Arabic Script in Motion: A Theory of Temporal Text-based Art [1st ed.] 978-3-030-12648-3;978-3-030-12649-0

Table of contents :
Front Matter ....Pages i-xviii
Introduction (M. Javad Khajavi)....Pages 1-27
Kinetic Behaviors (M. Javad Khajavi)....Pages 29-38
Kinesthetic Behaviors (M. Javad Khajavi)....Pages 39-79
Plasmatic Behaviors (M. Javad Khajavi)....Pages 81-95
Transformative Behaviors (M. Javad Khajavi)....Pages 97-132
Meta-transformative Behaviors (M. Javad Khajavi)....Pages 133-166
Conclusion (M. Javad Khajavi)....Pages 167-174
Back Matter ....Pages 175-184

Citation preview

m . j ava d kh a j av i

ARABIC SCRIPT IN MOTION A Theory of Temporal Text-based Art

Arabic Script in Motion

M. Javad Khajavi

Arabic Script in Motion A Theory of Temporal Text-based Art

M. Javad Khajavi Volda University College Volda, Norway

ISBN 978-3-030-12648-3    ISBN 978-3-030-12649-0 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12649-0 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2019 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Cover Image: Javad Khajavi Cover Design: Fatima Jamadar / eStudio Calamar This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG. The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

For Yasamin and my parents

Preface

One of the characteristics of the contemporary media landscape is its tendency to astonish and enthrall through creating multimodal sensory experiences. Today, a little more than a century after the invention of cinema, temporal audio-visual media are dramatically changing the ways in which we experience the world. Meanwhile, in a culture that is rapidly becoming dominated by screen-based media and moving image content, text in its various modes of representation increasingly appears in dynamic forms. Indeed, textual information today is being communicated through time-­ based media more than ever before. Text displayed in TV commercials, in the user interfaces of various websites and computer programs, in applications on our smartphones, and on the large screens of the Times Square in New York City or the Dotonbori area in Osaka have one thing in common: they don’t stay still and they try to draw viewers’ attention by moving or changing. Meanwhile, text written in the Arabic system of writing (i.e. the script used for writing many languages including but not limited to the Arabic language) also increasingly appears on screen-based media and in temporal contexts. As designers, artists, and consumers show more interest in dynamic text, temporal typography and time-based calligraphic art written in Arabic script are on the rise. Arabic Script in Motion is concerned with how text written in the Arabic alphabet (and its modified versions used by languages other than Arabic) is displayed in such time-­based media. This book originated in the idea that the innate qualities of Arabic script and certain practices in traditional Islamic calligraphy and contemporary calligraphic art can and do inform the behavior of Arabic characters in time-based media. Reinterpreting classical aesthetics and contemporary vii

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PREFACE

calligraphic art through the lens of animation and motion design, this book informs new technologies and practices. It expands the vocabulary used in describing Arabic script’s representation in time-based media and proposes a theory to help practitioners push new boundaries in temporal text-based art. Moreover, it tackles questions of legibility and readability, and attempts to understand how the temporality of Arabic text influences meaning-making. As such, the book is directed not only at animators, designers, and artists but also at commentators and scholars who deal with temporal text-based art written in Arabic script. This book follows the system of transliteration suggested by the International Journal of Middle East Studies (IJMES) with slight modifications. The names of artists and places, for instance, have been represented in the more familiar forms as used in the references cited; for example, Ghasem Hashemi instead of Qāsim Hāshimı̄. The same is preferred for spellings that have gained common acceptance in English; for instance, Qur’an instead of Qurʾān. It should also be noted that Arabic script is the system of writing used for many languages in addition to the Arabic language. Languages such as Persian (Farsi), Ottoman Turkish, Urdu, Kurdi, Pashto, and so on all use the Arabic system of writing and modified versions of the Arabic alphabet for their textual representation. Therefore, the term “Arabic script,” which appears recurrently in this book, should not be confused with the Arabic language. The term refers to the Arabic system of writing and applies to all languages that use this system for their textual representation. Throughout the book translation of non-English (i.e. Arabic, Persian or Turkish) words is provided inside the parentheses that come immediately after each word. The following abbreviations have been used to identify the language of non-English words: A. = Arabic, P. = Persian, T. = Turkish. It should also be pointed out that a website, which includes all the examples presented in this book as well as a growing database of temporal Arabic text-based artworks, accompanies the book and can be accessed at the following address: www. animatedcalligraphy.com. Volda, Norway

M. Javad Khajavi

Acknowledgments

As with most works, this book is the product of the advice, criticism, help, encouragement, and support of many people. I began working on this topic as a doctoral candidate at the School of Art, Design & Media of Nanyang Technological University in Singapore. I am indebted to my advisors, Vibeke Sorensen and Heitor Capuzzo, for encouraging me to explore the boundaries of temporal text-based art and for their continued support throughout the course of my Ph.D. studies. I am most grateful to Michael Walsh, a visionary scholar and a great mentor, whose help, support, encouragement, and invaluable insights provided the motivation for this book. I feel privileged not only for having met but also for having received insightful feedback from Nada Shabout, Ben Alvin Shedd, and Birgitta Hosea. A big thank you to Giannalberto Bendazzi, Ishu Patel, Zeliha Gul Inanc, Hans-Martin Rall, Peer M. Satikh, Ross Adrian Williams, Sujatha Arundathi Meegama, Yin Ker, and Meridel Rubenstein. Here I should also thank the members of the Substantial Motion Research Network (SMRN), especially Laura Marks, for their constructive feedback and encouragement. Similarly, I am thankful to Endre Eidsa Larsen and Trygve Nielsen. Ellie Freedman and Lina Aboujieb provided great support and valuable feedback throughout the whole process of preparing the manuscript and the book; I am grateful to both of them. Last but not least, my greatest debt of gratitude goes to my wife and my parents for their constant support and encouragement. Their contribution is far greater than they will ever know. I would also like to thank all the artists whose artworks decorate pages of this book. Their works have truly contributed to the enrichment of the content of this book both visually and contextually. I am thankful to Parviz ix

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Tanavoli and his daughter Tandar. Similarly, many thanks should go to Harvard Art Museums, ATHR gallery, Chapchin studio, and Barjeel Arts Foundation. Special thanks go to Lubna Hammad, Ali Shirazi, Bahman Panahi, Mounir Fatmi, Jalil Rasouli, Nasser al-Salem, Mohammad Bozorgi, Ramin Shirdel, Azim Fallah, Bahram Hanafi, Ali Esmaeli Ghoochani, Babak Rashvand, Meghdad Asadi Lari, and Seyed Ghasem Hashemi Amrei. Every effort has been made to contact copyright holders and to credit all the visuals presented in this book. If any have been inadvertently overlooked, the publisher will be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity.

Contents

1 Introduction  1 2 Kinetic Behaviors 29 3 Kinesthetic Behaviors 39 4 Plasmatic Behaviors 81 5 Transformative Behaviors 97 6 Meta-transformative Behaviors133 7 Conclusion167 Glossary175 Index179

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List of Figures

Fig. 2.1

Fig. 2.2 Fig. 2.3 Fig. 3.1 Fig. 3.2 Fig. 3.3 Fig. 3.4

Fig. 3.5

Meghdad Asadi Lari, Simorgh (2014). In this short, animated film, calligraphic motifs and words are used in the background and the design of the birds  (see Video 2.1 on the website). (Image courtesy of Meghdad Asadi Lari) 30 Stills from a short temporal typography video by the author showing various types of kinetic behavior  (see Video 2.2). (© M. Javad Khajavi) 32 Nasser al-Salem, An Adornment of Stars, 2015, Video projection (loop), Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. (Image courtesy of Nasser al-Salem and ATHR gallery) 35 A page of sı̄yāh-mashq, unknown artist, dated 2009. Sı̄yāh-mashq pieces, such as this one, are imbued with a sense of rhythmic dynamism. (Source: http://noroozirad503.rozblog.com/cat/)42 Different forms of the letter ‘ayn (highlighted in blue) depending on its place within the word. (© M. Javad Khajavi) 43 The calligraphic line created by the reed pen of Islamic calligraphy and its traits. (© M. Javad Khajavi) 44 A calligraphic piece recreated by the author based on a calligraphic artwork by Hafiz Hasan Refet Ṭrabzonı̄, dated 1886–1887. The letter yā’ (‫ )ی‬is inscribed in this composition in an elongated form that induces a horizontal movement; this directs the eyes of the viewer and enhances the process of reading along the horizontal axis of the piece 46 The first verse of the Qur’an, bismillāh-i al-rahmān-i al-rahı̄m (A.  In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful) written in three different scripts of Islamic calligraphy, inscribed by Ali Esmaeli Ghoochani, 1980. (Image courtesy of the artist) 51 xiii

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LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 3.6 Fig. 3.7 Fig. 3.8 Fig. 3.9 Fig. 3.10 Fig. 3.11 Fig. 3.12 Fig. 3.13

Fig. 3.14

Fig. 3.15

Fig. 3.16

Fig. 3.17

A piece of calligraphy written in shikastih script, signed by ʿAbd al-­Majid Taliqani, 1769–1770. (Source: Blair, 2006) 54 Sadegh Tabrizi, Untitled, Ink on parchment, 60 × 60 cm 56 Bahram Hanafi, Untitled, 2014, acrylic on canvas, 150 × 98 cm. (Source: http://bahramhanafi.com/2018/05/07/collection_ 2016/)57 Jalil Rasouli, part of a qiṭʿa in nasta’lı̄q (this is only a part of the original work), dated 1985. (Source: Kiani & Kamarei, 2012) 59 Two pages of sı̄yāh-mashq, unknown artist, most likely nineteenth century. (Source: Alamy Stock Photos) 61 Reza Mafi, Untitled, 1974, ink and oil on canvas, 99.06 × 76.2 cm. (Source: Kiani & Kamarei, 2012) 63 Babak Rashvand, Lightness and Darkness, 2011, acrylic on canvas, 100 × 100 cm. (Image courtesy of Babak Rashvand) 64 Four consecutive frames from a short video by the author, showing the motion along the calligraphic line. This motion is akin to the movements of the pen that register the calligraphic shapes on paper (see Video 3.1). (© M. Javad Khajavi) 67 Stills from the short animation The Third Script (2017). In this part of the animation, calligraphic forms, letters, and words appear through kinesthetic motion. The trace of the motion that remains on the screen in this process is akin to the process of writing calligraphy on paper (see Video 3.2). (© M.  Javad Khajavi)68 Stills from the animated film The Third Script (2017). In this part of the animation, the trace of the motion along the calligraphic line does not remain on the screen, giving the impression of a moving calligraphic line that conforms to the shape of a calligraphic form. As a result, the shape of the calligraphic form cannot be completely seen in any single frame of the animation (see Video 3.3). (© M. Javad Khajavi) 69 The Passion of Love, 2016, Time-based calligraphic installation (projection mapping on calligraphic sculpture), one minute animation loop, 90  ×  60  cm. The animated visuals projected onto the sculpture show an example of kinesthetic behavior and highlight the words along the trajectory of their calligraphic lines (see Video 6.8). (© M. Javad Khajavi) 71 Top: Stills from a scene in the animated short film The Third Script (2017). Bottom: Diagram showing the directions of the two different types of motion in this scene. The directions of the kinesthetic behavior of the individual letterforms and the

  LIST OF FIGURES 

direction of the motion induced by their successive arrangement in space and time (which created the kinesthetic composition) can be seen in the diagram. (© M. Javad Khajavi) Fig. 3.18 The mechanism of motion in a Mexican wave. The Mexican wave embodies a sense of flow and is produced when individuals who are adjacent to each other successively stand up and sit or raise and then lower their hands. (© M. Javad Khajavi) Fig. 4.1 Part of a page of muaraqqa’āt signed by ʿAbdallah, dated 1675–1676. The letter ‘ayn (in blue) appears in three forms (initial, medial, and final) on this page of Islamic calligraphy. (Source: Safwat, 1996) Fig. 4.2 In Islamic calligraphy, the shape of letters may shift depending on the letter that precedes or follows them. (© M. Javad Khajavi) Fig. 4.3 The letter sı̄n (‫ )س‬in its normal shape (left) and elongated form (right). (© M. Javad Khajavi) Fig. 4.4 The letter yā’ (‫ )ی‬in three different shapes in shikastih script: normal shape (left); two elongated forms (right). Aside from these three, it has other shapes in this script. (© M. Javad Khajavi) Fig. 4.5 Album leaf (muraqqa’) of nasta’liq signed by Imad al-Hassani (Mir Imad al-Mulk Qazvini Hassani), Qazvin, Iran, ink, watercolor, and gold on paper, 1600. Aga Khan Museum, Toronto, Canada. Elongated penstrokes are highlighted in blue. (Source: Alamy Stock Photos) Fig. 4.6 Part of a Mufradāt album signed by Mehmed Şevki, dated 1866–1867. The word tawf ı̄q, which appears twice in the piece, is written differently with a slight modification in its shape in the second line. The letter fā’ (the first letter in the highlighted part of the word) is rendered in its full independent form in the second line. (Source: Safwat, 1996) Fig. 4.7 Parviz Tanavoli, Red Heech, 2001, fiberglass, 290  ×  178  × 286 × 180 cm. The word seems to be plasmatic in Tanavoli’s Heech sculptures; the calligraphic line is elastoplastic in his hands and takes up various shapes. (Reproduced courtesy of Parviz Tanavoli. Source: Alamy Stock Photos) Fig. 4.8 Farid Yahaghi and Davood Morgan, CircoGraphic (2013) (see Video 4.1). (Image courtesy of Chapchinstudio) Fig. 4.9 Farid Yahaghi and Davood Morgan, CircoGraphic (2013). In this scene of the animation, two words in the form of acrobats join as if holding hands and create a new word. Within this process, the shapes of their letters change so that they can physically connect with each other. This type of temporal

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75

84 85 86 87

88

89

91 92

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LIST OF FIGURES

behavior in which calligraphic forms shift shape is informed by the plasmatic quality of Arabic script (see Video 4.1). (Image courtesy of Chapchinstudio) 94 Fig. 5.1 Floriated Kufic inscription on the wall beside the gate of Badr al-Jamali and al-Mustansir, Bab al-Futuh, Cairo, Egypt, 1082. (Source: Alamy Stock Photos) 98 Fig. 5.2 Bowl with inscription and birds, Nishapur, Iran, tenth century. (Image courtesy of Harvard Art Museums: Imaging Department © President and Fellows of Harvard College) 99 Fig. 5.3 Painting, Iran, fifteenth century, 45  ×  50  cm. Topkapi Saray Museum, Istanbul. (Source: Alamy Stock Photos) 100 Fig. 5.4 Mahmoud Hammad, Bism Allah Alrahman Alraheem, 1983, oil on canvas, 99 × 80 cm. (Image courtesy of Lubna Hammad and Barjeel Art Foundation) 103 Fig. 5.5 Mohammad Bozorgi, He Will Provide, 2015, thirteen panels, acrylic on canvas, 264 × 575 cm. (Image courtesy of Mohammad Bozorgi)104 Fig. 5.6 Stills from a short animation test by the author. Abstract forms transform into the word ishq (P. love) (see Video 5.1). (© M. Javad Khajavi) 106 Fig. 5.7 The identity gamut. In calligraphic animation and animated type, forms may transform within the confines of the identity gamut. (© M. Javad Khajavi) 108 Fig. 5.8 Stills from an animation test by the author. In this animation test, a line moves around the screen, taking the shape of the letters of the word khush (P. joy) one after another. As the line transforms from one letter to the next, it loses its verbal identity and becomes an abstract shape for a few frames until it conforms to the shape of the next letter (see Video 5.2). (© M. Javad Khajavi) 111 Fig. 5.9 Stills from an animation test by the author. In this simple animation the letter ḥā’ changes into the letters khā’, j ım ̄ , and chā’ (see Video 5.3). (© M. Javad Khajavi) 112 Fig. 5.10 The extended version of the identity gamut. This extended version helps explain the direct transformation of a form with verbal identity into another form with a different verbal identity. (© M. Javad Khajavi) 114 Fig. 5.11 Stills from a short animation test by the author. The image shows the transformation of a letter into another letter through metamorphosis (see Video 5.4). (© M. Javad Khajavi) 115 Fig. 5.12 Stills from a video ident for Al Jazeera America. In this video a transformation of identity occurs through metamorphosis (see Video 5.5)116

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Fig. 5.13 Stills from an animation test by the author that shows how (de)construction as a temporal behavior operates. In this animation, a number of individual forms freely move around the screen; at some points in the animation, they align so that their overall shape forms the letter hā’ (‫( )ه‬see Video 5.6). (© M. Javad Khajavi) 117 Fig. 5.14 Stills from Kinetic Calligraphy, Ali al-Masri, 2012, multimedia animation test 118 Fig. 5.15 Kutluğ Ataman, Animated Words, 2003, video installation: DVD, DVD player, LCD flat-panel wall-mounted monitor, 43 × 48 cm (see Video 5.8)119 Fig. 5.16 Ramin Shirdel, Eyn Shin Ghaf, 2016, painted wood on panel, 360 × 120 × 28 cm. (Image courtesy of Ramin Shirdel) 121 Fig. 5.17 Phases of legibility on the verbal–abstract identity continuum (one side of the identity gamut). In animation a form may oscillate between the two extremes. As its identity oscillates, its legibility fluctuates too. (© M. Javad Khajavi) 123 Fig. 5.18 Phases of legibility on the identity gamut. (© M. Javad Khajavi) 124 Fig. 5.19 Phases of legibility on the extended version of the identity gamut. (© M. Javad Khajavi) 125 Fig. 5.20 Superimposition of the frames from the animation test in Video 5.2. The full shape of the word khush (P. joy) and the letters comprising it are easily observed in this image. When watching the animation test, the brain of a person who is familiar with Arabic script probably creates a mental image like this, superimposing various frames in order to seek semantic meaning. (© M. Javad Khajavi) 126 Fig. 5.21 Stills from an animation test by the author. Pseudo-­calligraphic forms play a role in the process of legibility, by hinting to the audience that what they are seeing is some sort of a language (see Video 5.1). (© M. Javad Khajavi) 128 Fig. 6.1 Calligraphy inscribed in the shape of a lion, India, eighteenth century, opaque watercolor on paper. The San Diego Museum of Art, San Diego, United States. (Source: Alamy Stock Photos) 134 Fig. 6.2 Bahman Panahi, The Album of Beauties, 2000, page of sı̄yāhmashq, ink on paper, 21 × 27 cm. (Image courtesy of Bahman Panahi)135 Fig. 6.3 Ali Shirazi, Swawing Scripts, 2012, acrylic on canvas, 150 × 150 cm. (Image courtesy of Ali Shirazi) 138 Fig. 6.4 Azim Fallah, Free Composition, 2010, acrylic on paper, 50 × 100 cm. (Image courtesy of Azim Fallah) 142

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LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 6.5

Fig. 6.6 Fig. 6.7

Fig. 6.8 Fig. 6.9

Fig. 6.10

Fig. 6.11 Fig. 6.12 Fig. 6.13 Fig. 6.14 Fig. 6.15 Fig. 7.1

The anatomy of the letter ‘ayn (‫ )ع‬in nasta’lı̄q script. The rhomboid dot is being used as a unit of measurement in proportioning letters and words in Islamic calligraphy. (© M. Javad Khajavi) 144 The function gamut. It emphasizes that in calligraphic animation it is possible to shift the function of calligraphic elements over time. (© M. Javad Khajavi) 148 Stills from an animation test by the author showing that the function of calligraphy can transform. At the beginning the emphasis is on semantic function. Then it gradually shifts toward the aesthetic function (Video 6.1). (© M. Javad Khajavi) 149 Seyed Ghasem Hashemi, Creation (2008) (see Video 6.2). (Image courtesy of Ghasem Hashemi) 150 Stills from an animation test conducted as part of this study. In this test, the function of calligraphy transforms through simple motion (kinetic behaviors) of the individual calligraphic forms, which is a form of Primary motion (see Video 6.3). (© M. Javad Khajavi)155 Stills from an animation test. In this test, the function of calligraphy transforms through a change in color of individual calligraphic forms, which is a form of Primary motion (see Video 6.4). (© M. Javad Khajavi) 156 Stills from Tongue of the Hidden (2006) by David Alexander Anderson. In this scene of the animation, the camera movement results in a shift in the function of calligraphy (see Video 6.5)158 Diagram illustrating changes in readability on the function gamut. (© M. Javad Khajavi) 161 Technical set-up of The Passion of Love, 2016 (see Video 6.8). (© M. Javad Khajavi) 162 The Passion of Love, 2016. The animated visuals projected onto the sculpture transform the function of calligraphic forms in the piece (see Video 6.8). (© M. Javad Khajavi) 164 Diagram illustrating the transformation of the function of calligraphic forms in The Passion of Love, on the function gamut. (© M. Javad Khajavi) 165 Summary of the categories of temporal behavior presented in this book. (© M. Javad Khajavi) 168

CHAPTER 1

Introduction

The Way of the Word Calligraphy, the art of penmanship, can be regarded as the quintessential art form in the visual culture of the Islamic world (George, 2010). It has been described by many as the unsurpassed achievement of Islamic aesthetics (Fraser & Kwiatkowski, 2006; Roxburgh, 2007; Safwat, Fehèrvàri, & Zakariya, 1997). In Islamic culture, calligraphy should not be regarded merely as beautiful writing, but rather as “one of the main methods of artistic expression” (Blair, 2006, p. 4). Indeed, Muslim calligraphers and artisans have widely exploited the aesthetic possibilities of Arabic script not only in the art of the book, but also in other forms of art. Since the seventh century, calligraphic inscriptions, letters, and words have been adorning artifacts all over the Muslim world. Therefore, across all the regions influenced by Islamic culture, from Granada in Spain to Agra in India, numerous examples of calligraphy can be found decorating buildings and objects in all sorts of media—in many of which calligraphy is the main, if not the only, element of ornamentation. In fact, within the last millennia Islamic calligraphy has appeared over almost every kind of object in many different materials and media. It has decorated the façade of religious and secular buildings with glazed tiles; it has been woven into or embroidered on fabric and textile. Skillful craftsmen have also inscribed calligraphy over ceramic bowls, vases, swords, and daggers (Schimmel & Rivolta, 1992). In fact, as the title of the book The image of the word: A study of Quranic

© The Author(s) 2019 M. J. Khajavi, Arabic Script in Motion, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12649-0_1

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verses in Islamic architecture by Dodd and Khairallah (1981) aptly ­suggests, Islamic visual culture is rife with “the image of the word.” Such a revered status for the art of penmanship and such extensive use of calligraphy continues to this day. Newly constructed mosques (and other monumental buildings) are decorated with calligraphic inscriptions; beautifully framed sheets of calligraphy can still be seen on the walls in the houses of average Muslims; and written words and calligraphic forms are widely used in the composition of urban arts in many Arab and non-Arab countries (e.g. Iran).1 Aside from this widespread appearance of Arabic script and Islamic calligraphy in contemporary culture, new approaches and directions have emerged in the practice of Islamic calligraphy since the late 1950s. Since then, many artists have replaced the traditional tools of calligraphy— namely the reed pen, ink, and paper—with other media, such as brush, acrylic, watercolor, canvas, and so forth (Blair, 2006). Many of these artists have also consciously deviated from the orthodox conventions of Islamic calligraphy, trying to marry their cultural heritage with a modern artistic language while seeking their own individual expression. Indeed, during the past few decades, experimenting with Islamic calligraphy and Arabic script across a diverse range of media and in new and innovative ways has become a popular trend and now is one of the main themes in contemporary art from both the Middle East and the rest of the Islamic world (Porter & Caussé, 2006).2 This trend, which is sometimes referred to as the “calligraphic school of art” (Ali, 1993) or “neo-calligraphy” (Keshmershekan, 2004),3 has moved traditional Islamic calligraphy in new directions, stretched its aesthetic boundaries, and expanded the range of 1  There are several reasons for this supreme status of calligraphy in Islamic visual culture. The three main reasons that recurrently appear in the literature on Islamic calligraphy are the importance of calligraphy in writing the Qur’an, the importance of the written word in Islamic culture, and the discouragement of figural representations in some Islamic teachings. Although the latter reason is widely disputed, its influence on the development of calligraphy as a supreme art form in the Muslim world cannot be completely ruled out. See Khajavi (2017) for more information. 2  The Middle East, as David Elliot explained in his keynote speech at Tate Museum in January 2009, is “an alternative to the Western geographical conception of ‘Arab’ and ‘Islamic’” (as cited in Tanner, 2009, p. 16). It refers to a region spanning from North Africa to Arab countries, the Levant, Turkey, and Iran. 3  Other terms are also used in reference to this trend and its artwork. In the Arab world for instance, the term “al-Madrasa al-Hurufiya” (A. the school of letterism) is widely favored among art critics and art historians, as well as the general population. In Iran, these artworks are sometimes called naqqāshı̄-khat (P. calligraphy painting). In general, there seems to be no

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materials and media used to explore it (Blair, 2006). Today, many artists are experimenting with calligraphy in their paintings, creating calligraphic compositions of various styles. Other artists experiment with it in three-­ dimensional space and make calligraphic sculptures (known in Arabic as naḥt khattı̄). There are also artists who make calligraphic artworks using textile, silkscreen, photography (light calligraphy),4 and more. Meanwhile, since the early years of the twenty first century, we have also seen increasing interest in creating time-based calligraphic artworks. Although experimenting with Arabic script and Islamic calligraphy in visual time-based media is uncommon when compared to other forms of visual art, the twenty first century have so far seen increasing interest in creating such works. An overview of the films shown at animation festivals in the past ten years indicates a growing interest in incorporating Islamic calligraphy in animations made by artists coming from the Middle East and beyond. For example, The Creation (Seyed Ghasem  Hashemi, 2008), The Third Script (Khajavi, 2017), and Tongue of the Hidden (David Alexander Anderson, 2008) are all short animations that draw upon Islamic calligraphy in one way or another. Artists practicing in other time-­based media have also shown interest in employing calligraphic elements or addressing the art of Islamic penmanship in their works. Some of these artists, whose works are mentioned in later chapters of this book, are Kutluğ Ataman (b. 1961) (Turkey), Mounir Fatmi (b. 1970) (Morocco and France), Nasser al-Salem (b. 1984) (Saudi Arabia), and Soraya Syed Sanders (b. 1976) (United Kingdom), among others. Such attention has not only been garnered in artists; galleries and exhibitions also show interest in calligraphic time-based art. For instance, in the third version of the Jameel Prize (awarded in 2013),5 two multimedia installations that incorporated Arabic writing and calligraphy were shortlisted for the main prize: Modern Times: A History of the Machine (2009–2010) by Mounir Fatmi and Guide Us Upon the Straight Path (2013) by Nasser al-Salem. Several considerations might explain this rising interest in time-based calligraphic art. A first reason might be the growing attention given to neo-calligraphic consensus over the name of this new trend or on its definition, as Blair (2006, p.  589) suggests. 4  In Iran it is sometimes called Khat-akkāsı̄ (literally, photo-calligraphy). 5  The Jameel Prize is a prestigious international prize awarded to contemporary art inspired by Islamic heritage of various kinds. It is organized by the Victoria and Albert (V&A) Museum in collaboration with Abdul Latif Jameel Community Initiatives (ALJCI), and it enjoyed the support of a well-known architect, the late Zaha Hadid (“About the Jameel Prize,” n.d.).

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art in general, from the side of both artists and audience.6 A further reason could be the ubiquity of screen media in contemporary culture7 and the cultural shift from the dominance of static imagery to the supremacy of dynamic images within the past few decades. It might also be rooted in recent developments in digital technologies and computer-based media, which have greatly facilitated the process of making animation and creating dynamic art. Given the increasing ubiquity of screen media and accelerating developments in digital tools and technologies, we may expect this interest in time-based calligraphic art only to increase. Meanwhile, another consequence of the ubiquity of screen media and the rapid shift toward high-quality displays capable of screening dynamic content is the growing abundance of temporal typography. Today, motion designers, animators, and other practitioners are routinely creating temporal typography to be used in TV idents, commercials, explainimations, and animated logos. Similarly, motion designers make animated typefaces and sell them on websites such as animography.net, where users can browse a list of animated typefaces, download the ones they like, and use them in their After Effects projects. Furthermore, thanks to web technologies such as html5, CSS3, Java Script, and the like, the Internet has also become a playing ground for artists, designers, programmers, and practitioners to 6  The popularity of neo-calligraphy among artists and art consumers has its own explanations. For Muslim artists, neo-calligraphy provided a way to reinterpret a rather universally known Islamic (or in the case of the Arab or Iranian artists, a national) heritage in a modern artistic language, and thereby allowed them to claim their own identity within the language of modern art. From the audience’s perspective, these works are also interesting because neocalligraphy presents a familiar artistic heritage in a different setting. This interest is not limited only to an audience familiar with Islamic calligraphy; neo-calligraphy also seems to be appealing to Western art consumers, as they find it relevant to modern abstract art. On top of these considerations, we should not forget that the recent popularity of neo-calligraphy has also been partly fueled by the commercial success of calligraphic art in such auction houses as Bonhams, Sotheby’s, and Christie’s, which, as Eigner (2015) suggests, have increased the exposure and value of Arab and Iranian modern art. 7  Although screen media (in the form of the cinema screen) has been around for more than a century, the digital screen is a relatively new invention, which is constantly taking on different forms. In his book The language of new media, Lev Manovich (2001, pp. 95–103) provides a genealogy of screen media and categorizes three different stages in the development of screen technology: the classic screen, the dynamic screen, and the real-time screen. Anne Friedberg (2006) has added augmented space to Manovich’s genealogy as yet another stage of screen development. Aside from the first two types, the other two forms of screen media have been developed in the past few decades, and they have become omnipresent within perhaps only the past few years.

 INTRODUCTION 

5

create web-based animated text. While most examples of temporal typography that exist today are written in the Roman alphabet, there is an increasing tendency to develop animated typography in other traditions of writing including Arabic script. An increasing number of TV idents, film title sequences, film credits, and commercials nowadays contain Arabic typography that displays temporal behavior. For example, some of the TV idents on Al Jazeera channels feature Arabic typography that is animated. Although time-based calligraphic artworks and animated typography written in Arabic script are on the rise, the range of temporal behaviors displayed in these works is still very limited. Many of the videos and time-­ based artworks that are described today as animated Arabic calligraphy or temporal Arabic typography do not actually display any temporal behavior, but rather happen to exist in temporal space. In fact, in most existing examples of time-based calligraphic art and temporal Arabic typography, Arabic script and calligraphy is treated in the same way as it would be treated in static media and print.8 Meanwhile, in many other instances, only simple temporal events such as displacement, rotation, change in size or color, which are described in this book as “kinetic behaviors,” have been used to add movement to the otherwise static letters and words. In many such works, the dynamic capabilities that the temporal nature of time-based media offers have been largely neglected. Rarely in the existing examples of temporal Arabic typography or time-based calligraphic art may one observe more complex and varied types of movement or temporal behaviors. One of the reasons for this scarcity of more complex animated behaviors is probably the relative newness of explorations of Arabic script in screen-based media in comparison to such explorations in static media like painting, sculpture, or print. Calligraphers, artists, designers, and other practitioners have only recently started to widely consider the possibilities that time-based media offer for explorations of Arabic script. Certainly, further explorations will result in the development of more interesting and varied temporal behaviors. Another reason could be that designing, developing, and executing complex temporal behaviors are 8  For the sake of simplicity and clarity, the author distinguishes between media and materials in this book. The term “media” refers to the mode of artistic expression, such as painting, sculpture, animation, and so on, whereas the term “materials” refers to the means of artistic creation: for example, acrylic, watercolor, oil on canvas, and so on in the case of painting; bronze, clay, wood, and so on in the case of sculpture.

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normally ­time-­consuming processes, which was specifically the case during the analog period. But today, thanks to digital technologies and the availability of computer programs such as Adobe After Effects and Adobe Animate (previously known as Flash), which have significantly cut back on the efforts required to create temporal behaviors, these processes are no longer as time-consuming as before. In fact, recent examples of timebased calligraphic art and temporal typography suggest that artists and practitioners are showing growing interest in further exploring the possibilities of temporal text-based art. Perhaps a more important reason for the scarcity of examples of animated Arabic typography and time-based calligraphic art that feature complex temporal behaviors is the lack of theorization and a deficiency in adequate vocabulary and language through which artists and practitioners can envision, design, and describe their creations. Previous literature on temporal typography acknowledged the importance of theorization and categorization of time-based behaviors. Brownie (2015), for instance, emphasized that such categorization informs practitioners of the possibilities they would not normally consider, and thus encourages further exploration of practice. As she suggested, theorization of temporal behaviors provide practitioners, theorists, and commentators the terminology and language they need to design, describe, and analyze text-based temporal art. In her book Transforming type: New directions in kinetic typography, she thoroughly addressed the lack of accurate vocabulary to describe various time-based behaviors in temporal typography by identifying and proposing a taxonomy of temporal behaviors that can be seen in the existing examples of animated type (Brownie, 2015). While Brownie’s (2015) book and her proposed categorization perfectly describe the range of possible temporal events for animated type written in Roman script, her taxonomy seems inadequate to describe the range of temporal behaviors that Arabic script can display in time-based media. Although Roman and Arabic systems of writing share a number of features (for example, both scripts are dependent on alphabetical symbols), they are completely different entities not only in terms of morphology,9 glyph anatomy, and visual structure, but also with regard to 9  According to the Online Oxford English Dictionary (Oxford University Press, n.d., http://www.oed.com/ [accessed August 27, 2018]), morphology in the linguistic context refers to “[t]he structure, form, or variation in form (including formation, change, and inflection) of a word or words in a language.” Although the term is not commonly used in

 INTRODUCTION 

7

their cultural attributes. Aside from being written from right to left, Arabic script is different from the Roman system of writing in that most letters in it are contextual letterforms. This is because in Arabic script letters mostly do physically connect to each other to construct a word; therefore, each individual letter may take up to four different shapes depending on its place within a word. This quality should not be confused with cursive writing, as in for example certain styles of writing English, in which letterforms are written joined together to make writing faster without any significant changes in the shape of the letterforms. In fact, both written and printed Arabic are cursive, which means that in Arabic script this joining quality is an inherent aspect of the script’s morphology and not a visual quality of a certain style of writing (Nemeth, 2017). Second, unlike Roman system of writing in which individual letters fit into rectangular blocks of almost equal sizes, the letters of the Arabic alphabet (especially in calligraphy) have varied sizes and thus do not easily fit into rectangular blocks.10 These and other calligraphic qualities of the Arabic alphabet were some of the obstacles when adopting its alphabet to mechanical or digital print.11 This innate difference between the two systems of writing ­indicates the literature on typography, Nemeth (2017, p. 15) borrows it from linguistics to describe “the rule-based characteristics of word formation, letter variation, and vocalization found in the Arabic script.” 10  In Arabic for designers: An inspirational guide to Arabic culture and creativity, aside from these three differences between the two scripts, Boutros (2017, pp. 44, 45) identifies five other discrepancies, including lack of upper case in Arabic, differences in the positioning and function of the baselines, and differences in ascenders and descenders. 11  Printing press and typography arrived, were accepted, and were developed in the Islamic world rather late (Balius, 2013, p. 74). This lateness could be attributed to two main considerations. First, early printed manuscripts could not compete with the beauty of a skillfully inscribed and written calligraphic text, with all its exuberant nuances. For instance, in Arabic writing, letters physically connect to each other to create words, and can take different shapes according to their place within a word. So, “a master of calligraphy would teach his pupils various ways of connecting the letter to others,” as the Iranian artist Reza Abedini explains to Dana Bartelt (2006, p.  81). Therefore, a calligrapher is not only concerned with the shapes of single letters, but also the ways in which they connect to each other. Clearly, owing to the limitations of the printing technology being used, these delicate nuances are to a large degree disturbed in print and typography. In fact, one of the main challenges of designers today is to develop typography that, while meeting the requirements of the print and digital layout, also respects the splendor of Islamic calligraphy. Second, “the close link between religion and writing (calligraphy script) is a major reason for understanding the delay in the introduction of the printing press in the Islamic countries” (Balius, 2013, p.  75). In the sixteenth century the Venetian publisher Paganino Paganini and his son Alessandro made a printed Qur’an to profit from selling it in Ottoman Istanbul. However, having failed to take

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that the temporal events that are appropriate for Roman characters may not readily suit Arabic script. Additionally, given the increasing interest in creating and consuming temporal Arabic typography and calligraphic time-based art, and considering that Arabic script is the third most widely used system of writing by the population of users, there seems to be the need for theorizing and categorizing temporal behaviors that suit the specificities of Arabic script. In the field of temporal typography, there is a noticeable lack of such theorizations and categorizations that address the specificities of Arabic script. In addition to this marked lack of systematic studies on animated Arabic typography from the side of scholars in the field of temporal typography, there is a paucity of research on time-based calligraphic art written in Arabic script in disciplines such as animation studies and contemporary art of the Islamic world. While explorations of Islamic calligraphy in static media, such as painting, sculpture, and graphic design, have received considerable scholarly attention (Ali, 1997; Boutros, 2017; Jafari, 2012; Mehrnegar, 2014; Shabout, 2007; Smitshuijzen AbiFares, 2001), there is still a research gap concerning explorations of Arabic script and Islamic calligraphy in animation and similar time-based media that adequately address the possibilities and consequences of temporal behavior.12

into consideration possible opposition to a printed Qur’an in the Muslim world, they did not sell it successfully (Carboni, 2007, p.  317). Aside from the errors in its text, the printed Qur’an, unlike one that is inscribed by the hand of a skillful calligrapher, was not accepted because it was believed not to be sacred, as it missed its link to the Divine (Marks, 2010a, p. 230). So, as Osborn (2008) asserts, Arabic typography and Islamic calligraphy are historically two “different modes of textuality” (p. 217). For more information on the obstacles of adopting Arabic script to print see Smitshuijzen Abifares (2001), Nemeth (2017), and Boutros (2017). 12  Similar studies have been done on the behavior of Roman typography in time-based media. These studies try to establish principles for the efficiency of meaning-making in screen typography (Kenna, 2012; van Leeuwen & Djonov, 2015), survey new and innovative ways of dealing with text in screen media (Bellantoni & Woolman, 2000), or examine various temporal behaviors and the consequences of adding motion to type (Brownie, 2012a, 2012b; Hillner, 2005, 2006, 2009; Kac, 1995). Although calligraphy and typography, and Arabic and Roman scripts are different, they share similarities (for example, in the case of the scripts, they are both linguistic signs), and such studies come to inform this research. Similar scholarly research can be found on the Chinese tradition of calligraphy. Zhi-Ming Su’s (2010) doctoral thesis, for instance, explored how the gestural movement of Chinese calligraphy can inform animation.

 INTRODUCTION 

9

The primary goal of this book is, therefore, to identify, devise, and categorize temporal behaviors that suit the specificities of Arabic script and theorize the influences of those behaviors on legibility and readability of temporal Arabic text-based art. Through various case studies presented in these pages, the book also touches on different artistic or design possibilities that arise as a result of the temporal behaviors and their effects on legibility and readability of animated text. Studies on this topic, such as the current book, can have a number of benefits at this particular time, when time-based calligraphic artworks are likely to become mainstream and animated Arabic type seems to be on the brink of flourishing. First, such studies enhance understanding and appreciation of time-based calligraphic artworks for the wider audience and critics. At the same time, they provide new insights for practicing temporal Arabic type and exploring Islamic calligraphy in time-based art. From another perspective, such studies offer new ways of thinking, understanding, and investigating calligraphic (or text-based) temporal artworks for scholars of such diverse fields as in animation studies, contemporary art of the Islamic world, temporal typography, and the like. In addition, the typology of temporal behaviors presented in this book can be useful to web designers, User Interface (UI), and User Experience (UX) designers, and computer programmers. Today, these practitioners routinely design and create text that displays temporal behavior using various computer software (such as After Effects, Flash/ Animate, Microsoft PowerPoint, etc.), plug-ins (such as Font Manager), and programming languages and tools (such as Processing, CSS3, and Java Script). Studies such as this book inform the work of these practitioners too. Nowadays, computer programmers also develop software, tools, and plug-­ins that can facilitate the process of creating temporal typography. While these computer programs and plug-ins offer useful tools that enhance the process of creating temporal type, they usually treat different scripts (Roman, Chinese, Arabic, etc.) in the same way, and apply the same temporal events to text written in these different scripts. As argued before, a script such as Arabic is different from the Roman system of writing in its morphology, glyph anatomy, and visual structure. Therefore, the typology of temporal behaviors proposed here can come to inform not only the design of text-based art and temporal typography but also the development of such computer programs, tools, and plug-ins.

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Proto-Animated Qualities of Arabic Script and Islamic Calligraphy One of the obstacles in studying temporal behaviors of Arabic script is the lack of suitable examples that feature varied types of temporal events. As mentioned earlier, many of the existing examples of temporal typography and time-based calligraphic art do not display any temporal behavior or only feature simple kinetic behaviors: for example, a word, phrase, or sentence that just moves on the screen, rotates, or changes size. Indeed, the range of temporal behaviors used in the existing examples of animated Arabic type or time-based calligraphic art is still limited. Therefore, unlike similar studies on temporal Roman typography that could choose from a wide range of examples, the current study could not exclusively rely on the existing examples of temporal Arabic typography and calligraphic time-­ based art. As a result, aside from examining the existing examples of Arabic script in motion, the author had to develop further examples that could explain the range of behaviors presented in this book. Owing to this lack of suitable examples of temporal Arabic typography and time-based calligraphic art, and in order to devise a typology of temporal behaviors that suit the specificities of Arabic script, the author started theorization by examining the specificities of Arabic script and Islamic calligraphy. Therefore, the point of departure here and the basis of categorization presented in the following chapters are some of the qualities of Islamic calligraphy and Arabic script sometimes described as “proto-animated.” Looking at various specimens of Islamic calligraphy, as well as different pieces of calligraphic art, one would find it difficult not to feel a sense of dynamism and not to be inspired by the movement and rhythm that they invoke. Indeed, various pages of Islamic calligraphy and pieces of calligraphic art possess a life force: they appear to be animated, not in literal terms but in essence. Many specimens of traditional Islamic calligraphy and contemporary calligraphic art seem to be imbued with the desire to become animated. Although these works are not time-based, and letters and words do not literally move on them, they are “proto-animated,”13 as 13  Although the terms “proto-animated” and “proto-animation” are usually used to refer to pre-cinematic toys such as the zoetrope or flipbook (Ledesma, 2012; Tohline, 2015), in the context of this book these words have a different meaning. This book borrowed these two terms from Marks (2011), who used them in her article “Calligraphic animation: Documenting the invisible” to refer to those qualities of Islamic calligraphy in some calligraphic artworks that renders them as animated and moving in spite of being static images.

 INTRODUCTION 

11

Laura Marks (2011) comments in her pioneering study of Islamic calligraphy in animation: Calligraphic artworks are animated in a strong sense of the word: they do not depict living forms but instead they embody the movement of life itself. Although they do not move, the letters of calligraphy are already alive: they constitute a proto-animation. (p. 312)

In her article “Calligraphic Animation: Documenting the invisible”, Marks (2011) identifies one of these proto-animated qualities of Islamic calligraphy, namely the transformative quality, which can be observed in those specimens of Islamic calligraphy where letters and words seem to oscillate between being text and image. Although, she does not elaborate on the nature of text-image oscillations and does not detail how such transformations may occur in animation, she implies that this proto-­ animated quality can inform calligraphic animation. In this book, the author develops Marks’ argument, extending the range of proto-animated qualities of Arabic script and Islamic calligraphy to include the kinesthetic, the plasmatic, the transformative, and the meta-transformative. Many writers have acknowledged that various specimens of Islamic calligraphy imply movement and rhythm (Blair, 2006; Kermaninejad, 2013; Khatibi & Sijelmassi, 1995; Schimmel, 1990; Shay, 1998, 1999); rightfully so, since different pages of Islamic calligraphy invoke a dynamic and kinesthetic sense.14 On top of this, Arabic letters in Islamic calligraphy shift shape according to their context; they seem to be malleable, not only because they most often physically connect to each other to construct words, but also because of the aesthetic decisions made by calligraphers. In this sense, Arabic script in Islamic calligraphy is “plasmatic”—a term borrowed from Sergei Eisenstein (1986), the renowned Russian film director and theorist during the 1930s–1940s, who used it to describe the So, in the context of this book, the terms proto-animated/proto-animation refer to a static image which has a quality of aliveness or invokes a feeling of movement. 14  The term “kinesthetic,” has been previously used in relation to the sense of motion induced by the brushstrokes of Chinese calligraphy (Gerdes, 2010). The term is also used in the fields of dance study and performance study to refer to the performers’ awareness of the movements of the parts of their bodies through sensory perceptions in the muscles and joints: see Dickinson (2014) and Ehrenberg (2015), for instance. Hence, this term is being used in this book to emphasize the dance-like quality of calligraphic forms and compositions.

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shape-shifting qualities of the animated line in the early films of Walt Disney Studios. Moreover, letters and words in many specimens of Islamic calligraphy, as well as calligraphic artworks, seem to be on the verge of transformation into something other than text. In these works, the letters and words seemingly dream of becoming and transforming (Marks, 2010a, 2010b, 2011). Close observation of such specimens with suggested transformation reveals two distinct type of transformative behavior: the transformation of the identity and transformation of the function of letters and words. The former is described in this volume as the transformative quality, while the latter is called the meta-transformative quality. These kinesthetic, plasmatic, transformative, and meta-transformative qualities of Arabic script and Islamic calligraphy constitute proto-animation, indeed. Visual time-based media (such as animation) are ideal media for the exploration and manifestation of these proto-animated qualities in Islamic calligraphy, as Marks (2011) postulated. Animation and similar time-based media, as experiential forms that unfold to the viewer over time, possess unique dynamic capabilities that make them privileged media and platforms to explore these qualities of Islamic calligraphy and Arabic script. In turn, as described here, these proto-animated qualities (i.e. the feeling that calligraphic forms are alive and seemingly animated) can inform temporal behaviors of Arabic written forms in temporal typography and time-based calligraphic artworks. It is argued in this book that the aforementioned proto-animated qualities of Islamic calligraphy can come to inform the design of temporal behaviors for Arabic script in time-based media. Through examination of these qualities and their manifestation in calligraphic art in static media, the author explores, develops, and theorizes five broad categories of temporal behaviors that better suit the specificities of Arabic script. These five broad categories are kinetic, kinesthetic, plasmatic, transformative, and meta-transformative behaviors. Paramount to this discussion is to understand that these different types of temporal behaviors enumerated in the following chapters are not mutually exclusive. They can happen simultaneously; yet, for the sake of studying and understanding, they are being examined separately in this volume. This helps us to contemplate the possibilities of each temporal behavior, and simplifies explanation of different temporal text-based artifacts through distinct terminology. Each one of the following chapters, therefore, is focused on one of the five broad categories of temporal behavior. Aside from Chap. 2 (which deals with simple temporal behaviors such as displacement, rotation, scale, change in color, etc.), each one of the other

 INTRODUCTION 

13

chapters starts by examining one of the proto-animated qualities of Islamic calligraphy or Arabic script. Then, the chapter continues by exploring the temporal behaviors that can be derived from the proto-animated quality in question. Eventually, the issues of legibility and readability with regard to the type of temporal behaviors introduced in each chapter will be investigated. The issue of legibility and readability has received much attention in academic texts on kinetic Roman typography in recent years (Brownie, 2012a, 2015; Hillner, 2006), but little has been written on this when it comes to temporal Arabic text-based art. Since the majority of the examples given in this book are time-based artifacts (animation, videos, motion graphics, etc.), a website that accompanies this book contains videos of the examples mentioned in each chapter (see www.animatedcalligraphy.com). These videos are arranged in a chapter-by-chapter order on the website. In addition to these videos, other examples of temporal text-based art have also been included. The website will be updated and will grow as new related examples and artifacts emerge to accommodate new innovations in the field. A certain part of the website is dedicated to works that are submitted voluntarily by readers of this book and other practitioners, so everyone can contribute to the development of this growing database of temporal Arabic text-based artifacts.

Definitions and Notes It is essential to clarify the definitions of some of the terminology used in this book and also comment on some aspects of the work that require further clarifications. First, since the term “Islamic calligraphy” is recurrently used in what follows it should be defined from the very beginning. Unfortunately, the term, which is typically used as a description for different examples of Arabic script (especially the ones created during the Islamic age), is confusing and prone to misinterpretation. As several writers have noted, the term seems to be of Western origin and is not widely embraced by calligraphers in Islamic lands, where the term “khat ̣t ̣” is generally preferred (Serikoff, 2007, p. 9).15 “Islamic,” as an adjective, brings 15  Khaṭt,̣ in Arabic, literally means “line,” “track,” “path,” or “trace” as a noun, and “to outline” or “to mark out” as a verb. Detailed discussions of the meaning of this word and its etymology can be found in Blair (2006, p. XXV), Shabout (2007, p. 64), and Marks (2010a, p. 199).

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to mind a relation to the religion and faith professed by Muslims around the world. However, in the context of this book, the word “Islamic” in the term “Islamic calligraphy” does not refer to the religion of Islam, nor does “Islamic calligraphy” denote only written works of a religious nature. In fact, in this volume the term simply refers to calligraphy written in Arabic script, considering that the Arabic alphabet has been adopted by many other languages, including Persian, Ottoman Turkish (before 1928), Kurdish, Urdu, Malay, and others. Therefore, the term “Islamic calligraphy” could actually be replaced with “Arabic calligraphy.” However, in order to avoid confusions between script and language, and to emphasize that what is discussed here is not confined to one language, the term “Islamic calligraphy” is preferred. “Calligraphy” is also a word that needs to be clarified in this context. Having a Greek origin, it was initially used in reference to an elegant style of writing and only later came to denote the beauty of writing with regard to its appearance (Serikoff, 2007, p. 9). Generally, it implies writing that is supplemented with an aesthetic quality. Several scholars (Grabar, 1992; Shabout, 2007) have pointed out that calligraphy is too general a term to properly describe the artistic or aesthetic qualities of the art of Islamic penmanship. Shabout (2007, p.  63), for example, argues that applying the same term (i.e. “calligraphy”) to different traditions of writing such as Arabic, Roman, and Chinese is indeed problematic. While these different traditions have similarities, they clearly have fundamental discrepancies in terms of their morphology and cultural attributes.16 Despite this fact, for the sake of simplicity and to comply with the existing literature, the book sticks to the term “calligraphy”; however, it reemphasizes that such terms as this may have slightly different connotations in various cultures. The term “Islamic calligraphy” as used throughout this work, therefore, refers to writings in Arabic script that are written according to the aesthetic rules established during the Islamic age. It is important to mention that this book distinguishes between calligraphy and typography as two related but distinct text-based art forms or modes of textual representation. Previous literature on Arabic typography tends to differentiate between the two by focusing on the mode of production. Boutros (2017) and Smitshuijzen AbiFares (2001), for instance, consider any manual production as calligraphy and all machine-made 16  It is not in the scope of this book to further elaborate on the differences between Arabic and Roman scripts. For more information on such differences, see Blair (2006), Osborn (2017), Nemeth (2017), Boutros (2017), and Blankenship (2003).

 INTRODUCTION 

15

­ roductions (both mechanical and digital) as typography.17 This volume p follows the same definition, but adds that in reality the boundaries between the two modes in contemporary digital culture are relatively blurry. Today, as we will see in the Chap. 7, calligraphers use cutting-edge digital technologies such as virtual reality head mounted displays and hand controllers to execute calligraphic artworks; while graphic designers may use manual techniques to create what they call typography. In fact, increasingly the boundaries between Islamic calligraphy and Arabic typography blur in certain designs or works of arts. Nevertheless, throughout this book as a rule of thumb, calligraphy is considered a manual practice; that is, one representing a text by manually inscribing or drawing it. Typography, on the other hand, implies a text that has been produced by employing a previously designed typeface through a mechanical or digital process. Having said that, it should be stressed that the temporal behaviors introduced and discussed in the following chapters apply to both temporal typography and time-based calligraphic art. Another term that recurs throughout the chapters that follow is “neo-­ calligraphy,” and its definition shall be further clarified. As previously explained, in the last six decades artists have extended Islamic calligraphy beyond its traditional setting, exploring it with new approaches in style, design, content, and media. In fact, within the past 60 years new and innovative approaches in practicing Islamic calligraphy and in experimenting with it in other media have become widespread. Starting as early as the 1950s, a number of artists experimented with Arabic script in their paintings, unaware of each other’s experimentation. Such experiments gained momentum and became a full-fledged trend in the 1960s and 1970s, when an increasing number of artists in Arab and non-Arab countries employed Arabic script and Islamic calligraphy in their artistic compositions. The trend reached its peak during the 1970s and 1980s, to the extent that it was difficult to find an artist who had not experimented with Arabic letters and Islamic calligraphy at the time, as Shabout (2007) pos An alternative way of looking at the distinction between the two is proposed by Nemeth (2017), who sees all the various modes of representing Arabic script on a continuum of writing. On one side of this spectrum, he explains, exists mundane casual handwriting, whereas on its other ends is calligraphic art with all its artistry. Arabic typography, he argues, occupies the middle ground of this wide spectrum, aiming to communicate but still concerned with aesthetic quality. Calligraphy, in his formation, is primarily concerned with visual effect, and therefore rests closer to calligraphic art on the spectrum. 17

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tulates. Today, many artists implement Arabic script in the composition of their works, sometimes drawing upon various traditions of Islamic calligraphy. As a matter of fact, experimenting with Arabic script and Islamic calligraphy in new and innovative ways and across different media has become a trend in the art of the Islamic world during and after the 1970s and 1980s. These innovative treatments of Islamic calligraphy have been received well by museums, art galleries, and the general population. Exhibitions of neo-calligraphic art are recurrently held in the Middle East, Europe, the United States, and other corners of the world. Neo-calligraphy has also found its way into popular culture and seeped from galleries and museums to the streets and urban life. It is not unusual to find neo-­ calligraphic sculptures or murals across the cities in West Asia, North Africa, and some other countries. Many of the artworks that belong to this new trend are usually known as Hurufiya in the Arab world,18 which literally means “letterism.” This term is, however, problematic to some scholars, and as Blair (2006) puts it, “writers and critics are still searching to define this new calligraphic art” (p.  589). The Jordanian artist and scholar Wijdan Ali (1997) finds this term “inadequate and inelegant” and proposes the designation “calligraphic school of art,” which implies that traditional Islamic calligraphy has been the foundation of these works. In addition to Wijdan Ali, the Iranian scholar Hamid Keshmirshekan (2013) has suggested the term “neo-calligraphy” in reference to these artworks,19 and the trend more generally.20 The latter term is used throughout this book, as it is easier to use and is broad enough to include all kinds of experiments with Arabic 18  The trend has other names in other places. In Iran, for instance, it is usually called naqqāshı̄-khat (Keshmirshekan, 2009). 19  Keshmirshekan (2013) defines neo-calligraphy as “a modern approach to calligraphy” (p. 132). He originally used the term in relation to some of the works of artists from the Iranian Saqqa-khāneh movement, as well as calligraphic arts by Iranian artists that deviate from traditional calligraphy in one way or another. However, in a personal communication, he explained that he would “certainly use the term neo-calligraphy for various kinds of approaches toward Arabic-Persian scripts/calligraphic forms, insofar as they distance themselves from classical calligraphy” (H.  Keshmirshekan, personal communication, 2015, February 24, Email). 20  There are also other terms that have been used by different scholars in reference to neocalligraphic works. Sheila Blair (2006) prefers to stick to a general term and calls such works “calligraphic art,” while in their book The splendour of Islamic calligraphy, Khatibi and Sijelmassi (1995) deploy the term “calligraphy-inspired” works. In Iran, works such as these are most often called naqqāshı̄-khat (Keshmirshekan, 2009).

 INTRODUCTION 

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script that deviate from traditional Islamic calligraphy in one way or another. Therefore, neo-calligraphy, in the context of this work, refers to calligraphic artworks that distance themselves from traditional Islamic calligraphy (and are created after 1950).21 Neo-calligraphy usually deviates from traditional calligraphy in a number of different ways. First, unlike classical Islamic calligraphy (which is rendered through exclusively traditional tools, particularly the reed pen), in neo-calligraphy there is a tendency to use other media and materials, such as acrylic, oil, watercolor, and so forth. Second, neo-calligraphy is different from traditional calligraphy in its flexibility with regard to the established rules of calligraphy. To understand this, it is essential to consider that traditional calligraphy is ruled by strict regulations and principles and the mastery of a traditional calligrapher is indicated by his excellence of technique in accordance with these principles. In this way, a calligrapher is not expected to change the traditional procedures and order of calligraphy. To an established calligrapher, respect for the laws of his trade is just as important as respect for religious principles. (Keshmirshekan, 2013, p. 129)

Hence, as Keshmirshekan (2013) adds, the traditional calligrapher “is more interested in elaborating the art of calligraphy than fundamentally changing it; in softening its edges rather than carving new angles” (p. 129). This is not the case in neo-calligraphy, where there is a tendency for innovation. In fact, in these works, artists usually deliberately depart from traditional conventions of calligraphy by fundamentally changing calligraphic forms or creating completely new compositions (even if that makes the calligraphy totally illegible). This observation leads us to another way in which neo-calligraphy diverges from traditional calligraphy. Blair (2006) succinctly explains that in neo-calligraphy, unlike traditional calligraphy, “the message is [most often] subservient to the formal qualities of the work of art” (p. 611). Traditional calligraphy usually emphasizes render-

21  So, this definition is actually from Keshmirshekan (2013). Others have defined neo-calligraphy (or whatever terms they use to refer to these works) in quite different ways. Daghir (1990), for instance, defines Hurufiya “based on two principles. The first entails a complete break with the styles of traditional Arabic script, letters being viewed as plastic elements. The second principle involves the construction of a modern work of art capable of expressing a cultural particularity” (as cited in Shabout, 2007, p. 90).

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ing a text clearly and is largely concerned with its legibility.22 However, neo-calligraphic works tend to be more concerned with the visual qualities of the work than the clarity of their semantic content. Neo-calligraphic works are extremely diverse in terms of their themes, subject matter, and styles. Wijdan Ali (1997) categorizes calligraphic artworks based on their themes and subject matter, as well as their styles. Her typology is enough to reveal the diversity of themes and styles employed by artists. According to her, neo-calligraphy includes works with both religious and secular themes. The religious theme communicates a spiritual or moral message, she writes, while the theme of secular works might be “sociopolitical,” “literary,” or even purely “decorative” (Ali, 1997, pp.  160–165). The styles of neo-calligraphic artworks are even more diverse, according to Wijdan Ali (1997, pp. 165–184). She distinguishes several categories and sub-categories in calligraphic art based on their style and their treatment of the calligraphic forms. These categories range from neo-calligraphic works in which the traditional rules are strictly followed to such works in which calligraphy becomes purely abstract images without even being legible.23 Aside from this diversity in themes and styles, the material and media used in neo-calligraphic art is also varied, and its range is expanding as more artists join its ranks. Although neo-calligraphic artworks are mostly executed in such media as painting and sculpture, new experiments with Islamic calligraphy in other media and material emerge every so often, as more and more artists experiment with the script in inventive and original ways. Today, one can find experiments with the script in photography (the so-called light-calligraphy), textile (and fashion design), graphic design, and many other art forms and media. Aside from these definitions, there are a number of points that need to be highlighted. It should be emphasized that the typology of temporal behaviors presented in this book and the issues discussed can largely be adapted and extended to many visual time-based media (such as anima22  Not to mention that there are many examples of traditional calligraphy in which less emphasis is placed on the readability of the rendition. For instance, one can think of a practice sheet of Sı̄yāh-mashq (meaning, literally in Persian, “black-exercise”) in which the semantic meaning is secondary to the formal representation of calligraphy. Despite this, it can be argued that in traditional calligraphy, usually there is a tendency to give more currency to the clarity and legibility of the work. 23  See Wijdan Ali (1993, 1997) and Shabout (2007) for more information on Wijdan Ali’s typology. Other typologies of neo-calligraphy are proposed by other scholars, such as Khatibi and Sijelmassi (1995) and Daghir (1990).

 INTRODUCTION 

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tion, motion graphics, video art, installation, and performance, among others). In other words, the issues discussed in the following pages are not technique-based or dependent on a specific style or technology, and are pertinent across a range of visual time-based media. This, in turn, signals the vast range of art and design possibilities that can potentially come out of the theories presented here. One of the side objectives of this publication is to highlight some of these artistic and design opportunities. For this reason, the objets d’art that have been chosen as examples across the chapters explores the ideas and theories described in the book beyond the conventional form of an animated film. The objective here in showcasing this diverse range of artworks was to illustrate that the typology and theories presented can be adapted not only to temporal typography and animation but also to other forms of time-based calligraphic arts. Meanwhile, claiming that the issues discussed here are generally extendable to time-­ based arts, it should be supplemented that issues of interactivity and sound are not a concern in the discussions and are clearly out of the scope of the present work. Thus, the examples mentioned rarely include an interactive artwork, and in the rare cases that such examples are used, the focus of the argument is not directed to the interactive aspect of the pieces. Another point that needs clarification is the idea behind choosing certain examples of Islamic calligraphy and neo-calligraphy to help explain certain issues in each chapter. Being well-established art forms, the range of available examples in both traditional calligraphy and neo-calligraphy are almost unlimited. It is equally important to highlight that experiments with Islamic calligraphy today are neither limited to the heartlands of Islam nor made by people of a certain faith or certain nationalities. In fact, the artists producing such works are now spread over the globe and can be found in places such as London, Paris, New York, and Tokyo, to name but a few. On top of this, it is worthwhile underlining the range of languages in which these works are produced. In fact, the Arabic alphabet and its modified versions is used in a number of languages other than Arabic, including Persian, Turkish (albeit before 1928), Urdu, Pashto, and more. That said, it is essential to explain that the approach in choosing examples (especially those of neo-calligraphic works) was selective rather than exhaustive. I used examples that I thought would make more sense within the specific context of each chapter and might better explain the thoughts and ideas discussed. It can be observed that most of the examples are the works of Iranian artists, and are written in the Persian language (Farsi) and

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in the styles of nastaʿlı̄q or shikastih.24 This trend was established because I could more easily access artworks made by these artists and also because, in understanding these works, language barriers were not an obstacle for me. Likewise, the choice of calligraphic style was a personal aesthetic preference. Nevertheless, none of these features of the research affects the research findings, as the issues discussed are not language- or style-based. It needs no reemphasis to clarify that this book focuses exclusively on temporal typography and time-based calligraphic art written in Arabic script (the system of writing used not only by Arabic language but other languages such as Farsi). Thus, other systems of writing and calligraphy traditions such as East Asian and Roman scripts have not been included in this study. While these systems of writings and traditions of calligraphy have similarities, they are fundamentally different in their morphology, glyph anatomy, cultural attributes, and so on. Therefore, some of the temporal behaviors proposed in this volume do not readily apply to those systems of writing. A further point is that in writing this book it was assumed that its readers are mainly artists, practitioners, and scholars from the fields of temporal typography, animation studies, and contemporary Islamic art (although it could also be of interest to anyone interested in text-based art in general). Hence, this volume was written with these three different audiences in mind. Nonetheless, it is expected that readers will have a slight familiarity with animation, Arabic script, and Islamic calligraphy. For example, the reader should at least be familiar with the shapes of verbal units in Arabic script. In other words, s/he should be able to distinguish that what is being depicted is a form of writing and that it is in Arabic script. However, the reader does not need to read Arabic script to understand the book. Where there is a need for deeper understanding of the script, the issues are explained in simple and clear terms, particularly for those readers who come from the time-based arts background and are not very familiar with Islamic calligraphy and Arabic script. Similarly, concerning time-based media and temporal typography, the convenience of those readers unfamiliar with the issues and terminology of the field has been considered, and the author has tried to simplify and elaborate as much as possible. It should also be explained that the author studied the calligraphic artworks (whether specimens of calligraphy, neo-calligraphy or examples of time-based calligraphic art) from the viewpoint of a con24  Nastaʿliq and shikastih are two scripts (or styles of calligraphy) that are widely used in Iran, Pakistan, and part of India.

 INTRODUCTION 

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temporary viewer who can not only read the language but also has a knowledge of the cultural attributes of Islamic calligraphy. These artworks were therefore not examined from the standpoint of a non-reader of the language, nor does the author consider how these artworks would be understood at another time (for example, the earlier centuries of Islam or in a far future). Finally, a clear caveat should be inserted here that some of the cultural concepts introduced in what follows are not universal and are not known or accepted by all Muslims. For instance, some of the concepts related to mystical interpretation of letters and words in mysticism and Sufism, mentioned in Chap. 6, are not accepted by and are not of interest to all Muslims. Saying this, it should be emphasized that the purpose of this book is to talk about possibilities rather than explaining how these artworks are understood within a specific culture.

Chapters Overview The Introduction has so far provided a brief background to the topic of this book, introduced its main goal, and furthermore reflected on the significance of a theory of temporal behaviors for Arabic script in time-based media. Starting from Chap. 2, each one of the following chapters is focused on one of the five broad categories of temporal events proposed in this typology. Chapter 2 starts by differentiating between artifacts in which calligraphic forms do not display any kind of temporal behavior and those that undergo kinetic events. In this chapter, kinetic behaviors, as the simplest form of temporal events, are introduced. It is explained that in kinetic behaviors, while verbal units may undergo movement or change, their shapes remain intact. A few examples of time-based calligraphic art in which words and phrases display kinetic behaviors are presented. In this chapter the differences between static and kinetic compositions are also explained. Finally, the issue of legibility and readability with regard to kinetic behaviors is discussed. Chapter 3 explores the kinesthetic qualities of Islamic calligraphy in visual time-based media. The chapter explains that Islamic calligraphy in various forms and styles invokes a feeling of dynamism and a kinesthetic sense. Then, different elements responsible for this dynamic sense in traditional calligraphy and in neo-calligraphy are studied. It shows that this kinesthetic quality is created, to a large extent, by the treatment of the calligraphic line and also the rhythmic arrangement of calligraphic forms within the composition. It is argued that because of its qualities the calli-

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graphic line of Islamic calligraphy is imbued with kinesthetic energy along its trajectory. Visual time-based media and especially animation are, it argues, ideal media for exploration of these kinesthetic energies of Islamic calligraphy. Informed by these kinesthetic qualities of Islamic calligraphy, Chap. 3 introduces a broad category of temporal events called kinesthetic behaviors and explores different types of temporal behaviors that calligraphic forms may exhibit in this category. Chapter 3 then continues by explaining a kind of dynamic composition in which the sense of dynamism is informed by the rhythmic arrangement of calligraphic forms within the spatiotemporal composition. The chapter concludes by reviewing how kinesthetic behaviors influence legibility and readability of temporal text. The focus of Chap. 4 is on the plasmatic qualities of Arabic script and Islamic calligraphy. It is explained in this chapter that because of the script’s innate qualities, Arabic letters and glyphs change shape constantly: they shift shape according to their context. In addition, it is mentioned that the calligraphic line in Islamic calligraphy seems to be malleable. In fact, different examples of traditional calligraphy and neo-calligraphy render calligraphic forms as elastoplastic elements that can shift shape. These plasmatic qualities, as argued in this chapter, inspire a category of temporal events that is known in this book as plasmatic behaviors. In plasmatic behaviors, the shape of letters and glyphs may change but their identity and essence are preserved. So, although their shapes change, they still remain and can be recognized as the same verbal units. Similarly to the previous chapter, Chap. 4 ends with a discussion of how plasmatic behaviors may affect legibility and readability. In Chap. 5, the focus is on the transformative qualities of Islamic calligraphy. It explores through theory and praxis the situation in which calligraphic forms change shape so extremely that they completely lose their initial verbal (calligraphic) identity. The chapter begins by examining some historical examples of calligraphic art, explaining how letters and words seem to desire to transform and become something other than text in many specimens of Islamic calligraphy. It then explains that in neo-­ calligraphy this transformation is completed, and that, here, calligraphic elements have utterly transformed into other things (such as abstract forms) in many examples of neo-calligraphic art. The focus of Chap. 5, then, shifts toward temporal text-based art. It explores how these transformative qualities of Islamic calligraphy may be manifested in visual time-­ based media. It is depicted in this chapter that calligraphic forms that are in transformation change identity. Indeed, forms in time-based calligraphic

 INTRODUCTION 

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art and animated typography may oscillate between having verbal, abstract, and representational identities. In such a situation, where the identity of calligraphic forms shifts over time, calligraphic forms reach the so-called state of “flux.” Two conceptual frameworks for exploring and understanding the behavior of calligraphic forms in the state of flux are proposed in Chap. 5. Drawing upon scholarly works on Roman temporal typography, different categories of temporal behavior that may lead to transformation of identity in temporal text-based art are explored: metamorphosis, (de)construction, and revelation. Finally, the issue of legibility as a consequence of temporal behavior and shift in identity is explored. The legibility of calligraphic forms may fluctuate in a time-based calligraphic artwork that is in flux, the chapter explains, exploring also how fluctuating legibility affects meaning-making. Chapter 6 focuses on another transformative scenario in which the transformation is not necessarily the result of a change in the shape of calligraphic forms, but is rather the consequence of a shift in the function of calligraphy. This kind of transformative quality that can be observed in many specimens of Islamic calligraphy and neo-calligraphy is called meta-­ transformation, as explained in Chap. 6. At the beginning of this chapter, by providing examples from traditional Islamic calligraphy, it is explained how a specimen of calligraphy may transform into an image without a change in the identity of its calligraphic forms. Moreover, this chapter inspects such cases in which the meaning of glyphs, letters, and words transforms and becomes loaded with metaphoric and symbolic meanings. In this case, they actually become much more than glyphs, letters, and words. It is argued that in both of these cases, it is in fact the function of calligraphy (i.e. the role of calligraphy or the purpose for which calligraphy is used in an artwork) that transforms. Chapter 6 then examines three major functions of calligraphic forms in calligraphic art. These functions are what this book describes as “aesthetic,” “semantic,” and “hermeneutic.” It is argued that in many calligraphic artworks there is a tension between these three (or at least two of these three) functions of calligraphy, and that time-based calligraphic art can unleash this tension over time. This chapter extends the definition of the state of flux by including not only forms that change identity over time, but also calligraphic forms that shift function over time. A conceptual framework is also proposed in this chapter for understanding and exploring the shift in the function of calligraphy in visual temporal arts. Drawing upon Herbert Zettl’s (2011) categories of principal motion in moving images and by providing differ-

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ent practical examples, Chap. 6 proposes a general category of temporal events that may lead to a shift in the function of calligraphy in animation. At the end of this chapter, issues of legibility and readability are revisited as one of the consequences of the shift in the function of calligraphy over time. Finally, the book concludes in Chap. 7 by presenting a summary of the proposed typology of temporal behaviors for Arabic script in temporal text-based art. In addition, potential further applications of the proposed typology and terminology are briefly sketched. By enumerating some of the most recent developments in using technologies and platforms (such as Google TiltBrush, AnimVR, Quill, and Processing) in exploration of temporal Arabic text-based art, the volume provides some recommendations for future practice and research on the topic.

References About the Jameel Prize. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/ exhibitions/exhibition-jameel-prize/jameel-prize/ Ali, W. (1993). A survey of modern painting in the Islamic world and the development of the contemporary calligraphic school. Doctoral dissertation, University of London, Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global (Order No. 10083651). Ali, W. (1997). Modern Islamic art: Development and continuity. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. Balius, A. (2013). Arabic type from a multicultural perspective: Multi-script Latin-­ Arabic type design. Doctoral dissertation, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK.  Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global (Order No. U636423). Bartelt, D. (2006). Script doctors: Religious mandates from the government, military threats from the United States – It’s all in a day’s work for Iran’s increasingly visible designers, calligraphers, and typographers. Print, 60(1), 78–83. Bellantoni, J., & Woolman, M. (2000). Type in motion: Innovations in digital graphics. London: Thames & Hudson. Blair, S. S. (2006). Islamic calligraphy. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press. Blankenship, S. (2003). Cultural considerations: Arabic calligraphy and Latin typography. Design Issues, 19(2), 60–63. Boutros, M. (2017). Arabic for designers: An inspirational guide to Arabic culture and creativity. London: Thames & Hudson. Brownie, B. (2012a). The behaviours of fluid characterforms in temporal typography. Doctoral dissertation, University of Hertfordshire. Retrieved from http://

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ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.573315. British Library EThOS database. Brownie, B. (2012b). Fluid typography: Construction, metamorphosis and revelation. In G. Lees-Maffei (Ed.), Writing design: Words and objects (English ed., pp. 175–186). Oxford, UK: Berg. Brownie, B. (2015). Transforming type: New directions in kinetic typography. London: Bloomsbury. Carboni, S. (2007). Qur’an printed in Arabic. In S. Carboni (Ed.), Venice and the Islamic world, 828–1797. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. Daghir, S. (1990). Al-Hurufiyah al-Arabiyah: Fan wa hawiyah [Arab letterism: Art and identity]. Beirut, Lebanon: Sharikat al-Matbu’at Lil Tawzi’ wa al-Nashir. Dickinson, P. (2014). Textual matters: Making narrative and kinesthetic sense of Crystal Pite’s dance-theater. Dance Research Journal, 46(1), 61–83. https:// doi.org/10.1017/S0149767714000047. Dodd, E. C., & Khairallah, S. (1981). The image of the word: A study of Quranic verses in Islamic architecture. Beirut, Lebanon: American University of Beirut. Ehrenberg, S. (2015). A kinesthetic mode of attention in contemporary dance practice. Dance Research Journal, 47(2), 43–61. https://doi.org/10.1017/ S0149767715000212. Eigner, S. (2015). Art of the Middle East: Modern and contemporary art of the Arab world and Iran. London: Merrell. Eisenstein, S. (1986). Eisenstein on Disney (A. Upchuch, Trans.). Calcutta, India: Seagull Books. Fraser, M., & Kwiatkowski, W. (2006). Ink and gold: Islamic calligraphy. London: Paul Holberton. Friedberg, A. (2006). The virtual window: From Alberti to Microsoft. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. George, A. (2010). The rise of Islamic calligraphy. London: Saqi. Gerdes, E. V. P. (2010). Shen Wei dance arts: Chinese philosophy in body calligraphy. Dance Chronicle, 33(2), 231–250. https://doi.org/10.1080/0147252 6.2010.485948. Grabar, O. (1992). The mediation of ornament. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Hillner, M. (2005). Text in (e)motion. Visual Communication, 4(2), 165–171. Hillner, M. (2006). Virtual typography: Time perception in relation to digital communication. Leonardo Electronic Almanac, 14(5–6), 1–6. Hillner, M. (2009). Virtual typography. Lausanne, Switzerland: AVA Publishing. Jafari, B. (2012). Investigation on typography techniques and color processing in Iranian contemporary inscription and calligraphy-painting. Master’s thesis, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran.

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Kac, E. (1995). Holopoetry: Essays, manifestos, critical and theoretical writings. Lexington, KY: New Media Editions. Kenna, H. (2012). A practice-led study of design principles for screen typography: With reference to the teachings of Emil Ruder. Doctoral dissertation, University of the Arts London, London. Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global (Order No. 10046686). Kermaninejad, F. (2013). Hunar-i Khushnivı̄sı̄ dar Iran [The art of calligraphy in Iran]. Tehran, Iran: Aban. Keshmershekan, A. (2004). Contemporary Iranian painting: Neo-traditionalism during the 1960s to 1990s. Doctoral dissertation, University of London, School of Oriental & African Studies (SOAS), London. Available from EThOS (uk. bl.ethos.409536). Keshmirshekan, H. (2009). Modern and contemporary Iranian art: Developments and challenges. In H. Amirsadeghi (Ed.), Different sames: New perspectives in contemporary Iranian art (pp. 10–37). London: Thames & Hudson Ltd. Keshmirshekan, H. (2013). Contemporary Iranian art: New perspectives. London: Saqi. Khajavi, M. J. (2017). Re-animating the script: An exploration of new directions in calligraphic animation with reference to the kinesthetic, plasmatic and transformative qualities of Islamic calligraphy. Doctoral dissertation, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore. Retrieved from http://hdl. handle.net/10356/71201 Khatibi, A., & Sijelmassi, M. (1995). The splendour of Islamic calligraphy. London: Thames & Hudson. Ledesma, E. (2012). The historic avant-garde, the neo-avant-garde and the digital age: Experimental visual-textual forms in the Luso-Hispanic world. Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University. Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global (Order No. 3514445). Manovich, L. (2001). The language of new media. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Marks, L. U. (2010a). Enfoldment and infinity: An Islamic genealogy of new media art. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Marks, L. U. (2010b). Words dream of being flowers, birds dream of language. In S. Zielinski & E. Fürlus (Eds.), Variantology 4: On deep time relations of arts, sciences, and technologies in the Arabic-Islamic world and beyond (pp. 267–288). Köln, Germany: Walther König. Marks, L.  U. (2011). Calligraphic animation: Documenting the invisible. Animation: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 6(3), 307–323. https://doi. org/10.1177/1746847711417930. Mehrnegar, M. (2014). hurūf ṣidāy-i tasvı̄r [The letters: Sound of image]. Tehran, Iran: Rı̄ra. Nemeth, T. (2017). Arabic type-making in the machine age: The influence of technology on the form of Arabic type, 1908–1993. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.

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Osborn, J. R. (2008). The type of calligraphy: Writing, print, and technologies of the Arabic alphabet. Doctoral dissertation, University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA.  Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global (Order No. 3304007). Osborn, J. R. (2017). Letters of light: Arabic script in calligraphy, print, and digital design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Porter, V., & Caussé, I. (2006). Word into art: Artists of the modern Middle East. London: British Museum Press. Roxburgh, D.  J. (2007). Writing the word of God: Calligraphy and the Qur’an. Houston, TX: Museum of Fine Arts, Houston. Safwat, N. F., Fehèrvàri, G., & Zakariya, M. (1997). The harmony of letters: Islamic calligraphy from the Tareq Rajab Museum. Singapore, Singapore: The National Heritage Board. Schimmel, A. (1990). Calligraphy and Islamic culture. London: I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd. Schimmel, A., & Rivolta, B. (1992). Islamic calligraphy. The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, 50(1), 1–56. https://doi.org/10.2307/3263914. Serikoff, N. (Ed.). (2007). Islamic calligraphy from the Wellcome Library. Chicago: Serindia Publications. Shabout, N. M. (2007). Modern Arab art: Formation of Arab aesthetics. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. Shay, A. (1998). In search of traces: Linkages of dance and visual and performative expression in the Iranian world. Visual Anthropology, 10(2–4), 334–360. https://doi.org/10.1080/08949468.1998.9966738. Shay, A. (1999). Choreophobia: Solo improvised dance in the Iranian world. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publications. Smitshuijzen AbiFares, H. (2001). Arabic typography: A comprehensive sourcebook. London: Saqi Books. Su, Z. M. (2010). Recovering the movement of calligraphy in animation. Doctoral dissertation, Griffith University. Retrieved from https://www120.secure. griffith.edu.au/rch/file/7c7af876-d6d1-4519-7019-1f11a7be4201/1/ Su_2010_02Thesis.pdf Tanner, S.  C. (2009). Contemporary art in the Middle East. Art Book, 16(4), 15–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8357.2009.01057.x. Tohline, A. M. (2015). Towards a history and aesthetics of reverse motion. Doctoral dissertation, Ohio University. Retrieved from Order No. 3731383. van Leeuwen, T., & Djonov, E. (2015). Notes towards a semiotics of kinetic typography. Social Semiotics, 25(2), 244–253. Zettl, H. (2011). Sight sound motion: Applied media aesthetics (6th ed.). Boston: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

CHAPTER 2

Kinetic Behaviors

Kinetic Behaviors It was briefly mentioned in the Introduction that in some of the examples of screen typography and time-based artworks in which Arabic script is used letters and words do not display any temporal behavior. Indeed, in such cases Arabic script only exists in temporal space. Whether this temporal space is in a motion graphics video, an animation, or a time-based artwork, letters and words stay still and unchanged. One example of such an artwork is the animated short Simorgh (Meghdad Asadi Lari, 2014). This is based on a Persian narrative poem that tells the story of a group of birds that embark on a journey of self-discovery. In this short animation, it is suggested that the story happens on top of the pages of an old Persian book, and therefore calligraphy is used as a decorative element in the environment design. Calligraphy is also used in the design of the characters, more precisely the birds. In fact, the name of each bird (whether it is an eagle, a parrot, a hoopoe, or a swan) is written in a modified calligraphic style, and this forms part of the bird’s body (see Fig. 2.1, and Video 2.1, on the website). In this animation, most of the calligraphic elements do not display any temporal behavior and only happen to be in temporal space as decorative elements. For example, while the camera viewpoint and other elements in the scenes move in this animation, the calligraphic forms that can be seen on the ground (i.e. the pages of the old book) are static and motionless. These

© The Author(s) 2019 M. J. Khajavi, Arabic Script in Motion, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12649-0_2

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Fig. 2.1  Meghdad Asadi Lari, Simorgh (2014). In this short, animated film, calligraphic motifs and words are used in the background and the design of the birds (see Video 2.1 on the website). (Image courtesy of Meghdad Asadi Lari)

decorative calligraphic forms are an example of Arabic script that does not show any temporal behavior but exists in temporal space. Putting aside such time-based works in which letters and words do not display any temporal behavior at all, perhaps the first and the simplest kind of temporal behavior that comes to mind when thinking about Arabic script in time-based media is a change in location, angle, or size of a verbal unit. It is quite obvious that in calligraphic time-based art and temporal Arabic typography various elements may move or undergo change, including glyphs (e.g. diacritical marks), letters, combinations of letters, words, or even a whole calligraphic composition. In addition to these, the color and texture as well as many other properties of a verbal unit (which can be a glyph, a  letter,  or a  word) or composition may undergo change. This category of temporal behaviors (which includes translation, rotation, change in size, skewing, change in color of a whole verbal unit) is called kinetic behavior in this book. Kinetic behaviors can affect a composition, a block of text, or a verbal unit, but they do not affect the contours of the calligraphic lines that form the glyphs, letters, and words. To put it differently, in a time-based artwork (e.g. an animation) that purely comprises kinetic behaviors the relationship between different verbal (and ­non-­verbal)

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units may change over time, and consequently the overall composition may become kinetic. However, the calligraphic lines of these verbal units do not themselves undergo any kind of change. Kinetic behaviors can easily be created using the common transformation tools and effects in many 2D and 3D computer animation programs. For instance, in a program such as Adobe After Effects, a verbal unit such as a word can be animated to move around, rotate, and scale using the common transformation tools. Moreover, using the Effect menu of the program, a verbal unit or a block of text can undergo distortions such as skew over time. In addition, this verbal unit or block of text can easily change its color over time or it can undergo other forms of similar changes. As they are so simple to create, videos including Arabic typography or calligraphy that display kinetic behaviors are quite common. Such temporal behaviors are particularly prevalent in motion graphics videos, which are usually made with computer programs such as Adobe After Effects and Adobe Animate (previously known as Flash). In the same vein, many of the animation effects (such as fly in/out, flout in/out, swivel, bounce, grow and turn) that can be applied to text in computer programs such as Power Point are examples of kinetic behaviors. Figure 2.2 shows frames of a short temporal Arabic typography video that encompasses different types of kinetic behavior (see Video 2.2). In this video the words of the Arabic phrase ‫( اجلیات احسن من الراحیات‬A. what is coming is better than what is gone) appear on the screen one by one. Each one of the words appears with a different type of kinetic behavior. The first word, for example, comes into view through a fast sliding motion from the right-hand side of the screen. As it stops in the middle of the screen it skews, as if being influenced by its inertia force. The second word appears on screen with a motion from the top of the screen and then changes in size. The third word finds its place on the screen via a quick change in size, while the last comes into being through a rapid rotation. Therefore, all the temporal events used in this short video are indeed kinetic behaviors. In works that display only kinetic behaviors, as is obvious from this example, the calligraphic line is fixed and the verbal units are identifiable at any time. In this example, for instance, while the overall composition of the piece is changing, the contours of the calligraphic lines that comprise the glyphs, letters, and words are fixed. Kinetic behaviors are indeed the simplest type of temporal events possible in animated Arabic typography and time-based calligraphic art. As discussed before, this category includes but is not limited to translation, rotation, skew, change in size, and change

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Fig. 2.2  Stills from a short temporal typography video by the author showing various types of kinetic behavior (see Video 2.2). (© M. Javad Khajavi)

in the color of a verbal unit. In fact, kinetic behaviors include any type of behavior that does not affect the contours of the calligraphic line. Many of the existing examples of temporal Arabic typography and time-based calligraphic art display behaviors that fit into this broad category of kineticism. Meanwhile, the proto-animated qualities of Arabic script and Islamic calligraphy explored in the following chapters imply events that go beyond these simple kinetic behaviors. Thinking about these proto-animated qualities that are observable in static media, other kinds of movement aside from kinetic behaviors become possible. In the following chapters, temporal behaviors that are directly inspired by the proto-animated qualities of Islamic calligraphy will be discussed. Most of these qualities, as we will shortly see, imply movement and behaviors at the level of calligraphic line. Such temporal behaviors entail fluidity of shapes and therefore require that the contours of the calligraphic lines change over time, as if they are fluid and filled with kinesthetic energy. But before moving on to study

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these temporal behaviors, it is essential to examine how kinetic behaviors may affect a calligraphic or typographic composition.

Kinetic Compositions A calligraphic or typographic composition comprises two or more verbal units arranged in a specific relationship to each other so that they constitute a larger unit.1 Two types of verbal composition are identifiable in animations (or other visual time-based media) that are exclusively made out of kinetic behaviors: One can be called static composition, the other kinetic composition. Static composition is a verbal composition that is fixed in time. In such a composition, the individual verbal units (that comprise the composition) do not change in relation to one another. Even if the verbal composition itself moves in relation to the frame of the screen, the arrangement of the verbal units—their distance, angle, or size in relation to each other—is preserved. Therefore, the verbal composition does not change over time and is viewed as static. What happens in such a case is that the same composition is reframed over time, but no real sense of dynamism is experienced by the audience. Put differently, unless verbal units move in relation to each other, their movement does not affect the structure of the composition, and thus the composition is rendered as static. Examples of static compositions can be found in some of the artworks of the Paris-based Moroccan artist Mounir Fatmi. His video installation Modern Times: A History of the Machine (2009–2010) provides an example of verbal compositions that are static over time (see Video 2.3). The title of this video installation is inspired by Charlie Chaplin’s well-­ known 1936 film. Like this film, which comments on the estrangement of a modern industrialized society, Fatmi’s video installation construes the modern world as a dystopic one. In the artwork, he seems to be particularly concerned with the rapid and reckless expansion of modernism in the Middle East. On his website, he elaborates: The speed of industrialisation and the growth of cities is reflected today in the rapid development and urbanisation of the Middle East. Cities are appearing

1  Usually they are related through proximity; however, they can be related through similarities in shape, color, behavior, and so on.

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out of the desert, with buildings thrown up so fast that there is no time to reflect on the changes. (Fatmi, n.d.)

In this work, Fatmi touches upon a traditional calligraphic convention, in which words (or other verbal units) are arranged in circular compositions. He uses wheel-shaped verbal compositions that are reminiscent of the cog wheels of a huge machine that rotate with dizzying speed. Although they are mostly legible, their meanings are obscured by the speed at which the cog wheels rotate and the relentless noise of the machine, suggesting that the traditions are fading away in the modern industrialized world. Despite the fact that the verbal compositions are not fixed and rotate over time, they are static compositions, since the verbal units that have created them do not move in relation to each other;, hence they are not rendered as changing. In contrast, when verbal units move, rotate, or change size in relation to each other, the composition becomes dynamic. Such dynamic compositions are described in this book as kinetic compositions. One example in time-based calligraphic art is furnished by the Saudi artist and calligrapher Nasser al-Salem’s installation An Adornment of Stars (2015). The work comprises seven verses of the Qur’an that are inscribed in Kufic script in circular order.2 The verses are from different Suras (chapters of the Qur’an), and the meaning of each is related in a way to the delicate and perfect system in which the heavenly bodies, such as the sun and the moon, are designed. Three of the verses, for instance, say, And the sun runs [on course] toward its stopping point And the moon—We have determined for it phases Each, in an orbit, is swimming. (Sura Ya-Sin, Chapter 36, Verses 38–40)

The artist’s intention is to reflect upon the harmonious balance that governs the universe. “If one little thing in the grand scheme of things were to be not exactly as it is now, would everything be the same?” Nasser (Al Salem, n.d.) asks, wondering about the strange yet fitting structure of the universe and the heavens. For him the tawāf (i.e. the circumambula-

2

 One of the oldest scripts in Islamic calligraphy.

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tion of the Kaʿba),3 which should be performed seven times during the hajj pilgrimage,4 is a metaphor that reflects upon the structure of the heavens. His work, according to him, is a representation of such a metaphor and tries to draw a parallel between the structure of the heavens (as presented in the verses) and the act of tawāf. In his animation installation, each verse is written on a layer with a certain distance from a central point (see Fig. 2.3). Some of the verses are fixed, while a number of others rotate around a central point at various speeds. Nasser’s work is not technically complex: the verses simply rotate around a central point without any particular change in the shape of words or the legibility of the content. The movement that underpins his work is a kinetic behavior, which is rotation.

Fig. 2.3  Nasser al-Salem, An Adornment of Stars, 2015, Video projection (loop), Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. (Image courtesy of Nasser al-Salem and ATHR gallery) 3  A square building made of stone centered in the Great Mosque in the city of Mecca, the most holy site in Islam and toward which Muslims must face when praying. 4  The Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca that should take place in the last month of the Arabian year, and which is expected of all Muslims at least once in their lifetime.

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Yet, because each of the seven verses is revolving at various speeds, the overall composition is constantly changing over time and is kinetic.

Legibility and Readability In her book on temporal typography, Brownie (2015) correctly argues that the issue of legibility is inevitably part of any discussion on temporal text-based art. Certainly, when text appears in any visual time-based media, the existence of verbal units as well as their visual properties become a function of time and consequently dependent on the fourth dimension. In fact, legibility and readability are dependent variables that can be influenced through changes in independent variables, such as timing, visual qualities of verbal units, their arrangement in space, and so on. Hence, one should expect that legibility and readability are integral parts of any discussion on temporal typography and time-based calligraphic art written in Arabic script as well. Aside from this direct influence of temporality on legibility and readability, which justifies careful investigation of these concepts here, these two concepts provide different creative opportunities that can be explored and exploited by artists and designers, as we will see in the following chapters. As a result, in each chapter, after introducing a type of temporal behavior, the influence of those specific behaviors on legibility and readability is studied. The inclusion of such a discussion will not only help theoreticians and commentators better understand and analyze temporal text-based art, but will also make practitioners conscious of some of the creative possibilities that explorations of legibility and readability offer. Before proceeding to discuss how kinetic behaviors may influence legibility and readability, it is essential to understand the differences between these two related but completely distinct concepts. Although they are related, they are different, and their distinction is of particular interest for aspects of the discussions presented here. The two are concepts used in many disciplines—such as cognitive psychology, information design, human computer interaction, and typography—to measure the recognizability and comprehensibility of written texts (Barth, 2008, p. 34). Each measures a different aspect of a text, though. While legibility measures the clarity of individual verbal units, readability is an evaluation of how well the combinations of these verbal units interact to communicate understandable semantic messages (Hamilton, 1996). In other words, legibility measures how easy or difficult it is to recognize a certain verbal unit.

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Readability, on the other hand, indicates how easily a block of text can be read (i.e. how easily its semantic message can be deciphered). To put it differently, in this book legibility refers to how easy or difficult it is to ­recognize a certain verbal unit and readability refers to how easy or difficult it is to decipher the semantic meaning of a block of verbal units. So, while legibility relates to the shape of individual verbal units or calligraphic forms, readability depends on how these individual units or forms are arranged in relation to each other. Meanwhile, it is clear that the readability of a block of text depends on the legibility of its individual verbal units. At the same time, the legibility of individual verbal units in a block of text does not guarantee the readability of that block of text. As already mentioned, readability also depends on how those individual verbal units are organized. Therefore, legibility, as the definition given suggests, depends on the visual appearance of a verbal unit (a glyph, a letter, a combination of letters, or a word). It has been stated here that kinetic behaviors do not affect the contours of the calligraphic line, and thus the verbal units that display such behaviors are recognizable as certain verbal units at any moment. Consequently, kinetic behaviors, as a rule of thumb, do not influence legibility.5 In the examples of kinetic behaviors presented in this chapter, the verbal units on screen are identifiable and legible at all times. The same claim, however, cannot be made about readability. In fact, kinetic behaviors can directly influence readability in different ways. Readability, as already discussed, measures how easy or difficult it is to decipher the semantic message of a block of text (i.e. a block of more than two semantically meaningful verbal units). Therefore, it very much depends on the relationship between different verbal units on screen and also in time. In the example of temporal typography presented in Fig. 2.2 (see Video 2.2), when the first word appears on the screen the semantic message of the Arabic phrase is not readable, because the rest of the words are still invisible to the viewer. But at the same time the individual word is completely legible at all times. Indeed, in this example the semantic message of the Arabic phrase, which translates “what is coming is better than what is gone,” is gradually revealed to the viewer. Therefore, the Arabic phrase becomes readable over time. So, using 5  The only exception to this rule is perhaps when the temporal behavior (e.g. displacement or rotation) occurs so fast that the viewer does not have enough time to recognize the verbal unit in question. In such a case, the verbal unit is not legible during the fast kinetic event.

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simple kinetic behaviors such as translation, rotation, scale, fade-in (i.e. a change in the value of the alpha channel, which itself is a change in color), and so on, artists and designers can actually control the viewers’ speed of reading. They can direct viewers to read faster or slower depending on the needs of a certain artwork or design. In addition to this, kinetic behaviors can be used to direct attention to or emphasize certain parts of a text or a calligraphic composition. Consider, for example, a Power Point slide that contains different blocks of text on different parts of the screen. Through using the program’s native animation effects, such as wave, pulse, teeter, and spin, which are technically forms of kinetic behavior, it is possible to direct the viewers’ attention and guide them to read certain blocks of text in the slide. To sum up, while kinetic behaviors do not affect legibility, they can influence readability. Using kinetic behaviors, one can control viewers’ speed of reading or direct them to pay attention to certain verbal units or blocks of text before reading the others.

References Al Salem, N. (n.d.). An Adornment of Stars. Retrieved from http://nasseralsalem. com/An-Adornment-of-Stars Barth, S. (2008). Digital designs: A look at the role of real typographic design in effective content delivery. EContent, 31(1), 32–36. Brownie, B. (2015). Transforming type: New directions in kinetic typography. London: Bloomsbury. Fatmi, M. (n.d.). Les Tempes Modernes, Une Historie de la Machine [Modern Times, A History of the Machine]. Retrieved from http://www.mounirfatmi. com/work-305-35.html Hamilton, D. V. (1996). Will the best font please stand out. Secretary, 56(2), 10.

CHAPTER 3

Kinesthetic Behaviors

Kinesthetic Vitality and Dynamic Impulse In Chap. 2, a broad category of temporal events called kinetic behavior, including events such as translation, rotation, scale, skew, and change in color, was introduced. It was observed that kinetic behavior affects a verbal unit but does not change the contours of the calligraphic lines that form them. The proto-animated qualities of Arabic script and Islamic calligraphy (the kinesthetic, plasmatic, transformative, and meta-­transformative), however, suggest temporal events that go beyond kinetic behaviors. In fact, most of these proto-animated qualities imply temporal behaviors that directly affect the contours of the calligraphic lines and consequently change the shapes of the verbal units. In this chapter and the following three, the focus is on temporal behaviors that are directly inspired by these proto-animated qualities of Islamic calligraphy. This chapter begins with the kinesthetic quality of Islamic calligraphy; the other qualities are looked at in due course. A quick perusal of the literature on Islamic calligraphy and Islamic aesthetics reveals that various writers have recognized movement and dynamism as qualities inherent to many specimens of Islamic calligraphy, as well as its different categories of practice and genre (Blair, 2006; Khatibi & Sijelmassi, 1995; Roxburgh, 2008; Schimmel, 1990; Shay, 1998, 1999). Khatibi and Sijelmassi (1995), for example, contend that calligraphic shapes “achieve life and movement,” and that “a page of Islamic

© The Author(s) 2019 M. J. Khajavi, Arabic Script in Motion, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12649-0_3

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calligraphy at once invokes a feeling of movement and rhythm” (p. 49). They also claim in another part of their book The splendour of Islamic calligraphy that “a living force” or “rhythm” exists behind any successful piece of calligraphy (p. 219). Likewise, Barakat (2004) frequently refers to the “rhythmic movement” of certain styles or specimens of calligraphy in his catalogue of masterpieces of Persian calligraphy. For him, scripts such as nasta’lı̄q or shikastih are the epitome of “delicate movements” and “rhythmic virtuosity” (p. 18).1 Some other writers, such as Serikoff (2007, p. 11), even consider this rhythmic movement to be pivotal to the beauty of any page of Islamic calligraphy. Various specimens and styles of Islamic calligraphy (and calligraphy in general) have been extensively compared to such temporal arts as dance or music (Barakat, 2004; Kermaninejad, 2013; Khatibi & Sijelmassi, 1995; Meydani, 2008; Roxburgh, 2008; Safwat, Fehèrvàri, & Zakariya, 1997; Schimmel, 1990; Shabout, 2007; Shay, 1998; Ünlüer & Özcan, 2010; Yamini-Hamedani, 2008). This comparison is based on the fact that all three art forms embody movement, rhythm, and a sense of flow. For example, in his study of dancing in the Iranian world, Anthony Shay (1998, 1999) compares Persian calligraphy to Iranian solo dance.2 For him, these two art forms exhibit similarities as they are both based on “the constant flow of movement” (Shay, 1999, p. 20). Calligraphers and artists are obviously advocates of such (sometimes poetic) comparisons between calligraphy and dance. In his book on teaching shikastih script, the Iranian calligrapher Israfı̄l Shı̄rchı̄ (2000) talks about the dance of the reed pen or the dance of letters on a page of calligraphy. This comparison is fitting, since calligraphic forms seem to be dancing in many specimens of Islamic calligraphy. Calligraphy and dance are, indeed, similar in that they are both products of movement. While this movement is, generally speaking, not recorded in dance, it is registered on the page in calligraphy. 1  Nasta’lı̄q and shikastih are scripts (styles) in Islamic calligraphy, predominantly popular in the Persianate world. 2  Shay (1998, 1999) draws a comparison between Persian calligraphy and Persian solo improvised dance based on the similarities in two factors: proportion and forms. He even points out, in part of his study, the similarities between some calligraphic forms and the forms created by the movement of the dancers’ bodies. His study lacks depth, though, not only because of the limited range of examples and styles that he covers, but also because he bases his argument on a vague definition of Persian calligraphy and overgeneralizes based on that definition. Nevertheless, where he links the two art forms based on their dynamic similarities his argument sounds more reasonable.

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Equally, Islamic calligraphy has been compared to music or musical arts, not only because of its abstract nature, which is usually considered similar to the purity of absolute music, but also for the rhythm and movement invoked by many specimens of both traditional calligraphy and neo-­ calligraphy.3 Khatibi and Sijelmassi (1995), for instance, point to the rhythmic movement that a page of calligraphy invokes, stating that there is a relationship between calligraphy and music, “a relationship which, while not precisely homologous in kinetic terms, reveals something in common, for both arts share a dynamic which separates logic from its rationality and its rhetoric” (p. 49). In fact, it is this rhythmic movement inherent to many pages of Islamic calligraphy that convinces Shabout (2007) to consider Arabic letters “instruments to create visual music”: The Arabic script can be a dance of ascending verticals, descending curves, and temperate horizontals, beautifully choreographed to achieve a measured balance between the static individual form and its rhythmic movement. Great variability in form can be achieved through the effective interplay of letters and words. (Shabout, 2007, p. 66)

Indeed, as Shabout firmly suggests here, many different specimens of Islamic calligraphy induce a kinesthetic sense; they evoke movement and rhythm. Looking at a page of Islamic calligraphy, such as the one in Fig. 3.1, it would be difficult not to feel a kinesthetic vitality invoked by the harmonious repetition of calligraphic elements and the fluidity of their forms as they flow unwaveringly, at times undulating over the page. This page of calligraphy is an instance of a category of calligraphic practices known as sı̄yāh-mashq, which are usually praised for their sense of fluidity and dynamism and have been compared to both music and dance (Barakat, 2004; Kermaninejad, 2013). On this page of sı̄yāh-mashq, the calligrapher has repeatedly inscribed similar words and letters with flowing forms on top of each other, evoking a kind of rhythmic movement. This page of calligraphy has a dynamic composition, guiding the eyes of the beholder to move diagonally over the page. Hence, many pages of Islamic calligraphy, although they do not literally move and are not time-based, embody a kinesthetic force. They invoke movement, rhythm, and a sense of dynamism. In this sense, they are 3  For a detailed discussion on comparisons between Islamic calligraphy and music see Khajavi (2017), Moustafa and Sperl (2014), and During, Mirabdolbaghi, and Safvat (1991).

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Fig. 3.1  A page of sı̄yāh-mashq, unknown artist, dated 2009. Sı̄yāh-mashq pieces, such as this one, are imbued with a sense of rhythmic dynamism. (Source: http:// noroozirad503.rozblog.com/cat/)

proto-animated. Even though they do not literally move, they embody energy and vitality. Calligraphic forms are themselves the products of movement registered on a page; thus, they embody in one way or another the life force that has created them. This kinesthetic vitality is induced through various means. Let us now contemplate the two main ways in which a kinesthetic sense is evoked in a page of calligraphy. It is essential to note that these two ways of suggesting movement are not mutually exclusive and a piece of calligraphy may embody both simultaneously. They are the kinesthetic energy embodied in the calligraphic line (or in other words the motion retained in the calligraphic line) and the dynamic impulse evoked by the repetition and delicate arrangement of similar strokes across the line and over the page (i.e. the way in which calligraphic elements are arranged within the composition).4 These two ways of evoking the kinesthetic sense are important for the sake of the argument presented in this chapter, specifically because they inform two different kinds of kinesthetic behavior that are possible in time-based media.

 Needless to say, aside from these two, there are other ways in which a sense of dynamism can be suggested in a calligraphic piece, for instance through the arrangement of diacritical signs. Nevertheless, this study will focus mainly on these two, as they are common to many styles and across various calligraphic arts. 4

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Kinesthetic Quality Retained in the Calligraphic Line One of the characteristics of Arabic script that distances it from Roman or East Asian writing is that the letters physically connect to one another to create words. Unlike Far Eastern characters or Egyptian hieroglyphs, Arabic script is written with individual alphabetical symbols that join together to form a word. However, unlike Roman writing, in which letters normally sit close to each other to construct a word, in Arabic script some of the letters of the alphabet should physically join each other to create a word.5 This joining requires that the shape of letters change according to their places within a word. So, in Arabic script, “the same letter can have one form when it stands alone (independent), another at the beginning of a word (initial), a third in the middle of a word (medial), and yet a fourth at the end of a word (final)” (Blair, 2006, p. 8). Figure 3.2 depicts the letter ‘ayn (‫)ع‬, for which there is no similar sound in English, in its four different forms as an example. As can be seen in this figure, depending on the placement of the letter within a word its shape changes in order to connect to the previous or the next letter. As a result

Fig. 3.2  Different forms of the letter ‘ayn (highlighted in blue) depending on its place within the word. (© M. Javad Khajavi) 5  This type of connection is different from cursive writing, which exists in the writing of many languages. Consider Roman script, for example, which has two forms: one is monumental, or the way it appears in print, in which letters are written separately; the other is cursive, which is seen mostly in handwritten form. In cursive writing, the letters are joined to each other to create words. Yet these two forms of writing do not apply to Arabic script, which does not have the monumental way of writing: the letters must join each other to construct a word. This characteristic of Islamic calligraphy results in a number of problems when it is adapted for print technology. See Bartelt (2006), Blair (2006), Blankenship (2003), and Osborn (2008) for more information.

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Fig. 3.3  The calligraphic line created by the reed pen of Islamic calligraphy and its traits. (© M. Javad Khajavi)

of this joining, each word usually contains a number of different shapes that are connected.6 The calligrapher, however, does not see these letters separately, but rather focuses on the rendition of the whole calligraphic form (which could be a letter, a word, or part of a word) as a single entity. Although calligraphers in most cases do not execute the whole calligraphic form in one single stroke,7 the end result of their work is a continuous line that (depending on the style of calligraphy in question) constantly, yet gradually, changes in shape and thickness. This continuous line, created as a result of the movement of the reed pen over the page, can be referred to as the “calligraphic line”. Since the calligraphic line of Islamic calligraphy is continuous in this way, it is imbued with kinesthetic potentiality (Fig. 3.3). In his seminal study Drawing, Philip Rawson (1987) defines a line as “a trace left by a moving point” (p. 84). This line, according to him, can be the trace of the movement of a thin point such as that created by the fine-­ pointed tip of a pen, or thick such as the trace of the reed pen of Islamic  There are some words in which letters do not physically join each other.  This need for more than one stroke is present in the case of most scripts, particularly if the calligrapher is writing in a large scale. Nonetheless, in inscribing certain scripts such as shikastih the calligrapher may write a whole word or even more than one word in one single stroke of the pen. 6 7

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calligraphy. It can also be the trace left by the movement of a flexible instrument, examples being the Chinese brush that is dipped in a fluid medium such as ink, or an inflexible stylus-like brush. Rawson (1987) argues that the essential feature is the same in all these: a point (whether thin or thick, flexible or inflexible) leaves a mark on a surface, which is the record of a two-dimensional movement in space and time. Hence, the act of creating a line (regardless of the qualities of the line) entails the movement of an instrument over the support. In Point and line to plane, Wassily Kandinsky (1979) famously claims that the “line is an invisible thing” (p. 57), emphasizing that it is the product of movement. Indeed, a line “has no existence independent of movement” (Marks, 2009, p.  230), and its presence implies that it has been created over an interval of time. Similarly, the process of experiencing a line is time-based. Tim Ingold (2007) argues that because a drawn line embodies duration, “the line to which it gives rise is, therefore, intrinsically dynamic and temporal … and in reading it, the eyes follow the same path as did the hand in drawing” (pp. 72, 73). Following Ingold’s argument, our eyes are “readily forced into pursuit of a linear direction and, as it follows the line, attributes to it the quality of movement” (De Sausmarez, 1983, p. 79). In this sense, although a line is static and does not move once drawn, there is something inherently kinesthetic about it. For this reason, “drawn lines, by the very associations that link vision to the object of the gaze by a ‘sight line,’ encapsulate the trace of the moving hand as indexical signs that are reconstituted by the movement of the observing eye” (Petherbridge, 2010, p. 90). Therefore, one can argue that a line has kinesthetic potential whether this potential is intended or not, as a line is nothing more than the record of a kinesthetic force (a motion) in a three-­ dimensional field—a force or motion that can later be reconstructed by the viewer. De Sausmarez (1983) points to this same quality of the line, saying that a line “has within itself a certain energy,” an energy that “appears to travel along its length” (p. 24). It is this energy that can then be activated through the eye movements of the viewer. The literal understanding of a line as the record of a movement means that in following its trajectory one also experiences motion and the energy retained in it (although this motion may or may not be exactly the same as the movement that gave rise to the line). In other words, a viewer can revitalize the energy of the line by following its trajectory. This holds true of the calligraphic line in Islamic calligraphy, which is similarly filled with the same kinesthetic potential—for it is a continuous line. The very fact that the

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calligraphic line has a trajectory entails that it is indexical of movement. This movement can then be reconstructed by the actively observing eyes of the spectator or reader. Hence, the calligraphic line of Islamic calligraphy has kinesthetic potentiality that can be activated. Even though the calligraphic line, as we will shortly see, does not always index the traces of the successive movements that have created it through its texture (which itself is the result of the materiality of the ink and the reed pen), it still has trajectory and can potentially drive the viewer’s eye in certain directions. In fact, calligraphers are aware of this kinesthetic potentiality of the calligraphic line, and they sometimes use it as a way to guide the eye of the reader over the horizontal axis of the piece. In such cases, the calligraphic line seems to want to activate its kinesthetic potentiality and induce movement along its length. Figure 3.4 is one example of such a case. In this specimen of calligraphy, the last letter of the word fı̄ (‫( )یف‬A. in), which is the letter yā’ (‫)ی‬, is inscribed in an elongated form, rendering its tail in a long horizontal line that is extended along the whole composition. For an observer who can read the script, this elongated line enhances the process of reading by directing the eyes over the horizontal right to left axis of the piece.8

Fig. 3.4  A calligraphic piece recreated by the author based on a calligraphic artwork by Hafiz Hasan Refet Ṭrabzonı̄ , dated 1886–1887. The letter yā’ (‫ )ی‬is inscribed in this composition in an elongated form that induces a horizontal movement; this directs the eyes of the viewer and enhances the process of reading along the horizontal axis of the piece 8  For someone who cannot read Arabic, this elongated line might emphasize the movement in the other direction, from left to right.

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As the above example shows, the calligraphic line of Islamic calligraphy, similar to any other lines, potentially embodies motion and energy, which can be activated by the viewer. Nonetheless, this kinesthetic movement and the energy deposited in a line can be enhanced by its qualities, making them more readily available to the viewer. In other words, the qualities of the line may affect the perception of movement in the viewer, making it easier or more difficult to be reconstructed. Rawson (1987) argues that although a line is a fixed and static mark and does not move or change once it is made, there is always a pattern of movement behind any drawn line that suggests the motion by which it was created. He writes that It is, of course, well known that in all normal acts of visual perception the eyes do not observe the world with a blank, unmoving stare. On the contrary, they observe by continually scanning the visual field in a series of movements to and fro, and making continuous adjustments of focus. … And where drawing is concerned it seems quite clear that the movements suggested by the traces of the drawing-point ought actually to guide the motions of the eyes. (Rawson, 1987, p. 17)

In fact, as Rawson (1987, p. 84) argues elsewhere in his study of the line, the perception of the movement invoked by a line is very much related to its qualities. An instrument with an inflexible point, such as a stylus, creates a trace without many qualities except perhaps for its track and direction; whereas one with a flexible point, such as the Chinese brush, allows the suggestion of all kinds of qualities along the trajectory of the line, depending on the pressure applied on its tip or its angle at any given part of the line: “All these variations of touch will combine with the line’s qualities of direction to enhance its expression” (Rawson, 1987, p. 84). The calligraphic line created by the reed pen of Islamic calligraphy has its own particular characteristics as well. For one thing, it is not as flexible as a brush, being made of a stiff material (reed, bamboo, and at times wood); and thus the width of its chisel nib is unvaried.9 Moreover, the calligrapher most often holds the reed pen at the same angle in relation to the horizontal line of writing (i.e. the baseline), regardless of the stroke being executed.10 Consequently, a change in the width of the calligraphic line is  In certain scripts the nib of the reed pen is cut straight and not on a slant.  There are specific instances in particular styles or scripts where the calligrapher may slightly rotate the pen to get the intended result. 9

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independent of the amount of pressure put on the tip of the pen,11 and it is mainly created as a result of a change in the direction of the movement. This feature of the pen and the method of inscribing means that the width of a straight stroke is constant and the width of the calligraphic line changes inside the curve strokes. The result is that the calligraphic line created by the reed pen is usually a seamless, firm, and steady stroke with various thicknesses along its trajectory, based on the changes in direction of the movement that has created it (see Fig. 3.3). Another characteristic of the calligraphic line is relevant to the way calligraphy is inscribed. Generally speaking, inscribing a line of Islamic calligraphy is a slow and controlled process,12 particularly when executing large-scale pieces. For the unfamiliar onlooker, the slow movement of the pen as it fastidiously generates letter shapes through a highly controlled process might come as a surprise, as Roxburgh (2008, p. 275) speculates. Although the written line of Islamic calligraphy is the product of the kinesthetic and temporal activity of the calligrapher, barely any traces of successive movements of the reed pen are registered on a page of calligraphy in this process.13 Thus, the temporal dimension of the act of the calligrapher is most often unnoticeable, as if the line is frozen in time. Such a quality starkly contrasts with East Asian (Chinese, Japanese, Korean, etc.) calligraphy, in which, broadly speaking, the gestural movement of the calligrapher is recorded in the brushstrokes and is rather apparent because of the materiality of the instrument of writing (the brush).14 Obviously, there are various differences between Islamic calligraphy and Far Eastern calligraphy. As Grabar (1992, pp. 55, 58) observes, one of the main differences is the relative degree of complexity of the basic structural unit in Far Eastern calligraphy; while in Arabic it is the letter, in Far Eastern calligraphy it is the polysemic character. They also differ in their approaches to 11  While the pressure applied on the tip of the reed pen does not affect its qualities, calligraphers sometimes tilt the pen so that only part of its tip contacts the surface of the paper. 12  This level of control, as we will see, is not the case in all the scripts. 13  One could argue here that sometimes the trace of movement in Islamic calligraphy appears in the form of a series of graded lines, which, as Roxburgh (2008) describes, is similar to “the contours made in sand by the physical forces of ebbing water” (p. 275). While such graded lines are not an unusual sight, particularly in the long strokes, I would argue that they do not as clearly index movement as do the brushstrokes of East Asian calligraphy. 14  Certainly, this stylistic marker does not appear in all Far Eastern calligraphic practices or styles and applies more to the semi-cursive and cursive styles with their expressive and fluid lines. Nonetheless, most often the physicality of the brush is present in different styles of East Asian calligraphy.

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executing the calligraphic line and the materials used for inscribing. To execute a Chinese character, for example, the calligrapher moves the brush upward, then strokes down, and continues with uninterrupted energy, creating unlimited changes in the thickness, intensity, and darkness of the strokes. Because of these diversities, contrasts, and tensions, the script is enlivened and the brushstrokes are readily felt kinesthetically.15 Perhaps it is for this reason that Chinese calligraphy has usually been regarded as a “kinesthetic process by which the artist represents his or her energy” (Gerdes, 2010, p. 244). Blair (2006) compares the two traditions of calligraphy from this standpoint, and writes that East Asian calligraphers generally sat motionless, contemplating the moment of artistic creation, and then with a burst of creativity, applied brush to support. As a result, the reader is meant to sense the personality of the artist through the calligraphy. In following the brushstrokes, the reader experiences a visual sequence of movement and rest and thus participates in the physical process of creation. (p. 7)

Hence, as Blair (2006) suggests here, in East Asian calligraphy the reader or viewer directly experiences the gestural motion, an energetic kinesthetic force, a dynamic vitality—which has been described by Yee Chiang as “the very breath of Chinese calligraphy” (as cited in Zeng, 1971, introduction, para. 2). The scenario Blair (2006) emphasizes does not hold for Islamic calligraphy, where The individual artist is thought to have applied pen to support in regular, steady strokes. … The reader is not meant to glean the calligrapher’s personality from the script, but rather to appreciate the unwavering line and modulated forms that reflect the transcendence of the Almighty. Palpability and movement are replaced by ineffability and control, complex characters by simple strokes. (p. 7)

As a result, viewers of a page of Islamic calligraphy do not experience movement in the same way as they would while viewing the brushstrokes of East Asian calligraphy.16 So, in Islamic calligraphy, unlike Far Eastern 15  This might not be the case for the simplified version of the scripts, especially the Japanese one. 16  I am not considering the unconventional settings in which Islamic calligraphy is executed with a brush, as is the case of calligraphy inscribed on porcelain bowls, for instance.

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calligraphy, the physicality of the instrument is far less obvious. In Arabic writing, most often much attention is put on the clarity, sharpness, and precision of the contours of calligraphic shapes, making it a very controlled process. For this reason, the calligraphic line in Islamic calligraphy often does not reveal much about the temporal process by which it was created, as it holds barely any traces of the successive movements of the reed pen in its texture. In fact, most specimens of Islamic calligraphy, in the words of Roxburgh (2008, p. 277), deny any traces of passing time, signaling what he describes as a feeling of “all-at-onceness.” This lack of textural expression is the reason that master calligraphers sometimes use marks, arrows, or annotations on paper in order to reveal the direction and the movement of the pen to a student. Hence, the physicality of the instrument of writing, generally speaking, is far less obvious in the calligraphic line of Islamic calligraphy when compared with Far Eastern calligraphy, for instance. What we may get from this discussion is that the calligraphic line created by the reed pen usually does not possess various qualities that enhance its kinesthetic expression. Therefore, unlike East Asian calligraphy, in Islamic calligraphy the kinesthetic expression of a line is not usually enhanced by the texture or tonality of the ink or the materiality of the instrument of inscription as it moves over the page.17 In spite of this general lack of kinesthetic expression in texture, one may find that in some styles of Islamic calligraphy, and particularly in many specimens of neo-calligraphy, other qualities of the line and the materiality of the instruments enhance the kinesthetic expression of the line. These added expressions in some styles of calligraphy and neo-­ calligraphy suggest a kinesthetic quality along the trajectory of the calligraphic line that can more easily be decoded and reconstructed by the viewer. Indeed, there are some scripts (or styles of calligraphy) that seem to benefit more from the kinesthetic energy embedded in the line. To explain this characteristic of these scripts, it is essential to describe the scripts or styles of calligraphy (especially for a reader less familiar with Islamic calligraphy). 17  This claim surely does not hold true for all different scripts, styles, and specimens of Islamic calligraphy. In fact, in some examples of calligraphy, especially those written in the scripts executed with fast and gestural pen-strokes (e.g. shikastih), the kinesthetic expression of the calligraphic line is enhanced with qualities that directly index the materiality of the instrument of writing.

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Fig. 3.5  The first verse of the Qur’an, bismillāh-i al-rahmān-i al-rahı̄m (A. In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful) written in three different scripts of Islamic calligraphy, inscribed by Ali Esmaeli Ghoochani, 1980. (Image courtesy of the artist)

Throughout the history of Islamic calligraphy, many different styles of writing,18 known as scripts, have been developed (see Fig. 3.5). These are different from one another in their “size, shape, slant, relation of thick to thin, internal curve, pen manipulation, and many other features characteristic of each style” (Zakariya, 1991, p. 10). Nonetheless, in (almost) all of them, the essence of the letters is preserved, and they are legible to a literate person familiar with the script (although some scripts might require a little pondering). Many of these scripts were originally developed to serve 18  The exact number of scripts developed throughout the course of Islamic civilization is unknown. Mansour and Allen (2011, p. 20) explain that Ibn al-Nadim (who died in 995 or 998 CE) enumerated 24 calligraphic scripts in his book Al-Fihrist, while at almost the same time al-Tawhı̄dı̄ (923–1023  CE) mentions 12 scripts. As Schimmel (1990) asserts, “it is consoling that a writer who is almost contemporary with Ibn an-Nadim [al-Nadim], Ibn Wahb al-Katib, complains that even the scribes are no longer aware of all the different styles of the good old days” (p. 22). Zakariya (1991, p. 10) speculates the number of the scripts to be around fifty. Meanwhile, these scripts underwent significant stages of development, evolution, revision, and refinement, until they were reduced to seven, and then six principal scripts, usually referred to as the “six-scripts” or the “six pens,” that became more popular (Mansour & Allen, 2011). These six are muḥaqqaq, thuluth, rayḥān, naskh, tawāqı̄ʿ, and riqāʿ. Later on, other regional scripts have also been developed. Persian calligraphers, for instance, have developed three well-known scripts, namely taʾlı̄q, nasta’lı̄q, and shikastih.

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specific purposes:19 “The Qur’an, for example, requires a script of great gravity and legibility; poetry calls for a more graceful script; and personal correspondence, because paper was expensive, is traditionally written in a compact script” (Zakariya, 1979, p. 17).20 A number of other factors also inform the use of a specific script, such as the intended audience, the instrument of inscription, the medium on which the calligraphy is supposed to be inscribed, and the content and function of the text. It is not within the scope of this book to enter into a detailed discussion of different scripts and their development (with all their delicate complexity)21; however, central to what is intended to be articulated here is that in some scripts the kinesthetic potentiality of the line seems to be readily activated as a result of the qualities of the calligraphic line. Take, for instance, a script such as nasta’lı̄ q (see Fig. 3.9), which is popular in Iran,22 and is usually used for writing in the Persian language. In nasta’lı̄ q much emphasis is placed on curved strokes rather than straight lines. Even the alif (‫)ا‬, which is basically a vertical line in many scripts, is rendered in the form of a subtle curvilinear stroke. Indeed, in a script such as nasta’lı̄ q, the calligraphic line is enlivened by the versatility and fluidity of the curvilinear sloping strokes and sweeping tails. In the words of Bartelt (2006), this script gives “the impression of a seamlessly fluid line” (p. 81). It is for this reason that so often the flowing movements engendered by the fluidity of the curvilinear calligraphic lines on a page of calligraphy written in nasta’lı̄ q script are compared to the flow and fluidity of Persian poetry (particularly that of ghazal) (Blair, 2006; Schimmel,

19  Some of these scripts developed at various stages of Islamic civilization are not widely practiced today. 20  Shabout (2007) argues that the development of various scripts also reflects “the competition among various cities and dynasties, as well as the contribution of patrons, mainly caliphs and rulers, who encouraged the development of new styles to cater to their individual taste—and not least because it was considered a matter of great prestige” (p. 65). Additionally, different media of writing also required new forms and scripts. Schimmel (1990) explains that “when the script was used on material other than vellum or paper, new forms had to be developed” (p. 8). She elaborates that to inscribe on coins, seals, or to embroider on fabric, calligraphic shapes had to undergo changes. 21  Although much has been written on different scripts and their development, a detailed discussion of various scripts, their structure, and their use is not relevant to my argument. For more information on different scripts see Ghelichkhani (2014), Khatibi and Sijelmassi (1995), Schimmel (1990), Welch (1979), and Zakariya (1979, 1991). 22  It also has much currency in Turkey and the Indian subcontinent.

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1990).23 The vitality of the calligraphic line in Islamic calligraphy, however, reaches its peak in a script known as shikastih, a script developed out of nasta’lı̄ q at a later stage, with the intention to streamline its inscription. Therefore, it has qualities that make it one of the most dynamic scripts in Islamic calligraphy, not merely comprising curvilinear pen-strokes but also, since it is usually executed through swift strokes of the pen, more directly indexing the motion of the calligrapher’s hand. As a rapidly rendered script, shikastih could be regarded as the epitome of the kinesthetic vitality of the calligraphic line of Islamic penmanship. It is a script that according to Blair (2006, p. 441) was originally developed out of a need for a style that could increase the speed of writing. Not surprisingly, calligraphic pieces written in this script are frequently praised for their fluidity and kinesthetic impulse. Barakat (2004), for example, describes shikastih as a script that “demonstrates energy creativity and rhythmic movement” (p. 18). Likewise, Israfı̄ l Shı̄ rchı̄ , a prominent contemporary Iranian calligrapher who is well versed in shikastih script, asserts that the letters written in this script come alive and dance on paper through rhythmic movements of the pen (Shı̄ rchı̄ , 2000). Shikastih is a script especially rich in curved lines, one that revels in continuous dance-like curvilinear penstrokes. Barely any straight line appears on a page of calligraphy written in this script, giving it a strong sense of fluidity. Even at times when straight lines appear (as in the case of the cross-bars of the letters kāf [‫ ]ک‬or Persian gāf [‫)]گ‬, they are usually created by fast expressive and probably stretched strokes that only add to the dynamic feel of the whole piece. Furthermore, in shikastih, “in most cases, the size of the letters and the consequent legibility is subordinated to the flow of the pen” (Blair, 2006, p. 443). For the sake of speed, changes in the shape of letters, particularly those that curve against the fluid movement of the pen, are very common even if they slightly jeopardize readability. In addition, elongated calligraphic shapes are very common in shikastih script. Elongated letters stretch further out in favor of the fluidity of the script, and thus speed up the process of writing. Blair (2006, p. 442) explains that “to enhance speed, when writing shikasta, calligraphers smooth out the bumps, teeth, and curves and elongate some letters,” mainly the ones that reduce the speed and flow of the moving pen. Equally important, the calligraphic pieces written in shikastih script are abundant with unauthorized connections and ligatures, not only between  Ghazal is a form of poetry that often deals with love and comprises monorhyming verses.

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isolated individual letters but also between words. The abundance of unauthorized connections in shikastih has converted it into a unique script that differs from other scripts in one important way. Blair (2006) contemplates this difference, and elucidates that in other scripts, a non-connecting letter forces the calligrapher to end his penstroke before the end of the word. As a result, the calligrapher may need two or more penstrokes to write a single word, in addition to adding diacritics. In shikasta, by contrast, the calligrapher completes each word in a single penstroke, for unauthorized connections are permitted not only within a word, but even between words. (p. 441)

As a result, most often the calligraphic line is longer in this script than it is in others. This feature streamlines the movement of the reed pen in shikastih, which greatly affects the fluidity and expressiveness of the calligraphic line. Figure 3.6 is a page of calligraphy written in shikastih script, executed by the well-known calligrapher ʿAbd al-Majid Taliqani (1737/1738–1771/ 1772). As can be seen in the image, the forms of the calligraphic

Fig. 3.6  A piece of calligraphy written in shikastih script, signed by ʿAbd al-­ Majid Taliqani, 1769–1770. (Source: Blair, 2006)

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lines in this piece are very fluid. This sense of fluidity becomes more obvious when one compares the calligraphic lines in Fig. 3.6 with those in Fig. 4.1. While the calligraphic lines in the former follow more organic curves with a diverse range of tangential angles, the latter features calligraphic lines that have more geometrical characteristics, and especially in the case of the semicircular lines (such as lām [‫]ل‬, yā [‫]ی‬, and ‘ayn [‫ )]ع‬are less or more similar in their degree of curvature. In discussing this piece (depicted in Fig. 3.6), Blair (2006) writes that “the reader almost feels the flow of the ink as the pen swoops across the page” (p. 444). She then continues that shikastih script, as in this example, “is as close as Islamic calligraphy ever gets to the aesthetic of Chinese calligraphy, in which the reader is meant to retrace the movements made by the calligrapher” (Blair, 2006). The treatment of the calligraphic line in this script converts it into a fluid line full of kinesthetic vitality. Calligraphic lines in various specimens of shikastih script index the movement that has created them. They truly activate the kinesthetic energy retained in the calligraphic line. Although in these examples the line does not literally move, it invokes a kinesthetic sense and suggests motion along its length. This kinesthetic potentiality of the calligraphic line has also been embraced by many artists in neo-calligraphy. On many neo-calligraphic canvases, artists have tried to activate this kinesthetic potentiality. Unlike traditional calligraphy, in which the kinesthetic sense usually comes to enhance the movement of the eyes in the direction the line is to be read, in many works of neo-calligraphy the line seems to be freed from its role of depicting linguistic symbols (i.e. letters or words), so its kinesthetic potentiality is not concerned predominantly with moving the eyes in a certain direction. In fact, in many of the neo-calligraphic works the line seems to be drawn for its own sake. This is particularly true of such artworks in which the script is not supposed to make meaning through its semantic content, and thus legibility and readability are not concerns for the artist. In such works, the calligraphic line is used mainly as a plastic element for its visual effect. Moreover, in activating the calligraphic line’s kinesthetic potentiality, neo-calligraphers are not limited to the traditional tools of inscription. Calligraphic lines executed with penstrokes give way to brushstrokes that offer more flexibility, and potentially enhance the kinesthetic expression of the line. The kinesthetic potentiality of the calligraphic line is activated in many of the neo-calligraphic works of the Iranian artists Sadegh Tabrizi (1939–2017). He is a painter and ceramicist who has also experimented

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Fig. 3.7  Sadegh Tabrizi, Untitled, Ink on parchment, 60 × 60 cm

with calligraphy in his works. His canvases usually comprise lively and dynamic calligraphic lines freed from the necessity to conform to the shape of letters and words. Figure  3.7 depicts one of his calligraphy-inspired artworks. In this image, while the lines on his canvas do not depict identifiable calligraphic elements, they have clear affinities with the calligraphic lines and forms in nasta’lı̄q and shikastih scripts. The black lines in this artwork do not depict any letters or words of the Arabic (or Persian) alphabet, but for anyone familiar with Persian calligraphy they are reminiscent of the forms of the calligraphic lines in the two aforementioned styles. Therefore, this work and most of his other neo-calligraphic works avoid conveying any kind of semantic content; instead, as Keshmirshekan (2013) explains, they emphasize “the temporal quality of the calligraphic forms” (p. 140). In fact, calligraphic lines in his works invoke a kinesthetic sense, as if gaining life and moving around the canvas. Some of the neo-calligraphic paintings of another Iranian artist, Bahram Hanafi (b. 1966), also seem to be an attempt at recording movement, and show a desire to reflect on the fluid and kinesthetic qualities of the calligraphic line. In many of his canvases calligraphic elements are reduced to

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Fig. 3.8  Bahram Hanafi, Untitled, 2014, acrylic on canvas, 150 × 98 cm. (Source: http://bahramhanafi. com/2018/05/07/ collection_2016/)

essential forms that capture the temporality of the line and depict the motion that has created it. The kinesthetic potentiality of the line is ­activated in most of his canvases, usually executed through fast and swift gestural motions of the hand and body of the artist. From this perspective his calligraphic paintings are reminiscent of the works of action painters, who avoid realistic images in favor of recording actions. This quality of his works is particularly evident in his untitled painting shown in Fig. 3.8, in which the lines seem to come alive with kinesthetic energy. They invoke movement and a strong sense of dynamism. The calligraphic lines in this painting are organic and have a dancing quality. The forms of the curved lines imply movement, while changes in their thickness and textures invoke a sense of dynamism. Hanafi is a calligrapher well versed in shikastih script and he is interested in finding innovative ways to use this script in paint-

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ing.24 Indeed, the calligraphic lines in this painting, like most of his other paintings, are similar to the aesthetic of shikastih script; they imply a sense of freedom and fluidity. In both of these examples, the kinesthetic potentiality of the calligraphic line is activated. Free from an obsession with representing linguistic forms, the calligraphic line in the works of these two artists takes on a life of its own. Although the calligraphic lines do not move in these works, they invoke movement and suggest kinesthetic vitality. Nevertheless, this kinesthetic sense is confined within the static framework of the canvas, and needs to be reconstructed through the active movements of a viewer’s eyes. Clearly, in visual time-based media, the kinesthetic potentiality of the line is not limited and can be activated and reconstructed directly via the medium’s dynamic capabilities.

Kinesthetic Quality Suggested Through Repetition and Rhythm The previous section explains that in some specimens of Islamic calligraphy and neo-calligraphic art, the calligraphic line embodies a kinesthetic force. In such cases, it indexes the motion that let it come into being and suggests a sense of dynamism along the trajectory of the calligraphic line. Similarly, in many instances of Islamic calligraphy and neo-calligraphy a sense of movement and dynamism is engendered through the visual structure of the composition. More specifically this means the placement or arrangement of calligraphic forms within the two-dimensional space of a piece. In fact, skillful calligraphers usually arrange calligraphic elements, letters, and words in such a way that the whole composition invokes a feeling of movement and rhythm. This sense of rhythmic movement is usually meant to move the eyes of the viewer along the text (i.e. usually along a horizontal line that extends from right to left,25 according to which letters and words are arranged in the composition). But such a kinesthetic force could also be suggested in a variety of other directions, depending on the arrangement of forms within the composition.  B. Hanafi, personal communication, August 4, 2014.  Although Arabic script is written and read from right to left, calligraphic works are not always arranged along a horizontal right to left axis. Calligraphers may design the composition in a variety of different ways depending on the purpose of the work, for instance in a circular composition. 24 25

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Repetition of similar letters, words, or calligraphic elements at certain intervals is one of the main ways through which a sense of rhythmic movement is induced in various works of Islamic calligraphy. Calligraphers usually arrange similar calligraphic elements or penstrokes within the composition so that aside from establishing visual balance they engender movement and rhythm along the line and across the page. Calligraphers distinguish between curved or round and straight or angular penstrokes in Islamic calligraphy. Skillful calligraphers usually place these different penstrokes in the composition so that their reprise along the horizontal plane of the piece suggests movement and a kinesthetic impulse. Consider as an example the calligraphic piece in Fig. 3.9 by the Iranian calligrapher Jalil Rasouli. This line of calligraphy—which represents a poem by the prominent Persian poet Rūmı̄ (1207–1273)—is part of a qit ̣ʿa,26 and is executed in nasta’lı̄q script. In this work of calligraphy, similar calligraphic elements (which are either letters or a number of letters that are connected together) are arranged over the horizontal axis of the piece in a way that, aside from establishing visual balance, enhances the right to left movement of the eyes over the page. In other words, those calligraphic elements with similar forms (or penstrokes) are intentionally arranged in a thoughtful visual structure so that their repetition along a horizontal line induces rhythm and enhances right to left movement of the

Fig. 3.9  Jalil Rasouli, part of a qiṭʿa in nasta’lı̄q (this is only a part of the original work), dated 1985. (Source: Kiani & Kamarei, 2012) 26  A category of calligraphic works in which a fragment of poetry or prose (usually of two or four lines) is inscribed (Safwat, 1996, p. 128).

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eyes over the composition. Interestingly, in this piece of calligraphy the visual rhythm is accompanied by the aural cadence of the poem. Thinking about visual rhythm, we should not forget that calligraphic forms are linguistic elements and are therefore connected to sounds. Calligraphers, well aware of this fact, usually try to engender a delicate balance between the visual rhythm and the aural cadence. Such kind of rhythmic harmony is particularly evident in those pieces of calligraphy that are renditions of poetry. For example, in the verse of the poem that is displayed in Fig. 3.9, consonance (i.e. the repetition of letters with similar sounds to create aural rhythm in poetry) is used as a poetic device. In inscribing this verse, the calligrapher has visually followed the aural rhythm of the poem by rearranging the composition, placing letters with similar shapes and sounds in line with each other. In such pieces of calligraphy, as Schimmel (1990) notes, “the music of the verse and the music of the line are harmoniously blended” (p. 76). In calligraphy, this repetition and rhythm is usually manifested along the straight line of the text as it reads, to guide the eyes over the horizontal axis of the piece. Since traditional calligraphers usually have clarity of the textual content and its legibility as their main concerns, they are limited when it comes to placing calligraphic elements within the visual structure and inducing a sense of rhythm. Nevertheless, in those categories of traditional calligraphic art in which there is much less emphasis on the legibility of a textual content, the sense of rhythmic movement is more easily engendered and is thus more evident. One of these categories is the genre of sı̄yāh-mashq—a category of calligraphic works that is mostly practiced in the Persianate world.27 Sı̄yāh-mashq, which means “black exercise” in Persian, was a term originally referring to the preparatory sheets of calligraphy practice produced as an exercise that preceded the fully rendered final calligraphy sheet and prepared for it.28 Through executing sı̄yāh-­ 27  Practice of sı̄yāh-mashq is not limited to the Persianate world. Similar calligraphic works have been practiced both in the Arab world and Ottoman Turkey, albeit with different names and characteristics: “In Arabic they are called musawwada (A. blackened); while in Turkish they are referred to as karalama, a verbal noun from the Turkish kara (T. black)” (Ekhtiar, 2006, p. 107). However, the way in which they are practiced is different in Iran, Turkey, and in the Arab world; for example, in Iran sı̄yāh-mashq is mostly done in nasta’liq or shikastih scripts. Moreover, the Iranian examples are usually more spontaneous and are most often the result of pure improvisation (Serikoff, 2007, p. 19). 28  Booth-Clibborn and Pūrjavādı̄ (2001, p.  36) believe that the equal of sı̄yāh-mashq in Western art would be the word “study,” and compare it to the study sketches of such artists as “Carpaccio, Pisanello, Signorelli, Pollaioulo [sic] and Michelangelo, who developed their

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mashq, calligraphers could determine the composition of the final work to tune the quality of the ink, become familiar with the stiffness of the reed pen, try out different shapes and sizes of the letters and words, and finally warm up their hands to render the final work. All these preparatory steps were achieved by repeatedly inscribing single letters and words on white paper. Doing so, the calligrapher would use different areas of the paper, and would even rotate the paper several times to make the most of one single sheet. Generally speaking, the result of these exercises would be a heavily worked piece of paper with many black letters and words, which would usually only leave a few white areas on the sheet (see Fig. 3.10). For this reason it is called sı̄yāh-mashq, or black exercise. Although sı̄yāh-mashq was originally the exercise pages of traditional scribes, it later evolved into an art form in its own right and became a col-

Fig. 3.10  Two pages of sı̄yāh-mashq, unknown artist, most likely nineteenth century. (Source: Alamy Stock Photos) paintings by a series of drawings in which their personal vision and artistic power are conspicuous.”

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lectible artifact (Keyghobadi, 2012, p. 14). In fact, many of the pages of sı̄yāh-mashq were created not as preparatory exercises but solely for the sake of artistic expression. In most of the artistic examples of sı̄yāh-mashq, form and technique trump semantics, rendering the text secondary to the formal aspects of the work. As can be seen in the examples depicted in Fig.  3.10, sı̄yāh-mashq pages comprise single letters or combinations of letters or words that are repeatedly inscribed, usually in an irregular order. Calligraphic forms most often overlap on a page of sı̄yāh-mashq (as in this work), thus giving the composition “a strikingly abstract quality,” as Ekhtiar (2006, p. 114) puts it. Such arrangement and repetition of letters invokes a sense of rhythm and vitality. Indeed, sı̄yāh-mashq pages are usually very dynamic because of the arrangement of calligraphic forms,29 the repetition of similar penstrokes, and the overlapping of letters and words, which give them an almost symphonic quality.30 Indeed, many specimens of sı̄yāh-mashq are seemingly alive; they seem to be animated even though their calligraphic forms are fixed. They are proto-animated, in that a kinesthetic force and a rhythmic impulse are inherent in most of them. It is perhaps for this reason that the genre of sı̄yāh-mashq has been extensively compared to dynamic art forms such as dance and music. This kinesthetic vitality suggested through the rhythmic arrangement of calligraphic forms over a page reappears in neo-calligraphic works. Contemporary artists experimenting with Islamic calligraphy have been able to evoke the kinesthetic sense and the feeling of dynamism more freely, as they are not restricted by calligraphic rules and also are usually not much concerned with the legibility and readability of the textual content. They also enjoy more diversity of media and techniques, and thus are not restricted to the traditional instruments of writing, namely reed pen and ink. As a result, the kinesthetic vitality of Islamic calligraphy reemerges in neo-calligraphy more bluntly. Indeed, in most neo-calligraphic works repetition and rhythm are the most conspicuous visual elements. So often, letters and words in neo-calligraphy are treated as purely abstract forms and are used only for the sake of their formal qualities. In such cases, they become visual elements that are meant to affect the viewer aesthetically 29  This dynamism is particularly evident in those pages of sı̄yāh-mashq performed in nasta’liq and shikastih script, in which the fluidity of the forms comes to enhance the rhythm induced through the repetition of forms. 30  Musical analogies are quite often used in describing sı̄yāh-mashq pages. Barakat (2004, p. 31), for example, compares a page of sı̄yāh-mashq to an orchestra of musicians rehearsing prior to the full symphony.

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rather than conveying any semantic content. Therefore, artists enjoy tremendous freedom in organizing calligraphic forms in their neo-calligraphic compositions, largely because calligraphy becomes liberated from the script’s role as transparent signifier in most of them. For this reason, examples of neo-calligraphic works in which rhythm and movement are created through the arrangement and repetition of calligraphic forms are plentiful. Let us here review a number of such neo-calligraphic works. Rhythmic movement is induced through the repetition and arrangement of calligraphic forms in a calligraphic painting by Reza Mafi (1943–1982) (see Fig. 3.11). In this painting, which is clearly inspired by sı̄ yāh-mashq specimens, some letters and combinations of letters are

Fig. 3.11  Reza Mafi, Untitled, 1974, ink and oil on canvas, 99.06 × 76.2 cm. (Source: Kiani & Kamarei, 2012)

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Fig. 3.12  Babak Rashvand, Lightness and Darkness, 2011, acrylic on canvas, 100 × 100 cm. (Image courtesy of Babak Rashvand)

repeatedly painted over each other and in different directions. The letter qāf (‫ )ق‬is predominant in this painting, and its repetition across the page on curved trajectories creates rhythm and bestows a sense of dynamism on the whole composition. This painting is uncannily proto-animation, as if it has recorded the movements of the letters over time—like multiple-­ exposure photography or stroboscopic motion photography that captures the movements of objects over a period of time and superimposes them in one single image. Likewise, Mafi’s painting, as can be seen in the image, seems to be the depiction of the movements of the letter qāf and other letters as they are dancing around over a period of time. The calligraphic paintings of the Iranian artist Babak Rashvand (b. 1980) are similarly enlivened with a dynamic impulse created by the repetition of calligraphic forms and their rhythmic arrangement over the

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page. In Lightness and Darkness (2011), letters and calligraphic forms in various tonalities of gray huddle together and create a rhythmic texture (see Fig. 3.12). Here again, letters lose their semantic function as linguistic symbols and are treated as mere visual elements. The amalgamation of different letters and other calligraphic elements along with the subtle alterations in their directions, sizes, and tones give this painting a random rhythm that constantly redirects the eyes of the viewer over the canvas. Looking at this work at its original size, the eyes of a viewer constantly move over the piece to follow its forms, letters, motifs, and patterns. Calligraphic forms and letters in this painting seem to be alive; they appear to be filled with kinesthetic energy and seem willing to be animated.

Kinesthetic Behaviors In kinetic behaviors, as discussed in the previous chapter, the shape of the calligraphic line is intact, and therefore the calligraphic form itself may be perceived to be fixed (though the relationship between calligraphic forms and thus the overall composition may change). Such a temporal event is based on the assumption that motion can affect the relationship between calligraphic forms but not their individual shapes (or their calligraphic lines). The calligraphic line of Islamic calligraphy, however, as discussed, is charged with kinesthetic energy. It aspires to change shape, becoming enlivened and animated. In time-based media, this kinesthetic aspiration may come true, and the calligraphic line may become a fluid line that moves and changes freely and fluently. Kinetic behaviors do not allow for such temporal events, as they do not provide the possibility to change the shape of the calligraphic line. Clearly, calligraphic forms may display this type of temporal behavior in visual timebased media. As we have seen in this chapter, many calligraphic pieces and neo-­ calligraphic works suggest a kinesthetic energy and a sense of dynamism. We have seen that the calligraphic line of Islamic calligraphy, like any other line, has a kinesthetic potentiality that can be activated. The calligraphic line in many specimens of Islamic calligraphy and neo-calligraphy seems to be vitalized with a kinesthetic force, as if ready to release the energy with which it has been imbued. Likewise in sı̄yāh-mashq specimens and in many neo-calligraphic artworks, the composition suggests a strong dynamic feel,

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as if it is renditions of motion that have been captured over time. In these different artworks, calligraphy portrays a desire to release its kinesthetic energy, becoming dynamic, fluid, and animated. One could argue that Islamic calligraphy with these kinesthetic ambitions is proto-animation. Yet in all these examples the kinesthetic qualities of calligraphic forms and compositions are restricted within the atemporal boundaries of their static media. Visual time-based media such as animation, on the other hand, provide the possibility of liberating these forces of proto-animation over time. The dynamic capabilities of such time-based media come to manifest the inherent kinesthetic qualities of various calligraphic practices and allow artists and designers to think about temporal calligraphic artworks and animated Arabic typography that manifest these dynamic forces over time. As discussed, the kinesthetic energy retained in the calligraphic line of Islamic calligraphy suggests motion along the trajectory of the line. While in calligraphy and neo-calligraphy this kinesthetic quality is only suggested and cannot literally take place, it informs a variety of temporal behaviors for Arabic script in time-based media. Because of this link, this variety of temporal events will be called kinesthetic behaviors here. They may be described as any motion or change that takes place along the trajectory of the calligraphic line. One may think of such temporal behaviors as akin to the motion of a calligrapher’s hand as the reed pen is moved over the page. In other words, it may be considered the motion latent in the paper now being reconstructed over time in animation or other visual time-­ based media. The motion along the calligraphic line is an important and interesting kind of temporal behavior that well suits the specificity of Arabic script, especially because of the continuity of the calligraphic line in Islamic calligraphy. It is a very fascinating temporal behavior in animation and temporal typography particularly if its timing is well designed.31 As mentioned above, it is a type of temporal behavior that is directly derived from the kinesthetic sense of calligraphy, and thus is capable of indexing the fluidity of the calligraphic line that can be perceived in various specimens of Islamic calligraphy and neo-calligraphy. Kinesthetic behavior, therefore, revitalizes the kinesthetic motion of the calligraphic line, the motion embedded in 31  Timing is of course a crucial factor in animation in general. It is what “gives meaning to movement” (Whitaker & Halas, 2004, p. 12); it is what makes movement more than mere movement and makes it appealing. Movement along the calligraphic line can become appealing through proper timing.

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Fig. 3.13  Four consecutive frames from a short video by the author, showing the motion along the calligraphic line. This motion is akin to the movements of the pen that register the calligraphic shapes on paper (see Video 3.1). (© M. Javad Khajavi)

the page by the movement of the pen. Examples of this kind of motion can be found on this book’s website (www.animatedcalligraphy.com). Some of the consecutive frames from a short video that portrays this type of behavior may be seen in Fig. 3.13 (see Video 3.1). As is evident in this image, the motion of the calligraphic line affects the shape of the verbal unit in question, revealing it over time. This type of temporal behavior is distinct from kinetic behaviors as the calligraphic line is being affected in it. Another example of kinesthetic behavior is Arabica, a collection of animated typefaces that are available online for interested individuals and practitioners to purchase.32 They have been created as individual compositions in After Effects. This animated typeface  can be used by motion graphics designers and other practitioners who work with Arabic text. Kinesthetic behaviors can be manifested in different ways. The examples mentioned above, in which letters and words appear and remain on screen through a kinesthetic motion, are only one variety of such behavior. Another form of kinesthetic behavior is when the motion along the trajectory of the calligraphic line creates a trace that does not remain on the 32  A video sample of the animated typeface can be found at the following link: https://videohive.net/item/arabica-animated-arabic-typeface/10062361 (Accessed March 18, 2019).

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Fig. 3.14  Stills from the short animation The Third Script (2017). In this part of the animation, calligraphic forms, letters, and words appear through kinesthetic motion. The trace of the motion that remains on the screen in this process is akin to the process of writing calligraphy on paper (see Video 3.2). (© M. Javad Khajavi)

screen. To better understand the difference between these variations, it is useful to refer to a calligraphic animation titled The Third Script (Mohammad Javad Khajavi, 2017). This animation is a celebration of the kinesthetic and dance-like qualities in Islamic calligraphy, and therefore contains a variety of kinesthetic behaviors. Close observation of these reveals variations in the motion along the trajectory of the calligraphic line. Sometimes this type of motion creates a trace that remains on the screen for a while, thus fully depicting a calligraphic form, letter, or word. For instance, in part of the animation depicted in Fig.  3.14 (see Video 3.2), calligraphic forms, letters, and words appear through kinesthetic motion. In fact, they come into being as the trace of this motion remains on the screen, similar to the process of inscribing where the trace of the motion of the reed pen is recorded on the paper. Meanwhile, at other times, when the trace of the motion along the trajectory of calligraphic line does not remain on the screen, we observe a variation of kinesthetic behavior. The result of such a variation is that the shape of the letter or word in question cannot be completely seen at any time. One example of this variation of kinesthetic behavior can be seen in Fig. 3.15 (see

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Fig. 3.15  Stills from the animated film The Third Script (2017). In this part of the animation, the trace of the motion along the calligraphic line does not remain on the screen, giving the impression of a moving calligraphic line that conforms to the shape of a calligraphic form. As a result, the shape of the calligraphic form cannot be completely seen in any single frame of the animation (see Video 3.3). (© M. Javad Khajavi)

Video 3.3), which displays frames from part of the animation. Here we also observe motion along the trajectory of the calligraphic line. However, unlike the kinesthetic behavior depicted in Fig. 3.14, the trace of this motion does not remain long on the screen. Therefore, what we see is actually a line that moves in two-dimensional space while conforming to the shape of a calligraphic form along its path of movement. Since the trace of this motion does not remain on the screen, the shape of the whole calligraphic form is not visible at any point. Consequently, when we look at the single frames of the animation (as displayed in Fig. 3.15), we cannot see a depiction of the

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whole calligraphic form. In fact, in this variation of kinesthetic behavior, the calligraphic forms, letters, or words are visible to the viewer only when the animation is playing. Throughout the animation, these two different variations of kinesthetic behavior are observable, and each time the trace of the calligraphic line remains on the screen for a different duration of time. The use of these different variations in kinesthetic behavior in this animation prevents this temporal behavior from becoming repetitive and boring. Besides these two, other variations of kinesthetic behavior are imaginable. As a matter of fact, following the definition of kinesthetic behavior as any kind of motion that takes place along the trajectory of calligraphic line, one can think of alternative forms of kinesthetic events. While in the two variations explained above letters and words appear as a result of kinesthetic motion, other temporal events can be thought of in which the existence of calligraphic forms on screen are independent from the kinesthetic behavior represented. One example of such a behavior can be seen in a time-based calligraphic installation by the author titled The Passion of Love (Mohammad Javad Khajavi 2016). This time-based installation is a calligraphic sculpture on which animated visuals are projected using a projection mapping software. At some points during this time-based installation, the calligraphic forms are highlighted with the kinesthetic motion of colored visuals as they are projected onto the sculpture (see Fig. 3.16 and Video 6.8). In this example, the existence of the calligraphic forms (i.e. words) are independent of the kinesthetic motion projected onto them, since these words already exist on the sculpture as threedimensional objects. Indeed, the kinesthetic behavior of the animated visuals only highlights the calligraphic forms and directs the viewer’s gaze on the sculpture. This variation of kinesthetic behavior has applications, particularly in motion graphics and temporal typography, where it can be used as a way to emphasize certain words in a phrase, sentence, or composition. In addition, it may be used to control the viewers’ attention and reading speed. The kinesthetic behaviors discussed so far are informed by the kinesthetic energy retained in the calligraphic line. But we have seen in the previous sections that in many specimens of Islamic calligraphy and neo-­ calligraphic art kinesthetic quality is also suggested through repetition and rhythmic arrangement of calligraphic forms. This quality in turn informs a different kinesthetic behavior, which takes place at the level of composi-

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Fig. 3.16  The Passion of Love, 2016, Time-based calligraphic installation (projection mapping on calligraphic sculpture), one minute animation loop, 90 × 60 cm. The animated visuals projected onto the sculpture show an example of kinesthetic behavior and highlight the words along the trajectory of their calligraphic lines (see Video 6.8). (© M. Javad Khajavi)

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tion rather than individual verbal units. As a result, this behavior is called kinesthetic composition in this book.

Kinesthetic Compositions We have seen in this chapter that specific arrangements of calligraphic forms in a composition can create a visual structure that induces a sense of rhythm and movement. This effect also holds true in time-based calligraphic art. In animation, calligraphic forms can be organized in the four-­ dimensional field (space and time) such that their successive motion or change produces a dynamic composition that fluidly moves or changes over time. Such a temporal behavior is called kinesthetic composition here, as it is directly informed by the kinesthetic quality of such calligraphic compositions as sı̄yāh-mashq and similar neo-calligraphic pieces. To understand what this term identifies, it is useful to study a scene from the previously mentioned animated short The Third Script. Figure 3.17 shows frames from part of the animation that showcases kinesthetic composition. This scene of the animation shows a calligraphic composition that changes over time because of the kinesthetic behavior of its individual calligraphic elements (see Video 3.4). Meanwhile, the movement of this composition has a sense of flow, which is created as a result of the successive motions in the individual calligraphic elements, the letters bā’ (‫ )ب‬and sı̄ n (‫)س‬. These single letters display the same type of motion individually, namely kinesthetic behavior. Meanwhile, they are arranged within the spatiotemporal composition (i.e. the four-dimensional field) in a successive manner so that their individual temporal behaviors are seen collectively. This collective perception induces the feeling that the composition is moving fluidly in an upward direction (see the diagram in Fig. 3.17). While calligraphic forms do not displace in this short video, the overall composition displays motion, as if the whole pattern moves rhythmically and fluidly in an upward direction. Hence, in this sense, it is the arrangement of the calligraphic forms within the spatiotemporal composition that creates the flowing effect of motion. In other words, it is because of the location of calligraphic elements in space and their successive placement on the timeline that this kinesthetic quality and sense of flow is produced. It is important to note that this fluid and rhythmic motion of the composition is not the same as the motion of the individual letters. In fact, close observation of this scene shows that the perceived motion of the composition does not flow

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Fig. 3.17  Top: Stills from a scene in the animated short film The Third Script (2017). Bottom: Diagram showing the directions of the two different types of motion in this scene. The directions of the kinesthetic behavior of the individual letterforms and the direction of the motion induced by their successive arrangement in space and time (which created the kinesthetic composition) can be seen in the diagram. (© M. Javad Khajavi)

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in the same direction as the motion of the individual letters. The diagram in Fig. 3.17 illustrates this, showing that the two types of temporal behaviors that exist in this scene (i.e. kinesthetic behavior in the individual letterforms and the motion of the composition) are independent and happen in different, almost perpendicular, directions. The same type of temporal behavior (i.e. kinesthetic composition) is used in other parts of the animation The Third Script (2017), sometimes creating far more complex patterns of movement. In fact, kinesthetic compositions can be observed throughout the animation, which is partly responsible for the feeling of flow that permeates every aspect of the film. To further clarify the meaning of kinesthetic composition, it is useful to think about this kind of flowing motion (and the technique that creates this effect) in terms of what is usually known as a “Mexican wave.” This, briefly, is an effect created by successive sections of a crowd, usually in a stadium, standing up and then sitting down again (or raising their arms and lowering them), which resembles a moving wave (Fig.  3.18). The Mexican wave gives a flowing motion to a crowd of people through the successive motion of the individuals, but what is interesting about the technique is that the individuals involved in a Mexican wave do not technically change position, they only stand up and sit down. When this simple individual action is performed successively and in an organized way, a flowing wave is created. This effect is similar to what happens in a kinesthetic composition. What matters most is that the motion or change displayed by each individual element occurs in the right place and at the right moment. In other words, it is the arrangement of the individual elements in the four-dimensional field (i.e. spatiotemporal composition) that produces the effect of fluidity and makes the structure a kinesthetic composition. In Chap. 2 we saw that in a static composition calligraphic elements do not undergo change or move in relation to each other. Although the whole composition may move in reference to the frame of the screen, it is not actually dynamic. Conversely, in a kinetic composition, calligraphic elements move in relation to each other, consequently rendering the whole composition kinetic. As a result, the visual structure of the calligraphic or typographic composition changes over time in a kinetic composition. Unlike a kinetic composition, a kinesthetic composition has a dance-like quality and a sense of flow that are akin to the kinesthetic vitality that exists in many sı̄yāh-mashq specimens. So, although kinetic and kinesthetic compositions are similar in the sense that they both appear as

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Fig. 3.18  The mechanism of motion in a Mexican wave. The Mexican wave embodies a sense of flow and is produced when individuals who are adjacent to each other successively stand up and sit or raise and then lower their hands. (© M. Javad Khajavi)

dynamic and changing, a kinesthetic composition is enlivened with a sense of flow and energy that does not exist in kinetic compositions.

Legibility and Readability Legibility was defined in Chap. 2 as how easy or difficult it is to recognize a verbal unit. We have seen that kinetic behaviors such as translation, rotation, and scale do not affect legibility because the shape and the identity of a verbal unit that features such temporal events is preserved. Therefore, the verbal unit is identifiable at any moment in time. The story, however, is quite different for verbal units that display kinesthetic behaviors. Indeed, the legibility of verbal units may be affected by such temporal events. This is clearly because kinesthetic behaviors can delay recognition of verbal

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units, since in many cases such temporal events gradually reveal the identity of calligraphic forms. Let us revert to the first example of kinesthetic behavior presented in this chapter (Fig. 3.13 and Video 3.1) for further clarification. In this example, a Persian phrase (part of a verse of a poem) appears on screen through a kinesthetic behavior (a movement along the trajectory of the calligraphic line) and stays on the screen. As this kinesthetic behavior gradually reveals the calligraphic forms that shape the individual words of this phrase, its verbal units become legible one after the other. In fact, if one stops the animation and looks at an individual frame, for instance frame 2  in Fig.  3.13, one will notice that the verbal unit, whose calligraphic forms are not yet fully revealed, is not legible. Therefore, the legibility of the individual verbal units that display a kinesthetic behavior like this is a function of time. Hence, kinesthetic behaviors can actually be used as a way to control the rate at which viewers can recognize individual verbal units. Since this is an essential part of reading text, kinesthetic behaviors can be used to control the speed of reading. Although kinesthetic behaviors do not directly affect readability, they influence it through affecting the legibility of the individual verbal units. This indirect influence, of course, is because readability is dependent on legibility to a large extent, as mentioned in the previous chapter. Thus, kinesthetic behaviors are useful when it comes to controlling the speed of reading. Through such behaviors, a practitioner can slow down or accelerate the viewers’ speed of reading. This means, for instance, that an artist or designer can make viewers pay more attention to particular parts of a text. The same can be achieved through those kinesthetic behaviors in which the appearance of the calligraphic forms is not dependent on motion along the calligraphic line. An example of such a kinesthetic behavior is when a color trace moves along the trajectory of the calligraphic line and over an already existing verbal unit, highlighting its calligraphic form. Such a temporal event can also direct the viewers’ attention to certain verbal units on the screen.

References Barakat, H.  N. (2004). Rhythm and verses: Masterpieces of Persian calligraphy. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Islamic Arts Museum Malaysia. Bartelt, D. (2006). Script doctors: Religious mandates from the government, military threats from the United States—It’s all in a day’s work for Iran’s increasingly visible designers, calligraphers, and typographers. Print, 60(1), 78–83.

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Moustafa, A., & Sperl, S. (2014). The cosmic script: Sacred geometry and the science of Arabic penmanship (Vol. 1). London: Thames & Hudson. Osborn, J. R. (2008). The type of calligraphy: Writing, print, and technologies of the Arabic alphabet. Doctoral dissertation, University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA.  Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global (Order No. 3304007). Petherbridge, D. (2010). The primacy of drawing: Histories and theories of practice. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Rawson, P.  S. (1987). Drawing (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Roxburgh, D. J. (2008). “The eye is favored for seeing the writing’s form”: On the sensual and the sensuous in Islamic calligraphy. Muqarnas, 25(1), 275–298. Safwat, N. F. (1996). The art of the pen: Calligraphy of the 14th to 20th centuries. London: Nour Foundation in association with Azimuth Editions and Oxford University Press. Safwat, N. F., Fehèrvàri, G., & Zakariya, M. (1997). The harmony of letters: Islamic calligraphy from the Tareq Rajab Museum. Singapore, Singapore: The National Heritage Board. Schimmel, A. (1990). Calligraphy and Islamic culture. London: I.B. Tauris. Serikoff, N. (Ed.). (2007). Islamic calligraphy from the Wellcome Library. Chicago: Serindia. Shabout, N. M. (2007). Modern Arab art: Formation of Arab aesthetics. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. Shay, A. (1998). In search of traces: Linkages of dance and visual and performative expression in the Iranian world. Visual Anthropology, 10(2–4), 334–360. https://doi.org/10.1080/08949468.1998.9966738. Shay, A. (1999). Choreophobia: Solo improvised dance in the Iranian world. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda. Shı̄rchı̄, I. (2000). usūl va mabāniy-i khat-i Iran 1: taʿlim-i khat-i shikastih nastaʿliq [The principles of Iranian calligraphy 1: Shikastih script]. Tehran, Iran: Gūyā. Ünlüer, A.  A., & Özcan, O. (2010). Sound and silence in the line: Re-reading Turkish Islamic calligraphy for interactive media design. Leonardo, 43(5), 450–456. Welch, A. (1979). Calligraphy in the arts of the Muslim world. Folkestone, UK: Dawson. Whitaker, H., & Halas, J. (2004). Timing for animation. Oxford, UK: Focal Press. Yamini-Hamedani, A. (2008). Waves of translation: Goethe, Hafez, Nietzsche, Zoroaster. Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, CA. Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global (Order No. 3353359). Zakariya, M. (1979). The calligraphy of Islam: Reflections on the state of the art. Washington, DC: Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, Georgetown University.

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Zakariya, M. (1991). Islamic calligraphy: A technical overview. In C.  G. Fisher (Ed.), Brocade of the pen: The art of Islamic writing. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University. Zeng, Y. (1971). Chinese calligraphy. Boston: David R. Godine in association with Philadelphia Museum of Art.

CHAPTER 4

Plasmatic Behaviors

Plasmaticness: The Malleability of the Calligraphic Line It was explained in Chap. 3 that in many specimens of Islamic calligraphy the calligraphic line may suggest a sense of movement; it may become a fluid line full of kinesthetic energy and dynamism, and it may index the motion that has created it. Although calligraphic forms in such specimens do not literally move, they embody a kinesthetic force. This kinesthetic quality that many pieces of Islamic calligraphy invoke may be described as proto-animated. Yet the calligraphic line of Islamic calligraphy may also be considered proto-animated from another standpoint, namely because it exhibits elastoplastic behavior.1 In Islamic calligraphy, letters tend to be, to use Khatibi and Sijelmassi’s (1995) word, “malleable” (p.  191). Calligraphic forms take different shapes even within the same sample of calligraphy or calligraphic art. In other words, the calligraphic line of Islamic calligraphy seems to be ready to deform and take up various shapes, as we shall shortly see. Drawing upon Sergei Eisenstein’s theory of the plasmatic, this elastoplastic behavior of the calligraphic line of Islamic calligraphy is described as “plasmatic” 1  In physics, elastoplastic behavior relates to the state of stress in which a material exhibits both elastic (i.e. deformation that is reversible) and plastic (i.e. non-reversible deformation) properties.

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in this book. The world-renowned Soviet filmmaker and theorist Sergei Eisenstein became interested in the animated works from the Walt Disney Studios after being introduced to Hollywood’s culture. After he visited the Walt Disney Studios in the early 1940s, the animated films of the studios became the subject of many of his studies and some of his writings. In his writings on Disney from 1941, which were later collected and published by Jay Leyda, Eisenstein argued that one of the reasons for the attractiveness of the studios’ early animated films was their sense of “plasmaticness” (Furniss, 2007, p.  77), which he defines as “a rejection of once-and-forever allotted form, freedom from ossification, the ability to dynamically assume any form” (Eisenstein, 1986, p. 21). He derived the term “plasmatic” from primal protoplasm, cell-like amoebas that have the ability to infinitely change shape. Eisenstein explained plasmaticness as the characteristic of a being that was of a definite form, but which was ready to mercurially shift shape. He elucidated that this being, which in Disney’s animated films has been represented in drawing, seems to attain a definite appearance or form, yet behaves like primal protoplasm. It does not possess a stable form, “but capable of assuming any form, skipping along the rungs of the evolutionary ladder, attaches itself to any and all forms of animal existence” (Eisenstein, 1986, p. 21). He elaborates succinctly on plasmaticness by exemplifying the animated figure of Mickey Mouse in one of Disney’s Silly Symphonies2: Mickey starts to sing, his hands folded together. The hands echo the music as only the movements of Disney’s characters are capable of echoing a melody. And then reaching for a high note, the arms shoot up far beyond the limits of their normal representation. In tone to the music, they stretch far beyond the length allotted to them. The necks of his surprised horses stretch the same way, or their legs become extended when running. (Eisenstein, 1986, p. 10)

So, for an animated thing to be plasmatic in Eisenstein’s terms, its shape should exhibit elastoplastic behavior. It should be like Tom in Hanna and Barbera’s famous animated series Tom & Jerry, squashing to become like a round flat coin for one moment and then stretching out to his fullest extent like an accordion. Plasmaticness, in other words, is the fluidity of the form grounded in the freedom of the drawn line. It is what renders a 2  A series of animated short films produced by Walt Disney between 1929 and 1939 (Bendazzi, 2016, p. 98).

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thing as unfixed and mercurially enlivens it. One may observe that the ­calligraphic line of Islamic calligraphy also exhibits plasmatic behavior. As we shall see, the plasmatic qualities of Islamic calligraphy are rooted in the morphology of the Arabic script (the fact that the shapes of letters in Arabic script are context-dependent) and also in the aesthetic decisions made by calligraphers. The following sections provide examples that elaborate on these plasmatic qualities.3

Elastoplastic Qualities of Arabic Letterforms As has already been explained, one of the characteristics of Arabic script is that letters should usually physically connect to each other in order to construct a word. We have seen that as a result of this letters may have up to four different shapes depending on their places within a word: independent, initial, medial, and final (see Fig. 3.2). This quality of Arabic script means that a letter (or calligraphic form) may have different shapes even on the same line (or page) of calligraphy. For anyone new to Arabic script, this shape-shifting quality of the alphabet is probably confusing. Someone new to the script will be baffled to observe that the same letter in Arabic script may take one form in a word and then take up another form in a different word; the shapes of letters constantly change, even on a single page of Islamic calligraphy. The calligraphic piece shown in Fig. 4.1 is an example of such changes. Three lines of religious text are illustrated. The letter ‘ayn (‫ )ع‬can be seen on every line. On the first it appears twice in its initial form (only one of these appearances is highlighted in the image). On the second, the letter is visible in a different shape because it is written in its medial form, while on the third it can be seen in its final form.

3  Eisenstein’s definition of the term “plasmatic,” as clearly elaborated by scholars such as Solomon (2000) and Brownie (2015), includes any form of shape-shifting temporal behavior, and also applies to those instances in which a form changes shape so extensively that it completely loses its initial identity and becomes something else. However, in this book the term only refers to forms that undergo changes in their shape but do not distort to the extent of losing their essence and identity. In other words, the term is used to refer to verbal units that, while shifting shape, preserve their identity. Therefore, the plasmatic quality that is intended here is, in fact, a conditioned plasmaticness. However, for the sake of simplicity the term “plasmatic” is used. Meanwhile, as can be seen in Chap. 5, the term “transformative” is used to refer to those verbal units that undergo extensive change in their shapes so that they completely lose their initial identity and become something else.

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Fig. 4.1  Part of a page of muaraqqa’āt signed by ʿAbdallah, dated 1675–1676. The letter ‘ayn (in blue) appears in three forms (initial, medial, and final) on this page of Islamic calligraphy. (Source: Safwat, 1996)

The shape of a letter in Arabic script is therefore context-dependent and varies according to its place within a word. Further, in Islamic calligraphy the shape of a letter may also depend on the letter that comes before it or the one that follows it.4 This differs from the change in the shape of a letter depending on its place within a word. To clarify, it is useful to imagine a letter that comes at the beginning of a word (which means that it appears in its initial form). Generally speaking, in Islamic calligraphy (and not necessarily in typography and print) the shape of this letter may change based on the letter that follows it. After all, it is supposed to ­physically connect to the next letter, and thus the penstroke that leaves it should be ready to link to the initial penstroke of the next letter. Therefore, its shape depends on the letter that follows it. This, of course, may not be the case in typography, especially if prefabricated typefaces are used and the letters originate from the keyboard instead of being rendered by an individual practitioner. Figure 4.2 illustrates this shape-shifting quality of Arabic letters: the letter ḥā’ (‫( )ح‬highlighted in blue) can be seen at the beginning of four different words. Because it sits at the beginning of the 4  It should be mentioned here that this shape-shifting is not the case for all the letters of the alphabet, and also may differ from one script to another.

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Fig. 4.2  In Islamic calligraphy, the shape of letters may shift depending on the letter that precedes or follows them. (© M. Javad Khajavi)

words, it appears in its initial form in all four instances. Nonetheless, its shape is different in each case: the shape of the letter is influenced by the one that comes immediately after it. The reason for this change, as previously explained, is that different letters in Arabic script have different shapes, and so when they need to connect to each other, slight variations in their curves, angles, and strokes may occur.5 Hence, letters in Arabic script and Islamic calligraphy are case sensitive, and their shapes depend on their places within the word as well as on the surrounding letters. For this reason, on a single page of Islamic calligraphy, calligraphic forms and letters constantly take up different shapes, though without losing their essence or legibility. As demonstrated in Fig. 4.2, the letter ḥā’ constantly takes on new forms, and small variations in the curves and penstroke directions are visible in the representation of the letter in these different forms. This quality of Arabic script renders calligraphic forms of Islamic calligraphy plasmatic. It is because of this that, as Marks (2011) attentively observes, while “typing in Arabic, one witnesses a little animated movie in which the letters change shape according to what comes next” (p. 319). She correctly supposes that because Arabic letters shift their shapes depending on the letters that precede or follow them, Islamic calligraphy lends itself well to animation. Yet the plasmatic behavior of calligraphic forms is not confined to these qualities of the Arabic script. Calligraphers also sometimes treat the calligraphic line as an elastoplastic material, like a piece of clay in the hand of a playful child. Thus, another root for calligraphic forms’ plasmatic behavior is the aesthetic decisions made by calligraphers. 5  One of the interesting aspects of the cursive nature of Arabic script is that throughout the centuries calligraphers have developed various ways of connecting one letter to another. In Islamic penmanship, calligraphers learn not only the shape of the letters, but also these different ways of connecting the letters to each other.

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Elastoplastic Qualities of Calligraphic Forms In addition to the above plasmatic behaviors of the letters in Arabic script, letters may take on different shapes based on other contextual factors. Such plasmatic behaviors, however, are style-dependent (i.e. they vary from one script to the other) and may differ in the work of different calligraphers, but they can be observed in most (if not all) the scripts and sometimes even in typography, to some degree. While in some scripts there is less room for such treatment of the calligraphic line, some scripts such as nasta’lı̄q or shikastih are more open to manipulation of the letter shapes. Calligraphic forms in these scripts are very malleable and can easily be deformed depending on the aesthetic requirements of the piece. Examples of letters or calligraphic forms that shift shape for aesthetic reasons are diverse; here, just a few will be mentioned to make the point. Different scripts in Islamic calligraphy (particularly those that have been practiced for centuries, such as the well-known six pens) have been developed, enhanced, and perfected by many calligraphers. During the development of each script, calligraphers have sometimes developed additional shapes for letters (as well as different ways of connecting letters to each other). One example of this development is the elongated form of certain letters in some scripts. These are instances in which a certain calligraphic form—a letter or part of it, such as the tail of certain letters—is calligraphed with a longer stroke than usual. This stylistic elongation means that the calligraphic shape that forms a letter may take a completely different form; this, although not exactly the same as the original letter shape, is recognizable by an observer who is familiar with the script. The letter sı̄ n (‫)س‬, for example, normally has three serrated edges along its trajectory, but when written in its elongated form (in a script such as nasta’lı̄ q, for instance), it loses its edges and becomes a completely swooping stroke, as in Fig. 4.3.

Fig. 4.3  The letter sı̄ n (‫ )س‬in its normal shape (left) and elongated form (right). (© M. Javad Khajavi)

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Fig. 4.4  The letter yā’ (‫ )ی‬in three different shapes in shikastih script: normal shape (left); two elongated forms (right). Aside from these three, it has other shapes in this script. (© M. Javad Khajavi)

Another example is the letter yā’ (‫)ی‬, which has various shapes in different scripts. Figure 4.4 exhibits two other shapes of the letter (aside from its normal shape) in shikastih script. On the left-hand side of the image, the letter yā’ is calligraphed in its normal shape, while the two other forms on the right-hand side show the letter in its elongated forms (in shikastih script, the letter yā’ may appear in other shapes as well, not depicted here). So often, in inscribing a piece of Islamic calligraphy, a calligrapher may execute a letter in its elongated form for various aesthetic reasons. Figure 4.5 depicts an example of a piece of calligraphy with elongated calligraphic forms. In this calligraphic piece, which belongs to a category of works known in Persian as chalı̄pā, in which two verses of poetry are written diagonally, some of the letters are written with longer strokes (highlighted in blue in the figure) than required to render the letter. Such elongations are commonly executed for various reasons, including but not limited to keeping the length of sentences equal, maintaining the visual balance between long and short strokes, engendering rhythm in the whole piece, and so forth. Elongations render calligraphic forms plasmatic, as if the calligraphic line has elastoplastic qualities and can easily be stretched and deformed. As a result of aesthetic decisions, the same word sometimes appears in slightly different shapes in one single work of calligraphy. For instance, in Fig. 4.6 the word tawfı̄ q (A. success), which appears twice in the piece, is written in two slightly different shapes (part of the word is highlighted in blue in the figure). On the first line, the word is inscribed in its normal shape, size, and proportion. However, on the second line, the letter fā’ (‫—)ف‬which is the third letter in the word and the first highlighted letter— is rendered in an elongated way (as if written in its independent form), and thus the word is seemingly stretched along the horizontal orientation of the piece. To an animator’s eyes, these two forms of the same word may

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Fig. 4.5  Album leaf (muraqqa’) of nasta’liq signed by Imad al-Hassani (Mir Imad al-Mulk Qazvini Hassani), Qazvin, Iran, ink, watercolor, and gold on paper, 1600. Aga Khan Museum, Toronto, Canada. Elongated penstrokes are highlighted in blue. (Source: Alamy Stock Photos)

seem to be two key frames of an animation in which the calligraphic line gradually stretches. These few examples show that calligraphic forms in Islamic calligraphy are not fixed; on the contrary, they are shape-shifting entities. In all the above situations, letters (or calligraphic forms, we should say) display mercurial behavior. They are malleable and plastic in that they can deform and conform to the desired contours. In fact, all these different variations in the shape of letters render calligraphic forms plasmatic elements. Hence,

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Fig. 4.6  Part of a Mufradāt album signed by Mehmed Şevki, dated 1866–1867. The word tawfı̄q, which appears twice in the piece, is written differently with a slight modification in its shape in the second line. The letter fā’ (the first letter in the highlighted part of the word) is rendered in its full independent form in the second line. (Source: Safwat, 1996)

in Arabic script letters shift shape according to their places within a word and depending on the letters that connect to them. Their shapes may also change slightly as a result of aesthetic decisions made by calligraphers. These plasmatic qualities of the calligraphic line of Islamic calligraphy (i.e. the fact that it is malleable and its shape can be manipulated) have been further explored by contemporary artists who experiment with calligraphy. Indeed, in neo-calligraphy the calligraphic line reaches further levels of plasticity and deforms to the extreme. Neo-calligraphic artists reshape and transfigure the calligraphic line in a myriad different ways, free from any sort of confinement by the conventional rules of calligraphy. Calligraphic forms, in their hands, become truly elastoplastic, taking up various forms and shapes. There are many examples of neo-calligraphic art in which letters and words show plasmatic qualities. Perhaps one of the most interesting examples can be found in the works of the famous Iranian sculptor Parviz Tanavoli (b. 1937). The calligraphic line becomes the plasmatic line in his

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famous series of sculptures known as Heech. Throughout the almost 60  years of his career, Tanavoli has created a few hundred of these sculptures,6 in which he has represented the word hı̄ch (P. nothingness) repeatedly in different shapes, colors, materials, sizes, and positions.7 In this series of sculptures—initially made as a protest against the “superficial hype and commercialism of the art world” (Issa et al., 2001, p. 20)—he took the word hı̄ch, originally shaped in nasta’lı̄q script, and experimented with its forms, reshaping it in a variety of ways (Fig. 4.7 displays one of the sculptures from the Heech series). In each one of these sculptures, the body of the letters and the contours of the word are reshaped. Nonetheless, the essence of the word is preserved, and in most of the sculptures the word is easily legible. The plasmaticness of the calligraphic line is well manifested in this series of sculptures, revealing that the calligraphic line does not resist manipulation of its shape. As is evident in the figure, the word hı̄ch seems to enjoy personality and some sort of a life force in Tanavoli’s sculptures. He bestows life and character to his sculptures through his specific treatment of the calligraphic line. It is probably for this reason that Blair (2006) sees one of these sculptures as being like “a crouching cat” (p. 617). In fact, if we look at Tanavoli’s sculptures side by side, it seems that we are looking at an animated cat (i.e. the word hı̄ch), which comes to life and starts to bend, stretch, wag its tail, arch its back, and lie down just like a real cat. Artists such as Parviz Tanavoli have realized that the calligraphic line in Islamic calligraphy is malleable and can be reshaped without losing identity and (most of the time) legibility. Calligraphic forms in their hands are plasmatic, ready to deform and take on various shapes. The plasmatic qualities of the calligraphic line in Islamic calligraphy and neo-calligraphy can inform explorations of the script in visual time-based media. In temporal media such as animation, letters and words can truly become plasmatic, in Eisenstein’s sense of the word, and change shape over time.

6  Tanavoli started experimenting with hı̄ch in the 1960s and continued to do so without pause for a period of nine years. The theme has recurred in his sculptures again and again (Issa, Pākbāz, & Shayegan, 2001; Keshmirshekan, 2013). 7  It is important to know that the word “nothingness” (hı̄ch in Persian) has a deep history in Persian mystical poetry and literature. It implies deeper levels of existence and self-scrutiny.

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Fig. 4.7  Parviz Tanavoli, Red Heech, 2001, fiberglass, 290 × 178 × 286 × 180 cm. The word seems to be plasmatic in Tanavoli’s Heech sculptures; the calligraphic line is elastoplastic in his hands and takes up various shapes. (Reproduced courtesy of Parviz Tanavoli. Source: Alamy Stock Photos)

Plasmatic Behaviors We have seen in this chapter that Arabic script in Islamic calligraphy shows plasmatic qualities and shifts shape in various specimens of traditional calligraphy, as well as in neo-calligraphy. Letters in Arabic script behave like protoplasm, ready to take up different shapes based on their places within the word. Their shapes also seem to be case-sensitive, and shift depending on the letter(s) that connect(s) to them, or based on the aesthetic decisions made by the inscriber or the neo-calligraphic artist. These plasmatic

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qualities of Islamic calligraphy suggest that a single letter or calligraphic form may have different appearances even within the same space. The plasmaticness of the calligraphic line also suggests that although calligraphic forms shift shape, their essences as certain verbal units remain intact (meaning that they remain identifiable as letters or other calligraphic elements, despite the fact that their shapes are not fixed). These plasmatic qualities of Islamic calligraphy inform another category of temporal behavior, known in this book as “plasmatic behaviors.” Plasmatic behaviors, similar to kinesthetic behaviors, entail changes in the contour of the calligraphic line; however, they are distinct from such changes in that they are not motions or changes along the trajectory of the calligraphic line. To clarify, it is useful to note that in plasmatic behaviors the shape of the calligraphic line, and consequently the shape of the verbal unit that it forms, changes over time. On the contrary, in kinesthetic behaviors, the shape of the calligraphic form is intact, but the calligraphic form is revealed  (or gets highlighted) over time, usually giving the impression of a change in the length of the line. Comparing examples of plasmatic behavior with kinesthetic behavior clarifies their difference. CircoGraphic (Farid Yahaghi & Davood Morgan, 2013), a short animation full of plasmatic behaviors, is one such example (see Fig. 4.8 and Video 4.1). It was originally produced to celebrate World Graphic Day, and it aims to acknowledge calligraphic forms as

Fig. 4.8  Farid Yahaghi and Davood Morgan, CircoGraphic (2013) (see Video 4.1). (Image courtesy of Chapchinstudio)

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important and dynamic elements in contemporary Iranian graphic design. In CircoGraphic, letters and words are anthropomorphized into human and animal performers in a circus. The animation takes different letters and words and metamorphoses them into animated characters. While these verbal units are performing in the circus, their shapes undergo changes. In one of the sequences of the film, the alif (‫)� آ‬, the first letter of the alphabet, becomes a girl playing with a hula hoop, for example. Her (the alif’s) ebullient dance requires that its shape constantly changes. This change in the shape of the letter is an example of plasmatic behavior. In this sequence of the animation, the shape of the calligraphic form (the letter alif) changes over time, yet there is no motion along the trajectory of its calligraphic line, and the whole verbal unit is observable at any moment. In another scene from this animation, the letter ḥā’ (‫ )ح‬is converted into a performing horse galloping on the stage, its shape changing as it jumps up and down. Likewise, the letter ‘ayn (‫ )ع‬is anthropomorphized into a magician who exhales fire. When he inhales the air his chest (the tail of the letter) grows, and when he blows it shrinks, hence changing the shape of the letter (see Fig. 4.8). In all these instances, the shapes of the verbal units (in these cases, letters) are elastoplastic; their contours are not fixed but are constantly changing. While they do not display movement along the trajectory of the calligraphic line, as in kinesthetic behaviors, their contours change. Another interesting example of plasmatic behavior is observable in a different sequence of this animation. In this scene, the words ham (‫( )مه‬P. also) and the word sū (‫( )سو‬P. direction) are animated like two acrobats hanging from ropes and swinging in the air. As the two words reach close to each other, their shapes change and they connect, as if the two acrobats are holding each other’s hands (Fig. 4.9 and Video 4.1). The result of this is the creation of a new word, hamsū (‫)مهسو‬, whose closest translation in English is the word “desirable” or “favorable.” It is important to note that the word hamsū in Persian is a compound word created out of the word sū and the prefix ham. To create this compound word, the last letter of the word ham, that is mı̄ m (‫)م‬, should physically connect to the first letter of the word sū, which is sı̄ n (‫)س‬. This requires that both the letters mı̄ m and sı̄ n be written in their medial forms. Meanwhile, these two letters in the words ham and sū are written in their final and initial forms, respectively. As a result, in the animation, when the two words approach to connect to each other (as can be seen in Fig. 4.9), their shapes change from the final and initial

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Fig. 4.9  Farid Yahaghi and Davood Morgan, CircoGraphic (2013). In this scene of the animation, two words in the form of acrobats join as if holding hands and create a new word. Within this process, the shapes of their letters change so that they can physically connect with each other. This type of temporal behavior in which calligraphic forms shift shape is informed by the plasmatic quality of Arabic script (see Video 4.1). (Image courtesy of Chapchinstudio)

l­etterforms to the medial ones. This shift in the shape of the letters is a perfect example of plasmatic behavior.

Legibility and Readability Although in plasmatic behaviors the shape of calligraphic forms changes, their identity is preserved and thus they are recognizable at any time. It can therefore be said that plasmatic behaviors do not affect legibility. For example, as can be observed in the parts of CircoGraphic shown in Fig. 4.8, despite the fact that the shapes of the individual letters change over time their identities are preserved. Therefore, these letters are legible at all moments. Plasmatic behaviors, however, may affect readability. For example, in another part of CircoGraphic, shown in Fig. 4.9, the fact that two letters connect to each other to create a compound word generates a very short lapse in readability, as the viewer adjusts to the new settings of the verbal units. In this case the lapse is infinitesimal, but in other similar

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s­ ituations it may be longer. This may affect reading speed, slowing it down a little bit. So, generally speaking, plasmatic behaviors do not affect legibility as the essence of the verbal units is preserved. Nevertheless, such behaviors may influence readability by slowing down the reading process. However, this influence is probably not very noticeable in most cases.

References Bendazzi, G. (2016). Animation: A world history (Vol. 1). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Blair, S. S. (2006). Islamic calligraphy. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press. Brownie, B. (2015). Transforming type: New directions in kinetic typography. London: Bloomsbury. Eisenstein, S. (1986). Eisenstein on Disney (A. Upchuch, Trans.). Calcutta, India: Seagull Books. Furniss, M. (2007). Art in motion: Animation aesthetics (Rev. ed.). Eastleigh, UK/Bloomington, IN: John Libbey/Distributed in North America by Indiana University Press. Issa, R., Pākbāz, R., & Shayegan, D. (2001). Iranian contemporary art. London: Booth-Clibborn. Keshmirshekan, H. (2013). Contemporary Iranian art: New perspectives. London: Saqi. Khatibi, A., & Sijelmassi, M. (1995). The splendour of Islamic calligraphy. London: Thames & Hudson. Marks, L.  U. (2011). Calligraphic animation: Documenting the invisible. Animation: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 6(3), 307–323. https://doi. org/10.1177/1746847711417930. Safwat, N. F. (1996). The art of the pen: Calligraphy of the 14th to 20th centuries. London: Nour Foundation in association with Azimuth Editions and Oxford University Press. Solomon, M. (2000). Twenty-five heads under one hat: Quick change in the 1890s. In V. Sobchack (Ed.), Meta-morphing: Visual culture and the culture of quick change (pp. 3–20). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

CHAPTER 5

Transformative Behaviors

Letters and Words Break Their Bounds Chapter 4 presented Arabic letters and calligraphic forms in Islamic calligraphy as plasmatic. It was shown that the shapes of Arabic letters are malleable and take up different forms based on context and aesthetic decisions. Meanwhile, various specimens of Islamic calligraphy and neo-­ calligraphy confirm that the plasmaticness of calligraphic forms may yet be pushed to an extreme. Such specimens of calligraphy suggest that the shape of a calligraphic form may change so extensively that it entirely loses its calligraphic or verbal identity and transmutes into something else. As a matter of fact, Islamic calligraphy in its various forms, as Marks (2011) suggests, seems to be “under great pressure from inside to turn into something else” (p. 314). Various specimens of Islamic calligraphy represent the script as an element on the verge of becoming a different thing. Numerous examples of writing, as a few scholars show (Ettinghausen, 1957; Grabar, 1992; Marks, 2010a, 2010b, 2011), depict that Islamic calligraphy, although it is not time-based, seems to transmute into abstract forms or figures and morph back into text again. Indeed, “throughout its history, from Konya to Khartoum, Granada to Samarkand, Islamic art is rife with text trying to become figure … as though the text could not be contained by its own bounds” (Marks, 2010b, p. 267). Let us here review some examples in which calligraphic forms are on the verge of transformation.

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Fig. 5.1  Floriated Kufic inscription on the wall beside the gate of Badr al-Jamali and al-Mustansir, Bab al-Futuh, Cairo, Egypt, 1082. (Source: Alamy Stock Photos)

An example of Islamic calligraphy that desires to transmute into something else can be found in the two scripts known as floriated and foliated Kufic. Kufic was one of the main scripts in use during the first centuries of Islamic civilization (Khatibi & Sijelmassi, 1995). A number of variations were developed in the earlier centuries of Islam.1 Two of these are known as floriated and foliated Kufic. In these scripts, letters are decorated with lobed leaves, palmettes, or other floral motifs (Fehervari, 1970).2 In both scripts, leaves and palmettes seem to grow out of letters, apices, and the ends of vertical strokes, as if seeking light. They appear to branch out and grow into tendrils that stretch and twine around any possible support. Out of these, buds and flowers may bloom, and the whole composition may be covered with foliage and vines (Fig. 5.1). Indeed, calligraphic forms in these scripts attain organic life: they grow into leaves and flowers. Writing about one of these scripts, Marks (2011) explains that “although it does not move (indeed it is often carved in stone), foliated Kufic seems to have an internal life force” (p. 314). In fact, foliated and floriated Kufic represent calligraphy’s desire to break its

 Grohman (1957) lists eight variations for Kufic script.  Although these two scripts are similar in that they are both decorated with floral motifs, Adolf Grohman (1957) differentiates the two, based on the part of the letters from which the leaves seem to grow. He argues that while in foliated Kufic the floral motifs seem to grow from the apices, in floriated Kufic leaves and tendrils may grow from any part of the letters, and foliage and letters seem to be one organic unit. See Grohmann (1957, p. 183) for further clarification. 1 2

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Fig. 5.2  Bowl with inscription and birds, Nishapur, Iran, tenth century. (Image courtesy of Harvard Art Museums: Imaging Department © President and Fellows of Harvard College)

bounds, mutate, and transform into something else, as if aspiring to embody a life of its own. Another example of Islamic calligraphy in which text becomes image and image acts like text, according to Marks (2010b), can be found in the inscriptions on some pottery plates and ceramic bowls from Nishapur, Iran. These ceramic bowls (like the ones in Fig. 5.2) are decorated with words of blessing such as baraka (A. blessing), yumn (A. good fortune), ahmad (A. praise), Allah, and so forth. Written in stylized calligraphy, these words are sometimes difficult to decipher and at times are actually pseudo-writings (Marks, 2010b). Interestingly, on some of these dishes, calligraphic forms are shockingly bird-like,3 such as the script inside the concave of a pottery bowl in which part of the word baraka seems to transform into birds.4 Ettinghausen (1957, p. 357) calls these inscriptions “ornithomorphic” because figures of birds form integral parts of the calligraphic forms. The central parts of some other pieces among these ceramic bowls are decorated with an image of a bird-like creature, which according to Marks resembles the circular ornamental writing on the edge 3  Some art historians argue that this similarity could have been unintentional on some of these bowls. Wilkinson (1973) believes that “although an intentional resemblance cannot be ruled out, it is more likely that the ‘bird’ is often only an accidental effect” (p. 99). 4  See Ettinghausen (1957, p. 360, Fig. 23).

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Fig. 5.3  Painting, Iran, fifteenth century, 45 × 50 cm. Topkapi Saray Museum, Istanbul. (Source: Alamy Stock Photos)

of the dishes. Their only difference, Marks expounds, is that we can read the calligraphy on the rim of the dishes. For her, calligraphy and figurative imagery are equally animated and transitory on these dishes, dreaming to transform to one another as if “birds looking like words; words acting like birds” (Marks, 2010a, p. 227). The last example is an unusual yet astounding painting on paper, most likely from fifteenth-century Timurid Iran (Fig. 5.3).5 The image is a composition of angular motifs, lines, and dots in various colors (black, blue, 5  Other examples of text–image oscillations can be found in various practices of Islamic calligraphy. Some other examples are hilye (calligraphy compositions that describe visual features of the prophet and the like) and gulzar script (a script in which flowers and foliage are painted inside the letters). In this regard, one may also think of a technique known as ghubār, which involves inscribing words in miniature so that the amalgamation of all the words creates larger text, as if a piece of calligraphy unfolds from another piece. See Marks (2010a,

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yellow, etc.) over a crimson background. The composition of these abstract motifs may seem very modern to the contemporary observer. In fact, as Grabar (2009) observes, it very much looks like some twentieth-century modern paintings, particularly the compositional experiments of Piet Mondrian (1872–1944). Nevertheless, Grabar explains that there is another level of meaning to this painting. The angular motifs and lines constitute the name “Ali” (‫)عیل‬, which is rotated in four quadrants and repeated in various colors within the composition. Grabar (1992) suggests that although (to the contemporary observer) this image may seem to depict a purely abstract composition, it is most likely a pious image, commemorating Ali ibn Abı̄ -Tālib, the son-in-law of the Prophet. The written message in this image is not clear (at least is not clear in the same way as the written text in a page of a Qur’an that can be read easily and correctly by any literate person), unless one comprehends that these angular shapes are in fact writing. It is difficult even for people fluent in Arabic to recognize the motifs in this composition as calligraphic,6 let alone people who are not familiar with the language. Hence, the interesting thing about this image is, as Grabar points out, that once one has recognized the motifs as calligraphic, it would be relatively easy to read and understand its pious message. In fact, one may argue that in this painting the calligraphic forms oscillate between being text and purely abstract forms. Stated differently, the Arabic letters (calligraphic forms) in this composition have become stylized, and seem to be on the verge of transformation into abstract motifs. In all the above examples, the calligraphic line of Islamic calligraphy dreams of breaking its bounds, of transforming to the contours of desire and becoming other things (flowers, birds, living creatures, ornaments, etc.). In all these calligraphic artworks, letters and words are under an inner pressure to transmute into something else, argues Marks (2011). Although these calligraphic artworks are not time-based, they represent a desire for transformation. In these specimens of Islamic art, calligraphy is on the verge of metamorphosis, morphing into other things and slipping back to text again. Likewise, calligraphy’s aspiration to transform ­reappears Chapter 8), Safwat (1996, p. 184), Khajavi (2018), and Grabar (1992, Chapter 2) for further examples. 6  One may argue that these motifs are not calligraphic at all and were created to be purely abstract forms. Grabar (1992) refutes this hypothesis, claiming that the fact that this “image deals with writing cannot be contested, since its main subject is a combination of three Arabic letters that spell out a name” (p.  48). Furthermore, similar compositions with the name Ali (or the like) can be found in calligraphic ornaments on the façades of buildings.

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in neo-calligraphy free from any sort of anxiety to preserve the verbal identity of calligraphic forms.

Calligraphic Forms in the Process of Becoming Transformation of calligraphic forms into something other than text can be found in abundance in neo-calligraphic artworks. In neo-calligraphy, artists experience tremendous freedom to deform and reshape calligraphic forms according to the contours of desire. This transformation may even reach the extent to which calligraphic elements become completely devoid of their verbal identity and turn into abstract forms that have only a faint resemblance to calligraphic forms (in such a case, they are not necessarily distinguishable as actual letters or words). In this section, a number of neo-calligraphic works in which letters and words seem to be transforming are examined. Figure 5.4 is a painting by the Syrian artist Mahmoud Hammad (1923–1988). In his calligraphic paintings, of which this is an example, Hammad explores the dynamic essence of the Arabic script through geometrical elementary forms, such as circles, squares, rectangles, and so forth. As an artist who studied art at the Academia di Belle Arti in Rome, Hammad was exposed to Western modern art early on in his career (“Mahmoud Hammad a Syrian Master of Abstract Art (1923–1988),” n.d.). In some of his paintings, the influence of cubism is visible. Indeed, his calligraphic compositions sometimes resemble cubist paintings, particularly those of Georges Braque (1882–1963). Letters and words in his compositions playfully blend elementary geometrical forms. In the 1983 painting shown in Fig. 5.4, for example, abstract forms seem to be converging and transforming into written text, which reads bismillāh-i al-rahmān-i al-rahı̄ m (A. In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful). This painting has a very dynamic composition; to an animator’s eyes it may even look like a frame of an animation in which circles, squares, and other primary geometrical forms gradually join together and transform into letters. They then connect to each other and create words. For instance, on the top right side of the composition, the letters of the word bismi (‫ )بسم‬are broken up into primary square shapes. These squares, varying in height, seem to be in the process of transforming into the letters (bā’ [‫]ب‬, sı̄ n [‫ ]س‬and mı̄ m [‫ )]م‬that constitute the word. Calligraphic forms in this painting truly seem to be in a transitory state, being letters and words in one moment and geometrical abstract forms in another.

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Fig. 5.4  Mahmoud Hammad, Bism Allah Alrahman Alraheem, 1983, oil on canvas, 99  ×  80  cm. (Image courtesy of Lubna Hammad and Barjeel Art Foundation)

Similarly, in some of Mohammad Bozorgi’s compositions, the identity of calligraphic forms oscillates. The Iranian artist Mohammad Bozorgi (b. 1978) is one of the leading artists of the new generation of contemporary calligraphers (McDevitt, 2015). Many of his kaleidoscopic canvases look like cosmic scenes in which words burst out of a central point and emanate into space. Some of his calligraphic paintings are reminiscence of Op Art and evoke the illusion of movement and depth. The words on his canvases have elastic qualities, meaning that they flatten and bend. Bozorgi explains, “to me, words are like molding clay in the hands of a playful child, who curiously touches, smells and shapes it” (McDevitt, 2015, p. 8). In He Will Provide (2015) (see Fig. 5.5), calligraphic forms stretch to the extreme as they hypnotically emanate from a central point, like a dying

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Fig. 5.5  Mohammad Bozorgi, He Will Provide, 2015, thirteen panels, acrylic on canvas, 264 × 575 cm. (Image courtesy of Mohammad Bozorgi)

star emitting cosmic matter. In this multi-canvas composition, comprising 13 hexagonal canvases, the word al-rrazāq (A. provider) is reproduced all over the composition, seemingly pouring out of the center.7 As the words are further distanced from the piece’s nucleus, they tend to stretch and reshape, as if falling within the gravity field of a black hole. In fact, calligraphic forms in this work seem to stretch, as light would behave in the presence of a gravitational force under Einstein’s theory of general relativity. This stretching force continues as the words get further away from the center, distorting the calligraphic forms to the point of complete abstraction and denuding them of any calligraphic identity. Near the borders of the composition, the calligraphic forms seem to constitute a texture of lights and shades that is closer to the ferocious burst of energy representing space-time travel in a science fiction movie than to any kind of calligraphic composition. His work is unique in that it lets us see the process of transformation as the words move away from the center of the artwork. In this process, the identities of the calligraphic forms gradually change until they completely lose their calligraphic identity. In the examples mentioned, calligraphic forms seem not to be bound by their conventional casts; they may deform, distort, and even transmute into something different. Indeed, in such instances the calligraphic line of 7

 This is one of the many names of God in the Islamic tradition.

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Islamic calligraphy becomes a dreaming line, inspired to become and transform. Similarly, in many specimens of calligraphic art, letters and words appear to morph into abstract or representational forms and then slip back into text again. The calligraphic forms in the specimens of calligraphy and neo-calligraphic examples that we have just reviewed, although not temporal, seem to fluctuate between having verbal and abstract (or verbal and representational) identities. In these examples, calligraphic forms (depending on the way the viewer is looking at them) sometimes tend toward having a verbal identity, which means that they are identifiable as letters and words; yet at other times they tend toward having an abstract or representational identity with no linguistic significance at all. This transformative quality of calligraphy in these and similar artworks is proto-animated, one could argue. Now, a temporal medium such as animation, as Marks (2011) argues, is “an ideal playing field” (p. 307) for such a transformative quality of Islamic calligraphy. In turn, this transformative quality can clearly inform temporal behaviors in visual time-­ based media.

Mutating Identities and the State of Flux The transformative qualities of Islamic calligraphy as manifested in calligraphic art (some of which we have examined in the previous sections) could be described as proto-animated. As we have seen, in such calligraphic artworks letters and words seem to be in the process of transformation into something other than text. Although in these artworks tensions between text and image are observable, they are confined by the rigid non-temporal structure of their static media. On the contrary, visual time-based media such as animation can play with these transformative qualities of Islamic calligraphy over time. While in the calligraphic examples presented in the previous sections the transformation of identities does not literally take place and is only suggested, in animation one identity may be exchanged for another over time, may even freely and easily change identity and transform into something else. What is unique about animation (or other visual time-based media) is the possibility to play with the identity of calligraphic forms along this spectrum over time. That is, an individual form may have a calligraphic identity in one moment, and in the next it may metamorphose into a purely abstract or representational form. Figure 5.6 shows frames from an animated video by the author (see Video 5.1) that depicts how the identity of a form may transform in

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Fig. 5.6  Stills from a short animation test by the author. Abstract forms transform into the word ishq (P. love) (see Video 5.1). (© M. Javad Khajavi)

a­ nimation, shifting from a purely abstract identity to a verbal one. In this short video, abstract forms (such as circles and squares) playfully transform and align to present the word ishq (P. love). At the beginning, the forms have purely abstract identities and do not resemble any calligraphic element. Yet, as the animation moves forward, they develop into forms that resemble certain verbal units, until the end of the animation when the word ishq (‫ )عشق‬emerges out of the abstract forms. Unlike in the calligraphic artworks that we observed in the previous section, where form and identity are fixed, in this calligraphic animation a new identity is introduced over time without the inclusion of a new form. Hence, in this video, the identity of forms mutates over time. A piece of animated typography or a time-based artwork in which the identity of

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forms mutates (i.e. its shapes transform) over time reaches what is called a state of flux. “Flux” is a term borrowed from the literature on temporal Roman typography, where, as defined by Barbara Brownie (2015), it is a state in which the identity of a letter is in transformation, and therefore “the affected form presents multiple identities over time” (p. 24).8 In the animation example that we have just examined, the forms present two different identities. At the beginning, there are only purely abstract forms (such as circles, squares, and lines) on the screen, without any relation to writing or calligraphy. The forms gradually undergo change in their shapes until they become forms that resemble calligraphy (more specifically letters). These calligraphic forms eventually become recognizable and construct a meaningful word. Therefore, we could say that the calligraphic forms in this animation are in a state of flux, because they present multiple identities over time. In fact, one may envision a continuum in which forms in the animation oscillate between the two extremes of abstract and verbal identities. While in this example there are only two identity poles (verbal and abstract), it is clear that transforming forms may fluctuate between more than two poles. A form, for instance, may start by presenting a verbal identity before it transforms to take up an abstract identity; it may then suddenly change into a representational (figurative) image, and this transformation may continue on and on. These verbal, abstract, and representational identities are, in fact, extremes of transformation. Figure  5.7 visualizes these three extremes/vertices.9 The diagram, which is partially inspired by Hillner (2006a, 2006b, 2009), is called an identity gamut in 8  The term “flux” was used in relation to kinetic type before Brownie (2012a, 2012b). For example, in reference to his holopoems, Eduardo Kac (Kac, 1995) uses the term “fluxo” (Portuguese for “flow”) to explain the word–image transformation. Likewise, type historian Beatrice Warde used the word “flux” in a description of the moving and transforming letterforms in Norman McLaren’s cut-out animation piece (an advertisement that was shown on a large screen in Times Square, New York, in 1961) (Bellantoni & Woolman, 2000). 9  It should be explained here that other organizations of the three extremes of transformation are also possible. Barbara Brownie (2015, p. 54), in her study of Roman kinetic typography, envisions a different diagram for transforming forms. Although she does not draw the diagram, she explains it. She follows Tim Gaze’s (2008) continuum of text–image, in which “legible writing,” “asemic writing,” “abstract image,” and “recognisable image” all lie on a horizontal spectrum and serve as points of transformation. The problem with Gaze’s spectrum is that for a form to transform into a representational image it must pass through an abstract phase. The author believes that this is not the case in all transformations, particularly in the context of Islamic calligraphy. Thus, he thinks that the identity gamut proposed here is more comprehensive and is generally enough to explain various transformative behaviors.

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Fig. 5.7  The identity gamut. In calligraphic animation and animated type, forms may transform within the confines of the identity gamut. (© M. Javad Khajavi)

this book. In animated typography and different types of time-based calligraphic art, forms may transform within the confines of the identity gamut, transforming from one shape to the other, taking up different identities, and moving from one side of the gamut to another. As can be understood from Fig. 5.7, when a form is recognizable as a certain verbal unit (i.e. a glyph, letter, and word) it presents verbal identity, and thus lies closer to the verbal vertex of the gamut. In such a case, the form becomes a linguistic sign. From the Peircean semiotic perspective, such a calligraphic form would be categorized as a “symbol.”10 At the other vertex of the gamut, forms may have representational identity (i.e. they may correspond to an organic or inorganic thing in the physical world). In this case, a form becomes an “iconic” sign. If a form is neither 10  One of the typologies of signs that Charles Sanders Peirce introduces is based on the different ways in which a sign refers to its object. He identifies three types of signs in this classification. These are symbolic signs (whose relationship to their referent is arbitrary and conventional, such as language), iconic signs (whose relationship to their object of reference is based on likeness or resemblance, such as a caricature of a person), and finally indexical signs (whose relationship to their referent is based on cause and effect, such as pain) (Chandler, 2007).

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representational nor recognizable as calligraphic (or typographic), it inevitably has an abstract identity. Therefore, verbal, representational, and abstract are three extremes of identity transformation. In time-based calligraphic art, verbal units (or calligraphic forms) may transform and undergo transition between these extremes. Now, let us imagine that a form identifiable as a verbal unit—and thus presenting a verbal identity—undergoes change until it becomes a representational image. As this calligraphic form transforms, it gradually becomes less legible, to the point that it completely loses any linguistic signification. At this stage, the form is no longer identifiable as a linguistic element, nor can it be recognized as the representational image that it will later become (in the following moments). In other words, it is most likely neither a symbol nor an icon. At this point, it presents neither a verbal identity nor a representational one, but it is rather something in between. To describe what happens at this middle point (which could characterize a number of frames in an animation and might last for a couple of seconds or more), it is useful to borrow a term from Norman Klein (2000) who, in his study of a cycle of metamorphosis, coins the term “ani-morph.” According to him, an ani-morph is a midpoint, “a lapse or hesitation” in an animated cycle where metamorphosis happens. He explains that ani-­ morph refers to the few frames within an animated metamorphosis cycle in which the object “does not look like what it was, or what it will be” (p. 22).11 Following Klein, the state (the few frames) in which the identity of a form is not clear in calligraphic animation will be called “ani-­ morph” here. In some animations, during the ani-morphs the forms may resemble calligraphy but have no decipherable meaning. This state may occur while the identity is shifting from verbal to abstract (or vice versa) and from verbal to representational (or vice versa). In such instances, it is very likely that the forms resemble verbal elements while they are still not meaningful verbal units. Within these ani-morphs, features of verbal elements are observable despite the fact that there is no precise verbal meaning in them. Brownie (2015) borrows the term “asemic” from Tim Gaze (2008) in order to explain such a state, which can also take place in temporal Roman typography. Asemisis is defined by forms that appear to be writing but escape being identified as decipherable linguistic units. Such asemic forms 11  Klein (2000, p. 22) speculates that in animation “this ani-morph can be extended almost indefinitely.”

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commonly appear in neo-calligraphy, where they are usually referred to as pseudo-calligraphy or pseudoscript.12 On the identity gamut, ani-morph and pseudo-calligraphy have occupied the middle space between the three extremes (see Fig. 5.7). It is important to highlight that when a form is transforming from an abstract identity into a representational one (or vice versa), probably at no moment should we expect to see pseudo-calligraphy (or asemic forms). For this reason, on the identity gamut the middle space contains both asemisis and ani-morph labels. Aside from instances in which the identity of forms mutates between verbal, representational, and abstract vertices; one may think of situations in which a form with verbal identity transforms into a different form with another verbal identity. For example, a glyph, letter, or word may undergo change and become a different verbal unit. Usually, in such a transformation, before a form (with verbal identity) transforms into a new form (with a new verbal identity), it loses its linguistic signification for a few frames (during the ani-morph). During this time it is neither the initial verbal unit nor the new one, but an abstract form (or, at best, a pseudo-script or pseudo-calligraphy). Figure  5.8 shows a number of frames from an animated video to illustrate this point (see Video 5.2). In this video, a line moves joyfully around the screen and takes up the shape of the letters of the word khush (P. joy), one after another. At some points (frames) within the animation cycle, the line conforms to the shape of letters that make up the word khush (‫)خوش‬, which are khā’ (‫)اخ‬, wāw (‫)و‬, and shı̄ n (‫)ش‬, but between these frames the line avoids conforming to a certain shape and is more or less abstract. In fact, in this animation a verbal identity (a letter) gives way to an abstract identity before it again takes up a new verbal identity (another letter). This process of transformation can be understood and explained on the identity gamut in Fig. 5.7. Initially, the line has a verbal identity, and so is close to the verbal vertex of the gamut. It then transforms into an abstract line, thus moving toward the abstract extreme of the identity gamut. Then, suddenly, it shifts shape again and becomes a new letter; hence, it moves toward the verbal vertex once more.

12  In fact, one of the categories of neo-calligraphic works in Wijdan Ali’s (1997) classification is pseudoscript, a term used when a work of art such as a painting or sculpture comprises “unrecognizable forms based on Arabic characters” (p. 171).

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Fig. 5.8  Stills from an animation test by the author. In this animation test, a line moves around the screen, taking the shape of the letters of the word khush (P. joy) one after another. As the line transforms from one letter to the next, it loses its verbal identity and becomes an abstract shape for a few frames until it conforms to the shape of the next letter (see Video 5.2). (© M. Javad Khajavi)

The transformation of a shape with verbal identity to a new shape with another verbal identity, however, does not always require the form to change into an abstract shape (or pseudo-script) in between the two. In fact, it is possible to transform a letter or word into another letter or word directly. An example may clarify such an eccentric form of transformation. In Fig. 5.9, frames of a simple animation test are shown (see Video 5.3). In this animation, the letter ḥa’̄ (a verbal identity) transforms into the letters khā’, jı̄m, and chā’ (other different verbal identities) one after another.13  This letter is from Persian alphabet and does not exist in Arabic.

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Fig. 5.9  Stills from an animation test by the author. In this simple animation the letter ḥā’ changes into the letters khā’, jı̄m, and chā’ (see Video 5.3). (© M. Javad Khajavi)

Nevertheless, within this transformation process the shape of the letter ḥā’ does not change. What changes the identity of the letter is the position of the rhomboid dots that are added to the letter ḥā’. To understand this, it is crucial to know that while there are 28 distinctive phonemes (sounds) in Arabic script, it only has 18 graphemes (or forms). Therefore, as Blair (2006) explains, “the same form has to be used for as many as five different sounds” (p.  8). This multiple usage implies that several letters in Arabic script (even more in Persian) share the same base-­form (shape). What helps the reader distinguish these letters from one another are the dots that accompany them. In Fig. 5.9, for example, four distinct letters of the Persian alphabet (three of these exist in the Arabic alphabet as well) are shown. These letters, as evident in the image, share the same baseform. Their differences lie in the number of rhomboid dots that accompany the base-form,14 along with their places in relation to it. For instance, if there is a dot on top of the base-form it becomes the letter khā’. Likewise, if a dot is in the middle of the base-form it becomes the letter jı̄m, and so on.  Also known as diacritical point.

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Hence, in the animation described above, the position of the dot affects the identity of the letter. When there is no dot over the base-form, it is the letter ḥā’. Once a dot is added to the top of it, it transforms into a new letter and becomes khā’. Similarly, as the dot in the letter khā’ moves to the middle of the base-form, it transforms into the letter jı̄m, and so on.15 So, as can be seen in this animation, a verbal identity may transform to another verbal identity without becoming an abstract shape or pseudo-­ script between the two identities. This characteristic means that such a transformation cannot be explained and understood on the identity gamut in Fig. 5.7. To overcome this limitation, we may extend the identity gamut by adding another vertex, which represents the label “(new) verbal” identity. This extension is shown in the extended version of the identity gamut depicted in Fig. 5.10, which tries to accommodate the direct transformation of a verbal unit (a letter for instance) into another verbal unit. The identity gamut and its extended version (Figs.  5.7 and 5.10) in practice offer a good way to pay attention to the time-based nature of temporal media such as animation, and make artists aware that it is possible to transform the identity of calligraphy between these various vertices over time. These two diagrams are also useful conceptual frameworks for understanding, studying, and explaining the behavior of forms in specimens of animated typography or time-based calligraphic artworks that reach the state of flux. The next section explores the different temporal behaviors through which the identity of verbal units may transform.

Transformative Behaviors The process of transformation from verbal identity to other identities may include various temporal events. To clarify, transforming forms may display different behaviors in order to mutate their identities and become something else in a time-based calligraphic artwork or a piece of temporal typography that is in a state of flux. In the literature on temporal Roman typography, Brownie suggests a number of different categories of transformative behavior. These categories are “metamorphosis,” “construction,” and “revelation” (Brownie, 2012a, 2012b, 2015). Although these catego15  Since the position of the dots identifies different letters that share the same base-form, displacing these dots in animation may change the identity and the meaning of a word as well. Aside from the rhomboid dots whose positions may affect the identity of a letter or word, diacritical signs (not discussed in this book) may also change the identity of letters and the meaning of words.

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Fig. 5.10  The extended version of the identity gamut. This extended version helps explain the direct transformation of a form with verbal identity into another form with a different verbal identity. (© M. Javad Khajavi)

ries are proposed based on examples of temporal typography with Roman script, they are general enough to be adaptable to the specifics of Arabic script. Because of the morphological differences between Roman and Arabic scripts, details of such transformative behaviors are certainly not the same in these two traditions of writing. However, various behaviors of transformative forms in calligraphic time-based art with Arabic script also fit into and could be described by these general categories of temporal events. In practice, a transforming form may display behaviors that belong to more than one of these categories, yet it is certainly productive to study these behaviors separately in order to better understand them as a viewer or employ them as an artist. Metamorphosis The first (and perhaps the most obvious) category of transformative behavior is metamorphosis. In Understanding animation, Paul Wells (1998) considers metamorphosis as a core component and a unique device

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of the animated form. He defines metamorphosis in the context of animation as “the ability for an image to literally change into another completely different image for example, through the evolution of the line, the shift in formations of clay, or the manipulation of objects or environments” (p.  69). He argues that metamorphosis is a narrative device that makes believable the link between two apparently unrelated images. In other words, it links two different forms with distinct identities. With regard to time-based calligraphic art and animated typography, metamorphosis “is a behavior in which new identities can be introduced through the distortion of existing forms” (Brownie, 2015, p. 26). In fact, the contours of a (calligraphic) form change so extensively that its identity shifts. Metamorphosis has been used and is being employed extensively in many screen-based media specifically animation; however, its use in time-­ based calligraphic art and animated typography written in Arabic script has so far been limited. Figure 5.11 shows a number of frames from a short, animated video by the author (see Video 5.4). In this animation, the letter ‘ayn (‫ )ع‬distorts, morphing into the base-form of the letter qāf (‫)ق‬. In other words, a verbal identity transforms through metamorphosis into another verbal identity. Within this process of transformation, the initial calligraphic form deforms, becoming an almost abstract image; it then transforms into the second calligraphic form. In this example, during metamorphosis a number of ani-morphic frames are observable, as the first

Fig. 5.11  Stills from a short animation test by the author. The image shows the transformation of a letter into another letter through metamorphosis (see Video 5.4). (© M. Javad Khajavi)

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Fig. 5.12  Stills from a video ident for Al Jazeera America. In this video a transformation of identity occurs through metamorphosis (see Video 5.5)

letterform (‘ayn) distorts and starts to conform to the shape of the next (qāf). Examples of transformation through metamorphosis can also be seen in some of the Al Jazeera’s TV idents. In one of these (see Fig. 5.12 and Video 5.5), colorful entangled beams of light move confusingly on the screen. With a few close-up shots of these moving beams of light, the viewers notice that these beams of light are gradually conforming to different curvature shapes of different sizes. Eventually all these beams of light conform to the curves of the Al Jazeera logo, which is the Arabic word Al Jazeera (‫ )اجلزیره‬written in a stylized script. As can be seen in the figure, the identity of the forms that appear and move on the screen at the beginning of the video is not calligraphic. These forms resemble flames or beams of light, and have no association with linguistic verbal units. But as the video goes on the identity of these beams starts to change, and they conform to the calligraphic forms of the word Al Jazeera. (De)construction The second category of transformative behavior is what Brownie (2012a) calls “construction.” In this temporal event, a number of different forms come together, align, or overlap to construct a calligraphic form and a verbal unit. As Brownie (2012a) observes, in construction verbal units are modular (i.e. they are constructed of separate parts). These parts, each having their own individual identity, converge and construct a new form with a new identity. Figure 5.13 shows a number of frames from a short animation test by the author as an example (see Video 5.6). In this animation test, a number of abstract forms move freely around the screen; at some points, they converge and shape the letter hā’ (‫( )ه‬as seen in the frame at the bottom left side of Fig. 5.13),

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Fig. 5.13  Stills from an animation test by the author that shows how (de)construction as a temporal behavior operates. In this animation, a number of individual forms freely move around the screen; at some points in the animation, they align so that their overall shape forms the letter hā’ (‫( )ه‬see Video 5.6). (© M. Javad Khajavi)

and then disperse again. Thus, the verbal identity is constructed through the convergence of the forms and is observable only in some frames of the animation. In this way a new identity is, in fact, constructed and then deconstructed. Drawing upon gestalt theory, Brownie (2012a, 2015) argues that the separate forms which are supposed to construct the new (verbal) form should have similarities so that the audience can associate them with each other. For instance, they may be similar “in the characteristics of their shapes,” “the way they move” (Brownie, 2015, p. 29), their color, and so forth; nonetheless, according to her, if these separate forms are not in some ways similar, viewers might not associate them with each other and thus might not perceive the new constructed identity. In Fig. 5.13, the abstract forms that converge and construct the letter hā’ are similar in their color and texture, in the characteristics of their shapes, and in the way they move. When they align in the right position, a viewer familiar with the Arabic alphabet can therefore identify the letter that is constructed. An experiment by Ali al-Masri, called Kinetic Calligraphy, is another example of construction (see Fig. 5.14). In this experiment, a flock of dots congregate in the form of the letter ‘ayn (‫ )ع‬in a style similar to nasta’liq script (see the image on the left in the figure). They remain in their position for a short while, letting us see the shape of the letter; and then they

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Fig. 5.14  Stills from Kinetic Calligraphy, Ali al-Masri, 2012, multimedia animation test

burst out, deconstructing the letter. As they disperse, the dots diverge and move around the screen like a flock of silver fishes, which has no similarities with a letter of the Arabic alphabet (see the middle image in the figure). Then the dots again converge to form the letter ‘ayn, this time written in a different style and thus claiming a new identity (see the image on the right in the figure). This deconstruction and construction repeats over and over again. This art piece therefore employs construction as a transformative behavior. At the beginning, the white dots shape the letter ‘ayn through their particular arrangement over the black background. Suddenly their arrangement distorts, and each one of the dots starts to move around randomly. Their movement deconstructs the letter, and so it disappears. Then the dots sit in a new arrangement and construct the letter (a verbal identity). Aside from this, Brownie (2015) also identifies another kind of construction, in which the formation of the new identity is not due to the motion of the separate parts (as in the previous examples), but rather is formed through the movement of the camera. She explains that through parallax,16 separate forms at different distances from the viewpoint of the camera may align or overlap and construct a single form (with a new identity) if looked at from a certain direction. This temporal event may lend itself well to neo-calligraphic sculptures. For example, in a sculpture, various three-dimensional forms could be positioned at different distances from each other so that if seen from a particular direction their overlap-

16  An optical illusion whereby the position or direction of an object appears to differ when viewed from different positions.

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ping shapes construct a verbal unit. In this case the camera is in fact the eyes of the viewer navigating around the sculpture.17 Revelation The third category of temporal behavior that can be used to transform the identity of calligraphic forms is “revelation.” In revelation, “forms which are initially assumed to have one identity are ultimately revealed to have another” (Brownie, 2012b, p. 183). The main difference between revelation and the previous two categories of temporal behavior is that in metamorphosis and construction the shape of the calligraphic forms are very much affected and transformed; conversely, in revelation there is no real change in the shape of the forms, but rather the perception of transformation occurs. In other words, temporal events that are categorized as revelation do not show “the creation of” a calligraphic form, they reveal it (Brownie, 2012b, p. 183). In revelation, the other identity (for instance verbal identity) exists in the scene, but it is hidden. This hidden identity is then revealed to the viewer through temporal behavior. Kutluğ Ataman’s Animated Words (2003) is an example of revelation (see Fig. 5.15 and Video 5.7). Ataman (b. 1961) is a Turkish artist whose artworks “probe the themes of identity, perception and the multifaceted

Fig. 5.15  Kutluğ Ataman, Animated Words, 2003, video installation: DVD, DVD player, LCD flat-panel wall-mounted monitor, 43 × 48 cm (see Video 5.8)

17  Clearly such a sculpture is not a time-based artwork. This idea could be further developed into other artworks that are temporal in nature, such as kinetic sculptures for instance.

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nature of reality” (Amirsadeghi, 2010, p.  86). His video installation Animated Words plays with these same notions using Islamic calligraphy. It includes a series of six animated videos that oscillate between being image or text (Daftari, 2006). The videos are shown on LCD panels mounted on the wall of the gallery. Ataman touches upon the tradition of pictorial writing and mirror writing in this artwork.18 In these video installation series, two written calligrams are put symmetrically side by side (as can be seen in the figure). As they rotate around an axis, they merge into each other, hindering the identity of the written texts. The words are thus legible only momentarily in the animation, “when the correct alignment of the two rotating sides allow for their decipherment” (Albayrak, 2012, p. 17). Out of these rotating calligrams, an image briefly emerges and then disappears. Figure 5.15 is a still image from one of these videos and shows the moment in which the image of a butterfly emerges out of the two rotating calligrams. Image and text are therefore both revealed, hidden, and revealed again through the rotation of the two calligrams. Within this process, the shapes of the calligraphic forms do not really transform, but the viewer’s perception of them changes. What happens is that an identity, initially hidden from the observer, is gradually revealed. Hence, in revelation, as Brownie (2015) puts it, “the letter [or any other calligraphic form] itself may not actually change, [but] the viewer’s initial assumptions about the meaning and nature of that form are forced to transform” (p. 32). In Ataman’s Animated Words, for instance, the viewer’s perception of the image constantly changes from text to representational image and vice versa. Brownie (2012a) recognizes that these hidden identities may reveal themselves to the viewer through different temporal events. While in Ataman’s video installation revelation occurs through the rotation (kinetic behavior) of the two calligrams in each video, other kinds of temporal events can also be used to reveal a hidden identity. According to Brownie (2012a), as well as being caused by displacement and rotation, revelation can be the result of color change and illumination. Imagine, for example, that a calligraphic form is hidden among other forms so that its verbal identity is completely obstructed. In this case, with a change in color or by 18  Pictorial writing refers to different techniques to integrate script with pictures. See Blair (2006, pp. 449–456). Mirror writing is a technique in which two identical calligraphic compositions would be written on the same page once in normal way and another time in reverse. Usually this results in a representational image, such as a face, a tree, a flower, for example.

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Fig. 5.16  Ramin Shirdel, Eyn Shin Ghaf, 2016, painted wood on panel, 360 × 120 × 28 cm. (Image courtesy of Ramin Shirdel)

playing with light and shadows, the calligraphic form may appear and become recognizable. Moreover, revelation may occur through camera movement, through a change in the viewpoint in which forms that were initially assumed to have one identity may be revealed to have another identity. This effect is similar to the kind of revelation that happens in some of the neo-calligraphic sculptures of Ramin Shirdel (b. 1981). Shirdel’s sculptures are usually large-scale assemblages of painted pieces that are carefully arranged in layers over a wooden board (Fig. 5.16). At first glance, his sculptures may seem to be abstract elements in bold colors; however, when viewed from certain directions a word or letter emerges from the assemblage of abstract elements. If one moves around one of Ramin Shirdel’s sculptures, such as the one in the figure, the letters (and word) that are hidden in the assemblage of elements gradually emerge from certain directions. Although the elements on his sculpture do not move, their identity transforms over time as the viewer rotates around the sculpture. This transformative quality illustrates how camera movement may reveal the hidden identity of the forms. In order to experience revelation in Ramin Shirdel’s sculptures, viewers should change their viewpoint by moving around the art piece; in screen-based media such as animation the same effect can be created by changing the viewpoint of the camera. The importance of lighting (its direction and intensity) and the role of shadows are also notable in Shirdel’s sculptures. The direction of the light and the casted shadow are crucial to the identification of the calligraphic

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forms in his sculptures. Seeing them, one may wonder about a kinetic calligraphic sculpture in which the direction of the light and thus the casted shadow could change over time, and consequently would affect the identity of the forms in the sculpture. In fact, revelations based on ­manipulation of light and shadow seem to provide ideal opportunities for such visual time-based artworks as kinetic sculptures and projection mapping. In this section we have reviewed subcategories of transformative behavior that may lead to transformation of the form and identity of letters and words in time-based calligraphic art. These different temporal behaviors are not mutually exclusive, of course; in fact, an artwork can benefit from their simultaneous appearance, which creates complex transformational effects.

Legibility Fluctuation in the State of Flux A short, animated video has been introduced in which abstract forms come together and transform to depict the word ishq (see Fig. 5.6 and Video 5.1). As discussed, in this animation the abstract shapes undergo change and gradually present a different identity (a verbal one). One may notice that within this process of transformation the forms undergo states of legibility. Clearly, when the identity of a form is in transition between the extremes of the identity gamut, its legibility inevitably fluctuates. This, in turn, effects the process of meaning-making. This semiotic slipperiness of verbal units is perhaps one of the most interesting and potentially productive artistic possibilities that the temporality of the medium offers. Let us contemplate this possibility here and examine the transitory nature of legibility in a temporal text-based artwork that is in a state of flux. It is quite clear that as the shape of a calligraphic form evolves in an animation that is in flux, it becomes either easier or more difficult to read (for those who can read the language). Generally speaking, within the process of transformation, regardless of the type of script used (e.g. Roman, Arabic, Chinese), a form undergoes phases of legibility (Brownie, 2015; Hillner, 2006a). It is useful to consider part of the identity gamut in order to better explain different phases of legibility. Figure 5.17 illustrates the phases of legibility on a verbal–abstract continuum (this is one side of the identity gamut introduced in the previous section). Now, consider a legible verbal unit (like a word) that transforms to become an abstract form. This transformation means that its identity tran-

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Fig. 5.17  Phases of legibility on the verbal–abstract identity continuum (one side of the identity gamut). In animation a form may oscillate between the two extremes. As its identity oscillates, its legibility fluctuates too. (© M. Javad Khajavi)

sits from the verbal pole of the continuum in Fig. 5.17 all the way to the abstract extreme. On the verbal extreme (left side of the continuum in the figure) the form is at its maximum degree of legibility. As this legible calligraphic form transforms to become an abstract form, it gradually loses its verbal identity, becoming less and less legible as time moves forward. It continues losing legibility, becoming less legible, until it reaches a point when it is no longer a legible verbal unit.19 Here it abandons its verbal identity and completely loses its legibility. Yet it may still resemble calligraphy. In other words, it is pseudo-calligraphy (or is in the state of asemisis).20 The form in question may continue to be at this pseudo-­ calligraphic phase for a few more seconds until it reaches another point at which it no longer has even the slightest resemblance to calligraphy. At this phase it cannot be recognized as calligraphic or related to calligraphy at all. During this phase, as can be seen in Fig. 5.17, legibility is no longer a concern, as the forms have transformed into purely abstract shapes. During this period of time, forms cannot be recognized as linguistic forms, nor can they be even vaguely related to calligraphic shapes. If we look at the identity gamut and its extended version from the perspective of legibility, we may observe a similar pattern (see Figs. 5.18 and 5.19). On the identity gamut, the verbal vertex is the most legible point. The more the identity of a form distances itself from the verbal vertex of the gamut, the less legible it becomes. It continues to transit to the illeg19  In reality, it is very difficult (if not impossible) to define a point in time or one frame of animation in which a legible form becomes an illegible one. Such a transition is most likely to happen over time and over a number of frames. Therefore, the notion of a point in time is in this context a conceptual one. 20  It will later be explained that this seemingly illegible phase plays a role in the legibility of the transforming forms.

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ible state of asemisis (where forms are pseudo-calligraphic) and further to the phase where legibility is not relevant anymore, until it reaches the other extreme (representational or abstract) (Fig. 5.18). The same thing happens on the extended version of the gamut, albeit with a small difference. On the extended gamut (Fig.  5.19), as a form transforms from one verbal identity to another verbal identity, its legibility lapses for an interval (short or long depending on the case) in the middle. So, in the extended version of the identity gamut the two verbal extremes are the most legible points, and as we gain distance from them the forms become less and less legible until they reach the next phase. While, the identity gamut and its extended version help us to understand how the legibility of a transforming form fluctuates in calligraphy, these heuristics might be misleading in that they oversimplify the issue. In fact, the issue of legibility is far more complex than it might seem at first glance. To acknowledge its complexity, it would be enough to look once again at the animation test depicted in Fig. 5.8 (Video 5.2). As explained before, in this animation a line joyfully dances around the screen. At some points as it moves around it conforms to the shape of certain verbal units, which when read together create the word khush (P. joy). What is ­interesting about this animated line is that not only we

Fig. 5.18  Phases of legibility on the identity gamut. (© M. Javad Khajavi)

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Fig. 5.19  Phases of legibility on the extended version of the identity gamut. (© M. Javad Khajavi)

do not see the whole word at any point, but also the letters that comprise the word are not fully recognizable if we stop the animation at any frame. For example, the last letter of the word, which is shı̄ n (‫)ش‬, does not fully appear in any single frame of the animation. As the line starts to shape this letter, we cannot see its end curve; and by the time the line moves to shape its end curve, its beginning is already deformed (becoming an abstract line that does not resemble part of the letter). Moreover, when the dots of the letter appear its base-form is already largely distorted. Indeed, if a viewer (who can read the language) sees this animation as a number of still frames, it would be unlikely that the semantic message of the lines in these still images (see Fig. 5.8) would be recognized. Nonetheless, for the same person watching the animated version, it would be relatively easier to read the semantic content that is articulated by the dancing line. What the viewer perceives when the animation is playing is certainly different from seeing single still frames of the animation. In

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Fig. 5.20  Superimposition of the frames from the animation test in Video 5.2. The full shape of the word khush (P. joy) and the letters comprising it are easily observed in this image. When watching the animation test, the brain of a person who is familiar with Arabic script probably creates a mental image like this, superimposing various frames in order to seek semantic meaning. (© M. Javad Khajavi)

fact, while watching this animation, the brain of the viewer creates a mental image of the whole animation process, finding associations between various parts of letters and relating letters together to seek meaning. One can speculate that this mental image would probably look more like the image in Fig. 5.20—in which the superimposition of frames of the animation has highlighted the final forms of letters, thus making the word legible—rather than any individual still frame of the animation. What the above example suggests is that legibility is a far more complex issue in temporal text-based art that is in flux. The legibility of a form in such artworks or pieces of animated typography is not solely relevant to its current identity state, but also depends on the unfolding of the events over time. Brownie (2015, p. 49) rightfully argues that in animations that are in flux legibility “is not a permanent state,” but “a process.” The animation test in Fig. 5.8 is legible only while it is playing.21 Its legibility is indeed a function of time as much as it is a function of identity. As Hillner (2005) asserts, communication generally “operates on the basis of associations” 21  This relationship between legibility and time was not the same in the animation test in Fig. 5.6 (Video 5.1), in which legibility did not depend on the animation process. In that animation, the final frames fully depict the whole word, thus rendering it legible.

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(p. 169). Both spoken language and written text are communication pathways that unfold over time through a process of associations. As we read or listen, our brain constantly links various written symbols (i.e. letters and words) and sounds (of letters and words) to extract meaning. Likewise, one should expect that in temporal text-based art legibility and meaning are not the product of individual frames, but the associations and relations between various elements that unfold over time. In other words, when thinking about legibility in time-based calligraphic art or temporal typography, we should necessarily think about it in time and as a process. It is for this reason that Brownie (2015, pp. 49–57) explains that even during the phases in which the forms are not recognizable as certain verbal units they still play a role in legibility. She argues that even the phase of asemisis is important in the process of legibility and reading. According to her, asemic forms, though illegible, cue the viewers that what they are seeing is probably some sort of a language. This cue guides the audience to start searching for meaningful identifiable linguistic units. Therefore “asemisis itself performs a function in these phases of legibility, by preparing the viewer to seek out language” (Brownie, 2015, p. 54). In other words, in time-based calligraphic art pseudo-calligraphy facilitates legibility, because it hints that the audience should seek semantic meaning, becoming readers as well as spectators.22 In the animation test in Fig. 5.6 (Video 5.1), for instance, as the abstract forms develop and align they reach a state in which their shape and structure suggest similarities with Arabic writing (as depicted in the three frames in Fig. 5.21). For an audience familiar with Arabic script this stage is meaningful. The audience can probably identify that there are similarities between these shapes and verbal units, yet still cannot perceive a meaningful word. For example, in Fig. 5.21’s last frame (the frame at the bottom) one may recognize the shapes as similar to letters mı̄ m (‫)م‬, shı̄ n (‫)ش‬, and qāf (‫( )ق‬from right to left respectively), thus speculating that 22  In some calligraphic animations or instances of temporal typography, the pseudo-calligraphic forms may never resolve into identifiable verbal units. In such a case, the very state of asemisis hints to the audience that what they are watching is a kind of writing, and still encourages them to seek meaning. For the audience, this creates a tension between being merely a spectator or also being a reader. Brownie (2012a, pp. 82, 83) argues that the state of asemisis creates a feeling of discomfort for the viewer akin to being illiterate; it provokes a sense of inability to decipher the familiar. This tension is a potentially interesting artistic possibility that animators and artists may embrace and explore.

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Fig. 5.21  Stills from an animation test by the author. Pseudo-­ calligraphic forms play a role in the process of legibility, by hinting to the audience that what they are seeing is some sort of a language (see Video 5.1). (© M. Javad Khajavi)

these letters might suggest the word mashq (P. practice), before in later frames one understands that they actually represent the word ishq (P. love). So, in a time-based calligraphic artwork or a temporal typography video in flux, illegible forms may also become meaningful and have a role in the process of legibility and meaning-making. Hillner (2006b) believes that during an image-to-text transformation, the focus of legibility shifts from “readability” to “recognisability.” To rephrase his belief, what matters most during various phases of legibility, rather than identifying certain linguistic units, is to recognize whether what we are seeing is a representational image, an abstract form, or text. Therefore, as Brownie (2015)

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contemplates, when the identities of forms are transforming “the semiotic notion of paradigm” (p. 49),23 recognition becomes important. In other words, the audience is challenged to figure out which paradigm these forms belong to—whether they are abstract forms, representational shapes, or written language. In addition, the relationship between these different paradigms (verbal units, abstract forms, and representational images) is central to the process of legibility and meaning-making. As previously mentioned, legibility and meaning-making are temporal processes in animated typography and time-based calligraphic artworks that are in flux. Indeed, in such instances, “meaning is gathered on a journey” (Brownie, 2015, p. 52) of transformation as forms change identity. The meaning of transforming calligraphic forms is not solely reliant on the semantic message they convey upon reaching the verbal vertex of the identity gamut, but it may also be related to other identities that it might take on within the whole process of transformation. For example, again consider the animation test in Fig. 5.6. The abstract forms in this short animation that come together and transform into the word ishq (P. love) are not completely irrelevant to the final text (i.e. ‫)عشق‬. In fact, the use of different colors (with the dominance of warm hues, especially red), and the playful ways in which the abstract forms are animated, give us further information about the word ishq (P. love). They are truly expressive and imply that this love is probably a light-hearted, spirited one. Put differently, what the abstract forms (their shapes and their behavior) do in this animation is act like adjectives for the word ishq (P. love), which itself gradually appears out of their transformation. Hence, the meaning of this short example of animated typography is complete if only we consider the whole process of transformation. This means that the abstract forms are, indeed, as important to the meaning of the piece as the legibility of the verbal units. It is, in other words, the associative relationship between different paradigms (abstract forms and verbal units) in this animation that completes the process of meaning-making.24 Brownie 23  In semiotic terms, paradigm refers to “a group of sentential units susceptible to occupy the same place, or replace each other, in a syntagmatic chain” (Matrtin & Ringham, 2000, p. 98). In other words, a set of units that can substitute each other because they belong to the same category are in a paradigmatic relation. In the context of this book, verbal units, abstract forms, and representational images are three different paradigms. 24  In the field of temporal typography the meaningful relationship between text and image, and also the tension between the logical aspect of language and its emotional aspect, forms one of the main issues of scholarly scrutiny (Brownie, 2015; Hillner, 2005; Park & Lee,

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(2015) succinctly expounds that “the transformation from text to image, or vice versa, can reinforce, clarify, or contradict the meaning of the text” (p. 52). Thus, the understanding of the meaning of the whole animation depends not only on the ability of the viewer to distinguish calligraphic forms and read them as they reach the verbal vertex of the identity gamut, but is also directly linked to the viewer’s ability to associate the different identities of the transforming forms. All these examples demonstrate that, in temporal typography and time-­ based calligraphic art, meaning-making and legibility are “not simply a question of letter recognition,” but rather require “a more complex reading of the artifact as a whole” (Brownie, 2015, p. 53). After all, meaning, as Hawkes (2003, p. 52) correctly points out, “arises from the interplay of signs” in any form of communication. The identity gamut and its extended version are truly useful conceptual frameworks in thinking about the artistic possibilities that transforming forms create, as well as in understanding and explaining the behavior of Arabic script in flux. Artists and scholars should bear in mind that legibility and meaning-making are temporal processes that unfold over time in such animations and time-based artworks: the diagrams in Figs. 5.18 and 5.19 are useful as long as we remember this pivotal point.

References Albayrak, O. (2012). The irreversible line: Adornian contribution and communication through the use of the Arabic script in the videos of Mona Hatoum and Kutluğ Ataman. Master’s thesis, Stony Brook University, New  York. Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global (Order No. 1519132). Ali, W. (1997). Modern Islamic art: Development and continuity. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. Amirsadeghi, H. (Ed.). (2010). Unleashed: Contemporary art from Turkey. London: Thames & Hudson. Bellantoni, J., & Woolman, M. (2000). Type in motion: Innovations in digital graphics. London: Thames & Hudson. Blair, S. S. (2006). Islamic calligraphy. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press.

2013). Various writers consider a role of kinetic typography to add expressiveness to moving text, in the same way that spoken language supplements words with additional expressive meaning through different means, such as intonation, tempo, rhythm, body language, and so on (Hillner, 2005; van Leeuwen & Djonov, 2015).

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Brownie, B. (2012a). The behaviours of fluid characterforms in temporal typography. Doctoral dissertation, University of Hertfordshire, Hertfordshire, UK.  Retrieved from http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl. ethos.573315. British Library EThOS database. Brownie, B. (2012b). Fluid typography: Construction, metamorphosis and revelation. In G. Lees-Maffei (Ed.), Writing design: Words and objects (English ed., pp. 175–186). Oxford, UK: Berg. Brownie, B. (2015). Transforming type: New directions in kinetic typography. London: Bloomsbury. Chandler, D. (2007). Semiotics: The basics (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge. Daftari, F. (2006). Without boundary: Seventeen ways of looking. New  York: Museum of Modern Art. Ettinghausen, R. (1957). The ‘Wade Cup’ in the Cleveland Museum of Art, its origin and decorations. Ars Orientalis, 2, 327–366. Fehervari, G. (1970). Art and architecture. In P. M. Holt, A. K. S. Lambton, & B.  Lewis (Eds.), The Cambridge history of Islam (Vol. 2B, pp.  702–740). New York: Cambridge University Press. Gaze, T. (2008). Asemic movement 1. Retrieved from http://vugg.wippiespace. com/vugg/gaze/asemicmovement1.pdf Grabar, O. (1992). The mediation of ornament. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Grabar, O. (2009). When is a bird a bird? Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society Conference, 153(3), 247–253. Grohmann, A. (1957). The origin and early development of floriated Kūfic. Ars Orientalis, 2, 183–213. Hawkes, T. (2003). Structuralism and semiotics. New York: Routledge. Hillner, M. (2005). Text in (e)motion. Visual Communication, 4(2), 165–171. Hillner, M. (2006a). Virtual typography: Time perception in relation to digital communication. Leonardo Electronic Almanac, 14(5-6), 1–6. Hillner, M. (2006b, November 13). Virtual(ly) typography—Towards a notion of poetics. Retrieved from http://www.ico-d.org/connect/features/post/253.php Hillner, M. (2009). Virtual typography. Lausanne, Switzerland: AVA Publishing. Kac, E. (1995). Holopoetry: Essays, manifestos, critical and theoretical writings. Lexington, KY: New Media Editions. Khajavi, M. J. (2018). From Alhambra to digital projection: Designing a digital media cultural heritage project based on the transformative qualities of Islamic calligraphy. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 364. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/364/1/012053. Khatibi, A., & Sijelmassi, M. (1995). The splendour of Islamic calligraphy. London: Thames & Hudson.

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Klein, N.  M. (2000). Animation and animorphs: A brief disappearing act. In V.  Sobchack (Ed.), Meta morphing: Visual transformation and the culture of quick-change (pp. 21–39). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. Mahmoud Hammad a Syrian Master of Abstract Art (1923–1988). (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.mahmoudhammad.com/about-1/ Marks, L. U. (2010a). Enfoldment and infinity: An Islamic genealogy of new media art. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Marks, L. U. (2010b). Words dream of being flowers, birds dream of language. In S. Zielinski & E. Fürlus (Eds.), Variantology 4: On deep time relations of arts, sciences, and technologies in the Arabic-Islamic world and beyond (Vol. 45). Köln, Germany: Walther König. Marks, L.  U. (2011). Calligraphic animation: Documenting the invisible. Animation: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 6(3), 307–323. https://doi. org/10.1177/1746847711417930. Matrtin, B., & Ringham, F. (2000). Dictionary of semiotics. London: Cassell. McDevitt, J.  (2015). In A.  Gallery (Ed.), Mohammad Bozorgi: Transcendental strokes. Dubai, UAE: Ayyam Gallery. Park, C. I., & Lee, H. E. (2013). Emotional expression and effective communication on kinetic typography. International Journal of Digital Content Technology and Its Applications, 7(12), 393–400. Safwat, N. F. (1996). The art of the pen: Calligraphy of the 14th to 20th centuries. London: Nour Foundation in association with Azimuth Editions and Oxford University Press. van Leeuwen, T., & Djonov, E. (2015). Notes towards a semiotics of kinetic typography. Social Semiotics, 25(2), 244–253. Wells, P. (1998). Understanding animation. New York: Routledge. Wilkinson, C. K. (1973). Nishapur: Pottery of the early Islamic period. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art.

CHAPTER 6

Meta-transformative Behaviors

Calligraphy Acting as Non-text In Chap. 5, we saw examples of Islamic calligraphy and neo-calligraphy in which letters and words could not stay within their contours and seemed to be in transformation. In those examples, calligraphic forms seem to have a life of their own, seeking extensive change so that they completely lose their verbal (calligraphic) identity and become an abstract or a representational shape. While such examples show calligraphy’s desire to transform shape and oscillate between being text and image, other samples of Islamic calligraphy suggest that text–image oscillations do not necessarily require a transformation in the shape and thus the identity of calligraphic forms. In fact, in many iterations of Islamic calligraphy text becomes something else without any changes in the contours of the calligraphic forms. To clarify, this section reviews some examples of Islamic calligraphy in which calligraphy seems to become things other than text, but without necessarily changing in shape or losing its calligraphic (verbal) identity. Let us begin by examining some specimens of Islamic calligraphy in which letters and words seem to become purely visual elements (apparently losing their linguistic signification), as if calligraphy tends to act like images instead of text. The first example is zoomorphic calligraphy. Zoomorphic calligraphy is a technique of representational writing, as Blair (2006, p. 449) explains. In this practice, the calligrapher inscribes a word, phrase, or sentence in the form of animals, birds, human faces, or objects to which the writing perfectly conforms. Zoomorphic calligraphy was © The Author(s) 2019 M. J. Khajavi, Arabic Script in Motion, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12649-0_6

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Fig. 6.1  Calligraphy inscribed in the shape of a lion, India, eighteenth century, opaque watercolor on paper. The San Diego Museum of Art, San Diego, United States. (Source: Alamy Stock Photos)

­ articularly popular during the sixteenth century in Iran; however, it has p been around since at least the fifteenth century. This kind of representational writing is mostly attributed to the Shi’i Safavid Iran and Bektashi Sufis in Ottoman Turkey (Blair, 2006; Teparić, 2013).1 Figure 6.1 is an example of zoomorphic calligraphy. In this image, the calligrapher has arranged the written text in a lion-shaped composition. The text that comprises the image is legible, though the arrangement of words might obstruct (or hinder) understanding of their meaning. As Blair (2006) states, “deciphering these pictures was a sort of a game, like a crossword puzzle today, as the shape of the image was often a visual pun on the text it contained” (p. 449). Calligraphic forms in this figure preserve their verbal identity; yet their arrangement (in the shape of a lion) creates a tension between calligraphy-­as-text and calligraphy-as-image. Calligraphic forms in this image are therefore transformative in that they shift between being perceived as text or as image. A further example of text–image oscillation in which words and letters maintain their verbal identity is the genre of sı̄yāh-mashq. We have seen in Chap. 3 that sı̄yāh-mashq was originally preparatory exercises by 1  Such calligrams are much more than simple figurative images for the Sufis and have talismanic functions in their tradition (Teparić, 2013).

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Fig. 6.2  Bahman Panahi, The Album of Beauties, 2000, page of sı̄yāh-mashq, ink on paper, 21 × 27 cm. (Image courtesy of Bahman Panahi)

c­ alligraphers and scribes, which later began to receive attention from art collectors and patrons until eventually becoming a distinct art form (Ekhtiar, 2006). Close observation of various pages of sı̄yāh-mashq reveal a number of interesting features. For instance, in most specimens of sı̄yāhmashq the identities of calligraphic forms are usually preserved, which is to say they are identifiable as calligraphic elements (see Fig. 6.2). Often, we may even easily distinguish some letters and words on most pages of sı̄yāh-mashq. Nevertheless, because of their composition and overlapping arrangements, these specimens of Islamic calligraphy do not insist that the viewer engages with their semantic content.2 This quality is particularly 2  Sometimes the written text in sı̄yāh-mashq has meaning, since the words that appear are part of famous sayings or verses of poetry. However, even in these cases the composition and the overlapping arrangement of words usually suggests to the viewer that the piece of calligraphy is not supposed to be read as text but should rather be appreciated as an image.

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true of those pieces of sı̄yāh-mashq that were produced (especially in the contemporary context) as works of art rather than pure practice sheets. Safwat (1996) explains that in many examples of sı̄yāh-mashq “the text became an almost abstract composition, with so much repetition of letters and strokes that the literal content is entirely subsumed in the technique” (p. 32). This is the case in such examples as the one shown in Fig. 6.2, where individual words and letters are recognizable (i.e. they have preserved their verbal identity) but the whole composition has become an image with an exotically abstract quality. In these specimens, letters and words oscillate between being abstract image and text without undergoing transformation in their identity (indeed their contours are intact). In fact, one may argue that it is actually the function of the written word (or the purpose for which writing has been used in this specific context) that transforms on a page of sı̄yāh-mashq such as the one in Fig. 6.2, and not the shape or identity of its calligraphic forms. To be more precise, letters and words on this page of sı̄yāh-mashq act as image rather than text, and therefore they have more of an “aesthetic” function than a “semantic” one.3 This transformation in function implies that pages of calligraphy such as the one in Fig. 6.2 are not supposed to be read, but instead invite the viewer to appreciate them for their visual qualities as an image. In both of the examples given here, despite the fact that the shape and identity of calligraphic forms are unchanged, calligraphy seems to transform into image and then slip back to text again. So, similar to the calligraphic specimens that we saw in Chap. 5 (foliated and floriated kufic, bird-like calligraphic forms, etc.), sı̄yāh-mashq and zoomorphic calligraphy also represent calligraphy’s desire for transformation. The difference between these examples and the ones mentioned in Chap. 5 is that here calligraphic forms do not change identity. In fact, it is the function of glyphs, letters, and words that transforms, not their identities. This transformation in the function of writing is referred to here as “meta-­ transformation,” the distinct naming emphasizing that a transformation in function is different from a transformation in the identity of calligraphic forms. The meta-transformative qualities of the specimens of calligraphy that we have just seen constitute proto-animation because the function of 3  Both of these words (“semantic” and “aesthetic”) have been used by scholars to describe calligraphy’s goal of conveying the meaning of its linguistic content to the viewer and impacting the viewer visually through its formal qualities, respectively. See, for example, Blair (2006, pp. 589, 590, 611, 621).

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calligraphy shifts in them constantly (based on the way the viewer looks at them). Indeed, calligraphy fluctuates in these samples of Islamic calligraphy between being text and image, between having semantic or aesthetic functions.4 A question that might be raised now concerns the different functions of the written word in calligraphic art.

Three Functions of Calligraphy Semantic Function: Calligraphy Read as Text It can be claimed that the most usual purpose for using calligraphy in a specific context is to communicate semantic meaning. In fact, calligraphic forms in many contexts are mainly supposed to be read as text. Consider, for example, a page from a printed Qur’an written in a beautiful Naskh script. Although the Arabic words are inscribed according to various aesthetic rules, they have been written so that they can be read easily and clearly by an average reader. To a devout Muslim, these words are considered to be the very words of God, so they should be clear and legible with only one correct form of reading. Hence, despite the fact that the calligraphed words in this Qur’an are written to be aesthetically appealing, their primary function is to be read clearly. In other words, the semantic function seems to be the prime one in this instance. Obviously, the semantic function is conventionally expected of calligraphy as a form of writing. Being the visual manifestation of language, calligraphy is expected to convey meaning through its semantic content. Any legible calligraphic form inevitably has the potential of semantic signification. In many contexts this semantic signification is the main function of calligraphy. Yet in other contexts the semantic function of the written word may be subsumed by its other functions. It is argued here that aside from the semantic, calligraphy can have at least two other functions in calligraphic art. These are “aesthetic” and “hermeneutic.”

4  Aesthetic function in this book refers to calligraphy, which acts as image and is supposed to be appreciated for its formal (or visual) rather than semantic qualities. The word “iconographic,” which is used by Grabar (1992), Shabout (2007) and Wijdan Ali (1997), seems to be inadequate and perhaps confusing. While it is used by Shabout (2007, p. 67) to refer to the visual aspect of representational writing, Wijdan Ali (1997, p. 160) uses the term to refer to the mystical meaning of the isolated letters at the beginning of some chapters of the Qur’an.

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Aesthetic Function: Calligraphy Viewed as Image Figure 6.3 shows a neo-calligraphic artwork by the Iranian calligrapher and artist Ali Shirazi (b. 1960), a prominent contemporary calligrapher and neo-calligraphy artist. In many of his paintings, Shirazi does not deform calligraphic forms. He usually uses letters and words written in nasta’lı̄q script with clear contours and arranges them in compositions that suggest a sense of depth. In many of his calligraphic paintings, the semantic is not the primary function of calligraphy. In Swawing Scripts (Fig. 6.3), for example, calligraphic forms (i.e. letters and words) maintain their verbal identity (indeed, letters and some words are easily recognizable in this artwork). However, no semantic meaning can be deciphered from this calligraphic composition. In fact, calligraphic forms (letters and words) are used in this artwork merely for their visual qualities, as though transformed into abstract elements. Neo-calligraphic works such as this, as Blair (2006) notes, shift attention from “readability to visibility” (p. 589). In other words, calligraphy is not meant to be read as text; rather, it is supposed to be appreciated as an image. In this artwork, the emphasis is more on the visual qualities of calligraphy than its readability (i.e. decipherability of its semantic meaning). When exposed to artworks like this, even those viewers who can read the language usually do not start by reading the words in them. In fact, these artworks do not seem to invite the audience to look for semantic meaning. Fig. 6.3  Ali Shirazi, Swawing Scripts, 2012, acrylic on canvas, 150 × 150 cm. (Image courtesy of Ali Shirazi)

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Although they can easily recognize the individual letters and words in this calligraphic composition, viewers do not seek semantic content. Instead they may simply allow their eyes to enjoy the beauty of the calligraphic forms as they overlap and intertwine. Indeed, the composition signals the viewer not to seek semantic meaning; rather, it advocates contemplation of the beauty of the textures created by the amalgamation of calligraphic forms. Hence, it can be concluded that in the above example and many similar calligraphic artworks, there is an emphasis on the visual features of calligraphy over its semantic meaning. Although letters and words are recognizable in these artworks, readability is not the primary concern of the artists. In fact, calligraphic forms lose their semantic function, and instead their aesthetic function is emphasized. The example given illustrates the fact that calligraphic forms may shift function and act like purely visual elements in an image, without necessarily shifting shape or losing their verbal identity. Hermeneutic Function: Calligraphy Interpreted as Extra-­linguistic Sign So far, we have seen that calligraphy may have semantic or aesthetic functions. Meanwhile, various examples of calligraphic art suggest that Arabic glyphs, letters, and words may yet have a different function in certain contexts. In fact, in such cases these linguistic elements may operate on another level of signification and evoke esoteric (or culturally coded) meanings. Understanding this level of signification and such esoteric allusions requires familiarity with the symbolism of letters and mystical beliefs that grew around Islamic calligraphy and certain glyphs, letters, combination of letters, and words. Such ideas and beliefs are rooted mainly in Islamic mysticism and certain Sufi doctrines. Throughout the course of Islamic civilization, Arabic letters, words, and many aspects of the art of Islamic penmanship have been subjected to various mystical interpretations. As Shabout (2007) puts it, “[m]any believed that letters contained hidden knowledge and special powers. Hence they were studied not only by artists but also by scholars and mystics, who interpreted them esoterically” (p. 67). The fact that some of the Suras (chapters) of the Qur’an start with what is known as isolated letters (fawātiḥ in Arabic) has also strengthened such beliefs (Schimmel, 1975, p. 411).5 Sura al-Baqara (Chapter 2), for instance, starts with three sepa5

 Also known as muqattaʿāt.

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rate letters: alif (‫)ا‬, lām (‫)ل‬, and mı̄ m (‫ ;)م‬similarly, Sura Maryam (Chapter 19) opens with five isolated letters: kāf (‫)ک‬, hā’ (‫)ه‬, yā’ (‫)ی‬, ʿayn (‫)ع‬, and ṣ ād (‫)ص‬. The true meaning of these isolated letters is not known, but different Muslim scholars and mystics have speculated on their meanings. For example, one speculation has been that “the secret of the Qur’an is hidden in the isolated letters, a theory that implies that vast knowledge can be condensed into one single letter (Khajavi, 2019). Another theory is that they are “a kind of a sublime signal, a wink of the eye, a tip of divine intuition penetrating the cycle of existence” (Khatibi & Sijelmassi, 1995, p. 139); and there are other interpretations. The isolated letters and the various speculations about their meanings partially inspired mystical interpretations of single letters, words, and the art of calligraphy in general. Such mystical interpretations became widespread, particularly among the Sufis and some Shi’a groups.6 For example, Arabic letters have been interpreted mystically by the Ḥurūfı̄ Sufi group that originated in Iran in the late fourteenth century. The group’s doctrine was shaped around the mystical interpretations of Arabic and Persian letters and words. Ḥurūfı̄ Sufis believed that one should seek the secret of the universe in Arabic letters because the holy names of God are manifested through written words. They held the belief that one would be able to disentangle the secrets of the universe by studying letters (Schimmel, 1990, pp. 106, 107). Some of the views of the Ḥurūfı̄ s were accepted even outside their circle. For example, the technique of Jafr, which uses the numerical values assigned to letters to speculate about present and future events,7 has long been practiced in the Muslim world even long before the Ḥurūfı̄ movement (Schimmel, 1975, p. 412). Schimmel (1990, p. 92) explains that Jafr is “an art of its own” used for various reasons, including hiding secrets: “One could mix letters and their numerical value to produce one name instead of another name that one wanted to hide” (Schimmel, 1990, p.  92). Influenced by such beliefs about the power and secret hidden in Arabic letters and words, various Sufis, mystics, and mystically inclined writers and poets interpreted single letters in gnostic ways and assigned symbolic meanings to them. Perhaps no letter has been subjected to such ­interpretations more than the letter alif (‫)ا‬. As the first letter of the alphabet, with the numerical value of one, it was an allusion to the unity of God  For more information see Schimmel (1975, 1990) and Schimmel and Rivolta (1992).  The letters of the Arabic alphabet were each assigned a numerical value in a system known as abjad, which is similar to the earlier Hebrew numeral practices. 6 7

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for the mystics. In an Ismaili Shi’i alphabet,8 alif has been interpreted as al-amr or the Divine Order (Schimmel, 1990, p. 93). Likewise, in a poem by Hafiz of Shiraz (1325/1326–1389/1390), the fourteenth-century mystically inclined Persian poet, alif, as an upright slender line, has been compared to the beautiful stature of the beloved (Schimmel, 1975, p. 417). Similar to the alif, most other letters of the Arabic and Persian alphabet as well as different aspects of the art of Islamic calligraphy have been interpreted in mystical ways and were assigned metaphoric and symbolic meanings.9 Such mystical interpretations and metaphoric or symbolic allusions denude letters and words of their semantic meaning and assign new meanings to them. In explaining the esoteric meanings of letters and words, Marks (2011) conveys that “[i]n mysticism, words and letters are not symbolic but mimetic,” adding that “they contain latent meanings that can be activated” (p. 315). In fact, letters and words in such a context are no longer symbols with linguistic significations but become signs that carry culturally coded meanings. Grabar (1992, pp. 87–90) argues that these mystically oriented interpretations do indeed transform calligraphy to “something other than words” and give it a “connotative function,” or in this author’s terms a “hermeneutic” function.10 Such interpretations, the metaphoric and symbolic meanings that exist in many Sufi and mystic writings, have also influenced works in different art forms such as music, poetry, and the art of calligraphy itself.11 Schimmel (1975) succinctly confirms that “[t]he Sufi influence can be seen clearly in the field of calligraphy” (p. 424). A number of contemporary calligraphic artworks show that the symbolism of letters has also influenced ­neo-­calligraphic works. A calligraphic painting by the Iranian artist Azim Fallah (b. 1981) presents one example (Fig. 6.4).

 Ismaili Shi’ism is a branch of Shi’i Islam.  For more information on the symbolism of the letter alif see Fu’ād (1992) and Schimmel (1975, 1990). 10   In this book the term “hermeneutic” is preferred instead of “connotative.” “Hermeneutic” seems to be more suitable because it not only implies the connotative meanings of text but can also include calligraphic elements or glyphs (such as the rhomboid dot) that are not actually text but can be interpreted esoterically. Therefore, hermeneutic function here refers to the function of calligraphy that emphasizes extra-linguistic meanings and needs interpretation. 11  See During, Mirabdolbaghi, and Safvat (1991) for the influence of mysticism on musical arts in the Persianate world. 8 9

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Fig. 6.4  Azim Fallah, Free Composition, 2010, acrylic on paper, 50 × 100 cm. (Image courtesy of Azim Fallah)

In this artwork, a huge rhomboid dot is visible at the top of the composition.12 Below it there is an accumulation of pseudo-calligraphic forms in various sizes that seem to be folding up while swirling. Although few of these seemingly pseudo-calligraphic elements may be legible words, the whole piece is executed in a way that no attempt to read it should be expected. In fact, it does not seem that calligraphic elements in this painting carry any semantic meaning. This image may seem to be an abstract painting that has used calligraphic forms and elements merely for their  Also referred to as a diacritical point.

12

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aesthetic impact; however, it is much more than a simple abstract calligraphic painting. Looking at this calligraphic composition, what probably attracts the attention of any viewer at the first glance is the huge rhomboid dot on the top, which interestingly is the only calligraphic element in the composition that is readily recognizable (other elements in the painting resemble calligraphy but they can barely be identified definitely as verbal units). It is also whimsically larger than other elements within the composition—something that should draw the attention of astute observers, as the dot is normally regarded as one of the smallest elements in Islamic calligraphy. Certainly, one’s understanding of this work of neo-calligraphy will completely change when one learns about this element’s symbolism. As previously mentioned, the rhomboid dot plays a significant role in Arabic script by identifying letters that share the same base-form.13 It does not have any semantic meaning by itself; in fact, it means nothing on its own,14 but it does give meaning to other letters and words by identifying letters that have one shared base-form. In addition to this, it has played another significant role in Islamic calligraphy since the ninth century, when Ibn Muqla (885–940 CE), the geometer and vizier of the ‘Abbasid court, developed and proposed a system of proportional scripts for standardizing Islamic calligraphy, known as al-khaṭṭ al-mansūb (A. proportioned script) (Marks, 2010, p. 199). In this system, the rhomboid dot is considered the universal unit of measurement for proportioning all letters and words on a page of calligraphy (see Fig. 6.5). For example, the length of the alif, the first letter of the alphabet, in a particular proportioned script could be standardized as five or seven dots high. Through practice, calligraphers learn to maintain such proportions on a sheet of calligraphy. The role of the rhomboid dot in such a context is, therefore, comparable to the size of the head of a character when used as a unit of measurement in figure drawing. Using the size of the head as a unit of measurement is conventional in figure drawing classes for keeping a character in proportion. The rhomboid dot of Islamic calligraphy has a similar function in proportioned scripts, and is the element to which all other letters and words on a page of calligraphy should conform. 13  As briefly mentioned in Chap. 5, several letters in the Arabic alphabet share the same base-forms. In order to distinguish between different letters that share the same base-forms, a dotting system has been developed. For more information see Moustafa and Sperl (2014, pp. 51–53). 14  Marks (2010, p. 202) reminds us that it also represents zero in the Arabic numerical system.

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Fig. 6.5  The anatomy of the letter ‘ayn (‫ )ع‬in nasta’lı̄ q script. The rhomboid dot is being used as a unit of measurement in proportioning letters and words in Islamic calligraphy. (© M. Javad Khajavi)

So, while it is an element with no specific meaning, to a mystic the rhomboid dot is infused with almost magical qualities. Not surprisingly, it has been subjected to many mystical interpretations by mystics, mystically inclined writers, and some Sufi groups. For instance, ʿAbd al-karı̄m al-Jı̄lı̄ (1366–1424), a fourteenth-century Sufi, considered the point (dot) as the divine essence, the origin and the return point, and the origin of all other letters of the alphabet (Marks, 2010, p.  254). In a similar fashion, the Nuqt ̣avı̄ Sufi movement—a group of Sufis active during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in Safavid Iran—formed its doctrine around the esoteric meanings and mystical interpretations of the dot (Barzegar, 2013). As a derivative of the earlier Ḥ urūfı̄ movement, they too believed in the importance of letters (Marriott, 2007, p. 26). Meanwhile, the rhomboid dot and its interpretations was a primary focus of their school of thought. In fact the name Nuqṭavı̄ comes from the word nqṭua, which means the point or dot in Arabic. Maḥmūd Pası̄khānı̄ (living during the fourteenth century), the founder of the Nuqṭavı̄ movement, believed that the point (nuqṭa) is the “source spring” of every element in the universe (Barzegar, 2013, p. 42). According to Marks (2010) such mystical views show the dot’s “extraordinary capacity … to contain infinity” in mystics’ theology, as if in their view the rhomboid dot is pressurized “until it is as dense as the black hole of the astrophysics” (pp. 254, 255). She continues that such mystical interpretations of the dot “suggest that the entire universe can unfold from a single point—and get sucked back in again” (Marks, 2010, p. 255).

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After learning about all these mystical interpretations of the rhomboid dot,15 our reading of the calligraphic painting in Fig. 6.4 should change completely. In fact, this work of neo-calligraphy seems to resonate with the belief that the whole universe unfolds from a single source and enfolds back again. The pseudo-calligraphic elements in the painting seem to unfold from and enfold into the huge rhomboid dot on top of the composition, as if the whole universe of calligraphy is being created from the dot and then returns to it. Indeed, this particular composition transforms the function of the rhomboid dot, making it a sign as dense as a “black hole,” putting it in Marks’ (2010) terms. Hence, based on this discussion, calligraphic elements in this artwork (particularly the rhomboid dot on the top) are not meant to be read as text, nor they are supposed to be appreciated only as image, but rather they are intended to be interpreted as symbolic signs. The emphasis here is not on readability of calligraphic forms but instead is on extra-linguistic allusions. In fact, calligraphy in this painting carries culturally coded meaning. In other words, calligraphy has a hermeneutic function here, inviting the viewer to interpret it. So, as shown above, calligraphic forms can have at least three functions in calligraphic art: semantic, aesthetic, and hermeneutic. In this and the previous sections, we have just seen examples of calligraphic art in which the function of calligraphy has shifted. This function-shifting quality in some specimens of calligraphy and neo-calligraphy is proto-animated, indeed. This quality informs a separate broad category of temporal events, which are described in this work as “meta-transformative behaviors.” Shortly we will examine these meta-transformative behaviors in time-­ based media, but before that it is worthwhile mentioning the differences between meta-transformation and transformation, which was examined in Chap. 5. In the examples mentioned above, letters, words, and elements (or glyphs) such as the rhomboid dot, which are in fact linguistic signs and are conventionally expected to carry semantic meaning, may act as visual forms or become signs with hermeneutic functions. It is important to note, however, that this shift of function is not the result of a change in the identity of calligraphic forms or verbal units. In fact, as noted earlier, the identity of letters, words, and elements such as the rhomboid dot are maintained in these works. Yet still their function seems to be in transformation. It was stated in Chap. 5 that the identity of a calligraphic form is determined by its shape. If this changes extensively, its identity may change 15  For more information about the symbolism of the rhomboid dot in Islamic Sufism and mysticism see Hamedani (2014).

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as well. This is not the case in the calligraphic artworks that we have reviewed in this chapter, in which the function of calligraphy seems to transform. In these examples, the shapes of the calligraphic forms are intact, though they have transformed into things other than text. Close observation of the few examples reviewed so far here reveal that it is actually the context and composition in which a calligraphic form appears that determines its function. Referring again to the neo-calligraphic artwork of Ali Shirazi (see Fig. 6.3) may clarify this point. In this artwork, as noted before, the identity of calligraphic forms is preserved. Indeed, a person who can read the script faces no difficulty recognizing various letters, parts of words, or complete words in this work. Nonetheless, the elements within the composition are arranged in such a way that as a whole it does not invite the viewer to look for semantic meaning. Calligraphic forms, letters, and words on this canvas overlap and interweave. Their particular arrangement within the composition obstructs any attempt at reading. It is because of this compositional structure that calligraphic forms function on an aesthetic level. Likewise, in the calligraphic painting by Azim Fallah (Fig. 6.4) it is the particular structure of the composition that activates the hermeneutic function of calligraphy. The extraordinarily huge size of the rhomboid dot—especially when compared with the tiny pseudo-­ calligraphic forms that seem to fold up into it—along with its place on the top center of the canvas all signal the viewer that it is not a normal diacritical sign and should be interpreted differently. So, as is evident in these two examples, the function of a calligraphic unit in a calligraphic artwork depends to a large extent on the structure of the composition. In other words, it depends on how the elements are structured in relation to each other and in relation to the frame (or space) of the whole piece.16 Thus, 16  The function of calligraphy in an artwork also depends on the viewer. Undoubtedly, a viewer unfamiliar with the esoteric meanings of the Arabic letters is not able to perceive latent meanings that a work of neo-calligraphy may have. For instance, the calligraphic painting by Azim Fallah (Fig. 6.4) is nothing more than an abstract painting for someone unfamiliar with the mystical symbolism of the rhomboid dot. For this viewer, calligraphy in such a painting functions only on the aesthetic level. In the same way, a viewer who cannot read Arabic script is not able to decipher any semantic meaning from neo-calligraphic artworks in which calligraphy is legible and conveys semantic content. For this person, calligraphy in such a work reduces to abstract visual elements, without any semantic function. Hence, it sounds reasonable to argue that the function of calligraphy in a work of art also depends on the level of the literacy of the viewer. While to perceive the aesthetic function of calligraphy one needs only to be visually literate, semantic and hermeneutic functions require linguistic, and extra-linguistic literacies. Having said this, it should be emphasized that the discussions presented here are based on the premise that the viewer has all these levels of literacy.

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while the identity of a calligraphic form depends on its shape, the function of a calligraphic form depends mainly on its relationship with other elements within the composition and the structure of the composition as a whole.

Shifting Functions and the State of Flux The various examples of Islamic calligraphy and neo-calligraphy that have been exemplified in the previous section, although they are not time-­ based, could be considered proto-animation. In fact, calligraphic forms seem to transform into something other than text in these artworks. As discussed, such transformation does not occur as a result of a change in the shape and identity of calligraphic forms (as was the case in the type of transformation introduced in Chap. 5), but rather happens because of a shift of function. Indeed, these examples operate in terms of the meta-­ transformative quality of Islamic calligraphy, which is defined in this book as calligraphic forms’ or verbal units’ tendency to shift function. The temporal nature of visual time-based media provides the possibility that this tendency can be brought to life. For example, in a time-based medium such as animation, the artist is able to shift the function of calligraphy to a dominantly aesthetic one, emphasizing the visual features of calligraphy for a moment and then transforming back to a dominantly semantic function, inviting the viewer to focus mainly on reading the text instead of appreciating it purely as an image. An identity gamut (Fig. 5.7) was introduced in Chap. 5 to show the extent to which calligraphic forms may shift shape and transform identity in a temporal medium such as animation. It is useful to envision a similar diagram for the transforming functions of calligraphy. Figure 6.6 shows such a diagram, which we can call the “function gamut.”17 As can be seen here, when a calligraphic artwork mainly invites the viewer to read calligraphic elements as text in order to extract semantic meaning, it sits closer to the semantic function on the gamut. In this case, the emphasis is on readability, and meaning is conveyed through the semantic content of calligraphy. Conversely, when the artwork chiefly encourages the audience to view (and appreciate) calligraphic forms as image, it sits close to the aesthetic vertex of the gamut. In such an instance, the emphasis is more on 17  This function gamut should not be confused with the identity gamut, which we saw in Fig. 5.7.

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Fig. 6.6  The function gamut. It emphasizes that in calligraphic animation it is possible to shift the function of calligraphic elements over time. (© M.  Javad Khajavi)

the visual features of calligraphy, and the work mainly impacts viewers aesthetically through calligraphy’s formal qualities. Yet, if in an artwork the emphasis is mainly on extra-linguistic allusions and if calligraphic elements invite the viewer to interpret them as signs, then culturally coded (or esoteric) meanings of calligraphy are activated. In this case, calligraphy functions on a hermeneutic level and sits closer to that vertex of the gamut. In time-based media it is possible to shift the function of calligraphy within the extent of this gamut.18 A short, animated video by the author illustrates how such a transformation may occur in calligraphic animation (see Video 6.1). Figure 6.7 shows a number of frames from this animation. At the beginning, a verse from a poem by the Persian poet Hafiz starts to be written in beautiful shikastih script. The verse is written along the trajectory of the calligraphic line (i.e. a kinesthetic behavior) as if by an invisible pen—a process that itself invites the viewer to read calligraphy as text and engage with its semantic meaning. The poem reads, 18  The function gamut is not necessarily limited to these three extremes. Like the identity gamut, it can also be expanded to accommodate other functions of calligraphy. However, the focus here is mainly on these three functions, as they seem to be the dominant functions of calligraphy in calligraphic art. Still, as previously acknowledged, calligraphy may have other functions in an artwork.

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Fig. 6.7  Stills from an animation test by the author showing that the function of calligraphy can transform. At the beginning the emphasis is on semantic function. Then it gradually shifts toward the aesthetic function (Video 6.1). (© M. Javad Khajavi)

“az sidāyi sukhan-i ishq nadı̄dam khushtar” (P. I have heard nothing more pleasant than the sound of the words of love). After the verse appears fully on the screen, new words and letters start to be written over it. The appearance of new elements continues until the screen is filled with an accumulation of letters and words that shape a beautiful calligraphic composition (the image at the bottom right-hand side of Fig.  6.7). The appearance of these new calligraphic elements, which overlap with the verse of the poem, encourages the audience to stop reading and begin to appreciate the beauty of the wave-like forms of calligraphy. The balance in this animation therefore shifts from readability to visibility. At the beginning, the emphasis is on the readability of calligraphy, which signals the dominance of the semantic function of calligraphy. Then gradually the balance shifts from semantic function to aesthetic, signaling to the viewer that calligraphic forms should now be viewed not as text but as image. Indeed, the balance between the functions of calligraphy fluctuates in this animation. Calligraphy that functions as text in the beginning becomes calligraphy that acts as image by the end. We have previously seen in Chap. 5 that when calligraphic forms represent multiple identities over time they are in the so-called state of flux. Similarly, we may extend the definition of flux to include not only

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t­ransformation of identity but also transformation of function (meta-­ transformation). Thus, if the function of calligraphic forms shifts over time, we may also say that they are in the state of flux. Hence, we can conclude that both the identity and the function of calligraphic forms (glyphs, letters, and words) may transform over time in a time-based medium such as animation. In the above example, the function of calligraphy oscillates between semantic and aesthetic functions. Let us now examine a case in which the function of calligraphy shifts toward the hermeneutic extreme of the function gamut and back. For this shift, we may look at the beginning of Creation (2008), a short animation by Seyed  Ghasem Hashemi (see Fig.  6.8 and Video 6.2). This animation was his graduation project and part of his master’s thesis in graphic design, in which he researched the origins of representational writing in Islamic calligraphy (Hashemi, 2010). At the beginning of this animation, the word bismillah (A. in the name of God) appears in the middle of the screen (Fig. 6.8). Then, as the camera starts to zoom out, Arabic words in thuluth script start to be written in a ring-shaped composition around the bismillah. The words are legible, and the way they appear invites the viewer to read them. As the virtual camera zooms further out, three more of these ring-shaped calligraphic compositions appear. For anyone trying to read the text, it becomes obvious at this stage that these words render a famous verse from the Qur’an known as āyat al-kursı̄ (A. the Throne verse) (Chapter 2, Verse 255). This is a well-known verse of the Qur’an dear to many Muslims and widely memorized by them. The

Fig. 6.8  Seyed Ghasem Hashemi, Creation (2008) (see Video 6.2). (Image courtesy of Ghasem Hashemi)

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verse explains that everything in the universe belongs to God and is his creation, and that there is no limit to His knowledge and power.19 The camera continues to zoom out until a huge white rhomboid dot appears on a black background and “the Throne verse” fades into its whiteness. This whole process, in which the words of this verse of the Qur’an revert to a single rhomboid dot, evokes symbolic meanings. For those who know about the symbolism of the dot and the mystical beliefs around it, this scene in the animation bestows esoteric allusions on the dot. It becomes more than a diacritical point; it becomes the symbol of the unity, great power, and infinite knowledge of God. In fact, it functions on a hermeneutic level. The virtual camera then stops zooming out, and fixes on the dot for a few seconds. Suddenly, new calligraphic forms start to be written beside the rhomboid dot. As the virtual camera starts to zoom out again, we notice that the rhomboid dot has now became the diacritical point below the letter bā’ (‫ )ب‬of the word bismillah. So, here again we experience a sudden shift of balance. The rhomboid dot with its symbolic meaning becomes the diacritical point that plays a part in the readability of calligraphy. In other words, with its hermeneutic function the rhomboid dot transforms into one that has a mainly semantic function. But the transformation does not stop at this stage. The virtual camera continues to zoom out, and it soon reveals that the bismillah is part of a calligram in the shape of a star. As the camera zooms further back, the rhomboid dot fades completely in the white twinkling star, transforming it to a small particle in an image. Therefore, in this part of the animation the rhomboid dot shifts function at least twice. First, the rhomboid dot with hermeneutic  The full text of the verse reads as follows:

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Allah! There is no deity save Him, the Alive, the Eternal. Neither slumber nor sleep overtaketh Him. Unto Him belongeth whatsoever is in the heavens and whatsoever is in the earth. Who is he that intercedeth with Him save by His leave? He knoweth that which is in front of them and that which is behind them, while they encompass nothing of His knowledge save what He will. His throne includeth the heavens and the earth, and He is never weary of preserving them. He is the Sublime, the Tremendous. (Translation by Muhammad M.  Pickthall, http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/ text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2002.02.0002%3Asura%3D2%3Averse%3D255, accessed on September 3, 2018)

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function transforms into the diacritical point with semantic function; then the balance shifts again toward the aesthetic function, making the dot a visual element in an image. So, as these two examples show, the function of calligraphy may literally shift in visual time-based media. Meanwhile, it is important to note that in both of the animations just mentioned, while the function of calligraphic elements shifts, the identities of the calligraphic forms do not transform. In the first example (the animation in Fig. 6.7 [Video 6.1]) the words of the poem do not shift shape; they are recognizable as calligraphic elements from the beginning of the animation until its end. Even toward the end of the animation, when the emphasis is on the aesthetic aspect of the calligraphic forms, anyone who is slightly familiar with Arabic script can easily recognize that the words are written in this script. Those who are familiar with the Persian language can probably even distinguish individual letters and words. The calligraphic elements thus maintain their verbal identity throughout the video. In spite of this consistency, calligraphy transforms from text to image in this animation. This meta-transformation, however, is not brought about by a change in identity, but rather by the shift in the function of calligraphy. As has been explained, the function of a calligraphic element in a calligraphic artwork depends largely on the visual structure of the composition; in other words, what determines the function of a calligraphic element is not solely its individual properties but its relation to other elements within the composition. This causal relationship holds true in time-based media, where the composition not only refers to the arrangement of visual elements in space but also in time. In the aforementioned video (Fig. 6.7), as the animation moves forward in time the visual structure of its composition changes such that it does not invite the audience to read calligraphic elements as text, but rather encourages them to appreciate the whole calligraphic composition as an image. The function of calligraphy shifts in this animation as the structure of the composition changes over time. Likewise, in Creation (Seyed Ghasem Hashemi, 2008), the identity of the rhomboid dot does not change as long as it is visible on the screen: its contours do not transform, but its function shifts from hermeneutic to semantic and then to aesthetic. In other words, the rhomboid dot, which initially acts as a symbolic image with esoteric allusions, becomes a linguistic sign (i.e. diacritical point) and then transforms into a visual element. This shift of function is achieved not by a change in the dot’s shape or identity, but by the visual composition’s change over time. We may therefore conclude that a shift of function is more related to a change in the composition in which calligraphic forms exist (whether as a

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word, a letter, or a calligraphic element such as a rhomboid dot); conversely, a change in identity relates only to the change of the shape (or contours) of calligraphic forms. This distinction implies that the meta-­transformation of calligraphy requires a change in the visual composition of the calligraphic forms. Unquestionably, in a temporal medium such as animation, composition shall be understood not only as the placement of visual elements and their relation to one another in space, but also over time. In other words, the visual structure of the animation is both spatial and temporal, implying that the relationship between the visual elements that exist on the screen at a given point with what was on the screen moments before or afterwards are as important as the relationship between all the visual elements on the screen at a particular time. Hence, we should consider the spatiotemporal composition when we think about the function of a calligraphic element in time-based media. With this in mind, let us now examine different temporal events that may transform the function of calligraphy over time.

Meta-transformative Behaviors Chapter 5 presented three categories of temporal behavior that could lead to the transformation of the identity of calligraphic forms (metamorphosis, [de]construction, and revelation). Similarly, various temporal events may lead to the transformation of the function of calligraphy in time-based calligraphic art. As previously explained, the transformation of function is not a product of change in the shape of calligraphic forms; instead, it relates to a change in the spatiotemporal composition in which the calligraphic forms in question exist. So, in order to look for temporal behaviors that may lead to a transformation of the function of calligraphic elements, we need to consider temporal events that may potentially change the spatiotemporal composition. To differentiate between this type of transformation and the one presented in Chap. 5, the variety of temporal events that may lead to transformation of the function of calligraphy are described here as “meta-transformative behaviors.” In his book Sight, sound, motion: Applied media aesthetics, Herbert Zettl (2011, pp. 279–291) categorizes the principal motions in moving images.20 He identifies three principal motions and uses the concepts 20  Although he does not refer to animation specifically and although his examples are all from live action films, he introduces these categories for film and video, which clearly may include animation. Other scholars, such as Adam de Beer (2010), have used these categories for analysis of animations.

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“Primary,” “Secondary,” and “Tertiary” motion to refer to them. Primary motion, he explains, is the motion of objects in front of the camera. In the case of animation, it is “the illusion of movement perceived as having been captured in front of a lens,” as de Beer (2010, p. 45) puts it. Zettl (2011) defines Secondary motion as camera motion, which includes any form of motion the camera may have, including physical movement of the camera (tilt, pan, dolly, etc.) and the motion of its lens (i.e. zoom in or out). In the case of (digital) animation this camera might be a virtual one,21 and in the case of some other time-based media that are not dependent on a camera the viewer’s perspective can be regarded as the camera. Nevertheless, the movements of this virtual camera or viewer’s viewpoint can also be distinguished from the movements of the objects in front of the camera or the viewer’s eyes and can therefore be categorized as Secondary motion. Tertiary motion, according to Zettl (2011, p. 280), is “sequence motion” or “the movement and rhythm induced by shot changes.” He elaborates that all sorts of transitions between shots—such as a cut, dissolve, fade in or out, wipe, and so forth—are examples of Tertiary motion. Zettl (2011) acknowledges that in practice these three principal motion types may happen simultaneously. However, identifying them and labeling them separately highlights the possibilities that each of them creates and, Zettl (2011) explains, helps practitioners to “work with them more easily when structuring the four-dimensional field” (p. 279).22 Similarly, for the purpose of this discussion it is useful to distinguish between these principal motions to study how each one of them may lead to the transformation of the function of calligraphy over time. It can be argued that since the spatiotemporal composition in which calligraphic forms exist can be affected over time through these three types of motion, all of them can potentially shift the function of calligraphy in time-based media. Next, using some examples, each one of them is examined separately. Primary Motion Zettl (2011) describes this type of motion as Primary because “this is the principal indicator of an object’s dynamics” (p.  280). Primary motion includes any kind of temporal event that occurs in the subjects that are in the camera’s field of view. In time-based calligraphic art and animated  In many forms of animation, as in stop motion for example, there is a physical camera.  Three dimensions in space in addition to the dimension of time.

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typography the movement of the elements in the field of view can change the visual composition in such a way that the function of calligraphy shifts. The animated video in Fig.  6.7 (Video 6.1) is an example of Primary motion that shifts the function of calligraphy over time. At the beginning of this animation the calligraphed verse of a poem by Hafiz can be easily read as text. However, new calligraphic elements gradually appear over time, changing the visual composition so that they shift the focus from readability to visibility. In other words, they shift the balance from a semantics-dominated function to an aesthetics-dominated one. In this example Primary motion is found in the appearance of new elements that change the visual structure of the composition and affect the function of calligraphy. One may also envision other kinds of Primary motion that do not require the introduction of new forms but result in a change in the spatiotemporal composition and consequently shift the function of calligraphy over time. Figure 6.9, for example, shows frames from another short video (see Video 6.3), which transforms the function of calligraphy over time through another form of Primary motion. In this example, meta-transformation occurs not as a result of the introduction of new elements in the composition, but through the movements and rotations of the existing verbal units

Fig. 6.9  Stills from an animation test conducted as part of this study. In this test, the function of calligraphy transforms through simple motion (kinetic behaviors) of the individual calligraphic forms, which is a form of Primary motion (see Video 6.3). (© M. Javad Khajavi)

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Fig. 6.10  Stills from an animation test. In this test, the function of calligraphy transforms through a change in color of individual calligraphic forms, which is a form of Primary motion (see Video 6.4). (© M. Javad Khajavi)

in the composition. In the beginning, the visual structure of the composition is such that no semantic meaning can be inferred. But, as the verbal units start to move and rotate, the visual structure of the composition gradually changes to invite the viewer to read and seek semantic content. A viewer who can read the language finds out that the newly created calligraphic composition is a poem, which translates “Be aware that the wine will not remain in the goblet.”23 So, in this animation test, the visual structure of the composition and consequently the function of calligraphy transform as a result of the kinetic behaviors of the calligraphic forms. Figure 6.10 shows frames from another example of Primary motion by which the function of calligraphy transforms in calligraphic animation (see Video 6.4). In this example, at the beginning we see a calligraphic composition that does not encourage reading but instead invites the viewer to appreciate calligraphic forms and the way they are arranged in the composition. In fact, it seems that the function of calligraphy in this composition is predominantly aesthetic, as calligraphic elements do not convey semantic meaning but rather seem to be used as mere visual elements for visual effect. Nonetheless, as the animation moves forward  Author’s translation.

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the color of some of the calligraphic forms starts successively to change. As a result of this change in the color of individual calligraphic forms, the visual structure of the composition changes and the new composition that is created invites the viewer to read and extract semantic meaning. A viewer familiar with the language reads a poem that translates “I have not heard a sound more pleasant than that of a voice talking about love.” So, in this process, the balance in the function of calligraphy shifts from aesthetic to semantic through color change in the individual elements. Secondary Motion Secondary motion, the movement of the (virtual) camera or the viewer’s perspective, may also result in a shift in the function of calligraphy. Camera movement can change the field of view, and through such a change the composition and consequently the function of calligraphic forms or verbal units may transform. An example of a shift in the function of calligraphy through Secondary motion can be seen in Tongue of the Hidden (2008), an animated film by David Alexander Anderson (see Video 6.5). In this animation, letters and words undergo many changes and transformations. They “slide away like leaves of a tree, arise from a hot fire like smoke, and undergo many other changes” (Bendazzi, 2016, p. 82). This film is based on the calligraphic works of the Iranian-born artist Jila Peacock, particularly her artist’s book Ten poems from Hafez. In this book, following the zoomorphic calligraphic tradition, Peacock has rendered ten poems by the prominent fourteenth century Iranian poet, Hafiz of Shiraz, in the form of ten animals. Each poem is represented in the shape of the animal whose name is mentioned in the poem. In fact, it is this interrelationship between the word and the image that is the focus of Jila Peacock in her calligrams (Railing, 2007). Anderson’s film tries to bring that interconnection between word and image to the screen. His animation uses the calligrams from Peacock’s book that respond to the poem, which is narrated over the film. In one of the scenes in the animation (see Fig. 6.11), as a poem by Hafiz starts to be written on the screen, the camera pans over the poem for a few seconds, allowing the viewer to start to read and engage with the semantic content of calligraphy. Some of the words of the poem are readable at this stage (see the image on the left in the figure). But soon

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Fig. 6.11  Stills from Tongue of the Hidden (2006) by David Alexander Anderson. In this scene of the animation, the camera movement results in a shift in the function of calligraphy (see Video 6.5)

the camera zooms out and reveals that the words of the poem actually construct the body of a bird (a peacock) (see the middle image in the figure). As the camera zooms further out, the words become so small that the viewers are no longer invited to engage with the semantic content of the calligraphic forms. In fact, the words of the poem become less and less readable in this process, as if meta-transforming into the feathers on the body of the bird (see the image on the right in the figure). Therefore, the movement of the camera (zoom out) leads to a shift of balance, pushing the function of calligraphy from semantic to aesthetic. In other words, in this scene, the text of the poem transforms to an image of a peacock. Within this process of meta-transformation, the verbal identity of calligraphic forms does not change, but the emphasis on their functions shifts. In Mounir Fatmi’s video art The Machinery (2006), the same kind of meta-transformation happens but in the opposite direction. The video begins by showing a texture-like image of black and white shapes—seemingly an abstract design (see Video 6.6). The image rotates slowly, as the camera gradually starts to zoom out. As the field of view of the camera becomes bigger, it reveals that the black and white abstract design is actually a close-up image of Islamic calligraphy. Indeed, the change in the field of view results in a smooth shift of function, a passage from aesthetic pleasure to semantic understanding. So, here again, the function of calligraphy transforms over time through camera movement or Secondary motion. Tertiary Motion The third principal category of motion, according to Zettl (2011), is Tertiary motion or the sequence motion. He further explains Tertiary motion as “a perceived progression” or “visual development” that is

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c­ reated by shot changes (p. 284). Although, theoretically, it may seem that a change in the function of calligraphy cannot be induced through a transition such as a cut, examples show that Tertiary motion may also lead to a shift in the function of calligraphy. One such transformation of function through Tertiary motion occurs in Technologia (2010), another video installation by Mounir Fatmi. In Technologia, Fatmi juxtaposes circular Arabic calligraphy with Marcel Duchamp’s rotoreliefs, or circular patterns. The video cuts between these images at a dizzying speed. As a consequence of these fast transitions, the viewer does not have enough time to focus on and read each calligraphic composition. In fact, if we stop the video at any moment, the Arabic texts become legible and meaningful (see Video 6.7). However, the speed of transition completely denies any attempt to read the text, stripping calligraphic compositions of their semantic content and reducing them to mere images. So, here the rhythm and movement induced by shot changes (Tertiary motion) shifts the function of calligraphy. Calligraphy that is supposed to convey meaning through its semantic aspect becomes abstract images, as if part of Duchamp’s rotoreliefs.

Readability Fluctuation in Meta-transformation In Chap. 5 it was noted that legibility fluctuates in calligraphic forms whose identity changes over time, because their shapes undergo extensive transformation. This fluctuation is not necessarily the case when only the function of calligraphy shifts in visual time-based media. As discussed, a shift in function is mainly the result of a change in the spatiotemporal composition, rather than the transformation of the shapes of calligraphic forms. In fact, it is largely the spatial and temporal relationship between the calligraphic element in question and other elements in the spatiotemporal composition that determines its function. In other words, when the spatiotemporal composition changes, it might impact the function of a given calligraphic form. Nonetheless, this functional shift does not necessarily mean that the legibility of the calligraphic form (i.e. the measure of how easily a verbal unit can be recognized) is obstructed in this case. In fact, legibility may or may not be affected when it is only the function of calligraphy that changes over time. It has been argued that the function of calligraphy may transform without any changes to its identity. In general, therefore, legibility should not be impacted when only the function transforms. However, legibility can be influenced in such a case, not because

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the shape of a calligraphic form changes (which is not the case when only the function shifts), but because other elements might be positioned to obscure the recognition of the verbal unit in question. For example, let us once again look at the animation in Fig. 6.7 (Video 6.1) to further clarify the point. In this animation, the function of calligraphy shifts from semantic to aesthetic, as already discussed. This shift in the function occurs because at some point in the animation new calligraphic forms appear on the screen and change the visual structure of the composition. These new calligraphic forms appear over the existing legible verbal units on the screen. As a result, the legibility of some of the existing verbal units is influenced. But it is obvious that this fluctuation in legibility is not the result of a change in the shape of calligraphic forms (which does not occur in this case) but takes place because the emerging calligraphic elements overlap the existing ones. Clearly, in Video 6.1, the change in the visual structure of the composition affects legibility to a degree. These changes (which include the introduction of new elements in the composition) make it more difficult to recognize previously existing and legible individual verbal units. So, although a shift in function does not necessarily affect legibility, a fluctuation in legibility cannot be completely ruled out when the function transforms. However, this fluctuation in legibility is not the result of a change in the shape of individual calligraphic forms, which does not occur when only the function is in a state of flux. Meanwhile, what is interesting in this example is that the new calligraphic forms that emerge over the existing verbal units in the piece repeat the same words. As a result, even when the legibility of existing verbal units is affected, the calligraphic forms that emerge on top of them are the same verbal units and are legible, meaning that the viewer can easily recognize the individual verbal units that are being obstructed. However, these emerging calligraphic forms change the visual structure of the composition in a way that does not invite the viewer to look for semantic content. Therefore, readability is clearly influenced. In fact, transformation of the function of calligraphy almost always affects readability.24 Readability in the case of a calligraphic animation in which only the function shifts depends on the visual structure of the composition. While one composition could be structured to emphasize and facilitate readability, another could be 24  Although a change in readability is logically expected when the function of calligraphy transforms in animation, this change may not take place when the function transforms from semantic to hermeneutic or vice versa.

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designed so that it hinders readability. Of course, in time-based calligraphic art it is possible to move from the former to the latter or vice versa. So, in a visual time-based artwork in which the function of calligraphy is in flux (and not the identity of the calligraphic forms), readability depends on the composition’s visual structure (see Fig. 6.12). Aside from this structural relationship, it can be argued that readability in such an artwork also depends on the element of time. In other words, it depends on both visual composition and time. To clarify, it is useful to once again look at Mounir Fatmi’s video installation Technologia (2010) (see Video 6.7), in which we have already noted that the function of calligraphy transforms owing to Tertiary motion or the dizzying speed of shot changes. Although many of the calligraphic compositions that are used in this work are readable when the video is paused, they are otherwise not readable, because of the fast cuts between the shots. In fact, the speed of shot changes in this artwork reduces calligraphic compositions to mere images, because the viewer is not given enough time even to identify individual words, let alone read and decipher their full semantic message. Although the visual composition in this artwork does not obstruct legibility or hinder readability, both are very much influenced as a result of the limited time given to the viewer to recognize verbal units and read the text. Therefore, as evident here, readability also depends on time, in the

Fig. 6.12  Diagram illustrating changes in readability on the function gamut. (© M. Javad Khajavi)

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Fig. 6.13  Technical set-up of The Passion of Love, 2016 (see Video 6.8). (© M. Javad Khajavi)

same way that it depends on the visual composition. In other words, readability in a time-based calligraphic artwork or animated typography whose function is in flux depends on the spatiotemporal composition. The shift in readability which occurs through meta-transformation provides artistic possibilities for practitioners who would like to explore Islamic calligraphy in time-based media beyond animation and temporal typography. The Passion of Love (Mohammad Javad Khajavi, 2016), a projection mapping installation, provides an example of such possibilities. This work was inspired by a poem by the prominent Persian poet Rūmı̄ (1207–1273). In this artwork, the words of the first verse of the poem, which translates “This world would be engulfed in flames, if the lover’s soul would speak,”25 have been used to make a sculpture, using acrylic solid sheets. The arrangement of the calligraphic forms in this sculpture disrupts any attempt at reading the textual content of the words. In fact, the visual structure of the sculpture makes reading very difficult, if not impossible. Figure 6.13 shows the installation’s set-up (see Video 6.8). As  Translation from Franklin D. Lewis in (Rumi: Swallowing the sun, 2007).

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can be seen, the sculpture is mounted on a wall and an animation is projected onto it using a projection mapping software. As mentioned, the calligraphic forms are arranged to impede readability. In fact, the poem’s words seem to act as visual elements that create an aesthetically balanced composition. It actually looks as if they were intentionally arranged in the composition so that viewers would pay little attention to its semantic content. This is not to say that deciphering the semantic content is totally impossible: some viewers might be able to do so, but generally speaking this will be time-consuming and most viewers will find it difficult, especially if they have not heard the poem before. Hence, it can be said that the visual structure of this sculpture emphasizes the visual qualities of calligraphy over its readability. In other words, the balance between the functions of calligraphy in this sculpture is closer to the aesthetic end of the function gamut. Meanwhile, when the animation is projected on the sculpture, this balance starts to shift. At the beginning, the animation emphasizes the visual features of the calligraphic forms, moving our eyes over their curved and straight lines. At this stage, the function of calligraphy in this piece is closer to the aesthetic vertex of the function gamut. This is because the animated visuals direct the viewers’ eyes so that they pay less attention to the textual content of calligraphy. In fact, the calligraphic forms of the sculpture and the visuals that are projected onto them create a visual experience for the audience at the beginning, encouraging viewers to appreciate the calligraphic piece for its visual qualities rather than its semantics. However, at a later stage the animated visuals start to highlight the words of the poem one by one, gradually revealing the semantic content. At this stage, the animated visuals facilitate the process of reading, inviting the audience to look for textual content by emphasizing readability (Fig.  6.14, image on the bottom right). So, in this process, the function of calligraphic forms on the sculpture transforms over time. Figure  6.15 shows this transformation on the ­function gamut. As seen in the figure, calligraphic forms with an initial aesthetic function gradually transform into calligraphic forms with a semantic function. This shift in the balance of the function of calligraphy happens as a result of changes in the visual structure of the composition, which is itself created through the illumination of calligraphic forms. Therefore, it is fitting to say that the function of calligraphy in this piece transforms

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Fig. 6.14  The Passion of Love, 2016. The animated visuals projected onto the sculpture transform the function of calligraphic forms in the piece (see Video 6.8). (© M. Javad Khajavi)

through Primary motion. This projection mapping installation shows how meta-­ transformative behaviors influence readability in time-based calligraphic art. It also implies that the temporal behaviors and the related issues discussed in this book can potentially create myriad artistic possibilities for explorations of Islamic calligraphy or Arabic typography in various types of visual time-based media.

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Fig. 6.15  Diagram illustrating the transformation of the function of calligraphic forms in The Passion of Love, on the function gamut. (© M. Javad Khajavi)

References Ali, W. (1997). Modern Islamic art: Development and continuity. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. Barzegar, K. N. (2013). The Nuqtavi movement and the question of its exodus during the Safavid period (Sixteenth Century AD): A historical survey. Indian Historical Review, 40(1), 41–66. Bendazzi, G. (2016). Animation: A world history (Vol. 3). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Blair, S. S. (2006). Islamic calligraphy. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press. de Beer, A. (2010). Kinesic constructions: An aesthetic analysis of movement and performance in 3D animation. Animation Studies Online Journal, 5, 44–52. Retrieved from https://journal.animationstudies.org/wp-content/uploads/ 2010/02/ASVol4Art5AdeBeer.pdf During, J., Mirabdolbaghi, Z., & Safvat, D. (1991). The art of Persian music. Washington, DC: Mage. Ekhtiar, M. (2006). Practice makes perfect: The art of calligraphy exercises (siyāh mashq) in Iran. Muqarnas, 23, 107–130. Fu’ād, H. (1992). Ramziyat al-alif ‘inda Ibn ‘Arabı̄ [The symbolism of the letter alif in Ibn ‘Arabi]. Alif: Journal of Comparative Poetics, 12, 145–177. https:// doi.org/10.2307/521646.

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Grabar, O. (1992). The mediation of ornament. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Hamedani, S.  A. (2014). asrār al-nuqtạ [The secrets of the dot] (M.  Khajavi, Trans.). Tehran, Iran: Mulā. Hashemi, S. G. (2010). Rı̄shi yābı̄ taṣāvı̄r-i nivishtārı̄ dar khushnivı̄sı̄ Islami-Irani [Exploring the origins of pictorial writing in Iranian Islamic calligraphy]. Master’s thesis, Tehran Art University, Tehran. Khajavi, M. J. (2019). Animating with the primordial pen: Mystic and Sufi inspirations in calligraphic animation. In M. Yokota, T. G. Hu, & G. Horvath (Eds.), Animating the spirited: Journeys and transformations [“submitted for publication”]. Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi. Khatibi, A., & Sijelmassi, M. (1995). The splendour of Islamic calligraphy. London: Thames & Hudson. Marks, L. U. (2010). Enfoldment and infinity: An Islamic genealogy of new media art. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Marks, L.  U. (2011). Calligraphic animation: Documenting the invisible. Animation: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 6(3), 307–323. https://doi. org/10.1177/1746847711417930. Marriott, B. (2007). The rebirth of hope in a time of upheaval: An analysis of early-modern millennial movements across the Abrahamic tradition. World History Bulletin, 23(1), 26–30. Moustafa, A., & Sperl, S. (2014). The cosmic script: Sacred geometry and the science of Arabic penmanship (Vol. 1). London: Thames and Hudson. Railing, P. (2007). Ten poems from Hafez [Review of the book Ten Poems from Hafez, by J. Peacock]. The Art Book, 14(1), 24–25. https://doi.org/10.1111/ j.1467-8357.2007.00757_6.x. Rumi: Swallowing the sun. (2007). (F. D. Lewis, Trans.). Oxford, UK: Oneworld Publications. Safwat, N. F. (1996). The art of the pen: Calligraphy of the 14th to 20th centuries. London: Nour Foundation in association with Azimuth Editions and Oxford University Press. Schimmel, A. (1975). Mystical dimensions of Islam. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press. Schimmel, A. (1990). Calligraphy and Islamic culture. London: I.B. Tauris. Schimmel, A., & Rivolta, B. (1992). Islamic calligraphy. The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, 50(1), 1–56. https://doi.org/10.2307/3263914. Shabout, N. M. (2007). Modern Arab art: Formation of Arab aesthetics. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. Teparić, M. (2013). Figural representation in the Arabic calligraphy. Epiphany: Journal of Transdisciplinary Studies, 6(2), 145–161. Zettl, H. (2011). Sight sound motion: Applied media aesthetics (6th ed.). Boston: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

CHAPTER 7

Conclusion

Toward a Typology of Temporal Behaviors This book has proposed a theory of temporal behaviors for using Arabic script in visual time-based media. It has identified, devised, and classified five broad categories of temporal behaviors that suit the specificities of Arabic script and has theorized how those temporal behaviors influence legibility, readability, and meaning-making in temporal Arabic text-based art. We are now in a position to summarize the principal types of temporal behaviors of the calligraphic forms in visual time-based media that have been introduced in the last five chapters. Figure 7.1 summarizes different categories of temporal events that have been proposed. It should be remembered here that this categorization does not consider instances of Arabic written words that exist in a temporal space but do not themselves display any sort of temporal behavior. Therefore, this typology is based on the nature of temporal behaviors displayed by calligraphic forms (or verbal units). The first broad category of temporal events introduced in this book was kinetic behaviors. In kinetic behaviors, as discussed before, individual calligraphic forms may move, rotate, scale, change color, and undergo other similar behaviors such as skew, but in all these processes the contours of their calligraphic lines remain unchanged. Kinesthetic behavior is a broad type of temporal events referring to any sort of motion or change that takes place along the trajectory of the calligraphic line. This type of behavior is, in fact, similar to the movement of the hand of the calligrapher as s/he moves the pen over the page. While in kinesthetic behaviors the © The Author(s) 2019 M. J. Khajavi, Arabic Script in Motion, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12649-0_7

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Fig. 7.1  Summary of the categories of temporal behavior presented in this book. (© M. Javad Khajavi)

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calligraphic line seems to be affected and appears to be in motion, its boundaries are intact. This, however, is not the case in the broad category of plasmatic behaviors, in which calligraphic lines are elastoplastic and their contours can change as long as the identity of the calligraphic forms are preserved. For example, the shape of the letter j ı̄ m (‫ )ج‬in its medial form can change into the same letter in its final form (‫)ج‬. Although in such a process the shape of the calligraphic form changes, its essence and identity are preserved. Similarly, the shape of a word written in a certain style may change over time and its contours may gradually develop into the same word written in a different style. There are also other instances of plasmatic behavior. The category of temporal events referred to as transformative behaviors here goes one step further than plasmaticness. In transformative behaviors, the shape of the calligraphic forms may undergo extensive change to the extent that they completely lose their verbal identity and transmute into something else. A calligraphic form with a verbal identity, for example, may transform into an image or an abstract shape (completely denuded of any verbal identity) or vice versa. Finally, meta-transformative behaviors refer to a category of temporal events in which calligraphic forms become something other than text over time, without losing their verbal identities. In other words, in meta-transformative behaviors the function of calligraphy shifts instead of its identity, making letters and words act like words in one moment and like images or extra-linguistic signs in another. Animators, artists, and other practitioners who work with Arabic typography or Islamic calligraphy in visual time-based media have these various types of temporal behaviors at their disposal. These might be mixed and used simultaneously, offering the possibility to create various and unique time-­ based events (that suit the aesthetic requirements and technical conditions of a specific project) out of these limited categories of temporal behavior. The influence of these temporal behaviors on legibility and readability of temporal text, as an important aspect of text-based meaning-making, is also of noticeable importance. As argued throughout this book, temporal behaviors may or may not affect legibility (how easily a verbal unit can be identified) and readability (how easily a block of text can be read). Kinetic behaviors in general do not affect legibility, as the shape of the verbal units are preserved in this kind of temporal event. They may, however, influence the rate at which the viewers read temporal text. In fact, kinetic behaviors can control the speed of reading and/or emphasize parts of a block of text. Kinesthetic behaviors, on the other hand, may affect legibility directly.

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This is particularly the case in such kinesthetic behaviors where verbal units appear on screen. Here, the kinesthetic behavior controls the speed of letter and word identification and consequently affects the speed of reading. Kinesthetic behaviors can also be used to emphasize certain parts of text or direct the viewers’ attention to particular verbal units. Legibility is generally not affected in plasmatic behaviors, as the essence or the identity of the verbal unit that undergoes such a temporal event is preserved. Nevertheless, such behaviors may affect the readability of a block of text. This is particularly the case when letters change from one state (e.g. initial state) to another (e.g. medial state) in order to create a compound word, as in the example presented in Fig. 4.9. Clearly, the legibility of the verbal units that display transformative behaviors fluctuates over time, since in such behaviors forms possess multiple identities. This fluctuation in legibility directly affects readability and can again control the speed at which viewers read a block of temporal text. Legibility, however, is not affected in meta-transformations. In such behaviors, as we have seen, the identity of the calligraphic forms are preserved and thus they are recognizable in most cases. Meanwhile, since the function of the verbal units in such instances shifts over time, readability is affected in meta-transformative behaviors. A verbal unit that is undecipherable for a moment can become readable moments later. Changes in legibility and readability that occur through these different temporal events provide artists and designers with ways to control the process of meaning-making in a work of art. The typology of temporal behaviors presented in this book has significance for both academic and practical explorations of the fields of temporal typography and time-based calligraphic art. Identifying different types of temporal behaviors and assigning names to them makes artists, commentators, and scholars conscious of the distinction between them, their properties, their consequences, and their possibilities. Hence, this typology of temporal behaviors allows scholarly research and artistic practice in the field to become more focused, and thus more insightful. In fact, this typology and the terminology used in these pages to explain temporal behaviors both help to describe and analyze artworks, animations, and instances of temporal typography more accurately. Moreover, this typology highlights new directions in artistic practice that uses Islamic calligraphy in animation and other visual time-based media. Another possible application for such a typology is in the field of computer programming, web design, user interface (UI) design, and user experience (UX) design. Today, designers and computer programmers routinely create text that

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displays temporal behavior using a range of computer software and plug-­ ins, and programming languages such as Microsoft PowerPoint, Adobe After Effects, Adobe Animate/Flash, CSS, Java Script, and the like. While these offer useful tools that enhance the process of creating temporal typography, they usually treat different scripts such as Roman, Arabic, and Chinese in the same way, and apply the same temporal events to text written in these different scripts. As we have seen in this book, a script such as Arabic is different from the Roman system of writing in its morphology, visual structure, and cultural attributes. Therefore, it is crucial to understand and consider the specificities of the Arabic system of writing when designing temporal events for text written in this script. The proposed typology of temporal behaviors presented in the previous five chapters proposes a number of time-based events that suit the specificities of Arabic script. Therefore, this typology should also be useful for web designers, UI and UX designers, and computer programmers who create animated text or develop computer tools for creating temporal typography. The study of the consequences of temporal behaviors in terms of legibility and readability provides valuable insights that help explain how a temporal text-based artwork makes meaning. Not only do the conceptual frameworks developed in this book, such as the identity gamut and the function gamut, make artists and practitioners aware of the possibilities that the temporal nature of time-based media offers, but they are also useful for academic explorations of the field. These two frameworks, for instance, have proved useful in describing the temporal behaviors of verbal units in a state of flux and in thinking about the legibility, readability, and the process of meaning-making. As well as all these aspects, studies such as this offer insights into text-based art in general. For instance, the study of the kinesthetic, plasmatic, transformative, and meta-transformative qualities of calligraphy in this book should be of special interest to scholars working on Islamic calligraphy and neo-calligraphy. Meanwhile, theoreticians, commentators, and practitioners should bear in mind that the categories of temporal behaviors presented in this book are not mutually exclusive. This means that a calligraphic or typographic form may display more than one type of temporal behavior simultaneously. For instance, it may rotate as it displays a plasmatic behavior. Although most of the temporal behaviors introduced in the proposed typology seem to be exclusively applicable to screen-based media, most of them can also be adapted to off-screen media. For example, one may think that metamorphosis, as a transformative behavior, cannot be reproduced

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in an off-screen medium (such as kinetic sculpture). Nevertheless, it can be argued that even such complex temporal behaviors can be adapted to some off-screen visual time-based media. Similar temporal events have been reproduced in off-screen media in non-typographic forms, which signal that the same effects can be created for calligraphic or typographic forms. John Edmark’s Fibonacci-sequence zoetropes are examples of off-­ screen artworks that display metamorphosis. As an example, The Never-­ Ending Bloom, a series of 3D-printed sculptures designed by this Stanford University lecturer display transforming shapes when they rotate at a certain speed under flickering light (quite similar to how a zoetrope works). One might use a similar technique to create a calligraphic sculpture in the form of an animation installation that transforms over time. Therefore, this study may find application in a diverse range of art forms and practices, such as kinetic sculpture, kinetic installation, interactive art, multimedia art, web-based art, film, and video art.

Future Directions It was established in the Introduction that recent years have seen a growing interest in exploring Arabic script and Islamic calligraphy in time-based media. Many of the recent examples of time-based calligraphic art and temporal typography show a desire for innovative and creative treatments of calligraphy using a variety of tools and platforms. Artists such as the London-based calligrapher Soraya Syed—whose interest in exploring the art of penmanship in time-based media is reflected in her two artworks Hurriya (2013) and The Pen & The Sword (2015)—have recently experimented with Islamic calligraphy in virtual reality (VR) using VR applications such as Google TiltBrush. The advent and further development of VR programs such as AnimVR and Oculus’ Quill, which both allow artists to directly animate in the four-dimensional field using head-mounted displays and hand-held controllers, will clearly provide more opportunities for practitioners interested in innovation in the field. In May 2018, Google released Qalam, an interactive calligraphy application that helps users create 3D calligraphic forms and compositions and share them with others. The application has been used by some calligraphers and users to send out greetings for the month of Ramadan. An application such as Qalam can potentially expand to provide the possibility of exhibiting animated calligraphy that has been created in VR programs. Some artists and designers have also shown interest in exploring the possibilities offered by computer

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programming tools such as Processing (an object-oriented Integrated Development Environment based on the Java language that is usually used in creative coding) to create text-based temporal artworks using Arabic script. Examples of this type of exploration are some of the works of the Iranian artist Mehran Mozaffari, whose experiments with sound, music, and Persian letters and words are available on his Vimeo channel.1 As these technologies and platforms develop further and become more available, artists and practitioners will further explore the possibilities that these media offer for explorations of text-based art in the four-dimensional field. The proposed typology is adaptable to all the settings mentioned and is helpful for practitioners who wish to explore temporal text-based art using various cutting-edge technologies and platforms. Likewise, computer programmers and those who develop computer tools (such as plug-ins) to facilitate the process of creating temporal type can benefit from this categorization. Advances in computer technology promise that more complex temporal behaviors will eventually become available as effects in programs such as Microsoft PowerPoint, Adobe After Effects, and the like. A number of challenges and limitations can be identified in this study. First, as mentioned in the Introduction, the number of calligraphic artworks (both traditional Islamic calligraphy and neo-calligraphy) is infinitely large, and any study of calligraphy or neo-calligraphy will not and cannot be exhaustive. In this book, a limited number of calligraphic and neo-calligraphic artworks have been studied. Studying other artifacts will most likely add to the insights that this proposed typology makes possible. For example, one may identify other types of transformative qualities in many other specimens and practices in Islamic calligraphy. Studying these qualities may result in envisioning other temporal behaviors in temporal text-based art. Second, in studying the kinesthetic quality of Islamic calligraphy, the focus was mainly on the sense of movement suggested by the calligraphic line and the rhythm induced by the repetition and arrangement of calligraphic forms in the composition. However, one may find other elements that contribute to invoking the kinesthetic feeling of many specimens of Islamic calligraphy: for instance, the role of diacritical signs or negative spaces. The study of these other elements that contribute to the kinesthetic impulse of various specimens of Islamic calligraphy and neo-calligraphy may lead to identifying other temporal behaviors and 1  Examples of Mehran Mozaffari’s works can be seen in the following address: https:// vimeo.com/user24693058, accessed August 1, 2018.

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f­urther possibilities that can be explored in time-based calligraphic art. Third, globalization has created new demands for bilingual typography. Today, artists are sometimes asked to design logos or signs that can be read in two languages (e.g. both Arabic and English). Animated typography and temporal text-based art in general offer great opportunities for artists and designers who would like to explore bilingual type in the fourdimensional space. This bilingual aspect has not been studied in this book, but it is potentially a fruitful area of investigation. Finally, it should be noted that one of the interesting possibilities that animation and many other visual time-based media offer is their capacity to synchronize sound, image, and motion. Interestingly, Islamic calligraphy in various forms seems to suggest a correlation between sound and the written text. Many specimens of calligraphy and neo-calligraphy suggest that the artist or calligrapher has deliberately tried to create such a link between the sound of the words and the shape of calligraphic forms or their arrangement in the composition. From this standpoint we may say that many specimens of Islamic calligraphy and neo-calligraphy have synesthetic qualities. These qualities in various specimens of calligraphy can and do inform practical explorations of Islamic calligraphy in animation and other visual timebased artworks. This realization potentially opens up another area of exploration that should be of interest to anyone interested in temporal Arabic text-­based art.

Glossary

Abstract (identity)  In the context of this book it refers to a visual form that is not representational and does not look like calligraphy (or writing). Aesthetic  Concerned with beauty or the appreciation of beauty. In the context of this book it refers to the Arabic script/calligraphy that functions as an image in a calligraphic artwork. The emphasis in such a case is more on the visual appearance of calligraphy than its semantic meaning. Asemesis  In the context of this book it refers to the state in which a form resembles writing or calligraphy but is not recognizable as a particular verbal unit. Asemic  Of forms that appear to be writing but are actually not, and thus have no specific semantic content. Calligraphic art  Artworks (regardless of their date of creation) in which Islamic calligraphy (or Arabic script) is used in their visual structures as one of the main elements. Calligraphic form  In the context of this book the phrase refers to a shape that intentionally resembles Arabic script written in any style or form of Islamic calligraphy. It can be a glyph, a letter, or a combination of joined letters. A calligraphic line shapes calligraphic forms. Calligraphic line  A continuous line created as a result of the movement of an instrument of writing (such as a reed pen) on a support (such as paper), which intentionally conforms to shapes that have affinities with Islamic calligraphy along its trajectory. In the context of this book, it is © The Author(s) 2019 M. J. Khajavi, Arabic Script in Motion, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12649-0

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different from a penstroke: a calligraphic line may be the result of more than one penstroke. Calligraphic lines shape calligraphic forms. Function  The intended purpose for which something is being used in a specific context. In the context of this book it refers to the purpose for which Arabic script/calligraphy is used in an artwork. Glyph  In typography it refers to the specific graphical representation of a character in a certain typeface. It is a graphical unit. In the context of this book it refers to different elements of the Arabic script apart from letters and words. For example, rhomboid dots or a combination of joined Arabic letters can be called a glyph as they are a graphical unit. Hermeneutic  In this book it refers to that function of calligraphy that emphasizes extra-linguistic meanings and needs interpretation. To further clarify, it is useful to mention that throughout the course of Islamic civilization Arabic letters and words have been the subject of many mystical interpretations, and symbolic and metaphoric meanings were assigned to them. This symbolism of Arabic letters and calligraphic forms is reflected not only in the works of mystically inclined writers and poets but also in calligraphic artworks. The hermeneutic function of calligraphy is concerned with such symbolic or esoteric meanings of calligraphy rather than its exoteric (semantic) meanings. Hurufiya (/hɵrʉfiyæ/)  Literally means “letterism.” The term that is commonly used in the Arab world to refer to experiments with Arabic script and Islamic calligraphy. Icon  One of the three types of signs in a typology of signs proposed by Charles Sanders Peirce. An iconic sign is one whose relationship to its object of reference is based on likeness or resemblance, like a caricature image of a person. In the context of this book forms with representational identities are iconic signs. Legibility  Legibility measures the clarity of individual verbal units. In the context of this book, legibility refers to how easy or difficult it is to recognize a certain verbal unit, so it relates to the shape of individual verbal units. Morphology  According to the Online Oxford English Dictionary (Oxford University Press, http://www.oed.com/ [accessed August 27, 2018]), morphology in the linguistic context refers to “[t]he ­structure, form, or variation in form (including formation, change, and inflection) of a word or words in a language.” Nasta’lı̄q (/næstæliq/)  One of the main scripts (styles) in Islamic calligraphy. It is traditionally the predominant script used in writing Persian, especially Persian poetry.

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Neo-calligraphy  A term proposed by Hamid Keshmirshekan to refer to various kinds of approaches toward Arabic/Persian scripts/calligraphic forms, insofar as are distanced from classical calligraphy. In the context of this book, the term is used to refer to all experiments with Islamic calligraphy (or Arabic script) that deviate from traditional calligraphy in one way or another. This deviation usually takes place through one or more of three major ways: change in tools, deviation from traditional rules of calligraphy, or making the semantic content subservient to visual qualities. Proto-animated  In the context of this book, the words proto-animated and proto-animation refer to a static image that has a quality of aliveness or invokes a feeling of movement. This book has borrowed these two terms from Marks (2011), who used them, in her article “Calligraphic animation: Documenting the invisible” to refer to those qualities of Islamic calligraphy in some calligraphic artworks that render them as animated and moving in spite of being static images. Proto-animation  See Proto-animated. Pseudo-calligraphy  Forms that resemble calligraphy but are not recognizable as a particular calligraphic unit. See asemic/asemisis. Qiṭʿa (/qet’ɐ/)  A category of calligraphic works in which a fragment of poetry or prose (usually of two or four lines) is inscribed. Readability  Readability is an evaluation of how well the combinations of verbal units interact to communicate understandable semantic messages. It is a rate of how easily a block of text can be read or its semantic message can be deciphered. In this book, readability refers to how easy or difficult it is to decipher the semantic meaning of a block of verbal units. Therefore it mainly depends on how individual verbal units are arranged in relation to each other. Representational (identity)  In the context of this book it refers to a form that resembles someone or something in the real physical world. For example, a painting of a tree has representational identity because it resembles a tree in the real world. See icon. Semantic  Relating to the meaning of language or text. In the context of this book it refers to the function of calligraphy and writing that is conventionally expected of it, as the visual manifestation of language. Shikastih (/ȿekæste/)  One of the scripts of calligraphy that is mostly used in the Persianate world. It is a script known for its speed of writing and is characterized by the predominance of curved lines and ligatures.

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Sı̄yāh-mashq (/siyaħ mæȿq/)  Literally means “black exercise.” A category of calligraphic works that are often covered completely with writing. Sı̄yāh-mashq pages were originally the preparatory sheets of calligraphy practice that preceded the fully rendered final calligraphy sheet. However, later sı̄yāh-mashq evolved into an art form in its own right and became a collectible artifact. Today many of the pages of sı̄yāh-mashq are created not for preparatory exercises but solely for the sake of artistic expression. In most of the artistic examples of sı̄yāh-­ mashq, form and technique suppress the semantic content of calligraphy, making the text secondary to the formal aspects of the work. Symbol  One of the three types of signs in a typology of signs proposed by Charles Sanders Peirce. A symbol is a sign whose relationship to its referent is arbitrary and conventional, an example being language. For example, the word “cat,” which signifies a specific animal, is a symbol. In the context of this book forms with verbal identities (i.e. verbal units) are symbolic signs. Verbal (identity)  In the form of letters/words. In the context of this book it refers to a form that is recognizable as a certain verbal unit (i.e. in the form of a glyph, letter, combinations of letters, or words). Verbal Unit  A legible linguistic sign. It can be a glyph (e.g. a rhomboid dot or a combination of joined letters), a letter, or a word.

Index1

A Abbasid, 143 ʿAbd al-karı̄m al-Jı̄lı̄, 144 Adobe After Effects, 6, 173 Adobe Animate, 6, 31, 171 Adobe Flash, 6 An Adornment of Stars, 34, 35 Aesthetic, 1, 2, 11, 14, 15n17, 20, 23, 55, 58, 83, 85–87, 89, 91, 97, 136, 136n3, 137, 139, 143, 145, 146n16, 147, 149, 150, 152, 156, 158, 160, 163, 169 After Effects, 4, 9, 31, 67, 171 Agra, 1 Ali ibn Abı̄-Tālib, 101 Al Jazeera, 5, 116 Al-khaṭt ̣ al-mansūb, 143 Animated Arabic typography, 6, 8, 31, 66 Animated logo, 4 Animated text, 5, 9, 171 Animated typeface, 4 Animated typography, 5, 23, 106, 113, 115, 126, 129, 154–155, 162

Animation studies, 8, 9, 20 Animography.net, 4 Ani-morph, 109, 109n11, 110 AnimVR, 24, 172 Arab, 2, 2n2, 2n3, 4n6, 15, 16, 60n27 Arabic script, vii, 1–3, 5, 6, 7n9, 8n11, 9–13, 15–17, 15n17, 17n21, 20–22, 24, 29, 30, 32, 36, 39, 41, 43, 43n5, 58n25, 66, 83–86, 85n5, 89, 91, 93, 94, 102, 112, 114, 126, 127, 130, 143, 146n16, 152, 167, 171, 172 Asemic, 107n9, 109, 127 Asemisis, 109 Ataman, Kutluğ, 3, 119 Ᾱyat al-kursı̄, 150 B Bozorgi, Mohammad, 103, 104 Braque, Georges, 102 Brownie, Barbara, 107, 107n9

 Note: Page numbers followed by ‘n’ refer to notes.

1

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C Calligrams, 120, 134n1, 157 Calligraphic animation, 11, 68, 106, 108, 109, 113n15, 127n22, 148, 156, 160 Calligraphic compositions, 3, 63, 72, 102, 120n18, 150, 161 Calligraphic forms, 2, 11n14, 12, 16n19, 17, 18, 21–23, 29, 37, 40, 40n2, 42, 44, 56, 58, 60, 62–66, 68–70, 72, 76, 81, 83, 85–88, 92–94, 97–99, 101–105, 107–109, 115, 116, 119–123, 127n22, 128, 129, 133–138, 142, 145, 147, 149, 151–160, 162–165, 167, 169, 170, 172, 173 Calligraphic line, 21, 22, 31, 37, 42, 44–48, 50, 50n17, 52, 54–56, 58, 65–70, 66n31, 76, 81, 83, 85–93, 101, 104, 148, 167, 173 Calligraphic school of art, 2, 16 Calligraphic sculpture, 70, 71, 122, 172 Calligraphy painting, 2n3 Chalı̄pā, 87 Chinese, 8n12, 9, 11n14, 14, 45, 47–49, 55, 122, 171 CircoGraphic, 92, 94 Computer-based media, 4 Construction, 17n21, 23, 113, 116–119, 153 CSS3, 4, 9 Cubism, 102 Culturally coded, 139, 145, 148 D Digital technologies, 4, 6, 15 Duchamp, Marcel, 159

E East Asian, 20, 43, 48–50, 48n13, 48n14 Eisenstein, Sergei, 11, 81 Elastoplastic, 22, 81, 81n1, 82, 85, 87, 89, 91, 93, 169 Esoteric, 139, 141, 144, 146n16, 148, 151, 152 Explainimation, 4 Extra-linguistic, 141n10, 145, 146n16, 148, 169 F Fallah, Azim, 141, 142, 146, 146n16 Farsi, 19 Fatmi, Mounir, 3, 33, 158, 159, 161 Fawātiḥ, 139 Flash, 9, 31, 171 Floriated, 98, 98n2, 136 Flux, 23, 107, 107n8, 113, 122, 126, 128–130, 149, 160–162, 171 Foliated, 98, 98n2, 136 Function, 7n10, 12, 23, 36, 52, 65, 76, 126, 127, 136–139, 137n4, 141, 141n10, 143, 145, 146n16, 147–161, 147n17, 148n18, 160n24, 163–165, 169–171 Function gamut, 147, 147n17, 148, 148n18, 150, 161, 163, 165, 171 G Glyph, 6, 9, 20, 30, 108, 110 Google, 24, 172 Granada, 1, 97 Graphic design, 8, 18, 93, 150 Greek, 14

 INDEX 

H Hafiz, see Hafiz of Shiraz Hafiz of Shiraz, 141, 157 Hammad, Mahmoud, 102, 103 Hanafi, Bahram, 56, 57 Heech, 90, 91 Hermeneutic, 23, 137, 141, 141n10, 145, 146n16, 148, 150–152, 160n24 Ḥ urūfı̄, 140, 144 Hurufiya, 2n3, 16, 17n21 I Ibn Muqla, 143 Identity gamut, 107, 107n9, 108, 110, 113, 114, 122–125, 129, 130, 147, 147n17, 148n18, 171 India, 1, 20n24 Installation, 19, 33–35, 70, 71, 119, 120, 159, 161, 162, 164, 172 Internet, 4 Iran, 2, 2n2, 2n3, 3n4, 16n18, 16n20, 20n24, 52, 60n27, 99, 100, 134, 140, 144 Iranian, 4n6, 7n11, 16, 16n19, 19, 40, 53, 55, 56, 59, 60n27, 64, 89, 93, 103, 138, 141, 157, 173 Islamic calligraphy, 1–3, 2n1, 4n6, 7n11, 8–13, 10n13, 15, 16, 18–23, 32, 34n2, 39–41, 40n1, 41n3, 43n5, 44–51, 48n13, 49n16, 50n17, 53, 55, 58, 59, 62, 65, 66, 68, 70, 81, 83–88, 90, 91, 97–99, 100n5, 101, 105, 107n9, 120, 133, 135, 137, 139, 141, 143, 144, 147, 150, 158, 162, 169, 170, 172, 173 Ismaili, 141, 141n8 Isolated letters, 137n4, 139

181

J Jameel Prize, 3, 3n5 Japanese, 48, 49n15 Java Script, 4, 9 K Kac, Eduardo, 107n8 Khat-akkāsı̄, 3n4 Khatṭ ,̣ 13, 143 Kinesthetic, 11, 11n14, 12, 21, 32, 39, 41, 42, 44–50, 50n17, 52, 53, 55, 56, 58, 59, 62, 65–68, 70–72, 74, 75, 81, 92, 93, 148, 167, 170, 171, 173 Kinetic, 5, 10, 12, 21, 30–37, 37n5, 39, 41, 65, 67, 74, 75, 107n8, 107n9, 119n17, 120, 130n24, 156, 167, 169, 172 Kinetic behaviors, 5, 10, 21, 30, 31, 33, 36, 37, 39, 65, 67, 75, 167, 169 Kinetic Calligraphy, 117, 118 Korean, 48 Kufic, 34, 98, 98n1, 136 Kurdish, 14 L Legibility, 9, 13, 18, 18n22, 21–24, 35–37, 52, 53, 55, 60, 62, 75, 85, 90, 94, 122–130, 123n20, 126n21, 159–161, 167, 169, 171 Letterism, 2n3, 16 Levant, 2n2 Light calligraphy, 3 Linguistic, 6n9, 8n12, 55, 58, 60, 65, 105, 108–110, 116, 123, 127, 128, 133, 136n3, 139–147, 146n16, 152, 176

182 

INDEX

M The Machinery, 158 Mafi, Reza, 63 Malay, 14 Malleable, 11, 22, 81, 86, 88, 90, 97 McLaren, Norman, 107n8 Meaning-making, 8n12, 23, 122, 128–130, 167, 169, 171 Metamorphosis, 23, 101, 109, 113–116, 119, 153, 171 Meta-transformation, see Meta-transformative Meta-transformative, 11, 12, 39, 145, 169–171 Microsoft PowerPoint, 9, 171, 173 Middle East, viii, 2, 2n2, 3, 16, 33 Mirror writing, 120, 120n18 Modern, 2, 4n6, 16n19, 17n21, 33, 34, 101, 102 Modern Times: A History of the Machine, 33 Morphology, 6, 6n9, 9, 14, 20, 83, 171, 176 Muaraqqa’āt, 84 Multimedia, 3, 118, 172 Mystical, 21, 90n7, 137n4, 139, 141, 144, 145, 146n16, 151 Mysticism, 21, 139, 141, 141n11, 145n15 N Naḥt khattı̄, 3 Naqqāshı̄-khat, 2n3, 16n18, 16n20 Naskh, 137 Nasta’lı̄q, 20, 40, 51n18, 52, 56, 59, 86, 90, 138 Neo-calligraphy, 2, 4n6, 15–23, 16n19, 17n21, 18n23, 41, 50, 55, 58, 62, 65, 66, 89–91, 97, 102, 110, 133, 138, 143, 145, 146n16, 147, 171, 173

North Africa, 2n2, 16 Nuqṭavı̄, 144 O Oculus, 172 Off-screen media, 172 Osrnithomorphic, 99 P Painting, 5, 5n8, 8, 18, 57, 63, 65, 100, 102, 110n12, 141, 142, 145, 146, 146n16 Pakistan, 20n24 Paradigm, 129, 129n23 Pası̄khānı̄, Maḥmūd, 144 Pashto, 19 The Passion of Love, 70, 71, 162, 164, 165 Peirce, Charles Sanders, 108n10 Persian, viii, 14, 16n19, 19, 29, 40, 40n2, 51n18, 52, 59, 60, 76, 87, 90n7, 93, 111n13, 112, 140, 141, 148, 152, 162, 173 Persianate world, 40n1, 60, 60n27, 141n11 Photo-calligraphy, 3n4 Photography, 3, 18, 64 Pictorial writing, 120, 120n18 Plasmatic, 11, 12, 22, 39, 81, 82, 83n3, 85–94, 97, 169–171 Plasmaticness, see Plasmatic Plastic, 17n21, 55, 81n1, 88 Polysemic, 48 Primary motion, 154–157, 164 Processing, 9, 24, 173 Prophet, 101 Proportioned script, 143 Proto-animation, 10–12, 10n13, 32, 39, 42, 62, 64, 66, 81, 105, 136, 145, 147

 INDEX 

Pseudo-calligraphy, 110, 111, 123, 127 Pseudoscript, 110, 113 Q Qalam, 172 Quill, 24, 172 Qur’an, viii, 7n11, 34, 101, 137, 137n4, 139, 150, 151 R Rashvand, Babak, 64 Rasouli, Jalil, 59 Readability, 9, 13, 18n22, 21, 22, 24, 36, 37, 53, 55, 62, 76, 94, 128, 138, 145, 147, 151, 155, 160–164, 160n24, 167, 169, 171 Reed pen, 2, 17, 40, 44, 46–48, 47n9, 48n11, 50, 54, 61, 62, 66, 68 Revelation, 23, 113, 119, 120, 153 Rhomboid dot, 141n10, 142–145, 145n15, 146n16, 151–153 Roman, 5, 6, 8n12, 9, 10, 13, 14, 14n16, 20, 23, 43, 43n5, 107, 107n9, 109, 113, 122, 171 S Safavid, 134, 144 al-Salem, Nasser, 3, 34 Screen-based media, see Screen media Screen media, 4, 4n7, 8n12, 171 Sculpture, 5, 5n8, 8, 18, 70, 71, 110n12, 118, 119n17, 121, 162–164, 172 Secondary motion, 154, 157–158 Semantic, 18, 18n22, 23, 36, 37, 55, 56, 63, 65, 125–127, 129, 135, 136n3, 137–139, 137n4, 141–143, 145, 146n16, 147, 149–152, 156–161, 160n24, 163

183

Shi’a, 140, 141 Shi’sm, 141n48 Shikastih, 20, 20n24, 40, 40n1, 44n7, 50n17, 51n18, 53, 54, 56, 57, 60n27, 62n29, 86, 87, 148 Shirazi, Ali, 91, 138, 146 Shı̄rchı̄, Israfı̄l, 40, 53 Shirdel, Ramin, 121 Silkscreen, 3 Simorgh, 29, 30 Six pens, 51n18, 86 Sı̄yāh-mashq, 41, 42, 60, 60n27, 60n28, 61, 62n29, 62n30, 63, 65, 72, 74, 134–136, 135n2 Soraya Syed Sanders, 3 Spain, 1 Spatiotemporal, 22, 72, 74, 153–155, 159, 162 Static media, 5, 8, 12, 32, 66 Sufi, 139–141, 144 System of writing, 7, 9, 171 T Tabrizi, Sadegh, 55, 56 Tanavoli, Parviz, 89, 90 Tate Museum, 2n2 Technologia, 159, 161 Temporal behavior(s), 5, 6, 8–10, 8n12, 12, 18, 20–24, 29, 30, 32, 36, 37n5, 39, 65, 66, 70, 72, 74, 92, 94, 105, 113, 117, 119, 122, 153, 164, 167, 169–171, 173 Temporal typography, 4, 6, 8–10, 12, 19, 20, 23, 32, 36, 37, 66, 70, 113, 127–130, 127n22, 129n24, 162, 170, 172 Tertiary motion, 154, 158–159, 161 Textile, 1, 3, 18 The Third Script, 3, 68, 69, 72–74 3D-print, 172 Thuluth, 51n18, 150

184 

INDEX

TiltBrush, 24, 172 Time-based calligraphic art, vii, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 20–23, 31, 34, 36, 72, 108, 109, 115, 122, 127, 130, 153, 154, 161, 164, 170, 172, 174 Time-based media, vii, 3, 5, 6, 8n12, 12, 18, 20–22, 30, 33, 36, 42, 58, 65, 66, 90, 105, 145, 147, 148, 152–154, 159, 162, 164, 167, 169, 170, 172, 174 Tongue of the Hidden, 3, 157, 158 Topkapi Saray Museum, 100 Transformative, 11, 12, 22, 23, 39, 83n3, 105, 107n9, 113, 114, 116, 118, 121, 122, 134, 136, 145, 147, 153–159, 164, 169–171, 173 Turkey, 2n2, 3, 52n22, 60n27, 134 Turkish, viii, 14, 19, 60n27, 119 TV idents, 4, 116 Typology, 9, 10, 18, 18n23, 21, 24, 167, 170, 171, 173 U Urdu, 14, 19

User experience, 170 User Experience design, 9 User interface, 170 User Interface design, 9 V Verbal identity, 97, 102, 105, 107–111, 113–115, 117–120, 123, 124, 134, 138, 152, 158, 169 Vimeo, 173 Virtual reality, 15, 172 W Walt Disney Studios, 12, 82 Web-based, 5, 172 Web design, 9, 171 Wells, Paul, 114 West Asia, 16 Z Zettl, Herbert, 23, 153 Zoetrope, 172 Zoomorphic, 133, 136, 157