Archaeological Explorations on the Roman Frontier in North-East Jordan: The Roman and Byzantine military installations and road network on the ground and from the air 9780860541653, 9781407327792

Table of contents :
Cover Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements
Transliteration
Glossary
Cardinal Points
Inscriptions
Abbreviations
List of Figures in the Text
List of Plates in the Text
PART I
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 2: THE REGION
CHAPTER 3: QASR EL-HALLABAT AND ENVIRONS
CHAPTER 4: ROMAN SITES IN THE AZRAQ DEPRESSION
CHAPTER 5: ROADS AND ROUTES IN NORTH EAST JORDAN
PART II
CHAPTER 6: THE AERIAL SURVEY OF SIR AUREL STEIN OVER IRAQ AND TRANSJORDAN IN 1938-39
CHAPTER 7: LIMES REPORT, SIR M.A. STEIN
PART III
CHAPTER 8: OTHER ROMAN MILITARY SITES IN THE NE. OF JORDAN
CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSIONS
APPENDIX A - CERAMIC EVIDENCE
APPENDIX B - THE CONTRIBUTION OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY TO ARCHAEOLOGY IN JORDAN: WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE ROMAN PERIOD
APPENDIX C: ANTIQUITIES RECORDED BY OLD PHOTOGRAPHS TAKEN BY THE ROYAL AIR FORCE OF THE DESERT NEAR AZRAQ DURUZ
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INDEX

Citation preview

Archaeological Explorations on the Roman Frontier in North-East Jordan The Roman and Byzantine military installations and road network on the ground and from the air D. L. Kennedy Including unpublished work by Sir Aurel Stein and with a contribution by D. N. Riley

BAR International Series I 3 4 1982

B.A.R.,

B.A.R.

122

Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS A. R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D. R. Walker, M.A.

B.A.R.-S1J4, 1982 :"Archaeological Explorations on the Roman Frontier in North­ East Jordan". © D.L.Kennedy, 1982.

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860541653 paperback ISBN 9781407327792 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541653 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

L IST

CON TE N TS

OF

Page No. iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS TRANSLITERATION OF NAMES GLOSSARY INSCRIPTIONS ABBRE\.'IATIONS LIST OF FIGURES IN THE TEXT LIST OF PLATES IN THE TEXT

V V

vi vii viii X

PAR T I CHAPTER 1: IN TRODU C T ION CHAPTER 2: T HE REG ION C HAPTER 3: QASR EL - HALL ABAT A N D ENVIRON S Introduction The Fort A The Walls B Internal Structures C Architectural Fragments D Coin E Tesserae F Shell G Inscriptions H Discussion Water Supply The Houses The Agricultural System Tomb(?)

Conclusion _..·.. ::· ..... CH APTER 4: ROM AN SITES I'N .: T � E _'\z RA Q DEPRESSION 1. The Azraq Depressiori 2. Qasr el-Azra·q The Fort Epigraphic Evidence 3. Azraq Shishan 4. Ain el-Asad 5. Qasr Aseikhin 6. Qasr el-Uweinid The Fort Tower Epigraphic Evidence 7. Qasr Ain es-Sol

i

l 11 17 17 19 22 29

33 37 37 37 37

48

55 60

61 62 62 69 69 75 75

90 96

107 107

113 113 121 121 128

P age N o. C HAPTER

5 :

R OADS 1 . 2 .

3 .

4 .

A ND

R OUTES

I N

N ORTH

E AST

J ORDAN

I ntroduction T he R oman R oads i n N orthern A rabia a ccording t o t he P eutinger T able a ) P hiladelphia t o B ostra E xcursus : T hugrat a l-Jubb b ) P hiladelphia v ia H atita t o D amascus T he R oman R oads i n N orthern A rabia t o t he E ast o f t he v ia n ova T raiana E xcursus : K hirbet e l-Shubeiqa E xcursus : T he B asalt W all N E. o f H allabat T he R oman R oads l eading t o a nd f rom A zraq E xcursus : R ujm M uddawer E xcursus : B asiensa ( ?) E xcursus : Q asr A in e l-Beida P ART

1 37 1 37 1 42 1 44 1 52 1 55 1 59 1 59 1 63 1 69 1 77 1 84 1 86

I I

C HAPTER

6 :

T HE A ERIAL S URVEY O F S IR A UREL S TEIN O VER I RAQ A ND T RANSJORDAN I N 1 938 A ND 1 938-39

1 99

C HAPTER

7 :

L IMES

2 21

R EPORT

( by

S ir

M .A.

S tein)

I ntroduction C hapter V I C hapter V II

2 21 2 27 2 59 P ART

C HAPTER

8 :

O THER N ORTH

C HAPTER

9 :

C ONCLUSION

I II

R OMAN M ILITARY E AST O F J ORDAN

S ITES

I N

T HE

2 99 3 07

*

*

*

A PPENDIX

A - C ERAMIC

E VIDENCE

A PPENDIX

B - T HE C ONTRIBUTION O F A ERIAL P HOTOGRAPHY T O A RCHAEOLOGY I N J ORDAN: W ITH S PECIAL R EFERENCE T O T HE R OMAN P ERIOD

3 27

A PPENDIX

C - A NTIQUITIES R ECORDED B Y O LD P HOTOGRAPHS T AKEN B Y T HE R OYAL A IR F ORCE O F T HE D ESERT N EAR A ZRAQ D URUZ ( by D .N. R iley)

3 45

*

*

3 13

*

B IBLIOGRAPHY

3 57

I NDEX

3 68

i i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT S Many individuals and institutions have been of assistance in the preparation of this work. In Jordan, Dr. Adnan Hadidi, Director General of the Department of Antiquities kindly gave permission for field-work to be carried out and readily provided help throughout. Mrs. C.-M. Bennett,Director of the British Institute for Archaeology and History at Amman has consistently supported my endeavours and provided facilities and equipment when needed. In the course of field­ work I enjoyed the valuable assistance of several people: Michael Godfrey, the tireless surveyor in 1978, deserves a special mention; others involved were: Kenneth Brasil, Michael Bishop, and Derrick Riley. In the subsequent write-up I have benefitted from the assistance of Drs. Stephen Hill and Charles Morgan of Warwick University; my colleagues Mr. E.J. Phillips, Drs. J. Roy and R.I. Winton; Dr. A.K. Irvine of the School of Oriental and African Studies; Professors O. A.W. Dilke, and G.W. Bowersock; Mr. J.P. Sharples, Dr. Henry MacAdam; Miss H. Bell, Librarian at the Institute of Archaeology, London; Mr. E. O'Sullivan of the Ministry of Defence; Dr. Ghazi Bisheh of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan; ·or. Elizabeth Clutton; Mohammed Otomi and Moiad Belus, guardians at Hallabat and Azraq respectively; Bob Wilkins and John Laidlaw kindly supplied photographs held in the Institutes of Archaeology in Oxford and London respectively, and John Owen and David Maddison of the Department of Geography here in Sheffield who did not look too shocked when I asked them to provide prints from 200 negatives; Air Vice Marshal P.E. Maitland, Sir John Bagot Glubb, Mr. S. Hemsley-Hall, and Mr. 'Rory' Moore, editor of Barrak. I am indebted to the British Academy for permission to reproduce the relevant sections of the unpublished typescript of Sir Aurel Stein's Limes Report and to the India Office Library and Records for waiving the reproduction fee on those photographs of Sir Aurel Stein's held by them. The staff of Room 132 in the Bodleian Library have been consist­ ently helpful over several years. The typing of so long a manuscript from my appalling handwriting requires an especially able secretary. In Mrs. Angela Taylor, I am fortunate to have found such a person. Martha Andrews undertook the thankless task of preparing the index which might otherwise not have been done. Financial.support was provided by generous grants from the British Academy, the Craven Committee, Meyerstein Fund, Society of Antiquaries, Seven Pillars of Wisdom Trust, University of Sheffield Research Fund and the University of Edinburgh, Tweedie Exploration Fellowship in 1978. Nor do I underestimate the value of the references in support of those written for me on an embarrassingly large number of occasions by Professors S.S. Frere and G.D.B. Jones. Professor Barri Jones deserves a special mention. My existing interests in the Roman military and the Middle East were brought together by him when, as an undergraduate, I was given the loan of his copy of iii

P ere P oidebard 's L a T race d e h omo. I t i s t o t hat k indness w hich I o we m y s ubsequent i nvolvement a nd i nterest i n t he e astern f rontier o f t he R oman E mpire. T hroughout t he m onths o f f ield-work a nd t he p eriod w hich f ollowed, m y w ife h as b een a c onstant s ource o f h elp. I t i s n o e xaggeration t o s ay t hat b ut f or h er o rganizational a bilities m uch o f t he f ield-work w ould n ot h ave b een p ossible. I n t he p reparation o f t he a rt-work, m ost w as d rawn b y h er a nd t he r emainder -d rawn b y S ally C ann, R osemary L eigh a nd S helagh G regory - w as u nder h er s upervision. B ut f or h er h elp, a t b est, t his w ork w ould b e m uch l onger i n a ppearing.

i v

T RANSLITERATION

T he w ays i n w hich A rabic p lace a nd p ersonal n ames a re t ransliterated i nto R oman l etters v aries n ot o nly f rom o ne c ountry t o a nother b ut e ven w ithin c ountries. T his i s a s t rue o f t his c ountry a s a ny o ther a nd f ormed t he s ubject o f a n a musing c orrespondence b etween T .E. L awrence a nd t he p roof-reader o f o ne o f h is b ooks, t he f ormer a dmitting t o d eliberate v ariety i n h is s pelling o f t he s ame n ames ( Lawrence, 1 962, 1 9f.). Ih ave t ried t o a dopt t he s pelling m ost c ommonly f ound i n E nglish a nd h ave s ought t o b e c onsistent. W here t here w as l ittle t o c hoose i n t erms o f p opularity b etween t wo o r m ore s pellings, I h ave k ept i n m ind t he r emarks o f W ilfrid B lunt o ver a c entury a go:T he c hoice o f ap roper s ystem o f s pelling h as b een a g reat d ifficulty i n t he e diting o f t his w ork. N either t he a uthor n or I h ave a ny k nowledge o f w ritten A rabic, n or, c olloquially, o f a ny A rabic b ut t hat o f t he D esert. I t h as, h owever, b een r epugnant t o o ur t aste t o a dopt a s ystem e ntirely p honetic. " Ali" c annot b e s pelt " Arlee", n or " Huseyn" " Hoosain" w ithout o ne 's e yes a ching.

G LOSSARY

A in - s pring,

k habra - r ain-water p ool

p ool, w ell

b ir - w ell

k han, h an - c aravanserai

b irkeh,

k hirbet - r uin

b irket - p ool, c istern, r eservoir

d eir - m onastery

q a -m ud-flat, d epression

d erb - w ay wamp, g hadir - s

m ushash - w ater-hole, w ells

airn, h ill r ujm - c w ater-hole

ot s prings, b ath h ammam - h ava f ield h arrat - l

k alet - c astle

k asr,

q asr - c astle

t ell - a rtificial m ound u mm - m other

j ebel - m ountain k ala,

aline d epression s abkha - s

w adi - w atercourse z umlat - h ill

C ARDINAL

P OINTS

C ardinal p oints a re v ery f requently i ndicated t hroughout t he t ext : f or t he s ake o f b revity, I h ave r endered t hem ( except w here i t i s

o bviously i nappropriate)

a s N .,

S ., E ., W .; N E., S E., e tc.

I NSCRIPTIONS

E pigraphic e vidence f igures p rominently i n t his w ork: 4 1 i nscriptions a re q uoted i n f ull a nd a re n umbered c onsecutively a cross t he e ntire t ext a s I nscr. 1 , I nscr. 2 , e tc. F ifteen o f t hese h ave b een p reviously p ublished - t hough s ome a s n o m ore t han a b rief n ote ( Kennedy, 1 980a, 8 11f.); s ix i n w hich t he n umber i s a ccompanied b y a n a sterisk ( *) a re b eing o ffered i n a r evised f orm; t hose s eventeen w hich h ave t wo a sterisks ( **) a re b eing p ublished f or t he f irst t ime; t hree a ccompanied b y q ueries ( ?) i ndicate t exts w hose e xistence i s d ubious, o r n ot s ecurely a ttested.

v i

A BBREVIATIONS

A A(A)S A ALS A ASOR A DAJ A E A J A NRW A nt .J. T ABOR B SOAS C AH C ERP C RAI G J I GLS I GRR J RCAS J RS M USJ N IH N ot .D y ., ö r. c . P A P BA P EQ P ES

A nnales A rchgologiques ( Arabes) S yriens A merican A rchaeological E xpedition t o S yria, B utler H .C. e t a l. A nnual o f t he A merican S chools o f O riental R esearch A nnual o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities o f J ordan L 'Annee E pigraphique A rchaeological J ournal A ufstieg u nd N iedergang d er r ömischen W elt, e d. H . T emporini A ntiquaries J ournal B ulletin o f t he A merican S chools o f O riental R esearch B ulletin o f t he S chool o f O riental a nd A frican S tudies C ambridge A ncient H istory C ities o f t he E astern R oman P rovinces C omptes R endus d es S eances d e L iAcademie d es I nscriptions e t B elles-Lettres G eographical J ournal I nscriptions G recques e t L atines d e l a S yrie I nscriptiones G raecae a d R es R omanas P ertinentes J ournal o f t he R oyal C entral A sian S ociety J ournal o f R oman S tudies M glan e s d e L 'Universitg S t. Jos 4he d e B eyrouth N aval I ntelligence H andbook - G eographical H andbook S eries N otitia D ignitatum, O riens/Occidens, e d. O . S eeck

-

P IR P LRE P N R B R E T APA Z DPV Z PE

D ie P rovincia A rabia, B rUnnow a nd D omaszewski P roceedin _gs o f t he B ritish A cademy P alestine E xploration Q uarterly P rinceton ( Archaeological) E xpedition t o S yria 1 904-05 a nd 1 909, B utler e t a l. P rosopogra. phia I mperil R omani P rosopography o f t he L ater R oman E mpire, J ones, A .H.M, e t a l. P ersonal N arrative - S ir A urel S tein's j ournal o f h is e xpeditions, s ome o f w hich w ere p ublished. R evue B iblique R eal-EncLplg Adie d er C lassischen A ltertumswissenschaft T ransactions o f t he A merican P hilological A ssociation Z eitschrift d es D eutschen P alästinavereins Z eitschrift f ür P apyrologie u nd E pigraphik

v ii

L IST

O F

F IGURES

I N

T HE

T EXT

P age N o. F igure

1

P hysical g eography o f t he L evant

2

2

R oman D esert F rontier i n t he E ast

4

3

N E. J ordan,

4

Q asr e l-Hallabat:

c astellum

1 8

5

Q asr e l-Hallabat: c astellum

s ection a cross S W. w all o f

2 4

6

Q asr e l-Hallabat:

s uggested p hase p lan

2 7

7

Q asr e l-Hallabat:

a rchitectural f ragments

3 5

8

Q asr e l-Hallabat :

i nscriptions

3 8

9

Q asr e l-Hallabat :

r eservoir

5 4

1 0

Q asr e l-Hallabat: s ite s ketch p lan ( drawn f rom a erial p hotographs)

6 1

1 1

Q asr e l-Hallabat:

h ouses

6 3

1 2

Q asr e l-Hallabat:

h ouses ( continued)

6 4

1 3

G eology o f t he A zraq b asin

7 0

1 4

A zraq C astle

7 4

1 5

F ourth c entury c astella

7 6

1 6

Q asr e l-Azraq:

a rches

8 2

1 7

Q asr e l-Azraq:

a rches, S E.

1 8

A zraq R oman f orts:

1 9

Q asr e l-Azraq: i nscriptions

9 3

2 0

A zraq a rea ( from a erial p hotographs)

9 7

2 1

R eservoir a nd w all a t A zraq S hishan ( drawn f rom a erial p hotographs)

1 00

2 2

Q asr e l-Aseikhin

1 09

2 3

Q asr e l-Aseikhin:A. F ort a nd h ill-fort ( drawn f rom a erial p hotograph), B . A rches

1 11

2 4

Q asr e l-Uweinid: p hotograph)

l ocation ( drawn f rom a erial

1 14

2 5

Q asr e l-Uweinid:

f ort p lan

1 15

2 6

A rabian w atch t owers

1 19

2 7

Q asr e l-Uweinid:

1 23

2 8

T rapezoidal f orts

1 27

2 9

Q asr A in e s-Sol

1 29

A . R ainfall, B . B ioclimate

1 3

t ower, g ateway

8 3

A . C astellum, B . E arly c astrum

8 7

i nscriptions

v iii

P age N o. F igure 3 0

T rade r outes o f t he M iddle E ast

1 41

3 1

a )

1 43

3 2

T hugrat a l-Jubb

1 53

3 3

Q asr a l-Hallabat - ' Desert W all '

1 64

3 4

R oman w all a nd r oad t o W . o f S ingara

1 65

3 5

Q asr a l-Azraq: m ilestones

1 72

3 6

Q asr a l-Azraq: b y S tein

1 81

3 7

a ) Q asr B urqu; b ) G reek t ext f rom J athum

3 01

3 8

P ottery f rom Q asr e l-Hallabat

3 15

3 9

P ottery f rom Q asr e l-Azraq, R ujm M uddawer a nd D eir e l-Kahf

3 17

4 0

P ottery f rom Q asr e l-Aseikhin a nd Q asr e l-Uweinid

3 19

4 1

P ottery f rom Q asr A in e s-Sol

3 21

4 2

F ield s ystems a round U mm e l-Quttein

3 32

4 3

F ield s ystems S E. o f U mm e l-Quttein

3 34

4 4

W adi t erracing S E. o f U mm e l-Jemal

3 36

4 5

A ncient r emains a round U mm e l-Jemal

3 38

4 6

S ketch m ap o f f eatures o n t he d esert s outh-west o f A zraq D uruz

3 46

4 7

T ypical e nclosures

3 48

4 8

K ites a nd w heel e nclosures n ear A zraq D uruz

3 50

4 9

K ites n ear A zraq D uruz a nd t he l andscape

3 52

5 0

G eneral m ap o f N E. J ordan

3 75

T race o f P eutinger T able, S eg. I X; b ) s ame s ection f rom m odern m ap

b uilding i nscription r ecorded

i x

L IST

O F

P LATES

I N

T HE

T EXT

P age N o. P late

I I I II

I V

V I

D esert S E. o f A zraq D uruz. R AF 1 955; 1 :10,000 ( Crown C opyright R eserved)

1 4

Q asr e l-Hallabat : a ) f rom W ., b ) f rom S . Q asr e l-Hallabat : a ) m ain g ate; b ) f ortlet w all; c ) c astellum I w all ( SE. s ide)

2 0 2 1

Q asr e l-Hallabat : a ) N E. w all b eside T ower A ; b ) r ooms a long S E. w all f rom T ower C ; c ) d etail o f S W. w all e xterior; d ) s ection a cross S W. w all f rom T ower C

2 3

Q asr b ) c ) d ) e ) f )

2 5

e l-Hallabat : a ) N W. w all o f c astellum I I; N W. w all j unction w ith f ortlet w all; j unction o f N E. w all a nd T ower A ; j unction o f S E. w all a nd T ower B ; j unction o f N E. w all a nd T ower D ; j unction o f S W. w all w ith T ower C

Q asr e l-Hallabat : a ) C rawford 's v iew o f N W. r ange, a nd b ) d etail s howing I nscr. 4 ( both c ourtesy o f I nstitute o f A rchaeology, O xford)

2 8

Q asr e l-Hallabat: a ) f ortlet d oorway; b ) i nner a rch o f m ain g ate; c ) c istern m outh i n f ortlet ; d ) t ypical h ouse r uins

3 0

V III

Q asr e l-Hallabat : a rchitectural f ragments

3 2

I X

Q asr e l-Hallabat : a rchitectural f ragments

3 4

Q asr e l-Hallabat : d ecorative b locks, c rosses m ason 's m ark a nd m osaic f ragment

3 6

Q asr e l-Hallabat : i nscriptions - I nscr. 1 0 ( i), ( ii), ( iii)(a), ( iii)(b), ( iv), ( v)

4 2

X II

Q asr e l-Hallabat : i nscriptions - I nscr. 1 0 ( vi), ( vii), f rg. 2 1; I nscr. 2 ; I nscr. 1 ; I nscr. 1 0 ( viii); I nscr. 7

4 3

X III

Q asr e l-Hallabat : a ) I nscr. 8 ; b ) m ain g ate b asalt f acing o n f rame ; c ) t omb? d ) s edim ent b asin a t U mm e l-Jemal; e ) c istern b anks; f ) I nscr. 6

5 2

Q asr e l-Hallabat: R eservoir - a ) v iew; b ), c ) d etails o f w alls

5 7

V II

X X I

X IV

g eneral

P age N o. P late

X V

X VI

X VII

X VIII

X IX

X X

X XI

X XII X XIII

X XV

Q asr e l-Hallabat: R eservoir - a ),b),c),d) d etail o f w alls; e ) m ason 's m ark ( ?), f ) c hannel

5 8

Q asr e l-Hallabat: a ) a erial v iew ( Hunting S urvey - c ourtesy J ordan A rmy); b ),c),d) a gricultural f eature - p ierced b locks; e ) a gricultural f eature - d rop s ystem; f ) c istern o n N W. s lope o f h ill

5 9

Q asr e l-Azraq: a ) M ain g ate i n 1 929 ( Crawford C ollection, I nstitute o f A rchaeology, O xford); b ) A erial v iew, 1 922 ( Crown C opyright R eserved - v ia I nstitute o f A rchaeology, L ondon)

7 2

Q asr e l-Azraq: a ) o blique v iew, 1 927 ( Crown C opyright R eserved - v ia I nstitute o f A rchaeology, L ondon); b ) v ertical v iew, 1 955 ( Crown C opyright R eserved)

7 3

Q asr e l-Azraq: a ) R oom 2 7 -w ell/cistern?: b ) R ooms 1 3 a nd 1 6 -p raetorium; c ) R oom 1 8; d ) R oom 2 4A - W . T ower

7 8

Q asr e l-Azraq: a ) R oom 2 3B - a rch 1 0; b ) R oom 1 7 -p ostern; c ) W . c orner a bove R oom 2 4B; d ) S . T ower ( Room 3 4); e ) c ourty ard f rom g ate t ower; f ) S W. w all - e xterior

7 9

Q asr e l-Azraq: a ) R ooms 1 1, 1 2 a nd p raetorium ( 13-16); b ) d oor o f p raetorium ( 16); c )kiln/ o ven i n R oom 3 1B; d ) N W. i nterior f rom p raetorium t o N . t ower ( 20A); e ) I nscr. 1 4 ( upper s ection); f ) I nscr. 1 4 ( lower s ection)

8 5

Q asr e l-Azraq: a ) I nscr. 1 1; b ) c ) I nscr. 1 5; d ) I nscr. 1 6

8 9

I nscr.

1 3;

A zraq S hishan: a ) A zraq f ort, 1 936 ( photograph c ourtesy o f H .S. H emsley-Hall); b ) R eservoir o n a erial p hotograph o f 1 922 ( Crown C opyright R eserved - v ia I nstitute o f A rchaeology, L ondon)

9 8

A zraq S hishan: a ) t he p ools; b ) f eature ' M ' o n R ees ' p lan; c ) c ircular f eature b eside ' B ' o n R ees' p lan; d ) s ection F -E o n R ees ' p lan

1 02

X XVI

A zraq S hishan - r eservoir: a ) s ection H -K o n R ees ' p lan; b ) r emains a t ' B ' o n R ees' p lan; c ) s ection D -C w ith s emi-circular e xternal b uttress; d ) t riangle i nternal b uttress o n s ketch F -G

1 04

X XVII

A zraq S hishan - w all a round m arsh: a ),b) g eneral v iews; c ) s emi-circular b uttress; d ) a rchitectural f ragment n ear r eservoir

1 05

x i

P age N o. P late X XVIII

a l-Hadita: a ) M usil 's p lan ( Musil, 1 927 f ig. 7 1); b ) R ees ' p lan ( Antiquity, I II ( 1929) 9 2)

1 06

Q asr e l-Aseikhin: a ) v iew f rom S W.; b ) v iew f rom c astellum t owards A zraq D uruz; c ) v iew W . f rom c astellum ( Room C a nd a rch 4 ); d ) R oom B a nd a rch 3 ; c ) g ateway ( Room D ) a nd a rch 2

1 08

Q asr e l-Aseikhin: a ) a erial v iew, 1 953 ( courtesy o f J ordan A rmy); b ) d am; c ) c hisel m arks i n b asalt q uarry a rea; d ) A=w hhel-house, B = k ite , C= A seikhin

1 10

Q asr e l-Uweinid: a ) a erial v iew, 1 927 ( ?) ( Crown C opyright R eserved - v ia I nstitute o f A rchaeology, L ondon); b ) v iew a cross w adi f rom S E.; c ) t ower s een t hrough g ate; d ) t ower d oorway

1 16

Q asr e l-Uweinid : a ) E . w all e xterior; b ) E . w all a nd r ubble o f i nternal r ooms; c ) t ower i n w adi; d ) t ower i n w adi N W. s ide; e ) N E. a ngle; f ) f ort f rom w adi t ower

1 17

Q asr e l-Uweinid: a ) I nscr. 1 9; b ),c) I nscr. 2 0 -S tein 's p hotograph a nd M outerde 's p reliminary r eading

1 22

Q asr A in e s-Sol: a ) S . w all; b ) b ath s uite; c ) j unction o f S W. a ngle a nd b ath s uite; d ) g ateway; e ) w ater c hannel; f ) m ilestone o n t he v ia n ova T raiana a t m ilestation X XII ( Kennedy, 1 976, 1 35-7)

1 30

V ia n ova T raina : a ) b etween m ilestations X XII a nd X IV; b ) t ower a t m ilestation X IV; c ) I nscr. 2 3; d ) I nscr. 2 4 ; e ) I nscrs. 2 5 a nd 2 6; f ) I nscr. 2 7

1 45

X XXVI

a ) I nscr. 2 8 ( base); b ) I nscr. 2 9 ( drum ); c ) w all a cross W . e nd o f J ebel S injar i n I raq - t aken f or S tein i n 1 938 ( Crown C opyr ight R eserved - v ia I nstitute o f A rchaeolo gy, L ondon)

1 61

X XXVII

a ) R oadside w all ( ?) N E. o f Q asr e l-Hallabat ; b ) I nscr. 2 9; c ) I nscr. 3 0; d ) I nscr. 3 1; e ) I nscr. 3 2

1 70

a ) I nscr. 3 6 ( courtesy I ndia O ffice L ibrary a nd R ecords); b ) M outerde 's p reliminary r eading o f I nscr. 3 6; c ) r oad t o Q ottein a nd D eir e l-Kahf f rom R ujm M udawer

1 78

a ) R ujm M udawer; b ) t rack f rom A zraq t o K ahf t o N . o f p ipeline r oad; c ),d) Q asr A in e lB eida

1 80

X XIX

X XX

X XXI

X XXII

X XXIII

X XXIV

X XXV

X XXVIII

X XXIX

x ii

P age N o. P late

X L

X LI X LII

X LIII

X LIV

X LV

X LVI

X LVII

X LVIII

S ir A urel S tein, F l. L t. H unt ( on h is l eft) i n I raq, 1 938 ( courtesy o f I ndia O ffice L ibrary a nd R ecords)

2 22

Q asr B urqu, 1 939 ( courtesy o f I ndia O ffice L ibrary a nd R ecords)

2 30

U mm e l-Quttein, 1 939. C ircular t ower a t S E. c orner ( courtesy o f I ndia O ffice L ibrary a nd R ecords)

2 38

a ) D eir e l-Kahf w atch-tower; b ) U mm K hishaisha; c ) Q asr e l-Uweinid - i nscription i n f oreg round; d ) Q asr M ushash - r eservoir ( courtesy o f I ndia O ffice L ibrary a nd R ecords)

2 48

M osaic o f Q asr e l-Azraq a nd a rea t o i ts N . i n 1 929 ( Crown C opyright R eserved v ia I nstitute o f A rchaeology, L ondon)

2 56

Q asr e l-Hallabat: a ) t op r ow - h ouse 7 ; m iddle r ow - i nterior o f f ort; b ottom r ow f irst s herd - m odern c emetery a rea, 2 nd a nd 3 rd s herds - o n b edrock a t b ottom o f p it i n r eservoir; b ) P I - c f. S mith, 1 973, p l. 9 2C ( Ummayad s tratum) —

3 22

a ) Q asr e l-Hallabat : t op r ow - h ouse 5 ; r emainder - h ouses b eside r eservoir; b ) t op r ow - s herds 1 , 2 , 4 f rom Q asr A in e s-Sol, s herd 3 f rom Q asr e l-Hallabat ( house 5 ); r emainder f rom r eservoir

3 23

a ) Q asr e l-Azraq - c f. S mith, 1 973, p l. 9 4B ( medieval d eposit 7 b ) t op r ow - Q asr e lA seikhin; 2 nd r ow - Q asr e l-Uweinid; r emainder - Q asr e l-Hallabat ( modern c emetery a rea a nd, f inal s herd, m ortar o f r eservoir w all) a ) U mm e l-Jemal; b ) f ield s ystems N . o f U mm e l-Quttein

3 24

3 39

P ART

C HAPTER

1 :

I

I NTRODUCTION

I n t he l ands o f w hat m ay b e l oosely c alled g reater S yria - t hat i s, t he r egion s andwiched b etween t he m ountains o f A natolia i n t he N . a nd t he A rabian P eninsula i n t he S .1 - t he e ssential c haracteristics o f t he g eomorphology a re w ell-known. T he f ertile c oastal b elt a long t he M editerranean i s b acked b y a n o ften p opulous b ut h illy, a t t imes m ountainous, z one f rom M t. A manus N . o f A ntioch t hrough t he m ountains o f L ebanon t o t hose o f B iblical S amaria a nd J udaea. N ext c ome t he l ush r iverine l ands o f t he O rontes, L eontes a nd J ordan, b efore, o nce a gain, a f ertile b elt t o t heir E . B eyond l ies t he d esert s tretching E . t o M esopotamia ( fig. 1 ). 2 S uch a d escription, h owever, o versimplifies t he s ituation. T hus, t he d esert o f S yria N . a nd E . o f D amascus - t he L ittle D esert o r P almyrena a s i t i s c ommonly k nown 3 - w as f ar f rom e mpty i n a ntiquity - w ater m ade s ettlement p ossible, a n o asis g ave r ise t o t he g reat c aravan c ity o f P almyra, a nd, i n t he R oman p eriod, m ilitary s ites a bounded i n t he b road b elt b etween D amascus, P almyra a nd S ura o n t he E uphrates ( fig. 2 ). 3a S outh a nd E . o f D amascus, t he s ituation c hanges a gain. T here, t he r ich a gricultural l ands w ith t heir c ities a nd l arge p opulations i n t he o nce v olcanic B atanaea, T rachonitis a nd A uranitis s tretch f ar o ut t o t he E . a nd, c onsequently, c arry t he R oman f rontier w ith t hem. 4 I n t he S . b elow t he A mmanitis, i n H eshbon, M oab a nd G abala, t he f ertile b elt i s i ndeed n arrow a nd t he f rontier t here f ollows, b roadly, t he g reat h ighway, t he v ia n ova T raiana, w here i t r uns b etween ' the d esert a nd t he s own' m uch f urther W . t han a nywhere e lse a long t he e astern l imes o f t he R oman E mpire. 5 T hat l eaves o nly t he r egion b etween t he H auran a nd A mmanitis; b roadly, N E. J ordan. I n a r estricted s ense, o ne m ay s ee t he a rea a s ab ridge b etween t he r ich H auran i n t he N . a nd t he o pen a nd l argely e mpty d esert o f t he S ., w hich, u ndoubtedly, i t i s. I n aw ider c ontext h owever, i t i s p ossible t o s ee i t r ather a s t he c ontinuation o f t he m ilitarized z one o f P almyrena; a n e xtension i nterrupted b y t he f ortuitous i ntrusion o f t he f ertile v olcanic l ands S . a nd E . o f D amascus. T hus, t he m ilitary i nstallations i n N E. J ordan n ot o nly i nclude a t ype c ommon t o t he f ertile p opulous r egions o f S . S yria b ut a lso t hat f amiliar i n t he a rid d esert r egions o f c entral S yria. U ntil t he 1 9th c entury, t ravellers c ould h ope t o d o n o m ore t han s kirt t he w estern f ringes o f t his a rea w here O ttoman g arrisons w ere i n c ontrol E ven a t t he t urn o f t he c entury t he t wo g reat e xpeditions m ounted b y t he G ermans B rünnow a nd v on D omaszewski, a nd t he A mericans o f t he A merican a nd P rinceton E xpeditions, 7 h ad l ikewise t o s kirt m uch o f t he z one. N evertheless, t imes w ere c hanging: b oth t hese e xpeditions w ere a ble t o m ake p rolonged e xcursions t o e xamine t he r emains o f a ncient s ettlements i n t he H auran a nd J ebel D ruse a nd t he A mericans

1

F ig. 1 P hysical g eography o f t he L evant ( after G rant, 2

1 937,

x vi)

g ot b eyond t he v ia n ova t o Q asr e l-Hallabat a nd n earby H ammam a s-Sarakh a nd a s f ar a s U mm e l-Quttein t o t he N E. I n t he s ame p eriod, h owever, r ather m ore i ntrepid s cholars p enetrated t he d esert a nd l ava d esert t o t he E .: M usil t ravelled t o t he A zraq d epression i n 1 896 a nd 1 897 a nd a gain, A zraq i tself, i n 1 909; 8 D ussaud a nd N ad er r eacher A zraq i n 1 900; 9 G ertrude B ell p assed f rom Q asr B urqu t o Q asr e l-Azraq i n D ecember 1 913 w hen i t w as s o c old t hat e ven t he w ater f or h er s queezes a t B urqu f roze: 10 B efore s ome o f t hese, h owever, E uropean t ravellers n ot s pecifically c oncerned w ith t he a ntiquities h ad r eached A zraq a nd t he W adi S irhan a nd p ublished o bservations w hich p rovided s ome o f t he e arliest k nowledge o f t he R oman s ites o f t he r egion: H uber p assed b etween t he c ities o f t he H auran, A zraq, t he W adi S irhan a nd J auf i n 1 878 a nd a gain i n 1 883, 1 1 j ust a y ear b efore h is m urder i n t he H edjaz; L ady A nne a nd M r. W ilfrid B lunt p assed d own t he W adi S irhan i n 1 879; 1 2 a nd C aptains A ylmer a nd B utler c ame N . f rom J auf t o t he H auran i n 1 908. 1 3 T he G reat W ar, t he e nd o f O ttoman r ule a nd t he e stablishment o f t he F rench a nd B ritish M andates o ver S yria, I raq, P alestine a nd T ransj ordan u shered i n t he s ettled c onditions w hich p ermitted m uch m ore i ntensive e xploration a nd o bservation. 14 T he p rocess b egan, a s f ar a s t he r egion i n q uestion i s c oncerned, w ith t he u se o f A zraq a s a b ase f or t he A rab A rmy i n 1 917. T he 1 920 's s aw a d ramatic o pening u p o f t he w hole a rea. A s p art o f t he f acilities p rovided f or t he C airo t o B aghdad a irmail r oute, t he R .A.F. h ad p loughed a f urrow a cross p art o f t he d esert b etween A mman a nd B aghdad t o g uide t he p ilots, a nd l anding g rounds w ere l aid o ut. 1 5 I n 1 925, a s a r esult o f t he u nsettled c onditions i n S yria c aused b y t he D ruse r ebellion, t he N airn T ransport C ompany t ransferred i ts r egular m ail a nd p assenger s ervice b etween D amascus a nd B aghdad S . t o r un f rom A mman t o R utba a nd B aghdad. I t h ad t o u se t his r oute f or 6 m onths t hough t he d ifficult l ava c ountry - c alled t he " Bay o f B iscay" b y t he d rivers - t ook a h eavy t oll: t yres h ad t o b e t otally r eplaced e very s econd t rip, 1 0 r adiators w ere d amaged a nd 7 5 s prings b roken: 16 N evertheless, i t w as as ign o f t he t imes: w heeled t raffic o n t he g round a nd r egular f lights o verhead b y t he R .A.F. a nd, l ater ( 1929), I mperial A irways, s wiftly c oloured i n w hat h ad b een l argely a ' white p atch ' o n m aps. A ppropriately, o ne o f t he p assengers i n 1 925 w as H enry F ield w ho, e ven o n c ollect a bout 1 00 f lints a t s tops e n e xpeditions i n s ubsequent y ears. A s

o n t he N airn S ervice o ut o f A mman s uch a j ourney, f ound t ime t o r oute. O ut o f t hat g rew h is h e h imself r ecords i n h is

p reface: W ith t he g enerous p ermission o f A ir V ice M arshal S ir J ohn H iggins, B uxton a nd I w ere a llowed t o a ccompany a n a rmoured c ar p atrol i nto t he d esert t o r eturn t o L anding G round H i n o rder t o s pend o ne d ay t o c ontinue o ur q uest f or t he e vidence o f t he h andiwork o f P rehistoric M an. I n v iew o f t he w ide d istribution a nd t he q uantity o f t he r oughly c hipped f lint i mplements c ollected, w e s uggested t entatively, t hat t his a rea w as a t o ne t ime f ertile a nd w ell-watered a nd a ble t o s upport a l arge s emi-nomadic p opulation. S ince t hat t ime I h ave m ade f ive e xtensive E xpeditions ( 1926, 1 927, 1 928, 1 934, a nd 1 950) i nto t he N orth A rabian D esert . . .1 7 3

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