Applied Research and Evaluation in Community Mental Health Services : An Update of Key Research Domains [1 ed.] 9780773586567, 9780773537958

Citation preview

applied research and evaluation in community mental health services

This page intentionally left blank

Applied Research and Evaluation in Community Mental Health Services An Update of Key Research Domains Edited by evelyn r. vingilis and stephen a. state

McGill-Queen’s University Press Montreal & Kingston • London • Ithaca

© McGill-Queen’s University Press 2011 isbn 978-0-7735-3795-8 Legal deposit first quarter 2011 Bibliothèque nationale du Québec Printed in Canada on acid-free paper that is 100% ancient forest free (100% post-consumer recycled), processed chlorine free This book has been published with the help of a grant from the Canadian Institute of Health Research. McGill-Queen’s University Press acknowledges the support of the Canada Council for the Arts for our publishing program. We also acknowledge the financial support of the Government of Canada through the Book Fund for our publishing activities.

Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication Applied research and evaluation in community mental health services: an update of key research domains / edited by Evelyn R. Vingilis and Stephen A. State. Includes bibliographical references and index. isbn 978-0-7735-3795-8 1. Community mental health services. I. Vingilis, Evelyn II. State, Stephen A., 1949– ra790.a67 2011

362.2'0425

c2010-905846-1

This book was typeset by Interscript in 10.5/13 Sabon.

To my parents, Evelyn and Jerome Vingilis, who shared their love of the arts and sciences, and to my daughter, Larissa, who gave me a reason for sharing it evelyn vingilis

To Hannah and Robin in memory of Barbara Janet Novak stephen state

This page intentionally left blank

Contents

Acknowledgments

ix

1 Introduction 3 evelyn r. vingilis and stephen a. state 2 Community-Based Treatment: A New Idea a Hundred Years and More in the Making stephen a. state

16

3 Issues and Challenges in Community Mental Health Services: Program and Policy Evaluation 33 evelyn r. vingilis 4 Interfacing Hospital and Community Mental Health Services: The Role of the Emergency Department 55 beth mitchell 5 Research on Community Treatment Orders richard o’reilly

68

6 The Criminalization of Mental Illness 80 virginia aldigé hiday and heathcote w. wales 7 Perspectives on Violence Risk Assessment and Management in Mental Health Services 94 anne crocker, gilles côté, and erika braithwaite 8 The Social Stigma of Mental Illness ross norman

115

viii

Contents

9 Consumer Participation in Mental Health Services geoffrey nelson and jill grant

129

10 Housing and Mental Health 146 cheryl forchuk 11 Collaborative Mental Health Care: The Evolving Narrative in Primary Care 160 raj velamoor and stephen a. state 12 Current Developments in Assertive Community Treatment 182 joan bishop, lindsey george, steve lurie, and robert wales 13 Supported Employment eric latimer Contributors 233 Bibliography 239 Index 347

211

Acknowledgments

This collection was made possible by support from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research through an Inter-disciplinary Capacity Enhancement Team grant, 2003–9. That support enabled and empowered the expansion of the Consortium for Applied Research and Evaluation in Mental Health (caremh), centred at The University of Western Ontario. Evelyn Vingilis was the principal investigator on the grant and the director of caremh. Stephen State was the coordinator of the caremh program.

This page intentionally left blank

applied research and evaluation in community mental health services

This page intentionally left blank

1 Introduction Evelyn R. Vingilis and Stephen A. State If people would go and … take them for a ride on Sunday, take them out for Sunday dinner sometimes, do some of these things. Ontario minister of health, speaking in 1970 about what was needed to make de-institutionalization work (Simmons 1990, 166)

Mental illness is a profoundly challenging disease, challenging first of all to those who suffer with it, since in many cases the symptoms of the illness will impair family and social relationships, as well as economic well-being. Instead of receiving sympathy, those who suffer with mental illness are more likely to experience stigma and isolation. And there is less likely to be appropriate treatment for them than for those who suffer from other diseases. According to a 2008 study, in high-income countries 23.7 percent of persons with a mental illness received treatment, compared to almost 65 percent of persons with a physical disorder; in low- and middle-income countries the percentages for the treatment of mental and physical ailments were 7.7 and 53.2 respectively (Ormel et al. 2008). The prevalence of mental illness is also disturbingly high: the estimated lifetime likelihood of an individual having at least one disorder ranges from 47.4 percent in the United States to 12 percent in Nigeria; across the world, the approximate projected lifetime risk of any disorder ranges from 20 percent to 50 percent (Kessler et al. 2007). The accompanying burden of this disease is considerable (Wittchen and Jacobi 2005; Vos et al. 2001; Mathers et al. 2001; Kessler et al. 2008). To give but one example, in Canada in 2004 the estimated costs for the single mental illness of schizophrenia, costs that included inputs related to healthcare, along with other inputs

4

Evelyn R. Vingilis and Stephen A. State

not related to healthcare and higher unemployment and productivity losses, amounted to Can$6.85 billion (Goeree et al. 2005). This figure leaves out the less easily monetized costs of caregiver stress, family and social dysfunction, and impairment in role functioning (Druss et al. 2009). Fifty years ago, the principal venue for the care and treatment of persons with serious mental illness in virtually every jurisdiction of the developed world was the large and remote psychiatric hospital – an institution that was part haven and part prison. For various complex reasons, discussed in the historical background piece in chapter 2 by Stephen State, it no longer is. However, the lengthy movement to reposition the care of persons with serious illness in “the community” began more as a dream than as a plan. It was not at all clear what would happen when the large hospitals dramatically reduced their in-patient populations, it was not clear what services or treatments would best accommodate persons with mental illness living in the community, and, obviously, it was not possible to undertake research on the services and community interventions that might be devised in order to address problems that had not yet materialized. The practice of community treatment in virtually every jurisdiction encountered considerable initial difficulty and remains a work in progress, interwoven in its trajectory with profound changes in healthcare administration, funding, and treatment modalities. The “community” is, of course, a venue not an intervention, and it has taken some time for helpful services, let alone evidence-based practices, to emerge. In 1960, for example, the Community Mental Health Journal (CMHJ ) was still five years away from its first issue. The Canadian Journal of Community Mental Health would not begin until 1982. A research update in the opening 1965 issue of CMHJ by Anita Bahn (1965) acknowledged the cutting-edge introduction of epidemiological data collection and psychiatric case registries in Maryland in order to ascertain just what was going on. No one really knew. There was little in the way of programs or policies to talk about. The nation-wide US planning for the new community mental health program – a policy shift “based on theory and hope rather than fact”(Grob 1992, 20) – was still at the stage of collating analyses of what was out there. In the event, it would begin by focusing more on the moderately mentally ill, not the more seriously ill. In Canada, as in other jurisdictions, there were no assertive community treatment teams; there were no employment support programs, no

Introduction

5

diversion programs, no mental health courts, no mobile crisis teams. There was no consumer involvement in treatment plans or program development and, beyond ill-equipped nursing homes, almost no appropriate supported housing for persons with serious mental illness living in the community. However, more effective programs and services for the care and treatment of persons with mental illness are now in place in many jurisdictions around the world, owing in no small measure to applied research and the evaluation of interventions in natural environments (Lehman 1998). The challenges of research in community mental health services are as considerable as the research is important. Community mental health treatment necessarily occurs with regard to some variously specified client population of a particular age, gender, diagnosis, class, and awareness; and within a set of contingent and fluid cultural understandings that are embedded in often-changing policy and governance contexts. Since it is brought about through a wide range of service providers and under the uncertain direction of unpredictable political forces, fiscal constraints, and funding designs, there is much to control for. Despite these challenges, community mental health services have now matured into a more or less well-defined field, the several parts of which were in most cases unanticipated in the early days of de-institutionalization. Despite the many challenges, it might also be said that community mental health services research has come of age. The field has grown; it is now differentiated in a way that reflects the many discrete dimensions of mental health care in the community. The research that supports this field has also grown. The point of our collection is to provide an overview and update of current research in specific sub-fields of community mental health services. Our collection does not claim to be comprehensive. Many areas that could have been included have not been – inter-professional training and education, crisis intervention programs, consultation liaison psychiatry, mental health in the workplace, and psychosocial rehabilitation, to mention a few. Their absence provides an argument for the publication of future volumes. As well, important aspects of mental health services are not so much research areas as they are guiding approaches or models for the delivery of care. An example would be the emerging recovery movement (Roe et al. 2007; Onken et al. 2007; Corrigan et al. 2007; Deegan 2007), which is moving from a stage of conceptual clarification to develop more precise research questions.1

6

Evelyn R. Vingilis and Stephen A. State

Another example would be the distinction between bio-medical and psycho-social approaches, the former focusing on treating the illness; the latter on supporting and empowering the person. We take no stand on that ideological divide – if there is one; our assumption is simply that well-designed research can assist in answering useful questions. Each of us as contributors to this collection may well hold views – even strong views – regarding those important questions of principle. However, the unifying spirit that more properly characterizes our endeavour is closer to what John Locke (1975, 10) has called the “underlabourer” approach to the advancement of knowledge. It is a modest approach undertaken in a spirit of pragmatic investigation, advancing by careful examination of evidential claims. This admittedly pedestrian enterprise draws shamelessly on the many efforts of all those researchers whose work we have explored. We are also united in a set of related hopes. We want to know what interventions, policies, and programs for persons with mental illness living in our communities hold up to evaluation; we want to know what works. We want to assess, carefully, the claims of those whose pilot studies or demonstrations might offer models to be copied; we also want to avoid the bandwagons around novel interventions whose results may not in the end justify early enthusiasm. Many of the contributors to this collection are members of the Consortium for Applied Research and Evaluation in Mental Health (CAREMH), which was funded for five years (2003–8) by a Canadian Institutes of Health Research Interdisciplinary Capacity Enhancement Team grant. CAREMH membership includes individuals from the disciplines of business, correctional services, economics, education, epidemiology, family medicine, law, nursing, political science, criminology, psychiatry, psychology, social work, and sociology. These individuals are researchers, health care practitioners, policy analysts, administrators, and managers working in district health councils, acute care and psychiatric hospitals, private practice, social services, housing, and police and correctional services. In addition, consumers and their families have contributed as key members in numerous capacities, for example as researchers, health care practitioners, policy analysts, administrators, and managers. Many of the contributors are Canadian, and although some of the fine-grained particularity emerges from the Canadian context, the focus necessarily includes research undertaken in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe, and Australia and New Zealand.

Introduction

7

The worlds of researchers and potential knowledge users are social systems defined and identified by their own sets of rules, values, languages, and communication patterns. Knowledge gaps occur when there is a lack of shared knowledge, values, common perceptions, and inter-system communication patterns. Models of knowledge translation and utilization imply that the gap can be bridged if persons, groups, or resources are interposed between the two systems. This book attempts to bridge the gap by providing a synthesis and overview of key research findings, best practices, and future directions for research and practice on topical and important issues and services for community mental health today. Chapter authors include researchers but also practitioners from different disciplines, administrators, managers, and policy analysts who can also speak with the voice of experience. We think this research update is important. Promising service interventions and models of care require research and evaluation if they are to help us to understand what is going on, who is being treated – and who not – with what result in what context and with what treatment modality and range of services. An update and overview of salient aspects of that research forms the subject matter of this collection. We also hope that the collection will be important for practitioners, health planners, and programmers, because the treatment of persons with mental illness cannot be dissociated from the social grounding that is so much involved in clinical outcomes. And, importantly, solutions to the problems of persons with mental illness in the community require a systemic approach. The medical dimensions of treatment are certainly important, but they will bear little fruit without meaningful therapeutic engagement and a more broadly conceived sense of social connectedness and service linkages. This collection begins with a background piece by Stephen State that brings forward the long trajectory of community mental health treatment. In it, he addresses some possible misconceptions about the history of de-institutionalized community mental health services, a history that extends much further back than is commonly thought. The first substantive topic – and one that is implicitly involved in many others – is Evelyn Vingilis’s analysis of the methodology of program and policy evaluation of mental health services in community settings (chapter 3). Her principal message is that we should reconsider our inflexible adherence to the model of the randomized

8

Evelyn R. Vingilis and Stephen A. State

controlled trial (RCT), which has been the sine qua non of acceptable clinical trials in other areas of medical research. She counsels against attempting to squeeze the messiness of real-world community settings into the framework of the RCT. Her recommendation, instead, is to make use of newer multi-methods research methodologies, which, if done properly, can give us credible answers to the important research questions. Although the focal context for community treatment is now largely non-institutional, the hospital has not lost all relevance for persons with mental illness. The general hospital, in particular, remains an important part of the community service environment, as Beth Mitchell points out in her chapter (chapter 4). Both at early onset and, given the characteristically chronic nature of mental illness, in the course of subsequent acute episodes, persons with mental illness will find themselves directed to the emergency departments or outpatient clinics of a local hospital. The hospital will continue to have an important gatekeeping function, and it will contribute important oversight in the provision of stepped care within the community. A better understanding of what contributes to the performance of these ongoing hospital functions is therefore of considerable importance. Among the significant drivers of de-institutionalized treatment of persons with mental illness was the spirit of the rights movements in the postwar period expressed in, among other things, the United Nations charters of human rights. The paternalistic confinement of persons with mental illness to long-term in-patient care seemed glaringly at odds with the growing priority placed on human freedom. Nevertheless, the very genuine concern that persons with mental illness should not harm themselves or cause harm to others has led to policies of involuntary treatment and in some cases commitment – even in the absence of any criminal activity. Moral paternalism is always a “tough sell” in liberal societies, notwithstanding John Stuart Mill’s assertion that “those who are still in a state to require being taken care of by others must be protected against their own actions as well as against external injury” (Mill 1982, 69). In his chapter on community treatment orders (CTO s), Richard O’Reilly – himself the principal investigator on one of the largest clinical studies of mandatory orders – examines this controversial topic (chapter 5). He contends that the effectiveness of the CTO has yet to be completely established, although it does hold some promise in reducing hospital utilization and the likelihood of victimization. He recommends

Introduction

9

further research to identify both the most appropriate models of CTO and the most appropriate patients. A similarly troubling aspect of community treatment has been labelled under the rubric of criminalization. In the wake of deinstitutionalization, alarming numbers of persons with mental illness were identified in jails and prisons, which some observers attributed to excessively liberal policies (Abramson 1972); others to the sometimes strange and therefore misunderstood behaviour of persons with mental illness in the community; still others to the prevalence of survival crimes by persons with mental illness as they struggled in communities that provided little in the way of support. In their chapter on this topic, Virginia Hiday and Heathcote Wales argue that we would be well advised to distinguish the very different categories of criminal justice involvement by persons with mental illness (chapter 6). At one end of the spectrum are those whose symptomatic behaviour is the substance of their conflict with the criminal-justice system. This category corresponds with early assumptions about who was being criminalized and why; here the authors contend, uncontroversially, that such persons should be re-routed to the treatment and services they need for successful community integration. Those whose illness causes them to assault others, however, are more properly candidates for extended care in secure facilities. Still others, whose mental illness is secondary to other criminogenic factors in their lives (Junginger et al. 2006) would likely require more than diversion to treatment and services alone. In these cases the causal influences leading to criminal activity may well involve dimensions of their family background and neighbourhoods that cannot be addressed exclusively through psychiatric treatment. Connected to the issue of criminalization is the sensitive and complex relationship between mental illness and violence – with its attendant challenge of risk assessment. Authors Anne Crocker, Gilles Côté, and Erika Braithwaite (chapter 7) provide a concise overview of the research on the risk assessment of violence and the management of it in mental health services. As they point out, the burden of assessing and managing the risk now extends very broadly in the era of community treatment and is no longer confined to the forensic psychiatric system. With liberalizing changes to civil and criminal law, violence and aggressive behaviour, which are exacerbated by substance abuse and addictions, are increasingly common at psychiatric hospital admission and out-patient mental health services. This

10

Evelyn R. Vingilis and Stephen A. State

co-occurring population is especially problematic, since the addictions can impair the receipt of services; hence, the need for effective tools of risk assessment and management that combine the static factors of actuarial analysis with the more patient-specific and dynamic clinical analyses that make risk management a practical possibility. It is one thing to compute the probability of future behaviour based on a basket of risk factors; it is another to manage risk so as to permit the treatment of individual patients who may recover and thus reduce their risk profile. Another important message here concerns the need for more studies of implementation; the authors see a worrying gap between experimental studies that validate given instruments and more naturalistic studies that examine the use of risk assessment and management instruments as implanted in realworld, clinical settings. The authors include an analysis of the effect of changes to the Canadian Criminal Code on the practice of risk assessment and the way in which criminal responsibility is operationalized. They note that large numbers of persons who have committed severe and violent offences are now handled in mental health service systems other than secure forensic facilities. For that reason non-forensic psychiatrists in the civil system are increasingly challenged by what are de facto forensic cases. Their examination of the research on specific instruments to ascertain and manage risk will be of interest to program managers and clinicians in both the civil and the forensic systems. A particularly troubling and seemingly intractable dimension of the care and treatment of persons with mental illness in the community is the phenomenon of stigma, whereby persons with mental illness face strong negative attitudes from others and sometimes internalize or anticipate these negative responses as part of a debilitating self-image. Not only is this pattern unfortunate for the person with mental illness, but it also undermines the prospects for clinical improvement and social adjustment. Ross Norman’s thoughtful analysis of the research and the issues in play here (chapter 8) is a useful contribution to identifying the precise problem and moving the research agenda towards programs and policies that might help. Doing so is important because even well-meaning programs can, as he points out, increase the very preferences for social distancing – one dimension of stigma – that they are designed to reduce. Norman identifies a number of very specific areas where targeted research could help. For example, strategies emphasizing the biological causation of

Introduction

11

mental illness or encouraging certain modes of contact with persons who have mental illness have proved counterproductive. He therefore recommends testing other ways of describing the etiology of mental illness or testing alternative modes of contact with persons with mental illness, in order to avoid increasing the social distancing that has resulted from these earlier strategies. In the 1970s, a group of clinicians at a psychiatric hospital in Madison, Wisconsin, believed that persons who suffer from severe and persistent mental illness should be given the opportunity to live in the community through the receipt of community-based intensive treatment, rehabilitation, and support, rather than remaining on long-term wards in psychiatric hospitals. Their idea, in effect, was to take the kind of wrap-around care that a patient might receive on a hospital ward and to reposition this intensive, interdisciplinary multi-faceted care to the community setting. This program evolved to be called Assertive Community Treatment (ACT) and has been replicated and modified in numerous jurisdictions world-wide. Joan Bishop, Steve Lurie, Lindsay George, and Robert Wales examine the efficacy and effectiveness literature on ACT and describe successes, issues and challenges with it and its evaluations (chapter 12). Their chapter concludes with recommendations for future research to help us understand how and why ACT works. The ACT model is very much an interdisciplinary and collaborative model of care, but other expressions of collaboration have come to the fore in the era of community treatment. Raj Velamoor and Stephen State explore models of collaborative mental health care in the primary care domain (chapter 11). Family physicians are very much on the front lines of treatment, yet the long-standing model of the single-provider practice, in particular, has not been well suited to the kind of care needed by persons with mental illness. As their marshalling of the evidence indicates, treatment and outcomes are sub-optimal for persons with mental illness treated by primary care physicians, and the physicians themselves report lack of confidence in treating mental illness. The movement to more collaborative models is plausibly designed to redress identified shortcomings, but this is also a systemic problem of resources and funding. If treatment as usual is problematic, it might well be because there are insufficient specialists and care managers in the ambient health care system. Family doctors are often gatekeepers to the stepped-up specialty care that some patients require, and unless there are effective resources on

12

Evelyn R. Vingilis and Stephen A. State

the other side of that gate – or added to the family practice itself – improvements in care are unlikely. Applied research and evaluation to locate cost-effective models of primary mental health care delivery is therefore important for the entire health care system. For consumers, this book provides an understanding of what research is telling us within the various sectors of community mental health services. Consumer/survivors are all too aware of the challenges they have in accessing appropriate and wanted health care for their illness. However, their needs move beyond health care. They also need to navigate complex and sometimes contradictory, federal, provincial/state, and local bureaucratic systems to obtain a range of other services, such as housing, employment, and so forth. This book, although not a guide to system navigation in any given jurisdiction, will offer information on what we know has been successful and what still needs to be researched. In that sense it provides material to support informed advocacy – a window on where we have come, what still needs to be done, and what might be possible to do now – and, importantly, what has been shown not to work. In their chapter on consumer participation in mental health services (chapter 9), Geoffrey Nelson and Jill Grant go much further than this. They provide the background to the current movement for increased consumer participation, exploring its meaning and historical setting. They contend, controversially, that the problems in mental health care may have less to do with service and treatment gaps and more to do with the very understanding of the problem that these services are designed to address. They make the case for transformative over merely ameliorative change, invoking a shift in focus away from a problem construed in terms of patients in need of (better) professional care to one construed in terms of consumers who are “active participants in planning, services and research, with real power, voice, choice and control.” They go so far as to question, in the tradition of Foucault (which some might see as paradoxical), the very science that underscores the research that is designed to achieve better programs and outcomes. Housing is a key determinant of health, playing an important role in the quality of life, health, and overall well-being of persons in a community. Nevertheless, housing has historically not been seen as part of the general health services sector. Yet for persons with mental illness in particular, numerous barriers can exist for the provision of adequate

Introduction

13

housing. The barriers can be person-related and environment-related. To add to the complexity, barriers emanate from different sectors and levels of government and are also rooted in societal attitudes. In her chapter on housing and mental illness, Cheryl Forchuk outlines the common barriers facing persons with mental illness in accessing appropriate housing (chapter 10). She also examines the policies that have impeded the development of appropriate housing options and describes best practices and future research questions that need to be tackled. Eric Latimer’s chapter on supported employment (chapter 13) addresses a similar issue of great importance to the quality of life and social engagement of persons with serious mental illness. As he points out, although very few do in fact work, a majority indicate their desire to do so. The benefits of paid employment, in particular, are considerable in terms of self-esteem, symptom improvement, financial well-being and recovery. Early models of employment support – beyond the sheltered workshop, which effectively isolated the patient from the community – typically began with skills training, so as to make the client more attractive to prospective employers. In the early 1990s a new model of supported employment began to show promise in evaluations: the “place-train” approach. Here, instead of starting with training and moving to job placement, persons with mental illness would be placed directly in a position of employment and then supported with a vocational advisor to learn what the job required. One formulation of this model, the individual placement and support (IPS) variant, has in particular stood up well to evaluations, as Latimer shows in his thorough synthesis. However, as he points out, since even this model does not work for everyone, it is also important to explore alternatives that meet the needs of those who are not well served by the IPS approach. We would add that in the era of community treatment, addressing the needs of persons with serious mental illness will typically involve considerably more than a prescription or a few brief therapy sessions by a treatment provider. Interventions typically include a wide range of ancillary services beyond what takes place in hospital and clinical settings, including case management, assertive community treatment, social work, criminal-justice diversion programs, mental health courts, mobile crisis teams, specialized emergency room protocols at general hospitals, specialist psychiatry support to primary care providers, employment support, supervised housing, and

14

Evelyn R. Vingilis and Stephen A. State

peer support. It will also require a profound cultural change that addresses the stigma facing – and often internalized by – persons living with mental illness. A final introductory point concerns terminology.2 The choice of terminology is situated within an “essentially contested” (Gallie 1955) conceptual arena with a lengthy history. In the late eighteenth century William Tuke’s York Retreat provided for the moral management of those who would probably be termed lunatics in pointed rejection of the medical model of illness entertained by the contemporary profession of “mad doctoring.” As distasteful as the term lunatic might be now, it probably conveyed no additional prejudice at the time beyond contemporary understandings of what that misfortune entailed. By contrast, in the early twentieth century, practitioners like Maudsley sought to treat persons with mental illness much as patients with other diseases would be treated, in the wards of general hospitals and on a voluntary basis. This approach was widely considered both humane and progressive, entirely in line with the new mental hygiene movement and the psychopathic hospitals that that movement spawned (see chapter 2, on the historical background). It is hard to imagine how the terminology of “mental hygiene” or “psychopathic hospitals” could get any positive traction today. On the other hand – and many hands are needed here – advocates of the anti-psychiatry movement do not consider psychiatric ailments to be illnesses at all, a view shared by some observers in the recovery movement. Some prefer the term consumer, connoting perhaps the dimension of choice and control over treatment decisions in the manner of an informed shopper deciding to buy one product instead of another. Again, some consumers also refer to themselves as survivors, in the sense of surviving the involuntary treatment – less common now – that was typical of the large mental hospitals before the 1960s. Every choice of terminology, it would seem, has some problem. The term “patient” seems out of place when treatment is less frequently received on an in-patient basis. Yet many care providers – psychologists, psychiatrists – do refer to the people they treat as patients. To use the phrase “person with mental illness” will offend those who find the medical context inappropriate. Nevertheless, many rely on that medical terminology when the concern is to absolve people of responsibility for criminal behaviours or to reduce the social stigma of, say, addictive disorders. To change the word illness to disability or

Introduction

15

disorder is similarly problematic: some persons who live with the condition may resent the negative terms of dis-order or dis-ability. They may see themselves as people with idiosyncratic and creative understandings of the world. The terms client or consumer have problems also. Although they focus attention on the choice of an agent to decide on what treatment to accept, they render mysterious the reasons for making any consumer choices at all in the shopping market of available treatments. The term survivor is equally ambiguous, since it is not clear what has been survived, the disorder or the treatment. We have chosen for our introduction the phrase “persons with mental illness.” We concede that this choice of medical terminology implies that psychiatry and ancillary modes of care and service do appropriately deal with illness. Nevertheless, we would emphasize that a person is more than an illness, no matter whether the illness is cancer, diabetes, or schizophrenia. We have left it to individual authors of our collection to choose the terminology they deem most appropriate.

notes 1 We have included a chapter on consumer involvement because there is now a large body of research findings to examine and evaluate. 2 These issues of terminology are nicely discussed by Simon Davis (2006).

2 Community-Based Treatment: A New Idea a Hundred Years and More in the Making Stephen A. State Deinstitutionalization Is Aging The “deinstitutionalization” label as applied to a process of change in the locus of delivery of mental health services from institution to community is now approaching at least half a century of continuous use. Its precursors are older still. If we quite plausibly included the guiding ideas of the 1915 Maudsely Hospital in London, which included out-patient treatment of voluntary patients (Jones 1993, 126), and the very similar ideas underlying the Boston Psychopathic Hospital’s outdoor programs inspired by the mental hygiene movement circa 1910, de-institutionalization would be approaching its centennial. Or if we were to include the programs and practices of the Mental After-Care Association in the United Kingdom, which date from 1879 and which provided care in the community for patients discharged from asylums (Jones 1993, 127), the idea in 2010 would be over 125 years old. Finally, if we noted the evidence provided by Bartlett and Wright’s collection of research (1999) showing significant treatment of persons with mental illness in the community outside the walls of the asylum in eighteenth-century Britain, we would see that the novelty of community-based treatment is well-worn indeed. Connoting, as it does, the shift of patient populations from institutional care to treatment in “the community,” the label is also somewhat misleading. Most people with serious mental illness now treated in the community would not typically have spent prior lengthy periods of hospital confinement before community-based treatment. If anything, less-invasive treatment close to home would likely have

Community-Based Treatment

17

predated any period of usually temporary hospitalization. Yet if the label is misleading the trend is clear: community treatment is now the virtually universal norm for persons with serious mental illness. But what is community treatment and why did it come about? The phenomenon of de-institutionalization can be observed in England, the United States and in Canada. The chronology of the United Kingdom narrative (Hoenig and Hamilton 1969) may be somewhat different from that in North America, but the net trend is similar. In the United Kingdom, small private institutions called lunatic asylums and operated by “mad doctors” were already prevalent by the end of the eighteenth century. Treatment varied along a grisly continuum (Scull 1989, 75) of coercive and forceful measures designed, irrationally, to reposition reason to its proper place in the patient so brutally treated. There were similar private hospitals for the “insane” in the nineteenth-century United States. Writing in the Journal of Insanity in 1864, Dr Ray describes the treatment model of these American hospitals: the main fundamental idea was to break the patient’s will and make him learn that he had a master; to teach him that there was a mind and physical strength there all superior to his own … That was the principal object to be kept in view, and it was to be gained at any risk. If fair means would not do, other means should; if strong words or curses would not answer then resort was had to the knock-down arguments. This was thought to be the proper way; no secret was made of it, and the friends of patients understood it perfectly well … Among the methods of treatment … was the process of submersion and the idea was, probably, that if the patient was nearly drowned and then brought to life, he would take a fresh start, leaving his disease behind (Hurd 1916, 585). Despite public criticism of their barbaric practices (Jones 1993, 54) the asylum idea continued to grow, but its growth had nothing to do with mad-doctoring. The idea of removing the person with mental illness to a separate space was due in large measure to a small Quaker institution in England called the York Retreat. It was begun by the layman William Tuke in 1796 and replicated shortly thereafter in Philadelphia.

18

Stephen A. State

The Asylum This first wave of institutionalization – the asylum movement – is itself something of a misnomer. It was really a movement to a different kind of institutional care, rather than a shift from no institutional treatment at all – although, as noted above, there were already – and continued to be – some not inconsiderable expressions of care in the community at the same time. The famous retreat developed by Tuke was meant to replace obvious mistreatment at the already existing York Asylum (Scull 1989). The new retreat was premised on the assumption that the ambient community – including the patient’s family – was the problem giving rise to mental illness and that the right kind of institution would be the solution (Scull 1989, 304). This was emphatically and self-consciously not a medical model of care; Tuke, who was a tea merchant, had considerable skepticism about the medical treatment of the mentally ill at the time (Edginton 1997, 92). Later, ironically, it was the “non-medical” practice of moral treatment pioneered at the York retreat that “alienists” (to use the nineteenth-century label for doctors specializing in the treatment of mental illness) would incorporate into the medical best practice of the nineteenth century. Tuke’s retreat would replace the brutality of mad-doctoring with a “moral” regimen of fresh air, good food, engaging activities, and dignified treatment by compassionate staff: a gentle and bucolic haven from the madding crowd and the family and community that had caused the problem in the first place. The humane treatment to be afforded by a humane institution – far away from the community – would contribute to recovery. Frequently, a liberal dose of porter was also prescribed. The asylum movement in the United Kingdom grew rapidly on the promise of the sort of institutional care that the small retreat might offer. Recent examinations of patient records from the nineteenth century suggest a surprisingly positive and community-oriented picture: Approximately 40–50 percent of patients admitted to public (lunatic) asylums in the nineteenth century stayed twelve months or fewer. Only about one in five patients were ever readmitted, and admission orders reveal that the “attack” of insanity had often been underway for months, if not years, before confinement took place. These arresting findings imply

Community-Based Treatment

19

that situations of “care” in the community existed long before a crisis precipitated institutional confinement, and continued after discharge. Care outside the walls of the asylum was therefore a reality, not only for those suffering from madness who were never admitted at all but also for those patients who were confined in mental hospitals only for short periods of their illness. (Bartlett and Wright 1999, 3) The promise of humane care was difficult to sustain. Instead of the 150 to 200 patients per retreat living lives of rural ease, the numbers of patients grew beyond any plausible prospect of humane treatment and beyond the ability of the public to fund. The anticipated, muchvaunted cure rates never materialized. Legislative reforms in the County Asylum Act of 1828 sought to provide broad standards and oversight, but it was a losing battle. Asylums became overcrowded, growing into the thousands of patients and adding wing after wing. By the time Dorothea Dix (Dix 1845; Gollaher 1995; Brown 1998) was making the case for asylum care in mid-nineteenth-century North America and throughout continental Europe, the asylums in the United Kingdom were coming increasingly under attack for failing to provide the sort of care that justified their construction in the first place. Indeed, by 1830 John Conolly – although an exception – was beginning to question the very idea of widespread institutional care (Scull 1989; Conolly 1830). In Canada, the influences shaping the models of care for those with mental illness have come from both the United Kingdom and the United States, but in the case of Québec (Paradis 1997) and other francophone centres, also from France. At the time of the revolution in France, Phillipe Pinel at the Bicêtre Asylum in Paris was humanizing the care of the mentally ill in a way that bore resemblance to Tuke’s asylum in York. The iconic image of Pinel, liberating inmates of the asylum from all forms of restraint, however, is surely inaccurate; he continued to advocate the use of straight-jackets for patients under his care (Weiner 1992) “to dominate agitated madmen while respecting human rights.” In that sense, the approach of Pinel is slightly different from the Tuke model: Tuke’s approach would simply remove the pathological community and family influences that had, he thought, caused the problem and allow the wholesome environment of the retreat and the person’s interaction with it to foster recovery. Some of the practices at Pinel’s asylums – particularly those involving

20

Stephen A. State

constructive activities by clients – were similar. Unlike Tuke, however, Pinel also proposed to alter the mental status of his patients with what was a medical intervention, a kind of talk therapy. It was, of course, a very different psychological intervention from the viciously physical methods used by others at the time. Pinel’s humane methods were cited in a report to the House of Assembly of New Brunswick in 1836–7 in the course of discussions there on reforming asylum practice. The same report reflects the consensus on preferred treatment in nineteenth-century Canada, this time drawn from an American source reflecting, in turn, the principles of the York Asylum in England: there should be dairy rooms, workshops and store-houses, all arranged for the particular object of employing them; they should be engaged (in times and seasons for the several labors) in cutting, making and loading hay; planting, sowing, cultivating and getting in garden and field crops, collecting and storing away fruit, shelling corn, dressing flax, tending stock, milking cows, making butter and cheese, knitting, sewing, etc.; in fine, all the labors of a large farming establishment, besides various mechanical labors. ( Hurd 1916, 4:83) In Quebec, a report of a special committee of the Legislative Council of Lower Canada, 1824, criticized the “deplorable condition” of the insane in the province. A description of the existing situation at the Ursuline Nunnery in Trois Rivières circa 1823 included these observations: there are 6 cells, of the size of about 8 feet long, 6 feet broad, and 8 feet high … Each of the above cells is intended for one inmate, who is solitarily confined therein, day and night, with few exceptions, and only removed therefrom to another cell when … cleaning. [once in 8 days] The cells have each a small glazed and grated window in the outside wall, of about a foot square; and in the passages there are openings above each door, also grated. Through these windows light is admitted, and, when opened, air. There are stoves in winter in the adjoining passages, which heat the cells; and in summer a window at each end of the passage admits air; but the ventilation must be very imperfect. (Hurd 1916, 4:252–3)

Community-Based Treatment

21

A temporary expedient of managing those with mental illness in the Montreal jail was particularly criticized by Dorothea Dix, who entered the fray in Upper and Lower Canada – and later in Nova Scotia – in support of the asylum movement (Moran 1998). The response would be a call for the new “improved modern system” of moral management and institutional care that eliminated or minimized physical restraint. The trend to institutionalization in Quebec, was also distinguished by a tradition of “farming out,” or capitation,1 whereby enterprising groups and institutions would bid for the contract to manage and house the insane for a given region at a rate of so much money per person per year. An example, on a large scale, was the asylum at Beauport, near Quebec City, which was contracted to a consortium headed by James Douglas,2 who soon bought out his other partners. Douglas was the nominal medical director, as well as the proprietor, and the $132 per person he collected from the state enabled him to spend the winter months in Italy, Egypt, and Palestine (Hurd 1916, 4:268; Moran 1998; Grob 1983, 428). The obvious conflict of interests at Beauport led to a number of scathing critiques. One was by Daniel Hack Tuke, a descendant of the founder of the York asylum, and another equally damaging critique was by Joseph Workman, medical director of the Toronto asylum. The pressure eventually led to Douglas’s departure and the replacing of the contract at a lower rate, with better results. Interestingly, Quebec maintained a number of other treatment options for those with mental illness, some of which involved management in the community by “the use of the local jail, boarding out, family management [with] … neighbourhood supervision [through] the use of local nurses and physicians” (Moran 1998, 309). The general nineteenth-century trend in Canada, however, whether influenced by British, French, or American advocates, was so-called moral management, which took place in increasingly larger asylums. Throughout most of the century this largely custodial practice was the consensus treatment for those with mental illness in the United States, England, and Canada. In the early twentieth century a very different practice would take shape.

Community Psychiatry and Mental Hygiene At the time of the First World War the asylum system in the United Kingdom was in tatters. Some of the larger sites were reconstituted

22

Stephen A. State

as emergency war hospitals, which exacerbated problems of overcrowding; 42 percent of staff left for war duty; many were killed. Tuberculosis rates in the remaining asylums reached horrific levels (Jones 1993, 124). In 1915 a qualitatively different sort of centre for the treatment of mental illness had taken shape in the new Maudsley Hospital (Rollin 2003, 294). Maudsely’s institution was used first as a military hospital, but it was meant for and subsequently adapted to civilian use in 1924. His idea was to treat persons with acute and early onset mental illness primarily on an outpatient basis through urban teaching hospitals connected to a university with a significant focus on research (Jones 1993, 126–7). Importantly, the treatment would take place without involuntary commitment. Those with mental illness would be de-segregated (as it was called in the United Kingdom circa 1918), and mental illness would be dealt with as a category within general medicine to be treated in community catchment areas of general hospitals. At the time, oversight of the large asylums was vested in a board of control. In a special report to an ad hoc Government Reconstruction Committee in 1918 (Jones 1993, 127), the board recommended many of the principles that underlay Maudsley’s hospital. Whereas the Tuke-inspired asylum sought to escape the community and the mad-doctors, this prescient 1918 report would reverse both of those goals. Those with mental illness would be treated in the community where possible; they would be treated primarily by the practitioners of the branch of medicine specializing in their treatment and care. The Macmillan Commission (U.K.) of 1924 – set up largely as a result of reports of scandalous treatment in the large county asylums – concurred; moreover, their report reinforced the need for discharge planning and for systems of care to aid in successful community tenure (Jones 1993, 133). This movement toward community treatment continued in the United Kingdom through the interwar period, although it was not until the mid-1950s that significant changes came about (Jones 1993, 150 and passim). In North America it was also after the Second World War that successful pressures arose to de-institutionalize the mentally ill. Before then, both Canada and the United States were moving to embrace the large provincial or state mental hospital as the preferred segregated venue for mental health treatment. Nevertheless, there were also significant voices in North America speaking of a different, more community-focused direction in the provision of mental

Community-Based Treatment

23

health services. One was the discipline of neurology, which led to Maudsley-like psychopathic hospitals and psychiatric clinics connected to general hospitals in the community. The other was the mental hygiene movement. In the former case, psychiatry as neurology had very decided biomedical, scientific aspirations; it looked to the anatomy of the brain to address the issue of mental illness. The premise was that mental illnesses like “mania” or “hysteria” might be identified and treated in the manner of cerebral hemorrhages or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis – by locating the physiological drivers of the disease (Stein 2004). TaySachs disease and syphilis were instances of diseases that neurology had successfully identified with objective bio-medical markers – even if there were at that point no treatment implications. Syphilis was significant in this regard, since a late stage of that disease was associated with dementia. As early as 1869 a neurology clinic had been attached to the Bellevue Hospital Medical College in New York. An institutional expression of this new trend was the renaming of the Association of Medical Superintendents of Institutions for the Insane to the American Medico-Psychological Association (Grob 1983, 69). Like the neurologists, the mental hygiene movement in the United States and Canada maintained that institutionalized treatment was not necessary for everyone with mental illness. Unlike the bio-medical focus of neurology, the mental hygienists held that mental illness was caused largely by environment and social pathologies. In identifying environmental stressors, they agreed with the earlier asylum movement; unlike that earlier movement, which sought to take the person out of society, they proposed to change society. If psychopathological determinants could be addressed through psychiatric social work, juvenile reformatories, occupational therapy, and other broadly social modalities, there would be significant reductions in prevalence. As well, if cases could be found and treated early, cure rates would be greatly improved. Although there was still little consensus on what mental illness was or on what caused it or even on how to label it, both the new neurologists and the mental hygienists were equally enthusiastic in promoting activities designed to prevent it (Grob 1983, 157). In the case of the mental hygiene movement, the inspiration was the recovered patient of a mental hospital in the United States, Clifford Beers, whose book A Mind That Found Itself achieved international acclaim (Beers 2004). Beers’s complaint had been that

24

Stephen A. State

he was improperly treated in a heavy-handed way in an asylum near Boston where he was involuntarily committed. But what emerged in the advocacy movement that followed was not more sensitive and caring treatment in an asylum; it was a radically different sort of treatment through a different kind of hospital (Grob 1983, 161).

The Psychopathic Hospital The July issue of the Canadian Journal of Mental Hygiene for 1920 contains the address by A.G. Morphy to the Montreal meeting earlier that year of the Medico-Chirugical Society, outlining the principles of the Psychopathic Hospital that had been coming on stream in the previous two decades: it must of necessity be in the centre of things, not removed to a secluded spot like a hospital for the insane. It is the centre of a co-operative system consisting of general hospitals whose specialists are called in for consultation, of social workers who are in touch with the public through the various Social Agencies found in a large city, of all the associations connected with the proximity of numerous colleges and hospitals, of its own visiting staff who attend the out-door department, of the laboratory research work being carried on under the commission on mental diseases, and last but by no means least, the police. The conclusion that this accessibility and co-operation work together for the good of the patients and for the advancement of science is so inevitable that it hardly needs to be mentioned. (Morphy 1920, 172) This was a very different point of view from that of the asylum managers at the end of the nineteenth century and afterward. Although the moral management of patients had come to dominate the thinking of the medical superintendents of the large asylums, the kind of medicine practised was not very advanced, and the management not very “moral.” The great success by Joseph Workman at the Toronto Asylum is mostly linked to his efforts in repairing the ventilation, heating, and sewage systems in the new buildings so that patients did not die from diseases resulting from unsanitary conditions (Brown 1980, 99). Most of the challenges faced by medical superintendents

Community-Based Treatment

25

were those of administering and managing the thousands and thousands of patients and custodial staff who lived and worked in enormous institutions. A revealing contrast can be noted in two contemporary hospitals in Manitoba. In 1918 the Brandon, Manitoba, asylum had one medical doctor for its 713 patients, and he, the medical superintendent, “was generally tied up with administrative affairs, especially managing the asylum farm, and left the care of the patients in the hands of the matrons and attendants, whose major concern was order and not cure” (Edginton 1988, 180). Most patients were brought to this remote asylum in shackles, and according to the report by Clark and Hincks of the Canadian National Committee for Mental Hygiene, “it was a place of utter futility and idleness, with patients looking to death for their freedom” (Edginton 1988). In contrast to the patient warehousing practised at the Brandon asylum, the director of the Manitoba Psychopathic Hospital in Winnipeg, A.T. Mathers, would present his institution as a community social service, most of whose patients were treated voluntarily: “the four walls of the hospital do not limit its activities. They can never again be an obstacle to that shuttle – social service – that constantly works back and forth between the hospital and its community … The Psychopathic Hospital is the centre of a circle, the circumference of which is coterminus with the boundaries of the community itself” (Mathers 1921, 177). Other psychopathic hospitals and psychiatric clinics associated with general hospitals had opened in the first two decades of the twentieth century, including in Toronto, Montreal, and Winnipeg in Canada. Scull describes the community-oriented argument in support: “instead of a monolithic asylum system, they [progressives] proposed a network of psychopathic hospitals providing expert diagnosis and intensive treatment for recent curable cases; a massive effort to provide outpatient clinics and aftercare services for those discharged from the hospitals; financial aid, augmented by psychological support and counseling; and a new emphasis on preventing the outbreak of mental disorder through public education in mental hygiene” (1989, 255). There were other expressions of community mental health service delivery at the time. In addition to the psychopathic clinic, another form of community care more common in Europe – and one pioneered in North America in Massachusetts in 1885 – was that of family

26

Stephen A. State

care. This model had precedents going back to Gheel, Belgium, in the Middle Ages, where chronic cases would be cared for in families other than their own with oversight provided by the hospital or public health professional (Crutcher 1939, 180). Ontario pursued the practice from 1932; some five hundred patients were in family care by 1938. During the same period the New York Department of Mental Hygiene maintained in family care a number that “would more than fill a small institution” (Crutcher 1939, 180). Some jurisdictions, including a number of American States, followed a similar practice of parole (Grob 1983, 316) for patients in transition to the community from in-patient care. There were also travelling clinics that followed the principles of the mental hygiene movement. Ontario set up six such clinics in the 1930s to reduce the numbers of admissions to the provincial mental hospitals. Much of their activity was involved in the assessment of children for adoption and of various juvenile behaviour disorders (Blom and Sussman 1989, 131–3). In practice, they succeeded more in locating new cases in need of in-patient care, since they lacked the resources to achieve much in the way of cure or prevention (Simmons 1990, 48–50). Despite these significant forces – psychopathic hospitals, the mental hygiene movement, and operational models of community treatment – the overwhelming trend continued to be the large segregated and largely custodial mental hospital. Even during the Depression they continued to expand. In Ontario in 1939 the St Thomas Mental Hospital opened its doors to over a thousand patients, a small number in comparison to others. In 1931, the State of New York opened two new asylum-like mental hospitals, Rockland State3 and Pilgrim State. The former had a capacity of 3,900 patients; the latter could hold 7,831. Across the United States in 1935 the total expenditure for all types of mental health care was estimated at about $182 million, and 90 percent of this was spent on in-patient mental health care in the large asylums. Only 3 percent was spent on psychopathic clinics, and 7 percent on services of physicians in private practice. Less than a quarter of 1 percent was spent on activities connected with the mental hygiene movement (Davis 1939, 166). Various reasons are suggested for this continued growth in institutional care. One factor is simply that of program and policy momentum. The large state-run mental hospitals were massive juggernauts of bureaucratic inertia. In the case of general illness in the United States, 80 percent of the costs at this time were covered by

Community-Based Treatment

27

patient fees; in the case of mental health care, 75 percent of the costs were covered by government expenditures, primarily through the large mental hospitals. Consumers and their families would be caught in a bind: if they pressed for community care as available at the time, they would have to pay for it; the state hospitals for the insane would take in everyone regardless of their ability to pay. As well, the state would typically have assumed control of mental health care after city and county operations, on the basis of capitated carve-outs, had bid down the costs for service delivery to levels that could not support adequate care. The per capita costs of in-patient custodial care were far less in the short term than more intensive therapies proposed by advocates of the new psychopathic hospitals – 74 cents per person per day compared to $5 or $6 per person per day (Rorem 1939, 221). Writing in 1939, A.P. Noyes could say with conviction that “[i]n no state where county or city care of the mentally disabled has been superseded by state supervision would the citizens permit return to the former system” (1939, 292). Community care looked to be expensive. Others have blamed the administrators of the large institutions and their desire to protect their turf (Rothman 1971, 6). Rothman’s evidence notwithstanding, that is not the full story. Some representatives of those very hospitals were making the case to transform them into centres of community psychiatry. Indeed, in the 1960s when the new Community Mental Health Centers were set up in the United States, a few were organized through the state mental hospitals, where the hospital had “long been a principal mental resource in its area, and hence it was quite reasonable for the hospital to develop the center independently” (Levenson 1969, 84–5). If it did its job properly, one commentator from the mental hygiene movement wrote, the mental hospital would be “the community department of psychiatry” leading the breakdown of departmental silos and placing the needs of the patient at the centre of its responsibilities (Stevenson 1939, 336). The director of the Danville State Hospital in Pennsylvania in 1939 considered that the “phrase ‘mental hospital and the community’ therefore has a significance and meaning today which it did not and could not have during the asylum period, when institutions for the mentally ill … were isolated from the main stream of community life and served largely as convenient receptacles for the custody of an unfortunate group that received, at best, humane care but little, if any, medical treatment” (Jackson 1939, 331).

28

Stephen A. State

Alas, these remarks in the majority of circumstances seem like cognitive dissonance: more an expression of hope than fact. Contemporary observers more commonly noted that the large mental hospital belongs to and feels for no one community because it serves many communities. Its distance from its communities has even affected its work on its traditional patients. For example, it is half a century since we came to appreciate the value of knowing the home setting of mental hospital patients, of discharging the patient into a suitable environment, and of continued aftercare treatment (follow-up) in the community after discharge. These community responsibilities have been recognized as important to the patient … [but] are not today generally provided as a part of psychiatric service to a community. (Stevenson 1939, 337) The director of the Commission on Hospital Service for the American Hospital Association remarked in 1939 regarding the large mental hospitals that he “would like to [express] gratification that hospitals with 5,000 or 6,000 patients can render any degree of personal or scientific services to the mental cases under care. To a layman it is unbelievable that intensive personal service necessary to the treatment of mental cases can be rendered to such large groups of persons … It is a wonder that the care is of any value at all”(Rorem 1939, 221; emphasis in original).

Community Treatment as the Norm Why, then, did things change? Simple explanations for the eventual trend are hard to come by, and most explanations vary to some extent by jurisdiction. The arrival of lithium and psychotropic medication is often cited with good reason as a contributing cause, yet accelerated discharge rates and reduced average length of stays have been documented earlier than the introduction of these drugs (Grob 2004). The financial constraints arising from the Depression and the Second World War, both of which led to declining standards of care, were certainly a factor. As noted, in some cases the hospitals themselves were already imbued before the Second World War with the spirit of the mental hygiene movement. Speaking about the “role of a public mental hospital with reference to the mentally ill of a

Community-Based Treatment

29

community,” in 1939, Dr J. Allen Jackson specified the requirements of a “well-rounded community service.” They included outpatient treatment facilities, social services, public education programs, and policies directed to the reduction of stigma (Jackson 1939). Some impetus in the post–Second World War era likely came from versions of anti-psychiatry arguments. Erving Goffman, Michel Foucault, and Thomas Szasz all gave academic credibility to “cuckoonest” depictions of in-patient treatment (Szasz 2005) and fuelled patient rights arguments so in line with the civil rights movement of the 1960s and the just society arguments of the 1970s (Grob 1992, 16). In Goffman’s view (1961), the institutions themselves were the likely culprit in protracted mental illness; for Foucault, the asylum was merely the instrument through which society exercised control (1988); and for Szasz, the very idea of psychiatry as a medical specialty was an illusion designed to facilitate the removal from our midst of deviant behaviours. Yet, as we have seen, many of the criticisms of the large mental hospitals were made long before the 1960s, and significant international expressions of community treatment emerged much earlier as well. In the United States, outpatient clinics of community psychiatry became ”widely established” in the 1940s (Glasscote 1964, 4). Advocates like Gerald Caplan and Robert Felix were pushing for preventative, population-based interventions that they dreamed would make most in-patient treatment unnecessary (Grob 1991). The Expert Committee on Mental Health of the World Health Organization recommended in a 1952 conference report that ”community mental hospitals should provide outpatient and part-time treatment, rehabilitation services, and research and community education programs” (Glasscote 1964, 5). This was three years before the introduction of psychoactive drugs in 1955; nine years before the publication of Goffman’s (1961) critique of institutional neurosis, Asylums, Foucault’s Madness and Civilization, and Szasz’s Myth of Mental Illness in 1961 (Szasz 1974 revised). Perhaps, too, the war experience contributed to the mood in support of community treatment (Yolles 1969, 7–8). In the Second World War, surprising numbers of recruits had been rejected from service on the basis of emotional or psychological concerns. In the American context alone, almost four hundred thousand potential recruits had been discharged for psychological reasons. It was also apparent that hitherto healthy individuals might, through the difficult experiences

30

Stephen A. State

of warfare, become mentally ill, be treated and, in many cases, regain their health. In the United States this faith in community-based prophylaxis brought the federal government into play as a significant actor and direct funder of community mental health initiatives. Perhaps since they were treating large numbers of persons with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in Veterans Hospitals, it was the US federal government that led the charge to community treatment with the 1963 Mental Retardation Facilities and Community Mental Health Centers Construction Act. Through the now infamous “institutions for the treatment of mental disease” (IMD) exclusion, state psychiatric hospitals would be deprived of federal Medicaid funds in order to move the locus of mental health treatment into the community. In their heyday, the US state mental hospitals held five hundred thousand patients; now, with a much larger ambient population, there are barely fifty thousand – declines that are reflected in other jurisdictions in the Western world as well. The US narrative here is akin to a tale of two systems: the deinstitutionalization story of the shrinkage of the large state-run mental hospitals and the story of the federal government’s Community Mental Health Centers. The former was the demoralizing Asylum story, which Goffman had so demonized in his influential book with that name. The latter took most of the hopeful attention – and most of the funding. It was a story of optimism replete with the Kennedy Camelot aura and the principles of community psychiatry that – much like the earlier mental hygiene movement – would make mental illness largely unnecessary. The complexity of this bifurcated story appears in some curious quantitative patterns. The in-patient numbers for the large mental hospitals in the period between 1955 and 1971 show a decline from 558,922 to 308,024, yet in the period between 1966 and 1971 the numbers of admissions to the large mental hospitals actually rose (Martin 1984, 1) from 802,216 to 836,326 (Trotter and Chu 1974, 3), and expenditures rose 54 percent during the same time. Commentators have implied that this was likely a wasteful and unnecessary prolongation of a dated institution. Another explanation for the same data is that the large mental hospitals were becoming centres of short-term treatment of acute episodes of serious mental illness and that persons were cycling back and forth between “the community” because the community – in the shape of the new community mental health centres – did not have the resources or the programs to deal properly with them (Trotter and Chu 1974).

Community-Based Treatment

31

In England, the story of the move to community treatment of persons with mental illness displays some similarities with the US case. For one thing, arguments for moving in this direction preceded the introduction of neuroleptic drugs, and, as with the US experience with community psychiatry, they were predicated on a socialpsychological treatment modality. In England it was the therapeutic community movement of Maxwell Jones and others (Martin 1984, 3). In addition, by 1949, 90,000 people were already being treated through outpatient community psychiatry services established by local authorities across England. By 1959, the numbers had grown steadily to 140,000. There were also increases in the numbers treated through the general hospitals and day hospitals and declines in the numbers of in-patients (not, as noted, in in-patient admissions). The 1957 Great Britain Royal Commission (1957) on mental illness made clear that the trend in policy goals would be to treat persons with mental illness much like other patients with other diseases: voluntarily and not in segregated specialty hospitals. The Canadian pattern is similar. Arguments in favour of community treatment and some small-scale models of community programs – travelling clinics, family care, for example (Simmons 1990, 48) – were available well before the Second World War. The impetus to change was accelerated with the publication of the influential Tyhurst Committee Report, More for the Mind, a review that appeared in 1963, although the committee to undertake the review had been struck in 1955, four months before the appointment in the United States of the Joint Commission on Mental Illness and Health. Inspired by Canadian pioneers in the mental hygiene movement, the Tyhurst committee would press for “psycho-social rehabilitation and maintenance of the patient symptom free in the community” over “symptom improvement of patients in hospital” (Tyhurst 1964, 31). The report was criticized for maintaining a medical model of care, with the psychiatrist in charge. That citicism is undeniable, but the report also stresses the need to address the social environment, as well as individual psychopathology, to prevent as much as to treat. It very clearly articulates the goal of community re-integration through coordinated community services (Tyhurst 1964). As in the US case, the Canadian federal government provided some incentive for the policy shift from the hospital to the community, albeit on a much smaller scale,. Psychiatric units in general hospitals had been growing in any case. In Ontario, the progression was from 6 hospital psychiatric units with 125 beds in 1954 to

32

Stephen A. State

60 units with over 2,100 beds in 1981 (Simmons 1990, 55–9). Also in Ontario, provincial psychiatric hospital (PPH) beds declined from 219 in 1965 to 45 per 100,000 of the total Ontario population in 1998. A 2004 analysis of Ontario’s PPH s and community treatment programs showed a further decline to less than 10 percent of the 1965 rate (Sealy and Whitehead 2004). Given that the significant numbers of persons with serious mental illness treated in primary care are not captured in the study, the trend to an overwhelming proportion of persons treated outside long-term in-patient wards in psychiatric hospitals is clear. The delivery of mental health services is principally a community phenomenon.

Notes 1 A practice revived in the twentieth century in US jurisdictions under managed care. On the differences between English Protestant and Francophone Catholic approaches to asylum care see Paradis (1997). 2 Douglas’s name would later be attached to the mental hospital at Verdun through significant donations by his son, an American physician who had made a fortune in copper. See Hurd (1916). 3 The author undertook a weekly voluntary service placement at Rockland State Mental Hospital while attending Camp Ramah, a summer camp in Nyack, New York, in 1966.

3 Issues and Challenges in Community Mental Health Services: Program and Policy Evaluation Evelyn R. Vingilis The last two decades have seen the development of a strong movement for “evidence-based” health care. Although a key rationale for evidence-based care has been to provide health care providers and patients/clients/consumers with information about outcomes of the best-evaluated interventions so that they are able to make more informed decisions about care, it is also acknowledged that one driving force behind evidence-based health care is fiscal – the goal is for health care funding agencies to find the most cost-effective health care option (Barnes et al. 1999; Fonagy 1999; Guyatt et al. 1995). The problem of obtaining the “biggest bang for the buck” has become even more salient with concern over escalation of health care expenditures and thus the sustainability of health care systems (Vingilis and Sarkella 1997). The upshot of this concern over escalating health care expenditures has been an increased interest in and emphasis on the evaluation of health care services, with mental health care programs, services, and policies being no exception, although it is important to point out that funds for the conduct of evaluations are still limited. Program evaluation is a relatively new science. It has evolved from many diverse disciplines, such as education, psychology, sociology, nursing, political science, public administration, economics, health sciences, health promotion, and so forth, and as such, the conceptualization, research methods, and language of evaluation have been as diverse as these disciplines. Moreover, program evaluation is an umbrella term used for many different types of evaluation. Even here,

34

Evelyn R. Vingilis

the terms used for different types of evaluation, such as process, implementation, monitoring, formative, outcome, impact, summative, economic, efficiency – not to mention program rationale – have varied from discipline to discipline. Yet over the past three decades, program evaluation textbooks and articles by scholars within these disciplines have begun talking with a shared conceptualization and methodology (although not yet with the same language). Indeed, even the large divide between quantitative and qualitative evaluation methods has been muted, with many current program evaluation scholars supporting the two research approaches to answer different questions and the ever more popular mixed-method approach (e.g., Caracelli and Greene 1997; Chen 1997; Cordray 1989; Datta 1997; Greene et al. 1989; Greene and Caracelli 1997; Mark et al. 1997; Smith 1997). And although program evaluation texts are more likely to be quantitative (and post-positivist), most include chapters on various qualitative and other research approaches, such as participatory action research. Additionally, a number of renowned qualitative evaluation texts have also been available (e.g., Patton 2002). Yet despite the more clearly articulated conceptualization and methodology that has developed for program evaluation in numerous textbooks, journals, and Web-based handbooks, a number of published evaluations in the mental health services sector are weak and provide limited valid or valuable information for policy-makers, managers, and practitioners (Corrigan et al. 2001; Franx et al. 2008), although it is important to point out that this problem is not exclusive to community mental health services. The purpose of this review chapter is not to review and synopsize evaluations of community mental health services, since the subsequent review chapters on various community mental health issues engage in this enterprise. Rather, this chapter offers current thinking on program evaluation issues and methods in the conduct of evaluations of communitybased outcomes, and it reflects on their current uptake within community mental health services outcomes evaluations. Fundamental to all program evaluations is the validity of the causal attribution – that is, whether the program activities can be assumed to “cause” the outcomes that are found. This issue is well exemplified by Lipsey’s (1988, 18) study of a random sample of evaluation research published over a three-year period and drawn from three different referencing indices, a study that still reflects the reality of some program evaluation today. Of the 168 identified

Program and Policy Evaluation

35

evaluation studies, 122 used a quantitative experimental or quasiexperimental design and were included in Lipsey’s systematic coding and appraisal of the quality of the research. He found the following conceptual, methodological, and statistical problems: 1 Causal complexity: 77 percent of the treatment evaluations were causally complex (multidimensional and applied over time), requiring differentiated causal constructs, but 84 percent of the studies handled the independent variable as a categorical dichotomy. 2 A lack of theory: 69 percent were non- or sub-theoretical, lacking a conceptual theory or model of how the program was to work. 3 A lack of information on dimensions of treatment implementation: less than 50 percent made any mention of the amount of treatment delivered; less than 33 percent mentioned treatment doses, duration, components, and so on. 4 An inability to replicate the program: not enough detail was provided concerning the program. 5 An inability to know what program components worked: there was a lack of differentiated program constructs. 6 A lack of information on measures: only 30 percent mentioned reliability, 19 percent mentioned validity, and 12 percent mentioned sensitivity. 7 A narrow statistical approach: with only rare exceptions, conclusions were based “almost entirely upon statistical significance testing against the thoroughly institutionalized p < .05 criterion.” Lipsey (1988, 22) concluded: “What this review reveals is that evaluation research in the experimental paradigm is based on constructs that substantially under-represent the complexity of the causal process at issue, is theoretically impoverished, is crudely operationalized, and in its results, is insensitive to genuine treatment effects and unreliable in its conclusions.” Lipsey’s focus reflects the conceptual, methodological, and statistical problems inherent in a number of outcome program evaluations, including mental health services evaluations, which can affect causal attribution. These problems evolved from a policy space where programs, services, and policies were developed, possibly based on theories but often guided by personal ideology, assumptions, opinion polls, and the “fad of the moment” (Stame 2004). Evaluators followed suit, guided by a positivist epistemology where theoretical

36

Evelyn R. Vingilis

frameworks were not developed; rather a “black-box” or “methodsdriven” approach was taken (Stame 2004). This approach was used to describe evaluations that examined an outcome (normally one outcome, at that) in relation to an intervention, and a causal link or attribution was assumed between the intervention and the outcome (Bickman 2000; Bishop and Vingilis 2006; Chen 1990, 2005; Cordray 1989; Cousins and Earl 1992; Koepsell et al. 1992; Lipsey 1988; Lipsey and Cordray 2000; Posavac and Carey 2003; Reynolds 1998; Sidani and Braden 1997; Stame 2004; Vingilis and Burkell 1996; Vingilis and Pederson 2001). Thus, the focus of evaluation was all on methods, with the randomized controlled trial (RCT) or randomized experimental design as the gold standard for evaluation methodology. Yet over the years, it has been the causal link between intervention and outcome that has come under scrutiny, even within experimental paradigms (Chen and Rossi 1983; Cordray 1989; Hohmann and Shear 2002; Koepsell et al. 1992; Lipsey 1988; Lipsey and Cordray 2000; Mayne 2001; Posavac and Carey 2003; Stame 2004; Vingilis and Pederson 2001). Programs, services, and policies are based on the validity of underlying assumptions about how and why they are supposed to work (Bickman 1996; Bishop and Vingilis 2006; Chen 2003, 2005; Grembowski 2001; Lipsey 1988, 1993; Reynolds 1998; Stame 2004; Weiss 1998). These underlying assumptions can be classified into two types: the program’s theory of cause and effect (also known as its program theory or change model) and the program’s theory of implementation (also known as its change theory, implementation theory, or action model) (Bishop and Vingilis 2006; Chen and Rossi 1983; Chen 1990, 2003, 2005; Grembowski 2001; Rimer and Glanz 2005; Weiss 1998). The program’s theory of cause and effect should conceptualize the underlying logic of how and why a program could “cause” specific outcomes (Bishop and Vingilis 2006; Grembowski 2001; Reynolds 1998; Weiss 1998; W.K. Kellogg Foundation 2001). It also overlaps with the National Cancer Institute’s (Rimer and Glanz 2005) concept of explanatory theory or theory of the problem, which expounds on the theory behind how and why the problem to be tackled exists. Unfortunately, answering this seemingly simple question of how and why a program should work can often be a challenge because most programs are causally complex. That is, the causal processes involved in conceptualizing how a program should work may include many components that extend over different periods (Lipsey 1988). Thus,

Program and Policy Evaluation

37

unless a program offers a one-shot, one-time intervention, such as an inoculation, it is safe to say that in most cases programs, services, and policies, particularly in the community mental health arena, include causal processes that “may involve long chains of cascading direct and indirect effects, may be influenced by various extraneous events (i.e., be context dependent), and may have results that are delayed, diffuse, and subtle” (Lipsey 1988, 8). The crux of the problem with outcome evaluations conducted on these types of programs is that they often tend to ignore the program’s theory of cause and effect and the program’s causal complexity. That is, the conceptualization of how and why a program should work is not articulated by the program developer or the evaluator. The program’s theory of implementation identifies the theoretical basis for the strategy chosen to tackle the problem and also focuses on whether the program is actually implemented as intended (Bishop and Vingilis 2006; Chen 1990; Grembowski 2001; Weiss 1998). Commonly called process, progress, implementation, monitoring, fidelity, or formative evaluation, it examines both the program’s delivery and its coverage (Cousins et al. 2004; Isaac and Michael 1997; Posavac and Carey 2003; Rossi and Freeman 1993; Weiss 1998). Black-box evaluations typically also ignore this type of evaluation, even though it is considered fundamental to all evaluations in order to assess what the program actually does (Cousins and Earle 1992; Dewa et al. 2001; Sidani and Sechrest 1999). The assumption that programs, services, and policies are being delivered in accordance with objectives and as intended has been shown to be unwarranted (Rossi and Freeman 1993; Weiss 1998). Without an examination of program delivery, it will be difficult to explain why hypothesized outcomes were not found, and it will not be clear whether the lack of positive outcomes resulted from a poor theory of cause and effect, that is, from faulty logic concerning how and why the program should work, or from poor implementation of the program (Bickman 1987; Chen and Rossi 1983; Cousins et al. 2004; Vingilis and Pederson 2001). A commonly prescribed method for conceptualizing the theories of cause and effect and implementation is through the development of a causal pathway or model (also called an attribution model or a link model) from which a program-logic model is also developed (Bishop and Vingilis 2006; Bryant and Bickman 1996; Chen 2005; Cooksy et al. 2001; Grembowski 2001; Julian 1997; Julian et al.

38

Evelyn R. Vingilis

1995; Kaplan and Garrett 2005; Mayne 2001; McDavid and Hawthorn 2005; Posavac and Carey 2003; Rogers 2000; Sidani and Sechrest 1999). In fact, currently many granting agencies in Canada, the United States, and elsewhere now require developed logic models as part of the grant application process (Kaplan and Garrett 2005). Although the terms causal model and logic model have been used interchangeably in the literature, they reflect different, although overlapping, constructs (Chen 2005; Grembowski 2001). The causal model represents a series of boxes or steps of causal assumptions along a continuum that reflects the cause-and-effect theory underlying the program. The causal model focuses on the recipient of the program and reflects the process of change as a causal pathway that is assumed to occur with the person or the system (if the system is the recipient of the program). The program-logic model, on the other hand, represents the program activities, objectives, and short and longer outcomes that are expected to occur to change each of the boxes or steps of the recipient’s causal model. A simple example of a causal model, presented for heuristic purposes only and based on some neurobiological theory, could be as follows: headache take pain killer headache cured less grouchy. Note that the causal model reflects the causal pathway experienced by the recipient. A neurobiological cause-and-effect theory to explain how and why the recipient got a headache would form the actual basis of this model. The intervention, to “cause” positive outcomes in the recipient, should be based on evidence-based methods (a theory of implementation) in order to assess the headache properly and to provide the correct intervention, in this case, pain killers. The logic model would be based on the chosen implementation theory, with activities and objectives focussing on proper assessment of the headache and the provision of correct pain killers. The short- and longer-term outcomes would be the same. Obviously, different theories of cause and effect and implementation could inform the causal and logic models that one develops, and clearly, the causal and logic models overlap. But they do reflect different foci: the causal model represents the causal pathway of change hypothesized to occur within the recipient of the intervention, and the logic model represents the activities and objectives of the program that is to tackle the steps of the causal pathway. The more steps that are hypothesized to explain the causal pathway(s) to change, that is, the greater the casual complexity, the more activities an intervention

Program and Policy Evaluation

39

should have to tackle the steps of the causal model. Yet even though many evaluation scholars over the last two decades have argued for the importance of using theory and causal or logic models in mental health services evaluation (e.g., Bickman et al. 1992; Julian et al. 1995; Lipsey 1993; Yampolskaya et al. 2004), actual practice is limited. For example, Cosden and colleagues (2003) conducted an evaluation of a mental health treatment court with Assertive Community Treatment (act). Using an experimental design with a treatment-asusual control condition, they hypothesized that clients participating in the mental health treatment court should exhibit more pre-post life satisfaction, greater reduction in psychological distress, more extensive change in their global independent functioning, and more improvement in their alcohol and drug problems. No information was provided on exactly what the clients in the experimental and control groups were actually receiving (i.e.,there was no process evaluation). Nowhere did they articulate how and why the mental health treatment courts would lead to the hypothesized improvements. That is, no model was presented to explain why the various components of the mental health treatment court should lead to the hypothesized changes, and indeed the results found that clients in both the mental health treatment court and the treatment-as-usual condition showed improvement. The authors were left trying to speculate on these outcomes by suggesting that the control group “felt that they were getting special treatment by virtue of being part of the project” (Cosden et al. 2003, 425). If simply being part of a study can have positive effects on persons with mental illness, then policy-makers may want to revisit what they offer in their programs. Clearly, this study offers limited information for researchers, program developers, and policy-makers. Thus, to date in community mental health services evaluations there is still limited evidence of the explicit use and articulation of cause and effect theories and causal and/or logic models for framing interventions and evaluations (Foy et al. 2007; Styron et al. 2006), although evaluations are now more likely to involve collecting process data (fidelity measures) to assess the implementation of the intervention (Orwin 2000). For example, ACT programs have been one of the most widely evaluated of all community mental health services (e.g., Allness 1997; Bond et al. 1988, 418; Bond et al. 1990; Bond et al. 1995; Bond et al. 2001; Marx et al. 1973; McGrew and Bond 1995; Morse et al. 1997; Scott and Dixon 1995; Stein et al. 1975;

40

Evelyn R. Vingilis

Stein 1980; Test and Stein 1978; Thompson et al. 1990; Wilson et al. 1995); yet, as in the example above, most are noteworthy in their black-box approach to evaluation (Bishop and Vingilis 2006; Cousins et al. 1992; Dewa et al. 2001; Franx et al. 2008; Mechanic 1996; and see Bishop et al., chapter 12, this volume). Some examples of different types of community mental health services evaluations that have articulated their use of both theory and/or logic models and process evaluation include Bickman’s (1996, 1997) Fort Bragg Demonstration Project evaluation of mental health and substance abuse services for children and adolescents; Carpenter and colleagues’ (2007) evaluation of psychosocial intervention in mental health; Forchuk and colleagues’ (2005) evaluation of the effectiveness of a transitional discharge model of care from psychiatric hospital to community; Henggeler and colleagues’ (1992) evaluation of multi-systemic therapy delivered through a community mental health centre; and Vingilis, Hartford, and colleagues’ (2007) evaluation of an emergency department intervention for persons with mental health concerns, to name a few. These examples, using experimental or quasi-experimental multi-methods designs, also exemplify the causal complexity of interventions and thus the complexity of methods and measures that has become standard in program evaluation methodology.

Methodological Issues in Program Evaluation Causal complexity relates to another real challenge for the outcome evaluation of community mental health services. Two types of outcome evaluations are efficacy and effectiveness trials. Mental health service and psychotherapy studies under tightly controlled “laboratory” conditions (efficacy trials) have not been replicated in field or community service settings (effectiveness trials) (Speer 1998). Yet as Speer stated, “The problem is not that community-based services have been shown to be ineffective. The problem is that until recently there has been little effort to even examine the question” (4). The messiness of the real world of community mental health services has challenges associated with outcome evaluation, as the interventions are by nature non-standardized and highly dependent on macro-, meso-, and micro-environmental influences, as well as on personal preferences and relationship dynamics (Bishop and Vingilis 2006; Wolff and Pogorzelski 2005). Consequently, effectiveness evaluations

Program and Policy Evaluation

41

have lagged behind efficacy evaluations, not only because of the theoretical complexity of the interventions but also because of the methodological polarization that has occurred regarding appropriate research designs. Despite the shared conceptualization and methodology that have evolved in program evaluation, a debate still continues in some quarters on appropriate quantitative design and methods for evaluating community mental health services outcomes, a debate that has nearly paralyzed systematic efforts to conduct mental health services evaluations in community settings (Fonagy 1999; Speer 1998). Early mental health services evaluations focused on applying laboratory and experimental research designs, often RCT methodology, although they were soon identified as not feasible for various ethical, fiscal, conceptual, and methodological reasons (Fonagy 1999; Hohmann and Shear 2002; Speer 1998; see also Forchuk’s chapter 10, this volume). Biglan et al. (2000) list a number of limitations of RCT s. They include the high financial cost of the large sample sizes needed in such studies, the challenge in developing generalizable theoretical principles regarding community change processes, the obscuring of unique relationships within and among communities, and the problem of contamination between the intervention and control communities because of diffusion of intervention activities. However, an RCT is still considered by some as the only method to use for health services outcome evaluations. For example, in his Cochrane lecture McPherson (1994, 6) argued that “since randomisation alone eliminates the selection effect of therapeutic decision making, anything short of randomisation to attribute cause to consequent outcome is a waste of time.” Yet other scholars have critiqued the RCT precisely because the testing of theory and the valid attribution of causation are not guaranteed with RCT s (e.g., Barnes et al. 1999; Biglan et al. 2000; Burtless 1995; Fonagy 1999; Hohmann and Shear 2002; Lipsey and Cordray 2000; Persons and Silberschatz 1998; Tones 1997; Wandersman 2003). As Koepsell and colleagues (1992, 33) have written: The randomized controlled trial has become a widely accepted paradigm for evaluating the effect of health interventions, against which nonexperimental methods are judged and often found wanting. The design and the size of most randomized trials are usually driven by a primary research question,

42

Evelyn R. Vingilis

which typically concerns the effect of an intervention on final outcomes. Unfortunately, this focus on outcomes may result in overlooking the need to characterize both the intervention itself and the causal mechanisms by which it is supposed to work. Interventions then become “black boxes” whose overall effects may be detectable, but whose contents are obscure. Nor are the results necessarily useful to mental health care practitioners. There are major differences between clients seen in research settings and those seen in regular community mental health care settings, and the kinds of interventions carried out are also quite different (Catty et al. 2002; Fonagy 1999; Hohmann and Shear 2002; Persons and Silberschatz 1998; Speer 1999). As Green (2001, 167) challenged: “Where did the field get the idea that evidence of an intervention’s efficacy from carefully controlled trials could be generalized as the ‘best practice’ for widely varied populations and situations?” Thus, although current evaluation scholars support the use of the most rigorous methodology possible in the community mental health service setting, many evaluators have questioned the “slavish devotion to the randomized experimental model in evaluating the effectiveness of mental health services” (Speer 1998, 14). This reality then challenges the “evidence-based” health care mantra that lists RCT s on top of “a hierarchy of strength of evidence for treatment decisions” (Guyatt et al. 2000). But it also provides fodder for health care funding agencies to decide not to fund interventions that have not undergone RCT s (Druss 2005, 92; Fonagy 1999; Speer and Newman 1996). Part of the polarization has been related to the tension between efficacy and effectiveness evaluations and thus between internal and external validity, in which evaluation methods for interventions in controlled laboratory conditions are presumed to be appropriate for interventions practised in community settings (Hoagwood et al. 2001; Speer 1998, 1999). The methods used for efficacy trials have followed the classic experimental paradigm in which protocols, manuals, and so on, are totally standardized; they are given for a fixed number of sessions by highly trained clinicians who must provide the same intervention, in the same way to every client. There is independent assessment of clinician adherence to the protocol, and all clients are a volunteer, randomly assigned, homogeneous group under rigid inclusion and exclusion criteria; they often have no other

Program and Policy Evaluation

43

challenges but the condition for which treatment is sought (Speer 1998). This highly controlled method may explain why the benefits of efficacy trials of mental health services in controlled RCT s are small to negligible when assessed in effectiveness trials using RCT methodology (Barnes et al. 1999). Wolff and Pogorzelski (2005) argue that such specificity and stability of participants and interventions should also be the two foundations on which effectiveness evaluation is based. The nature of the intervention must be clearly defined and stable, since social, structural, and/or procedural changes can alter an intervention, and thus effectiveness (Belenko 2002; Wolff and Pogorzelski 2005). Yet in the real world, community mental health services can be a “moving target,” constantly changing and evolving (Belenko 2002). Many community mental health services can be inherently unstable, adapting as they are being implemented for numerous client and/or environmental reasons (Belenko 2002; Castro et al. 2004; Wolff and Pogorzelski 2005). As a consequence, a large array of time-varying measures – specifically, measures of three types of change – need to be collected: measures of (1) environmental change, (2) intervention and implementation change, and (3) change in outcome (Bishop and Vingilis 2006; Wolff and Pogorzelski 2005). Moreover, because of the time-varying measures, advanced statistical methods, such as multi-level modelling (to be discussed later), need to be considered (Bishop and Vingilis 2006). The most rigorous, quantitative outcome evaluation methodology used in community mental health services if random assignment has not been possible has been that of quasi-experimental methods (e.g., Cook and Campbell 1979), which some have decried as “a waste of time” (e.g., McPherson 1994). Shadish and Cook (2009), in a seminal article, reviewed recent advances in addressing key issues related to experimental and quasi-experimental methods and provided empirical evidence on the conditions in which various quasiexperimental designs “might provide effect estimates comparable to randomized designs.” Yet of the three quasi-experimental designs discussed by Shadish and Cook (2009) and standard evaluation textbooks (e.g., Grembowski 2001; Posavac and Carey 2003; Rossi et al. 1999), only non-equivalent comparison group (prospectivecohort and case-control) designs have been used extensively in community mental health services evaluations, although other designs, such as regression discontinuity designs (RDD s) and interrupted time

44

Evelyn R. Vingilis

series (ITS) designs, have been shown to suffer from fewer threats to internal validity (Cook and Campbell 1979; Grembowski 2001; Posavac and Carey 2003; Rossi et al. 1999). Regression discontinuity designs (also called cut-off-based designs) have a cut-point, or threshold, where people above the threshold receive the intervention, while people below do not (the comparison group) (Grembowski 2001; Posavac and Carey 2003; Rossi et al. 1999; Shadish and Cook 2009). A regression is fit to predict outcome based on assignment, with a dummy variable used to reflect the cut-point. If a statistically significant change in slope or level (discontinuity) is found between the intervention and comparison groups, an effect can be inferred (Grembowski 2001; Posavac and Carey 2003; Rossi and Freeman et al. 1999; Shadish and Cook 2009). Various studies have shown that the regression discontinuity at the cut-point is an unbiased effect estimate when correct analysis is used (Shadish and Cook 2009). Moreover, analytic advances to tackle nonlinearities and treatment misallocations have recently been made (Shadish and Cook 2009). Yet no examples have been found of community mental health services evaluations using this design. Given that cut-off scores or thresholds have been used in mental health services to determine who receives an intervention and who does not, regression discontinuity could be a useful design for estimating causal effects (Cook 2008; Shadish and Cook 2009). A second commonly described method for evaluation involves interrupted time series designs in which a large number of observations (e.g., 60+ time points), such as the number of hospitalizations per month, are needed to statistically model trends (e.g., seasonality) and autocorrelations (Biglan et al. 2000; Grembowski 2001; Isaac and Michael 1997; Mertens 2005; Posavac and Carey 2003; Rossi et al. 1999; Shadish and Cook 2009; Weiss 1998). Here too an effect is inferred as a change in slope or level at the point where the intervention was introduced. Moreover, various non-linear changes in slope or level can be modelled with the analyses, since changes can be abrupt or gradual, linear or non-linear (Grembowski 2001). Shadish and Cook (2009) have also described the strength of short time series designs, such as ABAB designs (treatment, no treatment, treatment, no treatment), that can be particularly useful with clinical populations. Time series statistical methods and newer analytic models with the use of pooled time series and multi-level models (Duncan and Duncan 2004), particularly with comparison

Program and Policy Evaluation

45

time series, can be feasible and useful, and they can suffer from fewer internal validity threats than non-equivalent comparison group studies (Grembowski 2001; Isaac and Michael 1997; Mertens 2005; Posavac and Carey 2003). One of the challenges with the use of time series analysis has been to determine what length of time series (how many time points) are needed to obtain enough statistical power for accurate causal estimates (Shadish and Cook 2009). However, recently McLeod and Vingilis (2005; 2008) have developed a methodology for computing a power function for pulse, step, and ramp interventions with autoregressive integrated moving-average models (ARIMA) and fractional errors so that sample size determination can be made for time series intervention analyses. Yet despite the methodological strength of interrupted time series designs for program evaluation (Biglan et al. 2000; Duncan and Duncan 2004; Vingilis and Pederson 2001) and the role they have played in clinical-psychology, education, economic, road safety, and health promotion intervention evaluations, the use of time series research designs in community mental health services is exceedingly limited (e.g., Hough and O’Brien 2005). Non-equivalent comparison group designs, the “workhorse design for causal inference” (Shadish and Cook 1999, 2009) in community mental health outcome evaluations, have greater challenges. They may suffer from potential internal validity threats, such as selection bias in which intervention effects can be confounded because the experimental population may be systematically different from the comparison population in ways that may be related to outcome (Richards et al. 2007; Salkever et al. 2004; Shadish and Cook 1999, 2009). In recent years, advances in design and statistical advances have addressed these threats (Shadish and Cook 2009). With quasiexperimental designs, Shadish and Cook (609) have recommended that comparison groups be locally and focally similar, that is, “in the same locale as the treatment group and focused on persons with the same kinds of characteristics as those in the treatment group, most particularly the characteristics that are most highly correlated with selection into conditions and with the outcome under investigation.” Equivalency of the comparison group can also be increased with the selection of a group that is matched on “stable covariates, especially pre-test measures of outcome variables” (610). Recent statistical methods of reducing biased estimates of non-experimental studies will be further described in the statistical section below.

46

Evelyn R. Vingilis

Other types of research designs (both quantitative and qualitative) are being used more frequently in community mental health services evaluations, albeit more commonly for process than for outcome evaluations. For example, participatory action research, case study, and focus group designs are increasingly being used to provide critical information for and understanding of program development, implementation, and outcomes (Barnes et al. 2006; Coristine et al. 2007; Cousins and Earl 1992; Jacobson and Curtis 2000; Lord et al. 1998; Nelson et al. 1998, 2001; Wynaden et al. 2003). In a paper entitled “Nothing about me, Nothing without me,” Nelson and colleagues (1998, 906–7) have provided various recommendations to promote values of empowerment, supportive relationships, social change, and learning through participatory action research with psychiatric consumer/survivor organizations. Additionally, the concern over escalating health care expenditures has spawned a surge of economic evaluations in community mental health services (Evers et al. 1997; Guthrie et al. 1999; Hoch and Dewa 2005; Latimer 1999, 2005). However, Evers and colleagues (1997) and, more recently, Romeo and colleagues (2005), in their reviews of economic evaluations of mental health care interventions, concluded that few good quality, full economic evaluations have been conducted: quality has been limited by sample size, measurement of costs, and statistical and econometric issues. Other notable methodological issues in the evaluation of community mental health services relate to measurement. The first general one would seem straightforward: measure what you are trying to change. But straightforward it is not. It is critical that the chosen process and outcome measures be directly related to the theory of how and why changes are to occur (Bishop and Vingilis 2006). For each box of the theory-based causal model of the intervention to be evaluated, the question, “Did it happen?” is the key one to answer. Subsequently, answering the question, “How will I know if it happened?” should provide the clues on what to measure. Then the specific choice of measures would be predicated on the availability of the most reliable, valid, and sensitive measures. Yet it is not unusual to read a list of measures in an evaluation study with no attempt having been made to explain how the various measures are hypothesized to hang together theoretically or to interact with each other and to explain how the different patterns of measures are to be interpreted (Bishop and Vingilis 2006). Moreover, a recent trend

Program and Policy Evaluation

47

in health services research, including mental health services research, has moved this idea of lists of measures further by attempting to develop “indicators” of positive outcomes for various health services. For example, the Ministry of Health in Ontario, Canada, has mandated mental health reporting using a data collection system of over three hundred indicators for all hospitals with adult in-patient mental health beds. Evaluation and thus interpretation of trends, patterns, and relationships can be difficult without an overall theoretical framework by which to understand how and why persons with mental health concerns recover (Bishop and Vingilis 2006). Other fundamental issues of research methodology are related to operational definitions, construct, content, and other validities – critical for all research enterprises – that also need to be addressed in program evaluations (Lipsey 1988; Lipsey and Cordray 2000; Patrick and Chiang 2000). Numerous scholars have reviewed conceptual and methodological challenges in measurement of health and other outcomes and in the measurement of independent variables (Barnes et al. 1999; Chamberlain and Rapp 1991; Patrick and Chiang 2000; Wolff and Pogorzelski 2005). Evaluators should have a clear understanding and description of terms, such as community health teams, usual or standard care, and so on, but the terms are often not operationally defined in detail (Catty et al. 2002). Services from different years or from the same or different communities have been found to contain different components, even if the same label has been used (Catty and Burns et al. 2002). In addition, early research on mental health services was criticized for using one outcome measure or outcome measures that had not been strongly associated with client symptoms (Burns 2007; Chamberlain and Rapp 1991; Speer 1998). Hospitalization and days of stay are two such problematic measures, although they are still commonly used in evaluations (Bishop and Vingilis 2006; Catty et al. 2002; Chamberlain and Rapp 1991). Current thinking reflects the belief that one measure cannot capture the multiple aspects of human functioning (Burns 2007): “consumers are inclined to improve in some aspects, to not change in others, and occasionally become worse on other dimensions of adjustment and functioning” (Speer 1998, 48). Moreover, many measures vary with time. Some, such as psychiatric symptoms, are not stable and therefore need to be measured over the course of a study.

48

Evelyn R. Vingilis

Scholars have proposed that at least three groups of stakeholders should be considered for their perspectives on client outcomes: (1) the client/consumer, since he/she is clearly the best judge of his/her own distress, functioning, and so on; (2) the community (family, neighbours, employers, and so on) and (3) the mental health practitioner(s) providing the services (Allen and Carpenter et al. 2003; Bishop and Vingilis 2006; Nelson et al. 2001; Simpson and O’House 2002; Speer 1998), although parsimony is critical, and the measures chosen should be directly related to the theoretical framework of how and why the client/consumer should recover. Notably, greater client/consumer involvement in the entire evaluation enterprise is becoming more evident in various studies (Forchuk et al. 1998; Forchuk et al. 2005; Nelson et al. 2001; Simpson and O’House 2002).

Statistical Issues in Program Evaluation Community mental health services are complex, changing entities whose clients are similarly complex and changing over time. Additionally, community mental health services are hierarchical structures whereby clients are nested within services that are nested within regions, and so on. Statistical analysis of hierarchical data, which includes longitudinal data, necessitates advanced statistical modelling methods (Bishop and Vingilis 2006; Boyle and Willms 2001; Brekke et al. 1997; Bryk and Raudenbush 1987; Gibbons 2000; Kenny et al. 2004; Lipsey and Cordray 2000; Snijders and Bosker 1999). However, Gibbons (2000, 91) observed: “Despite recent advances in statistical methods for longitudinal research, the cost of mental health services research is not always commensurate with the quality of the analyses which often consist of little more than a correlation of variables measured at various times, or group means plotted at successive time points.” Although longitudinal and nested data are common to community mental health services evaluation, they have been a challenge for researchers in the conduct of statistical analyses because of repeated (intra-individual) measures collected on the same individual (Gibbons 2000, 91). Historical approaches have generally used baseline and post-intervention data and computed a change score that led to the loss of important information (Gibbons 2000, 91; Lambert et al.). Participant loss also occurred when end-point analysis was conducted to eliminate participants who might have missed

Program and Policy Evaluation

49

one or more follow-up measures (Gibbons 2000, 91). Other statistical methods include one-way ANOVA s, used at each follow-up time point, which would cause multiple-comparison problems, and timedependent Cox-modelling, random-effects regression and generalized estimating-equation (GEE) regression, which could give biased effect estimates, since they do not adjust for the effects of outcomes on covariates or for the effects of earlier outcomes on later outcomes (Robins et al. 1999a, 1999b; Rothman and Greenland 1998; Schildcrout and Heagerty 2005). Additionally, some studies include only study completers, which leads to internal and external validity problems. Over the past thirty years, the continuous development and refinement of statistical techniques has fundamentally revised how evaluators should conceptualize the assessment of change in the outcome evaluation of an intervention. Standard pre-post models with two waves are not uncommon. For example, Davis and Spurr (1998) evaluated a community child mental health service by using the Mann-Whitney test to compare the intervention and control groups on all variables at pre-intervention and in relation to their pre-post change scores and by using the Wilcoxon Signed Rank test to conduct within-group comparisons of pre-post assessments. However, various scholars have argued that two-wave, pre-post experimental or quasi-experimental designs are problematic for studying change (Lambert et al. 2001; Singer and Willett 1996; Willett et al. 1998). As Lambert and colleagues (2001) stated: “When only pre-post data are available, difference scores, repeated measures analysis of variance, residual gain scores, and analysis of covariance may lead to confused inferences based on insufficient evidence.” This is because change, whether it is in functioning, skills, attitudes, and so forth, occurs continuously over time, and a simple two-data point, pre-post comparison cannot capture the features of that trajectory (Willett et al. 1998). Regression to the mean is also posited by many scholars as a challenge with the use of only pre-post data points and attempts to adjust or correct for regression to the mean have also met with challenges (Speer 1999). Thus, currently many scholars advocate that change should be measured from a longitudinal perspective with multiple waves of data collected (Lambert et al. 2001; Singer and Willett 1996; Speer 1999; Willett et al. 1998). Multi-level modelling (also known as hierarchical linear modelling or mixed modelling) provides an extremely useful approach to

50

Evelyn R. Vingilis

the analysis of multiple waves of data. Multi-level modelling allows for the analysis of non-independent or hierarchical data that arise when studying topics such as clients nested within therapists, PACT teams nested within community mental health services, or longitudinal repeated measures nested within individuals. Traditional general linear models are not well suited for the analysis of these types of data, given the violation of the assumption of independence. In contrast, multi-level models are explicitly designed to analyze hierarchical data structures and can incorporate individual-level predictors, group-level predictors, and individual-by-group-level interactions. As Gibbons (2000, 91) noted, “These [multi-level] models are critical to mental health services research in that they provide statistically rigorous approaches to both the definition and analysis of outcome which is invariably multi-dimensional and based on qualitative factors.” A particularly flexible statistical methodology, multi-level modelling can incorporate different data collection schedules, a differential number of waves, experimental or observational designs, and single (individuals-only) level or multi-level (e.g., clients nested within clinics) designs. Further it can identify temporal data patterns and include time-varying predictors and interactions with time (Graham 2008). For example, growth-curve modelling allows for the assessment of intra-individual level and inter-individual level differences in change (Bishop and Vingilis 2006; Boyle and Willms 2001; Brekke et al. 1997; Bryk and Raudenbush 1987; Gibbons 2000; Kenny et al. 2004; Lipsey and Cordray 2000; Snijders and Bosker 1999). Individual change across time is modelled and subsequently the effects of covariates (mediators and moderators) are examined to determine whether there are systematic differences in rate or type of change (Kenny et al. 2004; Snijders and Bosker 1999). Thus, this method can be useful in mental health services evaluations to model person-specific trends where treatment responses can be quite individualized (Gibbons 2000). Yet despite the availability of these statistical advances in multilevel modelling, with few notable exceptions, these methods are not commonly found in community mental health services evaluations. Some examples of notable exceptions include studies by Aseltine and DeMartino (2004), who examined the effectiveness of the Signs of Suicide prevention program; Hobbs et al. (2000), who examined the impact of de-institutionalization on client outcomes of long-term clients transferred to community residences in Sydney, Australia;

Program and Policy Evaluation

51

Kenny et al. (2004), who used and expanded multi-level methods to estimate treatment effects and mediators and moderators of ACT in a randomized longitudinal experiment; and Bishop and Vingilis (2006), who are testing a framework for comprehensive evaluation of client outcomes in community mental health services. Other statistical methods have been developed to adjust quasiexperimental results to better approximate results from experimental designs. Methods used to control for selection bias have included propensity score analysis (Dehejia and Wahba 2002; Salkever et al. 2004; Snow Jones et al. 2004; Stürmer et al. 2006) and multipleregression methods, although Salkever and colleagues (2004) and Shadish and Cook (2009) suggest that the “[s]trong ignorability assumption” would need to be met, which would require the measurement of all covariates associated with treatment and outcome (Shadish and Cook 2009). Shadish et al. (2008), in a study in which they randomly assigned participants to either a random-assignment arm or a non-random-assignment arm, were able to reproduce very similar results between the quasi-experiment and the experiment with the use of different propensity scores, calculated from a large list of pre-test covariates. However, a propensity score based on weak predictors, such as age and sex and ethnic and socioeconomic status, not only did not decrease bias, it sometimes even increased it. These and other adjustment methods, such as the instrumental variable methods, have been used more frequently by mental health economists (Crown et al. 1998; Lu 1999; Salkever et al. 2004), although still not commonly by other program evaluators in community mental health services.

Conclusions In summary, the good news is that in the past decade, community mental health services program evaluation has expanded to include both quantitative and/or qualitative methods and a variety of designs and types of evaluations, such as participatory action research, process evaluations, and economic evaluations, in addition to outcome evaluations. Moreover, there has been an explosion of publications that have conducted process evaluations, that is, that have examined program implementation, in addition to conducting development evaluations in which the development of theories for programs, evaluation, and statistical methods and measurement

52

Evelyn R. Vingilis

issues have been articulated (e.g., Cooksy et al. 2001; Cousins et al. 2004; Foy et al. 2007; Julian 1997; Kaplan and Garrett 2005; Lord et al. 1998; Shadish and Cook 2009; Vingilis and Fuhrman 2007; Vingilis, Paquette-Warren et al. 2007; Yampolskaya et al. 2004). For example, Cousins and colleagues (2004) have introduced the “key components profiles” (KCP) method as an alternative for implementation evaluation; they validated it in the context of an intensive case management program for homeless clients with severe mental illness. These studies can educate potential evaluators on various current conceptual, methodological, and statistical approaches that can be used for community mental health services evaluations. Additionally, more community mental health services evaluations have included theories of cause and effect and implementation and have conducted process evaluations (Bickman 2000; Holden et al. 2001). For example, Carpenter and colleagues (2007) described a “stepwise approach” to the evaluation of a training program for community mental health practitioners. Their cause and effect theory, based on a previously established framework and systematic literature reviews, articulated a causal model to explain the processes of change to affect the outcomes of the service users and trainees. They also focussed on evaluating the training to assess whether it was delivered according to specification, based on their theory of implementation. Unfortunately, recently published outcomes evaluations of community mental health services can still be found that have not identified a theoretical framework and have not additionally conducted a process evaluation. Without the articulation and measurement of a program’s theoretical framework, the study becomes black-box or methods-driven research that can make it a challenge for policy-makers to understand how and why an intervention works and to identify the key elements for successful implementation (Chen 1990; Chen 2005; Lipsey 1988; Posavac and Carey 2003; Stame 2004; Vingilis and Pederson 2001). This has been a key criticism of ACT, for example, where policy-makers have been implementing it in their locales in different ways without knowing what components are and are not necessary for client recovery (Bishop and Vingilis 2006; Cousins et al. 2004; Dewa et al. 2001; Franx et al. 2008; Mechanic 1996; also see this volume, chapter 12). The methodology debate for outcomes evaluation continues. Both the strengths and limitations of RCT s have been amply discussed by many scholars (e.g., Barnes et al. 1999; Biglan et al. 2000; Burtless

Program and Policy Evaluation

53

1995; Fonagy 1999; Koepsell et al. 1992; Lipsey and Cordray 2000; Persons and Silberschatz 1998; Speer 1998, 1999; Tones 1997; Wandersman 2003). Quasi-experimental designs, notably nonequivalent comparison group designs, have been commonly used for outcomes evaluations in community mental health services, but curiously, the two stronger quasi-experimental designs, regression discontinuity and interrupted time series designs, are noteworthy by their absence. Yet the use of cut-offs or thresholds and the use of administrative time series outcome data, such as monthly rates, are common to community mental health services, making regression discontinuity and interrupted time series designs appropriate ones to use. A similar pattern is noted with the statistical procedures that are commonly used in community mental health services research. Statistical advances of the past two decades have brought to evaluationresearchers multi-level modelling and other techniques to provide a flexible statistical methodology for evaluating changes and to adjust quasi-experimental results to better approximate results from experimental designs. Yet these methods are also not very visible in published community mental health services evaluations. In summary, evaluation methodology is a very complex science. It is also a unique science. Research methods learned in other disciplines cannot automatically be applied to the conduct of program evaluations. Conceptual, methodological, and statistical approaches are constantly advancing to improve the ways in which interventions can be evaluated. Yet the various methods and approaches are moot if limited resources are available to conduct evaluations of community mental health services, although again the good news is that some jurisdictions, such as Ontario, Canada, are supporting various evaluative initiatives of its community mental health services (e.g., CMHEI 2004; SEEI Coordinating Centre 2009). This resource problem may be responsible for the limited number of evaluations in the area. Programming resources from different public and private sectors rarely provide substantive funds for evaluations, and often community agencies do not have the skill sets to conduct the evaluations. Additional challenges in real-world research include problems with data linkages among agencies and organizations, leading to the inability to follow consumers through their use of various community mental health services. Moreover, as noted in this review, the evaluation of community mental health services is a highly complex endeavour. For these reasons few community mental health services

54

Evelyn R. Vingilis

evaluations are actually available for the numbers of programs and services that are running. Yet there is a need to know what works and why. Because of the high burden of mental illness, it behoves society to fund and apply the unique and evolving program evaluation methodology in order to provide the best evidence possible to health care providers and patients/clients/consumers so that they are able to make more informed decisions about care.

4 Interfacing Hospital and Community Mental Health Services: The Role of the Emergency Department Beth Mitchell Hospitals have always played a significant role in the mental health system. Historically, they were the primary site of psychiatric care, which tended to be long-term, inpatient-based, and custodial in approach (see chapter 2, this volume). Hospitals were places of refuge, of protection, of assessment and diagnosis, and of treatment; they reflected the best – and at times, the worst – of interventions with individuals suffering from mental illness. As models of mental health care evolved and the emphasis on early intervention with mental illness and recovery in the community grew, hospitals were required to change and offer new services that focused on more short-term, ambulatory, and intensive-treatment programs. Legislation, policies, and funding have served as catalysts to ensure these changes. Across North America, Australia, England, and other parts of Europe, numerous reports have highlighted the benefits of care in the community for those suffering with mental illness, including opportunities for meaningful activity and work, social interaction and relationships, and less intrusive services (Thornicroft and Bebbington 1989; Simmonds et al. 2001). In the extreme, assumptions have been made that all mental health care could be delivered in the community and that hospital-based services were therefore considered at best minimally relevant and at worst intrusive and unhelpful (Prior 1991). Mental health reform throughout many jurisdictions has thus triggered the plan to move the majority of mental health services to the community and to reduce the role of hospitals as a mainstay of treatment. While the research is still limited, there is growing

56

Beth Mitchell

evidence that community-based crisis response is a viable alternative for emergency services in mental health (Compton et al. 2008). However, Thornicroft and Tansella (2004) emphasize the importance of a balanced approach in which community and hospital services operate in a stepped, sequenced model according to available resources. Even with additional community capacity, including crisis response, the data suggest that the use of emergency psychiatry services has remained relatively stable over time (Paradis et al. 2009). There is thus an ongoing need for the role of hospitals and, in particular, emergency psychiatric services to respond to and support consumers during times of crisis. Indeed, acute hospitals may have the most complex task of managing patients at their most critical stages (Dratcu 2002). This chapter will therefore focus on the unique role of hospital-based psychiatric emergency services within the more comprehensive system of care. As with the documents of other jurisdictions, the Ontario Ministry of Health’s framework paper (1999) articulated principles for reforming the mental health system affirming that consumers should be at the centre of the system with services tailored to their needs. Services should be streamlined, coordinated, and based on evidence, and there should be continued investments to protect and sustain programs. The framework outlines a specific continuum of needs that necessitate service availability across a well-functioning mental health system that is primarily community-based. However, consistent with the growing recognition of the role of hospitals, included in this array are acute-care hospitals, including crisis and emergency services. The range of supports and services are meant to incorporate crisis counselling, environmental stabilization, advocacy, assessment (including by a psychiatrist), and the initiation of treatment. Emergency mental health services offer opportunities for close observation, diagnosis, and management of acute distress and behavioural disruption, with immediate response to conditions. By integrating emergency psychiatry services into general hospitals, an attempt has been made to reduce stigma and discrimination (Happell et al. 2003), as well as to address the co-morbidity of physical and mental illnesses (Wynaden et al. 2003). If the mental health system, including the hospital and community agencies, is well-coordinated and responsive, the frequency of emergency department visits should be minimized, and the process

The Role of the Emergency Department

57

should be relatively brief and discharge-focused. Ideally, clients and families would have access to regular support and treatment from community resources designed to meet their needs in time frames and locations that facilitate contact. Emergency department visits would thus focus on unexpected events created by unpredictable factors. Nevertheless, often the emergency department serves as a default for less than optimal community-based psychiatric services; indeed, studies have demonstrated that as the availability of community mental health services fluctuates, psychiatric emergency visits also vary (Catalano et al. 2003). Studies in Australia have revealed a tenfold increase in patients presenting in emergency departments with psychiatric problems when deinstitutionalization occurred without the concomitant development of community mental health services (Kalucy et al. 2005). Research has also shown that approximately 25 to 30 percent of emergency department mental health visits are non-emergent and could be redirected to less intensive and thus less costly system components (Claassen et al. 2000; Carpenter et al. 2005). Not only would these community services be more costeffective, but they would also be likely to produce less frustration and stress for clients and families. Hospital providers and researchers have attempted to establish criteria that identify the appropriateness of an emergency department visit for mental health reasons. However, there is no clear definition of “appropriate” use of emergency department psychiatric services. Often it is assumed that an emergency department presentation without a significant medical problem is inappropriate (Koziol-McLain et al. 2000), but this view diminishes the pain and suffering that can accompany psychiatric symptoms. The emergency department is in fact a logical alternative for those who feel significant distress or require immediate assistance with their symptoms; often those who go to the emergency department perceive that their needs require urgent attention, even when providers do not agree (Carpenter et al. 2005). Since many community agencies operate from nine to five, five days a week, clients must use other sources to support them during crises. A number of studies have indicated that clients say they go to the emergency department because they feel overwhelmed and have no place else to go (Clarke et al. 2006; Koziol-McLain et al. 2000). As well, family members and friends may rely on the emergency department for support and assistance if the individual with mental health problems is creating

58

Beth Mitchell

upset or risk for which they have no remedy (Clarke et al. 2007). Because of the problems of access to primary care or the lack of available community services to respond to crises, the emergency department is often the only remaining choice (Koziol-McLain et al. 2000). Patients report using a number of strategies to manage their psychiatric symptoms before coming to the emergency department; for example, many had contacted family or friends for support and/ or advice or had used alcohol or drugs to ameliorate their symptoms (Carpenter et al. 2005). McNiel and Binder (2005) have shown that the frequent use of emergency mental health services is particularly prevalent in certain populations, such as those who are homeless, those who have poor adherence to community treatment, and those who come in contact with the legal system. However, a particular challenge of an emergent mental health problem is that the psychiatric presentation often does not fit with the typical orientation of an emergency department and clients may experience at best callous and at worst negative or hostile responses during their visit. Clarke and colleagues (2006) have shown that mental health clients want certain basic provisions during their emergency department visit, including the use of advanced directives, more comfortable physical environments for waiting and treatment, increased peer support, better training of emergency personnel, and collaboration between themselves and the providers. However, emergency psychiatric visits rarely provide these services. The research regarding clients’ experiences in the emergency department suggests issues related to wait times, the attitudes of providers, and “diagnostic overshadowing,” where patients are treated or simply dismissed as “psychiatric” without validation of their physical symptoms. Other studies suggest that clients with psychiatric problems do in fact wait longer than others with medical conditions, in part because of the complexity of their issues but also because of the providers’ lack of expertise and confidence, along with their discrimination towards the psychiatric population in general (Clarke et al. 2007; Kahn 2001; Mazeh et al. 2003). In addition, clients may often have unrealistic expectations about what can be provided in an emergency psychiatry service – for instance, wanting family therapy or prescriptions for medication without proper assessment (Carpenter et al. 2005). If these individuals with somewhat unusual symptoms and erroneous expectations encounter emergency staff or physicians who are more comfortable dealing with trauma or

The Role of the Emergency Department

59

life-threatening illnesses, it should be no surprise that there is often a “clash of cultures” (Happell et al. 2003). Nevertheless, the emergency department is still a necessary component of the mental health system. In the same way that no amount of health promotion or cardiac rehabilitation can eradicate the occurrence of heart attacks, no amount of community support and treatment can eliminate the need for emergency assistance at some point during the course of mental illness. Care in a community system does not prevent the use of emergency services; it may simply delay the presentation of serious symptoms (Claassen et al. 2005). The literature has shown that emergency psychiatric services are typically used by three groups: those referred by family physicians, those who were already receiving specialized psychiatric care in the community, and those who came from the broader community and were exhibiting high-risk behaviours (Spurrell et al. 2003). Indeed, the emergency department should be the component of the system that addresses emergent and/or crisis situations, either for those new to the system or for those whose deterioration is rapid or unpredicted and therefore warrants immediate action. Those who come to emergency voluntarily seeking support or advice can often settle with brief intervention and referral to outpatient care (Damsa et al. 2005). It is commonly recommended that emergency psychiatric services should concentrate on clients exhibiting imminent danger to themselves or others or to those with acute behavioural dyscontrol (Claassen et al. 2000). However, emergency psychiatric services will also likely be appropriate for anyone with serious mental illness such as schizophrenia or major mood disorders or for those with dementia when their symptoms exceed the capacity for community management (Ziegenbein et al. 2006; Chaput et al. 2008). Factors such as previous psychiatric history, pressure from family and friends, and the stability of the environment influence the need for emergency assessments, which may lead to brief interventions and/or referrals for follow-up. Further decisions regarding in-patient admissions may also be tempered by the availability of beds and other contextual variables (Mulder et al. 2005). Regarding in-patient admissions, the most appropriate cases have been deemed to be individuals who are a danger to themselves, those with psychosis, those without ability to care for themselves, those with poor impulse control, and those with significant depression – factors that appear to be consistent across hospitals and physicians (Way and Banks 2001).

60

Beth Mitchell

To manage individuals who need critical or urgent services, the emergency department personnel must improve their triage techniques to redirect those who should not be there to more suitable alternatives and also stream those who should be there into hospital services that meet their needs. To be consistent with the practice in most emergency departments and to address the frequent co-morbid medical conditions in the psychiatric population, a medical triage is recommended. Although “it is neither necessary nor reasonable from a time management or cost perspective to do a comprehensive medical assessment on all patients presenting to the ER with psychiatric complaints” (Upfold 2001), brief medical triage can ensure that physical factors have been appropriately addressed. Coristine et al. (2007) have shown that a structured triage including vital signs, history of significant mental illness and treatment, medical history, recent history of substance abuse, disorientation, malnourishment, and so on, can provide a streamlined but comprehensive assessment in the emergency department (figure 4.1). It has led to a reduced workload for emergency staff and shorter wait times for clients; as well, follow-up, post-discharge conditions improved, which has contributed to greater client satisfaction (Vingilis et al. 2007, 160–1). Often mental health symptoms can be precipitated by factors that are not truly psychiatric. For example, stress related to homelessness, relationship breakdowns, and other life pressures can result in escalating symptoms that lead to a perceived emergency. Using triage to redirect those with social crises – related to housing, finance, or legal issues – to an alternative non-hospital service has been shown to lead to greater efficiency and effectiveness of emergency department functioning (Coristine et al. 2007). Furthermore, the literature has also indicated the value of using a mental health triage scale, similar to those used for medical-surgical patients (Smart et al. 1999). In this method, patients are assigned ratings according to acuity – an example of a typical triage scale is presented in table 4.1. The use of triage scales has been demonstrated to affect the process and flow of emergency psychiatric activities, the quality of psychiatric services, staff competencies and attitudes, and client perceptions. Smart and colleagues (1999) showed that objective criteria, such as those within the Mental Health Triage Scale, led to more consistent triaging and more appropriate or reduced frequency of hospital admissions (see also Vingilis et al. 2007; Clarke et al. 2007; in addition, waiting times were reduced in the emergency department for psychiatric clients.

Individual Arrives in ed Triage rn Assessment Client with Mental Health Concerns Risk Assessment – to kill self or others – flight – violence “Yes” to any question Triage to stretcher with request to undress and gown Medically Assessed by ed Physician Disposition by ed Physician e.g. Medicice ceps** cc*

Yes Page security

No Triage Assessment: – Complete set of vs – Hx of significant medical illness – medical Sx – recent Hx (80) than developing (new) teams or those in rural and

202

Bishop, George, Lurie, and Wales

northern teams, which have generally not achieved the target of 80 clients per team (client:staff ratio of 8:1). Teams in eight of Ontario’s fourteen Local Health Integration Networks had caseloads of less than 60 clients (George et al. 2008; Ontario mohltc 2008). This is an area that merits examination, although by 31 March 2008, the team averages had increased to 75, according to data posted on the Ministry of Health and Long Term Care’s Finance and Information Management website. A related issue, especially for teams who have reached their full caseloads, is how to develop step-down capacity for clients who no longer require the intensity of ACT services. As is evident, ACT is a complex model within which to deliver treatment and rehabilitation services. Outcomes for the model have been strong for hospitalization, satisfaction, and housing, and weak in other outcomes. This result may be explained in part by differences in fidelity of implementation that have not been captured in much of the research. In addition, the small numbers of studies that have used ACT fidelity measures have also had equivocal findings, raising the possibility that the available measures, while having face validity, may not have predictive validity. The measures lean heavily on the structure and process of the team itself, without measuring the content of care being delivered. Bond et al. (2001) notes that the “father of ACT,” Leonard Stein, suggested that the strength of the model lies in its flexibility in delivering cutting-edge treatment, rehabilitation, and case management, and thus it is likely as important to measure the content of care as the model structure. For example, the literature on using evidence-based practices in ACT found the best results for supported housing and supported employment (Latimer 2005; Macias et al. 2006; Nelson et al. 2007), good employment outcomes in one older study on multiple-family psycho-education groups in ACT (McFarlane et al. 1996), and contradictory findings for co-occurringdisorders treatment in ACT (Drake et al. 2006; Fletcher et al. 2008). In domains where outcomes have been weaker, such as employment, social adjustment, and substance abuse, it may be necessary to use fidelity measures specific to these domains to assess the degree to which evidence-based interventions are being delivered. That said, there is insufficient evidence to “prove” that the main power of ACT is through delivering separate evidence-based practices, even though ACT as a whole is an evidence-based practice. Regardless of the literature, the idea of improving clinical services and using evidence-based practices within the ACT model has long been generally accepted as being

Current Developments in Assertive Community Treatment

203

important by ACT practitioners and is included in recent ACT practice standards (Allness and Knoedler 2003; Bjorklund et al. 2009; British Columbia Ministry of Health Services 2008; Ontario mohltc 2004) and in a pilot project of high-fidelity ACT in Japan (Ito et al. 2009). In summary, despite the fidelity research to date, we still have no definitive answer to the question of whether ACT works mainly through high fidelity to the ACT model. Yet high fidelity is only the sum of the individual ingredients of ACT. Indeed, McGrew et al. (1994) found that shared caseloads, the total number of client contacts, twenty-four-hour availability, a nurse on the team, and daily team meetings were related to reductions in hospitalizations, with the most important finding being that the role of the ACT coordinator is a critical component of achieving fidelity. Thus, the structure and process of ACT is only as good as the content and intensity of services actually provided to assist persons with severe mental illness in their recovery process. An enhanced ACT fidelity scale, the Tool for Measurement of Assertive Community Treatment (Monroe-Devita et al. 2009), is in the process of being tested in the United States and Canada and may help future researchers understand which aspects of fidelity make ACT work. Critical Ingredients Personal experiences of ACT clients and their perceptions of how ACT supports (or inhibits) their recovery journeys provide important information on the most helpful ingredients of ACT. In various studies, clients indicated that they liked staff availability, home visits, and help with everyday problems, all of which are critical ingredients of the model, although the interpersonal aspects of care were valued most by clients (Chue et al. 2004; Gerber and Prince 1999; McGrew et al. 1996; Redko et al. 2004). McGrew et al. (2002) surveyed 182 ACT clients using an open-ended question about what they liked least about ACT. They found that 44 percent disliked nothing and/or had only positive comments; 6 percent found the program too intrusive; 4 percent found it too confining; 4 found too much emphasis on medications; 3 percent found the team not understanding enough; 2 percent found it too critical; 1 percent thought the program fosters dependency or is stigmatizing; and 1 percent disliked home visits. Clients of high-fidelity programs had fewer complaints overall and fewer complaints about features considered to be specific to ACT (McGrew et al. 2002).

204

Bishop, George, Lurie, and Wales

Other studies examining critical ingredients of good outcomes identified the total number of contacts, the intensity of service contacts, continuity, twenty-four-hour availability, shared caseloads, and provider caseloads, indicating that ACT should be staffed to ensure that someone who knows the clients is there when needed, regardless of when or how frequently the service is required (Burns et al. 2006; Calsyn et al. 2002; Clarke et al. 2000; Kenny et al. 2004; McGrew et al. 1994; Phillips et al. 2001). This is consistent with the idea that severe mental illness does not take evenings and weekends off and that services need to be provided to account for this. The frequency or intensity of service has arisen earlier in this chapter as important, and this body of research provides even more support. Inclusive responsibility for health and social care, specific services, such as case management, housing assistance, financial assistance and nurse on team, speak to the critical ingredients of comprehensiveness (treatment, rehabilitation, and support) and a fixed point of responsibility for dealing with everything that is important for the client’s well-being. Regular home visiting and assistance with daily living relate to the critical ingredient of “in vivo” service. Finally, daily team meetings and the ACT coordinator are critical ingredients that enable the team to provide whatever service is needed, whenever it is required by ACT clients, and to do so in an organized manner. External Factors Finally, as figure 12.1 shows, the external context not only influences the fidelity of the ACT teams that are implemented, but it also affects the control conditions of standard care and affects some of the outcomes, such as the use of hospital care, through local bed availability or such factors as traditional practices. Burns et al. (2001) highlighted this as a reason that European Intensive Case Management does not appear to achieve the same results as ACT in North America, where the external (social and system) contexts are so different.

Criticisms of Act Based on Ethical Perspectives To conclude this chapter, we discuss some criticisms of ACT based on ethical grounds. Gomory’s main criticism (2001, 2002b) is that ACT is based on coercion. To begin this discussion, it is useful to consider why “assertive outreach” was invented in the first place. Instead of

Current Developments in Assertive Community Treatment

205

labelling clients with severe mental illness as “non-compliant” and discharging them for not participating in their care, assertive approaches recognize that negative symptoms, lack of motivation, cognitive impairments, and problems in executive functioning are some of the most disabling symptoms of severe psychotic disorders and that clients often need assertive outreach to help them overcome these aspects of their condition. On the other hand, if assertiveness is overused it could become too coercive. From a recovery, client-centred perspective, Watts and Priebe described a fundamental dilemma of ACT. It “condenses a paradox faced in community psychiatry. The model has the therapeutic aspiration of increasing personal autonomy, yet the program aims to engage people whose actions exemplify that they do not want to be involved with psychiatric services” (2002, 442). The client perspective on this dilemma was sought in a qualitative study of twelve ACT clients using a grounded-theory approach. Many clients had experienced earlier rejection of help-seeking behaviour, and all had been subjected to coercive interventions before receiving ACT services, especially around taking medications. Thus, by the time they came to ACT, the clients had an increasing level of arousal concerning issues of power. Participants described critical ingredients in becoming engaged with ACT with respect to social interventions such as help with housing or benefits or providing social contact. The researchers suggested that it is important for ACT staff to model a more collaborative therapeutic relationship to attenuate the clients’ previous negative experiences of power and control issues (Watts and Priebe 2002). In a summary of scientific research and clinical issues for ACT practice, Rosen et al. (2007, 818) state that “while most service users do not perceive ACT as coercive, occasional issues around coercion persist, largely unsupported by data.” He quotes Solomon (2008), who summarized evidence demonstrating that “coercive practices do not prevail in ACT teams, with case managers relying on verbal negotiation rather than coercion and generally using involuntary admissions and other external authorities with less than 5% of consumers.” Ohlenschlager et al. (2007) found no difference in coercion when comparing ACT-like interventions with intensive in-patient rehabilitation or standard care for persons with first-episode schizophrenia spectrum disorders, and the clients in the ACT-like programs spent less time in hospital. Moser and Bond (2009) studied more objective indicators of overt coercion, such as representative payeeship

206

Bishop, George, Lurie, and Wales

and intensive medication monitoring, in twenty-three teams across one state and found a highly variable extent of agency control. The strongest predictor for coercion consisted of client characteristics, not fidelity to the ACT model. This area merits further research in ACT, as suggested in an article on ACT and recovery (Salyers and Tsemberis 2007). A related criticism is that ACT/Intensive Case Management “compromises patient autonomy” more than other forms of community mental health care (King 2006). To balance this criticism, it is useful to note many ACT practices that support client autonomy and promote recovery. Witheridge (1991) described the practices of supported housing or supported employment (both of which are used in ACT) in which the client’s choice of living arrangements or work is the starting point for selection, rather than the practice of just providing group homes or sheltered workshops. In supported housing “the client carries the keys” and can make decisions about his or her own lifestyle and the daily rhythm of life. In supported housing or supported employment the “concept of independence is modified, and supported or assisted independence was viewed as a success” (Witheridge 1991). Data from the Ontario ACT outcome-monitoring system show that the longer clients receive ACT services, the more independence they achieve in their housing (Ontario mohltc 2008), which is consistent with the findings of many ACT studies. Ontario, Canada, supports one of the largest ACT programs in the world, with eighty teams in 2009 (Ministry of Health and Long-Term Care 2009), highfidelity ACT standards, and government-supported province-wide program evaluation to maintain and improve the fidelity of ACT services. These teams provide an ideal opportunity to understand more about client recovery and other critical issues in the field. An Ontario-wide project studied the relationship between fidelity, client outcomes, and recovery orientation of ACT services as measured by multiple stakeholders including clients (Kidd et al. 2010, in press). Fidelity was measured with the Dartmouth ACT Scale (Teague et al. 1998), and the Recovery Self Assessment Questionnaire (O’Connell et al. 2005) evaluated the recovery orientation of sixty-nine ACT teams (with 1,259 clients) from the perspective of consumers, family/ support providers, service providers, and administrators. There was no indication of a substantial use of coercion in the reports of staff, family, clients, and managers. Limitations included the use of a

Current Developments in Assertive Community Treatment

207

self-report measure and routine outcome data that were aggregated by the team. In another Ontario project, Bishop and Vingilis (2006) are studying how ACT affects clients’ experience of empowerment as part of a causal path toward improvement. Williamson (2002) reviewed literature that contributed to the ethical debates regarding ACT as being “coercive and paternalistic” and suggested an alternative ethical basis for supporting delivery of assertive outreach services to a reluctant client group, which focuses more on the clients’ values and areas of assistance with which they express genuine appreciation and satisfaction (Williamson 2002). Trinh et al. (2008) described three cases in which ethics consultation helped their ACT team think more critically about the “ethical underpinnings of (the) clinical decisions” in trying to balance “client autonomy against the consequence of client noncompliance with treatment.” The literature described does not settle the debate, but it does highlight the fact that ACT practitioners should always strive to find common ground with their clients, remain vigilant in using collaborative relationships, and if needed, seek ethics consultation, since coercive measures are sometimes necessary and legally mandated/supported under various forms of mental health legislation. Gomory’s second criticism (2001, 2002a,b) is that ACT reduces hospitalization merely by making the administrative decision in advance not to admit clients. It is hard to know how this conclusion has been reached. It may be that Gomory has anecdotal evidence to this effect, but it is not part of accepted ACT practice. The initial philosophy of ACT in the United States was to transfer the locus of treatment and rehabilitation for persons with severe mental illness from long-term institutions to the community while at the same time improving their quality of life and avoiding adverse outcomes. In the United Kingdom, the Team for Assessment of Psychiatric Services found that moving out of the mental hospital into well-resourced non-hospital settings improved life circumstances and social functioning of long-stay patients (Leff and Trieman 2000). Even patients who were initially reluctant to leave the long-term wards at psychiatric hospitals eventually came to prefer community living and did not want to return to hospital. ACT is able to help people live where they want to live, rather than admitting them frequently or for long periods. Hospitalization is used only as clinically necessary, but it does not usually need to be used for long periods, since the ACT

208

Bishop, George, Lurie, and Wales

team operates 24/7/365 as a mini-system of care in the community and can safely discharge its clients earlier than would be possible without ACT services.

Summary and Recommendations We have summarized the research on ACT’s efficacy, effectiveness, and cost-effectiveness, and we have highlighted gaps in the literature and described research and program evaluation projects that are related to these gaps. In addressing a major unanswered question on how ACT works, we used a theoretical framework for ACT evaluation to discuss the literature on how and why ACT might work by examining research on ACT client recovery principles and ACT implementation. Finally, we discussed some criticisms of ACT on philosophical/ethical grounds. To end, we would like to share some suggestions for further research and evaluation of ACT. 1 It would be easier to interpret and compare research on ACT in different countries and jurisdictions if there was an internationally acceptable method to measure the degree of fidelity to the ACT model. In particular, there is a specific need for a reliable and valid way to measure and report the frequency of therapeutic contacts with ACT clients. This is important as governments try to minimize costs, since the highest cost for ACT teams is the number of qualified staff available to deliver services at a frequency that is commensurate with clients’ needs. 2 It would also help the interpretation of results of ACT research if there were a way to measure the influence of local context on the outcomes observed. It may be useful to employ a comprehensive evaluation framework to help interpret outcome studies in the context in which they are carried out, such as the differences in urban vs rural ACT adaptations. 3 Research into the relationship between fidelity and recovery would benefit from studies that use individual client data and employ both qualitative and quantitative methods. This research should specifically address the issue of therapeutic assertiveness vs coercion and the potential for compromised client autonomy. To study “recovery” as envisioned by Anthony, research needs to

Current Developments in Assertive Community Treatment

4 5

6

7

8

209

move beyond randomized controlled trials and concrete outcomes. Anthony suggested using qualitative methods and studying service principles and practices, rather than program models. Moreover, recently there has been a heightened interest in measuring the orientation of all mental health programs towards recovery and finding means through which the theory and rhetoric surrounding recovery might be operationalized (O’Connell et al. 2005; Resnick et al. 2005). We need to understand more about the process of recovery from the perspectives of ACT clients themselves. It would be helpful to discover more about which elements of ACT are related to which outcomes and to learn more about the sequence of changes that occur in clients as they move forward in their recovery journeys. This could be facilitated by using clientdeveloped ways to measure the recovery orientation of mental health services and how this relates to their experience of ACT. More rigorous research using ACT fidelity measures is needed to make evidence-based decisions about the value of implementing ACT teams for persons with severe mental illness and forensic issues or developmental disabilities. New jurisdiction-wide ACT programs are encouraged to use rigorous methods for outcome evaluation of ACT in their own contexts. These should include a way to measure fidelity on an ongoing basis to prevent program drift. In Canada currently, the province of British Columbia has recently adopted updated evidence-based standards for ACT implementation (British Columbia Ministry of Health Services 2008), with plans for outcome evaluations that answer the priority questions of multiple stakeholders. It will provide a unique opportunity for inter-provincial collaboration within Canada to learn more about the effectiveness of ACT in different jurisdictions, especially rural adaptations. In agreement with a naturalistic study by Hackman and Stowell (2009, 1–5), further research needs to be done on effective ways to develop step-down (and step-up) capacity. This could be done within teams or by partnerships with existing case management programs. In the current integration environment in Ontario and other jurisdictions, the latter may be a strategy worth exploring and evaluating. We could also use the developing international ACT research collaboration (Deuchar et al. 2008) to study ACT

210

Bishop, George, Lurie, and Wales

innovations such as the Dutch “Functional” ACT, in which ACT is one function in multi-functional regional case management teams (Velhduizen 2007) and current Ontario practice of “step-down” ACT.

notes We would like to thank the Centre for Assessment & Research on Mental Health and Addictions (CARMHA) at Simon Fraser University, British Columbia, for their extensive help with literature searches. 1 The acronym ccar in figure 12.1 refers to Colorado Client Assessment Record, a widely used data collection form for persons in receipt of mental health services.

13 Supported Employment Eric Latimer

Introduction People with severe mental illness (mainly schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorders, bipolar disorders, and major depression) represent 2 to 3 percent of the population (Kessler et al. 1999). Relatively few among this population work: even in the United States, where unemployment rates are low, only about 10 to 30 percent of people with severe mental illness work, including in sheltered settings (Rosenheck et al. 2006; Salkever et al. 2007). Yet various surveys conducted among people with severe mental illness who are users of mental health services suggest that about 60 to 70 percent of them would like to work (Drebing et al. 2004; McQuilken et al. 2003; Mueser et al. 2001). Studies suggest that work provides many benefits for people with severe mental illness, as it does for the general population. The quality of life of people with severe mental illness who are working, whether measured subjectively or according to a number of objective measures, is higher than that of others who are not working (Priebe et al. 1998). Entering into employment has been associated with improvement of symptoms, enhanced self-esteem, and greater satisfaction with vocational rehabilitation services and finances (Becker et al. 2007; Bond et al. 2001; Burns et al. 2009; Mueser et al. 1997; Salyers et al. 2004; Schneider et al. 2009). Work also provides a respite to the families of people who have severe mental illness (Bell et al. 1996; Solomon and Draine 1995). More recently, work has also come to be seen as essential to recovery (Mental Health Commission of Canada 2009; Provencher et al. 2002).

212

Eric Latimer

Over the past several decades, a wide range of vocational rehabilitation programs or options have been developed for people with severe mental illness. Supported employment excepted, these programs can be grouped into one of three types: (1) programs that do not aim to help clients progress towards competitive employment and that engage clients in activities of a mostly occupational nature, such as day-treatment centres; (2) programs that aim to help clients progress towards more independent employment, such as clubhouses, but that do not place people directly into competitive employment; and (3) affirmative or consumer-run businesses, in which a third or more of jobs are reserved for people with severe mental illness (or other disabilities), who are paid at the minimum wage or better. Consumer-run businesses (also known as alternative businesses), which are especially prominent in Ontario, differ from affirmative businesses (also known as social enterprises) in that their entire workforce, including management, consists of consumer/survivors. Whether affirmative or consumer-run, such businesses operate in a competitive market and thus offer meaningful jobs; they are also likely to offer a greater sense of community than typical competitive jobs. This may be why people employed in such businesses do not often transition to competitive jobs (Warner and Mandiberg 2006). Supported employment represents an alternative approach to helping people with severe mental illness attain meaningful employment: rather than providing jobs that are more accommodating for people with mental illness, vocational advisers help people with severe mental illness obtain and keep competitive jobs. Since the early 1990s, experimental research has shown that such an approach can be effective. Supported employment involves, most fundamentally, a shift from the traditional “train-place” paradigm to one of “placetrain”: the person is placed directly into a competitive job and then continues to receive support as he or she learns through direct experience in the regular labour force. Among the various formulations of supported employment, the one that has received the most attention internationally is called Individual Placement and Support. As summarized below, evidence now clearly shows that, overall, Individual Placement and Support is more effective than more gradual approaches at helping people spend time and accumulate earnings in competitive work, at least over a horizon of a few years.

Supported Employment

213

Even programs that follow the Individual Placement and Support model closely, however, do not help all clients integrate into the labour force successfully. In randomized trials, approximately one-third of clients do not obtain a single competitive job over the follow-up period (usually one to two years). Perhaps another third continue to have a less than satisfactory work experience (Corrigan et al. 2008, 207). Two basic responses have been pursued. One is to seek to improve on the Individual Placement and Support model, so that more people can integrate into the competitive work force more and more successfully. A second is to maintain programs that offer alternatives to competitive employment. This chapter will begin with a discussion of a central premise of supported employment, namely, that competitive employment is preferable to sheltered employment. A brief description of the Individual Placement and Support model will follow, together with an account of the evidence concerning its effects on vocational and non-vocational outcomes. The chapter then discusses the possibility that other supported employment models might be preferable to Individual Placement and Support. Evidence and current lines of investigation concerning ways of increasing the effectiveness of Individual Placement and Support will then be outlined. The chapter concludes with an analysis of policy implications.

Why Favour Competitive Employment? There are both practical and theoretical reasons to look for competitive employment opportunities for people with severe mental illness. At a practical level, in virtually any setting there will be a greater number and variety of potential competitive than non-competitive jobs available, and these will often also offer greater flexibility in hours of work per week. A person with mental illness is then more likely to find a competitive job that corresponds to his or her skills, interests, and willingness or ability to work more or fewer hours and one that is located reasonably close to home. Second, while affirmative businesses may be expected to become economically self-sufficient after an initial start-up period (Warner and Mandiberg 2006), in some cases they can continue to receive significant subsidies. In Québec, provincial subsidies to a certain class of affirmative businesses (entreprises adaptées) amount to over $15,000 per full-year disabled person per

214

Eric Latimer

year, almost triple the comparable cost of one year of support from a supported employment program (Latimer 2008). Supported employment goes further, however, than these arguments would imply in pursuing competitive work only, to the virtual exclusion of all other types of work. In doing so, it implicitly asserts that competitive work is more helpful to clients, or more conducive to recovery, than non-competitive work and that clients who want to work can be helped to obtain competitive work as easily as noncompetitive work. Is competitive work more conducive to recovery? Quantitative studies supporting the assertion that even work in general, let alone competitive work in particular, contributes to recovery are almost non-existent; indeed, we are only beginning to learn how to measure recovery as an intervention outcome (Bond et al. 2004; see this volume, chapter 12). But several studies and testimonies suggest an important association between the experience of recovery and community integration, that is, a life spent in mainstream settings: in apartments, in job and leisure activities available to all and shared with others who do not have a severe mental illness (see Bond et al. 2004 for a summary). Work in competitive settings paid at the minimum wage or better and available to anyone clearly tends to contribute to community integration in a way that work in settings reserved, or partly reserved, for people with disabilities does not. Empirical studies suggest that competitive work yields better nonvocational outcomes for people with long-term mental illness than structured activity in a day treatment centre (Eklund et al. 2004). Evidence concerning the relative benefits of competitive jobs compared to paid but non-competitive ones appears more ambiguous. One secondary analysis of data from an Individual Placement and Support study compared clients who obtained competitive jobs as opposed to those who worked in paid, set-aside jobs or did minimal or no work. Those who worked in competitive settings showed significant gains in satisfaction with finances, leisure, and services, as well as in self-esteem and symptoms, compared to those with minimal or no work; the group who worked in non-competitive settings showed no such advantage (Bond et al. 2001). One qualitative study, on the other hand, found that clients in group segregated settings experienced more support from co-workers and supervisors than people in competitive settings, though the long-term consequences of this were unclear (Rollins et al. 2002).

Supported Employment

215

It would seem intuitively obvious that setting up non-competitive jobs designed for people with severe mental illness (or people with disabilities in general) and making those available to people with severe mental illness in addition to competitive employment would increase time spent in paid employment. We could locate only one study comparing Individual Placement and Support with an Individual Placement and Support–like program offering both competitive and non-competitive employment options. Over a two-year follow-up, outcomes for time in paid employment were statistically identical for the two programs (Bond et al. 2007). Other studies provide further, indirect evidence that the gains from allowing vocational advisors to refer clients to non-competitive jobs are at best modest. A trial comparing the Choose-Get-Keep model with enhanced state vocational-rehabilitation services in Massachusetts found that in spite of the careful attention paid to model fidelity in the CGK condition, over a two-year follow-up 37 percent of ChooseGet-Keep clients had obtained a competitive job and 60 percent paid employment of any kind (Rogers et al. 2006). As described below, most trials of Individual Placement and Support have attained 60 percent competitive-employment rates or better over a twelve- to twenty-four-month period. (The Choose-Get-Keep trial report does not provide data on the time spent working.)

The Individual Placement and Support Model of Supported Employment Description of the Model The Individual Placement and Support model is often described as following these seven principles: 1 Clients are placed directly into competitive jobs (jobs that pay the minimum wage or better and that are not set aside for people with disabilities). 2 Client preferences drive the characteristics of jobs that are sought. 3 All clients who desire to work are eligible to enter the program – there is no pre-screening for work readiness. 4 Clients receive benefits counseling. 5 Job search is rapid, with no preparatory phases. 6 Vocational advisors work closely with the client’s clinical team.

216

Eric Latimer

7 Clients receive individualized follow-up as long as the client desires it (Bond 2004; Bond et al. 2008). A recently updated fidelity scale, the supported-employment fidelity scale, specifies in greater detail how a program must be implemented if it is to follow the Individual Placement and Support model closely (Dartmouth Psychiatric Research Center 2008). This fidelity scale includes additional elements not directly implied by the principles just listed, such as caseload size (should not exceed twenty clients per vocational advisor); the range of tasks carried out by the vocational advisor (all vocational tasks from job development to on-the-job coaching); and the joining of vocational advisors as a vocational unit (rather than advisors being simply embedded into a clinical team, as would happen with an Assertive Community Treatment team (Stein and Santos 1998)). A book further describes in even greater detail the prescribed functioning of an Individual Placement and Support program (Becker and Drake 2003), and training videos are now available on the web as well (Dartmouth Psychiatric Research Center 2007). Evidence concerning Vocational Outcomes We identified thirteen randomized controlled trials of Individual Placement and Support and four of programs that could be qualified as precursors to or variants of Individual Placement and Support. These studies used a variety of programs as control conditions, all of them involving some reliance on non-competitive job placements. Some, but not all, control conditions involved a vocational advisor who supported the client. As these trials normally involve real-world implementations of Individual Placement and Support, compared to real-world programs in naturalistic settings, we interpret their results as speaking largely to the effectiveness of the Individual Placement and Support model, and not merely to its efficacy (Corrigan et al. 2008). Of the thirteen Random Controlled Trials of Individual Placement and Support, seven were conducted in the United States (Bond et al. 2007; Drake et al. 1999; Drake, McHugo, et al. 1996; Gold et al. 2006; Lehman et al. 2002; McHugo et al. 1998; Mueser et al. 2004; Twamley et al. 2008), one in Australia (Killackey et al. 2008), two in Hong Kong (Tsang et al. 2009; Wong et al. 2005), one in Canada (Latimer et al. 2006), one in England (Howard et

Supported Employment

217

al. forthcoming), and another, a six-country trial, in Europe (Burns et al. 2007). The four studies of Individual Placement and Support variants were all conducted in the United States (Bond et al. 1995; Chandler et al. 1997; Gervey and Bedell 1994; McFarlane et al. 2000). In all of these studies except one, the percentage of Individual Placement and Support clients who obtained a competitive job during the study period was at least nearly double, and sometimes several times greater, than the percentage of clients who did so while in other types of programs. The sole exception is the SWAN study, conducted in London, in which the difference in employment rates after one year between the Individual Placement and Support and control conditions, although favouring Individual Placement and Support, was not statistically significant (Howard et al. forthcoming). In this implementation of the Individual Placement and Support model, however, vocational advisers had very few contacts with clients, which is likely the major reason for the observed lack of effectiveness (Latimer forthcoming). A recent synthesis reports that the time to first job averages ten weeks less than for controls. If all study participants are taken into account, Individual Placement and Support clients worked 2.5 times more weeks than controls; however, weeks worked were virtually the same if one compared only Individual Placement and Support and control-group participants who did obtain competitive employment – about half the weeks of the year on average (Bond et al. 2008). (These means may not be altogether comparable, however: control group clients who do obtain jobs may be more motivated on average than Individual Placement and Support clients who obtain jobs, and this difference could also affect job duration.) Furthermore, the studies that report competitive earnings all show higher earnings for Individual Placement and Support participants, generally by a factor of more than two. (The Canadian trial is the one showing the smallest difference, in proportion, between Individual Placement and Support and control participants on this measure – $962 vs $521.) We also identified an additional eleven studies relying on various non-randomized designs (Bailey et al. 1998; Becker et al. 2001; Drake et al. 1994; Drake, Becker, et al. 1996; Gold and Marrone 1998; Lucca et al. 2004; Oldman et al. 2005; Perkins et al. 2005; Rinaldi et al. 2004; Rosenheck and Mares 2007; Twamley et al. 2005). The studies have included analyses of the effects of converting day-treatment centres into Individual Placement and Support

218

Eric Latimer

programs (Bailey et al. 1998; Becker et al. 2001; Drake et al. 1994; Drake, Becker, et al. 1996), including one instance in Canada (Oldman et al. 2005). Without exception, these studies have reported significantly better competitive employment outcomes for the Individual Placement and Support condition. Most studies have recruited among unemployed users of public mental health services of a wide range of ages, users who expressed an interest in working. One random controlled trial and one prepost study, however, targeted specifically people experiencing a first psychotic episode, extending the model to put significantly greater emphasis on supported education (Rinaldi et al. 2004; Killackey et al. 2008). Considering further education in normal settings as equivalent to competitive employment, vocational outcomes were comparable to those that Individual Placement and Support achieves in other populations. Yet another trial limited subjects to people between the ages of forty-five and sixty, again with comparable outcomes (Twamley et al. 2008). Aside from the London SWAN study alluded to earlier, the trial in which competitive job placement rates were lowest was the one where clients were not screened for interest in working (Lehman et al. 2002). The evidence is thus unequivocal that evidence-based supported employment, or Individual Placement and Support, helps more people obtain a competitive job and work longer in competitive settings than the traditional alternatives to which it has been compared. The studies also show that they work more hours and earn more income in competitive settings over the same period. Job duration among Individual Placement and Support clients who do work appears, however, no greater on average than among non-Individual Placement and Support clients who do work, although limited follow-up duration prevents an entirely reliable comparison (Bond et al. 2008). Non-vocational Outcomes As mentioned in the introduction, none of the Individual Placement and Support programs tested were able to help all the clients obtain even one competitive job over the study follow-up. Across the twelve Individual Placement and Support trials identified (excluding the SWAN study for the reasons given above), the highest percentage of clients who obtained a competitive job was 78, and the lowest 27, with a median of 64. This implies that a large minority of people who entered

Supported Employment

219

an Individual Placement and Support program were not able to obtain a competitive job. Furthermore, even among those who worked, most did so only on a part-time basis, for only part of the study period. This result probably helps to explain why these studies have yielded, in spite of the evidence on the benefits of work summarized in the introduction, virtually no evidence of gains from being assigned to the Individual Placement and Support group on such variables as symptoms, self-esteem, or quality of life. It appears likely that the amount of employment was too little, with too many clients having no employment, for there to be a statistically significant difference on such variables between the Individual Placement and Support and control groups. Furthermore, it is common in these studies for clients to be assigned to the Individual Placement and Support group to realize, once they are enrolled in the study, that they really are not much interested in working. In a natural setting, such clients would leave the program and be replaced by others, but in a rigorous randomized study they need to be kept. Thus, the randomized studies may well understate the effects on non-vocational outcomes of being assigned to an Individual Placement and Support program. There is evidence, however, that clients who do work benefit from working. In two long-term follow-up studies, many clients indicated that Individual Placement and Support had helped them gain greater self-esteem and self-confidence (Becker et al. 2007; Salyers et al. 2004), and in one of the studies also that it had helped control their symptoms (Becker et al. 2007). Admittedly, such studies are open to alternative interpretations – clients’ self-reports may have been positively biased. In addition, data from three Individual Placement and Support studies have been analysed to look for associations between having entered into work and various non-vocational outcomes. In all three cases, clients who worked (or, in one study, who worked in competitive, as opposed to non-competitive, settings) experienced reduced symptoms and improved self-esteem (Bond et al. 2001; Burns et al. 2009; Koletsi et al. 2009; Mueser et al. 1997). The two studies that examined this outcome also reported more satisfaction with finances and vocational services among clients who worked (Bond et al. 2001; Mueser et al. 1997). Thus, while participation in an Individual Placement and Support program as such may not yield significant benefits in non-vocational domains, working, which participation in the program facilitates, does appear to yield such benefits. Similar results have also been reported for clients who entered

220

Eric Latimer

supported-employment programs not necessarily close to Individual Placement and Support (Schneider et al. 2009).

Effectiveness of Other Supported Employment Models There are a number of other ways of delivering supported employment (Corbière and Lecomte 2009). For example, in Australia nongovernment organizations have been reported to offer a service referred to as “open employment,” which differs from Individual Placement and Support in that there is little integration between vocational services and mental health services, and clients are screened for work readiness (Waghorn and Lloyd 2005). In England, a variety of ways of implementing supported employment have recently been documented (Boyce et al. 2008). In the Netherlands as well, various ways of implementing supported employment have been reported, including in some cases dividing the work of a vocational advisor among specialists (i.e., one person finds jobs, another coaches clients on the job). In some cases a “buddy” is found on the job site who can assume some of the functions of a job coach (Hoekstra et al. 2004). Even in the United States, where supported employment and the Individual Placement and Support model originated, many variations exist (Evans and Bond 2008). Although there is little direct evidence concerning any of these alternative models, various forms of indirect evidence help to define more narrowly the characteristics of an effective supported-employment program. This can be done by considering, first, the evidence for each of the principles of the Individual Placement and Support model, beyond the preferability of competitive employment, which has already been addressed; and second, the association between program fidelity and outcomes.

Support for Individual Principles of the Individual Placement and Support Model and Association of Fidelity with Outcomes Zero exclusion The principle of zero exclusion (making the program available to all who express a desire to work) cannot be supported on the basis of evidence alone. A number of studies indicate that certain

Supported Employment

221

clinical factors do tend to be associated with greater success in a supported-employment program: fewer positive and negative symptoms and higher cognitive functioning (McGurk and Mueser 2004), the absence of post-traumatic stress disorder (Mueser, Essock, et al. 2005), a diagnosis other than schizophrenia, a higher self-perceived functional level, and fewer prior hospitalizations (Razzano et al. 2005). Interestingly, however, even people with schizophrenia who have active positive symptoms and people with substance-use disorder, may find and keep a job (Becker et al. 2005; Kessler 2004; Mueser et al. 2003). Among non-clinical factors, a more substantial previous work history is associated with greater success in a vocational rehabilitation program (Alverson et al. 1998; Drake, McHugo, et al. 1996), as are more active efforts to find oneself a job independently of a supported-employment program (Alverson et al. 1998; Alverson et al. 2006; Schneider et al. 2009). It now appears clear that a program could improve its vocational outcomes by being selective among clients who express an interest in working. Some clients who would have benefited from the program, however, would be excluded. The situation is analogous to what prevails for many kinds of medical treatment with uncertain results: many forms of cancer treatment, for example, are offered to all patients who might benefit from them. Put differently, this principle has been defended in part on the grounds of the ethical principle of autonomy and the philosophical commitment to client-centredness (Corrigan et al. 2008, 197). We now briefly consider the evidence in support of each of the remaining principles, based on earlier work by Bond (2004). Attention to Client Preferences in Job Selection A few studies indicate that clients stay longer in jobs that better match their preferences (Becker et al. 1998; Becker et al. 1996; Mueser, Becker, et al. 2001); according to another study, clients who were more satisfied initially with their job tended to keep it longer (Xie et al. 1997). Like the principle of zero exclusion, this one also rests in part on the desire to respect client autonomy and to provide client-centered services. Rapid Job Search At least three studies have tested directly and support the hypothesis that a rapid job-search strategy is more effective at helping clients

222

Eric Latimer

work more in competitive settings (Bond and Dincin 1986; Bond et al. 1995; Drake, Becker, et al. 1996). Yet another, qualitative study from Kansas comparing supported-employment programs that were more effective at helping their clients work in competitive settings with others that were less effective also found that the more effective programs more quickly determined the type of job they would seek for a client and avoided preparatory phases (Gowdy et al. 2003). Integrating Vocational Advisers into Clients’ Clinical Teams A substantial number of studies using both quantitative methods (Chandler et al. 1997; Drake, McHugo, et al. 1996; Drake, McHugo, et al. 1999; Gold et al. 2006; McFarlane et al. 2000; Mueser et al. 2004) and qualitative methods (Becker et al. 2007; Drake et al. 1995; Drake, Becker, et al. 1996; Gowdy et al. 2004; Salyers et al. 2004) support the importance of this principle. The qualitative studies in particular suggest several reasons why this principle is important. A person’s mental illness and work life are mutually interdependent, and the effectiveness of interventions in each area is enhanced by taking the other into account. Closer integration between vocational advisers and clinicians also helps ensure that clients receive the same message concerning the value and possibility for them of working from clinicians as well as vocational advisers (Drake et al. 2003) – indeed it helps clinicians become themselves more convinced of this (Gowdy et al. 2004). The number of studies supporting this principle, the variety of quantitative and qualitative methods that they employ, and their unanimity together strongly support this principle. Individualized and Long-Term Support This principle actually contains two elements. Evidence and ethical arguments for the importance of attention to consumer preferences in the choice of jobs for clients, which have already been summarized, extend naturally to individualized follow-up as well. Once a job is found, the nature of follow-up will most obviously differ according to whether the client has chosen to disclose his or her illness to the employer. As for long-term support, there could be two reasons for not offering it: (1) that it is not necessary – whatever benefit clients may receive from a supported employment program they will receive over an initial period of follow-up; and (2) that some clients should not be offered it because they clearly are not benefiting from it. Concerning the first, one two-year follow-up study of subjects of one

Supported Employment

223

of the early Individual Placement and Support trials concluded that sustained competitive employment depended on continued services from the Individual Placement and Support program (McHugo et al. 1998). Furthermore, two longer-term studies found that many clients, eight to twelve years following their entry into an Individual Placement and Support program, attributed their vocational success during that period in part to the long-term support they had been able to receive (Becker et al. 2007; Salyers et al. 2004). While the new fidelity scale allows for the step-down of clients who have been working steadily to mental health services, it is obvious that should the client desire re-entry into the vocational adviser’s caseload following job loss, this preference needs to be allowed (principle of zero exclusion). As for excluding clients who appear not to have been benefiting from the program, one of these studies also reports that clients who ultimately had positive vocational outcomes were not necessarily successful in the first year of follow-up (Salyers et al. 2004), suggesting that lack of initial success does not necessarily imply long-term failure. This suggests that the arguments for offering supported employment to all who initially express a desire to work are equally relevant to the principle of offering follow-up of indefinite duration. Provision of Benefits Counselling One recent study suggests that providing systematic benefits-counselling significantly increases employment earnings (Tremblay et al. 2004). In the two long-term studies already mentioned, clients who worked successfully often stressed the importance of such information (Becker et al. 2007; Salyers et al. 2004). Among these principles, the three for which evidence remains on its own less than compelling are attention to consumer preferences, provision of benefits counselling, and long-term support. All these principles can also be justified to some extent on ethical grounds. As mentioned earlier, however, there is more to the Individual Placement and Support model than its principles. An additional line of evidence supporting the Individual Placement and Support model as more precisely formulated in the Individual Placement and Support fidelity scale comes from several studies that, taken together, suggest that higher model fidelity is associated with improved employment outcomes for clients (Becker et al. 2001; Becker et al. 2006; Bond 2007; Burns et al. 2007; McGrew and Griss 2005; Rosenheck and

224

Eric Latimer

Mares 2007). Because of the small numbers of programs considered in each of these studies, however, they do not allow any determination of which particular elements of the fidelity scale may most contribute to outcomes. Furthermore, the fidelity scale has recently been expanded from fifteen to twenty-five items (Dartmouth Psychiatric Research Centre 2008). Evidence concerning the association between fidelity as measured using this expanded scale and outcomes is not yet available. In conclusion, if the goal is to help clients attain competitive employment and if the decision is taken to give all clients who desire help to find competitive employment an opportunity to enroll in a supported employment program, then there is good evidence, as well as ethical justification, to follow the principles of the Individual Placement and Support model. There is also evidence that aiming for higher fidelity to the model as measured by the original Individual Placement and Support fidelity scale tends to yield better vocational outcomes, but the possibility nonetheless remains that gains might be achieved by modifying some elements of the Individual Placement and Support model or by adding to it.

Improving the Effectiveness of Individual Placement and Support Programs In practice, the Individual Placement and Support model turns out to have three significant limitations: many clients who register in such programs still do not obtain competitive jobs; job duration appears, in most studies, to be no higher than with alternative approaches; and the jobs, while fairly varied, tend to be low-skilled. Several lines of investigation are currently being pursued, or could be pursued, to mitigate these limitations. They can be divided into two groups: optimizing implementation of the current model and potential model enhancements.

Optimizing Implementation of the Current Model High-Fidelity Implementation As noted earlier, program fidelity has been associated with better outcomes. Some research has considered how best to help programs attain high fidelity. One general conclusion of this kind of research, drawn from studies of many types of service providers, is that initial staff training must be supplemented with monitoring and feedback

Supported Employment

225

over time (Fixsen et al. 2005). Precise ways of supporting the training and development of evidence-based practices such as Individual Placement and Support, based on trial and error rather than on formal experimental evidence, have been described (Rapp et al. 2007).

Effectiveness of Vocational Advisors Drake and colleagues note a significant variation in the effectiveness of different vocational advisors: while some barely manage to help 25 percent of their clients find work, others within the same program can exceed 75 percent (Drake et al. 2006). Much of this variation may be related to level of skill in job development (Swanson et al. 2008). Some also likely results from their ability to enhance client motivation to work, directly and also by influencing clinicians to view work as possible and desirable for more of their clients (Gowdy et al. 2003; Gowdy et al. 2004). Further research is needed to determine how program managers can more reliably identify candidates with the greatest potential to become effective vocational advisors and how to help them become more effective once they are hired (Drake and Bond 2008). Program Incentives It is common for programs that are intended to help people find jobs to be given financial incentives to encourage the achievement of targets. Often these incentives have rewarded short-term placement, which has discouraged long-term follow-up. One recent trial tested a more sophisticated incentive scheme involving payment in return for achievement of five employment milestones. The scheme appeared to increase milestone attainment, but this result did not yield improvements on non-milestone vocational or non-vocational measures such as quality of life or functioning (McGrew et al. 2005). Staff perceptions of the scheme were mixed, with concerns that performance schemes would encourage client selection (McGrew et al. 2007). More research is needed on how best to design incentives for evidence-based supported employment programs. Rules concerning Benefits The rules governing the effects of earned income on disability payments and health benefits are likely to influence the cost-effectiveness of an Individual Placement and Support program. In the EQOLISE study, clients at sites where, according to their vocational advisors,

226

Eric Latimer

working posed a greater risk of resulting in a reduction in income for the client (i.e., sites where there existed a “benefits trap”) were less likely to work, regardless of whether they were receiving Individual Placement and Support or other services (Burns et al. 2007). Furthermore, in the one long-term follow-up study of Individual Placement and Support clients that has examined this issue, clients reported working part-time not only because it was easier, but also because they feared working more would compromise their disability income and health benefits (Becker et al. 2007). In Canada, Individual Placement and Support clients face smaller risks than in the United States from working, in that hospital and physician services remain free of charge regardless of income. Coverage of medications for people who leave disability status, however, varies by province. The proportion of earned income that is subtracted from a client’s disability benefits also varies by province. Constructing rules concerning benefits that simultaneously protect people with disabilities, reward movement towards work, and are equitable toward other groups in society is yet another topic that requires more investigation.

Potential Model Enhancements Systematic Approaches to Enhancing Client Motivation In addition to recruiting and training vocational advisers who will help enhance client motivation to work by communicating hope and a positive attitude towards work, several more explicit approaches ranging from motivational interviewing to contingency management have been or are being investigated to reinforce client motivation (Drake and Bond 2008). Workplace Skills Training At least three studies have explored the effects of a training package, known as Workplace Fundamentals, that is intended to develop workplace skills and increase job duration. These skills include, for example, how to deal with a problem at work and how to interact with a supervisor (Mueser, Aalto, et al. 2005; Wallace and Tauber 2004). The first two studies have not succeeded in showing that such training can increase job duration. It is possible, however, that the limitations of these studies (small sample in the first case, sample of individuals with unusually high educational attainment in the second) contributed to these negative results (Liberman 2006). In a

Supported Employment

227

recently published trial carried out in Hong Kong, an enhancement of Individual Placement and Support with social skills training appeared to achieve a dramatically greater competitive employment rate (78.8 percent employment rate vs 53.6 percent for Individual Placement and Support alone and 7.3 percent for the control group), as well as significantly longer average job tenure (Tsang et al. 2009). It remains to be seen whether this finding can be replicated. Cognitive Remediation Cognitive limitations are common among people who have severe mental illness, especially those with schizophrenia (McGurk and Mueser 2004; Wexler and Bell 2005). In the absence of supported employment, these limitations impede vocational success – a causal link in that direction is well established (McGurk and Mueser 2004). Clients with more significant cognitive limitations tend to require a greater part of the time of vocational advisers (McGurk et al. 2003). At the end of a systematic literature review, McGurk and Mueser conclude that supported employment tends to compensate for these cognitive limitations, but only partially (McGurk and Mueser 2004). A study carried out among vocational advisers working under the Individual Placement and Support model identified a large number of strategies that the vocational advisers used to compensate for limitations in attention, psychomotor speed, memory, and problem-solving ability: for example, breaking up a task into smaller components that the client is encouraged to master progressively through repetition (McGurk and Mueser 2006). A few studies also suggest that some cognitive limitations can be attenuated or even eliminated by means of systematic training and that such training can have a positive impact on the capacity to keep a job (Wexler and Bell 2005). Supported Education and Career Development Supporting clients, when this is consistent with their preferences, in attaining higher education or skills development in regular settings (i.e., settings not designed specifically for people with disabilities) is consistent with Individual Placement and Support (Becker and Drake 2003). Except in the case of studies targeting clients who recently experienced their first psychotic episode (Killackey et al. 2008; Nuechterlein et al. 2008; Rinaldi et al. 2004), however, studies of Individual Placement and Support normally focus on reporting

228

Eric Latimer

work-related outcomes, with little or no mention of education. The recently revised supported-employment fidelity scale does mention help with career development, including assistance with education (part of item 11 (Dartmouth Psychiatric Research Center 2008)), but more research is needed to determine how to best integrate supported education and career development within Individual Placement and Support. Improved Management of Psychiatric and Co-morbid Illnesses Medication has an important influence on the capacity of people with psychotic symptoms to work, both through its effects on these symptoms and through its side effects. Several studies have documented the variability in physicians’ prescribing behaviour, including in the prescribing of antipsychotics and related medication (Ito et al. 2005; Rosenheck and Leslie 2003; Young et al. 2006). Relatively few studies, however, have compared medications in terms of their ability to help people receiving Individual Placement and Support services. One study that sought to do exactly that compared two atypical antipsychotics (olanzapine and risperidone) with unspecified typical ones. At the end of the nine-month observation period, the two groups’ outcomes were not statistically different. The observational study design and limited sample (ninety subjects) preclude a definitive conclusion (Bond et al. 2004). Nonetheless, optimization of prescribing for clients of Individual Placement and Support programs might increase the effectiveness of such programs. More generally, improvement in the overall management of psychiatric and co-morbid illnesses, including physical illnesses and substance-use disorders could enhance the effectiveness of Individual Placement and Support programs (Drake and Bond 2008). A study aiming to test this hypothesis directly is currently under way in the United States (Frey et al. 2008). For a fuller discussion of these issues, the reader is referred to (Drake and Bond 2008).

Conclusions and Policy Implications In the modern context of emphasis on recovery, improving access to employment for people with severe mental illness has become widely acknowledged as essential. If competitive work is viewed as

Supported Employment

229

particularly conducive to recovery and intrinsically more desirable than non-competitive employment, then experimental research now clearly also demonstrates that the Individual Placement and Support model is a more effective means of helping people obtain competitive jobs and accumulate hours and earnings from them than are the alternatives against which it has been tested. At the same time, it is clear that Individual Placement and Support is not effective for all clients. Research is currently underway, along several lines, to improve the effectiveness of Individual Placement and Support programs, partly through more successful implementation and partly by improving on the model itself. While the current principles of the Individual Placement and Support model are likely to be maintained in any future evidence-based supported-employment model, partly on the basis of evidence and partly (as in the case of the principle of zero exclusion) on ethical grounds, the evidence and arguments in support of some other features of the Individual Placement and Support model that the Individual Placement and Support fidelity scale measures but that are not implied by its principles are not as strong, and some of those features could ultimately be modified. New components could also be introduced in the light of research findings, for example, with regard to cognitive training. These unanswered questions notwithstanding, the evidence to date clearly supports significant expansion of the Individual Placement and Support model in its current form. A monograph on the applicability of the Individual Placement and Support model to Québec issued by the Agence d’Évaluation des Technologies et Modes d’Intervention en Santé (forthcoming) suggests, based on a synthesis of several estimates in the literature, that providing approximately 60 Individual Placement and Support places per 100,000 population would be a reasonable initial target (Agence d’Évaluation des Technologies et Modes d’Intervention en Santé Forthcoming). This translates to approximately 20,000 places across Canada. A careful estimation of the cost of such a program expansion across Canada is beyond the scope of this chapter. The same monograph, however, estimates that the cost per place in an Individual Placement and Support program, including vocational adviser wage costs and expenses such as travel and phones, but not occupancy costs or agency overhead costs, would be in the order $4,450 per year. The same monograph estimates on this basis that a deployment of 60 Individual Placement and Support places per 100,000 population

230

Eric Latimer

would cost about half the current expenditures in the province of Québec, through both the Ministry of Health and Social services, and the Ministry of Employment and Social Solidarity, on its current vocational rehabilitation programs for people with severe mental illness (including, for example, sheltered workshops, day-treatment centres and affirmative businesses). Thus, given opportunities for replacing existing programs with Individual Placement and Support, the cost of a deployment of Individual Placement and Support on this scale does not appear prohibitive. To what extent should more traditional programs be maintained, however? As previously indicated, experimental evidence to date suggests that even if such programs are made available, employment rates are not likely to be significantly higher than if only competitive options are offered. Such options may, however, prove more advantageous during economic downturns: while some early evidence suggested that the overall unemployment rate had little impact on the effectiveness of Individual Placement and Support programs (Catalano et al. 1999), more recent studies tend rather to the conclusion that client employment rates tend to be lower where the overall unemployment rate is higher (Becker et al. 2006; Burns et al. 2007). That consideration aside, we do not know to what extent the jobs that certain types of non-competitive businesses, such as consumerrun businesses, provide for clients may be beneficial in comparison with competitive jobs. Further research is needed on this score, research encompassing also an economic dimension: to the extent that non-competitive opportunities require government subsidies, are the benefits from providing them worth their additional cost? Until such research is carried out, it seems clearly preferable to focus on closing programs such as day-treatment centres, which clearly do not seem as beneficial for clients. One particular organizational difficulty that further development of Individual Placement and Support poses is that Individual Placement and Support programs potentially fall under the responsibility either of health and social services or of ministries responsible for helping people return to work. Who, then, should be assigned the responsibility for organizing and managing them? It is perhaps best to allow such programs to develop in multiple settings and contexts. What is important is that they be adequately funded and well managed. To facilitate this goal, provincial (or in some parts of the country, such as the Atlantic provinces, regional) technical assistance

Supported Employment

231

centres should be set up. Such technical assistance centres, modelled on counterparts in a few US states such as Ohio or Kansas, could assume the combined functions of (1) identifying sites ready to implement an Individual Placement and Support program, (2) providing directly and/or facilitating the initial and continuous training that such programs need, (3) monitoring outcomes, and (4) representing the programs as a whole in provincial-level discussions concerning regulations (for example, regulations concerning disability benefits) and funding. Another policy, one that is being pursued in the United Kingdom and that could be pursued in Canada as well, is insisting that health and social service employers in particular, and public sector employers more generally, give preference in hiring decisions to people with disabilities, including people with severe mental illness, when other factors are equal (Seebohm and Grove 2006). Finally, it is worth noting that Canada offers, compared to most other industrialized countries, an especially favourable context for the introduction of high-performing supported-employment programs, for three reasons: (1) unlike the United States, it offers guaranteed health care coverage regardless of income or employment status (although coverage for medications varies from province to province); (2) its employers face less constraining labour laws than those of many continental European countries; and (3) its unemployment rates are typically lower than in many European countries. In conclusion, while the Individual Placement and Support model does have limitations, at present it appears to offer an effective and relatively inexpensive means of helping many people with severe mental illness make progress toward the attainment of better community integration and ultimately, a more satisfying life. Numerous research efforts currently under way appear likely to help further increase its effectiveness.

Note Through the sharing of many insights on the supported employment literature, Bob Drake, Debbie Becker and Gary Bond, of the Dartmouth Psychiatric Research Centre, and Daniel Gélinas of the Centre de recherché Fernand Séguin in Montreal, have been singularly helpful. Nicole Lahaie and Marie-Sylvie St-Pierre, supervisors of the IPS program at the

232

Eric Latimer

Douglas Institute, along with vocational advisors in the program, have helped me see how supported employment can work in a Canadian setting, and they have shared many stories that have helped to make the principles and practice of supported employment come to life. Marc Corbière, of the University of Sherbrooke, has challenged and thus helped to sharpen my thinking. I have also benefited from conversations with several people and groups in the United Kingdom, notably with Bob Grove, Miles Rinaldi, Geoff Shepherd and others associated with the Sainsbury Center for Mental Health, and with Justine Schneider at the University of Nottingham. An anonymous reviewer made some helpful suggestions for improvement. I am responsible for all remaining errors or imbalances in the chapter.

Contributors

joan bishop is the CMHA North Simcoe ACT team psychiatrist, professor emeritus at the University of Western Ontario, a consultant at Orillia Soldiers Memorial Hospital, and a member of ACT advisory committees for both the Ontario and the British Columbia health ministries. Before coming to Orillia in 2007, she was associate professor of psychiatry at the University of Western Ontario and then at the University of British Columbia, with a major focus on improving services for persons with severe mental illness. Since completing her masters degree in epidemiology and biostatistics in 2002, she has obtained funding for mental health services research and is currently a co-principal investigator on a CIHR grant to study therapeutic processes in assertive community treatment. Erika Braithwaite completed her undergraduate degree in psychology at Concordia University. She is currently a graduate student in psychology at the University of Montreal. Her research interests include psychopathy and the link between severe mental illness and criminality, as well as risk assessment in civil psychiatric settings. Gilles Côté is a criminologist and psychologist and professor at the Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières and associate professor in the Department of Psychiatry at the Université de Montréal and the Université de Sherbrooke. He is also director of the research center at the Institut Philippe-Pinel de Montréal. Anne Crocker, PHD, is a forensic mental health researcher, director of the Services, Policy and Population Health Research axis of

234

Contributors

the Douglas Mental Health University Institute and assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry, McGill University. She is also a member of the Mental Health and Law Advisory Committee of the Mental Health Commission of Canada. Dr Crocker’s research in forensic mental health has examined the rates and psychosocial correlates of aggressive behaviour, violence, and criminality in persons with a severe mental illness or intellectual disability. She has also explored criminal justice mechanisms for dealing with individuals with severe mental illness or an intellectual disability (e.g., criminal responsibility, review board decision making, psychiatric advance directives, and diversion programs). She has a special interest in risk assessment and management, as well as the strategies needed to implement them. Cheryl Forchuk, RN, PHD, is professor in the School of Nursing at the University of Western Ontario and professor in the Department of Psychiatry, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry. She is also an assistant director for the Lawson Health Research Institute, the research arm of the London hospitals. Dr Forchuk’s research has focused on persons with mental illness, and she has published widely on topics that include housing and the mentally ill, transitional discharge, and peer support. Jill Grant is assistant professor in the School of Social Work at the University of Windsor and Director of the Community Based Research and Development Centre. She works with mental health service users and service providers to conduct research in the areas of community mental health services, relationships between service users and service providers, consumer-survivor participation, and social exclusion. Jill teaches social-work theory and practice courses and provides extensive amounts of training in various practice areas to professionals. Virginia Aldigé Hiday, PHD, is professor, Department of Sociology, North Carolina State University, with research interests in law and psychiatry, particularly outpatient civil commitment, mental health courts, and violence, victimization, and criminalization among persons with severe mental illness. Besides being a co-investigator on the North Carolina Mental Health Study of Outpatient Commitment, she has been principal investigator of two other NIMH-funded projects on

Contributors

235

civil commitment, resulting in numerous publications with important policy implications. Early studies focused on court proceedings, judge’s decisions, the role of counsel, and the nature of the evidence of dangerousness. Subsequent studies focused on subjective experiences and outcomes of respondents engaged in civil commitment. Her work has been used in formulating policy in Canada and the United States and by governments overseas. Dr Hiday serves the UNC-Duke Mental Health Services Research Training Program as a seminar presenter and research consultant. Eric Latimer, PHD, is associate professor in the Department of Psychiatry at McGill University and since 1996 has been  a research scientist at the Douglas Mental Health University Institute in Montreal. A health economist by training, he has a particular interest in evidence-based practices for people with severe mental illness. In particular, he has written on the economics of assertive community treatment and supported employment. He also led the first trial of Individual Placement and Support (IPS) conducted in Canada and is the author of a just-released monograph published under the auspices of the Québec Health Technology Assessment Agency (Agence d’Évaluation des Technologies et Modes d’Intervention en Santé) on the applicability of the IPS model to Québec.  Steve Lurie is currently the executive director of the Canadian Mental Health Association (CMHA), Toronto Branch, a post he has held since 1979. A principal author of the Graham Report, Building Community Support for People, he conducted the 1992 snapshot of community mental health programs in Ontario that established a common data set for client characteristics and outcomes in mental health services. He also provided technical assistance to the Senate Committee report Out of the Shadows at Last: Transforming Mental Health and Addiction Services in Canada. Mr Lurie now chairs the Service Systems Advisory Committee for the new Mental Health Commission of Canada and was recently awarded the CMHA’s C.M. Hincks award for national leadership in mental health. He is also adjunct professor in the Faculty of Social Work at the University of Toronto. Beth Mitchell, PHD, C.Psych. is the director of the Mental Health Care Program at the London Health Sciences Centre, a large acute program serving the lifespan through in-patient and outpatient services.

236

Contributors

She also holds appointments as associate professor at the University of Western Ontario in the Departments of Pediatrics, Psychiatry, and Psychology. Dr Mitchell has served on a number of local and provincial bodies related to mental health and is an investigator with the Consortium for Applied Research and Evaluation in Mental Health (CAREMH), focusing on the impact of system change, program development, evaluation, and knowledge transfer. Geoffrey Nelson is professor of psychology in the Community Psychology program at Wilfrid Laurier University. He served as senior editor of the Canadian Journal of Community Mental Health, was the recipient (with the Canadian Mental Health Association/ Waterloo Region Branch) of the Harry McNeill Award for Innovation in Community Mental Health from the American Psychological Foundation, and was university research professor at Wilfrid Laurier University. His research and practice has focused on community mental health programs and supports for people with serious mental illness (including studies of supportive housing and self-help groups and organizations) and community-based prevention programs for children and families. Ross M.G. Norman, PHD, C.Psych. is a psychologist and professor in the Department of Psychiatry and the Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics and adjunct professor in the Department of Psychology at the University of Western Ontario. His recent research has focused on early intervention in psychotic disorders – including studies of pathways to care for patients experiencing their first episode of psychosis, community intervention to reduce treatment delay for psychosis, the impact of early intervention on treatment outcome, evaluation of the effectiveness of specific psychosocial interventions for psychotic disorders, the effect of social support on treatment outcome, and the family experience of psychosis, as well as work related to the basic nature of psychopathology in psychosis. Dr Norman and his colleagues have also become increasingly involved in research on the stigmatization of mental illness. Richard O’Reilly was born and raised in Northern Ireland. He studied medicine at Trinity College Dublin, training as a specialist in internal medicine before undertaking psychiatric training in Dublin and in London, Ontario. He has worked as a consultant psychiatrist in the

Contributors

237

Republic of Ireland and in Saskatchewan and Ontario and currently works with a rural assertive community treatment team. Dr O’Reilly is professor of psychiatry at the University of Western Ontario and at the Northern Ontario School of Medicine. His academic interests are mental health law and genetic causes of schizophrenia. Stephen A. State, PHD, is the coordinator of the Consortium for Applied Research and Evaluation in Mental Health, a network of heterogeneous stakeholders in community mental health services whose purpose has been to expand capacity in research and evaluation in this field. He has been a co-investigator on a number of projects in criminalization and forensic mental health services, and he participated in the committee work that led to the development of a Mental Health Court in London, ON. Previously, he taught the history of political thought in the Department of Political Science at the University of Western Ontario for some twenty years. He is currently an adjunct research professor with the Population and Community Health Unit in the Department of Family Medicine, University of Western Ontario. Raj Velamoor, MB, DPM, MRC Psych, FRC Psych (U.K.), FRCP (Can.) trained in both India and England, immigrating to Canada in 1984, where he was professor of psychiatry at the University of Western Ontario (UWO) and director of emergency psychiatry  at the London Health Sciences Center, Ontario, until 2003. He was awarded the Fellowship of the Royal College of Psychiatry (U.K.) in 2003 and was on faculty at the University Hospital of Cornell and Columbia, New York, from 2003 to 2005. He has also worked as consultant psychiatrist in New Zealand and Bermuda. His research in neuroleptic malignant syndrome is internationally recognized, and his publications include a monograph on the interface between primary care and psychiatry. He is currently professor emeritus at the University of Western Ontario and lives in Toronto. Evelyn R. Vingilis, PHD, C.Psych., is a registered psychologist and director of the Population and Community Health Unit and professor in the Departments of Family Medicine, and Epidemiology and Biostatistics at the University of Western Ontario and adjunct professor in the School of Psychology and Counselling, Centre for Accident Research and Road Safety-Queensland, the Queensland

238

Contributors

University of Technology, Australia. She has clinical, management, and research experience with a particular focus on program evaluation and knowledge transfer. Her research interests are in mental health services, road safety, and at-risk youth. She has taught courses in program and policy evaluation to graduate students in epidemiology, family medicine, nursing, psychology, and public administration. Bob Wales received his MSW from the University of Windsor and has worked in hospital and the community as a case manager, program coordinator, consultant, and educator. Bob has provided case management training to hospital-based staff preparing for work in community-based services. He also promoted PSR education at the community college level as chair of the Ontario PSR Education Committee and has been a leader in ACT team development. Bob is an original member of the Ontario ACT Technical Advisory Panel (TAP-1998) and is past chair of this group. He has been employed by the Ontario health ministry to provide orientation and support to new ACT teams, and he also worked as a subject matter expert for the provincial Community Mental Health Common Assessment Project, in which he prepared curriculum and training materials for a multi-site, province-wide pilot. Currently, he provides recoveryfocused consultation, training, and technical assistance for eleven ACT teams and the Psychosis Program in-patient units sponsored by St Joseph’s Health Care London. Heathcote W. Wales, J.D. Professor Wales has taught at Georgetown University Law Center since 1971, specializing in constitutional law, criminal law, law and psychiatry, and law and social science. He has served as consultant to numerous government and professional task forces and has written principally in the field of mental health law. Most recently, he has turned his attention to mental health courts and to outcome studies in a felony court in Bonneville County, Idaho, and a misdemeanor court in Washington, DC.

Bibliography

Chapter one Abramson, M.F. 1972. The Criminalization of Mentally Disordered Behavior: Possible Side-effect of a New Mental Health Law. Hospital & Community Psychiatry 23:101–5. Corrigan, P.W., K.T. Mueser, and G.R. Bond et al. 2007. Principles and Practice of Psychiatric Rehabilitation: An Empirical Approach. New York: Guilford Press. Davis, Simon. 2006. Community Mental Health. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. Deegan, P.E. 2007. The Lived Experience of Using Pyschiatric Medication in the Recovery Process and a Shared Decision-Making Program to Support It. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 31:62–9. Druss, B.G., I. Hwang, M. Petukhova, N.A. Sampson, P.S. Wang, and R.C. Kessler. 2009. Impairment in Role Functioning in Mental and Chronic Medical Disorders in the United States: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Molecular Psychiatry 14:728–37. Gallie, W.B. 1955. Essentially Contested Concepts. Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society 56:167–98. Goeree, R., F. Farahati, N. Burke, G. Blackhouse, D. O’Reilly, J. Pyne, and J.E. Tarride. 2005. The Economic Burden of Schizophrenia in Canada in 2004. Current Medical Research and Opinion 21:2017–28. Grob, G.N. 1992. Mental Health Policy in America: Myths and Realities. Health Affairs 11:7–22. Junginger, J., K. Claypoole, R. Laygo, and A. Crisanti. 2006. Effects of Serious Mental Illness and Substance Abuse on Criminal Offences. Psychiatric Services 57:879–82.

240

Bibliography

Kessler, R.C., S. Heeringa, M. Angermeyer, J.C. Anthony, R. de Graaf, K. Demyttenaere, I. Gasquet, G. de Girolamo, et al. 2007. Lifetime Prevalence and Age-of-Onset Distributions of Mental Disorders in the World Health Organization’s World Mental Health Survey Initiative. World Psychiatry 6:168–76. Kessler, R.C., S. Heeringa, M.D. Lakoma, M. Petukhova, A.E. Rupp, M. Schoenbaum, P.S. Wang, and A.M. Zaslavsky. 2008. Individual and Societal Effects of Mental Disorders on Earnings in the United States: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. American Journal of Psychiatry 165:703–11. Lehman, A.F. 1998. The Role of Mental Health Service Research in Promoting Effective Treatment for Adults with Schizophrenia. The Journal of Mental Health Policy and Economics 1:199–204. Locke, J. 1975. An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Ed. H. Nidditch. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Mathers, C.D., E.T. Vos, C.E. Stevenson, and S.J. Begg. 2001. The Burden of Disease and Injury in Australia. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 79:1076–84. Mill, J.S. 1982. On Liberty. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin. Onken, S.J., C.M. Craig, P. Ridgway, et al. 2007. An Analysis of the Definitions and Elements of Recovery: A Review of the Literature. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 31:9–22. Ormel, J., M. Petukhova, S. Chatterji, et al. 2008. Disability and Treatment of Specific Mental and Physical Disorders across the World. British Journal of Psychiatry 192:368–75. Roe, D., A. Rudnick, and K.J. Gill. 2007. The Concept of “Being in Recovery.” Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 30:171–3. Simmons, H.G. 1990. Unbalanced: Mental Health Policy in Ontario, 1930– 1989. Toronto: Wall & Thompson. Vos, T., C. Mathers, H. Herrman, C. Harvey, O. Gureje, D. Bui, N. Watson, and S. Begg. 2001. The Burden of Mental Disorders in Victoria, 1996. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 36:53–62. Wittchen, H.U., and F. Jacobi. 2005. Size and Burden of Mental Disorders in Europe – a Critical Review and Appraisal of 27 Studies. European Neuropsychopharmacology 15:357–76.

Chapter two Bahn, A.K. 1965. An Outline for Community Mental Health Research. Community Mental Health Journal 1:23–8.

Bibliography

241

Bartlett, P., and D. Wright. 1999. Outside the Walls of the Asylum: The History of Care in the Community, 1750–2000. London: Athlone Press. Beers, C.W. 2004 (first edition, 1908). A Mind That Found Itself: an Autobiography. 7th ed. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. Blom, D.J., and S. Sussman. 1989. Pioneers of Mental Health and Social Change, 1930–1989. London, ON: Third Eye Publications. Brown, T.E. 1980. Architecture as Therapy. Archivaria 10:99–123. Brown, T.J. 1998. Dorothea Dix: New England Reformer. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Conolly, J. 1830. An Inquiry concerning the Indications of Insanity with Suggestions for the Better Protection and Care of the Insane. London: John Taylor. Crutcher, H.B. 1939. Family Care of the Mentally Ill. In Mental Health, eds. Forest Ray Moulton and Paul O. Komora. 9:179–84. Lancaster, PA: American Association for the Advancement of Science. Davis, M.M. 1939. Costs and Organization of Psychiatric Service in the United States. In Mental Health, eds. Forest Ray Moulton and Paul O. Komora. 9:165–73. Lancaster, PA: American Association for the Advancement of Science. Dix, D.L. 1845. Remarks on Prisons and Prison Discipline in the United States. 2d ed. Philadelphia: Joseph Kite and Co. Edginton, B. 1997. Moral Architecture: The Influence of the York Retreat on Asylum Design. Health and Place 3:91–9. – 1988. Moral Treatment to Monolith: The Institutional Treatment of the Insane in Manitoba, 1871–1919. Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 5:167–88. Foucault, M. 1988. Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason, trans. R. Howard. New York: Vantage Books. Glasscote, R.M. 1964. The Community Mental Health Center: An Analysis of Existing Models. Washington, DC: Joint Information Service of the American Psychiatric Association and the National Association for Mental Health. Goffman, E. 1961. Asylums: Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other Inmates. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books. Gollaher, D. 1995. Voice for the Mad: The Life of Dorothea Dix. New York: Free Press. Great Britain. 1957. Royal Commission on the Law Relating to Mental Illness and Mental Deficiency 1954–57. London: HMSO. Grob, G.N. 2004. Deinstitutionalization of the Mentally Ill: Policy Triumph or Tragedy? New Jersey Medicine: The Journal of the Medical Society of New Jersey 101:19–30.

242

Bibliography

– 1992. Mental Health Policy in America: Myths and Realities. Health Affairs 11:7–22. – 1991. From Asylum to Community: Mental Health Policy in Modern America. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. – 1983. Mental Illness and American Society, 1875–1940. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Hoenig, J., and M. Hamilton. 1969. Desegregation of the Mentally Ill. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Hurd, H.M. 1916. The Institutional Care of the Insane in the United States and Canada. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins Press. Jackson, A.J. 1939. The Role of a Public Mental Hospital with Reference to the Mentally Ill of a Community. In Mental Health, eds. Forest Ray Moulton and Paul Komora. 9:331–4. Lancaster, PA: American Association for the Advancement of Science. Jones, K. 1993. Asylums and After: A Revised History of the Mental Health Services from the Early 18th Century to the 1990s. London: Athlone Press. Levenson, A. 1969. Organizational Patterns of Community Mental Health Centers. In Progress in Community Mental Health, eds. L. Bellak and H. Barton. New York: Grune & Stratton. Martin, F.M. 1984. Between the Acts: Community Mental Health Services, 1959–1983. London: Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust. Mathers, A.T. 1920. The Work of the Manitoba Psychopathic Hospital. Canadian Journal of Mental Hygiene 2:177–81. Moran, J.E. 1998. The Ethics of Farming-Out: Ideology, the State, and the Asylum in Nineteenth-Century Quebec. Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 15:297–316. Morphy, A.G. 1920. The Work of a Psychopathic Hospital. Canadian Journal of Mental Hygiene 2:172. Noyes, A.P. 1939. Purposes, Aims, Powers and Duties of a Centralized State Administration Organization. In Mental Health, eds. Forest Ray Moulton and Paul O. Komora. 9:292. Lancaster, PA: American Association for the Advancement of Science. Paradis, A.M. 1997. Thomas J.W. Burgess and the Administraion of the Verdun Protestant Hospital for the Insane (1890–1916). Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 14:5–35. Rollin, H.R. 2003. Psychiatry in Britain One Hundred Years Ago. British Journal of Psychiatry 183:292–8. Rorem, R.C. 1939. Mental Health and Medical Economics. In Mental Health, eds. Forest Ray Moulton and Paul O. Komora. 9:219–223. Lancaster, PA.: American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Bibliography

243

Rothman, D.J. 1971. The Discovery of the Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the New Republic. Boston: Little, Brown. Scull, A.T. 1989. Social Order/Mental Disorder: Anglo-American Psychiatry in Historical Perspective. Berkeley: University of California Press. Sealy, P., and P.C. Whitehead. 2004. Forty Years of Deinstitutionalization of Psychiatric Services in Canada: an Empirical Assessment. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 49:249–57. Simmons, H.G. 1990. Unbalanced: Mental Health Policy in Ontario, 1930– 1989. Toronto: Wall & Thompson. Stein, M. 2004. The Establishment of the Department of Psychiatry in the Mount Sinai Hospital: A Conflict between Neurology and Psychiatry. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 40:285–309. Stevenson, G.S. 1939. Psychiatry in the Community. In Mental Health, eds. Forest Ray Moulton and Paul O. Komora. 9:335–40. Lancaster, PA: American Association for the Advancement of Science. Szasz, T. 2005. “Idiots, Infants and the Insane”: Mental Illness and Legal Incompetence. Journal of Medical Ethics 31:78–81. – 1974, revised. The Myth of Mental Illness: Foundations of a Theory of Personal Conduct. New York: Harper & Row. Trotter, S., and F.D. Chu. 1974. The Madness Establishment: Ralph Nader’s Study Group Report on the National Institute of Mental Health. New York: Grossman Publishers. Tyhurst, J.S., ed. 1964. More for the Mind: A Study of Psychiatric Services in Canada. Toronto: Canadian Mental Health Association. Weiner, D.B. 1992. Philippe Pinel’s “Memoir on Madness” of December 11, 1794: A Fundamental Text of Modern Psychiatry. American Journal of Psychiatry 149:725–32. Yolles, S. 1969. Past, Present and 1980: Trend Projections. In Progress in Community Mental Health, eds. L. Bellak and H. Barten. New York: Grune & Stratton.

Chapter three Allen, M.H., D. Carpenter, J.L. Sheets, S. Miccio, and R. Ross. 2003. What Do Consumers Say They Want and Need During a Psychiatric Emergency? Journal of Psychiatric Practice 9:39–58. Allness, D.J. 1997. The Program of Assertive Community Treatment (PACT): The Model and its Replication. New Direction for Mental Health Services 74:17–26. Aseltine, R.H., and R. DeMartino. 2004. An Outcome Evaluation of the SOS Suicide Prevention Program. American Journal of Public Health 94:446–51.

244

Bibliography

Barnes, D., J. Carpenter, and C. Dickinson. 2006. The Outcomes of Partnerships with Mental Health Service Users in Interprofessional Education: A Case Study. Health & Social Care in the Community 14:426–35. Barnes, J., A. Stein, and W. Rosenberg. 1999. Evidence Based Medicine and Evaluation of Mental Health Services: Methodological Issues and Future Directions. Archives of Disease in Childhood 80:280–5. Belenko, S. 2002. The Challenges of Conducting Research in Drug Treatment Court Settings. Substance Use & Misuse 37:1635–64. Bickman, L. 2000. Summing Up Program Theory. In Program Theory in Evaluation Challenges and Opportunities: New Directions for Evaluation, no. 87., eds. P.J. Rogers, T.A. Hacsi, A. Petrosino, and T.A. Huebner, 103–12. Toronto: John Wiley & Sons. – 1997. Resolving Issues Raised by the Fort Bragg Evaluation – New Directions for Mental Health Services Research. American Psychologist 52:562–5. – 1996. A Continuum of Care – More Is Not Always Better. American Psychologist 51:689–701. – 1987. The Functions of Program Theory. New Directions for Program Evaluation 33:5–18. Bickman, L., C.A. Heflinger, G. Pion, and L. Behar. 1992. Evaluation Planning for an Innovative Children’s Mental-Health System. Clinical Psychology Review 12:853–65. Biglan, A., D. Ary, and A.C. Wagenaar. 2000. The Value of Interrupted TimeSeries Experiments for Community Intervention Research. Prevention Science 1:31–49. Bishop, J., and E. Vingilis. 2006. Development of a Framework for Comprehensive Evaluation of Client Outcomes in Community Mental Health Services. Canadian Journal of Program Evaluation 21:133–80. Bond, G.R., R. Drake, K.T. Mueser, and E. Latimer. 2001. Assertive Community Treatment for People with Severe Mental Illness: Critical Ingredients and Impact on Patients. Disease Management and Health Outcomes 9:141–59. Bond, G.R., J.H. McGrew, and D.M. Fekete. 1995. Assertive Outreach for Frequent Users of Psychiatric Hospitals: A Meta-analysis. Journal of Mental Health Administration 22:4–16. Bond, G.R., L.D. Miller, R.D. Krumwied, and R.S. Ward. 1988. Assertive Case Management in Three CMHC s: A Controlled Study. Hospital and Community Psychiatry 39:411–18. Bond, G.R., T.F. Witheridge, T. Dincin, D. Wasmer, J. Webb, and R. DeGraafKaser. 1990. Assertive Community Treatment for Frequent Users of Psychiatric Hospitals in a Large City: A Controlled Study. American Journal of Community Psychology 18:865–91.

Bibliography

245

Boyle, M.H., and J.D. Willms. 2001. Multilevel Modelling of Hierarchical Data in Developmental Studies. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines 42:141–62. Brekke, J.S., J.D. Long, N. Nesbitt, and E. Sobel. 1997. The Impact of Service Characteristics on Functional Outcomes from Community Support Programs for Persons with Schizophrenia: A Growth Curve Analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 65:464–75. Bryant, D., and L. Bickman. 1996. Methodology for Evaluating Mental Health Case Management. Evaluation and Program Planning 19:121–9. Bryk, A.S., and S.W. Raudenbush. 1987. Application of Hierarchical Linearmodels to Assessing Change. Psychological Bulletin 101:147–58. Burns, T. 2007. Hospitalisation as an Outcome Measure in Schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry 191:s37–41. Burtless, G. 1995. The Case for Randomized Field Trials in Economic and Policy Research. Journal of Economic Perspectives 9:63–84. Caracelli, V.J., and J.C. Greene. 1997. Crafting Mixed-Method Evaluation Designs. New Directions for Evaluation 74:19–32. Carpenter, J., D. Milne, C. Lombardo, and C. Dickinson. 2007. Process and Outcomes of Training in Psychosocial Interventions in Mental Health: A Stepwise Approach to Evaluation. Journal of Mental Health 16:505–20. Castro, F.G., M. Barrera, and C.R. Martinez. 2004. The Cultural Adaptation of Prevention Interventions: Resolving Tensions Between Fidelity and Fit. Prevention Science 5:41–5. Catty, J., T. Burns, M. Knapp, H. Watt, C. Wright, J. Henderson, and A. Healey. 2002. Home Treatment for Mental Health Problems: A Systematic Review. Psychological Medicine 32:383–401. Chamberlain, R., and C.A. Rapp. 1991. A Decade of Case-Management: A Methodological Review of Outcome Research. Community Mental Health Journal 27:171–88. Chen, H.T. 2005. Practical Program Evaluation: Assessing and Improving Planning, Implementation and Effectiveness. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Inc. – 2003. Theory-Driven Approach to Facilitation of Planning Health Promotion or Other Programs. Canadian Journal of Program Evaluation 18:91–113. – 1997. Applying Mixed Methods under the Framework of Theory-Driven Evaluations. Directions for Evaluation 74:61–72. – 1990. Theory-Driven Evaluations. Newbury Park, California: Sage Publications. Chen, H.T., and P.H. Rossi. 1983. Evaluating with Sense: The TheoryDriven Approach. Evaluation Review 7:283–302.

246

Bibliography

CMHEI (Community Mental Health Evaluation Initiative). 2004. Making a Difference: Ontario’s Community Mental Health Initiative. Canadian Mental Health Association. Accessed 22 May 2010. Http://www.ontario. cmha/cmhei/images/report/Making_a_Difference.pdf. Cook, T.D. 2008. “Waiting for Life to Arrive”: A History of the RegressionDiscontinuity Design in Psychology, Statistics and Economics. Journal of Econometrics 142:636–54. Cook, T.D., and D.T. Campbell. 1979. Quasi-experimentation Design & Analysis Issues for Field Settings. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Cooksy, L.J., P. Gill, and P.A. Kelly. 2001. The Program Logic Model as an Integrative Framework for a Multimethod Evaluation. Evaluation and Program Planning 24:119–28. Cordray, D.S. 1989. Optimizing Validity in Program Research: An Elaboration of Chen and Rossi’s Theory-Driven Approach. Evaluation and Program Planning 12:379–85. Coristine, R.W., K. Hartford, E. Vingilis, and D. White. 2007. Mental Health Triage in the ER: A Qualitative Study. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice 13:303–9. Corrigan, P.W., L. Steiner, S.G. McCracken, B. Blaser, and M. Barr. 2001. Strategies for Disseminating Evidence-Based Practices to Staff Who Treat People with Serious Mental Illness. Psychiatric Services 52:1598–1606. Cousins, J. Bradley, T.D. Aubry, H. Smith Fowler, and M. Smith. 2004. Using Key Component Profiles for the Evaluation of Program Implementation in Intensive Mental Health Case Management. Evaluation and Program Planning 27:1–23. Cousins, J. Bradley, and L.M. Earl. 1992. The Case for Participatory Evaluation. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 14:397–418. Crown, W.H., R.L. Obenchain, L. Englehart, T. Lair, D.P. Buesching, and T. Croghan. 1998. The Application of Sample Selection Models to Outcomes Research: The Case of Evaluating the Effects of Antidepressant Therapy on Resource Utilization. Statistics in Medicine 17:1943–58. Datta, L.-E. 1997. A Pragmatic Basis for Mixed-Method Designs. New Directions for Program Evaluation 74:33–46. Davis, H., and P. Spurr. 1998. Parent Counselling: An Evaluation of a Community Child Mental Health Service. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 39:365–76. Dehejia, R. H., and S. Wahba. 2002. Propensity Score-Matching Methods for Non-experimental Causal Studies. The Review of Economics and Statistics 84:151–61.

Bibliography

247

Dewa, C.S., S. Horgan, M. Russell, and J. Keates. 2001. What? Another Form? The Process of Measuring and Comparing Service Utilization in a Community Mental Health Program Model. Evaluation and Program Planning 24:239–47. Druss, B. 2005. Evidence Based Medicine: Does It Make a Difference? British Medical Journal 330:92. Duncan, T.E., and S.C. Duncan. 2004. A Latent Growth Curve Modeling Approach to Pooled Interrupted Time Series Analyses. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioural Assessment 26:271–8. Evers, S.M.A.A., A.S. Van Wijk, and A.J.H.A. Ament. 1997. Economic Evaluation of Mental Health Care Interventions: A Review. Health Economics 6:161–77. Fonagy, P. 1999. Process and Outcome in Mental Health Care Delivery: A Model Approach to Treatment Evaluation. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic 63:288–304. Forchuk, C., J. Jewell, R. Schofield, M. Sircelj, and T. Valledor. 1998. From Hospital to Community: Bridging Therapeutic Relationships. Journal of Psychiatric & Mental Health Nursing 5:197–202. Forchuk, C., S.K. MacClure, M. Van Beers, C. Smith, R. Csiernik, J. Hoch, and E. Jensen. 2008. Developing and Testing an Intervention to Prevent Homelessness among Individuals Discharged from Psychiatric Wards to Shelters and “No Fixed Address.” Journal of Psychiatric & Mental Health Nursing 15:569–75. Forchuk, C., M.L. Martin, Y.L. Chan, and E. Jensen. 2005. Therapeutic Relationships: From Psychiatric Hospital to Community. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing 12:556–64. Foster, E.M. 2000. Is More Better than Less? An Analysis of Children’s Mental Health Services. Health Services Research 35:1135–58. Foy, R., J.J. Francis, M. Johnston, M. Eccles, J. Lecouturier, C. Bamford, and J. Grimshaw. 2007. The Development of a Theory-based Intervention to Promote Appropriate Disclosure of a Diagnosis of Dementia. BMC Health Services Research 7:207. Franx, G., H. Kroon, J. Grimshaw, R. Drake, R. Grol, and M. Wensing. 2008. Organizational Change to Transfer Knowledge and Improve Quality and Outcomes of Care for Patients with Severe Mental Illness: A Systematic Overview of Reviews. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 53:294–305. Gibbons, R.D. 2000. Mixed-Effects Models for Mental Health Services Research. Health Services & Outcomes Research Methodology 1: 91–129.

248

Bibliography

Graham, S. 2008. Using Multilevel Modeling to Analyze Longitudinal Data: Part One. New Hampshire: Education, University of New Hampshire. Green, L.W. 2001. From Research to “Best Practices” in Other Settings and Populations. American Journal of Health Behavior 25:165–78. Greene, J.C., and V.J. Caracelli. 1997. Defining and Describing the Paradigm Issue in Mixed-Method Evaluation. New Directions for Evaluation 74:5–17. Greene, J.C., V.J. Caracelli, and W.F. Graham. 1989. Toward a Conceptual Framework for Mixed-Method Evaluation Designs. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 11:255–74. Grembowski, D. 2001. The Practice of Health Program Evaluation. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Guthrie, E., J. Moorey, F. Margison, H. Barker, S. Palmer, G. McGrath, B. Tomenson, and F. Creed. 1999. Cost-effectiveness of Brief PsychodynamicInterpersonal Therapy in High Utilizers of Psychiatric Services. Archives of General Psychiatry 56:519–26. Guyatt, G., D. Cook, and B. Haynes. 2004. Evidence Based Medicine Has Come a Long Way: The Second Decade Will Be As Exciting as the First. British Medical Journal 329:990–1. Guyatt, G.H., R.B. Haynes, R.Z. Jaeschke, D.J. Cook, L. Green, C.D. Naylor, M.C. Wilson, and W.S. Richardson. 2000. Users’ Guides to the Medical Literature: XXV. Evidence-Based Medicine: Principles for Applying the Users’ Guides to Patient Care. Evidence-Based Medicine Working Group. Journal of the American Medical Association 284:1290–6. Guyatt, G.H., D.L. Sackett, J.C. Sinclair, R. Hayward, D.J. Cook, and R.J. Cook. 1995. Users’ Guides to the Medical Literature. IX. A Method for Grading Health Care Recommendations. Evidence-based Medicine Working Group. Journal of the American Medical Association 274:1800–4. Henggeler, S.W., G.B. Melton, and L.A. Smith. 1992. Family Preservation Using Multisystemic Therapy: An Effective Alternative to Incarcerating Serious Juvenile-Offenders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 60:953–61. Hoagwood, K., B.J. Burns, L. Kiser, H. Ringeisen, and S.K. Schoenwald. 2001. Evidence-Based Practice in Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services. Psychiatric Services 52:1179–89. Hobbs, C., C. Tennant, A. Rosen, L. Newton, H.M. Lapsley, K. Tribe, and J.E. Brown. 2000. Deinstitutionalisation for Long-term Mental Illness: A Two-Year Clinical Evaluation. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 34:476–83.

Bibliography

249

Hoch, J.S., and C.S. Dewa. 2005. An Introduction to Economic Evaluation: What’s in a Name? Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 50:159–66. Hohmann, A.A., and M.K. Shear. 2002. Community-Based Intervention Research: Coping with the “Noise” of Real Life in Study Design. American Journal of Psychiatry 159:201–7. Holden, E.W., R.M. Friedman, and R.L. Santiago. 2001. Overview of the National Evaluation of the Comprehensive Community Mental Health Services for Children and Their Families Program. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 9:4–12. Isaac, S., and W.B. Michael. 1997. Handbook in Research and Evaluation: For Education and Behavioral Sciences. San Diego, CA: Edits Publishing. Jacobson, N., and L. Curtis. 2000. Recovery as Policy in Mental Health Services: Strategies Emerging from the States. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 23:333–41. Julian, D.A. 1997. The Utilization of the Logic Model as a System Level Planning and Evaluation Device. Evaluation and Program Planning 20:251–7. Julian, D.A., A. Jones, and D. Deyo. 1995. Open Systems Evaluation and the Logic Model: Program Planning and Evaluation tools. Evaluation and Program Planning 18:333–41. Kaplan, S.A., and K.E. Garrett. 2005. The Use of Logic Models by Community-Based Initiatives. Evaluation and Program Planning 28:167–72. Kenny, D.A., R.J. Calsyn, G.A. Morse, W.D. Klinkenberg, J.P. Winter, and M.L. Trusty. 2004. Evaluation of Treatment Programs for Persons with Severe Mental Illness – Moderator and Mediator Effects. Evaluation Review 28:294–324. Koepsell, T.D., E.H. Wagner, A.C. Cheadle, D.L. Patrick, D.C. Martin, P.H. Diehr, E.B. Perrin, A.R. Kristal, C.H. Allanandrilla, and L.J. Dey. 1992. Selected Methodological Issues in Evaluating Community-Based Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Programs. Annual Review of Public Health 13:31–57. Lambert, E.W., A. Doucette, and L. Bickman. 2001. Measuring Mental Health Outcomes with Pre-post Designs. Journal of Behavioural Health Services and Research 28:279–86. Latimer, E. 2005. Economic Considerations Associated with Assertive Community Treatment and Supported Employment for People with Severe Mental Illness. Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience 30:355–9. – 1999. Economic Impacts of Assertive Community Treatment: A Review of the Literature. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 44:443–54.

250

Bibliography

Lipsey, M.W. 1993. Theory as Method: Small Theories of Treatments. New Directions for Program Evaluation 1993:5–38. – 1988. Practice and Malpractice in Evaluation Research. Evaluation Practice 9:5–24. Lipsey, M.W., and D.S. Cordray. 2000. Evaluation Methods for Social Intervention. Annual Review of Psychology 51:345–75. Lord, J., J. Ochocka, W. Czarny, and H. MacIlivery. 1998. Analysis of Change within a Mental Health Organization: A Participatory Process. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 21:327–39. Lu, M. 1999. The Productivity of Mental Health Care: An Instrumental Variable Approach. Journal of Mental Health Policy and Economics 2:59–71. Mark, M.M., I. Feller, and S.B. Button. 1997. Integrating Qualitative Methods in a Predominantly Quantitative Evaluation: A Case Study and Some Reflections. New Directions for Program Evaluation 74:47–59. Marx, A.J., M.A. Test, and L.I. Stein. 1973. Extrahospital Management of Severe Mental Illness: Feasibility and Effects of Social Functioning. Archives of General Psychiatry 29:505–11. Mayne, J. 2001. Addressing Attribution through Contribution Analysis: Using Performance Measures Sensibly. Canadian Journal of Program Evaluation 16:1–24. McDavid, J.C., and L.R.L. Hawthorn. 2005. Program Evaluation & Performance Measurement: An Introduction to Practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. McGrew, J.H., and G.R. Bond. 1995. Critical Ingredients of Assertive Community Treatment: Judgments of the Experts. Journal of Mental Health Administration 22:113–25. McLeod, A.I., and E.R. Vingilis. 2008. Power Computations in Time Series Analyses for Traffic Safety Interventions. Accident, Analysis and Prevention 40:1244–8. – 2005. Power Computations for Intervention Analysis. Technometrics 47:174–81. McPherson, K. 1994. The Best and the Enemy of the Good: Randomized Controlled Trials, Uncertainty, and Assessing the Role of Patient Choice in Medical Decision-Making. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 48:6–15. Mechanic, D. 1996. Emerging Issues in International Mental Health Services Research. Psychiatric Services 47:371–5. Mertens, D.M. 2005. Reseach and Evaluation in Education and Psychology: Integrating Diversity With Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Bibliography

251

Morse, G.A., R.J. Calsyn, W.D. Klinkenberg, M.L. Trusty, F. Gerber, R. Smith, B. Tempelhoff, and L. Ahmad. 1997. An Experimental Comparison of Three Types of Case Management for Homeless Mentally Ill Persons. Psychiatric Services 48:497–503. Mulvale, G., and I.L. Bourgeault. 2007. Finding the Right Mix: How Do Contextual Factors Affect Collaborative Mental Health Care in Ontario? Canadian Public Policy 33:S49–64. National Institutes of Health, Office of Behavioral and Social Sciences Research. 1999. Qualitative Methods in Health Research: Opportunities and Considerations in Application and Review. http://obssr.od.nih.gov/ pdf/Qualitative.pdf (accessed 15 January 2010). Nelson, G., J. Lord, and J. Ochocka. 2001. Shifting the Paradigm in Community Mental Health. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Nelson, G., J. Ochocka, K. Griffin, and J. Lord. 1998. “Nothing about me, Nothing without me”: Participatory Action Research with Self-help/ Mutual Aid Organizations for Psychiatric Consumer/Survivors. American Journal of Community Psychology 26:881–912. Orwin, R.G. 2000. Assessing Program Fidelity in Substance Abuse Health Services Research. Addiction 95:S309–27. Patrick, D.L., and Y.P. Chiang. 2000. Measurement of Health Outcomes in Treatment Effectiveness Evaluations: Conceptual and Methodological Challenges. Medical Care 38:II-14–II-25. Patton, M.Q. 2002. Qualitative Research and Evaluation methods: Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Persons, J.B., and G. Silberschatz. 1998. Are Results of Randomized Controlled Trials Useful to Psychotherapists? Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 66:126–35. Posavac, E.J., and R.G. Carey. 2003. Program Evaluation: Methods and Case Studies. 6th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Reynolds, A.J. 1998. Confirmatory Program Evaluation: A Method for Strengthening Causal Inference. American Journal of Evaluation 19:203–21. Richards, D.A., K. Lovell, S. Gilbody, L. Gask, D. Torgerson, M. Barkham, M. Bland, et al. 2008. Collaborative Care for Depression in UK Primary Care: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Psychological Medicine 38:279–87. Rimer, B.K., and K. Glanz. 2005. Theory at a Glance: A Guide for Health Promotion Practice. Bethesda, MD: US Dept. of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute. Accessed 22 February 2010, http://www.cancer.gov/ PDF/481fd53–63df-41bc-bfaf-5aa48ee1da4d/TAAG3.pdf.

252

Bibliography

Robins, J.M., S. Greenland, and F.C. Hu. 1999a. Estimation of the Causal Effect of a Time-Varying Exposure on the Marginal Mean of a Repeated Binary Outcome. Journal of the American Statistical Association 94:687–700. – 1999b. Estimation of the Causal Effect of a Time-Varying Exposure on the Marginal Mean of a Repeated Binary Outcome: Rejoinder. Journal of the American Statistical Association 94:708–12. Rogers, P.J. 2000. Causal Models in Program Theory Evaluation. New Directions for Evaluation 87:47–55. Romeo, R., S. Byford, and M. Knapp. 2005. Annotation: Economic Evaluations of Child and Adolescent Mental Health Interventions: A Systematic Review. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 46:919–30. Rossi, P.H., and H.E. Freeman. 1993. Evaluation: A Systematic Approach. 5th ed. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Rossi, P.H., H.E. Freeman, and M.W. Lipsey. 1999. Evaluation: A Systematic Approach. 6th ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Rothman, K.J., and S. Greenland. 1998. Modern Epidemiology. 2d ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Salkever, D.S., E.P. Slade, M. Karakus, L. Palmer, and P.A. Russo. 2004. Estimation of Antipsychotic Effects on Hospitalization Risk in a Naturalistic Study with Selection on Unobservables. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 192:119–28. Schildcrout, J.S., and P.J. Heagerty. 2005. Regression Analysis of Longitudinal Binary Data with Time-dependent Environmental Covariates: Bias and Efficiency. Biostatistics 6:633–52. Scott, J.E., and L.B. Dixon. 1995. Assertive Community Treatment and Case Management for Schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin 21:657–68. SEEI Coordinating Centre. 2009. Moving in the Right Direction: SEEI Final Report. Health Systems Research and Consulting Unit, Centre For Addiction and Mental Health. Accessed May 24, 2010. http://www. ontario.cmha.ca/admin_ver2/maps/seei_final_report.pdf. Shadish, W.R., M.H. Clark, and L. Steiner. 2008. Can Nonrandomized Experiments Yield Accurate Answers? A Randomized Experiment Comparing Random to Nonrandom Assignment. Journal of American Statistical Association 103:1334–44. Shadish, W.R., and T.D. Cook. 1999. Comment – Design Rules: More Steps toward a Complete Theory of Quasi-Experimentation. Statistical Science 14:294–304. Shadish, W.R., T.D. Cook, and P.M. Steiner. 2009. The Renaissance of Field Experimentation in Evaluating Interventions. Annual Review of Psychology 60:607–29.

Bibliography

253

Sidani, S., and J. Braden. 1997. Evaluating Nursing Interventions: A Theorydriven Approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Sidani, S., and L. Sechrest. 1999. Putting Program Theory into Operation. American Journal of Evaluation 20:227–38. Simpson, E.L., and A.O. House. 2002. Involving Users in the Delivery and Evaluation of Mental Health Services: Systematic Review. British Medical Journal 325:1265. Singer, J.D., and J.B. Willett. 1996. Methodological Issues in the Design of Longitudinal Research: Principles and Recommendations for a Quantitative Study of Teachers’ Careers. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 18:265–83. Smith, M.L. 1997. Mixing and Matching: Methods and Models. New Directions for Evaluation 74:73–85. Snijders, T., and R. Bosker. 1999. Multilevel Analysis. London, UK: Sage. Snow Jones, A., R.B. D’Agostino, E.W. Gondolf, and A. Heckert. 2004. Assessing the Effect of Batterer Program Completion on Re-assault using Propensity Scores. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 19:1002–20. Speer, D.C. 1999. What is the Role of Two-wave Designs in Clinical Research? Comment on Hageman and Arrindell. Behaviour Research and Therapy 37:1203–10. – 1998. Mental Health Outcome Evaluation. Toronto: Academic Press. Speer, D.C., and L. Newman. 1996. Mental Health Services Outcome Evaluation. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice 3:105–29. Stame, N. 2004. Theory-Based Evaluation and Types of Complexity. Evaluation 10:58–76. Stein, L.I., and M.A. Test. 1980. Alternative to Mental Hospital Treatment. I. Conceptual Model, Treatment Program, and Clinical Evaluation. Archives of General Psychiatry 37:392–7. Stein, L.I., M.A. Test, and A.J. Mars. 1975. Alternatives to the Hospital: A Controlled Study. American Journal of Psychiatry 132:517–22. Sturmer, T., M. Joshi, R. Glynn, J. Avorn, K.J. Rothman, and S. Schneeweiss. 2006. A Review of the Application of Propensity Score Methods Yielded Increasing Use, Advantages in Specific Settings, but Not Substantially Different Estimates Compared with Conventional Multivariable Methods. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 59:437–47. Styron, T.H., M. O’Connell, W. Smalley, D. Rau, G. Shahar, D. Sells, J. Frey, and L. Davidson. 2006. Troubled Youth in Transition: An Evaluation of Connecticut’s Special Services for Individuals Aging out of Adolescent Mental Health Programs. Children and Youth Services Review 28: 1088–1101.

254

Bibliography

Test, M.A., and L.I. Stein. 1978. Training in Community Living: Research Design and Results. In Alternatives to Mental Hospital Treatment, eds. L.I. Stein, M.A. Test. New York: Plenum Press. Thompson, K.S., E.E. Griffith, and P.J. Leaf. 1990. A Historical Review of the Madison Model of Community Care. Hospital and Community Psychiatry 41:625–34. Tones, K. 1997. Beyond the Randomized Controlled Trial: A Case for “Judicial Review.” Health Education Research 12:i-iv. Vingilis, E., and J. Burkell. 1996. A Critique of an Evaluation of the Impact of Hospital Bed Closures in Winnipeg, Canada: Lessons to Be Learned from Evaluation Research Methods. Journal of Public Health Policy 17:409–25. Vingilis, E., and B. Fuhrman. 2007. The Development and Introduction of In-patient Student Law Services for Persons with Serious Mental Illness. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research 34:470–8. Vingilis, E., K. Hartford, K. Diaz, B. Mitchell, R. Velamoor, M. Wedlake, and D. White. 2007. Process and Outcome Evaluation of an Emergency Department Intervention for Persons with Mental Health Concerns Using a Population Health Approach. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research 34:160–71. Vingilis, E., J. Paquette-Warren, N. Kates, A.M. Crustolo, J. Greenslade, and S. Newnam. 2007. Descriptive and Process Evaluation of a Shared Primary Care Program. Internet Journal of Allied Health Sciences and Practice 5, no. 4; http://ijahsp.nova.edu/articles/vol5num4/pdf/vingilis.pdf. Vingilis, E., and L. Pederson. 2001. Using the Right Tools to Answer the Right Questions: The Importance of Evaluative Research Techniques for Health Services Evaluation Research in the 21st Century. Canadian Journal of Program Evaluation 16:1–26. Vingilis, E., and J. Sarkella. 1997. Determinants and Indicators of Health and Well-being: Tools for Educating Society. Social Indicators Research 40:1–20. W.K. Kellogg Foundation. 2001. Using Logic Models to Bring Together Planning, Evaluation and Action: Logic Model Development Guide. Battle Creek, MI: W.K. Kellogg Foundation. Wandersman, A. 2003. Community Science: Bridging the Gap between Science and Practice with Community-centered Models. American Journal of Community Psychology 31:227–42. Weiss, C.J. 1998. Evaluation. 2d edition, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Bibliography

255

Willett, J.B., J.D. Singer, and N.C. Martin. 1998. The Design and Analysis of Longitudinal Studies of Development and Psychopathology in Context: Statistical Models and Methodological Recommendations. Developmental Psychopathology 10:395–426. Wilson, D., G. Tien, and D. Eaves. 1995. Increasing the Community Tenure of Mentally Disordered Offenders: An Assertive Case-Management Program. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 18:61–9. Wolff, N., and W. Pogorzelski. 2005. Measuring the Effectiveness of Mental Health Courts Challenges and Recommendations. Psychology Public Policy and Law 11:539–69. Wynaden, D., R. Chapman, S. McGowan, S. McDonough, M. Finn, and S. Hood. 2003. Emergency Department Mental Health Triage Consultancy Service: A Qualitative Evaluation. Accident and Emergency Nursing 11:158–65. Yampolskaya, S., T. M. Nesman, M. Hernandez, and D. Koch. 2004. Using Concept Mapping to Develop a Logic Model and Articulate a Program Theory: A Case Example. American Journal of Evaluation 25:191–207.

Chapter four Allen, M.H., D. Carpenter, J.L. Sheets, S. Miccio, and R. Ross. 2003. What Do Consumers Say They Want and Need During a Psychiatric Emergency? Journal of Psychiatric Practice 9:39–58. Arfken, C. L., L.L. Zeman, L. Yeager, A. White, E. Mischel, and A. Amirsadri. 2004. Case-Control Study of Frequent Visitors to an Urban Psychiatric Emergency Service. Psychiatric Services 55:295–301. Binder, R.L., and D.E. McNiel. 1999. Emergency Psychiatry: Contemporary Practices in Managing Acutely Violent Patients in 20 Psychiatric Emergency Rooms. Psychiatric Services 50:1553–4. Broadbent, M., H. Jarman, and M. Berk. 2004. Emergency Department Mental Health Triage Scales Improve Outcomes. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice 10:57–62. – 2002. Improving Competence in Emergency Mental Health Triage. Accident and Emergency Nursing 10:155–62. Brooker, C., T. Ricketts, S. Bennett, and F. Lemme. 2007. Admission Decisions Following Contact with an Emergency Mental Health Assessment and Intervention Service. Journal of Clinical Nursing 16:1313–22. Callaghan, P., S. Eales, T. Coates, and L. Bowers. 2003. A Review of Research on the Structure, Process and Outcome of Liaison Mental Health Services. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing 10:155–65.

256

Bibliography

Carpenter, L.L., J.M. Schecter, J.A. Underwood, A.R. Tyrka, and L.H. Price. 2005. Service Expectations and Clinical Characteristics of Patients Receiving Psychiatric Emergency Services. Psychiatric Services 56:743–5. Catalano, R., W. McConnell, P. Forster, B. McFarland, and D. Thornton. 2003. Psychiatric Emergency Services and the System of Care. Psychiatric Services 54:351–5. Chaput, Y.J.A., and M.-J. Lebel. 2007. Demographic and Clinical Profiles of Patients Who Make Multiple Visits to Psychiatric Emergency Services. Psychiatric Services 58:335–41. Chaput, Y., M. Paradis, L. Beaulieu, and E. Labonté. 2008. A Qualitative Study of a Psychiatric Emergency. International Journal of Mental Health Systems 2:1–9 Claassen, C.A., C.W. Hughes, S. Gilfillan, D. McIntire, A. Roose, M. Lumpkin, and A.J. Rush. 2000. Toward a Redefinition of Psychiatric Emergency. Health Services Research 35:735–54. Claassen, C.A., T.M. Kashner, S.K. Gilfillan, G.L. Larkin, and A.J. Rush. 2005. Psychiatric Emergency Service Use after Implementation of Managed Care in a Public Mental Health System. Psychiatric Services 56:691–8. Clarke, D.E., A.M. Brown, L. Hughes, and L. Motluk. 2006. Education to Improve the Triage of Mental Health Patients in General Hospital Emergency Departments. Accident and Emergency Nursing 14:210–18. Clarke, D.E., D. Dusome, and L. Hughes. 2007. Emergency Department from the Mental Health Client’s Perspective. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing 16:126–31. Compton, M., M. Bahora, A. Watson, and J. Oliva. 2008. A Comprehensive Review of Extant Research on Crisis Intervention Team (CIT) Programs. Journal of Academy of Psychiatry and Law 36:47–55. Coristine, R.W., K. Hartford, E. Vingilis, and D. White. 2007. Mental Health Triage in the ER: A Qualitative Study. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice 13:303–9. Cottencin, O., M. Lambert, V. Queyrel, D. Launay, S. Morell-Dubois, E. Hachulla, P. Y. Hatron, M. Goudemand, and S.M. Consoli. 2007. Consultation/Liaison Psychiatry Practice: Combined Medical and Psychiatric Consultations. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 63:219–20. Currier, G.W., and M.H. Allen. 2000. Emergency Psychiatry: Physical and Chemical Restraint in the Psychiatric Emergency Service. Psychiatric Services 51:717–9. Damsa, C., C. Hummel, V. Sar, T. Di Clemente, S. Maris, C. Lazignac, O. Massarczyk, and C. Pull. 2005. Economic Impact of Crisis Intervention

Bibliography

257

in Emergency Psychiatry: A Naturalistic Study. European Psychiatry 20:562–6. Diefenbacher, A., and J.J. Strain. 2002. Consultation-Liaison Psychiatry: Stability and Change over a 10–year-Period. General Hospital Psychiatry 24:249–56. Dractu, L. 2002. Acute Hospital Care: The Beauty and the Beast of Psychiatry. Psychiatric Bulletin 26:81–2. Eales, S., P. Callaghan, and B. Johnson. 2006. Service Users and Other Stakeholders’ Evaluation of a Liaison Mental Health Service in an Accident and Emergency Department and a General Hospital Setting. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing 13:70–7. Engel, C.C., S. Locke, D.B. Reissman, R. DeMartino, I. Kutz, M. McDonald, and A.J. Barsky. 2007. Terrorism, Trauma, and Mass Casualty Triage: How Might We Solve the Latest Mind-Body Problem? Biosecurity and Bioterrorism 5:155–63. Ettner, S.L. 2001. The Setting of Psychiatric Care for Medicare Recipients in General Hospitals with Specialty Units. Psychiatric Services 52:237–9. George, L., J. Durbin, T. Sheldon, and P. Goering. 2002. Patient and Contextual Factors Related to the Decision to Hospitalize Patients from Emergency Psychiatric Services. Psychiatric Services 53:1586–91. Guo, S., D.E. Biegel, J.A. Johnsen, and H. Dyches. 2001. Assessing the Impact of Community-Based Mobile Crisis Services on Preventing Hospitalization. Psychiatric Services 52:223–8. Guthrie, E. 2006. Psychological Treatments in Liaison Psychiatry: The Evidence Base. Clinical Medicine 6:544–7. Happell, B., M. Summers, and J. Pinikahana. 2003. Measuring the Effectiveness of the National Mental Health Triage Scale in an Emergency Department. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing 12:288–92. Hartley, D., E.C. Ziller, S. L. Loux, J.A. Gale, D. Lambert, and A.E. Yousefian. 2007. Use of Critical Access Hospital Emergency Rooms by Patients with Mental Health Symptoms. Journal of Rural Health 23:108–15. Hosaka, T., T. Aoki, T. Watanabe, T. Okuyama, and H. Kurosawa. 1999. General Hospital Psychiatry from the Perspective of Medical Economics. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 53:449–53. Hugo, M., M. Smout, and J. Bannister. 2002. A Comparison in Hospitalization Rates between a Community-Based Mobile Emergency Service and a Hospital-based Emergency Service. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 36:504–8. Hundertmark, J. 1999. Mental Health Triage in Emergency Medicine. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 33:768–9.

258

Bibliography

Hungerford, C. 2006. Treating Acute Mental Illness in Rural General Hospitals: Necessity or Choice? The Australian Journal of Rural Health 14:139–43. Huyse, F.J., and F.C. Stiefel. 2007. Controversies in Consultation-Liaison Psychiatry. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 62:257–8. Ilchef, R. 2006. Diamonds in the Coalface: New Research in Consultationliaison Psychiatry. Current Opinion in Psychiatry 19:175–9. Isett, K.R., M.A. Burnam, B. Coleman-Beattie, P.S. Hyde, J.P. Morrissey, J. Magnabosco, C.A. Rapp, V. Ganju, and H.H. Goldman. 2007. The State Policy Context of Implementation Issues for Evidence-Based Practices in Mental Health. Psychiatric Services 58:914–21. Kahn, M.W. 2001. Emergency Psychiatry: Tools of Engagement: Avoiding Pitfalls in Collaborating with Patients. Psychiatric Services 52:1571–2. Kalucy, R., L. Thomas, and D. King 2005. Changing Demand for Mental Health Services in the Emergency Department of a Public Hospital. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 39:74–80. Kolbasovsky, A., and R. Futterman. 2007. Predicting Psychiatric Emergency Room Recidivism. Managed Care Interface 20:33–8. Kolbasovsky, A., L. Reich, and R. Futterman. 2007. Predicting Future Hospital Utilization for Mental Health Conditions. Journal of Behavioral Health Services & Research 34:34–42. Kolbasovsky, A., L. Reich, R. Futterman, and N. Meyerkopf. 2007. Reducing the Number of Emergency Department Visits and Costs Associated with Anxiety: A Randomized Controlled Study. American Journal of Managed Care 13:95–102. Koziol-McLain, J., D.W. Price, B. Weiss, A.A. Quinn, and B. Honigman. 2000. Seeking Care for Nonurgent Medical Conditions in the Emergency Department: Through the Eyes of the Patient. Journal of Emergency Nursing 26:554–63. Lewis, C. 2004. Clinical Management Special. Mental Health: Lost in Liaison. Health Services Journal 114:30–1. Lewis, C., G. Sierzega, and D. Haines. 2005. The Creation of a Behavioural Health Unit as Part of the Emergency Department: One Community Hospital’s Two-year Experience. Journal of Emergency Nursing 31:548–54. Lincoln, A. 2006. Psychiatric Emergency Room Decision-Making, Social Control and the “Undeserving Sick.” Sociology of Health & Illness 28:54–75. Lipsitt, D.R. 2003. Psychiatry and the General Hospital in an Age of Uncertainty. World Psychiatry 2:87–92. Lobo, A., P. Saz, A. Sarasola, A. Bulbena, J. DePablo, E. Garcia-Camba, J.M. Farre, et al. 2007. Spanish Perspective on Enlarging a Small Specialty: The

Bibliography

259

National Research Network for Liaison Psychiatry and Psychosomatics. Psychosomatics 48:46–53. Malt, U.F. 2003. The Future of Consultation-liaison Psychiatry: Prosper or Perish? World Psychiatry 2:95. Mazeh, D., Y. Melamed, and Y. Barak. 2003. Emergency Psychiatry: Treatment of Referred Psychiatric Patients by General Hospital Emergency Department Physicians. Psychiatric Services 54:1221–3. McArthur, M., and P. Montgomery. 2004. The Experience of Gate-keeping: A Psychiatric Nurse in an Emergency Department. Issues in Mental Health Nursing 25:487–501. McDonough, S., D. Wynaden, M. Finn, S. McGowan, R. Chapman, and S. Hood. 2004. Emergency Department Mental Health Triage Consultancy Service: An Evaluation of the First Year of the Service. Accident and Emergency Nursing 12:31–8. McNiel, D.E., and R.L. Binder. 2005. Psychiatric Emergency Service Use and Homelessness, Mental Disorder, and Violence. Psychiatric Services 56:699–704. Messinger, S.D. 2007. Representations of the Patient: Conflicts of Expertise in a Psychiatric Emergency Department. Quality Health Research 17:353–63. Mulder, C.L., G.T. Koopmans, and J.S. Lyons. 2005. Determinants of Indicated versus Actual Level of Care in Psychiatric Emergency Services. Psychiatric Services 56:452–7. Ontario Ministry of Health. 1999. Making it Happen: Operational Framework for the Delivery of Mental Health Services and Supports. Toronto: Queen’s Printer for Ontario. Paradis, M., C. Woogh, D. Marcotte, and Y. Chaput. 2009. Is Psychiatric Emergency Service Use Increasing over Time? International Journal of Mental Health Systems 3:1–5. Prior, L. 1991. Community versus Hospital Care: The Crisis in Psychiatric Provision. Social Science & Medicine 32:483–9. Ranjith, G., and M. Hotopf. 2004. “Refusing Treatment–Please See”: An Analysis of Capacity Assessments Carried Out by a Liaison Psychiatry Service. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 97:480–2. Ruggeri, M., G. Salvi, V. Perwanger, M. Phelan, N. Pellegrini, and A. Parabiaghi. 2006. Satisfaction with Community and Hospital-based Emergency Services amongst Severely Mentally Ill Service Users: A Comparison Study in South-Verona and South-London. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 41:302–9. Sands, N. 2007. Mental Health Triage: Towards a Model for Nursing Practice. Journal of Psychiatry and Mental Health Nursing 14:243–9.

260

Bibliography

Segal, S.P., T.A. Laurie, and M.J. Segal. 2001. Factors in the Use of Coercive Retention in Civil Commitment Evaluations in Psychiatric Emergency Services. Psychiatric Services 52:514–20. Sharrock, J., M. Grigg, B. Happell, B. Keeble-Devlin, and S. Jennings. 2006. The Mental Health Nurse: A Valuable Addition to the ConsultationLiaison Team. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing 15:35–43. Simmonds, S., J. Coid, P. Joseph, S. Marriott, and P. Tyrer. 2001. Community Mental Health Team Management in Severe Mental Illness: A Systematic Review. British Journal of Psychiatry 178:497–502; discussion 503–5. Smart, D., C. Pollard, and B. Walpole. 1999. Mental Health Triage in Emergency Medicine. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 33:57–66; discussion:67–9. Smith, G.C. 2003. The Future of Consultation-Liaison Psychiatry. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 37:150–9. Sollner, W., and F. Creed. 2007. European Guidelines for Training in Consultation-Liaison Psychiatry and Psychosomatics: Report of the EACLPP Workgroup on Training in Consultation-Liaison Psychiatry and Psychosomatics. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 62:501–9. Sollner, W., A. Diefenbacher, and F. Creed. 2005. Future Developments in Consultation-Liaison Psychiatry and Psychosomatics. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 58:111–12. Spurrell, M., B. Hatfield, and A. Perry. 2003. Characteristics of Patients Presenting for Emergency Psychiatric Assessment at an English Hospital. Psychiatric Services 54:240–5. Starling, J., K. Bridgland, and D. Rose. 2006. Psychiatric Emergencies in Children and Adolescents: An Emergency Department Audit. Australasian Psychiatry 14:403–7. Stewart, C., M. Spicer, and F.E. Babl. 2006. Caring for Adolescents with Mental Health Problems: Challenges in the Emergency Department. Journal of Pediatrics and Child Health 42:726–30. Summers, M., and B. Happell. 2002. The Quality of Psychiatric Services Provided by an Australian Tertiary Hospital Emergency Department: A Client Perspective. Accident and Emergency Nursing 10:205–13. Thornicroft, G., and P. Bebbington. 1989. Deinstitutionalisation – from Hospital Closure to Service Development. British Journal of Psychiatry 155:739–53. Thornicroft, G., and M. Tansella. 2004. Components of a Modern Mental Health Service: A Pragmatic Balance of Community and Hospital Care: Overview of Systematic Evidence. British Journal of Psychiatry 185:283–90. Trauer, T. 2004. Use of a Routine Outcome Measure in a ConsultationLiaison Mental Health Service. Australasian Psychiatry 12:139–44.

Bibliography

261

Upfold, J. 2001. The Triage and Initial Assessment of Mental Health Patients in the Emergency Room. Emergency Psychiatry 7:14–17. Vingilis, E., K. Hartford, K. Diaz, B. Mitchell, R. Velamoor, M. Wedlake, and D. White. 2007. Process and Outcome Evaluation of an Emergency Department Intervention for Persons with Mental Health Concerns Using a Population Health Approach. Administration and Policy in Mental Health 34:160–71. Wand, T. 2005. Mental Health Liaison Nursing in the Emergency Department: On-site Expertise and Enhanced Coordination of Care. Australian Journal of Advanced Nursing 22:25–31. Way, B.B., and S. Banks, 2001. Clinical Factors Related to Admission and Release Decisions in Psychiatric Emergency Services. Psychiatric Services 52:214–18. Wynaden, D., R. Chapman, S. McGowan, S. McDonough, M. Finn, and S. Hood. 2003. Emergency Department Mental Health Triage Consultancy Service: A Qualitative Evaluation. Accident and Emergency Nursing 11:158–65. Ziegenbein, M., C. Anreis, B. Bruggen, M. Ohlmeier, and S. Kropp. 2006. Possible Criteria for Inpatient Psychiatric Admissions: Which Patients are Transferred from Emergency Services to Inpatient Psychiatric Treatment? BMC Health Services Research 6:150.

Chapter five Burns, T. 2008. Personal communication by email. Churchill, R., G. Owen, S. Singh, and M. Hotopf. 2007. International Experiences of Using Community Treatment Orders. University of London, United Kingdom: Institute of Psychiatry, Kings College London. Dreezer, S., M. Bay, and D. Hoff. 2005. Report on the Legislated Review of Community Treatment Orders, Required under Section 33.9 of the Mental Health Act. Ontario Ministry of Health and Long Term Care. Fernandez, G.A., and S. Nygard. 1990. Impact of Involuntary Outpatient Commitment on the Revolving-Door Syndrome in North Carolina. Hospital & Community Psychiatry 41:1001–4. Geller, J., A.J. Grudzinskas Jr, M. McDermeit, W.H. Fisher, and T. Lawlor. 1998. The Efficacy of Involuntary Outpatient Treatment in Massachusetts. Administration and Policy in Mental Health 25:271–85. Geller, J.L. 1992. A Historical Perspective on the Role of State Hospitals Viewed from the Era of the “Revolving Door.” American Journal of Psychiatry 149:1526–33.

262

Bibliography

– 1990. Clinical Guidelines for the Use of Involuntary Outpatient Treatment. Hospital & Community Psychiatry 41:749–55. Gibbs, A., J. Dawson, C. Ansley, and R. Mullen. 2005. How Patients in New Zealand View Community Treatment Orders. Journal of Mental Health 14:357–68. Groff, A., B. Burns, J. Swanson, M. Swartz, H.R. Wagner, and M. Tompson. 2004. Care-giving for Persons with Mental Illness: The Impact of Outpatient Commitment on Care-giving Strain. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 192:554–62. Hiday, V.A., and T.L. Scheid-Cook. 1991. Outpatient Commitment for “Revolving-door” Patients: Compliance and Treatment. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 179:83–88. Hiday, V.A., M.S. Swartz, J.W. Swanson, R. Borum, and H.R. Wagner. 2002. Impact of Outpatient Commitment on Victimization of People with Severe Mental Illness. American Journal of Psychiatry 159:1403–11. Hough, W.G., and K.P. O’Brien. 2005. The Effect of Community Treatment Orders on Offending Rates. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law 12:411–23. Hunt, A.M., A. da Silva, S. Lurie, and D.S. Goldbloom. 2007. Community Treatment Orders in Toronto: The Emerging Data. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 52:647–56. Katsakou, C., and S. Priebe. 2006. Outcomes of Involuntary Hospital Admission: A Review. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 114:234–41. Kisely, S., and L.A. Campbell. 2006. Community Treatment Orders for Psychiatric Patients: The Emperor with No Clothes. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 51:683–5. Kisely, S., L.A. Campbell, and N. Preston. 2005. Compulsory Community and Involuntary Outpatient Treatment for People with Severe Mental Disorders. Cochrane Database Systematic Reviews 3:1–21 Kisely, S., L.A. Campbell, A. Scott, N.J. Preston, and J. Xiao. 2007. Randomized and Non-randomized Evidence for the Effect of Compulsory Community and Involuntary Out-patient Treatment on Health Service Use: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Psychological Medicine 37:3–14. Lawton-Smith, S. 2005. A Question of Numbers: The Potential Impact of Community-Based Treatment Orders in England and Wales. London: King’s Fund. Marx, A.J., M.A. Test, and L.I. Stein. 1973. Extra Hospital Management of Severe Mental Illness: Feasibility and Effects of Social Functioning. Archives of General Psychiatry 29:505–11. Muirhead, D., C. Harvey, and G. Ingram. 2006. Effectiveness of Community Treatment Orders for Treatment of Schizophrenia with Oral or Depot

Bibliography

263

Antipsychotic Medication: Clinical Outcomes. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 40:596–605. Mullen, R., J. Dawson, and A. Gibbs. 2006. Dilemmas for Clinicians in Use of Community Treatment Orders. International Journal of Law & Psychiatry 29:535–50. Munetz, M.R., T. Grande, J. Kleist, and G.A. Peterson. 1996. The Effectiveness of Outpatient Civil Commitment. Psychiatric Services 47:1251–3. Munetz, M.R., T. Grande, J. Kleist, G.A. Peterson, and S. Vuddagiri. 1997. What Happens When Effective Outpatient Civil Commitment Is Terminated? New Directions for Mental Health Services 75:49–59. NASMHPD (National Association of State Mental Health Program Directors). 2001. Technical Report on Involuntary Outpatient Commitment. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, US Department of Health and Human Services. O’Brien, A.M., and S.J. Farrell. 2005. Community Treatment Orders: Profile of a Canadian Experience. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 50:27–30. O’Keefe, C., D.P. Potenza, and K.T. Mueser. 1997. Treatment Outcomes for Severely Mentally Ill Patients on Conditional Discharge to Communitybased Treatment. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 185:409–11. O’Reilly, R.L. 2006. Community Treatment Orders: An Essential Therapeutic Tool in the Face of Continuing Deinstitutionalization. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 51:686–8. – 2004. Why Are Community Treatment Orders Controversial? Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 49:579–84. – 2001. Does Involuntary Out-patient Treatment Work? Psychiatric Bulletin 25:371–4. O’Reilly, R.L., D.L. Keegan, D. Corring, S. Shrikhande, and D. Natarajan. 2006. A Qualitative Analysis of the Use of Community Treatment Orders in Saskatchewan. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 29:516–24. Petrila, J., and A. Christy. 2008. Florida’s Outpatient Commitment Law: A Lesson in Failed Reform? Psychiatric Services 59:21–3. Preston, N.J., S. Kisely, and J. Xiao. 2002. Assessing the Outcome of Compulsory Psychiatric Treatment in the Community: Epidemiological Study in Western Australia. British Medical Journal 324:1244. Rohland, B.M., J.E. Rohrer, and C.C. Richards. 2000. The Long-Term Effect of Outpatient Commitment on Service Use. Administration and Policy in Mental Health 27:383–94. Romans, S., J. Dawson, R. Mullen, and A. Gibbs. 2004. How Mental Health Clinicians View Community Treatment Orders: A National New Zealand Survey. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 38:836–41.

264

Bibliography

Segal, S.P., and P.M. Burgess. 2006a. Conditional Release: A Less Restrictive Alternative to Hospitalization? Psychiatric Services 57:1600–6. – 2006b. Effect of Conditional Release from Hospitalization on Mortality Risk. Psychiatric Services 57:1607–13. Sensky, T., T. Hughes, and S. Hirsch. 1991. Compulsory Psychiatric Treatment in the Community. I. A Controlled Study of Compulsory Community Treatment with Extended Leave under the Mental Health Act: Special Characteristics of Patients Treated and Impact of Treatment. British Journal of Psychiatry 158:792–9. Steadman, H.J., K. Gounis, D. Dennis, K. Hopper, B. Roche, M. Swartz, and P.C. Robbins. 2001a. Assessing the New York City Involuntary Outpatient Commitment Pilot Program. Psychiatric Services 52:330–6. Steadman, H.J., K. Gounis, D. Dennis, K. Hopper, B. Roche, M. Swartz, and P.C. Robbins. 2001b. Assessing the New York City Involuntary Outpatient Commitment Pilot Program. Psychiatric Services 52:1533–4. Stone, A.A. 1975. Mental Health and Law: A System in Transition. Rockville, MD: National Institute of Mental Health, Centre for Studies of Crime and Delinquency. Swanson, J.W., M.S. Swartz, R. Borum, V.A. Hiday, H.R. Wagner, and B.J. Burns. 2000. Involuntary Out-patient Commitment and Reduction of Violent Behavior in Persons with Severe Mental Illness. British Journal of Psychiatry 176:324–31. Swanson, J.W., M.S. Swartz, E.B. Elbogen, H.R. Wagner, and B.J. Burns. 2003. Effects of Involuntary Outpatient Commitment on Subjective Quality of Life in Persons with Severe Mental Illness. Behavioral Sciences and the Law 21:473–91. Swartz, M.S., B.J. Burns, L.K. George, J. Swanson, V.A. Hiday, R. Borum, and H.R. Wagner. 1997. The Ethical Challenges of a Randomized Control Trial of Involuntary Outpatient Commitment. Journal of Mental Health Administration 24:35–43. Swartz, M.S., and J.W. Swanson. 2004. Involuntary Outpatient Commitment, Community Treatment Orders, and Assisted Outpatient Treatment: What’s in the Data? Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 49:585–91. Swartz, M.S., J.W. Swanson, and J. Monahan. 2003. Endorsement of Personal Benefit of Outpatient Commitment among Persons with Severe Mental Illness. Psychology, Public Policy and Law 9:70–93. Swartz, M.S., J.W. Swanson, H.R. Wagner, B.J. Burns, and V.A. Hiday. 2001. Effects of Involuntary Outpatient Commitment and Depot Antipsychotics on Treatment Adherence in Persons with Severe Mental Illness. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 189:583–92.

Bibliography

265

Swartz, M.S., J.W. Swanson, H.R. Wagner, B.J. Burns, V.A. Hiday, and R. Borum. 2001. Effectiveness of Involuntary Outpatient Commitment. The American Journal of Psychiatry 158:655–6. – 1999. “Can Involuntary Outpatient Commitment Reduce Hospital Recidivism?”: Findings from a Randomized Trial with Severely Mentally Ill Individuals. American Journal of Psychiatry 156:1968–75. Szmukler, G., and M. Hotopf. 2001. Effectiveness of Involuntary Outpatient Commitment. American Journal of Psychiatry 158:653–4. Telson, H. 2000. Outpatient Commitment in New York: From Pilot Program to State Law. George Mason University Civil Rights Law Journal 11:41–82. Telson, H., R. Glickstein, and M. Trujillo. 1999. Report of the Bellevue Hospital Center Outpatient Commitment Program. New York: Bellevue Hospital Center, Department of Psychiatry. Thornicroft, G., and M. Tansella. 2002. Balancing Community-Based and Hospital-Based Mental Health Care. World Psychiatry 1:84–90. Torrey, E.F. 1997. Out of the Shadows: Confronting America’s Mental Illness Crisis. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. Torrey, E.F., and R.J. Kaplan. 1995. A National Survey of the Use of Outpatient Commitment. Psychiatric Services 46:778–84. Van Putten, R.A., J.M. Santiago, and M.R. Berren. 1988. Involuntary Outpatient Commitment in Arizona: A Retrospective Study. Hospital & Community Psychiatry 39:953–8. Vaughan, K., N. McConaghy, C. Wolf, C. Myhr and T. Black. 2000. Community Treatment Orders: Relationship to Clinical Care, Medication Compliance, Behavioural Disturbance and Readmission. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 34:801–8. White, C.L., A. Bateman, W.H. Fisher, and J.L. Geller. 1995. Factors Associated with Admission to Public and Private Hospitals from a Psychiatric Emergency Screening Site. Psychiatric Services 46:467–72. Zanni, G., and L. deVeau. 1986. Inpatient Stays before and after Outpatient Commitment. Hospital & Community Psychiatry 37:941–2.

chapter six Abram, K.M. 1989. The Effect of Co-occurring Disorders on Criminal Careers: Interaction of Antisocial Personality, Alcoholism, and Drug Disorders. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 12:133–48. Abram, K.M., and L.A. Teplin. 1991. Co-occurring Disorders among Mentally Ill Jail Detainees: Implications for Public Policy. American Psychologist 46:1036–45.

266

Bibliography

Abram, K.M., L.A. Teplin, and G.M. McClelland. 2003. Comorbidity of Severe Psychiatric Disorders and Substance Use Disorders among Women in Jail. American Journal of Psychiatry 160:1007–10. Abramson, M.L. 1972. The Criminalization of Mentally Disordered Behaviour: Possible Side Effects of a New Mental Health Law. Hospital and Community Psychiatry 23:101–105. American Psychiatric Association. 1994. Diagnostic and Statistics Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. Angermeyer, M.C., and B. Schulze. 2001. Reinforcing Stereotypes: How the Focus on Forensic Cases in News Reporting May Influence Public Attitudes towards the Mentally Ill. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 24:469–86. Arboleda-Florez, J., and H.L. Holley. 1988. Criminalization of the Mentally Ill: Part II, Initial Detention. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 33:87–95. Arboleda-Florez, J., E.J. Love, and G. Fick. 1995. An Epidemiological Study of Mental Illness in a Remanded Population. International Medical Journal 2:113–26. Bittner, E. 1987. Police Discretion in Apprehension of Mentally Ill Persons. Social Problems 14:287–92. Blaauw, E., R. Roesch, and A. Kerkhof. 2000. Mental Disorders in European Prison Systems: Arrangements for Mentally Disordered Prisoners in the Prison Systems of 13 European countries. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 23:649–63. Bonta, J., M. Law, and K. Hanson. 1998. The Prediction of Criminal and Violent Recidivism among Mentally Disordered Offenders: A Metaanalysis. Psychological Bulletin 123:123–42. Borum, R., M.W. Deane, H.J. Steadman, and J. Morrissey. 1998. Police Perspectives on Responding to Mentally Ill People in Crisis: Perceptions of Program Effectiveness. Behavioral Sciences and Law 16:393–405. Borum, R., J. Swanson, M. Swartz, and V. Hiday. 1997. Substance Abuse, Violent Behaviour, and Police Encounters among Persons with Severe Mental Disorders. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 13:236–49. Borzecki, M.A., and J.S. Wormith. 1985. The Criminalization of Psychiatrically Ill People: A Review with a Canadian Perspective. Psychiatric Journal of the University of Ottawa 10:241–7. Brekke, J.S., C. Prindle, S.W. Bae, and J.D. Long. 2001. Risks for Individuals with Schizophrenia Who Are Living in the Community. Psychiatric Services 52:1358–66.

Bibliography

267

Brink, J.H., D. Doherty, and A. Boer. 2001. Mental Disorder in Federal Offenders: A Canadian Prevalence Study. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 24:339–56. Broner, N., D.W. Mayrl, and G. Landsberg. 2005. Outcomes of Mandated and Non-mandated New York City Jail Diversion for Offenders with Alcohol, Drug, and Mental Disorders. The Prison Journal 85:18–49. Caspi, A., J.McClay, T.E. Moffitt, J. Mill, J. Martin, I.W. Craig, A. Taylor, and R. Poulton. 2002. Role of Genotype in the Cycle of Violence in Maltreated Children. Science 297:851–4. Clark, R.E., S.K. Ricketts, and G.J. McHugo. 1999. Legal System Involvement and Costs for Persons in Treatment for Severe Mental Illness and Substance Use Disorders. Psychiatric Services 50:641–7. Cooke, D.J. 2000. Major Mental Disorder and Violence in Correctional Settings: Size, Specificity, and Implications for Practice. In Violence among the Mentally Ill: Effective Treatment and Management Strategies, ed. Sheilagh Hodgins, 291–312. Dordrecht, NL: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Corrado, R.R., I. Cohen, S. Hart, and R. Roesch. 2000. Comparative Examination of the Prevalence of Mental Disorders among Jailed Inmates in Canada and the United States. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 23:633–47. Corrado, R.R., D. Doherty, and W. Glackman. 1989. A Demonstration Program for Chronic Recidivists of Criminal Justice, Health, and Social Service Agencies. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 12:211–29. Cote, G., and S. Hodgins. 1990. Co-occurring Mental Disorders among Criminal Offenders. Bulletin of American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law 18:271–81. Crocker, A.G., K.T. Mueser, R.E. Drake, R.E. Clark, and G.J. McHugo. 2005. Antisocial Personality, Psychopathy and Violence in Persons with Dual Disorders: A Longitudinal Analysis. Criminal Justice and Behaviour 32:452–76. Cuellar, A.E., L.M. Snowden, and T. Ewing. 2007. Criminal Records of Persons Served in the Public Mental Health System. Psychiatric Services 58:114–20. De Oliveira-Souza, R., J. Moll, F.A. Ignacio, and R.D. Hare. 2008. Psychopathy in a Civil Psychiatric Outpatient Sample. Criminal Justice and Behaviour 35:427–37. Deane, M.W., H.J. Steadman, R. Borum, B.M. Veysey, and J.P. Morrissey. 1999. Emerging Partnerships between Mental Health and Law Enforcement. Psychiatric Services 50:99–101.

268

Bibliography

Desai, R.A., J. Lam, and R.A. Rosenheck. 2000. Childhood Risk Factors for Criminal Justice Involvement in a Sample of Homeless People with Serious Mental Illness. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 188:324–32. Ditton, P.M. 1999. Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report: Mental Health Treatment of Inmates and Probationers. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice. NCJ 174463. Douglas, K.S., and J.L. Skeem. 2005. Violence Risk Assessment: Getting Specific about Being Dynamic. Psychology Public Policy and Law 11: 347–83. Draine, J., M.S. Salzer, D.P. Culhane, and T.R. Hadley. 2002. Role of Social Disadvantage in Crime, Joblessness, and Homelessness among Persons with Serious Mental Illness. Psychiatric Services 53:565–73. Drake, R.E., K.T. Mueser, M.F. Brunette, and G.J. McHugo. 2004. A Review of Treatments for People with Severe Mental Illnesses and Co-occurring Substance Use Disorders. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 27:360–74. Engel, R.S., and E. Silver. 2001. Policing Mentally Disordered Suspects: A Reexamination of the Criminalization Hypothesis. Criminology 39:225–52. Fazel, S., and J. Danesh. 2002. Serious Mental Disorder in 23,000 Prisoners: A Systematic Review of 62 Surveys. Lancet 359:545–50. Fisher, W.H., and S.M. Banks. 2002. Trouble with the Law: Assessing Criminal Justice System Contact in a National Sample of Community Residents with and without Psychiatric Disorders. Paper presented to the American Public Health Association, November, Philadelphia, PA. Fisher, W.H., I.K. Packer, S.M. Banks, D. Smith, L.J. Simon, and K. RoyBujnowski. 2002. Self-reported Lifetime Psychiatric Hospitalization Histories of Jail Detainees with Mental Disorders: Comparison with a Non-incarcerated National Sample. Journal of Behavioral Health Services and Research 29:458–65. Fisher, W.H., K.M. Roy-Bujnowski, A.J. Grudzinskas Jr, J.C. Clayfield, S.M. Banks, and N. Wolff. 2006. Patterns and Prevalence of Arrest in a Statewide Cohort of Mental Health Care Consumers. Psychiatric Services 57:1623–8. Fisher, W.H., E. Silver, and N. Wolff. 2006. Beyond Criminalization: Toward a Criminologically Informed Framework for Mental Health Policy and Services Research. Administration and Policy in Mental Health Services 33:544–57. Fisher, W.H., N. Wolff, A.J. Grudzinskas Jr, K. Roy-Bujnowski, S.M. Banks, and J. Clayfield. 2007. Drug-Related Arrests in a Cohort of Public Mental Health Service Recipients. Psychiatric Services 58:1448–53.

Bibliography

269

Green, T.M. 1997. Police as Frontline Mental Health Workers: The Decision to Arrest or Refer to Mental Health Agencies. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 20:469–86. Greenberg, G.A., and R.A. Rosenheck. 2008. Jail Incarceration, Homelessness, and Mental Health: A National Study. Psychiatric Services 59:170–7. Grob, G.N. 2008. Mental Health Policy in the Liberal State: The Example of the United States. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 31:89–100. Herrman, H., J. Mills, G. Doidge, P. McGorry, and B. Singh. 1994. The Use of Psychiatric Services before Imprisonment: A Survey and Case Register Linkage of Sentenced Prisoners in Melbourne. Psychological Medicine 24:63–8. Hiday, V.A. 2006. Putting Community Risk in Perspective: A Look at Correlations, Causes and Controls. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 29:316–31. – 1999. Mental Illness and the Criminal Justice System. In A Handbook for the Study of Mental Health., eds. A.V. Horwitz, T.L. Scheid, 508–25. New York: Cambridge University Press. – 1997. Understanding the Connection between Mental Illness and Violence. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 20:399–417. – 1992. Civil Commitment and Arrests: An Investigation of the Criminalization Thesis. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 180:184–91. Hiday, V.A., and H.W. Wales. 2003. Civil Commitment and Arrests. Current Opinion in Psychiatry 16:575–80. Hodgins, S. 2002. Research Priorities in Forensic Mental Health. International Journal of Forensic Mental Health 1:7–24. Holley, H.L., and J. Arboleda-Florez. 1988. Criminalization of the Mentally Ill: Part I. Police Perceptions. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 33:81–6. Horwitz, A.V., T.M. Videon, M.F. Schmitz, and D. Davis. 2003. Rethinking Twins and Environments: Possible Social Sources for Assumed Genetic Influences in Twin Research. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 44:111–29. James, D.J., and L.E. Glaze. 2006. Mental Health Problems of Prison and Jail Inmates. Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics. NCJ 213600. Junginger, J., Keith Claypoole, Ranilo Laygo, and Annette Crisanti. 2006. Effects of Serious Mental Illness and Substance Abuse on Criminal Offenders. Psychiatric Services 57:879–82. Kessler, R.C., K.A. McGonagle, S. Zhao, C.B. Nelson, M. Hughes, S. Eshleman, H.U. Wittchen, and K.S. Kendler. 1994. Lifetime and 12–month

270

Bibliography

Prevalence of DSM-III-R Psychiatric Disorders in the United States. Results from the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry 51:8–19. Kneebone, P., Rogers J., and Hafner R.J. 1995. Characteristics of Police Referrals to a Psychiatric Emergency Unit in Australia. Psychiatric Services 46:620–2. Laberge, D., and D. Morin. 1995. The Overuse of Criminal Justice Dispositions: Failure of Diversionary Policies in the Management of Mental Health Problems. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 18:389–414. Lamb, H.R., R. Shaner, D.M. Elliott, W.J. DeCuir Jr, and J.T. Foltz. 1995. Outcome for Psychiatric Emergency Patients Seen by an Outreach PoliceMental Health Team. Psychiatric Services 46:1267–71. Lamb, H.R., and L.E. Weinberger. 2005. The Shift of Psychiatric Inpatient Care from Hospitals to Jails and Prisons. Journal of American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law 33:529–34. – 1998. Persons with Severe Mental Illness in Jails and Prisons: A Review. Psychiatric Services 49:483–92. Lamb, H.R., L.E. Weinberger, and DeCuir W.J. Jr. 2002. The Police and Mental Health. Psychiatric Services 53:1266–71. Lamberti, J.S. 2007. Understanding and Preventing Criminal Recidivism among Adults with Psychotic Disorders. Psychiatric Services 58:773–81. Leaf, P.J., and M.L. Bruce. 1987. Gender Differences in the Use of Mental Health-related Services: A Re-examination. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 28:171–83. Markowitz, F.E. 2006. Psychiatric Hospital Capacity, Homelessness, and Crime and Arrest Rates. Criminology 44:45–72. McNiel, D.E., R.L. Binder, and J.C. Robinson. 2005. Incarceration Associated with Homelessness, Mental Disorder, and Co-occurring Substance Abuse. Psychiatric Services 56:840–6. Mechanic, D. 1999. Mental Health and Social Policy: The Emergence of Managed Care. 4th ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Moffitt, T.E., and A. Caspi. 2001. Childhood Predictors Differentiate LifeCourse Persistent and Adolescence-Limited Antisocial Pathways among Males and Females. Development and Psychopathology 13:355–75. Monahan, J., H.J. Steadman, E. Silver, P. Appelbaum, P. Robbins, E. Mulvey, L. Roth, T. Grisso, and S. Lelienfeld. 2001. Rethinking Risk Assessment: The MacArthur Study of Mental Disorder and Violence. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Monahan, J., A.D. Redlich, J. Swanson, P.C. Robbins, P.S. Appelbaum, J. Petrila, H.J. Steadman, M. Swartz, B. Angell, and D.E. McNiel. 2005.

Bibliography

271

Use of Leverage to Improve Adherence to Psychiatric Treatment in the Community. Psychiatric Services 56:37–44. Moore, M.E., and V.A. Hiday. 2006. Mental Health Court Outcomes: A Comparison of Re-arrest and Re-arrest Severity between Mental Health Court and Traditional Court Participants. Law and Human Behavior 30:659–74. Moran, P., and S. Hodgins. 2004. The Correlates of Comorbid Antisocial Personality Disorder in Schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin 30:791–802. Morrissey, J., P. Meyer, and G. Cuddeback. 2007. Extending Assertive Community Treatment to Criminal Justice Settings: Origins, Current Evidence, and Future Directions. Community Mental Health Journal 43:527–44. Morse, S.J. 2007. The Non-Problem of Free Will in Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology. Behavioral Sciences & the Law 25:203–20. Mueser, K.T., A.G. Crocker, L.B. Frisman, R.E. Drake, N.H. Covell, and S.M. Essock. 2006. Conduct Disorder and Antisocial Personality Disorder in Persons with Severe Psychiatric and Substance Use Disorders. Schizophrenia Bulletin 32:626–36. Mueser, K.T., R.E. Drake, T.H. Ackerson, A.I. Alterman, K.M. Miles, and D.L. Noordsy. 1997. Antisocial Personality Disorder, Conduct Disorder, and Substance Abuse in Schizophrenia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 106:473–7. Mullen, P.E., P. Burgess, C. Wallace, S. Palmer, and D. Ruschena. 2000. Community Care and Criminal Offending in Schizophrenia. Lancet 355:614–7. Mulvey, E.P., C. Odgers, J. Skeem, W. Gardner, C. Schubert, and C. Lidz. 2006. Substance Use and Community Violence: A Test of the Relation at the Daily Level. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 74:743–54. Pandiani, J.A., R. Rosenheck, and S.M. Banks. 2003. Elevated Risk of Arrest for Veteran’s Administration Behavioral Health Service Recipients in Four Florida Counties. Law and Human Behavior 27:289–98. Poythress, N., J. Skeem, and S. Lelienfeld. 2006. Associations among Early Abuse, Disassociation, and Psychopathy among Offenders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 115:288–97. Quanbeck, C.D., D.C. Stone, B.E. McDermott, K. Boone, C.L. Scott, and M.A. Frye. 2005. Relationship between Criminal Arrest and Community Treatment History among Patients with Bipolar Disorder. Psychiatric Services 56:847–52. Rachlin, S., A. Pam, and J. Milton. 1975. Civil Liberties versus Involuntary Hospitalization. American Journal of Psychiatry 132:189–92.

272

Bibliography

Rachlin, S., C.L. Stokman, and S. Grossman. 1986. Incompetent Misdemeanants – Pseudo Civil Commitment. Bulletin of American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law 14:23–30. Rice, M.E., and G.T. Harris. 1995. Psychopathy, Schizophrenia, Alcohol Abuse, and Violent Recidivism. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 18:333–42. Robins, L.N. 1993. Childhood Conduct Problems, Adult Psychopathology and Crime. In Mental Disorder and Crime, ed. S. Hodgins, 173–193. London: Sage. Scott, H., S. Johnson, P. Menezes, G. Thornicroft, J. Marshall, J. Bindman, P. Bebbington, and E. Kuipers. 1998. Substance Misuse and Risk of Aggression and Offending among the Severely Mentally Ill. British Journal of Psychiatry 172:345–50. Shapiro, S., E.A. Skinner, M. Kramer, D.M. Steinwachs, and D.A. Regier. 1985. Measuring Need for Mental Health Services in a General Population. Medical Care 23:1033–43. Sheldon, C.T., T.D. Aubry, J. Arboleda-Florez, D. Wasylenki, P. Goering, and CMHEI Working Group. 2006. Social Disadvantage, Mental Illness and Predictors of Legal Involvement. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 29:249–56. Silver, E. 2006. Understanding the Relationship between Mental Disorder and Violence: The Need for a Criminological Perspective. Law and Human Behavior 30:685–706. – 2000. Extending Social Organization Theory: A Multilevel Approach to the Study of Violence among Persons with Mental Illness. Criminology 38:1043–74. Skeem, J., and L. Bibeau. 2008. How Does Violence Potential Relate to Crisis Intervention Team Responses to Emergencies? Psychiatric Services 59:201–4. Skeem, J.L., and E.P. Mulvey. 2001. Psychopathy and Community Violence among Civil Psychiatric Patients: Results from the MacArthur Violence Risk Assessment Study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 69:358–74. Soyka, M. 2000. Substance Misuse, Psychiatric Disorder and Violent and Disturbed Behaviour. British Journal of Psychiatry 176:345–50. Steadman, H.J., M.W. Deane, R. Borum, and J.P. Morrissey. 2000. Comparing Outcomes of Major Models of Police Responses to Mental Health Emergencies. Psychiatric Services 51:645–9. Steadman, H.J., S.M. Morris, and D.L. Dennis. 1995. The Diversion of Mentally Ill Persons from Jails to Community-Based Services: A Profile of Programs. American Journal of Public Health 85:1630–5.

Bibliography

273

Steadman, J.H., and J.P. Morrissey. 1987. The Impact of Deinstitutionalization on the Criminal Justice System: Implications for Understanding Changing Modes of Social Control. In Transcarceration: Essays in the Sociology of Social Control, eds. J. Lawman, R.J. Menzies and T.S. Palys. Aldershot, England: Gower Publishing. Stuart, H. 2003. Stigma and the Daily News: Evaluation of a Newspaper Intervention. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 48:651–6. Stuart, H.L., and J.E. Arboleda-Florez. 2001. A Public Health Perspective on Violent Offences among Persons with Mental Illness. Psychiatric Services 52:654–9. Swanson, J.W., M.S. Swartz, R. Borum, V.A. Hiday, H.R. Wagner, and B.J. Burns. 2000. Involuntary Out-patient Commitment and Reduction of Violent Behaviour in Persons with Severe Mental Illness. British Journal of Psychiatry 176:324–31. Swanson, J.W., M.S. Swartz, S.M. Essock, F.C. Osher, H.R. Wagner, L.A. Goodman, S.D. Rosenberg, and K.G. Meador. 2002. The SocialEnvironmental Context of Violent Behaviour in Persons Treated for Severe Mental Illness. American Journal of Public Health 92:1523–31. Swanson, J.W., R. Borum, M.S. Swartz, H.R. Wagner, B.J. Burns and V.A. Hiday. 2001. Can Involuntary Outpatient Commitment Reduce Arrests among Persons with Severe Mental Illness? Criminal Justice and Behaviour 28:156–89. Swartz, J.A., and A.J. Lurigio. 2007. Serious Mental Illness and Arrest: The Generalized Mediating Effect of Substance Use. Crime and Delinquency 53:581–604. Swartz, M.S., J.W. Swanson, V.A. Hiday, R. Borum, H.R. Wagner, and B.J. Burns. 1998. Violence and Severe Mental Illness: The Effects of Substance Abuse and Nonadherence to Medication. American Journal of Psychiatry 155:226–31. Taylor, J., B.R. Loney, L. Bobadilla, W.G. Iacono, and M. McGue. 2003. Genetic and Environmental Influences on Psychopathy Trait Dimensions in a Community Sample of Male Twins. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 31:633–45. Tengström, A., S. Hodgins, M. Grann, N. Langstrom and G. Kullgren. 2004. Schizophrenia and Criminal Offending: The Role of Psychopathy and Substance Use Disorders. Criminal Justice and Behaviour 31:367–91. Teplin, L.A. 1994. Psychiatric and Substance Abuse Disorders among Male Jail Detainees. American Journal of Public Health 84:290–3. – 1990. The Prevalence of Severe Mental Disorder among Male Urban Jail Detainees: Comparison with the Epidemiologic Catchment Area Program. American Journal of Public Health 80:663–9.

274

Bibliography

– 1983. The Criminalization of the Mentally Ill: Speculation in Search of Data. Psychology Bulletin 94:54–67. Teplin, L.A., K.M. Abram, and G.M. McClelland. 1994. Does Psychiatric Disorder Predict Violent Crime among Released Jail Detainees? A SixYear Longitudinal Study. American Psychology 49:335–42. – 1996. Prevalence of Psychiatric Disorders among Incarcerated Women. Archives of General Psychiatry 53:505–12. Teplin, L.A., G.M. McClelland, and K.M. Abram. 1993. The Role of Mental Disorder and Substance Abuse in Predicting Violent Crime among Released Offenders. In Mental Disorder and Crime, ed. S. Hodgins, 86– 103. London: Sage. Teplin, L.A., and N.S. Pruett 1992. Police as Street Corner Psychiatrists: Managing the Mentally Ill. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 15:157–70. Theriot, M.T., and S.P. Segal. 2005. Involvement with the Criminal Justice System among New Clients at Outpatient Mental Health Agencies. Psychiatric Services 56:179–85. Torrey, E.F. 2008. The Insanity Offence: How America’s Failure to Treat the Seriously Mentally Ill Endangers its Citizens. New York: Norton. – 1995. Jails and Prisons – America’s New Mental Hospitals. American Journal of Public Health 85:1611–13. Viding, E. 2004. Annotation: Understanding the Development of Psychopathy. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 45:1329–37. Wahl, O. 1995. Media Madness: Public Images of Mental Illness. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. Wallace, C., P. Mullen, P. Burgess, S. Palmer, D. Ruschena, and C. Browne. 1998. Serious Criminal Offending and Mental Disorder: Case Linkage Study. British Journal of Psychiatry 172:477–84. Watson, A.C., B. Angell, M.S. Morabito and N. Robinson. 2008. Defying Negative Expectations: Dimensions of Fair and Respectful Treatment by Police Officers as Perceived by People with Mental Illness. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research 35:449–457. Watson, A.C., P.W. Corrigan, and V. Ottati. 2004. Police Responses to Persons with Mental Illness: Does the Label Matter? Journal of American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law 32:378–85. Wessely, S. 1998. The Camberwell Study of Crime and Schizophrenia. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 33 Suppl 1:S24–8. Wolff, N., R.J. Diamond, and T.W. Helminiak. 1997. A New Look at an Old Issue: People with Mental Illness and the Law Enforcement System. The Journal of Mental Health Administration 24:152–65.

Bibliography

275

chapter seven Almvik, R., P. Woods, and K. Rasmussen. 2000. The Broset Violence Checklist: Sensitivity, Specificity, and Interrater Reliability. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 15:1284–96. Andersen, H.S., D. Sestoft, T. Lillebaek, G. Gabrielsen, and P. Kramp. 1996. Prevalence of ICD-10 Psychiatric Morbidity in Random Samples of Prisoners on Remand. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 19:61–74. Andersen, H.S., D. Sestoft, T. Lillebaek, E.L. Mortensen, and P. Kramp. 1999. Psychopathy and Psychopathological Profiles in Prisoners on Remand. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 99:33–9. Angermeyer, M.C., and B. Schulze. 2001. Reinforcing Stereotypes: How the Focus on Forensic Cases in News Reporting May Influence Public Attitudes Towards the Mentally Ill. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 24:469–86. Arboleda-Florez, J., A. Crisanti, and H.L. Holley. 1995. The Effects of Changes in the Law Concerning Mentally Disordered Offenders: The Alberta Experience with Bill C-30. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 40:225–33. Arboleda-Florez, J., D. Nussbaum, M.M. Ohayon, and A.G. Crocker. 2000. Mental Disorders and the Criminal Code: Legal Background and Contemporary Perspectives. In Impact of Bill C -30 in the Province of Québec., eds. D. Eaves, J.R.P. Ogloff, and R. Roesch, 118–28. Burnaby, BC: Mental Health Law and Policy Institute, Simon Fraser University. Arboleda-Florez, J., D. Nussbaum, M.M. Ohayon, and R. Roesch. 2002. Research on the Impact of the 1992 Criminal Code Amendments on Remands for Fitness to Stand Trial and Criminal Responsibility in Mental Disorders and the Criminal Code: Legal Background and Contemporary Perspectives. In Mental Disorders and the Criminal Code: Legal Background and Contemporary Perspectives., eds. D. Eaves, J.R.P. Ogloff, and R. Roesch, 101–60. Burnaby, BC: Mental Health, Law, and Policy Institute, Simon Fraser University. Arseneault, L., T.E. Moffitt, A. Caspi, P.J. Taylor, and P.A. Silva. 2000. Mental Disorders and Violence in a Total Birth Cohort: Results from the Dunedin Study. Archives of General Psychiatry 57:979–86. Augimeri, L.K., C.D. Webster, C.J. Koegl, and K.S. Levene. 1998. Early Assessment Risk List for Boys (EARLS -20B). Toronto, Ontario: Earlscourt Child and Family Centre. Bassuk, E.L., and S. Gerson. 1991. Deinstitutionalization and Mental Health Services. Scientific American 2:46–53.

276

Bibliography

Benda, B.B., R.F. Corwyn, and N.J. Toombs. 2001. Recidivism among Adolescent Serious Offenders: Prediction of Entry into the Correctional System for Adults. Criminal Justice and Behavior 28:588–613. Bergman, L.R., D. Magnusson, and B.M. El-Khouri. 2003. Studying Individual Development in an Inter-individual Context: A PersonOriented Approach. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Blanchette, K., and L.L. Motiuk. 1996. Female Offenders with and without Major Mental Health Problems: A Comparative Investigation. Ottawa: Research Division Correctional Service Canada. Bland, R.C., S.C. Newman, A.H. Thompson, and R.J. Dyck. 1998. Psychiatric Disorders in the Population and in Prisoners. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 21:273–9. Bloom, H., R.S. Eisen, N. Pollock, and C.D. Webster. 2000. WRA -20, Workplace Risk Assessment: A Guide for Evaluating Violence Potential, Version 1. Toronto: workplace.calm inc. Bloom, J.D. 1989. The Character of Danger in Psychiatric Practice: Are the Mentally Ill Dangerous? Bulletin of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law 17:241–55. Bogenberger, R.P., R.A. Pasewark, H. Gudeman, and S.L. Beiber. 1987. Follow-up of Insanity Acquittees in Hawaii. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 10:283–95. Bonta, J., M. Law, and K. Hanson. 1998. The Prediction of Criminal and Violent Recidivism among Mentally Disordered Offenders: A Metaanalysis. Psychological Bulletin 123:123–42. Borum, R. 1996. Improving the Clinical Practice of Violence Risk Assessment: Technology, Guidelines, and Training. American Psychologist 51:945–56. Borum, R., P. Bartel, and A. Forth. 2002. Manual for the Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY) (Version 1). Tampa, FL: University of South Florida, Louis de la Parte Florida Mental Health Institute. Brennan, P.A., S.A. Mednick, and S. Hodgins. 2000. Major Mental Disorders and Criminal Violence in a Danish Birth Cohort. Archives of General Psychiatry 57:494–500. Brinded, P.M., A.I. Simpson, T.M. Laidlaw, N. Fairley, and F. Malcolm. 2001. Prevalence of Psychiatric Disorders in New Zealand Prisons: A National Study. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 35:166–73. Brink, J.H., D. Doherty, and A. Boer. 2001. Mental Disorder in Federal Offenders: A Canadian Prevalence Study. International Journal of Law Psychiatry 24:339–56. Brown, V.B., M.S. Ridgely, B. Pepper, and I.S. Levine. 1989. The Dual Crisis: Mental Illness and Substance Abuse. American Psychologist 44:565–9.

Bibliography

277

Bryant, K.J., B. Rounsaville, R.L. Spitzer, and J.B. Williams. 1992. Reliability of Dual Diagnosis, Substance Dependence and Psychiatric Disorders. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 180:251–7. Buchanan, A. 2002. Care of the Mentally Disordered Offender in the Community. In Monitoring the Violence Potential of Mentally Disordered Offenders Being Treated in the Community., eds. J. Skeem and E.P. Mulvey, 112–42. New York: Oxford University Press. Canvin, K., A. Bartlett, and V. Pinfold. 2002. A “Bittersweet Pill to Swallow”: Learning from Mental Health Service Users’ Responses to Compulsory Care in England. Health & Social Care in the Community 10:361–9. Cardinal, C., and G. Côté. 2003. La Clientèle Psychiatrie-Justice au Centre de Détention Rivières-des-prairies et à L’institut Philippe Pinel de Montréal. Montréal: Centre de Recherche de l’Institut Philippe Pinel de Montréal. Carroll, A. 2007. Are Violence Risk Assessment Tools Clinically Useful? Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 41:301–7. Choe, J.Y., L.A. Teplin, and M. Abram. 2008. Perpetration of Violence, Violent Victimization, and Severe Mental Illness: Balancing Public Health Concerns. Psychiatric Services 59:153–64. Clement, J.A., E.B. Williams, and C. Waters. 1993. The Client with Substance Abuse/Mental Illness: Mandate for Collaboration. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing 7:189–96. Corrigan, P.W., A.B. Edwards, A. Green, S.L. Diwan, and D.L. Penn. 2001. Prejudice, Social Distance and Familiarity with Mental Illness. Schizophrenia Bulletin 27:219–25. Corrigan, P.W., and A.C. Watson. 2005. Findings from the National Comorbidity Survey on the Frequency of Violent Behavior in Individuals with Psychiatric Disorders. Psychiatry Research 136:153–62. Corrigan, P.W., K.T. Mueser, G.R. Bond, R.E. Drake, and P. Solomon. 2008. Principles and Practice of Psychiatric Rehabilitation: An Empirical Approach. New York, NY: The Guilford Press. Cote, G., and S. Hodgins. 1992. The Prevalence of Major Mental Disorders among Homicide Offenders. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 15:89–99. – 1990. Co-occurring Mental Disorders among Criminal Offenders. Bulletin of American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law 18:271–81. Côté, G., S. Hodgins, and J.–F. Allaire. 2007. Linear and Non-linear Approaches to the HCR-20 in the Prediction of Violence. Paper presented at 7th Annual International Association for Forensic Mental Health Services Conference, Montréal (Canada).

278

Bibliography

Côté, G., S. Hodgins, M. Daigle, J.-F Allaire, and D. Cismaru. 2004. Toward a Taxonomic Approach to the HCR-20. Paper Presented at 4th Annual International Association for Forensic Mental Health Services Conference, Stockholm, Sweden. Côté, G., S. Hodgins, and J. Toupin. 2000. Psychopathie: Prévalence et Spécificité Clinique. In Psychopathie: Théorie et Recherche, eds. T.H. Pham and G. Côté, 47–74. Paris: Presses Universitaires du Septentrion. Coté, G., A. Lesage, N. Chawky, and M. Loyer. 1997. Clinical Specificity of Prison Inmates with Severe Mental Disorders. A Case-Control Study. British Journal of Psychiatry 170:571–7. Criminal Code of Canada. 1992. L.R.C. C-46. Crocker, A.G., and G. Côté. 2009. Evolving Systems of Care: Individuals Found Not Criminally Responsible on Account of Mental Disorder in Custody of Civil and Forensic Psychiatric Services. European Psychiatry 24:356–64. Crocker, A.G., O.E. Favreau, and M. Caulet. 2002. Gender and Fitness to Stand Trial. A 5–Year Review of Remands in Québec. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 25:67–84. Crocker, A.G., A. Garcia, M. Israël, Y. Hindle, D. Gagnon, C. Venegas, et al. 2008. Implementing and Using a Systematic Risk Assessment Scheme to Increase Patient Safety on a Risk Management Unit for Individuals with Severe Mental Illness: A Demonstration Project. Montreal: Douglas Mental Health University Institute. Crocker, A.G., M. Grenier, C.D. Webster, T.L. Nicholls, M.–L. Martin, and S.L. Desmarais. 2007. L’évaluation et la Gestion du Risque à Court Terme et Traitabilité: Un Guide d’évaluation et de Planification, Version Française du START. Montréal: Institut Universitaire en Santé Mentale Douglas. Crocker, A.G., C. Mercier, J.F. Allaire, and M.E. Roy. 2007. Profiles and Correlates of Aggressive Behaviour among Adults with Intellectual Disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 51:786–801. Crocker, A.G., K.T. Mueser, R.E. Drake, R.E. Clark, G.J. McHugo, T.H. Ackerson, et al. 2005. Antisocial Personality, Psychopathy and Violence in Persons with Dual Disorders: A Longitudinal Analysis. Criminal Justice and Behavior 32:452–76. Crocker, A.G., B. St-Onge, M. Caulet, and M.M. Ohayon. 1995. Implementation of Bill C -30 in the Province of Québec: Progress report. Ottawa: Federal Department of Justice. Cuffel, B.J., M. Shumway, T.L. Chouljian, and T. MacDonald. 1994. A Longitudinal Study of Substance Use and Community Violence in Schizophrenia. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 182:704–8.

Bibliography

279

Daffern, M. 2007. The Predictive Validity and Practical Utility of Structured Schemes Used to Assess Risk for Aggression in Psychiatric Inpatient Settings. Aggression and Violent Behavior 12:116–30. Daffern, M., and K. Howells. 2007. The Prediction of Imminent Aggression and Self-harm in Personality Disordered Patients of a High Security Hospital Using the HCR-20 Clinical Scale and the Dynamic Appraisal of Situational Aggression. International Journal of Forensic Mental Health 6:137–43. Dahle, K.P. 2006. Strengths and Limitations of Actuarial Prediction of Criminal Re-offence in a German Prison Sample: A Comparative Study of LSI-R, HCR-20 and PCL-R. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 29:431–42. Daniel, A.E., A.J. Robins, J.C. Reid, and D.E. Wilfley. 1988. Lifetime and Six-Month Prevalence of Psychiatric Disorders among Sentenced Female Offenders. Bulletin of American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law 16:333–42. Day, D.M., and S. Page. 1986. Portrayal of Mental Illness in Canadian Newspapers. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 31:813–17. Dean, K., E. Walsh, C. Morgan, A. Demjaha, P. Dazzan, K. Morgan, et al. 2007. Aggressive Behaviour at First Contact with Services: Findings from the AESOP First Episode Psychosis Study. Psychological Medicine 37:527–57. Douglas, K.S., J.R. Ogloff, and S.D. Hart. 2003. Evaluation of a Model of Violence Risk Assessment among Forensic Psychiatric Patients. Psychiatric Services 54:1372–9. Douglas, K.S., J.R. Ogloff, T.L. Nicholls, and I. Grant. 1999. Assessing Risk for Violence among Psychiatric Patients: The HCR-20 Violence Risk Assessment Scheme and the Psychopathy Checklist, Screening Version. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 67:917–30. Douglas, K.S., and J.L. Skeem. 2005. Violence Risk Assessment: Getting Specific about Being Dynamic. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law 11:347–83. Douglas, K.S., and C.D. Webster. 1999. The HCR-20 Violence Risk Assessment Scheme: Concurrent Validity in a Sample of Incarcerated Offenders. Criminal Justice and Behavior 26:3–19. Douglas, K.S., M. Yeomans, and D.P. Boer, 2005. Comparative Validity Analysis of Multiple Measures of Violence Risk in a Sample of Criminal Offenders. Criminal Justice and Behavior 32:479–510. Drake, R.E., and M.A. Wallach. 1989. Substance Abuse among the Chronic Mentally Ill. Hospital Community Psychiatry 40:1041–6.

280

Bibliography

Dvoskin, J. 2002. Knowledge Is Not Power: Knowledge Is Obligation. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law 30:533–40. Dvoskin, J.A., and K. Heilbrun. 2001. Risk Assessment and Release Decision-Making: Toward Resolving the Great Debate. Journal of American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law 29:6–10. Erb, M., S. Hodgins, R. Freese, R. Müeller-Isberner, and D. Jöckel. 2001. Homicide and Schizophrenia: Maybe Treatment Does Have a Preventive Effect. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health 11:6–26. Eronen, M., M.C. Angermeyer, and B. Schulze. 1998. The Psychiatric Epidemiology of Violent Behaviour. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 33(Suppl):S13–S23. Eronen, M., P. Hakola, and J. Tiihonen. 1996. Mental Disorders and Homicidal Behavior in Finland. Archives of General Psychiatry 53:497–501. Estroff, S.E., C. Zimmer, W.S. Lachicotte, and J. Benoit. 1994. The Influence of Social Networks and Social Support on Violence by Persons with Serious Mental Illness. Hospital & Community Psychiatry 45:669–79. Galanter, M., R. Castaneda, and J. Ferman. 1988. Substance Abuse among General Psychiatric Patients: Place of Presentation, Diagnosis, and Treatment. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 14:211–35. Gardner, W., C.W. Lidz, E.P. Mulvey, and E.C. Shaw. 1996. Clinical versus Actuarial Predictions of Violence of Patients with Mental Illnesses. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 64:602–9. Glancy, G.D., and G. Chaimowitz. 2005. The Clinical Use of Risk Assessment. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 50:12–17. Gottlieb, P., G. Gabrielsen, and P. Kramp. 1987. Psychotic Homicides in Copenhagen from 1959 to 1983. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 76:285–92. Grann, M., H. Belfrage, and A. Tengström. 2000. Actuarial Assessment of Risk for Violence: Predictive Validity of the VRAG and the Historical Part of the HCR-20. Criminal Justice and Behavior 27:97–114. Greenacre, M.J., and J. Blasius. 2006. Multiple Correspondence Analysis and Related Methods. London: Chapman & Hall/CRC. Grevatt, M., B.A. Thomas-Peter, and G. Hughes. 2004. Violence, Mental Disorder, and Risk Assessment: Can Structured Clinical Assessments Predict Short-term Risk of Inpatient Violence. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology 15:278–96. Ha-Joon, C. 2002. Kicking Away the Ladder: Development Strategy in Historical Perspective. London: Anthem. Hall, R.C., M.K. Popkin, R. Devaul, and S.K. Stickney. 1977. The Effect of Unrecognized Drug Abuse on Diagnosis and Therapeutic Outcome. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 4:455–65.

Bibliography

281

Hare, R.D. 1981. Psychopathy and Violence. In Violence and the Violent Individual, eds. J.R. Hays, T.K. Roberts, and K.S. Soloways. Jamaica, NY: Spectrum. – 2003. The Hare Psychopathy Checklist – Revised (3d ed.). Toronto: MultiHealth Systems. Hare, R.D., and J.W. Jutai. 1983. Criminal History of the Male Psychopath: Some Preliminary Data. In Studies of Crime and Delinquency. eds. K.T. van Dusen, S.A. Mednick. Boston, MA: Kluwer Nijhoff Publishing. Hare, R.D., and L.M. McPherson. 1984. Violent and Aggressive Behavior by Criminal Psychopaths. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 7:35–50. Harris, G.T., M.E. Rice, and C.A. Cormier. 2002. Prospective Replication of the Violence Risk Appraisal Guide in Predicting Violent Recidivism among Forensic Patients. Law and Human Behavior 26:377–94. Harris, G.T., M.E. Rice, and V.L. Quinsey. 2008. Shall Evidence-Based Risk Assessment Be Abandoned? British Journal of Psychiatry 192:154. Hart, S.D. 1998. The Role of Psychopathy in Assessing Risk for Violence: Conceptual and Methodological Issues. Legal and Criminological Psychology 3:121–37. Hart, S.D., P.R. Kropp, D.R. Laws, J. Klaver, C. Logan, and K.A. Watt. 2003. The Risk for Sexual Violence Protocol (RSVP ): Structured Professional Guidelines for Assessing Risk of Sexual Violence. Burnaby, BC: Mental Health, Law and Policy Institute, Simon Fraser University. Hart, S.D., C. Michie, and D.J. Cooke. 2008. Shall Evidence-Based Risk Assessment be Abandoned? (authors’ reply). British Journal of Psychiatry 192:154. – 2007. Precision of Actuarial Risk Assessment Instruments: Evaluating the “Margins of Error” of Group v. Individual Predictions of Violence. British Journal of Psychiatry 190:s60–s65. Hiday, V.A. 2006. Putting Community Risk in Perspective: A Look at Correlations, Causes and Controls. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 29:316–31. Hiday, V.A., M.S. Swartz, J.W. Swanson, R. Borum, and H.R. Wagner. 1999. Criminal Victimization of Persons with Severe Mental Illness. Psychiatric Services 50:62–8. Hodgins, S. 2001. The Major Mental Disorders and Crime: Stop Debating and Start Treating and Preventing. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 24:427–46. – 1998. Epidemiological Investigations of the Associations between Major Mental Disorders and Crime: Methodological Limitations and Validity of the Conclusions. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 33:S29–37.

282

Bibliography

– 1997. An Overview of Research on the Prediction of Dangerousness. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry 5:33–8. – 1992. Mental Disorder, Intellectual Deficiency, and Crime: Evidence from a Birth Cohort. Archives of General Psychiatry 49:476–83. Hodgins, S., J. Alderton, A. Cree, A. Aboud, T. Mak, 2007. Aggressive Behavior, Victimisation and Crime among Severely Mentally Ill Patients Requiring Hospitalisation. British Journal of Psychiatry 191:343–50. Hodgins, S., and G. Côté. 1990. Prévalence des Troubles Mentaux Chez les  Détenus des Pénitenciers du Québec. Santé Mentale Au Canada 38:1–5. Hodgins, S., S.A. Mednick, P.A. Brennan, F. Shulsinger, and M. Engberg. 1996. Mental Disorder and Crime: Evidence from a Danish Birth Cohort. Archives of General Psychiatry 53:489–97. Hodgins, S., R. Müller-Isberner, and J.-F. Allaire. 2006. Attempting to Understand the Increase in the Number of Forensic Beds in Europe: A Multi-site Study of Patients in Forensic and General Psychiatric Services. International Journal of Forensic Mental Health 5:173–84. Hodgins, S., C.D. Webster, J. Paquet, and E. Zellerer. 1990. Base de Données Canadiennes: Personnes Détenues en Vertu d’un Mandant du Lieutenant Gouverneur (No. Rapport Annuel: Année 1). Montréal: Institut Philippe Pinel de Montréal. Howell, J., and K. Hall-Merenda. 1999. The Ties That Bind: The Impact of Leader-Member Exchange, Transformational and Transactional Leadership and Distance on Predicting Follower Performance. Journal of Applied Psychology 84:680–94. Humphreys, M.S., E.C. Johnstone, J.F. MacMillan, and P.J. Taylor. 1992. Dangerous Behaviour Preceding first Admissions for Schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry 161:501–5. Hyde, P.S., and R.P. Seiter. 1987. The Prevalence of Mental Illness among Inmates in the Ohio Prison System. Ohio: Department of Mental Health, Ohio Department of Rehabilitation and Correction. Jahr, E. 1998. Current Issues in Staff Training. Research in Developmental Disabilities 19:73–87. Jonikas, J. 1994. Staff Competencies for Service Delivery Staff in Psychosocial Rehabilitation Programs: A Review of the Literature. Unpublished manuscript. Krakowski, M., J. Volavka, and D. Brizer. 1986. Psychopathology and Violence: A Review of Literature. Comprehensive Psychiatry 27:131–48. Kroner, D.G., and J.F. Mills. 2001. The Accuracy of Five Risk Appraisal Instruments in Predicting Institutional Misconduct and New Convictions. Criminal Justice and Behaviour 28:471–89.

Bibliography

283

Kropp, R.P., and S.D. Hart. 2000. The Spousal Assault Risk Assessment (SARA) Guide: Reliability and Validity in Adult Male Offenders. Law and Human Behavior 24:101–18. Lafayette, J.M., W.G. Frankle, A. Pollock, K. Dyer, and D.C. Goff. 2003. Clinical Characteristics, Cognitive Functioning, and Criminal Histories of Outpatients with Schizophrenia. Psychiatric Services 54:1635–40. Lebart, L. 1994. Complementary Use of Correspondence Analysis and Cluster Analysis. In Correspondence Analysis in the Social Sciences: Recent Developments and Applications, 162–78. London Academic Press. Levene, K.S., L.K. Augimeri, D.J. Pepler, M.M. Walsh, C.D. Webster, and C.J. Koegl. 2001. Early Assessment Risk List for Girls (EARLS -21G ). Toronto, Ontario: Earlscourt Child Family Centre. Lewis, G., and L. Appleby. 1988. Personality Disorder: The Patients Psychiatrists Dislike. British Journal of Psychiatry 153:44–9. Lidz, C.W., E.P. Mulvey, and W. Gardner. 1993. The Accuracy of Predictions of Violence to Others. Journal of the American Medical Association 269:1007–11. Lindqvist, P., and P. Allebeck. 1990. Schizophrenia and Crime: A Longitudinal Follow-up of 644 Schizophrenics in Stockholm. British Journal of Psychiatry 157:345–50. Link, B.G., F.T. Cullen, and J. Frank. 1987. The Social Rejection of Former Mental Patients: Understanding Why Labels Matter. American Journal of Sociology 92:1461–1500. Link, B.G., J.C. Phelan, M. Bresnahan, A. Stueve, and B.A. Pescosolido. 1999. Public Conceptions of Mental Illness: Labels, Causes, Dangerousness, and Social Distance. American Journal of Public Health 89:1328–33. Livingston, J.A., D. Wilson, G. Tien, and L. Bond. 2003. A Follow-up Study of Persons Found Not Criminally Responsible on Account of Mental Disorder in British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 48:408–15. Livingston, J.D. 2006. A Statistical Survey of Canadian Forensic Mental Health Inpatient Programs. Healthcare Quarterly 9:56–61. Maden, A. 2003. Standardised Risk Assessment: Why All the Fuss? Psychiatric Bulletin 27:201–4. McCann, L., B. Colby, K.W. Easter, A. Kasterine, and K.V. Kuperan. 2005. Transaction Cost Measurement for Evaluating Environmental Policies. Ecological Economics 52:527–42. McCusker, P.J. 2007. Issues Regarding the Clinical Use of the Classification of Violence Risk (COVR) Assessment Instrument. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 51:676–85. McDermott, B.E., J.F. Edens, C.D. Quanbeck, D. Busse, and C.L. Scott. 2007. Examining the Role of Static and Dynamic Risk Factors in the

284

Bibliography

Prediction of Inpatient Violence: Variable- and Person-Focused Analyses. Law and Human Behavior 32:325–38. McNiel, D.E., A.L. Gregory, J.N. Lam, R.L. Binder, and G.R. Sullivan. 2003. Utility of Decision Support Tools for Assessing Acute Risk of Violence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 71:945–53. Melton, G.B., J. Petrila, N.G. Poythress, and C. Slobogin. 1997. Psychological Evaluations for the Courts: A Handbook for Mental Health Professionals and Lawyers. 2d ed. New York: The Guilford Press. Milne, D.L., O. Gorenski, C. Westerman, C. Leek, and D. Keegan. 2000. What Does It Take to Transfer Training. American Journal of Psychiatric Rehabilitation 4:259–81. Milton, J., S. Amin, S.P. Singh, G. Harrison, P. Jones, T. Croudace, I. Medley, and J. Brewin. 2001. Aggressive Incidents in First-Episode Psychosis. British Journal of Psychiatry 178:433–40. Ministère de la Santé et des Services Sociaux. 2005. Plan d’Action en Santé Mentale 2005–2010: la Force des Liens. Québec: Gouvernement du Québec. Monahan, J. 1984. The Prediction of Violent Behavior: Toward a Second Generation of Theory and Policy. American Journal of Psychiatry 141:10–15. – 1981a. The Clinical Prediction of Violent Behavior. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications. – 1981b. Predicting Violent Behavior: An Assessment of Clinical Techniques. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications. Monahan, J., R.J. Bonnie, P.S. Appelbaum, P.S. Hyde, H.J. Steadman, and M.S. Swartz. 2001. Mandated Community Treatment: Beyond Outpatient Commitment. Psychiatric Services 52:1198–1205. Monahan, J., and H.J. Steadman. 1994. Violence and Mental Disorder: Developments in Risk Assessment. Mental Disorder, Substance Abuse, and Community Violence: An Epidemiological Approach. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Monahan, J., H.J. Steadman, P.S. Appelbaum, T. Grisso, E. P. Mulvey, L.H. Roth, P.C. Robbins, S. Banks, and E. Silver. 2006. The Classification of Violence Risk. Behavioral Sciences & the Law 24:721–30. Monahan, J., H.J. Steadman, P.C. Robbins, P. Appelbaum, S. Banks, T. Grisso, K. Heilbrun, E.P. Mulvey, L. Roth, and E. Silver. 2005. An Actuarial Model of Violence Risk Assessment for Persons with Mental Disorders. Psychiatric Services 56:810–5. Monahan, J., H.J. Steadman, E. Silver, P.S. Appelbaum, P. Robbins, and E.P. Mulvey. 2001. Rethinking Risk Assessment: The MacArthur Study on Mental Disorder and Violence. New York: Oxford University Press.

Bibliography

285

Mossman, D. 1994. Assessing Predictions of Violent Behaviour: Being Accurate about Accuracy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 62:783–92. Motiuk, L.L., and F.J. Porporino. 1992. The Prevalence, Nature and Severity of Mental Health Problems among Federal Male Inmates in Canadian Penitentiaries. Ottawa, Ontario: Correctional Service of Canada. Mueser, K.T., A.G. Crocker, L.B. Frisman, R.E. Drake, N.H. Covell, and S.M. Essock. 2006. Conduct Disorder and Antisocial Personality Disorder in Persons with Severe Psychiatric and Substance Use Disorders. Schizophrenia Bulletin 32:626–36. Mueser, K.T., and R.E. Drake. 2007. Comorbidity: What Have We Learned and Where Are We Going? Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice 14:64–9. Mueser, K.T., R.E. Drake, A.I. Alterman, T.H. Ackerson, K.M. Miles, and D.L. Noordsy. 1997. Antisocial Personality Disorder, Conduct Disorder, and Substance Abuse in Schizophrenia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 106:473–7. Mueser, K.T., R.E. Drake, and K.M. Miles. 1997. The Course and Treatment of Substance Use Disorder in Persons with Severe Mental Illness. In Treatment of Drug-dependant Individuals with Comorbid Mental Disorders, ed. L. Simon Onken, J.D. Blaine, S. Genser, and A. MacNeill Horton, (vol. 172): National Institute on Drug Abuse. Mueser, K.T., W.C. Torrey, D. Lynde, P. Singer, and R.E. Drake. 2003. Implementing Evidence-based Practices for People with Severe Mental Illness. Behavior Modification 27:387–411. Mullen, E.J. 2006. Choosing Outcome Measures in Systematic Reviews: Critical Challenges. Research on Social Work Practices 16:84–90. Mulvey, E.P. 2002. Initial Findings from an Intensive Follow-up of Violent Mental Patients: Patterns of Community Violence. Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Psychology-Law Society. Neighbors, H.W., D.H. Williams, T.S. Gunnings, W.D. Lipscomb, C. Broman, and J. Lepkowski. 1987. The Prevalence of Mental Disorder in Michigan Prisons. Final Report Submitted to the Michigan Department of Corrections. Lansing: Michigan Department of Corrections. Nicholls, T.L., J. Brink, S.L. Desmarais, C.D. Webster, and M.L. Martin. 2006. The Short-term Assessment of Risk and Treatability (START): A Prospective Validation Study in a Forensic Psychiatric Sample. Assessment 13:313–27. Nicholls, T.L., P. Lussier, J. Brink, S.N. Verdun-Jones, and J.-F Allaire. 2008. Profiles of Aggressors in a Forensic Psychiatric Inpatient Population. Paper Presented at Paper Presented at the American Psychology-Law Society, Jacksonville, Florida.

286

Bibliography

Nicholls, T.L., J.R. Ogloff, and K.S. Douglas. 2004. Assessing Risk for Violence among Male and Female Civil Psychiatric Patients: The HCR20, PCL:SV, and VSC. Behavioral Sciences and the Law 22:127–58. Noble, P. 1997. Violence in Psychiatric Inpatients: Review and Clinical Implications. International Review of Psychiatry 9:207–16. Norko, M.A., and M.V. Baranoski. 2005. The State of Contemporary Risk Assessment Research. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 50:18–26. Novac, S., J. Darden, D. Hulchanski, and A.M. Seguin. 2002. Housing Discrimination in Canada: What Do We Know About It? University of Toronto: The Centre for Urban and Community Studies, Research Bulletin #11. Ogloff, J.R., and M. Daffern. 2006. The Dynamic Appraisal of Situational Aggression: An Instrument to Assess Risk for Imminent Aggression in Psychiatric Inpatients. Behavioral Sciences & the Law 24:799–813. Ohayon, M.M., and A.G. Crocker. 2000. Impact of Bill C-30 in the Province of Quebec. In Mental Disorders and the Criminal Code: Legal Background and Contemporary Perspectives, 118–28. Burnaby BC: Mental Health Law and Policy Institute, Simon Fraser University. Ohayon, M.M., A. Crocker, B. St-Onge, and M. Caulet. 1998. Fitness, Responsibility, and Judicially Ordered Assessments. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 43:491–5. Paquet, J., A.G. Crocker, M.M. Ohayon, and G. Côté. 1993. La Mise en Application et Les Répercussions de la Loi C -30: Les Personnes Ayant Reçu Une Ordonnance D’évaluation Psychiatrique Entre Le 4 Février 1992 et le 31 Mars 1993 Sous La Responsabilité Administrative De L’Institut Philippe Pinel de Montréal. Rapport Préliminaire Soumis au Ministère de la Justice du Canada. Montréal: Centre de Recherche de L’Institut Philippe Pinel de Montréal. Pasewark, R.A., M.L. Pantle, and H.J. Steadman. 1982. Detention and Rearrest Rates of Persons Found Not Guilty by Reason of Insanity and Convicted Felons. American Journal of Psychiatry 139:892–7. – 1979. Characteristics and Dispositions of Persons Found Not Guilty by Reason of Insanity in New York State, 1971–6. American Journal of Psychiatry 136:655–60. Perlin, M.L. 2003. Therapeutic Jurisprudence and Outpatient Commitment Law: Kendra’s Law as Case Study. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law. Special Issue: Preventive Outpatient Commitment for Persons with Serious Mental Illness 9:183–208. Petrila, J., M.S. Ridgely, and R. Borum. 2003. Debating Outpatient Commitment: Controversy, Trends, and Empirical Data. Crime and Delinquency 49:157–72.

Bibliography

287

Petursson, H., and G.H. Gudjonsson. 1981. Psychiatric Aspects of Homicide. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 64:363–72. Pham, T.H. 1998. Évaluation Psychométrique du Questionnaire de la Psychopathie de Hare Auprès d’une Population Carcérale Belge. L’Encéphale 24:435–41. Phelan, J.C., and B.G. Link. 1998. The Growing Belief that People with Mental Illnesses Are Violent: The Role of the Dangerousness Criterion for Civil Commitment. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 33:s7–s12. Pogrebin, M.R., and E.D. Poole. 1987. Deinstitutionalization and Increased Arrest Rates among the Mentally Disordered. Journal of Psychiatry and Law 15:117–27. Priebe, S., A. Badesconyi, A. Fioritti, L. Hansson, R. Kilian, F. TorresGonzales, T. Turner, and D. Wiersma. 2005. Re-institutionalisation in Mental Health Care: Comparison of Data on Service Provision from Six European Countries. British Medical Journal 330:123–6. Quinsey, V.L., G. Coleman, B. Jones, and I.F. Altrows. 1997. Proximal Antecedents of Eloping and Re-offending among Supervised Mentally Disordered Offenders. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 12:794–813. Quinsey, V.L., G.T. Harris, M.E. Rice, and C.A. Cormier. 1998. Violent Offenders: Appraising and Managing Risk. Washington: American Psychological Association. Rice, M.E. 1997. Violent Offender Research and Implications for the Criminal Justice System. American Psychologist 52:414–23. Rice, M.E., G.T. Harris, and C.A. Cormier. 1992. An Evaluation of a Maximum Security Therapeutic Community for Psychopaths and Other Mentally Disordered Offenders. Law and Human Behavior 16:399–412. Ridgely, M.S., H.H. Goldman, and J.A. Talbott. 1986. Chronic Mentally Ill Young Adults with Substance Abuse Problems: A Review of Relevant Literature and Creation of a Research Agenda. Baltimore, MD: University of Maryland School of Medicine, Mental Health Policy Studies. Robertson, R.G., T. Gupton, S.B. McCabe, and R.G. Bankier. 1997. Clinical and Demographic Variables Related to “Fitness to Stand Trial” Assessments in Manitoba. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 42:191–5. Robins, L.N., and D. Regier. 1991. Psychiatric Disorders in America: The Epidemiological Catchment Area Study. New York: Free Press. Roesch, R., J.R.P. Ogloff, and S.D. Hart. 1993. The Impact of Bill C -30 on Remands and Assessments of Fitness to Stand Trial and Criminal Responsibility: A Report. Ottawa: Department of Justice. Rosenheck, R.A. 2001. Organizational Process: A Missing Link between Research and Practice. Psychiatric Services 52:1607–12.

288

Bibliography

Ross, D.J., S.D. Hart, and C.D. Webster. 1998. Aggression in Psychiatric Patients using the HCR-20 to Assess Risk for Violence in Hospital and in the Community. Port Coquitlam, BC (Canada): Riverview Hospital Impulsivity Project. Schneider, R.D., M. Forestell, and S. MacGarvie. 2002. Statistical Survey of Provincial and Territorial Review Boards. Ottawa, Canada: Department of Justice. Schneider, R.D., G.D. Glancy, J.M. Bradford, and E. Seibenmorgen. 2000. Canadian Landmark Case, Winko v. British Columbia: Revisiting the Conundrum of the Mentally Disordered Accused. Journal of American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law 28:206–12. Silver, E., E.P. Mulvey, and J. Monahan. 1999. Assessing Violence Risk among Discharged Psychiatric Patients: Toward an Ecological Approach. Law and Human Behavior 23:237–55. Skeem, J.L., and E.P. Mulvey. 2001. Psychopathy and Community Violence among Civil Psychiatric Patients: Results from the MacArthur Violence Risk Assessment Study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 69:358–74. Steadman, H.J., E.P. Mulvey, J. Monahan, P.C. Robbins, P. S. Appelbaum, T. Grisso, L.H. Roth, and E. Silver. 1998. Violence by People Discharged from Acute Psychiatric Inpatient Facilities and by Others in the Same Neighbourhoods. Archives of General Psychiatry 55:393–401. Stuart, H., and J.E. Arboleda-Florez. 2001. A Public Health Perspective on Violent Offences among Persons with Mental Illness. Psychiatric Services 52:654–9. Sullivan, A.M., J. Bezmen, C.T. Barron, J. Rivera, L. Curley-Casey, and D. Marino. 2005. Reducing Restraints: Alternatives to Restraints on an Inpatient Psychiatric Service – Utilizing Safe and Effective Methods to Evaluate and Treat the Violent Patient. Psychiatric Quarterly 76:51–65. Swanson, J.W. 1994. Mental Disorder, Substance Abuse, and Community Violence: An Epidemiological Approach. In Violence and Mental disorder: Developments in Risk Assessment, ed. J. Monahan and H.J. Steadman, 101–36. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Swanson, J.W., C.E. Holzer, V.K. Ganju, and R.T. Jono. 1990. Violence and Psychiatric Disorder in the Community: Evidence from the Epidemiologic Catchment Area Surveys. Hospital & Community Psychiatry 41:761–70. Swanson, J.W., M.S. Swartz, R. Van Dorn, E.B. Wagner, H.R. Rosenheck, et al. 2006. A National Study of Violent Behavior in Persons with Schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 63:490–9.

Bibliography

289

Tengstrom, A. 2001. Long-Term Predictive Validity of Historical Factors in Two Risk Assessment Instruments in a Group of Violent Offenders with Schizophrenia. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry 55:243–9. Temgstrom, A., M. Grann, N. Langstrom, and G. Kullen. 2000. Psychopathy (PCL-R) as a Predictor of Violent Recidivism among Criminal Offenders with Schizophrenia. Law and Human Behavior 24:45–58. Teplin, L.A. 1994. Psychiatric and Substance Abuse Disorders Among Male Urban Jail Detainees. American Journal of Public Health 84:290–3. – 1990. The Prevalence of Severe Mental Disorder among Male Urban Jail Detainees: Comparison with the Epidemiologic Catchment Area Program. American Journal of Public Health 80:663–9. Teplin, L.A., K.M. Abram, and G.M. McClelland. 1996. Prevalence of Psychiatric Disorders among Incarcerated Women. I. Pretrial Jail Detainees. Archives of General Psychiatry 53:505–12. Teplin, L.A., G.M. McClelland, K.M. Abram, and D.A. Weiner. 2005. Crime Victimization in Adults with Severe Mental Illness: Comparison with the National Crime Victimization Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry 62:911–21. Test, M.A., W.H. Knoedler, D.J. Allness, and S.S. Burke. 1985. Characteristics of Young Adults with Schizophrenic Disorders Treated in the Community. Hospital and Community Psychiatry 36:853–8. Tiihonen, J., M. Isohanni, P. Rasanen, M. Koiranen, and J. Moring. 1997. Specific Major Mental Disorders and Criminality: A 26–year Prospective Study of the 1966 Northern Finland Birth Cohort. American Journal of Psychiatry 154:840–5. Tolman, A.O., and A.L. Rotzien. 2007. Conducting Risk Evaluations for Future Violence: Ethical Practice is Possible. Professional Psychology – Research & Practice 38:71–9. Torrey, W., R. Bebout, J. Kline, D.R. Becker, M. Alverson and R.E. Drake. 1998. Practice Guide for Clinicians Working in Programs Providing Integrated Vocational and Clinical Services for Persons with Severe Mental Disorders. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 21:388–93. Volavka, J., E. Laska, S. Baker, M. Meisner, P. Czobor, and I. Krivelevich. 1997. History of Violent Behaviour and Schizophrenia in Different Cultures: Analyses Based on the WHO Study on Determinants of Outcome of Severe Mental Disorders. British Journal of Psychiatry 171:9–14. Von Bertalanffy, L. 1968. General System Theory: Foundations, Development, Applications. New York: George Braziller. – 1967. Robots, Men and Minds: Psychology in the Modern World. New York: George Braziller.

290

Bibliography

Wallace, C.J., P.E. Mullen, and P. Burgess. 2004. Criminal Offending in Schizophrenia over a Twenty-five-Year Period Marked by Deinstitutionalization and Increasing Prevalence of Comorbid Substance Use Disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry 161:716–27. Wallace, C., P. Mullen, P. Burgess, S. Palmer, D. Ruschena, and C. Browne. 1998. Serious Criminal Offending and Mental Disorder: Case Linkage Study. British Journal of Psychiatry 172:477–84. Wang, E.W., and P.M. Diamond. 1999. Empirically Identifying Factors Related to Violence Risk in Corrections. Behavioral Sciences & the Law 17:377–89. Webster, C.D., K.S. Douglas, D. Eaves, and S.D. Hart. 1997. HCR-20: Assessing Risk for Violence (version 2). Vancouver: Mental Health Law and Policy Institute, Simon Fraser University. Webster, C.D., G.T. Harris, M. Rice, C.A. Cormier, and V.L. Quinsey. 1994. The Violence Prediction Scheme: Assessing Dangerousness in High Risk Men. Toronto, Ontario: Centre of Criminology, University of Toronto. Webster, C.D., and S.J. Hucker. 2003. Release Decision Making: Assessing Violence Risk in Mental Health, Forensic, and Correctional Settings. Hamilton: Forensic Service, St Joseph’s Healthcare. Webster, C.D., M.L. Martin, T.L. Nicholls, and C. Middleton. 2004. ShortTerm Assessment of Risk and Treatability (START ). Hamilton, ON: Forensic Service, St-Joseph’s Healthcare. Webster, C.D., R. Müeller-Isberner, and G. Fransson. 2002. Violence Risk Assessment: Using Structured Clinical Guides Professionally. International Journal of Forensic Mental Health 1:42–51. Webster, C.D., T.L. Nicholls, M.L. Martin, S.L. Desmarais, and J. Brink. 2006. Short-term Assessment of Risk and Treatability (START): The Case for a New Structured Professional Judgment Scheme. Behavioral Sciences & the Law 24:747–66. Weller, M.P.I., and B.G.A. Weller. 1988. Crime and Mental Illness. Medicine, Science and the Law 28:38–46. Wessely, S.C., D. Castle, A.J. Douglas, and P.J. Taylor. 1994. The Criminal Careers of Incident Cases of Schizophrenia. Psychological Medicine 24:483–502. Williams, D.H., E.C. Bellis, and S.W. Wellington. 1980. Deinstitutionalization and Social Policy: Historical Perspectives and Present Dilemmas. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 50:54–64. Williamson, S., R.D. Hare, and S. Wong. 1987. Violence: Criminal Psychopaths and Their Victims. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science 19:454–62. Winko v. British Columbia (Forensic Psychiatric Institute), 2 S.C.R. 625, 1999.

Bibliography

291

Zapf, P.A., and R. Roesch. 1998. Fitness to Stand Trial: Characteristics of Remands since the 1992 Criminal Code Amendments. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 43:287–93.

Chapter eight Alisky, J.M., and K.A. Iczkowski. 1990. Barriers to Housing for Deinstitutionalized Psychiatric Patients. Hospital & Community Psychiatry 41:93–5. Allen, N.B., and P.B. Badcock. 2003. The Social Risk Hypothesis of Depressed Mood: Evolutionary, Psychosocial, and Neurobiological Perspectives. Psychological Bulletin 129:887–913. Amir, Y. 1976. The Role of Intergroup Contact in Change of Prejudice and Ethnic Relations. In Towards the Elimination of Racism, ed. P.A. Katz. New York: Pergamon Press. Angermeyer, M.C. 2002. From Intuition to Evidence-based Anti-stigma Interventions. World Psychiatry 1:21–2. Angermeyer, M.C., M. Beck, and H. Matschinger. 2003. Determinants of the Public’s Preference for Social Distance from People with Schizophrenia. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 48:663–8. Angermeyer, M.C., and H. Matschinger. 2005. Causal Beliefs and Attitudes to People with Schizophrenia: Trend Analysis Based on Data from Two Population Surveys in Germany. British Journal of Psychiatry 186:331–4. – 2004. The Stereotype of Schizophrenia and Its Impact on Discrimination against People with Schizophrenia: Results from a Representative Survey in Germany. Schizophrenia Bulletin 30:1049–61. – 2003. Public Beliefs about Schizophrenia and Depression: Similarities and Differences. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 38:526–34. – 1997. Social Distance towards the Mentally Ill: Results of Representative Surveys in the Federal Republic of Germany. Psychological Medicine 27:131–41. – 1996. The Effect of Violent Attacks by Schizophrenic Persons on the Attitude of the Public towards the Mentally Ill. Social Science Medicine 43:1721–8. Angermeyer, M.C., B. Schulze, and S. Dietrich. 2003. Courtesy Stigma – A Focus Group Study of Relatives of Schizophrenia Patients. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 38:593–602. Arkar, H., and D. Eker. 1997. Influence of a 3–week Psychiatric Training Programme on Attitudes toward Mental Illness in Medical Students. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 32:171–6. Bardi, A., and S.H. Schwartz, 2003. Values and Behavior: Strength and Structure of Relations. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 29:1207–20.

292

Bibliography

Baumeister, R.F., and M.R. Leary. 1995. The Need to Belong: Desire for Interpersonal Attachments as a Fundamental Human Motivation. Psychological Bulletin 117:497–529. Bessenoff, G.R., and J.W. Sherman. 2000. Automatic and Controlled Components of Prejudice toward Fat People: Evaluation versus Stereotype. Social Cognition 18:329–53. Biernat, M., T.K. Vescio, S.A. Theno, et al. 1996. Values and Prejudice: Toward Understanding the Impact of American Values on Outgroup Attitudes. In The Psychology of Human Values: The Ontario Symposium, eds. C. Seligman, J.M. Olson, and M.P. Zanna. Vol. 8. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Birchwood, M., P. Trower, K. Brunet, P. Gilbert, Z. Iqbal, and C. Jackson. 2007. Social Anxiety and the Shame of Psychosis: A Study in First Episode Psychosis. Behavior Research and Therapy 45:1025–37. Bowman, C.H., and M. Fishbein. 1978. Understanding Public Reaction to Energy Proposals: An Application of the Fishbein Model. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 8:319–40. Brown, R. 1988. Group Processes: Dynamics within and between Groups. 2d ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. Byrne, P. 2006. Review of Reducing the Stigma of Mental Illness: A Report from a Global Program of the World Psychiatric Association. Psychological Medicine 36:279–80. Callaghan, P., C. Shan, L.S. Yu, et al. 1997. Attitudes towards Mental Illness: Testing the Contact Hypothesis among Chinese Student Nurses in Hong Kong. Journal of Advanced Nursing 26:33–40. Cialdini, R.B. 2003. Crafting Normative Messages to Protect the Environment. Current Directions in Psychological Science 12:105–9. Cialdini, R.B., C.A. Kallgren, and R.R. Reno. 1991. A Focus Theory of Normative Conduct: A Theoretical Refinement and Re-evaluation of the Roles of Norms in Human Behavior. In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, ed. M.P. Zanna. Vol. 24. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Cialdini, R.B., R.R. Reno, and C.A. Kallgren. 1990. A Focus Theory of Normative Conduct: Recycling the Concept of Norms to Reduce Littering in Public Places. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 58:1015–26. Cohen, S., and T.A. Wills. 1985. Stress, Social Support, and the Buffering Hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin 98:310–57. Corrigan, P.W. 2004. How Stigma Interferes with Mental Health Care. American Psychology 59:614–25. – 2002. Testing Social Cognitive Models of Mental Illness Stigma: The Prairie State Stigma Studies. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Skills 6:232–54.

Bibliography

293

– 2000. Mental Health Stigma as Social Attribution: Implications for Research Methods and Attitude Change. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice 7:48–67. – ed. 2005. On the Stigma of Mental Illness: Practical Strategies for Research and Social Change. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Corrigan, P.W., A.B. Edwards, A. Green, S.L. Diwan, and D.L. Penn. 2001. Prejudice, Social Distance, and Familiarity with Mental Illness. Schizophrenia Bulletin 27:219–25. Corrigan, P.W., and R. Lundin. 2001. Don’t Call Me Nuts: Coping with the Stigma of Mental Illness. Tinley Park, Illinois: Recovery Press. Corrigan, P.W., F.E. Markowitz, and A.C. Watson. 2004. Structural Levels of Mental Illness Stigma and Discrimination. Schizophrenia Bulletin 30:481–91. Corrigan, P.W., and F.E. Miller. 2004. Shame, Blame, and Contamination: A Review of the Impact of Mental Illness Stigma on Family Members. Journal of Mental Health 13:537–48. Corrigan, P.W., L.P. River, R.K. Lundin, D.L. Penn, K. Uphoff-Wasowski, J. Campion, J. Mathisen, et al. 2001. Three Strategies for Changing Attributions about Severe Mental Illness. Schizophrenia Bulletin 27:187–95. Corrigan, P.W., D. Rowan, A. Green, R. Lundin, P. River, K. UphoffWasowski, K. White, and M.A. Kubiak. 2002. Challenging Two Mental Illness Stigmas: Personal Responsibility and Dangerousness. Schizophrenia Bulletin 28:293–309. Corrigan, P.W., and A.C. Watson. 2002. The Paradox of Self-stigma and Mental Illness. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice 9:35–53. – 2002. Understanding the Impact of Stigma on People with Mental Illness. World Psychiatry 1:16–20. Corrigan, P.W., A.C. Watson, and L. Barr. 2006. The Self-stigma of Mental Illness: Implications for Self-esteem and Self-efficacy. Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology 25:875–84. Couture, S.M., and D.L. Penn. 2003. Interpersonal Contact and the Stigma of Mental Illness: A Review of the Literature. Journal of Mental Health 12:291–305. Crandall, C.S., and A. Eshleman. 2003. A Justification-Suppression Model of the Expression and Experience of Prejudice. Psychological Bulletin 129:414–46. Crandall, C.S., A. Eshleman, and L. O’Brien. 2002. Social Norms and the Expression and Suppression of Prejudice: The Struggle for Internalization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 82:359–78.

294

Bibliography

Crisp, A.H., M.G. Gelder, S.Rix, H.I. Meltzer, and O.J. Rowlands. 2000. Stigmatisation of People with Mental Illnesses. British Journal of Psychiatry 177:4–7. Davidson, M. 2002. What Else Can We Do to Combat Stigma? World Psychiatry 1:22–3. Davies, M.R. 2000. The Stigma of Anxiety Disorders. International Journal of Clinical Practice 54:44–7. de Haan, L., B. Peters, P. Dingemans, L. Wouters, and D. Linszen. 2002. Attitudes of Patients toward the First Psychotic Episode and the Start of Treatment. Schizophrenia Bulletin 28:431–42. Desforges, D.M., C.G. Lord, S.L. Ramsey, J.A. Mason, M.D. Van Leeuwen, S.C. West, and M.R. Lepper. 1991. Effects of Structured Cooperative Contact on Changing Negative Attitudes toward Stigmatized Social Groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 60:531–44. Dietrich, S., H. Matschinger, and M.C. Angermeyer. 2006. The Relationship between Biogenetic Causal Explanations and Social Distance toward People with Mental Disorders: Results from a Population Survey in Germany. International Journal of Social Psychiatry 52:166–74. Dovidio, J.F., and S.L. Gaertner. 1991. Changes in the Expression and Assessment of Racial Prejudice. In Opening Doors: Perspectives on Race Relations in Contemporary America., eds. H.J. Knopke, R.J. Norrell, and R.W. Rogers. Tuscaloosa, AL: The University of Alabama Press. Druss, B.G., W.D. Bradford, R.A. Rosenheck, M.J. Radford, and H.M. Krumholz. 2001. Quality of Medical Care and Excess Mortality in Older Patients with Mental Disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry 58:565–72. Druss, B.G., and R.A. Rosenheck. 1998. Mental Disorders and Access to Medical Care in the United States. American Journal of Psychiatry 155:1775–7. Erickson, D.H., M. Beiser, W.G. Iacono, J.A. Fleming, and T.Y. Lin. 1989. The Role of Social Relationships in the Course of First-Episode Schizophrenia and Affective Psychosis. American Journal of Psychiatry 146:1456–61. Estroff, S.E., D.L. Penn, and J.R. Toporek. 2004. From Stigma to Discrimination: An Analysis of Community Efforts to Reduce the Negative Consequences of Having a Psychiatric Disorder and Label. Schizophrenia Bulletin 30:493–509. Farina, A., and R.D. Feliner. 1973. Employment Interviewer Reactions to Former Mental Patients. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 82:268–72. Farina, A., and K. Ring. 1965. The Influence of Perceived Mental Illness on Interpersonal Relations. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 70:47–51.

Bibliography

295

Gaebel, W., and A.E. Baumann. 2003. Interventions to Reduce the Stigma Associated with Severe Mental Illness: Experiences from the Open the Doors Program in Germany. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 48:657–62. Gaebel, W., H. Zaske, and A.E. Baumann. 2006. The Relationship between Mental Illness Severity and stigma. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 429:41–5. Galletly, C.A., G.D. Schrader, H.M. Chesterman, and G. Tsourtos. 1995. Medical Student Attitudes to Psychiatry: Lack of Effect of Psychiatric Hospital Experience. Medical Education 29:449–51. Gawronski, B., and G.V. Bodenhausen. 2006. Associative and Propositional Processes in Evaluation: An Integrative Review of Implicit and Explicit Attitude Change. Psychological Bulletin 132:692–731. Goffman, E. 1963. Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoilt Identity. Prentice-Hall, NJ: Englewood Cliffs. Greenstein, T. 1976. Behavior Change through Value Self-Confrontation: A Field Experiment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 34:254–62. Griffiths, K.M., Y. Nakane, H. Christensen, K. Yoshioka, A.F. Jorm, and H. Nakane. 2006. Stigma in Response to Mental Disorders: A Comparison of Australia and Japan. BMC Psychiatry 6:1–12. Grube, J.W., D.M. Mayton, and S.J. Ball-Rokeach. 1994. Inducing Changes in Values, Attitudes, and Behaviors: Belief System Theory and the Method of Value Self-Confrontation. Journal of Social Issues 50:153–73. Haddock, G., M.P. Zanna, and V.M. Esses. 1993. Assessing the Structure of Prejudicial Attitudes: The Case of Attitudes toward Homosexuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65:1105–18. Haghighat, R. 2001. A Unitary Theory of Stigmatisation: Pursuit of Selfinterest and Routes to Destigmatisation. British Journal of Psychiatry 178:207–15. Hayward, P., and J.A. Bright. 1997. Stigma and Mental Illness: A Review and Critique. Journal of Mental Health 6:345–54. Hebl, M.R., and J.F. Dovidio. 2005. Promoting the “Social” in the Examination of Social Stigmas. Personality and Social Psychology Review 9:156–82. Hemmens, C., M. Miller, V.S. Burton Jr, and S. Milner. 2002. The Consequences of Official Labels: An Examination of the Rights Lost by the Mentally Ill and Mentally Incompetent Ten Years Later. Community Mental Health Journal 38:129–40. Hudson, T.J., R.R. Owen, C.R. Thrush, X. Han, J.M. Pyne, P. Thapa, and G. Sullivan. 2004. A Pilot Study of Barriers to Medication Adherence in Schizophrenia. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 65:211–16.

296

Bibliography

Jussim, L., T.E. Nelson, M. Manis, and S. Soffin. 1995. Prejudice, Stereotypes, and Labeling Effects: Sources of Bias in Person Perception. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 68:228–46. Kallgren, A.A., R.R. Reno, and R.B. Cialdini. 2000. A Focus Theory of Normative Conduct: When Norms Do and Do Not Affect Behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 26:1002–12. Kelly, C.M., and A.F. Jorm. 2007. Stigma and Mood Disorders. Current Opinion in Psychiatry 20:13–16. Kendler, K.S., L.M. Thornton, and C.O. Gardner. 2001. Genetic Risk, Number of Previous Depressive Episodes, and Stressful Life Events in Predicting Onset of Major Depression. American Journal of Psychiatry 158:582–6. Knight, M.T.D., T. Wykes, and P. Hayward. 2006. Group Treatment of Perceived Stigma and Self-esteem in Schizophrenia: A Waiting List Trial of Efficacy. Behavioral and Cognitive Psychotherapy 34:305–18. Kolodziej, M.E., and B.T. Johnson. 1996. Interpersonal Contact and Acceptance of Persons with Psychiatric Disorders: A Research Synthesis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 64:1387–96. Kurzban, R., and M.R. Leary. 2001. Evolutionary Origins of Stigmatization: The Functions of Social Exclusion. Psychological Bulletin 127:187–208. Lauber, C., M. Anthony, V. Ajdacic-Gross, and W. Rossler. 2004. What about Psychiatrists’ Attitude to Mentally Ill People? European Psychiatry 19:423–7. Lauber, C., C. Nordt, C. Braunschweig, and W. Rossler. 2006. Do Mental Health Professionals Stigmatize Their Patients? Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 429:51–9. Leary, M.R. 1990. Responses to Social Exclusion: Social Anxiety, Jealousy, Loneliness, Depression, and Low Self-Esteem. Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology 9:221–9. Leary, M.R., and R.F. Baumeister, eds. 2000. The Nature and Functions of Self-esteem: Sociometer Theory. In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology., ed. M.P. Zanna. Vol. 32. St. Louis, MO: Academic Press. Leary, M.R., L.S. Schreindorfer, and A.L. Haupt. 1995. The Role of Low Selfesteem in Emotional and Behavioral Problems: Why Is Low Self-esteem Dysfunctional? Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology 14:297–314. Lee, S., M.Y. Chiu, and A. Tsang et al. 2006. Stigmatizing Experience and Structural Discrimination Associated with the Treatment of Schizophrenia in Hong Kong. Social Science and Medicine 62:1685–96. Leff, J.P., and R. Warner. 2006. Social Inclusion of People with Mental Illness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Link, B.G. 2001. Stigma: Many Mechanisms Require Multifaceted Responses. Epidemiologia e Psichiatria Sociale 10:8–11.

Bibliography

297

Link, B.G., F.T. Cullen, and J. Frank et al. 1987. The Social Rejection of Former Mental Patients: Understanding Why Labels Matter. American Journal of Sociology 92:1461–1500. Link, B.G., F.T. Cullen, and E.L. Struening et al. 1989. A Modified Labeling Theory Approach to Mental Disorders: an Empirical Assessment. American Sociological Review 54:400–23. Link, B.G., and J.C. Phelan. 2001. Conceptualizing Stigma. Annual Review of Sociology 27:263–385. Link, B.G., J.C. Phelan, M. Bresnahan, A. Stueve, and B.A. Pescosolido. 1999. Public Conceptions of Mental Illness: Labels, Causes, Dangerousness, and Social Distance. American Journal of Public Health 89:1328–33. Link, B.G., E.L. Struening, S. Neese-Todd, et al. 2002. On Describing and Seeking to Change the Experience of Stigma. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Skills 2:201–231. Lysaker, P.H., L.W. Davis, D.M. Warman, A. Strasburger, and N. Beattie. 2007. Stigma, Social Function and Symptoms in Schizophrenia and Schizoaffective Disorder: Associations across Six Months. Psychiatry Research 149:89–95. Lysaker, P.H., D. Roe, and P.T. Yanos. 2007. Toward Understanding the Insight Paradox: Internalized Stigma Moderates the Association between Insight and Social Functioning, Hope, and Self-esteem among People with Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders. Schizophrenia Bulletin 33:192–9. Macdonald, E.M., R.L. Hayes, and A.J. Baglioni Jr. 2000. The Quantity and Quality of the Social Networks of Young People with Early Psychosis Compared with Closely Matched Controls. Schizophrenia Research 46:25–30. Marwaha, S., and S. Johnson. 2004. Schizophrenia and Employment – A Review. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 39:337–49. McConnell, A.R., and J.M. Leibold. 2001. Relations among the Implicit Association Test, Discriminatory Behavior, and Explicit Measures of Racial Attitudes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 37:435–42. McEwen, B.S. 2000. The Neurobiology of Stress: From Serendipity to Clinical Relevance. Brain Research 886:172–89. Mehta, S., and A. Farina. 1997. Is Being “Sick” Really Better? Effect of the Disease View of Mental Disorder on Stigma. Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology 16:405–19. Miller, D.T., B. Monin, and D.A. Prentice, eds. 2000. Pluralistic Ignorance and Inconsistency between Private Attitudes and Public Behavior. In Attitudes, Behavior, and Social Context: The Role of Norms and Group Membership., eds. D.J. Terry, M.A. Hogg. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Mino, Y., N. Yasuda, S. Kanazawa, and S. Inoue. 2000. Effects of Medical Education on Attitudes towards Mental Illness among Medical Students: A Five-Year Follow-up Study. Acta Medica Okayama 54:127–32.

298

Bibliography

Morrison, J.K., J.J. Cocozza, and D. Vanderwyst. 1980. An Attempt to Change the Negative, Stigmatizing Image of Mental Patients through Brief Reeducation. Psychological Reports 47:334. Murray, S.L., G. Haddock, and M.P. Zanna. 1996. On Creating Value-Expressive Attitudes: An Experimental Approach. Paper Presented at The Psychology of Values: The Ontario Symposium on Personality and Social Psychology. Myin-Germeys, I., and J. van Os. 2007. Stress-Reactivity in Psychosis: Evidence for an Affective Pathway to Psychosis. Clinical Psychology Review 27:409–24. Ng, P., and K.F. Chan. 2002. Attitudes towards People with Mental Illness. Effects of a Training Program for Secondary School Students. International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health 14:215–24. Nordt, C., W. Rossler, and C. Lauber. 2006. Attitudes of Mental Health Professionals toward People with Schizophrenia and Major Depression. Schizophrenia Bulletin 32:709–14. Norman, R., and A.K. Malla. 2009. Pathways to Care and Reducing Treatment Delay in Early Psychosis. In The Recognition and Management of Early Psychosis: A Preventive Approach. eds. H.J. Jackson, P.D. McGorry. 2d ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. – 1994. A Prospective Study of Daily Stressors and Symptomatology in Schizophrenic Patients. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 29:244–9. – 1993. Stressful Life Events and Schizophrenia. I: A Review of the Research. British Journal of Psychiatry 162:161–6. – 1983. Adolescents’ Attitudes towards Mental Illness: Relationship between Components and Sex Differences. Social Psychiatry 18:45–50. Norman, R.M., S.W. Lewis, and M. Marshall. 2005. Duration of Untreated Psychosis and Its Relationship to Clinical Outcome. British Journal of Psychiatry (Supplement) 48:s19–23. Norman, R.M., A.K. Malla, and R. Manchanda. 2007. Early Premorbid Adjustment as a Moderator of the Impact of Duration of Untreated Psychosis. Schizophrenia Research 95:111–14. Norman, R.M., R.M. Sorrentino, D. Windell, and R. Manchanda. 2008a. The Role of Perceived Norms in the Stigmatization of Mental Illness. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 11:851–9. – 2008b. Are Personal Values of Importance in the Stigmatization of the Mentally Ill. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 53:848–56. Norman, R.M., A.K. Malla, R. Manchanda, R. Harricharan, J. Takhar, and S. Northcott. 2005. Social Support and Three-year Symptom and Admission Outcomes for First Episode Psychosis. Schizophrenia Research 80:227–34.

Bibliography

299

Ostman, M., and L. Kjellin. 2002. Stigma by Association: Psychological Factors in Relatives of People with Mental Illness. British Journal of Psychiatry 181:494–8. Page, S. 1995. Effects of the Mental Illness Label in 1993: Acceptance and Rejection in the Community. Journal of Health and Social Policy 7:61–8. Park, B., and C.M. Judd. 2005. Rethinking the Link between Categorization and Prejudice within the Social Cognition Perspective. Personality and Social Psychology Review 9:108–30. Paykel, E.S., D. Hart, and R.G. Priest. 1998. Changes in Public Attitudes to Depression during the Defeat Depression Campaign. British Journal of Psychiatry 173:519–22. Penn, D.L., P.W. Corrigan, J. Martin, G. Ihnen, J.M. Racenstein, D. Nelson, J. Cassisi, and D.A. Hope. 1999. Social Cognition and Social Skills in Schizophrenia: The Role of Self-monitoring. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 187:188–90. Penn, D.L., K. Guynan, T. Daily, W.D. Spaulding, C.P. Garbin, and M. Sullivan. 1994. Dispelling the Stigma of Schizophrenia: What Sort of Information Is Best? Schizophrenia Bulletin 20:567–78. Penn, D.L., and B.G. Link. 2002. Dispelling the Stigma of Schizophrenia. III. The Role of Target Gender, Laboratory-Induced Contact, and Factual Information. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Skills 6:255–70. Pescosolido, B.A., J. Monahan, B.G. Link, A. Stueve, and S. Kikuzawa. 1999. The Public’s View of the Competence, Dangerousness, and Need for Legal Coercion of Persons with Mental Health Problems. American Journal of Public Health 89:1339–45. Petchers, M.K., D.E. Biegel, and R. Drescher. 1988. A Video-Based Program to Educate High School Students about Serious Mental Illness. Hospital & Community Psychiatry 39:1102–3. Pettigrew, T.F., and L.R. Tropp. 2006. A Meta-Analytic Test of Intergroup Contact Theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 90:751–83. Phelan, J.C., R. Cruz-Rojas, and M. Reiff. 2002. Genes and Stigma: The Connection between Perceived Genetic Etiology and Attitudes and Beliefs about Mental Illness. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Skills 6:159–85. Phelan, J.C., B.G. Link, A. Stueve, et al. 2000. Public Conceptions of Mental Illness in 1950 and 1996: What Is Mental Illness and Is It to Be Feared? Journal of Health and Social Behavior 41:188–208. Pinfold, V., P. Huxley, G. Thornicroft, P. Farmer, H. Toulmin, and T. Graham. 2003. Reducing Psychiatric Stigma and Discrimination – Evaluating an Educational Intervention with the Police Force in England. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 38:337–44.

300

Bibliography

Pinfold, V., G. Thornicroft, P. Huxley, and P. Farmer. 2005. Active Ingredients in Anti-stigma Programs in Mental Health. International Review of Psychiatry 17:123–31. Pinfold, V., H. Toulmin, G. Thornicroft, P. Huxley, P. Farmer, and T. Graham. 2003. Reducing Psychiatric Stigma and Discrimination: Evaluation of Educational Interventions in U.K. Secondary Schools. British Journal of Psychiatry 182:342–6. Polak, P., and R. Warner. 1996. The Economic Life of Seriously Mental Ill People in the Community. Psychiatric Services 47:270–4. Pratto, F., J. Sidanius, L.M. Stallworth, et al. 1994. Social Dominance Orientation: A Personality Variable Predicting Social and Political Attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67:741–63. Read, J., and N. Harre. 2001. The Role of Biological and Genetic Causal Beliefs in the Stigmatisation of “Mental Patients.” Journal of Mental Health 10:223–35. Read, J., N. Haslam, L. Sayce, and E. Davies. 2006. Prejudice and Schizophrenia: A Review of the “Mental Illness Is an Illness like Any Other” Approach. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 14:303–18. Read, J., and A. Law. 1999. The Relationship of Causal Beliefs and Contact with Users of Mental Health Services to Attitudes to the “Mentally Ill.” International Journal of Social Psychiatry 45:216–29. Reark Research, Department of Health, and Hovang Local Government & Community Services. 1993. Community Attitudes to Mental Illness: A Report on Qualitative Research. Canberra, Australia. Reda, S. 1996. Public Perceptions of Former Psychiatric Patients in England. Psychiatric Services 47:1253–5. Richeson, J.A., and N. Ambady. 2001. Who’s in Charge? Effects of Situational Roles on Automatic Gender Bias. Sex Roles 44:493–512. Rohan, M.J. 2000. A Rose by Any Name? The Values Construct. Personality and Social Psychology Review 4:255–77. Rokeach, M. 1973. The Nature of Human Values. New York, NY: Free Press. Rokeach, M., and D.D. McLellan. 1972. Feedback on Information about the Values of Self and Others as Determinants of Long-term Cognitive and Behavioral Change. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 2:236–51. Rosen, A., G. Walter, and D. Casey. 2003. Combating Psychiatric Stigma: An Overview of Contemporary Initiatives. Australasian Psychiatry 8:19–26. Rosenfield, S. 1997. Labeling Mental Illness: The Effects of Received Services and Perceived Stigma on Life Satisfaction. American Sociological Review 62:660–72.

Bibliography

301

Rusch, N., A. Holzer, C. Hermann, E. Schramm, G.A. Jacob, M. Bohus, K. Lieb, and P.W. Corrigan. 2006. Self-Stigma in Women with Borderline Personality Disorder and Women with Social Phobia. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 194:766–73. Sartorius, N., and H. Schulze. 2005. Reducing the Stigma of Mental Illness: A Report from a Global Programme of the World Psychiatric Association. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Schultz, P.W. 1999. Changing Behavior with Normative Feedback Interventions: A Field Experiment on Curbing Recycling. Basic and Applied Social Psychology 21:25–36. Schultz, P.W., J.M. Nolan, R.B. Cialdini, N.J. Goldstein, and V. Griskevicius. 2007. The Constructive, Destructive, and Reconstructive Power of Social Norms. Psychological Science 18:429–34. Schulze, B., M. Richter-Werling, H. Matschinger, and M.C. Angermeyer. 2003. “Crazy? So What! Effects of a School Project on Students’ Attitudes towards People with Schizophrenia.” Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 107:142–50. Schwartz, S.H. 2005. Basic Human Values: Their Content and Structure across Countries. In Valores e Compertamento nas Organizacoes (Values and Behavior in Organizations). eds. A. Tamayo and J.B. Porto. Petrópolis, Brazil: Vozes. – 1996. Value Priorities and Behavior: Applying a Theory of Integrated Value Systems. In The Psychology of Values: The Ontario Symposium. eds. C. Seligman, J.M. Olson and M.P. Zanna. Vol. 8. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. – 1992. Universals in the Content and Structure of Values: Theoretical Advances and Empirical Tests in 20 Countries. In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology. ed. M. Zanna. Vol. 25. New York: Academic Press. Schwartz, S.H., and A. Bardi. 2001. Value Hierarchies across Cultures: Taking a Similarities Perspective. Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology 32:268–90. Sechrist, G.B., and C. Stangor. 2001. Perceived Consensus Influences Intergroup Behavior and Stereotype Accessibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 80:645–54. Sellick, K., and J. Goodear. 1985. Community Attitudes toward Mental Illness: The Influence of Contact and Demographic Variables. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 19:293–8. Sher, I., L. McGinn, J.A. Sirey, and B. Meyers. 2005. Effects of Caregivers’ Perceived Stigma and Causal Beliefs on Patients’ Adherence to Antidepressant Treatment. Psychiatric Services 56:564–9.

302

Bibliography

Shera, W., and J. Delva-Tauiliili. 1996. Changing MSW Students’ Attitudes towards the Severely Mentally Ill. Community Mental Health Journal 32:159–69. Simonds, L.M., and S.J. Thorpe. 2003. Attitudes toward ObsessiveCompulsive Disorders – An Experimental Investigation. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 38:331–6. Socall, D.W., and T. Holtgraves. 1992. Attitudes toward the Mentally Ill: The Effects of Label and Beliefs. Sociological Quarterly 33:435–45. Teachman, B.A., J.G. Wilson, and I. Komarovzkaya. 2006. Implicit and Explicit Stigma of Mental Illness in Diagnosed and Healthy Samples. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 25:75–95. Teplin, L.A. 1984. Criminalizing Mental Disorder: The Comparative Arrest Rate of the Mentally Ill. American Psychologist 39:794–803. Terry, D.J., and M.A. Hogg, eds. 2000. Attitudes, Behavior, and Social Context: The Role of Norms and Group Membership. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Trafimow, D., and M. Fishbein. 1994. The Moderating Effect of Behavior Type on the Subjective Norm-Behavior Relationship. Journal of Social Psychology 134:755–63. United States Department of Health and Human Services. 1999. Mental Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. van’t Veer, J.T., H.F. Kraan, S.H. Drosseart, and J.M. Modde. 2006. Determinants that Shape Public Attitudes towards the Mentally Ill: A Dutch Public Study. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 41:310–17. Wahl, O. 1999. Telling Is Risky Business: Mental Health Consumers Confront Stigma. Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press. – 1999. Mental Health Consumers’ Experience of Stigma. Schizophrenia Bulletin 25:467–79. – 1995. Media Madness: Public Images of Mental Illness. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Walker, I., and J. Read. 2002. The Differential Effectiveness of Psychosocial and Biogenetic Causal Explanations in Reducing Negative Attitudes toward “Mental Illness.” Psychiatry 65:313–25. Warner, R. 2005. Local Projects of the World Psychiatric Association Programme to Reduce Stigma and Discrimination. Psychiatric Services 56:570–5. – 1994. Recovery from Schizophrenia: Psychiatry and Political Economy. 2d ed. Florence, KY: Taylor & Francis/Routledge. Watson, A.C., P. Corrigan, J.E. Larson, and M. Sells. 2007. Self-Stigma in People with Mental Illness. Schizophrenia Bulletin 33:1312–8.

Bibliography

303

Watson, A.C., P.W. Corrigan, and V. Ottati. 2004. Police Officers’ Attitudes toward and Decisions about Persons with Mental Illness. Psychiatric Services 55:49–53. Watson, A.C., E. Otey, A.L. Westbrook, A.L. Gardner, T.A. Lamb, P.W. Corrigan, and W.S. Fenton. 2004. Changing Middle Schoolers’ Attitudes about Mental Illness through Education. Schizophrenia Bulletin 30:563–72. Watson, A.C., and L.P. River. 2005. A Social-Cognitive Model of Personal Responses to Stigma. In On the Stigma of Mental Illness: Practical Strategies for Research and Social Change. ed. P.W. Corrigan. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Weller, L., and S. Grunes. 1988. Does Contact with the Mentally Ill Affect Nurses’ Attitudes to Mental Illness? British Journal of Medical Psychology 61:277–84. Yang, L.H., A. Kleinman, B.G. Link, J.C. Phelan, S. Lee, and B. Good. 2007. Culture and Stigma: Adding Moral Experience to Stigma Theory. Social Science Medicine 64:1524–35. Yu, Y., and D.R. Williams. 1999. Socioeconomic Status and Mental Health. In C.S. Aneshensel and J.C. Phelan, eds., Handbook of the Sociology of Mental Health. New York: Klewer Academic/Plenum Publishers.

Chapter nine Barrow, S., L. McMullin, J. Tripp, and S. Tsemberis. 2007. Consumer Integration and Self-Determination in Homelessness Research, Policy, Planning, and Services. The National Symposium on Homelessness Research held on March 1–2. Accessible at http://aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/ homelessness/symposium07/barrow/. Bhui, K., A. Aubin, and G. Strathdee. 1998. Making a Reality of User Involvement in Community Mental Health Services. Psychiatric Bulletin 22:8–11. Bowl, R. 1996. Involving Service Users in Mental Health Services: Social Services Departments and the National Health Service and Community Care Act 1990. Journal of Mental Health 5:287–303. Burstow, B., and D. Weitz, eds. 1988. Shrink Resistant: The Struggle against Psychiatry in Canada. Vancouver: New Star Books. Burti, L., F. Amaddeo, M. Ambrosi, C. Bonetto, D. Cristofalo, M. Ruggeri, and M. Tansella. 2005. Does Additional Care Provided by a Consumer Self-Help Group Improve Psychiatric Outcome? A Study in an Italian Community-Based Psychiatric Service. Community Mental Health Journal 41:705–20.

304

Bibliography

Campbell, J. 2005. The Historical and Philosophical Development of PeerRun Support Programs. In On Our Own Together: Peer Programs for People with Mental Illness, eds. S. Clay, B. Schell, P.W. Corrigan and R.O. Ralph, 17–64. Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press. Carlson, L.S., C.A. Rapp, and D. McDiarmid. 2001. Hiring ConsumerProviders: Barriers and Alternative Solutions. Community Mental Health Journal 37:199–213. Chamberlin, J. 1990. The Ex-Psychiatric Patients’ Movement: Where We’ve Been and Where We’re Going. The Journal of Mind and Behaviour 11:323–36. – 1978. On Our Own: Patient-Controlled Alternatives to the Mental Health System. New York: McGraw-Hill. Chinman, M.J., R. Rosenheck, J.A. Lam, and L. Davidson. 2000. Comparing Consumer and Nonconsumer-Provided Case Management Services for Homeless Persons with Serious Mental Illness. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 188:446–53. Church, K. 1996. Beyond “Bad Manners”: The Power Relations of “Consumer Participation” in Ontario’s Community Mental Health System. Canadian Journal of Community Mental Health 15:27–44. Church, K., and D. Reville. 1989. User Involvement in the Mental Health Field in Canada. Canada’s Mental Health 37:22–5. Clarke, G.N., H.A. Herinck, R.F. Kinney, R.I. Paulson, D.L. Cutler, K. Lewis, and E. Oxman. 2000. Psychiatric Hospitalizations, Arrests, Emergency Room Visits, and Homelessness of Clients with Serious and Persistent Mental Illness: Findings from a Randomized Trial of Two ACT Programs vs. Usual Care. Mental Health Services Research 2:155–64. Connor, H. 1999. Collaboration or Chaos: A Consumer Perspective. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Mental Health Nursing 8:79–85. Constantino, V., and G. Nelson. 1995. Changing Relationships between Self-help Groups and Mental Health Professionals: Shifting Ideology and Power. Canadian Journal of Community Mental Health 14:55–70. Corrigan, P.W. 2006. Impact of Consumer-Operated Services on Empowerment and Recovery of People with Psychiatric Disabilities. Psychiatric Services 57:1493–6. Corrigan, P.W., and M.G. Boyle. 2003. What Works for Mental Health System Change: Evolution or Revolution? Administration and Policy in Mental Health 30:395. Crawford, M.J., T. Aldridge, K. Bhui, D. Rutter, C. Manley, T. Weaver, P. Tyrer, and N. Fulop. 2003. User Involvement in the Planning and Delivery of Mental Health Services: A Cross-sectional Survey of Service Users and Providers. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 107:410–14.

Bibliography

305

Davidson, L., M. Chinman, D. Sells, and M. Rowe. 2006. Peer Support among Adults with Serious Mental Illness: A Report from the Field. Schizophrenia Bulletin 32:443–50. Davidson, L., G. Shahar, D.A. Stayner, M.J. Chinman, J. Rakfeldt, and J.K. Tebes. 2004. Supported Socialization for People with Psychiatric Disabilities: Lessons from a Randomized Controlled Trial. Journal of Community Psychology 32:453–77. Diamond, B., G. Parkin, K. Morris, J. Bettinis, and C. Bettesworth. 2003. User Involvement: Substance or Spin? Journal of Mental Health 12:613–26. Doherty, I., T. Craig, G. Attafua, A. Boocock, and R. Jamieson-Craig. 2004. The Consumer-Employee as a Member of a Mental Health Assertive Outreach Team. II. Impressions of Consumer-Employees and Other Team Members. Journal of Mental Health 13:71–81. Emerick, R.E. 1990. Self-Help Groups for Former Patients: Relations with Mental Health Professionals. Hospital & Community Psychiatry 41:401–7. Everett, B. 1994. Something Is Happening: The Contemporary Consumer and Psychiatric Survivor Movement in Historical Context. The Journal of Mind and Behavior 15:55–70. Foucault, M. 1969. Archaeology of Knowledge. New York: Routledge. – 1965. Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason. New York: Vintage Books. Foulds, G., H. Wood, and K. Bhui. 1998. Quality Day Care Services for People with Severe Mental Health Problems. Psychiatric Bulletin 22:147. Goldstrom, I.D., J. Campbell, J.A. Rogers, D.B. Lambert, B. Blacklow, M.J. Henderson, and R.W. Manderschied. 2006. National Estimates for Mutual Support Groups, Self-help Organizations, and Consumer-Operated Services. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental 33:92–103. Grant, J. 2007. The Participation of Mental Health Service Users in Ontario, Canada: A Canadian Application of the Consumer Participation Questionnaire. International Journal of Social Psychiatry 53:148–58. – 2006. Embracing an Emerging Structure: The Participation of ConsumerSurvivors in Ontario Community Mental Health Organizations. PHD diss., Wilfrid Laurier University. Grant, J., G. Nelson, and T. Mitchell. 2007. Negotiating the Challenges of Participatory Action Research: Relationships, Power, Participation, Change, and Credibility. In Handbook of Action Research, edited by P. Reason and H. Bradbury. 2d ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Hardiman, E.R., M.T. Theriot, and J.Q. Hodges. 2005. Evidence-Based Practice in Mental Health: Implications and Challenges for ConsumerRun Programs. Best Practices in Mental Health 1:105–22.

306

Bibliography

Hartl, K. 1992. A-way Express: A Way to Empowerment through Competitive Employment. Canadian Journal of Community Mental Health 11:73–7. Hinshaw, S.P., and D. Cicchetti. 2000. Stigma and Mental Disorder: Conceptions of Illness, Public Attitudes, Personal Disclosure, and Social Policy. Development and Psychopathology 12:555–98. Hodge, S. 2005. Participation, Discourse and Power: A Case Study in Service User Involvement. Critical Social Policy 25:164–79. Hodges, J.Q., and E.R. Hardiman. 2006. Promoting Healthy Organizational Partnerships and Collaboration between Consumer-Run and Community Mental Health Agencies. Administration and Policy in Mental Health 33:267–78. Hutchison, P., J. Lord, and L. Osborne-Way. 1986. Participating with People Who Have Directly Experienced the Mental Health System. Toronto: Canadian Mental Health Association. Janzen, R., G. Nelson, J. Trainor, and J. Ochocka. 2006. A Longitudinal Study of Mental Health Consumer/Survivor Initiatives: Part IV – Benefits beyond the Self? A Quantitative and Qualitative Study of System-level Activities and Impacts. Journal of Community Psychology 34:285–303. Kidd, S., A. Kenny, R. Endacott. 2007. Consumer Advocate and Clinician Perceptions of Consumer Participation in Two Rural Mental Health Services. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing 16:214–22 Kirby, M.J.L., and W.J. Keon. 2006. Out of the Shadows at Last: Transforming Mental Health, Mental Illness and Addiction Services in Canada. The Standing Senate Committee on Social Affairs, Science and Technology. Ottawa, Canada. Klein, A., R. Cnaan, and J. Whitecraft. 1998. Significance of Peer Social Support for Dually Diagnosed Clients: Findings from a Pilot Study. Research on Social Work Practice 8:529–51. Lammers J., and B. Happell. 2004. Mental Health Reforms and Their Impact on Consumer and Career Participation: A Perspective from Victoria, Australia. Issues in Mental Health Nursing 25:261–76. Linhorst, D.M., and A. Eckert. 2002. Involving People with Serious Mental Illness in Evaluation and Performance Improvement. Evaluation and the Health Professions 25:284–301. Lord, J., and P. Hutchison. 2007. Pathways to Inclusion: Building a New Story with People and Communities. Concord, ON: Captus Press. Mowrer, O.H. 1984. The Mental Health Professions and Mutual Help Programs: Co-optation or Cooperation. In The Self-help Revolution., eds. A. Gartner and F. Riessman, 139–54. New York: Human Sciences Press.

Bibliography

307

Moxley, D.P., and C.T. Mowbray. 1997. Consumers as Providers: Forces and Factors Legitimizing Role Innovation in Psychiatric Rehabilitation. In Consumers as Providers in Psychiatric Rehabilitation., eds. C.T. Mowbray, D.P. Moxley, C.A. Jasper, and L.L. Howell, 2–34. Columbia, MD: International Association of Psychosocial Rehabilitation Services. Nelson, G., J. Lord, and J.Ochocka. 2001. Shifting the Paradigm in Community Mental Health: Towards Empowerment and Community. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Nelson, G., J. Ochocka, K. Griffin, and J. Lord. 1998. “Nothing about me, without me”: Participatory Action Research with Self-help/Mutual Aid Organizations for Psychiatric Consumer/Survivors. American Journal of Community Psychology 26:881–912. Nelson, G., J. Ochocka, R. Janzen, and J. Trainor. 2006a. A Longitudinal Study of Mental Health Consumer/Survivor Initiatives: Part I – Literature Review and Overview of the Study. Journal of Community Psychology 34:247–60. – 2006b. A Longitudinal Study of Mental Health Consumer/Survivor Initiatives: Part II – A Quantitative Study of Impacts of Participation on New Members. Journal of Community Psychology 34:261–72. Nelson, G., J. Ochocka, R. Janzen, J. Trainor, P. Goering, and J. Lomotey. 2007. A Longitudinal Study of Mental Health Consumer/Survivor Initiatives: Part V – Outcomes at Three-Year Follow-up. Journal of Community Psychology 35:655–65. Nelson, G., J. Ochocka, S. Lauzon, J. Towndrow, and R. Cheng. 2005. Disseminating the Findings of a Longitudinal Study of Mental Health Consumer/Survivor Initiatives in Ontario. Community Psychologist 38:41–3. Nelson, G., and I. Prilleltensky, eds. 2010. Community Psychology: In Pursuit of Liberation and Well-being. (2d edition) London: Palgrave Macmillan. Newberry, J. 2004. The Meaningful Participation of Consumers on Mental Health Agency Boards: Experiential Power and Models of Governance. PHD diss., University of Guelph. Niles, E., and K. Ross. 1992. Putting Policy in Practice: Mental Health in New Brunswick. Canada’s Mental Health 40:15–19. Ochocka, J., R. Janzen, and G. Nelson. 2002. Sharing Power and Knowledge: Professional and Mental Health Consumer/Survivor Researchers Working Together in a Participatory Action Research Project. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 25:379–87. Ochocka, J., G. Nelson, R. Janzen, and J. Trainor. 2006. A Longitudinal Study of Mental Health Consumer/Survivor Initiatives: Part II – A

308

Bibliography

Qualitative Study of Impacts of Participation on New Members. Journal of Community Psychology 34:273–83. O’Donnell, M., G. Parker, M. Proberts, R. Matthews, D. Fisher, B. Johnson, and D. Hadzi-Pavlovic. 1999. A Study of Client-Focused Case Management and Consumer Advocacy: The Community and Consumer Service Project. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 33:684–93. Ontario Ministry of Health and Long Term Care. 1993. Putting People First: The Reform of Mental Health Services in Ontario. Toronto: Queen’s Printer for Ontario. – 1991. The Community Mental Health Legislation Sub-committee Report. Toronto, Ontario: Queen’s Printer for Ontario. – 1988. Building Community Support for People: A Plan for Mental Health in Ontario. Toronto: Queen’s Printer for Ontario. Pape, B. 1988. Consumer Participation: From Concept to Reality. Toronto: Canadian Mental Health Association. Peck, E., P. Gulliver, and D. Towel. 2002. Information, Consultation or Control: User Involvement in Mental Health Services in England at the Turn of the Century. Journal of Mental Health 11:441–51. Pistrang, N., C. Barker, and K. Humphreys. 2008. Mutual Help Groups for Mental Health Problems: A Review of Effectiveness Studies. American Journal of Community Psychology 42:110–21. Prescott, L. 2001. Defining the Role of Consumer-Survivors in TraumaInformed Systems. New Directions for Mental Health Services 89:83–9. Raiff, N.R. 1984. Some Health-Related Outcomes of Self-help Participation: Recovery, Inc. as a Case Example of a Self-help Organization in Mental Health. In The Self-help Revolution., eds. A. Gartner, F. Riessman, 183– 93. New York: Human Sciences Press. Ralph, R.O., and P.W. Corrigan, eds. 2005. Recovery in Mental Illness: Broadening Our Understanding of Wellness. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Réaume, G. 2000. Remembrance of Patients Past: Patient Life at the Toronto Hospital for the Insane, 1870–1940. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Reeve, P., S. Cornell, B. D’Costa, R. Janzen, and J. Ochocka. 2002. From Our Perspective: Consumer Researchers Speak about their Experience in a Community Mental Health Research Project. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 25:403–8. Rissmiller, D.J., and J.H. Rissmiller. 2006. Evolution of the Antipsychiatry Movement into Mental Health Consumerism. Psychiatric Services 57:863–6. Rogers, E.S., and V. Palmer-Erbs. 1994. Participatory Action Research: Implications for Research and Evaluation in Psychiatric Rehabilitation. Psychosocial Rehabilitation Journal 18:4–11.

Bibliography

309

Rowe, M., C. Bellamy, M. Baranoski, M. Wieland, M.J. O’Connell, P. Benedict, L. Davidson, J. Buchanan, and D. Sells. 2007. A Peer-Support, Group Intervention to Reduce Substance Use and Criminality among Persons with Severe Mental Illness. Psychiatric Services 58:955–61. Sabin, J.E., and N. Daniels. 1999. Public-Sector Managed Behavioural Health Care: III. Meaningful Consumer and Family Participation. Psychiatric Services 50:883–6. Segal, S.P., and C. Silverman. 2002. Determinants of Client Outcomes in Self-help Agencies. Psychiatric Services 53:304–9. Simpson, E.L., and A.O. House. 2003. User and Carer Involvement in Mental Health Services: From Rhetoric to Science. British Journal of Psychiatry 183:89–91. Solomon, P. 2004. Peer Support/Peer Delivered Services: Underlying Processes, Benefits, and Critical Ingredients. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 27:392–401. Solomon, P., and J. Draine. 1998. Consumers as Providers in Psychiatric Rehabilitation. New Directions for Mental Health Services 79:65–77. – 1995a. The Efficacy of a Consumer Case Management Team: Two-year Outcomes of a Randomized Trial. Journal of Mental Health Administration 22:135–46. – 1995b. One-Year Outcomes of a Randomized Trial of Consumer Case Management. Evaluation and Program Planning 18:117–27. Tracy, B. 2003. Evidence-Based Practices or Value-Based Services? Psychiatric Services 54:1437. Trainor, J., E. Pomeroy, and B. Pape, eds. 1999. Building a Framework for Support: A Community Development Approach to Mental Health Policy. Toronto: Canadian Mental Health Association. – 1997. The Knowledge Resource Base: Expanding Our Understanding of Serious Mental Illness. Canadian Journal of Community Mental Health 16:109–16. Trainor, J., and J. Tremblay. 1992. Consumer/Survivor Businesses in Ontario: Challenging the Rehabilitation Paradigm. Canadian Journal of Community Mental Health 11:65–71. Valentine, M.B., and P. Capponi. 1989. Mental Health Consumer Participation on Boards and Committees: Barriers and Strategies. Canada’s Mental Health 37:8–12. Watzlawick, P., J. Weakland, and R. Fish. 1974. Change: Principles of Problem Formation and Problem Resolution. New York: Norton. Weitz, D. 1984. “On Our Own”: A Self-help Model. In Community Mental Health Action: Primary Prevention Programming in Canada. ed. D.P. Lumsden, 312–20. Ottawa: Canadian Public Health Association.

310

Bibliography

White, H., C. Whelan, J.D. Barnes, and B. Baskerville. 2003. Survey of Consumer and Non-consumer Mental Health Service Providers on Assertive Community Treatment Teams in Ontario. Community Mental Health Journal 39:265–76. Zubritsky, C., M. Mullahy, M. Allan, and E. Alfano. 2006. The State of the Olmstead Decision and the Impact of Consumer Participation in Planning. American Journal of Psychiatric Rehabilitation 9:131–43.

Chapter ten Brown, C., N. Cosgrove, and T. Deselm. 1997. Barriers Interfering with Life Satisfaction for Individuals with Severe Mental Illness. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 20:67–71. Carling, P.J. 1995. Return to Community: Building Support Systems for People with Psychiatric Disabilities. New York, NY: Guilford Press. – 1994. Reasonable Accommodations in the Workplace for Persons with Psychiatric Disorders. In Implications of the Americans with Disabilities Act for Psychology, ed. S.M. Bruyere and J. O’Keeffe. New York, NY: Springer Publishing Co. – 1993. Housing Supports for Persons with Mental Illness: Emerging Approaches to Research and Practice. Hospital and Community Psychiatry 44:439–44. Chilvers, R., G.M. Macdonald, and A.A. Hayes. 2006. Supported Housing for People with Severe Mental Disorders. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 3. Crisp, A.H., M.G. Gelder, S. Rix, H. Meltzer, and O. Rowlands. 2000. Stigmatization of People with Mental Illnesses. British Journal of Psychiatry 177:4–7. Csiernik, R., C. Forchuk, M. Speechley, and C. Ward-Griffin. 2007. De“myth”ifying Mental Health – Findings from a Community University Research Alliance (CURA). Critical Social Work 8:1–15. Dear, M.J., and G. Laws. 1986. Anatomy of a Delusion: Recent Land-Use Zoning Appeals and Their Effect on Group Home Locations in Ontario. Canadian Journal of Community Mental Health, 5:5–17. Draine, J., M.S. Salzer, D.P. Culhane, and T.R. Hadley. 2002. Role of Social Disadvantage in Crime, Joblessness, and Homelessness among Persons with Serious Mental Illness. Psychiatric Services 53:565–73. Drake, R.E., and M.A. Wallach. 1999. Homelessness and Mental Illness: A Story of Failure. Psychiatric Services 50:589.

Bibliography

311

Drake, R.E., M.A. Wallach, and J.S. Hoffman. 1989. Housing Instability and Homelessness among Aftercare Patients of an Urban State Hospital. Hospital Community Psychiatry 40:46–51. Dunn, J.R. 2002. Housing and Inequalities in Health: A Study of Socioeconomic Dimensions of Housing and Self Reported Health from a Survey of Vancouver Residents. Journal of Epidemiology and Criminal Health 56:671–81. – 2000. Housing and Health Inequalities: Review and Prospects for Research. Housing Studies 15:341–66. Dunn, J.R., M.V. Hayes, D.J. Hulchanski, S.W. Hwang, and L. Potvin. 2006. Housing as a Socio-economic Determinant of Health. Canadian Journal of Public Health 97:11–15. Durbin, J., P. Goering, J. Cochrane, D. Macfarlane, and T. Sheldon. 2004. Needs-Based Planning for Persons with Schizophrenia Residing in Boardand-Care Homes. Schizophrenia Bulletin 30:123–32. Eynan, R., J. Langley, G. Tolomiczenko, A.E. Rhodes, P. Links, D. Wasylenki, and P. Goering. 2002. The Association between Homelessness and Suicidal Ideation and Behaviours: Results of a Cross-sectional Survey. Suicide & Life-Threatening Behavior 32:418–27. Forchuk, C., L. Joplin, R. Schofield, R. Csiernik, C. Gorlick, and K. Turner. 2007. Housing, Income Support and Mental Health: Points of Disconnection. Health Research Policy and Systems 5:1–7. Forchuk, C., S.K. MacClure, M. VanBeers, C. Smith, R. Csiernik, J. Hoch, and E. Jensen. 2008. Developing and Testing an Intervention to Prevent Homelessness among Individuals Discharged from Psychiatric Wards to Shelters and “No Fixed Address.” Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing 15:569–75. Forchuk, C., G. Nelson, and G.B. Hall. 2006. “It’s Important to Be Proud of the Place you Live In”: Housing Problems and Preferences of Psychiatric Survivors. Perspectives in Psychiatric Care 42:42–52. Forchuk, C., G. Russell, S. Kingston-Macclure, K. Turner, and S. Dill. 2006. From Psychiatric Ward to the Streets and Shelters. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing 13:301–8. Forchuk, C., C. Ward-Griffin, R. Csiernik, and K. Turner. 2006. Surviving the Tornado of Mental Illness: Psychiatric Survivors’ Experiences of Getting, Losing, and Keeping Housing. Psychiatric Services 57:558–62. Friedrich, R.M., B. Hollingsworth, E. Hradek, H.B. Friedrich, and K.R. Culp. 1999. Family and Client Perspectives on Alternative Residential Settings for Persons with Severe Mental Illness. Psychiatric Services 50:509–14.

312

Bibliography

Fuller-Thomson, E., J.D. Hulchanski, and S. Hwang. 2000. The Housing/ Health Relationship: What Do We Know? Reviews on Environmental Health 15:109–33. Geller, J.L. 2001. Donut Shop Diversion Program. Psychiatric Services 52:1559. Goldfinger, S.M., and R.K. Schutt. 1996. Comparison of Clinicians’ Housing Recommendations and Preferences of Homeless Mentally Ill Persons. Psychiatric Services 47:413–15. Harris, R., and J.G. Pratt. 1993. The Meaning of Home, Homeownership, and Public Policy. In The Changing Social Geography of Canadian Cities, eds. L.S. Bourne and D.F. Ley. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press. Hulchanski, J.D., and S. Leckie. 2000. The Human Right to Adequate Housing: A Chronology of United Nations Activity, 1945 to 1999. Geneva: Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions. Hwang, S., E. Fuller-Thomson, J.D. Hulchanski, T. Bryant, Y. Habib, and W. Regoeczi. 1999. Housing and Population Health: A Review of the Literature. Ottawa: Canadian Mental Health Association. Kenny, J.E. 2001. Mental Illness: Cloaked in Secrecy and Shame. The Canadian Nurse 97:20–4. Kirby, M., and W. Keon. 2006. Out of the Shadows at Last: Transforming Mental Health, Mental Illness and Addiction Services in Canada. Ottawa: The Standing Senate Committee on Social Affairs, Science and Technology. Koegel, P., M.A. Burnam, and J. Baumohl. 1996. The Causes of Homelessness. Homelessness in America, ed. J. Baumohl. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx. Lamb, H.R., and D.M. Lamb. 1990. Factors Contributing to Homelessness among the Chronically and Severely Mentally Ill. Hospital and Community Psychiatry 41:301–5. Link, B., and F. Cullen. 1990. The Labelling Theory of Mental Disorder: A Review of the Evidence. In Research in Community and Mental Health, ed. J. Greenley, vol. 6, 202–33. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Link, B., E. Struening, S. Neese-Todd, S. Asmussen, and J. Phelen. 2001. Stigma as a Barrier to Recovery: The Consequences of Stigma for the SelfEsteem of People with Mental Illnesses. Psychiatric Services 52:1621–6. Link, B.G., J. Mirotznik, and F.T. Cullen. 1991. The Effectiveness of Stigma Coping Orientations: Can Negative Consequences of Mental Illness Labelling Be Avoided? Journal of Health and Social Behavior 32:302–20. Lyons, M., and J. Ziviani. 1995. Stereotypes, Stigma, and Mental Illness: Learning from Fieldwork Experiences. American Journal of Occupational Therapy 49:1002–8.

Bibliography

313

Markowitz, F.E. 1998. The Effects of Stigma on the Psychological Wellbeing and Life Satisfaction of Persons with Mental Illness. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 39:335–47. Massey, O.T., and L. Wu. 1993. Important Characteristics of Independent Housing for People with Mental Illness: Perspectives of Case Managers and Consumers. Psychosocial Rehabilitation Journal 17:81–92. McHugo, G.J., R.R. Bebout, M. Harris, S. Cleghorn, G. Herring, H. Xie, D. Becker, and R.E. Drake. 2004. A Randomized Controlled Trial of Integrated Versus Parallel Housing Services for Homeless Adults with Severe Mental Illness. Schizophrenia Bulletin 30:969–82. Minsky, S., G.G. Riesser, and M. Duffy. 1995. The Eye of the Beholder: Housing Preferences of Inpatients and Their Treatment Teams. Psychiatric Services 46:173–6. Nelson, G., B. Hall, and C. Forchuk. 2003. Current and Preferred Housing of Psychiatric Consumer/Survivor. Canadian Journal of Community Mental Health 22:5–19. Nelson, G., G.B. Hall, and R. Walsh-Bowers. 1998. The Relationship between Housing Characteristics, Emotional Well-being and the Personal Empowerment of Psychiatric Consumer/Survivors. Community Mental Health Journal 34:57–69. Nelson, G., R. Walsh-Bowers, and B. Hall. 1998. Housing for Psychiatric Survivors: Values, Policy and Research. Administration and Policy in Mental Health 25:455–62. Novac, J., J. Darden, D. Hulchanski, and A.M. Seguin. 2002a. Housing Discrimination in Canada: What Do We Know about It? University of Toronto, Toronto: Centre for Urban and Community Studies, Research Bulletin 11. – 2002b. Housing Discrimination in Canada: The State of Knowledge. Ottawa: Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation. Parkinson, S., G. Nelson, and S. Horgan. 1999. From Housing to Homes: A Review of the Literature on Housing Approaches for Psychiatric Consumer/ Survivors. Canadian Journal of Community Mental Health 18:145–64. Patterson, J. 1993. Housing and Community Development Policies. House, Home, and Community: Progress in Housing Canadians, 1945–1986, ed. J.R. Miron, 320–37. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press. Piat, M. 2000. The NIMBY Phenomenon: Community Residents’ Concerns about Housing for Deinstitutionalized People. Health & Social 25:127–38. Porter, B. 2003. The Right to Adequate Housing in Canada. University of Toronto, Toronto: The Centre for Urban and Community Studies.

314

Bibliography

Rogers, E.S., K.S. Danley, W.A. Anthony, R. Martin, and D. Walsh. 1994. The Residential Needs and Preferences of Persons with Serious Mental Illness: A Comparison of Consumers and Family Members. Journal of Mental Health Administration 21:42–51. Rybczynski, W. 1986. Home: A Short History of an Idea. New York, NY: Penguin Books. Schulze, B., and M.C. Angermeyer. 2003. Subjective Experiences of Stigma: A Focus Group Study of Schizophrenic Patients, Their Relatives and Mental Health Professionals. Social Science & Medicine 56:299–312. Schutt, R.K., and S.M. Goldfinger. 1996. Housing Preferences and Perceptions of Health and Functioning among Homeless Mentally Ill Persons. Psychiatric Services 47:381–6. Sirey, J.A., M.L. Bruce, G.S. Alexopoulos, D.A. Perlick, P. Raue, S.J. Friedman, and B.S. Meyers. 2001. Perceived Stigma as a Predictor of Treatment Discontinuation in Young and Older Outpatients with Depression. American Journal of Psychiatry 158:479–81. Steadman, H.J., E.P. Mulvey, J. Monahan, P.C. Robbins, P.S. Appelbaum, T. Grisso, L.H. Roth, and E. Silver. 1998. Violence by People Discharged from Acute Psychiatric Inpatient Facilities and by Others in the Same Neighbourhoods. Archives of General Psychiatry 55:393–401. Sullivan, G., A. Burnam, P. Koegel, and J. Hollenberg. 2000. Quality of Life of Homeless Persons with Mental Illness: Results from the Course-ofHomelessness Study. Psychiatric Services 51:1135–41. Sussman, S. 1998. The First Asylums in Canada: A Response to Neglectful Community Care and Current Trends. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 43:260–4. Tanzman, B. 1993. An Overview of Surveys of Mental Health Consumers’ Preferences for Housing and Support Services. Hospital & Community Psychiatry 44:450–5. Toro, P.A., C.W. Bellavia, C.V. Daeschler, B.J. Owens, D.D. Wall, J.M. Passero, and D.M. Thomas. 1995. Distinguishing Homelessness from Poverty: A Comparative study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 63:280–9. Underhill, C. 2002. Mental Health and Development: From the Local to the Global: The Involvement of Mentally Ill People in the Development Process. Asia Pacific Disability Rehabilitation Journal 2:82–91. Wahl, O. 1999. Mental Health Consumers’ Experience of Stigma. Schizophrenia Bulletin 25:467–78. Walker, R., and M. Seasons. 2002. Planning Supported Housing: A New Orientation in Housing for People with Serious Mental Illness. Journal of Planning Education and Research 21:313–19.

Bibliography

315

Ward-Griffin, C., R. Schofield, S. Vos, and R. Coatsworth-Puspoky. 2005. Canadian Families Caring for Members with Mental Illness: A Vicious Cycle. Journal of Family Nursing 11:140–61.

Chapter eleven Adler, D.A., K.M. Bungay, I.B. Wilson, Y. Pei, S. Supran, E. Peckham, D.J. Cynn, and W.H. Rogers. 2004. The Impact of a Pharmacist Intervention on Six-Month Outcomes in Depressed Primary Care Patients. General Hospital Psychiatry 26:199–209. Badamgarav, E., S.R. Weingarten, J.M. Henning, K. Knight, V. Hasselblad, A. Gano Jr., and J.J. Ofman. 2003. Effectiveness of Disease Management Programs in Depression: A Systematic Review. American Journal of Psychiatry 160:2080–90. Balke, A., and J. Pearl. 1997. Bounds on Treatment Effects from Studies with Imperfect Compliance. Journal of the American Statistical Association 92:1171–6. Barnes, D., J. Carpenter, and C. Dickinson. 2006. The Outcomes of Partnerships with Mental Health Service Users in Interprofessional Education: A Case Study. Health & Social Care in the Community 14:426–35. Barnsteiner, J.H., J.M. Disch, L. Hall, D. Mayer, and S.M. Moore. 2007. Promoting Interprofessional Education. Nursing Outlook 55:144–50. Bartels, S.J., E.H. Coakley, C. Zubritsky, J.H. Ware, K. M. Miles, P.A. Arean, H. Chen, et al. 2004. Improving Access to Geriatric Mental Health Services: A Randomized Trial Comparing Treatment Engagement with Integrated versus Enhanced Referral Care for Depression, Anxiety, and At-Risk Alcohol Use. American Journal of Psychiatry 161:1455–62. Barten, H.H., and L. Bellak, eds. 1969. Progress in Community Mental Health. New York: Grune & Stratton. Beck, C.A., S.B. Patten, J.V. Williams, J.L. Wang, S.R. Currie, C.J. Maxwell, and N. El-Guebaly. 2005. Antidepressant Utilization in Canada. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 40:799–807. Becker, T., M. Knapp, H.C. Knudsen, A. Schene, M. Tansella, G. Thornicroft, and J.L. Vazquez-Barquero. 1999. The EPSILON Study of Schizophrenia in Five European Countries: Design and Methodology for Standardising Outcome Measures and Comparing Patterns of Care and Service Costs. British Journal of Psychiatry 175:514–21. Becker, T., M. Leese, P. Clarkson, R.E. Taylor, D. Turner, J. Kleckham, and G. Thornicroft. 1998. Links between Social Network and Quality of Life: An Epidemiologically Representative Study of Psychotic Patients in South London. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 33:229–304.

316

Bibliography

Becker, T., M. Leese, P. McCrone, P. Clarkson, G. Szmukler, and G. Thornicroft. 1998. Impact of Community Mental Health Services on Users’ Social Networks: PRiSM Psychosis Study. British Journal of Psychiatry 173:404–8. Becker, T., G. Thornicroft, M. Leese, P. McCrone, S. Johnson, M. Albert, and D. Turner. 1997. Social Networks and Service Use among Representative Cases of Psychosis in South London. British Journal Psychiatry 171:15–19. Beers, C.W. 1948. A Mind That Found Itself. Longmans, Green, & Company. Belcher, J.R. 1988. Are Jails Replacing the Mental Health System for the Homeless Mentally Ill? Community Mental Health Journal 24:185–95. Brown, J.B., B. Lent, A. Stirling, J. Takhar, and J. Bishop. 2002. Caring for Seriously Mentally Ill Patients – Qualitative Study of Family Physicians’ Experiences. Canadian Family Physician 48:915–20. Bernardo, A.C., and C. Forchuk. 2001. Factors Associated with Readmission to a Psychiatric Facility. Psychiatric Services 52:1100–2. Billings, J.S., and H.M. Hurd. 1894. Hospitals, Dispensaries and Nursing: Papers and Discussions in the International Congress of Charities, Correction and Philanthropy, Section III , Chicago, June 12th to 17th, 1893. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press. Bindman, J., A. Beck, and G. Thornicroft. 1997. GPs Need Training in Care Programme Approach More Than in Supervised Discharge. British Medical Journal 315:61–2. Bindman, J., Y. Reid, G. Szmukler, J. Tiller, G. Thornicroft, and M. Leese. 2005. Perceived Coercion at Admission to Psychiatric Hospital and Engagement with Follow-up – A Cohort Study. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 40:160–6. Bindman, J., J. Tighe, G. Thornicroft, and M. Leese. 2002. Poverty, Poor Services, and Compulsory Psychiatric Admission in England. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 37:341–5. Bindman, J., D. Goldberg, D. Chisholm, S. Amponsah, G. Shetty, and J. Brown. 2001. Primary and Secondary Care for Mental Illness: Impact of a Link Worker Service on Admission Rates and Costs. Journal of Mental Health 10:637–44. Birmingham, L., M. Debbie, and G. Don. 1998. A Follow-up Study of Mentally Disordered Men Remanded to Prison. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health 8:202–13. Blaauw, E., R. Roesch, and A. Kerkhof. 2000. Mental Disorders in European Prison Systems. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 23:649–63. Bower, P., S. Gilbody, D. Richards, J. Fletcher, and A. Sutton. 2006. Collaborative Care for Depression in Primary Care; Making Sense of a

Bibliography

317

Complex Intervention: Systematic Review and Meta-Regression. British Journal of Psychiatry 189:484–93. Bower, P., and N. Rowland. 2006. Effectiveness and Cost Effectiveness of Counselling in Primary Care. Cochrane Database Systematic Reviews 3. Brady, T.M., C.P. Krebs, and G. Laird. 2004. Psychiatric Comorbidity and Not Completing Jail-Based Substance Abuse Treatment. American Journal of Addiction 13:83–101. Breslau, J., K.S. Kendler, M. Su, S. Gaxiola-Aguilar, and R.C. Kessler. 2005. Lifetime Risk and Persistence of Psychiatric Disorders across Ethnic Groups in the United States. Psychological Medicine 35:317–27. Brinded, P.M., F.E. Grant, and J.E. Smith. 1996. The Spectre of Criminalization: Remand Admissions to the Forensic Psychiatric Institute, British Columbia, 1975–1990. Medicine, Science, and the Law 36:59–64. Brinded, P.M.J., A.I.F. Simpson, and T.M. Laidlaw. 2001. Prevalence of Psychiatric Disorders in New Zealand Prisons: A National Study. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 35:166–73. Burns, T., E. Millar, C. Garland, T. Kendrick, B. Chisholm, and F. Ross. 1998. Randomized Controlled Trial of Teaching Practice Nurses to Carry Out Structured Assessments of Patients Receiving Depot Antipsychotic Injections. British Journal of General Practice 48:1845–8. Butler, T., S. Allnutt, D. Cain, D. Owens, and C. Muller. 2005. Mental Disorder in the New South Wales Prisoner Population. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 39:407–13. Canadian Institute of Health Information. 1999. Roadmap Initiative: Launching the Process. Ottawa: CIHI. Caplan, G. 1959. Concepts of Mental Health and Consultation: Their Application in Public Health Social Work. Washington: US Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare, Social Security Administration, Children’s Bureau. Cardoso, C.S., W.T. Caiaffa, M. Bandeira, A.L. Siqueira, M.N. Abreu, and J.O. Fonseca. 2005. Factors Associated with Low Quality of Life in Schizophrenia. Cadernos de Saude Publica 21:1338–40. Carpenter, J., D. Barnes, C. Dickinson, and D. Wooff. 2006. Outcomes of Interprofessional Education for Community Mental Health Services in England: The Longitudinal Evaluation of a Postgraduate Programme. Journal of Interprofessional Care 20:145–61. Casper, E.S., and D. Clark. 2004. Service Utilization, Incidents, and Hospitalizations among People with Mental Illnesses and Incarceration Histories in a Supportive Housing Program. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 28:181–4.

318

Bibliography

Cook, S., and A. Howe. 2003. Engaging People with Enduring Psychotic Conditions in Primary Mental Health Care and Occupational Therapy. British Journal of Occupational Therapy 66:236–46. Copolov, D.L. 1998. “MJA Practice Essentials. 8. Psychoses: A Primary Care Perspective.” Medical Journal of Australia 168:129–35. Craven, M.A., and R. Bland. 2006. Better Practices in Collaborative Mental Health Care: An Analysis of the Evidence Base. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 51:7S-72S. – 2002. Shared Mental Health Care: A Bibliography and Overview. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 47 (2 Suppl 1): iS,viiiS, 1S-103S. Craven, M.A., M. Cohen, D. Campbell, J. Williams, and N. Kates. 1997. Mental Health Practices of Ontario Family Physicians: A Study Using Qualitative Methodology. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 42:943–9. Engel, G.L. 1977. The Need for a New Medical Model: A Challenge for Biomedicine. Science 196:129–7. Fletcher, T.D., J.L. Cunningham, R.J. Calsyn, G.A. Morse, and W.D. Klinkenberg. 2008. Evaluation of Treatment Programs for Dual Disorder Individuals: Modelling Longitudinal and Mediation Effects. Administration and Policy in Mental Health 35:319–36. Freedman, A.M. 1995. The Biopsychosocial Paradigm and the Future of Psychiatry. Comparative Psychiatry 36:397–9. Gensichen, J., M. Beyer, C. Muth, F.M. Gerlach, M. Von Korff, and J. Ormel. 2006. Case Management to Improve Major Depression in Primary Health Care: A Systematic Review. Psychological Medicine 36:7–14. Ghaemi, S.N. 2006. Paradigms of Psychiatry: Eclecticism and Its Discontents. Current Opinion in Psychiatry 19:619–24. Gilbody, S., P. Bower, J. Fletcher, D. Richards, and A.J. Sutton. 2006. Collaborative Care for Depression: A Cumulative Meta-analysis and Review of Longer-Term Outcomes. Archives of Internal Medicine 166:2314–21. Gilbody, S., P. Bower, and P. Whitty. 2006. Costs and Consequences of Enhanced Primary Care for Depression: Systematic Review of Randomised Economic Evaluations. British Journal of Psychiatry 189:297–308. Gruen, R., T.S. Weeramanthri, S. Knight, and R. Bailie. 2006. Specialist Outreach Clinics in Primary Care and Rural Hospital Settings (Cochrane Review). Community Eye Health 19:31. Grumbach, K. 1999. Primary Care in the United States: The Best of Times, the Worst of Times. New England Journal of Medicine 341:2008–10. Grumbach, K., J.V. Selby, J.A. Schmittdiel, and C.P. Quesenberry Jr. 1999. Quality of Primary Care Practice in a Large HMO according to Physician Specialty. Health Services Research 34:485–502.

Bibliography

319

Haggarty, J., B. O’Connor, S. Dubois, A.M. Blackadar, T. Mckinnon, D. Boudreau, and D. Haslam. 2008. A Pilot Study of a Canadian Shared Mental Health Care Programme: Changes in Patient Symptoms and Disability. Primary Care and Community Psychiatry 13:1–9. Harmon, K., V.J. Carr, and T.J. Lewin. 2000. Comparison of Integrated and Consultation-Liaison Models for Providing Mental Health Care in General Practice in New South Wales, Australia. Journal of Advanced Nursing 32:1459–66. Harpole, L.H., J.W. Williams Jr, M.K. Olsen, K.M. Stechuchak, E. Oddone, C.M. Callahan, W.J. Katon, E.H. Lin, L.M. Grypma, and J. Unutzer. 2005. Improving Depression Outcomes in Older Adults with Comorbid Medical Illness. General Hospital Psychiatry 27:4–12. Hartley, D., N. Korsen, D. Bird, and M. Agger. 1998. Management of Patients with Depression by Rural Primary Care Practitioners. Archives of Family Medicine 7:139–45. Haslam, D., J. Haggarty, L. McAuley, J. Lehto, and J. Takhar. 2006. Maintaining and Enhancing Shared Care Relationships through the TIPP Clinical Model. Family, Systems, and Health 24:481–6. Haslam, N. 2006. Dehumanization: An Integrative Review. Personality and Social Psychology Review 10:252–64. Hedrick, S.C., E.F. Chaney, B. Felker, C.F. Liu, N. Hasenberg, P. Heagerty, J. Buchanan, et al. 2003. Effectiveness of Collaborative Care Depression Treatment in Veterans’ Affairs Primary Care. Journal of General Internal Medicine 18:9–16. Hickman, M., N. Drummond, and J. Grimshaw. 1994. A Taxonomy of Shared Care for Chronic Disease. Journal of Public Health Medicine 16:447–54. Higgins, E.S. 1994. A Review of Unrecognized Mental Illness in Primary Care: Prevalence, Natural History, and Efforts to Change the Course. Archives of Family Medicine 3:908–17. Hunkeler, E.M., J.F. Meresman, W.A. Hargreaves, B. Fireman, W.H. Berman, A.J. Kirsch, J. Groebe, S.W. Hurt, P. Braden, M. Getzell, P.A. Feigenbaum, T. Peng, M. Salzer. 2000. Efficacy of Nurse Telehealth Care and Peer Support in Augmenting Treatment of Depression in Primary Care. Archives of Family Medicine 9:700–8. Illingworth, P., and S. Chelvanayagam. 2007. Benefits of Interprofessional Education in Health Care. British Journal of Nursing 16:121–4. Jackson, C.L., C. Nicholson, B. Davidson, and T. McGuire. 2006. Training the Primary Care Team: A Successful Interprofessional Education Initiative. Australian Family Physician 35:829–2.

320

Bibliography

Kaas, M.J., S. Lee, and C. Peitzman. 2003. Barriers to Collaboration between Mental Health Professionals and Families in the Care of Persons with Serious Mental Illness. Issues in Mental Health Nursing 24:741–56. Kates, N. 2002. Shared Mental Health Care: New Approaches to Collaboration between Mental Health and Primary Care Providers. Santé Mentale au Quebec 27:93–108. – 1997. Psychiatry and Family Medicine: Sharing Care. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 42:913–4. Kates, N., and M. Craven. 1999. Family Medicine and Psychiatry: Opportunities for Sharing Mental Health Care. Canadian Family Physician 45:2561–3. Kates, N., A.M. Crustolo, S. Farrar, and L. Nikolaou. 2002. Counsellors in Primary Care: Benefits and Lessons Learned. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 47:857–62. Kathol, R.G., and D. Clarke. 2005. Rethinking the Place of the Psyche in Health: Toward the Integration of Health Care Systems. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 39:816–25. Katon, W., and J. Gonzales. 2002. Primary Care and Treatment of Depression: A Response to the NIMH “White Papers.” General Hospital Psychiatry 24:194–6. Katon, W., M. Von Korff, E. Lin, T. Bush, J. Russo, P. Lipscomb, and E. Wagner. 1992. A Randomized Trial of Psychiatric Consultation with Distressed High Utilizers. General Hospital Psychiatry 14:86–98. Katon, W., M. Von Korff, E. Lin, and G. Simon. 2001. Rethinking Practitioner Roles in Chronic Illness: The Specialist, Primary Care Physician, and the Practice Nurse. General Hospital Psychiatry 23:138–44. Katon, W., M. Von Korff, E. Lin, G. Simon, E. Walker, J. Unutzer, T. Bush, J. Russo, and E. Ludman. 1999. Stepped Collaborative Care for Primary Care Patients with Persistent Symptoms of Depression: A Randomized Trial. Archives of General Psychiatry 56:1109–15. Katon, W., M. Von Korff, E. Lin, E. Walker, G.E. Simon, T. Bush, P. Robinson, and J. Russo. 1995. Collaborative Management to Achieve Treatment Guidelines: Impact on Depression in Primary Care. Journal of the American Medical Association 273:1026–31. Keller, M.B., J.P. McCullough, D.N. Klein, B. Arnow, D.L. Dunner, A.J. Gelenberg, J.C. Markowitz, et al. 2000. A Comparison of Nefazodone, the Cognitive Behavioral-Analysis System of Psychotherapy, and Their Combination for the Treatment of Chronic Depression. New England Journal of Medicine 342:1462–70.

Bibliography

321

Kendrick, T., T. Burns, and P. Freeling. 1995. Randomised Controlled Trial of Teaching General Practitioners to Carry Out Structured Assessments of Their Long-Term Mentally Ill Patients. British Medical Journal 311:93–8. Kessler, D., K. Lloyd, G. Lewis, and D.P. Gray. 1999. Cross Sectional Study of Symptom Attribution and Recognition of Depression and Anxiety in Primary Care. British Medical Journal 318:436–9. Kisely, S., D. Duerden, S. Shaddick, and A. Jayabarathan. 2006. Collaboration between Primary Care and Psychiatric Services: Does It Help Family Physicians? Canadian Family Physician 52:876–7. Krahn, D.D., S.J. Bartels, E. Coakley, D.W. Oslin, H. Chen, J. McIntyre, H. Chung, J. Maxwell, J. Ware, and S. E. Levkoff. 2006. PRISM-E: Comparison of Integrated Care and Enhanced Specialty Referral Models in Depression Outcomes. Psychiatric Services 57:946–53. Lakeman, R. 2008a. Family and Carer Participation in Mental Health Care: Perspectives of Consumers and Carers in Hospital and Home Care Settings. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing 15:203–11. – 2008b. Practice Standards to Improve the Quality of Family and Carer Participation in Adult Mental Health Care: An Overview and Evaluation. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing 17:44–56. Lester, H., T. Allan, S. Wilson, S. Jowett, and L. Roberts. 2003. A Cluster Randomised Controlled Trail of Patient-Held Medical Records for People with Schizophrenia Receiving Shared Care. British Journal of General Practice 53:197–203. Lin, E.H., G.E. Simon, W.J. Katon, J.E. Russo, M. Von Korff, T.M. Bush, E.J. Ludman, and E.A. Walker. 1999. Can Enhanced Acute-Phase Treatment of Depression Improve Long-term Outcomes? A Report of Randomized Trials in Primary Care. American Journal of Psychiatry 156:643–5. Lin, E.H., M. VonKorff, J. Russo, W. Katon, G.E. Simon, J. Unutzer, T. Bush, E. Walker, and E. Ludman. 2000. Can Depression Treatment in Primary Care Reduce Disability? A Stepped Care Approach. Archives of Family Medicine 9:1052–8. Liu, C.F., S.C. Hedrick, E.F. Chaney, P. Heagerty, B. Felker, N. Hasenberg, S. Fihn, and W. Katon. 2003. Cost-effectiveness of Collaborative Care for Depression in a Primary Care Veteran Population. Psychiatric Services 54:698–704. Lovell, K., D. Cox, R. Garvey, D. Raines, D. Richards, P. Conroy, and D. Repper. 2003. Agoraphobia: Nurse Therapist-Facilitated Self-help Manual. Journal of Advanced Nursing 43:623–30. Lovell, K., D.A. Richards, and P. Bower. 2003. Improving Access to Primary Mental Health Care: Uncontrolled Evaluation of a Pilot Self-help Clinic. The British Journal of General Practice 53:133–5.

322

Bibliography

McLellan, A.T., I.O. Arndt, D.S. Metzger, G.E. Woody, and C.P. O’Brien. 1993. The Effects of Psychosocial Services in Substance Abuse Treatment. Journal of the American Medical Association 269:1953–9. Meadows, G.N. 1998. Establishing a Collaborative Service Model for Primary Mental Health Care. Medical Journal of Australia 168:162–5. Meadows, G.N., C.A. Harvey, L. Joubert, D. Barton, and G. Bedi. 2007. Best Practices: The Consultation-Liaison in Primary-Care Psychiatry Program – a Structured Approach to Long-term Collaboration. Psychiatric Services 58:1036–8. Mulvale, G., and I.L. Bourgeault. 2007. Finding the Right Mix: How Do Contextual Factors Affect Collaborative Mental Health Care in Ontario? Canadian Public Policy 33:49–64. Neumeyer-Gromen, A., T. Lampert, K. Stark, and G. Kallischnigg. 2004. Disease Management Programs for Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Medical Care 42:1211–21. Paquette-Warren, J., E. Vingilis, J. Greenslade, and S. Newnam. 2006. What Do Practitioners Think? A Qualitative Study of a Shared Care Mental Health and Nutrition Primary Care Program. International Journal of Integrated Care 6. Peveler, R., C. George, A.-L. Kinmonth, M. Campbell, and C. Thompson. 1999. Effect of Antidepressant Drug Counselling and Information Leaflets on Adherence to Drug Treatment in Primary Care: Randomised Controlled Trial. British Medical Journal 319:612–15. Priest, H.M., P. Roberts, H. Dent, C. Blincoe, D. Lawton, and C. Armstrong. 2008. Interprofessional Education and Working in Mental Health: In Search of the Evidence Base. Journal of Nursing Management 16:474–85. Reeves, S., and D. Freeth. 2006. Re-examining the Evaluation of Interprofessional Education for Community Mental Health Teams with a Different Lens: Understanding Presage, Process and Product Factors. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing 13:765–70. Reeves, S., M. Zwarenstein, J. Goldman, H. Barr, D. Freeth, M. Hammick, and I. Koppel. 2008. Interprofessional Education: Effects on Professional Practice and Health Care Outcomes. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 1:CD002213. (update of 2001, 1:CD002213). Regier, D.A., M.E. Farmer, D.S. Rae, B.Z. Locke, S.J. Keith, L.L. Judd, and F. K. Goodwin. 1990. Comorbidity of Mental Disorders with Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse: Results from the Epidemiologic Catchment Area (ECA) Study. Journal of the American Medical Association 264:2511–18. Regier, D.A., W.E. Narrow, D.S. Rae, R.W. Manderscheid, B.Z. Locke, and F.K. Goodwin. 1993. The de facto US Mental and Addictive Disorders

Bibliography

323

Service System: Epidemiologic Catchment Area Prospective One-Year Prevalence Rates of Disorders and Services. Archives of General Psychiatry 50:85–94. Remington, T.L., M.A. Foulk, and B.C. Williams. 2006. Evaluation of Evidence for Interprofessional Education. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 70:1–7. Rochefort, D.A. 1992. More Lessons, of a Different Kind: Canadian Mental Health Policy in Comparative Perspective. Hospital & Community Psychiatry 43:1083–90. Rolls, L., E. Davis, and K. Coupland. 2002. Improving Serious Mental Illness through Interprofessional Education. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing 9:317–24. Ross, F., and R. Harris. 2005. Can Interprofessional Education Make a Difference in the Care of People with Chronic Disease? Chronic Illness 1:81–6. Rost, K., P. Nutting, J.L. Smith, C.E. Elliott, and M. Dickinson. 2002. Managing Depression as a Chronic Disease: A Randomised Trial of Ongoing Treatment in Primary Care. British Medical Journal 325:934. Rost, K., J.M. Pyne, L.M. Dickinson, and A.T. LoSasso. 2005. Costeffectiveness of Enhancing Primary Care Depression Management on an Ongoing Basis. Annals of Family Medicine 3:7–14. Samet, J.H., M.J. Larson, N.J. Horton, K. Doyle, M. Winter, and R. Saitz. 2003. Linking Alcohol- and Drug-Dependent Adults to Primary Medical Care: A Randomized Controlled Trial of a Multi-disciplinary Health Intervention in a Detoxification Unit. Addiction 98:509–16. Sartorius, N., T.B. Ustun, Y. Lecrubier, and H.U. Wittchen. 1996. Depression Comorbid with Anxiety: Results from the WHO Study on Psychological Disorders in Primary Health Care. British Journal of Psychiatry (Suppl.) 30:38–43. Schoenbaum, M., J. Unutzer, C. Sherbourne, N. Duan, L.V. Rubenstein, J. Miranda, L.S. Meredith, M.F. Carney, and K. Wells. 2001. Costeffectiveness of Practice-Initiated Quality Improvement for Depression: Results of a Randomized Controlled Trial. Journal of the American Medical Association 286:1325–30. Sherbourne, C.D., K.B. Wells, N. Duan, J. Miranda, J. Unutzer, L. Jaycox, M. Schoenbaum, L.S. Meredith, and L. V. Rubenstein. 2001. Long-term Effectiveness of Disseminating Quality Improvement for Depression in Primary Care. Archives of General Psychiatry 58:696–703. Shields, L., J. Pratt, L.M. Davis, J. Hunter. 2007. Family-Centred Care for Children in Hospital. Cochrane Database Systematic Review: CD004811.

324

Bibliography

Simon, G.E., and M. VonKorff. 1995. Recognition, Management, and Outcomes of Depression in Primary Care. Archives of Family Medicine 4:99–105. Simon, G.E., M. VonKorff, C. Rutter, and E. Wagner. 2000. Randomised Trial of Monitoring, Feedback, and Management of Care by Telephone to Improve Treatment of Depression in Primary Care. British Medical Journal 320:550–4. Smith, S.M., S. Allwright, and T. O’Dowd. 2007. Effectiveness of Shared Care across the Interface between Primary and Specialty Care in Chronic Disease Management. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Issue 3:CD004910. Strain, J.J., and M. Blumenfield. 2008. Challenges for Consultation-Liaison Psychiatry in the Twenty-first Century. Psychosomatics 49:93–6. Strain, J.J., S. Mustafa, L.R. Flores, G. Smith, R. Mayou, S. Carvalho, et al. 2003. Consultation-Liaison Psychiatry Literature Database (2003 update). Part I: Consultation-Liaison Literature Database: 2003 Update and National Lists. General Hospital Psychiatry 25:378–85. Stuart, E.A., D.F. Perry, L. Huynh-Nhu, and N.S. Ialongo. 2008. Estimating Intervention Effects of Prevention Programs: Accounting for Noncompliance. Prevention Science 9:288–98. Swindle, R.W., J.K. Rao, A. Helmy, L. Plue, X.H. Zhou, G.J. Eckert, and M. Weinberger. 2003. Integrating Clinical Nurse Specialists into the Treatment of Primary Care Patients with Depression. International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine 33:17–37. Unutzer, J., W. Katon, C.M. Callahan, J.W. Williams Jr, E. Hunkeler, L. Harpole, M. Hoffing, et al. 2002. Collaborative Care Management of Latelife Depression in the Primary Care Setting: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Journal of the American Medical Association 288:2836–45. Vingilis, E., K. Hartford, K. Diaz, B. Mitchell, R. Velamoor, M. Wedlake, and D. White. 2007. Process and Outcome Evaluation of an Emergency Department Intervention for Persons with Mental Health Concerns Using a Population Health Approach. Administration and Policy in Mental Health 34:160–71. Vingilis, E., J. Paquette-Warren, N. Kates, A.M. Crustolo, J. Greenslade, and S. Newnam. 2007. Descriptive and Process Evaluation of a Shared Primary Care Program. The Internet Journal of Allied Health Sciences and Practice 5:1–10. Accessible at http://ijahsp.nova.edu/articles/ vol5num4/pdf/vingilis.pdf. Warner, J.P., M. King, R. Blizard, Z. McClenahan, and S. Tang. 2000. PatientHeld Shared Care Records for Individuals with Mental Illness: Randomised Controlled Evaluation. British Journal of Psychiatry 177:319–24.

Bibliography

325

Webb, S.A. 2006. Interprofessional Education in Health Care. Journal of the South Carolina Medical Association 102:70–3. Weisner, C., J. Mertens, S. Parthasarathy, C. Moore, and Y. Lu. 2001. Integrating Primary Medical Care with Addiction Treatment: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Journal of the American Medical Association 286:1715–23. Wells, K.B., C. Sherbourne, M. Schoenbaum, N. Duan, L. Meredith, J. Unutzer, J. Miranda, M.F. Carney, and L.V. Rubenstein. 2000. Impact of Disseminating Quality Improvement Programs for Depression in Managed Primary Care: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Journal of the American Medical Association 283:212–20. Wells, K., C. Sherbourne, M. Schoenbaum, S. Ettner, N. Duan, J. Miranda, J. Unutzer, and L. Rubenstein. 2004. Five-Year Impact of Quality Improvement for Depression: Results of a Group-level Randomized Controlled Trial. Archives of General Psychiatry 61:378–86. Yau, Linda H.Y., and R.J. Little. 2001. Inference for the Complier-Average Causal Effect from Longitudinal Data Subject to Noncompliance and Missing Data, with Application to a Job Training Assessment for the Unemployed. Journal of the American Statistical Association 96:1232–44. Younes, N., I. Gasquet, P. Gaudebout, M.P. Chaillet, V. Kovess, B. Falissard, and M.C. Hardy Bayle. 2005. General Practitioners’ Opinions on Their Practice in Mental Health and Their Collaboration with Mental Health Professionals. BMC Family Practice 6:18. Zwarenstein, M., and S. Reeves. 2006. Knowledge Translation and Interprofessional Collaboration: Where the Rubber of Evidence-based Care Hits the Road of Teamwork. The Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions 26:46–54.

Chapter twelve Allness, D.J. 1997. The Program of Assertive Community Treatment (PACT): The Model and Its Replication. New Directions in Mental Health Services 74:17–26. Allness, D.J., and W. Knoedler. 2003. National Program Standards for ACT Teams: 1–43. Allness, D.J., W.H. Knoedler, M.A. Test. 1985. The Dissemination and Impact of a Model Program in Process, 1972–1984. New Directions for Mental Health Services 26:41–7. Anthony, W. 1993. Recovery from Mental Illness: The Guiding Vision of the Mental Health Service System in the 1990s. Psychosocial Rehabilitation Journal 16:11–23.

326

Bibliography

– 1991. Recovery from Mental Illness: The New Vision of Services Researchers. Innovations and Research 1:13–14. Anthony, W., E.S. Rogers, and M. Farkas. 2003. Research on EvidenceBased Practice: Future Directions in an Era of Recovery. Community Mental Health Journal 39:101–14. Baronet, A., and G.J. Gerber. 1998. Psychiatric Rehabilitation: Efficacy of Four Models. Clinical Psychology Review 18:189–228. Bishop, J., and E. Vingilis. 2006. Development of a Framework for Comprehensive Evaluation of Client Outcomes in Community Mental Health Services. Canadian Journal of Program Evaluation 21:131–80. Bjorklund, R.W., M. Monroe-Devita, D. Reed, A. Toulon, and G. Morse. 2009. Washington State’s Initiative to Disseminate and Implement HighFidelity ACT Teams. Psychiatric Services 60:24–7. Bond, G.R., R. Drake, K. Mueser, and E. Latimer. 2001. Assertive Community Treatment for People with Severe Mental Illness: Critical Ingredients and Impact on Patients. Disease Management and Health Outcomes 9:141–59. Bond, G.R., J.H. McGrew, and D.M. Fekete. 1995. Assertive Outreach for Frequent Users of Psychiatric Hospitals: A Meta-analysis. Journal of Mental Health Administration 22:4–16. Bond, G.R., L.D. Miller, R.D. Krumwied, and R.S. Ward. 1988. Assertive Case Management in Three CMHC s: A Controlled Study. Hospital Community Psychiatry 39:411–18. Bond, G.R., and M.P. Salyers. 2004. Prediction of Outcome from the Dartmouth Assertive Community Treatment Fidelity Scale. CNS Spectrums 9:937–42. Bond, G.R., M.P. Salyers, A.L. Rollins, C.A. Rapp, and A.M. Zipple. 2004. How Evidence-Based Practices Contribute to Community Integration. Community Mental Health Journal 40:569–88. Bond, G.R., T.F. Witheridge, J. Dincin, D. Wasmer, J. Webb, and R. de Graaf-Kaser. 1990. Assertive Community Treatment for Frequent Users of Psychiatric Hospitals in a Large City: A Controlled Study. American Journal of Community Psychology 18:865–91. British Columbia Ministry of Health Services (BCMOH). 2008. Program Standards for Assertive Community Treatment (ACT) Teams in British Columbia. Vancouver: British Columbia Ministry of Health Services. Burns, B.J., and A.B. Santos. 1995. Assertive Community Treatment: An Update of Randomized Trials. Psychiatric Services 46:669–75. Burns, T., J. Catty, M. Dash, C. Roberts, A. Lockwood, and M. Marshall. 2007. Use of Intensive Case Management to Reduce Time in Hospital in People with Severe Mental Illness: Systemic Review and Meta-Regression. British Medical Journal 55:335.

Bibliography

327

Burns T., J. Catty, and C. Wright. 2006. Deconstructing Home-Based Care for Mental Illness: Can One Identify the Effective Ingredients? Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 113:33–5. Burns, T., F. Creed, T. Fahy, S. Thompson, P. Tyrer, and I. White. 1999. Intensive Versus Standard Case Management for Severe Psychotic Disorders: A Randomized Trial. Lancet 353:2185–9. Burns, T., M. Fiander, A. Kent, O.C. Ukuomunne, S. Byford, T. Fahy, and K.R. Kumar. 2000. Effects of Case-load Size on the Process of Care of Patients with Severe Psychotic Illness. British Journal of Psychiatry 177:427–33. Burns T., A. Fioretti, F. Holloway, U. Malm, and W. Rossler 2001. Case Management and Assertive Community Treatment in Europe. Psychiatric Services 52:631–6. Calsyn, R.J., G.A. Morse, W.D. Klinkenberg, R.D. Yonker, and M.L. Trusty. 2002. Moderators and Mediators of Client Satisfaction in Case Management Programs for Clients with Severe Mental Illness. Mental Health Services Research 4:267–75. Chandler, D., and G. Spicer. 2002. Capitated Assertive Community Treatment Program Savings: System Implications. Administration and Policy in Mental Health 30:3–19. Chandler, D., G. Spicer, M. Wagner, and W. Hargreaves. 1999. Costeffectiveness of a Capitated Assertive Community Treatment Team Program. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 22:327–36. Chue, P., P. Tibbo, E. Wright, J. Van Ens. 2004. Client and Community Services Satisfaction with an Assertive Community Treatment Subprogram for Inner-city Clients in Edmonton, Alberta. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 49:621–4. Clarke G.N., H.A. Herinckx, R.F. Kinney, R.I. Paulson, D.L. Cutler, K. Lewis, E. Oxman. 2000. Psychiatric Hospitalizations, Arrests, Emergency Room Visits, and Homelessness of Clients with Serious and Persistent Mental Illness: Findings from a Randomized Trial of Two ACT Programs vs. Usual Care. Mental Health Services Research 2:155–64. Coldwell, C.M., and W.S. Bender. 2007. The Effectiveness of Assertive Community Treatment for Homeless Populations with Severe Mental Illness: A Meta-analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry 164:393–9. Cosden, M., J. Ellens, J. Schnell, and Y. Yamini-Diouf. 2005. Efficacy of a Mental Health Treatment Court with Assertive Community Treatment. Behavioural Science and the Law 23:199–214. Cousins, J.B., T.D. Aubry, H. Fowler, and M. Smith. 2004. Using Key Component Profiles for the Evaluation of Program Implementation in Intensive Mental Health Case Management. Evaluation and Program Planning 27:1–23.

328

Bibliography

Cuddeback, G.S., J.P. Morrissey, and K.J. Cusack. 2008. How Many Forensic Assertive Community Treatment Teams Do We Need? Psychiatric Services 59:205–8. Cuddeback, G.S., J.P. Morrissey, K.J. Cusack, and P.S. Meyer. 2009. Challenges to Developing Forensic Assertive Community Treatment. American Journal of Psychiatric Rehabilitation 12:225–46. Deuchar, N., K. Saunders, J. Vanderpyl, T. Doub, J. Marquart, S. Lurie, and H. McKee. 2008. International Comparative ACT Study Process and Data: How ACT Teams Compare in Toronto, Birmingham, Nashville and Auckland. International Journal of Leadership in Public Services 4:41–55. Drake, R.E., N.H. Covell, G.J. McHugo, L.K. Frisman, N.J. Kontos, C.T. Jackson, F. Townsend, and K. Swain. 2006. Comparison of ACT and Standard Case Management for Delivering Integrated Treatment for Cooccurring Disorders. Psychiatric Services 57:185–96. Drake, R.E., K.T. Mueser, M.F. Brunette, and G.J. McHugo. 2004. A Review of Treatments for People with Severe Mental Illnesses and Co-occurring Substance Use Disorders. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 27:360–74. Endler, N.S., and D. Magnusson. 1976. Interactional Psychology and Personality. Series in Clinical and Community Psychology. Washington: Hemisphere. Essock, S.M., L.K. Frisman, and N.J. Kontos. 1998. Cost Effectiveness of Assertive Community Treatment Teams. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 68:179–90. Fletcher, T.D., J.L. Cunningham, R.J. Calsyn, G.A. Morse, and W.D. Klinkenberg. 2008. Evaluation of Treatment Programs for Dual Disorder Individuals: Modelling Longitudinal and Mediation Effects. Administrative Policy on Mental Health 35:319–36. Gehrs, M., H. Fowler, S.B. Rourke, D. Wasylenki, M. Smith, and J.B. Cousins. 2004. Inside the Black Box: Challenges in Implementation Evaluation of Community Mental Health Case Management Programs. Canadian Journal of Program Evaluation 19:109–34. George, L., J. Durbin, and C.J. Koegl. 2008. System-wide Implementation of ACT in Ontario: An Ongoing Improvement Effort. Journal of Behavioural Health Services and Research 36:309–19. Gerber, G.J., and P.N. Prince. 1999. Measuring Client Satisfaction with Assertive Community Treatment. Psychiatric Services 50:546–50. Gomory, T. 2002a. Effectiveness of Assertive Community Treatment. [letter] Psychiatric Services 53:103. –2002b. The Origins of Coercion in “Assertive Community Treatment” (ACT): A Review of Early Publications From the “Special Treatment Unit”

Bibliography

329

(STU) of Mendota State Hospital. Ethical Human Sciences and Services 4:3–16. – 2001. A Critique of the Effectiveness of Assertive Community Treatment. [letter] Psychiatric Services 52:1394. Hackman A.L., and K.R. Stowell. 2009. Transitioning Clients from Assertive Community Treatment to Traditional Mental Health Services. Community Mental Health Journal 45:1–5. Herinckx, H.A., R.F. Kinney, G.N. Clarke, and R.I. Paulson. 1997. Assertive Community Treatment versus Usual Care in Engaging and Retaining Clients with Severe Mental Illness. Psychiatric Services 48:1297–306. Holloway, F., and J. Carson. 2001. Case Management: An Update. International Journal of Social Psychiatry 47:21–31. Hoult, J. 1993. Comprehensive Services for the Mentally Ill. Current Opinion in Psychiatry 6:238–45. Hoult, J., and I. Reynolds. 1984. Schizophrenia: A Comparative Trial of Community-oriented and Hospital-Oriented Psychiatric Care. Acta Scandinavica 69:359–72. Ito, J., I. Oshima, M. Nishio, and E. Kuno. 2009. Initiative to Build a Community-based Mental Health System Including Assertive Community Treatment for People with Severe Mental Illness in Japan. American Journal of Psychiatric Rehabilitation 12:247–60. Kenny D.A., R.J. Calsyn, G.A. Morse, W.D. Klinkenberg, J.P. Winter, and M.L. Trusty. 2004. Evaluation of Treatment Programs for Persons with Severe Mental Illness: Moderator and Mediator Effects. Evaluation Review 28:294–324. Kidd, S.A., L. George, M. O’Connell, J. Sylvestre, H. Kirkpatrick, G. Browne, and L. Thabane. 2010 (in press). Fidelity and Recovery in Assertive Community Treatment. Community Mental Health Journal. Killaspy, H., P. Bebbington, R. Blizard, S. Johnson, F. Nolan, S. Pilling, and M. King. 2006. The REACT Study: Randomised Evaluation of Assertive Community Treatment in North London. British Medical Journal 332:815–20. Killaspy, H., S. Kingett, P. Bebbington, R. Blizard, S. Johnson, F. Nolan, S. Pilling, and M. King. 2009. Randomized Evaluation of Assertive Community Treatment: Three-Year Outcomes. British Journal of Psychiatry 195:81–2. King, R. 2006. Intensive Case Management: A Critical Re-appraisal of the Scientific Evidence for Effectiveness. Administration and Policy in Mental Health 33:529–35. Kirsh, B., and L. Cockburn. 2007. Employment Outcomes Associated with ACT: A Review of ACT Literature. American Journal of Psychiatric Rehabilitation 10:31–51.

330

Bibliography

Knapp, M., J. Beecham, V. Koutsogeorgopoulou, A. Hallam, A. Fenyo, I.M. Marks, J. Connolly, B. Audini, and M. Muijen. 1994. Service Use and Costs of Home-Based Versus Hospital-Based Care for People with Serious Mental Illness. British Journal of Psychiatry 165:195–203. Lachance, K., and A. Santos. 1995. Modifying the PACT Model: Preserving the Critical Elements. Psychiatric Services 46:601–4. Lafave, H.G., H.R. de Souza, and G.J. Gerber. 1996. Assertive Community Treatment of Severe Mental Illness: A Canadian Experience. Psychiatric Services 47:757–9. Lamberti, J.S., R. Weisman, and D.I. Faden. 2004. Forensic Assertive Community Treatment: Preventing Incarceration of Adults with Severe Mental Illness. Psychiatric Services 55:1285–93. Lamberti, J.S., R.L. Weisman, S.B. Schwarzkopf, N. Price, R.M. Ashton, and J. Trompeter. 2001. The Mentally Ill in Jails and Prisons: Towards an Integrated Model of Prevention. Psychiatric Quarterly 72:63–77. Latimer, E. 2005. Economic Considerations Associated with Assertive Community Treatment and Supported Employment for People with Severe Mental Illness. Journal of Psychiatry Neurosciences 30:355–9. Leff, J., and N. Trieman. 2000. Long-Stay Patients Discharged from Psychiatric Hospitals: Social and Clinical Outcomes after Five Years in the Community. The TAPS Project 46. British Journal of Psychiatry 176:217–23. Lehman, A.F. 1998. Public Health Policy, Community Services, and Outcomes for Patients with Schizophrenia. Psychiatric Clinics of North America 21:221–31. Lehman, A.F., L. Dixon, J.S. Hoch, B. Deforge, E. Kerman, R. Frank. 1999. Cost-effectiveness of Assertive Community Treatment for Homeless Persons with Severe Mental Illness. British Journal of Psychiatry 174:346–52. Lehman, A.F., L.B. Dixon, E. Kernan, B.R. DeForge, and L.T. Postrado. 1997. A Randomized Trial of Assertive Community Treatment for Homeless Persons with Severe Mental Illness. Archives of General Psychiatry 54:1038–43. Lurie, S. 2004. Mandated Collaboration: The Case of the Forensic MOU. Health Law in Canada 24:29–36. Lurie, S., B. Kirsh, and S. Hodge. 2007. Can ACT Lead to More Work? The Ontario Experience. Canadian Journal of Community Mental Health 26:161–71. Lurigio, A.J., J.R. Fallon, and J. Dincin. 2000. Helping the Mentally Ill in Jails Adjust to Community Life: A Description of a Post-Release ACT Program and Its Clients. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 44:532–48.

Bibliography

331

Macias, C., C.F. Rodican, W.A. Hargreaves, D.R. Jones, P.J. Barreira, and Q. Wang. 2006. Supported Employment Outcomes of a Randomized Controlled Trial of ACT and Clubhouse Models. Psychiatric Services 57:1406–15. Marks, I.M., J. Connolly, M. Muijen, B. Audini, G. McNamee, and R.E. Lawrence. 1994. Home-Based Versus Hospital-Based Care for People with Serious Mental Illness. British Journal of Psychiatry 165:179–94. Marshall, M., and A. Lockwood. 1998. Assertive Community Treatment for People with Severe Mental Disorders. The Cochrane Database of Systemic Reviews, Issue 2, (republished, 2010 Issue 1). Accessible at http:// www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab001089.html. Martin, G., H. Costello, M. Leese, M. Slade, N. Bouras, S. Higgins, and G. Holt. 2005. An Exploratory Study of Assertive Community Treatment for People with Intellectual Disability and Psychiatric Disorders: Conceptual, Clinical, and Service Issues. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities Research 49:516–24. Marx, A.J., M.A. Test, and L.I. Stein. 1973. Extra Hospital Management of Severe Mental Illness: Feasibility and Effects of Social Functioning. Archives of General Psychiatry 29:505–11. McCoy, M.L., D.L. Roberts, P. Hanrahan, R. Clay, and D.J. Luchins. 2004. Jail Linkage Assertive Community Treatment Services for Individuals with Mental Illnesses. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 27:243–50. McFarlane, W.R., R.A. Dushay, P. Stastny, S.M. Deakins, and B. Link. 1996. A Comparison of Two Levels of Family-Aided Assertive Community Treatment. Psychiatric Services 47:744–50. McGrew, J.H., and G.R. Bond. 1995. Critical Ingredients of Assertive Community Treatment: Judgments of the Experts. Journal of Mental Health Administration 22:113–25. McGrew, J.H., G.R. Bond, L. Dietzen, and M. Salyers. 1994. Measuring the Fidelity of Implementation of a Mental Health Program Model. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 62:670–8. McGrew, J.H., B. Pescosolido, E. Wright. 2003. Case Managers’ Perspectives on Critical Ingredients of Assertive Community Treatment and on Its Implementation. Psychiatric Services 54:370–6. McGrew, J.H., R.G. Wilson, and G.R. Bond. 2002. An Exploratory Study of What Clients Like Least about Assertive Community Treatment. Psychiatric Services 53:761–3. – 1996. Client Perspectives on Helpful Ingredients of Assertive Community Treatment. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 19:13–21. McHugo, G.J., R.E. Drake, G.B. Teague, and H. Xie. 1999. Fidelity to Assertive Community Treatment and Client Outcomes in the New Hampshire Dual Disorders Study. Psychiatric Services 50:818–24.

332

Bibliography

Mechanic, D. 1996. Emerging Issues in International Mental Health Services Research. Psychiatric Services 47:371–5. – 1995. Challenges in the Provision of Mental Health Services: Some Cautionary Lessons from US Experience. Journal of Public Health Medicine 17:132–9. Meisler, N., C.D. McKay, and R. Benasutti. 1999. An ACT Program for Cooccurring Disorders. Psychiatric Services 50:1640. Meisler, N., C.D. McKay, P.B. Gold, P. Schales-Elkins, R. Benasutti, and A.B. Santos. 2000. Using Principles of ACT to Integrate Community Care for People with Mental Retardation and Mental Illness. Journal of Psychiatric Practices 6:77–83. Minghella, E., N. Guantlett, and R. Ford. 2002. Assertive Outreach: Does It Reach Expectations? Journal of Mental Health 11:27–42. Monroe-Devita, M., L. Moser, and G. Teague. 2009. Enhancing ACT Fidelity Assessment: Introducing the TMACT. Paper presented at the 25th Annual Assertive Community Treatment Conference, 4 June 2009, Washington, DC. Morrissey, J., P. Meyer, and G. Cuddeback. 2007. Extending Assertive Community Treatment to Criminal Justice Settings: Origins, Current Evidence, and Future Directions. Community Mental Health Journal 43:527–44. Morse, G.A., R.J. Calsyn, W.D. Klinkenberg, M.L. Trusty, F. Gerber, R. Smith, B. Tempelhoff, and L. Ahmad. 1997. An Experimental Comparison of Three Types of Case Management for Homeless Mentally Ill Persons. Psychiatric Services 48:497–503. Moser, L.L., and G.R. Bond. 2009. Scope of Agency Control: Assertive Community Treatment Teams’ Supervision of Consumers. Psychiatric Services 60:922–8. Mowbray, C., C. Holter, G. Teague, and D. Bybee. 2003. Fidelity Criteria: Development, Measurement and Validation. American Journal of Evaluation 24:315–40. Mueser, K., G. Bond, R. Drake, and S. Resnick. 1998. Models of Community Care for Severe Mental Illness: A Review of Research on Case Management. Schizophrenia Bulletin 24:37–74. Muijen, M., I. Marks, J. Connolly, and B. Audini. 1992. Home-Based Care and Standard Hospital Care for Patients with Severe Mental Illness: A Randomized Controlled Trial. British Medical Journal 304:749–54. Nelson, G., T. Aubrey, and A. Lafrance. 2007. A Review of the Literature on the Effectiveness of Housing and Support, Assertive Community Treatment, and Intensive Case Management Interventions for Persons with Mental Illness Who Have Been Homeless. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 77:350–61

Bibliography

333

O’Connell, M., J. Tondora, G. Croog, A. Evans, and L. Davidson. 2005. From Rhetoric to Routine: Assessing Perceptions of Recovery-Oriented Practices in a State Mental Health and Addiction System. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 28:378–86. Øhlenschlaeger J., A. Thorup, L. Petersen, P. Jeppesen, A. Koster, R. Munkner, and M. Nordentoft. 2007. Intensive Treatment Models and Coercion. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry 61:369–78. Ontario Ministry of Health and Long Term Care (MOHLTC) 2009. Toronto, Ontario: Ontario Ministry of Health and Long Term Care ACT Technical Advisory Panel. – 2008. 2006/07 Ontario ACT Data Outcome Monitoring Report. Toronto, Ontario: Ontario Ministry of Health and Long Term Care. – 2004. Ontario Program Standards for ACT Teams. 2d ed. Updated January 2005. Toronto, On. Parker, G.F. 2004. Outcomes of Assertive Community Treatment in an NGRI Conditional Release Program. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry Law 32:291–303. Phillips, S.D., B.J. Burns, E.R. Edgar, K.T. Mueser, K.W. Linkins, R.A. Rosenheck, R.E. Drake, and E.C. McDonel Herr. 2001. Moving Assertive Community Treatment into Standard Practice. Psychiatric Services 52:771–9. Redko, C., J. Durbin, D. Wasylenki, and T. Krupa. 2004. Participant Perspectives on Satisfaction with Assertive Community Treatment. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 27:283–6. Resnick, S.G., A. Fontana, A.F. Lehman, and R.A. Rosenheck. 2005. An Empirical Conceptualization of the Recovery Orientation. Schizophrenia Research 75:119–28. Rosen, A., K. Mueser, and M. Teesson. 2007. Assertive Community Treatment – Issues from the Scientific and Clinical Literature with Implications for Practice. Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development 44:813–26. Rosen, A., and M. Teesson. 2001. Does Case Management Work? The Evidence and the Abuse of Evidence-Based Medicine. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 35:731–46. Rosenheck, R.A., A.F. Fontana, C. Cottrel. 1995. Effect of Clinician-Veteran Racial Pairing in the Treatment of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 152:555–63. Rosenheck, R.A., and M.S. Neale. 1998. Cost-effectiveness of Intensive Psychiatric Community Care for High Users of Inpatient Services. Archives of General Psychiatry 55:459–66. Salyers, M.P., and S. Tsemberis. 2007. ACT and Recovery: Integrating Evidence-Based Practice and Recovery Orientation on Assertive Community Treatment Teams. Community Mental Health Journal 43:619–41.

334

Bibliography

Scott, J.E., and L.B. Dixon. 1995. Assertive Community Treatment and Case Management for Schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin 21:657–68. Smith, L., and R. Newton. 2007. Systematic Review of Case Management. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 41:2–9. Solomon P. 2008. Case Management. In Principles and Practice of Psychiatric Rehabilitation: An Empirical approach, eds. P.W. Corrigan, K.T. Mueser, G.R. Bond, R.E. Drake, and P. Solomon, 137–59. New York: Guilford Press. Solomon, P., and J. Draine. 1995a. One-year Outcomes of a Randomized Trial of Case Management with Seriously Mentally Ill Clients Leaving Jail. Evaluation Review 19:256–73. – 1995b. The Efficacy of a Consumer Case Management Team: Two-Year Outcomes of a Randomized Trial. Journal of Mental Health Administration 22:135–46. Stein, L. 1990. Comments by Leonard Stein. Hospital and Community Psychiatry 41:649–51. Stein, L., R.J. Diamond, and R.M. Factor. 1990. A System Approach to the Care of Persons with Schizophrenia. In Handbook of Schizophrenia, vol.  4: Psychosocial Treatment of Schizophrenia, ed., M.I. Herz, S.J. Keith, and J.P. Docherty, 226–7. New York: Elsevier Science. Stein, L.I., and M.A. Test. 1980. Alternative to Mental Hospital Treatment. I. Conceptual Model, Treatment Program, and Clinical Evaluation. Archives of General Psychiatry 37:392–7. Stein, L.I., M.A. Test, and A.J. Marx. 1975. Alternatives to the Hospital: A Controlled Study. American Journal of Psychiatry 132:517–22. Sytema, S., L. Wunderink, W. Bloemers, L. Roorda, and D. Wiersma. 2007. Assertive Community Treatment in the Netherlands: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 116:105–12. Teague, G.B., G.R. Bond, and R.E. Drake. 1998. Program Fidelity in Assertive Community Treatment: Development and Use of a Measure. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 68:216–32. Test, M.A., and L.I. Stein, eds. 1978. Training in Community Living: Research Design and Results. Alternatives to Mental Hospital Treatment, eds. L.I. Stein and M.A. Test, 57–74. New York: Plenum Press. Thompson, K.S., E.E. Griffith, and P.J. Leaf. 1990. A Historical Review of the Madison Model of Community Care. Hospital and Community Psychiatry 41:625, 34; discussion 649–51. Tibbo, P., P. Chue, and E. Wright. 1999. Hospital Outcome Measures Following Assertive Community Treatment in Edmonton, Alberta. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 44:276–9. Thornicroft, G., and M. Slade. 2000. Are Routine Outcome Measures Feasible in Mental Health? Quality in Health Care 9:84.

Bibliography

335

Thornicroft, G., G. Strathdee, M. Phelan, F. Holloway, T. Wykes, G. Dunn, P. McCrone, M. Leese, S. Johnson, and G. Szmukler. 1998. Rationale and Design PRiSM Psychosis Study I. British Journal of Psychiatry 173:363–70. Thornicroft, G., T. Wykes, F. Holloway, S. Johnson, G. Szmukler. 1998. From Efficacy to Effectiveness in Community Mental Health Services. PriSM Psychosis Study 8. British Journal of Psychiatry 173:423–7. Trinh, N-H., D. Moore, and D.H. Brendel. 2008. Ethics Consultation to PACT Teams: Balancing Client Autonomy and Clinical Necessity. Harvard Review of Psychiatry 16:365–72. van Veldhuizen, J.R. 2007. FACT: A Dutch Version of ACT. Community Mental Health Journal 43:421–33. Vingilis, E., and R.E. Mann. 1986. Towards an Interactionist Approach to Drinking-Driving Behaviour: Implications for Prevention and Research. Health Education Research 1:273–88. Watts, J., and S. Priebe. 2002. A Phenomenological Account of User’s Experience of Assertive Community treatment. Bioethics 16:439–54. Weisbrod, B.A., M.A. Test, and L.I. Stein. 1980. Alternative to Mental Hospital Treatment: II. Economic Benefit-Cost Analysis. Archives of General Psychiatry 37:400–5. Weisman, R.L., J.S. Lamberti, and N. Price. 2004. Integrating Criminal Justice, Community Healthcare, and Support Services for Adults with Severe Mental Disorders. Psychiatric Quarterly 75:71–85. Williamson, T. 2002. Ethics of Assertive Outreach (Assertive Community Treatment Teams). Current Opinions in Psychiatry 15:543–7. Witheridge, T.F. 1991. The Active Ingredients of Assertive Outreach. New Directions for Mental Health Services 52:47–63. Xu, L., J.E. Bishop, W. He, J. Braun, and E. Vingilis. 2008. Testing a Framework for Comprehensive Evaluation of Outcomes for Clients in Community Health Services: Preliminary results of a Study of Assertive Community Treatment (ACT). Paper presented at the Canadian Psychiatric Association Conference, 6 September 2008, Vancouver, Canada. Ziguras, S.J., and G.W. Stuart. 2000. A Meta-Analysis of the Effectivness of Mental Health Case Management over Twenty Years. Psychiatric Services 51:1410–21.

Chapter thirteen Agence d’Évaluation des Technologies et Modes d’Intervention en Santé. Forthcoming. Le soutien à l’emploi de type « Placement et soutien individuels » pour les personnes atteintes de troubles mentaux graves. Montréal, QC: Gouvernement du Québec.

336

Bibliography

Alverson, H., M. Alverson, R.E. Drake, and D.R. Becker. 1998. Social Correlates of Competitive Employment among People With Severe Mental Illness. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 22:34–40. Alverson, H., E. Carpenter, and R.E. Drake. 2006. An Ethnographic Study of Job Seeking among People with Severe Mental Illness. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 30:15–22. Bailey, E., S. Ricketts, D. Becker, H. Xie, and R. Drake. 1998. Do Long-term Day Treatment Clients Benefit from Supported Employment? Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 22:24–9. Becker, D.R., R.R. Bebout, and R.E. Drake. 1998. Job Preferences of People with Severe Mental Disorders: A Replication. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 22:46–50. Becker, D.R., G.R. Bond, D. McCarthy, D. Thompson, H. Xie, G.J. McHugo, and R.E. Drake. 2001. Converting Day Treatment Centers to Supported Employment Programs in Rhode Island. Psychiatric Services 52:351–7. Becker, D.R., and R.E. Drake. 2003. A Working Life for People with Severe Mental Illness. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Becker, D.R., R.E. Drake, A. Farabaugh, and G.R. Bond. 1996. Job Preferences of Clients with Severe Psychiatric Disorders Participating in Supported Employment Programs. Psychiatric Services 47:1223–6. Becker, D.R., R.E. Drake, and W.J. Naughton, Jr. 2005. Supported Employment for People with Co-occurring Disorders. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 28:332–8. Becker, D.R., J. Smith, B. Tanzman, R.E. Drake, and T. Tremblay. 2001. Fidelity of Supported Employment Programs and Employment Outcomes. Psychiatric Services 52:834–6. Becker, D., R. Whitley, E.L. Bailey, and R.E. Drake. 2007. Long-term Employment Trajectories among Participants with Severe Mental Illness in Supported Employment. Psychiatric Services 58:922–8. Becker, D.R., H. Xie, G.J. McHugo, J. Halliday, and R.A. Martinez. 2006. What Predicts Supported Employment Program Outcomes?[see comment]. Community Mental Health Journal 42:303–13. Bell, M., P. Lysaker, and R. Milstein. 1996. Clinical Benefits of Paid Work in Schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin 22:51–67. Bond, G.R. 2007. Modest Implementation Efforts, Modest Fidelity, and Modest Outcomes.[comment]. Psychiatric Services 58:334. – 2004. Supported Employment: Evidence for an Evidence-Based Practice. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 27:345–59. Bond, G.R., L.L. Dietzen, J.H. McGrew, and L.D. Miller. 1995. Accelerating Entry into Supported Employment for Persons with Severe Psychiatric Disabilities. Rehabilitation Psychology 40:75–94.

Bibliography

337

Bond, G.R., and J. Dincin. 1986. Acclerating Entry into Transitional Employment in a Psychosocial Rehabilitation Agency. Rehabilitation Psychology 31:143–55. Bond, G.R., R.E. Drake, and D.R. Becker. 2008. An Update on Randomized Controlled Trials of Evidence-Based Supported Employment. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 31:280–90. Bond, G.R., H.W. Kim, P.S. Meyer, P.J. Gibson, S. Tunis, J.D. Evans, P. Lysaker, M.L. McCoy, J. Dincin, and H. Xie. 2004. Response to Vocational Rehabilitation during Treatment with First- or Second-Generation Antipsychotics. Psychiatric Services 55:59–66. Bond, G.R., S.G. Resnick, R.E. Drake, H. Xie, G.J. McHugo, and R.R. Bebout. 2001. Does Competitive Employment Improve Nonvocational Outcomes for People with Severe Mental Illness? Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 69:489–501. Bond, G.R., M. Salyers, J. Dincin, R.E. Drake, D.R. Becker, V.V. Fraser, and M. Haines. 2007. A Randomized Controlled Trial Comparing Two Vocational Models for Persons with Severe Mental Illness. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 75:968–82. Bond, G.R., M. Salyers, A.L. Rollins, C. Rapp, and A.M. Zipple. 2004. How Evidence-Based Practices Contribute to Community Integration. Community Mental Health Journal 40:569–88. Boyce, M., J. Secker, M. Floyd, B. Grove, R. Johnson, J. Schneider, and J. Slade. 2008. Factors Influencing the Delivery of Evidence-Based Supported Employment in England. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 31:360–6. Burns, T., J. Catty, T. Becker, R. E. Drake, A. Fioritti, M. Knapp, C. Lauber, W. Rössler, T. Tomov, J. van Busschbach, S. White, and D. Wiersma. 2007. The Effectiveness of Supported Employment for People with Severe Mental Illness: A Randomised Controlled Trial. Lancet 370:1146–52. Burns, T., J. Catty, S. White, T. Becker, M. Koletsi, A. Fioritti, W. Rossler, T. Tomov, J. van Busschbach, D. Wiersma, C. Lauber, and Eqolise Group. 2009. The Impact of Supported Employment and Working on Clinical and Social Functioning: Results of an International Study of Individual Placement and Support. Schizophrenia Bulletin 35:949–58. Catalano, R., R.E. Drake, D.R. Becker, and R.E. Clark. 1999. Labor Market Conditions and Employment of the Mentally Ill. The Journal of Mental Health Policy and Economics 2:51–4. Chandler, D., J. Meisel, T. Hu, M. McGowen, and K. Madison. 1997. A Capitated Model for a Cross-section of Severely Mentally Ill Clients: Employment Outcomes. Community Mental Health Journal 33:501–16. Corbière, M., and T. Lecomte. 2009. Vocational Services Offered to People with Severe Mental Illness. Journal of Mental Health 18:38–50.

338

Bibliography

Corrigan, P.W., K.T. Mueser, G.R. Bond, R.E. Drake, and P. Solomon. 2008. Principles and Practice of Psychiatric Rehabilitation: An Empirical Approach. New York/London: The Guilford Press. Dartmouth Psychiatric Research Center. 2008. Supported Employment Fidelity Scale. – 2007. Community Mental Health Program and Supported Employment: Strategies that Work. J&J Videos. Drake, R.E., D.R. Becker, J.C. Biesanz, W.C. Torrey, G.J. McHugo, and P.F. Wyzik. 1994. Rehabilitative Day Treatment vs. Supported Employment: I. Vocational Outcomes. Community Mental Health Journal 30:519–31. Drake, R.E., and D.R. Becker, J.C. Biesanz, P.F. Wyzik, and W.C. Torrey. 1999. A Randomized Clinical Trial of Supported Employment for Inner-City Patients with Severe Mental Disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry 56:627–33. – 1996. Day Treatment vs Supported Employment for Persons with Severe Mental Illness: A Replication Study. Psychiatric Services 47:1125–7. Drake, R., D. Becker, G. Bond, and K.T. Mueser. 2003. A Process Analysis of Integrated and Non-integrated Approaches to Supported Employment. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation 18:51–8. Drake, R.E., D.R. Becker, H. Xie, and W.A. Anthony. 1995. Barriers in the Brokered Model of Supported Employment for Persons with Psychiatric Disabilities. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation 5:141–9. Drake, R.E., and G.R. Bond. 2008. The Future of Supported Employment for People with Severe Mental Illness. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 31:367–76. Drake, R.E., G.R. Bond, and C. Rapp. 2006. Explaining the Variance within Supported Employment Programs: Comment on “What predicts supported employment outcomes?” Community Mental Health Journal 42:315–18. Drake, R.E., G.J. McHugo, R.R. Bebout, D.R. Becker, M. Harris, G.R. Bond, and E. Quimby. 1999. A Randomized Clinical Trial of Supported Employment for Inner-city Patients with Severe Mental Disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry 56:627–33. Drake, R.E., G.J. McHugo, D.R. Becker, W.A. Anthony, and R.E. Clark. 1996. The New Hampshire Study of Supported Employment for People with Severe Mental Illness. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 64:391–9. Drebing, C.E., E.A. Van Ormer, R.K. Schutt, C. Krebs, M. Losardo, C. Boyd, W. Penk, and R. Rosenheck. 2004. Client Goals for Participating in VHA

Bibliography

339

Vocational Rehabilitation: Distribution and Relationship to Outcome. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin 47:162–72. Eklund, M., L. Hansson, and C. Ahlqvist. 2004. The Importance of Work as Compared to Other Forms of Daily Occupations for Well-being and Functioning among Persons with Long-term Mental Illness. Community Mental Health Journal 40:465–77. Evans, L., and G. Bond. 2008. Expert Ratings on the Critical Ingredients of Supported Employment for People with Severe Mental Illness. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 31:318–31. Fixsen, D.L., S. Naoom, K.A. Blase, R.M. Friedman, and F. Wallace. 2005. Implementation Research: A Synthesis of the Literature. Tampa, FL: University of South Florida. Frey, W.D., S.T. Azrin, H.H. Goldman, S. Kalasunas, D.S. Salkever, A.L. Miller, G.R. Bond, and R.E. Drake. 2008. The Mental Health Treatment Study. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 31:306–12. Gervey, R., and J.R. Bedell. 1994. Supported Employment in Vocational Rehabilitation. In Psychological Assessment and Treatment of Persons with Severe Mental Disorders, ed. J.R. Bedell. Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis. Gold, M., and J. Marrone. 1998. Mass Bay Employment Services (a service of Bay Cove Human Services, Inc.): A Story of Leadership, Vision, and Action Resulting in Employment for People with Mental Illness. In Roses and Thorns: A Series Highlighting Organizational Change in Massachusetts. Massachussetts: Institute for Community Inclusion (UAP). Gold, P.B., N. Meisler, A.B. Santos, M.A. Carnemolla, O.H. Williams, and J. Keleher. 2006. Randomized Trial of Supported Employment Integrated with Assertive Community Treatment for Rural Adults with Severe Mental Illness. Schizophrenia Bulletin 32:378–95. Gowdy, E.A., L.S. Carlson, and C.A. Rapp. 2004. Organizational Factors Differentiating High-Performing from Low-Performing Supported Employment Programs. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 28:150–6. Gowdy, E.L., L.S. Carlson, and C.A. Rapp. 2003. Practices Differentiating High-Performing from Low-Performing Supported Employment Programs. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 26:232–9. Hoekstra, E.J., K. Sanders, W.J.A. van der Heuvel, D. Post, and J.W. Groothoff. 2004. Supported Employment in the Netherlands for People with an Intellectual Disability, a Psychiatric Disability and a Chronic Disease: A Comparative Study. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation 21:39–48.

340

Bibliography

Howard, L.M., M. Heslin, M. Leese, P. McCrone, C. Rice, M. Jarrett, T. Spokes, P. Huxley, and G. Thornicroft. Forthcoming. The Supported Work and Needs (SWAN) Study: A Pragmatic Randomised Controlled Trial of Supported Employment in South London. British Journal of Psychiatry. Ito, H., A. Koyama, and T. Higuchi. 2005. Polypharmacy and Excessive Dosing: Psychiatrists’ Perceptions of Antipsychotic Drug Prescription. British Journal of Psychiatry 187:243–7. Kessler, R.C. 2004. The Epidemiology of Dual Diagnosis. Biological Psychiatry 56:730–7. Kessler, R.C., P.A. Berglund, S. Zbao, P.J. Leaf, A.C. Kouzis, M.L Bruce, R.M. Friedman, R.C. Grossier, C. Kennedy, W.E. Narrow, T.G. Kuehnel, E.M. Laska, R.W. Manderscheid, R.A. Rosenheck, T.W. Santori, and M. Schneier. 1999. The Twelve-Month Correlates and Prevalence of Serious Mental Illness. In Mental Health, United States, 1998. Rockville, MD: Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Center for Mental Health Services. DHHS Publication Number (SMA) 99–8235. Killackey, E., H.J. Jackson, and P.D. McGorry. 2008. Vocational Intervention in First-Episode Psychosis: Individual Placement and Support vs. Treatment as Usual. British Journal of Psychiatry 193:114–20. Koletsi, M., A. Niersman, J.T. van Busschbach, J. Catty, T. Becker, T. Burns, A. Fioritti, R. Kalkan, C. Lauber, W. Rossler, T. Tomov, D. Wiersma, and Eqolise Group. 2009. Working with Mental Health Problems: Clients’ Experiences of IPS, Vocational Rehabilitation and Employment. Social Psychiatry & Psychiatric Epidemiology 44:961–70. Latimer, E. 2008. Le soutien à l’emploi de type «placement et soutien individuels» pour les personnes atteintes de troubles mentaux graves: sa pertinence pour le Québec. Vol. MO-2008–01: AETMIS. – Forthcoming. An Effective Intervention Delivered at Sub-Therapeutic Dose Becomes an Ineffective Intervention. British Journal of Psychiatry. Latimer, E., T. Lecomte, D. Becker, R. Drake, I. Duclos, M. Piat, N. Lahaie, M-S. St-Pierre, C. Therrien, and H. Xie. 2006. Generalisability of the Individual Placement and Support Model of Supported Employment: Results of a Canadian Randomised Controlled Trial. British Journal of Psychiatry 189:65–73. Lehman, A.F., R. Goldberg, L.B. Dixon, S. McNary, L. Postrado, A. Hackman, and K. McDonnell. 2002. Improving Employment Outcomes for Persons with Severe Mental Illness. Archives of General Psychiatry 59:165–72.

Bibliography

341

Liberman, R.P. 2006. Supplementary Skills Training in Supported Employment Programs. Psychiatric Services 57:419–b-420. Lucca, A.M., A.D. Henry, S. Banks, L. Simon, and S. Page. 2004. Evaluation of an Individual Placement and Support Model (IPS) program. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 27:251–7. McFarlane, W.R., R.A. Dushay, S.M. Deakins, P. Stastny, E.P. Lukens, J. Toran, and B. Link. 2000. Employment Outcomes in Family-Aided Assertive Community Treatment. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 70:203–14. McGrew, J., and M. Griss. 2005. Concurrent and Predictive Validity of Two Scales to Assess the Fidelity of Implementation of Supported Employment. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 29:41–7. McGrew, J.H., J.K. Johannesen, M.E. Griss, D.L. Born, and C.H. Katuin. 2007. Performance-Based Funding of Supported Employment for Persons with Severe Mental Illness: Vocational Rehabilitation and Employment Staff Perspectives. Journal of Behavioral Health Services & Research 34:1–16. – 2005. Performance-Based Funding of Supported Employment: A Multisite Controlled Trial. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation 23:81–99. McGurk, S.R., and K.T. Mueser. 2006. Strategies for Coping with Cognitive Impairments of Clients in Supported Employment. Psychiatric Services 57:1421–9. – 2004. Cognitive Functioning, Symptoms, and Work in Supported Employment: A Review and Heuristic Model. Schizophrenia Research 70:147–73. McGurk, S.R., K.T. Mueser, P.D. Harvey, R. LaPuglia, and J. Marder. 2003. Cognitive and Symptom Predictors of Work Outcomes for Clients with Schizophrenia in Supported Employment. Psychiatric Services 54:1129–35. McHugo, G.J., R.E. Drake, and D.R. Becker. 1998. The Durability of Supported Employment Effects. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 22:55–61. McQuilken, M., J.H. Zahniser, J. Novak, R.D. Starks, A. Olmos, and G.R. Bond. 2003. The Work Project Survey: Consumer Perspectives on Work. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation 18:59–68. Mental Health Commission of Canada. 2009. Toward Recovery & WellBeing: A Framework for a Mental Health Strategy for Canada. Calgary: Mental Health Commission of Canada. Mueser, K.T., S. Aalto, D.R. Becker, J.S. Ogden, R.S. Wolfe, D. Schiavo, C.J. Wallace, and H. Xie. 2005. The Effectiveness of Skills Training for

342

Bibliography

Improving Outcomes in Supported Employment. Psychiatric Services 56:1254–60. Mueser, K.T., D.R. Becker, W.C. Torrey, H. Xie, G.R. Bond, R.E. Drake, and B.J. Dain. 1997. Work and Nonvocational Domains of Functioning in Persons with Severe Mental Illness: A Longitudinal Analysis. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease 185:419–26. Mueser, K.T., D.R. Becker, and R. Wolfe. 2001. Supported Employment, Job Preferences, Job Tenure and Satisfaction. Journal of Mental Health 10:411–17. Mueser, K.T., R.E. Clark, M. Haines, R.E Drake, G.J. McHugo, G.R. Bond, S.M. Essock, D.R. Becker, R. Wolfe, and K. Swain. 2004. The Hartford Study of Supported Employment for Persons with Severe Mental Illness. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 72:479–90. Mueser, K.T., S.M. Essock, M. Haines, R. Wolfe, and H. Xie. 2005. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, Supported Employment, and Outcomes in People with Severe Mental Illness. Psychiatric Services 56:1444–7. Mueser, K.T, D.L. Noordsy, R.E. Drake, and L. Fox. 2003. Integrated Treatment for Dual Disorders. In Treatment Manuals for Practitioners. Edited by D. Barlow. New York: The Guilford Press. Mueser, K.T., M.P. Salyers, and P.R. Mueser. 2001. A Prospective Analysis of Work in Schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin 27:281–96. Nuechterlein, K.H., K.L. Subotnik, L.R. Turner, J. Ventura, D.R. Becker, and R.E. Drake. 2008. Individual Placement and Support for Individuals with Recent-Onset Schizophrenia: Integrating Supported Education and Supported Employment. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 31:340–9. Oldman, J., L. Thomson, K. Calsaferri, A. Luke, and G.R. Bond. 2005. A Case Report of the Conversion of Sheltered Employment to Evidence-Based Supported Employment in Canada. Psychiatric Services 56:1436–40. Perkins, D.V., D.L. Born, J.A. Raines, and S.W. Galka. 2005. Program Evaluation from an Ecological Perspective: Supported Employment Services for Persons with Serious Psychiatric Disabilities. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 28:217–24. Priebe, S., R. Warner, T. Hubschmid, and I. Eckle. 1998. Employment Attitudes toward Work and Quality of Life among People with Schizophrenia in Three Countries. Schizophrenia Bulletin 24:469–77. Provencher, H.L., R. Gregg, S. Mead, and K.T. Mueser. 2002. The Role of Work in the Recovery of Persons with Psychiatric Disabilities. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 26:132–44. Rapp, C.A, D. Etzel-Wise, D. Marty, M. Coffman, L. Carlson, D. Asher, J. Callaghan, and R. Whitley. 2007. Evidence-based Practice Implementation

Bibliography

343

Strategies: Results of a Qualitative study. Community Mental Health Journal 44:213–24. Razzano, L.A., J.A. Cook, J.K. Burke-Miller, K.T. Mueser, S.A. PickettSchenk, D.D. Grey, R.W. Goldberg, C.R. Blyler, P.B. Gold, H.S. Leff, A.F. Lehman, M.S. Shafer, L.E. Blankertz, W.R. McFarlane, M.G. Toprac, and M.A. Carey. 2005. Clinical Factors Associated with Employment among People with Severe Mental Illness: Findings from the Employment Intervention Demonstration Program. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease 193:705–13. Rinaldi, M., K. McNeil, M. Firn, M. Koletsi, R. Perkins, and S.P. Singh. 2004. What Are the Benefits of Evidence-Based Supported Employment for Patients with First-Episode Psychosis? Psychiatric Bulletin 28:281–4. Rogers, E.S., W.A. Anthony, A. Lyass, W.E. Penk. 2006. A Randomized Clinical Trial of Vocational Rehabilitation for People with Psychiatric Disabilities. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin 49:143–56. Rollins, A.L., K.T. Mueser, G.R. Bond, and D.R. Becker. 2002. Social Relationships at Work: Does the Employment Model Make a Difference? Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 26:51–61. Rosenheck, R., and D. Leslie. 2003. Administrative Prescription Review Procedures and Use of Atypical Antipsychotic Medications in the Department of Veterans Affairs. Mental Health Services Research 5:149–53. Rosenheck, R., D. Leslie, R. Keefe, J. McEvoy, M. Swartz, D. Perkins, S. Stroup, J.K. Hsiao, J. Lieberman, and CATIE Study Investigators Group. 2006. Barriers to Employment for People with Schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 163:353–5. Rosenheck, R.A., and A.S. Mares. 2007. Implementation of Supported Employment for Homeless Veterans with Psychiatric or Addiction Disorders: Two-Year Outcomes.[see comment]. Psychiatric Services 58:325–33. Salkever, D.S., M.C. Karakus, E.P. Slade, C.M. Harding, R.L. Hough, R.A. Rosenheck, M.S. Swartz, C. Barrio, and A.M. Yamada. 2007. Measures and Predictors of Community-Based Employment and Earnings of Persons with Schizophrenia in a Multisite Study. Psychiatric Services 58:315–24. Salyers, M.P., D.R. Becker, R.E. Drake, W.C. Torrey, and P.F. Wyzik. 2004. A Ten-Year Follow-Up of a Supported Employment Program. Psychiatric Services 55:302–8. Schneider, J., J. Slade, J. Secker, M. Rinaldi, M. Boyce, R. Johnson, M. Floyd, and B. Grove. 2009. SESAMI Study of Employment Support for People

344

Bibliography

with Severe Mental Health Problems: Twelve-Month Outcomes. Health & Social Care in the Community 17:151–8. Seebohm, P., and B. Grove. Leading by Example: Making the NHS an Exemplar Employer of People with Mental Health Problems. The Sainsbury Centre for Mental Health 2006 [cited 15 April 2008]. Accessible at http://www. scmh.org.uk/publications/publications_list.aspx?SortID=e. Solomon, P., and J. Draine. 1995. Subjective Burden among Family Members of Mentally Ill Adults: Relation to Stress, Coping, and Adaptation. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 65:419–27. Stein, L.I., and A.B. Santos. 1998. Assertive Community Treatment of Persons with Severe Mental Illness. New York: W.W. Norton. Swanson, S., D.R. Becker, R.E. Drake, and M. Merrens. 2008. Supported Employment: A Practical Guide for Practitioners and Supervisors. Lebanon, NH: Dartmouth Psychiatric Research Centre. Tremblay, T., J. Smith, H. Xie, and R. Drake. 2004. The Impact of Specialized Benefits Counselling Services on Social Security Administration Disability Beneficiaries in Vermont. Journal of Rehabilitation 70:5–11. Tsang, H.W., A. Chan, A. Wong, and R.P. Liberman. 2009. Vocational Outcomes of an Integrated Supported Employment Program for Individuals with Persistent and Severe Mental Illness. Journal of Behavioral Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 40:292–305. Twamley, E.W., J.M. Narvaez, D.R. Becker, S.J. Bartels, and D.V. Jeste. 2008. Supported Employment for Middle-Aged and Older People with Schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatric Rehabilitation 11:1–14. Twamley, E.W., D.S. Padin, K.S. Bayne, J.M. Narvaez, R.E. Williams, and D.V. Jeste. 2005. Work Rehabilitation for Middle-Aged and Older People with Schizophrenia: A Comparison of Three Approaches. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease 193:596–601. Waghorn, G., and C. Lloyd. 2005. The Employment of People with Mental Illness. Australian e-Journal for the Advancement of Mental Health 4 (Supplement):1–43. Wallace, C.J., and R. Tauber. 2004. Supplementing Supported Employment with Workplace Skills Training. Psychiatric Services 55:513–5. Warner, R., and J. Mandiberg. 2006. An Update on Affirmative Businesses or Social Firms for People with Mental Illness. Psychiatric Services 57:1488–92. Wexler, B.E., and M.D. Bell. 2005. Cognitive Remediation and Vocational Rehabilitation for Schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin 31:931–41. Wong, K., R. Chiu, B. Tang, S. N. Chiu, and J.L. Tang. 2005. A Randomized Controlled Trial of a Supported Employment Program on Vocational

Bibliography

345

Outcomes of Individuals with Chronic Mental Illness. Hong Kong: Health Services Research Committee. Xie, H., B.J. Dain, D.R. Becker, and R.E. Drake. 1997. Job Tenure among Persons with Severe Mental Illness. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin 40:230–9. Young, G.J., D.C. Mohr, M. Meterko, M.N. Seibert, and G. McGlynn. 2006. Psychiatrists’ Self-reported Adherence to Evidence-based Prescribing Practices in the Treatment of Schizophrenia. Psychiatric Services 57:130–2.

This page intentionally left blank

Index

Aalto, D.R., 226 Abram, K.M., 85–8 Abramson, M.F., 81–2 Adler, D.A., 167, 174 affirmative businesses, 212 Agence d’Évaluation des Technologies et Modes d’Intervention en Santé (Québec), 229 Alcoholics Anonymous, 140 alienists, 18 Alisky, J.M., 116 Allebeck, P., 96 Allen, M.H., 48 Allen, N.B., 117 Allness, D.J., 39, 182, 184–5, 190, 203 Almvik, R., 107 Alverson, M., 221 Ambady, N., 125 American Medico-Psychological Association, 23 Amir, Y., 120 Anderson, H.S., 97 Angermeyer, M.C., 88, 94, 97, 115, 117, 120, 122, 124, 155–6 Anthony, W., 198–9, 208

Anti-Social Personality Disorder (ASPD), 87–8 Appleby, L., 99 Arboleda-Florez, J., 83–4, 88, 95, 100 Arfken, C.L., 65 Arkar, H., 119–20 Arseneault, L., 95–6 Aseltine, R.H., 50 Assertive Community Treatment (ACT), 39, 52, 182–210; challenges in analysis of, 196–8; Cochrane review of, 186, 200–1; co-morbidities and, 193; costing and economic studies of, 187–8; developmental disability and, 193–8; efficacy and effectiveness of, 185–6; ethical criticism of, 204; external context and, 204; face-to-face contacts and, 191; fidelity of implementation of, 200–3; forensic involvement and, 193–8; homelessness and, 193–8; Index of Fidelity to ACT, (IFACT), 201; Intensive Case Management vs, 186; Local Health Integration Networks

348

Index

and, 202; Netherlands studies of, 189–92, 210; origins of, 182–3; outcomes of, 188–98; program features of, 183–4, 203–4; recovery and, 208–9; research on how ACT works, 198–204; substance abuse and, 193–8; syntheses and meta-analyses of, 186–7; target population of, 184–5; theories of implementation of, 200–3; theory of cause and effect regarding, 198–200; UK studies of, 188–91 Association of Medical Superintendents of Institutions for the Insane, 23 asylums, 18–24; Beauport, 21; Bicetre, 19; Toronto, 21; York, 18 Augimeri, L.K., 107 A-Way Express, 141 Badamgarav, E., 162, 180 Badcock, B., 117 Bailey, E.L., 217–18 Balke, A., 181 Banks, S.M., 59, 85–6 Baranoski, M.V., 102 Bardi, A., 126 Barker, C., 140 Barnes, D., 46, 180 Barnes, J., 33, 41, 43, 47, 52 Barnsteiner, J.H., 180 Baronet, A. 186, 198 Barrow, S., 143 Bartlett, P., 16 Bassuk, E.L., 98 Baumann, E., 119–20, 124 Baumeister, R.F., 117, 127 BCMOH, 203 Bebbington, P., 55 Beck, C.A., 115

Becker, D., 211, 216–19, 221–3, 226–7, 230 Bedell, J.R., 217 Beers, C., 23; A Mind That Found Itself, 23 Belenko, S., 43 Bell, M., 211, 227 Bender, W.S., 193 Bessenoff, G.R., 127 Bhui, K., 143 Bibeau, L., 83 Bickman, L., 36–7, 39–40, 52 Biernat, M., 125–6 Biglan, A., 41, 44–5, 52 Binder, R.L., 58, 65 Birchwood, M., 116 Bishop, J., 36–7, 39–40, 43, 46–8, 50–2, 196, 207 Bittner, E., 82 Bjorklund, R.W., 203 Blaauw, E., 84 black box, 36, 42, 52 Bland, R., 96, 162–3, 174–6 Blasius, J., 109 Blom, D.J., 26 Bloom, H., 98–9, 107 Blumenfield, M., 179 Bodenhausen, G.V., 118 Bogenberger, R.P., 97 Bond, G.R., 39, 184–7, 190, 194, 199–200, 202, 205, 211, 214–20, 223, 225–8 Bonnie, R.J., 97 Bonta, J., 85, 87, 99, 103, 108 Borum, R., 83, 86, 88–9, 107–8 Borzecki, M.A., 82 Bosker, R., 48, 50 Bourgeault, I., 162 Bower, P., 162, 168, 170, 174–6 Bowl, R., 143 Bowman, C.H., 125

Index

Boyce, M., 220 Boyle, G., 132 Boyle, M.H., 48, 50 Braden, J., 36 Bradford, W.D., 116 Brekke, J.S., 48, 50, 80, 82 Brennan, P.A., 95–6 Bright, J.A., 115, 117 Brinded, P.M., 96 Brink, J.H., 84–5, 96 British Columbia Ministry of Health Services, 184, 203, 209 British Royal College of Psychiatrists, 119 Broadbent, M., 64 Broner, N., 92 BrØset Violence Checklist, 107 Brown, C., 148 Brown, J.B., 163 Brown, R., 125 Brown, T.E., 24 Brown, T.J., 19 Brown, V.B., 98 Bruce, M.L., 80 Bryant, D., 37 Bryant, K.J., 98 Bryk, A.S., 48, 50 Burgess, P.M., 71, 73–4 Burkell, J., 36 Burns, T., 47, 211, 226, 167, 174, 190–1, 201, 204, 217, 219, 223, 230 Burstow, B., 130 Burti, L., 141 Burtless, G., 41, 52 Byrne, P., 124 Callaghan, P., 120 Calsyn, R.J., 199 Campbell, D.T., 43–4 Campbell, J., 130

349

Canada Housing, 152 Canada Pension Plan, 154 Canadian Collaborative Mental Health Initiative, 162, 180 Canadian Journal of Mental Health, 4 Canadian Mental Health Association, 135, 158 Canadian National Committee for Mental Hygiene, 25 Canvin, K., 75 Caplan, G., 29 Capponi, P., 143 Caracelli, V.J., 34 Cardinal, C., 101 Carey, R.G., 36–8, 43–5, 52 Carling, P.J., 150, 157 Carlson, L.S., 138 Carpenter, D., 48 Carpenter, J., 40, 52, 180 Carpenter, L.L., 57–8 Carroll, A., 104 Carson, J., 185 Calsyn, R.J., 204 Caspi, A., 88, 93n4 Castro, F.G., 43 Catalano, R., 57, 65, 67, 230 Catty, J., 42, 47 cause: assumption of, 38; attribution of, 35–7, 41; complexity of, 35, 38, 40; effects of, 44; links, 36; models, 37–9, 46; pathways, 37–8; processes, 36–7 CCAR (Colorado Client Assessment Record), 197 Centre for Assessment & Research on Mental Health and Addictions (CARMHA), 210n Chaimowitz, G., 104 Chamberlain, R., 47 Chamberlin, J., 130–1, 139

350

Index

Chan, K.F., 119–20 Chandler, D., 188, 217, 222 Changing Minds campaign, 119 Chaput, Y.J.A., 59, 66 Chen , H.T., 34, 36–8, 52 Chiang, Y.P., 47 Chicago Thresholds ACT project, 194 Chilvers, R., 158 Chinman, M.J., 138 Choe, J.Y., 94 Christy, A., 69 Chu, D., 30 Chue, P., 203 Church, K., 135–6 Churchill, R., 70, 77 Cialdini, R.B., 125 Cicchetti, D., 134 CIHI, 163 Claassen, C.A., 57, 59 Clark, R.E., 25, 80, 83, 85 Clarke, D., 161 Clarke, D.E., 57–8, 60, 67 Clarke, G.N., 139, 199, 204 Classification of Violence Risk (COVR), 105 Clement, J.A., 98 client/consumer, 48 clubhouses, 212 CMHEI (Canadian Mental Health Evaluation Initiative), 53 Cochrane: Cochrane lecture, 41; review of counselling in primary care, 167; review of housing, 158 Cockburn, L., 187 Cohen, S., 116 Coldwell, C.M., 193 collaborative mental health care, 160–81; case management and, 166, 175; challenges of meth-

odology, analysis, and metaanalysis, 172–7; clinical nurse specialists and, 166; common client records and, 167; consultation liaison and, 165–6, 169, 178–9; counselling and, 167; definitions of, 163; disease management programs and, 165; historical obstacles to, 161–2; integrated treatment and, 168; in primary care, 160–81; quality improvement programs for depression and, 170–2; shared care and, 164; systematic reviews of, 164–5, 174–7 Commission on Hospital Service, American Hospital Association, 28 Community Mental Health Centers, 27, 30 Community Mental Health Journal, 4 community treatment orders: “mandate drift” and, 69; “revolving door” patients and, 69; “thank you theory” and, 75; ACT and, 70; Canadian provincial variation in, 68; case-controlled studies and, 71; coercion and, 75; controversy about, 70, 77; effects and effectiveness of, 5, 7–8; forms of, 76; hospitalization and, 73, 77–8; international instances of (US, Australia, New Zealand, Israel, Scotland and UK), 69; mirror image design and, 71; New York City and North Carolina RCT trials of, 72, 74; outcomes of interest and, 72, 74, 77–9; post hoc analysis of, 73–4; RCT trials of, 72, 77–8; reasons for,

Index

69; research studies of, 71; subjects’ diagnoses and, 75; subjects’ views of, 75; suitable subject matching in studies of, 71–2, 77– 8; treatment adherence and, 73; treatment non-adherence and, 70; vs conditional discharge, 68 Compton, M., 56 Connor, H., 143 Conolly, J., 19 Consortium for Applied Research and Evaluation in Mental Health (CAREMH), 6, 114n2 Constantino, V., 140, 143 Consultation Liaison in PrimaryCare Psychiatry (CLIPP), 166 consultation liaison. See collaborative mental health care consumer participation: agency and program governance and, 137–8; ameliorative change and, 132–3; anti-psychiatry movement and, 130; barriers to, 143–4; community mental health organizations and, 138–9; consumer-run organizations and, 40–1; definitions of, 129; evidence-based practices and, 131; historical background of, 130; participatory action research and, 142–3; policy and planning and, 136–7; rationale for, 30; research and, 142–3; self-help groups and, 139–40; self-help movement and, 130; strategies to overcome barriers to, 143–4; transformative change and, 133–5; types of, 35; values and, 131 Consumer/Survivor Initiatives, 141 consumer-run businesses, 212

351

Cook, S., 174 Cook, T.D., 43–5, 52 Cooke, D.J., 84 Cooksy, L.J., 37, 52 coping techniques, 121, 123, 127 Copolov, D.L., 176 Corbière, M., 220, 232 Cordray, D.S., 34, 36, 41, 47–8, 50, 53 Coristine, R., 46, 60 Corrado, R.R., 84, 86–9 Corrigan, P.W., 5, 34, 95, 112, 115–21, 124, 127, 132–3, 141, 213, 216, 221 Cosden, M., 39, 194 Côté, G., 86, 96, 101, 108–10 Cousins, J.B., 36–7, 39, 46, 52, 198 Couture, S.M., 118, 124 Cox, D., 167 Crandall, D.S., 125 Craven, M.A., 162–3, 174–6 Crawford, M.J., 143 criminalization of mental illness: explanations and contributing causes, 80; and incarceration, 84; and police arrest, 82–3, 179; and psychopathy, 87–8; and substance misuse, 85; and types of offences, 88–90; and violence by persons with mental illness, 84–92 Crisp, A.H., 119, 123, 155 Crocker, A., 85, 87 Crown, W.H., 51 Crutcher, H.B., 26 Csiernik, R., 155 CTO. See community treatment order Cuddeback, G.S., 195 Cuellar, A.E., 90 Cuffel, B.J., 99

352

Index

Cullen, F.T., 156 Curtis, L., 46 Daffern, M., 106–7 Dahle, K.P., 106 Damsa, C., 59, 65 Danesh, J., 84, 87 Daniel, A.E., 96 Daniels, N., 143 Dartmouth ACT Scale (DACTS), 190, 197, 200–1, 206 Dartmouth Psychiatric Research Center, 216, 228 data: hierarchical, 48; longitudinal, 48; nested, 48; non-independent, 50 Datta, L.-E., 34 Davidson, L., 138–9 Davidson, M., 122 Davies, M.R., 123 Davis, M.M., 49 Davis, S., 26 Day, D.M., 94 days of stay, 47 day-treatment centres, 212 De Oliveira-Souza, R., 87 De Veau, L., 71 Dean, K., 97 Deane, M.W., 83 Dear, M.J., 156 Deegan, P.E., 5 Defeat Depression, 119 Dehejia, R.H., 51 Delva-Tauiliili, J., 119–20 DeMartino, R., 50 Desai, R.A., 85, 88, 89 Desforges, D.M., 120 designs: case control, 43; comparison groups, 44–5; experimental, 35–6, 40–2, 49, 50–3; inter-

rupted time series (ITS), 43–5, 53; multi-level, 50; non-equivalent comparison group, 43, 45, 53; observational, 50; prospective cohort, 43; quasi-experimental, 35, 40, 43, 49, 51, 53; regression discontinuity (RDD), 43–4, 53; short time series (e.g., ABAB), 44; single-level, 50 Deuchar, N., 201, 209 Dewa, C., 37, 39, 46, 52 Diamond, B., 143 Diamond, M., 104 Dietrich, S., 120 Dincin, J., 221 disease management programs, 165 Ditton, P.M., 84 Dix, D., 19, 21 Dixon, L.B., 39, 185 Douglas, J., 21 Douglas, K.S., 85, 104, 106, 109–10 Dovidio, J.F., 120, 125, 127 Dractu, L., 56 Draine, J., 81, 85, 138–9, 147, 151, 194, 211 Drake, R.E., 92, 96, 98, 147, 151, 155, 180, 185, 193, 202, 216– 18, 221–2, 225–7 Drebing, C.E., 211 Dreezer, S., 68 Drug Attitude Inventory, 197 Druss, B.G., 4, 42, 116 Duncan, T.E., and S.C. Duncan, 44–5 Dunn, J.R., 146–7 Durbin, J., 149 Dutch Functional ACT, 210 Dvoskin, J.A., 104–5

Index

Dynamic Appraisal of Situational Aggression (DASA), 107 Earl, L.M., 36–7, 46 Early Assessment Risk List for Boys (EARL-b), 107 Early Assessment Risk List for Girls (EARL-g), 107 Eckert, A., 143 Edginton, B., 25 Edwards, B., 119 effectiveness, 40, 42–3 efficacy, 40–3 Eker, D., 119–20 Eklund, M., 214 Emergency Department (ED). See hospitalization Emerick, R.E., 140 employment. See supported employment Empowerment Scale, 197 Endler, N.S., 196 Engel, G.L., 162 Engel, R.S., 83, 88–9 Epidemiological Catchment Area Study (ECA), 95 EQOLISE study, 225 Erb, M., 96 Erickson, D.H., 116 Eronen, M., 96–7 Eshleman, A., 125 Estroff, S.E., 96, 120 evaluation: economic, 34, 46, 51; efficiency, 34; fidelity, 37, 39; formative, 34, 37; implementation, 34, 37, 51; monitoring, 34, 37; outcome, 34–6, 46, 48, 52–3; process, 34, 37, 39, 40, 46, 51; program rationale, 34; summative, 34 Evans, L., 220

353

Everett, B., 131–5 Evers, S.M.A.A., 46 Eynan, R., 151 Farina, A., 115–16, 120 Farrell, S.J., 68 Fazel, S., 84, 87 Feliner, D., 116 Felix, R., 29 Fenton, Dr Wayne, 95 Fernandez, G.A., 71 Fishbein, M., 125 Fisher, W.H., 84–6, 89–92 Fixsen, D.L., 224 Fletcher, J., 174–6 Fletcher, T.D., 180, 193, 202 Fonagy, P., 33, 41–2, 53 Forchuk, C., 40–1, 48, 151, 156–9 Forensic ACT teams, 194 Forensic Intensive Case Management, 195. See also Assertive Community Treatment Foucault, M., 12, 29, 130–2, 135 Foulds, G., 143 Foy, R., 39, 52 Framework for Support, 136 Franx, G., 34, 39, 52 Freedman, A.M., 162 Freeman, E., 37 Frey, W.D., 228 Friedrich, R.M., 151 From Madhouse to Our House, 143 Fuhrman, B., 52 Fuller-Thomson, E., 146 Gaebel, W., 119–20, 123–4 Gaertner, S.L., 125 Galanter, M., 98 Galletly, C.A., 120 Gallie, W.B., 14

354

Index

Gardner, W., 103–4 Garrett, K.E., 38, 52 Gawronski, B., 118 Gehrs, M., 196 Geller, J.L., 69, 71, 155 Gensichen, J., 162, 180 George, L., 186, 201 Gerber, G.J., 186, 198, 203 Gerson, S., 98 Gervey, R., 217 Ghaemi, S.N., 162 Gibbons, R.D., 48–50 Gibbs, A., 75 Gilbody, S., 162, 164–5, 174–6, 181 Glancy, G.D., 104 Glanz, K., 36 Glasscote, R.M., 29 Glaze, L.E., 84 Goeree, P., 4 Goffman, E., 29–30, 116, 120 Gold, M., 217 Gold, P.B., 216, 222 Goldfinger, S.M., 151 Goldstrom, I.D., 144 Gollaher, D., 19 Gomory, T., 204, 207 Gonzales, J., 165, 169, 177 Goodear, J., 120 Gottlieb, P., 96 Gowdy, E.L., 222, 225 Graham, S., 50 Graham Report, 136 Grann, M., 106, 108 Grant, J., 137–9, 142–3 Green, L.W., 42 Green, T.M., 83, 89 Greenacre, M.J., 109 Greenberg, G.A., 85 Greene, J.C., 34 Greenland, K.J., 49

Greenstein, T., 127 Grembowski, D., 36–8, 43–5 Grevatt, M., 106 Griffiths, K.M., 123, 126 Griss, 223 Grob, G., 4, 23, 26, 28–9 Groff, A., 72–4 GROW, 130 Grube, J.W., 127 Gruen, R., 164 Grumbach, K., 176 Grunes, S., 120 Gudjonsson, G.H., 96 Guo, S., 66 Guthrie, E., 46 Guyatt, G.H., 33, 42 Guynan, K., 124 Hackman, A., 209 Haddock, G., 126 Haggarty, J., 163, 166, 176 Haghighat, R., 117 Hall, G.B., 148, 151–2, 157 Hall, R.C., 99 Hamilton, M., 17 Happell, B., 56, 59, 64, 137 Hardiman, E.R., 131, 143 Hare, R.D., 109 Harmon, K., 166, 176 Harpole, L.H., 168 Harre, N., 120 Harris, G.T., 87, 105, 108, 111 Harris, R., 147 Hart, S.D., 105, 107–8, 111 Hartford, K., 40, 162 Hartley, D., 163 Harvey, C.A., 166 Haslam, D., 163, 166, 176 Hawthorn, L.R.L., 38 Hayward, P., 115, 117

Index

Heagerty, P.J., 49 Hebl, M.R., 120, 125 Hedrick, S.C., 162, 168, 173 Heilbrun, K., 104–5 Hemmens, C., 115 Henggeler, S.W., 40 Herinckx, H.A., 185, 199 Herman, D.B., 84 Hickman, M., 164 Hiday, V., 72–4, 94, 96 Higgins, E.S., 163 Hincks, C., 25 Hinshaw, S.P., 127, 134 Historical Clinical Risk Scheme 20 (HCR-20), 106 Hoagwood, K., 42 Hobbs, C., 50 Hoch, J., 46 Hodge, S., 137 Hodges, J.Q., 143 Hodgins, S., 85, 87–8, 95–7, 100, 102, 108–9, 111 Hoekstra, E.J., 220 Hoenig, J., 17 Hogg, M.A., 125 Hohmann, A.A., 36, 41 Holden, E.W., 52 Holley, H.L., 83 Holloway, F., 185 Holtgraves, T., 117 homelessness. See housing and mental health Homes for Special Care, 149 Horwitz, A.V., 90 hospitals: Bellevue Hospital, 23; Danville State Hospital, 27; Manitoba Psychopathic Hospital, 25; Maudsely Hospital, 16, 22; psychopathic hospitals, 23–8; Pilgrim State Mental

355

Hospital, 26; Rockland State Mental Hospital, 26, 32n3; St Thomas Mental Hospital, 26; Veterans Hospital, 30 hospitalization: admissions to hospital following emergency department (ED) visits, 65; behavioural health units in ED, 65; coordination with other services by ED, 56, 65, 66; expectations about ED, 58; improper vs. appropriate use of ED, 56–7; providers’ vs clients’ views of visits to ED, 57–8; psychiatric presentation to ED, 58; treatment in ED, 65; triage for psychiatric presentations to ED, 60–4, 66–7; typical groups using ED, 59; use in evaluations, 47 Hotopf, M., 73 Hough, W.G., 45, 69, 74 Hoult, J., 185, 187 House, A.O., 48, 143 housing and mental health: approaches to (custodial, supportive, supported), 149–51; best practices regarding, 157–8; homelessness and, 147–8, 151; importance to persons with mental illness, 147; income support and, 153–5; key constituents of, 146–7; peer support and, 150; perceptions regarding, 148; policies regarding, 152–3; preferences regarding in persons with mental illness, 151–2; societal attitudes and, 155–6 Howard, L.M., 216–17 Howe, A., 174 Howells, K., 107

356

Index

Hucker, S., 105 Hudson, T.J., 116 Hugo, M., 65 Hulchanski, J.D., 146 Humphreys, K., 140 Humphreys, M.S., 97 Hunkeler, E.M., 166 Hunt, A.M., 69, 71 Hurd, H.M., 17, 20, 32 Hutchison, P., 129–30, 134–5 Huxley, P., 119–20 Hwang, S., 146 Hyde, P.S., 96 Iczkowski, A., 116 Illingworth, P., 180 indicators of positive outcomes, 47 Individual Placement and Support. See supported employment insurance coverage, 176 Intensive Case Management. See Assertive Community Treatment International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, 146 involuntary treatment, 179. See also community treatment orders Isaac, S., 37, 44–5 Ito, J., 203 Ito, H., 228 Jackson, A.J., 27, 29 Jackson, C.L, 180 Jacobi, F., 3 Jacobson, N., 46 Jahr, E., 112 James, D.J., 84 Janzen, R., 141 Johnson, B.T., 120 Jones, K., 16–17, 22 Jones, Maxwell, 31

Johnson, S., 116 Jonikas, J., 112 Jorm, F., 123 Judd, C.M., 124 Julian, D.A., 37, 39 Junginger, J., 84–5, 91 Jussim, L., 124 Kaas, M.J., 180 Kahn, M.W., 58 Kallgren, C.A., 125 Kalucy, R., 57 Kaplan, R.J., 69 Kaplan, S.A., 38, 52 Kates, N., 162–3, 166–7, 174 Kathol, R.G., 161 Katon, W., 162–6, 169, 174–7 Katsakou, C., 75 Keller, M.B., 169 Kellogg Foundation, 36 Kelly, C.M., 123 Kendler, K.S., 116, 123 Kendrick, T., 167 Kenny, D.A., 48, 50–1, 199, 204 Kenny, J.E., 155 Keon Report, 155 Kessler, D., 163 Kessler, R.C., 3, 80, 211, 221 key components profile, 52 Kidd, S., 137 Kidd, S.A., 206 Killackey, E., 216, 218, 227 Killaspy, H., 191 King, R., 189, 192, 206 Kirby Report, 136, 155 Kirsh, B., 187 Kisely, S., 70, 77, 163 Kjellin, L., 117 Knapp, M., 185, 187 Kneebone, P., 83

Index

Knight, M.T.D., 121, 127 Knoedler, W.H., 184, 190, 203 Koegel, P., 151 Koepsell, T.D., 36, 41, 53 Kolbasovsky, A., 65 Koletsi, M., 219 Kolodziej, M.E., 120 Koziol-McLain, J., 57–8 Krahn, D.D., 173 Krakowski, M., 97 Kroner, D.G., 106 Kropp, R.P., 107 Kurzban, R., 118, 126 labelling theory. See stigma Laberge, D., 83 Lachance, K., 184 Lafave, H.G., 185 Lafayette, J.M., 98 Lakeman, R., 180 Lamb, H.R., 83–4, 91 Lambert, E.W., 49 Lamberti, J.S., 92, 194 Lammers, J., 137 Latimer, E., 46, 185, 188, 202, 214, 216–17 Lauber, C., 120 Law, A., 120 Laws, G., 156 Lawton-Smith, S., 69 Leaf, P.J., 80 Leary, M.R., 117–18, 126–7 Lebart, L., 109 Lebel, M-J., 66 Leckie, S., 146 Lecomte, T., 220 Lee, S., 116 Leff, J., 116, 207 Lehman, A.F., 5, 182, 184–5, 188, 216

357

Leibold, J.M., 127 Leslie, D., 228 Lester, H., 167 Levene, K.S., 107 Levenson, A., 27 Lewis, C., 65 Lewis, G., 99 Lewis, S.W., 116 Liberman, R.P., 226 Lin, E.H., 163, 166 Lindqvist, P., 96 Linhorst, D.M., 143 Link, B.G., 94, 115–17, 119, 121– 2, 127, 155–6 Lipsey, M.W., 34–7, 39, 41, 47–8, 52–3 Liu, C.F., 162, 168 Livingston, J.A., 100 Livingston, J.D., 102 Lloyd, C., 220 Local Health Integration Network (LHIN), 202 Locke, J., 5 Lockwood, A., 186, 188 London Health Sciences Centre, 158 Lord , J., 46, 129, 130, 133–4 Lovell, K., 167 Lu, M., 51 Lucca, A.M., 217 lunatic asylum, 17 Lundin, R.K., 121 Lurie, S., 187, 195 Lurigio, A.J., 85–6, 92, 194 Lyons, M., 155 Lysaker, P.H., 116 MacArthur Community Violence Study, 97 MacArthur Risk Assessment Study, 86–7

358

MacDonald, E.M., 127 Macias, C., 202 Macmillan Commission, 22 Maden, A., 103 Magnusson, D., 196 Malla, A.K., 116, 120, 124 Mandiberg, J., 212–13 Mann, R.E., 196 Mares, A.S., 217, 223 Mark, M.M., 34 Markowitz, F.E., 81, 85, 155 Marks, I.M., 185 Marrone, J., 217 Marshall, M., 186, 188 Martin, F.M., 30–1 Martin, G., 194 Marwaha, S., 116 Marx, A.J., 39, 70, 182, 185 Massey, O.T., 151 Mathers, A.T., 25 Mathers, C.D., 3 Matschinger, H., 117, 120, 123–4 Maudsley, Henry, 14 Maudsley Hospital, 16, 22 Mayne, J., 36, 38 Mazeh, D., 58 McCann, L., 112 McConnell, W., 127 McCoy, M.L., 194 McCusker, P.J., 105 McDaniel, Susan H., 160 McDavid, J.C., 38 McDermott, B.E., 104 McDonough, S., 64 McEwan, B.S., 116 McFarlane, W.R., 202, 217, 222 McGrew, J.H., 39, 184–5, 200–1, 203–4, 223, 225 McGurk, S.R., 221, 227 McHugo, G.J., 157, 200, 216, 221–3

Index

McLellan, A.T., 168, 86 McLellan, D.D., 127 McLeod, A.I., 45 McNiel, D.E., 58, 65, 84–6, 106 McPherson, K., 41, 43 McPherson, L.M., 109 McQuilken, M., 211 Meadows, G.N., 163, 166, 176 Mechanic, D., 39, 52, 81, 184–5, 196 Medication Compliance Score, 197 Mehta, S., 120 Meisler, N., 194 Melton, G.B., 101 Mendota State Hospital, 182 Mental After-Care Association, 16 Mental Health Commission of Canada, 136, 211 mental health services and violence, 97–9 mental health treatment court, 39 Mental Health Triage Scale, 60 mental hygiene, 21–8 mental illness and violence, 95–7 mental illness: burden of the disease, 3; costs, 3; lifetime risk, 3; percentage treated, 3; prevalence, 3; terminology, 14–15 Mental Patients Association (MPA), 131 Mental Retardation Facilities and Community Mental Health Centers Construction Act, 30 Mertens, D.M., 45 methods-driven approach, 36, 52 Michael, B., 37 Mill, J.S., 8 Miller, D.T., 125 Miller, F.E., 117 Miller, M., 115 Mills, J.F., 106 Milton, J., 97

Index

Minghella, E., 184, 186 Ministry of Employment and Social Solidarity (Québec), 230 Ministry of Health and Social Services (Québec), 230 Mino, Y., 119–20 Minsky, S., 151 Mitchell, T., 142 mixed method, 34 mobile crisis units, 66 models: attribution, 37; autoregressive integrated moving-average (ARIMA), 45; causal, 37–9, 52; link, 37; pre-post, 38; program logic, 37–40; statistical, 44 Moffitt, T.E., 88 Monahan, J., 80, 87–8, 96–7, 99, 103–5, 109 Moore, M.E., 92 moral treatment, 18–21 Moran, J.E., 21 Moran, P., 85, 87–8 More for the Mind (Tyhurst Committee Report), 31 Morin, D., 83 Morrison, J.K., 119 Morrissey, J.P., 81, 92, 194–5 Morse, G.A., 39, 185 Moser, L.L., 205 Mossman, D., 103 Motiuk, L.L., 96 Mowbray, C.T., 138, 200 Mowrer, O.H., 131 Moxley, D.P., 138 Mueser, K.T., 87–8, 96, 98–9, 111– 12, 186, 216, 219, 221–2, 226–7 Muijen, M., 185 Mulder, C.L., 59 Mullen, E.J., 104 Mullen, P.E., 81, 86 Mulvale, G., 162

359

Mulvey, E.P., 85–7, 103, 106, 110 Munetz, M.R., 74 Murray, S.L., 127 Myin-Germeys, I., 123 National Community Awareness Campaign, 119 National Comorbidity Study, 86 NCR (not criminally responsible on account of mental disorder), 99–101 Neale, S., 187 Nelson, G., 46, 48, 133–4, 140–4, 148, 151–2, 156–7, 202 Neumeyer-Gromen, A., 162, 165 neurology, 23 New Hampshire dual-disorder assertive community treatment study, 98 Newberry, J., 137 Newman, L., 42 Newton, R., 193, 200 Ng, P., 119–20 NGRI (not-guilty-by-reason-ofinsanity), 81 Nicholls, T.L., 106–7, 110 Niles, E., 140 Noble, P., 97 Nordt, C., 120 Norko, M.A., 102 Norman, R.M., 115–17, 120, 123–7 Novac, J., 147 Noyes, A.P., 27 Nuechterlein, K.H., 227 Nygard, S., 71 O’Brien, K.P., 45, 68–9, 74 O’Connell, M., 209 O’Donnell, M., 139 O’Keefe, C., 71

360

Index

Ochocka, J., 133, 141, 143 Ogloff, J.R.P., 106 Ohayon, M.M., 100 Øhlenschlaeger, J., 205 Oldman, J., 217–18 On Our Own, 131 Onken, S.J., 5 Ontario Council of Alternative Businesses, 141 Ontario Criminal Court Review Board, 195 Ontario Disability Support Program, 154, 158 Ontario Ministry of Health and Long Term Care, 182, 184, 186– 7, 195, 201–2, 206 Ontario Ministry of Health framework paper on mental health (1999), 56 Ontario Ministry of Health Technical Advisory Committee, 201 Ontario Peer Development Initiative, 141 Ontario Works, 154, 158 Open the Doors, 119 Ormel, J., 3 Orwin, R.G., 39 Osborne-Way, L., 129 Ostman, M., 117 Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion, 146 Page, S., 94 Palmer-Erbs, V., 142 Pandiani, J.A., 86–7 Pape, B., 130, 135 Paquet, J., 100 Paquette-Warren, J., 52, 162 Paradis, A.M., 19 Paradis, M., 56

Park, B., 124 Parker, G.F., 194 Parkinson, S., 149–50 participatory action research, 142. See also consumer participation Pasewark, R.A., 97 Patrick, D.L., 47 Patterson, J., 147 Patton, M.Q., 34 Paykel, E.S., 119, 124 Peck, E., 143 Pederson, L., 36–7, 45, 52 Penn, D.L., 118–19, 124 Perlin, M.L., 99 Persons, J.B., 41, 42, 53 Pescosolido, B.A., 115, 123 Petchers, 119 Petrila, J., 69, 99 Pettigrew, T.F., 120 Petursson, H., 96 Peveler, R., 167 Pham, T.H., 109 Phelan, J.C., 94, 115–16, 120, 122–3 Phillips, S.D., 186, 204 Piat, M., 156 Pinel, P., 19–20; humane methodology of, 20 Pinfold, V., 119–20, 122 Pistrang, N., 140 Pogorzelski, W., 40, 43, 47 Pogrebin, M.R., 98 Polak, P., 116 Poole, D., 98 Porporino, F.J., 96 Porter, B., 146 Posavac, E.J., 36–8, 43, 44–5, 52 power, statistical (for causal estimates), 45 Poythress, N.G., 85, 87–8

Index

Pratt, J.G., 147 Pratto, F., 126 Prescott, L., 143 Preston, N.J., 71, 74 Preventing No Fixed Address after Discharge program, 158 Priebe, S., 75, 102, 205, 211 Priest, H.M., 180 Prilleltensky, I., 133–4 Primary Health Care Transition Fund, 180 Prince, N., 203 Prior, L., 55 PRISM psychosis study, 188–9 program evaluation and anti-stigma campaigns. See stigma prosumers, 138 Provencher, H.L., 211 Pruett, S., 83 PSE (Present State Examination) Insight Score, 197 Psychiatric Acute Care and Emergency Team (PACE), 189. See also Assertive Community Treatment Psychiatric Assertive Continuing Care Team (PACT), 189. See also Assertive Community Treatment Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-r), 107 Putting People First, 136 Quaker, 17 qualitative method, 34, 46, 51; case study, 46; focus group, 46; participatory action research, 46, 51 Quanbeck, C.D., 86 quantitative method, 34–5, 41, 46, 51 Quinsey, V.L., 104–5, 110–11

361

Rachlin, S., 81–2 Raiff, N.R., 130 Ralph, R.O., 133 randomized controlled trial (RCT), 36, 41–3, 52 Rapp , C.A., 47, 225 Raudenbush, W., 48, 50 Razzano, L.A., 221 REACT study, 190 Read, J., 120 Reark Research, 119 Reaume, G., 130 recovery, 121 Recovery, Inc., 130 Recovery Self Assessment Questionnaire, 206 Reda, S., 120 Redko, C., 203 Reeve, P., 143 Reeves, S., 180 Regalado, Sophie M., 178n Regier, D.A., 95, 163, 180 Regional Mental Health Care – London, 158 regression, 44; to the mean, 49 reliability(of data), 35, 46 Remington, T.L., 180 Resnick, S.G., 209 Reville, D., 135 Reynolds, A.J., 36 Reynolds, I., 187 Rice, M., 87, 102, 111 Richards, D.A., 45, 167 Richeson, J.A., 125 Ridgely, M.S., 98 Rimer, B.K., 36 Rinaldi, M., 217–18, 227 Ring, K., 115 risk assessment. See violence and risk assessment and management

362

Index

Risk for Sexual Violence Protocol (RSVP), 107 risk management. See violence risk assessment and management Rissmiller, D.J., and J.H. Rissmiller, 131 River, L.P., 116, 118 Robertson, R.G., 100 Robins, J.M., 49 Robins, L.N., 87, 95 Rochefort, D.A., 161 Roe, D., 5, 116 Roesch, R., 100 Rogers, E.S., 142, 151, 215 Rogers, P.J., 38 Rohan, M.J., 126 Rohland, B.M., 74 Rokeach, M., 126–7 Rollins, A.L., 214 Rolls, L., 180 Romans, S., 76 Romeo, R., 46 Rorem, R.C., 27–8 Rosen, A., 119, 122, 184, 186, 190, 205 Rosenfield, S., 116 Rosenheck, R.A., 85, 112, 116, 185, 187, 211, 217, 223, 228 Ross, F., 180 Ross, K., 140 Rossi, P.H., 36–7, 43–4 Rost, K., 167 Rothman, D.J., 27 Rothman, K.J., 49 Rowe, M., 140 Rowland, N., 168, 170, 174 Royal Commission on Mental Illness (GB), 1957, 31 Roy-Bujnowski, K.M., 89–91 Rusch, N., 123

Russell, G., 151, 157 Rybczynski, W., 147 Sabin, J.E., 143 Salkever, D.S., 45, 51, 211 Salyers, M.P., 198, 200, 206, 211, 219, 222–3 Samet, J.H., 168 sample size determination, 45–6 Sands, N., 64, 67 Santos, A.B., 184–5, 216 Sarkella J., 33 Sartorius, N., 122, 163 Scheid-Cook, T.L., 71, 74 Schildcrout, J.S., 49 Schizophrenics Anonymous, 130 Schneider, J., 211 Schneider, R.D., 100 Schoenbaum, M., 172 Schultz, P.W., 125 Schulze, B., 88, 94, 97, 117, 119, 120, 155–6 Schulze, H., 122 Schutt, R.K., 151 Schwartz, S.H., 126 Scott, H., 86 Scott, J.E., 39, 185 Scull, A.T., 19, 25 Sealy, P., 32 Seasons, M., 156 Sechrest, L., 37–8 Sechrist, G.B., 125 SEEI (System Enhancement Evaluation Initiative) Coordinating Centre, 53 Segal, S.P., 71, 73–4, 80, 85, 90, 140–1 Seiter, R.P., 96 self-help movement. See consumer participation

Index

self-stigmatization. See stigma Sellick, K., 120 Senate Standing Committee on Social Affairs, Science and Technology, 136 sensitivity, 35, 46 Sensky, T., 71, 74 Shadish, W.R., 43–4, 51 Shapiro, S., 80 shared care. See collaborative mental health care Shear, M.K., 36, 41, 42 Sheldon, C.T., 85 Sher, I., 117 Shera, W., 119–20 Sherbourne, C.D., 170, 172, 175 Sherman, J.W., 127 Shields, L., 180 Short Term Assessment of Risk and Treatability (START), 106 Sidani, S., 36, 37–8 Silberschatz, G., 41–2, 53 Silver, E., 83–5, 88–9, 92, 111 Silverman, C., 140–1 Simmonds, S., 55 Simmons, H.G., 26, 31–2 Simon, G.E., 163 Simonds, L.M., 123 Simpson, E.L., 48, 143 Singer, J.D., 49 Sirey, J.A., 155 Skeem, J.L., 83, 85, 87, 103–4, 106, 110 Slade, M., 188–9 Smart, D., 60, 64 Smith, G.C., 179 Smith, L., 193, 200 Smith, M.L., 34 Smith, S.M., 162, 164, 169, 172, 176–7

363

Snijders, T., 48, 50 Snow Jones, A., 51 Socall, D.W., 117 social determinants of health, 179 social distancing preferences. See stigma social enterprises, 212 Solomon, P., 138–9, 194, 205, 211 Sorrentino, R.M., 115 Soyka, M., 86 Speer, D.C., 40–3, 47–9 Spicer, G., 188 Spousal Assault Risk Assessment (SARA), 107 Spurr, P., 49 Spurrell, M., 65 stakeholders, 48 Stame, N., 35–6, 52 Stangor, C., 125 statistical methods: analysis of covariance, 49; analysis of variance (ANOVA), 49; general linear models, 50; generalized estimatingequation (GEE), 49; growth curve modelling, 50; hierarchical linear modelling, 49; interrupted time series (ITS), 43–5 (short time series, 44; ABAB, 44); MannWhitney test, 49; mixed-level, multi-level modelling, 43–4, 49, 50, 53; multiple regression, 51; propensity score analysis, 51; random-effects regression, 49; regression discontinuity designs (RDD), 43, 44; time-dependent Cox-modelling, 49; Wilcoxon Signed Rank test Steadman, H., 72, 74, 81, 83, 86, 95, 99, 109, 155

364

Index

Stein, L.I., 182–5, 202, 216 Stein, M., 23 stepped treatment, 163 stepwise approach, 52 stereotyping. See stigma Stevenson, G.S., 27–8 stigma, 155–6; and attitudes, 119, 120, 124–7; and behavioural intentions, 119; and campaigns against, 119; and cognitive behavioural interventions, 121; and controlled group studies, 119; and coping techniques, 121, 123; and effect of the knowledge of biological causation of mental illness, 120, 123; and effects of contact with persons with mental illness, 120, 124; and efforts to reduce, 118–22, 125–7; and employment, 116; and evaluation of programs about, 118–27; and families of persons with mental illness, 117; and housing, 155–6; and labelling theory, 115; and particular diagnoses, 115; and public attitudes, 123; and research designs to understand, 119; and self-protective reactions, 117–18; and self-stigmatization, 116–17; and social distancing preferences, 117, 119, 124; and social support, 116; and stereotypical beliefs, 117; Stone, A.A., 75 Stowell, K.R., 209 Strain, J.J., 179 Strathdee, G., 189 Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY), 107

Stuart, E.A., 181 Stuart, G.W., 186 Stuart, H., 88, 95 Stürmer, T., 51 Styron, T.H., 39 Sullivan, A.M., 102 Sullivan, G., 148 Summers, M., 64 supported employment: Individual Placement and Support (IPS), models of, 212–31; choose-getkeep model of, 215; client preferences and outcomes for, 221; cognitive remediation for IPS involvement, 227; effectiveness of vocational advisors in, 225; enterprises adaptées and, 213; high-fidelity implementation of, 224–5; improved management of illness and co-morbidities, 228; improving effectiveness of programs of, 224–8; Individual Placement and Support (IPS) models of, 212–13; individualized and long-term support of clients and, 223; integration of vocational advisors into clinical team and, 222; model description of, 215–16; non-vocational outcomes and, 214, 218–20; optimizing implementation of current model of, 224–6; “place-train” and “train-place” paradigms of, 212; potential model enhancements of, 226–8; program incentives and, 225; provision of benefit counselling and, 223–4; rapid job search and, 221–2; recovery and, 214;

Index

responsibility for, 230; rules concerning benefits and, 225–6; sheltered employment and, 213; support for individual IPS principles, 220–4; supported education and career development for IPS, 227–8; technical assistance centres for, 230; vocational outcomes and, 216–18; workplace skills training for IPS, 226–7; zero exclusion and, 220–1 Sussman, S., 26 SWAN study, 217 Swanson, J.W., 70, 72, 74, 77, 85–6, 88–9, 95, 99 Swanson, S., 225 Swartz, J.A., 92 Swartz, M.S., 70, 72–4, 76–7, 85–6, Swindle, R.W., 167 Sytema, S., 189, 191 Szasz, T., 29 Szmuckler, G., 73 Tansella, M., 56, 69 Tanzman, B., 151 Tauber, R., 226 Taylor, J., 90 Teachman, B.A., 127 Teague, G.B., 184, 190, 206 Team for Assessment of Psychiatric Services, UK, 207 Teesson, M., 186 Telson, H., 72 Tengström, A., 85, 88, 99, 106 Teplin, L., 80–8, 94, 96, 116 Terry, D.J., 125 Test, M.A., 39, 98, 182–5 theoretical framework, 36, 52

365

theory, 35, 40, 51; of cause and effect 36–9, 52; of implementation 36–7, 52 therapeutic community movement, 31 Theriot, M.T., 80, 85, 90 Thompson, K.S., 184–5 Thornicroft, G., 55–6, 69, 188–9 Thorpe, S.J., 123 Tibbo, P., 185 Tiihonen, J., 95–6 Tones K., 41, 53 Toro, P.A., 151 Torrey, J., 69–70, 82, 111–12 Toulmin, H., 119–20 Tracy, B., 131 Trafimow, D., 125 Training in Community Living, 181 Trainor, J., 132, 134–5 Transition into Primary-Care Psychiatry (TIPP), 166 Trieman, N., 207 Trinh, N-H. 207 Tropp, L.R., 120 Trotter, S., 30 Tsang, H.W., 216, 227 Tsemberis, S., 198, 206 Tuke, D.J., 21 Tuke, W., 14, 17 Twamley, E.W., 216–18 Tyhurst Committee, 31: report More for the Mind, 31 UK 700 research study, 190–2 unbiased estimate, 44 Underhill, C., 155 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 146 Unutzer, J., 162, 168, 177

366

Index

Upfold, J., 60 Ursuline Nunnery, Trois Rivières, 20 Valentine, M.B., 143 validity, 34–6, 46; content, 47; construct, 47; external, 42, 49; internal, 44–5, 49 van Os, J., 123 Van Putten, R.A., 71, 74 van’t Veer, J.T., 117 van Velhduizen, J.R., 210 Viding, E., 90 Vingilis, E., 33, 36–7, 40, 43, 45–8, 50–2, 60, 64, 162, 186, 196, 207 violence and mental illness, 95–7 Violence Risk Appraisal Guide (VRAG), 105 violence risk assessment and management: and categories of risk factors, 103–5; and Canadian legal concept of NCR (not criminally responsible on account of mental disorder), 99–100; and changes in Canadian criminal code provisions, 99–102; and changes in civil legislation, 99; complications from substance abuse and alcohol misuse, 98–9; and epistemological considerations, 110–11; and ethical considerations, 111; following de-institutionalization, 98; implementation issues regarding, 111–13; in mental health services, 97; non-forensic settings, 97–9, 101–2; and methodological considerations, 108–10; and structured professional judgment vs actuarial approaches to, 104–13

vocational rehabilitation programs, 212–13 Volavka, J., 97 Von Korff, M., 163–4 Vos, T., 3 W.K. Kellogg Foundation, 36 Waghorn, G., 220 Wahba, S., 51 Wahl, O., 88, 116–17, 121, 155 Wales, H.W., 80 Walker, I., 120 Walker, R., 156 Wallace, C., 85, 94, 96, 99 Wallace, C.J., 226 Wallach, M.A., 98, 147, 151, 155 Walsh-Bowers, R., 157 Wand, T., 64 Wandersman, A., 41, 53 Wang, E.W., 104 Ward-Griffin, C., 148–9, 156 Warner, J.P., 162, 167 Warner, R., 116, 122, 212–13 Watson, A.C., 80, 83, 95, 115–17, 119, 127 Watts, J., 205 Watzlawick, P., 132 Way, B.B., 59 Webb, S.A., 180 Webster, C., 103–10 Weinberger, L.E., 84, 91 Weiner, D.B., 19 Weisbrod, B.A., 188 Weisman, R.L., 194 Weisner, C., 168 Weiss, C.J., 36–7, 44 Weitz, D., 130–1 Weller, B.G.A., 99 Weller, L., 120 Weller, M.P.I., 99

Index

Wells, K.B., 170–1, 175 Wessely, S., 96 Wexler, B.E., 227 White, C.L., 69 Whitehead, P., 32 Whitty, P., 174 Wilk, Piotr, 181 Willett, J.B., 49 Williams, D.H., 98 Williams, D.R., 116 Williamson, S., 109 Williamson, T., 207 Wills, T.A., 116 Wilson, D., 39 Winko v. British Columbia (Forensic Psychiatric Institute), 102 Witheridge, T.F., 194, 206 Wittchen, H.U., 3 Wolff, N., 40, 43, 47, 80, 88–9 Wong, K., 216 Working Alliance Inventory, 197 Working Like Crazy, 141 Workman, J., 21, 24 Workplace Fundamentals, 226 Workplace Risk Assessment-20 (WRA-20), 107

367

World Health Organization, 146 World Psychiatric Association, 119, 122 Wormith, J.S., 82 Wright, D., 16 Wu, L., 151 Wykes, T., 188–9 Wynaden, D., 46, 56, 64 Xie, H., 221 Yampolskaya, S., 39, 52 Yang, L.H., 126 Yau, L.H.Y., 181 Yolles, S., 29 York Asylum, 18 York Retreat, 17 Younes, N., 163 Yu, Y., 116 Zanni, G., 71 Zapf, P.A., 100 Ziegenbein, M., 59 Ziguras, S.J., 186 Ziviani, J., 155 Zubritsky, C., 137 Zwarenstein, M., 180