans o ne l ooks i n p laces n earest t o t he p ub a long t he r oad o r whatever.

F ield m ethod a nd

s urvey d esign d o n ot

n ecessarily a gree. R upp:

w ith r egards t o i nventory s urveys - I n N orth America t hey w ould b e c alled a n " archaeological o r c ultural r esource i nventory" o r " cultural r esource m anagement".

W e h ave t hrown t he t erm " site"

a round b ut what d o w e a ctually m ean w hen w e u se i t? S chaar:

A s ite i s a ny a ssemblage o f c ultural a rtifacts.

M oody:

I t d epends u pon what t ype o f r esource o ne i s l ooking f or.

I t

c ould b e a n atural r esource s uch a s a c laybed w hich i s n ot a c ultural a ssemblage. R upp,

F ossey, a ctivity,

R unnels a nd W ickens: d efine a s ite i n t erms o f h uman a p lace where t here a re s ome t races o f a ctivity a t

s ome p oint o r p oints i n t ime. R unnels:

a dds - N ot a ll p laces u sed by m an w ill h ave a ny i dentifiable

t races l eft. R upp:

N ot a ll s ites a re t o b e t hought o f a s e qual.

I f o ne f inds a rtifacts a t a p lace t hen i t i s a s ite?

F ossey:

A re w e t alking a bout a t heoretical d efinition o r a w orking

o ne? R upp:

F or t he m oment l et's d efine i t i n a t heoretical s ense.

S ullivan:

T his m ay b ring i n M oody's p oint t hat a s ite i s n ot j ust a

p lace where o ne f inds a rtifacts b ut a p lace where t here h as b een m odification o f t he n atural l andscape b y h uman a ctivity. S tanley P rice:

I n C herry,

G amble a nd

S hennan's v olume

( 1978)

t hey

d efine a s ite a s e ither a l ocus o f p ast h uman b ehaviour o r a s a l ocus o f c ultural materials w ith a s light p reference f or t he l atter.

T he l atter i s t he c ase when d ealing w ith s pecific

c ultural r emains t hat m ay n ot b e i n t heir o riginal p osition. T he f ormer i ncludes t hose s ites w here

t here m ay n ot b e a ny a rtifacts

o r t races o n t he g round. Ammerman: T his i s a d ifficult t erm t o d efine o n t erms o f h uman a ctivity o r b y-products o f h uman a ctivity. S uppose a n o live g rove - a t ype o f p roduction s ite - i n a p articular a rea w as

2 6

c ut d own a t s ome p oint a nd t he s tumps e tc.

b urned.

M uch l ater

a p ipeline t rench c uts t hrough t his a rea r evealing c harcoal r emains f rom t his e vent. O ne n eeds t o b e a ble t o d escribe t his a s a s ite t oo. S o o ne n eeds a v ery g eneralized d efinition o f h uman a ctivity o therwise t he r estrictions w ill p reclude c alling s uch t hings a s ite. F ossey: T here's a d ifference b etween h ow o ne d efines a s ite t heoretically a nd h ow o ne r ecognizes i t i n t he f ield - W e s hould f irst c learly d efine w hat w e m ean b y a n a rchaeological s ite b efore w orrying a bout h ow o ne w ould r ecognize o ne. W ickens: O ne s hould a lso t ake i nto a ccount i nstances w here a rtifacts h ave e roded d own h ill f rom t heir o riginal l ocation t o a n ew o ne. T his n ew l ocation i s n ot R upp:

t he s ite o f h uman a ctivity.

- c onsensus i n t heoretical d efinition.

T he n ext p roblem i s h ow

d oes o ne r ecognize a s maller l ess i mpressive s ite t han a n A thens i n t he f ield? W e a re t alking a bout a c ontinuum f rom a rgicultural f ields t o a u rban c entre - W here w ould o ne d raw t he l ine a nd s ay t hat t his i s n ot a s ite? F ossey:

A ny p lace w here t here a re t races o f h uman a ctivity i s a s ite.

R unnels: I s a s imple l ithic t ool f ound i n a f ield a s ite? T here a re m any p ossible w ays t o e xplain i ts p resence t here. E ven i f t he l ocation i s n ot d esignated a s ite, t he f ind s pot i s s till u suable i nformation, w hich f alls i nto s ome r ange o f h uman b ehavioural p attern. S ites w ill n ot o nly b e i dentified b y t races o f h uman a ctivities b ut a lso t hat t hese t races w ill r eflect s ome p attern o f h uman b ehaviour. T he a bsence o f s uch a p attern i s a lso i nformative. W hether w e c all t hem s ites o r n ot i s n ot i mportant. R upp:

- d isagrees. I t i s i mportant b ecause w hen o ne r eads a nother's p ublication d escribing t he s ites t hat t hey h ave f ound o ne n eeds t o k now w hat t hey m ean b y a s ite i n o rder t o u se t hat d ata.

R unnels:

- a grees - b ut n ot

s ure w e w ill r each a s imple d efinition

o f a s ite. R upp:

W hat d o t he p anel m embers u se a s t heir w orking d efinition o f a s ite?

G regory: t wo m ethods - 1 ) a n a rbitrary j udgemental d ecision i n t erms o f a rtifact d ensity a nd 2 ) T he a bandonment o f t he c oncept o f s ite c ompletely a nd t ry t o l ook a t t he c ontinuum o ver t he l ands cape i n t erms o f a rtifact d ensity. D efining t he p atterns o f d ensity f or t he l andscape a s a w hole. L ater, i n r etrospect d esignating c ertain p laces a s s ites. R upp:

O ne p otential c riterion t hen i s a rtifact d ensity p er s quare m eter o ver a c ertain t hreshold.

M oody:

W hat a bout

s ites s uch a s q uarries t hat d o n ot h ave a rtifact

d ensities?

2 7

G regory: I t i s n ot j ust t he q uantity o f t he f inds b ut a lso t he q uality . R unnels: D ifferent t ypes o f s ites h ave d ifferent d efinitions o f w hat w ill b e f ound a t t hem . J ohn B intliff ( 1977) h as t alked a bout t he p henomenon o f b ackground s catter o r n oise. W hile s urveying o ne c an f ind s ites w ith d ense c oncentrations o f a rtifacts w hich h ave c lear l imits w ith n o a rtifacts i n b etween. I n a nother s urvey a rea o ne m ay f ind a g reat m ass o f m aterial s pread e verywhere i n d ifferent d ensities. M oody:

A d efinition o f a s ite d epends u pon o ne's p roblem o rientation.

R unnels: R upp:

W hat t hen?

T he d efinition i s s pecific t o a g iven a rea a nd s o w ill v ary.

T his m ay b e t he c ase e specially f or a r egion a s l arge a nd a s d iverse a s t he M editerranean. W hat t hen i s a s uitable w orking d efinition? l evel o f d ensity? c lear c ut b oundaries? t he s ize o f s catter o r a rtifacts o r e cofacts? W hen o ne g oes i nto t he f ield s urely o ne h as s ome i dea o f w hat a s ite i s. A rtifact d ensity p er s quare m eter h as a ppeared m any t imes i n l iterature a s a m ajor c riterion.

A mmerman: O ne c annot t alk a bout a rtifact d ensity i n a bsolute t erms o nly i n t erms o f n odes o f a rtifacts i n a g eneral c ontinuum o f b ackground n oise. S o t he d efinition o f a s ite b ased o n a rtifact d ensity i s a r elative a ssessment. S chaar: D efines a s ite i n t erms o f a m aterial c ultural a ssemblage. A n a ccumulation o f v arying e lements d epending u pon t he t ype o f c ultural b ehaviour i t i s a l ocus. M uhly:

T here a re d ifferent t ypes o f s ites w hich r epresent d ifferent

t ypes o f h uman a ctivity. s ite? R upp:

W hy d on't w e s tart b y d efining a h abitation

A w orking d efinition.

H ow d oes o ne h andle s mall c oncentrations o f a rtifacts? W hen d oes o ne e levate t his a ccumulation o f m aterial f rom o ne d efinitional s tatus t o a nother h igher o ne a nd o n w hat c riteria?

M elas: D efine a s ettlement s ite i n t erms o f a ssemblage o f a rtifactual m aterial i n a c ertain l ocation w hich h ave b oundaries a nd p ossibly a rchitectural r emains. F ossey:

B ut m any p rehistoric s ites o nly h ave a rtifacts

( ceramic o r

f lint) o n t he s urface a nd n othing e lse - n o a rchitectural r emains. E ither w e h ave n o d efinition o f a s ite o r w e d evelop a t ypology o f s ites a s R unnels s uggested. F lexibility i s i mportant w hen w e t hink o f a s ite. G regory's s uggestion o f r ecording c hanging a rtifact d ensities a nd t hen r etroactively d eciding m ay b e t he a nswer t o t he p roblem o f i dentifying s maller l ess o bvious c oncentrations t o t hose s ites w hich a re e asily r ecognizable. Ammerman:

O ne c an i dentify a s ite i n a s ense o f t he t heoretical

m echanisms t hat p roduced a s ite a nd t hen t he a ctual p rocess o f r ecognizing t hem i n t he f ield. T he d efinition o f a s ite i s d one

2 8

i n t he c ontext o f

t he r esearch p roblem.

While i n t he f ield o ne

c an c all w hat o ne f inds " scatter o f m aterials" a nd a fterwards o ne c an d eal w ith t he p roblem o f k nowing t he g eomorphology o f t o c orrectly i nterpret

s ite d efinition.

I n a ddition,

t he a rea b eing s urveyed a llows o ne

t he i mportance o f t he f inds.

F or e xample;

a c oncentration o f a rtifacts m ay a ppear t o b e a s ite b ut a d eflated s ite c aused b y w ind e rosion o f O ne o f

t he d ifficulties o f

l ook a t t he f inds a s i f

i s a ctually

s and d unes.

s urvey w ork i s t hat w e t end t o

t hey w ere e xcavated m aterial.

O ne m ust

r ealize t hat w hat i s f ound o n t he s urface i s o nly a t iny f raction o f what

i s u nderneath a nd t hat

t here a re m any w ays t his m aterial

c an g et t o t he s urface. O ne m ust b eware t o i nitially m ake a rbitrary d istinctions t hat l ater a re t oo e lastic t o f it w hat y ou a re f inding. R unnels:

T he m ethod o r a pproach o ne u ses f or d ata c ollection i s

i mportant. W hile s urveying I t ry t o r ecord a g reat d eal o f i nformation a ware t hat l ater w e m ight h ave s ome n ew d efinitions o f what w e a re l ooking f or F ossey:

P erhaps w e a re c onfusing t wo t hings.

A t heoretical d efinition

b efore o ne g oes o n t he f ield a nd a f ield d efinition.

B y b eing

f lexible w e c an a rrive a t a c loser d efinition o f a s ite d uring o r a fter o ur f ield w ork. S chaar:

I s t here a ny t erm w e c an a gree u pon t o d escribe w hat w e

o bserve i n t he f ield b esides " site"? o ccurence,

a ssemblage,

r ecord a nd t abulate.

S ay l ocus,

s catter o r p henomenon?

c oncentration,

T his i s w hat w e

P erhaps w e s hould o nly u se t he t erm " site"

o n t he i nterpretive l evel when w e d ecide t o c all a l ocation a h abitation, R upp:

i ndustrial,

c emetery s ite o r whatever.

Whether o ne r emains v ague o r n ot i n t he f ield a s t o what i s

m eant b y t he t erm " site" d oesn't o ne h ave t o e xplicitly s tate o nes c riteria f or s ite i dentification i n a p ublication?

I f n ot

t hen when t he d ata i s q ualified a nd r educed w e l ose t rack o f what t he n umbers m ean. d efinition o f

I t hink t hat

t here i s n eed f or e xplicit

t erms u sed.

S chaar,

R unnels

a nd M oody:

- a gree.

M oody:

a dds - T here c annot b e a u niversal d efinition o f a h abitation

s ite b ecause t he b uilding m aterials a nd t he t ool m aterials u sed w ill b e d ifferent f or e ach r egion d epending u pon t he l ocal e nvironment. S ullivan:

I n a s ense t he d efinition o f a s ite i s a lmost a n a fter-

t hought.

O ne u ses t he i dea o f a s catter o r whatever i n t he

f ield a nd t hat

i s a cceptable.

W hen i t c omes t o i nterpreting t he

d ata c ollected t hat's w hen o ne d ecides which a re s ites. H igh c oncentrations o f a rtifacts i s a n a cceptable c riterion f or d efining a s ite n oting Ammerman's w arnings d eflated M uhly:

t hat

t hese m ay s imply r epresent

i nsubstantial e phemeral l oci.

T here's a m ajor p roblem h ere.

w e h ave a m ajor r egion,

I n a t heoretical c ase s uppose

l ike B oiotia , and

2 9

i t

i s b eing s urveyed

b y f our d ifferent p rojects e ach w ith i ts o wn d efinition o f s ite e ach p ublishing a ccording t o t hese d ifferent d efinitions.

H ow i s

o ne g oing t o t ake t his p ublished m aterial a nd s ay s omething a bout t he h abitation h istory a nd p atterns a nd

s ettlement o f

B oiotia?

G regory: W ith a g reat d eal o f d ifficulty. C ertainly w ithin a r egion w e o ught t o b e a ble t o a rrive a t s ome b road d efinitions, s o t hat t here i s c omparability. S tanley P rice: I f w e a re e xplicit i n o ur d efinitions, d esign a nd r esults t hen w e c an e valuate t he m aterial f rom f our d ifferent s urveys i n t he s ame a rea. M organ: A rchaeologists s houldn't b e e mbarassed a bout i n f inding u niform d efinitions o f v arious t erms. p eculiar t o t his d iscipline. Ammerman:

I t i s n ote w orthy i n t his c ontext

t he d ifficulty I t i s n ot

t o l ook a t

S outhwestern A nthropological R esearch G roup

t he

( SARG),

a c onsortium

o f a rchaeologists t hat o riginally h ad h oped t o h ave s tandardized d efinitions a nd m ethods o f d escribing a nd r ecord t hings.

( Euler

a nd G umerman, 1 978). I t d id n ot w ork. M ost d ecided t o r ecord i n t he t raditional s tandardized w ay, w ith a djustments a nd a daptations. T his s eems l ike t o m ost p roductive s trategy. T here i s a p re-stage t hat I t hink s hould b e p ut p ublications.

i nto t he

T hat i s what a ims o ne i s a ctually t rying t o

a chieve t hat r elates t o t he w ay o ne e ffectively t rys t o c onduct o ne's f ield w ork a nd r ecord t he d ata o bserved.

T here a re

r esearch t argets t hat h ave c onditioned p eople when t hey e nter t he f ield. R eferences: B ar-Josef, 0 . a nd G oren, N ., 1 981. A fter t houghts f ollowing p rehistoric s urveys i n t he L evant. I srael E xploration J ournal 3 1:1-16. B intliff,

J .L.,

G reece.

1 977.

E nvironment a nd S ettlement i n P rehistoric

B AR I nternational S eries S 28.

C herry, J .C., G amble, C ., a nd S hennan, S . ( eds.), 1 978. S ampling i n C ontemporary B ritish A rchaeology B ritish A rchapological R eports 5 0. E uler,

R .C.

a nd G umerman,

G .L.,

( eds.),

1 978.

I nvestigations o f S outh-

w estern Anthropological R esearch G roup 1 976 C onf. N orth.

A riz.

F lannery,

K .V.,

K .V.

A cademic: H iggs,

1 976.

F lannery,

E .S.

p p.

T he E arly M esoamerican V illage,

R edman, A mer.

C .L.,

p p.

1 973.

Antiq.

I n

N ew Y ork:

5 1-62.

a nd V ita-Finzi,

( ed.),

M us.

S ampling b y i ntensive s urface c ollection.

( ed.),

t erritorial a pproach. H iggs

F lagstaff:

C .,

1 972.

P rehistoric e conomies:

I n P apers i n e conomic p rehistory,

2 7-36.

C ambridge:

a

E .S.

C ambridge University.

M ultistage F ieldwork a nd A nalytical T echniques.

3 8(1):

6 1-79.

3 0

C HAPTER

ARCHAEOLOGICAL S URVEY:

3

T HEORY A ND M ETHODOLOGY

P anel: N icholas S tanley P rice

( moderator)

K enneth S chaar

A lbert Ammerman

D an P ullen

I na K ehrberg

J ennifer M oody

A lbertus V oorrips A udience P articipation

( in o rder o f a ppearance):

J ames M uhly S tuart S winy C urtis R unnels T imothy G regory D avid R upp D iscussion A genda: R esearch a ims o n a t heoretical l evel. I s t here a s ingle g eneral g oal which a ll s urveys s hould a im a t? I f n ot,

s hould t here b e o ne.

I s t here a s ingle m ost e ffective t ype o f n ot,

s urvey?

I f

s o,

w hy?

I f

o n what b asis c an w e a ssess t he r elative a ppropriateness a nd

e fficiency o f t he v arious t ypes o f i ndividual p roject?

s urveys w ith r espect t o a g iven

A re t here d iscrepancies b etween t heory a nd e xecution? W hat c onscious a nd unconscious b iases e xist i n d ata r ecovery? S tanley P rice:

W e h ave a lready s een t hat t here a re a w ide v ariety o f

a pproaches t o s urvey w ork a nd t he a bstracts g ive a g ood i dea o f r ange o f w ork p ossible a nd t he p ros a nd c ons o f

t he

t he d ifferent m ethods.

T aken a ll t ogether t hey g ive a g ood i dea o f c urrent w ork i n a t l east p art o f

t he M editerranean a rea.

W e m ust k eep i n m ind t hat w e a re d ealing w ith d ata c ollected i n t he f ield which h as b een s ubjected t o a s elective p rocess o f e limination. O riginally t here w as a s ample o f h uman a ctivity i n t he p ast t hat r esulted i n material r emains a nd

s o i t was a lready a s ample o f

t he

t otal p opulation. T hen f rom t his s ample, N o. 1 , w hich w as p reserved f rom p ost-depositional d estruction a nother s ample w as d iscovered b y s urvey a nd r eported.

O f

t he material i n s ample N o.

2 a nother s ample

i s t hat which c an b e a ccurately i dentified. A t e ach s tage s omething h as d ropped o ut c reating t his s elected p rocess o f e limination. T o w hat e xtent w e c an g et a round t hese p roblems b y u sing d eliberate s ampling t echniques r emains t o b een s een while a voiding t he " sampling p aradox". T hat i s a s ampling p aradox a rises f rom t he n eed t o h ave k nowledge o f t he p opulation b eing s ampled b efore a ny f ieldwork p lace i n o rder

t o d esign a n a ppropriate

c onflict w ith t he p urpose o f

s ampling

T his i s i n

s uch f ieldwork w hich i s d esigned t o

e stablish t hose p opulation c haracteristics. s olution o f

o r a nalysis t akes s trategy.

t he p aradox i s t he u se o f p ilot 3 1

A n i mportant a id i n t he s amples o r p robes e mployed

w ithin a m ultistage r esearch d esign. V oorrips:

H ow c an t his p aradox b e r esolved?

T his s ampling p aradox i s n ot a s b ad a s i t

s imple r eason t hat w henever w e g o o ut p opulation i n mind

s ounds f or t he

i nto t he f ield w e d o h ave a

t hat w e a re t rying t o s ample.

W e h ave o ur p revious

k nowledge a nd i deas which c an b e c hanged o nce w e e ncounter n ew m aterial i n t he f ield.

T he p aradox i s n ot t here i n a ny p ractical

s ituation. S tanley P rice:

B ut h ow d oes o ne e valuate t he v alidity o f e xisting d ata

d ealing w ith t he a rea b efore w e g o i nto t he f ield? D o w e k now w hether i t i s a r epresentative a nd u nbiased s ample o f s ites? K ehrberg:

S urveys s hould t ie i n p reviously k nown d ata v ia q uantitative

s tudies. S tanley P rice:

H ow d oes o ne s urvey a n a rea i n which t here a re k nown

s ites? M oody:

V isit t he k nown s ites,

i n mind,

o bserving t hem w ith t he p ublished d ata

t hen e valuate what o ne's a pproach w ould h ave b een a t t his

s ite i f o ne h ad f ound i t i n t he f ield. P ullen:

C ompare t he r esults.

I n t he S outhern A rgolid P roject w e h ave,

t hat c hecks t he r ecords f rom t he p revious s eason. s ites a re e liminated,

a " verification t eam" A s a r esult s ome

n ew i nformation i s a dded a nd c hronological g aps

may b e f illed i n. S chaar:

I t i s d ifficult t o a ccept t he v alidity o f d iscounting s ites

t hat w ere o nce t hought t o b e s ites. C onditions c hange f rom s eason t o s eason, s catters a ppear a nd d isappear; p eople m ay a lso h ave r elocated t he material. i nformation,

O ne h as t he r esponsibility t o q uantitatively r ecord t he s tating t he c onditions,

a nd t hen l eave i t o pen f or

i nterpretation. ( Other m embers o n t he p anel a gree w ith t he s tatement o f c hanging s urface c onditions.) P ullen: M ost o f t he d elisted s ites w ere c oncentrations o f m aterial n ot i n s itu. W e d o n ot j ust t hrow t his m aterial o ut. T he m aterial i s r ecorded b ut i s n ot

s ubjected t o t he s ame k ind o f a nalysis a s t he s ite

m aterials. S tanley P rice:

W e might a void c onfusion,

i f w e r efrain f rom u sing t he

t erm " site" when d iscussing c oncentrations o f m &terial f ound i n t he f ield. R e-surveying i s o ne o f t he m ost i mportant i deas t hat h as c ome o ut o f

t he d iscussions.

Ammerman:

I n t erms o f

t heory w e h ave n ot d eveloped o ur k nowledge i n

r egard t o t he t ime d ynamics o f

s urface m aterial.

I t h as o nly b een

r ecently t hat p eople h ave s tarted t o s urvey t he l andscape o ver a nd o ver a gain. A s a r esult i t h as b een r ealised h ow s ubtle t he s urface i s; a nd t hat t he s urface s catter o f a rtifactual a nd e cofactual m aterial i s o nly a s ample o f a p opulation f loating a round i n t he p low z one. c hanging s ample i s l ight c onditions,

s ubjected

T his

t o a n i ncredible n umber o f f actors s uch a s

t ime o f y ear,

t ype o f

s oil,

o r t ype o f a rtifacts.

S ome p ottery f abrics o ver t ime w ill b e r educed t o s uch s mall s izes t hat 3 2

t hey w ill b e unidentifiable.

A g eneral t heory f or t he n ature o f

a nd s urface p henomena n eeds t o

b e d eveloped.

s catters

T o d efine a s ite i n t erms

o f s urface d ensities i s p roblematic s ince t he s urface d ensity c an v ary i ncredibly f rom o ne v isit t o t he n ext. D uring t he 1 960's, s urvey w ork i n t he U .S. p erpetuated t hese p roblems. L ewis B inford a nd s ome c olleagues ( 1970) d id a n i ntensive s urvey c ollection e xperiment a t a s ite c alled " Hatchery W est". T hey i ntentionally p lowed t he s ite t o p roduce l arge q uantities o f s urface m aterial w hich t hey c ollected i n v ery s mall g rid s quares a nd m apped w hat w as i n e ach s quare. T hey t hen e xcavated t he s ite b elieving t hat t he s urface m ap w as a l iteral e ntity. H ad t hey p lowed t he s ite a gain a nd m apped t he r emains a gain t here w ould h ave b een n o c orrespondence b etween t he t wo m aps. T his i s c alled a s tochastic p rocess. M ost o f w hat o ne s ees i s r andom n oise. T his i s g oing t o f orce p eople a way f rom t he e arlier m echanistic v iews o f s ampling; i n w hich s ampling w as s een a s a s olution t o t he p roblem o f m aking i nferences. R ealization o f t he t ime f actor i n w hat i s s een o r n ot s een o n t he s urface i s a m ore c entral p roblem; t his r ealization o ccurs when o ne r esurveys o r d oes i ntensive s urveys. O ne m ust u nderstand ' t he m echanisms o f t he s urface. S tanley P rice: a grees a nd g eomorphological p rocesses e laborate s ampling d esigns a nd B arker, 1 981) t alks o f

a dds t hat w ith a b etter u nderstanding o f t he i n t erms o f s urface f inds o f a s ite, t he a re l ess a ppropriate. G raeme B arker ( Lloyd s ites i n t he M olise V alley a ppearing a nd

d isappearing. K ehrberg: T herefore i n o rder t o h ave s ome c ertainty a bout t he q ualitative f indings a t a s ite, i t i s n ecessary t o d o a s ondage

( if

p ermitted). O therwise y ou w ill n ever r each a d efinite c onclusion e ven i f y ou r esurvey t he s ite o ver t he y ears. A mmerman:

S ome u ncertainty c an b e e radicated b y s ampling t he s ite 2

o r 3 d ifferent t imes a nd t hereby r evealing t he b asic d ensity p atterns. S urvey w ork d one w ithout e xcavation i s g oing t o l imit o ne's u nders tanding. I n C alabria, I taly w e u sed a m agnetometer t o l ocate c ompletely b uried s tructures. T he p aradox i s t hat t he s ites w here o ne s ees n o o r l ittle i ndication o f c ultural m aterial o n t he s urface a re t he o nes l ikely t o h ave t he b est d ata d ue t o t heir e xcellent s tate o f p reservation. ( Schaar: a grees w ith t he p aradox.) M uhly:

I s i t r ealistic t o r esurvey t he s ame a rea e very y ear f or a

p eriod o f 1 0 y ears? A mmerman:

N o.

S urveys w ork s equentially a nd g ive d ifferent a ppro-

x imations n ot a bsolute r esults. W ith m any t ypes o f s urveys, y ou w on 't w ant t o r esurvey. H owever, i f o ne w ants h igh q uality d ata a nd w ants t o d iscuss p opulation d ynamics t his w ill h ave t o b e d one. P eople e ngaged i n i ntensive r epeated s urveys e specially f or p rehistoric s ites r ealize t hat o ne m ust c alibrate t he s ite v isibility f or t he s tudy a rea. S winy: t ypes o f R unnels:

N ot a ll s ites a re c hanging r apidly.

O ne s hould d efine w hat

s ites n eed t o b e r esurveyed t ime a nd t ime a gain. I n t he d iscussion o f

i s o nly o ne s tage.

t he s ite f ormation p rocess r esurveying

W e s hould a lso i dentify t he n atural a nd c ultural

3 3

p rocesses a nd c ircumstances w hich a ffect a s ite a nd w here t hey t ake p lace.

B y d oing s o, w e w ill h ave s ome k nowledge o f h ow s ome t ypes o f

s ites c hange. A mmerman:

D etailed i nformation i s o nly g ood f or a s mall a rea.

O ne

c an't e xtrapolate b ecause s oil t ypes o r a gricultural p ractices c an v ary. R ecently i n I taly a nd p robably e lsewhere i n t he M editerranean a gricultural t echniques a re c hanging d ramatically. T his d irectly a ffects t he m echanics o f w hat i s s een o r t he s urface a nd t hereby c omplicates t he i ssue. K ehrberg: I f o ne h as i dentified a s ite a nd o ne i s p ermitted t o d o a s ondage, t o s urvey v ertically, w hy w aste 1 0 y ears d oing r esurveys? A mmerman:

O ne c an n ot d o v ery m uch o n a l arge s cale d oing s ondages.

K ehrberg: I n s ome a reas i t i s o r w as p ossible t o c ombine s urveys w ith s ondages. I 'm n ot s ure t hat t he r epeated o bservation o f s catter p att erns o n a s ite, a lthough i nteresting, w ill l ead a nywhere a s f ar a s a s ite i s c oncerned. V oorrips:

A s a rchaeologists, w e t ry t o o btain a s m uch i nformation

a bout p ast h uman b ehaviour a s p ossible w ith t he l east e ffort. S ince e xcavations a re e xpensive, i t i s b est i f w e c an a ccomplish i t w ithout e xcavating. I w ould l ike t o p ropose t hat s urveys b e a n e nd i n t hems elves w ithout e xcavation. A mmerman:

While n ot e veryone s hould h ave t o d o t his r eplicative w ork

w e s hould a void h aving n aive a ssumptions w hich a re c arried i nto o ur i nterpretations a bout s urface s catters a nd s ite v isibility. S ondages a re n ot a lways p ractical a s t here a re o ften n umerous s mall s catters ( 10-15/km 2 ) . I t c ould t ake d ecades t o d o a s ondage i n e ach. H owever o ne s hould d o s ome e xcavation e specially i n a reas w ithout a ny p revious e xcavation. I d on't t hink o ne w ants t o j ust d o s urveys a nd t o t hink o f t hem a s a t hing i n t hemselves. S tanley P rice: I t i s s uggested t hat s urveys a re s ometimes s ubstitutes f or e xcavations; a s t hey a re c heaper a nd n on-destructive. W hat a re t he p ros a nd c ons o f s urveys w ith o r w ithout e xcavations? V oorrips: S urveys s hould b e t he m ain a pproach t o g eneral p roblems a nd f or t he d evelopment o f t heories a nd i deas i n a rchaeology. W hile e xcavations s hould b e t ests f or t he s urvey r esults. S tanley P rice:

A re y ou t hinking o f m ultiple e xcavations t o t est s urvey

d ata r ather t han c onducting a s urvey t o l ocate a s ite f or e xcavation? V oorrips:

Y es.

I t w ill f ollow f rom t he r esults w here a nd w hat k inds

o f e xcavations a re n eeded t o t est t hose i deas. S chaar:

E xcavation o ught t o b e c arried o ut u sing t he s ame

s ampling

t echniques a s a s urface s urvey; t o a ttempt t o c orrelate s urface d ata w ith s ubsurface f eatures s o t hat w e c an b egin t o u nderstand t his d ynamic p rocess. i s o n t he s urface.

T his m ay r esult i n n ew f ormulae f or e xplaining w hat T hese w ould b e u seful w hen w e o nly h ave s urface

d ata a nd a re u nable t o e xcavate. 3 4

M uhly:

I n G reece,

o f e xcavation.

a t l east,

s urveying h istorically d eveloped i n l ieu

I t w ould b e n ice

t o c ombine

s urveying o ver a w ide a rea

w ith o ccasional s ondages t o c heck o n t he r esults. i mpossible i n G reece w here o nly e xcavations a t

B ut t hat h as b een

s pecific

s ites a re

p ermitted. G regory:

P roblem:

I n t he p ast s ome e xcavations w ere n ot s ufficiently

c oncerned w ith s tratigraphy t o g ive u s t he k ind o f c eramic c ontrol t hat w e n eed f or a ccurate i dentification o f

t he m aterial f ound o n t he s urface.

T his t hen i s a nother r eason f or t est e xcavations - t o d etermine t he s tratigraphy o f t he s ite a nd t hereby t o m ake s urface material. F ossey:

s ome s ense o ut o f

t he

S urveys b etter d efine p roblems w hich r elate t o a p articular

a rea a nd t hus p erhaps e nable o ne t o c hoose g ood c andidates f or e xcav ation i n o rder t o r esolve t hose p roblems. i nformation b ack t o t he

i s a d ynamic p rocess n ot a n i ngrown o ne. s urvey a s w ell a s a c heck o n t he S tanley P rice:

T hen o ne c an e xtrapolate

o ther s ites d iscovered d uring t he s urvey.

T his

E xcavation i s a s tage b eyond

s urvey r esults.

I s t here a d istinction b etween d oing e xcavations

f ollowing s urveys t o a nswer h istorical q uestions a nd d oing e xcavations a s a t est o f S ullivan:

s urvey r esult o r m ethods?

O ne o f

a s ingle t ype o f

t he q uestions w e a re c onsidering i s whether o r n ot s urvey i s a ppropriate f or a ll w ork.

d iscussing 3 t ypes, d esigned t o ( 3)

( 1)

a imed a t a nswering

r eplace e xcavations,

t o t est a fter e xcavations.

W e h ave b een

s pecific q uestions.

( 2)

S urveys

t est p rior t o e xcavation,

S o i nfact o ne s ingle t ype o f

s urvey i s

n ot a ppropriate. S tanley P rice: r esearch g oals.

T he t ype o f

s urvey e mployed t hen d epends u pon t he

H ow c an w e a ssess t he r elative a ppropriateness a nd

e fficiency o f a s urvey? V oorrips:

R egional s urveys s hould b e a ccompanied b y o r b etter p re-

c eded b y a d etailed a ssessment o f t he g eomorphological c onditions a nd r ecent g eological h istory o f r esult

s uch a s

A mmerman:

t he a rea.

W ithout t his t ragedies c an

s urveying r ecently d eposited a lluvial s oils.

A grees b ut a dds t hat i t i s h owever d ifficult t o f ind t rained

p eople t o d o t his e xpensive r esearch. S ullivan:

A grees a nd a dds - A rchaeologists w orking o n t he d evelopment

o f e arly m an i n A frica h ave l ong r ecognized t he n eed o f c ollaboration w ith t he e arth a nd l ife s ciences e xperts. O nly r ecently h ave t hese s cientists b een r ecognized b y t hose a rchaeologists w orking i n t he l ater p rehistoric a nd

h istoric p eriods i n t he M editerranean a rea a nd i nvited

t o w ork o n t heir s ites. m ore w idely k nown. A mmerman:

T he n ecessity o f

s uch r esearch s hould b e m ade

D ue t o t he e xpenses i nvolved i n g etting a g ood e arth s cien-

t ist t o w ork o n a p roject,

a rchaeologists t hemselves m ay h ave t o o btain

t his t raining i n o rder t o g et t he d esired w ork d one. K ehrberg:

a grees.

3 5

M uhly:

A b asic a rchaeological p roblem:

m ost o f

t he s urvey w ork i n

W estern A sia h as b een o f a n h istorical n ature c oncentrating o n t he d etermination o f w hich s ites w ere o ccupied a nd t heir d istribution. c olleagues'

i n a g iven p eriod,

A s i n t he c ase o f R obert A dams

( 1981)

h ow m any a nd h is

s urvey w ork i n M esopotamia t his i s b ased o n t he a ssumption

t hat o ne c an make a n a ccurate f rom t he various p eriods. S tanley P rice: b eginning o f

s urface i dentification o f t he p ottery

T his i s n ot a lways t he c ase.

L et's r eturn t o s ome q uestions t hat w ere r aised a t t he

t he d iscussion.

m uch c an o ne t rust

H ow s hould o ne c onduct a s urvey?

s urface r emains?

H ow

S hould s urveys b e r estricted t o a

p articular c hronological p eriod. S chaar: 1 .

O ne c an a pproach a rchaeological f ield w ork f rom t wo d irections:

g eneral r egional s urveys t o l ocate a ctivity l oci t hat a re r epresen-

t ative o f a p articular c ulture o r p eriod a nd 2 .

e xcavations which g ive

s tratigraphical e vidence t hat a llows u s t o e xplain t he s equential d evelopment o f p ottery. Ammerman: f ound.

W e h ave a r eal r esponsibility t o d ocument f ully what w as

F urthermore,

t he s equential n ature o f

s urvey w ork c ombined

w ith p ossibly e xcavation a nd r e-survey w ill c ause o ne t o t hink o f t he p roblem o f

t he d ifferential p reservation a nd d estruction o f a rchaeo-

l ogical material. S ince p rehistoric l ithic m aterial i s b asically i ndestructable c ompared t o p ottery, i t may b e u sed a s a m arker a rtifact t o o btain t he i nformation t hat y ou a re l ooking f or i n o rder t o u nders tand t he g eomorphological c hanges. O ver t ime o n a s urvey o ne d evelops l ittle s trategies t o d eal w ith t hese p roblems. A fter a w hile g eneral r ules may b e f ormed t o e xplain t hem o n a l ocal l evel. S tanley P rice:

H ow d oes o ne g o a bout

s electing t he s ites a t which y ou

w ill s tudy s ite f ormation a nd d estruction? Ammerman:

D o s mall p ilot e xperiments u sing s elected materials t o g et

a n u nderstanding o f

t he g eomorphological c hanges.

S tanley P rice:

s ites c hosen d epend u pon t he q uestions t hat a re

T he

a sked? Ammerman:

Y es,

b ecause o ne d oes n ot w ant t o b e s ide t racked i nto

d oing o nly m ethodology. S tanley P rice:

( re:

s urface r emains)

W e h ave a greed t hat

s ites u nder-

g o a ctive s urface c hange a nd t hat e laborate s ampling s trategies t hat d o n ot a llow f or t his f actor a re p robably p roducing misleading r esults. S chaar:

W hat d c y ou m ean b y a n e laborate s trategy?

S tanley P rice: Im ean c hoosing s ome t ype o f s ampling d esign t hat s amples a reas o n a r andom b asis. D oing t his w ithout f irst h aving u nderstood t hat a rea i s g oing t o a nce o f

t he g eomorphological a nd g eological h istory o f t he s eriously a ffect

t he d istribution a nd

s urface a ppear-

s ites.

Ammerman: T he q uestion o f w hat a rea t o c over i s t he q uestion o f s ampling which w as i ntroduced t o g et p eople t o c over a ll t he d ifficult p arts o f

t he l andscape.

P eople h owever w ere n aive a bout w hat w as

3 6

g oing t o h appen i n t he a rea a ctually c overed.

A m ore f undamental

q uestion t han w hich s trategy o ne s hould u se t o s elect t he a reas t o b e s ampled i s: w hat i s t he n ature o f t hat c overage o f t he a rea a nd t he c hanges w ithin t he a rea. I n a nthropological a rchaeology p eople b ecame i nterested i n t he m ethodology o f s election w hich d istracted t hem f rom t he f undamental p roblem. I n r egional s urveys t hey w ere w orrying a bout c overing a f ew m ore s quare k ilometres, t he c onvenience o f t ransects f or l ogistics, a nd c ost e ffectiveness. B ut t he r eal p roblem w as t hat t hey w ere n ot f inding t he s ites t hat w ere o ut t here i n t he p laces t hat t hey w ere c overing; y ear,

a s t hey w ere s urveying a t t he w rong t ime o f t he

e tc.

S tanley P rice: C an a nyone d efend t he a pplication o f e laborate s trategies i n a reas w here t here i s l ess i nformation o n s ite l ocation? V oorrips:

A s tatistically w ell f ounded s ampling s trategy c an b e v ery

u seful i f a n umber o f c onditions a re m et. A p ractical s ituation o n m ost o ccasions i s t hat a fter t he s urvey i s c ompleted c an t he t ype o f s ample a cquired b e d efined. T here i s n othing b asically w rong w ith t his a nd o ne c an s till d o o ne's s tatistics.

I n .regional s urveys,

r andom s ampling s trategies u sing s quares o r t ransects a re a bsolutely i nappropriate. A s ystematic d esign i s n ecessary - m ore o r l ess e qual r egular c overage o f t he e ntire a rea, e specially i f o ne i s i nterested i n d istribution m aps. S chaar:

n eed t o c larify t he d ifference b etween a s urvey f or q uanti-

t ative p urposes v ersus o ne f or l ocational a nalysis. T he f ormer i s n eeded i f o ne w ants a s tatement o n t he l ikelihood o f f inding a p artic ular t hing/artifact. T his d oesn't e xplain w hy d ensities o ccur w here t hey d o. H owever, f or a g iven g rid s quare o ne c an b egin t o i nfer b ehavioral a ctivities b ased o n k nown q uantities o f a rtifacts. F or l ocational a nalysis o ne c an u se t he S YMAP c omputer r outine t o c reate a c ontour m ap o f a rtifact d ensities i n e ach g rid s quare. V oorrips: O ne c an d o l ocational a nalysis w ith r andom s amples. B ut r andom s ampling i s a s tupid a nd r ather c lumsy d evice. O n t he o ther h and t he s ystematic s ampling d esign w hich c overs t he w hole a rea o n a r egular b asis i s m ore e ffective. I t c an s tatistically s peaking b e h andled e qually a s w ell a s r andom s ample o n n early a ll o ccasions. A mmerman: a grees. I f o ne i s i nterested i n d istribution m aps t hen o ne d oesn't w ant a l ot o f e mpty s paces. W hat o ne d oes w ant i s a s ystematic c overage o f t he w hole a rea. I f o ne w ants t o d o a l ocational a nalysis Iw ould r ecommend a v ery c omprehensive a nd i ntensive c overage o f s mall a reas w ith m aybe l ighter c overage i n between t hem. T here s hould b e c areful s election o f t he a rea c hosen f or s urvey, b ased o n c riteria r elevant t o o ne's p roblem o rientation. I f t he p roject i s a l ong o ne a nd t here i s a p ossibility o f r andom d isturbance o f t he r egion b y r oad b uilding o r i rrigation p rojects, o ne s hould b e o pportunistic t o t ake a dvantage o f t hese a ccidental f ree s ub-surface s ampling. S tanley P rice:

a grees.

F or a ny f orm o f l ocational a nalysis t hen

c omplete c overage o f a n a rea i s t he i deal. I n t erms o f t ime a nd e xpense t he s maller t he a rea c hosen t he b etter t o m aximize t he c hances o f c overing i t f ully.

3 7

V oorrips:

T his d epends t o a g reat e xtent o n t he k ind o f p roblem o ne

h as i n mind.

W e s houldn't r estrict o urselves t o w orking i n s mall

a reas o nly. Ammerman:

I n c overing l arger a reas, what a re t he a dvantages o f q uadrats

o ver t ransects a nd v isa v ersa? S chaar:

A s a p reliminary l ocational d evice R edman

u sing t ransects.

( 1973)

r ecommends

T heir p ositioning s hould b e b ased o n a p robability

m odel c overing s ay 1 0% o f

t he t errain.

U sing t his a pproach o ne c an

s ay t hat i n t his p articular a rea w e c an e xpect t o f ind " n" n umber p eriods.

T o l ook a t a p articular s ite o r a l arge a ccumulation o f

a ctivity l oci a b lock o r q uadrat w ould w ork b etter o n a s mall s cale. V oorrips:

I d on't s ee a nything t heoretical t o j ustify o ne o ver t he

o ther. Ammerman: P ilot , p robes - t he p reliminary r econnaissance i n a n a rea w hich p recedes t he t ransect s ampling u nit f orm - i s a f undamental c omponent i n t he s equence o f e vents o f a p roject. a re l ogistically b etter t han t ransects;

S quares o r b locks

i t i s e asier t o t he t rans-

p ortation f actor. R unnels:

T here i s s ome t heoretical j ustification f or t ransects.

I n

r egional a nd i ntra-site s urveys b ecause o f t heir l ong e dges which h ave a h igher p robability o f i ntersecting V oorrips:

m ore

s ites.

d isagrees - s ince 1 0-10m x 1 0m s quares h ave t he s ame a rea

a s a 1 00 x 1 0m t ransect b ut h ave t wice a s m uch e dge e xposure, t herefore g ives a l arger s ample a rea.

a nd

R egularly p laced q uadrats

would b e e qually a s e ffective f or f inding t hings a s t ransects, f or f inding t he b orders o f a s ite a t ransect m ight b e b etter. R unnels a nd M oody:

t hough

a gree t hat q uadrats a nd t ransects a re e qually

e ffective b ut t hink t hat t ransects a re e asier t o h andle. V oorrips: G regory:

B oth a pproaches c an b e managed i n a s ampling t heory. I t i s m ore p ractical t o c ombine t he t wo.

W e u se t ransects

f or c overing l ong d istances a nd s quares o nce l arger c oncentrations a re e ncountered. W ith a t ransect o ne w alks i n a s traight l ine w hich makes i t p referable.

W e s ample r egularly w ithin t he t ransect w hich

i s i mportant a s t he t ransect

i s n ot d esigned p rimarily t o f ind s ites

b ut r ather t o r ecord a rtifact d ensities a cross t he l andscape.

T his

p rovides a c ontour o f b ackground n oise a gainst which o ne j udges c oncentrations. Moody:

T he t ransect i s a dvantageous i n a r egional s urvey a s i t

p rovides a n i dea o f w hat t he v ariety o f s cape.

s ites i s t hrough t he l and-

A t ransect c uts a s wath a cross v arious t opographic l andforms

i n t he l andscape. G regory:

A t ransect

m aps a re l acking. S tanley P rice:

i s a lso g ood

o n d ifficult t errain o r w here g ood

T hey a re q uicker.

T ransects a re a lso u seful f or c ollecting i nformation

f or s ite c atchment a nalysis.

3 8

R upp:

O n t he C anadian P alaipaphos S urvey P roject i n C yprus, w e u sed

a j udgemental s trategy i n t he f irst ( 1979) s eason b ut w ere n ot s atisf ied w ith t he r esults. I n 1 980, w e u sed a s tratified r andom s ampling s trategy f or o ur e xtensive s urvey o f t wo r iver v alleys. T his a pproach w as c hosen a s p ractically n othing w as k nown o f t he r egion's a rchaeol ogical r esources a nd i n o ur o pinion n either a j udgemental n or a s ystematic a pproach w ould h ave p roduced s atisfactory r esults. S uch a n a pproach i s u seful f or t he i nitial s tages o f a p roject i n a n a rea t hat i s p oorly k nown. T he r esults w ere g ratifying. R andom s ampling i s u seful s ince i t f orces o ne t o s urvey a reas t hat a rchaeologists t radit ionally h ave f ound u nattractive. W hile u sually n othing w as f ound i n t hese a reas, o ccasionally s urprising f inds w ere m ade. W e d o, h owever h ave b iases i n w hether w e r ecognize t hem o r n ot. I n a j udgemental s trategy o ur m ispreceptions o n s ite l ocations a re c onfirmed. S o a c ombination o f s ampling s trategies i ncluding r andom s ampling i n m y o pinion i s u seful. S tanley P rice:

H ow d id y ou d efine y our s trata?

R upp: T hey w ere b ased o n w hat w as k nown o f t he d istribution o f s ites f rom p revious a ccidental f inds a nd s ome e xcavations; a nd f rom o ur i mpressions o f t he t opography a nd v egetation. V oorrips: s ampling,

Y ou w ere o pposing j udgemental s ampling t o p robability o f w hich r andom s ampling i s a f orm. W hether r andom s ampling

i s b etter t han s ystematic d epends u pon t he p ractical s ituation. B oth c an b e u sed t o m ake p ilot s amples a nd t hat's t he w ay y ou u sed t he r andom s ampling. T here a re p roblems w ith t he s tratification o f a n a rea u sing v egetational, a ltitudinal o r w hatever d ifferences. W e s tratify b ecause w e a ssume t hat i nside a z one/stratum t here w ill b e m ore h omogeneity a nd m ore h eterogenity b etween t he v arious z ones.

T he

s tratification i s b ased o n m odern f eatures, i t i s a ssumed t hat t he p eople i n t he p ast v iewed t he l andscape t he s ame w ay w e d o. S ince h unter/gatherers w ould p robably p erceive a v alley d ifferently t han w e d o; t o s tratify o ur s ampling s trategy w ill m ean a l ess r eliable a ssessment o f s ite n umbers t han i f a n on-stratified s ampling d esign w as u sed a nd w hich t reated t he e ntire a rea e qually. A mmerman:

W hen t alking a bout p robability s ampling,

t he p robability

i s o perating n ot o n a l ist o f s ites, i t i s o perating o n a l ist o f a rbitrarily c hosen s paces. T his i s t echnically c alled c luster s ampling. A rchaeologists t hink t hey a re d oing s imple r andom s ampling b ut i n f act t hey a re d oing c luster s ampling. I n a ny c ase a ny s trategy t hat f orces o ne t o l ook a t d ifferent p arts o f a r egion c an 't b e a ll b ad. O ften i n s tarting a n ew p roject i n a v alley, t he a rchaeologist ( after l ooking a t s ome a erial p hotographs a nd h aving a q uick l ook i n p erson) d ecides o n a p articular s urvey d esign. T oo m uch e mphasis c an b e p laced o n d esign, t hereby p reventing a f lexibility i n a pproach w hen t he c onditions a nd/or r esults i n t he f ield a re n ot w hat w as e xpected. S hould a void a d esign o n p aper b ut t he f irst m onth 's w ork s hould b e o riented t owards d eciding o n a s trategy o r d esign - c onsider i t a s a p reliminary e xperiment.

F urther f ield e xperience

b e u sed t o p erfect t he d esign. 3 9

s hould t hen

S tanley P rice a nd R upp:

a gree t hat f lexibility i s r equired.

R upp: ( replies t o V oorrips) T here's a d ifference i n l ooking f or h unter/gatherer s ites a nd l ooking f or s edentary a griculturalists. t hink t hat n o m atter h ow u nsophisticated y our s trata a re a nd b iased o n n umerous a : ,sumptions, o ne c an s till c ompare t he r esults b etween t he s trata t o s ee i f t he t ypes o f s ites a re c omparable. I n s ubsequent s easons o ne c an i mprove t he s tratification d esign. S tanley P rice: W hat c onscious o r u nconscious b iases e xist i n d ata r ecovery t echniques? W e h ave a lready t alked a bout t he c onscious b iases i nvolved i n s tratified d esigns. H ow p recisely s hould o ne d escribe o ne's s urvey m ethods w hen a ccounting f or w hy s ites w ere f ound w here t hey w ere? S hould o ne s ay w e a re c oncentrating a round r unning w ater s ources,

e tc.?

I n C yprus I h ave a ttempted t o d etermine e xactly h ow p eople h ave g one a bout d oing t heir s urveys i n t he p ast - w hat e ffected w here t hey w ent, w hat t hey l ooked f or a nd s o o n. T his e xemplifies c onscious a nd u nconscious b iases. D o w e n eed t o e xplain f ully ' i n a r eport w hat a reas w ere c hosen a nd w hat f actors i nfluenced b y t his c hoice? S winy: Y es, I t hink i t i s i mportant. I n m y s urvey I d id n ot u se r andom s ampling t echniques b ut r ather I c hecked t he C yprus s urvey r ecords a nd f ound 7 o r 8 B ronze A ge s ites. I f ollowed t hem u p, d iscovered a p attern. U sing t he p attern, I l ocated m ore o f t hese s ites i n t he v alleys. S tanley P rice:

T here i s t he p ossibility m entioned b y R upp t hat s ites

c ould o ccur i n t he u nexpected a reas w here o ne w ould n ot n ormally h ave l ooked? S winy:

Y es - b ut I c hecked c ertain a reas a fterwards a nd i n f act

d idn't f ind a ny s ites. S tanley P rice: C an w e u se n egative e vidence f rom a n a rea s urveyed o nce o r t wice - i n l ight o f w hat h as b een s aid o f s ites a ppearing a nd d isappearing? K ehrberg: I f t here i s e vidence a mong t he s ites t o s uggest a p attern t hen t he a bsence o r p resence o f a rtifacts i s e qually i mportant. V oorrips:

N egative e vidence o r a bsence o f m aterial i s a v ery d ifficult

c oncept t o h andle i n a rchaeology;

i n a ny i nterpretation w e m ake.

S ites

a ppearing a nd d isappearing i s a n e xcellent i llustration o f t his p roblem. C ommon s ense i s a c hief s ource o f u nconscious b ias; a s o ne i s u sing a b ody o f i mplicit, t heory t hat e xists i n t he b ack o f o ne's m ind.

I f i t i s e xplicit t hen i t i s t heory.

G regory: I n t erms o f b iases t here a re f requently b iases b uilt i nto t he s taff m embers o f t he v arious s arvey p rojects; p articularly i n t erms o f s pecialties c overed a nd n ot c overed.

T here c an b e g aps i n c eramic

k nowledge o r t echnical s pecialties w hich c an l ead t o p eculiar c hronol ogical c onclusions a bout s ites. T his i s c onnected w ith t he v isibility o f c ertain t ypes o f c eramic m aterials a s J . R utter p oints o ut i n h is 4 0

c ontribution. F urthermore, i t i s p artly a f actor o f v isibility a nd p artly o f i gnorance t hat o ne o ften f inds a b ias a gainst l ater p eriods. T he M innesota-Messenia s urvey i n G reece ( McDonald a nd R app, 1 972) i s a n e xample o f t his. A fter t he R oman p eriod t hey h ad o ne a ll-inclusive c ategory - M ediaeval - w hich c overed B yzantine t o m odern. T his h as o ften h appened; o ne s hould b e s uspicious w hen o ne s ees l ong c hronol ogical p eriods l isted. V oorrips:

I f p eople d o n ot k now h ow t o i dentify t he m aterial t hey

s houldn't c ollect i t,

o r a t l east s ee t hat i t g ets p roperly s tudied.

S tanley P rice: S hould e very s urvey a ttempt t o r ecord e very s ite t hat i s f ound i n i ts s tudy a reas e ven i f t hey d o n ot h ave t he q ualified p eople t o d o t he c eramic i dentification f or e very p eriod? I s i t b etter t o l eave t hose s ites a lone i f t hey a re n ot e specially q ualified t o d eal w ith t hem? S hould t hey b e i gnored o r t he m aterial s imply c ollected a nd n ot s tudied u ntil a q ualified p erson i s f ound? K ehrberg:

T hey s hould b e c ollected a nd r eported.

I deally,

i f t he

r ecording i s d one p roperly a nd s upplemented b y d rawings a nd p hotographs t he m aterial c ould b e u sed b y s omeone e lse. S tanley P rice: I n t erms o f c ost e ffectiveness t hey s hould r ecord a ll s ites f ound b ut n eed n ot n ecessarily p ublish a ll o f t he m aterial t hat i s o utside o f t heir p articular i nterest. K ehrberg:

O ne c ould a lso a rgue t o l eave t hose s ites a lone u ntil a

q ualified p erson c omes a long - b ut i t i s u ncertain w hether t hat o pportunity w ill e ver o ccur. G regory: I t i s n ot p articularly u seful t o i gnore s ites. W e s hould l et t he u sers o f o ur d ata k now w hat w e d id w ith i t a nd h ow w e i nterp reted i t.

I t s ould b e m ade c lear t hat s pecialists i n c ertain a reas

w ere m issing. A mmerman: W e h ave b een i gnoring t he l ithic m aterial w hich i s a lso a bundant i n t he M editerranean l andscape. I n s urveys o riented t owards t he h istoric p eriods e ither d o n ot r ecognize i t o r d o n ot r ecord i t. T his p oses a p roblem i f y ou a re a p rehistorian. S tanley P rice:

I sn't t here t he r esponsibility o n t he s urvey t o r ecord

a ll s ites i n am inimal f ashion? A mmerman:

T he c oncept o f a n a ll-period s urvey i s e ssentially o ut-of-

d ate; o ne w ould n eed s ub-groups o f e xperts w ithin t he p roject t o h andle t he p articular m ajor c hronological p eriods. O ften i t i s v ery d ifficult t o b ring a ll t hese s pecialists t ogether. I f o ne w ants t o f ind p rehistoric s ites t hen o ne m ust h ave t he p roper s pecialists a nd s urvey s trategies. W hen o ne f inds o ther p eriod s ites o ne r ecords t hem i f o ne c an j ustify t he e xpenditure a nd t ime. S tanley P rice: I n a s mall w ell d efined a rea s uch a s a n A egean i sland, a n a ll p eriod s urvey i s m ore p lausible i f t he p ersonnel a re a vailable. A mmerman:

Y es, b ut a g eomorphological s urvey w ould b e c ritical p rior

t o t he s urvey;

t hen o ne w ould b ring i n o ne's c rew.

4 1

W ith m any d istribution m aps o f p rehistoric s ites i n G reece a nd I taly o ne n eeds t o b e s keptical a bout i nterpreting n egative e vidence. O ften t here a re s quare k ilometres w here n o s ites s upposedly e xist. S uch a n i nference a lthough i ncorrect, g ets p ublished a nd b ecomes f act. T herefore i f o ne i s g oing t o c ite n egative e vidence i t h as t o b e a ccompanied b y a n e xplanation o f t he w ork d one a nd t he c onditions u nder w hich t he i nformation w as r ecovered. T he b urden o f p roof i n t he n egative e vidence o n t he d istribution o f s ites l ies o n t he i nvestiga tor t o d ocument. A d istinction n eeds t o b e m ade b etween s catters/sites a nd t he a rtifacts w ithin t he s catters. T hese a re t wo d ifferent p roblems a nd i ssues;

o ne i s r egional d istribution a nd t he o ther i s i ntra-site

a nalysis. S tanley P rice: a grees a nd s ums u p m ajor p oints s o f ar: ( 1) I t i s e ssential t o h ave a s tudy o f t he g eomorphological/geological h istory o f t he s tudy a rea p rior t o s urveying. ( 2) U se w hatever a ncillary a ids a re a vailable i n o rder t o u nderstand t he p rocesses o f s ite f ormation a nd s ite s urvival i n t he s tudy a rea. T his e stablishes t he b asis t o a ssess t he r elative a ppropriateness a nd e fficiency o f t he s urvey. ( 3) N eed a b etter d efinition o f p ottery c hronologies. ( 4) M ore i nformation n eeded i n s urvey r eports c oncerning c onditions, e tc.

t echniques,

o f t he s urvey.

A mmerman: I n t he A cconia a rea o f C alabria i n I taly w e h ave u sed t he r eplicative c ollection/repeated s ystematic c ollection f or t he s tudy o f o bsidian a t 6 N eolithic s ettlements. T his e nabled u s t o a ssess w here t here w ere q ualitative a nd q uantitative d ifferences i n t he o bsidian f ound a t t hese s ites. S ince o nly a s mall p art n eeds t o b e r e-surveyed a nd o ne k nows e xactly w here t o g o; i t d oesn't t ake m uch t ime a nd c an b e d one w hile d oing n ew s urvey w ork. P ullen:

W hat a bout t he a reas i n b etween t he s ites w hich w ere e mpty

i n t he f irst s eason? A mmerman:

O ne c an c over b oth t ypes o f a reas i n t he a reas y ou c hoose

t o d o. T here's r epeated c overage o f t he l andscape a nd t he r eplicated c ollection o f s ites. I f o ne h as n ot b een a ble t o s urvey a n a rea u nder f avourable c onditions a nd o ne p lans t o w ork i n t he r egion f or a n umber o f y ears o ne c an d o t he a rea u nder t he m ost f avourable c onditions t o r eveal t he p resence o f a rtifacts. S chaar:

W hat a bout t he b ias o f t he c ollection p rocedures i tself?

Ammerman: I n t he c ase o f o bsidian w e d id a t otal c ollection, w e p ut t his n umbered m aterial i n b ags. I n c ertain t ypes o f s ites w e p lot t he m aterial i n t wo d imensions. S chaar: D oesn't t his c ause o ther b iases b ecause w hen o ne g oes b ack t o r esurvey t he s ite i t w ill n ot b e t he s ame b ody o f m aterial a s i t w as t he f irst t ime? A mmerman: T hat's t rue b ut t he s urface t o s ubsurface r atio i s a bout 1 :40. S o n ot m uch i s l ost, o nly a bout 2 % o f t he v olume o f m aterial

4 2

c irculating i n t he p low z one. S chaar: T he l ikelihood o f f inding t he s ame p roportion o n t he s urface i s d ependent u pon t he c ompactness o f t he s oil. A mmerman:

I t d epends u pon t he t ype o f p lowing.

W hat w e d on't r ealize

i s t hat t he s urface i s n othing c ompared t o w hat i s i n t he p low z one. O ne g ets 5 % m aximum o ff t he s urface, u sually e ven l ess a nd t hat's a v ery s mall a mount. I f t here i s a d ense r ich s catter o f m aterial, r epeated c ollections w ill p roduce t he s ame b asic c ollections a nd a rtifact p roportions. O nly i f t he s catter i s t hin m ay o ne h ave s ome i mpact o n t he s ite. O ne p roblem i s t hat t he c hance o f v isibility h as t o d o w ith t he s ize o f t he a rtifact. C ores o f o bsidian h ave a 1 0 t o 1 c hance o f v isibility c ompared t o l ittle b lades o r c hips w hich h ave a 3 0 t o I c hance. T here i s a lso a s erious p roblem w hen o ne a ttempts t o c ompare m aterial c ollected a t o ne s ite u nder o ne s et o f c onditions a nd a nother s ite's c ollected u nder a d ifferent s et.

I nter-site c omparisons s uch

a s t his a re o nly i llustrating d ifferences i n t he c ollection c onditions. K ehrberg: C an't o ne c ompare s ites o n t he b asis o f o verall t endencies o r p atterns i n s pite o f t he d ifficulties y ou r aised, s o t hat t he r elationships b etween s ites w ould s till e merge? A mmerman:

Y es,

b ut o ne n eeds t o k now t he l andscape a nd c ollection

c onditions. K ehrberg:

I w ould t hink t hat t his i s t aken f or g ranted i n o rder t o

m ake c omparisons. A mmerman:

I n m ost s urveys t he c ollection c onditions v ary d uring t he

p roject e ven i n a g iven s eason.

B ut p roper d ocumentation c oncerning

c ollection c onditions i s n ot a ppearing i n t he p ublished r eports, o nly t he p eople i n t he f ield k now t hem. A rchaeologists h ave n ot b een s ensitive t o t he i ssues o f c omparability. S tanley P rice: T he c omparability o f s urvey r esults i s t he m ost c rucial a rea w hen d oing a s urvey. C onsistency i s t herefore i mportant. R esurveys e nsure c onsistency. I t i s u sually d ifficult t o c ompare t he r esults o f d ifferent s urveys e ven i f t hey h ave d escribed t heir m ethods i n d etail.

O ften p ersonal c ontact w ith t he p eople w ho d id t he w ork

i s n ecessary. A mmerman: T hese t hings w ill e merge i n t he n ear f uture b ecause p eople i n v arious p laces a re g etting i nterested i n t hese v ery b asic i ssues o f d oing s urvey w ork. T hey w ill a ppear i ndirectly i n t he p ublications i n t he n ext f ew y ears. S tanley P rice: C ertainly m ore a ttention c an b e p aid t o a nalyzing t he r esults o f p ast s urveys t o d emonstrate t he b iases t hat a ffected t he s urveyors w ithout t hem b eing a ware o f i t. A s a r esult w e a re g oing t o b e m uch m ore h esitant a bout u sing o lder i nformation i n c omparison t o o ur m aterial. S chaar:

I n m any r esearch p rojects a b ase o f i nformation i s a ccumulated

b y s urvey.

A n e xcavation f ollows w hich p rovides m ore i nformation a nd

4 3

a llows o ne t o r einterpret t he o riginal s urvey r esults. t hen d one t o e xpand t he d ata b ase i n l ight o f

t his way a c ontinuing c ycle o f r esearch i s d one. k nowledge o f e ach s tage.

A r esurvey i s

t he n ew k nowledge.

I n

W ith i ncreased

T his i s o ne w ay o f a ttempting t o o vercome

o ne's b uilt i n b iases.

R eferences: A dams,

R .

M cC.,

1 981.

H eartland o f C ities.

C hicago:

U niversity

o f C hicago. B inford, L .R., B inford, S .R., Whallon, R . a nd H ardin, M .A., 1 970. A rchaeology a t H atchery W est, C arlyle, I llinois. AmAntiq 3 5(4): M em. L loyd,

J .

2 4. a nd B arker,

1 981.

C.

R ural S ettlement i n R oman M olise;

p roblems o f a rchaeological s urvey. R .

( eds.).

A rchaeology a nd S ociety,

M edieval S tudies. S eries 1 02. M cDonald, W .A.

C .L.,

a nd H odges, R oman a nd I nternational

2 89-304. G .R.,

J r.

1 972.

T he M innesota M essenia

R econstructing a B ronze A ge R egional E nvironment.

Minneapolis: R edman,

G .

P rehistoric,

B ritish A rchaeological R eports,

O xford:

a nd R app,

E xpedition.

I n B arker,

1 973.

University o f M innesota. Multistage f ieldwork a nd a nalytical t echniques.

AmAntiq 3 8:61-79.

4 4

T HE L IMITATIONS O F S URFACE S URVEYS R ichard H ope S impson

M uch d iscussion h as t aken p lace r ecently ( e.g. i n t he C ambridge c olloquium o n " Mycenaean G eography", e dited b y J . L . B intliff, a nd c irculated i n 1 977) a s t o t he m erits o f s o-called " intensive" s urface s urveys. T hese a re s upposed b y s ome s cholars t o b e s o f ar s uperior t o " extensive" ( alias " initial" o r " pilot") s urveys t hat t he l atter a re s ometimes c onsidered t o b e o bsolete. I n p ractice, h owever, t he l imitations i nherent i n a ll s urface s urvey w ork d emonstrate t hat t he s upposed s uperior v alue o f t he n ew " intensive" s urveys h as b een m uch e xaggerated. T he r emarks b elow a re s upported b y c onsiderable e xperi ence i n t he f ield, b oth i n " extensive" a nd " intensive" s urvey w ork, i ncluding i nter-disciplinary p alaeoecological c ooperative v entures. A reas m ay b e c hosen f or s urvey f or v arious r easons,

a mong t he

b est o f w hich m ay b e t hat e xcavation h as t aken p lace, o r i s b eing c onducted, o r i s i ntended i n t he a rea. T raditional o bjectives o f s urveys h ave b een t o s elect s ites f or e xcavation, a nd t o e stablish t hat t he a rea w as i nhabited i n v arious a ncient p eriods n ot p reviously e videnced ' . T he m ain i ntention i n s uch " initial" s urveys i s u sually t o f ind a s m any s ites a s p ossible i n a s s hort a p eriod a s p ossible, a nd e specially t o d iscover t he l arger a nd m ore i mportant c entres. S uch " extensive" s urveys a re ( contrary t o s ome r ecently e xpressed o pinions) s till n eeded, e ven i n m any p arts o f G reece, a c ountry f avoured b y r elatively m any s urveys. A nd, s ince " intensive" s urveys ( in w hich " para-archaeological" s pecialists a lso t ake p art) a re e xtremely e xpensive, i t w ould s urely b e e xtremely f oolish t o s elect a n a rea f or m ore t horough s urvey b efore t his h as b een d emonstrated t o b e w orthwhile b y m eans o f a w ell c onducted p reliminary o r " pilot" s urvey o r b y a s ufficiency o f e xcavation i n t he a rea. E ven w hen a n a rea i s d eemed s uitable f or " intensive" s urvey, t he v alue o f t he s urvey i s l imited b y s everal f actors. I n p ractice i t i s n ever a ctually p ossible t o o bserve t he w hole o f t he g round s urface s elected f or e xamination. a )

m odern b uildings,

T ypical o bstacles t o o bservation i nclude: r oads,

t hreshing f loors,

g ardens a nd o ther

e nclosed p rivate p roperty, l and u nder i ntense c ultivation o r d eliberately c leared ( e.g. m ost v ineyards i n G reece), o r ( conversely) b )

l and c overed b y f orest, o r o ther d ense v egetation o f a n i mp enetrable n ature, s uch a s g orse, t horns, t all w eeds, e tc.

O ften, b ecause o f t he ( often e xtreme) v ariations i n e rosion a nd/ o r d eposition, t he s urface m aterials h ave e ither b een d estroyed, o r m oved f rom t heir o riginal p ositions, o r o bscured b y l ater " fill" o r o ther d isturbance,

e ither n atural o r m an-made.

A part f rom r emains o f s tructures, m ost s urface f inds i n t he e astern M editerranean c onsist o f f ragments o f b roken p ottery o r w orke d s tone,

e tc.,

u sually i n v ery p oor a nd w orn c ondition.

E ven w hen

t he s herds, e tc. a re i dentifiable, a nd f ound c lose t o t he r emains ( usually a lso p oorly p reserved) o f a ncient s tructures, t hey s eldom

4 5

p rovide a n i ndication o f t he d ate(s) o f s uch s tructures, e specially w hen t here i s a m ixture o f s herds o f m ore t han o ne p eriod i n t he v icinity. I n t he c ase o f t he " intensive" p hase o f t he K ommos A rea s urvey i n 1 978 a nd 1 979, s ufficient p reliminary s urvey h ad t aken p lace t o j ustify t he s election o f a s mall a rea f or t horough s earch. A lso, t he s urvey a ccompanied a n e xcavation, a nd t he s urface a rtefacts c ould b e m ore r eadily i dentified b y c omparison w ith s tratified m aterial b y e xperts p resent o n l ocation. E xperienced p ersonnel i n " paraa rcheological" f ields a lso h ad t he b enefit o f s tudying e xcavated a nd s urface m aterial f rom t he s ame a rea. E xpenses w ere m inimised, s ince t he a rchaeologists, o r m ost o f t hem, t ransferred t o t he e xcavation a fter t he s urvey f ieldwork w as c ompleted. H ow t horough c an o r s hould a n " intensive" s urvey b e? I n o ur a rea a t l east 3 0% o f t he t otal l and s urface ( about 2 0 k m2 , i ncluding s lopes) c ould n ot b e s earched, b ecause o f o bstacles t o o bservation o f t he t ypes e numerated a bove. O ne m ajor o bstacle ( albeit o f g reat i nterest) w as t he p henomenal e xtent a nd d epth o f b lown s and o ver m uch o f t he c oastal a rea. W e q uickly d ecided t hat t he a rea w as s till t oo l arge f or a ny " inch b y i nch" s urface e xamination, b ut n ot t oo l arge t o b e a dequately c overed i n t he t wo c ampaigns o f f our t o f ive w eeks e ach, w ith t wo t o t hree a rchaeologists. I n p ractice w e b elieve t hat w e h ave a chieved o ur o bjective o f l ocating a nd r ecording a lmost e very s ignificant " site" o r " scatter". W e c ertainly e xamined e very f eature , b oth o n t he h ills, p lateaus, a nd h ill s lopes, a nd a long t he v alley b ottoms, v arying o ur d irection o f a pproach, a nd r epeatedly t raversi ng a long h ills, t erraces, a nd v alleys, a nd a lso a cross t hem. S urf ace p ottery i s p resent i n v arying q uantities o ver a lmost a ll t he a rea, a nd e specially i n t he l ower p arts o f t he M atala v alleys, i n t he v icinity o f a ncient M etellum. I t w ould i ndeed b e v irtually i mpossib le t o c hart t he p osition o f e very i dentifiable s herd h ere; a nd t he r esults o f a ny s uch a ttempt w ould b e u tterly m eaningless, g iven t he e xtent o f a ncient a nd m odern c ultivation a nd o ther d isturbances.

i s,

W e t ried t o c onfine t he t erm " site" t o p laces w here t he e vidence i n o ur o pinion, f irm e nough t o w arrant t he c onclusion t hat a

h abitation, t omb, o r o ther t ype o f a ncient s ite a ctually e xisted a t, o r v ery n ear, t he p recise l ocation o f t he s urface f inds. T he i dentif ications a re, o f c ourse, m ore s ecure i n c ases w here f oundations o r o ther t races o f a ctual a ncient s tructures h ave b een f ound, a nd e specially w hen t hese c an b e m ore o r l ess s ecurely d ated. W e d o n ot, o f c ourse, c laim t o h ave f ound e very " site" o r " scatter" w hich m ay n ow e xist i n t he s urvey a rea. A nd e ven i f s uch a f eat w ere p ossible, t here i s n o g uarantee t hat t he f inds w ould a ccurately r eflect t he a ctual a ncient p atterns o f s ettlement i n t he p eriods c oncerned. F or i nstance, a round M atala t he h eavy o verlay o f H ellenistic a nd R oman r emains m ay h ave o bliterated o r o bscured m ost f ormer t races o f M inoan h abitation; s o t hat t he p attern o f M inoan o ccupation s o f ar r evealed i n t he l ower p art o f t he M atala v alley m ay n ot b e a t rue r eflection. A nd i ntensive c ultivation b oth h ere a nd i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f P itsidia h as r endered m ost s urface s herds u nrecognizable. I n g eneral , c onstant e rosion o f t he h illtops a nd t erraces h as t aken a h eavy t oll o f t he a ncient r emains,

e ven t hough t he s ame e rosion h as o ften b een

o f c onsiderable a id i n o ur s earch. I t i s t herefore h ere e xtremely d ifficult t o e stimate w hat p ercentage o f t he a ncient s ites w hich

4 6

o riginally e xisted i n o ur a rea h ave a ctually b een d iscovered. B y t he e nd o f t he 1 979 s eason w e w ere e xperiencing " the l aw o f d iminishing r eturns". R elatively f ew " sites" w ere f ound i n t he 1 979 c ampaign a nd r elatively m ore " scatters". E ven i n t he c ase o f t hese w ere f requently e xperienced d gja-vu ( literally). T here w as a lso a l imit t o t he a mount o f u seful p lanning w ork which c ould b e d one, s ince t he r emains o f t he s tructures c ould n ot b e m easured w ithout c learing o r m inor e xcavating. N aturally t he v isibility o f s urface f inds d epends m uch o n t he s tate o f c ultivation o r v egetation. I t w as, f or i nstance, e xtremely v aluable t o r eturn i n 1 979 t o s ites w hich h ad i n 1 978 b een c overed b y d ense t all w eeds ( due t o a n u nu sually h igh r ainfall p reviously). I n 1 979 t he n ormal a ridity g ave t he n ormal a ssistance t o o bservation o f t he g round s urface. A s r emarked a bove, w e r ejected " sampling" p rocedures,

a nd w e

c onfined o ur s urface c ollection t o s ites w here t he a rtefacts w ere r ecognizable o r p otentially r ecognizable. O nly r arely w ere s herds f rom " scatters" c ollected. " Total" s urface c ollection i s, i n m y o pinion, u nwarranted, s ince i t c an n ot i n a ny c ase p rovide d efinitive e vidence, b ecause t he a rtefacts m ay s eldom b e i n t heir o riginal p ositions. T he d ifficulties e ncountered i n t he i nterpretation o f o ur K ommos a rea s urvey r esults f urther c all i n q uestion a ll t heories a rguing t he f easibility o f e xterpolation, o n t he b asis o f s urface f inds a lone, f rom a ny o ne a rea t o a nother ( unsearched) a rea o f s imil ar a gricultural p otential, e ven i n t he s ame d istrict. T he s urvey, i n a n eighbouring d istrict ( BSA 7 2(1977)

.A yiopharango

1 3ff) y ielded m uch m ore c lear a nd c onsistent r esults, s tructures w ere g enerally b etter p reserved.

p p.

a nd t he

I n g eneral, t here a ppears t o b e a n eed f or a r eturn t o c ommons ense i n t he m atter o f s urveys a nd s urvey p rocedures. S urvey i s n ot a n e nd i n i tself . , a nd s urvey m aterial a lone c an n ever p rovide a s ecure b asis f or i nterpretation. I t i s t hus d ebatable w hether " intensive" s urveys a re s ignificantly m ore r eliable t han l ess t horough s urveys a s r egards e xterpolation.

I deally,

s urvey s hould b e

a ccompanied b y e xcavation, o r a t l east b y s ome c learing o perations, w here n eeded. A nd " sampling s trategies" a re i nappropriate i n s urvey w ork, s ince a ll a reas d iffer , e ven w ithin t he s ame p lain o r o n t he s ame i sland. I f e ach a lternate g rid i s l eft u nsearched, t hen t he s urvey i s s imply i ncomplete, h owever w ell t he o ther g rid i s e xamined. I ndeed " sampling" i s a m isnomer i f a pplied t o r andom o r d eliberate s election o f a reas f or s urvey. E ven a s a d escription o f a n e xcavat ion t echnique,

" sampling" i s n ot a w holly a dequate e xplanation o f

t he s election o f a reas t o b e d ug. I t s hould b e p lain t hat e xterpolat ion t echniques ( and e specially c omputer " simulations") a re a lmost w holly i napplicable t o s urvey w ork, a nd t hat a ll c onclusions d erived f rom s urface s urvey a lone m ust r emain t entative a nd h ypothetical. W e s hould n ot, o f c ourse, b e d iscouraged f rom e ngaging i n s urface s urvey, e specially s ince i t h as a v ery i mportant " rescue" r ole; b ut w e m ust c ontinually r emind o urselves t hat w e a re v ery m uch i n t he s tage o f c ollection o f t he " raw d ata", p remature.

4 7

a nd m ost " retrodiction" i s

O BSERVATIONS O N S URVEYING P ROCEDURES I N E ARLY P REHISTORY N icholas R olland

I n t his e ssay, t he e xtent t o which s urveying m ethods d eveloped f or l ater p rehistoric h orizons i s e xamined f or i ts a pplicability t o t he P alaeolithic a nd M esolithic r ecord o f t he M editerranean, w ith s pecial r eference t o G reece. A s ketch o f c urrent m odels a nd t echniques. T he e mphasis o n p rob lem o rientation i n r ecent f ieldwork i s a b yproduct o f t raining i n s ocial s ciences. T here i s a lso a b elief t hat r esearch d esigned t o a nswer s pecific q uestions, w hile m aking e xplicit a ssumptions, i s m ore p roductive, r eliable a nd e conomical. I n t his p erspective, s urveying i s a f irst s tage, i nvolving o bjective p rocedures w hich i nsure a m ore r epresentative d etection o f s ites a nd i mproved c ontextual i nformat ion, b y m inimizing r eliance o n c hance o r e xperience o nly. M ethods h ave b een a dapted f rom p robability a nd s ampling t heory, e cology, l ocational a nalysis, a s w ell a s f rom c onclusions o f e thnoa rchaeological r esearch o n r ecent h unters-gatherers, f ishers a nd s imple f armers a nd p astoralists. M odels h ave d escribed i n d etail l and u se p atterns o f a ncient c ommunities, p redicting h ow t hese w ere a rticulated w ith p articular e cosystems. A m ajor u nit o r s ampling u niverse w ould b e a r egion o r p hysiographic a rea s uch a s a c oastal f ringe, a n a lluvial o r l acustrine b asin, i ncluding s urrounding h ills, a ssumed t o e ncompass t he d iversity o f t opographic a nd b ioclimatic c haracteristics w hich c onstituted t he h abitat o r y early h ome r ange o f t hese p opulations, w hich w ould t hen b e s ubdivided i nto s eparate s ampling u nits o r ' ecological s trata'. S urface d istribution a nd d ensity o f s ites o r a rtifact o ccurrences a re p lotted b y e mploying t echniques s uch a s r andom g rids, s ystematic o r r andom t ransects, c ircles, d epending o n t he c ontext o r t he p roblems. A nother a pproach h as b een t o r econstruct p alaeoenvironments b y e xtrapolating f rom p resent c onditions, i n o rder t o d elineate z ones o r h abitats i n t erms o f t heir s uitability a nd p rimary p roductivity,

a s a p reliminary s tep

p roviding g uidelines f or s ystematic s urveying. T hese e legant d esigns h ave b een a pplied s uccessfully i n d iffere nt p arts o f t he w orld. T hey p resent f ewer o perational p roblems, w hen t hey i nvolve a reas s uch a s m uch o f N orth A merica a nd S ubsaharan A frica where p rehistory e nded r elatively l ate a nd w here e nvironmental c hanges h ave b een m oderate. D ifficulties a ppear, h owever, i n t he c ase o f a ncient a gricultural c entres s uch a s t he M editerranean l ands o r E urope w here p opulation d ensity, m illenia o f i ntensive a grarian e xploitation, u rbanization a nd i ndustrialization h ave d isturbed t he l andscape t o a c onsiderable d egree a nd p ossibilities o f t racing c ont inuities w ith r ecent c ultures t hrough ' direct-historical' m ethods c annot b e c ontemplated. F urthermore, s tandard p roblems s uch a s u nd etected e nvironmental c hange, d ocumentary b ias, s urface v isibility, b ecome c ritical w hen a ttempting t o r ecover d ocuments f rom t he r emote p ast w hich h ave b een s ubjected t o d estruction b y n atural a s w ell a s a nthropogenic a gencies o ver a l ong t ime. W hile t he m odels j ust d esc ribed a ppear t o b e u niversally v alid, t heir p ractical l imitations b ecome m ore e vident i n t hese i nstances, r aising t he q uestion o f w hat c onstitutes t he m ost s uitable a pproach. 4 9

T he P alaeolithic/Mesolithic r ecord.

T wo f actors c ontribute

s ignificantly t o m aking t he e arly p rehistoric r ecord r estricted i n s cope a nd i nformation, a nd s urveying d ifficult. F irst i s t he f act t hat i t i s m ade o f t he r esidues o f l ifeways o f s ocieties w ith l ower l evels o f t echnoeconomic a nd s ocial c omplexity. C ommunities w ere s mall, m obile, f luid i r c omposition, w ith l ittle s tratification o r c raft s pecialization. I t i s a ssumed t hat t hey s ubsisted b y h unting a nd g athering a nd b y u sing s imple t echnologies. I nventories o f a rtif acts, d welling s tructures a nd o ther a ctivity r emains, w hen p reserved , a re t herefore i ntrinsically l imited i n r ange, a nd o ften s cattered t hinly t hrough s pace. S econdly, s ome o f t hese a rchaeological h orizons r each b ack s ome t wo m illion y ears, c overing a t ime s pan e quivalent t o t he l ate P liocene, P leistocene a nd e arly H olocene, w hich r epresents 9 9% o f m ankind's c ulture h istory a nd s everal c ycles o f p hysiographic a nd b ioclimatic c hanges, a ccompanied b y i mportant m odifications o f a nimal a nd p lant c ommunities. T his w ill r esult i n a c onsiderable l oss o f d ocuments, t hrough n atural e rosion a nd s tructural e volution o f l andscapes o r, o therwise, t heir d ifferential a nd b iased p reservat ion a nd, o ften, t heir i naccessibility b ecause b uried w ithout e xpos ures. I n a ddition, d etecting s ettlement r esidues b y r elying o n t he r econstruction o f p ast l and u se s ystems a nd h abitats i s a c omplex t ask w ith m any u ncertainties. D espite t hese s ignificant l imitations, t here a re g eological c ont exts f avouring t he p reservation o f r elatively u ndisturbed o ccurrences, c ontaining v aluable i nformation o n s ubsistence p atterns a nd s ocial l ife a nd o ffering u nparalleled p ossibilities f or s tudying l ong t erm v ariations o f c ultural d evelopments. T heir a ctualization, h owever, w ill d epend i ncreasingly o n a s ystematic s earch f or d irect e vidence, r equiring m ore c areful c onsideration o f s urveying p rinciples t han h as b een t he c ase u ntil r ecently. R econnaissance m ethods i n e arly p rehistory. P alaeolithic/Mesol ithic s urvey m ethodology h as b een r arely d iscussed e xcept r ecently i n t he L evant. T his i s d ue t o o perational d ifficulties a nd, c oncomm itant r eliance o n e xperience a nd c ommon s ense, a s w ell a s t he f act t hat m any s ites w ere d iscovered l ong a go, e .g. i n W estern E urope. T he m ain c ause, h owever, h as b een a t radition o f t raining i n q uaternary g eology a nd h uman p alaeontology, s ubordinating p rehistoric r esearch g oals t o p roblems o f g eochronology o r t o t he d iscovery o f f ossil h ominids. T ime-space d istributions o f l ithic a rtifact o ccurrences h ave b een t reated a s s tratigraphic m arkers o r a s c orrelates o f h ominid e volutionary s tages. S ite p rospection h as t herefore b een o pportunist ic, i .e. p rivileging a s earch f or s tratigraphic c olumns w ith l ong s equences o f s tone a ge o ccupations, s uch a s i n r iver t erraces o r c aves. S ite c lassifications h ave r eflected t his p ragmatic c oncern a nd e mphasized d escription, e .g. g eomorphological s etting ( alluvial, l acustrine,

c oastal,

e olian,

s lope,

c ave,

s urface,

e tc.).

T his o rientation h as s omewhat i solated t his b ranchof a rcheology f rom o thers, w ith a c onsequent l ag i n m ethodological d evelopments. O n t he o ther h and, i t h as e quipped w orkers w ith c ompetence i n f ield g eol o gy,

i n p articular,

f amiliarity w ith g eomorphological p rocesses

f avouring t he p reservation o f e arly p rehistoric e vidence a nd p ractical a cquaintance w ith p roblems o f m icrostratigraphy d uring e xcavations. G eological c ontexts l ikely t o c ontain P leistocene a nd e arly H olocene s ites i n t he M editerranean a re,

a bove a ll,

5 0

l imestone c aves o r r ock-

s helters a nd, o therwise, ' red e arth' d eposits, i nternal d rainage s ystems, w adi t erraces o r s andy v alley, d epending o n t he a reas. P rol onged e xperience i n f ield r econnaissance, c ombined w ith i ntimate k nowledge o f l ocal c haracteristics h as u nquestionably b een a d ecisive f actor i n m aking i mportant d iscoveries e arlier t his c entury, i n r egions s uch a s G reece, C yrenaica, t he L evant o r K urdistan, l ittle k nown h itherto, e ven i n t he a bsence o f a s urveying p hilosophy. A s hift a way f rom t his a theoretical a nd r eductionist ( i.e. e arth s cience) a pproach h as f ollowed t he g radual a doption o f p alaeoecolog ical a nd p alethnological p erspectives, a ccompanied b y t he r ecognit ion t hat b uilt-in m odels c an p recondition r esearch d irections, e ven a t t he l evel o f f ield r econnaissance. S ites a re r egarded a s s pecific t o a ncient l and u se p atterns a nd e cosystems a nd n ot a s r andomly l ocated o r i n i solation. C lassifications h ave b ecome m ore i nterpret ative, r eflecting a ctivity p atterns ( or ' structural p oses') o ' f p reh istoric p opulations, o pposing e xtraction t o m aintenance ( or w ork ' t o ' base' c amps), o r t erritorial a nd s easonal a spects ( summer a nd w inter r esidences, t ransit a nd s atellite c amps). W hat f ollows i s a s ummary o f h ow t hese p rinciples h ave b een i mplemented b y s ome r ecent P leistocene/early H olocene r esearches i n t he M editerranean : ( 1) i n e xtenso p ilot r econnaissances o f u nfamiliar r egions c onstitute a d iscovery t ype o f o peration, w hose o bjectives m ay b e ( a) t o a cquire e arly a n i ntimate k nowledge o f t he a rea's g eneral f eatures, a s a p rerequisite f or e ffective s urveying i n t he f uture, b y c overing a s m uch g round a s p ossible, a s w ell a s a nticipating l ogistics p roblems, ( b) t o i dentify t opographic o r o ther e nvironm ental f eatures f avoring r etrieval o f d ocuments a nd w hich c ould h ave m ade s ome a reas s uitable f or o ccupation i n t he p ast a nd, ( c) t o i nitiate t he d etection o f p otential s ites. S urface i ndications o f f requently e roded, b uried o r d isturbed s mall s ettlement r emains, l eft b ehind b y t he s impler, p receramic c ultures o f t he O ld S tone A ge, t end t o b e m inimal. P roductivity, a s m easured b y s ite d iscovery a nd r epresentativity, i s t herefore l ow . P reliminary r econnaissances a re a t a g eneral l evel p rimarily g eolog ical a nd p alaeoecological i n s cope. F ield t echniques a re, b y n ecessity, p ragmatic a nd j udgmental. S ampling i nvolves a vaibility, r ather t han s tatistical p rocedures, e .g. s electing m ore t ractable o r p romising p ortions o f t he t erritory s uch a s w ater c ourses o r z ones a djacent t o r oad a ccess. L ogistics p lanning m ust b e f lexible w ith r espect t o b oth d esign a nd e xecution, o wing t o t he i mportance o f c hance f actors. C ultural r esources a re u sually f ound b y t racing e xposures f rom e roding l and s urfaces, g ullies, d eflation a reas o r c ave t alus. F indings m ay b e e valuated i n t erms o f e mpirical ' feedb ack' g eneralizations, e .g. S tone A ge o ccurrences i n m any p arts o f G reece c oincide w ith c ertain k inds o f g eological s ubstrata, s urfaces o r s oils a nd a re r estricted t o c ertain a ltitudes. I n l ocalities k nown p reviously t hrough o ther r esearches, r econn aissances m ay s tart w ith a m ore s ystematic a nd t heoretical o rientat ion, b y u sing e cological o r e thnographic i ndicators a s s tarting p oints, f or i nstance b y ( a) h ypothesizing b y e xtrapolation f rom r ecent p astoralist t ranshumance r outes, 5 1

t hat s ites w ould b e l ocated

at ancient interception points, on the paths of yearly migrations of later Pleistocene wild herbivore herds (e.g. in the Peloponnese or in Epirus), (b) assuming that a known site was part of prehistoric trog­ lodyte systems used by local groups (as is now the case for Kurdish shepherds), instead of being a unique occurrence or, (c) using recorded observations on exposure and compass orientation patterns of the entrances of caves already discovered in particular areas. Aerial reconnaissances or photographs, when allowed, may also help in dis­ covering ancient landforms less visible from the ground. Prospections for relict or buried surfaces containing early sites, have also proved rewarding (e.g. in eastern Spain, in Epirus). Palaeotopographic approaches become less useful or ·feasible as one goes back into very early time-stratigraphic horizons such as the middle Pleistocene, especially in countries regularly affected by tectonics (e.g. Greece, Turkey, Iran). In conclusion, palaeogeographic and paleoclimatic reconstructions, if successful, may assist in the preparation of intensive reconnaissance operations, by supplying observations for hypotheses about prehistoric territorial or subsistence systems which can be exploited as discovery devices. (2) intensive reconnaissance or surveying sensu stricto, based on problem-oriented research designs, becomes the most significant stage in Palaeolithic/Mesolithic fieldwork (next to controlled exca­ vations). When a region's potential for cultural resources and suitability as ancient hominid habitat has been established, one can proceed systematically with specific goals in mind. These may include (a) detailed prospections of selected zones, microenvironments or topographic formations, in order to optimize the number and diversity of sites available for test excavations, and (b) the gathering of natural historical evidence, in order to initiate contextual and palaeoenvironmental reconstructions. Surveying conceived in this way requires four-wheel drive vehicles and a considerable amount of pro­ spection by foot. Techniques comprise intensive area coverage, in preference to random sampling. Surface plotting of artifactual dis­ tribution, density and patterning, as a method of predicting those which apply to underlying stratified deposits (e.g. with ceramic Neo­ lithic and Bronze Age mounds in eastern Turkey), is rarely possible here, except in desert regions (e.g. the Negev, Sinai or Nubia), where dune erosion or redeposition provide intermittent exposures. As a rule, detection is still dependent on tracing exposures through erosional processes. Site testing, if permitted during surveys, in­ creases demands on personal equipment, time and funding. In several areas of the Mediterranean, site probings have often been confined to Neolithic and later horizons, without reaching underlying Palaeolithic or Mesolithic deposits concealed by hardened, compacted layers or stalagmitic floors, which were mistaken for bedrock. (3) some limitations of the evidence discussed earlier continue to prevent the early prehistoric record from being balanced and re­ presentative, in spite of the introduction of more explicit, stringent, and intensive surveying methods. Site classifications combine descriptive and interpretative elements. A biased picture of what were originally polytypic settle­ ment systems persists even when site discovery is prolific. Direct evidence for transit, special activity or kill sites, for instance, is seldom preserved or found. The types of sites which are retrieved 52

c an u sually b e f itted i nto a n o pen-air/enclosed d ichotomy. T he f ormer a re m ore n umerous, i f r econnaissance i s t horough, a nd v ary i n t erms o f g eomorphological c ontext,

a rtifactual d ensity a nd s pread,

d egree o f d isturbance a nd p robably f unction. T hey a re m ore i nformat ive a bout p ast s cheduling o r l ocational s trategies t han e nclosed s ites, b ecause t hey a re n ot ' fixed' s ettlements. O n t he o ther h and, t hey t end t o b e l acking i n o rganic o r d welling s tructure r emains a nd, t herefore, p otential e vidence a bout s ubsistence o r d omestic a ctivit ies. C ave o r r ockshelter s ites u sually c ontain t his i nformation, a s w ell a s l onger o ccupation s equences b ut a re n ot n ecessarily h omogenous i n o ther r espects. P re-Neolithic e nclosed s ettlements w ere p robably p referred r esidences i n Mediterranean l ands, w henever t hey c umulated t he a dvantage o f s helter a gainst t emperature e xtremes, w ith p roximity t o w ater a nd f ood r esources, m inority o f c ases, h owever.

a n o ptimal s ituation a ttained b y o nly a

T he m eaning o f s ite d istribution p atterns i s p otentially a mbiguo us, u nless t he e ffect o f g eomorphological f actors o n s ite p reservat ion i s a ssessed o r, r eliable e vidence f rom o ff-site a nalyses o r p alaeoenvironmental r econstructions a re a vailable. I t i s p ossible, h owever, t o i nterpret d istributional d ifferences, s uch a s t hose b etween M iddle, U pper a nd E pi-Palaeolithic s ites i n p arts o f I taly, G reece o r t he L evant e ither i n t erms o f ( a) l andscape e volution c orr elated w ith P leistocene a nd e arly H olocene s ea l evel c hanges, m aking c oastal g razing a reas m ore e xtensive o r n arrower--and c onsequently, i ncreasing o r r educing t he s upply o f w ild h erbivore h erds e xploited b y a ncient h ominids--or, ( b) a lternations i n t he d ominance o f b roads pectrum o r t ranshuman f ood-getting s trategies, i ndependently o f e nv ironmental v ariations t hrough t ime. R eferences: B ar-Yosef, 0 .

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S OME P ROBLEMS O F I SLAND S URVEY N ikos E fstratiou

T his s hort p aper d eals w ith p roblems a rising f rom a n a rchaeological s urvey c onducted i n t he N orthern S porades,

t he g roup o f

i slands j ust

o ff t he T hessalian c oast. T he p roject w as p art o f s mall s cale e xcava tion w hich w as c arried o ut b y m e i n t he s ummer o f 1 981 o n t he i slet o f A gios P etros i n t he b ay o f K yra P anagia w here a n E arly N eolithic s ettlement w as i dentified a nd d ug b y T heochares i n t he e arly 7 0's ( 1970: 2 71). My i ntention i s t o d iscuss s ome t heoretical p roblems w hich a re r elated t o t he s urveying p rocedures o f s pecialized e nvironm ents s uch a s i slands a nd a t t he s ame t ime t o d efine t he m ethodological f ramework w ithin w hich u nbias c onclusions c an b e r eached. A lthough t he s ite b y s ite s urvey h as b een w idely a dopted a s t he f irst s tep t owards t he e stablishment o f a n o verall p icture o f s ettlem ent p attern a nd s ite d istribution o f a l arger a rea w hich i n i ts t urn c an l ead t o c omparative s tudies w ith s patial a nd c hronological d imens ions, i t s eems t o m e t hat c ertain m isjudgements s till o ccur. T hey m ainly c oncern t he t heoretical p reparation o f t he a rchaeologist, i n o ther w ords t he a cknowledgment f rom h is p oint o f v iew o f t he a ccessi bility o f t he b ody o f i nformation h e a ims t o e xtract a nd a lso t he " possibilities" a nd " probabilities" t he s ubject i tself i s c apable o f o ffering. T o b e m ore s pecific, a ny s urvey o f a s pecialized e nvironm ent, i n o ur c ase a n i sland, m ust b e p receded b y s tudies w hich w ill d eal w ith t he f undamental p roblem o f r egional g eographical d iversity, s o a pparent i n t he M editerranean a rea,

t he p revailing e cological

d ifferences a nd g eomorphological f eatures. T his t rend h as b een, s o f ar, p artially c overed b y t he l ocational a pproach ( Higgs a nd V ita F inzi 1 970) w hich h as b een u sed e xtensively i n r ecent c ase s tudies ( Bintliff 1 977) a lthough s uch a m ethod i s m ore p art o f t he i nterp retation a nd s ynthesis o f t he a rchaeological d ata a nd l ess a r ecovery f ramework. Iw ould a rgue t hat t he l ack o f i nformation c oncerning t he l ocal g eomorphological c onditions a nd t he g eological h istory o f t he a rea u nder s tudy c an h ave a n egative e ffect o n t he p rospects o f a ny s urvey: i t l eads t o a b ias i n t he c onclusions w hich a re m agnified i n t he c ourse o f t he i nterpretation a nd c omparative s tudy o f t he m aterial. I n t he c ase o f t he E arly N eolithic s ite o f A gios P etros, t he s tudy o f t he r elative s ea l evel, t he a lteration o f t he p resent e nvironmental v iew o f t he b ay o f K yra P anagia a nd t he e xamination o f t he a ncient s horeline a round t he i sland ( Flemming u npublished) w as v ery i mportant n ot o nly f or t he i nterpretation o f t he s ite i tself b ut a lso b ecause i t h elped t he r econstruction o f t he h istory o f t he l andscape o f t he w hole a rea. I t b ecame c lear t hat i n t he 6 th m illenium B .C. t he s ea l evel w as 8 t o 1 0 m l ower t han i t i s t oday,

a nother i ndication t hat a f ixed

r atio f or t he s ea l evel c hange a pplicable t o t he A egean a s a w hole c an n ot b e a ccepted a nd t hat e ach r egion s hould b e e xamined s eparately. M ore i mportantly, i t p roves t hat a s i s t he c ase w ith t he s ubmerged s ection o f t he s ettlement o f A gios P etros, c onsiderable p arts o f t he i sland o f K yra P anagia,

e specially a reas w hich w ould f avour p rehis-

t oric o ccupation, a re u nder t he s ea. S o w e m ust c onsider a s a s trong p ossibility t he s uggestion t hat o ther n eolithic s ites s ituated 5 5

n ear t he c oast a nd c lose t o t he m ain t wo v alleys o f h ave b een I t

i s e ven p ossible t hat a s

A gios P etros s how, o f

i sland m ay

t he p alaeolithic f inds

i n t he s ite o f

e arlier m esolithic m aterial h as b een l ost b ecause

t he r ise o f t he s ea l evel.

i n r elation

F urther a nalysis which was c arried o ut

t o t he p article s ize o f u nderwater s amples i ndicates t hat

t he s ubmersion o f

t he s ite i n c ertain p eriods o f t ime was r apid a nd

f ar f rom p rogressive a nd g radual T hus,

t he

l ost u nder t he s ea o r d estroyed b ecause o f wave a ction.

( Efstratiou u npublished).

I s uggest t hat a ny s urvey u ndertaken o n i slands s hould e xamine

a n umber o f i ssues s tarting f rom t he t ransformation p rocesses a nd i ncluding c ultural f eatures s uch a s t he p eriod u nder s tudy.

t he f avoured l ocation o f s ites i n

T he d ifficulties,

h owever,

p ersist.

I t must

b e s tressed t hat t he e stablishment o f t he t ype o f s ite r epresentative o f s ome c ultural p eriods i s n ot a n e asy m atter b ecause a s w e g o b ack c hronologically,

s o t he s uggested c orrelations b etween f actors s uch a s

r esources a nd s ocial o rganization which h ave b een t hought t o d etermine t he l ocation a nd s ize o f a s ite b ecome l ess c lear a nd m ore s ubjected t o g eneralizations M any b elieve

( Gamble 1 979).

t hat

s ince t he s urvey o f a n a rea c an n ever b e c onclusive

a nd o bjective f or a v ariety o f r easons, r ecovery c hances

p robabilistic s ampling.

H owever,

t o i ncrease o ur

I d o n ot t hink t hat

m ethodological e ffectiveness which i s have b een v ery d etailed, o f

t he o nly w ay

i s t o i mprove t he f ield m ethodology f or e xample b y

C herry a nd T orrence 1 980)

t he value o f a t heoretical

will b e

d efined,

t aken.

T here i s n o d oubt t hat

i t

i s t he

u nder q uestion ( recent s urveys b ut t he a cceptance

f ramework w ithin w hich g eneral p roblems

c lassified a nd s olved b efore a ny f ieldwork i s u ndert his

t heoretical c orpus i s

i n t urn b y s uccessful i nterpretation m ethods i t d oes s eem t hat

t he

i nfluenced

i n a u seful f eedback but

i nability t o v alue i ssues o f a t heoretical

c haracter i n t he s ense o f a d irectional a pproach,

e ffects i n a f unda-

m ental way b oth m ethodology a nd i nterpretation. I n t his p aper I c an o nly s uggest t he n ature o f t hese i ssues. 1 .

V arious e nvironmental a s

2 .

s tudies a ddressing s pecific q uestions

c hange o f s ea l evel,

G eographical c onsiderations

l ike natural s etting,

o ccupation c onditions e .g. w ind d irection, 3 .

D efinition o f i s

t his s uggests

f avourable

o rientation.

t he c ultural c haracteristics o f

d estined t o c over;

s uch

r atio o f s uch c hange.

t he p eriod t he s urvey

t hat d ifferent s urveying

p rocedures must b e f ollowed f or t he r emains o f e ach c ultural p hase f rom t he b eginning o f t he p roject. 4 .

Avoidance o f r igid t heoretical m odels u sed i n o ther r egions.

5 .

T reatment o f e ach r egion a s a c ompletely s eparate c ase

6 .

s tudy.

T he r eliability o f s urvey d ata m ust b e t ested i n c onjunction w ith g eneral h ypotheses a bout t ransformation p rocesses. T he c larification o f a ll t hese i ssues a part f rom t he e ffect o n t he

r ichness

o f t he

d ata t hemselves,

a nd m ore c ulturally o rientated

i t w ill c ontribute

i nterpretation. 5 6

t o a l ess s tatistical

R eferences: B lintliff,

J .,

1 977.

N atural e nvironment a nd h uman s ettlement

i n p rehistoric G reece. C herry,

J .

a nd T orrence,

M elos.

o n M elos b y C . G amble,

R .,

1 980.

I n A n I sland P olity:

C .

1 979.

e conomy.

T he E arliest P rehistory o f

T he A rchaeology o f E xploitation

R enfrew a nd J . W agstaff.

( Eds) ,

S urplus a nd s elf-sufficiency i n t he C ycladic s ubsistence

I n P apers i n C ycladic P rehistory J .

D avis a nd J .

C herry.

( Eds) , H iggs,

E .,

a nd F inzi,

C armel A rea. F lemming,

N .,

P PS,

1 981.

V .

D eltion:

D ., 1 ,

1 970.

T he P rehistoric E conomy o n t he M t.

G eomorphological o bservations o f

s ite o f Agios P etros, T heochares,

1 970.

3 6:1. t he s ubmerged

[ forthcoming].

T he n eolithic s ite o f A . , P etros.

2 5.

5 7

A rchaeologikon

n orthern

U ,

5 8

0

M ap o f A gios

d ö .

o

ce

C D 0 . C )

C HAPTER 4

M ETHODS AND PROBLEMS

P anel Members: A lbert J . Ammerman

( moderator )

C urtis R unnels

S tuart S winy

K enneth S chaar

T imothy G regory

I na K ehrberg

P riscilla Murray

J ennifer M oody

Audience P articipation

i n o rder o f a ppearance):

N icholas S tanley P rice

B o ndar S lap nk

D onald K eller

A lbertus V oorrips

J ohn F ossey

D onald S ullivan

D avid R upp D iscussion A genda: - What b iases a re g enerated b y n atural f actors a nd/or t he a rchaeological r ecord i tself a rea a nd 2 .

i n t erms o f 1 .

a rtifact/site

r estrictions o n a ccess t otal s urvey

v isibility?

- What s ampling s trategies a re a vailable t o n eutralize t hese b iases? - H ow d o r ecording s ystems vary?

I s a u niform u niversal s ystem

f easible a nd d esirable? - What a re t he p ros a nd c ons o f a rtifact c ollection a t a s ite?

What

a nd h ow much s hould b e r emoved f rom a s ite? - What a re t he m ost e ffective means o f mapping a nd m aking s ite p lans? - P reservation o f n ew s ites. Ammerman:

T he n otion o f methods o f r ecording must b e s een i n a n

h istorical p erspective - a s a c hanging s eries o f s tates o f

t he a rt

r ather t han t hinking t hat a p oint o f p erfection w ill b e r eached a nd w ill l ast f orever.

C hanging g oals o r a rchaeological p erspective

r equire c hanging r ecording m ethods.

A f urther p roblem i s

b y R obert Whallon's w ork i n T urkey t wenty y ears a go H e a pplied s ome g ood methods

i n f ield c ollection.

i llustrated

( see a bstract). U nfortunately,

h is w ork was n ot p ublished u ntil l ong a fter i t w as c ompleted. S uch p ublication l ags r esult i n a l ag o f t he " state o f a ct", s ince p eople c ontinue t o s truggle with p roblems t hat o thers h ave a lready r esolved o r h ave s ome i deas o n h ow i t

s hould b e s olved.

R ecognition o r o bservation a nd r ecording a re t wo a spects w ith methods. d eal w ith. t o

i nvolved

T here a re s everal l evels o f r ecognition t hat o ne c an

O ne i s t o

i dentify t he p romising

s urvey i n a l arge r egion o r c ountry.

e arth s cientists t o

i dentify t hese a reas.

a nd u npromising a reas

T hus o ne h as t o w ork w ith F urthermore,

s everal

p laces i n t he M editerranean a rea a re n ow s uffering f rom i ntensive a gricultural e xploitation.

T he r esult i s t hat

r ecord w ill b e e asily

y et

s een,

i f o ne waits

t he a rchaeological

t oo l ong t o s urvey

t hese a reas t here will b e much l ess t here t o b e s een.

5 9

T his a rea o f

r ecognition i s u nderdeveloped.

A s econd l evel c oncerns t he

l ocation o f a rtifact s catters o n t he l andscape w hich h as b een s elected f or s tudy.

T here a re t wo a spects t o t his p roblem :

d oes o ne r ecognize s catters o f material o n t he s urface?

1 .

H ow

Which i s

d ifferent f rom h ow d oes o ne r ecognize a ll o f t he s ites t hat o nce e xisted o ut t here?

2 .

When w e h ave f ound a s catter i s

i t a s ite?

H ow d o w e w ant t o c haracterize t his material? We t end t o g o f rom l ocus t o l ocus r ecording i nformation a t e ach p oint a n o rientation we h ave i nherited f rom e xcavation.

T here i s a n a dditional p roblem

o f what t o d o with what i s i n b etween. T he n ext l evel o f r ecognition h as t o d o w ith h ow w e h andle t he a rtifacts a nd e cofacts c ollected. T his merges w ith t he t raditional t hings d one w ith e xcavated m aterial. What

i s c ollected o r n ot c ollected

i n t he f ield d epends u pon t he

s pecialists who w ill d o t he a nalysis.

T hese i ssues o f r ecognition

c reate t he p roblem t hat f ollow i n t he l ater s tages o f t he r esearch. With r egard t o

t he d ocumentation/recordings o f what i s f ound a t a

s pecific l ocation o n t he l andscape,

t here a re p roblems.

T here i s

t oo much t o r ecord f or t he amount o f t ime a nd m oney a vailable. A lso t here a re t oo m any s ites t o r ecord. T herefore, o ne must s ample s ince i t i s n ot f easible t o d o t he whole t hing. G regory:

My o wn e xperiences h as l ed t o a n e volutionary a pproach

t o h andle t hese p roblems o f d ocument.

I b egan b y t hinking p rimarily

i n t erms o f s ites a nd t he r ecording f orms c ontained i nformation o n s ite s ize, a mount o f a rtifactual material, k ind o f s ampling p erformed, e nvironmental i nformation a nd s o o n. T his n eeded t o b e s upplemented b y i nformation r elating t o t he l andscape a round s ites. I n ow c oncentrate o n m ore r igorous r ecording o f i nformation b etween s ites.

T his h as e volved i nto a c ombination o f s ite s heets a nd

n otebooks which c ontain a f air a mount o f t ransects. i ntervals;

a s well a s g eomorphological a nd p edological i nformation.

T he s ite s heet Runnels:

i nformation a bout t he

We r ecord a rtifact d ensity a long t he t ransect a t r egular i s s till u sed

f or c onditions a t a " site".

I n t he s outhern A rgolid we u sed t he t erm s ite a s a

f lexible t erm, w ith d efinable c oncentrations o f s urface material n ot i mplying a nything o ther t han t hat. H owever w e a lso h ave s ituations where s ite d esignations a re n ot a ppropriate.

F rom

t he beginnings w e h ave u sed t he s ame s imple r ecording f orm a ccompanied b y a map a nd a r unning l og.

W e h ave t wo t eams d oing

r egular s urvey w ork a nd a t hird v erification t eam.

E ach t eam k eeps

a d aily l og a nd r ecords i ts a ctual c overage o n a 1 :5000 t opographical map. T he l og c ontains n otes o n v isibility a nd a rtifacts o r f eatures o bserved.

Much o f

a lready p ointed o ut w e h ave n o

t his

i nformation a s Ammerman h as

i dea h ow t o i nterpret a s y et;

t he many d ynamic v ariables a t w ork c reating t hese s ites.

d ue t o

T herefore

we t ry t o r ecord a s much i nformation a s p ossible e xpecting t o r estudy t hese l ogs w ith f uture k nowledge when a s ite i s f ound, i t i s r ecorded i n a s eparate s heet a nd i ts p recise l ocation i s i ndicated o n t he t opographical m ap. Ammerman:

I n a c rew,

who d ecides t o

h andle t he s ite?

6 0

s low d own a nd c hange g ears t o

R unnels:

T he t eam l eader r ecords who makes t he s ignal,

p rocedures u sed t o s ample t he s ite,

t he

a nd t he c onditions u nder

w hich t hey w orked. Ammerman: C ontinuous r egistration o f t he l andscape i s m ore c ommon n ow. Unless t hese r unning l ogs a re k eyed b y c oordinates t here will b e a p roblem when r eferring t o t hem i n t he f uture. G regory:

We k ey o ur l ogs

t o e ach n umbered

t ransect a nd within e ach

t ransect t hey c an b e k eyed t o c oordinates f airly e asily. W e t ry t o r elate o ur t ransects t o s ome n atural f eatures i n t he l andscape s o t hey a re r elatively e asy t o p ick u p.

Well d ocumented n otebooks

a re c rucial t o b eing a ble t o g o b ack a nd p ick u p a gain. R unnels: M oody:

a grees,

a nd u ses a s imilar s ystem.

H ow l ong a re y our t ransects a nd d o y ou r ecord a reas where

y ou d on't f ind a ny material a s well a s t hose a reas with material? F or e xample b y t aking a d ensity r eading e very 2 0 m eters o r G regory: 2 km.

T hey v ary a ccording t o t he t errain;

i n l ength.

m ost a re s horter t han

But we a re d ealing with a g reat f lat p lain w ith

n othing much i n o ur way. 2 5 m .

s o?

N ear C orinth,

I r ecorded what I s aw e very

This c an v ary a ccording t o y our p roblem o rientation.

Ammerman:

D o y ou t ake a s ample e very 2 5 m .

o r j ust o bserve w hat

y ou s ee? G regory: Again i t d epends o n t he p roblem o rientation. Iw ould r ecord t he l ocal c onditions s uch a s s oil, t hen a ny c hanges i f e ncountered. Ammerman:

T he s ame with t he a rtifactual material.

On a nother t opic h ow d oes o ne h andle r estricted a ccess

t o c ertain p arts o f

t he s tudy z one d ue t o military b ases,

n ature

p reserves a nd s o f orth? Runnels: I n t he s outhern A rgolid a rea o f G reece, t he d evelopment o f t he c oastal l and i s a d ominant i ssue. I n o ur a rea we h ave r estricted a ccess t o l arge a reas b y t he e xtensive f encing o f t hese p roperties. T he f ences a re t hrown u p a lmost o vernight a nd t he many s ites a re b eing d estroyed b y bulldozing. T he G reek A rchaeological S ervice w orks d iligently t o p revent t his f rom h appening b ut

t here i s t oo much d evelopment.

T he r esult i s t hat

i f s ites a re n ot e ither p hysically a ltered o r d estroyed, t o

t hem i s s eriously c urtailed b y t he f ences.

s urvey p ermit w e h ave a l egal r ight t o

a ccess

A lthough w ith o ur

t o e nter t he f enced p roperties

i nvestigate a fter c ontacting t he o wners but t hey a re g enerally

d ifficult

t o f ind.

Ammerman: A fter r ecognizing t his p roblem, y ou d ecide t o s urvey t he a rea t hen y our ambitions/goals f or t he a rea w ill h ave t o b e s eriously l imited. R unnels: T his s ituation h as f orced u s t o s elect a reas t o s urvey u sing t wo c riteria ( 1) g eomorphological f actors a nd ( 2) p rime a rchaeological a reas.

6 1

M oody:

A nother p roblem i s r ecent

l and f ill which h as e ither

c overed u p p art o f a s ite o r h as d umped m aterial f rom o ne l ocation o n a nother s pot t hereby c reating a n i nstant s ite. Runnels:

We a lso h ave r eason t o b elieve t hat v isible s ites a re

d eliberately b eing d estroyed b efore w e a re a ble t o s urvey t hem. T he p eople who d o t his k now o f t he s urvey a nd p erhaps f ear t hat t heir l and may b e e xpropriated. K ehrberg:

T he s ame p roblem o ccurs i n J ordan.

o ut a bout d iscoveries made b y l andowners;

I f o ne wants t o f ind

i t r equires a g reat d eal

o f p atience a nd e ffort with t he l ocal i nhabitants. E ast o ne c an a lso r un i nto l ive m ine f ields R unnels:

I n G reece,

t he e xisting l aws t o p rotect

a rchaeological h eritage a re g ood.

B ut

I n t he M iddle

i n m ilitary a reas. t heir

s ince t he v alue o f c oastal

l and h as r isen a stronomically f or r ecreational u se i n t he l ast 1 0 y ears;

t here i s g reat

i ncentive t o c ircumvent t he l aws.

T he p enalties

a re r elatively i nsignificant i n r elation t o t he e conomic g ain t hat i s r ealized a nd/or

t he c ost o f c onstruction i n a v ery i nflationary

e conomy. Ammerman :

S o s urvey w ork i s m ore c omplicated t han o ne i s l ead t o

b elieve when s ifting i n a n o ffice s omewhere. S winy:

I n C yprus,

d evelopment

L imassol a nd P aphos.

i s r estricted t o c ertain a reas a round

I n L imassol t here i s a museum o f

t he D epartment

o f Antiquities which i s p owerful a nd a ble t o k eep a c lose w atch o n what

i s d iscovered

i n t he v arious d evelopment p rojects.

t o s tay i n a p lace f or a p eriod o f

t ime

I t i s u seful

i n o rder t o d evelop c ontacts,

t o build t rust a nd c onfidence with t he l ocal i nhabitants. m ay l earn w hat h as b een d iscovered.

T his w ay o ne

S o p roblems o f a ccess i n C yprus

a re n ot a s s erious d ue t o a s trong D epartment o f A ntiquities. Ammerman:

What

s hould b e d one t o p reserve n ewly d iscovered s ites

f rom

b eing d estroyed b y t he c ollecting o f o ther p rofessional a rchaeologists a nd t he l ooting b y amateurs?

I n I taly t here i s a n u nwritten c onvention

o f n ever p ublishing t he e xact l ocation o f i mportant s ites.

T his i s

a t horny p roblem s ince f unding a gencies e xpect o ne t o p ublish i n d etail t he r esults o f

t he r esearch.

Y et a rchaeological material f rom

many p eriods h as e conomic v alue, a nd m any p eople a re l ooking f or s ites which p roduce i t. H ow a re w e g oing t o d eal with t his p roblem a s p rofessionals? S tanley P rice:

We h ave b een t alking a bout t he d estruction o f

when t hey a re n ot p rotected b y l aw .

N ational l egislations

d ifferent c ountries c reate d ifferent s ituations.

s ites

i n t he

I n C yprus,

a s ite

i s n ot p rotected b y t he D epartment o f Antiquities u nless i t i s o fficially r ecorded a nd d escribed a s a s cheduled m onument.

D ue t o

t heir n umber t he D epartment i s o nly i nterested i n s cheduling t hose s ites w hich d eserve f urther w ork a nd s hould b e e xcavated a t s ome s tage. T hese a re n ow p rotected a nd s o t his i s o ne a spect o f p reservation. Another a spect i s t he c ontinuing r emoval o f material f rom k nown s ites.

T his v aries f rom c ountry t o c ountry.

I n C yprus

t his i s n ot u sually d one b y t he l ocal i nhabitants but b y o ther a rchaeologists a nd b y m ilitary p ersonnel w ho a re i nterested i n a rchaeology.

S uch c ollecting s eriously d istorts t he s amples o ne 6 2

s ubsequently d raw f rom t hese s ites. d irections t o

t he v arious s ites,

d ifferent map s eries. r eferences R unnels:

I nstead o f g iving e xact

I r eferred t o t hem b y u sing t wo

I n B ritain t hey n ow o mit n ational g rid

f rom o fficially r ecorded s ites. I d isagree.

I n B ritain a nd t he U nited S tates t here a re

n ational p rogrammes t o d eal with t his v ery c omplex p roblem i n t erms o f l egislation a nd e nforcement.

S ome p ercentage o f s ites w ill h ave t o

b e s acrificed f or d evelopment;

t hus t here i s a g rowing n ecessity t o

d ecide which s ites c an b e s acrificed. p reserve o r e xcavate a ll o f

t hem.

We c an't a fford t o e ither

This

i s a p roblem e very c ountry

f aces. K ehrberg:

I f a s pecific s ite i s t remendously i mportant

i n t erms o f

r esearch t hen a p artial e xcavation would b e t he s afest w ay t o p reserve i t because i t c omes u nder n ational p rotection. R unnels:

I d isagree:

I c oncur with S tanley P rice t hat

b etter t o h ave a r egister o f s ites p rotected b y l aw. o f g etting m ore p laces d esignated.

I t

i t w ould b e i s a q uestion

T o e xcavate s ites j ust t o p rotect

t hem a chieves t he o pposite r esult b ecause i t

i s a d estructive m ethod

i f d one t oo q uickly. G regory:

An o bvious p oint i n t his r egard i s t he maintenance o f a

g ood working r elationship w ith t he l ocal p opulation o n t wo l evels: f irst w ith t he l ocal a rchaeological o fficials a nd s econd w ith t he p eople who o wn a nd work t he l and. T his w ill a llow r eady a ccess t o t he r ight i ndividuals

i f a s ite i s b eing t ampered w ith o r o ne f inds a

n ew s ite which i s b eing t hreatened.

We c an h elp t he G reek

A rchaeological S ervice e stablish p riorities o f w hat s hould b e d one w ith r espect t o t he d estruction o f a ntiquities.

S ince t his

d estruction o ccurs o n a l ocal l evel i t i s i mportant t o e ducate t he l ocal p eople a bout t he n eed t o p rotect a rchaeological s ites. F ossey,

Runnels a nd K eller:

a gree.

O ne n eeds t o d evelop a l ong t erm

r elationship a nd t rust with t he l ocals a nd t o e stablish l ocal s upport f or t his work. G regory:

T his

t akes t ime t o o ccur.

I h ave f ound t hat t he l ocal i nhabitants d o n ot k now v ery

much a bout

t he c oncept o f a n a rchaeological s urvey,

c oming t o r ealize t he u tility o f S tanely P rice a nd K eller:

b ut y et m any a re

i t.

T he c onservation o f

s ites f ound b y s urveyE ,

i s a n i mportant r esponsibility. F ossey: M oody:

The l ocal i nhabitants g enerally k now where t he s ites a re. T his may b e t rue with t ombs a nd s ites with a rchitecture b ut

I h ave f ound t hat t he l ocals h ave n o r ecognition o f s maller

s catters

o f mainly c oarse w are s herds. Ammerman :

I n m ost a reas o f

t he Mediterranean t here i s a g rowing

r ecognition o f a rchaeological material b y t he i digenous p eople. F ossey:

While l ocal i nhabitants may n ot r ecognize l ithic t ools t hey

d o r ecognize o ther a rtifacts.

T hey a re n ot

6 3

s tupid.,

Runnels:

agrees with Moody.

Stanley Price: Every survey ought to report every site found even if not done in detail and regardless of the problem orientation. It is an essential responsibility, a duty to submit a written report to the local archaeological officials - contributing to inventory surveys. Swiny: There is also the problem of the preservation of low density scatters in connection with modern land use or activities. Sites located on cliffs at the coast are subject to erosion and destruction. In Cyprus it involves some work for the Department of Antiquities to schedule an area as a protected site, often the property must be purchased. Gregory: In Greece, if a site is discovered by a foreign archaeological team and they want to preserve it they are then expected to buy the property which can be very expensive. Ammerman: Throughout the world as more and more surveys are done the number of sites recorded has increased astronomically. Officials and professional archaeologists do not have the resources or manpower to deal with this problem. Fossey: In Greece, one doesn't have to buy the land in order to have it declared an archaeological site; unless one plans to excavate. The problem is the length of time it takes to have a site officially designated. If one works closely with the local officials these designated archaeological zones can be protected. Runnels: Having a site declared an archaeological zone creates problems with the local inhabitants with whom one is attempting to establish some useful contacts. We only do this when there is an eminent threat to a particular site. Cultural resource management as it is called in the United States should be a central part of our research design. Is this feasible? Stanley Price:

This would depend upon the country in question.

Schaar: Each area must develop a rationale for what to save and what to sacrifice . In order to reconstruct the past we need to preserve specific examples of various types of sites for the sake of those who come after us. This selection and prioritizing is the responsibility of the director of a regional survey. Ammerman: The occurence of surface material allows one to recognize the existence of a site and encourages people to look for the subsurface remains of the site. The conservation mentality for the material in the plow zone is presently exaggerated: The material that is picked up in surveys are surface finds which are undergoing terrific damage by plowing. ·If one wants to preserve it then one must stop plowing. Should one even bother to pick up material from a site and take it away? Kehrberg, Fossey and Swiny: Agree that it is necessary to collect material at the site for future assessment and to give us detailed and precise information. Sample a portion of the material. 64

i .e.

d iagnostic f ragments.

S winy:

a dds.

What

i s c ollected d epends o n t he t ype o f s ite t hat

o ne i s d ealing with.

T he l ogistics o f a s urvey will d etermine w hat

a nd h ow much c an b e t aken a way. Murray:

T here's a d ifference b etween c ollecting material a nd r emoving

i t f rom a s ite.

O ne m ay b e a ble t o d o t he a nalysis o f

a t t he s ite a nd t hen l eave i t t here.

o ne h ad l imited s torage f acilities o r f unds. b est p ossibility b ut S winy:

i t

t he m aterial

T his w ould b e a p ossibility i f I t may n ot b e t he

i s a n a lternative.

T his w ould r equire water a t t he s ite t o wash t he p ottery a nd

h andstones;

i f o ne i s t o make a p roper d iagnosis.

O ne s hould a lways

k eep a s ample f or l ater r e-evaluation a nd t o c heck o ne's c onclusions i .e.

d ating,

Ammerman:

e tc.

T he m ost o ne c an d o t o p reserve t he i dentity o f a s ite i s

t o r emove s ome c eramic material f rom t he p low z one; i s b eing r educed i n s ize o ver t ime. c eramic a nalysts' material.

s ince t he s ample

T he m ost e fficient u se o f a

t ime would b e a t a t able l ooking a t c lean

H e s hould b e m oving f rom p roject t o p roject d oing h is

h igh q uality a nalysis. G regory: I f t hat

S ometimes,

a p ermit d oes n ot a llow o ne t o c ollect a rtifacts.

i s t he c ase t hen i t

c eramic material c ollected,

i s b est t o d o w hat o ne c an. I f ound t hat o nly 2 %

O f t he

i s d iagnostic.

O ften

t he e xperts waste t ime l ooking a t l arge q uantities o f u nidentifiable s herds.

T herefore I h ave c ome t o a c ompromise:

d istinguishing a nd s eparating i n t he f ield. d iagnostic s herds,

but t his

We d o s ome i nitial

We o nly b ring b ack

s till i nvolves a j udgement.

T o c ounter

t his a re a lso c ollected s ome f ull s amples. Runnels:

With i nexperienced c rew members,

s amples t o e liminate t he c rews' M oody a nd R unnels:

i t i s b est t o t ake f ull

p roblem n ot k nowing what

t o c ollect.

a gree t hat o ne s hould n ot c ollect s amples w ithout

a dequate r ecordings. F ossey:

T here i s a d ifference b etween l ithic a nd c eramic s ites.

t hink t hat a l ithic s ite i s i mpossible t o s ample. E ither

I

o ne r ecords

t he l ocation o f e verything l ike a n e xcavation f loor d eposit o r o ne d oes n othing. Ammerman :

I n t he p low z ones,

a s a s ampling p rocess i tself.

t he s urface o f t he l andscape i s a cting When s urveying n othing i s d one w hen

o ne s ees a n a rtifact h ere o r t here, o ne j ust k eeps o n g oing. H owever o ne d oes k ey o n t he d ensity o f t he material. T his i s c omplicated e specially i n t he c ase o f c eramics,

s ince t hey a re b eing b roken d own

a t a t errific r ate b y m odern p lowing t echniques. T he s ame s urface will n ot h ave t he s ame d ensity o f s herds t hat i t h ad 2 0 y ears i n t he p ast o r t hat

i t w ill h ave 2 0 y ears i n t he f uture,

t hus t he a rtifacts

a re t he t ransformational p rocesses a t w ork i n t he p low z ones. c omplicates t he i ssue o f d eciding what a nd where t o c ollect.

T his S tudies

s how t hat b ody s herds b reak u p a t a f aster r ate t han t he d iagnostic s herds.

The r esult will b e d ensities o f d iagnostics t hat h ave n othing

t o d o w ith c ultural o r b ehavioral p rocesses, 6 5

s imply t ransformational

p rocesses a t w ork i n t he p low z ones. d eciding what a nd where t o c ollect.

T his c omplicates t he i ssue o f S tudies s how t hat b ody s herds

b reak u p a t a f aster r ate t han t he d iagnostic s herds. T he r esult w ill be d ensities o f d iagnostics t hat h ave n othing t o d o w ith c ultural o r b ehavioral p rocesses, z one.

s imply t ransformational p rocesses i n t he p low

H ow d oes o ne d eal with t hese b iases g enerated b y n atural f actors

a nd/or t he a rchaeological r ecord i tself?

We h ave n ot b othered t o p ay

s erious a ttention t o t hese s ituations. T he s hallow s ites w ith l ow d ensities o f material a re overlooked i n f avour o f t he s ites w ith h igher d ensities o f r educed material.

T he f ormer t ype o f s ite i s w here o ne

s hould f ocus t heir a ttention. M oody a nd S winy: We a re m ostly t alking a bout s ites t hat a re i n p lowed a reas but a l arge p ercentage o f t he s ites a re d iscovered i n n onc ultivated a reas. Ammerman:

C ultivated a reas p redominate i n t he M editerranean r egion.

S ites i n t he n on-cultivated a reas r aise s erious i ssues o f h ow t hat m aterial g ot

t o b e where i t i s a nd what i s g oing o n.

F urthermore,

t here

i s n o r ecycling o f material e xcept b y n atural g eomorphological p rocesses.

I n t hese s ituations t he i ssues o f r emoving a rtifacts f rom

t he s urface i s a s erious o ne s ince t here's n o n atural o r a rtificial r enewing p rocesses which w ould b ring m ore material t o t he s urface. Many s ites would n ot be visible t hereby g oing o ut o f e xistence,

a fter

c ollection. S chaar:

One i s n aturally a ttracted t o a reas w ith h igher d ensities

o f a rtifacts.

T hese c oncentrations h ave t he g reatest numerical

r epresentation o f

t he c ontents o f t he s ite a nd f orm a l arger b ody o f

i nformation f rom which I c an d erive a b etter f ounded a nalysis. Another q uestion i s what d oes o ne d o b etween s catters o f h igh d ensity o n t he e xtra-site l evel;

l evels v ary a cross a s ite when t hey f all o ff

I would d raw t he l imit o f t he s ite with r easonable c ertainty. Ammerman:

D on't i gnore l ocations o f h igh a rtifact d ensity b ut b e

m ore s ensitive t o s omething m ore t han s imple numerical c ounts.

T his

i s what h appens w hen o ne c hanges f rom q ualitative t o q uantitative a rchaeology. R unnels:

I t

p rocesses o f

i s o bvious t hat we a re g oing t o h ave t o l ook a t t he s ite f ormation b ecause t he p roblem i s e xtremely c omplex.

We h ave t hought o f s ites a s l ocations o n t he s urface where c ultural materials a re b eing p roduced f rom buried s trata. T hese l ocations a re d ynamic a nd t heir s urfaces d o n ot n ecessarily r eflect a o ne t o o ne r elationship w ith w hat's u nderneath.

We s till a re i gnorant o f h ow

t hese s urface s catters r elate t o t he a rchaeological s trata. We m ay i nfer many t hings a ll o f which a re p ossibly w rong. We n eed t o m ake a n e ffort t o o btain t he r equired S winy:

A t

i nformation a bout t his r elationship.

t he s ite o f P hanoromeni n ear E piskopi i n C yprus w e

c ollected 8 5% o f t he v isible s herds f rom t he s ite's s urface w hich h ad b een p lowed a t l east

s ince t he Hellenistic p eriod.

T his b ody o f

material c ompared q uite s atisfactorily with t he s herds f rom t he s tratified d eposits. R unnels: Many o f t he s ites t hat a re b eing f ound t oday c ome f rom a reas with l ittle o r n o p revious a rchaeological r esearch. T herefore, 6 6

i t i s m ore d ifficult t o make s ound d eductions a bout t heir h istory o f o ccupation t han i n a reas with e xcavations. F ossey:

A t Khostia i n B oiotia,

G reece;

t he s urface material

c ollected d id n ot c ompare with t he e xcavated material.

T he s urface

w as a r eal mixture o f B ronze A ge, A rchaic, C lassical a nd L ate R oman. B ut t he s trato- u nderneath o nly c ontained R oman material. T hus t he b uilding a ctivities o f d own.

t he R omans h ad t urned t he s tratigraphy u pside

We must b e a lert t o t he p roblem o f l ater a ctivities a t t he s ite

c ausing u s t o h ave a w rong i mpression o f

i ts p eriods o f o ccupations

f rom t he s urface f inds. Runnels: E very s ite h as b een s ubjected t o e normous n atural a nd h uman t ransformational p rocesses s ince t he material was f irst d eposited. T he a ncients h ave d one m ore t o d estroy m any s ites t han m odern man. Ammerman: d ifferent

T here a re multiple p athways t o t he s urface d epending o n t he s ituations.

T here's a n otion t hat p eople l ived where w e d iscover

s herds. But i n c ity s ites e specially, p eople r emove t he r ubbish f rom t heir l iving a reas a nd d ump i t e lsewhere. B e c areful n ot t o m isinterpret t hese a reas a s

s ettlement.

R unnels: There i s a lso t he p roblem o f d ifferential p reservation o f m aterials f rom s ite t o s ite. T here's a n atural s creening p rocess t hat e liminates c ertain c lasses o f a rtifacts,

i .e.

metals.

R upp: R eturning t o a f ew p reviously d iscussed p oints, i f o ne a ssumes t hat h igh d ensity e quals a ctivity t hen o ne must c heck t his b y e xcavation. T hese c ould be r efuse d eposits n ot l ocations o f s ettlement a ctivity. I n h istorical a rchaeology i n N orth America t hey h ave f ound t hat t he e arly s ettlers t hrew t heir g arbage/refuse o ut d oors a nd w indows s o t hat t here was v ery l ittle m aterial f ound within t he f oundations o f s tructures. We m ay w ell b e q uantifying a rtifact d ensities but n ot n ecessarily i dentifying a ctivity l oci o ther t han r efuse d eposits. Ammerman :

R esearchers a re n ow i nterested i n w orking o ut t he c onfiguration

o f d ensities o n t he i ntra-site l evel a nd a ttempting t o g et a r ough i dea o f t he s ize o f

t he s catter r ather t han merely d ating t he s ite's

p eriods o f o ccupation a nd p lacing i t o n a d istribution map. T his i s a r esult o f i ncreasing i nterest i n s ettlement p attern s tudies a nd t he g rowing c osts o f e xcavations. S tanley P rice: b een m anured)

C onfusion o f a ncient c ultivated a reas with h abitation a reas p oses a p roblem.

( which h ave A t a c ity

i n Oman r efuse f rom t he c ity w as mixed w ith t he m anure a nd p ut o n t he f ields a round t he t own. S chaar:

Another p roblem i s t hat i t

i s o ften u nclear what i s r ecent

o r a ncient d eposition. F or i nstance a round A lambra i n C yprus t he h igh d ensities o f s herds may r epresent c ast o ffs f rom t he s o-called e xcavations o f

t ombs b y C esnola i n t he 1 880's.

Murray a nd S chaar:

a gree t hat r efuse p iles a re a s i mportant a p art

o f d aily l ife a s material f rom o ther c ontexts. Runnels a nd Ammerman:

s peak o n manuring p ractices s imilar t o

6 7

t hose

d escribed b y S tanley P rice,

b ut w hich h ave c ontinued t o t he p resent

d ay a t t he F ranchthi C ase i n t he A rgolid i n G reece a nd i n N orthern I taly. n oise.

T he r esult i s a widespread s catter o f s herds.

S lapYak :

I t

- b ackground

i s n ot n ecessary t hat t he material i ntroduced i nto

t he f ields t hrough a ncient m anuring p ractices s hould b e i n h igh d ensities, a s t he d egradation o f t he s herd s hould b e v ery h igh. s ites

i n f act h ave b een c ompletely d estroyed by p lowing,

a re o nly k nown f rom l ocal i nformants,

M any

t hese s ites

f rom o ral t radition o r c ausal

f inds. O nly b y c oring c ould o ne a ssess t he v alidity o f t hese s ite i dentifications d ue t o t he e xtent o f t he d egradation. Ammerman:

P ottery i s n ot a s d urable a s we h ave b een l ed t o t hink.

T he r ate o f d egradation v aries, i dentify s ites.

i nfluences t he c riteria u sed t o

O ther a rtifacts i .e.

l ithics may h ave t o b e u sed

a s i ndicators i n t hese s ituations. I n a reas where p lowing i s d estroyi ng material a nd s ites o ne s hould s ystematically c ollect t he s ites a s t hey won't b e a round v ery l ong. Ammerman a nd K ehrberg:

P oint o ut t hat a erial p hotography a nd t ethered

b alloon c an b e u sed t o l ocate s tructures a nd s ettlements s o t hat a ctual s herd c ollection i s n ot a lways necessary.

T his h as b een d one

e xtensively i n E urope. Ammerman:

What

s hould o ne d o with s ites which a re n ot u nder c ultivation.

S hould o ne c ollect material f rom t hese s ites?

I f

s o what s orts o f

r ecording t echniques a re n eeded t o r ecord t hese s urfaces i n a n a cceptable f ashion? M oody:

S uch s ites e specially i f

t hey a re l ithic s catters i n a reas

w ithout a n o verburden o f a lluvium r equire c areful h orizontal p lotting o f e ach a rtifact. I f o ne i s n ot w illing t o t ake t he t ime f or s uch d etail o n b oth p ottery a nd l ithic s catters t hen t hey s hould b e l eft a lone.

F urthermore,

e rosion i s n aturally e xcavating t hese s ites l evel

b y l evel e xposing t he material i n t heir d eposition c ontexts. Ammerman:

I f o ne l eaves t he s catter,

i sn't

i t s ubject t o o ther

n atural p rocesses s uch a s a nimal d isturbances? T his material d oesn't s tay p ut o n t hese e rosional s urfaces. E ach y ear t hey m ove f urther a nd f urther a way f rom t heir o riginal c ontext. R unnels:

I t i s a lways

s ignificant t o p lot

t he l ocation o f m aterial

but o ne must b e c areful when e xtrapolating o r d educing a ny s ignificance f rom t hese p lots. T he n atural a nd h uman t ransformational p rocesses c onstantly m ix o lder material w ith n ewer material. Murray:

a grees

F ossey:

We must d istinguish b etween d ifferent t ypes o f s ites b efore

we c an t alk a bout t hem. c omponent s ites, l ithic

T hat i s multi-component s ites f rom s imple s ites v ersus c eramic s ites. D o w e c reate

a f alse i mpression b y r ecording l ithic s ites i n d etail? s ure what

I a m n ot

i nformation we'll g et o ut o f p lotting a nyone d istribution

o f material which i s m ixed. A c learer s trategy p erhaps c an b e a dopted f or s imple p eriod s ites i f we c an i n f act d istinguish t hem.

6 8

Ammerman:

We a re c urrently d eveloping t he m ethods n eeded t o c ounter

s uch p roblems.

R epeated c ollection,

c o-joining o f l ithic d ebitage a nd

r eplicated c ollection p lus g eomorphological s tudies may b e a ble t o t ell u s w hether we a re l ooking a t t he r esults o f e rosion o r o f We a re a lso

i n s itu d ebris.

l ooking f or s imple r ules s uch a s d ensity which w ill t rigger

c ertain r ecovery a nd r ecording t echniques. B ut t he f actors o f e xperience, k nowledge, a nd j udgement h ave t o b e o perating c oncurrently. M oody:

I n t he c ases o f t he s ites a t which I d o n ot c ollect a ny

material I d raw t he o bjects i n d etail, t ake p hotographs. S winy:

I t

d escribe c eramic f abrics a nd

i s very d ifficult t o r ecognize p ottery f rom d escriptions

e ven with p hotographs o ne must b e a ble t o h andle i t. c eramics c hange o ver t ime. i n t rays

I n C yprus

Descriptions o f

s urvey m aterial i s s tored

i n museums a nd a re e asily a ccessible.

Ammerman:

I n many c ountries,

e specially I taly,

s urvey material i s

n ot t reated v ery w ell a nd o ften museum p ersonnel d o n ot want t o s ee i t.

T he r eason:

t he material l acks t he magic o f e xcavated material.

T he f inds

f rom t he s urface a re s een a s e phemeral.

G regory:

T he p urpose o f s ampling i s t o p rovide o ne with a n i dea o f

what t he c onfiguration o f a rtifact i s. c ollect a s ite,

I n B oiotia we n ever c ompletely

w e s ample a ll a rtifact c lasses,

b e r epresentative o f

t he whole.

which we h ope w ill

T herefore d ifferent t ypes o f

s ites

may b e t reated i n t he s ame w ay. Ammerman:

H ow p recise a re y ou i n p lotting t he l ocations a t which y ou

c ollected? G regory:

I t d epends o n t he f iness o f

t he material.

t he s urvey a nd t he d ensity o f

We c an l ocate a s herd i n a t ransect within 2 0 m2 .

g rid s quare. I f i t c omes f rom a l arge c oncentration o ne c an l ocate i t t o a o ne t o t wo metre s quare. T his s herd c an e asily b e r elocated i n t he museum o r o n a map.

I n t heory a t l east w e s hould a lso b e

a ble t o g et b ack t o t he f ind s pot. Ammerman:

C onsidering t he l ateral d isplacement o f t he material i n

t he p low z one e xact p lotting w ould b e meaningless. F ossey:

I wonder i f t here i sn't a p oint b eyond which we a re r ecording

t oo much d etail w ith l ittle i n t he w ay o f G regory:

t angible r esults?

We o ver r ecorded i n t he b eginning o n my s urvey i n B oiotia

i n G reece. We s topped t his when we f ound t hat w e c ouldn't make a nything o ut o f i t. T his k ind o f a ccuracy r eally d idn't mean a nything. R unnels: I n t he s outhern A rgolid w e e stablished a d atum p oint o n t hose s ites w e w ished t o s ample which w as p recisely l ocated i n s pace. We c an g et b ack t o t his p oint w ithin a f ew metres. c an g et a n i dea o f t he d istribution o f material a t p lan o f

t he s ite,

F rom t hat o ne t hat m oment w ith t he

t he s ampling s trategy a nd t he s ampled m aterial i n

f ront o f y ou. Ammmerman:

R esearchers h ave wanted t o b orrow f rom p rehistoric e xcavations 6 9

t he e mphasis o n t hree d imensional p lotting w ithout t hinking o f t he mechanisms t hat c reated t he s urface r emains.

I t

i s i mportant t o b e

a ble t o g o b ack t o where t he p henomena were o bserved.

T his i s e specially

c rucial when p eople w ant t o c ompare t he s urface t o t he s ub-surface o r d o r eplicated c ollections. T herefore w e n eed s patial c ontrols which h ave t raditionally b een l acking. F ossey:

What we n eed i s m ore s urface t o s ub-surface i nvestigation

a t o ne p eriod s ites.

I t hink t hat

t his w ill s how u s t hat

d istribution w ithin a s ite o r c luster h as n ext r egard t o

t he s ub-surface.

V oorrips:

I t i s n ot

t he s urface

t o n o meaning w ith

i mportant t o g o b ack t o e xactly t he s ame s pot

where I f ound s omething.

T he r ecording a nd m apping o f i ndividual

a rtifacts c an b e u seful a nd meaningful when o ne h as p artially o verlapping s catters o f d ifferent

t ime p eriods a lthough t hese e xact

l ocations a re s ubject t o B rownian m otion o r r andom w alk m odels t hat i s t he b ackward a nd f orward, m ovement o f a rtifacts i n a p low z one. S ullivan, r ecord t hat

Ammerman a nd S chaar:

A s i f t he e xpenditure o f

t ime t o

i ndividual a rtifact l ocations i s r ealistic when i t i s a greed

t here i s l ateral a nd v ertical m ovement w ithin t he p low z one a nd

i n t he u ncultivated s ite? S chaar:

O ne h as t o l ook b eyond t he d ocumentation t o t he p resent

i nterpretation o f t he d ata a nd p ossible f uture u ses o f i t.

O ne

s hould d ocument t he c entroid o f t he s catter b ut n ot w orry a bout t he i ndividual e lements.

T here w ill b e m ovement o f t he c entroid b ut

i t c ould b e h andled.

T hus,

k nowing t he l ocation o f

t hese c oupled

w ith n ew k nowledge o f t he s tructuring o f t he h uman a ctivities f uture r esearchers maybe a ble t o i nterpret t he s ites a t a s ite l evel,

a t a n

i ntra-site l evel a nd a t a r egional l evel i n a meaningful w ay. Ammerman :

T here a re n o s imple s olutions t o t his r ecording p roblem.

U sing maps w ith s cales o f

1 :25,000 t o 1 :10,000 t he a ccuracy o f

l ocation i s o nly t o 1 00 metres. b e p rofitable,

I n s ome a reas d etailed r ecording may

s ince a rtifact m ovement v aries w ith s oil t ypes a nd

e nvironmental c onditions.

What s hould b e d one i s t o b uild u p a b ody

o f e xperience b ased o n f ine-grained r esearch i n t hose p laces t hat a re p romising a nd p roductive. M oody:

I h ave c onducted e xperiments w hich s how t hat l ithic a rtifacts

m ove f aster t han p ottery o ver a s urface, p articularly o n c lay s lopes. B ut m any o f t hese l ithic s ites a re o n h illtops which a re n ot p resently c ultivated n or would h ave b een.

E ach s ite s hould b e l ooked

a t s eparately s ince e ach h ave a n i ndividual s et o f p arameters a ffecting i t.

We s hould v ary o ur c ollecting a nd r ecording t echniques

a ccording t o t he t ype o f s ite,

i ts l ocation a nd t he g eomorphological

p rocesses a ffecting i t. Ammerman:

a grees a nd a dds t hat a ttention s hould a lso b e p aid t o

t he c ondition u nder which o ne r ecords t he i nformation. S ullivan : a grees: E ven t he l ocation o f a c entroid o f a s catter i s l ikely t o b e m isleading b ecause i ts l ocation i s g oing t o c hange f rom y ear t o year a nd c ertainly c onsiderably o ver h undreds o f y ears 7 0

e ven i n s light

s lopes.

H illtops a re n ot c ultivated b ecause t hey

a re g enerally n ot g ood a gricultural l and but t hey a re s till s ubject t o a nimal a nd p lant e rosion which c auses a c hange i n t he r elative p osition o f t hings. S chaar:

T hey h ave b een s ome e xperiments i n t he U .S.

which h ave

s hown t hat t here i sn't much d ownhill m ovement a fter a ll. u pon t he t ype o f a rtifact.

I t d epends

Ammerman:

I t would b e u seful t o k now h ow a c entroid m oves i n d ifferent

c ontexts.

H aving e nough c ase s tudies w ould a llow u s t o f orm i mpressions

a bout w hat i s g oing t o h appen i n d ifferent c ontexts. With t his r ecording we c ould k now where a c entroid w ould b e a fter 1 0-20 y ears a nd where t he c entroid c ould h ave c ome f rom. a re n ot n eeded,

E ndless c ase s tudies

j ust s ome w ork i n a wide r ange o f

s urveys i n

d ifferent p laces. T his i nformation will p robably b e s pecific t o l ocal s oils, s lopes a nd g eography. R upp:

H ow a ccurate s hould o ne b e when p lotting c entroids?

when u sing 1 :500,000 t opographical maps t o mark t he p oint i s u p.

t h

E ven

p oint o f t he p encil u sed

l arger t han t he o bjects t hat o ne i s p icking

R unnels mentioned a f ew metres;

i s 1 -5 metres a n a cceptable

l evel o f a ccuracy o r s omething g reater? S chaar:

I t w ould d epend u pon t he i nstrumentation a nd t he t echnical

c ompetence o f Rupp:

t he o perator.

N ot e very c rew i s e quipped o r a ble t o p lot a ccurately.

I s t here a n a cceptable c ompromise b etween t ime, m oney a nd a ccuracy? S chaar:

I t d epends o n t he s ize o f t he s catter a nd t he d istance b etween

t he o ccurrences.

F or s mall s catters t o t he n earest metre i s

a cceptable a nd f or G regory :

s ites i n a r egion t o t he n earest 1 00 metres.

We a re s till t alking a bout r elationships.

I t

i s o ne t hing

t o t alk a bout t he l ocation o f t he c entroid a nd i ts r elationship t o o thers within a n a rea a nd q uite a nother t o t alk o f f inding t hat p oint a gain o n t he l andscape.

T he f ormer maybe d etermined w ith

g reater a ccuracy t han t he l atter. O n t he r egional l evel a ccurate p lotting o f t he material d oesn't m ake a ny d ifference. T he c entroid i s n ot t he c entre o f t he s ite,

r ight?

S chaar: I t ransformed R unnel's t erm o f a d atum p oint marking t he p resumed c entre o f a s catter i nto a c oncept o f t he c entre o f a d efinable s catter. R unnels:

T here i s a lso t he p roblem o f d ifferent l evels o f

t o d ifferent s cales o f measurement.

e rror d ue

I n e ffect w e a re m aking

e stimates which vary f rom s ituation t o s ituation i n t erms o f p recision a nd e rror. S tanley P rice:

A u niform s ystem o f r ecording i s n ot d esirable,

d ifferent s urveys h ave d ifferent a ims.

H owever,

map r eference s ystem f or s ites i rrespective o f where t hey a re i s i mportant.

I a dvocate t he u niversal t ransverse mercator g rid

which i s s tandard f or maps o f a g reat n umber o f c ountries.

7 1

a s

t he u se o f a s tandard

S chaar:

W hen o ne i s p lotting t he c entroids o f t hese s catters p ut

d own t he U TM c oordinates.

I f o ne c annot u se d ensity a s am eaningful

m easure w hat d oes o ne u se f or a s catter? A mmerman: S omething a s o bjective a s p ossible. I f u sing d ensity, t hen s cale i t i n t erms o f h ow s mall t he p ieces a re s o a s n ot t o p roduce a rtificial f eatures. W e n eed t o k now t he m echanisms b y w hich t he m aterial g ets t o t he s urface f rom t he s ub-surface; i f t here i s a d ifference b etween a d eep a nd a s hallow p lough z one; t he e ffect t hat s herd s ize h as; a nd i f l ithics c an b e u sed a s a b ackground m easure. B oth l ight d ensity a nd h igh d ensity s catters a re p robably e qually a s i mportant a nd s hould r eceive t he s ame a ttention i n t he c ollection o f d iagnostics o r r epeated c ollection. H owever i n t he f ield t he p rocedures t hat a re u sed t o r ecognize a nd r ecord s ites f orce o ne t oward t he d enser s catters a nd b ias o ne's v iews o f t he s parser s catters. I f w e a re i nterested i n c reating r eal d istribution m aps w hich a re c omprehensive i deas o f w hat i s r eally o ut t here, w e s hould g ive m ore w eight t o t hese s parser s catters.

7 2

M ETHODS O F C ONTROLLED S URFACE C OLLECTION I N ARCHAEOLOGICAL S URVEY R obert Whallon

I will p resent a b rief r eview o f c ontrolled, o r p lanned, s urface c ollection p rocedures a nd t echniques, p articularly i n t he l ight o f my s ubstantial u se o f t hem i n a rchaeological ( Whallon 1 979, o r t horough,

1 980).

I d o n ot

i ntend t his

s urvey i n T urkey r eview t o b e s ystematic

n or w ill I c ite much o f t he l iterature o n t he s ubject.

R ather,

I will

a rea

i llustrate a nd e valuate i nformally s ome

t o

d raw o n m y g eneral b ackground a nd e xperience i n t his s imple but e ffective

a nd e fficient t echniques f or s uch w ork.

C ontrolled S urface C ollections H istorically, c ollection t o

w e t end t o

t he w ork,

i n A rchaeology t race

t he u se o f c ontrolled s urface

i n t he N ew W orld,

o f- B inford a nd h is s tudents

( Binford 1 964: 4 34-436; B inford e t a l. 1 970). I t w as c arried f rom t here d irectly t o t he N ear E ast, where i t f irst was a pplied e xperimentally t o a s ingle m ound i n s outheastern T urkey b y B raidwood's p rehistoric s urvey i n t his a rea

( Whallon 1 980).

S hortly t hereafter i t w as u sed a s

p art o f B raidwood's e xcavation s trategy a t a nd Watson 1 970).

t he s ite o f C ayönü ( Redman

T he m ost extensive a nd s ystematic a pplication o f

c ontrolled s urface c ollection a s a p art o f f ield m ethodology i n t he O ld World was m ade i n t he r egional s urvey o f a rchaeological s ites t he K eban R eservoir a rea

M allon 1 979).

T he r esults o f

t his

i n

l ast

a pplication h ave b een a ssessed f or a ccuracy a gainst a n u nusual a mount o f excavated d ata f rom t he s aue s ites, a nd t he s everal d ifferent c ollection m ethods a pplied h ave b een e valuated f rom t his e xperience f or s peed,

e ase,

a nd e fficiency

M allon 1 979:

C hapter 5 ).

I b elieve t hat

t he value o f s uch s urface c ollection p rocedures n ow h as b een e stablished f irmly, b oth by t he K eban s urvey a nd b y a number o f o ther a pplications. T he r esults o f s uch s urface " traditional," h aphazard,

c ollections,

i n c ontrast t o m ore

o r p urposive c ollections,

t ypically p rovide

m ore a ccurate a ssessment o f t he e xtent, a nd s ometimes t he s pecific n ature, o f o ccupations a t s ites s urveyed. T his i nformation o bviously i s b oth i mportant t o t he s tudy o f r egional s ettlement p atterns a nd u seful i n p lanning a ppropriate e xcavation s trategy. i ndications o f a reas o f s ite d isturbance, s tratigraphic l ayers a re e xposed,

A dditionally,

o f s pots w here p articular

o f a reas where c ertain o ccupation

l ayers a re c overed b y l ater o verburden,

a nd,

p ossibly,

o f d ifferent

f unctional a reas w ithin a p articular o ccupation m ay b e p rovided b y c ontrolled s urface c ollection. S uch i ndications o bviously a re o ften o f g reat h elp i n d eveloping e ffective p lans f or e xcavation. C ontrolled s urface

c ollection p roce 'dures

t hus

c an b e u sed t o

a dvantage i n m any, i f n ot m ost, f ield p rojects. T wo q uestions t hen p resent t hemselves: F irst, w hat k ind o f c ontrolled c ollection s hould b e made - r andom,

s ystematic,

e tc.?

S econd,

b e made

i n a r apid a nd e fficient m anner?

a rticle

i s

t he

f irst

o n t he s econd o f t hese q uestions, i s w orthwhile.

7 3

h ow c an s uch a c ollection

A lthough t he f ocus o f t his a b rief c onsideration o f

R andom v s.

S ystematic C ollection

T he b asic d ecision i n p lanning a c ontrolled s urface c ollection must b e b etween r andom a nd s ystematic s ampling o f

t he a rea t o b e

c ollected. T he i mportance o f r andom s ampling l ies i n t he f act t hat i t a llows t he s tatistical e stimation, f rom t he l imited s ample a lone, o f t otal n umbers o f i tems o r f eatures, p ercentages o f d ifferent t ypes o f i tems, e tc. o ver t he e ntire a rea u nder c onsideration, w ithin a s pecified margin o f e rror.

I n r egional s urvey i t o ften i s e xactly

s uch s tatistically r eliable e stimates o f t otal numbers o f s ites, s ite d ensities, r elative f requencies o f s ites o f d ifferent p eriods o r t ypes, e tc. t hat a re d esired. T herefore, a g reat d eal o f a ttention i s d evoted t o r andom s ampling d esigns i n t he l iterature o n r egional a rchaeological s urvey

( e.g. Mueller 1 975;

F log e t a l.

1 978).

A lthough r andom s ampling m ethods a re e ssential f or s uch s tatistical e stimates, i s

t hey u sually a re i nferior t o s ystematic m ethods when a p icture

d esired o f t he d istributional p atterns o f a rchaeological m aterials

o ver t he a rea c ollected. i n i ts

s omewhat m ore n umber o f t o

S imple r andom s ampling t ypically i s

c overage o f a n a rea.

" uneven"

S tratified r andom , s ampling t ends t o g ive a

" even" c overage o f a n a rea b y s ubdividing i t a nd m aking t he

r andomly p laced s ampling u nits i n e ach s ubdivision p roportionate

t he r elative a rea o f

t hat

s ubdivision.

G eographers e ven h ave d evised

t he m ethod o f s ystematic s tratified u naligned s ampling s pecifically t o e nsure r elatively u niform c overage o f a n a rea w hile r etaining a d egree o f r andomization i n t he exact p lacement o f s ampling ( Berry 1 962;

H aggett

1 965:

( collecting)

u nits

1 96-197).

Ib elieve t hat a s traightforward s ystematic s ampling p rocedure n ormally will b e

t he p referred c hoice

i ndividual s ites.

f or t he s urface c ollection o f

T his i s s o l argely b ecause

t he p rimary a im o f s ite

s ampling m ost o ften i s t o o btain a c lear p icture o f t he p atterns o f d istribution o f m aterial o ver t he s ite, e stimates o f

t otals,

p ercentages, e tc.

r ather t han t o o btain q uantitative f or i tems o n t he s ite s urface.

S imple s ystematic s ampling n ormally n ot o nly i s a dequate b ut

i s

t he e asiest a nd m ost

A p ossible, but

t o t his a im

e fficient a pproach t o i t.

i n m y o pinion a wkward a nd g enerally i nefficient,

c ompromise i n d ealing with a n i ndividual s ite i s t o p lan a r andom s ampling s cheme a nd

t hen s imply t o

" fill i n t he g aps" a rbitrarily

( cf. R edman a nd W atson 1 970: 2 81). U nless t he c ollection u nits u sed t o " fill i n t he g aps" a re e liminated f rom t he s ample b efore c alculations a re m ade, t his a pproach d estroys t he e ssential r andomization u pon which t he v alidity o f a ny s tatistical c onclusions i s p redicated. A lso, a s a m ethod f or r evealing a real d istributional p atterns, i t h as n othing o f t he

r apidity,

e ase,

a nd e fficiency o f a s ystematic a pproach.

C ollection D esigns a nd F ield M ethods F or e ither r andom o r s ystematic s ampling, a tion f or

t he

f ield a rchaeologist

a s ignificant c onsider-

i s t he e ase a nd e fficiency w ith w hich

t he s ampling u nits m ay b e l ocated, l aid o ut, a nd c ollected o n a s ite. I n t erms o f l ay-out, c omplete c overage o f a s ite's s urface, u sing a g rid o ver t he e ntire s ite, ( cf. W hallon 1 979: s ite

i s p erhaps t he m ost f amiliar a pproach

2 46-249).

i s e asy a nd l ies

T he e stablishment o f a g rid o ver a

f irmly w ithin t he

a rchaeologist's r outine t echniques. b e a pplicable

i n r are,

r epertoire o f e very f ield

An u nusual a lternative t hat m ay

s pecial s ituations 7 4

i s

t he c ollection o f c omplete,

a nnular b ands o ver a s ite s urface

( cf. Whallon 1 979:

c ollection w ill b e

1 68-170).

C omplete

d esirable o n a l imited n umber o f

e xceptionally i nteresting, i mportant, o r c omplex s ites. H owever, e xcept f or r ather s mall s ites, c omplete c ollection i s r elatively t ime-consuming,

p articularly i n t erms o f

a nalysis o f

f requently v oluminous m ass o f materials

t he

t he r equisite

l aboratory r ecovered i n

t his way. A l imited c ollection, p roportion,

r epresenting o nly a s ample,

o f t he s ite s urface, will b e

i n m ost c ases.

o r s mall

t he m ost e fficient o ption

T here a re t wo b asic a pproaches t o

l aying o ut u nits

f or e ither r andom o r s ystematic s amples o ver a site -- b y t ransect o r a ccording t o s ome g rid f ramework. e asier

t o

l ay o ut a nd t o c ollect,

T ransect s amples a re a lways

a nd t hey o ften g ive a dequate a nd

u seful r esults i n t erms o f a p icture o f m aterial p atterns.

G rid-based s amples a lways

a nd c ollect,

d istributional

r equire m ore t ime

b ut t heir r esults t ypically a llow t he

a much b etter p icture o f

t o l ay o ut

c onstruction o f

t he d istribution o f materials o ver

t he

s ite

s urface. T ransect s amples T ransect

s amples a re s et u p a nd c ollected i n l ong s trips o f

c ollection u nits. o f

T hese w ere

t he K eban R eservoir,

i n t he K eban a rea

c alled

" gridded s trips" i n t he s urvey

a nd 1 6 m ounds w ere s urveyed w ith t his t echnique

( Whallon 1 979).

T he p lacement o f

s uch t ransects o r

" gridded s trips" o ver a s ite m ay b e a t r andom , may b e s ystematic, m ay b e m ade p urposively, p utting t he t ransects a cross t he s ite way j udged t o g ive t he b est u niform o r o verall c overage o f t he s urface.

A ll s ites s ampled w ith g ridded s trips

i n t he K eban

o r

i n a s ite

s urvey

w ere s ampled u sing p urposively p laced t ransects. W hether t he purposively,

t ransects a re p laced r andomly,

s ystematically,

o r

t he e asiest way t o c arry o ut s uch a " gridded s trip"

c ollection i n t he f ield s eems t o b e b y s tretching a s tring o r t ape a long t he p ath o f t he s trip a nd s etting u p s ome s ort o f c learly d emarcated c ollection f rame o ver e ach s ample u nit, o r " square" a long t his l ine. F igure 1 s hows s uch a s trip e stablished u p t he s lope o f a l arge,

h igh m ound i n t he K eban R eservoir a rea

1 979:

1 64-165).

( site N 52/2, W hallon

C ollection f rames F or

t he K eban s urvey, w e h ad a s et o f w ooden f rames c onstructed,

within which t he s urvey c ollections c ould b e m ade. T hese f rames w ere c ollapsible, w ith h inged c orners a nd s ides, a nd w ere h eld r igid f or f ield u se b y c lipping a p air o f U -shaped, w eaker s ide j oints m oved a long

( Figs.

1 -2).

T hese

t he s trip b eing c ollected,

g reat a dvantage

t o s uch f rames,

i s t hat t he a rchaeologists'

s teel

s upports o ver t he

f rames w ere l ight,

r eadily

a nd w ere v ery p ortable.

a s c an b e

s een i n F igures

a ttention c onstantly i s

T he

1a nd 2 ,

f ocused a nd

c onstrained w ithin t he c onfines o f t he c ollection u nit d efined b y t he f rame. C ollection i s t hus t horough, c oncentrated, a nd w ell c ontrolled. S uch f rames c an b e m ade f rom m any m aterials a nd i n m any s izes. W e f ound t hat g ridded s trip c ollections w ere e xtremely e fficient a nd e asy t o m ake u sing t hese f rames. I f i t i s t hought t hat s uch t ransect c ollections w ill b e a dequate f or t he i ntended p urposes ( see e xamples

7 5

i n Whallon 1 979:

C hapter 3 ),

t he u se o f s uch c ollection f rames

a long s trips d efined b y f astening s tring o r t ape o ver t he p ath o f t he t ransect m ay b e r ecommended h ighly a s a n e asy a nd r apid f ield t echnique. R ectangular g rids a nd p olar c oordinates G rid-based s ampling d esigns a re m ore c omplicated t o a s ite,

p articularly r andom s ampling s chemes,

a nd i t

l ay o ut o ver

i s a wkward t o

c arry a c ollection f rame a round f rom o ne l ocation t o a nother i n a d iscontinuous p attern.

O ther f ield

t hese s ampling d esigns.

t echniques a re m ore e ffective f or

T here a re t wo o ptions a vailable

p ositioning o f t he s ample u nits o r t he u se o f p olar c oordinates.

f or

t he u se o f r ectangular T here a re,

t he

c oordinates

i n a ddition,

t wo o ptions

a vailable f or t he d elineation o n t he g round o f t he c ollection u nits t hemselves - t he s tring c ircle

( or

" dogleash") m ethod o r t he u se o f

s tring s quares. T he u sual m ethod f or s imply i s

t he p ositioning o f c ollection u nits o n a s ite

t o e stablish a n ormal,

r ectangular g rid o ver t he a rea a nd t o

s elect s ample s quares f rom t his g rid, e ither r andomly o r s ystematically. T he e ntire g rid n eed n ot b e s taked o r o therwise marked o ut o n t he s ite, a s l ong a s b ase p oints a nd l ines o f s ight a re e stablished,

p erhaps e ven

t emporarily i ndicated b y s trings o r t apes p ulled o ver t he s ite. f amiliar r ectangular g rids w ere u sed i n s ite s urvey i n T urkey, s ystematic c ollection ( examples

( Whallon 1 980)

a nd f or r andom s ample c ollection

i n Whallon 1 979).

A p ossible a lternative t o

t he u se o f a r ectangular s ite g rid i s

t he p ositioning o f c ollection u nits b y p olar c oordinates. i s m ost

c onvenient a nd a ppropriate o n s ites t hat a re n ot

r elatively r egular i n s hape, H owever,

S uch b oth f or

i t i s p ossible

T his t echnique t oo

l arge,

a re

a nd a re a pproximately c ircular i n o utline.

t o a dapt

t he

t echnique t o m ore i rregularly

s haped s ites. T he n ecessity o f c onstantly m easuring r adial d istances f rom t he a pproximate c enter o f t he a rea t o b e c overed, t hough, l imits i ts u tility t o r elatively s mall s ites. A p oint a s c lose a s p ossible t o t he c enter o f t he s ite i s u sed a s t he b ase p oint.

O n t he s ite map,

c ircles a re d rawn a round t his p oint,

d efining a s eries o f s uccessively l arger c oncentric b ands. o f

t hese b ands must b e e qual t o

b e u sed.

H aving d ecided,

t hen,

T he w idth

t he width o f t he c ollection u nits t o u pon t he n umber o f u nits t o c ollect,

t he s ample u nits a re a pportioned a mong t hese c oncentric b ands o n t he b asis o f t heir r elative a reas. T he p ositioning o f t he i ndividual s ample u nits

i s a ccomplished b y m easuring,

o n a g iven c ompass b earing,

f rom t he c entral b ase p oint o ut t o t he b and w ithin w hich t he u nit s hould f all a nd s etting u p t he u nit a t t hat p oint. R andomization o f c ollection i s a ccomplished by c hoosing t he c ompass b earings a t r andom. S ystematic c ollections c an b e made b y s pacing t he s ample u nits r egularly a round t he c oncentric b ands

c overing

a r andom s ample c ollection made a t a rea,

a nd d etails o f

F igure

3 i llustrates

t he e stablishment o f t his p articular s ampling

s cheme a re g iven i n W hallon s ighting w ith a c ompass t he s ample u nits

t he s ite.

o ne s ite i n t he K eban R eservoir

( 1979:

1 67).

F igure 4 s hows

f rom t he c entral p oint o n t his

t o b e m arked o ut a nd c ollected.

7 6

t he p rocess o f

s ite t o o ne o f

S tring c ircles a nd s quares A fter t he t ype o f g rid,

r ectangular o r p olar,

h as b een s elected,

o ne s till h as a c hoice b etween u sing s tring c ircles o r s tring s quares a s

c ollection u nits.

e xample,

v ery w ell. m ake,

A l ightweight g rid f rame,

c ould b e u sed,

o f a luminum f or

but w e have f ound t hat s tring-marked u nits w ork

A dditionally,

s tring

" frames" a re e xtremely c heap,

e asy

t o

a nd a re a mong t he m ost p ortable i tems o f a rchaeological e quipment.

T he s tring c ircle,

o r " dogleash," a pproach s imply i nvolves

f astening

a c ord o f s pecified l ength a t t he c enter o f t he s ample u nit a nd c ollecti ng a round t his c enter a s t horoughly a s p ossible, a llowing o neself t o b e

" thethered" b y t he c ord,

t hus

s pecified a nd u niform a rea. y ears a go

( Binford 1 964:

A t t he t ime

c onfining t he c ollection a ctivities t o a

T his

4 36),

i t was p roposed,

t echnique w as s uggested a n umber o f

a nd i t c ontinues

t o b e u sed o ccasionally.

i t w as t outed a s a f aster, m ore e fficient

t echnique t han t he e stablishment o f c ollection s quares. O n t he c ontrary, h owever, s tring s quares c an b e s et u p r emarkably q uickly a nd e fficiently. I n a ddition,

t here i s n o b oundary m arked o ut o n t he

s tring c ircle t echnique,

g round with

t he

a nd w e h ave f ound t hat n ot o nly c an m uch b etter

c ontrol b e m aintained o n t he exact s ize a nd u niformity o f t he a reas c ollected,

but

t hat t he c oncentration a nd c onsequent t horoughness o f t he

c ollectors i s g reatly i mproved when t here c ollection u nit o n t he

g round.

T herefore,

i s a v isible b oundary t o t he t he " dogleash" t echnique w as

n ot u sed a t a ll i n t he K eban R eservoir s urvey,

b ut a t echnique was

d eveloped f or t he f ast a nd e fficient s etting u p o f s tring s quares o n t he g round. T he s tring s quare t echnique i nvolves p inning a s tring s quare o n t he g round,

u sing o ne o f s everal a lternative m ethods o f m easurement t o

e nsure p roper

l ocation a nd o rientation o f t he s quare,

p recisely m easured s tring d iagonal t o e nsure t hat t hus e stablished i s e xactly s quare i n s hape. i s u tterly s imple.

T he s tring s quare i tself

F our s trings a re t ied t o f our s teel r ings

w hen t he r ings a re p roperly p inned t o t he g round o r l arge s pikes),

a nd u sing a

t he c ollection a rea

t he s quare o utlined b y t he

s o t hat,

( with c haining p ins

s trings i s o f t he d esired

s ize. T he a rea c overed by t his " square" will v ary, o f c ourse, i f t he r ings a re n ot p inned t o t he g round i n a p erfectly s quare c onfiguration. T o e nsure s uch a c onfiguration, a nother s tring i s t ied t o a s teel r ing a nd i s marked t o i ndicate t he e xact l ength o f t he d iagonal o f a p erfect s quare o f t he s ize o f t he c ollection u nit. d iagonal i s c alculated s imply b y multiplying

T he l ength o f t he a ppropriate t he l ength o f a s ide o f

t he s quare b y t he s quare r oot o f t wo. T hus, f or e xample, t he d iagonal o f a 4 x 4 m s quare i s 4 x 1 .414 = 5 .66 m . I n s etting u p a c ollection s quare, t hen, o ne s ide o f t he s quare i s p inned o ut, u sing a s ighting r od, t ransit o r c ompass, g uide s tring, o r o ther m eans o f e stablishing t he p roper l ocation a nd o rientation o f t he u nit, i s u sed t o f ind t he f ourth r ing i s

t hen p inned o ut t o f orm t he c omplete

T his t echnique i s

i llustrated i n F igures 4 -10.

l ocation o f t he s quare i s g round i n t he

( Fig.

( Fig. 6 ),

5 ). a nd

e stablished b y p ulling o ne i ng r od

( Fig.

d etermined.

c orrect o rientation,

f rom t he c ompass p inned d own

t he d iagonal s tring

l ocation o f a t hird c orner o f t he s quare,

7 ).

T he

a s

f irst

t he f irst s ide o f

F igure 8 s hows

a nd t he

s quare. I n F igure 4 t he

T he s ighting r od i s

l aid o n t he

i ndicated b y t he p erson s ighting c orner o f

s ide o f

t he s tring s quare

i s

t he c ollection u nit i s

t he s tring s quare o ut a long t he s ightt he c ritical s tep o f p ulling t he

7 7

d iagonal s tring a nd t he s econd s ide o f

s tring s quare t aut

a n e xact r ight a ngle b etween t he f irst

t wo s ides o f

b egins t o t ake s hape o n t he g round. i s

t o

c reate

t he s quare a s

I n F igure 9 t he c ollection u nit

c ompleted b y p ulling o ut a nd p inning d own t he l ast c orner o f

s tring s quare.

T he e ntire p rocess

i t

t akes o nly a f ew s econds,

t he

a nd a

c areful, c oncentrated c ollection o f t he s urface material w ithin t he n ow e xactly s quare s ampling u nit c an b e made ( Fig. 1 0). C onclusion I t c an b e s een f rom t his b rief r eview t hat c ontrolled o r p lanned s urface c ollection p rocedures a re n ot d iffitult t o d evise o r c arry o ut i n t he f ield. B ecause o f i ts p otential t o p rovide a r elatively g reat a mount o f i nformation f rom a c omparatively s mall i nvestment o f t ime a nd e ffort,

t he c ontrolled s urface c ollection o f materials o n

a rchaeological

s ites s hould b ecome i ncreasingly i mportant a s a p art o f

a rchaeological

s urvey methodology a nd a s a p reliminary s tage

i n t he

e xcavation o f a s ite. R eferences: B erry,

B .J.L.,

d ata.

1 962.

S ampling,

c oding,

a nd s toring f lood p lain

U .S. D epartment o f A griculture,

F arm E conomics D ivision,

A gricultural H andbook 2 37. B inford,

L .R.,

d esign.

1 964.

A c onsideration o f a rchaeological r esearch

American A ntiquity

2 9:

4 25-441.

B inford, L .R., B inford, S .R., W hallon R . a nd H ardin, M .A., 1 970. A rchaeology a t H atchery West. Memoirs o f t he S ociety f or American A rchaeology 2 4. H aggett,

P .,

A rnold, Mueller,

1 965.

J .W.

( editor),

A rizona P ress, P log,

S .,

P log,

s urveys. V ol.

1 ,

L ocational a nalysis

i n human g eography.

E dward

L ondon. 1 975.

S ampling i n a rchaeology.

U niversity o f

T ucson.

F .

a nd Wait, W .,

1 978.

D ecision m aking i n m odern

I n A dvances i n a rchaeological m ethod a nd t heory, e dited b y M .B.

S chiffer,

p p.

3 83-421.

A cademic P ress,

N ew Y ork. R edman,

C .L.

a nd W atson,

c ollection.

P .J.,

1 970.

American A ntiquity 3 5:

S ystematic,

i ntensive s urface

2 79-291.

W hallon, R ., 1 979. A n a rchaeological s urvey o f t he K eban R eservoir a rea o f e ast-central T urkey. M emoirs o f t he M useum o f A nthropology, U niversity o f M ichigan 1 1,

Ann A rbor.

W hallon, R ., 1 980. T he s ystematic c ollection a nd a nalysis o f s urface m aterials f rom a p rehistoric s ite i n s outheastern A natolia. I n T he j oint I stanbul-Chicago U niversities' p rehistoric r esearch i n s outheastern Anatolia. I , e dited b y H . C ambel a nd R .J. B raidwood, p p.

2 07-238.

I stanbul U niversity,

7 8

F aculty o f L etters,

N o.

2 589.

Fig.

1

Collapsible, or g ridded

wooden,

s trip,

the K eban R eservoir

Fig.

2

Collapsible,

c ollection f rames b eing used to make a transect,

s urface

wooden,

c ollection up the

s lope o f a h igh mount

s urvey.

collection f rames b eing used

s urface c ollection o f a l ow mount

7 9

in a c ontrolled

i n the K eban R eservoir

s urvey.

i n

' 1 's p r ing

F i e ld s tone Fig.

3

A random

sampling design

s urface collection o f

based on polar

one o f the

coordinates,

s mall mounds

used

W a l l f or the

i n the K eban R eservoir

s urvey.

Fig.

4

Establishing by polar coordinates t he s quares on the

s ite

in Fig.

3 . 8 0

l ocation o f

one o f the

c ollection

Fig.

5

Using a s ighting f irst s ide

Fig.

6

s tick t o mark the position a nd o rientation o f t he

o f t he c ollections

P inning down t he f rame f or the

s quare

l ocated i n Fig.

f irst c orner o f a s tring

s quare positioned

8 1

i n F ig.

5 .

4 .

s quare a s a collection

Fig.

7

P ulling out t he f irst s ide o f the

s tring s quare,

using the

s ighting

s tick a s a g uide.

Fig.

8

Using a measured d iagonal

s tring t o e stablish a precise r ight a ngle

between t wo s ides o f the s tring 2 2

s quare.

-

_ , . ,.. . . : . . . , . . - * . . , ,, , . . . l ow -- . '

.

- . . . . . ,„ , .

. 4 % . 47 . . ; , „ . . • , . .

. . •• . . ,, •I z . . , .c . ; 4 . 7 . 1 09 ,. 4. .. • , . . . , . , . „ ..

. . •11 2 1 2 0,, , ..• •4 1 ri .

• , „

e ; . .,

f r

" rw o( •. ' .

. . 6 ,,

4 , • . .x• , , . , . _ .• -d „ , . L y e . . . : •. . « ,0

-•• , . , . .-. . r . . ,

-

1. . . ," " r 4 ' We , . . .

• .

_,

,

4

1 . C. •• -

" " . .. "

9

Completing the

Fig.

10

A thorough

I . „ .. 1 0 9 ' . ,, ‘

s tring

. 7 . , .. .

. ‚ -

. , _ . . . . ' * • • • • 4

, t. 4. , , .1 .

'

*,.„ ' * . • -' X'' '. s ' t' •, . -

'lc "

' "•

---

'. . >" •

ec e r

. r .. .e . 1 4: : . >

, . . . . . -. , : • •• • . , . 'V Z IV i N . „ , , . , .. ;•i , . ,' . : , ( . « 1 .• * ,: b. - . . .t , '. ' '!" . . ..4. , „ ., . ,1 . " % . ' , z e. -

___ ` i .N .•

' 0,

• . , • ? • • • ••• : ' , • -l ie"-" • 4 ' , . . '' ' ' ' ; 4 1 ,* . . . , _ >.\> . —.1 1 14 1 1 > , . ., . . . ... . . . 77 , ..

L : . s,

. , ,

. r . , , . „ , „ , •. . , , , .

" ' • ' •' t " , •' .4 51 1 b i e:

:

.

l 'b

:: ; " . : .: . ; • : ::

-l i -»"'

:1 '4 7 . '

N ;

.

. , . 1.0 e •. C i o .% 1/ 4 . . . . . .de.

> K.: .

s quare by pinning out the

. „s ' e tz : -

l ast c orner.

s urface collection being carried out within the confines

o f the e xact Fig.

. " 4 ,

" .

Fig.

, -. . , , . _ ,

,

.. . "

. . .

• •,' :'

e _ l I ti ' ir , 1:. , . . . , . , . ,

e l . / ' `'

. . ,: '

. . . . . . . . . o .d * * en ;

.

.. 33

7: 7: . 41 , . 4'

•

. •

• • . , : . * • , `, . .; N g,. 'r e. « . . . , „ , •. •• • . ,, .i i ;

,

. . „ --, , . . . . " -. . . 0 . : 2 .. , ,. , • , , . ., • , . • , t , . T,« . . i e .; , . ., " . . 0d . C ' ' ;• i • . . t • •,

/

. ,: . ::. ..

' ( . 1 . 41 . .."

7 .

4+ . ' , ' . 1

.

t

square c reated by the

4-9. 8 3

t echnique

i llustrated

in

C HAPTER

5

E ARTH S CIENCES A ND T ECHNOLOGICAL A IDS I N ARCHAEOLOGICAL S URVEYING

P anel M embers: J ohn G ifford A lbert J .

( moderator)

W ilson Myers

Ammerman

D onald S ullivan

H ans K amermans A udience P articipation

L uc D aels ( in o rder o f p articipation):

A lexandria N ibbi

N icholas S tanley P rice

K enneth S chaar

J ohn M organ

B erit W ells

J ennifer M oody

A lbertus V oorrips D iscussion A genda: H ow a re e nvironmental a nd g eomorphological e vidence c ollected? H ow a re t hese d ata i nterpreted a nd what d egree o f c onfidence c an o ne p lace o n i nterpretations b ased o n t hese d ata?

( Especially i nter-

p retations c oncerning g eomorphological a nd e nvironmental c hange i n a s tudy z one.) What s cientific/technological a ids a re a vailable t o a ssist i n s ite l ocation a nd d efinition a nd when w ould i t b e a ppropriate t o e mploy t hem? G ifford:

G eomorphology,

g eology,

p edology,

h ydrology,

p olynology,

g eography a re a ll o f g reat i mportance t o a rchaeological s urveying a nd i nterpretation. T he t echniques o f t hese e arth s ciences a re n eeded f or e nvironmental r econstruction; q uestion o f

o f p articular i nterest i s t he

s urficial c hange.

E ach p anel m ember will n ow b riefly d iscuss t he a pplication o f t echnology i n t heir i ndividual p rojects. S ullivan:

I a m w orking a s a g eomorphologist a nd p ollen/vegetation

a nalyst o n t he H arvard/Cornell e xpedition a t s ite o f

S ardis i n T urkey.

S ardis i s c onsiderably masked b y a lluvial d eposits.

T he

T he

r esearch i s i ntended t o a ssist i n d etermining t he u rban b oundaries o f

S ardis;

t o

s tudy t he p ast e nvironment o f

t he l ocate " activity-specific a reas" w ithin t he c ity, t he s ite.

a nd

C oring a nd s ondages a re

p erformed t o o btain i nformation a bout t he e xtent o f u nrecorded o utlying s ettlements o n t he v alley f loor.

t he c ity a nd t he T he h istory a nd

m echanisms o f e rosion a nd d eposition i n the a rea w ill p rovide i nform ation o n a ncient l and-use p ractices i n a nd a round t he s ite.

C ores

a re t aken f rom n earby l akes f or p ollen s tudy which will p rovide i nformation o n v egetational c hanges. W e a re a ttempting t o d etermine major g eomorphological f eatures o f

t he

s ite p articularly o f

t he a cropolis a nd t he n ecropolis which

h ave u ndergone d ramatic c hanges s ince

8 5

t he

s ite w as f irst o ccupied.

M yers: I a m e ngaged i n t ethered b alloon a erial p hotography o f s ites a nd t heir s urrounding a reas i n t he M editerranean r egion f or t he W hittlesey F oundation. A rchaeologists e xpect t oo l ittle a nd t oo m uch o f b alloon a erial p hotographs. P art o f t he p roblem i s t hat t hey d o n ot r ealize t he p otential o f s uch p hotos. A d rawn m ap o f a s ite i s a s election o f t he k nown d ata i n c ontrast t o a n a erial p hotograph w hich s hows a ll t he v isible d ata a t o ne p oint i n t ime. F urthermore a n a erial p hoto i f t aken h orizontally a bove a s ite c an b e m ade i nto a p hoto p lan, t he e quivalent o f a d rawn p lan. I f o ne h as a l imited a mount o f t ime a t a s ite o r i n a n a rea, a p hoto m osaic m ap c an b e m ade f or l ater o ff s ite s tudy. T he i ndividual i mages c an b e p rojected o r e nlarged. A lso, b lack a nd w hite n egatives o r c olour t ransparencies c an b e s tudied i n a d ual o bjective s tereo-zoom m icroscope. T he p hoto c an t herefore b e u sed t o e xplore a nd t o d etect f eatures n ot e asily s een o n t he g round o r i n i naccessible a reas d ue t o t all/dense v egetation. A n e xample o f t his w ork i s a p hoto m osaic m ap o f t he a rea o f P higalia i n t he P eloponnessos i n G reece. F rom t his m ap 2 0 x 2 0 c m e nlargements w ere u sed b y t he c rew i n t he f ield. O bjects f ound o n t he g round c ould t hen b e m arked d irectly a nd a ccurately o n t he m ap a nd v isa-versa. T his t echnique c an b e u sed t o d etermine s urvey s trategies b etween f ield s easons. T he t echnique a lso w orks w ell i n c lear s hallow w ater u sing f ast b lack a nd w hite o r c olour f ilm a nd f ilters. F eatures w hich a re e ither d eep o r d ifficult t o s ee f rom t he s urface a re r evealed. F inally, c olour o r b lack a nd w hite s tereo p hotographs w hich e xaggerate t he d ifferences i n e levations c an a lso b e m ade. D aels: M y s pecialty i s t he g eography o f t he M editerranean b asin a nd t he u se o f r emote s ensing f rom a erial p hotographs a nd L ANDSAT i mages f or g eographical i nterpretation. A r esearch t eam h as b een f ormed b y G hent U niversity a nd t he H igher I nstitute o f A rchitecture i n G hent, B elgium t o s tudy t he h istorical e cology o f t he M editerranean a rea. S uch r esearch i nvolves t he c ollaboration o f t he e arth s ciences a nd a rchaeology. I mportant a reas o f r esearch: 1 . H olistic l and c lassification u sing i mages f rom r emote s ensing ( ie. a erial p hotographs a nd L ANDSAT i mages). T he l and u nits a re d elineated a nd e ach i s c haracterized b y t he o ccurrence o f d ifferent l andscape f eatures.

T his d ata c an b e

c ompared w ith t he g eographical c haracteristics o f k nown a rchaeological s ites i n o rder t o e valuate t he p otential f or s ite l ocations i n u nknown a reas. T herefore a p redictive m odel i s d eveloped. S ites l ikely t o b e d estroyed c ould a lso b e i dentified. 2 . G eographical i nterpretation o f s pacial p atterns . V arious g eographical m odels c an b e a pplied t o a rchaeological d ata t o a ssist i n t he u nderstanding o f t he l ocation o f s ites.

T his i s d eductive g eography.

3 . A nalysis o f l andscape b ased

o n p edology a nd g eomorphology. T his w ill a llow u s t o d istinguish b etween m an-made a nd n atural l andscape f eatures. 4 . M ulti-spectral i mages o f t he e nvironment f rom L ANDSAT i mages a nd o ther r emote s ensing t echniques. G ifford:

I s pecialize i n H olocene e nvironmental c hanges a nd t he

g eomorphology o f

s ea l evel c hanges i n t he c oastal r egions o f t he

M editerranean a rea. H e a grees t hat a rchaeological s ites c ould b e i dentified u sing t he L ANDSAT i mages m entioning t hat r ecently t here h as b een a d iscussion

8 6

o f s ite c atchment a nalysis

( in t he s outhwestern U .S.).

H owever, m ost

r esearchers d o n ot h ave r eady a ccess t o t hese t echniques s o t hey h ave t o r ely o n s imple t raditional t echniques, i .e. f ield w alking a nd s ampling b y d igging o r c oring. I n t he p ast i t h as b een a ssumed t hat t here h as n ot b een a g reat d eal o f i mportant c hanges i n t he p hysical l andscape a round a rchaeol ogical s ites. H owever, r ecent r esearch h as s hown t he o pposite. T here h as b een a g reat d eal o f l andscape c hange s ome o f w hich i s o f c ultural i mportance.

T his i s s een a round K ommos,

C rete,

L ate M inoan

w alls w ere f ound b uried a t a d epth o f 7m b y s and i ndicating t hat t he s and-filled v alleys a re p ost B ronze A ge. A mmerman: I a m r epresenting b oth A n R emmelzwoal, a p edologist/ g eomorphologist f rom t he U niversity o f A msterdam w ho h as w orked e xtensively i n t he C alabria r egion o f s outhern I taly a nd A listair B arkley o f t he A ncient M onument L aboratory i n L ondon w ho h as c onducted m agnetometer s urveys f or t he C alabria p roject. W e w ere a ble t o g et 1 :5000 c olour a erial p hotographs o f o ur s tudy z one i n C alabria. T hese a re o f c rucial i mportance f or l and-use c lassification, g eomorphology, a nd a rchaeological r ecording a nd i nterpretation. T he p edologists r ecognized a c orrespondence b etween s ite v isibility a nd c ertain l ands cape f eatures,

" geomorphological w indows", w here h uman a gency a nd

a eolian e rosion o n a s mall s cale c ombined t o r eveal t he l ocation o f a rtifact s catters. C an b uried s ites b y p redicted i n a reas w here t here w ere n o " windows" b y c oring? W ith t he i nformation ( pedological a nd a rchaeological o n s ite l ocation), t wo n ew N eolithic s ites w ere i dent ified a nd r adically a ltered o ur k nowledge o f p attern o f u se/settlement i n t he 5 k m2 s tudy a rea. W hy a re t here t hese w indows? T hey a re e ither t he r esult o f a n atural o r h uman a gency o r p erhaps a c ombination o f t he t wo. F inally, h igh a nd l ow l evel a erial p hotographs a nd L ANDSAT i mages a re i mportant f or l and-use s tudies. T here i s av ery c omplicated r elationship b etween m odern l and-use, g eomorphological v isibility a nd s ite v isibility.

T his n eeds t o b e s tudied.

K ammermans : I a m e ngaged i n s oil s tudies o n t he A gro P ontino P roject o n t he w estern c oast o f I taly b etween R ome a nd N aples. A d etailed p edological m ap w as m ade f irst, a s i t w as t hought t hat a s oil m ap c ould d istinguish t he s ystem o f b each r idges a nd l agoonal a reas i n t he d unes b etter t han a g eomorphological m ap. T he s oil m ap w as a lso u sed t o r econstruct t he l andscape b y t he i dentification o f a lluvium a reas a nd t he l ocation o f R oman i rrigation c anals. D ating t he s oil s ystems i s n ot e asy d ue t o a p aucity o f d atable a rtifacts. T o s olve t his p roblem c ores a re b eing d rilled i n v arious a reas.

P ollen i s

t hen c ollected f or a nalysis i n o rder t o r econstruct t he c limatic s equence i n t he a rea s ince t he l ast g lacial p eriod a nd t o d ate t he d ifferent s oil s ystems. T his i s a ll b eing d one b efore s tarting t he f ield s urveying. G ifford: W e n eed t o c onsider t he n otion o f t he e arth's s urface f rom t he e arth s cience p oint o f v iew which i n t urn l eads t o c onsideration o f t he r eality/accuracy o f a s ite d istribution m ap i n t erms o f p ast d istribution o f a ctual s ites.

D oes i t r epresent 5 0%,

2 0% o r 3 % o f

t he s ites t hat w ere a ctually o nce p resent o n t he e arth's s urface? L ess t han h alf o f t he m odern s urfaces w ere v isible a t a ny g iven p oint i n t ime i n t he p ast. S urfaces a re g enerally n ot s table, e xcept i n e xtreme c onditions i .e. i ce f ields, d eep s ea-bottoms, o r s ome d esert

8 7

a reas. T he s urface i s a d ynamic i nterface. A rchaeologists g enerally a ssume i t t o b e s table. B ut t his i s n ot t he c ase. S ullivan: a grees a nd a dds t hat a t a lmost a ll a rchaeological s ites, c hanges o n t he s urface h ave o ccurred s ince t he d eposition o f t he a rtifacts. T he r elative r ates o f c hange a re o f c onsiderable i nterest. M oreover, l and-use p atterns, e specially i n r ecent t imes c an h ave a n i mportant d estabilizing e ffect o n t he l andscape.

T he q uestion i s:

d o t hese r ecent l and-use p atterns h ave c ounterparts i n a ntiquity? A mmerman:

I t i s i ronic t hat a reas w hich h ave s oil a ccumulation o ver

l ong p eriods o f t ime h ave t he b est p reserved a rchaeological r ecord. T he a ncient s urface i f n ot c overed b y s ome d epositional m echanism j ust s its t here e xposed t o n atural a nd h uman a gencies a nd t herefore w ill n ot b e w ell p reserved. D aels: I t i s n ot p ossible t o s peak o f a " surface". T he s urface o ne i s d iscussing d epends o n t he s cale a nd t echniques t hat o ne i s u sing t o l ook a t i t. D ifferent a pproaches y ield d ifferent s urfaces. T here i s a lso a t ime f actor t o c onsider. F urthermore, t he i mages o f t he s urface o btained f rom t he v arious e quipment i .e. a erial p hotography, r adar, e tc. a re a ll f ragments o f o ne r eality b ut t hey d iffer e norm ously. T he i dea o f a s urface i s e xtremely c omplex. N ibbi: R ecent d eforestation a nd i ts e ffect o n t he l andscape h as n ot b een s ufficiently c onsidered. P ollen a nalysis h as s hown t hat p ines o nce g rew i n t he S ahara a nd t hat N orth A frica o nce h ad m any t rees. T he s ame i s t rue f or s outhern I srael. G ifford:

a grees.

T here i s t he c oncept o f t he s o-called m assive

d eforestation o f t he M editerranean r egion. W hen d id t his o ccur, w here a nd what w ere i ts e ffects o n t he s urface i n a ccelerating s oil e rosion? T his i s o ften b rought i nto d iscussions b y a rchaeologists w hen t hey h ave a p roblem w hich s eems u nsolvable b y a ny o ther m eans. O ne m ethod t o d etermine w hat t he c limax v egetation o f a n a rea w as i s t o f ence o ff a l arge a rea t hereby k eeping m an a nd d omestic a nimals o ut; t he v egetation w hich r e-establishes i tself a fter a p eriod o f s everal c enturies w ould i ndicate w hat t he a ncient v egetation m ight h ave b een. I t i s d ifficult g eologically t o d emonstrate t hat a f orest o nce s tood i n a p articular p lace. A g ood w orking h ypothesis m ight b e t hat t he c lear-cutting o f f orested h igher-elevations w ould c ause a p ulse o f a ccelerated d eposition i n l ower a reas. H owever, i t i s d ifficult t o t est s uch a h ypothesis. P ollen a nalysis ( from l akes o r m arshes e tc.) w ould b e t he b est m ethod, i f t here a re n o p reserved p hysical t races o f t rees i .e. s tumps o r r oots. W ells:

D oesn't t he p resence o f c ertain t ypes o f a nimal b ones i n

a rchaeological s ites,

i .e.

d eer,

i ndicate t hat t he a rea w as f orested?

G ifford: T his i s c ircumstantial e vidence. T he n umber o f b ones f ound w ould h ave t o b e v ery l arge t o s uggest a f orest i n t he i mmediate v icinity. S ullivan:

O ther i ndications o f a f orested r egion:

1 .

t he t ype o f

c onstruction m aterials u sed a t a rchaeological z ones. I f a s ignificant n umber u sed w ood e xtensively i n t heir c onstruction t his w ould s uggest

8 8

t hat w ood w as r eadily a vailable o r d id n ot h ave t o b e t ransported f rom t oo f ar a way. T here a re s ome p roblems w ith t his a rgument. 2 . T he p resence o f l arge R oman b ath c omplexes. S ince t hey r equired a l arge q uantity o f f uel t hey m ay i ndicate t hat a s ource o f w ood w as n earby. H owever, t his w ood c ould h ave b een t ransported o ver l ong d istances o r h ave c ome f rom s crub a nd n ot f orest t rees. V oorrips:

I n A gropontino t he s oil m ap

s aved m uch t ime a nd e nergy,

i .e. f rom t he map o ne c ould s ee where t o s urvey a nd w here n ot t o, w hat s oils w ere r ecently d eposited e tc. A mmerman:

T he b est a pproach i s t o c onsider m ultiple l ines o f e vidence

s imultaneously. M editerranean, a reas.

T his s hould b e d one f or t he d ifferent p arts o f

t he

s ince t he s ame t ype o f e vidence w ill n ot w ork i n a ll

A lso marginal l and,

i f a bandoned a nd n ot s ubsequently i nter-

f ered w ith b y m an w ill p rovide h ints o f what c ould g row t here n aturally. T his i s h appening i n I taly. S ullivan:

T his i s t rue i n T urkey where i n t he l ast 3 0 y ears a m assive

r eforestation h as b een e nforced.

T he r esult i s t hat t he f orests h ave

s tarted t o r eseed n aturally i n p laces where n o f orests h ave e xisted f or 2 00-300 y ears. A grees t hat p ollen i s t he b est s ource o f e vidence f or d etermining v egetal s equences.

Unfortunately p ollen i s n ot f ound i n a ll c ontexts

T herefore t here i s a n eed f or o ther l ines o f e vidence.

A t

S ardis

s ince t here a re n o n earby l akes t hey h ave b een s ampling c losed c ontainers,

i .e.

a mphorae,

f or p ollen.

T hese micro-environments m ay

b e s uitable f or t he p reservation o f p ollen. S tanley P rice: o f

I s t he c oncept o f c limax v egetation l ike t he c oncept

s urface a variable a nd n ot a c onstant?

What d o w e m ean b y c limax

v egetation? S ullivan:

T his i s a l oaded t erm.

T o t he e cologist i t i mplies a

r elatively s table l ong t erm e cosystem.

I f o ne s peaks o f

a tions o f t he

t he c limate c onditions t hen

s urface c onditions a nd o f

t he f luctu-

s uch v egetation i s n ot r eally a p ermanent l ong t erm p henomenon.

A s

a r esult, m any g eographers h ave a bandoned t he t erm. S tanley P rice:

S hould w e d rop

t he i dea i n t he r econstruction o f

p aleoenvironments? S ullivan:

N o.

W hen o ne i s

r econstructing t he p aleo-vegetation o ne

i s n ot n ecessarily l ooking f or c limax v egetation.

A p alynologist

l ooking a t a p ollen d iagram f or a n a rea w hich s hows t he s ame v egetation g rowing f or 1 500 y ears w ould s ay t hat i t i s a l ong t erm s table e nvironment/plant c ommunity b ut n ot t hat i t i s a c limax c ommunity. G ifford:

T he t erm/concept i s u seful i n t hat

i t d istinguishes a

v egetational s uccession t hat h as b een r adically a ltered b y h uman m eans w ith t hat w hich d eveloped n aturally e ven t hough c hanging d ue t o c limate o r s oil c onditions.

I t

i s t he p re-human i ntervention

s tate o r t he o riginal s tate. S ullivan:

P roblem:

n o m atter h ow o ne d efines t he p re-human s ituation

c hanges i n t he c limate a nd e nvironment w ill h ave c aused c hanges

8 9

i n t he

c limax v egetation. G ifford: W hen p alynologists f ind i n a c ore e vidence t hat s ome t ype o f h uman a ctivity h as r adically a ltered t he v egetational c over, t hey t hen h ave s ome c riteria f or d istinguishing b etween h uman i nduced a nd t he n atural e volution c limatically i nduced c hanges o f t he v egetation. S ullivan: I t i s p ossible, b ut n ot a lways e asy t o m ake t his d istin ction. I t d epends u pon t he i ntensity o f t he h uman a ctivity i n t he a rea. C hange i n v egetation a lone i s n ot e nough. A mmerman: F urthermore, i n o rder f or i t t o b e s uccessful i t m ust b e s ustained o ver a n umber o f y ears. T he r esults i n t he s hort r un w ill b e q uite m odest c ompared t o t he a ccumulation o f e xperience t hrough t he c ollaboration. A rchaeologists c an p rovide p edologists w ho a re i nterested i n p aleosoils a nd s oil f ormation p rocesses, w ith s oil h orizons s tretching o ver a l ong t ime s pan w ith s ome c hronological c ontrols. T hus t he c ollaboration b etween u s a nd e arth s cientists i s a t wo w ay s treet. G ifford: a grees. I t h as b een m y e xperience t hat i n o ur c ollaboration w ith a rchaeologists, w e a re g etting m ore o ut o f t he r elationship t hen t hem. I n a s urvey s ituation i f w e c an n ot a ssign s ome a bsolute d ate t o t he o bserved p henomena i t w ill n ot h ave m uch s ignificance t o t he e nvironmental r econstruction. T he a rchaeological m aterials f ound o ften p rovide t he c hronological c ontrols n eeded. S tanley P rice: I f o ne w ants t o u se t he l ocational m odels m entioned b y D aels t hen o ne o f t he b iggest p roblems i n p rehistoric r esearch i s d etermining t he c ontemporaneity o f s ites. H ow d oes A mmerman d etermine t hat a t l east s ome o f h is s ites w ere c ontemporary? A mmerman : W e m ust r ealize t hat w e c an't c reate s imple s ynchronic a rchaeological d istribution m aps, o ne c an n ot p roduce a v ery p recise d istribution m ap. W e h ave d ated s ome s ettlements o n t he b asis o f C 1 4, p aleomagnetism, p ottery s eriation, a nd o ther d ating t echniques. W e h ave f ound a t v arious s ite s tructures w hich w e w ere a ble t o d ate t hat w e h ave a bout 2 50 s tructures s itting o n a l andscape f or a bout 6 00 y ears.

I f o ne e stimates a h ouse-life o f 2 5-30 y ears o ne s tarts

b uilding u p e stimates o f t he n umber t hat w ere c ontemporaneous. I t i s a d elicate, d ifficult a nd t ime c onsuming t hing t o d o, o ne h as t o d ecide w hether i t i s w orth i t i n t erms o f t he s ettlement s ystem. I an H odder ( Hodder a nd O rton, 1 976) a nd o thers ( Clarke, 1 977) w ho h ave w ritten b ooks o n s patial a nalysis h ave e mphasized t he n eed f or c ontemp oraneity. M aybe t his c an o nly b e d one w hen o ne i s d ealing w ith R oman v illas w here o ne c an b e r easonably c onfident a bout d ating b y u sing v arious a bsolute m eans. I s uspect t hat i n p rehistory w e w ould n ever b e a ble t o h ave t his f or l arge n umbers o f s ettlements. T t w ill n ecessitate t hat w e t hink o f a lternative m ethods t o m odel a nd t hat w ill n ot b e e asy. G ifford:

H ow u seful i s l arge s cale v ertical a erial p hotography i n

a s urvey s ituation? M yers:

I t d epends o n w hat i s b eing l ooked f or.

A s v arious r emote

s ensing t echniques b ecome m ore s ensitive a nd/or m ore p ortable, t hey c ould e asily b e u sed t o l ocate s ites t hat h ave n ot y et b een f ound o r h idden f eatures o n k nown s ites.

C rop m arkings c an e asily b e d iscovered 9 0

b ut t his d epends t remendously u pon

t he t ime o f y ear,

t he a mount o f

r ainfall, t he p articular c rop. I n s ome c ases s pecial c rops h ave b een s own t o a ccentuate t he p otential m arkings o f u nsuspect u nderground f eatures. R emote s ensing t echniques l ike s canning c ould b e a pplied t o l ower a ltitudes i f t he d egree o f r esolution i s i mproved. T his w ould r eveal f eatures, w hich a re i nvisible t o t he n aked e ye o n t he s urface, b y a rtificial c olour a ssignment t o a s pecific s pectral s ignature. I t i s o nly a m atter o f t ime u ntil t he e quipment i s r efined a nd a ccessible t o a rchaeologists a t a r easonable c ost. T he u se o f t he t ethered b alloon i s r elatively u nsophisticated a nd a r esult w e h ave f ew s ecurity c learance p roblems i n t hose a reas w ith s ensitive m ilitary i nstallations. B ut a s t he r emote s ensing e quipment b ecomes m ore s ophisticated a nd c ompact i t w ill b ecome h arder t o g ain p ermission t o u se i t i n t hese s ensitive a reas. M oody: C an y ou g ive u s a n i dea o f w hat i t c osts t o u se t ethered b alloon p hotography i n a s urvey s ituation? M yers: W e w ork o n a c ollaborative r esearch ,b asis. W e d o n ot a ttempt t o m ake m oney o r b reak e ven j ust t o s hare o ur r esearch a nd m aintenance e xpenses. W e h ave t o s chedule a w eek o ut o f o ur s eason, a s w e c an n ot j ust d rop b y f or a d ay a nd t ake o ne p icture; ( it d epends o n w eather c onditions, e tc.). I n 1 981 w e c harged $ 800 a w eek p lus t ransportation t o a nd f rom A thens w here w e h ave o ur e quipment. W e c an t ake b lack a nd w hite, c olour ( either t ransparencies o r p rints) a nd i nfrared p hotog raphs f rom 8 00 m2 d own t o 1 0 m2 a s l ong a s w e h ave g ood w eather a nd h ydrogen. T hus, a n a verage v isit i n 1 981 w ould c ost $ 1200 w hich i ncludes t he p roduction o f t he f ilms, e nlargement, t he c ost o f h ydrog en a nd t ransportation t o a nd f rom A thens ( if t he l ocation i s n ot t oo d istant). D aels:

T his i s e xtremely c heap.

A n a irplane w ould c ost a bout $ 10,000

p er d ay. O ne s hould r ealize t hat a n a erial p hotograph g ives a p ortrait o f t he s urface, i t i s n ot a r epresentation o f r eality. T here a re m any f actors w hich a ffect t he f inal i mage. A n i nterpretation p hilosophy t herefore n eeds t o b e d eveloped. O ne c an n ot h ope t o r ecognize w hat i s v isible f rom t he s urface. T hey a re t wo d ifferent r ealities. F urthermore, w hen m ore s ophisticated t echniques s uch a s g round p enetr ating r adar a re u sed, o ne h as t o a dapt o ne's m ind t o i ts r egistration t echniques w hich r eveals y et a nother r eality. M yers: T o a void m isinterpretation o ne m ust r emember t hat t he i mage o f t he s urface i s f rom a d ifferent a ngle t han w hat o ne s ees f rom t he g round. G ifford: T he t echnique o f r emote s ensing i s l iterally o ne o f r ecording i ndirect i nformation a bout t he r eal s ituation, b e i t t he s urface o r s ub-surface e nvironment. I n o rder t o u se t his i nformation, i t h as t o b e i nterpreted, w hich i s a s ubjective a ct. O ne n eeds a g reat d eal o f i nterpretation e xperience w ith t he p articular d evice b eing u sed t o d o i t w ell. M yers a nd A mmerman: A rchaeologists, e xcept w ith u nderwater s ites, h ave s ome g round c ontrol o n t hese i mages. T he " real" s urface c an b e c ompared t o t he i mage, r esolving m any o f t he i nterpretation p roblems. I t i s a c ontinuous i nteractive r eciprocal r elationship b etween i mage

9 1

a nd g round c ontrol. Ammerman:

A dds t hat LANDSAT i magery which i s a lso u seful f or i nter-

p retation a nd i s n ot t oo e xpensive,

n eeds t o b e d eveloped.

D aels: a grees. H owever, t here i s t he p roblem o f r esolution o f L ANDSAT i magery. T he a verage r esolution i s 6 0 m2 f or n ormal u se, t his i s a v ery l ow r esolution.

I t i s n ot p ossible t o s ee a ny d etail b ut o ne c an

a dequately p erform c ertain t ypes o f l and c lassification.

T he l and-

s capes c an b e d elineated a nd values c an b e g iven t o v arious s egments. M oreover,

f or r econnaissance p urposes,

t hese s atellites a re v ery

i nteresting e specially when u sing t he f our s pectral c hannels o f L ANDSAT t o d o a s equential a nalysis o f t he i mages a t d ifferent t imes o f t he y ear. S chaar:

C omputer t apes o f t he i mages t aken b y L ANDSAT f or a g iven

a rea c an b e o btained a s w ell a s t he p hotographs.

What t ype o f c omputer

h ardware i s n eeded t o u se t hese t apes? D aels: o f

W e d o n ot u se t he photographs,

o nly t he t ransparencies o f e ach

t he f our s pectral c hannels f or a p articular i mage.

2 3 x 2 3 c m a nd a re e ither a n egative o r a p ositive. h ave b etter r esolution.

T hese m easure T he n egatives

W ith t he p ositives o ne h as a n i ntermediate

s tep a s i n p hotographic e nlargements which r educes t he a mount o f d etail s een.

T he n egatives a re viewed w ith a d ual o bjective m icro-

s cope w ith a l ighted s tage a nd 1 5X e nlargement. m agnification w ith h igh r esolution.

T his i s a n e normous

C omputer c ompatible t apes,

C CT's,

a re much more e xpensive t o b uy a nd n eed s ophisticated i nstrumentation t o b e u sed.

S o w e d o v isible i nterpretation f rom t he t ransparencies

u sing various e nhancement t echniques c ation o f

( i.e.

t wo d ifferent s pectral c hannels,

c olour c oding,

t he a ppli-

o ne u pon t he o ther).

T he

r esults a re e qual t o a nd s ometimes b etter t han t hose f rom t he e xpensive s ophisticated i nstrumentation. G ifford:

T o r eview f or t hose who a re n ot f amiliar w ith LANDSAT i magery,

I o ffer t he f ollowing c omments.

T he e lectro-optical s ystem o f

t he

s atellite s cans t he e arth s urface a nd t hen t ransmits t he i nformation t o a r eceiving

s tation.

T his i nformation i s p ut o n magnetic t apes

w hich a re t he s ource o f a ll o f t he v isual i nformation. Ammerman:

T here a re t wo t ypes o f

s atellite i mages.

t aken i n a n unsystematic f ashion, t he h igher r esolution.

S econd,

F irst,

t hose

f rom m anned s pacecraft which h ave

t hose t aken b y s atellites i n a s ystem-

a tic f ashion b ut w ith much l ower r esolution.

Military s py s atellites

h ave t he h ighest r esolution g iving i mages a t l east 2 m2 b ut t hese a re c lassified a s military s ecrets. G ifford:

A rchaeologists w ill n ot g et a ccess t o t his d atabase f or a

l ong t ime. S ince t he LANDSAT t apes a re r eadily a vailable f or a ll a reas o f t he M editerranean without a p roblem o f c learance, a rchaeol ogists a nd t heir e nvironmental s cientists s hould i nvestigate o btaining t hem.

T he i nterpretative c apabilities o f

t his d ata i s b eing d eveloped

b y v arious N orth American a nd E uropean g overnment a gencies. S ullivan:

U nlike LANDSAT i magery,

a erial p hotography i s o ften n ot

a vailable o r w ith r estriction d ue t o t he p resence o f m ilitary b ases o r s ensitive b order a reas. I t t akes t ime a nd o ften c ollaboration w ith

9 2

t he l ocal a uthorities t o o btain t hem. Myers:

D ue t o t he l ack o f

s ophistication o f

t he t ethered b alloon

e quipment a nd i ts l ow a ltitude w e s ometimes g et p ermission t o t ake p ictures i n r estricted a reas. D aels:

T he University o f K eel i n S cotland h as

o f t he p ictures t aken b y t he R .A.F. a reas o f t he M editerranean. G ifford:

While t hese a re r ephotographs o f

r esolution t hey d o g ive o ne a p icture o f u se

t he a erial p hoto a rchive

i n 1 943 o f E urope a nd t he c oastal

t he o riginals w ith l ow

s ettlement p atterns a nd l and-

i n 1 943 b efore m odern d evelopment.

Ammerman:

W e h ave u sed a s et o f

t hese p hotographs, which a re s tored

a t t he B ritish S chool o f A rchaeology a t R ome,

t o d ocument f ine g rain

g eomorphological c hanges i n o ur s tudy a rea. M organ:

D id t he R .A.F.

t ake p hotos o f n eutral c ountries s uch a s

T urkey? G ifford: I d on't t hink s o. T he P itt R ivers M useum i n O xford, E ngland a lso h as s ome o f t hese R .A.F. p hotos f or t he M editerranean a rea. K ammermans: d etect

H as a ny o ne u sed p hosphate a nalysis o f

s oil s amples t o

s ites f rom t he s urface?

G ifford:

T his h as undergone a g reat s wing i n p opularity.

T he r emote

s ensing t echnique o f u sing a c hemical p arameter t o l ocalize h uman a ctivity i s r elatively s imple a nd r eliable.

T his t ype o f a nalysis i s

a ctually q uite o ld a s i t w as u sed i n S weden i n t he 1 920's a nd 3 0's. K ammermans: G ifford:

And b efore t hat i n I ran a nd E gypt.

Until r ecently p hosphate c hemistry h as b een v ery c omplex

e specially i n s ediment s oil. R .C.

F rom r ecent r esearch

c onducted b y

E idt a t t he U niversity o f Wisconsin a t Milwaukee,

t wo t ests f or

p hosphates h ave b een d eveloped a nd a re o f u se t o a rchaeologists e ngaged i n s urveys. i grams o f

I n t he q ualitative t est o ne p laces a f ew m ill-

s oil o n s ome f ilter p aper a nd t hen a pplies t wo c hemicals.

T he r esulting r eaction p roduces a c olour w hich c an b e c alibrated a gainst a c olour g radation s cale.

T his i s a r elative m easure.

T he

q uantitative t est i s a n e xtremely t horough l aboratory m ethod w hich m easures t he d ifferent t ypes o f p hosphate c ompounds p resent i n t he s oil s ample.

A ccording t o t he r esearch,

t here a re

t hree p hosphate c ompounds,

t wo o f w hich c an b e r elated t o d ifferent t ypes o f h uman a ctivity, h abitation o r a gricultural a ctivity,

i .e.

a nd t he t hird o ccurs n aturally

i n t he s oil. K ammermans: I n t he c ase o f p otential s ites w here a rtifacts a ppear a nd d isappear t his c ould c onfirm t he p resence o f h uman a ctivity. G ifford: n oted

T he q ualitative t est

i s r apid a nd a ffordable.

I t s hould b e

t hat t he r esearch s howed a h igh c oincidence o f h igh p hosphate

v alues a nd b uried s ites, h as a s tratigraphic

t herefore t he t est c ould b e d one w here o ne

s ection.

T here i s a p roblem o f c ommunications i n t hese i nterdisciplinary 9 3

s tudies. W here c an o ne f ind p ublished w ork o n p aleoenvironmental r econstruction? I t i s a p roblem a s t he s tudies a re p ublished i n a n i ncredibly w ide s pectrum o f s cientific j ournals. S tanley P rice: T here w as a s uggestion t hat t he I IC a bstracts s tart t o i nclude m aterial o n t he l ife s ciences, p articularly t hose r elated t o a rchaeology. G ifford: M yers:

H as t his o ccurred?

I t i s s till i n t he p lanning s tages. R eturning t o t he t opic o f a erial p hotography.

A l ight

p ortable b ipod w ith a c amera s uspended f rom i t c an t ake " aerial" p hotos o f v ery s mall s catters o r s ites. S tereo-photos c an a lso b e m ade.

I n t his w ay l ocational d ata o n a rtifacts c an b e t aken q uickly.

S chaar: W hat e vidence i s t here f or c limatic c hange i n t he e astern M editerranean a rea i n t he t hird a nd s econd m illennia B .C. a nd i ts e ffect? G ifford: A n umber o f p aleoclimatologists m ade a s tatistical s tudy o f t he r elationship b etween c ultural d iscontinuities a s d etermined b y 1 4 C d ates a nd p resumed c limatic c hange b ased o n e nvironmental d ata d uring t he H olocene a t t hose s ites w hich h ave d estruction l evels. T he r esults s uggest t hat t here i s m ore t han a s tatistically r andom c orr elation b etween c ultural d iscontinuities a nd r ecognized c limatic d iscontinuities. S ullivan a nd G ifford:

O ne c an n ot s ay t hat i t i s a c ause a nd e ffect

r elationship, h owever a s m ore d ocumented d ata i s c ollected t he i dea o f c limate p laying a n i mportant r ole i n c ulture c hange, e specially i n t he M editerranean, h as b ecome m ore c ommon. N ibbi:

I t i s m ore a q uestion o f t he r ainfall r egime t han c limate.

S ullivan: O ne d ifficulty i s d etermining w hat e vidence i s u sed t o s uggest c limatic c hange. A nother, i s t he i nterpretation o f t he c limatic c hange, t here i s o ften n o a greement a mong p aleoclimatologists w hat t he o bserved c hanges m ean. F or e xample, i s a r ise i n l ake l evels t he r esult o f i ncreased r ainfall o r d ecreased t emperature w hich c auses l ower e vaporation r ates? T he s ame e ffects c an b e p roduced b y d ifferent m echanisms. T he r amifications o f e ach a re c onsiderable. P alynologists a lso a rgue o ver h ow o ne i nterprets c hanges i n t he p ollen d iagram . A re t hey t he r esults o f c limatic c hange o r m an-induced v egetation c hange? G ifford: T his i s w hat i s c alled t he P rincipal o f E quifinality. W hile n ot b eing t oo p essimistic o ne m ust a ccept t hat a lternate r outes c an l ead t o t he s ame r esult. W hen o ne a ttempts t o r econstruct p ast e nvironments o ne g enerally s tarts f rom t he p resent s ituation t herefore g ood d ata o n p resent s oils,

l and-use,

e tc.

i s n eeded.

R elated t o t his

i s e thnoarchaeological r esearch: t he s tudy o f m odern e thnographic a nalogies t o m aterial f ound i n t he a rchaeological r ecord. T he r esulti ng i nformation c an b e o f

s ome u se i n t he r econstruction o f t he p aleo-

e nvironment. A mmermans: I n s outhern I taly t here a re a ctual c adastral r ecords w hich c lassify e ach p arcel o f l and a ccording t o i ts l and-use. H owever, s ince t his w as i mposed u pon t he l and b y t he s tate b ureaucracy f or i ts o wn 9 4

p urposes, t his c omplex s ystem o f c lassification h as l ittle c oncurrence w ith t he a ctual l and-use p ractices s een i n t he f ield. T his i s a p otentially d angerous a nd m isleading s ource o f e thnographic d ata. A erial p hotographs a nd f ield w alking w ould b e m uch m ore a ccurate. M yers:

W hen o ne h as g ained t he c onfidence o f t he l ocal i nhabitants

o ne c an a lso a ssess t heir p erception o f t he p hysical l andscape a s a w hole n ot j ust t o t he l and t hey o wn o r w ork. G ifford: K ommos, C rete i s a n e xample o f t his. T he m odern h ouses h ave f lat r oofs m ade o f l ayers o f c alamia, s eaweed a nd c lay. T he c lay t hat i s u sed i s a lways t aken f rom t wo l ocalities a nd n one o ther. T here i s n othing t o s et t hese c lays a part m ineralogically f rom o ther s ources. T he v illagers s imply p erceive o nly t hem t o b e s uitable. R eferences: C larke, D .L., E idt,

R .C.,

e d.,

1 977.

a nalysis. H odder,

I .

1 977.

L ondon:

A cademic P ress.

D etection a nd e xamination o f a nthrosols b y p hosphate

S cience 1 97

a nd O rton,

C ambridge:

S patial A rchaeology.

C .,

( 4311)

1 976.

1 327-1333.

S patial A nalysis i n A rchaeology.

C ambridge U niversity P ress.

9 5

U SES A ND M ISUSES O F B ALLOON A ERIAL P HOTOGRAPHY F OR S ITE R ECORDING AND S URVEY EXPLORATION J .

W ilson M yers

B eginning i n 1 930 a c onsiderable l iterature h as d eveloped w hich d iscusses t he a pplication o f b alloon a erial p hotography t o a rchaeology. N ecessarily s ay

t he

t he r eports h ave emphasized

t he

s uccesses a nd m uted - t o

l east - t he d ifficulties o r o utright

f ailures.

t hen s ome a rchaeologists h ave c ome t o e xpect m ore b alloon t han i t c an e asily d eliver.

A c hief m isconception a bout p hotographs m ade b y t he b alloon c amera i s

t hat

N ot u nreasonably

f rom t he p hotographic

t ethered

t hey a re a n a dequate a nd i nexpensive

s ubstitute

f or t he k ind o f p recisely p atterned s tereometric c overage o ffered b y a m odern m apping p lane, i n w hich c arefully c orrected s tereo p airs a re u sed t o m easure v ertical d istances a nd t o m ake t opographic m aps. T he h igh r esolution o f a l arge m apping c amera a nd h igh-order a ccuracy o f t he a ssociated p lotting machines

c annot b e m atched b y

t he b alloon

c amera, n or c an i ts r oughly c ontrolled o verlapping p hotographs t hough u seful f or s tereo v iewing - c ompare w ith t he n eat m osaic p roduced b y s uccessive p asses

i n a mapping p lane.

W hen t he a rea t o

b e p hotographed i s l arger t han a f ew s quare k ilometers, i t h ad b est b e r ecorded b y p lane a nd t he b alloon c alled i n o nly t o r ecord o r e xplore

c hosen d etails

While i t

i s

a t l ow a ltitude.

t rue t hat

t he b alloonphotographs m ade v ertically o ver

a r elatively l evel a rea c an p roduce a " photo-plan" - f or m ost p urposes t he e quivalent o f a n a rchitect's p lan d rawn i n o rthographic p rojection a s imilar p hotograph r esemble

t aken a bove a s loping h illside s ettlement w ill n ot

t he a rchitect's p lan but p roduce a p erspective v iew i n w hich

t he m easurements

o f

t he u pper s ide o f t he h ill - b eing n earer

c amera - a ppear l arger t han t he s ame m easurements g ive p roper s cale

t o s uch a p hotograph, w e h ave f ound i t u seful

p lace t wo-meter r anging p oles

f lat o n t he g round

t he

f urther d own.

T o t o

( and p ointing n orth)

a t s everal l evels, t hus i ndicating b oth s cale a nd o rientation. T his d istortion o f s cale, t he s ame " distortion" t hat t he human e ye w ould s ee f rom t he a ir c an,

o f

f rom a h igher a ltitude,

c ourse,

b e

t hough a t

r educed b y t aking t he p hotograph

s ome c ost i n e quivalent l oss o f

i mage s harpness. T he d ifficulties w ith b alloon p hotography, b eyond t hose i mplied a bove, h ave l ittle t o d o w ith p hotography a nd m uch t o d o w ith t he b ehavior o f b alloons: t he l ikelihood t hat a r ubber w eather b alloon w ill d ry o ut, b ecome b rittle, a nd burst; t he d angerous t endency o f a ll s pherical balloons

i s

t o b low d own

u npublished d isaster t hat

i n t he wind - t his w as t he

d estroyed b oth b alloon c amera a t t he e nd o f

J ames B reasted's 1 930 s eason a t t he M egiddo e xcavation; a nd, e ven w ith m ore m odern e quipment, f rightened t houghts a nd e motions r un t hrough o ne's m ind a s a r ising w ind c atches a n a erodynamic p ressurized u rethane c oated n ylon k ite-balloon a t a n a ltitude o f s lowly i ncreases o n

8 00 m .

b reaking s trength o f t he l ine.

S ince

w hich b egin w ith

i nflated a nd

t he

t he o perator s hould i nsist

c amera f lown o nly o n m ornings

c alm a ir a nd p romise n o m ore 9 7

t he

t he b alloon a nd c amera s ystem

c an c ost a s much a s a m edium-priced n ew c ar, t hat t he b alloon b e

a nd t he t ension

t he t ether c ord d uring h aul-down a nd a pproaches

t han a m ild b reeze.

S teady i mprovements

s ince

1 930

i n b alloon d esign a nd c onvenient '

r adio c ontrols f or t he c amera h ave l ed t o s uccessful u se a t h igher a nd h igher a ltitudes, w ith t he r esult t hat e xcavation r ecording i s n ow o ften a ccompanied b y a dditional p hotographic r ecording o f t he s urrounding t errain. S ometimes, a s w ith o ur r econnaisance i n 1 978 a nd 1 979 ( in c ollaboration with F rederick A . c ity o f P higalia i n S W A rkadia, a n i ntegral p art k ilometers. s urvey o f

C ooper)

o f

t he u nexcavated a ncient

t he b alloon s ystem h as b een u sed a s

o f a m apping a nd e xploration s tudy o f s everal s quare

T he s tudy o f P higalia i s,

t he r egion,

i n t urn,

p art o f a m ore e xtended

i n w hich t he b alloon c amera h as a lso b een a ble

t o

a ssist. A t P higalia, where t he t errain i s o ften p recipitous a nd c overed w ith c lumps o f b rush a nd t aller g rowths o f K ermes o ak, w e p roduced a m osaic o f f orty-odd o verlapping p hotographs, e nlarged t o 2 0 s quare w ith e ach f rame c overing a 4 00 m . s quare o n t he g round.

c m. T he

m ounted m osaic f unctioned a s a r ough a erial m ap o f t he c ity a nd i ts i mmediate

s urroundings,

a lbeit u ncorrected f or s cale, but

i ts e qually

i mportant f unction was t o s erve a s a n i ndex t o a s imilar s et o f u nm ounted l oose p hotographs c arried i n a c onvenient f ield p acket. I t was t he d ouble f unction o f t he b alloon p hotographs t o s uggest a reas o n t he g round t hat w ould b ear c loser e xamination o n f oot a nd, i n a r eciprocal way,

t o a llow d iscoveries m ade o n t he g round t o b e m arked

a nd p inpointed o n t he p hotographs a nd r elated t o

t heir w ider s urroundings.

I n t his way a r elatively s mall s urvey t eam was a ble e fficient

u se o f i ts t ime i n t he

T hough w e

d o n ot s uggest

t o m ake t he m ost

f ield.

t hat b alloon p hotographs

c an b e

s ubstituted f or c arefully d rawn s ite p lans o r s urvey m aps, e xperience h as b een t hat

o ur

s uch p hotographs c an b e e xtremely h elpful

i n t he p roduction o f maps a nd p lans o r s erve a s a q uick c heck o n t hose a lready d rawn.

T he m issing r oom,

( or u nrecognized)

t he l eft-out w ell,

o r t he

b it o f s pur wall a re e asily s potted.

i ng a nd e xploring o f r uins o n t he o cean f loor i n c lear, t he b alloon c amera h as n o r ival. p arts o f s tructures,

i t

i s

T hough d ivers

i mpossible

f orgotten

F or t he r ecords hallow w ater

c an s ee a nd i nvestigate

f or t hem t o s ee v ery f ar u nder

water a nd s o v ery u seful f or t hem t o have a erial p hotographs

t o r elate

s tructures a nd c omprehend l arger p atterns. W e a re e ncouraged b y t he r ecent d evelopment a nd i mprovement o f t hin e mulsion f ilms

( H.

&W .

C ontrol)

t hat c ombine s ensitivity w ith a

b road t onal r ange a nd e xceptionally f ine g rain. s teadily i mproving i n q uality, a nd t he p rocesses

C olor f ilms a re f or p roducing s harp

c olor e nlargements w ith l asting d yes a re n ow b eing p erfected. f alse c olor i nfra-red f ilm d oes n ot s how t hings

i nvisible t o

T hough t he

n aked e ye ( as e laborate multi-spectral s canning i nstruments u navailable f or b alloon u se - a ctually c an) o r X -ray t he g round, i t c an e nhance c ontrasts i n s oil c olor o r v egetation t hat m ay r eveal s ubsoil f eatures s uch a s b uried w alls o r a ncient r oadways. W e e xpect m ore u se t o b e m ade o f e xaggerated s tereo v iewing w hich m akes m ole h ills i nto m ountains a nd t urns t he s hallowest o f d itches i nto c anyons. A s e lectronic c ircuits a re i ncreasingly m iniaturized, i t i s n ot u nreasonable t o i magine t hat w e c an s oon e quip a t ethered b alloon w ith a s mall T V c amera w hich c ould g uide a s urvey c rew b y p resenting a c ontinuous b ird's e ye v iew o f t he g round. I n o ur e xperience, t he d emand f or t he s ort o f l ow-altitude-detailed v ertical p hotographs t hat c an s o

9 8

e asily b e p roduced b y t he b alloon c amera i s g rowing r apidly, a nd w e e xpect t hat t he t echnique a nd s ystem w ill b e u sed m ore a nd m ore i n f uture e xploration a nd s urveys.

9 9

S OILS A ND A RCHAEOLOGICAL S URVEYS: T HE C ASE O F T HE C ANADIAN P ALAIPAPHOS S URVEY P ROJECT R oger H . K ing

O ver t he y ears t here h as d eveloped a n e xtensive l iterature o n t he a rchaeological s ignificance o f t he p hysical, c hemical a nd m ineralogical p roperties o f s oils. M ost o f t his l iterature i s s ite s pecific i n t hat t he f ocus i s i nvariably o n t he u se o f s oil c haracteristics i n i ndividual a rchaeological s ite i nvestigations. I n t hese c ases t he s oils b eing e xamined a nd d iscussed a re e ither a ctually w ithin t he s ite o r a djacent t o i t ( Cornwall, 1 958; L imbrey, 1 975). I n t he p ast, a c onsiderable e mphasis h as b een p laced o n t he p resence o f p hysical a nd c hemical r esidues w ithin t he s oils o n a rchaeol ogical s ites a nd t he u sefulness o f t hese r esidual f eatures i n a iding a rchaeological i nterpretations, i ncluding t he d elimitation o f s ettlem ent s ites a nd t he i dentification o f s pecific f eatures w ithin t hese s ites. A n a lternative l ine o f i nvestigation h as e xplored t he i mpact o f man a s a s oil m odifier, w ith p edological r esearch p roviding i nsights i nto t he m anner i n w hich s oils h ave b een u sed a nd m odified b y m an i n t he p ast. F or e xample, p rolonged h uman a ctivity m ay l ocally i nduce t he c hemical e nrichment o f t he s oil a nd t his m ay b e d iscernible h undreds a nd s ometimes t housands o f y ears l ater. A lternatively, t he d epletion o f t he n atural l evel o f s oil f ertility b y c ultivation m ay h ave b een a s ignificant f actor i n s ettlement a bandonment i n s ome i nstances, a nd t he e ffects o f t his s oil i mpoverishment m ay s till b e d etectable. A m ore r ecent t rend i n a rchaeological r esearch h as b een t he e mployment o f t he s kills o f e arth s cientists t o i nvestigate t he c ircums tances w hich g overned t he l ocation o f a n a rchaeological s ite, i ts f ormation a s a d eposit a nd i ts s ubsequent p reservation a nd l ife h istory ( Renfrew , 1 976). S ome o f t his w ork h as a lso i nvolved t he r econstruction o f t he p alaeo-environments o f a rchaeological s ites a nd t he m anner i n w hich s uch e nvironments i nfluenced a nd w ere, s ite a ctivities.

i n t urn,

i nfluenced b y

I n a ll o f t hese r esearch a ctivities c onsiderable u se h as b een m ade o f s oils d ata a vailable t hrough r outine s oil s urveys a nd s ometimes o btained b y m eans o f s pecialized s urveys w hich h ave t aken p lace p rior t o a nd s ometimes a ctually d uring a rchaeological i nvestigations. T here a re,

h owever,

o ften s evere l imitations i n t erms o f t he u sefulness o f

t he d ata c ollected d uring s oil s urveys a nd p resented i n v arious m appings a nd r eports t o a rchaeological i nvestigations. D uring t he c ourse o f t he C anadian P alaipaphos S urvey P roject ( CPSP) [ see a bstract i n C hapt. 8 ] i n C yprus d uring t he s ummer o f 1 980 t he a uthor h ad o ccasion t o e xamine t he u tility o f s oil s urvey d ata i n a nswering s ome o f t he q uestions r aised b y t he a rchaeological s urvey a nd i n m eeting s ome o f t he r esearch o bjectives o f t he p roject. T his p aper e xamines s ome o f t he p roblems r aised a nd d iscusses t he r esearch s trategies t hat w ere d eveloped t o a nswer t hem . T he b asic r esearch o bjectives o f t he C PSP i ncluded d ocumenting t he p attern o f h uman o ccupation a nd e xploitation o f

t he E zousas a nd

X eropotamos d rainage b asins f rom t he N eolithic t hrough t o t he V enetian p eriods, a nd t he c ollection o f i nformation r elating t o t he p hysical 1 01

e nvironment o f t he a rea. P art o f t he c haracterization o f t he p hysical e nvironment c oncerned t he s oil d ata b ase w hich a lready e xisted f or t he s tudy a rea. O nly a r elatively s mall p roportion o f C yprus h as b een s urveyed, b ut f ortunately t wo o f t he f our d etailed m ap s heets p ublished c overed p art o f t he s tudy a rea. I t w as t herefore n ecessary t o c ollate t he s oil i nformation a lready a vailable a nd t o e xtend t he m apped a rea b y m eans o f a r econnaissance s oil s urvey. T he s oils o f t he s tudy a rea h ad b een p artially m apped a t a s cale o f 1 :25,000 ( Soteriades a nd K oudounas, 1 968; M arkides, 1 973) a nd m ore g enerally a t a s cale o f 1 :200,000 ( Soteriades a nd G rivas, 1 970). A t t he l arger m apping s cale t he s oils h ad b een c lassified l argely o n t he b asis o f t he c haracteristics o f t he p arent m aterials, t heir c olour, d epth, d egree o f d evelopment, a nd t exture. S oil m apping u nits w ere c reated b ased o n t he c oncept o f s oil s eries, w hich a re e ssentially s oil g roupings w ith a c ommon t ype o f p arent m aterial. T his c lassifi cation e mphasizes t he u nderlying f act t hat s oil p roperties w ithin t he s tudy a rea, a s e lsewhere i n t he M editerranean, a re s trongly c ontrolled b y t he p hysical, c hemical a nd m ineralogical c haracteristics o f t he p arent m aterials. A t t he s cale o f 1 :200,000 t he s oils a re c lassified o n a g enetic b asis a ccording t o t he s oil c lassification e stablished b y t he j oint F AO-Unesco. T his w as i n a ccordance w ith t he r equirements o f t he p reparation o f t he 1 :5,000,000 S oil M ap o f t he W orld, V olume 5 , E urope ( FAO-Unesco, 1 981). I n v iew o f t he d ifferent c riteria u sed i n t he m apping o f t hese s oils a t d ifferent s cales i t i s n ot s urprising t hat t here i s l ittle i n t he w ay o f a g eneral a greement b etween t he v arious m apping u nits. S oil i s a c ontinuum o ver t he t errestrial s urface o f t he e arth. T he m apping o f d ifferent t ypes o f s oils e ntails t he a rbitrary s ubdivision o f t his c ontinuum i nto a n umber o f s oil i ndividuals, a nd t he c reation o f a s eries o f m ap u nits c haracterized b y t hese s oil i ndividuals, t ogether w ith t he d elineation o f t he m ap u nits t o f orm a s oil m ap ( Valentine, 1 981: 5 35). T his i s a n e xtremely d ifficult o bjective t o m eet b ecause s oils d o n ot h ave o bvious b oundaries, a nd b ecause t hey o ccur i n i ntricate p atterns a nd t heir p roperties a nd d istributions m ust b e g eneralized i n o rder t o m ap t hem. A s oil s urvey, h owever, i nvolves m uch m ore t han s imply a m apping e xercise. S oil m apping i s, i n f act, o nly t he f irst s tep i n a s oil s urvey w hich a lso i ncludes f ield i nvestigations, t he c reation o f a l egend, t he d escription a nd s ampling o f t he s oils, t ogether w ith t he s ample a nalysis, a nd t he f inal w riting o f a s oil r eport a nd t he p reparation o f t he s oil i nterp retations ( Mapping S ystems W orking G roup, 1 981: 3 ). I n o rder t o c omplete t he s oil m apping s egment o f t he s oil s urvey, t he s oils f ound w ithin a s urvey a rea h ave t o b e a rranged i nto a l imited n umber o f s oil i ndividuals o n t he b asis o f s elected s oil p roperties. T hese p roperties a re s elected o n t he b asis o f w hat i s c onceived t o b e r elevant t o t he o bjectives o f t he s oil s urvey. T he c hoice o f s oil p roperties i s t herefore a h ighly s ubjective p rocedure a nd, t o a l arge e xtent, s oil m aps a re d esigned w ith a p articular p urpose a nd u se i n m ind. I nvariably, t hese u ses a re e ither d irectly a griculturally o riented o r r elated t o s pecific r esource m anagement u ses. F or e xample, t he t wo s oil s urveys o f t he s tudy a rea u ndertaken a t a s cale o f 1 :25,000 w ere d esigned t o p rovide a n a ssessment o f t he i nherent s oil p roperties, t he c lassification o f t he s oils, t ogether w ith r ecommendations f or t heir i mprovement i n s upport o f t he g eneral a gricultural d evelopment

1 02

o f t he a rea

( Markides,

C yprus a re l imited,

1 973:

i ii).

S ince t he w ater r esources o f

s o t hat i rrigation w ater s hould o nly b e u sed f or

t hose s oils c apable o f p roducing m aximum s ustained y ields a t m inimum c osts, a n a dditional o bjective o f t he s oil s urvey w as t o p rovide a n a ssessment o f l and s uitability f or i rrigated a griculture ( Markides, 1 973: 1 26-132). W hilst t his i nformation c an b e e xtremely u seful f or a n o verall a ssessment o f t he p hysical e nvironment a nd a lso i f a n a ttempt i s t o b e m ade s ubsequently t o r elate t he l ocation a nd d istrib ution o f a rchaeological s ites t o a s pecific s et o f e nvironmental c onditions, t his t ype o f s oil s urvey w ill p rovide l ittle i nformation o f u se i n p alaeo-environmental r econstructions. O n t he o ther h and, t he s mall s cale 1 :200,000 s oil m ap o f C yprus, whilst p roviding p otent ially u seful i nformation o n t he n ature o f s oil g enesis, i s f ar t oo g eneral t o b e o f m uch s pecific u se. A lthough t he a rchaeologist m ay e xperience c ertain p roblems w ith t he t ype o f s oil c lassification i n u se, s ince t he c hoice o f s oil c lassification p rocedures a dopted b y a s oil s urvey w ill v ary c onsidera bly, o ften b ased o n p urely l ocal o r n ational p references, t he s oil m ap u nits t hemselves a re u sually m ore m eanir igful. T hese a re u sually e stablished t o d escribe t he s ections o f t he r eal l andscape t hat a re a ssociated o n a r egular b asis w ith e ach t ype o f s oil o bserved. T his m eans t hat t he m ap u nits c an b e d ifferentiated n ot o nly o n t he b asis o f t heir c omponent s oils, b ut a lso a ccording t o g eneral l andscape f eatures s uch a s s lope, s toniness a nd s ite d rainage c haracteristics. T hese f eatures a re o f c onsiderable u tility t o a n a rchaeological s urvey. F urthermore, t he s oils a nd s oil m ap u nits a re f requently r elated t o o ther f actors o f t he g eneral e nvironment, i ncluding c limate, l andforms a nd v egetation. T he p urposes f or w hich t he s oil m ap i s i ntended w ill e stablish t he o bjectives o f a s oil s urvey. T hese w ill, i n t urn, d etermine t he c riteria w hich w ill b e u sed i n d ifferentiating b etween t he v arious m ap u nits, t ogether w ith t he s mallest a rea t o b e m apped, t he t ype o f l egend, t he s urvey i nspection d ensity a nd t he s cale a t w hich t he m ap w ill b e p ublished. I n t erms o f t he u se o f s oil s urvey d ata f or a rchaeol ogical s urveys, o f p articular i mportance i s t he s mallest a rea i n t he f ield t hat w ill b e d escribed a nd m apped d uring a s oil s urvey. T he m inimum s ize f ield d elineation i s t he s mallest a rea t hat t he p rospect ive m ap u ser w ill w ish t o t reat u niformly. T he m inimum s ize f ield d elineation d etermines t he s cale o f

t he m ap b ecause t he s mallest a rea

t hat c an b e s hown o n a m ap, a nd s till e nclose a s ymbol, 0 .5 c m2 ( Mapping S ystems W orking G roup, 1 981: 7 ).

i s a pproximately

A t a s cale o f 1 :25,000 t he s mallest a rea t hat c an b e d elimited i s a pproximately 3 h a ( Richards e t a l., 1 979: A ppendix 1 ). S ince t he C PSP a rchaeological s urvey p arties w ere l ocating t heir f inds a t a s cale o f 1 :5,000 a nd t he s mallest a rchaeological s ite r ecorded w as a pproximately 0 .06 h a i n e xtent, t here w ere c onsiderable p roblems i n a bstracting s oil i nformation f rom t he a vailable s oil s urvey m aps w hich h ad a ny m eaning a t t he l evel o f t he a rchaeological s urvey. T his p roblem i s c learly r elated t o t he g eneral p roblem c oncerning t he p recision o f b oth t ypes o f s urveys. P recision, i n t he c ontext o f s oil m aps,

i s a m easure o f t he d egree o f a greement b etween s everal o bser-

v ations o f am ap u nit a nd t he m ean v alue o f t hat m ap u nit ( Mapping S ystems W orking G roup, 1 981: 9 ). I n t he c ontext o f t he s oil s urvey, i t i s a m easure o f t he r ange o f a s oil o r m ap u nit. I n t he c ase o f

1 03

s oil m aps t he p recision i s a f unction o f t he s o-called ' intensity l evel' o f t he s oil s urvey. T his r anges f rom h igh t o l ow i ntensity l evel s urveys w here,

i n t he c ase o f a h igh i ntensity l evel s urvey,

t here i s a t l east o ne s oil c heck i n e very d elineation a nd m ap b ounda ries a re r igorously c hecked. T he 1 :25,000 s oil s urvey m apping w ithin t he s tudy a rea i s a n e xample o f a h igh i ntensity s urvey, w ith a pproxi mately 1 50 s oil p its e xcavated i n a t otal s urvey a rea o f a pproximately 1 8,000 h a ( 1 s oil p it:121 h a). I n t his c ase, d etailed s oil m apping w as u ndertaken u sing a erial p hotographs o f a s cale o f 1 :10,000, w ith d elineations b eing m apped d irectly o n t o t he a erial p hotographs a nd b oundaries t ested b y s oil a ugering ( Markides, 1 973: 1 2). G iven t he l imited t ime a vailable ( 3 w eeks) i t w as n ot p ossible t o u ndertake a s imilar h igh i ntensity s urvey i n t hat p art o f t he s tudy a rea w hich h ad n ot b een p reviously m apped b y t he S oils a nd P lant N utrition S ection o f t he C ypriot D epartment o f A griculture.

C onsequently,

t raverses o f

t he a rea w ere o nly p artly u ndertaken o n f oot, a nd m ost w ere b y v ehicle u p t o 1 0 k m a part. P rofile d escriptions w ere o btained f or a ll t he m ajor n amed s oils a nd b ulk s amples w ere c ollected f or e ach g enetic h orizon i dentified i n t he f ield. T hese s amples w ere s ubsequently r eturned t o t he P edology L aboratory o f t he D epartment o f G eography a t T he U niversity o f W estern O ntario. W herever p ossible, s oils w ere m apped d irectly o n t o a erial p hotographs o f a s cale o f 1 :10,000 a nd t he m ajority o f b oundaries w ere e xtrapolated f rom t he a erial p hotographs w ith n o a ttempt b eing m ade t o g round-truth t he d elineations. F or t he r econnaissance s oil s urvey t he s ampling d esign a dopted c an b est b e d escribed a s a uthoritative s ampling. S ites f or s oil d escription a nd s ampling w ere c hosen o n t he b asis o f p ast e xperience o f h ow s oil p roperties v ary w ith d iscernible l andscape f eatures a nd g eological o utcrops. T he i nformation s o g ained w as t hen e xtrapolated t o o ther a reas w ithout v isual i nspection. S uch a n a pproach i s g enerally c onsidered r easonable, g iven k nown s oil-landscape r elationships a nd t he n ot u ncommon c onstraints o f a ccessibility a nd t ime. O n t he o ther h and, t here i s n o d oubt t hat t he s ample o btained i n t his m anner i s h eavily b iased a nd c an l ead t o a n e rroneous e stimate o f t he s oil p opulation, e specially i f a n u nusual s oil-landscape r elationship i s n ot r ecognized. N evertheless, t his t ype o f l ow i ntensity s urvey i s a ppropriate u nder t hese c ircumstances. F urthermore, s tudies i nvolving t he s tatistical r esampling o f m aps p roduced b y t his m ethod o f s ampling h ave s hown t hem t o b e r easonably a ccurate ( Wilding e t a l., 1 965; M cCormack a nd W ilding, 1 969; R agg a nd H enderson, 1 980). H aving d ecided o n t he s ampling d esign i t w as n ecessary t o g ive s ome c onsideration t o t he t ype o f m apping p rocedure t o b e e mployed. G iven t he l ow i ntensity l evel o f t he s oil s urvey b eing u ndertaken a nd t he o bvious n eed t o c lassify t he c omplete r ange o f s oil c haracteristics w ithin t he s urvey a rea i nto a l imited n umber o f c lasses, f ollowed b y t he d elineation o f m ap u nits w here t hese c lasses o ccur, i t w as d ecided t o s ubdivide t he a rea i nto a n umber o f c omponents b ased e ssentially o n t he l ithology o f t he b edrock o utcrops a nd o verburden. T hese w ere f requently d iscernible o n t he a erial p hotographs a nd i nitial d elineation t ook p lace d uring t he e arly s tages o f t he f ield w ork. S oil m apping s ubsequently t ook t he f orm o f t he d escription a nd c lassification o f t he s oils w ithin t hese c omponents.

M ap u nits w ere c reated a nd i den-

t ified i n t he f ield b ased o n a n umber o f c riteria w hich i ncluded t he l ithology o f t he p arent m aterial, i ts m ode o f d eposition ( e.g., c oll uviation,

a lluviation,

e tc.),

i ts t exture b ased o n a q ualitative f ield

1 04

a ppraisal, a nd i ts d epth, t ogether w ith s ite a nd s ection d rainage, r ooting d epth , d epth t o c ementation a nd t he t ype o f c emented l ayer, h orizon t ypes a nd s equence, s lope, l andform a nd s toniness. S oils w ere t entatively c lassified a ccording t o t he F AO-Unesco s oil c lassification a nd i dentifications w ere s ubsequently r efined f ollowing t he g eneration o f p hysical, c hemical a nd m ineralogical c haracteristics u nder l aboratory c onditions. B asic o bjectives o f t he l aboratory a nalyses w ere t o p rovide a b asis f or s oil c lassification, a nd t o c haracterize t he a gricultural p otential o f t he s tudy a rea. T o-date, t he f ollowing a nalyses h ave b een p erformed: p H d etermined o n a 1 :1 s oil:0.01M C aCl2 s uspension; t otal o rganic c arbon u sing a m odified W alkley-Black t echnique ( Walkley a nd B lack, 1 934); e xchang eable c ations, i ncluding e xchangeable C a , M g , a nd 1 (4" , m easured i n a 2 N N aC1 e xtract u sing a tomic a bsorption s pectroscopy; c ation e xchange c apacity c alculated f rom t he s um o f e xchangeable c ations; t otal c arbonates m easured g asometrically ( Dreimanis, 1 962); a nd p arti cle s ize d istribution d etermined o n t he < 2 mm f raction b y d ry s ieving, p ipette a nalysis ( Day, 1 965) a nd c entrifugation ( Jackson, 1 969). T he c hoice o f t he F AO-Unesco s oil t axonomy w as,based s olely o n t he p reced ence e stablished b y t he c reation o f t he 1 ,200,000 G eneral S oil M ap o f C yprus ( Soteriades a nd G rivas, 1 970). S oils t hat w ere n amed w ere a llocated t o, a nd d escribed i n t erms, o f o ne c lass o f t he F AO-Unesco s oil s ystem. T he f ollowing s oils w ere i dentified: C alcaric L ithosols a nd R egosols, C alcaric F luvisols, C alcic a nd E utric C ambisols, O chric R endzinas, C hromic L uvisols, C hromic V ertisols a nd C ypsic X erosols. G iven a n a dequate s oil m oisture s upply, t here i s n o d oubt t hat t he m ajority o f t he s oils i n t he a rea a re f ertile a nd c apable o f s upporting a r ange o f c rops. M any o f t he s oils a re h ighly s usceptible t o e rosion a nd, a s a r esult, f requently c ontain t runcated p rofiles. T he s hallown ess o f t he r esulting p rofile i s o ften a r estriction t o c ertain a gricu ltural l and u se p ractices, s uch a s t he g rowth o f f ruit t rees. T his i s a lso t rue o f t hose s oils c ontaining w ell d eveloped p etrocalcic h orizons a t a r elatively s hallow d epth. I t i s a lso c lear t hat t he h igh l ime c ontent o f m any o f t he s oils w ill s everely r estrict t he r ange o f c rops t hat c an b e g rown a nd o nly t he m ost t olerant o f p lant s pecies a ppear t o t hrive. D uring t he s oil c haracterization p hase o f t he p roject a n o pen f orm o f w orking l egend w as d eveloped f or u se a s a k ey i n t he f ield. S ite s pecific i nformation c oncerning f ive s oil a nd s ite c haracteristics, i ncluding s urface t exture, s oil t axonomy, s toniness, s ite d rainage a nd s lope, w ere c oded a nd p lotted. S ubsequent s ynthesis o f t his i nformation r esulted i n t he c reation o f m apping u nits w hich a lso i ncorporated d etails o f t he e quivalent s oil s eries. A c onscious e ffort w as m ade t o i ncorporate t he s oil s eries u tilized b y t he e arlier s oil s urveys i n a n a ttempt t o m aintain s ome f orm o f s patial c ontinuity a mongst s oil m apping u nits o ver b oth d rainage b asins b eing s tudied. S oil m apping u nits w ere n amed o n t he b asis o f t heir c omponent s oils, t heir s hallowness a nd s toniness. U ltimately i t i s h oped t o i ncorporate s ome m easure o f a gricultural s uitability i nto t he c lassification, b ased o n a n a ssessment o f

i nherent f ertility.

W ith t he d ata i nferred f rom t he d etailed s oil s urveys a nd t hat g enerated b y t he l ow i ntensity r econnaissance s urvey o f t he h ead w aters o f t he E zousas a nd X eropotamos c atchments i t s hould b e p ossible t o p rovide a d etailed c haracterization o f s oil a nd s urface c onditions f or

1 05

b oth d rainage b asins.

I n a ddition,

i t

s hould b e p ossible t o i nfer

s oil c onditions d own t o t he l evel o f s mall s ettlements (

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L anian I slands, 2 25

G reece.

m ap ,2 L EFKAS : 0

THE S URVEYED AREA

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( modern

T OPOGRAPHICAL S URVEY O F PREHISTORIC S ITES I N E UBOEA A ND E ASTERN B OIOTIA A damantios S ampson

T he s urvey f or t he d iscovery o f p rehistoric i n 1 974 a nd was c ontinued u ntil 1 977. q uities, w ork.

was t he main s urveyor.

D r.

T h.

C entral E uboea,

E pimelete o f Anti-

S kouras c ooperated i n t his

A ll o f E uboea a nd a p art o f B oiotia,

c hosen f or t he s urvey.

s ites i n E uboea b egan

T he a uthor,

o pposite C halkis, w ere

T he r esearch was c onducted p rincipally i n

because i t i s n ear C halkis,

t he b ase o f t he s urvey.

T he a rea o f Kyme-Avlonari w as s urveyed i n 1 976 f rom Kyme a nd t he w estern p art o f t he n orthern E uboea f rom R ovies. A m ore s ystematic r esearch i s n eeded i n t he r egions o f I stiaia-Lichada a nd S tyraK arystos.

T he c aves o f E uboea's c aves were i nvestigated

a nd a bout 4 0 were r esearched a nd d rawn. h abitation r emains.

M ost o f

( 110 r egistered)

t hem h ad N eolithic

The p urpose o f t he s urvey was mainly t o l ocate N eolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge s ettlements,

i n o rder t o d etermine t he s patial

e xtent a nd d ensity o f h abitation i n t hese t wo p eriods. s urvey

( Sacket e t a l 1 966)

a nd Late Helladic s ites,

The B ritish

h ad p rincipally f ocused o n E arly, M iddle

with l ess a ttention g iven t o N eolithic s ites.

A s a r esult many N eolithic p eriod s ites h ave b een f ound. T he s urveying was n ot d one d uring a d efined p eriod but r ather during t he whole y ear p rincipally i n a utumn m onths when t he s oil i s m ore s uitable f or s urface's w ork a ll o f E uboea,

T he o riginal g oal was t o s urvey

but u nfortunately i t was i nterrupted, when t he a uthor

was t ransferred t o D odecanese r egion.

A p roblem was t he l ack o f

s pecialized c ooperators t o h elp i n t his w ork.

T he f ield work a nd

t he a rrangements o f t he material were e xclusively made by t he a uthor. G eologists o f t he I nstitute o f G eological a nd Mining R esearches a nd LARCO C ompany h elped i n t he d esignation o f s tone i mplements a nd i n t he g eological i dentification o f a nthropologists A .

t he p rehistoric s ites.

P oulianos a nd N .

T he

X irotiris h elped i n t he s election

a nd i dentification o f t he o steological material. T he r esults o f

t he s urvey was t o l ocate 1 48 s ites a nd s ettlements.

T his d emonstrates t hat E uboea was d ensely o ccupied i n a ll o f t he p rehistoric p eriods. T he Neolithic p eriod i n E uboea, which w as i gnored u ntil t he l ast f ew y ears, s eems t o b e s eparated i n m any p hases.

We h ave s even p laces r epresenting t he e arly N eolithic, which

c an b e s eparated i n t wo p hases. T he Middle-Late N eolithic i s w ellk nown a nd s pread i n t he whole i sland. T his p hase h as d irect c onnections with C entral G reece,

T hessaly a nd P eloponnese.

T he F inal N eolithic

i s r epresented f rom a g reat n umber o f s ettlements a nd i s d ivided i n t wo p hases. I t i s m ainly f ound i n t he C entral a nd S outhern E uboea ( region o f K arystos) a nd h as r elations with Kephala o f K eos, A ttica a nd t he Aegean i slands. p ottery o f

t his p hase.

The majority o f

N eolithic f eatures i n i ts f irst s ettlements.

t he c aves g ave c haracteristic

T he E arly H elladic I p eriod w hich m aintains s tage,

i s r epresented with 2 4 s ites-

I t h as a s pecial i mportance,

t his p hase i n t he mainland G reece.

b ecause o f t he r arity o f

T he E arly Helladic p eriod s ites

h ave p arallels with t he A egean a rea a nd t he Western p art o f A sia

2 27

Minor. R egardless o f

t he s election o f b iotope i t i s n oticed t hat, w hile

i n t he E arly N eolithic p eriod t here e xists a t endency i n t he i nterior, Neolithic,

i n t he o ther p eriods,

f or h abitation

i n p articular d uring t he f inal

t he h abitation i s s pread i n t he c oastal a reas.

T here i s

a lso a t endency f or t he e stablishment o f s ites i n t he m ountainous p laces i n t he F inal Neolithic a nd E arly H elladic p eriods i s o bserved. I n a ll e vents t he r ichest s ettlements a re f ound i n f ertile p lains ( Varka o f P sachna,

Agia K alliopi,

P aliochoria o f Amarynthos e tc).

Also m any n ew o f E arly H elladic I I a nd Middle H elladic s ites w ere a dded t o o thers, a lready k nown. E xcavations made i n N eolithic, E arly a nd Middle Helladic s ettlements ( Varka, V otsika, E retria, M ourteri o f Kyme, K erinthos) c ompleted t he t opographical r esearches. I t

i s h oped t hat i n t he f uture t he s urvey w ill c ontinue i n a reas,

which h ave n ot been r esearched i ntensively, a nd i ts p rincipal o bject will b e t he P aleolithic p eriod. S ome u ncertain t races o f t his p eriod have b een f ound i n t he p ast.

T here i s a lso a n i ntention t o

c ontinue t he r esearch i n t he c aves o f E uboea. References: S ackett, M .

L .H., R .,

s urvey. S ampson,

A .,

A thens

Hankey,

1 966.

B SA 6 1: 1 981

V .,

H owell,

R .,

P rehistoric E uboea:

J acobsen,

T . W .

a nd P opham,

c ontribution t oward a

3 3-112.

T he N eolithic a nd E arly H elladic i n E uboea.

( in G reek).

2 28

F . 4

b l )

2 29

s ettlements,

E uboia a nd

N eolithic

0

p rehistoric s ites.

S OUTHERN E UBOEA E XPLORATION P ROJECT D onald R .

K eller

T his s urvey i s t he f ield w ork f or m y P h.D. d issertation ( "Intensive a rchaeological s urvey i n t he r egion o f K arystos, E uboea."

P rogram i n C lassical A rchaeology,

F ield w ork b egan 1 981.

I ndiana U niversity).

i n A pril o f 1 979 a nd will b e c ompleted i n S eptember o f

T he.collected d ata w ill b e p rocessed d uring t he 1 981-82 a cademic

y ear. P rincipal i nvestigator i s D onald R . K eller, b ut m ost o f t he w ork h as b een s hared e qually b y m y wife a nd I h ave r eceived m uch h elp a nd a dvice f rom m y p rofessors,

c olleagues a nd f riends.

T he s urvey h as b een s upported b y a g rant f rom I ndiana U niversity, a n O livia J ames F ellowship f rom t he A rchaeological I nstitute o f America a nd a n E dward C apps F ellowship

f rom t he American S chool o f

C lassical S tudies a t A thens. The p urpose o f

t he s urvey i s t o c ollect c ultural a nd e nvironmental

e vidence w hich will b e a nalyzed, a pproach, o f t he

u sing a n e cological-archaeological

t o p rovide a d iachronic r econstruction o f t he h uman e cology

s tudy a rea.

T he u ltimate g oal i s t o p rovide

i nformation l eading

t o a b etter u nderstanding o f t he i nterrelationship o f a ncient m an a nd h is e nvironment. A n i ntensive p edestrian s trategy i s e mployed t o a llow f or t he u tilization o f b oth p ositive a nd n egative e vidence when c onsidering t he l ocation o f p ermitted t he

s ites.

A l ess i ntensive s urvey w ould n ot h ave

i ncorporation o f n egative

e vidence a nd t he r ugged

t errain a nd d ifferent e nvironmental z ones i n t his a rea p reclude u se o f

t he

s ampling m ethods d eveloped f or t he t errain o f t he American P lains.

S outhern E uboea w as c hosen b ecause o f t he l ack o f a rchaeological i nformation f rom t his a rea a nd because t he v aried l andscape a llows f or t he d ivision o f t he s tudy a rea i nto s ix e nvironmental z ones, e ach c ontaining a n umber o f micro-environments. A m ore p ragmatic o bjective o f t he c onservation o f a ncient t o b e s ubjected t o

s urvey i s t he l ocation a nd

s ites i n a r egion which i s o nly n ow b eginning

t he r adical l andscape a lteration o f c ommercial

d evelopment. F ield m ethodology i nvolved w alking o ver a d ifferent a rea e ach d ay i n 2 0 meter wide p asses.

T he d istance b etween p asses w as o ften

a ltered d ue t o

t he g round c over.

t he d emands o f

E nvironmental a nd c ultural o bservations were m ade n otebook. o ut.

I f a rtifacts were e ncountered a F ind S pot

I t w as

a s ite,

t hen d etermined i f t he F ind S pot

p art o f a s ite,

o r a n on-site

( eg.

S ite s heet w as o f t he

s ite,

f illed o ut g iving l ocation,

o ne o f s everal g raves,

F or e ach s ite a s eparate

c ondition a nd d escription

n ature o f t he c ultural r emains a nd e nvironmental i nformation.

E ach F ind S pot a nd m aps.

s hould b e c onsidered a s

a f arm,

a n i nscription b uilt i nto a m odern s tructure).

i n a f ield

s heet w as f illed

S ite a re r ecorded o n 1 :

A dditional c ontrol s heets,

5 000 s cale G reek t opographical

photo l ogs,

2 31

a rtifact d escription p ages

e tc. w ere d evised a nd u sed t o c ross r eference a ll i nformation. E ach s ite s heet p rovides s pace f or d escription o f t he g eneral t errain a nd e nvironment ( degree o f s lope, s un a nd w ind e xposure e tc.). S eparate s paces w ere a llocated f or r ecording f lora,

s oil a nd f resh

w ater s ources a t o r n ear t he s ite. F inal r esults a re n ot y et a vailable, b ut s ome p reliminary c omments m ay b e o ffered. I n t erms o f c onservation, o ver 2 00 a ncient ( Neolithic t hrough B yzantine) s ites h ave b een r ecorded. S ix n ew i nscriptions a nd s everal c oins a nd s mall f inds h ave b een r eported t o t he K arystos m useum. M edieval a nd T urkish r emains h ave a lso b een r ecorded a s w ell a s e thnoarchaeological i nformation f rom t he r egion. Among t he a ncient s ites,

t he m ost i nformative a re t he f irst

r ecorded M iddle H elladic a nd G eometric s ites i n S outhern E uboea; t he l ocation o f f ive r ural a ncient s anctuaries; a nd t he m apping o f a ncient q uarries, m ines a nd s ections o f a ncient r oadways. A c omplex o f o ver 3 0 C lassical f arms w ith t heir a ssociated t erraced f arm l and w as d isc overed. T he g round p lans o f m ost o f t hese f armsteads c an b e d iscerned o n t he s urface a nd t he e ntire c ircuit e state w all o f a t l east o ne f arm c an b e f ollowed. T he l ocation o f t he n ecropolis a nd s outh c ity b oundary o f H ellenistic-Roman K arystos a nd t he p robable l ocation o f A rchaic K arystos, a s w ell a s t he l ocation o f t wo d eme s ites c an n ow b e p roposed. M y major p roblems h ave b een t he d ifficulty i n s urveying a reas w hich a re h eavily i nhabited o r f armed a nd t he f ield i dentification o f aw ide c hronological r ange o f c ultural m aterials. F uture p lans:

i nterested a rchaeologists,

a rchitects,

g eographers,

a nd g eologists f rom I ndiana U niversity a nd t he U niversity o f G hent h ave o rganized a f oundation t o i nitiate a l ong t erm m ultidiscipline r esearch e ffort i n S outhern E uboea. W e a re n ow i n t he p rocess o f s ubmitting p ermit a pplications. R eferences: K eller, D .,

1 980.

S urvey i n S outhern E uboea.

C lassical S tudies N ewsletter. K eller, D .,

n .d.

American S chool o f

S pring.

F inal N eolithic p ottery f rom P lakari, K arystos.

M iscellanea G raeca

[ forthcoming].

2 32

T HE T OPOGRAPHY O F A NCIENT B OIOTIA: J ohn M .

T HE E XTENSIVE S URVEY

F ossey

E xtensive f ield r esearch h as b een c arried o ut i n a ncient B oiotia s ince 1 964.

D uring t his t ime s ites h ave b een s ought o ut,

r e-examined,

p roducing m aterial o f p eriods b etween N eolithic a nd R oman.

T he p re-Neolithic m aterial

i s n ow t he s ubject o f a n i ndependent s urvey

b y m y c olleague P rof.

N icolas R olland

d id n ot,

f eel m yself c ompetent

i n a ny c ase,

o r w ith t he p ost-Roman. c ompleted. t hesis

e xamined a nd

( University o f V ictoria)

a nd I

t o d eal e ither w ith t his

Much o f t he e xtensive w ork h as n ow b een

T he b ulk w as i ncorporated i nto m y D octorat d 'Universite

( Lyon I I,

1 976)

a nd t he r evised v ersion h as b een a ccepted f or

p ublication u nder t he t itle o f

P pulation

A ncient

B oiotia i n t he s eries o f S tudies o f t he D utch A rchaeological a nd H istorical S ociety.

M eanwhile a v ariety o f s hort s tudies o n B oiotian

t opography h as a ppeared i n a rticle f orm :

a f ull l ist i s a ppended.

V arious s tudents h ave h elped m e i n t he w ork i n B oiotia e specially i n 1 970-1,

1 974,

1 976-7.

F unding i n t he f irst p lace t ook t he f orm

o f a B ritish S tate R esearch S tudentship

( 1964-6);

s ubsequently I h ave

r eceived g enerous r esearch g rants f rom B irmingham University a nd M cGill U niversity,

a nd i n 1 976-7

( U.K.)

I h eld a S abbatical L eave F ellowship

f rom t he C anada C ouncil. T he a im o f

t his w hole p roject was t o s tudy a s much a s p ossible

t he d istribution o f s ettlement, a nd n atural r outeways,

l nd i ts r elation t o e conomic r esources

i n o rder t o p rovide t he b ackground u ltimately

f or a s tudy o f B oiotian p olitical h istory.

I n t his o ptique a ssessment

o f t he r elative s trengths o f t he i ndividual B oiotian c ities o n b oth t he e conomic a nd s trategic l evels i s a n e ssential p rerequisite t o a p roper u nderstanding o f t he c omplex s tructures o f t he d ifferent B oiotian c onfederations. T he p roject d id n ot, h owever, l imit i tself t o t he h istoric p eriods f or w hich w e h ave, o f c ourse, a lso s ome w ritten e vidence c oncerning t he d evelopment o f t he f ederations; t he s ettlement a nd r elated e conomic p atterns o f t he p receding p rehistoric p eriods w ere e qually i nvestigated. D uring t he y ears s ince 1 964 I h ave a ttempted t o l ocate a nd e xamine a s m any s ites a s p ossible b y e xtensive w alking. s ites h ave a lso b een r e-investigated. t he l arger s ites a nd

A ll p reviously k nown

I nevitably i n t his t ype o f w ork

t he f ortified o nes a re t hose w hich s how u p b est.

A s a c onsequence t here i s n o d oubt t hat m any s mall s ites h ave y et t o b e d iscovered. I n t he f ield,

t he s tudy o f e ach s ite c onsisted o f

l ocation o f t he s ite i tself a nd,

a s f ar a s p ossible,

t he o bvious e xact o f i ts b oundaries,

t ogether w ith o bservation o f s uch f eatures a s n eighbouring w ater-sources a nd a ncient c emeteries ( where k nown). A ll v isible s tructural f eatures w ere p hotographed a nd p lanned. s ingle-handedly

S ince m uch o f t he w ork was c arried o ut

a nd s everal s ites h ad m ountain-top l ocations,

p lanning

t echniques h ad t o b e k ept s imple a nd t he n ormal m eans u sed w as a c ombination o f p rismatic c ompass a nd m easuring-tape. S urface s herds w ere c arefully a nd e xtensively e xamined a nd

( in 1 965-6)

c ollected a nd

d eposited a t t he T hebes Museum a s w ere o ther s urface f inds.

2 33

E ach s ite

a nd i ts a rea were c arefully s earched f or i nscribed s tones a nd w here s uch w ere f ound t hey w ere r ecorded w ith b oth p hotographs a nd s queezes. O ne o f

t he f irst

s tages

i n t he e xploration o f a ny p art o f t he t erritory

c onsisted o f l ong t alks w ith l ocal i nhabitants t o f ind o ut w hatever w as a lready k nown o f l ocal a ntiquities. A t t he s ame t ime a f ull r ecord w as m ade o f a ll r elated p lace-names. I n v arious

c ases b oth i nscriptions a nd p lace-names h elped t o e stablish

t he a ncient n ame o f a s ite a nd e ven, o n o ccasion, c ould g ive s ome i ndication o f t erritorial e xtents. A s a r esult i t i s n ow p ossible t o i dentify w ith m ore o r l ess c ertainty t he s ites o f a ll b ut a h andful o f t he a ncient p lace-names k nown f or B oiotia.

I n t his w ay i t i s p ossible t o i dentify

t he a ncient c onstituent c ities o f B oiotia a nd i ts l eague, t o o utline t he b oundaries o f t heir t erritories, a nd t o a ssess s omething o f t he e conomic a nd p opulation p otential o f e ach. I t w as f elt

t hat u se o f m any t echnological s ervices w ould b e b est

i ncorporated i nto t he c ontext o f t eam w ork o n t he i ntensive a nd r estricted a rea-surveys, s urvey.

r ather t han i n t he s ingle-handed e xtensive

I n t he a nalytical s tages o f

t he p roject,

h owever,

u se w as m ade

o f s everal s tandard s tatistical a nd g raphic t echniques d rawn f rom c entralp lace-theory a nd o ther l ocational a nalytical m ethods u sed i n h uman g eography.

T hese a llowed t he i dentification o f l arge e conomic u nits i n

t he p rehistoric p eriod a s w ell a s a g enerally b etter u nderstanding o f t he e conomic o rganisation o f t he a rea a t v arious l ater t imes. R eferences: F ossey,

J .M.,

i v:

1 970.

T he I dentification o f G raia:

E uphrosyne N .S.

3 -22.

F ossey,

J .M.,

1 971.

A p ropos o f a n I nscription f rom V athy.

F ossey,

J .M.,

1 971.

T herapnai a nd S kolos i n B oiotia.

F ossey,

J .M .,

1 972.

T ilphosaion?

F ossey,

J .M .,

1 973.

T he C opäic B asin i n t he 2 nd C entury A .D.

T eiresias s uppl.

A AA i v:

B ICS x iii:

I :

J .M .,

C opäic. F ossey,

J .M.

l xix:

1 973/4.

1 974.

v i:

7 -21.

S ome U npublished B oiotian T ombstones.

J .M.,

F ossey,

J .M.

1 974. 1 976.

H yettos.

E pigraphai e x O rchomenou.

AAA v ii:

J .M., i i:

1 19-127.

F ragment d 'un n ouveau c atalogue m ilitaire d '

A ppendix t o B CH s uppl.

I II.

E tienne a nd K noepfler.

H yettos e t l a c hronologie d es a rchontes b eotiens:

s uppl.

B SA

1 19-126.

F ossey,

F ossey,

E pigraphy,

T he E nd o f t he B ronze A ge i n t he S outh W est

E uphrosyne N .S.

1 979.

U ne b ase n avale d 'Epaminondas.

9 -13.

2 34

1 06-109.

1 -16.

A cta o f t he V Ith I nternational C ongress o f G reek a nd L atin, V estigia 1 7: 4 51-455. F ossey,

2 40-245.

p p.

4 01-403.

T eiresias

F ossey,

J .M.,

1 979.

T he C ities o f t he K opafs

i n t he R oman P eriod.

Aufstieg u nd N iedergang d er r ömischen W elt 7 ( 1): F ossey,

J .M.,

K opafs. F ossey,

M yceneaean F ortifications o f t he N orth E ast

O puscula A theniensia x iii:

J .M.,

K opafs. F ossey,

1 981.

1 982.

1 982.

1 55-163.

S ome I mperial S tatue B ases f rom t he S outh W est

F estschrift S .

J .M.,

5 49-591.

L auffer:

[ forthcoming].

U ne d euxieme b ase d 'invasion s partiate e n B gotie.

P roceedings o f t he I IIrd I nternational C ongress o f B oiotian S tudies F ossey, x i: F ossey,

J .M.,

1 981.

T he C ity A rchive a t K oroneia,

J .M.

E uphrosyne

a nd S ymgonoglou,

S .,

1 966.

O üngra,

B oiotia.

A rch.

D elt.

2 01-2. P .

a nd F ossey,

C oronge e n B gotie, R oesch,

B oiotia.

[ forthcoming].

xxi: R oesch,

[ forthcoming].

P .

a nd F ossey,

C hgronge. T omlinson,

R .A.

Mavrovouni,

Z PE

2 9:

J .M .,

1 978.

Z PE 2 9: J .M .,

U n a cte d 'affranchissement d e

1 38-14.

1 978.

N euf a ctes d 'affranchissement d e

1 23-137.

a nd F ossey,

J .M .,

S outh B oiotia.

1 970.

B SA l xv:

2 35

A ncient R emains o n M ount 2 43-263.

2 36

T HE T OPOGRAPHY O F A NCIENT B OIOTIA : J ohn M .

I NTENSIVE S URVEY A ND E XCAVATION

F ossey a nd G inette G auvin

I nevitably a n e xtensive s urvey o f s uch a l arge r egion a s B oiotia, h owever f ull a nd p rotracted i t i s, w ill m iss a l ot o f s maller s ites. T hese c an o nly b e r ecovered t o a ny u seful e xtent b y i ntensive f ield w ork i n m ore r estricted a reas. S uch s urveys h ave r ecently b een i nitiated i n p art o f t he T hespiai a rea b y t he C ambridge-Bradford t eam a nd i n t he t erritory o f a ncient T hisbe b y P rof. T imothy G regory. W ith t he v irtual c ompletion o f t he e xtensive B oiotian s urvey r eported u pon a bove i t i s h oped t hat w ork f rom t hese a nd o ther i ntensive p rojects c an s tart f illing i n d etails o f t he d ifferent l evels o f s ettlement. A s o ur c ontribution t o t his f urther l evel o f s tudy w e h ave u ndert aken d etailed w ork i n t he a rea o f t he m odern v illage o f K höstia. T his w ork i s i n t wo p arts: i ) e xcavations a nd d etailed s urface s tudy o f t he s ite o f K ästron K hostion ( = a ncient sK horsiai), a nd i i) t opographic s urvey o f t he t erritory o f t hat a ncient c ity . T he K höstia e xcavation i s i tself y et a nother d evelopment o f t he e xtensive B oiotian s urvey ( see a bove). I t h as b ecome v ery o bvious t hat t wo t ypes o f i nformation a re v ery much i n n eed f or f urther u nders tanding o f t he material f ound d uring f ield s urvey. We n eed t o h ave a l ong s tratified s equence o f p ottery f rom w ithin B oiotia a nd d irect e vidence f or t he d ating o f t he d ifferent t ypes o f f ortification w alling e ncountered w ithin t he t erritory. T he s ite o f K höstia w as c hosen f or t he i nvestigation o f b oth o f t hese, a nd w hile i ts r esults • h ave s o f ar b een d isappointing f or e arlier s tratified m aterial, i t h as a lready p roduced g ood e vidence c oncerning t he e xtent o f t he s ite a t s pecific p eriods a s w ell a s f or d ating s everal wall t ypes.

U p t o

n ow t here i s s ubstantial e vidence o nly f or a C lassical-Hellenistic f ortification, r eused a nd r estored i n t he L ate R oman p eriod. E arlier t ypes o f walling, b oth i nside a nd o utside t he m ain c ircuit c an b e i nterpreted much m ore p robably a s t erracing w alls.

T he o nly

s tructural r emains r elating t o a ny o f t he e arlier p eriods a re s everal s uch t errace walls i n C yclopean m asonry a nd a v ariety o f P olygonal s tyles. T hese w alls s hould b elong t o t he L ate H elladic a nd A rchaic p eriods r espectively a nd, i n f act, t he e ssentially A rchaic o r e arly C lassical d ate o f a t l east t wo p olygonal w alls h as n ow b een d emonstrated . T he main c ircuit c an n ow b e d ated t o t he 4 th c ent. B .C., w hile t he p resence o f A shlar v ariants p oints t o a c ontinued u se i n t he H ellenistic p eriod, w hen t he i mportance o f t he s ite i s w ell a ttested b y c eramic a nd o ther f inds.

T he m ortar-and-

t ile r estoration o f t he A shlar h istorical c ontents p oint t o a r ebuilding n o e arlier t han t he 5 th c ent. A .D. A s s hown o n t he m ap t he t opographic s urvey h as c hiefly c oncentrated, a t t his p oint, o n t he v alley p roper a nd i ts i mmediate e dges.

I n t he v alley,

n ot s urprisingly,

h eavy a lluvation h as m asked

a ny s ettlement t races, t hough o ccasional s catters o f o bsidian, b lack g laze a nd L ate R oman s herds h ave b een o bserved. I n t he n orthern p art o f t he E astern r idge, t wo n ew s ites h ave b een d iscovered, i ncluding a s mall R oman o ne a bove t he m odern v illage a nd a n e xtensive s ettlement

2 37

o n t he p eak o f Mäli, f arther s outh. T he M äli s ettlement s hows r emains o f b uildings a nd p art o f a c ircuit w all. T he f ew s herds n oticed c an b e d ated t o t he D ark A ge p eriod, w hen t here i s a g ap i n t he o ccupational s equence o f t he main K höstia s ite. R EFERENCES F ossey, J .M .

( ed.),

1 981. K h i Sstia 1 980A :

P reliminary R eport o n t he

F irst S eason o f C anadian E xcavations a t K h6stia, B oiotia, C entral G reece/Rapport p reliminaire s ur l a p remiere c ampagne d e f ouilles c andiennes ä K h Atia e n B‘otie, G re 'ce C entrale. M cGill M onographs i n C lassical A rchaeology a nd H istory N o. 1 , M ontreal. F ossey, J .M . a nd G iroux , H ., 1 975. D eux s ites f ortifigs d ans l a g eotie m eridionale - T wo f ortified s ites i n S outhern B oiotia. T eiresias, F ossey, J .M .

A rchaeologica:

a nd G iroux,

H .

7 -18.

1 980,

K höstia 1 980 - R esultats d e l a

P remiere S aison d e F ouilles C anadiennes. ' A rchaeologica :

T eiresias,

4 3-53.

F ossey, J .M. a nd G iroux, H ., i nterim r eport o n 1 980 e xcavations: B CH c v, 1 981: 8 12-815 J HS, A rch. R eports, 1 980-81: 2 2-23 A rkh.

D elt.

K hronika,

1 980

[ forthcoming ]

2 38

F ig.

I

D etailed m ap o f K hostia a rea i nBoiotia s howing a reas

s urveyed a nd s ites.

P RELIMINARY R ECONNAISSANCE O N T HE P REHISTORY O F C ENTRAL G REECE N icolas R olland

L ocation : D ates:

K ifissos a nd K opais b asins,

L ate s ummer a nd a utumn o f 1 980

P hokis a nd B eotia . ( approx.

8w eeks).

P rincipal I nvestigators: D r. N icolas R olland, a ssisted b y D avid A rcher a nd K athryn B ernick ( Department o f A nthropology o f U niversity o f V ictoria a nd C anadian A rchaeological I nstitute a t A thens). F unding:

S ocial S ciences a nd H umanities R esearch C ouncil o f C anada,

U niversity o f V ictoria R esearch a nd T ravel. R esearch G oals:

g eneral o bjectives:

A c ontinuing, m ultistage

p roject f or t he p urpose o f: 1 ) o btaining n ew e vidence o n t he S tone A ge s uccession i n G reece a nd t he s outhern B alkans, b ased o n e vidence f rom C entral G reece; 2 ) i nvestigation o f l öng-term e cological c hanges a nd c orrelated t echno-economic d evelopments d uring t he U pper P leistocene a nd E arly H olocene; 3 ) i ntegrate f indings w ith t hose p ertaining t o l ater a rchaeological h orizons, o btained b y o ngoing r esearch b y o ther t eams i n t he r egion. A ims o f t he 1 980 s easons: 1 ) t o a cquire t hrough a n i n e xtenso p ilto r econnaissance f irst h and a cquaintance o f t he a rea c overed b y t he p roject, e specially t he n atural e nvironment a nd m eans o f a ccess; 2 ) t o i dentify t opographic a nd g eological f ormations s uitable f or p rehistoric s ettlements a nd p reservation o f d ocuments, a s w ell a s a reas t o b e e xplored s ystema tically i n t he f uture a nd, r ecording n ew s ites. S urvey S trategy:

T he s urveying t erritory, m ore o r l ess e lliptical

i n s hape a nd c a. 8 2 x 2 6 k m . maximum e xtension, c omprising t he K ifissos a nd K opais i nternal d rainage s ystem , was s ubdivided i nto a s eries o f n atural ( physiographic) u nits, e ach t o b e c overed s eparately a nd s uccessively d uring t he p reliminary s eason n amely, t he Amphiklia, E lätia , D ävlia a nd L evädia/Kopais b asins, c overing a ll o f t he m ore a ccessible p ortions o f t he t erritory. F ield M ethodology: T he f ield m ethod w as j udgmental r ather t han b y r andom s ampling. A ll m ain a nd s econdary r oads a nd t racks w ere c overed b y v ehicle , i dentifying g eological f ormations v isible f rom t he r oadside,

c ontaining c aves o r r ockshelters o r,

t hose d eserving

d etailed e xploration i n t he f uture. T he m ore a ccessible f ormations with p otential s ites w ere e xplored b y f oot a nd , w hen a pplicable, s ites w ere r ecorded. T he m ain e ffort w as t o i dentify l imestone v alleys o r s purs. R oad maps, g eological t opographic m aps ( 1:200,000) w ere u sed. were p hotographed i n b lack a nd w hite a nd t raced o n a 1 :200,000 s cale. S ites w ere p resence o f l ithic a rtifacts,

( 1:50,000) a nd r egional S ites a nd t heir s etting f or c oloured s lides a nd d efined b y t he s urface

d eposits a nd/or o ther t races o f

m odification b y h uman a gencies. I nterdisciplinary S tudies:

N o i nterdisciplinary w ork w as d one i n

1 980 b ut o bservations o n p resent e nvironment a nd l anduse w ere m ade w ith r espect t o s ites a nd e ach b asin.

2 41

R esults:

T he 1 980 s eason c onfirmed o n am ore e xtensive s cale t he

r egion's p roven p otential f or i nvestigating t he S tone A ge o ccupation r ecord, a s p reviously s hown b y s oundings o r e xcavations a t S eidi, P rygos a nd S arakino c aves, r anging f rom f inal P alaeolithic t o N eolithic. E ach b asin was a ssessed i n p reliminary f ashion , i n t erms o f p resence a nd d ensity o f s ites r epresented b y c aves o r r ockshelters A t l east o ne s ite w as r ecorded f or e ach o f t he f our i ndividual b asins ( Elätia e xcepted). T he L evädia/Kopais b asin p roved t o b e b y f ar t he r ichest. I t i s n ow p ossible t o p roceed w ith i ntensive s ystematic r econnaissance o f s elected p ortions o f e ach b asin a nd t o b egin i nterdisciplinary p alaeo-ecological s tudies. P roblems:

Among t he p roblems

t o b e s ingled o ut f or f uture f ield

i nvestigations a re 1 ) t he p alaeogeographic, b ioclimatic h istory o f t he b asins, p articularly w ith r espect t o f luctuating l ate P leistocene l evels o f l ake K opais a nd t heir s ignificance f or a ncient h ominid p opulations; 2 ) r econstruction o f p ast l anduse s ystems i n r elation t o p ast h abitats a nd f ood s taples;

3 )

e stablishing w hether t here w as

a M iddle a nd e arlier U pper P alaeolithic o ccupation o f t he r egion. I nvestigation o f ' red b ed' d eposits a nd o pen-air s ettlements a re i mportant i n t his r espect. R EFERENCE R olland, N ., 1 980. L e p rojet d e l 'institut c anadien d 'arch Alogie ä A thenes s ur l 'äge d e l a p ierre e n G rece C entrale: c ampagne p reliminaire d e 1 980.

T eiresias

2 42

( Archaeologica)

3 :

3 -29.

3

c o

C U ( 1 ) H

F 4 1 4 > o

& ( )

4 . 3

• — 14

•

I

1

t he K ephissog a nd K opaic

s ‘ .

.•

r . Z

2 43

T HE O HIO B OIOTIA E XPEDITION E XPLORATION O F T HE T HISBE B ASIN T imothy G regory

S ince 1 979

t he O hio B oiotia E xpedition h as b een u ndertaking a

s eries o f a rchaeological a nd e nvironmental e xplorations i n t he a rea o f a ncient T hisbe i n s outhwestern B oiotia. d irection o f T imothy E . r espects

G regory o f O hio

T he p roject

i s u nder t he

S tate University,

a nd i n a ll

i t has b een c arefully c oordinated w ith t he w ork o f t he

C ambridge/Bradford B oiotia E xpedition.

T he O hio E xpedition i s s ponsored

b y T he O hio S tate U niversity a nd t he American S chool o f C lassical S tudies, a nd i t i s f unded b y O hio S tate,

t he N ational E ndowment f or t he Humanities,

t he N ational G eographic S ociety, D umbarton O aks C enter f or B yzantine S tudies, a nd t he American P an-Thisvian S ociety. T he g oal o f t his p roject

i s a n a ll-period,

i nvestigation o f t he T hisbe B asin,

multi-stage a rchaeological s urface s urvey.

I n o ther w ords, w e w ill

r elate t he k nown h istory o f t he T hisbe r egion, a rchaeological r ecord,

multi-disciplinary

i nvolving t he p rimary u se o f a a cross t ime,

t o t he

i n l ight o f t he e nvironmental e vidence.

T he

p roject t hus i ncludes a c areful e xamination o f t he p resent l andscape, l and u se,

s ocial s tructure,

a nd e conomy.

T he O hio E xpedition i s

p articularly c oncerned with t he a rchaeology a nd s ettlement p atterns o f t he T hisbe B asin i n l ate a ntiquity a nd t he Middle A ges.

O ne

s pecific h ypothesis w hich t he s urvey i s c urrently i nvestigating i s t he d egree t o w hich t he a ncient u rban n ode d isintegrated a t t he t ime o f t he c ollapse o f t he R oman Pmpire, a m ore f ragmented,

b asically r ural,

c onsideration i s t he p henomenon o f s mall waterless

i slands o ff

a nd i ts p ossible r eplacement b y s ettlement s ystem .

A nother

t he s o-called " isles o f r efuge,"

t he c oast o f G reece which w ere a pparently

h eavily i nhabited d uring t he e arly B yzantine p eriod.

S everal o f

t hese

i slands h ave b een i dentified i n t he Gulf o f D omvrena s outh o f T hisbe, a nd o ne o f t hese will b e t horoughly i nvestigated d uring t he 1 981 s eason Ancient T hisbe was s elected f or e xploration f or s everal r easons: i ts r elative l ack o f m odern d evelopment,

i ts p osition o verlooking a

c ast b asin w ith a ncient h ydraulic d evices s till i n p lace b y P ausanias),

( as d escribed

a nd t he p ossibility t hat t he c ity's t win h arbors p layed

a n i mportant r ole i n t he d evelopment o f M ycenaean p eriod a nd l ater.

t rade a cross B oiotia i n t he

B ecause o f i ts g eographical p osition,

t he

f luctuations i n p rosperity a nd e conomic i nterdependence i n t he e astern M editerranean s hould b e p articularly well r epresented a t T hisbe. I n a ddition, t he a rchitectural r emains a t T hisbe a re i n a r easonably g ood s tate o f p reservation a bove t he g round; walls,

R oman r ock-out t ombs

c hurches,

t hese i nclude t he H ellenistic

( about f orty),

B yzantine a nd p ost-Byzantine

a nd a m edieval c astle.

I n t erms o f t he a ctual a rchaeological s urface s urvey,

t he O hio

E xpedition p roposes t o g ather e vidence w hich will a llow g eneralizations a bout t he s ettlement s ystem i n t he whole o f t he T hisbe r egion: t his will i nvolve s patial, c onsiderations.

c hronological,

I n 1 979

a nd q ualitative

( functional)

t he s urvey f ocused o n t he c ity t erritory o f

T hisbe i n a n a ttempt t o d elimit t he e xtent o f a ncient h abitation. T his was a ccomplished b y a n i ntensive a nd s ystematic p edestrian s urvey w ith f ield walkers p ositioned a t

f ive-meter i ntervals.

r evealed a rtifact d iscontinuities a t 2 45

s everal p laces,

T his p rocedure

s uggesting

t he b oundaries o f t he i nhabited a rea.

O nce t hese s ite b oundaries

w ere d etermined, p rocedures w ere i nitiated f or t he s ystematic s ampling o f t he c ity t erritory. I n k eeping w ith p rocedures d eveloped b y t he j oint C ambridge/Bradford a nd O hio e xpeditions,

t his was d one b y

c ollecting s amples f rom a s eries o f e ight 3 0-meter c ircles s pread r andomly o ver t he s ite. I n a ddition, t hree o ther s ampling c ircles were s et o ut s ite.

t o a nswer s pecific q uestions a bout v arious p arts o f t he

D uring t he 1 981 s eason o ur s urvey a nd s ampling t echniques w ill b e m odified t o r eflect t he m ore d iverse a reas t o b e i nvestigated a nd t he n eed f or g reater s peed i n t he e xamination a nd r ecording o f a rchaeological a nd e nvironmental d etail.

T hus,

o n K ouveli i sland a

s ystem o f m odified " siteless" s urvey w ill b e employed i n w hich f ield walkers will c over t he s urface o f t he i sland r ather i ntensively, c ollecting d iagnostic a rtifacts a t a ll p oints a long t he t ransects, while r ecording a rtifact d ensities r outinely a t

s pecified i ntervals.

T he 1 981 s eason w ill a lso s urvey t he w hole o f t he T hisbe p lain, a n a reaof c a. 3 0 km 2 . T his will b e a ccomplished f irst, b y s ampling a t t he l evel o f t he r egion,

i .e.

b y s electing c ertain a reas o f t he

p lain a s r epresentative a nd s ubjecting t hem t o T his p rocedure w ill b e c omplemented, c onditions,

i ntensive f ieldwalking.

d epending o n t ime a nd l ocal

b y v ariation i n t he i ntensity o f t he s urvey,

t o a llow f or

t he c omplete i nvestigation o f t he p lain. W orking i n c ollaboration w ith t he C ambridge/Bradford e xpedition, T he O hio p roject i s u ndertaking f ull g eologic, a nd m odern-use e xamination o f t he T hisbe B asin.

s oils,

p alaeobotanic,

T he e vidence o f t he

a lluviation s equence i s o f p articular i mportance i n t his r egard. T he O hio E xpedition h as s o

f ar s ucceeded i n d elimiting t he a rea

o f a ncient h abitation i n p art o f t he T hisbe B asin a nd i n e stablishing t he s equence o f s ettlement a t v arious p oint. F or e xample, t he Mycenaean ( Late Helladic I II B -C) a nd g eometric s ettlements w ere a pparently c oncentrated o n t he a kropolis o f P alaiokastro, w hile t he c lassical a nd l ater s ettlements m oved i nto t he l ower c ity a nd t he a kropolis o f P yrgos. I n a ddition, t he s ampling o f t he P yrgos p lateau s uggested c onsiderable d ifferentiation i n s ettlement c oncentration a t v arious p oints,

a nd t he q uantitative e vidence i n t his r egard c an b e

c ompared t o s imilar i nformation f rom e lsewhere i n G reece.

A p reliminary

r eport o n t his p roject was made a t t he 1 979 m eeting o f t he A IA a nd a b rief s ummary i s b eing p ublished i n T ireisias:

2 46

A rchaeologia.

r 1

2 47

t he T hisbe B asin o f B oiotia,

s urveyed i n

H UMAN U SE O F C AVES A ND R OCK S HELTERS I N A TTICA , F ROM P REHISTORIC T HROUGH B YZANTINE T IMES J ere W ickens

T he f ield w ork f or t his p roject was c onducted f rom 1 978 t o 1 980. T he g eographical e xtent was l imited p rimarily t o s outhern m ainland A ttica, r oughly t he a rea s outh o f a l ine d rawn f rom D aphni t o M arathon. T he w ork i s b eing c arried o ut b y J ere W ickens f or h is d octoral d issertation f or I ndiana U niversity, I ndiana, U .S.A . F unding h as c ome f rom t he U niversity,

l oans a nd p rivate s ources.

U nlike m ost r egional s urveys, t his p roject i s c oncerned o nly w ith o ne t ype o f s ite, c aves a nd r ock s helters. T he p rimary e mphasis i s a n e xamination o f t he n ature o f c ave u se t hrough t ime - t he i solation o f t hose p eriods o f m ore i ntensive c ave u se, t he d eterminat ion, a s s pecifically a s p ossible, o f t he f unction t he c ave s erved a nd o f h ow t he u se o f c aves a s a n e nvironmental r esource c hanged t hrough t ime. T his i s n ot i ntended t o b e a n i ntensive o r e xhaustive s urvey o f A ttic c aves; i t i s a n a ttempt t o c reate a d ata b ase l arge e nough t o e stablish t he p robably u ses o f c aves a nd t o r efine o ur c riteria f or i dentifying t hese v arious u ses. T hese c riteria w ould t hen h ave t o b e t ested a nd f urther r efined b y e xcavation a nd o ther s urveys. A l ist o f t he k nown c aves a nd o ther k arst f eatures w as c ompiled f rom t he a rchaeological a nd s peleological l iterature a nd f iles, e specially t hose o f t he G reci c S peleological S ociety. A s m any o f t hese a s p ossible o r p ractical w ere v isited, s tarting w ith t hose a lready r eported t o h ave p roduced e vidence o f a ncient u se. T he l ist was a p articularly h elpful g uide, s ince t he m ouths o f many c aves a re q uite i nconspicuous a nd c an e asily b e missed i n a r andom s urvey. I n t he p rocess o f l ocating t hese c aves, t he a rea w as s urveyed f or o thers. T he d iscovery o f t hese n ew , o ften s maller, y et m ore c onspicuous c aves a nd s helters h elped c ompensate f or t he b ias o f t he -o riginal l ist t oward m ore s peleologically i nteresting c aves. T he f ield e xamination o f t he c aves i ncluded t he r ecording o f t he o rientation, e levation, d imensions, p hysical a nd , g eological f eatures, p resence o f w ater, a nd t emperature, i f c learly d ifferent f rom t hat o f t he e xterior. W hen o ne d id n ot e xist, a p lan o f t he c ave was made; p hotographs were t aken. T he n ature o f t he s urrounding a rea a nd a pproaches t o t he c ave w ere n oted. A ll c ultural m aterial was e xamined i n s itu , a nd n ote w as made o f t he w ays i n w hich t he c aves a re n ow u sed. E ach c ave w hich h ad e ven s light e vidence o f a ncient u se was d eemed a s ite, s ince s uch e vidence was m ost l ikely i ntroduced d irectly o r i ndirectly b y m an, e specially i n t he c ase o f c losed c aves. O ften t he s urface a rtifactual material r eveals l ittle i n i tself a bout t he f unction o f t he c ave a nd must b e c orrelated w ith t he p hysical c haracteristics o f t he c ave a nd t he r elation o f t he c ave t o o ther s ites i n t he a rea. I nterpretation o f t he d ata i s s till i ncomplete.

S o f ar a bout

5 0 o f t he n early 2 50 k nown k arst f eatures i n t his p art o f A ttica s how s ome s igns o f a ncient u se. T he t ypes o f c aves u sed a re varied

2 49

i ncluding s ome w hich a re c losed, l ow a nd d ark , a nd s eemingly u nsuita ble f or a ny u se. T he main p eriods o f u se s eem t o b e t he l ate a nd f inal N eolithic, M ycenaean, C lassical, a nd l ate R oman t imes. Y et h ow a nd w hy t hey were u sed, a t l east i n a ny d etail, i s m ore u nclear a nd may have t o a wait m ore a ctual e xcavation. Many p robably s erved a s h abitations o r s helters, o ften f or s hepherds, a s i s t he c ase t oday. T here h istoric c ult t he C lassical t he C lassical

s till d oes n ot s eem t o b e a ny c lear e vidence o f p rec aves; t hat s ome w ere s acred t o t he N ymphs a nd P an i n p eriod i s w ell k nown. Y et i t s hould a lso b e n oted t hat a nd l ate R oman p eriod were t imes o f i ncreased p opulation

a nd c onsequently o f g enerally m ore i ntensive e xploitation o f t he l and.

2 50

P ROSPECTION A RC I ALOGIQUE S UR L A F RONTItRE A TTICO-MtGARIENNE S ymphorien V an d e M aele

F unding, L ocation a nd D ates: G räce h u ne b ourse d u C onseil d es A rts ( au jourd'hui C onseil d e r echerches e n s ciences h umaines d u C anada), j 'ai p u p rospecter l a r egion d e l a c haine d u P ateras, 1 978 e t l es e tes 1 980 e t 1 981. O bjectives:

d urant l 'annee

M on p remier b ut e tait d e r etracer l a f rontiere e ntre

l 'Attique e t l a M egaride, a insi q ue l es l iaisons t errestres e ntre c es d eux r egions, e n p articulier l es r outes e ventuelles p our l e p assage d es a rmees d 'invasion. D ans c e d essein, i i e tait i ndispensable d e r etrouver a utant q ue p ossible t oute t race d 'habitation a ntique e t, s urtout, l es s ystemes d e d efense e t l es r eseaux d e t ours d e g uet. L es a uteurs c ontemporains ( Hammond, P ritchett, E dmonson, T illyard) s 'etaient s urtout i nteressgs a ux r egions v oisines d e l a B eotie e t, ä c ause d es 2 g randes t ours, a ux V athychoria. L e r este d u P ateras n 'avait g uere e te e tudie. S urvey M ethods:

M es i nstruments d e t ravail s e l imiterent ä u ne

b oussole, u ne p lanche ä d essiner, u n r ouleau ä m esurer d e 3 0 m e t u n a ppareil d e p hoto. P ar c ontre, j e p ossedair u n c alque a ssez d etaille d es c artes r ecentes a u 1 /50000 d u S ervice g eographique d e l 'armee g recque p our t out l e N ord d e l 'Attique. C 'est e n e tudiant c ertains t oponymes c omme M ylos o u P yrgari, q ue j 'ai á t eg uide v ers d es t ours a ntiques, m ais m es m eilleurcJ s ources d 'information o nt e te l es b ergers e t l es c ueilleurs d e r esine. I i y a vait e galement d es c artes p lus a nciennes c omme l es K arte v on A ttika ( vers 1 900) e t l a c arte d e l 'Etat-Major f ran p _is d atant d e 1 852. R esults: L es r esultats o nt d e b eaucoup d epasse l es a ttentes.

J 'ai p u

a insi m esurer e t p hotographier: 1° L a t our d e M ylos ( 898 m ) 1, e ntre l e L iondari e t l e M egali K olosoura. 2° L a t our d e P yrgari 2 ( 898m), d ominant l a p laine d e M egare. 3° 4 .

L e f ortin e t t our d e M yrini 3 , s itues d ans u n v allon e n b as d u m onastere d 'Haghia T riadha M yrini. L es f ortifications, a vec 3 t ours e t d e n ombreuses m urailles, s ur

l e R ahi D oskouri 4 , a u S ud d u K orphoulo ( radar a mericain). C es t rouvailles m 'ont p ermis a ) d e d eterminer l e t race p ossible d e l a f rontiere, b ) d 'attribuer l es t ours e t d es s ites ä l 'Attique o u ä l a M egaride, c ) d 'elaborer u ne t heorie s ur l e s ite d 'Erenia e t c elui d e l 'Orgas s acree d 'Eleusis. P roblems:

L es g randes d ifficultes c oncernent l a d atation d e l a

c eramique c ommune t rouvee s ur p lace. E n o utre, i i n 'y a p as d e s tandardisation d ans l e v ocabulaire d e l a d escription d es s ites e t m onument. F inalement, j e s ouffre d e n e Yien c onnaitre ä l a m ineralogie n i l a p etrographie

2 51

N otes: 1

V oir c arte n° 1 ,

F ronti re a ttico-mdgarienne:

l e M ont P atgras;

B CH 1 03 ( 1979) 5 48-549, f ig. 6 1-62; " An u nreported A ncient t ower o n M ount P ateras", A JA 8 5 ( 1981 ) 3 25-326, P late 5 6; " Le s ite d 'Ereneia e t l a f rontiere a ttico-mdgarienne," P hoenix 3 4 ( 1980) 1 53-159; " La r etraite d e l 'armee l acdddmonienne a pres l a b ataille d e L euctress", R EG 9 3 ( 1980) 2 04-205. 2

V oir c arte N° 2 , F rontiere a ttico-mdgarienne: l es e nvirons d u T rikeraton; B CH 1 05 ( 1981) 7 78-782, f ig. 1 3 e t 1 6; c ette t our e st m entionnge s ur l a c arte d e l 'Etat-Major f ran ais d e 1 852.

3

V oir c arte N° 2 ; B CH, i bid., f ig. 1 4 e t 1 8; c ette f ortification e st p eine v isible s ur l es K arte v on A ttika ( 1/100000) d e J .A. K aupert e t E . C urtius ( Berlin 1 900) B latt 7 , E leusis.

4

V oir c arte N° 2 ; B CH, i bid., f ig. 1 5 e t 1 7; c et d norme s ysteme d gfensif, q ui s ' f tend s ur p lusieurs c entaines d e m etres, n e s emble p as e ncore a voir 6 t6 m entionng.

2 52

.c, ) t .

r . 0 )

v )

c s

( . , '

c )

—J

c x C)

S

z 2 .




0

c e

,

F ig.

1

M ap o f t he i sland o f K eos,

C yclades,

C lassical p eriod c ity-state c entres.

2 77

G reece,

s howing

•

T HE M ELOS ARCHAEOLOGICAL S URVEY J ohn F .

C herry

A multi-period a rchaeological s urvey w as c onducted o n t he C ycladic i sland o f M elos i n 1 976-7 u nder t he d irection o f D r. J .F.Cherry ( then o f S outhampton U niversity, n ow C ambridge U niversity)

a nd w ith p rincipal

f unding f rom S outhampton U niversity. T he w ork w as f ormally a s ynergasia w ith t he G reek A rchaeological S ervice, w hose r epresentative o n M elos f or t his p urpose was M s. C .Preka. R esearch G oals:

T he p roject h ad i ts o rigins i n t he e xcavations a t t he

B ronze A ge s ite o f P hylakopi, u ndertaken i n 1 974-7 f or t he B ritish S chool a t A thens b y P rof. C . R enfrew. W e w ished t o k now m ore t han t he e xcavations t hemselves c ould t ell u s a bout ( 1) w hether i t w as t he o nly s ettlement s ite o n M elos d uring m ost o f t he 2 nd m illennium B C; ( 2) i f s o, w hy; ( 3) w hat a ccounted f or i ts a nomolous l ocation i n t he n ortheast o f t he i sland; ( 4) h ow h ad i ts i nhabitants e xploited t he s urrounding l andscape; ( 5) h ow h ad t hat l andscape c hanged o ver t ime. T hree e arlier o ne-man s urveys o n t he i sland ( 1896; 1 963-4; 1 973) h ad n ot p rovided a dequate a nswers, l argely a s a f unction o f t heir l ack o f i ntensive c overage a nd t heir s ubjective c hoice o f a reas f or e xamination. O n t he o ther h and, P hylakopi w as b ut o ne o f 5 c entralized s ettlements ( Phylakopi, A ncient M elos, C hora, K astro, A damas) w hich h ave d ominated M elos a t v arious p eriods d uring t he p ast 4 m illennia. B esides t he f act t hat a m ultip eriod s urvey i s m ore s ensible a nd c ost-effective t han o ne w ith a n arrow c hronological f ocus, i t s eem -A n ecessary t o u ndertake f ield r esearch w hich w ould h elp u s u nderstand why e ach o f t hese s ettlements a rose w here t hey d id, h ow t hey c ame t o a chieve f unctional d ominance o ver t he i sland, a nd w hat a ccounted f or t he a pparent o scillation o f t he s ettlement p attern b etween d ispersed a nd a ggregated c onfigurations t hrough t ime. A s mall i sland ( 151 s q.km.) i s a n i deal s urvey t ract i n t his r espect: i ts c learly d efined b oundaries d elimit a g eographical a nd s ociopolitical e ntity t hat c an b e e xpected a ctually t o b ehave a s a u nit ( a d esideratum t hat i s i nfrequently m et, a nd o ne t o w hich a ll l andscape s urvey p rojects s hould d evote t hought). O ur g oal, i n s hort, was t he d iachronic i nvestigation o f h uman s ettlement o n M elos i n r elation t o t he c hanging i sland e nvironment, f ocussing i n p articular o n t hose i nternal a nd e xternal f actors w hich m ight h ave a ffected t he m ajor e pisodes o f c hange a nd s tability i n t he i sland's h istory. T he s pecific q uestions t o w hich w e s ought a nswers b y s urvey w ork i ncluded: H ow m any s ites s urvive t oday o n t he i sland a s aw hole? H ow w ell d o t hey r eflect s ite d istributions a t v arious p oints i n t he p ast? H ow h as t he n umber, s ize a nd d istribution o f s ettlements c hanged o ver t ime? W hat r ange o f f unctions d id t hey s erve? H ow w ere f unctionally d ifferent s ites d istributed s patially? H ow d irectly d id e nvironmental f actors c onstrain t heir l ocation a nd s pacing, o r w as t his p rincipally a f unction o f s ocial, p olitical a nd e conomic v ariables? S urvey S trategy: T hese o bjectives n ecessitated s urvey o f am ore i ntensive k ind t han h as u sually b een a ttempted i n G reek l ands a nd i t w as a lso i mportant t hat a ll p arts o f t he i sland ( 151 s q.km.) b e i nvestigated.

H owever,

c onstraints o f t ime,

f inance a nd p ersonnel

w ere s evere, s o t hat s ome f orm o f s ample s urvey w as m andatory. W e e stimated o ur r esources w ould a llow u s t o s urvey a bout 2 0% o f t he 2 79

i sland. I n o rder t o c ancel t he b iases i n p reviously c ollected d ata a nd t o e nsure t hat o ur e fforts w ere s pread o ver a ll p arts o f t he i sland, a 2 0% s tratified, s ystematic r andom t ransect s ample w as s elected - 2 s ets o f 1 k m. w ide s trips a t 5 k m. i ntervals r unning N -S a cross t he l andscape. A p robabilistic d esign s eemed a ppropriate s ince o ur a im w as t o m aximize n ot t he t otal o f s ites d iscovered, b ut t he r eliability o f e stimates o f t he d ensity a nd v ariety o f s ites i n t he i sland a s aw hole, e ven t hough w e c ould n ot s urvey i t a ll. T ransects w ere c hosen b ecause t hey m inimize t he d ifficulties o f a ctually l ocating a nd s urveying a ccurately a n a rbitrary u nit i n t he l andscape, a nd b ecause t hey o ffer s ome g ains ( if o riented t o r un a cross t he ' grain' o f e nvironmental v ariability) p arameter e stimation. M ethodology:

i n e fficiency o f

S urvey t racts were f ieldwalked b y a g roup o f 1 0-12 p eople,

o rganized i n o ne o r t wo t eams a nd w alking i n p arallel l ines c . 1 5-25m. a part ( depending o n t he n ature o f t he t errain ). A bout 1 .5-2 s q.km. p er d ay, o n a verage, w ere c overed. A t t he t ime o f t he s urvey, n o a ccurate l arge-scale m ap o f t he a rea was a vailable, s o w e r elied o n ( 1) t he 1 944 1 :50000 m ap ( 2) t he 1 941-5 R AF a ir p hotographs ' taken a t c . 2 5000 f t ( 3) c areful c ompass w ork. S ites w ere p lotted o n 7 1 :10000 m ap s heets p repared e specially f or t he p roject f rom t he a ir p hotographs. R ecording o f e ach s ite i nvolved e stablishing i ts e xact l ocation b y m eans o f g rid r eferences a nd s ketch m aps; m apping i ts a pproximate e xtent a nd a ny f eatures; a nd c ompleting a p repared 4 0-question m ultiple c hoice s ite r ecord f orm, w hich i ncluded g eomorphological a nd g eographical, a s w ell a s a rchaeological, v ariables. R elatively l ittle a rchaeological m aterial w as c ollected, i n o rder t o m inimize d isturbance t o a ny s urface s patial p atterning: d iagnostic s herd l u aterial was i dentified a nd l eft i n t he f ield a fter p hotography a nd w e c oncentrated i nstead o n p otentially d iagnostic ( but u nidentified) m aterial a nd c hipped s tone. M ost o f t he s ites w ere r evisited l ater i n 1 976 o r i n 1 977 a nd 1 980 t o c onfirm a nd e laborate o n t he d ata r ecorded d uring t he s urvey. T he t eam w orked i n c lose c ollaboration w ith a g eologist, 3 g eomorphologists a nd 2 h istorical g eographers. P hylakopi a nd Ancient M elos w ere m apped w ith t he a id o f l ow-level b alloon p hotographs t aken b y P rof. J . W ilson M yers ( Whittlesey F oundation)

a nd t he a uthor i n 1 977.

R esulLs: S pace d oes n ot a llow a ny d etailed d iscussion : t he d etails a re t o b e f ound i n R enfrew a nd Watstaff ( eds.), ( 1981). B aldly, t he t otal n umber o f s ites o f a ll p eriods o n t he i sland h as b een r aised f rom 4 7 t o 1 30 ( representing s ome 2 25 c hronological c omponents) a nd o verall s ite d ensity i s n ow s een t o b e 6 t imes g reater t han f ormerly s upposed p artly a s a r esult o f t he r ecognition o f s mall, l ow-density s catters. Among t he n ew s ites a re 7 o f l ate N eolithic d ate: 8 s uch s ites a re n ow k nown o n M elos, w hereas p reviously o nly 4 h ad b een r ecognized i n a ll t he C ycladic i slands. C lear e vidence h as b een f ound f or r epeated c ycles o f a ggregation/dispersion a nd d emographic ' boom-and-bust'. P opulation p eaks o ccurred i n t he L ate B ronze A ge, L ate R oman p eriod a nd 1 9th-early 2 0th c enturies. G ood e stimates h ave n ow b een a chieved o f o verall i sland s ite d ensities a nd t hese h ave b een s imulated g raphically u sing t he S YMVU p rogram. S ome p roblems e ncountered:

( 1)

T he l ack o f a ny d etailed c eramic

c hronology f or t he i dentification o f p ost-7th c entury A D s ites. L ack o f g ood m aps. ( 3) i naccessible b y v ehicle

( 2)

D ifficulties o f r eaching d istant s urvey t racts ( up t o 3h ours s ometimes s pent m erely g etting 2 80

t o t he d ay's s urvey a rea).

( 4)

P roblems o f d esigning a p robabilistic

s urvey t hat h as s ufficient i ndependent u nits t o a llow r eliable e stimation, y et i s s imple t o f ollow i n t he f ield. ( 5) H igh l evels o f l andscape d estruction b y b entonite q uarrying. ( 6) P roblems o f d ating t errace w all s ystems. ( 7) L ack o f a ttention t o s ystematic o n-site p ick u p. ( 8) P roblems o f c onvincing c olleagues t hat i ntensive, p robabilistic s ample s urvey i s a l egitimate a nd t ested t echnique. R eferences: C herry, J .F., 1 979. C hapter 2 . I n J . L . D avid a nd J . F . P apers i n C ycladic P rehistory. L os A ngeles. C herry,

J .F.,

1 980.

C herry

( eds).

D iachronic I sland A rchaeology i n t he M editerranean:

A C ase S tudy o n M elos.

P h.D. d issertation,

S outhampton U niversity.

C herry, J .F., 1 981. C hapters 2 ,3,11,19 a nd A ppendix I n C . R enfrew a nd J .M. W agstaff ( eds). A n I sland P olity: T he A rchaeology o f E xploitation o n M elos. C ambridge.

0 W

1

2

C 2 I V

M 1 4 e i rm

•

V I I I •

V

MELOS SURVEY : n ew s i t e si ns amp l e s u r v ey t r an s e c t s

F ig.

1

M ap o f t he i sland o f M elos,

C yclades

t ransects a nd l ocation o f n ew s ites. 2 81

( Greece)

s howing s ampling

T OPOGRAPHICAL S URVEY O F PREHISTORIC S ITES I N T HE D ODECANESE A dmantios S ampson

T he s urvey b egan i n 1 977 a nd was c ontinued u ntil 1 980. T he a uthor E pimelete o f A ntiquities was t he main s urveyor a nd t he a rchaeologists O lga Z achariadou a nd T oula M arketou w orked w ith h im. R hodes a s t he b ase o f i slands o f S yme,

t he s urvey was m ore i ntensely s urveyed.

A limnia,

C halki,

T ilos,

K os, K arpathos,

T he

L eros,

P atmos a nd G yali o f N isyros were s urveyed i n v ery d ifficult c onditions, a lthough t hey p resented valuable f indings. b een well s urveyed b y S impson-Lazenby

A stypalaia,

( 1973)

w hich h ad

was n ot s urveyed a gain.

An i ntensive s urvey was a lso made o n Leros d uring t he e xcavation o f P artheni. T he g oal o f t he s urvey was t o c omplete t he w ork o f S impson-Lazenby, which s ought t o d etermine t he l ocation o f B ronze A ge s ites, N eolithic s ettlements s uitable f or e xcavation.

a nd t o f ind

S ites o f t he l ater

p eriod w ere a lmost n on-existant i n D odecanese b efore t he s urvey.

T he

main r esearch w as t o f ind p rehistoric s ites w ith e arth f ills a nd t o d etermine b y e xcavation t he c hronological s equence o f t he N eolithic a nd B ronze A ge i n t he D odecanese. T he s urveys w ere n ot made d uring d efined p eriods b ut o ver t ime e specially o n h olidays a nd i n t he e vening.

T he p rogramme o f r esearch

i n t he i slands w as n ot c ompleted f or many r easons, t he a uthor was t ransferred f rom R hodes n eeded i n s ome i slands a s K os,

i n 1 980.

A stypalaia,

but m ainly b ecause

F urther w ork i s

K arpathos a nd K alymnos.

A

p roblem i n t he D odecanese i s t he e xtensive e rosion which h as c arried t he e arth away f rom m ost p rehistoric s ites. I n R hodes t he n eogene marls, a re e asily s ubjected t o e rosion p erhaps r esulting i n c overage o f s ettlements i n f lat a reas.

A s a r esult o f t hese g eomorphological

c hanges i t i s m ore d ifficult t o l ocate p rehistoric s ites t here, t han i n o ther r egions o f G reece, where t hey a re e asily d istinguished. Much a ttention w as g iven t o t he i nvestigation o f t he c aves o f R hodes, m ost o f which h ad p rehistoric material.

T he e xcavations o f t he

c aves o f K oumelo o f A rchangelos a nd o f A gios G eorgios o f K alythies r ev ealed Neolithic s trata with a r ich material i ndicating t hat f uture r esearch h as t o b e made i n c aves, where t he e arth f ills a re s till u ndisturbed. T h2 r esult o f

t hree y ears s urveying

( 1977-1980)

was t he l ocation

o f 6 0 s ites d ating t o t he N eolithic p eriod a nd E arly B ronze A ge. T hirty f ive o f t hem w ere f ound i n R hodes. Many o f t hem c an b e i dentified, b ased o n t he s tratigraphy o f t he t wo c aves o f R hodes. U nfortunately t he s urvey o f o pen a ir s ites d id n ot p roduce a s much m aterial, a s we e xpected. o bsidian,

I n t he majority o f t hem w ere f ound a f ew s herds a nd

a s S impson-Lazenby ( 1973) had r eported.

p ottery i s u sually i n b ad c ondition a nd d ifficult

T he p rehistoric t o i dentify.

N eolithic s ettlements w ith e arth f ill w ere f ound i n t he r egions o f A rchangelos a nd L ardos o n R hodes may b e e xcavated i n t he f uture. Dense habitation w as n oted f or t he L ate C halcolithic o n t he e astern s ide o f R hodes,

which i s w aterless a nd w ithout v egetation,

2 83

p articularly a long t he c oast.

T he w estern s ide a nd t he i nterior

o f t he i sland a re p resented a lmost u ninhabited. I n t he c ave o f K alythies t wo N eolithic p hases h ave b een i dentified, t he o ldest o f which h as r elations w ith A gio G ala I o f C hios a nd L ate C halcolithic I o f Anatolia. T he n ewest s eems c ontemporary w ith T igani I o f S amos a nd V athy o f K alymnos. N eolithic p hase was f ound, 4 o f s outhwestern Anatolia. R hodes, w as

I n A rchangelos a t hird

t hat c orresponds t o t he L ate C halcolithic T his p hase,

f ound o n A limnia i sland,

w hich i s w ide s pread o n

where e xcavations h ave r evealed

a n a psidal b uilding. A t rial e xcavation o n P artheni o f L eros p roduced N eolithic r emains o f a l ate p hase o f t he p eriod.

T here a re p arallels w ith T igani o f

S amos, E mporio o f C hios a nd p erhaps w ith G rotta-Pelos c ulture o f C yclades. With t he s urveys o f t he l ast y ears t he p roblem o f t he S E Aegean p rehistory i s c larified.

T he material f rom t he s urface

a nd t he e xcavations h ave a lready b een s tudied a nd i t w ill b e p ublished a s s oon a s p ossible. R eferences: H ope S impson, B SA 6 8: S ampson,

A .,

R .

a nd L azenby,

J .F.,

1 973.

N otes f rom t he D odecanese.

1 27-179. 1 980.

Minoika a po t in T ilo.

2 84

AAA 1 3

( 1):

6 8-73

[ in G reek]

F ig.

I

M ap o f

t he D odecanese I slands,

G reece s howing l ocation o f

a rchaeological s ites. O pen t riangles - N eolithic s ites a nd i nverted s olid t riangles = E arly B ronze A ge s ites. 2 85

S URVEY O F KARPATHOS,

K ASOS A ND S ARIA, D ODECANESE

E mmanuel

M .

M elas

P rincipal I nvestigator a nd L ocation: P h.D.

t hesis

K arpathos,

T he p roject was p art o f t he

' The N eolithic a nd B ronze A ges o n t he i slands o f

K asos a nd S aria', which i s n ow b eing p repared b y t he

a uthor a t B edford C ollege o f t he U niversity o f L ondon. T he i slands o f K arpathos, K asos a nd S aria b elong t o t he D odecanese g roup i n t he s outh-eastern A egean. D ate: T he s urvey b egan i n t he s ummer o f 1 976 a nd c ontinued u ntil t he s ummer o f 1 981. O bjective: n ature o f

T he a im o f

t he r esearch i s t o a ssess

t he e xtent a nd t he

t he p rehistoric s ettlements o n t he i slands.

P articular

a ttention i s g iven t o t he N eolithic a nd E arly B ronze p eriods, which w ere v irtually u nknown b efore t he b eginning o f t he e xploration. T he p roblem o f

t he M inoan a nd Mycenaean c olonisation o f t hese

i slands i s a lso v ery i mportant a nd m uch r elevant e vidence h as b een b rought

t o l ight.

S trategy:

T he i slands w ere d ivided i nto b road s ections c orresponding

t o g eographical u nits a s f ollows: 1 ) S outhern K arpathos, r egion o f P igadia, a rea o f A fiartis, Akassa d istrict, 2 ) C entral K arpathos, 3 )

N orthern K arpathos,

K asos.

4 )

S aria,

5 )

S outhern Kasos,

6 )

N orthern

Within e ach r egion a t otal c overage o f a reas s uitable f or

a ncient a nd p articularly p rehistoric h abitation h as b een c arried o ut.

T he s urvey w as n ot c ompletely e xhaustive a nd t he c aves i n

p articular, which a re n umerous v ery l ittle e xplored.

i n t hese m ountainous i slands, w ere

A s ystematic c overage o f

t he p articular

s ites h as b een made i n a n e ffort t o e stimate t heir e xtent a nd t he c haracter o f

t he P rehistoric s ettlement a s well a s t he

a rchitecture a nd p ottery. I n m ost c ases a u seful c onsultation w ith l ocal i nhabitants was f ollowed b y i ntensive s earch f or a ncient r emains R esults:

i n t he l ocalities i ndicated. S ixteen s ites o n t hese t hree i slands h ave y ielded L ate

N eolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge s urface material, i ncluding p ottery a nd s tone i mplements c hiefly o f o bsidian. O f t hese, t en h ave b een d iscovered o n K arpathos,

f ive o n K asos a nd o ne o n S aria.

T he m ost

p rolific a nd p romising s ites s eem t o b e t hose i n L eftoporos a t A rkassa,

V ouno i n A fiartis a nd P oli o n K asos.

T he p ottery f rom

t hese s ites a ppear t o r eflect c lose a ffinities b etween t he N eolithic c ultures o f C rete a nd o f K arpathos a nd K asos. Twenty-five m ore s ites h ave p roduced o bsidian b lades a nd o bsidian a nd f lint f lakes, a s w ell a s s ingle s tone a xes o r f ragments o f t hem, a pparently t estifying t o t heir o ccupation d uring t he N eolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge p eriods. N o i ndisputable P rehistoric p ottery h as b een i dentified o n a ll t he s ites a ssociated w ith t he s tone i mpliments,

t herefore s ome o f t hem may b e d ated t o t he M iddle

B ronze A ge o r l ater.

T wenty a re l ocated o n K arpathos,

a nd t wo o n S aria.

2 87

t hree o n K asos

O n a ll t hree i slands 4 2 s ites w ith M inoan a nd M ycenaen t races o f o ccupation h ave b een d iscovered s o f ar. T hey i nclude c emeteries a nd s ettlements, a s w ell a s s ites r epresented b y o nly a f ew s herds. T he majority o f t hem s hould h ave f ormed s mall g roups o f s cattered f armhouses n ear t he c oast, p astoral c ommunities.

n ot u nlike t he m odern a grarian a nd

T hey u sually c over a n a verage a rea o f a bout

o ne b y t wo h undred metres.

A lmost i nvariably t hey l ie a long l ow

r idges w hich o ften b ound a n i nland p lateau a nd r un p arallel t o t he c oast a f ew h undred m etres d istance f rom i t.

T hey a ppear t o s hare

t he s ame f eatures a nd m ost o f t hem s eem t o b e r oughly c ontemporary c overing p art o f

t he O ld P alace a nd t he w hole o f t he N ew P alace

p eriod o f C rete. M ost o f t he s ites p roduced material f rom v arious p eriods, b oth P rehistoric a nd H istorical. D ue t o t he l ack o f s tratigraphical e vidence i t i s o ften d ifficult t o s ort o ut t he p ottery g roups a nd t heir s equence.

T he s ame a pplies t o t he

a ssociated a rchitectural r emains. R eferences M elas,

E mman

M eletai 1 :

M .,

1 979.

K arpathos i n t he B ronze A ge.

M elas, E mman M ., o f K arpathos.

1 981. N ew e vidence f or t he M inoan c olonization K arpathiakai Meletai 2 : 9 9-161.

2 88

' • •• • , 4

K arparhiakai

1 31-92.

Karpathos

C..

F ig.

1

Map o f K asos,

K arpathos

2 89

a nd S aria,

G reece.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL S URVEY O F T HE A YIOFARANGO,

S OUTHERN C RETE

K eith B ranigan

T he A yiofarango s urvey w as

c arried o ut i n A ugust 1 971 a nd

A ugust 1 972, u nder t he d irection o f K eith B ranigan a nd D avid B lackman, t hen o f t he D ept. o f C lassics, U niversity o f B ristol, E ngland. I t w as f unded b y t he U niversity o f B ristol. T he A yiofarango

( Holy G orge)

i s

s ituated a f ew k ilometres w est

o f K aloi L imenes o n t he s outh c oast o f C rete. T he s urvey w as c onducted i n t he l ower c atchment a rea, a n a rea a pproximately 7 km b y 3 km , i n w hich, a t t he h abitation.

t ime o f t he s urvey,

t here w as n o p ermanent h uman

T he s urvey w as p lanned w ith t he f ollowing o bjectives i n m ind: 1 .

T o d iscover, p lot, d ate a nd a ttempt t o,identify t he f unction o f, a ll s ites o f h uman o ccupation a nd a ctivity i n s urvey a rea.

2 .

T o r ecord t he e xisting n atural e nvironment a nd t o a ttempt t o r econstruct a s f ar a s p ossible t he p ast e nvironments.

I f t he s urvey c ould m eet t hese o bjectives, t hen i t was h oped t hat w e w ould b e a ble t o g o s ome w ay t owards e stimating h uman p opulations i n t he v alley, t o i dentify f luctuations i n p opulation a nd s ettlement, t o u nderstand t he d ynamics o f t hese, a nd t o r econstruct s ocial a nd e conomic p atterns i n t he h uman s ettlement o f t he a rea. W e a ttempted a t otal s urvey o f t he a rea, a s f ar a s p ossible w alking o ver t he w hole o f t he c atchment a rea w ith n o p reconceived i deas a bout s ite l ocations a nd w ithout s eeking i nformation f rom t he r esidents o f t he s ettlements a t K aloi L imenes a nd t he M oni O diyitria. T he c atchment a rea w as n ot d ivided b eforehand i nto p rojected d aily s urvey z ones; t he a mount c overed i n a d ay d epended o n t he t errain a nd t he q uantity o f s ites w hich w ere l ocated. I n t he f irst y ear, f our w eeks w ere s et a side f or s urvey w ork, w ith a t eam o f j ust f our a rchaeologists. T he t eam w orked e ach d ay a s a g roup w ithin a s ingle a rea, s o t hat w hen a s ite n eeded p lanning a s w ell a s p lotting a ssistance w as a t h and. S urface s catters o f a rtifacts w ere r ecorded a nd m aterial c ollected f or s ubsequent s tudy. T his m aterial w as t hen d eposited a t t he e nd o f t he s urvey p eriod i n t he A rchaeological Museum i n I raklion. I n t he s econd s eason a g eologist, a g eographer, a nd a n a rchaeologically-trained e nvironmentalist c arried o ut t he s urvey o f t he n atural e nvironment. T he t hird m ember o f t his t eam a lso c hecked t he l ocation a nd r ecording o f t he s ites f ound t he p revious y ear a nd was d irected t o a reas w here w e f elt o ur c overage m ight h ave b een i mperfect i n t he f irst y ear. T he d irectors o f t he s urvey w ere o n h and, d irecting t he e xcavation o f a n E arly B ronze A ge t holos, t o c heck a ny n ew d iscoveries o r d iscrepancies. T he i nformation r ecorded f ell i nto t wo g roups - a rchaeological a nd e nvironmental. H istorical d ata w as c ollected b y l ibrary r esearch b efore a nd a fter t he f ieldwork. A rchaeological i nformation i ncluded s ite

l ocation,

e xtent,

n ature o f r emains, 2 91

p roposed i dentification

( function),

d ating e vidence.

P lans w ere m ade o f a ny s tructural r emains

a nd i ndications w ere g iven o n p lans o f d ensity o f s urface m aterial a nd l ocation o f a ny f inds o f p articular s ignificance. E nvironmental d ata w ere c ollected i ncluding m opping s olid a nd d rift g eology, e stimates f rom o bserved d ata o f h ydrological budget, e vidence o f g eomorphic p rocesses, m apping o f n atural r esources, a nd d etailed m apping o f s oils. R ecording m ethods i ncluded s ite n otebooks, w ith e ach s ite g iven a c ode n umber, p ottery n otebook, p lans, p hotographs a nd s lides, p lus t he a ppropriate m aps, s ections e tc. o f t he e nvironmental d ata. T he e nvironmental d ata w as u sed t o c alculate t he c arrying c apacity a nd l and u se p otential f or t he s urvey a rea. A rchaeological m aterial h elped t o d ate s ome o f t he m ore r ecent g eomorphic p rocesses. R esults: A t otal o f f ifty-five s ites w as d iscovered, r anging i n d ate f rom t he f irst p hase o f t he E arly B ronze A ge ( Early M inoan I ) t o t wo m odern v illages, t he l ast o f w hich w as a bandoned s hortly b efore W orld W ar I I. O ccupation o f t he c atchment a rea s eemed t o f all i nto t hree e pisodes, s eparated b y p eriods w hen t here w as l ittle o r n o ' h uman o ccupation o f t he a rea; s easonal e xploitation p robably c ontinued t hroughout t hese p eriods o f n on-permanent o ccupation h owever. T he f irst p hase o f o ccupation r anged f rom E arly M inoan I t o M iddle M inoan I . O ccupation w as l argely i n d ispersed f armsteads, a lthough o ne s mall nucleated s ettlement s tood a djacent t o t he l argest a rea o f a rable l and i n t he c atchment. F ive f amily o r k in-group t erritories w ere t entatively i dentified, e ach w ith i ts o wn s pring, d iscreet a reas o f a rable, t wo c _ m ore f armsteads, ' peak s anctuary', a nd t holos t omb. T he n ucleated s ettlement h ad t hree t holos t ombs. C alculation o f p opulation w as m ade o n t he b asis o f a ) n umber o f t holos t ombs a nd t heir e stimated c ontributing g roup ( in t urn b ased o n e vidence f rom v arious t holos t ombs i n t he M esara a rea) a nd b ) n umber o f f armsteads a nd o ccupied buildings. T hese c alculations w ere s et a gainst t hose i ndependently m ade o n t he b asis o f a ) l and-use p otential a nd c arrying c apacity a nd b ) c ensus f igures o f 1 7th-20th c entury A D. T aking a ll t hese f igures i nto c onsideration w e a rrived a t a p robably E arly B ronze A ge p opulation o f t he c atchment o f a round 1 10 p ersons. T he s econd p hase o f o ccupation b egan i n t he l ate 5 th c entury B C a nd c ontinued u ntil t he m id-7th c entury A D, a lthough t he 2 nd-4th c entury A D o ccupation i s v ery p oorly r epresented i n t he p ottery r ecord. T here w ere s even f armsteads o f a rea,

a s o pposed t o t en p lus

t he G raeco-Roman p eriod i n t he c atchment

t he s mall n ucleated s ite i n t he E arly

B ronze A ge. B ut a n ucleated s ettlement f ounded i n t he l ate 5 th c entury B C w as l ocated b y t he s pring a t A yia K yriaki, a nd a ssociated w ith t wo p ublic b uildings p robably a ssociated w ith t he c ult o f A sclepios. T his s ettlement c omprised a t l east a d ozen b uildings a nd p robably s everal m ore, but i t m ay h ave g one i nto d ecline i n t he e arly i st c entury A D, a nd f rom t his p oint o nwards f arming s ettlement a lso d eclined s lowly. T he t hird p hase o f o ccupation p robably b egan i n t he 1 1th c entury

A D with t he f oundation o f a m onastery a t t he m outh o f t he g orge, but t he e arliest a rchaeological m aterial b elonging t o t he t hird p hase m ight b e n o e arlier t han t he m id-15th c entury. T he M oni O diyitrias w as e stablished f urther u p t he v alley i n t he m id-16th c entury, a nd 2 92

t he v illages o f G avaliana a nd Y ialomonokhoro h oused m ost o f t he 1 6th2 0th c entury p opulation.

T his s eems t o h ave d eclined g radually f rom

t he 1 7th c entury o nwards. G avaliana w as a bandoned i n t he l ate 1 9th c entury, a nd b y 1 929 Y ialomonokhoro h ad b ut 5 i nhabitants. I t w as t otally a bandoned s oon a fter. A part f rom l ogistic p roblems w orking i n t his r elatively r emote a rea, a nd t hose o f o btaining r eliable b ase m aps, w e e ncountered t hree m ain p roblems i n i dentifying a nd i nterpreting r emains. T he f irst w as t hat o f i dentifying a ncient s ites buried b eneath t he s oil a ccumulations o n t he l ower t erraces.

I n s ome p laces s oil d isturbances a llowed s uch

s ites t o b e n oted b ut s ome s ites m ay h ave e scaped d etection c ompletely h ere; o n t he o ther h and w e b elieve t hat t he t erraces w ere p robably u sed f or c ultivation a nd a ctual s ettlement s ites w ere l ocated f urther b ack a nd a re p robably r epresented t herefore i n o ur s ample. S econd, s ites o ccupied i n s everal p eriods were d ifficult t o d isentangle o n s urface e vidence a lone. T hird, c oarse p ottery was t he o nly m eans o f d ating s ome s ites,

a nd f eatureless b ody s herds w ere o bviously d ifficult

t o p lace i n t ime.

W e w ere f ortunate t o f ind a r iver-cut s ection

c ontainipg c oarse w ares a longside d ateable f ine W ares - w ithout t his, d ating w ould h ave b een i mpossible. R eference: B lackman, D .K., a nd B ranigan K ., 1 977. A n A rchaeological S urvey o f t he l ower c atchment o f t he A yiofarango V alley. B SA 7 2:13-84.

2 93

K ILOMETRES

F ig.

I

M ap o f t he A yiofarango

d rainage i n s outhern C rete,

s howing g eology.

2 94

G reece

AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL S URVEY O F T HE LASITHI P LAIN I N C RETE F ROM T HE N EOLITHIC T O T HE L ATE R OMAN P ERIOD L . V ance W atrous

T he 1 973.

s urvey was c onducted d uring t he

s ummer a nd f all m onths o f

Lasithi was c hosen b ecause i t i s a n a rea w ith p recise g eographic

b orders,

a nd a c ertain a mount o f a rchaeological w ork h ad a lready b een

d one t here.

My p rincipal a im w as t o c over t he a rea i n s uch a s ystema-

t ic manner t hat I c ould b e f airly c ertain a t t he e nd t hat t here w ould b e n o major c hronological g aps i n o ur f inds.

T his was i mportant

b ecause I was ultimately m ore i nterested i n r econstructing t he h istory a nd e conomic b asis o f l ife i n L asithi t han i n d iscovering n ew s ites. T he s urvey w as d one a s my d issertation t hesis f or t he D epartment o f C lassical A rchaeology a t t he University o f P ennsylvania, b y V eterans'

e ducational b enefits,

a nd w as f unded

a nd t he E ugene V anderpool F ellowship

( ASCS). W e s ystematically s urveyed L asithi, p ersons

( Penn.

g raduate s tudents).

i n g roups o f t hree o r f our

T his m eant t hat e ach p erson w alked

o n a l ine s eparated b y i ntervals o f f ive t o t en m eters.

U pon d isco-

v ering a s ite w e c oncentrated o n d efining i ts p resent b oundaries,

a nd

p eriod o f o ccupation. W e s herded e ach s ite b y h aving e ach p erson w alk o ver i ts e ntire a rea l ooking f or d iagnostic s herds. R ather t han u se a t ype o f s hapes

s tatistical s ampling s trategy, w e l ooked f or c ertain c eramic ( and d esigns t o a l esser e xtent)

p eriod.

which w ere p opular i n e ach

A ll t he l arger, m ultiperiod s ites w ere visited s everal t imes

i n a n e ffort t o d iscover t heir f all c hronological r ange. f orm

( with h eadings o n water s ource,

d estruction,

c hronological p eriods,

a nd l ithic e vidence,

s ize,

a rchitectural r emains,

a nd g eneral r emarks)

A s tandard

a ltitude, v egetation c over, c eramic

a nd s ketch p lan w ere c omp-

l eted f or e ach s ite. O ur r esearch g oal was t o c omplete t welve c hronological m aps f rom which w e c ould r econstruct ( and e xplain) c ertain h istorical c hanges i n L asithi. We w ere a lso i nterested i n s eeing h ow p eople l ived i n L asithi a nd h ow t he s ettlements o f e ach p eriod r elated t o t he l andscape. G eological, metereological, h istorical, a rchaeological, a nd h umanistic e thnographic i nformation was u sed t o g ive a s f ull a p icture a s p ossible. R eferences: W atrous,

L .V.,

1 981.

P lain i n C rete,

L asithi, A H istory o f S ettlement i n a H ighland H esperia S upplement X VIII.

W atrous, L .V., 1 981. Ancient S ettlement i n t he P lain o f L asithi i n I V eC ongres I nternational d 'gtudes C retoises, I V. W atrous,

L .V.,

1 974.

AAA 7 :206-210.

2 95

ARCHAEOLOGICAL S URVEY O F T HE K O I NOS AREA

( SOUTH C RETE)

1 970 - 1 980)

R ichard H ope S impson

C oordinators: J . W . S haw ( University o f T oronto) S impson ( Queen 's U niversity o f K ingston). Main F unding:

a nd R .

H ope

S ocial S ciences a nd H umanities R esearch C ouncil o f

C anada. S ubsidiary F unding:

R oyal O ntario Museum a nd T he U niversity o f

T oronto. P articipants:

a ll m embers o f t he K ommos E xcavation T eam ( affiliations

a s g iven i n t he r eports o n t he K ommos E xcavations i n H esperia V ols. 4 6-49). S urvey A rea: h ills

T he Matala a nd P itsidia c oastal v alleys a nd t he s urrounding

( total a pproximately 2 0 km .

O bjective:

T o o btain a s much i nformation a s p ossible w ith t he r esources

( personnel, e cology o f c hosen,

o f l and s urface s urveyed).

2

t ime,

m oney)

a vailable c oncerning t he a ncient h abitation a nd

t he K ommos A rea.

T he a rea a nd b oundaries w ere d eliberately

t o i ncorporate i n p articular t he v icinities o f M inoan K ommos

a nd t he h istoric Metellum . S trategy:

1 )

1 970-1977 a n i nte mittent a nd u nsystematic,

v aluable p reliminary e xamination o f

t he a rea was made

but e xtremely

( mainly b y J .

S haw a nd L .V. Watrous) d uring w hich m ost k nown a ncient s ites w ere v isited, a nd s everal " new" s ites w ere f ound o f s everal a ncient p eriods. 2 )

1 978-1979.

f ield b y t he a rchaeologists

I n b oth y ears 4 -5 w eeks w ere s pent i n t he a nd L .

N ixon)

i n a s ystematic a nd r easonably t horough " intensive" f oot s urvey.

( R .

H ope S impson,

J . M cEnroe,

S ites

r anging f rom M inoan t o 1 8th c entury A .D. were r ecorded, with s ketch p lans a nd p hotographs a s n eeded.

M ost s ites w ere v isited a t l east t wice

S elective a nd p artial s urface c ollections w ere m ade a t s ites w here t he m aterial was r ecognizable o r p otentially r ecognizable.

A map o f t he

a rea w as made with t he a ssistance o f R .A.F. a ir p hotos o f t he y ears 1 943 a nd 1 944. T he f ield c ampaigns o f 1 978 a nd 1 979 w ere f ollowed b y 2 -3 w eeks

" on s ite" s tudy a nd f ield

c hecking.

s tudied i n 1 979 a nd 1 980 b y v arious e xperts ( 1980)

n .

3 ),

u nder t he c oordination o f P .

T he a rtefacts w ere

( listed i n H esperia 4 9 B etancourt.

P alaeo-Ecological: J . A . G ifford c arried o ut i n 1 978 a nd 1 979 a g eological s tudy o f t he a rea. M . P arsons made a f ull s tudy o f t he m odern l and u se a nd s oils i n 1 979.

I n 1 980 P rofessors J ennifer M .

S hay a nd C . T . S hay o f t he U niversity o f Manitoba s tudied t he m odern f lora a nd v egetation. J . A . G ifford w ill c oördinate t he r eport o n t hese e cological s tudies. u se,

M aps o f t he s urficial g eology,

m odern l and

a nd s oils w ere m ade i n t he f ield a nd a re b eing p repared f or

p ublication w ith t he a ssistance o f m embers o f t he D epartment o f G eography,

Q ueen's U niversity a t K ingston,

o f t he s oil s amples.

2 97

who h ave a lso a nalysed

s ome

R esults: 1 . S ites F ound i n t he A rea - I n a ddition t o t he e xcavated s ites o f K ommos a nd S elli, s ome 1 9 M inoan " sites" a re n ow k nown a nd a bout 2 9

" scatters".

A t l east t wo o ther G eometric a nd a t l east 2 3

" Hellenistic" " sites" o r " scatters" a re i ndicated K ommos,

S elli,

a nd a ncient M etellum ).

2 nd c entury A .D.)

( i.e.

u p t o m id

h as b een i dentified a t 2 3 l ocations a t l east,

L ate R oman a t a bout 1 5. w ell r epresented,

( in a ddition t o

E arly R oman

a nd

T he B yzantine a nd l ater p eriods a re n ot s o

but t here a re i ndications o f h abitation a t a bout 1 1

l ocations. 2 .

P roblems E ncountered - T he a ctual d istribution p atterns

o f t he a ncient s ites c an n ot b e d etermined, 1 .

f or t he f ollowing r easons:

T he d ense h istoric o ccupation i n t he M atala a rea h as o bviously

o bscured o r r emoved many t races o f t he M inoan h abitation h ere. 2 . M odern a ctivities,

e specially a gricultural t erracing a nd W orld I I

m ilitary i nstallations, h ave t aken a v ery s evere t oll o f t he a ncient s tructures i n t he w hole o f t he a rea. 3 .

E rosion h as been e xcessively s evere o n t he h ills a nd p lateaus.

4 . A bout 3 0% o f t he l and s urface c ould n ot b e i nvestigated, s ince i t i s c overed e ither b y m odern s tructures, o r b y m odern v egetation o r b y a t hick c overing o f b lown s and ( other a nd s ome m ore g eneral,

( in c ertain c oastal a reas).

p roblems a re d iscussed i n m y

s upplementary p aper) P ublication P lan:

T he s urvey r eport w ill b e p ublished i n c onjunction

w ith t he " r eport o n t he K ommos E xcavations,

a nd e very a ttempt w ill b e

m ade t o c oordinate t he s tudy o f m aterial b oth f rom s urvey a nd e xcavation, i n o rder t o p rovide a b asis f or h ypothetical r econstruction o f t he p alaeoecology o f t he a rea. R eferences: S haw,

J . W .,

1 979.

H esperia 4 8: S haw,

J .W.,

1 980.

H esperia 4 9:

E xcavations a t K ommos

( Crete)

d uring 1 978.

( Crete)

d uring 1 979.

1 46-147. E xcavations a t K ommos 2 07-209.

2 98

--r

_ 3z ))

I DA ZANGE

ZAROS

HAG IA GALE N E SO L JL IA C D ' KOKK INOS .P YR GOS

0 GAL I A

. TY MBAK I

• GORTY M ITROPOL IS KANN IA

• M IRES

L I BYAN S EA

MESSARA ( LE T HA lo s ), . PLATAN SS KO M MOS

P ITS ID IA '

a

POB IA

APESOKAR I P LOKA . ( PYLORUS )

MATALA ( METALON )

I G ITR IA

7 2 A NG 7 ` ) E

0 ( LASA IA ) CAPE L I TH INOS

• KALO I

L IMENES L EDA ( LEBENA )

0 1 2 3 4 5 km . 4

F ig.

i

L IBYAN

M ap o f s outhwestern C rete,

G reece s howing t he s tudy

z one a round t he s ite o f K ommos.

2 99

S EA

N -\

K HANIA ARCHAEOLOGICAL S ITE S URVEY J ennifer M oody

T he K hania A rchaeological S ite S urvey w as i nitiated i n O ct. 1 978, but b ecause o f f unding p roblems w as i nterrupted f rom D ec. 1 979 u ntil A pril 1 981. W ork h as n ow b een r esumed a nd w ill c ontinue t hrough A pril 1 982. T he s urvey i s b eing c onducted b y J ennifer M oody a s p art o f t he f ieldwork n eeded t o c omplete h er P h.D. d issertation o n t he B ronze A ge S ettlement S ystem i n n orthwest C rete. T he p roject w as f unded f rom 1 978-1979 b y t wo g rants f rom t he U niversity o f M innesota a nd i s n ow b eing f unded b y a d issertation g rant f rom t he N ational S cience F oundation. O bjectives: T he g oal o f t he r esearch i s t wofold : 1 ) t o r econstruct t he s ettlement s ystem t hat s upported t he e conomic c enter b elieved t o h ave e xisted a t K hania i n t he B ronze A ge; t o t hen c ompare t his s ystem w ith t hose t hat e xisted i n c entral C rete sa nd M essenia. 2 ) t o a ssess t he u tility o f s ystematic s ampling p rocedures i n t he r ugged t errain o f C rete. F our t ypes o f i nformation a re n eeded i n o rder t o a ccomplish t his g oal: I ) d escriptions o f t he s ettlement p atterns t hat e xisted i n n orthwest C rete, c entral C rete a nd M essenia. 2 ) r econstructions o f t he B ronze A ge e nvironments o f C rete a nd M essenia. 3 ) m odels o f t he M inoan a nd M ycenaean e conomic, s ocial a nd a dminist rative s ystems. 4 ) a r egion t hat h as b een t otally s urveyed f or a rchaeological s ites. I t i s h ypothesized t hat b y c onducting a t otal s ystematic s urface s urvey o f t he a rea w ithin a t hree-hour w alking d istance o f t he M inoan c enter a t K hania, e nough d ata w ill b e r ecovered t o p ermit a r econstruction o f t he l ocal s ettlement s ystem ; t hat b y s imilarly d efining t he r egions a round K nossos a nd P ylos - a nd b y l imiting t he a nalysis t o t he l arger s ites a nd t ombs - a r easonable c omparison o f t hese a reas c an b e u ndertaken ; t hat b y t otally s urveyi ng t he K hania h interland, t he d iscovery o f m ost o f t he v isible s ites i s l ikely - a nd t herefore t he r ecovered d istribution c an f orm a t arget p opulation a gainst w hich t he e ffectiveness o f v arious s ampling p rocedures c an b e t ested. T he s urvey a rea was d efined b y w alking 8 t hree-hour t ransects t hat r adiated f rom K hania. T he t rip o ut f rom t he c enter w as w alked c ross-country a nd t he r eturn t rip f ollowed t he m ost c onvenient r oads a nd p aths. B y c omparing t he o utgoing a nd i ncoming t imes a r easonable a pproximation o f p rehistoric t ravel-time c ould b e o btained. S urvey S trategy: O nce t he a rea was d elimited, t he f ollowing s urvey s trategy w as a dopted: 1 ) a n a rea o f c a. 2 s q.km. b ounded b y e asily r ecognized f eatures, i s b riefly r econnoitered. 2 ) s tarting a t o ne e nd o f t he c hosen a rea, t ransects a re w alked e very 1 5m a cross t he c ountryside, b etween e asily i dentified t opographic f eatures. 3 ) w hen t he e ntire 2 k m. a rea h as b een c overed, t he t eam m oves o n t o a n ew 2 s q.km. a rea a nd t he p rocedure i s r epeated. W hen a s ite i s l ocated t he f ollowing s teps a re t aken :

1 )

t he

l imits o f t he s ite a re d etermined b y t he s herd s catter a nd t he o ccurrence o f a rchaeological f eatures. 2 ) t he c ircumference o f t he s ite i s p aced o ut. 3 ) t he s ite i s p lotted o n a 1 :5000 m ap. 4 ) d epending o n t he s ize o f t he s ite 2 o r m ore a rtifact d ensities a re t aken.

A n a rbitrary d ensity o f f our a rtifacts p er s ampling u nit i s

3 01

r equired b efore a n a rea i s c alled " site"; i f t his d ensity i s n ot m et t he a rea i s t ermed " scatter". T he s ampling u nit i s d efined b y a 7 0 c m . r adius. 5 ) a g eneral r econnaissance o f t he s ite i s c arried o ut a nd d iagnostic a rtifacts a re c ollected, b agged a nd l abeled.

6 )

t he s ite i s r ecorded o n t he s urvey f orm . 7 ) t he s ite i s p hotographed i f p ossible. 8 ) a ll a rtifacts a re washed, l abeled a nd s tored a t t he K hania Museum. I nterdisciplinary S tudies:

I n a ddition t o t he s urvey p roper a ll

p reviously k nown a rchaeological s ites i n t he v icinity h ave b een v isited ; a p roject t o r ecover g eological a nd b otanical i nformation w as l aunched i n J uly 1 979 w ith D rs. G eorge R app a nd J ohn G ifford f rom t he A rchaeometry L aboratory, U niversity o f M innesota. S ix e arth c ores w ere t aken f rom d ifferent l ocalities w ith t he h ope o f o btaining material f or p hytolith a nd p ollen s tudies, a s w ell a s i ns ights i nto t he l ocal a lluviation h istory a nd c oastal m ovements. S amples have a lso b een t aken f rom l ocal c lay s ources f or p ottery p rovenience t esting b y D r. R ichard J ones. A s tudy o f t he m odern v egetation w ill b e c arried o ut i n J uly 1 981 w ith D r. O liver R ackham . R esults: T hirteen m onths o f f ield s urvey h ave n ow b een c ompleted a nd o ver o ne h alf o f t he s urvey a rea has b een c overed i ntensively a nd s ystematically. T he r egion s o f ar e xamined h as r evealed a n a bundance o f s mall a nd s everal l arge p rehistoric s ites d ating f rom L ate N eolithic t o L ate M inoan I II. T his i s r emarkable f or t wo r easons: 1 ) m ost s cholars h ave c laimed t hat w est C rete w as o nly s parsely p opulated, i f a t a ll, p rior t o L ate M inoan I II. 2 ) t he a rea t hat h as b een i nvestigated, t he Akrotiri p eninsula n orth o f S oudha B ay, i s t oday a nd was i r . t he p ast t he l east a griculturally p roductive z one i n t he s urvey a rea. T he r ecognition o f o bsidian w orking s ites i s a lso n oteworthy s ince h eretofore t his t ype o f s ite w as u nknown o n C rete. I t w ould b e p remature t o make a ny d efinitive s tatements c oncerning t he s ettlement p atterns o f t he K hania a rea; n evertheless s everal t entative o bservations c an b e made a t t his t ime a bout t he A krotiri p eninsula: 1 ) A mong t he F inal N eolithic a nd E arly M inoan o pen s ites, t here i s a p reference f or c oastal l ocations. 2 ) A ll o f t he o bsidian s ites a re c oastal a nd a re a ssociated w ith F inal N eolithic a nd E arly a nd M iddle M inoan p ottery. 3 ) I n M iddle M inoan I s mall i solated s ites, p ossibly s mall f arms, b egin t o a ppear i n t he i nterior o f t he p eninsula a s w ell a s a long t he c oast. B y M iddle M inoan I II L ate M inoan I t he n umber a nd v ariety o f s ites s eems t o i ncrease d ramatically. 5 ) L ate M inoan I II s ites o ccur i n c lusters; u sually a s ettlement s urrounded b y s maller s ites, p ossibly f arms. T here a re t wo g aps

i n t he s ettlement p attern s o f ar d escribed

- M iddle Minoan I I a nd L ate M inoan I I - t he f act t hat t hese p eriods h ave n ot b een i dentified d oes n ot m ean t hat t hey d id n ot e xist, but m ore l ikely t hat o ur p resent k nowledge o f t he c eramic s equence d oes n ot p ermit t heir d efinition.

3 02

S URFACE S URVEY F OR P REHISTORIC A ND E ARLY H ISTORIC S ITES I N N ORTHWESTERN T URKEY M ehmet O zdogan

L ocation : Mainly i n T urkish T hrace w ith s ome e cologically r elated a rea o n t he A siatic s hores o f t he B osphorus a nd t he S ea o f M armara. D ates: A ctual w ork i n t he f ield was i nitiated i n t he S pring o f 1 980 a nd c ontinues w ith i ntervals. A t otal o f 8 3 d ays w ere s pent i n t he f ield. A n i ntensive f ield p rogram h as b een s cheduled f or t he s ummer o f 1 982. P rincipal I nvestigator:

M .

*

O zdogan,

D epartment o f P rehistory,

I stanbul. F unding S ource :

N ational G eographic S ociety,

a nd a lso s ome

c ontribution f rom American R esearch I nstitute i n T urkey

( ARIT).

R esearch G oals: N orthwestern T urkey i s a n atural b ridge b etween t wo c ulturally a nd h istorically d istinct r egions, t he N ear E ast a nd E astern E urope. T his r egion , i n s pite o f t he s ignificance o f i ts l ocation, h ad n ever b een i nvestigated e xcept f or m inor r ecordings. T he l ack o f a rchaeological i nformation f rom t his r egion h as l ed t o s peculative i nterpretations f or t he c orrelation o f p ast r elations b etween A sia a nd E urope. A ccordingly, t he s urvey a ims a t f inding n ew e vidences f or: a - c orrelating t he e arly s equences o f E astern E urope w ith t he N ear E ast, b - d ocumenting a ny k ind o f h uman r elation, s uch a s t rade, c ultural c ontact, m igration o r i nvasion , l ikely t o t ake p lace b etween t he t wo c ontinents, c - r econsidering v arious h ypotheses o n d iffusion a nd e volution, d - e stablishing t he p rehistoric s equence o f t he r egion. M oreover, a s a ll o f t he r egion i s n ow u nder i mmediate t hreat f rom e xpanding u rban, i ndustrial a nd t ourist c enters a nd n ew d am r eservoir a reas, t o c over a ll k inds o f r emains o f a ll p eriods h as b ecome a n i nevitable t ask f or t he s urvey. A ccordingly, a f ile o f s ites b y a s f ull a d ocumentation a s p ossible a nd a n a rchive o f s herds h ave b een i nitiated. S urvey S trategy:

A s

t he a rea i s b ig,

i t was p lanned t o c oncentrate

o n s elected z ones t hat e ither h ad t he g reatest p otential o f y ielding e vidence f or t he a bove mentioned p roblems, o r w ere u nder m ore i mmediate t hreat o f m odern d estruction. A ccordingly, a - d irect c ontact z ones o f t he t wo c ontinents, t hat i s t he c oastal a reas o f T hrace a nd t he r egions a round t he B osphorus a nd D ardanelles, b - i nterior p arts o f T hrace t hat a re l ess o pen t o i nfluences f rom A sia M inor, t o e stablish t he main c ultural s equence o f T hrace, c - o n t he A sian s ide, v alleys a nd b asins a long t he n atural r outes j oining t he S ea o f M armara a nd t he s traits w ith C entral A natolia, f or s imilar r easons, h ave b een s elected a s p ilot w orking a reas.

3 03

F ield M ethodology :

D uring t he i nitial s tages o f t he s urvey,

" how t o

l ocate t he s ites" was a d iscouraging p roblem , a s i n T hrace , t here a re n o e asily d istinguishable m ound f ormations. T his i s p artly d ue t o c onstant s hifting o f t he s ettlement l ocations a nd a lso t o t he u se o f p erishable b uilding materials. M oreover, i ntensive f ield p lanting a nd t he n atural g reen c over o f T hrace w ere n egative f actors a ffecting t he e fficiency o f t he s urvey. A sking l ocal v illagers t urned o ut t o b e a lmost u seless a s i t l ed m ainly t o h istoric s ites a nd t o t umuli. O nly a fter e xtensive walking i n t he a rea d id i t b ecome c lear t hat m ost o f t he s ites h ad b een p artly o r c ompletely b uried u nder r ecent a lluvial d eposits. T hese b uried s ites c ould o nly b e d etected i f t hey h ad b een c ut t hrough b y n atural o r h uman a gency. C onsequently, t he l ocating o f a s ite l argely d epended u pon c hance. S ometimes i t was d ifficult t o c ollect a s ufficient q uantity o f s urface m aterial. S ystematic c ollecting was n ot p ossible. I nterdisciplinary S tudies: A p hotogrametric s urvey o f t he m egalithic m onuments a nd o f t he w attle-and-daub c onstructions w ill b e u ndert aken i n 1 982. I t i s a lso a nticipated t hat a t eam o f g eomorpholog ists w ill j oin t he s urvey i n 1 982. R esults: D uring t he s urvey 9 3 p rehistoric s ites, r anging f rom L ower P alaeolithic t o I ron A ge, h ave b een r ecorded a nd d ocumented. T he s ites i nclude a f ew m ounds, " flat s ettlements" ( used i n t he s ense o f t he G erman F lachsiedlung), s urface c oncentrations a nd s catters. B esides t hese 7 6 m egalithic m onuments ( mainly t he s o c alled " dolmens"), 2 65 l ate s ites a nd t umuli w ere a lso d ocumented. P reliminary e valuation o f t he d ata i ndicates, o n t he c ontrary t o p revious a ssumptions, t hat T hrace a nd p a -_ ticularly t he S ea o f M armara h ave a cted m ore l ike a c ultural b arrier t han a b ridge f or t ransmission o f i deas a nd p eoples. P roblems:

B esides t he a bove m entioned p roblems o f s ite l ocating,

s urface c ollecting a nd s ite t reatment, i nference a nd i nterpretation o f t he r esults, o r r ather o f t he i ndications d erived t hrough p reliminary a ssessment o f t he d ata a re v ery p roblematical. S ome o f t he p rehistoric p eriods a re w ell r epresented, w hile o thers a re c ompletely m issing. T he d iverse c haracter o f t he a ssemblages f rom t he A sian a nd E uropean s hores o f t he S ea o f M armara a re v ery s triking a nd a waits l ogical e xplanation, a s b y n o m eans n either t he S ea o f Marmara n or t he s traits a re u npassable n atural b arriers. W hether o r n ot t his h as s ome r elevance t o t he p articular g eomorphological s tructure o f t he r egion, f urther r esearch w ill i ndicate. R eferences: O zdogan, M ., 1 981, N ew E vidences o n t he P rehistory o f N orthwestern T urkey, N ational G eographic S ociety R esearch R eports. O zdoean , M .,

1 982,

D ogu M armara v e T rakya B ölgesi A rastirmalari,

1 981

Y ili 9 a1i9malari, T urk A rkeoloji D ergisi. O zdogan , M ., 1 982, T ilkiburni, A L ate C halcolithic S ite i n E astern T hrace,

A natolica.

3 04

1 ( 15

R ESEARCH S TRATEGIES I N T HE L OWER MAEANDER V ALLEY I N S OUTHWESTERN T URKEY:

R EGIONAL S ETTLEMENT

PATTERNS F ROM T HE E ARLY BRONZE AGE T O T HE M IDDLE B YZANTINE P ERIOD R onald T .

D ates:

M archese

1 970-1980

F unding S ources: N ational S cience F oundation; f or t he Humanities

F ord F oundation;

N ational E ndowmen t ;

G oals: R egional s urvey o f t he l ower Maeander a nd t he c onstruction o f multil evel human d istribution p atterns t hrough a s trict a pplication o f l ocation t heory market a nalysis,

a nd g ame t heory.

M ethodology: D etailed C atalogue o f o bserved a rchaeological m aterial t o o btain a n h ierarchical c lassification o f s ites f rom t ypical v illages

t o

c lassically d efined c ities. E arth S ciences: E nvironmental i mpact o n human h abitation p atterns a nd g eographical c onsiderations

( soil t ypes,

t hrough g eological

h ydrology,

e tc.)

o f

t he l imited s pace a vailable f or human s ettlement. I n t he l ate 1 950's a nd e arly 1 960's J ames Mellaart a nd S eton L loyd c onducted e xtensive f ield s urveys i n s outhwestern a nd s outhern A natolia.

S uch r esearch c ontinued u nder t he d irection o f D avid

F rench i n t he l ate 1 960's a nd e arly 1 970's, western c oastal p lains a nd r iver s ystems.

e specially f or t he H owever,

e ach f ailed t o

i nclude t he L ower M aeander R iver V alley e ither i n t heir s ystematic s urvey s trategies o r i n t he p ublication o f o bserved p atterns o f h abitation f or t he r egion f rom t he E arly B ronze Age t o t he M iddle B yzantine P eriod.

T he C lassical, Hellenistic,

R epublican,

R oman

I mperial a nd B yzantine p eriods a re well-documented i n e pigraphic, n umismatic, a nd t extual s ources. T he l atter i ncludes e xtensive r emarks b y H erodotus, P olybius, S trabo, D iodorus, P liny, P tolemy, S tephanos,

H ieroclis,

E piscopatuum.

a nd t he c ompilers o f t he N otitiae G raecae

P re-Classical e vidence i s e xclusively b ased o n a

m yriad o f c hance f inds, o bserved s ites, a nd -l imited e xcavations e xcavations which a re o nly n ow c larifying p re-Classical s ettlement g rowth i n t he v alley. i ndicates

P reliminary a nalysis o f t he L ower Maeander

t hree major s ettlement p atterns o r d istributions:

( 1)

l inear p rogression a long t he major a rteries o f t he r egion; ( 2) c lustering i n f avorable e nvironmental z ones; a nd f inally ( 3) e ven a nd/or d ispersal. T he l atter i s e vident i n t he T avas p lateau o nly. S ince t he L ower M aeander i s a c ompact r egional z one, i t i s p ossible

3 07

t o c onstruct h ypothetical m odels

t o e xplain o bserved p henomena.

S uch m odels - C ircular S ite C atchment A rea , G rid P attern A nalysis, a nd T hiessen P olygon - d efine u rban t erritories w hich i n t urn l ead t o a r ank-size d istribution o f s ites a nd t he m aximum t heoretical p opulations e ach c ommunity s upported a ccording t o t he a vailability o f n atural r esources a nd t echnological e fficiency. A d istribution s tudy o f t he L ate B ronze A ge i n a nd n ear t he v alley w ould e mphasize o nly t hose a reas w here s ome f orm o f i nvestig ation a nd d iscovery h as t aken p lace. S uch d ata w ould a ppear i n d irect c ontrast t o t he t otal a rea a nd n umber o f s ites w here e xtensive h uman h abitation h as a ctually e xisted. U nfortunately, t he t otal n umber o f h abitation s ites a nd e specially s ites y ielding L ate B ronze A ge m aterial r emains s mall. T his p oint i s d ue t o t he f act t hat t here h as b een n either a d etailed a nd s ystematic t opographical s urvey o f t he l ower M aeander b asin, n or a n a nalysis ( or e ven a r ecogn ition) o f s pecific c eramic t ypes f rom a n i ntensive s urface c ollection . T he l atter i s o f p rime i mportance i n t he e stablishment o f r egional t ypologies,

c eramic d istributions i n a l imited g eographical c ontext,

a nd f inally a c omparison w ith c ultural m aterial f rom n eighboring r iver b asins i n w estern a nd s outhwestern A natolia. T hese f actors s everely l imit o ur k nowledge, a nd h amper t he i nvestigation a nd a nalysis o f t he L ate B ronze A ge i n t he l ower M aeander v alley. T wo c ultural t raditions a nd ( ceramic )

p rovinces a re e vident i n

t he l ower Maeander v alley d uring t he L ate B ronze A ge: s outhwest A natolian ( exemplified b y t he t ype-site o f B eycesultan ) a nd A egean ( expressed i n t he p resents o f M ycenaean c enters a nd r emains). T hus, t he c eramic e vidence f or t he v alley i ndicates t wo w ell e stablished t raditions w hich h ave a p rofound a ffect o n t he i ndigenous L ate B ronze A ge c ultures o f t he l ower M aeander. A lthough a d etailed a nalysis i s p ossible, b een a ccomplished i n t he l ower M aeander.

l ittle h as a ctually

T his i s

c ertainly e vident

f or t he p re-Classical d istribution o f s ites i n t he r egion . E arly a nd M iddle B ronze A ge p atterns i ndicate t he e arliest k nown r eference p oints f or t he r egion. T his, h owever, i s n ow b eing q uestioned . T he L ate B ronze A ge i s a lso i mperfectly u nderstood.

3 08

LE SB O S

AN D R U ,

CYCL A DE S PAR O

WESTERN ANATOLIA -

APP R OXI M A T E

AR E A

OF ST U D, '

LA KE S *

M A R S H LA N D - RE LI EF, . ME T E R S )

F ig.

I

M ap o f Western A natolia,

T urkey s howing l ocation o f

t he l ower M aeander d rainage b asin a nd t he a rea o f s tudy.

3 09

ARCHAEOLOGICAL S URVEY I N T HE K EBAN R ESERVOIR A REA,

T URKEY

R obert W hallon

T his s urvey w as c onducted i n 1 967 b y R obert W hallon, o f t he U niv ersity o f M ichigan M useum o f A nthropology, a nd S önmez K antman, t hen o f t he P rehistory S ection, F aculty o f L etters, I stanbul U niversity. T he f ieldwork w as a j oint p roject o f t hese t wo i nstitutions. L abor atory a nalysis o f t he c ollected m aterials w as c arried o ut s ubsequently, i n 1 968 a nd 1 970, u nder t he d irection o f R obert W hallon. B oth f ield a nd l aboratory w ork w ere s upportel b y t he N ational S cience F oundation u nder g rants G S-1618 a nd G S-3025. T he r esearch s trategy w as t wo-fold. I n t he f irst p lace, a n e ffort w as m ade t o c over t he m ajor a reas o f p rehistoric s ettlement w ithin t he f uture r eservoir a s t horoughly a s p ossible, a ttempting t o l ocate a ll s ignificant h abitation s ites i n t hese a reas. T o t his e nd, a c ombinat ion w as u sed o f s ystematically d riving a long a ll r oads t hrough t hese a reas, s ystematically w alking o ver p ortions o f t he a reas n ot e asily a ccessible b y r oad o r v isible f rom t he r oads, a nd q uestioning o f l ocal v illagers a bout t he o ccurrence o f a rchaeological m aterials i n t he s urrounding c ountryside. I n t his p art o f t he s urvey w e d id n ot t ry t o s ample t he a reas c overed, b ut r ather t ried t o a ttain a s c omplete c overage a s p ossible. T he s econd a spect o f t he s urvey w as t he p lanned c ollection o f s urface m aterials f rom a ll s ignificant s ites a t which t his w as p ossible. E arlier w ork,

i n 1 963,

h ad s ugg sted t hat s uch p lanned c ollection,

e ither r andom o r s ystematic, c ould r eveal m uch a bout t he s ize, l ocat ion, a nd n ature o f o ccupation l evels w ithin t he t ypical o ccupation m ounds i n t his p art o f t he w orld.

( Whallon 1 980).

I n t he f irst p hase o f t he s urvey, t hen, a " general" c ollection o f s urface materials w as made, a nd a s urvey f orm w as f illed o ut w ith i nformation o n s ite l ocation, t ype ( mound, s urface s catter, r uin, e tc.), p resent c ondition, a nd s ize, a ccompanied b y s ketches o f t he s ite p lan a nd e levations. A p reliminary a ssessment o f t he m aterials i n t he g eneral c ollection g ave a n i nitial i dentification o f t he p eriods o f o ccupation r epresented. A ll o f t his i nformation w as r ecorded i n T urkish, a nd c opies o f t his d ocumentation w ere d eposited b oth a t I stanbul U niversity a nd a t t he U niversity o f M ichigan. I n t he s econd p hase o f s urvey, a d etailed, m easured m ap w as m ade o f e ach s ite o n w hich p lanned s urface c ollections w ere t o b e m ade. F ive d ifferent k inds o f p lanned s urface c ollection w ere t ried, s ome p roviding s ystematic c overage, s ome b eing r andom s amples o f t he s urfaces o f t he m ounds t hus s urveyed. S everal r apid a nd e fficient m ethods o f l aying o ut s uch c ollection s chemes i n t he f ield w ere d evised.

T hese c ollections b rought i n m any a rtifacts,

o ften m any

t housands f rom o ne s ite, r epresenting u p t o s everal h undred c ollection s quares o n l arge s ites. T he l arge q uantities o f m aterial r equired a s ubstantial i nvestment o f t ime i n t he l aboratory a nd c omputer c enter f or c lassification a nd, e ventually, m apping o f t he d istributional p atterns o f m aterial o f d ifferent p eriods o n e ach s ite. T he m aterials c ollected b y t he s urvey w ere d eposited w ith t he E lazig-

3 11

H arput Museum i n E lazig, T he r esults

T urkey.

o f t he s urvey,

i ncluding a ll t he d istributional m aps

i ndicating t he extent o f o ccupations o f v arious p eriods o n a ll t he s ites a t w hich p lanned s urface c ollections w ere m ade, h ave b een p ublished r ecently M allon 1 979). T he v alue o f p lanned s urface c ollection h as b een d emonstrated t horoughly.

S uch c ollections h ave

a llowed b oth t he c onstruction o f a s eries o f s ettlement p attern m aps,

s howing t he d istribution o f s ettlements b y s ize c lass f or

e ach major p eriod,

a nd t he e stimation o f r elative e xtent o f o ccupation

( a p resumed m easure o f r elative s ize o f p opulation) w hole

i n e ach p eriod.

a nd e fficiency o f

A n e valuation o f

i n t he a rea a s a

t he r elative e ffectiveness

t he d ifferent p lanned s urvey m ethods u sed w as

p ossible o n t he b asis o f t hese r esults.

B riefly, w ell-spaced,

s ystematic c overage was m ore e fficient a nd o ften m ore e ffective i n p roviding t he a bove r esults t han t he r andom s ampling s chemes. H owever, t he r esults o f a ll

t he p lanned c ollections

l argely h ave b een

c orroborated by s ubsequent e xcavations o n a number o f s ites.

1A ny

o pinions,

f indings,

a nd c onclusions o r r ecommendations

e xpressed i n t his publication a re t hose o f t he a uthor a nd d o n ot n ecessarily r eflect t he v iews o f t he N ational S cience F oundation. R eferences: W hallon, R . 1 979. A n A rchaeological S urvey o f t he K eban R eservoir A rea o f E ast-Central T urkey. A nn A rbor: M emoirs o f t he Museum o f A nthropology, W hallon,

R .

J r.,

U niversity o f M ichigan,

1 980.

T he S ystematic

N umber 1 1,

1 979.

C ollection a nd A nalysis o f

S urface Materials f rom a P rehistoric S ite i n S outheastern A natolia. I n T he J oint I stanbul-Chicago U niversities' P rehistoric R esearch i n S outheastern A natolia, e dited b y H . C ambel a nd R . B raidwood, L etters,

N o.

2 589,

p p.

2 07-238.

I stanbul U niversity,

1 980.

3 12

F aculty o f

\7

X I L I 1 — C r L I C l .

C r 0 0 > W u i u i 0 0 W

R IVER

( I ) W C L

MURAT

c o

a .

0 a )

c u

> a 0

z i e c n w m

C f ) 0 C U

. ( 7 1 C

t he a reas

R ESERVO IR

•

—›

-.°

o ' c l i

e

. . r .

b o

Z

3 13

1M IK

• , 1 1 4

L OWER E UPHRATES A REA S ALVAGE P ROJECT M ehmet O zdogan

L ocAtjün: I n S outhern T urkey, i n a 4 00 k m . l ong s tretch a long t he E uphrates t o t he s outh o f t h9 K eban D am R eservoir a rea. T he s urvey a rea c omprises 6 75 m illion m , a n a rea t o b e f looded b y t he K arakaya a nd K arababa ( now c alled A tatürk ) d ams. D ates:

A pril t o J une 1 977.

P rincipal I nvestigators: M . Ö zdogan a nd S . H armankaya, o f P rehistory, U niversity o r I stanbul. F unding S ource : L ower E uphrates P roject M iddle E ast T echnical U niversity.

D epartment

( former K eban P roject),

R esearch G oals: A s t he s urvey w as i nitiated t o ' b e t he f irst s tage o f a l arge s cale r escue p roject, t he m ain p urpose o f t he e xpedition w as t o s upply t he b asic i nformation f or f uture e xcavations. H owever, a s i t w ould n ot b e p ossible t o c arry o ut r escue o perations o n m ost o f t he s ites, d ocumentation o f t he s ites was m ade i n s uch a w ay t o p rovide t he r eassessment o f t heir d ata i n t he l ight o f f uture e xcavations. A ccordingly, a - a ll t ypes o f s ettlement s ites a nd r emains f rom t he P alaeolithic P eriod t o t he e nd o f M iddle A ges w ere r ecorded, b - i nformation o n t he n atural

, . avironment w as g athered s o t hat t he

s ites t o b e f looded without p rior e xcavation c ould b e a ptly e valuated i n t he f uture. S urvey S trategy:

O wing t o t he w ide a rea t o b e f looded b y t he d ams

a nd t o t he l imited t ime r eserved f or t he s urvey i t was n ot p ossible t o make a n e qually t horough e xploration o f e very r egion. A s t he s urvey was i mplemented t o p rovide t he n ecessary i nformation t o e nable e xpeditions i ntending t o w ork i n t he a rea t o s elect s uitable s ites, r egions w hich s eemed s uitable f or l arge m ounds w ere g iven p riority. I t was a ssumed t hat s maller s ites t hat n eeded l ess t ime f or r escue o perations,

c ould well b e r ecovered i n t he c ourse o f

f urther i nvestigations i n t he r eservoir a reas. F ield M ethodology : I n v iew o f t he a bove m entioned a ims, i n t he m ost p romising a reas, e xploration o n f oot was d one b y t he t eam s preading o ut o ver t he c ountry a t p articular i ntervals. I n s ome p arts o f t he r egion , a sking i nformation f rom t he v illagers w as v ery h elpful. U pon t he l ocation o f a s ite, t he t eam a ssembled t o c ollect a nd d ocument.

D ocumentation o f m ajor s ites i nvolved t he f ollowing

i ssues: a - D rawing o f s ketches, p lans a nd s ections b - L ocating t he e xact p osition o f t he s ite t o s cale 1 :25.000 c- D escribing t he l ogistic d ata, n atural e nvironment, a rtifact d istribution a nd p hotography. d -W hen p ossible, s urface c ollection was made a ccording t o c ontrolled u nits a nd was, m oderately, i ntensive. M ethods o f s ystematical s urface c ollecting a ccording t o g rid o f s quares, b ands o r s trips w ere n ot e mployed i n t his s urvey, 3 15

a s t hey h ad

b een t ested o n a n umber o f p revious s urveys i n T urkey a nd h ave n ot y ielded v ery p rofitable r esults o n s ites w ith c omplex s tructures. H ere t he c ollecting u nit was s et a ccording t o t he t opographical s tructure o f t he s ite. A fter i ntensive s urface c ollecting a p rel iminary s orting o f t he m aterial was d one o n t he s ite ; t hus t he s urface c ollection i s n ow n ot f it f or s tatistical a nalysis. I nterdisciplinary S tudies:

R egretfully t here w ere n one d uring t he

s urvey. H owever, s ince t he c ompletion o f t he s urvey, n umerous i nterd isciplinary s tudies h ave b een u ndertaken b y t he e xcavation t eams. R esults: I n t he c ourse o f t he s urvey 2 10 s ites h ave b een r ecovered a nd d ocumented. A f ile o f s ites, p hotographs a nd a n a rchive o f s herds h ave b een p repared a nd i s a vailable f or u se i n I stanbul t o a ll i nterested. T he r esults o f t he s urvey h ave i ndicated a n u ninterrupted s equence o f o ccupation f rom l ower p alaeolithic t o t he p resent i n t his a rchaeologically l ittle k nown r egion. T he s urvey b ecame t he b asis f or a n i nternational s alvage p roject i n 1 977, a nd s ince t hen 2 4 t eams h ave b een i nvolved i n t he p roject; 1 8 o f t he 2 10 s ites a re n ow u nder e xcavation. P roblems: I t was n ot p ossible t o make a n e qually i ntensive c ollection o f a ll t he s ites. S ome s ites w ere f ound t o b e c overed b y p lanted f ields,

t hus making s urface c ollecting v irtually i mpossible.

O n t he

o ther h and, s ites w hich d isplayed s ections, o r h ad b een n ewly p loughed o r w ere e xtremely d isturbed a s a r esult o f i llicit d igging y ielded a l arge q uantity o f material. S ince t he a ccuracy o f a ssessment o f s urface m aterial 2 epends t o a g reat e xtent o n t he n umber o f f inds c ollected, i t i s e vident t hat t here a re s ome m ajor m istakes i n o ur i nterpretation o f t he d ata. M oreover, a rtifact y ield o f d ifferent c ollecting u nits o n t he s ame s ite v aried g reatly. F or e xcavations t o s tart a s s oon a s p ossible,

i t b ecame n ecessary

t o h ave t he r esults o f t he s urvey p ublished t hree m onths a fter t he c ompletion o f t he f ield w ork. T he f acts t hat t he m aterial c ollected b elonged t o a v ery e xtensive c hronological r ange, t hat t he p reparat ions f or t he p ublication were l argely c ompleted i n t he f ield w ithout l ibrary w ork, a nd t hat t here were n o p revious w orks o n t he a rchaeological s equence o f t he r egion must h ave l ed t o a n umber o f s hortcomings a nd e rrors i n t he a ssessment o f t he f inds. I t i s a nticipated t hat i n t he f uture, a m ore c orrect a nd e xtensive a ssessm ent o f t he f inds w ill b e a ccomplished i n v iew o f t he e xcavations i n t he r egion b y t hose w ho a re m ore a cquainted w ith t he m aterial. R eference :

Ö zdogän ,

M .,

1 977,

L ower E uphrates B asin 1 977 S urvey,

M ETU L ower E uphrates P roject P ublications,

3 16

S eries I ,

n o.

2 ,

I stanbul.

TUNCEL I HAZG IRT

K EBAN

BARA . 1 1

K a iak o y 4-Se rns iye T ape •

. _ . e .g .

,J ro*

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'

' Cate r Prot K oeke r

MALATYA

L

y e mente m I r narnoipu

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A TATÜ IKK SA L O ( ' (KARABABA ) I , .

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G ri ti l, S arnsat K urban H ay .

° Bo zo vA

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S OK m

Map o f s tudy a rea o f L ower E uphrates A rea S tudy P roject s howing l ocation o f t he t wo r eservoir a reas

3 17

4 1

C N 1

3 18 s urvey c overage.

3 19

t he r eservoir

t he K arababa D am

s urvey c overage.

G AZETTEER O F E ARLY P REHISTORIC N icholas P .

S ITES I N C YPRUS

S tanley P rice

F ieldwork i n C yprus w as c arried o ut b y t he a uthor a lone o ver a period o f e ighteen m onths i n 1 971-2.

I t f ormed p art o f

r esearch f or a d octoral t hesis a t O xford U niversity i n 1 976)

a nd w as

s upported b y a U .K.

S ubsequently s horter p eriods

( submitted

S tate S cholarship.

i n 1 977 a nd 1 978 were d evoted t o c hecking

d etails i n t he f ield f or p ublication o f t he r esearch,

t hese b eing

f inanced b y t he B ritish S chool o f A rchaeology i n J erusalem. The a im o f t he f ieldwork w as t o c ompile a g azetteer o f E arly P rehistoric ( c. 6 500-3000 B .C.) s ites i n C yprus, b ased o n e xisting r eports, p ublished a nd u npublished, a nd o n f ieldwork i n t hen u nsurveyed a reas

t o l ocate u nrecorded s ites.

A p ressing n eed w as t o r elocate t he

m any s ites r ecorded p reviously b ut with i nadequate d etails t o a llow i mmediate r e-identification o n t he g round. T he methods u sed c onsisted o f a rchival a nd m ap r esearch i n t he D epartment o f A ntiquities i n N icosia a nd i n l ocal m useums, b y f ieldwalking s upplemented b y l ocal e nquiry.

f ollowed

F or l ocating s ites

i n h itherto u nsurveyed a reas a r andom s ampling d esign b ased o n 5 km. s quares w as d evised,

b ut h ad t o b e t erminated f or l ack o f r esources

b efore a s tatistically a dequate s ample h ad b een o btained. O nce a s ite w as l ocated, l ocation

C,e

f ollowing d etails were r ecorded:

( verbally a nd b y g rid r eference t o t wo d ifferent m ap

s eries);

e stimated e xtent o f s ite a nd l ocal m icrotopography where r elevent t o s urface material d istribution; a nd d istribution; I n t he c ase o f

s urface material,

a nd m ain f eatures o f

b y t ype,

q uantity

l ocal e nvironment a nd t opography.

i nadequately k nown s ites,

s urface m aterial w as c ollected

a nd d eposited with t he Department o f A ntiquities.

T he c ollection w as

u sually t otal i f material w as s parse ( the majority o f c ased) o r d eliberately n on-selective o ver a s mall a rea i f i t w as p lentiful. T he r esults o f

t he f ieldwork a re p ublished i n E arly P rehistoric

S ettlement i n C yprus: a r eview a nd g azetteer o f s ites, c . 6 500-3000 B .C. - ( British A rchaeological R eports,International S eries 6 5 [ 1979], i n which c .310 s ites/finds a re a ssigned t o t he p eriod. v olume d iscusses s ome o f

T he s ame

t he p ractical a nd i nterpretative p roblems

a rising f rom t he f ieldwork. P ractical p roblems i ncluded o f a " site", ( 3)

( 2)

a s ystem o f

( 1)

t he c riteria f or i dentification

s ite n omenclature a nd r eferencing,

e valuation o f p revious r eports a nd

( 4)

t he c ollection o f

s urface

material. P roblems o f i nterpretation c oncern mainly t he f actors a ffecting t he n ature o f t he s ite s ample, e .g. l andscape c hange, u neven s urvey c overage a nd t he v alidity o f s urface c ollections. B iases i n t he a vailable s ample o f s ites were e xamined u sing d istribution m aps, e stimates o f s urvey c overage i ntensity a nd a nalyses o f s ites b y t ype, d ensity a nd d ate o f d iscovery. v iew o f

t he v alue o f

s urface

I n g eneral t he r eport t akes a c autious

s urvey e vidence f or s ite d istribution

s tudies.

3 21

C ANADIAN P ALAIPAPHOS D avid W .

S urvey a rea:

S URVEY PROJECT

Rupp a nd R oger H .

s outhwestern C yprus

( CPSP)

K ing

( Paphos D istrict):

E zousas,

X eros

a nd Dhiarizos R iver D rainages. F ield S easons: 1 979, 1 980, S easons: 1 981 a nd 1 982. P rincipal I nvestigators:

a nd 1 983 a nd 1 984

D irector:

D avid W .

( proposed);

R upp

S tudy

( Brock University);

L ithics a nalyst: William F ox ( Ontario M inistry o f C itizenship a nd C ulture); C eramic a nalyst: L one W . S Srenson ( University o f C openhagen); C eramic a nalyst: g eographer:

K athy S lane W right

R oger K ing

( Bryn Mawr C ollege);

( University o f W estern O ntario);

U rsala F ranklin a nd S andra Z acharias F unding:

P hysical S lag a nalysts:

( University o f T oronto).

r esearch g rants f rom t he S ocial S ciences a nd Humanities

R esearch C ouncil o f C anada s upplemented b y t he B ock U niversity A rchaeological P racticum a nd v olunteer c rew m embers. R esearch A ims:

C PSP was f ormed t o c ollect d ata o n t he s patial a nd

c hronological d istribution o f h uman o ccupation a nd o ccupation within t he a ssumed c ore r egion

( the t hree r iver d rainages mentioned a bove)

o f t he a ncient k ingdom o f P aphos. K ouklia)

a nd l ater N ea P aphos

F irst l ocated a t P alaipaphos

( modern K ato P hapos).

( modern

T he c hronological

s pan o f human o ccupation c onsidered i s f rom t he P aleolithic t hrough Mediaeval p eriods.

T his d ata will b e u sed t o r econstruct t he s ettlement

p attern o f t he r egion t hrough t ime. a ssist

T he e nvironmental d ata c ollected w ill

i n d etermining t he p ossible f actors t hat a ffected t he s patial a nd

c hronological f luctuations i n t he o bserved s ite d istribution.

A s econdary

a im i s t o l ocate I ron A ge s ettlement s ites i n t he h interland o f t he P aphian k ingdom f or a f uture e xcavation p roject.

T he main g oal o f s uch a p roject

would b e t o d etermine t he d egree o f a cculturation t hat o ccurred i n t he C ypriote material c ulture o f t his p eriod a s a r esult o f c ontact with o ther c ultures i n t he r ural h interland v ersus t he u rban c enter a t P alaipaphos

( modern K ouklia).

S urvey S trategies:

I n t he p reliminary s hort f irst

s eason

( 1979)

a n

i ntensive n on-probabilistic s urvey s trategy w as e mployed t o i nvestigate t he a rea o utside t he p robable l imits o f t he a ncient c ity walls o f P alaipaphos ( Kouklia) t o a d istance o f 5 -8 k m. A pproximately 2 0% o f t his a rea was c overed i nthe s urvey.

T he a reas s elected f or s urvey

w ere d one s ubjectively a ccording t o p roximity t o w ater s ources, l and f orms,

a nd

s uitable a gricultural l and.

p rominent

T he t ransects w ere o f v arying

widths a nd l engths d etermined p rimarily b y t opographical a nd m an-made f eatures. Two c rews o f 5 -6 i ndividuals walked t he t ransects w ith a s pacing o f

3 -20 m .,

d epending o n t he t opography a nd v egetation.

I n t he 1 980 s eason a n e xtensive p robabilisitc r andom s tratified s ampling s trategy w as u tilized t o d raw a 2 0% o verall s ample o f t he E zousas a nd Dhiarizos r iver d rainages. c a.

3 15km 2 .

T he s ize o f t he s tudy a rea i s

T he s imple s tratification was d ivided i nto t hree

s trata: I , a c ore a rea a round w here t he E zousas e nters t he c oastal p lain which i s k nown t o c ontain numerous s ites: I I, l and b elow 1 50m.;

I II,

l and a bove 1 51m.

T he s ample f raction f or I w as 3 23

1 00%,

f or I I,

5 0%,

a nd f or I II,

1 0%.

T he s ample u nits o r q uadrats

w ere 1 k m2 , s ampling q uadrats c orresponding t o t he s ame s ize s quares o n t he 1 :

5 0,000 a nd 1 :

5 ,000 t opographical maps o f C yprus.

T he

s ample s ize w as 6 3 q uadrats p lus 1 0 o thers s elected b y s ubjective means. E ach o f t he f our f ield c rews o f 5 i ndividuals w alked a 1 k m2 a rea i n 6 -8 h ours. T he c rew members walked t wo 1 00 m .x1,000 m . t ransects a z igzagging p attern i n t heir c overage a rea o f t he q uadrat. I n

i n

q uadrats which h ad d ifficult t errain a nd/or d ense v egetation a reas, p rominent l and f orms, w ater s ources a nd a gricultural l and were s urveyed m ore c losely t hen l ess a ccessable a reas.

W hen e vidence o f h uman

o ccupation was f ound t he a rea o f t he c oncentration w as d etermined a nd r epresentative d iagnostic c eramic a nd l ithic a rtifacts w ere c ollected, b agged a nd l abelled. T hese f indspots, s catters o r c oncentrations w ere marked o n a 1 : 5 ,000 t opographical map. S urvey R esults:

T he r esults o f t he 1 979 s eason i ncorporated w ith t he

p reviously k nown s ites r eveal a n i nteresting p attern o f s ettlement w ithin a 7 .5 k m r adius o f P alaipaphos ( Kouklia). T here a re n o P aleolithic o r N eolithic s ites i n t he a rea. T he f irst e vidence o f o ccupation i s i n t he C halcolithic p eriod. o f

A fter a n a pparent d epopulation

t he a rea i n t he E C p eriod a l imited r eoccupation t ook p lace i n t he M C

p eriod.

E xtensive s ettlement b egins i n t he L C p eriod.

d ecreases i n t he C -G p eriod,

i ncreases i n t he C -A,

O ccupation t hen

d ecreases i n t he C -C

a nd f inally s teadily i ncreases f rom t he H ellenistic t hrough L ater R oman p eriods. s harp d ecrease.

I n t he E arly B yzantine p eriod t here i s a n a pparent T he c auses o f t his u p a nd d own p attern o f o ccupation

a ppear t o b e l inked i n p art t o e xternal e vents a ffecting t he i sland. P alaipaphos w as t he c entral p lace o f

t he r egion f rom t he L ate C ypriote

p eriod t hrough t he L ate R oman p eriod. I n 1 980 1 01 s ites w ere i dentified a s w ell a s a myriad o f a rtifact s catters o r c oncentrations. l ate C halcolithic,

T he s ites d ate f rom t he A ceramic N eolithic,

l ater M iddle C ypriote t hrough e arlier L ate C ypriote,

p eriods a nd l ate C ypro-Geometric t hrough T urkish p eriods. C ypro-Archaic p eriod,

T he

t he e arlier R oman t hrough E arly B yzantine p eriods,

a nd t he L ate B yzantine t hrough Lusignan p eriods w ere m ost f requently r epresented. I n t he l ater p eriods, a pproximately t he 1 1th t hrough 1 5th c enturies A .D., t he d ensest o ccupation o f t he t wo r iver c atchments was s een. A number o f t he l ater R oman a nd E arly B yzantine s ites o n t he f oothills o f t he T roodos M ountains w ere a ssociated w ith t he m ining a nd/or p reliminary s melting o f c opper s ulphide o res f rom t he L ower P illow L avas. T he o bvious e bb a nd f low o f h uman o ccupation a nd e xploitation o f t hese r iver d rainages i s a pparently d irectly r elated t o c hanging d emands f or w ild g ame,

a rable l and a nd p asturage, w ater

r esources a nd natural a nd mineral r esources.

T his t entative p attern

c ontradicts p reviously h eld views c oncerning t he h interland o f t he P alaipaphos a nd N ea P aphos v iews which s tated t he a rea t o h ave b een d evoid o f o ccupation o r t o have h ad t he s ame p attern o f s ettlement t hat

i s k nown f or t he o ther a reas o f t he i sland.

A rchaeological P edology o f S outhwestern C yprus

( RHK )

T he r esearch o n t he a rchaeological p edology o f C yprus

s outhwestern

i s a n o utgrowth o f r esearch i nitiated b y t he C anadian

P alaipaphos S urvey P roject. t he s tudy z one i s,

a s y et,

Although

t his i nventory o f s ites i n

i ncomplete t here i s s ufficient d etail t o

3 24

i ndicate t hat

t he p hysical e nvironment o f t he P aphos D istrict h as

e xerted a s trong i nfluence o n s ite l ocations. C onsequently, t he p roposed r esearch w ill f ocus o n e stablishing t he e nvironmental c onstraints

t o t he a rchaeological s ite d istribution a nd i dentifying

t he r egularities

i n t he l ocation o f t he s ites i n t erms o f t he n ature

o f t he l ocal r esource b ase.

O f p articular c oncern t o t his s tudy i s

t he r ole p layed b y t he r egion's s oils a nd s urficial s ediments c reation o f t he r esource b ase o ver t ime. T he s pecific o bjectives o f F irstly,

i n t he

t he p edological s tudy w ill b e a s f ollows.

t o r eview t he a vailable i nformation o n t he s urficial a nd

b edrock g eology, h ydrology,

s oils,

v egetation,

c limate,

s urface- a nd g round-water

g eomorphology a nd p resent l and u se f or t he P aphos D istrict.

T his w ork will be a c ontinuation o f r esearch i nitiated a s p art o f e arlier C anadian P alaipaphos P roject.

S econdly,

t he

t o p repare a r egional

s ynthesis o f t he p resent p hysical e nvironment a s a b asis f or a c onsideration o f t he p otential i mpact o f s ettlement p atterns.

T hirdly,

t his e nvironment o n p ast

t o c haracterize t he p resent-day p otential

f or a gricultural p roduction t hrough a n a nalysis o f t he p hysical, m ineralogical a nd c hemical p roperties o f

t he s oils i n t he s tudy a rea.

T his w ill b e p erformed o n s oil a nd s ediment s amples c ollected d uring f ield r econnaissance a s p art o f t he C anadian P alaipaphos P roject.

S oil

a nd s ediment a nalysis w ill b e u ndertaken i n t he P edology L aboratories a t t he University o f Western O ntario. o f

F ourthly,

t o p rovide a n e stimate

t he r egion's p resent a nd p ast c arrying c apacity t hrough a n a nalysis

o f s oil f ertility, p ractices,

s oil water a vailability,

a gricultural management

c rop y ields a nd a gricultural s ubsistence r equirements.

T he p roposed r esearch w ill b e t imetabled i n t hree p hases. t he f irst p hase, r educed.

D uring

b asic e nvironmental i nformation w ill b e c ollated a nd

T his i nformation c omprises d etails o f t he c limatic

c haracteristics o f t he s tudy a rea which will b e u sed t o c alculate t he a nnual s oil mo i sture b udget.

S oil m oisture c apabilities w ill t hen b e

mapped o n t he b asis o f e xisting s oil a nd s urface g eology d etails. T he s econd p hase o f t he r esearch w ill b e d evoted t o a c haracterization o f t he r egion's p ast a nd p resent a gricultural p otential. T his w ill b e b ased,

i n p art,

o n t he r esults o f a s eries o f l aboratory a nalyses d esigned

t o p rovide a measure o f i nherent s oil f ertility a nd a gricultural manageability.

A lso i ncluded will b e a n a nalysis o f a vailable i nformation

o f e nvironmental c hanges i n t he a rea d uring b oth t he p rehistoric a nd h istoric p eriods, t ogether w ith a n a ssessment o f t he c urrent l and u se d istribution a nd c rop y ields.

I n t he f inal p hase o f

t he p roject a n

a ttempt w ill b e made t o d etail t he e nvironmental c onditions w ithin t he c atchment a reas o f t he s ites p reviously i nventoried d uring t he C anadian P alaipaphos P roject.

T his will l ead t o a r egional s ynthesis o f b oth

t he p ast a nd p resent p hysical e nvironment a nd t he c onstraints a nd p ossibilities i t h as p rovided f or s ettlement s ite l ocation a nd i nteraction. F uture R esearch:

I n t he 1 982 s tudy s eason a ttention will b e f ocussed

o n l ocating t he c hert s ources f or t he p rehistoric a nd h istoric c hipped s tone t ool i ndustries;

c ollecting c opper o re a nd s lag s amples f or

metallurgical a nalysis; m icro-use w ear a nalysis o f t he c hipped s tone t ools; e thnographic r esearch o n t he p roduction a nd r epair o f t hreshing s ledges.

I n t he p roposed 1 983 f ield s eason t he s urvey o f t he E zousas

d rainage will c ontinue u sing a c ombination o f j udgmental a nd s ystematic s ampling s trategies i n o rder t o h ave c overed 5 0% o f t he d rainage i n a n 3 25

e xtensive f ashion.

T he s ites i dentified i n 1 979 a nd 1 980 w ill b e

r esurveyed a nd m apped a nd e xperiments

i n t he r elationship o f t he

s ampling u nit s ize v s t he i ntensity o f c overage a nd t he r esults a s w ell a s t he v ariability o f r esults f rom d ifferent c rews; t he r esearch o n t he p hysical e nvironment o f t he s tudy a rea w ill b e e xpanded t o i nclude d ata o n t he p aleoenvironment; e thnoarchaeological r esearch o n t raditional l and-use p ractices w ill b e c onducted; a nd t he p revious r esearch c omponents w ill c ontinue. I n t he p roposed 1 984 f ield s eason t he t entative m odels d eveloped f or s ite l ocation i n t he v arious c hronological p eriod w ill b e t ested i n t he Dhiarizos r iver d rainage u sing a p urposive s ampling s trategy. will c ontinue.

A ll o ther r esearch c omponent

R eferences: R upp, D .W., 1 981. T he C anadian P alaipaphos S urvey P roject: P reliminary R eport o f t he 1 979 S eason. R eport o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities, C yprus R upp,

D .W.,

1 982.

T he C anadian P alaipaphos S urvey P roject:

O verview o f t he 1 979 a nd 1 980 S easons. c lassique n . s . 1 ( 2): 1 79-185.

C .P .S .P . 1 979 & 1 980 F ie ld S easons 0

1

2

3

4

A n

E choes d u m onde

• f

5

K ILOMETRES

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m IL IA PA M I l m mw drr

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m i l l AP i n A IM M I « N W ep e r ia

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I

I OW I Z E I

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RANDOM SAMPLE M E DI T E R R A N E A N

NON -RANDOM SAMPLE

SE A

1 979 SURVEY AREA P ETRA T OU

F ig.

1

M ap o f C PSP s tudy z one i n P aphos D istrict, t he s urvey d esign i ndicated.

i l l1 1 1 1

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C yprus,

w ith

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.

7 905 • •

7 9 X1

7 9X5 , . I , L I 1

• 7 9X

4

I . 7 901

•

7 906

7 909

7 904

. •

7 9010

11 1 8

7 9011

LEGEND

.79D3 7 9K 1

MODERN V ILLAGE

1 8 7 907 7 908

1 979 S ITES 1 980 S ITES

ME D ITE RR ANE AN

1 982 S ITES

SE A

F ig.

2

S ites f ound b y C PSP d uring 1 979, 1 982 f ield s easons.

3 27

1 980 a nd

B RONZE A GE S ETTLEMENT P ATTERNS

I N S OUTHWEST C YPRUS

S tuart S winy

T he s urvey was c onducted i n August 1 978 a nd c overed a n a rea o f c . 8 5 s quare k ilometers a long t he s outh c oast o f C yprus d ue w est o f Akrotiri P eninsula. I n m ore p recise t erms, t he a rea w as d efined t o t he e ast b y t he K ouris valley, t o t he w est b y t he E vdhimou v alley, t o t he n orth b y a n e ast-west l ine r unning t hrough Anoyira v illage a nd t o t he s outh b y t he s ea. S winy a s p art o f P haneromeni,

T he s urvey w as o rganised a nd d irected b y S tuart

t he K ent S tate U niversity E xpedition t o E piskopi

d irected b y J ames R .

C arpenter.

E piskopi P haneromeni i s a M iddle a nd Late C ypriote l A s ettlement w ith s everal c emeteries n earby a nd t he e xcavation o f t he s ite p rovided t he n ecessary r eference material f or a r eevaluation o f B ronze A ge s ites i n t he r egion.

I n v iew o f

t he numerous

t he q uality a nd q uantity

o f c eramic f inds f rom p lundered c emeteries i n t he E piskopi a rea,

i t

w as e vident t hat a s ystematic s urvey m ight h ope t o p rovide much n eeded i nformation o n t he h abitation s ites where t his p ottery h ad b een m anuf actured a nd u sed.

I t

i s t he p aradox o f C ypriote p rehistoric a rchaeology

t hat n o E arly B ronze A ge a nd o nly 4 t o 5 Middle B ronze Age s ettlements h ave b een i nvestigated a lthough h undreds o f well-furnished c ontemporary r ock-cut c hambers h ave b een e xcavated a nd t housands o f o thers h ave b een l ooted.

We a re p articularly w ell i nformed a bout t he f unerary

c ustoms p racticed b y t hese p eople,

b ut k now p ractically n othing a bout

t he c ulture o f t he l iving. T he p rimary g oal o f t he s urvey w as t o d etermine whether t he M iddle C ypriote a nd L ate C ypriote L A s ettlements a t P haneromeni w ere t ypical c ommunities w ithin a l arger f ramework, t o b etter o ur u nderstanding o f t he s ites' e nvironment - e specially i ts r elationship t o c ontemporary s ettlements,

a nd f inally t o i solate t he l ocal B ronze A ge s ettlement

p attern. I n v iew o f t he f act t hat t he E piskopi a rea h as l ong b een k nown t o b e r ich i n s ites,

b efore s tarting w ork i n t he f ield a ll e xisting r ecords

w ere c arefully s tudied. l ocated b y o ne o f 1 )

A ll t he B ronze A ge s ites i nvestigated w ere

t he f ollowing means:

T hrough i nformation c ontained i n t he C yprus S urvey r ecords - p ublished

a nd u npublished ( 7 s ites). 2 ) T hrough i nformation o btained f rom l ocal r esidents o r h elicopter p ilots ( 6 s ites). 3 ) T hrough i nformation o btained b y means o f t he a rchaeological s urvey ( 6 s ites). With r eference t o t he l atter c ategory o f s ites,

t ime a nd t he

r esources a vailable f or t he s urvey d ictated t hat w e c oncentrate o ur e fforts o n p otentially r ewarding a reas, i .e. t hose n ear p erennial w ater s upplies a nd a rable l and. H ere s ystematic s urveying t echniques w ere a dopted a nd t he t arget a reas w ere c overed b y t he 6 t eam members w alking a t i ntervals o f a bout 4 m . When a s ite w as d iscovered a ll s herds a nd s mall a rtifacts w ere c ollected, a rchaeological f eatures.

t he r emainder being r ecorded w ith t he

K nown s ites w ere s urveyed i n t his manner, w ith 3 29

e mphasis o n t he r ecording o f n atural a nd a rchaeological f eatures ( architecture a nd t ombs),

t he c ollecting o f r epresentative a rtifacts

a nd p ottery a nd t he mapping o f s ite b oundaries. S ite a nd c emetery p lans were d rawn, e xtensive s herd s amples c ollected a nd o ver 1 000 l ithic a rtifacts w ere r ecorded s tone).

( the l atter f igure e xcludes c hipped

T he c eramic t ypology e stablished a t E piskopi P haneromeni

e nabled t he c hronological s eriation o f C halcolithic I II

( Philia C ulture)

t he s ites w hich s pan t he

a nd L ate C ypriote l A p eriods.

A s a r esult o f t he s urvey w e a re beginning t o u nderstand t he l ocal s ettlement p attern, t erms.

I t will b e m ost

b oth i n c hronological a nd g eographical

i nteresting t o c ompare t hese r esults w ith

v arious o ther s urveys i n p rogress o n t he i sland. R eference: S winy,

S .,

1 981.

S ettlement P atterns

i n S outhwest C yprus.

L evant

1 3:51-87.

C arobs & o lives i ntercropped w ith c ereals C arobs & o lives w ith s ome p ine L ow d ense s crub

c e 4 1 1 1 1 f l i o

V illage S ettlement C emetery P erennial, s easonal s tream M ain r oad, t rack

T opog raph i ca l m ap o ft h e E p i shop i a r ea . R a s ed u p on t h e 1 / 50 ,000 T op og raph i ca lS e r i e s K 7 i7 , 1 971 . C r ow n C op y r igh t r e s e rv ed . C on t ou ri n te rva l r c i c )m e t r e s .

F ig.

1

T opographical map o f t he E piskopi

( Limassol D istrict),

C yprus a rea s howing t he l ocation o f a rchaeological s ites d iscovered i n t he s urvey. 3 30

S YSTEMATIC S URVEY I N T HE VASILIKOS VALLEY, L arissa S .

H ordynsky a nd J erald J .

T he V asilikos V alley P roject,

C YPRUS

J ohnson

d irected b y I an T odd o f B randeis

University a nd s ponsored b y t he American S chools o f O riental R esearch, h as b een c onducting multidisciplinary a rchaeological r esearch i n a major r iver d rainage o f s outhern C yprus o f t he p roject

s ince 1 976.

T he o verall g oal

i s t he r econstruction o f man-land r elationships i n t he

v alley f rom t he N eolithic t hrough Mediaeval p eriods, a nd t he b asic d ata o n s ettlement d istributions a re p rovided b y r egional s urvey. T he r ecovery o f s ettlement p attern d ata b egan i n 1 976 w ith a g eneral r econnaissance o f t he v alley. T he methodology e mployed w as i ntuitive,

a nd r esults were b iased b y t he s urveyors'

c erning p ossible l ocations o f p ast h uman a ctivity.

a ssumptions c onA lthough a pproxi-

mately 2 5 s ites a ssociated w ith p rominent t opographical f eatures w ere f ound a long t he main d rainage, s mall s ide d rainages,

i nsufficient a ttention was p aid t o

h ill s lopes,

a nd l ow r iver t erraces,

I n o rder

t o o btain a r epresentative s ample o f a ll t ypes o f t errain w ithin t he p roject b oundaries a m ore s ystematic s urvey methodology w as c learly i ndicated, w riters,

a nd a p robabilistic s ampling s trategy,

d esigned b y t he

was i nitiated i n 1 979.

S ystematic s urvey i n t he Vasilikos Valley c onsists o f t wo-part s trategy.

T he f irst s tage,

n earing c ompletion,

i s a 2 0 p ercent

t ransect s ample d esigned t u p rovide e stimates o f s ite t ype, d ensity.

d ate,

a nd

1 00-meter-wide t ransects h ave b een a ligned i n a n e ast-west

d irection p erpendicular t o t he c ourse o f t he Vasilikos, t he c oastal p lain, r iver f loodplain,

t he s eries o f

t hus c rosscutting

t erraces a nd r idges p aralleling t he

a nd t he s mall s ide d rainages

were s ystematically l ocated e very 4 00 m .

( Fig.

1 ).

T he t ransects

a nd c overage w as i ntensive,

w ith 2 t o 4 s urveyors s paced 1 0 t o 5 0 m a part. During t he 1 979 a nd 1 981 s easons 1 5 o ut o f 2 0 t ransects w ere s urveyed. 3 1 n ew s ites h ave b een i dentified,

t he majority w ithin t he a reas p reviously s urveyed b y

t he i ntuitive methodology. T he s ucceeding s tage o f s urvey i s d esigned n ot o nly t o l ocate a dditional s ites b ut a lso t o r ecover d ata o n t he r elationship b etween s ites o f t he s ame t ime p eriod a nd b etween s ites a nd n atural r esources. T he v alley h as b een s tratified i nto i ts c omponent e cological z ones a nd a q uadrat s urvey u nit a dopted. d ensity e stimators,

q uadrats,

While t ransects a re e xcellent

s ite

w hich maximize t he a rea s urveyed a round

a s ite, p rovide t he n ecessary a ssociational i nformation. O ne s tratum c omprises t he s easonal s ide d rainages o f t he V asilikos R iver, t hree o f w hich h ave b een 1 00 p ercent s ampled t o d ate.

5 n ew s ites w ere r ecorded.

I n 1 983 t he K alavasos c opper mining r egion i n t he u pper v alley,

e xploited

s ince t he B ronze A ge, will b e t he f ocus o f s urvey. T he m ining a rea will b e t reated a s a d istinct e cological s tratum, t o b e s ampled b y r andom g eneration o f

s urvey q uadrats u ntil a 6 0 p ercent s ample f raction i s

a chieved. U tilization o f a v ariety o f s urvey t echniques i n t he V asilikos V alley h as g enerated r eliable d ata o n s ettlement a nd r esource

3 31

u tilization s ystems.

A d efinite p attern o f

s ettlement

i s e merging,

w ith s ites o f d ifferent p eriods a ssociated w ith s pecific e nvironmental f eatures o f t he d rainage. T he g eneral p attern t hrough t ime s hows i nitial s ettlement o n h illtops i n t he l ower v alley, f ollowed b y e xpansion i nto e cologically m ore d iverse a reas p roviding a v ariety o f n atural r esources. R eferences: T odd,

T odd,

I . A ., e t a l., 1 979. V asilikos V alley P roject, A n I nterim Report. R DAC: 3 1-35. I .

A .,

e t a l.,

1 982.

P reliminary R eport,

V asilikos V alley P roject:

1 979-1980.

3 32

J FA 9 ( 1):

6 3-66.

1 977-1978:

F ourth

2 9

4 . 3

VASI L I KOS

1 8

L arna c -a

VALLEY PROJECT

D is tr ict C yprus , S ite D is tr ibu tion

1 7 MODERN V ILLAGE A CERAM IC N EOL ITH IC C ERAM IC 1 6

N EOL ITH IC/ C HALCOL ITH IC

B RONZE A GE ARCHA IC H ELLEN IST IC/ROMAN MED IAEVAL

15

T RANSECTS S URVEYED I N 1 979 C ULTURAL A FF IL IAT ION U NCLEAR I NTERM ITTENT S TREAM D ISTR ICT

14

B OUNDARY

P ART IALLY E XCAVATED

13

1 2 1 3

3

49

1

0 110

9

2 8

/

/ 0 8

40

4 1

1 3

4

MED ITERRANEAN

e

S EA

F ig.

I

Map o f

t he V asilikos v alley

( Larnaca D istrict),

s urvey t ransects a nd l ocation o f s ites. 3 33

C yprus s howing

S URFACE S URVEY O F T HE E ARLY/MIDDLE C YPRIOTE S ETTLEMENT N EAR A LAMBRA V ILLAGE, C YPRUS K enneth W .

D ates:

D ata g athering: S ummer, 1 982.

S ummer,

S chaar

1 981;

a nalysis a nd i nterpretation :

F inancial S upport: R esearch a ssistantships a nd p artial o perating e xpense g rant t hrough U niversity o f T exas a t A rlington G raduate S chool i n c onjunction w ith t he S AED. G oals: T o p erform e nvironmental a nalyses t hat w ould c omplement a rchaeological e xcavation a t p rehistoric A lambra b y t he e xpedition f rom C ornell U niversity . T o o bserve, c ollect, e xamine, a nd i nterpret s urface a nd t opographic e vidence o f human s ettlement a nd o f s upporting n atural r esources. T o t est a s eries o f s pecific a nthropological/planning p ropositions r egarding t he s ocial a nd e cological c ontext o f t he s ettlement, g iving p articular c oncern t o t he i ntra-site a ctivity a reas, h abitation a nd c emetery b oundaries o f t he s ite, a nd e nvironmental c onditions t hat may h ave a ffected t he s ettlement p opulation. T o e stablish a u seful f oundation f or f uture e xcavation w ork a t t he s ite. F ield P rocedures:

D escribe t he l ocal a nd n ear-regional t opography,

v egetation, a nd n atural r esources. E stimate, q uantity, a nd d istribut ion o f a rtifacts f ound s cattered a cross t he s ite. R ecord t he p recise p osition o f e vidence t hat may r epresent t ombs. P ara-archaeological i nvolvement: S ynagraphic C omputer M apping

S tatistical A nalysis S ystem ( SAS);

( SYMAP);

R emote s ensing.

F indings: T he p rehistoric s ettlement w as s ituated a t t he i nterface b etween t wo major e cologic z ones: a n " ecotone" w here t he p opulation c ould h ave d erived o ptimal b enefit f rom a gricultural a nd m ineral r esources w ith m inimal e nergy e xpenditure. A t l east f ive s eparate c oncentrations o f B ronze A ge p ottery a nd w orked s tone t ools w ere f ound o n t he s ite which c overs a bout 3 5 h ectares.

I n c onjunction

w ith s ome o f t hese c oncentrations i s a rchitectural e vidence, f ound i n s ections o f s oft c halk a nd i nterbedded c herts - l ocations w hich n ot o nly p rovided materials f or c onstruction b ut a lso s erved a s s uita ble building s ites.

T ombs w ere c ut i nto l imestone o utcrops t hat

e vidently were c onvenient t o s ections o f h abitation. R eference: S chaar,

K . W .,

1 981.

E nvironmental S tudies i n J .

C ornell E xcavations a t A lambra,

1 980.

3 35

R DAC:

E .

C oleman.

8 1-98

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L EMBA ARCHAEOLOGICAL P ROJECT E .

P rincipal I nvestigator: I nstitution :

D r.

J .

P eltenburg

E .J.

P eltenburg

D epartment o f A rchaeology, U niversity o f E dinburgh

F unding S ources: B ritish A cademy, A rchaeology i n J erusalem .

C arnegie T rust,

B ritish S chool o f

S urvey f orms a n e ssential p art o f t his i nvestigation i nto t he p rehistory o f w est C yprus, b ut t o a l arge e xtent i ts s trategy a nd r esults a re i nteg rated i nto a m ulti-site e xcavation p rogramme. T wo m ajor p hases a re e nvisaged i n o rder t o a ccomplish t his:1 )

S ites A ssessment.

U ntil r ecently o nly t he b riefest o f a ccounts a nd

s urveys d ealt w ith t he p otentially r ich w est, s o t his s urvey p hase s eeks t o r e-locate a nd a ssess p rehistoric s ites w ith a v iew t o e stablishing p referred s ite l ocations, o ccupation a nd a ctivity z ones, d ensity p atterns, v ariations o f s ite t ypes a nd p robable c hronological p arameters. T he l ast w e s eek t o e stablish b y c ross-reference t o o ur 1 4C-dated e xcavation s ites i n t he K tima L owlands. P reliminary w ork f or t his e ntails e xamination o f p ublished r eferences,

c orrespondence w ith

p revious f ieldworkers a nd c onsultation o f r elevant d ata i n m useums a nd t he C yprus S urvey. A n a verage o f 2w eeks e ach y ear f rom 1 976 h as b een d evoted t o t his p hase. 2 )

S elected Z one S urvey.

This p hase i s a rea r ather t han s ite s pecific.

I n t erms o f o ur a ims i t i s n atural t o s urvey i n a reas a round Lemba i tself b ut t he b asis f or s election o f o ther z ones i s d erived f rom c onsideration o f r esults o f ( 1) a nd g eneral t opographic e lements. H ere t he i ntention i s t o t est f or v ariations i n s ettlement p atterns, f or e xample, d esignated a reas a round l arge a nd s mall s ites a nd a round d ifferently l ocated s ites. T o a ct a s a c ontrol a gainst b iases o f p revious s urvey s trategies, where t hey e xisted, a n e ntirely ' virgin' a rea h as b een e xamined a nd t he r esults ( Peltenburg 1 980: 3 9-72) i ndicate m ore e xtensive a nd v aried o ccupation t han h itherto e xpected. T his i nvolved a t eam o f f our w orking f or 1 8 m an d ays i n a v alley t raverse 5 ,miles 2 . E ach f ield i s w alked a t l east o nce, m embers s paced a t c .10m. a nd a ll m aterial i nitially c ollected u ntil a d ecision i s r eached o n c omplete o r d iagnostic-only r ecovery. S ites a re n umbered s equentially; o ther i nformation i s e ntered o nto r ecord c ards a nd r egistered m aterial s ubmitted t o t he C yprus D epartment o f A ntiquities. T his p hase h as n o t ime l imit s ince i t i s i nexpensive a nd c onstitutes a n o utlet f or s tudent f ield t raining. O ur main p roblem i s t o d eal w ith s ites o f a c ertain p eriod i n a n a rea t hat i s t oo l arge t o b lanket s urvey. c ontrols ( above) b ut h ave n ot a reas. N on-prehistoric s ites t herefore i s n ot t o c ompile a p rehistoric s ites, a n a im t he

W e a ttempt t o b uild i n c ertain

y et i nstituted r andomly s elected s urvey a re m ore c ursorily r ecorded. O ur a im c omplete r ecord o f w estern C ypriot s urvey o f i tself c ould n ot a chieve i n

a ny c ase, b ut t o s et t he e xcavated m aterial f rom L emba a nd a djacent s ites i n a b roader c ontext, i ncluding t hat o f l and-use p otentials.

3 37

R eferences: P eltenburg, E .J., e t a l, 1 979. L emba A rchaeological P roject, C yprus 1 976-77, P reliminary R eport. L evant, 1 1: 9 -45. P eltenburg, E .J., 1 979. T he P rehistory o f W est C yprus: I nvestigations 1 976-78. R .D.A .C. :6 9-99. P eltenburg,

E .J.

1 981.

S ome i mplications o f r ecent L emba P roject

C -14 d ates f or t he l ater p rehistory o f C yprus. O ccasional P aper,

K tima L owlands

2 6:

B ritish M useum

2 3-40.

P eltenburg, E .J., e t a l, 1 981. L emba A rchaeological P roject, 1 979: P reliminary R eport, L evant, 1 3: 2 8-50.

3 38

C yprus,

K ATALIONTAS-KOURVELLOS,

C YPRUS:

S U RVEY

O F A S ITE A ND I TS E NVIRONS

T revor Watkins

T he s ite o f K ourvellos l ies i n t he l ands o f t he n ow d eserted v illage o f K ataliontas, n ear t he s till i nhabited v illage o f A naliontas, i n t he e astern f oothills o f t he T roodos massif s ome 2 0km s outh o f N icosia i n C yprus. I t h ad b een r ecognised f or s ome t ime a s a n a ceramic n eolithic s ettlement o f g reat e xtent w hen o ur s urvey w as u ndertaken i n 1 973 o n a s mall b udget r aised i n t he U niversity o f E dinburgh. T he t eam c onsisted o f f ive members, D r. I an M orrison ( topographic s urvey, g eomorphology a nd l anduse s urvey), D r. T revor Watkins ( archaeological s ite s urvey a nd a nalysis o f s urfacec ollected a rtifacts), D rs. C laudine D auphin a nd T om D avidson ( assist ant a rchaeologists) a nd B ob S chneck ( assistant s urveyor). T he g oals o f t he r esearch w ere t o make a s urface s urvey o f t he a rchaeological s ite a nd i ts e nvirons. O n t he o ne h and i t w as i ntended t o d iscover i f t he s ite c ould b e p rofitably e xcavated; o n t he o ther h and i t was s uspected t hat t he a rchaeological d eposit m ight b e a lmost e ntirely s uperficial o r p loughed, a nd t he s urvey e xercise was d esigned t o e xtract t he maximum i nformation a t m inimum c ost f rom t he s urface e vidence. T he t ime i n t he f ield was t hree w eeks, w hich h ad t o i nclude t he r ecording o f a ll t he s urface-collected d ata . T he s trategy was t o m ake a t opographic b ase-map o f t he s ite, t o o btain g eomorphological d ata w hich w ould o n t he o ne h and t ell u s o f t he p ast e nvironment a nd o n t he o ther h and t ell u s h ow r eliable t he s urface a rtifacts might b e a s a b asis f or a rchaeological i nference. F or t he l and-use s urvey nap i nformation w as c ollected, b ut i t w as a lso p ossible t o f ly o ver t he a rea a nd f urther i nformation was o btained t hrough c onversations i n t he v illage o f A naliontas. T he a rchaeological s ite w as r educed t o a s et o f t opographic u nits a nd g rid s quares a s a ppropriate, a nd f inds were c ollected r igorously w ithin t hese c ollection a reas, a nalysed a nd r eturned. G round s tone a nd c hipped s tone a rtifacts c omprised t he a rtif actual r ecord; h ere a nd t here a nimal b one a nd a sh d eposits w ere n oted. A rtifacts w ere p resent i n s uch n umbers o ver t he 1 5 h ectare s ite t hat t he a im o f c overing t he w hole s ite c ompletely h ad t o b e a bandoned. T he g eomorphological i ndications w ere t hat t he a rtifacts h ad n ot b een m oved b y n atural a gencies s ince d eposition, a nd w e w ere t herefore a ble t o u se t he d ata f rom t he s urface-collected a rtifacts a s a b asis f or a rchaeological i nference. G round s tone a rtifacts, n otably s tone b owl f ragments, w ere n ot p resent e verywhere o r i n q uantity, a nd w ere e asily r ecorded. C hipped s tone was c ollected i n v ery l arge q uantities, h owever, a nd p rocessing t he d ay's c ollections was a major t ask . F irst c ame a s imple c ount o f t he n umber o f s truck p ieces p er h undred s quare m etres o f c ollection a rea , g iving u s a n i ndex o f d ensity o f a ctivity i n t erms o f s tone a rtifacts a nd t heir u se.

N ext t he

m aterial was s orted i nto a n umber o f d ifferent c ategories o f c hert a nd o ther m ore l ocal s tones t o g ive u s a s tatistical b ase f or a ssessing w hether t here w as a ny v ariation i n t he u se o f a vailable r aw m aterials f rom a rea t o a rea . R etouched p ieces w ere c ounted a s a p roportion o f

3 39

t he t otal a s a c rude i ndex o f t he i ndustry o r a s a n i ndicator o f d ifferent k inds o f u se o f c hipped s tone. F inally r etouched p ieces w ere a llocated t o t ool-types i n a t ype-list. T he d istribution o f c hipped s tone a rtifacts s eemed t o i ndicate t hat t he w hole s ite w as a ttributable t o o ne i ndustrial t radition . A lthough t here w ere g reat v ariations i n d ensity o f material o n t he g round i t d id n ot s eem l ikely t hat t he s ite r epresented a s eries o f p eriodic e ncampments; r ather i t s eemed t o b e o ne s ingle s ettlement w ithin w hich t here w ere s everal a ctivity f oci. O ne o r t wo o f t he p eripheral f oci s eem t o h ave b een c hipping-floors; o thers w ere a reas o f g eneralised d omestic a ctivity; a nd o ne o r t wo m ore w ere a pparently a reas w here p articular i ndustrial a ctivities w ere p ursued. Among t he s tone t ools was a g eneral l ack o f s ickle b lades o r q uerns a nd m ortars. T his o bservation s eems s trange f or a s upposedly n eolithic c ulture, but a ccords w ell w ith t he b ackward p rojection o f t he l and-use p otential s urvey, w hich i ndicated t hat t he t erriroty o f t he s ite m ight h ave b een g ood h unting o r g razing t erritory b ut h ad l ittle a gricultural p otential.

T his

c onclusion h as b een p ursued f or

i ts i mplications f or t he s ubsistence p attern O f t he C ypriot a ceramic n eolithic c ulture i n g eneral . R EFERENCES: M orrison , I .A ., a nd Watkins, T . 1 975, K ataliontas-Kourvellos: s urvey o f a n a ceramic n eolithic s ite a nd i ts e nvirons. P alestine E xploration q uarterly 1 975:

6 7-75.

W atkins, T . 1 979, K ataliontas K ourvellos: a nalysis o f t he s urfacec ollected d ata, i n V . K arageorghis ( ed.) S tudies P resented i n m emory o f P orphyrios D ikaios. N icosia. W atkins, T . 1 981, T he a ceramic n eolithic o f C yprus: e conomic s tatus a nd c ultural o rigins, J ournal o f Mediterranean A nthropology a nd A rchaeology, 1 : 1 39-49.

3 40

W ADI Z IQLAB S URVEY E dward B .

L ocation : D ates:

W edi Z iglab

B anning

( SW o f I rbid)

2 1 N ovember t o 1 9 D ecember 1 981.

P rincipal I nvestigator:

E dward B . B anning ( Near E astern S tudies,

U niversity o f T oronto, A merican C enter o f O riental R esearch). F unding: S ocial S ciences a nd H umanities R esearch C ouncil o f C anada a nd American S chools o f O riental R esearch ( Albright F ellowship). R esearch: T he b asic g oal o f t he s urvey w as t o r eveal p atterns i n t he l ocation o f s ites o f v arious t ypes w ith r espect t o e nvironmental v ariables w hich m ay h ave a ffected t he c hoice o f t hese l ocations. G iven p articular t ypes o f l and u se, w e w ould e xpect c ertain v ariables t o h ave m ore o r l ess v alue t o t he o ccupants o f t he Z iglab. C hanges i n s ite d istribution w ith r espect t o t hese v ariables m ay r eflect p ast c hanges i n l and u se. D iscovery o f t hese p atterns w ill a lso p ermit p rediction o f t he m ost l ikely l ocations f or p articular s itet ypes i n n earby u nsurveyed r egions w hich w e m ay t est b y f uture f ield w ork a nd w hich m ight a id i n p urposive c ollection o f d ata f or a nalysis. A nother g oal o f i nterest t o t he p rimary i nvestigator w as t o t est f or t he p resence o r a bsence o f l ncient p astoral c amps i n a ssociation w ith a gricultural v illages. I f s uch c amps c ould b e d iscovered w e c ould c ompare t heir d istribution w ith t hat e xpected g iven t raditional m odels o f " nomad a ggression" o r a lternative m odels o f p astorala gricultural mutualism . T he f inal a im o f t he s urvey w as t o p rovide t he A ntiquities D epartment w ith a n a ssessment o f t he a rchaeological i nventory o f t he Z iglab, a nd r ecommendations f or t he p rotection, m anagement o r e xcavation o f s ites r ecorded i n i t. S urvey S trategy:

W ith a s mall c rew,

l imited t ime a nd g oals 2w hich

d id n ot r equire t otal c overage, a 2 0% r andom s ample b y 1 -km q uadrats ( 20 i n a ll) w as s upplemented b y p urposive v isits t o o btrusive s ites a nd i nteresting l ocal e nvironments. A t ransect s ample w ould b e i mpractical b ecause o f h ighly d issected t errain w ith many c liffs a nd t hick f orest w hich w ould make i t d ifficult t o s tay o n c ourse. O nek m2 u nits a pproximated t he s ize o f m ajor t opographic u nits a nd w e u sed t he e xisting T ransverse M ercator g rid. E cological z ones w ithin t he s urvey a rea w ere t oo p atchy t o p ermit s tratification o n t hose g rounds w ithout u sing e xtremely s mall q uadrats. F ield M ethodology : T he c rew o f t hree a dopted t he m ethod o f w alking f our p arallel t ransects a cross t he s quare a s f ar a s t he t opography w ould a llow . T he c rew m embers w ere s eparated b y a bout 3 0m, a nd a pproximately 2 50m s eparated e ach t ransect s trip. A erial p hotographs ( 1: 1 0,000) p ermit u s t o r ecord o ur r outes a ccurately a nd t o m easure t he p roportion o f e ach s trip n ot c ompleted d ue t o q uantitative m easures o f b ias a gainst f eatures l ike c liffs o r m odern t owns,

a nd s imilar

p roportions o f e cological z ones s erve i n w eighting t ests o f a ssociation. A long e ach s trip w e r ecorded a s a s ite a ny c oncentration o f s herds

3 41

a nd a rtifacts s howing d istinct,

b ut s ubjective,

c ontrast,

o r l oci

o f a rchitecture a nd o ther a rtificial f eatures. W e c ollected p urposive s amples o f d iagnostic a rtifacts a nd, o n h igh-density s catters, m ade t otal c ollections f rom a rbitrary 5 m2 c ircles. I nterdisciplinary S tudies:

W e a re i nvolving a b otanist,

s oil s cientist

a nd g eologist a nd h ope t o f ind a g eomorphologist t o a ssess t he p robability o f s ite l oss t hrough e rosion o r c olluviation i n e ach z one. R esults:

T he a rchaeological s urvey d iscovered 1 10 s ites f rom A cheulean

t o A yyubid-Mamluk t imes, i ncluding s catters, t ombs, c isterns, t erraces, s tone e nclosures a nd g aming b oards i n s tone. P roblems:

q uarries,

O ne s herd s catter s eems t o b e t he r esult o f f ertilizing

f ields w ith s oil r ecently d ug f rom a s ite, a nd i t i s d ifficult t o a ssess t he p robability o f o ther " sites" i n o ur s ample b eing s econdary d eposits. R eferences: B anning,

E .B.,

1 982.

A SOR N ewsletter

[ forthcoming].

B anning E . B ., 1 983. A nnual o f t he D e. a rtment o f A ntiquities o f J ordan 2 7 [ forthcoming]. -

3 42

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B AQ c A H VALLEY PROJECT P atrick M cGovern

A s a much-needed f irst s tep t owards d eveloping a w ell t houghto ut a nd e conomical e xcavation s trategy, a t horough a rchaeological s urvey o f t he n orthwestern B aq c a h V alley ( Umm a d-Dananir r egion), c a.

2 0 kms.

1 978,

n orthwest o f Amman, was

c arried o ut i n O ctober-November

e mploying g eophysical p rospecting i nstruments

t ometer a nd r esistometer) t echniques.

( cesium m agne-

a s w ell a s s tandard a rchaeological s urvey

T he p rincipal i nvestigator was D r.

P atrick E . M cGovern,

R esearch S pecialist a t t he Museum A pplied S cience C enter f or A rchaeology ( MASCA) o f t he U niversity Museum o f t he U niversity o f P ennsylvania,

a nd t he p roject was s upported b y t he Museum/MASCA,

N ational G eographic S ociety,

t he

a nd t he J ordanian D epartment o f

A ntiquities. T here w ere t hree p hases s everal w eeks a piece.

t o t he s urvey,

e ach r equiring

1 ) A c esium magnetometer i n a n a bsolute c onfiguration with o ne s ensor was u sed t o l ocate c ompletely s ilted-up L ate B ronze a nd E arly I ron A ge burial c aves. c ollected e arlier,

i t

B ased o n t ests o f s tone a nd s oil s amples c ould b e c alculated t hat

s usceptibility b etween t he c ave f ill

t he a verage m agnetic

( 0.0005 n T m3 / kg)

a nd t he s and-

s tone a nd l imestone b edrock, which s howed a v ery s light s usceptibility, was

s tatistically s ignificant b y t he S tudent's t -test.

A ssuming a n

8 -50 m3 v olume r ange f or t he f illed-in c aves, m agnetic h igh a nomalies b etween f ive a nd f ifty nanot-sla

( nT)

w ere a nticipated.

T he c esium

m agnetometer w ith a 0 .05 nT s ensitivity was e xpected t o d etect t he c omplete r ange o f p rojected a nomalies, a lthough " soil n oise," g eneral b ackground v ariations,

e tc.

m inimize t he s ignificance o f a nomalies

o f 5 n T a nd b elow. T he l ogistics o f t he s urvey i nvolved l aying o ut 5 0 x 1 00 m . w ith c ompass a nd t ransit

g rids

i n r elation t o t he p ermanent b ench m arks o f

t he 1 : 1 0,000 Z arqa B asin m ap,

a nd m aking m easurements i nitially a t a

c oarse r esolution o f e very 2 m . M agnetic i ntensity c ontour m aps a t f ixed i ntervals ( normally 5 n T) w ere d rawn a s s oon a s p ossible, a nd p romising a reas e xplored w ith c loser s ensor s pacings A s h ad b een p redicted, t he f ull r ange o f a nomalies,

( 1 o r 0 .5 m .).

t he c esium magnetometer w as a ble

t o d etect

a nd a s a r esult t hirty-nine s ignificant

h igh a nomalies o f 1 0 n T a nd a bove a nd s eventy-four m inor a nomalies w ere l ocated a nd m apped.

O f t hese,

a 5 x 5 m .,

t he i nitial t est e xcavation i n 1 980. e xcavation, B .C.)

2 0 n T h igh was

T heory w as

c hosen f or

f ully b orne o ut b y

a nd a c ompletely u ndisturbed I ron A ge I A ( ca.

1 200-1050

burial c ave w as d iscovered e xactly i n t he a rea o f t he m agnetic

a nomaly.

T he e lliptically s haped c ave,

c a.

5 x 4m .

i n a rea, w as t otally

s ilted-up a nd f urther s ealed o ff b y s ix-large b oulders b locking t he e ntrance, w hich f aced d ue e ast o nto a f orecourt e ntered b y a r amp. W hen t he g roundplan o f t he c ave a nd f orecourt was s uperimposed o ver t he h igh-resolution 1 m .

m agnetometer g rid,

w ere s een t o f ollow t he

t he m agnetic c ontour l ines

c onfiguration o f c ave a nd f orecourt.

s ome a llowance f or g eometric v ariations,

W ith

t he r ange o f m agnetic v alues

c ould b e s hown t o c orrespond v ery c losely t o c alculated i ntensities f or t he s oil v olumes o f t he

c ave a nd f orecourt.

3 45

M agnetic l ows t o t he

n orth m atched u p w ith l arge b edrock o utcrops w ith a l ower m agnetic i ntensity, w hich w as n ot o ffset b y a ny s urface s oil, a nd w hich w as f urther a ccentuated b y t he a nti-magnetic e ffect o f t he h igh. M ore t est e xcavations o f d ifferent t ypes o f a nomalies a re p lanned f or t he 1 981 s eason. A n a erial s urvey o f t he U mm a d-DanänIr r egion w as a lso c arried o ut i n 1 980, a nd t imed t o t ake f ull a dvantage o f t he d ifferential d rying o ut o f w inter v egetation w hich w as t he m ost a bundant o n r ecord. P reliminary r esults s uggest a g ood c orrelation b etween e xcessive v egetational g rowth a nd m agnetic h ighs; w here b oth o ccur t ogether, t here i s a v ery h igh p robability o f f inding a s ilted-up b urial c ave. 2 ) A G ossen G eohm r esistometer w as u sed f or a n e lectrical r esistivity s urvey o f a p otential L ate B ronze A ge b uilding o f t he Q uadratbau t ype ( cf. t he A mman A irport B uilding) w hich m ight b e a ssociated w ith t he l arge L ate B ronze A ge c emetery. A n a rgument h as b een m ade t hat t he l atter t ype o f s tructure w as c onstructed b y n omadic o r t ranshumant p eoples a nd n ot a ssociated w ith a s ettlement s ite. T he g oal o f r esistometer s urvey i n t esting t his h ypothesis w as t o m ap o ut t he e xtent a nd p articular f eatures o f p otential L BA o ccupational r emains w hich w ould b e l ater e xcavated. T he r esistometer w as t he i nstrument o f c hoice, s ince t he s pecific r esistivity o f s oil f rom n ear t he b uilding w as f ound t o v ary b etween t wenty a nd s ixty o hm-meters, w hich w as m uch l ower t han t he v alues f or l imestone a nd s andstone ( ca. 5 000 o hm-m .) u sed i n t he c onstruction o f b uilding a nd p resumably a t l east f or t he f oundations o f a ny n earby s tructures. T he f our-probe W e 'ner c onfiguration w ith o ne m eter p robe s eparation w as u sed,

a nd a s f or t he m agnetometer s urvey,

5 0 x 1 00 m .

g rids w ere p recisely l aid o ut a nd c ontour m aps ( normally a t 1 0 o hm i ntervals) w ere d rawn u p s oon a fter t he s urvey f or f ollow-up w ork. A reas o f h igher r esistivity w ere l ocated o n a ll s ides o f t he b uilding, w hich m ight b e e xplained a s p robable z ones o f b uried a rchitectural r emains, r ock f all, b edrock i rregularities, e tc. T est s oundings w ere c arried o ut i n 1 980, a nd t he r esistivity r esults a ppear t o c orrelate w ith b edrock i rregularities, s uggesting t hat t he b uilding i s i ndeed i solated f rom a s urrounding s ettlement. H owever, t he p ottery d ating e vidence f rom t he t est s oundings was a mbiguous, a nd u ntil f urther w ork i s c arried o ut,

t he e xact d ating a nd f unction o f t he b uilding

m ust r emain u nclear. 3 ) T he g eneral a rchaeological s urvey i nvolved s ystematically t raversing a 5 2.5 h ectare a rea i f l inear s trips t wo m eters w ide. G roups o f t hree t o f ive i ndividuals w alked s lowly s ide b y s ide a t a bout 0 .5 km/hr a nd c ollected a s m uch a rtifactual m aterials a s p ossible a t t his s peed. A rtifactual c lusters o f t hree o r m ore a rtifacts w ere p recisely m apped i n, a nd e xhaustive s urface c ollections w ere t hen m ade i n t heir v icinity. A o ne p age f orm w as u sed t o r ecord d etails o f n ame, l ocation, o wnership, s ite d escription a nd s ketch, v egetation, s oil, n earest s ource o f w ater, s tructures a nd p ossible s tratification,

e tc.

A s a r esult o f t his p hase o f t he s urvey, s even s ites ( several o f w hich w ere n ewly d iscovered a nd t wo o f w hich w ere p robable L ate B ronze A ge s ettlement s ites) w ere l ocated. T hey r anged i n d ate f rom E arly

3 46

B ronze I I t o t he B yzantine p eriod. T hirty-three p artially o r f ully r obbed-out b ureal c aves w ere a lso f ound, p rimarily d ating t o t he L BA b ut i ncluding L ate R oman/Byzantine a nd M amlük p eriods a s w ell.

T est

s oundings a t t hree o f t he s ites h as c larified d etails o f d ate o f c onstruction a nd l ater r euses. A l arge n umber o f f lints w ere c oncent rated i n s everal a reas o n t he l ower s lopes o f t wo h ills, a nd d ated t o t he M iddle P alaeolithic t hrough t he C halcolithic p eriod. I n 1 981 t welve a dditional m agnetic a nomalies o f v arious a real d imensions a nd g enerally h igh r eadings w ere t ested b y a rchaeological s oundings. I n a ccord w ith t heory, a ll t he h ighs w ere d ue t o e xcess s oil d eposition. H owever, s ince t he m agnetometer r eadings w ould b e t he s ame f or b oth f illed-in n atural c aves a nd t hose u sed f or h uman b urials, t he majority o f t he h ighs i n t his i nstance r epresented v arious g eological f eatures, v iz,

s inkholes,

s olution p its,

c aves,

a nd o ther

n atural d epressions, w hich h ad n ot b een u sed f or b urials. A 1 5 n T h igh, 4 x 6 m . i n a rea, p roved t o b e a n u ndisturbed e xtension o f a L ate B ronze I I b urial c ave, which p roduced a n e xtremely r ich c ollection o f m aterial. R eferences: M cGovern, P ., i n J ordan.

1 982. E xploring t he B urial C aves o f t he B ag'ah V alley A rchaeology 3 5: 4 6-52.

M cGovern, P .,

1 981.

T he B ag'ah V alley,

C esium M agnetometer A nomalies.

M cGovern, P ., 1 979a. T he B ag'ah V alley: S urvey. MASCA J ournal 1 :39-41. M cGovern,

P .,

1 979b.

J ordan:

T est S oundings o f

MASCA J ournal 1 :214-217. A C essium M agnetometer

E xplorations i n t he U mm a d-Dan a Jr R egion o f

t he B ag'ah V alley, 1 977-1978. J ournal o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities o f J ordan 2 4:55-67.

3 47

C N I t i t )

5 0

1 00 1 50 K MS .

7

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0 _ c 0 r D

C D

WADI A L-HASÄ S URVEY

( 1979-82)

B urton M acDonald

Dates:

F irst f ield s eason:

O ctober 2 8 - December 8 ,

f ield s eason: A pril 2 0 - May 2 9, J une 1 1, 1 982. P rincipal I nvestigators:

1 981;

1 979;

S econd

t hird f ield s eason:

M ay 2 -

D irector f or a ll t hree s easons w as

B urton MacDonald, A ssociate P rofessor, D epartment o f T heology a nd Department o f S ociology/Anthropology,

S aint F rancis X avier University,

Antigonish, N ova S cotia. F ield m embers i ncluded G ary O . R ollefson, Annual P rofessor, American C enter o f O riental R esearch, Amman, J ordan; Duane W . Waterloo,

R oller,

C lassics D epartment, W ilfrid L aurier U niversity,

O ntario;

E .B.

U niversity o f T oronto; University o f T oronto. J ames A .

B anning, D epartment o f N ear E astern S tudies, L . A . P avlish, D epartment o f Anthropology, R ollefson i s t he l ithic s pecialist while

S auer, A ssociate C urator i n C harges S yro-Palestinian S ection,

University Museum, University o f P ennsylvania, c eramic s pecialist. F unding:

P hiladelphia i s t he

T he Wadi a l-Hasa S urvey i s a n a ffiliated p roject o f t he

American S chools o f O riental R esearch a nd i s l icenced b y t he Department o f Antiquities o f J ordan.

Major f inancing i s p rovided b y t he S ocial

S ciences a nd H umanities R esearch C ouncil o f C anada. a c omputer p rogram f or t he s torage,

r etrieval,

G rants t o d evelop

a nd management o f d ata

c ollected f rom t he f ield s easons i s b eing r eceived f rom t he S aint F rancis X avier U niversity's C ouncil f or R esearch. T he m ain o bjective o f a rchaeological s urvey o f

t he p roject i s a s ystematic a nd i ntensive t he s outh b ank o f t he Wadi a l-Has

f rom t he

western e dge o f t he p lateau l eading d own t o t he s outheastern p lain ( Ghör)

o f t he D ead S ea a s f ar e ast a s t he D esert H ighway a t a l-Has . ; " .

o r Q al'at a l-Has jo n t he e ast. a l-Hasa a d istance o f 1 0-12 km.

T he s urvey e xtends s outh o f t he Wadi An a rea o f 1 10-120 s q.

k m i s s urveyed

e ach f ield s eason. T he i dentification o f a ll a rchaeological s ites i n t he a rea f rom p rehistoric t imes d own t o t he e nd o f t he T urkish d omination i n J ordan i n A .D. 1 918, t he e stablishing o f a c hronological s equence f or t he o ccupations r ecorded i n t he a rea, a nd t he i dentification o f s ettlement p atterns

i n t he s patial d istribution o f s ites s hould r esult

i n t he w riting o f a p reliminary a rchaeological h istory o f t he a rea. A f urther a im o f t he s urvey i s t o d emonstrate t he e xtent t o w hich t he Wadi a l-Hasa s erved a s a c ultural b oundary a nd/or b order f rom p rehistoric t imes d own t o t he e nd o f t he T urkish d omination i n J ordan. Another g oal o f t he w ork i s t o d o a n i nventory o f s ites i n t he a rea with t he i ntention o f s uggesting t o t he D epartment o f Antiquities o f J ordan which s ites h ave t he b est p otential f or e xcavation b ecause o f t heir i ntrinsic v alue e xcavated b ecause o f

( inventory a rchaeology)

a nd which o ught t o b e

t heir i mmediate d anger o f d estruction t hrough

human o r n atural c auses

( salvage a rchaeology).

A f inal o bjective o f

t he w ork i s t o c heck a nd c omplete p revious a rchaeological w ork i n t he a rea a nd t o c omplement w ork a lready d one o r i n p rogress i n n eighbouring a reas. T he i nfield w ork c onsists o f a p edestrian a nd vehicular t opographical

3 49

s urvey.

A s much o f t he a rea a s p ossible i s w alked b y t wo t eams

c onsisting o f t wo-three members e ach. F or e xample, t he s ides o f t he w adis a re b roken d own i nto a reas which c an b e m eaningfully a nd i ntensively c overed b y t he t eam members. S ites - a ny p laces w here m an h as l eft e vidence o f h is p ast a ctivity - a re d iscovered a nd/or v isited, d escribed ( and s ketched w here f easible, b ut n ot p lanned), p hotographed, a nd " sherded" ( sampled), m ostly f or p ottery a nd l ithics b ut a lso f or c oins, g lass, s lag, a nd o ther m aterials, a s a h elp i n d etermining t he a ge o f s ettlement(s). T he l ocation o f e ach s ite i s p lotted o n e ither a 1 : 2 5,000 o r 1 : 5 0,000 s cale m ap. Where p ossible s ites a re s ampled p urposively, r andomly, o r t otally o r a c ombination o f p urposive a nd r andom s ampling i s e mployed. D r. J ack D ohanue, D epartment o f G eology a nd P lanetary S ciences a nd D epartment o f A nthropology, U niversity o f P ittsburgh i s w orking o n t he g eological h istory o f t he a rea. N egotiations a re u nderway w ith a s pecialist i n t he p aleobotany o f J ordan f or a r econstruction o f t he n atural r esources o f t he a rea i n p rehistoric a nd h istoric p eriods. T he 5 52 s ites s urveyed t o d ate r ange f rom sl ithic a nd s herd s catters w ith n o a rchitectural r emains v isible o n t he s urface t o v ery l arge s ites w ith a g reat d eal o f a rchitectural r emains v isible. O ccupation a t t hese s ites r anges f rom p rehistoric t o m odern t imes, o r f rom a bout 5 00,000 y ears a go t o t he e nd o f t he O ttoman d omination i n J ordan i n A .D.

1 918.

Many o f t he s ites, f or e xample, t owers, t ombs, m ills, a queducts, a nd r oads c annot b e d ated o n t he p resent a vailable e vidence a nd r equire f urther s tudy. T he r elationship b etween p eriods o f a pparent l arge p opulation a nd p eriods o f v ery l ittle o r n o h abitation i s s omething t hat a lso r equires f urther s tudy. M ore i nformation o n t he p aleoclimate o f t he a rea m ay h elp i n p artially s olving t his p roblem. R eferences: M acDonald, B ., 1 979. t he W adi e l H asa

A n A rchaeological S urvey o f t he S outh B ank o f ( Zared), S outhern J ordan, 1 979. B ulletin o f

t he C anadian S ociety f or A rchaeology A broad, N o.

1 9:

1 9-23.

M acDonald, B ., 1 980. T he H ermitage o f J ohn t he A bbott a t H amman A frä , S outhern J ordan, a n L iber A nnuus ( Studii B iblici F ranciscani) M acDonald,

B .,

X XX :

1 980.

3 51-364,

P ls.

5 9-70.

T he W adi e l H asa S urvey:

S chools o f O riental R esearch N ewsletter, M acDonald,

B .,

1 981.

A rcheologist 4 4 M acDonald,

B ,

1 981.

T he W adi e l H asa S urvey, ( 1):

F all 1 979.

1 3:

A merican

5 -12.

1 979.

B iblical

6 0-61.

T he W adi e l H as a -- S u nl ey,

o f O riental R esearch N ewsletter 3 :

1 981.

A merican S chools

8 -15.

M acdonald, B ., 1 981. T he W adi e l-Hasa S urvey 1 979 a nd P revious A rchaeological W ork i n S outhern J ordan . B ulletin o f t he A merican S chools o f O riental R esearch 2 43.

3 50

[ forthcoming].

M acDonald,

B .,

1 982.

A rcheologist 4 5 MacDonald,

B .,

T he Wadi e l-Has a - S urvey,

1 981.

B iblical

( 1).

B anning,

E .B.,

Wadi e l H asa S urvey 1 979:

a nd P avlish,

L .A.,

1 980.

A P reliminary R eport.

T he A nnual o f

t he Department o f A ntiquities o f J ordan X XIV 1 69-183,

P ls.

C III-CX . MacDonald,

B .

a nd R ollefson,

G .,

1 981.

S ettlement P atterns i n

S outhern J ordan:

E vidence f rom t he Wadi e l H asa S urvey,

1 981.

( Forum f or M iddle E ast R esearch i n Anthropology),

( 2),

M ERA F ORUM 1 9-22.

M acDonald, B ., R ollefson, G .O., a nd R oller, D .W., 1 982. T he Wadi e iHasa S urvey 1 981: A P reliminary R eport; Annual o f t he D epartment o f Antiquities o f J ordan X XVI

[ forthcoming].

3 51

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N ahal A lexander R egional S urvey o utlined. 359

'

c iAw se

3 60 t he N ahal A lexander R egional

T HE PREHISTORY O F T HE L OWER J ORDAN V ALLEY O fer B ar-Yosef

L ocation : D ates:

L ower J ordan V alley,

b etween W adi F arah a nd J ericho.

1 973-1981.

P rincipal I nvestigators:

O .

I nstitute o f A rchaeology,

H ebrew U niversity o f J erusalem .

F unding S ources:

B ar-Yosef a nd P .

I srael E xploration S ociety;

G oldberg

D ept.

o f A ntiquities.

R esearch G oals: a . t o e stablish t he s equence o f t he L ate P leistocene-Early H olocene i n t he a rea , w ith s pecial r eference t o P alaeo-climatic r econstructions. b . t o l ocate U pper P alaeolithic E pi-Palaeolithic a nd N eolithic s ites a nd c arry o ut t est e xcavations. S urvey S trategy :

T he a rea s elected f or s urvey a nd t est e xcavations

c omprises t he w estern s ide o f t he L ower J ordan V alley, i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f t he D ead S ea. S ystematic s urvey o n f oot was p lanned i n o rder t o r ecord a ll t he p rehistoric o ccurrences b efore t he a gricultural d evelopment w ill d estroy t he e xisting e vidence. G iven t he g eologic h istory o f t he r egion, a ttention w as m ainly g iven t o t he L ate P leistocene-Early H olocene p eriod. F ield M ethodology :

a . S ystematic s urvey o n f oot o f a l imited a rea ,

b etween W adi F azael a nd W aui e l A uja. R epeated v isits w ere made i n s uccessive y ears, b oth i n w inter a nd s ummer. F ollow-up o bservations d uring d evelopment o perations ( leveling, t renching, e tc.). b . T est e xcavations w ere c arried o ut i n s elected s ites w hich m ight r epresent t he s equence o f p rehistoric e ntities. c . S urface c ollections w ere m ade f rom e roded s urfaces w ithout t he u se o f a g rid s ystem . I nterdisciplinary S tudies:

1 .

G eological-geomorphological s tudies

d one b y P . G oldberg ( Institute o f A rchaeology, H .U), D . N eev ( Geological S urvey o f I srael) a nd J . S chuldenrein ( Ph.D. s tudent a t t he U niversity o f C hicago). 2 . F aunal s tudies b y E . T chernov a nd S . D avis ( Dept. o f Z oology, H .U.). 3 . P lant r emains - M . K islev ( Bar-Ilan University). R esults: T he p rincipal d iscoveries w ere f ound i n t he W adi F azael v alley a nd i n t he S alibiya B asin b etween M oshav N etiv H agdud a nd K ibbutz N aaran . T he g eomorphological a nd s edimentological a spects a re t he s ubject o f a P h.D. d issertation b eing p repared b y J . S chuldenrein o f t he U niversity o f C hicago. K nowledge o f t he c limatic o scillations f rom t his r egion a re o f s ingular i mportance, i ndicating t hat t he p eriod b etween 2 5/22,000 - 1 7,900 B .C. was r elatively c old a nd d ry, a nd t hat b etween 1 7,000 - 1 2,000 B .C. w as a c old p eriod w ith r elatively l ower p recipitation. B etween 1 2,000 - 3 ,000 B .C. s hort p eriods o f w et a nd d ry c onditions a lternated; t he p recise d efinition o f t hese d ry a nd h umid p eriods d uring w hich t he N eolithic c ultures were e stablished i s c ritical. T he p eriod s ince 3 ,000 B .C. h as b een marked b y i ncreasing a ridity r esulting i n t he p resent r egime i n t he J ordan V alley. Among t he e xcavations, t he

3 61

f ollowing s hould b e mentioned :

1 .

I n W adi F azael t wo l ate U pper

P alaeolithic, t hree K ebaran a nd t wo N atufian s ites w ere t ested. 2 . I n t he S alibiya b asin o ne N atufian s ite w as t ested, o ne K hiamian s ite a nd t wo e arly N eolithic s ites ( "PPNA") w ere p artially e xcavated ( one b y T . N oy, I srael M useum , J erusalem). P roblems: a . Many s ites w ere p artially d estroyed b y e rosion a nd t hrough b uilding a nd a gricultural a ctivities d uring h istoric p eriods. b . T he r ate o f r ecovery i s d irectly i nfluenced b y t he r ate o f e rosion . R epeated v isits i ndicate t hat s ites ( embeded i n a lluvial d eposits)

c an b e t otally r emoved, w hile u nknown o nes a re e xposed.

R eferences: B ar-Yosef, 0 ., G oldberg, P ., a nd L evenson, T ., 1 974. K ebaran a nd N atufian S ites i n Wadi F azael, J ordan V alley. P aleorient 2 : 4 15-428. B ar-Yosef, 0 ., G opher, A ., a nd G oring-Morris, A .N ., 1 980, N etiv H agdud : a " Sultanian" m ount i n t he l ower J ordan V alley, I srael, P aleorient 6 : 2 01-206. G oring-Morris, A .N., 1 980 , , L ate Q uaternary S ites i n W adi F azael, L ower J ordan V alley, a nd t heir p lace i n L evantine P rehistory. U npublished M .A .

T hesis,

H ebrew U niversity, J erusalem.

G oring-Morris, A .N ., 1 980, U pper P alaeolithic S ites f rom W adi F azael, I srael. P aleorient 6 : 1 73-191. S chuldenrein, J ., a nd G oldberg, P ., n .d. L ate Q uaternary P alaeoe nvironments & P rehistoric S ite D istribution i n t he L ower J ordan V alley: A P reliminary R eport. P aleorient 7 ( 1) ( forthcoming). B ar-Yosef 0 .,

1 980.

J ordan V alley.

A F igurine f rom a K hiamian S ite i n t he L ower P aleorient 6 :193-199.

3 62

P REHISTORICAL S URVEY O F NAHAL

( WADI)

S HIQMA

M ordechai L amdan

T he s urvey a rea i s l ocated a t c oastal p lain,

e ast o f G aza,

t he s outhern p art o f t he I sraeli

a pproximately b etween L ong.

3 4° 3 0, 'E

t o 3 4° 4 5'E a nd L at. 3 1° 3 0'N; t o 3 1°3 5'N; a n a rea o f c a.170 Km - . F ield w ork l asted f rom J une u ntil December 1 976. L aboratory a nalysis t ook a nother 6 m onths a t t he e nd o f w hich t he r eport w as p ublished. i nvestigators were M . Huster

Lamdan a nd D .

Z iffer,

( a K ibbutz m ember i n t he r egion).

T he

i n c ooperation w ith Y .

T hey were a dvised b y P rof.

A . R onen. T he I nst. o f A rchaeology, T el Aviv U niv. a nd t he L aboratory o f P rehistory a t H aifa Univ. a lso a ided. T he s urvey w as s ponsored b y t he r egional c ouncil " Shaar H a-Negev" a nd S tiftung V olkswagenwerk , a s p art o f t he R esearch P roject o n t he Q uaternary a nd P rehistory o f t he C oastal P lain o f I srael.

T he g oals o f t he s urvey were t o f ind,

s tudy a nd c lassify p rehistoric s ites i n t he r egion,

a nd t o r elate

t hem t o t he P leistocene s tratigraphy o f t he ' s outh Levantine M editerranean c oast. We c overed a lmost e very s quare meter o f t he r egion b y f oot. E very s ite we f ound was r ecorded a nd m orphologically d escribed. A s ample o f a rtifacts was t aken f rom e ach s ite i n o rddr t o d etermine i ts p eriod.

A fter e stablishing t he P leistocene s tratigraphic f rame,

we a sked t he g eologists A .

H orowitz,

G .

G evirtzman a nd A .

E cker

t o e nsure o ur c onclusions. T he " Shiqma r egion"

i s b ordered b y t he J udean f oothills t o t he

e ast a nd t he n ear-shore s and d unes t o t he w est. i nto t wo major p arts:

t he e astern,

l oess a bove P leistocene s andy s oil, P leistocene p ebbles a nd s and

T he a rea i s d ivided

a p lateau c overed w ith a s ilty i tself o n a b ed o f P lio-

s tone a bove a n O ligocene c halk.

T he

western p art i s a c ombination o f c alcareous s and s tone ( "Kurkar") a nd r ed s andy bar ns ( "Hamra"), m ore t han a h undred meters t hick. T he " kurkar"

f orms p arallel r idges r unning n orth-south a long t he

c oastal p lain, g radually d escending westward t o t he M editerranean s hore. E cologically, t he s urveyed r egion f orms a t ransition b etween t he Mediterranean z one t o t he n orth a nd t he s emi-arid z one t o t he s outh. A bout 1 20 p rehistoric s ites w ere r ecorded d uring o ur s urvey. m ost a ncient s ite

( its p recise d ate n ot y et e stablished)

i n t he e astern p art

i n a f ossil s and d une

( old b each?)

T he

was f ound

which c overed

P lio-Pleistocene p ebbles a nd was c ut b y N ahal S hiqma. T he s ite y ielded a c hopper a nd s ome f ossil a nimal b ones. W est o f t his i s a nother a ncient s ite, " Ruhama S wamp" e xposed b y b ad-land e rosion. Here a L ower P aleolithic f lake i ndustry w ith b ones - mainly e quides l ie o n a " Hamra" l ayer o f l oess

s oil,

c overed w ith p seudo-gley a nd t hen a t hick

( mentioned a s " Nagilan C ulture" b y R onen 1 979:302).

M ost o f t he s ites f ound were l ate A cheulian c ontaining h andaxes, L evallois a rtifacts a nd a h igh r atio o f d enticulated p ieces. T he l ate A cheulian s ites f ound o n P atches o f " H amra" s oil i n t he e astern p art o f t he s urveyed a rea, o r s cattered o n t he s urface o f t he " Kurkar"

s and s tone r idges.

T he w estern l imit o f l ate A cheulian s ites 3 63

i s t he t hird r idge

( counting f rom t he s ea s hore e astward).

T wo E pi-

P aleolithic s ites were f ound, b oth a t t he t op o f t he l oess a ccumulation i n p roximity t o what s eem t o b e a ncient l ake s ediments. T en C halcolithic s ites were f ound i n t he e astern p art o f t he a rea,

s ituated e xclusively o n

a lluvial o r l oess s oils,

A lthough t he s urvey

c lose t o w ater s ources.

was m ainly i ntended t o r ecord p rehistorical r emains , we r ecorded e very a rchaeological r elic. Among t hem were M iddle-Bronze I a nd I ron a ge s ites, B yzantine f armhouses a nd c isterns, a nd a r elic o f R oman r oad t o G aza.

T he m ain p roblem d uring t he f ield w ork w as t he d etermination

a nd a ttitude t o s ome s cattered s ites a nd f indspots. T he s urvey h as b een p ublished i n H ebrew b y t he r egional c ouncil " Shaar H a-Negev"

( Lamdan e t a l 1 977)

a nd w ill b e p ublished i n E nglish

a s a p art o f t he R esearch P roject o n t he Q uaternary a nd P rehistory o f t he C oastal P lain o f I srael,

c onducted b y A .

R onen.

R eferences: Lamdan, M .,

Z iffer,

D ., Huster, Y .,

A rchaeological S urvey i n N ahal

a nd R onen, ( Wadi)

R egional C ouncil " Shaar Ha-Negev" R onen, A .

1 979.

N ew Y ork :

3 64

1 977.

P rehistorical -

R esearch R eport.

( in H ebrew ).

P aleolithic I ndustries.

Q uaternary o f I srael.

A .,

S hiqma.

I n:

H orowitz,

A cademic P ress:

A .

T he

2 97-207.

10

/ 1TWN A SHDOD

AQQ ,

d e o

t own w adi a rea s urveyed U 1 c ontour l ine

F ig.

I

Map o f t he s outhern c oastal p lain o f l ocation o f N ahal S hiqma s urvey a rea.

3 65

-

1

7 14° °1

I srael s howing t he

'

T HE N EGEV E MERGENCY S URVEY R udolph C ohen

T he C amp D avid p eace a ccord, i n 1 979,

s igned b etween E gypt a nd I srael

o bliged t he I sraelis t o withdraw t heir d efense e stablishment

f rom t he S inai p eninsula a nd r edeploy i t a t hree-year

i nterim p eriod,

i n t he N egev d esert.

During

a military i nfrastructure h ad t o b e b uilt

i n t he s outhern d istrict o f I srael,

i nvolving t he c onstruction o f n ew

r oads, b ases, a irfields, a nd o ther military n ecessities. S uch a m assive p rogram o bviously p osed a major t hreat t o t he r egion's a rchaeological h eritage.

S urveys,

o f c ourse,

h ad b een c arried o ut i n t he N egev b efore,

b eginning w ith t he p ioneering w ork o f N .

G lueck,

a nd c ontinuing with t he

D epartment o f Antiquities, b ut n ever o n a w ide-ranging s cale. T he g overnment a ccordingly p rovided f or a c omprehensive r escue p roject, d irected b y t he a uthor

i n h is c apacity a s S outhern D istrict A rchaeologist,

t he a im o f which h as b een t o r ecord a nd

( in s o f ar a s p ossible)

t he myriad a rchaeological s ites w ithin t he N egev a rea.

e xcavate

T he S ociety f or

t he A rchaeological S urvey o f I srael h as b een e ntrusted w ith t his t ask. I t h as a t i ts d isposal t welve f ield-teams

( including t wo o f s urveyors)

e quipped w ith j eeps, w hich o perate f rom f our p ermanent b ases: i n B eersheva S ede B oger, Mizpeh R amon, a nd E ilat. T he c entral o ffice, l ocated i n J erusalem,

i s r esponsible f or c oordination w ith t he a rmy a nd v arious

g overnmment a gencies,

o verall d irection o f

t he t eams,

a nd r egistering a nd

p rocessing t he c onstantly a ccumulating d ata a nd f inds. T he N egev s ubdivides p articular h istory, S ome r esults o f s ummarized h ere.

t he s urvey 1 )

i nto n umerous g eomorphic a reas,

a nd e ach h as i ts

i n s ome way d ifferentiated f rom t hat o f t he o thers. ( up t o t he s ummer o f 1 981)

may b e t entatively

P alaeolithic a nd N eolithic P eriods:

S everal n ew

p rehistoric s ites were r ecorded a nd t he P alaeolithic s ites o f R amat Matred a nd Har H an f were r e-surveyed.

T he r esults o f t he s urvey o f

p rehistoric s ites w ill b e p ublished by A .N. P eriod:

G oring-Morris.

2 )

C halcolithic

L ocation o f n ew s ites s eems t o c onfirm t he g eneral p icture t hat

s ettlement i n t his p eriod was r estricted i n t his r egion t o n orth o f t he B eersheva l ine. 3 ) B ronze Age: Due t o t he d iscovery o f m any n ew s ites a nd t he e xcavation o f a n umber o f t hese, c oncerning t he E BA-MBA t ransition. r eaffirmed

n ew i nformation h as b een c ollected

T he E mergency S urvey h as a lso

t he e arlier c onclusions r egarding t he p opulations a nd

s ettlement p atterns o f

t he L BA i n t his r egion.

4 )

I ron A ge t hrough E arly

A rab P eriod: N ew d ata o n s ettlement p atterns, p opulation d ensities, t rade r outes a nd c ultural-political b oundaries h as b een c ollected f or a ll h istorical p eriods. I t w ill b e s everal y ears b efore t he w ealth o f n ew i nformation c ollected b y t he N egev E mergency S urvey c an b e c ompletely p rocessed a nd s everal s urprises c oncerning t he p reviously h eld v iews o n t he h istory o f t he r egion m ay b e e xpected. B ut i t s hould b e n oted t hat t he s urvey h as i n s everal c ases s erved t o c orroborate many o f t he b asic i deas a dvanced e arlier b y N . t he r egion.

G lueck a nd s ubsequent

s cholars w ho h ave w orked

T his d oes n ot d etract f rom t he s urvey's c ontribution,

much n ew d ata h as b een s upplied.

3 67

i n

s ince

LATE P LEISTOCENE - E ARLY H OLOCENE I N T HE G EBEL MAGHARA,

N ORTHERN S INAI

O fe r B ar-Yosef

L ocation : D ates:

G ebel M aghara,

n orthern S inai.

1 973 - 1 976.

P rincipal i nvestigators/institutions:

O .

B ar-Yosef & J .

L .

P hillips.

I nstitute o f A rchaeology, H ebrew U niversity o f J erusalem a nd D ept. o f Anthropology,

U niversity o f I llinois a t C hicago C ircle.

F unding s ources:

I nstitute o f A rchaeology, H ebrew University;

A rchaeological S taff O fficer f or S inai; R esearch g oals:

a .

I srael E xploration S ociety.

t o l ocate a rchaeological r emains f rom t he L ate

P leistocene - E arly H olocene p eriod.

b .

T o s tudy t he d istribution

o f s ites a nd t he meaning o f t heir e cological s etting i n t erms o f human b ehaviour.

c .

T o f ind o ut whether t here e xisted a ny c onnections

b etween N orth-East A frica a nd t he L evant d uring t his p eriod.

d .

T o

i nvestigate a ny i ndication o f c limatic f luctuations a nd t heir p ossible i mpact o n s ettlement p atterns. S urvey S trategy:

T he a reas s elected f or t he s urvey w ere l argely

o riented i n a n orth-south d irection i n o rder t o o btain a w ide t ransect o f G ebel M aghara while t aking i nto a ccount b oth v ariations i n l andscap2 a nd l ogistical p roblems. a bout 5 0 K m

o ut o f c a.

i ntensively s urveyed.

B y t he e nd o f t he p roject,

6 00 Km 2 o f t he G ebel Maghara a rea h ad b een T he s urvey o f t he f irst s eason i ndicated t he

n ature o f l ocales t hat were r icher

i n p rehistoric f inds a nd h ad b etter

p reservation o f Q uaternary s ediments.

B ecause t he s andy v alleys

c learly p roved t o b e t he a reas r ichest i n p rehistoric f inds,

i t w as

d ecided t o e nlarge t heir p roportion within t he t otal o f t he a reas s urveyed.

E ach o f t he a reas w as t otally a nd i ntensively s urveyed

b y t ransect s ampling i n b oth e ast-west a nd n orth-south d irections. I n s uccessive s easons,

t his was s upplemented b y r andom t ransects

a nd by t he e xamination o f k nown s ites a nd f indspots f or e vidence o f r ecent g eomorphic c hanges. F ield Methodology:

T he s urvey was f ollowed b y s ystematic s urface

c ollections a nd e xcavations.

T he s tandard p rocedure w as t o p lot

t he t opography a nd t o e stablish a g rid o f o ne-meter-squares. s quare-meter was s ubdivided

i nto f our q uadrants.

s ystem w as u sed f or b oth t he s urface c ollected s ites a nd t he e xcavated

R esults:

2 .

( generally d eflated)

( generally u ndisturbed)

I nterdisciplinary s tudies: G oldberg.

1 .

E ach

T he s ame g rid s ites.

Q uaternary g eology - d irected b y P .

B otany a nd P alaeobotany - b y A .

S hmida a nd G .

T he p rincipal d iscoveries a t G ebel Maghara were:

O rshan. 1 .

a

p reviously u ndocumented U pper P alaeolithic b lade/bladelet i ndustry, t he L agaman, with C -14 d ates o f c a. 3 0,000 B .P. 2 . The a bundance o f E pi-Palaeolithic o ccurrences, a mongst which a t l east t wo c ultures c ould b e d ifferentiated:

o ne,

t he G eometric K ebaran h as i ts o rigins

3 69

t o t he N orth; N orth A frica.

t he s econd c ulture, t he Mushabian, o riginates i n T he C -14 d ates i ndicate t hat b etween 1 2,500 a nd

1 0,500 B .C. s mall b ands o f hunter-gatherers o ccupied G ebel M aghara, a rriving f rom b oth t he N orth a nd t he S outh. D uring t he P re-Pottery N eolithic,

t he a rea c ontinued t o b e u sed b y h unting b ands.

T he g eomorphology,

a s w ell a s t he f loral r emains r ecovered,

t hat d uring t he U pper P leistocene G ebel M aghara r eceived

i ndicate

i ncreased

p recipitation a nd b elonged t o t he f ringe o f t he M editerranean c limatic z one. P roblems:

T wo major p roblems w ere e ncountered:

b ones w as a lmost n il.

b .

a .

p reservation o f

T he r ate o f r ecovery o f s ites d epended u pon

t heir b eing e roded f rom s andy d eposits.

R ecent m obile d unes k ept u ncover-

i ng a nd c overing s ites b etween 1 973-1979. W ithout t he u se o f h eavy machinery, t he a ttained o verall s ettlement p attern i s c onsiderably b iased. R eferences: B ar-Hosef, O . a nd P hillips, J .L., 1 977. P rehistoric I nvestigations i n G ebel Maghara, N orthern S inai. " Qedem" 7 , M onographs o f t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology, B ar-Yosef O .

a nd G oren,

N .,

s urveys i n t he L evant. H enry D .O.

a nd G oldberg,

P .,

t he H ebrew U niversity o f J erusalem.

1 980.

A fterthoughts f ollowing p rehistoric

I srael E xploration J ournal 3 0: 1 974.

O uadi T 'mila:

m ousterien d ans l e N ord d a S inai. P r histori c iue F ran a ise 7 2:223-224.

3 70

1 -16.

u n a telier

B ulletin d e l a S ociete

ARCHAEOLOGICAL S URVEY I N T HE NAUKRATIS R EGION O F T HE W ESTERN N ILE D ELTA W illiam D .

E .

C oulson a nd A lbert L eonard,

J r.

T he s urvey w ork c onnected w ith t he N aukratis P roject i n t he 1 980 a nd 1 981 s easons c onsisted o f t hree p arts: 1 ) S urvey o f t he f ields s urrounding t he s ite o f P etrie's e xcavations a t N aukratis w ith a v iew t o d etermining t he e xtent o f s herd c over a nd, h ence, t he o riginal e xtent o f t he a ncient c ity a nd w hether o r n ot i t h ad t he c hora o f a t rue p olis; 2 ) S herding a nd t rial t renches a t K or n F irin a nd K or n D ahab, t wo o f t he m ost i mportant s ites i n t he r egional s urvey a rea i n o rder t o e stablish a c orpus o f p ottery f rom t hese s ites a nd t o c ompare t he m aterial f ound o n t he s urface w ith t he s ub-surface m aterial; a nd, 3 ) C reation o f a r egister o f s ites f rom a ll p eriods i n t he s urvey a rea. T his i s a v ital p art o f t he p roject s ince many s ites a re d aily b eing e roded t hrough t he d igging o f l ocal f armers f or s ebakh a nd t hrough e ncroachments m ade b y c ultivation a nd m odern s ettlements. I n 1 980 t he s urvey a t N aukratis c oncentrated o n t he s hores o f t he l ake f ormed b y t he d epressions l eft b y t he e xcavations o f P etrie, G ardner, a nd H ogarth i n 1 884-6, 1 899, a nd 1 903. T he l evel o f t he l ake h ad d ropped c onsiderably f rom t hat p reviously n oted, e xposing a g reat q uantity o f s herds o n t he s urface a nd p resenting a u nique o pportunity f or s urface c ollection a nd f or t he c reation o f a c eramic t ypology f or t he l ater p eriods a t N aukratis. T he s horeline w as d ivided i nto srips, a nd a ll t he d iagnostic s herds w ere c ollected.

I n a ll,

s ome 3 ,000 i ndividual p ieces w ere

c ollected, r anging i n d ate f rom t he l ate C lassical p eriod t o t he e arly S eventh C entury A .D. T he i nteresting f eature t o e merge f rom t his s urvey i s t hat t he d evelopment o f t he a ncient c ity o f N aukratis a ppears t o b e a c hronological o ne r ather t han a n e thnographic o ne. F or i nstance, t he s herds f ound a long t he l ake's w estern s hore w ere b asically R oman i n c haracter, w hereas t hose f rom t he N E a nd E w ere p redominantly G reek , w ith s ome l ate C lassical m aterial, b ut w ith t he m ajority s panning t he T hird t o t he F irst C enturies B .C., a ccording w ell w ith t he m aterial u ncovered d uring t he e xcavations i n t he s outh m ound. S uch a c lear d ivision i n t he t ypes o f p ottery r ecovered f rom t he d ifferent a reas o f t he l ake's s hore s uggests t hat i n G reek t imes t he c ity d eveloped t o t he n orth a nd e ast o f P etrie's a rchaic c ity, n ow r epresented b y t he l ake, a nd t hat t he d evelopment i n R oman t imes s pread t o t he w est o f t he l ake. I n 1 981, a w ider s urvey o f t he f ields s urrounding t he l ake w as i nitiated t o d etermine t he e xtent o f s herd c over a t N aukratis. S herds d istributed b y p loughing a nd c ultivation w ere f ound t o e xtend a t l east 2 k m. t o t he n orth o f t he v illage o f N ebire, i tself s ituated 1 k m. t o t he N W o f N aukratis ( modern K or n G e'if) a nd a t l east 2 k m . s outh o f E l-Neqrash, s ituated 1 k m. t o t he S E o f N aukratis. I n a ll, s herds w ere f ound t o e xtend f or a 6 k m . a rea

3 71

a round N aukratis, t hereby i ndicating t hat t he a ncient c ity w as o nce o f c onsiderable s ize. T he w ork a t K or n F irin a nd D om D ahab, b oth l ocated s ome 1 0 k m. W SW o f K or n G e ti f, a lso c onsisted o f s urface s herding w ith a v iew t o a dding t o t he p ottery c orpus b egun a t N aukratis a nd t o c omparing t he m aterial f rom t hese t o t hat f rom N aukratis. O ther w ork a t K or n F irin c onsisted o f b alloon p hotogrammetry a nd t rial t renching. K or n F irin i s b y a ny s tandards a n i mpressive s ite w ith l arge s ections o f mudbrick w alling s till p reserved, i ncluding t he r emains o f w hat m ay h ave b een a n i nner c itadel i n t he c enter o f t he s ite a nd a t emple a rea i n t he e ast. I n 1 977, i n t he c itadel a rea a l arge c ircular t ower w as o bserved, o ne q uarter p reserved, a s w ell a s a s eries o f m udbrick w alls w ith b uttresses t o t he w est. T he s ebakhin h ad d ug w ell b eneath t he f oundations o f t his t ower, p resenting t he i mminent d anger o f c ollapse. D uring a r eturn v isit t o t he s ite i n 1 980, i t w as n oted t hat, i n t he i ntervening t wo y ears, t he t ower h ad i ndeed c ollapsed, a s h ad p ortions o f t he c itadel w alls t o t he w est, t hus g raphically i llustrating t he p rocess o f d ecay a nd e rosion t hat i s t aking p lace i n m any o f t he w est D elta s ites a nd u nderscoring t he u rgency f or t he c reation o f t he s ite r egister a nd f or r ecording t he p reserved f eatures b efore t hey a re t otally d estroyed e ither b y d ecay a nd e rosion o r b y t he e ncroachment o f c ultivation a nd m odern s ettlements. R eference: C ouslon, W . D . E . a nd L eonard, A . J r., 1 982. I nvestigations a t N aukratis a nd E nvirons, 1 °30 a nd 1 981. A JA 8 6(3)361-380, P LS. 4 5-49.

3 72

M ed i te r ranean

S ea

A l exand r i CZ ] S u rvey A rea C a i ro

S INA I

R ed S ea

E GYPT 0

1 00

F ig.

1

2 00

3 00 e o n .

Map o f E gypt s howing l ocation o f a rea

( Map .b y G erald J ohnson)

3 73

s urvey

c ' 1

a • H

3 74

Map

s howing

C HAPTER 9 F ROGS R OUND T HE P OND:

P ERSPECTIVES O N C URRENT A RCHAEOLOGICAL

S URVEY P ROJECTS D ITHE M EDITERRANEAN R EGION J ohn F .

C herry

I NTRODUCTION W hen i nviting m e t o w rite a c oncluding e ssay f or t he p roceedings o f t his i mportant c olloquium, t he e ditors s uggested a b rief o f t ruly g argantuan p roportions: " how b est t o r ecover t he c ontent, s tructure a nd r ange o f e xtinct c ultural s ystems o n a r egional b asis," a s w ell a s " to r eview t he v alidity a nd r eliability p roblems i nherent i n s urvey s ampling a nd t o a ppraise t he v arious m odels u sed t o d escribe a nd e xplain s ettlement p atterns i n t he M editerranean a rea." I t w ould b e a b rave p erson w ho s its d own t o w rite a b ook a long t hese l ines a nd I s hould v ery m uch l ike t o r ead s uch a w ork; i n t his b rief p aper, a dequate t reatment o f t hese t hemes i s o ut o f t he q uestion a nd I s hall n ot m ake t he a ttempt. B ut i n a ny c ase, I t hink i t i s u nnecessary t o d o s o. T he l iterature r eporting t he e mpirical r esults o f s urveys i n t he l ast f ew y ears h as b een a s r ich i n t he M editerranean a s a nywhere, a n o bservation e asily v erified b y c onsulting t he l ong l ist o f r efere nces c ited i n D yson's ( 1982) u p-to-date - t hough u ncritical — ' survey o f s urveys' i n t he M editerranean r egion. M oreover, t here n ow e xists a n umber o f q uite c omprehensive p apers, l argely o f a p rescriptive o r p rogrammatic n ature, w hich d eal w ith t he p rincipal c onsiderations t hat r ecent e xperience h as s hown t o b e c ritical i n d esigning e fficient s urveys a t t he r egional l evel ( e.g. S chiffer e t a l. 1 978; P log e t a l. 1 978; C herry a nd S heenan 1 97, 3a). S ome o f t he c oncerns, p roblems a nd i ssues c ommon t o t he d evelopment o f l arge-scale, l ong-term s urvey p rojects i n s everal p arts o f t he w orld h ave b een e valuated b y A mmerman ( 1981). M uch o f w hat I m ight h ave w ritten h ere a bout t he s tatus o f s urvey d ata, f ollowing a r eading o f t he i nteresting a nd d iverse c ontributions c ollected i n t he p resent v olume, h as a lready b een s aid b y A nthony S nodgrass ( in p ress), i n a p aper w hich o ffers a n e nthusiastic a nd c losely a rgued e ndorsement o f a rchaeological s urvey i n G reece a nd t he M editerranean a s a w hole. O n t he o ther h and, t he c olloquium o f w hich t his b ook i s t he p roduct r epresents a p romising n ew d evelopment i n M editerranean a rchaeology: w e s ee h ere t he f irst s igns t hat s urvey i n t his r egion i s a bout t o c ome o f a ge a nd, p erhaps i nevitable, a c ertain a mount o f w hat D avid C larke ( 1973) s o a ptly c alled a ' loss o f i nnocence'. S uch a n o ccasion c annot b e a llowed t o p ass w ithout c omment. I ndeed, t he v ery j uxtaposition o f n early f ifty t antalisingly t erse a bstracts d escribing r ecent, c urrent a nd p rojected s urvey p rojects i n n o l ess t han t en c ircum-Mediterranean l ands b oth d eserves a nd i nvites c omp arison a nd c ritical a ppraisal. I i magine t here i s n o a rchaeologist w ith s pecial c laims, b y v irtue o f f irst-hand e xperience i n a ll t hese c ountries, t o w rite s uch a n o verview . C ertainly, m y o wn a rchaeological s urvey w ork h as b een r estricted t o G reece a nd I taly ( with o ccasional f orays i n t he a rid s outhwestern United S tates a nd t he s odden l ands capes o f G reat B ritain). I f i n c onsequence t he v iews e xpressed h ere a ppear p arochial t o t hose w orking e lsewhere o r u nduly c oloured i n o ther w ays, I c an o nly p lead t hat t he s ame g eographical b iases e xist i n t his v olume a s aw hole, o ver t wo t hirds o f w hich i s t aken u p w ith

3 75

t hese s ame t wo c ountries, Y et

G reece a nd I taly.

s pecial p leading i s u nnecessary.

F or what m akes t hese s hort

p apers s o i nteresting, t aken a s a whole, i s n ot s o much t he p articularistic d ifferences b etween t hem i n a ims a nd a pproaches, t heir o verall

a s

s imilarity a t t he m ost g eneral l evel i n t erms o f t hose

f actors which g overn t he p roblems a nd p ossibilities o f a rchaeological s urvey i n t he M editerranean a rea. ( Phaedo 1 09b.2)

I a m r eminded o f P lato's r emark

t hat t he p eoples o f t he M editerranean a re g athered

' like f rogs r ound a p ond',

a c omment t hat s eems e qually a pposite t o

t hose o f u s e ngaged i n s urvey w ork a round t he M editerranean a s t o i ts a ncient

i nhabitants whose m aterial t races we a re c oncerned t o

r ecord a nd e xplain.

O ur e ndeavours m ay

s eem p uny,

a t l east o n a

g lobal s cale, b ut we h ave a ll b een d rawn t o t he s ame r esource; a nd t his means t hat we o ught t o h ave a g ood d eal i n c ommon, p erhaps m ore t han w e o ften r ealize.

What

a rchaeologists i n

G reece a nd T unisia a re l ikely t o h ave f ar

( say)

m ore t o s ay t o e ach o ther,

I a m s uggesting i s t hat s urvey

b oth a bout p roblem o rientation a nd t he

d etailed l ogistics o f t heir work, G ermany.

I t m akes s ense,

t han

( say)

i n o ther w ords,

t hose

i n G reece a nd

f or ' us t o g et t ogether f rom

t ime t o t ime, d espite t he e normous s ize o f t he M editerranean ' macror egion' a nd t he e vident d iversity o f g oals a nd p rocedures. P erhaps i t i s w orth n oting a f ew o f t he r easons why t his s hould b e s o,

s ince

t hey a re p oints t o which I r eturn l ater o n. T he m ost o bvious o verriding M editerranean e cosystem i tself.

s imilarity,

o f c ourse,

i s t he

A ll t he c ountries c onsidered h ere

h ave a s emi-arid, m arkedly s easonal c limatic r egime, which a ffects l andforms,

f auna a nd f lora i n ü roadly c omparable w ays.

I n p articular,

i nter-annual f luctuations i n w ater a vailability t end t o make s ubsistence s trategies i nherently r isky: e ndemic i n t he M editerranean.

d rought a nd f amine h ave b een

A s a d irect c onsequence,

t here h ave

a risen s ome s triking f undamental s imilarities i n p atterns o f h uman a daptation f rom o ne e nd o f t he M editerranean t o t he o ther. O verlying t his s ubstrate i s t he r egion's s hared h istory, which, f or a ll i ts v icissitudes, h as a c oherence i mposed i n n o s mall p art b y t he s ea i tself a s a p romoter o f i nteraction ( whether h ostile o r f riendly). S tanding b ack f rom t he d ata,

o ne r eadily d iscerns t he r epetition f rom

a rea t o a rea o f h istorical c ycles o r e volutionary p aths - t he

' slow

b ut p erceptible r hythms' o f a h istory t hat d eals w ith ' those u nderlying c urrents, o ften n oiseless, whose d irection c an o nly b e d iscerned b y w atching t hem o ver l ong p eriods o f t ime' 2 0-21). m eans,

( Braudel 1 972,

R edundancy o f p attern a t t his e xtremely g eneralized l evel a t t he l east,

t hat t he s pecific p roblems t o which i ndividual

s urveys a re d irected a re a lso

f ramed within a c ommon c ontext.

i s n ot t o s ay t hat d issimilarity i s u nimportant a nd, t he u se o f

i ndeed,

T his I r egard

s urvey d ata t o t race a nd e xplain i nter-regional v ariability

a s o ne o f t he

' Big Q uestions'

we c an t ackle m ost p rofitably.

T o c ite

b ut o ne i nstance, why d id t he A egean a nd C entral I taly - t wo r esonably c omparable M editerranean l andscapes with s imilar v ariations i n c limate,

t opography a nd n atural r esources,

a s w ell a s s imilar

d evelopmental t rajectories i n t heir r espective e arliest p rehistories - d iverge s o r adically d uring l ater p rehistory i n t he r ate a nd e xtent o f c ultural d evelopment ( cf. B arker 1 981)? I s hall r eturn b riefly t o t he r elationship o f s urvey d esign t o s uch l arge-scale q uestions a t t he e nd.

3 76

S econdly, t he o verall b road e cological c omparability o f a ll p arts o f t he r egion a lso h as a n i mportant i mpact i n a nother m uch m ore p ractical w ay.

T he a reas o f

t he w orld where l arge-scale r egional

s urveys h ave b een m ost s uccessful - f rom t he p ioneering w ork o f W illey ( e.g.

( 1953),

t o p rojects t hat h ave b orn f ruit i n t he l ast f ew y ears

S anders e t a l.

1 979;

A dams 1 981)

- h ave a ll b een a reas

p articularly a menable t o a rchaeological s urvey t echniques. v isibility o f

s ites o n t he

i s u nusually g ood, a llowing

s urface o f

T he

t he l andscape i n t hese a reas

a s a r esult o f a rid o r s emi-arid c onditions

s urvey w ork t o b e p ursued without

t oo m any e nvironmental

o bstacles. A s Ammerman ( 1981, 8 1-2) h as p ointed o ut, t he v ery s uccess o f s urface s urvey p rojects i n t hese ' favourable' a reas l ed t o t he e xtension o f t he l ess a ppropriate

s ame t echniques t o a reas f or which t hey were m uch ( e.g. t emperate e nvironments with d ense c overs o f

g rass o r f orest l itter).

T hose whose e xpectations a bout what

s urvey

c an a chieve h ave b een f rustrated i n t his w ay h ave r esponded e ither ( a) b y i mpugning t he u tility o f a rchaeological s urvey a s a widely a pplicable r esearch m ethodology, methods a nd a djust

( b)

b y a ttempting t o r efine f ield

s urvey d esigns m ore c lose3 _y t o l ocal c onditions,

o ften i n i ngenious w ays S chiffer e t a l.

o r

1 978,

( for e xamples,

7 -8).

s ee t he p apers c ited b y

T he p oint I wish t o make h ere,

h owever,

i s t hat t hose o f u s w orking a round t he M editerranean e njoy t he b enefits o f r elatively f avourable c onditions f or s urvey a nd we h ave s o f ar e xperienced f ew m ajor d isappointments. h ave b een c onfronted with l ocal p roblems o f v isibility;

A ll o f u s,

o f c ourse,

s ite a ccessibility a nd

t hese a re b eing e xacerbated a ll t he t ime b y t he d ramatic

e ffects o n t he l andscape o f mechanized a gricultural i ntensification, i ndustrialisation,

u rban i n-migration a nd r ural d epopulation, which

u nfortunately mean t hat o f u rgent

s urveys i n c ertain a reas n ow h ave t he s tatus

s alvage o perations

H ope S impson 1 977; f or p edestrian

1 981,

1 ).

( Dyson 1 982,

9 0;

B y a nd l arge,

s urveys t hroughout much o f

P otter 1 979,

n evertheless,

x iii; t he p rospects

t he r egion a re f air t o

e xcellent, a t l east b y c omparison w ith many o ther p arts o f t he w orld ( especially t hose with t ropical t emperate o r a rctic e cosystems). T his means t hat t he e xchange o f i deas a bout s urvey d esign a nd methodology a mong M editerranean a rchaeologists c an t ake q uite a l ot f or g ranted. A t hird f actor t hat s eems t o l end s ome u nity t o t he c ontributions i n t his v olume i s perhaps much l ess o bvious, b ut h as a n i mportant b earing o n h ow w e o perate, ( as well a s o n what I w ant t o s ay b elow). T his, p ut s imply, i s t hat we a re s trangers w orking • i n f oreign l ands. A ll b ut t wo o r t hree o f t he p rojects s ummarized e arlier i n t he b ook h ave b een u ndertaken b y s cholars o perating o utside t he c ountry o f t heir i nstitutional b ase o r c itizenship, a s imple f act with f arr eaching a nd a ll t oo f amiliar c onsequences. a cademic p ositions o f o f n ecessity,

s ome

S ince m ost o f u s h old

s ort i n o ur o wn c ountries,

f ieldwork c an,

o nly t ake p lace d uring s uitable l ulls i n o ur r outine

r esponsibilities - u sually t he h ot,

d ry .summer m onths when f ield-

w alking i s m ost a rduous a nd s urface v isibility m ay b e f ar f rom o ptimal. S econdly, t he g overnments o f a ll t he M editerranean c ountries q uite r ightly n ow e xert r igid c ontrol o ver t he e xport o f a ntiquities f or whatever r eason, whether t o c ontrol l egitimate a rchaeological a nalysis o r ( as a ll t oo o ften) t o p revent i llicit s ale. A nalysis m ust a lmost a lways t ake p lace o n t he s pot, without t he o pportunity f or t he d etailed r ecording a nd l eisurely s tudy which w ould b e p ossible

3 77

i f we h ad t he

material i n o ur o wn l aboratories a ll y ear.

S uch h urried a nalysis

c an o nly b e d amaging t o t he u ltimate q uality o f o ur w ork. a nd p erhaps y et m ore c onstricting,

T hirdly

t he manner o f winning r esearch

f unds a t h ome a nd t he n ecessary a rchaeological p ermits a broad militates s trongly a gainst t he d evelopment o f r esearch s trategies,

e fficient r egional s urveys f rom b oth e nds

f lexible, m ulti-stage

t he e ssential p rerequisite o f e ffective a nd ( Redman 1 973).

T here a re s trong p ressures

t o a chieve i mmediate, v alue-for-money r esults;

a nd

t hese p rompt t he a rchaeologist t o t ake a nd s tick with what a re,

o ften,

p remature a nd p oorly r esearched d ecisions a bout p recisely where t o d o a s urvey a nd h ow t o g o a bout i t.

F inally,

t here e xist d ifficulties

o f c ommunication, n ot s o m uch l inguistic a s c onceptual, between s urvey p ermit-users a nd p ermit-granters. I t i s m y o verwhelming i mpression, a t a ny r ate,

t hat t he A rchaeological S ervices i n a n umber o f

M editerranean c ountries r egard s urvey with t he d eepest s uspicion s uspicion t hat

s tems f rom a whole

s eries o f u nderstandable m isappre-

h ensions a bout what a m odern a rchaeological s urvey i nvolves f rom a p ractical p oint o f v iew ,

a bout h ow i t r elates t o e xcavation,

what s urvey c an i n p rinciple a chieve, u ndertaking o ne

i n t he f irst p lace.

a bout

a nd a bout t he r easons f or S ome g ood P R,

a s well a s

i ncreased c ollaboration with a rchaeologists i n o ur h ost c ountries,

i s

u rgently c alled f or. This l ast p oint l eads t o t he f irst o f o n which I w ant t o f ocus i n what f ollows:

t he t wo major q uestions Why d o s urvey a t a ll?

S hould t he a cquisition a nd i nterpretation o f a rchaeological d ata f rom s ite s urfaces a lone b e r egarded a s a v alid a nd w orthwhile g oal i n i ts o wn r ight? I n p articular, t o what e xtent c an a nd s hould s urvey s tand a s a s et o f t ech -l iques, s eparate f rom a nd n ot n ecessarily r elated t o e xcavation, f or g iving a rchaeological i nformation? T he a nswers g iven t o q uestions o f t his s ort, q uite c learly, will v ary with p roblem o rientation -

i ndeed,

with o ne's whole philosophical

a pproach t o t he s tudy o f t he p ast a nd t he n ature o f h istorical e nquiry. N evertheless, s ome r ecent w riting o n t hese i ssues s eems t o me t o be s eriously i n e rror a nd I s hould l ike t o e xplain b riefly why I t hink t his i s s o.

I t i s o nly i n t he c ontext o f

a bout t he s tatus a nd a ims o f t urning t o c onsider t he

s ome c oncensus

s urvey i n g eneral t hat i t i s w orthwhile

s econd m ain q uestion:

What k ind o f s urveys

s hould we b e d oing? WHY D O S URVEY A T A LL? H ope S impson 's i nteresting l imitations o f

s urface

s urveys'

q uite e xtraordinary r emarks.

s upplementary p aper e ntitled ( this v olume)

' Survey,'

' The

c oncludes with s ome

h e w rites,

' is n ot a n e nd

i n i tself, a nd s urvey material a lone c an n ever p roduce a s ecure b asis f or i nterpretation.., a nd t hat a ll c onclusions d erived f rom s urface a lone m ust r emain t entative a nd h ypothetical.'

P essimistic

s tatements o f t his s ort a lso e cho t hrough t he p ages o f H ope S impson's r ecent b ook Mycenaean G reece ( 1981), i n which t here a re r epeated warnings a bout

t he d angers o f

' premature s peculation',

a re o bvious l imitations i nherent

i n a ll s urvey w ork,

when n ot a ccompanied b y e xcavations' T his

( 1981,

f ailure o f n erve i s a ll t he m ore

s ince

' there

e specially

2 17). r emarkable

i n a s cholar,

t he m ajority o f whose p rofessional c areer h as i n f act b een d edicated

3 78

t o f ield s urvey a nd who i s r ightly r egarded a s a l eading e xponent o f r egional a rchaeological s urvey i n t he M editerranean ( e.g. B intliff e d. 1 977, p assim ; C herry 1 982, 1 5). Y ears o f f ield e xperience s eem t o h ave c onvinced .Hope S impson t hat t he o bstacles t o t he a cquisition o f a ' true' p icture o f p ast s ettlement p atterns i n a ny r egion f rom s urface m aterials - f or i nstance, m an-made d isturbance,

d ense

v egetation c over, p atterns o f e rosion a nd/or d eposition, t he g enerally p oor p reservation o f m ost s urface f inds a nd t heir i nherently l ow d iagnostic q ualities, t he u nknown r elationship b etween s urface a nd s ub-surface f inds, e tc.-- a re b oth o verwhelming a nd i nsuperable, h owever c arefully p lanned a nd i ntensively e xecuted a s urvey p roject m ay b e. T his s tance c omes c lose t o t hat o f K ent F lannery's a greeable b ut d eeply r eactionary ( and o nly s emi-fictitious) c haracter, t he ' Real M esoamerican A rchaeologist': ' surface r emains a re j ust t hat t he j unk y ou f ind o n t he s urface - a nd n othing m ore' ( Flannery 1 976, 5 1). I t w ould b e c hu clishto a ttempt t o a rgue a gainst t he g eneral p roposition t hat, a s A mmerman ( 1981, 7 7) n eatly p uts i t, ' ambiguity i s a c ommon f eature o f m ost s ets o f s urvey d ata.' O f c ourse, m any o f t he s pecific p ractical d ifficulties n oted b y H ope S impson v ary c onsiderably i n t heir s everity f rom r egion t o r egion, a nd e ven w ithin i ndividual s urvey a reas. B ut t here i s b road a greement t hat t here d o e xist i nherent l imitations o f a m ore g eneric k ind i n m ost s urvey d ata. T hese i nclude p roblems s uch a s ( a) T he n ecessarily c oarse c hronological f ramew ork, s eldom m ore p recise t han a c entury a nd a nd o ften m uch v ag 1 .3r t han t hat, which r esults f rom t he u se o f a ggregate c ollections o f p oorly p reserved s uface m aterial, s o t hat ( b)

M aps o f

s ite d istributions b ased o n s urvey

d ata t o s ome d egree ( often u nknown ) m ust b e t aken t o r epresent ' palimpsests' o f s ites, n ot a ll o f which w ere n ecessarily i n u se s imultaneously ( cf.

H amond 1 979).

( c)

T he s mearing a nd b lending o f s urface f inds,

e ither b y n atural o r h uman a gencies, m eans t hat s mall s ites m ay o ften g o u nrecognized a nd s ites o f a ll s izes a nd t ypes m ay b e d ifficult t o d efine a ccurately i n s patial t erms. ( d)

I nformation a bout t he i nternal o rganization

a nd f unction o f t o o btain.

s ites i s u sually v ery d ifficult

N aturally, e xcavation c an b e e xpected t o g o a c ertain w ay t owards r esolving s ome o f t hese a nd o ther d iffidulties, a lthough c onstraints o f f inance a nd t ime w ill a lways p revent m ore t han a h andful o f s ites i n a ny s urvey a rea b eing e xamined i n t his w ay.

T he o bvious

a lternative i s t o i ncrease t he i ntensity o f s urvey t echniques o r t o i ntroduce m ethodological r efinements o f o ther s orts which m ight h elp r educe t he i mpact o f t hese i ntrinsic i nadequacies o f n early a ll s urveys. F or i nstance, s ystematic s trategies f or s urface c ollection,

3 79

c ombined w ith d etailed s patial p lotting o f d ifferent a rtifact t ypes o r f eatures, c ould well h elp w ith p roblems ( a) a nd ( d) a bove, while ( c) d emands a n i ncrease i n t he l abour i ntensity o f s urvey c overage p er u nit o f t errain. ( e.g. 1 977; 1 981, 1 ,

Y et H ope S impson, i n t his v olume a nd e lsewhere 2 13), e xpresses e xtreme s cepticism a bout t hese

v ery i nnovations a nd f eels t hat ' the s upposed s uperior v alue o f t he m ore " intensive" s urveys h as b een m uch e xaggerated.' L ikewise, a nother p rominent A egean a rchaeologist r emarked r ecently : ' I r emain t o b e c onvinced what r eal, p ositive n ew e vidence t his t echnique [ sc. v ery i ntensive, f ield b y f ield s urvey] i s g oing t o t hrow u p. I h ave y et t o s ee a ny r eal e vidence t hat i t h as d eveloped o ur k nowledge o ver a nd a bove t he H ope S impson t ype o f i nitial s urvey...' ( Peter W arren,

i n B intliff e d.

1 977,

6 1).

T he i ssue o f s urvey i ntensity i s o ne w hich I w ill t ake u p i n m ore d etail i n t he n ext s ection. H ere I w ant t o f ocus s olely o n t he r easons f or t he e vident l ow r egard i n w hich s urvey d ata i n g eneral a ppear t o b e h eld b y m any a rchaeologists a nd h istorians, i ncluding s ome w ho h ave t hemselves d evoted m uch e ffort i n t he p ast t o f ield s urvey i n t he M editerranean. H ope S impson ( 1981, 3 , 2 13-217), f or i nstance, f eels t hat t he e vidence g leaned f rom s ite s urfaces, whether b y ' intensive' o r ' extensive' t echniques o f r ecovery, i s p otentially s o i ncomplete a nd m isleading t hat w e s hould e schew a ll u se o f s uch d ata f or a nalytical p urposes ( such a s a ssessing s ite l ocation i n r elation t o e nvironmental p arameters, d etermining f luctuations i n p opulation l evels o ver t ime, o r d rawing c onclusions a bout e conomic o r p olitical o rganization). I t i s n ot c lear, t o m e a t l east, whether i t i s h eld t hat t he a massing o f f urther d ata o f s imilar q uality w ould d o a nything t o a meliorate t hese d ifficulties: w e s eem n ot t o b e d ealing h ere w ith t he v iew , o ften e xpressed b y s ome e xcavators, t hat i t w ould b e p remature t o r each a ny c onclusions ' until a ll t he d ata a re i n', b ut r ather t hat d ata o f t his s ort w ill n ever b e g ood e nough t o a nswer t he q uestions i n w hich we a re r eally m ost i nterested. I f t he l imitations o f a ll s urvey d ata a re r eally a s s evere a s H ope S impson a nd s ome o thers m aintain, t his w ould c all i nto q uestion t he u sefulness o f d oing s urvey w ork a t a ll, e xcept p erhaps i n ' rescue' c ircumstances o r a s a c onvenient means o f s electing s ites f or e xcavation.

I t w ould a lso l ead t o t he i nescapable c onclusion t hat

t he s trong t rend i n r ecent M editerranean a rchaeology a way f rom e xcavation a nd t owards s urvey ( of w hich t his c olloquium i tself i s c lear e vidence) r epresents a r etrograde s tep. I b elieve, f or t he r easons t o b e d iscussed b elow, t hat n either o f t hese v iews i s j ustified. I t i s a ppropriate a t t his p oint t o b e a l ittle m ore p recise a bout what w e m ean b y s urvey, n ot l east b ecause a v ariety o f a nswers t o t his q uestion a re i mplied b y t he p apers i n t his v olume i tself. T here a re i mmediate d ifficulties h ere, s temming f rom t he f act t hat n o s atisfactory e quivalent f or t he E nglish w ord ' survey ' e xists i n s everal o ther l anguages ( modern G reek a nd G erman a mong t hem) a nd t he v arious p eriphrastic e xpressions t hese l anguages h ave b een f orced t o a dopt m ay n ot c onvey t he f ull f orce o f t he c oncept i n E nglish. I n t his r espect, I n oted with s ome i nterest t hat m ost o f t he c ontribu tions i ncluded h ere f rom s cholars whose n ative l anguage i s n ot E nglish d ecribe p rojects c oncerned n ot w ith s urvey, b ut w ith what Iw ould c all ' surveying' - t hat i s, t he d etailed r ecording a nd

3 80

m apping, i n s ome c ases s upplemented b y s urface c ollection, o f a n i ndividual s ite ( e.g. R einders, t e R iele) o r c lass o f c hronologically/ f unctionally s imilar s ites M aele, W ickens),

( e.g.

G auvin,

G oester,

S ordinas, V an d e

s ome o r a ll o f which w ere k nown b efore t he p roject

w as u ndertaken. T he p apers b y D auphin, M urray, S chaar a nd S ullivan a lso f all i n t his c lass. W ork o f t his k ind, n arrowly f ocussed i n t erms o f p roblem o rientation a nd m aking e xtensive u se o f t echniques o f t he s ort d escribed i n b ooks s uch a s H ogg's S urveying f or A rchaeologists ( 1979), c an a nd d oes o verlap w ith t he t ypical a ctivities o f a s urvey s ensu l ato, b ut i s n ot p recisely e quivalent t o t hem. Iw ould a lso d istinguish a nd t reat s eparately what might b e c alled ' resource s urveys' ( e.g. B litzer, V italiano) - p rojects t hat e mploy s urvey-like t echniques t o e valuate t he a vailability o f a p articular r esource ( such a s c hert o r c ertain w ild p lants) within a d efined r egion, o ften t he h interland o f a k nown a nd e xcavated s ite ( and i n t his r espect c losely c omparable i n a ims a nd t echniques t o S ite C atchment A nalysis). L astly, W . M yer's s hort p aper u sefully r eminds u s t hat s urveys n eed n ot b e g round-based a nd c an m ake u se o f i magery f rom a ir-borne p latforms, whether t ethered b alloons, a ircraft o r s atellites - a lthough s uch o perations a re a lmost i nvariably f ollowed b ya p hase o f o n-the-ground i nspection; t he F rench r ightly d istinguish ' prospection a erienne' f rom ' prospection d u s ol'. W e a re l eft w ith a h ard c ore o f p rojects which c an p roperly b e c alled a rchaeological s urveys, i n t he s ense I w ould p refer t o s ee t he t erm u sed. W hat t hey h ave i n c ommon i s t he u se o f p edestrian s earch t actics t o r ecover i nformation a bout t he e xtant s urface a rchaeological r emains i n a r egion, u sually with t he u ltimate g oal o f u sing t he s ettlement c onriguration d etermined i n t his w ay a s t he b asis f or t he r econstruction o f v ariability o ver t ime a nd t hrough s pace i n n ow-extinct c ultural s ystems. T he o rganizers o f a ll t hese p rojects, I i magine, w ould r eadily a dmit t hat t heir r aw m aterial ' the j unk t hey f ind o n t he s urface' - a t b est r epresents a p artial a nd o ften b iased s ample o f what a s ite c ontains. Why t hen h ave t hey a nd s o m any o thers f ound i t w orthwhile t o d o s urvey? S ome s ort o f a nswer c an b e g iven m inimally a t t hree l evels. L ogistics. A t l east p art o f t he e xplanation f or t he i ncreasing p opularity o f s urvey-based r esearch i n t he M editerranean i n r ecent y ears m ust r elate t o t he r elative l ack o f l ogistical p roblems p osed b y s urface s urveys. E xcavation n ormally i nvolves t he c reation o f a t eam o f s pecialized s taff members,

t he e xpropriation o f t hose p arts

o f t he s ite t o b e d ug, t he h ire o f a l ocal w orkforce ( often q uite l arge), t he p urchase o f c onsiderable a mounts o f e quipment f or e xcavation a nd a nalysis, a nd t he a cquisition o f a p ermit t o e xcavate f rom t he r elevant a rchaeological a uthorities; t hese c an b e t imec onsuming, e xpensive a nd d ifficult o perations. F or a t l east a d ecade, i t h as b een q uite a pparent t hat major, l ong-term e xcavations, o f t he s ort t hat w ere t he s tock i n t rade o f C lassical A rchaeologists, i n p articular, i n t he p re- a nd p ost- w ar e ras, a re a p rohibitively c ostly a nachronism ( Dyson 1 982, 8 9; H ope S impson 1 977, 5 5). Q uite a part f rom t he p olitical c onsiderations whibh h ave r estricted s uch l arge u ndertakings i n m any c ountries, t echniques - f or i nstance,

i mprovements i n f ield

r outine s ieving a nd f lotation o f s oil

f or b ioarchaeological m aterials, o r t he t esting o f s patially d ispersed a reas o f a s ite f or f unctional v ariations a cross i t

3 81

h ave r endered p ure r esearch e xcavations v ery s luggish o perations whose c ost i s d isproportionate t o r esults a nd t herefore d ifficult t o j ustify t o f unding a gencies. S urveys e ncounter t hese d ifficulties i n a m uch l ess e xtreme f orm , i f a t a ll. F ieldwork d emands l ittle m ore t han a f ew t apes, c ompasses, m aps a nd c ameras, while p ermission t o c arry o ut a s urvey h as, u ntil r ecently, b een r elatively e asy t o o btain ( if i t w as n eeded a t a ll), p erhaps p artly b ecause s urvey i s r egarded a s a r elatively n on-destructive t echnique. Whereas f ormerly ' the s urvey s erved a s a p reliminary l ightweight b out w hich p receded a nd c omplemented t he m ain a ttraction [ i.e. e xcavation]' ( Ammerman 1 981, 6 3), i t h as n ow a chieved a f air d egree o f p arity, a t l east t o j udge f rom t he c urrent l evels o f a ctivity. H owever, i t s eems t o m e t hat a n umber o f M editerranean a rchaeologists h ave t urned t o s urvey n ot s o m uch a s t he l ogical m eans o f g aining t he t ypes o f i nformation t hey r equire t o t ackle s pecific r esearch p roblems, b ut r ather b ecause t hey r ealize t hat

' it w ill be a r elatively l ow-budget

s urvey o r

n othing f or M editerranean a rchaeology i n t he f uture' ( Dyson 1 982, 9 0). O ne u nfortunate s ide-effect h as b een a n ' i ncreasing b ody o f w ork o rganized b y s cholars w ith l ittle o r n o p revious p ractical s urvey e xperience a nd with o nly s light k nowledge o f t he n owe xtensive l iterature o n s urvey d esign. E veryone h as t o s tart s omewhere, o f c ourse, b ut I f ind i t r egrettable t hat s o m uch e ffort i s e xpended i n d esigning p rojects f rom f irst p rinciples d etermined b y t rial a nd e rror, without b uilding o n t he i nsights g ained f rom o thers' e arlier w ork. T his v olume i tself, I h ope, w ill h elp r aise t he l evel o f awareness a nd c ommunication a mong M editerranean s urvey a rchaeologists. D ata Q uality a nd R eliability.

A s econd l ine o f d efence o f

s urvey a s a m ethod c oncerns t he q uality o f t he d ata g athered i n t his w ay. T hat s urveys s hould n eed t his s ort o f d efence a t a ll i n t he 1 980 's, a s t hey d id a c ouple o f d ecades a go ( e.g. R uppe 1 966; M cDonald 1 966), i s s urprising, e specially n ow t hat d iachronic r egional s yntheses b ased e xplicitly o n t he r esults o f l ong-term s urvey p rojects h ave b egun t o a ppear i n t he M editerranean a rchaeological l iterature ( e.g. M cDonald a nd R app e ds. 1 972;

P otter

1 979). S chiffer e t a l. ( 1978, 1 ) d ismiss t he whole i ssue: ' Scarcely m ore t han a d ecade a go, a t l east o ne i nvestigator f elt c ompelled t o d efend t he a rchaeological s urvey a s a l egitimate a nd p roductive r esearch t ool...Today, s uch a pologia w ould b e a nachronistic, s ince s urveys a re t he p rincipal s ource o f r egional d ata.' Y et r emarks s uch a s t hose c ited e arlier i n t his s ection d o i ndicate t hat a d efence i s n eeded,

a t l east i n s ome q uarters.

T hat s urvey h as s ome s hortcomings a s a t echnique i s a s elfe vident f act which i t i s a s well t o a cknowledge c andidly a t t he o utset : I h ave t ouched o n s ome o f t hese a bove a nd w ill e xplore o thers i n a l ittle m ore d etail b elow. H o ever, what i s s triking i n m uch o f t he r ecent l iterature t hat i s o penly c ritical o f s urvey i s t he n ormal a ssumption t hat, p robably w ill n ot b e)

i n t he f irst p lace,

t here i s n ot

( and

a ny w ay o f s urmounting t hese s hortcomings o r

e valuating t heir r eal i mpact a nd, i n t he s econd, t hat e xcavation d oes n ot s uffer f rom s uch d eficiencies. H ope S impson s peaks o f t he ' limitations i nherent

i n a ll s urvey w ork,

3 82

e specially when n ot

a ccompanied b y e xcavations'

( 1981,

1 );

a nd a gain,

' ...It w ould b e

e xtremely u nwise t o a ttempt t o a nalyze ( especially b y c omputer) a ny " raw d ata" p resently a vailable c oncerning t he s ize o f t he [ Mycenaean] s ettlements a nd t heir o bserved d istribution...The u se o f t he c omputer f or a nalysis o f a rchaeological f inds s hould a t p resent b e r estricted e ntirely t o d ata o btained f rom e xcavated m aterial f ound i n s tratified d eposits ' ( 1981, 3 ; a uthor's e mphases). S uch v iews - t o which m any a p ractising a rchaeologist a nd h istorian I f ear w ill w arm - I f ind a ltogether w rongheaded ( if a lso s omewhat u nderstandable).

E xcavation,

a fter a ll,

h as a lways b een s een b y

a rchaeologist a nd l ayman a like a s t he o nly p roper a ctivity o f a rchaeology, while s urvey's s ubordinate r elationship t o e xcavation h as g enerally s eemed j ustified b y t he s crappiness a nd u nknown r eliability o f t he r esults e merging f rom a mateurish a d h oc w ork i n t he p ast. N or s hould i t b e d enied t hat e xcavated m aterials c an s upplement a nd c orrect t he f indings o f s urvey ( although I w ould h asten t o a dd t hat t he r everse i s e qually t rue). M y o bjection, r ather, i s t hat c riticisms o f s urvey s eem a ll t oo o ften u ltimately t o r est o n a n a xiomatic, b ut d ubious, a ssumption: t hat t he r eliability a nd q uality o f d ata f rom e xcavations i s o f a d ifferent

( higher)

o rder

t han t hat f rom s urvey, with t he c orollary t hat s urveys a re i nevitably p arasitic o n, a nd i nextricably l inked t o, s tratified e xcavations. T he o bvious r iposte i s t o p oint o ut t hat e xcavation, t oo, s uffers f rom s ome i nherent d efects - d efects, h owever, which i t s eems t o b e i n e veryone's i nterest t o p lay d own, s o w e h ear l ittle a bout t hem. S nodgrass ( in p ress) r ightly r emarks: ' Excavation i s...an e xpensive p rocess, b oth f inancially a nd i n t erms o f t he t ime a nd l abour t hat i t u ses u p. I t i s n atural ' _ or a ll p arties c oncerned - n ot o nly t he e xcavator h imself - t o w ant t o b elieve i n t he i mportance o f a s ite o n which m uch h as b een e xpended. P ositive a nd, i f p ossible, f ar r eaching c onclusions a re e agerly s ought.' Y et a lmost i nvariably t he e xcavated p ortion o f a s ite f rom w hich s uch c onclusions a re t o b e d rawn i s p itifully s mall i n r elation t o t he w hole a nd i ts s election d epends o n s ubjective j udgements o r e ven n on-archaeological c onsiderations. T he e xcavated s ampling f raction o n m ost M editerranean s ites r arely e xceeds 5 % o r 1 0% a t b est; t his m ay b e c ontrasted ( unfavourably) with m any r ecent s urveys which h ave s ucceeded i n e xamining 2 0%, 4 0% - i n a v ery f ew c ases, 1 00% - o f t he t arget p opulation ( a p redefined a rea o r a reas o f t he l andscape). I n t his s ense a lone, t he s trictures a gainst t he a ppropriateness o f s ampling i n s urvey w ork ( in t he p ages o f t his v olume, a mongst o thers) a re m isconceived: f ar b etter t o a dmit t hat s ampling i s i ntrinsic t o a rchaeological r esearch o f e very k ind a nd t hat ' all a rchaeological w ork i nvolves t he r ecognition t hat l imitations o f t ime a nd r esources a llow c onsideration o f o nly a p art o f t he p otentially a vailable d ata ' ( Cherry 1 982, 1 6; c f. C herry e t a l. e ds. 1 978, p assim). T he a rgument i s p roperly a bout h ow t o s ample, n ot whether t o d o s o, a nd I s ee n o e ssential d ifference b etween e xcavation a nd s urvey i n r espect o f

s uch d ecisions.

A nother p oint a t which e xcavations a re h eld t o s core h eavily c oncerns t he s patial a nd s tratigraphic c ontrol which c areful d igging a llows, i n c ontrast t o t he j umbled s ite s urfaces which a re t he r aw m aterial o f s urveys. T his m ay b e s o, b ut o nly b y v irtue o f t he f act t hat e xcavation i s a p rocess o f n ear-total d estruction. K ent

3 83

F lannery ( 1982, 2 75) m akes t he l atest i n h is c ast o f m ythical a rchaeological c haracters, t he O ld T ime, r emark s ourly, ' Archaeology i s t he o nly b ranch o f a nthropology where w e k ill o ur i nformants i n t he p rocess o f s tudying t hem.' T his i s n ot t o s ay t hat s urvey d oes n ot a lso i nvolve d estructiön, a lthough u sually t he ' damage' f rom s urface c ollection a mounts t o n o m ore t han what t he n ext p assing p lough b lade m ight d o. I n a ny c ase, t here a re t hose ( myself i ncluded) who f eel t hat, u ntil we h ave a m uch c learer i dea o f t he p rinciples t hat g overn t he r elationship b etween s urface a nd s ub-surface m aterials, s ite s urfaces s hould b e t reated with t he c are we w ould a ccord t o s tratified l evels i n a ny e xcavation ( Dancey 1 974). T he i mportant p oint o f t he c ontrast, n onetheless, i s t hat t he c onclusions o f e xcavations c an n ever b e c hecked d irectly ( since l iteral ' ree xcavation' i s a n i mpossibility), s o t hat w e a re c rucially d ependent o n t he i ntegrity, a ccurateness a nd i ndustry o f t he e xcavator i n h is r eport, i f h e e ver w rites o ne; i nferences d rawn f rom s urvey w ork c an b e c ritically e valuated o n a n i ndependent b asis, b y t he s imple e xpedient o f r e-surveying t he a rea, m ore i ntensively i f n eed b e. S ome c ritics m ight a dmit t his p oint, b ut ' counter with t he o bjection t hat s urvey p rocedures t hemselves s everely d istort t he r esults o btained. A nyone w ho h as b een i nvolved i n f ield s urvey m ust h ave w ondered a bout a v ariety o f f actors t hat m ight v itiate t he o utcome - o r, a t l east, b e s o p roblematical t hat t he o nly v alid c onclusions a bout t he p ast t hat c an b e d rawn a re ' trivial s tatements t hat a ncient p eople l ived i n h ouses, a te m eat a nd m ade p ottery ' ( Barker a nd H odges 1 981, 1 4). F actors s uch a s t he p ast l and-use h istory o f a r egion, s urface v egetation a t t he t ime o f s urvey, s oil a nd weather c onditions, t he d epth o f p loughing, d ifferences i n t he k nowledge a nd e xperience o f m embers o f t he s urvey t eam, e tc., a lmost c ertainly h ave a n e ffect:

b ut h ow m uch?

M y a nswer w ould b e t hat

we r eally d on't k now, b ut t hat i t p robably m ay n ot m atter v ery m uch f or c ertain t ypes o f q uestion. D istorting f actors o f t he k ind I h ave j ust m entioned a re q uite a menable t o m easurement. W e c an e asily d iscipline o urselves t o r ecord l ight c onditions, o r r elative v isibility o f t he g round s urface, o r which s urface c ollections w ere m ade b y which t eam m embers, a nd t hen e valuate b y s tatistical m eans t he amount o f v ariability i n t he o verall r esults t hat c an b e a ttributed t o t hese f actors, s ingly o r c ollectively. C onsiderable o ptimism i s j ustified b y t he r esults o f a r ecent i ntensive s urvey c arried o ut i n a n ' unfavourable' r egion ( a t emperate a rable a rea o f S outhern E ngland) e xplicitly t o m onitor t hose d istorting f actors which h ave b een s uggested a s a ffecting s urvey r esults t o a n u na cceptable d egree.

I n t his i nstance, n o m ore t han 1 2% o f t he

v ariance i n a ll c ases c ould b e a ccounted f or i n t his w ay ( Shennan 1 981). I t i s e specially i mportant t o n ote t hat s uch d istortions a re l ikely t o b e i nsignificant where t he m ain a im o f s urvey i s a spatial a nd i s d evoted t o a ssessing t he e ffects o f c ertain v ariables ( e.g. t he r elationship o f s oil t ype t o s ettlement l ocation) w ithin t he s urvey a rea a t l arge; i f w e n eed t o k now a bout e xtant s urface m aterials i n a s pecific p iece o f g round, t hey c ould w ell b e m ore i mportant.

What t his i nstance r eflects,

i ncidentally,

i s o ne

a spect o f t he m ethodological s elf-evaluation t hat s urvey's i nnocence'

h as e ncouraged.

I n t his r espect,

i s a lready f ar a head o f e xcavation.

3 84

' loss o f

s urvey a s a t echnique

T he N ature o f S urvey D ata. A rguments a nd c ounter-arguments o f t he k ind I h ave d iscussed s o f ar a re o f l ittle s ignificance w hen v iewed i n t he c ontext o f t he s orts o f i nformation t hat m odern s urveys a re i ndubitably c apable o f p roviding. L et m e f or a m oment b ecome r ather m ore p rescriptive i n m y c omments. I r egard i t a s a xiomatic,

i n t he f irst p lace,

t hat g ood s urveys

a re d iachronic: t hat i s, t heir i nterests e xtend t o m ost o r a ll p eriods o f h uman a ctivity i n a n a rea, f rom t he e arliest p rehistoric o ccupation t o r ecent t imes. J ust a s w e n o l onger r egard i t a s a cceptable e xcavation p ractice, a s d id e arlier g enerations o f a rchaeologists i n t he M editerranean,

t o d ig t hrough a nd d iscard

t he B yzantine a nd T urkish l evels o verlying C lassical a nd R oman s ettlements, s o t oo i t i s s imply u nethical t o i gnore t hose s ites d iscovered d uring s urvey which f all o utside o ne's m ain p eriod i nterests. T here c an b e n o o bjection i n p rinciple t o s urveys whose u ltimate g oal i s t he i nvestigation o f a p articular c hronological p eriod: s ome o f t he b est w ork, s uch a s t he U niversity o f M innesota p roject i n M essenia, S outhwestern G reece ( McDonald a nd R app e ds. 1 972), h as b een m otivated i n t his w ay. B ut s uch a g oal p uts t he a rchaeologist o n t he h orns o f a d ilemma.

I f h is s urvey c overage i s

a t a ll t horough , s ites o f a ll p eriods will i nevitably b e f ound a nd t hese m ust b e r ecorded a nd p ublished t o a cceptable s tandards e ffectively, t hen, a m ulti-period s urvey. I f, o n t he o ther h and, l ess i ntensive c overage i s u ndertaken t o f ind s ites o f a s ingle p eriod, c ertain a ssumptions w ill n ecessarily h ave t o b e m ade a bout p atterns o f s ite l ocation i n t hat p eriod a nd t he e ffort c oncentrated i n what a re t hought t o b e t he l ikeliest s pots ( e.g. M cDonald a nd H ope S impson 1 972); s uch a p roceüure, a s m any h ave p ointed o ut, u ndermines o ne o f t he c hief r aisons d 'etre f or s urvey, which i s t o t est s uch p resuppositions, r ather t han m erely a ssume t hem t o b e t rue. I n s hort, b oth e xcavation a nd s urvey a re, t o v arying d egrees, s ufficiently d estructive a nd l abour-intensive a ctivities t hat n o c lass o f d ata r ecovered c an s imply b e i gnored b ecause i t d oesn't r elate t o o ne's s pecific ' research p roblem '. S urvey i s i nherently a t echnique t hat g enerates d iachronic d ata, a f act t hat e fficient p rojects r ecognize i n t heir s urvey d esign. ' It i s s urely e ssential b oth f or e conomy o f m anpower a nd f or c omprehension o f h istorical t opography t hat t he b asic s urvey, a nd t herefore t he d efinitive r eport, s hould b e o rganized b y r egions a nd n ot b y c hronological d ivisions' ( Humphreys 1 978,

1 23).

S econdly, I w ould m aintain s trongly t hat s urveys, t o b e o f r eal v alue, s hould b e s patially e xtensive a ctivities o f r egional s cope, s ince t he s tudy o f r egions t hat c ontain whole s ystems o ffers m any t heoretical a dvantages ( Smith 1 976; J ohnson 1 977). B y t his, I d o n ot mean t hat s urveys s hould n ecessarily a ttempt t o c over e ntire r egions, b ut m erely t hat t he u ltimate t arget o f i nterest ( in s tatistical t erms, t he p opulation f rom w hich t he s urvey s ample i s d rawn) a bout which i nformation i s s ought s hould b e a c ontinuous b lock o f l andscape, p referably o f s ome s ize. T he w ay i n which t he p ortion o f t he r egion t o b e s urveyed i s a ctually c hosen i s a m atter i nvolving a s ensible c onjunction o f s ampling t heory, e xisting i nformation a bout t he r egion, a nd t he o verall p roblem o rientation o f t he p roject ( Cherry e t a l. e ds. 1 978). H ow t he l arger t arget r egion i tself

i s d efined i s a r ather d ifferent q uestion

3 85

( Cherry a nd

S hennan 1 978a, 1 9-22; 1 978b). F ollowing o n f rom t he d iachronic p erspective j ust n oted, I t hink i t i s f air t o s ay t hat m ost s urveys s hould h ave a s a h igh-level g oal t he s tudy o f c hanging c ultural s ystems. N ow a s J udge, E bert a nd H itchcock ( 1975, 8 3) n ote: ' Archaeological s ites r epresent t he a ctivity l oci o f c ultural s ystems. A ctivities a re d ifferentiated s patially; a s ingle a rchaeological s ite c annot b e e xpected t o r eflect a ll t he c omponents o f l arger a nd m ore i nclusive s ettlement s ystems.

R esearch w ith

t he g oal o f e xplanation o f c ultural s ystems a nd p roc esses m ust, t hen, b e f ramed i n s uch a w ay t hat t he t otal r ange o f t ypes o f c omponent s ite i s e xamined'. I t w as r easoning o f t his s ort t hat l ed B inford, i n h is c lassic p aper o n a rchaeological r esearch d esign, t o a ssert t hat a rchaeological f ield r esearch m ust i nvolve ' the d etailed a nd s ystematic s tudy o f r egions t hat c an b e e xpected t o h ave s upported c ultural s ystems' ( Binford 1 964, 4 26). M any s urveys,

s ensibly e nough, h ave i ndeed d efined t heir r egion

o f i nterest i n c ultural t erms.

M ost C lassical M editerranean s urveys

h ave b een d esigned t o e xamine t he k nown o r n otional t erritorial c atchment o f a n u rban c entre, a s f or e xample W ilson's s urvey o f 2 0 s quare k ilometres a round H eraclea M inoa i n S icily ( Wilson 1 981 ), o r M ills'

L uni s urvey

( this v olume).

O ther c omparable e xamples i nclude

t he t erritory o f a G reek p olis ( Gallant, t his v olume), t he h interland o f a M inoan t own ( Moody, t his v olume), t he h ypothetical market z one o f a n I ron A ge h illfort

( Cunliffe 1 971), o r e ven a n e ntire B ronze A ge

k ingdom ( McDonald a nd R app e ds. 1 972). B arker a nd H odges ( 1981, 1 1 ) n ote s ome o f t he d angers i n t his k ind o f a pproach. T he c hief d rawb ack, h owever, i f o ur i nterest l ies i n t he w ay s ystems c hange o ver t ime, i s t hat a n a rea s urvey i deal f or o ne p eriod w ill n ot b e s uitable f or o thers ( on w hich d ata w ill a lso b e c ollected ), b ecause t he s ize a nd c omplexity o f c ultural s ystems i n a n a rea t end n ot t o r emain t he s ame o ver t ime. T his p roblem i s c ompounded when w e i nvestigate b y s urvey - a s w e u sually m ust d o - o nly a s mall s ample o f s uch a n a rea. T he o nly s olution i s t o t ake a b lock o f l and a nd s tudy b its o f c hanging s ystems w ithin i t. T he a rbitrariness o f s uch a p rocedure c an b e r educed t o s ome e xtent b y d efining t he r egion i n s uch a way t hat i t c oincides w ith n atural t opographic u nits, s uch a s a r iver d rainage o r a n i nland b asin: b est o f a ll a re s mall i slands, s ince i nsularity i tself i mposes s trong a nd i nvariant b oundary c onstraints ( Evans 1 973; C herry 1 980a; 1 980b; R enfrew a nd W agstaff e ds. 1 982). B ut a ll t hese a re r egional s urvey units. What w e s hould a im f or a re n atural s tudy r egions t hat h ave s ome c ultural r elevance. T hirdly, I w ould a rgue

( though p erhaps l ess d ogmatically)

t hat

i t i s c ounterproductive t o t ry t o r un s urveys ' on t he c heap' w ith i nsufficient m anpower a nd e xpertise. L ike i t o r n ot, s urveys d o g enerate m aterial o f m any k inds a nd p eriods a nd i t i s s imply u nr ealistic t o e xpect s ingle i ndividuals t o b e c ompetent i n h andling e very s ort o f p ottery e ncountered, a s w ell a s c hipped a nd g round s tone, m etal, g lass, c oins, i nscriptions, a nd s o o n - e specially when i mportant m atters o f i nterpretation m ay h ang o n t he c orrect i dentification o f s mall q uantities o f p oorly p reserved m aterial. M oreover, s urveys t ake p lace i n a n e nvironmental s etting: i nformation a bout g eology, p edology,

a nd v egetation o f t he r egion i s n ot s imply

3 86

' para-archaeological' b ackground d ata, b ut m ay h ave a c ritical b earing o n s ettlement p atterns a nd o n w hether t he o bserved d istribut ion o f s urface a rchaeological m aterials c an b e t aken a t f ace v alue o r n ot.

C ertain c ategories o f m aterial ( e.g. P alaeolithic s ites)

w ill v ery l ikely o nly b e v isible t hrough g eomorphologically d efined ' visibility w indows' w hich v ery f ew a rchaeologists h ave t he n ecessary s kills t o d etermine a ccurately. I nterdisciplinary c ollaboration i s t hus a d esideratum o f a ny c oherent s urvey d esign. Y et t here a re a lso b asic manpower r equirements. P log e t a l. ( 1978, f ig. 1 0.1) s how c onvincingly t hat t here i s a d irect r elationship b etween t he n umber o f man-days e xpended i n t he s urvey o f a u nit o f l and a nd t he n umber o f s ites f ound i n i t, with n o s ign - a t l east i n t heir d ata - o f a p oint o f d iminishing r eturns. E xperience h as a lso s hown t hat o nly s urvey i ntensities o n t he o rder o f s everal m an-days p er s quare k ilometre a llow r eliable s tatements a bout w here s ites d o n ot o ccur, a s w ell a s where t hey d o ( a f undamental r equirement f or s aying t hat a g iven c lass o f a rchaeological s ites h as a c ertain d istribution: D ancey 1 974, 9 9; C herry 1 982, 1 4). C onsequently, v ery s mall s urvey t eams c an o nly g enerate d ata o f u nknown r eliability o r s urvey v ery s mall a reas i ndeed. O ne o f t he m ost d isturbing f eatures o f t he p apers i n t his v olume, i n f act, i s t he r elative a bundance o f s uch s mall-scale p rojects; a n umber o f t hem a re a ctually o ne-man e fforts, s ometimes u ndertaken a s p art o f d octoral r esearch. F otiades ( this v olume) p uts o n a b rave f ace i n a ttempting t o a rgue t hat s uch l imit ations o f m anpower a nd f inance c an h ave u nforeseen b enefits. B ut o ne must s urely a sk w hether G allant's s urvey o f 2 .1 s quare k ilom etres o f L efkas, h owever i ntensive h is f ieldwork a nd c arefully s tructured h is s ample, o ffers a n a dequate b asis f or g eneralising a bout t he e volution o f a whole p olis t erritory o f o ver 3 00 s quare k ilometres.

L ikewise, M oody's t horough c overage o f t he l and w ithin

a 3 -hour w alking r adius o f C hania i n W estern C rete h as o nly b een a chieved b y d evoting h erself t o s everal y ears' c ontinuous f ieldwork, l argely a lone. T his c annot b e t he m ost e fficient w ay o f p roceeding. T hese t hree a spects - c ollection o f m ulti-period d ata, r egional s cope, a nd d ependence o n i nterdisciplinary t eamwork - s eem t o m e t o b e i ntegral t o t he s urvey p rocess i tself. I f t hat i s s o, t hen i t b ecomes r ather m ore s traightforward t o s ee h ow t hey d ictate t he r elative s trengths a nd w eaknesses o f s urvey a s a t echnique. W hether t hese s trong p oints a re c onsidered s ufficient t o e levate s urvey t o a p osition o f p arity w ith e xcavation a s a s ource o f i nformation w ill d epend v ery m uch o n t he k inds o f q uestion a bout t he p ast w hich o ne w ants t o a nswer. W hile e ven t he s mallest s urvey i s s patially f ar m ore e xtensive t han a ny e xcavation, h owever massive, i ts c overage i s l imited p urely t o t he s urface o f t hree-dimensional s ites which i t c an n ormally h ope t o s ample o nly i n t he m ost c ursory m anner. T he r egional s cope o f s urveys p rovide t he o pportunity f or n umerous s ites t o b e e xamined i n t his w ay, b ut t he d ata g athered f rom e ach o f t hem w ill b e s light ( location a nd e nvironmental s etting, s ize, p eriod(s) o f o ccupation, a nd - i f o ne i s l ucky - h ints a bout f unction a nd p osition i n l arger s ettlement n etworks,

t ogether o f c ourse w ith a b ody o f m aterial f inds).

E xcavation r eveals a l ot a bout a l ittle o f o ne s ite; s urvey c an t ell u s a l ittle a bout l ots o f s ites, t he v ast m ajority o f w hich c annot b e p ut i nto d irect r elation with a vailable h istorical s ources.

3 87

I n o ther w ords, t here i s a t rade-off o f h istorical s pecificity a gainst s patial a nd t emporal c overage. T he e xcavator c an q uite l egitimately d ig t o a nswer q uestions l ike: I s t his s ite T roy? I s t his t he t emple t hat P ausanias m entioned h ereabouts? D oes t his d estruction l evel c orrespond t o t he s ack o f 2 96 B .C. r ecorded i n L ivy? - a lthough e ven i n o ptimal c ircumstances a rchaeological d ata o ften p rovide m erely f rustratingly a mbiguous a nswers. T raditional h istorical g oals o f t his s ort, w ith t heir e mphasis o n m ilitary, p olit ical a nd i ntellectual d evelopments, a re q uite b eyond t he r each o f t he s urvey a rchaeologist, w ho d oes n ot d eal i n ' the i ndividual e vent, t he u nique p lace, t he p articular r elationship' ( Snodgrass, i n p ress). I. . .H istorians c annot u se a rchaeological s urvey d ata a s a " real" m ap o f t he a ncient w orld. I t i s i llusory t o l ook f or s imple c orrel ations b etween a rchaeological d ata a nd h istorical m odels o f v illa s ettlements, s lave e states, o r whatever' ( Barker a nd H odges 1 981, 1 3).

T hose w ho h ope f or s uch e quivalencies ( e.g. F inley 1 971) h ave s imply f ailed t o g rasp t he p eculiar n ature o f a rchaeological d ata. A s S herratt ( 1980, 9 ) p uts i t: ' The l anguage o f a rchaeology d eals w ith p rocesses r ather t han e vents; i t s tresses t he r egularities o f c hange i mpact b ridge t erize

a nd i ts c ons quences r ather t han t he u nique o f c ontingent c ircumstances. I t f orms a b etween t he t ypes o f e xplanation t hat c haract he b iological s ciences a nd t hose o f t he

h umanities; a nd i t r equires i ts o wn d iscipline a nd p hilosophy t o p roduce e xplanations a ppropriate t o t he s cale o f i ts s ubject a nd m aterial.' T his b rings u s b ack t o t he E raudelian v iew o f h istory. B ec ause s urveys c an a nd d o y ield d ata o n a ll p eriods o f h uman a ctivity i n a n a rea, f rom t he s tone t ools o f t he e arliest h unter-gatherers t o y esterday's s ardine c an, t hey n ecessarily f orce t he a rchaeologist t o c onsider a s a w hole d ata w hich s pan t he p rehistoric, h istoric a nd m odern e ras, t o d escribe t he c hanges f rom o ne p eriod t o t he n ext w hich a re i ndicated b y t hese d ata, a nd t o p roduce s ome k ind o f e xp lanation f or t hem. W hat t his a mounts t o i s t he b elated r ecognition o f t he f act t hat t he a rchaeological r ecord, i f i t i s a nything, i s a r ecord o f l ong-term c hange, p roviding t he o pportunity t o c hart a nd e xplain l ong-run r elationships b etween v ariables i n w hich a nthropol ogists a nd o ther s ocial s cientists d ealing w ith c ontemporary o r n ear-contemporary d ata a re a lso i nterested. O nce a gain, i t i s o ne's v iew o f h istory t hat d etermines whether t he l oss o f s hort-term d et ail a nd s pecificity i n s urvey d ata a nd t he n ecessary l imitation o f r esearch t o a f ew g eneralized v ariables c ritical f or t he s tudy o f c hange i n g eneral ( e.g. t he r elationship b etween m an a nd h is e nvironm ent, p opulation, t echnology, e conomic s ystem, s patial o rganization, s Ocial c omplexity e tc.) a re f elt t o b e a mply c ompensated f or b y t he c hance t o e xamine p atterns o f r eally l ong-term c hange t hat m ight o therwise p ass u ndetected ( Braudel's

' slow b ut p erceptible r hythms').

I f t his i s s urvey's t emporal s trength,

t hen i ts a bility t o

i lluminate t he r ural c omponent o f s ettlement c onfigurations must b e c ounted t he m ain a dvantage o f i ts s patial e xtensiveness. T he i mpact o f r ecent M editerranean s urveys i n t his r espect h as b een q uite e xt raordinary, e specially i n t he c lassical p eriod, a nd t he r eason i s e asy t o s ee.

B oth t he a ncient h istorical s ources a nd t raditional

3 88

c lassical a rchaeologists l ook a t s ociety f rom t he t op d own, a v iew e mphasizing t he major m onuments a nd l iterary o utput o f a s mall u rban s egment o f a n e litist s ociety.

H istorians, e ven i f

t hey a re p rimar-

i ly i nterested i n b roader e conomic a nd s ocial i ssues i n t he a ncient M editerranean, f ind t his b ias n early i mpossible t o a void, f or o ur written s ources a re n aturally d eficient i n s pecific i nformation a bout t erritorial s pace a nd t he r ural l andscape: o ne g ets t he d istinct i mpression f rom t he c lassical w riters t hat t he

' countryside'

f or

t hem r epresented m erely t edious t racts s eparating u rban c entres. D yson ( 1982, 8 8) s ays, ' It a lmost n ever o ccurred t o t hem [ modern

A s

h istorians o f c lassical a ntiquity] t hat t he t ens o f t housands o f a ncient h abitation s ites i n t he M editerranean l andscape m ight, i f a pproached p roperly, y ield i mportant s ocial a nd e conomic d ata t hat c ould p artially c ompensate f or t he g aps i n t he w ritten s ources.' S urvey a rchaeology o ffers t he o nly means o f writing t he ' rural h istory' o f t he M editerranean c ountries b efore r ecent t imes, b ut i ts ' documents' a re o f a n u ntraditional k ind a nd t he r esulting ' history' h as a v ery d ifferent f ace. T he a bility o f s urveys t o m onitor d ensity v ariations i n s ettlement a cross ' the l andscape a nd t o r elate s uch v ariations t o t he b etter-known f acts a bout u rban o ccupation, s upplied b y e xcavation a nd w ritten s ources, i s a n i mp ortant c ontribution t o t he s tudy o f t he r elationships b etween t own a nd c ountry i n t he a ncient w orld - a t opic o f c onsiderable i nterest t o h istorians o f a ll p ersuasions, f or e xample t hose c onc erned with t he G reek p olis a nd i ts e volution ( Finley e d. 1 973; C hevallier 1 974; H umphreys 1 977, 1 30-135). I t i s i n I taly, w ithout d oubt, h ave b een made o n t his f ront,

t hat t he m ost d ramatic a dvances

a s t he p roceedings o f t he 1 980

S heffield S eminar o n I talian a rchaeology

( Barker a nd H odges e ds.

1 981 )

s how v ery c learly. A ll t he w ork d escribed t here h as i ts r oots, i nt ellectual a nd m ethodological, i n t he p ost-war s urvey w ork o f t he B ritish S chool a t R ome i n s outhern E truria, a t wenty-year p roject t hat e ventually g enerated c .2000 s ites i n a n a rea o f s ome 1 000 s quare k ilometres ( Ward-Perkins e t a l. 1 968; P otter 1 979). O f c ourse, i n t his a rea - c lose t o R ome a nd t he T iber, r ichly n etworked w ith r oad s ystems o f a ll p eriods, r elatively w ell-documented i n t he a ncient s ources - s uch a n o utcome i s p erhaps n ot t oo s urprising. A m ore s triking e xample i s p rovided b y t he s urvey u ndertaken b y G raeme B arker, m yself a nd o thers i n t he B iferno v alley i n M olise. L ess t han a d ecade a go, t his v alley, t ypical o f many i n e ast c entral I taly, l ay i n a rchaeological n o-man's l and, wholly u nilluminated b y t he a ncient h istorical w riters w ho,

i ndeed, r egarded t he

' rustic

h illsmen' o f t he a rea with s ome s corn ( Barker 1 977). F ive y ears o f s urvey a nd a v ery m odest b udget w ere s ufficient t o d ocument a d ense a nd c omplex p attern o f s ettlement i n t he v alley s tretching o ver t housands o f y ears a nd i ncluding w ell o ver 1 000 s ites i n t he s urveyed s ections o f t he v alley a lone ( Barker e t a l. 1 978; L loyd a nd B arker 1 981; t his v olume). C omparably r ich s tores o f i nformation m ust e xist a ll r ound t he M editerranean. I t w ould b e a n o bdurate h istorian i ndeed who c ould r eject t he f ruits o f t his s ort o f r ural a rchaeology o n t he g rounds t hat i t i s s omehow

' unreliable'

S ummarizing v ery c onsiderably,

t hen,

o r

' non-historical'.

I t hink w e c an r each t he

f ollowing p osition. C ertain q uestions a bout t he p ast, e specially t hose i nvolving s ocial, e conomic a nd e nvironmental f actors, d emand

3 89

t hat w e o perate o n t he r egional s cale. s ource o f r egional d ata.

S urvey i s o ur o nly g ood

S urvey i nformation h as s ome o bvious i n-

h erent l imitations i n c omparison t o e xcavation, b ut a lso s ome c lear s trengths a nd a dvantages w hich t he m ost u seful s urvey d esigns t ake e xplicitly i nto a ccount; s urvey a nd e xcavation a re q uite d ifferent m odes o f i nformation r etrieval t hat c omplement, b ut c annot r eplace, e ach o ther. W hile c areful, i ntensive s urveys c an i n f act g enerate a b ody o f m aterial q uantitatively c ommensurate w ith t hat f rom f ulls cale e xcavation,

t hat m aterial,

c oming a s i t d oes f rom s ite s urfaces

a lone, c an i nform u s a bout a f airly l imited n umber o f v ariables; y et t his a pparent l imitation i s f ar o utweighed b y t he v ast s patial a nd t emporal r ange o f s ites a nd material t hat c an b e e xamined i n t his w ay. T hus, a lthough s urvey d ata a re i n t hemselves f airly ' simple', t he p roblems o n which t hey c an r eliably b e b rought t o b ear a re l arge a nd c omplex - o ften f ar m ore s o t han t hose e valuated t hrough e xcavation a lone. W HAT K INDS O F S URVEYS S HOULD W E B E D OING? I t i s m uch e asier t o b e p rescriptive a bout w hat s urveys s hould b e l ike i n g eneral t han a bout h ow i ndividual p rojects m ight b est b e o rganized. S urvey d esign i nvolves m arrying a s pecific s et o f p roblems o r g oals t o t he c haracteristics o f a p articular l andscape a nd e nvironment, s ubject t o t he c onstraints o f a vailable r esources o f m anpower, t ime a nd f inance, a nd i n a w ay t hat m aximizes t he r atio o f n ew i nformation r ecovered t o e ffort e xpended i n r ecovering i t. T here a re o bviously a l arge n umber o f f actors t hat h ave s ome b earing o n s urvey d ecisions a nd t heir i ndividual i mpact h as b een a ssessed i n a g ood m any r ecent p apers. S ince t hese f actors v ary i ndependently, h owever, i t i s q uite i mpossible t o l ay d own g olden r ules o r u niversally a pplicable p rocedures, c ookbook s tyle: t here i s s imply ' no s ubstitute f or t houghtful c onsideration o f t heoretical f actors a nd r elevant c haracteristics o f t he s tudy a rea' ( Schiffer e t a l. 1 978, 1 9). N or i s i t a ppropriate t o b e v ery s pecific, when m y r emarks h ere a re i nt ended t o b e o f s ome r elevance t o s urveyors a ll r ound t he M editerranean. I n t his s ection, t herefore, I w ill c onfine m yself t o d iscussing j ust a f ew a spects o f p ractical p rocedure which c urrently s eem ( to m e, a t l east) t o b e e specially p roblematic o r c ontroversial o r i ll-conceived i n a n umber o f M editerranean s urvey p rojects. I ntensive v s. E xtensive S urvey M odes T he i ntensity o f a s urvey r efers t o t he a mount o f l abour e xp ended i n t he e xamination o f a n a rea. I t i s p robably b est m easured i n t erms o f t he s pacing b etween t eam-members a s t hey w alk a cross t he l andscape, s ince t he i nterval c hosen w ill d etermine t he s ize o f t he s mallest s ites r eliably d iscovered d uring t he s urvey ( just a s t he m esh s ize o f a s ieve d etermines t he l ower e nd o f t he s ize r ange o f o bjects r etrieved f rom a n e xcavation ). A u seful a lternative m easure w hich e mphasizes t he c osts o f a s urvey a t a p articular i ntensity l evel i s t he n umber o f m an-days d evoted t o t he s urvey o f a u nit a rea. T he l atter m easure w as u sed b y P log e t a l. ( 1978) t o s how t hat i nt ensity h as a d ramatic e ffect o n t he p roductivity o f a s urvey: t he l ikelihood t hat a s ite o f a p articular s ize a nd o btrusiveness w ill b e d iscovered v aries d irectly with t he l abour c osts a nd t his n aturally h as a s ignificant e ffect o n t he a ccuracy o f s urvey-based

3 90

e stimates o f ( say) t he t otal n umber o f s ites o f a p articular t ype w ithin a n a rea. T his p oses s ome d ifficult d ecisions f or t he a rchaeologist, w ho m ust d ecide w hether h is s urvey i s s imply d oomed t o c ost a l ot, o r w hether i t w ill c over a s maller a rea t han m ight h ave b een d esirable, o r w hether c ertain s ite c ategories a re t o b e s acrificed i n t he i nterests o f s peed a nd s patial e xtensiveness. O bviously, t he b est s olution i s s ome s ort o f c ompromise o r s trategy m ix s pecific t o e ach p roject: t here a re n o c ookbooks. S imple a s t he l ogic o f

t his a rgument m ay s eem,

i ts i mplications

h ave b een s trenuously r esisted b y s ome M editerranean a rchaeologists, d espite t he f act t hat t he l ast d ecade o r s o h as s een a M editerraneanw ide t rend t owards s urveys o f h igher i ntensity a nd s maller a real s cope. T he m ain t hrust o f t hese c ounter-arguments, i nsofar a s I c an understand t hem, i s n ot t hat w e c annot a fford t o w ork s o i ntensively, b ut t hat l ittle n ew k nowledge i s t o b e g ained b y d oing s o.

T he

e asiest way t o r ebut t his s uggestion i s b y p ractical d emonstration, u sing r esults f rom a s ingle c ountry. I n F igure 1 I h ave s ummarized d ata f rom t wenty G reek s urvey p rojects o n t he n umber o f s ites r eported a nd t he a rea ( in s quare k ilometres) t argeted f or i nvestigation: c ircles r epresent p rojects u ndertaken p rior t o t he e arly 1 970's, s tars i ndicate w ork o f t he l ast d ecade o r s o. I t m ust b e e mphasized s trongly t hat t hese d ata s hould b e r egarded o nly a s v ery a pproximate: t he f igures a re o ften n ot s tated e xplicitly ( particularly i n t he e arlier l iterature ) a nd h ave h ad t o b e w orked o ut f rom p ublished maps a nd c atalogues, w hile s ome o f t he m ore r ecent p rojects i ncluded h ere a re e ither s till u nder w ay o r h ave r eceived o nly v ery p reliminary p ublication. T he p lot i n F ig. 1 ( both o f w hose a xes a re l ogarithmic, i n o rder t o c ompress t he p oints w ithin a manageable s pace) h as b een d ivided i nto b ands, e ach o f which r epresents a t en-fold i ncrease i n r eported s ite d ensity. What i s s o v ery s triking a bout t he p lot, f or a ll t he c oarseness o f t he f igures a vailable, i s t hat r ecent p rojects f orm a c onsistent c luster o f p oints t o t he l eft o f t he d iagram ( average s ite d ensity = 5 .5/sq.km ), i n t he d ensity b and b etween 1 a nd 1 0 s ites p er s quare k ilometre; a ll b ut o ne o f t he e arlier p rojects f orm a g roup i n t he b and b etween 0 .1 a nd 0 .01 s ites p er s quare k ilometre ( average = 0 .08/ s q.km.). T he o nly i ntermediate p oint r epresents H ood's s mall-scale r econnaisance o f a c .35 s q.km. r egion o f s outh-west C rete ( Hood 1 967)

1 .

F or t he p urposes o f c omparison I h ave a lso i ncluded i n F ig.

1

t he a pproximate p ositions o f t he t wo l arge-scale I talian s urvey p rojects mentioned e arlier, t hose i n s outhern E truria a nd M olise. B oth o f t hem, d espite t heir v ery l arge a real c overage, f all i n t he s ame d ensity b and a s t he r ecent G reek s urveys - b ut f or d ifferent r easons. I n t he c ase o f s outh E truria, t he f ieldwork a t a ny o ne t ime c ould m ost r easonably b e d escribed a s ' extensive', b ut r e-visits a nd r e-surveys o ver m ore t han t wenty y ears, when t aken c umulatively, c onstitute a r elatively h igh l evel o f m an-power e xpended p er u nit a rea. T he M olise s urvey,

o n t he o ther h and, u tilized a v ery wide

r ange o f s urvey i ntensities o ver t he y ears, f rom v ery h aph azardly e xtensive t o s ystematic a nd i ntensive, s o t hat t he f igure p lotted h ere r epresents a n a verage d ensity l evel.

3 91

N ow , q uite c learly, t here may w ell b e m ajor d ifferences i n t he r elative a rchaeological r ichness o f v arious a reas o f G reece o r i n t heir r esponsiveness t o p edestrian s urvey t echniques; a nd t he g ap b etween t he t wo g roups o f p rojects i s u ndoubtedly e xaggerated b y t he a mbitiously l arge t arget a reas a dopted i n e arlier w ork ( even t hough av ery s mall f raction o f s uch a reas c ould b e c laimed a s h aving b een s urveyed, i n t he p roper s ense). Y et t hese f igures d o s eem t o s how t hat r ecent s urveys i n G reece h ave r evealed s ite d ensities S IXTY O R S EVENTY T IMES m ore d ense t han p revious w ork w ould h ave l ed o ne t o i magine a s t he n orm. T his i s s urely a n e mpirical f inding o f v ery g reat i mportance, h owever o bvious i t m ay s eem t hat t he m ore c aref ully o ne l ooks, t he m ore o ne s ees: f or i t m eans t hat t here d o e xist s mall a nd u nobtrusive s ites o ut t here i n t he l andscape, t hat t hey h ave g enerally b een m issed o r i gnored u ntil r ecent t imes, a nd t hat s urvey t echniques w hich a re i ncapable o f d etecting t hem p rovide a n i ncomplete a nd p otentially m isleading v iew o f t he a ncient l ands capes. N aturally, f or c ertain k inds o f q uestions s uch s ites m ay i n f act b e o f l ittle r eal i mportance a nd w e m ight c hoose t o i gnore t hem i n o ur s urvey d esign ( although t hat f act o ught t o b e m ade e xplicit). B ut t o a rgue t hat t hey d on't e xist i s e ntirely f utile: ' It h as b een s uggested r ecently e .g. B intliff e d. 1 977; B intliff 1 977 t hat t hese s urveys [ sc. ' extensive'] h ave f ailed t o d iscover t he ' smaller a nd s atellite' s ettlements t hat c an ( supposedly) b e p redicted o n g eographical g rounds, a nd t hat t hey h ave d eliberately c onc entrated o n t he ' upper h ierarchy ' o f s ettlem ents. Iw ill b e a rguing . . . t hat t his i s n ot t rue a s r egards a t l east s ome p arts o f t he E uboia, L aconia, M essenia a nd A rcadia s urveys.' ( Hope S impson 1 981,

1 )

F igure 1 s tands i n f lat c ontradiction o f s uch a s tatement. ( It w ill b e o f s pecial i nterest t o s urvey a rchaeologists i n G reece, i ncidentally t o n ote t he p osition o f t he U niversity o f M innesota M essenia E xpedition ( UMME) s urvey i n F ig. 1 , where i t a ppears a s t ypical o f p re-1970 w ork. M uch i nk h as b een s pilt, s ince t he p ublication b y M cDonald a nd R app ( eds. 1 972) o f t his i mportant r egional p roject, o n t he q uestion o f t he r eliability a nd r epresentativeness o f t his d ata s et - w hich i s s ufficiently l arge a nd w ell-published t o h ave e ncouraged ' secondary' a nalyses ( e.g., i nter a lia, C hadwick 1 978; H odder 1 977; 1 979; C herry 1 977; B intliff 1 977, 4 99-520; C arothers a nd M cDonald 1 979). H ope S impson ( 1981, 1 43-144, 2 13-217) h as m aintained s trongly t hat, w hile t his s urvey w as f or t he m ost p art c arried o ut i n a n e xtensive m anner, i t i s n evertheless n ot b iased t owards c ertain k inds o f s ite a nd t hat s maller/satellite/low-lying s ettlements w ere n ot n eglected a t t he e xpense o f t he u pper h ierarchy o f s ites. A t t he s ame t ime, h e h as w arned a gainst p remature a ttempts a t l ocational a nalysis o r t he a pplication o f s ettlement m odels t o t hese d ata. F ig. 1 h elps p ut t his d ebate i n c ontext, s ince i t i s q uite c lear t hat t he r esults o f t he UMME s urvey, m easured i n t erms o f s ite d ensity, a re e ntirely t ypical o f p re-1970 s urvey w ork i n g eneral ( UMME: s ites/sq.km.; a verage o f a ll e arlier s urveys s hown i n F ig.

3 92

0 .08 1 : 0 .085

s ites/sq.km.).

S o u nless M essenia i s q uite u nlike o ther p arts o f

G reece i n i ts a rchaeology, i t s eems p lain t hat U MME h as g iven u s a l arge b ut s elective s ample o f t he e xtant s ites a dn t hat m uch r emains t o b e f ound e ven i n t hose a reas a lready c overed b y U MME. T his i n n o w ay u ndermines t he b asic v alue o f t he i nformation t hat w as c ollected: i ndeed, i t t ends t o e mphasize A mmerman 's ( 1981, 7 4) p oint t hat ' the s heer v olume o f w ork d one a nd t he e xperience t hat w orkers h ave g radually b uilt u p o ver t he y ears' c an c ount f or a g reat d eal. I n h is i nteresting s hort p aper t o t he C ambridge C olloquium o n M ycenaean G eography, H ope S impson a sks t he q uestion I h ave s et a t t he h ead o f t his s ection : ' What s ort o f s urface s urvey s hould w e b e d oing n ow?' a nd r eplies ' Quite o bviously a m ixture o f e xtensive a nd i ntensive s urvey w ork ' ( 1977, 5 6-57), e choing t he v iew o f S chiffer e t a l. ( 1978, 1 3) t hat ' compromises i n i ntensity a re i n o rder.' Y et - p erhaps b ecause t here a re n o c ookbooks - I f eel H ope S impson h as n ot i n g eneral g ot t he m ixture r ight f or t he b est r ecipe i n m ost c ircumstances. H e a ssociates e xtensive s urvey w ith i nitial w ork d esigned t o p rovide t he o verall r egional p attern a nd t o a nswer ' Big Q uestions' ( e.g. H ow l arge w ere t he s ites? W ere s ome r egions m ore d ensely p opulated t han o thers?); i ntensive w ork i s s een a s i nvolving f ield-by-field w alking, r epeated v isits a nd a n e mphasis o n e nvironm ental a spects ( Hope S impson 1 977, 5 6-57). T his h as i ndeed o ften b een t he h istorical p attern o f s urvey w ork i n m any M editerranean c ountries - e xploratory t ravels o f av ery c asual n ature, f ollowed b y e xtensive r econnaissance a nd l eading t o i ntensive, s mall-scale s urvey ( examples i n C herry 1 982, 1 4-16). Iw ould a rgue, h owever, t hat w hat w e a re c oncerned t o d iscover a re t he p arameters ( or c haracteristics) o f t he a rchaeölogical r ecord o f a r egion. T hese c an b e v ery g eneral o r v ery s pecific, d epending o n t he r esearch p roblems u nder i nvestigation. B ut i n a rchaeological t erra i ncognita i nitial w ork i s l ikely t o b e d irected t owards o verall c haracteristics o f a r egion: H ow m any s ites o f a ll t ypes a nd s izes a re t here i n t he a rea? H ow a re t hese s ites d istributed b y p eriod a nd f unction? H ow d oes t his d istribution r elate t o v arious e nvironmental v ariables? ( Cherry a nd S hennan 1 978a, 2 1-22; C herry 1 982, 1 4). N ow i t i s q uite a pparent t hat m ost r egions o f s tudy w ill c ont ain a rchaeological m aterials e xhibiting c onsiderable v ariability i n o btrusiveness a nd d iscovery p robability ( i.e., ' the l ikelihood t hat, g iven c ertain a rchaeological a nd e nvironmental c haracteristics o f t he s tudy a rea, a rchaeological m aterials [ sites a nd a rtifacts ] r elevant f or e stimating t arget p arameters w ill b e e ncountered': S chiffer e t a l. 1 978, 3 ). T here i s n o d oubt i n m y m ind t hat g eneral c haracteristics o f t he r egional a rchaeological r ecord i n r elatively p oorly k nown a reas a re b est a scertained, i n t he f irst i nstance, b y s elective, i ntensive s urvey w ork b ased o n p robabilistic p rinciples ( to a llow r eliable e stimates, w ith a ppropriate c onfidence i ntervals a round t hem, o f o verall p atterns, t rends a nd d ensities) a nd m aking u se o f e xisting i nformation b y b uilding i t i nto t he s tratification o f t he s ample. M ore e xtensive a nd l ess f ormal m ethods w ill a lso p robably b e n eeded a t t his s tage t o o btain a u sefully l arge s ample o f t hose s ite t ypes w hich o ccur r arely o r i n s patial c lusters. T he r elative e mphasis o n e ither k ind o f w ork d epends o n a n umber o f s pecific f actors, i ncluding p roject g oals, t he s tate o f e xisting

3 93

k nowledge,

t he e nvironmental c haracteristics o f t he s urvey a rea,

t he r esources a vailable.

a nd

B ut t he p oint t o b e e mphasized i s t hat

i ntensive/extensive, p robabilistic/purposive t echniques a re c omp lementary a t A LL s tages i n a ' multiple s urvey s trategy' ( Doelle 1 977). I deally, t he p arameter e stimates a nd o ther i formation g ained a t e ach s tage o f a s urvey d esign s hould p rogressively h elp i mprove t he t echniques e mployed i n t he n ext s tage; q uestions b ecome m ore s pecific a s t he s urvey p roject p rogresses, b ut t his d oes n ot n ecessarily i mply a s hift t o w ork i n a m ore i ntensive, p urposive m ode ( Redman 1 973; 1 974; S chiffer e t a l. 1 978, 3 -4, 1 6-18). O ne o f t he m ost p rominent s hortcomings i n t he majority o f t he s urveys d escribed i n t his v olume i s t hat t hey h ave b een d esigned a nd e xecuted a s m onolithic, o nes tage p rojects, w ithout m aking a llowance f or t he f eedback o f e xisting o r n ewly-acquired i nformation which a f lexible, m ulti-stage s urvey d esign w ould a llow. S ite D efinition. C ritics m ight a rgue, w ith s ome j ustification, t hat i n F ig. 1 t he d isparities b etween t he d ensities a chieved i n d ifferent s urveys a re s imply t he r esult o f v ariable c riteria f or t he d efinition o f a ' site'; a nd i t d oes i ndeed s eem p robable t hat s mall, d iffuse d istributions o f m aterial w hich r ecent s urveys h ave t reated a s ' sites' w ere s ometimes o bserved b y e arlier w orkers, b ut d isregarded a s u nimportant ' noise'. A nyone who h as b een i nvolved i n a s urvey m ust h ave a sked h imself, when f aced with s crappy f inds s pread d iscontinuo usly o ver a n a rea, w hether i t i s w orth a ccording e vidence o f t his s ort s ite s tatus. J ust h ow l arge, d ense a nd d iscrete m ust a d ist ribution o f a rchaeological m aterial b e t o j ustify b eing t ermed a ' site'? P erhaps a f ew p ots f ell o ff a R oman p easant's d onkey? P erhaps t he material washed d own f rom a n eighbouring h illtop s ettlem ent?

P erhaps i t w as s cattered a s

' secondary r efuse'

f rom a s ite i n

t he v icinity d uring t he m anuring o f i ts f ields i n a ntiquity? A re t hese, t oo, s ites? T hinking a bout t his p roblem i s n ot s imply w restling w ith a ngels: w hen a s urvey t eam f inds a rtefacts, i t m ust m ake a ' yes' o r ' no' d ecision a bout t heir s ite s tatus - i f t he m ain p urpose o f t he s urvey i s i n f act c onceived o f i n t erms o f f inding s ites. M oreover, t he c riteria e mployed f or s uch d ecision-making h ave t o b e e xplicit, i f t he r esults o f a s urvey p roject a re t o h ave a ny c omparability w hatsoever with o ther w ork. N early a ll M editerranean s urveyors h ave a ssumed t hat t he a rtefacts i n a s tudy a rea o ccur i n c lusters r epresenting n atural o bservation u nits c alled ' sites' ( Schiffer e t a l. 1 978, 1 4); a g ood m any h ave t aken s uch u nits t o b e s elf-evident a nd n ot r equiring p recise d efinition. T hose a rchaeologists w ho h ave g iven t he m atter s ome t hought g enerally c ome u p w ith d efinitions t hat a re e ither u no bjectionable b ut s o v ague t hat t hey a re o f l ittle p ractical u se i n t he f ield, o r t hat i nvolve r igid d ensity-based c riteria t hat a re b oth a rbitrary a nd o f p urely l ocal a pplicability. A n e xample o f t he l atter i s t he d efinition o f a s ite a dopted b y a n umber o f a rchaeologists w orking t ogether a s t he S outhwestern A nthropological R esearch G roup ( SARG ): ' a l ocus o f c ultural m aterial, a rtefacts o r f acilities w ith a n a rtefact d ensity o f a t l east 5 a rtefacts p er s quare m eter' D oelle's

( Plog a nd H ill 1 971,

( 1977,

2 02)

d efinition:

3 94

8 ).

R ather m ore h elpful i s

' 1).

I t must

e xhibit d efinable l imits.

2 ).

I t

must c ontain e vidence o f more t han a s ingle o ccurrence o f h uman a ctivity.

3 ).

I f n o o ther c riteria e xist

f or d efining a s ite, t hen a n a rtefact d ensity m ust b e g reater t han 5 a rtefacts p er s q.m.' A s P log e t a l.

( 1978,

3 86-387)

n ote,

t he l ast c riterion w ould u n-

d oubtedly e xclude t he majority o f a rtefact o ccurrences i n many s urvey a reas.

M oreover,

i n t he M editerranean, where h uman a nd

n atural a ctivities h ave b een p articularly i ntense d uring h istorical t imes,

b ackground

' noise'

( in t he f orm o f v ery l ow d ensity s catters

o f m aterial a cross t he r egion) ( this v olume; f or e xample,

1 982, t hat

1 03)

i s m ore o r l ess u biquitous.

f ewer t han 2 % o f 4 20 r andomly s elected a nd i nten-

s ively i nspected 1 h ectare s ample u nits h ad a n a rtefact z ero.

G allant

f ound i n h is I onian I slands S urvey P roject, d ensity o f

I t s eems l ogical t hat we s hould e ither g ive u p t he a ttempt

t o d iscriminate

' sites'

f rom

' background n oise'

a ble a rtefact d ensities i nstead),

( and m onitor v ari-

o r b e v ery e xplicit a bout h ow s ites

r elate t o o verall d ensities. S imply i ntroducing i ntermediate t erms l ike ' scatters' ( Hope S impson, t his v olume), w ithout p recise d efinition,

s erves o nly t o o bfuscate t he p roblem.

T he p ath t hrough t hese d ifficulties i f

i s made a l ittle e asier

i t i s a ccepted a t t he o utset t hat t he a rchaeological r ecord

i s l ikely t o c onsist o f a v irtually c ontinuous s patial d istribution o f material o ver t he l andscape, b ut a d istribution e xtremely v ariable i n d ensity.

P erhaps t he s implest way t o t hink o f t his

c oncept i s

i n t erms o f a t opographic r elief model i n which t he h eight o f s urface a t a ny p oint r eflects

u he a rtefact d ensity t here

c omputer-drawn d ensity map o f t his T he

' peaks'

s ort,

s ee C herry 1 982,

f ig.

t he t raditional f orm o f u sually c alled

s urvey h as

' sites'.

t he model a t a ny d ensity l evel, t ops o f

2 .9).

i n t his m odel d o n ot i ndicate n atural t opography, but

a reas where t he d ensity o f a rchaeological m aterial i s h igh; a reas,

t he

( for a

t he h ighest p eaks,

a nd

f ocused o n t hese h igh d ensity

W e c ould, h owever,

' slice t hrough'

a t o ne e xtreme r etaining o nly t he

a t t he o ther k eeping t he e ntire c on-

f iguration o f t he ' density l andscape'. T his i s p recisely t he p rocess t o w hich C henhall ( 1975, 8 ) h as r eferred i a p ointing o ut t hat a t e very s tage i n t he p rocess o f d oing a rchaeology, a re made t o

" keep" s ome o bjects a nd/or d ata a nd t o

o bjects o r d ata.'

L ooked a t

t his way,

' decisions

" refuse" o ther

t he q uestion o f s ite d e-

f inition b ecomes a matter o f S AMPLING: what a re d eemed t o b e s ites w ithin t he p opulation o f a rchaeological materials i n a r egion will d epend, a s a lways, o n t he s pecific c haracteristics o f t he d istrib ution, t he r esources a vailable, a nd t he s urveyor's o wn i deas a bout t he i mportance o f c ertain c lasses o f a rchaeological d ata. Matters h ave b een c omplicated b y t he g rowing r ealization d uring t he p ast d ecade t hat

t here i s u seful i nformation t o b e o btained f rom

l ow-density, d iffuse d istributions o f c ultural material. T homas ( 1975), F oley ( 1981), D oelle ( 1977) a nd o thers h ave s uggested t hat i n c ertain a reas,

o r f or t he i nvestigation o f c ertain c lasses o f

p ast b ehaviour, i t may b e b est t o d rop t he concept o f t he s ite a ltogether, r eplacing i t with a d ata c ollection p rocedure ( rather a wkwardly c alled s iteless o r n on-site s urvey) i n w hich t he c ultural i tem - a rtefact,

e cofact,

f eature - i s

3 95

t he minimal u nit o f a naly-

s is.

T his s hift i n e mphasis o ffers s everal a dvantages.

I n t he

f irst p lace, i t a voids t he s ituation i n which a s urvey d eliberately a imed a t f inding s ites i s r egarded a s a f ailure i f n one a re f ound: c learly, i t i s n o h elp i f a s urvey t eam r eports l ots o f a rtefacts i n a n a rea, b ut c annot s eem t o f ind a ny ' sites': S econdly, a n ons ite a pproach a llows t he a rchaeologist t o c apitalize o n s urvey's a bility t o m onitor f ine g radations i n t he i ntensity o f h uman a ctivity o ver t he l andscape a nd a cross t he f ull r ange f rom d ensely o ccupied u rban s paces t o t he m ost s poradically u tilized l ocations. S ince t he s urface a rchaeological r ecord c onsists o f m ovable c ultural i tems a nd i s f ormed b y a w ide v ariety o f h uman a ctivities, s ome o f w hich c annot b e e xpected t o p roduce d efinable, b ounded c oncentrations, i t m akes s ense t o t hink i n t erms o f a v ariable d ensity s urface. L astly, r ather t han t rying t o e xplain why d iscrete s ites w ere l ocated w here t hey w ere ( e.g. P log a nd H ill 1 971), i t m ay w ell b e m ore h elpful i n s ome s ituations t o t ry t o e xplain v ariance i n t he s urface d ensities o f c ultural material o f d ifferent t ypes - a c ontinuous v ariable w hich c an b e r elated q uantitatively t o p otential e xplanatory f actors,

o ften e nvironmental o nes

( Shennan 1 981).

D espite t hese a dvantages, ' siteless s urvey' h as n ot y et h ad m uch i mpact i n t he M editerranean ( as t his v olume r eveals). O ne r eason may w ell b e t hat i t i s v ery l abour-intensive a nd c onsequently n ecessitates a cceptance o f r igorous s ampling p rocedures which m any M editerranean a rchaeologists c learly s till f ind d istasteful ( see b elow). P erhaps m ore i mportant i s t he f act t hat t he a pproach p ays h ighest d ividends i n t he i nvestigation o f n on-sedentary p opulations whose b ehaviour m ay o ften l eave a m iserably t hin a nd s poradic r ecord. M ost o f t he a rchaeology o f t he M editerranean c ountries r elates t o s edentary, a gricultural a daptations, r evolving a round d iscrete a nd r elatively d ense a ctivity c entres ( farmsteads, t owns, e tc.) N evertheless,

i t s eems p lain t hat i n f uture m ore a ccount w ill

h ave t o b e t aken o f w hat P log e t a l. ( 1978, 3 88) c all t he ' trailing e dge' o f t he a rchaeological s ite s pectrum, i f o nly b ecause - a s n oted a bove - t his a ffects s ite d efinition i tself. T he m ost e xplicit r ecent a ttempt t o d o s o i n aM editerranean c ontext i s t he s urvey w ork b y G allant i n t he I onian I slands, r eported b riefly i n t his v olume a nd m ore f ully i n h is r ecent P h.D.

t hesis

( 1982,

1 02-135).

G allant

a rgues, q uite r ightly, t hat a ' site' c an o nly b e d efined i n r elation t o o verall, r egional a rtefact d ensity ( itself s trongly a ffected b y v isibility - s ee b elow ). H e a lso s uggests, h owever, t hat s ites w ill h ave d efinable a nd measurable c haracteristics o f d iscreteness ( i,e. ' edges', i ndicated b y marked f all-offs i n a rtefact d ensity) a nd c ontinuity

( i.e. a rchaeological d istributions c an b e e xpected

t o b e most c ontinuous o n s ites a nd m ost s poradic i n b ackground s catters).

G allant o perationalized t hese c oncepts a s f ollows: 1 ).

S urvey e ach o f a r andom s ample o f 1h a.

s quares,

c ounting t he a rtefacts i n e ach 1 00m. t ransect a cross t he s quare. 2 ). I f t he d ensity i ndex ( number o f a rtefacts/100) o f a s quare i s h igh e nough - t his t hreshold, i n t he f irst i nstance, b eing s et a rbit rarily - s hift t o am ore i ntensive m ode o f i nvestig ation. 3 ). I nspect t he i mmediate v icinity o f t he s quare f or a n e dge w here a rtefact d ensity f alls o ff.

3 96

4 ).

F rom t hat e dge, w alk a r andomly o riented

t ransect

( 2m. w ide)

a cross t he d istribution,

c ounting a rtefacts b y 4 s q.m. g rid u nits. 5 ). R epeat t he p rocedure a long a s imilar t ransect o riented a t n inety d egrees t o t he f irst. T he a dvantage o f s uch a n a pproach, a part f rom i ts e xplicitness a nd i ts e mphasis o n t he c ollection o f r eliable q uantified d ata, i s t hat i t

a llows s ome r etrospective e valuation o f what w ere i n f act t aken

t o b e s ites d uring t he f ieldwork. F or e xample, • t he r atio o f t rans ect s quares i nspected p rovides s ome i ndication o f w hether s uch ' sites' a re a ctually c haracterized b y u nusually c ontinuous d istrib utions o f material. S imilarly, a b ivariate p lot o f t he d ensity a nd v isibility i ndices f or e ach q uadrat, s howing a lso w hich q uadrats w ere f ound t o c ontain ' sites', c an h elp d etermine t he i mpact o f s urface c onditions o n t he o btrusiveness o f a rchaeological m aterial. T he a bsolute v alues o f t hese m easures w ill o bviously v ary f rom o ne a rchaeological s ituation t o a nother, s o t hat I a m r ather d oubtful a bout G allant's c laim t hat t hey might f acilitate t he d irect c omparis on o f o ne s et o f s urvey r esults w ith o thers; b ut m ore e xperimental w ork o f t his s ort, r elating s ite d efinition t o a rtefact d ensity a nd d istribution u nder v arying v isibility c onditions, n on f or s urvey t o b ecome a r igorous t echnique.

i s a s ine q ua

V isibility P roblems I t g oes without s aying t hat i n a ny e nvironment t here e xist v arious f actors a ffecting t he l ikelihood t hat a rchaeological r emains w ill b e d iscovered a t a g iven p oint i n t he l andscape. T he m ost o bvious o f t hese a re t he d ensity a nd n ature o f n atural v egetation o r c rop c over, t he i ntensity o f p ast a nd p resent l and-use, e arth s urface p rocesses ( such a s s heet e rosion o r a reas o f a lluvial d eposition), a nd t he c haracteristics o f t he a rchaeological r ecord i n t he a rea. S uch f actors m ay a lso v ary u sually b e a ssumed t o v ey a rea t o a nother. i nterpretation o f a ny

o n a s easonal o r i nter-annual b asis a nd c an d iffer s ubstantially f rom o ne p art o f a s urS ince o ne o f t he b asic p rerequisites f or t he s et o f s urvey r esults i s r eliable k nowledge

a bout w here a rchaeological m aterials d o a nd d o n ot e xist w ithin a r egion, i t i s o f p articular i mportance t o b e a ble t o s eparate t hose a spects o f a d istribution w hich a re r eferable t o s ampling p rocedures a nd t o v isibility p roblems, f rom t hose w hich r eflect t he r eal c haracteristics o f t he t arget p opulation u nder i nvestigation ( Hamond 1 879). I n g eneral, M editerranean s urveyors n ow a ppear t o b e w ell a ware o f v isibility p roblems.

F or i nstance, V ita-Finzi's i mportant

w ork ( 1969) o n l ate P leistocene a nd H olocene a lluvial c ycles i n t he c ircum-Mediterranean v alleys, t ogether w ith much s ubsequent l ocal r esearch i nspired b y i t ( e.g. B intliff 1 977; Wagstaff 1 981 ), h as s ensitized s urvey a rchaeologists a lmost e verywhere i n t he r egion t o t he d iachronic i nstability o f t he l andscapes t hey a re i nvestigat ing. S imilarly, i f a d istribution t erminates w ith s uspicious a bruptness a t t he e dge o f a p loughed f ield o r n o s ites a re f ound i n a n a rea o f d ense maquis, n o o ne n eeds t elling t hat d ifferential v isibility a nd o btrusiveness m ay b e r esponsible.

3 97

Y et r ecognizing s uch p roblems i s o ne t hing, e ffectively q uite a nother.

d ealing with t hem

F ew s ets o f M editerranean s urvey d ata

h ave s o f ar b een p ublished with s ufficient a ncillary i nformation t o p rovide e ven a r ough a ssessment o f t he l ikely i mpact o f t hese s orts o f d istorting f actors.

A t t he l east,

t his i nformation o ught

t o a llow e valuation o f t he r eported a rchaeological d istribution i n t he c ontext o f ( 1) p atterns o f l and-use i ntensity, ( 2) maps o f r elevant g eomorphological u nits, a nd ( 3) a d etailed p resentation o f s ome s ort o f v isibility i ndex, a pplied b oth o n-and o ff-site. I ncluding q uestions a bout t hese a spects i n p re-printed s ite s urvey r ecord f orms

t o b e c ompleted i n t he f ield i s o ne s tep

t hey a re n ot w e n eed n ot

f orgotten i n t he h eat o f o nly t o r ecognize t hat

t owards e nsuring t hat

t he m oment o f d iscovery.

B ut

d iscovery p robability v aries

i ntra-regionally w ith v isibility, b ut a lso t o t ake s teps t o m itig ate t he p roblem: ' it i s i mportant t o s tratify t he s tudy a rea i nto z ones o f d iffering v isibility s o t hat t he m ost a ppropriate t echniq ues c an b e a pplied i n e ach a rea' ( Schiffer e t a l. 1 978, 7 ). T hese t echniques may b e r elatively s traightforward p rocedures

( such a s r e-

p eated a nd more i ntensive s urvey c overage o f s elected u nits, s earching

o r

f or d isturbed e xposures o f material, ' or m odification o f

p edestrian t actics).

B ut t here i s p robably s cope f or t he s elective

i ntroduction o f m ore d ramatic

( and l abour-intensive)

e xpedients

t hat h ave b een p rofitably e mployed i n p arts o f t he w orld l ess f avourable f or p edestrian s urvey t han t he M editerranean - f or i ns tance,

c learing s urface v egetation with a r ake,

s hovel t est p its o r b ack-hoe t renches, p loughing o f f ields,

a ugering,

d igging

a nd e ven t he d eliberate

t ogether o f c ourse w ith t he w hole b attery o f

e xisting r emote s ensing m ethods. ' Artificial e xposure t echniques' o f t his s ort c arry w ith t hem t deir o wn s ampling a nd p robability p roblems which h ave y et t o b e f ully o vercome. T he b asic p oint r em ains, h owever, t hat t aking a ccount o f z ones o f d iffering v isibility d emands

t he p revious a cquisition o f

p edology,

h ydrology,

e tc.,

d ata o n v egetation,

a s w ell a s t he e xisting

a rchaeological r ecord o f t he a rea:

a nd t his

g eomorphology,

f acts a bout t he

i s a f urther a rgument

t hat a ll s urveys n eed t o b e p lanned a s m ulti-stage p rogrammes t o a f ar g reater d egree t han t hey a re a t p resent i n t he M editerranean. T here a re t wo i nteresting a nd l ittle-discussed i ssues r elating t o t he v isibility p roblem t hat h ave a risen i n t he p apers o f t his v olume a nd s ome b rief c omments o n t hem a re t hus i n o rder h ere. T he f irst o f

t hese c oncerns s hort-term i nstability i n c he s urface

e xpression o f s ites.

T o s ome e xtent,

t his i s a d irect p roduct o f

t he n egative e ffect o n s ite d iscovery o f d estructive n ew a gricult ural p ractices

i n t he M editerranean.

n ote s ome s triking i nstances

L loyd a nd B arker

( 1981,

f rom M olise i n I taly:

' A s ubstantial R oman villa i n a f ield d eep p loughed f or t he f irst t ime a nd b are o f v egetation i n 1 977 was a miserable c ollection o f f inds .. i n t he s ame f ield u nder t omatoes i n 1 978. A s mall d ense s catter o f b ronze a ge p ottery i n a n a rea 3 0 x 3 0 metres i n a n u pland f ield i n 1 977 was a n e ntirely v irgin f ield i n 1 978.

A s mall c lassical s ite,

c oncentration o f

i n 1 974 a d ense

l arge l umps o f t ile a nd p ottery

p ulled u p b y d eep p loughing,

h ad b ecome a l arge

d iffuse s catter o f a braded material b y 1 978.'

3 98

2 90)

T his d isconcerting a bility o f s ites t o s witch o n a nd o ff l ike t raffic l ights c an a lso,

o f c ourse,

o perate i n t he r everse d irection:

b uried s ites may b ecome a pparent o n t he s urface b y e rosion, o r a nim al a ctivity, o r s hifting d une p atterns. S ince t he ' life c ycle' o f a s urface s ite - f rom i ts e mergence t o r eburial/annihilation c an b e v ery s hort i ndeed,

i t

i s c lear t hat p art o f

t he e ffort

i n a

s urvey o ught t o b e d evoted t o a ssessing t he q uality, r ather t han maximizing t he q uantity, o f s ite r ecovery, b y m eans o f c ontrolled r e-survey o r t he r eplicated c ollection o f s ite s urfaces. q uite s imply,

S ites,

a re n ot t he s tatic e ntities t hat e xcavation h as p er-

h aps e ncouraged u s t o i magine. ' The s earch f or s ites g oes o n w ithi n a t ime f rame, a nd t ime i tself i ntroduces r elatively i nto t he r el ationship b etween t he o bserver a nd t hat which i s o bserved. g iven d ay i n t he f ield, w ill h appen t o s ee'

O n a

t ime's a rrow c onditions i n p art w hat we

( Ammerman 1 981,

T his a rchaeological

8 2).

' Uncertainty P rinciple'

h as b een m ost

s trikingly d emonstrated i n Ammerman's o wn i ntensive s urvey w ork i n t he r egion o f C alabria i n s outhern I taly. ( relatively s mall) p ortion o f

p atch o f

t he p rehistoric s ites

a ny o ne s eason'

R epeated c overage o f a

t he l andscape s uggests t hat

a nd t hat t here i s a s trong r elationship b etween t he

s urface v isibility o f s ites a nd what might b e c alled w indows o n t he l andscape' S chaffer 1 981).

' only a

i n t he a rea c an b e i dentified d uring

( Ammerman,

' geomorphological

t his v olume; Ammerman a nd

I w ould n ot myself d raw s uch p essimistic

c onclusions

a s Ammerman a bout t he w ider i mplications o f t his work f or t he i nterp retation o f s ite d istributions o btained f rom e arlier s urveys.

T he

C alabria s urvey w as s ingle p eriod i n e mphasis a nd was c onducted withi n a t iny a rea a t a l evel o f i ntensity t hat s imply w ould n ot b e e fficient a nd p ractical i n a ll s urveys, h owever p rovocative i ts r esults may b e i n s mall-scale e xperimental s ituations s uch a s t his; i n a s ense,

t his p roject c onstitutes a m ode o f r esearch mid-way i n

s pecificity a nd i ntensity b etween t raditional s urveys a nd e xcavat ion.

I t

i s a lso w orth n oting t hat t he s urvey was p artly c onducted

i n a d unal e nvironment

t hat u ndoubtedly c ontributed t o i nstability

i n t he s urface e xpression o f s ites.

N evertheless, Ammerman h as

m ade a t imely c ontribution t o s urvey m ethodology b y e ncouraging u s t o t hink m ore c learly a bout t he f undamental q uestion o f what t he s urface o f a s ite a ctually r epresents. b y Ammerman a nd F eldman

( 1978)

T he s ophisticated p aper

s uggests t hat t he s ite s urface may

o perate a s a b iased m ultinomial s ampling p rocess, f actors

t he g round, e tc.

a ffected b y

s uch a s t he d ensity a nd s ize d istribution o f materials c ollection c onditions,

s oils,

i n

s ize o f c ollection u nits,

W ork i n t his v ein d oes n ot l ead d irectly t o t he c onclusion

t hat i ncreased s urvey i ntensity i s a p anacaea o r t hat r eplicated s urface c ollection i s a mandatory i n a ll c ases; b ut i t d oes o ffer e ncouragement

t hat e ndemic s urvey p roblems s uch a s s ite s urface

visibility a re a menable t o s cientific,

e mpirical i nvestigation i n-

v olving q uantification a nd m odelling.

T his d oes n ot make s urvey

a ny e asier, i n f act q uite t he o pposite. B ut i t s erves a s a r ebuff t o t hose p rophets o f d espair who b emoan t he i nherent ' unreliability' a nd

' incompleteness'

t hing t o h elp

o f s urvey d ata, w ithout t hemselves d oing a ny-

i mprove matters.

T he s econd i ssue i s b y R utter

( this v olume).

r aised i n t he e xcellent s hort c ontribution T his

c an s peak f or i tself, b ut

3 99

i ts

p otential i mportance s hould n ot b e o verlooked. R utter's main p oint

L ike a ll g ood i deas,

s eems b lindingly o bvious i n r etrospect,

t hink o f n o p revious

c lear e xposition o f i t.

T his p oint

y et I c an

i s t hat

' pottery i s b y f ar t he m ost valuable c lass o f a rtefactual m aterial r ecovered i n s ite s urvey i n t he M editerranean f or t he p urpose o f d ating t he p eriod(s) o f a g iven s ite's o ccupation,' b ut ' whereas s ome c hronological p eriods a nd/or c ultural p hases a re r epresented b y h ighly d istinctive c eramics,

o ther p eriods o r c ultures a re c haracter-

i zed b y l ess e asily i dentifiable p ottery.'

I n o ther w ords,

t here i s

i nherent v ariation i n t he r elative a rchaeological v isibility o f c ultural p hases which may h ave a marked e ffect o n o ur r econstructions o f c hanges i n s ettlement p attern a nd d ensity f rom o ne p eriod t o a nother.

M oreover,

t his v ariation d oes n ot n ecessarily c orrespond

with t he a bsolute a ge o f t he material: r ecently i n e valuating s urvey r esults i s p aradoxical t hat k now l ess a bout ment p atterns)

o n M elos,

f or i nstance,

a s I n oted

f rom t he i sland o f M elos,

' it

a s e lsewhere i n t he A egean, w e s till

c eramic s tyles a nd c hronology

( and t hus a bout s ettle-

o f f ive h undred y ears a go t han a bout t hose o f f ive

t housand y ears a go' ( Wagstaff a nd C herry 1 982, 1 36). T he p roblem i s r ather t hat c ertain p eriods s eem t o b e c haracterized b y m aterial t hat

i s r are o r n ot e asily r ecognizable

I ron A ge G reece o r o f A s R utter n otes,

t his

b etween d ata c ollection a gain,

t he p ottery o f e arly i n I taly).

i s o ne o f a c lass o f p roblems

( survey)

a nd d ata i nterpretation

b uilding a nd h ypothesis t esting). p aper,

( e.g.

t he 7 th - 9 th c enturies A .D.

i ntermediate ( model

What I f ind e ncouraging a bout t his

i s t he r efusal t o r egard t he d ifficulty a s

i nsoluble.

B y l isting a nd a ssessing t he r eiative f requency o f d iagnostic c eramic c lasses i n e xcavated,

d ated d eposits,

i t s hould i n p rinciple b e

p ossible t o a rrive a t a f irst a pproximation o f a s cale q uantifying t he e ffects o f

d ifferential v isibility i n a p articular a rea.

b ut p ractical,

T his s imple,

s uggestion i s o ne t o which I h ope r eaders o f

t his

v olume w ill p ay a ttention.

S ampling T his

i s p erhaps

- a spect o f

t he m ost p roblematic - c ertainly t he m ost e motive

s urvey d esign.

T he l iterature t hat h as g rown u p a round

t he s ubject i n t he l ast d ecade i s l arge,

r ather t echnical,

a nd o ften

e xcessively p olemical a nd e vangelical. B asic p rinciples, b oth t heoretical a nd e mpirical, c an b e r eadily c onsulted i n a v ariety o f s ourcebooks

( e.g.

R edman 1 974; M ueller e d.

1 975;

C herry e t a l. e ds.

1 978) a nd I h ave n o i ntention h ere o f p loughing y et a gain t hrough what s eems t o b e f or many a S lough o f D espond. Y et I a m a mazed b y h ow m any M editerranean s urvey a rchaeologists c ontinue t o l abour u nder t he i mpression t hat s ampling a nd i s a m atter o f c hoice - i t

c annot a nd i t

i s n ot.

c an b e a voided S ampling i s

i ntrinsic t o a ll a rchaeological r esearch.

M ost a rchaeological l and-

s capes h ave b een o nly p artially e xplored,

a re l ittered w ith p artially

e xcavated s ites, whose s oil h as o nly p artially s creened a nd o nly a p ortion o f w hose material r eaches t he p rinted p age; r ecord i s

t he a rchaeological

i tself o nly a s ample - o ften a r adically t ransformed

s ample - o f

t he m aterial c omponent o f p ast c ultural s ystems.

4 00

S o

' total'

s urvey c overage i s a n u nattainable m irage.

W ithout t hat p oint

b eing a dmitted, t here e xists n o b asis f or s ensible d iscussion o f w hat s ort o f s urveys w e o ught t o b e d oing. S ampling i s a ll a bout t he a llocation o f s carce r esources t o a lternative e nds, a nd t here i s p lenty o f r oom f or d ebate a bout h ow t hat i s m ost e ffectively d one i n i ndivid ual c ircumstances. B ut u ltimately, t he c hoice i s b etween h aphazard, n on-explicit s ampling, w hich i s n ext t o u seless f or m aking a ny r eliable i nferences a bout t he p ast, a nd s ome f orm o f s cientific s ampl ing, d esigned t o m aximize r eliable k nowledge a nd p redictive p ower, g iven t he r esources a ctually a vailable t o t he a rchaeologist. S ince t he f oregoing s eems t o me s elf-evident, I a m g enuinely p erplexed b y t he s trong i mpulse f elt b y c ertain c ontributors t o t his v olume t o r eject s ampling. K eller, f or i nstance, writes: ' . . t he r ugged t errain a nd d ifferent e nvironmental z ones i n t his a rea [ Euboia i n G reece] p reclude t he u se o f s ampling m ethods d eveloped f or t he t errain o f t he A merican p lains.' R uggedness, I a ssume, i s s een a s p osing p roblems o f a ccessibility, t he i mplications o f w hich f or a s ample s urvey a re d ealt w ith a t l ength b y ' Schiffer e t a l. ( 1978, 7 -9). Environmental v ariability i s a f actor which a ny g ood s urvey d esign will i ncorporate b y s tratification o f t he s ample; t he s uggestion t hat American s urveys h ave n ot f ound i t n ecessary t o d o s o i s q uite e rroneous, a s e ven t he m ost c ursory r eading o f t he p apers i n M ueller e d. ( 1975) - p articularly t hose b y C henhall ( 1975) a nd J udge e t a l. ( 1975) - w ill r eveal. H ope S impson ( this v olume) g oes e ven f urther: ' We r ejected " sampling" p rocedures . . . " Sampling s trategies" a re i nappropriate i n s urvey w ork, s ince a ll a reas d iffer, e ven w ithin t he s ame p lain o r t l-e s ame i sland . . . I ndeed, " sampling" i s a misnomer i f a pplied t o r andom o r d eliberate s election o f a reas f or s urvey.' T his i s a nalogous t o s aying t hat p olitical o pinion p olls a re n o g ood, a s e ach i ndividual s ampled i s a b it d ifferent f rom t he n ext o ne; y et a s w e a ll k now, s uch p olls manage e xtraordinarily a ccurate p redictions o f v oting b ehaviour o f p opulations n umbering i n t he m illions, u sing c omplex s amples n umbering o nly h undreds o r t housands, ( and i n f act c onstitute o ne o f t he b est p roofs o f t he e fficacy o f s ampling a s a t echnique). A nother v ery w idely h eld m isconception i s t hat s ampling, o r r ather r andom s ampling, c an h ave n o r elevance t o t he s tudy o f

p atterned h uman b ehaviour w hich i s s patially n on-random

( e.g. J elks 1 975, 2 2-24); o nly t he a ctions o f r obots c ould b e a pproache d i n t his way. T hinking a bout s uch c omments, i t s eems t o m e t hat t hey b etray t wo f undamental t ypes o f m istake: o ne a bout m ethods o f i nference, t he o ther a bout t he u se o f e xisting i nformation. S ampling r evolves a round t he n otion t hat i t i s p ossible t o make s tatements o f k nown r eliability a bout a t arget p opulation o n t he b asis o f a s mall p roportion o f i t, p rovided t hat t he s ample i s c hosen i n a ccordance with c ertain b asic r ules w hich o ffer e ach u nit i n t he p opulation a k nown c hance o f b eing c hosen. P robabilistic i nf erences c an b e m ade f rom t he s ample t o t he ' population f rom w hich t hat s ample was d rawn, b ut n o f urther.

A s ample o f B ritish v oters

o bviously p rovides n o b asis whatsoever f or s tatements a bout F rench v oting b ehaviour. Y et i t s eems t o b e f airly w idely b elieved b y a rcha eologists s ceptical a bout s ample s urveys t hat s uch i s t he p rocedure b eing a dvocated. E xamples a bound i n t he p ages o f t he 1 976 c olloq uium o n M ycenaean G eography

( Bintliff e d.

4 01

1 977).

F or i nstance:

' I s ee t he g reatest p ossible d anger i n e xtrapolating f rom a ny i ntensive s urvey, h owever a ccurate within a v ery s mall a rea,

t o l arger r egions

. . . T o d o t his

without c onsidering t he v ariables t hat m ight a ffect o ther a reas w ould b e q uite u njustified, u ntil s uch v ariables a re u nderstood.' ( Warren i n B intliff e d. 1 977, 6 0) .O ne s hould n ot make d eductions o n t he b asis o f a n i ntensive s urvey i n o ne a rea t o a nother a rea.

I

t hink f or e xample t hat t he s ettlement p attern i n M essenia a nd t he A rgolid m ay h ave b een r ather d ifferent.'

( Dickinson i n B intliff e d.

S imilarly, H ope S impson ' It

i s,

( 1981,

2 13)

f or i nstance,

1 977,

6 1)

r emarks:

l ikely t hat t he " sampling

s trategy" b eing u sed o n M elos

[ Cherry 1 982;

t his

v olume] may b e a r easonably u seful g uide f or " ret rodiction" a s r egards s imilar s ites

i n t he

r emainder o f M elos.

a nd s hould n ot,

B ut

i t c an n ot,

b e u sed a s a g uide f or o ther p arts o f G reece I t

. . .

i s n either p ossible n or d esirable t o c onstruct

h ypotheses v ey r esults

f or o ne a rea s olely o n t he b asis o f s urf rom a nother a rea.'

H e c ites a s a n e xample t he r esults o f h is o wn r ecent s urvey o f t he K ommos a rea i n s outh C rete

( Hope S impson,

t his v olume),

a n a rea

i mmediately t o t he n orth o f

t he A giopharango v alley i ntensively s ur-

v eyed s everal y ears e arlier

( Blackman a nd B ranigan 1 977).

H e c on-

c ludes ( this v olume): ' The d ifficulties e ncountered i n t he i nterp retation o f o ur K ommos a rea s urvey r esults f urther c all i n q uestion a ll t heories a rguing t he f easibility o f e xtrapolate [ sic], o n t he b asis o f s urface f inds a lone, f rom a ny o ne a rea t o a nother ( uns earched)

a rea o f s imilar a gricultural p otential,

e ven i n t he s ame

d istrict.' T o s uch r emarks I c an o nly s ay Amen. B ut I s hould l ike t o k now who h as e ver p roposed s uch u nwarranted e xtrapolation f rom o ne s et o f s urvey r esults t o o ther q uite s eparate a reas. i s n eatly e ncapsulated i n T homas'

c omment

M y g eneral p oint h ere

( 1978,

2 32):

' Fruitful a rchaeological r esearch w ill a lways b egin b y g enerating s amples,

a nd c ulminate b y g eneralizing

a bout t he p opulation f rom which t he s amples w ere d rawn. A rchaeological f ieldwork s hould n ot b e a imed a t r ecovering p opulations a nd a rchaeological a nalysis s hould n ot b e a imed a t g eneralizations a bout

s amples.'

I f o ne wished t o k now a bout v ariability i n s ettlement p atterns i n t he K ommos a nd A giopharango a reas, t hen t he s patial p opulation t o b e s ampled w ould h ave t o b e a t l east a s

l arge a s t hat whole r egion a nd

t he s ample d istributed a cross a ll r epresentative p arts o f

i t.

S imilarly, t he s ampling s trategy e mployed o n M elos was d esigned t o maximize r eliable e stimation o f c hanging s ite d ensities o n M elos a lone, n ot o n o ther i slands

( let a lone i n o ther p arts o f G reece). 4 02

A s ampling d esign f or a l arge a rea s uch a s M essenia

( 3,800 s q.kms.),

i ntended t o f lesh o ut t he b ones o f e arlier e xtensive w ork, w ould n ot i nvolve t he i ntensive s urvey o f a s ingle c ontiguous b lock i n j ust o ne p art o f

t he a rea, b ut r ather a whole s eries o f i ndividually q uite s mall

u nits s pread w idely a cross t he l andscape, t heir a ctual l ocations b eing d etermined o n t he b asis o f e xisting i nformation a bout r elative s ite d ensities, e nvironmental d ifferentiation w ithin t he r egion, a nd a n e lement o f r andomness. T o g ain r eliable i nformation a bout a n a rea t hat b ig, e ven w ith a m odest s ampling f raction, w ould r equire a c onsiderable i nput o f e ffort. S ampling i s m ost e mphatically n ot a m eans o f a cquiri ng i nformation ' on t he c heap', b ut a w ay o f t rying t o m aximize e fficiency a nd d ata r eliability s imultaneously. T he q uestion o f t he i ncorporation o f e xisting i nformation o r t he u se o f ' good j udgement' i n a s urvey s ampling s trategy i s o ne t hat h as b een d iscussed e lsewhere a t l ength ( see r efs. i n C herry a nd S hennan 1 978a, 2 2-26). H ere I c an o nly r epeat a nd e ndorse t he g eneral c omment o f L ewis B inford ( 1975, 2 56): . . .W e a re c onstrained t o t ake p recautions a nd t o e nsure t hat t he e xercise o f o ur g ood j udgement d oes n ot b ias o ur r esults i n d irections u nwarranted b y t he a rchaeological r ealities. N o matter h ow i nf ormed w e b ecome, w e m ust c ontinue t o a pproach t he a rchaeological r ecord with h umility a nd t ake s teps t o e nsure t hat o ur a ctions d o n ot d istort t he c haracter o f t he d ata w e r ecover.' I t may b e h elpful, b y way o f e xample, t o t ake a r ecent

( and p ersonal)

i llustration o f t he i ssues i nvolved. M y s urvey o n t he G reek i sland o f M elos 1 980b;

( Cherry 1 979;

1 980a;

1 982; t his v olume ) w as i ntended t o i mprove o ur k nowledge o f

s ite n umbers a nd d istribution o n t he i sland o ver t he e ntire p eriod o f i ts h uman u se a nd o ccupation; t hree p revious o ne-man s urveys h ad g athered a g ood d eal o f i nformation r elevant t o t hese q uestions, b ut i n s uch a way t hat i t w as n ot p ossible t o s ay w hether d iachronic c hanges i n s patial p atterns o f s ite p resence/absence w ere a f unction o f s urvey p rocedures t hemselves, o r o f t he a rchaeological r ecord. T he r equisite l evel o f s urvey i ntensity, t ogether w ith t he m an-power r esources a vailable, d ictated a m aximum s ampling f raction o f c .20%. T he q uestion,

t hen, was h ow t o c hoose t his 2 0% s ample i n t he b est

w ay. I r easoned t hat e xisting i nformation p rovided n o r eal h elp; t hat b iases i n t hat i nformation c ould b e c ountered o nly b y s urvey c overage s pread e venly a cross t he i sland; a nd t hat t he o nly s ignif icant e nvironmental d ifferentiation w as r elated t o a ltitude, v ariab ility i n which w ould b e e ffectively m onitored b y a ny s ampling s cheme d esigned t o r un c ontinuously f rom o ne s ide o f t he i sland t o t he o ther a cross t he ' grain' o f t he e nvironment ( cf. J udge e t a l. 1 975).

T he d esign e ventually c hosen i s s hown i n t his v olume:

i sland w as d ivided i nto t wo e qual-sized s trata,

t he

i n e ach o f w hich f our

s ystematic r andom t ransects w ere w alked. I n a r ecent r eview, S nodgrass ( 1982) h as c alled t his s urvey d esign i nto q uestion. S ignificantly ( and u nlike B intliff i n B intliff e d.

1 977,

6 1),

h e d oes n ot a rgue w ith t he n ecessity o f s ampling p er 4 03

s e.

B ut h e c oncentrates a ttention o n j ust o ne o f t he q uestions

t he

s urvey h oped t o a nswer: was P hylakopi ( the o nly p reviously k nown s ettlement s ite o f M iddle/Late B ronze A ge d ate o n t he i sland) i ndeed t he o nly i nhabited s ite i n Melos a t t hat t ime? A fter c iting w ith a pproval c autionary r emarks b y P log e t a l. ( 1978) c oncerning t he i mportance o f a real s tratification a nd t he n eed t o t emper p robability s ampling with p re-existing

i nformation,

. .T here a re a lternative w ays o f s ample o f a t erritory which,

c hoosing a 2 0%

i n s ome c ases a t l east,

g ive a m ore r eliable p icture o f t he whole. i nstance,

t oo,

I n t his

I f eel t hat b y s urveying a c arefully

c hosen c hunk o f M elos,

p referably i n o ne p lace,

a uthors w ould e ither h ave h ad m ore s uccess v incing u s

' blind'

h e c oncludes:

t he

i n c on-

t hat t here w ere n o o ther s ites o f

t his

p eriod i n t he 8 0% o f t he i sland t hat t hey d id n ot c over; o r, m ore l ikely, t hat t hey w ould h ave f ound s uch s ites.' I n t he s ample s urvey, n o s uch s ites w ere i n f act

f ound.

What i s o f

r eal i mportance, h owever, i s t hat t he s tatistical b asis o n w hich t he s ample w as s elected a llows s ome measure o f t he a ccuracy o f t hat n egative s tatement - i .e.

a measure o f t he r isks o f o btaining a

s ample which i s u nrepresentative b y m ore t han s ome s pecified a mount. A s ample d rawn o n a ny o ther b asis,

h owever c arefully,

s uch c onfidence i ntervals a round a n e stimate. p rocedure w ould t ell u s

c annot p rovide

S nodgrass'

i n g reat d etail a bout

s uggested

t he 2 0% b lock o f t he

l andscape c hosen, but a bsolutel -, n othing a bout t he r est o f i sland:

t he

i t w ould h ave n o i nferential p ower w hatsoever.

S nodgrass h as

c hosen t o i gnore t his b asic p rinciple

I a m s ure h e i s w ell a ware), b ecause h is e mphasis q uestion r elating t o a p articular t ime p eriod. t imes a bove,

A s I h ave n oted s everal

o nce o ne's q uestions b ecome n arrowly

i ndeed f rame tailor-made s urvey d esigns.

( of w hich

i s o n a s pecific f ocussed, w e c an

B ut t he M elos s urvey,

o f

c ourse, was t rying s imultaneously t o c ollect d ata o f k nown r eliability o n a ll p eriods o f o ccupation t hroughout t he i sland, n ot j ust o n o ne p eriod.

A ' carefully c hosen c hunk o f M elos'

a ppropriate f or s tudying

s econd millennium B .C. s ettlement p atterns w ould s urely b e much l ess a ppropriate f or o ther p eriods, t he m ore s o s ince p re-existing k nowl edge a lready i ndicated t hat t he p rincipal s ettlement o n t he i sland h ad c hanged l ocation n o l ess t han f ive t imes o ver t he p ast m illennia

( Wagstaff a nd C herry 1 982).

S nodgrass'

t hat t he s ample b e a c ontiguous b lock o f

l and,

f our

o ther d esideratum,

a lso r eflects a ims

s lightly d ifferent f rom t hose o f t he M elos s urvey.

G etting

i nforma-

t ion a bout s ettlement p attern a nd t he s patial r elationships o f s ites o bviously d emands t he s election o f r elatively l arge a reas f or c ont inuous s urvey c overage; a p robabilistic s ample c onsisting o f many s cattered l andblocks

c annot e asily p rovide s uch d ata,

b ut

i s g ood f or

o btaining u nbiased e stimates o f o verall c haracteristics

( e.g.

d ifferential s ite d ensities f rom o ne p eriod t o a nother,

o r o n

d ifferent

s oil t ypes).

v ide d ata o f b oth s orts

N o s ingle s urvey s trategy i s s imultaneously.

S ome o f

c umventing t he d ifficulty a re d iscussed e lsewhere S hennan 1 978a,

3 1-36),

l ikely

t he w ays o f ( e.g.

t o p roc ir-

C herry a nd

b ut t he c hoice b etween t he c onflicting d emands

4 04

o f s patial a nalysis a nd p robability s ampling f or o verall e stimation r emains a d ilemma i n a ll s urvey w ork. I n f act, i t i s i ncreasingly c oming t o b e r ealized t hat t here a re a n umber o f f undamental r esearch p roblems which m ost s urveys w ill p robably w ant t o a ddress ( e.g. a ssociational p atterning o f s ites a nd e nvironment; l and u se; c hanges i n t he s patial c onfiguration o f s ites o ver t ime; d emographic e stimation). M oreover, t hese p roblems c an b e t hought o f s patially ' in t erms o f a s eries o f p artially i ndependent h ierarchical l evels - f or e xample, h ousehold, v illage, a nd r egion e ach c alling f or i nterpretation i n t erms o f i ts o wn p rinciples o f o rganization' ( Ammerman 1 981, 8 3; c f. F lannery 1 976). N o s ingle s urvey s trategy i s l ikely t o o ffer a n a ll-embracing s olution t o a ll t hese l evels a nd p roblems. W e h ave r eturned a gain t o t he n ecessity f or multi-stage s urvey d esigns ( in w hich p robabilistic s ampling w ill v ary i n i ts u sefulness f rom o ne s tage t o a nother). I ndeed, i n t he n ext s tage o f w ork o n M elos,

Iw ould c ertainly w ant t o i nclude c overage

o f o ne o r m ore p urposively c hosen c ontiguous b locks o f l and i n t he m anner s uggested b y S nodgrass; but t he i nformation s o o btained w ould b e i nterpretable o nly i n t he l ight o f r esults a lready a chieved i n t he f irst-stage w ork a imed a t r eliable e stimation o f o verall c haracteristics P rospect I n t he p revious s ection I h ave d ealt w ith o nly f our a spects o f r egional s urvey d esign a nd m y d iscussion h as f ocussed e xclusively o n r elatively r ecent w ork i n j ust t wo M editerranean c ountries. T here a re o bviously many o ther i mportant c onsiderations, s ome o f t hem c ontentious o nes, t hat M editerranean s urvey a rchaeologists o ught t o b e d iscussing a mong t hemselves a nd a bout w hich t hey s hould b e c omparing n otes. F or e xample, I h ave s aid l ittle o r n othing h ere a bout o n-site r ecording p rocedures, e specially w ith r egard t o t he u se o f s tandardized r ecording f orms s uitable f or d irect d ata i mput t o t he c omputer; a bout w hether a nd h ow s urface c ollection s hould b e c arried o ut; a bout t he e ffects o f e nvironmental d isturbance a nd c ultural f ormation p rocesses ( such a s p loughing) o n t he c omposition o f s urface a ssemblages a nd a bout t he w ays i n w hich t his m ay d istort t he r elationship o f s urface t o s ubsurface material; a bout t he r elative m erits o f s ampling u nits o f d iffering s izes a nd s hapes,

a nd h ow t hese c omplement o r c onflict

w ith n atural u nits; a bout t he d emands o n s urvey d ata m ade b y v arious t ype o f l ocational m odel a nd m ethods o f p oint p attern a nalysis; a nd s o o n. A n umber o f t he w orks c ited i n t he c ourse o f t his e ssay d eal w ith t hese matters o r p oint t he w ay t o o ther l iterature. I n c onclusion,

h owever,

Iw ant t o r eturn b riefly t o am atter

t ouched o n a t t he o utset. I e mphasized t here t hat t he c ircumM editerranean c ountries, f or a ll t heir u ndisputed a nd i mportant p oints o f d issimilarity , n evertheless h ave a l ot i n c ommon f rom t he s tandpoint o f s urvey a rchaeology. T he s tate o f t he s urvey a rt c an o nly b e a ssessed a nd i mproved when t aken i n t he c ontext o f t he h istory o f a rchaeology i n g eneral i n t his p art o f t he w orld. W hat i s m ost s triking a bout t hat h istory i s j ust h ow m uch w ork h as a lready b een d one a nd h ow much w e a lready k now. I n t he c ase o f s ystematic s urvey i n t he m odern i diom , o ne i s s peaking l argely o f a p ost-World W ar I I p henomenon; b ut u seful r esults b egan t o a ccrue f rom m ore c asual t opographic r econnaissances a s e arly a s t he 1 8th c entury, w hile e xcavation, o f a s ort t hat a mounts t o m ore t han t reasure-hunting, h as

4 05

b een p ursued v igorously a ll a round t he M editerranean f or w ell o ver a c entury. O ne e ffect o f t his p attern o f g rowth i s a n i mbalance i n t he a vailable i nformation a t t he s ite l evel o n t he o ne h and, a nd a t t he r egional l evel o n t he o ther: a s S nodgrass ( in p ress) s ays, ' Where s urvey n eeds e xcavation t o h elp i t, t here i s a w ealth o f p ast e xcavations t o s upply t heir n eed; w here e xcavation n eeds s urvey, t he c ase i s v ery d ifferent.' T his c omparative l ack o f r egional d ata i s, o f c ourse, t he m ainstay o f t he a rgument f or p utting m ore w eight o n s urvey i n t he f unding a nd o rganization o f a rchaeological r esearch i n t he M editerranean. Y et o ne c annot a lso h elp b ut b e i mpressed b y h ow m uch w e n ow k now , h ow much e ffort h as a lready b een e xpended i n l andscape e xploration a round t he Mediterranean. C ountries l ike G reece a nd I taly, i n e ach o f w hich l iterally d ozens o f s urveys h ave b een c ompleted, c an w ith s ome j ustice l ay c laim t o b e a mong t he m ost t horoughly e xplored a nywhere i n t he w orld; C yprus, t he c ountries o f t he L evant a nd c ertain p arts o f t he N orth A frican c oast a re n ot f ar b ehind. A v ast d ata b ank h as b een b uilt u p, willy-nilly, c ontaining i nformation o f v ery v ariable q uality, p atchily d istributed, a nd g enerally p ublished i n w ays t hat i mpede t he d irect c omparison o f o ne s urvey w ith , a nother. N onetheless, i nformation i s p ouring i n a t a n u nprecedented r ate. W hat a re w e t o d o with i t a ll? I a m e nough o f a n o ptimist t o b elieve t hat w e a re a t, o r f ast a pproaching, t he s tage when s ynthesis a nd c omparison a t a g eographical s cale c onsiderably l arger t han t hat o f t he i ndividual s urvey w ould b e w orthwhile. I ndeed, t his i s a lready q uite c learly s o i n I taly, w here s ufficient g ood-quality s urveys h ave b een e xecuted i n w idely s cattered p arts o f t he c ountry f or i t t o b e a pparent t hat d ifferent r egions h ave t heir o wn r hythms a nd p atterns o f c hange ( Barker a nd H odges e ds.

1 981).

I a m g reatly e ncouraged i n t his b elief,

a s I n oted e arlier, b y

t he r ecent p ublication o f s everal r egional o verviews o f e volutionary c hange i n o ther p arts o f t he w orld - a ll o f t hem d rawing h eavily o n v oluminous b odies o f d ata d erived a lmost e xclusively f rom s urvey. T he s cale o f t hese ' macro-surveys' i s f ar l arger t han w hat a ny i ndividual c ould h ope t o a chieve. I n M esoamerica, f or i nstance, where t he g rowth o f s urvey i n t he l ast 2 5 y ears h as b een q uite e xceptional, w e c an n ow t race a h ierarchy i n s urvey-based p ublication. S ingle s cholars h ave s ummarized t he r esults o f s urvey p rojects i n, f or e xample, p articular p arts o f t he V alley o f M exico ( e.g. B lanton ( 1972) o n t he I xtapalapa P eninsula r egion, o r P arsons ( 1972) o n t he T excoco r egion ). T hese, t ogether w ith p reliminary s ynthetic a ccounts ( e.g. P arsons 1 974), h ave f ormed t he r aw m aterial f or m ajor c omparative t reatments o f t he V alley o f M exico a s whole ( e.g. W olf e d. 1 976; a nd e specially S anders e t a l. 1 979). M ore r ecently s till, a v olume e ntitled A ncient M esoamerica: A C omparison o f C hange i n T hree R egions ( Blanton e t a l. 1 982) e valuates s imilarities a nd d ifferences i n t he 3 000 y ear e volutionary s equence o f t hree o f p rehispanic M esoamerica's m ost i mportant n uclear z ones ( the V alleys o f O axaca a nd M exico, a nd t he e astern M esoamerican M aya l owlands). T he d iscussion i n t his l ast w ork i s a ll a bout t he g rowth o f c entralized g overnmental i nstitutions, t he r ise o f c ities, m arkets a nd h ighly s tratified s ocial s ystems: b ut u ltimately w hat i s s aid r ests - f irmly, o ne h opes - o n t he f oundations l aid b y many m an-years o f l aborious p lodding o ver M esoamerican l andscapes. A c omparison o f B lanton e t a l. ( 1982) w ith a s ynthetic w ork o f t he 1 960's, M esoamerica: T he E volution o f a C ivilization ( Sanders a nd P rice 1 968), i s s ufficient

4 06

t o i ndicate t he m ajor c ontribution m ade b y s urvey d uring t he l ast t wo d ecades t o t he e valuation o f t heories o f c ultural c hange i n t his p art o f t he w orld. A s imilar p attern c an b e s een i n s urvey d evelopments i n M esopotamia s ince t he 1 950's, a lthough t here t he w ork o f a s ingle i ndividual ( Robert M cC. A dams), h as b een p aramount. F rom h is p ioneering w ork , b egun i n 1 956, h ave f lowed a s eries o f s timulating r egional s urvey r eports, b oth b y h im ( Adams 1 965; A dams a nd N issen 1 972) a nd c olleagues a ssociated w ith h is a pproach. H is l atest b ook, H eartland o f C ities: S urveys o f A ncient S ettlement a nd L and U se o n t he C entral F loodplain o f t he E uphrates ( Adams 1 981), r epresents t he c ulminating s ynthesis o f a ll t hese y ears o f s urvey e ffort; i t p resents a nd d iscusses a v ast m ass o f d ata c overing a lmost a ll o f t he a rea o f a ncient B abylonia ( or, i n e arlier t erms, o f S umer a nd Akkad) o ver a v ery l ong t ime p eriod. T hat i s a s obering t hought. H ow m any e xamples a re t here i n t he Mediterranean o f t he s urvey, i n i ts e ntirety, o f t he t erritory o f a s ingle p olitical u nit - a n E truscan t own, s ay, o r a n A egean i sland p olis, l et a lone a nything o n t he s cale o f a N ear E astern s tate T horkild J acobsen p ointed o ut t he r eal i mpörtance o f t his w ork i n h is F oreword

( Adams 1 981, x iii): ' This c entury h as s een g reat d iscoveries i n t he f ield o f a ncient M esopotamian a rchaeology. T he r oyal t ombs o f U r w ith t heir g old t reasures c ome i mmediately t o m ind, a nd m any o ther s pectacular f inds r un a c lose s econd. W ith t ime, t hough , t he l ess s ensational s urveys b y A dams t hat f orm t he b asis o f t his b ook w ill b e s een, i t s eems s afe t o p redict, t he e quai o r p erhaps e ven s urpass t hem i n f undamental i mportance...They t hrow l ight o n t he r ise o f t he e arliest c ities i n h uman h istory ; a nd t heir d ata,

b earing o n t he s hifting d ensity

o f p opulation t hrough t he m illennia, r aise q uestions a nd s uggest a nswers a bout t he b asic f actors t hat s haped t he c ountry's f ortunes t he d eterminants f or m ajor t rends o f i ts h istory.' A s y et a t hird i nstance, o ne m ight p oint t o t he e fforts m ade b y a n umber o f A merican a rchaeologists ( SARG: S outhwestern A nthropological R esearch G roup) t o a ddress c ommon q uestions i n t heir r esearch, t o s tandardize d ata c ollection a nd r ecording p rocedures, a nd t o p ool i nformation i n a f ree-access d ata b ank . I n p rinciple, t hese p rocedures h ave a llowed t he g eneration o f a h uge b ody o f n ew k nowledge p ertaining t o t he a rchaeology o f a reas s cattered a ll o ver t he American S outhwest. S o f ar, n o major s ynthetic o verview h as a ppeared a nd t his p roject, i n f act, h as n ot y et f ulfilled i ts e arly p romise. B ut e ven t he p reliminary p ublications,

e mphasizing b asic p roblem o rientation a nd

t he d evelopment o f methodologies a nd r esearch d esigns a ppropriate o n a p an-regional l evel, i ndicate t he e xciting p ossibilities o f c ollaboration o f t his s ort

( Gumerman e d.

1 971;

S ARG 1 974;

E uler a nd G umerman e ds.

1 977). S o what o f t he M editerranean? A re w e y et a t t he s tage w here s urvey c an r eally m ake c ontributions, a s i n M esoamerica a nd M esopotamia, t o a nswering ' Big Q uestions' o f r egional, o r e ven i nter-regional s cope? T he a nswer, I f eel s ure, i s ' Yes', a lthough c hallenged t o d efend t hat

4 07

v iew I would h ave h ardly a ny e mpirical c ases t o d raw o n. T he s urvey work c arried o ut i n S outh E truria ( Potter 1 979), f or i nstance, i s c ommensurate i n s cale,

d etail a nd c omplexity with a ny o f t he s urveys

w hich f orm t he b uilding b locks o f t he s ynthetic a ccounts d iscussed a bove. t hat

I n C yprus,

S tanley P rice

( 1979)

h as d emonstrated s uccessfully

i t i s q uite p ossible t o h andle t he d isparities b etween s ets o f

s urface s urvey d ata c ollected a t d ifferent t imes, u nder d ifferent c onditions, b y d ifferent p eople, a nd f or many d ifferent e nds - t o p roduce e ventually a c onvincing a nd n ot t oo p atchy p icture o f t he ( prehistoric) a rchaeology o f t he i sland. T he c ontributors t o R enfrew a nd Wagstaff e ds.

( 1982)

s how j ust h ow much e conomic,

d emographic

a nd p olitical i nformation c an b e s queezed f rom t he r esults o f e ven q uite m odest s urveys;

t he h ypotheses g enerated b y t his w ork c ould v ery e asily

b e t ested a gainst t he r esults o f o ther e qually l imited s urvey e fforts. B ut s o f ar t hese a re j ust s traws i n t he wind. T here a re many Mediterranean a rchaeologists who w ould t ake a d im view o f

t he f oregoing.

T hey w ould a rgue,

n o d oubt,

t hat a t

t his t ime c omparative r egional s ynthesis a nd h ypothesis-testing o ffers o pportunities f or h armless s peculation, t hat t he d ata a re t oo f ew o r i nherent

b ut c an h ave n o

t oo a mbiguous;

t hat

l imitation .; t hat e very a rea i s u nique;

s ound b asis;

s urveys h ave t oo m any t hat w e s hould e schew

g rand a mbitions a bout s tydying whole r egions a nd s tick i nstead t o t he t ried a nd t ested t echniques o f e xcavation. I s hould l ike t o h ear t heir r eactions t o A dams' w ords ( 1981, 4 7): ' What i s i nvolved i s a v iew o f s cientific i nvestigation n ot a s a p ristine d iscovery o f c ertainty,

b ut a s a c umulative,

u nfolding

p rocess i n which t he t esting o f h ypotheses a nd t he s earch f or n ew d ata a re c learly l inked. Very f ew n ew f indings o f a ny k ind a re i mmutable a nd d ecisive. t herefore

W e e ngage i n t he c ollective,

( in p rinciple a t l east)

a nd

c umulatively

s elf-correcting a ct o f p ushing b ack t he f rontiers o f c ontingency t hat c onstrain k nowledge - o nly t o d iscover t hat t he c ontingencies a nd c onstraints a ssume n ew s hapes a s t hey r ecede b efore u s.

A s urvey a pproach,

d iffers n ot

i n k ind b ut o nly i n d egree f rom t he

i n o ther w ords,

p romises a nd l imitations o f a ll o ther a pproaches a vailable t o t he a rchaeologist o r a ncient h istorian.'

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS I s hould l ike t o t hank t he e ditors a nd a n a nonymous r eviewer o f t his b ook f or s uggesting t hat S nodgrass a nd D r.

u npublished p apers, t he p ast,

Iw rite t his e ssay,

P rofessor A nthony

S tephen S hennan f or l etting me r ead v ery h elpful a nd t he

whose q uestions,

s hape my o wn v iews.

members o f various

s urvey t eams

i n

a rguments a nd s heer h ard w ork h ave h elped

A p oint o f c larification may a lso b e h elpful.

I t will b e c lear f rom t he f oregoing p ages t hat I r adically d isagree w ith many o f P rofessor R ichard H ope S impson's o pinions a bout s urvey; b ut s uch d isagreement

i s p ossible o nly b ecause h e i s o ne o f t he f ew

M editerranean s urveyors w ho h as t aken t he t rouble t o s ay why h e d id

4 08

t hings t he way h e d id.

Without h is o n-the-ground s urvey e fforts,

t he f ruits o f which a re r eflected i n a s tring o f b ooks a nd p apers s tretching o ver

t he p ast q uarter c entury,

t he f act o f s urvey i n

G reece a nd beyond w ould t oday l ook v ery d ifferent

i ndeed.

E xplanation f or F igure 1 N ote t hat t he s cale o f b oth a xes

i s l ogarithmic.

( listed i n o rder o f s ite p roductivity, R ecent G reek S urveys: 1 982);

L efkas a nd P ronnoi,

A rgolid E xploration P roject,

S ources o f d ata

f rom h ighest t o l owest):

1 981

I onian i slands

( OWAN 6 (3),

( Gallant

1 982,

A rgolid E xploration P roject, 1 979-1981 ( OWAN 6 (3), 1 982, K ommos a rea, C rete ( Shaw a nd H ope S impson, t his v ol)(*);

1 6);

1 6); C ambridge

a nd B radford B oeotian A rchaeological a nd G eographical E xpedition ( A. S nodgrass, p ers. A giopharango valley, ( Cherry 1 982,

( 1982);

1 5);

c omm.); Megalopolis s urvey ( J. L loyd p ers. c omm .); C rete ( Blackman a nd B ranigan 1 977)(*); M elos

O hio B oeotia E xpedition,

Lasithi P lain,

C rete

S outhern A rgolid E xploration P roject, E arlier G reek S urveys:

C rete,

T hisbe P lain

( Watrous,

( OWAN 6 ( 3),

H esperia S uppl.

1 972

( Bintliff

S outhwest c oast

X VIII,

1 977,

( Hood 1 967,

B SA 6 2

4 7-56); Minnesota Messenia E xpedition

( McDonald a nd R app e ds.

C rete,

( 1966)

A gios V asilio p rovince

( AJA 4 6 E uboia

( 1942) ( BSA 6 1

9 9-113);

7 7-89); ( 1966)

A rcadia

( BSA 6 1

L aconia 3 3-112)

( BSA 6 5

USA 5 5 ( *);

( 1970)

( 1960)

C rete,

N otes:

6 7-107;

f ar West

E lis, 5 6

1 939

( 1961)

( BSA 6 0

( 1967)

1 972); 2 21-260)(*);

( 1965)

7 9-127)(*).

L arge-scale I talian S urveys f or c omparison: B arker 1 977; B arker e t a l. 1 968; P otter 1 979). -

1 63-191);

1 982);

1 73-270).

1 978);

M olise

S outh E truria

( 1)

E xact f igures a re n ot c ited h ere,

( 2)

a pproximate. T he s ymbol ( *)

( own r ecords;

c f.

( Ward-Perkins e t a l.

a s t hey a re o nly v ery

i ndicates t hat t he p ublished f igures s eem

t o b e e xpressed a s c omponents c ounted f or e ach p eriod o f

( i.e.

a multi-period

i ts o ccupation);

s ite i s

t his would

t end t o i nflate t he a pparent p roductivity l evel. ( 3)

O WAN o f

= O ld W orld A rchaeology Newsletter;

t he B ritish S chool a t A thens;

o f A rchaeology; o f

B SA = Annual

A JA = American J ournal

t he o ther r eferences a re l isted a t t he e nd

t he p aper.

4 09

410

i n

G reek s urvey

R eferences: A DAMS,

R .

M cC.,

1 965.

L and B ehind B aghdad:

o n t he D iyala P lains. ,1 981.

C hicago,

Univ.

A H istory o f S ettlement o f C hicago P ress.

H eartland o f C ities:

S urveys o f Ancient

S ettlement a nd L and U se o n t he C entral F loodplain o f t he E uphrates.

C hicago,

Univ.

o f C hicago P ress.

A DAMS, R . M cC a nd H . J . N ISSEN, 1 972. T he U ruk C ountryside: T he N atural S etting o f U rban S ocieties. C hicago, U niv. o f C hicago P ress. AMMERMAN, A . J ., 1 981. S urveys a nd a rchaeological r esearch. R eview o f A nthropology 1 0: 6 3-88. AMMERMAN,

A .

J .

a nd M . W .

s ite s urfaces. AMMERMAN,

A .

J .

F ELDMAN,

a nd G .

G .W. W .,

M olise.

D .

S CHAFFER,

1 977.

G . W . W .

a nd R . A .

a nd R .

A .

( eds.)

H ODGES e ds.,

P rehistoric,

G . W . W .

1 981, 1 981.

BARKER,

G . W . W .,

Oxford,

H ODGES,

( BAR

B ritish A rchaeological R eports.

1 981.

A rchaeology i n I taly, I n B arker a nd H odges

L .

R .,

J .

L LOYD a nd D .

WEBLEY,

1 964.

1 980:

( eds.)

r ecord.

I n Mueller

,1 975.

L .

A C lassical l andscape

e d.,

3 5-51.

A c onsideration o f a rchaeological r esearch

American Antiquity 2 9:

J .

1 978.

P apers o f t he B ritish S chool a t R ome 4 6:

d esign.

B INTLIFF,

A rchaeology a nd I talian

1 -16.

i n M olise. B INFORD,

2 15-223.

R oman a nd Medieval S tudies.

n ew d irections a nd mis-directions. 1 981,

:4 30-432

S tability a nd c hange i n p rehistoric C entral

I nternational S eries 1 02). BARKER ,

( 4)

2 0-24.

I n B arker a nd H odges

S ociety:

Neolithic s ettlement

T he a rchaeology o f S amnite s ettlement i n

,1 981.

BARKER,

1 981.

7 34-740.

C urrent Anthropology 2 2

Antiquity 5 1:

I taly.

R eplicated c ollection o f

American Antiquity 4 3:

p atterns i n C alabria. B ARKER ,

1 978.

Annual

S ampling, ( ed.)

1 977.

4 25-441.

j udgement,

1 975,

a nd t he a rchaeological

2 51-258.

Mycenaean G eography.

C ambridge,

T he

B ritish A ssociation f or Mycenaean S tudies. B INTLIFF,

J .

G reece B LACKMAN,

D .

L .,

1 977.

( BAR S 28). J .

a nd K .

E nvironment a nd S ettlement O xford, B RANIGAN,

t he l ower c atchment o f

i n P rehistoric

B ritish A rchaeological R eports. 1 977.

An a rchaeological s urvey o f

t he A giopharango v alley.

t he B ritish S chool a t A thens 7 2:

4 11

1 3-84

Annual o f

B LANTON, R . E ., 1 972. P rehistoric S ettlement P attern o f t he I xtapalapa P eninsula R egion ( Occasional P apers i n Anthropology, P enn S tate University.) B LANTON,

R .

E .,

S .

A .

K OWALEWSKI,

G . A .

F EINMAN a nd J . A PPEL,

1 982.

Ancient M esoamerica: A C omparison o f C hange i n T hree R egions. C ambridge, C ambridge U niversity P ress. B RAUDEL,

F .,

1 972.

T he M editerranean a nd t he Mediterranean W orld i n

t he A ge o f P hi14y I I 1 966).

L ondon,

( translation o f s econd r evised e dition,

F ontana/Collins.

C AROTHERS, J . a nd W . A . M cDONALD, 1 979. S ize a nd d istribution o f p opulation i n l ate B ronze A ge Messenia: s ome s tatistical a pproaches. C HADWICK ,

A .,

I n I .

1 978.

H odder

C ambridge, C HENHALL,

R .

G .,

Mueller C HERRY,

J .

J ournal o f F ield A rchaeology 6 :

A c omputer s imulation o f M ycenaean s ettlement. ( ed.),

S imulation S tudies i n A rchaeology,

4 7-57.

C ambridge University P ress. 1 975.

( ed.)

F .,

4 33-453.

A r ationale f or a rchaeological s ampling.

1 975,

1 977.

I n

3 -25

I nvestigating t he p olitical g eography o f a n

e arly s tate b y multidimensional s caling o f L inear B t ablet d ata. I n B intliff

( ed.)

, 1 980a. l andscape: a nd R .

1 977,

7 6-83.

S trategies f or r ecording a n A egean i sland

t he Melos a lchaeological s urvey.

Millman

a nd P ractice,

( eds.) 5 0-58.

, 1 980b.

I n P .

B randon

R ecording H istoric L andscapes: L ondon,

P rinciples

P olytechnic o f N orth L ondon.

Diachronic I sland A rchaeology i n t he A egean:

A C ase S tudy o n Melos

( Unpublished P h.

D .

d issertation,

S outhampton U niversity). , 1 982. o n Melos.

A p reliminary d efinition o f s ite d istribution

I n R enfrew a nd Wagstaff

( eds.)

1 982,

1 0-23.

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